,,an ,,english ,,grammar ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,high ,,school1 ,,academy1 ,,and ,,college ,,classes ,,by ,w4,m4 ,,baskervill ,,professor ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,language ,,and ,,literature ,,in ,,vanderbilt ,,university ,,nashville1 ,,tenn4 ,,and ,j4,w4 ,,sewell ,,of ,,the ,,fogg ,,high ,,school1 ,,nashville1 ,,tenn4 #ahie ,,preface4 ,of making many ,english grammars there is no end2 nor should there be till theoretical scholarship and actual practice are more happily wedded4 ,in this field much valuable work has already been accomplished2 but it has been done largely by workers accustomed to take the scholar's point of view1 and their writings are addressed rather to trained minds than to immature learners4 ,to find an advanced grammar unencumbered with hard words1 abstruse thoughts1 and difficult principles1 is not altogether an easy matter4 ,these things enhance the difficulty which an ordinary youth experiences in grasping and assimilating the facts of grammar1 and create a distaste for the study4 ,it is therefore the leading object of this book to be both as scholarly and as practical as possible4 ,in it there is an attempt to present grammatical facts as simply1 and to lead the student to assimilate them as thoroughly1 as possible1 and at the same time to do away with confusing difficulties as far as may be4 ,to attain these ends it is necessary to keep ever in the foreground the real basis of grammar2 that is1 good literature4 ,abundant quotations from standard authors have been given to show the student that he is dealing with the facts of the language1 and not with the theories of grammarians4 ,it is also suggested that in preparing written exercises the student use ,english classics instead of making up sentences4 ,but it is not intended that the use of literary masterpieces for grammatical purposes should supplant or even interfere with their proper use and real value as works of art4 ,it will1 however1 doubtless be found helpful to alternate the regular reading and sthetic study of literature with a grammatical study1 so that1 while the mind is being enriched and the artistic sense quickened1 there may also be the useful acquisition of arousing a keen observation of all grammatical forms and usages4 ,now and then it has been deemed best to omit explanations1 and to withhold personal preferences1 in order that the student may1 by actual contact with the sources of grammatical laws1 discover for himself the better way in regarding given data4 ,it is not the grammarian's business to correct3 it is simply to record and to arrange the usages of language1 and to point the way to the arbiters of usage in all disputed cases4 ,free expression within the lines of good usage should have widest range4 ,it has been our aim to make a grammar of as wide a scope as is consistent with the proper definition of the word4 ,therefore1 in addition to recording and classifying the facts of language1 we have endeavored to attain two other objects1--to cultivate mental skill and power1 and to induce the student to prosecute further studies in this field4 ,it is not supposable that in so delicate and difficult an undertaking there should be an entire freedom from errors and oversights4 ,we shall gratefully accept any assistance in helping to correct mistakes4 ,though endeavoring to get our material as much as possible at first hand1 and to make an independent use of it1 we desire to express our obligation to the following books and articles3-- ,meiklejohn's ,english ,language1 ,longmans' ,school ,grammar1 ,west's ,english ,grammar1 ,bain's ,higher ,english ,grammar and ,composition ,grammar1 ,sweet's ,primer of ,spoken ,english and ,new ,english ,grammar1 etc41 ,hodgson's ,errors in the ,use of ,english1 ,morris's ,elementary ,lessons in ,historical ,english ,grammar1 ,lounsbury's ,english ,language1 ,champney's ,history of ,english1 ,emerson's ,history of the ,english ,language1 ,kellner's ,historical ,outlines of ,english ,syntax1 ,earle's ,english ,prose1 and ,matzner's ,englische ,grammatik4 ,allen's ,subjunctive ,mood in ,english1 ,battler's articles on ,prepositions in the ,anglia1 and many other valuable papers1 have also been helpful and suggestive4 ,we desire to express special thanks to ,professor ,w4,d4 ,mooney of ,wall ,mooney's ,battle-,ground ,academy1 ,franklin1 ,tenn41 for a critical examination of the first draft of the manuscript1 and to ,professor ,jno4 ,m4 ,webb of ,webb ,bros4 ,school1 ,bell ,buckle1 ,tenn41 and ,professor ,w4,r4 ,garrett of the ,university of ,nashville1 for many valuable suggestions and helpful criticism4 ,w4,m4 ,,baskervill4 ,j4,w4 ,,sewell4 ,,nashville1 ,,tenn41 ,january1 #ahif4 ,,contents4 ,,introduction ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,,nouns ,,pronouns ,,adjectives ,,articles ,,verbs ,,and ,,verbals ,verbs ,verbals ,how to ,parse ,verbs and ,verbals ,,adverbs ,,conjunctions ,,prepositions ,,words ,,that ,,need ,,watching ,,interjections ,,part ,,ii4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,sentences4 ,,classification ,,according ,,to ,,form ,,classification ,,according ,,to ,,number ,,of ,,statements ,simple ,sentences ,contracted ,sentences ,complex ,sentences ,compound ,sentences ,,part ,,iii4 ,,syntax4 ,,introductory ,,nouns ,,pronouns ,,adjectives ,,articles ,,verbs ,,indirect ,,discourse ,,verbals ,,adverbs ,,conjunctions ,,prepositions ,,index ,,introduction4 ,so many slighting remarks have been made of late on the use of teaching grammar as compared with teaching science1 that it is plain the fact has been lost sight of that grammar is itself a science4 ,the object we have1 or should have1 in teaching science1 is not to fill a child's mind with a vast number of facts that may or may not prove useful to him hereafter1 but to draw out and exercise his powers of observation1 and to show him how to make use of what he observes4444 ,and here the teacher of grammar has a great advantage over the teacher of other sciences1 in that the facts he has to call attention to lie ready at hand for every pupil to observe without the use of apparatus of any kind while the use of them also lies within the personal experience of every one4--,,dr ,,richard ,,morris4 ,the proper study of a language is an intellectual discipline of the highest order4 ,if ,i except discussions on the comparative merits of ,popery and ,protestantism1 ,english grammar was the most important discipline of my boyhood4--,,john ,,tyndall4 ,,introduction4 ,what various opinions writers on ,english grammar have given in answer to the question1 ,what is grammar8 may be shown by the following-- ,sidenote3 ,definitions of grammar4 ,english grammar is a description of the usages of the ,english language by good speakers and writers of the present day4--,,whitney ,a description of account of the nature1 build1 constitution1 or make of a language is called its grammar--,,meiklejohn ,grammar teaches the laws of language1 and the right method of using it in speaking and writing4--,,patterson ,grammar is the science of letter2 hence the science of using words correctly4--,,abbott ,the ,english word grammar relates only to the laws which govern the significant forms of words1 and the construction of the sentence4--,,richard ,,grant ,,white ,these are sufficient to suggest several distinct notions about ,english grammar-- ,sidenote3 ,synopsis of the above4 7#a7 ,it makes rules to tell us how to use words4 7#b7 ,it is a record of usage which we ought to follow4 7#c7 ,it is concerned with the forms of the language4 7#d7 ,english has no grammar in the sense of forms1 or inflections1 but takes account merely of the nature and the uses of words in sentences4 ,sidenote3 ,the older idea and its origin4 ,fierce discussions have raged over these opinions1 and numerous works have been written to uphold the theories4 ,the first of them remained popular for a very long time4 ,it originated from the etymology of the word grammar 7,greek gramma1 writing1 a letter71 and from an effort to build up a treatise on ,english grammar by using classical grammar as a model4 ,perhaps a combination of 7#a7 and 7#c7 has been still more popular1 though there has been vastly more classification than there are forms4 ,sidenote3 ,the opposite view4 ,during recent years1 7#b7 and 7#d7 have been gaining ground1 but they have had hard work to displace the older and more popular theories4 ,it is insisted by many that the student's time should be used in studying general literature1 and thus learning the fluent and correct use of his mother tongue4 ,it is also insisted that the study and discussion of forms and inflections is an inexcusable imitation of classical treatises4 ,sidenote3 ,the difficulty4 ,which view shall the student of ,english accept8 ,before this is answered1 we should decide whether some one of the above theories must be taken as the right one1 and the rest disregarded4 ,the real reason for the diversity of views is a confusion of two distinct things1--what the definition of grammar should be1 and what the purpose of grammar should be4 ,sidenote3 ,the material of grammar4 ,the province of ,english grammar is1 rightly considered1 wider than is indicated by any one of the above definitions2 and the student ought to have a clear idea of the ground to be covered4 ,sidenote3 ,few inflections4 ,it must be admitted that the language has very few inflections at present1 as compared with ,latin or ,greek2 so that a small grammar will hold them all4 ,sidenote3 ,making rules is risky4 ,it is also evident1 to those who have studied the language historically1 that it is very hazardous to make rules in grammar3 what is at present regarded as correct may not be so twenty years from now1 even if our rules are founded on the keenest scrutiny of the standard writers of our time4 ,usage is varied as our way of thinking changes4 ,in ,chaucer's time two or three negatives were used to strengthen a negation2 as1 ,ther nas no man nowher so vertuous 7,there never was no man nowhere so virtuous74 ,and ,shakespeare used good ,english when he said more elder 7,merchant of ,venice7 and most unkindest 7,julius ,csar72 but this is bad ,english now4 ,if1 however1 we have tabulated the inflections of the language1 and stated what syntax is the most used in certain troublesome places1 there is still much for the grammarian to do4 ,sidenote3 ,a broader view4 ,surely our noble language1 with its enormous vocabulary1 its peculiar and abundant idioms1 its numerous periphrastic forms to express every possible shade of meaning1 is worthy of serious study1 apart from the mere memorizing of inflections and formulation of rules4 ,sidenote3 ,mental training4 ,an sthetic benefit4 ,grammar is eminently a means of mental training2 and while it will train the student in subtle and acute reasoning1 it will at the same time1 if rightly presented1 lay the foundation of a keen observation and a correct literary taste4 ,the continued contact with the highest thoughts of the best minds will create a thirst for the well of ,english undefiled4 ,sidenote3 ,what grammar is4 ,coming back1 then1 from the question1 ,what ground should grammar cover8 we come to answer the question1 ,what should grammar teach8 and we give as an answer the definition1-- ,english grammar is the science which treats of the nature of words1 their forms1 and their uses and relations in the sentence4 ,sidenote3 ,the work it will cover4 ,this will take in the usual divisions1 ,the ,parts of ,speech 7with their inflections71 ,analysis1 and ,syntax4 ,it will also require a discussion of any points that will clear up difficulties1 assist the classification of kindred expressions1 or draw the attention of the student to everyday idioms and phrases1 and thus incite his observation4 ,sidenote3 ,authority as a basis4 ,a few words here as to the authority upon which grammar rests4 ,sidenote3 ,literary ,english4 ,the statements given will be substantiated by quotations from the leading or standard literature of modern times2 that is1 from the eighteenth century on4 ,this literary ,english is considered the foundation on which grammar must rest4 ,sidenote3 ,spoken ,english4 ,here and there also will be quoted words and phrases from spoken or colloquial ,english1 by which is meant the free1 unstudied expressions of ordinary conversation and communication among intelligent people4 ,these quotations will often throw light on obscure constructions1 since they preserve turns of expressions that have long since perished from the literary or standard ,english4 ,sidenote3 ,vulgar ,english4 ,occasionally1 too1 reference will be made to vulgar ,english1--the speech of the uneducated and ignorant1--which will serve to illustrate points of syntax once correct1 or standard1 but now undoubtedly bad grammar4 ,the following pages will cover1 then1 three divisions3-- ,part ,i4 ,the ,parts of ,speech1 and ,inflections4 ,part ,,ii4 ,analysis of ,sentences4 ,part ,,iii4 ,the ,uses of ,words1 or ,syntax4 ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,parts ,,of ,,speech4 ,,nouns4 #a4 ,in the more simple state of the ,arabs1 the nation is free1 because each of her sons disdains a base submission to the will of a master4--,,gibbon4 ,sidenote3 ,name words ,by examining this sentence we notice several words used as names4 ,the plainest name is ,arabs1 which belongs to a people2 but1 besides this one1 the words sons and master name objects1 and may belong to any of those objects4 ,the words state1 submission1 and will are evidently names of a different kind1 as they stand for ideas1 not objects2 and the word nation stands for a whole group4 ,when the meaning of each of these words has once been understood1 the word naming it will always call up the thing or idea itself4 ,such words are called nouns4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #b4 ,a noun is a name word1 representing directly to the mind an object1 substance1 or idea4 ,sidenote3 ,classes of nouns4 #c4 ,nouns are classified as follows3-- 7#a7 ,proper4 7#b7 ,common4 7a7 ,,class ,,names3 i4 ,individual4 ii4 ,collective4 7b7 ,,material4 7#c7 ,abstract4 7a7 ,,attribute4 7b7 ,,verbal ,sidenote3 ,names for special objects4 #d4 ,a proper noun is a name applied to a particular object1 whether person1 place1 or thing4 ,it specializes or limits the thing to which it is applied1 reducing it to a narrow application4 ,thus1 city is a word applied to any one of its kind2 but ,chicago names one city1 and fixes the attention upon that particular city4 ,king may be applied to any ruler of a kingdom1 but ,alfred the ,great is the name of one king only4 ,the word proper is from a ,latin word meaning limited1 belonging to one4 ,this does not imply1 however1 that a proper name can be applied to only one object1 but that each time such a name is applied it is fixed or proper to that object4 ,even if there are several ,bostons or ,manchesters1 the name of each is an individual or proper name4 ,sidenote3 ,name for any individual of a class4 #e4 ,a common noun is a name possessed by any one of a class of persons1 animals1 or things4 ,common1 as here used1 is from a ,latin word which means general1 possessed by all4 ,for instance1 road is a word that names any highway outside of cities2 wagon is a term that names any vehicle of a certain kind used for hauling3 the words are of the widest application4 ,we may say1 the man here1 or the man in front of you1 but the word man is here hedged in by other words or word groups3 the name itself is of general application4 ,sidenote3 ,name for a group or collection of objects4 ,besides considering persons1 animals1 and things separately1 we may think of them in groups1 and appropriate names to the groups4 ,thus1 men in groups may be called a crowd1 or a mob1 a committee1 or a council1 or a congress1 etc4 ,these are called ,,collective ,,nouns4 ,they properly belong under common nouns1 because each group is considered as a unit1 and the name applied to it belongs to any group of its class4 ,sidenote3 ,names for things thought of in mass4 #f4 ,the definition given for common nouns applies more strictly to class nouns4 ,it may1 however1 be correctly used for another group of nouns detailed below2 for they are common nouns in the sense that the names apply to every particle of similar substance1 instead of to each individual or separate object4 ,they are called ,,material ,,nouns4 ,such are glass1 iron1 clay1 frost1 rain1 snow1 wheat1 wine1 tea1 sugar1 etc4 ,they may be placed in groups as follows3-- 7#a7 ,the metals3 iron1 gold1 platinum1 etc4 7#b7 ,products spoken of in bulk3 tea1 sugar1 rice1 wheat1 etc4 7#c7 ,geological bodies3 mud1 sand1 granite1 rock1 stone1 etc4 7#d7 ,natural phenomena3 rain1 dew1 cloud1 frost1 mist1 etc4 7#e7 ,various manufactures3 cloth 7and the different kinds of cloth71 potash1 soap1 rubber1 paint1 celluloid1 etc4 #g4 ,,note4--,there are some nouns1 such as sun1 moon1 earth1 which seem to be the names of particular individual objects1 but which are not called proper names4 ,sidenote3 ,words naturally of limited application not proper4 ,the reason is1 that in proper names the intention is to exclude all other individuals of the same class1 and fasten a special name to the object considered1 as in calling a city ,cincinnati2 but in the words sun1 earth1 etc41 there is no such intention4 ,if several bodies like the center of our solar system are known1 they also are called suns by a natural extension of the term3 so with the words earth1 world1 etc4 ,they remain common class names4 ,sidenote3 ,names of ideas1 not things4 #h4 ,abstract nouns are names of qualities1 conditions1 or actions1 considered abstractly1 or apart from their natural connection4 ,when we speak of a wise man1 we recognize in him an attribute or quality4 ,if we wish to think simply of that quality without describing the person1 we speak of the wisdom of the man4 ,the quality is still there as much as before1 but it is taken merely as a name4 ,so poverty would express the condition of a poor person2 proof means the act of proving1 or that which shows a thing has been proved2 and so on4 ,again1 we may say1 ,painting is a fine art1 ,learning is hard to acquire1 a man of understanding4 #i4 ,there are two chief divisions of abstract nouns3-- 7#a7 ,,attribute ,,nouns1 expressing attributes or qualities4 7#b7 ,,verbal ,,nouns1 expressing state1 condition1 or action4 ,sidenote3 ,attribute abstract nouns4 #aj4 ,the ,,attribute ,,abstract ,,nouns are derived from adjectives and from common nouns4 ,thus1 7#a7 prudence from prudent1 height from high1 redness from red1 stupidity from stupid1 etc42 7#b7 peerage from peer1 childhood from child1 mastery from master1 kingship from king1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,verbal abstract nouns4 ,,ii4 ,the ,,verbal ,,abstract ,,nouns ,originate in verbs1 as their name implies4 ,they may be-- 7#a7 ,of the same form as the simple verb4 ,the verb1 by altering its function1 is used as a noun2 as in the expressions1 a long run a bold move1 a brisk walk4 7#b7 ,derived from verbs by changing the ending or adding a suffix3 motion from move1 speech from speak1 theft from thieve1 action from act1 service from serve4 ,sidenote3 ,caution4 7#c7 ,derived from verbs by adding -ing to the simple verb4 ,it must be remembered that these words are free from any verbal function4 ,they cannot govern a word1 and they cannot express action1 but are merely names of actions4 ,they are only the husks of verbs1 and are to be rigidly distinguished from gerunds 7,secs4 #bgb1 #bgc74 ,to avoid difficulty1 study carefully these examples3 ,the best thoughts and sayings of the ,greeks2 the moon caused fearful forebodings2 in the beginning of his life2 he spread his blessings over the land2 the great ,puritan awakening2 our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting2 a wedding or a festival2 the rude drawings of the book2 masterpieces of the ,socratic reasoning2 the teachings of the ,high ,spirit2 those opinions and feelings2 there is time for such reasonings2 the well-being of her subjects2 her longing for their favor2 feelings which their original meaning will by no means justify2 the main bearings of this matter4 ,sidenote3 ,underived abstract nouns4 #ab4 ,some abstract nouns were not derived from any other part of speech1 but were framed directly for the expression of certain ideas or phenomena4 ,such are beauty1 joy1 hope1 ease1 energy2 day1 night1 summer1 winter2 shadow1 lightning1 thunder1 etc4 ,the adjectives or verbs corresponding to these are either themselves derived from the nouns or are totally different words2 as glad--joy1 hopeful--hope1 etc4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,from your reading bring up sentences containing ten common nouns1 five proper1 five abstract4 --,,note4--,remember that all sentences are to be selected from standard literature4 #b4 ,under what class of nouns would you place 7a7 the names of diseases1 as pneumonia1 pleurisy1 catarrh1 typhus1 diphtheria2 7b7 branches of knowledge1 as physics1 algebra1 geology1 mathematics8 #c4 ,mention collective nouns that will embrace groups of each of the following individual nouns3-- man horse bird fish partridge pupil bee soldier book sailor child sheep ship ruffian #d4 ,using a dictionary1 tell from what word each of these abstract nouns is derived3-- sight speech motion pleasure patience friendship deceit bravery height width wisdom regularity advice seizure nobility relief death raid honesty judgment belief occupation justice service trail feeling choice simplicity ,,special ,,uses ,,of ,,nouns4 ,sidenote3 ,nouns change by use4 #ac4 ,by being used so as to vary their usual meaning1 nouns of one class may be made to approach another class1 or to go over to it entirely4 ,since words alter their meaning so rapidly by a widening or narrowing of their application1 we shall find numerous examples of this shifting from class to class2 but most of them are in the following groups4 ,for further discussion see the remarks on articles 7p4 #aai74 ,sidenote3 ,proper names transferred to common use4 #ad4 ,proper nouns are used as common in either of two ways3-- 7#a7 ,the origin of a thing is used for the thing itself3 that is1 the name of the inventor may be applied to the thing invented1 as a davy1 meaning the miner's lamp invented by ,sir ,humphry ,davy2 the guillotine1 from the name of ,dr4 ,guillotin1 who was its inventor4 ,or the name of the country or city from which an article is derived is used for the article3 as china1 from ,china2 arras1 from a town in ,france2 port 7wine71 from ,oporto1 in ,portugal2 levant and morocco 7leather74 ,some of this class have become worn by use so that at present we can scarcely discover the derivation from the form of the word2 for example1 the word port1 above4 ,others of similar character are calico1 from ,calicut2 damask1 from ,damascus2 currants1 from ,corinth2 etc4 7#b7 ,the name of a person or place noted for certain qualities is transferred to any person or place possessing those qualities2 thus1-- ,hercules and ,samson were noted for their strength1 and we call a very strong man a ,hercules or a ,samson4 ,sodom was famous for wickedness1 and a similar place is called a ,sodom of sin4 ,a ,daniel come to judgment6--,,shakespeare4 ,if it prove a mind of uncommon activity and power1 a ,locke1 a ,lavoisier1 a ,hutton1 a ,bentham1 a ,fourier1 it imposes its classification on other men1 and lo6 a new system4--,,emerson4 ,sidenote3 ,names for things in bulk altered for separate portions4 #ae4 ,material nouns may be used as class names4 ,instead of considering the whole body of material of which certain uses are made1 one can speak of particular uses or phases of the substance2 as-- 7#a7 ,of individual objects made from metals or other substances capable of being wrought into various shapes4 ,we know a number of objects made of iron4 ,the material iron embraces the metal contained in them all2 but we may say1 ,the cook made the irons hot1 referring to flat-irons2 or1 ,the sailor was put in irons meaning chains of iron4 ,so also we may speak of a glass to drink from or to look into2 a steel to whet a knife on2 a rubber for erasing marks2 and so on4 7#b7 ,of classes or kinds of the same substance4 ,these are the same in material1 but differ in strength1 purity1 etc4 ,hence it shortens speech to make the nouns plural1 and say teas1 tobaccos1 paints1 oils1 candies1 clays1 coals4 7#c7 ,by poetical use1 of certain words necessarily singular in idea1 which are made plural1 or used as class nouns1 as in the following3-- ,the lone and level sands stretch far away4--,,shelley4 ,from all around-- ,earth and her waters1 and the depths of air-- ,comes a still voice4--,,bryant4 ,their airy ears ,the winds have stationed on the mountain peaks4 --,,percival4 7#d7 ,of detached portions of matter used as class names2 as stones1 slates1 papers1 tins1 clouds1 mists1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,personification of abstract ideas4 #af4 ,abstract nouns are frequently used as proper names by being personified2 that is1 the ideas are spoken of as residing in living beings4 ,this is a poetic usage1 though not confined to verse4 ,next ,anger rushed2 his eyes1 on fire1 ,in lightnings owned his secret stings4--,,collins4 ,freedom's fame finds wings on every wind4--,,byron4 ,death1 his mask melting like a nightmare dream1 smiled4--,,hayne4 ,traffic has lain down to rest2 and only ,vice and ,misery1 to prowl or to moan like night birds1 are abroad4--,,carlyle4 ,sidenote3 ,a halfway class of words4 ,class nouns in use1 abstract in meaning4 #ag4 ,abstract nouns are made half abstract by being spoken of in the plural4 ,they are not then pure abstract nouns1 nor are they common class nouns4 ,for example1 examine this3-- ,the arts differ from the sciences in this1 that their power is founded not merely on facts which can be communicated1 but on dispositions which require to be created4--,,ruskin4 ,when it is said that art differs from science1 that the power of art is founded on fact1 that disposition is the thing to be created1 the words italicized are pure abstract nouns2 but in case an art or a science1 or the arts and sciences1 be spoken of1 the abstract idea is partly lost4 ,the words preceded by the article a1 or made plural1 are still names of abstract ideas1 not material things2 but they widen the application to separate kinds of art or different branches of science4 ,they are neither class nouns nor pure abstract nouns3 they are more properly called half abstract4 ,test this in the following sentences3-- ,let us1 if we must have great actions1 make our own so4--,,emerson4 ,and still1 as each repeated pleasure tired1 ,succeeding sports the mirthful band inspired4--,,goldsmith4 ,but ah6 those pleasures1 loves1 and joys ,which ,i too keenly taste1 ,the ,solitary can despise4--,,burns4 ,all these1 however1 were mere terrors of the night4--,,irving4 ,sidenote3 ,by ellipses1 nouns used to modify4 #ah4 ,nouns used as descriptive terms4 ,sometimes a noun is attached to another noun to add to its meaning1 or describe it2 for example1 a family quarrel1 a ,new ,york bank1 the ,state ,bank ,tax bill1 a morning walk4 ,it is evident that these approach very near to the function of adjectives4 ,but it is better to consider them as nouns1 for these reasons3 they do not give up their identity as nouns2 they do not express quality2 they cannot be compared1 as descriptive adjectives are4 ,they are more like the possessive noun1 which belongs to another word1 but is still a noun4 ,they may be regarded as elliptical expressions1 meaning a walk in the morning1 a bank in ,new ,york1 a bill as to tax on the banks1 etc4 ,,note4--,if the descriptive word be a material noun1 it may be regarded as changed to an adjective4 ,the term gold pen conveys the same idea as golden pen1 which contains a pure adjective4 ,,words ,,and ,,word ,,groups ,,used ,,as ,,nouns4 ,sidenote3 ,the noun may borrow from any part of speech1 or from any expression4 #ai4 ,owing to the scarcity of distinctive forms1 and to the consequent flexibility of ,english speech1 words which are usually other parts of speech are often used as nouns2 and various word groups may take the place of nouns by being used as nouns4 ,sidenote3 ,adjectives1 ,conjunctions1 ,adverbs4 7#a7 ,other parts of speech used as nouns3-- ,the great1 the wealthy1 fear thy blow4--,,burns4 ,every why hath a wherefore4--,,shakespeare4 ,when ,i was young8 ,ah1 woeful ,when6 ,ah6 for the change 'twixt ,now and ,then6 --,,coleridge4 7#b7 ,certain word groups used like single nouns3-- ,too swift arrives as tardy as too slow4--,,shakespeare4 ,then comes the ,why1 sir6 and the ,what then1 sir8 and the ,no1 sir6 and the ,you don't see your way through the question1 sir6--,,macaulay 7#c7 ,any part of speech may be considered merely as a word1 without reference to its function in the sentence2 also titles of books are treated as simple nouns4 ,the it1 at the beginning1 is ambiguous1 whether it mean the sun or the cold4--,dr ,,blair ,in this definition1 is the word just1 or legal1 finally to stand8--,,ruskin4 ,there was also a book of ,defoe's called an ,essay on ,projects1 and another of ,dr4 ,mather's called ,essays to do ,good4--,b4 ,,franklin4 ,sidenote3 ,caution4 #bj4 ,it is to be remembered1 however1 that the above cases are shiftings of the use1 of words rather than of their meaning4 ,we seldom find instances of complete conversion of one part of speech into another4 ,when1 in a sentence above1 the terms the great1 the wealthy1 are used1 they are not names only3 we have in mind the idea of persons and the quality of being great or wealthy4 ,the words are used in the sentence where nouns are used1 but have an adjectival meaning4 ,in the other sentences1 why and wherefore1 ,when1 ,now1 and ,then1 are spoken of as if pure nouns2 but still the reader considers this not a natural application of them as name words1 but as a figure of speech4 ,,note4--,these remarks do not apply1 of course1 to such words as become pure nouns by use4 ,there are many of these4 ,the adjective good has no claim on the noun goods2 so1 too1 in speaking of the principal of a school1 or a state secret1 or a faithful domestic1 or a criminal1 etc41 the words are entirely independent of any adjective force4 ,exercise4 ,pick out the nouns in the following sentences1 and tell to which class each belongs4 ,notice if any have shifted from one class to another4 #a4 ,hope springs eternal in the human breast4 #b4 ,heaven from all creatures hides the book of ,fate4 #c4 ,stone walls do not a prison make4 ,nor iron bars a cage4 #d4 ,truth-teller was our ,england's ,alfred named4 #e4 ,a great deal of talent is lost to the world for want of a little courage4 #f4 ,power laid his rod aside1 ,and ,ceremony doff'd her pride4 #g4 ,she sweeps it through the court with troops of ladies4 #h4 ,learning1 that cobweb of the brain4 #i4 ,a little weeping would ease my heart2 ,but in their briny bed ,my tears must stop1 for every drop ,hinders needle and thread4 #aj4 ,a fool speaks all his mind1 but a wise man reserves something for hereafter4 #aa4 ,knowledge is proud that he has learned so much2 ,wisdom is humble that he knows no more4 #ab4 ,music hath charms to soothe the savage breast4 #ac4 ,and see1 he cried1 the welcome1 ,fair guests1 that waits you here4 #ad4 ,the fleet1 shattered and disabled1 returned to ,spain4 #ae4 ,one ,to-day is worth two ,to-morrows4 #af4 ,vessels carrying coal are constantly moving4 #ag4 ,some mute inglorious ,milton here may rest1 ,some ,cromwell guiltless of his country's blood4 #ah4 ,and oft we trod a waste of pearly sands4 #ai4 ,a man he seems of cheerful yesterdays ,and confident to-morrows4 #bj4 ,the hours glide by2 the silver moon is gone4 #ba4 ,her robes of silk and velvet came from over the sea4 #bb4 ,my soldier cousin was once only a drummer boy4 #bc4 ,but pleasures are like poppies spread1 ,you seize the flower1 its bloom is shed4 #bd4 ,all that thou canst call thine own ,lies in thy ,to-day4 ,,inflections ,,of ,,nouns4 ,,gender4 ,sidenote3 ,what gender means in ,english4 ,it is founded on sex4 #ba4 ,in ,latin1 ,greek1 ,german1 and many other languages1 some general rules are given that names of male beings are usually masculine1 and names of females are usually feminine4 ,there are exceptions even to this general statement1 but not so in ,english4 ,male beings are1 in ,english grammar1 always masculine2 female1 always feminine4 ,when1 however1 inanimate things are spoken of1 these languages are totally unlike our own in determining the gender of words4 ,for instance3 in ,latin1 hortus 7garden7 is masculine1 mensa 7table7 is feminine1 corpus 7body7 is neuter2 in ,german1 das ,messer 7knife7 is neuter1 der ,tisch 7table7 is masculine1 die ,gabel 7fork7 is feminine4 ,the great difference is1 that in ,english the gender follows the meaning of the word1 in other languages gender follows the form2 that is1 in ,english1 gender depends on sex3 if a thing spoken of is of the male sex1 the name of it is masculine2 if of the female sex1 the name of it is feminine4 ,hence3 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bb4 ,gender is the mode of distinguishing sex by words1 or additions to words4 #bc4 ,it is evident from this that ,english can have but two genders1--masculine and feminine4 ,sidenote3 ,gender nouns4 ,neuter nouns4 ,all nouns1 then1 must be divided into two principal classes1--gender nouns1 those distinguishing the sex of the object2 and neuter nouns1 those which do not distinguish sex1 or names of things without life1 and consequently without sex4 ,gender nouns include names of persons and some names of animals2 neuter nouns include some animals and all inanimate objects4 ,sidenote3 ,some words either gender or neuter nouns1 according to use4 #bd4 ,some words may be either gender nouns or neuter nouns1 according to their use4 ,thus1 the word child is neuter in the sentence1 ,a little child shall lead them1 but is masculine in the sentence from ,wordsworth1-- ,i have seen ,a curious child 444 applying to his ear ,the convolutions of a smooth-lipped shell4 ,of animals1 those with which man comes in contact often1 or which arouse his interest most1 are named by gender nouns1 as in these sentences3-- ,before the barn door strutted the gallant cock1 that pattern of a husband1 444 clapping his burnished wings4--,,irving4 ,gunpowder 444 came to a stand just by the bridge1 with a suddenness that had nearly sent his rider sprawling over his head--id4 ,other animals are not distinguished as to sex1 but are spoken of as neuter1 the sex being of no consequence4 ,not a turkey but he ,ichabod beheld daintily trussed up1 with its gizzard under its wing4--,,irving4 ,he next stooped down to feel the pig1 if there were any signs of life in it4--,,lamb4 ,sidenote3 ,no common gender4 #be4 ,according to the definition1 there can be no such thing as common gender3 words either distinguish sex 7or the sex is distinguished by the context7 or else they do not distinguish sex4 ,if such words as parent1 servant1 teacher1 ruler1 relative1 cousin1 domestic1 etc41 do not show the sex to which the persons belong1 they are neuter words4 #bf4 ,put in convenient form1 the division of words according to sex1 or the lack of it1 is1-- 7,,masculine3 ,male beings4 ,gender nouns 7,,feminine3 ,female beings4 ,neuter nouns3 ,names of inanimate things1 or of living beings whose sex cannot be determined4 #bg4 ,the inflections for gender belong1 of course1 only to masculine and feminine nouns4 ,forms would be a more accurate word than inflections1 since inflection applies only to the case of nouns4 ,there are three ways to distinguish the genders3-- 7#a7 ,by prefixing a gender word to another word4 7#b7 ,by adding a suffix1 generally to a masculine word4 7#c7 ,by using a different word for each gender4 ,i4 ,gender shown by ,prefixes4 ,sidenote3 ,very few of class ,i4 #bh4 ,usually the gender words he and she are prefixed to neuter words2 as he-goat--she-goat1 cock sparrow--hen sparrow1 he-bear--she-bear4 ,one feminine1 woman1 puts a prefix before the masculine man4 ,woman is a short way of writing wifeman4 ,,ii4 ,gender shown by ,suffixes4 #bi4 ,by far the largest number of gender words are those marked by suffixes4 ,in this particular the native endings have been largely supplanted by foreign suffixes4 ,sidenote3 ,native suffixes4 ,the native suffixes to indicate the feminine were -en and -ster4 ,these remain in vixen and spinster1 though both words have lost their original meanings4 ,the word vixen was once used as the feminine of fox by the ,southern-,english4 ,for fox they said vox2 for from they said vram2 and for the older word fat they said vat1 as in wine vat4 ,hence vixen is for fyxen1 from the masculine fox4 ,spinster is a relic of a large class of words that existed in ,old and ,middle ,english1#a but have now lost their original force as feminines4 ,the old masculine answering to spinster was spinner2 but spinster has now no connection with it4 ,the foreign suffixes are of two kinds3-- ,sidenote3 ,foreign suffixes4 ,unaltered and little used4 7#a7 ,those belonging to borrowed words1 as czarina1 seorita1 executrix1 donna4 ,these are attached to foreign words1 and are never used for words recognized as ,english4 ,sidenote3 ,slightly changed and widely used4 7#b7 ,that regarded as the standard or regular termination of the feminine1 -ess 7,french esse1 ,low ,latin issa71 the one most used4 ,the corresponding masculine may have the ending -er 7-or71 but in most cases it has not4 ,whenever we adopt a new masculine word1 the feminine is formed by adding this termination -ess4 ,sometimes the -ess has been added to a word already feminine by the ending -ster2 as seam-str-ess1 song-str-ess4 ,the ending -ster had then lost its force as a feminine suffix2 it has none now in the words huckster1 gamester1 trickster1 punster4 ,sidenote3 ,ending of masculine not changed4 #cj4 ,the ending -ess is added to many words without changing the ending of the masculine2 as1-- baron--baroness count--countess lion--lioness ,jew--,jewess heir--heiress host--hostess priest--priestess giant--giantess ,sidenote3 ,masculine ending dropped4 ,the masculine ending may be dropped before the feminine -ess is added2 as1-- abbot--abbess negro--negress murderer--murderess sorcerer--sorceress ,sidenote3 ,vowel dropped before adding -ess4 ,the feminine may discard a vowel which appears in the masculine2 as in-- actor--actress master--mistress benefactor--benefactress emperor--empress tiger--tigress enchanter--enchantress ,empress has been cut down from emperice 7twelfth century7 and emperesse 7thirteenth century71 from ,latin imperatricem4 ,master and mistress were in ,middle ,english maister--maistresse1 from the ,old ,french maistre--maistresse4 #ca4 ,when the older -en and -ster went out of use as the distinctive mark of the feminine1 the ending -ess1 from the ,french -esse1 sprang into a popularity much greater than at present4 ,sidenote3 ,ending -ess less used now than formerly4 ,instead of saying doctress1 fosteress1 wagoness1 as was said in the sixteenth century1 or servauntesse1 teacheresse1 neighboresse1 frendesse1 as in the fourteenth century1 we have dispensed with the ending in many cases1 and either use a prefix word or leave the masculine to do work for the feminine also4 ,thus1 we say doctor 7masculine and feminine7 or woman doctor1 teacher or lady teacher1 neighbor 7masculine and feminine71 etc4 ,we frequently use such words as author1 editor1 chairman1 to represent persons of either sex4 ,,note4--,there is perhaps this distinction observed3 when we speak of a female as an active agent merely1 we use the masculine termination1 as1 ,george ,eliot is the author of ',adam ,bede2' but when we speak purposely to denote a distinction from a male1 we use the feminine1 as1 ,george ,eliot is an eminent authoress4 ,,iii4 ,gender shown by ,different ,words4 #cb4 ,in some of these pairs1 the feminine and the masculine are entirely different words2 others have in their origin the same root4 ,some of them have an interesting history1 and will be noted below3-- bachelor--maid boy--girl brother--sister drake--duck earl--countess father--mother gander--goose hart--roe horse--mare husband--wife king--queen lord--lady wizard--witch nephew--niece ram--ewe sir--madam son--daughter uncle--aunt bull--cow boar--sow ,girl originally meant a child of either sex1 and was used for male or female until about the fifteenth century4 ,drake is peculiar in that it is formed from a corresponding feminine which is no longer used4 ,it is not connected historically with our word duck1 but is derived from ened 7duck7 and an obsolete suffix rake 7king74 ,three letters of ened have fallen away1 leaving our word drake4 ,gander and goose were originally from the same root word4 ,goose has various cognate forms in the languages akin to ,english 7,german ,gans1 ,icelandic gs1 ,danish gaas1 etc474 ,the masculine was formed by adding -a1 the old sign of the masculine4 ,this gansa was modified into gan-ra1 gand-ra1 finally gander2 the d being inserted to make pronunciation easy1 as in many other words4 ,mare1 in ,old ,english mere1 had the masculine mearh 7horse71 but this has long been obsolete4 ,husband and wife are not connected in origin4 ,husband is a ,scandinavian word 7,anglo-,saxon hsbonda from ,icelandic hs-bndi1 probably meaning house dweller72 wife was used in ,old and ,middle ,english to mean woman in general4 ,king and queen are said by some 7,skeat1 among others7 to be from the same root word1 but the ,german etymologist ,kluge says they are not4 ,lord is said to be a worn-down form of the ,old ,english hlf-weard 7loaf keeper71 written loverd1 lhauerd1 or lauerd in ,middle ,english4 ,lady is from hlfdige 7hlf meaning loaf1 and dige being of uncertain origin and meaning74 ,witch is the ,old ,english wicce1 but wizard is from the ,old ,french guiscart 7prudent71 not immediately connected with witch1 though both are ultimately from the same root4 ,sir is worn down from the ,old ,french sire 7,latin senior74 ,madam is the ,french ma dame1 from ,latin mea domina4 ,sidenote3 ,two masculines from feminines4 #cc4 ,besides gander and drake1 there are two other masculine words that were formed from the feminine3-- ,bridegroom1 from ,old ,english bryd-guma 7bride's man74 ,the r in groom has crept in from confusion with the word groom4 ,widower1 from the weakening of the ending -a in ,old ,english to -e in ,middle ,english4 ,the older forms1 widuwa--widuwe1 became identical1 and a new masculine ending was therefore added to distinguish the masculine from the feminine 7compare ,middle ,english widuer--widewe74 ,personification4 #cd4 ,just as abstract ideas are personified 7,sec4 #af71 material objects may be spoken of like gender nouns2 for example1-- ,now1 where the swift ,rhone cleaves his way4--,,byron4 ,the ,sun now rose upon the right3 ,out of the sea came he4 --,,coleridge4 ,and haply the ,queen ,moon is on her throne1 ,clustered around by all her starry ,fays4 --,,keats1 ,britannia needs no bulwarks1 ,no towers along the steep2 ,her march is o'er the mountain waves1 ,her home is on the deep4 --,,campbell ,this is not exclusively a poetic use4 ,in ordinary speech personification is very frequent3 the pilot speaks of his boat as feminine2 the engineer speaks so of his engine2 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,effect of personification4 ,in such cases the gender is marked by the pronoun1 and not by the form of the noun4 ,but the fact that in ,english the distinction of gender is confined to difference of sex makes these departures more effective4 ,,number4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #ce4 ,in nouns1 number means the mode of indicating whether we are speaking of one thing or of more than one4 #cf4 ,our language has two numbers1--singular and plural4 ,the singular number denotes that one thing is spoken of2 the plural1 more than one4 #cg4 ,there are three ways of changing the singular form to the plural3-- 7#a7 ,by adding -en4 7#b7 ,by changing the root vowel4 7#c7 ,by adding -s 7or -es74 ,the first two methods prevailed1 together with the third1 in ,old ,english1 but in modern ,english -s or -es has come to be the standard ending2 that is1 whenever we adopt a new word1 we make its plural by adding -s or -es4 ,i4 ,plurals formed by the ,suffix -en4 ,sidenote3 ,the -en inflection4 #ch4 ,this inflection remains only in the word oxen1 though it was quite common in ,old and ,middle ,english2 for instance1 eyen 7eyes71 treen 7trees71 shoon 7shoes71 which last is still used in ,lowland ,scotch4 ,hosen is found in the ,king ,james version of the ,bible1 and housen is still common in the provincial speech in ,england4 #ci4 ,but other words were inflected afterwards1 in imitation of the old words in -en by making a double plural4 ,sidenote3 -,en inflection imitated by other words4 ,brethren has passed through three stages4 ,the old plural was brothru1 then brothre or brethre1 finally brethren4 ,the weakening of inflections led to this addition4 ,children has passed through the same history1 though the intermediate form childer lasted till the seventeenth century in literary ,english1 and is still found in dialects2 as1-- ,god bless me6 so then1 after all1 you'll have a chance to see your childer get up like1 and get settled4--,,quoted ,,by ,,de ,,quincey4 ,kine is another double plural1 but has now no singular4 ,in spite of wandering kine and other adverse circumstance4--,,thoreau4 ,,ii4 ,plurals formed by ,vowel ,change4 #dj4 ,examples of this inflection are1-- man--men foot--feet goose--geese louse--lice mouse--mice tooth--teeth ,some other words--as book1 turf1 wight1 borough--formerly had the same inflection1 but they now add the ending -s4 #da4 ,akin to this class are some words1 originally neuter1 that have the singular and plural alike2 such as deer1 sheep1 swine1 etc4 ,other words following the same usage are1 pair1 brace1 dozen1 after numerals 7if not after numerals1 or if preceded by the prepositions in1 by1 etc1 they add -s73 also trout1 salmon2 head1 sail2 cannon2 heathen1 folk1 people4 ,the words horse and foot1 when they mean soldiery1 retain the same form for plural meaning2 as1-- ,the foot are fourscore thousand1 ,the horse are thousands ten4 --,,macaulay4 ,lee marched over the mountain wall1-- ,over the mountains winding down1 ,horse and foot1 into ,frederick town4 --,,whittier4 ,,iii4 ,plurals formed by ,adding -s or -es4 #db4 ,instead of -s1 the ending -es is added-- 7#a7 ,if a word ends in a letter which cannot add -s and be pronounced4 ,such are box1 cross1 ditch1 glass1 lens1 quartz1 etc4 ,sidenote3 -,es added in certain cases4 ,if the word ends in a sound which cannot add -s1 a new syllable is made2 as1 niche--niches1 race--races1 house--houses1 prize--prizes1 chaise--chaises1 etc4 -,es is also added to a few words ending in -o1 though this sound combines readily with -s1 and does not make an extra syllable3 cargo--cargoes1 negro--negroes1 hero--heroes1 volcano--volcanoes1 etc4 ,usage differs somewhat in other words of this class1 some adding -s1 and some -es4 7#b7 ,if a word ends in -y preceded by a consonant 7the y being then changed to i72 e4g41 fancies1 allies1 daisies1 fairies4 ,sidenote3 ,words in -ies4 ,formerly1 however1 these words ended in -ie1 and the real ending is therefore -s4 ,notice these from ,chaucer 7fourteenth century73-- ,sidenote3 ,their old form4 ,the lilie on hir stalke grene4 ,of maladie the which he hadde endured4 ,and these from ,spenser 7sixteenth century73-- ,be well aware1 quoth then that ladie milde4 ,at last fair ,hesperus in highest skie ,had spent his lampe4 7#c7 ,in the case of some words ending in -f or -fe1 which have the plural in -ves3 calf--calves1 half--halves1 knife--knives1 shelf--shelves1 etc4 ,special ,lists4 #dc4 ,material nouns and abstract nouns are always singular4 ,when such words take a plural ending1 they lose their identity1 and go over to other classes 7,secs4 #ae and #ag74 #dd4 ,proper nouns are regularly singular1 but may be made plural when we wish to speak of several persons or things bearing the same name2 e4g41 the ,washingtons1 the ,americas4 #de4 ,some words are usually singular1 though they are plural in form4 ,examples of these are1 optics1 economics1 physics1 mathematics1 politics1 and many branches of learning2 also news1 pains 7care71 molasses1 summons1 means3 as1-- ,politics1 in its widest extent1 is both the science and the art of government4--,century ,dictionary4 ,so live1 that when thy summons comes1 etc4--,,bryant4 ,it served simply as a means of sight4--,,prof4 ,,dana4 ,sidenote3 ,means plural4 ,two words1 means and politics1 may be plural in their construction with verbs and adjectives3-- ,words1 by strongly conveying the passions1 by those means which we have already mentioned1 fully compensate for their weakness in other respects4--,,burke4 ,with great dexterity these means were now applied4--,,motley4 ,by these means1 ,i say1 riches will accumulate4--,,goldsmith4 ,sidenote3 ,politics plural4 ,cultivating a feeling that politics are tiresome4--,g4,w4 ,,curtis4 ,the politics in which he took the keenest interest were politics scarcely deserving of the name4--,,macaulay4 ,now ,i read all the politics that come out4--,,goldsmith4 #df4 ,some words have no corresponding singular4 aborigines amends annals assets antipodes scissors thanks spectacles vespers victuals matins nuptials oats obsequies premises bellows billiards dregs gallows tongs ,sidenote3 ,occasionally singular words4 ,sometimes1 however1 a few of these words have the construction of singular nouns4 ,notice the following3-- ,they cannot get on without each other any more than one blade of a scissors can cut without the other4--,j4,l4 ,,laughlin4 ,a relic which1 if ,i recollect right1 he pronounced to have been a tongs4--,,irving4 ,besides this1 it is furnished with a forceps4--,,goldsmith4 ,the air1--was it subdued when444the wind was trained only to turn a windmill1 carry off chaff1 or work in a bellows8--,,prof4 ,,dana4 ,in ,early ,modern ,english thank is found4 ,what thank have ye8--,bible #dg4 ,three words were originally singular1 the present ending -s not being really a plural inflection1 but they are regularly construed as plural3 alms1 eaves1 riches4 ,sidenote3 two plurals4 #dh4 ,a few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning4 brother--brothers 7by blood71 brethren 7of a society or church74 cloth--cloths 7kinds of cloth71 clothes 7garments74 die--dies 7stamps for coins1 etc471 dice 7for gaming74 fish--fish 7collectively71 fishes 7individuals or kinds74 genius--geniuses 7men of genius71 genii 7spirits74 index--indexes 7to books71 indices 7signs in algebra74 pea--peas 7separately71 pease 7collectively74 penny--pennies 7separately71 pence 7collectively74 shot--shot 7collective balls71 shots 7number of times fired74 ,in speaking of coins1 twopence1 sixpence1 etc41 may add -s1 making a double plural1 as two sixpences4 ,sidenote3 ,one plural1 two meanings4 #di4 ,other words have one plural form with two meanings1--one corresponding to the singular1 the other unlike it4 custom--customs3 7#a7 habits1 ways2 7#b7 revenue duties4 letter--letters3 7#a7 the alphabet1 or epistles2 7#b7 literature4 number--numbers3 7#a7 figures2 7#b7 poetry1 as in the lines1-- ,i lisped in numbers1 for the numbers came4--,,pope4 ,tell me not1 in mournful numbers4--,,longfellow4 ,numbers also means issues1 or copies1 of a periodical4 pain--pains3 7#a7 suffering2 7#b7 care1 trouble1 part--parts3 7#a7 divisions2 7#b7 abilities1 faculties4 ,sidenote3 ,two classes of compound words4 #ej4 ,compound words may be divided into two classes3-- 7#a7 ,those whose parts are so closely joined as to constitute one word4 ,these make the last part plural4 courtyard dormouse ,englishman fellow-servant fisherman ,frenchman forget-me-not goosequill handful mouthful cupful maidservant pianoforte stepson spoonful titmouse 7#b7 ,those groups in which the first part is the principal one1 followed by a word or phrase making a modifier4 ,the chief member adds -s in the plural4 aid-de-camp attorney at law billet-doux commander in chief court-martial cousin-german father-in-law knight-errant hanger-on ,,note4--,some words ending in -man are not compounds of the ,english word man1 but add -s2 such as talisman1 firman1 ,brahman1 ,german1 ,norman1 ,mussulman1 ,ottoman4 #ea4 ,some groups pluralize both parts of the group2 as man singer1 manservant1 woman servant1 woman singer4 ,sidenote3 ,two methods in use for names with titles4 #eb4 ,as to plurals of names with titles1 there is some disagreement among ,english writers4 ,the title may be plural1 as the ,messrs4 ,allen1 the ,drs4 ,brown1 the ,misses ,rich2 or the name may be pluralized4 ,the former is perhaps more common in present-day use1 though the latter is often found2 for example1-- ,then came ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,briggs1 and then the three ,miss ,spinneys1 then ,silas ,peckham4--,,dr4 ,,holmes4 ,our immortal ,fielding was of the younger branch of the ,earls of ,denbigh1 who drew their origin from the ,counts of ,hapsburgh4--,,gibbon4 ,the ,miss ,flamboroughs were reckoned the best dancers in the parish4--,,goldsmith4 ,the ,misses ,nettengall's young ladies come to the ,cathedral too4--,,dickens4 ,the ,messrs4 ,harper have done the more than generous thing by ,mr4 ,du ,maurier4--,the ,critic4 #ec4 ,a number of foreign words have been adopted into ,english without change of form4 ,these are said to be domesticated1 and retain their foreign plurals4 ,others have been adopted1 and by long use have altered their power so as to conform to ,english words4 ,they are then said to be naturalized1 or ,anglicized1 or ,englished4 ,sidenote3 ,domesticated words4 ,the domesticated words may retain the original plural4 ,some of them have a secondary ,english plural in -s or -es4 ,exercise4 ,find in the dictionary the plurals of these words3-- ,i4 ,,from ,,the ,,latin4 apparatus appendix axis datum erratum focus formula genus larva medium memorandum nebula radius series species stratum terminus vertex ,,ii4 ,,from ,,the ,,greek4 analysis antithesis automaton basis crisis ellipsis hypothesis parenthesis phenomenon thesis ,sidenote3 ,anglicized words4 ,when the foreign words are fully naturalized1 they form their plurals in the regular way2 as1-- bandits cherubs dogmas encomiums enigmas focuses formulas geniuses herbariums indexes seraphs apexes ,sidenote3 ,usage varies in plurals of letters1 figures1 etc4 #ed4 ,letters1 figures1 etc41 form their plurals by adding -s or 's4 ,words quoted merely as words1 without reference to their meaning1 also add -s or 's2 as1 ,his #i's 7or #is7 look like #g's 7or #gs71 ,avoid using too many and's 7or ands71 ,change the 's 7or s7 to -'s 7or -s74 ,,case4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #ee4 ,case is an inflection or use of a noun 7or pronoun7 to show its relation to other words in the sentence4 ,in the sentence1 ,he sleeps in a felon's cell1 the word felon's modifies cell1 and expresses a relation akin to possession2 cell has another relation1 helping to express the idea of place with the word in4 #ef4 ,in the general wearing-away of inflections1 the number of case forms has been greatly reduced4 ,sidenote3 ,only two case forms4 ,there are now only two case forms of ,english nouns1--one for the nominative and objective1 one for the possessive3 consequently the matter of inflection is a very easy thing to handle in learning about cases4 ,sidenote3 ,reasons for speaking of three cases of nouns4 ,but there are reasons why grammars treat of three cases of nouns when there are only two forms3-- 7#a7 ,because the relations of all words1 whether inflected or not1 must be understood for purposes of analysis4 7#b7 ,because pronouns still have three case forms as well as three case relations4 #eg4 ,nouns1 then1 may be said to have three cases1--the nominative1 the objective1 and the possessive4 ,i4 ,uses of the ,nominative4 #eh4 ,the nominative case is used as follows3-- 7#a7 ,as the subject of a verb3 ,water seeks its level4 7#b7 ,as a predicate noun1 completing a verb1 and referring to or explaining the subject3 ,a bent twig makes a crooked tree4 7#c7 ,in apposition with some other nominative word1 adding to the meaning of that word3 ,the reaper ,death with his sickle keen4 7#d7 ,in direct address3 ,lord ,angus1 thou hast lied6 7#e7 ,with a participle in an absolute or independent phrase 7there is some discussion whether this is a true nominative73 ,the work done1 they returned to their homes4 7#f7 ,with an infinitive in exclamations3 ,david to die6 ,exercise4 ,pick out the nouns in the nominative case1 and tell which use of the nominative each one has4 #a4 ,moderate lamentation is the right of the dead2 excessive grief1 the enemy of the living4 #b4 ,excuses are clothes which1 when asked unawares1 ,good ,breeding to naked ,necessity spares4 #c4 ,human experience is the great test of truth4 #d4 ,cheerfulness and content are great beautifiers4 #e4 ,three properties belong to wisdom1--nature1 learning1 and experience2 three things characterize man1--person1 fate1 and merit4 #f4 ,but of all plagues1 good ,heaven1 thy wrath can send1 ,save1 save1 oh save me from the candid friend6 #g4 ,conscience1 her first law broken1 wounded lies4 #h4 ,they charged1 sword in hand and visor down4 #i4 ,o sleep6 ,o gentle sleep6 ,nature's soft nurse1 how have ,i frighted thee8 ,,ii4 ,uses of the ,objective4 #ei4 ,the objective case is used as follows3-- 7#a7 ,as the direct object of a verb1 naming the person or thing directly receiving the action of the verb3 ,woodman1 spare that tree6 7#b7 ,as the indirect object of a verb1 naming the person or thing indirectly affected by the action of the verb3 ,give the devil his due4 7#c7 ,adverbially1 defining the action of a verb by denoting time1 measure1 distance1 etc4 7in the older stages of the language1 this took the regular accusative inflection73 ,full fathom five thy father lies2 ,cowards die many times before their deaths4 7#d7 ,as the second object1 completing the verb1 and thus becoming part of the predicate in acting upon an object3 ,time makes the worst enemies friends2 ,thou makest the storm a calm4 ,in these sentences the real predicates are makes friends1 taking the object enemies1 and being equivalent to one verb1 reconciles2 and makest a calm1 taking the object storm1 and meaning calmest4 ,this is also called the predicate objective or the factitive object4 7#e7 ,as the object of a preposition1 the word toward which the preposition points1 and which it joins to another word3 ,he must have a long spoon that would eat with the devil4 ,the preposition sometimes takes the possessive case of a noun1 as will be seen in ,sec4 #fh4 7#f7 ,in apposition with another objective3 ,the opinions of this junto were completely controlled by ,nicholas ,vedder1 a patriarch of the village1 and landlord of the inn4 ,exercise4 ,point out the nouns in the objective case in these sentences1 and tell which use each has3-- #a4 ,tender men sometimes have strong wills4 #b4 ,necessity is the certain connection between cause and effect4 #c4 ,set a high price on your leisure moments2 they are sands of precious gold4 #d4 ,but the flood came howling one day4 #e4 ,i found the urchin ,cupid sleeping4 #f4 ,five times every year he was to be exposed in the pillory4 #g4 ,the noblest mind the best contentment has4 #h4 ,multitudes came every summer to visit that famous natural curiosity1 the ,great ,stone ,face4 #i4 ,and whirling plate1 and forfeits paid1 ,his winter task a pastime made4 #aj4 ,he broke the ice on the streamlet's brink1 ,and gave the leper to eat and drink4 ,,iii4 ,uses of the ,possessive4 #fj4 ,the possessive case always modifies another word1 expressed or understood4 ,there are three forms of possessive showing how a word is related in sense to the modified word3-- 7#a7 ,appositional possessive1 as in these expressions1-- ,the blind old man of ,scio's rocky isle4--,,byron4 ,beside a pumice isle in ,bai's bay4--,,shelley4 ,in these sentences the phrases are equivalent to of the rocky isle of ,scio1 and in the bay of ,bai1 the possessive being really equivalent here to an appositional objective4 ,it is a poetic expression1 the equivalent phrase being used in prose4 7#b7 ,objective possessive1 as shown in the sentences1-- ,ann ,turner had taught her the secret before this last good lady had been hanged for ,sir ,thomas ,overbury's murder4--,,hawthorne4 ,he passes to-day in building an air castle for to-morrow1 or in writing yesterday's elegy4--,,thackeray ,in these the possessives are equivalent to an objective after a verbal expression3 as1 for murdering ,sir ,thomas ,overbury2 an elegy to commemorate yesterday4 ,for this reason the use of the possessive here is called objective4 7#c7 ,subjective possessive1 the most common of all2 as1-- ,the unwearied sun1 from day to day1 ,does his ,creator's power display4 --,,addison4 ,if this were expanded into the power which his ,creator possesses1 the word ,creator would be the subject of the verb3 hence it is called a subjective possessive4 #fa4 ,this last-named possessive expresses a variety of relations4 ,possession in some sense is the most common4 ,the kind of relation may usually be found by expanding the possessive into an equivalent phrase3 for example1 ,winter's rude tempests are gathering now 7i4e41 tempests that winter is likely to have72 ,his beard was of several days' growth 7i4e41 growth which several days had developed72 ,the forest's leaping panther shall yield his spotted hide 7i4e41 the panther which the forest hides72 ,whoso sheddeth man's blood 7blood that man possesses74 ,sidenote3 ,how the possessive is formed4 #fb4 ,as said before 7,sec4 #ef71 there are only two case forms4 ,one is the simple form of a word1 expressing the relations of nominative and objective2 the other is formed by adding 's to the simple form1 making the possessive singular4 ,to form the possessive plural1 only the apostrophe is added if the plural nominative ends in -s2 the 's is added if the plural nominative does not end in -s4 ,case ,inflection4 ,sidenote3 ,declension or inflection of nouns4 #fc4 ,the full declension of nouns is as follows3-- ,,singular4 ,,plural4 #a4 ,nom4 and ,obj4 lady ladies ,poss4 lady's ladies' #b4 ,nom4 and ,obj4 child children ,poss4 child's children's ,sidenote3 ,a suggestion4 ,,note4--,the difficulty that some students have in writing the possessive plural would be lessened if they would remember there are two steps to be taken3-- 7#a7 ,form the nominative plural according to ,secs #ci-ec 7#b7 ,follow the rule given in ,sec4 #fb4 ,special ,remarks on the ,possessive ,case4 ,sidenote3 ,origin of the possessive with its apostrophe4 #fd4 ,in ,old ,english a large number of words had in the genitive case singular the ending -es2 in ,middle ,english still more words took this ending3 for example1 in ,chaucer1 ,from every schires ende1 ,full worthi was he in his lordes werre war1 at his beddes syde1 mannes herte heart1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,a false theory4 ,by the end of the seventeenth century the present way of indicating the possessive had become general4 ,the use of the apostrophe1 however1 was not then regarded as standing for the omitted vowel of the genitive 7as lord's for lordes73 by a false theory the ending was thought to be a contraction of his1 as schoolboys sometimes write1 ,george ,jones his book4 ,sidenote3 ,use of the apostrophe4 ,though this opinion was untrue1 the apostrophe has proved a great convenience1 since otherwise words with a plural in -s would have three forms alike4 ,to the eye all the forms are now distinct1 but to the ear all may be alike1 and the connection must tell us what form is intended4 ,the use of the apostrophe in the plural also began in the seventeenth century1 from thinking that s was not a possessive sign1 and from a desire to have distinct forms4 ,sidenote3 ,sometimes s is left out in the possessive singular4 #fe4 ,occasionally the s is dropped in the possessive singular if the word ends in a hissing sound and another hissing sound follows1 but the apostrophe remains to mark the possessive2 as1 for goodness' sake1 ,cervantes' satirical work4 ,in other cases the s is seldom omitted4 ,notice these three examples from ,thackeray's writings3 ,harry ran upstairs to his mistress's apartment2 ,a postscript is added1 as by the countess's command2 ,i saw what the governess's views were of the matter4 ,sidenote3 ,possessive with compound expressions4 #ff4 ,in compound expressions1 containing words in apposition1 a word with a phrase1 etc41 the possessive sign is usually last1 though instances are found with both appositional words marked4 ,compare the following examples of literary usage3-- ,do not the ,miss ,prys1 my neighbors1 know the amount of my income1 the items of my son's1 ,captain ,scrapegrace's1 tailor's bill--,,thackeray4 ,the world's pomp and power sits there on this hand3 on that1 stands up for ,god's truth one man1 the poor miner ,hans ,luther's son4--,,carlyle4 ,they invited me in the emperor their master's name4--,,swift4 ,i had naturally possessed myself of ,richardson the painter's thick octavo volumes of notes on the ,paradise ,lost4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,they will go to ,sunday schools to teach classes of little children the age of ,methuselah or the dimensions of ,og the king of ,bashan's bedstead4--,,holmes4 ,more common still is the practice of turning the possessive into an equivalent phrase2 as1 in the name of the emperor their master1 instead of the emperor their master's name4 ,sidenote3 ,possessive and no noun limited4 #fg4 ,the possessive is sometimes used without belonging to any noun in the sentence2 some such word as house1 store1 church1 dwelling1 etc41 being understood with it3 for example1-- ,here at the fruiterer's the ,madonna has a tabernacle of fresh laurel leaves4--,,ruskin4 ,it is very common for people to say that they are disappointed in the first sight of ,st4 ,peter's4--,,lowell4 ,i remember him in his cradle at ,st4 ,james's4--,,thackeray4 ,kate saw that2 and she walked off from the don's4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,sidenote3 ,the double possessive4 #fh4 ,a peculiar form1 a double possessive1 has grown up and become a fixed idiom in modern ,english4 ,in most cases1 a possessive relation was expressed in ,old ,english by the inflection -es1 corresponding to 's4 ,the same relation was expressed in ,french by a phrase corresponding to of and its object4 ,both of these are now used side by side2 sometimes they are used together1 as one modifier1 making a double possessive4 ,for this there are several reasons3-- ,sidenote3 ,its advantages3 ,euphony4 7#a7 ,when a word is modified by a1 the1 this1 that1 every1 no1 any1 each1 etc41 and at the same time by a possessive noun1 it is distasteful to place the possessive before the modified noun1 and it would also alter the meaning3 we place it after the modified noun with of4 ,sidenote3 ,emphasis4 7#b7 ,it is more emphatic than the simple possessive1 especially when used with this or that1 for it brings out the modified word in strong relief4 ,sidenote3 ,clearness4 7#c7 ,it prevents ambiguity4 ,for example1 in such a sentence as1 ,this introduction of ,atterbury's has all these advantages 7,dr4 ,blair71 the statement clearly means only one thing1--the introduction which ,atterbury made4 ,if1 however1 we use the phrase of ,atterbury1 the sentence might be understood as just explained1 or it might mean this act of introducing ,atterbury4 7,see also ,sec4 #hg47 ,the following are some instances of double possessives3-- ,this ,hall of ,tinville's is dark1 ill-lighted except where she stands4--,,carlyle4 ,those lectures of ,lowell's had a great influence with me1 and ,i used to like whatever they bade me like4--,,howells ,niebuhr remarks that no pointed sentences of ,csar's can have come down to us4--,,froude4 ,besides these famous books of ,scott's and ,johnson's1 there is a copious ,life by ,thomas ,sheridan4--,,thackeray ,always afterwards on occasions of ceremony1 he wore that quaint old ,french sword of the ,commodore's4--,e4,e4 ,,hale4 ,exercises4 7a7 ,pick out the possessive nouns1 and tell whether each is appositional1 objective1 or subjective4 7b7 ,rewrite the sentence1 turning the possessives into equivalent phrases4 #a4 ,i don't choose a hornet's nest about my ears4 #b4 ,shall ,rome stand under one man's awe8 #c4 ,i must not see thee ,osman's bride4 #d4 ,at lovers' perjuries1 ,they say1 ,jove laughs4 #e4 ,the world has all its eyes on ,cato's son4 #f4 ,my quarrel and the ,english queen's are one4 #g4 ,now the bright morning star1 day's harbinger1 ,comes dancing from the ,east4 #h4 ,a man's nature runs either to herbs or weeds2 therefore1 let him seasonably water the one1 and destroy the other4 #i4 ',tis all men's office to speak patience ,to those that wring under the load of sorrow4 #aj4 ,a jest's prosperity lies in the ear ,of him that hears it1 never in the tongue ,of him that makes it4 #aa4 ,no more the juice of ,egypt's grape shall moist his lip4 #ab4 ,there ,shakespeare's self1 with every garland crowned1 ,flew to those fairy climes his fancy sheen4 #ac4 ,what supports me8 dost thou ask8 ,the conscience1 ,friend1 to have lost them his eyes overplied ,in liberty's defence4 #ad4 ,or where ,campania's plain forsaken lies1 ,a weary waste expanding to the skies4 #ae4 ,nature herself1 it seemed1 would raise ,a minster to her ,maker's praise6 ,,how ,,to ,,parse ,,nouns4 #fi4 ,parsing a word is putting together all the facts about its form and its relations to other words in the sentence4 ,in parsing1 some idioms--the double possessive1 for example--do not come under regular grammatical rules1 and are to be spoken of merely as idioms4 #gj4 ,hence1 in parsing a noun1 we state1-- 7#a7 ,the class to which it belongs1--common1 proper1 etc4 7#b7 ,whether a neuter or a gender noun2 if the latter1 which gender4 7#c7 ,whether singular or plural number4 7#d7 ,its office in the sentence1 determining its case4 ,sidenote3 ,the correct method4 #ga4 ,in parsing any word1 the following method should always be followed3 tell the facts about what the word does1 then make the grammatical statements as to its class1 inflections1 and relations4 ,,model ,,for ,,parsing4 ,what is bolder than a miller's neckcloth1 which takes a thief by the throat every morning8 ,miller's is a name applied to every individual of its class1 hence it is a common noun2 it is the name of a male being1 hence it is a gender noun1 masculine2 it denotes only one person1 therefore singular number2 it expresses possession or ownership1 and limits neckcloth1 therefore possessive case4 ,neckcloth1 like miller's1 is a common class noun2 it has no sex1 therefore neuter2 names one thing1 therefore singular number2 subject of the verb is understood1 and therefore nominative case4 ,thief is a common class noun2 the connection shows a male is meant1 therefore masculine gender2 singular number2 object of the verb takes1 hence objective case4 ,throat is neuter1 of the same class and number as the word neckcloth2 it is the object of the preposition by1 hence it is objective case4 ,,note4--,the preposition sometimes takes the possessive case 7see ,sec4 #fh74 ,morning is like throat and neckcloth as to class1 gender1 and number2 as to case1 it expresses time1 has no governing word1 but is the adverbial objective4 ,exercise4 ,follow the model above in parsing all the nouns in the following sentences3-- #a4 ,to raise a monument to departed worth is to perpetuate virtue4 #b4 ,the greatest pleasure ,i know is to do a good action by stealth1 and to have it found out by accident4 #c4 ,an old cloak makes a new jerkin2 a withered serving man1 a fresh tapster4 #d4 ,that in the captain's but a choleric word1 ,which in the soldier is flat blasphemy4 #e4 ,now1 blessings light on him that first invented 444 sleep6 #f4 ,necker1 financial minister to ,louis ,,xvi41 and his daughter1 ,madame de ,stal1 were natives of ,geneva4 #g4 ,he giveth his beloved sleep4 #h4 ,time makes the worst enemies friends4 #i4 ,a few miles from this point1 where the ,rhone enters the lake1 stands the famous ,castle of ,chillon1 connected with the shore by a drawbridge1--palace1 castle1 and prison1 all in one4 #aj4 ,wretches6 ye loved her for her wealth1 ,and hated her for her pride4 #aa4 ,mrs4 ,jarley's back being towards him1 the military gentleman shook his forefinger4 ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,the need of pronouns4 #gb4 ,when we wish to speak of a name several times in succession1 it is clumsy and tiresome to repeat the noun4 ,for instance1 instead of saying1 ,the pupil will succeed in the pupil's efforts if the pupil is ambitious1 we improve the sentence by shortening it thus1 ,the pupil will succeed in his efforts if he is ambitious4 ,again1 if we wish to know about the ownership of a house1 we evidently cannot state the owner's name1 but by a question we say1 ,whose house is that8 thus placing a word instead of the name till we learn the name4 ,this is not to be understood as implying that pronouns were invented because nouns were tiresome1 since history shows that pronouns are as old as nouns and verbs4 ,the use of pronouns must have sprung up naturally1 from a necessity for short1 definite1 and representative words4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 ,a pronoun is a reference word1 standing for a name1 or for a person or thing1 or for a group of persons or things4 ,sidenote3 ,classes of pronouns4 #gc4 ,pronouns may be grouped in five classes3-- 7#a7 ,personal pronouns1 which distinguish person by their form 7,sec4 #gf74 7#b7 ,interrogative pronouns1 which are used to ask questions about persons or things4 7#c7 ,relative pronouns1 which relate or refer to a noun1 pronoun1 or other word or expression1 and at the same time connect two statements ,they are also called conjunctive4 7#d7 ,adjective pronouns1 words1 primarily adjectives1 which are classed as adjectives when they modify nouns1 but as pronouns when they stand for nouns4 7#e7 ,indefinite pronouns1 which cannot be used as adjectives1 but stand for an indefinite number of persons or things4 ,numerous examples of all these will be given under the separate classes hereafter treated4 ,,personal ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,person in grammar4 #gd4 ,since pronouns stand for persons as well as names1 they must represent the person talking1 the person or thing spoken to1 and the person or thing talked about4 ,this gives rise to a new term1 the distinction of person4 ,sidenote3 ,person of nouns4 #ge4 ,this distinction was not needed in discussing nouns1 as nouns have the same form1 whether representing persons and things spoken to or spoken of4 ,it is evident that a noun could not represent the person speaking1 even if it had a special form4 ,from analogy to pronouns1 which have forms for person1 nouns are sometimes spoken of as first or second person by their use2 that is1 if they are in apposition with a pronoun of the first or second person1 they are said to have person by agreement4 ,but usually nouns represent something spoken of4 ,sidenote3 ,three persons of pronouns4 #gf4 ,pronouns naturally are of three persons3-- 7#a7 ,first person1 representing the person speaking4 7#b7 ,second person1 representing a person or thing spoken to4 7#c7 ,third person1 standing for a person or thing spoken of4 ,,forms ,,of ,,personal ,,pronouns4 #gg4 ,personal pronouns are inflected thus3-- ,,first ,,person4 ,singular4 ,nom4 ,i ,poss4 mine1 my ,obj4 me ,plural4 ,nom4 we ,poss4 our1 ours ,obj4 us ,,second ,,person4 ,singular4 ,old ,form ,common ,form4 ,nom4 thou you ,poss4 thine1 thy your1 yours ,obj4 thee you ,plural4 ,nom4 ye you ,poss4 your1 yours your1 yours ,obj4 you you ,,third ,,person4 ,singular4 ,masc4 ,fem4 ,neut44 ,nom4 he she it ,poss4 his her1 hers its ,obj4 him her it ,plur4 of all ,three4 ,nom4 they ,poss4 their1 theirs ,obj4 them ,remarks on ,these ,forms4 ,sidenote3 ,first and second persons without gender4 #gh4 ,it will be noticed that the pronouns of the first and second persons have no forms to distinguish gender4 ,the speaker may be either male or female1 or1 by personification1 neuter2 so also with the person or thing spoken to4 ,sidenote3 ,third person singular has gender4 ,but the third person has1 in the singular1 a separate form for each gender1 and also for the neuter4 ,sidenote3 ,old forms4 ,in ,old ,english these three were formed from the same root2 namely1 masculine h1 feminine ho1 neuter hit4 ,the form hit 7for it7 is still heard in vulgar ,english1 and hoo 7for ho7 in some dialects of ,england4 ,the plurals were h1 heora1 heom1 in ,old ,english2 the forms they1 their1 them1 perhaps being from the ,english demonstrative1 though influenced by the cognate ,norse forms4 ,sidenote3 ,second person always plural in ordinary ,english4 #gi4 ,thou1 thee1 etc41 are old forms which are now out of use in ordinary speech4 ,the consequence is1 that we have no singular pronoun of the second person in ordinary speech or prose1 but make the plural you do duty for the singular4 ,we use it with a plural verb always1 even when referring to a single object4 ,sidenote3 ,two uses of the old singulars4 #hj4 ,there are1 however1 two modern uses of thou1 thy1 etc43-- 7#a7 ,in elevated style1 especially in poetry2 as1-- ,with thy clear keen joyance ,languor cannot be2 ,shadow of annoyance ,never came near thee2 ,thou lovest2 but ne'er knew love's sad satiety4--,,shelley4 7#b7 ,in addressing the ,deity1 as in prayers1 etc42 for example1-- ,oh1 thou ,shepherd of ,israel1 that didst comfort thy people of old1 to thy care we commit the helpless4--,,beecher4 ,sidenote3 ,the form its4 #ha4 ,it is worth while to consider the possessive its4 ,this is of comparatively recent growth4 ,the old form was his 7from the nominative hit71 and this continued in use till the sixteenth century4 ,the transition from the old his to the modern its is shown in these sentences3-- #a ,he anointed the altar and all his vessels4--,bible ,here his refers to altar1 which is a neuter noun4 ,the quotation represents the usage of the early sixteenth century4 #b ,it's had it head bit off by it young--,,shakespeare ,shakespeare uses his1 it1 and sometimes its1 as possessive of it4 ,in ,milton's poetry 7seventeenth century7 its occurs only three times4 #c ,see heaven its sparkling portals wide display--,,pope ,sidenote3 ,a relic of the olden time4 #hb4 ,we have an interesting relic in such sentences as this from ,thackeray3 ,one of the ways to know 'em is to watch the scared looks of the ogres' wives and children4 ,as shown above1 the ,old ,english objective was hem 7or heom71 which was often sounded with the h silent1 just as we now say1 ,i saw 'im yesterday when the word him is not emphatic4 ,in spoken ,english1 this form 'em has survived side by side with the literary them4 ,sidenote3 ,use of the pronouns in personification4 #hc4 ,the pronouns he and she are often used in poetry1 and sometimes in ordinary speech1 to personify objects 7,sec4 #cd74 ,,cases ,,of ,,personal ,,pronouns4 ,i ,the ,nominative4 ,sidenote3 ,nominative forms4 #hd4 ,the nominative forms of personal pronouns have the same uses as the nominative of nouns 7see ,sec4 #eh74 ,the case of most of these pronouns can be determined more easily than the case of nouns1 for1 besides a nominative use1 they have a nominative form4 ,the words ,i1 thou1 he1 she1 we1 ye1 they1 are very rarely anything but nominative in literary ,english1 though ye is occasionally used as objective4 ,sidenote3 ,additional nominatives in spoken ,english4 #he4 ,in spoken ,english1 however1 there are some others that are added to the list of nominatives3 they are1 me1 him1 her1 us1 them1 when they occur in the predicate position4 ,that is1 in such a sentence as1 ,i am sure it was him1 the literary language would require he after was2 but colloquial ,english regularly uses as predicate nominatives the forms me1 him1 her1 us1 them1 though those named in ,sec4 #hd are always subjects4 ,yet careful speakers avoid this1 and follow the usage of literary ,english4 ,,ii4 ,the ,possessive4 ,sidenote3 ,not a separate class4 #hf4 ,the forms my1 thy1 his1 her1 its1 our1 your1 their1 are sometimes grouped separately as ,,possessive ,,pronouns1 but it is better to speak of them as the possessive case of personal pronouns1 just as we speak of the possessive case of nouns1 and not make more classes4 ,sidenote3 ,absolute personal pronouns4 ,the forms mine1 thine1 yours1 hers1 theirs1 sometimes his and its1 have a peculiar use1 standing apart from the words they modify instead of immediately before them4 ,from this use they are called ,,absolute ,,personal ,,pronouns1 or1 some say1 ,,absolute ,,possessives4 ,as instances of the use of absolute pronouns1 note the following3-- ',twas mine1 'tis his1 and has been slave to thousands4 --,,shakespeare4 ,and since thou own'st that praise1 ,i spare thee mine4--,,cowper4 ,my arm better than theirs can ward it off4--,,landor4 ,thine are the city and the people of ,granada4--,,bulwer4 ,sidenote3 ,old use of mine and thine4 ,formerly mine and thine stood before their nouns1 if the nouns began with a vowel or h silent2 thus1-- ,shall ,i not take mine ease in mine inn8--,,shakespeare4 ,give every man thine ear1 but few thy voice4--,id4 ,if thine eye offend thee1 pluck it out4--,bible4 ,my greatest apprehension was for mine eyes4--,,swift4 ,this usage is still preserved in poetry4 ,sidenote3 ,double and triple possessives4 #hg4 ,the forms hers1 ours1 yours1 theirs1 are really double possessives1 since they add the possessive s to what is already a regular possessive inflection4 ,besides this1 we have1 as in nouns1 a possessive phrase made up of the preposition of with these double possessives1 hers1 ours1 yours1 theirs1 and with mine1 thine1 his1 sometimes its4 ,sidenote3 ,their uses4 ,like the noun possessives1 they have several uses3-- 7#a7 ,to prevent ambiguity1 as in the following3-- ,i have often contrasted the habitual qualities of that gloomy friend of theirs with the astounding spirits of ,thackeray and ,dickens4--,j4,t4 ,,fields4 ,no words of ours can describe the fury of the conflict4--,j4,f4 ,,cooper4 7#b7 ,to bring emphasis1 as in these sentences3-- ,this thing of yours that you call a ,pardon of ,sins1 it is a bit of rag-paper with ink4--,,carlyle4 ,this ancient silver bowl of mine1 it tells of good old times4 --,,holmes4 7#c7 ,to express contempt1 anger1 or satire2 for example1-- ,do you know the charges that unhappy sister of mine and her family have put me to already8 says the ,master4--,,thackeray4 ,he ,john ,knox had his pipe of ,bordeaux too1 we find1 in that old ,edinburgh house of his4--,,carlyle4 ,hold thy peace1 ,long ,allen1 said ,henry ,woodstall1 ,i tell thee that tongue of thine is not the shortest limb about thee4--,,scott4 7#d7 ,to make a noun less limited in application2 thus1-- ,a favorite liar and servant of mine was a man ,i once had to drive a brougham4--,,thackeray4 ,in ,new ,york ,i read a newspaper criticism one day1 commenting upon a letter of mine4--,id4 ,what would the last two sentences mean if the word my were written instead of of mine1 and preceded the nouns8 ,sidenote3 ,about the case of absolute pronouns4 #hh4 ,in their function1 or use in a sentence1 the absolute possessive forms of the personal pronouns are very much like adjectives used as nouns4 ,in such sentences as1 ,the good alone are great1 ,none but the brave deserves the fair1 the words italicized have an adjective force and also a noun force1 as shown in ,sec4 #bj4 ,so in the sentences illustrating absolute pronouns in ,sec4 #hf3 mine stands for my property1 his for his property1 in the first sentence2 mine stands for my praise in the second4 ,but the first two have a nominative use1 and mine in the second has an objective use4 ,they may be spoken of as possessive in form1 but nominative or objective in use1 according as the modified word is in the nominative or the objective4 ,,iii4 ,the ,objective4 ,sidenote3 ,the old dative case4 #hi4 ,in ,old ,english there was one case which survives in use1 but not in form4 ,in such a sentence as this one from ,thackeray1 ,pick me out a whip-cord thong with some dainty knots in it1 the word me is evidently not the direct object of the verb1 but expresses for whom1 for whose benefit1 the thing is done4 ,in pronouns1 this dative use1 as it is called1 was marked by a separate case4 ,sidenote3 ,now the objective4 ,in ,modern ,english the same use is frequently seen1 but the form is the same as the objective4 ,for this reason a word thus used is called a dative-objective4 ,the following are examples of the dative-objective3-- ,give me neither poverty nor riches4--,bible4 ,curse me this people4--,id4 ,both joined in making him a present4--,,macaulay ,is it not enough that you have burnt me down three houses with your dog's tricks1 and be hanged to you6--,,lamb ,i give thee this to wear at the collar4--,,scott ,sidenote3 ,other uses of the objective4 #ij4 ,besides this use of the objective1 there are others3-- 7#a7 ,as the direct object of a verb4 ,they all handled it4--,,lamb 7#b7 ,as the object of a preposition4 ,time is behind them and before them4--,,carlyle4 7#c7 ,in apposition4 ,she sate all last summer by the bedside of the blind beggar1 him that so often and so gladly ,i talked with4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,,special ,,uses ,,of ,,personal ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,indefinite use of you and your4 #ia4 ,the word you1 and its possessive case yours are sometimes used without reference to a particular person spoken to4 ,they approach the indefinite pronoun in use4 ,your mere puny stripling1 that winced at the least flourish of the rod1 was passed by with indulgence4--,,irving ,to empty here1 you must condense there4--,,emerson4 ,the peasants take off their hats as you pass2 you sneeze1 and they cry1 ,god bless you6 ,the thrifty housewife shows you into her best chamber4 ,you have oaten cakes baked some months before4--,,longfellow ,sidenote3 ,uses of it4 #ib4 ,the pronoun it has a number of uses3-- 7#a7 ,to refer to some single word preceding2 as1-- ,ferdinand ordered the army to recommence its march4--,,bulwer4 ,society1 in this century1 has not made its progress1 like ,chinese skill1 by a greater acuteness of ingenuity in trifles4--,d4 ,,webster4 7#b7 ,to refer to a preceding word group2 thus1-- ,if any man should do wrong merely out of ill nature1 why1 yet it is but like the thorn or brier1 which prick and scratch because they can do no other4--,,bacon4 ,here it refers back to the whole sentence before it1 or to the idea1 any man's doing wrong merely out of ill nature4 7#c7 ,as a grammatical subject1 to stand for the real1 logical subject1 which follows the verb2 as in the sentences1-- ,it is easy in the world to live after the world's opinion4 --,,emerson4 ,it is this haziness of intellectual vision which is the malady of all classes of men by nature4--,,newman4 ,it is a pity that he has so much learning1 or that he has not a great deal more4--,,addison4 7#d7 ,as an impersonal subject in certain expressions which need no other subject2 as1-- ,it is finger-cold1 and prudent farmers get in their barreled apples4--,,thoreau4 ,and when ,i awoke1 it rained4--,,coleridge4 ,for when it dawned1 they dropped their arms4--,id4 ,it was late and after midnight4--,,de ,,quincey4 7#e7 ,as an impersonal or indefinite object of a verb or a preposition2 as in the following sentences3-- 7a7 ,michael ,paw1 who lorded it over the fair regions of ancient ,pavonia4--,,irving4 ,i made up my mind to foot it4--,,hawthorne4 ,a sturdy lad 444 who in turn tries all the professions1 who teams it1 farms it1 peddles it1 keeps a school4--,,emerson4 7b7 ,thy mistress leads thee a dog's life of it4--,,irving4 ,there was nothing for it but to return4--,,scott4 ,an editor has only to say respectfully declined1 and there is an end of it4--,,holmes4 ,poor ,christian was hard put to it4--,,bunyan4 ,sidenote3 ,reflexive use of the personal pronouns4 #ic4 ,the personal pronouns in the objective case are often used reflexively2 that is1 referring to the same person as the subject of the accompanying verb4 ,for example1 we use such expressions as1 ,i found me a good book1 ,he bought him a horse1 etc4 ,this reflexive use of the dative-objective is very common in spoken and in literary ,english4 ,the personal pronouns are not often used reflexively1 however1 when they are direct objects4 ,this occurs in poetry1 but seldom in prose2 as1-- ,now ,i lay me down to sleep4--,,anon4 ,i set me down and sigh4--,,burns4 ,and millions in those solitudes1 since first ,the flight of years began1 have laid them down ,in their last sleep4--,,bryant4 ,,reflexive ,,or ,,compound ,,personal ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,composed of the personal pronouns with -self1 -selves4 #id4 ,the ,,reflexive ,,pronouns1 or ,,compound ,,personal1 as they are also called1 are formed from the personal pronouns by adding the word self1 and its plural selves4 ,they are myself1 7ourself71 ourselves1 yourself1 7thyself71 yourselves1 himself1 herself1 itself1 themselves4 ,of the two forms in parentheses1 the second is the old form of the second person1 used in poetry4 ,ourself is used to follow the word we when this represents a single person1 especially in the speech of rulers2 as1-- ,methinks he seems no better than a girl2 ,as girls were once1 as we ourself have been4--,,tennyson4 ,sidenote3 ,origin of these reflexives4 #ie4 ,the question might arise1 ,why are himself and themselves not hisself and theirselves1 as in vulgar ,english1 after the analogy of myself1 ourselves1 etc48 ,the history of these words shows they are made up of the dative-objective forms1 not the possessive forms1 with self4 ,in ,middle ,english the forms meself1 theself1 were changed into the possessive myself1 thyself1 and the others were formed by analogy with these4 ,himself and themselves are the only ones retaining a distinct objective form4 ,in the forms yourself and yourselves we have the possessive your marked as singular as well as plural4 ,sidenote3 ,use of the reflexives4 #if4 ,there are three uses of reflexive pronouns3-- 7#a7 ,as object of a verb or preposition1 and referring to the same person or thing as the subject2 as in these sentences from ,emerson3-- ,he who offers himself a candidate for that covenant comes up like an ,olympian4 ,i should hate myself if then ,i made my other friends my asylum4 ,we fill ourselves with ancient learning4 ,what do we know of nature or of ourselves8 7#b7 ,to emphasize a noun or pronoun2 for example1-- ,the great globe itself 444 shall dissolve4--,,shakespeare4 ,threats to all2 ,to you yourself1 to us1 to every one4--,id4 ,who would not sing for ,lycidas6 he knew ,himself to sing1 and build the lofty rhyme4--,,milton4 ,,note4--,in such sentences the pronoun is sometimes omitted1 and the reflexive modifies the pronoun understood2 for example1-- ,only itself can inspire whom it will4--,,emerson4 ,my hands are full of blossoms plucked before1 ,held dead within them till myself shall die4--,e4,b4 ,,browning4 ,as if it were thyself that's here1 ,i shrink with pain4--,,wordsworth4 7#c7 ,as the precise equivalent of a personal pronoun2 as1-- ,lord ,altamont designed to take his son and myself4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,victories that neither myself nor my cause always deserved4--,b4 ,,franklin4 ,for what else have our forefathers and ourselves been taxed8--,,landor4 ,years ago1 ,arcturus and myself met a gentleman from ,china who knew the language4--,,thackeray4 ,exercises on ,personal ,pronouns4 7a7 ,bring up sentences containing ten personal pronouns1 some each of masculine1 feminine1 and neuter4 7b7 ,bring up sentences containing five personal pronouns in the possessive1 some of them being double possessives4 7c7 ,tell which use each it has in the following sentences3-- #a4 ,come and trip it as we go1 ,on the light fantastic toe4 #b4 ,infancy conforms to nobody2 all conform to it4 #c4 ,it is an ill wind that blows nobody good4 #d4 ,courage1 father1 fight it out4 #e4 ,and it grew wondrous cold4 #f4 ,to know what is best to do1 and how to do it1 is wisdom4 #g4 ,if any phenomenon remains brute and dark1 it is because the corresponding faculty in the observer is not yet active4 #h4 ,but if a man do not speak from within the veil1 where the word is one with that it tells of1 let him lowly confess it4 #i4 ,it behooved him to keep on good terms with his pupils4 #aj4 ,biscuit is about the best thing ,i know2 but it is the soonest spoiled2 and one would like to hear counsel on one point1 why it is that a touch of water utterly ruins it4 ,,interrogative ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,three now in use4 #ig4 ,the interrogative pronouns now in use are who 7with the forms whose and whom71 which1 and what4 ,sidenote3 ,one obsolete4 ,there is an old word1 whether1 used formerly to mean which of two1 but now obsolete4 ,examples from the ,bible3-- ,whether of them twain did the will of his father8 ,whether is greater1 the gold1 or the temple8 ,from ,steele 7eighteenth century73-- ,it may be a question whether of these unfortunate persons had the greater soul4 ,sidenote3 ,use of who and its forms4 #ih4 ,the use of who1 with its possessive and objective1 is seen in these sentences3-- ,who is she in bloody coronation robes from ,rheims8--,,de ,,quincey4 ,whose was that gentle voice1 that1 whispering sweet1 ,promised1 methought1 long days of bliss sincere8--,,bowles4 ,what doth she look on8 ,whom doth she behold8--,,wordsworth4 ,from these sentences it will be seen that interrogative who refers to persons only2 that it is not inflected for gender or number1 but for case alone1 having three forms2 it is always third person1 as it always asks about somebody4 ,sidenote3 ,use of which4 #ii4 ,examples of the use of interrogative which3-- ,which of these had speed enough to sweep between the question and the answer1 and divide the one from the other8--,,de ,,quincey4 ,which of you1 shall we say1 doth love us most8--,,shakespeare4 ,which of them the sisters shall ,i take8--,id4 ,as shown here1 which is not inflected for gender1 number1 or case2 it refers to either persons or things2 it is selective1 that is1 picks out one or more from a number of known persons or objects4 ,sidenote3 ,use of what4 #ajj4 ,sentences showing the use of interrogative what3-- ,since ,i from ,smaylho'me tower have been1 ,what did thy lady do8--,,scott4 ,what is so rare as a day in ,june8--,,lowell4 ,what wouldst thou do1 old man8--,,shakespeare4 ,these show that what is not inflected for case2 that it is always singular and neuter1 referring to things1 ideas1 actions1 etc41 not to persons4 ,,declension ,,of ,,interrogative ,,pronouns4 #aja4 ,the following are all the interrogative forms3-- ,,sing4 ,,and ,,plur4 ,,sing4 ,,and ,,plur4 ,,singular ,nom4 who8 which8 what8 ,poss4 whose8 -- -- ,obj4 whom8 which8 what8 ,in spoken ,english1 who is used as objective instead of whom2 as1 ,who did you see8 ,who did he speak to8 ,sidenote3 ,to tell the case of interrogatives4 #ajb4 ,the interrogative who has a separate form for each case1 consequently the case can be told by the form of the word2 but the case of which and what must be determined exactly as in nouns1--by the use of the words4 ,for instance1 in ,sec4 #ii1 which is nominative in the first sentence1 since it is subject of the verb had2 nominative in the second also1 subject of doth love2 objective in the last1 being the direct object of the verb shall take4 ,sidenote3 ,further treatment of who1 which and what4 #ajc4 ,who1 which1 and what are also relative pronouns2 which and what are sometimes adjectives2 what may be an adverb in some expressions4 ,they will be spoken of again in the proper places1 especially in the treatment of indirect questions 7,sec4 #abg74 ,,relative ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,function of the relative pronoun4 #ajd4 ,relative pronouns differ from both personal and interrogative pronouns in referring to an antecedent1 and also in having a conjunctive use4 ,the advantage in using them is to unite short statements into longer sentences1 and so to make smoother discourse4 ,thus we may say1 ,the last of all the ,bards was he4 ,these bards sang of ,border chivalry4 ,or1 it may be shortened into1-- ,the last of all the ,bards was he1 ,who sung of ,border chivalry4 ,in the latter sentence1 who evidently refers to ,bards1 which is called the antecedent of the relative4 ,sidenote3 ,the antecedent4 #aje4 ,the antecedent of a pronoun is the noun1 pronoun1 or other word or expression1 for which the pronoun stands4 ,it usually precedes the pronoun4 ,personal pronouns of the third person may have antecedents also1 as they take the place usually of a word already used2 as1-- ,the priest hath his fee who comes and shrives us4--,,lowell ,in this1 both his and who have the antecedent priest4 ,the pronoun which may have its antecedent following1 and the antecedent may be a word or a group of words1 as will be shown in the remarks on which below4 ,sidenote3 ,two kinds4 #ajf4 ,relatives may be ,,simple or ,,indefinite4 ,when the word relative is used1 a simple relative is meant4 ,indefinite relatives1 and the indefinite use of simple relatives1 will be discussed further on4 ,the ,,simple ,,relatives are who1 which1 that1 what4 ,sidenote3 ,who and its forms4 #ajg4 ,examples of the relative who and its forms3-- #a4 ,has a man gained anything who has received a hundred favors and rendered none8--,,emerson4 #b4 ,that man is little to be envied whose patriotism would not gain force upon the plain of ,marathon4--,,dr ,,johnson4 #c4 ,for her enchanting son1 ,whom universal nature did lament4--,,milton4 #d4 ,the nurse came to us1 who were sitting in an adjoining apartment4--,,thackeray4 #e4 ,ye mariners of ,england1 ,that guard our native seas2 ,whose flag has braved1 a thousand years1 ,the battle and the breeze6--,,campbell4 #f4 ,the men whom men respect1 the women whom women approve1 are the men and women who bless their species4--,,parton ,sidenote3 ,which and its forms4 #ajh4 ,examples of the relative which and its forms3-- #a4 ,they had not their own luster1 but the look which is not of the earth4--,,byron4 #b4 ,the embattled portal arch he pass'd1 ,whose ponderous grate and massy bar ,had oft roll'd back the tide of war4--,,scott4 #c4 ,generally speaking1 the dogs which stray around the butcher shops restrain their appetites4--,,cox4 #d4 ,the origin of language is divine1 in the same sense in which man's nature1 with all its capabilities 4441 is a divine creation4--,w4,d4 ,,whitney4 #e4 7a7 ,this gradation 444 ought to be kept in view2 else this description will seem exaggerated1 which it certainly is not4--,,burke4 7b7 ,the snow was three inches deep and still falling1 which prevented him from taking his usual ride4--,,irving4 ,sidenote3 ,that4 #aji4 ,examples of the relative that3-- #a4 ,the man that hath no music in himself1444 ,is fit for treasons1 stratagems1 and spoils4 --,,shakespeare #b4 ,the judge 444 bought up all the pigs that could be had4--,,lamb #c4 ,nature and books belong to the eyes that see them4--,,emerson4 #d4 ,for the sake of country a man is told to yield everything that makes the land honorable4--,h4,w4 ,,beecher #e4 ,reader1 that do not pretend to have leisure for very much scholarship1 you will not be angry with me for telling you4--,,de ,,quincey4 #f4 ,the ,tree ,igdrasil1 that has its roots down in the kingdoms of ,hela and ,death1 and whose boughs overspread the highest heaven6--,,carlyle4 ,sidenote3 ,what4 #aaj4 ,examples of the use of the relative what3-- #a4 ,its net to entangle the enemy seems to be what it chiefly trusts to1 and what it takes most pains to render as complete as possible4--,,goldsmith4 #b4 ,for what he sought below is passed above1 ,already done is all that he would do4--,,margaret ,,fuller4 #c4 ,some of our readers may have seen in ,india a crowd of crows picking a sick vulture to death1 no bad type of what often happens in that country4--,,macaulay ,to the ,teacher4--,if pupils work over the above sentences carefully1 and test every remark in the following paragraphs1 they will get a much better understanding of the relatives4 ,,remarks ,,on ,,the ,,relative ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,who4 #aaa4 ,by reading carefully the sentences in ,sec4 #ajg1 the following facts will be noticed about the relative who3-- 7#a7 ,it usually refers to persons3 thus1 in the first sentence1 ,sec4 #ajg1 a man444who2 in the second1 that man444whose2 in the third1 son1 whom2 and so on4 7#b7 ,it has three case forms1--who1 whose1 whom4 7#c7 ,the forms do not change for person or number of the antecedent4 ,in sentence #d1 who is first person2 in #e1 whose is second person2 the others are all third person4 ,in #a1 #b1 and #c1 the relatives are singular2 in #d1 #e1 and #f1 they are plural4 ,sidenote3 ,who referring to animals4 #aab4 ,though in most cases who refers to persons there are instances found where it refers to animals4 ,it has been seen 7,sec4 #bd7 that animals are referred to by personal pronouns when their characteristics or habits are such as to render them important or interesting to man4 ,probably on the same principle the personal relative who is used not infrequently in literature1 referring to animals4 ,witness the following examples3-- ,and you1 warm little housekeeper the cricket1 who class ,with those who think the candles come too soon4--,,leigh ,,hunt4 ,the robins444have succeeded in driving off the bluejays who used to build in our pines4--,,lowell4 ,the little gorilla1 whose wound ,i had dressed1 flung its arms around my neck4--,,thackeray4 ,a lake frequented by every fowl whom ,nature has taught to dip the wing in water4--,,dr4 ,,johnson4 ,while we had such plenty of domestic insects who infinitely excelled the former1 because they understood how to weave as well as to spin4--,,swift4 ,my horse1 who1 under his former rider had hunted the buffalo1 seemed as much excited as myself4--,,irving4 ,other examples might be quoted from ,burke1 ,kingsley1 ,smollett1 ,scott1 ,cooper1 ,gibbon1 and others4 ,sidenote3 ,which4 #aac4 ,the sentences in ,sec4 #ajh show that-- 7#a7 ,which refers to animals1 things1 or ideas1 not persons4 7#b7 ,it is not inflected for gender or number4 7#c7 ,it is nearly always third person1 rarely second 7an example of its use as second person is given in sentence #cb1 p4 #if74 7#d7 ,it has two case forms1--which for the nominative and objective1 whose for the possessive4 ,sidenote3 ,examples of whose1 possessive case of which4 #aad4 ,grammarians sometimes object to the statement that whose is the possessive of which1 saying that the phrase of which should always be used instead2 yet a search in literature shows that the possessive form whose is quite common in prose as well as in poetry3 for example1-- ,i swept the horizon1 and saw at one glance the glorious elevations1 on whose tops the sun kindled all the melodies and harmonies of light4--,,beecher4 ,men may be ready to fight to the death1 and to persecute without pity1 for a religion whose creed they do not understand1 and whose precepts they habitually disobey4--,,macaulay ,beneath these sluggish waves lay the once proud cities of the plain1 whose grave was dug by the thunder of the heavens4--,,scott4 ,many great and opulent cities whose population now exceeds that of ,virginia during the ,revolution1 and whose names are spoken in the remotest corner of the civilized world4--,,mcmaster4 ,through the heavy door whose bronze network closes the place of his rest1 let us enter the church itself4--,,ruskin4 ,this moribund '#fa1 whose career of life is just coming to its terminus4--,,thackeray4 ,so in ,matthew ,arnold1 ,kingsley1 ,burke1 and numerous others4 ,sidenote3 ,which and its antecedents4 #aae4 ,the last two sentences in ,sec4 #ajh show that which may have other antecedents than nouns and pronouns4 ,in #e 7a7 there is a participial adjective used as the antecedent2 in #e 7b7 there is a complete clause employed as antecedent4 ,this often occurs4 ,sometimes1 too1 the antecedent follows which2 thus1-- ,and1 which is worse1 all you have done ,hath been but for a wayward son4 --,,shakespeare4 ,primarily1 which is very notable and curious1 ,i observe that men of business rarely know the meaning of the word rich4--,,ruskin4 ,i demurred to this honorary title upon two grounds1--first1 as being one toward which ,i had no natural aptitudes or predisposing advantages2 secondly 7which made her stare71 as carrying with it no real or enviable distinction4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,sidenote3 ,that4 #aaf4 ,in the sentences of ,sec4 #aji1 we notice that-- 7#a7 ,that refers to persons1 animals1 and things4 7#b7 ,it has only one case form1 no possessive4 7#c7 ,it is the same form for first1 second1 and third persons4 7#d7 ,it has the same form for singular and plural4 ,it sometimes borrows the possessive whose1 as in sentence #f1 ,sec4 #aji1 but this is not sanctioned as good usage4 ,sidenote3 ,what4 #aag4 ,the sentences of ,sec4 #aaj show that-- 7#a7 ,what always refers to things2 is always neuter4 7#b7 ,it is used almost entirely in the singular4 #a4 ,the man that hath no music in himself1444 ,is fit for treasons1 stratagems1 and spoils4 --,,shakespeare 7#c7 ,its antecedent is hardly ever expressed4 ,when expressed1 it usually follows1 and is emphatic2 as1 for example1-- ,what ,i would1 that do ,i not2 but what ,i hate1 that do ,i4--,bible ,what fates impose1 that men must needs abide4--,,shakespeare4 ,what a man does1 that he has4--,,emerson4 ,compare this3-- ,alas6 is it not too true1 what we said8--,,carlyle4 ,,declension ,,of ,,relative ,,pronouns4 #aah4 ,these are the forms of the simple relatives3-- ,,singular ,,and ,,plural4 ,nom4 who which that what ,poss4 whose whose -- -- ,obj4 whom which that what ,,how ,,to ,,parse ,,relatives4 #aai4 ,the gender1 number1 and person of the relatives who1 which1 and that must be determined by those of the antecedent2 the case depends upon the function of the relative in its own clause4 ,for example1 consider the following sentence3 ,he uttered truths that wrought upon and molded the lives of those who heard him4 ,since the relatives hold the sentence together1 we can1 by taking them out1 let the sentence fall apart into three divisions3 7#a7 ,he uttered truths2 7#b7 ,the truths wrought upon and molded the lives of the people2 7#c7 ,these people heard him4 ,that evidently refers to truths1 consequently is neuter1 third person1 plural number4 ,who plainly stands for those or the people1 either of which would be neuter1 third person1 plural number4 ,here the relative agrees with its antecedent4 ,we cannot say the relative agrees with its antecedent in case4 ,truths in sentence 7#b71 above1 is subject of wrought upon and molded2 in 7#a71 it is object of uttered4 ,in 7#b71 people is the object of the preposition of2 in 7#c71 it is subject of the verb heard4 ,now1 that takes the case of the truths in 7#b71 not of truths which is expressed in the sentence3 consequently that is in the nominative case4 ,in the same way who1 standing for the people understood1 subject of heard1 is in the nominative case4 ,exercise4 ,first find the antecedents1 then parse the relatives1 in the following sentences3-- #a4 ,how superior it is in these respects to the pear1 whose blossoms are neither colored nor fragrant6 #b4 ,some gnarly apple which ,i pick up in the road reminds me by its fragrance of all the wealth of ,pomona4 #c4 ,perhaps ,i talk with one who is selecting some choice barrels for filling an order4 #d4 ,ill blows the wind that profits nobody4 #e4 ,alas6 it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under this avalanche of earthly impertinences4 #f4 ,this method also forces upon us the necessity of thinking1 which is1 after all1 the highest result of all education4 #g4 ,i know that there are many excellent people who object to the reading of novels as a waste of time4 #h4 ,i think they are trying to outwit nature1 who is sure to be cunninger than they4 ,sidenote3 ,parsing what1 the simple relative4 #abj4 ,the relative what is handled differently1 because it has usually no antecedent1 but is singular1 neuter1 third person4 ,its case is determined exactly as that of other relatives4 ,in the sentence1 ,what can't be cured must be endured1 the verb must be endured is the predicate of something4 ,what must be endured8 ,answer1 ,what can't be cured4 ,the whole expression is its subject4 ,the word what1 however1 is subject of the verb can't be cured1 and hence is in the nominative case4 ,what we call nature is a certain self-regulated motion or change4 ,here the subject of is1 etc41 is what we call nature2 but of this1 we is the subject1 and what is the direct object of the verb call1 so is in the objective case4 ,sidenote3 ,another way4 ,some prefer another method of treatment4 ,as shown by the following sentences1 what is equivalent to that which3-- ,it has been said that common souls pay with what they do1 nobler souls with that which they are4--,,emerson4 ,that which is pleasant often appears under the name of evil2 and what is disagreeable to nature is called good and virtuous4--,,burke4 ,hence some take what as a double relative1 and parse that in the first clause1 and which in the second clause2 that is1 common souls pay with that singular1 object of with which singular1 object of do they do4 ,,indefinite ,,relatives4 ,sidenote3 ,list and examples4 #aba4 ,,indefinite ,,relatives are1 by meaning and use1 not as direct as the simple relatives4 ,they are whoever1 whichever1 whatever1 whatsoever2 less common are whoso1 whosoever1 whichsoever1 whatsoever4 ,the simple relatives who1 which1 and what may also be used as indefinite relatives4 ,examples of indefinite relatives 7from ,emerson73-- #a4 ,whoever has flattered his friend successfully must at once think himself a knave1 and his friend a fool4 #b4 ,it is no proof of a man's understanding1 to be able to affirm whatever he pleases4 #c4 ,they sit in a chair or sprawl with children on the floor1 or stand on their head1 or what else soever1 in a new and original way4 #d4 ,whoso is heroic will always find crises to try his edge4 #e4 ,only itself can inspire whom it will4 #f4 ,god offers to every mind its choice between truth and repose4 ,take which you please1--you cannot have both4 #g4 ,do what we can1 summer will have its flies4 ,sidenote3 ,meaning and use4 #abb4 ,the fitness of the term indefinite here cannot be shown better than by examining the following sentences3-- #a4 ,there is something so overruling in whatever inspires us with awe1 in all things which belong ever so remotely to terror1 that nothing else can stand in their presence4--,,burke4 #b4 ,death is there associated1 not with everything that is most endearing in social and domestic charities1 but with whatever is darkest in human nature and in human destiny4--,,macaulay4 ,it is clear that in #a1 whatever is equivalent to all things which1 and in #b1 to everything that2 no certain antecedent1 no particular thing1 being referred to4 ,so with the other indefinites4 ,sidenote3 ,what simple relative and what indefinite relative4 #abc4 ,the above helps us to discriminate between what as a simple and what as an indefinite relative4 ,as shown in ,sec4 #abj1 the simple relative what is equivalent to that which or the thing which1--some particular thing2 as shown by the last sentence in ,sec4 #aba1 what means anything that1 everything that 7or everything which74 ,the difference must be seen by the meaning of the sentence1 as what hardly ever has an antecedent4 ,the examples in sentences #e and #f1 ,sec4 #aba1 show that who and which have no antecedent expressed1 but mean any one whom1 either one that1 etc4 ,,other ,,words ,,used ,,as ,,relatives4 ,sidenote3 ,but and as4 #abd4 ,two words1 but and as1 are used with the force of relative pronouns in some expressions2 for example1-- #a4 ,there is not a leaf rotting on the highway but has force in it3 how else could it rot8--,,carlyle4 #b4 ,this1 amongst such other troubles as most men meet with in this life1 has been my heaviest affliction4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,sidenote3 ,proof that they have the force of relatives4 ,compare with these the two following sentences3-- #c4 ,there is nothing but is related to us1 nothing that does not interest us4--,,emerson4 #d4 ,there were articles of comfort and luxury such as ,hester never ceased to use1 but which only wealth could have purchased4--,,hawthorne4 ,sentence #c shows that but is equivalent to the relative that with not1 and that as after such is equivalent to which4 ,for as after same see ,syntax 7,sec4 #dag74 ,sidenote3 ,former use of as4 #abe4 ,in early modern ,english1 as was used just as we use that or which1 not following the word such2 thus1-- ,i have not from your eyes that gentleness ,and show of love as ,i was wont to have4--,,shakespeare ,this still survives in vulgar ,english in ,england2 for example1-- ,don't you mind ,lucy ,passmore1 as charmed your warts for you when you was a boy8 --,,kingsley ,this is frequently illustrated in ,dickens's works4 ,sidenote3 ,other substitutes4 #abf4 ,instead of the phrases in which1 upon which1 by which1 etc41 the conjunctions wherein1 whereupon1 whereby1 etc41 are used4 ,a man is the facade of a temple wherein all wisdom and good abide4--,,emerson4 ,the sovereignty of this nature whereof we speak4--,id4 ,the dear home faces whereupon ,that fitful firelight paled and shone4--,,whittier4 ,,pronouns ,,in ,,indirect ,,questions4 ,sidenote3 ,special caution needed here4 #abg4 ,it is sometimes hard for the student to tell a relative from an interrogative pronoun4 ,in the regular direct question the interrogative is easily recognized2 so is the relative when an antecedent is close by4 ,but compare the following in pairs3-- #a4 7a7 ,like a gentleman of leisure who is strolling out for pleasure4 7b7 ,well we knew who stood behind1 though the earthwork hid them4 #b4 7a7 ,but what you gain in time is perhaps lost in power4 7b7 ,but what had become of them they knew not4 #c4 7a7 ,these are the lines which heaven-commanded ,toil shows on his deed4 7b7 ,and since that time ,i thought it not amiss ,to judge which were the best of all these three4 ,in sentences #a 7a71 #b 7a7 and #c 7a7 the regular relative use is seen2 who having the antecedent gentleman1 what having the double use of pronoun and antecedent1 which having the antecedent lines4 ,but in #a 7b71 #b 7b71 and #c 7b71 there are two points of difference from the others considered3 first1 no antecedent is expressed1 which would indicate that they are not relatives2 second1 a question is disguised in each sentence1 although each sentence as a whole is declarative in form4 ,thus1 #a 7b71 if expanded1 would be1 ,who stood behind8 ,we knew1 etc41 showing that who is plainly interrogative4 ,so in #b 7b71 what is interrogative1 the full expression being1 ,but what had become of them8 ,they knew not4 ,likewise with which in #c 7b74 ,sidenote3 ,how to decide4 ,in studying such sentences1 7#a7 see whether there is an antecedent of who or which1 and whether what that which 7if so1 it is a simple relative2 if not1 it is either an indefinite relative or an interrogative pronoun72 7#b7 see if the pronoun introduces an indirect question 7if it does1 it is an interrogative2 if not1 it is an indefinite relative74 ,sidenote3 ,another caution4 #abh4 ,on the other hand1 care must be taken to see whether the pronoun is the word that really asks the question in an interrogative sentence4 ,examine the following3-- #a4 ,sweet rose6 whence is this hue ,which doth all hues excel8 --,,drummond #b4 ,and then what wonders shall you do ,whose dawning beauty warms us so8 --,,walker #c4 ,is this a romance8 ,or is it a faithful picture of what has lately been in a neighboring land8--,,macaulay ,these are interrogative sentences1 but in none of them does the pronoun ask the question4 ,in the first1 whence is the interrogative word1 which has the antecedent hue4 ,in the second1 whose has the antecedent you1 and asks no question4 ,in the third1 the question is asked by the verb4 ,,omission ,,of ,,the ,,relatives4 ,sidenote3 ,relative omitted when object4 #abi4 ,the relative is frequently omitted in spoken and in literary ,english when it would be the object of a preposition or a verb4 ,hardly a writer can be found who does not leave out relatives in this way when they can be readily supplied in the mind of the reader4 ,thus1-- ,these are the sounds we feed upon4--,,fletcher4 ,i visited many other apartments1 but shall not trouble my reader with all the curiosities ,i observed4--,,swift4 ,exercise4 ,put in the relatives who1 which1 or that where they are omitted from the following sentences1 and see whether the sentences are any smoother or clearer3-- #a4 ,the insect ,i am now describing lived three years1--,,goldsmith4 #b4 ,they will go to ,sunday schools through storms their brothers are afraid of4--,,holmes4 #c4 ,he opened the volume he first took from the shelf4--,g4 ,,eliot4 #d4 ,he could give the coals in that queer coal scuttle we read of to his poor neighbor4--,,thackeray4 #e4 ,when ,goldsmith died1 half the unpaid bill he owed to ,mr4 ,william ,filby was for clothes supplied to his nephew4--,,forster #f4 ,the thing ,i want to see is not ,redbook ,lists1 and ,court ,calendars1 but the life of man in ,england4--,,carlyle4 #g4 ,the material they had to work upon was already democratical by instinct and habitude4--,,lowell4 ,sidenote3 ,relative omitted when subject4 #acj4 ,we often hear in spoken ,english expressions like these3-- ,there isn't one here knows how to play ball4 ,there was such a crowd went1 the house was full4 ,here the omitted relative would be in the nominative case4 ,also in literary ,english we find the same omission4 ,it is rare in prose1 and comparatively so in poetry4 ,examples are1-- ,the silent truth that it was she was superior4--,,thackeray ,i have a mind presages me such thrift4--,,shakespeare4 ,there is a nun in ,dryburgh bower1 ,ne'er looks upon the sun4 --,,scott4 ,and you may gather garlands there ,would grace a summer queen4 ,id4 ',tis distance lends enchantment to the view4--,,campbell4 ,exercises on the ,relative ,pronoun4 7a7 ,bring up sentences containing ten instances of the relatives who1 which1 that1 and what4 7b7 ,bring up sentences having five indefinite relatives4 7c7 ,bring up five sentences having indirect questions introduced by pronouns4 7d7 ,tell whether the pronouns in the following are interrogatives1 simple relatives1 or indefinite relatives3-- #a4 ,he ushered him into one of the wherries which lay ready to attend the ,queen's barge1 which was already proceeding4 #b4 ,the nobles looked at each other1 but more with the purpose to see what each thought of the news1 than to exchange any remarks on what had happened4 #c4 ,gracious ,heaven6 who was this that knew the word8 #d4 ,it needed to be ascertained which was the strongest kind of men2 who were to be rulers over whom4 #e4 ,he went on speaking to who would listen to him4 #f4 ,what kept me silent was the thought of my mother4 ,,adjective ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,function of adjective pronouns4 #aca4 ,most of the words how to be considered are capable of a double use1--they may be pure modifiers of nouns1 or they may stand for nouns4 ,in the first use they are adjectives2 in the second they retain an adjective meaning1 but have lost their adjective use4 ,primarily they are adjectives1 but in this function1 or use1 they are properly classed as adjective pronouns4 ,the following are some examples of these3-- ,some say that the place was bewitched4--,,irving4 ,that mysterious realm where each shall take ,his chamber in the silent halls of death4 --,,bryant4 ,how happy is he born or taught ,that serveth not another's will4 --,,wotton ,that is more than any martyr can stand4--,,emerson4 ,sidenote3 ,caution4 ,sidenote3 ,adjectives1 not pronouns4 ,hence these words are like adjectives used as nouns1 which we have seen in such expressions as1 ,the dead are there2 that is1 a word1 in order to be an adjective pronoun1 must not modify any word1 expressed or understood4 ,it must come under the requirement of pronouns1 and stand for a noun4 ,for instance1 in the following sentences--,the cubes are of stainless ivory1 and on each is written1 in letters of gold1 ',truth2' ,you needs must play such pranks as these2 ,they will always have one bank to sun themselves upon1 and another to get cool under2 ,where two men ride on a horse1 one must ride behind--the words italicized modify nouns understood1 necessarily thought of3 thus1 in the first1 each cube2 in the second1 these pranks1 in the others1 another bank1 one man4 ,sidenote3 ,classes of adjective pronouns4 #acb4 ,adjective pronouns are divided into three classes3-- 7#a7 ,,demonstrative ,,pronouns1 such as this1 that1 the former1 etc4 7#b7 ,,distributive ,,pronouns1 such as each1 either1 neither1 etc4 7#c7 ,,numeral ,,pronouns1 as some1 any1 few1 many1 none1 all1 etc4 ,,demonstrative ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,definition and examples4 #acc4 ,a ,,demonstrative ,,pronoun is one that definitely points out what persons or things are alluded to in the sentence4 ,the person or thing alluded to by the demonstrative may be in another sentence1 or may be the whole of a sentence4 ,for example1 ,be that as it may could refer to a sentiment in a sentence1 or an argument in a paragraph2 but the demonstrative clearly points to that thing4 ,the following are examples of demonstratives3-- ,i did not say this in so many words4 ,all these he saw2 but what he fain had seen ,he could not see4 ,beyond that ,i seek not to penetrate the veil4 ,how much we forgive in those who yield us the rare spectacle of heroic manners6 ,the correspondence of ,bonaparte with his brother ,joseph1 when the latter was the ,king of ,spain4 ,such are a few isolated instances1 accidentally preserved4 ,even as ,i have seen1 they that plow iniquity1 and sow wickedness1 reap the same4 ,they know that patriotism has its glorious opportunities and its sacred duties4 ,they have not shunned the one1 and they have well performed the other4 ,,note4--,it will be noticed in the first four sentences that this and that are inflected for number4 ,exercises4 7a7 ,find six sentences using demonstrative adjective pronouns4 7b7 ,in which of the following is these a pronoun8-- #a4 ,formerly the duty of a librarian was to keep people as much as possible from the books1 and to hand these over to his successor as little worn as he could4--,,lowell4 #b4 ,they had fewer books1 but these were of the best4--,id4 #c4 ,a man inspires affection and honor1 because he was not lying in wait for these4--,,emerson #d4 ,souls such as these treat you as gods would4--,id4 #e4 ,these are the first mountains that broke the uniform level of the earth's surface4--,,agassiz ,,distributive ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,definition and examples4 #acd4 ,the ,,distributive ,,pronouns are those which stand for the names of persons or things considered singly4 ,sidenote3 ,simple4 ,some of these are simple pronouns2 for example1-- ,they stood1 or sat1 or reclined1 as seemed good to each4 ,as two yoke devils sworn to other's purpose4 ,their minds accorded into one strain1 and made delightful music which neither could have claimed as all his own4 ,sidenote3 ,compound4 ,two are compound pronouns1--each other1 one another4 ,they may be separated into two adjective pronouns2 as1 ,we violated our reverence each for the other's soul4 --,,hawthorne4 ,more frequently they are considered as one pronoun4 ,they led one another1 as it were1 into a high pavilion of their thoughts4--,,hawthorne4 ,men take each other's measure when they react4--,,emerson4 ,exercise4--,find sentences containing three distributive pronouns4 ,,numeral ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,definition and examples4 #ace4 ,the ,,numeral ,,pronouns are those which stand for an uncertain number or quantity of persons or things4 ,the following sentences contain numeral pronouns3-- ,trusting too much to others' care is the ruin of many4 ',tis of no importance how large his house1 you quickly come to the end of all4 ,another opposes him with sound argument4 ,it is as if one should be so enthusiastic a lover of poetry as to care nothing for ,homer or ,milton4 ,there were plenty more for him to fall in company with1 as some of the rangers had gone astray4 ,the ,soldan1 imbued1 as most were1 with the superstitions of his time1 paused over a horoscope4 ,if those taxes were the only ones we had to pay1 we might the more easily discharge them4 ,much might be said on both sides4 ,if hand of mine another's task has lightened4 ,it felt the guidance that it does not claim4 ,so perish all whose breast ne'er learned to glow ,for others' good1 or melt for others' woe4 ,none shall rule but the humble4 ,sidenote3 ,some inflected4 ,it will be noticed that some of these are inflected for case and number2 such as one other1 another4 ,the word one has a reflexive form2 for example1-- ,sidenote3 ,one reflexive4 ,the best way to punish oneself for doing ill seems to me to go and do good4--,,kingsley4 ,the lines sound so prettily to one's self4 ,,holmes4 ,exercise4--,find sentences containing ten numeral pronouns4 ,,indefinite ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,definition and examples4 #acf4 ,indefinite pronouns are words which stand for an indefinite number or quantity of persons or things2 but1 unlike adjective pronouns1 they are never used as adjectives4 ,most of them are compounds of two or more words3-- ,sidenote3 ,list4 ,somebody1 some one1 something2 anybody1 any one 7or anyone71 anything2 everybody1 every one 7or everyone71 everything2 nobody1 no one1 nothing2 somebody else1 anyone else1 everybody else1 every one else1 etc42 also aught1 naught2 and somewhat1 what1 and they4 ,the following sentences contain indefinite pronouns3-- ,as he had them of all hues1 he hoped to fit everybody's fancy4 ,every one knows how laborious the usual method is of attaining to arts and sciences4 ,nothing sheds more honor on our early history than the impression which these measures everywhere produced in ,america4 ,let us also perform something worthy to be remembered4 ,william of ,orange was more than anything else a religious man4 ,frederick was discerned to be a purchaser of everything that nobody else would buy4 ,these other souls draw me as nothing else can4 ,the genius that created it now creates somewhat else4 ,every one else stood still at his post4 ,that is perfectly true3 ,i did not want anybody else's authority to write as ,i did4 ,they indefinite means people in general2 as1-- ,at lovers' perjuries1 they say1 ,jove laughs4--,,shakespeare4 ,what indefinite is used in the expression ,i tell you what4 ,it means something1 and was indefinite in ,old ,english4 ,now1 in building of chaises1 ,i tell you what1 ,there is always somewhere a weakest spot4 ,exercise4--,find sentences with six indefinite pronouns4 #acg4 ,some indefinite pronouns are inflected for case1 as shown in the words everybody's1 anybody else's1 etc4 ,see also ,syntax 7,sec4 #dbf7 as to the possessive case of the forms with else4 ,,how ,,to ,,parse ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,a reminder4 #ach4 ,in parsing pronouns the student will need particularly to guard against the mistake of parsing words according to form instead of according to function or use4 ,exercise4 ,parse in full the pronouns in the following sentences3-- #a4 ,she could not help laughing at the vile ,english into which they were translated4 #b4 ,our readers probably remember what ,mrs4 ,hutchinson tells us of herself4 #c4 ,whoever deals with ,m4 de ,witt must go the plain way that he pretends to1 in his negotiations4 #d4 ,some of them from whom nothing was to be got1 were suffered to depart2 but those from whom it was thought that anything could be extorted were treated with execrable cruelty4 #e4 ,all was now ready for action4 #f4 ,scarcely had the mutiny broken up when he was himself again4 #g4 ,he came back determined to put everything to the hazard4 #h4 ,nothing is more clear than that a general ought to be the servant of his government1 and of no other4 #i4 ,others did the same thing1 but not to quite so enormous an extent4 #aj4 ,on reaching the approach to this about sunset of a beautiful evening in ,june1 ,i first found myself among the mountains1--a feature of natural scenery for which1 from my earliest days1 it was not extravagant to say that ,i hungered and thirsted4 #aa4 ,i speak of that part which chiefly it is that ,i know4 #ab4 ,a smaller sum ,i had given to my friend the attorney 7who was connected with the money lenders as their lawyer71 to which1 indeed1 he was entitled for his unfurnished lodgings4 #ac4 ,whatever power the law gave them would be enforced against me to the utmost4 #ad4 ,o thou that rollest above1 round as the shield of my fathers6 #ae4 ,but there are more than you ever heard of who die of grief in this island of ours4 #af4 ,but amongst themselves is no voice nor sound4 #ag4 ,for this did ,god send her a great reward4 #ah4 ,the table was good2 but that was exactly what ,kate cared little about4 #ai4 ,who and what was ,milton8 ,that is to say1 what is the place which he fills in his own vernacular literature8 #bj4 ,these hopes are mine as much as theirs4 #ba4 ,what else am ,i who laughed or wept yesterday1 who slept last night like a corpse8 #bb4 ,i who alone am1 ,i who see nothing in nature whose existence ,i can affirm with equal evidence to my own1 behold now the semblance of my being1 in all its height1 variety1 and curiosity reiterated in a foreign form4 #bc4 ,what hand but would a garland cull ,for thee who art so beautiful8 #bd4 ,and ,i had done a hellish thing1 ,and it would work 'em woe4 #be4 ,whatever he knows and thinks1 whatever in his apprehension is worth doing1 that let him communicate4 #bf4 ,rip ,van ,winkle was one of those foolish1 well-oiled dispositions1 who take the world easy1 eat white bread or brown1 whichever can be got with least thought or trouble4 #bg4 ,and will your mother pity me1 ,who am a maiden most forlorn8 #bh4 ,they know not ,i knew thee1 ,who knew thee too well4 #bi4 ,i did remind thee of our own dear ,lake1 ,by the old ,hall which may be mine no more4 #cj4 ,he sate him down1 and seized a pen1 and traced ,words which ,i could not guess of4 #ca4 ,time writes no wrinkle on thine azure brow3 ,such as creation's dawn beheld1 thou rollest now4 #cb4 ,wild ,spirit which art moving everywhere2 ,destroyer and preserver2 hear1 oh1 hear6 #cc4 ,a smile of hers was like an act of grace4 #cd4 ,no man can learn what he has not preparation for learning4 #ce4 ,what can we see or acquire but what we are8 #cf4 ,he teaches who gives1 and he learns who receives4 #cg4 ,we are by nature observers2 that is our permanent state4 #ch4 ,he knew not what to do1 and so he read4 #ci4 ,who hears me1 who understands me1 becomes mine4 #dj4 ,the men who carry their points do not need to inquire of their constituents what they should say4 #da4 ,higher natures overpower lower ones by affecting them with a certain sleep4 #db4 ,those who live to the future must always appear selfish to those who live to the present4 #dc4 ,i am sorry when my independence is invaded or when a gift comes from such as do not know my spirit4 #dd4 ,here ,i began to howl and scream abominably1 which was no bad step towards my liberation4 #de4 ,the only aim of the war is to see which is the stronger of the two--which is the master4 ,,adjectives4 ,sidenote3 ,office of ,adjectives4 #aci4 ,nouns are seldom used as names of objects without additional words joined to them to add to their meaning4 ,for example1 if we wish to speak of a friend's house1 we cannot guide one to it by merely calling it a house4 ,we need to add some words to tell its color1 size1 position1 etc41 if we are at a distance2 and if we are near1 we need some word to point out the house we speak of1 so that no other will be mistaken for it4 ,so with any object1 or with persons4 ,as to the kind of words used1 we may begin with the common adjectives telling the characteristics of an object4 ,if a chemist discovers a new substance1 he cannot describe it to others without telling its qualities3 he will say it is solid1 or liquid1 or gaseous2 heavy or light2 brittle or tough2 white or red2 etc4 ,again1 in pointing out an object1 adjectives are used2 such as in the expressions this man1 that house1 yonder hill1 etc4 ,instead of using nouns indefinitely1 the number is limited by adjectives2 as1 one hat1 some cities1 a hundred men4 ,the office of an adjective1 then1 is to narrow down or limit the application of a noun4 ,it may have this office alone1 or it may at the same time add to the meaning of the noun4 ,sidenote3 ,substantives4 #adj4 ,nouns are not1 however1 the only words limited by adjectives3 pronouns and other words and expressions also have adjectives joined to them4 ,any word or word group that performs the same office as a noun may be modified by adjectives4 ,to make this clear1 notice the following sentences3-- ,sidenote3 ,pronoun4 ,if he be thankful for small benefits1 it shows that he weighs men's minds1 and their trash4--,,bacon4 ,sidenote3 ,infinitives4 ,to err is human2 to forgive1 divine4--,,pope4 ,with exception of the and then1 the and there1 and the still less significant and so1 they constitute all his connections4--,,coleridge4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #ada4 ,an adjective is a word joined to a noun or other substantive word or expression1 to describe it or to limit its application4 ,sidenote3 ,classes of adjectives4 #adb4 ,adjectives are divided into four classes3-- 7#a7 ,descriptive adjectives1 which describe by expressing qualities or attributes of a substantive4 7#b7 ,adjectives of quantity1 used to tell how many things are spoken of1 or how much of a thing4 7#c7 ,demonstrative adjectives1 pointing out particular things4 7#d7 ,pronominal adjectives1 words primarily pronouns1 but used adjectively sometimes in modifying nouns instead of standing for them4 ,they include relative and interrogative words4 ,,descriptive ,,adjectives4 #adc4 ,this large class includes several kinds of words3-- 7#a7 ,,simple ,,adjectives expressing quality2 such as safe1 happy1 deep1 fair1 rash1 beautiful1 remotest1 terrible1 etc4 7#b7 ,,compound ,,adjectives1 made up of various words thrown together to make descriptive epithets4 ,examples are1 ,heaven-derived power1 this life-giving book1 his spirit wrapt and wonder-struck1 ice-cold water1 half-dead traveler1 unlooked-for burden1 next-door neighbor1 ivory-handled pistols1 the cold-shudder-inspiring ,woman in ,white4 7#c7 ,,proper ,,adjectives1 derived from proper nouns2 such as1 an old ,english manuscript1 the ,christian pearl of charity1 the well-curb had a ,chinese roof1 the ,roman writer ,palladius4 7#d7 ,,participial ,,adjectives1 which are either pure participles used to describe1 or participles which have lost all verbal force and have no function except to express quality4 ,examples are1-- ,pure participial adjectives3 ,the healing power of the ,messiah1 ,the shattering sway of one strong arm1 trailing clouds1 ,the shattered squares have opened into line1 ,it came on like the rolling simoom1 ,god tempers the wind to the shorn lamb4 ,faded participial adjectives3 ,sleep is a blessed thing2 ,one is hungry1 and another is drunken2 under the fitting drapery of the jagged and trailing clouds2 ,the clearness and quickness are amazing2 an aged man2 a charming sight4 ,sidenote3 ,caution4 #add4 ,care is needed1 in studying these last-named words1 to distinguish between a participle that forms part of a verb1 and a participle or participial adjective that belongs to a noun4 ,for instance3 in the sentence1 ,the work was well and rapidly accomplished1 was accomplished is a verb2 in this1 ,no man of his day was more brilliant or more accomplished1 was is the verb1 and accomplished is an adjective4 ,exercises4 #a4 ,bring up sentences with twenty descriptive adjectives1 having some of each subclass named in ,sec4 #adc4 #b4 ,is the italicized word an adjective in this8-- ,the old sources of intellectual excitement seem to be well-nigh exhausted4 ,,adjectives ,,of ,,quantity4 #ade4 ,adjectives of quantity tell how much or how many4 ,they have these three subdivisions3-- ,sidenote3 ,how much4 7#a7 ,,quantity ,,in ,,bulk3 such words as little1 much1 some1 no1 any1 considerable1 sometimes small1 joined usually to singular nouns to express an indefinite measure of the thing spoken of4 ,the following examples are from ,kingsley3-- ,so he parted with much weeping of the lady4 ,which we began to do with great labor and little profit4 ,because ,i had some knowledge of surgery and blood-letting4 ,but ever she looked on ,mr4 ,oxenham1 and seemed to take no care as long as he was by4 ,examples of small an adjective of quantity3-- ,the deil's in it but ,i bude to anger him6 said the woman1 and walked away with a laugh of small satisfaction4--,,macdonald4 ',tis midnight1 but small thoughts have ,i of sleep4--,,coleridge4 ,it gives small idea of ,coleridge's way of talking4--,,carlyle4 ,when some1 any1 no1 are used with plural nouns1 they come under the next division of adjectives4 ,sidenote3 ,how many4 7#b7 ,,quantity ,,in ,,number1 which may be expressed exactly by numbers or remotely designated by words expressing indefinite amounts4 ,hence the natural division into-- 7a7 ,definite numerals2 as1 one blaze of musketry2 ,he found in the pathway fourteen ,spaniards2 ,i have lost one brother1 but ,i have gained fourscore2 a dozen volunteers4 7b7 ,indefinite numerals1 as the following from ,kingsley3 ,we gave several thousand pounds for it2 ,in came some five and twenty more1 and with them a few negroes2 ,then we wandered for many days2 ,amyas had evidently more schemes in his head2 ,he had lived by hunting for some months2 ,that light is far too red to be the reflection of any beams of hers4 ,sidenote3 ,single ones of any number of changes4 7#c7 ,,distributive ,,numerals1 which occupy a place midway between the last two subdivisions of numeral adjectives2 for they are indefinite in telling how many objects are spoken of1 but definite in referring to the objects one at a time4 ,thus1-- ,every town had its fair2 every village1 its wake4--,,thackeray4 ,an arrow was quivering in each body4--,,kingsley4 ,few on either side but had their shrewd scratch to show4--,id4 ,before ,i taught my tongue to wound ,my conscience with a sinful sound1 ,or had the black art to dispense ,a several sin to every sense4--,,vaughan4 ,exercise4--,bring up sentences with ten adjectives of quantity4 ,,demonstrative ,,adjectives4 ,sidenote3 ,not primarily pronouns4 #adf4 ,the words of this list are placed here instead of among pronominal adjectives1 for the reason that they are felt to be primarily adjectives2 their pronominal use being evidently a shortening1 by which the words point out but stand for words omitted1 instead of modifying them4 ,their natural and original use is to be joined to a noun following or in close connection4 ,sidenote3 ,the list4 ,the demonstrative adjectives are this1 that1 7plural these1 those71 yonder 7or yon71 former1 latter2 also the pairs one 7or the one7--the other1 the former--the latter1 used to refer to two things which have been already named in a sentence4 ,sidenote3 ,examples4 ,the following sentences present some examples3-- ,the bashful virgin's sidelong looks of love1 ,the matron's glance that would those looks reprove4--,,goldsmith4 ,these were thy charms444but all these charms are fled4--,id4 ,about this time ,i met with an odd volume of the ,spectator4--,b4 ,,franklin4 ,yonder proud ships are not means of annoyance to you4--,d4 ,,webster4 ,yon cloud with that long purple cleft4--,,wordsworth4 ,i chose for the students of ,kensington two characteristic examples of early art1 of equal skill2 but in the one case1 skill which was progressive--in the other1 skill which was at pause4--,,ruskin4 ,exercise4--,find sentences with five demonstrative adjectives4 ,sidenote3 ,ordinal numerals classed under demonstratives4 #adg4 ,the class of numerals known as ordinals must be placed here1 as having the same function as demonstrative adjectives4 ,they point out which thing is meant among a series of things mentioned4 ,the following are examples3-- ,the first regular provincial newspapers appear to have been created in the last decade of the seventeenth century1 and by the middle of the eighteenth century almost every important provincial town had its local organ4--,,bancroft4 ,these do not1 like the other numerals1 tell how many things are meant4 ,when we speak of the seventeenth century1 we imply nothing as to how many centuries there may be4 ,,pronominal ,,adjectives4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #adh4 ,as has been said1 pronominal adjectives are primarily pronouns2 but1 when they modify words instead of referring to them as antecedents1 they are changed to adjectives4 ,they are of two kinds1--,,relative and ,,interrogative1--and are used to join sentences or to ask questions1 just as the corresponding pronouns do4 ,sidenote3 ,modify names of persons or things4 #adi4 ,the ,,relative ,,adjectives are which and what2 for example1-- ,it matters not what rank he has1 what revenues or garnitures4 --,,carlyle4 ,the silver and laughing ,xenil1 careless what lord should possess the banks that bloomed by its everlasting course4--,,bulwer4 ,the taking of which bark4 ,i verily believe1 was the ruin of every mother's son of us4--,,kingsley4 ,in which evil strait ,mr4 ,oxenham fought desperately4--,id4 ,sidenote3 ,indefinite relative adjectives4 #aej4 ,the ,,indefinite ,,relative adjectives are what1 whatever1 whatsoever1 whichever1 whichsoever4 ,examples of their use are1-- ,he in his turn tasted some of its flavor1 which1 make what sour mouths he would for pretense1 proved not altogether displeasing to him4--,,lamb4 ,whatever correction of our popular views from insight1 nature will be sure to bear us out in4--,,emerson4 ,whatsoever kind of man he is1 you at least give him full authority over your son4--,,ruskin4 ,was there1 as it rather seemed1 a circle of ominous shadow moving along with his deformity1 whichever way he turned himself8--,,hawthorne4 ,new torments ,i behold1 and new tormented ,around me1 whichsoever way ,i move1 ,and whichsoever way ,i turn1 and gaze4 --,,longfellow 7,,from ,,dante74 #aea4 ,the ,,interrogative ,,adjectives are which and what4 ,they may be used in direct and indirect questions4 ,as in the pronouns1 which is selective among what is known2 what inquires about things or persons not known4 ,sidenote3 ,in direct questions4 ,sentences with which and what in direct questions3-- ,which debt must ,i pay first1 the debt to the rich1 or the debt to the poor8--,,emerson4 ,but when the ,trojan war comes1 which side will you take8 --,,thackeray4 ,but what books in the circulating library circulate8--,,lowell4 ,what beckoning ghost along the moonlight shade ,invites my steps1 and points to yonder glade8--,,pope4 ,sidenote3 ,in indirect questions4 ,sentences with which and what in indirect questions3-- ,his head444looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle neck to tell which way the wind blew4--,,irving4 ,a lady once remarked1 he ,coleridge could never fix which side of the garden walk would suit him best4--,,carlyle4 ,he was turned before long into all the universe1 where it was uncertain what game you would catch1 or whether any4--,id4 ,at what rate these materials would be distributed and precipitated in regular strata1 it is impossible to determine4--,,agassiz4 ,sidenote3 ,adjective what in exclamations4 #aeb4 ,in exclamatory expressions1 what 7or what a7 has a force somewhat like a descriptive adjective4 ,it is neither relative nor interrogative1 but might be called an ,,exclamatory ,,adjective2 as1-- ,oh1 what a revolution6 and what a heart must ,i have1 to contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall6--,,burke4 ,what a piece of work is man6--,,shakespeare4 ,and yet1 alas1 the making of it right1 what a business for long time to come6--,,carlyle ,through what hardships it may attain to bear a sweet fruit6--,,thoreau4 ,exercise4--,find ten sentences containing pronominal adjectives4 ,,inflections ,,of ,,adjectives4 #aec 4,adjectives have two inflections1--number and comparison4 ,,number4--,this1 ,that4 ,sidenote3 ,history of this--these and that--those4 #aed4 ,the only adjectives having a plural form are this and that 7plural these1 those74 ,this is the old demonstrative2 that being borrowed from the forms of the definite article1 which was fully inflected in ,old ,english4 ,the article that was used with neuter nouns4 ,in ,middle ,english the plural of this was this or thise1 which changed its spelling to the modern form these4 ,sidenote3 ,those borrowed from this4 ,but this had also another plural1 ths 7modern those74 ,the old plural of that was tha 7,middle ,english tho or thow73 consequently tho 7plural of that7 and those 7plural of this7 became confused1 and it was forgotten that those was really the plural of this2 and in ,modern ,english we speak of these as the plural of this1 and those as the plural of that4 ,,comparison4 #aee4 ,comparison is an inflection not possessed by nouns and pronouns3 it belongs to adjectives and adverbs4 ,sidenote3 ,meaning of comparison4 ,when we place two objects side by side1 we notice some differences between them as to size1 weight1 color1 etc4 ,thus1 it is said that a cow is larger than a sheep1 gold is heavier than iron1 a sapphire is bluer than the sky4 ,all these have certain qualities2 and when we compare the objects1 we do so by means of their qualities1--cow and sheep by the quality of largeness1 or size2 gold and iron by the quality of heaviness1 or weight1 etc41--but not the same degree1 or amount1 of the quality4 ,the degrees belong to any beings or ideas that may be known or conceived of as possessing quality2 as1 untamed thought1 great1 giant-like1 enormous2 the commonest speech2 ,it is a nobler valor2 the largest soul4 ,also words of quantity may be compared3 for example1 more matter1 with less wit2 no fewer than a hundred4 ,sidenote3 ,words that cannot be compared4 #aef4 ,there are some descriptive words whose meaning is such as not to admit of comparison2 for example1-- ,his company became very agreeable to the brave old professor of arms1 whose favorite pupil he was4--,,thackeray4 ,a main difference betwixt men is1 whether they attend their own affair or not4--,,emerson ,it was his business to administer the law in its final and closest application to the offender--,,hawthorne4 ,freedom is a perpetual1 organic1 universal institution1 in harmony with the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4--,,seward4 ,so with the words sole1 sufficient1 infinite1 immemorial1 indefatigable1 indomitable1 supreme1 and many others4 ,it is true that words of comparison are sometimes prefixed to them1 but1 strictly considered1 they are not compared4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #aeg4 ,comparison means the changes that words undergo to express degrees in quality1 or amounts in quantity4 ,sidenote3 ,the two forms4 #aeh4 ,there are two forms for this inflection3 the comparative1 expressing a greater degree of quality2 and the superlative1 expressing the greatest degree of quality4 ,these are called degrees of comparison4 ,these are properly the only degrees1 though the simple1 uninflected form is usually called the positive degree4 #aei4 ,the comparative is formed by adding -er1 and the superlative by adding -est1 to the simple form2 as1 red1 redder1 reddest2 blue1 bluer1 bluest2 easy1 easier1 easiest4 ,sidenote3 ,substitute for inflection in comparison4 #afj4 ,side by side with these inflected forms are found comparative and superlative expressions making use of the adverbs more and most4 ,these are often useful as alternative with the inflected forms1 but in most cases are used before adjectives that are never inflected4 ,they came into use about the thirteenth century1 but were not common until a century later4 ,sidenote3 ,which rule1-- -er and -est or more and most8 #afa4 ,the ,english is somewhat capricious in choosing between the inflected forms and those with more and most1 so that no inflexible rule can be given as to the formation of the comparative and the superlative4 ,the general rule is1 that monosyllables and easily pronounced words of two syllables add -er and -est2 and other words are preceded by more and most4 ,but room must be left in such a rule for pleasantness of sound and for variety of expression4 ,to see how literary ,english overrides any rule that could be given1 examine the following taken at random3-- ,from ,thackeray3 ,the handsomest wives2 the immensest quantity of thrashing2 the wonderfulest little shoes2 more odd1 strange1 and yet familiar2 more austere and holy4 ,from ,ruskin3 ,the sharpest1 finest chiseling1 and patientest fusing2 distantest relationships2 sorrowfulest spectacles4 ,carlyle uses beautifulest1 mournfulest1 honestest1 admirablest1 indisputablest1 peaceablest1 most small1 etc4 ,these long1 harsh forms are usually avoided1 but more and most are frequently used with monosyllables4 #afb4 ,expressions are often met with in which a superlative form does not carry the superlative meaning4 ,these are equivalent usually to very with the positive degree2 as1-- ,to this the ,count offers a most wordy declaration of the benefits conferred by ,spain4--,the ,nation1 ,no #aejg ,in all formulas that ,johnson could stand by1 there needed to be a most genuine substance4--,,carlyle ,a gentleman1 who1 though born in no very high degree1 was most finished1 polished1 witty1 easy1 quiet4--,,thackeray ,he had actually nothing else save a rope around his neck1 which hung behind in the queerest way4--,id4 ,so help me ,god1 madam1 ,i will1 said ,henry ,esmond1 falling on his knees1 and kissing the hand of his dearest mistress4--,id4 ,sidenote3 ,adjectives irregularly compared4 #afc4 ,among the variously derived adjectives now in our language there are some which may always be recognized as native ,english4 ,these are adjectives irregularly compared4 ,most of them have worn down or become confused with similar words1 but they are essentially the same forms that have lived for so many centuries4 ,the following lists include the majority of them3-- ,,list ,i4 #a4 ,good or well ,better ,best #b4 ,evil1 bad1 ill ,worse ,worst #c4 ,little ,less1 lesser ,least #d4 ,much or many ,more ,most #e4 ,old ,elder1 older ,eldest1 oldest #f4 ,nigh ,nigher ,nighest1 next #g4 ,near ,nearer ,nearest #h4 ,far ,farther1 further ,farthest1 furthest #i4 ,late ,later1 latter ,latest1 last #aj4 ,hind ,hinder ,hindmost1 hindermost ,,list ,,ii4 ,these have no adjective positive3-- #a4 ,in ,inner ,inmost1 innermost #b4 ,out ,outer1 utter ,outmost1 outermost ,utmost1 uttermost #c4 ,up ,upper ,upmost1 uppermost ,,list ,,iii4 ,a few of comparative form but not comparative meaning3-- ,after ,over ,under ,nether ,remarks on ,irregular ,adjectives4 ,sidenote3 ,list ,i4 #afd4 7#a7 ,the word good has no comparative or superlative1 but takes the place of a positive to better and best4 ,there was an old comparative bet1 which has gone out of use2 as in the sentence 7#adth century71 ,ich singe bet than thu dest 7,i sing better than thou dost74 ,the superlative ,i form was betst1 which has softened to the modern best4 7#b7 ,in ,old ,english1 evil was the positive to worse1 worst2 but later bad and ill were borrowed from the ,norse1 and used as positives to the same comparative and superlative4 ,worser was once used1 a double comparative2 as in ,shakespeare1-- ,o1 throw away the worser part of it4--,,hamlet4 7#c7 ,little is used as positive to less1 least1 though from a different root4 ,a double comparative1 lesser1 is often used2 as1-- ,we have it in a much lesser degree4--,,matthew ,,arnold4 ,thrust the lesser half by main force into the fists of ,ho-ti4 --,,lamb4 7#d7 ,the words much and many now express quantity2 but in former times much was used in the sense of large1 great1 and was the same word that is found in the proverb1 ,many a little makes a mickle4 ,its spelling has been micel1 muchel1 moche1 much1 the parallel form mickle being rarely used4 ,the meanings greater1 greatest1 are shown in such phrases as1-- ,the more part being of one mind1 to ,england we sailed4--,,kingsley4 ,the most part kept a stolid indifference4--,id4 ,the latter1 meaning the largest part1 is quite common4 7#e7 ,the forms elder1 eldest1 are earlier than older1 oldest4 ,a few other words with the vowel o had similar change in the comparative and superlative1 as long1 strong1 etc42 but these have followed old by keeping the same vowel o in all the forms1 instead of lenger1 strenger1 etc41 the old forms4 7#f7 and 7#g7 ,both nigh and near seem regular in ,modern ,english1 except the form next2 but originally the comparison was nigh1 near1 next4 ,in the same way the word high had in ,middle ,english the superlative hexte4 ,by and by the comparative near was regarded as a positive form1 and on it were built a double comparative nearer1 and the superlative nearest1 which adds -est to what is really a comparative instead of a simple adjective4 7#h7 ,these words also show confusion and consequent modification1 coming about as follows3 further really belongs to another series1--forth1 further1 first4 ,first became entirely detached from the series1 and furthest began to be used to follow the comparative further2 then these were used as comparative and superlative of far4 ,the word far had formerly the comparative and superlative farrer1 farrest4 ,in imitation of further1 furthest1 th came into the others1 making the modern farther1 farthest4 ,between the two sets as they now stand1 there is scarcely any distinction1 except perhaps further is more used than farther in the sense of additional2 as1 for example1-- ,when that evil principle was left with no further material to support it4--,,hawthorne4 7#i7 ,latter and last are the older forms4 ,since later1 latest1 came into use1 a distinction has grown up between the two series4 ,later and latest have the true comparative and superlative force1 and refer to time2 latter and last are used in speaking of succession1 or series1 and are hardly thought of as connected in meaning with the word late4 7#aj7 ,hinder is comparative in form1 but not in meaning4 ,the form hindmost is really a double superlative1 since the m is for -ma1 an old superlative ending1 to which is added -ost1 doubling the inflection4 ,hind-er-m-ost presents the combination comparative superlative superlative4 ,sidenote3 ,list ,,ii4 #afe4 ,in ,list ,,ii4 7,sec4 #afc7 the comparatives and superlatives are adjectives1 but they have no adjective positives4 ,the comparatives are so in form1 but not in their meaning4 ,the superlatives show examples again of double inflection1 and of comparative added to double-superlative inflection4 ,examples 7from ,carlyle7 of the use of these adjectives3 revealing the inner splendor to him2 a mind that has penetrated into the inmost heart of a thing2 ,this of painting is one of the outermost developments of a man2 ,the outer is of the day2 far-seeing as the sun1 the upper light of the world2 the innermost moral soul2 their utmost exertion4 ,sidenote3 -,most added to other words4 #aff4 ,the ending -most is added to some words that are not usually adjectives1 or have no comparative forms4 ,there1 on the very topmost twig1 sits that ridiculous but sweet-singing bobolink4--,h4,w4 ,,beecher4 ,decidedly handsome1 having such a skin as became a young woman of family in northernmost ,spain4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,highest and midmost1 was descried ,the royal banner floating wide4--,,scott4 ,sidenote3 ,list ,,iii4 #afg4 ,the adjectives in ,list ,,iii4 are like the comparative forms in ,list ,,ii4 in having no adjective positives4 ,they have no superlatives1 and have no comparative force1 being merely descriptive4 ,her bows were deep in the water1 but her after deck was still dry4--,,kingsley4 ,her1 by the by1 in after years ,i vainly endeavored to trace4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,the upper and the under side of the medal of ,jove4--,,emerson4 ,have you ever considered what a deep under meaning there lies in our custom of strewing flowers8--,,ruskin4 ,perhaps he rose out of some nether region4--,,hawthorne4 ,over is rarely used separately as an adjective4 ,,caution ,,for ,,analyzing ,,or ,,parsing4 ,sidenote3 ,think what each adjective belongs to4 #afh4 ,some care must be taken to decide what word is modified by an adjective4 ,in a series of adjectives in the same sentence1 all may belong to the same noun1 or each may modify a different word or group of words4 ,for example1 in this sentence1 ,the young pastor's voice was tremulously sweet1 rich1 deep1 and broken1 it is clear that all four adjectives after was modify the noun voice4 ,but in this sentence1 ,she showed her usual prudence and her usual incomparable decision1 decision is modified by the adjective incomparable2 usual modifies incomparable decision1 not decision alone2 and the pronoun her limits usual incomparable decision4 ,adjectives modifying the same noun are said to be of the same rank2 those modifying different words or word groups are said to be adjectives of different rank4 ,this distinction is valuable in a study of punctuation4 ,exercise4 ,in the following quotations1 tell what each adjective modifies3-- #a4 ,whenever that look appeared in her wild1 bright1 deeply black eyes1 it invested them with a strange remoteness and intangibility4--,,hawthorne4 #b4 ,it may still be argued1 that in the present divided state of ,christendom a college which is positively ,christian must be controlled by some religious denomination4--,,noah ,,porter4 #c4 ,every quaking leaf and fluttering shadow sent the blood backward to her heart4--,,mrs4 ,,stowe4 #d4 ,this1 our new government1 is the first in the history of the world based upon this great physical1 philosophical1 and moral truth4--,a4,h4 ,,stephens #e4 ,may we not1 therefore1 look with confidence to the ultimate universal acknowledgment of the truths upon which our system rests8--,id4 #f4 ,a few improper jests and a volley of good1 round1 solid1 satisfactory1 and heaven-defying oaths4--,,hawthorne4 #g4 ,it is well known that the announcement at any private rural entertainment that there is to be ice cream produces an immediate and profound impression4--,,holmes4 ,,adverbs ,,used ,,as ,,adjectives4 #afi4 ,by a convenient brevity1 adverbs are sometimes used as adjectives2 as1 instead of saying1 the one who was then king1 in which then is an adverb1 we may say the then king1 making then an adjective4 ,other instances are1-- ,my then favorite1 in prose1 ,richard ,hooker4--,,ruskin4 ,our sometime sister1 now our queen4--,,shakespeare ,messrs4 ,bradbury and ,evans1 the then and still owners4 --,,trollope4 ,the seldom use of it4--,,trench4 ,for thy stomach's sake1 and thine often infirmities4--,bible4 ,,how ,,to ,,parse ,,adjectives4 ,sidenote3 ,what to tell in parsing4 #agj4 ,since adjectives have no gender1 person1 or case1 and very few have number1 the method of parsing is simple4 ,in parsing an adjective1 tell-- 7#a7 ,the class and subclass to which it belongs4 7#b7 ,its number1 if it has number4 7#c7 ,its degree of comparison1 if it can be compared4 7#d7 ,what word or words it modifies4 ,,model ,,for ,,parsing4 ,these truths are not unfamiliar to your thoughts4 ,these points out what truths1 therefore demonstrative2 plural number1 having a singular1 this2 cannot be compared2 modifies the word truths4 ,unfamiliar describes truths1 therefore descriptive2 not inflected for number2 compared by prefixing more and most2 positive degree2 modifies truths4 ,exercise4 ,parse in full each adjective in these sentences3-- #a4 ,a thousand lives seemed concentrated in that one moment to ,eliza4 #b4 ,the huge green fragment of ice on which she alighted pitched and creaked4 #c4 ,i ask nothing of you1 then1 but that you proceed to your end by a direct1 frank1 manly way4 #d4 ,she made no reply1 and ,i waited for none4 #e4 ,a herd of thirty or forty tall ungainly figures took their way1 with awkward but rapid pace1 across the plain4 #f4 ,gallantly did the lion struggle in the folds of his terrible enemy1 whose grasp each moment grew more fierce and secure1 and most astounding were those frightful yells4 #g4 ,this gave the young people entire freedom1 and they enjoyed it to the fullest extent4 #h4 ,i will be as harsh as truth and as uncompromising as justice4 #i4 ,to every ,roman citizen he gives1 ,to every several man1 seventy-five drachmas4 #aj4 ,each member was permitted to entertain all the rest on his or her birthday1 on which occasion the elders of the family were bound to be absent4 #aa4 ,instantly the mind inquires whether these fishes under the bridge1 yonder oxen in the pasture1 those dogs in the yard1 are immutably fishes1 oxen1 and dogs4 #ab4 ,i know not what course others may take4 #ac4 ,with every third step1 the tomahawk fell4 #ad4 ,what a ruthless business this war of extermination is6 #ae4 ,i was just emerging from that many-formed crystal country4 #af4 ,on what shore has not the prow of your ships dashed8 #ag4 ,the laws and institutions of his country ought to have been more to him than all the men in his country4 #ah4 ,like most gifted men1 he won affections with ease4 #ai4 ,his letters aim to elicit the inmost experience and outward fortunes of those he loves1 yet are remarkably self-forgetful4 #bj4 ,their name was the last word upon his lips4 #ba4 ,the captain said it was the last stick he had seen4 #bb4 ,before sunrise the next morning they let us out again4 #bc4 ,he was curious to know to what sect we belonged4 #bd4 ,two hours elapsed1 during which time ,i waited4 #be4 ,in music especially1 you will soon find what personal benefit there is in being serviceable4 #bf4 ,to say what good of fashion we can1 it rests on reality1 and hates nothing so much as pretenders4 #bg4 ,here lay two great roads1 not so much for travelers that were few1 as for armies that were too many by half4 #bh4 ,on whichever side of the border chance had thrown ,joanna1 the same love to ,france would have been nurtured4 #bi4 ,what advantage was open to him above the ,english boy8 #cj4 ,nearer to our own times1 and therefore more interesting to us1 is the settlement of our own country4 #ca4 ,even the topmost branches spread out and drooped in all directions1 and many poles supported the lower ones4 #cb4 ,most fruits depend entirely on our care4 #cc4 ,even the sourest and crabbedest apple1 growing in the most unfavorable position1 suggests such thoughts as these1 it is so noble a fruit4 #cd4 ,let him live in what pomps and prosperities he like1 he is no literary man4 #ce4 ,through what hardships it may bear a sweet fruit6 #cf4 ,whatsoever power exists will have itself organized4 #cg4 ,a hard-struggling1 weary-hearted man was he4 ,,articles4 #aga4 ,there is a class of words having always an adjectival use in general1 but with such subtle functions and various meanings that they deserve separate treatment4 ,in the sentence1 ,he passes an ordinary brick house on the road1 with an ordinary little garden1 the words the and an belong to nouns1 just as adjectives do2 but they cannot be accurately placed under any class of adjectives4 ,they are nearest to demonstrative and numeral adjectives4 ,sidenote3 ,their origin4 #agb4 ,the article the comes from an old demonstrative adjective 7s1 so1 at1 later th1 tho1 that7 which was also an article in ,old ,english4 ,in ,middle ,english the became an article1 and that remained a demonstrative adjective4 ,an or a came from the old numeral n1 meaning one4 ,sidenote3 ,two relics4 ,our expressions the one1 the other1 were formerly that one1 that other2 the latter is still preserved in the expression1 in vulgar ,english1 the tother4 ,not only this is kept in the ,scotch dialect1 but the former is used1 these occurring as the tane1 the tother1 or the tane1 the tither2 for example1-- ,we ca' her sometimes the tane1 sometimes the tother4--,,scott4 ,sidenote3 ,an before vowel sounds1 a before consonant sounds4 #agc4 ,ordinarily an is used before vowel sounds1 and a before consonant sounds4 ,remember that a vowel sound does not necessarily mean beginning with a vowel1 nor does consonant sound mean beginning with a consonant1 because ,english spelling does not coincide closely with the sound of words4 ,examples3 a house1 an orange1 a ,european1 an honor1 a yelling crowd4 ,sidenote3 ,an with consonant sounds4 #agd4 ,many writers use an before h1 even when not silent1 when the word is not accented on the first syllable4 ,an historian1 such as we have been attempting to describe1 would indeed be an intellectual prodigy4--,,macaulay4 ,the ,persians were an heroic people like the ,greeks4--,,brewer4 ,he ,rip evinced an hereditary disposition to attend to anything else but his business4--,,irving4 ,an habitual submission of the understanding to mere events and images4--,,coleridge4 ,an hereditary tenure of these offices4--,,thomas ,,jefferson4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #age4 ,an article is a limiting word1 not descriptive1 which cannot be used alone1 but always joins to a substantive word to denote a particular thing1 or a group or class of things1 or any individual of a group or class4 ,sidenote3 ,kinds4 #agf4 ,articles are either definite or indefinite4 ,the is the definite article1 since it points out a particular individual1 or group1 or class4 ,an or a is the indefinite article1 because it refers to any one of a group or class of things4 ,an and a are different forms of the same word1 the older n4 ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,definite ,,article4 ,sidenote3 ,reference to a known object4 #agg4 ,the most common use of the definite article is to refer to an object that the listener or reader is already acquainted with2 as in the sentence1-- ,don't you remember how1 when the dragon was infesting the neighborhood of ,babylon1 the citizens used to walk dismally out of evenings1 and look at the valleys round about strewed with the bones8--,,thackeray4 ,,note4--,this use is noticed when1 on opening a story1 a person is introduced by a1 and afterwards referred to by the3-- ,by and by a giant came out of the dark north1 and lay down on the ice near ,audhumla4444 ,the giant frowned when he saw the glitter of the golden hair4--,heroes of ,asgard4 ,sidenote3 ,with names of rivers4 #agh4 ,the is often prefixed to the names of rivers2 and when the word river is omitted1 as the ,mississippi1 the ,ohio1 the article indicates clearly that a river1 and not a state or other geographical division1 is referred to4 ,no wonder ,i could face the ,mississippi with so much courage supplied to me4--,,thackeray4 ,the ,dakota tribes1 doubtless1 then occupied the country southwest of the ,missouri4--,g4 ,,bancroft4 ,sidenote3 ,to call attention to attributes4 #agi4 ,when the is prefixed to a proper name1 it alters the force of the noun by directing attention to certain qualities possessed by the person or thing spoken of2 thus1-- ,the ,bacon1 the ,spinoza1 the ,hume1 ,schelling1 ,kant1 or whosoever propounds to you a philosophy of the mind1 is only a more or less awkward translator of things in your consciousness4--,,emerson4 ,sidenote3 ,with plural of abstract nouns4 #ahj4 ,the1 when placed before the pluralized abstract noun1 marks it as half abstract or a common noun4 ,sidenote3 ,common4 ,his messages to the provincial authorities4--,,motley4 ,sidenote3 ,half abstract4 ,he was probably skilled in the subtleties of ,italian statesmanship4--,id4 ,sidenote3 ,with adjectives used as nouns4 #aha4 ,when the precedes adjectives of the positive degree used substantively1 it marks their use as common and plural nouns when they refer to persons1 and as singular and abstract when they refer to qualities4 #a4 ,the simple rise as by specific levity1 not into a particular virtue1 but into the region of all the virtues4--,,emerson4 #b4 ,if the good is there1 so is the evil4--,id4 ,sidenote3 ,caution4 ,,note4--,this is not to be confused with words that have shifted from adjectives and become pure nouns2 as1-- ,as she hesitated to pass on1 the gallant1 throwing his cloak from his shoulders1 laid it on the miry spot4--,,scott4 ,but ,de ,soto was no longer able to abate the confidence or punish the temerity of the natives4--,g4 ,,bancroft4 ,sidenote3 ,one thing for its class4 #ahb4 ,the before class nouns may mark one thing as a representative of the class to which it belongs2 for example1-- ,the faint1 silvery warblings heard over the partially bare and moist fields from the bluebird1 the song sparrow1 and the redwing1 as if the last flakes of winter tinkled as they fell6--,,thoreau4 ,in the sands of ,africa and ,arabia the camel is a sacred and precious gift4--,,gibbon4 ,sidenote3 ,for possessive person pronouns4 #ahc4 ,the is frequently used instead of the possessive case of the personal pronouns his1 her1 etc4 ,more than one hinted that a cord twined around the head1 or a match put between the fingers1 would speedily extract the required information4--,,kingsley4 ,the mouth1 and the region of the mouth1 were about the strongest features in ,wordsworth's face4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,sidenote3 ,the for a4 #ahd4 ,in ,england and ,scotland the is often used where we use a1 in speaking of measure and price2 as1-- ,wheat1 the price of which necessarily varied1 averaged in the middle of the fourteenth century tenpence the bushel1 barley averaging at the same time three shillings the quarter4--,,froude4 ,sidenote3 ,a very strong restrictive4 #ahe4 ,sometimes the has a strong force1 almost equivalent to a descriptive adjective in emphasizing a word1-- ,no doubt but ye are the people1 and wisdom shall die with you4--,bible4 ,as for ,new ,orleans1 it seemed to me the city of the world where you can eat and drink the most and suffer the least4--,,thackeray4 ,he was the man in all ,europe that could 7if any could7 have driven six-in-hand full gallop over ,al ,sirat4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,sidenote3 ,mark of a substantive4 #ahf4 ,the1 since it belongs distinctively to substantives1 is a sure indication that a word of verbal form is not used participially1 but substantively4 ,in the hills of ,sacramento there is gold for the gathering4--,,emerson4 ,i thought the writing excellent1 and wished1 if possible1 to imitate it4--,,franklin4 ,sidenote3 ,caution4 #ahg4 ,there is one use of the which is different from all the above4 ,it is an adverbial use1 and is spoken of more fully in ,sec4 #bhc4 ,compare this sentence with those above3-- ,there was something ugly and evil in his face1 which they had not previously noticed1 and which grew still the more obvious to the sight the oftener they looked upon him4--,,hawthorne4 ,exercise4--,find sentences with five uses of the definite article4 ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,indefinite ,,article4 ,sidenote3 ,denotes any one of a class4 #ahh4 ,the most frequent use of the indefinite article is to denote any one of a class or group of objects3 consequently it belongs to singular words2 as in the sentence1-- ,near the churchyard gate stands a poor-box1 fastened to a post by iron bands and secured by a padlock1 with a sloping wooden roof to keep off the rain4--,,longfellow ,sidenote3 ,widens the scope of proper nouns4 #ahi4 ,when the indefinite article precedes proper names1 it alters them to class names4 ,the qualities or attributes of the object are made prominent1 and transferred to any one possessing them2 as1-- ,the vulgar riot and debauchery1 which scarcely disgraced an ,alcibiades or a ,csar1 have been exchanged for the higher ideals of a ,bayard or a ,sydney4--,,pearson ,sidenote3 ,with abstract nouns4 #aij4 ,an or a before abstract nouns often changes them to half abstract3 the idea of quality remains1 but the word now denotes only one instance or example of things possessing the quality4 ,sidenote3 ,become half abstract4 ,the simple perception of natural forms is a delight4--,,emerson ,if thou hadst a sorrow of thine own1 the brook might tell thee of it4--,,hawthorne ,in the first sentence1 instead of the general abstract notion of delight1 which cannot be singular or plural1 a delight means one thing delightful1 and implies others having the same quality4 ,so a sorrow means one cause of sorrow1 implying that there are other things that bring sorrow4 ,sidenote3 ,become pure class nouns4 ,,note4--,some abstract nouns become common class nouns with the indefinite article1 referring simply to persons2 thus1-- ,if the poet of the ,rape of the ,lock be not a wit1 who deserves to be called so8--,,thackeray4 ,he had a little brother in ,london with him at this time1--as great a beauty1 as great a dandy1 as great a villain4--,id4 ,a youth to fortune and to fame unknown4--,,gray4 ,sidenote3 ,changes material to class nouns4 #aia4 ,an or a before a material noun indicates the change to a class noun1 meaning one kind or a detached portion2 as1-- ,they that dwell up in the steeple1444 ,feel a glory in so rolling ,on the human heart a stone4 --,,poe4 ,when ,god at first made man1 ,having a glass of blessings standing by4 --,,herbert4 ,the roofs were turned into arches of massy stone1 joined by a cement that grew harder by time4--,,johnson4 ,sidenote3 ,like the numeral adjective one4 #aib4 ,in some cases an or a has the full force of the numeral adjective one4 ,it is shown in the following3-- ,to every room there was an open and a secret passage4--,,johnson4 ,in a short time these become a small tree1 an inverted pyramid resting on the apex of the other4--,,thoreau4 ,all men are at last of a size4--,,emerson4 ,at the approach of spring the red squirrels got under my house1 two at a time4--,,thoreau4 ,sidenote3 ,equivalent to the word each or every4 #aic4 ,often1 also1 the indefinite article has the force of each or every1 particularly to express measure or frequency4 ,it would be so much more pleasant to live at his ease than to work eight or ten hours a day4--,,bulwer ,sidenote3 ,compare to ,sec4 #ahd4 ,strong beer1 such as we now buy for eighteenpence a gallon1 was then a penny a gallon4--,,froude ,sidenote3 ,with such1 many1 what4 #aid4 ,an or a is added to the adjectives such1 many1 and what1 and may be considered a part of these in modifying substantives4 ,how was ,i to pay such a debt8--,,thackeray4 ,many a one you and ,i have had here below4--,,thackeray4 ,what a world of merriment then melody foretells6--,,poe4 ,sidenote3 ,with not and many4 #aie ,,list ,,iii4 ,a few of comparative form but not comparative meaning3-- ,after ,over ,under ,nether4 ,not and never with a or an are numeral adjectives1 instead of adverbs1 which they are in general4 ,not a drum was heard1 not a funeral note4--,,wolfe ,my ,lord ,duke was as hot as a flame at this salute1 but said never a word4--,,thackeray4 ,,note4--,all these have the function of adjectives2 but in the last analysis of the expressions1 such1 many1 not1 etc41 might be considered as adverbs modifying the article4 ,sidenote3 ,with few or little4 #aif4 ,the adjectives few and little have the negative meaning of not much1 not many1 without the article2 but when a is put before them1 they have the positive meaning of some4 ,notice the contrast in the following sentences3-- ,of the country beyond the ,mississippi little more was known than of the heart of ,africa4--,,mcmaster ,to both must ,i of necessity cling1 supported always by the hope that when a little time1 a few years1 shall have tried me more fully in their esteem1 ,i may be able to bring them together4--,keats's ,letters4 ,few of the great characters of history have been so differently judged as ,alexander4--,,smith1 ,history of ,greece ,sidenote3 ,with adjectives1 changed to nouns4 #aig4 ,when the is used before adjectives with no substantive following 7,sec4 #aha and note71 these words are adjectives used as nouns1 or pure nouns2 but when an or a precedes such words1 they are always nouns1 having the regular use and inflections of nouns2 for example1-- ,such are the words a brave should use4--,,cooper4 ,in the great society of wits1 ,john ,gay deserves to be a favorite1 and to have a good place4--,,thackeray ,only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for use in the verses of a rival4--,,pearson4 ,exercise4--,bring up sentences with five uses of the indefinite article4 ,,how ,,to ,,parse ,,articles4 #aih4 ,in parsing the article1 tell-- 7#a7 ,what word it limits4 7#b7 ,which of the above uses it has4 ,exercise4 ,parse the articles in the following3-- #a4 ,it is like gathering a few pebbles off the ground1 or bottling a little air in a phial1 when the whole earth and the whole atmosphere are ours4 #b4 ,aristeides landed on the island with a body of ,hoplites1 defeated the ,persians and cut them to pieces to a man4 #c4 ,the wild fire that lit the eye of an ,achilles can gleam no more4 #d4 ,but it is not merely the neighborhood of the cathedral that is medival2 the whole city is of a piece4 #e4 ,to the herdsman among his cattle in remote woods1 to the craftsman in his rude workshop1 to the great and to the little1 a new light has arisen4 #f4 ,when the manners of ,loo are heard of1 the stupid become intelligent1 and the wavering1 determined4 #g4 ,the student is to read history actively1 and not passively4 #h4 ,this resistance was the labor of his life4 #i4 ,there was always a hope1 even in the darkest hour4 #aj4 ,the child had a native grace that does not invariably coexist with faultless beauty4 #aa4 ,i think a mere gent 7which ,i take to be the lowest form of civilization7 better than a howling1 whistling1 clucking1 stamping1 jumping1 tearing savage4 #ab4 ,every fowl whom ,nature has taught to dip the wing in water4 #ac4 ,they seem to be lines pretty much of a length4 #ad4 ,only yesterday1 but what a gulf between now and then6 #ae4 ,not a brick was made but some man had to think of the making of that brick4 #af4 ,the class of power1 the working heroes1 the ,cortes1 the ,nelson1 the ,napoleon1 see that this is the festivity and permanent celebration of such as they2 that fashion is funded talent4 ,,verbs ,,and ,,verbals44 ,,verbs4 ,sidenote3 ,verb1--the word of the sentence4 #aii4 ,the term verb is from the ,latin verbum meaning word3 hence it is the word of a sentence4 ,a thought cannot be expressed without a verb4 ,when the child cries1 ,apple6 it means1 ,see the apple6 or ,i have an apple6 ,in the mariner's shout1 ,a sail6 the meaning is1 ,yonder is a sail6 ,sentences are in the form of declarations1 questions1 or commands2 and none of these can be put before the mind without the use of a verb4 ,sidenote3 ,one group or a group of words4 #bjj4 ,the verb may not always be a single word4 ,on account of the lack of inflections1 verb phrases are very frequent4 ,hence the verb may consist of3 7#a7 ,one word2 as1 ,the young man obeyed4 7#b7 ,several words of verbal nature1 making one expression2 as1 7a7 ,some day it may be considered reasonable1 7b7 ,fearing lest he might have been anticipated4 7#c7 ,one or more verbal words united with other words to compose one verb phrase3 as in the sentences1 7a7 ,they knew well that this woman ruled over thirty millions of subjects2 7b7 ,if all the flummery and extravagance of an army were done away with1 the money could be made to go much further2 7c7 ,it is idle cant to pretend anxiety for the better distribution of wealth until we can devise means by which this preying upon people of small incomes can be put a stop to4 ,in 7a71 a verb and a preposition are used as one verb2 in 7b71 a verb1 an adverb1 and a preposition unite as a verb2 in 7c71 an article1 a noun1 a preposition1 are united with verbs as one verb phrase4 ,sidenote3 ,definition and caution4 #bja4 ,a verb is a word used as a predicate1 to say something to or about some person or thing4 ,in giving a definition1 we consider a verb as one word4 ,now1 it is indispensable to the nature of a verb that it is a word used as a predicate4 ,examine the sentences in ,sec4 #bjj3 ,in 7#a71 obeyed is a predicate2 in 7#b1 a71 may be considered is a unit in doing the work of one predicate2 in 7#b1 b71 might have been anticipated is also one predicate1 but fearing is not a predicate1 hence is not a verb2 in 7#c1 b71 to go is no predicate1 and not a verb2 in 7#c1 c71 to pretend and preying have something of verbal nature in expressing action in a faint and general way1 but cannot be predicates4 ,in the sentence1 ,put money in thy purse1 put is the predicate1 with some word understood2 as1 ,put thou money in thy purse4 ,,verbs ,,classified ,,according ,,to ,,meaning ,,and ,,use4 ,,transitive ,,and ,,intransitive ,,verbs4 ,sidenote3 ,the nature of the transitive verb4 #bjb4 ,by examining a few verbs1 it may be seen that not all verbs are used alike4 ,all do not express action3 some denote state or condition4 ,of those expressing action1 all do not express it in the same way2 for example1 in this sentence from ,bulwer1--,the proud lone took care to conceal the anguish she endured2 and the pride of woman has an hypocrisy which can deceive the most penetrating1 and shame the most astute1--every one of the verbs in ,italics has one or more words before or after it1 representing something which it influences or controls4 ,in the first1 lone took what8 answer1 care2 endured what8 anguish2 etc4 ,each influences some object1 which may be a person1 or a material thing1 or an idea4 ,has takes the object hypocrisy2 can deceive has an object1 the most penetrating2 7can7 shame also has an object1 the most astute4 ,in each case1 the word following1 or the object1 is necessary to the completion of the action expressed in the verb4 ,all these are called transitive verbs1 from the ,latin transire1 which means to go over4 ,hence ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bjc4 ,a transitive verb is one which must have an object to complete its meaning1 and to receive the action expressed4 ,sidenote3 ,the nature of intransitive verbs4 #bjd4 ,examine the verbs in the following paragraph3-- ,she sprang up at that thought1 and1 taking the staff which always guided her steps1 she hastened to the neighboring shrine of ,isis4 ,till she had been under the guardianship of the kindly ,greek1 that staff had sufficed to conduct the poor blind girl from corner to corner of ,pompeii4--,,bulwer ,in this there are some verbs unlike those that have been examined4 ,sprang1 or sprang up1 expresses action1 but it is complete in itself1 does not affect an object2 hastened is similar in use2 had been expresses condition1 or state of being1 and can have no object2 had sufficed means had been sufficient1 and from its meaning cannot have an object4 ,such verbs are called intransitive 7not crossing over74 ,hence ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bje4 ,an intransitive verb is one which is complete in itself1 or which is completed by other words without requiring an object4 ,sidenote3 ,study use1 not form1 of verbs here4 #bjf4 ,many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive1 according to their use in the sentence1 ,it can be said1 ,the boy walked for two hours1 or ,the boy walked the horse2 ,the rains swelled the river1 or ,the river swelled because of the rain2 etc4 ,the important thing to observe is1 many words must be distinguished as transitive or intransitive by use1 not by form4 #bjg4 ,also verbs are sometimes made transitive by prepositions4 ,these may be 7#a7 compounded with the verb2 or 7#b7 may follow the verb1 and be used as an integral part of it3 for example1-- ,asking her pardon for having withstood her4--,,scott4 ,i can wish myself no worse than to have it all to undergo a second time4--,,kingsley4 ,a weary gloom in the deep caverns of his eyes1 as of a child that has outgrown its playthings4--,,hawthorne4 ,it is amusing to walk up and down the pier and look at the countenances passing by4--,b4 ,,taylor4 ,he was at once so out of the way1 and yet so sensible1 that ,i loved1 laughed at1 and pitied him4--,,goldsmith4 ,my little nurse told me the whole matter1 which she had cunningly picked out from her mother4--,,swift4 ,exercises4 7a7 ,pick out the transitive and the intransitive verbs in the following3-- #a4 ,the women and children collected together at a distance4 #b4 ,the path to the fountain led through a grassy savanna4 #c4 ,as soon as ,i recovered my senses and strength from so sudden a surprise1 ,i started back out of his reach where ,i stood to view him2 he lay quiet whilst ,i surveyed him4 #d4 ,at first they lay a floor of this kind of tempered mortar on the ground1 upon which they deposit a layer of eggs4 #e4 ,i ran my bark on shore at one of their landing places1 which was a sort of neck or little dock1 from which ascended a sloping path or road up to the edge of the meadow1 where their nests were2 most of them were deserted1 and the great thick whitish eggshells lay broken and scattered upon the ground4 #f4 ,accordingly ,i got everything on board1 charged my gun1 set sail cautiously1 along shore4 ,as ,i passed by ,battle ,lagoon1 ,i began to tremble4 #g4 ,i seized my gun1 and went cautiously from my camp3 when ,i had advanced about thirty yards1 ,i halted behind a coppice of orange trees1 and soon perceived two very large bears1 which had made their way through the water and had landed in the grove1 and were advancing toward me4 7b7 ,bring up sentences with five transitive and five intransitive verbs4 ,,voice1 ,,active ,,and ,,passive4 ,sidenote3 ,meaning of active voice4 #bjh4 ,as has been seen1 transitive verbs are the only kind that can express action so as to go over to an object4 ,this implies three things1--the agent1 or person or thing acting2 the verb representing the action2 the person or object receiving the act4 ,in the sentence1 ,we reached the village of ,sorgues by dusk1 and accepted the invitation of an old dame to lodge at her inn1 these three things are found3 the actor1 or agent1 is expressed by we2 the action is asserted by reached and accepted2 the things acted upon are village and invitation4 ,here the subject is represented as doing something4 ,the same word is the subject and the agent4 ,this use of a transitive verb is called the active voice4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bji4 ,the active voice is that form of a verb which represents the subject as acting2 or ,the active voice is that form of a transitive verb which makes the subject and the agent the same word4 ,sidenote3 ,a question4 #baj4 ,intransitive verbs are always active voice4 ,let the student explain why4 ,sidenote3 ,meaning of passive voice4 #baa4 ,in the assertion of an action1 it would be natural to suppose1 that1 instead of always representing the subject as acting upon some person or thing1 it must often happen that the subject is spoken of as acted upon2 and the person or thing acting may or may not be expressed in the sentence3 for example1-- ,all infractions of love and equity in our social relations are speedily punished4 ,they are punished by fear4--,,emerson4 ,here the subject infractions does nothing3 it represents the object toward which the action of are punished is directed1 yet it is the subject of the same verb4 ,in the first sentence the agent is not expressed2 in the second1 fear is the agent of the same action4 ,so that in this case1 instead of having the agent and subject the same word1 we have the object and subject the same word1 and the agent may be omitted from the statement of the action4 ,passive is from the ,latin word patior1 meaning to endure or suffer2 but in ordinary grammatical use passive means receiving an action4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bab4 ,the passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the subject as being acted upon2 or-- ,the passive voice is that form of the verb which represents the subject and the object by the same word4 ,exercises4 7a7 ,pick out the verbs in the active and the passive voice3-- #a4 ,in the large room some forty or fifty students were walking about while the parties were preparing4 #b4 ,this was done by taking off the coat and vest and binding a great thick leather garment on1 which reached to the knees4 #c4 ,they then put on a leather glove reaching nearly to the shoulder1 tied a thick cravat around the throat1 and drew on a cap with a large visor4 #d4 ,this done1 they were walked about the room a short time2 their faces all this time betrayed considerable anxiety4 #e4 ,we joined the crowd1 and used our lungs as well as any4 #f4 ,the lakes were soon covered with merry skaters1 and every afternoon the banks were crowded with spectators4 #g4 ,people were setting up torches and lengthening the rafts which had been already formed4 #h4 ,the water was first brought in barrels drawn by horses1 till some officer came and opened the fire plug4 #i4 ,the exclusive in fashionable life does not see that he excludes himself from enjoyment1 in the attempt to appropriate it4 7b7 ,find sentences with five verbs in the active and five in the passive voice4 ,,mood4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bac4 ,the word mood is from the ,latin modus1 meaning manner1 way1 method4 ,hence1 when applied to verbs1-- ,mood means the manner of conceiving and expressing action or being of some subject4 ,sidenote3 ,the three ways4 #bad4 ,there are three chief ways of expressing action or being3-- 7#a7 ,as a fact2 this may be a question1 statement1 or assumption4 7#b7 ,as doubtful1 or merely conceived of in the mind4 7#c7 ,as urged or commanded4 ,,indicative ,,mood4 ,sidenote3 ,deals with facts4 #bae4 ,the term indicative is from the ,latin indicare 7to declare1 or assert74 ,the indicative represents something as a fact1-- ,sidenote3 ,affirms or denies4 7#a7 ,by declaring a thing to be true or not to be true2 thus1-- ,distinction is the consequence1 never the object1 of a great mind4--,,allston4 ,i do not remember when or by whom ,i was taught to read2 because ,i cannot and never could recollect a time when ,i could not read my ,bible4--,d4 ,,webster4 ,sidenote3 ,assumed as a fact4 ,sidenote3 ,caution4 7#b7 ,by assuming a thing to be true without declaring it to be so4 ,this kind of indicative clause is usually introduced by if 7meaning admitting that1 granting that1 etc471 though1 although1 etc4 ,notice that the action is not merely conceived as possible2 it is assumed to be a fact3 for example1-- ,if the penalties of rebellion hung over an unsuccessful contest2 if ,america was yet in the cradle of her political existence2 if her population little exceeded two millions2 if she was without government1 without fleets or armies1 arsenals or magazines1 without military knowledge1--still her citizens had a just and elevated sense of her rights4--,a4 ,,hamilton4 7#c7 ,by asking a question to find out some fact2 as1-- ,is private credit the friend and patron of industry8--,,hamilton4 ,with respect to novels what shall ,i say8--,n4 ,,webster4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #baf 4,the indicative mood is that form of a verb which represents a thing as a fact1 or inquires about some fact4 ,,subjunctive ,,mood4 ,sidenote3 ,meaning of the word4 #bag4 ,subjunctive means subjoined1 or joined as dependent or subordinate to something else4 ,sidenote3 ,this meaning is misleading4 ,if its original meaning be closely adhered to1 we must expect every dependent clause to have its verb in the subjunctive mood1 and every clause not dependent to have its verb in some other mood4 ,but this is not the case4 ,in the quotation from ,hamilton 7,sec4 #bae1 #b7 several subjoined clauses introduced by if have the indicative mood1 and also independent clauses are often found having the verb in the subjunctive mood4 ,sidenote3 ,cautions4 ,three cautions will be laid down which must be observed by a student who wishes to understand and use the ,english subjunctive3-- 7#a7 ,you cannot tell it always by the form of the word4 ,the main difference is1 that the subjunctive has no -s as the ending of the present tense1 third person singular2 as1 ,if he come4 7#b7 ,the fact that its clause is dependent or is introduced by certain words will not be a safe rule to guide you4 7#c7 ,the meaning of the verb itself must be keenly studied4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bah4 ,the subjunctive mood is that form or use of the verb which expresses action or being1 not as a fact1 but as merely conceived of in the mind4 ,subjunctive in ,independent ,clauses4 ,i4 ,expressing a ,wish4 #bai4 ,the following are examples of this use3-- ,heaven rest her soul6--,,moore4 ,god grant you find one face there ,you loved when all was young4--,,kingsley4 ,now tremble dimples on your cheek1 ,sweet be your lips to taste and speak4--,,beddoes4 ,long die thy happy days before thy death4--,,shakespeare4 ,,ii4 ,a ,contingent ,declaration or ,question4 #bbj4 ,this really amounts to the conclusion1 or principal clause1 in a sentence1 of which the condition is omitted4 ,our chosen specimen of the hero as literary man if we were to choose one would be this ,goethe4--,,carlyle4 ,i could lie down like a tired child1 ,and weep away the life of care ,which ,i have borne and yet must bear4--,,shelley4 ,most excellent stranger1 as you come to the lakes simply to see their loveliness1 might it not be as well to ask after the most beautiful road1 rather than the shortest8--,,de ,,quincey4 ,subjunctive in ,dependent ,clauses4 ,i4 ,condition or ,supposition4 #bba4 ,the most common way of representing the action or being as merely thought of1 is by putting it into the form of a supposition or condition2 as1-- ,now1 if the fire of electricity and that of lightning be the same1 this pasteboard and these scales may represent electrified clouds4--,,franklin4 ,here no assertion is made that the two things are the same2 but1 if the reader merely conceives them for the moment to be the same1 the writer can make the statement following4 ,again1-- ,if it be ,sunday supposing it to be ,sunday1 the peasants sit on the church steps and con their psalm books4--,,longfellow4 ,,study ,,of ,,conditional ,,sentences4 #bbb4 ,there are three kinds of conditional sentences3-- ,sidenote3 ,real or true4 7#a7 ,those in which an assumed or admitted fact is placed before the mind in the form of a condition 7see ,sec4 #bae1 #b72 for example1-- ,if they were unacquainted with the works of philosophers and poets1 they were deeply read in the oracles of ,god4 ,if their names were not found in the registers of heralds1 they were recorded in the ,book of ,life4--,,macaulay4 ,sidenote3 ,ideal1--may or may not be true4 7#b7 ,those in which the condition depends on something uncertain1 and may or may not be regarded true1 or be fulfilled2 as1-- ,if1 in our case1 the representative system ultimately fail1 popular government must be pronounced impossible4--,d4 ,,webster4 ,if this be the glory of ,julius1 the first great founder of the ,empire1 so it is also the glory of ,charlemagne1 the second founder4--,,bryce4 ,if any man consider the present aspects of what is called by distinction society1 he will see the need of these ethics4 --,,emerson4 ,sidenote3 ,unreal--cannot be true4 7#c7 ,suppositions contrary to fact1 which cannot be true1 or conditions that cannot be fulfilled1 but are presented only in order to suggest what might be or might have been true2 thus1-- ,if these things were true1 society could not hold together4 --,,lowell4 ,did not my writings produce me some solid pudding1 the great deficiency of praise would have quite discouraged me4--,,franklin4 ,had he for once cast all such feelings aside1 and striven energetically to save ,ney1 it would have cast such an enhancing light over all his glories1 that we cannot but regret its absence4--,,bayne4 ,,note4--,conditional sentences are usually introduced by if1 though1 except1 unless1 etc42 but when the verb precedes the subject1 the conjunction is often omitted3 for example1 ,were ,i bidden to say how the highest genius could be most advantageously employed1 etc4 ,exercise4 ,in the following conditional clauses1 tell whether each verb is indicative or subjunctive1 and what kind of condition3-- #a4 ,the voice1 if he speak to you1 is of similar physiognomy1 clear1 melodious1 and sonorous4--,,carlyle4 #b4 ,were you so distinguished from your neighbors1 would you1 do you think1 be any the happier8--,,thackeray4 #c4 ,epaminondas1 if he was the man ,i take him for1 would have sat still with joy and peace1 if his lot had been mine4--,,emerson4 #d4 ,if a damsel had the least smattering of literature1 she was regarded as a prodigy4--,,macaulay4 #e4 ,i told him1 although it were the custom of our learned in ,europe to steal inventions from each other1444 yet ,i would take such caution that he should have the honor entire4--,,swift4 #f4 ,if he had reason to dislike him1 he had better not have written1 since he ,byron was dead4--,n4,p4 ,,willis4 #g4 ,if it were prostrated to the ground by a profane hand1 what native of the city would not mourn over its fall8--,,gayarre4 #h4 ,but in no case could it be justified1 except it be for a failure of the association or union to effect the object for which it was created4--,,calhoun4 ,,ii4 ,subjunctive of ,purpose4 #bbc4 ,the subjunctive1 especially be1 may1 might1 and should1 is used to express purpose1 the clause being introduced by that or lest2 as1-- ,it was necessary1 he supposed1 to drink strong beer1 that he might be strong to labor4--,,franklin4 ,i have been the more particular444that you may compare such unlikely beginnings with the figure ,i have since made there4--,id4 ,he ,roderick with sudden impulse that way rode1 ,to tell of what had passed1 lest in the strife ,they should engage with ,julian's men4--,,southey4 ,,iii4 ,subjunctive of ,result4 #bbd4 ,the subjunctive may represent the result toward which an action tends3-- ,so many thoughts move to and fro1 ,that vain it were her eyes to close4 --,,coleridge4 ,so live1 that when thy summons comes to join ,the innumerable caravan444 ,thou go not1 like the quarry-slave at night4 --,,bryant4 ,,iv4 ,in ,temporal ,clauses4 #bbe4 ,the ,english subjunctive1 like the ,latin1 is sometimes used in a clause to express the time when an action is to take place4 ,let it rise1 till it meet the sun in his coming4--,d4 ,,webster4 ,rise up1 before it be too late6--,,hawthorne4 ,but it will not be long ,ere this be thrown aside4 --,,wordsworth4 ,v4 ,in ,indirect ,questions4 #bbf4 ,the subjunctive is often found in indirect questions1 the answer being regarded as doubtful4 ,ask the great man if there be none greater4--,,emerson ,what the best arrangement were1 none of us could say4--,,carlyle4 ,whether it were morning or whether it were afternoon1 in her confusion she had not distinctly known4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,,vi4 ,expressing a ,wish4 #bbg4 ,after a verb of wishing1 the subjunctive is regularly used in the dependent clause4 ,the transmigiation of souls is no fable4 ,i would it were6 --,,emerson4 ,bright star6 ,would ,i were steadfast as thou art6--,,keats4 ,i've wished that little isle had wings1 ,and we1 within its fairy bowers1 ,were wafted off to seas unknown4 --,,moore4 ,,vii4 ,in a ,noun ,clause4 ,sidenote3 ,subject4 #bbh4 ,the noun clause1 in its various uses as subject1 object1 in apposition1 etc41 often contains a subjunctive4 ,the essence of originality is not that it be new4--,,carlyle ,sidenote3 ,apposition or logical subject4 ,to appreciate the wild and sharp flavors of those ,october fruits1 it is necessary that you be breathing the sharp ,october or ,november air4--,,thoreau4 ,sidenote3 ,complement4 ,the first merit1 that which admits neither substitute nor equivalent1 is1 that everything be in its place4--,,coleridge4 ,sidenote3 ,object4 ,as sure as ,heaven shall rescue me1 ,i have no thought what men they be4--,,coleridge4 ,some might lament that ,i were cold4--,,shelley4 ,sidenote3 ,after verbs of commanding4 ,this subjunctive is very frequent after verbs of commanding4 ,see that there be no traitors in your camp4--,,tennyson4 ,come1 tell me all that thou hast seen1 ,and look thou tell me true4 --,,scott4 ,see that thy scepter be heavy on his head4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,,viii4 ,concessive ,clauses4 #bbi4 ,the concession may be expressed-- 7#a7 ,in the nature of the verb2 for example1-- ,be the matter how it may1 ,gabriel ,grub was afflicted with rheumatism to the end of his days4--,,dickens4 ,be the appeal made to the understanding or the heart1 the sentence is the same--that rejects it4--,,brougham 7#b7 ,by an indefinite relative word1 which may be 7a7 ,pronoun4 ,whatever betide1 we'll turn aside1 ,and see the ,braes of ,yarrow4 --,,wordsworth4 7b7 ,adjective4 ,that hunger of applause1 of cash1 or whatsoever victual it may be1 is the ultimate fact of man's life4--,,carlyle4 7c7 ,adverb4 ,wherever he dream under mountain or stream1 ,the spirit he loves remains4 --,,shelley4 ,prevalence of the ,subjunctive ,mood4 #bcj4 ,as shown by the wide range of literature from which these examples are selected1 the subjunctive is very much used in literary ,english1 especially by those who are artistic and exact in the expression of their thought4 ,at the present day1 however1 the subjunctive is becoming less and less used4 ,very many of the sentences illustrating the use of the subjunctive mood could be replaced by numerous others using the indicative to express the same thoughts4 ,the three uses of the subjunctive now most frequent are1 to express a wish1 a concession1 and condition contrary to fact4 ,in spoken ,english1 the subjunctive were is much used in a wish or a condition contrary to fact1 but hardly any other subjunctive forms are4 ,it must be remembered1 though1 that many of the verbs in the subjunctive have the same form as the indicative4 ,especially is this true of unreal conditions in past time2 for example1-- ,were we of open sense as the ,greeks were1 we had found should have found a poem here4--,,carlyle4 ,,imperative ,,mood4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bca4 ,the imperative mood is the form of the verb used in direct commands1 entreaties1 or requests4 ,sidenote3 ,usually second person4 #bcb4 ,the imperative is naturally used mostly with the second person1 since commands are directed to a person addressed4 7#a7 ,command4 ,call up the shades of ,demosthenes and ,cicero to vouch for your words2 point to their immortal works4--,j4,q4 ,,adams4 ,honor all men2 love all men2 fear none4--,,channing4 7#b7 ,entreaty4 ,oh1 from these sterner aspects of thy face ,spare me and mine1 nor let us need the wrath ,of the mad unchained elements4 --,,bryant4 7#c7 ,request4 ,hush6 mother1 whispered ,kit4 ,come along with me4--,,dickens ,tell me1 how was it you thought of coming here8--,id4 ,sidenote3 ,sometimes with first person in the plural4 ,but the imperative may be used with the plural of the first person4 ,since the first person plural person is not really ,i ,i1 but ,i you1 or ,i they1 etc41 we may use the imperative with we in a command1 request1 etc41 to you implied in it4 ,this is scarcely ever found outside of poetry4 ,part we in friendship from your land1 ,and1 noble earl1 receive my hand4 --,,scott4 ,then seek we not their camp--for there ,the silence dwells of my despair4 --,,campbell4 ,break we our watch up4--,,shakespeare4 ,usually this is expressed by let with the objective3 ,let us go4 ,and the same with the third person3 ,let him be accursed4 ,exercises on the ,moods4 7a7 ,tell the mood of each verb in these sentences1 and what special use it is of that mood3-- #a4 ,wherever the standard of freedom and independence has been or shall be unfurled1 there will her heart and her prayers be4 #b4 ,mark thou this difference1 child of earth6 ,while each performs his part1 ,not all the lip can speak is worth ,the silence of the heart4 #c4 ,oh1 that ,i might be admitted to thy presence6 that mine were the supreme delight of knowing thy will6 #d4 ',twere worth ten years of peaceful life1 ,one glance at their array6 #e4 ,whatever inconvenience ensue1 nothing is to be preferred before justice4 #f4 ,the vigorous sun would catch it up at eve ,and use it for an anvil till he had filled ,the shelves of heaven with burning thunderbolts4 #g4 ,meet is it changes should control ,our being1 lest we rust in ease4 #h4 ,quoth she1 ,the ,devil take the goose1 ,and ,god forget the stranger6 #i4 ,think not that ,i speak for your sakes4 #aj4 ,now tread we a measure6 said young ,lochinvar4 #aa4 ,were that a just return8 ,were that ,roman magnanimity8 #ab4 ,well2 how he may do his work1 whether he do it right or wrong1 or do it at all1 is a point which no man in the world has taken the pains to think of4 #ac4 ,he is1 let him live where else he like1 in what pomps and prosperities he like1 no literary man4 #ad4 ,could we one day complete the immense figure which these flagrant points compose6 #ae4 ,oh1 then1 my dear madam1 cried he1 tell me where ,i may find my poor1 ruined1 but repentant child4 #af4 ,that sheaf of darts1 will it not fall unbound1 ,except1 disrobed of thy vain earthly vaunt1 ,thou bring it to be blessed where saints and angels haunt8 #ag4 ,forget thyself to marble1 till ,with a sad leaden downward cast ,thou fix them on the earth as fast4 #ah4 ,he1 as though an instrument1 ,blew mimic hootings to the silent owls1 ,that they might answer him4 #ai4 ,from the moss violets and jonquils peep1 ,and dart their arrowy odor through the brain1 ,till you might faint with that delicious pain4 #bj4 ,that a man parade his doubt1 and get to imagine that debating and logic is the triumph and true work of what intellect he has2 alas6 this is as if you should overturn the tree4 #ba4 ,the fat earth feed thy branchy root ,that under deeply strikes6 ,the northern morning o'er thee shoot1 ,high up in silver spikes6 #bb4 ,though abyss open under abyss1 and opinion displace opinion1 all are at last contained in the ,eternal cause4 #bc4 ,god send ,rome one such other sight6 #bd4 ,mr4 ,marshall1 continued ,old ,morgan1 see that no one mentions the ,united ,states to the prisoner4 #be4 ,if there is only one woman in the nation who claims the right to vote1 she ought to have it4 #bf4 ,though he were dumb1 it would speak4 #bg4 ,meantime1 whatever she did1--whether it were in display of her own matchless talents1 or whether it were as one member of a general party1--nothing could exceed the amiable1 kind1 and unassuming deportment of ,mrs4 ,siddons4 #bh4 ,it makes a great difference to the force of any sentence whether there be a man behind it or no4 7b7 ,find sentences with five verbs in the indicative mood1 five in the subjunctive1 five in the imperative4 ,,tense4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bcc4 ,tense means time4 ,the tense of a verb is the form or use indicating the time of an action or being4 ,sidenote3 ,tenses in ,english4 ,old ,english had only two tenses1--the present tense1 which represented present and future time2 and the past tense4 ,we still use the present for the future in such expressions as1 ,i go away to-morrow2 ,if he comes1 tell him to wait4 ,but ,english of the present day not only has a tense for each of the natural time divisions1--present1 past1 and future1--but has other tenses to correspond with those of highly inflected languages1 such as ,latin and ,greek4 ,the distinct inflections are found only in the present and past tenses1 however3 the others are compounds of verbal forms with various helping verbs1 called auxiliaries2 such as be1 have1 shall1 will4 ,sidenote3 ,the tenses in detail4 #bcd4 ,action or being may be represented as occurring in present1 past1 or future time1 by means of the present1 the past1 and the future tense4 ,it may also be represented as finished in present or past or future time by means of the present perfect1 past perfect1 and future perfect tenses4 ,not only is this so3 there are what are called definite forms of these tenses1 showing more exactly the time of the action or being4 ,these make the ,english speech even more exact than other languages1 as will be shown later on1 in the conjugations4 ,,person ,,and ,,number4 #bce4 ,the ,english verb has never had full inflections for number and person1 as the classical languages have4 ,when the older pronoun thou was in use1 there was a form of the verb to correspond to it1 or agree with it1 as1 ,thou walkest1 present2 ,thou walkedst1 past2 also1 in the third person singular1 a form ending in -eth1 as1 ,it is not in man that walketh1 to direct his steps4 ,but in ordinary ,english of the present day there is practically only one ending for person and number4 ,this is the third person1 singular number2 as1 ,he walks2 and this only in the present tense indicative4 ,this is important in questions of agreement when we come to syntax4 ,,conjugation4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bcf4 ,conjugation is the regular arrangement of the forms of the verb in the various voices1 moods1 tenses1 persons1 and numbers4 ,in classical languages1 conjugation means joining together the numerous endings to the stem of the verb2 but in ,english1 inflections are so few that conjugation means merely the exhibition of the forms and the different verb phrases that express the relations of voice1 mood1 tense1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,few forms4 #bcg4 ,verbs in modern ,english have only four or five forms2 for example1 walk has walk1 walks1 walked1 walking1 sometimes adding the old forms walkest1 walkedst1 walketh4 ,such verbs as choose have five1--choose1 chooses1 chose1 choosing1 chosen 7old1 choosest1 chooseth1 chosest74 ,the verb be has more forms1 since it is composed of several different roots1--am1 are1 is1 were1 been1 etc4 #bch4 ,,inflections ,,of ,,the ,,verb ,,be4 ,indicative ,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,,past ,,tense4 ,singular ,plural ,singular ,plural #a4 ,i am ,we are #a4 ,i was ,we were #b4 ,you are ,you are #b4 ,you were ,you were 7thou art7 7thou wast1 wert7 #c4 ,he is ,they are #c4 ,he was ,they were ,subjunctive ,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,,past ,,tense4 ,singular ,plural ,singular ,plural #a4 ,i be ,we be #a4 ,i were ,we were #b4 ,you 7thou7 be ,you be #b4 ,you were ,you were 7thou wert7 #c4 ,he be ,they be #c4 ,he were ,they were ,imperative ,mood4 ,,present ,,tense1 ,singular and ,plural1 ,be4 ,sidenote3 ,remarks on the verb be4 #bci4 ,this conjugation is pieced out with three different roots3 7#a7 am1 is2 7#b7 was1 were2 7#c7 be4 ,instead of the plural are1 ,old ,english had beoth and sind or sindon1 same as the ,german sind4 ,are is supposed to have come from the ,norse language4 ,the old indicative third person plural be is sometimes found in literature1 though it is usually a dialect form2 for example1-- ,where be the sentries who used to salute as the ,royal chariots drove in and out8--,,thackeray ,where be the gloomy shades1 and desolate mountains8--,,whittier ,sidenote3 ,uses of be4 #bdj4 ,the forms of the verb be have several uses3-- 7#a7 ,as principal verbs4 ,the light that never was on sea and land4--,,wordsworth4 7#b7 ,as auxiliary verbs1 in four ways1-- 7a7 ,with verbal forms in -ing 7imperfect participle7 to form the definite tenses4 ,broadswords are maddening in the rear1--,each broadsword bright was brandishing like beam of light4--,,scott4 7b7 ,with the past participle in -ed1 -en1 etc41 to form the passive voice4 ,by solemn vision and bright silver dream1 ,his infancy was nurtured4 --,,shelley4 7c7 ,with past participle of intransitive verbs1 being equivalent to the present perfect and past perfect tenses active2 as1 ,when we are gone ,from every object dear to mortal sight4 --,,wordsworth ,we drank tea1 which was now become an occasional banquet4--,,goldsmith4 7d7 ,with the infinitive1 to express intention1 obligation1 condition1 etc42 thus1 ,it was to have been called the ,order of ,minerva4--,,thackeray4 ,ingenuity and cleverness are to be rewarded by ,state prizes4--,id4 ,if ,i were to explain the motion of a body falling to the ground4--,,burke #bda4 ,,inflections ,,of ,,the ,,verb ,,choose4 ,indicative ,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i choose ,we choose #b4 ,you choose ,you choose #c4 ,he chooses ,they choose ,,past ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i chose ,we chose #b4 ,you chose ,you chose #c4 ,he chose ,they chose ,subjunctive ,mood4 ,,present ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i choose ,we choose #b4 ,you choose ,you choose #c4 ,he choose ,they choose ,,past ,,tense4 ,singular4 ,plural4 #a4 ,i chose ,we chose #b4 ,you chose ,you chose #c4 ,he chose ,they chose ,imperative ,mood4 ,,present ,,tense1 ,singular and ,plural1 ,choose4 ,,full ,,conjugation ,,of ,,the ,,verb ,,choose4 ,sidenote3 ,machinery of a verb in the voices1 tenses1 etc4 #bdb4 ,in addition to the above inflected forms1 there are many periphrastic or compound forms1 made up of auxiliaries with the infinitives and participles4 ,some of these have been indicated in ,sec4 #bdj1 7#b74 ,the ordinary tenses yet to be spoken of are made up as follows3-- 7#a7 ,future tense1 by using shall and will with the simple or root form of the verb2 as1 ,i shall be1 ,he will choose4 7#b7 ,present perfect1 past perfect1 future perfect1 tenses1 by placing have1 had1 and shall 7or will7 have before the past participle of any verb2 as1 ,i have gone 7present perfect71 ,i had gone 7past perfect71 ,i shall have gone 7future perfect74 7#c7 ,the definite form of each tense1 by using auxiliaries with the imperfect participle active2 as1 ,i am running1 ,they had been running4 7#d7 ,the passive forms1 by using the forms of the verb be before the past participle of verbs2 as1 ,i was chosen1 ,you are chosen4 #bdc4 ,the following scheme will show how rich our language is in verb phrases to express every variety of meaning4 ,only the third person1 singular number1 of each tense1 will be given4 ,,active ,,voice4 ,indicative ,mood4 ,present4 ,he chooses4 ,present definite4 ,he is choosing4 ,past4 ,he chose4 ,past definite4 ,he was choosing4 ,future4 ,he will choose4 ,future definite4 ,he will be choosing4 ,present perfect4 ,he has chosen4 ,present perfect definite4 ,he has been choosing4 ,past perfect4 ,he had chosen4 ,past perfect definite4 ,he had been choosing4 ,future perfect4 ,he will have chosen4 ,future perfect definite4 ,he will have been choosing4 ,subjunctive ,mood4 ,present4 ,if1 though1 he choose4 ,present definite4 lest1 etc4 he be choosing4 ,past4 he chose 7or were to choose74 ,past definite4 he were choosing 7or were to be choosing74 ,present perfect4 he have chosen4 ,present perfect definite4 he have been choosing4 ,past perfect4 ,same as indicative4 ,past perfect definite4 ,imperative ,mood4 ,present4 7#b;d per47 ,choose4 ,present definite4 ,be choosing4 ,,note4--,since participles and infinitives are not really verbs1 but verbals1 they will be discussed later 7,sec4 #bfb74 ,,passive ,,voice4 ,indicative ,mood4 ,present4 ,he is chosen4 ,present definite4 ,he is being chosen4 ,past4 ,he was chosen4 ,past definite4 ,he was being chosen4 ,future4 ,he will be chosen4 ,future definite4 ,none4 ,present perfect4 ,he has been chosen4 ,present perfect definite4 ,none4 ,past perfect4 ,he had been chosen4 ,past perfect definite4 ,none4 ,future perfect4 ,he will have been chosen4 ,future perfect definite4 ,none4 ,subjunctive ,mood4 ,present44 ,if1 though1 he be chosen4 ,present definite4 lest1 etc4 ,none4 ,past4 he were chosen 7or were to be chosen74 ,past definite4 he were being chosen4 ,present perfect4 he have been chosen4 ,present perfect definite4 ,none4 ,past ,perfect4 he had been chosen4 ,past perfect definite4 ,none4 ,imperative ,mood4 ,present tense4 7#b;d per47 ,be chosen4 ,also1 in affirmative sentences1 the indicative present and past tenses have emphatic forms made up of do and did with the infinitive or simple form2 as1 ,he does strike1 ,he did strike4 ,note to ,teacher4--,this table is not to be learned now2 if learned at all1 it should be as practice work on strong and weak verb forms4 ,exercises should be given1 however1 to bring up sentences containing such of these conjugation forms as the pupil will find readily in literature4 ,,verbs ,,classified ,,according ,,to ,,form4 ,sidenote3 ,kinds4 #bdd4 ,according to form1 verbs are strong or weak4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 ,a strong verb forms its past tense by changing the vowel of the present tense form1 but adds no ending2 as1 run1 ran2 drive1 drove4 ,a weak verb always adds an ending to the present to form the past tense1 and may or may not change the vowel3 as1 beg1 begged2 lay1 laid2 sleep1 slept2 catch1 caught4 #bde4 ,,table ,,of ,,strong ,,verbs4 ,,note4 ,some of these also have weak forms1 which are in parentheses ,present ,tense4 ,past ,tense4 ,past ,participle4 abide abode abode arise arose arisen awake awoke 7awaked7 awoke 7awaked7 bear bore borne 7active7 born 7passive7 begin began begun behold beheld beheld bid bade1 bid bidden1 bid bind bound bound1 adj4 bounden bite bit bitten1 bit blow blew blown break broke broken chide chid chidden1 chid choose chose chosen cleave clove1 clave 7cleft7 cloven 7cleft7 climb clomb climbed climbed cling clung clung come came come crow crew 7crowed7 7crowed7 dig dug dug do did done draw drew drawn drink drank drunk1 drank adj4 drunken drive drove driven eat ate1 eat eaten1 eat fall fell fallen fight fought fought find found found fling flung flung fly flew flown forbear forbore forborne forget forgot forgotten forsake forsook forsaken freeze froze frozen get got got gotten give gave given go went gone grind ground ground grow grew grown hang hung 7hanged7 hung 7hanged7 hold held held know knew known lie lay lain ride rode ridden ring rang rung run ran run see saw seen shake shook shaken shear shore 7sheared7 shorn 7sheared7 shine shone shone shoot shot shot shrink shrank or shrunk shrunk shrive shrove shriven sing sang or sung sung sink sank or sunk sunk adj4 sunken sit sat sate sat slay slew slain slide slid slidden1 slid sling slung slung slink slunk slunk smite smote smitten speak spoke spoken spin spun spun spring sprang1 sprung sprung stand stood stood stave stove 7staved7 7staved7 steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung stink stunk1 stank stunk stride strode stridden strike struck struck1 stricken string strung strung strive strove striven swear swore sworn swim swam or swum swum swing swung swung take took taken tear tore torn thrive throve 7thrived7 thriven 7thrived7 throw threw thrown tread trod trodden1 trod wear wore worn weave wove woven win won won wind wound wound wring wrung wrung write wrote written ,remarks on ,certain ,verb ,forms4 #bdf4 ,several of the perfect participles are seldom used except as adjectives3 as1 his bounden duty1 the cloven hoof1 a drunken wretch1 a sunken snag4 ,stricken is used mostly of diseases2 as1 stricken with paralysis4 ,the verb bear 7to bring forth7 is peculiar in having one participle 7borne7 for the active1 and another 7born7 for the passive4 ,when it means to carry or to endure1 borne is also a passive4 ,the form clomb is not used in prose1 but is much used in vulgar ,english1 and sometimes occurs in poetry2 as1-- ,thou hast clomb aloft4--,,wordsworth ,or pine grove whither woodman never clomb4--,,coleridge ,the forms of cleave are really a mixture of two verbs1--one meaning to adhere or cling2 the other1 to split4 ,the former used to be cleave1 cleaved1 cleaved2 and the latter1 cleave1 clave or clove1 cloven4 ,but the latter took on the weak form cleft in the past tense and past participle1--as 7from ,shakespeare71 ,o ,hamlet6 thou hast cleft my heart in twain1--while cleave 7to cling7 sometimes has clove1 as 7from ,holmes71 ,the old ,latin tutor clove to ,virgilius ,maro4 ,in this confusion of usage1 only one set remains certain1--cleave1 cleft1 cleft 7to split74 ,crew is seldom found in present-day ,english4 ,not a cock crew1 nor a dog barked4--,,irving4 ,our cock1 which always crew at eleven1 now told us it was time for repose4--,,goldsmith4 ,historically1 drunk is the one correct past participle of the verb drink4 ,but drunk is very much used as an adjective1 instead of drunken 7meaning intoxicated72 and1 probably to avoid confusion with this1 drank is a good deal used as a past participle3 thus1-- ,we had each drank three times at the well4--,b4 ,,taylor4 ,this liquor was generally drank by ,wood and ,billings4 --,,thackeray4 ,sometimes in literary ,english1 especially in that of an earlier period1 it is found that the verb eat has the past tense and past participle eat 7t71 instead of ate and eaten2 as1 for example1-- ,it ate the food it ne'er had eat4--,,coleridge4 ,how fairy ,mab the junkets eat4--,,milton4 ,the island princes overbold ,have eat our substance4--,,tennyson4 ,this is also very much used in spoken and vulgar ,english4 ,the form gotten is little used1 got being the preferred form of past participle as well as past tense4 ,one example out of many is1-- ,we had all got safe on shore4--,,de ,,foe4 ,hung and hanged both are used as the past tense and past participle of hang2 but hanged is the preferred form when we speak of execution by hanging2 as1 ,the butler was hanged4--,bible4 ,the verb sat is sometimes spelled sate2 for example1-- ,might we have sate and talked where gowans blow4--,,wordsworth4 ,he sate him down1 and seized a pen4--,,byron4 ,but ,i sate still and finished my plaiting4--,,kingsley4 ,usually shear is a weak verb4 ,shorn and shore are not commonly used3 indeed1 shore is rare1 even in poetry4 ,this heard ,geraint1 and grasping at his sword1 ,shore thro' the swarthy neck4--,,tennyson4 ,shorn is used sometimes as a participial adjective1 as a shorn lamb1 but not much as a participle4 ,we usually say1 ,the sheep were sheared instead of ,the sheep were shorn4 ,went is borrowed as the past tense of go from the old verb wend1 which is seldom used except in poetry2 for example1-- ,if1 maiden1 thou would'st wend with me ,to leave both tower and town4--,,scott4 ,exercises4 7a7 ,from the table 7,sec4 #bde71 make out lists of verbs having the same vowel changes as each of the following3-- #a4 ,fall1 fell1 fallen4 #b4 ,begin1 began1 begun4 #c4 ,find1 found1 found4 #d4 ,give1 gave1 given4 #e4 ,drive1 drove1 driven4 #f4 ,throw1 threw1 thrown4 #g4 ,fling1 flung1 flung4 #h4 ,break1 broke1 broken4 #i4 ,shake1 shook1 shaken4 #aj4 ,freeze1 froze1 frozen4 7b7 ,find sentences using ten past-tense forms of strong verbs4 7c7 ,find sentences using ten past participles of strong verbs4 ,to the ,teacher1--,these exercises should be continued for several lessons1 for full drill on the forms4 ,,defective ,,strong ,,verbs4 #bdg4 ,there are several verbs which are lacking in one or more principal parts4 ,they are as follows3-- ,,present4 ,,past4 ,,present4 ,,past4 may might ought ought can could shall should must must will would #bdh4 ,may is used as either indicative or subjunctive1 as it has two meanings4 ,it is indicative when it expresses permission1 or1 as it sometimes does1 ability1 like the word can3 it is subjunctive when it expresses doubt as to the reality of an action1 or when it expresses wish1 purpose1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,indicative ,use3 ,permission4 ,ability4 ,if ,i may lightly employ the ,miltonic figure1 far off his coming shines4--,,winier4 ,a stripling arm might sway ,a mass no host could raise4--,,scott4 ,his superiority none might question4--,,channing4 ,sidenote3 ,subjunctive use4 ,in whatever manner the separate parts of a constitution may be arranged1 there is one general principle1 etc4--,,paine4 ,sidenote3 7,see also ,sec4 #bbc47 ,and from her fair and unpolluted flesh ,may violets spring6 --,,shakespeare4 #bdi4 ,can is used in the indicative only4 ,the l in could did not belong there originally1 but came through analogy with should and would4 ,could may be subjunctive1 as in ,sec4 #bbj4 #bej4 ,must is historically a past-tense form1 from the obsolete verb motan1 which survives in the sentence1 ,so mote it be4 ,must is present or past tense1 according to the infinitive used4 ,all must concede to him a sublime power of action4--,,channing ,this1 of course1 must have been an ocular deception4--,,hawthorne4 #bea4 ,the same remarks apply to ought1 which is historically the past tense of the verb owe4 ,like must1 it is used only in the indicative mood2 as1 ,the just imputations on our own faith ought first to be removed4444 ,have we valuable territories and important posts444which ought long since to have been surrendered8--,a4 ,,hamilton4 ,it will be noticed that all the other defective verbs take the pure infinitive without to1 while ought always has to4 ,shall and ,will4 #beb4 ,the principal trouble in the use of shall and will is the disposition1 especially in the ,united ,states1 to use will and would1 to the neglect of shall and should1 with pronouns of the first person2 as1 ,i think ,i will go4 ,sidenote3 ,uses of shall and should4 ,the following distinctions must be observed3-- 7#a7 ,with the ,,first ,,person1 shall and should are used1-- ,sidenote3 ,futurity and questions--first person4 7a7 ,in making simple statements or predictions about future time2 as1-- ,the time will come full soon1 ,i shall be gone4--,l4,c4 ,,moulton4 7b7 ,in questions asking for orders1 or implying obligation or authority resting upon the subject2 as1-- ,with respect to novels1 what shall ,i say8--,n4 ,,webster4 ,how shall ,i describe the luster which at that moment burst upon my vision8--,c4 ,,brockden ,,brown4 ,sidenote3 ,second and third persons4 7#b7 ,with the ,,second ,,and ,,third ,,persons1 shall and should are used1-- 7a7 ,to express authority1 in the form of command1 promise1 or confident prediction4 ,the following are examples3-- ,never mind1 my lad1 whilst ,i live thou shalt never want a friend to stand by thee4--,,irving4 ,they shall have venison to eat1 and corn to hoe4--,,cooper4 ,the sea shall crush thee2 yea1 the ponderous wave up the loose beach shall grind and scoop thy grave4--,,thaxter4 ,she should not walk1 he said1 through the dust and heat of the noonday2 ,nay1 she should ride like a queen1 not plod along like a peasant4--,,longfellow4 7b7 ,in indirect quotations1 to express the same idea that the original speaker put forth 7i4e41 future action72 for example1-- ,he declares that he shall win the purse from you4--,,bulwer4 ,she rejects his suit with scorn1 but assures him that she shall make great use of her power over him4--,,macaulay4 ,fielding came up more and more bland and smiling1 with the conviction that he should win in the end4--,a4 ,,larned4 ,those who had too presumptuously concluded that they should pass without combat were something disconcerted4--,,scott4 7c7 ,with direct questions of the second person1 when the answer expected would express simple futurity2 thus1-- ,should you like to go to school at ,canterbury8--,,dickens4 ,sidenote3 ,first1 second and third persons4 7#c7 ,with ,,all ,,three ,,persons1-- 7a7 ,should is used with the meaning of obligation1 and is equivalent to ought4 ,i never was what ,i should be4--,h4 ,,james1 ,,jr4 ,milton6 thou should'st be living at this hour4--,,wordsworth4 ,he should not flatter himself with the delusion that he can make or unmake the reputation of other men4--,,winter4 7b7 ,shall and should are both used in dependent clauses of condition1 time1 purpose1 etc42 for example1-- ,when thy mind ,shall be a mansion for all stately forms4--,,wordsworth4 ,suppose this back-door gossip should be utterly blundering and untrue1 would any one wonder8--,,thackeray4 ,jealous lest the sky should have a listener4--,,byron4 ,if thou should'st ever come by chance or choice to ,modena4--,,rogers4 ,if ,i should be where ,i no more can hear thy voice4--,,wordsworth4 ,that accents and looks so winning should disarm me of my resolution1 was to be expected4--,c4,b4 ,,brown4 #bec4 ,will and would are used as follows3-- ,sidenote3 ,authority as to future action--first person4 7#a7 ,with the ,,first ,,person1 will and would are used to express determination as to the future1 or a promise2 as1 for example1-- ,i will go myself now1 and will not return until all is finished4--,,cable4 ,and promised444that ,i would do him justice1 as the sole inventor4--,,swift4 ,sidenote3 ,disguising a command4 7#b7 ,with the ,,second ,,person1 will is used to express command4 ,this puts the order more mildly1 as if it were merely expected action2 as1-- ,thou wilt take the skiff1 ,roland1 and two of my people1444 and fetch off certain plate and belongings4--,,scott4 ,you will proceed to ,manassas at as early a moment as practicable1 and mark on the grounds the works1 etc4--,war ,records4 ,sidenote3 ,mere futurity4 7#c7 ,with both ,,second ,,and ,,third ,,persons1 will and would are used to express simple futurity1 action merely expected to occur2 for example1-- ,all this will sound wild and chimerical4--,,burke4 ,she would tell you that punishment is the reward of the wicked4--,,landor4 ,when ,i am in town1 you'll always have somebody to sit with you4 ,to be sure1 so you will4--,,dickens4 7#d7 ,with ,,first1 ,,second1 ,,and ,,third ,,persons1 would is used to express a wish1--the original meaning of the word will2 for example1-- ,sidenote3 ,subject ,i omitted3 often so4 ,would that a momentary emanation from thy glory would visit me6--,c4,b4 ,,brown4 ,thine was a dangerous gift1 when thou wast born1 ,the gift of ,beauty4 ,would thou hadst it not4--,,rogers ,it shall be gold if thou wilt1 but thou shalt answer to me for the use of it4--,,scott4 ,what wouldst thou have a good great man obtain8--,,coleridge4 7#e7 ,with the ,,third ,,person1 will and would often denote an action as customary1 without regard to future time2 as1 ,they will go to ,sunday schools1 through storms their brothers are afraid of4444 ,they will stand behind a table at a fair all day4--,,holmes ,on a slight suspicion1 they would cut off the hands of numbers of the natives1 for punishment or intimidation4--,,bancroft4 ,in this stately chair would he sit1 and this magnificent pipe would he smoke1 shaking his right knee with a constant motion4--,,irving4 ,conjugation of ,shall and ,will as ,auxiliaries 7with ,choose74 #bed4 ,to express simply expected action3-- ,,active ,,voice4 ,,passive ,,voice4 ,singular4 ,singular4 #a4 ,i shall choose4 ,i shall be chosen4 #b4 ,you will choose4 ,you will be chosen4 #c4 ,he will choose4 ,he will be chosen4 ,plural4 ,plural4 #a4 ,we shall choose4 ,we shall be chosen4 #b4 ,you will choose4 ,you will be chosen4 #c4 ,they will choose4 ,they will be chosen4 ,to express determination1 promise1 etc43-- ,,active ,,voice4 ,,passive ,,voice4 ,singular4 ,singular4 #a4 ,i will choose4 ,i will be chosen4 #b4 ,you shall choose4 ,you shall be chosen4 #c4 ,he shall choose4 ,he shall be chosen4 ,,active ,,voice4 ,,passive ,,voice4 ,plural4 ,plural4 #a4 ,we will choose4 #a4 ,we will be chosen4 #b4 ,you shall choose4 #b4 ,you shall be chosen4 #c4 ,they shall choose4 #c4 ,they shall be chosen4 ,exercises on ,shall and ,will4 7a7 ,from ,secs4 #beb and #bec1 write out a summary or outline of the various uses of shall and will4 7b7 ,examine the following sentences1 and justify the use of shall and will1 or correct them if wrongly used3-- #a4 ,thou art what ,i would be1 yet only seem4 #b4 ,we would be greatly mistaken if we thought so4 #c4 ,thou shalt have a suit1 and that of the newest cut2 the wardrobe keeper shall have orders to supply you4 #d4 ,i shall not run1 answered ,herbert stubbornly4 #e4 ,he informed us1 that in the course of another day's march we would reach the prairies on the banks of the ,grand ,canadian4 #f4 ,what shall we do with him8 ,this is the sphinx-like riddle which we must solve if we would not be eaten4 #g4 ,will not our national character be greatly injured8 ,will we not be classed with the robbers and destroyers of mankind8 #h4 ,lucy stood still1 very anxious1 and wondering whether she should see anything alive4 #i4 ,i would be overpowered by the feeling of my disgrace4 #aj4 ,no1 my son2 whatever cash ,i send you is yours3 you will spend it as you please1 and ,i have nothing to say4 #aa4 ,but ,i will doubtless find some ,english person of whom to make inquiries4 #ab4 ,without having attended to this1 we will be at a loss to understand several passages in the classics4 #ac4 ,i am a wayfarer1 the stranger said1 and would like permission to remain with you a little while4 #ad4 ,the beast made a sluggish movement1 then1 as if he would have more of the enchantment1 stirred her slightly with his muzzle4 ,,weak ,,verbs4 #bee4 ,those weak verbs which add -d or -ed to form the past tense and past participle1 and have no change of vowel1 are so easily recognized as to need no special treatment4 ,some of them are already given as secondary forms of the strong verbs4 ,but the rest1 which may be called irregular weak verbs1 need some attention and explanation4 #bef4 ,the irregular weak verbs are divided into two classes1-- ,sidenote3 ,the two classes of irregular weak verbs4 7#a7 ,those which retain the -d or -t in the past tense1 with some change of form for the past tense and past participle4 7#b7 ,those which end in -d or -t1 and have lost the ending which formerly was added to this4 ,the old ending to verbs of ,class ,,ii4 was -de or -te2 as1-- ,this worthi man ful wel his wit bisette used4--,,chaucer4 ,of smale houndes hadde she1 that sche fedde ,with rosted flessh1 or mylk and wastel breed4--,id4 ,this ending has now dropped off1 leaving some weak verbs with the same form throughout3 as set1 set1 set2 put1 put1 put4 #beg4 ,irregular ,weak ,verbs4--,class ,i4 ,present ,tense4 ,past ,tense4 ,past ,participle4 bereave bereft1 bereave bereft1 bereaved beseech besought besought burn burned1 burnt burnt buy bought bought catch caught caught creep crept crept deal dealt dealt dream dreamt1 dreamed dreamt1 dreamed dwell dwelt dwelt feel felt felt flee fled fled have had had 7once haved7 hide hid hidden1 hid keep kept kept kneel knelt knelt lay laid laid lean leaned1 leant leaned1 leant leap leaped1 leapt leaped1 leapt leave left left lose lost lost make made 7once maked7 made mean meant meant pay paid paid pen inclose penned1 pen penned1 pent say said said seek sought sought sell sold sold shoe shod shod sleep slept slept spell spelled1 spelt spelt spill spilt spilt stay staid1 stayed staid1 stayed sweep swept swept teach taught taught tell told told think thought thought weep wept wept work worked1 wrought worked1 wrought #beh4 ,irregular ,weak ,verbs4--,class ,,ii4 ,present ,tense4 ,past ,tense4 ,past ,participle4 bend bent1 bended bent1 bended bleed bled bled breed bred bred build built built cast cast cast cost cost cost feed fed fed gild gilded1 gilt gilded1 gilt gird girt1 girded girt1 girded hit hit hit hurt hurt hurt knit knit1 knitted knit1 knitted lead led led let let let light lighted1 lit lighted1 lit meet met met put put put quit quit1 quitted quit1 quitted read read read rend rent rent rid rid rid send sent sent set set set shed shed shed shred shred shred shut shut shut slit slit slit speed sped sped spend spent spent spit spit obs4 spat spit obs4 spat split split split spread spread spread sweat sweat sweat thrust thrust thrust wed wed1 wedded wed1 wedded wet wet1 wetted wet1 wetted ,sidenote3 ,tendency to phonetic spelling4 #bej4 ,there seems to be in ,modern ,english a growing tendency toward phonetic spelling in the past tense and past participle of weak verbs4 ,for example1 -ed1 after the verb bless1 has the sound of t3 hence the word is often written blest4 ,so with dipt1 whipt1 dropt1 tost1 crost1 drest1 prest1 etc4 ,this is often seen in poetry1 and is increasing in prose4 ,some ,troublesome ,verbs4 ,sidenote3 ,lie and lay in use and meaning4 #bfj4 ,some sets of verbs are often confused by young students1 weak forms being substituted for correct1 strong forms4 ,lie and lay need close attention4 ,these are the forms3-- ,present ,tense4 ,past ,tense4 ,pres4 ,participle4 ,past ,participle4 #a4 ,lie lay lying lain #b4 ,lay laid laying laid ,the distinctions to be observed are as follows3-- 7#a7 ,lie1 with its forms1 is regularly intransitive as to use4 ,as to meaning1 lie means to rest1 to recline1 to place one's self in a recumbent position2 as1 ,there lies the ruin4 7#b7 ,lay1 with its forms1 is always transitive as to use4 ,as to meaning1 lay means to put1 to place a person or thing in position2 as1 ,slowly and sadly we laid him down4 ,also lay may be used without any object expressed1 but there is still a transitive meaning2 as in the expressions1 to lay up for future use1 to lay on with the rod1 to lay about him lustily4 ,sidenote3 ,sit and set4 #bfa4 ,sit and set have principal parts as follows3-- ,present ,tense4 ,past ,tense4 ,pres4 ,participle4 ,past ,participle4 #a4 ,sit sat sitting sat #b4 ,set set setting set ,notice these points of difference between the two verbs3-- 7#a7 ,sit1 with its forms1 is always intransitive in use4 ,in meaning1 sit signifies 7a7 to place one's self on a seat1 to rest2 7b7 to be adjusted1 to fit2 7c7 to cover and warm eggs for hatching1 as1 ,the hen sits4 7#b7 ,set1 with its forms1 is always transitive in use when it has the following meanings3 7a7 to put or place a thing or person in position1 as ,he set down the book2 7b7 to fix or establish1 as1 ,he sets a good example4 ,set is intransitive when it means 7a7 to go down1 to decline1 as1 ,the sun has set2 7b7 to become fixed or rigid1 as1 ,his eyes set in his head because of the disease2 7c7 in certain idiomatic expressions1 as1 for example1 to set out1 to set up in business1 to set about a thing1 to set to work1 to set forward1 the tide sets in1 a strong wind set in1 etc4 ,exercise4 ,examine the forms of lie1 lay1 sit and set in these sentences2 give the meaning of each1 and correct those used wrongly4 #a4 ,if the phenomena which lie before him will not suit his purpose1 all history must be ransacked4 #b4 ,he sat with his eyes fixed partly on the ghost and partly on ,hamlet1 and with his mouth open4 #c4 ,the days when his favorite volume set him upon making wheelbarrows and chairs1444 can never again be the realities they were4 #d4 ,to make the jacket sit yet more closely to the body1 it was gathered at the middle by a broad leathern belt4 #e4 ,he had set up no unattainable standard of perfection4 #f4 ,for more than two hundred years his bones lay undistinguished4 #g4 ,the author laid the whole fault on the audience4 #h4 ,dapple had to lay down on all fours before the lads could bestride him4 #i4 ,and send'st him444to his gods where happy lies ,his petty hope in some near port or bay1 ,and dashest him again to earth3--there let him lay4 #aj4 ,achilles is the swift-footed when he is sitting still4 #aa4 ,it may be laid down as a general rule1 that history begins in novel1 and ends in essay4 #ab4 ,i never took off my clothes1 but laid down in them4 ,,verbals4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bfb4 ,verbals are words that express action in a general way1 without limiting the action to any time1 or asserting it of any subject4 ,sidenote3 ,kinds4 ,verbals may be participles1 infinitives1 or gerunds4 ,,participles4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bfc4 ,participles are adjectival verbals2 that is1 they either belong to some substantive by expressing action in connection with it1 or they express action1 and directly modify a substantive1 thus having a descriptive force4 ,notice these functions4 ,sidenote3 ,pure participle in function4 #a4 ,at length1 wearied by his cries and agitations1 and not knowing how to put an end to them1 he addressed the animal as if he had been a rational being4--,,dwight4 ,here wearied and knowing belong to the subject he1 and express action in connection with it1 but do not describe4 ,sidenote3 ,express action and also describe4 #b4 ,another name glided into her petition--it was that of the wounded ,christian1 whom fate had placed in the hands of bloodthirsty men1 his avowed enemies4--,,scott4 ,here wounded and avowed are participles1 but are used with the same adjectival force that bloodthirsty is 7see ,sec4 #adc1 #d74 ,participial adjectives have been discussed in ,sec4 #adc 7#d71 but we give further examples for the sake of comparison and distinction4 ,sidenote3 ,fossil participles as adjectives4 #c4 ,as learned a man may live in a cottage or a college commmon-room4--,,thackeray #d4 ,not merely to the soldier are these campaigns interesting --,,bayne4 #e4 ,how charming is divine philosophy6--,,milton4 ,sidenote3 ,forms of the participle4 #bfd4 ,participles1 in expressing action1 may be active or passive1 incomplete 7or imperfect71 complete 7perfect or past71 and perfect definite4 ,they cannot be divided into tenses 7present1 past1 etc471 because they have no tense of their own1 but derive their tense from the verb on which they depend2 for example1-- #a4 ,he walked conscientiously through the services of the day1 fulfilling every section the minutest1 etc4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,fulfilling has the form to denote continuance1 but depends on the verb walked1 which is past tense4 #b4 ,now the bright morning star1 day's harbinger1 ,comes dancing from the ,east4--,,milton4 ,dancing here depends on a verb in the present tense4 #bfe4 ,,participles ,,of ,,the ,,verb ,,choose4 ,,active ,,voice4 ,imperfect4 ,choosing4 ,perfect4 ,having chosen4 ,perfect definite4 ,having been choosing4 ,,passive ,,voice4 ,imperfect4 ,none ,perfect4 ,chosen1 being chosen1 having been chosen4 ,perfect definite4 ,none4 ,exercise4 ,pick out the participles1 and tell whether active or passive1 imperfect1 perfect1 or perfect definite4 ,if pure participles1 tell to what word they belong2 if adjectives1 tell what words they modify4 #a4 ,the change is a large process1 accomplished within a large and corresponding space1 having1 perhaps1 some central or equatorial line1 but lying1 like that of our earth1 between certain tropics1 or limits widely separated4 #b4 ,i had fallen under medical advice the most misleading that it is possible to imagine4 #c4 ,these views1 being adopted in a great measure from my mother1 were naturally the same as my mother's4 #d4 ,endowed with a great command over herself1 she soon obtained an uncontrolled ascendency over her people4 #e4 ,no spectacle was more adapted to excite wonder4 #f4 ,having fully supplied the demands of nature in this respect1 ,i returned to reflection on my situation4 #g4 ,three saplings1 stripped of their branches and bound together at their ends1 formed a kind of bedstead4 #h4 ,this all-pervading principle is at work in our system1--the creature warring against the creating power4 #i4 ,perhaps ,i was too saucy and provoking4 #aj4 ,nothing of the kind having been done1 and the principles of this unfortunate king having been distorted1444 try clemency4 ,,infinitives4 #bff4 ,infinitives1 like participles1 have no tense4 ,when active1 they have an indefinite1 an imperfect1 a perfect1 and a perfect definite form2 and when passive1 an indefinite and a perfect form1 to express action unconnected with a subject4 #bfg4 ,,infinitives ,,of ,,the ,,verb ,,choose4 ,,active ,,voice4 ,indefinite4 ,to choose4 ,imperfect4 ,to be choosing4 ,perfect4 ,to have chosen4 ,perfect definite4 ,to have been choosing4 ,,passive ,,voice4 ,indefinite4 ,to be chosen4 ,perfect4 ,to have been chosen4 ,sidenote3 ,to with the infinitive4 #bfh4 ,in ,sec4 #bfg the word to is printed in brackets because it is not a necessary part of the infinitive4 ,it originally belonged only to an inflected form of the infinitive1 expressing purpose2 as in the ,old ,english1 t ode se sdere his sd t swenne 7,out went the sower his seed to sow74 ,sidenote3 ,cases when to is omitted4 ,but later1 when inflections became fewer1 to was used before the infinitive generally1 except in the following cases3-- 7#a7 ,after the auxiliaries shall1 will 7with should and would74 7#b7 ,after the verbs may 7might71 can 7could71 must2 also let1 make1 do 7as1 ,i do go etc471 see1 bid 7command71 feel1 hear1 watch1 please2 sometimes need 7as1 ,he need not go7 and dare 7to venture74 7#c7 ,after had in the idiomatic use2 as1 ,you had better go ,he had rather walk than ride4 7#d7 ,in exclamations2 as in the following examples3-- ,he find pleasure in doing good6 cried ,sir ,william4--,,goldsmith4 ,i urge an address to his kinswoman6 ,i approach her when in a base disguise6 ,i do this6--,,scott4 ,she ask my pardon1 poor woman6 cried ,charles4--,,macaulay4 #bfi4 ,shall and will are not to be taken as separate verbs1 but with the infinitive as one tense of a verb2 as1 ,he will choose1 ,i shall have chosen1 etc4 ,also do may be considered an auxiliary in the interrogative1 negative1 and emphatic forms of the present and past1 also in the imperative2 as1-- ,what6 doth she1 too1 as the credulous imagine1 learn doth learn is one verb1 present tense the love of the great stars8 --,,bulwer4 ,do not entertain so weak an imagination--,,burke4 ,she did not weep--she did not break forth into reproaches4--,,irving4 #bgj4 ,the infinitive is sometimes active in form while it is passive in meaning1 as in the expression1 a house to let4 ,examples are1-- ,she was a kind1 liberal woman2 rich rather more than needed where there were no opera boxes to rent4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,tho' it seems my spurs are yet to win4--,,tennyson4 ,but there was nothing to do4--,,howells4 ,they shall have venison to eat1 and corn to hoe4--,,cooper4 ,nolan himself saw that something was to pay4--,e4,e4 ,,hale4 #bga4 ,the various offices which the infinitive and the participle have in the sentence will be treated in ,part ,,ii41 under ,analysis1 as we are now learning merely to recognize the forms4 ,,gerunds4 #bgb4 ,the gerund is like the participle in form1 and like a noun in use4 ,the participle has been called an adjectival verbal2 the gerund may be called a noun verbal4 ,while the gerund expresses action1 it has several attributes of a noun1--it may be governed as a noun2 it may be the subject of a verb1 or the object of a verb or a preposition2 it is often preceded by the definite article2 it is frequently modified by a possessive noun or pronoun4 ,sidenote3 ,distinguished from participle and verbal noun4 #bgc4 ,it differs from the participle in being always used as a noun3 it never belongs to or limits a noun4 ,it differs from the verbal noun in having the property of governing a noun 7which the verbal noun has not7 and of expressing action 7the verbal noun merely names an action1 ,sec4 ,,ii74 ,the following are examples of the uses of the gerund3-- 7#a7 ,subject3 ,the taking of means not to see another morning had all day absorbed every energy2 ,certainly dueling is bad1 and has been put down4 7#b7 ,object3 7a7 ,our culture therefore must not omit the arming of the man4 7b7 ,nobody cares for planting the poor fungus2 ,i announce the good of being interpenetrated by the mind that made nature2 ,the guilt of having been cured of the palsy by a ,jewish maiden4 7#c7 ,governing and ,governed3 ,we are far from having exhausted the significance of the few symbols we use1 also 7#b1 b71 above2 ,he could embellish the characters with new traits without violating probability2 ,he could not help holding out his hand in return4 ,exercise4--,find sentences containing five participles1 five infinitives1 and five gerunds4 ,,summary ,,of ,,words ,,in -,,ing4 #bgd4 ,words in -ing are of six kinds1 according to use as well as meaning4 ,they are as follows3-- 7#a7 ,part of the verb1 making the definite tenses4 7#b7 ,pure participles1 which express action1 but do not assert4 7#c7 ,participial adjectives1 which express action and also modify4 7#d7 ,pure adjectives1 which have lost all verbal force4 7#e7 ,gerunds1 which express action1 may govern and be governed4 7#f7 ,verbal nouns1 which name an action or state1 but cannot govern4 ,exercise4 ,tell to which of the above six classes each -ing word in the following sentences belongs3-- #a4 ,here is need of apologies for shortcomings4 #b4 ,then how pleasing is it1 on your leaving the spot1 to see the returning hope of the parents1 when1 after examining the nest1 they find the nurslings untouched6 #c4 ,the crowning incident of my life was upon the bank of the ,scioto ,salt ,creek1 in which ,i had been unhorsed by the breaking of the saddle girths4 #d4 ,what a vast1 brilliant1 and wonderful store of learning6 #e4 ,he is one of the most charming masters of our language4 #f4 ,in explaining to a child the phenomena of nature1 you must1 by object lessons1 give reality to your teaching4 #g4 ,i suppose ,i was dreaming about it4 ,what is dreaming8 #h4 ,it is years since ,i heard the laughter ringing4 #i4 ,intellect is not speaking and logicizing3 it is seeing and ascertaining4 #aj4 ,we now draw toward the end of that great martial drama which we have been briefly contemplating4 #aa4 ,the second cause of failure was the burning of ,moscow4 #ab4 ,he spread his blessings all over the land4 #ac4 ,the only means of ascending was by my hands4 #ad4 ,a marble figure of ,mary is stretched upon the tomb1 round which is an iron railing1 much corroded1 bearing her national emblem4 #ae4 ,the exertion left me in a state of languor and sinking4 #af4 ,thackeray did not1 like ,sir ,walter ,scott1 write twenty pages without stopping1 but1 dictating from his chair1 he gave out sentence by sentence1 slowly4 ,,how ,,to ,,parse ,,verbs ,,and ,,verbals4 ,i4 ,,verbs4 #bge4 ,in parsing verbs1 give the following points3-- 7#a7 ,class3 7a7 as to form1--strong or weak1 giving principal parts2 7b7 as to use1--transitive or intransitive4 7#b7 ,voice1--active or passive4 7#c7 ,mood1--indicative1 subjunctive1 or imperative4 7#d7 ,tense1--which of the tenses given in ,sec4 #bcd4 7#e7 ,person and number1 in determining which you must tell-- 7#f7 ,what the subject is1 for the form of the verb may not show the person and number4 ,sidenote3 ,caution4 #bgf4 ,it has been intimated in ,sec4 #bce1 we must beware of the rule1 ,a verb agrees with its subject in person and number4 ,sometimes it does2 usually it does not1 if agrees means that the verb changes its form for the different persons and numbers4 ,the verb be has more forms than other verbs1 and may be said to agree with its subject in several of its forms4 ,but unless the verb is present1 and ends in -s1 or is an old or poetic form ending in -st or -eth1 it is best for the student not to state it as a general rule that the verb agrees with its subject in person and number1 but merely to tell what the subject of the verb is4 ,,ii4 ,,verb ,,phrases4 #bgg4 ,verb phrases are made up of a principal verb followed by an infinitive1 and should always be analyzed as phrases1 and not taken as single verbs4 ,especially frequent are those made up of should1 would1 may1 might1 can1 could1 must1 followed by a pure infinitive without to4 ,take these examples3-- #a4 ,lee should of himself have replenished his stock4 #b4 ,the government might have been strong and prosperous4 ,in such sentences as #a1 call should a weak verb1 intransitive1 therefore active2 indicative1 past tense2 has for its subject ,lee4 ,have replenished is a perfect active infinitive4 ,in #b1 call might a weak verb1 intransitive1 active1 indicative 7as it means could71 past tense2 has the subject government4 ,have been is a perfect active infinitive4 ,for fuller parsing of the infinitive1 see ,sec4 #bgh7b74 ,,iii4 ,,verbals4 #bgh4 7#a7 ,participle4 ,tell 7a7 from what verb it is derived2 7b7 whether active or passive1 imperfect1 perfect1 etc42 7c7 to what word it belongs4 ,if a participial adjective1 give points 7a7 and 7b71 then parse it as an adjective4 7#b7 ,infinitive4 ,tell 7a7 from what verb it is derived2 7b7 whether indefinite1 perfect1 definite1 etc4 7#c7 ,gerund4 7a7 ,from what verb derived2 7b7 its use 7,sec4 #bgc74 ,exercise4 ,parse the verbs1 verbals1 and verb phrases in the following sentences3-- #a4 ,byron builds a structure that repeats certain elements in nature or humanity4 #b4 ,the birds were singing as if there were no aching hearts1 no sin nor sorrow1 in the world4 #c4 ,let it rise6 let it rise1 till it meet the sun in his coming2 let the earliest light of the morning gild it1 and parting day linger and play on its summit4 #d4 ,you are gathered to your fathers1 and live only to your country in her grateful remembrance4 #e4 ,read this ,declaration at the head of the army4 #f4 ,right graciously he smiled on us1 as rolled from wing to wing1 ,down all the line1 a deafening shout1 ,god save our ,lord the ,king6 #g4 ,when he arose in the morning1 he thought only of her1 and wondered if she were yet awake4 #h4 ,he had lost the quiet of his thoughts1 and his agitated soul reflected only broken and distorted images of things4 #i4 ,so1 lest ,i be inclined ,to render ill for ill1 ,henceforth in me instill1 ,o ,god1 a sweet good will4 #aj4 ,the sun appears to beat in vain at the casements4 #aa4 ,margaret had come into the workshop with her sewing1 as usual4 #ab4 ,two things there are with memory will abide-- ,whatever else befall--while life flows by4 #ac4 ,to the child it was not permitted to look beyond into the hazy lines that bounded his oasis of flowers4 #ad4 ,with them1 morning is not a new issuing of light1 a new bursting forth of the sun2 a new waking up of all that has life1 from a sort of temporary death4 #ae4 ,whatever ground you sow or plant1 see that it is in good condition4 #af4 ,however that be1 it is certain that he had grown to delight in nothing else than this conversation4 #ag4 ,the soul having been often born1 or1 as the ,hindoos say1 traveling the path of existence through thousands of births1 there is nothing of which she has not gained knowledge4 #ah4 ,the ancients called it ecstasy or absence1--a getting-out of their bodies to think4 #ai4 ,such a boy could not whistle or dance4 #bj4 ,he had rather stand charged with the imbecility of skepticism than with untruth4 #ba4 ,he can behold with serenity the yawning gulf between the ambition of man and his power of performance4 #bb4 ,he passed across the room to the washstand1 leaving me upon the bed1 where ,i afterward found he had replaced me on being awakened by hearing me leap frantically up and down on the floor4 #bc4 ,in going for water1 he seemed to be traveling over a desert plain to some far-off spring4 #bd4 ,hasheesh always brings an awakening of perception which magnifies the smallest sensation4 #be4 ,i have always talked to him as ,i would to a friend4 #bf4 ,over them multitudes of rosy children came leaping to throw garlands on my victorious road4 #bg4 ,oh1 had we some bright little isle of our own6 #bh4 ,better it were1 thou sayest1 to consent2 ,feast while we may1 and live ere life be spent4 #bi4 ,and now wend we to yonder fountain1 for the hour of rest is at hand4 ,,adverbs4 ,sidenote3 ,adverbs modify4 #bgi4 ,the word adverb means joined to a verb4 ,the adverb is the only word that can join to a verb to modify it4 ,sidenote3 ,a verb4 ,when action is expressed1 an adverb is usually added to define the action in some way1--time1 place1 or manner3 as1 ,he began already to be proud of being a ,rugby boy time2 ,one of the young heroes scrambled up behind place2 ,he was absolute1 but wisely and bravely ruling manner4 ,sidenote3 ,an adjective or an adverb4 ,but this does not mean that adverbs modify verbs only3 many of them express degree1 and limit adjectives or adverbs2 as1 ,william's private life was severely pure2 ,principles of ,english law are put down a little confusedly4 ,sidenote3 ,sometimes a noun or pronoun4 ,sometimes an adverb may modify a noun or pronoun2 for example1-- ,the young man reveres men of genius1 because1 to speak truly1 they are more himself than he is4--,,emerson4 ,is it only poets1 and men of leisure and cultivation1 who live with nature8--,id4 ,to the almost terror of the persons present1 ,macaulay began with the senior wrangler of #ahja-b-c-d1 and so on4--,,thackeray4 ,nor was it altogether nothing4--,,carlyle4 ,sounds overflow the listener's brain ,so sweet that joy is almost pain4--,,shelley4 ,the condition of ,kate is exactly that of ,coleridge's ,ancient ,mariner4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,he was incidentally news dealer4--,t4,b4 ,,aldrich4 ,,note4--,these last differ from the words in ,sec4 #afi1 being adverbs naturally and fitly1 while those in ,sec4 #afi are felt to be elliptical1 and rather forced into the service of adjectives4 ,also these adverbs modifying nouns are to be distinguished from those standing after a noun by ellipsis1 but really modifying1 not the noun1 but some verb understood2 thus1-- ,the gentle winds and waters that are near1 ,make music to the lonely ear4--,,byron4 ,with bowering leaves that grow o'erhead1 to which the eye ,looked up half sweetly1 and half awfully4--,,leigh ,,hunt4 ,sidenote3 ,a phrase4 ,an adverb may modify a phrase which is equivalent to an adjective or an adverb1 as shown in the sentences1-- ,they had begun to make their effort much at the same time4--,,trollope4 ,i draw forth the fruit1 all wet and glossy1 maybe nibbled by rabbits and hollowed out by crickets1 and perhaps with a leaf or two cemented to it1 but still with a rich bloom to it4--,,thoreau4 ,sidenote3 ,a clause or sentence4 ,it may also modify a sentence1 emphasizing or qualifying the statement expressed2 as1 for example1-- ,and certainly no one ever entered upon office with so few resources of power in the past4--,,lowell4 ,surely happiness is reflective1 like the light of heaven4 --,,irving4 ,we are offered six months' credit2 and that1 perhaps1 has induced some of us to attend it4--,,franklin4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bhj4 ,an adverb1 then1 is a modifying word1 which may qualify an action word or a statement1 and may add to the meaning of an adjective or adverb1 or a word group used as such4 ,,note4--,the expression action word is put instead of verb1 because any verbal word may be limited by an adverb1 not simply the forms used in predication4 #bha4 ,adverbs may be classified in two ways3 7#a7 according to the meaning of the words2 7#b7 according to their use in the sentence4 ,,adverbs ,,classified ,,according ,,to ,,meaning4 #bhb4 ,thus considered1 there are six classes3-- 7#a7 ,time2 as now1 to-day1 ever1 lately1 before1 hitherto1 etc4 7#b7 ,place4 ,these may be adverbs either of 7a7 ,,place ,,where2 as here1 there1 where1 near1 yonder1 above1 etc4 7b7 ,,place ,,to ,,which2 as hither1 thither1 whither1 whithersoever1 etc4 7c7 ,,place ,,from ,,which2 as hence1 thence1 whence1 whencesoever1 etc4 7#c7 ,manner1 telling how anything is done2 as well1 slowly1 better1 bravely1 beautifully4 ,action is conceived or performed in so many ways1 that these adverbs form a very large class4 7#d7 ,number1 telling how many times3 once1 twice1 singly1 two by two1 etc4 7#e7 ,degree1 telling how much2 as little1 slightly1 too1 partly1 enough1 greatly1 much1 very1 just1 etc4 7see also ,sec4 #bhc74 7#f7 ,assertion1 telling the speaker's belief or disbelief in a statement1 or how far he believes it to be true2 as perhaps1 maybe1 surely1 possibly1 probably1 not1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,special remarks on adverbs of degree4 #bhc4 ,the is an adverb of degree when it limits an adjective or an adverb1 especially the comparative of these words2 thus1-- ,but not the less the blare of the tumultuous organ wrought its own separate creations4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,the more they multiply1 the more friends you will have2 the more evidently they love liberty1 the more perfect will be their obedience4--,,burke4 ,this and that are very common as adverbs in spoken ,english1 and not infrequently are found in literary ,english2 for example1-- ,the master444was for this once of her opinion4--,r4 ,,louis ,,stevenson4 ,death6 ,to die6 ,i owe that much ,to what1 at least1 ,i was4--,,browning4 ,this long's the text4--,,shakespeare4 ,sidenote ,the status of such4 ,such is frequently used as an equivalent of so3 such precedes an adjective with its noun1 while so precedes only the adjective usually4 ,meekness1444which gained him such universal popularity4--,,irving4 ,such a glittering appearance that no ordinary man would have been able to close his eyes there4--,,hawthorne4 ,an eye of such piercing brightness and such commanding power that it gave an air of inspiration4--,,lecky4 ,so also in ,grote1 ,emerson1 ,thackeray1 ,motley1 ,white1 and others4 ,sidenote3 ,pretty4 ,pretty has a wider adverbial use than it gets credit for4 ,i believe our astonishment is pretty equal4--,,fielding4 ,hard blows and hard money1 the feel of both of which you know pretty well by now4--,,kingsley4 ,the first of these generals is pretty generally recognized as the greatest military genius that ever lived4--,,bayne4 ,a pretty large experience4--,,thackeray4 ,pretty is also used by ,prescott1 ,franklin1 ,de ,quincey1 ,defoe1 ,dickens1 ,kingsley1 ,burke1 ,emerson1 ,aldrich1 ,holmes1 and other writers4 ,sidenote3 ,mighty4 ,the adverb mighty is very common in colloquial ,english2 for example1-- ,mighty well1 ,deacon ,gookin6 replied the solemn tones of the minister4--,,hawthorne4 ,maybe you're wanting to get over8--anybody sick8 ,ye seem mighty anxious6--,h4,b4 ,,stowe4 ,it is only occasionally used in literary ,english2 for example1-- ,you are mighty courteous4--,,bulwer4 ,beau ,fielding1 a mighty fine gentleman4--,,thackeray4 ,peace1 ,neville1 said the king1 thou think'st thyself mighty wise1 and art but a fool4--,,scott4 ,i perceived his sisters mighty busy4--,,goldsmith4 ,sidenote3 ,notice meanings4 #bhd4 ,again1 the meaning of words must be noticed rather than their form2 for many words given above may be moved from one class to another at will3 as these examples1--,he walked too far place2 ,that were far better degree2 ,he spoke positively manner2 ,that is positively untrue assertion2 ,i have seen you before time2 ,the house1 and its lawn before place4 ,,adverbs ,,classified ,,according ,,to ,,use4 ,sidenote3 ,simple4 #bhe4 ,all adverbs which have no function in the sentence except to modify are called simple adverbs4 ,such are most of those given already in ,sec4 #bhb4 ,sidenote3 ,interrogative4 #bhf4 ,some adverbs1 besides modifying1 have the additional function of asking a question4 ,sidenote3 ,direct questions4 ,these may introduce direct questions of-- 7#a7 ,time4 ,when did this humane custom begin8--,h4 ,,clay4 7#b7 ,place4 ,where will you have the scene8--,,longfellow 7#c7 ,manner4 ,and how looks it now8--,,hawthorne4 7#d7 ,degree4 ,how long have you had this whip8 asked he4--,,bulwer4 7#e7 ,reason4 ,why that wild stare and wilder cry8--,,whittier ,now wherefore stopp'st thou me8--,,coleridge ,sidenote3 ,indirect questions4 ,or they may introduce indirect questions of-- 7#a7 ,time4 ,i do not remember when ,i was taught to read4--,d4 ,,webster4 7#b7 ,place4 ,i will not ask where thou liest low4--,,byron 7#c7 ,manner4 ,who set you to cast about what you should say to the select souls1 or how to say anything to such8--,,emerson4 7#d7 ,degree4 ,being too full of sleep to understand ,how far the unknown transcends the what we know4 --,,longfellow 7#e7 ,reason4 ,i hearkened1 ,i know not why4--,,poe4 #bhg4 ,there is a class of words usually classed as conjunctive adverbs1 as they are said to have the office of conjunctions in joining clauses1 while having the office of adverbs in modifying2 for example1-- ,when last ,i saw thy young blue eyes1 they smiled4--,,byron4 ,but in reality1 when does not express time and modify1 but the whole clause1 when444eyes2 and when has simply the use of a conjunction1 not an adverb4 ,for further discussion1 see ,sec4 #bii under ,subordinate ,conjunctions4 ,exercise4--,bring up sentences containing twenty adverbs1 representing four classes4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,adverbs4 #bhh4 ,many adverbs are compared1 and1 when compared1 have the same inflection as adjectives4 ,the following1 irregularly compared1 are often used as adjectives3-- ,positive4 ,comparative4 ,superlative4 well better best ill or badly worse worst much more most little less least nigh or near nearer nearest or next far farther1 further farthest1 furthest late later latest1 last 7rathe1 obs47 rather #bhi4 ,most monosyllabic adverbs add -er and -est to form the comparative and superlative1 just as adjectives do2 as1 high1 higher1 highest2 soon1 sooner1 soonest4 ,adverbs in -ly usually have more and most instead of the inflected form1 only occasionally having -er and -est4 ,its strings boldlier swept4--,,coleridge4 ,none can deem harshlier of me than ,i deem4--,,byron4 ,only that we may wiselier see4--,,emerson4 ,then must she keep it safelier4--,,tennyson4 ,i should freelier rejoice in that absence4--,,shakespeare4 ,sidenote3 ,form vs4 use4 #bij4 ,the fact that a word ends in -ly does not make it an adverb4 ,many adjectives have the same ending1 and must be distinguished by their use in the sentence4 ,exercise4 ,tell what each word in ly modifies1 then whether it is an adjective or an adverb4 #a4 ,it seems certain that the ,normans were more cleanly in their habits1 more courtly in their manners4 #b4 ,it is true he was rarely heard to speak4 #c4 ,he would inhale the smoke slowly and tranquilly4 #d4 ,the perfectly heavenly law might be made law on earth4 #e4 ,the king winced when he saw his homely little bride4 #f4 ,with his proud1 quick-flashing eye1 ,and his mien of kingly state4 #g4 ,and all about1 a lovely sky of blue ,clearly was felt1 or down the leaves laughed through4 #h4 ,he is inexpressibly mean1 curiously jolly1 kindly and good-natured in secret4 #bia4 ,again1 many words without -ly have the same form1 whether adverbs or adjectives4 ,the reason is1 that in ,old and ,middle ,english1 adverbs derived from adjectives had the ending -e as a distinguishing mark2 as1-- ,if men smoot it with a yerde smerte ,if men smote it with a rod smartly4--,,chaucer4 ,this e dropping off left both words having the same form4 ,weeds were sure to grow quicker in his fields4--,,irving4 ,o sweet and far from cliff and scar ,the horns of ,elfland faintly blowing4--,,tennyson4 ,but he must do his errand right4--,,drake ,long she looked in his tiny face4--,id4 ,not near so black as he was painted4--,,thackeray4 ,in some cases adverbs with -ly are used side by side with those without -ly1 but with a different meaning4 ,such are most1 mostly2 near1 nearly2 even1 evenly2 hard1 hardly2 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,special use of there4 #bib4 ,frequently the word there1 instead of being used adverbially1 merely introduces a sentence1 and inverts the usual order of subject and predicate4 ,this is such a fixed idiom that the sentence1 if it has the verb be1 seems awkward or affected without this there introductory4 ,compare these3-- #a4 ,there are eyes1 to be sure1 that give no more admission into the man than blueberries4--,,emerson4 #b4 ,time was when field and watery cove ,with modulated echoes rang4--,,wordsworth4 ,,how ,,to ,,parse ,,adverbs4 #bic4 ,in parsing adverbs1 give-- 7#a7 ,the class1 according to meaning and also use4 7#b7 ,degree of comparison1 if the word is compared4 7#c7 ,what word or word group it modifies4 ,exercise4 ,parse all the adverbs in the following sentences3-- #a4 ,now the earth is so full that a drop overfills it4 #b4 ,the higher we rise in the scale of being1 the more certainly we quit the region of the brilliant eccentricities and dazzling contrasts which belong to a vulgar greatness4 #c4 ,we sit in the warm shade and feel right well ,how the sap creeps up and blossoms swell4 #d4 ,meanwhile the ,protestants believed somewhat doubtfully that he was theirs4 #e4 ,whence else could arise the bruises which ,i had received1 but from my fall8 #f4 ,we somehow greedily gobble down all stories in which the characters of our friends are chopped up4 #g4 ,how carefully that blessed day is marked in their little calendars6 #h4 ,but a few steps farther on1 at the regular wine-shop1 the ,madonna is in great glory4 #i4 ,the foolish and the dead alone never change their opinion4 #aj4 ,it is the ,cross that is first seen1 and always1 burning in the center of the temple4 #aa4 ,for the impracticable1 however theoretically enticing1 is always politically unwise4 #ab4 ,whence come you8 and whither are you bound8 #ac4 ,how comes it that the evil which men say spreads so widely and lasts so long1 whilst our good kind words don't seem somehow to take root and blossom8 #ad4 ,at these carousals ,alexander drank deep4 #ae4 ,perhaps he has been getting up a little architecture on the road from ,florence4 #af4 ,it is left you to find out why your ears are boxed4 #ag4 ,thither we went1 and sate down on the steps of a house4 #ah4 ,he could never fix which side of the garden walk would suit him best1 but continually shifted4 #ai4 ,but now the wind rose again1 and the stern drifted in toward the bank4 #bj4 ,he caught the scent of wild thyme in the air1 and found room to wonder how it could have got there4 #ba4 ,they were soon launched on the princely bosom of the ,thames1 upon which the sun now shone forth4 #bb4 ,why should we suppose that conscientious motives1 feeble as they are constantly found to be in a good cause1 should be omnipotent for evil8 #bd4 ,it was pretty bad after that1 and but for ,polly's outdoor exercise1 she would undoubtedly have succumbed4 ,,conjunctions4 #bid4 ,unlike adverbs1 conjunctions do not modify3 they are used solely for the purpose of connecting4 ,examples of the use of conjunctions3-- ,sidenote3 ,they connect words4 7#a7 ,connecting words3 ,it is the very necessity and condition of existence2 ,what a simple but exquisite illustration6 ,sidenote3 ,word groups3 ,phrases4 ,sidenote3 ,clauses4 7#b7 ,connecting word groups3 ,hitherto the two systems have existed in different ,states1 but side by side within the ,american ,union2 ,this has happened because the ,union is a confederation of ,states4 ,sidenote3 ,sentences4 7#c7 ,connecting sentences3 ,unanimity in this case can mean only a very large majority4 ,but even unanimity itself is far from indicating the voice of ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,paragraphs4 7#d7 ,connecting sentence groups3 ,paragraphs would be too long to quote here1 but the student will readily find them1 in which the writer connects the divisions of narration or argument by such words as but1 however1 hence1 nor1 then1 therefore1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #bie4 ,a conjunction is a linking word1 connecting words1 word groups1 sentences1 or sentence groups4 ,sidenote3 ,classes of conjunctions4 #bif4 ,conjunctions have two principal divisions3-- 7#a7 ,cordinate1 joining words1 word groups1 etc41 of the same rank4 7#b7 ,subordinate1 joining a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal or independent clause4 ,,co,,rdinate ,,conjunctions4 #big4 ,cordinate conjunctions are of four kinds3 7#a7 ,,copulative1 coupling or uniting words and expressions in the same line of thought2 as and1 also1 as well as1 moreover1 etc4 7#b7 ,,adversative1 connecting words and expressions that are opposite in thought2 as but1 yet1 still1 however1 while1 only1 etc4 7#c7 ,,causal1 introducing a reason or cause4 ,the chief ones are1 for1 therefore1 hence1 then4 7#d7 ,,alternative1 expressing a choice1 usually between two things4 ,they are or1 either1 else1 nor1 neither1 whether4 ,sidenote3 ,correlatives4 #bih4 ,some of these go in pairs1 answering to each other in the same sentence2 as1 both444and2 not only444but 7or but also72 either444or2 whether444or2 neither444nor2 whether444or whether4 ,some go in threes2 as1 not only444but444 and2 either444or444or2 neither444nor444 nor4 ,further examples of the use of cordinate conjunctions3-- ,sidenote3 ,copulative4 ,your letter1 likewise1 had its weight2 the bread was spent1 the butter too2 the window being open1 as well as the room door4 ,sidenote3 ,adversative4 ,the assertion1 however1 serves but to show their ignorance4 ,can this be so8 said ,goodman ,brown4 ,howbeit1 ,i have nothing to do with the governor and council4 ,nevertheless1 in this mansion of gloom ,i now proposed to myself a sojourn of some weeks4 ,sidenote3 ,alternative4 ,while the earth bears a plant1 or the sea rolls its waves4 ,nor mark'd they less1 where in the air ,a thousand streamers flaunted fair4 ,sidenote3 ,causal4 ,therefore the poet is not any permissive potentate1 but is emperor in his own right4 ,for it is the rule of the universe that corn shall serve man1 and not man corn4 ,examples of the use of correlatives3-- ,he began to doubt whether both he and the world around him were not bewitched4--,,irving4 ,he is not only bold and vociferous1 but possesses a considerable talent for mimicry1 and seems to enjoy great satisfaction in mocking and teasing other birds4--,,wilson4 ,it is444the same whether ,i move my hand along the surface of a body1 or whether such a body is moved along my hand4--,,burke4 ,neither the place in which he found himself1 nor the exclusive attention that he attracted1 disturbed the self-possession of the young ,mohican4--,,cooper4 ,neither was there any phantom memorial of life1 nor wing of bird1 nor echo1 nor green leaf1 nor creeping thing1 that moved or stirred upon the soundless waste4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,,subordinate ,,conjunctions4 #bii4 ,subordinate conjunctions are of the following kinds3-- 7#a7 ,,place3 where1 wherever1 whither1 whereto1 whithersoever1 whence1 etc4 7#b7 ,,time3 when1 before1 after1 since1 as1 until1 whenever1 while1 ere1 etc4 7#c7 ,,manner3 how1 as1 however1 howsoever4 7#d7 ,,cause or ,,reason3 because1 since1 as1 now1 whereas1 that1 seeing1 etc4 7#e7 ,,comparison3 than and as4 7#f7 ,,purpose3 that1 so1 so that1 in order that1 lest1 so444as4 7#g7 ,,result3 that1 so that1 especially that after so4 7#h7 ,,condition or ,,concession3 if1 unless1 so1 except1 though1 although2 even if1 provided1 provided that1 in case1 on condition that1 etc4 7#i7 ,,substantive3 that1 whether1 sometimes if1 are used frequently to introduce noun clauses used as subject1 object1 in apposition1 etc4 ,examples of the use of subordinate conjunctions3-- ,sidenote3 ,place4 ,where the treasure is1 there will the heart be also4--,bible4 ,to lead from eighteen to twenty millions of men whithersoever they will4--,j4 ,,quincy4 ,an artist will delight in excellence wherever he meets it4 --,,allston4 ,sidenote3 ,time4 ,i promise to devote myself to your happiness whenever you shall ask it of me4--,,paulding4 ,it is sixteen years since ,i saw the ,queen of ,france4--,,burke4 ,sidenote3 ,manner4 ,let the world go how it will4--,,carlyle ,events proceed1 not as they were expected or intended1 but as they are impelled by the irresistible laws4--,,ames4 ,sidenote3 ,cause1 reason4 ,i see no reason why ,i should not have the same thought4--,,emerson4 ,then ,denmark blest our chief1 ,that he gave her wounds repose4 --,,campbell4 ,now he is dead1 his martyrdom will reap ,late harvests of the palms he should have had in life4 --,h4,h4 ,,jackson ,sparing neither whip nor spur1 seeing that he carried the vindication of his patron's fame in his saddlebags4--,,irving4 ,sidenote3 ,comparison4 ,as a soldier1 he was more solicitous to avoid mistakes than to perform exploits that are brilliant4--,,ames4 ,all the subsequent experience of our race had gone over him with as little permanent effect as as follows the semi-adverbs as and so in expressing comparison the passing breeze4--,,hawthorne4 ,sidenote3 ,purpose4 ,we wish for a thousand heads1 a thousand bodies1 that we might celebrate its immense beauty4--,,emerson4 ,sidenote3 ,result4 ,so many thoughts moved to and fro1 ,that vain it were her eyes to close4 --,,coleridge4 ,i was again covered with water1 but not so long but ,i held it out4--,,defoe4 ,sidenote3 ,condition4 ,a ridicule which is of no import unless the scholar heed it4--,,emerson4 ,there flowers or weeds at will may grow1 ,so ,i behold them not4 --,,byron4 ,sidenote3 ,concession4 ,what though the radiance which was once so bright ,be now forever taken from my sight4--,,wordsworth4 ,sidenote3 ,substantive4 ,it seems a pity that we can only spend it once4--,,emerson4 ,we do not believe that he left any worthy man his foe who had ever been his friend4--,,ames4 ,let us see whether the greatest1 the wisest1 the purest-hearted of all ages are agreed in any wise on this point4--,,ruskin4 ,who can tell if ,washington be a great man or no8--,,emerson4 #cjj4 ,as will have been noticed1 some words--for example1 since1 while1 as1 that1 etc4--may belong to several classes of conjunctions1 according to their meaning and connection in the sentence4 ,exercises4 7a7 ,bring up sentences containing five examples of cordinate conjunctions4 7b7 ,bring up sentences containing three examples of correlatives4 7c7 ,bring up sentences containing ten subordinate conjunctions4 7d7 ,tell whether the italicized words in the following sentences are conjunctions or adverbs2 classify them if conjunctions3-- #a4 ,yet these were often exhibited throughout our city4 #b4 ,no one had yet caught his character4 #c4 ,after he was gone1 the lady called her servant4 #d4 ,and they lived happily forever after4 #e4 ,they1 however1 hold a subordinate rank4 #f4 ,however ambitious a woman may be to command admiration abroad1 her real merit is known at home4 #g4 ,whence else could arise the bruises which ,i had received8 #h4 ,he was brought up for the church1 whence he was occasionally called the ,dominie4 #i4 ,and then recovering1 she faintly pressed her hand4 #aj4 ,in what point of view1 then1 is war not to be regarded with horror8 #aa4 ,the moth fly1 as he shot in air1 ,crept under the leaf1 and hid her there4 #ab4 ,besides1 as the rulers of a nation are as liable as other people to be governed by passion and prejudice1 there is little prospect of justice in permitting war4 #ac4 ,while a faction is a minority1 it will remain harmless4 #ad4 ,while patriotism glowed in his heart1 wisdom blended in his speech her authority with her charms4 #ae4 ,hence it is highly important that the custom of war should be abolished4 #af4 ,the raft and the money had been thrown near her1 none of the lashings having given way2 only what is the use of a guinea amongst tangle and sea gulls8 #ag4 ,only let his thoughts be of equal scope1 and the frame will suit the picture4 ,,special ,,remarks4 ,sidenote3 ,as if4 #cja4 ,as if is often used as one conjunction of manner1 but really there is an ellipsis between the two words2 thus1-- ,but thy soft murmuring ,sounds sweet as if a sister's voice reproved4 --,,byron4 ,if analyzed1 the expression would be1 sounds sweet as the sound would be if a sister's voice reproved2 as1 in this case1 expressing degree if taken separately4 ,but the ellipsis seems to be lost sight of frequently in writing1 as is shown by the use of as though4 ,sidenote3 ,as though4 #cjb4 ,in ,emerson's sentence1 ,we meet1 and part as though we parted not1 it cannot be said that there is an ellipsis3 it cannot mean we part as we should part though etc4 ,consequently1 as if and as though may be taken as double conjunctions expressing manner4 ,as though seems to be in as wide use as the conjunction as if2 for example1-- ,do you know a farmer who acts and lives as though he believed one word of this8--,h ,,greeley4 ,his voice 444 sounded as though it came out of a barrel4--,,irving4 ,blinded alike from sunshine and from rain1 ,as though a rose should shut1 and be a bud again4 --,,keats ,examples might be quoted from almost all authors4 ,sidenote3 ,as for as if4 #cjc4 ,in poetry1 as is often equivalent to as if4 ,and their orbs grew strangely dreary1 ,clouded1 even as they would weep4 --,,emily ,,bronte4 ,so silently we seemed to speak1 ,so slowly moved about1 ,as we had lent her half our powers ,to eke her living out4 --,,hood4 ,,how ,,to ,,parse ,,conjunctions4 #cjd4 ,in parsing conjunctions1 tell-- 7#a7 ,to what class and subclass they belong4 7#b7 ,what words1 word groups1 etc41 they connect4 ,sidenote3 ,caution4 ,in classifying them1 particular attention must be paid to the meaning of the word4 ,some conjunctions1 such as nor1 and1 because1 when1 etc41 are regularly of one particular class2 others belong to several classes4 ,for example1 compare the sentences1-- #a4 ,it continued raining1 so that ,i could not stir abroad4--,,defoe #b4 ,there will be an agreement in whatever variety of actions1 so they be each honest and natural in their hour4--,,emerson #c4 ,it was too dark to put an arrow into the creature's eye2 so they paddled on4--,,kingsley ,in sentence #a1 so that expresses result1 and its clause depends on the other1 hence it is a subordinate conjunction of result2 in #b1 so means provided1--is subordinate of condition2 in #c1 so means therefore1 and its clause is independent1 hence it is a cordinate conjunction of reason4 ,exercise4 ,parse all the conjunctions in these sentences3-- #a4 ,when the gods come among men1 they are not known4 #b4 ,if he could solve the riddle1 the ,sphinx was slain4 #c4 ,a lady with whom ,i was riding in the forest said to me that the woods always seemed to wait1 as if the genii who inhabit them suspended their deeds until the wayfarer had passed4 #d4 ,the mountain of granite blooms into an eternal flower1 with the lightness and delicate finish as well as the arial proportions and perspective of vegetable scenery4 #e4 ,at sea1 or in the forest1 or in the snow1 he sleeps as warm1 dines with as good an appetite1 and associates as happily1 as beside his own chimneys4 #f4 ,our admiration of the antique is not admiration of the old1 but of the natural4 #g4 ,doctor1 said his wife to ,martin ,luther1 how is it that whilst subject to papacy we prayed so often and with such fervor1 whilst now we pray with the utmost coldness1 and very seldom8 #h4 ,all the postulates of elfin annals1--that the fairies do not like to be named2 that their gifts are capricious and not to be trusted2 and the like1--,i find them true in ,concord1 however they might be in ,cornwall or ,bretagne4 #i4 ,he is the compend of time2 he is also the correlative of nature4 #aj4 ,he dismisses without notice his thought1 because it is his4 #aa4 ,the eye was placed where one ray should fall1 that it might testify of that particular ray4 #ab4 ,it may be safely trusted1 so it be faithfully imparted4 #ac4 ,he knows how to speak to his contemporaries4 #ad4 ,goodness must have some edge to it1--else it is none4 #ae4 ,i hope it is somewhat better than whim at last4 #af4 ,now you have the whip in your hand1 won't you lay on8 #ag4 ,i scowl as ,i dip my pen into the inkstand4 #ah4 ,i speak1 therefore1 of good novels only4 #ai4 ,let her loose in the library as you do a fawn in a field4 #bj4 ,and whether consciously or not1 you must be1 in many a heart1 enthroned4 #ba4 ,it is clear1 however1 the whole conditions are changed4 #bb4 ,i never rested until ,i had a copy of the book4 #bc4 ,for1 though there may be little resemblance otherwise1 in this they agree1 that both were wayward4 #bd4 ,still1 she might have the family countenance2 and ,kate thought he looked with a suspicious scrutiny into her face as he inquired for the young don4 #be4 ,he follows his genius whithersoever it may lead him4 #bf4 ,the manuscript indeed speaks of many more1 whose names ,i omit1 seeing that it behooves me to hasten4 #bg4 ,god had marked this woman's sin with a scarlet letter1 which had such efficacy that no human sympathy could reach her1 save it were sinful like herself4 #bh4 ,i rejoice to stand here no longer1 to be looked at as though ,i had seven heads and ten horns4 #bi4 ,he should neither praise nor blame nor defend his equals4 #cj4 ,there was no iron to be seen1 nor did they appear acquainted with its properties2 for they unguardedly took a drawn sword by the edge1 when it was presented to them4 ,,prepositions44 #cje4 ,the word preposition implies place before3 hence it would seem that a preposition is always before its object4 ,it may be so in the majority of cases1 but in a considerable proportion of instances the preposition is after its object4 ,this occurs in such cases as the following3-- ,sidenote3 ,preposition not before its object4 7#a7 ,after a relative pronoun1 a very common occurrence2 thus1-- ,the most dismal ,christmas fun which these eyes ever looked on4--,,thackeray4 ,an ancient nation which they know nothing of4--,,emerson4 ,a foe1 whom a champion has fought with to-day4--,,scott4 ,some little toys that girls are fond of4--,,swift4 ,it's the man that ,i spoke to you about said ,mr4 ,pickwick4--,,dickens4 7#b7 ,after an interrogative adverb1 adjective1 or pronoun1 also frequently found3-- ,what ,god doth the wizard pray to8--,,hawthorne4 ,what is the little one thinking about8--,j4,g4 ,,holland4 ,where the ,devil did it come from1 ,i wonder8--,,dickens4 7#c7 ,with an infinitive1 in such expressions as these3-- ,a proper quarrel for a ,crusader to do battle in4--,,scott4 ,you know1 ,general1 it was nothing to joke about4--,,cable ,had no harsh treatment to reproach herself with4--,,boyesen ,a loss of vitality scarcely to be accounted for4--,,holmes4 ,places for horses to be hitched to4--,id4 7#d7 ,after a noun1--the case in which the preposition is expected to be1 and regularly is1 before its object2 as1-- ,and unseen mermaids' pearly song ,comes bubbling up1 the weeds among4 --,,beddoes4 ,forever panting and forever young1 ,all breathing human passion far above4 --,,keats4 #cjf4 ,since the object of a preposition is most often a noun1 the statement is made that the preposition usually precedes its object2 as in the following sentence1 ,roused by the shock1 he started from his trance4 ,here the words by and from are connectives2 but they do more than connect4 ,by shows the relation in thought between roused and shock1 expressing means or agency2 from shows the relation in thought between started and trance1 and expresses separation4 ,both introduce phrases4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #cjg4 ,a preposition is a word joined to a noun or its equivalent to make up a qualifying or an adverbial phrase1 and to show the relation between its object and the word modified4 ,sidenote3 ,objects1 nouns and the following4 #cjh4 ,besides nouns1 prepositions may have as objects-- 7#a7 ,pronouns3 ,upon them with the lance2 ,with whom ,i traverse earth4 7#b7 ,adjectives3 ,on high the winds lift up their voices4 7#c7 ,adverbs3 ,if ,i live wholly from within2 ,had it not been for the sea from aft4 7#d7 ,phrases3 ,everything came to her from on high2 ,from of old they had been zealous worshipers4 7#e7 ,infinitives3 ,the queen now scarce spoke to him save to convey some necessary command for her service4 7#f7 ,gerunds3 ,they shrink from inflicting what they threaten2 ,he is not content with shining on great occasions4 7#g7 ,clauses3 ,each soldier eye shall brightly turn ,to where thy sky-born glories burn4 ,sidenote3 ,object usually objective case1 if noun or pronoun4 #cji4 ,the object of a preposition1 if a noun or pronoun1 is usually in the objective case4 ,in pronouns1 this is shown by the form of the word1 as in ,sec4 #cjh 7#a74 ,sidenote3 ,often possessive4 ,in the double-possessive idiom1 however1 the object is in the possessive case after of2 for example1-- ,there was also a book of ,defoe's1444 and another of ,mather's4--,,franklin4 ,see also numerous examples in ,secs4 #fh and #hg4 ,sidenote3 ,sometimes nominative4 ,and the prepositions but and save are found with the nominative form of the pronoun following2 as1-- ,nobody knows but my mate and ,i ,where our nest and our nestlings lie4 --,,bryant4 ,,uses ,,of ,,prepositions4 ,sidenote3 ,inseparable4 #caj4 ,prepositions are used in three ways3-- 7#a7 ,compounded with verbs1 adverbs1 or conjunctions2 as1 for example1 with verbs1 withdraw1 understand1 overlook1 overtake1 overflow1 undergo1 outstay1 outnumber1 overrun1 overgrow1 etc42 with adverbs1 thereat1 therein1 therefrom1 thereby1 therewith1 etc42 with conjunctions1 whereat1 wherein1 whereon1 wherethrough1 whereupon1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,separable4 7#b7 ,following a verb1 and being really a part of the verb4 ,this use needs to be watched closely1 to see whether the preposition belongs to the verb or has a separate prepositional function4 ,for example1 in the sentences1 7a7 ,he broke a pane from the window1 7b7 ,he broke into the bank1 in 7a71 the verb broke is a predicate1 modified by the phrase introduced by from2 in 7b71 the predicate is not broke1 modified by into the bank1 but broke into--the object1 bank4 ,study carefully the following prepositions with verbs3-- ,considering the space they took up4--,,swift4 ,i loved1 laughed at1 and pitied him4--,,goldsmith4 ,the sun breaks through the darkest clouds4--,,shakespeare4 ,they will root up the whole ground4--,,swift4 ,a friend prevailed upon one of the interpreters4--,,addison ,my uncle approved of it4--,,franklin4 ,the robber who broke into them4--,,landor4 ,this period is not obscurely hinted at4--,,lamb4 ,the judge winked at the iniquity of the decision4--,id4 ,the pupils' voices1 conning over their lessons4--,,irving4 ,to help out his maintenance4--,id4 ,with such pomp is ,merry ,christmas ushered in4--,,longfellow4 ,sidenote3 ,ordinary use as connective1 relation words4 7#c7 ,as relation words1 introducing phrases1--the most common use1 in which the words have their own proper function4 ,sidenote3 ,usefulness of prepositions4 #caa4 ,prepositions are the subtlest and most useful words in the language for compressing a clear meaning into few words4 ,each preposition has its proper and general meaning1 which1 by frequent and exacting use1 has expanded and divided into a variety of meanings more or less close to the original one4 ,take1 for example1 the word over4 ,it expresses place1 with motion1 as1 ,the bird flew over the house2 or rest1 as1 ,silence broods over the earth4 ,it may also convey the meaning of about1 concerning2 as1 ,they quarreled over the booty4 ,or it may express time3 ,stay over night4 ,the language is made richer and more flexible by there being several meanings to each of many prepositions1 as well as by some of them having the same meaning as others4 ,,classes ,,of ,,prepositions4 #cab4 ,it would be useless to attempt to classify all the prepositions1 since they are so various in meaning4 ,the largest groups are those of place1 time1 and exclusion4 ,,prepositions ,,of ,,place4 #cac4 ,the following are the most common to indicate place3-- 7#a7 ,,place ,,where3 abaft1 about1 above1 across1 amid 7amidst71 among 7amongst71 at1 athwart1 below1 beneath1 beside1 between 7betwixt71 beyond1 in1 on1 over1 under 7underneath71 upon1 round or around1 without4 7#b7 ,,place ,,whither3 into1 unto1 up1 through1 throughout1 to1 towards4 7#c7 ,,place ,,whence3 down1 from 7away from1 down from1 from out1 etc471 off1 out of4 ,abaft is exclusively a sea term1 meaning back of4 ,among 7or amongst7 and between 7or betwixt7 have a difference in meaning1 and usually a difference in use4 ,among originally meant in the crowd 7on gemong71 referring to several objects2 between and betwixt were originally made up of the preposition be 7meaning by7 and twon or twonum 7modern twain71 by two1 and be with twh 7or twuh71 having the same meaning1 by two objects4 ,as to modern use1 see ,syntax 7,sec4 #dei74 ,,prepositions ,,of ,,time4 #cad4 ,they are after1 during1 pending1 till or until2 also many of the prepositions of place express time when put before words indicating time1 such as at1 between1 by1 about1 on1 within1 etc4 ,these are all familiar1 and need no special remark4 ,,exclusion ,,or ,,separation4 #cae4 ,the chief ones are besides1 but1 except1 save1 without4 ,the participle excepting is also used as a preposition4 ,,miscellaneous ,,prepositions4 #caf4 ,against implies opposition1 sometimes place where4 ,in colloquial ,english it is sometimes used to express time1 now and then also in literary ,english2 for example1-- ,she contrived to fit up the baby's cradle for me against night4--,,swift ,about1 and the participial prepositions concerning1 respecting1 regarding1 mean with reference to4 ,sidenote3 ,phrase prepositions4 #cag4 ,many phrases are used as single prepositions3 by means of1 by virtue of1 by help of1 by dint of1 by force of2 out of1 on account of1 by way of1 for the sake of2 in consideration of1 in spite of1 in defiance of1 instead of1 in view of1 in place of2 with respect to1 with regard to1 according to1 agreeably to2 and some others4 #cah4 ,besides all these1 there are some prepositions that have so many meanings that they require separate and careful treatment3 on 7upon71 at1 by1 for1 from1 of1 to1 with4 ,no attempt will be made to give all the meanings that each one in this list has3 the purpose is to stimulate observation1 and to show how useful prepositions really are4 ,at4 #cai4 ,the general meaning of at is near1 close to1 after a verb or expression implying position2 and towards after a verb or expression indicating motion4 ,it defines position approximately1 while in is exact1 meaning within4 ,its principal uses are as follows3-- 7#a7 ,place where4 ,they who heard it listened with a curling horror at the heart4--,j4,f4 ,,cooper4 ,there had been a strike at the neighboring manufacturing village1 and there was to be a public meeting1 at which he was besought to be present4--,t4,w4 ,,higginson4 7#b7 ,time1 more exact1 meaning the point of time at which4 ,he wished to attack at daybreak4--,,parkman4 ,they buried him darkly1 at dead of night4--,,wolfe 7#c7 ,direction4 ,the mother stood looking wildly down at the unseemly object4--,,cooper4 ,you are next invited444to grasp at the opportunity1 and take for your subject1 ,health4--,,higginson4 ,here belong such expressions as laugh at1 look at1 wink at1 gaze at1 stare at1 peep at1 scowl at1 sneer at1 frown at1 etc4 ,we laugh at the elixir that promises to prolong life to a thousand years4--,,johnson4 ,you never mean to say1 pursued ,dot1 sitting on the floor and shaking her head at him4--,,dickens4 7#d7 ,source or cause1 meaning because of1 by reason of4 ,i felt my heart chill at the dismal sound4--,t4,w4 ,,knox4 ,delighted at this outburst against the ,spaniards4--,,parkman4 7#e7 ,then the idiomatic phrases at last1 at length1 at any rate1 at the best1 at the worst1 at least1 at most1 at first1 at once1 at all1 at one1 at naught1 at random1 etc42 and phrases signifying state or condition of being1 as1 at work1 at play1 at peace1 at war1 at rest1 etc4 ,exercise4--,find sentences with three different uses of at4 ,by4 #cbj4 ,like at1 by means near or close to1 but has several other meanings more or less connected with this1-- 7#a7 ,the general meaning of place4 ,richard was standing by the window4--,,aldrich4 ,provided always the coach had not shed a wheel by the roadside4--,id4 7#b7 ,time4 ,but by this time the bell of ,old ,alloway began tolling4--,b4 ,,taylor ,the angel came by night4--,r4,h4 ,,stoddard4 7#c7 ,agency or means4 ,menippus knew which were the kings by their howling louder4--,m4,d4 ,,conway4 ,at ,st4 ,helena1 the first port made by the ship1 he stopped4 --,,parton4 7#d7 ,measure of excess1 expressing the degree of difference4 ,at that time the earth was richer1 by many a million of acres4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,he was taller by almost the breadth of my nail4--,,swift4 7#e7 ,it is also used in oaths and adjurations4 ,by my faith1 that is a very plump hand for a man of eighty-four6--,,parton4 ,they implore us by the long trials of struggling humanity2 by the blessed memory of the departed2 by the wrecks of time2 by the ruins of nations4--,,everett4 ,exercise4--,find sentences with three different meanings of by4 ,for4 #cba4 ,the chief meanings of for are as follows3-- 7#a7 ,motion towards a place1 or a tendency or action toward the attainment of any object4 ,pioneers who were opening the way for the march of the nation4--,,cooper4 ,she saw the boat headed for her4--,,warner4 7#b7 ,in favor of1 for the benefit of1 in behalf of1 a person or thing4 ,he and they were for immediate attack4--,,parkman ,the people were then against us2 they are now for us4--,w4,l4 ,,garrison4 7#c7 ,duration of time1 or extent of space4 ,for a long time the disreputable element outshone the virtuous4--,h4,h4 ,,bancroft4 ,he could overlook all the country for many a mile of rich woodland4--,,irving4 7#d7 ,substitution or exchange4 ,there are gains for all our losses4--,,stoddard4 ,thus did the ,spaniards make bloody atonement for the butchery of ,fort ,caroline4--,,parkman4 7#e7 ,reference1 meaning with regard to1 as to1 respecting1 etc4 ,for the rest1 the ,colonna motto would fit you best4--,,emerson4 ,for him1 poor fellow1 he repented of his folly4--,e4,e4 ,,hale ,this is very common with as--as for me1 etc4 7#f7 ,like as1 meaning in the character of1 as being1 etc4 ,nay1 if your worship can accomplish that1 answered ,master ,brackett1 ,i shall own you for a man of skill indeed6 --,,hawthorne4 ,wavering whether he should put his son to death for an unnatural monster4--,,lamb4 7#g7 ,concession1 meaning although1 considering that etc4 ,for a fool1 said the ,lady of ,lochleven1 thou hast counseled wisely4--,,scott ,by my faith1 that is a very plump hand for a man of eighty-four6--,,parton4 7#h7 ,meaning notwithstanding1 or in spite of4 ,but the ,colonel1 for all his title1 had a forest of poor relations4--,,holmes4 ,still1 for all slips of hers1 ,one of ,eve's family4--,,hood4 7#i7 ,motive1 cause1 reason1 incitement to action4 ,the twilight being444hardly more wholesome for its glittering mists of midge companies4--,,ruskin4 ,an ,arab woman1 but a few sunsets since1 ate her child1 for famine4--,id4 ,here ,satouriona forgot his dignity1 and leaped for joy4--,,parkman4 7#aj7 ,for with its object preceding the infinitive1 and having the same meaning as a noun clause1 as shown by this sentence3-- ,it is by no means necessary that he should devote his whole school existence to physical science2 nay1 more1 it is not necessary for him to give up more than a moderate share of his time to such studies4--,,huxley4 ,exercise4--,find sentences with five meanings of for4 ,from4 #cbb4 ,the general idea in from is separation or source4 ,it may be with regard to-- 7#a7 ,place4 ,like boys escaped from school4--,h4,h4 ,,bancroft ,thus they drifted from snow-clad ranges to burning plain4--,id4 7#b7 ,origin4 ,coming from a race of day-dreamers1 ,ayrault had inherited the faculty of dreaming also by night4--,,higginson4 ,from harmony1 from heavenly harmony ,this universal frame began4--,,dryden4 7#c7 ,time4 ,a distrustful1 if not a desperate man1 did he become from the night of that fearful dream--,,hawthorne4 7#d7 ,motive1 cause1 or reason4 ,it was from no fault of ,nolan's4--,,hale4 ,the young cavaliers1 from a desire of seeming valiant1 ceased to be merciful4--,,bancroft4 ,exercise4--,find sentences with three meanings of from4 ,of4 #cbc4 ,the original meaning of of was separation or source1 like from4 ,the various uses are shown in the following examples3-- ,i4 ,the ,from ,relation4 7#a7 ,origin or source4 ,the king holds his authority of the people4--,,milton4 ,thomas ,becket was born of reputable parents in the city of ,london4--,,hume4 7#b7 ,separation3 7a7 ,after certain verbs1 such as ease1 demand1 rob1 divest1 free1 clear1 purge1 disarm1 deprive1 relieve1 cure1 rid1 beg1 ask1 etc4 ,two old ,indians cleared the spot of brambles1 weeds1 and grass4--,,parkman4 ,asked no odds of1 acquitted them of1 etc4--,,aldrich4 7b7 ,after some adjectives1--clear of1 free of1 wide of1 bare of1 etc42 especially adjectives and adverbs of direction1 as north of1 south of1 etc4 ,the hills were bare of trees4--,,bayard ,,taylor4 ,back of that tree1 he had raised a little ,gothic chapel4 --,,gavarre4 7c7 ,after nouns expressing lack1 deprivation1 etc4 ,a singular want of all human relation4--,,higginson4 7d7 ,with words expressing distance4 ,until he had come within a staff's length of the old dame4 --,,hawthorne ,within a few yards of the young man's hiding place4--,id4 7#c7 ,with expressions of material1 especially out of4 ,white shirt with diamond studs1 or breastpin of native gold4--,,bancroft4 ,sandals1 bound with thongs of boar's hide4--,,scott ,who formed1 out of the most unpromising materials1 the finest army that ,europe had yet seen4--,,macaulay 7#d7 ,expressing cause1 reason1 motive4 ,the author died of a fit of apoplexy4--,,boswell4 ,more than one altar was richer of his vows4--,,lew ,,wallace4 ,good for him6 cried ,nolan4 ,i am glad of that4--,e4,e4 ,,hale4 7#e7 ,expressing agency4 ,you cannot make a boy know1 of his own knowledge1 that ,cromwell once ruled ,england4--,,huxley4 ,he is away of his own free will4--,,dickens ,,ii4 ,other ,relations expressed by ,of4 7#f7 ,partitive1 expressing a part of a number or quantity4 ,of the ,forty1 there were only twenty-one members present4 --,,parton4 ,he washed out some of the dirt1 separating thereby as much of the dust as a ten-cent piece would hold4--,,bancroft4 ,sidenote3 ,see also ,sec4 #cji4 7#g7 ,possessive1 standing1 with its object1 for the possessive1 or being used with the possessive case to form the double possessive4 ,not even woman's love1 and the dignity of a queen1 could give shelter from his contumely4--,w4,e4 ,,channing4 ,and the mighty secret of the ,sierra stood revealed4--,,bancroft4 7#h7 ,appositional1 which may be in the case of-- 7a7 ,nouns4 ,such a book as that of ,job4--,,froude4 ,the fair city of ,mexico4--,,prescott4 ,the nation of ,lilliput4--,,swift4 7b7 ,noun and gerund1 being equivalent to an infinitive4 ,in the vain hope of appeasing the savages4--,,cooper4 ,few people take the trouble of finding out what democracy really is4--,,lowell4 7c7 ,two nouns1 when the first is descriptive of the second4 ,this crampfish of a ,socrates has so bewitched him4--,,emerson ,a sorry antediluvian makeshift of a building you may think it4--,,lamb4 ,an inexhaustible bottle of a shop4--,,aldrich4 7#i7 ,of time4 ,besides the phrases of old1 of late1 of a sudden1 etc41 of is used in the sense of during4 ,i used often to linger of a morning by the high gate4--,,aldrich ,i delighted to loll over the quarter railing of a calm day4 --,,irving4 7#aj7 ,of reference1 equal to about1 concerning1 with regard to4 ,the ,turk lay dreaming of the hour4--,,halleck4 ,boasted of his prowess as a scalp hunter and duelist4--,,bancroft4 ,sank into reverie of home and boyhood scenes4--,id4 ,sidenote3 ,idiomatic use with verbs4 ,of is also used as an appendage of certain verbs1 such as admit1 accept1 allow1 approve1 disapprove1 permit1 without adding to their meaning4 ,it also accompanies the verbs tire1 complain1 repent1 consist1 avail 7one's self71 and others4 ,exercise4--,find sentences with six uses of of4 ,on1 ,upon4 #cbd4 ,the general meaning of on is position or direction4 ,on and upon are interchangeable in almost all of their applications1 as shown by the sentences below3-- 7#a7 ,place3 7a7 ,where4 ,cannon were heard close on the left4--,,parkman4 ,the ,earl of ,huntley ranged his host ,upon their native strand4--,,mrs4 ,,sigourney4 7b7 ,with motion4 ,it was the battery at ,samos firing on the boats4--,,parkman4 ,thou didst look down upon the naked earth4--,,bryant4 7#b7 ,time4 ,the demonstration of joy or sorrow on reading their letters4 --,,bancroft4 ,on ,monday evening he sent forward the ,indians4--,,parkman4 ,upon is seldom used to express time4 7#c7 ,reference1 equal to about1 concerning1 etc4 ,i think that one abstains from writing on the immortality of the soul4--,,emerson4 ,he pronounced a very flattering opinion upon my brother's promise of excellence4--,,de ,,quincey4 7#d7 ,in adjurations4 ,on my life1 you are eighteen1 and not a day more4--,,aldrich4 ,upon my reputation and credit4--,,shakespeare 7#e7 ,idiomatic phrases3 on fire1 on board1 on high1 on the wing1 on the alert1 on a sudden1 on view1 on trial1 etc4 ,exercise4--,find sentences with three uses of on or upon4 ,to4 #cbe4 ,some uses of to are the following3-- 7#a7 ,expressing motion3 7a7 ,to a place4 ,come to the bridal chamber1 ,death6--,,halleck4 ,rip had scrambled to one of the highest peaks4--,,irving4 7b7 ,referring to time4 ,full of schemes and speculations to the last4--,,parton4 ,revolutions1 whose influence is felt to this hour4--,,parkman4 7#b7 ,expressing result4 ,he usually gave his draft to an aid444to be written over1--often to the loss of vigor4--,,benton ,to our great delight1 ,ben ,lomond was unshrouded4--,b4 ,,taylor 7#c7 ,expressing comparison4 ,but when1 unmasked1 gay ,comedy appears1 ',tis ten to one you find the girl in tears4 --,,aldrich ,they are arrant rogues3 ,cacus was nothing to them4--,,bulwer4 ,bolingbroke and the wicked ,lord ,littleton were saints to him4--,,webster 7#d7 ,expressing concern1 interest4 ,to the few1 it may be genuine poetry4--,,bryant4 ,his brother had died1 had ceased to be1 to him4--,,hale4 ,little mattered to them occasional privations--,,bancroft4 7#e7 ,equivalent to according to4 ,nor1 to my taste1 does the mere music444of your style fall far below the highest efforts of poetry4--,,lang4 ,we cook the dish to our own appetite4--,,goldsmith4 7#f7 ,with the infinitive 7see ,sec4 #bfh74 ,exercise4--,find sentences containing three uses of to4 ,with4 #cbf4 ,with expresses the idea of accompaniment1 and hardly any of its applications vary from this general signification4 ,in ,old ,english1 mid meant in company with1 while wi meant against3 both meanings are included in the modern with4 ,the following meanings are expressed by with3-- 7#a7 ,personal accompaniment4 ,the advance1 with ,heyward at its head1 had already reached the defile4--,,cooper4 ,for many weeks ,i had walked with this poor friendless girl4--,,de ,,quincey4 7#b7 ,instrumentality4 ,with my crossbow ,i shot the albatross4--,,coleridge4 ,either with the swingle-bar1 or with the haunch of our near leader1 we had struck the off-wheel of the little gig4--,,de ,,quincey4 7#c7 ,cause1 reason1 motive4 ,he was wild with delight about ,texas4--,,hale4 ,she seemed pleased with the accident4--,,howells4 7#d7 ,estimation1 opinion4 ,how can a writer's verses be numerous if with him1 as with you1 poetry is not a pursuit1 but a pleasure8--,,lang4 ,it seemed a supreme moment with him4--,,howells4 7#e7 ,opposition4 ,after battling with terrific hurricanes and typhoons on every known sea4--,,aldrich4 ,the quarrel of the sentimentalists is not with life1 but with you4--,,lang4 7#f7 ,the equivalent of notwithstanding1 in spite of4 ,with all his sensibility1 he gave millions to the sword4--,,channing4 ,messala1 with all his boldness1 felt it unsafe to trifle further4--,,wallace 7#g7 ,time4 ,he expired with these words4--,,scott4 ,with each new mind a new secret of nature transpires4--,,emerson4 ,exercise4--,find sentences with four uses of with4 ,,how ,,to ,,parse ,,prepositions4 #cbg4 ,since a preposition introduces a phrase and shows the relation between two things1 it is necessary1 first of all1 to find the object of the preposition1 and then to find what word the prepositional phrase limits4 ,take this sentence3-- ,the rule adopted on board the ships on which ,i have met the man without a country was1 ,i think1 transmitted from the beginning4--,e4,e4 ,,hale4 ,the phrases are 7#a7 on board the ships1 7#b7 on which1 7#c7 without a country1 7#d7 from the beginning4 ,the object of on board is ships2 of on1 which2 of without1 country2 of from1 beginning4 ,in 7#a71 the phrase answers the question where1 and has the office of an adverb in telling where the rule is adopted2 hence we say1 on board shows the relation between ships and the participle adopted4 ,in 7#b71 on which modifies the verb have met by telling where3 hence on shows the relation between which 7standing for ships7 and the verb have met4 ,in 7#c71 without a country modifies man1 telling what man1 or the verb was understood3 hence without shows the relation between country and man1 or was4 ,and so on4 ,the parsing of prepositions means merely telling between what words or word groups they show relation4 ,exercises4 7a7 ,parse the prepositions in these paragraphs3-- #a4 ,i remember1 before the dwarf left the queen1 he followed us one day into those gardens4 ,i must needs show my wit by a silly illusion between him and the trees1 which happens to hold in their language as it does in ours4 ,whereupon1 the malicious rogue1 watching his opportunity when ,i was walking under one of them1 shook it directly over my head1 by which a dozen apples1 each of them near as large as a ,bristol barrel1 came tumbling about my ears2 one of them hit me on the back as ,i chanced to stoop1 and knocked me down flat on my face2 but ,i received no other hurt1 and the dwarf was pardoned at my desire1 because ,i had given the provocation4--,,swift #b4 ,be that as it will1 ,i found myself suddenly awakened with a violent pull upon the ring1 which was fastened at the top of my box for the conveniency of carriage4 ,i felt my box raised very high in the air1 and then borne forward with prodigious speed4 ,the first jolt had like to have shaken me out of my hammock4 ,i called out several times1 but all to no purpose4 ,i looked towards my windows1 and could see nothing but the clouds and the sky4 ,i heard a noise just over my head1 like the clapping of wings1 and then began to perceive the woeful condition ,i was in2 that some eagle had got the ring of my box in his beak1 with an intent to let it fall on a rock3 for the sagacity and smell of this bird enabled him to discover his quarry at a great distance1 though better concealed than ,i could be within a two-inch board4--,id4 7b7 ,give the exact meaning of each italicized preposition in the following sentences3-- #a4 ,the guns were cleared of their lumber4 #b4 ,they then left for a cruise up the ,indian ,ocean4 #c4 ,i speak these things from a love of justice4 #d4 ,to our general surprise1 we met the defaulter here4 #e4 ,there was no one except a little sunbeam of a sister4 #f4 ,the great gathering in the main street was on ,sundays1 when1 after a restful morning1 though unbroken by the peal of church bells1 the miners gathered from hills and ravines for miles around for marketing4 #g4 ,the troops waited in their boats by the edge of a strand4 #h4 ,his breeches were of black silk1 and his hat was garnished with white and sable plumes4 #i4 ,a suppressed but still distinct murmur of approbation ran through the crowd at this generous proposition4 #aj4 ,they were shriveled and colorless with the cold4 #aa4 ,on every solemn occasion he was the striking figure1 even to the eclipsing of the involuntary object of the ceremony4 #ab4 ,on all subjects known to man1 he favored the world with his opinions4 #ac4 ,our horses ran on a sandy margin of the road4 #ad4 ,the hero of the poem is of a strange land and a strange parentage4 #ae4 ,he locked his door from mere force of habit4 #af4 ,the lady was remarkable for energy and talent4 #ag4 ,roland was acknowledged for the successor and heir4 #ah4 ,for my part1 ,i like to see the passing1 in town4 #ai4 ,a half-dollar was the smallest coin that could be tendered for any service4 #bj4 ,the mother sank and fell1 grasping at the child4 #ba4 ,the savage army was in war-paint1 plumed for battle4 #bb4 ,he had lived in ,paris for the last fifty years4 #bc4 ,the hill stretched for an immeasurable distance4 #bd4 ,the baron of ,smaylho'me rose with day1 ,he spurred his courser on1 ,without stop or stay1 down the rocky way ,that leads to ,brotherstone4 #be4 ,with all his learning1 ,carteret was far from being a pedant4 #bf4 ,an immense mountain covered with a shining green turf is nothing1 in this respect1 to one dark and gloomy4 #bg4 ,wilt thou die for very weakness8 #bh4 ,the name of ,free ,joe strikes humorously upon the ear of memory4 #bi4 ,the shout ,i heard was upon the arrival of this engine4 #cj4 ,he will raise the price1 not merely by the amount of the tax4 ,,words ,,that ,,need ,,watching4 #cbh4 ,if the student has now learned fully that words must be studied in grammar according to their function or use1 and not according to form1 he will be able to handle some words that are used as several parts of speech4 ,a few are discussed below1--a summary of their treatment in various places as studied heretofore4 ,,that4 #cbi4 ,that may be used as follows3 7#a7 ,as a demonstrative adjective4 ,that night was a memorable one4--,,stockton4 7#b7 ,as an adjective pronoun4 ,that was a dreadful mistake4--,,webster4 7#c7 ,as a relative pronoun4 ,and now it is like an angel's song1 ,that makes the heavens be mute4--,,coleridge4 7#d7 ,as an adverb of degree4 ,that far ,i hold that the ,scriptures teach4--,,beecher4 7#e7 ,as a conjunction3 7a7 ,of purpose4 ,has bounteously lengthened out your lives1 that you might behold this joyous day4--,,webster4 7b7 ,of result4 ,gates of iron so massy that no man could without the help of engines open or shut them4--,,johnson4 7c7 ,substantive conjunction4 ,we wish that labor may look up here1 and be proud in the midst of its toil4--,,webster4 ,,what4 #ccj4 7#a7 ,relative pronoun4 ,that is what ,i understand by scientific education4--,,huxley4 7a7 ,indefinite relative4 ,those shadowy recollections1 ,which be they what they may1 ,are yet the fountain light of all our day4--,,wordsworth4 7#b7 ,interrogative pronoun3 7a7 ,direct question4 ,what would be an ,english merchant's character after a few such transactions8--,,thackeray4 7b7 ,indirect question4 ,i have not allowed myself to look beyond the ,union1 to see what might be hidden4--,,webster4 7#c7 ,indefinite pronoun3 ,the saying1 ,i'll tell you what4 7#d7 ,relative adjective4 ,but woe to what thing or person stood in the way4--,,emerson4 7a7 ,indefinite relative adjective4 ,to say what good of fashion we can1 it rests on reality4--,id4 7#e7 ,interrogative adjective3 7a7 ,direct question4 ,what right have you to infer that this condition was caused by the action of heat8--,,agassiz4 7b7 ,indirect question4 ,at what rate these materials would be distributed1444it is impossible to determine4--,id4 7#f7 ,exclamatory adjective4 ,saint ,mary6 what a scene is here6--,,scott4 7#g7 ,adverb of degree4 ,if he has been in ,america1 he knows what good people are to be found there4--,,thackeray4 7#h7 ,conjunction1 nearly equivalent to partly444 partly1 or not only444but4 ,what with the ,maltese goats1 who go tinkling by to their pasturage2 what with the vocal seller of bread in the early morning2444these sounds are only to be heard444in ,pera4--,s4,s4 ,cox4 7#i7 ,as an exclamation4 ,what1 silent still1 and silent all6--,,byron4 ,what1 ,adam ,woodcock at court6--,,scott4 ,,but4 #cca4 7#a7 ,cordinate conjunction3 7a7 ,adversative4 ,his very attack was never the inspiration of courage1 but the result of calculation4--,,emerson4 7b7 ,copulative1 after not only4 ,then arose not only tears1 but piercing cries1 on all sides4 --,,carlyle4 7#b7 ,subordinate conjunction3 7a7 ,result1 equivalent to that 444 not4 ,nor is ,nature so hard but she gives me this joy several times4--,,emerson4 7b7 ,substantive1 meaning otherwise 444 than4 ,who knows but1 like the dog1 it will at length be no longer traceable to its wild original--,,thoreau4 7#c7 ,preposition1 meaning except4 ,now there was nothing to be seen but fires in every direction4--,,lamb4 7#d7 ,relative pronoun1 after a negative1 stands for that 444 not1 or who 444 not4 ,there is not a man in them but is impelled withal1 at all moments1 towards order4--,,carlyle4 7#e7 ,adverb1 meaning only4 ,the whole twenty years had been to him but as one night4--,,irving4 ,to lead but one measure4--,,scott4 ,,as4 #ccb4 7#a7 ,subordinate conjunction3 7a7 ,of time4 ,rip beheld a precise counterpart of himself as he went up the mountain4--,,irving4 7b7 ,of manner4 ,as orphans yearn on to their mothers1 ,he yearned to our patriot bands4--,,mrs ,,browning4 7c7 ,of degree4 ,his wan eyes ,gaze on the empty scene as vacantly ,as ocean's moon looks on the moon in heaven4 --,,shelley4 7d7 ,of reason4 ,i shall see but little of it1 as ,i could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage4--,,franklin4 7e7 ,introducing an appositive word4 ,reverenced as one of the patriarchs of the village4--,,irving4 ,doing duty as a guard4--,,hawthorne4 7#b7 ,relative pronoun1 after such1 sometimes same4 ,and was there such a resemblance as the crowd had testified8--,,hawthorne4 ,,like4 ,sidenote3 ,modifier of a noun or pronoun4 #ccc4 7#a7 ,an adjective4 ,the aforesaid general had been exceedingly like the majestic image4--,,hawthorne4 ,they look1 indeed1 liker a lion's mane than a ,christian man's locks4-,,scott4 ,no ,emperor1 this1 like him awhile ago4--,,aldrich4 ,there is no statue like this living man4--,,emerson4 ,that face1 like summer ocean's4--,,halleck4 ,in each case1 like clearly modifies a noun or pronoun1 and is followed by a dative-objective4 ,sidenote3 ,introduces a clause1 but its verb is omitted4 7#b7 ,a subordinate conjunction of manner4 ,this follows a verb or a verbal1 but the verb of the clause introduced by like is regularly omitted4 ,note the difference between these two uses4 ,in ,old ,english gelic 7like7 was followed by the dative1 and was clearly an adjective4 ,in this second use1 like introduces a shortened clause modifying a verb or a verbal1 as shown in the following sentences3-- ,goodman ,brown came into the street of ,salem village1 staring like a bewildered man4--,,hawthorne4 ,give ,ruskin space enough1 and he grows frantic and beats the air like ,carlyle4--,,higginson4 ,they conducted themselves much like the crew of a man-of-war4 --,,parkman4 ,the sound rang in his ears like the iron hoofs of the steeds of ,time4--,,longfellow4 ,stirring it vigorously1 like a cook beating eggs4--,,aldrich4 ,if the verb is expressed1 like drops out1 and as or as if takes its place4 ,the sturdy ,english moralist may talk of a ,scotch supper as he pleases4--,,cass4 ,mankind for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw1 just as they do in ,abyssinia to this day4--,,lamb4 ,i do with my friends as ,i do with my books4--,,emerson4 ,,note4--,very rarely like is found with a verb following1 but this is not considered good usage3 for example1-- ,a timid1 nervous child1 like ,martin was4--,,mayhew4 ,through which they put their heads1 like the ,gauchos do through their cloaks4--,,darwin4 ,like an arrow shot ,from a well-experienced archer hits the mark4--,,shakespeare4 ,,interjections4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #ccd4 ,interjections are exclamations used to express emotion1 and are not parts of speech in the same sense as the words we have discussed2 that is1 entering into the structure of a sentence4 ,some of these are imitative sounds2 as1 tut6 buzz6 etc4 ,humph6 attempts to express a contemptuous nasal utterance that no letters of our language can really spell4 ,sidenote3 ,not all exclamatory words are interjections4 ,other interjections are oh6 ah6 alas6 pshaw6 hurrah6 etc4 ,but it is to be remembered that almost any word may be used as an exclamation1 but it still retains its identity as noun1 pronoun1 verb1 etc43 for example1 ,books6 lighthouses built on the sea of time noun2 ,halt6 the dust-brown ranks stood fast verb1 ,up6 for shame6 adverb1 ,impossible6 it cannot be adjective4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,sentences4 ,,classification ,,according ,,to ,,form4 ,sidenote3 ,what analysis is44 #cce4 ,all discourse is made up of sentences3 consequently the sentence is the unit with which we must begin4 ,and in order to get a clear and practical idea of the structure of sentences1 it is necessary to become expert in analysis2 that is1 in separating them into their component parts4 ,a general idea of analysis was needed in our study of the parts of speech1--in determining case1 subject and predicate1 clauses introduced by conjunctions1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,value of analysis4 ,a more thorough and accurate acquaintance with the subject is necessary for two reasons1--not only for a correct understanding of the principles of syntax1 but for the study of punctuation and other topics treated in rhetoric4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #ccf4 ,a sentence is the expression of a thought in words4 ,sidenote3 ,kinds of sentences as to form4 #ccg4 ,according to the way in which a thought is put before a listener or reader1 sentences may be of three kinds3-- 7#a7 ,declarative1 which puts the thought in the form of a declaration or assertion4 ,this is the most common one4 7#b7 ,interrogative1 which puts the thought in a question4 7#c7 ,imperative1 which expresses command1 entreaty1 or request4 ,any one of these may be put in the form of an exclamation1 but the sentence would still be declarative1 interrogative1 or imperative2 hence1 according to form1 there are only the three kinds of sentences already named4 ,examples of these three kinds are1 declarative1 ,old year1 you must not die6 interrogative1 ,hath he not always treasures1 always friends8 imperative1 ,come to the bridal chamber1 ,death6 ,,classification ,,according ,,to ,,number ,,of ,,statements4 ,,simple ,,sentences4 ,sidenote3 ,division according to number of statements4 #cch4 ,but the division of sentences most necessary to analysis is the division1 not according to the form in which a thought is put1 but according to how many statements there are4 ,the one we shall consider first is the simple sentence4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #cci4 ,a simple sentence is one which contains a single statement1 question1 or command3 for example1 ,the quality of mercy is not strained2 ,what wouldst thou do1 old man8 ,be thou familiar1 but by no means vulgar4 #cdj4 ,every sentence must contain two parts1--a subject and a predicate4 ,sidenote3 ,definition3 ,predicate4 ,the predicate of a sentence is a verb or verb phrase which says something about the subject4 ,in order to get a correct definition of the subject1 let us examine two specimen sentences3-- #a4 ,but now all is to be changed4 #b4 ,a rare old plant is the ivy green4 ,in the first sentence we find the subject by placing the word what before the predicate1--,what is to be changed8 ,answer1 all4 ,consequently1 we say all is the subject of the sentence4 ,but if we try this with the second sentence1 we have some trouble1--,what is the ivy green8 ,answer1 a rare old plant4 ,but we cannot help seeing that an assertion is made1 not of a rare old plant1 but about the ivy green2 and the real subject is the latter4 ,sentences are frequently in this inverted order1 especially in poetry2 and our definition must be the following1 to suit all cases3-- ,sidenote3 ,subject4 ,the subject is that which answers the question who or what placed before the predicate1 and which at the same time names that of which the predicate says something4 ,sidenote3 ,the subject in interrogative and imperative simple sentences4 #cda4 ,in the interrogative sentence1 the subject is frequently after the verb4 ,either the verb is the first word of the sentence1 or an interrogative pronoun1 adjective1 or adverb that asks about the subject4 ,in analyzing such sentences1 always reduce them to the order of a statement4 ,thus1-- 7#a7 ,when should this scientific education be commenced8 7#b7 ,this scientific education should be commenced when8 7#c7 ,what wouldst thou have a good great man obtain8 7#d7 ,thou wouldst have a good great man obtain what8 ,in the imperative sentence1 the subject 7you1 thou1 or ye7 is in most cases omitted1 and is to be supplied2 as1 ,you behold her single in the field4 ,exercise4 ,name the subject and the predicate in each of the following sentences3-- #a4 ,the shadow of the dome of pleasure ,floated midway on the waves4 #b4 ,hence originated their contempt for terrestrial distinctions4 #c4 ,nowhere else on the ,mount of ,olives is there a view like this4 #d4 ,in the sands of ,africa and ,arabia the camel is a sacred and precious gift4 #e4 ,the last of all the ,bards was he4 #f4 ,slavery they can have anywhere4 #g4 ,listen1 on the other hand1 to an ignorant man4 #h4 ,what must have been the emotions of the ,spaniards6 #i4 ,such was not the effect produced on the sanguine spirit of the general4 #aj4 ,what a contrast did these children of southern ,europe present to the ,anglo-,saxon races6 ,,elements ,,of ,,the ,,simple ,,sentence4 #cdb4 ,all the elements of the simple sentence are as follows3-- 7#a7 ,the subject4 7#b7 ,the predicate4 7#c7 ,the object4 7#d7 ,the complements4 7#e7 ,modifiers4 7#f7 ,independent elements4 ,the subject and predicate have been discussed4 #cdc4 ,the object may be of two kinds3-- ,sidenote3 ,definitions4 ,direct ,object4 7#a7 ,the ,,direct ,,object is that word or expression which answers the question who or what placed after the verb2 or the direct object names that toward which the action of the predicate is directed4 ,it must be remembered that any verbal may have an object2 but for the present we speak of the object of the verb1 and by object we mean the direct object4 ,sidenote3 ,indirect object4 7#b7 ,the ,,indirect ,,object is a noun or its equivalent used as the modifier of a verb or verbal to name the person or thing for whose benefit an action is performed4 ,examples of direct and indirect objects are1 direct1 ,she seldom saw her course at a glance2 indirect1 ,i give thee this to wear at the collar4 ,sidenote3 ,complement3 #cdd4 ,a complement is a word added to a verb of incomplete predication to complete its meaning4 ,notice that a verb of incomplete predication may be of two kinds1--transitive and intransitive4 ,sidenote3 ,of a transitive verb4 ,the transitive verb often requires1 in addition to the object1 a word to define fully the action that is exerted upon the object2 for example1 ,ye call me chief4 ,here the verb call has an object me 7if we leave out chief71 and means summoned2 but chief belongs to the verb1 and me here is not the object simply of call1 but of call chief1 just as if to say1 ,ye honor me4 ,this word completing a transitive verb is sometimes called a factitive object1 or second object1 but it is a true complement4 ,the fact that this is a complement can be more clearly seen when the verb is in the passive4 ,see sentence #ai1 in exercise following ,sec4 #cfd4 ,sidenote3 ,complement of an intransitive verb4 ,an intransitive verb1 especially the forms of be1 seem1 appear1 taste1 feel1 become1 etc41 must often have a word to complete the meaning3 as1 for instance1 ,brow and head were round1 and of massive weight2 ,the good man1 he was now getting old1 above sixty2 ,nothing could be more copious than his talk2 ,but in general he seemed deficient in laughter4 ,all these complete intransitive verbs4 ,the following are examples of complements of transitive verbs3 ,hope deferred maketh the heart sick2 ,he was termed ,thomas1 or1 more familiarly1 ,thom of the ,gills2 ,a plentiful fortune is reckoned necessary1 in the popular judgment1 to the completion of this man of the world4 #cde4 ,the modifiers and independent elements will be discussed in detail in ,secs4 #cea1 #ceb1 #cee4 ,sidenote3 ,phrases4 #cdf4 ,a phrase is a group of words1 not containing a verb1 but used as a single modifier4 ,as to form1 phrases are of three kinds3-- ,sidenote3 ,three kinds4 7#a7 ,,prepositional1 introduced by a preposition3 for example1 ,such a convulsion is the struggle of gradual suffocation1 as in drowning2 and1 in the original ,opium ,confessions1 ,i mentioned a case of that nature4 7#b7 ,,participial1 consisting of a participle and the words dependent on it4 ,the following are examples3 ,then retreating into the warm house1 and barring the door1 she sat down to undress the two youngest children4 7#c7 ,,infinitive1 consisting of an infinitive and the words dependent upon it2 as in the sentence1 ,she left her home forever in order to present herself at the ,dauphin's court4 ,things used as ,subject4 #cdg4 ,the subject of a simple sentence may be-- 7#a7 ,noun3 ,there seems to be no interval between greatness and meanness4 ,also an expression used as a noun2 as1 ,a cheery1 ',ay1 ay1 sir6' rang out in response4 7#b7 ,pronoun3 ,we are fortified by every heroic anecdote4 7#c7 ,infinitive phrase3 ,to enumerate and analyze these relations is to teach the science of method4 7#d7 ,gerund3 ,there will be sleeping enough in the grave2 ,what signifies wishing and hoping for better things8 7#e7 ,adjective used as noun3 ,the good are befriended even by weakness and defect2 ,the dead are there4 7#f7 ,adverb3 ,then is the moment for the humming bird to secure the insects4 #cdh4 ,the subject is often found after the verb-- 7#a7 ,by simple inversion3 as1 ,therein has been1 and ever will be1 my deficiency1--the talent of starting the game2 ,never1 from their lips1 was heard one syllable to justify1 etc4 7#b7 ,in interrogative sentences1 for which see ,sec4 #cda4 7#c7 ,after it introductory3 ,it ought not to need to print in a reading room a caution not to read aloud4 ,in this sentence1 it stands in the position of a grammatical subject2 but the real or logical subject is to print1 etc4 ,it merely serves to throw the subject after a verb4 ,sidenote3 ,disguised infinitive subject4 ,there is one kind of expression that is really an infinitive1 though disguised as a prepositional phrase3 ,it is hard for honest men to separate their country from their party1 or their religion from their sect4 ,the for did not belong there originally1 but obscures the real subject1--the infinitive phrase4 ,compare ,chaucer3 ,no wonder is a lewed man to ruste 7,no wonder it is for a common man to rust74 7#d7 ,after there introductory1 which has the same office as it in reversing the order 7see ,sec4 #bib73 ,there was a description of the destructive operations of time2 ,there are asking eyes1 asserting eyes1 prowling eyes4 ,things used as ,direct ,object4 #cdi4 ,the words used as direct object are mainly the same as those used for subject1 but they will be given in detail here1 for the sake of presenting examples3-- 7#a7 ,noun3 ,each man has his own vocation4 ,also expressions used as nouns3 for example1 ',by ,god1 and by ,saint ,george6' said the ,king4 7#b7 ,pronoun3 ,memory greets them with the ghost of a smile4 7#c7 ,infinitive3 ,we like to see everything do its office4 7#d7 ,gerund3 ,she heard that sobbing of litanies1 or the thundering of organs4 7#e7 ,adjective used as a noun3 ,for seventy leagues through the mighty cathedral1 ,i saw the quick and the dead4 ,things used as ,complement4 ,sidenote3 ,complement3 ,of an intransitive verb4 #cej4 ,as complement of an intransitive verb1-- 7#a7 ,noun3 ,she had been an ardent patriot4 7#b7 ,pronoun3 ,who is she in bloody coronation robes from ,rheims8 ,this is she1 the shepherd girl4 7#c7 ,adjective3 ,innocence is ever simple and credulous4 7#d7 ,infinitive3 ,to enumerate and analyze these relations is to teach the science of method4 7#e7 ,gerund3 ,life is a pitching of this penny1--heads or tails2 ,serving others is serving us4 7#f7 ,a prepositional phrase3 ,his frame is on a larger scale2 ,the marks were of a kind not to be mistaken4 ,it will be noticed that all these complements have a double office1--completing the predicate1 and explaining or modifying the subject4 ,sidenote3 ,of a transitive verb4 ,as complement of a transitive verb1-- 7#a7 ,noun3 ,i will not call you cowards4 7#b7 ,adjective3 ,manners make beauty superfluous and ugly2 ,their tempers1 doubtless1 are rendered pliant and malleable in the fiery furnace of domestic tribulation4 ,in this last sentence1 the object is made the subject by being passive1 and the words italicized are still complements4 ,like all the complements in this list1 they are adjuncts of the object1 and1 at the same time1 complements of the predicate4 7#c7 ,infinitive1 or infinitive phrase3 ,that cry which made me look a thousand ways2 ,i hear the echoes throng4 7#d7 ,participle1 or participial phrase3 ,i can imagine him pushing firmly on1 trusting the hearts of his countrymen4 7#e7 ,prepositional phrase3 ,my antagonist would render my poniard and my speed of no use to me4 ,modifiers4 ,i4 ,modifiers of ,subject1 ,object1 or ,complement4 #cea4 ,since the subject and object are either nouns or some equivalent of a noun1 the words modifying them must be adjectives or some equivalent of an adjective2 and whenever the complement is a noun1 or the equivalent of the noun1 it is modified by the same words and word groups that modify the subject and the object4 ,these modifiers are as follows3-- 7#a7 ,a possessive3 ,my memory assures me of this2 ,she asked her father's permission4 7#b7 ,a word in apposition3 ,theodore ,wieland1 the prisoner at the bar1 was now called upon for his defense2 ,him1 this young idolater1 ,i have seasoned for thee4 7#c7 ,an adjective3 ,great geniuses have the shortest biographies2 ,her father was a prince in ,lebanon1--proud1 unforgiving1 austere4 7#d7 ,prepositional phrase3 ,are the opinions of a man on right and wrong on fate and causation1 at the mercy of a broken sleep or an indigestion8 ,the poet needs a ground in popular tradition to work on4 7#e7 ,infinitive phrase3 ,the way to know him is to compare him1 not with nature1 but with other men2 ,she has a new and unattempted problem to solve2 ,the simplest utterances are worthiest to be written4 7#f7 ,participial phrase3 ,another reading1 given at the request of a ,dutch lady1 was the scene from ,king ,john2 ,this was the hour already appointed for the baptism of the new ,christian daughter4 ,exercise4--,in each sentence in ,sec4 #cea1 tell whether the subject1 object1 or complement is modified4 ,,ii4 ,modifiers of the ,predicate4 #ceb4 ,since the predicate is always a verb1 the word modifying it must be an adverb or its equivalent3-- 7#a7 ,adverb3 ,slowly and sadly we laid him down4 7#b7 ,prepositional phrase3 ,the little carriage is creeping on at one mile an hour2 ,in the twinkling of an eye1 our horses had carried us to the termination of the umbrageous isle4 ,in such a sentence as1 ,he died like a ,god1 the word group like a ,god is often taken as a phrase2 but it is really a contracted clause1 the verb being omitted4 ,sidenote3 ,tells how4 7#c7 ,participial phrase3 ,she comes down from heaven to his help1 interpreting for him the most difficult truths1 and leading him from star to star4 7#d7 ,infinitive phrase3 ,no imprudent1 no sociable angel1 ever dropped an early syllable to answer his longing4 7,for participial and infinitive phrases1 see further ,secs4 #ceg-cfc47 7#e7 ,indirect object3 ,i gave every man a trumpet2 ,give them not only noble teachings1 but noble teachers4 ,these are equivalent to the phrases to every man and to them1 and modify the predicate in the same way4 ,sidenote3 ,retained with passive2 or ,when the verb is changed from active to passive1 the indirect object is retained1 as in these sentences3 ,it is left you to find out the reason why2 ,all such knowledge should be given her4 ,sidenote3 subject of passive verb and direct object retained4 ,or sometimes the indirect object of the active voice becomes the subject of the passive1 and the direct object is retained3 for example1 ,she is to be taught to extend the limits of her sympathy2 ,i was shown an immense sarcophagus4 7#f7 ,adverbial objective4 ,these answer the question when1 or how long1 how far1 etc41 and are consequently equivalent to adverbs in modifying a predicate3 ,we were now running thirteen miles an hour2 ,one way lies hope2 ,four hours before midnight we approached a mighty minster4 ,exercises4 7a7 ,pick out subject1 predicate1 and 7direct7 object3-- #a4 ,this1 and other measures of precaution1 ,i took4 #b4 ,the pursuing the inquiry under the light of an end or final cause1 gives wonderful animation1 a sort of personality to the whole writing4 #c4 ,why does the horizon hold me fast1 with my joy and grief1 in this center8 #d4 ,his books have no melody1 no emotion1 no humor1 no relief to the dead prosaic level4 #e4 ,on the voyage to ,egypt1 he liked1 after dinner1 to fix on three or four persons to support a proposition1 and as many to oppose it4 #f4 ,fashion does not often caress the great1 but the children of the great4 #g4 ,no rent roll can dignify skulking and dissimulation4 #h4 ,they do not wish to be lovely1 but to be loved4 7b7 ,pick out the subject1 predicate1 and complement3 #a4 ,evil1 according to old philosophers1 is good in the making4 #b4 ,but anger drives a man to say anything4 #c4 ,the teachings of the ,high ,spirit are abstemious1 and1 in regard to particulars1 negative4 #d4 ,spanish diet and youth leave the digestion undisordered and the slumbers light4 #e4 ,yet they made themselves sycophantic servants of the ,king of ,spain4 #f4 ,a merciless oppressor hast thou been4 #g4 ,to the men of this world1 to the animal strength and spirits1 the man of ideas appears out of his reason4 #h4 ,i felt myself1 for the first time1 burthened with the anxieties of a man1 and a member of the world4 7c7 ,pick out the direct and the indirect object in each3-- #a4 ,not the less ,i owe thee justice4 #b4 ,unhorse me1 then1 this imperial rider4 #c4 ,she told the first lieutenant part of the truth4 #d4 ,i promised her protection against all ghosts4 #e4 ,i gave him an address to my friend1 the attorney4 #f4 ,paint me1 then1 a room seventeen feet by twelve4 7d7 ,pick out the words and phrases in apposition3-- #a4 ,to suffer and to do1 that was thy portion in life4 #b4 ,a river formed the boundary1--the river ,meuse4 #c4 ,in one feature1 ,lamb resembles ,sir ,walter ,scott2 viz41 in the dramatic character of his mind and taste4 #d4 ,this view was luminously expounded by ,archbishop ,whately1 the present ,archbishop of ,dublin4 #e4 ,yes1 at length the warrior lady1 the blooming cornet1 this nun so martial1 this dragoon so lovely1 must visit again the home of her childhood4 7e7 ,pick out the modifiers of the predicate3-- #a4 ,it moves from one flower to another like a gleam of light1 upwards1 downwards1 to the right and to the left4 #b4 ,and hark6 like the roar of the billows on the shore1 ,the cry of battle rises along their changing line4 #c4 ,their intention was to have a gay1 happy dinner1 after their long confinement to a ship1 at the chief hotel4 #d4 ,that night1 in little peaceful ,easedale1 six children sat by a peat fire1 expecting the return of their parents4 ,compound ,subject1 ,compound ,predicate1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,not compound sentences4 #cec4 ,frequently in a simple sentence the writer uses two or more predicates to the same subject1 two or more subjects of the same predicate1 several modifiers1 complements1 etc42 but it is to be noticed that1 in all such sentences as we quote below1 the writers of them purposely combined them in single statements1 and they are not to be expanded into compound sentences4 ,in a compound sentence the object is to make two or more full statements4 ,examples of compound subjects are1 ,by degrees ,rip's awe and apprehension subsided2 ,the name of the child1 the air of the mother1 the tone of her voice1--all awakened a train of recollections in his mind4 ,sentences with compound predicates are1 ,the company broke up1 and returned to the more important concerns of the election2 ,he shook his head1 shouldered the rusty firelock1 and1 with a heart full of trouble and anxiety1 turned his steps homeward4 ,sentences with compound objects of the same verb are1 ,he caught his daughter and her child in his arms2 ,voyages and travels ,i would also have4 ,and so with complements1 modifiers1 etc4 ,logical ,subject and ,logical ,predicate4 #ced4 ,the logical subject is the simple or grammatical subject1 together with all its modifiers4 ,the logical predicate is the simple or grammatical predicate 7that is1 the verb71 together with its modifiers1 and its object or complement4 ,sidenote3 ,larger view of a sentence4 ,it is often a help to the student to find the logical subject and predicate first1 then the grammatical subject and predicate4 ,for example1 in the sentence1 ,the situation here contemplated exposes a dreadful ulcer1 lurking far down in the depths of human nature1 the logical subject is the situation here contemplated1 and the rest is the logical predicate4 ,of this1 the simple subject is situation2 the predicate1 exposes2 the object1 ulcer1 etc4 ,independent ,elements of the ,sentence4 #cee4 ,the following words and expressions are grammatically independent of the rest of the sentence2 that is1 they are not a necessary part1 do not enter into its structure3-- 7#a7 ,person or thing addressed3 ,but you know them1 ,bishop2 ,ye crags and peaks1 ,i'm with you once again4 7#b7 ,exclamatory expressions3 ,but the lady--6 ,oh1 heavens6 will that spectacle ever depart from my dreams8 ,sidenote3 ,caution4 ,the exclamatory expression1 however1 may be the person or thing addressed1 same as 7#a71 above3 thus1 ,ah1 young sir6 what are you about8 ,or it may be an imperative1 forming a sentence3 ,oh1 hurry1 hurry1 my brave young man6 7#c7 ,infinitive phrase thrown in loosely3 ,to make a long story short1 the company broke up2 ,truth to say1 he was a conscientious man4 7#d7 ,prepositional phrase not modifying3 ,within the railing sat1 to the best of my remembrance1 six quill-driving gentlemen2 ,at all events1 the great man of the prophecy had not yet appeared4 7#e7 ,participial phrase3 ,but1 generally speaking1 he closed his literary toils at dinner2 ,considering the burnish of her ,french tastes1 her noticing even this is creditable4 7#f7 ,single words3 as1 ,oh1 yes6 everybody knew them2 ,no1 let him perish2 ,well1 he somehow lived along2 ,why1 grandma1 how you're winking6 ,now1 this story runs thus4 ,sidenote3 ,another caution4 ,there are some adverbs1 such as perhaps1 truly1 really1 undoubtedly1 besides1 etc41 and some conjunctions1 such as however1 then1 moreover1 therefore1 nevertheless1 etc41 that have an office in the sentence1 and should not be confused with the words spoken of above4 ,the words well1 now1 why1 and so on1 are independent when they merely arrest the attention without being necessary4 ,,prepositional ,,phrases4 #cef4 ,in their use1 prepositional phrases may be1 7#a7 ,adjectival1 modifying a noun1 pronoun1 or word used as a noun3 for example1 ,he took the road to ,king ,richard's pavilion2 ,i bring reports on that subject from ,ascalon4 7#b7 ,adverbial1 limiting in the same way an adverb limits3 as1 ,all nature around him slept in calm moonshine or in deep shadow2 ,far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife4 7#c7 ,independent1 not dependent on any word in the sentence 7for examples1 see ,sec4 #cee1 #d74 ,,participles ,,and ,,participial ,,phrases4 #ceg4 ,it will be helpful to sum up here the results of our study of participles and participial phrases1 and to set down all the uses which are of importance in analysis3-- 7#a7 ,the adjectival use1 already noticed1 as follows3-- 7a7 ,as a complement of a transitive verb1 and at the same time a modifier of the object 7for an example1 see ,sec4 #cej1 #d74 7b7 ,as a modifier of subject1 object1 or complement 7see ,sec4 #cea1 #f74 7#b7 ,the adverbial use1 modifying the predicate1 instances of which were seen in ,sec4 #ceb1 #c4 ,in these the participial phrases connect closely with the verb1 and there is no difficulty in seeing that they modify4 ,sidenote3 ,these need close watching4 ,there are other participial phrases which are used adverbially1 but require somewhat closer attention2 thus1 ,the letter of introduction1 containing no matters of business1 was speedily run through4 ,in this sentence1 the expression containing no matters of business does not describe letter1 but it is equivalent to because it contained no matters of business1 and hence is adverbial1 modifying was speedily run through4 ,notice these additional examples3-- ,being a great collector of everything relating to ,milton reason1 ,because ,i was1 etc41 ,i had naturally possessed myself of ,richardson the painter's thick octavo volumes4 ,neither the one nor the other writer was valued by the public1 both having since they had a long warfare to accomplish of contumely and ridicule4 ,wilt thou1 therefore1 being now wiser as thou art in thy thoughts1 suffer ,god to give by seeming to refuse8 7#c7 ,wholly independent in meaning and grammar4 ,see ,sec4 #cee1 7#e71 and these additional examples3-- ,assuming the specific heat to be the same as that of water1 the entire mass of the sun would cool down to #ae1jjj ,fahrenheit in five thousand years4 ,this case excepted1 the ,french have the keenest possible sense of everything odious and ludicrous in posing4 ,,infinitives ,,and ,,infinitive ,,phrases4 #ceh4 ,the various uses of the infinitive give considerable trouble1 and they will be presented here in full1 or as nearly so as the student will require4 ,i4 ,the verbal use4 7#a7 ,completing an incomplete verb1 but having no other office than a verbal one4 7a7 ,with may 7might71 can 7could71 should1 would1 seem1 ought1 etc43 ,my weekly bill used invariably to be about fifty shillings2 ,there1 my dear1 he should not have known them at all2 ,he would instruct her in the white man's religion1 and teach her how to be happy and good4 7b7 ,with the forms of be1 being equivalent to a future with obligation1 necessity1 etc43 as in the sentences1 ,ingenuity and cleverness are to be rewarded by ,state prizes2 ',the ,fair ,penitent' was to be acted that evening4 7c7 ,with the definite forms of go1 equivalent to a future3 ,i was going to repeat my remonstrances2 ,i am not going to dissert on ,hood's humor4 7#b7 ,completing an incomplete transitive verb1 but also belonging to a subject or an object 7see ,sec4 #cdd for explanation of the complements of transitive verbs73 ,i am constrained every moment to acknowledge a higher origin for events 7retained with passive72 ,do they not cause the heart to beat1 and the eyes to fill8 #cei4 ,,ii4 ,the substantive use1 already examined2 but see the following examples for further illustration3-- 7#a7 ,as the subject3 ,to have the wall there1 was to have the foe's life at their mercy2 ,to teach is to learn4 7#b7 ,as the object3 ,i like to hear them tell their old stories2 ,i don't wish to detract from any gentleman's reputation4 7#c7 ,as complement3 ,see examples under 7#a71 above4 7#d7 ,in apposition1 explanatory of a noun preceding3 as1 ,she forwarded to the ,english leaders a touching invitation to unite with the ,french2 ,he insisted on his right to forget her4 #cfj4 ,,iii4 ,the adjectival use1 modifying a noun that may be a subject1 object1 complement1 etc43 for example1 ,but there was no time to be lost2 ,and now ,amyas had time to ask ,ayacanora the meaning of this2 ,i have such a desire to be well with my public 7see also ,sec4 #cea1 #e74 #cfa4 ,,iv4 ,the adverbial use1 which may be to express-- 7#a7 ,purpose3 ,the governor1 ,don ,guzman1 sailed to the eastward only yesterday to look for you2 ,isn't it enough to bring us to death1 to please that poor young gentleman's fancy8 7#b7 ,result3 ,don ,guzman returns to the river mouth to find the ship a blackened wreck2 ,what heart could be so hard as not to take pity on the poor wild thing8 7#c7 ,reason3 ,i am quite sorry to part with them2 ,are you mad1 to betray yourself by your own cries8 ,marry1 hang the idiot1 to bring me such stuff6 7#d7 ,degree3 ,we have won gold enough to serve us the rest of our lives2 ,but the poor lady was too sad to talk except to the boys now and again4 7#e7 ,condition3 ,you would fancy1 to hear ,mc,orator after dinner1 the ,scotch fighting all the battles2 ,to say what good of fashion we can1 it rests on reality 7the last is not a simple sentence1 but it furnishes a good example of this use of the infinitive74 #cfb4 ,the fact that the infinitives in ,sec4 #cfa are used adverbially1 is evident from the meaning of the sentences4 ,whether each sentence containing an adverbial infinitive has the meaning of purpose1 result1 etc41 may be found out by turning the infinitive into an equivalent clause1 such as those studied under subordinate conjunctions4 ,to test this1 notice the following3-- ,in 7#a71 to look means that he might look2 to please is equivalent to that he may please1--both purpose clauses4 ,in 7#b71 to find shows the result of the return2 not to take pity is equivalent to that it would not take pity4 ,in 7#c71 to part means because ,i part1 etc42 and to betray and to bring express the reason1 equivalent to that you betray1 etc4 ,in 7#d71 to serve and to talk are equivalent to as much gold as will serve us2 and too sad to talk also shows degree4 ,in 7#e71 to hear means if you should hear1 and to say is equivalent to if we say1--both expressing condition4 #cfc4 ,v4 ,the independent use1 which is of two kinds1-- 7#a7 ,thrown loosely into the sentence2 as in ,sec4 #cee1 7#c74 7#b7 ,exclamatory3 ,i a philosopher6 ,i advance pretensions2 ',he to die6' resumed the bishop4 7,see also ,sec4 #bfh1 #d47 ,,outline ,,of ,,analysis4 #cfd4 ,in analyzing simple sentences1 give-- 7#a7 ,the predicate4 ,if it is an incomplete verb1 give the complement 7,secs4 #cdd and #cej7 and its modifiers 7,sec4 #cea74 7#b7 ,the object of the verb 7,sec4 #cdi74 7#c7 ,modifiers of the object 7,sec4 #cea74 7#d7 ,modifiers of the predicate 7,sec4 #ceb74 7#e7 ,the subject 7,sec4 #cdg74 7#f7 ,modifiers of the subject 7,sec4 #cea74 7#g7 ,independent elements 7,sec4 #cee74 ,this is not the same order that the parts of the sentence usually have2 but it is believed that the student will proceed more easily by finding the predicate with its modifiers1 object1 etc41 and then finding the subject by placing the question who or what before it4 ,exercise in ,analyzing ,simple ,sentences4 ,analyze the following according to the directions given3-- #a4 ,our life is ,march weather1 savage and serene in one hour4 #b4 ,i will try to keep the balance true4 #c4 ,the questions of ,whence8 ,what8 and ,whither8 and the solution of these1 must be in a life1 not in a book4 #d4 ,the ward meetings on election days are not softened by any misgiving of the value of these ballotings4 #e4 ,our ,english ,bible is a wonderful specimen of the strength and music of the ,english language4 #f4 ,through the years and the centuries1 through evil agents1 through toys and atoms1 a great and beneficent tendency irresistibly streams4 #g4 ,to be hurried away by every event1 is to have no political system at all4 #h4 ,this mysticism the ancients called ecstasy1--a getting-out of their bodies to think4 #i4 ,he risked everything1 and spared nothing1 neither ammunition1 nor money1 nor troops1 nor generals1 nor himself4 #aj4 ,we are always in peril1 always in a bad plight1 just on the edge of destruction1 and only to be saved by invention and courage4 #aa4 ,his opinion is always original1 and to the purpose4 #ab4 ,to these gifts of nature1 ,napoleon added the advantage of having been born to a private and humble fortune4 #ac4 ,the water1 like a witch's oils1 ,burnt green and blue and white4 #ad4 ,we one day descried some shapeless object floating at a distance4 #ae4 ,old ,adam1 the carrion crow1 ,the old crow of ,cairo2 ,he sat in the shower1 and let it flow ,under his tail and over his crest4 #af4 ,it costs no more for a wise soul to convey his quality to other men4 #ag4 ,it is easy to sugar to be sweet4 #ah4 ,at times the black volume of clouds overhead seemed rent asunder by flashes of lightning4 #ai4 ,the whole figure and air1 good and amiable otherwise1 might be called flabby and irresolute4 #bj4 ,i have heard ,coleridge talk1 with eager energy1 two stricken hours1 and communicate no meaning whatsoever to any individual4 #ba4 ,the word conscience has become almost confined1 in popular use1 to the moral sphere4 #bb4 ,you may ramble a whole day together1 and every moment discover something new4 #bc4 ,she had grown up amidst the liberal culture of ,henry's court a bold horsewoman1 a good shot1 a graceful dancer1 a skilled musician1 an accomplished scholar4 #bd4 ,her aims were simple and obvious1--to preserve her throne1 to keep ,england out of war1 to restore civil and religious order4 #be4 ,fair name might he have handed down1 ,effacing many a stain of former crime4 #bf4 ,of the same grandeur1 in less heroic and poetic form1 was the patriotism of ,peel in recent history4 #bg4 ,oxford1 ancient mother6 hoary with ancestral honors1 time-honored1 and1 haply1 time-shattered power--,i owe thee nothing6 #bh4 ,the villain1 ,i hate him and myself1 to be a reproach to such goodness4 #bi4 ,i dare this1 upon my own ground1 and in my own garden1 to bid you leave the place now and forever4 #cj4 ,upon this shore stood1 ready to receive her1 in front of all this mighty crowd1 the prime minister of ,spain1 the same ,cond ,olivarez4 #ca4 ,great was their surprise to see a young officer in uniform stretched within the bushes upon the ground4 #cb4 ,she had made a two days' march1 baggage far in the rear1 and no provisions but wild berries4 #cc4 ,this amiable relative1 an elderly man1 had but one foible1 or perhaps one virtue1 in this world4 #cd4 ,now1 it would not have been filial or ladylike4 #ce4 ,supposing this computation to be correct1 it must have been in the latitude of ,boston1 the present capital of ,new ,england4 #cf4 ,the cry1 ,a strange vessel close aboard the frigate6 having already flown down the hatches1 the ship was in an uproar4 #cg4 ,but yield1 proud foe1 thy fleet ,with the crews at ,england's feet4 #ch4 ,few in number1 and that number rapidly perishing away through sickness and hardships2 surrounded by a howling wilderness and savage tribes2 exposed to the rigors of an almost arctic winter1--their minds were filled with doleful forebodings4 #ci4 ,list to the mournful tradition still sung by the pines of the forest4 #dj4 ,in the ,acadian land1 on the shores of the ,basin of ,minas1 ,distant1 secluded1 still1 the little village of ,grand-,pr ,lay in the fruitful valley4 #da4 ,must we in all things look for the how1 and the why1 and the wherefore8 ,,contracted ,,sentences4 ,sidenote3 ,words left out after than or as4 #cfe4 ,some sentences look like simple ones in form1 but have an essential part omitted that is so readily supplied by the mind as not to need expressing4 ,such are the following3-- ,there is no country more worthy of our study than ,england is worthy of our study4 ,the distinctions between them do not seem to be so marked as they are marked in the cities4 ,to show that these words are really omitted1 compare with them the two following3-- ,the nobility and gentry are more popular among the inferior orders than they are in any other country4 ,this is not so universally the case at present as it was formerly4 ,sidenote3 ,sentences with like4 #cff4 ,as shown in ,part ,i4 7,sec4 #ccc74 the expressions of manner introduced by like1 though often treated as phrases1 are really contracted clauses2 but1 if they were expanded1 as would be the connective instead of like2 thus1-- ,they'll shine o'er her sleep1 like as a smile from the west would shine4 ,from her own loved island of sorrow4 ,this must1 however1 be carefully discriminated from cases where like is an adjective complement2 as1-- ,she is like some tender tree1 the pride and beauty of the grove2 ,the ruby seemed like a spark of fire burning upon her white bosom4 ,such contracted sentences form a connecting link between our study of simple and complex sentences4 ,,complex ,,sentences4 ,sidenote3 ,the simple sentence the basis4 #cfg4 ,our investigations have now included all the machinery of the simple sentence1 which is the unit of speech4 ,our further study will be in sentences which are combinations of simple sentences1 made merely for convenience and smoothness1 to avoid the tiresome repetition of short ones of monotonous similarity4 ,next to the simple sentence stands the complex sentence4 ,the basis of it is two or more simple sentences1 which are so united that one member is the main one1--the backbone1--the other members subordinate to it1 or dependent on it2 as in this sentence1-- ,when such a spirit breaks forth into complaint1 we are aware how great must be the suffering that extorts the murmur4 ,the relation of the parts is as follows3-- we are aware when such a spirit breaks forth into complaint1 how great must be the suffering that extorts the murmur4 ,this arrangement shows to the eye the picture that the sentence forms in the mind1--how the first clause is held in suspense by the mind till the second1 we are aware1 is taken in2 then we recognize this as the main statement2 and the next one1 how great 444 suffering1 drops into its place as subordinate to we are aware2 and the last1 that 444 murmur1 logically depends on suffering4 ,hence the following definition3-- ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #cfh4 ,a complex sentence is one containing one main or independent clause 7also called the principal proposition or clause71 and one or more subordinate or dependent clauses4 #cfi4 ,the elements of a complex sentence are the same as those of the simple sentence2 that is1 each clause has its subject1 predicate1 object1 complements1 modifiers1 etc4 ,but there is this difference3 whereas the simple sentence always has a word or a phrase for subject1 object1 complement1 and modifier1 the complex sentence has statements or clauses for these places4 ,,clauses4 ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #cgj4 ,a clause is a division of a sentence1 containing a verb with its subject4 ,hence the term clause may refer to the main division of the complex sentence1 or it may be applied to the others1--the dependent or subordinate clauses4 ,sidenote3 ,independent clause4 #cga4 ,a principal1 main1 or independent clause is one making a statement without the help of any other clause4 ,sidenote3 ,dependent clause4 ,a subordinate or dependent clause is one which makes a statement depending upon or modifying some word in the principal clause4 ,sidenote3 ,kinds4 #cgb4 ,as to their office in the sentence1 clauses are divided into ,,noun1 ,,adjective1 and ,,adverb clauses1 according as they are equivalent in use to nouns1 adjectives1 or adverbs4 ,noun ,clauses4 #cgc4 ,noun clauses have the following uses3-- 7#a7 ,subject3 ,that such men should give prejudiced views of ,america is not a matter of surprise4 7#b7 ,object of a verb1 verbal1 or the equivalent of a verb3 7a7 ,i confess these stories1 for a time1 put an end to my fancies2 7b7 ,i am aware ,i know that a skillful illustrator of the immortal bard would have swelled the materials4 ,just as the object noun1 pronoun1 infinitive1 etc41 is retained after a passive verb 7,sec4 #ceb1 #e71 so the object clause is retained1 and should not be called an adjunct of the subject2 for example1 ,we are persuaded that a thread runs through all things2 ,i was told that the house had not been shut1 night or day1 for a hundred years4 7#c7 ,complement3 ,the terms of admission to this spectacle are1 that he have a certain solid and intelligible way of living4 7#d7 ,apposition4 7a7 ,ordinary apposition1 explanatory of some noun or its equivalent3 ,cecil's saying of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 ',i know that he can toil terribly1' is an electric touch4 7b7 ,after it introductory 7logically this is a subject clause1 but it is often treated as in apposition with it73 ,it was the opinion of some1 that this might be the wild huntsman famous in ,german legend4 7#e7 ,object of a preposition3 ,at length he reached to where the ravine had opened through the cliffs4 ,notice that frequently only the introductory word is the object of the preposition1 and the whole clause is not2 thus1 ,the rocks presented a high impenetrable wall1 over which the torrent came tumbling4 #cgd4 ,here are to be noticed certain sentences seemingly complex1 with a noun clause in apposition with it2 but logically they are nothing but simple sentences4 ,but since they are complex in form1 attention is called to them here2 for example1-- ,alas6 it is we ourselves that are getting buried alive under this avalanche of earthly impertinences4 ,to divide this into two clauses--7a7 ,it is we ourselves1 7b7 that are 444 impertinences--would be grammatical2 but logically the sentence is1 ,we ourselves are getting 444 impertinences1 and it is 444 that is merely a framework used to effect emphasis4 ,the sentence shows how it may lose its pronominal force4 ,other examples of this construction are1-- ,it is on the understanding1 and not on the sentiment1 of a nation1 that all safe legislation must be based4 ,then it is that deliberative ,eloquence lays aside the plain attire of her daily occupation4 ,exercise4 ,tell how each noun clause is used in these sentences3-- #a4 ,i felt that ,i breathed an atmosphere of sorrow4 #b4 ,but the fact is1 ,i was napping4 #c4 ,shaking off from my spirit what must have been a dream1 ,i scanned more narrowly the aspect of the building4 #d4 ,except by what he could see for himself1 he could know nothing4 #e4 ,whatever he looks upon discloses a second sense4 #f4 ,it will not be pretended that a success in either of these kinds is quite coincident with what is best and inmost in his mind4 #g4 ,the reply of ,socrates1 to him who asked whether he should choose a wife1 still remains reasonable1 that1 whether he should choose one or not1 he would repent it4 #h4 ,what history it had1 how it changed from shape to shape1 no man will ever know4 #i4 ,such a man is what we call an original man4 #aj4 ,our current hypothesis about ,mohammed1 that he was a scheming impostor1 a falsehood incarnate1 that his religion is a mere mass of quackery and fatuity1 begins really to be no longer tenable to any one4 ,adjective ,clauses4 #cge4 ,as the office of an adjective is to modify1 the only use of an adjective clause is to limit or describe some noun1 or equivalent of a noun3 consequently the adjective may modify any noun1 or equivalent of a noun1 in the sentence4 ,the adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronouns who1 which1 that1 but1 as2 sometimes by the conjunctions when1 where1 whither1 whence1 wherein1 whereby1 etc4 ,frequently there is no connecting word1 a relative pronoun being understood4 ,sidenote3 ,examples of adjective clauses4 #cgf4 ,adjective clauses may modify-- 7#a7 ,the subject3 ,the themes it offers for contemplation are too vast for their capacities2 ,those who see the ,englishman only in town1 are apt to form an unfavorable opinion of his social character4 7#b7 ,the object3 ,from this piazza ,ichabod entered the hall1 which formed the center of the mansion4 7#c7 ,the complement3 ,the animal he bestrode was a broken-down plow-horse1 that had outlived almost everything but his usefulness2 ,it was such an apparition as is seldom to be met with in broad daylight4 7#d7 ,other words3 ,he rode with short stirrups1 which brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of the saddle2 ,no whit anticipating the oblivion which awaited their names and feats1 the champions advanced through the lists2 ,charity covereth a multitude of sins1 in another sense than that in which it is said to do so in ,scripture4 ,exercise4 ,pick out the adjective clauses1 and tell what each one modifies2 i4e41 whether subject1 object1 etc4 #a4 ,there were passages that reminded me perhaps too much of ,massillon4 #b4 ,i walked home with ,calhoun1 who said that the principles which ,i had avowed were just and noble4 #c4 ,other men are lenses through which we read our own minds4 #d4 ,in one of those celestial days when heaven and earth meet and adorn each other1 it seems a pity that we can only spend it once4 #e4 ,one of the maidens presented a silver cup1 containing a rich mixture of wine and spice1 which ,rowena tasted4 #f4 ,no man is reason or illumination1 or that essence we were looking for4 #g4 ,in the moment when he ceases to help us as a cause1 he begins to help us more as an effect4 #h4 ,socrates took away all ignominy from the place1 which could not be a prison whilst he was there4 #i4 ,this is perhaps the reason why we so seldom hear ghosts except in our long-established ,dutch settlements4 #aj4 ,from the moment you lose sight of the land you have left1 all is vacancy4 #aa4 ,nature waited tranquilly for the hour to be struck when man should arrive4 ,adverbial ,clauses4 #cgg4 ,the adverb clause takes the place of an adverb in modifying a verb1 a verbal1 an adjective1 or an adverb4 ,the student has met with many adverb clauses in his study of the subjunctive mood and of subordinate conjunctions2 but they require careful study1 and will be given in detail1 with examples4 #cgh4 ,adverb clauses are of the following kinds3 7#a7 ,,time3 ,as we go1 the milestones are grave-stones2 ,he had gone but a little way before he espied a foul fiend coming2 ,when he was come up to ,christian1 he beheld him with a disdainful countenance4 7#b7 ,,place3 ,wherever the sentiment of right comes in1 it takes precedence of everything else2 ,he went several times to ,england1 where he does not seem to have attracted any attention4 7#c7 ,,reason1 or ,,cause3 ,his ,english editor lays no stress on his discoveries1 since he was too great to care to be original2 ,i give you joy that truth is altogether wholesome4 7#d7 ,,manner3 ,the knowledge of the past is valuable only as it leads us to form just calculations with respect to the future2 ,after leaving the whole party under the table1 he goes away as if nothing had happened4 7#e7 ,,degree1 or ,,comparison3 ,they all become wiser than they were2 ,the right conclusion is1 that we should try1 so far as we can1 to make up our shortcomings2 ,master ,simon was in as chirping a humor as a grasshopper filled with dew is2 ,the broader their education is1 the wider is the horizon of their thought4 ,the first clause in the last sentence is dependent1 expressing the degree in which the horizon1 etc41 is wider4 7#f7 ,,purpose3 ,nature took us in hand1 shaping our actions1 so that we might not be ended untimely by too gross disobedience4 7#g7 ,,result1 or ,,consequence3 ,he wrote on the scale of the mind itself1 so that all things have symmetry in his tablet2 ,the window was so far superior to every other in the church1 that the vanquished artist killed himself from mortification4 7#h7 ,,condition3 ,if we tire of the saints1 ,shakespeare is our city of refuge2 ,who cares for that1 so thou gain aught wider and nobler8 ,you can die grandly1 and as goddesses would die were goddesses mortal4 7#i7 ,,concession1 introduced by indefinite relatives1 adverbs1 and adverbial conjunctions1--whoever1 whatever1 however1 etc43 ,but still1 however good she may be as a witness1 ,joanna is better2 ,whatever there may remain of illiberal in discussion1 there is always something illiberal in the severer aspects of study4 ,these mean no matter how good1 no matter what remains1 etc4 ,exercise4 ,pick out the adverbial clauses in the following sentences2 tell what kind each is1 and what it modifies3-- #a4 ,as ,i was clearing away the weeds from this epitaph1 the little sexton drew me on one side with a mysterious air1 and informed me in a low voice that once upon a time1 on a dark wintry night1 when the wind was unruly1 howling and whistling1 banging about doors and windows1 and twirling weathercocks1 so that the living were frightened out of their beds1 and even the dead could not sleep quietly in their graves1 the ghost of honest ,preston was attracted by the well-known call of waiter1 and made its sudden appearance just as the parish clerk was singing a stave from the mirrie garland of ,captain ,death4 #b4 ,if the children gathered about her1 as they sometimes did1 ,pearl would grow positively terrible in her puny wrath1 snatching up stones to fling at them1 with shrill1 incoherent exclamations1 that made her mother tremble because they had so much the sound of a witch's anathemas4 #c4 ,the spell of life went forth from her ever-creative spirit1 and communicated itself to a thousand objects1 as a torch kindles a flame wherever it may be applied4 ,,analyzing ,,complex ,,sentences4 #cgi4 ,these suggestions will be found helpful3-- 7#a7 ,see that the sentence and all its parts are placed in the natural order of subject1 predicate1 object1 and modifiers4 7#b7 ,first take the sentence as a whole2 find the principal subject and principal predicate2 then treat noun clauses as nouns1 adjective clauses as adjectives modifying certain words1 and adverb clauses as single modifying adverbs4 7#c7 ,analyze each clause as a simple sentence4 ,for example1 in the sentence1 ,cannot we conceive that ,odin was a reality8 we is the principal subject2 cannot conceive is the principal predicate2 its object is that ,odin was a reality1 of which clause ,odin is the subject1 etc4 #chj4 ,it is sometimes of great advantage to map out a sentence after analyzing it1 so as to picture the parts and their relations4 ,to take a sentence3-- ,i cannot help thinking that the fault is in themselves1 and that if the church and the cataract were in the habit of giving away their thoughts with that rash generosity which characterizes tourists1 they might perhaps say of their visitors1 ',well1 if you are those men of whom we have heard so much1 we are a little disappointed1 to tell the truth4' ,this may be represented as follows3-- ,i cannot help thinking 7a7 ,,that ,,the ,,fault ,,is ,,in ,,themselves1 ,,and 7b7 ,,that ,,they ,,might 7,,perhaps7 ,,say ,,of ,,their ,,visitors 7a7 ,we are 7a little7 disappointed ,o ,o b b j ,m j e o 7b7 ,if you are those men e c d c t i t f ,m i o ,of whom we have heard so much4 e d4 r ,m o 7a7 ,if the church and 444 that rash generosity d i f i e 7b7 ,which characterizes tourists4 r ,,outline #cha4 7#a7 ,find the principal clause4 7#b7 ,analyze it according to ,sec4 #cfd4 7#c7 ,analyze the dependent clauses according to ,sec4 #cfd4 ,this of course includes dependent clauses that depend on other dependent clauses1 as seen in the map 7,sec4 #chj74 #ajg ,exercises4 7a7 ,analyze the following complex sentences3-- #a4 ,take the place and attitude which belong to you4 #b4 ,that mood into which a friend brings us is his dominion over us4 #c4 ,true art is only possible on the condition that every talent has its apotheosis somewhere4 #d4 ,the deep eyes1 of a light hazel1 were as full of sorrow as of inspiration4 #e4 ,she is the only church that has been loyal to the heart and soul of man1 that has clung to her faith in the imagination4 #f4 ,she has never lost sight of the truth that the product human nature is composed of the sum of flesh and spirit4 #g4 ,but now that she has become an establishment1 she begins to perceive that she made a blunder in trusting herself to the intellect alone4 #h4 ,before long his talk would wander into all the universe1 where it was uncertain what game you would catch1 or whether any4 #i4 ,the night proved unusually dark1 so that the two principals had to tie white handkerchiefs round their elbows in order to descry each other4 #aj4 ,whether she would ever awake seemed to depend upon an accident4 #aa4 ,here lay two great roads1 not so much for travelers that were few1 as for armies that were too many by half4 #ab4 ,it was haunted to that degree by fairies1 that the parish priest was obliged to read mass there once a year4 #ac4 ,more than one military plan was entered upon which she did not approve4 #ad4 ,as surely as the wolf retires before cities1 does the fairy sequester herself from the haunts of the licensed victualer4 #ae4 ,m4 ,michelet is anxious to keep us in mind that this bishop was but an agent of the ,english4 #af4 ,next came a wretched ,dominican1 that pressed her with an objection1 which1 if applied to the ,bible1 would tax every miracle with unsoundness4 #ag4 ,the reader ought to be reminded that ,joanna ,d',arc was subject to an unusually unfair trial4 #ah4 ,now1 had she really testified this willingness on the scaffold1 it would have argued nothing at all but the weakness of a genial nature4 #ai4 ,and those will often pity that weakness most1 who would yield to it least4 #bj4 ,whether she said the word is uncertain4 #ba4 ,this is she1 the shepherd girl1 counselor that had none for herself1 whom ,i choose1 bishop1 for yours4 #bb4 ,had they been better chemists1 had we been worse1 the mixed result1 namely1 that1 dying for them1 th#ajg e flower should revive for us1 could not have been effected4 #bc4 ,i like that representation they have of the tree4 #bd4 ,he was what our country people call an old one4 #be4 ,he thought not any evil happened to men of such magnitude as false opinion4 #ajg #bf4 ,these things we are forced to say1 if we must consider the effort of ,plato to dispose of ,nature1--which will not be disposed of4 #bg4 ,he showed one who was afraid to go on foot to ,olympia1 that it was no more than his daily walk1 if continuously extended1 would easily reach4 #bh4 ,what can we see or acquire but what we are8 #bi4 ,our eyes are holden that we cannot see things that stare us in the face1 until the hour arrives when the mind is ripened4 #cj4 ,there is good reason why we should prize this liberation4 7b7 ,first analyze1 then map out as in ,sec4 #chj1 the following complex sentences3-- #a4 ,the way to speak and write what shall not go out of fashion1 is to speak and write sincerely4 #b4 ,the writer who takes his subject from his ear1 and not from his heart1 should know that he has lost as much as he has gained4 #c4 ,no book1 said ,bentley1 was ever written down by any but itself4 #d4 ,that which we do not believe1 we cannot adequately say1 though we may repeat the words never so often4 #e4 ,we say so because we feel that what we love is not in your will1 but above it4 #f4 ,it makes no difference how many friends ,i have1 and what content ,i can find in conversing with each1 if there be one to whom ,i am not equal4 #g4 ,in every troop of boys that whoop and run in each yard and square1 a new-comer is as well and accurately weighed in the course of a few days1 and stamped with his right number1 as if he had undergone a formal trial of his strength1 speed1 and temper4 ,,compound ,,sentences4 ,sidenote3 ,how formed4 #chb4 ,the compound sentence is a combination of two or more simple or complex sentences4 ,while the complex sentence has only one main clause1 the compound has two or more independent clauses making statements1 questions1 or commands4 ,hence the definition1-- ,sidenote3 ,definition4 #chc4 ,a compound sentence is one which contains two or more independent clauses4 ,this leaves room for any number of subordinate clauses in a compound sentence3 the requirement is simply that it have at least two independent clauses4 ,examples of compound sentences3-- ,sidenote3 ,examples4 7#a7 ,simple sentences united3 ,he is a palace of sweet sounds and sights2 he dilates2 he is twice a man2 he walks with arms akimbo2 he soliloquizes4 7#b7 ,simple with complex3 ,the trees of the forest1 the waving grass1 and the peeping flowers have grown intelligent2 and he almost fears to trust them with the secret which they seem to invite4 7#c7 ,complex with complex3 ,the power which resides in him is new in nature1 and none but he knows what that is which he can do1 nor does he know until he has tried4 #chd4 ,from this it is evident that nothing new is added to the work of analysis already done4 ,the same analysis of simple sentences is repeated in 7#a7 and 7#b7 above1 and what was done in complex sentences is repeated in 7#b7 and 7#c74 ,the division into members will be easier1 for the cordinate independent statements are readily taken apart with the subordinate clauses attached1 if there are any4 ,thus in 7#a71 the semicolons cut apart the independent members1 which are simple statements2 in 7#b71 the semicolon separates the first1 a simple member1 from the second1 a complex member2 in 7#c71 and connects the first and second complex members1 and nor the second and third complex members4 ,sidenote3 ,connectives4 #che4 ,the cordinate conjunctions and1 nor1 or but1 etc41 introduce independent clauses 7see ,sec4 #big74 ,but the conjunction is often omitted in copulative and adversative clauses1 as in ,sec4 #chc 7#a74 ,another example is1 ,only the star dazzles2 the planet has a faint1 moon-like ray 7adversative74 ,sidenote3 ,study the thought4 #chf4 ,the one point that will give trouble is the variable use of some connectives2 as but1 for1 yet1 while 7whilst71 however1 whereas1 etc4 ,some of these are now conjunctions1 now adverbs or prepositions2 others sometimes cordinate1 sometimes subordinate conjunctions4 ,the student must watch the logical connection of the members of the sentence1 and not the form of the connective4 ,exercise4 ,of the following illustrative sentences1 tell which are compound1 and which complex3-- #a4 ,speak your latent conviction1 and it shall be the universal sense2 for the inmost in due time becomes the outmost4 #b4 ,i no longer wish to meet a good ,i do not earn1 for example1 to find a pot of buried gold4 #c4 ,your goodness must have some edge to it--else it is none4 #d4 ,man does not stand in awe of man1 nor is his genius admonished to stay at home1 but it goes abroad to beg a cup of water of the urns of other men4 #e4 ,a man cannot speak but he judges himself4 #f4 ,in your metaphysics you have denied personality to the ,deity1 yet when the devout motions of the soul come1 yield to them heart and life4 #g4 ,i thought that it was a ,sunday morning in ,may2 that it was ,easter ,sunday1 and as yet very early in the morning4 #h4 ,we denote the primary wisdom as intuition1 whilst all later teachings are tuitions4 #i4 ,whilst the world is thus dual1 so is every one of its parts4 #aj4 ,they measure the esteem of each other by what each has1 and not by what each is4 #aa4 ,for everything you have missed1 you have gained something else2 and for everything you gain1 you lose something4 #ab4 ,i sometimes seemed to have lived for seventy or one hundred years in one night2 nay1 ,i sometimes had feelings representative of a millennium1 passed in that time1 or1 however1 of a duration far beyond the limits of experience4 #ac4 ,however some may think him wanting in zeal1 the most fanatical can find no taint of apostasy in any measure of his4 #ad4 ,in this manner1 from a happy yet often pensive child1 he grew up to be a mild1 quiet1 unobtrusive boy1 and sun-browned with labor in the fields1 but with more intelligence than is seen in many lads from the schools4 ,,outline ,,for ,,analyzing ,,compound ,,sentences4 #chg4 7i7 ,separate it into its main members4 7#b7 ,analyze each complex member as in ,sec4 #cha4 7#c7 ,analyze each simple member as in ,sec4 #cfd4 ,exercise4 ,analyze the following compound sentences3-- #a4 ,the gain is apparent2 the tax is certain4 #b4 ,if ,i feel overshadowed and outdone by great neighbors1 ,i can yet love2 ,i can still receive2 and he that loveth maketh his own the grandeur that he loves4 #c4 ,love1 and thou shalt be loved4 #d4 ,all loss1 all pain1 is particular2 the universe remains to the heart unhurt4 #e4 ,place yourself in the middle of the stream of power and wisdom which animates all whom it floats1 and you are without effort impelled to truth4 #f4 ,he teaches who gives1 and he learns who receives4 #g4 ,whatever he knows and thinks1 whatever in his apprehension is worth doing1 that let him communicate1 or men will never know and honor him aright4 #h4 ,stand aside2 give those merits room2 let them mount and expand4 #i4 ,we see the noble afar off1 and they repel us2 why should we intrude8 #aj4 ,we go to ,europe1 or we pursue persons1 or we read books1 in the instinctive faith that these will call it out and reveal us to ourselves4 #aa4 ,a gay and pleasant sound is the whetting of the scythe in the mornings of ,june1 yet what is more lonesome and sad than the sound of a whetstone or mower's rifle when it is too late in the season to make hay8 #ab4 ,strike1 says the smith1 the iron is white2 keep the rake1 says the haymaker1 as nigh the scythe as you can1 and the cart as nigh the rake4 #ac4 ,trust men1 and they will be true to you2 treat them greatly1 and they will show themselves great1 though they make an exception in your favor to all their rules of trade4 #ad4 ,on the most profitable lie the course of events presently lays a destructive tax2 whilst frankness invites frankness1 puts the parties on a convenient footing1 and makes their business a friendship4 #ae4 ,the sturdiest offender of your peace and of the neighborhood1 if you rip up his claims1 is as thin and timid as any2 and the peace of society is often kept1 because1 as children1 one is afraid1 and the other dares not4 #af4 ,they will shuffle and crow1 crook and hide1 feign to confess here1 only that they may brag and conquer there1 and not a thought has enriched either party1 and not an emotion of bravery1 modesty1 or hope4 #ag4 ,the magic they used was the ideal tendencies1 which always make the ,actual ridiculous2 but the tough world had its revenge the moment they put their horses of the sun to plow in its furrow4 #ah4 ,come into port greatly1 or sail with ,god the seas4 #ai4 ,when you have chosen your part1 abide by it1 and do not weakly try to reconcile yourself with the world4 #bj4 ,times of heroism are generally times of terror1 but the day never shines in which this element may not work4 #ba4 ,life is a train of moods like a string of beads1 and as we pass through them they prove to be many-colored lenses which paint the world their own hue1 and each shows only what lies at its focus4 #bb4 ,we see young men who owe us a new world1 so readily and lavishly they promise1 but they never acquit the debt2 they die young1 and dodge the account2 or1 if they live1 they lose themselves in the crowd4 #bc4 ,so does culture with us2 it ends in headache4 #bd4 ,do not craze yourself with thinking1 but go about your business anywhere4 #be4 ,thus journeys the mighty ,ideal before us2 it never was known to fall into the rear4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,syntax4 ,,introductory4 ,sidenote3 ,by way of introduction4 #chh4 ,syntax is from a ,greek word meaning order or arrangement4 ,syntax deals with the relation of words to each other as component parts of a sentence1 and with their proper arrangement to express clearly the intended meaning4 ,sidenote3 ,ground covered by syntax4 #chj4 ,following the ,latin method1 writers on ,english grammar usually divide syntax into the two general heads1--agreement and government4 ,agreement is concerned with the following relations of words3 words in apposition1 verb and subject1 pronoun and antecedent1 adjective and noun4 ,government has to do with verbs and prepositions1 both of which are said to govern words by having them in the objective case4 #cij4 ,considering the scarcity of inflections in ,english1 it is clear that if we merely follow the ,latin treatment1 the department of syntax will be a small affair4 ,but there is a good deal else to watch in addition to the few forms2 for there is an important and marked difference between ,latin and ,english syntax4 ,it is this3-- ,latin syntax depends upon fixed rules governing the use of inflected forms3 hence the position of words in a sentence is of little grammatical importance4 ,sidenote3 ,essential point in ,english syntax4 ,english syntax follows the ,latin to a limited extent2 but its leading characteristic is1 that ,english syntax is founded upon the meaning and the logical connection of words rather than upon their form3 consequently it is quite as necessary to place words properly1 and to think clearly of the meaning of words1 as to study inflected forms4 ,for example1 the sentence1 ,the savage here the settler slew1 is ambiguous4 ,savage may be the subject1 following the regular order of subject2 or settler may be the subject1 the order being inverted4 ,in ,latin1 distinct forms would be used1 and it would not matter which one stood first4 ,sidenote3 ,why study syntax8 #cia4 ,there is1 then1 a double reason for not omitting syntax as a department of grammar1-- ,first1 ,to study the rules regarding the use of inflected forms1 some of which conform to classical grammar1 while some are idiomatic 7peculiar to our own language74 ,second1 ,to find out the logical methods which control us in the arrangement of words2 and particularly when the grammatical and the logical conception of a sentence do not agree1 or when they exist side by side in good usage4 ,as an illustration of the last remark1 take the sentence1 ,besides these famous books of ,scott's and ,johnson's1 there is a copious ',life' by ,sheridan4 ,in this there is a possessive form1 and added to it the preposition of1 also expressing a possessive relation4 ,this is not logical2 it is not consistent with the general rules of grammar3 but none the less it is good ,english4 ,also in the sentence1 ,none remained but he1 grammatical rules would require him instead of he after the preposition2 yet the expression is sustained by good authority4 ,sidenote3 ,some rules not rigid4 #cib4 ,in some cases1 authorities--that is1 standard writers--differ as to which of two constructions should be used1 or the same writer will use both indifferently4 ,instances will be found in treating of the pronoun or noun with a gerund1 pronoun and antecedent1 sometimes verb and subject1 etc4 ,when usage varies as to a given construction1 both forms will be given in the following pages4 ,sidenote3 ,the basis of syntax4 #cic4 ,our treatment of syntax will be an endeavor to record the best usage of the present time on important points2 and nothing but important points will be considered1 for it is easy to confuse a student with too many obtrusive don'ts4 ,the constructions presented as general will be justified by quotations from modern writers of ,english who are regarded as standard2 that is1 writers whose style is generally acknowledged as superior1 and whose judgment1 therefore1 will be accepted by those in quest of authoritative opinion4 ,reference will also be made to spoken ,english when its constructions differ from those of the literary language1 and to vulgar ,english when it preserves forms which were once1 but are not now1 good ,english4 ,it may be suggested to the student that the only way to acquire correctness is to watch good usage everywhere1 and imitate it4 ,,nouns4 #cid4 ,nouns have no distinct forms for the nominative and objective cases3 hence no mistake can be made in using them4 ,but some remarks are required concerning the use of the possessive case4 ,sidenote3 ,use of the possessive4 ,joint possession4 #cie4 ,when two or more possessives modify the same noun1 or indicate joint ownership or possession1 the possessive sign is added to the last noun only2 for example1-- ,live your king and country's best support4--,,rowe4 ,woman1 sense and nature's easy fool4--,,byron4 ,oliver and ,boyd's printing office4--,,mcculloch4 ,adam and ,eve's morning hymn4--,,milton4 ,in ,beaumont and ,fletcher's ,sea ,voyage1 ,juletta tells1 etc4--,,emerson4 ,sidenote3 ,separate possession4 #cif4 ,when two or more possessives stand before the same noun1 but imply separate possession or ownership1 the possessive sign is used with each noun2 as1-- ,he lands us on a grassy stage1 ,safe from the storm's and prelate's rage4--,,marvell ,where were the sons of ,peers and ,members of ,parliament in ,anne's and ,george's time8--,,thackeray4 ,levi's station in life was the receipt of custom2 and ,peter's1 the shore of ,galilee2 and ,paul's1 the antechamber of the ,high ,priest4--,,ruskin4 ,swift did not keep ,stella's letters4 ,he kept ,bolingbroke's1 and ,pope's1 and ,harley's1 and ,peterborough's4--,,thackeray4 ,an actor in one of ,morton's or ,kotzebue's plays4--,,macaulay4 ,putting ,mr4 ,mill's and ,mr4 ,bentham's principles together4 --,id4 #cig4 ,the possessive preceding the gerund will be considered under the possessive of pronouns 7,sec4 #djh74 ,,pronouns4 ,,personal ,,pronouns4 ,i4 ,,nominative ,,and ,,objective ,,forms4 #cih4 ,since most of the personal pronouns1 together with the relative who1 have separate forms for nominative and objective use1 there are two general rules that require attention4 ,sidenote3 ,general rules4 7#a7 ,the nominative use is usually marked by the nominative form of the pronoun4 7#b7 ,the objective use is usually marked by the objective form of the pronoun4 ,these simple rules are sometimes violated in spoken and in literary ,english4 ,some of the violations are universally condemned2 others are generally1 if not universally1 sanctioned4 ,sidenote3 ,objective for the nominative4 #cii4 ,the objective is sometimes found instead of the nominative in the following instances3-- 7#a7 ,by a common vulgarism of ignorance or carelessness1 no notice is taken of the proper form to be used as subject2 as1-- ,he and me once went in the dead of winter in a one-hoss shay out to ,boonville4--,,whitcher1 ,bedott ,papers4 ,it seems strange to me that them that preach up the doctrine don't admire one who carrys it out4--,josiah ,allens ,wife4 7#b7 ,by faulty analysis of the sentence1 the true relation of the words is misunderstood2 for example1 ,whom think ye that ,i am8 7,in this1 whom is the complement after the verb am1 and should be the nominative form1 who47 ,the young ,harper1 whom they agree was rather nice-looking 7whom is the subject of the verb was74 ,especially is this fault to be noticed after an ellipsis with than or as1 the real thought being forgotten2 thus1-- ,but the consolation coming from devotion did not go far with such a one as her4--,,trollope4 ,this should be as she1 because the full expression would be such a one as she is4 #djj4 ,still1 the last expression has the support of many good writers1 as shown in the following examples3-- ,she was neither better bred nor wiser than you or me4--,,thackeray4 ,no mightier than thyself or me4--,,shakespeare4 ,lin'd with ,giants deadlier than 'em all4--,,pope4 ,but he must be a stronger than thee4--,,southey4 ,not to render up my soul to such as thee4--,,byron4 ,i shall not learn my duty from such as thee4--,,fielding4 ,sidenote3 ,a safe rule4 ,it will be safer for the student to follow the general rule1 as illustrated in the following sentences3-- ,if so1 they are yet holier than we4--,,ruskin4 ,who would suppose it is the game of such as he8--,,dickens4 ,do we see ,the robber and the murd'rer weak as we8 --,,milton4 ,i have no other saint than thou to pray to4--,,longfellow4 ,sidenote3 ,than whom4 #dja4 ,one exception is to be noted4 ,the expression than whom seems to be used universally instead of than who4 ,there is no special reason for this1 but such is the fact2 for example1-- ,one ,i remember especially1--one than whom ,i never met a bandit more gallant4--,,thackeray4 ,the camp of ,richard of ,england1 than whom none knows better how to do honor to a noble foe4--,,scott4 ,she had a companion who had been ever agreeable1 and her estate a steward than whom no one living was supposed to be more competent4--,,parton4 ,sidenote3 ,it was he or ,it was him8 #djb4 ,and there is one question about which grammarians are not agreed1 namely1 whether the nominative or the objective form should be used in the predicate after was1 is1 are1 and the other forms of the verb be4 ,it may be stated with assurance that the literary language prefers the nominative in this instance1 as1-- ,for there was little doubt that it was he4--,,kingsley4 ,but still it is not she4--,,macaulay4 ,and it was he ,that made the ship to go4 --,,coleridge4 ,in spoken ,english1 on the other hand1 both in ,england and ,america1 the objective form is regularly found1 unless a special1 careful effort is made to adopt the standard usage4 ,the following are examples of spoken ,english from conversations3-- ,rose ,satterne1 the mayor's daughter8--,that's her4--,,kingsley4 ,who's there8--,me1 ,patrick the ,porter4--,,winthrop4 ,if there is any one embarrassed1 it will not be me4--,,wm4 ,,black4 ,the usage is too common to need further examples4 ,exercise4 ,correct the italicized pronouns in the following sentences1 giving reasons from the analysis of the sentence3-- #a4 ,whom they were ,i really cannot specify4 #b4 ,truth is mightier than us all4 #c4 ,if there ever was a rogue in the world1 it is me4 #d4 ,they were the very two individuals whom we thought were far away4 #e4 ,seems to me as if them as writes must hev a kinder gift fur it1 now4 #f4 ,the sign of the ,good ,samaritan is written on the face of whomsoever opens to the stranger4 #g4 ,it is not me you are in love with4 #h4 ,you know whom it is that you thus charge4 #i4 ,the same affinity will exert its influence on whomsoever is as noble as these men and women4 #aj4 ,it was him that ,horace ,walpole called a man who never made a bad figure but as an author4 #aa4 ,we shall soon see which is the fittest object of scorn1 you or me4 ,sidenote3 ,me in exclamations4 #djc4 ,it is to be remembered that the objective form is used in exclamations which turn the attention upon a person2 as1-- ,unhappy me6 ,that ,i cannot risk my own worthless life4--,,kingsley ,alas6 miserable me6 ,alas6 unhappy ,seors6--,id4 ,ay me6 ,i fondly dream--had ye been there4--,,milton4 ,sidenote3 ,nominative for the objective4 #djd4 ,the rule for the objective form is wrongly departed from-- 7#a7 ,when the object is far removed from the verb1 verbal1 or preposition which governs it2 as1 ,he that can doubt whether he be anything or no1 ,i speak not to 7he should be him1 the object of to72 ,i saw men very like him at each of the places mentioned1 but not he 7he should be him1 object of saw74 7#b7 ,in the case of certain pairs of pronouns1 used after verbs1 verbals1 and prepositions1 as this from ,shakespeare1 ,all debts are cleared between you and ,i 7for you and me72 or this1 ,let thou and ,i the battle try 7for thee and me1 or us74 7#c7 ,by forgetting the construction1 in the case of words used in apposition with the object2 as1 ,ask the murderer1 he who has steeped his hands in the blood of another 7instead of him who1 the word being in apposition with murderer74 ,sidenote3 ,exception #a1 who interrogative4 #dje4 ,the interrogative pronoun who may be said to have no objective form in spoken ,english4 ,we regularly say1 ,who did you see8 or1 ,who were they talking to8 etc4 ,the more formal ,to whom were they talking8 sounds stilted in conversation1 and is usually avoided4 ,in literary ,english the objective form whom is preferred for objective use2 as1-- ,knows he now to whom he lies under obligation8--,,scott4 ,what doth she look on8 ,whom doth she behold8--,,wordsworth4 ,yet the nominative form is found quite frequently to divide the work of the objective use2 for example1-- ,my son is going to be married to ,i don't know who4--,,goldsmith4 ,who have we here8--,id4 ,who should ,i meet the other day but my old friend4--,,steele4 ,he hath given away half his fortune to the ,lord knows who4--,,kingsley4 ,who have we got here8--,,smollett4 ,who should we find there but ,eustache8--,,marrvat4 ,who the devil is he talking to8--,,sheridan4 ,sidenote3 ,exception #b1 but he1 etc4 #djf4 ,it is a well-established usage to put the nominative form1 as well as the objective1 after the preposition but 7sometimes save72 as1-- ,all were knocked down but us two4--,,kingsley4 ,thy shores are empires1 changed in all save thee4--,,byron4 ,rich are the sea gods3--who gives gifts but they8--,,emerson4 ,the ,chieftains then ,returned rejoicing1 all but he4 --,,southey ,no man strikes him but ,i4--,,kingsley4 ,none1 save thou and thine1 ,i've sworn1 ,shall be left upon the morn4 ,,byron4 ,exercise4 ,correct the italicized pronouns in the following1 giving reasons from the analysis of the quotation3-- #a4 ,thou1 ,nature1 partial ,nature1 ,i arraign4 #b4 ,let you and ,i look at these1 for they say there are none such in the world4 #c4 ,nonsense6 said ,amyas1 we could kill every soul of them in half an hour1 and they know that as well as me4 #d4 ,markland1 who1 with ,jortin and ,thirlby1 ,johnson calls three contemporaries of great eminence4 #e4 ,they are coming for a visit to she and ,i4 #f4 ,they crowned him long ago2 ,but who they got to put it on ,nobody seems to know4 #g4 ,i experienced little difficulty in distinguishing among the pedestrians they who had business with ,st4 ,bartholomew4 #h4 ,the great difference lies between the laborer who moves to ,yorkshire and he who moves to ,canada4 #i4 ,besides my father and ,uncle ,haddock--he of the silver plates4 #aj4 ,ye against whose familiar names not yet ,the fatal asterisk of death is set1 ,ye ,i salute4 #aa4 ,it can't be worth much to they that hasn't larning4 #ab4 ,to send me away for a whole year--,i who had never crept from under the parental wing--was a startling idea4 ,,ii4 ,,possessive ,,forms4 ,sidenote3 ,as antecedent of a relative4 #djg4 ,the possessive forms of personal pronouns and also of nouns are sometimes found as antecedents of relatives4 ,this usage is not frequent4 ,the antecedent is usually nominative or objective1 as the use of the possessive is less likely to be clear4 ,we should augur ill of any gentleman's property to whom this happened every other day in his drawing room4--,,ruskin4 ,for their sakes whose distance disabled them from knowing me4--,c4,b4 ,,brown4 ,now by ,his name that ,i most reverence in ,heaven1 and by hers whom ,i most worship on earth4--,,scott4 ,he saw her smile and slip money into the man's hand who was ordered to ride behind the coach4--,,thackeray4 ,he doubted whether his signature whose expectations were so much more bounded would avail4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,for boys with hearts as bold ,as his who kept the bridge so well4 --,,macaulay4 ,sidenote3 ,preceding a gerund1--possessive1 or objective8 #djh4 ,another point on which there is some variance in usage is such a construction as this3 ,we heard of ,brown studying law1 or ,we heard of ,brown's studying law4 ,that is1 should the possessive case of a noun or pronoun always be used with the gerund to indicate the active agent8 ,closely scrutinizing these two sentences quoted1 we might find a difference between them3 saying that in the first one studying is a participle1 and the meaning is1 ,we heard of ,brown1 who was studying law2 and that in the second1 studying is a gerund1 object of heard of1 and modified by the possessive case as any other substantive would be4 ,sidenote3 ,why both are found4 ,but in common use there is no such distinction4 ,both types of sentences are found2 both are gerunds2 sometimes the gerund has the possessive form before it1 sometimes it has the objective4 ,the use of the objective is older1 and in keeping with the old way of regarding the person as the chief object before the mind3 the possessive use is more modern1 in keeping with the disposition to proceed from the material thing to the abstract idea1 and to make the action substantive the chief idea before the mind4 ,in the examples quoted1 it will be noticed that the possessive of the pronoun is more common than that of the noun4 ,sidenote3 ,objective4 ,the last incident which ,i recollect1 was my learned and worthy patron falling from a chair4--,,scott4 ,he spoke of some one coming to drink tea with him1 and asked why it was not made4--,,thackeray4 ,the old sexton even expressed a doubt as to ,shakespeare having been born in her house4--,,irving4 ,the fact of the ,romans not burying their dead within the city walls proper is a strong reason1 etc4--,,brewer4 ,i remember ,wordsworth once laughingly reporting to me a little personal anecdote4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,here ,i state them only in brief1 to prevent the reader casting about in alarm for my ultimate meaning4--,,ruskin4 ,we think with far less pleasure of ,cato tearing out his entrails than of ,russell saying1 as he turned away from his wife1 that the bitterness of death was past4--,,macaulay4 ,there is actually a kind of sacredness in the fact of such a man being sent into this earth4--,,carlyle4 ,sidenote3 ,possessive4 ,there is no use for any man's taking up his abode in a house built of glass4--,,carlyle4 ,as to his having good grounds on which to rest an action for life4--,,dickens4 ,the case was made known to me by a man's holding out the little creature dead4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,there may be reason for a savage's preferring many kinds of food which the civilized man rejects4--,,thoreau4 ,it informs me of the previous circumstances of my laying aside my clothes4--,c4 ,,brockden ,,brown4 ,the two strangers gave me an account of their once having been themselves in a somewhat similar condition4--,,audubon4 ,there was a chance of their being sent to a new school1 where there were examinations4--,,ruskin ,this can only be by his preferring truth to his past apprehension of truth4--,,emerson ,,iii4 ,,personal ,,pronouns ,,and ,,their ,,antecedents4 #dji4 ,the pronouns of the third person usually refer back to some preceding noun or pronoun1 and ought to agree with them in person1 number1 and gender4 ,sidenote3 ,watch for the real antecedent4 ,there are two constructions in which the student will need to watch the pronoun1--when the antecedent1 in one person1 is followed by a phrase containing a pronoun of a different person2 and when the antecedent is of such a form that the pronoun following cannot indicate exactly the gender4 ,examples of these constructions are1-- ,those of us who can only maintain themselves by continuing in some business or salaried office4--,,ruskin4 ,suppose the life and fortune of every one of us would depend on his winning or losing a game of chess4--,,huxley4 ,if any one did not know it1 it was his own fault4--,,cable4 ,everybody had his own life to think of4--,,defoe4 #daj4 ,in such a case as the last three sentences1--when the antecedent includes both masculine and feminine1 or is a distributive word1 taking in each of many persons1--the preferred method is to put the pronoun following in the masculine singular2 if the antecedent is neuter1 preceded by a distributive1 the pronoun will be neuter singular4 ,the following are additional examples3-- ,the next correspondent wants you to mark out a whole course of life for him4--,,holmes4 ,every city threw open its gates4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,every person who turns this page has his own little diary4--,,thackeray4 ,the pale realms of shade1 where each shall take ,his chamber in the silent halls of death4 --,,bryant4 ,sidenote3 ,avoided3 ,by using both pronouns4 ,sometimes this is avoided by using both the masculine and the feminine pronoun2 for example1-- ,not the feeblest grandame1 not a mowing idiot1 but uses what spark of perception and faculty is left1 to chuckle and triumph in his or her opinion4--,,emerson4 ,it is a game which has been played for untold ages1 every man and woman of us being one of the two players in a game of his or her own4--,,huxley4 ,by using the plural pronoun4 #daa4 ,another way of referring to an antecedent which is a distributive pronoun or a noun modified by a distributive adjective1 is to use the plural of the pronoun following4 ,this is not considered the best usage1 the logical analysis requiring the singular pronoun in each case2 but the construction is frequently found when the antecedent includes or implies both genders4 ,the masculine does not really represent a feminine antecedent1 and the expression his or her is avoided as being cumbrous4 ,notice the following examples of the plural3-- ,neither of the sisters were very much deceived4--,,thackeray4 ,every one must judge of their own feelings4--,,byron4 ,had the doctor been contented to take my dining tables1 as anybody in their senses would have done4--,,austen4 ,if the part deserve any comment1 every considering ,christian will make it themselves as they go4--,,defoe4 ,every person's happiness depends in part upon the respect they meet in the world4--,,paley4 ,every nation have their refinements--,,sterne4 ,neither gave vent to their feelings in words4--,,scott4 ,each of the nations acted according to their national custom4--,,palgrave4 ,the sun1 which pleases everybody with it and with themselves4--,,ruskin4 ,urging every one within reach of your influence to be neat1 and giving them means of being so4--,id4 ,everybody will become of use in their own fittest way4--,id4 ,everybody said they thought it was the newest thing there4--,,wendell ,,phillips4 ,struggling for life1 each almost bursting their sinews to force the other off4--,,paulding4 ,whosoever hath any gold1 let them break it off4--,bible4 ,nobody knows what it is to lose a friend1 till they have lost him4--,,fielding4 ,where she was gone1 or what was become of her1 no one could take upon them to say4--,,sheridan4 ,i do not mean that ,i think any one to blame for taking due care of their health4--,,addison4 ,exercise4--,in the above sentences1 unless both genders are implied1 change the pronoun to agree with its antecedent4 ,,relative ,,pronouns4 ,i4 ,,restrictive ,,and ,,unrestrictive ,,relatives4 ,sidenote3 ,what these terms mean4 #dab4 ,as to their conjunctive use1 the definite relatives who1 which1 and that may be cordinating or restrictive4 ,a relative1 when cordinating1 or unrestrictive1 is equivalent to a conjunction 7and1 but1 because1 etc47 and a personal pronoun4 ,it adds a new statement to what precedes1 that being considered already clear2 as1 ,i gave it to the beggar1 who went away4 ,this means1 ,i gave it to the beggar we know which one1 and he went away4 ,a relative1 when restrictive1 introduces a clause to limit and make clear some preceding word4 ,the clause is restricted to the antecedent1 and does not add a new statement2 it merely couples a thought necessary to define the antecedent3 as1 ,i gave it to a beggar who stood at the gate4 ,it defines beggar4 #dac4 ,it is sometimes contended that who and which should always be cordinating1 and that always restrictive2 but1 according to the practice of every modern writer1 the usage must be stated as follows3-- ,sidenote3 ,a loose rule the only one to be formulated4 ,who and which are either cordinating or restrictive1 the taste of the writer and regard for euphony being the guide4 ,that is in most cases restrictive1 the cordinating use not being often found among careful writers4 ,exercise4 ,in the following examples1 tell whether who1 which1 and that are restrictive or not1 in each instance3-- ,sidenote3 ,who4 #a4 ,here he is now6 cried those who stood near ,ernest4--,,hawthorne4 #b4 ,he could overhear the remarks of various individuals1 who were comparing the features with the face on the mountain side4--,id4 #c4 ,the particular recording angel who heard it pretended not to understand1 or it might have gone hard with the tutor4--,,holmes4 #d4 ,yet how many are there who up1 down1 and over ,england are saying1 etc4--,h4,w4 ,,beecher #e4 ,a grizzly-looking man appeared1 whom we took to be sixty or seventy years old4--,,thoreau4 ,sidenote3 ,which4 #f4 ,the volume which ,i am just about terminating is almost as much ,english history as ,dutch4--,,motley4 #g4 ,on hearing their plan1 which was to go over the ,cordilleras1 she agreed to join the party4--,,de ,,quincey4 #h4 ,even the wild story of the incident which had immediately occasioned the explosion of this madness fell in with the universal prostration of mind4--,id4 #i4 ,their colloquies are all gone to the fire except this first1 which ,mr4 ,hare has printed4--,,carlyle4 #aj4 ,there is a particular science which takes these matters in hand1 and it is called logic4--,,newman4 ,sidenote3 ,that4 #aa4 ,so different from the wild1 hard-mouthed horses at ,westport1 that were often vicious4--,,de ,,quincey4 #ab4 ,he was often tempted to pluck the flowers that rose everywhere about him in the greatest variety4--,,addison4 #ac4 ,he felt a gale of perfumes breathing upon him1 that grew stronger and sweeter in proportion as he advanced4--,id4 #ad4 ,with narrow shoulders1 long arms and legs1 hands that dangled a mile out of his sleeves4--,,irving4 ,,ii4 ,,relative ,,and ,,antecedent4 ,sidenote3 ,the rule4 #dad4 ,the general rule is1 that the relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person and number4 ,sidenote3 ,in what sense true4 ,this cannot be true as to the form of the pronoun1 as that does not vary for person or number4 ,we say ,i1 you1 he1 they1 etc41 who2 these or that which1 etc4 ,however1 the relative carries over the agreement from the antecedent before to the verb following1 so far as the verb has forms to show its agreement with a substantive4 ,for example1 in the sentence1 ,he that writes to himself writes to an eternal public1 that is invariable as to person and number1 but1 because of its antecedent1 it makes the verb third person singular4 ,notice the agreement in the following sentences3-- ,there is not one of the company1 but myself1 who rarely speak at all1 but speaks of him as that sort1 etc4--,,addison4 ,o ,time6 who know'st a lenient hand to lay ,softest on sorrow's wound4--,,bowles4 ,let us be of good cheer1 remembering that the misfortunes hardest to bear are those which never come4--,,lowell4 ,sidenote3 ,a disputed point4 #dae4 ,this prepares the way for the consideration of one of the vexed questions1--whether we should say1 one of the finest books that has been published1 or1 one of the finest books that have been published4 ,sidenote3 ,one of 444 plural that who1 or which 444 singular or plural4 ,the pale realms of shade1 where each shall take ,his chamber in the silent halls of death4 --,,bryant4 ,both constructions are frequently found1 the reason being a difference of opinion as to the antecedent4 ,some consider it to be one book of the finest books1 with one as the principal word1 the true antecedent2 others regard books as the antecedent1 and write the verb in the plural4 ,the latter is rather more frequent1 but the former has good authority4 ,the following quotations show both sides3-- ,sidenote3 ,plural4 ,he was one of the very few commanders who appear to have shown equal skill in directing a campaign1 in winning a battle1 and in improving a victory4--,,lecky4 ,he was one of the most distinguished scientists who have ever lived4--,j4,t4,,morse1 ,jr41 ,franklin4 ,it is one of those periods which shine with an unnatural and delusive splendor4--,,macaulay4 ,a very little encouragement brought back one of those overflows which make one more ashamed1 etc4--,,holmes4 ,i am one of those who believe that the real will never find an irremovable basis till it rests on the ideal4--,,lowell4 ,french literature of the eighteenth century1 one of the most powerful agencies that have ever existed4--,m4 ,,arnold4 ,what man's life is not overtaken by one or more of those tornadoes that send us out of our course8--,,thackeray4 ,he is one of those that deserve very well4--,,addison4 ,sidenote3 ,singular4 ,the fiery youth 444 struck down one of those who was pressing hardest4--,,scott4 ,he appeared to me one of the noblest creatures that ever was1 when he derided the shams of society4--,,howells4 ,a rare ,roundabout performance1--one of the very best that has ever appeared in this series4--,,thackeray4 ,valancourt was the hero of one of the most famous romances which ever was published in this country4--,id4 ,it is one of the errors which has been diligently propagated by designing writers4--,,irving4 ,i am going to breakfast with one of these fellows who is at the ,piazza ,hotel4--,,dickens4 ,the ,economy of the ,animal ,kingdom is one of those books which is an honor to the human race4--,,emerson4 ,tom ,puzzle is one of the most eminent immethodical disputants of any that has fallen under my observation4--,,addison4 ,the richly canopied monument of one of the most earnest souls that ever gave itself to the arts4--,,ruskin4 ,,iii4 ,,omission ,,of ,,the ,,relative4 #daf4 ,although the omission of the relative is common when it would be the object of the verb or preposition expressed1 there is an omission which is not frequently found in careful writers2 that is1 when the relative word is a pronoun1 object of a preposition understood1 or is equivalent to the conjunction when1 where1 whence1 and such like3 as1 ,he returned by the same route by which he came2 ,india is the place in which1 or where he died4 ,notice these sentences3-- ,in the posture ,i lay1 ,i could see nothing except the sky4--,,swift4 ,this is he that should marshal us the way we were going4--,,emerson4 ,but ,i by backward steps would move2 ,and1 when this dust falls to the urn1 ,in that same state ,i came1 return4--,,vaughan4 ,welcome the hour my aged limbs ,are laid with thee to rest4--,,burns4 ,the night was concluded in the manner we began the morning4--,,goldsmith4 ,the same day ,i went aboard we set sail4--,,defoe4 ,the vulgar historian of a ,cromwell fancies that he had determined on being ,protector of ,england1 at the time he was plowing the marsh lands of ,cambridgeshire4--,,carlyle4 ,to pass under the canvas in the manner he had entered required time and attention4--,,scott4 ,exercise4--,in the above sentences1 insert the omitted conjunction or phrase1 and see if the sentence is made clearer4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,relative ,,as ,,after ,,same4 #dag4 ,it is very rarely that we find such sentences as1-- ,he considered444me as his apprentice1 and accordingly expected the same service from me as he would from another4--,,franklin4 ,this has the same effect in natural faults as maiming and mutilation produce from accidents4--,,burke4 ,sidenote3 ,the regular construction4 ,sidenote3 ,caution4 ,the usual way is to use the relative as after same if no verb follows as2 but1 if same is followed by a complete clause1 as is not used1 but we find the relative who1 which1 or that4 ,remember this applies only to as when used as a relative4 ,examples of the use of as in a contracted clause3-- ,looking to the same end as ,turner1 and working in the same spirit1 he1 with ,turner1 was a discoverer1 etc4--,r4,w4 ,,church4 ,they believe the same of all the works of art1 as of knives1 boats1 looking-glasses4--,,addison4 ,examples of relatives following same in full clauses3-- ,sidenote3 ,who4 ,this is the very same rogue who sold us the spectacles4 --,,goldsmith4 ,the same person who had clapped his thrilling hands at the first representation of the ,tempest4--,,macaulay4 ,sidenote3 ,that4 ,i rubbed on some of the same ointment that was given me at my first arrival4--,,swift4 ,sidenote3 ,which4 ,for the same sound is in my ears ,which in those days ,i heard4--,,wordsworth4 ,with the same minuteness which her predecessor had exhibited1 she passed the lamp over her face and person4--,,scott4 ,v4 ,,misuse ,,of ,,relative ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,anacoluthic use of which4 #dah4 ,there is now and then found in the pages of literature a construction which imitates the ,latin1 but which is usually carefully avoided4 ,it is a use of the relative which so as to make an anacoluthon1 or lack of proper connection between the clauses2 for example1-- ,which1 if ,i had resolved to go on with1 ,i might as well have staid at home4--,,defoe ,which if he attempted to do1 ,mr4 ,billings vowed that he would follow him to ,jerusalem4--,,thackeray4 ,we know not the incantation of the heart that would wake them2--which if they once heard1 they would start up to meet us in the power of long ago4--,,ruskin4 ,he delivered the letter1 which when ,mr4 ,thornhill had read1 he said that all submission was now too late4--,,goldsmith4 ,but still the house affairs would draw her thence2 ,which ever as she could with haste dispatch1 ,she'd come again4--,,shakespeare4 ,as the sentences stand1 which really has no office in the sentence3 it should be changed to a demonstrative or a personal pronoun1 and this be placed in the proper clause4 ,exercise4--,rewrite the above five sentences so as to make the proper grammatical connection in each4 ,sidenote3 ,and who1 and which1 etc4 #dai4 ,there is another kind of expression which slips into the lines of even standard authors1 but which is always regarded as an oversight and a blemish4 ,the following sentence affords an example3 ,the rich are now engaged in distributing what remains among the poorer sort1 and who are now thrown upon their compassion4 ,the trouble is that such conjunctions as and1 but1 or1 etc41 should connect expressions of the same kind3 and who makes us look for a preceding who1 but none is expressed4 ,there are three ways to remedy the sentence quoted3 thus1 7#a7 ,among those who are poor1 and who are now1 etc42 7#b7 ,among the poorer sort1 who are now thrown1 etc42 7#c7 ,among the poorer sort1 now thrown upon their1 etc4 ,that is1-- ,sidenote3 ,direction for rewriting4 ,express both relatives1 or omit the conjunction1 or leave out both connective and relative4 ,exercise4 ,rewrite the following examples according to the direction just given3-- ,sidenote3 ,and who4 #a4 ,hester bestowed all her means on wretches less miserable than herself1 and who not unfrequently insulted the hand that fed them4--,,hawthorne4 #b4 ,with an albatross perched on his shoulder1 and who might be introduced to the congregation as the immediate organ of his conversion4--,,de ,,quincey4 #c4 ,after this came ,elizabeth herself1 then in the full glow of what in a sovereign was called beauty1 and who would in the lowest walk of life have been truly judged to possess a noble figure4--,,scott4 #d4 ,this was a gentleman1 once a great favorite of ,m4 le ,conte1 and in whom ,i myself was not a little interested4--,,thackeray4 ,sidenote3 ,but who4 #e4 ,yonder woman was the wife of a certain learned man1 ,english by name1 but who had long dwelt in ,amsterdam4--,,hawthorne4 #f4 ,dr4 ,ferguson considered him as a man of a powerful capacity1 but whose mind was thrown off its just bias4--,,scott4 ,sidenote3 ,or who4 #g4 ,what knight so craven1 then1 exclaims the chivalrous ,venetian1 that he would not have been more than a match for the stoutest adversary2 or who would not have lost his life a thousand times sooner than return dishonored by the lady of his love8--,,prescott4 ,sidenote3 ,and which4 #h4 ,there are peculiar quavers still to be heard in that church1 and which may even be heard a mile off4--,,irving4 #i4 ,the old ,british tongue was replaced by a debased ,latin1 like that spoken in the towns1 and in which inscriptions are found in the western counties4--,,pearson4 #aj4 ,i shall have complete copies1 one of signal interest1 and which has never been described4--,,motley4 ,sidenote3 ,but which4 #aa4 ,a mockery1 indeed1 but in which the soul trifled with itself6--,,hawthorne4 #ab4 ,i saw upon the left a scene far different1 but which yet the power of dreams had reconciled into harmony4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,sidenote3 ,or which4 #ac4 ,he accounted the fair-spoken courtesy1 which the ,scotch had learned1 either from imitation of their frequent allies1 the ,french1 or which might have arisen from their own proud and reserved character1 as a false and astucious mark1 etc4--,,scott4 ,sidenote3 ,that 444 and which1 etc4 #dbj4 ,akin to the above is another fault1 which is likewise a variation from the best usage4 ,two different relatives are sometimes found referring back to the same antecedent in one sentence2 whereas the better practice is to choose one relative1 and repeat this for any further reference4 ,exercise4 ,rewrite the following quotations by repeating one relative instead of using two for the same antecedent3-- ,sidenote3 ,that 444 who4 #a4 ,still in the confidence of children that tread without fear every chamber in their father's house1 and to whom no door is closed4--,,de ,,quincey4 #b4 ,those renowned men that were our ancestors as much as yours1 and whose examples and principles we inherit4--,,beecher4 #c4 ,the ,tree ,igdrasil1 that has its roots down in the kingdoms of ,hela and ,death1 and whose boughs overspread the highest heaven6--,,carlyle4 ,sidenote3 ,that 444 which4 #d4 ,christianity is a religion that reveals men as the object of ,god's infinite love1 and which commends him to the unbounded love of his brethren4--,w4,e4 ,,channing4 #e4 ,he flung into literature1 in his ,mephistopheles1 the first organic figure that has been added for some ages1 and which will remain as long as the ,prometheus4--,,emerson4 #f4 ,gutenburg might also have struck out an idea that surely did not require any extraordinary ingenuity1 and which left the most important difficulties to be surmounted4--,,hallam4 #g4 ,do me the justice to tell me what ,i have a title to be acquainted with1 and which ,i am certain to know more truly from you than from others4--,,scott4 #h4 ,he will do this amiable little service out of what one may say old civilization has established in place of goodness of heart1 but which is perhaps not so different from it4--,,howells4 #i4 ,in my native town of ,salem1 at the head of what1 half a century ago1 was a bustling wharf1--but which is now burdened with decayed wooden warehouses4--,,hawthorne4 #aj4 ,his recollection of what he considered as extreme presumption in the ,knight of the ,leopard1 even when he stood high in the roles of chivalry1 but which1 in his present condition1 appeared an insult sufficient to drive the fiery monarch into a frenzy of passion4--,,scott ,sidenote3 ,that which 444 what4 #aa4 ,he1 now without any effort but that which he derived from the sill1 and what little his feet could secure the irregular crevices1 was hung in air4--,w4,g4 ,,simms4 ,sidenote3 ,such as 444 which4 #ab4 ,it rose into a thrilling passion1 such as my heart had always dimly craved and hungered after1 but which now first interpreted itself to my ear4--,,de ,,quincey4 #ac4 ,i recommend some honest manual calling1 such as they have very probably been bred to1 and which will at least give them a chance of becoming ,president4--,,holmes4 ,sidenote3 ,such as 444 whom4 #ad4 ,i grudge the dollar1 the dime1 the cent1 ,i give to such men as do not belong to me1 and to whom ,i do not belong4--,,emerson4 ,sidenote3 ,which 444 that 444 that4 #ae4 ,that evil influence which carried me first away from my father's house1 that hurried me into the wild and undigested notion of making my fortune1 and that impressed these conceits so forcibly upon me4--,,defoe4 ,,adjective ,,pronouns4 ,sidenote3 ,each other1 one another4 #dba4 ,the student is sometimes troubled whether to use each other or one another in expressing reciprocal relation or action4 ,whether either one refers to a certain number of persons or objects1 whether or not the two are equivalent1 may be gathered from a study of the following sentences3-- ,they ,ernest and the poet led one another1 as it were1 into the high pavilion of their thoughts4--,,hawthorne4 ,men take each other's measure when they meet for the first time4--,,emerson4 ,you ruffian6 do you fancy ,i forget that we were fond of each other8--,,thackeray4 ,england was then divided between kings and ,druids1 always at war with one another1 carrying off each other's cattle and wives4--,,brewer ,the topics follow each other in the happiest order4--,,macaulay4 ,the ,peers at a conference begin to pommel each other4--,id4 ,we call ourselves a rich nation1 and we are filthy and foolish enough to thumb each other's books out of circulating libraries4--,,ruskin4 ,the real hardships of life are now coming fast upon us2 let us not increase them by dissension among each other4--,,goldsmith4 ,in a moment we were all shaking hands with one another4--,,dickens4 ,the unjust purchaser forces the two to bid against each other4--,,ruskin4 ,sidenote3 ,distributives either and neither4 #dbb4 ,by their original meaning1 either and neither refer to only two persons or objects2 as1 for example1-- ,some one must be poor1 and in want of his gold--or his corn4 ,assume that no one is in want of either4--,,ruskin ,their ,ernest's and the poet's minds accorded into one strain1 and made delightful music which neither could have claimed as all his own4--,,hawthorne4 ,sidenote3 ,use of any4 ,sometimes these are made to refer to several objects1 in which case any should be used instead2 as1-- ,was it the winter's storm8 was it hard labor and spare meals8 was it disease8 was it the tomahawk8 ,is it possible that neither of these causes1 that not all combined1 were able to blast this bud of hope8--,,everett4 ,once ,i took such delight in ,montaigne 4442 before that1 in ,shakespeare2 then in ,plutarch2 then in ,plotinus2 at one time in ,bacon2 afterwards in ,goethe2 even in ,bettine2 but now ,i turn the pages of either of them languidly1 whilst ,i still cherish their genius4--,,emerson4 ,sidenote3 ,any usually plural4 #dbc4 ,the adjective pronoun any is nearly always regarded as plural1 as shown in the following sentences3-- ,if any of you have been accustomed to look upon these hours as mere visionary hours1 ,i beseech you1 etc4--,,beecher ,whenever1 during his stay at ,yuste1 any of his friends had died1 he had been punctual in doing honor to their memory4--,,stirling4 ,but ,i enjoy the company and conversation of its inhabitants1 when any of them are so good as to visit me4--,,franklin4 ,do you think1 when ,i spoke anon of the ghosts of ,pryor's children1 ,i mean that any of them are dead8--,,thackeray4 ,in earlier ,modern ,english1 any was often singular2 as1-- ,if any1 speak2 for him have ,i offended4--,,shakespeare4 ,if any of you lack wisdom1 let him ask of ,god4--,bible4 ,very rarely the singular is met with in later times2 as1-- ,here is a poet doubtless as much affected by his own descriptions as any that reads them can be4--,,burke4 ,sidenote3 ,caution4 ,the above instances are to be distinguished from the adjective any1 which is plural as often as singular4 ,sidenote3 ,none usually plural4 #dbd4 ,the adjective pronoun none is1 in the prose of the present day1 usually plural1 although it is historically a contraction of ne n 7not one74 ,examples of its use are1-- ,in earnest1 if ever man was2 as none of the ,french philosophers were4--,,carlyle4 ,none of ,nature's powers do better service4--,,prof4 ,,dana ,one man answers some question which none of his contemporaries put1 and is isolated4--,,emerson4 ,none obey the command of duty so well as those who are free from the observance of slavish bondage4--,,scott4 ,do you think1 when ,i spoke anon of the ghosts of ,pryor's children1 ,i mean that any of them are dead8 ,none are1 that ,i know of4--,,thackeray4 ,early apples begin to be ripe about the first of ,august2 but ,i think none of them are so good to eat as some to smell4--,,thoreau4 ,the singular use of none is often found in the ,bible2 as1-- ,none of them was cleansed1 saving ,naaman the ,syrian4--,,luke iv #bg ,also the singular is sometimes found in present-day ,english in prose1 and less rarely in poetry2 for example1-- ,perhaps none of our ,presidents since ,washington has stood so firm in the confidence of the people4--,,lowell ,in signal none his steed should spare4--,,scott ,like the use of any1 the pronoun none should be distinguished from the adjective none1 which is used absolutely1 and hence is more likely to confuse the student4 ,compare with the above the following sentences having the adjective none3-- ,reflecting a summer evening sky in its bosom1 though none no sky was visible overhead4--,,thoreau ,the holy fires were suffered to go out in the temples1 and none no fires were lighted in their own dwellings4--,,prescott ,sidenote3 ,all singular and plural4 #dbe4 ,the pronoun all has the singular construction when it means everything2 the plural1 when it means all persons3 for example1-- ,sidenote3 ,singular4 ,the light troops thought 444 that all was lost4--,,palgrave ,all was won on the one side1 and all was lost on the other4--,,bayne ,having done all that was just toward others4--,,napier ,sidenote3 ,plural4 ,but the ,king's treatment of the great lords will be judged leniently by all who remember1 etc4--,,pearson4 ,when all were gone1 fixing his eyes on the mace1 etc4--,,lingard ,all who did not understand ,french were compelled1 etc4--,mc,m,a,s,t,e,r4 ,sidenote3 ,somebody's else1 or somebody else's8 #dbf4 ,the compounds somebody else1 any one else1 nobody else1 etc41 are treated as units1 and the apostrophe is regularly added to the final word else instead of the first4 ,thackeray has the expression somebody's else1 and ,ford has nobody's else1 but the regular usage is shown in the following selections3-- ,a boy who is fond of somebody else's pencil case4--,g4 ,,eliot4 ,a suit of clothes like somebody else's4--,,thackeray4 ,drawing off his gloves and warming his hands before the fire as benevolently as if they were somebody else's4--,,dickens4 ,certainly not6 nor any one else's ropes4--,,ruskin4 ,again1 my pronunciation--like everyone else's--is in some cases more archaic4--,,sweet4 ,then everybody wanted some of somebody else's4--,,ruskin4 ,his hair444curled once all over it in long tendrils1 unlike anybody else's in the world4--,n4,p4 ,,willis4 ,ye see1 there ain't nothin' wakes folks up like somebody else's wantin' what you've got4--,,mrs4 ,,stowe4 ,,adjectives4 ,,agreement ,,of ,,adjectives ,,with ,,nouns4 ,sidenote3 ,these sort1 all manner of1 etc4 #dbg4 ,the statement that adjectives agree with their nouns in number is restricted to the words this and that 7with these and those71 as these are the only adjectives that have separate forms for singular and plural2 and it is only in one set of expressions that the concord seems to be violated1--in such as these sort of books1 those kind of trees1 all manner of men2 the nouns being singular1 the adjectives plural4 ,these expressions are all but universal in spoken ,english1 and may be found not infrequently in literary ,english2 for example1-- ,these kind of knaves ,i know1 which in this plainness ,harbor more craft1 etc4--,,shakespeare ,all these sort of things4--,,sheridan4 ,i hoped we had done with those sort of things4--,,muloch4 ,you have been so used to those sort of impertinences4--,,sydney ,,smith4 ,whitefield or ,wesley1 or some other such great man as a bishop1 or those sort of people4--,,fielding4 ,i always delight in overthrowing those kind of schemes4--,,austen4 ,there are women as well as men who can thoroughly enjoy those sort of romantic spots4--,saturday ,review1 ,london4 ,the library was open1 with all manner of amusing books4--,,ruskin4 ,according to the approved usage of ,modern ,english1 each one of the above adjectives would have to be changed to the singular1 or the nouns to the plural4 ,sidenote3 ,history of this construction4 ,the reason for the prevalence of these expressions must be sought in the history of the language3 it cannot be found in the statement that the adjective is made plural by the attraction of a noun following4 ,sidenote3 ,at the source4 ,in ,old and ,middle ,english1 in keeping with the custom of looking at things concretely rather than in the abstract1 they said1 not all kinds of wild animals1 but alles cunnes wilde deor 7wild animals of-every-kind74 ,this the modern expression reverses4 ,sidenote3 ,later form4 ,but in early ,middle ,english the modern way of regarding such expressions also appeared1 gradually displacing the old4 ,sidenote3 ,the result4 ,consequently we have a confused expression4 ,we keep the form of logical agreement in standard ,english1 such as1 ,this sort of trees should be planted2 but at the same time the noun following kind of is felt to be the real subject1 and the adjective is1 in spoken ,english1 made to agree with it1 which accounts for the construction1 ,these kind of trees are best4 ,sidenote3 ,a question4 ,the inconvenience of the logical construction is seen when we wish to use a predicate with number forms4 ,should we say1 ,this kind of rules are the best1 or ,this kind of rules is the best8 ,kind or sort may be treated as a collective noun1 and in this way may take a plural verb2 for example1 ,burke's sentence1 ,a sort of uncertain sounds are1 when the necessary dispositions concur1 more alarming than a total silence4 ,,comparative ,,and ,,superlative ,,forms4 ,sidenote3 ,use of the comparative degree4 #dbh4 ,the comparative degree of the adjective 7or adverb7 is used when we wish to compare two objects or sets of objects1 or one object with a class of objects1 to express a higher degree of quality2 as1-- ,which is the better able to defend himself1--a strong man with nothing but his fists1 or a paralytic cripple encumbered with a sword which he cannot lift8--,,macaulay4 ,of two such lessons1 why forget ,the nobler and the manlier one8 --,,byron4 ,we may well doubt which has the stronger claim to civilization1 the victor or the vanquished4--,,prescott4 ,a braver ne'er to battle rode4--,,scott4 ,he is taller1 by almost the breadth of my nail1 than any of his court4--,,swift4 ,sidenote3 ,other after the comparative form4 #dbi4 ,when an object is compared with the class to which it belongs1 it is regularly excluded from that class by the word other2 if not1 the object would really be compared with itself3 thus1-- ,the character of ,lady ,castlewood has required more delicacy in its manipulation than perhaps any other which ,thackeray has drawn4--,,trollope4 ,i used to watch this patriarchal personage with livelier curiosity than any other form of humanity4--,,hawthorne4 ,exercise4 ,see if the word other should be inserted in the following sentences3-- #a4 ,there was no man who could make a more graceful bow than ,mr4 ,henry4--,,wirt4 #b4 ,i am concerned to see that ,mr4 ,gary1 to whom ,dante owes more than ever poet owed to translator1 has sanctioned1 etc4--,,macaulay4 #c4 ,there is no country in which wealth is so sensible of its obligations as our own4--,,lowell4 #d4 ,this is more sincerely done in the ,scandinavian than in any mythology ,i know4--,,carlyle4 #e4 ,in ,thaddeus of ,warsaw there is more crying than in any novel ,i remember to have read4--,,thackeray4 #f4 ,the heroes of another writer ,cooper are quite the equals of ,scott's men2 perhaps ,leather-stocking is better than any one in ,scott's lot4--,id4 ,sidenote3 ,use of the superlative degree4 #dcj4 ,the superlative degree of the adjective 7or adverb7 is used regularly in comparing more than two things1 but is also frequently used in comparing only two things4 ,examples of superlative with several objects3-- ,it is a case of which the simplest statement is the strongest4--,,macaulay4 ,even ,dodd himself1 who was one of the greatest humbugs who ever lived1 would not have had the face4--,,thackeray4 ,to the man who plays well1 the highest stakes are paid4--,,huxley4 ,sidenote3 ,superlative with two objects4 ,compare the first three sentences in ,sec4 #dbh with the following3-- ,which do you love best to behold1 the lamb or the lion8 --,,thackeray4 ,which of these methods has the best effect8 ,both of them are the same to the sense1 and differ only in form4--,,dr ,,blair4 ,rip was one of those 444 who eat white bread or brown1 whichever can be got easiest4--,,irving4 ,it is hard to say whether the man of wisdom or the man of folly contributed most to the amusement of the party4--,,scott4 ,there was an interval of three years between ,mary and ,anne4 ,the eldest1 ,mary1 was like the ,stuarts--the younger was a fair ,english child4--,,mrs4 ,,oliphant4 ,of the two great parties which at this hour almost share the nation between them1 ,i should say that one has the best cause1 and the other contains the best men4--,,emerson4 ,in all disputes between ,states1 though the strongest is nearly always mainly in the wrong1 the weaker is often so in a minor degree4--,,ruskin4 ,she thought him and ,olivia extremely of a size1 and would bid both to stand up to see which was the tallest4--,,goldsmith4 ,these two properties seem essential to wit1 more particularly the last of them4--,,addison4 ,ha1 ha1 ha6 roared ,goodman ,brown when the wind laughed at him4 ,let us see which will laugh loudest4--,,hawthorne4 ,sidenote3 ,double comparative and superlative4 #dca4 ,in ,shakespeare's time it was quite common to use a double comparative and superlative by using more or most before the word already having -er or -est4 ,examples from ,shakespeare are1-- ,how much more elder art thou than thy looks6--,merchant of ,venice4 ,nor that ,i am more better than ,prospero4--,tempest4 ,come you more nearer4--,hamlet4 ,with the most boldest and best hearts of ,rome4--,j4 ,csar4 ,also from the same period1-- ,imitating the manner of the most ancientest and finest ,grecians4--,,ben ,,jonson4 ,after the most straitest sect of our religion4--,bible1 #afaa4 ,such expressions are now heard only in vulgar ,english4 ,the following examples are used purposely1 to represent the characters as ignorant persons3-- ,the artful saddler persuaded the young traveler to look at the most convenientest and handsomest saddle that ever was seen4--,,bulwer4 ,there's nothing comes out but the most lowest stuff in nature2 not a bit of high life among them4--,,goldsmith4 ,,three ,,first ,,or ,,first ,,three8 #dcb4 ,as to these two expressions1 over which a little war has so long been buzzing1 we think it not necessary to say more than that both are in good use2 not only so in popular speech1 but in literary ,english4 ,instances of both are given below4 ,the meaning intended is the same1 and the reader gets the same idea from both3 hence there is properly a perfect liberty in the use of either or both4 ,sidenote3 ,first three1 etc4 ,for ,carlyle1 and ,secretary ,walsingham also1 have been helping them heart and soul for the last two years4--,,kingsley4 ,the delay in the first three lines1 and conceit in the last1 jar upon us constantly4--,,ruskin4 ,the last dozen miles before you reach the suburbs4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,mankind for the first seventy thousand ages ate their meat raw4--,,lamb4 ,the first twenty numbers were expressed by a corresponding number of dots4 ,the first five had specific names4--,,prescott4 ,sidenote3 ,three first1 etc4 ,these are the three first needs of civilized life4--,,ruskin4 ,he has already finished the three first sticks of it4--,,addison4 ,in my two last you had so much of ,lismahago that ,i suppose you are glad he is gone4--,,smollett4 ,i have not numbered the lines except of the four first books4 --,,cowper4 ,the seven first centuries were filled with a succession of triumphs4--,,gibbon4 ,,articles4 ,sidenote3 ,definite article4 #dcc4 ,the definite article is repeated before each of two modifiers of the same noun1 when the purpose is to call attention to the noun expressed and the one understood4 ,in such a case two or more separate objects are usually indicated by the separation of the modifiers4 ,examples of this construction are1-- ,sidenote3 ,with a singular noun4 ,the merit of the ,barb1 the ,spanish1 and the ,english breed is derived from a mixture of ,arabian blood4--,,gibbon4 ,the righteous man is distinguished from the unrighteous by his desire and hope of justice4--,,ruskin4 ,he seemed deficient in sympathy for concrete human things either on the sunny or the stormy side4--,,carlyle4 ,it is difficult to imagine a greater contrast than that between the first and the second part of the volume4--,the ,nation1 ,no4 #aejh4 ,sidenote3 ,with a plural noun4 ,there was also a fundamental difference of opinion as to whether the earliest cleavage was between the ,northern and the ,southern languages4--,,taylor1 ,origin of the ,aryans4 #dcd4 ,the same repetition of the article is sometimes found before nouns alone1 to distinguish clearly1 or to emphasize the meaning2 as1-- ,in every line of the ,philip and the ,saul1 the greatest poems1 ,i think1 of the eighteenth century4--,,macaulay4 ,he is master of the two-fold ,logos1 the thought and the word1 distinct1 but inseparable from each other4--,,newman4 ,the flowers1 and the presents1 and the trunks and bonnet boxes 444 having been arranged1 the hour of parting came4--,,thackeray4 ,sidenote3 ,the not repeated4 ,one object and several modifiers1 with a singular noun4 #dce4 ,frequently1 however1 the article is not repeated before each of two or more adjectives1 as in ,sec4 #dcc1 but is used with one only2 as1-- ,or fanciest thou the red and yellow ,clothes-screen yonder is but of ,to-day1 without a ,yesterday or a ,to-morrow8--,,carlyle4 ,the lofty1 melodious1 and flexible language4--,,scott4 ,the fairest and most loving wife in ,greece4--,,tennyson4 ,sidenote3 ,meaning same as in ,sec4 #dcc1 with a plural noun4 ,neither can there be a much greater resemblance between the ancient and modern general views of the town4--,,halliwell-,,phillipps4 ,at ,talavera the ,english and ,french troops for a moment suspended their conflict4--,,macaulay4 ,the ,crusades brought to the rising commonwealths of the ,adriatic and ,tyrrhene seas a large increase of wealth4--,id4 ,here the youth of both sexes1 of the higher and middling orders1 were placed at a very tender age4--,,prescott4 ,sidenote3 ,indefinite article4 #dcf4 ,the indefinite article is used1 like the definite article1 to limit two or more modified nouns1 only one of which is expressed4 ,the article is repeated for the purpose of separating or emphasizing the modified nouns4 ,examples of this use are1-- ,we shall live a better and a higher and a nobler life4--,,beecher4 ,the difference between the products of a well-disciplined and those of an uncultivated understanding is often and admirably exhibited by our great dramatist4--,s4,t4 ,,coleridge4 ,let us suppose that the pillars succeed each other1 a round and a square one alternately4--,,burke4 ,as if the difference between an accurate and an inaccurate statement was not worth the trouble of looking into the most common book of reference4--,,macaulay4 ,to every room there was an open and a secret passage4--,,johnson4 ,notice that in the above sentences 7except the first7 the noun expressed is in contrast with the modified noun omitted4 ,sidenote3 ,one article with several adjectives4 #dcg4 ,usually the article is not repeated when the several adjectives unite in describing one and the same noun4 ,in the sentences of ,secs4 #dcc and #dcf1 one noun is expressed2 yet the same word understood with the other adjectives has a different meaning 7except in the first sentence of ,sec4 #dcf74 ,but in the following sentences1 as in the first three of ,sec4 #dce1 the adjectives assist each other in describing the same noun4 ,it is easy to see the difference between the expressions a red-and-white geranium1 and a red and a white geranium4 ,examples of several adjectives describing the same object3-- ,to inspire us with a free and quiet mind4--,b4 ,,jonson4 ,here and there a desolate and uninhabited house4--,,dickens4 ,james was declared a mortal and bloody enemy4--,,macaulay4 ,so wert thou born into a tuneful strain1 ,an early1 rich1 and inexhausted vein4 --,,dryden4 ,sidenote3 ,for rhetorical effect4 #dch4 ,the indefinite article 7compare ,sec4 #dcd7 is used to lend special emphasis1 interest1 or clearness to each of several nouns2 as1-- ,james was declared a mortal and bloody enemy1 a tyrant1 a murderer1 and a usurper4--,,macaulay4 ,thou hast spoken as a patriot and a ,christian4--,,bulwer4 ,he saw him in his mind's eye1 a collegian1 a parliament man--a ,baronet perhaps4--,,thackeray4 ,,verbs4 ,,concord ,,of ,,verb ,,and ,,subject ,,in ,,number4 ,sidenote3 ,a broad and loose rule4 #dci4 ,in ,english1 the number of the verb follows the meaning rather than the form of its subject4 ,it will not do to state as a general rule that the verb agrees with its subject in person and number4 ,this was spoken of in ,part ,i41 ,sec4 #bgf1 and the following illustrations prove it4 ,the statements and illustrations of course refer to such verbs as have separate forms for singular and plural number4 ,sidenote3 ,singular verb4 #ddj4 ,the singular form of the verb is used-- ,sidenote3 ,subject of singular form4 7#a7 ,when the subject has a singular form and a singular meaning4 ,such1 then1 was the earliest ,american land4--,,agassiz4 ,he was certainly a happy fellow at this time4--,g4 ,,eliot4 ,he sees that it is better to live in peace4--,,cooper4 ,sidenote3 ,collective noun of singular meaning4 7#b7 ,when the subject is a collective noun which represents a number of persons or things taken as one unit2 as1-- ,the larger breed of camels is capable of transporting a weight of a thousand pounds4--,,gibbon4 ,another school professes entirely opposite principles4--,the ,nation4 ,in this work there was grouped around him a score of men4--,w4 ,,phillips ,a number of jeweled paternosters was attached to her girdle4--,,froude4 ,something like a horse load of books has been written to prove that it was the beauty who blew up the booby4--,,carlyle ,this usage1 like some others in this series1 depends mostly on the writer's own judgment4 ,another writer might1 for example1 prefer a plural verb after number in ,froude's sentence above4 ,sidenote3 ,singulars connected by or or nor4 7#c7 ,when the subject consists of two or more singular nouns connected by or or nor2 as1-- ,it is by no means sure that either our literature1 or the great intellectual life of our nation1 has got already1 without academies1 all that academies can give4--,m4 ,,arnold4 ,jesus is not dead1 nor ,john1 nor ,paul1 nor ,mahomet4 --,,emerson4 ,sidenote3 ,plural form and singular meaning4 7#d7 ,when the subject is plural in form1 but represents a number of things to be taken together as forming one unit2 for example1-- ,thirty-four years affects one's remembrance of some circumstances4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,between ourselves1 three pounds five shillings and two pence is no bad day's work4--,,goldsmith4 ,every twenty paces gives you the prospect of some villa2 and every four hours1 that of a large town4--,,montague ,two thirds of this is mine by right4--,,sheridan ,the singular form is also used with book titles1 other names1 and other singulars of plural form2 as1-- ,politics is the only field now open for me4--,,whittier4 ,sesame and ,lilies is ,ruskin's creed for young girls4--,critic1 ,no4 #fgd ,the ,three ,pigeons expects me down every moment4--,,goldsmith4 ,sidenote3 ,several singular subjects to one singular verb4 7#e7 ,with several singular subjects not disjoined by or or nor1 in the following cases3-- 7a7 ,joined by and1 but considered as meaning about the same thing1 or as making up one general idea2 as1-- ,in a word1 all his conversation and knowledge has been in the female world--,,addison4 ,the strength and glare of each color is considerably abated4--,,burke ,to imagine that debating and logic is the triumph4--,,carlyle ,in a world where even to fold and seal a letter adroitly is not the least of accomplishments4--,,de ,,quincey ,the genius and merit of a rising poet was celebrated4--,,gibbon4 ,when the cause of ages and the fate of nations hangs upon the thread of a debate4--,j4,q4 ,,adams4 7b7 ,not joined by a conjunction1 but each one emphatic1 or considered as appositional2 for example1-- ,the unbought grace of life1 the cheap defense of nations1 the nurse of manly sentiment and heroic enterprise1 is gone4--,,burke4 ,a fever1 a mutilation1 a cruel disappointment1 a loss of wealth1 a loss of friends1 seems at the moment unpaid loss4--,,emerson ,the author1 the wit1 the partisan1 the fine gentleman1 does not take the place of the man4--,id4 ,to receive presents or a bribe1 to be guilty of collusion in any way with a suitor1 was punished1 in a judge1 with death4--,,prescott4 ,sidenote3 ,subjects after the verb4 ,this use of several subjects with a singular verb is especially frequent when the subjects are after the verb2 as1-- ,there is a right and a wrong in them4--,m ,,arnold4 ,there is a moving tone of voice1 an impassioned countenance1 an agitated gesture4--,,burke ,there was a steel headpiece1 a cuirass1 a gorget1 and greaves1 with a pair of gauntlets and a sword hanging beneath4--,,hawthorne4 ,then comes the ,why1 sir6 and the ,what then1 sir8 and the ,no1 sir6--,,macaulay4 ,for wide is heard the thundering fray1 ,the rout1 the ruin1 the dismay4 --,,scott4 7c7 ,joined by as well as 7in this case the verb agrees with the first of the two1 no matter if the second is plural72 thus1-- ,asia1 as well as ,europe1 was dazzled4--,,macaulay4 ,the oldest1 as well as the newest1 wine ,begins to stir itself4 --,,longfellow4 ,her back1 as well as sides1 was like to crack4--,,butler4 ,the ,epic1 as well as the ,drama1 is divided into tragedy and ,comedy4--,,fielding 7d7 ,when each of two or more singular subjects is preceded by every1 each1 no1 many a1 and such like adjectives4 ,every fop1 every boor1 every valet1 is a man of wit4--,,macaulay4 ,every sound1 every echo1 was listened to for five hours4--,,de ,,quincey ,every dome and hollow has the figure of ,christ4--,,ruskin4 ,each particular hue and tint stands by itself4--,,newman4 ,every law and usage was a man's expedient4--,,emerson4 ,here is no ruin1 no discontinuity1 no spent ball4--,id4 ,every week1 nay1 almost every day1 was set down in their calendar for some appropriate celebration4--,,prescott4 ,sidenote3 ,plural verb4 #dda4 ,the plural form of the verb is used-- 7#a7 ,when the subject is plural in form and in meaning2 as1-- ,these bits of wood were covered on every square4--,,swift4 ,far1 far away thy children leave the land4--,,goldsmith4 ,the ,arabian poets were the historians and moralists4--,,gibbon4 7#b7 ,when the subject is a collective noun in which the individuals of the collection are thought of2 as1-- ,a multitude go mad about it4--,,emerson4 ,a great number of people were collected at a vendue4--,,franklin4 ,all our household are at rest4--,,coleridge4 ,a party of workmen were removing the horses4--,,lew ,,wallace ,the fraternity were inclined to claim for him the honors of canonization4--,,scott4 ,the travelers1 of whom there were a number4--,b4 ,,taylor4 7#c7 ,when the subject consists of several singulars connected by and1 making up a plural subject1 for example1-- ,only ,vice and ,misery are abroad4--,,carlyle ,but its authorship1 its date1 and its history are alike a mystery to us4--,,froude4 ,his clothes1 shirt1 and skin were all of the same color--,,swift4 ,aristotle and ,longinus are better understood by him than ,littleton or ,coke4--,,addison4 ,sidenote3 ,conjunction omitted4 ,the conjunction may be omitted1 as in ,sec4 #ddj 7#e1 b71 but the verb is plural1 as with a subject of plural form4 ,a shady grove1 a green pasture1 a stream of fresh water1 are sufficient to attract a colony4--,,gibbon4 ,the ,dauphin1 the ,duke of ,berri1 ,philip of ,anjou1 were men of insignificant characters4--,,macaulay 7#d7 ,when a singular is joined with a plural by a disjunctive word1 the verb agrees with the one nearest it2 as1-- ,one or two of these perhaps survive4--,,thoreau4 ,one or two persons in the crowd were insolent4--,,froude4 ,one or two of the ladies were going to leave4--,,addison ,one or two of these old ,cromwellian soldiers were still alive in the village4--,,thackeray ,one or two of whom were more entertaining4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,but notice the construction of this1-- ,a ray or two wanders into the darkness4--,,ruskin4 ,,agreement ,,of ,,verb ,,and ,,subject ,,in ,,person4 ,sidenote3 ,general usage4 #ddb4 ,if there is only one person in the subject1 the ending of the verb indicates the person of its subject2 that is1 in those few cases where there are forms for different persons3 as1-- ,never once didst thou revel in the vision4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,romanism wisely provides for the childish in men4--,,lowell4 ,it hath been said my ,lord would never take the oath4--,,thackeray4 ,sidenote3 ,second or third and first person in the subject4 #ddc4 ,if the subject is made up of the first person joined with the second or third by and1 the verb takes the construction of the first person1 the subject being really equivalent to we2 as1-- ,i flatter myself you and ,i shall meet again4--,,smollett4 ,you and ,i are farmers2 we never talk politics4--,d ,,webster4 ,ah1 brother6 only ,i and thou ,are left of all that circle now4 --,,whittier4 ,you and ,i are tolerably modest people4--,,thackeray4 ,cocke and ,i have felt it in our bones--,gammer ,gurton's ,needle ,sidenote3 ,with adversative or disjunctive connectives4 #ddd4 ,when the subjects1 of different persons1 are connected by adversative or disjunctive conjunctions1 the verb usually agrees with the pronoun nearest to it2 for example1-- ,neither you nor ,i should be a bit the better or wiser4--,,ruskin4 ,if she or you are resolved to be miserable4--,,goldsmith4 ,nothing which ,mr4 ,pattison or ,i have said4--,m4 ,,arnold4 ,not ,altamont1 but thou1 hadst been my lord4--,,rowe4 ,not ,i1 but thou1 his blood dost shed4--,,byron4 ,this construction is at the best a little awkward4 ,it is avoided either by using a verb which has no forms for person 7as1 ,he or ,i can go1 ,she or you may be sure1 etc471 or by rearranging the sentence so as to throw each subject before its proper person form 7as1 ,you would not be wiser1 nor should ,i2 or1 ,i have never said so1 nor has she74 ,sidenote3 ,exceptional examples4 #dde4 ,the following illustrate exceptional usage1 which it is proper to mention2 but the student is cautioned to follow the regular usage rather than the unusual and irregular4 ,exercise4 ,change each of the following sentences to accord with standard usage1 as illustrated above 7,secs4 #ddj-ddd73-- #a4 ,and sharp ,adversity will teach at last ,man1--and1 as we would hope1--perhaps the devil1 ,that neither of their intellects are vast4 --,,byron4 #b4 ,neither of them1 in my opinion1 give so accurate an idea of the man as a statuette in bronze4--,,trollope4 #c4 ,how each of these professions are crowded4--,,addison4 #d4 ,neither of their counselors were to be present4--,id4 #e4 ,either of them are equally good to the person to whom they are significant4--,,emerson4 #f4 ,neither the red nor the white are strong and glaring4--,,burke4 #g4 ,a lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder4--,,addison4 #h4 ,neither of the sisters were very much deceived4--,,thackeray4 #i4 ,nor wood1 nor tree1 nor bush are there1 ,her course to intercept4--,,scott4 #aj4 ,both death and ,i am found eternal4--,,milton4 #aa4 ,in ascending the ,mississippi the party was often obliged to wade through morasses2 at last they came upon the district of ,little ,prairie4--,g4 ,,bancroft4 #ab4 ,in a word1 the whole nation seems to be running out of their wits4--,,smollett4 ,,sequence ,,of ,,tenses 7,,verbs ,,and ,,verbals74 ,sidenote3 ,lack of logical sequence in verbs4 #ddf4 ,if one or more verbs depend on some leading verb1 each should be in the tense that will convey the meaning intended by the writer4 ,in this sentence from ,defoe1 ,i expected every wave would have swallowed us up1 the verb expected looks forward to something in the future1 while would have swallowed represents something completed in past time3 hence the meaning intended was1 ,i expected every wave would swallow etc4 ,sidenote3 ,also in verbals4 ,in the following sentence1 the infinitive also fails to express the exact thought3-- ,i had hoped never to have seen the statues again4--,,macaulay4 ,the trouble is the same as in the previous sentence2 to have seen should be changed to to see1 for exact connection4 ,of course1 if the purpose were to represent a prior fact or completed action1 the perfect infinitive would be the very thing4 ,it should be remarked1 however1 that such sentences as those just quoted are in keeping with the older idea of the unity of the sentence4 ,the present rule is recent4 ,exercise4 ,explain whether the verbs and infinitives in the following sentences convey the right meaning2 if not1 change them to a better form3-- #a4 ,i gave one quarter to ,ann1 meaning1 on my return1 to have divided with her whatever might remain4--,,de ,,quincey #b4 ,i can't sketch ,the ,five ,drapers1 444 but can look and be thankful to have seen such a masterpiece4--,,thackeray4 #c4 ,he would have done more wisely to have left them to find their own apology than to have given reasons which seemed paradoxes4--,r4,w4 ,,church4 #d4 ,the propositions of ,william are stated to have contained a proposition for a compromise4--,,palgrave #e4 ,but ,i found ,i wanted a stock of words1 which ,i thought ,i should have acquired before that time4--,,franklin #f4 ,i could even have suffered them to have broken ,everet ,ducking's head4--,,irving4 ,,indirect ,,discourse4 ,sidenote3 ,definitions4 #ddg4 ,direct discourse--that is1 a direct quotation or a direct question--means the identical words the writer or speaker used2 as1-- ,i hope you have not killed him8 said ,amyas4--,,kingsley4 ,indirect discourse means reported speech1--the thoughts of a writer or speaker put in the words of the one reporting them4 ,sidenote3 ,two samples of indirect discourse4 #ddh4 ,indirect discourse may be of two kinds3-- 7#a7 ,following the thoughts and also the exact words as far as consistent with the rules of logical sequence of verbs4 7#b7 ,merely a concise representation of the original words1 not attempting to follow the entire quotation4 ,the following examples of both are from ,de ,quincey3-- ,sidenote3 ,indirect4 #a4 ,reyes remarked that it was not in his power to oblige the clerk as to that1 but that he could oblige him by cutting his throat4 ,sidenote3 ,direct4 ,his exact words were1 ,i cannot oblige you 4441 but ,i can oblige you by cutting your throat4 ,sidenote3 ,indirect4 ,her prudence whispered eternally1 that safety there was none for her until she had laid the ,atlantic between herself and ,st4 ,sebastian's4 ,sidenote3 ,direct4 ,she thought to herself1 ,safety there is none for me until ,i have laid1 etc4 ,sidenote3 ,summary of the expressions4 #b4 ,then he laid bare the unparalleled ingratitude of such a step4 ,oh1 the unseen treasure that had been spent upon that girl6 ,oh1 the untold sums of money that he had sunk in that unhappy speculation6 ,sidenote3 ,direct synopsis4 ,the substance of his lamentation was1 ,oh1 unseen treasure has been spent upon that girl6 ,untold sums of money have ,i sunk1 etc4 #ddi4 ,from these illustrations will be readily seen the grammatical changes made in transferring from direct to indirect discourse4 ,remember the following facts3-- 7#a7 ,usually the main1 introductory verb is in the past tense4 7#b7 ,the indirect quotation is usually introduced by that1 and the indirect question by whether or if1 or regular interrogatives4 7#c7 ,verbs in the present-tense form are changed to the past-tense form4 ,this includes the auxiliaries be1 have1 will1 etc4 ,the past tense is sometimes changed to the past perfect4 7#d7 ,the pronouns of the first and second persons are all changed to the third person4 ,sometimes it is clearer to introduce the antecedent of the pronoun instead4 ,other examples of indirect discourse have been given in ,part ,i41 under interrogative pronouns1 interrogative adverbs1 and the subjunctive mood of verbs4 ,exercise4 ,rewrite the following extract from ,irving's ,sketch ,book1 and change it to a direct quotation3-- ,he assured the company that it was a fact1 handed down from his ancestor the historian1 that the ,catskill ,mountains had always been haunted by strange beings2 that it was affirmed that the great ,hendrick ,hudson1 the first discoverer of the river and country1 kept a kind of vigil there every twenty years1 with his crew of the ,half-moon1 being permitted in this way to revisit the scenes of his enterprise1 and keep a guardian eye upon the river and the great city called by his name2 that his father had once seen them in their old ,dutch dresses playing at ninepins in a hollow of the mountain2 and that he himself had heard1 one summer afternoon1 the sound of their balls1 like distant peals of thunder4 ,,verbals4 ,,participles4 ,sidenote3 ,careless use of the participial phrase4 #dej4 ,the following sentences illustrate a misuse of the participial phrase3-- ,pleased with the ,pilgrim's ,progress1 my first collection was of ,john ,bunyan's works4--,b4 ,,franklin4 ,my farm consisted of about twenty acres of excellent land1 having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's goodwill4--,,goldsmith4 ,upon asking how he had been taught the art of a cognoscente so suddenly1 he assured me that nothing was more easy4--,id4 ,having thus run through the causes of the sublime1 my first observation will be found nearly true4--,,burke ,he therefore remained silent till he had repeated a paternoster1 being the course which his confessor had enjoined4--,,scott ,compare with these the following3-- ,sidenote3 ,a correct example4 ,going yesterday to dine with an old acquaintance1 ,i had the misfortune to find his whole family very much dejected4--,,addison4 ,sidenote3 ,notice this4 ,the trouble is1 in the sentences first quoted1 that the main subject of the sentence is not the same word that would be the subject of the participle1 if this were expanded into a verb4 ,sidenote3 ,correction4 ,consequently one of two courses must be taken1--either change the participle to a verb with its appropriate subject1 leaving the principal statement as it is2 or change the principal proposition so it shall make logical connection with the participial phrase4 ,for example1 the first sentence would be1 either ,as ,i was pleased1 444 my first collection was1 etc41 or ,pleased with the ',pilgrim's ,progress1' ,i made my first collection ,john ,bunyan's works4 ,exercise4--,rewrite the other four sentences so as to correct the careless use of the participial phrase4 ,,infinitives4 ,sidenote3 ,adverb between to and the infinitive4 #dea4 ,there is a construction which is becoming more and more common among good writers1--the placing an adverb between to of the infinitive and the infinitive itself4 ,the practice is condemned by many grammarians1 while defended or excused by others4 ,standard writers often use it1 and often1 purposely or not1 avoid it4 ,the following two examples show the adverb before the infinitive3-- ,sidenote3 ,the more common usage4 ,he handled it with such nicety of address as sufficiently to show that he fully understood the business4--,,scott4 ,it is a solemn1 universal assertion1 deeply to be kept in mind by all sects4--,,ruskin4 ,this is the more common arrangement2 yet frequently the desire seems to be to get the adverb snugly against the infinitive1 to modify it as closely and clearly as possible4 ,exercise4 ,in the following citations1 see if the adverbs can be placed before or after the infinitive and still modify it as clearly as they now do3-- #a4 ,there are1 then1 many things to be carefully considered1 if a strike is to succeed4--,,laughlin4 #b4 ,that the mind may not have to go backwards and forwards in order to rightly connect them4--,,herbert ,,spencer4 #c4 ,it may be easier to bear along all the qualifications of an idea 444 than to first imperfectly conceive such idea4--id4 #d4 ,in works of art1 this kind of grandeur1 which consists in multitude1 is to be very cautiously admitted4--,,burke4 #e4 ,that virtue which requires to be ever guarded is scarcely worth the sentinel4--,,goldsmith4 #f4 ,burke said that such little arts and devices were not to be wholly condemned4--,the ,nation1 ,no4 #aecc4 #g4 ,i wish the reader to clearly understand4--,,ruskin4 #h4 ,transactions which seem to be most widely separated from one another4--,,dr4 ,,blair4 #i4 ,would earnestly advise them for their good to order this paper to be punctually served up4--,,addison4 #aj4 ,a little sketch of his1 in which a cannon ball is supposed to have just carried off the head of an aide-de-camp4--,,trollope4 #aa4 ,the ladies seem to have been expressly created to form helps meet for such gentlemen4--,,macaulay4 #ab4 ,sufficient to disgust a people whose manners were beginning to be strongly tinctured with austerity4--,id4 #ac4 ,the spirits1 therefore1 of those opposed to them seemed to be considerably damped by their continued success4--,,scott4 ,,adverbs4 ,sidenote3 ,position of only1 even1 etc4 ,a very careful writer will so place the modifiers of a verb that the reader will not mistake the meaning4 ,the rigid rule in such a case would be1 to put the modifier in such a position that the reader not only can understand the meaning intended1 but cannot misunderstand the thought4 ,now1 when such adverbs as only1 even1 etc41 are used1 they are usually placed in a strictly correct position1 if they modify single words2 but they are often removed from the exact position1 if they modify phrases or clauses3 for example1 from ,irving1 ,the site is only to be traced by fragments of bricks1 china1 and earthenware4 ,here only modifies the phrase by fragments of bricks1 etc41 but it is placed before the infinitive4 ,this misplacement of the adverb can be detected only by analysis of the sentence4 ,exercise4 ,tell what the adverb modifies in each quotation1 and see if it is placed in the proper position3-- #a4 ,only the name of one obscure epigrammatist has been embalmed for us in the verses of his rival4--,,palgrave4 #b4 ,do you remember pea shooters8 ,i think we only had them on going home for holidays4--,,thackeray4 #c4 ,irving could only live very modestly4 ,he could only afford to keep one old horse4--,id4 #d4 ,the arrangement of this machinery could only be accounted for by supposing the motive power to have been steam4--,,wendell ,,phillips4 #e4 ,such disputes can only be settled by arms4--,id4 #f4 ,i have only noted one or two topics which ,i thought most likely to interest an ,american reader4--,n4,p4 ,,willis4 #g4 ,the silence of the first night at the farmhouse1--stillness broken only by two whippoorwills4--,,higginson4 #h4 ,my master1 to avoid a crowd1 would suffer only thirty people at a time to see me4--,,swift4 #i4 ,in relating these and the following laws1 ,i would only be understood to mean the original institutions4--,id4 #aj4 ,the perfect loveliness of a woman's countenance can only consist in that majestic peace which is founded in the memory of happy and useful years4--,,ruskin4 #aa4 ,in one of those celestial days it seems a poverty that we can only spend it once4--,,emerson4 #ab4 ,my lord was only anxious as long as his wife's anxious face or behavior seemed to upbraid him4--,,thackeray4 #ac4 ,he shouted in those clear1 piercing tones that could be even heard among the roaring of the cannon4--,,cooper4 #ad4 ,his suspicions were not even excited by the ominous face of ,grard4--,,motley4 #ae4 ,during the whole course of his administration1 he scarcely befriended a single man of genius4--,,macaulay4 #af4 ,i never remember to have felt an event more deeply than his death4--,,sydney ,,smith4 #ag4 ,his last journey to ,cannes1 whence he was never destined to return4--,,mrs4 ,,grote4 ,,use ,,of ,,double ,,negatives4 ,sidenote3 ,the old usage4 #dec4 ,in ,old and ,middle ,english1 two negatives strengthened a negative idea2 for example1-- ,he nevere yet no vileineye ne sayde1 ,in al his lyf unto no maner wight4--,,chaucer4 ,no sonne1 were he never so old of yeares1 might not marry4 --,,ascham4 ,the first of these is equivalent to ,he didn't never say no villainy in all his life to no manner of man1--four negatives4 ,this idiom was common in the older stages of the language1 and is still kept in vulgar ,english2 as1-- ,i tell you she ain' been nowhar ef she don' know we all4 --,,page1 in ,ole ,virginia4 ,there weren't no pies to equal hers4--,,mrs4 ,,stowe4 ,sidenote3 ,exceptional use4 ,there are sometimes found two negatives in modern ,english with a negative effect1 when one of the negatives is a connective4 ,this1 however1 is not common4 ,i never did see him again1 nor never shall4--,,de ,,quincey4 ,however1 ,i did not act so hastily1 neither4--,,defoe4 ,the prosperity of no empire1 nor the grandeur of no king1 can so agreeably affect1 etc4--,,burke4 ,sidenote3 ,regular law of negative in modern ,english4 ,but1 under the influence of ,latin syntax1 the usual way of regarding the question now is1 that two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative1 denying each other4 ,therefore1 if two negatives are found together1 it is a sign of ignorance or carelessness1 or else a purpose to make an affirmative effect4 ,in the latter case1 one of the negatives is often a prefix2 as infrequent1 uncommon4 ,exercise4 ,tell whether the two or more negatives are properly used in each of the following sentences1 and why3-- #a4 ,the red men were not so infrequent visitors of the ,english settlements4--,,hawthorne4 #b4 ,huldy was so up to everything about the house1 that the doctor didn't miss nothin' in a temporal way4--,,mrs4 ,,stowe4 #c4 ,her younger sister was a wide-awake girl1 who hadn't been to school for nothing4--,,holmes4 #d4 ,you will find no battle which does not exhibit the most cautious circumspection4--,,bayne4 #e4 ,not only could man not acquire such information1 but ought not to labor after it4--,,grote4 #f4 ,there is no thoughtful man in ,america who would not consider a war with ,england the greatest of calamities4--,,lowell4 #g4 ,in the execution of this task1 there is no man who would not find it an arduous effort4--,,hamilton4 #h4 ,a weapon1 said the ,king1 well worthy to confer honor1 nor has it been laid on an undeserving shoulder4--,,scott4 ,,conjunctions4 ,sidenote3 ,and who1 and which4 #ded4 ,the sentences given in ,secs4 #dai and #dbj on the connecting of pronouns with different expressions may again be referred to here1 as the use of the conjunction1 as well as of the pronoun1 should be scrutinized4 ,sidenote3 ,choice and proper position of correlatives4 #dee4 ,the most frequent mistakes in using conjunctions are in handling correlatives1 especially both 444 and1 neither 444 nor1 either 444 or1 not only 444 but1 not merely 444 but 7also74 ,the following examples illustrate the correct use of correlatives as to both choice of words and position3-- ,whether at war or at peace1 there we were1 a standing menace to all earthly paradises of that kind4--,,lowell4 ,these idols of wood can neither hear nor feel4--,,prescott4 ,both the common soldiery and their leaders and commanders lowered on each other as if their union had not been more essential than ever1 not only to the success of their common cause1 but to their own safety4--,,scott4 ,sidenote3 ,things to be watched4 ,in these examples it will be noticed that nor1 not or is the proper correlative of neither2 and that all correlatives in a sentence ought to have corresponding positions3 that is1 if the last precedes a verb1 the first ought to be placed before a verb2 if the second precedes a phrase1 the first should also4 ,this is necessary to make the sentence clear and symmetrical4 ,sidenote3 ,correction4 ,in the sentence1 ,i am neither in spirits to enjoy it1 or to reply to it1 both of the above requirements are violated4 ,the word neither in such a case had better be changed to not 444 either1--,i am not in spirits either to enjoy it1 or to reply to it4 ,besides neither 444 or1 even neither 444 nor is often changed to not--either 444 or with advantage1 as the negation is sometimes too far from the verb to which it belongs4 ,a noun may be preceded by one of the correlatives1 and an equivalent pronoun by the other4 ,the sentence1 ,this loose and inaccurate manner of speaking has misled us both in the theory of taste and of morals1 may be changed to ,this loose 444 misled us both in the theory of taste and in that of morals4 ,exercise4 ,correct the following sentences3-- #a4 ,an ordinary man would neither have incurred the danger of succoring ,essex1 nor the disgrace of assailing him4--,,macaulay4 #b4 ,those ogres will stab about and kill not only strangers1 but they will outrage1 murder1 and chop up their own kin4--,,thackeray4 #c4 ,in the course of his reading 7which was neither pursued with that seriousness or that devout mind which such a study requires7 the youth found himself1 etc4--,id4 #d4 ,i could neither bear walking nor riding in a carriage over its pebbled streets4--,,franklin4 #e4 ,some exceptions1 that can neither be dissembled nor eluded1 render this mode of reasoning as indiscreet as it is superfluous4--,,gibbon4 #f4 ,they will1 too1 not merely interest children1 but grown-up persons4--,westminster ,review4 #g4 ,i had even the satisfaction to see her lavish some kind looks upon my unfortunate son1 which the other could neither extort by his fortune nor assiduity4--,,goldsmith4 #h4 ,this was done probably to show that he was neither ashamed of his name or family4--,,addison4 ,sidenote3 ,try and for try to4 #def4 ,occasionally there is found the expression try and instead of the better authorized try to2 as1-- ,we will try and avoid personalities altogether4--,,thackeray4 ,did any of you ever try and read ,blackmore's ,poems8--,id4 ,try and avoid the pronoun4--,,bain4 ,we will try and get a clearer notion of them4--,,ruskin4 ,sidenote3 ,but what4 #deg4 ,instead of the subordinate conjunction that1 but1 or but that1 or the negative relative but1 we sometimes find the bulky and needless but what4 ,now1 it is possible to use but what when what is a relative pronoun1 as1 ,he never had any money but what he absolutely needed2 but in the following sentences what usurps the place of a conjunction4 ,exercise4 ,in the following sentences1 substitute that1 but1 or but that for the words but what3-- #a4 ,the doctor used to say 'twas her young heart1 and ,i don't know but what he was right4--,s4,o4 ,,jewett4 #b4 ,at the first stroke of the pickax it is ten to one but what you are taken up for a trespass4--,,bulwer4 #c4 ,there are few persons of distinction but what can hold conversation in both languages4--,,swift4 #d4 ,who knows but what there might be ,english among those sun-browned half-naked masses of panting wretches8--,,kingsley4 #e4 ,no little wound of the kind ever came to him but what he disclosed it at once4--,,trollope4 #f4 ,they are not so distant from the camp of ,saladin but what they might be in a moment surprised4--,,scott4 ,,prepositions4 #deh4 ,as to the placing of a preposition after its object in certain cases1 see ,sec4 #cje4 ,sidenote3 ,between and among4 #dei4 ,in the primary meaning of between and among there is a sharp distinction1 as already seen in ,sec4 #cac2 but in ,modern ,english the difference is not so marked4 ,between is used most often with two things only1 but still it is frequently used in speaking of several objects1 some relation or connection between two at a time being implied4 ,among is used in the same way as amid 7though not with exactly the same meaning71 several objects being spoken of in the aggregate1 no separation or division by twos being implied4 ,examples of the distinctive use of the two words3-- ,sidenote3 ,two things4 ,the contentions that arise between the parson and the squire4--,,addison4 ,we reckoned the improvements of the art of war among the triumphs of science4--,,emerson4 ,examples of the looser use of between3-- ,sidenote3 ,a number of things4 ,natural objects affect us by the laws of that connection which ,providence has established between certain motions of bodies4--,,burke4 ,hence the differences between men in natural endowment are insignificant in comparison with their common wealth4--,,emerson4 ,they maintain a good correspondence between those wealthy societies of men that are divided from one another by seas and oceans4--,,addison4 ,looking up at its deep-pointed porches and the dark places between their pillars where there were statues once4--,,ruskin ,what have ,i1 a soldier of the ,cross1 to do with recollections of war betwixt ,christian nations8--,,scott4 ,sidenote3 ,two groups or one and a group4 ,also between may express relation or connection in speaking of two groups of objects1 or one object and a group2 as1-- ,a council of war is going on beside the watch fire1 between the three adventurers and the faithful ,yeo4--,,kingsley4 ,the great distinction between teachers sacred or literary1--between poets like ,herbert and poets like ,pope1--between philosophers like ,spinoza1 ,kant1 and ,coleridge1 and philosophers like ,locke1 ,paley1 ,mackintosh1 and ,stewart1 etc4 --,,emerson4 #dfj4 ,certain words are followed by particular prepositions4 ,some of these words show by their composition what preposition should follow4 ,such are absolve1 involve1 different4 ,some of them have1 by custom1 come to take prepositions not in keeping with the original meaning of the words4 ,such are derogatory1 averse4 ,many words take one preposition to express one meaning1 and another to convey a different meaning2 as1 correspond1 confer4 ,and yet others may take several prepositions indifferently to express the same meaning4 ,sidenote3 ,list ,i43 ,words with particular prepositions4 #dfa4 ,,list ,i4 ,absolve from4 ,conversant with4 ,abhorrent to4 ,dependent on 7upon74 ,accord with4 ,different from4 ,acquit of4 ,dissent from4 ,affinity between4 ,derogatory to4 ,averse to4 ,deprive of4 ,bestow on 7upon74 ,independent of4 ,conform to4 ,involve in4 ,comply with4 ,different to is frequently heard in spoken ,english in ,england1 and sometimes creeps into standard books1 but it is not good usage4 ,sidenote3 ,list ,,ii43 ,words taking different prepositions for different meanings4 #dfb4 ,,list ,,ii4 ,agree with 7a person74 ,differ from 7note below74 ,agree to 7a proposal74 ,differ with 7note below74 ,change for 7a thing74 ,disappointed in 7a thing ,change with 7a person74 obtained74 ,change to 7become74 ,disappointed of 7a thing not ,confer with 7talk with74 obtained74 ,confer on 7upon7 7give to74 ,reconcile to 7note below74 ,confide in 7trust in74 ,reconcile with 7note below74 ,confide to 7intrust to74 ,a taste of 7food74 ,correspond with 7write to74 ,a taste for 7art1 etc474 ,correspond to 7a thing74 ,correspond with is sometimes used of things1 as meaning to be in keeping with4 ,differ from is used in speaking of unlikeness between things or persons2 differ from and differ with are both used in speaking of persons disagreeing as to opinions4 ,reconcile to is used with the meaning of resigned to1 as1 ,the exile became reconciled to his fate2 also of persons1 in the sense of making friends with1 as1 ,the king is reconciled to his minister4 ,reconcile with is used with the meaning of make to agree with1 as1 ,the statement must be reconciled with his previous conduct4 ,sidenote3 ,list ,,iii43 ,words taking anyone of several prepositions for the same meaning4 #dfc4 ,,list ,,iii4 ,die by1 die for1 die from1 die of1 die with4 ,expect of1 expect from4 ,part from1 part with4 ,illustrations of die of1 die from1 etc43-- ,sidenote3 ,die of4 ,the author died of a fit of apoplexy4--,,boswell4 ,people do not die of trifling little colds4--,,austen ,fifteen officers died of fever in a day4--,,macaulay4 ,it would take me long to die of hunger4--,g4 ,,eliot4 ,she died of hard work1 privation1 and ill treatment4--,,burnett4 ,sidenote3 ,die from4 ,she saw her husband at last literally die from hunger4--,,bulwer4 ,he died at last without disease1 simply from old age4 --,athenum4 ,no one died from want at ,longfeld4--,chambers' ,journal4 ,sidenote3 ,die with4 ,she would have been ready to die with shame4--,g4 ,,eliot4 ,i am positively dying with hunger4--,,scott4 ,i thought the two ,miss ,flamboroughs would have died with laughing4--,,goldsmith4 ,i wish that the happiest here may not die with envy4--,,pope4 ,sidenote3 ,die for4 7in behalf of74 ,take thought and die for ,csar4--,,shakespeare4 ,one of them said he would die for her4--,,goldsmith4 ,it is a man of quality who dies for her4--,,addison4 ,sidenote3 ,die for4 7because of74 ,who1 as ,cervantes informs us1 died for love of the fair ,marcella4--,,fielding4 ,some officers had died for want of a morsel of bread4--,,macaulay4 ,sidenote3 ,die by4 7material cause1 instrument74 ,if ,i meet with any of 'em1 they shall die by this hand4 --,,thackeray4 ,he must purge himself to the satisfaction of a vigilant tribunal or die by fire4--,,macaulay4 ,he died by suicide before he completed his eighteenth year4--,,shaw4 #dfd4 ,illustrations of expect of1 expect from3-- ,sidenote3 ,expect of4 ,what do ,i expect of ,dublin8--,punch4 ,that is more than ,i expected of you4--,,scott4 ,of ,doctor ,p4 nothing better was to be expected4--,,poe4 ,not knowing what might be expected of men in general4--,g4 ,,eliot4 ,sidenote3 ,expect from4 ,she will expect more attention from you1 as my friend4--,,walpole4 ,there was a certain grace and decorum hardly to be expected from a man4--,,macaulay4 ,i have long expected something remarkable from you4--,g4 ,,eliot4 #dfe4 ,part with is used with both persons and things1 but part from is less often found in speaking of things4 ,illustrations of part with1 part from3-- ,sidenote3 ,part with4 ,he was fond of everybody that he was used to1 and hated to part with them4--,,austen4 ,cleveland was sorry to part with him4--,,bulwer4 ,i can part with my children for their good4--,,dickens4 ,i part with all that grew so near my heart4--,,waller4 ,sidenote3 ,part from4 ,to part from you would be misery4--,,marryat4 ,i have just seen her1 just parted from her4--,,bulwer4 ,burke parted from him with deep emotion4--,,macaulay4 ,his precious bag1 which he would by no means part from4--,g4 ,,eliot4 ,sidenote3 ,kind in you1 kind of you4 #dff4 ,with words implying behavior or disposition1 either of or in is used indifferently1 as shown in the following quotations3-- ,sidenote3 ,of4 ,it was a little bad of you4--,,trollope4 ,how cruel of me6--,,collins4 ,he did not think it handsome of you4--,,bulwer4 ,but this is idle of you4--,,tennyson4 ,sidenote3 ,in4 ,very natural in ,mr4 ,hampden4--,,carlyle4 ,it will be anything but shrewd in you4--,,dickens4 ,that is very unreasonable in a person so young4--,,beaconsfield4 ,i am wasting your whole morning--too bad in me4--,,bulwer4 ,miscellaneous ,examples for ,correction4 #a4 ,can you imagine ,indians or a semi-civilized people engaged on a work like the canal connecting the ,mediterranean and the ,red seas8 #b4 ,in the friction between an employer and workman1 it is commonly said that his profits are high4 #c4 ,none of them are in any wise willing to give his life for the life of his chief4 #d4 ,that which can be done with perfect convenience and without loss1 is not always the thing that most needs to be done1 or which we are most imperatively required to do4 #e4 ,art is neither to be achieved by effort of thinking1 nor explained by accuracy of speaking4 #f4 ,to such as thee the fathers owe their fame4 #g4 ,we tread upon the ancient granite that first divided the waters into a northern and southern ocean4 #h4 ,thou tread'st1 with seraphims1 the vast abyss4 #i4 ,eustace had slipped off his long cloak1 thrown it over ,amyas's head1 and ran up the alley4 #aj4 ,this narrative1 tedious perhaps1 but which the story renders necessary1 may serve to explain the state of intelligence betwixt the lovers4 #aa4 ,to the shame and eternal infamy of whomsoever shall turn back from the plow on which he hath laid his hand6 #ab4 ,the noise of vast cataracts1 raging storms1 thunder1 or artillery1 awake a great and awful sensation in the mind4 #ac4 ,the materials and ornaments ought neither to be white1 nor green1 nor yellow1 nor blue1 nor of a pale red4 #ad4 ,this does not prove that an idea of use and beauty are the same thing1 or that they are any way dependent on each other4 #ae4 ,and were ,i anything but what ,i am1 ,i would wish me only he4 #af4 ,but every man may know1 and most of us do know1 what is a just and unjust act4 #ag4 ,you have seen ,cassio and she together4 #ah4 ,we shall shortly see which is the fittest object of scorn1 you or me4 #ai4 ,richard glared round him with an eye that seemed to seek an enemy1 and from which the angry nobles shrunk appalled4 #bj4 ,it comes to whomsoever will put off what is foreign and proud4 #ba4 ,the difference between the just and unjust procedure does not lie in the number of men hired1 but in the price paid to them4 #bb4 ,the effect of proportion and fitness1 so far at least as they proceed from a mere consideration of the work itself1 produce approbation1 the acquiescence of the understanding4 #bc4 ,when the glass or liquor are transparent1 the light is sometimes softened in the passage4 #bd4 ,for there nor yew nor cypress spread their gloom4 #be4 ,every one of these letters are in my name4 #bf4 ,neither of them are remarkable for precision4 #bg4 ,squares1 triangles1 and other angular figures1 are neither beautiful to the sight nor feeling4 #bh4 ,there is not one in a thousand of these human souls that cares to think where this estate is1 or how beautiful it is1 or what kind of life they are to lead in it4 #bi4 ,dryden and ,rowe's manner are quite out of fashion4 #cj4 ,we were only permitted to stop for refreshment once4 #ca4 ,the sight of the manner in which the meals were served were enough to turn our stomach4 #cb4 ,the moody and savage state of mind of the sullen and ambitious man are admirably drawn4 #cc4 ,surely none of our readers are so unfortunate as not to know some man or woman who carry this atmosphere of peace and good-will about with them4 7,sec4 #daa47 #cd4 ,friday1 whom he thinks would be better than a dog1 and almost as good as a pony4 #ce4 ,that night every man of the boat's crew1 save ,amyas1 were down with raging fever4 #cf4 ,these kind of books fill up the long tapestry of history with little bits of detail which give human interest to it4 #cg4 ,i never remember the heather so rich and abundant4 #ch4 ,these are scattered along the coast for several hundred miles1 in conditions of life that seem forbidding enough1 but which are accepted without complaint by the inhabitants themselves4 #ci4 ,between each was an interval where lay a musket4 #dj4 ,he had four children1 and it was confidently expected that they would receive a fortune of at least #bjj1jjj between them4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,more for convenience than for absolute accuracy1 the stages of our language have been roughly divided into three3-- 7#a7 ,old ,english 7with ,anglo-,saxon7 down to the twelfth century4 7#b7 ,middle ,english1 from about the twelfth century to the sixteenth century4 7#c7 ,modern ,english1 from about #aejj to the present time4 ,,index4 ,,the ,,numbers ,,refer ,,to ,,pages4 ,a1 origin of1 #aai4 syntax of1 #caj4 uses of1 #abd4 ,absolute1 nominative1 #dg4 ,abstract nouns1 #bj4 with article1 #be1 #abd4 ,active voice1 #acc4 ,address1 nominative of1 #dg4 ,adjective clauses1 #bfj4 ,adjective pronouns1 demonstrative1 #ij4 distinguished from adjectives1 #hi4 distributive1 #ia4 numeral1 #ib4 ,adjectives1 adverbs used as1 #aaf4 as complements1 #bci4 comparison of1 #ajg4 definition of1 #ih4 demonstrative1 #ajb4 from nouns1 used as nouns1 #bg4 function of1 #ig4 how to parse1 #aae1 #aaf4 in predicate1 #bci4 not compared1 #aji4 of quality1 #ii4 of quantity1 #aja4 ordinal1 #ajc4 plural of1 #ajf4 pronominal1 #ajd4 syntax of1 #cjc4 ,adverbial clauses1 #bfb4 ,adverbial objective1 #dh1 #bdb4 ,adverbs1 between to and infinitive1 #cbc4 classes of1 #ahe1 #ahg4 definition of1 #ahd4 distinguished from adjectives1 #aij4 how to parse1 #aia4 position of1 in sentence1 #cbe4 same form as adjectives1 #aij4 syntax of1 #cbe4 used as adjectives1 #aaf4 used as nouns1 #bg4 what they modify1 #ahc4 ,adversative conjunction1 #aid4 ,after1 uses of1 #aad1 #aie1 #bjg4 ,against1 uses of1 #bjg4 ,agreement1 kinds of1 #bge4 of adjective with noun1 #cjc4 of personal pronoun with antecedent1 #bhg4 of relative pronoun with antecedent1 #bia4 of verb with subject1 #adh1 #caf4 ,all1 syntax of1 #cjb4 ,alms1 #db4 ,alternative conjunctions1 #aid1 #cbh4 ,among1 between1 #bjg1 #cca4 ,an4 ,see ,a4 ,anacoluthon with which1 #bie4 ,analysis1 definition of1 #bca4 of complex sentences1 #bfd4 of compound sentences1 #bga4 of simple sentences1 #beb4 ,and who1 and which1 #bif4 ,antecedent1 agreement of pronoun and4 ,see ,agreement4 definition of1 #gd4 of it1 #fg4 of personal pronouns1 #gd1 #bhg4 of which1 #gi4 ,any1 as adjective1 #aja4 as pronoun1 #ij4 syntax of1 #cjj4 ,apostrophe in possessive1 #ea4 ,apposition1 words in1 #dg1 #di1 #fg1 #bdj4 ,are1 derivation of1 #aej4 ,arrangement in syntax1 #bge4 ,articles1 definite1 #abj4 definition of1 #abj4 how to parse1 #abg4 indefinite1 #abd4 syntax of1 #cji4 ,as1 after same1 #bid4 uses of1 #hd1 #bbe4 ,as if1 as though1 #aih4 ,at1 uses of1 #bjh4 ,auxiliary verbs1 #adh4 ,bad1 comparison of1 #aaj4 ,be1 conjugation of1 #adi4 uses of1 #aej4 ,better1 best1 #aaj1 #aaa4 ,between4 ,see ,among4 ,brethren1 #ci4 ,bridegroom1 #cg4 ,but1 uses of1 #hd1 #bbd4 with nominative of pronoun1 #bhc4 ,but what1 #ccj4 ,by1 uses of1 #baj4 ,can1 could1 #afa4 ,case1 definition of1 #df4 ,case1 double possessive1 of nouns1 #ed4 of pronouns1 #fd4 forms1 number of1 in ,old and ,modern ,english1 #df4 nominative1 of nouns1 #dg4 of pronouns1 #fb1 #bgi4 objective1 of nouns1 #dh4 of pronouns1 #ff1 #bgi4 possessive1 of nouns1 #di1 #bgh4 of pronouns1 #fc4 syntax of1 #bgh4 ,cause1 clauses of1 #bfb4 conjunctions of1 #aid1 #aie4 ,cherub1 plurals of1 #de4 ,children1 #ci4 ,clause1 adjective1 #bfj4 adverb1 #bfb4 definition of1 #beg4 kinds of1 #beg4 noun1 #beh4 ,cleave1 forms of1 #aeh4 ,clomb1 #aeg4 ,cloths1 clothes1 #dc4 ,collective nouns1 #ah4 syntax of1 and verb1 #cab1 #cae4 ,colloquial ,english1 #ab4 ,common nouns1 #ah4 derived from material1 #bd4 derived from proper1 #bc4 ,comparative and superlative1 double1 #aac1 #cjg4 syntax of1 #cjg4 ,comparison1 defective1 #aaa4 definition of1 #ajh4 degrees of1 #ajh4 irregular1 #aaj4 of adjectives1 #ajg4 of adverbs1 #ahi4 syntax of1 #cje4 ,complement of predicate1 #bci4 ,complementary infinitive1 #bdh4 ,complex sentence1 analysis of1 #bfd4 definition of1 #beg4 ,compound nouns1 plural of1 #dc4 possessive of1 #ec4 ,compound predicate and subject1 #bdd4 ,compound sentence1 #bfh4 analysis of1 #bga4 ,concessive clause1 in analysis1 #bfc4 with subjunctive1 #adc4 ,concord4 ,see ,agreement4 ,conditional clause1 in analysis1 #bfc4 with subjunctive1 #ach4 ,conditional conjunctions1 #aif4 ,conditional sentences1 #aci4 ,conjugation1 definition of1 #adi4 of be1 #adi4 of other verbs1 #aea4 ,conjunctions1 and other parts of speech1 same words1 #aie1 #bjg4 cordinate1 #aid4 correlative1 #aid4 definition of1 #aic4 how to parse1 #aii4 subordinate1 #aie4 syntax of1 #cbh4 ,conjunctive adverbs1 #ahh4 ,conjunctive pronoun4 ,see ,relative pronoun4 ,contracted sentences1 analysis of1 #bee4 ,cordinate clauses1 #bfi4 ,cordinate conjunctions4 ,see ,conjunctions4 ,cordinating vs4 restrictive use of relative pronouns1 #bhi4 ,copulative conjunction1 #aid4 ,could4 ,see ,can4 ,dative case1 in ,old ,english1 replaced by objective1 #ff4 ,declarative sentence1 #bca4 ,declension of interrogative pronouns1 #gc4 ,declension1 of nouns1 #ea4 of personal pronouns1 #fj4 of relative pronouns1 #hj4 ,defective verbs1 #afj4 ,definite article4 ,see ,articles4 ,definite tenses1 #adh1 #aeb4 ,degree1 adverbs of1 #ahe4 ,degrees4 ,see ,comparison4 ,demonstrative adjectives1 #ajb4 syntax of1 #cjc4 ,demonstrative pronouns1 #ij4 ,dependent clause4 ,see ,subordinate clause4 ,descriptive adjectives1 #ii4 ,descriptive use of nouns1 #bf4 ,dice1 dies1 #dc4 ,die by1 for1 from1 of1 with1 #ccc4 ,direct discourse1 #cbj4 ,direct object1 vs4 indirect1 #dh1 #bdb4 retained with passive verb1 #bdb4 ,distributive adjectives1 #ajb4 syntax of1 #bhg1 #cae4 ,distributive pronouns1 #ia4 syntax of1 #bhh1 #cjj4 ,double comparative4 ,see ,comparative4 ,double possessive4 ,see ,case4 ,drake1 duck1 #ce4 ,drank1 drunk1 #aeh4 ,each1 adjective1 #ajb4 pronoun1 #ij1 #ib4 syntax of1 #bhg4 ,each other1 one another1 #ib1 #bii4 ,eat 7t71 #aeh4 ,eaves1 #db4 ,either1 as adjective1 #ajb4 syntax of1 #bhg4 as conjunction1 #aid4 syntax of1 #cbh4 as pronoun1 #ij1 #ib4 syntax of1 #cjj4 ,elder1 older1 #aaj1 #aab4 ,elements of the sentence1 #bcd1 #beg4 ,ellipsis1 a source of error in pronouns1 #bhj4 in complex sentence1 #bee4 ',em1 origin of1 #fb4 ,empress1 #cd4 -,en1 added to plural1 #ci4 feminine suffix1 #cb4 plural suffix1 original1 #ch4 ,english1 literary1 spoken1 vulgar1 #ab4 periods of1 #cc4 ,enlargement of predicate1 #bda4 of subject1 object1 complement1 #bdj4 -,es original of possessive ending1 #ea4 plural suffix1 #dj4 -,ess1 feminine suffix1 #cc4 ,every1 adjective1 #ajb4 syntax of1 #bhg4 ,expect of1 expect from1 #ccd4 ,expected to have gone1 etc41 #cai4 ,factitive object1 #dh1 #bce4 ,farther1 further1 #aaj1 #aab1 #ahi4 ,feminine1 #cj4 ,few1 a few1 #abf4 ,first1 #ajc1 #aab4 ,first two1 two first1 etc41 #cjh4 ,fish1 fishes1 #dc4 ,for1 redundant1 with infinitive1 used as a noun1 #bab1 #bch4 uses of1 #baa4 ,foreign plurals1 #de4 ,former1 the1 adjective1 #ajb4 pronoun1 #ia4 ,from1 uses of1 #bab4 ,further4 ,see ,farther4 ,future tense1 #adg1 #aeb4 ,future perfect1 #adh1 #aeb4 ,gander1 goose1 #cf4 ,gender1 common gender1 #ca4 definition of1 #cj4 distinguished from sex1 #cj4 in ,english1 as compared with other languages1 #bi4 modes of marking1 in nouns1 #cb4 of personal pronouns1 #fj4 of relative pronouns1 #hj4 ,genii1 geniuses1 #dc4 ,gerund1 distinguished from participle and verbal noun1 #agg4 forms of1 #agf4 in syntax1 possessive case with1 #bhe4 ,girl1 #ce4 ,got1 #aei4 ,government1 definition of1 kinds of1 #bge4 ,grammar1 basis of1 #ab4 definition of1 #ab4 divisions of1 #ac4 opinions on1 #i4 province of1 #aj4 ,h1 an before1 #abj4 ,had better1 had rather1 #age4 ,hanged1 hung1 #aei4 ,he1 she1 it1 #fa4 ,his for its1 #fa4 ,husband1 #cf4 ,i1 personal pronoun1 #fj4 ,imperative mood1 #add4 of first person1 #ade4 ,imperative sentence1 #bca4 ,imperfect participle1 #agc4 ,indefinite adjective1 #aja4 ,indefinite article4 ,see ,articles4 ,indefinite pronoun1 #ic4 ,indefinite use of you1 your1 #fg4 ,independent clause1 #beg4 ,independent elements1 #bde4 ,indexes1 indices1 #dc4 ,indicative mood1 uses of1 #acf4 ,indirect discourse1 #cbj4 ,indirect object4 ,see ,direct object4 ,indirect questions4 ,see ,questions4 ,infinitive1 active1 with passive meaning1 #agf4 not a mood1 #aec4 syntax of1 #cai1 #cbc4 uses of1 #bdh4 -,ing words1 summary of1 #agh4 ,interjections1 #bbg4 ,interrogative adjectives1 #aje4 ,interrogative adverbs1 #ahh4 ,interrogative pronouns1 #gb4 declension of1 #gc4 in indirect questions1 #he4 syntax of1 #bhc4 ,interrogative sentence1 #bca1 #bcc4 ,intransitive verbs1 #aca4 made transitive1 #aca4 ,irregularities in syntax1 #bgf4 ,irregularly compared adjectives1 #aaj4 adverbs1 #ahi4 ,it1 uses of1 #fg4 ,it was me1 etc41 #fc1 #bha4 ,its1 history of1 #fa4 ,kind1 these kind1 etc41 #cjc4 ,kine1 double plural1 #ci4 ,king1 queen1 #cf4 ,lady1 lord1 #cf4 ,last1 latest1 #aaj1 #aac4 ,latter1 the1 adjective1 #ajb1 #aac4 pronoun1 #ia4 ,lay1 lie1 #agj4 ,less1 lesser1 #aaj4 ,lie4 ,see ,lay4 ,like1 syntax of1 #bbg4 uses of1 #bbf4 ,literary ,english1 #ab4 ,little1 a little1 #abf4 ,logic vs4 form1 in syntax1 #bgf4 ,logical subject and predicate1 #bde4 ,lord4 ,see ,lady4 -,ly1 words in1 #aij4 ,madam1 #cf4 ,manner1 adverbs of1 #ahe1 #ahh4 conjunctions of1 #aie4 ,many1 comparison of1 #aaj1 #aab4 ,many a1 #abf4 ,mapping out sentences1 #bef1 #bfe4 ,mare1 #cf4 ,master1 mistress1 #cd4 ,may1 might1 #afj4 ,means1 construction of1 #da4 ,mighty as adverb1 #ahg4 ,mine1 of mine1 #fd4 ,modifier1 adverb1 position of1 #cbe4 ,modifiers4 ,see ,enlargement4 ,mood1 definition of1 #ace4 imperative1 #add4 indicative1 #acf1 #acg4 subjunctive1 #acg-add4 -,most1 in superlatives1 #aac1 #aad1 #ahi4 ,much1 comparison of1 #aaj1 #aab1 #ahi4 ,must1 #afa4 ,near1 nearer1 nigh1 etc41 #aaj1 #aab4 ,negative1 double1 #cbf4 ,neither1 adjective1 #ajb4 syntax of1 #bhg4 conjunction1 #aid4 syntax of1 #cbh4 pronoun1 #ij1 #ib4 syntax of1 #cjj4 ,neuter nouns1 definition of1 #cj4 or gender nouns1 according to use1 #cj4 two kinds of1 #cb4 ,news1 #da4 ,no in analysis1 #bdf4 ,nominative4 ,see ,case4 ,none1 syntax of1 #cja4 ,nor1 #aid1 #cbh4 ,not a1 etc4 #abf4 ,noun clause1 #beh4 ,nouns1 #ag4 abstract1 #bj4 become half abstract1 #be1 #abd4 become proper1 #be4 formation of1 #ba4 case of1 #df4 collective1 #ai4 common1 #ah4 definition of1 #ag4 descriptive1 #bf4 gender of1 #bi4 how to parse1 #ef4 kinds of1 #ag material1 #ai4 become class nouns1 #bd1 #abe4 neuter1 used as gender nouns1 #cj4 number in1 #ch4 once singular1 now plural1 #db4 other words used as1 #bg4 plural1 how formed1 #ch-da4 of abstract1 #da of compound1 etc4 #dc4 of foreign1 #de4 of letters and figures1 #df4 of material1 #da4 of proper1 #da4 same as singular1 #ci4 two forms of1 #db with titles1 #dd4 proper1 #ah4 become common1 #bc4 syntax of1 #bgh4 use of possessive form of1 #bgh1 #bhe4 with definite article1 #aba4 with different meaning in plural1 #db4 with indefinite article1 #abd4 ,nouns1 with no singular1 #db4 with one plural1 two meanings1 #dc4 with plural form1 singular meaning1 #da4 with singular or plural construction1 plural form1 #da4 ,now as conjunction1 #aie1 #aif4 ,number1 definition of1 etc41 in nouns4 ,see ,nouns4 in adjectives1 #ajf4 in pronouns1 personal1 #fj4 in verbs1 #adh4 ,numeral adjectives1 definite1 #aja4 distributive1 #ajb4 indefinite1 #aja4 ,numeral pronouns1 #ib4 ,object1 adverbial1 #dh4 definition of1 #dh4 direct and indirect1 #dh4 in analysis1 #bce4 of preposition4 ,see ,preposition4 modifiers of1 #bdj4 retained with passive verb1 #bdb4 ,objective case1 adverbial1 dative1 #dh1 #bdb4 in spoken ,english1 #bha4 instead of nominative1 #bgi4 nominative instead of1 #bhb4 of nouns1 #dh4 of pronouns1 #ff4 syntax of1 #bgi4 ,of1 uses of1 #bac4 ,older4 ,see ,elder4 ,omission of relative pronoun1 #hg1 #bic4 ,on1 upon1 uses of1 #baf4 ,one1 definite numeral adjective1 #aja4 indefinite pronoun1 #id4 possessive of1 #ic ,one another4 ,see ,each other4 ,one 7the71 the other1 as adjective1 #ajc4 as pronoun1 #ia4 ,only1 as conjunction1 #aid4 position of1 as adverb1 #cbe ,order1 a part of syntax1 #bge4 inverted1 in analysis1 #bcc1 #bcg4 ,ordinal adjectives1 treatment of1 #ajc4 ,other with comparatives1 #cjf4 ,ought1 #afa4 ,our1 ours1 #fd4 ,ourself1 #fi4 ,oxen1 #ch4 ,pains1 #da4 ,parsing1 models for1 #ef1 #aag4 of adjectives1 #aae1 #aaf4 of adverbs1 #aia4 of articles1 #abg4 of conjunctions1 #aii4 of nouns1 #ef4 of prepositions1 #bai4 of pronouns1 #ie4 of relatives1 #hj4 of verb phrases1 #ahj4 of verbals1 #aha4 of verbs1 #agi4 some idioms not parsed1 #ef4 what it is1 #ef4 ,part from1 part with1 #cce4 ,participial adjective1 #ajj4 ,participial phrase1 #bdg4 ,participle1 definition of1 #agb4 distinguished from other -ing words1 #agg4 forms of1 #agd4 kinds of1 #agc4 syntax of1 #cbb4 uses of1 #aej1 #agb4 ,parts of speech1 article included in1 #aai4 words used as various1 #bg1 #bh4 ,passive voice1 #acd4 ,peas1 pease1 #dc4 ,pence1 pennies1 #dc4 ,person1 agreement of verb and subject in1 #cag4 of nouns1 #ei4 of pronouns1 #ei4 of verbs1 #adh4 ,personal pronoun1 absolute use of1 #fc4 agreement of1 with antecedent1 #bhg4 as predicate nominative1 #bha4 case of1 #fb4 compound1 or reflexive1 #fi4 uses of1 #gj4 definition of1 #ei4 double possessive of1 #fd4 'em and them1 #fb4 history of1 #fa4 objective of1 for nominative in spoken ,english1 #fc1 #bha4 syntax of1 #bha4 table of1 #fj4 triple possessive of1 #fd4 uses of it1 #fg4 ,personification1 of abstract nouns1 #be4 of other nouns1 #cg4 ,phrase1 definition of1 #bcf4 kinds of1 #bcf4 infinitive1 #bdh4 participial1 #bdg4 prepositional1 #bdg4 ,place1 adverbs of1 #ahe1 #ahh4 conjunctions of1 #aie4 prepositions of1 #bjf4 ,plural1 of adjectives1 #ajf4 syntax of1 #cjc4 of nouns4 ,see ,nouns4 of pronouns1 #fj1 #fa4 ,politics1 singular or plural1 #da4 ,positive degree4 ,see ,comparison4 ,possessive1 appositional1 of nouns1 #di4 as antecedent of relative1 #bhe4 double1 of nouns1 #ed4 double1 of pronouns4 ,see ,personal pronoun4 objective and subjective1 #ej4 of compound nouns1 #ec4 of indefinite pronoun1 #cjc4 omission of s in singular1 #eb4 origin of 's1 #ea4 syntax of1 #bgh4 with modified noun omitted1 #ec4 with two objects1 #bgh4 ,predicate1 complement of1 #bce4 complete1 #bde4 definition of1 #bcb4 logical vs4 simple1 #bde4 modifiers of1 #bda4 ,prefixes1 gender shown by1 #cb4 ,prepositions1 certain1 with certain words1 #ccb4 classification of1 #bjf4 definition of1 #bjc4 followed by possessive case1 #ed1 #fd4 by nominative case1 #bhc4 how to parse1 #bai4 objects of1 #bjc4 position of1 #bjb4 relations expressed by certain1 #bjh4 same words as other parts of speech1 #ahg1 #aie1 #bjg4 syntax of1 #cca4 uses of1 #abi1 #acb1 #bje4 various1 with same meaning1 #ccc4 ,present tense used as future1 #adg4 ,pretty as adverb1 #ahf4 ,pronominal adjectives1 interrogative1 #aje4 relative1 #ajd4 what1 exclamatory1 #aje4 ,pronouns1 #eh4 adjective1 #hi4 all1 singular and plural1 #cjb4 any1 usually plural1 #cjj4 each other1 one another1 #bii4 either1 neither1 with verbs1 #cjj4 none1 usually plural1 #cja4 somebody else's1 #cjc4 definition of1 #eh4 how to parse1 #ie4 indefinite1 #ic4 interrogative1 #gb4 who as objective1 #bhc4 personal1 #ei4 after than1 as1 #bhj4 antecedents of1 #bhg4 nominative and objective1 forms of1 #bgi4 nominative form of1 after but1 #bhd4 objective form of1 for predicate nominative1 #bha4 objective form of1 in exclamations1 #bhb4 possessive form of1 as antecedent of relative1 #bhe4 possessive form of1 with gerund1 #bhf4 relative1 #gd4 agreement of1 with antecedent1 #bia4 anacoluthon with which1 #bie4 and who1 and which1 #bif4 as1 that1 who1 and which after same1 #bie4 how to parse1 #hj4 omission of1 #hg1 #bic4 restrictive and unrestrictive1 #bhi4 two relatives1 same antecedent1 #big4 syntax of1 #bgi4 usefulness of1 #eh4 ,proper nouns4 ,see ,nouns4 ,purpose1 clauses of1 #bfc4 conjunctions of1 #aie4 ,quality1 adjectives of1 #ii4 ,quantity1 adjectives of1 #aja4 ,questions1 direct and indirect1 adverbs in1 #ahh4 pronominal adjectives in1 #aje4 pronouns in1 #he4 indirect1 subjunctive in1 #adb4 ,quotations4 ,see ,direct discourse4 ,rank1 adjectives of same and different1 #aae4 ,rather1 #ahi4 ,reflexive pronouns1 history of1 #fi4 how formed1 #fi4 ,reflexive use of personal pronoun1 #fh4 ,relative pronoun1 #gd4 but and as1 #hd4 distinguished from interrogative1 in indirect questions1 #he4 function of1 #gd4 indefinite or compound1 #hc4 omission of1 #hg1 #bic4 restrictive use of1 #bhi4 syntax of1 #bhi4 use of1 #gd4 ,result1 clauses of1 #bfc4 conjunctions of1 #aif4 ,retained object1 #bdb4 ,riches1 #db4 ,s1 plural suffix1 #dj4 ',s1 possessive ending1 #ea4 ,same as1 that1 who1 which1 #bid4 ,sat1 sate1 #aei4 ,seeing1 conjunction1 #aie1 #aif4 ,self in reflexive pronoun1 #fi4 ,sentences1 analysis of complex1 #bf of compound1 #bga4 of elliptical1 #bee4 of simple1 #beb4 complex in form1 simple in effect1 #bei4 ,sentences1 definition of1 #bca4 kinds of1 #bca4 ,sequence of tenses1 #cai4 ,set1 sit1 #agj4 ,sex and gender1 #bi4 ,shall1 should1 will1 would1 #afb4 ,shear1 forms of1 #aei4 ,shot1 shots1 #dc4 ,simple sentence4 ,see ,sentences4 ,singular number1 #ch4 ,sir1 #cf4 ,somebody else's1 etc41 #cjc4 ,sort1 these sort1 #cjc4 ,spelling becoming phonetic in verbs1 #afi4 ,spinster1 #cc4 ,split infinitive1 #cbc4 ,spoken ,english1 #ab4 -,ster1 feminine suffix1 use of1 in ,middle ,english1 #cb4 in ,modern ,english1 #cc4 ,subject1 complete1 #bde4 definition of1 #bcc4 grammatical vs4 logical1 #fg1 #bde1 #beh4 modifiers of1 #bdj4 things used as1 #bcg1 #beh4 ,subjunctive mood1 definition of1 #acg4 gradual disuse of1 #add4 uses of1 in literary ,english1 #ach4 in spoken ,english1 #add4 ,subordinate clause1 #beg4 adjective1 #bfj4 adverb1 #bfb4 definition of1 #beg4 how to distinguish1 #bgj4 kinds of1 #beg4 noun1 #beh4 other names for1 #beg4 ,such as adverb1 #ahf4 ,such a1 #abf4 ,suffix -en4 ,see -,en4 -s1 -es1 #ch4 ,suffixes1 foreign1 #cc4 ,superlative degree1 double1 #cjg4 in meaning1 not in form1 #ajg4 not suggesting comparison1 #aji4 of adjectives1 #ajh4 of adverbs1 #ahi4 syntax of1 #cjf4 with two objects1 #cjf4 ,syntax1 basis of1 #bgg4 definition of1 #bge4 in ,english not same as in classical languages1 #bge4 ,tense1 definition of1 #adg4 ,tenses1 definite1 meaning of1 #adh4 in ,modern ,english1 made up of auxiliaries1 #adg4 number of1 in ,old ,english1 #adg4 sequence of1 #cai4 table of1 #aeb4 ,than me1 than whom1 #bhj4 ,that1 omission of1 when subject1 #hh4 when object1 #hg4 relative1 restrictive1 and cordinating1 #bhi1 #bij4 that 444 and which1 #big4 uses of1 #bbb4 ,that1 this1 as adjectives1 #ajf4 as adverbs1 #ahf4 history of plural of1 #ajf4 ,the1 as article1 #abj4 as adverb1 #abc1 #ahf4 history of1 #aai4 syntax of1 #cji4 ,their1 they1 #fa4 ,then1 the then king1 etc41 #aaf4 ,there introductory1 #aia4 ,these kind1 syntax of4 ,see ,kind4 ,these1 this1 those4 ,see ,that1 history of4 ,thou1 thy1 thee1 uses of1 #fa4 ,time1 adverbs of1 #ahe1 #ahh4 conjunctions of1 #aie4 prepositions of1 #bjg4 ,to1 before infinitive1 #age4 in exclamations1 #age4 omitted with certain verbs1 #age4 uses of1 as preposition1 #bag4 ,t'other1 the tother1 #aai4 -,trix1 feminine suffix1 #cc4 ,try and1 try to1 #ccj4 ,two first1 first two1 etc41 #cjh4 ,under1 adjective1 #aad4 ,upon1 uses of4 ,see ,on4 ,upper1 #aad4 ,utter1 uttermost1 #aaa1 #aad4 ,verb phrases1 #abh4 parsing of1 #ahj4 ,verbal noun1 #bj4 distinguished from other -ing words1 #ba1 #agc4 ,verbals1 cleft infinitive1 #cbc4 gerund1 #agf4 how to parse1 #aha4 infinitive1 #agd1 #bdh4 kinds of1 #agb4 participle1 #agb4 carelessly used1 #cbb4 uses of1 in analysis1 #bdg4 syntax of1 #cbb4 ,verbs1 agreement of1 with subject in number1 #cab-caf4 in person1 #cag4 auxiliary1 #adh4 conjugation of1 #adi4 defective1 #afj4 definition of1 #abi4 how to parse1 #agi4 in indirect discourse1 #cbj4 intransitive1 made transitive1 #aca4 mood of1 #ace4 of incomplete predication1 #aej1 #bcf4 passive form1 active meaning1 #aea4 person and number of1 #adh4 retained object with passive1 #bdb4 strong1 definition of1 #aed4 remarks on certain1 #aeg4 table of1 #aee4 syntax of1 #cab4 tense of1 #adg4 sequence of1 #cai4 transitive and intransitive1 #acj4 voice of1 #acc4 weak1 definition of1 #aed4 spelling of1 #afi4 table of irregular1 #afg4 ,vixen1 #cc4 ,vocative nominative1 #dg4 in analysis1 #bde4 ,voice1 active1 #acc4 passive1 #acd4 ,vowel change1 past tense of verbs formed by1 #aed4 plural formed by1 #ci4 ,vulgar ,english1 #ab4 ,weak verbs1 regular1 irregular1 #afg4 spelling of1 becoming phonetic1 #afi4 ,went1 #aei4 ,what1 uses of1 #bbc4 but what1 #ccj4 what a1 #aje4 #abf4 ,whereby1 whereto1 etc41 #he4 ,whether1 conjunction1 #aid4 interrogative pronoun1 #gb4 ,which1 antecedent of1 #gi4 as adjective1 #ajd1 #aje4 as relative pronoun1 #ge4 in indirect questions1 #he4 indefinite relative1 #hc4 interrogative pronoun in direct questions1 #gb4 syntax of1 #bie-bii4 whose1 possessive of1 #gh4 ,who1 as relative1 #ge4 in direct questions1 #gb4 in indirect questions1 #he4 indefinite relative1 #hc4 objective1 in spoken ,english1 #gc4 referring to animals1 #gg4 syntax of1 #bif1 #bii4 ,widower1 #cg4 ,wife1 #cf4 ,will1 would4 ,see ,shall4 ,witch1 wizard1 #cf4 ,with1 uses of1 #bah4 ,woman1 #cb4 ,words in -ing1 #agh4 in -ly1 #aij4 ,worse1 worser1 #aaa4 ,y1 plural of nouns ending in4 #dj4 ,yes in analysis1 #bdf4 ,yon1 yonder1 #ajc4 ,you1 singular and plural1 #fa4 ,yours1 of yours1 #fd4 ,yourself1 yourselves1 #gj4