,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #dee ,,new ,,york1 ,,september #bj1 #ahhd ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xviii1 ,no4 #dee4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,chemistry ,,and ,,metallurgy4--,gallisin1 an ,unfermentable ,substance in ,starch ,sugar4 ,the ,combining ,weights1 ,volumes1 and ,specific ,gravities of ,elements and ,compounds4 ,analysis of ,zinc ,ash and ,calcined ,pyrites by ,means of ,ammonium ,carbonate4 ,,ii4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics4--,petroleum as a ,fuel in ,locomotive ,engines4--,by ,,thomas ,,urquhart4--,spray injector4--,driving locomotives4--,storage of petroleum4 ,improved ,gas ,light ,buoy4--#b figures4 ,project for a ,roadstead at ,havre4--,with map and views of different breakwaters4 ,improved ,catch ,basin4--#b figures4 ,water ,power with ,high ,pressures and ,wrought ,iron ,water ,pipe4--,by ,,hamilton ,,smith1 ,,jr4--,methods of conducting water and transmitting power4--,texas ,creek pipe and aqueduct4--#d figures4 ,parachute ,hydraulic ,motor4 ,improved ,shafting ,lathe4--#a figure4 ,power ,straightening ,machine4--#a figure4 ,hydraulic ,mining in ,california4--,by ,,geo4 ,o',,brien4 ,,iii4 ,,technology4--,emerald ,green3 ,its ,properties and ,manufacture4--,use in wall paper4--,,robert ,,galloway4 ,charcoal ,kilns4--,extra yield4--#b figures4 ,,iv4 ,,architecture--,entrance1 ,tiddington ,house1 ,oxon4--,an engraving4 ,v4 ,,electricity1 ,,light1 ,,heat4 ,,etc4--,the ,temperature of the ,earth as shown by ,deep ,mines4 ,new ,arrangement of the ,bichromate of ,potash ,pile4--#c figures4 ,the ,distribution of ,electricity by ,induction4--#a figure4 ,electricity ,applied to the study of ,seismic ,movements4--,apparatus for the study of horizontal and vertical seismic movements1 etc4--#h figures4 ,new ,accumulators4--#c figures4 ,industrial ,model of the ,reynier ,zinc ,accumulator4 ,the ,history of a ,lightning ,flash4--,by ,w4 ,,slingo4 ,researches on ,magnetism4 ,,vi4 ,,natural ,,history4--,the ,giraffe4--,with engraving4 ,,vii4 ,,medicine1 ,,and ,,hygiene4--,the ,treatment of ,cholera--,by ,dr4 ,h4,a4 ,,rawlins4 ,temperature4 ,moisture1 and ,pressure1 in their ,relations to ,health4--,london deaths under #a year in ,july1 ,august1 and part of ,september4 ,consumption ,spread by ,chickens4 ,new ,method of ,reducing ,fever4 ,,viii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,the ,crown ,diamonds of ,france at the ,exhibition of ,industrial ,arts4 ,a ,new ,mode of ,testing the ,economy of the ,expenses of ,management in ,life ,insurance4--,by ,,walter ,c4 ,,wright4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,giraffe4 ,the spirited view herewith presented1 representing the ,fall of the ,giraffe before the rifle of a sportsman1 we take from the ,illustrated ,london ,news4 ,hunting the giraffe has long been a favorite sport among the more adventurous of ,british sportsmen1 its natural range being all the wooded parts of eastern1 central1 and southern ,africa1 though of late years it has been greatly thinned out before the settlements advancing from the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,giraffe4 ,the characteristics of this singular animal are in some particulars those of the camel1 the ox1 and the antelope4 ,its eyes are beautiful1 extremely large1 and so placed that the animal can see much of what is passing on all sides1 and even behind it1 so that it is approached with the greatest difficulty4 ,the animal when full grown attains sometimes a height of fifteen to seventeen feet4 ,it feeds on the leaves and twigs of trees principally1 its immense length of legs and height at the withers rendering it difficult for the animal to graze on an even surface4 ,it is not easily overtaken except by a swift horse1 but when surprised or run down it can defend itself with considerable vigor by kicking1 thus1 it is said1 often tiring out and beating off the lion4 ,it was formerly almost universally believed that the fore legs were longer than the hinder ones1 but in fact the hind legs are the longer by about one inch1 the error having been caused by the great development and height of the withers1 to give a proper base to the long neck and towering head4 ,the color varies a good deal1 the head being generally a reddish brown1 and the neck1 back1 and sides marked with tessellated1 rust colored spots with narrow white divisions4 ,many specimens have been brought to this country1 the animal being extremely docile in confinement1 feeding from the hand1 and being very friendly to those who are kind to it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,an experiment has been made in ,vienna which proves that even with incandescent lights special precautions must be taken to avoid any risk of fire4 ,a lamp having been enveloped with paper and lighted by a current1 the heat generated was sufficient to set fire to the paper1 which burnt out and caused the lamp to explode4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,temperature ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,deep ,,mines4 ,at a recent meeting of the ,american ,society of ,civil ,engineers1 observations on the temperature of the earth1 as shown by deep mines1 were presented by ,messrs4 ,hamilton ,smith1 ,jr41 and ,edward ,b ,dorsey4 ,mr4 ,smith said that the temperature of the earth varies very greatly at different localities and in different geological formations4 ,there are decided exceptions to the general law that the temperature increased with the depth4 ,at the ,new ,almaden quicksilver mine1 in ,california1 at a depth of about #fjj feet the temperature was very high--some #aae degrees2 but in the deepest part of the same mine1 #a1hjj feet below the surface and #ejj feet below sea level1 the temperature is very pleasant1 probably less than #hj degrees4 ,at the ,eureka mines1 in ,california1 the air #a1bjj feet below the surface appears nearly as cool as #ajj feet below the surface4 ,the normal temperature of the earth at a depth of #ej or #fj feet is probably near the mean annual temperature of the air at the particular place4 ,at the ,comstock mines1 some years since1 the miners could remain but a few moments at a time1 on account of the heat4 ,ice water was given them as an experiment2 it produced no ill effects1 but the men worked to much better advantage2 and since that time1 ice water is furnished in all these mines1 and drunk with apparently no bad results4 ,mr4 ,e4,b4 ,dorsey said that the mines on the ,comstock vein1 ,nevada1 were exceptionally hot4 ,at depths of from #a1ejj to #b1jjj feet1 the thermometer placed in a freshly drilled hole will show #acj degrees4 ,very large bodies of water have run for years at #aee degrees1 and smaller bodies at #agj degrees4 ,the temperature of the air is kept down to #aaj degrees by forcing in fresh air cooled over ice4 ,captain ,wheeler1 ,u4,s4 ,engineers1 estimated the heat extracted annually from the ,comstock by means of the water pumped out and cold air forced in1 as equal to that generated by the combustion of #ee1efj tons of anthracite coal or #ig1gjj cords of wood4 ,observations were then given upon temperature at every #ajj feet in the ,forman shaft of the ,overman mine1 running from #ec degrees at a depth of #ajj feet to #aba4b degrees at a depth of #b1cjj feet4 ,the temperature increased3 #ajj to #a1jjj feet deep1 increase #a degree in #bi feet4 #ajj to #a1hjj feet deep1 increase #a degree in #cj4e feet4 #ajj to #b1cjj feet deep1 increase #a degree in #cb4c feet4 ,a table was presented giving the temperatures of a large number of deep mines1 tunnels1 and artesian wells4 ,the two coolest mines or tunnels are in limestone1 namely1 ,chanarcillo mines and ,mont ,cenis tunnel2 and the two hottest are in trachyte and the coal measures1 namely1 the ,comstock mines in trachyte and the ,south ,balgray in the coal measures4 ,mr4 ,dorsey considered that experience showed that limestone was the coolest formation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gallisin1 ,,an ,,unfermentable ,,substance ,,in ,,starch ,,sugar4 ,c4 ,schmitt and ,a4 ,coblenzl have made a careful investigation of the unfermentable substances found in commercial starch sugars1 and have succeeded in isolating a definite compound1 to which they give the name gallisin4 ,the method of separation and purification which they made use of is as follows3 #e kilogrammes of commercial starch sugar were allowed to ferment4 ,at a temperature of #ah-bj ,c4 and with a solution containing #bj per cent4 the fermentation was complete in five to six days4 ,it was filtered2 the perfectly clear1 almost colorless1 liquid evaporated as far as possible on the water-bath1 and the sirup while still warm brought into a good-sized flask4 ,the sirup was then well shaken with a large excess of absolute alcohol1 when it became viscous1 but did not mix with the alcohol4 ,the latter was poured off1 replaced by fresh alcohol1 and again shaken4 ,when this shaking with alcohol has been repeated several times1 the sirup is finally changed to a yellowish-gray mass4 ,this is now brought into a large mortar1 and rubbed up under a mixture of alcohol and ether4 ,after some time the whole mass is transformed into a gray powder4 ,it is quickly filtered off with the aid of an aspirator1 washed with alcohol and then with ether1 and brought under a desiccator with concentrated sulphuric acid4 ,in order to purify the substance1 it is dissolved in water and treated with bone-black4 ,the solution is then evaporated to a sirup1 and this poured into a mixture of equal parts of anhydrous alcohol and ether4 ,in this way the new compound is obtained as a very fine1 pure white powder which rapidly settles4 ,it has much the appearance of starch4 ,under the microscope it is perfectly amorphous4 ,in the air it deliquesces much more rapidly than ignited calcium chloride4 ,treated with dilute mineral acids or oxalic acid on the water-bath gallisin is transformed into dextrose4 ,it does not ferment when treated in water solution with fresh yeast4 ,the analyses led to the formula ,c#ab;,h#bd,o#aj4 ,when treated under pressure with three times its weight of acetic anhydride at #acj-adj it dissolves perfectly4 ,from the solution a product was separated which on analysis gave results agreeing with the formula ,c#ab;,h#ah,o#aj7;,c#b;,h#c,o7#f4 ,the substance appears therefore to be hexacetylgallisin4 ,physiological experiments on lower animals and human beings demonstrated clearly that gallisin has neither directly nor indirectly any injurious effect on the health4--,berichte der ,deutschen ,chemischen ,gesellschaft1 #ag1 #ajjj2 ,amer4 ,chem4 ,jour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,combining ,,weights1 ,,volumes1 ,,and ,,specific ,,gravities ,,of ,,elements ,,and ,,compounds4 ,under the title of ,figures ,worth ,studying1 ,mr4 ,william ,farmer1 of ,new ,york1 read a paper before a recent meeting of the ,society of ,gas ,lighting1 from which the ,american ,gas ,light ,journal gives the following3 ,i have prepared the following table1 which contains some of the elements and compounds1 with their combining weights1 volumes1 and specific gravities4 ,when the combining weight of any of these elements and compounds is taken in pounds1 then the gas or vapor therefrom will always occupy about #cgg4jg cubic feet of space1 at #fj ,fahr4 and #cj inches barometer4 ,if we divide this constant #cgg4jg by the combining weight of any of the substances1 then the quotient will be the number of cubic feet per pound of the same4 ,if we divide the combining weight of any of the substances given in the table by #b1 then the quotient will give the density of the same1 as compared with hydrogen4 ,if we divide the combining weight of any of the substances by the constant #bh4hg1 then the quotient will be the specific gravity of the gas or vapor therefrom1 as compared with air4 ,all the calculations are based on the atomic weights which are now generally adopted by the majority of chemists4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,cub4 ,ft4 per ,combi- ,cub4 ,ft4 ,combi- ,specific ning per ning ,gravity ,weight4 ,pound4 ,weight4 ,air #a4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,hydrogen 7,h#b7 #b4jj #ahh4ec #cgg4jg #j4jfib ,carbon vapour 7,c#b7 #bc4id #ae4ge #cgg4jg #j4hbib ,nitrogen 7,n#b7 #bh4jf #ac4dc #cgg4jg #j4igai ,oxygen 7,o#b7 #ca4ib #aa4ha #cgg4jg #a4ajef ,chlorine 7,cl#b7 #ga4jj #e4ca #cgg4jg #b4deic ,bromine 7,br#b7 #afj4jj #b4ce #cgg4jg #e4edbj ,flourine 7,f#b7 #ch4jj #i4ib #cgg4jg #a4cafb ,iodine 7,i#b7 #bec4bj #a4dh #cgg4jg #h4ggjc ,sulphur 7,s#b7 #fc4if #e4hi #cgg4jg #b4baed ,phosphorus 7,p#d7 #abc4hd #c4jd #cgg4jg #d4bhie ,carbonic oxide 7,,co7 #bg4jc #ac4ej #cgg4jg #j4ifgd ,carbonic acid 7,,co#b7 #dh4hi #h4ei #cgg4jg #a4ebjb ,water vapour 7,h#b,o7 #ag4jf #bj4ii #cgg4jg #j4fbba ,hydrogen sulphide 7,h#b,s7 #cc4jh #aa4ji #cgg4jg #a4aggj ,ammonia 7,h#b,n7 #ag4jc #bb4ad #cgg4jg #j4ehih ,sulphurous oxide 7,,so#b7 #fc4ij #e4ij #cgg4jg #b4bacc ,sulphuric oxide 7,,so#c7 #gi4hf #d4gb #cgg4jg #b4gffb ,cyanogen 7,c#b,n#b7 #eb4jj #g4be #cgg4jg #a4hjaa ,bisulphide of carbon 7,,cs#b7 #ge4ic #d4if #cgg4jg #b4fcjj ,ethyl alcohol 7,c#b;,h#f,o7 #de4ij #h4ba #cgg4jg #a4ehih ,ethyl ether 7,c#d;,h#aj,o7 #gc4hd #e4aj #cgg4jg #b4eegf ,methyl alcohol 7,,ch#d,o7 #ca4ic #aa4ha #cgg4jg #a4ajei ,methyl chloride 7,,ch#c;,cl7 #ej4dg #g4dg #cgg4jg #a4gdhb ,carbonyl chloride 7,c,o,cl#b7 #ih4ic #c4ha #cgg4jg #c4dbfg ,phosphine gas 7,,ph#c7 #cc4if #aa4aj #cgg4jg #a4agfi ,hydrochloric acid 7,h,cl7 #cf4ej #aj4cc #cgg4jg #a4bfdb ,methane 7,,ch#d7 #ae4ih #bf4fa #cgg4jg #j4eeca ,ethane 7,c#b;,h#f7 #bi4id #ab4ej #cgg4jg #a4jcgj ,propane 7,c#c;,h#h7 #dc4ia #h4eh #cgg4jg #a4ebji ,butane 7,c#d;,h#aj7 #eg4hh #f4ea #cgg4jg #b4jjdh ,ethene 7,c#b;,h#d7 #bg4id #ac4di #cgg4jg #j4ifgg ,propene 7,c#c;,h#f7 #da4ia #h4ii #cgg4jg #a4deaf ,butene 7,c#d;,h#h7 #ee4hh #f4gd #cgg4jg #a4icee ,ethine 7,c#b;,h#b7 #be4id #ad4ec #cgg4jg #j4hihe ,propine 7,c#c;,h#d7 #ci4ia #i4dd #cgg4jg #a4chbd ,butine 7,c#d;,h#f7 #ec4hh #f4ih #cgg4jg #a4hffb ,quintone 7,c#e;,h#f7 #fe4he #e4gb #cgg4jg #b4bhji ,benzene 7,c#f;,h#f7 #gg4hb #d4hd #cgg4jg #b4fiee ,styrolene 7,c#h;,h#h7 #ajc4ge #c4fc #cgg4jg #c4eicf ,naphtalene 7,c#aj;,h#h7 #abg4gj #b4ie #cgg4jg #d4dbcb ,turpentine 7,c#aj;,h#af7 #ace4gj #b4gg #cgg4jg #d4gjjc ,dry air #bh4hg #ac4jf -- #a4jjjj 99 99 99 99 99 ,,emerald-,,green3 ,,its ,,properties ,,and ,,manufacture4#a ,footnote #a3 ,this substance is also known by the name ,schweinfurt green4 ,by ,,robert ,,galloway1 ,m4,r4,i4,a4 ,the poisonous effects of wall-paper stained with emerald-green 7aceto-arsenite of copper7 appears to be a very favorite topic in many journals2 it is continually reappearing in one form or another in different publications1 especially medical ones2 there has recently appeared a short reference to it under the title1 ,the ,poisonous ,effect of ,wall-paper4 ,as some years ago ,i became practically acquainted with its properties and manufacture1 a few observations on these subjects may not be without interest4 ,in the paragraph referred to1 it is stated that the poisonous effect of this pigment cannot be entirely due to its mere mechanical detachment from the paper4 ,this writer therefore attributes the poisonous effects to the formation of the hydrogen compound of arsenic1 viz41 arseniureted hydrogen 7,as,h#c72 the hydrogen1 for the formation of this compound1 being generated1 the writer thinks probable1 by the joint action of moisture and organic matters1 viz41 of substances used in fixing to walls papers impregnated with arsenic4 ,in some of our chemical manuals1 ,dr4 ,kolbe's ,inorganic ,chemistry1 for example1 it is also stated that arseniureted hydrogen is formed by the fermentation of the starch-paste employed for fastening the paper to the walls4 ,it is perfectly obvious that the fermentation of the starch-paste must cease after a time1 and therefore the poisonous effects of the paper must likewise cease if its injurious effects are caused by the fermentation4 ,i do not think that arseniureted hydrogen could be formed under the conditions1 for the oxygen compound of arsenic is in a state of combination1 and the compound is in a dry solid state and not in solution and the affinities of the two elements--arsenic and hydrogen--for each other are so exceedingly weak that they cannot be made to unite directly except they are both set free at the same moment in presence of each other4 ,further1 for the formation of this hydrogen compound by the fermentation of the starch1 or by the growth of minute fungi1 the entire compound must be broken up1 and therefore the pigment would become discolored2 but aceto-arsenite of copper 7#c;,cu,as#b,o#d;,cu7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7b7 is a very stable compound1 not readily undergoing decomposition1 and is consequently a very permanent color4 ,it has also been not unfrequently stated that the injurious effects of this pigment are due to the arsenious oxide volatilizing from the other constituents of the compound4 ,this volatilization would likewise cause a breaking up of the entire compound1 and would consequently cause a discoloration of the paper2 but the volatilization of this arsenic compound is in every respect most improbable4 ,the injurious effects1 if any1 of this pigment must therefore be due to its mechanical detachment from the paper2 but has it ever been conclusively proved that persons who inhabit rooms the wall-paper of which is stained with emerald-green suffer from arsenical poisoning8 ,if it does occur1 then the effects of what may be termed homoeopathic doses of this substance are totally different from the effects which arise from larger doses4 ,during the packing of this substance in its dry state in the factory1 clouds of its dust ascend in the air1 and during the time ,i had to do with its manufacture ,i never heard that any of the factory hands suffered1 nor did ,i suffer1 from arsenical poisoning4 ,if there is any abrasion of the skin the dust produces a sore1 and also the delicate lining of the nostrils is apt to be affected4 ,it is in this way it acts in large doses2 ,i am therefore very skeptical as to its supposed poisonous effects when wall-paper is stained with it4 ,different methods are given in works on chemistry for the manufacture of this pigment1 but as they do not agree in every respect with the method which was followed in ,english color factories some years ago1 it will be as well1 for the full elucidation of the manufacture of this substance1 to briefly recite some of these methods before describing the one that was1 and probably is still1 in use2 and ,i will afterward describe a method which ,i invented1 and which is practically superior to any other1 both in the rapidity with which the color can be formed1 and for producing it at a less cost4 ,it is stated in ,watts' ,dictionary of ,chemistry that it is prepared on a large scale by mixing arsenious acid with cupric acetate and water4 ,five parts of verdigris are made up to a thin paste1 and added to a boiling solution of #d parts or rather more of arsenious acid in #ej parts of water4 ,the boiling must be well kept up1 otherwise the precipitate assumes a yellow-green color1 from the formation of copper arsenite2 in that case acetic acid must be added1 and the boiling continued a few minutes longer4 ,the precipitate then becomes crystalline1 and acquires the fine green color peculiar to the aceto-arsenite4 ,i do not know from personal knowledge1 but ,i have always understood that the copper salt employed in its manufacture in ,france is the acetate4 ,this would account1 in my opinion1 for the larger crystalline flakes in which it is obtained in ,france than can be produced by the ,english method of manufacturing it4 ,cupric acetate is never employed1 ,i believe1 in ,england--the much cheaper copper salt1 the sulphate1 being always employed4 ,in ,miller's ,chemistry it is stated it may be obtained by boiling solutions of arsenious anhydride and cupric acetate1 and adding to the mixture an equal bulk of cold water4 ,why it should be recommended to add cold water1 ,i am at a loss to understand4 ,in ,drs4 ,roscoe and ,schorlemmer's large work on ,chemistry1 and in the ,english edition of ,wagner's ,handbook of ,chemical ,technology1 edited by ,mr4 ,crookes1 the process as described by ,dr4 ,ehrmann in the ,ann4 ,pharm41 xii41 #ib1 is given4 ,it is thus stated in ,wagner's work3 ,this pigment is prepared by first separately dissolving equal parts by weight of arsenious acid and neutral acetate of copper in boiling water1 and next mixing these solutions while boiling4 ,there is immediately formed a flocculent olive-green colored precipitate of arsenite of copper1 while the supernatant liquid contains free acetic acid4 ,after a while the precipitate becomes gradually crystalline1 at the same time forming a beautiful green pigment1 which is separated from the liquid by filtration1 and after washing and carefully drying is ready for use4 ,the mode of preparing this pigment on a large scale was originally devised by ,m4 ,braconnot1 as follows3 #ae kilos4 of sulphate of copper are dissolved in the smallest quantity of boiling water1 and mixed with a boiling and concentrated solution of arsenite of soda or potassa1 so prepared as to contain #bj kilos4 of arsenious acid4 ,there is immediately formed a dirty greenish-colored precipitate which is converted into ,schweinfurt green by the addition of some #ae liters of concentrated wood-vinegar4 ,this having been done1 the precipitate is immediately filtered off and washed4 ,as ,i have already stated1 the copper salt used in the manufacture of this pigment in ,england is the sulphate1 and it is carried out pretty much according to ,braconnot's method as described by ,dr ,ehrmann2 but any one would infer1 from reading his description of the manufacturing process1 that the compound1 aceto-arsenite of copper1 was formed almost immediately after the addition of the acetic acid1 a higher or lower atmospheric temperature having no effect in hastening or retarding the formation4 ,furthermore1 it is not stated whether the compound forms more readily in an acid or neutral solution1 or whether it can or cannot be formed in a neutral one2 now both these points are important to notice in describing its manufacture4 ,as regards the former ,i shall notice it presently1 and1 as far as my knowledge extends1 the pigment will not form when the solution is neutral4 ,the operation is conducted in the following manner in the factory3 ,the requisite quantity of sulphate of copper is placed in a large wooden vat1 and hot water added to dissolve it2 the requisite quantity of arsenic 7arsenious anhydride7 and carbonate of soda1 the latter not in quantity quite sufficient to neutralize the whole of the sulphuric acid set free from the sulphate of copper on the precipitation of the copper as arsenite1 are placed in another wooden vessel2 water is then added1 and the formation of the arsenite of soda and its solution are aided by the introduction of steam into the liquid4 ,when complete solution has been effected the arsenic solution is run off into the vat containing the solution of the sulphate of copper1 arsenite of copper being at once precipitated4 ,the necessary quantity of acetic acid is afterward added4 ,in warm weather the formation of the aceto-arsenite soon commences after the addition of the vinegar2 but1 even in that case1 it takes a week or more to have the whole of a big batch of arsenite converted into the aceto-arsenite2 and perfect conversion is necessary1 as the presence of a very minute quantity of unchanged arsenite lowers very much the price of the emerald pigment1 and a by no means large quantity renders the pigment unsalable1 owing to its dirty yellowish-green color4 ,in cold weather a much longer time is required for its complete conversion2 even at the end of a fortnight or three weeks there frequently remains sufficient unconverted arsenite to affect seriously the selling price of the color2 when this occurs the manufacturer generally removes these last traces by a most wasteful method viz1 by adding a quantity of free sulphuric acid4 ,the acid of course dissolves the arsenite1 but it dissolves in very much larger quantities the aceto-arsenite2 and this costly solution is not utilized1 but is run into the factory sewer4 ,by my method of manufacturing it1 it can be produced in winter as well as in summer in one or two hours1 and the quantity of free acid required for its formation is reduced to the lowest amount4 ,i proceed as follows3 ,after having dissolved in hot water the requisite quantity of cupric sulphate1 ,i decompose one-fourth of this salt by adding just sufficient of a solution of carbonate of soda to precipitate the copper1 in that quantity of the sulphate1 as carbonate4 ,i then add just sufficient acetic acid to convert the carbonate into acetate4 ,i have now got in solution-- #c;,cu,s,o#d ,cu7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7b1 and ,i have to transform it into-- #c;,cu,as#b,o#d ,cu7,c#b;,h#c,o#b7b4 ,it is at once seen that ,i have got the requisite quantity of acetate formed4 ,i next dissolve the requisite quantity of arsenious anhydride in an amount of carbonate of soda rather less than is sufficient to neutralize the acid in the remaining cupric sulphate1 and ,i then bring the solution to or near the boiling-point by introducing steam into it2 the arsenic is dissolved not in the same vessel as the copper salt1 but in a separate one4 ,when the arsenic solution is fully heated1 a small current of it is allowed to flow into the vat containing the copper salts1 and brisk stirring is kept up in the vat4 ,the emerald green is at once formed2 but if there should be the slightest formation of any arsenite1 the flow of the arsenic solution is at once stopped until every trace of the arsenite has been converted2 the arsenic solution is then allowed to flow in again1 with the same precautions as before2 in this way a large batch of emerald-green can he formed in one or two hours1 without containing the slightest trace of the arsenite4 ,i keep the arsenic solution near the boiling-point during the whole of the time it is flowing into the other vessel4 ,by varying the proportions of water ,i could either make it coarse or fine1 as ,i wished1 which is an important matter to have complete control over in its manufacture4 ,two points of interest occurred to me during the time ,i was occupied with the research1 which ,i had not time to complete2 one was whether the aceto-arsenite can be formed1 adopting the old method for its formation1 if there is more than a certain quantity of water2 from some experiments ,i made in this direction ,i was inclined to the opinion it could not4 ,i have already stated that emerald-green is soluble to a certain extent in acids1 and that it is formed in a more or less acid solution2 consequently a varying amount of the pigment is always lost by being dissolved in the supernatant liquid4 ,to prevent to a certain extent this loss ,i precipitated the copper from it as arsenite2 but ,i was not successful in the few experiments ,i had time to make on this part of the subject of reconverting the copper arsenite thus obtained into the aceto-arsenite by the addition of acetic acid4--,jour4 of ,science4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,analysis ,,of ,,zinc ,,ash ,,and ,,calcined ,,pyrites ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,ammonium ,,carbonate4 ,in a recent issue of the ,chemiker ,zeitung ,dr4 ,kosmann has reported an analytical method for the examination of zinciferous products2 according to this report1 the ash and flue dust produced by the extraction of zinc from its ore comprise3 #a4 ,zinc dust1 from the distillation of zinc1 #b4 ,flue dust1 condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with ,kleemann's receivers1 #c4 ,zinc ash1 of various assortments1 from iron blast furnaces4 ,of these1 zinc dust is the only ready product which is1 as color or reducing agent1 employed in analytical and technical processes4 ,its value1 when serving the latter purpose1 is determined by the percentage of finely divided metallic zinc and cadmium contained therein2 of equal reducing power is cadmium1 generally associating zinc2 injurious1 and therefore uneffective1 are zinc oxide and oxides of other metals1 also metallic lead4 ,flue dust1 condensed in chambers of zinc furnaces with ,kleemann's receivers1 is employed with zinc ores in the extraction of zinc1 and in small quantities as substitute for zinc white2 its commercial value is similarly estimated as that of zinc ores4 ,the various modifications of zinciferous flue ashes from blast furnaces are an object for continual demand1 being both a valuable material for the production of zinc and1 in its superior qualities1 a desirable pigment4 ,in the regeneration of zinc the presence of foreign substances is of some concern2 detrimental are lead1 sulphur1 and sulphuric acid in form of lead1 zinc1 and lime sulphate4 ,the chemico-technical analysis of these products has until recently been confined to the volumetric determination of zinc by means of sodium sulphide 7,schaffner's method74 ,but as a remnant of sulphur1 as sulphuric acid1 in roasted blende causes a material loss during distillation1 and otherwise being induced to produce a zinc free of lead1 the estimation of sulphur1 sulphuric acid1 and lead became necessary4 ,these impurities are determined by well-known methods2 sulphur is oxidized and precipitated with barium chloride1 lead by sulphuric acid and alcohol4 ,the examination of zinc dust1 when used for the regeneration of metal1 determines the quantity of zinc resident therein1 and employed as reducing agent1 the quantity of metal which causes the generation of hydrogen4 ,cadmium1 showing the same deportment1 must also be considered as well as lead and arsenic4 ,a most complete and rapidly working method for the examination of zinciferous products has originated with the application of neutral ammonium carbonate as solvent4 ,a solution of this preparation is made1 according to ,h4 ,rose1 by dissolving #bcj grm4 commercial ammon carbonate in #ahj c4c4 ammoniacal liquor of #j4ib s4g41 and1 by addition of water1 augmenting it to one liter4 ,this solution dissolves the metallic components1 their oxides1 and basic zinc sulphate1 and transfers cadmium and lead oxide1 also lead1 magnesium1 and lime sulphate1 into insoluble carbonates4 ,iron and manganese1 when present as protoxide1 are dissolved2 of iron sesquioxide but traces1 and of cadmium oxide in statu nascendi a small portion enter into solution4 ,the solution of ammonium carbonate contains in each #aj c4c4 #a grm4 ammonia1 which dissolves #a4e grm4 zinc4 ,the sample for examination is moistened with water and mixed with an adequate volume of the solvent1 is digested at #ej-fj ,c4 until complete decomposition is effected4 ,the heating of the liquid prevents the solution of iron1 manganese1 and cadmium4 ,the content1 sediment and liquid1 is thrown on a filter and washed with hot water to which a small quantity of the solvent has been added4 ,when the solution contains iron and manganese1 it is separated by decantation from the sediment and oxidized with bromine 7according to the method of ,nic-,wolff7 until a flocculent precipitate of iron sesquioxide and manganese dioxide becomes visible2 it is united with the original residue and filtered4 ,the filtrate is diluted till it appears cloudy1 boiled to expel ammonia1 tested with sodium sulphide upon the presence of zinc1 and1 when freed of all zinc1 decanted4 ,the precipitate of zinc carbonate is filtered1 exhausted with water1 transferred into zinc oxide by ignition1 and weighed4 ,the gravimetric method can be substituted by the volumetric by introducing a solution of sodium sulphide of known strength into the ammoniacal filtrate4 ,on dividing the filtered liquid into various equal portions other substances1 arsenic and sulphuric acid1 can be determined from the same sample4 ,for this purpose the filtrate is concentrated2 divided into two equal portions1 one of which is acidified and treated with hydrogen sulphide for the determination of arsenic1 the other is acidified and used for the estimation of sulphuric acid by means of barium chloride4 ,the original residue is dissolved in muriatic or acetic acid and filtered4 ,the lead of the filtered liquid is thrown down by sulphuric acid1 and alcohol1 and cadmium1 after dissipation of alcohol into gas1 precipitated by hydrogen sulphide4 ,iron1 manganese1 alumina1 and other substances present in the solution are determined by known methods4 ,it is manifest that the determination of substances--zinc1 lead1 and sulphuric acid--which are of importance in technical analysis of zinc ash1 can be executed by this method within a comparatively short time4 ,the application of ammonium carbonate as solvent has the advantage1 over the application of ammonia1 that it is a far better solvent1 that it decomposes insoluble basic sulphates1 and that the remaining carbonates are readily dissolved by acids4 ,the decomposition of zinc dust is accompanied by a lively evolution of gas2 it is therefore necessary to continue the digestion of the sample till no more hydrogen is given off4 ,zinc dust contains both metals and their oxides1 and methods which1 from the volume of hydrogen generated1 determine indirectly the percentage of metallic zinc do not give the real composition of the zinc dust4 ,for the determination of the metallic components the material is digested with a solution of copper sulphate1 which dissolves zinc and cadmium2 the liquid is filtered1 acidified1 and decomposed with hydrogen sulphide1 or treated with a solution of ammonium carbonate4 ,the use of cupric chloride is not advisable1 as it corrodes lead1 and gives rise to the formation of soluble chloride of lead1 which complicates the separation of zinc from cadmium4 ,the best mode of operation is the following3 ,both copper sulphate and zinc dust are weighed separately1 the former is dissolved in water and the latter introduced into the solution of copper sulphate in small portions until it appears colorless4 ,during the operation the vessel is freely shaken1 lumps are comminuted with a glass rod1 and a few drops of the liquid are ultimately tested with hydrogen sulphide or ammonia4 ,the remainder of zinc dust is then weighed1 and its value deducted from the original weight4 ,zinc and cadmium of the filtrate are determined as above4 ,on repeating this method several times most satisfactory results are obtained4 ,another mode of operating is to employ an excess of copper sulphate and to determine the copper dissolved in the filtrate4 ,the separation of copper from cadmium being difficult and laborious1 and the volumetric estimation with potassium cyanide not practicable1 it is not prudent to apply this method4 ,when calcined zinciferous pyrites have to be examined1 the estimation of zinc is similar to that employed in the analysis of zinc ore4 ,the sample is exhausted with water1 filtered1 and1 to eliminate calcium sulphate and basic iron sulphate1 evaporated to dryness4 ,it is then dissolved in a small quantity of alcohol and water1 refiltered1 and the filtrate decomposed with ammonium carbonate4 ,the original residue is treated with a solution of ammonium carbonate1 which dissolves arsenious acid and basic zinc sulphate1 filtered1 and united with the first filtrate4 ,when iron and manganese are present1 the filtrates are treated with bromine4 ,the united filtrates are boiled or examined volumetrically with sodium sulphide4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,petroleum ,,as ,,fuel ,,in ,,locomotive ,,engines4#b ,footnote #b3 ,abstract of paper read before the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,by ,mr4 ,,thomas ,,urquhart4 ,comparing naphtha refuse and anthracite1 the former has a theoretical evaporative power of #af4b lb4 of water per lb4 of fuel1 and the latter of #ab4b lb41 at a pressure of #h atm4 or #abj lb4 per square inch2 hence petroleum has1 weight for weight1 #cc per cent4 higher evaporative value than anthracite4 ,now in locomotive practice a mean evaporation of from #g lb4 to #g lb4 of water per lb4 of anthracite is about what is generally obtained1 thus giving about #fj per cent4 efficiency1 while #dj per cent4 of the heating power is unavoidably lost4 ,but with petroleum an evaporation of #ab4be lb4 is practically obtained1 giving #ab4be_/af4b #ge per cent4 efficiency4 ,thus in the first place petroleum is theoretically #cc per cent4 superior to anthracite in evaporative power2 and secondly1 its useful effect is #be per cent4 greater1 being #ge percent4 instead of #fj percent42 while1 thirdly1 weight for weight1 the practical evaporative value of petroleum must be reckoned as at least from 7#ab4be - #g4ej7_/g4ej #fc per cent4 to 7#ab4be - #g4jj7_/g4jj #ge per cent4 higher than that of anthracite4 ,spray injector4--,steam not superheated1 being the most convenient for injecting the spray of liquid fuel into the furnace1 it remains to be proved how far superheated steam or compressed air is really superior to ordinary saturated steam1 taken from the highest point inside the boiler by a special internal pipe4 ,in using several systems of spray injectors for locomotives1 the author invariably noticed the impossibility of preventing leakage of tubes1 accumulation of soot1 and inequality of heating of the fire box4 ,the work of a locomotive boiler is very different from that of a marine or stationary boiler1 owing to the frequent changes of gradient on the line1 and the frequent stoppages at stations4 ,these conditions render firing with petroleum very difficult2 and were it not for the part played by properly arranged brickwork inside the fire box1 the spray jet alone would be quite inadequate4 ,hitherto the efforts of engineers have been mainly directed toward arriving at the best kind of spray injector1 for so minutely subdividing a jet of petroleum into a fine spray1 by the aid of steam or compressed air1 as to render it inflammable and of easy ignition4 ,for this object nearly all the known spray injectors have very long and narrow orifices for petroleum as well as for steam2 the width of the orifices does not exceed from mm4 to #b mm4 or #j4jb in4 to #j4jh in41 and in many instances is capable of adjustment4 ,with such narrow orifices it is clear that any small solid particles which may find their way into the spray injector along with the petroleum will foul the nozzle and check the fire4 ,hence in many of the steamboats on the ,caspian ,sea1 although a single spray injector suffices for one furnace1 two are used1 in order that when one gets fouled the other may still work2 but1 of course1 the fouled orifices require incessant cleaning out4 ,locomotives4--,in arranging a locomotive for burning petroleum1 several details are required to be added in order to render the application convenient4 ,in the first place1 for getting up steam to begin with1 a gas pipe of #a inch internal diameter is fixed along the outside of the boiler1 and at about the middle of its length it is fitted with a three-way cock having a screw nipple and cap4 ,the front end of the longitudinal pipe is connected to the blower in the chimney1 and the back end is attached to the spray injector4 ,then by connecting to the nipple a pipe from a shunting locomotive under steam1 the spray jet is immediately started by the borrowed steam1 by which at the same time a draught is also maintained in the chimney4 ,in a fully equipped engine shed the borrowed steam would be obtained from a fixed boiler conveniently placed and specially arranged for the purpose of raising steam4 ,in practice steam can be raised from cold water to #c atm4 pressure--#de lb4 per square inch--in twenty minutes4 ,the use of auxiliary steam is then dispensed with1 and the spray jet is worked by steam from its own boiler2 a pressure of #h atm4--#abj lb4--is thus obtained in fifty to fifty-five minutes from the time the spray jet was first started4 ,in daily practice1 when it is only necessary to raise steam in boilers already full of hot water1 the full pressure of #g to #h atm4 is obtained in from twenty to twenty-five minutes4 ,while experimenting with liquid fuel for locomotives1 a separate tank was placed on the tender for carrying the petroleum1 having a capacity of about #c tons4 ,but to have a separate tank on the tender1 even though fixed in place1 would be a source of danger from the possibility of its moving forward in case of collision4 ,it was therefore decided1 as soon as petroleum firing was permanently introduced1 to place the tank for fuel in the tender between the two side compartments of the water tank1 utilizing the original coal space4 ,for a six-wheeled locomotive the capacity of the tank is #c-a_/b tons of oil--a quantity sufficient for #bej miles1 with a train of #dhj tons gross exclusive of engine and tender4 ,in charging the tender tank with petroleum1 it is of great importance to have strainers of wire cloth in the manhole of two different meshes1 the outer one having openings1 say1 of #a_/d in41 the inner1 say #a_/h in42 these strainers are occasionally taken out and cleaned4 ,if care be taken to prevent any solid particles from entering with the petroleum1 no fouling of the spray injector is likely to occur2 and even if an obstruction should arise1 the obstacle being of small size can easily be blown through by screwing back the steam cone in the spray injector far enough to let the solid particles pass and be blown out into the fire-box by the steam4 ,this expedient is easily resorted to even when running2 and no more inconvenience arises than an extra puff of dense smoke for a moment1 in consequence of the sudden admission of too much fuel4 ,besides the two strainers in the manhole of the petroleum tank on the tender1 there should be another strainer at the outlet valve inside the tank1 having a mesh of #a_/c in4 holes4 ,driving locomotives4--,in lighting up1 certain precise rules have to be followed1 in order to prevent explosion of any gas that may have accumulated in the fire box4 ,such explosions do often take place through negligence2 but they amount simply to a puff of gas1 driving smoke out through the ash-pan dampers1 without any disagreeably loud report4 ,this is all prevented by adhering to the following simple rules3 ,first clear the spray nozzle of water by letting a small quantity of steam blow through1 with the ash-pan doors open2 at the same time start the blower in the chimney for a few seconds1 and the gas1 if any1 will be immediately drawn up the chimney4 ,next place on the bottom of the combustion chamber a piece of cotton waste1 or a handful of shavings saturated with petroleum and burning with a flame4 ,then by opening first the steam valve of the spray injector1 and next the petroleum valve gently1 the very first spray of oil coming on the flaming waste immediately ignites without any explosion whatever2 after which the quantity of fuel can be increased at pleasure4 ,by looking at the top of the chimney1 the supply of petroleum can be regulated by observing the smoke4 ,the general rule is to allow a transparent light smoke to escape1 thus showing that neither too much air is being admitted nor too little4 ,the combustion is quite under the control of the driver1 and the regulation can be so effected as to prevent smoke altogether4 ,while running1 it is indispensable that the driver and fireman should act together1 the latter having at his side of the engine the four handles for regulating the fire1 namely1 the steam wheel and the petroleum wheel for the spray injector1 and the two ash-pan door handles in which there are notches for regulating the air admission4 ,each alteration in the position of the reversing lever or screw1 as well as in the degree of opening of the steam regulator or the blast pipe1 requires a corresponding alteration of the fire4 ,generally the driver generally passes the word when he intends shutting off steam1 so that the alteration in the firing can be effected before the steam is actually shut off2 and in this way the regulation of the fire and that of the steam are virtually done together4 ,all this care is necessary to prevent smoke1 which is nothing less than a waste of fuel4 ,when1 for instance1 the train arrives at the top of a bank1 which it has to go down with the brakes on1 exactly at the moment of the driver shutting off the steam and shifting the reversing lever into full forward gear1 the petroleum and steam are shut off from the spray injector1 the ash-pan doors are closed1 and if the incline be a long one1 the revolving iron damper over the chimney top is moved into position1 closing the chimney1 though not hermetically4 ,the accumulated heat is thereby retained in the fire-box2 and the steam even rises in pressure1 from the action of the accumulated heat alone4 ,as soon as the train reaches the bottom of the incline and steam is again required1 the first thing done is to uncover the chimney top2 then the steam is turned on to the spray injector1 and next a small quantity of petroleum is admitted1 but without opening the ash-pan doors1 a small fire being rendered possible by the entrance of air around the spray injector1 as well as by possible leakage past the ash-pan doors4 ,the spray immediately coming in contact with the hot chamber ignites without any audible explosion2 and the ash-pan doors are finally opened1 when considerable power is required1 or when the air otherwise admitted is not sufficient to support complete combustion4 ,by looking at the fire through the sight hole it can always be seen at night whether the fire is white or dusky2 in fact1 with altogether inexperienced men it was found that after a few trips they could become quite expert in firing with petroleum4 ,the better men contrive to burn less fuel than others1 simply by greater care in attending to all the points essential to success4 ,at present seventy-two locomotives are running with petroleum firing2 ten of them are passenger engines1 seventeen are eight-wheel coupled goods engines1 and forty-five are six-wheel coupled4 ,as might be expected1 several points have arisen which must be dealt with in order to insure success4 ,for instance1 the distance ring between the plates around the firing door is apt to leak1 in consequence of the intense heat driven against it1 and the absence of water circulation2 it is therefore either protected by having the brick arch built up against it1 or1 better still1 it is taken out altogether when the engines are in for repairs1 and a flange joint is substituted1 similar to what is now used in the engines of the ,london and ,northwestern ,railway4 ,this arrangement gives better results1 and occasions no trouble whatever4 ,storage of petroleum4--,the length of line now worked with petroleum is from ,tsaritsin to ,burnack1 #bia miles4 ,there is a main iron reservoir for petroleum at each of the four engine sheds1 namely at ,tsaritsin1 ,archeda1 ,filonoff1 and ,borisoglebsk4 ,each reservoir is #ff ft4 internal diameter and #bd ft4 high1 and when full holds about #b1jej tons4 ,the method of charging the reservoir1 which stands a good way from the line1 and is situated at a convenient distance from all dwelling houses and buildings1 is as follows3 ,on a siding specially prepared for the purpose are placed ten cistern cars full of oil1 the capacity of each being about ten tons4 ,from each of these cars a connection is made by a flexible ,india rubber pipe to one of ten stand pipes which project #a ft4 above the ground line4 ,parallel with the rails is laid a main pipe1 with which the ten stand pipes are all connected1 thus forming one general suction main4 ,about the middle of the length of the main1 which is laid underground and covered with sawdust or other non-conducting material1 is fixed a ,blake steam pump4 ,as soon as all the ten connections are made with the cistern cars1 the pump is set to work1 and in about one hour the whole of the cars are discharged into the main reservoir1 the time depending of course upon the capacity of the pump4 ,all the pipes used are of malleable iron1 lap-welded1 and of #e in4 internal diameter1 having screwed coupling muffs for making the connections4 ,at each engine shed1 in addition to the main storage reservoir1 there is a smaller distributing tank1 which is erected at a sufficient height to supply the tenders1 and very much resembles the ordinary water tanks4 ,these distributing tanks are circular1 about #h ft4 diameter and #f ft4 high1 and of in4 plates2 their inside mean area is calculated exactly1 and a scale graduated in inches stands in the middle of the tank2 a glass with scale is used outside in summer time4 ,each inch in height on the scale is converted into cubic feet1 and then by means of a table is converted into ,russian poods1 according to the specific gravity at various temperatures4 ,as it would be superfluous to graduate the table for each separate degree of temperature1 the columns in the table show the weights for every #h degrees ,reaumur1 which is quite sufficient3 namely1 from #bd deg4 to #ag deg41 from #af deg4 to #i deg41 and so on1 down to -#bd deg42 the equivalent ,fahrenheit range being from #hf deg4 down to -#bb deg4 ,suppose the filling of a tender tank draws off a height of #bg in4 from the distributing tank1 at a temperature of say -#bj deg4 ,r41 these figures are shown by the table to correspond with #bjj4fa poods #g1bde lb41 or #c4bc tons1 of petroleum4 ,this arrangement does very well in practice2 both the quantity and the temperature are entered on the driver's fuel bill at the time of his taking in his supply4 ,engines4--,the engines used in the trials were built by ,borsig1 of ,berlin1 ,schneider1 of ,creusot1 and the ,russian ,mechanical and ,mining ,company1 of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,their main dimensions and weights were about the same1 as follows1 all of them having six wheels coupled1 and #cf tons adhesive weight2 as originally constructed they had ordinary fire boxes for burning anthracite or wood2 cylinders #ah-a_/h in4 diameter and #bd in4 stroke2 slide valves1 outside lap #a-a_/af in41 inside lap #c_/cb in41 maximum travel1 #d-i_/af in42 ,stephenson link motion2 boiler pressure1 #abj lb4 per square inch2 six wheels1 all coupled1 #d ft4 #c in4 in diameter2 distance between centers of leading and middle wheels1 #f ft4 #b-c_/d in42 between middle and trailing1 #d ft4 #i-a_/d in42 total length of wheel base1 #aa ft42 weight empty1 on leading wheels1 #ab4jda tons2 middle1 #aj4ghb tons2 trailing1 #aj4fhe tons2 total weight1 #cc4ejh tons empty2 weight in running order1 on leading wheels1 #ab4efc tons2 middle1 #aa4hhe tons2 trailing #ab4gij tons2 total weight1 #cg4bch tons in running order4 ,tubes number #aea2 outside diameter1 #b-a_/h in42 length between tube plates1 #ac ft4 #aj-a_/h in42 outside heating surface1 #a1aff square feet2 fire box heating surface1 #hb square feet2 total heating surface1 #a1bdh square feet2 fire grate area1 #ag square feet2 tractive power #fe per cent4 of boiler pressure 7cyl4 diam47 stroke _/ diameter of wheels #j4fe #abj 7#ah4abe7 #bd _/ #ea #e4chc tons4 ,ratio of tractive power to adhesion weight #e4chc _/ #cg4bch #a _/ #f4i4 ,tender4--,contents3 water1 #caj cubic feet1 or #a1icc gallons1 or #h tons2 anthracite1 #fjj poods1 or #aj tons2 or wood1 #a cubic sajene1 or #ead cubic feet2 weight empty1 #ac4dgg tons2 weight in running order1 #bh4ffe tons2 six wheels4 99 99 99 99 99 ,petroleum ,refuse--,comparative ,trials with ,petroleum1 ,anthracite1 ,bituminous ,coal1 and ,wood1 between ,archeda and ,tsaritsin on ,grazi and ,tsaritsin ,railway1 in ,winter ,time4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,l o ,train ,consumption c alone4 ,including ,date4 o ,lighting up4 #ahhc4 m --------- ,cost o ,train,num- ,dis- ,car of ,atmospheric t ber ,grosstancemiles4 ,fuel4 ------------ fuel temperature i of load4 run4 ,per per and v ,loa- ,total train train weather4 e ded mile4 mile4 4 cars ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,no4 ,tons,miles ,pence4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- #hcb-bc #be #djj #chh #i1gjj;,anthracite4 #cagii #ha4ijaa4ieg-ag to -#ah #cb-bc lb4 lb4 ,reau41 ,feb4 equiv4 to #h #bd-ba -#f to -#h #adbd-ba #be #djj #chh #i1gjj;,bituminous #cgeeg4eif4ecad4jic ,fah4 ,coal4 lb4 lb4 #gbf-bi #be #djj #aid #d1hcj,petroleum #idfb #dh4gg #e4dhg ,strong refuse4 lb4 lb4 side wind4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- #bdcb-bc #be #djj #aid #d1hej;,anthracite4#abfci4efe4ae #i4eab-e to -#i ,march lb4 lb4 ,reau41 #f #babd-ba #be #djj #aid #d1hej,wood1 in #ajga4h #e4eb #h4e equiv4 to billets4 c4 ft4c4 ft #ba to #ab ,fah4 #bcbf-bg #be #djj #aid #d1hej,petroleum #gbbh #cg4bh #d4ahh ,light refuse4 lb4 lb4 side wind4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,prices of fuel3 ,petroleum refuse1 #bas4 per ton2 ,anthracite and bituminous coal1 #bgs4 #c;d4 per ton2 ,wood1 in billets1 #dbs4 per cubic sajene #cdc cubic feet2 equivalent to #a4dg;d4 per cubic foot4 ,dimensions of locomotives3 ,cylinders1 #ah #a_/h in4 diam4 and #bd in4 stroke2 ,wheels1 #d feet #c in4 diam42 ,total heating surface1 #a1bdh sq4 feet3 ,total adhesion weight1 #cf tons2 ,boiler pressure1 #h to #i atm4 ,the preceding table shows the results of comparative trials made in winter with different sorts of fuel1 under exactly similar conditions as to type of engine1 profile of line1 and load of train4 ,two sets of comparative trials were made1 both of them in winter4 ,the three engines used were some of those built by ,schneider4 ,in comparison with anthracite1 the economy in favor of petroleum refuse was #da per cent4 in weight1 and #ee per cent4 in cost4 ,with bituminous coal there was a difference of #di per cent4 in favor of petroleum as to weight and #fa per cent4 as to cost4 ,as compared with wood petroleum was #ej per cent4 cheaper4 ,at a speed of fourteen miles an hour up an incline of #a in #abe the steam pressure was easily kept up at #i to #i atm4 with a ,no4 #i injector feeding the boiler all the time4 ,up to the present time the author has altered seventy-two locomotives to burn petroleum2 and from his own personal observations made on the foot plate with considerable frost he is satisfied that no other fuel can compare with petroleum either for locomotives or for other purposes4 ,in illustration of its safety in case of accident1 a photograph was exhibited of an accident that occurred on the author's line on #cjth ,december1 #ahhc1 when a locomotive fired with petroleum ran down the side of an embankment1 taking the train after it2 no explosion or conflagration of any kind took place under such trying circumstances1 thus affording some proof of the safety of the petroleum refuse in this mode of firing4 ,although it is scarcely possible that petroleum firing will ever be of use for locomotives on the ordinary railways of coal-bearing ,england1 yet the author is convinced chat1 even in such a country1 its employment would be an enormous boon on underground lines4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,charcoal ,,kilns4 ,illustration3 ,,kiln ,,for ,,burning ,,charcoal4 ,in answer to the inquiry of a correspondent about charcoal making1 we offer two illustrations that show a method of manufacture differing from that usually adopted1 which is that of burning on the bare ground1 and covering with soil or sods to exclude the air4 ,these kilns are made of brick1 one course being sufficient1 bands of iron or timber framework being added to strengthen the brickwork with greater economy4 ,the usual style is conical1 and the size is #bd feet in diameter1 with an equal height1 holding about #dj cords of wood4 ,the difference in price is #a-a_/h d4 per bushel in favor of these kilns as compared with the usual mounds1 the burner being furnished with the use of the kilns1 and the timber standing1 the kiln burning costing #b-a_/h d41 and the other #c-a_/d d4 ,the kilns must be lined to about halfway up with fire-brick1 the cost of which will vary with the locality1 but will be about #bjj1 and as #dj to #ej bushels of coal have been made per cord the extra yield on good charcoal and the lessening of the cost of making soon covers any extra outlay on the cost of the kilns4 ,the wall of the kiln is carried up nearly straight for #f feet1 when it is drawn in1 so as to become bluntly conical4 ,upon the top a plate of iron is fastened in the manner of the keystone of an arch1 and bands of iron are passed round the kiln and drawn tight with screw bolts and nuts to strengthen it4 ,double doors of sheet-iron are made at the bottom and near the tops1 by which it is either filled or emptied1 and a few air-holes 7,b71 which may be stopped with loose bricks1 left in the bottom4 ,the second figure shows a kiln of another shape made to burn #c1jjj bushels of charcoal1 or about #hj cords of wood4 ,the shape is a parallelogram1 having an arched roof1 and it is strengthened by a framework of timber #aj inches square4 ,as the pressure of the gas is sometimes very great1 the walls must be built a brick and a half thick to prevent their bursting4 ,the usual size is #af feet wide and high1 and #dj feet in length1 outside measure4 ,the time occupied in filling1 burning1 and emptying a small cone is about three weeks1 and four weeks is required for the larger ones4--,the ,gardeners' ,chronicle4 ,illustration3 ,,kiln ,,for ,,burning ,,charcoal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,entrance1 ,,tiddington ,,house1 ,,oxon4 ,our illustration is a view of the entrance facade to ,tiddington ,house1 ,oxfordshire1 the residence of the ,rev4 ,joshua ,bennett4 ,the house is an old building of the ,georgian period1 and though originally plain and unpretentious1 its bold coved cornices under the eaves1 its rubbed and shaped arches1 moulded strings1 and thick sash bars1 made it of considerable interest to the admirers of the ,queen ,anne school of architecture1 and led to the adoption of that style in the alterations and additions made last year1 of which the work shown in our illustration formed a small part4 ,between the entrance facade and the wall of the house there is a space of some twenty feet in length1 which is inclosed by a substantially built conservatory-like erection of ,queen ,anne design1 forming an outer hall4 ,illustration3 ,,entrance ,,tiddington ,,house ,,oxon4--,morris ,stallwood--,architects4 ,the works were executed by ,messrs4 ,holly ,butler1 of ,nettlebed4 ,the brick carving was beautifully done by the late ,mr4 ,finlay2 and the architects were ,messrs4 ,morris ,stallwood1 of ,reading4--,the ,architect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,bichromate ,,of ,,potash ,,pile4 ,since ,poggendorff in #ahdb thought of substituting in the ,bunsen battery a solution of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid for nitric acid1 and of thus making a single liquid pile of it1 in suppressing the porous vessel1 his idea has been taken up a considerable number of times4 ,some rediscovered it simply1 while others1 who were better posted in regard to the work of their predecessors1 took ,poggendorff's pile as he conceived it1 and1 considering the future that was in store for it1 thought only of modifying it in order to render it better4 ,among these1 ,mr4 ,grenet was one of the first to present the bichromate of potash pile under a truly practical form4 ,as long ago as #ahef1 in fact1 he gave it the form that is still in use1 and that is known as the bottle pile4 ,thus constructed1 this pile1 as is well known1 presents a feeble internal resistance1 and a greater electro-motive power than the ,bunsen element4 ,unfortunately1 its energy rapidly decreases1 and the alteration of the liquid1 as well as the large deposit of oxide of chromium that occurs on the positive electrode1 prevents its being employed in experiments of quite long duration4 ,mr4 ,grenet1 it is true1 obviated these two defects by first renewing the liquid slowly and continuously1 and causing a current of air to bubble up in the pile so as to detach the oxide of chromium in measure as the deposit formed4 ,thus improved1 the bichromate pile was employed on a large scale in the lighting of the ,comptoir d',escompte4 ,in an extensive application like this latter1 the use of compressed air for renewing the liquid can be easily adapted to the bichromate pile1 as the number of elements is great enough to allow of the putting in of all the piping necessary2 but when it is only desired to use this pile for laboratory purposes1 and when there is need of but a small number of elements1 it is impossible to adopt ,mr4 ,grenet's elements in the form required by an electric lighting installation4 ,it becomes absolutely necessary1 then1 to come back to a simpler form1 and attempt at the same time to obviate the defects which are inherent to its very principle4 ,in accordance with this idea1 it will be well to point out the arrangement adopted by ,mr4 ,courtot for his bichromate of potash piles--an arrangement that is very simple1 but1 sufficiently well worked out to render the use of it convenient in a laboratory4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--;,,courtot',s ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,bichromate ,,pile4 ,fig4 #a gives the most elementary form4 ,it consists of an earthen vessel into which dip four carbon plates connected with each other by a copper ring which carries one of the terminals4 ,in the center there is a cylindrical porous vessel that contains a very dilute and feebly acidulated solution of bichromate of potash into which dips a prism of zinc1 which may be lifted by means of a rod when the pile ceases to operate4 ,it is true that the presence of the porous vessel in the bichromate of potash element increases the internal resistance1 but1 as an offset1 although it decreases the discharge1 it secures constancy and quite a long duration for it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,,courtot',s ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,bichromate ,,pile4 ,the elements thus constituted may be grouped1 to the number of six1 in a frame analogous to that shown in the engraving1 and1 sum total1 form a small sized battery adapted to the current experiments of the laboratory1 and capable of supplying two small four volt lamps for ten or twelve hours4 ,we have had occasion to make use of these elements for the graduation of galvanometers1 and1 after ascertaining the constancy of the discharge1 have found that the internal resistance of each couple is nearly #j4age ohm1 with an electro-motive force of two volts4 ,as may be seen1 these elements should1 in general1 all be mounted for tension1 as they are in the figure1 inasmuch as the mobility of the zincs permits1 according to circumstances1 of employing a variable number of them without changing anything4 ,moreover1 with zincs amalgamated in a special manner1 the attack is imperceptible1 and the work in open circuit need scarcely to be taken into consideration4 ,yet1 despite the qualities inherent to the arrangement that we have just described1 that defect common to all bichromate of potash piles--the deposit of oxide of chromium upon the carbon--is not here avoided4 ,it occurs quite slowly1 to be sure1 but it does occur1 and1 from this point of view1 the arrangement shown in ,fig4 #b is preferable4 ,the elements here are composed of prismatic porcelain vessels containing1 as before1 the solution and porous vessel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,,courtot',s ,,arrangement ,,of ,,the ,,bichromate ,,pile4 ,the whole is covered with a sheet of ebonite connected with the zinc and the two carbon plates in such a way that when the pile is not in operation the whole can be lifted from the liquid4 ,under such circumstances the deposit of oxide is notably diminished1 and the duration of the discharge is consequently greatly increased4 ,fig4 #c shows the details of a windlass that permits of lifting1 according to circumstances1 all the elements of the same trough or only a part of them4 ,to effect this1 the drum around which the chain winds that carries the carbons is mounted upon a sleeve fixed upon the axle4 ,this latter is actuated by a winch2 and a ratchet wheel1 ,r1 joined to a click which is actuated by a spiral spring1 prevents the ebonite plates from falling back when it is desired to place the bolt under the button1 ,b1 of the spring4 ,when it is desired to put an element out of the circuit1 it is only necessary to act with the finger upon the extremity of the lever1 ,d4 ,under the action of the latter1 the piece1 s1 which carries a groove for the passage of the screws that fix it to the upper cross-piece1 takes on a longitudinal motion and consequently gears with the drum through the toothed sleeve1 ,e4 ,when an experiment is finished the zinc may thus be lifted from the liquid1 and the deposit of oxide be prevented from forming upon the carbon4 ,as may be seen1 the arrangements which we have just described exhibit nothing that is particularly original4 ,the windlasses used for removing the elements from a pile when the circuit is open have been employed for a long time2 the bichromate pile is itself old1 and1 as we said in the beginning1 it has been modified in its details a number of times4 ,in spite of this1 we have thought it well to point out the mode of construction adopted by ,mr4 ,courtot1 since1 owing to the simplicity of the arrangements1 it renders convenient and easily manageable a pile of very great constancy that may be utilized for supplying incandescent lamps1 as well as for the most varied experiments of the laboratory4--,la ,lumiere ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,distribution ,,of ,,electricity ,,by ,,induction4 ,there has been much said in recent times about the distribution of electricity by means of induction coils1 and the use of this process has given rise to several systems that differ but little from one another in principle4 ,the following are a few details in regard to a system due to a ,dutch engineer3 ,in the month of ,december1 #ahha1 a patent relating to the distribution of electricity was taken out in ,germany and other countries by ,mr4 ,b4 ,haitzema ,enuma1 whose system is based upon a series of successive inductions4 ,the primary current developed by a dynamo-electric machine gives rise to secondary1 tertiary1 etc41 currents4 ,the principal line runs through the streets parallel with their axes1 and1 when the arrangement of the places is adapted thereto1 it is closed upon the generator itself4 ,in those frequent cases where it is necessary to cause the line to return over a path that it has already traversed1 it is more advantageous to effect the return through the earth or to utilize the street water mains or gas pipes as conductors4 ,this return arrangement may likewise be applied to the lines of secondary1 tertiary1 etc41 order1 as may easily be seen4 ,the induction is effected by the aid of bobbins whose interior consists of a bundle of soft iron4 ,the wire of the inducting current is wound directly around this core4 ,the wire of the induced current is superposed upon the first and presents a large number of spirals4 ,it is useless to say that these wires must be perfectly insulated from each other1 as well as from the soft iron core4 ,we shall call primary bobbins those which are interposed in the principal line1 and secondary bobbins those in which the inducting current is a secondary one1 and so on4 ,it will be at once seen that this arrangement permits of continuing the distribution of electricity to the interior of buildings by the simple adjunction of one or several bobbins4 ,each electric apparatus1 whether it be a lamp or other mechanism1 is furnished with a special current4 ,if the number of these apparatus be increased1 it is only necessary to increase the number of bobbins in the same ratio1 on condition1 be it understood1 that the intensity of the currents remain sufficient to secure a proper working of the apparatus in question4 ,when such intensity diminishes to too great a degree1 the bobbin must be replaced by a stronger one4 ,illustration3 ,,distribution ,,of ,,electricity ,,by ,,induction4 ,it results from what precedes that each apparatus must be put in in such a way as to permit1 of the opening and closing of the corresponding circuit4 ,this arrangement1 moreover1 has no need of being dependent upon the apparatus1 and may just as well be transferred to any part of this same circuit4 ,as regards lighting1 it is preferable to employ alternating current dynamo machines2 yet there is nothing to prevent the use of continuous current ones1 provided that there is an arrangement that permits of constantly opening and closing this same circuit4 ,that portion of the line which is placed under ground is insulated in the ordinary way at the places where it is necessary4 ,as for the underground circuit and the induction coils connected therewith1 these are protected against all external influence1 and are at the same time insulated very economically by covering them with a coat of very fine silicious sand mixed with asphalt4 ,it is only necessary to inspect the annexed figure to get an accurate idea of this system of distribution4 ,c represents the building in which the generator of electricity1 ,d1 is placed2 ,b1 the public street1 and ,q the house of a subscriber4 ,the principal line1 ,e1 starts from the terminals1 a1 b1 of the machine1 passes through the primary bobbins1 ,g1 and is closed through the earth at ,f4 ,it will be seen that the primary current communicates through d and c with the internal winding of the bobbins1 ,g1 while the secondary currents1 ,h1 are connected through e and f with the external winding4 ,the same arrangement is repeated for the tertiary currents1 ,m1 and the quaternary ones1 o1 p4 ,in the annexed example all the lines that run parallel with the axis of the streets are closed through the earth1 while those that have a direction perpendicular thereto enter the houses of subscribers and form a closed circuit4 ,in the interior of these houses the wires1 as well as the induction coils1 are insulated and applied to the walls4 ,at ,q is represented the arrangement that would have to be adopted in the case of a structure consisting of a vestibule1 r1 and two rooms1 s1 lighted by two electric lamps1 ,r4 ,in the portion of the figure situated to the left it is easy to see the process employed for insulating the line4 ,a commencement is made by digging a ditch in the street and paving the bottom of it with bricks4 ,upon these latter there is laid a mixture of sand and asphalt1 and then the wires and bobbins are put in1 and the whole is finally covered with a new insulating layer4 ,it is a simple statement that we make here1 and it is therefore not for us to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the system4 ,if we are to believe ,mr4 ,enuma1 the advantages are very numerous1 to wit3 7#a7 ,the cables have no need of being of large size2 7#b7 the intensity is the same through the entire extent of the primary circuit1 secondary one1 etc42 7#c7 the resistance is invariable in all portions of the line2 7#d7 the apparatus are independent of each other1 and consequently there may be a disturbance in one or several of them without the others suffering therefrom2 7#e7 either a strong or weak luminous intensity may be produced1 since1 that depends only upon the size of the coil employed2 7#f7 there is no style of lamp that may not be used1 since each lamp is mounted upon a special circuit2 7#g7 any number of lamps may be lighted or extinguished without the others being influenced thereby2 7#h7 when a fire or other accident happens in a house1 it in no wise interferes with the service in the rest of the line2 7#i7 the system could1 were it required1 be connected with any other kind of existing line2 and 7#aj7 the cost of installation is infinitely less than that of a system of gas pipes embracing the same extent of ground4--,la ,lumiere ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electricity ,,applied ,,to ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,seismic ,,movements4 ,italy1 with her volcanic nature1 has very naturally made a specialty of movements of the ground1 or seismic perturbations4 ,so the larger part of the apparatus designed for such study are due to ,italians4 ,several of these instruments have already been1 described in this journal1 and on the present occasion we shall make known a few others that will serve to give an idea of the methods employed4 ,for the observation of the vertical and horizontal motions of the ground1 different apparatus are required4 ,the following is a description of those constructed for each of such purposes by the ,brassart ,brothers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,apparatus ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,horizontal ,,seismic ,,movements4 ,apparatus for ,studying ,horizontal ,movements4--,a lever1 7,fig4 #a71 movable about a horizontal axis1 carries a corrugated funnel1 i1 at one of its extremities4 ,at the other extremity it is provided with a counterpoise which permits of its being exactly balanced1 while not interfering with its sensitiveness4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #b ,,and #c4--;,,details ,,of ,,the ,,apparatus4 ,the opening of the funnel passes freely around a column1 v 7,fig4 #b71 upon which is placed in equilibrium a rod that terminates in a weight1 ,p4 ,the corrugations of the funnel carry letters indicating the four cardinal points1 and the funnel itself is capable of revolving in such a way that the marked indications shall always correspond to the real position of the cardinal points4 ,when a horizontal shock occurs1 the weight1 ,p1 falls in a direction opposite thereto1 and into one of the corrugations1 where it rests1 so that the direction of the shock is indicated4 ,but1 in falling1 it causes the lever1 ,f1 to tilt1 and this brings about an electric contact between the screw1 h1 and the column1 n1 which sends a current into the electro1 ,e1 so that the armature of the latter is attracted4 ,in its position of rest this armature holds a series of parts1 ,s1 ,a1 ,l1 which have the effect of stopping the pendulum of a clock placed upon the same apparatus4 ,at the moment1 then1 that the armature is attracted the pendulum is set free and the clockwork is started4 ,as the current1 at the same time1 sets a bell ringing1 the observer comes and arranges the apparatus again to await a new shock4 ,knowing the hour at which the hand of the clock was stopped1 he sees how long it has been in motion again and deduces therefrom the precise moment of the shock4 ,the small rod1 f1 which is seen at the extremity of ,f1 is for the purpose of allowing electricity to be dispensed with1 if need be4 ,in this case the screw1 h1 is so regulated that ,f descends farther1 and that f may depress the armature of the magnet just as the current would have done4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,apparatus ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,vertical ,,movements4 ,apparatus for the ,study of ,vertical ,movements4--,in this apparatus 7,fig4 #d71 the contact is formed between a mercury cup1 ,t1 and a weight1 ,d4 ,the cup is capable of being raised and lowered by means of a screw1 so that the two parts approach each other very closely without touching4 ,at the moment of a vertical shock a contact occurs between the mercury and weight1 and there results a current which1 acting upon the electro1 ,e1 frees the pendulum of the clock as in the preceding apparatus4 ,in this case1 in order that the contact may be continuous and that the bell may be rung1 the piece1 ,a1 upon falling1 sets up a permanent contact with the part1 a 7,fig4 #c74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,brassart',s ,,seismic ,,clock4 ,brassart's ,seismic ,clock4--,this apparatus is designed for being put in connection at a distance with an indicator like the ones just described4 ,it is a simple clock to which a few special devices have been added4 ,seismic clocks may be classed in two categories1 according as they are stopped by the effect of a shock or are set running at the very instant one occurs4 ,the ,messrs4 ,brassart have always given preference to those of the second category1 because there is no need of watching them during a seismic calm1 and because they are much more easily constructed4 ,it is to this class1 then1 that their seismic clock belongs4 ,it is capable of being used for domestic purposes in place of any other clock1 and of becoming a seismoscopic clock as soon as it is put in electric communication with the seismic telltales4 ,to the cross-piece that holds the axle of the drums the inventors have added 7,fig4 #e7 a support formed of a strip of brass1 ,s1 with whose extremity is jointed 7at the lower part7 a double lever1 ,a4 ,this latter is held in a horizontal position by a small counterpoise1 i1 so that the finger at the opposite extremity shall prevent the pendulum1 ,p1 from swinging4 ,to keep the latter in a position of rest a bent lever1 n n'1 is jointed to the upper part of the support1 ,s4 ,the longer arm1 n'1 of this lever is bent forward at right angles1 so that it may come into contact with and repel the small rod of the pendulum as soon as the lever has been lifted by means of a small cord which is connected with the larger arm1 n1 and runs up to a small hook1 from whence it descends and makes its exit under the clock-case4 ,in order to stop the clock1 then1 it is only necessary to pull on this cord slightly1 when1 by moving the pendulum to the left1 it will thrust it against the inclined plane of the finger of the lever arm1 ,a4 ,it is clear that the extremity of the pendulum1 upon striking against the finger1 will depress it slightly and go beyond the projection against which it remains fixed owing to the counterpoise1 i4 ,the fever1 n n'1 is brought back to its position of rest by means of a small counterpoise at the extremity of the arm1 n4 ,when the lever1 ,a1 is depressed1 the pendulum escapes and sets the clock running4 ,this depression is effected by means of an electro-magnet1 ,e1 whose armature1 which is connected with the rod1 t1 t1 lifts the arm1 i1 of the lever1 and depresses ,a4 ,the wires of the two bobbins of the electro-magnet end in two clamps1 #a and #b4 ,the second of these latter is insulated from the clock-case4 ,both communicate with the extremities of the circuit in which is interposed the seismic telltale that brings about a closing of the current4 ,having noted the position of the hands on the dial when the clock was running1 one can deduce therefrom the moment at which the shock occurred that set the clock in motion4 ,in addition to the parts that we have described1 there are other accessory ones1 ,r ,rr1 and a third clamp1 #c1 which constitute a sort of rheotome that is designed to keep the circuit closed after the momentary closing that is produced by the telltale has occurred4 ,this little mechanism is indispensable when the disturbed telltale has also to act upon an electric bell4 ,this rheotome1 which is very simple1 is constructed as follows3 ,a small brass rod1 ,r1 which is screwed to the support1 ,s1 carries at its left extremity a brass axis1 ,x1 which is insulated from the rod1 ,r1 by means of an ivory piece4 ,toward the center of this small rod1 the bent lever1 r1 carries a small arm that is bent forward1 and against which abuts the axis of the pendulum1 thus causing it to be thrust toward the left when the pendulum is arrested by the projection of the finger1 ,a4 ,as soon as the pendulum is set free1 the lever1 r1 redescends and places itself against the axis1 ,x4 ,this latter communicates with clamp #c1 which is insulated1 while the rod1 ,r1 communicates with clamp #a4 ,the external communications are so arranged that the circuit in which the bell is interposed remains definitely closed when the lever1 r1 is in contact with the rod1 ,x4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,rossi',s ,,tremitoscope4 ,rossi's ,tremitoscope4--,this instrument 7,fig4 #f7 unites1 upon the same stone base1 three different arrangements for showing evidences of trepidations of the earth4 ,on one side we find 7protected by a glass tube7 a weight suspended over a mercury cup by a spring1 and designed to show vertical motions4 ,the two other parts of the apparatus are designed for registering horizontal motions4 ,the first is a pendulum which causes a contact with four distinct springs1 and whose movements are watched with a spy-glass4 ,the second is a steel spring which carries at its upper part a heavy ball that vibrates at the least shock4 ,this ball is provided with a point which is movable within a second ball1 so that its motion produces a contact4 ,all these different contacts are signaled or registered electrically4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,scateni',s ,,seismograph4 ,scateni's ,registering ,seismograph4--,this apparatus1 which is shown in ,figs4 #g and #h1 consists of two parts--of a transmitter and of a registering device4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,,registering ,,apparatus4 ,the transmitter consists of a glass vessel supported upon a steel point and provided beneath with a platinum circle connected with a pile4 ,all around this circle are four strips of platinum1 against one of which abuts the circle at every movement of the glass4 ,each strip of platinum communicates1 through a special wire1 with one of the electro-magnets of the registering device 7,fig4 #h74 ,this latter consists of an ordinary clock that carries three concentric dials--one for minutes1 one for hours1 and one for seconds4 ,in a direction with the radii of these dials there are four superposed levers1 each of which is actuated by one of the electros4 ,on another hand1 each dial is divided into four zones that correspond to the four cardinal points4 ,when a shock coming from the north1 for example1 produces a contact1 the corresponding electro is affected1 and its lever falls and marks upon each of the dials a point in its north zone4 ,we thus obtain the exact hour of the shock1 as well as its direction4 ,as may be seen1 the apparatus1 as regards principle1 is one of the simplest of its kind4--,la ,lumiere ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,accumulators4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,arnould ,,tamine',s ,,accumulator4 ,in ,messrs4 ,arnould and ,tamine's accumulators1 shown in ,fig4 #a1 the formation is effected directly by the current1 as in the ,plant pile1 but the plates are formed of wires connected horizontally at their extremities by soldering4 ,these plates are held apart either by setting them into paraffined wooden grooves at the ends of the trough or by interposing between them pieces of paraffined wood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,barrier ,,tourvielle',s ,,electrodock4 ,in ,messrs4 ,barrier and ,tourville's ,electrodock 7,fig4 #b7 the plates are formed of concentric leaden tubes fixed into a wooden cover4 ,these tubes are threaded internally and externally1 and the grooves thus produced are filled with a peculiar cement composed of litharge1 powdered charcoal1 and permanganate of potash1 triturated together1 sifted1 and then mixed with glucose or sugar sirup so as to make a paste of them4 ,this mixture forms a cement that is very adhesive after1 as well as before1 the electrolytic action4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,kornbluh',s ,,accumulator4 ,in ,kornbluh's accumulators the plates consist of ribbed leaden gratings between which is compressed red lead prepared in a peculiar manner1 and constituting1 #dh hours after formation1 a compact mass with the lead4 ,the tangs of the plates are widened so as to touch one another while leaving a proper distance between the plates themselves1 and are hollowed out for the reception of a rod provided at its extremities with a winged nut and jam nut for passing them up close to one another4 ,the plates1 properly so called1 are held apart by rubber bauds4 ,the glass vessels are placed in osier baskets4--,la ,lumiere ,electrique4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,industrial ,,model ,,of ,,the ,,reynier ,,zinc ,,accumulator4 ,the three models of a secondary battery that ,i recently made known to the readers of this journal have been the object of continuous experiment4 ,conformably to the provisions of theory1 the zinc accumulator has shown itself practically superior to the two others1 and ,i have therefore chosen this type for getting up an industrial model1 which is shown in the annexed cut4 ,the accumulator contains four ,plant positives1 having a wide surface1 and three negatives constructed of smooth sheets of lead covered with zinc by the electrolysis of the acidulated solution of zinc sulphate in which the couple is immersed4 ,accidental contact with the interior of the pile is prevented by glass tubes fixed to the negatives by means of leaden bands4 ,the seven electrodes are carried by as many distinct crosspieces of paraffined wood1 which rest upon the edges of the trough and hold the plates at a certain distance from the bottom4 ,these various crosspieces1 which touch one another1 take the place of a cover4 ,each plate is provided with a terminal4 ,the four positive terminals are all on the same side1 and the three negatives are on the opposite side4 ,two brass rods ending in a wire-clamp connect the respective terminals of the same name4 ,the trough consists of two oblong wooden receptacles1 one within the other1 and having a play of several millimeters4 ,this space is lined with a tight1 elastic1 insulating cement having tar for a base4 ,illustration3 ,,reynier',s ,,zinc ,,accumulator4 7,one-fifth actual size47 ,the careful insulation of the trough and all parts of the apparatus1 and the purity of the metal and its amalgamation1 reduce the local attack of the zinc to almost nothing4 ,so the coefficient of restitution is now comparable with that of accumulators of the ,plant type4 ,the following are the principal numerical data of the new zinc accumulator4 ,,physical ,,data4 ,e4 ,electromotive force4 #b4cf volts4 ,r4 ,mean resistance4 #j4jb ohm4 ,i4 ,normal intensity of the discharge current4 #be amperes4 i4 ,intensity of the charge current4 #e to #aj amperes4 ,q4 ,capacity of accumulation after #bjj hours' formation4 #eej1jjj couples4 ,,data ,,concerning ,,construction4 ,efficient surface of the #d positive electrodes4 #bjj square dec4 ,efficient surface of the #c negative electrodes4 #ae square dec4 ,weight of the positive electrodes4 #h4b kilogrammes4 ,weight of the negative electrodes4 #a4d kilogrammes4 ,weight of the trough4 #b4g kilogrammes4 ,weight of the liquid4 #d4d kilogrammes4 ,weight of the attachments4 #j4df kilogrammes4 ,weight1 total4 #ag4af kilogrammes4 ,the total electric work stored up is #acj1jjj kilogrammeters1 or #g1fjj kilogrammeters per kilogramme of accumulator4 ,theory indicates that a zinc accumulator might store up as much as #ae1fjj kilogrammeters per kilogramme4 ,if the present model gives half less1 it is because ,i have purposely exaggerated the solidity of the trough and the mass of the electrodes4 ,it should be remarked that this capacity of #g1fjj kilogrammeters per kilogramme is much greater than that of any other accumulator constructed in ,france4 ,the new model possesses1 then1 despite the size of the positives and the box1 a relative lightness that will permit it to take a place upon electric locomotives as well as in fixed installations4 ,independently of their use as accumulators1 secondary zinc batteries may be utilized as regulating voltameters in lighting by incandescence1 for deadening piston strokes1 attenuating the irregularities in speed1 and covering accidental stoppages4--,e4 ,reynier1 in ,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,a ,,lightning ,,flash4 ,by ,w4 ,,slingo4 ,lately we have all felt1 ,i doubt not1 a considerable amount of interest in the various phenomena attending this summer's unusually heavy thunderstorms1 accompanied1 as they have been1 by vivid lightning discharges of a more or less hurtful nature4 ,the list of disasters published in ,knowledge1 ,no4 #adc1 might be very materially augmented were we to record such damage as has been wrought since that list was compiled4 ,there is not1 ,i suppose1 in the mind of any intelligent man at the present day a doubt as to the electrical origin of a lightning flash4 ,the questions to be considered are rather whence comes the electricity1 and in what way is the thunderstorm brought about4 ,in attempting to answer these questions1 sight must not be lost of the fact that the very nature of electricity is in itself almost sufficient to baffle any effort put forth to ascertain from lightning1 as such1 its whence and its whither4 ,it is possible1 however1 with the aid of our knowledge of static electricity1 to arrive at hypotheses of a more than chimerical nature4 ,in the first place1 that our sphere is a more or less electrified body is generally admitted4 ,more than this1 it is demonstrated that the different parts of the earth's surface and its enveloping atmosphere are variously charged4 ,as a consequence of these varying charges1 there is a constant series of currents flowing through the various parts of the earth1 which show themselves in such telegraph wires as may lie in the direction followed by the currents4 ,such currents are known as earth currents1 and present phenomena of a highly interesting nature4 ,but1 apart from these electrical manifestations1 there is generally a difference of electrical condition between the various parts of the earth's surface and those portions of the atmosphere adjacent to or above them4 ,inasmuch as air is one of the very best insulators1 this difference of condition 7or potential7 in any particular region is in most cases incapable of being neutralized or equilibrated by an electric flow4 ,consequently the air remains more or less continually charged4 ,with these points admitted as facts1 the question arises1 ,whence this electricity8 ,there have been very many and various opinions expressed as to the cause of terrestrial electricity1 but far the greater portion of such theories lack fundamental probability1 and indicate causes which cannot be regarded as sufficiently extensive or operative to produce such tremendous effects as are occasionally witnessed4 ,i take it that we may safely regard the evolution of electricity as one of the ways in which force exhibits itself1 that1 in other words1 when work is performed electricity may result4 ,when two bodies are rubbed together1 electricity is produced1 so also is it when two connected metals are immersed in water and one of them is dissolved1 or when one of the junctions of two metals is raised to a higher temperature than the other junction4 ,i will go further than this1 so far1 in fact1 as to maintain that there is a reasonable ground for supposing that every movement1 whether it be of the mass or among the constituent particles1 is attended by a change of electrical distribution2 and if this is true1 it may easily be conceived that inasmuch as motion is the rule of the universe1 there must be a constant series of electrical changes4 ,now1 these changes do not all operate in one direction1 nor are they all of similar character1 whence it is that not only are there earth currents of feeble electro-motive force1 but that this ,e4,m4,f4 is constantly varying1 and that1 furthermore1 electricity of high ,e4,m4,f4 is to be met with in various parts of the atmosphere4 ,with earth currents we have here very little to do4 ,the rotation of the earth is in itself sufficient to generate small currents1 and the fact that they vary in strength at regular periods of the day and of the year enforces the suggestion that the sun exerts considerable electrical influence on the earth4 ,letting it be granted1 however1 that the earth is variously charged1 how comes it that the air is also charged1 and with electricity of greater tension than that of the earth itself8 ,it was pointed out by ,sir ,w4 ,grove that if the extremities of a piece of platinum wire be placed in a candle flame1 one at the bottom and the other near the top1 an electric current will flow through the wire1 indicating the presence of electricity4 ,if an electrified body be heated1 the electricity escapes more rapidly as the temperature rises4 ,if a vessel of water be electrified1 and the water then converted into steam1 the electric charge will be rapidly dissipated4 ,if a vessel containing water be electrified1 and the water allowed to escape drop by drop1 electricity will escape with each drop1 and the vessel will soon be discharged4 ,we regard it as an established fact that the earth has always a greater or less charge2 whence it is safe to assume that in the process of evaporation which is going on all over the surface of the globe1 more particularly in equatorial regions1 every particle of water1 as it rises into the air1 carries with it its portion1 however minute that portion may be1 of the earth's electric charge4 ,this small charge distributes itself over the surface of the aqueous particle1 and the vapor rises higher and higher until it reaches that point above which the air is too rare to support it4 ,it then flows away laterally1 and as it approaches colder regions gets denser1 sinking lower and nearer to the earth's surface4 ,the aqueous particles becoming reduced in size1 the extent of their surfaces is proportionately reduced4 ,it follows that as the particles and their surfaces are reduced1 the charge is confined to a smaller surface1 and attains1 therefore1 a greater surface density1 or in simpler language1 a greater amount of electricity per unit of surface4 ,electricity1 as above set forth1 is in what is known as the static condition 7to distinguish it from electricity which is being transferred in the form of a current71 when it has the property of repelling itself to the utmost limits of any conductor upon which it may be confined4 ,this will account for the charge finding its way to the surface of the water particles1 and will furthermore account for the greater density of the charge as the particle gets smaller and has the extent of its surface rapidly diminished4 ,it may be mentioned that the surface of a sphere varies as the cube of its radius4 ,returning to the discussion of the state of affairs existing when the particles have reached their highest position in the atmosphere1 we may imagine that they set themselves off on journeys toward either the north or the south pole4 ,as they pass from the hotter to the colder regions1 a number of particles coalesce2 these again combine with others on the road until the vapor becomes visible as cloud4 ,the increased density implies increased weight1 and the cloud particles1 as they sail poleward1 descend toward the surface of the earth4 ,assuming that a spherical form is maintained throughout1 the condensation of a number of particles implies a considerable reduction of surface4 ,thus1 the contents of two spheres vary as the cubes of their radii1 or eight 7the cube of #b7 drops on combining will form a drop twice the radius of one of the original drops4 ,we may safely conceive hundreds and thousands of such combinations to take place until a cloud mass is formed1 in which the constituent parts are more or less in contact1 and1 therefore1 behave electrically as a single conductor of irregular surface1 upon which is accumulated all the electricity that was previously distributed over the surfaces of the millions of particles that now compose it4 ,the tendency of an electric charge upon the surface of a conductor is to take upon itself a position in which it may approach nearest to an equal and opposite charge2 or1 if possible1 to attain neutrality4 ,if1 then1 a cloud has a charge1 and there is no other cloud above or near it1 the charge induces on the adjacent earth surface electricity of the opposite kind4 ,thus1 assuming the cloud to be charged with positive electricity1 the subjacent earth will be in the negative state4 ,the two electricities#c exert a strong tendency to combine or to produce neutrality1 whence there is a species of stress applied to the intervening air4 ,possibly the cloud will be drawn bodily toward the earth more or less rapidly1 according as the charge is great or small4 ,or1 on the other hand1 the cloud may roll on for leagues1 carrying its influence with it1 so that the various portions of the earth underneath become successively charged and discharged as the cloud progresses on its journey4 ,footnote #c3 ,we may speak of two electricities or two electric states without necessarily implying adherence either to the single or the double fluid theory4 ,whether electricity be of two kinds or no1 the fact remains that there are two conditions1 and all the features of this paper may be explained with equal facility by the supporters of either hypothesis4 ,should the cloud be near the earth1 or should it be very highly charged1 the tension of the two electricities may be so great as to overcome the resistance of the intervening air2 and if this resistance should prove too weak1 what happens8 ,how does the discharge show itself8 ,it takes place in the form of a lightning flash1 and passing from the one surface to the other--or1 maybe1 simultaneously from both--produces neutrality more or less complete4 ,there has recently been a little discussion in these pages on the subject of lightning1 some having stated that they discerned the discharge to take place upward--that is1 from the earth toward the cloud4 ,i will not venture so far as to say whether or not the direction of the discharge is discernible2 possibly the flash may sometimes be long enough to enable one to tell2 but ,i have never so seen it1 and have always looked upon the eye as a deceitful member--very4 ,the lightning flash itself never lasts more than #a_/ajjjjj of a second4 ,it is1 however1 just as likely that a discharge may travel upward as downward4 ,what controls the discharge8 ,does the quality of the charge8--that is to say1 is the positive or the negative more prone to break disruptively through the insulating medium8 ,investigations with ,geissler's and other tubes containing highly rarefied gases have made it tolerably clear that there is a greater tearing away influence at the negative than at the positive pole1 and if two equal balls1 containing one a positive and the other a negative charge1 be equally heated1 the negative is more readily dissipated than the positive4 ,but1 so far as we at present know1 this question enters into the discussion scarcely1 if at all4 ,our knowledge seems rather to point to the substances upon which the charges are collected4 ,the self-repellent nature of electricity compels it to manifest itself at the more prominent parts of the surface1 the level being forsaken for the point4 ,the tension of the charge1 or its tendency to fly off1 is proportionately increased4 ,and if at a given moment the tension attains a certain intensity1 the discharge follows1 emanating from the surface which offers the greatest facilities for escape4 ,the earth is generally flatter than the cloud1 whence1 in all probability1 the discharge more frequently originates with the cloud4 ,should a lightning flash strike the earth and produce direct neutrality1 it is possible that no damage will result1 although this again is not always certain1 because when the cloud charge acts inductively on the earth it produces the opposite 7say negative7 charge on the nearer parts1 the similar 7or positive7 state is also produced at some place more or less distant4 ,sometimes this freed positive 7which1 by the way1 accumulates gradually and physiologically imperceptibly7 is collected at some portion of the earth's surface4 ,when the negative is neutralized by the discharge1 the freed positive is no longer confined to a particular region1 but tends to dissipate itself1 and a shock may be felt more or less severely by any person within the region4 ,or1 again1 a similar shock may be experienced by a person standing within the negative zone on the neutralization of the charge4 ,i may take the opportunity here to mention a highly interesting and instructive incident observed on local telegraph circuits during a thunderstorm4 ,the storm may be taking place at some distance from the point of observation4 ,the electrified cloud induces the opposite charge beneath it1 the similar charge being repelled4 ,it is noticeable that the needle of a galvanometer1 starting from the middle position1 goes gradually over to one side1 eventually indicating a considerable deflection4 ,suddenly1 owing apparently to a lightning discharge some distance away1 the force which caused the deflection is withdrawn1 and the needle rebounds with great violence to the opposite side4 ,in a short time1 the cloud becoming again charged on its under surface1 and recommencing its inductive effect upon the adjacent earth1 the needle starts again1 and goes through the same series of movements1 a violent counterthrow following every flash of lightning4 ,if we can so far control our imagination1 we may conceive the earth to be one large insulated conductor1 susceptible to every influence around it4 ,if then the earth1 as a mass of matter1 behaves as above indicated1 there is no plausible reason for declining to regard any other large conducting mass in a similar light1 and as a body capable of being subjected more or less completely to the various impulses affecting the earth4 ,in other words1 a large mass of conducting material1 partially or perfectly insulated1 is1 during a thunderstorm1 in considerable danger4 ,with this portion of the subject ,i shall1 however1 deal more fully when discussing the merits of lightning protectors4 ,lightning discharges do not take place between cloud and earth only1 but also1 and perhaps more frequently1 between too oppositely charged clouds4 ,we then get atmospheric lightning1 the flash often extending for miles4 ,this form of lightning is harmless1 and in all probability what we see is only a reflection of the discharge4 ,the oft-told tale of the lightning flying in at the window1 across the room1 and out of the door1 or up the chimney1 is all moonshine1 and before dealing with lightning protectors ,i intend to expose some of the fallacies concerning lightning4 ,were the discharge to pass through a house1 it would infallibly leave more decided traces and do more damage than simply scaring a superstitious old lady now and again4 ,many people are often and unnecessarily frightened during a thunderstorm1 but it may be safely predicted that a person under a roof is infinitely safer than one who is standing alone on level ground1 and making himself a prominence inviting a discharge4 ,rain almost invariably accompanies the discharge1 and the roof and sides of the house being wet1 they form a more or less perfect channel of escape should a flash strike the building4--,knowledge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,researches ,,on ,,magnetism4 ,by ,m4 ,,duter4 ,if we place a thin plate of steel in a uniform magnetic field1 so that the lines of force of the field may be normal to the surface of the plate1 we have a very flat magnet1 the two faces of which are the two polar surfaces4 ,the magnetic distribution thus obtained seems to disappear when the plate is no longer in the field4 ,the following experiments show that this disappearance is not complete4 ,i made use of plates of tempered steel of #a millimeter in thickness1 and varying in diameter from #j4jdj to #j4jje meter4 ,with these plates ,i formed cylindrical batteries4 ,in some of these batteries the plates are directly in contact1 and in others they were separated by leaves of pasteboard1 the thickness of which varied from that of the thinnest paper to #j4jja meter4 ,the batteries were placed in the central portion of a very powerful magnetic field1 and after they have been taken out they formed perfectly regular permanent magnets4 ,the supporting power of these magnets was the greater the nearer its constituent plates were to each other4 ,in a battery of #ajj plates1 touching each other directly1 and strongly pressed into a brass cylinder1 the portative force at each extremity rose to #cj grammes4 ,this first result having been obtained1 ,i dismounted the batteries1 plate by plate1 taking care to mark the upper and under side of each4 ,i found then that each plate retained only an excessively slight magnetism4 ,yet each of them still constituted a flat magnet1 of which the two faces are the polar surfaces2 for on rebuilding the battery it gave again a perfectly regular magnet1 though weaker than it was at first4 ,the separation of the magnet into its constituent plates1 and its reconstruction1 maybe repeated indefinitely4--,comptes ,rendus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,dr4 ,t4 ,tommasi 7,cosmos les ,mondes7 notes that the thermic constant of thallium is exactly the mean of the thermic constants of potassium and lead1 the two metals which it most resembles in its chemical character4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,gas ,,light ,,buoy4 ,illustration3 ,,gas ,,light ,,buoy4 ,the accompanying engravings represent a light buoy made by the ,pintsch's ,patent ,lighting ,company for the river ,humber4 ,the chief dimensions of the buoy are given in the engraving1 which also shows that the gas holder is placed within the boat in such a way as to be protected from blows likely to cause any leakage4 ,the buoy has a special form to meet its requirements as a lightship1 and the conditions of its employment is the fast tidal current of the river4 ,it was designed by ,mr4 ,c4 ,berthon1 of ,westminster1 and is intended to carry a six months' supply of gas1 the burner1 regulator1 and lamp being on the well known ,pintsch system4 ,the hull is formed of #c_/h inch plate1 #bd feet #c inches total length1 and #i feet beam at the line of flotation4 ,the laps of the plates are #d inches wide1 and riveted with #c_/d inch rivets1 spaced #b-a_/d inch apart center to center4 ,the keel and stem are both in one piece1 as shown1 and to this the garboard strake is to be fastened4 ,the bilge pieces are riveted on to the bilge1 and made of #i inches by #d-a_/b inches by #i_/af inch ,t-iron4 ,a wooden fender1 #d inches by #d inches wood1 is fitted on both sides of hull1 running from stern to stern1 by #c inches by #c-a_/b inches by #g_/af inch ,l-iron top and bottom with the sheer as shown4 ,the hull from water line falls in as shown1 so as to describe at midships an arc of #d feet #f inches1 and a circular deck of #a_/h inch plate is riveted on the hull4 ,there are two man-holes1 each #af inches diameter in the clear1 placed in end plates of the circular deck as shown1 and provided with covers #c_/h inch thick1 secured by twenty screws #c_/d inch diameter4 ,the edge of each manhole is stiffened by a welded iron ring4 ,the surface of the mooring link that comes in contact with the shackle and mooring chain is steeled4 ,the gas holder rests upon a plate bent up on each side1 and riveted to the keelson1 and is prevented from rolling by four gusset plates1 with two short pieces of angle iron riveted thereto at the ends and coming in contact with the holder1 and at the ends by angular plates1 and angle iron riveted on each side and riveted to the keelson4 ,the superstructure consists of four legs of angle iron #b-a_/b inches by #b-a_/b inches by #e_/af inch1 the upper ends of the legs being attached to a square flanged plate for supporting the lighting apparatus4 ,four wooden battens of pitch pine1 #d inches by #a-a_/b inches1 and bolted on to each cant of the angle iron superstructure1 with #g_/h inch galvanized iron bolts and nuts4 ,illustration3 ,,gas ,,light ,,buoy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,project ,,for ,a ,,roadstead ,,at ,,havre4 ,the present port of ,havre is absolutely insufficient to answer the ever increasing requirements of commerce4 ,its entrance1 which is too narrow and not deep enough1 does not permit steamers to go in1 come out1 and perform their evolutions with the rapidity required by our epoch4 ,so they are gradually abandoning our port1 and going to load and unload at ,anvers and elsewhere4 ,a large number of wise heads1 who are anxious about the future of this port and our national interests1 have devoted themselves to finding a means of enlarging it1 not by dredging new basins1 which would prove ruinous to the budget and useless in twenty years1 but by installing a true roadstead at the entrance to the present basins4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #a4--,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,projected ,,roadstead ,,at ,,havre4 ,upon the maps of the hydrographic service may be seen1 under the name of the ,little ,roadstead1 a vast extent of sea nearly two kilometers wide by three to four in length1 bounded upon one side by the heights of ,heve and ,st4 ,adresse1 and upon the other by the rocky line of ,eclat and of the heights of the roadstead 7,fig4 #a74 ,this ,little ,roadstead1 so called1 in order to become a genuine one1 would have to be protected against the great waves of the open sea4 ,to thus protect it1 to close it as quickly and as cheaply as possible--that is the problem4 ,in #ahch1 ,charles de ,massas presented a project 7the first in order of date71 which consisted in constructing upon the ,eclat reef a semi-lunate dike1 and a breakwater at ,cape ,heve4 ,moreover1 upon the emergent parts of the ,eclat reef and heights of the roadstead he proposed to erect two forts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,lewis' ,,floating ,,breakwater4 ,the defense of the port of ,havre is a very important question1 and one that appears to be completely abandoned4 ,since ,engineer ,degaulle in #ahjh advised the erection of a fort upon the ,eclat1 and requests have periodically been made and projects drawn4 ,the requests are forgotten1 but the drawings are in the ,ministers' portfolios1 and if ,france should to-morrow have a war with a maritime power our great northern port might be destroyed and burned by the smallest squadron4 ,some years after ,massas' project1 two officers1 ,deloffre and ,bleve1 and an engineer named ,renaud1 received a commission to search for a means of closing a portion of ,seine ,bay4 ,these gentlemen advised the erection of two dikes1 one on the ,eclat shoal in the very axis of this reef1 and the other at ,heve4 ,between these two masonry dikes was to be placed a floating breakwater4 ,this project1 which was submitted to ,admiral de ,hell in #ahde1 had a favorable reception1 and the ,admiral especially applauded the trial of breakwaters1 which were much talked of in ,england1 although the effects that they might produce were not well known4 ,deloffre1 ,bleve1 and ,renauds' project comprised two forts--one to the north and the other to the south of the roadstead4 ,for a long time nothing more was said about it1 and it is only during recent years1 when the peril has become imminent for ,havre 7threatened as it is of being abandoned even by the ,french transatlantics71 that the question has again became the order of the day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,froideville',s ,,floating ,,breakwater4--,,end ,,view4 ,mr4 ,bert1 a merchant1 would protect the ,little ,roadstead by means of two jetties1 #a1jjj and #a1fjj meters in length1 built1 one of them upon the ,eclat and the other upon the eminences of the roadstead4 ,these would be constructed by forming a foundation of loose rocks1 and using earth and brick above the level of the water4 ,mr4 ,vial has likewise proposed a rockwork of #b1jjj meters in length1 to form a dike #aj meters in height and width1 whose platform would be on a level with the highest tides4 ,next comes the more recent project of ,mr4 ,coulon4 ,seeing that it is the deposits of the ocean and not those of the ,seine that accumulate upon the estuary1 ,mr4 ,coulon advises the construction of a dike about #b1jjj meters in length1 starting from the ,havre jetty1 and ending at the southwest extremity of the shoals at the roadstead heights1 and a second one returning toward the northwest1 of from #ejj to #a1jjj meters4 ,a third and very long one of not less than #h kilometers would be built from ,honfleur to the ,ratier shoals4 ,this latter one1 in contracting the bay1 would contribute to increase the force of the current1 which1 throwing back at the ocean its mud and pebbles1 would give us the depths of #ae and #bj meters indicated on the map of ,beautemps-,beaupre4 ,this year1 again1 two projects have arisen2 one of them due to ,mr4 ,thuillard-,froideville1 and the other to ,mr4 ,hersent4 ,according to ,mr4 ,hersent1 it would be necessary to surround the ,little ,roadstead with an insubmersible dike built upon the rocky shoals1 which would begin at ,cape ,heve 7which it would consolidate7 and end opposite the entrance to the port at #a1fjj meters from the jetties4 ,through it there would be five passages4 ,afterward another dike would be constructed1 starting from the shore and running to meet the jetty designed to inclose the ,little ,roadstead4 ,on turning the angle at which it met the jetty it would be continued as far as to ,berville4 ,finally1 a third dike1 running from ,honfleur to ,berville1 would complete the system4 ,mr4 ,hersent's project1 which is one of the most remarkable of those that have been proposed1 has one fault1 and that is that it would require twelve years of work1 and cost #aeh million francs4 ,mr4 ,thuillard-,froideville1 completely renouncing masonry dikes as being too costly and taking too long to construct1 proposes to inclose the ,havre roadstead by means of floating breakwaters4 ,as we have already seen1 the use of these between ,cape ,heve and the ,eclat shoals had already been proposed in #ahde4 ,as the project was abandoned1 the models of these breakwaters are rare4 ,in ,bouniceau's ,marine ,constructions we find a curious figure1 a sort of open framework of clumsy form anchored in a singular manner1 and surmounted by rooms for watchmen1 semaphores1 posts for the shipwrecked1 etc4 ,it is1 indeed1 the most complicated and most impracticable type that could be imagined4 ,mr4 ,lewis' model1 which was exhibited last year at the ,international ,fisheries ,exhibition1 was1 on the contrary1 one of the simplest4 ,it consisted of a strong piece of wood of nearly triangular section1 the sharpest angle of which1 being turned oceanward1 was designed to cut the waves and cause them to break over it 7,fig4 #b74 ,if1 by favor of divine ,providence1 this breakwater1 which presents absolutely plane surfaces to the shock and pressure of the waves1 is not broken to fragments in the first tempest1 it will certainly acquit itself of the role for which the inventor destined it4 ,when we have a system of resistance to the sea1 anchored and facing a certain direction1 and consequently not being able to revolve around its axis as vessels do1 care must be taken not to give it entire surfaces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,froideville',s ,,breakwater4--,,mode ,,of ,,joining ,,the ,,parts4 ,mr4 ,froideville's breakwater consists of a framework #be meters in length1 and #i in height and width1 and having the form of an irregular #e-sided prism 7,fig4 #c74 ,the smallest side of the prism is designed to serve as a flat keel4 ,the axis is formed of a metallic float1 from whence start radii that form the skeleton of the framework1 and that are designed for connecting the center with five long spruce beams that form the angles of the prism4 ,to these beams are affixed the cross pieces that form the openwork sides4 ,five long pieces of wood parallel with the beams1 but not so strong as they1 protect the cross pieces and secure them against breakage in the middle4 ,all the angles of the breakwater and all points of juncture of the pieces are protected with iron1 and it is in order to counterbalance the weight of all this iron that the central float is used4 ,parallel with this first breakwater1 there are two other and smaller ones1 which are designed for reducing the effect of rolling as much as possible4 ,reduced to a single float1 the breakwater might remain under the waves too long1 but1 owing to the two others1 it rights itself1 warps around1 and always presents the spur of its sharp roof to the wave4 ,in order to prevent the breakwaters from clashing against each other1 they are united end to end in a very simple and ingenious manner4 ,from each of them there starts a deeply inserted iron bar which terminates in a journal that permits the breakwater to oscillate4 ,between these two bars there is a sort of swivel1 whose pieces1 in playing upon one another1 give the breakwaters elasticity1 while always holding them apart 7,fig4 #d74 ,from each side of the swivel start the branches of a stirrup iron to which the anchorage chain is attached4 ,this latter is of steel1 without solderings1 and it is so perfectly constructed that no breakage need be feared4 ,to the other extremity of the chain is attached an anchor having two flukes1 which both engage with the bottom4 ,mr4 ,froideville proposes to set up two lines of these breakwaters1 for a length of about #g kilometers1 starting at the north from ,cape ,heve1 taking in depths of #ae meters 7the best that are found in the ,little ,roadstead71 passing in front of the ,eclat shoal and the heights1 and ending opposite the entrance of the present port4 ,the first row is designed for breaking the force of the waves1 and the second for lending its aid in times of high tempests1 and stopping the surge that has escaped from the first4 ,the extreme simplicity of this project has permitted its promoter to affirm that in a few months1 and with nine millions1 he can inclose the ,havre roadstead4 ,the ,little ,roadstead1 being thenceforward protected1 will become an excellent port of refuge in bad weather4 ,in addition1 a system of lighters1 or1 better1 a few floats connected with the shore and forming a rock1 will permit vessels to take on their cargoes with great rapidity4 ,mr4 ,froideville's project presents the further advantage of rendering it easier to put the port of ,havre quickly in defense4 ,a certain number of floating batteries1 anchored behind the breakwaters and protecting the advances of torpedo boats by means of their firing1 would make a formidable defense4 ,not having to perform any evolutions1 they might without danger be invested with armor plate thicker than that of ordinary ironclads4 ,in order to complete the system1 there might be erected upon the ,eclat shoal an ironclad fort like that which defends the entrance of ,portsmouth4 ,an ,english chronicler of the fourteenth century1 in speaking of his country1 places it above all others1 and declares that men are handsomer1 whiter1 and purer blooded there than elsewhere1 and he says that this is so because it is so4 ,we would not like to imitate his naive reasoning1 and yet1 for defending the very original system proposed by ,mr4 ,froideville1 we have only our conviction1 which we share1 moreover1 with a large number of sea-faring men and engineers4 ,mathematics are powerless to predict to us with accuracy the manner in which the floating breakwaters will behave1 but experiment remains4 ,let the promoter of the project1 then1 be given authority to inclose a few hundred meters1 and if1 as we suppose1 the breakwaters shall remain immovable in a northwester1 a maritime revolution will have been brought about4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,catch ,,basin4 ,in #ahhb1 ,m4 ,bacle published in ,le ,gnie ,civil a study of the sewer systems in some of the large foreign cities4 ,there may be found there a description of the ,liernur system at ,amsterdam1 ,leyden1 and ,dordrecht1 in ,holland1 and in certain cities of ,germany and the ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,catch ,,basin4 ,this system consists in the employment of two distinct systems of ducts1 one for the discharges from water-closets and the other for household wastes1 rain water1 and the discharges from factories when sufficiently purified4 ,this arrangement allows the employment of sewers of small section1 provided that it shall be unnecessary to enter them for the purpose of cleansing them4 ,it has been necessary1 therefore1 to provide inlets with a separating apparatus called gully or catch basin1 which retains as completely as possible all solid matter1 mud1 excrement1 and debris of every kind which maybe floated in by street washing or by rain-water1 and which may be capable of causing stoppages in the sewers1 the choking up being followed by fermentation and the emanation of noxious vapors4 ,m4,c4 ,pieper of ,berlin suggests a device for a catch basin1 which appears to meet the requirements4 ,it is in the form of a cylindrical metal box1 enlarged in its upper section to receive a filtering cylinder of perforated sheet iron1 which occupies almost the upper half of the device and rests upon the smaller lower part4 ,the entire apparatus is covered by a movable funnel1 through which enter water and any rubbish which it may carry with it4 ,from one side a tube allows the liquid to be discharged1 while a siphon placed on the opposite side serves the same purpose under certain circumstances1 as will be explained4 ,figure #a represents the apparatus discharging under normal conditions4 ,the heavy matter1 sand1 stones1 etc41 falls to the bottom into a receptacle which can be lifted out from time to time and emptied4 ,the lighter buoyant matters1 straw1 vegetable debris1 paper1 etc41 remain at the surface1 and are retained by the filter2 the water passing through the holes in the sheet iron rushes in a filtered condition through the annular space which exists in the upper part between the two cylinders1 and escapes by the waste-pipe when the water reaches a proper level4 ,if at a given moment the quantity of water flowing in is too much to be discharged through this waste-pipe1 the level of the water mounts in the cylinder until it reaches the top of the siphon4 ,immediately the siphon comes into play and empties the upper part of the apparatus1 and the filtered water contained in the annular space already mentioned quickly re-enters the cylinder through the perforated sheet iron1 and in so doing cleans out the perforations with considerable energy4 ,this second period is represented in the second figure4 ,the mouth of the siphon being placed above the movable basket1 the heavy matters contained in the latter are not in the least disturbed1 and the metallic screen placed over the mouth prevents the entrance of any floating matters4 ,when siphonic action ceases1 the water in the short arm of the siphon empties itself into the main receptacle1 and by so doing cleanses the screen4 ,during a rain or the washing of the streets1 the siphon can work in concurrence with the ordinary discharge-pipe4 ,it is evident of course that these two--pipes can be placed on the same side of the apparatus1 if this prove the most convenient arrangement4 ,we will add that this apparatus can be applied not only to the ,liernur system1 but also can be used for preventing the entrance of obstructions into sewers of the ordinary type1 where the grade is small or where the quantity of water is insufficient2 and if we adopt the system of everything to the sewer1 can we not find in the employment of this apparatus an element for the realization of the famous formula1 ,always in circulation1 and never in stagnation8--,le ,gnie ,civil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,concluded from ,,supplement ,no4 #ded1 page #gbdi4 ,,water-,,power ,,with ,,high ,,pressures ,,and ,,wrought-,,iron ,,water-,,pipe4 ,by ,,hamilton ,,smith1 ,,jr41 ,m4 ,am4 ,soc4 ,c4,e4 ,,methods ,,of ,,conducting ,,water ,,and ,,transmitting ,,power4 ,a description of the mode of using water-power for driving the ,north ,bloomfield tunnel in ,california1 some years since1 will give a good illustration of some of the advantages of the hurdy-gurdy4 ,this tunnel was originally about #h1jjj feet long1 through a slate highly metamorphosed1 with its general line passing under a good-sized stream1 at a depth of about #aij feet4 ,there were eight working-shafts1 each about #bjj feet deep1 which1 with the lower entrance or portal1 gave sixteen working faces4 ,diamond drills were used at the lower heading requiring power2 the other fifteen headings were driven by hand-work4 ,it was uncertain how much water would be encountered2 but from the location1 it was evident that a large quantity might be struck in any shaft1 and hence it became necessary to have ample power at hand at each opening1 in readiness for such an emergency4 ,a pipe main was laid along the general line of the tunnel1 with its pen-stock #bhe feet vertical above the surface at the upper shaft1 and #edi feet above the lowest shaft4 ,it was made of single riveted sheet-iron1 of ,no4 #ad 7,birmingham7 gauge1 in lengths of #bj feet1 put together stove-pipe fashion1 with the joints made tight by cloth tarred strips and pine wedges4 ,this pipe had a diameter of #ae inches at the pen-stock1 diminishing from this to #ac1 #aa1 and #g inches at its lower end4 ,from it1 short branches1 #g inches in diameter1 were extended to the several shafts4 ,it was in one place carried across the stream by a light suspension bridge1 some #aej feet long1 the trunk of a tree on each side forming a convenient tower4 ,the aggregate length of the main and branches was #i1ifj feet1 with some #b1ejj feet additional1 for the branch to the diamond drills4 ,the pipe was laid on the surface of the ground1 its only protection being in places a couple of #a-;inch planks tacked together1 and placed over it2 the range of temperature was from #aj degrees to #ajg degrees ,fahr4 7in the shade74 ,it was inspected by the foreman of the tunnel-work as he daily walked over the line2 besides the occasional driving of a few wedges and putting on a band or two1 it gave no trouble from leakage1 which probably for its entire length did not amount to more than an average of #c or #d cubic feet a minute2 from time to time1 a little sawdust was put into the pen-stock4 ,three stop-gates were placed on the main1 and a separate stop-gate at each shaft1 operated by a fine-threaded screw1 so that the water could be cut off when desired4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,fig4 #ac shows the arrangement of the machinery for hoisting and pumping1 which was identical at the several shafts1 except that the hurdy-gurdies varied from #af feet in diameter at the upper shaft to #ba feet at the lowest shaft4 ,the water-wheel moved only in one direction2 the pinion on the wheel-shaft drove the spur-wheel1 to which the pitman of the pump-bob was attached4 ,on the spur-wheel shaft was a friction-gear1 driving the hoisting-reel2 this reel was mounted on sliding blocks1 so that hoisting was done by putting it in gear1 the empty load being dropped by a friction-band4 ,changing the size of the water-wheel as the pressure increased permitted the use of the same pattern of machinery at the different shafts4 ,the water was brought to the wheel by a discharge-pipe1 some nine feet long1 having a vertical movement by ball-and-socket joint1 so that at pleasure1 by dropping the pipe1 the machinery could be run at various speeds1 or entirely stopped4 ,at the end of this discharge-pipe was a cast tapered nozzle1 about #c inches in diameter1 in which was inserted a ring of saw-plate steel having the desired diameter1 and which was held in place by an annular screw-cap4 ,by changing the ring1 which only required a few moments' time1 any desired amount of water1 up to #c or #d cubic feet a second1 could be discharged against the wheel4 ,the stop-gate was left wide open while the machinery was running4 ,the pumping was done by eighteen pumps1 of ,cornish pattern2 the largest amount of water pumped from any one shaft was something over #cj cubic feet a minute2 the power at hand1 however1 was ample to pump more than twice that quantity4 ,it was rather curious at1 this shaft to see more water coming from the pumps than was used on the wheel4 ,the two diamond drills were driven by a small hurdy-gurdy set on the rear of the drill carriage4 ,this1 but at another tunnel1 was afterward modified by placing a separate hurdy-gurdy on a sleeve on each drill-rod2 the advance movement of the drill being given by hydrostatic pressure on an annular piston1 thus doing away with all gearing4 ,these eight sets of machinery were run for nearly #b years' time2 the only break being that of a spur-wheel1 doubtless caused by the careless dropping of a steel bar between it and its pinion4 ,aside from this accident1 practically not a dollar was spent for repairs1 and the machinery1 including the pipe1 was in about as good order when the tunnel was finished as when it was first erected4 ,one man1 on a twelve hour shift1 operated the machinery at each shaft1 besides dumping the cars2 two men kept the #ah pumps on the line in order1 the principal work being in keeping the suction-pipes for the down-grade headings tight2 thus a force of #ah men was only required for the eight shafts4 ,the cost of the pipe1 gates1 etc41 when put in place1 was #ad1fca1 and of the machinery about #fj1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,at the ,idaho gold quartz mine1 situated near ,grass ,valley1 ,california1 water-power has been introduced during the past year 7#ahhc71 taking the place of steam4 ,the supply main is of wrought-iron1 #bb inches in diameter1 #h1gfd feet long1 buried in the ground below frost-line4 ,the joints1 as a rule1 are riveted together1 with occasional lead joints to admit of slight movements in the pipe4#d ,the pipe was coated by placing each joint in a bath of boiling tar and asphaltum2 to insure the most thorough coating1 it is necessary to keep the pipe for ten or fifteen minutes in the boiling mixture4 ,a cast-iron stop-gate is placed at the lower end of the main1 and also one at each of the branches4 ,cast-iron man-holes are attached to the main1 which1 although they have given no trouble in this particular case1 are very objectionable for high pressures1 as it is difficult to avoid ruptures with cast and wrought-iron combined1 owing to the great difference in the elasticity of the two metals4 ,the long seams of this pipe are double-riveted1 and the round seams single riveted2 at the lower end1 iron of ,no4 #f gauge is used4 ,from the end of the main1 the water is led to the several wheels by branches of smaller diameter4 ,footnote #d3 ,with buried wrought-iron pipe this precaution is unnecessary1 as the elasticity of the iron will admit of the movement due to changes of temperature1 without injury to the rivets4 ,the water is delivered at the hoisting-wheel with a total head of #edb4f feet4 ,for power and for mill uses1 etc41 the required supply is about #h cubic feet a second2 this draught reduces the effective head to say #ebc feet4 ,the work done consists in driving the following described machinery3 ,a large air-compressor--#b cylinders1 double acting1 air compressed to #ge pounds--requiring about #adj horse-power4 ,a line of ,cornish pumps1 forcing the water from a depth of #a1dej feet vertical2 #ab-;inch plungers for upper #hjj feet1 #f-;inch plungers for lower #fej feet1 with #f-;foot stroke1 requiring from #ee to #gj horse-power4 ,hoisting from a double-compartment shaft--two connected winding reels1 moving separate cages--requiring #ce horse-power1 or more4 ,a few small machine-tools and smithy forges1 requiring #c or #d horse-power4 ,a #ce-stamp mill1 with concentrating apparatus1 etc41 requiring about #gj horse-power4 ,the total amount of power required being say #cbj horse-power1 for which seven ,pelton hurdy-gurdy wheels are employed4 ,the power in all cases is transmitted by systems of ,manila rope belting2 the rope is #b inches in diameter2 the grooves in the sheaves or pulleys are slightly oval1 so that the rope does not go quite to the bottom2 the ropes are horizontal1 and run very slack 7no tighteners71 with no appreciable slip2 the splices are made very long1 to obtain uniformity in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,this method of transmitting power appears to work most perfectly and has given excellent satisfaction4 ,it is thought1 at the ,idaho1 to be greatly preferable to the gearing formerly in use when the works were driven by steam 7for such work as pumping or hoisting1 leather or rubber belting is never used71 besides being much cheaper in first cost4 ,the wheel driving the air-compressor is #f feet in diameter1 running #cjj turns#e per minute1 with #a-ae_/ah-;inch nozzle2 three ropes are used from the wheel shaft to the counter-shaft1 and six ropes from the latter to the fly-wheel shaft4 ,footnote #e3 ,the revolutions per minute1 of these wheels1 as here given1 are only approximate1 as the design was to have the bucket speed #b7;gh74 ,for driving the pumps1 there are two water-wheels1 set on the same shaft1 one #e feet and the other #g feet in diameter1 either of which can be used at will1 thus permitting different rates of speed2 two nozzles are placed on each wheel1 so that if necessary the power can at any time be doubled4 ,the smaller wheel has a #a-a_/d inch nozzle1 and runs #cfj turns a minute2 the larger has #a-a_/h-;inch nozzle1 and makes #bgj turns a minute4 ,there are two ropes from the wheel-shaft to a counter-shaft1 and four ropes to the fly-wheel shaft1 on which is the pinion driving the spur-wheel attached to the pitman of the pump-bob4 ,hoisting is done by two wheels placed side by side on the same shaft1 the buckets and nozzle of each wheel being placed in opposite directions4 ,both wheels are #h feet in diameter1 with #ae_/af-;inch nozzles1 and make at full speed about #bbe turns a minute4 ,reversing the movement of the shaft is done by shutting off water from one wheel1 and turning water on the other wheel2 the two water-gates for these nozzles are quickly opened or closed by hydrostatic pressure1 afforded from the water main4 ,in addition to the usual brakes on the winding-reels1 a brake is placed on the wheel-shaft1 so that it can be stopped in a very short period of time4 ,the shock to the pipe by the almost instantaneous cutting off the water at these hoisting-wheels 7nearly one cubic foot per second7 has not apparently had any injurious1 effect4 ,to lessen this shock1 a compensating balance was designed1 but which is not now in use4 ,a wheel1 of small diameter1 is used for the smithy1 etc41 running at a very high velocity4 ,the wheel driving the stamp-mill is #f feet in diameter1 makes #cjj revolutions a minute1 and is supplied through a #a-c_/af inch nozzle4 ,the head of water at this point is a few feet greater than at the other wheels4 ,power is transmitted from the hoisting and mill-wheel shafts by two and four ropes1 the same as with the pumping rig4 ,the amount of work done1 or of water used1 has not been carefully determined2 judging from the indicator cards taken from the old steam-engines1 the managers of the ,idaho believe that an efficiency of fully #hj per cent4 of the theoretic power of the water is obtained on the main driving-shafts of the machinery4 ,the substitution of water for steam-power has resulted in a large saving of expense4 ,although the hills near by are covered with fine forests1 thus making wood cheap1 and although a round price is charged for water by the company furnishing it1 the cost of the water is considerably less than that of the wood formerly used as fuel4 ,the cost of attendance is altogether in favor of the water-wheels1 which hardly require any attention4 ,the cost of the change from steam to water-power was #df1dif4cb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,texas ,,creek ,,pipe ,,and ,,aqueduct4 ,a description of this work will be of interest in showing the general practice followed in ,california for carrying water across deep mountain gorges4 ,in order to augment its water supply1 the ,north ,bloomfield ,gravel ,mining ,company desired to conduct water from a stream known as ,texas ,creek1 in ,nevada ,county1 ,california1 across the ,big ,caon branch of the ,south ,yuba ,river into the main ,bloomfield flume or aqueduct1 which was located on the side of ,big ,caon ,creek1 at a vertical elevation of #fbj feet above the bed of the latter stream4 ,the quantity of water to be carried was about #cb cubic feet a second 7#a1bej miner's inches71 which could be diverted from ,texas ,creek at a point #dhj feet vertical above the ,bloomfield flume4 ,an aqueduct about #d1jjj feet long1 partly of ditch and partly of flume1 was needed to bring the water from the catchment dam on the creek to the brow of the gorge4 ,the vertical head for the pipe could therefore be from a maximum of #dfj feet down to any lesser head2 with a head of #dfj feet1 the pipe would be #d1gij feet long2 and with a head of #bbj feet1 the length would be #d1bij feet4 ,assuming a maximum tensile strain upon the iron of #af1ejj pounds per square inch1 with the formula for the greatest head of about d 74#cei l_/h7#a_/e1 or1 v #fh 7dh_/l7#a_/b1 and ,q #cb1 and a lower value of the coefficient in the last equation for the lesser heads1 it was found1 by calculation1 that the least cost could be obtained with a head from #cjj to #cej feet4 ,the head fixed upon was #cjc4f feet1 with a length of #d1dch4g feet4 ,a profile of the pipe1 with nearly the same horizontal and vertical scales 7horizontal scale1 showing slope lengths71 is given in ,fig4 #ad2 details are given in ,figs4 #ae and #af4 ,the pipe was of double riveted sheet iron1 made in lengths of about #bj feet1 and of the following thicknesses3 #a1cdi linear feet1 #j4jhc inch thick4 #bbj #j4jie #bdj #j4aji #bej #j4abj #cbj #j4acd #faj #j4adh #a1dej #j4afe ,some of the iron was of the very poorest quality2 the pipe was made by contract in ,san ,francisco1 without the supervision of an inspector1 as the contractors were a firm of good reputation2 the bad quality of the iron was not detected until too late to have it corrected4 ,since then1 the writer has always had such pipes--the mines of which he has been the manager using large quantities--made directly on the ground where they are to be used2 the pipe makers1 in the latter case1 always reject such sheets as are too much below in thickness the standard gauge1 and those which show in passing through the rolls the bad quality of iron2 tests of each joint by hydrostatic pressure would add too much to the cost4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,the maximum tensile strain upon each of the seven thicknesses of iron used was intended to be #af1ejj pounds per square inch4 ,some of the sheets were below the standard gauge1 so that1 in reality1 the tensile strain is sometimes as high as #ah1jjj pounds4 ,the mean diameter of the pipe was #a4daf feet4 ,the entrance into the pen-stock was tapered1 so that the coefficient of contraction was about #j4ib4 ,for pressures not exceeding say #chj feet1 the joints were put together stove-pipe fashion4 ,for greater pressures1 the joints were made by an inner sleeve riveted on one end of the joint1 with an outer lap-welded band1 as shown by ,fig4 #ae2 lead was run into the space between the outer band and the pipe1 and then tightly driven up by calking-irons4 ,the pipe was laid under the bed of the ,big ,caon ,creek1 a large stream when in freshet1 where the head below the hydraulic grade line was #gfj feet4 ,some of the lead joints leaked slightly at first1 but this was soon remedied by more careful calking4 ,no man-holes or escape-gates were used4 ,the pipe for the larger part of the year is not filled at its upper end2 when such is the case1 the water at the inlet carries down the pipe a great quantity of air1 for which escapes must be provided to prevent a jarring or throbbing1 which would soon destroy the pipe4 ,the escape air-valves used are shown by ,fig4 #af4 ,they consist simply of a heavy flap valve of cast-iron1 with recess for lead filling to give greater weight set on top the pipe1 seating on a vulcanized rubber cushion1 and swinging on a loose hinge4 ,when the pipe is only partly filled with water1 the valves drop down by their own weight1 allowing the air to freely escape2 when the water rises above the level of a valve1 it is tightly closed by the resulting pressure4 ,there are fourteen of these valves1 those on the lower end being designed to allow air to freely enter the pipe in case it should burst in the deeper portion1 and thus prevent any collapse from atmospheric pressure4 ,the valves have answered the desired purposes most effectually4 ,the pipe was hauled over a road built to the inlet end1 and shot down the mountain side by means of a ,v-shaped trough of wood4 ,for the lower end1 the joints were hauled up the cliff side into place by a crab worked by horse-power4 ,on steep inclinations1 the pipe was held firmly in place by wire ropes fastened to iron pins in the solid rock1 as shown by the sketch4 ,the covering of earth and stone was #a foot to #b feet in depth2 with steep slopes1 the earth was kept from sliding by rough dry walls1 or by cedar plank placed crosswise4 ,the pipe was laid in #ahgh2 the first year it broke twice1 owing to the wretched quality of the iron2 since then1 it has given no trouble1 and has required practically no attention4 ,the cost of this work--ditch and flume #d1jjj feet1 and pipe #d1ddj feet--was #bc1ggi4ec4 ,a comparison of the relative values of n1 in the formula v n 7r s71 for the foregoing ditch1 flume1 and pipe will be instructive4 ,the ditch has a width on the bottom of #c feet1 on the top of #f feet1 with a depth of #c feet1 and an inclination of #bj feet per mile2 its sides are rough1 being cut in part through the rock and with sharp curves1 although fairly regular2 with a flow of about #a1cjj miner's inches 7#cb4h cubic feet per second7 the ditch runs about full4 ,therefore3 #f #c a ----- #c #ac4e 2 #b ,,tex3 a frac#fcb times #c #ac4e2 a r ------------- #a4da 2 #c4c #c #c4c ,,tex3 r fraca#c4c #c #c4c #a4da2 #bj #a s ------ ----- 2 #ebhj #bfd ,,tex3 s frac#bjebhj frac#abfd2 ,q #cb4h1 hence ,q v --- #b4dc2 a ,,tex3 v frac,qa #b4dc2 and _/ n 7 in v n 7r s7 7 #cc4 _/ ,,tex3 n 7textin v n 7r s7frac#ab7 #cc4 ,the flume is of unplaned boards1 rectangular1 #b4fg wide #b4hc deep1 with an inclination of #cb feet per mile4 ,there are sharp curves1 although these were made as regular as practicable2 the boiling action of the water passing around these curves brought the flow line 7,q #cb4h7 nearly up to the top of the sides2 with a straight flume of the same size1 the water would have doubtless stood several inches lower4 ,therefore3 a #b4fg #b4hc #g4ef 2 a r -------------------- #j4ijh 2 #b4hc #b4fg #b4hc ,,tex3 r fraca#b4hc #b4fg #b4hc #j4ijh2 #cb #a s ------ ----- 2 #ebhj #afe ,,tex3 s frac#cbebhj frac#aafe2 ,q #cb4h1 hence ,q v --- #d4cd2 a ,,tex3 v frac,qa #d4cd2 and n #ei4 ,with the pipe1#f #a4daf diameter1 d r --- #j4ced2 ,q #ca4fi2 v #bj4ac4 #d ,,tex3 r fracd#d #j4ced2 ,q #ca4fi2 v #bj4ac4 ,footnote #f3 ,vide pages #abj-abb1 ,transactions ,american ,society of ,civil ,engineers for #ahhc4 ,allowing for loss of head due to imparting velocity to water1 and for contraction1 #bif4a s --------2 and n #aca4 #ddch4g ,,tex3 s frac#bif4addch4g2 textand n #aca4 ,we hence have the following values of n1 in v n 7r s71 ,q being constant3 ,rough ditch1 with sharp curves4 #cc ,rectangular flume1 with sharp curves4 #ei ,wrought-iron pipe1 with easy curves1 coated with asphalt1 but with rivet-heads forming noteworthy obstructions 7m #fe4e1 and #bm n7 #aca 99 99 99 99 99 ,,parachute ,,hydraulic ,,motor4 ,the very singular and simple hydraulic motor which we illustrate herewith is the invention of a ,russian engineer1 ,mr4 ,jagn4 ,it is scarcely as yet known in ,western ,europe1 where1 however1 something will probably be heard of it ere long4 ,its true field would seem to be ,egypt1 ,india1 or any country where canals or rivers are used for irrigation1 and where it is desired to draw water from them at particular spots in the simplest and cheapest manner4 ,at present in nearly all such cases water is raised by hand or steam power2 nevertheless it must be obvious that the current of the canal itself1 slow though it may be1 is quite sufficient to raise a small portion of the discharge to the very moderate height generally needed to lift it over the banks into the adjoining fields4 ,why then is it not employed for the purpose8 ,the answer is obvious1 when we consider the various hydraulic motors at present in use4 ,of course1 motors worked by water pressure must here be excluded2 and we are left with scarcely anything but the undershot wheel1 the turbine1 and the screw pump4 ,all these require expensive buildings and erections to set them to work1 present but a very small fraction of their surface to the water at any one time1 and must be very large and costly if they are to draw even a very moderate amount of power from such a source4 ,there is no possibility of adjusting them readily to suit variations in the speed of the current or in the quantity of water required1 nor of moving them from place to place should this be convenient4 ,illustration3 ,,parachute ,,hydraulic ,,motor4 ,the motor of ,mr4 ,jagn is on a totally different principle4 ,its essential features consist1 as shown1 of an endless rope made of hemp or aloe fiber1 which takes a turn or two round a pair of drums mounted on a barge or pontoon1 and then passes down the channel to return over a pulley hung from a floating punt1 at such a depth that the whole of the rope is immersed in the water4 ,along this rope are suspended at equal intervals a number of parachutes made of sail cloth4 ,the rope passes through the center of each of these1 and to it are attached a series of strings1 the other ends of which are connected to the outside edge of the parachute4 ,thus they act like the spokes of an umbrella to prevent the parachute from opening too far under the pressure of the current4 ,the parachutes must be placed so far apart that the current may act fairly on each1 and the sum of the pressures forms the force which draws the rope through the water4 ,the moment1 however1 that any parachute has passed round the return pulley1 the current acts upon it in the opposite direction4 ,it then shuts up like an umbrella1 and assumes a volume so small that its resistance on the return journey is insignificant4 ,after passing round the drum at the upper end1 it at once opens afresh of its own accord1 and once more becomes part of the moving power of the whole system4 ,the parachutes are formed by first cutting out a complete circle of cloth1 and then taking from this a sector equal to one-fifth or one-sixth of the total area4 ,such parachutes are found to keep their form when stretched by the water better than a surface originally spherical1 although the latter would be theoretically more correct4 ,the motion of the drum is transmitted by spur1 gear1 or otherwise as may be required1 to give the requisite speed4 ,it will be seen that the advantages of the system are as follows3 ,first1 the facility it offers for obtaining a large working area1 which may be increased or diminished at will1 according to the requirements of the moment1 by lengthening or shortening the rope4 ,secondly1 the ease with which it is erected and set to work4 ,thirdly1 the small part of the river section which it occupies1 so as to present no obstacle to navigation4 ,fourthly1 the ease with which it can be mounted on a barge of any kind1 and carried wherever it may be needed4 ,fifthly1 it is not stopped1 like all other hydraulic motors1 by the appearance of ice--it has1 in fact1 already been worked under ice in the ,neva4 ,at the same time1 winds and waves have no influence upon it4 ,the principle of the apparatus is not altogether new4 ,in #ahgb there was tried on the ,ohio ,river an arrangement termed the ,brooks motor4 ,it was composed of two drums1 placed horizontally and parallel to each other4 ,round these there passed endless chains at equal spaces apart on the length of the drums1 and to these chains were fixed wooden blades or arms of a curved form1 and so jointed to the frames that they opened when moving in one direction1 and closed down on the chain when moving in the other4 ,in this machine the weight of the chains was a serious obstacle to obtaining any large amount of power4 ,the whole apparatus was mounted on a heavy wooden scaffold1 which proved an impediment to the flow of the river4 ,again1 the resistance due to the surface of the returning blades and to their stiffness was found to be far from insignificant4 ,in the present system ,mr4 ,jagn has found1 after many experiments1 that the best effect was obtained when the parachutes were spaced apart at twice their diameter1 and when the rope made an angle of #h degrees to #aj degrees with the current4 ,it is found that when open and in motion the parachutes never touch the bottom4 ,this was the case with a rope containing #ahj parachutes of #d feet diameter1 and working in a depth of only #f feet4 ,this is easily explained by the fact that the velocity of a current always diminishes as it approaches the bottom4 ,hence the pressure on the lower part of the parachute will be less than that on the upper part2 but the former pressure tends to draw the parachute downward1 while the latter tends to raise it to the top of the water4 ,thus1 the latter being the larger1 the parachute will always have a tendency to rise4 ,in fact1 it is necessary to sink the return pulley sufficiently deep to make sure that the parachutes will not emerge from the surface4 ,for the same reason no intermediate supports are needed over the driving span2 if any are needed it is for the return span1 on which the parachutes are closed4 ,of course1 if metal were used instead of hemp1 the case would be entirely different1 and intermediate supports would have to be used for anything but very moderate lengths4 ,in practice1 ,mr4 ,jagn has employed two ropes wound upon the same pair of drums1 which are mounted upon a pontoon4 ,the ropes are spread out from each other1 as in ,fig4 #a1 making an angle of about #aj degrees4 ,the low specific gravity of the system enables ropes to be employed of as great a length as #dej yards1 each of them carrying #cej parachutes of #ag4b square feet area4 ,as half of these are in action at the same time1 the total working area for the two cables is #e1hfj square feet4 ,this immense area furnishes a considerable amount of power even in a river of feeble current4 ,comparing this with a floating water wheel of the type sometimes employed1 and supposing this to have only #agb square feet of working area1 such a wheel must have a length of #df feet1 a diameter of #bc feet1 and seventy-two floats1 each #b feet wide4 ,the enormous dimensions thus required for a comparatively small working area point sufficiently clearly to the advantage which remains on the side of the parachute motor4 ,the general arrangement of the system is shown in the engraving4 ,behind the return pulleys1 ,d ,d1 are attached cords1 ,a ,a1 with some parachutes strung upon them4 ,these present their openings to the current and preserve the tension of the connecting ropes4 ,at the further end of each cord is a board1 ,b1 which is kept in a vertical plane1 but lying at a slight angle to the direction of the current2 and this acts to keep the two moving ropes apart from each other4 ,the two return pulleys are1 however1 connected by a line1 ,e1 which can be shortened or lengthened from the pontoon1 and in this way the angle of inclination between the two ropes can be varied if required4 ,a grooved pulley presses upon the trailing span at the moment before it reaches the circumference of the drum4 ,it is mounted on a screwed spindle1 which is depressed by a nut1 and thus makes the wet rope grip the outside of the drum in a thoroughly efficacious manner4 ,the author has made a theoretical investigation of the power which may be developed by the system1 and has worked out tables by which1 when the velocity of the current and the other elements of the problem are known1 the power developed by any given number of parachutes can be at once determined4 ,we do not reproduce this investigation1 which takes account of the resistance of the returning parachutes and other circumstances1 but will content ourselves with quoting the final equation1 which is as follows3 ,t #j4cbh ,s ,v4 ,here ,t is the work done in ,h4,p41 ,s is the total working area in sq4 m41 and ,v is the velocity of the current in m4 per sec4 ,taking ,v #a1 and ,s #a sq4 m41 which is by no means an impracticable quantity1 we have ,t #j4cbh ,h4,p4 per sq4 m4 ,we may check this result by the equation given1 in ,english measures1 by ,rankine--,applied ,mechanics1 p4 #cih--;for the pressure of a current upon a solid body immersed in it4 ,this equation1 ,f #a4h m ,a v _/ #b;g1 where m is the weight of a unit of volume of the fluid--say #fb lb4--,a is the area exposed1 and v the relative velocity of the current4 ,mr4 ,jagn finds that the maximum of efficiency is obtained when the rope moves at one-third the velocity of the stream4 ,if this velocity be #c feet per second1 we shall have v #b4 and we then get ,f #g lb4 per sq4 ft4 very nearly4 ,now #a sq4 meter #aj4gf sq4 ft41 and a speed of #a ft4 per second 7which is that of the rope7 is #fj ft4 per minute4 ,hence the ,h4,p4 realized in the same case as that taken above will be #g #aj4gf #fj _/ #cc1jjj #j4acg ,h4,p4 ,the difference between the two values is very large1 but ,rankine1 of course1 depends entirely on the value of the constant #a4h1 which is quite empirical1 and is for a flat band instead of a hollow parachute4 ,taking1 however1 his smaller figure1 and an area of #edd square inches1 which ,mr4 ,jagn has actually employed1 we get a gross power of #j4acg #edd #g4dc ,h4,p4 ,hence it will be seen that the amount of power which can be realized by the system is far from being inconsiderable4 ,lastly1 we may point out that the durability of the apparatus will be considerable4 ,there is no wear except at the moment when the rope is passing round the drum1 and even then there need be no slipping or grinding4 ,the apparatus worked in the ,neva was in very good condition after running for four months day and night4 ,after five months about one-fifth of the parachutes had to be replaced1 but after seven months the hemp rope still showed no signs of wear4 ,we think we have said enough to show that for certain purposes1 and especially1 as we have1 already mentioned1 for irrigation purposes1 the new motor is well worthy of a careful and extended trial4 ,it may be questioned even whether we have not here the germ of an idea which may hereafter enable us to solve one of the most interesting and important of engineering problems1 viz41 the utilization of the great store of power provided for us twice daily in the ebb and flow of the tide4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,shafting ,,lathe4 ,our engraving represents a new departure in shaft turning lathes1 and is the result of thirty years' experience in the manufacture of shafting1 with many years' study1 to perfect a machine of the greatest practical capacity and efficiency4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,shafting ,,lathe4 ,the principal points of difference from a common engine lathe are readily distinguished1 among which may be mentioned the absence of centers and tail stock1 a traveling head with hollow driving spindle1 and a stationary tool rest and water tank4 ,by dispensing with a tail stock a much shorter bed may be used1 and the hollow driving spindle enables any length shaft to be turned1 with one setting of the tools4 ,the tool rest is so arranged as to allow of perfect lubrication of the tools1 keeping the shaft cool1 and at the same time holding it perfectly rigid and strong2 the operator is not required to travel the length of the bed1 but remains near the driving belt1 feed gearing1 etc4 ,power is communicated to the driving spindle by means of a sliding pinion on a splined rod inside the bed1 the driving belt and gears being at the end4 ,the driving head1 after having traveled the length of the bed and turned a shaft1 is returned by a quick feed1 and stops automatically1 allowing nearly time enough for the operator to grind tools and be ready with another shaft1 thus economizing the time completely4 ,wood1 ,jennison ,co41 ,worcester1 ,mass41 are the makers1 and they say that with a good quality of iron they have turned three hundred feet of two inch iron in ten hours4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,power ,,straightening ,,machine4 ,the machine is provided with a pair of rolls at each end of the bed1 which are adjustable for different lengths of shaft1 and are made to revolve by power applied through suitable gearing and a splined rod inside the bed2 the bar of iron being placed on the periphery of the rolls receives a rotary motion by friction1 and shows the crooked places in the same way and with the same ease as though rotating on centers in the usual manner2 vertically adjustable blocks are arranged in the base of the press to support the iron2 power is applied by means of gearing to a splined rod at the back of the machine1 on which is a sliding clutch connecting1 at the will of the operator1 with an eccentric2 the eccentric conveys motion and power through a link to the elbow joint at the front of the press1 which forces a plunger down against the iron4 ,illustration3 ,,power ,,straightening ,,machine4 ,sufficient adjustment is provided for different sizes of iron by turning a nut at the top of the press4 ,any point in the length of the bar can be reached by moving the press on the bed4 ,any length of iron can be straightened1 and the most laborious and disagreeable work in the process of making shafting is rendered easy and rapid4 ,made by ,wood1 ,jennison ,co41 ,worcester1 ,mass4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hydraulic ,,mining ,,in ,,california4 ,by ,,george ,o',,brien4 ,our knowledge of the primitive operations of the aboriginal inhabitants of the globe in pursuit of gold is barely traditional1 as we are only aware that from very early times the precious metal was collected and highly prized by them1 and that they chiefly extracted the visible gold1 which existed in prodigious quantities on or closely beneath the surface of the earth1 and of its being particularly abundant in ,asia and ,africa4 ,but we can draw more positive conclusions as we survey remains of the rude but effective contrivances used by them in later1 but still remote1 periods1 with full evidence as to the extent of their operations1 in the numerous perpendicular shafts located at short distances from each other1 over large areas of auriferous gravel in ,india1 as well as from precisely similar memorials of ancient workings which remain also further demonstrations1 in the abandoned hill diggings1 and shifted beds1 and beds of rivers1 in ,peru ,south ,america1 flowing between the sea and coast ranges of the ,andes1 descending in a northeasterly direction to the river ,amazon1 and that their much coveted and enormous productions were the accumulated riches of the ,incas1 transferred as spoils of war to their ,spanish conquerors in the sixteenth century4 ,and for similar explorations in the same class of depositions we have the experiences of our own times1 and which explain by comparison all the previous operations alluded to4 ,thus in the year #ahdi1 after the cession of the northern portion of ,mexico to the ,united ,states of ,north ,america1 the rich mineral district of ,california was at once invaded by hardy and intelligent bands of mining adventurers from all parts of the world1 who1 with little other means at their disposal but pick1 shovel1 and pan1 soon fell on the productive bars of rivers and rich ravines where the gold was trapped1 derived from its original birthplaces1 where it had been sparsely disseminated1 to be dispersed by the subsequent disintegrations and denudations of the mountains themselves1 and deposited in a disengaged form for the first comer2 and so perfect were sometimes these concentrations1 in certain localities where water once streamed1 that1 divested of its earthy matrix1 the cleansed pure metal was found deposited1 detained by its superior specific gravity1 on the bare rock1 and only hidden from vision by a slight covering of vegetable mould4 ,in this manner1 as an example of such concentration1 a pot or find 7in mining parlance7 to the value of #aj1jjj was collected in a space of #ae square yards1 or within the limits of a particular mining claim1 at the foot of ,mokulumne ,hill1 in a southern county of ,california1 soon after the territorial transfer from ,mexico4 ,and in search of such locations we must account for the numberless shafts which still exist both in ,india and ,peru1 and sometimes sunk within a few feet of each other1 passing through the alluvium to a depth of #dj feet to the bed rock4 ,these mining adventurers soon extended their explorations over the other recently acquired territories1 and built ,virginia ,city1 the capital of ,montana1 with the gold derived from the alluvium of a river channel which they excavated2 and its inhabitants were the founders of an institution called the ,vigilance ,committee1 with ,lynch law1 and by it ruled supremely for many years4 ,but their surface diggings1 by the manual operations alone of multitudes1 were soon exhausted in every direction1 and then their energies and powers of invention were dedicated to discover and explore deeper and more permanent depositions1 along the western slopes of the ,sierra ,nevada1 the ,andes of the ,western ,territories1 and which originally were without doubt several miles higher than they are at the present time--probably #bj1jjj feet above the sea-level--and of which1 or whatever superior elevation they formerly had1 the greater portion of it has already been removed1 by the continuous natural action of centuries1 to form there1 as elsewhere1 the plains and prairies of the earth1 burying and diverting by the mutation the ancient river system1 whose sources of supply were consequently extinguished by the removal of these altitudes4 ,these denudations and subsequent depositions have been caused by alternations of temperature and combined action of air1 water1 and time since the creation of the world2 and powerful demonstrations of these transformations instruct us in all directions1 if we care to observe them4 ,thus in ,little ,cottonwood ravine1 in the ,wahsatch range of mountains in ,utah ,territory1 lie isolated in the center of the valley huge masses of metamorphic granite1 some blocks of which weigh individually thousands of tons1 and were dislodged from the hills--which on either side are of limestone formation--with no visible granite in them1 having been undermined by the removal of their pulverized basis by denudation1 and which is the material now forming the tablelands1 the foundation1 of ,salt ,lake ,city4 ,the blocks of granite1 having alone resisted the atmospheric changes1 were precipitated into the valley beneath1 and the ,mormons are now constructing their cathedral church from these granitic remains4 ,the melting of the snow which formerly capped all these ranges of mountains furnished the water that once flowed in the extinguished channels of ancient rivers1 and whose now diverted waters were also the powerful agent to assist in causing these marvelous alternations2 and by the means of hydraulic mining we can advance our feeble knowledge on the subject4 ,these mighty changes have gradually been accomplished1 and the accumulated denudations of the mineral zones have defended themselves by strata of crystallized silicates of quartz of various thicknesses1 and thus in places beneath such system of defense1 or by their own concretion1 have preserved in many localities a thickness of from #ejj to #fjj feet of conglomerate1 but without this necessary cementation its further removal is very certain when again attacked by water4 ,an example of this continuous process is very observable in ,death ,valley1 ,lower ,california1 where a width of about #ajj miles has been filled up from the hills to the gulf of same name1 invading and occupying its former bed2 and this activity is still proceeding1 and a temporary formation of tableland above it is in course of removal1 although already overgrown with forest trees1 which are toppling over the side which is being attacked4 ,but eternal snow now only covers a small portion of these ,sierras1 and a period of comparative repose may be expected1 as the distribution has already been far advanced by the excessive reduction of the mountains4 ,the deep and extensive depositions which ,i now attempt to describe attracted the early attention of the mining adventurers1 and were called hill diggings1 but not being properly understood were therefore not immediately operated upon1 and remained in abeyance1 while the lower1 richer1 and more manifest alluvials endured4 ,they were designated blue gravel1 the color being due to the action of sulphuret of iron and other salts1 the cementing auxiliaries requisite to form the hard conglomerate1 and on exposure to the atmosphere changes color to yellow and violet1 losing also its firmness by oxidation4 ,the great blue lead is another important mining term and designates the alluvium found reposing in a well-defined channel on the bed rock1 being the well-worn path of an ancient river2 and it is obvious that the material in these channels should be richer than the general mass beyond their limits4 ,rim rock is the boundary line of the banks of the old channel1 and1 like the bottom1 is well worn and corrugated by the running water into cavities and pot holes1 where the force of the stream eddied4 ,the width of these channels varies from #fj to #djj feet1 and the cement near the rim and bottom is always richer than elsewhere4 ,the wider and deeper channels generally course from ,n4 to ,n4,w4 ,the richest and most explored belt of gold-bearing alluvium in ,california lies between the ,south and ,middle ,yuba ,rivers1 commencing near ,eureka1 in ,nevada county1 and extends downwards to ,smartsville and ,timbuctoo1 in ,yuba county1 a distance of #dj miles2 and from among snowy mountains the country falls gradually from where the ravines or canons are cut by the actual rivers1 which are #b1jjj feet beneath the auriferous gravel and region near ,smartsville1 and #b1jjj feet above the ,yuba ,river1 where snow is unknown1 and near its terminus the ancient river bed courses more westerly than it does above it1 and crosses ,yuba below ,timbuctoo1 where the auriferous depositions disappear4 ,the whole distance of #dj miles has been ransacked by the earlier adventurers1 and around the village of ,timbuctoo was a center famed for its wonderful yield of gold1 obtained chiefly in the ravines1 in holes1 and depressions in the bed rock4 ,these hollows detained the concentrations of the denudated alluvium from the altitudes1 and were generally closely beneath the surface1 and by such guidance and means of discovery the miners traced the gold up the ravines to their sources in the lofty mounds and deposits1 or hills of cemented conglomerate1 near ,eureka in ,nevada county2 and by constructing canals from a higher level began the new system of hydraulic mining and washing1 and gradually extended their operations over the area of the metallic zone mentioned1 of #dj miles long by #bj wide1 using the ,yuba ,river below ,timbuctoo to receive and discharge the tailings1 or refuse from their operations4 ,the result in gold was considerable1 but the system is from its violent nature difficult to control1 by presuming to handle and remove such huge depositions in order to collect the richest material4 ,the idea was bold1 being an anticipation of ,nature's operations2 but the equitable disposal of the tailings in a cultivated country is impossible1 as the silt runs down the rivers1 creating banks and bars in their channels1 obstructing navigation and agricultural arrangements4 ,general ,description of ,hydraulic ,mining4 ,the first work to be accomplished1 after calculating that the amount or value of the material to be operated upon is sufficient to guarantee the cost of the undertaking in general1 is the construction of a canal or canals1 to convey the requisite volume of water from the fountain-head1 and of sufficient elevation to command the ground to be worked upon1 having also in view the levels of the necessary tunnels and shafts as outlets for the discharge of the gravel through them1 these being engineering operations requiring much skill and labor to avoid useless after-cost4 ,aqueducts of considerable elevation have to be constructed across deep valleys1 and the speculation is at all times problematical1 as the ground cannot be properly tested until the water arrives upon it1 and disputes may arise between the shareholders of the canal and the mining company1 ending frequently in the one devouring the other1 unless the two interests be quickly amalgamated4 ,the starting point should be the lowest level1 or bed rock1 on the white cement in the ancient channel1 which is probably the original silt collected in it1 and is harder than the conglomerate above it1 which is more easily removed4 ,the courses of these beds can be easily traced by landmarks and undulations1 and occasional exposures of the bed rock at low levels2 also trial shafts are sunk in various places in search of it1 to a depth of #ajj feet1 passing through blue gravel4 ,the grades of these beds are not steep1 being from #aj to #dj feet per mile as of an ordinary river1 and the calculated thickness of the alluvial conglomerate is about #fjj feet in many places across the ridge between the ,south and ,middle ,yuba ,river across the ,columbia4 ,the power of the water for the operation is dependent on a given volume deposited in a reservoir1 and at sufficient elevation above the points of discharge1 as on this depends effectivity to tear down the gravel4 ,it is delivered to the miner by huge pipes made of wrought iron1 and laid down to follow the curvatures of the surface of the ground2 and the pipe ,i now treat of1 belonging to the ,excelsior ,water ,company1 has a diameter of #dj inches on a length of #f1jjj feet1 and #bj inches on the rest of its length of #h1jjj feet1 being #i1jjj feet in all2 and this large pipe forms an inverted siphon across a valley1 following on the gravel1 to the top of the hill into the reservoir4 ,these pipes offer advantages over wooden aqueducts for spanning chasms1 and also to avoid coursing the sides of valleys2 being also cheaper to construct in general1 and less liable to accidents from fire and storms1 and have the convenience for conveying the water from point to point1 as the work of excavation advances1 necessitating the removal of portions of the aqueduct forward4 ,the watershed1 or reservoir1 of the ,excelsior ,company embraces the valley of the ,south ,yuba and its affluents1 and the entire cost of its eight amalgamated canals was #gej1jjj dollars4 ,the rainfall during three years in the mountains averaged #di inches annually1 while the medium in the same period did not exceed #bj inches in the plains beneath4 ,the height of the reservoir above the tailing1 or ,yuba ,river1 is #cic feet3 and the height of the head above the floor1 or outlet sluice-tunnel1 of the ,blue ,gravel ,mining ,company was #aig feet4 ,the exact quantity of water required to wash every class of gravel is difficult to estimate1 but no quantity or pressure would be excessive if properly arranged4 ,the measurement of water is effected by miner's inches1 by allowing it to flow from the reservoir of the seller to the purchaser through a box #aj or #ab feet square1 with divisions to obtain a quiet head1 with a slide or opening capable of adjustment to any required measure2 thus an opening of #be inches by #b inches1 with a quiet head of #f inches above the middle of the orifice1 would give #ej inches1 or about #hi1bei cubic feet of water1 flowing during ten hours per day1 being an amount necessary for a first-class operation4 ,the capability of the ,excelsior ,canal in rainy seasons reached to a delivery in twenty-four hours1 to the various mining companies1 of #ba1abj1jjj cubic feet of water1 or #h1jjj miner's inches1 and the value of the water paid for by the ,blue ,gravel ,company in forty-three months ending ,november #i1 #ahfg1 was #aeg1bfa dollars1 being at the rate of #ae cents of a dollar per miner's inch2 and the proportion of water used to wash down #ihi1afe cubic yards of gravel was #ag1jgd1geh cubic yards1 or #ag cubic yards of water to #a cubic yard of gravel2 and when at work the quantity of gravel daily moved was #a1bih cubic yards1 and the estimated cost to move one cubic yard of gravel was #e and #g_/aj cents of a dollar4 ,but in the face of contingencies the ,blue ,gravel ,company moved #a1jjj1jjj cubic yards of gravel in four years1 or at the rate of #bej1jjj cubic yards per annum1 and the cost of washing each cubic yard stands thus3 ,cents4 ,cost of water1 at #ae cents per miner's inch #e4gg ,cost of labor1 gunpowder1 sluices1 and superintendence #af4aj ----- #ba4hg ,or #ba cents of a dollar per cubic yard4 ,thus the gravel should contain gold to the value of #bb cents of a dollar per cubic yard to cover cost1 and the value of the gravel referred to ranged from #bj to #de cents per cubic yard2 and the cost of work done in shafts and tunnels1 in the said ,blue ,gravel ,company's ,mining claim1 reached #ajj1jjj dollars4 ,but with the cost of the necessary canals paid for by the ,excelsior ,water ,company apart1 the total cost amounted to about #a1jjj1jjj dollars1 and we must note that the latter company sold water to other mining companies4 ,the gross yield in gold of the ,blue ,gravel ,company in four years was #hcg1cii dollars1 and in the year #ahff the returns from the ,blue ,gravel ,company paid all the costs of the developments2 but in #ahfg assessments were paid by the owners to meet the deficiency arising from the cost of sinking two new shafts1 and driving fresh tunnels on the lowest levels1 which evidently contain on the bed rock the richest concentrations4 ,in smaller mining adventures of this description1 involving less capital1 large profits have been made in the gold-bearing zone treated of1 by also not having invested in costly canals1 which would not have repaid the latter investment2 and thus it is evident that the water companies are dependent blindly on the prosperity of the miners4 ,i will now more minutely describe the actual mining operations4 ,the mining ground being selected1 a tunnel is projected from the nearest and most convenient ravine1 so that the starting-point on the bed rock toward the face of the ravine shall approach the center of the material to be removed at a gradient of #a in #aj to #a in #cj4 ,the dimensions of such tunnels are usually #f feet in width by #g in height1 and continuing in contact with the hard river-bed1 for the greater ease of excavation1 collection of gold1 and conservation of quicksilver amalgam4 ,these tunnels vary in length from a few hundred feet to a mile1 and some of the longer ones occupying from one to seven years in execution1 at a cost of from #aj to #fj dollars per foot of frontage4 ,the tunnel of the ,blue ,gravel ,company1 with length of #a1ceh feet1 cost in labor alone #gj1jjj dollars1 but it could now be driven for #ce1jjj dollars1 as skilled labor is cheaper now than then4 ,the grade in this tunnel is about #ab per cent41 and the end of the tunnel is designed to be #agj feet of elevation1 and reaching to a point beneath the surface of the gravel which is being operated upon1 and where a shaft or incline is sunk to or through the bed rock or gravel1 until it intersects the tunnel4 ,the object of this laborious operation is obvious1 as the long tunnel becomes a sluiceway1 and through the whole length of which sluice boxes are laid1 for the double motive of carrying off the material and saving the gold1 and for this purpose a trough of strong planks is placed in the tunnel1 #b feet wide1 and with sides high enough to contain the stream4 ,the pavement of the trough is generally laid of blocks of wood #f inches in thickness1 cut across the grain1 and placed on their ends1 to the width of the sluiceway4 ,the wooden blocks are usually alternated with sections of stone pavement1 the stones being set endwise1 and in the interstices between the stones and wooden blocks quicksilver is distributed1 and as much as #b tons of this metal is required to charge a long sluice4 ,the water in the canal is brought by aqueducts1 or other means1 to the head of the mining ground1 having an elevation of #ajj to #bjj ft4 above the lowest level of the mining ground1 and is finally conveyed to it by iron pipes1 sometimes sustained on a strong incline of timber4 ,these pipes are of sheet iron1 of adequate strength1 riveted at the joints1 and measure from #ab to #bj inches in diameter1 and communicate at the bottom with a strong prismatic box of cast-iron1 on the top and sides of which are openings for the adaptation of flexible tubes1 made of very strong fabric of canvas1 strengthened by cording1 and terminating in nozzles of metal of #b to #c inches in diameter4 ,from these nozzles the streams of water are directed against the face of the gravel to be washed1 exercising incredible effectivity4 ,the volume of water employed varies of course with the work to be done2 but it is not uncommon to see four such streams acting simultaneously on the same bank1 each conveying from #ajj to #fjj inches of water per hour--#a1jjj miner's inches being equal to #ajf1fjj cubic feet of water per hour1 constantly exerting its force under a pressure of #ij to #bjj pounds to the square inch1 varying with the height of the column4 ,under the continuous action of this enormous force1 aided by the softening power of the water1 large sections of the gravelly mass are dislodged1 and fall with great violence1 the debris speedily disintegrating and disappearing under the resistless force of the water1 and is hurried forward in the sluices to the mouth of the shaft1 down which it is precipitated with the whole volume of turbid water4 ,bowlders of #ajj to #bjj lb4 in weight are dislodged and shot forward by the impetuous stream1 accompanied by masses of the harder cement which meet in the fall1 and by the concussion from the great bowlders the crushing and pulverizing agency required is found to disintegrate it4 ,the heavy banks1 of #hj feet and upward1 are usually worked in two benches1 the upper never being so rich as the lower1 and also less firm1 and therefore worked away with greater rapidity4 ,the lower section is much the more compact1 as this stratum on the bed rock being strongly cemented resists great pressure1 and even sometimes the full force of the streams of water1 until it has been loosened by gunpowder or other explosives4 ,for this purpose adits are driven in on its foundation-point of from #dj to #gj feet and more from the face of the bank1 and drifts are extended at right angles therefrom to a short distance on each side of the adit1 and in these drifts a large quantity of gunpowder is placed 7from #a to #c tons71 and fired at one blast1 having been previously built in with masonry4 ,and in this manner the compact conglomerate is broken up1 and then the water easily completes its work4 ,sometimes in the soft1 upper strata the systems of tunnel is extended1 as in a coal-mine1 by cross alleys1 leaving blocks which are afterward washed away1 and then the whole mass settles1 and is disintegrated under the influence of water4 ,the wooden sluices in the tunnels already described are often made double for the convenience of cleaning up one of them1 while the other remains in action4 ,the process of cleaning up is performed according to the quantity and richness of the material worked upon1 at intervals of twenty to forty days1 and consists in removing the pavement and blocks from the bed of the sluice1 and then gathering all the amalgam of gold and rich dirt collected1 and replacing the locks in the same way as at first4 ,advantage is taken on this occasion to reverse the position of the blocks and stones when they are worn irregularly1 or substitute new ones for those which are worn through4 ,the mechanical action of the washing process on the blocks is of course very rapid and severe1 requiring complete renewal of them once in eight to ten weeks4 ,some miners prefer a pavement of egg-shaped stones set like a cobble-stone flooring1 the gold being deposited in the interstices4 ,most of the sluiceways are1 however1 paved with rectangular wooden blocks1 with or without stones as described4 ,standing at the mouth of one of the long tunnels in full action1 any person unaccustomed to the process is struck with astonishment1 amounting almost to terror1 as the muddy mass sweeps onward1 bearing in its course the great rolling bowlders1 which add their din to the roar of the water1 the whole being precipitated down a series of falls1 at each of which it is caught up again by new sluices of timber1 lined like the first1 and so onward and downward many hundreds of feet until the level of the river is reached1 at a distance of about a half mile or more from the mouth of the first tunnel4 ,at each of these new falls of #be to #ej feet the process of comminution begun in the first shaft is carried on1 and a fresh portion of gold obtained4 ,rude as this plan of saving gold appears to be1 more gold is procured by it than by any other method of washing yet devised for this process of work1 and the economical advantages obtained by it cannot be surpassed1 as it would be impossible to handle such vast quantities of material in any other way1 and we can compare the cost of washing and handling a cubic yard of auriferous gravel by it as follows3 ,dollars4 ,by manual labor with the pan #ae4jj with rocker #c4ge with the long tom 4#ge ,by the hydraulic process 4#ae ,but this process1 even if effective or profitable as a mining operation1 may be prejudicial to the interests of the general public1 if conducted on a large scale1 as the vast quantity of material which it so suddenly removes is merely shifted into the shallows beneath1 to be redistributed by every freshet to points lower and lower down until it reaches the sea-coast1 creating bars at the mouths of rivers in its course1 and changing the hydrography of harbors--as it has done with the ,bay of ,san ,francisco by its silt4 ,the hills behind1 torn up and washed by the gold miner1 are abandoned as desolate and irredeemable2 and the costly canals1 constructed with peculiar conveniences for mining purposes1 eventually fall into disuse from being too expensive to maintain or alter for general agricultural uses4--,journal of ,science4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,treatment ,,of ,,cholera4 ,from the host of remedies and suggestions that are now deluging the ,european medical press1 we select the following from ,dr4 ,henry ,a4 ,rawlins1 in the ,london ,med4 ,times1 ,july #ab4 #ahhd3 ,the man suffering from cholera has been suddenly deprived by diarrhoea of an enormous quantity of the fluid part of his blood4 ,this loss is one of simple transudation1 increasing as the powers of life decrease4 ,this sudden loss produces intense prostration1 and renders the heart powerless to perfect the circulation4 ,the body1 thus deprived of oxygen1 speedily runs into decomposition1 even before life is extinct4 ,have we any agent by which we can collect and press forward these scattered and lethargic drops of blood to the heart1 and enable it to renew the circulation1 and with it the blessings of oxygen to the body8 ,my reply is emphatically--,yes6 ,flannel bandages from the toes to the trunk1 around the abdomen1 and from the fingers to the body1 will effect this object perfectly4 ,remark that the effect is gradual1 increasing with every turn of the roller1 but would be in full force in about twenty minutes4 ,by thus exposing the blood in the lungs to the action of oxygen in its diluted form1 as it is in the air1 instead of pure oxygen1 the reaction would neither be too rapid nor too dangerous4 ,in confirmation of my views1 ,i have this day learned that it is the custom in ,india to wear a double roll of flannel around the abdomen1 as a preventive to cholera4 ,the other advantages resulting from the use of the flannel bandages are3 #a4 ,that they prevent the escape of heat from the body of the poor creature who is already in a state of refrigeration4 #b4 ,by their firmly and equally grasping both flexor and extensor muscles alike1 they are steadied1 and rendered much less likely to be affected with spasmodic action or cramp4 #c4 ,by their steady elastic pressure and support of about #afj pounds1 they persistently keep up and sustain the circulation of the blood1 which they had previously restored4 #d4 ,that the oxygen thus well secured to the blood will1 ,i believe1 prove quite sufficient to neutralize the original poison1 and also destroy its effects4 #e4 ,that this much can at least be claimed for their use--that they remove from nature a stumbling-block1 which prevented her from exercising her marvelous recuperative powers4 ,diluted sulphuric acid is the best medicine to arrest the flux from the bowels1 acting also as a tonic4 ,it should be given in five-minim doses about every half hour1 with rice gruel4 ,by adopting this plan1 the natural process is brought about1 that of the starch being converted into grape sugar4 ,plenty of white of egg1 well whipped up1 so as to nourish the body and convey oxygen into the stomach1 which it will appropriate1 should be given4 ,opium1 in small quantities1 and other stimulants1 should be given according to the necessities of the case4 ,may it not be well1 through the medium of wet sponge over the thorax1 to apply a continuous but gentle current of galvanism1 so as to stimulate the heart's action1 keep alive the respiratory movements1 and thereby assist in the maintenance of the functions of the body8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,temperature1 ,,moisture1 ,,and ,,pressure ,,in ,,their ,,relations ,,to ,,health4 ,at the recent meteorological conference held at the ,health ,exhibition1 ,dr4 ,j4,w4 ,tripe read a paper of much interest on some relations of meteorological phenomena to health4 ,in ages long past these relations excited much attention1 but the knowledge concerning them was of the vaguest kind2 and indeed1 even now1 no very great advance has been made1 because it is only quite recently that we have been able to compare a fairly accurate record of deaths with observations taken at a number of reliable meteorological stations4 ,the more useful and searching comparison between cases of sickness1 instead of deaths1 and meteorological phenomena has yet to be accomplished on a large scale in this country1 and especially as regards zymotic diseases4 ,in ,belgium there is a ,society of ,medical ,practitioners1 embracing nearly the whole country1 that publishes a monthly record of cases of sickness1 of deaths1 and of meteorological observations2 but the only attempt on a large scale in this country1 which was started by the ,society of ,medical ,officers of ,health for the whole of ,london1 failed partly from want of funds1 and partly from irregularity in the returns4 ,my remarks1 which must necessarily be very brief1 will refer to the relations between 7#a7 meteorological phenomena and the bodily functions of man1 and 7#b7 between varying meteorological conditions and death-rates from certain diseases4 ,as regards the first1 ,i will commence with a few brief remarks on the effects of varying barometric pressures4 ,a great deal too much attention is paid to the barometer if we regard it as indicating only1 as it really does1 variations in the weight of the column of air pressing upon our bodies1 because1 except at considerable elevations1 where the barometer is always much lower than at sea level1 these variations produce but little effect on health4 ,at considerable elevations the diminished pressure frequently causes a great feeling of malaise1 giddiness1 loss of strength1 palpitation1 and even nausea2 and at greater heights1 as was noticed by ,mr4 ,glaisher in a very lofty balloon ascent1 loss of sight1 feeling1 and consciousness4 ,these were caused by a want of a sufficient supply of oxygen to remove effete matters from the system1 and to carry on the organic functions necessary for the maintenance of life4 ,on elevated mountain plateaus1 or even in high residences among the ,alps1 an increased rapidity in the number of respirations and of the pulse1 as well as increased evaporation from the lungs and skin1 occur4 ,for some years past1 many persons suffering from consumption1 gout1 rheumatism1 and anmic affections have gone to mountain stations1 chiefly in ,switzerland1 for relief1 and many have derived much benefit from the change4 ,it must not1 however1 be supposed that diminished atmospheric pressure was the chief cause of the improvement in health1 as its concomitants1 viz41 a diminution in the quantity of oxygen and moisture contained in each cubic foot of air1 probably the low temperature1 with a total change in the daily habits of life1 have assisted in the beneficial results4 ,the diminution in the quantity of air1 and consequently of oxygen1 taken in at each breath is to a certain extent counterbalanced by an increased frequency and depth of the respirations1 and a greater capacity of the chest4 ,in this country1 alterations in the barometric pressure are chiefly valuable as indicating an approaching change in the wind1 and as well as of the amount of moisture in the air2 hence the instrument is often called the weather glass4 ,a sudden diminution in the atmospheric pressure is likely to be attended with an escape of ground air from the soil1 and therefore to cause injury to health1 especially among the occupants of basement rooms1 unless the whole interior of the building be covered with concrete4 ,temperature4--,experience has shown that man can bear greater variations of temperature than any other animal1 as in the ,arctic regions a temperature of -#gj degrees ,fahrenheit1 or more than #ajj degrees below freezing point1 can be safely borne2 that he can not only live but work1 and remain in good health1 in these regions provided that he be supplied with suitable clothing and plenty of proper food4 ,on the other hand1 man has existed and taken exercise in the interior of ,australia when the thermometer showed a temperature of #abj degrees ,fahrenheit1 or nearly #ij degrees above freezing point1 so that he can live and be in fairly good health within a range of nearly #bjj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,the effects of a high temperature vary very much according to the amount of moisture in the air1 as when the air is nearly saturated in hot climates1 or even in summer in our own1 more or less languor and malaise are felt1 with great indisposition to bodily labor4 ,with a dry air these are not so noticeable4 ,the cause is evident2 in the former case but little evaporation occurs from the skin1 and the normal amount of moisture is not given off from the lungs1 so that the body is not cooled down to such an extent as by dry air4 ,sunstroke is probably the result1 not only of the direct action of the sun's rays1 but partly from diminished cooling of the blood by want of evaporation from the lungs and skin4 ,the effects of temperature on man do not depend so much on the mean for the day1 month1 or year1 as on the extremes1 as1 when the days are hot and the nights comparatively cool1 the energy of the system becomes partially restored1 so that a residence near the sea1 or in the vicinity of high mountains1 in hot climates is1 other things being equal1 less enervating than in the plains1 as the night air is generally cooler4 ,it is commonly believed that hot climates are necessarily injurious to ,europeans1 by causing frequent liver derangements and diseases1 dysentery1 cholera1 and fevers4 ,this1 however1 is1 to a certain extent1 a mistake1 as the recent medical statistical returns of our army in ,india show that in the new barracks1 with more careful supervision as regards diet and clothing1 the sickness and death-rates are much reduced4 ,planters and others1 who ride about a good deal1 as a rule keep in fairly good health2 but the children of ,europeans certainly degenerate1 and after two or three generations die out1 unless they intermarry with natives1 and make frequent visits to colder climates4 ,this fact shows that hot climates1 probably by interfering with the due performance of the various processes concerned in the formation and destruction of the bodily tissues1 eventually sap the foundations of life among ,europeans2 but how far this result has been caused by bad habits as regards food1 exercise1 and self-indulgence1 ,i cannot say4 ,rapid changes of temperature in this country are often very injurious to the young and old1 causing diarrhoea and derangements of the liver when great heat occurs1 and inflammatory diseases of the lungs1 colds1 etc41 when the air becomes suddenly colder1 even in summer4 ,the direct influence of rain on man is not very marked in this country1 except by giving moisture to the air by evaporation from the ground and from vegetable life1 and by altering the level of ground water4 ,this is a subject almost overlooked by the public1 and it is therefore as well that it should be known that when ground water has a level persistently less than five feet from the surface of the soil1 the locality is usually unhealthy1 and should not1 if possible1 be selected for a residence4 ,fluctuations in the level of ground water1 especially if great and sudden1 generally cause ill-health among the residents4 ,thus1 ,dr4 ,buchanan in his reports to the ,privy ,council in #ahff-ahfg1 showed that consumption 7using the word in its most extended sense7 is more prevalent in damp than on dry soils1 and numerous reports of medical officers of health1 and others1 which have been published since then1 show that an effective drainage of the land1 and consequent carrying away of the ground water1 has been followed by a diminution of these diseases4 ,varying amounts of moisture in the air materially affect the health and comfort of man4 ,in this country1 however1 it is not only the absolute but the relative proportions of aerial moisture which materially influence mankind4 ,the quantity of aqueous vapor that a cubic foot of air can hold in suspension1 when it is saturated1 varies very much with the temperature4 ,thus at #dj degrees ,fahr4 it will hold #b4hf grains of water2 at #ej degrees1 #d4aj grains2 at #fj degrees1 #e4gg grains2 at #gj degrees1 #h4ja grains2 and at #ij degrees as much as #ad4he grains4 ,if saturation be represented by #ajj1 more rapid evaporation from the skin will take place at #gj degrees1 and #ge per cent4 of saturation1 than at #fj degrees when saturated1 although the absolute quantity of moisture in the air is greater at the first named temperature than at the latter4 ,as regards the lungs1 however1 the case is different1 as the air breathed out is1 if the respirations be regular and fairly deep1 completely saturated with moisture at the temperature of the body4 ,in cold climates the amount of moisture and of the effete matters given off from the lungs in the expired air is much greater than in hot climates1 and the body is also cooled by the evaporation of water in the form of aqueous vapor4 ,moist air is a better conductor of heat than dry air1 which accounts for much of the discomfort felt in winter when a thaw takes place as compared with the feeling of elasticity when the air is dry4 ,in cold weather1 therefore1 moist air cools down the skin and lungs more rapidly than dry air1 and colds consequently result4 ,london fogs are injurious1 not only on account of the various vapors given off by the combustion of coal1 but in consequence of the air being in winter generally saturated with moisture at a low temperature4 ,the injuriousness of fogs and low temperatures will be presently dwelt upon at greater length4 ,variations in the pressure and temperature of the atmosphere exert a considerable influence on the circulation of air contained in the soil1 which is called ground air4 ,as all the interstices of the ground are filled with air or water1 the more porous the soil1 the greater is the bulk of air4 ,the quantity of air contained in soil varies very much according to the material of which the soil is composed1 as it is evident that in a gravelly or sandy soil it must be greater than when the ground consists of loam or clay4 ,the estimates vary from #c to #cj per cent41 but the latter is probably too high4 ,if1 therefore1 a cesspool leak into the ground1 the offensive effluvia1 if in large quantities1 will escape into the soil1 and are given off at the surface of the ground1 or are drawn into a house by the fire2 but1 if small1 they are rendered innocuous by oxidation4 ,the distance to which injurious gases and suspended or dissolved organic matters may travel through a porous soil is sometimes considerable1 as ,i have known it pass for #acj feet along a disused drain1 and above #cj feet through loose soil4 ,winds exercise a great effect on health both directly and indirectly4 ,directly1 by promoting evaporation from the skin1 and abstracting heat from the body in proportion to their dryness and rapidity of motion4 ,their indirect action is more important1 as the temperature and pressure of the air depend to a great extent on their direction4 ,thus winds from the north in this country are usually concomitant with a high barometer and dry weather2 in summer with a pleasant feeling1 but in winter with much cold4 ,southwest winds are the most frequent here of any1 as about #bd per cent4 of the winds come from this quarter against #af from the west1 #aa from the east1 and the same from the northeast2 #aj from the south1 #h from the north1 and a smaller number from the other quarters4 ,southwest winds are also those which are most frequently accompanied by rain1 as about #cj per cent4 of the rainy days are coincident with southwest winds4 ,another set of observations give precisely the same order1 but a considerable difference in their prevalence1 viz41 southwest #ca per cent41 west #ad1 and northeast #aa per cent4 ,easterly winds are the most unpleasant1 as well as the most injurious to man of all that occur in this country4 ,i now propose discussing very briefly the known relations between meteorological phenomena and disease4 ,i say the known relations1 because it is evident that there are many unknown relations of which at present we have had the merest glimpse4 ,for instance1 small-pox1 while of an ordinary type1 and producing only a comparatively small proportion of deaths to those attacked1 will sometimes suddenly assume an epidemic form1 and spread with great rapidity at a time of year and under the meteorological conditions when it usually declines in frequency4 ,there are1 however1 in this country known relations between the temperature and1 ,i may say1 almost all diseases4 ,as far back as #ahdg ,i began a series of elaborate investigations on the mortality from scarlet fever at different periods of the year1 and the relations between this disease and the heat1 moisture1 and electricity of the air4 ,i then showed that a mean monthly temperature below #dd4f ,f4 was adverse to the spread of this disease1 that the greatest relative decrease took place when the mean temperature was below #dj1 and that the greatest number of deaths occurred in the months having a mean temperature of between #de and #eg ,f4 ,diseases of the lungs1 excluding consumption1 are fatal in proportion to the lowness of the temperature and the presence of excess of moisture and fog4 ,thus1 in ,january1 #ahhb1 the mean weekly temperature fell from #dc4i ,f4 in the second week to #cf4b in the third1 with fog and mist4 ,the number of deaths registered in ,london during the third week1 which may be taken as corresponding with the meteorological conditions of the second week1 was #a1gjj1 and in the next week #a1iga4 ,unusual cold1 with frequent fogs and little sunshine1 continued for four weeks1 the weekly number of deaths rising from #a1gjj to #a1iga1 #b1jbc1 #b1fcb1 and #b1ahh4 ,the deaths from acute diseases of the lungs in these weeks were respectively #bgi1 #dha1 #eff1 #hha1 and #fhi1 showing that a large proportion of the excessive mortality was caused by these diseases4 ,at the end of ,november and in ,december of the same year there was a rapid fall of temperature1 when the number of deaths from acute diseases of the lungs rose from #big to #ceh1 #cej1 #chg1 #eda1 #eec1 and #chi in the respective weeks4 ,from ,november #bi to ,december #i the sun was seen only on two days for #d hours1 and from ,december #i to the #ahth also on two other days for less than #d hours1 making the total amount of sunshine #h4a hours only in #bj days4 ,in ,january and ,february the excess of weekly mortality from all diseases reached the large number of #ejd deaths2 in ,december it was less1 the fogs not having been so dense1 but the excess equaled #bdf deaths per week4 ,the relations between a high summer temperature and excessive mortality from diarrhoea have long been well known1 but the immediate cause of the disease as an epidemic is not known4 ,summer diarrhoea prevails to a greater extent in certain localities1 notably in ,leicester 7and has done so for years72 and the cause has been carefully sought for1 but has not been found out4 ,recent researches1 however1 point to a kind of bacillus as the immediate cause1 as it has been found in the air of water-closets1 in the traps under the pans1 and in the discharges from infants and young children4 ,in order to indicate more readily how intimately the mortality from diarrhoea depends on temperature1 ,i now lay before you a table showing the mean temperature for ten weeks in summer1 of seven cold and hot summers1 the temperature of ,thames water1 and the death-rates of infants under one year per million population of ,london3 ,london4--,deaths under #a ,year1 in ,july1 ,august1 and part of ,september1 from ,diarrhoea per #a1jjj1jjj ,population ,living at all ,ages1 arranged in the ,order of ,mortality4 ,age #j-a year4 ,mean ,temperature ,deaths from ,diarrhoea ,years4 temperature1 of ,thames per #a1jjj1jjj #aj weeks4 water4 population living at all ages4 #ahfj #eh4a #fj4f #aea #ahfb #ei4j #fb4j #ahi #ahgi #eh4g #fj4g #bbh #ahgg #fa4b #fc4c #cdg #ahgd #fa4g #fc4h #ddg #ahgh #fc4g #fd4a #egf #ahgf #fd4d #fd4i #fdc ,as may be seen1 the deaths of infants under #a year of age from diarrhoea per #a1jjj1jjj population was only #aea2 while the mean summer temperature was only #eh4a ,f4 against #ahi in #ahfb1 when the mean temperature was #ei4j4 ,in #ahgi1 when the mean temperature was #eh4g1 the deaths from diarrhoea rose to #bbh per million1 but a few days were unusually hot4 ,in #ahgg the mean temperature of the air was #fa4b1 of the ,thames water #fc4c1 and the mortality of infants from diarrhoea #cdg per million population4 ,in #ahgd1 when the mean temperature of the air was #fa4g1 the mortality rose to #ddg per million2 and in the hot summers of #ahgh and #ahgf1 when the mean air temperatures were #fd4a and #fd4i respectively1 the death-rates of infants were #egf and #fdb per million population4 ,the relations1 therefore1 between a high summer temperature and the mortality from diarrhoea in infants are very intimate4 ,i have selected the mortality among infants in preference to that at all ages1 as the deaths occur more quickly1 and because young children suffer in greater proportion than other persons4 ,the proportionate number of deaths at all ages from diarrhoea corresponds pretty closely with those of infants4 ,to prove this1 ,i made calculations for three years1 and ascertained that only #c4i per cent4 of all the deaths from this disease were registered in the weeks having a temperature of less than #ej2 #aa4i per cent4 in the weeks having a temperature between #ej and #fj2 while in the comparatively few weeks in which the temperature exceeded #fj ,f41 as many as #hd4b per cent4 of the total number of deaths was registered4 ,in the sixteen years1 #ahdj-ef1 for which many years ago ,i made a special inquiry1 only #ah4i per cent4 of all the deaths from diarrhoea occurred in winter and spring1 against #ha4a per cent4 in summer and autumn4 ,in the twenty years1 #ahfj-gi1 there were seven years in which the summer temperature was in defect when the mortality per #ajj1jjj inhabitants of ,london was #bjj2 while in ten summers1 during which the temperature was in excess by #b or less1 the mortality was #cag per #ajj1jjj4 ,the mean temperature was largely in excess1 that is to say1 more than #b plus in three of these summers1 when the mortality reached #cci per #ajj1jjj inhabitants4 ,these figures show that great care should be taken in hot weather to prevent diarrhoea1 especially among young children2 by frequent washing with soap and water to insure cleanliness1 and proper action of the skin2 by great attention to the food1 especially of infants fed from the bottle2 free ventilation of living rooms1 and especially of bedrooms2 and by protection1 as far as possible1 being afforded from a hot sun1 as well as by avoiding excessive exercise4 ,all animal and vegetable matter should be removed from the vicinity of dwelling-houses as quickly as possible 7indeed1 these should be burnt instead of being put in the dust-bin71 the drains should be frequently disinfected and well flushed out1 especially when the mean daily temperature of the air is above #fj ,f4 ,time will not admit of more than a mere mention of the relations between meteorological phenomena and the mortality from many other diseases and affections1 such as apoplexy from heat1 sunstroke1 liver diseases1 yellow fever1 cholera1 whooping-cough1 measles1 etc41 especially as the state of our knowledge on the subject is so very limited4 ,a comparison between the mortality from several diseases in this and other countries shows that certain of these do not prevail under closely corresponding conditions4 ,thus the curves of mortality from whooping-cough1 typhoid fever1 and scarlet fever do not correspond with the curves of temperature in both ,london and ,new ,york1 and the same may be said of diarrhoea in ,india4 ,it is therefore evident that some other cause or causes than a varying temperature must be concerned in the production of an increased death-rate from these diseases4 ,the subject is of great importance1 and ,i do not despair of our obtaining some day a knowledge of the agents through which meteorological phenomena act in the production of increased and decreased death rates from certain diseases1 and the means by which1 to a certain extent1 these injurious effects on man may be presented4 99 99 99 99 99 ,p4 ,rosenbach has found experimentally that potassium bromide diminishes the sensibility of the cortical substance of the cerebrum to electric excitement1 while1 the excitability of the underlying white substance remains unaltered4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,consumption ,,spread ,,by ,,chickens4 ,in a village1 ,c41 near ,weimar1 where for many years no case of tubercular phthisis had taken place1 two years ago several families suddenly discovered one of their members to be suffering from the disease4 ,after a long inquiry1 it was discovered by accident that all these families had been buying their spring chickens from one and the same place1 viz41 from a private hospital in the neighborhood4 ,a medical student brought the livers of two such chickens to ,prof4 ,johne1 in ,dresden4 ,the student1 whose own sister had become affected with consumption1 had lived during his vacation at home with his parents1 in ,c41 and he had there at dinner observed the peculiar appearance of the liver of the chickens4 ,on examination1 both organs were found to be full of tubercular bacilli4 ,a thorough investigation was at once instituted1 and it was then that the fact came to light that the chickens eaten by the families1 members of which had been affected with tuberculosis1 had all been brought from the institution mentioned4 ,on further inquiry at the latter place the following facts were elicited3 ,at about the time when the first case of consumption occurred in the village1 an inmate or the hospital1 ,mrs4 ,r41 had died of the disease4 ,before her death1 ,mrs4 ,r4 used to feed the chickens raised there2 she was often seen first to chew the meat before she gave it to the chickens4 ,further1 the spittoons were emptied on a place in the yard where the chickens generally came to pick up any stray corn4 ,as none of the chickens ever came in contact with any animals in the neighborhood--the hospital being situated at a considerable distance from the village--as no disease had happened among them until the arrival of ,mrs4 ,r41 when soon after an epidemic seemed to break out among them1 and many died1 there is no doubt that they contracted the disease from ,mrs4 ,r41 and in return infected those who ate their flesh4 ,the case is very interesting1 first1 as it proves how such animals may become affected1 then how they may spread the disease1 and lastly1 that some kind of a disposition must exist in the person infected2 for here1 of many who had eaten of the diseased flesh1 only a few contracted the malady4 ,the whole report teaches us how careful we have to be1 and how necessary is the appointment of skillful experts by the ,state to inspect all food offered for sale4--,med4 and ,surg4 ,reporter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,method ,,of ,,reducing ,,fever4 ,for many years eminent medical savants have sought earnestly through the vegetable and mineral worlds for some substance by means of which the high temperature often prevailing in typhoid1 malarial1 and other fevers might be reduced with rapidity and safety to the patient4 ,a few substances have been found which produce a decline in temperature when administered in enormous and frequently repeated doses2 but such administration has often been found to be decidedly detrimental to the patient1 producing not infrequently serious injury to the stomach1 kidneys1 and sometimes the nervous system4 ,so great is the danger of such injurious results1 few careful practitioners have cared to adopt the heroic antipyretic medication recommended by experimenters1 preferring to allow their patients to burn with fever1 mitigated only by such simple means as are commonly employed by nurses1 than to require them to combat the poisonous influences of a drug in addition to the morbid element of the disease4 ,happily1 however1 it is not necessary to leave the patient to the unaided efforts of nature4 ,by cool sponging of the surface1 persistently and thoroughly applied2 by large1 cool compresses placed over the abdomen and chest1 or even the whole front of the body1 and changed as often as warm1 or every three to five minutes2 by frequently repeated cool packs2 by cold water drinking2 by ice-packs to the spine2 by constant application of ice or frozen compresses to the head2 by forcing perspiration by copious hot drinks and a warm blanket pack--by any or all of these means the temperature may be reduced with promptness in nearly every case4 ,however1 cases will now and then occur in which the temperature remains dangerously high1 notwithstanding the thorough application of the above means4 ,what shall be done8 ,several years ago our attention was called to a series of experiments made by ,dr4 ,winternitz1 ,professor of ,hydropathy in the ,medical ,university of ,vienna1 for the purpose of determining the influence upon temperature of enemas of water of different temperature in cases of fever4 ,the results claimed by ,prof4 ,winternitz were so striking that we improved the first opportunity to repeat his experiments1 and with such results as have justified the continued use of this means of lowering temperatures in fever1 in cases in which the ordinary measures were not efficient4 ,the only objection we have found to the method has been the inconvenience to the patient occasioned by the frequent use of the bed-pan4 ,in a recent case in which we found it necessary to resort to this method1 the nurse observed that if the tin can of the fountain syringe used in administering the enema happened to be lowered below the level of the bed on which the patient lay1 water which had previously been introduced into the rectum returned readily through the tube into the can4 ,on learning this fact1 the attendants were instructed to employ the enema in this way4 ,from one to two pints of water1 of #gj or #ge ,f4 temperature1 were allowed to pass into the bowels2 and after being retained for five or ten minutes1 or until the patient experienced uncomfortable sensations1 it was made to pass out through the tube by simply lowering the reservoir to the level of the floor4 ,a new supply of water of a proper temperature being introduced into the reservoir1 it was again raised to the proper height1 and the operation so continued until six quarts of water had been used4 ,then the patient was allowed to rest half an hour or an hour1 according to the height of the fever1 and the same process was repeated4 ,careful record was made of the temperature of the patient just before the treatment and immediately after4 ,it was found to be invariably reduced from one to one and a half degrees by each treatment4 ,the temperature1 which had been exceedingly obstinate previous to the employment of this method1 ranging from #ajd to #aje1 during the intervals between the treatments would1 of course1 rise somewhat2 but each time it stopped short of the point reached during the previous interval1 so that in the course of a few hours the fever was brought down to very nearly a normal temperature4 ,the temperature of the water1 when taken after passing through the bowels1 was found to have risen each time from #aj to #ac4 ,the great capacity of water for absorbing heat renders it one of the most useful of all substances for lowering the temperature2 and it is readily apparent that1 by the means described1 heat may be abstracted from the body almost ad libitum1 and the temperature may thus be controlled with a rapidity and a degree of certainty which cannot be approached by any other method4 ,in a still more recent case1 in which the same treatment was employed1 the temperature of the patient had reached #ajf ,f41 in spite of the vigorous application of ordinary measures of treatment1 such as cold compresses1 etc42 but it was1 in four or five hours1 brought down to nearly #ajj by the use of the cold enemas4 ,the advantages of this method are3 #a4 ,it may be employed without wetting or moving the patient2 very frequently a patient will sleep continuously during the administration of the treatment4 #b4 ,it seldom causes chilliness1 which is frequently a disturbing symptom1 especially in fevers of a low type1 and even1 when the temperature is alarmingly high1 causing the patient to dread the employment of sponging with cool or tepid water4 #c4 ,it is not necessary to employ cold water1 a temperature of #hj or even #he being thoroughly efficient4 ,in the majority of cases1 however1 water of #gj or even #fj may be employed without danger4 ,the water comes in such immediate contact with surfaces filled with large blood-vessels that a temperature but a few degrees below that of the body is more effective than very much colder water applied to the surface4 ,in cases in which the use of the cool enema is attended by chilliness1 this uncomfortable symptom may usually be relieved by the application of a hot bag or fomentations to the spine or to the pit of the stomach4 ,the simple measures of treatment we have described will be found more effective in lowering the temperature than any or all other remedies which have ever been recommended for this purpose4--,good ,health4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,crown ,,diamonds ,,of ,,france4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #a4--,,the ,,crown ,,diamonds ,,of ,,france ,,at ,,the ,,exhibition ,,of ,,industrial ,,arts4 ,according to a recent law of ,parliament1 a large part of the crown jewels of ,france is destined to be sold4 ,the exhibit that has been made of these riches for the last two months at the ,national ,exhibition of the ,industrial ,arts1 in the ,state ,hall of the ,louvre1 has excited a lively interest among the visitors4 ,here are to be seen1 heaped up in a large octagonal show-case1 incomparable treasures1 whose value exceeds quite a number of millions4 ,according to the inventory of #ahah1 the #eb1jjj precious stones of the crown of ,france were estimated as worth more than #bj million francs 7#d1jjj1jjj72 but since that epoch the stones have increased in number1 and money has singularly diminished in value1 so that the total at present would be much less4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,the ,,regent4 7,actual ,size47 ,in order to publicly exhibit so valuable treasures it was necessary to take precautions against thieves and fire1 and this was done in a very sure and ingenious manner4 ,the collection of crown jewels is distributed over the eight faces of an octagonal truncated cone1 which is supported by a framework about three feet in height at the lower part4 ,the stand is exhibited every day1 at ten o'clock in the morning and six in the evening1 under an elegant octagonal show-case surmounted by a high bronze statue of ,fortune by ,barbedienne4 ,the whole is covered with a canopy1 as shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,a force of guardians of the ,treasury is detailed to watch over the crown jewels1 and it is to them that is confided the care of operating in the morning and evening the safety mechanism that we shall describe4 ,the object of this mechanism is to lower into and lift out of the strong-box the entire stand with all its jewels4 ,a winch1 shown at ,a to the right of the engraving1 sets in motion a system of gear wheels keyed at an angle1 at ,b and ,c1 upon intermediate shafts that transmit motion to the four vertical threaded rods of the frame1 ,d4 ,all these shaftings are #a inch in diameter1 and the cog-wheels1 twenty in number1 are about #e inches in diameter4 ,the well is formed of an octagonal wall of fire-brick1 and is #bj inches thick and #f feet high4 ,in the center of this masonry is embedded very thick iron plate4 ,the bottom of the well is isolated from the flooring of the ,exhibition hall by a thickness of boiler plate1 by a filling of tire bricks1 and finally by a second thickness of boiler plate4 ,the well is closed by means of a large plate of iron #f inches thick1 #aj feet in length1 and #hh feet in width4 ,the winch which maneuvers this mass is placed at ,e4 ,it actuates a system of bevel wheels1 keyed at ,f1 which transmit motion to two horizontal screws 7hidden under the stage7 that actuate the plate1 ,h4 ,this latter is provided with two parallel series of five rollers each that revolve over long and strong pieces of wood covered with rails4 ,electric alarms are located near the winches4 ,a fire-engine station is located at within twelve or fifteen feet of the exhibition building4 ,a committee composed of competent jewelers and mineralogists has been appointed to make an appraisement of the diamonds and to indicate such as should be withheld from sale on account of their scientific1 artistic1 or historic interest4 ,the members of the committee propose to preserve the following objects3 #a4 ,the ,regent 7,fig4 #b71 by reason of its mineralogical value1 the perfection of its cutting1 the purity of its water1 its incomparable luster1 and its great size1 it being the largest brilliant as yet known4 #b4 ,the military sword of ,charles the ,tenth's coronation1 the hilt of which is entirely of brilliants mounted by ,bapst with wonderful art4 #c4 ,the jewel called the ,reliquary1 of the #aeth century4 ,to these riches must be added the following interesting objects3 the ,dey of ,algiers' watch2 the ,elephant of ,denmark2 the decorations1 etc41 of foreign orders2 crowns and diadems of sapphire2 rubies2 pearls that afford curious specimens of ,french art at the beginning of our century2 one of the ,mazarins bequeathed by the celebrated ,cardinal2 and lots of colored stones destined for our national museums4 ,the same exhibition alluded to above contains a number of other collections of great interest that it would be unjust to pass over in silence1 such as the exhibit of the ,french diamond mines of the ,cape1 where one may see all the details of this prosperous exploitation by means of photographs and specimens4 ,the art bronzes1 the objects of jewelry1 of goldsmith's work1 and of morocco work1 the music boxes1 ,trouve's and ,aboilard's electric jewelry1 and the retrospective art collections especially attracted the attention of the public4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,mode ,,of ,,testing ,,the ,,economy ,,of ,,the ,,expenses ,,of ,,management ,,in ,,life ,,insurance4 ,how to determine the general ratios of the expenses of management of life insurance companies has hitherto been an unsettled question1 and ,i think no serious attempt has been made before my own to study this question exhaustively1 and reach a scientific conclusion4 ,believing that1 one is contained in the following statement1 ,i respectfully submit it to the criticism of others4 ,it has generally been taken for granted that the measure of economy of life insurance expenses may be expressed by the single ratio of expenses to one feature of the business1 such as the premium income1 or the total income 7premium and interest71 or the mean amount of all policies outstanding4 ,but this is not the case4 ,no exhaustive reason has been shown for preferring one of these bases of ratio to another1 and1 indeed1 no reason well supported by argument has been shown for employing either4 ,on the other hand1 no better evidence is needed of the importance of establishing a uniform and demonstrably sound basis1 than the fact that it is common for companies to refute one another's claims to superior economy1 and totally confuse the public1 by opposing ratios found in one way by ratios found in another--that one of two companies which appears the most economical according to one test being apparently the least so according to another4 ,the economy of the expense of any transaction1 or work1 can only be intelligently judged by the value of the result4 ,this truth is too well recognized to need illustration1 and it only needs to be called to mind1 to perceive both the error of ratios of expense based on premium1 which is not the result but the raw material1 so to speak1 of insurance transactions2 and what1 on the contrary1 the true basis is4 ,it is thus clear that in insurance the economy of expense must be judged1 not by comparison with the premiums paid1 but by comparison specifically with the resulting advantages in fact secured by such payments4 ,now these are of two kinds3 which may be called the insurance advantage and the investment advantage4 7#a7 ,each death claim paid is an insurance advantage1 though it is so only to the extent of the excess of the amount of the policy which has become a claim over its premium reserve1 or value1 for the latter being the balance 7with interest7 of the policy holder's own premium money1 could have been left or secured to his representatives without the intervention of the policy and company4 ,it is true that the advantage or benefit of insurance does not consist in adding anything to the wealth of a company1 but only consists in drawing from the premiums paid into its treasury by the policy holders generally1 to meet each death claim which arises2 or can only be called an advantage of distribution1 or process of collecting aid from the living members1 to assist the representatives or dependents of the deceased ones2 but it is not the less on this account an advantage worth same expense in securing4 7#b7 ,interest realized by the investment of premium while it is in the keeping of a company is an advantage2 in every sense so1 since it comes wholly from outside sources1 and accrues proportionally to all members2 it may be called1 as above1 the investment advantage1 and of course justifies some expense to secure it4 ,hence the expenses incurred by any company in a given2 time must be divided into two parts1 one being the expense incidental to insurance1 and the other that incidental to investment1 which parts are to be compared respectively with the insurance claims met1 and interest receipts of the company for the same time2 or what is equivalent in the latter case1 the net rate of interest earned after deducting the incidental investment expense may be found4 ,when this process shows that one company has earned a higher rate of interest than another1 at the same time that its insurance expenses bear a lower ratio to its insurance claims paid1 there is no escape from the conclusion that during the period under observation it has served its policy-holders more economically1 and the test is therefore scientific4 ,though1 if one company shows a higher rate of interest1 while the other shows a lower ratio of insurance expense1 it will still be necessary1 to complete the test1 to equate either the rates of interest or the ratios of insurance expense 7it does not practically matter which71 and note how this affects the relation of the duly corrected ratios on the other score4 ,to be exact1 if the average vitality of the members of the two companies differ 7other things being equal1 it is always cheapest to belong to that company which has the lowest death rate71 the ratios of insurance expense to expected1 as well as actual1 claims of each must be found1 and equated4 ,the science of this procedure1 or mode of testing expenses1 and also its practical simplicity1 may be more clearly perceived by reference to its practical application in the following table3 ,table ,exhibiting ,ratio of ,expense1 ,determined by the ,new ,mode1 of ,companies ,doing ,business in ,massachusetts during the ,year #ahhc4 ,expense ,net ,rate per #ajj of of claims interest ,death ,estimated ,difference ,expense paid4 ,interest ,expense earned4 ,name of ,company4 ,loca- claims ,premiums4 or ,net on the --------- ,receipts4 on the -------- tion4 paid4 ,reserve ,insurance score of ,r ,r score of ,r ,r thereon4 furnished4 ,insurance4 a a investment4 a a t n t n e4 k4 e4 k4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,berkshire ,mass4 #bjh1adg #df1fje #afa1ebd #abb1ggi #ge4d #ad #aid1jfg #ae1hjie4be #af #a;,john ,hancock #afi1fjd #be1aag #add1dhg #hbbh1effaeh4b #bd #ace1eig #aa1fhfc4fe #bf ,mass4 ,mutual #dbf1iie #hf1bae #cdj1ghj #bcb1djj #fh4b #aj #dbh1bee #cc1agff4jc #g ,n4 ,england ,mutual #a1jci1fid #bce1fcj #hjd1jfd #caa1hgi #ch4h #c #iie1hhc #fi1ijhf4dj #d ,state ,mutual #aba1ifi #bb1dic #ii1dgf #ih1hci #ii4d #ai #adc1gea #ac1jegd4ea #bd tna ,conn4 #a1cjb1hjg #cfd1eaj #ich1big #dfj1jad #di4j #f #a1gfj1cgb #aah1ifbf4bb #e ,connecticut ,general #hg1fci #ae1fbd #gb1jae #df1aac #fd4j #i #ie1ehj #e1djgg4jc #a ,mutual #b1hfg1dhi #hha1fjj #a1ihe1hhi #fbb1ida #ca4d #a #c1jda1abe #bch1idde4gj #aj ,equitable ,n4,y4 #c1jgb1bcb #dhc1iej #b1ehh1bhb #a1hhd1ajh #gb4h #ab #b1gdc1jbd #baf1gbee4db #ab ,germania #fjf1jgb #adi1iej #def1abb #cbe1ffb #ga4d #aa #ejh1gjb #dg1aicd4he #bb ,home #bje1iba #dh1fjc #aeg1cah #aee1aib #ih4f #ah #bfj1ejf #ai1iagd4hf #ba ,homoeopathic #ce1faj #f1cdj #bi1bgj #dh1gcdaff4e #be #db1had #b1icef4bj #f ,manhattan #fhg1aga #ahc1dej #ejc1gba #bff1cje #dd4i #e #fbg1fbh #dd1jhae4hb #h #g,metropolitan #fch1fci #ah1cbb #fbj1cag #a1afa1hicahg4c #bf #ajf1iaf #i1jihd4ij #bj ,mutual ,life #e1agb1bge #a1djg1gjj #c1gfd1ege #a1dhj1aih #ci4c #d #e1jdb1ifd #dff1gcie4ja #ai ,mutual ,benefit ,n4,j4 #b1afj1iia #eej1hij #a1faj1aja #eba1hbi #cb4d #b #b1jgb1fbi #afi1iace4fa #aa ,national ,vt4 #agd1gfg #bi1abg #ade1fdj #gg1hfa #ec4e #g #adi1jaj #aj1ajje4bf #ae ,new ,york ,life ,n4,y4 #b1djh1fcf #egd1aej #a1hcd1dhd #a1iie1ajbajh4h #ba #b1fgf1eib #bcf1hhde4jc #ah ,northwest'n ,mutual ,wis4 #iij1fib #aij1ejj #hjj1aib #fcj1ehb #gh4h #ae #a1bjj1jja #hh1ebge4hj #i ,penn4 ,mutual ,penn4 #fja1fbe #ajg1fjj #did1jbe #cji1heh #fb4g #h #dfc1efg #cg1acae4ch #ac ,provident ,life and ,trust #bhj1hag #di1hfe #bcj1ieb #bbb1ffe #if4d #ag #cdj1aae #cc1bidd4bf #be ,provident ,savings ,n4,y4 #bd1hge #a1hbh #bc1jdg #ea1fjhbcc4i #bg #d1iee #b1egia4gj #bg ,travelers' ,conn4 #bce1jja #db1bdc #aib1geh #add1fba #ge4j #ac #cca1fbc #bb1dgff4db #c ,union ,mutual ,maine #cgg1edg #hh1ebj #bhi1jbg #bcg1iac #hb4c #af #cja1dii #bh1gedd4ff #bc ,united ,states ,n4,y4 #bhc1cjd #fi1bde #bad1jei #bgg1iaiabi4h #bc #bga1eid #bc1dfje4ji #ag ,vermont ,vt4 #ac1jjj #a1edb #aa1deh #ac1facaah4h #bb #ab1iag #hbbe4cc #ad ,washington ,n4,y4 #cef1bhi #ga1hbj #bhd1dfi #bhi1dfaaja4h #bj #ddf1iih #cb1bdif4gh #b ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----- ,totals #bd1edi1hjhe1gec1dciah1gif1cfiab1agg1fee #fd4h #bd1cih1fhd #a1iii1hbfe4db ,collective ,business of ,assessment ,societies ,doing ,business in the ,state 7excepting ,secret ,societies74 #df ,societies #gce1chc #bcg1ggj #cb4c ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,footnote #g3 ,including industrial business4 ,footnote #h3 ,includes #ah4hfg depreciation4 ,the figures given in this table are drawn from the last annual report of the ,insurance ,commissioner of ,massachusetts1 excepting the premium reserve on death claims1 which1 as well as the division of the total expenses of each company into insurance and investment expenses1 ,i have estimated on a uniform rule4 ,this was for lack of the actual data in these particulars1 which the report did not give1 as it is desirable that future ones may4 ,this1 however1 does not injure the value of the table for illustrating the mode of procedure1 for which purpose mainly it is presented4 ,the companies whose figures ,i have used1 moreover1 have no occasion to complain of this1 as my estimate certainly gives all ratios of insurance expense lower than they would appear if ,i had known1 and used1 the exact actual premium reserve on death claims1 and all probably bear nearly the same ratio to each other as they would in that case4 ,as the object of this statement is to explain the new method1 and not to defend my particular estimates in applying it1 ,i forbear to state on what rules ,i have made them4 ,expense which is not ascribed to insurance must be ascribed to investment1 and as in comparing any two companies1 their two ratios of one kind or the other must be equated1 to decide the question of economy between them1 it may well be left to any company to say what the fair division of its own expenses is4 ,moreover1 there can be but little motive to make a false division2 for to successfully compete for business1 a company having large investments has as much need to show a high net rate of interest earned as a low rate of insurance expense4 ,again1 it is not my purpose to pass judgment on the economy or extravagance of any ratio of expense shown in the table4 ,it is not a fact exhibited for the first time by my figures1 that the ratios of some companies are more than double those of others4 ,the same fact would be displayed in about as high a degree by ratios based on premium income1 or any other incorrect basis4 ,custom1 the balance of opinions1 and competition may well be left to decide what ratios of expense are high1 and what are average1 or low4 ,and their decision is to be gathered only from statistics4 ,what ,i do claim is that the mode of determining ratios herein explained is the only intelligible and scientific one1 and the only one proper to employ in statistical tabulations and investigations4 ,as such1 it calls attention to the fact that the amount of insurance claims met1 and of interest receipts1 are limits which the corresponding expenses cannot exceed1 certainly for a series of years together1 without making the expense more than the advantage of the business4 ,to keep this fact in view1 as a preventive of extravagance1 is not the least valuable service the new mode may render4 ,it may be seen that there are eight cases in the table1 in which the ratio of insurance expense points to expenses exceeding the insurance claims met in the same time1 yet the reader need not hasten to conclude that the same companies will permanently show similar ratios1 or have no good reasons to give for the ones which now appear4 ,i may remark1 however1 that it is an evidence of the scientific mode in which the figures are presented1 that it facilitates such explanations as are pertinent of any of the ratios4 ,for instance1 some of the ratios are undoubtedly affected by the fact that the claims for the year of the company in question have been exceptionally high or low1 or that the company 7being of recent organization perhaps7 has just incurred exceptional expense to increase its business1 the advantage of which will appear later1 etc4 ,but ,i leave to the companies themselves to show to what extent such circumstances have affected their ratios2 except that1 in regard to the several net rates of interest earned1 it is proper to say that in all cases in which they considerably exceed the average of #e4db per cent4 it will be found1 by referring to the details of interest receipts reported to the ,commissioner1 that the excess is owing to the fact of exceptional profits by the sale of stocks1 or recovery on investments previously reckoned as loss4 ,,walter ,c4 ,,wright4 ,medford1 ,mass41 ,sept41 #ahhd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the 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