,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #dhd ,,new ,,york1 ,,april #aa1 #ahhe ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xix1 ,no4 #dhd4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics4--,bridge over the ,blaauw ,krantz ,ravine1 ,cape ,colony4--#b engravings4 ,torpedo ,ships4 ,the ,gas ,engine4--,by ,,dugald ,,clerk4--,combustion engines4--,first cylinder and piston engine4--,watt's experiments4--,first gas engine4--,principles of the gas engine4 ,rapid ,construction of the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway4--,by ,e4,t4 ,,abbott4 ,the ,osgood ,mammoth ,excavator4--#c figures4 ,capstan ,navigation on the ,volga4--#d figures4 ,steamboat ,equipment of ,war ,vessels4--,with engraving of winch for raising and lowering torpedo boats4 ,improved ,steam ,trap4--#a engraving4 ,,ii4 ,,technology4--,critical ,methods of ,detecting ,errors in ,plane ,surfaces4--,by ,,john ,a4 ,,brashear4--#aa figures4 ,photometric ,standards4--#i figures4 ,bleaching or ,dyeing ,yarns and ,goods in ,vacuo4--#a figure4 ,on the ,moulding of ,porcelain4--,by ,,chas4 ,,lauth4--,moulding by pressure of the air4--,moulding by vacuum4--,drying the moulded pieces4--#b figures4 ,photo-,tricycle ,apparatus4--#a figure4 ,a ,photo ,printing ,light4--#a figure4 ,a ,new ,actinometer4 ,astronomical ,photography4 ,electricity as a ,preventive of ,scale in ,boilers4 ,,iii4 ,,decorative ,,art4--,alphabet designed by ,godfrey ,sykes4--,an engraving4 ,old ,wrought ,iron ,gate4--,an engraving4 ,,iv4 ,,geology4--,the ,organization and ,plan of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4--,by ,j4,w4 ,,powell4--,a topographic map of the ,united ,states4--,paleontology4--,chemistry4--, physical researches4--,statistics4--,library4--,p ublications4--,general geology4--,economic geology4--,relation of the general survey to the ,state survey4 ,v4 ,,botany1 ,,etc4--,the ,sunflowers4--,annuals1 perennials1 etc4--#aa engravings4 ,lye's ,fuchsias4--#a engraving4 ,,vi4 ,,hygiene1 ,,etc4--,brief ,sanitary ,matters in ,connection with ,isolated ,country ,houses4--,by ,e4,w4 ,,bowditch4 ,sanitary ,cooking4--,by ,v4,l4 ,,oppenheimer4 ,time required to digest ,different ,foods4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,blaauw ,,krantz ,,viaduct ,,in ,,cape ,,colony4 ,this viaduct is built over a rocky ravine on the railway from ,port ,alfred to ,grahamstown1 at a height of about #bjj ft4 from the bottom4 ,its length is #dhj ft4 #f in41 and the width of the platform is #ae ft41 the gauge of the railway being #c ft4 #f in4 ,the central span of the viaduct is an arch of #bbj ft4 span between abutments1 and about #ij ft4 height2 the remainder of the space on each side is divided into two spans by an iron pier at a distance of #fh ft4 from the retaining wall4 ,these piers are #cf ft4 #b in4 high1 and carry girders #add ft4 long1 balanced each on a pivot in the center4 ,one end of these girders is secured to the retaining walls by means of horizontal and vertical anchorages1 while the other end rests in a sliding bearing on the top flange of the arch4 ,illustration3 ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,blaauw ,,krantz ,,ravine1 ,,cape ,,colony4 ,illustration3 ,,bridge ,,over ,,the ,,blaauw ,,krantz ,,ravine1 ,,cape ,,colony4 ,in designing the structure the following points had to be considered3 7#a7 ,that1 on account of the great height above the ground1 and on account of the high price of timber at the site1 the structure could be easily erected without the use of scaffolding supporting it as a whole4 7#b7 ,that1 on account of the high freights to ,port ,alfred1 the quantity of iron in the structure should be as small as possible4 7#c7 ,that the single parts of the principal span should be easy to lift1 and that there should be as few of them as possible4 ,for this latter reason most of them were made in lengths of #bj ft4 and more4 ,the question of economy of material presented itself as a comparison between a few standard types1 viz41 the girder bridge of small independent spans2 the cantilever bridge1 or the continuous girder bridge in three large spans2 the single girder bridge with one large span and several small spans2 and the arch with small girder spans on each side4 ,the suspension bridge was left out of question as inadmissible4 ,a girder bridge with small independent spans on rocker piers would probably have been the most economical1 even taking into account the great height of the piers near the middle of the ravine1 but there would have been some difficulty in holding those piers in position until they could be secured to the girders at the top2 and1 moreover1 such a structure would have been strikingly out of harmony with the character of the site4 ,on the other hand1 a cantilever or continuous girder bridge in three spans--although such structures have been erected in similar localities--could not enter into comparison of simple economy of material1 because such a design would entirely disregard the anomaly that the greater part of the structure1 viz41 the side spans1 being necessarily constructed to carry across a large space1 would be too near the ground to justify the omission of further supports4 ,the question was1 therefore1 narrowed to a comparison between the present arch and a central independent girder of the same span1 including the piers on which it rests4 ,the small side spans could obviously be left out in each case4 ,the comparison was made with a view not only to arrive at a decision in this particular case1 but also of answering the question of the economy of the arch more generally4 ,the following table contains the weights of geometrically similar structures of three different spans1 of which the second is the one here described4 ,the so-called theoretical weight is that which the structure would have if no part required stiffening1 leaving out also all connections and all wind bracing4 ,the moving load is taken at one ton per foot lineal1 and the strain on the iron at an average of four tons per square inch4 ,the proportion of the girder is taken at #a in #h4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,theoretical ,weight4 ,total ,weight4 ,span in ,feet4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,arch4 ,girder4 ,arch4 ,girder4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ajj #j4jgbd #j4affc #j4ahff #j4bddc #bbj #j4afei #j4daji #j4ddgf #j4gdfb #cjj #j4bdad #j4fdde #j4fdfd #a4behh ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ------------,tons per foot lineal4------------- ,it can be seen from these results that the economical advantage of the arch increases with the span4 ,in small arches this advantage would not be large enough to counterbalance the greater cost of manufacture2 but in the arch of #bbj ft4 span the advantage is already very marked4 ,if the table were continued1 it would show that the girder1 even if the platform were artificially widened1 would become impossible at a point where the arch can still be made without difficulty4 ,the calculations leading to the above results would occupy too much space to make it desirable on this occasion to produce them4 ,our two views are from photographs4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,torpedo ,,ships4 ,commander ,gallwey lately delivered an interesting lecture on the use of torpedoes in war before the royal ,u4,s4 ,institution1 ,london1 discussed ,h4,m4,s4 ,polyphemus1 and urged as arguments in her favor3 #a4 ,that she has very high speed1 combined with fair maneuvering powers4 #b4 ,that she can discharge her torpedoes with certainty either ahead or on the beam when proceeding at full speed4 #c4 ,that her crew and weapons of defense are protected by the most perfect of all armor possible1 namely1 #aj ft4 of water4 #d4 ,that she only presents a mark of #d ft4 above the water line4 ,then1 he asked1 with what weapon is the ironclad going to vanquish these torpedo rams8 ,guns cannot hit her when moving at speed2 she is proof against machine guns1 and1 being smaller1 handier1 and faster than most ironclads1 should have a better chance with her ram1 the more especially as it is provided with a weapon which has been scores of times discharged with certainty at #cjj yards4 ,the ironclad1 he answered1 must use torpedoes1 and then he maintained that the speed and handiness of the ,polyphemus would enable her to place herself in positions where she could use her own torpedo to advantage1 and be less likely to be hit herself4 ,he then called attention to the necessity for well-protected conning towers in these ships1 and prophesied that if a submarine ship1 armed with torpedoes1 be ever built1 she will be the most formidable antagonist an ironclad ever had2 and the nearer the special torpedo ship approaches this desideratum the better she will be4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,plumbing ,,test4 ,a recent trial of a smoke rocket for testing drains1 described by ,mr4 ,cosmo ,jones in the ,journal of the ,society of ,arts1 is deserving of interest4 ,the one fixed upon is #aj in4 long1 #b in4 in diameter1 and with the composition charged rather hard1 so as to burn for ten minutes4 ,this gives the engineer time to light the fuse1 insert the rocket in the drain1 insert a plug behind it1 and walk through the house to see if the smoke escapes into it at any point1 finishing on the roof1 where he finds the smoke issuing in volumes from the ventilating pipes4 ,the house experimented upon had three ventilating pipes1 and the smoke issued in dense masses from each of them1 but did not escape anywhere into the house1 showing that the pipes were sound4 ,if the engineer wishes to increase the severity of the test1 he throws a wet cloth over the top of the ventilating pipe1 and so gets a slight pressure of smoke inside it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,gas ,,engine4#a ,footnote #a3 ,lecture by ,mr4 ,dugald ,clerk1 before the ,literary and ,philosophical ,society1 ,oldham4 ,by ,,dugald ,,clerk4 ,in earlier days of mechanics1 before the work of the great ,scottish engineer1 ,james ,watt1 the crude steam engines of the time were known as fire engines1 not in the sense in which we now apply the term to machines for the extinguishing of fires1 but as indicating the source from which the power was derived1 motive power engines deriving their vitality and strength from fire4 ,the modern name--steam engine--to some extent is a misleading one1 distracting the mind from the source of power to the medium which conveys the power4 ,similarly the name ,gas ,engine masks the fact of the motors so called being really fire or heat engines4 ,the gas engine is more emphatically a fire engine than ever the steam engine has been4 ,in it the fire is not tamed or diluted by indirect contact with water1 but it is used direct2 the fire1 instead of being kept to the boiler room1 is introduced direct into the motor cylinder of the engine4 ,this at first sight looks very absurd and impracticable2 difficulties at once become apparent of so overwhelming a nature that the problem seems almost an impossible one2 yet this is what has been successfully accomplished in the gas engine4 ,engineers accustomed to the construction of steam engines would not many years ago have considered any one proposing such a thing as having taken leave of his senses4 ,the late ,sir ,william ,siemens worked for many years on combustion engines1 some of his patents on this subject dating back to #ahfj4 ,in the course of a conversation ,i had with him on the subject of his earlier patents1 ,i asked him why he had entitled one of those patents steam engine improvements when it was wholly concerned with a gas engine using hydrogen and air in the motive cylinder1 the combustion of the hydrogen taking place in the motive cylinder4 ,he answered me that in #ahfj he did not care to entitle his patent gas or combustion engine simply because engineers at that time would have thought him mad4 ,notwithstanding this widespread incredulity among engineers1 and the apparent novelty of the gas engine idea1 fire or combustion engines have been proposed long1 long ago4 ,the first ,newcomen steam engine ever set to work was used by a ,mr4 ,back1 of ,wolverhampton1 in the year #agaa4 ,thirty-one years before this time1 in ,paris--year #afhj--;,huyghens presented a memoir to the ,academy of ,sciences describing a method of utilizing the expansive force of gunpowder4 ,this engineer is notable as being the very first to propose the use of a cylinder and piston1 as well as the first combustion engine of a practical kind4 ,the engine consists of a vertical open topped cylinder1 in which works a piston2 the piston is connected by a chain passing over a pulley above it to a heavy weight2 the upstroke is accomplished by the descent of the weight1 which pulls the piston to the top of the cylinder2 gunpowder placed in a tray at the bottom of the cylinder is now ignited1 and expels the air with which the cylinder is filled through a shifting valve1 and1 after the products of combustion have cooled1 a partial vacuum takes place and the atmospheric pressure forces down the piston to the bottom of its stroke1 during which work may be obtained4 ,on the board ,i have made a sketch of this engine4 ,some years previous to ,huyghens' proposal1 the ,abbe ,hautefeuille 7#afgh7 proposed a gunpowder engine without piston for pumping water4 ,it is similar to ,savery's steam engine1 but using the pressure of the explosion instead of the pressure of steam4 ,this engine1 however1 had no piston1 and was only applicable as a pump4 ,the ,savery principle still survives in the action of the well-known pulsometer steam pump4 ,denys ,papin1 the pupil and assistant of ,huyghens1 continued experimenting upon the production of motive power1 and in #afij published a description of his attempts at ,leipzig1 entitled ,a ,new ,method of ,securing ,cheaply ,motive ,power of ,considerable ,magnitude4 ,he mentions the gunpowder engine1 and states that until now all experiments have been unsuccessful2 and after the combustion of the exploded powder there always remains in the cylinder one-fifth of its volume of air4 ,for the explosion of the gunpowder he substituted the generation and condensation of steam1 heating the bottom of his cylinder by a fire2 a small quantity of water contained in it was vaporized1 and then on removing the fire the steam condensed and the piston was forced down4 ,this was substantially the ,newcomen steam engine1 but without the separate boiler4 ,papin died about the year #agaj1 a disappointed man1 about the same time as ,newcomen4 ,thomas ,newcomen1 ironmonger and blacksmith1 of ,dartmouth1 ,england1 had first succeeded in getting his engine to work4 ,the hard fight to wrest from nature a manageable motive power and to harness fire for industrial use was continued by this clever blacksmith1 and he succeeded when the more profound but less constructively skillful philosophers had failed4 ,the success of the steam method and the fight necessary to perfect it to the utmost absorbed the energy of most able engineers--,beighton1 ,john ,smeaton--accomplishing much in applying and perfecting it before the appearance of ,james ,watt upon the scene4 ,it is interesting to note that in ,england alone over #b1jjj horse power of ,newcomen engines were at work before ,watt commenced his series of magnificent inventions2 he commenced experimenting on a ,newcomen engine model in #agei at ,glasgow ,university1 and in #aggd came to ,birmingham1 entered into partnership with ,boulton1 and #agha we find his beautiful double acting beam condensing engine in successful work4 ,from that time until now the steam engine has steadily advanced1 increasing in economy of fuel from #aj lb4 of coal per horse power per hour to about #a lb4 per horse power per hour1 which is the best result of to-day's steam engine practice4 ,this result1 according to the highest authorities1 is so near to the theoretical result possible from a steam engine that further improvement cannot now be looked for4 ,simultaneously with the development of the steam engine1 inventors continued to struggle with the direct acting combustion or gas engine1 often without any definite understanding of why they should attempt such apparent impossibilities1 but always by their experiments and repeated failures increasing knowledge1 and forming a firm road upon which those following them traveled to success4 ,in #agia ,john ,barber obtained a patent for an engine producing inflammable gas1 mixing it with air1 igniting it1 and allowing the current so produced to impinge upon a reaction wheel1 producing motion similar to the well known ,aelopile1 which ,i have at work upon the table4 ,about this time1 ,murdoch 7,jas4 ,watt's assistant at ,birmingham7 was busy introducing coal gas into use for lighting2 in #agib ,boulton and ,watt's works were lighted up with coal gas4 ,from this time many gas engines were proposed1 and the more impracticable combustion of gunpowder received less attention4 ,in #agid ,thomas ,mead obtained a patent for an engine using the internal combustion of gas2 the description is not a clear one1 his ideas seem confused4 ,in the same year ,robert ,street obtained a patent for an engine which is not unlike some now in use4 ,the bottom of a cylinder1 containing a piston1 is heated by a fire1 a few drops of spirits of turpentine are introduced and evaporated by the heat1 the piston is drawn up1 and air entering mixes with the inflammable vapor4 ,a light is applied at a touch hole1 and the explosion drives up the piston1 which1 working on a lever1 forces down the piston of a pump for pumping water4 ,robt4 ,street adds to his description a note3 ,the quantity of spirits of tar or turpentine to be made use of is always proportional to the confined space1 in general about #aj drops to a cubic foot4 ,this engine is quite a workable one1 although the arrangements described are very crude4 ,the first gas engine that was actually at work for some years2 and was applied to a variety of purposes1 was ,samuel ,buren's4 ,his patent was granted in #ahbc1 and in #ahbf he built a locomotive carriage with which he made several experimental runs in ,london2 he also propelled a vessel with it upon the ,thames1 and fitted up a large engine for pumping purposes4 ,a company was formed to introduce his engine1 but it proved too wasteful of fuel1 and the company went into voluntary liquidation4 ,like almost all engines of this time1 the combustion of gas and air was used to produce a vacuum1 the piston being driven by atmospheric pressure4 ,buren's locomotive carriage was thus in action three years before the great trial in #ahbi1 from which ,george ,stephenson emerged victorious with his wonderful engine ,the ,rocket4 ,to those curious in the matter1 ,i may mention that ,s4 ,buren's patents are dated #ahbc1 ,no4 #d1hgd1 and #ahbf1 ,no4 #e1cej4 ,from this time on1 a continuous series of gas engine patents appear1 #bj engines being patented between #ahbf and #ahfj1 which is the next date worthy of particular mention4 ,in this year1 #ahfj1 the famous ,lenoir engine appeared4 ,the use of high pressure steam engines had long been common1 and ,lenoir's engine was analogous to the high pressure engine1 as ,buren's was to the condensing engine4 ,it created a very general interest1 and many engines were constructed and used in ,france1 ,england1 and ,america2 it resembled very much in external appearance an ordinary high pressure horizontal steam engine1 and it was double acting4 ,during the following six years1 other #bj ,british patents were granted1 and the gas engine passed from the state of a troublesome toy to a practicable and widely useful machine4 ,from #agia to the end of #ahff1 in all #df ,british patents were granted for gas engines1 and in these patents are to be found the principles upon which the gas engines of to-day are constructed1 many years elapsing before experience enough was gained to turn the proposals of the older inventors to practical account4 ,the most important of these patents are3 ,no4 ,year4 ,robert ,street #a1ihc #agid ,direct-acting engine4 ,samuel ,buren #d1hgd #ahbc ,vacuum engine4 ,samuel ,buren #e1cej #ahbf ,vacuum engine4 ,w4,l4 ,wright #f1ebe #ahcc ,direct-acting engine4 ,wm4 ,barnett #g1fae #ahch ,compression first proposed4 ,barsante ,matteucci #a1jgb #ahed ,rack clutch engine4 ,drake #efb #ahee ,direct-acting engine4 ,lenoir #cce #ahfj ,d4,i4 engine1 electric ignition4 ,c4,w4 ,siemens #b1jgd #ahfj ,compression1 constant pressure4 ,hugon #b1ijb #ahfj ,platinum ignition4 ,millein #a1hdj #ahfa ,compression1 both constant vol4 and pressure4 ,f4,h4 ,wenham #a1hgc #ahfd ,free piston4 ,hugon #ihf #ahfe ,flame ignition4 ,otto and ,langen #dcd #ahff ,rack and clutch1 flame ignition4 ,leaving for the present the history of the gas engine1 which brings us to a stage comparable to the state of the steam engine during the ,newcomen's time1 it will be advisable to give some consideration to the principles concerned in the economical and efficient working of gas engines1 in order to understand the more recent developments4 ,it has been seen that gunpowder was the explosive used to produce a vacuum in ,huyghens' engine1 and that it was abandoned in favor of gas by ,buren in #ahbc4 ,the reason of departure is very obvious3 a gunpowder explosion and a gaseous explosion differ in very important practical points4 ,gunpowder being a solid substance is capable of being packed into a very small space2 the gas evolved by its decomposition is so great in volume that1 even in the absence of any evolution of heat1 a very high pressure would result4 ,one cubic inch of gunpowder confined in a space of one cubic inch would cause a pressure by the gas it contains alone of #ae1jjj lb4 per square inch2 if the heating effect be allowed for1 pressures of four times that amount1 or #fj1jjj lb4 per square inch1 are easily accounted for4 ,these pressures are far too high for use in any engine1 and the bare possibility of getting such pressure by accident put gunpowder quite outside the purpose of the engineer1 quite apart from any question of comparative cost4 ,in a proper mixture of inflammable gas and air is found an exceedingly safe explosive1 perfectly manageable and quite incapable of producing pressures in any sense dangerous to a properly constructed engine4 ,the pressure produced by the explosion of any mixture of gas and air is strictly determined and limited1 whereas the pressure produced by the explosion of gunpowder depends greatly upon the relation between the volume of the gunpowder and the space in which it is confined4 ,engines of the ,lenoir type are the simplest in idea and construction2 in them a mixture of gas and air is made in the cylinder during the first half of the piston stroke1 air being taken from the atmosphere and drawn into the cylinder by the forward movement of the piston4 ,at the same time gas entering by a number of holes1 and streaming into the air to form an explosive mixture1 the movement of a valve cuts off the supply1 and brings the igniting arrangement into action4 ,the pressure produced by the explosion acting upon the piston makes it complete its stroke1 when the exhaust valve opens exactly as in the steam engine4 ,the ,lenoir and ,hugon engines1 the earlier forms of this type1 were double acting1 receiving two impulses for every revolution of the crank1 the impulse differing from that in a high pressure steam engine in commencing at half stroke4 ,the ,lenoir igniting arrangement was complicated and troublesome4 ,i have it upon the table2 the mixture was ignited at the proper time by the electric spark produced from a primary battery and ,ruhmkorff coil4 ,the ,hugon engine was an advance in this respect1 using a flame ignited1 and securing greater certainty of action in a comparatively simple manner4 ,it is really a modification of ,barnett's lighting cock described in his patent of #ahch4 ,other difficulties were found in using these engines2 the pistons became exceedingly hot4 ,in the case of the ,lenoir larger engines1 it sometimes became red hot1 and caused complete ruin of the cylinder by scoring and cutting up4 ,hugon to prevent this injected some water4 ,in the all important question of economy1 these engines were found grievously wanting1 ,lenoir consuming #ie cubic feet per ,i4,h4,p4 per hour2 ,hugon consuming #he cubic feet per ,i4,h4,p4 per hour4 ,the surviving engines of this type are only used for very small powers1 from one to four man power1 or #a_/h to #a_/b horse1 the most widely known of this kind being the ,bischoff1 which is very largely used2 its consumption of gas is even greater than the ,lenoir1 being #aaj cubic feet per horse power per hour1 as tested with a half-horse engine at a late exhibition of gas apparatus at ,stockport4 ,so large a consumption of gas prevented these engines coming into extended use for engines of moderate power1 and led inventors to work to obtain better results4 ,the force generated by the explosion of a mixture of gas and air is very short lived1 and if it is to be fully utilized must be used quickly2 a high pressure is produced1 but it very quickly disappears4 ,the quicker the piston moves after the maximum pressure is reached1 the less will be the loss of heat to the sides of the cylinder4 ,the flame which fills the cylinder and causes the increase of pressure rapidly loses heat1 and the pressure falls4 ,the idea of using a free piston was proposed as a remedy2 it was thought that a piston connected to a crank in the ordinary manner could not move fast enough to utilize the pressure before it was lost4 ,many inventors proposed to perform work upon a piston free from any direct connection with the crank or shaft of the engine2 the explosion after attaining its maximum pressure expends its force in giving velocity to a piston2 the velocity so acquired carries it on against atmospheric pressure until the energy is all absorbed1 and a vacuum or deficit of pressure exists in the cylinder instead of an excess of pressure4 ,the return stroke is accomplished by the atmospheric pressure1 and the work is now done upon the engine shaft on the return only4 ,the method of connecting on the return stroke while leaving the piston free on the out stroke varies1 but in many engines the principle was the same4 ,barsante and ,matteucci1 year #aheg1 ,british patent ,no4 #a1fbe1 describe the first engine of this kind1 but ,messrs4 ,otto and ,langen were the first to successfully overcome all difficulties and make a marketable engine of it4 ,their patent was dated #ahff1 ,no4 #dcd4 ,to distinguish it from ,otto's later patents1 it may be called the rack and clutch engine4 ,the economy obtained by this engine was a great advance upon the ,lenoir4 ,according to a test by ,prof4 ,tresca1 at the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahfg1 the gas consumed was #dd cubic feet per indicated horse power per hour4 ,according to tests ,i have made myself in ,manchester with a two horse power engine1 ,otto and ,langen's free piston engine consumes #dj cubic feet per ,i4,h4,p4 per hour4 ,this is less than one-half of the gas used by the ,hugon engine for one horse power4 ,the igniting arrangement is a very good modification of ,barnett's lighting cock1 which ,i have explained already1 but a slide valve is used instead of a cock4 ,other engines carried out the same principle in a different manner1 including ,gilles' engine1 but they were not commercially so successful as the ,otto and ,langen4 ,mr4 ,f4,h4 ,wenham's engine was of this type1 and was working in ,england1 ,mr4 ,wenham informed me1 in #ahff1 his patent being taken out in #ahfd4 ,the great objection to this kind of engine is the irregularity and great noise in working2 this was so great as to prevent engines from being made larger than three horse power4 ,the engine1 however1 did good work1 and was largely used from #ahff until the end of #ahgf1 when ,mr4 ,otto produced his famous engine1 now known as ,the ,otto ,silent ,gas ,engine4 ,in this engine great economy is attained without the objectionable free piston by a method proposed first by ,burnett1 #ahch1 and also by a ,frenchman1 ,millein1 in #ahfa2 this method is compression before ignition4 ,other inventors also described very clearly the advantages to be expected from compression1 but none were able to make it commercially successful till ,mr4 ,otto4 ,to him belongs the great credit of inventing a cycle of operations capable of realizing compression in a simple manner4 ,starting from the same point as inventors did to produce the free piston engine--namely1 that the more quickly the explosive force is utilized1 the less will be the loss1 and the greater the power produced from a quantity of burning gas--it is evident that if any method can be discovered to increase the pressure upon the piston without increasing the temperature of the flame causing this pressure1 then a great gain will result1 and the engine will convert more of the heat given to it into work4 ,this is exactly what is done by compression before ignition4 ,suppose we take a mixture of gas and air of such proportions as to cause when exploded1 or rather ignited 7because explosion is too strong a term71 a pressure of #de lb4 above atmosphere1 or #fj lb4 per square inch absolute pressure4 ,then this mixture1 if compressed to half volume before igniting and kept at constant temperature1 would give1 when ignited1 a pressure of #abj lb4 total1 or #aje lb4 above atmosphere1 and this without any increase of the temperature of the flame4 ,the effect of compression is to make a small piston do the work of a large one1 and convert more heat into work by lessening the loss of heat through the walls of the cylinder4 ,in addition to this advantage1 greater expansions are made possible1 and therefore greatly increase economy4 ,the ,otto engine must be so familiar in appearance to all of you1 that ,i need hardly trouble you with details of its external appearance4 ,i shall briefly describe its action4 ,its strong points and its weak points are alike caused by its cycle4 ,one cylinder and piston suffices to carry out its whole action4 ,its cycle is3 ,first outstroke1 gas and air sucked into the cylinder2 first instroke1 gas and air compressed into space2 second outstroke1 impulse due to ignition2 second instroke1 discharge of exhausted gases4 ,when working at full power1 it gets one impulse for every two revolutions2 this seems to be a retrograde movement1 but1 notwithstanding1 the advantages obtained are very great4 ,the igniting arrangement is in the main similar to that used on the rack and clutch engine4 ,the engine has been exceedingly successful1 and is very economical4 ,the ,otto compression engine consumes #ba cubic feet of gas per ,i4,h4,p4 per hour1 and runs with great smoothness4 ,in #ahgf ,i commenced my work upon gas engines1 and very soon concluded that the compression system was the true line to proceed upon4 ,it took me two years to produce a workable engine4 ,my efforts have always been directed toward producing an engine giving at least one impulse every revolution and1 if possible1 to start without hand labor1 just as a steam engine does4 ,my first gas engine was running in #ahgh1 and patented and exhibited in #ahgi4 ,it was first exhibited at the ,kilburn ,royal ,agricultural ,society's show4 ,this engine was self-starting1 gave an ignition at every revolution1 and ignited without external flame4 ,it consisted of two cylinders1 a motor1 and a compressing pump1 with a small intermediate reservoir4 ,suitable valves introduced the mixture of gas and air into the pump1 and passed it when compressed from the reservoir to the motor cylinder4 ,the igniting arrangement consisted of a platinum cage firmly fixed in a valve port2 this cage was heated in the first instance by a flame of gas and air mixed2 it became white hot in a few seconds1 and then the engine was started by opening a valve4 ,the platinum was kept hot by the heat derived from the successive ignitions1 and1 the engine once started1 no further external flame was required4 ,i have here one of these platinum cages which has been in use4 ,finding this method not well suited for small engines1 ,i produced the engine which is at present in the market under my name4 ,the cycle is different1 and is designed for greater simplicity and the avoidance of back ignitions4 ,it also consists of two cylinders1 motor cylinder and the displace or charging cylinder4 ,there is no intermediate reservoir4 ,the displace crank leads the motor by a right angle1 and takes into it the mixed charge of gas and air1 in some cases taking air alone during the latter part of its stroke4 ,the motor on the outstroke crosses ,v-shaped parts about from one-sixth to one-seventh from the out end1 the displacer charge now passing into the motor cylinder1 displacing the exhaust gases by these ports and filling the cylinder and the space at the end of it with the explosive mixture4 ,the introduction of some air in advance of the charge serves the double purpose of cooling down the exhaust gases and preventing direct contact of the inflammable mixture with flame which may linger in the cylinder from the previous stroke4 ,the instroke of the motor compresses the charge into the conical space at the end of the cylinder1 and1 when fully compressed1 ignition is effected by means of the slide ,i have upon the table4 ,this system of ignition has been found very reliable1 and capable of acting as often as #djj times per minute1 which the ,otto ignite is quite incapable of doing4 ,by this cycle the advantages of compression are gained and one step nearer to the steam engine is attained1 that is1 an impulse is given for every revolution of the engine4 ,as a consequence1 ,i am able with my engine to give a greater amount of power for a comparatively small weight4 ,in addition to this1 ,i have introduced a method of self-starting2 in this ,i believe ,i was the first--about #ajj of my engines are now using self-starting4 ,the largest single engine ,i have yet made indicates #cj ,h4,p4 ,the consumption of gas in ,glasgow is3 ,clerk engine consumes in ,glasgow #ah cubic feet per ,i4,h4,p4 per hour2 ,clerk engine consumes in ,manchester #bb cubic feet per ,i4,h4,p4 per hour4 ,so far as ,i know1 the ,otto engine and my own are the only compression engines which have as yet made any success in the market4 ,other engines are being continually prepared1 gas engine patents being taken out just now at the rate of #fj per annum1 but none of them have been able as yet to get beyond the experimental stage4 ,the reason is simply the great experience necessary to produce these machines1 which seem so very simple2 but to the inexperienced inventor the subject fairly bristles with pitfalls4 ,i have here sections of some of the earlier engines1 including ,dr4 ,siemens' and ,messrs4 ,simon and ,beechy4 ,although interesting and containing many good points1 these have not been practically successful4 ,the ,simon engine is an adaptation of the well-known ,american petroleum motor1 the ,brayton1 the only difference consisting in the use of steam as well as flame4 ,dr4 ,siemens worked for some twenty years on gas engines1 but he aimed rather high at first to attain even moderate success4 ,had he lived1 ,i doubt not but that he would have succeeded in introducing them for large powers4 ,in #ahhb he informed me that he had in hand a set of gas engines of some hundreds of horse power for use on board ship1 to be supplied with gas from one of his gas producers modified to suit the altered conditions4 ,summarizing the ground over which we have passed1 we find the origin of the gas engine in the minds of the same men as were first to propose the steam engine1 ,huyghens and ,papin1 #afhj and #afij4 ,greater mechanical difficulties and ignorance of the nature of explosives caused the abandonment of the internal combustion idea1 and the mechanical difficulties with steam being less1 the steam engine became successful1 and triumphed over its rival4 ,the knowledge and skill gained in the construction of steam engines made it possible once again to attack the more difficult problem1 and simultaneously with the introduction and perfecting of the steam engine1 the gas engine idea became more and more possible1 the practicable stage commencing with ,lenoir and continuing with ,hugon1 ,millein1 ,otto and ,langen1 ,f4,h4 ,wenham1 then ,otto and ,clerk4 ,in #ahfj1 #ie cubic feet of gas produced one horse power for an hour2 in #ahfg1 #dj cubic feet accomplished the same thing2 and now 7#ahhe7 we can get one horse power for an hour for from #ae to #bj cubic feet of gas1 depending on the size of the engine used4 ,considered as a heat engine1 the gas engine is now twice as efficient as the very best modern steam engine4 ,it is true the fuel used at present is more expensive than coal1 and for large powers the steam engine is the best because of this4 ,but the way is clearing to change this4 ,gas engines as at present1 if supplied with producer gas1 produced direct from coal without leaving any coke1 as is done in the ,siemens1 the ,wilson1 and the ,dawson producers1 will give power at one-half the cost of steam power4 ,they will use #g_/h of a pound of coal per horse power per hour1 instead of #a-c_/d lb41 as is done in the best steam engines4 ,the only producer that makes gas for gas engines at present is the ,dawson1 and in it anthracite is used1 because of the difficulty of getting rid of the tar coming from the ,siemens and ,wilson producers1 using any ordinary slack4 ,when this difficulty has been overcome1 and that it will be overcome there can be no manner of doubt1 gas engines will rapidly displace the steam engine1 because a gas engine with a gas producer1 producing gas from any ordinary coal with the same ease as steam is produced from a boiler1 will be much safer1 and will use one-half the fuel of the very best steam engines for equal power4 ,the first cost also will not be greater than that of steam4 ,the engine itself will be more expensive than a steam engine of equal power1 but the gas producer will be less expensive than the boiler at present4 ,perfect as the gas engine now is1 considered as a machine for converting heat into work1 the possibility of great development is not yet exhausted4 ,its economy may be increased two or even three fold2 in this lies the brilliant future before it4 ,the steam engine is nearly as perfect as it can be made2 it approaches very nearly the possibility of its theory4 ,its defect does not lie in its mechanism1 but in the very properties of water and steam itself4 ,the loss of heat which takes place in converting liquid water into gaseous steam is so great that by far the greater portion of the heat given out by the fuel passes away either in the condenser or the exhaust of a steam engine2 but a small proportion of the heat is converted into work4 ,the very best steam engines convert about #aa per cent4 of the heat given them into useful work1 the remaining #hi per cent4 being wasted1 principally in the exhaust of the engine4 ,gas engines now convert #bj per cent4 of the heat given to them into work1 and very probably will1 in a few years more1 convert #fj per cent4 into useful work4 ,the conclusion1 then1 is irresistible that1 when engineers have gained greater experience with gas engines and gas producers1 they will displace steam engines entirely for every use--mills1 locomotives1 and ships4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,rapid ,,construction ,,of ,,the ,,canadian ,,pacific ,,railway4 ,by ,e4,t4 ,,abbott1 ,member of the ,engineers' ,club of ,minnesota4 ,read ,december #ab1 #ahhd4 ,during the winter of #ahha and #ahhb1 the contract was let to ,messrs4 ,langdon1 ,sheppard ,co41 of ,minneapolis1 to construct during the working season of the latter year1 or prior to ,january #a1 #ahhc1 #ejj miles of railroad on the western extension of the above company2 the contract being for the grading1 bridging1 track-laying1 and surfacing1 also including the laying of the necessary depot sidings and their grading4 ,the idea that any such amount of road could be built in that country in that time was looked upon by the writer hereof1 as well as by railroad men generally1 as a huge joke1 perpetrated to gull the ,canadians4 ,at the time the contract was let1 the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway was in operation to ,brandon1 the crossing of the ,assiniboine ,river1 #acb miles west of ,winnipeg4 ,the track was laid1 however1 to a point about #ej miles west of this1 and the grading done generally in an unfinished state for thirty miles further4 ,this was the condition of things when the contract was entered into to build #ejj miles--the east end of the #ejj-mile contract being at ,station #d1ffj 7,station being at ,brandon7 and extending west to a few miles beyond the ,saskatchewan ,river4 ,the spring of #ahhb opened in the most unpromising manner for railroad operations1 being the wettest ever known in that country4 ,traffic over the ,st4 ,paul1 ,minneapolis ,manitoba ,railroad1 between ,st4 ,paul and ,winnipeg1 was entirely suspended from ,april #ae to the #bhth1 owing to the floods on the ,red ,river at ,st4 ,vincent and ,emerson1 a serious blow to an early start1 as on this single track depended the transportation of all supplies1 men1 timber1 and contractors' plant1 together with all track materials 7except ties71 all of these things having to come from or through ,st4 ,paul and ,minneapolis4 ,the writer hereof was appointed a division engineer1 and reported at ,winnipeg the #aeth of ,april1 getting through on the last train before the ,st4 ,vincent flood4 ,no sooner was the line open from ,st4 ,paul to ,winnipeg than the cotillon opened between ,winnipeg and ,brandon1 with a succession of washouts that defied and defeated all efforts to get trains over1 so it was not until the fifth day of ,may that ,i left ,winnipeg to take charge of the second division of #cj miles4 ,by extremely dizzy speed ,i was landed at the end of the track1 #ahj miles from ,winnipeg1 on the evening of the #ith 7#d days74 ,my outfit consisted of three assistant engineers and the necessary paraphernalia for three complete camps1 #cj days' provisions 7which turned out to be about #bj71 #aa carts and ponies1 the latter being extremely poor after a winter's diet on buffalo grass and no grain4 ,on the #ahth day of ,may ,i had my division organized and camps in running order4 ,the country was literally under water1 dry ground being the exception1 and ,i look upon the feat of getting across the country at all as the engineering triumph of my life4 ,on ,may #bj a genuine blizzard set in1 lasting #bd hours1 snowed five inches1 and froze the sloughs over with half an inch of ice1 a decidedly interesting event to the writer1 as he was #ah miles from the nearest wood1 therefore lay in his blankets and ate hard tack4 ,i stabled my ponies in the cook tent1 and after they had literally eaten of the sod inside the tent1 ,i divided my floor with them4 ,on #bhth day of ,may ,i saw the first contractor1 who broke ground at station #g1aej4 ,on the #ast of ,june ,i was relieved from this division1 and ordered to take the next1 #ej miles west4 ,on the #acth day of ,june ground was broken on this division1 at station #h1jgj1 or only about #fb miles west of the east end of the #ejj-mile contract4 ,it looked at this time as though they might build #aej miles1 but not more4 ,but from this time on very rapid progress was made4 ,on ,july #ag the track reached station #g1jjj1 making however up to this time but about #ej miles of track-laying1 including that laid on the old grade2 but large forces were put on to surfacing1 and the track already laid was put in excellent condition for getting material to the front4 ,the weather from this until the freezing-up was all that could be desired4 ,work ceased about the #ast of ,january1 #ahhc1 for the season1 and the final estimate for the work was as follows3 #f1ajc1ihf cubic yards earth excavation1 #b1cie1gej feet ,b4,m4 timber in bridges and the culverts1 #he1gjh lineal feet piling1 #dce miles of track-laying4 ,this work was all done in #ahb working days1 including stormy ones1 when little1 if anything1 could be done1 making a daily average of #cc1edh yards excavation1 #ac1aej feet ,b4,m4 timber1 #dga feet piling1 #b-ch_/ajj miles track-laying4 ,we never had an accurate force report made of the whole line1 but roughly there were employed #e1jjj men and #a1gjj teams4 ,the admirable organization of the contractors was something wonderful4 ,the grading work was practically all done by sub-contractors1 ,messrs4 ,langdon1 ,sheppard ,co4 confining themselves to putting in the supplies and doing the bridge work1 surfacing1 and track-laying4 ,the grading forces were scattered along about #aej miles ahead of the track and supply stores1 established about #ej miles apart1 and in no case were sub-contractors expected to haul supplies over #ajj miles4 ,if ,i remember rightly1 there were four trains of about forty wagons each1 hauling supplies from the end of track to the stores4 ,as can be readily seen1 the vital point of the whole work1 and the problem to solve1 was food for men and horses4 #a1gjj bushels of oats every day and #ae1jjj pounds of provisions1 ,sundays and all1 for an entire season1 which at the beginning of the work had to come about #agj miles by rail1 and then be taken from #ej to #aej miles by teams across a wilderness1 is on the face of it considerable of an undertaking1 to say nothing about hauling the pile-drivers1 piles1 and bridge-timber there4 ,to keep from delaying the track1 sidings #a1ejj feet long were graded1 about #g miles apart4 ,a side-track crew1 together with an engine1 four flats1 and caboose1 were always in readiness2 and as soon as a siding was reached1 in five hours the switches would be in1 and the next day it would be surfaced and all in working order1 when the operating department would fill it with track material and supplies4 ,from the head of the siding to the end of the track the ground was in hands of track-laying engine1 never going back of the last siding for supplies or material1 and my recollection is that there were but six hours' delay to the track from lack of material the whole season1 at any rate up to some time in ,november4 ,the track-laying crew was equal to #d miles per day1 and in the month of ,august #ib miles of track were laid4 ,the ties were cut on the line of the road about #ajj miles east of ,winnipeg1 so the shortest distance any ties were hauled was #bgj miles2 the actual daily burden of the single track from ,winnipeg west was #bd cars steel1 #bd cars ties1 aside from the transportation of grain and provisions1 bridge material1 and lumber for station houses4 ,the station buildings were kept right up by the company itself1 and a depot built with rooms for the agent every #ae miles1 or at every second siding4 ,the importance of keeping the buildings up with the track was impressed on the mind of the superintendent of this branch1 and1 as a satire1 he telegraphed asking permission to haul his stuff ahead of the track by teams1 he being on the track-layers' heels with his stations and tanks the whole season4 ,the telegraph line was also built1 and kept right up to the end of the track1 three or four miles being the furthest they were at any time behind4 ,it might be supposed that work done so rapidly would not be well done1 but it is the best built prairie road ,i know of on this continent4 ,it is built almost entirely free from cuts1 and the work is at least #bj per cent4 heavier than would ordinarily be made across the same country in the ,states1 on account of snow4 #b1fdj ties were laid to the mile1 and the track ballasting kept well up with the laying2 so well1 in fact1 and so well done1 that as #ajj mile sections were completed schedule trains were put on #bj miles an hour1 and the operating department had nothing to do but make a time table2 the road was built by the construction department before the operating department was asked to take it4 ,the engineering was organized in divisions of #cj miles each1 and as each was finished the parties moved ahead again to the front1 the engineers usually finding men sitting on their shovels waiting for the work to be laid out for them4 ,it was as much as the locating parties could do to keep out of the way of the construction4 ,the roadbed was built #ad ft4 wide in embankment and #bj in the very few cuts there were1 there being no cuts of any moment except through the ,coteaus and the ,saskatchewan crossing1 and these have since been widened out on account of snow1 so that the road can be operated the year round and the bucking-snow account cut no figure in the operating expenses4 ,the country is a virgin desert4 ,from ,winnipeg to the ,pacific ,ocean there are a few places that might attain to the dignity of an oasis--at ,brandon1 ,portage la ,prairie1 etc4--but it is generally what ,i should call worthless2 #ajj miles to wood and #ajj feet to water was the general experience west of the ,moose jaw1 and the months of ,june1 ,july1 and ,august are the only three in the year that it is safe to bet you will not have sleighing4 ,i burned wood and used stakes that were hauled by carts #he miles1 and none any nearer4 ,it is a matter of some pride that both the engineering and the construction were done by what our ,canadian neighbors kindly termed ,yankee importations4 ,however1 there was one thing that in the building of this road was in marked contrast to any other ,pacific road ever constructed1 that is1 there was no lawlessness1 no whisky1 and not even a knock-down fight that ,i ever heard of the whole season1 and even in the midst of #ab1jjj ,indians1 all armed with ,winchester rifles and plenty of ammunition1 not one of the locating or construction parties ever had a military escort1 nor were any depredations ever committed1 except the running off of a few horses1 which were usually recovered2 and ,i think there were but two fatal accidents during the season1 one man killed on the ,grand ,coule ,bridge1 and another from being kicked by a horse4 ,the track was all laid from one end1 and in no case were rails hauled ahead by teams4 ,two iron cars were used1 the empty returning one being turned up beside the track to let the loaded one by4 ,the feat in rapid construction accomplished by this company will never be duplicated1 done as it was by a reckless expenditure of money1 the orders to the engineers being to get there regardless of expense and horse-flesh2 if you killed a horse by hard driving1 his harness would fit another1 and there was no scrutiny bestowed on vouchers when the work was done2 and ,i must pay the tribute to the company to say that everything that money would buy was sent to make the engineers comfortable4 ,it was bad enough at best1 and the ,chief ,engineer 7,j4,c4 ,james7 rightly considered that any expense bestowed on the engineering part of the work was a good investment4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,osgood ,,mammoth ,,excavator4 ,in the accompanying illustration1 we present to our readers a mammoth excavator1 built by the ,osgood ,dredge ,company of ,albany1 ,n4,y41 for the ,pacific ,guano ,company of ,california1 for uncovering their phosphate deposits on ,chisholm ,island1 ,south ,colombia4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,osgood ,,mammoth ,,excavator4 ,in order to bring out more clearly the principal problem involved in the construction of this machine1 we shall state first the proposed method of its operation4 ,this is as follows1 viz43 ,the excavator is to dig a trench thirty feet wide1 down to the phosphate rock1 and the entire length of the bed--about one quarter of a mile--dumping the earth of the first cut to one side4 ,the phosphate is taken out behind the excavator4 ,on reaching the end of the bed1 the excavator is reversed and starts back1 making a second cut thirty feet wide1 and dumping now into the cut from which the phosphate has just been removed4 ,in this way the entire bed is traversed1 the excavator turning over the earth in great furrows thirty feet wide1 and giving an opportunity to simultaneously get out all the phosphate4 ,as will be seen1 the main problem presented was to turn the car around at each end of the cut in a very limited space4 ,to accomplish this1 the car is mounted on a fixed axle at each end and on a truck under its center of gravity2 this is somewhat forward of the geometrical center of the car4 ,the frame of the truck is circular1 thirteen feet in diameter1 made of ,i beams curved to shape4 ,the circle carries a track1 on which a ring of coned rollers revolves1 which in turn supports the car4 ,by pulling out the track from under both ends of the car1 the whole weight is balanced on this central turntable truck1 thus admitting of the car being turned1 end for end1 within its own length4 ,this method of turning the car1 and the size of the machine1 are the principal features4 ,the car is #dj' #ac'1 with arched truss sides4 ,the track is seven feet gauge1 the spread between tracks #bj feet1 the height of the ,a frame #ch feet1 length of boom #dj feet1 swinging in a circle of #cj feet radius1 and through two-thirds of the entire circle4 ,it has a steel dipper of #df cubic feet capacity1 #a inch steel chains1 #aj #ab double cylinder hoisting engine1 and #f #h double cylinder reversible crowding engine4 ,the drums are fitted with friction clutches4 ,owing to the great distance at which the dipper is handled1 its size is reduced1 and because it swings on the arc of so large a circle the capacity of this machine is only one-half of that of the ,no4 #a excavator built by the ,osgood ,dredge ,company4 ,nevertheless it will do the work of from #ge to #ajj men1 since its capacity is from #hjj to #a1jjj cubic yards per day1 the amount of rock uncovered depending1 of course1 upon the depth of earth overlying it4 ,the excavator will dump #cj feet from the center line of the car1 and #bf feet above the track1 which is laid on the rock4 ,total weight about fifty tons4 ,the crew required for its operation consists of #a engineer1 #a fireman1 #a craneman1 and #d to #e pit men to tend jacks1 move track1 etc4 ,in the illustration the boiler connections are omitted1 also the housing for the protection of the crew4 ,the design is characterized by the evident care which has been bestowed upon securing simplicity and durability4--,american ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,osgood ,,excavator4 ,at a recent meeting of the ,engineers' ,club of ,philadelphia1 ,mr4 ,john ,c4 ,trautwine1 ,jr41 exhibited and described drawings of a large land dredge built by the ,osgood ,dredge ,co41 of ,albany1 ,new ,york1 for the ,pacific ,guano ,co41 to be used in removing #h to #ae feet of material from the phosphate rock at ,bull ,river1 ,s4,c4 ,the more prominent features of the machine are the car-body1 the water tank1 boiler and engine1 the ,a frame 7so-called from its slight resemblance to the letter ,a71 the boom1 the dipper-handle2 and the dipper1 drawings of which were shown and described in detail4 ,before the excavation is begun1 the forward end of the car 7the end nearest the dipper7 is lifted clear of the track by means of #c screw-jacks4 ,when the machine has excavated as far in advance of itself as the length of the boom and that of the dipper-handle will permit1 say about #h feet1 the car is again lowered to the track1 the screw-jacks removed1 and the car is moved forward about #h feet by winding the rope upon the drum1 the other end of the rope being attached to any suitable fixed object near the line of the track4 ,the forward end of the car is then again lifted by means of the #c screw-jacks1 and the digging is resumed4 ,the machine cuts a channel from #be to #ce feet wide1 and deposits all the dirt upon one side4 ,if necessary1 it can dump earth about #be feet above the track4 ,the miners follow in the wake of the machine1 getting out the phosphate as fast as it is uncovered4 ,when the machine reaches the end of the field it is lowered to the track and the screw-jacks are removed4 ,shoes or skids are then placed upon the track1 and the wheels of the turntable are run up on them4 ,this lifts the end wheels clear of the track1 so that the car and machine rest entirely upon the turntable4 ,by now blocking the turntable wheels and winding up only one of the ropes1 the car body and the machine are swung around end for end4 ,the digging is then resumed in the opposite direction1 the temporary track1 upon which the machine travels1 being shifted to one side1 so that the second channel is made alongside of the first4 ,the earth removed in cutting this second channel is dumped into the first channel1 the phosphate 7as stated above7 having been first removed4 ,the dipper is of plate steel1 and holds #a cubic yards of earth when even full4 ,the machine is manned by an engineer1 a fireman1 and a dipper-tender1 besides which from five to ten laborers are required4 ,these look after the track1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,capstan ,,navigation ,,on ,,the ,,volga4 ,on several of the large rivers on the ,continent1 with rapid currents1 cable towage has been introduced in addition to the older methods of transporting merchandise by sailing and steam boats or by towage with screw or paddle tugs4 ,a chain or wire rope is laid on the bottom of the river bed1 fixed to anchors at the ends and passed over a chain pulley driven by the steam engine and guided by pulleys on the steam tug1 the tug lifting it out of the water at the bow and dropping it over the stern and winding itself with the barges attached to it along the chain1 the latter being utilized as a rule only for the up journey1 while down the river the tugs are propelled by paddles or screws1 and can tow a sufficient number of barges with the assistance of the current4 ,the system has been found advantageous1 as1 although the power required for drawing the barges and tugs against the current is of course the same in all cases1 the slip and waste of power by screws and paddles is avoided4 ,the size of the screws or paddles is also limited by the nature of the river and its traffic1 and with cable towage a larger number of barges can be hauled1 while the progress made is definite and there is no drifting back1 as occurs with paddle or screw tugs when they have temporarily to slow or stop their engines on account of passing vessels4 ,several streams1 as the ,elbe1 ,rhine1 and ,rhone1 have now such cables laid for long distances in those parts of the rivers where the traffic is sufficient to warrant the adoption of the system4 ,while this has been introduced only during the last #af or #ah years1 a similar method of transporting merchandise has been in use in ,russia on the river ,volga for upward of #dj years4 ,navigation on this river is interrupted for about half the year by the ice1 and the traffic is of larger amount only during part of the summer1 while the length of the river itself is very great1 so that laying down permanent cables would not pay2 while1 on the other hand1 the current is so strong that towage of some sort must be resorted to for the transport of large quantities4 ,the problem has been solved by the introduction of the capstan navigation or towage4 ,illustration3 ,,capstan ,,navigation ,,on ,,the ,,volga4 ,there are two kinds of capstans in use1 one actuated by horse-power and the other by steam engines4 ,a horse capstan boat carries according to size #aej to #bjj horses1 which are stabled in the hold4 ,on deck a number of horse gears are arranged at which the horses work4 ,the power of the separate gears is transmitted to a main shaft1 which is connected to the drums that wind on the rope4 ,the horses work under an awning to protect them from the burning sunshine1 and are changed every three hours4 ,eight and sometimes ten horses work at each horse gear4 ,the horses are changed without interruption of the work1 the gears being disengaged from the main shaft in rotation and the horses taken out and put in while the gear is standing4 ,the horses are bought at the place of departure in the south of ,russia and resold at the destination1 usually ,nishny-,novgorod1 at a fair profit1 the capstan boat carrying fodder and provender for the attendants4 ,the capstan is accompanied by a steam launch which carries the anchor and hawser forward in advance of the capstan4 ,the latter has a diameter of as much as #e in41 and is two to three miles in length4 ,the anchor is dropped by the tug and the hawser carried back to the capstan1 where it is attached to one of the rope drums1 and the boat with the barges attached to it towed along by the horse gears described above winding on the hawser4 ,the advance continues without interruption day and night1 the launch taking a second anchor and hawser forward and dropping the anchor in advance of the first by a hawser's length1 so that when the capstan has wound up the first hawser it finds a second one ready for attachment to the rope drum4 ,the launch receives the first hawser1 picks up the anchor1 and passes the capstan to drop it again in advance of the anchor previously placed1 and carries the hawser back to the capstan1 and so on4 ,a capstan tows twelve or more barges1 placed in twos or threes beside and close behind each other1 with a load of a million pounds1 or about #af1jjj to #ag1jjj tons4 ,from ,astrachan and the mouth of the ,kama the capstans make during the season from the beginning of ,may to the end of ,july in the most favorable case two journeys to the fair of ,nishny-,novgorod2 after this time no more journeys are made1 as the freights are wanting4 ,at the end of the up-stream journey the horses are sold1 as mentioned before1 and the capstan towed down stream by the steam launch to ,astrachan or the ,kama mouth1 where meanwhile a fresh lot of barges has been loaded and got ready1 a new supply of horses is bought1 and the operation repeated4 ,besides these horse capstans there are steam capstans which are less complicated and have condensing steam engines of about #ajj horse power1 the power being transmitted by gearing to the rope drum4 ,the rope drum shaft projects on both sides beyond the boards of the boat1 and for the return journey paddle wheels1 are put on to assist the launch in towing the clumsy and big capstan boat down the river4 ,the steam capstans tow considerably larger masses of goods than the horse capstans and also travel somewhat quicker1 so that the launch has scarcely sufficient time to drop and raise the anchors and also to make double the journey4 ,we do not doubt that this system of towage might with suitable modifications be advantageously employed on the large rivers in ,america and elsewhere for the slow transport of large quantities of raw materials and other bulky merchandise1 a low speed being1 as is well known1 much more economical than a high speed1 as many of the resistances increase as the square and even higher powers of the velocity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,steamboat ,,equipment ,,of ,,war ,,vessels4 ,the larger ships in the navy1 and some of the more recent small ones1 such as the new cruisers of the ,phaeton class1 are fitted with powerful steam winches of a type made by ,messrs4 ,belliss and ,co4 ,these are used for lifting the pinnaces and torpedo boats4 ,we give an illustration of one of these winches4 ,the cylinders are #f in4 in diameter and #aj in4 stroke4 ,the barrel is grooved for wire rope1 and is safe to raise the second class steel torpedo boats1 weighing nearly #ab tons as lifted4 ,the worm gearing is very carefully cut1 so that the work can be done quietly and safely4 ,with machinery of this kind a boat is soon put into the water1 and as an arrangement is fitted for filling the boat's boilers with hot water from the ship's boilers1 the small craft can be under way in a very short time from the order being given4 ,mr4 ,white is fitting compound engines with outside condensers to boats as small as #ba ft4 long1 and we give a view of a pair of compound engines of a new design1 which ,messrs4 ,belliss are making for the boats of this class4 ,the cylinders are #d in4 and #g in4 in diameter by #e in4 stroke4 ,the general arrangement is well shown in the engraving4 ,on a trial recently made1 a #be ft4 cutter with this type of engines reached a speed of #g4d knots4 ,about three years ago the late ,controller of the ,navy1 ,admiral ,sir ,w4 ,houston ,stewart1 wished to ascertain the relative consumption of fuel in various classes of small vessels4 ,an order was accordingly sent to ,portsmouth1 and a series of trials were made4 ,from the official reports of these we extract the information contained in tables ,f and ,g1 and we think the details cannot fail to be of interest to our readers4 ,the run around the island was made in company with other boats1 without stopping1 and observations were taken every half hour4 ,the power given out by the engines was fairly constant throughout4 ,the distance covered was #ef knots1 and the total amount of fuel consumed1 including that required for raising steam1 was #a1bah lb4 of coal and #hd lb4 of wood4 ,the time taken in raising steam to #fj lb4 pressure was forty-three minutes4 ,the rate of consumption of fuel is of course not the lowest that could be obtained1 as a speed of over #aj knots is higher than that at which the machinery could be worked most economically4 ,illustration3 ,,steam ,,winch ,,for ,,hoisting ,,and ,,lowering ,,pinnacles ,,and ,,torpedo ,,boats4 ,the trials afterward made to find the best results that could be obtained in fuel consumption were rather spoiled by the roughness of the weather on the day they were made4 ,the same boat was run for #aj miles around the measured mile buoys in ,stokes ,bay4 ,the following are some of the results recorded3 ,table ,f4--,report of ,trials of ,engines of ,h4,m4 #dh ft4 ,twin ,screw ,steam ,pinnace1 ,no4 #aaj4 ,date ,august #d1 #ahha4 ,where tried ,round the ,isle of ,wight ,draught of water _/ ,forward #c ft4 in4 ,aft #c ft4 #f in4 ,average boiler pressure #ajd4ha lb4 ,average pressure in receivers _/ ,starboard #af4bg ,port #af4ed ,mean air pressure in stokehold #a4d in4 water4 ,vacuum in condenser1 average #bf4gb in4 ,weather barometer #cj4cg ,revolutions per minute _/ ,starboard #bdj4ge ,port #bea4ie lb4 ,mean pressure in cylinders _/ ,starboard _/ ,high #de4cc ,low #af4af ,port _/ ,high #dc4af ,low #ae4c ,indicated horse-power _/ ,starboard _/ ,high #ah4bj ,low #af4cb ,port _/ ,high #ah4ac ,low #af4ag ,collective ,total #fh4hb ,speed by log #aj4ah knots4 ,force of wind ,one4 ,sea ,smooth4 ,quantity of coal on board #a ton4 ,description ,nixon's navigation4 ,consumption per indicated horse-power per hour #d4ag lb4 ,time under way #e hrs4 #cj min4 ,table ,g4--,report of ,trial of ,engines of ,h4,m4 #dh ft4 ,steam ,pinnace ,no4 #aaj4 ,when tried ,august #c1 #ahha4 ,where tried ,stokes ,bay4 ,draught _/ ,forward #c ft4 #a in4 ,aft #c ft4 #c in4 ,average boiler pressure #ee4eb lb4 ,vacuum #be4ab in4 ,weather barometer #cj4ce ,revolutions per minute _/ starboard #afe4ed port #afa4ee ,indicated horse-power#b _/ ,starboard _/ ,high #e4je ,low #e4ec ,port _/ ,high #c4ge ,low #d4jb ,collective ,total #ah4ce ,speed of vessel by log 7approximate7 #g4djd ,wind _/ ,force #d to #e ,direction ,bow and ,quarter4 ,state of sea ,rough4 ,footnote #b3 ,in consequence of the seas breaking over the boat1 a large number of diagrams were destroyed1 and1 on account of the roughness of the weather1 cards were only taken with the greatest difficulty4 ,the records of power developed are therefore not put forward as authoritative4 ,in connection with this subject it may perhaps be of interest to give particulars of a ,french and ,american steam launch2 these we extract from the ,united ,states official report before mentioned4 ,steam ,launch of the ,french ,steamer ,mouche4 ,length on low water level #bg ft4 #aj-a_/b in4 ,breadth #e ft4 #aa in4 ,depth to rabbet of keel #c ft4 #c-a_/c in4 ,draught of water aft #b ft4 #a-a_/b in4 ,weight of hull and fittings #b1fdf lb4 ,weight of machinery with water in boiler #c1dgc lb4 ,the boat is built of wood1 and coppered4 ,the engine consists of one non-condensing cylinder1 #g-a_/b in4 in diameter and #e4i in4 stroke4 ,the boiler has #d4c square feet of grate surface4 ,the screw is #ba-b_/c in4 in diameter by #dc4c in1 pitch4 ,the speed is #g knots per hour obtained with #bde revolutions per minute1 the slip being #ai4g per cent4 of the speed4 ,the ,united ,states navy steam cutters built at the ,philadelphia navy yard are of the following dimensions3 ,length #bg ft4 #g in4 ,breadth #g ft4 #aj in4 ,depth to rabbet of keel #c ft4 #aa in4 ,displacement 7to two feet above rabbet of keel7 #e4if tons4 ,weight of hull and fittings #d1fge lb4 engine #a1bdj boiler #c1aab water in boiler and tanks #b1fif ,the engine has a single cylinder #h in4 in diameter and #h in4 stroke of piston4 ,the screw is four bladed1 #d in4 long and #ca in4 in diameter by #de in4 pitch4 ,the following is the performance at draught of water #b feet above rabbet of keel3 ,boiler pressure #ij lb4 ,revolutions #cec ,speed #g4h knots4 ,indicated horse power4 #ec ,these boats are of #ahgj type1 but may be taken as typical of a large number of steam cutters in the ,united ,states navy4 ,the naval authorities have1 however1 been lately engaged in extensive experiments with compound condensing engines in small boats1 and the results have proved so conclusively the advantages of the latter system that it will doubtless be largely adopted in future4--,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,steam ,,trap4 ,the illustrations we give represent an expansion trap by ,mr4 ,hyde1 and made by ,mr4 ,s4 ,farron1 ,ashton-under-,lyne4 ,the general appearance of this arrangement is as in ,fig4 #a or ,fig4 #c1 the center view1 ,fig4 #b1 showing what is the cardinal feature of the trap1 viz41 that it contains a collector for silt1 sand1 or sediment which is not1 as in most other traps1 carried out through the valve with the efflux of water4 ,the escape valve also is made very large1 so that while the trap may be made short1 or1 in other words1 the expansion pipe may not be long1 a tolerably large area of outlet is obtained with the short lift due to the small movement of the expansion pipe4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,steam ,,trap4 ,the object of a steam trap is for the removal of water of condensation without allowing the escape of steam from drying apparatus and steam pipes used for heating1 power1 or other purposes4 ,one of the plans employed is by an expansion pipe having a valve fixed to its end1 so that when the pipe shortens from being cooler1 due to the presence of the water1 the valve opens and allows the escape of the water until the steam comes to the trap1 which1 being hotter1 lengthens the pipe and closes the valve4 ,now with this kind of trap1 and1 in fact1 with any variety of trap1 we understand that it has been frequently the experience of the user to find his contrivance inoperative because the silt or sand that may be present in the pipes has been carried to the valve and lodged there by the water1 causing it to stick1 and with expansion traps not to close properly or to work abnormally some way or other4 ,the putting of these contrivances to rights involves a certain amount of trouble1 which is completely obviated by the arrangement shown in the annexed engravings1 which is certainly a simple1 strong1 and substantial article4 ,the foot of the trap is made of cast iron1 the seat of the valve being of gun metal1 let into the diaphragm1 cast inside the hollow cylinder4 ,the valve1 ,d1 is also of gun metal1 and passing to outside through a stuffing box is connected to the central expansion pipe by a nut at ,e4 ,the valve is set by two brass nuts at the top1 so as to be just tight when steam hot2 if1 then1 from the presence of water the trap is cooled1 the pipe contracts and the water escapes4 ,a mud door is provided1 by which the mud can be removed as required4 ,the silt or dirt that may be in the pipes is carried to the trap by the water1 and is deposited in the cavity1 as shown1 the water rises1 and when the valve1 ,d1 opens escapes at the pipe1 ,f1 and may be allowed to run to waste4 ,a pipe is not shown attached to ,f1 but needless to say one may be connected and led anywhere1 provided the steam pressure is sufficient4 ,for this purpose the stuffing-box is provided2 it is really not required if the water runs to waste1 as is represented in the engraving4 ,to give our readers some idea of the dimensions of the valve1 we may say that the smallest size of trap has #a in4 expansion pipe and a valve #c in4 diameter1 the next size #a in4 expansion pipe and a valve #d in4 diameter1 and the largest size has a pipe #a in4 and a valve #f in4 diameter4 ,altogether1 the contrivance has some important practical advantages to recommend it4--,mech4 ,world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,critical ,,methods ,,of ,,detecting ,,errors ,,in ,,plane ,,surfaces4#c ,footnote #c3 ,a paper read before the ,engineers' ,society of ,western ,pennsylvania1 ,dec4 #aj1 #ahhd4 ,by ,,john ,a4 ,,brashear4 ,in our study of the exact methods of measurement in use to-day1 in the various branches of scientific investigation1 we should not forget that it has been a plant of very slow growth1 and it is interesting indeed to glance along the pathway of the past to see how step by step our micron of to-day has been evolved from the cubit1 the hand's breadth1 the span1 and1 if you please1 the barleycorn of our schoolboy days4 ,it would also be a pleasant task to investigate the properties of the gnomon of the ,chinese1 ,egyptians1 and ,peruvians1 the scarphie of ,eratosthenes1 the astrolabe of ,hipparchus1 the parallactic rules of ,ptolemy1 ,regimontanus ,purbach1 and ,walther1 the sextants and quadrants of ,tycho ,brahe1 and the modifications of these various instruments1 the invention and use of which1 from century to century1 bringing us at last to the telescopic age1 or the days of ,lippershay1 ,jannsen1 and ,galileo4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,it would also be a most pleasant task to follow the evolution of our subject in the new era of investigation ushered in by the invention of that marvelous instrument1 the telescope1 followed closely by the work of ,kepler1 ,scheiner1 ,cassini1 ,huyghens1 ,newton1 ,digges1 ,nonius1 ,vernier1 ,hall1 ,dollond1 ,herschel1 ,short1 ,bird1 ,ramsden1 ,troughton1 ,smeaton1 ,fraunhofer1 and a host of others1 each of whom has contributed a noble share in the elimination of sources of error1 until to-day we are satisfied only with units of measurement of the most exact and refined nature4 ,although it would be pleasant to review the work of these past masters1 it is beyond the scope of the present paper1 and even now ,i can only hope to call your attention to one phase of this important subject4 ,for a number of years ,i have been practically interested in the subject of the production of plane and curved surfaces particularly for optical purposes1 i4e41 in the production of such surfaces free if possible from all traces of error1 and it will be pleasant to me if ,i shall be able to add to the interest of this association by giving you some of my own practical experience2 and may ,i trust that it will be an incentive to all engaged in kindred work to do that work well8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,in the production of a perfectly plane surface1 there are many difficulties to contend with1 and it will not be possible in the limits of this paper to discuss the methods of eliminating errors when found2 but ,i must content myself with giving a description of various methods of detecting existing errors in the surfaces that are being worked1 whether1 for instance1 it be an error of concavity1 convexity1 periodic or local error4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c ,a very excellent method was devised by the celebrated ,rosse1 which is frequently used at the present time2 and those eminent workers1 the ,clarks of ,cambridge1 use a modification of the ,rosse method which in their hands is productive of the very highest results4 ,the device is very simple1 consisting of a telescope 7a1 ,fig4 #a7 in which aberrations have been well corrected1 so that the focal plane of the objective is as sharp as possible4 ,this telescope is first directed to a distant object1 preferably a celestial one1 and focused for parallel rays4 ,the surface1 b1 to be tested is now placed so that the reflected image of the same object1 whatever it may be1 can be observed by the same telescope4 ,it is evident that if the surface be a true plane1 its action upon the beam of light that comes from the object will be simply to change its direction1 but not disturb or change it any other way1 hence the reflected image of the object should be seen by the telescope1 a1 without in any way changing the original focus4 ,if1 however1 the supposed plane surface proves to be convex1 the image will not be sharply defined in the telescope until the eyepiece is moved away from the object glass2 while if the converse is the case1 and the supposed plane is concave1 the eyepiece must now be moved toward the objective in order to obtain a sharp image1 and the amount of convexity or concavity may be known by the change in the focal plane4 ,if the surface has periodic or irregular errors1 no sharp image can be obtained1 no matter how much the eyepiece may be moved in or out4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d ,this test may be made still more delicate by using the observing telescope1 a1 at as low an angle as possible1 thereby bringing out with still greater effect any error that may exist in the surface under examination1 and is the plan generally used by ,alvan ,clark ,sons4 ,another and very excellent method is that illustrated in ,fig4 #b1 in which a second telescope1 b1 is introduced4 ,in place of the eyepiece of this second telescope1 a diaphragm is introduced in which a number of small holes are drilled1 as in ,fig4 #b1 x1 or a slit is cut similar to the slit used in a spectroscope as shown at y1 same figure4 ,the telescope1 a1 is now focused very accurately on a celestial or other very distant object1 and the focus marked4 ,the object glass of the telescope1 b1 is now placed against and square with the object glass of telescope a1 and on looking through telescope a an image of the diaphragm with its holes or the slit is seen4 ,this diaphragm must now be moved until a sharp image is seen in telescope a4 ,the two telescopes are now mounted as in ,fig4 #b1 and the plate to be tested placed in front of the two telescopes as at c4 ,it is evident1 as in the former case1 that if the surface is a true plane1 the reflected image of the holes or slit thrown upon it by the telescope1 b1 will be seen sharply defined in the telescope1 a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,if any error of convexity exists in the plate1 the focal plane is disturbed1 and the eyepiece must be moved out4 ,if the plate is concave1 it must be moved in to obtain a sharp image4 ,irregular errors in the plate or surface will produce a blurred or indistinct image1 and1 as in the first instance1 no amount of focusing will help matters4 ,these methods are both good1 but are not satisfactory in the highest degree1 and two or three important factors bar the way to the very best results4 ,one is that the aberrations of the telescopes must be perfectly corrected1 a very difficult matter of itself1 and requiring the highest skill of the optician4 ,another1 the fact that the human eye will accommodate itself to small distances when setting the focus of the observing telescope4 ,i have frequently made experiments to find out how much this accommodation was in my own case1 and found it to amount to as much as #a_/dj of an inch4 ,this is no doubt partly the fault of the telescopes themselves1 but unless the eye is rigorously educated in this work1 it is apt to accommodate itself to a small amount1 and will invariably do so if there is a preconceived notion or bias in the direction of the accommodation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,talking with ,prof4 ,c4,a4 ,young a few months since on this subject1 he remarked that he noticed that the eye grew more exact in its demands as it grew older1 in regard to the focal point4 ,a third and very serious objection to the second method is caused by diffraction from the edges of the holes or the slit4 ,let me explain this briefly4 ,when light falls upon a slit1 such as we have here1 it is turned out of its course2 as the slit has two edges1 and the light that falls on either side is deflected both right and left1 the rays that cross from the right side of the slit toward the left1 and from the left side of the slit toward the right1 produce interference of the wave lengths1 and when perfect interference occurs1 dark lines are seen4 ,you can have a very pretty illustration of this by cutting a fine slit in a card and holding it several inches from the eye1 when the dark lines caused by a total extinction of the light by interference may be seen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,if now you look toward the edge of a gas or lamp flame2 you will see a series of colored bands1 that bring out the phenomenon of partial interference4 ,this experiment shows the difficulty in obtaining a perfect focus of the holes or the slit in the diaphragm1 as the interference fringes are always more or less annoying4 ,notwithstanding these defects of the two systems ,i have mentioned1 in the hands of the practical workman they are productive of very good results1 and very many excellent surfaces have been made by their use1 and we are not justified in ignoring them1 because they are the stepping stones to lead us on to better ones4 ,in my early work ,dr4 ,draper suggested a very excellent plan for testing a flat surface1 which ,i briefly describe4 ,it is a well known truth that1 if an artificial star is placed in the exact center of curvature of a truly spherical mirror1 and an eyepiece be used to examine the image close beside the source of light1 the star will be sharply defined1 and will bear very high magnification4 ,if the eyepiece is now drawn toward the observer1 the star disk begins to expand2 and if the mirror be a truly spherical one1 the expanded disk will be equally illuminated1 except the outer edge1 which usually shows two or more light and dark rings1 due to diffraction1 as already explained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,now if we push the eyepiece toward the mirror the same distance on the opposite side of the true focal plane1 precisely the same appearance will be noted in the expanded star disk4 ,if we now place our plane surface any where in the path of the rays from the great mirror1 we should have identically the same phenomena repeated4 ,of course it is presumed1 and is necessary1 that the plane mirror shall be much less in area than the spherical mirror1 else the beam of light from the artificial star will be shut off1 yet ,i may here say that any one part of a truly spherical mirror will act just as well as the whole surface1 there being of course a loss of light according to the area of the mirror shut off4 ,this principle is illustrated in ,fig4 #c1 where a is the spherical mirror1 b the source of light1 c the eyepiece as used when the plane is not interposed1 d the plane introduced into the path at an angle of #de to the central beam1 and e the position of eyepiece when used the with the plane4 ,when the plane is not in the way1 the converging beam goes back to the eyepiece1 c4 ,when the plane1 d1 is introduced1 the beam is turned at a right angle1 and if it is a perfect surface1 not only does the focal plane remain exactly of the same length1 but the expanded star disks1 are similar on either side of the focal plane4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,i might go on to elaborate this method1 to show how it may be made still more exact1 but as it will come under the discussion of spherical surfaces1 ,i will leave it for the present4 ,unfortunately for this process1 it demands a large truly spherical surface1 which is just as difficult of attainment as any form of regular surface4 ,we come now to an instrument that does not depend upon optical means for detecting errors of surface1 namely1 the spherometer1 which as the name would indicate means sphere measure1 but it is about as well adapted for plane as it is for spherical work1 and ,prof4 ,harkness has been1 using one for some time past in determining the errors of the plane mirrors used in the transit of ,venus photographic instruments4 ,at the meeting of the ,american ,association of ,science in ,philadelphia1 there was quite a discussion as to the relative merits of the spherometer test and another form which ,i shall presently mention1 ,prof4 ,harkness claiming that he could1 by the use of the spherometer1 detect errors bordering closely on one five-hundred-thousandth of an inch4 ,some physicists express doubt on this1 but ,prof4 ,harkness has no doubt worked with very sensitive instruments1 and over very small areas at one time4 ,i have not had occasion to use this instrument in my own work1 as a more simple1 delicate1 and efficient method was at my command1 but for one measurement of convex surfaces ,i know of nothing that can take its place4 ,i will briefly describe the method of using it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,the usual form of the instrument is shown in ,fig4 #d2 a is a steel screw working in the nut of the stout tripod frame1 b2 c c c are three legs with carefully prepared points2 d is a divided standard to read the whole number of revolutions of the screw1 a1 the edge of which also serves the purpose of a pointer to read off the division on the top of the milled head1 e4 ,still further refinement may be had by placing a vernier here4 ,to measure a plane or curved surface with this instrument1 a perfect plane or perfect spherical surface of known radius must be used to determine the zero point of the division4 ,taking for granted that we have this standard plate1 the spherometer is placed upon it1 and the readings of the divided head and indicator1 d1 noted when the point of the screw1 a1 just touches the surface1 f4 ,herein1 however1 lies the great difficulty in using this instrument1 i4e41 to know the exact instant of contact of the point of screw1 a1 on the surface1 f4 ,many devices have been added to the spherometer to make it as sensitive as possible1 such as the contact level1 the electric contact1 and the compound lever contact4 ,the latter is probably the best1 and is made essentially as in ,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,i am indebted for this plan to ,dr4 ,alfred ,mayer4 ,as in the previous figure1 a is the screw2 this screw is bored out1 and a central steel pin turned to fit resting on a shoulder at c4 ,the end of d projects below the screw1 a1 and the end1 e1 projects above the milled head1 and the knife edge or pivot point rests against the lever1 f1 which in turn rests against the long lever1 g1 the point1 h1 of which moves along the division at j4 ,it is evident that if the point of the pin just touches the plate1 no movement of the index lever1 g1 will be seen2 but if any pressure be applied1 the lever will move through a multiplied arc1 owing to the short fulcri of the two levers4 ,notwithstanding all these precautions1 we must also take into account the flexure of the material1 the elasticity of the points of contact1 and other idiosyncrasies1 and you can readily see that practice alone in an instrument so delicate will bring about the very best results4 ,dr4 ,alfred ,mayer's method of getting over the great difficulty of knowing when all four points are in contact is quite simple4 ,the standard plate is set on the box1 g1 ,fig4 #d1 which acts as a resonater4 ,the screw1 a1 is brought down until it touches the plate4 ,when the pressure of the screw is enough to lift off either or all of the legs1 and the plate is gently tapped with the finger1 a rattle is heard1 which is the tell-tale of imperfect contact of all the points4 ,the screw is now reversed gently and slowly until the moment the rattle ceases1 and then the reading is taken4 ,here the sense of hearing is brought into play4 ,this is also the case when the electric contact is used4 ,this is so arranged that the instant of touching of the point of screw1 a1 completes the electric circuit1 in which an electromagnet of short thick wire is placed4 ,at the moment of contact1 or perhaps a little before contact1 the bell rings1 and the turning of the screw must be instantly stopped4 ,here are several elements that must be remembered4 ,first1 it takes time to set the bell ringing1 time for the sound to pass to the ear1 time for the sensation to be carried to the brain1 time for the brain to send word to the hand to cease turning the screw1 and1 if you please1 it takes time for the hand to stop4 ,you may say1 of what use are such refinements8 ,i may reply1 what use is there in trying to do anything the very best it can be done8 ,if our investigation of nature's profound mysteries can be partially solved with good instrumental means1 what is the result if we have better ones placed in our hands1 and what1 we ask1 if the best are given to the physicist8 ,we have only to compare the telescope of ,galileo1 the prism of ,newton1 the pile of ,volta1 and what was done with them1 to the marvelous work of the telescope1 spectroscope1 and dynamo of to-day4 ,but ,i must proceed4 ,it will be recognized that in working with the spherometer1 only the points in actual contact can be measured at one time1 for you may see by ,fig4 #f that the four points1 a a a a1 may all be normal to a true plane1 and yet errors of depression1 as at e1 or elevation1 as at b1 exist between them1 so that the instrument must be used over every available part of the surface if it is to be tested rigorously4 ,as to how exact this method is ,i cannot say from actual experience1 as in my work ,i have had recourse to other methods that ,i shall describe4 ,i have already quoted you the words of ,prof4 ,harkness4 ,dr4 ,hastings1 whose practical as well as theoretical knowledge is of the most critical character1 tells me that he considers it quite easy to measure to #a_/hjjjj of an inch with the ordinary form of instrument4 ,here is a very fine spherometer that ,dr4 ,hastings works with from time to time1 and which he calls his standard spherometer4 ,it is delicately made1 its screw being #ej to the inch1 or more exactly #j4jaiih inch1 or within #b_/ajjjjj of being #a_/ej of an inch pitch4 ,the principal screw has a point which is itself an independent screw1 that was put in to investigate the errors of the main screw1 but it was found that the error of this screw was not as much as the #j4jjjja of an inch4 ,the head is divided into two hundred parts1 and by estimation can be read to #a_/ajjjjj of an inch4 ,its constants are known1 and it may be understood that it would not do to handle it very roughly4 ,i could dwell here longer on this fascinating subject1 but must haste4 ,i may add that if this spherometer is placed on a plate of glass and exact contact obtained1 and then removed1 and the hand held over the plate without touching it1 the difference in the temperature of the glass and that of the hand would be sufficient to distort the surface enough to be readily recognized by the spherometer when replaced4 ,any one desiring to investigate this subject further will find it fully discussed in that splendid series of papers by ,dr4 ,alfred ,mayer on the minute measurements of modern science published in ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplements1 to which ,i was indebted years ago for most valuable information1 as well as to most encouraging words from ,prof4 ,thurston1 whom you all so well and favorably know4 ,i now invite your attention to the method for testing the flat surfaces on which ,prof4 ,rowland rules the beautiful diffraction gratings now so well known over the scientific world1 as also other plane surfaces for heliostats1 etc41 etc4 ,i am now approaching the border land of what may be called the abstruse in science1 in which ,i humbly acknowledge it would take a vast volume to contain all ,i don't know2 yet ,i hope to make plain to you this most beautiful and accurate method1 and for fear ,i may forget to give due credit1 ,i will say that ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,hastings for it1 with whom it was an original discovery1 though he told me he afterward found it had been in use by ,steinheil1 the celebrated optician of ,munich4 ,the principle was discovered by the immortal ,newton1 and it shows how much can be made of the ordinary phenomena seen in our every-day life when placed in the hands of the investigator4 ,we have all seen the beautiful play of colors on the soap bubble1 or when the drop of oil spreads over the surface of the water4 ,place a lens of long curvature on a piece of plane polished glass1 and1 looking at it obliquely1 a black central spot is seen with rings of various width and color surrounding it4 ,if the lens is a true curve1 and the glass beneath it a true plane1 these rings of color will be perfectly concentric and arranged in regular decreasing intervals4 ,this apparatus is known as ,newton's color glass1 because he not only measured the phenomena1 but established the laws of the appearances presented4 ,i will now endeavor to explain the general principle by which this phenomenon is utilized in the testing of plane surfaces4 ,suppose that we place on the lower plate1 lenses of constantly increasing curvature until that curvature becomes nil1 or in other words a true plane4 ,the rings of color will constantly increase in width as the curvature of the lens increases1 until at last one color alone is seen over the whole surface1 provided1 however1 the same angle of observation be maintained1 and provided further that the film of air between the glasses is of absolutely the same relative thickness throughout4 ,i say the film of air1 for ,i presume that it would be utterly impossible to exclude particles of dust so that absolute contact could take place4 ,early physicists maintained that absolute molecular contact was impossible1 and that the central separation of the glasses in ,newton's experiment was #a_/bej1jjj of an inch1 but ,sir ,wm4 ,thomson has shown that the separation is caused by shreds or particles of dust4 ,however1 if this separation is equal throughout1 we have the phenomena as described2 but if the dust particles are thicker under one side than the other1 our phenomena will change to broad parallel bands as in ,fig4 #h1 the broader the bands the nearer the absolute parallelism of the plates4 ,in ,fig4 #g let a and b represent the two plates we are testing4 ,rays of white light1 c1 falling upon the upper surface of plate a1 are partially reflected off in the direction of rays d1 but as these rays do not concern us now1 ,i have not sketched them4 ,part of the light passes on through the upper plate1 where it is bent out of its course somewhat1 and1 falling upon the lower surface of the upper plate1 some of this light is again reflected toward the eye at d4 ,as some of the light passes through the upper plate1 and1 passing through the film of air between the plates1 falling on the upper surface of the lower one1 this in turn is reflected2 but as the light that falls on this surface has had to traverse the film of air twice1 it is retarded by a certain number of half or whole wave-lengths1 and the beautiful phenomena of interference take place1 some of the colors of white light being obliterated1 while others come to the eye4 ,when the position of the eye changes1 the color is seen to change4 ,i have not time to dwell further on this part of my subject1 which is discussed in most advanced works on physics1 and especially well described in ,dr4 ,eugene ,lommel's work on ,the ,nature of ,light4 ,i remarked that if the two surfaces were perfectly plane1 there would be one color seen1 or else colors of the first or second order would arrange themselves in broad parallel bands1 but this would also take place in plates of slight curvature1 for the requirement is1 as ,i said1 a film of air of equal thickness throughout4 ,you can see at once that this condition could be obtained in a perfect convex surface fitting a perfect concave of the same radius4 ,fortunately we have a check to guard against this error4 ,to produce a perfect plane1 three surfaces must be worked together1 unless we have a true plane to commence with2 but to make this true plane by this method we must work three together1 and if each one comes up to the demands of this most rigorous test1 we may rest assured that we have attained a degree of accuracy almost beyond human conception4 ,let me illustrate4 ,suppose we have plates #a1 #b1 and #c1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,suppose #a and #b to be accurately convex and #c accurately concave1 of the same radius4 ,now it is evident that #c will exactly fit #a and #b1 and that #a and #b will separately fit ,no4 #c1 but when #a and #b are placed together1 they will only touch in the center1 and there is no possible way to make three plates coincide when they are alternately tested upon one another than to make perfect planes out of them4 ,as it is difficult to see the colors well on metal surfaces1 a one-colored light is used1 such as the sodium flame1 which gives to the eye in our test1 dark and bright bands instead of colored ones4 ,when these plates are worked and tested upon one another until they all present the same appearance1 one may be reserved for a test plate for future use4 ,here is a small test plate made by the celebrated ,steinheil1 and here two made by myself1 and ,i may be pardoned in saying that ,i was much gratified to find the coincidence so nearly perfect that the limiting error is much less than #j4jjjja of an inch4 ,my assistant1 with but a few months' experience1 has made quite as accurate plates4 ,it is necessary of course to have a glass plate to test the metal plates1 as the upper plate must be transparent4 ,so far we have been dealing with perfect surfaces4 ,let us now see what shall occur in surfaces that are not plane4 ,suppose we now have our perfect test plate1 and it is laid on a plate that has a compound error1 say depressed at center and edge and high between these points4 ,if this error is regular1 the central bands arrange themselves as in ,fig4 #i4 ,you may now ask1 how are we to know what sort of surface we have8 ,a ready solution is at hand4 ,the bands always travel in the direction of the thickest film of air1 hence on lowering the eye1 if the convex edge of the bands travel in the direction of the arrow1 we are absolutely certain that that part of the surface being tested is convex1 while if1 as in the central part of the bands1 the concave edges advance1 we know that part is hollow or too low4 ,furthermore1 any small error will be rigorously detected1 with astonishing clearness1 and one of the grandest qualities of this test is the absence of personal equation2 for1 given a perfect test plate1 it won't lie1 neither will it exaggerate4 ,i say1 won't lie1 but ,i must guard this by saying that the plates must coincide absolutely in temperature1 and the touch of the finger1 the heat of the hand1 or any disturbance whatever will vitiate the results of this lovely process2 but more of that at a future time4 ,if our surface is plane to within a short distance of the edge1 and is there overcorrected1 or convex1 the test shows it1 as in ,fig4 #aj4 ,if the whole surface is regularly convex1 then concentric rings of a breadth determined by the approach to a perfect plane are seen4 ,if concave1 a similar phenomenon is exhibited1 except in the case of the convex1 the broader rings are near the center1 while in the concave they are nearer the edge4 ,in lowering the eye while observing the plates1 the rings of the convex plate will advance outward1 those of the concave inward4 ,it may be asked by the mechanician1 ,can this method be used for testing our surface plates8 ,i answer that ,i have found the scraped surface of iron bright enough to test by sodium light4 ,my assistant in the machine work scraped three #h inch plates that were tested by this method and found to be very excellent1 though it must be evident that a single cut of the scraper would change the spot over which it passed so much as to entirely change the appearance there1 but ,i found ,i could use the test to get the general outline of the surface under process of correction4 ,these iron plates1 ,i would say1 are simply used for preliminary formation of polishers4 ,i may have something to say on the question of surface plates in the future1 as ,i have made some interesting studies on the subject4 ,i must now bring this paper to a close1 although ,i had intended including some interesting studies of curved surfaces4 ,there is1 however1 matter enough in that subject of itself1 especially when we connect it with the idiosyncrasies of the material we have to deal with1 a vital part of the subject that ,i have not touched upon in the present paper4 ,you may now inquire1 ,how critical is this color test8 ,to answer this ,i fear ,i shall trench upon forbidden grounds1 but ,i call to my help the words of one of our best ,american physicists1 and ,i quote from a letter in which he says by combined calculation and experiment ,i have found the limiting error for white light to be #a_/ejjjjjjj of an inch1 and for ,na or sodium light about fifty times greater1 or less than #a_/hjjjjj of an inch4 ,dr4 ,alfred ,mayer estimated and demonstrated by actual experiment that the smallest black spot on a white ground visible to the naked eye is about #a_/hjj of an inch at the distance of normal vision1 namely1 #aj inches1 and that a line1 which of course has the element of extension1 #a_/ejjj of an inch in thickness could be seen4 ,in our delicate color test we may decrease the diameter of our black spot a thousand times and still its perception is possible by the aid of our monochromatic light1 and we may diminish our line ten thousand times1 yet find it just perceivable on the border land of our test by white light4 ,do not presume ,i am so foolish as to even think that the human hand1 directed by the human brain1 can ever work the material at his command to such a high standard of exactness4 ,no2 from the very nature of the material we have to work with1 we are forbidden even to hope for such an achievement2 and could it be possible that1 through some stroke of good fortune1 we could attain this high ideal1 it would be but for a moment1 as from the very nature of our environment it would be but an ignis fatuus4 ,there is1 however1 to the earnest mind a delight in having a high model of excellence1 for as our model is so will our work approximate2 and although we may go on approximating our ideal forever1 we can never hope to reach that which has been set for us by the great ,master ,workman4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,journal ,,of ,,gas ,,lighting4 ,,photometrical ,,standards4 ,in carrying out a series of photometrical experiments lately1 ,i found that it was a matter of considerable difficulty to keep the flames of the standard candles always at their proper distance from the light to be measured1 because the wick was continually changing its position 7of course carrying the flame with it71 and thus practically lengthening or shortening the scale of the photometer1 according as the flame was carried nearer to or farther from the light at the other end of the scale4 ,in order1 therefore1 to obtain a correct idea of the extent to which this variation of the position of the wick might influence the readings of the photometer scale1 ,i took a continuous number of photographs of the flame of a candle while it was burning in a room quite free from draught2 no other person being in it during the experiment except a photographer1 who placed sensitive dry plates in a firmly fixed camera1 and changed them after an exposure of #cj seconds4 ,in doing this he was careful to keep close to the camera1 and disturb the air of the room as little as possible4 ,in front of the candle a plumb-line was suspended1 and remained immovable over its center during the whole operation4 ,the candle was allowed to get itself into a normal state of burning1 and then the wick was aligned1 as shown in the photographs ,nos4 #a and #b1 after which it was left to itself4 ,illustration3 ,,variation ,,in ,,photometrical ,,standards4 ,with these photographs 7represented in the cuts7 ,i beg to hand you full-sized drawings of the scales of a #ajj inch ,evans and a #fj inch ,letheby photometer1 in order to give your readers an opportunity of estimating for themselves the effect which such variations from the true distance between the standard light and that to be measured1 as shown in this series of photographs1 must exercise on photometrical observations made by the aid of either of the instruments named4 ,w4 ,,sugg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bleaching ,,or ,,dyeing-,,yarns ,,and ,,goods ,,in ,,vacuo4 ,illustration ,many attempts have been made to facilitate the penetration of textile fabrics by the dyeing and bleaching solutions1 with which they require to be treated1 by carrying out the treatment in vacuo1 i4e41 in such apparatus as shall allow of the air being withdrawn4 ,the apparatus shown in the annexed engraving--,austrian ,pat4 ,jan4 #ae1 #ahhd--;although not essentially different from those already in use1 embodies1 the ,journal of the ,society of ,chemical ,industry says1 some important improvements in detail4 ,it consists of a drum ,a1 the sides of which are constructed of stout netting1 carried on a vertical axis working through a stuffing-box1 which is fitted in the bottom of the outer or containing vessel or keir ,b4 ,the air can be exhausted from ,b by means of an air pump4 ,a contains a central division ,p1 also constructed of netting1 into which is inserted the extremity of the tube ,r1 after being twice bent at a right angle4 ,p is also in direct connection with the efflux tube ,e1 ,e and ,r serving to convey the dye or bleach solutions to and from the reservoir ,c4 ,the combination of the rotary motion communicated to ,a1 which contains the goods to be dyed or bleached1 with the very thorough penetration and circulation of the liquids effected by means of the vacuum established in ,b1 is found to be eminently favorable to the rapidity and evenness of the dye or bleach4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,moulding ,,of ,,porcelain4 ,by ,,chas4 ,,lauth4 ,the operation of moulding presents numerous advantages over other methods of shaping porcelain1 for by this process we avoid irregularities of form1 twisting1 and visible seams1 and can manufacture thin pieces1 as well as pieces of large dimensions1 of a purity of form that it is impossible to obtain otherwise4 ,the method of moulding small objects has been described with sufficient detail in technical works1 but such is not the case with regard to large ones1 and for this reason it will be of interest to quote some practical observations from a note that has been sent me by ,mr4 ,constantine ,renard1 who1 for several years1 has had the superintendence of the moulding rooms of the ,sevres works4 ,the process of moulding consists in pouring porcelain paste1 thinned with water1 into very dry plaster moulds4 ,this mixture gradually hardens against the porous sides with which it is in contact1 and1 when the thickness of the hardened layer is judged sufficient1 the mould is emptied by inverting it4 ,the excess of the liquid paste is thus eliminated1 while the thicker parts remain adherent to the plaster4 ,shortly afterward1 the absorption of the water continuing1 the paste so shrinks in drying as to allow the object to detach itself from the mould4 ,as may be seen1 nothing is simpler when it concerns pieces of small dimensions2 but the same is not the case when we have to mould a large one4 ,in this case we cannot get rid of the liquid paste by turning the mould upside down1 because of the latter's size1 and1 on another hand1 it is necessary to take special precautions against the subsidence of the paste4 ,recourse is therefore had to another method4 ,in the first place1 an aperture is formed in the lower part of the mould through which the liquid may flow at the desired moment4 ,afterward1 in order to prevent the solidified but still slightly soft paste from settling under its own weight at this moment1 it is supported by directing a current of compressed air into the mould1 or1 through atmospheric pressure1 by forming a vacuum in the metallic jacket in which the mould is inclosed4 ,the history and description of these processes have been several times given1 and ,i shall therefore not dwell upon them1 but shall at once proceed to make known the new points that ,mr4 ,renard has communicated to me4 ,the first point to which it is well to direct the manufacturer's attention is the preparation of the plaster moulds4 ,when it concerns an object of large dimensions1 of a vase a yard in height1 for example1 the moulder is obliged to cut the form or core horizontally into three parts1 each of which is moulded separately4 ,to this effect1 it is placed upon a core frame and surrounded with a cylinder of sheet zinc4 ,the workman pours the plaster into the space between the latter and the core1 and1 while doing so1 must stir the mass very rapidly with a stick1 so that at the moment the plaster sets1 it shall be as homogeneous as possible4 ,in spite of such precautions1 it is impossible to prevent the densest parts of the plaster from depositing first1 through the action of gravity4 ,these will naturally precipitate upon the table or upon the slanting sides of the core1 and the mould will therefore present great inequalities as regards porosity4 ,since this defect exists in each of the pieces that have been prepared in succession1 it will be seen that when they come to be superposed for the moulding of the piece1 the mould as a whole will be formed of zones of different porosities1 which will absorb water from the paste unequally4 ,farther along we shall see the inconveniences that result from this1 and the manner of avoiding them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,the mould1 when finished1 is dried in a stove4 ,under such circumstances it often happens that there forms upon the surface of the plaster a hard crust which1 although it is of no importance as regards the outside of the mould1 is prejudicial to the interior because it considerably diminishes its absorbing power4 ,this trouble may be avoided by coating the surfaces that it is necessary to preserve with clear liquid paste2 but ,mr4 ,renard advises that the mould be closed hermetically1 so that the interior shall be kept from contact with warm air4 ,in this way it is possible to prevent the plaster from hardening1 as a result of too quick a desiccation4 ,i now come to the operation of moulding4 ,in the very first place1 it is necessary to examine whether it is well to adopt the arrangement by pressure of air or by vacuum4 ,the form of the objects will determine the choice4 ,a very open piece1 like a bowl1 must be moulded by vacuum1 on account of the difficulty of holding the closing disk in place if it be of very large dimensions4 ,the same is the case with large vases of wood form4 ,on the contrary1 an elongated piece tapering from above is more easily moulded by pressure of the air1 as are also ovoid vessels #af to #bj inches in height4 ,in any case it must not be forgotten that the operation by vacuum should be preferred every time the form of the objects is adapted to it1 because this process permits of following and directing the drying1 while with pressure it is impossible to see anything when once the apparatus is closed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,moulding by ,pressure of the ,air4--,the plaster mould having been put in place upon the mould board1 and the liquid paste having been long and thoroughly stirred in order to make it homogeneous1 and get rid of the air bubbles1 we open the cock that puts the paste reservoir in communication with the lower part of the mould1 care having been taken beforehand to pour a few pints of water into the bottom of the mould4 ,the paste in ascending pushes this water ahead of it1 and this slightly wets the plaster and makes the paste rise regularly4 ,when the mould is entirely filled1 the paste is still allowed to flow until it slightly exceeds the upper level1 and1 spreading out over the entire thickness of the plaster1 forms a sort of thick flange4 ,the absorption of the liquid begins almost immediately1 and1 consequently1 the level lowers4 ,a new quantity of paste is introduced1 and we continue thus1 in regulating its flow so as to keep the mould always full4 ,this operation is prolonged until the layer is judged to be sufficiently thick1 this depending upon the dimensions1 form1 or construction of the vessel4 ,the operation may take from one to five hours4 ,the desired thickness having been obtained1 it becomes a question of allowing the paste to descend and at the same time to support the piece by air pressure4 ,the flange spoken of above is quickly cut1 and the paste is made to rise again for the last time1 in order to form a new flange1 but one that this time will be extremely thin2 then a perforated disk designed for forming the top joint1 and acting as a conduit for the air1 is placed upon the mould4 ,this disk is fastened down with a screw press1 and when the apparatus is thus arranged the eduction cock is opened1 and the air pump maneuvered4 ,if the flange did not exist1 the air would enter between the mould and the piece at the first strokes of the piston1 and the piece would be inevitably broken4 ,its object1 then1 is to form a hermetical joint1 although it must at the same time present but a slight resistance1 since1 as soon as the liquid paste has flowed out1 the piece begins to shrink1 and it is necessary that at the first movement downward it shall be able to disengage itself1 since it would otherwise crack4 ,as soon as the piece begins to detach itself from the mould the air enters the apparatus1 and the pressure gauge connected with the air pump begins to lower4 ,it is then necessary1 without a moment's loss of time1 to remove the screw press1 the disk1 and the upper part of the mould itself1 in order to facilitate as much as possible the contraction of the piece4 ,finally1 an hour or an hour and a half later1 it is necessary to remove the lower part of the mould1 this being done in supporting the entire affair by the middle4 ,the piece and what remains of the mould are1 in reality1 suspended in the air4 ,all these preparations are designed to prevent cracking4 ,moulding by ,vacuum4--,the operation by vacuum follows the same phases as those just described4 ,it is well1 in order to have a very even surface1 not to form a vacuum until about three hours after the paste has been made to ascend4 ,without such a precaution the imperfections in the mould will be shown on the surface of the object by undulations that are irremediable4 ,the first flange or vein must be preserved1 and it is cut off at the moment the piece is detached4 ,moulding by vacuum1 aside from the advantages noted above1 permits of giving the pieces a greater thickness than is obtained in the pressure process4 ,according to ,mr4 ,renard1 when it is desired to exceed one inch at the base of the piece 7the maximum thickness usually obtained71 the operation is as follows3 ,the piece is moulded normally1 and it is supported by a vacuum2 but1 at the moment at which1 under ordinary circumstances1 it would be detached1 the paste is made to ascend a second time1 when the first layer 7already thick and dry7 acts as a sort of supplementary mould1 and permits of increasing the thickness by about #b_/e of an inch4 ,the piece is held1 as at first1 by vacuum1 and the paste is introduced again until the desired thickness is obtained4 ,whatever be the care taken1 accidents are frequent in both processes4 ,they are due1 in general1 to the irregular contraction of the pieces1 caused by a want of homogeneousness in the plaster of the moulds4 ,in fact1 as the absorption of the water does not proceed regularly over the entire surface of the piece1 zones of dry paste are found in contact with others that are still soft1 and hence the formation of folds1 and finally the cracking and breaking of the piece4 ,the joints of the moulds are also a cause of frequent loss1 on account of the marks that they leave1 and that injure the beauty of the form as well as the purity of the profile4 ,mr4 ,renard has devised a remedy for all such inconveniences4 ,he takes unglazed muslin1 cuts it into strips1 and1 before beginning operations1 fixes it with a little liquid paste to the interior of the mould4 ,this light fabric in no wise prevents the absorption of the water1 and so the operation goes on as usual2 but1 at the moment of contraction1 the piece of porcelain being1 so to speak1 supported by the muslin1 comes put of the mould more easily and with extreme regularity4 ,under such circumstances all trace of the joint disappears1 the imperfections in the mould are unattended with danger1 and the largest pieces are moulded with entire safety4 ,in a word1 we have here a very important improvement in the process of moulding4 ,the use of muslin is to be recommended1 not only in the manufacture of vases1 but also in the difficult preparation of large porcelain plates4 ,it is likewise advantageous in the moulding of certain pieces of sculpture that are not very delicate1 and1 finally1 it is very useful when we have to do with a damaged mould1 which1 instead of being repaired with plaster1 can be fixed with well ground wet sand covered with a strip of muslin4 ,drying of the ,moulded ,pieces4--,when the moulded pieces become of a proper consistency in the mould1 they are exposed to the air and then taken to the drying room4 ,but1 as with plaster1 the surface of the paste dries very quickly1 and this inconvenience 7which amounts to nothing in pieces that are to be polished7 is very great in pieces that carry ornaments in relief1 since the finishing of these is much more difficult1 the hardened paste works badly1 and frequently flakes off4 ,in order to remedy this inconvenience1 it suffices to dust the places to be preserved with powdered dry paste4--,revue ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,photo-,,tricycle ,,apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,photo-,,tricycle ,,apparatus4 ,this consists of a portable folding camera1 with screw focusing arrangement1 swing back1 and an adapter frame placed in the position of the focus screen1 allowing the dark slide to be inserted so as to give the horizontal or vertical position to the dry plate when in the camera4 ,to the front and base-board a brass swiveled side bar1 made collapsible by means of a center slot1 is attached by hinges1 and this renders the camera rigid when open or secure when closed4 ,the base-board is supported on a brass plate within which is inserted a ball-and-socket 7or universal joint in a new form71 permitting the camera to be tilted to any necessary angle1 and fixed in such position at will4 ,the whole apparatus is mounted upon a brass telescopic draw-stand1 which1 by means of clamps1 is attached to the steering handle or other convenient part of the tricycle1 preferably the form made by ,messrs4 ,rudge ,co41 of ,coventry1 represented in the cut4--,photo4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,photo ,,printing ,,light4 ,illustration ,a printing frame is placed in the carrier1 and exposed to the light of a gas burner kept at a fixed distance1 behind which is a spherical reflector4 ,the same frame may be used for other purposes4-,photographic ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,actinometer4 ,a selenium actinometer has been described in the ,comptes ,rendus in a communication from ,m4 ,morize1 of ,rio de ,janeiro4 ,the instrument is used to measure the actinic power of sunlight when the sun is at various altitudes2 but the same principle is applicable to other light sources4 ,the sensitive part of the apparatus consists of a cylinder formed of #ch disks of copper1 isolated from each other by as many disks of mica4 ,the latter being of smaller diameter than the copper disks1 the annular spaces between the two are filled with selenium1 by the simple process of rubbing a stick of this substance over the edges1 and afterward gently warming4 ,the selenium then presents a grayish appearance1 and is ready for use4 ,connection is made by conductors1 on opposite sides1 with the odd and even numbers of the disks1 which diminishes the resistance of the selenium4 ,the cylinder thus formed is insulated by glass supports in the inside of a vacuum tube1 for the purpose of preserving it from the disturbing influence of dark rays4 ,the whole is placed upon a stand1 and shielded from reflected light1 but fully exposed to that which is to be measured for actinic intensity4 ,if now a constant current of electricity is passed through the apparatus1 as indicated by a galvanometer1 the variations of the latter will show the effect produced upon the selenium4 ,a scale must be prepared1 with the zero point at the greatest possible resistance of the selenium1 which corresponds with absolute darkness4 ,the greatest effect of the light would be to annul the resistance of the selenium4 ,consequently1 the cylinder must be withdrawn from the circuit to represent this effect2 and the maximum deviation of the galvanometer is then to be observed1 and marked #ajj4 ,by dividing the range of the galvanometer thus obtained into #ajj equal parts1 the requisite actinometric scale will be established4 ,in practice1 the ,clamond battery is used to supply the constant current required4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,astronomical ,,photography4 ,during the last few years1 or rather decades of years1 it has become rather a trite saying that to advance far in any branch of physical research a fair proficiency in no inconsiderable number of the sister sciences is an absolute necessity4 ,but if this is true in general1 none1 ,i think1 will question the assertion that a proficient in any of the physical sciences must be fairly conversant with photography as a science1 or at least as an art4 ,if we take for example a science which has of late years made rapid strides both in ,europe and ,america1 the science of astronomy1 we shall not have far to go to find convincing proof that a great portion of the best work that is being done by its votaries is effected by the aid of photography4 ,one eminent astronomer has quite lately gone so far as to declare that we no longer require observers of the heavens1 but that their place can be better supplied by the gelatine plate of the photographer2 and his words have been echoed by others not less able than himself4 ,abolish the observer1 and substitute the sensitive plate1 is a sensational form of expressing the revolution in observational astronomy that is taking place under our eyes2 but1 although it suggests a vast amount of truth1 it might leave upon the mind an exaggerated impression inimical to the best interests of science4 ,the award of the highest distinction in astronomy1 the gold medal of the ,royal ,astronomical ,society1 two years in succession1 to those who have been most successful in celestial photography is no doubtful sign of the great value attached to such work4 ,last year it was ,mr4 ,common who received the highest testimony of the merit due to his splendid photographs of the nebula of ,orion2 and this year ,dr4 ,huggins1 who has drawn much attention to celestial photography1 by his successful attempts to picture the solar corona in full daylight1 has received a similar acknowledgment of his labors in photographing the spectra of stars and comets and nebul4 ,an adequate idea of the progress astronomy is now making by aid of photography can only be formed by a comprehensive view of all that is being at present attempted2 but a rapid glance at some of the work may prepare the way for a more thorough investigation4 ,a few years since1 the astronomers who had advanced their science by aid of photography were few in number1 and their results are soon enumerated4 ,some good pictures of the solar corona taken during solar eclipses1 a series or two of sun-spot photographs1 and a very limited number of successful attempts made upon the moon1 and planets1 and star clusters1 were all the fruits of their labors4 ,but now each month we learn of some new and efficient laborer in this field1 which gives promise of so rich a harvest4 ,each day the sun is photographed at ,greenwich1 at ,south ,kensington1 in ,india1 and at the ,physical ,observatory of ,potsdam1 and thus a sure record is obtained of all the spots upon its surface1 which may serve for the study of the periodicity of its changes1 and for their probable connection with the important phenomena of terrestrial magnetism and meteorology4 ,in ,france the splendid sun-pictures obtained by ,dr4 ,janssen at the ,physical ,observatory of ,meudon have thrown into the shade all other attempts at a photographic study of the most delicate features of the solar surface4 ,dr4 ,huggins has shown that it is possible to obtain a daily photographic record of the solar prominences1 and only lately he has secured results that justified a special expedition to the ,alps to photograph the sun's corona1 and he has now moved the ,admiralty to grant a subsidy to ,dr4 ,gill1 the government astronomer at the ,cape1 by aid of which ,mr4 ,woods can carry on the experiments that were so encouraging last summer in ,switzerland4 ,we may1 then1 reasonably hope to obtain before long a daily picture of the sun and a photographic record of its prominences1 and even of a certain portion of the solar corona2 but the precious moments of each solar eclipse will always be invaluable for picturing those wondrous details in the corona that are now shown us by photography1 and which can be obtained by photography alone4 ,again1 how very much is to be learnt in solar physics from the marvelous photographs of the sun's spectrum exhibited last summer by ,professor ,rowland2 photographs that show as many as one hundred and fifty lines between ,h and ,k1 and which he is still laboring to improve6 ,the extension1 too1 of the visible solar spectrum into the ultra-violet by ,corun1 ,mascart1 and others1 adds much to our knowledge of the sun2 while the photographs of ,abney in the ultrared increase our information in a direction less expected and certainly less easy of attainment4 ,both these extensions we find most ably utilized in the recent discussion of the very interesting photographs of the spectra of the prominences and of the corona taken during the total eclipse of ,may #ah1 #ahhb2 and the photographic results of this eclipse afford ample proof that we can not only obtain pictures of the corona by photography that it would be impossible otherwise to procure1 but also that in a few seconds information concerning the nature of the solar atmosphere may be furnished by photography that it would otherwise take centuries to accumulate1 even under the most favorable circumstances4 ,the advantages to be gained by accurate photographs of the moon and planets1 that will permit great enlargements1 are too obvious to call for lengthened notice in such a rapid sketch as the present2 for it is principally in the observation of details that the eye cannot grasp with the required delicacy1 or with sufficient rapidity1 that photography is so essential for rapid and sure progress4 ,like the sketches of a solar eclipse1 the drawings that are made of comets1 and still more of nebul1 even by the most accomplished artists1 are all1 to say the least1 open to doubt in their delicate details4 ,and the truth of this is so obvious1 that it is the expressed opinion of an able astronomer that a single photograph of the nebula of ,orion1 taken by ,mr4 ,common1 would be of more value to posterity than the collective drawings of this interesting object so carefully made by ,rosse1 ,bond1 ,secchi1 and so many others4 ,another most important branch of astronomy1 that is receiving very great attention at present1 is the mapping of the starry heavens2 and herein photography will perhaps do its best work for the astronomer4 ,the trial star map by the brothers ,henry1 of a portion of the ,milky ,way1 which they felt unable to observe satisfactorily by the ordinary methods1 is so near absolute perfection that it alone proves the immense superiority of the photographic method in the formation of star maps4 ,fortunately this subject1 which is as vast as it is fundamental1 is being taken up vigorously4 ,the ,henries are producing a special lens for the work2 ,mr4 ,grubb is constructing a special ,cassgrain reflector for ,mr4 ,roberts of ,maghull2 and the ,admiralty have instructed ,mr4 ,woods to make this part of his work at the ,cape ,observatory1 under the able direction of ,dr4 ,gill4 ,besides star maps1 clusters1 too1 and special portions of the heavens are being photographed by the ,rev4 ,t4,e4 ,espin1 of ,west ,kirby2 and such pictures will be of the greatest value1 not only in fixing the position at a given date1 but also aiding in the determination of magnitude1 color1 variability1 proper motion1 and even of the orbits of double and multiple stars1 and the possible discovery of new planets and telescopic comets4 ,such are some of the many branches of astronomy that are receiving the most valuable aid at present from photography2 but the very value of the gift that is bestowed should make exaggeration an impossibility4 ,photography can well afford to be generous1 but it must first be just1 in its estimate of the work that has still to be done in astronomy independently of its aid2 and although the older science points with just pride to what is being done for her by her younger sister1 still she must not forget that now1 as in the future1 she must depend largely for her progress1 not only on the skill of the photographer and the mathematician1 but also on the trained eye and ear and hand of her own indefatigable observers4--,s4,j4 ,perry1 ,s4,j41 ,f4,r4,s41 in ,br4 ,jour4 of ,photography4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electricity ,,as ,a ,,preventive ,,of ,,scale ,,in ,,boilers4 ,the mineral sediment that generally sticks to the sides of steam boilers1 and the presence of which is fraught with the utmost danger1 resulting in many instances in great injury to life and property1 besides eating away the substance of the iron plate1 was referred to in a paper lately read by ,m4 ,jeannolle before the ,paris ,academy of ,sciences1 in which the author described a new method for keeping boilers clean4 ,this method is as follows3 ,the inside of a steam boiler is placed1 by means of piles of a certain power1 in reciprocal communication1 the current passing at one end through positive1 and at the other through negative1 wires4 ,in incrusted steam boilers1 at a temperature ranging from #bab to #cjj ,fahr41 and a pressure of from #cj to #ij lb4 to the square inch1 the current thus engendered decomposes the accumulated salts1 and precipitates them1 from which they may easily be removed1 either by means of a special siphon or by means of some other mechanical process4 ,when boilers are free from fur1 and where it is intended to keep them free from such1 a continuous current may be set up1 by means of which the sedimentary salts may be decomposed1 and a precipitate produced in a pulverized form1 which can be removed with equal facility4 ,from a series of minute experiments made by ,m4 ,jeannolle1 it appears that in order to render the various actions of electricity1 perfect1 it is necessary to coat either with red lead or with pulverized iron1 or with any other conductor of electricity1 an operation which must be repeated whenever the boiler is emptied with a view to cleaning out4 ,the above system ,is being advantageously applied in ,calais for removing the incrustations of boilers4 ,the two poles of a battery of ten to twelve ,bunsen elements are applied to the ends of the boilers1 and after thirty to forty hours the deposits fall from the sides to the bottom4 ,when a boiler has been thus cleared1 the formation of new deposits may be prevented by applying a much less energetic current under the same conditions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,alphabet ,,designed ,,by ,,godfrey ,,sykes4 ,illustration3 ,,suggestions ,,in ,,decorative ,,art4--,,alphabet ,,designed ,,by ,,godfrey ,,sykes4 ,among the many designs which have been issued by the ,south ,kensington ,museum authorities is the alphabet which we have illustrated here to-day4 ,the letters appear frequently among the decorations of the museum buildings1 especially in the refreshment rooms and the ,ceramic gallery1 where long inscriptions in glazed terra cotta form ornamental friezes4 ,the alphabet has also been engraved to several sizes1 and is used for the initial letters in the various official books and art publications relating to the museum1 which are published by the ,science and ,art ,department4--,building ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,old ,,wrought ,,iron ,,gate4 ,illustration3 ,,old ,,wrought ,,iron ,,gate ,this gate forms the entrance to ,scraptoft ,hall1 a building of the eighteenth century1 now the seat of ,captain ,barclay1 and which stands at about five miles from ,leicester1 ,england4--,the ,architect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,brief ,,sanitary ,,matters ,,in ,,connection ,,with ,,isolated ,,country ,,houses4#d ,footnote #d3 ,read before the ,boston ,society of ,civil ,engineers1 ,april #ahhd ,journal ,a4 of ,e4 ,societies4 ,by ,e4,w4 ,,bowditch1 ,c4,e4 ,i am unable to tell you what is generally considered the best practice1 for ,i am not sure there are any definitely established rules2 therefore ,i can only explain my ways of doing such work1 which1 though ,i try to make as complete and at the same time as simple as possible1 ,i know to be far from perfect4 ,plumbing and drainage work has grown up unconsciously with my landscape gardening1 and not finding any texts or practice that seemed wholly satisfactory1 ,i have been forced to devise new arrangements from time to time1 according to the requirements of the case in hand4 ,to give all the details of house plumbing this evening1 or any one evening1 would be impossible1 for lack of time1 and not worth while even if there was time1 as much of it would prove matter of little or no interest4 ,i will confine my remarks1 therefore1 to certain elements of the work where my practice differs1 ,i believe1 essentially from that of most engineers1 and where perhaps my experience1 if of no assistance to other members of the ,society1 may excite their friendly criticism in such a way as to help me4 ,there are two kinds of country places that ,i am liable to be called upon to prescribe for3 ,first4 ,a new place where nothing has been arranged4 ,second4 ,an old place where the occupants have been troubled either by their outside arrangements or by fixtures or pipes within4 ,under the first head let us suppose a small tract of perhaps two acres of land in some inland town1 where the family intends to live but six months in the year1 though they are liable to reside there the whole twelve4 ,there are no sewers and no public water4 ,the soil is a stiff1 retentive clay1 rather wet in spring4 ,the desire is expressed to have plumbing and drainage that shall be as inexpensive as possible1 but that shall be entirely safe4 ,in considering the arrangements inside the house1 ,i find myself in the same predicament as the ,french surgeon1 a specialist upon setting the bones of the arm1 who1 when a patient was brought him with his right arm broke1 expressed his sorrow at being unable to be of assistance1 as his specialty was the left arm4 ,i have endeavored to post myself thoroughly upon house plumbing1 but confess to only knowing partially about the wastes2 the supplies ,i do not feel competent to pass upon4 ,one class of annoyance caused by plumbing1 perhaps the principal one1 is due to the soil pipe or some of its fittings4 ,second quality of iron1 poor hanging1 insufficient calking1 careless mechanics1 putty1 cement1 rag1 or paper joints--all these and a dozen other things are liable to be sources of trouble4 ,subordinate wastes are apt to be annoying1 occasionally1 too1 to a less extent4 ,the mechanical work can always be superintended1 and within certain limits may be made secure and tight2 not so easy1 however1 with the materials4 ,there is seldom a valid excuse for ever making waste pipes1 within a building1 of anything but metal4 ,earthen tile is frequently used2 also1 to a limited extent1 brick1 stone1 and wood2 twice ,i have found canvas--all these1 however1 are inferior1 and should never be accepted or specified4 ,the writer believes that at the present time1 hereabouts1 lead and iron are more used for wastes than any other materials1 and are found the most satisfactory on the whole4 ,one or two arrangements1 relative to the wastes1 ,i have made use of that are not1 so far as known1 in general use1 and that may not be the best1 though they have served me many good turns1 and ,i have not succeeded in devising any better4 ,soil pipe1 as it is usually put in1 is apt to be of cast iron1 four inches in diameter1 and is known in the market as heavy or extra heavy4 ,for some years the tar-coated or black enameled pipe has been the favorite1 as being the more reliable1 the writer in common with others making use of the same freely1 until one day a cracked elbow1 tar coated1 was detected4 ,since that time plain1 untarred pipe has been specified1 and subjected to the so-called kerosene test1 which consists of swabbing out each pipe with kerosene or oil and then allowing it to stand for a few hours4 ,a moment's thought will convince any one that when a pipe is asphalted or tar coated it is very difficult to detect either sand holes or small cracks1 and the difficulty of proper calking is increased1 as lead does not cling so well to the tar as to plain iron4 ,at present1 the kerosene test1 so far as the writer is concerned1 is a misnomer1 because raw linseed oil is used exclusively as giving more satisfactory results1 and being less troublesome to apply4 ,i have here a length of the ordinary heavy #d commercial soil pipe1 plain1 and selected at random4 ,yesterday noon ,i had it oiled at my office1 in order to be ready for to-night1 and you see1 by the chalk marks ,i have made1 just where the leaks were and their area4 ,i may say here that a sound pipe of this caliber and standard weight is the exception rather than the rule1 and it was selected for this experiment merely to try and show the reaction a little better than the heavier pipe might4 ,experiments of this nature ,i have carried along for the past two years1 and ,i am glad to say that1 since ,i began1 the quality of the soil pipe furnished by the dealers for my work seems appreciably better than at first4 ,whether the poorer pipe is still made and sold to other customers ,i have no means of knowing2 probably it is1 however4 ,a large quantity of the pipe is now being tested at my suggestion by the ,superintendent of ,construction of the ,johns ,hopkins ,hospital1 at ,baltimore4 ,i have not yet heard the results from him1 but doubtless they will be interesting4 ,a brief summary of the results may be of some interest4 ,the different makers of soil pipe generally used by plumbers hereabouts are3 ,mott ,company1 ,abendroth1 ,blakslee1 ,dighton1 ,phillips ,weeden1 and ,bartlett1 ,hayward ,co4 ,on #d extra heavy pipe my results have been as follows3 ,percentage passed as good1 single hub4 #fj per ct4 to #gj per ct4 ,percentage passed as good1 double4 #bj per ct4 to #hj per ct4 ,percentage passed special castings1 including ,y's and ,t's4 #fj per ct4 #e pipe extra heavy3 ,percentage passed as good1 single hub4 #be per ct4 to #ce per ct4 ,percentage passed as good1 double4 ,no record4 ,percentage special castings1 including ,y's and ,t's4 #fj per ct4 ,it has been stated to me by dealers that the tar coating does away with the necessity of any such test as the oil2 while ,i am not prepared to acknowledge or deny the statement1 it is well known that much poor pipe is tar-coated and sold in the market as good1 and when coated it is almost impossible to detect any but very defective work4 ,the price customers are obliged to pay for soil pipe1 either heavy or extra heavy1 is very high indeed1 even taking off the discounts1 and amounts 7as ,i figure it7 to #gj per long ton for #d pipe4 ,the present rate for the best water pipe of the same caliber is about #ch 7now #bi7 per long ton1 and the additional charge for soil pipe should guarantee the very best iron in the market1 though it appears to be rarely furnished4 ,it is asserted that all soil pipe is tested to a #ej-pound water pressure4 ,i beg leave to question the absolute truth of this1 unless it be acknowledged that pipe is sold indiscriminately1 whether it bears the test or not1 for more than once ,i have found a single length of soil pipe 7#e feet7 that could not bear the pressure of a column of water of its own height without leaking4 ,having obtained a satisfactory lot of soil pipe and fittings1 the next trouble comes with the lead calking4 ,unfortunately1 it is frequently found that very shallow joints are made instead of deep ones1 and hard lead used instead of soft4 ,my rule is1 soft lead1 two runnings and two calkings4 ,by soft lead ,i mean pig lead1 and by hard lead ,i mean old pipe and scrap lead that may have been melted a dozen times4 ,incidentally it may be remarked that it is quite difficult to calk a tight joint on the heavy pipe2 the process will crack the hub4 ,the fixtures used in a house are of minor importance--there are dozens of good patterns of every class4 ,if they are carefully put in1 and provided with suitable traps placed just as close to the fixture as possible1 the result will usually be satisfactory4 ,very few instances occur where traps are placed as close to the fixtures they serve as they might be1 and yet a very short length of untrapped pipe1 when fouled1 will sometimes smell dreadfully4 ,a set bowl with trap two feet away may become in time a great nuisance if not properly used4 ,a case in point where the fixture was used both as a bowl and a urinal was in a few months exceedingly offensive--a fact largely 7though not wholly7 due to its double service4 ,i have never met two sanitarians who agreed upon the same water-closets1 bowls1 faucets1 traps1 etc4 ,of course1 the soil pipe will be carried1 of full size1 through the roof1 and sufficiently high to clear all windows4 ,avoid multiplicity of fixtures or pipes2 cut off all fixtures not used at least twice a week1 lest their traps dry out2 have all plumbing as simple as possible1 and try and get it all located so that outside air can be got directly into all closets and bath-rooms4 ,as far as possible1 set your fixtures in glass rather than tiles or wood4 ,carry the lower end of the main drain at least five feet beyond the cellar walls of the building1 of cast iron4 ,let us now look at the outside work4 ,the main drain 7carrying everything except the kitchen and pantry sinks7 goes through a ventilated running trap4 ,an indirect fresh air inlet is provided on the house side of the trap 7example71 to prevent annoyance from puffing or pumping1 or1 better still1 a pipe corresponding to the soil pipe is carried up on the outside of the house4 ,the running trap ventilator should be of the same diameter as the main drain 7#d inch71 and serve as a main drain vent also4 ,carry this pipe on the outside of the house as high as the top of the chimney4 ,a grease-trap should be provided for the kitchen and pantry sinks4 ,formerly my custom was to put in brick receptacles2 it is now to put in ,portland cement traps 7,henderson pattern71 though perhaps ,i may succeed in devising a cast-iron one that will answer better4 ,the brick ones were occasionally heaved by the frost1 and cracked2 the ,portland cement ones answer better1 and when thoroughly painted with red lead do not soak an appreciable quantity of sewage to be offensive1 but are too high priced 7#bh each74 ,i have made one or two patterns for cast-iron ones1 but none as yet that ,i feel satisfied with4 ,beyond the running trap an ,akron pipe should convey the sewage to a tank or cesspool4 ,our supposable case is the second most difficult to take care of4 ,the worst would be ledge4 ,we have to contend with1 however1 hard1 wet1 impervious clay4 ,the best way undoubtedly is to underdrain the land1 and then to distribute the sewage on the principle of intermittent downward filtration4 ,this is rather expensive1 and a customer is rarely willing to pay the bills for the same4 ,i should always advise it as the best2 but where not allowed to do so1 ,i have had fair success with shallow ,french drains connecting with the tank or cesspool4 ,siphon tanks1 such as are advised by many sanitarians1 that were used first in this country1 ,i believe1 by ,mr4 ,waring1 ,i have not been very successful with4 ,obstructions get into the siphon and stop it up1 or it gets choked with grease4 ,i prefer a tight tank1 provided with a tell-tale1 and that is to be opened either by a valve operated by hand1 or that is arranged with a standing overflow like a bath tub1 and that can be raised and secured by a hook4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sanitary ,,cooking4#e ,footnote #e3 ,read before the ,indiana ,state ,sanitary ,society1 ,seymour1 ,march #ac1 #ahhd4--,the ,sanitarian4 ,by ,,virginia ,l4 ,,oppenheimer1 ,m4,d41 ,seymour1 ,ind4 ,we may live without poetry1 music1 and art1 ,we may live without conscience1 and live without heart1 ,we may live without friends1 ,we may live without books1 ,but civilized man cannot live without cooks4 ,we may live without books-- ,what is knowledge but grieving8 ,we may live without hope-- ,what is hope but deceiving8 ,we may live without love--what is passion but pining8 ,but where is the man that can live without dining8 ,thus saith the poet1 and forthwith turns the world over into the hands of the cook4 ,and into what better hands could you fall8 ,to you1 my fat1 jolly1 four-meals-a-day friend1 ,mr4 ,gourmand1 but more especially to you1 my somber1 lean1 dyspeptic1 two-meals-a-day friend1 ,mr4 ,grumbler1 the cook is indeed a valuable friend4 ,the cook wields a scepter that is only second in power to that of love2 and even love has become soured through the evil instrumentality of the good-looking or bad-cooking cook4 ,this is no jest1 it is a very sad fact4 ,now1 the question arises1 how can the cook preserve the health of her patrons1 maintain happiness in the family1 and yet not throw the gourmands into bankruptcy8 ,very simple1 ,i assure you4 #a4 ,you must have the cook4 ,i mean by this1 that not every one can occupy that important office4 ,the greatest consideration in the qualities of a cook is1 does she like the work8 ,no one can fulfill the duties of any noteworthy office unless he labors at them with vim and willingness4 #b4 ,you must have good articles of food originally4 #c4 ,as our honest ,iago said1 ,you must have change4 ,when one arrives at adult age1 he should have learned by experience what articles of food do1 and what articles of food do not1 agree with him1 and to shun the latter1 no matter how daintily served or how tempting the circumstances4 ,the man who knows that pates de foie gras1 or the livers of abnormally fattened geese1 disagree with him1 and still eats them1 is not to be pitied when all the horrors of dyspepsia overtake him4 ,the cooking of any article of food has evidently much1 very much1 to do with its digestibility4 ,it is not the purpose of this paper to teach cooking1 but merely to give some general hints as to the best as well as the simplest methods of preparing staple articles of food4 ,the same articles of food can and should be prepared differently on each day of the week4 ,changes of diet are too likely to be underestimated4 ,by constant change the digestive organs in the average person are prevented from having that repulsion of food which1 to a greater or less extent1 is likely to result from a sameness of diet continued for a long time4 ,we often hear from our scientific men that this or that article of food is excellent for muscle1 another for brain1 another for bone1 etc41 etc4 ,now1 stubborn facts are like stone walls1 against which theories often butt out their beauty and their power4 ,it is well known to almost every one nowadays that well-cooked food1 whether it be potatoes1 meat and bread1 fish1 or anything else worthy the name of food1 will well maintain1 indefinitely1 either the philosopher or the hodcarrier4 ,many of you know1 and all of you ought to know1 that the principal ingredients of nearly all our foods are starch and albumen4 ,starch is the principal nutritive ingredient of vegetables and breadstuffs4 ,albumen is the principal ingredient of meats1 eggs1 milk1 and other animal derivatives4 ,starch never enters the system as starch1 but must first be converted into sugar either in the body or out of it4 ,the process of this transformation of starch into sugar is beautifully exemplified in certain plants1 such as the beet1 the so-called sugar cane1 and other growths4 ,the young plant is1 to a great extent1 composed of starch2 as the plant grows older1 a substance is produced which is called diastase4 ,through the influence of this diastase the starch is converted into a peculiar non-crystallizable substance called dextrine1 and as the plant matures1 this dextrine is transformed into crystallizable sugar4 ,dextrine is a substance that can be produced from starch by the action of dilute acids1 alkalies1 and malt extract1 and by roasting it at a temperature between #bhd and #ccj ,f41 till it is of a light brown color1 and has the odor of overbaked bread4 ,a simple form of dextrine may be found in the brown crust of bread--that sweetish substance that gives the crust its agreeable flavor4 ,pure dextrine is an insipid1 odorless1 yellowish-white1 translucent substance1 which dissolves in water almost as readily as sugar4 ,as stated above1 it is easily converted into dextrose1 or glucose1 as it is usually named4 ,this glucose is often sold under the name of sugar1 and is the same against which so many of the newspapers waged such a war a year or two ago4 ,these critics were evidently1 for the most part1 persons who knew little about the subject4 ,glucose1 if free from sulphuric acid or other chemicals1 is as harmless as any other form of sugar4 ,most of our candies contain more or less of it1 and are in every way as satisfactory as when manufactured wholly from other sugars4 ,it is1 therefore1 self-evident that1 as sugar is a necessary article of food1 the process which aids the transformation of our starchy foods must necessarily aid digestion4 ,do not understand me to say by this that1 if all our starchy foods were converted into sugar1 their digestion would thereby be completed4 ,as ,i stated a moment ago1 this sweet food1 if taken into the stomach day after day1 would soon cause that particular organ to rebel against this sameness of diet4 ,in order the more clearly to illustrate this point1 ,i will briefly show you how some of the every-day articles of food can be each day differently prepared1 and thus be rendered more palatable1 and1 as a consequence1 more digestible2 for it is a demonstrated fact that savory foods are far more easily digested than the same foods unsavored4 ,the art of serving and arranging dishes for the table is an accomplishment in itself4 ,it is very reasonable that all things that go to make up beauty and harmony at the dinner table should add their full quota to the appetite1 and1 ,i was about to say1 to the digestion2 but will qualify the statement by saying1 to the digestion if the appetite be not porcine4 ,our commonest article of food is the potato4 ,let us see how potatoes--which contain only twenty per cent4 of starch1 as against eighty-eight per cent4 in rice1 and sixty-six per cent4 in wheat flour--can be prepared as just mentioned4 ,we will look for a moment at the manner in which they are usually served by the average cook3 #a1 boiled with their jackets on2 #b1 roasted in the embers2 #c1 roasted with meat2 #d1 fried2 #e1 mashed2 #f1 salad4 #a4 ,potatoes boiled in their jackets are excellent if properly prepared4 ,but there's the rub4 ,the trouble is1 they are too often allowed to boil slowly and too long1 and thus become water-soaked1 soggy1 and solid1 and proportionately indigestible4 ,they should be put over a brisk fire1 and kept at a brisk boil till done2 then drain off the water1 sprinkle a little salt over them1 and return to the fire a moment to dry thoroughly1 when you will find them bursting with their white1 mealy contents4 #b4 ,roasted potatoes are general favorites1 and very digestible4 ,a more agreeable flavor is imparted to them if roasted in hot embers 7wood fire71 care being used to keep them covered with the hot embers4 #c4 ,fried potatoes1 as they are very generally served1 are almost as digestible as rocks1 but not so tempting in all their grease-dripping beauty as the latter4 ,many of you have doubtless seen the potatoes neatly sliced and dumped into a frying pan full of hot lard1 where they were permitted to sink or float1 and soak and sob for about a half hour or more4 ,when served1 they presented the picturesque spectacle of miniature potato islands floating at liberty in a sea of yellow grease4 ,now1 if any of you can relish and digest such a mess as that1 ,i would advise you to leave this clime1 and eat tallow candles with the ,esquimaux4 ,if you are fond of fried potatoes1 cook them in this way3 ,take what boiled potatoes are left from breakfast or dinner2 when cold1 remove the jackets1 and cut into thin slices1 season with salt1 pepper1 and a little ,cayenne2 have ready a hot frying pan1 with enough meat drippings or sweet lard to cover the bottom2 put in the potatoes and fry a rich brown1 stirring constantly with a knife to prevent burning4 ,serve very hot4 #d4 ,mashed potatoes will be discussed further on4 #e4 ,potato salads are appetizing and piquant1 because they are usually made up with strong condiments1 onions1 etc4 ,they are1 therefore1 not very digestible in themselves4 ,nevertheless1 they are so palatable that we cannot easily dispense with them2 but1 after eating them1 if you expect to have inward peace1 either split wood1 walk eight and a half miles1 or take some other light exercise4 ,more palatable1 and proportionately digestible1 are the following methods of cooking this useful vegetable3 #a1 ,saratoga potatoes2 #b1 a la maitre d'hotel2 #c1 potato croquettes2 #d1 potatoes and cream2 #e1 a la ,lyonnaise4 #a4 ,for ,saratogas1 pare and slice your potatoes as thin as possible1 dropping them into cold water in which is dissolved a tiny piece of alum to make them crisp4 ,let them remain in the water for an hour or longer4 ,drain1 and wipe perfectly dry with a tea towel4 ,have ready a quantity of boiling lard4 ,drop them in1 and fry a delicate brown4 ,drain all grease from them1 sprinkle with salt1 and serve4 ,here1 in the crisp slices1 you will have the much desired dextrine4 ,or1 in other words1 your potato is already half digested4 ,eat three or four potatoes prepared thus1 and you feel no inconvenience2 but how would you feel did you devour three soggy1 water-soaked boiled potatoes8 #b4 ,for a la maitre d'hotel1 pare the potatoes1 cut into pieces half an inch wide1 and the length of the potato2 drop into cold water until wanted 7an hour or so72 then drain1 and fry in boiling lard4 ,just as they begin to brown take them out with a skimmer2 let them slightly cool2 then put back1 and fry a rich brown4 ,this makes them puff up1 and very attractive4 #c4 ,for croquettes1 take finely mashed potatoes1 and mix with salt1 pepper1 and butter1 and sweet milk or cream enough to moisten thoroughly4 ,mix with this one well-beaten egg1 and form into small balls1 taking care to have them smooth4 ,have ready one plate with a beaten egg upon it1 and another with cracker crumbs4 ,dip each ball into the egg1 and then into the crumbs1 and brown nicely4 ,lay the croquettes on brown paper first1 to get rid of any superfluous grease1 then serve on a napkin4 #d4 ,potatoes and cream are prepared by mincing cold boiled potatoes fine1 putting them in a spider with a little melted butter in it1 and letting them fry slightly1 keeping them well covered4 ,add a very small piece of fresh butter1 season with pepper and salt1 and pour over them cream or rich milk4 ,let them boil up once1 and serve4 ,this is a very nice dish1 and may be safely taken into delicate stomachs4 #e4 ,a la ,lyonnaise is prepared as follows3 ,take five cold potatoes1 one onion1 butter1 salt1 and pepper4 ,slice the onion finely1 and fry it in butter until it begins to take color2 add the sliced potatoes1 salt and pepper to taste1 and keep shaking the saucepan until they are somewhat browned4 ,serve hot4 ,a few random remarks about the preparation of albuminous foods4 ,if the albumen in food is hardened by prolonged cooking1 it is rendered less instead of more digestible4 ,therefore1 the so-called well-cooked meats are really badly-cooked meats4 ,meats should be only half done1 or rare4 ,to do this properly1 it is necessary to cook with a quick fire4 ,steaks should be broiled1 not fried4 ,i am in accord with a well-known orator1 who said1 recently1 that the person who fries a steak should be arrested for cruelty to humanity4 ,some few meats should always be well cooked before eating4#f ,footnote #f3 ,these are the exceptions4 ,pork1 on account of the prevalence of disease in hogs1 should be well done4 ,the same law holds good with eggs as with meats4 ,a hard-boiled egg is only fit for the stomach of an ostrich2 it was never intended by nature to adorn the human stomach4 ,there are very many ways of preparing eggs--by frying1 baking1 poaching1 shirring1 etc4 ,i will only describe briefly a few simple methods of making omelets4 ,in making this elegant dish1 never use more than three eggs to an omelet4 ,plain omelet3 ,separate the whites and yolks2 add a teaspoonful of water to the whites1 and beat to a stiff froth2 add to the yolks a teaspoonful of water1 and beat until light2 then season with salt1 and about two tablespoonfuls of cream or rich milk4 ,have your spider very hot2 turn your whites and yolks together1 and stir lightly to mix them2 place a bit of butter in the spider1 and immediately pour in your eggs4 ,when set 7which takes from ten to twenty seconds1 and be careful that it does not brown too much71 fold together in a half moon1 remove it1 sprinkle with powdered sugar1 and serve on a hot plate4 ,it should be eaten immediately4 ,fruit omelets are made by placing preserved fruits or jellies between the folds4 ,baked omelets are prepared as above1 with the addition of placing in the oven and allowing to brown slightly4 ,french omelet is prepared in this way3 ,take a half cup of boiling milk with a half teaspoonful of butter melted in it2 pour this over one-half cup of bread crumbs 7light bread72 add salt1 pepper1 and the yolks of three eggs beaten very light2 mix thoroughly2 and lastly1 add the whites whipped to a stiff froth4 ,stir lightly1 and fry in butter4 ,when nearly done1 fold together in a half moon1 and serve immediately4 ,and thus we might continue ad infinitum1 but1 as was stated before1 it is not my object to instruct you in special cooking1 but to illustrate in this manner how much easier it is1 to both the cook and your stomachs1 to prepare healthful dishes than to do the reverse4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,time ,,required ,,to ,,digest ,,different ,,foods4 ,the ,monitor de la ,salud contains in a recent number the results of some experiments lately made by ,e4 ,jessen on the time required for the digestion of certain kinds of food4 ,the stomach of the person on whom the experiments were made was emptied by means of a pump2 #ajj grammes1 equal to #a1edd grains1 or about #b-b_/c ounces1 of meat1 finely chopped and mixed with three times the quantity of water1 were introduced4 ,the experiment was considered ended when the matter1 on removal by the pump1 was found to contain no muscular fibre4 ,it will be remembered that the gramme weighs nearly #ae-a_/b grains1 and the cubic centigramme is equal to #a gramme4 ,the #b-b_/c ounces of meat were therefore mixed with nearly eight ounces of water1 before being introduced into the stomach4 ,the results were as follows3 ,beef1 raw1 and finely chopped4 #b hours4 half cooked4 #b well cooked4 #c slightly roasted4 #c well roasted4 #d ,mutton1 raw4 #b ,veal4 #b ,pork4 #c ,the digestibility of milk was examined in the same way4 ,the quantity used was regulated so that the nitrogen should be the same as in the #ajj grammes of beef4 #fjb cubic centimeters1 nearly sixteen ounces1 of cow's milk1 not boiled1 required4 #c hours #fjb cubic centimeters1 boiled4 #d #fjb sour4 #c #fge skimmed4 #c #fef goat's milk1 not boiled4 #c 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,organization ,,and ,,plan ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,geological ,,survey4#g ,footnote #g3 ,communicated to the ,national ,academy of ,sciences at the ,october meeting in #ahhd4 ,by ,j4,w4 ,,powell4 ,a ,scientific institution or bureau operating under government authority can be controlled by statute and by superior administrative authority but to a limited extent4 ,these operations are practically carried on by specialists1 and they can be controlled only in their financial operations and in the general purposes for which investigations are made4 ,their methods of investigation are their own--originate with themselves1 and are carried out by themselves4 ,but in relation to the scientific operations of such a government institution1 there is an unofficial authority which1 though not immediately felt1 ultimately steps in to approve or condemn1 viz41 the body of scientific men of the country2 and though their authority is not exercised antecedently and at every stage of the work1 yet it is so potent that no national scientific institution can grow and prosper without their approval1 but must sooner or later fall and perish unless sustained by their strong influence4 ,as director of the ,geological ,survey1 ,i deeply realize that ,i owe allegiance to the scientific men of the country1 and for this reason ,i desire to present to the ,national ,academy of ,sciences the organization and plan of operations of the ,survey4 ,a ,,topographic ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,status4 ,sound geologic research is based on geography4 ,without a good topographic map geology cannot even be thoroughly studied1 and the publication of the results of geologic investigation is very imperfect without a good map2 but with a good map thorough investigation and simple1 intelligible publication become possible4 ,impelled by these considerations1 the ,survey is making a topographic map of the ,united ,states4 ,the geographic basis of this map is a trigonometric survey by which datum points are established throughout the country2 that is1 base-lines are measured and a triangulation extended therefrom4 ,this trigonometric work is executed on a scale only sufficiently refined for map-making purposes1 and will not be directly useful for geodetic purposes in determining the figure of the earth4 ,the hypsometric work is based upon the railroad levels of the country4 ,throughout the greater part of the country1 there is a system of railroad lines1 constituting a net-work4 ,the levels or profiles of these roads have been established with reasonable accuracy1 and as they cross each other at a multiplicity of points1 a system of checks is afforded1 so that the railroad surface of the country can be determined therefrom with all the accuracy necessary for the most refined and elaborate topographic maps4 ,from such a hypsometric basis the reliefs for the whole country are determined1 by running lines of levels1 by trigonometric construction1 and in mountainous regions by barometric observation4 ,the primary triangulation having been made1 the topography is executed by a variety of methods1 adapted to the peculiar conditions found in various portions of the country4 ,to a large extent the plane-table is used4 ,in the hands of the topographers of the ,geological ,survey1 the plane-table is not simply a portable draughting table for the field2 it is practically an instrument of triangulation1 and all minor positions of the details of topography are determined through its use by trigonometric construction4 ,the scale on which the map is made is variable4 ,in some portions of the prairie region1 and in the region of the great plains1 the topography and the geology alike are simple1 and maps on a comparatively small scale are sufficient for practical purposes4 ,for these districts it is proposed to construct the sheets of the map on a scale of #a-bej1jjj1 or about four miles to the inch4 ,in the mountain regions of the ,west the geology is more complex1 and the topography more intricate2 but to a large extent these regions are uninhabited1 and to a more limited extent uninhabitable4 ,it would therefore not be wise to make a topographic or geologic survey of the country on an excessively elaborate plan4 ,over much of this area the sheets of the map will also be constructed on a scale of #a-bej1jjj1 but in special districts that scale will be increased to #a-abe1jjj1 and in the case of important mining districts charts will be constructed on a much larger scale4 ,in the eastern portion of the ,united ,states two scales are adopted4 ,in the less densely populated country a scale of #a-abe1jjj is used2 in the more densely populated regions a scale of #a-fb1ejj is adopted1 or about one mile to the inch4 ,but throughout the country a few special districts of great importance1 because of complex geologic structure1 dense population1 or other condition1 will require charts on still larger scales4 ,the area of the ,united ,states1 exclusive of ,alaska1 is about three million square miles1 and a map of the ,united ,states1 constructed on the plan set forth above1 will require not less than #b1fjj sheets4 ,it may ultimately prove to require more than that1 from the fact that the areas to be surveyed on the larger scale have not been fully determined4 ,besides the number of sheets in the general map of the ,united ,states1 there will be several hundred special maps on large scales1 as above described4 ,such is a brief outline of the plan so far as it has been developed at the present time4 ,in this connection it should be stated that the map of the ,united ,states can be completed1 with the present organization of the ,geological ,survey1 in about #bd years2 but it is greatly to be desired that the time for its completion may be materially diminished by increasing the topographic force of the ,geological ,survey4 ,we ought to have a good topographic map of the ,united ,states by the year #aijj4 ,about one-fifth of the whole area of the ,united ,states1 exclusive of ,alaska1 has been completed on the above plan4 ,this includes all geographic work done in the ,united ,states under the auspices of the ,general ,government and under the auspices of ,state ,governments4 ,the map herewith shows those areas that have been surveyed by various organizations on such a scale and in such a manner that the work has been accepted as sufficient for the purposes of the ,survey4 ,much other work has been done1 but not with sufficient refinement and accuracy to be of present value1 though such work subserved its purpose in its time4 ,an examination of the map will show that the triangulation of the various organizations is already largely in advance of the topography4 ,the map of the ,united ,states will be a great atlas divided into sheets as above indicated4 ,in all of those areas where the survey is on a scale of #a-bej1jjj1 a page of the atlas will present an area of one degree in longitude and one degree in latitude4 ,where the scale is #a-abe1jjj1 a page of the atlas-sheet will represent one-fourth of a degree4 ,where the scale is #a-fb1ejj1 the atlas-sheet will represent one-sixteenth of a degree4 ,the degree sheet will be designated by two numbers--one representing latitude1 the other longitude4 ,where the sheets represent fractional degrees1 they will be labeled with the same numbers1 with the addition of the description of the proper fractional part4 ,the organization1 as at present established1 executing this work1 is as follows3 ,first1 an astronomic and computing division1 the officers of which are engaged in determining the geographic coordinates of certain primary points4 ,second1 a triangulation corps engaged in extending a system of triangulation over various portions of the country from measured base-lines4 ,third1 a topographic corps1 organized into twenty-seven parties1 scattered over various portions of the ,united ,states4 ,such1 in brief outline1 is the plan for the map of the ,united ,states1 and the organization by which it is to be made4 ,mr4 ,henry ,gannett is the ,chief ,geographer4 ,,paleontology4 ,before giving the outline of the plan for the general geologic survey1 it will be better to explain the accessory plans and organizations4 ,there are in the ,survey1 as at present organized1 the following paleontologic laboratories3 #a4 ,a laboratory of vertebrate paleontology for formations other than the ,quaternary4 ,in connection with this laboratory there is a corps of paleontologists4 ,professor ,o4,c4 ,marsh is in charge4 #b4 ,there is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of ,quaternary age1 with a corps of paleontologists1 ,mr4 ,wm4 ,h4 ,dall being in charge4 #c4 ,there is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of ,cenozoic and ,mesozoic age1 with a corps of paleontologists4 ,dr4 ,c4,a4 ,white is in charge4 #d4 ,there is a laboratory of invertebrate paleontology of ,paleozoic age1 with a corps of paleontologists4 ,mr4 ,c4,d4 ,walcott is in charge4 #e4 ,there is a laboratory of fossil botany1 with a corps of paleobotanists1 ,mr4 ,lester ,f4 ,ward being in charge4 ,the paleontologists and paleobotanists connected with the laboratories above described1 study and discuss in reports the fossils collected by the general geologists in the field4 ,they also supplement the work of the field geologists by making special collections in important districts and at critical horizons2 but the paleontologists are not held responsible for areal and structural geology on the one hand1 and the geologists are not held responsible for paleontology on the other hand4 ,in addition to the large number of paleontologists on the regular work of the ,geological ,survey1 as above described1 several paleontologists are engaged from time to time to make special studies4 ,,chemistry4 ,there is a chemic laboratory attached to the ,survey1 with a large corps of chemists engaged in a great variety of researches relating to the constitution of waters1 minerals1 ores1 and rocks4 ,a part of the work of this corps is to study the methods of metamorphism and the paragenesis of minerals1 and in this connection the chemists do work in the field2 but to a large extent they are occupied with the study of the materials collected by the field geologists4 ,professor ,f4,w4 ,clarke is in charge of this department4 ,,physical ,,researches4 ,there is a physical laboratory in the ,survey1 with a small corps of men engaged in certain physical researches of prime importance to geologic philosophy4 ,these researches are experimental1 and relate to the effect of temperatures1 pressures1 etc41 on rocks4 ,this laboratory is under the charge of the chief chemist4 ,,lithology4 ,there is a lithologic laboratory in the ,survey1 with a large corps of lithologists engaged in the microscopic study of rocks4 ,these lithologists are field geologists1 who examine the collections made by themselves4 ,,statistics4 ,there is in the ,survey a division of mining statistics1 with a large corps of men engaged in statistic work1 the results of which are published in an annual report entitled ,mineral ,resources4 ,mr4 ,albert ,williams1 ,jr41 is the ,chief ,statistician of the ,survey4 ,,illustrations4 ,there is in the ,survey a division organized for the purpose of preparing illustrations for paleontologic and geologic reports4 ,mr4 ,w4,h4 ,holmes is in charge of this division4 ,illustrations will not hereafter be used for embellishment1 but will be strictly confined to the illustration of the text and the presentation of such facts as can be best exhibited by figures and diagrams4 ,all illustrations will1 as far as possible1 be produced by relief methods1 such as wood-engraving1 photo-engraving1 etc4 ,as large numbers of the reports of the ,survey are published1 this plan is demanded for economic reasons2 but there is another consideration believed to be of still greater importance2 illustrations made on stone cannot be used after the first edition1 as they deteriorate somewhat by time1 and it is customary to use the same lithographic stone for various purposes from time to time4 ,the illustrations made for the reports of the ,survey1 if on relief-plates that can be cheaply electrotyped1 can be used again when needed4 ,this is especially desirable in paleontology1 where previously published figures can be introduced for comparative purposes4 ,there are two methods of studying the extinct life of the globe4 ,fossils are indices of geological formations1 and must be grouped by formations to subserve the purpose of geologists4 ,fossils also have their biologic relations1 and should be studied and arranged in biologic groups4 ,under the plan adopted by the ,survey1 the illustrations can be used over and over again for such purposes when needed1 as reproduction can be made at the small cost of electrotyping4 ,these same illustrations can be used by the public at large in scientific periodicals1 text-books1 etc4 ,all the illustrations made by the ,geological ,survey are held for the public to be used in this manner4 ,,library4 ,the library of the ,survey now contains more than #be1jjj volumes1 and is rapidly growing by means of exchanges4 ,it is found necessary to purchase but few books4 ,the librarian1 ,mr4 ,c4,c4 ,darwin1 has a corps of assistants engaged in bibliographic work4 ,it is proposed to prepare a catalogue of ,american and foreign publications upon ,american geology1 which is to be a general authors' catalogue4 ,in addition to this1 it is proposed to publish bibliographies proper of special subjects constituting integral parts of the science of geology4 ,,publications4 ,the publications of the ,survey are in three series3 ,annual ,reports1 ,bulletins1 and ,monographs4 ,the ,annual ,report constitutes a part of the ,report of the ,secretary of the ,interior for each year1 but is a distinct volume4 ,this contains a brief summary of the purposes1 plans1 and operations of the ,survey1 prepared by the ,director1 and short administrative reports from the chiefs of divisions1 the whole followed by scientific papers4 ,these papers are selected as being those of most general interest1 the object being to make the ,annual ,report a somewhat popular account of the doings of the ,survey1 that it may be widely read by the intelligent people of the country4 ,of this #e1fej copies are published as a part of the ,secretary's report1 and are distributed by the ,secretary of the ,interior1 ,senators1 and ,members of the ,house of ,representatives2 and an extra edition is annually ordered of #ae1jjj copies1 distributed by the ,survey and members of the ,senate and ,house of ,representatives4 ,four annual reports have been published2 the fifth is now in the hands of the printer4 ,the ,bulletins of the ,survey are short papers1 and through them somewhat speedy publication is attained4 ,each bulletin is devoted to some specific topic1 in order that the material ultimately published in the bulletins can be classified in any manner desired by scientific men4 ,nine bulletins have been published1 and seven are in press4 ,the bulletins already published vary in size from #e to #cbe pages each2 they are sold at the cost of press-work and paper1 and vary in price from five to twenty cents each2 #d1ijj copies of each bulletin are published2 #a1ijj are distributed by ,congress1 #c1jjj are held for sale and exchange by the ,geological ,survey4 ,the ,monographs of the ,survey are quarto volumes4 ,by this method of publication the more important and elaborate papers are given to the public4 ,six monographs1 with two atlases1 have been issued2 five monographs1 with two atlases1 are in press2 #a1ijj copies of each monograph are distributed by ,congress2 #c1jjj are held for sale and exchange by the ,survey at the cost of press-work1 paper1 and binding4 ,they vary in price from #a4je to #aa4 ,the chiefs of divisions supervise the publications that originate in their several corps4 ,the general editorial supervision is exercised by the ,chief ,clerk of the ,survey1 ,mr4 ,james ,c4 ,pilling4 ,,general ,,geology4 ,in organizing the general geologic work1 it became necessary1 first1 to consider what had already been done in various portions of the ,united ,states2 and for this purpose the compilation of a general geologic map of the ,united ,states was begun1 together with a ,thesaurus of ,american formations4 ,in addition to this the bibliographic work previously described was initiated1 so that the literature relating to ,american geology should be readily accessible to the workers in the ,survey4 ,at this point it became necessary to consider the best methods of apportioning the work2 that is1 the best methods of dividing the geologic work into parts to be assigned to the different corps of observers4 ,a strictly geographic apportionment was not deemed wise1 from the fact that an unscientific division of labor would result1 and the same classes of problems would to a large extent be relegated to the several corps operating in field and in the laboratory4 ,it was thought best to divide the work1 as far as possible1 by subject-matter rather than by territorial areas2 yet to some extent the two methods of division will coincide4 ,there are in the ,survey at present3 ,first1 a division of glacial geology1 and ,prof4 ,t4,c4 ,chamberlin1 formerly ,state ,geologist of ,wisconsin is at its head1 with a strong corps of assistants4 ,there is an important field for which definite provision has not yet been made1 namely1 the study of the loess that constitutes the bluff formations of the ,mississippi ,river and its tributaries4 ,but as this loess proves to be intimately associated with the glacial formations of the same region1 it is probable that it will eventually be relegated to the glacial division4 ,perhaps the division may eventually grow to such an extent that its field of operations will include the whole ,quaternary geology4 ,second1 a division of volcanic geology is organized1 and ,capt4 ,clarence ,e4 ,dutton1 of the ,ordnance ,corps of the ,army1 is placed in charge1 also with a strong corps of assistants4 ,third and fourth1 two divisions have been organized to prosecute work on the archan rocks1 embracing within their field not only all rocks of archan age1 but all metamorphic crystalline schists1 of whatever age they may be found4 ,the first division has for its chief ,prof4 ,raphael ,pumpelly1 assisted by a corps of geologists1 and the field of his work is the crystalline schists of the ,appalachian region1 or eastern portion of the ,united ,states1 extending from northern ,new ,england to ,georgia4 ,he will also include in his studies certain paleozoic formations which are immediately connected with the crystalline schists and involved in their orographic structure4 ,the second division for the study of this class of rocks is in charge of ,prof4 ,roland ,d4 ,irving1 with a corps of geologists1 and his field of operation is in the ,lake ,superior region4 ,it is not proposed at present to undertake the study of the crystalline schists of the ,rocky ,mountain region4 ,fifth1 another division has been organized for the study of the areal1 structural1 and historical geology of the ,appalachian region1 extending from the ,atlantic1 westward1 to the zone which separates the mountain region from the great valley of the ,mississippi4 ,mr4 ,g4,k4 ,gilbert has charge of this work1 and has a large corps of assistants4 ,sixth1 it seemed desirable1 partly for scientific reasons and partly for administrative reasons1 that a thorough topographic and geologic survey should be made of the ,yellowstone ,park1 and ,mr4 ,arnold ,hague is in charge of the work1 with a corps of assistants4 ,when it is completed1 his field will be expanded so as to include a large part of the ,rocky ,mountain region1 but the extent of the field is not yet determined4 ,it will thus be seen that the general geologic work relating to those areas where the terranes are composed of fossiliferous formations is very imperfectly and incompletely organized4 ,the reason for this is twofold3 ,first1 the work cannot be performed very successfully until the maps are made2 second1 the ,geological ,survey is necessarily diverting much of its force to the construction of maps1 and cannot with present appropriations expand the geologic corps so as to extend systematic work in the field over the entire country4 ,,economic ,,geology4 ,under the organic law of the ,geological ,survey1 investigations in economic geology are restricted to those ,states and ,territories in which there are public lands2 the extension of the work into the eastern portion of the ,united ,states included only that part relating to general geology4 ,two mining divisions are organized4 ,one1 in charge of ,mr4 ,george ,f4 ,becker1 with headquarters at ,san ,francisco1 ,california1 is at the present time engaged in the study of the quicksilver districts of ,california4 ,the other1 under charge of ,mr4 ,s4,f4 ,emmons1 with headquarters at ,denver1 ,colorado1 is engaged in studying various mining districts in that ,state1 including silver1 gold1 iron1 and coal areas4 ,each division has a corps of assistants4 ,the lignite coals of the upper ,missouri1 also1 are under investigation by ,mr4 ,bailey ,willis1 with a corps of assistants4 ,,employes4 ,the employes on the ,geological ,survey at the close of ,september1 #ahhd1 were as follows3 ,appointed by the ,president1 by and with the advice and consent of the ,senate 7,director71 #a4 ,appointed by the ,secretary of the ,interior1 on the recommendation of the ,director of the ,survey1 #acd4 ,employed by the chiefs of parties in the field1 #adh4 ,,appointments4 ,three classes of appointments are made on the ,survey4 ,the statute provides that the scientific employes of the ,geological ,survey shall be selected by the ,director1 subject to the approval of the ,secretary of the ,interior1 exclusively for their qualifications as professional experts4 ,the provisions of this statute apply to all those cases where scientific men are employed who have established a reputation1 and in asking for their appointment the ,director specifically states his reasons1 setting forth the work in which the person is to be employed1 together with his qualifications1 especially enumerating and characterizing his published works4 ,on such recommendations appointments are invariably made4 ,young men who have not established a reputation in scientific research are selected through the agency of the ,civil ,service ,commission on special examination1 the papers for which are prepared in the ,geological ,survey4 ,about one-half of the employes1 however1 are temporary1 being engaged for services lasting for a few days or a few months only1 largely in the field1 and coming under two classes3 ,skilled laborers and common laborers4 ,such persons are employed by the ,director or by the heads of divisions1 and are discharged from the service when no longer needed4 ,it will be seen that the ,director is responsible for the selection of the employes1 directly for those whom he recommends for appointment1 and indirectly for those selected by the ,civil ,service ,commission1 as he permanently retains in the work4 ,if1 then1 improper persons are employed1 it is wholly the ,director's fault4 ,the appropriations made for the ,geological ,survey for the fiscal year ending ,june #cj1 #ahhe1 aggregate the sum of #ejd1jdj4 ,this sum does not include the amount appropriated for ethnologic researches--#dj1jjj4 ,nor are the expenses for engraving and printing paid for from the above appropriations1 but from appropriations made for the work under the direction of the public printer4 ,it is estimated that the amount needed for engraving and printing for the same fiscal year will exceed #bjj1jjj4 ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the ,,government ,,survey ,,to ,,state ,,surveys4 ,the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey is on friendly relations with the various ,state ,surveys4 ,between the ,government ,survey and the ,state ,survey of ,new ,york1 there is direct co-operation4 ,the ,state ,survey of ,pennsylvania has rendered valuable assistance to the ,government ,survey1 and negotiations have been entered into for closer relations and more thorough co-operation4 ,the ,state ,surveys of ,north ,carolina1 ,kentucky1 and ,alabama are also co-operating with the ,government ,survey1 and the director of the ,government ,survey is doing all within his power to revive ,state ,surveys4 ,the field for geologic research in the ,united ,states is of great magnitude1 and the best results can be accomplished only by the labors of many scientific men engaged for a long term of years4 ,for this reason it is believed that surveys should be established in all of the ,states and ,territories4 ,there is work enough for all1 and the establishment of local surveys would greatly assist the general work prosecuted under the auspices of the government1 and prevent it from falling into perfunctory channels4 ,its vigor and health will doubtless be promoted by all thorough local research4 ,it may be of interest to scientific men to know that the ,director finds that in presenting the general results1 interests1 and needs of the ,survey to ,congress1 and to ,committees of ,congress1 a thorough appreciation of the value of scientific research is shown by the statesmen of the country4 ,questions relating to immediately economic values are asked1 as they should be2 but questions relating to sound administration1 wise methods of investigation1 and important scientific results are vigorously urged1 and the principle is recognized that all sound scientific research conduces to the welfare of the people1 not only by increasing knowledge1 but ultimately by affecting all the industries of the people4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,garden4 ,,the ,,sunflowers4 ,illustration3 ,,flower ,,of ,,helianthus ,,argophyllus4 ,the genus ,helianthus is almost entirely ,north-,american1 and for the distinction and limitation of its species we are indebted to the labor of ,dr4 ,asa ,gray1 now universally recognized as the highest authority on ,north ,american plants4 ,in the recently published second part of his ,synoptical ,flora of ,north ,america he has described thirty-nine species1 six of which are annual4 ,the synonyms and cross-naming adopted by previous authors have led to much confusion1 which probably will not now be altogether cleared up1 for ,dr4 ,gray warns us that the characters of some of the species are variable1 especially in cultivation4 ,it may be added that some at least of the species readily form hybrids4 ,there is always more or less difficulty with a variable genus in making garden plants fit wild specific types1 but in the following notes ,i have described no kinds which ,i have not myself cultivated1 selecting the best forms and giving them the names assigned severally by ,dr4 ,gray to the species to which our garden plants seem to come nearest4 ,illustration3 ,,helianthus ,,argophyllus1 ,,showing ,,habit ,,of ,,growth4 ,helianthus multiflorus1 or1 according to ,asa ,gray1 speaking botanically1 ,h4 decapetalus hort4 var4 multiflorus1 is mentioned first1 because it is the subject of the colored illustration4 ,the name multiflorus is established by long usage1 and perhaps was originally given in contrast to the few-flowered habit of ,h4 annuus1 for the type of the species is more floriferous than the variety of which ,asa ,gray says that it is known only in cultivation from early times1 must have been derived from decapetalus1 a statement which gardeners would hardly have accepted on less indisputable authority1 as they will all think the habit and appearance of the two plants widely different4 ,the variety multiflorus has several forms2 the commonest form is double1 the disk being filled with ligules much shorter than those of the ray flowers1 after the form of many daisy-like composites4 ,in this double form the day flowers are often wanting4 ,it is common also on old plants in poor soils to see double and single flowers from the same root4 ,in the single forms the size of the flowers varies1 the difference being due to cultivation as often as to kind4 ,i have obtained by far the finest flowers by the following treatment3 ,in early spring1 when the young shoots are about an inch high1 cut some off1 each with a portion of young root1 and plant them singly in deep rich soil1 and a sheltered but not shaded situation4 ,by ,august each will have made a large bush1 branching out from one stalk at the base1 with from thirty to forty flowers open at a time1 each #e inches across4 ,the same plants if well dressed produce good flowers the second season1 but after that the stalks become crowded1 and the flowers degenerate4 ,the same treatment suits most of the perennial sunflowers4 ,the following kinds are mentioned in the order in which they occur in ,asa ,gray's book3 ,illustration3 ,,helianthus ,,multiflorus1 ,,showing ,,habit ,,of ,,growth4 ,,annuals4 ,h4 argophyllus 7white-leaved1 not argyrophyllus1 silver-leaved1 as written in some catalogues74--,an annual with woolly leaves1 neater and less coarse than ,h4 annuus1 with which it is said soon to degenerate in gardens if grown together with it4 ,h4 annuus4--,the well known sunflower in endless varieties1 one of the most elegant having pale lemon-colored flowers2 these1 too1 liable to pass into the common type if grown in the same garden4 ,illustration3 ,,helianthus ,,orgyalis1 ,,showing ,,habit ,,of ,,growth ,,in ,,autumn4 ,h4 debilis var4 cucumerifolius4--,i have never seen the typical species1 but the variety was introduced a few years ago by ,mr4 ,w4 ,thompson1 of ,ipswich1 from whose seed ,i have grown it4 ,it becomes #d feet or #e feet high1 with irregularly toothed deltoid leaves and spotted stalks1 making a widely branched bush and bearing well-shaped golden flowers more than #c inches across1 with black disks4 ,it crosses with any perennial sunflower that grows near it1 simulating their flowers in an annual form4 ,i had a very fine cross with it and ,h4 annuus1 but the flowers of this produced no good seed4 ,illustration3 ,,jerusalem ,,artichoke 7,,helianthus ,,tuberosus74 ,,perennials4 ,h4 orgyalis 7the fathom-high sunflower74--,the name is far within the true measure1 which is often #i feet or #aj feet4 ,a very distinct species1 increasing very slowly at the root and throwing all its growing efforts upward4 ,the long linear ribbon leaves1 often exceeding a foot1 spreading in wavy masses round the tall stem1 which has a palm-like tuft of them at the summit1 are a more ornamental feature than the flowers1 which are moderate in size and come late in the axils of the upper leaves4 ,illustration3 ,,helianthus ,,annuus ,,globulus ,,fistulosus4 ,h4 angustifolius4--,a neat and elegant species1 which ,i first raised from seed sent by ,mr4 ,w4 ,thompson1 of ,ipswich4 ,it has a very branching habit quite from the base like a well-grown bush of the common wallflower4 ,the flowers are abundant1 about #b inches across1 with a black disk4 ,the plant1 though a true herb1 never comes up in my garden with more than one stalk each year4 ,illustration3 ,,helianthus ,,rigidus 7,,syn4 ,,harpalium ,,rigidum74 ,h4 rigidus is well known as the best of the perennial sunflowers1 and has many synonyms1 the commonest ,harpalium rigidum4 ,it need not be described1 but one or two things about it may be noted4 ,the shoots1 which come up a yard or more from last year's stalk1 may be transplanted as soon as they appear without injury to the flowering1 but if put back to the old center1 the soil1 which should be deep and light1 ought to be enriched4 ,the species is variable1 and improved forms may be expected1 as it produces seed in ,england4 ,the number of ray flowers is often very large4 ,i have one form which has several rows of them1 nearly hiding the disk4 ,a variety is figured in ,botanical ,magazine1 tab4 #b1ffh1 under the name of ,h4 atro-rubens4 ,another comes in the same series1 tab4 #b1jbj1 as ,h4 diffusus4 ,other synonyms are ,h4 missuricus and ,h4 missouriensis4 ,its native range extends across ,north ,america in longitude1 and covers many degrees of latitude4 ,it likes a dry soil4 ,in wet soil and wet seasons the flower-stalk is apt to wither in the middle1 and the bud falls over and perishes prematurely4 ,illustration3 ,,common ,,sunflower 7,h4 ,,annuus7 ,,showing ,,habit ,,of ,,growth4 ,h4 ,ltiflorus4--,under this name we grow in ,england a tall1 much-branched1 late flowering kind1 with smooth and very stout and stiff stalks1 sometimes black1 sometimes green4 ,it increases at the base of the stalks2 it makes close growth1 and shows little disposition to run at the root4 ,the flowers are rather small1 not more than #i inches across1 but so durable and so well displayed by the numerous spreading branches as to make the plant very useful for late decoration4 ,i own that ,i cannot identify this plant with the ltiflorus of ,asa ,gray1 which he tells us resembles tall forms of ,h4 rigidus1 with rough stalks1 and bears flowers with numerous rays #a inches long4 ,illustration3 ,,flower ,,of ,,helianthus ,,annuus4 ,h4 occidentalis4--,recently introduced by ,mr4 ,w4 ,thompson1 of ,ipswich1 who gave me the plant two years ago4 ,it is a neat species1 growing about #b feet high1 well branched1 and producing at the end of ,july abundance of flowers about #b inches across4 ,the lower leaves are small and broad1 with long stalks1 ovate in form4 ,illustration3 ,,helianthus ,,multiflorus ,,fl-,,pl4 ,h4 mollis1 so called from the soft white down with which the leaves are covered1 grows about #d feet high4 ,leaves large1 ovate1 and sessile2 growth of the plant upright1 with hardly any branches2 flowers pale yellow1 about #c inches across1 not very ornamental4 ,cultivated at ,kew1 whence ,i had it4 ,h4 giganteus grows #aj feet high2 stem much branched and disposed to curve4 ,flowers about #b inches across1 produced abundantly in ,august2 rays narrow and pointed1 cupped1 with the ends turning outward2 leaves lanceolate and sessile2 rootstock creeping1 forming tuberous thickenings at the base of the stems1 which ,asa ,gray tells us were the ,indian potato of the ,assiniboine tribe1 mentioned by ,douglas1 who called the plant ,h4 tuberosus4 ,illustration3 ,,full ,,sized ,,flower ,,of ,,helianthus ,,multiflorus4 ,h4 maximiliani4--,half the height of the last1 which it resembles1 but the stem is stouter1 the leaves larger1 as are also the flowers1 which are produced later4 ,it is not so floriferous and ornamental as the last4 ,h4 lvigatus4--,smooth stalked1 very distinct1 does not spread at the roots1 which are composed of finer fibers than those of most of the genus2 stalks slender and black1 growing closely together1 branched near the summit1 #e feet high2 leaves narrowly lanceolate and acute2 flowers plentiful and about #b inches across2 rays few1 and disk small4 ,we are warned that the following species are difficult of extrication1 either confluent or mixed by intercrossing4 ,h4 doronicoides4--,i place this the third in merit among perennial sunflowers1 ,h4 rigidus and ,h4 multiflorus being first and second4 ,it is #f feet or #g feet high1 upright in growth1 with many stalks4 ,flowers #c inches across1 produced from the end of ,july to the end of ,september1 bright golden yellow2 leaves large1 ovate1 tapering from the middle to both ends2 stalk leaves sessile and nearly connate1 that is1 clasping the stalk by their opposite base4 ,the plant spreads rapidly by running rootstocks1 and ripens seed in abundance4 ,figured as ,h4 pubescens in ,botanical ,magazine1 tab4 #b1ggh4 ,h4 divaricatus resembles the last1 but is inferior1 being a smaller plant in all parts1 especially in the flowers1 which come out a month later4 ,the cauline leaves are stalked and diverge widely1 which habit gives its name to the plant4 ,a casual observer would hardly notice the difference between this species and the last1 but when grown together the superiority of doronicoides as a garden plant is at once evident4 ,h4 strumosus4--,fully #f feet high2 growth upright2 rootstock less spreading than the last two2 leaves on very short stalks1 broadest at the base1 ovate tapering by a long narrow point2 flower disk narrow1 but rays large and orange-yellow2 flowers showy1 #c inches across2 they come out late in ,august4 ,i had this plant from ,kew4 ,the shape of the leaves would have led me rather to refer it to ,h4 trachelifolius1 a closely allied species4 ,h4 decapetalus4--,five feet high2 flowers from end of ,july2 makes a dense forest of weak1 slender stalks1 much branched at the top2 spreads fast2 leaves serrate1 oblong-ovate1 rather large2 flowers abundant1 pale yellow1 about #b inches across2 rays nearly always more than ten1 in spite of the name4 ,h4 tuberosus4--,the well-known ,jerusalem artichoke2 not a plant grown for ornament1 being too coarse and late in flowering1 but several things in its history may be mentioned1 as ,dr4 ,asa ,gray has spent labor and study over it4 ,it is believed to have been cultivated by the natives before the discovery of ,america1 and the edible tubers are thought to be a development of cultivation4 ,forms of it without tuberous roots are found wild1 but whether indigenous to the place or degenerate from cultivation was for long uncertain4 ,several species of ,helianthus have a tendency to produce similar fleshy tubers at the top of the roots4 ,dr4 ,gray used to refer the origin of this species to ,h4 doronicoides1 but it is now believed by him to be a distinct species1 though one of which it is difficult to identify with certainty the typical form4 ,i omitted to say that the word ,helianthus is ,greek for sunflower4 ,after several years' careful observation1 ,i believe the notion that the flowers keep their face to the sun is quite a delusion4 ,edge ,hall4 ,c4 ,,wolley ,,dod4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,quick ,,filter4--,the ,druggists ,circular recommends chamois skin1 free from thin places2 cut it of the desired size2 wash it in a weak solution of sal soda1 or any alkali1 to remove the grease1 and rinse thoroughly in cold water before using4 ,tinctures1 elixirs1 sirups1 and even mucilages are filtered rapidly4 ,a pint of the thickest sirup will run through in four or five minutes4 ,by washing thoroughly after each time of using1 it will last a long time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lye',s ,,fuchsias4 ,the group of fuchsias shown in our engraving represents a collection of nine specimens raised and exhibited by that well known cultivator1 ,mr4 ,james ,lye1 of ,clyffe ,hall ,gardens1 ,market ,lavington1 at an exhibition held in ,bath in ,september last1 and which received the first prize in the premier class for that number of plants4 ,for many years past ,mr4 ,lye has exhibited fuchsias at exhibitions held at ,bath1 ,trowbridge1 ,devizes1 ,calne1 ,chippenham1 and elsewhere2 on all occasions staging specimens of a high order of merit2 but the plants appearing in our illustration were universally regarded as the best he had ever placed in an exhibition tent4 ,so much were the committee of the ,bath show pleased with the specimens that they engaged the services of a photographer to make a picture of them on the spot2 but after being two hours making the attempt1 no satisfactory result occurred4 ,after the plants were taken back to ,clyffe ,hall1 they were photographed as seen in the illustration4 ,some idea of their height and dimensions can be realized by a comparison with the stature of ,mr4 ,lye1 who is standing by his plants1 and who is of average height4 ,it should be mentioned that previous to being photographed they had traveled by road from ,market ,lavington to ,bath and back1 a distance of #eb miles1 in addition to having been exhibited two days4 ,they returned to their home apparently little the worse for wear1 which immunity from harm is no doubt owing to the admirable system of tying adopted by ,mr4 ,lye4 ,it is sometimes said that the act of trying in the flowering shoots in this manner gives the plants a somewhat severely formal appearance1 but there is an abundance of healthy foliage and a wonderful profusion of finely developed flowers1 showing the most careful and painstaking cultivation4 ,it is only those who are privileged to see these unrivaled plants who can appreciate them at their proper worth4 ,it has been stated already that the varieties figured are all of ,mr4 ,lye's own raising1 which facts attests to the value of his seedlings1 many of which he has produced4 ,four of these are dark varieties1 viz41 ,bountiful1 ,charming1 ,elegance1 and the ,hon4 ,mrs4 ,hay--the latter one of the oldest1 but one of the freest1 and scarcely without an equal for its great freedom of bloom4 ,the remaining five are light varieties1 viz41 ,lye's ,favorite1 ,harriet ,lye1 ,star of ,wilts1 ,pink ,perfection1 and ,beauty of the ,west4 ,illustration3 ,,mr4 ,,lye',s ,,fuschias4 ,the specimens figured average from two to five years of age4 ,it is really marvelous what ,mr4 ,lye can do with a fuchsia in two years2 and lest it might be supposed that he has plenty of glass accommodation1 and can keep his plants under glass continuously1 it is due to him it should be stated that he is very deficient in house accommodation1 having but two small houses1 in one of which 7an old house7 he winters his plants and brings them on until he can place them with safety in the open air in early summer4 ,his method of treating the specimens as set forth in his own words may prove helpful to some of our readers3 ,after the plants have done flowering1 say about the third week in ,october1 ,i cut them back into the shape best fitted to form symmetrical specimens1 and keep them dry for a week or ten days1 to check the bleeding of sap which follows2 after that ,i give a little water just to start them into growth1 so as to make shoots about three-quarters of an inch in length1 in order to keep the old wood active and living4 ,i keep them in a cold house1 and give but very little water until the first or second week in ,february1 when ,i shake the old soil from the roots1 and re-pot them into a fresh compost made up of three parts good loam1 one part well decomposed manure1 and one part leaf-mould and peat1 with a good bit of silver or sea sand to keep it open4 ,in order to make large specimens1 they are shifted as soon as the pots are filled with roots4 ,about the first week in ,june ,i place them out of doors on a border somewhat sheltered1 and syringe the plants freely every day during hot weather to keep the foliage clean and healthy4 ,i top them back till about seven or eight weeks before ,i want to show them1 according to the requirements of the variety1 as some of them require it to be done more freely than others4 ,i give them liquid manure1 using what ,i get from the cows1 which with some soot is put into a tub1 and allowed to stand a week or ten days before using1 and ,i give them a good dose once a week as they show signs of flowering4 ,in order to preserve his plants from the effects of hail and very heavy rains1 a rough framework is erected1 and over this is stretched some floral shading1 which can be readily removed when required2 it also serves the purpose of shading the plants from the sun in very hot and scorching weather4 ,during his career as an exhibitor of fuchsias ,mr4 ,lye has taken nearly one hundred first prizes--a measure of success which fully justifies the bestowal of the title of being the ,champion ,fuchsia ,grower of his day4--,r4,d4 in ,the ,gardeners' ,chronicle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,published ,weekly4 ,terms of ,subscription1 #e a ,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 ,all the back numbers of ,the ,supplement1 from the commencement1 ,january #a1 #ahgf1 can be had4 ,price1 #aj cents each4 ,all the back volumes of ,the ,supplement can likewise be supplied4 ,two volumes are issued yearly4 ,price of each volume1 #b4ej1 stitched in paper1 or #c4ej1 bound in stiff covers4 ,combined ,rates--,one copy of ,scientific ,american and one copy of ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 one year1 postpaid1 #g4jj4 ,a liberal discount to booksellers1 news agents1 and canvassers4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publishers1 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york1 ,n4,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,patents4 ,in connection with the ,scientific ,american1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,co4 are ,solicitors of ,american and ,foreign ,patents1 have had #dj years' experience1 and now have the largest establishment in the world4 ,patents are obtained on the best terms4 ,a special notice is made in the ,scientific ,american of all ,inventions patented through this ,agency1 with the name and residence of the ,patentee4 ,by the immense circulation thus given1 public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent1 and sales or introduction often easily effected4 ,any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain1 free of charge1 whether a patent can probably be obtained1 by writing to ,,munn ,co4 ,we also send free our ,hand ,book about the ,patent ,laws1 ,patents1 ,caveats4 ,trade ,marks1 their costs1 and how procured4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 ,branch ,office1 cor4 ,f and #gth ,sts41 ,washington1 ,d4,c4