,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,china ,,by ,,bertrand ,,russell ,o4,m41 ,f4,k4,s4 ,london ,,george ,,allen ,,unwin ,,ltd ,,ruskin ,,house ,,museum ,,street ,,first ,,published ,,in #aibb ,,second ,,impression #aiff ,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,by ,,photolithography ,,unwin ,,brothers ,,limited ,,woking ,,and ,,london ,,contents ,,chapter ,,foreword ,i4 ,,questions ,,ii4 ,,china ,,before ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,,iii4 ,,china ,,and ,,the ,,western ,,powers ,,iv4 ,,modern ,,china ,v4 ,,japan ,,before ,,the ,,restoration ,,vi4 ,,modern ,,japan ,,vii4 ,,japan ,,and ,,china ,,before #aiad ,,viii4 ,,japan ,,and ,,china ,,during ,,the ,,war ,,ix4 ,,the ,,washington ,,conference ,x4 ,,present ,,forces ,,and ,,tendencies ,,in ,,the ,,far ,,east ,,xi4 ,,chinese ,,and ,,western ,,civilization ,,contrasted ,,xii4 ,,the ,,chinese ,,character ,,xiii4 ,,higher ,,education ,,in ,,china ,,xiv4 ,,industrialism ,,in ,,china ,,xv4 ,,the ,,outlook ,,for ,,china ,,appendix ,,index ,the ,ruler of the ,southern ,ocean was ,sh 7,heedless71 the ,ruler of the ,northern ,ocean was ,h 7,sudden71 and the ,ruler of the ,centre was ,chaos4 ,sh and ,h were continually meeting in the land of ,chaos1 who treated them very well4 ,they consulted together how they might repay his kindness1 and said1 ,men all have seven orifices for the purpose of seeing1 hearing1 eating1 and breathing1 while this poor ,ruler alone has not one4 ,let us try and make them for him4 ,accordingly they dug one orifice in him every day2 and at the end of seven days ,chaos died4--,chuang ,tze1 ,legge's translation4 ,the ,problem of ,china ,,chapter ,i ,,questions ,a ,european lately arrived in ,china1 if he is of a receptive and reflective disposition1 finds himself confronted with a number of very puzzling questions1 for many of which the problems of ,western ,europe will not have prepared him4 ,russian problems1 it is true1 have important affinities with those of ,china1 but they have also important differences2 moreover they are decidedly less complex4 ,chinese problems1 even if they affected no one outside ,china1 would be of vast importance1 since the ,chinese are estimated to constitute about a quarter of the human race4 ,in fact1 however1 all the world will be vitally affected by the development of ,chinese affairs1 which may well prove a decisive factor1 for good or evil1 during the next two centuries4 ,this makes it important1 to ,europe and ,america almost as much as to ,asia1 that there should be an intelligent understanding of the questions raised by ,china1 even if1 as yet1 definite answers are difficult to give4 ,the questions raised by the present condition of ,china fall naturally into three groups1 economic1 political1 and cultural4 ,no one of these groups1 however1 can be considered in isolation1 because each is intimately bound up with the other two4 ,for my part1 ,i think the cultural questions are the most important1 both for ,china and for mankind2 if these could be solved1 ,i would accept1 with more or less equanimity1 any political or economic system which ministered to that end4 ,unfortunately1 however1 cultural questions have little interest for practical men1 who regard money and power as the proper ends for nations as for individuals4 ,the helplessness of the artist in a hard-headed business community has long been a commonplace of novelists and moralizers1 and has made collectors feel virtuous when they bought up the pictures of painters who had died in penury4 ,china may be regarded as an artist nation1 with the virtues and vices to be expected of the artist3 virtues chiefly useful to others1 and vices chiefly harmful to oneself4 ,can ,chinese virtues be preserved8 ,or must ,china1 in order to survive1 acquire1 instead1 the vices which make for success and cause misery to others only8 ,and if ,china does copy the model set by all foreign nations with which she has dealings1 what will become of all of us8 ,china has an ancient civilization which is now undergoing a very rapid process of change4 ,the traditional civilization of ,china had developed in almost complete independence of ,europe1 and had merits and demerits quite different from those of the ,west4 ,it would be futile to attempt to strike a balance2 whether our present culture is better or worse1 on the whole1 than that which seventeenth-century missionaries found in the ,celestial ,empire is a question as to which no prudent person would venture to pronounce4 ,but it is easy to point to certain respects in which we are better than old ,china1 and to other respects in which we are worse4 ,if intercourse between ,western nations and ,china is to be fruitful1 we must cease to regard ourselves as missionaries of a superior civilization1 or1 worse still1 as men who have a right to exploit1 oppress1 and swindle the ,chinese because they are an inferior race4 ,i do not see any reason to believe that the ,chinese are inferior to ourselves2 and ,i think most ,europeans1 who have any intimate knowledge of ,china1 would take the same view4 ,in comparing an alien culture with one's own1 one is forced to ask oneself questions more fundamental than any that usually arise in regard to home affairs4 ,one is forced to ask3 ,what are the things that ,i ultimately value8 ,what would make me judge one sort of society more desirable than another sort8 ,what sort of ends should ,i most wish to see realized in the world8 ,different people will answer these questions differently1 and ,i do not know of any argument by which ,i could persuade a man who gave an answer different from my own4 ,i must therefore be content merely to state the answer which appeals to me1 in the hope that the reader may feel likewise4 ,the main things which seem to me important on their own account1 and not merely as means to other things1 are3 knowledge1 art1 instinctive happiness1 and relations of friendship or affection4 ,when ,i speak of knowledge1 ,i do not mean all knowledge2 there is much in the way of dry lists of facts that is merely useful1 and still more that has no appreciable value of any kind4 ,but the understanding of ,nature1 incomplete as it is1 which is to be derived from science1 ,i hold to be a thing which is good and delightful on its own account4 ,the same may be said1 ,i think1 of some biographies and parts of history4 ,to enlarge on this topic would1 however1 take me too far from my theme4 ,when ,i speak of art as one of the things that have value on their own account1 ,i do not mean only the deliberate productions of trained artists1 though of course these1 at their best1 deserve the highest place4 ,i mean also the almost unconscious effort after beauty which one finds among ,russian peasants and ,chinese coolies1 the sort of impulse that creates folk-songs1 that existed among ourselves before the time of the ,puritans1 and survives in cottage gardens4 ,instinctive happiness1 or joy of life1 is one of the most important widespread popular goods that we have lost through industrialism and the high pressure at which most of us live2 its commonness in ,china is a strong reason for thinking well of ,chinese civilization4 ,in judging of a community1 we have to consider1 not only how much of good or evil there is within the community1 but also what effects it has in promoting good or evil in other communities1 and how far the good things which it enjoys depend upon evils elsewhere4 ,in this respect1 also1 ,china is better than we are4 ,our prosperity1 and most of what we endeavour to secure for ourselves1 can only be obtained by widespread oppression and exploitation of weaker nations1 while the ,chinese are not strong enough to injure other countries1 and secure whatever they enjoy by means of their own merits and exertions alone4 ,these general ethical considerations are by no means irrelevant in considering the practical problems of ,china4 ,our industrial and commercial civilization has been both the effect and the cause of certain more or less unconscious beliefs as to what is worth while2 in ,china one becomes conscious of these beliefs through the spectacle of a society which challenges them by being built1 just as unconsciously1 upon a different standard of values4 ,progress and efficiency1 for example1 make no appeal to the ,chinese1 except to those who have come under ,western influence4 ,by valuing progress and efficiency1 we have secured power and wealth2 by ignoring them1 the ,chinese1 until we brought disturbance1 secured on the whole a peaceable existence and a life full of enjoyment4 ,it is difficult to compare these opposite achievements unless we have some standard of values in our minds2 and unless it is a more or less conscious standard1 we shall undervalue the less familiar civilization1 because evils to which we are not accustomed always make a stronger impression than those that we have learned to take as a matter of course4 ,the culture of ,china is changing rapidly1 and undoubtedly rapid change is needed4 ,the change that has hitherto taken place is traceable ultimately to the military superiority of the ,west2 but in future our economic superiority is likely to be quite as potent4 ,i believe that1 if the ,chinese are left free to assimilate what they want of our civilization1 and to reject what strikes them as bad1 they will be able to achieve an organic growth from their own tradition1 and to produce a very splendid result1 combining our merits with theirs4 ,there are1 however1 two opposite dangers to be avoided if this is to happen4 ,the first danger is that they may become completely ,westernized1 retaining nothing of what has hitherto distinguished them1 adding merely one more to the restless1 intelligent1 industrial1 and militaristic nations which now afflict this unfortunate planet4 ,the second danger is that they may be driven1 in the course of resistance to foreign aggression1 into an intense anti-foreign conservatism as regards everything except armaments4 ,this has happened in ,japan1 and it may easily happen in ,china4 ,the future of ,chinese culture is intimately bound up with political and economic questions2 and it is through their influence that dangers arise4 ,china is confronted with two very different groups of foreign ,powers1 on the one hand the white nations1 on the other hand ,japan4 ,in considering the effect of the white races on the ,far ,east as a whole1 modern ,japan must count as a ,western product2 therefore the responsibility for ,japan's doings in ,china rests ultimately with her white teachers4 ,nevertheless1 ,japan remains very unlike ,europe and ,america1 and has ambitions different from theirs as regards ,china4 ,we must therefore distinguish three possibilities3 7#a7 ,china may become enslaved to one or more white nations2 7#b7 ,china may become enslaved to ,japan2 7#c7 ,china may recover and retain her liberty4 ,temporarily there is a fourth possibility1 namely that a consortium of ,japan and the ,white ,powers may control ,china2 but ,i do not believe that1 in the long run1 the ,japanese will be able to co-operate with ,england and ,america4 ,in the long run1 ,i believe that ,japan must dominate the ,far ,east or go under4 ,if the ,japanese had a different character this would not be the case2 but the nature of their ambitions makes them exclusive and unneighbourly4 ,i shall give the reasons for this view when ,i come to deal with the relations of ,china and ,japan4 ,to understand the problem of ,china1 we must first know something of ,chinese history and culture before the irruption of the white man1 then something of modern ,chinese culture and its inherent tendencies2 next1 it is necessary to deal in outline with the military and diplomatic relations of the ,western ,powers with ,china1 beginning with our war of #ahdj and ending with the treaty concluded after the ,boxer rising of #aijj4 ,although the ,sino-,japanese war comes in this period1 it is possible to separate1 more or less1 the actions of ,japan in that war1 and to see what system the ,white ,powers would have established if ,japan had not existed4 ,since that time1 however1 ,japan has been the dominant foreign influence in ,chinese affairs4 ,it is therefore necessary to understand how the ,japanese became what they are3 what sort of nation they were before the ,west destroyed their isolation1 and what influence the ,west has had upon them4 ,lack of understanding of ,japan has made people in ,england blind to ,japan's aims in ,china1 and unable to apprehend the meaning of what ,japan has done4 ,political considerations alone1 however1 will not suffice to explain what is going on in relation to ,china2 economic questions are almost more important4 ,china is as yet hardly industrialized1 and is certainly the most important undeveloped area left in the world4 ,whether the resources of ,china are to be developed by ,china1 by ,japan1 or by the white races1 is a question of enormous importance1 affecting not only the whole development of ,chinese civilization1 but the balance of power in the world1 the prospects of peace1 the destiny of ,russia1 and the chances of development towards a better economic system in the advanced nations4 ,the ,washington ,conference has partly exhibited and partly concealed the conflict for the possession of ,china between nations all of which have guaranteed ,china's independence and integrity4 ,its outcome has made it far more difficult than before to give a hopeful answer as regards ,far ,eastern problems1 and in particular as regards the question3 ,can ,china preserve any shadow of independence without a great development of nationalism and militarism8 ,i cannot bring myself to advocate nationalism and militarism1 yet it is difficult to know what to say to patriotic ,chinese who ask how they can be avoided4 ,so far1 ,i have found only one answer4 ,the ,chinese nation1 is the most1 patient in the world2 it thinks of centuries as other nations think of decades4 ,it is essentially indestructible1 and can afford to wait4 ,the civilized nations of the world1 with their blockades1 their poison gases1 their bombs1 submarines1 and negro armies1 will probably destroy each other within the next hundred years1 leaving the stage to those whose pacifism has kept them alive1 though poor and powerless4 ,if ,china can avoid being goaded into war1 her oppressors may wear themselves out in the end1 and leave the ,chinese free to pursue humane ends1 instead of the war and rapine and destruction which all white nations love4 ,it is perhaps a slender hope for ,china1 and for ourselves it is little better than despair4 ,but unless the ,great ,powers learn some moderation and some tolerance1 ,i do not see any better possibility1 though ,i see many that are worse4 ,our ,western civilization is built upon assumptions1 which1 to a psychologist1 are rationalizings of excessive energy4 ,our industrialism1 our militarism1 our love of progress1 our missionary zeal1 our imperialism1 our passion for dominating and organizing1 all spring from a superflux of the itch for activity4 ,the creed of efficiency for its own sake1 without regard for the ends to which it is directed1 has become somewhat discredited in ,europe since the war1 which would have never taken place if the ,western nations had been slightly more indolent4 ,but in ,america this creed is still almost universally accepted2 so it is in ,japan1 and so it is by the ,bolsheviks1 who have been aiming fundamentally at the ,americanization of ,russia4 ,russia1 like ,china1 may be described as an artist nation2 but unlike ,china it has been governed1 since the time of ,peter the ,great1 by men who wished to introduce all the good and evil of the ,west4 ,in former days1 ,i might have had no doubt that such men were in the right4 ,some 7though not many7 of the ,chinese returned students resemble them in the belief that ,western push and hustle are the most desirable things on earth4 ,i cannot now take this view4 ,the evils produced in ,china by indolence seem to me far less disastrous1 from the point of view of mankind at large1 than those produced throughout the world by the domineering cocksureness of ,europe and ,america4 ,the ,great ,war showed that something is wrong with our civilization2 experience of ,russia and ,china has made me believe that those countries can help to show us what it is that is wrong4 ,the ,chinese have discovered1 and have practised for many centuries1 a way of life which1 if it could be adopted by all the world1 would make all the world happy4 ,we ,europeans have not4 ,our way of life demands strife1 exploitation1 restless change1 discontent and destruction4 ,efficiency directed to destruction can only end in annihilation1 and it is to this consummation that our civilization is tending1 if it cannot learn some of that wisdom for which it despises the ,east4 ,it was on the ,volga1 in the summer of #aibj1 that ,i first realized how profound is the disease in our ,western mentality1 which the ,bolsheviks are attempting to force upon an essentially ,asiatic population1 just as ,japan and the ,west are doing in ,china4 ,our boat travelled on1 day after day1 through an unknown and mysterious land4 ,our company were noisy1 gay1 quarrelsome1 full of facile theories1 with glib explanations of everything1 persuaded that there is nothing they could not understand and no human destiny outside the purview of their system4 ,one of us lay at death's door1 fighting a grim battle with weakness and terror and the indifference of the strong1 assailed day and night by the sounds of loud-voiced love-making and trivial laughter4 ,and all around us lay a great silence1 strong as death1 unfathomable as the heavens4 ,it seemed that none had leisure to hear the silence1 yet it called to me so insistently that ,i grew deaf to the harangues of propagandists and the endless information of the well-informed4 ,one night1 very late1 our boat stopped in a desolate spot where there were no houses1 but only a great sandbank1 and beyond it a row of poplars with the rising moon behind them4 ,in silence ,i went ashore1 and found on the sand a strange assemblage of human beings1 half-nomads1 wandering from some remote region of famine1 each family huddled together surrounded by all its belongings1 some sleeping1 others silently making small fires of twigs4 ,the flickering flames lighted up gnarled1 bearded faces of wild men1 strong1 patient1 primitive women1 and children as sedate and slow as their parents4 ,human beings they undoubtedly were1 and yet it would have been far easier for me to grow intimate with a dog or a cat or a horse than with one of them4 ,i knew that they would wait there day after day1 perhaps for weeks1 until a boat came in which they could go to some distant place in which they had heard--falsely perhaps--that the earth was more generous than in the country they had left4 ,some would die by the way1 all would suffer hunger and thirst and the scorching mid-day sun1 but their sufferings would be dumb4 ,to me they seemed to typify the very soul of ,russia1 unexpressive1 inactive from despair1 unheeded by the little set of ,westernizers who make up all the parties of progress or reaction4 ,russia is so vast that the articulate few are lost in it as man and his planet are lost in interstellar space4 ,it is possible1 ,i thought1 that the theorists may increase the misery of the many by trying to force them into actions contrary to their primeval instincts1 but ,i could not believe that happiness was to be brought to them by a gospel of industrialism and forced labour4 ,nevertheless1 when morning came ,i resumed the interminable discussions of the materialistic conception of history and the merits of a truly popular government4 ,those with whom ,i discussed had not seen the sleeping wanderers1 and would not have been interested if they had seen them1 since they were not material for propaganda4 ,but something of that patient silence had communicated itself to me1 something lonely and unspoken remained in my heart throughout all the comfortable familiar intellectual talk4 ,and at last ,i began to feel that all politics are inspired by a grinning devil1 teaching the energetic and quickwitted to torture submissive populations for the profit of pocket or power or theory4 ,as we journeyed on1 fed by food extracted from the peasants1 protected by an army recruited from among their sons1 ,i wondered what we had to give them in return4 ,but ,i found no answer4 ,from time to time ,i heard their sad songs or the haunting music of the balalaika2 but the sound mingled with the great silence of the steppes1 and left me with a terrible questioning pain in which ,occidental hopefulness grew pale4 ,it was in this mood that ,i set out for ,china to seek a new hope4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,china ,,before ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,where the ,chinese came from is a matter of conjecture4 ,their early history is known only from their own annals1 which throw no light upon the question4 ,the ,shu-,king1 one of the ,confucian classics 7edited1 not composed1 by ,confucius71 begins1 like ,livy1 with legendary accounts of princes whose virtues and vices are intended to supply edification or warning to subsequent rulers4 ,yao and ,shun were two model ,emperors1 whose date 7if any7 was somewhere in the third millennium ,b4,c4 ,the age of ,yao and ,shun1 in ,chinese literature1 means what the ,golden ,age mean with us4 ,it seems certain that1 when ,chinese history begins1 the ,chinese occupied only a small part of what is now ,china1 along the banks of the ,yellow ,river4 ,they were agricultural1 and had already reached a fairly high level of civilization--much higher than that of any other part of ,eastern ,asia4 ,the ,yellow ,river is a fierce and terrible stream1 too swift for navigation1 turgid1 and full of mud1 depositing silt upon its bed until it rises above the surrounding country1 when it suddenly alters its course1 sweeping away villages and towns in a destructive torrent4 ,among most early agricultural nations1 such a river would have inspired superstitious awe1 and floods would have been averted by human sacrifice2 in the ,shu-,king1 however1 there is little trace of superstition4 ,yao and ,shun1 and ,y 7the latter's successor71 were all occupied in combating the inundations1 but their methods were those of the engineer1 not of the miracle-worker4 ,this shows1 at least1 the state of belief in the time of ,confucius4 ,the character ascribed to ,yao shows what was expected of an ,emperor3-- ,he was reverential1 intelligent1 accomplished1 and thoughtful--naturally and without effort4 ,he was sincerely courteous1 and capable of all complaisance4 ,the display of these qualities reached to the four extremities of the empire1 and extended from earth to heaven4 ,he was able to make the able and virtuous distinguished1 and thence proceeded to the love of the nine classes of his kindred1 who all became harmonious4 ,he also regulated and polished the people of his domain1 who all became brightly intelligent4 ,finally1 he united and harmonized the myriad ,states of the empire2 and lo6 the black-haired people were transformed4 ,the result was universal concord4#a ,the first date which can be assigned with precision in ,chinese history is that of an eclipse of the sun in #ggf ,b4,c4#b ,there is no reason to doubt the general correctness of the records for considerably earlier times1 but their exact chronology cannot be fixed4 ,at this period1 the ,chou dynasty1 which fell in #bdi ,b4,c4 and is supposed to have begun in #aabb ,b4,c41 was already declining in power as compared with a number of nominally subordinate feudal ,states4 ,the position of the ,emperor at this time1 and for the next #ejj years1 was similar to that of the ,king of ,france during those parts of the ,middle ,ages when his authority was at its lowest ebb4 ,chinese history consists of a series of dynasties1 each strong at first and weak afterwards1 each gradually losing control over subordinates1 each followed by a period of anarchy 7sometimes lasting for centuries71 and ultimately succeeded by a new dynasty which temporarily re-establishes a strong ,central ,government4 ,historians always attribute the fall of a dynasty to the excessive power of eunuchs1 but perhaps this is1 in part1 a literary convention4 ,what distinguishes the ,emperor is not so much his political power1 which fluctuates with the strength of his personality1 as certain religious prerogatives4 ,the ,emperor is the ,son of ,heaven2 he sacrifices to ,heaven at the winter solstice4 ,the early ,chinese used ,heaven as synonymous with ,the ,supreme ,ruler1 a monotheistic ,god2#c indeed ,professor ,giles maintains1 by arguments which seem conclusive1 that the correct translation of the ,emperor's title would be ,son of ,god4 ,the word ,tien1 in ,chinese1 is used both for the sky and for ,god1 though the latter sense has become rare4 ,the expression ,shang ,ti1 which means ,supreme ,ruler1 belongs in the main to pre-,confucian times1 but both terms originally represented a ,god as definitely anthropomorphic as the ,god of the ,old ,testament4#d ,as time went by the ,supreme ,ruler became more shadowy1 while ,heaven remained1 on account of the ,imperial rites connected with it4 ,the ,emperor alone had the privilege of worshipping ,heaven1 and the rites continued practically unchanged until the fall of the ,manchu dynasty in #aiaa4 ,in modern times they were performed in the ,temple of ,heaven in ,peking1 one of the most beautiful places in the world4 ,the annual sacrifice in the ,temple of ,heaven represented almost the sole official survival of pre-,confucian religion1 or indeed of anything that could be called religion in the strict sense2 for ,buddhism and ,taoism have never had any connection with the ,state4 ,the history of ,china is known in some detail from the year #gbb ,b4,c41 because with this year begins ,confucius' ,springs and ,autumns1 which is a chronicle of the ,state of ,lu1 in which ,confucius was an official4 ,one of the odd things about the history of ,china is that after the ,emperors have been succeeding each other for more than #b1jjj years1 one comes to a ruler who is known as the ,first ,emperor1 ,shih ,huang ,ti4 ,he acquired control over the whole ,empire1 after a series of wars1 in #bba ,b4,c41 and died in #baj ,b4,c4 ,apart from his conquests1 he is remarkable for three achievements3 the building of the ,great ,wall against the ,huns1 the destruction of feudalism1 and the burning of the books4 ,the destruction of feudalism1 it must be confessed1 had to be repeated by many subsequent rulers2 for a long time1 feudalism tended to grow up again whenever the ,central ,government was in weak hands4 ,but ,shih ,huang ,ti was the first ruler who made his authority really effective over all ,china in historical times4 ,although his dynasty came to an end with his son1 the impression he made is shown by the fact that our word ,china is probably derived from his family name1 ,tsin or ,chin#e4 7,the ,chinese put the family name first47 ,his ,empire was roughly co-extensive with what is now ,china proper4 ,the destruction of the books was a curious incident4 ,shih ,huang ,ti1 as appears from his calling himself ,first ,emperor1 disliked being reminded of the fact that ,china had existed before his time2 therefore history was anathema to him4 ,moreover the literati were already a strong force in the country1 and were always 7following ,confucius7 in favour of the preservation of ancient customs1 whereas ,shih ,huang ,ti was a vigorous innovator4 ,moreover1 he appears to have been uneducated and not of pure ,chinese race4 ,moved by the combined motives of vanity and radicalism1 he issued an edict decreeing that-- ,all official histories1 except the memoirs of ,tsin 7his own family71 shall be burned2 except the persons who have the office of literati of the great learning1 those who in the ,empire permit themselves to hide the ,shi-,king1 the ,shu-,king 7,confucian classics71 or the discourses of the hundred schools1 must all go before the local civil and military authorities so that they may be burned4 ,those who shall dare to discuss among themselves the ,shi-,king and the ,shu-,king shall be put to death and their corpses exposed in a public place2 those who shall make use of antiquity to belittle modern times shall be put to death with their relations4444 ,thirty days after the publication of this edict1 those who have not burned their books shall be branded and sent to forced labour4 ,the books which shall not be proscribed are those of medicine and pharmacy1 of divination 4441 of agriculture and of arboriculture4 ,as for those who desire to study the laws and ordinances1 let them take the officials as masters4 7,cordier1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #bjc47 ,it will be seen that the ,first ,emperor was something of a ,bolshevik4 ,the ,chinese literati1 naturally1 have blackened his memory4 ,on the other hand1 modern ,chinese reformers1 who have experienced the opposition of old-fashioned scholars1 have a certain sympathy with his attempt to destroy the innate conservatism of his subjects4 ,thus ,li ,ung ,bing#f says3-- ,no radical change can take place in ,china without encountering the opposition of the literati4 ,this was no less the case then than it is now4 ,to abolish feudalism by one stroke was a radical change indeed4 ,whether the change was for the better or the worse1 the men of letters took no time to inquire2 whatever was good enough for their fathers was good enough for them and their children4 ,they found numerous authorities in the classics to support their contention and these they freely quoted to show that ,shih ,huang ,ti was wrong4 ,they continued to criticize the government to such an extent that something had to be done to silence the voice of antiquity 444 ,as to how far this decree 7on the burning of the books7 was enforced1 it is hard to say4 ,at any rate1 it exempted all libraries of the government1 or such as were in possession of a class of officials called ,po ,szu or ,learned ,men4 ,if any real damage was done to ,chinese literature under the decree in question1 it is safe to say that it was not of such a nature as later writers would have us believe4 ,still1 this extreme measure failed to secure the desired end1 and a number of the men of letters in ,han ,yang1 the capital1 was subsequently buried alive4 ,this passage is written from the point of view of ,young ,china1 which is anxious to assimilate ,western learning in place of the dead scholarship of the ,chinese classics4 ,china1 like every other civilized country1 has a tradition which stands in the way of progress4 ,the ,chinese have excelled in stability rather than in progress2 therefore ,young ,china1 which perceives that the advent of industrial civilization has made progress essential to continued national existence1 naturally looks with a favourable eye upon ,shih ,huang ,ti's struggle with the reactionary pedants of his age4 ,the very considerable literature which has come down to us from before his time shows1 in any case1 that his edict was somewhat ineffective2 and in fact it was repealed after twenty-two years1 in #aia4 ,b4,c4 ,after a brief reign by the son of the ,first ,emperor1 who did not inherit his capacity1 we come to the great ,han dynasty1 which reigned from #bjf ,b4,c4 to ,a4,d4 #bbj4 ,this was the great age of ,chinese imperialism--exactly coeval with the great age of ,rome4 ,in the course of their campaigns in ,northern ,india and ,central ,asia1 the ,chinese were brought into contact with ,india1 with ,persia1 and even with the ,roman ,empire4#g ,their relations with ,india had a profound effect upon their religion1 as well as upon that of ,japan1 since they led to the introduction of ,buddhism4 ,relations with ,rome were chiefly promoted by the ,roman desire for silk1 and continued until the rise of ,mohammedanism4 ,they had little importance for ,china1 though we learn1 for example1 that about ,a4,d4 #afd a treatise on astronomy was brought to ,china from the ,roman ,empire4#h ,marcus ,aurelius appears in ,chinese history under the name ,an ,tun1 which stands for ,antoninus4 ,it was during this period that the ,chinese acquired that immense prestige in the ,far ,east which lasted until the arrival of ,european armies and navies in the nineteenth century4 ,one is sometimes tempted to think that the irruption of the white man into ,china may prove almost as ephemeral as the raids of ,huns and ,tartars into ,europe4 ,the military superiority of ,europe to ,asia is not an eternal law of nature1 as we are tempted to think2 and our superiority in civilization is a mere delusion4 ,our histories1 which treat the ,mediterranean as the centre of the universe1 give quite a wrong perspective4 ,cordier1#i dealing with the campaigns and voyages of discovery which took place under the ,han dynasty1 says3-- ,the ,occidentals have singularly contracted the field of the history of the world when they have grouped around the people of ,israel1 ,greece1 and ,rome the little that they knew of the expansion of the human race1 being completely ignorant of these voyagers who ploughed the ,china ,sea and the ,indian ,ocean1 of these cavalcades across the immensities of ,central ,asia up to the ,persian ,gulf4 ,the greatest part of the universe1 and at the same time a civilization different but certainly as developed as that of the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 remained unknown to those who wrote the history of their little world while they believed that they1 were setting forth the history of the world as a whole4 ,in our day1 this provincialism1 which impregnates all our culture1 is liable to have disastrous consequences politically1 as well as for the civilization of mankind4 ,we must make room for ,asia in our thoughts1 if we are not to rouse ,asia to a fury of self-assertion4 ,after the ,han dynasty there are various short dynasties and periods of disorder1 until we come to the ,tang dynasty 7,a4,d4 #fah-ijg74 ,under this dynasty1 in its prosperous days1 the ,empire acquired its greatest extent1 and art and poetry reached their highest point4#aj ,the ,empire of ,jenghis ,khan 7died #abbg7 was considerably greater1 and contained a great part of ,china2 but ,jenghis ,khan was a foreign conqueror4 ,jenghis and his generals1 starting from ,mongolia1 appeared as conquerors in ,china1 ,india1 ,persia1 and ,russia4 ,throughout ,central ,asia1 ,jenghis destroyed every man1 woman1 and child in the cities he captured4 ,when ,merv was captured1 it was transformed into a desert and #gjj1jjj people were killed4 ,but it was said that many had escaped by lying among the corpses and pretending to be dead2 therefore at the capture of ,nishapur1 shortly afterwards1 it was ordered that all the inhabitants should have their heads cut off4 ,three pyramids of heads were made1 one of men1 one of women1 and one of children4 ,as it was feared that some might have escaped by hiding underground1 a detachment of soldiers was left to kill any that might emerge4#aa ,similar horrors were enacted at ,moscow and ,kieff1 in ,hungary and ,poland4 ,yet the man responsible for these massacres was sought in alliance by ,st4 ,louis and the ,pope4 ,the times of ,jenghis ,khan remind one of the present day1 except that his methods of causing death were more merciful than those that have been employed since the ,armistice4 ,kublai ,khan 7died #abid71 who is familiar1 at least by name1 through ,marco ,polo and ,coleridge2 was the grandson of ,jenghis ,khan1 and the first ,mongol who was acknowledged ,emperor of ,china1 where he ousted the ,sung dynasty 7#ifj-abgg74 ,by this time1 contact with ,china had somewhat abated the savagery of the first conquerors4 ,kublai removed his capital from ,kara ,korom in ,mongolia to ,peking4 ,he built walls like those which still surround the city1 and established on the walls an observatory which is preserved to this day4 ,until #aijj1 two of the astronomical instruments constructed by ,kublai were still to be seen in this observatory1 but the ,germans removed them to ,potsdam after the suppression of the ,boxers4#ab ,i understand they have been restored in accordance with one of the provisions of the ,treaty of ,versailles4 ,if so1 this was probably the most important benefit which that treaty secured to the world4 ,kublai plays the same part in ,japanese history that ,philip ,,ii plays in the history of ,england4 ,he prepared an ,invincible ,armada1 or rather two successive armadas1 to conquer ,japan1 but they were defeated1 partly by storms1 and partly by ,japanese valour4 ,after ,kublai1 the ,mongol ,emperors more and more adopted ,chinese ways1 and lost their tyrannical vigour4 ,their dynasty came to an end in #acgj1 and was succeeded by the pure ,chinese ,ming dynasty1 which lasted until the ,manchu conquest of #afdd4 ,the ,manchus in turn adopted ,chinese ways1 and were overthrown by a patriotic revolution in #aiaa1 having contributed nothing notable to the native culture of ,china except the pigtail1 officially abandoned at the ,revolution4 ,the persistence of the ,chinese ,empire down to our own day is not to be attributed to any military skill2 on the contrary1 considering its extent and resources1 it has at most times shown itself weak and incompetent in war4 ,its southern neighbours were even less warlike1 and were less in extent4 ,its northern and western neighbours inhabited a barren country1 largely desert1 which was only capable of supporting a very sparse population4 ,the ,huns were defeated by the ,chinese after centuries of warfare2 the ,tartars and ,manchus1 on the contrary1 conquered ,china4 ,but they were too few and too uncivilized to impose their ideas or their way of life upon ,china1 which absorbed them and went on its way as if they had never existed4 ,rome could have survived the ,goths1 if they had come alone1 but the successive waves of barbarians came too quickly to be all civilized in turn4 ,china was saved from this fate by the ,gobi ,desert and the ,tibetan uplands4 ,since the white men have taken to coming by sea1 the old geographical immunity is lost1 and greater energy will be required to preserve the national independence4 ,in spite of geographical advantages1 however1 the persistence of ,chinese civilization1 fundamentally unchanged since the introduction of ,buddhism1 is a remarkable phenomenon4 ,egypt and ,babylonia persisted as long1 but since they fell there has been nothing comparable in the world4 ,perhaps the main cause is the immense population of ,china1 with an almost complete identity of culture throughout4 ,in the middle of the eighth century1 the population of ,china is estimated at over #ej millions1 though ten years later1 as a result of devastating wars1 it is said to have sunk to about #ag millions4#ac ,a census has been taken at various times in ,chinese history1 but usually a census of houses1 not of individuals4 ,from the number of houses the population is computed by a more or less doubtful calculation4 ,it is probable1 also1 that different methods were adopted on different occasions1 and that comparisons between different enumerations are therefore rather unsafe4 ,putnam ,weale#ad says3-- ,the first census taken by the ,manchus in #afea1 after the restoration of order1 returned ,china's population at #ee million persons1 which is less than the number given in the first census of the ,han dynasty1 ,a4,d4 #a1 and about the same as when ,kublai ,khan established the ,mongal dynasty in #abie4 7,this is presumably a misprint1 as ,kublai died in #abid47 ,thus we are faced by the amazing fact that1 from the beginning of the ,christian era1 the toll of life taken by internecine and frontier wars in ,china was so great that in spite of all territorial expansion the population for upwards of sixteen centuries remained more or less stationary4 ,there is in all history no similar record4 ,now1 however1 came a vast change4 ,thus three years after the death of the celebrated ,manchu ,emperor ,kang ,hsi1 in #agbj1 the population had risen to #abe millions4 ,at the beginning of the reign of the no less illustrious ,ch'ien ,lung 7#agdc7 it was returned at #ade millions2 towards the end of his reign1 in #aghc1 it had doubled1 and was given as #bhc millions4 ,in the reign of ,chia ,ch'ing 7#ahab7 it had risen to #cfj millions2 before the ,taiping rebellion 7#ahdb7 it had grown to #dac millions2 after that terrible rising it sunk to #bfa millions4 ,i do not think such definite statements are warranted4 ,the ,china ,year ,book for #aiai 7the latest ,i have seen7 says 7p4 #a73-- ,the taking of a census by the methods adopted in ,western nations has never yet been attempted in ,china1 and consequently estimates of the total population have varied to an extraordinary degree4 ,the nearest approach to a reliable estimate is1 probably1 the census taken by the ,minchengpu 7,ministry of ,interior7 in #aiaj1 the results of which are embodied in a report submitted to the ,department of ,state at ,washington by ,mr4 ,raymond ,p4 ,tenney1 a ,student ,interpreter at the ,u4,s4 ,legation1 ,peking4444 ,it is pointed out that even this census can only be regarded as approximate1 as1 with few exceptions1 households and not individuals were counted4 ,the estimated population of the ,chinese ,empire 7exclusive of ,tibet7 is given1 on the basis of this census1 as #cbi1edb1jjj1 while the population of ,tibet is estimated at #a1ejj1jjj4 ,estimates which have been made at various other dates are given as follows 7p4 #b73 ,a4,d4 ,a4,d4 #acha #ei1hej1jjj _/ #adc1abe1bbe #adab #ff1cgg1jjj #agfj--bjc1iaf1dgg #aehj #fj1fib1jjj #agfa #bje1bic1jec #affb #ba1jfh1jjj #agfb #aih1bad1eec #affh #be1chf1bji #agij #aee1bdi1hig _/ #bc1cab1bjj _/ #cjg1dfg1bjj #agaj --#bg1bda1abi #agib- #ccc1jjj1jjj #agaa #bh1bda1abi _/ #cfb1dfg1ahc #agcf #abe1jdf1bde #ahab--cfj1ddj1jjj _/ #aeg1cdc1ige #ahdb #dac1jba1jjj #agdc #adi1ccb1gcj #ahfh #djd1idf1ead #aej1bfe1dge #ahha #chj1jjj1jjj #agec #ajc1jej1fjj #ahhb #cha1cji1jjj #ahhe #cgg1fcf1jjj ,these figures suffice to show how little is known about the population of ,china4 ,not only are widely divergent estimates made in the same year 7e4g4 #agfj71 but in other respects the figures are incredible4 ,mr4 ,putnam ,weale might contend that the drop from #fj millions in #aehj to #ba millions in #affb was due to the wars leading to the ,manchu conquest4 ,but no one can believe that between #agaa and #agcf the population increased from #bh millions to #abe millions1 or that it doubled between #agij and #agib4 ,no one knows whether the population of ,china is increasing or diminishing1 whether people in general have large or small families1 or any of the other facts that vital statistics are designed to elucidate4 ,what is said on these subjects1 however dogmatic1 is no more than guess-work4 ,even the population of ,peking is unknown4 ,it is said to be about #ijj1jjj1 but it may be anywhere between #hjj1jjj and a million4 ,as for the population of the ,chinese ,empire1 it is probably safe to assume that it is between three and four hundred millions1 and somewhat likely that it is below three hundred and fifty millions4 ,very little indeed can be said with confidence as to the population of ,china in former times2 so little that1 on the whole1 authors who give statistics are to be distrusted4 ,there are certain broad features of the traditional ,chinese civilization which give it its distinctive character4 ,i should be inclined to select as the most important3 7#a7 ,the use of ideograms instead of an alphabet in writing2 7#b7 ,the substitution of the ,confucian ethic for religion among the educated classes2 7#c7 government by literati chosen by examination instead of by a hereditary aristocracy4 ,the family system distinguishes traditional ,china from modern ,europe1 but represents a stage which most other civilizations have passed through1 and which is therefore not distinctively ,chinese2 the three characteristics which ,i have enumerated1 on the other hand1 distinguish ,china from all other countries of past times4 ,something must be said at this stage about each of the three4 #a4 ,as everyone knows1 the ,chinese do not have letters1 as we do1 but symbols for whole words4 ,this has1 of course1 many inconveniences3 it means that1 in learning to write1 there are an immense number of different signs to be learnt1 not only #bf as with us2 that there is no such thing as alphabetical order1 so that dictionaries1 files1 catalogues1 etc41 are difficult to arrange and linotype is impossible2 that foreign words1 such as proper names and scientific terms1 cannot be written down by sound1 as in ,european languages1 but have to be represented by some elaborate device4#ae ,for these reasons1 there is a movement for phonetic writing among the more advanced ,chinese reformers2 and ,i think the success of this movement is essential if ,china is to take her place among the bustling hustling nations which consider that they have a monopoly of all excellence4 ,even if there were no other argument for the change1 the difficulty of elementary education1 where reading and writing take so long to learn1 would be alone sufficient to decide any believer in democracy4 ,for practical purposes1 therefore1 the movement for phonetic writing deserves support4 ,there are1 however1 many considerations1 less obvious to a ,european1 which can be adduced in favour of the ideographic system1 to which something of the solid stability of the ,chinese civilization is probably traceable4 ,to us1 it seems obvious that a written word must represent a sound1 whereas to the ,chinese it represents an idea4 ,we have adopted the ,chinese system ourselves as regards numerals2 #aibb1 for example1 can be read in ,english1 ,french1 or any other language1 with quite different sounds1 but with the same meaning4 ,similarly what is written in ,chinese characters can be read throughout ,china1 in spite of the difference of dialects which are mutually unintelligible when spoken4 ,even a ,japanese1 without knowing a word of spoken ,chinese1 can read out ,chinese script in ,japanese1 just as he could read a row of numerals written by an ,englishman4 ,and the ,chinese can still read their classics1 although the spoken language must have changed as much as ,french has changed from ,latin4 ,the advantage of writing over speech is its greater permanence1 which enables it to be a means of communication between different places and different times4 ,but since the spoken language changes from place to place and from time to time1 the characteristic advantage of writing is more fully attained by a script which does not aim at representing spoken sounds than by one which does4 ,speaking historically1 there is nothing peculiar in the ,chinese method of writing1 which represents a stage through which all writing probably passed4 ,writing everywhere seems to have begun as pictures1 not as a symbolic representation of sounds4 ,i understand that in ,egyptian hieroglyphics the course of development from ideograms to phonetic writing can be studied4 ,what is peculiar in ,china is the preservation of the ideographic system throughout thousands of years of advanced civilization--a preservation probably due1 at least in part1 to the fact that the spoken language is monosyllabic1 uninflected and full of homonyms4 ,as to the way in which the ,chinese system of writing has affected the mentality of those who employ it1 ,i find some suggestive reflections in an article published in the ,chinese ,students' ,monthly 7,baltimore71 for ,february #aibb1 by ,mr4 ,chi ,li1 in an article on ,some ,anthropological ,problems of ,china4 ,he says 7p4 #cbg73-- ,language has been traditionally treated by ,european scientists as a collection of sounds instead of an expression of something inner and deeper than the vocal apparatus as it should be4 ,the accumulative effect of language-symbols upon one's mental formulation is still an unexploited field4 ,dividing the world culture of the living races on this basis1 one perceives a fundamental difference of its types between the alphabetical users and the hieroglyphic users1 each of which has its own virtues and vices4 ,now1 with all respects to alphabetical civilization1 it must be frankly stated that it has a grave and inherent defect in its lack of solidity4 ,the most civilized portion under the alphabetical culture is also inhabited by the most fickled people4 ,the history of the ,western land repeats the same story over and over again4 ,thus up and down with the ,greeks2 up and down with ,rome2 up and down with the ,arabs4 ,the ancient ,semitic and ,hametic peoples are essentially alphabetic users1 and their civilizations show the same lack of solidity as the ,greeks and the ,romans4 ,certainly this phenomenon can be partially explained by the extra-fluidity of the alphabetical language which cannot be depended upon as a suitable organ to conserve any solid idea4 ,intellectual contents of these people may be likened to waterfalls and cataracts1 rather than seas and oceans4 ,no other people is richer in ideas than they2 but no people would give up their valuable ideas as quickly as they do4444 ,the ,chinese language is by all means the counterpart of the alphabetic stock4 ,it lacks most of the virtues that are found in the alphabetic language2 but as an embodiment of simple and final truth1 it is invulnerable to storm and stress4 ,it has already protected the ,chinese civilization for more than forty centuries4 ,it is solid1 square1 and beautiful1 exactly as the spirit of it represents4 ,whether it is the spirit that has produced this language or whether this language has in turn accentuated the spirit remains to be determined4 ,without committing ourselves wholly to the theory here set forth1 which is impregnated with ,chinese patriotism1 we must nevertheless admit that the ,westerner is unaccustomed to the idea of alphabetical civilization as merely one kind1 to which he happens to belong4 ,i am not competent to judge as to the importance of the ideographic script in producing the distinctive characteristics of ,chinese civilization1 but ,i have no doubt that this importance is very great1 and is more or less of the kind indicated in the above quotation4 #b4 ,confucius 7,b4,c4 #eea-dgi7 must be reckoned1 as regards his social influence1 with the founders of religions4 ,his effect on institutions and on men's thoughts has been of the same kind of magnitude as that of ,buddha1 ,christ1 or ,mahomet1 but curiously different in its nature4 ,unlike ,buddha and ,christ1 he is a completely historical character1 about whose life a great deal is known1 and with whom legend and myth have been less busy than with most men of his kind4 ,what most distinguishes him from other founders is that he inculcated a strict code of ethics1 which has been respected ever since1 but associated it with very little religious dogma1 which gave place to complete theological scepticism in the countless generations of ,chinese literati who revered his memory and administered the ,empire4 ,confucius himself belongs rather to the type of ,lycurgus and ,solon than to that of the great founders of religions4 ,he was a practical statesman1 concerned with the administration of the ,state2 the virtues he sought to inculcate were not those of personal holiness1 or designed to secure salvation in a future life1 but rather those which lead to a peaceful and prosperous community here on earth4 ,his outlook was essentially conservative1 and aimed at preserving the virtues of former ages4 ,he accepted the existing religion--a rather unemphatic monotheism1 combined with belief that the spirits of the dead preserved a shadowy existence1 which it was the duty of their descendants to render as comfortable as possible4 ,he did not1 however1 lay any stress upon supernatural matters4 ,in answer to a question1 he gave the following definition of wisdom3 ,to cultivate earnestly our duty towards our neighbour1 and to reverence spiritual beings while maintaining always a due reserve4#af ,but reverence for spiritual beings was not an active part of ,confucianism1 except in the form of ancestor-worship1 which was part of filial piety1 and thus merged in duty towards one's neighbour4 ,filial piety included obedience to the ,emperor1 except when he was so wicked as to forfeit his divine right--for the ,chinese1 unlike the ,japanese1 have always held that resistance to the ,emperor was justified if he governed very badly4 ,the following passage from ,professor ,giles#ag illustrates this point3-- ,the ,emperor has been uniformly regarded as the son of ,god by adoption only1 and liable to be displaced from that position as a punishment for the offence of misrule4444 ,if the ruler failed in his duties1 the obligation of the people was at an end1 and his divine right disappeared simultaneously4 ,of this we have an example in a portion of the ,canon to be examined by and by4 ,under the year #eeh ,b4,c4 we find the following narrative4 ,one of the feudal princes asked an official1 saying1 ,have not the people of the ,wei ,state done very wrong in expelling their ruler8 ,perhaps the ruler himself1 was the reply1 may have done very wrong4444 ,if the life of the people is impoverished1 and if the spirits are deprived of their sacrifices1 of what use is the ruler1 and what can the people do but get rid of him8 ,this very sensible doctrine has been accepted at all times throughout ,chinese history1 and has made rebellions only too frequent4 ,filial piety1 and the strength of the family generally1 are perhaps the weakest point in ,confucian ethics1 the only point where the system departs seriously from common sense4 ,family feeling has militated against public spirit1 and the authority of the old has increased the tyranny of ancient custom4 ,in the present day1 when ,china is confronted with problems requiring a radically new outlook1 these features of the ,confucian system have made it a barrier to necessary reconstruction1 and accordingly we find all those foreigners who wish to exploit ,china praising the old tradition and deriding the efforts of ,young ,china to construct something more suited to modern needs4 ,the way in which ,confucian emphasis on filial piety prevented the growth of public spirit is illustrated by the following story3#ah ,one of the feudal princes was boasting to ,confucius of the high level of morality which prevailed in his own ,state4 ,among us here1 he said1 you will find upright men4 ,if a father has stolen a sheep1 his son will give evidence against him4 ,in my part of the country1 replied ,confucius1 there is a different standard from this4 ,a father will shield his son1 a son will shield his father4 ,it is thus that uprightness will be found4 ,it is interesting to contrast this story with that of the elder ,brutus and his sons1 upon which we in the ,west were all brought up4 ,chao ,ki1 expounding the ,confucian doctrine1 says it is contrary to filial piety to refuse a lucrative post by which to relieve the indigence of one's aged parents4#ai ,this form of sin1 however1 is rare in ,china as in other countries4 ,the worst failure of filial piety1 however1 is to remain without children1 since ancestors are supposed to suffer if they have no descendants to keep up their cult4 ,it is probable that this doctrine has made the ,chinese more prolific1 in which case it has had great biological importance4 ,filial piety is1 of course1 in no way peculiar to ,china1 but has been universal at a certain stage of culture4 ,in this respect1 as in certain others1 what is peculiar to ,china is the preservation of the old custom after a very high level of civilization had been attained4 ,the early ,greeks and ,romans did not differ from the ,chinese in this respect1 but as their civilization advanced the family became less and less important4 ,in ,china1 this did not begin to happen until our own day4 ,whatever may be said against filial piety carried to excess1 it is certainly less harmful than its ,western counterpart1 patriotism4 ,both1 of course1 err in inculcating duties to a certain portion of mankind to the practical exclusion of the rest4 ,but patriotism directs one's loyalty to a fighting unit1 which filial piety does not 7except in a very primitive society74 ,therefore patriotism leads much more easily to militarism and imperialism4 ,the principal method of advancing the interests of one's nation is homicide2 the principal method of advancing the interest of one's family is corruption and intrigue4 ,therefore family feeling is less harmful than patriotism4 ,this view is borne out by the history and present condition of ,china as compared to ,europe4 ,apart from filial piety1 ,confucianism was1 in practice1 mainly a code of civilized behaviour1 degenerating at times into an etiquette book4 ,it taught self-restraint1 moderation1 and above all courtesy4 ,its moral code was not1 like those of ,buddhism and ,christianity1 so severe that only a few saints could hope to live up to it1 or so much concerned with personal salvation as to be incompatible with political institutions4 ,it was not difficult for a man of the world to live up to the more imperative parts of the ,confucian teaching4 ,but in order to do this he must exercise at all times a certain kind of self-control--an extension of the kind which children learn when they are taught to behave4 ,he must not break into violent passions2 he must not be arrogant2 he must save face1 and never inflict humiliations upon defeated adversaries2 he must be moderate in all things1 never carried away by excessive love or hate2 in a word1 he must keep calm reason always in control of all his actions4 ,this attitude existed in ,europe in the eighteenth century1 but perished in the ,french ,revolution3 romanticism1 ,rousseau1 and the guillotine put an end to it4 ,in ,china1 though wars and revolutions have occurred constantly1 ,confucian calm has survived them all1 making them less terrible for the participants1 and making all who were not immediately involved hold aloof4 ,it is bad manners in ,china to attack your adversary in wet weather4 ,wu-,pei-,fu1 ,i am told1 once did it1 and won a victory2 the beaten general complained of the breach of etiquette2 so ,wu-,pei-,fu went back to the position he held before the battle1 and fought all over again on a fine day4 7,it should be said that battles in ,china are seldom bloody47 ,in such a country1 militarism is not the scourge it is with us2 and the difference is due to the ,confucian ethics4#bj ,confucianism did not assume its present form until the twelfth century ,a4,d41 when the personal ,god in whom ,confucius had believed was thrust aside by the philosopher ,chu ,fu ,tze1#ba whose interpretation of ,confucianism has ever since been recognized as orthodox4 ,since the fall of the ,mongols 7#acgj71 the ,government has uniformly favoured ,confucianism as the teaching of the ,state2 before that1 there were struggles with ,buddhism and ,taoism1 which were connected with magic1 and appealed to superstitious ,emperors1 quite a number of whom died of drinking the ,taoist elixir of life4 ,the ,mongol ,emperors were ,buddhists of the ,lama religion1 which still prevails in ,tibet and ,mongolia2 but the ,manchu ,emperors1 though also northern conquerors1 were ultra-orthodox ,confucians4 ,it has been customary in ,china1 for many centuries1 for the literati to be pure ,confucians1 sceptical in religion but not in morals1 while the rest of the population believed and practised all three religions simultaneously4 ,the ,chinese have not the belief1 which we owe to the ,jews1 that if one religion is true1 all others must be false4 ,at the present day1 however1 there appears to be very little in the way of religion in ,china1 though the belief in magic lingers on among the uneducated4 ,at all times1 even when there was religion1 its intensity was far less than in ,europe4 ,it is remarkable that religious scepticism has not led1 in ,china1 to any corresponding ethical scepticism1 as it has done repeatedly in ,europe4 #c4 ,i come now to the system of selecting officials by competitive examination1 without which it is hardly likely that so literary and unsuperstitious a system as that of ,confucius could have maintained its hold4 ,the view of the modern ,chinese on this subject is set forth by the present ,president of the ,republic of ,china1 ,hsu ,shi-chang1 in his book on ,china after the ,war1 pp4 #ei-fj4bb ,after considering the educational system under the ,chou dynasty1 he continues3 ,in later periods1 in spite of minor changes1 the importance of moral virtues continued to be stressed upon4 ,for instance1 during the most flourishing period of ,tang ,dynasty 7#fbg-fej ,a4,d471 the ,imperial ,academy of ,learning1 known as ,kuo-tzu-chien1 was composed of four collegiate departments1 in which ethics was considered as the most important of all studies4 ,it was said that in the ,academy there were more than three thousand students who were able and virtuous in nearly all respects1 while the total enrolment1 including aspirants from ,korea and ,japan1 was as high as eight thousand4 ,at the same time1 there was a system of elections through which able and virtuous men were recommended by different districts to the ,emperor for appointment to public offices4 ,college training and local elections supplemented each other1 but in both moral virtues were given the greatest emphasis4 ,although the ,imperial ,academy exists till this day1 it has never been as nourishing as during that period4 ,for this change the introduction of the competitive examination or ,ko-ch system1 must be held responsible4 ,the election system furnished no fixed standard for the recommendation of public service candidates1 and1 as a result1 tended to create an aristocratic class from which alone were to be found eligible men4 ,consequently1 the ,sung ,emperors 7#ifj-abgg ,a4,d47 abolished the elections1 set aside the ,imperial ,academy1 and inaugurated the competitive examination system in their place4 ,the examinations were to supply both scholars and practical statesmen1 and they were periodically held throughout the later dynasties until the introduction of the modern educational regime4 ,useless and stereotyped as they were in later days1 they once served some useful purpose4 ,besides1 the ethical background of ,chinese education had already been so firmly established1 that1 in spite of the emphasis laid by these examinations on pure literary attainments1 moral teachings have survived till this day in family education and in private schools4 ,although the system of awarding ,government posts for proficiency in examinations is much better than most other systems that have prevailed1 such as nepotism1 bribery1 threats of insurrection1 etc41 yet the ,chinese system1 at any rate after it assumed its final form1 was harmful through the fact that it was based solely on the classics1 that it was purely literary1 and that it allowed no scope whatever for originality4 ,the system was established in its final form by the ,emperor ,hung ,wu 7#acfh-acih71 and remained unchanged until #aije4 ,one of the first objects of modern ,chinese reformers was to get it swept away4 ,li ,ung ,bing#bc says3 ,in spite of the many good things that may be said to the credit of ,hung ,wu1 he will ever be remembered in connection with a form of evil which has eaten into the very heart of the nation4 ,this was the system of triennial examinations1 or rather the form of ,chinese composition1 called the ,essay1 or the ,eight ,legs1 which1 for the first time in the history of ,chinese literature1 was made the basis of all literary contests4 ,it was so-named1 because after the introduction of the theme the writer was required to treat it in four paragraphs1 each consisting of two members1 made up of an equal number of sentences and words4 ,the theme was always chosen from either the ,four ,books1 or the ,five ,classics4 ,the writer could not express any opinion of his own1 or any views at variance with those expressed by ,chu ,hsi and his school4 ,all he was required to do was to put the few words of ,confucius1 or whomsoever it might be1 into an essay in conformity with the prescribed rules4 ,degrees1 which were to serve as passports to ,government positions1 were awarded the best writers4 ,to say that the training afforded by the time required to make a man efficient in the art of such writing1 would at the same time qualify him to hold the various offices under the ,government1 was absurd4 ,but absurd as the whole system was1 it was handed down to recent times from the third year of the reign of ,hung ,wu1 and was not abolished until a few years ago4 ,no system was more perfect or effective in retarding the intellectual and literary development of a nation4 ,with her ,eight ,legs1 ,china long ago reached the lowest point on her downhill journey4 ,it is largely on account of the long lease of life that was granted to this rotten system that the teachings of the ,sung philosophers have been so long venerated4 ,these are the words of a ,chinese patriot of the present day1 and no doubt1 as a modern system1 the ,eight ,legs deserve all the hard things that he says about them4 ,but in the fourteenth century1 when one considers the practicable alternatives1 one can see that there was probably much to be said for such a plan4 ,at any rate1 for good or evil1 the examination system profoundly affected the civilization of ,china4 ,among its good effects were3 ,a widely-diffused respect for learning2 the possibility of doing without a hereditary aristocracy2 the selection of administrators who must at least have been capable of industry2 and the preservation of ,chinese civilization in spite of barbarian conquest4 ,but1 like so much else in traditional ,china1 it has had to be swept away to meet modern needs4 ,i hope nothing of greater value will have to perish in the struggle to repel the foreign exploiters and the fierce and cruel system which they miscall civilization4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,legge's ,shu-,king1 p4 #ae4 ,quoted in ,hirth1 ,ancient ,history of ,china1 ,columbia ,university ,press1 #aiaa--;a book which gives much useful critical information about early ,china4 ,footnote #b3 ,hirth1 op4 cit4 p4 #agd4 #gge is often wrongly given4 ,footnote #c3 ,see ,hirth1 op4 cit41 p4 #ajj ff4 ,footnote #d3 ,on this subject1 see ,professor ,giles's ,confucianism and its ,rivals1 ,williams ,norgate1 #aiae1 ,lecture ,i1 especially p4 #i4 ,footnote #e3 ,cf4 ,henri ,cordier1 ,histoire ,gnrale de la ,chine1 ,paris1 #aibj1 vol4 i4 p4 #bac4 ,footnote #f3 ,outlines of ,chinese ,history 7,shanghai1 ,commercial ,press1 #aiad71 p4 #fa4 ,footnote #g3 ,see ,hirth1 ,china and the ,roman ,orient 7,leipzig and ,shanghai1 #ahhe71 an admirable and fascinating monograph4 ,there are allusions to the ,chinese in ,virgil and ,horace2 cf4 ,cordier1 op4 cit41 i4 p4 #bga4 ,footnote #h3 ,cordier1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #bha4 ,footnote #i3 ,cordier1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #bcg4 ,footnote #aj3 ,murdoch1 in his ,history of ,japan 7vol4 i4 p4 #adf71 thus describes the greatness of the early ,tang ,empire3 ,in the following year 7#fah7 ,li ,yuen1 ,prince of ,t'ang1 established the illustrious dynasty of that name1 which continued to sway the fortunes of ,china for nearly three centuries 7#fah-ijh74 ,after a brilliant reign of ten years he handed over the imperial dignity to his son1 ,tai-tsung 7#fbg-fej71 perhaps the greatest monarch the ,middle ,kingdom has ever seen4 ,at this time ,china undoubtedly stood in the very forefront of civilization4 ,she was then the most powerful1 the most enlightened1 the most progressive1 and the best governed empire1 not only in ,asia1 but on the face of the globe4 ,tai-tsung's frontiers reached from the confines of ,persia1 the ,caspian ,sea1 and the ,altai of the ,kirghis steppe1 along these mountains to the north side of the ,gobi desert eastward to the inner ,hing-an1 while ,sogdiana1 ,khorassan1 and the regions around the ,hindu ,rush also acknowledged his suzerainty4 ,the sovereign of ,nepal and ,magadha in ,india sent envoys2 and in #fdc envoys appeared from the ,byzantine ,empire and the ,court of ,persia4 ,footnote #aa3 ,cordier1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #bab4 ,footnote #ab3 ,cordier1 op4 cit4 ii4 p4 #cci4 ,footnote #ac3 ,cordier1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #dhd4 ,footnote #ad3 ,the ,truth ,about ,china and ,japan4 ,george ,allen ,unwin1 ,ltd41 pp4 #ac1 #ad4 ,footnote #ae3 ,for example1 the nearest approach that could be made in ,chinese to my own name was ,lo-,su4 ,there is a word ,lo1 and a word ,su1 for both of which there are characters2 but no combination of characters gives a better approximation to the sound of my name4 ,footnote #af3 ,giles1 op4 cit41 p4 #gd4 ,professor ,giles adds1 propos of the phrase maintaining always a due reserve1 the following footnote3 ,dr4 ,legge has 'to keep aloof from them1' which would be equivalent to 'have nothing to do with them4' ,confucius seems rather to have meant 'no familiarity4' ,footnote #ag3 ,op4 cit41 p4 #ba4 ,footnote #ah3 ,giles1 op4 cit4 p4 #hf4 ,footnote #ai3 ,cordier1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #afg4 ,footnote #bj3 ,as far as anti-militarism is concerned1 ,taoism is even more emphatic4 ,the best soldiers1 says ,lao-,tze1 do not fight4 7,giles1 op4 cit4 p4 #aej47 ,chinese armies contain many good soldiers4 ,footnote #ba3 ,giles1 op4 cit41 ,lecture ,,viii4 ,when ,chu ,fu ,tze was dead1 and his son-in-law was watching beside his coffin1 a singular incident occurred4 ,although the sage had spent his life teaching that miracles are impossible1 the coffin rose and remained suspended three feet above the ground4 ,the pious son-in-law was horrified4 ,o my revered father-in-law1 he prayed1 do not destroy my faith that miracles are impossible4 ,whereupon the coffin slowly descended to earth again1 and the son-in-law's faith revived4 ,footnote #bb3 ,translated by the ,bureau of ,economic ,information1 ,peking1 #aibj4 ,footnote #bc3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #bcc4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,china ,,and ,,the ,,western ,,powers ,in order to understand the international position of ,china1 some facts concerning its nineteenth-century history are indispensable4 ,china was for many ages the supreme empire of the ,far ,east1 embracing a vast and fertile area1 inhabited by an industrious and civilized people4 ,aristocracy1 in our sense of the word1 came to an end before the beginning of the ,christian era1 and government was in the hands of officials chosen for their proficiency in writing in a dead language1 as in ,england4 ,intercourse with the ,west was spasmodic and chiefly religious4 ,in the early centuries of the ,christian era1 ,buddhism was imported from ,india1 and some ,chinese scholars penetrated to that country to master the theology of the new religion in its native home1 but in later times the intervening barbarians made the journey practically impossible4 ,nestorian ,christianity reached ,china in the seventh century1 and had a good deal of influence1 but died out again4 7,what is known on this subject is chiefly from the ,nestorian monument discovered in ,hsianfu in #afbe47 ,in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries ,roman ,catholic missionaries acquired considerable favour at ,court1 because of their astronomical knowledge and their help in rectifying the irregularities and confusions of the ,chinese calendar4#bd ,their globes and astrolabes are still to be seen on the walls of ,peking4 ,but in the long run they could not resist quarrels between different orders1 and were almost completely excluded from both ,china and ,japan4 ,in the year #agic1 a ,british ambassador1 ,lord ,macartney1 arrived in ,china1 to request further trade facilities and the establishment of a permanent ,british diplomatic representative4 ,the ,emperor at this time was ,chien ,lung1 the best of the ,manchu dynasty1 a cultivated man1 a patron of the arts1 and an exquisite calligraphist4 7,one finds specimens of his writing in all sorts of places in ,china47 ,his reply to ,king ,george ,,iii is given by ,backhouse and ,bland4#be ,i wish ,i could quote it all1 but some extracts must suffice4 ,it begins3 ,you1 ,o ,king1 live beyond the confines of many seas1 nevertheless1 impelled by your humble desire to partake of the benefits of our civilization1 you have despatched a mission respectfully bearing your memorial4444 ,to show your devotion1 you have also sent offerings of your country's produce4 ,i have read your memorial3 the earnest terms in which it is cast reveal a respectful humility on your part1 which is highly praiseworthy4 ,he goes on to explain1 with the patient manner appropriate in dealing with an importunate child1 why ,george ,,iii's desires cannot possibly be gratified4 ,an ambassador1 he assures him1 would be useless1 for3 ,if you assert that your reverence for our ,celestial ,dynasty fills you with a desire to acquire our civilization1 our ceremonies and code of laws differ so completely from your own that1 even if your ,envoy were able to acquire the rudiments of our civilization1 you could not possibly transplant our manners and customs to your alien soil4 ,therefore1 however adept the ,envoy might become1 nothing would be gained thereby4 ,swaying the wide world1 ,i have but one aim in view1 namely1 to maintain a perfect governance and to fulfil the duties of the ,state2 strange and costly objects do not interest me4 ,i 444 have no use for your country's manufactures4 444,it behoves you1 ,o ,king1 to respect my sentiments and to display even greater devotion and loyalty in future1 so that1 by perpetual submission to our ,throne1 you may secure peace and prosperity for your country hereafter4 ,he can understand the ,english desiring the produce of ,china1 but feels that they have nothing worth having to offer in exchange3 ,our ,celestial ,empire possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no product within its own borders4 ,there was therefore no need to import the manufactures of outside barbarians in exchange for our own produce4 ,but as the tea1 silk and porcelain which the ,celestial ,empire produces are absolute necessities to ,european nations and to yourselves1 the limited trade hitherto permitted at ,canton is to continue4 ,he would have shown less favour to ,lord ,macartney1 but ,i do not forget the lonely remoteness of your island1 cut off from the world by intervening wastes of sea1 nor do ,i overlook your excusable ignorance of the usages of our ,celestial ,empire4 ,he concludes with the injunction3 ,tremblingly obey and show no negligence6 ,what ,i want to suggest is that no one understands ,china until this document has ceased to seem absurd4 ,the ,romans claimed to rule the world1 and what lay outside their ,empire was to them of no account4 ,the ,empire of ,chien ,lung was more extensive1 with probably a larger population2 it had risen to greatness at the same time as ,rome1 and had not fallen1 but invariably defeated all its enemies1 either by war or by absorption4 ,its neighbours were comparatively barbarous1 except the ,japanese1 who acquired their civilization by slavish imitation of ,china4 ,the view of ,chien ,lung was no more absurd than that of ,alexander the ,great1 sighing for new worlds to conquer when he had never even heard of ,china1 where ,confucius had been dead already for a hundred and fifty years4 ,nor was he mistaken as regards trade3 ,china produces everything needed for the happiness of its inhabitants1 and we have forced trade upon them solely for our benefit1 giving them in exchange only things which they would do better without4 ,unfortunately for ,china1 its culture was deficient in one respect1 namely science4 ,in art and literature1 in manners and customs1 it was at least the equal of ,europe2 at the time of the ,renaissance1 ,europe would not have been in any way the superior of the ,celestial ,empire4 ,there is a museum in ,peking where1 side by side with good ,chinese art1 may be seen the presents which ,louis ,,xiv made to the ,emperor when he wished to impress him with the splendour of ,le ,roi ,soleil4 ,compared to the ,chinese things surrounding them1 they were tawdry and barbaric4 ,the fact that ,britain has produced ,shakespeare and ,milton1 ,locke and ,hume1 and all the other men who have adorned literature and the arts1 does not make us superior to the ,chinese4 ,what makes us superior is ,newton and ,robert ,boyle and their scientific successors4 ,they make us superior by giving us greater proficiency in the art of killing4 ,it is easier for an ,englishman to kill a ,chinaman than for a ,chinaman to kill an ,englishman4 ,therefore our civilization is superior to that of ,china1 and ,chien ,lung is absurd4 ,when we had finished with ,napoleon1 we soon set to work to demonstrate this proposition4 ,our first war with ,china was in #ahdj1 and was fought because the ,chinese ,government endeavoured to stop the importation of opium4 ,it ended with the cession of ,hong-,kong and the opening of five ports to ,british trade1 as well as 7soon afterwards7 to the trade of ,france1 ,america and ,scandinavia4 ,in #ahef-fj1 the ,english and ,french jointly made war on ,china1 and destroyed the ,summer ,palace near ,peking1#bf a building whose artistic value1 on account of the treasures it contained1 must have been about equal to that of ,saint ,mark's in ,venice and much greater than that of ,rheims ,cathedral4 ,this act did much to persuade the ,chinese of the superiority of our civilization so they opened seven more ports and the river ,yangtze1 paid an indemnity and granted us more territory at ,hong-,kong4 ,in #ahgj1 the ,chinese were rash enough to murder a ,british diplomat1 so the remaining ,british diplomats demanded and obtained an indemnity1 five more ports1 and a fixed tariff for opium4 ,next1 the ,french took ,annam and the ,british took ,burma1 both formerly under ,chinese suzerainty4 ,then came the war with ,japan in #ahid-e1 leading to ,japan's complete victory and conquest of ,korea4 ,japan's acquisitions would have been much greater but for the intervention of ,france1 ,germany and ,russia1 ,england holding aloof4 ,this was the beginning of our support of ,japan1 inspired by fear of ,russia4 ,it also led to an alliance between ,china and ,russia1 as a reward for which ,russia acquired all the important rights in ,manchuria1 which passed to ,japan1 partly after the ,russo-,japanese war1 and partly after the ,bolshevik revolution4 ,the next incident begins with the murder of two ,german missionaries in ,shantung in #ahig4 ,nothing in their life became them like the leaving of it2 for if they had lived they would probably have made very few converts1 whereas by dying they afforded the world an object-lesson in ,christian ethics4 ,the ,germans seized ,kiaochow ,bay and created a naval base there2 they also acquired railway and mining rights in ,shantung1 which1 by the ,treaty of ,versailles1 passed to ,japan in accordance with the ,fourteen ,points4 ,shantung therefore became virtually a ,japanese possession1 though ,america at ,washington has insisted upon its restitution4 ,the services of the two missionaries to civilization did not1 however1 end in ,china1 for their death was constantly used in the ,german ,reichstag during the first debates on the ,german ,big ,navy ,bills1 since it was held that warships would make ,germany respected in ,china4 ,thus they helped to exacerbate the relations of ,england and ,germany and to hasten the advent of the ,great ,war4 ,they also helped to bring on the ,boxer rising1 which is said to have begun as a movement against the ,germans in ,shantung1 though the other ,powers emulated the ,germans in every respect1 the ,russians by creating a naval base at ,port ,arthur1 the ,british by acquiring ,wei-hai-wei and a sphere of influence in the ,yangtze1 and so on4 ,the ,americans alone held aloof1 proclaiming the policy of ,chinese integrity and the ,open ,door4 ,the ,boxer rising is one of the few ,chinese events that all ,europeans know about4 ,after we had demonstrated our superior virtue by the sack of ,peking1 we exacted a huge indemnity1 and turned the ,legation ,quarter of ,peking into a fortified city4 ,to this day1 it is enclosed by a wall1 filled with ,european1 ,american1 and ,japanese troops1 and surrounded by a bare space on which the ,chinese are not allowed to build4 ,it is administered by the diplomatic body1 and the ,chinese authorities have no powers over anyone within its gates4 ,when some unusually corrupt and traitorous ,government is overthrown1 its members take refuge in the ,japanese 7or other7 ,legation and so escape the punishment of their crimes1 while within the sacred precincts of the ,legation ,quarter the ,americans erect a vast wireless station said to be capable of communicating directly with the ,united ,states4 ,and so the refutation of ,chien ,lung is completed4 ,out of the ,boxer indemnity1 however1 one good thing has come4 ,the ,americans found that1 after paying all just claims for damages1 they still had a large surplus4 ,this they returned to ,china to be spent on higher education1 partly in colleges in ,china under ,american control1 partly by sending advanced ,chinese students to ,american universities4 ,the gain to ,china has been enormous1 and the benefit to ,america from the friendship of the ,chinese 7especially the most educated of them7 is incalculable4 ,this is obvious to everyone1 yet ,england shows hardly any signs of following suit4 ,to understand the difficulties with which the ,chinese ,government is faced1 it is necessary to realize the loss of fiscal independence which1 ,china has suffered as the result of the various wars and treaties which have been forced upon her4 ,in the early days1 the ,chinese had no experience of ,european diplomacy1 and did not know what to avoid2 in later days1 they have not been allowed to treat old treaties as scraps of paper1 since that is the prerogative of the ,great ,powers--a prerogative which every single one of them exercises4 ,the best example of this state of affairs is the ,customs tariff4#bg ,at the end of our first war with ,china1 in #ahdb1 we concluded a treaty which provided for a duty at treaty ports of #e per cent4 on all imports and not more than #e per cent on exports4 ,this treaty is the basis of the whole ,customs system4 ,at the end of our next war1 in #aheh1 we drew up a schedule of conventional prices on which the #e per cent4 was to be calculated4 ,this was to be revised every ten years1 but has in fact only been revised twice1 once in #aijb and once in #aiah4bh ,revision of the schedule is merely a change in the conventional prices1 not a change in the tariff1 which remains fixed at #e per cent4 ,change in the tariff is practically impossible1 since ,china has concluded commercial treaties involving a most-favoured-nation clause1 and the same tariff1 with twelve ,states besides ,great ,britain1 and therefore any change in the tariff requires the unanimous consent of thirteen ,powers4 ,when foreign ,powers speak of the ,open ,door as a panacea for ,china1 it must be remembered that the ,open ,door does nothing to give the ,chinese the usual autonomy as regards ,customs that is enjoyed by other sovereign ,states4#bi ,the treaty of #ahdb on which the system rests1 has no time-limit of provision for denunciation by either party1 such as other commercial treaties contain4 ,a low tariff suits the ,powers that wish to find a market for their goods in ,china1 and they have therefore no motive for consenting to any alteration4 ,in the past1 when we practised free trade1 we could defend ourselves by saying that the policy we forced upon ,china was the same as that which we adopted ourselves4 ,but no other nation could make this excuse1 nor can we now that we have abandoned free trade by the ,safeguarding of ,industries ,act4 ,the import tariff being so low1 the ,chinese ,government is compelled1 for the sake of revenue1 to charge the maximum of #e per cent1 on all exports4 ,this1 of course1 hinders the development of ,chinese commerce1 and is probably a mistake4 ,but the need of sources of revenue is desperate1 and it is not surprising that the ,chinese authorities should consider the tax indispensable4 ,there is also another system in ,china1 chiefly inherited from the time of the ,taiping rebellion1 namely the erection of internal customs barriers at various important points4 ,this plan is still adopted with the internal trade4 ,but merchants dealing with the interior and sending goods to or from a ,treaty ,port can escape internal customs by the payment of half the duty charged under the external tariff4 ,as this is generally less than the internal tariff charges1 this provision favours foreign produce at the expense of that of ,china4 ,of course the system of internal customs is bad1 but it is traditional1 and is defended on the ground that revenue is indispensable4 ,china offered to abolish internal customs in return for certain uniform increases in the import and export tariff1 and ,great ,britain1 ,japan1 and the ,united ,states consented4 ,but there were ten other ,powers whose consent was necessary1 and not all could be induced to agree4 ,so the old system remains in force1 not chiefly through the fault of the ,chinese central government4 ,it should be added that internal customs are collected by the provincial authorities1 who usually intercept them and use them for private armies and civil war4 ,at the present time1 the ,central ,government is not strong enough to stop these abuses4 ,the administration of the ,customs is only partially in the hands of the ,chinese4 ,by treaty1 the ,inspector-,general1 who is at the head of the service1 must be ,british so long as our trade with ,china exceeds that of any other treaty ,state2 and the appointment of all subordinate officials is in his hands4 ,in #aiah 7the latest year for which ,i have the figures7 there were #g1ejj persons employed in the ,customs1 and of these #b1jjj were non-,chinese4 ,the first ,inspector-,general was ,sir ,robert ,hart1 who1 by the unanimous testimony of all parties1 fulfilled his duties exceedingly well4 ,for the time being1 there is much to be said for the present system4 ,the ,chinese have the appointment of the ,inspector-,general1 and can therefore choose a man who is sympathetic to their country4 ,chinese officials are1 as a rule1 corrupt and indolent1 so that control by foreigners is necessary in creating a modern bureaucracy4 ,so long as the foreign officials are responsible to the ,chinese ,government1 not to foreign ,states1 they fulfil a useful educative function1 and help to prepare the way for the creation of an efficient ,chinese ,state4 ,the problem for ,china is to secure practical and intellectual training from the white nations without becoming their slaves4 ,in dealing with this problem1 the system adopted in the ,customs has much to recommend it during the early stages4#cj ,at the same time1 there are grave infringements of ,chinese independence in the present position of the ,customs1 apart altogether from the fact that the tariff is fixed by treaty for ever4 ,much of the revenue derivable from customs is mortgaged for various loans and indemnities1 so that the ,customs cannot be dealt with from the point of view of ,chinese interests alone4 ,moreover1 in the present state of anarchy1 the ,customs administration can exercise considerable control over ,chinese politics by recognizing or not recognizing a given de facto ,government4 7,there is no ,government de jure1 at any rate in the ,north47 ,at present1 the ,customs ,revenue is withheld in the ,south1 and an artificial bankruptcy is being engineered4 ,in view of the reactionary instincts of diplomats1 this constitutes a terrible obstacle to internal reform4 ,it means that no ,government which is in earnest in attempting to introduce radical improvements can hope to enjoy the ,customs revenue1 which interposes a formidable fiscal barrier in the way of reconstruction4 ,there is a similar situation as regards the salt tax4 ,this also was accepted as security for various foreign loans1 and in order to make the security acceptable the foreign ,powers concerned insisted upon the employment of foreigners in the principal posts4 ,as in the case of the ,customs1 the foreign inspectors are appointed by the ,chinese ,government1 and the situation is in all respects similar to that existing as regards the ,customs4 ,the ,customs and the salt tax form the security for various loans to ,china4 ,this1 together with foreign administration1 gives opportunities of interference by the ,powers which they show no inclination to neglect4 ,the way in which the situation is utilized may be illustrated by three telegrams in ,the ,times which appeared during ,january of this year4 ,on ,january #ad1 #aibb1 ,the ,times published the following in a telegram from its ,peking correspondent3 ,it is curious to reflect that this country 7,china7 could be rendered completely solvent and the ,government provided with a substantial income almost by a stroke of the foreigner's pen1 while without that stroke there must be bankruptcy1 pure and simple4 ,despite constant civil war and political chaos1 the ,customs revenue consistently grows1 and last year exceeded all records by #a1jjj1jjj4 ,the increased duties sanctioned by the ,washington ,conference will provide sufficient revenue to liquidate the whole foreign and domestic floating debt in a very few years1 leaving the splendid salt surplus unencumbered for the ,government4 ,the difficulty is not to provide money1 but to find a ,government to which to entrust it4 ,nor is there any visible prospect of the removal of this difficulty4 ,i venture to think ,the ,times would regard the difficulty as removed if the ,manchu ,empire were restored4 ,as to the splendid salt surplus1 there are two telegrams from the ,peking correspondent to ,the ,times 7of ,january #abth and #bcrd1 respectively7 showing what we gain by making the ,peking ,government artificially bankrupt4 ,the first telegram 7sent on ,january #ajth7 is as follows3-- ,present conditions in ,china are aptly illustrated by what is happening in one of the great salt revenue stations on the ,yangtsze1 near ,chinkiang4 ,that portion of the ,chinese fleet faithful to the ,central ,government--the better half went over to the ,canton ,government long ago--has dispatched a squadron of gunboats to the salt station and notified ,peking that if #c1jjj1jjj 7about #djj1jjj7 arrears of pay were not immediately forthcoming the amount would be forcibly recovered from the revenue4 ,meanwhile the immense salt traffic on the ,yangtsze has been suspended4 ,the ,legations concerned have now sent an ,identic ,note to the ,government warning it of the necessity for immediately securing the removal of the obstruction to the traffic and to the operations of the foreign collectorate4 ,the second telegram is equally interesting4 ,it is as follows3-- ,the question of interference with the ,salt ,gabelle is assuming a serious aspect4 ,the ,chinese squadron of gunboats referred to in my message of the #ajth is still blocking the salt traffic near ,chingkiang1 while a new intruder in the shape of an agent of ,wu-,pei-,fu the ,liberal military leader has installed himself in the collectorate at ,hankow1 and is endeavouring to appropriate the receipts for his powerful master4 ,the ,british1 ,french1 and ,japanese ,ministers accordingly have again addressed the ,government1 giving notice that if these irregular proceedings do not cease they will be compelled to take independent action4 ,the ,reorganization ,loan of #be1jjj1jjj is secured on the salt revenues1 and interference with the foreign control of the department constitutes an infringement of the loan agreement4 ,in various parts of ,china1 some independent of ,peking1 others not1 the local ,tuchuns 7military governors7 impound the collections and materially diminish the total coming under the control of the foreign inspectorate1 but the balance remaining has been so large1 and protest so useless1 that hitherto all concerned have considered it expedient to acquiesce4 ,but interference at points on the ,yangtsze1 where naval force can be brought to bear1 is another matter4 ,the situation is interesting in view of the amiable resolutions adopted at ,washington1 by which the ,powers would seem to have debarred themselves1 in the future1 from any active form of intervention in this country4 ,in view of the extensive opposition to the ,liang ,shih-yi ,cabinet and the present interference with the salt negotiations1 the #ij1jjj1jjj 7#aa1jjj1jjj7 loan to be secured on the salt surplus has been dropped4 ,the problem of how to weather the new year settlement on ,january #bhth remains unsolved4 ,it is a pretty game3 creating artificial bankruptcy1 and then inflicting punishment for the resulting anarchy4 ,how regrettable that the ,washington ,conference should attempt to interfere6 ,it is useless to deny that the ,chinese have brought these troubles upon themselves1 by their inability to produce capable and honest officials4 ,this inability has its roots in ,chinese ethics1 which lay stress upon a man's duty to his family rather than to the public4 ,an official is expected to keep all his relations supplied with funds1 and therefore can only be honest at the expense of filial piety4 ,the decay of the family system is a vital condition of progress in ,china4 ,all ,young ,china realizes this1 and one may hope that twenty years hence the level of honesty among officials may be not lower in ,china than in ,europe--no very extravagant hope4 ,but for this purpose friendly contact with ,western nations is essential4 ,if we insist upon rousing ,chinese nationalism as we have roused that of ,india and ,japan1 the ,chinese will begin to think that wherever they differ from ,europe1 they differ for the better4 ,there is more truth in this than ,europeans like to think1 but it is not wholly true1 and if it comes to be believed our power for good in ,china will be at an end4 ,i have described briefly in this chapter what the ,christian ,powers did to ,china while they were able to act independently of ,japan4 ,but in modern ,china it is ,japanese aggression that is the most urgent problem4 ,before considering this1 however1 we must deal briefly with the rise of modern ,japan--a quite peculiar blend of ,east and ,west1 which ,i hope is not prophetic of the blend to be ultimately achieved in ,china4 ,but before passing to ,japan1 ,i will give a brief description of the social and political condition of modern ,china1 without which ,japan's action in ,china would be unintelligible4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #bd3 ,in #afia the ,emperor ,kang ,hsi issued an edict explaining his attitude towards various religions4 ,of ,roman ,catholicism he says3 ,as to the western doctrine which glorifies ,tien ,chu1 the ,lord of the ,sky1 that1 too1 is heterodox2 but because its priests are thoroughly conversant with mathematics1 the ,government makes use of them--a point which you soldiers and people should understand4 7,giles1 op4 cit4 p4 #beb47 ,footnote #be3 ,annals and ,memoirs of the ,court of ,peking1 pp4 #cbb ff4 ,footnote #bf3 ,the ,summer ,palace now shown to tourists is modern1 chiefly built by the ,empress ,dowager4 ,footnote #bg3 ,there is an admirable account of this question in ,chap4 vii4 of ,sih-,gung ,cheng's ,modern ,china1 ,clarendon ,press1 #aiai4 ,footnote #bh3 ,a new revision has been decided upon by the ,washington ,conference4 ,footnote #bi3 ,if you lived in a town where the burglars had obtained possession of the ,town ,council1 they would very likely insist upon the policy of the ,open ,door1 but you might not consider it wholly satisfactory4 ,such is ,china's situation among the ,great ,powers4 ,footnote #cj3 ,the ,times of ,november #bf1 #aiba1 had a leading article on ,mr4 ,wellington ,koo's suggestion1 at ,washington1 that ,china ought to be allowed to recover fiscal autonomy as regards the tariff4 ,mr4 ,koo did not deal with the ,customs administration1 nevertheless ,the ,times assumed that his purpose was to get the administration into the hands of the ,chinese on account of the opportunities of lucrative corruption which it would afford4 ,i wrote to ,the ,times pointing out that they had confused the administration with the tariff1 and that ,mr4 ,koo was dealing only with the tariff4 ,in view of the fact that they did not print either my letter or any other to the same effect1 are we to conclude that their misrepresentation was deliberate and intentional8 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,modern ,,china ,the position of ,china among the nations of the world is quite peculiar1 because in population and potential strength ,china is the greatest nation in the world1 while in actual strength at the moment it is one of the least4 ,the international problems raised by this situation have been brought into the forefront of world-politics by the ,washington ,conference4 ,what settlement1 if any1 will ultimately be arrived at1 it is as yet impossible to foresee4 ,there are1 however1 certain broad facts and principles which no wise solution can ignore1 for which ,i shall try to give the evidence in the course of the following chapters1 but which it may be as well to state briefly at the outset4 ,first1 the ,chinese1 though as yet incompetent in politics and backward in economic development1 have1 in other respects1 a civilization at least as good as our own1 containing elements which the world greatly needs1 and which we shall destroy at our peril4 ,secondly1 the ,powers have inflicted upon ,china a multitude of humiliations and disabilities1 for which excuses have been found in ,china's misdeeds1 but for which the sole real reason has been ,china's military and naval weakness4 ,thirdly1 the best of the ,great ,powers at present1 in relation to ,china1 is ,america1 and the worst is ,japan2 in the interests of ,china1 as well as in our own larger interests1 it is an immense advance that we have ceased to support ,japan and have ranged ourselves on the side of ,america1 in so far as ,america stands for ,chinese freedom1 but not when ,japanese freedom is threatened4 ,fourthly1 in the long run1 the ,chinese cannot escape economic domination by foreign ,powers unless ,china becomes military or the foreign ,powers become ,socialistic1 because the capitalist system involves in its very essence a predatory relation of the strong towards the weak1 internationally as well as nationally4 ,a strong military ,china would be a disaster2 therefore ,socialism in ,europe and ,america affords the only ultimate solution4 ,after these preliminary remarks1 ,i come to the theme of this chapter1 namely1 the present internal condition of ,china4 ,as everyone knows1 ,china1 after having an ,emperor for forty centuries1 decided1 eleven years ago1 to become a modern democratic republic4 ,many causes led up to this result4 ,passing over the first #c1gjj years of ,chinese history1 we arrive at the ,manchu conquest in #afdd1 when a warlike invader from the north succeeded in establishing himself upon the ,dragon ,throne4 ,he set to work to induce ,chinese men to wear pigtails and ,chinese women to have big feet4 ,after a time a statesmanlike compromise was arranged3 pigtails were adopted but big feet were rejected2 the new absurdity was accepted and the old one retained4 ,this characteristic compromise shows how much ,england and ,china have in common4 ,the ,manchu ,emperors soon became almost completely ,chinese1 but differences of dress and manners kept the ,manchus distinct from the more civilized people whom they had conquered1 and the ,chinese remained inwardly hostile to them4 ,from #ahdj to #aijj1 a series of disastrous foreign wars1 culminating in the humiliation of the ,boxer time1 destroyed the prestige of the ,imperial ,family and showed all thoughtful people the need of learning from ,europeans4 ,the ,taiping rebellion1 which lasted for #ae years 7#ahdi-fd71 is thought by ,putnam ,weale to have diminished the population by #aej millions1#ca and was almost as terrible a business as the ,great ,war4 ,for a long time it seemed doubtful whether the ,manchus could suppress it1 and when at last they succeeded 7by the help of ,gordon7 their energy was exhausted4 ,the defeat of ,china by ,japan 7#ahid-e7 and the vengeance of the ,powers after the ,boxer rising 7#aijj7 finally opened the eyes of all thoughtful ,chinese to the need for a better and more modern government than that of the ,imperial ,family4 ,but things move slowly in ,china1 and it was not till eleven years after the ,boxer movement that the revolution broke out4 ,the revolution of #aiaa1 in ,china1 was a moderate one1 similar in spirit to ours of #afhh4 ,its chief promoter1 ,sun ,yat ,sen1 now at the head of the ,canton ,government1 was supported by the ,republicans1 and was elected provisional ,president4 ,but the ,nothern ,army remained faithful to the dynasty1 and could probably have defeated the revolutionaries4 ,its ,commander-in-,chief1 ,yuan ,shih-k'ai1 however1 hit upon a better scheme4 ,he made peace with the revolutionaries and acknowledged the ,republic1 on condition that he should be the first ,president instead of ,sun ,yat ,sen4 ,yuan ,shih-k'ai was1 of course1 supported by the ,legations1 being what is called a strong man1 i4e4 a believer in blood and iron1 not likely to be led astray by talk about democracy or freedom4 ,in ,china1 the ,north has always been more military and less liberal than the ,south1 and ,yuan ,shih-k'ai had created out of ,northern troops whatever ,china possessed in the way of a modern army4 ,as he was also ambitious and treacherous1 he had every quality needed for inspiring confidence in the diplomatic corps4 ,in view of the chaos which has existed since his death1 it must be admitted1 however1 that there was something to be said in favour of his policy and methods4 ,a ,constituent ,assembly1 after enacting a provisional constitution1 gave place to a duly elected ,parliament1 which met in ,april #aiac to determine the permanent constitution4 ,yuan soon began to quarrel with the ,parliament as to the powers of the ,president1 which the ,parliament wished to restrict4 ,the majority in ,parliament was opposed to ,yuan1 but he had the preponderance in military strength4 ,under these circumstances1 as was to be expected1 constitutionalism was soon overthrown4 ,yuan made himself financially independent of ,parliament 7which had been duly endowed with the power of the purse7 by unconstitutionally concluding a loan with the foreign banks4 ,this led to a revolt of the ,south1 which1 however1 ,yuan quickly suppressed4 ,after this1 by various stages1 he made himself virtually absolute ruler of ,china4 ,he appointed his army lieutenants military governors of provinces1 and sent ,northern troops into the ,south4 ,his rgime might have lasted but for the fact that1 in #aiae1 he tried to become ,emperor1 and was met by a successful revolt4 ,he died in #aiaf--of a broken heart1 it was said4 ,since then there has been nothing but confusion in ,china4 ,the military governors appointed by ,yuan refused to submit to the ,central ,government when his strong hand was removed1 and their troops terrorized the populations upon whom they were quartered4 ,ever since there has been civil war1 not1 as a rule1 for any definite principle1 but simply to determine which of various rival generals should govern various groups of provinces4 ,there still remains the issue of ,north versus ,south1 but this has lost most of its constitutional significance4 ,the military governors of provinces or groups of provinces1 who are called ,tuchuns1 govern despotically in defiance of ,peking1 and commit depredations on the inhabitants of the districts over which they rule4 ,they intercept the revenue1 except the portions collected and administered by foreigners1 such as the salt tax4 ,they are nominally appointed by ,peking1 but in practice depend only upon the favour of the soldiers in their provinces4 ,the ,central ,government is nearly bankrupt1 and is usually unable to pay the soldiers1 who live by loot and by such portions of the ,tuchun's illgotten wealth as he finds it prudent to surrender to them4 ,when any faction seemed near to complete victory1 the ,japanese supported its opponents1 in order that civil discord might be prolonged4 ,while ,i was in ,peking1 the three most important ,tuchuns met there for a conference on the division of the spoils4 ,they were barely civil to the ,president and the ,prime ,minister1 who still officially represent ,china in the eyes of foreign ,powers4 ,the unfortunate nominal ,government was obliged to pay to these three worthies1 out of a bankrupt treasury1 a sum which the newspapers stated to be nine million dollars1 to secure their departure from the capital4 ,the largest share went to ,chang-tso-lin1 the ,viceroy of ,manchuria and commonly said to be a tool of ,japan4 ,his share was paid to cover the expenses of an expedition to ,mongolia1 which had revolted2 but no one for a moment supposed that he would undertake such an expedition1 and in fact he has remained at ,mukden ever since4#cb ,in the extreme south1 however1 there has been established a ,government of a different sort1 for which it is possible to have some respect4 ,canton1 which has always been the centre of ,chinese radicalism1 succeeded1 in the autumn of #aibj1 in throwing off the tyranny of its ,northern garrison and establishing a progressive efficient ,government under the ,presidency of ,sun ,yat ,sen4 ,this ,government now embraces two provinces1 ,kwangtung 7of which ,canton is the capital7 and ,kwangsi4 ,for a moment it seemed likely to conquer the whole of the ,south1 but it has been checked by the victories of the ,northern ,general ,wu-,pei-,fu in the neighbouring province of ,hunan4 ,its enemies allege that it cherishes designs of conquest1 and wishes to unite all ,china under its sway4#cc ,in all ascertainable respects it is a ,government which deserves the support of all progressive people4 ,professor ,dewey1 in articles in the ,new ,republic1 has set forth its merits1 as well as the bitter enmity which it has encountered from ,hong-,kong and the ,british generally4 ,this opposition is partly on general principles1 because we dislike radical reform1 partly because of the ,cassel agreement4 ,this agreement--of a common type in ,china--would have given us a virtual monopoly of the railways and mines in the province of ,kwangtung4 ,it had been concluded with the former ,government1 and only awaited ratification1 but the change of ,government has made ratification impossible4 ,the new ,government1 very properly1 is befriended by the ,americans1 and one of them1 ,mr4 ,shank1 concluded an agreement with the new ,government more or less similar to that which we had concluded with the old one4 ,the ,american ,government1 however1 did not support ,mr4 ,shank1 whereas the ,british ,government did support the ,cassel agreement4 ,meanwhile we have lost a very valuable though very iniquitous concession1 merely because we1 but not the ,americans1 prefer what is old and corrupt to what is vigorous and honest4 ,i understand1 moreover1 that the ,shank agreement lapsed because ,mr4 ,shank could not raise the necessary capital4 ,the anarchy in ,china is1 of course1 very regrettable1 and every friend of ,china must hope that it will be brought to an end4 ,but it would be a mistake to exaggerate the evil1 or to suppose that it is comparable in magnitude to the evils endured in ,europe4 ,china must not be compared to a single ,european country1 but to ,europe as a whole4 ,in ,the ,times of ,november #aa1 #aiba1 ,i notice a pessimistic article headed3 ,the ,peril of ,china4 ,a dozen rival ,governments4 ,but in ,europe there are much more than a dozen ,governments1 and their enmities are much fiercer than those of ,china4 ,the number of troops in ,europe is enormously greater than in ,china1 and they are infinitely better provided with weapons of destruction4 ,the amount of fighting in ,europe since the ,armistice has been incomparably more than the amount in ,china during the same period4 ,you may travel through ,china from end to end1 and it is ten to one that you will see no signs of war4 ,chinese battles are seldom bloody1 being fought by mercenary soldiers who take no interest in the cause for which they are supposed to be fighting4 ,i am inclined to think that the inhabitants of ,china1 at the present moment1 are happier1 on the average1 than the inhabitants of ,europe taken as a whole4 ,it is clear1 ,i think1 that political reform in ,china1 when it becomes possible1 will have to take the form of a federal constitution1 allowing a very large measure of autonomy to the provinces4 ,the division into provinces is very ancient1 and provincial feeling is strong4 ,after the revolution1 a constitution more or less resembling our own was attempted1 only with a ,president instead of a ,king4 ,but the successful working of a non-federal constitution requires a homogeneous population without much local feeling1 as may be seen from our own experience in ,ireland4 ,most progressive ,chinese1 as far as ,i was able to judge1 now favour a federal constitution1 leaving to the ,central ,government not much except armaments1 foreign affairs1 and customs4 ,but the difficulty of getting rid of the existing military anarchy is very great4 ,the ,central ,government cannot disband the troops1 because it cannot find the money to pay them4 ,it would be necessary to borrow from abroad enough money to pay off the troops and establish them in new jobs4 ,but it is doubtful whether any ,power or ,powers would make such a loan without exacting the sacrifice of the last remnants of ,chinese independence4 ,one must therefore hope that somehow the ,chinese will find a way of escaping from their troubles without too much foreign assistance4 ,it is by no means impossible that one of the ,tuchuns may become supreme1 and may then make friends with the constitutionalists as the best way of consolidating his influence4 ,china is a country where public opinion has great weight1 and where the desire to be thought well of may quite possibly lead a successful militarist into patriotic courses4 ,there are1 at the moment1 two ,tuchuns who are more important than any of the others4 ,these are ,chang-tso-lin and ,wu-,pei-,fu1 both of whom have been already mentioned4 ,chang-tso-lin is supreme in ,manchuria1 and strong in ,japanese support2 he represents all that is most reactionary in ,china4 ,wu-,pei-,fu1 on the other hand1 is credited with liberal tendencies4 ,he is an able general2 not long ago1 nominally at the bidding of ,peking1 he established his authority on the ,yangtze and in ,hunan1 thereby dealing a blow to the hopes of ,canton4 ,it is not easy to see how he could come to terms with the ,canton ,government1 especially since it has allied itself with ,chang-tso-lin1 but in the rest of ,china he might establish his authority and seek to make it permanent by being constitutional 7see ,appendix74 ,if so1 ,china might have a breathing-space1 and a breathing-space is all that is needed4 ,the economic life of ,china1 except in the ,treaty ,ports and in a few regions where there are mines1 is still wholly pre-industrial4 ,peking has nearly a million inhabitants1 and covers an enormous area1 owing to the fact that all the houses have only a ground floor and are built round a courtyard4 ,yet it has no trams or buses or local trains4 ,so far as ,i could see1 there are not more than two or three factory chimneys in the whole town4 ,apart from begging1 trading1 thieving and ,government employment1 people live by handicrafts4 ,the products are exquisite and the work less monotonous than machine-minding1 but the hours are long and the pay infinitesimal4 ,seventy or eighty per cent4 of the population of ,china are engaged in agriculture4 ,rice and tea are the chief products of the south1 while wheat and other kinds of grain form the staple crops in the north4#cd ,the rainfall is very great in the south1 but in the north it is only just sufficient to prevent the land from being a desert4 ,when ,i arrived in ,china1 in the autumn of #aibj1 a large area in the north1 owing to drought1 was afflicted with a terrible famine1 nearly as bad1 probably1 as the famine in ,russia in #aiba4 ,as the ,bolsheviks were not concerned1 foreigners had no hesitation in trying to bring relief4 ,as for the ,chinese1 they regarded it passively as a stroke of fate1 and even those who died of it shared this view4 ,most of the land is in the hands of peasant proprietors1 who divide their holdings among their sons1 so that each man's share becomes barely sufficient to support himself and his family4 ,consequently1 when the rainfall is less than usual1 immense numbers perish of starvation4 ,it would of course be possible1 for a time1 to prevent famines by more scientific methods of agriculture1 and to prevent droughts and floods by afforestation4 ,more railways and better roads would give a vastly improved market1 and might greatly enrich the peasants for a generation4 ,but in the long run1 if the birth-rate is as great as is usually supposed1 no permanent cure for their poverty is possible while their families continue to be so large4 ,in ,china1 ,malthus's theory of population1 according to many writers1 finds full scope4#ce ,if so1 the good done by any improvement of methods will lead to the survival of more children1 involving a greater subdivision of the land1 and in the end1 a return to the same degree of poverty4 ,only education and a higher standard of life can remove the fundamental cause of these evils4 ,and popular education1 on a large scale1 is of course impossible until there is a better ,government and an adequate revenue4 ,apart even from these difficulties1 there does not exist1 as yet1 a sufficient supply of competent ,chinese teachers for a system of universal elementary education4 ,apart from war1 the impact of ,european civilization upon the traditional life of ,china takes two forms1 one commercial1 the other intellectual4 ,both depend upon the prestige of armaments2 the ,chinese would never have opened either their ports to our trade or their minds to our ideas if we had not defeated them in war4 ,but the military beginning of our intercourse with the ,middle ,kingdom has now receded into the background2 one is not conscious1 in any class1 of a strong hostility to foreigners as such4 ,it would not be difficult to make out a case for the view that intercourse with the white races is proving a misfortune to ,china1 but apparently this view is not taken by anyone in ,china except where unreasoning conservative prejudice outweighs all other considerations4 ,the ,chinese have a very strong instinct for trade1 and a considerable intellectual curiosity1 to both of which we appeal4 ,only a bare minimum of common decency is required to secure their friendship1 whether privately or politically4 ,and ,i think their thought is as capable of enriching our culture as their commerce of enriching our pockets4 ,in the ,treaty ,ports1 ,europeans and ,americans live in their own quarters1 with streets well paved and lighted1 houses in ,european style1 and shops full of ,american and ,english goods4 ,there is generally also a ,chinese part of the town1 with narrow streets1 gaily decorated shops1 and the rich mixture of smells characteristic of ,china4 ,often one passes through a gate1 suddenly1 from one to the other2 after the cheerful disordered beauty of the old town1 ,europe's ugly cleanliness and ,sunday-go-to-meeting decency make a strange complex impression1 half-love and half-hate4 ,in the ,european town one finds safety1 spaciousness and hygiene2 in the ,chinese town1 romance1 overcrowding and disease4 ,in spite of my affection for ,china1 these transitions always made me realize that ,i am a ,european2 for me1 the ,chinese manner of life would not mean happiness4 ,but after making all necessary deductions for the poverty and the disease1 ,i am inclined to think that ,chinese life brings more happiness to the ,chinese than ,english life does to us4 ,at any rate this seemed to me to be true for the men2 for the women ,i do not think it would be true4 ,shanghai and ,tientsin are white men's cities2 the first sight of ,shanghai makes one wonder what is the use of travelling1 because there is so little change from what one is used to4 ,treaty ,ports1 each of which is a centre of ,european influence1 exist practically all over ,china1 not only on the sea coast4 ,hankow1 a very important ,treaty ,port1 is almost exactly in the centre of ,china4 ,north and ,south ,china are divided by the ,yangtze2 ,east and ,west ,china are divided by the route from ,peking to ,canton4 ,these two dividing lines meet at ,hankow1 which has long been an important strategical point in ,chinese history4 ,from ,peking to ,hankow there is a railway1 formerly ,franco-,belgian1 now owned by the ,chinese ,government4 ,from ,wuchang1 opposite ,hankow on the southern bank of the river1 there is to be a railway to ,canton1 but at present it only runs half-way1 to ,changsha1 also a ,treaty ,port4 ,the completion of the railway1 together with improved docks1 will greatly increase the importance of ,canton and diminish that of ,hong-,kong4 ,in the ,treaty ,ports commerce is the principal business2 but in the lower ,yangtze and in certain mining districts there are beginnings of industrialism4 ,china produces large amounts of raw cotton1 which are mostly manipulated by primitive methods2 but there are a certain number of cotton-mills on modern lines4 ,if low wages meant cheap labour for the employer1 there would be little hope for ,lancashire1 because in ,southern ,china the cotton is grown on the spot1 the climate is damp1 and there is an inexhaustible supply of industrious coolies ready to work very long hours for wages upon which an ,english working-man would find it literally impossible to keep body and soul together4 ,nevertheless1 it is not the underpaid ,chinese coolie whom ,lancashire has to fear1 and ,china will not become a formidable competitor until improvement in methods and education enables the ,chinese workers to earn good wages4 ,meanwhile1 in ,china1 as in every other country1 the beginnings of industry are sordid and cruel4 ,the intellectuals wish to be told of some less horrible method by which their country may be industrialized1 but so far none is in sight4 ,the intelligentsia in ,china has a very peculiar position1 unlike that which it has in any other country4 ,hereditary aristocracy has been practically extinct in ,china for about #b1jjj years1 and for many centuries the country has been governed by the successful candidates in competitive examinations4 ,this has given to the educated the kind of prestige elsewhere belonging to a governing aristocracy4 ,although the old traditional education is fast dying out1 and higher education now teaches modern subjects1 the prestige of education has survived1 and public opinion is still ready to be influenced by those who have intellectual qualifications4 ,the ,tuchuns1 many of whom1 including ,chang-tso-lin1 have begun by being brigands1#cf are1 of course1 mostly too stupid and ignorant to share this attitude1 but that in itself makes their rgime weak and unstable4 ,the influence of ,young ,china--i4e4 of those who have been educated either abroad or in modern colleges at home--is far greater than it would be in a country with less respect for learning4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the most hopeful feature in the situation1 because the number of modern students is rapidly increasing1 and their outlook and aims are admirable4 ,in another ten years or so they will probably be strong enough to regenerate ,china--if only the ,powers will allow ten years to elapse without taking any drastic action4 ,it is important to try to understand the outlook and potentialities of ,young ,china4 ,most of my time was spent among those ,chinese who had had a modern education1 and ,i should like to give some idea of their mentality4 ,it seemed to me that one could already distinguish two generations3 the older men1 who had fought their way with great difficulty and almost in solitude out of the traditional ,confucian prejudices2 and the younger men1 who had found modern schools and colleges waiting for them1 containing a whole world of modern-minded people ready to give sympathy and encouragement in the inevitable fight against the family4 ,the older men--men varying in age from #cj to #ej--;have gone through an inward and outward struggle resembling that of the rationalists of ,darwin's and ,mill's generation4 ,they have had1 painfully and with infinite difficulty1 to free their minds from the beliefs instilled in youth1 and to turn their thoughts to a new science and a new ethic4 ,imagine 7say7 ,plotinus recalled from the shades and miraculously compelled to respect ,mr4 ,henry ,ford2 this will give you some idea of the centuries across which these men have had to travel in becoming ,european4 ,some of them are a little weary with the effort1 their forces somewhat spent and their originality no longer creative4 ,but this can astonish no one who realizes the internal revolution they have achieved in their own minds4 ,it must not be supposed that an able ,chinaman1 when he masters our culture1 becomes purely imitative4 ,this may happen among the second-rate ,chinese1 especially when they turn ,christians1 but it does not happen among the best4 ,they remain ,chinese1 critical of ,european civilization even when they have assimilated it4 ,they retain a certain crystal candour and a touching belief in the efficacy of moral forces2 the industrial revolution has not yet affected their mental processes4 ,when they become persuaded of the importance of some opinion1 they try to spread it by setting forth the reasons in its favour2 they do not hire the front pages of newspapers for advertising1 or put up on hoardings along the railways ,so-and-so's opinion is the best4 ,in all this they differ greatly from more advanced nations1 and particularly from ,america2 it never occurs to them to treat opinions as if they were soaps4 ,and they have no admiration for ruthlessness1 or love of bustling activity without regard to its purpose4 ,having thrown over the prejudices in which they were brought up1 they have not taken on a new set1 but have remained genuinely free in their thoughts1 able to consider any proposition honestly on its merits4 ,the younger men1 however1 have something more than the first generation of modern intellectuals4 ,having had less of a struggle1 they have retained more energy and self-confidence4 ,the candour and honesty of the pioneers survive1 with more determination to be socially effective4 ,this may be merely the natural character of youth1 but ,i think it is more than that4 ,young men under thirty have often come in contact with ,western ideas at a sufficiently early age to have assimilated them without a great struggle1 so that they can acquire knowledge without being torn by spiritual conflicts4 ,and they have been able to learn ,western knowledge from ,chinese teachers to begin with1 which has made the process less difficult4 ,even the youngest students1 of course1 still have reactionary families1 but they find less difficulty than their predecessors in resisting the claims of the family1 and in realizing practically1 not only theoretically1 that the traditional ,chinese reverence for the old may well be carried too far4 ,in these young men ,i see the hope of ,china4 ,when a little experience has taught them practical wisdom1 ,i believe they will be able to lead ,chinese opinion in the directions in which it ought to move4 ,there is one traditional ,chinese belief which dies very hard1 and that is the belief that correct ethical sentiments are more important then detailed scientific knowledge4 ,this view is1 of course1 derived from the ,confucian tradition1 and is more or less true in a pre-industrial society4 ,it would have been upheld by ,rousseau or ,dr4 ,johnson1 and broadly speaking by everybody before the ,benthamites4 ,we1 in the ,west1 have now swung to the opposite extreme3 we tend to think that technical efficiency is everything and moral purpose nothing4 ,a battleship may be taken as the concrete embodiment of this view4 ,when we read1 say1 of some new poison-gas by means of which one bomb from an aeroplane can exterminate a whole town1 we have a thrill of what we fondly believe to be horror1 but it is really delight in scientific skill4 ,science is our god2 we say to it1 ,though thou slay me1 yet will ,i trust in thee4 ,and so it slays us4 ,the ,chinese have not this defect1 but they have the opposite one1 of believing that good intentions are the only thing really necessary4 ,i will give an illustration4 ,forsythe ,sherfesee1 ,forestry ,adviser to the ,chinese ,government1 gave an address at the ,british ,legation in ,january #aiai on ,some ,national ,aspects of ,forestry in ,china4#cg ,in this address he proves 7so far as a person ignorant of forestry can judge7 that large parts of ,china which now lie waste are suitable for forestry1 that the importation of timber 7e4g4 for railway sleepers7 which now takes place is wholly unnecessary1 and that the floods which often sweep away whole districts would be largely prevented if the slopes of the mountains from which the rivers come were reafforested4 ,yet it is often difficult to interest even the most reforming ,chinese in afforestation1 because it is not an easy subject for ethical enthusiasm4 ,trees are planted round graves1 because ,confucius said they should be2 if ,confucianism dies out1 even these will be cut down4 ,but public-spirited ,chinese students learn political theory as it is taught in our universities1 and despise such humble questions as the utility of trees4 ,after learning all about 7say7 the proper relations of the two ,houses of ,parliament1 they go home to find that some ,tuchun has dismissed both ,houses1 and is governing in a fashion not considered in our text-books4 ,our theories of politics are only true in the ,west 7if there72 our theories of forestry are equally true everywhere4 ,yet it is our theories of politics that ,chinese students are most eager to learn4 ,similarly the practical study of industrial processes might be very useful1 but the ,chinese prefer the study of our theoretical economics1 which is hardly applicable except where industry is already developed4 ,in all these respects1 however1 there is beginning to be a marked improvement4 ,it is science that makes the difference between our intellectual outlook and that of the ,chinese intelligentsia4 ,the ,chinese1 even the most modern1 look to the white nations1 especially ,america1 for moral maxims to replace those of ,confucius4 ,they have not yet grasped that men's morals in the mass are the same everywhere3 they do as much harm as they dare1 and as much good as they must4 ,in so far as there is a difference of morals between us and the ,chinese1 we differ for the worse1 because we are more energetic1 and can therefore commit more crimes per diem4 ,what we have to teach the ,chinese is not morals1 or ethical maxims about government1 but science and technical skill4 ,the real problem for the ,chinese intellectuals is to acquire ,western knowledge without acquiring the mechanistic outlook4 ,perhaps it is not clear what ,i mean by the mechanistic outlook4 ,i mean something which exists equally in ,imperialism1 ,bolshevism and the ,y4,m4,c4,a42 something which distinguishes all these from the ,chinese outlook1 and which ,i1 for my part1 consider very evil4 ,what ,i mean is the habit of regarding mankind as raw material1 to be moulded by our scientific manipulation into whatever form may happen to suit our fancy4 ,the essence of the matter1 from the point of view of the individual who has this point of view1 is the cultivation of will at the expense of perception1 the fervent moral belief that it is our duty to force other people to realize our conception of the world4 ,the ,chinese intellectual is not much troubled by ,imperialism as a creed1 but is vigorously assailed by ,bolshevism and the ,y4,m4,c4,a41 to one or other of which he is too apt to fall a victim1 learning a belief from the one in the class-war and the dictatorship of the communists1 from the other in the mystic efficacy of cold baths and dumb-bells4 ,both these creeds1 in their ,western adepts1 involve a contempt for the rest of mankind except as potential converts1 and the belief that progress consists in the spread of a doctrine4 ,they both involve a belief in government and a life against ,nature4 ,this view1 though ,i have called it mechanistic1 is as old as religion1 though mechanism has given it new and more virulent forms4 ,the first of ,chinese philosophers1 ,lao-,tze1 wrote his book to protest against it1 and his disciple ,chuang-,tze put his criticism into a fable#ch3-- ,horses have hoofs to carry them over frost and snow2 hair1 to protect them from wind and cold4 ,they eat grass and drink water1 and fling up their heels over the champaign4 ,such is the real nature of horses4 ,palatial dwellings are of no use to them4 ,one day ,po ,lo appeared1 saying3 ,i understand the management of horses4 ,so he branded them1 and clipped them1 and pared their hoofs1 and put halters on them1 tying them up by the head and shackling them by the feet1 and disposing them in stables1 with the result that two or three in every ten died4 ,then he kept them hungry and thirsty1 trotting them and galloping them1 and grooming1 and trimming1 with the misery of the tasselled bridle before and the fear of the knotted whip behind1 until more than half of them were dead4 ,the potter says3 ,i can do what ,i will with clay4 ,if ,i want it round1 ,i use compasses2 if rectangular1 a square4 ,the carpenter says3 ,i can do what ,i will with wood4 ,if ,i want it curved1 ,i use an arc2 if straight1 a line4 ,but on what grounds can we think that the natures of clay and wood desire this application of compasses and square1 of arc and line8 ,nevertheless1 every age extols ,po ,lo for his skill in managing horses1 and potters and carpenters for their skill with clay and wood4 ,those who govern the ,empire make the same mistake4 ,although ,taoism1 of which ,lao-,tze was the founder and ,chuang-,tze the chief apostle1 was displaced by ,confucianism1 yet the spirit of this fable has penetrated deeply into ,chinese life1 making it more urbane and tolerant1 more contemplative and observant1 than the fiercer life of the ,west4 ,the ,chinese watch foreigners as we watch animals in the ,zoo1 to see whether they drink water and fling up their heels over the champaign1 and generally to derive amusement from their curious habits4 ,unlike the ,y4,m4,c4,a41 they have no wish to alter the habits of the foreigners1 any more than we wish to put the monkeys at the ,zoo into trousers and stiff shirts4 ,and their attitude towards each other is1 as a rule1 equally tolerant4 ,when they became a ,republic1 instead of cutting off the ,emperor's head1 as other nations do1 they left him his title1 his palace1 and four million dollars a year 7about #fjj1jjj71 and he remains to this moment with his officials1 his eunuchs and his etiquette1 but without one shred of power or influence4 ,in talking with a ,chinese1 you feel that he is trying to understand you1 not to alter you or interfere with you4 ,the result of his attempt may be a caricature or a panegyric1 but in either case it will be full of delicate perception and subtle humour4 ,a friend in ,peking showed me a number of pictures1 among which ,i specially remember various birds3 a hawk swooping on a sparrow1 an eagle clasping a big bough of a tree in his claws1 water-fowl standing on one leg disconsolate in the snow4 ,all these pictures showed that kind of sympathetic understanding which one feels also in their dealings with human beings--something which ,i can perhaps best describe as the antithesis of ,nietzsche4 ,this quality1 unfortunately1 is useless in warfare1 and foreign nations are doing their best to stamp it out4 ,but it is an infinitely valuable quality1 of which our ,western world has far too little4 ,together with their exquisite sense of beauty1 it makes the ,chinese nation quite extraordinarily lovable4 ,the injury that we are doing to ,china is wanton and cruel1 the destruction of something delicate and lovely for the sake of the gross pleasures of barbarous millionaires4 ,one of the poems translated from the ,chinese by ,mr4 ,waley#ci is called ,business ,men1 and it expresses1 perhaps more accurately than ,i could do1 the respects in which the ,chinese are our superiors3-- ,business men boast of their skill and cunning ,but in philosophy they are like little children4 ,bragging to each other of successful depredations ,they neglect to consider the ultimate fate of the body4 ,what should they know of the ,master of ,dark ,truth ,who saw the wide world in a jade cup1 ,by illumined conception got clear of heaven and earth3 ,on the chariot of ,mutation entered the ,gate of ,immutability8 ,i wish ,i could hope that some respect for the ,master of ,dark ,truth would enter into the hearts of our apostles of ,western culture4 ,but as that is out of the question1 it is necessary to seek other ways of solving the ,far ,eastern question4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ca3 ,the ,truth about ,china and ,japan1 ,allen ,unwin1 #aiba1 p4 #ad4 ,on the other hand ,sih-,gung ,cheng 7,modern ,china1 p4 #ac7 says that it killed twenty million people1 which is the more usual estimate1 cf4 ,china of the ,chinese by ,e4,t4,c4 ,werner1 p4 #bd4 ,the extent to which the population was diminished is not accurately known1 but ,i have no doubt that #bj millions is nearer the truth than #aej millions4 ,footnote #cb3 ,in ,january #aibb1 he came to ,peking to establish a more subservient ,government1 the dismissal of which has been ordered by ,wu-,pei-,fu4 ,a clash is imminent4 ,see ,appendix4 ,footnote #cc3 ,the blame for this is put upon ,sun ,yat ,sen1 who is said to have made an alliance with ,chang-tso-lin4 ,the best element in the ,canton ,government was said to be represented by ,sun's colleague ,general ,cheng ,chiung ,ming1 who is now reported to have been dismissed 7,the ,times1 ,april #bd1 #aibb74 ,these statements are apparently unfounded4 ,see ,appendix4 ,footnote #cd3 ,the soya bean is rapidly becoming an important product1 especially in ,manchuria4 ,footnote #ce3 ,there are1 however1 no accurate statistics as to the birth-rate or the death-rate in ,china1 and some writers question whether the birth-rate is really very large4 ,from a privately printed pamphlet by my friend ,mr4 ,v4,k4 ,ting1 ,i learn that ,dr4 ,lennox1 of the ,peking ,union ,medical ,college1 from a careful study of #d1jjj families1 found that the average number of children 7dead and living7 per family was #b4a1 while the infant mortality was #ahd4a4 ,other investigations are quoted to show that the birth-rate near ,peking is between #cj and #ej4 ,in the absence of statistics1 generalizations about the population question in ,china must be received with extreme caution4 ,footnote #cf3 ,i repeat what everybody1 ,chinese or foreign1 told me4 ,mr4 ,bland1 per contra1 describes ,chang-tso-lin as a polished ,confucian4 ,contrast p4 #ajd of his ,china1 ,japan and ,korea with pp4 #adc1 #adf of ,coleman's ,the ,far ,east ,unveiled1 which gives the view of everybody except ,mr4 ,bland4 ,lord ,northcliffe had an interview with ,chang-tso-lin reported in ,the ,times recently1 but he was1 of course1 unable to estimate ,chang-tso-lin's claims to literary culture4 ,footnote #cg3 ,printed in ,china in #aiah1 published by the ,peking ,leader4 ,footnote #ch3 ,musings of a ,chinese ,mystic1 by ,lionel ,giles 7,murray71 p4 #ff4 ,for ,legge's translation1 see ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bgg of his ,texts of ,taoism in ,sacred ,books of the ,east1 ,vol4 ,,xxxix4 ,footnote #ci3 ,waley1 #agj ,chinese ,poems1 p4 #if4 ,,chapter ,v ,,japan ,,before ,,the ,,restoration ,for modern ,china1 the most important foreign nation is ,japan4 ,in order to understand the part played by ,japan1 it is necessary to know something of that country1 to which we must now turn our attention4 ,in reading the history of ,japan1 one of the most amazing things is the persistence of the same forces and the same beliefs throughout the centuries4 ,japanese history practically begins with a ,restoration by no means unlike that of #ahfg-h4 ,buddhism was introduced into ,japan from ,korea in #eeb ,a4,d4#dj ,at the same time and from the same source ,chinese civilization became much better known in ,japan than it had been through the occasional intercourse of former centuries4 ,both novelties won favour4 ,two ,japanese students 7followed later by many others7 went to ,china in #fjh ,a4,d41 to master the civilization of that country4 ,the ,japanese are an experimental nation1 and before adopting ,buddhism nationally they ordered one or two prominent courtiers to adopt it1 with a view to seeing whether they prospered more or less than the adherents of the traditional ,shinto religion4#da ,after some vicissitudes1 the experiment was held to have favoured the foreign religion1 which1 as a ,court religion1 acquired more prestige than ,shinto1 although the latter was never ousted1 and remained the chief religion of the peasantry until the thirteenth century4 ,it is remarkable to find that1 as late as the sixteenth century1 ,hideyoshi1 who was of peasant origin1 had a much higher opinion of the way of the gods 7which is what ,shinto means7 than of ,buddhism4#db ,probably the revival of ,shinto in modern times was facilitated by a continuing belief in that religion on the part of the less noisy sections of the population4 ,but so far as the people mentioned in history are concerned1 ,buddhism plays a very much greater part than ,shinto4 ,the object of the ,restoration in #ahfg-h was1 at any rate in part1 to restore the constitution of #fde ,a4,d4 ,the object of the constitution of #fde ,a4,d4 was to restore the form of government that had prevailed in the good old days4 ,what the object was of those who established the government of the good old days1 ,i do not profess to know4 ,however that may be1 the country before #fde ,a4,d4 was given over to feudalism and internal strife1 while the power of the ,mikado had sunk to a very low ebb4 ,the ,mikado had had the civil power1 but had allowed great feudatories to acquire military control1 so that the civil government fell into contempt4 ,contact with the superior civilization of ,china made intelligent people think that the ,chinese constitution deserved imitation1 along with the ,chinese morals and religion4 ,the ,chinese ,emperor was the ,son of ,heaven1 so the ,mikado came to be descended from the ,sun ,goddess4 ,the ,chinese ,emperor1 whenever he happened to be a vigorous man1 was genuinely supreme1 so the ,mikado must be made so4 ,the similarity of the influence of ,china in producing the ,restoration of #fde ,a4,d4 and that of ,europe in producing the ,restoration of #ahfg-h is set forth by ,murdoch#dc as follows3-- ,in the summer of #ahfc a band of four ,choshu youths were smuggled on board a ,british steamer by the aid of kind ,scottish friends who sympathized with their endeavour to proceed to ,europe for purposes of study4 ,these1 friends possibly did not know that some of the four had been protagonists in the burning down of the ,british ,legation on ,gotenyama a few months before1 and they certainly could never have suspected that the real mission of the four youths was to master the secrets of ,western civilization with a sole view of driving the ,western barbarians from the sacred soil of ,japan4 ,prince ,ito and ,marquis ,inouye--for they were two of this venturesome quartette--have often told of their rapid disillusionment when they reached ,london1 and saw these despised ,western barbarians at home4 ,on their return to ,japan they at once became the apostles of a new doctrine1 and their effective preaching has had much to do with the pride of place ,dai ,nippon now holds among the ,great ,powers of the world4 ,the two students who went to ,china in #fjh ,a4,d4 rendered even more illustrious service to their country perhaps than ,ito and ,inouye have done4 ,for at the ,revolution of #ahfh1 the leaders of the movement harked back to the #fde-fej ,a4,d4 period for a good deal of their inspiration1 and the real men of political knowledge at that time were the two ,national ,doctors4 ,politically1 what was done in #fde ,a4,d4 and the period immediately following was not unlike what was done in ,france by ,louis ,,xi and ,richelieu--curbing of the great nobles and an exaltation of the sovereign1 with a substitution of civil justice for military anarchy4 ,the movement was represented by its promoters as a ,restoration1 probably with about the same amount of truth as in #ahfg4 ,at the latter date1 there was restoration so far as the power of the ,mikado was concerned1 but innovation as regards the introduction of ,western ideas4 ,similarly1 in #fde ,a4,d41 what was done about the ,mikado was a return to the past1 but what was done in the way of spreading ,chinese civilization was just the opposite4 ,there must have been1 in both cases1 the same curious mixture of antiquarian and reforming tendencies4 ,throughout subsequent ,japanese history1 until the ,restoration1 one seems to see two opposite forces struggling for mastery over people's minds1 namely the ideas of government1 civilization and art derived from ,china on the one hand1 and the native tendency to feudalism1 clan government1 and civil war on the other4 ,the conflict is very analogous to that which went on in medival ,europe between the ,church1 which represented ideas derived from ,rome1 and the turbulent barons1 who were struggling to preserve the way of life of the ancient ,teutons4 ,henry ,,iv at ,canossa1 ,henry ,,ii doing penance for ,becket1 represent the triumph of civilization over rude vigour2 and something similar is to be seen at intervals in ,japan4 ,after #fde1 the ,mikado's ,government had real power for some centuries1 but gradually it fell more and more under the sway of the soldiers4 ,so long as it had wealth 7which lasted long after it ceased to have power7 it continued to represent what was most civilized in ,japan3 the study of ,chinese literature1 the patronage of art1 and the attempt to preserve respect for something other than brute force4 ,but the ,court nobles 7who remained throughout quite distinct from the military feudal chiefs7 were so degenerate and feeble1 so stereotyped and unprogressive1 that it would have been quite impossible for the country to be governed by them and the system they represented4 ,in this respect they differed greatly from the medival ,church1 which no one could accuse of lack of vigour1 although the vigour of the feudal aristocracy may have been even greater4 ,accordingly1 while the ,church in ,europe usually defeated the secular princes1 the exact opposite happened in ,japan1 where the ,mikado and his ,court sank into greater and greater contempt down to the time of the ,restoration4 ,the ,japanese have a curious passion for separating the real and the nominal ,governments1 leaving the show to the latter and the substance of power to the former4 ,first the ,emperors took to resigning in favour of their infant sons1 and continuing to govern in reality1 often from some monastery1 where they had become monks4 ,then the ,shogun1 who represented the military power1 became supreme1 but still governed in the name of the ,emperor4 ,the word ,shogun merely means ,general2 the full title of the people whom we call ,shogun is ,sei-i-,tai ,shogun1 which means ,barbarian-subduing great ,general2 the barbarians in question being the ,ainus1 the ,japanese aborigines4 ,the first to hold this office in the form which it had at most times until the ,restoration was ,minamoto ,yoritomo1 on whom the title was conferred by the ,mikado in #aaib4 ,but before long the ,shogun became nearly as much of a figure-head as the ,mikado4 ,custom confined the ,shogunate to the ,minamoto family1 and the actual power was wielded by ,regents in the name of the ,shogun4 ,this lasted until near the end of the sixteenth century1 when it happened that ,iyeyasu1 the supreme military commander of his day1 belonged to the ,minamoto family1 and was therefore able to assume the office of ,shogun himself4 ,he and his descendants held the office until it was abolished at the ,restoration4 ,the ,restoration1 however1 did not put an end to the practice of a real ,government behind the nominal one4 ,the ,prime ,minister and his ,cabinet are presented to the world as the ,japanese ,government1 but the real ,government is the ,genro1 or ,elder ,statesmen1 and their successors1 of whom ,i shall have more to say in the next chapter4 ,what the ,japanese made of ,buddhism reminds one in many ways of what the ,teutonic nations made of ,christianity4 ,buddhism and ,christianity1 originally1 were very similar in spirit4 ,they were both religions aiming at the achievement of holiness by renunciation of the world4 ,they both ignored politics and government and wealth1 for which they substituted the future life as what was of real importance4 ,they were both religions of peace1 teaching gentleness and non-resistance4 ,but both had to undergo great transformations in adapting themselves to the instincts of warlike barbarians4 ,in ,japan1 a multitude of sects arose1 teaching doctrines which differed in many ways from ,mahayana orthodoxy4 ,buddhism became national and militaristic2 the abbots of great monasteries became important feudal chieftains1 whose monks constituted an army which was ready to fight on the slightest provocation4 ,sieges of monasteries and battles with monks are of constant occurrence in ,japanese history4 ,the ,japanese1 as every one knows1 decided1 after about #ajj years' experience of ,western missionaries and merchants1 to close their country completely to foreigners1 with the exception of a very restricted and closely supervised commerce with the ,dutch4 ,the first arrival of the ,portuguese in ,japan was in or about the year #aedc1 and their final expulsion was in the year #afci4 ,what happened between these two dates is instructive for the understanding of ,japan4 ,the first ,portuguese brought with them ,christianity and fire-arms1 of which the ,japanese tolerated the former for the sake of the latter4 ,at that time there was virtually no ,central ,government in the country1 and the various ,daimyo were engaged in constant wars with each other4 ,the south-western island1 ,kyushu1 was even more independent of such central authority as existed than were the other parts of ,japan1 and it was in this island 7containing the port of ,nagasaki7 that the ,portuguese first landed and were throughout chiefly active4 ,they traded from ,macao1 bringing merchandise1 match-locks and ,jesuits1 as well as artillery on their larger vessels4 ,it was found that they attached importance to the spread of ,christianity1 and some of the ,daimyo1 in order to get their trade and their guns1 allowed themselves to be baptized by the ,jesuits4 ,the ,portuguese of those days seem to have been genuinely more anxious to make converts than to extend their trade2 when1 later on1 the ,japanese began to object to missionaries while still desiring trade1 neither the ,portuguese nor the ,spaniards could be induced to refrain from helping the ,fathers4 ,however1 all might have gone well if the ,portuguese had been able to retain the monopoly which had been granted to them by a ,papal ,bull4 ,their monopoly of trade was associated with a ,jesuit monopoly of missionary activity4 ,but from #aeib onward1 the ,spaniards from ,manila competed with the ,portuguese from ,macao1 and the ,dominican and ,franciscan missionaries1 brought by the ,spaniards1 competed with the ,jesuit missionaries brought by the ,portuguese4 ,they quarrelled furiously1 even at times when they were suffering persecution2 and the ,japanese naturally believed the accusations that each side brought against the other4 ,moreover1 when they were shown maps displaying the extent of the ,king of ,spain's dominions1 they became alarmed for their national independence4 ,in the year #aeif1 a ,spanish ship1 the ,san ,felipe1 on its way from ,manila to ,acapulco1 was becalmed off the coast of ,japan4 ,the local ,daimyo insisted on sending men to tow it into his harbour1 and gave them instructions to run it aground on a sandbank1 which they did4 ,he thereupon claimed the whole cargo1 valued at #fjj1jjj crowns4 ,however1 ,hideyoshi1 who was rapidly acquiring supreme power in ,japan1 thought this too large a windfall for a private citizen1 and had the ,spanish pilot interviewed by a man named ,masuda4 ,the pilot1 after trying reason in vain1 attempted intimidation4 ,he produced a map of the world1 and on it pointed out the vast extent of the dominions of ,philip ,,ii4 ,thereupon ,masuda asked him how it was so many countries had been brought to acknowledge the sway of a single man4444 ,our ,kings1 said this outspoken seaman1 begin by sending into the countries they wish to conquer religieux who induce the people to embrace our religion1 and when they have made considerable progress1 troops are sent who combine with the new ,christians1 and then our ,kings have not much trouble in accomplishing the rest4#dd ,as ,spain and ,portugal were at this time both subject to ,philip ,,ii1 the ,portuguese also suffered from the suspicions engendered by this speech4 ,moreover1 the ,dutch1 who were at war with ,spain1 began to trade with ,japan1 and to tell all they knew against ,jesuits1 ,dominicans1 ,franciscans1 and ,papists generally4 ,a breezy ,elizabethan sea captain1 ,will ,adams1 was wrecked in ,japan1 and on being interrogated naturally gave a good ,british account of the authors of the ,armada4 ,as the ,japanese had by this time mastered the use and manufacture of fire-arms1 they began to think that they had nothing more to learn from ,christian nations4 ,meanwhile1 a succession of three great men--,nobunaga1 ,hideyoshi1 and ,iyeyasu--had succeeded in unifying ,japan1 destroying the quasi-independence of the feudal nobles1 and establishing that reign of internal peace which lasted until the ,restoration--period of nearly two and a half centuries4 ,it was possible1 therefore1 for the ,central ,government to enforce whatever policy it chose to adopt with regard to the foreigners and their religion4 ,the ,jesuits and the ,friars between them had made a considerable number of converts in ,japan1 probably about #cjj1jjj4 ,most of these were in the island of ,kyushu1 the last region to be subdued by ,hideyoshi4 ,they tended to disloyalty1 not only on account of their ,christianity1 but also on account of their geographical position4 ,it was in this region that the revolt against the ,shogun began in #ahfg1 and ,satsuma1 the chief clan in the island of ,kyushu1 has had great power in the ,government ever since the ,restoration1 except during its rebellion of #ahgg4 ,it is hard to disentangle what belongs to ,christianity and what to mere hostility to the ,central ,government in the movements of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,however that may be1 ,iyeyasu decided to persecute the ,christians vigorously1 if possible without losing the foreign trade4 ,his successors were even more anti-,christian and less anxious for trade4 ,after an abortive revolt in #afcg1 ,christianity was stamped out1 and foreign trade was prohibited in the most vigorous terms3-- ,so long as the sun warms the earth1 let no ,christian be so bold as to come to ,japan1 and let all know that if ,king ,philip himself1 or even the very ,god of the ,christians1 or the great ,shaka contravene this prohibition1 they shall pay for it with their heads4#de ,the persecution of ,christians1 though it was ruthless and exceedingly cruel1 was due1 not to religious intolerance1 but solely to political motives4 ,there was reason to fear that the ,christians might side with the ,king of ,spain if he should attempt to conquer ,japan2 and even if no foreign power intervened1 there was reason to fear rebellions of ,christians against the newly established central power4 ,economic exploitation1 in the modern sense of the word1 did not yet exist apart from political domination1 and the ,japanese would have welcomed trade if there had been no danger of conquest4 ,they seem to have overrated the power of ,spain1 which certainly could not have conquered them4 ,japanese armies were1 in those days1 far larger than the armies of ,europe2 the ,japanese had learnt the use of fire-arms2 and their knowledge of strategy was very great4 ,kyoto1 the capital1 was one of the largest cities in the world1 having about a million inhabitants4 ,the population of ,japan was probably greater than that of any ,european ,state4 ,it would therefore have been possible1 without much trouble1 to resist any expedition that ,europe could have sent against ,japan4 ,it would even have been easy to conquer ,manila1 as ,hideyoshi at one time thought of doing4 ,but we can well understand how terrifying would be a map of the world showing the whole of ,north and ,south ,america as belonging to ,philip ,,ii4 ,moreover the ,japanese ,government sent pretended converts to ,europe1 where they became priests1 had audience of the ,pope1 penetrated into the inmost councils of ,spain1 and mastered all the meditated villainies of ,european ,imperialism4 ,these spies1 when they came home and laid their reports before the ,government1 naturally increased its fears4 ,the ,japanese1 therefore1 decided to have no further intercourse with the white men4 ,and whatever may be said against this policy1 ,i cannot feel convinced that it was unwise4 ,for over two hundred years1 until the coming of ,commodore ,perry's squadron from the ,united ,states in #ahec1 ,japan enjoyed complete peace and almost complete stagnation--the only period of either in ,japanese history1 ,it then became necessary to learn fresh lessons in the use of fire-arms from ,western nations1 and to abandon the exclusive policy until they were learnt4 ,when they have been learnt1 perhaps we shall see another period of isolation4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #dj3 ,the best book known to me on early ,japan is ,murdoch's ,history of ,japan1 ,the volume dealing with the earlier period is published by ,kegan ,paul1 #aiaj4 ,the chronologically later volume was published earlier2 its title is3 ,a ,history of ,japan during the ,century of ,early ,foreign ,intercourse 7#aedb--afea71 by ,james ,murdoch ,m4,a4 in collaboration with ,isoh ,yamagata4 ,kobe1 office of the ,japan ,chronicle1 #aijc4 ,i shall allude to these volumes as ,murdoch ,i and ,murdoch ,,ii respectively4 ,footnote #da3 ,murdoch ,i4 pp4 #aac ff4 ,footnote #db3 ,ibid41 ,,ii4 pp4 #cge ff4 ,footnote #dc3 ,murdoch ,i4 p4 #adg4 ,footnote #dd3 ,murdoch1 ,,ii1 p4 #bhh4 ,footnote #de3 ,murdoch ,,ii1 p4 #ffg4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,modern ,,japan ,the modern ,japanese nation is unique1 not only in this age1 but in the history of the world4 ,it combines elements which most ,europeans would have supposed totally incompatible1 and it has realized an original plan to a degree hardly known in human affairs4 ,the ,japan which now exists is almost exactly that which was intended by the leaders of the ,restoration in #ahfg4 ,many unforeseen events have happened in the world3 ,american has risen and ,russia has fallen1 ,china has become a ,republic and the ,great ,war has shattered ,europe4 ,but throughout all these changes the leading statesmen of ,japan have gone along the road traced out for them at the beginning of the ,meiji era1 and the nation has followed them with ever-increasing faithfulness4 ,one single purpose has animated leaders and followers alike3 the strengthening and extension of the ,empire4 ,to realize this purpose a new kind of policy has been created1 combining the sources of strength in modern ,america with those in ,rome at the time of the ,punic ,wars1 uniting the material organization and scientific knowledge of pre-war ,germany with the outlook on life of the ,hebrews in the ,book of ,joshua4 ,the transformation of ,japan since #ahfg is amazing1 and people have been duly amazed by it4 ,but what is still more amazing is that such an immense change in knowledge and in way of life should have brought so little change in religion and ethics1 and that such change as it has brought in these matters should have been in a direction opposite to that which would have been naturally expected4 ,science is supposed to tend to rationalism2 yet the spread of scientific knowledge in ,japan has synchronized with a great intensification of ,mikado-,worship1 the most anachronistic feature in the ,japanese civilization4 ,for sociology1 for social psychology1 and for political theory1 ,japan is an extraordinarily interesting country4 ,the synthesis of ,east and ,west which has been effected is of a most peculiar kind4 ,there is far more of the ,east than appears on the surface2 but there is everything of the ,west that tends to national efficiency4 ,how far there is a genuine fusion of ,eastern and ,western elements may be doubted2 the nervous excitability of the people suggests something strained and artificial in their way of life1 but this may possibly be a merely temporary phenomenon4 ,throughout ,japanese politics since the ,restoration1 there are two separate strands1 one analogous to that of ,western nations1 especially pre-war ,germany1 the other inherited from the feudal age1 which is more analogous to the politics of the ,scottish ,highlands down to #agde4 ,it is no part of my purpose to give a history of modern ,japan2 ,i wish only to give an outline of the forces which control events and movements in that country1 with such illustrations as are necessary4 ,there are many good books on ,japanese politics2 the one that ,i have found most informative is ,mc,laren's ,political ,history of ,japan during the ,meiji ,era #ahfg-aiab 7,allen and ,unwin1 #aiaf74 ,for a picture of ,japan as it appeared in the early years of the ,meiji era1 ,lafcadio ,hearn is of course invaluable2 his book ,japan1 ,an ,interpretation shows his dawning realization of the grim sides of the ,japanese character1 after the cherry-blossom business has lost its novelty4 ,i shall not have much to say about cherry-blossom2 it was not flowering when ,i was in ,japan4 ,before1 #ahfg1 ,japan was a feudal federation of clans1 in which the ,central ,government was in the hands of the ,shogun1 who was the head of his own clan1 but had by no means undisputed sway over the more powerful of the other clans4 ,there had been various dynasties of ,shoguns at various times1 but since the seventeenth century the ,shogunate had been in the ,tokugawa clan4 ,throughout the ,tokugawa ,shogunate1 except during its first few years1 ,japan had been closed to foreign intercourse1 except for a strictly limited commerce with the ,dutch4 ,the modern era was inaugurated by two changes3 first1 the compulsory opening of the country to ,western trade2 secondly1 the transference of power from the ,tokugawa clan to the clans of ,satsuma and ,choshu1 who have governed ,japan ever since4 ,it is impossible to understand ,japan or its politics and possibilities without realizing the nature of the governing forces and their roots in the feudal system of the former age4 ,i will therefore first outline these internal movements1 before coming to the part which ,japan has played in international affairs4 ,what happened1 nominally1 in #ahfg was that the ,mikado was restored to power1 after having been completely eclipsed by the ,shogun since the end of the twelfth century4 ,during this long period1 the ,mikado seems to have been regarded by the common people with reverence as a holy personage1 but he was allowed no voice in affairs1 was treated with contempt by the ,shogun1 was sometimes deposed if he misbehaved1 and was often kept in great poverty4 ,of so little importance was the ,imperial person in the days of early foreign intercourse that the ,jesuits hardly knew of the ,emperor's existence4 ,they seem to have thought of him as a ,japanese counterpart of the ,pope of ,rome1 except that he had no aspirations for temporal power4 ,the ,dutch writers likewise were in the habit of referring to the ,shogun as ,his ,majesty1 and on their annual pilgrimage from ,dashima to ,yedo1 ,kyoto 7where the ,mikado lived7 was the only city which they were permitted to examine freely4 ,the privilege was probably accorded by the ,tokugawa to show the foreigners how lightly the ,court was regarded4 ,commodore ,perry delivered to the ,shogun in ,yedo the autograph letter to the ,emperor of ,japan1 from the ,president of the ,united ,states1 and none of the ,ambassadors of the ,western ,powers seem to have entertained any suspicion that in dealing with the authorities in ,yedo they were not approaching the throne4 ,in the light of these facts1 some other explanation of the relations between the ,shogunate and the ,imperial ,court must be sought than that which depends upon the claim now made by ,japanese historians of the official type1 that the throne1 throughout this whole period1 was divinely preserved by the ,heavenly ,gods4#df ,what happened1 in outline1 seems to have been a combination of very different forces4 ,there were antiquarians who observed that the ,mikado had had real power in the tenth century1 and who wished to revert to the ancient customs4 ,there were patriots who were annoyed with the ,shogun for yielding to the pressure of the white men and concluding commercial treaties with them4 ,and there were the western clans1 which had never willingly submitted to the authority of the ,shogun4 ,to quote ,mc,laren once more 7p4 #cc73-- ,the movement to restore the ,emperor was coupled with a form of ,chauvinism or intense nationalism which may be summed up in the expression ,exalt the ,emperor6 ,away with the barbarians6 7,kinno6 ,joi67 ,from this it would appear that the ,dutch scholars' work in enlightening the nation upon the subject of foreign scientific attainments was anathema1 but a conclusion of that kind must not be hastily arrived at4 ,the cry1 ,away with the barbarians6 was directed against ,perry and the envoys of other foreign ,powers1 but there was nothing in that slogan which indicates a general unwillingness to emulate the foreigners' achievements in armaments or military tactics4 ,in fact1 for a number of years previous to #ahec1 ,satsuma and ,choshu and other western clans had been very busily engaged in manufacturing guns and practising gunnery3 to that extent1 at any rate1 the discoveries of the students of ,european sciences had been deliberately used by those men who were to be foremost in the ,restoration4 ,this passage gives the key to the spirit which has animated modern ,japan down to the present day4 ,the ,restoration was1 to a greater extent than is usually realized in the ,west1 a conservative and even reactionary movement4 ,professor ,murdoch1 in his authoritative ,history of ,japan1#dg says3-- ,in the interpretation of this sudden and startling development most ,european writers and critics show themselves seriously at fault4 ,even some of the more intelligent among them find the solution of this portentous enigma in the very superficial and facile formula of imitation4 ,but the ,japanese still retain their own unit of social organization1 which is not the individual1 as with us1 but the family4 ,furthermore1 the resemblance of the ,japanese administrative system1 both central and local1 to certain ,european systems is not the result of imitation1 or borrowing1 or adaptation4 ,such resemblance is merely an odd and fortuitous resemblance4 ,when the statesmen who overthrew the ,tokugawa rgime in #ahfh1 and abolished the feudal system in #ahga1 were called upon to provide the nation with a new equipment of administrative machinery1 they did not go to ,europe for their models4 ,they simply harked back for some eleven or twelve centuries in their own history and resuscitated the administrative machinery that had first been installed in ,japan by the genius of ,fujiwara ,kamatari and his coadjutors in #fde ,a4,d41 and more fully supplemented and organized in the succeeding fifty or sixty years4 ,the present ,imperial ,cabinet of ten ,ministers1 with their departments and departmental staff of officials1 is a modified revival of the ,eight ,boards adapted from ,china and established in the seventh century4444 ,the present administrative system is indeed of alien provenance2 but it was neither borrowed nor adapted a generation ago1 nor borrowed nor adapted from ,europe4 ,it was really a system of hoary antiquity that was revived to cope with pressing modern exigencies4 ,the outcome was that the clans of ,satsuma and ,choshu acquired control of the ,mikado1 made his exaltation the symbol of resistance to the foreigner 7with whom the ,shogun had concluded unpopular treaties71 and secured the support of the country by being the champions of nationalism4 ,under extraordinarily able leaders1 a policy was adopted which has been pursued consistently ever since1 and has raised ,japan from being the helpless victim of ,western greed to being one of the greatest ,powers in the world4 ,feudalisim was abolished1 the ,central ,government was made omnipotent1 a powerful army and navy were created1 ,china and ,russia were successively defeated1 ,korea was annexed and a protectorate established over ,manchuria and ,inner ,mongolia1 industry and commerce were developed1 universal compulsory education instituted2 and worship of the ,mikado firmly established by teaching in the schools and by professorial patronage of historical myths4 ,the artificial creation of ,mikado-worship is one of the most interesting features of modern ,japan1 and a model to all other ,states as regards the method of preventing the growth of rationalism4 ,there is a very instructive little pamphlet by ,professor ,b4,h4 ,chamberlain1 who was ,professor of ,japanese and philosophy at ,tokyo1 and had a knowledge of ,japanese which few ,europeans had equalled4 ,his pamphlet is called ,the ,invention of a ,new ,religion1 and is published by the ,rationalist ,press ,association4 ,he points out that1 until recent times1 the religion of ,japan was ,buddhism1 to the practical exclusion of every other4 ,there had been1 in very ancient times1 a native religion called ,shinto1 and it had lingered on obscurely4 ,but it is only during the last forty years or so that ,shinto has been erected into a ,state religion1 and has been reconstructed so as to suit modern requirements4#dh ,it is1 of course1 preferable to ,buddhism because it is native and national2 it is a tribal religion1 not one which aims at appealing to all mankind4 ,its whole purpose1 as it has been developed by modern statesmen1 is to glorify ,japan and the ,mikado4 ,professor ,chamberlain points out how little reverence there was for the ,mikado until some time after the ,restoration3-- ,the sober fact is that no nation probably has ever treated its sovereigns more cavalierly than the ,japanese have done1 from the beginning of authentic history down to within the memory of living men4 ,emperors have been deposed1 emperors have been assassinated2 for centuries every succession to the throne was the signal for intrigues and sanguinary broils4 ,emperors have been exiled2 some have been murdered in exile4444 ,for long centuries the ,government was in the hands of ,mayors of the ,palace1 who substituted one infant sovereign for another1 generally forcing each to abdicate as he approached man's estate4 ,at one period1 these ,mayors of the ,palace left the ,descendant of the ,sun in such distress that ,his ,imperial ,majesty and the ,imperial ,princes were obliged to gain a livelihood by selling their autographs6 ,nor did any great party in the ,state protest against this condition of affairs4 ,even in the present reign 7that of ,meiji7--the most glorious in ,japanese history--there have been two rebellions1 during one of which a rival ,emperor was set up in one part of the country1 and a ,republic proclaimed in another4 ,this last sentence1 though it states sober historical fact1 is scarcely credible to those who only know twentieth-century ,japan4 ,the spread of superstition has gone pari passu with the spread of education1 and a revolt against the ,mikado is now unthinkable4 ,time and again1 in the midst of political strife1 the ,mikado has been induced to intervene1 and instantly the hottest combatants have submitted abjectly4 ,although there is a ,diet1 the ,mikado is an absolute ruler--as absolute as any sovereign ever has been4 ,the civilization of ,japan1 before the ,restoration1 came from ,china4 ,religion1 art1 writing1 philosophy and ethics1 everything was copied from ,chinese models4 ,japanese history begins in the fifth century ,a4,d41 whereas ,chinese history goes back to about #b1jjj ,b4,c41 or at any rate to somewhere in the second millennium ,b4,c4 ,this was galling to ,japanese pride1 so an early history was invented long ago1 like the theory that the ,romans were descended from neas4 ,to quote ,professor ,chamberlain again3-- ,the first glimmer of genuine ,japanese history dates from the fifth century after ,christ1 and even the accounts of what happened in the sixth century must be received with caution4 ,japanese scholars know this as well as we do2 it is one of the certain results of investigation4 ,but the ,japanese bureaucracy does not desire to have the light let in on this inconvenient circumstance4 ,while granting a dispensation re the national mythology1 properly so called1 it exacts belief in every iota of the national historic legends4 ,woe to the native professor who strays from the path of orthodoxy4 ,his wife and children 7and in ,japan every man1 however young1 has a wife and children7 will starve4 ,from the late ,prince ,ito's grossly misleading ,commentary on the ,japanese ,constitution down to school compendiums1 the absurd dates are everywhere insisted upon4 ,this question of fictitious early history might be considered unimportant1 like the fact that1 with us1 parsons have to pretend to believe the ,bible1 which some people think innocuous4 ,but it is part of the whole system1 which has a political object1 to which free thought and free speech are ruthlessly sacrificed4 ,as this same pamphlet says3-- ,shinto1 a primitive nature cult1 which had fallen into discredit1 was taken out of its cupboard and dusted4 ,the common people1 it is true1 continued to place their affections on ,buddhism1 the popular festivals were ,buddhist2 ,buddhist also the temples where they buried their dead4 ,the governing class determined to change all this4 ,they insisted on the ,shinto doctrine that the ,mikado descends in direct succession from the native ,goddess of the ,sun1 and that ,he himself is a living ,god on earth who justly claims the absolute fealty of his subjects4 ,such things as laws and constitutions are but free gifts on ,his part1 not in any sense popular rights4 ,of course1 the ministers and officials1 high and low1 who carry on ,his government1 are to be regarded not as public servants1 but rather as executants of supreme--one might say supernatural--authority4 ,shinto1 because connected with the ,imperial family1 is to be alone honoured4 ,all this is not mere theorizing2 it is the practical basis of ,japanese politics4 ,the ,mikado1 after having been for centuries in the keeping of the ,tokugawa ,shoguns1 was captured by the clans of ,satsuma and ,choshu1 and has been in their keeping ever since4 ,they were represented politically by five men1 the ,genro or ,elder ,statesmen1 who are sometimes miscalled the ,privy ,council4 ,only two still survive4 ,the ,genro have no constitutional existence2 they are merely the people who have the ear of the ,mikado4 ,they can make him say whatever they wish2 therefore they are omnipotent4 ,it has happened repeatedly that they have had against them the ,diet and the whole force of public opinion2 nevertheless they have invariably been able to enforce their will1 because they could make the ,mikado speak1 and no one dare oppose the ,mikado4 ,they do not themselves take office2 they select the ,prime ,minister and the ,ministers of ,war and ,marine1 and allow them to bear the blame if anything goes wrong4 ,the ,genro are the real ,government of ,japan1 and will presumably remain so until the ,mikado is captured by some other clique4 ,from a patriotic point of view1 the ,genro have shown very great wisdom in the conduct of affairs4 ,there is reason to think that if ,japan were a democracy its policy would be more ,chauvinistic than it is4 ,apologists of ,japan1 such as ,mr4 ,bland1 are in the habit of telling us that there is a ,liberal anti-militarist party in ,japan1 which is soon going to dominate foreign policy4 ,i see no reason to believe this4 ,undoubtedly there is a strong movement for increasing the power of the ,diet and making the ,cabinet responsible to it2 there is also a feeling that the ,ministers of ,war and ,marine ought to be responsible to the ,cabinet and the ,prime ,minister1 not only to the ,mikado directly4#di ,but democracy in ,japan does not mean a diminution of ,chauvinism in foreign policy4 ,there is a small ,socialist party which is genuinely anti-,chauvinist and anti-militarist2 this party1 probably1 will grow as ,japanese industrialism grows4 ,but so-called ,japanese ,liberals are just as ,chauvinistic as the ,government1 and public opinion is more so4 ,indeed there have been occasions when the ,genro1 in spite of popular fury1 has saved the nation from mistakes which it would certainly have committed if the ,government had been democratic4 ,one of the most interesting of these occasions was the conclusion of the ,treaty of ,portsmouth1 after the ,sino-,japanese war1 which deserves to be told as illustrative of ,japanese politics4#ej ,in #aije1 after the battles of ,tsushima and ,mukden1 it became clear to impartial observers that ,russia could accomplish nothing further at sea1 and ,japan could accomplish nothing further on land4 ,the ,russian ,government was anxious to continue the war1 having gradually accumulated men and stores in ,manchuria1 and greatly improved the working of the ,siberian railway4 ,the ,japanese ,government1 on the contrary1 knew that it had already achieved all the success it could hope for1 and that it would be extremely difficult to raise the loans required for a prolongation of the war4 ,under these circumstances1 ,japan appealed secretly to ,president ,roosevelt requesting his good offices for the restoration of peace4 ,president ,roosevelt therefore issued invitations to both belligerents to a peace conference4 ,the ,russian ,government1 faced by a strong peace party and incipient revolution1 dared not refuse the invitation1 especially in view of the fact that the sympathies of neutrals were on the whole with ,japan4 ,japan1 being anxious for peace1 led ,russia to suppose that ,japan's demands would be so excessive as to alienate the sympathy of the world and afford a complete answer to the peace party in ,russia4 ,in particular1 the ,japanese gave out that they would absolutely insist upon an indemnity4 ,the ,government had in fact resolved1 from the first1 not to insist on an indemnity1 but this was known to very few people in ,japan1 and to no one outside ,japan4 ,the ,russians1 believing that the ,japanese would not give way about the indemnity1 showed themselves generous as regards all other ,japanese demands4 ,to their horror and consternation1 when they had already packed up and were just ready to break up the conference1 the ,japanese announced 7as they had from the first intended to do7 that they accepted the ,russian concessions and would waive the claim to an indemnity4 ,thus the ,russian ,government and the ,japanese people were alike furious1 because they had been tricked--the former in the belief that it could yield everything except the indemnity without bringing peace1 the latter in the belief that the ,government would never give way about the indemnity4 ,in ,russia there was revolution2 in ,japan there were riots1 furious diatribes in the ,press1 and a change of ,government--of the nominal ,government1 that is to say1 for the ,genro continued to be the real power throughout4 ,in this case1 there is no doubt that the decision of the ,genro to make peace was the right one from every point of view2 there is also very little doubt that a peace advantageous to ,japan could not have been made without trickery4 ,foreigners unacquainted with ,japan1 knowing that there is a ,diet in which the ,lower ,house is elected1 imagine that ,japan is at least as democratic as pre-war ,germany4 ,this is a delusion4 ,it is true that ,marquis ,ito1 who framed the ,constitution1 which was promulgated in #ahhi1 took ,germany for his model1 as the ,japanese have always done in all their ,westernizing efforts1 except as regards the ,navy1 in which ,great ,britain has been copied4 ,but there were many points in which the ,japanese ,constitution differed from that of the ,german ,empire4 ,to begin with1 the ,reichstag was elected by manhood suffrage1 whereas in ,japan there is a property qualification which restricts the franchise to about #be per cent of the adult males4 ,this1 however1 is a small matter compared to the fact that the ,mikado's power is far less limited than that of the ,kaiser was4 ,it is true that ,japan does not differ from pre-war ,germany in the fact that ,ministers are not responsible to the ,diet1 but to the ,emperor1 and are responsible severally1 not collectively4 ,the ,war ,minister must be a ,general1 the ,minister of ,marine must be an ,admiral2 they take their orders1 not from the ,prime ,minister1 but from the military and naval authorities respectively1 who1 of course1 are under the control of the ,mikado4 ,but in ,germany the ,reichstag had the power of the purse1 whereas in ,japan1 if the ,diet refuses to pass the ,budget1 the ,budget of the previous year can be applied1 and when the ,diet is not sitting1 laws can be enacted temporarily by ,imperial decree--a provision which had no analogue in the ,german ,constitution4 ,the ,constitution having been granted by the ,emperor of his free grace1 it is considered impious to criticize it or to suggest any change in it1 since this would imply that ,his ,majesty's work was not wholly perfect4 ,to understand the ,constitution1 it is necessary to read it in conjunction with the authoritative commentary of ,marquis ,ito1 which was issued at the same time4 ,mr4 ,coleman very correctly summarizes the ,constitution as follows#ea3-- ,article ,i of the ,japanese ,constitution provides that ,the ,empire of ,japan shall be reigned over and governed by a line of ,emperors unbroken for ages eternal4 ,by reigned over and governed1 wrote ,marquis ,ito in his ,commentaries on the ,constitution of ,japan1 it is meant that the ,emperor on ,his ,throne combines in ,himself the ,sovereignty of the ,state and the ,government of the country and of ,his subjects4 ,article #c of the ,constitution states that the ,emperor is sacred and inviolate4 ,marquis ,ito's comment in explanation of this is peculiarly ,japanese4 ,he says1 ,the ,sacred ,throne was established at the time when the heavens and earth became separated4 ,the ,empire is ,heaven-descended1 divine and sacred2 ,he is pre-eminent above all ,his subjects4 ,he must be reverenced and is inviolable4 ,he has1 indeed1 to pay due respect to the law1 but the law has no power to hold ,him accountable to it4 ,not only shall there be no irreverence for the ,emperor's person1 but also shall ,he neither be made a topic of derogatory comment nor one of discussion4 ,through the ,constitution of ,japan the ,japanese ,emperor exercises the legislative power1 the executive power1 and the judiciary power4 ,the ,emperor convokes the ,imperial ,diet1 opens1 closes1 prorogues1 and dissolves it4 ,when the ,imperial ,diet is not sitting1 ,imperial ordinances may be issued in place of laws4 ,the ,emperor has supreme control of the ,army and ,navy1 declares war1 makes peace1 and concludes treaties2 orders amnesty1 pardon and commutation of punishments4 ,as to the ,ministers of ,state1 the ,constitution of ,japan1 ,article #ee1 says3 ,the respective ,ministers of ,state shall give their advice to the ,emperor and be responsible for it4 ,ito's commentary on this article indicates his intention in framing it4 ,when a ,minister of ,state errs in the discharge of his functions1 the power of deciding upon his responsibilities belongs to the ,sovereign of the ,state3 he alone can dismiss a ,minister who has appointed him4 ,who then is it1 except the ,sovereign1 that can appoint1 dismiss1 and punish a ,minister of ,state8 ,the appointment and dismissal of them having been included by the ,constitution in the sovereign power of the ,emperor1 it is only a legitimate consequence that the power of deciding as to the responsibility of ,ministers is withheld from the ,diet4 ,but the ,diet may put questions to the ,ministers and demand open answers from them before the public1 and it may also present addresses to the ,sovereign setting forth its opinions4 ,the ,minister ,president of ,state is to make representations to the ,emperor on matters of ,state1 and to indicate1 according to ,his pleasure1 the general course of the policy of the ,state1 every branch of the administration being under control of the said ,minister4 ,the compass of his duties is large1 and his responsibilities cannot but be proportionately great4 ,as to the other ,ministers of ,state1 they are severally held responsible for the matters within their respective competency2 there is no joint responsibility among them in regard to such matters4 ,for1 the ,minister ,president and the other ,ministers of ,state1 being alike personally appointed by the ,emperor1 the proceedings of each one of them are1 in every respect1 controlled by the will of the ,emperor1 and the ,minister ,president himself has no power of control over the posts occupied by other ,ministers1 while the latter ought not to be dependent upon the former4 ,in some countries1 the ,cabinet is regarded as constituting a corporate body1 and the ,ministers are not held to take part in the conduct of the ,government each one in an individual capacity1 but joint responsibility is the rule4 ,the evil of such a system is that the power of party combination will ultimately overrule the supreme power of the ,sovereign4 ,such a state of things can never be approved of according to our ,constitution4 ,in spite of the small powers of the ,diet1 it succeeded1 in the first four years of its existence 7#ahij-id71 in causing some annoyance to the ,government4 ,until #ahid1 the policy of ,japan was largely controlled by ,marquis ,ito1 who was opposed to militarism and ,chauvinism4 ,the statesmen of the first half of the ,meiji era were concerned mainly with introducing modern education and modern social organization2 they wished to preserve ,japanese independence vis--vis the ,western ,powers1 but did not aim1 for the time being1 at imperialist expansion on their own account4 ,ito represented this older school of ,restoration statesmen4 ,their ideas of statecraft were in the main derived from the ,germany of the 'eighties1 which was kept by ,bismarck from undue adventurousness4 ,but when the ,diet proved difficult to manage1 they reverted to an earlier phase of ,bismarck's career for an example to imitate4 ,the ,prussian ,landtag 7incredible as it may seem7 was vigorously obstreperous at the time when ,bismarck first rose to power1 but he tamed it by glutting the nation with military glory in the wars against ,austria and ,france4 ,similarly1 in #ahid1 the ,japanese ,government embarked on war against ,china1 and instantly secured the enthusiastic support of the hitherto rebellious ,diet4 ,from that day to this1 the ,japanese ,government has never been vigorously opposed except for its good deeds 7such as the ,treaty of ,portsmouth72 and it has atoned for these by abundant international crimes1 which the nation has always applauded to the echo4 ,marquis ,ito was responsible for the outbreak of war in #ahid4 ,he was afterwards again opposed to the new policy of predatory war1 but was powerless to prevent it4#eb ,his opposition1 however1 was tiresome1 until at last he was murdered in ,korea4 ,since the outbreak of the ,sino-,japanese war in #ahid1 ,japan has pursued a consistent career of imperialism1 with quite extraordinary success4 ,the nature and fruits of that career ,i shall consider in the next two chapters4 ,for the time being1 it has arrested whatever tendency existed towards the development of democracy2 the ,diet is quite as unimportant as the ,english ,parliament was in the time of the ,tudors4 ,whether the present system will continue for a long time1 it is impossible to guess4 ,an unsuccessful foreign war would probably destroy not only the existing system1 but the whole unity and morale of the nation2 ,i do not believe that ,japan would be as firm in defeat as ,germany has proved to be4 ,diplomatic failure1 without war1 would probably produce a more ,liberal regime1 without revolution4 ,there is1 however1 one very explosive element in ,japan1 and that is industrialism4 ,it is impossible for ,japan to be a ,great ,power without developing her industry1 and in fact everything possible is done to increase ,japanese manufactures4 ,moreover1 industry is required to absorb the growing population1 which cannot emigrate to ,english-speaking regions1 and will not emigrate to the mainland of ,asia because ,chinese competition is too severe4 ,therefore the only way to support a larger population is to absorb it into industrialism1 manufacturing goods for export as a means of purchasing food abroad4 ,industrialism in ,japan requires control of ,china1 because ,japan contains hardly any of the raw materials of industry1 and cannot obtain them sufficiently cheaply or securely in open competition with ,america and ,europe4 ,also dependence upon imported food requires a strong navy4 ,thus the motives for imperialism and navalism in ,japan are very similar to those that have prevailed in ,england4 ,but this policy requires high taxation1 while successful competition in neutral markets requires--or rather1 is thought to require--starvation wages and long hours for operatives4 ,in the cotton industry of ,osoka1 for example1 most of the work is done by girls under fourteen1 who work eleven hours a day and got1 in #aiaf1 an average daily wage of #e;d4#ec ,labour organization is in its infancy1 and so is ,socialism2#ed but both are certain to spread if the number of industrial workers increases without a very marked improvement in hours and wages4 ,of course the very rigidity of the ,japanese policy1 which has given it its strength1 makes it incapable of adjusting itself to ,socialism and ,trade ,unionism1 which are vigorously persecuted by the ,government4 ,and on the other hand ,socialism and ,trade ,unionism cannot accept ,mikado-worship and the whole farrago of myth upon which the ,japanese ,state depends4#ee ,there is therefore a likelihood1 some twenty or thirty years hence--assuming a peaceful and prosperous development in the meantime--of a very bitter class conflict between the proletarians on the one side and the employers and bureaucrats on the other4 ,if this should happen to synchronize with agrarian discontent1 it would be impossible to foretell the issue4 ,the problems facing ,japan are therefore very difficult4 ,to provide for the growing population it is necessary to develop industry2 to develop industry it is necessary to control ,chinese raw materials2 to control ,chinese raw materials it is necessary to go against the economic interests of ,america and ,europe2 to do this successfully requires a large army and navy1 which in turn involve great poverty for wage-earners4 ,and expanding industry with poverty for wage-earners means growing discontent1 increase of ,socialism1 dissolution of filial piety and ,mikado-worship in the poorer classes1 and therefore a continually greater and greater menace to the whole foundation on which the fabric of the ,state is built4 ,from without1 ,japan is threatened with the risk of war against ,america or of a revival of ,china4 ,from within1 there will be1 before long1 the risk of proletarian revolution4 ,from all these dangers1 there is only one escape1 and that is a diminution of the birth-rate4 ,but such an idea is not merely abhorrent to the militarists as diminishing the supply of cannon-fodder2 it is fundamentally opposed to ,japanese religion and morality1 of which patriotism and filial piety are the basis4 ,therefore if ,japan is to emerge successfully1 a much more intense ,westernizing must take place1 involving not only mechanical processes and knowledge of bare facts1 but ideals and religion and general outlook on life4 ,there must be free thought1 scepticism1 diminution in the intensity of herd-instinct4 ,without these1 the population question cannot be solved2 and if that remains unsolved1 disaster is sooner or later inevitable4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #df3 ,mc,laren1 op4 cit4 p4 #ai4 ,footnote #dg3 ,kegan ,paul1 #aiaj1 vol4 i4 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #dh3 ,what popular ,shinto1 as expounded by its village priests in the old time1 was we simply do not know4 ,our carefully selected and edited official edition of ,shinto is certainly not true aboriginal ,shinto as practised in ,yamato before the introduction of ,buddhism and ,chinese culture1 and many plausible arguments which disregard that indubitable fact lose much of their weight4 7,murdoch1 ,i1 p4 #agc n47 ,footnote #di3 ,the strength of this movement may1 however1 be doubted4 ,murdoch 7op4 cit4 i1 p4 #afb7 says3 ,at present1 #aiaj1 the ,war ,office and ,admiralty are1 of all ,ministries1 by far the strongest in the ,empire4 ,when a party ,government does by any strange hap make its appearance on tho political stage1 the ,ministers of ,war and of ,marine can afford to regard its advent with the utmost insouciance4 ,for tho most extreme of party politicians readily and unhesitatingly admit that the affairs of the ,army and ,navy do not fall within the sphere of party politics1 but are the exclusive concern of the ,commander-in-,chief1 his ,imperial ,majesty the ,emperor of ,japan4 ,on none in the public service of ,japan are titles of nobility1 high rank1 and still more substantial emoluments showered with a more liberal hand than upon the great captains and the great sailors of the ,empire4 ,in ,china1 on the other hand1 the military man is1 if not a pariah1 at all events an exceptional barbarian1 whom policy makes it advisable to treat with a certain amount of gracious1 albeit semi-contemptuous1 condescension4 ,footnote #ej3 ,the following account is taken from ,mc,laren1 op4 cit4 chaps1 xii4 and xiii4 ,footnote #ea3 ,the ,far ,east ,unveiled1 pp4 #beb-eh4 ,footnote #eb3 ,see ,mc,laren1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bbg1 #bbh1 #bhi4 ,footnote #ec3 ,coleman1 op4 cit4 chap4 xxxv4 ,footnote #ed3 ,see an invaluable pamphlet1 ,the ,socialist and ,labour ,movements in ,japan1 published by the ,japan ,chronicle1 #aiba1 for an account of what is happening in this direction4 ,footnote #ee3 ,the ,times of ,february #g1 #aibb1 contains a telegram from its correspondent in ,tokyo1 propos of the funeral of ,prince ,yamagata1 ,chief of the ,genro1 to the following effect3-- ,to-day a voice was heard in the ,diet in opposition to the grant of expenses for the ,state funeral of ,prince ,yamagata4 ,the resolution1 which was introduced by the member for ,osaka constituency1 who is regarded as the spokesman of the so-called ,parliamentary ,labour ,party founded last year1 states that the ,chief of the ,genro 7,elder ,statesmen7 did not render true service to the ,state1 and1 although the recipient of the highest dignities1 was an enemy of mankind and suppressor of democratic institutions4 ,the outcome was a foregone conclusion1 but the fact that the introducer could obtain the necessary support to table the resolution formally was not the least interesting feature of the incident4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,japan ,,and ,,china ,,before #aiad ,before going into the detail of ,japan's policy towards ,china1 it is necessary to put the reader on his guard against the habit of thinking of the ,yellow ,races1 as though ,china and ,japan formed some kind of unity4 ,there are1 of course1 reasons which1 at first sight1 would lead one to suppose that ,china and ,japan could be taken in one group in comparison with the races of ,europe and of ,africa4 ,to begin with1 the ,chinese and ,japanese are both yellow1 which points to ethnic affinities2 but the political and cultural importance of ethnic affinities is very small4 ,the ,japanese assert that the hairy ,ainus1 who are low in the scale of barbarians1 are a white race akin to ourselves4 ,i never saw a hairy ,ainu1 and ,i suspect the ,japanese of malice in urging us to admit the ,ainus as poor relations2 but even if they really are of ,aryan descent1 that does not prove that they have anything of the slightest importance in common with us as compared to what the ,japanese and ,chinese have in common with us4 ,similarity of culture is infinitely more important than a common racial origin4 ,it is true that ,japanese culture1 until the ,restoration1 was derived from ,china4 ,to this day1 ,japanese script is practically the same as ,chinese1 and ,buddhism1 which is still the religion of the people1 is of the sort derived originally from ,china4 ,loyalty and filial piety1 which are the foundations of ,japanese ethics1 are ,confucian virtues1 imported along with the rest of ancient ,chinese culture4 ,but even before the irruption of ,european influences1 ,china and ,japan had had such different histories and national temperaments that doctrines originally similar had developed in opposite directions4 ,china has been1 since the time of the ,first ,emperor 7c4 #bjj ,b4,c471 a vast unified bureaucratic land empire1 having much contact with foreign nations--,annamese1 ,burmese1 ,mongols1 ,tibetans and even ,indians4 ,japan1 on the other hand1 was an island kingdom1 having practically no foreign contact except with ,korea and occasionally with ,china1 divided into clans which were constantly at war with each other1 developing the virtues and vices of feudal chivalry1 but totally unconcerned with economic or administrative problems on a large scale4 ,it was not difficult to adapt the doctrines of ,confucius to such a country1 because in the time of ,confucius ,china was still feudal and still divided into a number of petty kingdoms1 in one of which the sage himself was a courtier1 like ,goethe at ,weimar4 ,but naturally his doctrines underwent a different development from that which befel them in their own country4 ,in old ,japan1 for instance1 loyalty to the clan chieftain is the virtue one finds most praised2 it is this same virtue1 with its scope enlarged1 which has now become patriotism4 ,loyalty is a virtue naturally praised where conflicts between roughly equal forces are frequent1 as they were in feudal ,japan1 and are in the modern international world4 ,in ,china1 on the contrary1 power seemed so secure1 the ,empire was so vast and immemorial1 that the need for loyalty was not felt4 ,security bred a different set of virtues1 such as courtesy1 considerateness1 and compromise4 ,now that security is gone1 and the ,chinese find themselves plunged into a world of warring bandits1 they have difficulty in developing the patriotism1 ruthlessness1 and unscrupulousness which the situation demands4 ,the ,japanese have no such difficulty1 having been schooled for just such requirements by their centuries of feudal anarchy4 ,accordingly we find that ,western influence has only accentuated the previous differences between ,china and ,japan3 modern ,chinese like our thought but dislike our mechanism1 while modern ,japanese like our mechanism but dislike our thought4 ,from some points of view1 ,asia1 including ,russia1 may be regarded as a unity2 but from this unity ,japan must be excluded4 ,russia1 ,china1 and ,india contain vast plains given over to peasant agriculture2 they are easily swayed by military empires such as that of ,jenghis ,khan2 with modern railways1 they could be dominated from a centre more securely than in former times4 ,they could be self-subsistent economically1 and invulnerable to outside attack1 independent of commerce1 and so strong as to be indifferent to progress4 ,all this may come about some day1 if ,russia happens to develop a great conqueror supported by ,german organizing ability4 ,but ,japan stands outside this order of possibilities4 ,japan1 like ,great ,britain1 must depend upon commerce for power and prosperity4 ,as yet1 ,japan has not developed the ,liberal mentality appropriate to a commercial nation1 and is still bent upon ,asiatic conquest and military prowess4 ,this policy brings with it conflicts with ,china and ,russia1 which the present weakness of those ,powers has enabled ,japan1 hitherto1 to conduct successfully4 ,but both are likely to recover their strength sooner or later1 and then the essential weakness of present ,japanese policy will become apparent4 ,it results naturally from the situation that the ,japanese have two somewhat incompatible ambitions4 ,on the one hand1 they wish to pose as the champions of ,asia against the oppression of the white man2 on the other hand1 they wish to be admitted to equality by the white ,powers1 and to join in the feast obtained by exploiting the nations that are inefficient in homicide4 ,the former policy should make them friendly to ,china and ,india and hostile to the white races2 the latter policy has inspired the ,anglo-,japanese ,alliance and its fruits in the annexation of ,korea and the virtual annexation of ,manchuria and ,inner ,mongolia4 ,as a member of the ,league of ,nations1 of the ,big ,five at ,versailles1 and of the ,big ,three at ,washington1 ,japan appears as one of the ordinary ,great ,powers2 but at other moments ,japan aims at establishing a hegemony in ,asia by standing for the emancipation from white tyranny of those who happen to be yellow or brown1 but not black4 ,count ,okuma1 speaking in the ,kobe ,chamber of ,commerce1 said3 ,there are three hundred million natives in ,india looking to us to rescue them from the thraldom of ,great ,britain4#ef ,while in the ,far ,east1 ,i inquired of innumerable ,englishmen what advantage our ,government could suppose that we derived from the ,japanese ,alliance4 ,the only answer that seemed to me to supply an intelligible motive was that the ,alliance somewhat mitigates the intensity of ,japanese anti-,british propaganda in ,india4 ,however that may be1 there can be no doubt that the ,japanese would like to pose before the ,indians as their champions against white tyranny4 ,mr4 ,pooley#eg quotes ,dr4 ,ichimura of the ,imperial ,university of ,kyoto as giving the following list of white men's sins3-- 7#a7 ,white men consider that they alone are human beings1 and that all coloured races belong to a lower order of civilization4 7#b7 ,they are extremely selfish1 insisting on their own interests1 but ignoring the interests of all whom they regard as inferiors4 7#c7 ,they are full of racial pride and conceit4 ,if any concession is made to them they demand and take more4 7#d7 ,they are extreme in everything1 exceeding the coloured races in greatness and wickedness4 7#e7 ,they worship money1 and believing that money is the basis of everything1 will adopt any measures to gain it4 ,this enumeration of our vices appears to me wholly just4 ,one might have supposed that a nation which saw us in this light would endeavour to be unlike us4 ,that1 however1 is not the moral which the ,japanese draw4 ,they argue1 on the contrary1 that it is necessary to imitate us as closely as possible4 ,we shall find that1 in the long catalogue of crimes committed by ,europeans towards ,china1 there is hardly one which has not been equalled by the ,japanese4 ,it never occurs to a ,japanese1 even in his wildest dreams1 to think of a ,chinaman as an equal4 ,and although he wants the white man to regard himself as an equal1 he himself regards ,japan as immeasurably superior to any white country4 ,his real desire is to be above the whites1 not merely equal with them4 ,count ,okuma put the matter very simply in an address given in #aiac3-- ,the white races regard the world as their property and all other races are greatly their inferiors4 ,they presume to think that the rle of the whites in the universe is to govern the world as they please4 ,the ,japanese were a people who suffered by this policy1 and wrongfully1 for the ,japanese were not inferior to the white races1 but fully their equals4 ,the whites were defying destiny1 and woe to them4#eh ,it would be easy to quote statements by eminent men to the effect that ,japan is the greatest of all nations4 ,but the same could be said of the eminent men of all other nations down to ,ecuador4 ,it is the acts of the ,japanese rather than their rhetoric that must concern us4 ,the ,sino-,japanese war of #ahid-e concerned ,korea1 with whose internal affairs ,china and ,japan had mutually agreed not to interfere without first consulting each other4 ,the ,japanese claimed that ,china had infringed this agreement4 ,neither side was in the right2 it was a war caused by a conflict of rival imperialisms4 ,the ,chinese were easily and decisively defeated1 and from that day to this have not ventured to oppose any foreign ,power by force of arms1 except unofficially in the ,boxer rebellion4 ,the ,japanese were1 however1 prevented from reaping the fruits of their victory by the intervention of ,russia1 ,germany and ,france1 ,england holding aloof4 ,the ,russians coveted ,korea for themselves1 the ,french came in as their allies1 and the ,germans presumably joined them because of ,william ,,ii's dread of the ,yellow ,peril4 ,however that may be1 this intervention made the ,russo-,japanese war inevitable4 ,it would not have mattered much to ,japan if the ,chinese had established themselves in ,korea1 but the ,russians would have constituted a serious menace4 ,the ,russians did not befriend ,china for nothing2 they acquired a lease of ,port ,arthur and ,dalny 7now called ,dairen71 with railway and mining rights in ,manchuria4 ,they built the ,chinese ,eastern ,railway1 running right through ,manchuria1 connecting ,port ,arthur and ,peking with the ,siberian ,railway and ,europe4 ,having accomplished all this1 they set to work to penetrate ,korea4 ,the ,russo-,japanese war would presumably not have taken place but for the ,anglo-,japanese ,alliance1 concluded in #aijb4 ,in ,british policy1 this ,alliance has always had a somewhat minor place1 while it has been the corner-stone of ,japanese foreign policy1 except during the ,great ,war1 when the ,japanese thought that ,germany would win4 ,the ,alliance provided that1 in the event of either ,power being attacked by two ,powers at once1 the other should come to its assistance4 ,it was1 of course1 originally inspired by fear of ,russia1 and was framed with a view to preventing the ,russian ,government1 in the event of war with ,japan or ,england1 from calling upon the help of ,france4 ,in #aijb we were hostile to ,france and ,russia1 and ,japan remained hostile to ,russia until after the ,treaty of ,portsmouth had been supplemented by the ,convention of #aijg4 ,the ,alliance served its purpose admirably for both parties during the ,russo-,japanese war4 ,it kept ,france from joining ,russia1 and thereby enabled ,japan to acquire command of the sea4 ,it enabled ,japan to weaken ,russia1 thus curbing ,russian ambitions1 and making it possible for us to conclude an ,entente with ,russia in #aijg4 ,without this ,entente1 the ,entente concluded with ,france in #aijd would have been useless1 and the alliance which defeated ,germany could not have been created4 ,without the ,anglo-,japanese ,alliance1 ,japan could not have fought ,russia alone1 but would have had to fight ,france also4 ,this was beyond her strength at that time4 ,thus the decisive step in ,japan's rise to greatness was due to our support4 ,the war ended with a qualified victory for ,japan4 ,russia renounced all interference in ,korea1 surrendered ,port ,arthur and ,dalny 7since called ,dairen7 to the ,japanese1 and also the railway as far north as ,changchun4 ,this part of the railway1 with a few branch lines1 has since then been called the ,south ,manchurian ,railway4 ,from ,dairen to ,changchun is #dcg miles2 ,changchun is #aej miles south of ,harbin4 ,the ,japanese use ,dairen as the commercial port for ,manchuria1 reserving ,port ,arthur for purely naval purposes4 ,in regard to ,korea1 ,japan has conformed strictly to ,western models4 ,during the ,russo-,japanese war1 the ,japanese made a treaty guaranteeing the independence and integrity of ,korea2 in #aiaj they annexed ,korea2 since then they have suppressed ,korean nationalists with every imaginable severity4 ,all this establishes their claim to be fully the equals of the white men4 ,the ,japanese not merely hold the ,south ,manchurian ,railway1 but have a monopoly of railway construction in ,south ,manchuria4 ,as this was practically the beginning of ,japan's control of large regions in ,china by means of railways monopolies1 it will be worth while to quote ,mr4 ,pooley's account of the ,fa-ku-,men ,railway incident1#ei which shows how the ,south ,manchurian monopoly was acquired3-- ,in ,november #aijg the ,chinese ,government signed a contract with ,messrs ,pauling and ,co4 for an extension of the ,imperial ,chinese railways northwards from ,hsin-min-,tung to ,fa-ku-,men1 the necessary capital for the work being found by the ,british and ,chinese ,corporation4 ,japan protested against the contract1 firstly1 on an alleged secret protocol annexed to the treaty of ,peking1 which was alleged to have said that 'the ,chinese ,government shall not construct any main line in the neighbourhood of or parallel to the ,south ,manchurian ,railway1 nor any branch line which should be prejudicial to the interests of that railway'2 and1 secondly1 on the ,convention of #aijb1 between ,china and ,russia1 that no railway should be built from ,hsin-min-,tung without ,russian consent4 ,as by the ,treaty of ,portsmouth1 ,japan succeeded to the ,russian rights1 the projected line could not be built without her consent4 ,her diplomatic communications were exceedingly offensive in tone1 and concluded with a notification that1 if she was wrong1 it was obviously only ,russia who could rightfully take her to task6 ,the ,chinese ,government based its action in granting the contract on the clause of the #ahih contract for the construction of the ,chung-hon-so to ,hsin-min-,tung line1 under which ,china specifically reserved the right to build the ,fa-ku-,men line with the aid of the same contractors4 ,further1 although by the ,russo-,british ,note of #ahih ,british subjects were specificially excluded from participation in railway construction north of the ,great ,wall1 by the ,additional ,note attached to the ,russo-,british ,note the engagements between the ,chinese ,government and the ,british and ,chinese ,corporation were specifically reserved from the purview of the agreement4 ,even if ,japan1 as the heir of ,russia's assets and liabilities in ,manchuria1 had been justified in her protest by the ,convention of #aijb and by the ,russo-,british ,note of #ahii1 she had not fulfilled her part of the bargain1 namely1 the ,russian undertaking in the ,note to abstain from seeking concession1 rights and privileges in the valley of the ,yangtze4 ,her reliance on the secret treaty carried weight with ,great ,britain1 but with no one else1 as may be gauged from the records of the ,state ,department at ,washington4 ,a later claim advanced by ,japan that her action was justified by ,article ,,vi of the ,treaty of ,portsmouth1 which assigned to ,japan all ,russian rights in the ,chinese ,eastern ,railway 7,south ,manchurian ,railway7 'with all rights and properties appertaining thereto1' was effectively answered by ,china's citation of ,articles ,,iii and ,,iv of the same ,treaty4 ,under the first of these articles it is declared that ',russia has no territorial advantages or preferential or exclusive concessions in ,manchuria in impairment of ,chinese sovereignty or inconsistent with the principle of equal opportunity'2 whilst the second is a reciprocal engagement by ,russia and ,japan 'not to obstruct any general measures common to all countries which ,china may take for the development of the commerce and industry of ,manchuria4' ,it would be interesting to know whether a refusal to allow ,china to build a railway on her own territory is or is not an impairment of ,chinese sovereignty and whether such a railway as that proposed was not a measure for the 'development of the commerce and industry of ,manchuria4' ,it is doubtful if even the ,russo-,japanese war created as much feeling in ,china as did the ,fa-ku-men incident4 ,japan's action was of such flagrant dishonesty and such a cynical repudiation of her promises and pledges that her credit received a blow from which it has never since recovered4 ,the abject failure of the ,british ,government to support its subjects' treaty rights was almost as much an eye-opener to the world as the protest from ,tokio4444 ,the methods which had proved so successful in stopping the ,fa-ku-men railway were equally successful in forcing the abandonment of other projected railways4 ,among these were the ,chin-chou-,aigun line and the important ,antung-,mukden line4#fj ,the same alleged secret protocol was used equally brutally and successfully for the acquisition of the ,newchwang line1 and participation in #aiji1 and eventual acquisition in #aiad1 of the ,chan-,chun-,kirin lines4 ,subsequently by an agreement with ,russia the sixth article of the ,russo-,chinese ,agreement of #ahif was construed to mean 'the absolute and exclusive rights of administration within the railway zone4' ,japan's spheres of influence have been subsequently extended to cover the whole of ,manchuria and the whole of ,shantung--though the latter has been nominally renounced at ,washington4 ,by such methods as the above1 or by loans to impecunious ,chinese authorities1 the ,japanese have acquired vast railway monopolies wherever their influence has penetrated1 and have used the railways as a means of acquiring all real power in the provinces through which they run4 ,after the ,russo-,japanese war1 ,russia and ,japan became firm friends1 and agreed to bring pressure on ,china jointly in any matter affecting ,manchuria4 ,their friendship lasted until the ,bolshevik revolution4 ,russia had entered into extensive obligations to support ,japan's claims at the ,peace ,conference1 which of course the ,bolsheviks repudiated4 ,hence the implacable hostility of ,japan to ,soviet ,russia1 leading to the support of innumerable ,white filibusters in the territory of the ,far ,eastern ,republic1 and to friendship with ,france in all international questions4 ,as soon as there began to be in ,china a revolutionary party aiming at the overthrow of the ,manchus1 the ,japanese supported it4 ,they have continuously supported either or both sides in ,chinese dissensions1 as they judged most useful for prolonging civil war and weakening ,china politically4 ,before the revolution of #aiaa1 ,sun ,yat ,sen was several times in ,japan1 and there is evidence that as early as #aijj he was obtaining financial support from some ,japanese4#fa ,when the revolution actually broke out1 ,japan endeavoured to support the ,manchus1 but was prevented from doing so effectively by the other ,legations4 ,it seems that the policy of ,japan at that time1 as later1 was to prevent the union of ,north and ,south1 and to confine the revolution to the ,south4 ,moreover1 reverence for monarchy made ,japan unwilling to see the ,emperor of ,china dispossessed and his whole country turned into a ,republic1 though it would have been agreeable to see him weakened by the loss of some southern provinces4 ,mr4 ,pooley gives a good account of the actions of ,japan during the ,chinese ,revolution1 of which the following quotation gives the gist#fb3-- ,it the ,genro commenced with a statement from ,prince ,katsura on ,december #ahth #aiaa1 that the time for intervention had arrived1 with the usual rider for the sake of the peace of the ,far ,east4 ,this was followed by a private instruction to ,m4 ,ijuin1 ,japanese ,minister in ,peking1 whereunder the latter on ,december #bcrd categorically informed ,yuan-shi-kai that under no circumstances would ,japan recognize a republican form of government in ,china4444 ,in connection with the peace conference held at ,shanghai1 ,mr4 ,matsui 7now ,japanese ,ambassador to ,france71 a trusted ,councillor of the ,foreign ,office1 was dispatched to ,peking to back ,m4 ,ijuin in the negotiations to uphold the dynasty4 ,simultaneously1 ,mr4 ,denison1 ,legal ,adviser to the ,japanese ,foreign ,office1 was sent to ,shanghai to negotiate with the rebel leaders4 ,mr4 ,matsui's mission was to bargain for ,japanese support of the ,manchus against the rebels1 ,manchuria against the throne2 ,mr4 ,denison's mission was to bargain for ,japanese support of the rebels against the throne1 recognition by ,peking of the ,southern ,republic against virtually a ,japanese protectorate of that ,republic and exclusive railway and mining concessions within its borders4 ,the rebels absolutely refused ,mr4 ,denison's offer1 and sent the proposed terms to the ,russian ,minister at ,peking1 through whom they eventually saw the light of day4 ,needless to say the ,japanese authorities strenuously denied their authenticity4 ,the ,british ,legation1 however1 supported ,yuan ,shi-k'ai1 against both the ,manchus and ,sun ,yat ,sen2 and it was the ,british policy which won the day4 ,yuan ,shi-k'ai became ,president1 and remained so until #aiae4 ,he was strongly anti-,japanese1 and had1 on that ground1 been opposed as strongly as ,japan dared4 ,his success was therefore a blow to the influence of ,japan in ,china4 ,if the ,western ,powers had remained free to make themselves felt in the ,far ,east1 the course of events would doubtless have been much less favourable to the ,japanese2 but the war came1 and the ,japanese saw their chance4 ,how they used it must be told in a separate chapter4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ef3 ,quoted by ,a4,m4 ,pooley1 ,japan's ,foreign ,policy1 ,allen ,unwin1 #aibj1 p4 #ah4 ,footnote #eg3 ,op4 cit4 p4 #af n4 ,footnote #eh3 ,pooley1 op4 cit4 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #ei3 ,a4,m4 ,pooley1 ,japan's ,foreign ,policies1 pp4 #dh-ea4 ,footnote #fj3 ,this line was subsequently built by the ,japanese4 ,footnote #fa3 ,pooley1 op4 cit41 pp4 #fg-h4 ,footnote #fb3 ,page #ff4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,japan ,,and ,,china ,,during ,,the ,,war ,the most urgent problem in ,china's relations with foreign powers is ,japanese aggression4 ,originally ,japan was less powerful than ,china1 but after #ahfh the ,japanese rapidly learnt from us whatever we had to teach in the way of skilful homicide1 and in #ahid they resolved to test their new armaments upon ,china1 just as ,bismarck tested his on ,denmark4 ,the ,chinese ,government preserved its traditional haughtiness1 and appears to have been quite unaware of the defeat in store for it4 ,the question at issue was ,korea1 over which both ,powers claimed suzerainty4 ,at that time there would have been no reason for an impartial neutral to take one side rather than the other4 ,the ,japanese were quickly and completely victorious1 but were obliged to fight ,russia before obtaining secure possession of ,korea4 ,the war with ,russia 7#aijd-e7 was fought chiefly in ,manchuria1 which the ,russians had gained as a reward for befriending ,china4 ,port ,arthur and ,southern ,manchuria up to ,mukden were acquired by the ,japanese as a result of the ,russo-,japanese war2 the rest of ,manchuria came under ,japanese control as a result of ,russia's collapse after the ,great ,war4 ,the nominal sovereignty in ,manchuria is still ,chinese2 the ,chinese have the civil administration1 an army1 and the appointment of the ,viceroy4 ,but the ,japanese also have troops in ,manchuria2 they have the railways1 the industrial enterprises1 and the complete economic and military control4 ,the ,chinese ,viceroy could not remain in power a week if he were displeasing to the ,japanese1 which1 however1 he takes care not to be4 7,see ,note ,a47 ,the same situation was being brought about in ,shantung4 ,shantung brings us to what ,japan did in the ,great ,war4 ,in #aiad1 ,china could easily have been induced to join the ,allies and to set to work to turn the ,germans out of ,kiao-,chow1 but this did not suit the ,japanese1 who undertook the work themselves and insisted upon the ,chinese remaining neutral 7until #aiag74 ,having captured ,tsing-tau1 they presented to the ,chinese the famous ,twenty-,one ,demands1 which gave the ,chinese ,question its modern form4 ,these demands1 as originally presented in ,january #aiae1 consisted of five groups4 ,the first dealt with ,shantung1 demanding that ,china should agree in advance to whatever terms ,japan might ultimately make with ,germany as regarded this ,chinese province1 that the ,japanese should have the right to construct certain specified railways1 and that certain ports 7unspecified7 should be opened to trade2 also that no privileges in ,shantung should be granted to any ,power other than ,japan4 ,the second group concerns ,south ,manchuria and ,eastern ,inner ,mongolia1 and demands what is in effect a protectorate1 with control of railways1 complete economic freedom for ,japanese enterprise1 and exclusion of all other foreign industrial enterprise4 ,the third group gives ,japan a monopoly of the mines and iron and steel works in a certain region of the ,yangtze1#fc where we claim a sphere of influence4 ,the fourth group consists of a single demand1 that ,china shall not cede any harbour1 bay or island to any ,power except ,japan4 ,the fifth group1 which was the most serious1 demanded that ,japanese political1 financial1 and military advisers should be employed by the ,chinese ,government2 that the police in important places should be administered by ,chinese and ,japanese jointly1 and should be largely ,japanese in personnel2 that ,china should purchase from ,japan at least #ej per cent4 of her munitions1 or obtain them from a ,sino-,japanese arsenal to be established in ,china1 controlled by ,japanese experts and employing ,japanese material2 that ,japan should have the right to construct certain railways in and near the ,yangtze valley2 that ,japan should have industrial priority in ,fukien 7opposite ,formosa72 and finally that the ,japanese should have the right of missionary propaganda in ,china1 to spread the knowledge of their admirable ethics4 ,these demands involved1 as is obvious1 a complete loss of ,chinese independence1 the closing of important areas to the commerce and industry of ,europe and ,america1 and a special attack upon the ,british position in the ,yangtze4 ,we1 however1 were so busy with the war that we had no time to think of keeping ourselves alive4 ,although the demands constituted a grave menace to our trade1 although the ,far ,east was in an uproar about them1 although ,america took drastic diplomatic action against them1 ,mr4 ,lloyd ,george never heard of them until they were explained to him by the ,chinese ,delegation at ,versailles4#fd ,he had no time to find out what ,japan wanted1 but had time to conclude a secret agreement with ,japan in ,february #aiag1 promising that whatever ,japan wanted in ,shantung we would support at the ,peace ,conference4#fe ,by the terms of the ,anglo-,japanese ,alliance1 ,japan was bound to communicate the ,twenty-one ,demands to the ,british ,government4 ,in fact1 ,japan communicated the first four groups1 but not the fifth and worst1 thus definitely breaking the treaty2#ff but this also1 one must suppose1 ,mr4 ,lloyd ,george only discovered by chance when he got to ,versailles4 ,china negotiated with ,japan about the ,twenty-one ,demands1 and secured certain modifications1 but was finally compelled to yield by an ultimatum4 ,there was a modification as regards the ,hanyehping mines on the ,yangtze1 presumably to please us2 and the specially obnoxious fifth group was altered into an exchange of studiously vague ,notes4#fg ,in this form1 the demands were accepted by ,china on ,may #i1 #aiae4 ,the ,united ,states immediately notified ,japan that they could not recognize the agreement4 ,at that time ,america was still neutral1 and was therefore still able to do something to further the objects for which we were supposed to be fighting1 such as protection of the weaker nations4 ,in #aiag1 however1 after ,america had entered the war for self-determination1 it became necessary to placate ,japan1 and in ,november of that year the ,ishii-,lansing ,agreement was concluded1 by which the ,government of the ,united ,states recognizes that ,japan has special interests in ,china1 particularly for the parts to which her possessions are contiguous4 ,the rest of the agreement 7which is long7 consists of empty verbiage4#fh ,i come now to the events leading up to ,china's entry into the war4#fi ,in this matter1 the lead was taken by ,america so far as severing diplomatic relations was concerned1 but passed to ,japan as regards the declaration of war4 ,it will be remembered that1 when ,america broke off diplomatic relations with ,germany1 ,president ,wilson called upon all neutrals to do likewise4 ,dr4 ,paul ,s4 ,reinsch1 ,united ,states ,minister in ,peking1 proceeded to act with vigour in accordance with this policy4 ,he induced ,china first1 on ,february #i1 #aiag1 to send a ,note of expostulation to ,germany on the subject of the submarine campaign2 then1 on ,march #adth1 to break off diplomatic relations4 ,the further step of declaring war was not taken until ,august #adth4 ,the intrigues connected with these events deserve some study4 ,in view of the fact that the ,japanese were among the ,allies1 the ,chinese had not any strong tendency to take sides against ,germany4 ,the ,english1 ,french and ,russians had always desired the participation of ,china 7for reasons which ,i shall explain presently71 and there appears to have been some suggestion1 in the early days of the war1 that ,china should participate in return for our recognizing ,yuan ,shi-k'ai as ,emperor4 ,these suggestions1 however1 fell through owing to the opposition of ,japan1 based partly on hostility to ,yuan ,shi-k'ai1 partly on the fear that ,china would be protected by the ,allies if she became a belligerent4 ,when1 in ,november #aiae1 the ,british1 ,french and ,russian ,ambassadors in ,tokyo requested ,japan to join in urging ,china to join the ,allies1 ,viscount ,ishii said that ,japan considered developments in ,china as of paramount interest to her1 and she must keep a firm hand there4 ,japan could not regard with equanimity the organization of an efficient ,chinese army such as would be required for her active participation in the war1 nor could ,japan fail to regard with uneasiness a liberation of the economic activities of #djj1jjj1jjj people4#gj ,accordingly the proposal lapsed4 ,it must be understood that throughout the war the ,japanese were in a position to blackmail the ,allies1 because their sympathies were with ,germany1 they believed ,germany would win1 and they filled their newspapers with scurrilous attacks on the ,british1 accusing them of cowardice and military incompetence4#ga ,but when ,america severed diplomatic relations with ,germany1 the situation for ,china was changed4 ,america was not bound to subservience to ,japan1 as we were2 ,america was not one of the ,allies2 and ,america had always been ,china's best friend4 ,accordingly1 the ,chinese were willing to take the advice of ,america1 and proceeded to sever diplomatic relations with ,germany in ,march #aiag4 ,dr4 ,reinsch was careful to make no promises to the ,chinese1 but of course he held out hopes4 ,the ,american ,government1 at that time1 could honestly hold out hopes1 because it was ignorant of the secret treaties and agreements by which the ,allies were bound4 ,the ,allies1 however1 can offer no such excuse for having urged ,china to take the further step of declaring war4 ,russia1 ,france1 and ,great ,britain had all sold ,china's rights to secure the continued support of ,japan4 ,in ,may #aiaf1 the ,japanese represented to the ,russians that ,germany was inviting ,japan to make a separate peace4 ,in ,july #aiaf1 ,russia and ,japan concluded a secret treaty1 subsequently published by the ,bolsheviks4 ,this treaty constituted a separate alliance1 binding each to come to the assistance of the other in any war1 and recognizing that the vital interests of one and the other of them require the safeguarding of ,china from the political domination of any third ,power whatsoever1 having hostile designs against ,russia or ,japan4 ,the last article provided that the present agreement must remain profoundly secret except to both of the ,high ,contracting ,parties4#gb ,that is to say1 the treaty was not communicated to the other ,allies1 or even to ,great ,britain1 in spite of ,article #c of the ,anglo-,japanese ,alliance1 which provides that ,the ,high ,contracting ,parties agree that neither of them will1 without consulting the other1 enter into a separate agreement with another ,power to the prejudice of the objects described in the preamble of this ,agreement1 one of which objects was the preservation of equal opportunity for all ,powers in ,china and of the independence and integrity of the ,chinese ,empire4 ,on ,february #af1 #aiag1 at the very time when ,america was urging ,china to sever diplomatic relations with ,germany1 we concluded an agreement with ,japan containing the following words3-- ,his ,britannic ,majesty's ,government accedes with pleasure to the request of the ,japanese ,government1 for an assurance that they will support ,japan's claims in regard to the disposal of ,germany's rights in ,shantung and possessions in the islands north of the equator on the occasion of the ,peace ,conference2 it being understood that the ,japanese ,government will1 in the eventual peace settlement1 treat in the same spirit ,great ,britain's claims to the ,german islands south of the equator4 ,the ,french attitude about ,shantung1 at the same time1 is indicated by ,notes which passed between ,france and ,japan at ,tokyo4#gc ,on ,february #aith1 ,baron ,motono sent a communication to the ,french and ,russian ,ambassadors stating1 among other things1 that the ,imperial ,japanese ,government proposes to demand from ,germany at the time of the peace negotiations1 the surrender of the territorial rights and special interests ,germany possessed before the war in ,shantung and the islands belonging to her situated north of the equator in the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,the ,french ,ambassador1 on ,march #bnd1 replied as follows3-- ,the ,government of the ,french ,republic is disposed to give the ,japanese ,government its accord in regulating at the time of the ,peace ,negotiations questions vital to ,japan concerning ,shantung and the ,german islands on the ,pacific north of the equator4 ,it also agrees to support the demands of the ,imperial ,japanese ,government for the surrender of the rights ,germany possessed before the war in this ,chinese province and these islands4 ,m4 ,briand demands on the other hand that ,japan give its support to obtain from ,china the breaking of its diplomatic relations with ,germany1 and that it give this act desirable significance4 ,the consequences in ,china should be the following3 ,first1 handing passports to the ,german diplomatic agents and consuls2 ,second1 the obligation of all under ,german jurisdiction to leave ,chinese territory2 ,third1 the internment of ,german ships in ,chinese ports and the ultimate requisition of these ships in order to place them at the disposition of the ,allies1 following the example of ,italy and ,portugal2 ,fourth1 requisition of ,german commercial houses1 established in ,china2 forfeiting the rights of ,germany in the concessions she possesses in certain ports of ,china4 ,the ,russian reply to ,baron ,motono's ,note to the ,french and ,russian ,ambassadors1 dated ,march #e1 #aiag1 was as follows3-- ,in reply to the ,note of the ,japanese ,ministry of ,foreign ,affairs1 under the date of ,february #aith last1 the ,russian ,embassy is charged with giving the ,japanese ,government the assurance that it can entirely count on the support of the ,imperial ,government of ,russia with regard to its desiderata concerning the eventual surrender to ,japan of the rights belonging to ,germany in ,shantung and of the ,german ,islands1 occupied by the ,japanese forces1 in the ,pacific ,ocean to the north of the ,equator4#gd ,it will be observed that1 unlike ,england and ,france1 ,russia demands no quid pro quo1 doubtless owing to the secret treaty concluded in the previous year4 ,after these agreements1 ,japan saw no further objection to ,china's participation in the war4 ,the chief inducement held out to ,china was the hope of recovering ,shantung2 but as there was now no danger of this hope being realized1 ,japan was willing that ,america1 in more or less honest ignorance1 should unofficially use this hope for the persuasion of the ,chinese4 ,it is true that ,japan had reason to fear ,america until the last days of the ,peace ,conference1 but this fear was considerably diminished by the conclusion of the ,lansing-,ishii ,agreement in ,november #aiag4 ,meanwhile ,japan had discovered that the question of ,china's entry into the war could be used to increase internal strife in ,china1 which has been one of the aims of ,japanese policy ever since the beginning of the revolutionary movement4#ge ,if the ,chinese had not been interfered with at this time1 there was some prospect of their succeeding in establishing a stable democratic government4 ,yuan was dead1 and his successor in the ,presidency1 ,li ,yuan ,hung1 was a genuine constitutionalist4 ,he reassembled the ,parliament which ,yuan had dismissed1 and the work of drafting a permanent constitution was resumed4 ,the ,president was opposed to severing diplomatic relations1 and1 of course1 still more to declaring war4 ,the ,prime ,minister1 ,tuan ,chih-jui1 a militarist1 was strongly in favour of war4 ,he and his ,cabinet persuaded a considerable majority of both ,houses of the ,chinese ,parliament to side with them on the question of severing diplomatic relations1 and the ,president1 as in duty bound1 gave way on this issue4 ,on the issue of declaring war1 however1 public opinion was different4 ,it was ,president ,wilson's summons to the neutrals to follow him in breaking off diplomatic relations that had given force to the earlier campaign2 but on ,june #eth the ,american ,minister1 acting on instructions1 presented a ,note to the ,chinese ,government urging that the preservation of national unity was more important than entry into the war1 and suggesting the desirability of preserving peace for the present4 ,what had happened in the meantime was that the war issue1 which might never have become acute but for ,president's ,wilson's action1 had been used by the ,japanese to revive the conflict between ,north and ,south1 and to instigate the ,chinese militarists to unconstitutional action4 ,sun ,yat ,sen and most of the ,southern politicians were opposed to the declaration of war2 ,sun's reasons were made known in an open letter to ,mr4 ,lloyd ,george on ,march #gth4 ,they were thoroughly sound4#gf ,the ,cabinet1 on ,may #ast1 decided in favour of war1 but by the ,constitution a declaration of war required the consent of ,parliament4 ,the militarists attempted to coerce ,parliament1 which had a majority against war2 but as this proved impossible1 they brought military force to bear on the ,president to compel him to dissolve ,parliament unconstitutionally4 ,the bulk of the ,members of ,parliament retired to the ,south1 where they continued to act as a ,parliament and to regard themselves as the sole source of constitutional government4 ,after these various illegalities1 the military autocrats were still compelled to deal with one of their number1 who1 in ,july1 effected a five days' restoration of the ,manchu ,emperor4 ,the ,president resigned1 and was succeeded by a person more agreeable to the militarists1 who have henceforth governed in the ,north1 sometimes without a ,parliament1 sometimes with a subservient unconstitutional ,northern ,parliament4 ,then at last they were free to declare war4 ,it was thus that ,china entered the war for democracy and against militarism4 ,of course ,china helped little1 if at all1 towards the winning of the war1 but that was not what the ,allies expected of her4 ,the objects of the ,european ,allies are disclosed in the ,french ,note quoted above4 ,we wished to confiscate ,german property in ,china1 to expel ,germans living in ,china1 and to prevent1 as far as possible1 the revival of ,german trade in ,china after the war4 ,the confiscation of ,german property was duly carried out--not only public property1 but private property also1 so that the ,germans in ,china were suddenly reduced to beggary4 ,owing to the claims on shipping1 the expulsion of the ,germans had to wait till after the ,armistice4 ,they were sent home through the ,tropics in overcrowded ships1 sometimes with only #bd hours' notice2 no degree of hardship was sufficient to secure exemption4 ,the ,british authorities insisted on expelling delicate pregnant women1 whom they officially knew to be very likely to die on the voyage4 ,all this was done after the ,armistice1 for the sake of ,british trade4 ,the kindly ,chinese often took upon themselves to hide ,germans1 in hard cases1 from the merciless persecution of the ,allies2 otherwise1 the miseries inflicted would have been much greater4 ,the confiscation of private property during the war and by the ,treaty of ,versailles was a new departure1 showing that on this point all the belligerents agreed with the ,bolsheviks4 ,dr4 ,reid places side by side two statements1 one by ,president ,wilson when asking ,congress to agree to the ,declaration of ,war3 ,we shall1 ,i feel confident1 conduct our operations as belligerents without passion1 and ourselves observe with proud punctilio the principles of right and fairplay we profess to be fighting for2 the other by ,senator ,hitchcock1 when the war was over1 after a day spent with ,president ,wilson in learning the case for ratification of the ,versailles ,treaty3 ,through the ,treaty1 we will yet get very much of importance4444 ,in violation of all international law and treaties we have made disposition of a billion dollars of ,german-owned properly here4 ,the ,treaty validates all that4#gg ,the ,european ,allies secured very similar advantages from inducing ,china to enter the war for righteousness4 ,we have seen what ,england and ,france gained by the ,chinese declaration of war4 ,what ,japan gained was somewhat different4 ,the ,northern military faction1 which controlled the ,peking ,government1 was completely dependent upon ,japan1 and could do nothing to resist ,japanese aggression4 ,all the other ,powers were fully occupied with the war1 and had sold ,china to ,japan in return for ,japanese neutrality--for ,japan can hardly be counted as a belligerent after the capture of ,tsingtau in ,november #aiad4 ,the ,southern ,government and all the liberal elements in the ,north were against the clique which had seized the ,central ,government4 ,in ,march #aiah1 military and naval agreements were concluded between ,china and ,japan1 of which the text1 never officially published1 is given by ,millard4#gh ,by these agreements the ,japanese were enabled1 under pretence of military needs in ,manchuria and ,mongolia1 to send troops into ,chinese territory1 to acquire control of the ,chinese ,eastern ,railway and consequently of ,northern ,manchuria1 and generally to keep all ,northern ,china at their mercy4 ,in all this1 the excuse of operations against the ,bolsheviks was very convenient4 ,after this the ,japanese went ahead gaily4 ,during the year #aiah1 they placed loans in ,china to the extent of ,yen #bdf1jjj1jjj1gi i4e41 about #be1jjj1jjj4 ,china was engaged in civil war1 and both sides were as willing as the ,european belligerents to sell freedom for the sake of victory4 ,unfortunately for ,japan1 the side on which ,japan was fighting in the war proved suddenly victorious1 and some portion of the energies of ,europe and ,america became available for holding ,japan in check4 ,for various reasons1 however1 the effect of this did not show itself until after the ,treaty of ,versailles was concluded4 ,during the peace negotiations1 ,england and ,france1 in virtue of secret agreements1 were compelled to support ,japan4 ,president ,wilson1 as usual1 sacrificed everything to his ,league of ,nations1 which the ,japanese would not have joined unless they had been allowed to keep ,shantung4 ,the chapter on this subject in ,mr4 ,lansing's account of the negotiations is one of the most interesting in his book4#hj ,by ,article #aef of the ,treaty of ,versailles1 ,germany renounces1 in favour of ,japan1 all her rights1 title1 and privileges in the province of ,shantung4#ha ,although ,president ,wilson had consented to this gross violation of justice1 ,america refused to ratify the ,treaty1 and was therefore free to raise the issue of ,shantung at ,washington4 ,the ,chinese delegates at ,versailles resisted the clauses concerning ,shantung to the last1 and finally1 encouraged by a vigorous agitation of ,young ,china1#hb refused to sign the ,treaty4 ,they saw no reason why they should be robbed of a province as a reward for having joined the ,allies4 ,all the other ,allies agreed to a proceeding exactly as iniquitous as it would have been if we had annexed ,virginia as a reward to the ,americans for having helped us in the war1 or ,france had annexed ,kent on a similar pretext4 ,meanwhile1 ,young ,china had discovered that it could move ,chinese public opinion on the anti-,japanese cry4 ,the ,government in ,peking in #aiai-bj was in the hands of the pro-,japanese ,an ,fu party1 but they were forcibly ejected1 in the summer of #aibj1 largely owing to the influence of the ,young ,china agitation on the soldiers stationed in ,peking4 ,the ,an ,fu leaders took refuge in the ,japanese ,legation1 and since then the ,peking ,government has ventured to be less subservient to ,japan1 hoping always for ,american support4 ,japan did everything possible to consolidate her position in ,shantung1 but always with the knowledge that ,america might re-open the question at any time4 ,as soon as the ,washington ,conference was announced1 ,japan began feverishly negotiating with ,china1 with a view to having the question settled before the opening of the ,conference4 ,but the ,chinese1 very wisely1 refused the illusory concessions offered by ,japan1 and insisted on almost unconditional evacuation4 ,at ,washington1 both parties agreed to the joint mediation of ,england and ,america4 ,the pressure of ,american public opinion caused the ,american ,administration to stand firm on the question of ,shantung1 and ,i understand that the ,british delegation1 on the whole1 concurred with ,america4 ,some concessions were made to ,japan1 but they will not amount to much if ,american interest in ,shantung lasts for another five years4 ,on this subject1 ,i shall have more to say when ,i come to the ,washington ,conference4 ,there is a question with which the ,washington ,conference determined not to concern itself1 but which nevertheless is likely to prove of great importance in the ,far ,east--,i mean the question of ,russia4 ,it was considered good form in diplomatic circles1 until the ,genoa ,conference1 to pretend that there is no such country as ,russia1 but the ,bolsheviks1 with their usual wickedness1 have refused to fall in with this pretence4 ,their existence constitutes an embarrassment to ,america1 because in a quarrel with ,japan the ,united ,states would unavoidably find themselves in unwilling alliance with ,russia4 ,the conduct of ,japan towards ,russia has been quite as bad as that of any other ,power4 ,at the time of the ,czecho-,slovak revolt1 the ,allies jointly occupied ,vladivostok1 but after a time all withdrew except the ,japanese4 ,all ,siberia east of ,lake ,baikal1 including ,vladivostok1 now forms one ,state1 the ,far ,eastern ,republic1 with its capital at ,chita4 ,against this ,republic1 which is practically though not theoretically ,bolshevik1 the ,japanese have launched a whole series of miniature ,kolchaks--,semenov1 ,horvath1 ,ungern1 etc4 ,these have all been defeated1 but the ,japanese remain in military occupation of ,vladivostok and a great part of the ,maritime ,province1 though they continually affirm their earnest wish to retire4 ,in the early days of the ,bolshevik rgime the ,russians lost ,northern ,manchuria1 which is now controlled by ,japan4 ,a board consisting partly of ,chinese and partly of reactionary ,russians forms the directorate of the ,chinese ,eastern ,railway1 which runs through ,manchuria and connects with the ,siberian ,railway4 ,there is not through communication by rail between ,peking and ,europe as in the days before #aiad4 ,this is an extreme annoyance to ,european business men in the ,far ,east1 since it means that letters or journeys from ,peking to ,london take five or six weeks instead of a fortnight4 ,they try to persuade themselves that the fault lies with the ,bolsheviks1 but they are gradually realizing that the real cause is the reactionary control of the ,chinese ,eastern ,railway4 ,meanwhile1 various ,americans are interesting themselves in this railway and endeavouring to get it internationalized4 ,motives similar to those which led to the ,vanderlip concession are forcing friendship with ,russia upon all ,americans who have ,siberian interests4 ,if ,japan were engaged in a war with ,america1 the ,bolsheviks would in all likelihood seize the opportunity to liberate ,vladivostok and recover ,russia's former position in ,manchuria4 ,already1 according to ,the ,times correspondent in ,peking1 ,outer ,mongolia1 a country about as large as ,england1 ,france and ,germany combined1 has been conquered by ,bolshevik armies and propaganda4 ,the ,bolsheviks have1 of course1 the enthusiastic sympathy of the younger ,chinese students4 ,if they can weather their present troubles1 they have a good chance of being accepted by all vigorous progressive people in ,asia as the liberators of ,asia from the tyranny of the ,great ,powers4 ,as they were not invited to ,washington1 they are not a party to any of the agreements reached there1 and it may turn out that they will upset impartially the ambitions of ,japan1 ,great ,britain and ,america4#hc ,for ,america1 no less than other ,powers1 has ambitions1 though they are economic rather than territorial4 ,if ,america is victorious in the ,far ,east1 ,china will be ,americanized1 and though the shell of political freedom may remain1 there will be an economic and cultural bondage beneath it4 ,russia is not strong enough to dominate in this way1 but may become strong enough to secure some real freedom for ,china4 ,this1 however1 is as yet no more than a possibility4 ,it is worth remembering1 because everybody chooses to forget it1 and because1 while ,russia is treated as a pariah1 no settlement of the ,far ,east can be stable4 ,but what part ,russia is going to play in the affairs of ,china it is as yet impossible to say4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #fc3 ,on this subject ,george ,gleason1 ,what ,shall ,i ,think of ,japan8 pp4 #agd-e1 says3 ,this paragraph concerns the iron and steel mills at the city of ,hanyang1 which1 with ,wuchang and ,hangkow1 form the ,upper ,yangtze commercial centre with a population of #a1ejj1jjj people4 ,the ,hanyeping ,company owns a large part of the ,tayeh iron mines1 eighty miles east of ,hangkow1 with which there are water and rail connections4 ,the ore is #fg per cent4 iron1 fills the whole of a series of hills #ejj feet high1 and is sufficient to turn out #a1jjj1jjj tons a year for #gjj years4 ,probably an overstatement4 ,coal for the furnaces is obtained from ,pinghsiang1 #bjj miles distant by water1 where in #aiac five thousand miners dug #fij1jjj tons4 ,japanese have estimated that the vein is capable of producing yearly a million tons for at least five centuries4444 ,thus did ,japan attempt to enter and control a vital spot in the heart of ,china which for many years ,great ,britain has regarded as her special trade domain4 ,mr4 ,gleason is an ,american1 not an ,englishman4 ,the best account of this matter is given by ,mr4 ,coleman1 ,the ,far ,east ,unveiled1 chaps4 x4-xiv4 ,see below1 pp4 #bcb-c4 ,footnote #fd3 ,see letter from ,mr4 ,eugene ,chen1 ,japan ,weekly ,chronicle1 ,october #bj1 #aiba4 ,footnote #fe3 ,the ,notes embodying this agreement are quoted in ,pooley1 ,japan's ,foreign ,policies1 ,allen ,unwin1 #aibj1 pp4 #ada-b4 ,footnote #ff3 ,on this subject1 ,baron ,hayashi1 now ,japanese ,ambassador to the ,united ,kingdom1 said to ,mr4 ,coleman3 ,when ,viscount ,kato sent ,china a ,note containing five groups1 however1 and then sent to ,england what purported to be a copy of his ,note to ,china1 and that copy only contained four of the groups and omitted the fifth altogether1 which was directly a breach of the agreement contained in the ,anglo-,japanese ,alliance1 he did something which ,i can no more explain than you can4 ,outside of the question of probity involved1 his action was unbelievably foolish 7,the ,far ,east ,unveiled1 p4 #gc74 ,footnote #fg3 ,the demands in their original and revised forms1 with the negotiations concerning them1 are printed in ,appendix ,b of ,democracy and the ,eastern ,question1 by ,thomas ,f4 ,millard1 ,allen ,unwin1 #aiai4 ,footnote #fh3 ,the texts concerned in the various stages of the ,shantung question are printed in ,s4,g4 ,cheng's ,modern ,china1 ,appendix ii1 iii and ix4 ,for text of ,ishii-,lansing ,agreement1 see ,gleason1 op4 cit4 pp4 #bad-f4 ,footnote #fi3 ,three books1 all by ,americans1 give the secret and official history of this matter4 ,they are3 ,an ,american ,diplomat in ,china1 by ,paul ,s4 ,reinsch1 ,doubleday1 ,page ,co41 #aibb2 ,democracy and the ,eastern ,question1 by ,thomas ,f4 ,millard1 ,allen ,unwin1 #aiai2 and ,china1 ,captive or ,free8 by the ,rev4 ,gilbert ,reid1 ,a4,m41 ,d4,d4 ,director of ,international ,institute of ,china1 ,allen ,unwin1 #aibb4 ,footnote #gj3 ,millard1 p4 #ii4 ,footnote #ga3 ,see ,pooley1 ,japan's ,foreign ,policies1 pp4 #bc ff2 ,coleman1 ,the ,far ,east ,unveiled1 chap1 v41 and ,millard1 chap4 iii4 ,footnote #gb3 ,millard1 pp4 #fd-ff4 ,footnote #gc3 ,reid1 op4 cit4 pp4 #aad-e2 ,cheng1 op4 cit41 pp4 #cdc-f4 ,footnote #gd3 ,see ,appendix ,,iii of ,cheng's ,modern ,china1 which contains this note 7p4 #cdf7 as well as the other documents relative to the negotiations between ,japan and the ,allied ,powers as to the disposal of the ,german rights in respect of ,shantung ,province1 and the ,south ,sea ,islands north of the ,equator4 ,footnote #ge3 ,the story of the steps leading up to ,china's declaration of war is admirably told in ,reid1 op4 cit4 pp4 #hh-aji4 ,footnote #gf3 ,port of the letter is quoted by ,dr4 ,reid1 p4 #ajh4 ,footnote #gg3 ,reid1 op4 cit4 p4 #afa4 ,chap4 vii4 of this book1 ,commercial ,rivalries as affecting ,china1 should be read by anyone who still thinks that the ,allies stood for honesty or mercy or anything except money-grubbing4 ,footnote #gh3 ,appendix ,c1 pp4 #dba-d4 ,footnote #gi3 ,a list of these loans is given by ,hollington ,k4 ,tong in an article on ,china's ,finances in #aiah in ,china in #aiah1 published early in #aiai by the ,peking leader1 pp4 #fa-b4 ,the list and some of the comments appear also in ,putnam ,weale's ,the ,truth about ,china and ,japan4 ,footnote #hj3 ,mr4 ,lansing's book1 in so far as it deals with ,japanese questions1 is severely criticized from a ,japanese point of view in ,dr4 ,y4 ,soyeda's pamphlet ,shantung ,question and ,japanese ,case1 ,league of ,nations ,association of ,japan1 ,june #aiba4 ,i do not think ,dr4 ,soyeda's arguments are likely to appeal to anyone who is not ,japanese4 ,footnote #ha3 ,see the clauses concerning ,shantung1 in full1 in ,cheng's ,modern ,china1 ,clarendon ,press1 pp4 #cfj-a4 ,footnote #hb3 ,this agitation is well described in ,mr4 ,m4,t4,z4 ,tyau's ,china ,awakened 7,macmillan1 #aibb7 chap1 ix41 ,the ,student ,movement4 ,footnote #hc3 ,soviet ,russia has addressed to the ,powers a protest against the discussion at the ,washington ,conference of the ,east ,china ,railway1 a question exclusively affecting ,china and ,russia1 and declares that it reserves for itself full liberty of action in order to compel due deference to the rights of the ,russian labouring masses and to make demands consistent with those rights 7,daily ,herald1 ,december #bb1 #aiba74 ,this is the new-style imperialism4 ,it was not the ,russian labouring masses1 but the ,chinese coolies1 who built the railway4 ,what ,russia contributed was capital1 but one is surprised to find the ,bolsheviks considering that this confers rights upon themselves as heirs of the capitalists4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,washington ,,conference ,the ,washington ,conference1 and the simultaneous conference1 at ,washington1 between the ,chinese and ,japanese1 have somewhat modified the ,far ,eastern situation4 ,the general aspects of the new situation will be dealt with in the next chapter2 for the present it is the actual decisions arrived at in ,washington that concern us1 as well as their effect upon the ,japanese position in ,siberia4 ,in the first place1 the ,anglo-,japanese ,alliance has apparently been brought to an end1 as a result of the conclusion of the ,four ,power ,pact between ,america1 ,great ,britain1 ,france and ,japan4 ,within this general alliance of the exploiting ,powers1 there is a subordinate grouping of ,america and ,great ,britain against ,france and ,japan1 the former standing for international capitalism1 the latter for national capitalism4 ,the situation is not yet plain1 because ,england and ,america disagree as regards ,russia1 and because ,america is not yet prepared to take part in the reconstruction of ,europe2 but in the ,far ,east1 at any rate1 we seem to have decided to seek the friendship of ,america rather than of ,japan4 ,it may perhaps be hoped that this will make our ,chinese policy more liberal than it has been4 ,we have announced the restoration of ,wei-hai-wei--a piece of generosity which would have been more impressive but for two facts3 first1 that ,wei-hai-wei is completely useless to us1 and secondly1 that the lease had only two more years to run4 ,by the terms of the lease1 in fact1 it should have been restored as soon as ,russia lost ,port ,arthur1 however many years it still had to run at that date4 ,one very important result of the ,washington ,conference is the agreement not to fortify islands in the ,pacific1 with certain specified exceptions4 ,this agreement1 if it is adhered to1 will make war between ,america and ,japan very difficult1 unless we were allied with ,america4 ,without a naval base somewhere near ,japan1 ,america could hardly bring naval force to bear on the ,japanese ,navy4 ,it had been the intention of the ,navy ,department to fortify ,guam with a view to turning it into a first-class naval base4 ,the fact that ,america has been willing to forgo this intention must be taken as evidence of a genuine desire to preserve the peace with ,japan4 ,various small concessions were made to ,china4 ,there is to be a revision of the ,customs ,schedule to bring it to an effective five per cent4 ,the foreign ,post ,offices are to be abolished1 though the ,japanese have insisted that a certain number of ,japanese should be employed in the ,chinese ,post ,office4 ,they had the effrontery to pretend that they desired this for the sake of the efficiency of the postal service1 though the ,chinese post is excellent and the ,japanese is notoriously one of the worst in the world4 ,the chief use to which the ,japanese have put their postal service in ,china has been the importation of morphia1 as they have not allowed the ,chinese ,customs authorities to examine parcels sent through their ,post ,office4 ,the development of the ,japanese importation of morphia into ,china1 as well as the growth of the poppy in ,manchuria1 where they have control1 has been a very sinister feature of their penetration of ,china4#hd ,of course the ,open ,door1 equality of opportunity1 the independence and integrity of ,china1 etc4 etc41 were reaffirmed at ,washington2 but these are mere empty phrases devoid of meaning4 ,from the ,chinese point of view1 the chief achievement at ,washington was the ,shantung ,treaty4 ,ever since the expulsion by the ,germans at the end of #aiad1 the ,japanese had held ,kiaochow ,bay1 which includes the port of ,tsingtau2 they had stationed troops along the whole extent of the ,shantung ,railway2 and by the treaty following the ,twenty-one ,demands1 they had preferential treatment as regards all industrial undertakings in ,shantung4 ,the railway belonged to them by right of conquest1 and through it they acquired control of the whole province4 ,when an excuse was needed for increasing the garrison1 they supplied arms to brigands1 and claimed that their intervention was necessary to suppress the resulting disorder4 ,this state of affairs was legalized by the ,treaty of ,versailles1 to which1 however1 ,america and ,china were not parties4 ,the ,washington ,conference1 therefore1 supplied an opportunity of raising the question afresh4 ,at first1 however1 it seemed as if the ,japanese would have things all their own way4 ,the ,chinese wished to raise the question before the ,conference1 while the ,japanese wished to settle it in direct negotiation with ,china4 ,this point was important1 because1 ever since the ,lansing-,ishii agreement1 the ,japanese have tried to get the ,powers to recognize1 in practice if not in theory1 an informal ,japanese ,protectorate over ,china1 as a first step towards which it was necessary to establish the principle that the ,japanese should not be interfered with in their diplomatic dealings with ,china4 ,the ,conference agreed to the ,japanese proposal that the ,shantung question should not come before the ,conference1 but should be dealt with in direct negotiations between the ,japanese and ,chinese4 ,the ,japanese victory on this point1 however1 was not complete1 because it was arranged that1 in the event of a deadlock1 ,mr4 ,hughes and ,sir ,arthur ,balfour should mediate4 ,a deadlock1 of course1 soon occurred1 and it then appeared that the ,british were no longer prepared to back up the ,japanese whole-heartedly1 as in the old days4 ,the ,american ,administration1 for the sake of peace1 showed some disposition to urge the ,chinese to give way4 ,but ,american opinion was roused on the ,shantung question1 and it appeared that1 unless a solution more or less satisfactory to ,china was reached1 the ,senate would probably refuse to ratify the various treaties which embodied the work of the ,conference4 ,therefore1 at the last moment1 the ,americans strongly urged ,japan to give way1 and we took the same line1 though perhaps less strongly4 ,the result was the conclusion of the ,shantung ,treaty between ,china and ,japan4 ,by this ,treaty1 the ,chinese recover everything in ,shantung1 except the private property of ,japanese subjects1 and certain restrictions as regards the railway4 ,the railway was the great difficulty in the negotiations1 since1 so long as the ,japanese could control that1 they would have the province at their mercy4 ,the ,chinese offered to buy back the railway at once1 having raised about half the money as a result of a patriotic movement among their merchants4 ,this1 however1 the ,japanese refused to agree to4 ,what was finally done was that the ,chinese were compelled to borrow the money from the ,japanese ,government to be repaid in fifteen years1 with an option of repayment in five years4 ,the railway was valued at #ec1djj1jjj gold marks1 plus the costs involved in repairs or improvements incurred by ,japan1 less deterioration2 and it was to be handed over to ,china within nine months of the signature of the treaty4 ,until the purchase price1 borrowed from ,japan1 is repaid1 the ,japanese retain a certain degree of control over the railway3 a ,japanese traffic manager is to be appointed1 and two accountants1 one ,chinese and the other ,japanese1 under the control of a ,chinese ,president4 ,it is clear that1 on paper1 this gives the ,chinese everything five years hence4 ,whether things will work out so depends upon whether1 five years hence1 any ,power is prepared to force ,japan to keep her word4 ,as both ,mr4 ,hughes and ,sir ,arthur ,balfour strongly urged the ,chinese to agree to this compromise1 it must be assumed that ,america and ,great ,britain have some responsibility for seeing that it is properly carried out4 ,in that case1 we may perhaps expect that in the end ,china will acquire complete control of the ,shantung railway4 ,on the whole1 it must be said that ,china did better at ,washington than might have been expected4 ,as regards the larger aspects of the new international situation arising out of the ,conference1 ,i shall deal with them in the next chapter4 ,but in our present connection it is necessary to consider certain ,far ,eastern questions not discussed at ,washington1 since the mere fact that they were not discussed gave them a new form4 ,the question of ,manchuria and ,inner ,mongolia was not raised at ,washington4 ,it may therefore be assumed that ,japan's position there is secure until such time as the ,chinese1 or the ,russians1 or both together1 are strong enough to challenge it4 ,america1 at any rate1 will not raise the question unless friction occurs on some other issue4 7,see ,appendix47 ,the ,siberian question also was not settled4 ,therefore ,japan's ambitions in ,vladivostok and the ,maritime ,provinces will presumably remain unchecked except in so far as the ,russians unaided are able to check them4 ,there is a chronic state of semi-war between the ,japanese and the ,far ,eastern ,republic1 and there seems no reason why it should end in any near future4 ,the ,japanese from time to time announce that they have decided to withdraw1 but they simultaneously send fresh troops4 ,a conference between them and the ,chita ,government has been taking place at ,dairen1 and from time to time announcements have appeared to the effect that an agreement has been reached or was about to be reached4 ,but on ,april #afth 7#aibb7 the ,japanese broke up the ,conference4 ,the ,times of ,april #bgth contains both the ,japanese and the ,russian official accounts of this break up4 ,the ,japanese statement is given in ,the ,times as follows3-- ,the ,japanese ,embassy communicates the text of a statement given out on ,april #bjth by the ,japanese ,foreign ,office on the ,dairen ,conference4 ,it begins by recalling that in response to the repeatedly expressed desire of the ,chita ,government1 the ,japanese ,government decided to enter into negotiations4 ,the first meeting took place on ,august #bfth last year4 ,the ,japanese demands included the non-enforcement of communistic principles in the ,republic against ,japanese1 the prohibition of ,bolshevist propaganda1 the abolition of menacing military establishments1 the adoption of the principle of the open door in ,siberia1 and the removal of industrial restrictions on foreigners4 ,desiring speedily to conclude an agreement1 so that the withdrawal of troops might be carried out as soon as possible1 ,japan met the wishes of ,chita as far as practicable4 ,though1 from the outset1 ,chita pressed for a speedy settlement of the ,nicolaievsk affair1 ,japan eventually agreed to take up the ,nicolaievsk affair immediately after the conclusion of the basis agreement4 ,she further assured ,chita that in settling the affair ,japan had no intention of violating the sovereignty and territorial integrity of ,russia1 and that the troops would be speedily withdrawn from ,saghalin after the settlement of the affair1 and that ,chita'a wishes in regard to the transfer of property now in the custody of the ,japanese authorities would be met4 ,the #aath ,division of the troops in ,siberia was originally to be relieved during ,april1 but if the ,dairen ,conference had progressed satisfactorily1 the troops1 instead of being relieved1 would have been sent home4 ,japan therefore intimated to ,chita that should the basis agreement be concluded within a reasonable period these troops would be immediately withdrawn1 and proposed the signature of the agreement by the middle of ,april1 so that the preparations for the relief of the said division might be dispensed with4 ,thereupon ,chita not only proposed the immediate despatch of ,chita troops to ,vladivostok without waiting for the withdrawal of the ,japanese troops1 but urged that ,japan should fix a tine-limit for the complete withdrawal of all her troops4 ,japan informed ,chita that the withdrawal would be carried out within a short period after the conclusion of the detailed arrangements1 giving a definite period as desired1 and at the same time she proposed the signing of the agreement drawn up by ,japan4 ,whereas ,japan thus throughout the negotiations maintained a sincere and conciliatory attitude1 the ,chita delegates entirely ignored the spirit in which she offered concessions and brought up one demand after another1 thereby trying to gain time4 ,not only did they refuse to entertain the ,japanese proposals1 but declared that they would drop the negotiations and return to ,chita immediately4 ,the only conclusion from this attitude of the ,chita ,government is that they lacked a sincere effort to bring the negotiations to fruition1 and the ,japanese ,government instructed its delegates to quit ,dairen4 ,the ,russian official account is given by ,the ,times immediately below the above4 ,it is as follows3-- ,on ,april #afth the ,japanese broke up the ,dairen ,conference with the ,far ,eastern ,republic4 ,the ,far ,eastern ,delegation left ,dairen4 ,agreement was reached between the ,japanese and ,russian ,delegations on ,march #cjth on all points of the general treaty1 but when the question of military evacuation was reached the ,japanese ,delegation proposed a formula permitting continued ,japanese intervention4 ,between ,march #cjth and ,april #aeth the ,japanese dragged on the negotiations re military convention1 reproaching the ,far ,eastern delegates for mistrusting the ,japanese ,government4 ,the ,russian ,delegation declared that the general treaty would be signed only upon obtaining precise written guarantees of ,japanese military evacuation4 ,on ,april #aeth the ,japanese ,delegation presented an ultimatum demanding a reply from the ,far ,eastern representatives in half an hour as to whether they were willing to sign a general agreement with new ,japanese conditions forbidding an increase in the ,far ,eastern ,navy and retaining a ,japanese military mission on ,far ,eastern territory4 ,re evacuation1 the ,japanese presented a ,note promising evacuation if not prevented by unforeseen circumstances4 ,the ,russian ,delegation rejected this ultimatum4 ,on ,april #afth the ,japanese declared the ,dairen ,conference broken up4 ,the ,japanese delegates left for ,tokyo1 and ,japanese troops remain in the zone established by the agreement of ,march #bith4 ,readers will believe one or other of these official statements according to their prejudices1 while those who wish to think themselves impartial will assume that the truth lies somewhere between the two4 ,for my part1 ,i believe the ,russian statement4 ,but even from the ,japanese communiqu it is evident that what wrecked the ,conference was ,japanese unwillingness to evacuate ,vladivostok and the ,maritime ,province2 all that they were willing to give was a vague promise to evacuate some day1 which would have had no more value than ,mr4 ,gladstone's promise to evacuate ,egypt4 ,it will be observed that the ,conference went well for ,chita until the ,senate had ratified the ,washington treaties4 ,after that1 the ,japanese felt that they had a free hand in all ,far ,eastern matters not dealt with at ,washington4 ,the practical effect of the ,washington decisions will naturally be to make the ,japanese seek compensation1 at the expense of the ,far ,eastern ,republic1 for what they have had to surrender in ,china4 ,this result was to be expected1 and was presumably foreseen by the assembled peacemakers4#he ,it will be seen that the ,japanese policy involves hostility to ,russia4 ,this is no doubt one reason for the friendship between ,japan and ,france4 ,another reason is that both are the champions of nationalistic capitalism1 as against the international capitalism aimed at by ,messrs4 ,morgan and ,mr4 ,lloyd ,george1 because ,france and ,japan look to their armaments as the chief source of their income1 while ,england and ,america look rather to their commerce and industry4 ,it would be interesting to compute how much coal and iron ,france and ,japan have acquired in recent years by means of their armies4 ,england and ,america already possessed coal and iron2 hence their different policy4 ,an uninvited delegation from the ,far ,eastern ,republic at ,washington produced documents tending to show that ,france and ,japan came there as secret allies4 ,although the authenticity of the documents was denied1 most people1 apparently1 believed them to be genuine4 ,in any case1 it is to be expected that ,france and ,japan will stand together1 now that the ,anglo-,japanese ,alliance has come to an end and the ,anglo-,french ,entente has become anything but cordial4 ,thus it is to be feared that ,washington and ,genoa have sown the seeds of future wars--unless1 by some miracle1 the civilized nations should grow weary of suicide4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #hd3 ,see e4g4 chap4 viii4 of ,millard's ,democracy and the ,eastern ,question4 ,footnote #he3 ,i ought perhaps to confess that ,i have a bias in favour of the ,far ,eastern ,republic1 owing to my friendship for their diplomatic mission which was in ,peking while ,i was there4 ,i never met a more high-minded set of men in any country4 ,and although they were communists1 and knew the views that ,i had expressed on ,russia1 they showed me great kindness4 ,i do not think1 however1 that these courtesies have affected my view of the dispute between ,chita and ,tokyo4 ,,chapter ,x ,,present ,,forces ,,and ,,tendencies ,,in ,,the ,,far ,,east ,the ,far ,eastern situation is so complex that it is very difficult to guess what will be the ultimate outcome of the ,washington ,conference1 and still more difficult to know what outcome we ought to desire4 ,i will endeavour to set forth the various factors each in turn1 not simplifying the issues1 but rather aiming at producing a certain hesitancy which ,i regard as desirable in dealing with ,china4 ,i shall consider successively the interests and desires of ,america1 ,japan1 ,russia and ,china1 with an attempt1 in each case1 to gauge what parts of these various interests and desires are compatible with the welfare of mankind as a whole4#hf ,i begin with ,america1 as the leading spirit in the ,conference and the dominant ,power in the world4 ,american public opinion is in favour of peace1 and at the same time profoundly persuaded that ,america is wise and virtuous while all other ,powers are foolish and wicked4 ,the pessimistic half of this opinion ,i do not desire to dispute1 but the optimistic half is more open to question4 ,apart from peace1 ,american public opinion believes in commerce and industry1 ,protestant morality1 athletics1 hygiene1 and hypocrisy1 which may be taken as the main ingredients of ,american and ,english ,kultur4 ,every ,american ,i met in the ,far ,east1 with one exception1 was a missionary for ,american ,kultur1 whether nominally connected with ,christian ,missions or not4 ,i ought to explain that when ,i speak of hypocrisy ,i do not mean the conscious hypocrisy practised by ,japanese diplomats in their dealings with ,western ,powers1 but that deeper1 unconscious kind which forms the chief strength of the ,anglo-,saxons4 ,everybody knows ,labouchere's comment on ,mr4 ,gladstone1 that like other politicians he always had a card up his sleeve1 but1 unlike the others1 he thought the ,lord had put it there4 ,this attitude1 which has been characteristic of ,england1 has been somewhat chastened among ourselves by the satire of men like ,bernard ,shaw2 but in ,america it is still just as prevalent and self-confident as it was with us fifty years ago4 ,there is much justification for such an attitude4 ,gladstonian ,england was more of a moral force than the ,england of the present day2 and ,america is more of a moral force at this moment than any other ,power 7except ,russia74 ,but the development from ,gladstone's moral fervour to the cynical imperialism of his successors is one which we can now see to be inevitable2 and a similar development is bound to take place in the ,united ,states4 ,therefore1 when we wish to estimate the desirability of extending the influence of the ,united ,states1 we have to take account of this almost certain future loss of idealism4 ,nor is idealism in itself always an unmixed blessing to its victims4 ,it is apt to be incompatible with tolerance1 with the practice of live-and-let-live1 which alone can make the world endurable for its less pugnacious and energetic inhabitants4 ,it is difficult for art or the contemplative outlook to exist in an atmosphere of bustling practical philanthropy1 as difficult as it would be to write a book in the middle of a spring cleaning4 ,the ideals which inspire a spring-cleaning are useful and valuable in their place1 but when they are not enriched by any others they are apt to produce a rather bleak and uncomfortable sort of world4 ,all this may seem1 at first sight1 somewhat remote from the ,washington ,conference1 but it is essential if we are to take a just view of the friction between ,america and ,japan4 ,i wish to admit at once that1 hitherto1 ,america has been the best friend of ,china1 and ,japan the worst enemy4 ,it is also true that ,america is doing more than any other ,power to promote peace in the world1 while ,japan would probably favour war if there were a good prospect of victory4 ,on these grounds1 ,i am glad to see our ,government making friends with ,america and abandoning the militaristic ,anglo-,japanese ,alliance4 ,but ,i do not wish this to be done in a spirit of hostility to ,japan1 or in a blind reliance upon the future good intentions of ,america4 ,i shall therefore try to state ,japan's case1 although1 for the present1 ,i think it weaker than ,america's4 ,it should be observed1 in the first place1 that the present ,american policy1 both in regard to ,china and in regard to naval armaments1 while clearly good for the world1 is quite as clearly in line with ,american interests4 ,to take the naval question first3 ,america1 with a navy equal to our own1 will be quite strong enough to make our ,admiralty understand that it is out of the question to go to war with ,america1 so that ,america will have as much control of the seas as there is any point in having4#hg ,the ,americans are adamant about the ,japanese ,navy1 but very pliant about ,french submarines1 which only threaten us4 ,control of the seas being secured1 limitation of naval armaments merely decreases the cost1 and is an equal gain to all parties1 involving no sacrifice of ,american interests4 ,to take next the question of ,china3 ,american ambitions in ,china are economic1 and require only that the whole country should be open to the commerce and industry of the ,united ,states4 ,the policy of spheres of influence is obviously less advantageous1 to so rich and economically strong a country as ,america1 than the policy of the universal ,open ,door4 ,we cannot therefore regard ,america's liberal policy as regards ,china and naval armaments as any reason for expecting a liberal policy when it goes against self-interest4 ,in fact1 there is evidence that when ,american interests or prejudices are involved liberal and humanitarian principles have no weight whatever4 ,i will cite two instances3 ,panama tolls1 and ,russian trade4 ,in the matter of the ,panama canal1 ,america is bound by treaty not to discriminate against our shipping2 nevertheless a ,bill has been passed by a two-thirds majority of the ,house of ,representatives1 making a discrimination in favour of ,american shipping4 ,even if the ,president ultimately vetoes it1 its present position shows that at least two-thirds of the ,house of ,representatives share ,bethmann-,hollweg's view of treaty obligations4 ,and as for trade with ,russia1 ,england led the way1 while ,american hostility to the ,bolsheviks remained implacable1 and to this day ,gompers1 in the name of ,american labour1 thunders against shaking hands with murder4 ,it cannot therefore be said that ,america is always honourable or humanitarian or liberal4 ,the evidence is that ,america adopts these virtues when they suit national or rather financial interests1 but fails to perceive their applicability in other cases4 ,i could of course have given many other instances1 but ,i content myself with one1 because it especially concerns ,china4 ,i quote from an ,american weekly1 ,the ,freeman 7,november #bc1 #aiba1 p4 #bdd73-- ,on ,november #ast1 the ,chinese ,government failed to meet an obligation of #e1fjj1jjj1 due and payable to a large banking-house in ,chicago4 ,the ,state ,department had facilitated the negotiation of this loan in the first instance2 and now1 in fulfilment of the promise of ,governmental support in an emergency1 an official cablegram was launched upon ,peking1 with intimations that continued defalcation might have a most serious effect upon the financial and political rating of the ,chinese ,republic4 ,in the meantime1 the ,american bankers of the new international consortium had offered to advance to the ,chinese ,government an amount which would cover the loan in default1 together with other obligations already in arrears1 and still others which will fall due on ,december #ast2 and this proposal had also received the full and energetic support of the ,department of ,state4 ,that is to say1 ,american financiers and politicians were at one and the same time the heroes and villains of the piece2 having co-operated in the creation of a dangerous situation1 they came forward handsomely in the hour of trial with an offer to save ,china from themselves as it were1 if the ,chinese ,government would only enter into relations with the consortium1 and thus prepare the way for the eventual establishment of an ,american financial protectorate4 ,it should be added that the ,peking ,government1 after repeated negotiations1 had decided not to accept loans from the consortium on the terms on which they were offered4 ,in my opinion1 there were very adequate grounds for this decision4 ,as the same article in the ,freeman concludes3-- ,if this plan is put through1 it will make the bankers of the consortium the virtual owners of ,china2 and among these bankers1 those of the ,united ,states are the only ones who are prepared to take full advantage of the situation4 ,there is some reason to think that1 at the beginning of the ,washington ,conference1 an attempt was made by the consortium banks1 with the connivance of the ,british but not of the ,american ,government1 to establish1 by means of the ,conference1 some measure of international control over ,china4 ,in the ,japan ,weekly ,chronicle for ,november #ag1 #aiba 7p4 #gbe71 in a telegram headed ,international ,control of ,china1 ,i find it reported that ,america is thought to be seeking to establish international control1 and that ,mr4 ,wellington ,koo told the ,philadelphia ,public ,ledger3 ,we suspect the motives which led to the suggestion and we thoroughly doubt its feasibility4 ,china will bitterly oppose any ,conference plan to offer ,china international aid4 ,he adds3 ,international control will not do4 ,china must be given time and opportunity to find herself4 ,the world should not misinterpret or exaggerate the meaning of the convulsion which ,china is now passing through4 ,these are wise words1 with which every true friend of ,china must agree4 ,in the same issue of the ,japan ,weekly ,chronicle--which1 by the way1 ,i consider the best weekly paper in the world--,i find the following 7p4 #gbh73-- ,mr4 ,lennox ,simpson ,putnam ,weale is quoted as saying3 ,the international bankers have a scheme for the international control of ,china4 ,mr4 ,lamont1 representing the consortium1 offered a sixteen-million-dollar loan to ,china1 which the ,chinese ,government refused to accept because ,mr4 ,lamont insisted that the ,hukuang bonds1 ,german issue1 which had been acquired by the ,morgan ,company1 should be paid out of it4 ,mr4 ,lamont1 on hearing this charge1 made an emphatic denial1 saying3 ,simpson's statement is unqualifiedly false4 ,when this man ,simpson talks about resisting the control of the international banks he is fantastic4 ,we don't want control4 ,we are anxious that the ,conference result in such a solution as will furnish full opportunity to ,china to fulfil her own destiny4 ,sagacious people will be inclined to conclude that so much anger must be due to being touched on the raw1 and that ,mr4 ,lamont1 if he had had nothing to conceal1 would not have spoken of a distinguished writer and one of ,china's best friends as this man ,simpson4 ,i do not pretend that the evidence against the consortium is conclusive1 and ,i have not space here to set it all forth4 ,but to any ,european radical ,mr4 ,lamont's statement that the consortium does not want control reads like a contradiction in terms4 ,those who wish to lend to a ,government which is on the verge of bankruptcy1 must aim at control1 for1 even if there were not the incident of the ,chicago ,bank1 it would be impossible to believe that ,messrs4 ,morgan are so purely philanthropic as not to care whether they get any interest on their money or not1 although emissaries of the consortium in ,china have spoken as though this were the case1 thereby greatly increasing the suspicions of the ,chinese4 ,in the ,new ,republic for ,november #cj1 #aiba1 there is an article by ,mr4 ,brailsford entitled ,a ,new ,technique of ,peace1 which ,i fear is prophetic even if not wholly applicable at the moment when it was written4 ,i expect to see1 if the ,americans are successful in the ,far ,east1 ,china compelled to be orderly so as to afford a field for foreign commerce and industry2 a government which the ,west will consider good substituted for the present go-as-you-please anarchy2 a gradually increasing flow of wealth from ,china to the investing countries1 the chief of which is ,america2 the development of a sweated proletariat2 the spread of ,christianity2 the substitution of the ,american civilization for the ,chinese2 the destruction of traditional beauty1 except for such objets d'art as millionaires may think it worth while to buy2 the gradual awakening of ,china to her exploitation by the foreigner2 and one day1 fifty or a hundred years hence1 the massacre of every white man throughout the ,celestial ,empire at a signal from some vast secret society4 ,all this is probably inevitable1 human nature being what it is4 ,it will be done in order that rich men may grow richer1 but we shall be told that it is done in order that ,china may have good government4 ,the definition of the word good is difficult1 but the definition of good government is as easy as ,a4,b4,c43 it is government that yields fat dividends to capitalists4 ,the ,chinese are gentle1 urbane1 seeking only justice and freedom4 ,they have a civilization superior to ours in all that makes for human happiness4 ,they have a vigorous movement of young reformers1 who1 if they are allowed a little time1 will revivify ,china and produce something immeasurably better than the worn-out grinding mechanism that we call civilization4 ,when ,young ,china has done its work1 ,americans will be able to make money by trading with ,china1 without destroying the soul of the country4 ,china needs a period of anarchy in order to work out her salvation2 all great nations need such a period1 from time to time4 ,when ,america went through such a period1 in #ahfa-e1 ,england thought of intervening to insist on good government1 but fortunately abstained4 ,now-a-days1 in ,china1 all the ,powers want to intervene4 ,americans recognize this in the case of the wicked ,old ,world1 but are smitten with blindness when it comes to their own consortium4 ,all ,i ask of them is that they should admit that they are as other men1 and cease to thank ,god that they are not as this publican4 ,so much by way of criticism by ,america2 we come now to the defence of ,japan4 ,japan's relations with the ,powers are not of her own seeking2 all that ,japan asked of the world was to be let alone4 ,this1 however1 did not suit the white nations1 among whom ,america led the way4 ,it was a ,united ,states squadron under ,commodore ,perry that first made ,japan aware of ,western aggressiveness4 ,very soon it became evident that there were only two ways of dealing with the white man1 either to submit to him1 or to fight him with his own weapons4 ,japan adopted the latter course1 and developed a modern army trained by the ,germans1 a modern navy modelled on the ,british1 modern machinery derived from ,america1 and modern morals copied from the whole lot4 ,everybody except the ,british was horrified1 and called the ,japanese yellow monkeys4 ,however1 they began to be respected when they defeated ,russia1 and after they had captured ,tsing-tao and half-enslaved ,china they were admitted to equality with the other ,great ,powers at ,versailles4 ,the consideration shown to them by the ,west is due to their armaments alone2 none of their other good qualities would have saved them from being regarded as niggers4 ,people who have never been outside ,europe can hardly imagine the intensity of the colour prejudice that white men develop when brought into contact with any different pigmentation4 ,i have seen ,chinese of the highest education1 men as cultured as 7say7 ,dean ,inge1 treated by greasy white men as if they were dirt1 in a way in which1 at home1 no ,duke would venture to treat a crossing-sweeper4 ,the ,japanese are not treated in this way1 because they have a powerful army and navy4 ,the fact that white men1 as individuals1 no longer dare to bully individual ,japanese1 is important as a beginning of better relations towards the coloured races in general4 ,if the ,japanese1 by defeat in war1 are prevented from retaining the status of a ,great ,power1 the coloured races in general will suffer1 and the tottering insolence of the white man will be re-established4 ,also the world will have lost the last chance of the survival of civilizations of a different type from that of the industrial ,west4 ,the civilization of ,japan1 in its material aspect1 is similar to that of the ,west1 though industrialism1 as yet1 is not very developed4 ,but in its mental aspect it is utterly unlike the ,west1 particularly the ,anglo-,saxon ,west4 ,worship of the ,mikado1 as an actually divine being1 is successfully taught in every village school1 and provides the popular support for nationalism4 ,the nationalistic aims of ,japan are not merely economic2 they are also dynastic and territorial in a medival way4 ,the morality of the ,japanese is not utilitarian1 but intensely idealistic4 ,filial piety is the basis1 and includes patriotism1 because the ,mikado is the father of his people4 ,the ,japanese outlook has the same kind of superstitious absence of realism that one finds in thirteenth-century theories as to the relations of the ,emperor and the ,pope4 ,but in ,europe the ,emperor and the ,pope were different people1 and their quarrels promoted freedom of thought2 in ,japan1 since #ahfh1 they are combined in one sacred person1 and there are no internal conflicts to produce doubt4 ,japan1 unlike ,china1 is a religious country4 ,the ,chinese doubt a proposition until it is proved to be true2 the ,japanese believe it until it is proved to be false4 ,i do not know of any evidence against the view that the ,mikado is divine4 ,japanese religion is essentially nationalistic1 like that of the ,jews in the ,old ,testament4 ,shinto1 the ,state religion1 has been in the main invented since #ahfh1hh and propagated by education in schools4 7,there was of course an old ,shinto religion1 but most of what constitutes modern ,shintoism is new47 ,it is not a religion which aims at being universal1 like ,buddhism1 ,christianity1 and ,islam2 it is a tribal religion1 only intended to appeal to the ,japanese4 ,buddhism subsists side by side with it1 and is believed by the same people4 ,it is customary to adopt ,shinto rites for marriages and ,buddhist rites for funerals1 because ,buddhism is considered more suitable for mournful occasions4 ,although ,buddhism is a universal religion1 its ,japanese form is intensely national1#hi like the ,church of ,england4 ,many of its priests marry1 and in some temples the priesthood is hereditary4 ,its dignitaries remind one vividly of ,english ,archdeacons4 ,the ,japanese1 even when they adopt industrial methods1 do not lose their sense of beauty4 ,one hears complaints that their goods are shoddy1 but they have a remarkable power of adapting artistic taste to industrialism4 ,if ,japan were rich it might produce cities as beautiful as ,venice1 by methods as modern as those of ,new ,york4 ,industrialism has hitherto brought with it elsewhere a rising tide of ugliness1 and any nation which can show us how to make this tide recede deserves our gratitude4 ,the ,japanese are earnest1 passionate1 strong-willed1 amazingly hard working1 and capable of boundless sacrifice to an ideal4 ,most of them have the correlative defects3 lack of humour1 cruelty1 intolerance1 and incapacity for free thought4 ,but these defects are by no means universal2 one meets among them a certain number of men and women of quite extraordinary excellence4 ,and there is in their civilization as a whole a degree of vigour and determination which commands the highest respect4 ,the growth of industrialism in ,japan has brought with it the growth of ,socialism and the ,labour movement4#ij ,in ,china1 the intellectuals are often theoretical ,socialists1 but in the absence of ,labour organizations there is as yet little room for more than theory4 ,in ,japan1 ,trade ,unionism has made considerable advances1 and every variety of socialist and anarchist opinion is vigorously represented4 ,in time1 if ,japan becomes increasingly industrial1 ,socialism may become a political force2 as yet1 ,i do not think it is4 ,japanese ,socialists resemble those of other countries1 in that they do not share the national superstitions4 ,they are much persecuted by the ,government1 but not so much as ,socialists in ,america--so at least ,i am informed by an ,american who is in a position to judge4 ,the real power is still in the hands of certain aristocratic families4 ,by the constitution1 the ,ministers of ,war and ,marine are directly responsible to the ,mikado1 not to the ,diet or the ,prime ,minister4 ,they therefore can and do persist in policies which are disliked by the ,foreign ,office4 ,for example1 if the ,foreign ,office were to promise the evacuation of ,vladivostok1 the ,war ,office might nevertheless decide to keep the soldiers there1 and there would be no constitutional remedy4 ,some part1 at least1 of what appears as ,japanese bad faith is explicable in this way4 ,there is of course a party which wishes to establish real ,parliamentary government1 but it is not likely to come into power unless the existing rgime suffers some severe diplomatic humiliation4 ,if the ,washington ,conference had compelled the evacuation of not only ,shantung but also ,vladivostok by diplomatic pressure1 the effect on the internal government of ,japan would probably have been excellent4 ,the ,japanese are firmly persuaded that they have no friends1 and that the ,americana are their implacable foes4 ,one gathers that the ,government regards war with ,america as unavoidable in the long run4 ,the argument would be that the economic imperialism of the ,united ,states will not tolerate the industrial development of a formidable rival in the ,pacific1 and that sooner or later the ,japanese will be presented with the alternative of dying by starvation or on the battlefield4 ,then ,bushido will come into play1 and will lead to choice of the battlefield in preference to starvation4 ,admiral ,sato#ia 7the ,japanese ,bernhardi1 as he is called7 maintains that absence of ,bushido in the ,americans will lead to their defeat1 and that their money-grubbing souls will be incapable of enduring the hardships and privations of a long war4 ,this1 of course1 is romantic nonsense4 ,bushido is no use in modern war1 and the ,americans are quite as courageous and obstinate as the ,japanese4 ,a war might last ten years1 but it would certainly end in the defeat of ,japan4 ,one is constantly reminded of the situation between ,england and ,germany in the years before #aiad4 ,the ,germans wanted to acquire a colonial empire by means similar to those which we had employed2 so do the ,japanese4 ,we considered such methods wicked when employed by foreigners2 so do the ,americans4 ,the ,germans developed their industries and roused our hostility by competition2 the ,japanese are similarly competing with ,america in ,far ,eastern markets4 ,the ,germans felt themselves encircled by our alliances1 which we regarded as purely defensive2 the ,japanese1 similarly1 found themselves isolated at ,washington 7except for ,french sympathy7 since the superior diplomatic skill of the ,americans has brought us over to their side4 ,the ,germans at last1 impelled by terrors largely of their own creation1 challenged the whole world1 and fell2 it is very much to be feared that ,japan may do likewise4 ,the pros and cons are so familiar in the case of ,germany that ,i need not elaborate them further1 since the whole argument can be transferred bodily to the case of ,japan4 ,there is1 however1 this difference1 that1 while ,germany aimed at hegemony of the whole world1 the ,japanese only aim at hegemony in ,eastern ,asia4 ,the conflict between ,america and ,japan is superficially economic1 but1 as often happens1 the economic rivalry is really a cloak for deeper passions4 ,japan still believes in the divine right of kings2 ,america believes in the divine right of commerce4 ,i have sometimes tried to persuade ,americans that there may be nations which will not gain by an extension of their foreign commerce1 but ,i have always found the attempt futile4 ,the ,americans believe also that their religion and morality and culture are far superior to those of the ,far ,east4 ,i regard this as a delusion1 though one shared by almost all ,europeans4 ,the ,japanese1 profoundly and with all the strength of their being1 long to preserve their own culture and to avoid becoming like ,europeans or ,americans2 and in this ,i think we ought to sympathize with them4 ,the colour prejudice is even more intense among ,americans than among ,europeans2 the ,japanese are determined to prove that the yellow man may be the equal of the white man4 ,in this1 also1 justice and humanity are on the side of ,japan4 ,thus on the deeper issues1 which underlie the economic and diplomatic conflict1 my feelings go with the ,japanese rather than with the ,americans4 ,unfortunately1 the ,japanese are always putting themselves in the wrong through impatience and contempt4 ,they ought to have claimed for ,china the same consideration that they have extorted towards themselves2 then they could have become1 what they constantly profess to be1 the champions of ,asia against ,europe4 ,the ,chinese are prone to gratitude1 and would have helped ,japan loyally if ,japan had been a true friend to them4 ,but the ,japanese despise the ,chinese more than the ,europeans do2 they do not want to destroy the belief in ,eastern inferiority1 but only to be regarded as themselves belonging to the ,west4 ,they have therefore behaved so as to cause a well-deserved hatred of them in ,china4 ,and this same behaviour has made the best ,americans as hostile to them as the worst4 ,if ,america had had none but base reasons for hostility to them1 they would have found many champions in the ,united ,states2 as it is1 they have practically none4 ,it is not yet too late2 it is still possible for them to win the affection of ,china and the respect of the best ,americans4 ,to achieve this1 they would have to change their ,chinese policy and adopt a more democratic constitution2 but if they do not achieve it1 they will fall as ,germany fell4 ,and their fall will be a great misfortune for mankind4 ,a war between ,america and ,japan would be a very terrible thing in itself1 and a still more terrible thing in its consequences4 ,it would destroy ,japanese civilization1 ensure the subjugation of ,china to ,western culture1 and launch ,america upon a career of world-wide militaristic imperialism4 ,it is therefore1 at all costs1 to be avoided4 ,if it is to be avoided1 ,japan must become more liberal2 and ,japan will only become more liberal if the present rgime is discredited by failure4 ,therefore1 in the interests of ,japan no less than in the interests of ,china1 it would be well if ,japan were forced1 by the joint diplomatic pressure of ,england and ,america1 to disgorge1 not only ,shantung1 but also all of ,manchuria except ,port ,arthur and its immediate neighbourhood4 7,i make this exception because ,i think nothing short of actual war would lead the ,japanese to abandon ,port ,arthur47 ,our ,alliance with ,japan1 since the end of the ,russo-,japanese war1 has been an encouragement to ,japan in all that she has done amiss4 ,not that ,japan has been worse than we have1 but that certain kinds of crime are only permitted to very great ,powers1 and have been committed by the ,japanese at an earlier stage of their career than prudence would warrant4 ,our ,alliance has been a contributory cause of ,japan's mistakes1 and the ending of the ,alliance is a necessary condition of ,japanese reform4 ,we come now to ,russia's part in the ,chinese problem4 ,there is a tendency in ,europe to regard ,russia as decrepit1 but this is a delusion4 ,true1 millions are starving and industry is at a standstill4 ,but that does not mean what it would in a more highly organized country4 ,russia is still able to steal a march on us in ,persia and ,afghanistan1 and on the ,japanese in ,outer ,mongolia4 ,russia is still able to organize ,bolshevik propaganda in every country in ,asia4 ,and a great part of the effectiveness of this propaganda lies in its promise of liberation from ,europe4 ,so far1 in ,china proper1 it has affected hardly anyone except the younger students1 to whom ,bolshevism appeals as a method of developing industry without passing through the stage of private capitalism4 ,this appeal will doubtless diminish as the ,bolsheviks are more and more forced to revert to capitalism4 ,moreover1 ,bolshevism1 as it has developed in ,russia1 is quite peculiarly inapplicable to ,china1 for the following reasons3 7#a7 ,it requires a strong centralized ,state1 whereas ,china has a very weak ,state1 and is tending more and more to federalism instead of centralization2 7#b7 ,bolshevism requires a very great deal of government1 and more control of individual lives by the authorities than has ever been known before1 whereas ,china has developed personal liberty to an extraordinary degree1 and is the country of all others where the doctrines of anarchism seem to find successful practical application2 7#c7 ,bolshevism dislikes private trading1 which is the breath of life to all ,chinese except the literati4 ,for these reasons1 it is not likely that ,bolshevism as a creed will make much progress in ,china proper4 ,but ,bolshevism as a political force is not the same thing as ,bolshevism as a creed4 ,the arguments which proved successful with the ,ameer of ,afghanistan or the nomads of ,mongolia were probably different from those employed in discussion with ,mr4 ,lansbury4 ,the ,asiatic expansion of ,bolshevik influence is not a distinctively ,bolshevik phenomenon1 but a continuation of traditional ,russian policy1 carried on by men who are more energetic1 more intelligent1 and less corrupt than the officials of the ,tsar's rgime1 and who moreover1 like the ,americans1 believe themselves to be engaged in the liberation of mankind1 not in mere imperialistic expansion4 ,this belief1 of course1 adds enormously to the vigour and success of ,bolshevik imperialism1 and gives an impulse to ,asiatic expansion which is not likely to be soon spent1 unless there is an actual restoration of the ,tsarist rgime under some new ,kolchak dependent upon alien arms for his throne and his life4 ,it is therefore not at all unlikely1 if the international situation develops in certain ways1 that ,russia may set to work to regain ,manchuria1 and to recover that influence over ,peking which the control of ,manchuria is bound to give to any foreign ,power4 ,it would probably be useless to attempt such an enterprise while ,japan remains unembarrassed1 but it would at once become feasible if ,japan were at war with ,america or with ,great ,britain4 ,there is therefore nothing improbable in the supposition that ,russia may1 within the next ten or twenty years1 recover the position which she held in relation to ,china before the ,russo-,japanese war4 ,it must be remembered also that the ,russians have an instinct for colonization1 and have been trekking eastward for centuries4 ,this tendency has been interrupted by the disasters of the last seven years1 but is likely to assert itself again before long4 ,the hegemony of ,russia in ,asia would not1 to my mind1 be in any way regrettable4 ,russia would probably not be strong enough to tyrannize as much as the ,english1 the ,americans1 or the ,japanese would do4 ,moreover1 the ,russians are sufficiently ,asiatic in outlook and character to be able to enter into relations of equality and mutual understanding with ,asiatics1 in a way which seems quite impossible for the ,english-speaking nations4 ,and an ,asiatic block1 if it could be formed1 would be strong for defence and weak for attack1 which would make for peace4 ,therefore1 on the whole1 such a result1 if it came about1 would probably be desirable ,in the interests of mankind as a whole4 ,what1 meanwhile1 is ,china's interest8 ,what would be ideally best for ,china would be to recover ,manchuria and ,shantung1 and then be let alone4 ,the anarchy in ,china might take a long time to subside1 but in the end some system suited to ,china would be established4 ,the artificial ending of ,chinese anarchy by outside interference means the establishment of some system convenient for foreign trade and industry1 but probably quite unfitted to the needs of the ,chinese themselves4 ,the ,english in the seventeenth century1 the ,french in the eighteenth1 the ,americans in the nineteenth1 and the ,russians in our own day1 have passed through years of anarchy and civil war1 which were essential to their development1 and could not have been curtailed by outside interference without grave detriment to the final solution4 ,so it is with ,china4 ,western political ideas have swept away the old imperial system1 but have not yet proved strong enough to put anything stable in its place4 ,the problem of transforming ,china into a modern country is a difficult one1 and foreigners ought to be willing to have some patience while the ,chinese attempt its solution4 ,they understand their own country1 and we do not4 ,if they are let alone1 they will1 in the end1 find a solution suitable to their character1 which we shall certainly not do4 ,a solution slowly reached by themselves may be stable1 whereas one prematurely imposed by outside ,powers will be artificial and therefore unstable4 ,there is1 however1 very little hope that the decisions reached by the ,washington ,conference will permanently benefit ,china1 and a considerable chance that they may do quite the reverse4 ,in ,manchuria the status quo is to be maintained1 while in ,shantung the ,japanese have made concessions1 the value of which only time can show4 ,the ,four ,powers--,america1 ,great ,britain1 ,france1 and ,japan--have agreed to exploit ,china in combination1 not competitively4 ,there is a consortium as regards loans1 which will have the power of the purse and will therefore be the real ,government of ,china4 ,as the ,americans are the only people who have much spare capital1 they will control the consortium4 ,as they consider their civilization the finest in the world1 they will set to work to turn the ,chinese into muscular ,christians4 ,as the financiers are the most splendid feature of the ,american civilization1 ,china must be so governed as to enrich the financiers1 who will in return establish colleges and hospitals and ,y4,m4,c4,a4's throughout the length and breadth of the land1 and employ agents to buy up the artistic treasures of ,china for sepulture in their mansions4 ,chinese intellect1 like that of ,america1 will be1 directly or indirectly1 in the pay of the ,trust magnates1 and therefore no effective voice will be1 raised in favour of radical reform4 ,the inauguration of this system will be welcomed even by some ,socialists in the ,west as a great victory for peace and freedom4 ,but it is impossible to make a silk purse out of a sow's ear1 or peace and freedom out of capitalism4 ,the fourfold agreement between ,england1 ,france1 ,america and ,japan is1 perhaps1 a safeguard of peace1 but in so far as it brings peace nearer it puts freedom further off4 ,it is the peace obtained when competing firms join in a combine1 which is by no means always advantageous to those who have profited by the previous competition4 ,it is quite possible to dominate ,china without infringing the principle of the ,open ,door4 ,this principle merely ensures that the domination everywhere shall be ,american1 because ,america is the strongest ,power financially and commercially4 ,it is to ,america's interest to secure1 in ,china1 certain things consistent with ,chinese interests1 and certain others inconsistent with them4 ,the ,americans1 for the sake of commerce and good investments1 would wish to see a stable government in ,china1 an increase in the purchasing power of the people1 and an absence of territorial aggression by other ,powers4 ,but they will not wish to see the ,chinese strong enough to own and work their own railways or mines1 and they will resent all attempts at economic independence1 particularly when 7as is to be expected7 they take the form of ,state ,socialism1 or what ,lenin calls ,state ,capitalism4 ,they will keep a dossier of every student educated in colleges under ,american control1 and will probably see to it that those who profess ,socialist or ,radical opinions shall get no posts4 ,they will insist upon the standard of hypocrisy which led them to hound out ,gorky when he visited the ,united ,states4 ,they will destroy beauty and substitute tidiness4 ,in short1 they will insist upon ,china becoming as like as possible to ,god's own country1 except that it will not be allowed to keep the wealth generated by its industries4 ,the ,chinese have it in them to give to the world a new contribution to civilization as valuable as that which they gave in the past4 ,this would be prevented by the domination of the ,americans1 because they believe their own civilization to be perfect4 ,the ideal of capitalism1 if it could be achieved1 would be to destroy competition among capitalists by means of ,trusts1 but to keep alive competition among workers4 ,to some extent ,trade ,unionism has succeeded in diminishing competition among wage-earners within the advanced industrial countries2 but it has only intensified the conflict between workers of different races1 particularly between the white and yellow races4#ib ,under the existing economic system1 the competition of cheap ,asiatic labour in ,america1 ,canada or ,australia might well be harmful to white labour in those countries4 ,but under ,socialism an influx of industrious1 skilled workers in sparsely populated countries would be an obvious gain to everybody4 ,under ,socialism1 the immigration of any person who produces more than he or she consumes will be a gain to every other individual in the community1 since it increases the wealth per head4 ,but under capitalism1 owing to competition for jobs1 a worker who either produces much or consumes little is the natural enemy of the others2 thus the system makes for inefficient work1 and creates an opposition between the general interest and the individual interest of the wage-earner4 ,the case of yellow labour in ,america and the ,british ,dominions is one of the most unfortunate instances of the artificial conflicts of interest produced by the capitalist system4 ,this whole question of ,asiatic immigration1 which is liable to cause trouble for centuries to come1 can only be radically solved by ,socialism1 since ,socialism alone can bring the private interests of workers in this matter into harmony with the interests of their nation and of the world4 ,the concentration of the world's capital in a few nations1 which1 by means of it1 are able to drain all other nations of their wealth1 is obviously not a system by which permanent peace can be secured except through the complete subjection of the poorer nations4 ,in the long run1 ,china will see no reason to leave the profits of industry in the hands of foreigners4 ,if1 for the present1 ,russia is successfully starved into submission to foreign capital1 ,russia also will1 when the time is ripe1 attempt a new rebellion against the world-empire of finance4 ,i cannot see1 therefore1 any establishment of a stable world-system as a result of the syndicate formed at ,washington4 ,on the contrary1 we may expect that1 when ,asia has thoroughly assimilated our economic system1 the ,marxian class-war will break out in the form of a war between ,asia and the ,west1 with ,america as the protagonist of capitalism1 and ,russia as the champion of ,asia and ,socialism4 ,in such a war1 ,asia would be fighting for freedom1 but probably too late to preserve the distinctive civilizations which now make ,asia valuable to the human family4 ,indeed1 the war would probably be so devastating that no civilization of any sort would survive it4 ,to sum up3 the real government of the world is in the hands of the big financiers1 except on questions which rouse passionate public interest4 ,no doubt the exclusion of ,asiatics from ,america and the ,dominions is due to popular pressure1 and is against the interests of big finance4 ,but not many questions rouse so much popular feeling1 and among them only a few are sufficiently simple to be incapable of misrepresentation in the interests of the capitalists4 ,even in such a case as ,asiatic immigration1 it is the capitalist system which causes the anti-social interests of wage-earners and makes them illiberal4 ,the existing system makes each man's individual interest opposed1 in some vital point1 to the interest of the whole4 ,and what applies to individuals applies also to nations2 under the existing economic system1 a nation's interest is seldom the same as that of the world at large1 and then only by accident4 ,international peace might conceivably be secured under the present system1 but only by a combination of the strong to exploit the weak4 ,such a combination is being attempted as the outcome of ,washington2 but it can only diminish1 in the long run1 the little freedom now enjoyed by the weaker nations4 ,the essential evil of the present system1 as ,socialists have pointed out over and over again1 is production for profit instead of for use4 ,a man or a company or a nation produces goods1 not in order to consume them1 but in order to sell them4 ,hence arise competition and exploitation and all the evils1 both in internal labour problems and in international relations4 ,the development of ,chinese commerce by capitalistic methods means an increase1 for the ,chinese1 in the prices of the things they export1 which are also the things they chiefly consume1 and the artificial stimulation of new needs for foreign goods1 which places ,china at the mercy of those who supply these goods1 destroys the existing contentment1 and generates a feverish pursuit of purely material ends4 ,in a socialistic world1 production will be regulated by the same authority which represents the needs of the consumers1 and the whole business of competitive buying and selling will cease4 ,until then1 it is possible to have peace by submission to exploitation1 or some degree of freedom by continual war1 but it is not possible to have both peace and freedom4 ,the success of the present ,american policy may1 for a time1 secure peace1 but will certainly not secure freedom for the weaker nations1 such as ,chinese4 ,only international ,socialism can secure both2 and owing to the stimulation of revolt by capitalist oppression1 even peace alone can never be secure until international ,socialism is established throughout the world4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #hf3 ,the interests of ,england1 apart from the question of ,india1 are roughly the same as those of ,america4 ,broadly speaking1 ,british interests are allied with ,american finance1 as against the pacifistic and agrarian tendencies of the ,middle ,west4 ,footnote #hg3 ,it is interesting to observe that1 since the ,washington ,conference1 the ,american ,administration has used the naval ratio there agreed upon to induce ,congress to consent to a larger expenditure on the navy than would otherwise have been sanctioned4 ,expenditure on the navy is unpopular in ,america1 but by its parade of pacifism the ,government has been enabled to extract the necessary money out of the pockets of reluctant taxpayers4 ,see ,the ,times' ,new ,york ,correspondent's telegram in ,the ,times of ,april #aj1 #aibb2 also ,april #ag and #bb4 ,footnote #hh3 ,see ,chamberlain1 ,the ,invention of a ,new ,religion1 published by the ,rationalist ,press ,association4 ,footnote #hi3 ,see ,murdoch1 ,history of ,japan1 ,i4 pp4 #ejj ff4 ,footnote #ij3 ,an excellent account of these is given in ,the ,socialist and ,labour ,movement in ,japan1 by an ,american ,sociologist1 published by the ,japan ,chronicle4 ,footnote #ia3 ,author of a book called ,if ,japan and ,america ,fight4 ,footnote #ib3 ,the attitude of white labour to that of ,asia is illustrated by the following telegram which appeared in ,the ,times for ,april #e1 #aibb1 from its ,melbourne correspondent3 ,a deputation of shipwrights and allied trades complained to ,mr4 ,hughes1 the ,prime ,minister1 that four ,commonwealth ships had been repaired at ,antwerp instead of in ,australia1 and that two had been repaired in ,india by black labour receiving eight annas 7#h;d47 a day4 ,when the deputation reached the black labour allegation ,mr4 ,hughes jumped from his chair and turned on his interviewers with1 ',black labour be damned4 ,go to blithering blazes4 ,don't talk to me about black labour4' ,hurrying from the room1 he pushed his way through the deputation4444 ,i do not generally agree with ,mr4 ,hughes1 but on this occasion1 deeply as ,i deplore his language1 ,i find myself in agreement with his sentiments1 assuming that the phrase black labour be damned is meant to confer a blessing4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,chinese ,,and ,,western ,,civilization ,,contrasted ,there is at present in ,china1 as we have seen in previous chapters1 a close contact between our civilization and that which is native to the ,celestial ,empire4 ,it is still a doubtful question whether this contact will breed a new civilization better than either of its parents1 or whether it will merely destroy the native culture and replace it by that of ,america4 ,contacts between different civilizations have often in the past proved to be landmarks in human progress4 ,greece learnt from ,egypt1 ,rome from ,greece1 the ,arabs from the ,roman ,empire1 medival ,europe from the ,arabs1 and ,renaissance ,europe from the ,byzantines4 ,in many of these cases1 the pupils proved better than their masters4 ,in the case of ,china1 if we regard the ,chinese as the pupils1 this may be the case again4 ,in fact1 we have quite as much to learn from them as they from us1 but there is far less chance of our learning it4 ,if ,i treat the ,chinese as our pupils1 rather than vice versa1 it is only because ,i fear we are unteachable4 ,i propose in this chapter to deal with the purely cultural aspects of the questions raised by the contact of ,china with the ,west4 ,in the three following chapters1 ,i shall deal with questions concerning the internal condition of ,china1 returning finally1 in a concluding chapter1 to the hopes for the future which are permissible in the present difficult situation4 ,with the exception of ,spain and ,america in the sixteenth century1 ,i cannot think of any instance of two civilizations coming into contact after such a long period of separate development as has marked those of ,china and ,europe4 ,considering this extraordinary separateness1 it is surprising that mutual understanding between ,europeans and ,chinese is not more difficult4 ,in order to make this point clear1 it will be worth while to dwell for a moment on the historical origins of the two civilizations4 ,western ,europe and ,america have a practically homogeneous mental life1 which ,i should trace to three sources3 7#a7 ,greek culture2 7#b7 ,jewish religion and ethics2 7#c7 modern industrialism1 which itself is an outcome of modern science4 ,we may take ,plato1 the ,old ,testament1 and ,galileo as representing these three elements1 which have remained singularly separable down to the present day4 ,from the ,greeks we derive literature and the arts1 philosophy and pure mathematics2 also the more urbane portions of our social outlook4 ,from the ,jews we derive fanatical belief1 which its friends call faith2 moral fervour1 with the conception of sin2 religious intolerance1 and some part of our nationalism4 ,from science1 as applied in industrialism1 we derive power and the sense of power1 the belief that we are as gods1 and may justly be1 the arbiters of life and death for unscientific races4 ,we derive also the empirical method1 by which almost all real knowledge has been acquired4 ,these three elements1 ,i think1 account for most of our mentality4 ,no one of these three elements has had any appreciable part in the development of ,china1 except that ,greece indirectly influenced ,chinese painting1 sculpture1 and music4#ic ,china belongs1 in the dawn of its history1 to the great river empires1 of which ,egypt and ,babylonia contributed to our origins1 by the influence which they had upon the ,greeks and ,jews4 ,just as these civilizations were rendered possible by the rich alluvial soil of the ,nile1 the ,euphrates1 and the ,tigris1 so the original civilization of ,china was rendered possible by the ,yellow ,river4 ,even in the time of ,confucius1 the ,chinese ,empire did not stretch far either to south or north of the ,yellow ,river4 ,but in spite of this similarity in physical and economic circumstances1 there was very little in common between the mental outlook of the ,chinese and that of the ,egyptians and ,babylonians4 ,lao-,tze#id and ,confucius1 who both belong to the sixth century ,b4,c41 have already the characteristics which we should regard as distinctive of the modern ,chinese4 ,people who attribute everything to economic causes would be hard put to it to account for the differences between the ancient ,chinese and the ancient ,egyptians and ,babylonians4 ,for my part1 ,i have no alternative theory to offer4 ,i do not think science can1 at present1 account wholly for national character4 ,climate and economic circumstances account for part1 but not the whole4 ,probably a great deal depends upon the character of dominant individuals who happen to emerge at a formative period1 such as ,moses1 ,mahomet1 and ,confucius4 ,the oldest known ,chinese sage is ,lao-,tze1 the founder of ,taoism4 ,lao ,tze is not really a proper name1 but means merely the old philosopher4 ,he was 7according to tradition7 an older contemporary of ,confucius1 and his philosophy is to my mind far more interesting4 ,he held that every person1 every animal1 and every thing has a certain way or manner of behaving which is natural to him1 or her1 or it1 and that we ought to conform to this way ourselves and encourage others to conform to it4 ,tao means way1 but used in a more or less mystical sense1 as in the text3 ,i am the ,way and the ,truth and the ,life4 ,i think he fancied that death was due to departing from the way1 and that if we all lived strictly according to nature we should be immortal1 like the heavenly bodies4 ,in later times ,taoism degenerated into mere magic1 and was largely concerned with the search for the elixir of life4 ,but ,i think the hope of escaping from death was an element in ,taoist philosophy from the first4 ,lao-,tze's book1 or rather the book attributed to him1 is very short1 but his ideas were developed by his disciple ,chuang-,tze1 who is more interesting than his master4 ,the philosophy which both advocated was one of freedom4 ,they thought ill of government1 and of all interferences with ,nature4 ,they complained of the hurry of modern life1 which they contrasted with the calm existence of those whom they called the pure men of old4 ,there is a flavour of mysticism in the doctrine of the ,tao1 because in spite of the multiplicity of living things the ,tao is in some sense one1 so that if all live according to it there will be no strife in the world4 ,but both sages have already the ,chinese characteristics of humour1 restraint1 and under-statement4 ,their humour is illustrated by ,chuang-,tze's account of ,po-,lo who understood the management of horses1 and trained them till five out of every ten died4#ie ,their restraint and under-statement are evident when they are compared with ,western mystics4 ,both characteristics belong to all ,chinese literature and art1 and to the conversation of cultivated ,chinese in the present day4 ,all classes in ,china are fond of laughter1 and never miss a chance of a joke4 ,in the educated classes1 the humour is sly and delicate1 so that ,europeans often fail to see it1 which adds to the enjoyment of the ,chinese4 ,their habit of under-statement is remarkable4 ,i met one day in ,peking a middle-aged man who told me he was academically interested in the theory of politics2 being new to the country1 ,i took his statement at its face value1 but ,i afterwards discovered that he had been governor of a province1 and had been for many years a very prominent politician4 ,in ,chinese poetry there is an apparent absence of passion which is due to the same practice of under-statement4 ,they consider that a wise man should always remain calm1 and though they have their passionate moments 7being in fact a very excitable race71 they do not wish to perpetuate them in art1 because they think ill of them4 ,our romantic movement1 which led people to like vehemence1 has1 so far as ,i know1 no analogue in their literature4 ,their old music1 some of which is very beautiful1 makes so little noise that one can only just hear it4 ,in art they aim at being exquisite1 and in life at being reasonable4 ,there is no admiration for the ruthless strong man1 or for the unrestrained expression of passion4 ,after the more blatant life of the ,west1 one misses at first all the effects at which they are aiming2 but gradually the beauty and dignity of their existence become visible1 so that the foreigners who have lived longest in ,china are those who love the ,chinese best4 ,the ,taoists1 though they survive as magicians1 were entirely ousted from the favour of the educated classes by ,confucianism4 ,i must confess that ,i am unable to appreciate the merits of ,confucius4 ,his writings are largely occupied with trivial points of etiquette1 and his main concern is to teach people how to behave correctly on various occasions4 ,when one compares him1 however1 with the traditional religious teachers of some other ages and races1 one must admit that he has great merits1 even if they are mainly negative4 ,his system1 as developed by his followers1 is one of pure ethics1 without religious dogma2 it has not given rise to a powerful priesthood1 and it has not led to persecution4 ,it certainly has succeeded in producing a whole nation possessed of exquisite manners and perfect courtesy4 ,nor is ,chinese courtesy merely conventional2 it is quite as reliable in situations for which no precedent has been provided4 ,and it is not confined to one class2 it exists even in the humblest coolie4 ,it is humiliating to watch the brutal insolence of white men received by the ,chinese with a quiet dignity which cannot demean itself to answer rudeness with rudeness4 ,europeans often regard this as weakness1 but it is really strength1 the strength by which the ,chinese have hitherto conquered all their conquerors4 ,there is one1 and only one1 important foreign element in the traditional civilization of ,china1 and that is ,buddhism4 ,buddhism came to ,china from ,india in the early centuries of the ,christian era1 and acquired a definite place in the religion of the country4 ,we1 with the intolerant outlook which we have taken over from the ,jews1 imagine that if a man adopts one religion he cannot adopt another4 ,the dogmas of ,christianity and ,mohammedanism1 in their orthodox forms1 are so framed that no man can accept both4 ,but in ,china this incompatibility does not exist2 a man may be both a ,buddhist and a ,confucian1 because nothing in either is incompatible with the other4 ,in ,japan1 similarly1 most people are both ,buddhists and ,shintoists4 ,nevertheless there is a temperamental difference between ,buddhism and ,confucianism1 which will cause any individual to lay stress on one or other even if he accepts both4 ,buddhism is a religion in the sense in which we understand the word4 ,it has mystic doctrines and a way of salvation and a future life4 ,it has a message to the world intended to cure the despair which it regards as natural to those who have no religious faith4 ,it assumes an instinctive pessimism only to be cured by some gospel4 ,confucianism has nothing of all this4 ,it assumes people fundamentally at peace with the world1 wanting only instruction as to how to live1 not encouragement to live at all4 ,and its ethical instruction is not based upon any metaphysical or religious dogma2 it is purely mundane4 ,the result of the co-existence of these two religions in ,china has been that the more religious and contemplative natures turned to ,buddhism1 while the active administrative type was content with ,confucianism1 which was always the official teaching1 in which candidates for the civil service were examined4 ,the result is that for many ages the ,government of ,china has been in the hands of literary sceptics1 whose administration has been lacking in those qualities of energy and destructiveness which ,western nations demand of their rulers4 ,in fact1 they have conformed very closely to the maxims of ,chuang-,tze4 ,the result has been that the population has been happy except where civil war brought misery2 that subject nations have been allowed autonomy2 and that foreign nations have had no need to fear ,china1 in spite of its immense population and resources4 ,comparing the civilization of ,china with that of ,europe1 one finds in ,china most of what was to be found in ,greece1 but nothing of the other two elements of our civilization1 namely ,judaism and science4 ,china is practically destitute of religion1 not only in the upper classes1 but throughout the population4 ,there is a very definite ethical code1 but it is not fierce or persecuting1 and does not contain the notion sin4 ,except quite recently1 through ,european influence1 there has been no science and no industrialism4 ,what will be the outcome of the contact of this ancient civilization with the ,west8 ,i am not thinking of the political or economic outcome1 but of the effect on the ,chinese mental outlook4 ,it is difficult to dissociate the two questions altogether1 because of course the cultural contact with the ,west must be affected by the nature of the political and economic contact4 ,nevertheless1 ,i wish to consider the cultural question as far as ,i can in isolation4 ,there is1 in ,china1 a great eagerness to acquire ,western learning1 not simply in order to acquire national strength and be able to resist ,western aggression1 but because a very large number of people consider learning a good thing in itself4 ,it is traditional in ,china to place a high value on knowledge1 but in old days the knowledge sought was only of the classical literature4 ,nowadays it is generally realized that ,western knowledge is more useful4 ,many students go every year to universities in ,europe1 and still more to ,america1 to learn science or economics or law or political theory4 ,these men1 when they return to ,china1 mostly become teachers or civil servants or journalists or politicians4 ,they are rapidly modernizing the ,chinese outlook1 especially in the educated classes4 ,the traditional civilization of ,china had become unprogressive1 and had ceased to produce much of value in the way of art and literature4 ,this was not due1 ,i think1 to any decadence in the race1 but merely to lack of new material4 ,the influx of ,western knowledge provides just the stimulus that was needed4 ,chinese students are able and extraordinarily keen4 ,higher education suffers from lack of funds and absence of libraries1 but does not suffer from any lack of the finest human material4 ,although ,chinese civilization has hitherto been deficient in science1 it never contained anything hostile to science1 and therefore the spread of scientific knowledge encounters no such obstacles as the ,church put in its way in ,europe4 ,i have no doubt that if the ,chinese could get a stable government and sufficient funds1 they would1 within the next thirty years1 begin to produce remarkable work in science4 ,it is quite likely that they might outstrip us1 because they come with fresh zest and with all the ardour of a renaissance4 ,in fact1 the enthusiasm for learning in ,young ,china reminds one constantly of the renaissance spirit in fifteenth-century ,italy4 ,it is very remarkable1 as distinguishing the ,chinese from the ,japanese1 that the things they wish to learn from us are not those that bring wealth or military strength1 but rather those that have either an ethical and social value1 or a purely intellectual interest4 ,they are not by any means uncritical of our civilization4 ,some of them told me that they were less critical before #aiad1 but that the war made them think there must be imperfections in the ,western manner of life4 ,the habit of looking to the ,west for wisdom was1 however1 very strong1 and some of the younger ones thought that ,bolshevism could give what they were looking for4 ,that hope also must be suffering disappointment1 and before long they will realize that they must work out their own salvation by means of a new synthesis4 ,the ,japanese adopted our faults and kept their own1 but it is possible to hope that the ,chinese will make the opposite selection1 keeping their own merits and adopting ours4 ,the distinctive merit of our civilization1 ,i should say1 is the scientific method2 the distinctive merit of the ,chinese is a just conception of the ends of life4 ,it is these two that one must hope to see gradually uniting4 ,lao-,tze describes the operation of ,tao as production without possession1 action without self-assertion1 development without domination4 ,i think one could derive from these words a conception of the ends of life as reflective ,chinese see them1 and it must be admitted that they are very different from the ends which most white men set before themselves4 ,possession1 self-assertion1 domination1 are eagerly sought1 both nationally and individually4 ,they have been erected into a philosophy by ,nietzsche1 and ,nietzsche's disciples are not confined to ,germany4 ,but1 it will be said1 you have been comparing ,western practice with ,chinese theory2 if you had compared ,western theory with ,chinese practice1 the balance would have come out quite differently4 ,there is1 of course1 a great deal of truth in this4 ,possession1 which is one of the three things that ,lao-,tze wishes us to forego1 is certainly dear to the heart of the average ,chinaman4 ,as a race1 they are tenacious of money--not perhaps more so than the ,french1 but certainly more than the ,english or the ,americans4 ,their politics are corrupt1 and their powerful men make money in disgraceful ways4 ,all this it is impossible to deny4 ,nevertheless1 as regards the other two evils1 self-assertion and domination1 ,i notice a definite superiority to ourselves in ,chinese practice4 ,there is much less desire than among the white races to tyrannize over other people4 ,the weakness of ,china internationally is quite as much due to this virtue as to the vices of corruption and so on which are usually assigned as the sole reason4 ,if any nation in the world could ever be too proud to fight1 that nation would be ,china4 ,the natural ,chinese attitude is one of tolerance and friendliness1 showing courtesy and expecting it in return4 ,if the ,chinese chose1 they could be the most powerful nation in the world4 ,but they only desire freedom1 not domination4 ,it is not improbable that other nations may compel them to fight for their freedom1 and if so1 they may lose their virtues and acquire a taste for empire4 ,but at present1 though they have been an imperial race for #b1jjj years1 their love of empire is extraordinarily slight4 ,although there have been many wars in ,china1 the natural outlook of the ,chinese is very pacifistic4 ,i do not know of any other country where a poet would have chosen1 as ,po-,chui did in one of the poems translated by ,mr4 ,waley1 called by him ,the ,old ,man with the ,broken ,arm1 to make a hero of a recruit who maimed himself to escape military service4 ,their pacifism is rooted in their contemplative outlook1 and in the fact that they do not desire to change whatever they see4 ,they take a pleasure--as their pictures show--in observing characteristic manifestations of different kinds of life1 and they have no wish to reduce everything to a preconceived pattern4 ,they have not the ideal of progress which dominates the ,western nations1 and affords a rationalization of our active impulses4 ,progress is1 of course1 a very modern ideal even with us2 it is part of what we owe to science and industrialism4 ,the cultivated conservative ,chinese of the present day talk exactly as their earliest sages write4 ,if one points out to them that this shows how little progress there has been1 they will say3 ,why seek progress when you already enjoy what is excellent8 ,at first1 this point of view seems to a ,european unduly indolent2 but gradually doubts as to one's own wisdom grow up1 and one begins to think that much of what we call progress is only restless change1 bringing us no nearer to any desirable goal4 ,it is interesting to contrast what the ,chinese have sought in the ,west with what the ,west has sought in ,china4 ,the ,chinese in the ,west seek knowledge1 in the hope--which ,i fear is usually vain--that knowledge may prove a gateway to wisdom4 ,white men have gone to ,china with three motives3 to fight1 to make money1 and to convert the ,chinese to our religion4 ,the last of these motives has the merit of being idealistic1 and has inspired many heroic lives4 ,but the soldier1 the merchant1 and the missionary are alike concerned to stamp our civilization upon the world2 they are all three1 in a certain sense1 pugnacious4 ,the ,chinese have no wish to convert us to ,confucianism2 they say religions are many1 but reason is one1 and with that they are content to let us go our way4 ,they are good merchants1 but their methods are quite different from those of ,european merchants in ,china1 who are perpetually seeking concessions1 monopolies1 railways1 and mines1 and endeavouring to get their claims supported by gunboats4 ,the ,chinese are not1 as a rule1 good soldiers1 because the causes for which they are asked to fight are not worth fighting for1 and they know it4 ,but that is only a proof of their reasonableness4 ,i think the tolerance of the ,chinese is in excess of anything that ,europeans can imagine from their experience at home4 ,we imagine ourselves tolerant1 because we are more so than our ancestors4 ,but we still practise political and social persecution1 and what is more1 we are firmly persuaded that our civilization and our way of life are immeasurably better than any other1 so that when we come across a nation like the ,chinese1 we are convinced that the kindest thing we can do to them is to make them like ourselves4 ,i believe this to be a profound mistake4 ,it seemed to me that the average ,chinaman1 even if he is miserably poor1 is happier than the average ,englishman1 and is happier because the nation is built upon a more humane and civilized outlook than our own4 ,restlessness and pugnacity not only cause obvious evils1 but fill our lives with discontent1 incapacitate us for the enjoyment of beauty1 and make us almost incapable of the contemplative virtues4 ,in this respect we have grown rapidly worse during the last hundred years4 ,i do not deny that the ,chinese go too far in the other direction2 but for that very reason ,i think contact between ,east and ,west is likely to be fruitful to both parties4 ,they may learn from us the indispensable minimum of practical efficiency1 and we may learn from them something of that contemplative wisdom which has enabled them to persist while all the other nations of antiquity have perished4 ,when ,i went to ,china1 ,i went to teach2 but every day that ,i stayed ,i thought less of what ,i had to teach them and more of what ,i had to learn from them4 ,among ,europeans who had lived a long time in ,china1 ,i found this attitude not uncommon2 but among those whose stay is short1 or who go only to make money1 it is sadly rare4 ,it is rare because the ,chinese do not excel in the things we really value--military prowess and industrial enterprise4 ,but those who value wisdom or beauty1 or even the simple enjoyment of life1 will find more of these things in ,china than in the distracted and turbulent ,west1 and will be happy to live where such things are valued4 ,i wish ,i could hope that ,china1 in return for our scientific knowledge1 may give us something of her large tolerance and contemplative peace of mind4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ic3 ,see ,cordier1 op4 cit4 i4 p4 #cfh1 and ,giles1 op4 cit4 p4 #ahg4 ,footnote #id3 ,with regard to ,lao-,tze1 the book which bears his name is of doubtful authenticity1 and was probably compiled two or three centuries after his death4 ,cf4 ,giles1 op4 cit41 ,lecture ,v4 ,footnote #ie3 ,quoted in ,chap4 ,,iv1 pp4 #hb-c4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,chinese ,,character ,there is a theory among ,occidentals that the ,chinaman is inscrutable1 full of secret thoughts1 and impossible for us to understand4 ,it may be that a greater experience of ,china would have brought me to share this opinion2 but ,i could see nothing to support it during the time when ,i was working in that country4 ,i talked to the ,chinese as ,i should have talked to ,english people1 and they answered me much as ,english people would have answered a ,chinese whom they considered educated and not wholly unintelligent4 ,i do not believe in the myth of the ,subtle ,oriental3 ,i am convinced that in a game of mutual deception an ,englishman or ,american can beat a ,chinese nine times out of ten4 ,but as many comparatively poor ,chinese have dealings with rich white men1 the game is often played only on one side4 ,then1 no doubt1 the white man is deceived and swindled2 but not more than a ,chinese mandarin would be in ,london4 ,one of the most remarkable things about the ,chinese is their power of securing the affection of foreigners4 ,almost all ,europeans like ,china1 both those who come only as tourists and those who live there for many years4 ,in spite of the ,anglo-,japanese ,alliance1 ,i can recall hardly a single ,englishman in the ,far ,east who liked the ,japanese as well as the ,chinese4 ,those who have lived long among them tend to acquire their outlook and their standards4 ,new arrivals are struck by obvious evils3 the beggars1 the terrible poverty1 the prevalence of disease1 the anarchy and corruption in politics4 ,every energetic ,westerner feels at first a strong desire to reform these evils1 and of course they ought to be reformed4 ,but the ,chinese1 even those who are the victims of preventable misfortunes1 show a vast passive indifference to the excitement of the foreigners2 they wait for it to go off1 like the effervescence of soda-water4 ,and gradually strange hesitations creep into the mind of the bewildered traveller2 after a period of indignation1 he begins to doubt all the maxims he has hitherto accepted without question4 ,is it really wise to be always guarding against future misfortune8 ,is it prudent to lose all enjoyment of the present through thinking of the disasters that may come at some future date8 ,should our lives be passed in building a mansion that we shall never have leisure to inhabit8 ,the ,chinese answer these questions in the negative1 and therefore have to put up with poverty1 disease1 and anarchy4 ,but1 to compensate for these evils1 they have retained1 as industrial nations have not1 the capacity for civilized enjoyment1 for leisure and laughter1 for pleasure in sunshine and philosophical discourse4 ,the ,chinese1 of all classes1 are more laughter-loving than any other race with which ,i am acquainted2 they find amusement in everything1 and a dispute can always be softened by a joke4 ,i remember one hot day when a party of us were crossing the hills in chairs--the way was rough and very steep1 the work for the coolies very severe4 ,at the highest point of our journey1 we stopped for ten minutes to let the men rest4 ,instantly they all sat in a row1 brought out their pipes1 and began to laugh among themselves as if they had not a care in the world4 ,in any country that had learned the virtue of forethought1 they would have devoted the moments to complaining of the heat1 in order to increase their tip4 ,we1 being ,europeans1 spent the time worrying whether the automobile would be waiting for us at the right place4 ,well-to-do ,chinese would have started a discussion as to whether the universe moves in cycles or progresses by a rectilinear motion2 or they might have set to work to consider whether the truly virtuous man shows complete self-abnegation1 or may1 on occasion1 consider his own interest4 ,one comes across white men occasionally who suffer under the delusion that ,china is not a civilized country4 ,such men have quite forgotten what constitutes civilization4 ,it is true that there are no trams in ,peking1 and that the electric light is poor4 ,it is true that there are places full of beauty1 which ,europeans itch to make hideous by digging up coal4 ,it is true that the educated ,chinaman is better at writing poetry than at remembering the sort of facts which can be looked up in ,whitaker's ,almanac4 ,a ,european1 in recommending a place of residence1 will tell you that it has a good train service2 the best quality he can conceive in any place is that it should be easy to get away from4 ,but a ,chinaman will tell you nothing about the trains2 if you ask1 he will tell you wrong4 ,what he tells you is that there is a palace built by an ancient emperor1 and a retreat in a lake for scholars weary of the world1 founded by a famous poet of the ,tang dynasty4 ,it is this outlook that strikes the ,westerner as barbaric4 ,the ,chinese1 from the highest to the lowest1 have an imperturbable quiet dignity1 which is usually not destroyed even by a ,european education4 ,they are not self-assertive1 either individually or nationally2 their pride is too profound for self-assertion4 ,they admit ,china's military weakness in comparison with foreign ,powers1 but they do not consider efficiency in homicide the most important quality in a man or a nation4 ,i think that1 at bottom1 they almost all believe that ,china is the greatest nation in the world1 and has the finest civilization4 ,a ,westerner cannot be expected to accept this view1 because it is based on traditions utterly different from his own4 ,but gradually one comes to feel that it is1 at any rate1 not an absurd view2 that it is1 in fact1 the logical outcome of a self-consistent standard of values4 ,the typical ,westerner wishes to be the cause of as many changes as possible in his environment2 the typical ,chinaman wishes to enjoy as much and as delicately as possible4 ,this difference is at the bottom of most of the contrast between ,china and the ,english-speaking world4 ,we in the ,west make a fetish of progress1 which is the ethical camouflage of the desire to be the cause of changes4 ,if we are asked1 for instance1 whether machinery has really improved the world1 the question strikes us as foolish3 it has brought great changes and therefore great progress4 ,what we believe to be a love of progress is really1 in nine cases out of ten1 a love of power1 an enjoyment of the feeling that by our fiat we can make things different4 ,for the sake of this pleasure1 a young ,american will work so hard that1 by the time he has acquired his millions1 he has become a victim of dyspepsia1 compelled to live on toast and water1 and to be a mere spectator of the feasts that he offers to his guests4 ,but he consoles himself with the thought that he can control politics1 and provoke or prevent wars as may suit his investments4 ,it is this temperament that makes ,western nations progressive4 ,there are1 of course1 ambitious men in ,china1 but they are less common than among ourselves4 ,and their ambition takes a different form--not a better form1 but one produced by the preference of enjoyment to power4 ,it is a natural result of this preference that avarice is a widespread failing of the ,chinese4 ,money brings the means of enjoyment1 therefore money is passionately desired4 ,with us1 money is desired chiefly as a means to power2 politicians1 who can acquire power without much money1 are often content to remain poor4 ,in ,china1 the tuchuns 7military governors71 who have the real power1 almost always use it for the sole purpose of amassing a fortune4 ,their object is to escape to ,japan at a suitable moment2 with sufficient plunder to enable them to enjoy life quietly for the rest of their days4 ,the fact that in escaping they lose power does not trouble them in the least4 ,it is1 of course1 obvious that such politicians1 who spread devastation only in the provinces committed to their care1 are far less harmful to the world than our own1 who ruin whole continents in order to win an election campaign4 ,the corruption and anarchy in ,chinese politics do much less harm than one would be inclined to expect4 ,but for the predatory desires of the ,great ,powers--especially ,japan--the harm would be much less than is done by our own efficient ,governments4 ,nine-tenths of the activities of a modern ,government are harmful2 therefore the worse they are performed1 the better4 ,in ,china1 where the ,government is lazy1 corrupt1 and stupid1 there is a degree of individual liberty which has been wholly lost in the rest of the world4 ,the laws are just as bad as elsewhere2 occasionally1 under foreign pressure1 a man is imprisoned for ,bolshevist propaganda1 just as he might be in ,england or ,america4 ,but this is quite exceptional2 as a rule1 in practice1 there is very little interference with free speech and a free ,press4#if ,the individual does not feel obliged to follow the herd1 as he has in ,europe since #aiad1 and in ,america since #aiag4 ,men still think for themselves1 and are not afraid to announce the conclusions at which they arrive4 ,individualism has perished in the ,west1 but in ,china it survives1 for good as well as for evil4 ,self-respect and personal dignity are possible for every coolie in ,china1 to a degree which is1 among ourselves1 possible only for a few leading financiers4 ,the business of saving face1 which often strikes foreigners in ,china as ludicrous1 is only the carrying-out of respect for personal dignity in the sphere of social manners4 ,everybody has face1 even the humblest beggar2 there are humiliations that you must not inflict upon him1 if you are not to outrage the ,chinese ethical code4 ,if you speak to a ,chinaman in a way that transgresses the code1 he will laugh1 because your words must be taken as spoken in jest if they are not to constitute an offence4 ,once ,i thought that the students to whom ,i was lecturing were not as industrious as they might be1 and ,i told them so in just the same words that ,i should have used to ,english students in the same circumstances4 ,but ,i soon found ,i was making a mistake4 ,they all laughed uneasily1 which surprised me until ,i saw the reason4 ,chinese life1 even among the most modernized1 is far more polite than anything to which we are accustomed4 ,this1 of course1 interferes with efficiency1 and also 7what is more serious7 with sincerity and truth in personal relations4 ,if ,i were ,chinese1 ,i should wish to see it mitigated4 ,but to those who suffer from the brutalities of the ,west1 ,chinese urbanity is very restful4 ,whether on the balance it is better or worse than our frankness1 ,i shall not venture to decide4 ,the ,chinese remind one of the ,english in their love of compromise and in their habit of bowing to public opinion4 ,seldom is a conflict pushed to its ultimate brutal issue4 ,the treatment of the ,manchu ,emperor may be taken as a case in point4 ,when a ,western country becomes a ,republic1 it is customary to cut off the head of the deposed monarch1 or at least to cause him to fly the country4 ,but the ,chinese have left the ,emperor his title1 his beautiful palace1 his troops of eunuchs1 and an income of several million dollars a year4 ,he is a boy of sixteen1 living peaceably in the ,forbidden ,city4 ,once1 in the course of a civil war1 he was nominally restored to power for a few days2 but he was deposed again1 without being in any way punished for the use to which he had been put4 ,public opinion is a very real force in ,china1 when it can be roused4 ,it was1 by all accounts1 mainly responsible for the downfall of the ,an ,fu party in the summer of #aibj4 ,this party was pro-,japanese and was accepting loans from ,japan4 ,hatred of ,japan is the strongest and most widespread of political passions in ,china1 and it was stirred up by the students in fiery orations4 ,the ,an ,fu party had1 at first1 a great preponderance of military strength2 but their soldiers melted away when they came to understand the cause for which they were expected to fight4 ,in the end1 the opponents of the ,an ,fu party were able to enter ,peking and change the ,government almost without firing a shot4 ,the same influence of public opinion was decisive in the teachers' strike1 which was on the point of being settled when ,i left ,peking4 ,the ,government1 which is always impecunious1 owing to corruption1 had left its teachers unpaid for many months4 ,at last they struck to enforce payment1 and went on a peaceful deputation to the ,government1 accompanied by many students4 ,there was a clash with the soldiers and police1 and many teachers and students were more or less severely wounded4 ,this led to a terrific outcry1 because the love of education in ,china is profound and widespread4 ,the newspapers clamoured for revolution4 ,the ,government had just spent nine million dollars in corrupt payments to three ,tuchuns who had descended upon the capital to extort blackmail4 ,it could not find any colourable pretext for refusing the few hundred thousands required by the teachers1 and it capitulated in panic4 ,i do not think there is any ,anglo-,saxon country where the interests of teachers would have roused the same degree of public feeling4 ,nothing astonishes a ,european more in the ,chinese than their patience4 ,the educated ,chinese are well aware of the foreign menace4 ,they realize acutely what the ,japanese have done in ,manchuria and ,shantung4 ,they are aware that the ,english in ,hong-,kong are doing their utmost to bring to naught the ,canton attempt to introduce good government in the ,south4 ,they know that all the ,great ,powers1 without exception1 look with greedy eyes upon the undeveloped resources of their country1 especially its coal and iron4 ,they have before them the example of ,japan1 which1 by developing a brutal militarism1 a cast-iron discipline1 and a new reactionary religion1 has succeeded in holding at bay the fierce lusts of civilized industrialists4 ,yet they neither copy ,japan nor submit tamely to foreign domination4 ,they think not in decades1 but in centuries4 ,they have been conquered before1 first by the ,tartars and then by the ,manchus2 but in both cases they absorbed their conquerors4 ,chinese civilization persisted1 unchanged2 and after a few generations the invaders became more ,chinese than their subjects4 ,manchuria is a rather empty country1 with abundant room for colonization4 ,the ,japanese assert that they need colonies for their surplus population1 yet the ,chinese immigrants into ,manchuria exceed the ,japanese a hundredfold4 ,whatever may be the temporary political status of ,manchuria1 it will remain a part of ,chinese civilization1 and can be recovered whenever ,japan happens to be in difficulties4 ,the ,chinese derive such strength from their four hundred millions1 the toughness of their national customs1 their power of passive resistance1 and their unrivalled national cohesiveness--in spite of the civil wars1 which merely ruffle the surface--that they can afford to despise military methods1 and to wait till the feverish energy of their oppressors shall have exhausted itself in internecine combats4 ,china is much less a political entity than a civilization--the only one that has survived from ancient times4 ,since the days of ,confucius1 the ,egyptian1 ,babylonian1 ,persian1 ,macedonian1 and ,roman ,empires have perished2 but ,china has persisted through a continuous evolution4 ,there have been foreign influences--first ,buddhism1 and now ,western science4 ,but ,buddhism did not turn the ,chinese into ,indians1 and ,western science will not turn them into ,europeans4 ,i have met men in ,china who knew as much of ,western learning as any professor among ourselves2 yet they had not been thrown off their balance1 or lost touch with their own people4 ,what is bad in the ,west--its brutality1 its restlessness1 its readiness to oppress the weak1 its preoccupation with purely material aims--they see to be bad1 and do not wish to adopt4 ,what is good1 especially its science1 they do wish to adopt4 ,the old indigenous culture of ,china has become rather dead2 its art and literature are not what they were1 and ,confucius does not satisfy the spiritual needs of a modern man1 even if he is ,chinese4 ,the ,chinese who have had a ,european or ,american education realize that a new element1 is needed to vitalize native traditions1 and they look to our civilization to supply it4 ,but they do not wish to construct a civilization just like ours2 and it is precisely in this that the best hope lies4 ,if they are not goaded into militarism1 they may produce a genuinely new civilization1 better than any that we in the ,west have been able to create4 ,so far1 ,i have spoken chiefly of the good sides of the ,chinese character2 but of course ,china1 like every other nation1 has its bad sides also4 ,it is disagreeable to me to speak of these1 as ,i experienced so much courtesy and real kindness from the ,chinese1 that ,i should prefer to say only nice things about them4 ,but for the sake of ,china1 as well as for the sake of truth1 it would be a mistake to conceal what is less admirable4 ,i will only ask the reader to remember that1 on the balance1 ,i think the ,chinese one of the best nations ,i have come across1 and am prepared to draw up a graver indictment against every one of the ,great ,powers4 ,shortly before ,i left ,china1 an eminent ,chinese writer pressed me to say what ,i considered the chief defects of the ,chinese4 ,with some reluctance1 ,i mentioned three3 avarice1 cowardice and callousness4 ,strange to say1 my interlocutor1 instead of getting angry1 admitted the justice of my criticism1 and proceeded to discuss possible remedies4 ,this is a sample of the intellectual integrity which is one of ,china's greatest virtues4 ,the callousness of the ,chinese is bound to strike every ,anglo-,saxon4 ,they have none of that humanitarian impulse which leads us to devote one per cent4 of our energy to mitigating the evils wrought by the other ninety-nine per cent4 ,for instance1 we have been forbidding the ,austrians to join with ,germany1 to emigrate1 or to obtain the raw materials of industry4 ,therefore the ,viennese have starved1 except those whom it has pleased us to keep alive from philanthropy4 ,the ,chinese would not have had the energy to starve the ,viennese1 or the philanthropy to keep some of them alive4 ,while ,i was in ,china1 millions were dying of famine2 men sold their children into slavery for a few dollars1 and killed them if this sum was unobtainable4 ,much was done by white men to relieve the famine1 but very little by the ,chinese1 and that little vitiated by corruption4 ,it must be said1 however1 that the efforts of the white men were more effective in soothing their own consciences than in helping the ,chinese4 ,so long as the present birth-rate and the present methods of agriculture persist1 famines are bound to occur periodically2 and those whom philanthropy keeps alive through one famine are only too likely to perish in the next4 ,famines in ,china can be permanently cured only by better methods of agriculture combined with emigration or birth-control on a large scale4 ,educated ,chinese realize this1 and it makes them indifferent to efforts to keep the present victims alive4 ,a great deal of ,chinese callousness has a similar explanation1 and is due to perception of the vastness of the problems involved4 ,but there remains a residue which cannot be so explained4 ,if a dog is run over by an automobile and seriously hurt1 nine out of ten passers-by will stop to laugh at the poor brute's howls4 ,the spectacle of suffering does not of itself rouse any sympathetic pain in the average ,chinaman2 in fact1 he seems to find it mildly agreeable4 ,their history1 and their penal code before the revolution of #aiaa1 show that they are by no means destitute of the impulse of active cruelty2 but of this ,i did not myself come across any instances4 ,and it must be said that active cruelty is practised by all the great nations1 to an extent concealed from us only by our hypocrisy4 ,cowardice is prima facie a fault of the ,chinese2 but ,i am not sure that they are really lacking in courage4 ,it is true that1 in battles between rival tuchuns1 both sides run away1 and victory rests with the side that first discovers the flight of the other4 ,but this proves only that the ,chinese soldier is a rational man4 ,no cause of any importance is involved1 and the armies consist of mere mercenaries4 ,when there is a serious issue1 as1 for instance1 in the ,tai-,ping rebellion1 the ,chinese are said to fight well1 particularly if they have good officers4 ,nevertheless1 ,i do not think that1 in comparison with the ,anglo-,saxons1 the ,french1 or the ,germans1 the ,chinese can be considered a courageous people1 except in the matter of passive endurance4 ,they will endure torture1 and even death1 for motives which men of more pugnacious races would find insufficient--for example1 to conceal the hiding-place of stolen plunder4 ,in spite of their comparative lack of active courage1 they have less fear of death than we have1 as is shown by their readiness to commit suicide4 ,avarice is1 ,i should say1 the gravest defect of the ,chinese4 ,life is hard1 and money is not easily obtained4 ,for the sake of money1 all except a very few foreign-educated ,chinese will be guilty of corruption4 ,for the sake of a few pence1 almost any coolie will run an imminent risk of death4 ,the difficulty of combating ,japan has arisen mainly from the fact that hardly any ,chinese politician can resist ,japanese bribes4 ,i think this defect is probably due to the fact that1 for many ages1 an honest living has been hard to get2 in which case it will be lessened as economic conditions improve4 ,i doubt if it is any worse now in ,china than it was in ,europe in the eighteenth century4 ,i have not heard of any ,chinese general more corrupt than ,marlborough1 or of any politician more corrupt than ,cardinal ,dubois4 ,it is1 therefore1 quite likely that changed industrial conditions will make the ,chinese as honest as we are--which is not saying much4 ,i have been speaking of the ,chinese as they are in ordinary life1 when they appear as men of active and sceptical intelligence1 but of somewhat sluggish passions4 ,there is1 however1 another side to them3 they are capable of wild excitement1 often of a collective kind4 ,i saw little of this myself1 but there can be no doubt of the fact4 ,the ,boxer rising was a case in point1 and one which particularly affected ,europeans4 ,but their history is full of more or less analogous disturbances4 ,it is this element in their character that makes them incalculable1 and makes it impossible even to guess at their future4 ,one can imagine a section of them becoming fanatically ,bolshevist1 or anti-,japanese1 or ,christian1 or devoted to some leader who would ultimately declare himself ,emperor4 ,i suppose it is this element in their character that makes them1 in spite of their habitual caution1 the most reckless gamblers in the world4 ,and many emperors have lost their thrones through the force of romantic love1 although romantic love is far more despised than it is in the ,west4 ,to sum up the ,chinese character is not easy4 ,much of what strikes the foreigner is due merely to the fact that they have preserved an ancient civilization which is not industrial4 ,all this is likely to pass away1 under the pressure of the ,japanese1 and of ,european and ,american financiers4 ,their art is already perishing1 and being replaced by crude imitations of second-rate ,european pictures4 ,most of the ,chinese who have had a ,european education are quite incapable of seeing any beauty in native painting1 and merely observe contemptuously that it does not obey the laws of perspective4 ,the obvious charm which the tourist finds in ,china cannot be preserved2 it must perish at the touch of industrialism4 ,but perhaps something may be preserved1 something of the ethical qualities in which ,china is supreme1 and which the modern world most desperately needs4 ,among these qualities ,i place first the pacific temper1 which seeks to settle disputes on grounds of justice rather than by force4 ,it remains to be seen whether the ,west will allow this temper to persist1 or will force it to give place1 in self-defence1 to a frantic militarism like that to which ,japan has been driven4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #if3 ,this vexes the foreigners1 who are attempting to establish a very severe ,press censorship in ,shanghai4 ,see ,the ,shanghai ,printed ,matter ,bye-,law4 ,hollington ,k4 ,tong1 ,review of the ,far ,east1 ,april #af1 #aibb4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,higher ,,education ,,in ,,china ,china1 like ,italy and ,greece1 is frequently misjudged by persons of culture because they regard it as a museum4 ,the preservation of ancient beauty is very important1 but no vigorous forward-looking man is content to be a mere curator4 ,the result is that the best people in ,china tend to be ,philistines as regards all that is pleasing to the ,european tourist4 ,the ,european in ,china1 quite apart from interested motives1 is apt to be ultra-conservative1 because he likes everything distinctive and non-,european4 ,but this is the attitude of an outsider1 of one who regards ,china as a country to be looked at rather than lived in1 as a country with a past rather than a future4 ,patriotic ,chinese naturally do not view their country in this way2 they wish their country to acquire what is best in the modern world1 not merely to remain an interesting survival of a by-gone age1 like ,oxford or the ,yellowstone ,park4 ,as the first step to this end1 they do all they can to promote higher education1 and to increase the number of ,chinese who can use and appreciate ,western knowledge without being the slaves of ,western follies4 ,what is being done in this direction is very interesting1 and one of the most hopeful things happening in our not very cheerful epoch4 ,there is first the old traditional curriculum1 the learning by rote of the classics without explanation in early youth1 followed by a more intelligent study in later years4 ,this is exactly like the traditional study of the classics in this country1 as it existed1 for example1 in the eighteenth century4 ,men over thirty1 even if1 in the end1 they have secured a thoroughly modern education1 have almost all begun by learning reading and writing in old-fashioned schools4 ,such schools still form the majority1 and give most of the elementary education that is given4 ,every child has to learn by heart every day some portion of the classical text1 and repeat it out loud in class4 ,as they all repeat at the same time1 the din is deafening4 7,in ,peking ,i lived next to one of these schools1 so ,i can speak from experience47 ,the number of people who are taught to read by these methods is considerable2 in the large towns one finds that even coolies can read as often as not4 ,but writing 7which is very difficult in ,chinese7 is a much rarer accomplishment4 ,probably those who can both read and write form about five per cent1 of the population4 ,the establishment of normal schools for the training of teachers on modern lines1 which grew out of the edict of #aije abolishing the old examination system and proclaiming the need of educational reform1 has done much1 and will do much more1 to transform and extend elementary education4 ,the following statistics showing the increase in the number of schools1 teachers1 and students in ,china are taken from ,mr4 ,tyau's ,china ,awakened1 p4 #d3-- #aiaj #aiad #aiag #aiai ,number of ,schools #db1ddd #ei1gif #abh1jdh #acd1jjj ,number of ,teachers #ahe1eff #bjj1jjj #cbf1dag #cbf1jjj ,number of ,students #a1fbe1ecd #c1hdi1eed #d1bfi1aig #d1ejj1jjj ,considering that the years concerned are years of revolution and civil war1 it must be admitted that the progress shown by these figures is very remarkable4 ,there are schemes for universal elementary education1 but so far1 owing to the disturbed condition of the country and the lack of funds1 it has been impossible to carry them out except in a few places on a small scale4 ,they would1 however1 be soon carried out if there were a stable government4 ,the traditional classical education was1 of course1 not intended to be only elementary4 ,the amount of ,chinese literature is enormous1 and the older texts are extremely difficult to understand4 ,there is scope1 within the tradition1 for all the industry and erudition of the finest renaissance scholars4 ,learning of this sort has been respected in ,china for many ages4 ,one meets old scholars of this type1 to whose opinions1 even in politics1 it is customary to defer1 although they have the innocence and unworldliness of the old-fashioned don4 ,they remind one almost of the men whom ,lamb describes in his essay on ,oxford in the ,vacation--learned1 lovable1 and sincere1 but utterly lost in the modern world1 basing their opinions of ,socialism1 for example1 on what some eleventh-century philosopher said about it4 ,the arguments for and against the type of higher education that they represent are exactly the same as those for and against a classical education in ,europe1 and one is driven to the same conclusion in both cases3 that the existence of specialists having this type of knowledge is highly desirable1 but that the ordinary curriculum for the average educated person should take more account of modern needs1 and give more instruction in science1 modern languages1 and contemporary international relations4 ,this is the view1 so far as ,i could discover1 of all reforming educationists in ,china4 ,the second kind of higher education in ,china is that initiated by the missionaries1 and now almost entirely in the hands of the ,americans4 ,as everyone knows1 ,america's position in ,chinese education was acquired through the ,boxer indemnity4 ,most of the ,powers1 at that time1 if their own account is to be believed1 demanded a sum representing only actual loss and damage1 but the ,americans1 according to their critics1 demanded 7and obtained7 a vastly larger sum1 of which they generously devoted the surplus to educating ,chinese students1 both in ,china and at ,american universities4 ,this course of action has abundantly justified itself1 both politically and commercially2 a larger and larger number of posts in ,china go to men who have come under ,american influence1 and who have come to believe that ,america is the one true friend of ,china among the ,great ,powers4 ,one may take as typical of ,american work three institutions of which ,i saw a certain amount3 ,tsing-,hua ,college 7about ten miles from ,peking71 the ,peking ,union ,medical ,college 7connected with the ,rockefeller ,hospital71 and the so-called ,peking ,university4 ,tsing-,hua ,college1 delightfully situated at the foot of the ,western hills1 with a number of fine solid buildings1#ig in a good ,american style1 owes its existence entirely to the ,boxer indemnity money4 ,it has an atmosphere exactly like that of a small ,american university1 and a 7,chinese7 ,president who is an almost perfect reproduction of the ,american ,college ,president4 ,the teachers are partly ,american1 partly ,chinese educated in ,america1 and there tends to be more and more of the latter4 ,as one enters the gates1 one becomes aware of the presence of every virtue usually absent in ,china3 cleanliness1 punctuality1 exactitude1 efficiency4 ,i had not much opportunity to judge of the teaching1 but whatever ,i saw made me think that the institution was thorough and good4 ,one great merit1 which belongs to ,american institutions generally1 is that the students are made to learn ,english4 ,chinese differs so profoundly from ,european languages that even with the most skilful translations a student who knows only ,chinese cannot understand ,european ideas2 therefore the learning of some ,european language is essential1 and ,english is far the most familiar and useful throughout the ,far ,east4 ,the students at ,tsing-,hua ,college learn mathematics and science and philosophy1 and broadly speaking1 the more elementary parts of what is commonly taught in universities4 ,many of the best of them go afterwards to ,america1 where they take a ,doctor's degree4 ,on returning to ,china they become teachers or civil servants4 ,undoubtedly they contribute greatly to the improvement of their country in efficiency and honesty and technical intelligence4 ,the ,rockefeller ,hospital is a large1 conspicuous building1 representing an interesting attempt to combine something of ,chinese beauty with ,european utilitarian requirements4 ,the green roofs are quite ,chinese1 but the walls and windows are ,european4 ,the attempt is praiseworthy1 though perhaps not wholly successful4 ,the hospital has all the most modern scientific apparatus1 but1 with the monopolistic tendency of the ,standard ,oil ,company1 it refuses to let its apparatus be of use to anyone not connected with the hospital4 ,the ,peking ,union ,medical ,college teaches many things besides medicine--,english literature1 for example--and apparently teaches them well4 ,they are necessary in order to produce ,chinese physicians and surgeons who will reach the ,european level1 because a good knowledge of some ,european language is necessary for medicine as for other kinds of ,european learning4 ,and a sound knowledge of scientific medicine is1 of course1 of immense importance to ,china1 where there is no sort of sanitation and epidemics are frequent4 ,the so-called ,peking ,university is an example of what the ,chinese have to suffer on account of extra-territoriality4 ,the ,chinese ,government 7so at least ,i was told7 had already established a university in ,peking1 fully equipped and staffed1 and known as the ,peking ,university4 ,but the ,methodist missionaries decided to give the name ,peking ,university to their schools1 so the already existing university had to alter its name to ,government ,university4 ,the case is exactly as if a collection of old-fashioned ,chinamen had established themselves in ,london to teach the doctrine of ,confucius1 and had been able to force ,london ,university to abandon its name to them4 ,however1 ,i do not wish to raise the question of extra-territoriality1 the more so as ,i do not think it can be abandoned for some years to come1 in spite of the abuses to which it sometimes gives rise4 ,returned students 7i4e4 students who have been at foreign universities7 form a definite set in ,china4#ih ,there is in ,peking a ,returned ,students' ,club1 a charming place4 ,it is customary among ,europeans to speak ill of returned students1 but for no good reason4 ,there are occasionally disagreements between different sections2 in particular1 those who have been only to ,japan are not regarded quite as equals by those who have been to ,europe or ,america4 ,my impression was that ,america puts a more definite stamp upon a student than any other country2 certainly those returning from ,england are less ,anglicized than those returning from the ,united ,states are ,americanized4 ,to the ,chinaman who wishes to be modern and up-to-date1 skyscrapers and hustle seem romantic1 because they are so unlike his home4 ,the old traditions which conservative ,europeans value are such a mushroom growth compared to those of ,china 7where authentic descendants of ,confucius abound7 that it is useless to attempt that way of impressing the ,chinese4 ,one is reminded of the conversation in ,eothen between the ,english country gentleman and the ,pasha1 in which the ,pasha praises ,england to the refrain3 ,buzz1 buzz1 all by steam2 whir1 whir1 all on wheels1 while the ,englishman keeps saying3 ,tell the ,pasha that the ,british yeoman is still1 thank ,god1 the ,british yeoman4 ,although the educational work of the ,americans in ,china is on the whole admirable1 nothing directed by foreigners can adequately satisfy the needs of the country4 ,the ,chinese have a civilization and a national temperament in many ways superior to those of white men4 ,a few ,europeans ultimately discover this1 but ,americans never do4 ,they remain always missionaries--not of ,christianity1 though they often think that is what they are preaching1 but of ,americanism4 ,what is ,americanism8 ,clean living1 clean thinking1 and pep1 ,i think an ,american would reply4 ,this means1 in practice1 the substitution of tidiness for art1 cleanliness for beauty1 moralizing for philosophy1 prostitutes for concubines 7as being easier to conceal71 and a general air of being fearfully busy for the leisurely calm of the traditional ,chinese4 ,voltaire--that hardened old cynic--laid it down that the true ends of life are aimer et penser4 ,both are common in ,china1 but neither is compatible with pep4 ,the ,american influence1 therefore1 inevitably tends to eliminate both4 ,if it prevailed it would1 no doubt1 by means of hygiene1 save the lives of many ,chinamen1 but would at the same time make them not worth saving4 ,it cannot therefore be regarded as wholly and altogether satisfactory4 ,the best ,chinese educationists are aware of this1 and have established schools and universities which are modern but under ,chinese direction4 ,in these1 a certain proportion of the teachers are ,european or ,american1 but the spirit of the teaching is not that of the ,y4,m4,c4,a4 ,one can never rid oneself of the feeling that the education controlled by white men is not disinterested2 it seems always designed1 unconsciously in the main1 to produce convenient tools for the capitalist penetration of ,china by the merchants and manufacturers of the nation concerned4 ,modern ,chinese schools and universities are singularly different3 they are not hotbeds of rabid nationalism as they would be in any other country1 but institutions where the student is taught to think freely1 and his thoughts are judged by their intelligence1 not by their utility to exploiters4 ,the outcome1 among the best young men1 is a really beautiful intellectual disinterestedness4 ,the discussions which ,i used to have in my seminar 7consisting of students belonging to the ,peking ,government ,university7 could not have been surpassed anywhere for keenness1 candour1 and fearlessness4 ,i had the same impression of the ,science ,society of ,nanking1 and of all similar bodies wherever ,i came across them4 ,there is1 among the young1 a passionate desire to acquire ,western knowledge1 together with a vivid realization of ,western vices4 ,they wish to be scientific but not mechanical1 industrial but not capitalistic4 ,to a man they are ,socialists1 as are most of the best among their ,chinese teachers4 ,they respect the knowledge of ,europeans1 but quietly put aside their arrogance4 ,for the present1 the purely ,chinese modern educational institutions1 such as the ,peking ,government ,university1 leave much to be desired from the point of view of instruction2 there are no adequate libraries1 the teaching of ,english is not sufficiently thorough1 and there is not enough mental discipline4 ,but these are the faults of youth1 and are unimportant compared with the profoundly humanistic attitude to life which is formed in the students4 ,most of the faults may be traced to the lack of funds1 because the ,government--loved by the ,powers on account of its weakness--has to part with all its funds to the military chieftains who fight each other and plunder the country1 as in ,europe--for ,china must be compared with ,europe1 not with any one of the petty ,states into which ,europe is unhappily divided4 ,the students are not only full of public spirit themselves1 but are a powerful force in arousing it throughout the nation4 ,what they did in #aiai1 when ,versailles awarded ,shangtung to ,japan1 is well told by ,mr4 ,tyau in his chapter on ,the ,student ,movement4 ,and what they did was not merely political4 ,to quote ,mr4 ,tyau 7p4 #adf73-- ,having aroused the nation1 prevented the signature of the ,versailles ,treaty and assisted the merchants to enforce the ,japanese boycott1 the students then directed their energies to the enlightenment of their less educated brothers and sisters4 ,for instance1 by issuing publications1 by popular lectures showing them the real situation1 internally as well as externally2 but especially by establishing free schools and maintaining them out of their own funds4 ,no praise can be too high for such self-sacrifice1 for the students generally also teach in these schools4 ,the scheme is endorsed everywhere with the greatest enthusiasm1 and in ,peking alone it is estimated that fifty thousand children are benefited by such education4 ,one thing which came as a surprise to me was to find that1 as regards modern education under ,chinese control1 there is complete equality between men and women4 ,the position of women in ,peking ,government ,university is better than at ,cambridge4 ,women are admitted to examinations and degrees1 and there are women teachers in the university4 ,the ,girls' ,higher ,normal ,school in ,peking1 where prospective women teachers are taught1 is a most excellent and progressive institution1 and the spirit of free inquiry among the girls would horrify most ,british head mistresses4 ,there is a movement in favour of co-education1 especially in elementary education1 because1 owing to the inadequate supply of schools1 the girls tend to be left out altogether unless they can go to the same school as the boys4 ,the first time ,i met ,professor and ,mrs4 ,dewey was at a banquet in ,chang-sha1 given by the ,tuchun4 ,when the time came for after-dinner speeches1 ,mrs4 ,dewey told the ,tuchun that his province must adopt co-education4 ,he made a statesmanlike reply1 saying that the matter should receive his best consideration1 but he feared the time was not ripe in ,hunan4 ,however1 it was clear that the matter was within the sphere of practical politics4 ,at the time1 being new to ,china and having imagined ,china a somewhat backward country1 ,i was surprised4 ,later on ,i realized that reforms which we only talk about can be actually carried out in ,china4 ,education controlled by missionaries or conservative white men cannot give what ,young ,china needs4 ,after throwing off the native superstitions of centuries1 it would be a dismal fiasco to take on the ,european superstitions which have been discarded here by all progressive people4 ,it is only where progressive ,chinese themselves are in control that there is scope for the renaissance spirit of the younger students1 and for that free spirit of sceptical inquiry by which they are seeking to build a new civilization as splendid as their old civilization in its best days4 ,while ,i was in ,peking1 the ,government teachers struck1 not for higher pay1 but for pay1 because their salaries had not been paid for many months4 ,accompanied by some of the students1 they went on a deputation to the ,government1 but were repulsed by soldiers and policemen1 who clubbed them so severely that many had to be taken to hospital4 ,the incident produced such universal fury that there was nearly a revolution1 and the ,government hastened to come to terms with the teachers with all possible speed4 ,the modern teachers have behind them all that is virile1 energetic1 and public-spirited in ,china2 the gang of bandits which controls the ,government has behind it ,japanese money and ,european intrigue4 ,america occupies an intermediate position4 ,one may say broadly that the old traditional education1 with the military governors and the ,british and ,japanese influence1 stands for ,conservatism2 ,america and its commerce and its educational institutions stand for ,liberalism2 while the native modern education1 practically though not theoretically1 stands for ,socialism4 ,incidentally1 it alone stands for intellectual freedom4 ,the ,chinese are a great nation1 incapable of permanent suppression by foreigners4 ,they will not consent to adopt our vices in order to acquire military strength2 but they are willing to adopt our virtues in order to advance in wisdom4 ,i think they are the only people in the world who quite genuinely believe that wisdom is more precious than rubies4 ,that is why the ,west regards them as uncivilized4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ig3 ,it should be said that one sees just as fine buildings in purely ,chinese institutions1 such as ,peking ,government ,university and ,nanking ,teachers' ,training ,college4 ,footnote #ih3 ,mr4 ,tyau 7op4 cit4 p4 #bg7 quotes from ,who's ,who of ,american ,returned ,students1 a classification of the occupations of #eif ,chinese who have returned from ,american universities4 ,the larger items are3 ,in education1 #ch as administrators and #aig as teachers2 in ,government service1 #abi in executive offices 7there are also three members of ,parliament and four judges72 #ie engineers2 #ce medical practitioners 7including dentists72 #fj in business2 and #ba social and religious workers4 ,it is estimated that the total number of ,chinese holding university degrees in ,america is #a1gjj1 and in ,great ,britain #djj 7ib474 ,this disproportion is due to the more liberal policy of ,america in the matter of the ,boxer indemnity4 ,in #aiaf there were #bib ,chinese university students in ,great ,britain1 and ,mr4 ,tyau 7p4 #bh7 gives a classification of them by their subjects4 ,the larger groups are3 ,medicine1 #ej2 law and economics1 #dg2 engineering1 #db2 mining1 #bb2 natural science 7including chemistry and geology1 which are classified separately71 #ai4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,industrialism ,,in ,,china ,china is as yet only slightly industrialized1 but the industrial possibilities of the country are very great1 and it may be taken as nearly certain that there will be a rapid development throughout the next few decades4 ,china's future depends as much upon the manner of this development as upon any other single factor2 and ,china's difficulties are very largely connected with the present industrial situation4 ,i will therefore first briefly describe this situation1 and then consider the possibilities of the near future4 ,we may take railways and mines as the foundation of a nation's industrial life4 ,let us therefore consider first the railways and then the mines1 before going on to other matters4 ,when railways were new1 the ,manchu ,government1 like the universities of ,oxford and ,cambridge 7which it resembled in many ways71 objected to them1 and did all it could to keep them at a distance4#ii ,in #ahge a short line was built by foreigners from ,shanghai to ,woosung1 but the ,central ,government was so shocked that it caused it to be destroyed4 ,in #ahha the first permanent railway was constructed1 but not very much was accomplished until after the ,japanese ,war of #ahid-e4 ,the ,powers then thought that ,china was breaking up1 and entered upon a scramble for concessions and spheres of influence4 ,the ,belgians built the important line from ,peking to ,hankow2 the ,americans obtained a concession for a ,hankow-,canton railway1 which1 however1 has only been constructed as far as ,changsha4 ,russia built the ,manchurian ,railway1 connecting ,peking with the ,siberian ,railway and with ,europe4 ,germany built the ,shantung ,railway1 from ,tsingtau to ,tsinanfu4 ,the ,french built a railway in the south4 ,england sought to obtain a monopoly of the railways in the ,yangtze valley4 ,all these railways were to be owned by foreigners and managed by foreign officials of the respective countries which had obtained the concessions4 ,the ,boxer rising1 however1 made ,europe aware that some caution was needed if the ,chinese were not to be exasperated beyond endurance4 ,after this1 ownership of new railways was left to the ,chinese ,government1 but with so much foreign control as to rob it of most of its value4 ,by this time1 ,chinese public opinion had come to realize that there must be railways in ,china1 and that the real problem was how to keep them under ,chinese control4 ,in #aijh1 the ,tientsin-,pukow line and the ,shanghai-,hangchow line were sanctioned1 to be built by the help of foreign loans1 but with all the administrative control in the hands of the ,chinese ,government4 ,at the same time1 the ,peking-,hankow line was bought back by the ,government1 and the ,peking-,kalgan line was constructed by the ,chinese without foreign financial assistance4 ,of the big main lines of ,china1 this left not much foreign control outside the ,manchurian ,railway 7,chinese ,eastern ,railway7 and the ,shantung ,railway4 ,the first of these is mainly under foreign control and must now be regarded as permanently lost1 until such time as ,china becomes strong enough to defeat ,japan in war2 and the whole of ,manchuria has come more or less under ,japanese control4 ,but the ,shantung ,railway1 by the agreement reached at ,washington1 is to be bought back by ,china--five years hence1 if all goes well4 ,thus1 except in regions practically lost to ,china1 the ,chinese now have control of all their more important railways1 or will have before long4 ,this is a very hopeful feature of the situation1 and a distinct credit to ,chinese sagacity4 ,putnam ,weale 7,mr4 ,lennox ,simpson7 strongly urges--quite rightly1 as ,i think--the great importance of nationalizing all ,chinese railways4 ,at ,washington recently1 he helped to secure the ,shantung ,railway award1 and to concentrate attention on the railway as the main issue4 ,writing early in #aiai1 he said#ajj3-- ,the key to the proper control of ,china and the building-up of the new ,republican ,state is the railway key4444 ,the revolution of #aiaa1 and the acceptance in principle of ,western ideas of popular government1 removed the danger of foreign provinces being carved out of the old ,manchu ,empire4 ,there was1 however1 left behind a more subtle weapon4 ,this weapon is the railway4 ,russia with her ,manchurian ,railway scheme taught ,japan the new method4 ,japan1 by the ,treaty of ,portsmouth in #aije1 not only inherited the richer half of the ,manchurian railways1 but was able to put into practice a new technique1 based on a mixture of twisted economics1 police control1 and military garrisons4 ,out of this grew the latter-day highly developed railway-zone which1 to all intents and purposes1 creates a new type of foreign enclave1 subversive of the ,chinese ,state4 ,the especial evil to-day is that ,japan has transferred from ,manchuria to ,shantung this new technique1 which 444 she will eventually extend into the very heart of intramural ,china 444 and also into extramural ,chihli and ,inner ,mongolia 7thus outflanking ,peking7 unless she is summarily arrested4 ,at all costs this must be stopped4 ,the method of doing so is easy3 ,it is to have it laid down categorically1 and accepted by all the ,powers1 that henceforth all railways on ,chinese soil are a vital portion of ,chinese sovereignty and must be controlled directly from ,peking by a ,national ,railway ,board2 that stationmasters1 personnel and police1 must be ,chinese citizens1 technical foreign help being limited to a set standard2 and that all railway concessions are henceforth to be considered simply as building concessions which must be handed over1 section by section1 as they are built1 to the ,national ,railway ,board4 ,if the ,shantung ,railway ,agreement is loyally carried out1 this reform--as to whose importance ,i quite agree with ,putnam ,weale--will have been practically completed five years hence4 ,but we must expect ,japan to adopt every possible means of avoiding the carrying out of her promises1 from instigating ,chinese civil war to the murdering of ,japanese employees by ,japanese secret agents masquerading as ,chinese4 ,therefore1 until the ,chinese actually have complete control of the ,shantung ,railway1 we cannot feel confident that they will ever get it4 ,it must not be supposed that the ,chinese run railways badly4 ,the ,kalgan ,railway1 which they built1 is just as well built as those constructed by foreigners2 and the lines under ,chinese administration are admirably managed4 ,i quote from ,mr4 ,tyau#aja the following statistics1 which refer to the year #aiai3 ,government railways1 in operation1 #fjbg kilometres2 under construction1 #chc kilometres2 private and provincial railways1 #ggc kilometres2 concessioned railways1 #c1ghj kilometres4 ,total1 #aj1ifc kilometres1 or #f1heb miles4 7,the concessioned railways are mainly those in ,manchuria and ,shantung1 of which the first must be regarded as definitely lost to ,china1 while the second is probably recovered4 ,the problem of concessioned railways has therefore no longer the importance that it had1 though1 by detaching ,manchuria1 the foreign railway has shown its power for evil74 ,as regards financial results1 ,mr4 ,tyau gives the following figures for the principal ,state railways in #aiah3-- ,name of ,line4 ,kilometres ,year ,per cent1 earned ,operated4 ,completed4 on ,investment4 ,peking-,mukden #ihg #ahig #bb4g ,peking-,hankow #acjf #aije #ae4h ,shanghai-,nanking #cbg #aijh #f4b ,tientsin-,pukow #aajg #aiab #f4b ,peking-,suiyuan #dij #aiae #e4f ,subsequent years1 for which ,i have not the exact figures1 have been less prosperous4 ,i cannot discover any evidence of incompetence in ,chinese railway administration4 ,on the contrary1 much has been done to overcome the evils due to the fact that the various lines were originally constructed by different ,powers1 each following its own customs1 so that there was no uniformity1 and goods trucks could not be moved from one line on to another4 ,there is1 however1 urgent need of further railways1 especially to open up the west and to connect ,canton with ,hankow1 the profit of which would probably be enormous4 ,mines are perhaps as important as railways1 for if a country allows foreign control of its mineral resources it cannot build up either its industries or its munitions to the point where they will be independent of foreign favour4 ,but the situation as regards mining is at present far from satisfactory4 ,mr4 ,julean ,arnold1 ,american ,commercial ,attach at ,peking1 writing early in #aiai1 made the following statement as regards ,china's mineral resources3-- ,china is favoured with a wonderful wealth in coal and in a good supply of iron ore1 two essentials to modern industrial development4 ,to indicate how little ,china has developed its marvellous wealth in coal1 this country imported1 during #aiag1 #ad1jjj1jjj tons4 ,it is estimated that ,china produces now #bj1jjj1jjj tons annually1 but it is supposed to have richer resources in coal than has the ,united ,states which1 in #aiah1 produced #fej1jjj1jjj tons4 ,in iron ore it has been estimated that ,china has #djj1jjj1jjj tons suitable for furnace reaction1 and an additional #cjj1jjj1jjj tons which might be worked by native methods4 ,during #aiag1 it is estimated that ,china's production of pig iron was #ejj1jjj tons4 ,the developments in the iron and steel industry in ,china are making rapid strides1 and a few years hence it is expected that the production of pig iron and of finished steel will be several millions of tons annually4444 ,in antimony and tin ,china is also particularly rich1 and considerable progress has taken place in the mining and smelting of these ores during the past few years4 ,china should jealously safeguard its mineral wealth1 so as to preserve it for the country's welfare4#ajb ,the ,china ,year ,book for #aiai gives the total ,chinese production of coal for #aiad as #f1cae1gce tons1 and of iron ore at #dfh1ich tons4#ajc ,comparing these with ,mr4 ,arnold's figures for #aiag1 namely #bj1jjj1jjj tons of coal and #ejj1jjj tons of pig iron 7not iron ore71 it is evident that great progress was made during those three years1 and there is every reason to think that at least the same rate of progress has been maintained4 ,the main problem for ,china1 however1 is not rapid development1 but national development4 ,japan is poor in minerals1 and has set to work to acquire as much as possible of the mineral wealth of ,china4 ,this is important to ,japan1 for two different reasons3 first1 that only industrial development can support the growing population1 which cannot be induced to emigrate to ,japanese possessions on the mainland2 secondly1 that steel is an indispensable requisite for imperialism4 ,the ,chinese are proud of the ,kiangnan dock and engineering works at ,shanghai1 which is a ,government concern1 and has proved its capacity for shipbuilding on modern lines4 ,it built four ships of #aj1jjj tons each for the ,american ,government4 ,mr4 ,s4,g4 ,cheng#ajd says3-- ,for the construction of these ships1 materials were mostly supplied by ,china1 except steel1 which had to be shipped from ,america and ,europe 7the steel produced in ,china being so limited in quantity1 that after a certain amount is exported to ,japan by virtue of a previous contract1 little is left for home consumption74 ,considering how rich ,china is in iron ore1 this state of affairs needs explanation4 ,the explanation is valuable to anyone who wishes to understand modern politics4 ,the ,china ,year ,book for #aiaiaje 7a work as little concerned with politics as ,whitaker's ,almanack7 gives a list of the five principal iron mines in ,china1 with some information about each4 ,the first and most important are the ,tayeh mines1 worked by the ,hanyehping ,iron and ,coal ,co41 ,ltd41 which1 as the reader may remember1 was the subject of the third group in the ,twenty-one ,demands4 ,the total amount of ore in sight is estimated by the ,china ,year ,book at #ej1jjj1jjj tons1 derived chiefly from two mines1 in one of which the ore yields #fe per cent4 of iron1 in the other #eh to #fc per cent4 ,the output for #aiaf is given as #fjc1gcb tons 7it has been greatly increased since then74 ,the ,year ,book proceeds3 ,japanese capital is invested in the ,company1 and by the agreement between ,china and ,japan of ,may #aiae after the ultimatum which enforced the revised ,twenty-one ,demands1 the ,chinese ,government undertook not to convert the ,company into a ,state-owned concern nor to compel it to borrow money from other than ,japanese sources4 ,it should be added that there is a ,japanese accountant and a ,japanese technical adviser1 and that pig-iron and ore1 up to a specified value1 must be sold to the ,imperial ,japanese works at much below the market price1 leaving a paltry residue for sale in the open market4#ajf ,the second item in the ,china ,year ,book's list is the ,tungkuan ,shan mines4 ,all that is said about these is as follows3 ,tungling district on the ,yangtze1 #ee miles above ,wuhu1 ,anhui province4 ,a concession to work these mines1 granted to the ,london and ,china ,syndicate 7,british7 in #aijd1 was surrendered in #aiaj for the sum of #eb1jjj1 and the mines were transferred to a ,chinese ,company to be formed for their exploitation4 ,these mines1 therefore1 are in ,chinese hands4 ,i do not know what their capacity is supposed to be1 and in view of the price at which they were sold1 it cannot be very great4 ,the capital of the ,hanyehping ,co4 is #bj1jjj1jjj1 which is considerably more than #eb1jjj4 ,this was the only one of the five iron mines mentioned in the ,year ,book which was not in ,japanese hands at the time when the ,year ,book was published4 ,next comes the ,taochung ,iron ,mine1 ,anhui province4 ,the concession which was granted to the ,sino-,japanese ,industrial ,development ,co4 will be worked by the ,orient ,steel ,manufacturing ,co4 ,the mine is said to contain #fj1jjj1jjj tons of ore1 containing #fe per cent4 of pure iron4 ,the plan of operations provides for the production of pig iron at the rate of #agj1jjj tons a year1 a steel mill with a capacity of #ajj1jjj tons of steel ingots a year1 and a casting and forging mill to produce #ge1jjj tons a year4 ,the fourth mine is at ,chinlingchen1 in ,shantung1 worked in conjunction with the ,hengshan ,colliery by the railway4 ,i presume it is to be sold back to ,china along with the railway4 ,the fifth and last mine mentioned is the ,penhsihu ,mine1 one of the most promising mines in the nine mining areas in ,south ,manchuria1 where the ,japanese are permitted by an exchange of ,notes between the ,chinese and ,japanese ,governments 7,may #be1 #aiae7 to prospect for and operate mines4 ,the seam of this mine extends from near ,liaoyang to the neighbourhood of ,penhsihu1 and in size is pronounced equal to the ,tayeh mine4 ,it will be observed that this mine1 also1 was acquired by the ,japanese as a result of the ultimatum enforcing the ,twenty-one ,demands4 ,the ,year ,book adds3 ,the ,japanese ,navy is purchasing some of the ,penhsihu output4 ,osaka ironworks placed an order for #ae1jjj tons in #aiae and the arsenal at ,osaka in the same year accepted a tender for ,penhsihu iron4 ,it will be seen from these facts that1 as regards iron1 the ,chinese have allowed the ,japanese to acquire a position of vantage from which they can only be ousted with great difficulty4 ,nevertheless1 it is absolutely imperative that the ,chinese should develop an iron and steel industry of their own on a large scale4 ,if they do not1 they cannot preserve their national independence1 their own civilization1 or any of the things that make them potentially of value to the world4 ,it should be observed that the chief reason for which the ,japanese desire ,chinese iron is in order to be able to exploit and tyrannize over ,china4 ,confucius1 ,i understand1 says nothing about iron mines2#ajg therefore the old-fashioned ,chinese did not realize the importance of preserving them4 ,now that they are awake to the situation1 it is almost too late4 ,i shall come back later to the question of what can be done4 ,for the present1 let us continue our survey of facts4 ,it may be presumed that the population of ,china will always be mainly agricultural4 ,tea1 silk1 raw cotton1 grain1 the soya bean1 etc41 are crops in which ,china excels4 ,in production of raw cotton1 ,china is the third country in the world1 ,india being the first and the ,united ,states the second4 ,there is1 of course1 room for great progress in agriculture1 but industry is vital if ,china is to preserve her national independence1 and it is industry that is our present topic4 ,to quote ,mr4 ,tyau3 ,at the end of #aiaf the number of factory hands was officially estimated at #efj1jjj and that of mine workers #djf1jjj4 ,since then no official returns for the whole country have been published 444 but perhaps a million each would be an approximate figure for the present number of factory operatives and mine workers4#ajh ,of course1 the hours are very long and the wages very low2 ,mr4 ,tyau mentions as specially modern and praiseworthy certain textile factories where the wages range from #ae to #de cents a day4#aji 7,the cent varies in value1 but is always somewhere between a farthing and a halfpenny47 ,no doubt as industry develops ,socialism and labour unrest will also develop4 ,if ,mr4 ,tyau is to be taken as a sample of the modern ,chinese governing classes1 the policy of the ,government towards ,labour will be very illiberal4 ,mr4 ,tyau's outlook is that of an ,american capitalist1 and shows the extent to which he has come under ,american influence1 as well as that of conservative ,england 7he is an ,,ll4,d4 of ,london74 ,most of the ,young ,chinese ,i came across1 however1 were ,socialists1 and it may be hoped that the traditional ,chinese dislike of uncompromising fierceness will make the ,government less savage against ,labour than the ,governments of ,america and ,japan4 ,there is room for the development of a great textile industry in ,china4 ,there are a certain number of modern mills1 and nothing but enterprise is needed to make the industry as great as that of ,lancashire4 ,shipbuilding has made a good beginning in ,shanghai1 and would probably develop rapidly if ,china had a flourishing iron and steel industry in native hands4 ,the total exports of native produce in #aiai were just under #bjj1jjj1jjj 7#fcj1jjj1jjj taels71 and the total imports slightly larger4 ,it is better1 however1 to consider such statistics in taels1 because currency fluctuations make the results deceptive when reckoned in sterling4 ,the tael is not a coin1 but a certain weight of silver1 and therefore its value fluctuates with the value of silver4 ,the ,china ,year ,book gives imports and exports of ,chinese produce for #aijb as #cbe million taels and #bad million taels respectively2 for #aiaa1 as #dhb and #cgg2 for #aiag1 as #egg and #dfb2 for #aibj1 as #gfb and #eda4 7,the corresponding figures in pounds sterling for #aiaa are #fd millions and #ej millions2 for #aiag1 #abd millions and #ii1ijj1jjj47 ,it will thus be seen that1 although the foreign trade of ,china is still small in proportion to population1 it is increasing very fast4 ,to a ,european it is always surprising to find how little the economic life of ,china is affected by such incidents as revolutions and civil wars4 ,certain principles seem to emerge from a study of the ,chinese railways and mines as needing to be adopted by the ,chinese ,government if national independence is to be preserved4 ,as regards railways1 nationalization is obviously desirable1 even if it somewhat retards the building of new lines4 ,railways not in the hands of the ,government will be controlled1 in the end if not in the beginning1 by foreigners1 who will thus acquire a power over ,china which will be fatal to freedom4 ,i think we may hope that the ,chinese authorities now realize this1 and will henceforth act upon it4 ,in regard to mines1 development by the ,chinese themselves is urgent1 since undeveloped resources tempt the greed of the ,great ,powers1 and development by foreigners makes it possible to keep ,china enslaved4 ,it should therefore be enacted that1 in future1 no sale of mines or of any interest in mines to foreigners1 and no loan from foreigners on the security of mines1 will be recognized as legally valid4 ,in view of extra-territoriality1 it will be difficult to induce foreigners to accept such legislation1 and ,consular ,courts will not readily admit its validity4 ,but1 as the example of extra-territoriality in ,japan shows1 such matters depend upon the national strength2 if the ,powers fear ,china1 they will recognize the validity of ,chinese legislation1 but if not1 not4 ,in view of the need of rapid development of mining by ,chinese1 it would probably be unwise to nationalize all mines here and now4 ,it would be better to provide every possible encouragement to genuinely ,chinese private enterprise1 and to offer the assistance of geological and mining experts1 etc4 ,the ,government should1 however1 retain the right 7a7 to buy out any mining concern at a fair valuation2 7b7 to work minerals itself in cases where the private owners fail to do so1 in spite of expert opinion in favour of their being worked4 ,these powers should be widely exercised1 and as soon as mining has reached the point compatible with national security1 the mines should be all nationalized1 except where1 as at ,tayeh1 diplomatic agreements stand in the way4 ,it is clear that the ,tayeh mines must be recovered by ,china as soon as opportunity offers1 but when or how that will be it is as yet impossible to say4 ,of course ,i have been assuming an orderly government established in ,china1 but without that nothing vigorous can be done to repel foreign aggression4 ,this is a point to which1 along with other general questions connected with the industrializing of ,china1 ,i shall return in my last chapter4 ,it is said by ,europeans who have business experience in ,china that the ,chinese are not good at managing large joint-stock companies1 such as modern industry requires4 ,as everyone knows1 they are proverbially honest in business1 in spite of the corruption of their politics4 ,but their successful businesses--so one gathers--do not usually extend beyond a single family2 and even they are apt to come to grief sooner or later through nepotism4 ,this is what ,europeans say2 ,i cannot speak from my own knowledge4 ,but ,i am convinced that modern education is very quickly changing this state of affairs1 which was connected with ,confucianism and the family ethic4 ,many ,chinese have been trained in business methods in ,america2 there are ,colleges of ,commerce at ,woosung and other places2 and the patriotism of ,young ,china has led men of the highest education to devote themselves to industrial development4 ,the ,chinese are no doubt1 by temperament and tradition1 more suited to commerce than to industry1 but contact with the ,west is rapidly introducing new aptitudes and a new mentality4 ,there is1 therefore1 every reason to expect1 if political conditions are not too adverse1 that the industrial development of ,china will proceed rapidly throughout the next few decades4 ,it is of vital importance that that development should be controlled by the ,chinese rather than by foreign nations4 ,but that is part of the larger problem of the recovery of ,chinese independence1 with which ,i shall deal in my last chapter4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #ii3 ,for the history of ,chinese railways1 see ,tyau1 op4 cit4 pp4 #ahc ff4 ,footnote #ajj3 ,china in #aiah4 ,published by the ,peking ,leader1 pp4 #de-f4 ,footnote #aja3 ,op4 cit4 chap4 xi4 ,footnote #ajb3 ,china in #aiah1 p4 #bf4 ,there is perhaps some mistake in the figures given for iron ore1 as the ,tayeh mines alone are estimated by some to contain #gjj1jjj1jjj tons of iron ore4 ,coleman1 op cit4 p4 #ea4 ,footnote #ajc3 ,page #fc4 ,the #aibb ,year ,book gives #ai1ejj1jjj tons of coal production4 ,footnote #ajd3 ,modern ,china1 p1 #bfe4 ,footnote #aje3 ,pages #gd-e4 ,footnote #ajf3 ,coleman1 op4 cit4 chap4 xiv4 ,footnote #ajg3 ,it seems it would be inaccurate to maintain that there is nothing on the subject in the ,gospels4 ,an eminent ,american divine pointed out in print1 as regards the advice against laying up treasure where moth and rust doth corrupt1 that moth and rust do not get at ,mr4 ,rockefeller's oil wells1 and thieves do not often break through and steal a railway4 ,what ,jesus condemned was hoarding wealth4 ,see ,upton ,sinclair1 ,the ,profits of ,religion1 #aiah1 p4 #age4 ,footnote #ajh3 ,page #bcg4 ,footnote #aji3 ,page #bah4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,outlook ,,for ,,china ,in this chapter ,i propose to take1 as far as ,i am able1 the standpoint of a progressive and public-spirited ,chinese1 and consider what reforms1 in what order1 ,i should advocate in that case4 ,to begin with1 it is clear that ,china must be saved by her own efforts1 and cannot rely upon outside help4 ,in the international situation1 ,china has had both good and bad fortune4 ,the ,great ,war was unfortunate1 because it gave ,japan temporarily a free hand2 the collapse of ,tsarist ,russia was fortunate1 because it put an end to the secret alliance of ,russians and ,japanese2 the ,anglo-,japanese ,alliance was unfortunate1 because it compelled us to abet ,japanese aggression even against our own economic interests2 the friction between ,japan and ,america was fortunate2 but the agreement arrived at by the ,washington ,conference1 though momentarily advantageous as regards ,shantung1 is likely1 in the long run1 to prove unfortunate1 since it will make ,america less willing to oppose ,japan4 ,for reasons which ,i set forth in ,chap4 ,x41 unless ,china becomes strong1 either the collapse of ,japan or her unquestioned ascendency in the ,far ,east is almost certain to prove disastrous to ,china2 and one or other of these is very likely to come about4 ,all the ,great ,powers1 without exception1 have interests which are incompatible1 in the long run1 with ,china's welfare and with the best development of ,chinese civilization4 ,therefore the ,chinese must seek salvation in their own energy1 not in the benevolence of any outside ,power4 ,the problem is not merely one of political independence2 a certain cultural independence is at least as important4 ,i have tried to show in this book that the ,chinese are1 in certain ways1 superior to us1 and it would not be good either for them or for us if1 in these ways1 they had to descend to our level in order to preserve their existence as a nation4 ,in this matter1 however1 a compromise is necessary4 ,unless they adopt some of our vices to some extent1 we shall not respect them1 and they will be increasingly oppressed by foreign nations4 ,the object must be to keep this process within the narrowest limits compatible with safety4 ,first of all1 a patriotic spirit is necessary--not1 of course1 the bigoted anti-foreign spirit of the ,boxers1 but the enlightened attitude which is willing to learn from other nations while not willing to allow them to dominate4 ,this attitude has been generated among educated ,chinese1 and to a great extent in the merchant class1 by the brutal tuition of ,japan4 ,the danger of patriotism is that1 as soon as it has proved strong enough for successful defence1 it is apt to turn to foreign aggression4 ,china1 by her resources and her population1 is capable of being the greatest ,power in the world after the ,united ,states4 ,it is much to be feared that1 in the process of becoming strong enough to preserve their independence1 the ,chinese may become strong enough to embark upon a career of imperialism4 ,it cannot be too strongly urged that patriotism should be only defensive1 not aggressive4 ,but with this proviso1 ,i think a spirit of patriotism is absolutely necessary to the regeneration of ,china4 ,independence is to be sought1 not as an end in itself1 but as a means towards a new blend of ,western skill with the traditional ,chinese virtues4 ,if this end is not achieved1 political independence will have little value4 ,the three chief requisites1 ,i should say1 are3 7#a7 ,the establishment of an orderly ,government2 7#b7 industrial development under ,chinese control2 7#c7 ,the spread of education4 ,all these aims will have to be pursued concurrently1 but on the whole their urgency seems to me to come in the above order4 ,we have already seen how large a part the ,state will have to take in building up industry1 and how impossible this is while the political anarchy continues4 ,funds for education on a large scale are also unobtainable until there is good government4 ,therefore good government is the prerequisite of all other reforms4 ,industrialism and education are closely connected1 and it would be difficult to decide the priority between them2 but ,i have put industrialism first1 because1 unless it is developed very soon by the ,chinese1 foreigners will have acquired such a strong hold that it will be very difficult indeed to oust them4 ,these reasons have decided me that our three problems ought to be taken in the above order4 #a4 ,the establishment of an orderly government4--,at the moment of writing1 the condition of ,china is as anarchic as it has ever been4 ,a battle between ,chang-tso-lin and ,wu-,pei-,fu is imminent2 the former is usually considered1 though falsely according to some good authorities1 the most reactionary force in ,china2 ,wu-,pei-,fu1 though ,the ,times calls him the ,liberal leader1 may well prove no more satisfactory than ,liberal leaders nearer home4 ,it is of course possible that1 if he wins1 he may be true to his promises and convoke a ,parliament for all ,china2 but it is at least equally possible that he may not4 ,in any case1 to depend upon the favour of a successful general is as precarious as to depend upon the benevolence of a foreign ,power4 ,if the progressive elements are to win1 they must become a strong organized force4 ,so far as ,i can discover1 ,chinese ,constitutionalists are doing the best thing that is possible at the moment1 namely1 concerting a joint programme1 involving the convoking of a ,parliament and the cessation of military usurpation4 ,union is essential1 even if it involves sacrifice of cherished beliefs on the part of some4 ,given a programme upon which all the ,constitutionalists are united1 they will acquire great weight in public opinion1 which is very powerful in ,china4 ,they may then be able1 sooner or later1 to offer a high constitutional position to some powerful general1 on condition of his ceasing to depend upon mere military force4 ,by this means they may be able to turn the scales in favour of the man they select1 as the student agitation turned the scales in ,july #aibj in favour of ,wu-,pei-,fu against the ,an ,fu party4 ,such a policy can only be successful if it is combined with vigorous propaganda1 both among the civilian population and among the soldiers1 and if1 as soon as peace is restored1 work is found for disbanded soldiers and pay for those who are not disbanded4 ,this raises the financial problem1 which is very difficult1 because foreign ,powers will not lend except in return for some further sacrifice of the remnants of ,chinese independence4 7,for reasons explained in ,chap4 ,x41 ,i do not accept the statement by the ,american consortium bankers that a loan from them would not involve control over ,china's internal affairs4 ,they may not mean control to be involved1 but ,i am convinced that in fact it would be47 ,the only way out of this difficulty that ,i can see is to raise an internal loan by appealing to the patriotism of ,chinese merchants4 ,there is plenty of money in ,china1 but1 very naturally1 rich ,chinese will not lend to any of the brigands who now control the ,government4 ,when the time comes to draft a permanent ,constitution1 ,i have no doubt that it will have to be federal1 allowing a very large measure of autonomy to the provinces1 and reserving for the ,central ,government few things except customs1 army and navy1 foreign relations and railways4 ,provincial feeling is strong1 and it is now1 ,i think1 generally recognized that a mistake was made in #aiab in not allowing it more scope4 ,while a ,constitution is being drafted1 and even after it has been agreed upon1 it will not be possible to rely upon the inherent prestige of ,constitutionalism1 or to leave public opinion without guidance4 ,it will be necessary for the genuinely progressive people throughout the country to unite in a strongly disciplined society1 arriving at collective decisions and enforcing support of those decisions upon all its members4 ,this society will have to win the confidence of public opinion by a very rigid avoidance of corruption and political profiteering2 the slightest failure of a member in this respect must be visited by expulsion4 ,the society must make itself obviously the champion of the national interests as against all self-seekers1 speculators and toadies to foreign ,powers4 ,it will thus become able authoritatively to commend or condemn politicians and to wield great influence over opinion1 even in the army4 ,there exists in ,young ,china enough energy1 patriotism and honesty to create such a society and to make it strong through the respect which it will command4 ,but unless enlightened patriotism is organized in some such way1 its power will not be equal to the political problems with which ,china is faced4 ,sooner or later1 the encroachments of foreign ,powers upon the sovereign rights of ,china must be swept away4 ,the ,chinese must recover the ,treaty ,ports1 control of the tariff1 and so on2 they must also free themselves from extra-territoriality4 ,but all this can probably be done1 as it was in ,japan1 without offending foreign ,powers 7except perhaps the ,japanese74 ,it would be a mistake to complicate the early stages of ,chinese recovery by measures which would antagonize foreign ,powers in general4 ,russia was in a stronger position for defence than ,china1 yet ,russia has suffered terribly from the universal hostility provoked by the ,bolsheviks4 ,given good government and a development of ,china's resources1 it will be possible to obtain most of the needed concessions by purely diplomatic means2 the rest can wait for a suitable opportunity4 #b4 ,industrial development4--,on this subject ,i have already written in ,chap4 ,,xiv42 it is certain general aspects of the subject that ,i wish to consider now4 ,for reasons already given1 ,i hold that all railways ought to be in the hands of the ,state1 and that all successful mines ought to be purchased by the ,state at a fair valuation1 even if they are not ,state-owned from the first4 ,contracts with foreigners for loans ought to be carefully drawn so as to leave the control to ,china4 ,there would not be much difficulty about this if ,china had a stable and orderly government2 in that case1 many foreign capitalists would be willing to lend on good security1 without exacting any part in the management4 ,every possible diplomatic method should be employed to break down such a monopoly as the consortium seeks to acquire in the matter of loans4 ,given good government1 a large amount of ,state enterprise would be desirable in ,chinese industry4 ,there are many arguments for ,state ,socialism1 or rather what ,lenin calls ,state ,capitalism1 in any country which is economically but not culturally backward4 ,in the first place1 it is easier for the ,state to borrow than for a private person2 in the second place1 it is easier for the ,state to engage and employ the foreign experts who are likely to be needed for some time to come2 in the third place1 it is easier for the ,state to make sure that vital industries do not come under the control of foreign ,powers4 ,what is perhaps more important than any of these considerations is that1 by undertaking industrial enterprise from the first1 the ,state can prevent the growth of many of the evils of private capitalism4 ,if ,china can acquire a vigorous and honest ,state1 it will be possible to develop ,chinese industry without1 at the same time1 developing the overweening power of private capitalists by which the ,western nations are now both oppressed and misled4 ,but if this is to be done successfully1 it will require a great change in ,chinese morals1 a development of public spirit in place of the family ethic1 a transference to the public service of that honesty which already exists in private business1 and a degree of energy which is at present rare4 ,i believe that ,young ,china is capable of fulfilling these requisites1 spurred on by patriotism2 but it is important to realize that they are requisites1 and that1 without them1 any system of ,state ,socialism must fail4 ,for industrial development1 it is important that the ,chinese should learn to become technical experts and also to become skilled workers4 ,i think more has been done towards the former of these needs than towards the latter4 ,for the latter purpose1 it would probably be wise to import skilled workmen--say from ,germany--and cause them to give instruction to ,chinese workmen in any new branch of industrial work that it might be desired to develop4 #c4 ,education4--,if ,china is to become a democracy1 as most progressive ,chinese hope1 universal education is imperative4 ,where the bulk of the population cannot read1 true democracy is impossible4 ,education is a good in itself1 but is also essential for developing political consciousness1 of which at present there is almost none in rural ,china4 ,the ,chinese themselves are well aware of this1 but in the present state of the finances it is impossible to establish universal elementary education4 ,until it has been established for some time1 ,china must be1 in fact1 if not in form1 an oligarchy1 because the uneducated masses cannot have any effective political opinion4 ,even given good government1 it is doubtful whether the immense expense of educating such a vast population could be borne by the nation without a considerable industrial development4 ,such industrial development as already exists is mainly in the hands of foreigners1 and its profits provide warships for the ,japanese1 or mansions and dinners for ,british and ,american millionaires4 ,if its profits are to provide the funds for ,chinese education1 industry must be in ,chinese hands4 ,this is another reason why industrial development must probably precede any complete scheme of education4 ,for the present1 even if the funds existed1 there would not be sufficient teachers to provide a schoolmaster in every village4 ,there is1 however1 such an enthusiasm for education in ,china that teachers are being trained as fast as is possible with such limited resources2 indeed a great deal of devotion and public spirit is being shown by ,chinese educators1 whose salaries are usually many months in arrears4 ,chinese control is1 to my mind1 as important in the matter of education as in the matter of industry4 ,for the present1 it is still necessary to have foreign instructors in some subjects1 though this necessity will soon cease4 ,foreign instructors1 however1 provided they are not too numerous1 do no harm1 any more than foreign experts in railways and mines4 ,what does harm is foreign management4 ,chinese educated in mission schools1 or in lay establishments controlled by foreigners1 tend to become de-nationalized1 and to have a slavish attitude towards ,western civilization4 ,this unfits them for taking a useful part in the national life1 and tends to undermine their morals4 ,also1 oddly enough1 it makes them more conservative in purely ,chinese matters than the young men and women who have had a modern education under ,chinese auspices4 ,europeans in general are more conservative about ,china than the modern ,chinese are1 and they tend to convey their conservatism to their pupils4 ,and of course their whole influence1 unavoidably if involuntarily1 militates against national self-respect in those whom they teach4 ,those who desire to do research in some academic subject will1 for some time to come1 need a period of residence in some ,european or ,american university4 ,but for the great majority of university students it is far better1 if possible1 to acquire their education in ,china4 ,returned students have1 to a remarkable extent1 the stamp of the country from which they have returned1 particularly when that country is ,america4 ,a society such as was foreshadowed earlier in this chapter1 in which all really progressive ,chinese should combine1 would encounter difficulties1 as things stand1 from the divergencies in national bias between students returned from 7say7 ,japan1 ,america and ,germany4 ,given time1 this difficulty can be overcome by the increase in purely ,chinese university education1 but at present the difficulty would be serious4 ,to overcome this difficulty1 two things are needed3 inspiring leadership1 and a clear conception of the kind of civilization to be aimed at4 ,leadership will have to be both intellectual and practical4 ,as regards intellectual leadership1 ,china is a country where writers have enormous influence1 and a vigorous reformer possessed of literary skill could carry with him the great majority of ,young ,china4 ,men with the requisite gifts exist in ,china2 ,i might mention1 as an example personally known to me1 ,dr4 ,hu ,suh4#aaj ,he has great learning1 wide culture1 remarkable energy1 and a fearless passion for reform2 his writings in the vernacular inspire enthusiasm among progressive ,chinese4 ,he is in favour of assimilating all that is good in ,western culture1 but by no means a slavish admirer of our ways4 ,the practical political leadership of such a society as ,i conceive to be needed would probably demand different gifts from those required in an intellectual leader4 ,it is therefore likely that the two could not be combined in one man1 but would need men as different as ,lenin and ,karl ,marx4 ,the aim to be pursued is of importance1 not only to ,china1 but to the world4 ,out of the renaissance spirit now existing in ,china1 it is possible1 if foreign nations can be prevented from working havoc1 to develop a new civilization better than any that the world has yet known4 ,this is the aim which ,young ,china should set before itself3 the preservation of the urbanity and courtesy1 the candour and the pacific temper1 which are characteristic of the ,chinese nation1 together with a knowledge of ,western science and an application of it to the practical problems of ,china4 ,of such practical problems there are two kinds3 one due to the internal condition of ,china1 and the other to its international situation4 ,in the former class come education1 democracy1 the diminution of poverty1 hygiene and sanitation1 and the prevention of famines4 ,in the latter class come the establishment of a strong government1 the development of industrialism1 the revision of treaties and the recovery of the ,treaty ,ports 7as to which ,japan may serve as a model71 and finally1 the creation of an army sufficiently strong to defend the country against ,japan4 ,both classes of problems demand ,western science4 ,but they do not demand the adoption of the ,western philosophy of life4 ,if the ,chinese were to adopt the ,western philosophy of life1 they would1 as soon as they had made themselves safe against foreign aggression1 embark upon aggression on their own account4 ,they would repeat the campaigns of the ,han and ,tang dynasties in ,central ,asia1 and perhaps emulate ,kublai by the invasion of ,japan4 ,they would exploit their material resources with a view to producing a few bloated plutocrats at home and millions dying of hunger abroad4 ,such are the results which the ,west achieves by the application of science4 ,if ,china were led astray by the lure of brutal power1 she might repel her enemies outwardly1 but would have yielded to them inwardly4 ,it is not unlikely that the great military nations of the modern world will bring about their own destruction by their inability to abstain from war1 which will become1 with every year that passes1 more scientific and more devastating4 ,if ,china joins in this madness1 ,china will perish like the rest4 ,but if ,chinese reformers can have the moderation to stop when they have made ,china capable of self-defence1 and to abstain from the further step of foreign conquest2 if1 when they have become safe at home1 they can turn aside from the materialistic activities imposed by the ,powers1 and devote their freedom to science and art and the inauguration of a better economic system--then ,china will have played the part in the world for which she is fitted1 and will have given to mankind as a whole new hope in the moment of greatest need4 ,it is this hope that ,i wish to see inspiring ,young ,china4 ,this hope is realizable2 and because it is realizable1 ,china deserves a foremost place in the esteem of every lover of mankind4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #aaj3 ,an account of a portion of his work will be found in ,tyau1 op4 cit4 pp4 #dj ff4 ,,appendix ,while the above pages were going through the ,press1 some important developments have taken place in ,china4 ,wu-,pei-,fu has defeated ,chang-tso-lin and made himself master of ,peking4 ,chang has retreated towards ,manchuria with a broken army1 and proclaimed the independence of ,manchuria4 ,this might suit the ,japanese very well1 but it is hardly to be supposed that the other ,powers would acquiesce4 ,it is1 therefore1 not unlikely that ,chang may lose ,manchuria also1 and cease to be a factor in ,chinese politics4 ,for the moment1 ,wu-,pei-,fu controls the greater part of ,china1 and his intentions become important4 ,the ,british in ,china have1 for some years1 befriended him1 and this fact colours all ,press telegrams appearing in our newspapers4 ,according to ,the ,times1 he has pronounced in favour of the reassembling of the old all-,china ,parliament1 with a view to the restoration of constitutional government4 ,this is a measure in which the ,south could concur1 and if he really adheres to this intention he has it in his power to put an end to ,chinese anarchy4 ,the ,times ,peking correspondent1 telegraphing on ,may #cj1 reports that ,wu-,pei-,fu declares that if the old ,parliament will reassemble and work in national interests he will support it up to the limit1 and fight any obstructionists4 ,on ,may #ah1 the same correspondent telegraphed that ,wu-,pei-,fu is lending his support to the unification movements1 and has found common ground for action with ,chen ,chiung ,ming1 who is ,sun's colleague at ,canton and is engaged in civil war with ,sun1 who is imperialistic and wants to conquer all ,china for his government1 said to be alone constitutional4 ,the programme agreed upon between ,wu and ,chen ,chiung ,ming is given in the same telegram as follows3 ,local self-government shall be established and magistrates shall be elected by the people2 ,district police shall be created under ,district ,boards subject to ,central ,provincial ,boards2 ,civil governors shall be responsible to the ,central ,government1 not to the ,tuchuns2 a national army shall be created1 controlled and paid by the ,central ,government2 ,provincial police and gendarmerie1 not the ,tuchuns or the army1 shall be responsible for peace and order in the provinces2 the whole nation shall agree to recall the old ,parliament and the restoration of the ,provisional ,constitution of the first year of the ,republic2 ,taxes shall be collected by the ,central ,government1 and only a stipulated sum shall be granted to each province for expenses1 the balance to be forwarded to the ,central ,government as under the ,ching dynasty2 ,afforestation shall be undertaken1 industries established1 highways built1 and other measures taken to keep the people on the land4 ,this is an admirable programme1 but it is impossible to know how much of it will ever be carried out4 ,meanwhile1 ,sun ,yat ,sen is still at war with ,wu-,pei-,fu4 ,it has been stated in the ,british ,press that there was an alliance between ,sun and ,chang1 but it seems there was little more than a common hostility to ,wu4 ,sun's friends maintain that he is a genuine ,constitutionalist1 and that ,wu is not to be trusted1 but ,chen ,chiung ,ming has a better reputation than ,sun among reformers4 ,the ,british in ,china all praise ,wu and hate ,sun2 the ,americans all praise ,sun and decry ,wu4 ,sun undoubtedly has a past record of genuine patriotism1 and there can be no doubt that the ,canton ,government has been the best in ,china4 ,what appears in our newspapers on the subject is certainly designed to give a falsely unfavourable impression of ,canton4 ,for example1 in ,the ,times of ,may #ae1 a telegram appeared from ,hong-,kong to the following effect3 ,i learn that the troops of ,sun ,yat ,sen1 ,president of ,south ,china1 which are stated to be marching north from ,canton1 are a rabble4 ,many are without weapons and a large percentage of the uniforms are merely rags4 ,there is no discipline1 and gambling and opium-smoking are rife4 ,nevertheless1 on ,may #cj1 ,the ,times had to confess that this army had won a brilliant victory1 capturing the most important stronghold in ,kiangsi1 together with #dj field guns and large quantities of munitions4 ,the situation must remain obscure until more detailed news has arrived by mail4 ,it is to be hoped that the ,canton ,government1 through the victory of ,chen ,chiung ,ming1 will come to terms with ,wu-,pei-,fu1 and will be strong enough to compel him to adhere to the terms4 ,it is to be hoped also that ,chang's proclamation of the independence of ,manchuria will not be seized upon by ,japan as an excuse for a more complete absorption of that country4 ,if ,wu-,pei-,fu adheres to the declaration quoted above1 there can be no patriotic reason why ,canton should not co-operate with him2 on the other hand1 the military strength of ,canton makes it more likely that ,wu will find it prudent to adhere to his declaration4 ,there is certainly a better chance than there was before the defeat of ,chang for the unification of ,china and the ending of the ,tuchuns' tyranny4 ,but it is as yet no more than a chance1 and the future is still problematical4 ,june #ba1 #aibb4 ,,index ,academy1 ,imperial1 #dd ,adams1 ,will1 #id ,afghanistan1 #age ,ainu1 #aag ,america1 #ag1 #ed1 #fc1 #fi1 #acd1 #acf1 #ade ff41 #aei ff and naval policy1 #afa-b and trade with ,russia1 #afb-c and ,chinese finance1 #afc-e1 #bdd and ,japan1 #afg ff4 ,americanism1 #bba ,ancestor-worship1 #ci ,an ,fu ,party1 #ade1 #bje1 #bdc ,anglo-,japanese ,alliance1 #abj1 #abc1 #acc1 #acg1 #adi1 #age ,annam1 #eb ,arnold1 ,julean1 #bca ,art1 #aa1 #ab1 #bh1 #ahi ,australia1 #aha ,backhouse1 #di ,balfour1 #aeb1 #aec ,benthamites1 #hj ,birth-rate-- in ,china1 #gc in ,japan1 #aaf ,bismarck1 #aab1 #acj ,bland1 #di1 #gg n1 #ajg ,bolsheviks1 #ag1 #ah1 #abh1 #acf1 #adc1 #adf ff41 #age ff41 #bde ,bolshevism1 #hb in ,china1 #age1 #aid1 #bjd ,books1 burning of1 #bd ff4 ,boxer rising1 #ec1 #ed1 #bbg indemnity1 #ed1 #bag ,brailsford1 #aff ,buddhism1 #bg1 #ca1 #dh1 #aij in ,japan1 #hf ff41 #ia1 #aje1 #afi ,burma1 #eb ,bushido1 #agb ,canada1 #aha ,canton1 #ej1 #fh1 #ga1 #ge1 #bjg ,capitalism1 #agi ,cassel agreement1 #fi ,chamberlain1 ,prof4 ,b4,h41 #ajc1 #aje ,changchun1 #abd ,chang-tso-lin1 #fh1 #ga1 #gg1bdb1 #bec ,chao ,ki1 #dj ,chen ,chiung ,ming1 #fh1 #bec-e ,chen1 ,eugene1 #acc n4 ,cheng1 ,s4,g41 #ee n41 #fe1 #acd n41 #aci n41 #bcb ,chien ,lung1 ,emperor1 #di ff4 ,chi ,li1 ,mr41 #cg ,china-- early history1 #ba ,s ff4 derivation of name1 #bd population1 #ca-d ,year ,book1 #cb produce1 #gb influence on ,japan1 #hf ff41#ajd and the war1 #acd ff4 ,post ,offices1 #aej ,chinese-- character of1 #aii-bac love of laughter1 #ahh-i1 #bjj dignity1 #bjb pacifism1 #aie1 #bac callousness1 #bji cowardice1 #baj avarice1 #baa patience1 #bjf excitability1 #bab ,chingkiang1 #fj ,chinlingchen mine1 #bcd ,chita1 #adf1 #aed ,choshu1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajf ,chou dynasty1 #bb ,christianity in ,japan1 #ib ff4 ,chuang ,tze1 #h1 #hb1 #ahh1 #aib ,chu ,fu ,tze1 #dc ,chu ,hsi1 #df ,civilization-- alphabetical1 #cg ,chinese1 #ahg ff4 ,european1 #ahf ,coal in ,china1 #acb n41 #bca ff4 ,coleman1 #gg n41 #aaj1 #acb n41 #acc n4 ,colour prejudice1 #afh1 #agc and labour1 #aha ff4 ,confucius1 #ba1 #bb1 #bd1 #ch1 #ahg1 #bjh ,confucianism1 #cd1 #ch ff41 #aij in ,japan1 #aah ,consortium1 #ad1 #afc ff41 #agi1 #bdd ,cordier1 ,henri1 #bd n41 #be1 #bg n41 #bh1 #cj n41 #ca n41 #ahg n4 ,cotton1 #gf1 #bce industry in ,osaka1 #aad ,customs-- ,chinese1 #ee ff41 on exports1 #ef internal1 #ef-g ,dairen1 #abc ,conference at1 #aed ff4 ,denison1 #abi ,dewey1 ,professor1 #fi1 #bbd ,mrs41 #bbd ,diet1 ,japanese1 #aji ff4 ,dutch in ,japan1 #id ff41 #ajj ,education1 #dd ff41 #gf ff41 #aic1 #bad-bbe1 #bdg ff4 statistics of1 #bae classical1 #bae-g ,european and ,american1 #bag-ba modern ,chinese1 #bba ff4 of women1 #bbc-d ,efficiency1 creed of1 #ag ,eight ,legs1 #de1 #df ,emperor of ,china #bb ff1 #ci1 #hc1 #hh1 #bje ,first1 #bd ff4 ,empress ,dowager1 #eb n4 ,examination1 competitive1 #cd1 #dd ff1 #gf ,face1 #bjd ,famines in ,china1 #gb1 #baj ,far ,eastern ,republic1 #adj1 #aed ,federalism in ,china1 #gj1 #bdd ,feudalism-- in ,china1 #bd1 #bf in ,japan1 #hi ff4 ,filial ,piety1 #ci ff41 #fa and patriotism1 #da in ,japan1 #aah1 #afi ,foreign ,trade statistics1 #bcf-g ,forestry1 #hj ,fourteen ,points1 #ec ,france1 #eb1 #ec1 #abc and ,shantung1 #acg-h and ,japan1 #aeg ,fukien1 #acb ,galileo1 #ahf ,genoa ,conference1 #adf ,genro1 the1 #ia1 #ajf ff41 #abh ,george ,,iii1 #di ,germany1 #cj1 #ec1 #aji1 #ach1 #agb property in ,china during war1 #ada ff4 ,giles1 ,lionel1 #hb n4 ,giles1 ,professor1 #bc1 #ci1 #dc n41 #di n41 #ahg n4 ,gladstone1 #aeg1 #afj ,gleason1 #acb n41 #acd n4 ,gobi desert1 #ca ,gompers1 #afc ,great ,britain-- and ,china1 #eb ff4 and ,shantung1 #acg ,great ,wall1 #bd ,greeks1 #ahf ,guam1 #aej ,han dynasty1 #bg ,hanyehping ,co41 #acb n41 #bcb-c ,hart1 ,sir ,robert1 #eg ,hayashi1 #acc n4 ,hearn1 ,lafcadio1 #ii ,heaven 7in ,chinese religion71 #bc1 #dc ,temple of1 #bc1 #bd ,hideyoshi1 #hg1 #ic1 #id ,hirth1 #bb n41 #bc n41 #bg n4 ,hong ,kong1 #eb1 #fi1 #ge1 #bjg ,hsu ,shi-chang1 ,president1 #dd ,hughes1 ,premier1 #aha n4 ,hughes1 ,secretary1 #aeb1 #aec ,hung ,wu1 ,emperor1 #de ,huns1 #bd1 #bg1 #ca ,hu ,suh1 #bej ,ichimura1 ,dr41 #aba ,ideograms1 #cd ff4 ,immigration1 ,asiatic1 #aha ff4 ,imperialism4 #hb ,india1 #bg1 #bi1 #dh1 #aai1 #abj ,industrialism1 #ahf in ,china1 #ge1 #gf1 #bab1 #bbf-ci1 #bde ff4 in ,japan1 #aad ,inouye1 #hh ,intelligentsia in ,china1 #gf ,iron in ,china1 #aca1 #acb n41 #bca ff4 ,japanese control of1 #bcb ff4 ,ishii1 #ace4 ,see also ,lansing-,ishii ,agreement4 ,ito1 #hh4 #aji ff lyeyasu1 #ia1 #id1 #ie ,japan1 #ad1 #ae1 #bg1 #cj1 #eb1 #ec1 #fb1 #fc1 #hf-age early history1 #hf ff4 constitution1 #aji ff4 war with ,china1 #aac1 #abb1 #acj war with ,russia1 #ajh1 #abc1 #acj clan loyalty1 #aah loyalty to ,allies1 #acf hegemony in ,asia1 #abj loans to ,china in #aiah1 #adc ,socialism in1 #aad1 #agj ,jenghis ,khan1 #bh ff4 ,jews1 #ahf ,kang ,hsi1 ,emperor1 #di n4 ,kara ,korum1 #cj ,kato1 #acc n4 ,kiangnan ,dock1 #bcb ,kiaochow1 #ec1 #aca1 #aea ,kieff1 #bi ,koo1 ,mr4 ,wellington1 #eh n41 #afd ,korea1 #ec1 #hf1 #abj1 #abb1 #abd ,kublai ,khan1 #bi1 #cj ,kyoto1 #if ,kyushu1 #ib1 #id ,lama ,religion1 #dc ,lamont1 #afe ,lansing1 #add ,lansing-,ishii ,agreement1 #acd1 #aci1 #aea ,lao-,tze1 #dc1 #hb1 #ahg1 #aid ,legge1 #bb n41 #ci n41 #hb n4 ,lenin1 #ahj1 #bej1 ,lennox1 ,dr41 #gc n4 ,literati1 #be1 #bf1 #ch ff4 ,li ,ung ,bing1 #bf1 #de ,li ,yuan ,hung1 ,president1 #adj ff4 ,li ,yuen1 #bh n4 ,lloyd ,george1 #acc1 #adj1 #aeg ,louis ,,xiv41 #ea ,louis1 ,saint1 #bi ,macao1 #fb ,macartney1 #di ,malthus1 #gc ,manchu dynasty1 #cj1 #ca1 #dc1 #fd ,manchuria1 #ec1 #fh1 #abj1 #abc1 #abg1 #acj1 #adf1 #aed1 #agg1 #agh1 #bjg ,manila1 #ic ,marco ,polo1 #bi ,marcus ,aurelius1 #bg ,marx1 #bej ,masuda1 #ic ,mc,laren1 #ih1 #ajc n4 ,mechanistic ,outlook1 #ha ff4 ,merv1 #bi ,mikado1 #hg1 #ii1 #ajf worship of1 #ih1 #ajc1 #afh-i ,militarism1 #af1 #db1 #dc n4 ,millard1 #acd n41 #adc1 #aea n4 ,minamoto ,yoritomo1 #ij ,mines1 #bcj ff4 ,ming dynasty1 #cj ,missionaries1 #aif ,roman ,catholic1 #dh1 #di n4 in ,japan1 #ib ff4 ,mongol dynasty1 #bh ff41 #dc ,mongolia1 #bi1 #dc1 #abj1 #adg1 #aed ,morgan1 ,j4,p41 #aeg1 #afe ,morphia1 #aej ,moscow1 #bi ,mukden1 #acj ,murdoch1 #bh n41 #hf n41 #aja1 #ajg n4 ,nationalism1 #af ,nestorianism1 #dh ,nicolaievsk1 #aee ,nietzsche1 #hd1 #aid ,nishapur1 #bi ,nobunaga1 #id ,northcliffe1 ,lord1 #gg n4 ,observatory1 ,peking1 #cj1 #di ,okuma1 #abj1 #abb ,open ,door1 #ee1 #afb1 #agi ,opium1 #eb ,panama ,tolls1 #afb ,peking1 #cj1 #cd1 #eb1 #gb ,legation ,quarter1 #ed ,union ,medical ,college1 #gc1 #bai ,government ,university1 #bag n41 #bbb ,girls' ,high ,normal ,school1 #bbd ,penhsihu mine1 #bcd ,perry1 ,commodore1 #if1 #ajj1 #afg ,persia1 #bg1 #bi1 #age ,phonetic writing1 #ce ,plato1 #ahf ,po ,chui1 #aie ,po ,lo1 #hc ,pooley1 #abj n41 #aba1 #abd1 #abh1 #acc n4 ,pope1 ,the1 #bi1 #afi ,port ,arthur1 #ed1 #abc1 #acj1 #aej1 #age ,portsmouth1 ,treaty of1 #ajh-i1 #abe ,portuguese1 #ib ff4 ,progress1 #ac1 #aif1 #bjb ,putnam ,weale1 #cb1 #cc1 #fe1 #adc n41 #afe1 #bbh ,railways1 #bbf ff4 nationalization of1 #bbh ff4 statistics of1 #bcj ,chinese ,eastern1 #abc1 #abf1 #adc1 #adf1 #bbg ,fa-ku-,men1 #abd ,hankow-,canton1 #bbg ,peking-,kalgan1 #bbg1 #bbi ,peking-,hankow1 #bbg ,shantung1 #aea ff41 #bbg ,siberian1 #adf1 #bbg ,south ,manchurian1 #abd1 #abe1 #abf ,tientsin-,pukow1 #bbg ,reid1 ,rev4 ,gilbert1 #acd n41 #aci n4 #adb ,reinsch1 #acd n41 #ace1 #acf ,restoration in ,japan1 #hg1 #ig #h4 ,revolution of #aiaa1 #cj1 #fe ff4 and ,japan1 #abh ff4 ,rockefeller ,hospital1 #bah ,rome1 #bg1 #ea ,roosevelt1 #ajh ,rousseau1 #db ,russia1 #ae1 #ah-bj1 #bi1 #ec1 #ajh1 #aai1 #abg1 #adf ff41 #age ff4 war with ,japan1 #ajh1abc1 #acj secret treaty with ,japan1 #acf and ,shantung1 #ach-i ,salt tax1 #ei1 #fj ,san ,felipe1 #ic ,sato1 ,admiral1 #agb ,satsuma1 #id1 #ii1 #aja1 #ajb1 #ajf ,science1 #ea1 #hj1 #ha1 #ahf1 #aic ,shank1 ,mr41 #fi ,shantung1 #ec1 #abg1 #aca ff41 #agh secret treaties concerning1 #acg in ,versailles ,treaty1 #add and ,washington ,conference1 #ade1 #aea ff4 ,shaw1 ,bernard1 #afj ,sherfesee1 #hj ,shih ,huang ,ti1 ,see ,emperor1 ,first ,shi-,king1 #be ,shinto1 #hg ff41 #ajc1 #aje1 #afi ,shogun1 ,the1 #ij1 #ii ff4 ,shu-,king1 #ba1 #bb n41 #be ,simpson1 ,lennox4 ,see ,putnam ,weale ,socialism1 #fd1 #aha ff4 ,state1 #ahj1 #bdf in ,japan1 #aad1 #agj in ,china1 #bbb1 #bcf ,soyeda1 #add n4 ,spaniards in ,japan1 #ic ,student ,movement1 #bbc1 #bdc ,students-- returned1 #ag1 #aic1 #bai statistics of1 #bbj n4 ,summer ,palace1 #eb ,sung dynasty1 #cj1 #de ,sun ,yat ,sen1 #fe1 #fh1 #abh1 #adj1 #bec-f ,supreme ,ruler4 ,see ,heaven ,taiping ,rebellion1 #cb1 #ef1 #fe ,tai-tsung1 #bh n4 ,tang dynasty1 #bh1 #dd ,taochung iron mine1 #bcd ,taoism1 #dc1 #ahg ff4 ,tartars1 #bg1 #ca ,tayeh mines1 #bca n41 #bcb-c ,teachers' strike1 #bjf1 #bbe ,tenny1 ,raymond ,p41 #cc ,tibet1 #ca1 #dc ,ting1 ,mr4 ,v4,k41 #gc n4 ,tokugawa1 #ii ,tong1 ,hollington ,k41 #adc n41 #bjd n4 ,trade ,unionism1 #ahj-a in ,japan1 #aad-e ,treaty ,ports1 #gd ,tsing-hua ,college1 #bag ,tsing-tau1 #aca1 #aea ,tuan ,chih-jui1 #adj ff4 ,tuangkuan ,shan mines1 #bcc ,tuchuns1 #fa1 #fg1 #ga1 #gf1 #bjc1 #bjf ,twenty-one ,demands1 #aca ff41 #bcc1 #bcd ,tyau1 ,m4,t4,z41 #add n41 #bae1 #bbj n41 #bbc1 #bbf n41 #bcj1 #bce ,united ,states4 ,see ,america4 ,versailles ,treaty1 #ec1 #adb1 #add1aea ,vladivostok1 #adf1 #aed ,volga1 #ah ,voltaire1 #bba ,waley1 #hd1 #aie ,war1 ,great1 idealistic aims of1 #ada ff4 ,washington ,conference1 #af1 #ee n41 #fa1 #fc1 #abg1 #ade1 #adi ff41 #agh ,wei-hai-wei1 #ed1 #adi ,white men1 virtues of1 #aba ,william ,,ii41 #abb ,wilson1 ,president1 #adj1 #adb ,women1 position of1 in ,china1 #bbc-d ,woosung ,college1 #bci ,wu-,pei-,fu1 #db1 #fj1 #fh1 #ga1 #bdb1 #bec-c ,yamagata1 ,prince1 #aae n4 ,yangtze1 #eb1 #acb ,yao and ,shun1 #ba1 #bb ,yellow ,river1 #ba1 #ahg ,y4,m4,c4,a41 #hb1 #hc1 #bbb ,young ,china1 #bf1 #fa1 #gg ff41 #add1 #ade1 #afg1 #aic1 #bdg1 #bej ,y1 #bb ,yuan ,shi-k'ai1 #fe ff41 #abi1 #ace