,transcribers note3 subscripts in the   
text are  represented by ,x markup      
,a ,,book ,,of ,,exposition    ,,edited 
,,by    ,,homer ,,heath ,,nugent        
,,laflin ,,instructor ,,in ,,english    
,,at ,,the ,,rensselaer  ,,polytechnic  
,,institute      #aibb                  
,,preface      ,it is a pleasure to     
acknowledge indebtedness to my wife for 
assistance  in editing and to ,dr4 ,ray 
,palmer ,baker1 ,head of the ,department
 of  ,english at the ,institute1 for    
suggestions and advice without which    
this  collection would hardly have been 
made4          ,,contents               
,,introduction      ,,the ,,exposition  
,,of ,a ,,mechanism      ,,the ,,levers 
,,or ,,the ,,human ,,body4 ,,sir        
,,arthur ,,keith      ,,the ,,exposition
 ,,of ,a ,,machine      ,,the           
,,mergenthaler ,,linotype4 ,,philip ,t4 
,,dodge      ,,the ,,exposition ,,of ,a 
,,process ,,in ,,nature      ,,the ,,pea
 ,,weevil4 ,,jean ,,henri ,,fabre4      
,translated by ,bernard ,miall          

,,the ,,exposition ,,of ,a              
,,manufacturing ,,process      ,,modern 
,,paper-,,making4 ,j4 ,w4 ,,butler      
,,paper ,,company      ,,the            
,,exposition ,,of ,,an ,,idea      ,,the
 ,,gospel ,,of ,,relaxation4 ,,william  
,,james      ,,science ,,and ,,religion4
 ,,charles ,,proteus ,,steinmetz        
,,biographical ,,and ,,critical ,,notes 
,,introduction      ,the articles here  
presented are modern and unhackneyed4   
,selected  primarily as models for      
teaching the methods of exposition      
employed in  the explanation of         
mechanisms1 processes1 and ideas1 they  
are  nevertheless sufficiently          
representative of certain tendencies in 
science to be of intrinsic value4       
,indeed1 each author is a recognized    
authority4    ,another feature is worthy
 of mention4 ,although the material     
covers so  wide a field--anatomy1       
zology1 physics1 psychology1 and applied
  science--that the collection will     
appeal to instructors in every type of  

college and technical school1 the       
selections are related in such a way  as
 to produce an impression of unity4     
,this relation is apparent between  the 
first selection1 which deals with the   
student's body1 and the third1  which   
deals with another organism in nature4  
,the second and fourth  selections deal 
with kindred aspects of modern          
industry--the manufacture  of paper and 
the ,linotype machine1 by which it is   
used4 ,the fifth  selection is a protest
 against certain developments of the    
industrial  regime2 the last1 an attempt
 to reconcile the spirit of science with
  that of religion4 ,while monotony has 
been avoided1 the essays form a         
distinct unit4    ,in most cases1       
selections are longer than usual1 long  
enough in fact to  introduce a student  
to each field4 ,as a result1 he can be  
made to feel  that every subject is of  
importance and to realize that every    
chapter  contains a fund of valuable    
information4 ,instead of confusing him  

by  having him read twenty selections   
in1 let us say1 six weeks1 it is        
possible by assigning but six in the    
same period1 to impress him  definitely 
with each4    ,the text-book machinery  
has been sequestered in the             
,biographical and  ,critical ,notes at  
the end of the book4 ,their character   
and position are  intended to permit    
instructors freedom of treatment4 ,some 
may wish to  test a student's ability in
 the use of reference books by having   
him  report on allusions4 ,some may wish
 to explain these themselves4 ,a few    
may find my experience helpful4 ,for    
them suggestions are included in the    
,critical ,notes4 ,in general1 ,i have  
assumed that instructors will prefer    
their own methods and have tried to     
leave them unhampered4          ,,the   
,,exposition ,,of ,a ,,mechanism        
,,the ,,levers ,,of ,,the ,,human       
,,body#a    ,sir ,arthur ,keith      ,in
 all the foregoing chapters we have been
 considering only the muscular  engines 

of the human machine1 counting them over
 and comparing their  construction and  
their mechanism with those of the       
internal-combustion  engine of a motor  
cycle4 ,but of the levers or crank-pins 
through which  muscular engines exert   
their power we have said nothing        
hitherto4 ,nor  shall we get any help by
 now spending time on the levers of a   
motor  cycle4 ,we have already confessed
 that they are arranged in a way which  
is quite different from that which we   
find in the human machine4 ,in the      
motor cycle all the levers are of that  
complex kind which are called  wheels1  
and the joints at which these levers    
work are also circular1 for  the joints 
of a motor cycle are the surfaces       
between the axle and the  bushes1 which 
have to be kept constantly oiled4 ,no1  
we freely admit that  the systems of    
levers in the human machine are quite   
unlike those of a  motor cycle4 ,they   
are more simple1 and it is easy to find 
in our bodies  examples of all the three

 orders of levers4 ,the joints at which 
bony  levers meet and move on each other
 are very different from those we find  
in motor cycles4 ,indeed1 ,i must       
confess they are not nearly so simple4  
,and1 lastly1 ,i must not forget to     
mention another difference4 ,these      
levers we are going to study are        
living--at least1 are so densely        
inhabited by myriads of minute bone     
builders that we must speak of them  as 
living4 ,i want to lay emphasis on that 
fact because ,i did not insist  enough  
on the living nature of muscular        
engines4    ,illustration3 ,fig4        
#a4--,showing a chisel #aj inches long  
used as a lever  of the first order4    
,we are all well acquainted with levers4
 ,we apply them every day4 ,a box       
arrives with its lid nailed down2 we    
take a chisel1 use it as a lever1  pry  
the lid open1 and see no marvel in what 
we have done 7,fig4 #a74 ,and  yet we   
thereby did with ease what would have   
been impossible for us even  if we had  

put out the whole of our unaided        
strength4 ,the use of levers  is an old 
discovery2 more than #aejj years before 
,christ1 ,englishmen1  living on        
,salisbury ,plain1 applied the invention
 when they raised the  great stones at  
,stonehenge and at ,avebury2 more than  
#bjjj years earlier  still1 ,egyptians  
employed it in raising the pyramids4    
,even at that time  men had made great  
progress2 they were already reaping the 
rewards of  discoveries and inventions4 
,but none1 ,i am sure1 surprised them   
more  than the discovery of the lever2  
by its use one man could exert the      
strength of a hundred men4 ,they soon   
observed that levers could be used  in  
three different ways4 ,the instance     
already given1 the prying open of  a lid
 by using a chisel as a lever1 is an    
example of one way 7,fig4 #a72  it is   
then used as a lever of the first order4
 ,now in the first order1  one end of   
the lever is applied to the point of    
resistance1 which in the  case just     

mentioned was the lid of the box4 ,at   
the other end we apply  our strength1   
force1 or power4 ,the edge of the box   
against which the  chisel is worked     
serves as a fulcrum and lies between the
 handle where  the power is applied and 
the bevelled edge which moves the       
resistance or  weight4 ,a pair of       
ordinary weighing scales also           
exemplifies the first  order of levers4 
,the knife edge on which the beam is    
balanced serves as  a fulcrum2 it is    
placed exactly in the middle of the     
beam1 which we  shall suppose to be #aj 
inches long4 ,if we place a #a-lb4      
weight in one  scale to represent the   
resistance to be overcome1 the weight   
will be  lifted the moment that a pound 
of sugar has been placed in the opposite
  scale--the sugar thus representing the
 power4 ,if1 however1 we move the       
knife-edge or fulcrum so that it is only
 #a inch from the sugar end of  the beam
 and #i inches from the weight end1 then
 we find that we have to  pour in #i lb4

 of sugar to equalise the #a-lb4 weight4
 ,the chisel used in  prying open the   
box lid was #aj inches long2 it was     
pushed under the lid  for a distance of 
#a inch1 leaving #i inches for use as a 
power lever4 ,by  using a lever in this 
way1 we increased our strength ninefold4
 ,the  longer we make the power arm1 the
 nearer we push the fulcrum towards the 
weight or resistance end1 the greater   
becomes our power4 ,this we shall  find 
is a discovery which ,nature made use of
 many millions of years ago  in         
fashioning the body of man and of beast4
 ,when we apply our force to  the long  
end of a lever1 we increase our power4  
,we may also apply it1 as  ,nature has  
done in our bodies1 for another purpose4
 ,we have just noted  that if the weight
 end of the beam of a pair of scales is 
nine times the  length of the sugar end1
 that a #a-lb4 weight will counterpoise 
#i lb4 of  sugar4 ,we also see that the 
weight scale moves at nine times the    
speed  of the sugar scale4 ,now it often

 happens that ,nature wants to increase1
  not the power1 but the speed with     
which a load is lifted4 ,in that case   
the sugar scale is placed at the long   
end of the beam and the weight  scale at
 the short end2 it then takes a #i-lb4  
weight to raise a single  pound of      
sugar1 but the sugar scale moves with   
nine times the speed of  the weight     
scale4 ,nature often sacrifices power to
 obtain speed4 ,the arm  is used as a   
lever of this kind when a cricket ball  
is thrown4    ,nothing could look less  
like a pair of scales than a man's head 
or  skull1 and yet when we watch how it 
is poised and the manner in which it  is
 moved1 we find that it1 too1 acts as a 
lever of the first order4 ,the  fulcrum 
on which it moves is the atlas--the     
first vertebra of the spine  7,fig4 #b74
 ,when a man stands quite erect1 with   
the head well thrown back1  the ear     
passages are almost directly over the   
fulcrum4 ,it will be  convenient to call
 that part of the head which is behind  

the ear  passages the post-fulcral1 and 
the part which is in front the          
pre-fulcral4 ,now the face is attached  
to the pre-fulcral part of the  lever   
and represents the weight or load to be 
moved1 while the muscles  of the neck1  
which represent the power1 are yoked to 
the post-fulcral  end of the lever4 ,the
 hinder part of the head serves as a    
crank-pin for  seven pairs of neck      
muscles1 but in ,fig4 #b only the chief 
pair is drawn1  known as the complex    
muscles4 ,when that pair is set in      
action1 the  post-fulcral end of the    
head lever is tilted downwards1 while   
the  pre-fulcral end1 on which the face 
is set1 is turned upwards4              
,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--,the skull as 
a lever of the first order4    ,the     
complex muscles thus tilt the head      
backwards and the face upwards1  but    
where are the muscles which serve as    
their opponents or antagonists  and     
reverse the movement8 ,in a previous    
chapter it has been shown that  every   

muscle has to work against an opponent  
or antagonist muscle4 ,here  we seem to 
come across a defect in the human       
machine1 for the greater  straight      
muscles in the front of the neck1 which 
serve as opposing  muscles1 are not only
 much smaller but at a further          
disadvantage by  being yoked to the     
pre-fulcral end of the lever1 very close
 to the cup  on which the head rocks4   
,however1 if the greater straight       
muscles lose  power by working on a very
 short lever1 they gain1 in speed2 we   
set them  quickly and easily into action
 when we give a nod of recognition4 ,all
  the strength or power is yoked to the 
post-fulcral end of the head2 the       
pre-fulcral end of its lever is poorly  
guarded4 ,japanese wrestlers know  this 
fact very well1 and seek to gain victory
 by pressing up the poorly  guarded     
pre-fulcral lever of the head1 thus     
producing a deadly lock at  the fulcral 
joint4 ,indeed1 it will be found that   
those who use the  jiu-jitsu method of  

fighting have discovered a great deal   
about the  construction and weaknesses  
of the levers of the human body4        
,merely to poise the head on the atlas  
may seem to you as easy a matter  as    
balancing the beam of a pair of scales  
on an upright support4 ,i am  now going 
to show that a great number of          
difficulties had to be overcome  before 
our heads could be safely poised on our 
necks4 ,the head had to be  balanced in 
such a way that through the pivot or    
joint on which it rests  a safe         
passageway could be secured for one of  
the most delicate and most  important of
 all the parts or structures of the     
human machine4 ,we have  never found a  
good ,english name for this structure1  
so we use its clumsy  ,latin            
one--,medulla oblongata--or medulla for 
short4 ,in the medulla are  placed      
offices or centres which regulate the   
vital operations carried  on by the     
heart and by the lungs4 ,it has also to 
serve as a passageway  for thousands of 

delicate gossamer-like nerve fibres     
passing from the  brain1 which fills the
 whole chamber of the skull1 to the     
spinal cord1  situated in the canal of  
the backbone4 ,by means of these        
delicate fibres  the brain dispatches   
messages which control the muscular     
engines of the  limbs and trunk4        
,through it1 too1 ascend countless      
fibres along which  messages pass from  
the limbs and trunk to the brain4 ,in   
creating a  movable joint for the head1 
then1 a safe passage had to be obtained 
for  the medulla--that part of the great
 nerve stem which joins the brain to    
the spinal cord4 ,the medulla is part of
 the brain stem4    ,this was only one  
of the difficulties which had to be     
overcome4 ,the eyes  are set on the     
pre-fulcral lever of the head4 ,for our 
safety we must be  able to look in all  
directions--over this shoulder or that4 
,we must also  be able to turn our heads
 so that our ears may discover in which 
direction a sound is reaching us4 ,in   

fashioning a fulcral joint for the      
head1 then1 two different objects had to
 be secured3 free mobility for  the     
head1 and a safe transit for the        
medullary part of the brain stem4  ,how 
well these objects have been attained is
 known to all of us1 for we  can move   
our heads in the freest manner and      
suffer no damage whatsoever4  ,indeed1  
so strong and perfect is the joint that 
damage to it is one of  the most        
uncommon accidents of life4    ,let us  
see1 then1 how this triumph in          
engineering has been secured4 ,in  her  
inventive moods ,nature always hits on  
the simplest plan possible4 ,in  this   
case she adopted a ball-and-socket      
joint--the kind by which older          
astronomers mounted their telescopes4   
,by such a joint the telescope  becomes1
 just as the head is1 a lever of the    
first order4 ,the eyeglass  is placed at
 one end of the lever1 while the        
object-glass1 which can be  swept across
 the face of the heavens1 is placed at  

the other or more  distant end4 ,in the 
human body the first vertebra of the    
backbone--the  atlas--is trimmed to form
 a socket1 while an adjacent part of the
 base  of the skull is shaped to play   
the part of ball4 ,the kind of joint to 
be  used having been hit upon1 the next 
point was to secure a safe passage  for 
the brain stem4 ,that1 too1 was worked  
out in the simplest fashion4  ,the      
central parts of both ball and socket   
were cut away1 or1 to state  the matter 
more exactly1 were never formed4 ,thus a
 passage was obtained  right through the
 centre of the fulcral joint of the     
head4 ,the centre of  the joint was     
selected because when a lever is set in 
motion the part at  the fulcrum moves   
least1 and the medulla1 being placed at 
that point1 is  least exposed to        
disturbance when we bend our heads      
backwards1 forwards1  or from side to   
side4 ,when we examine the base of the  
skull1 all that we  see of the ball of  
the joint are two knuckles of bone      

7,fig4 #c1 ,a71  covered by smooth      
slippery cartilage or gristle1 to which 
anatomists  give the name of occipital  
condyles4 ,if we were to try to complete
 the  ball1 of which they form a part1  
we should close up the great            
opening--the foramen magnum--which      
provides a passageway for the brain     
stem on its way to the spinal canal4    
,all that is to be seen of the  socket  
or cup is two hollows on the upper      
surface of the atlas into  which the    
occipital condyles fit 7,fig4 #c1 ,b74  
,merely two parts of the  brim of the   
cup have been preserved to provide a    
socket for the  condyles or ball4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,a1 ,the     
opening in the base of the skull1 by    
which the brain stem passes to the      
spinal canal4 ,the two occipital        
condyles represent part of the ball     
which fits into the cup formed by  the  
atlas4 ,b1 ,the parts of the socket on  
the ring of the atlas4    ,as we bend   
our heads1 the occipital condyles       

revolve or glide on the  sockets of the 
atlas4 ,but what will happen if we roll 
our heads  backwards to such an extent  
that the bony edge of the opening in the
  base of the skull is made to press    
hard against the brain stem and crush   
it8 ,that1 of course1 would mean instant
 death4 ,such an accident has been  made
 impossible 7#a7 by making the opening  
in the base of the skull so  much larger
 than the brain stem that in extreme    
movements there can be  no scissors-like
 action2 7#b7 the muscles which move the
 head on the  atlas arrest all movements
 long before the danger-point is        
reached2 7#c7  even if the muscles are  
caught off their guard1 as they         
sometimes are1  certain strong          
ligaments--fastenings of tough          
fibres--are so set as  automatically to 
jam the joint before the edge of the    
foramen can come  in contact with the   
brain stem4    ,these are only some of  
the devices which ,nature had to        
contrive in order  to secure a safe     

passageway for the brain stem4 ,but in  
obtaining safety  for the brain stem1   
the movements of the head on the atlas  
had to be  limited to mere nodding or   
side-to-side bending4 ,the movements    
which are  so necessary to us1 that of  
turning our heads so that we can sweep  
our  eyes along the whole stretch of the
 skyline from right to left1 and from   
left to right1 were rendered impossible4
 ,this defect was also overcome  in a   
simple manner4 ,the joints between the  
first and second  vertebrae--the atlas  
and axis--were so modified that a       
turning movement  could take place      
between them instead of between the     
atlas and skull4  ,when we turn or      
rotate our heads1 the atlas1 carrying   
the skull upon it1  swings or turns on  
the axis4 ,when we search for the manner
 in which this  has been accomplished1  
we see again that ,nature has made use  
of the  simplest means at her disposal4 
,when we examine a vertebra in the      
course  of construction within an unborn

 animal1 we see that it is really made  
up by the union of four parts 7see ,fig4
 #d73 a central block which  becomes the
 body or supporting part2 a right and a 
left arch which  enclose a passage for  
the spinal cord2 and1 lastly1 a fourth  
part in  front of the central block     
which becomes big and strong only in the
  first vertebra--the atlas4 ,when we   
look at the atlas 7,fig4 #d71 we see    
that it is merely a ring made up of     
three of the parts--the right and  left 
arches and the fourth element1--but the 
body is missing4 ,a glance  at ,fig4 #d1
 ,b1 will show what has become of the   
body of the atlas4 ,it  has been joined 
to the central block of the second      
vertebra--the  axis--and projects       
upwards within the front part of the    
ring of the  atlas1 and thus forms a    
pivot round which rotatory movements of 
the head  can take place4 ,here we have 
in the atlas an approach to the         
formation  of a wheel--a wheel which has
 its axle or pivot placed at some       

distance  from its centre1 and therefore
 a complete revolution of the atlas is  
impossible4 ,a battery of small muscles 
is attached to the lateral levers  of   
the atlas and can swing it freely1 and  
the head which it carries1 a  certain   
number of degrees to both right and     
left4 ,the extent of the  movements is  
limited by stout check ligaments4 ,thus1
 by the simple  expedient of allowing   
the body of the atlas to be stolen by   
the axis1 a  pivot was obtained round   
which the head could be turned on a     
horizontal  plane4    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #d4--;,a1 ,the original parts of  
the first or atlas  vertebra4 ,b1       
,showing the body of the first vertebra 
fixed to the  second1 thus forming the  
pivot on which the head turns4          
,nature thus set up a double joint for  
the movements of the head1 one  between 
the atlas and axis for rotatory         
movements1 another between the  atlas   
and skull for nodding and side-to-side  
movements4 ,and all these  she increased

 by giving flexibility to the whole     
length of the neck4  ,makers of modern  
telescopes have imitated the method     
,nature invented  when fixing the human 
head to the spine4 ,their instruments   
are mounted  with a double joint--one   
for movements in a horizontal plane1 the
 other  for movements in a vertical     
plane4 ,we thus see that the young      
engineer1  as well as the student of    
medicine1 can learn something from the  
construction of the human body4    ,in  
low forms of vertebrate animals like the
 fish and frog1 the head is  joined     
directly to the body1 there being no    
neck4    ,no matter what part of the    
human body we examine1 we shall find    
that its  mechanical work is performed  
by means of bony levers4 ,having seen   
how  the head is moved as a lever of the
 first order1 we are now to choose a    
part which will show us the plan on     
which levers of the second order  work1 
and there are many reasons why we should
 select the foot4 ,it is a  part which  

we are all familiar with2 every day we  
can see it at rest and  in action4 ,the 
foot1 as we have already noted1 serves  
as a lever in  walking4 ,it is a bent or
 arched lever 7,fig4 #f72 when we stand 
on one  foot1 the whole weight of our   
body rests on the summit of the arch4   
,we  are thus going to deal with a lever
 of a complex kind4    ,illustration3   
,fig4 #e4--,showing a chisel used as a  
lever of the second  order4    ,in using
 a chisel to pry open the lid of a box1 
we may use it as a lever  either of the 
first or of the second order4 ,we have  
already seen 7,fig4  #a7 that1 in using 
it as a lever of the first order1 we    
pushed the handle  downwards1 while the 
bevelled end was raised1 forcing open   
the lid4 ,the  edge of the box served as
 a rest or fulcrum for the chisel4 ,if1 
however1  after inserting the bevelled  
edge under the lid1 we raise the handle 
instead of depressing it1 we change the 
chisel into a lever of the  second      
order4 ,the lid is not now forced up on 

the bevelled edge1 but is  raised on the
 side of the chisel1 some distance from 
the bevelled edge1  which thus comes to 
represent the fulcrum4 ,by using a      
chisel in this  way1 we reverse the     
positions of the weight and fulcrum and 
turn it into  a lever of the second     
order4 ,suppose we push the side of the 
chisel--which is #aj inches long--under 
the lid to the extent of #a inch1  then 
the advantage we gain in power is as #a 
to #aj2 we thereby increase  our        
strength tenfold4 ,if we push the chisel
 under the lid for half its  length1    
then our advantage stands as #aj to #e2 
our strength is only  doubled4 ,if we   
push it still further for two-thirds of 
its length1 then  our gain in strength  
is only as #aj to #f4f2 our power is    
increased by  only one-third4 ,now this 
has an important bearing on the problem 
we are  going to investigate1 for the   
weight of our body falls on the foot1 so
  that only about one-third of the      
lever--that part of it which is formed  

by the heel--projects behind the point  
on which the weight of the body  rests4 
,the strength of the muscles which act  
on the heel will be  increased only by  
about one-third4    ,we have already    
seen that a double engine1 made up of   
the  gastrocnemius and soleus1 is the   
power which is applied to the heel  when
 we walk1 and that the pad of the foot1 
lying across the sole in  line with the 
ball of the great toe1 serves as a      
fulcrum or rest4 ,the  weight of the    
body falls on the foot between the      
fulcrum in front and  the power behind1 
as in a lever of the second order4 ,we  
have explained  why the power of the    
muscles of the calf is increased the    
more the  weight of the body is shifted 
towards the toes1 but it is also evident
  that the speed and the extent to which
 the body is lifted are  diminished4    
,if1 however1 the weight be shifted more
 towards the heel1  the muscles of the  
calf1 although losing in power1 can lift
 their load  more quickly and to a      

greater extent4    ,we must look closely
 at the foot lever if we are to         
understand it4 ,it is  arched or bent2  
the front pillar of the arch stretches  
from the summit  or keystone1 where the 
weight of the body is poised1 to the pad
 of the  foot or fulcrum 7,fig4 #f72 the
 posterior pillar1 projecting as the    
heel1  extends from the summit to the   
point at which the muscular power is    
applied4 ,a foot with a short anterior  
pillar and a long posterior pillar  or  
heel is one designed for power1 not     
speed4 ,it is one which will serve  a   
hill-climber well or a heavy1 corpulent 
man4 ,the opposite kind1 one  with a    
short heel and a long pillar in front1  
is well adapted for  running and        
sprinting--for speed4 ,now1 we do find  
among the various  races of mankind that
 some have been given long heels1 such  
as the  dark-skinned natives of ,africa 
and of ,australia1 while other races    
have  been given relatively short1      
stumpy heels1 of which sort the natives 

of  ,europe and of ,china may be cited  
as examples4 ,with long heels less      
powerful muscular engines are required1 
and hence in dark races the calf  of the
 leg is but ill developed1 because the  
muscles which move the heel  are small4 
,we must admit1 however1 that the gait  
of dark-skinned races  is usually easy  
and graceful4 ,we ,europeans1 on the    
other hand1 having  short heels1 need   
more powerful muscles to move them1 and 
hence our  calves are usually well      
developed1 but our gait is apt to be    
jerky4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,the
 bones forming the arch of the foot1    
seen  from the inner side4    ,if we had
 the power to make our heels longer or  
shorter at will1 we  should be able1 as 
is the case in a motor cycle1 to alter  
our  speed-gear according to the needs  
of the road4 ,with a steep hill in      
front of us1 we should adopt a long1    
slow1 powerful heel2 while going  down  
an incline a short one would best suit  
our needs4 ,with its  four-change       

speed-gear a motor cycle seems better   
adapted for easy and  economical        
travelling than the human machine4 ,if1 
however1 the human  machine has no      
change of gear1 it has one very         
marvellous  mechanism--which we may call
 a compensatory mechanism1 for want of a
  short1 easy name4 ,the more we walk1  
the more we go hill-climbing1 the  more 
powerful do the muscular engines of the 
heel become4 ,it is quite  different    
with the engine of a motor cycle2 the   
more it is used1 the  more does it      
become worn out4 ,it is because a       
muscular engine is living  that it can  
respond to work by growing stronger and 
quicker4    ,i have no wish to extol the
 human machine unduly1 nor to run down  
the  motor cycle because of certain     
defects4 ,there is one defect1 however1 
which is inherent in all motor machines 
which man has invented1 but from  which 
the human machine is almost completely  
free4 ,we can illustrate the  defect    
best by comparing the movements of the  

heel with those of the  crank-pin of an 
engine4 ,one serves as the lever by     
which the  gastrocnemius helps to propel
 the body2 the other serves the same    
purpose in the propulsion of a motor    
cycle4 ,on referring to ,fig4 #g1 ,a1   
the reader will see that the piston-rod 
and the crank-pin are in a  straight    
line2 in such a position the engine is  
powerless to move the  crank-pin until  
the flywheel is started1 thus setting   
the crank-pin in  motion4 ,once started1
 the leverage increases1 until the      
crank-pin stands  at right angles to the
 piston-rod--a point of maximum power   
which is  reached when the piston is in 
the position shown in ,fig4 #g1 ,b4     
,then the  leverage decreases until the 
second dead centre is reached 7,fig4 #g1
 ,c72  from that point the leverage is  
increased until the second maximum is   
reached 7,fig4 #g1 ,d71 whereafter it   
decreases until the arrival at the      
first position completes the cycle4     
,thus1 in each revolution there are  two

 points where all leverage or power is  
lost1 points which are  surmounted      
because of the momentum given by the    
flywheel4 ,clearly we  should get most  
out of an engine if it could be kept    
working near the  points of maximum     
leverage--with the lever as nearly as   
possible at  right angles to the        
crank-pin4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#g4--,showing the crank-pin of an engine
 at3 ,a1 ,first  dead centre4 ,b1 ,first
 maximum leverage4 ,c1 ,second dead     
centre4 ,d1 ,second  maximum leverage4  
,now1 we have seen that the tendon of   
,achilles is the piston cord1 and  the  
heel the crank-pin1 of the muscular     
engine represented by the  gastrocnemius
 and soleus4 ,in the standing posture   
the heel slopes  downwards and          
backwards1 and is thus in a position1 as
 regards its  piston cord1 considerably 
beyond the point of maximum leverage4   
,as the  heel is lifted by the muscles1 
it gradually becomes horizontal and at  
right angles to its tendon or piston    

cord4 ,as the heel rises1 then1 it      
becomes a more effective lever2 the     
muscles gain in power4 ,the more the    
foot is arched1 the more obliquely is   
the heel set and the greater is  the    
strength needed to start it moving4     
,hence1 races like the ,european  and   
,mongolian1 which have short as well as 
steeply set heels1 need large  calf     
muscles4 ,it is at the end of the upward
 stroke that the heel  becomes most     
effective as a lever1 and it is just    
then that we most need  power to propel 
our bodies in a forward direction4 ,it  
will be noted that  the heel1 unlike the
 crank-pin of an engine1 never reaches1 
never even  approaches1 that point of   
powerlessness known to engineers as a   
dead  centre4 ,work is always performed 
within the limits of the most effective 
working radius of the lever4 ,it is a   
law for all the levers of the body2     
they are set and moved in such a way as 
to avoid the occurrence of dead         
centres4 ,think what our condition would

 have been were this not so2 why1  we   
should require revolving fly-wheels set 
in all our joints6    ,illustration3    
,fig4 #h4--,the arch of the foot from   
the inner side1  showing some of the    
muscles which maintain it4    ,another  
property is essential in a lever3 it    
must be rigid2 otherwise it  will bend1 
and power will be lost4 ,now1 if the    
foot were a rigid lever1  there would be
 missing two of its most useful         
qualities4 ,it could no  longer act as a
 spring or buffer to the body1 nor could
 it adapt its  sole to the various kinds
 of surfaces on which we have to tread  
or  stand4 ,nature1 with her usual      
ingenuity1 has succeeded in combining   
those opposing qualities--rigidity1     
suppleness1 and elasticity or           
springiness--by resorting to her        
favorite device1 the use of muscular    
engines4 ,the arch is necessarily       
constructed of a number of bones which  
can move on each other to a certain     
extent1 so that the foot may adapt      

itself to all kinds of roads and paths4 
,it is true that the bones of the  arch 
are loosely bound together by passive   
ties or ligaments1 but as  these cannot 
be lengthened or shortened at will1     
,nature had to fall back  on the use of 
muscular engines for the maintenance of 
the foot as an  arched lever4 ,some of  
these are shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,the foot1 
then1 is a  lever of a very remarkable  
kind2 all the time we stand or walk1 its
  rigidity1 its power to serve as a     
lever1 has to be maintained by an       
elaborate battery of muscular engines   
all kept constantly at work4 ,no  wonder
 our feet and legs become tired when we 
have to stand a great  deal4 ,some of   
these engines1 the larger ones1 are kept
 in the leg1 but  their tendons or      
piston cords descend below the          
ankle-joint to be fixed  to various     
parts of the arch1 and thus help to keep
 it up 7,fig4 #h74  ,within the sole of 
the foot has been placed an installation
 of seventeen  small engines1 all of    

them springing into action when we stand
 up1 thus  helping to maintain the foot 
as a rigid yet flexible lever4    ,we   
have already seen why our muscles are so
 easily exhausted when we  stand        
stock-still2 they then get no rest at   
all4 ,now1 it sometimes  happens in     
people who have to stand for long       
periods at a stretch that  these        
muscular engines which maintain the arch
 are overtaxed2 the arch  of the foot   
gives way4 ,the foot becomes flat and   
flexible1 and can no  longer serve as a 
lever4 ,many men and women thus become  
permanently  crippled2 they cannot step 
off their toes1 but must shuffle along  
on the  inner sides of their feet4 ,but 
if the case of the overworked muscles   
which maintain the arch is hard in      
grown-up people1 it is even harder in   
boys and girls who have to stand quite  
still for a long time1 or who  have to  
carry such burdens as are beyond their  
strength4 ,when we are  young1 the bony 
levers and muscular engines of our feet 

have not only  their daily work to do1  
but they have continually to effect     
those  wonderful alterations which we   
call growth4 ,hence1 the muscular       
engines  of young people need special   
care2 they must be given plenty of work 
to  do1 but that kind of active action  
which gives them alternate strokes of   
work and rest4 ,even the engine of a    
motor cycle has three strokes of  play  
for one of work4 ,our engines1 too1 must
 have a liberal supply of  the right    
kind of fuel4 ,but even with all those  
precautions1 we have to  confess that   
the muscular engines of the foot do     
sometimes break down1  and the leverage 
of the foot becomes threatened4 ,nor    
have we succeeded  in finding out why   
they are so liable to break down in some
 boys and  girls and not in others4     
,some day we shall discover this too4   
,we are now to look at another part of  
the human machine so that we may  study 
a lever of the third order4 ,the lever  
formed by the forearm and  hand will    

suit our purpose very well4 ,it is      
pivoted or jointed at the  elbow2 the   
elbow is its fulcrum 7,fig4 #i ,b74 ,at 
the opposite end of the  lever1 in the1 
upturned palm of the hand1 we shall     
place a weight of #a  lb4 to represent  
the load to be moved4 ,the power which  
we are to yoke to  the lever is a strong
 muscular engine we have not mentioned  
before1  called the brachialis anticus1 
or front brachial muscle4 ,it lies in   
the upper arm1 where it is fixed to the 
bone of that part--the humerus4  ,it is 
attached to one of the bones of the     
forearm--the ulna--just beyond  the     
elbow4    ,in the second order of lever1
 we have seen that the muscle worked on 
one  end1 while the weight rested on the
 lever somewhere between the muscular   
attachment and the fulcrum4 ,in levers  
of the third order1 the load is  placed 
at the end of the lever1 and the muscle 
is attached somewhere  between the load 
and the fulcrum 7,fig4 #i ,a74 ,in the  
example we are  considering1 the        

brachial muscle is attached about half  
an inch beyond  the fulcrum at the      
elbow1 while the total length of the    
lever1 measured  from the elbow to the  
palm1 is #ab inches4 ,now1 it is very   
evident that  the muscle or power being 
attached so close to the elbow1 works   
under a  great disadvantage as regards  
strength4 ,it could lift a #bd-lb4      
weight  placed on the forearm directly  
over its attachment as easily as a      
single  pound weight placed on the palm4
 ,but1 then1 there is this advantage3   
the  #a-lb4 weight placed in the hand   
moves with twenty-four times the speed  
of the #bd-lb4 weight situated near the 
elbow4 ,what is lost in strength  is    
gained in speed4 ,whenever ,nature      
wishes to move a light load quickly1    
she employs levers of the third order4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #i;,a4--,a chisel  
used as a lever of the third order4 ,w1 
weight2 ,p1 power2 ,f1 fulcrum4    ,we  
have often to move our forearm very     
quickly1 sometimes to save our  lives4  

,the difference of one-hundredth of a   
second may mean life or  death to us on 
the face of a cliff when we clutch at a 
branch or jutting  rock to save a fall4 
,the quickness of a blow we give or fend
 depends on  the length of our reach4 ,a
 long forearm and hand are ill adapted  
for  lifting heavy burdens2 strength is 
sacrificed if they are too long4        
,hence1 we find that the laboring       
peoples of the world--,europeans and    
,mongolians--have usually short forearms
 and hands1 while the peoples who  live 
on such bounties as ,nature may provide 
for them have relatively  long forearms 
and hands4    ,illustration3 ,fig4      
#i;,b4--,the forearm and hand as a lever
 of the third  order4    ,now1 man      
differs from anthropoid apes1 which are 
distant cousins of his1  in having a    
forearm which is considerably shorter   
than the upper arm2  whereas in         
anthropoid apes the forearm is much the 
longer4 ,that fact  surprises us at     
first1 especially when we remember that 

anthropoids  spend most of their lives  
amongst trees and use their arms much   
more  than their legs in swinging the   
weight of their heavy bodies from branch
  to branch and from tree to tree4 ,a   
long forearm and hand give them a  long 
and quick reach1 so that they can seize 
distant branches and swing  themselves  
along safely and at a good pace4 ,our   
first thought is to  suppose that a long
 forearm1 being a weak lever1 will be   
ill adapted  for climbing4 ,but when you
 look at ,fig4 #aj1 the explanation     
becomes  plain4 ,when a branch is seized
 by the hand1 and the whole weight of   
the  body is supported from it1 the     
entire machinery of the arm changes its 
action4 ,the forearm is no longer the   
lever which the brachial muscle  moves  
7,fig4 #aj71 but now becomes the base   
from which it acts4 ,the part  which was
 its piston cord now serves as its base 
of fixation1 and what  was its base of  
fixation to the humerus becomes its     
piston cord4 ,the  humerus has become a 

lever of the third order2 its fulcrum is
 at the  elbow2 the weight of the body  
is attached to it at the shoulder and   
represents the load which has to be     
lifted4 ,we also notice that the        
brachial muscle is attached a long way  
up the humerus1 thus increasing  its    
power very greatly1 although the rate at
 which it helps in lifting  the body is 
diminished4 ,we can see1 then1 why the  
humerus is short and  the forearm long  
in anthropoid apes2 shortening the      
humerus makes it  more powerful as a    
lever for lifting the body4 ,that is why
 anthropoids  are strong and agile      
tree-climbers4 ,but then watch them use 
those long  hands and forearms for the  
varied and precise movements we have to 
perform in our daily lives1 and you will
 see how clumsy they are4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,showing the 
action of the brachialis anticus in  the
 arm of an anthropoid ape4    ,in the   
human machine the levers of the arm have
 been fashioned1 not for  climbing1 but 

for work of another kind--the kind which
 brings us a  livelihood4 ,we must have 
perfect control over our hands2 the     
longer the  lever of the forearm is     
made1 the more difficult does control of
 the  hand become4 ,hence1 in the human 
machine the forearm is made relatively  
short and the upper arm long4    ,we    
have just seen that the brachial muscle 
could at one time move the  forearm and 
hand1 but that when they are fixed it   
could then use the  humerus as a lever  
and thereby lift the weight of the body4
 ,what should  we think of a metal      
engine which could reverse its action so
 that it  could act through its         
piston-rod at one time and through its  
cylinder at  another8 ,yet that is what 
a great number of the muscular engines  
of the  human machine do every day4     
,there is another little point1 but an  
important one1 which ,i must  mention   
before this chapter is finished4 ,i have
 spoken of the forearm  and hand as if  
they formed a single solid lever4 ,of   

course that is not  so2 there are joints
 at the wrist where the hand can be     
moved on the  forearm4 ,but when a      
weight is placed in the hand1 these     
joints became  fixed by the action of   
muscles4 ,the fixing muscles are placed 
in the  forearm1 both in front and      
behind1 and are set in action the moment
 the  hand is loaded4 ,the wrist joint  
is fixed just in the same way as the    
joints of the foot are made rigid by    
muscles when it has to serve as a       
lever4 ,even when we take a pen in our  
hand and write1 these engines  which    
balance and fix the wrist have to be in 
action all the time4 ,the  steadiness of
 our writing depends on how delicately  
they are balanced4  ,like the muscles of
 the foot1 the fixers of the wrist may  
become  overworked and exhausted1 as    
occasionally happens in men and women   
who  do not hold their pens correctly   
and write for long spells day after     
day4 ,the break-down which happens in   
them is called writer's cramp1  but it  

is a disaster of the same kind as that  
which overtakes the foot  when its arch 
collapses1 and its utility as a lever is
 lost4    ,,footnotes3    ,footnote #a3 
,from ,the ,engines of the ,human ,body1
 ,chapters ,,vi and ,,vii4  ,j4,b4      
,lippincott ,company1 ,philadelphia1    
#aibj2 ,williams and ,norgate1  ,london1
 #aibj4          ,,the ,,exposition ,,of
 ,a ,,machine    ,,the ,,mergenthaler   
,,linotype#b    ,philip ,t4 ,dodge      
,the ,mergenthaler ,linotype machine    
appeared in crude form about #ahhf4     
,this machine differs widely from all   
others in that it is adapted to  produce
 the type-faces for each line properly  
justified on the edge of a  solid slug  
or linotype4    ,these slugs1           
automatically produced and assembled by 
the machine1 are  used in the same      
manner as other type-forms1 whether for 
direct printing  or for electrotyping1  
and are remelted after use4             
,,general ,,organization    ,the general
 organization of the machine will first 

be described4 ,after  this the details  
will be more fully explained and        
attention plainly  directed to the      
various parts which require special     
consideration4    ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#a4    ,the machine contains1 as the    
vital element1 about sixteen hundred    
matrices1 such as are shown in ,fig4 #a1
 each consisting of a small brass  plate
 having in one edge the female character
 or matrix proper1 and in  the upper end
 a series of teeth1 used as hereinafter 
explained for  distributing the matrices
 after use to their proper places in the
  magazine of the machine4 ,there are in
 the machine a number of matrices  for  
each letter and also matrices           
representing special characters1 and    
spaces or quadrats of different         
thicknesses for use in table-work4      
,there  is a series of finger keys      
representing the various characters and 
spaces1 and the machine is so organized 
that on manipulating the keys it        
selects the matrices in the order in    

which their characters are to  appear in
 print1 and assembles them in a line1   
with wedge-shaped spaces  or justifiers 
between the words4 ,the series of       
matrices thus assembled  in line forms a
 line matrix1 or1 in other words1 a line
 of female dies  adapted to mold or form
 a line of raised type on a slug cast   
against the  matrices4 ,after the matrix
 line is composed1 it is automatically  
transferred to the face of a slotted    
mold into which molten type-metal  is   
delivered to form a slug or linotype    
against the matrices4 ,this done1  the  
matrices are returned to the magazine   
and distributed1 to be again  composed  
in new relations for succeeding lines4  
,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4    ,fig4 #b    
illustrates the general organization of 
the machine4    ,a represents an        
inclined channelled magazine in which   
the matrices are  stored4 ,each channel 
has at the lower end an escapement ,b to
 release  the matrices one at a time4   
,each of these escapements is connected 

by a  rod ,c and intermediate devices to
 one of the finger-keys in the  keyboard
 ,d4 ,these keys represent the various  
characters as in a  typewriter4 ,the    
keys are depressed in the order in which
 the characters  and spaces are to      
appear1 and the matricies1 released     
successively from  the lower end of the 
magazine1 descend between the guides ,e 
to the  surface of an inclined          
travelling belt ,f1 by which they are   
carried  downward and delivered         
successively into a channel in the upper
 part of  the assembling elevator ,g1 in
 which they are advanced by a           
star-shaped  wheel1 seen at the right4  
,the wedge-shaped spaces or justifiers  
,i are held in a magazine ,h1  from     
which they are delivered at proper      
intervals by finger-key ,j in  the      
keyboard1 so that they may pass downward
 and assume their proper  positions in  
the line of matrices4    ,when the      
composition of the line is completed1   
the assembling elevator  ,g is raised   

and the line is transferred1 as         
indicated by dotted lines1  first to the
 left and then downward to the casting  
position in front of  the slotted mold  
seated in and extending through the     
vertical wheel ,k1  as shown in ,figs4  
#b and #c4 ,the line of matrices is     
pressed against and  closes the front of
 the mold1 the characters on the        
matrices standing  directly opposite the
 slot in the mold1 as shown4 ,the back  
of the mold  communicates with and is   
closed by the mouth of a melting-pot ,m1
  containing a supply of molten metal   
and heated by a ,bunsen burner          
underneath4 ,within the pot is a        
vertical pump-plunger which acts at the 
proper time to drive the molten metal   
through the perforated mouth of  the pot
 into the mold and into all the         
characters in the matrices4 ,the  metal1
 solidifying1 forms a slug or linotype  
bearing on its edge1 in  relief1        
type-characters produced from the       
matrices4 ,the matrices and the  pot are

 immediately separated from the mold1   
and the mold wheel rotates  until the   
slug contained in the mold is presented 
in front of an ejector  blade1 where the
 slug is ejected from the mold through a
 pair of knives1  which trim the sides  
to the required size1 into the receiving
 galley1 as  shown in ,fig4 #d4         
,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4                
,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4    ,after the  
line of matrices and spaces has served  
its purpose1 it is  raised from the     
casting position and moved to the right1
 as shown by the  dotted lines and      
arrows in ,fig4 #b4 ,the teeth in the   
upper ends of the  matrices are engaged 
with a toothed bar ,r1 known as the     
second  elevator4 ,this elevator swings 
upward1 as shown by dotted lines1       
carrying the matrices to the level of   
the upper end of the magazine1 and      
leaving the spaces or justifiers behind 
to be transferred to their  magazine ,h4
    ,the distributing mechanism consists
 essentially of a fixed bar ,t1  lying  

in a horizontal position above the upper
 end of the magazine1 and  having along 
its lower edge1 as shown in ,fig4 #b1   
horizontal teeth to  engage the teeth in
 the upper end of the matrices and hold 
them in  suspension4 ,the teeth of the  
matrix for each letter differ in number 
or  arrangement1 or both1 from the teeth
 of matrices bearing other letters1  and
 the teeth on the lower edge of the     
distributor bar are  correspondingly    
varied in arrangement at different      
points in the length  of the bar4 7,see 
,fig4 #b47    ,the matrices are moved   
forward into engagement with the        
distributor bar  and also into          
engagement with the threads of          
horizontal screws ,u1  which are        
extended parallel with the distributor  
bar and constantly  rotated so that they
 cause the matrices to travel one after 
another  along the distributor and over 
the mouths of the channels in the       
magazines4 ,each matrix is held in      
suspension until it arrives over its    

proper channel1 where for the first time
 its teeth bear such relation to  those 
of the bar that it is released and      
permitted to fall into the  magazine4   
,the speed of the machine1 which is     
commonly from four to five thousand  ems
 per hour1 but which has reached ten    
thousand and upward in  competitive     
trials1 is due to the fact that the     
matrices pursue a  circulatory course1  
leaving the magazine at the lower end1  
passing  thence to the line and to the  
casting mechanism1 and finally returning
  to the top of the magazine4 ,this     
permits the composition of one line1    
the casting of another1 and the         
distribution of a third to proceed      
simultaneously4      ,,assembling ,,and 
,,keyboard ,,mechanisms    ,the matrices
 pass through the magazine by gravity4  
,their release is  effected by          
mechanisms shown in ,figs4 #e and #f1   
which are vertical  sections through the
 magazine1 the keyboard1 and            
intermediate  connections4 ,under each  

channel of the magazine1 there is an    
escapement  ,b1 consisting of a small   
lever rocking at its centre on a        
horizontal  pivot1 and carrying at its  
opposite ends two dogs or pawls b1 b1   
which  are projected up alternately into
 the magazine by the motion of the      
lever4 ,the key-rod ,c1 suspended from  
the rear end of the escapement  ,b1     
tends to hold the lower pawl b in an    
elevated position1 as shown  in ,fig4   
#e1 so that it engages under the upper  
ear of the foremost matrix  to prevent  
its escape4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 
,when the escapement ,b is rocked1 it   
withdraws the lower pawl b1 as  shown in
 ,fig4 #f1 at the same time raising the 
upper pawl1 so that it  engages and     
momentarily arrests the next matrix4 ,as
 soon as the first  matrix has escaped1 
the escapement resumes its original     
position1 the  upper pawl falling1 while
 the lower one rises so as to hold the  
second  matrix1 which assumes the       
position previously occupied by the one 

released4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4   
,thus it is that the alternate rising   
and falling of the two escapement  pawls
 permits the matrices to escape one at a
 time4 ,it is evident that  the         
escapements could be operated directly  
by rods connected with the  finger-keys1
 but this direct connection is          
objectionable because of the  labor     
required on the part of the operator1   
and the danger that the keys  may not be
 fully depressed4 ,moreover1 it is      
essential that the  escapements should  
act individually with moderate speed to 
the end that  the matrices may be       
properly engaged and disengaged by the  
pawls4 ,for  these reasons1 and to      
secure easy and uniform action of the   
parts1 the  mechanism shown in ,figs4 #e
 and #f is introduced between the       
finger-keys  and escapements4 ,the      
vertical rods ,c1 which actuate the     
escapements1  are guided in the main    
frame1 and each is urged downward by a  
spring  c4 ,each rod ,c terminates      

directly over one end of a rising and   
falling yoke-bar c#b1 turning on a pivot
 c#c at the opposite  end4 ,each of the 
yokes c#b is slotted vertically to admit
 an  eccentric c#d turning on a pivot   
therein4 ,a constantly rotating         
rubber-covered roll c#e is extended     
across the entire keyboard  beneath the 
cams1 which stand normally as shown in  
,fig4 #e1 out of  contact with the roll4
 ,when the parts are in this position1  
the cam-yoke  is sustained at its free  
end by the yoke-trigger c#h1 and a      
cross-bar in the cam engages a vertical 
pin c#g on the frame1  whereby the cam  
is prevented from falling on to the     
roller1 as it has a  tendency to do4    
,each of the yoke-triggers c#f is       
connected with a  vertical bar c#h1     
which is in turn connected to the rear  
end of a  finger-key lever ,d4 ,the     
parts stand normally at rest in the     
position  shown in ,fig4 #e1 the roll   
c#e turning freely under the cam without
  effect upon it4    ,when the          

finger-key is depressed1 it raises the  
bar c#h1 which in  turn trips the       
yoke-trigger c#f from under the cam-yoke
 c#b1  permitting the latter to fall1   
thereby lowering the cam c#d into       
peripheral engagement with the rubber   
roll1 at the same time disengaging  the 
cam from the stop-pin c#g4 ,the roll1   
engaging frictionally with  the cam1    
causes the latter to turn on its centre 
in the direction  indicated by the arrow
 in ,fig4 #f4    ,owing to the eccentric
 shape of the cam1 its rotation while   
resting on  the roller causes it to lift
 the yoke c#b above its original        
position1 so that it acts upon the      
escapement rod ,c1 lifting it and       
causing it to reverse the position of   
the escapement ,b1 to release the       
matrix1 as plainly seen in ,fig4 #f4    
,while this is taking place1 the        
yoke-trigger c#f resumes its first      
position1 as shown in dotted lines in   
,fig4 #f1 so that as the rotating  cam  
lowers the yoke1 it is again supported  

in its first position1 the  cam at the  
same time turning forward by momentum   
out of engagement with  the roll until  
arrested in its original position by the
 pin c#g4    ,it will be observed that  
the parts between each key lever and    
escapement  operate independently of the
 others1 so that a number of cams may be
 in  engagement with the rollers at one 
time1 and a number of escapements at    
different stages of their action at one 
time4    ,the matrices falling from the 
magazine descend through the front      
channels and are received on the        
inclined belt ,f1 on which they are     
carried over and guided on the upper    
rounding surface of the assembler       
entrance-block f#a1 by which they are   
guided downward in front of  the        
star-wheel f#b1 which pushes them       
forward one after another4    ,the      
spaces or justifiers ,i1 released from  
their magazine ,h1 as  heretofore       
described1 descend into the assembler ,g
 in front of the  star-wheel in the same

 manner as the matrices4    ,the line in
 course of composition is sustained at  
its front end by a  yielding finger or  
resistant g1 secured to a horizontal    
assembler  slide g#b1 the purpose of    
these parts being to hold the line      
together in compact form4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4    ,as the     
matrices approach the line1 their upper 
ends are carried over a  spring g#c1    
projecting through the assembler        
face-plate from the  rear1 as shown in  
,fig4 #g1 its purpose being to hold the 
matrices forward  and prevent them from 
falling back in such a manner that      
succeeding  matrices and spaces or      
justifiers will pass improperly ahead of
 them4  ,the descending matrices also   
pass beneath a long depending spring    
g#d1 which should be so adjusted as     
barely to permit the passage of  the    
thickest matrix4    ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #h4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4        
,after the composition of the line is   
completed in the assembling  elevator   

,g1 as shown in ,fig4 #h1 the elevator  
is raised as shown in  ,fig4 #i1 so as  
to present the line between the         
depending fingers of the                
transfer-carriage ,n1 which then moves  
to the left to the position  shown by   
dotted lines in ,fig4 #i1 thereby       
bringing the line into the  first       
elevator ,o1 which then descends1       
carrying the line of matrices           
downwards1 as shown in ,fig4 #aj1 to its
 position in front of the mold and      
between the confining jaws ,p1 ,p1      
mounted in the main frame1 which        
determine the length of the line4       
,figs4 #aa and #ab show the casting     
mechanism in vertical section from      
front to rear4 ,when the first elevator 
,o lowers the line1 as just  described1 
the mold and the pot ,m stand in their  
rearward positions1  as shown in ,fig4  
#aa4    ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4       
,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa4    ,the       
mold-carrying wheel is sustained by a   
horizontal slide1 and as soon  as the   

matrix line is lowered to the casting   
position1 a cam at the  rear pushes the 
slide and mold wheel forward until the  
front face of the  mold is closed       
tightly against the rear face of the    
matrix line1 as  shown in ,fig4 #ab4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4    ,while this
 is taking place1 the pot1 having its   
supporting legs mounted  on a horizontal
 shaft1 swings forward until its mouth  
is closed tightly  against the back of  
the mold1 as shown in ,fig4 #ab4 ,while 
the parts are  in this position1 the    
justifying bar ,q is driven up and      
pushes the  spaces or justifiers upward 
through the line of matrices until the  
line  is expanded or elongated to fill  
completely the gap between jaws ,p1  ,p4
    ,in order to secure exact alignment 
of the matrices vertically and          
horizontally1 the bar ,q acts repeatedly
 on the spaces1 and the line  is        
slightly unlocked endwise and relocked4 
,this is done that the  matrices may be 
temporarily released to facilitate the  

accurate  adjustment demanded4 ,while   
the justified line is locked fast       
between the  jaws1 the elevator1 and the
 mold1 the plunger m#b in the pot       
descends and drives the molten metal    
before it through the spout or  mouth of
 the pot into the mold1 which is filled 
under pressure1 so that  a solid slug is
 produced against the matrices4 ,the pot
 then retreats1  and its mouth breaks   
away from the back of the slug in the   
mold1 while1  at the same time1 the mold
 retreats to draw the type-characters on
 the  contained slug out of the         
matrices4 ,the mold wheel now revolves1 
carrying the rear edge of the slug past 
a stationary trimming-knife1 not  shown1
 and around to the position in front of 
the ejector1 as previously  described   
and shown in ,fig4 #d1 whereupon the    
ejector advances and drives  the slug   
between two side trimming-knives into   
the galley at the front4                
,,distribution    ,after the casting    
action the first elevator ,o rises and  

carries the  matrix line above the      
original or composing level1 as shown in
 ,fig4 #ac4  ,the line is then drawn    
horizontally to the right until the     
teeth of the  matrices engage the       
toothed elevator bar ,r1 which swings   
upward with  the matrices1 thus         
separating the matrices from the spaces 
or justifiers  ,i1 which remain         
suspended in the frame1 so that they may
 be pushed to  the right1 as indicated  
by the arrow1 into their magazine4      
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4               
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4    ,when the  
line of matrices is raised to the       
distributor1 it is necessary  that the  
matrices shall be separated and         
presented one at a time to the          
distributor bar1 between the threads of 
the horizontal carrier-screws4  ,this is
 accomplished as shown in ,figs4 #ad and
 #ae4 ,a horizontal pusher or           
line-shifter ,s carries the line of     
matrices forward from the elevator  bar 
,r into the so-called distributor box1  

containing at its opposite  sides two   
rails u1 having near their forward ends 
shoulders u#b1  against which the       
forward matrix abuts so as to prevent   
further advance  of the line1 which is  
urged constantly forward by the follower
 or  line-shifter ,s4 ,a vertically     
reciprocating lifting finger ,v has its 
upper end shouldered to engage beneath  
the foremost matrix1 so as to  push it  
upward until its upper ears are lifted  
above the detaining  shoulder u#b1 so   
that they may ride forward on the       
upwardly inclined  inner ends of the    
rails1 as shown in ,fig4 #ad4 ,the      
matrices thus lifted  are engaged by the
 screws and carried forward1 and1 as    
they move  forward1 they are gradually  
raised by the rails until the teeth     
finally  engage themselves on the       
distributor bar ,t1 from which they are 
suspended as they are carried forward1  
over the mouth of the magazine1  until  
they fall into their respective         
channels1 as shown in ,fig4 #ae4    ,the

 distributor box also contains on       
opposite sides shorter rails1  u#d1     
adapted to engage the lower ends of the 
matrices1 to hold them  in position as  
they are lifted4 ,the lifting finger ,v 
is mounted on a  horizontal pivot in one
 end of an elbow lever mounted on pivot 
v#b  and actuated by a cam on the end of
 one of the carrier-screws1 as shown  in
 ,figs4 #b and #ae4                     
,,trimming-,,knives    ,in practice     
there is occasionally found a slight    
irregularity in the  thickness of slugs1
 and thin fins are sometimes cast around
 the forward  edges4 ,for the purpose of
 reducing them to a uniform thickness1  
they are  driven on their way to the    
galley between two vertical knives1 as  
shown  in ,figs4 #d and #af4 ,the inner 
knife is stationary1 but the outer knife
 is  adjustable in order that it may    
accommodate slugs of different          
thicknesses4 ,this adjustment is made by
 the knife being seated at its  outer   
edge against a supporting bar or wedge1 

having at opposite ends  two inclined   
surfaces seated against supporting      
screws in the  knife-block4 ,a lever    
engages a pin on the wedge for the      
purpose of  moving it endwise2 when     
moving in one direction1 it forces the  
knife  inward toward the stationary     
knife1 and when moved in the other      
direction1 it forces it to retreat under
 the influence of a spring  seated in   
the block4 ,the wedge is provided with a
 series of teeth  engaged by a          
spring-actuated pin or dog1 whereby the 
wedge and the knife  are stopped in     
proper positions to insure the exact    
space required  between the two knives4 
,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4    ,the back  
knife1 secured to the frame for trimming
 the base of the slug  as it is carried 
past by the revolving wheel1 should be  
kept moderately  sharp and adjusted so  
as to fit closely against the back of   
the passing  mold4 ,particular attention
 should be paid to this feature4 ,the   
edge of  the knife must bear uniformly  

across the face of the mold4            
,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4    ,the front 
knives1 between which the slug is       
ejected1 should not be made  too sharp4 
,after being sharpened1 the thin edge   
can be advantageously  removed by the   
use of a thin oilstone applied against  
the side face2  that is1 against the    
face past which the slug is carried4    
,the stationary or left-hand knife      
should be so adjusted as to align       
exactly with the inner side of the mold4
 ,under proper conditions this  knife   
does not trim the side face of the slug1
 but acts only to remove  any slight    
fins or projections at the front edge4  
,the right-hand knife1 adjustable by    
means of a wedge and lever1 should      
stand exactly parallel with the         
stationary knife4 ,it trims the side of 
the slug on which the ribs are formed1  
and it serves to bring the slug  to the 
exact thickness required4               
,,footnotes3    ,footnote #b3 ,from     
,theodore ,l4 ,de ,vinne's ,modern      

,methods of ,book  ,composition1 pp4    
#djc-dbe4 ,the ,century ,company1 ,new  
,york1 #aijd4          ,,the            
,,exposition ,,of ,a ,,process ,,in     
,,nature    ,,the ,,pea ,,weevil#c      
,jean ,henri ,fabre      ,peas are held 
in high esteem by mankind4 ,from remote 
ages man has  endeavored1 by careful    
culture1 to produce larger1 tenderer1   
and sweeter  varieties4 ,of an adaptable
 character1 under careful treatment the 
plant  has evolved in a docile fashion1 
and has ended by giving us what the     
ambition of the gardener desired4       
,to-day we have gone far beyond the     
yield of the ,varrons and ,columelles1  
and further still beyond the  original  
pea2 from the wild seeds confided to the
 soil by the first man  who thought to  
scratch up the surface of the earth1    
perhaps with the  half-jaw of a         
cave-bear1 whose powerful canine tooth  
would serve him as  a ploughshare6      
,where is it1 this original pea1 in the 
world of spontaneous vegetation8  ,our  

own country has nothing resembling it4  
,is it to be found elsewhere8  ,on this 
point botany is silent1 or replies only 
with vague  probabilities4    ,we find  
the same ignorance elsewhere on the     
subject of the majority of  our         
alimentary vegetables4 ,whence comes    
wheat1 the blessed grain which  gives us
 bread8 ,no one knows4 ,you will not    
find it here1 except in the  care of    
man2 nor will you find it abroad4 ,in   
the ,east1 the birthplace  of           
agriculture1 no botanist has ever       
encountered the sacred ear growing  of  
itself on unbroken soil4    ,barley1    
oats1 and rye1 the turnip and the beet1 
the beetroot1 the  carrot1 the pumpkin1 
and so many other vegetable products1   
leave us in  the same perplexity2 their 
point of departure is unknown to us1 or 
at  most suspected behind the           
impenetrable cloud of the centuries4    
,nature  delivered them to us in the    
full vigor of the thing untamed1 when   
their  value as food was indifferent1 as

 to-day she offers us the sloe1 the     
bullace1 the blackberry1 the crab2 she  
gave them to us in the state of         
imperfect sketches1 for us to fill out  
and complete2 it was for our  skill and 
our labor patiently to induce the       
nourishing pulp which was  the earliest 
form of capital1 whose interest is      
always increasing in the  primordial    
bank of the tiller of the soil4    ,as  
storehouses of food the cereal and the  
vegetable are1 for the greater  part1   
the work of man4 ,the fundamental       
species1 a poor resource in their       
original state1 we borrowed as they were
 from the natural treasury of  the      
vegetable world2 the perfected race1    
rich in alimentary materials1  is the   
result of our art4    ,if wheat1 peas1  
and all the rest are indispensable to   
us1 our care1 by a  just return1 is     
absolutely necessary to them4 ,such as  
our needs have  made them1 incapable of 
resistance in the bitter struggle for   
survival1  these vegetables1 left to    

themselves without culture1 would       
rapidly  disappear1 despite the         
numerical abundance of their seeds1 as  
the  foolish sheep would disappear were 
there no more sheep-folds4    ,they are 
our work1 but not always our exclusive  
property4 ,wherever food  is amassed1   
the consumers collect from the four     
corners of the sky2 they  invite        
themselves to the feast of abundance1   
and the richer the food the  greater    
their numbers4 ,man1 who alone is       
capable of inducing agrarian  abundance1
 is by that very fact the giver of an   
immense banquet at which  legions of    
feasters take their place4 ,by creating 
more juicy and more  generous fruits1 he
 calls to his enclosures1 despite       
himself1 thousands  and thousands of    
hungry creatures1 against whose         
appetites his  prohibitions are         
helpless4 ,the more he produces1 the    
larger is the  tribute demanded of him4 
,wholesale agriculture and vegetable    
abundance  favor our rival1 the insect4 

,this is the immanent law4 ,nature1 with
 an equal zeal1 offers her mighty       
breast to all her nurslings alike2 to   
those who live by the goods of  others  
no less than to the producers4 ,for us1 
who plough1 sow1 and reap1  and weary   
ourselves with labor1 she ripens the    
wheat2 she ripens it also  for the      
little ,calender-beetle1 which1 although
 exempted from the labor  of the fields1
 enters our granaries none the less1 and
 there1 with its  pointed beak1 nibbles 
our wheat1 grain by grain1 to the husk4 
,for us1 who dig1 weed1 and water1 bent 
with fatigue and burned by the  sun1 she
 swells the pods of the pea2 she swells 
them also for the  weevil1 which does no
 gardener's work1 yet takes its share of
 the  harvest at its own hour1 when the 
earth is joyful with the new life of    
spring4    ,let us follow the manoeuvres
 of this insect which takes its tithe of
 the  green pea4 ,i1 a benevolent       
rate-payer1 will allow it to take its   
dues2  it is precisely to benefit it    

that ,i have sown a few rows of the     
beloved  plant in a corner of my garden4
 ,without other invitation on my part   
than  this modest expenditure of        
seed-peas1 it arrives punctually during 
the  month of ,may4 ,it has learned that
 this stony soil1 rebellious at the     
culture of the kitchen-gardener1 is     
bearing peas for the first time4 ,in    
all haste therefore it has hurried1 an  
agent of the entomological  revenue     
system1 to demand its dues4    ,whence  
does it come8 ,it is impossible to say  
precisely4 ,it has come from  some      
shelter1 somewhere1 in which it has     
passed the winter in a state of  torpor4
 ,the plane-tree1 which sheds its rind  
during the heats of the  summer1        
furnishes an excellent refuge for       
homeless insects under its  partly      
detached sheets of bark4    ,i have     
often found our weevil in such a winter 
refuge4 ,sheltered under  the dead      
covering of the plane1 or otherwise     
protected while the winter  lasts1 it   

awakens from its torpor at the first    
touch of a kindly sun4  ,the almanac of 
the instincts has aroused it2 it knows  
as well as the  gardener when the       
pea-vines are in flower1 and seeks its  
favorite plant1  journeying thither from
 every side1 running with quick1 short  
steps1 or  nimbly flying4    ,a small   
head1 a fine snout1 a costume of ashen  
grey sprinkled with  brown1 flattened   
wing-covers1 a dumpy1 compact body1 with
 two large  black dots on the rear      
segment--such is the summary portrait of
 my  visitor4 ,the middle of ,may       
approaches1 and with it the van of the  
invasion4    ,they settle on the        
flowers1 which are not unlike           
white-winged  butterflies4 ,i see them  
at the base of the blossom or inside the
 cavity  of the keel of the flower1 but 
the majority explore the petals and     
take possession of them4 ,the time for  
laying the eggs has not yet  arrived4   
,the morning is mild2 the sun is warm   
without being oppressive4  ,it is the   

moment of nuptial flights2 the time of  
rejoicing in the  splendor of the       
sunshine4 ,everywhere are creatures     
rejoicing to be  alive4 ,couples come   
together1 part1 and re-form4 ,when      
towards noon the  heat becomes too      
great1 the weevils retire into the      
shadow1 taking  refuge singly in the    
folds of the flowers whose secret       
corners they know  so well4 ,to-morrow  
will be another day of festival1 and the
 next day  also1 until the pods1        
emerging from the shelter of the keel of
 the  flower1 are plainly visible1      
enlarging from day to day4    ,a few    
gravid females1 more pressed for time   
than the others1 confide  their eggs to 
the growing pod1 flat and meager as it  
issues from its  floral sheath4 ,these  
hastily laid batches of eggs1 expelled  
perhaps by  the exigencies of an ovary  
incapable of further delay1 seem to me  
in  serious danger2 for the seed in     
which the grub must establish itself is 
as yet no more than a tender speck of   

green1 without firmness and  without any
 farinaceous tissue4 ,no larva could    
possibly find sufficient  nourishment   
there1 unless it waited for the pea to  
mature4    ,but is the grub capable of  
fasting for any length of time when once
  hatched8 ,it is doubtful4 ,the little 
,i have seen tells me that the  newborn 
grub must establish itself in the midst 
of its food as quickly  as possible1 and
 that it perishes unless it can do so4  
,i am therefore of  opinion that such   
eggs as are deposited in immature pods  
are lost4  ,however1 the race will      
hardly suffer by such a loss1 so fertile
 is the  little beetle4 ,we shall see   
directly how prodigal the female is of  
her  eggs1 the majority of which are    
destined to perish4    ,the important   
part of the maternal task is completed  
by the end of ,may1  when the shells are
 swollen by the expanding peas1 which   
have reached  their final growth1 or are
 but little short of it4 ,i was anxious 
to see  the female ,bruchus at work in  

her quality of ,curculionid1 as our     
classification declares her4#d ,the     
other weevils are ,rhyncophora1  beaked 
insects1 armed with a drill with which  
to prepare the hole in  which the egg is
 laid4 ,the ,bruchus possesses only a   
short snout or  muzzle1 excellently     
adapted for eating soft tissues1 but    
valueless as a  drill4    ,the method of
 installing the family is consequently  
absolutely  different4 ,there are no    
industrious preparations as with the    
,balinidae1  the ,larinidae1 and the    
,rhynchitides4 ,not being equipped with 
a long  oviscapt1 the mother sows her   
eggs in the open1 with no protection    
against the heat of the sun and the     
variations of temperature4 ,nothing     
could be simpler1 and nothing more      
perilous to the eggs1 in the absence  of
 special characteristics which1 would   
enable them to resist the  alternate    
trials of heat and cold1 moisture and   
drought4    ,in the caressing sunlight  
of ten o'clock in the morning1 the      

mother runs  up and down the chosen pod1
 first on one side1 then on the other1  
with  a jerky1 capricious1 unmethodical 
gait4 ,she repeatedly extrudes a short  
oviduct1 which oscillates right and left
 as though to graze the skin of  the    
pod4 ,an egg follows1 which is abandoned
 as soon as laid4    ,a hasty touch of  
the oviduct1 first here1 then there1 on 
the green skin  of the pea-pod1 and that
 is all4 ,the egg is left there1        
unprotected1 in  the full sunlight4 ,no 
choice of position is made such as might
 assist  the grub when it seeks to      
penetrate its larder4 ,some eggs are    
laid on  the swellings created by the   
peas beneath2 others in the barren      
valleys  which separate them4 ,the first
 are close to the peas1 the second at   
some  distance from them4 ,in short1 the
 eggs of the ,bruchus are laid at       
random1 as though on the wing4    ,we   
observe a still more serious vice3 the  
number of eggs is out of all  proportion
 to the number of peas in the pod4 ,let 

us note at the outset  that each grub   
requires one pea2 it is the necessary   
ration1 and is  largely sufficient for  
one larva1 but is not enough for        
several1 nor  even for two4 ,one pea to 
each grub1 neither more nor less1 is the
  unchangeable rule4    ,we should      
expect to find signs of a procreative   
economy which would  impel the female to
 take into account the number of peas   
contained in  the pod which she has just
 explored2 we might expect her to set a 
numerical limit on her eggs in          
conformity with that of the peas        
available4 ,but no such limit is        
observed4 ,the rule of one pea to one   
grub is always contradicted by the      
multiplicity of consumers4    ,my       
observations are unanimous on this      
point4 ,the number of eggs  deposited on
 one pod always exceeds the number of   
peas available1 and  often to a         
scandalous degree4 ,however meager the  
contents of the pod1  there is a        
superabundance of consumers4 ,dividing  

the sum of the eggs  upon such or such a
 pod by that of the peas contained      
therein1 ,i find  there are five to     
eight claimants for each pea2 ,i have   
found ten1 and  there is no reason why  
this prodigality should not go still    
further4  ,many are called1 but few are 
chosen6 ,what is to become of all these 
supernumeraries1 perforce excluded from 
the banquet for want of space8    ,the  
eggs are of a fairly bright amber       
yellow1 cylindrical in form1  smooth1   
and rounded at the ends4 ,their length  
is at most a twenty-fifth  of an inch4  
,each is affixed to the pod by means of 
a slight network of  threads of         
coagulated albumen4 ,neither wind nor   
rain can loosen their  hold4    ,the    
mother not infrequently emits them two  
at a time1 one above the  other2 not    
infrequently1 also1 the uppermost of the
 two eggs hatches  before the other1    
while the latter fades and perishes4    
,what was lacking  to this egg1 that it 
should fail to produce a grub8 ,perhaps 

a bath of  sunlight2 the incubating heat
 of which the outer egg has robbed it4  
,whether on account of the fact that it 
is shadowed by the other egg1 or  for   
other reasons1 the elder of the eggs in 
a group of two rarely  follows the      
normal course1 but perishes on the pod1 
dead without having  lived4    ,there   
are exceptions to this premature end2   
sometimes the two eggs  develop equally 
well2 but such cases are exceptional1 so
 that the  ,bruchid family would be     
reduced to about half its dimensions if 
the  binary system were the rule4 ,to   
the detriment of our peas and to the    
advantage of the beetle1 the eggs are   
commonly laid one by one and in         
isolation4    ,a recent emergence is    
shown by a little sinuous ribbon-like   
mark1 pale  or whitish1 where the skin  
of the pod is raised and withered1 which
  starts from the egg and is the work of
 the newborn larva2 a  sub-epidermic    
tunnel along which the grub works its   
way1 while seeking a  point from which  

it can escape into a pea4 ,this point   
once attained1 the  larva1 which is     
scarcely a twenty-fifth of an inch in   
length1 and is  white with a black head1
 perforates the envelope and plunges    
into the  capacious hollow of the pod4  
,it has reached the peas and crawls upon
 the nearest4 ,i have observed it  with 
the magnifier4 ,having explored the     
green globe1 its new world1 it  begins  
to sink a well perpendicularly into the 
sphere4 ,i have often seen  it halfway  
in1 wriggling its tail in the effort to 
work the quicker4 ,in  a short time the 
grub disappears and is at home4 ,the    
point of entry1  minute1 but always     
easily recognizable by its brown        
coloration on the  pale green background
 of the pea1 has no fixed location2 it  
may be at  almost any point on the      
surface of the pea1 but an exception is 
usually  made of the lower half2 that   
is1 the hemisphere whose pole is formed 
by  the supporting stem4    ,it is      
precisely in this portion that the germ 

is found1 which will not  be eaten by   
the larva1 and will remain capable of   
developing into a  plant1 in spite of   
the large aperture made by the emergence
 of the adult  insect4 ,why is this     
particular portion left untouched8 ,what
 are the  motives that safeguard the    
germ8    ,it goes without saying that   
the ,bruchus is not considering the     
gardener4 ,the pea is meant for it and  
for no one else4 ,in refusing the  few  
bites that would lead to the death of   
the seed1 it has no intention  of       
limiting its destruction4 ,it abstains  
from other motives4    ,let us remark   
that the peas touch laterally1 and are  
pressed one against  the other1 so that 
the grub1 when searching for a point of 
attack1  cannot circulate at will4 ,let 
us also note that the lower pole expands
  into the umbilical excrescence1 which 
is less easy of perforation than  those 
parts protected by the skin alone4 ,it  
is even possible that the  umbilicum1   
whose organization differs from that of 

the rest of the pea1  contains a        
peculiar sap that is distasteful to the 
little grub4    ,such1 doubtless1 is the
 reason why the peas exploited by the   
,bruchus are  still able to germinate4  
,they are damaged1 but not dead1 because
 the  invasion was conducted from the   
free hemisphere1 a portion less         
vulnerable and more easy of access4     
,moreover1 as the pea in its entirety   
is too large for a single grub to       
consume1 the consumption is limited to  
the portion preferred by the consumer1  
and this portion is not the  essential  
portion of the pea4    ,with other      
conditions1 with very much smaller or   
very much larger seeds1  we shall       
observe very different results4 ,if too 
small1 the germ will  perish1 gnawed    
like the rest by the insufficiently     
provisioned inmate2  if too large1 the  
abundance of food will permit of several
 inmates4  ,exploited in the absence of 
the pea1 the cultivated vetch and the   
broad  bean afford us an excellent      

example2 the smaller seed1 of which all 
but  the skin is devoured1 is left      
incapable of germination2 but the large 
bean1 even though it may have held a    
number of grubs1 is still capable  of   
sprouting4    ,knowing that the pod     
always exhibits a number of eggs greatly
 in excess  of the enclosed peas1 and   
that each pea is the exclusive property 
of one  grub1 we naturally ask what     
becomes of the superfluous grubs4 ,do   
they  perish outside when the more      
precocious have one by one taken their  
places in their vegetable larder8 or do 
they succumb to the intolerant  teeth of
 the first occupants8 ,neither          
explanation is correct4 ,let us  relate 
the facts4    ,on all old peas--they are
 at this stage dry--from which the adult
  ,bruchus has emerged1 leaving a large 
round hole of exit1 the                 
magnifying-glass will show a variable   
number of fine reddish  punctuations1   
perforated in the centre4 ,what are     
these spots1 of which ,i  count five1   

six1 and even more on a single pea8 ,it 
is impossible to be  mistaken3 they are 
the points of entry of as many grubs4   
,several grubs  have entered the pea1   
but of the whole group only one has     
survived1  fattened1 and attained the   
adult age4 ,and the others8 ,we shall   
see4    ,at the end of ,may1 and in     
,june1 the period of egg-laying1 let us 
inspect  the still green and tender     
peas4 ,nearly all the peas invaded show 
us the  multiple perforations already   
observed on the dry peas abandoned by   
the  weevils4 ,does this actually mean  
that there are several grubs in the     
pea8 ,yes4 ,skin the peas in question1  
separate the cotyledons1 and break  them
 up as may be necessary4 ,we shall      
discover several grubs1 extremely       
youthful1 curled up comma-wise1 fat and 
lively1 each in a little round  niche in
 the body of the pea4    ,peace and     
welfare seem to reign in the little     
community4 ,there is no  quarrelling1 no
 jealousy between neighbors4 ,the feast 

has commenced2  food is abundant1 and   
the feasters are separated one from     
another by the  walls of uneaten        
substance4 ,with this isolation in      
separate cells no  conflicts need be    
feared2 no sudden bite of the mandibles1
 whether  intentional or accidental4    
,all the occupants enjoy the same rights
 of  property1 the same appetite1 and   
the same strength4 ,how does this       
communal feast terminate8    ,having    
first opened them1 ,i place a number of 
peas which are found to be  well peopled
 in a glass test-tube4 ,i open others   
daily4 ,in this way ,i  keep myself     
informed as to the progress of the      
various larvae4 ,at first  nothing      
noteworthy is to be seen4 ,isolated in  
its narrow chamber1 each  grub nibbles  
the substance around it1 peacefully and 
parsimoniously4 ,it  is still very      
small2 a mere speck of food is a feast2 
but the contents  of one pea will not   
suffice the whole number to the end4    
,famine is  ahead1 and all but one must 

perish4    ,soon1 indeed1 the aspect of 
things is entirely changed4 ,one of the 
grubs--that which occupies the central  
position in the pea--begins to  grow    
more quickly than the others4 ,scarcely 
has it surpassed the others  in size    
when the latter cease to eat1 and no    
longer attempt to burrow  forwards4     
,they lie motionless and resigned2 they 
die that gentle death  which comes to   
unconscious lives4 ,henceforth the      
entire pea belongs to  the sole         
survivor4 ,now what has happened that   
these lives around the  privileged one  
should be thus annihilated8 ,in default 
of a satisfactory  reply1 ,i will       
propose a suggestion4    ,in the centre 
of the pea1 less ripened than the rest  
of the seed by the  chemistry of the    
sun1 may there not be a softer pulp1 of 
a quality  better adapted to the        
infantile digestion of the grub8 ,there1
 perhaps1  being nourished by tenderer1 
sweeter1 and perhaps1 more tasty        
tissues1  the stomach becomes more      

vigorous1 until it is fit to undertake  
less  easily digested food4 ,a nursling 
is fed on milk before proceeding to     
bread and broth4 ,may not the central   
portion of the pea be the               
feeding-bottle of the ,bruchid8    ,with
 equal rights1 fired by an equal        
ambition1 all the occupants of the  pea 
bore their way towards the delicious    
morsel4 ,the journey is  laborious1 and 
the grubs must rest frequently in their 
provisional  niches4 ,they rest2 while  
resting they frugally gnaw the riper    
tissues  surrounding them2 they gnaw    
rather to open a way than to fill their 
stomachs4    ,finally one of the        
excavators1 favored by the direction    
taken1 attains  the central portion4 ,it
 establishes itself there1 and all is   
over2 the  others have only to die4 ,how
 are they warned that the place is      
taken8 ,do  they hear their brother     
gnawing at the walls of his lodging8 can
 they  feel the vibration set up by his 
nibbling mandibles8 ,something of the   

kind must happen1 for from that moment  
they make no attempt to burrow  further4
 ,without struggling against the        
fortunate winner1 without  seeking to   
dislodge him1 those which are beaten in 
the race give  themselves up to death4  
,i admire this candid resignation on the
 part of  the departed4    ,another     
condition--that of space--is also       
present as a factor4 ,the pea  weevil is
 the largest of our ,bruchidae4 ,when it
 attains the adult  stage1 it requires a
 certain amplitude of lodging1 which the
 other  weevils do not require in the   
same degree4 ,a pea provides it with a  
sufficiently spacious cell2             
nevertheless1 the cohabitation of two in
 one  pea would be impossible2 there    
would be no room1 even were the two to  
put up with a certain discomfort4 ,hence
 the necessity of an inevitable         
decimation1 which will suppress all the 
competitors save one4    ,now the       
superior volume of the broad bean1 which
 is almost as much  beloved by the      

weevil as the pea1 can lodge a          
considerable community1  and the        
solitary can live as a cenobite4        
,without encroaching on the  domain of  
their neighbors1 five or six or more can
 find room in the one  bean4            
,moreover1 each grub can find its infant
 diet2 that is1 that layer which1       
remote from the surface1 hardens only   
gradually and remains full of sap  until
 a comparatively late period4 ,this     
inner layer represents the crumb  of a  
loaf1 the rest of the bean being the    
crust4    ,in a pea1 a sphere of much   
less capacity1 it occupies the central  
portion2 a limited point at which the   
grub develops1 and lacking which  it    
perishes2 but in the bean it lines the  
wide adjoining faces of the  two        
flattened cotyledons4 ,no matter where  
the point of attack is made1  the grub  
has only to bore straight down when it  
quickly reaches the  softer tissues4    
,what is the result8 ,i have counted the
 eggs adhering to  a bean-pod and the   

beans included in the pod1 and comparing
 the two  figures ,i find that there is 
plenty of room for the whole family at  
the  rate of five or six dwellers in    
each bean4 ,no superfluous larvae perish
  of hunger when barely issued from the 
egg2 all have their share of the  ample 
provision2 all live and prosper4 ,the   
abundance of food balances  the prodigal
 fertility of the mother4    ,if the    
,bruchus were always to adopt the broad 
bean for the establishment  of her      
family1 ,i could well understand the    
exuberant allowance of eggs  to one pod2
 a rich foodstuff easily obtained evokes
 a large batch of  eggs4 ,but the case  
of the pea perplexes me4 ,by what       
aberration does the  mother abandon her 
children to starvation on this totally  
insufficient  vegetable8 ,why so many   
grubs to each pea when one pea is       
sufficient only  for one grub8          
,matters are not so arranged in the     
general balance-sheet of life4 ,a       
certain foresight seems to rule over the

 ovary so that the number of  mouths is 
in proportion to the abundance or       
scarcity of the food  consumed4 ,the    
,scarabaeus1 the ,sphex1 the            
,necrophorus1 and other insects  which  
prepare and preserve alimentary         
provision for their families1 are  all  
of a narrowly limited fertility1 because
 the balls of dung1 the dead  or        
paralyzed insects1 or the buried corpses
 of animals on which their  offspring   
are nourished are provided only at the  
cost of laborious  efforts4    ,the     
ordinary bluebottle1 on the contrary1   
which lays her eggs upon  butcher's meat
 or carrion1 lays them in enormous      
batches4 ,trusting in  the inexhaustible
 riches represented by the corpse1 she  
is prodigal of  offspring1 and takes no 
account of numbers4 ,in other cases the 
provision  is acquired by audacious     
brigandage1 which exposes the newly born
  offspring to a thousand mortal        
accidents4 ,in such cases the mother    
balances the chances of destruction by  

an exaggerated flux of eggs4  ,such is  
the case with the ,meloides1 which1     
stealing the goods of others  under     
conditions of the greatest peril1 are   
accordingly endowed with a  prodigious  
fertility4    ,the ,bruchus knows       
neither the fatigues of the laborious1  
obliged to  limit the size of her       
family1 nor the misfortunes of the      
parasite1  obliged to produce an        
exaggerated number of offspring4        
,without painful  search1 entirely at   
her ease1 merely moving in the sunshine 
over her  favorite plant1 she can insure
 a sufficient provision for each of her 
offspring2 she can do so1 yet is foolish
 enough to over-populate the pod  of the
 pea2 a nursery insufficiently provided1
 in which the great  majority will      
perish of starvation4 ,this ineptitude  
is a thing ,i cannot  understand2 it    
clashes too completely with the habitual
 foresight of the  maternal instinct4   
,i am inclined to believe that the pea  
is not the original food plant of  the  

,bruchus4 ,the original plant must      
rather have been the bean1 one seed  of 
which is capable of supporting a dozen  
or more larvae4 ,with the  larger       
cotyledon the crying disproportion      
between the number of eggs and  the     
available provision disappears4         
,moreover1 it is indubitable that the   
bean is of earlier date than the  pea4  
,its exceptional size and its agreeable 
flavor would certainly have  attracted  
the attention of man from the remotest  
periods4 ,the bean is a  ready-made     
mouthful1 and would be of the greatest  
value to the hungry  tribe4 ,primitive  
man would at an early date have sown it 
beside his  wattled hut4 ,coming from   
,central ,asia by long stages1 their    
wagons drawn  by shaggy oxen and rolling
 on the circular discs cut from the     
trunks of  trees1 the early immigrants  
would have brought to our virgin land1  
first  the bean1 then the pea1 and      
finally the cereal1 that best of        
safeguards  against famine4 ,they taught

 us the care of herds1 and the use of   
bronze1  the material of the first metal
 implement4 ,thus the dawn of           
civilization  arose over ,france4 ,with 
the bean did those ancient teachers also
  involuntarily bring us the insect     
which to-day disputes it with us8 ,it   
is doubtful2 the ,bruchidae seem to be  
indigenous4 ,at all events1 ,i find     
them levying tribute from various       
indigenous plants1 wild vegetables      
which have never tempted the appetite of
 man4 ,they abound in particular  upon  
the great forest vetch 7,lathyrus       
latifolius71 with its  magnificent heads
 of flowers and long handsome pods4 ,the
 seeds are not  large1 being indeed     
smaller than the garden pea2 but1 eaten 
to the very  skin1 as they invariably   
are1 each is sufficient to the needs of 
its  grub4    ,we must not fail to note 
their number4 ,i have counted more than 
twenty  in a single pod1 a number       
unknown in the case of the pea1 even in 
the  most prolific varieties4           

,consequently this superb vetch is in   
general  able to nourish without much   
loss the family confided to its pod4    
,where the forest vetch is lacking1 the 
,bruchus1 none the less1 bestows  its   
habitual prodigality of eggs upon       
another vegetable of similar  flavor1   
but incapable of nourishing all the     
grubs3 for example1 the  travelling     
vetch 7,vicia peregrina7 or the         
cultivated vetch 7,vicia  saliva74 ,the 
number of eggs remains high even upon   
insufficient pods1  because the original
 food-plant offered a copious provision1
 both in the  multiplicity and the size 
of the seeds4 ,if the ,bruchus is really
 a  stranger1 let us regard the bean as 
the original food-plant2 if  indigenous1
 the large vetch4    ,sometime in the   
remote past we received the pea1 growing
 it at first in  the prehistoric        
vegetable garden which already supplied 
the bean4 ,it was  found a better       
article of diet than the broad bean1    
which to-day1 after  such good service1 

is comparatively neglected4 ,the weevil 
was of the  same opinion as man1 and    
without entirely forgetting the bean and
 the  vetch it established the greater  
part of its tribe upon the pea1 which   
from century to century was more widely 
cultivated4 ,to-day we have to  share   
our peas2 the ,bruchidae take what they 
need1 and bestow their  leavings on us4 
,this prosperity of the insect which is 
the offspring of the abundance  and     
equality of our garden products is from 
another point of view  equivalent to    
decadence4 ,for the weevil1 as for      
ourselves1 progress in  matters of food 
and drink is not always beneficial4 ,the
 race would  profit better if it        
remained frugal4 ,on the bean and the   
vetch the  ,bruchus founded colonies in 
which the infant mortality was low4     
,there  was room for all4 ,on the       
pea-vine1 delicious though its fruits   
may be1  the greater part of its        
offspring die of starvation4 ,the       
rations are  few1 and the hungry mouths 

are multitudinous4    ,we will linger   
over this problem no longer4 ,let us    
observe the grub  which has now become  
the sole tenant of the pea by the death 
of its  brothers4 ,it has had no part in
 their death2 chance has favored it1    
that  is all4 ,in the centre of the pea1
 a wealthy solitude1 it performs the    
duty of a grub1 the sole duty of eating4
 ,it nibbles the walls enclosing  it1   
enlarging its lodgment1 which is always 
entirely filled by its  corpulent body4 
,it is well shaped1 fat1 and shining    
with health4 ,if ,i  disturb it1 it     
turns gently in its niche and sways its 
head4 ,this is its  manner of           
complaining of my importunities4 ,let us
 leave it in peace4    ,it profits so   
greatly and so swiftly by its position  
that by the time  the dog-days have come
 it is already preparing for its        
approaching  liberation4 ,the adult is  
not sufficiently well equipped to open  
for  itself a way out through the pea1  
which is now completely hardened4 ,the  

larva knows of this future helplessness1
 and with consummate art  provides for  
its release4 ,with its powerful         
mandibles it bores a channel  of exit1  
exactly round1 with extremely clean-cut 
sides4 ,the most skilful  ivory-carver  
could do no better4    ,to prepare the  
door of exit in advance is not enough2  
the grub must also  provide for the     
tranquillity essential to the delicate  
processes of  nymphosis4 ,an intruder   
might enter by the open door and injure 
the  helpless nymph4 ,this passage must 
therefore remain closed4 ,but how8      
,as the grub bores the passage of exit1 
it consumes the farinaceous  matter     
without leaving a crumb4 ,having come to
 the skin of the pea1 it  stops short4  
,this membrane1 semi-translucid1 is the 
door to the chamber  of metamorphosis1  
its protection against the evil         
intentions of external  creatures4      
,it is also the only obstacle which the 
adult will encounter at the  moment of  
exit4 ,to lessen the difficulty of      

opening it1 the grub takes  the         
precaution of gnawing at the inner side 
of the skin1 all round the              
circumference1 so as to make a line of  
least resistance4 ,the perfect  insect  
will only have to heave with its        
shoulder and strike a few blows  with   
its head in order to raise the circular 
door and knock it off like  the lid of a
 box4 ,the passage of exit shows through
 the diaphanous skin  of the pea as a   
large circular spot1 which is darkened  
by the obscurity  of the interior4 ,what
 passes behind it is invisible1 hidden  
as1 it is  behind a sort of ground-glass
 window4    ,a pretty invention1 this   
little closed porthole1 this barricade  
against  the invader1 this trap-door    
raised by a push when the time has come 
for  the hermit to enter the world4     
,shall we credit it to the ,bruchus8    
,did  the ingenious insect conceive the 
undertaking8 ,did it think out a plan   
and work out a scheme of its own        
devising8 ,this would be no small       

triumph for the brain of a weevil4      
,before coming to a conclusion1 let us  
try an experiment4    ,i deprive certain
 occupied peas of their skin1 and ,i dry
 them with  abnormal rapidity1 placing  
them in glass test-tubes4 ,the grubs    
prosper  as well as in the intact peas4 
,at the proper time the preparations for
  emergence are made4    ,if the grub   
acts on its own inspiration1 if it      
ceases to prolong its  boring directly  
it recognizes that the outer coating1   
auscultated from  time to time1 is      
sufficiently thin1 what will it do under
 the conditions  of the present test8   
,feeling itself at the requisite        
distance from the  surface1 it will stop
 boring2 it will respect the outer layer
 of the  bare pea1 and will thus obtain 
the indispensable protecting screen4    
,nothing of the kind occurs4 ,in every  
case the passage is completely          
excavated2 the entrance gapes wide open1
 as large and as carefully  executed as 
though the skin of the pea were in its  

place4 ,reasons of  security have failed
 to modify the usual method of work4    
,this open  lodging has no defence      
against the enemy2 but the grub exhibits
 no  anxiety on this score4    ,neither 
is it thinking of the outer enemy when  
it bores down to the skin  when the pea 
is intact1 and then stops short4 ,it    
suddenly stops because  the innutritious
 skin is not to its taste4 ,we ourselves
 remove the  parchment-like skins from a
 mess of pease-pudding1 as from a       
culinary  point of view they are so much
 waste matter4 ,the larva of the        
,bruchus1  like ourselves1 dislikes the 
skin of the pea4 ,it stops short at the 
horny covering1 simply because it is    
checked by an uneatable substance4      
,from this aversion a little miracle    
arises2 but the insect has no sense  of 
logic2 it is passively obedient to the  
superior logic of facts4 ,it  obeys its 
instinct1 as unconscious of its act as  
is a crystal when it  assembles1 in     
exquisite order1 its battalions of      

atoms4    ,sooner or later during the   
month of ,august we see a shadowy circle
 form  on each inhabited pea2 but only  
one on each seed4 ,these circles of     
shadow mark the doors of exit4 ,most of 
them open in ,september4 ,the lid1  as  
though cut out with a punch1 detaches   
itself cleanly and falls to the  ground1
 leaving the orifice free4 ,the ,bruchus
 emerges1 freshly clad1 in  its final   
form4    ,the weather is delightful4    
,flowers are abundant1 awakened by the  
summer  showers2 and the weevils visit  
them in the lovely autumn weather4      
,then1  when the cold sets in1 they take
 up their winter quarters in any        
suitable retreat4 ,others1 still        
numerous1 are less hasty in quitting    
the native seed4 ,they remain within    
during the whole winter1 sheltered      
behind the trap-door1 which they take   
care not to touch4 ,the door of the     
cell will not open on its hinges1 or1 to
 be exact1 will not yield along  the    
line of least resistance1 until the warm

 days return4 ,then the late  arrivals  
will leave their shelter and rejoin the 
more impatient1 and  both will be ready 
for work when the pea-vines are in      
flower4    ,to take a general view of   
the instincts in their inexhaustible    
variety  is1 for the observer1 the great
 attraction of the entomological world1 
for nowhere do we gain a clearer sight  
of the wonderful way in which the       
processes of life are ordered4 ,thus    
regarded1 entomology is not1 ,i know1   
to the taste of everybody2 the simple   
creature absorbed in the doings  and    
habits of insects is held in low esteem4
 ,to the terrible  utilitarian1 a bushel
 of peas preserved from the weevil is of
 more  importance than a volume of      
observations which bring no immediate   
profit4    ,yet who has told you1 ,o man
 of little faith1 that what is useless  
to-day  will not be useful to-morrow8   
,if we learn the customs of insects or  
animals1 we shall understand better how 
to protect our goods4 ,do not  despise  

disinterested knowledge1 or you may rue 
the day4 ,it is by the  accumulation of 
ideas1 whether immediately applicable or
 otherwise1 that  humanity has done1 and
 will continue to do1 better to-day than
  yesterday1 and better to-morrow than  
to-day4 ,if we live on peas and  beans1 
which we dispute with the weevil1 we    
also live by knowledge1 that  mighty    
kneading-trough in which the bread of   
progress is mixed and  leavened4        
,knowledge is well worth a few beans4   
,among other things1 knowledge tells us3
 ,the seedsman need not go to the       
expense of waging war upon the weevil4  
,when the peas arrive in the  granary1  
the harm is already done2 it is         
irreparable1 but not  transmissible4    
,the untouched peas have nothing to fear
 from the  neighborhood of those which  
have been attacked1 however long the    
mixture  is left4 ,from the latter the  
weevils will issue when their time has  
come2 they will fly away from the       
storehouse if escape is possible2 if    

not1 they will perish without in any way
 attacking the sound peas4 ,no  eggs1 no
 new generation will ever be seen upon  
or within the dried peas  in the        
storehouse2 there the adult weevil can  
work no further mischief4    ,the       
,bruchus is not a sedentary inhabitant  
of granaries3 it requires the  open air1
 the sun1 the liberty of the fields4    
,frugal in everything1 it  absolutely   
disdains the hard tissues of the        
vegetable2 its tiny mouth is  content   
with a few honeyed mouthfuls1 enjoyed   
upon the flowers4 ,the  larvae1 on the  
other hand1 require the tender tissues  
of the green pea  growing in the pod4   
,for these reasons the granary knows no 
final  multiplication on the part of the
 despoiler4    ,the origin of the evil  
is in the kitchen-garden4 ,it is there  
that we  ought to keep a watch on the   
misdeeds of the ,bruchus1 were it not   
for  the fact that we are nearly always 
weaponless when it comes to fighting  an
 insect4 ,indestructible by reason of   

its numbers1 its small size1 and  its   
cunning1 the little creature laughs at  
the anger of man4 ,the  gardener curses 
it1 but the weevil is not disturbed2 it 
imperturbably  continues its trade of   
levying tribute4 ,happily we have       
assistants more  patient and more       
clear-sighted than ourselves4    ,during
 the first week of ,august1 when the    
mature ,bruchus begins to  emerge1 ,i   
notice a little ,chalcidian1 the        
protector of our peas4 ,in my           
rearing-cages it issues under my eyes in
 abundance from the peas  infested by   
the grub of the weevil4 ,the female has 
a reddish head and  thorax2 the abdomen 
is black1 with a long augur-like        
oviscapt4 ,the male1  a little smaller1 
is black4 ,both sexes have reddish claws
 and  thread-like antennae4    ,in order
 to escape from the pea1 the slayer of  
the weevil makes an  opening in the     
centre of the circular trap-door which  
the grub of the  weevil prepared in view
 of its future deliverance4 ,the slain  

has  prepared the way for the slayer4   
,after this detail the rest may be      
divined4    ,when the preliminaries to  
the metamorphosis are completed1 when   
the  passage of escape is bored and     
furnished with its lid of superficial   
membrane1 the female ,chalcidian arrives
 in a busy mood4 ,she inspects the      
peas1 still on the vine1 and enclosed in
 their pods2 she auscultates  them with 
her antennae2 she discovers1 hidden     
under the general  envelope1 the weak   
points in the epidermic covering of the 
peas4 ,then1  applying her oviscapt1 she
 thrusts it through the side of the pod 
and  perforates the circular trap-door4 
,however far withdrawn into the centre  
of the pea1 the ,bruchus1 whether larvae
 or nymph1 is reached by the long       
oviduct4 ,it receives an egg in its     
tender flesh1 and the thing is done4    
,without possibility of defence1 since  
it is by now a somnolent grub or a      
helpless pupa1 the embryo weevil is     
eaten until nothing but skin  remains4  

,what a pity that we cannot at will     
assist the multiplication of  this eager
 exterminator6 ,alas6 our assistants    
have got us in a vicious  circle1 for if
 we wished to obtain the help of any    
great number of  ,chalcidians we should 
be obliged in the first place to breed a
  multiplicity of ,bruchidae4           
,,footnotes3    ,footnote #c3 ,from     
,social ,life in the ,insect ,world1    
translated by  ,bernard ,miall1 ,chapter
 ,,xviii4 ,the ,century ,company1 ,new  
,york1 #aiac4    ,footnote #d3 ,this    
classification is now superseded2 the   
,pea and ,bee  ,weevils--,bruchus pisi  
and ,bruchus lenti--are classed as      
,bruchidae1  in the series of           
,phytophaga4 ,most of the other weevils 
are classed as  ,curculionidae1 series  
,rhyncophora4--7,trans47          ,,the 
,,exposition ,,of ,a ,,manufacturing    
,,process    ,,modern ,,paper-,,making#e
    ,j4,w4 ,butler ,paper ,company      
,though the steady march of progress and
 invention has given to the  modern     

paper-maker marvelous machines by which 
the output is increased a  thousandfold 
over that of the old1 slow methods1 he  
still has many of  the same difficulties
 to overcome that confronted his        
predecessor4 ,while  the use of wood    
pulp has greatly changed the conditions 
as regards the  cheaper grades of this  
staple1 the ragman is to-day almost as  
important  to the manufacturer of the   
higher grades as he was one hundred     
years ago  when the saving of rags was  
inculcated as a domestic virtue and a   
patriotic duty4 ,methods have changed1  
but the material remains the same4  ,in 
a complete modern mill making writing   
and other high-grade papers1  the       
process begins with unsightly rags as   
the material from which to  form the    
white sheets that are to receive upon   
their spotless polished  surface the    
thoughts of philosophers and statesmen1 
the tender messages  of affection1 the  
counsels and admonitions of ministers1  
the decisions  of grave and learned     

judges1 and all the        ,wisdom of   
things1 mysterious1 divine1 that        
,illustriously doth on paper shine1     
as was duly set forth in rhyme by the   
,boston ,news ,letter in #agfi4  ,the   
bell cart will go through ,boston about 
the end of next month1 it  announced1   
and appealed to the inhabitants of that 
modern seat of  learning and philosophy 
to save their rags for the occasion1 and
 thus  encourage the industry4    ,the  
rags do not come to the mammoth         
factories of to-day in bell carts1  but 
by the carload in huge bales gathered   
from all sections of this  great        
,republic1 as well as from lands beyond 
the eastern and western  oceans4 ,the   
square1 compact1 steam-compressed       
bundles are carried by  elevators well  
up toward the top of the building1 where
 they await the  knife of the opener4   
,when they have been opened1 the feeder 
throws  the contents by armfuls into the
 thrasher4 ,the novice or layman1       
ignorant of the state in which rags come

 to the mill1 will find their  condition
 a most unpleasant surprise1 especially 
disagreeable to his  olfactory nerves4  
,yet the unsavory revelation comes with 
more force a  little farther on1 in the 
assorting-room4 ,the thrasher is a great
  cylindrical receptacle1 revolving     
rapidly1 which is supplied with long    
wooden beaters or arms passing through a
 wooden cylinder and driven by  power4  
,when the rags have been tossed in1     
there ensues a great pounding  and      
thrashing1 and the dust is carried off  
in suction air-tubes1 while  the whipped
 rags are discharged and carried to the 
sorting and  shredding room4 ,here the  
rags are assorted as to size1 condition1
 and  the presence of buttons1 hooks and
 eyes1 or other material that must be   
removed4 ,then those that need further  
attention are passed on to the          
shredders1 these as well as the sorters 
being women4 ,the  shredders stand along
 a narrow counter2 in front of each one 
there is  fastened a long scythe-blade  

with its back toward the operator and   
its  point extending upward1 the shank  
being firmly fixed to the table or      
operating board4 ,here buttons1 hard    
seams1 and all similar intruders are    
disposed of1 and the larger pieces of   
rags are cut into numerous small  ones  
on the scythe-blades4 ,the rags thus    
prepared are tossed by the  women into  
receptacles in the tables4 ,the work in 
this room is the most  disagreeable and 
unwholesome in the entire process of    
manufacture1 and  this despite the fact 
that these rags1 too1 have been         
thrashed1 and  freed from an amount of  
dust and dirt beyond belief4    ,while  
one is watching the operations carried  
on here1 it is impossible  to repress   
the wish that rags might be bought      
otherwise than by the  pound1 for1      
unfortunately1 filth1 dust1 and dirt    
weigh1 and to wash rags  only reduces   
the weight4 ,while this is a true       
reflection of the  condition in the     
average mill1 it is pleasant to know1   

however1 there  are others of the higher
 class that are decided exceptions as   
far as  dust and dirt are concerned4    
,such are the mills making high-grade   
ledger  and bond papers1 as well as the 
mill manufacturing the paper that is    
used for the printing of our greenbacks1
 to which further reference  will be    
made later4 ,in these exceptional mills 
everything is neat and  perfectly clean1
 all the stock used being new and fresh 
from the cotton  or linen mills1 or from
 factories producing cloth goods1 like  
shirt and  corset factories1 and others 
of the same sort4 ,the sorting and      
shredding  room is always large and     
light1 with windows on all sides1 and   
well  ventilated1 offering a decided    
contrast in many respects to the less   
cleanly mills first referred to where   
the women must wear bonnets or  hoods   
for the protection of the hair4 ,in     
either case the process is  certainly an
 improvement over the old plan of       
leaving the rags to decay  in a cellar  

to expedite the removal of the glutinous
 matter from them4    ,from the sorting 
and shredding room the rags are conveyed
 to the  cutter1 where they are cut and 
chopped by revolving knives1 leaving    
them in small pieces and much freer from
 dust and grit4 ,various  ingenious     
devices are employed for removing metal 
and other hard and  injurious matter1   
magnetic brushes serving this purpose in
 some mills4  ,when the cutter has      
finished its work1 the still very dirty 
rags go  for a further cleansing to the 
devil1 or whipper1 a hollow cone with   
spikes projecting within1 against which 
work the spikes of a drum1  dashing the 
rags about at great speed4 ,human lives 
are often freed of  their baser elements
 and restored to purity and beauty      
through the  chastening influences of   
tribulation or adversity2 in like manner
 the  whipper carries the rags forward a
 step in the process of purification    
that is necessary before they can be    
brought to their highest  usefulness4   

,but the cleansing process1 which is    
only a preparation for  what is to      
follow1 does not end with the whipper1  
which has served  merely to loosen1 not 
to dislodge1 a great deal of dust and   
dirt4 ,the  final operation in the      
preliminary cleaning is performed by the
 duster  proper1 which is a conical     
revolving sieve4 ,as the mass of rags is
  tossed and shaken about1 the loosened 
dust is carried away by the  suction of 
the air1 which draws the dust particles 
into tubes furnished  with suction fans4
 ,in most modern mills the rags are     
carried forward  from the duster on an  
endless belt1 and a careful watch is    
kept upon  them as they emerge to detect
 the presence of unchopped pieces1      
buttons1  or other foreign substances4  
,the journey of the rags over this      
endless  belt or conveyor terminates in 
a receiving-room1 in the floor of which 
there are several openings1 and         
immediately below these the mouths of   
the digesters1 which are in a room      

beneath4 ,the digesters1 as they  are   
suggestively and appropriately termed1  
are huge revolving boilers1  usually    
upright1 which often have as great a    
diameter as eight feet1  with a height  
of twenty-two feet and a digestive      
capacity of upward of  five tons of rags
 each4 ,the rags that are to be cooked  
are fed in to  the digesters through the
 openings in the floor1 and the great   
movable  manhole plates are then put in 
place and closed1 hermetically sealing  
the openings or mouths through which the
 boilers have been fed1 these  having   
first been charged with a mixed solution
 of lime and soda and  with live hot    
steam in lieu of gastric juice as a     
digesting fluid and  force4 ,in some    
mills the boilers are placed in a       
horizontal position1  while in others   
they are in the form of a large ball or 
globe1 in either  case being operated in
 the manner described2 those of upright 
form1  however1 are most commonly in    
use4 ,the rags are boiled under steam   

pressure of about forty pounds to the   
square inch1 and the cooking is         
continued from twelve to fourteen hours4
    ,it is here that the process of     
cleaning begins in earnest2 and as the  
mass of rags is tumbled about in its    
scalding bath of steam-heated           
lime-water1 or milk of lime1 the        
coloring and glutinous matters1 as  well
 as all other impurities1 are loosened  
from the fibers1 which are in  the end  
so cleansed and purified as to come     
forth unstained and of  virgin purity4  
,having been sufficiently boiled and    
digested1 the mushy  material1 still    
looking dark and forbidding1 is emptied 
onto the floor  below or into           
receptacles placed directly beneath the 
boilers1 where the  color and dirt are  
allowed to drain off4 ,the mass is then 
conveyed to  the washers1 great tub-like
 receptacles1 which are known as        
,hollanders1 from the fact that these   
rag engines were invented in  ,holland  
about the year #agej ,a4,d4 ,they are   

oval-shaped tubs1 about twenty  feet    
long1 nine feet wide1 and three feet    
high1 varying somewhat  according to the
 conditions4 ,each tub is divided for   
two-thirds of its  length by an upright 
partition1 or mid-feather1 as it is     
called1 which  makes a narrow course    
around the vat4 ,on one side of the     
partition1 the  tub is raised in a      
half-circle1 close to which revolves an 
iron roll  about three or four feet in  
diameter1 and covered with knives2 in   
the  bottom of the tub1 and directly    
under the revolving roll1 is another set
  of knives called a bed-plate1 which is
 stationary1 and against which  the roll
 can be lowered4 ,but let us not        
anticipate4 ,when the emptyings  from   
the boiler have been thrown into the    
washer1 a continuous stream  of water is
 turned in at one end1 the knife-roll   
having been adjusted so  as to open up  
the rags as they are set in motion4     
,these then begin a  lively chase around
 the edge of the vat1 through the       

race-course formed  by the mid-feather1 
and under the rag-opening knives1 where 
the water  is given a chance to wash out
 all impurities1 then on up the incline 
over the back-fall1 so-called from the  
elevation in the tub4 ,a  cylinder of   
wire-cloth1 partly immersed in the      
moving mass1 holds back  the now rapidly
 whitening fibers1 while the dirty water
 escapes into  buckets inside the       
wire-cloth drum1 and is discharged into 
and through  an escape-spout4 ,the heavy
 particles of dirt settle into what is  
termed  a sand-trap at the bottom of the
 tub4    ,as the water clears1 the roll 
is lowered closer and closer to the     
bottom  of the bed-plate1 in order to   
open up the fibers more thoroughly for  
the  free circulation of the water among
 them4 ,when the several agencies of    
the washer have accomplished their      
purpose and the water runs clear  and   
unsullied1 a bleaching material is put  
into the mass1 which in the  course of  
from two to six hours becomes as white  

as milk4 ,the dirty  offscourings of all
 ragdom1 first seen in the original     
bales1 and  gathered from the four      
corners of the globe1 have endured many 
buffetings1 many bruisings and          
tribulations1 and having been washed    
come  forth pure1 sweet1 and clean4     
,from the washers the rags are          
precipitated  through a trap into       
drainers1 which are chambers made of    
stone and  brick1 with a false bottom   
through which the water is allowed to   
drain4  ,this rag pulp1 now called half 
stock1 is kept in this receptacle until 
the water and liquor are thoroughly     
drained off1 when it becomes a white    
and compact mass of fibers4    ,the rags
 should stand in the drainers for at    
least one week1 though  better results  
are obtained if they are left for a     
period two or three  times as long1 as  
the fibers become more subdued4 ,the    
process of  paper-making as it has      
already been described1 applies more    
particularly to papers made from rags4  

,to-day1 a very large proportion  of the
 cheaper papers are made from wood1     
either entirely or in part1  and these  
wood-made papers are subjected to a     
different treatment1 to  which further  
reference will be made4    ,from the    
drainer the mass is carted to the       
beating engine1 or beater1  which is    
very similar in construction to the     
washer just described4 ,the  knives on  
the roll in the beater are grouped three
 together instead of  two1 and are      
placed nearer the bottom or bed-plate in
 order to separate  more thoroughly the 
fibers4 ,in the beater are performed    
many and varying  manipulations1        
designed not only to secure a more      
perfect product but  also to produce    
different varieties of paper4 ,it is the
 theory of the  beating process that the
 fibers are not cut1 but are drawn out  
to their  utmost extent4 ,in watching   
the operations of the beater1 one       
notices  on the surface of the slowly   
revolving mass of fibers1 floating      

bluing1  such as the thrifty housewife  
uses to whiten fine fabrics4 ,this      
familiar  agency of the laundry is      
introduced into the solution of fibers  
with the  same end in view that is      
sought in the washtub--to give the clear
 white  color that is so desirable4     
,many of the inventions and discoveries 
by  which the world has profited largely
 have been due primarily to some        
fortunate accident1 and according to a  
pretty story upon which  paper-makers   
have set the seal of their belief for   
more than one hundred  and fifty years1 
the use of bluing was brought about in  
the same way4  ,about the year #agdf1 so
 runs the story1 a ,mrs4 ,buttonshaw1   
the wife of  an ,english paper-maker1   
accidentally dropped into a tub of pulp 
the bag  of bluing1 or its contents1    
which she was about to use in a washing 
of  fine linen4 ,frightened at what she 
had done and considering it the part  of
 wisdom to keep silence1 she discreetly 
held her peace and awaited  results4    

,but when her husband had expressed     
great wonder and admiration  over the   
paper made from that particular pulp1   
and had sold it in ,london  at an       
advance of several shillings over the   
price of his other paper1  which had not
 met with any such accident1 she        
realized that the time for  silence had 
passed4 ,her account of the happy       
accident led her grateful  husband to   
purchase a costly scarlet cloak for her 
on his next visit to  ,london town4     
,this accident brought about another    
result which was to  prove of           
inestimable value to the future         
paper-maker--the use of bluing  in paper
 when especial whiteness is desired4    
,important as the bluing or coloring is1
 however1 it is only one of the         
numerous operations or manipulations    
that take place in the beater4 ,many  of
 these1 such as engine-sizing and       
body-coloring1 require skill and        
constant watchfulness4 ,here1 too1 if   
anywhere1 adulteration takes place4  ,it

 is sometimes necessary to secure a     
fine-appearing paper at small  cost1 and
 it is profitable to add to its weight4 
,in such cases a process  of loading    
takes place here1 and clay or cheap1    
heavy fibers are  added4 ,clay is of    
value not only to increase the weight   
but also to  render the paper more      
opaque1 so as to prevent type or        
illustrations  from showing through1    
while at the same time it makes possible
 a  smoother surface by filling the     
pores in the paper4 ,but while it adds  
to  the weight1 clay must1 of necessity1
 weaken the paper4 ,in engine-sizing1   
which is done in the beater1 the size is
 thoroughly incorporated with  the      
fibers as these revolve or flow around  
the engine4 ,this sizing  renders the   
paper more nearly impervious to         
moisture4 ,the difference  between a    
paper that is sized and that has a      
repellent surface which  prevents the   
ink from settling into it when it is    
written upon1 and an  ordinary          

blotting-paper with its absorbent       
surface1 is due entirely to  the fact   
that the former is most carefully       
treated with sizing both in  the beating
 engine and in the size tub or vat      
referred to later1 whereas  in the      
latter paper it is omitted4 ,if the     
paper is to be tinted or  body-colored1 
colors made from aniline are generally  
used4 ,only in the  highest grade of    
writing-paper and in some few papers    
that demand colors  fast to the light is
 any other order of coloring matter     
employed4 ,as may  be easily imagined1  
considerable skill is required to secure
 exactly the  desired tint1 and to get  
the coloring matter so evenly mixed that
 each  small fiber shall receive its    
proper tint1 and thus to insure that the
  paper when finished shall be of       
uniform color and not present a mottled 
appearance4    ,when the operations of  
the beating engine have been completed1 
a most  interesting process begins which
 marks a vast advance over the earlier  

method of forming the sheets of paper   
with mould and deckel1 straining  off   
the water1 and shaking the frame with a 
quick motion to mat the  fibers         
together4 ,the patient striving toward  
something better which has  marked all  
the centuries since man first learned to
 carve his rude  records1 finds its     
consummation in the process of making   
paper in a  continuous web4 ,this result
 is accomplished by a machine first     
invented  by ,louis ,robert1 a workman  
in a mill at ,enonnes1 ,france1 who     
obtained a  ,french patent1 with a      
bounty of eight thousand francs for its 
development4 ,this he later sold to ,m4 
,didot1 the proprietor of the mill1  who
 crossed the ,channel into ,england1    
where1 with the aid of a skilled        
mechanic1 the machine was in a measure  
perfected1 and then sold to ,henry  and 
,sealy ,fourdrinier4 ,they1 with the    
further aid of ,bryan ,donkin1 their    
employee and expert engineer1 made many 
additional improvements1 and  sank in   

the enterprise some sixty thousand      
pounds sterling1 for which  their only  
reward was blighted hopes and embittered
 lives4 ,in #ahdg the  ,london ,times   
made a fruitless appeal on behalf of the
 surviving  brother1 who was eighty     
years of age and in great poverty4 ,it  
is seldom  that the world voluntarily   
makes return to those who have bestowed 
upon  it great material or moral        
benefits1 though it is ever ready to    
expend  its treasure for engines of     
destruction and to magnify and reward   
those  who have been most successful in 
destroying human life4    ,the first    
machine mill was started at ,frogmore1  
,hertz1 ,england1 in  #ahjc1 which was  
the year of the great ,louisiana        
,purchase by the ,united  ,states1 and  
it is not difficult to say which event  
has been productive  of the greater and 
more beneficial results to this nation4 
,through this  invention and its        
improvements1 the modern newspaper and  
magazine1 with  their tens and hundreds 

of thousands of copies daily1 have been 
made  possible1 and men of all classes  
have been brought in touch with the     
best thought of the day4 ,whatever makes
 for greater intelligence and           
enlightenment throughout a nation makes 
for the greater stability of  the       
national life1 and gives new emphasis to
 ,bulwer's words3        ,take away the 
sword2 ,states can be saved without     
it--bring the pen4    ,if to-day the    
power of the pen over the sword is      
greater than it has  ever been before1  
its increased and increasing influence  
must be  credited in large measure to   
the inventive genius and the            
public-spirited enterprise that has made
 possible the great output of  our      
modern paper-mills4 ,so thoroughly did  
these forces do their work in  the      
beginning that in the century that has  
elapsed since the ,fourdrinier  brothers
 sacrificed themselves and their means  
in the perfecting of  their machine1    
there have been really no changes in the

 fundamental  principle4 ,those that    
have been made have been in the nature  
of further  development and improvement1
 such as increasing the speed and       
widening  the web1 thereby multiplying  
the product many fold4    ,but let us   
resume the interesting journey of the   
rags1 which had reached  a state of     
purification and perfection as pulp1 and
 which we left in the  beaters4 ,in some
 grades of paper the perfected and      
prepared pulp is  taken from the beaters
 and passed through what is known as a  
refining  or ,jordan engine for the     
purpose of more thoroughly separating   
the  fibers and reducing them to extreme
 fineness4 ,the refining engines are1   
however1 used only in the manufacture of
 certain grades of paper4 ,the  pulp is 
next taken from the beater or refining  
engine1 as the case may  be1 to what is 
called a stuff-chest1 an inclosed vat   
partly filled  with water1 in which a   
contrivance for shaking and shifting1   
properly  called an agitator1 keeps the 

fibers in suspension4    ,from the      
stuff-chest the mixture is pumped into  
what is known as the  mixing or         
regulating box4 ,here the stream first  
passes over the  sand-tables in a       
continuous flow4 ,these are composed of 
little troughs  with cross-pieces1 and  
are covered at the bottom with          
long-haired felt1  to catch any sand or 
dirt that may still adhere after the    
numerous  operations to which the pulp  
has been subjected4 ,the flow is then   
forced  through the screen1 which is a  
horizontal piece of metal pierced with  
slots4 ,for very fine paper these slots 
are so small as to be only one          
one-hundredth of an inch in width4 ,they
 are usually about a quarter of  an inch
 apart4 ,through these tiny apertures   
the fibers must find their  way1 leaving
 behind in their difficult passage all  
lumps1 dirt1 or  knotted fibers which   
would mar the perfection of the product 
toward  which they are tending4 ,a      
vibrating motion is given to the screen 

as the  flow passes over it1 or         
revolving strainers may be used4        
,when the screen has finished its work1 
the water carrying the pulp in  solution
 flows in an even stream1 the volume of 
which varies according  to the width of 
the web of paper to be produced1 through
 a  discharge-cock onto the ,fourdrinier
 or cylinder machine1 as the case may   
be1 each of which will be duly          
described4 ,this stream has a filmy     
appearance and is of diverse color1     
depending upon the shade of paper to  be
 produced4 ,from its consistency1 which 
is about that of milk1 it is  difficult 
to imagine that it floats separate      
particles of fiber in such  quantities  
as1 when gathered on the wire cloth and 
passed to a felt  blanket and then      
pressed between rollers1 to form in a   
second of time a  broad web of embryo   
paper sufficiently strong and firm to   
take definite  form4 ,man's mastery of  
the process by which this startling and 
wonderful  change is effected has come  

as one of the rewards of his long and   
patient study4    ,the ,fourdrinier     
machine1 which preserves at least the   
name of the  enterprising developers of 
the invention1 takes up the work that   
was  formerly done by the molder4 ,the  
wire cloth upon which the fibers are    
discharged is an endless belt1 the full 
width of the paper machine4 ,upon  this 
the fibers spread out evenly1 being     
aided by a fan-shaped rubber or  oil    
cloth1 which delivers the smooth stream 
under a gate regulated to  insure       
perfect evenness and to fix uniformly   
the fibers of the web now  commencing   
its final formation4 ,deckel-straps of  
india-rubber are  fastened on both sides
 of the wire screen1 and move with it1  
thus  holding the watery pulp in place4 
,the deckel-straps are adjustable and   
fix or regulate the width of the paper4 
,these and the gate1 or slicer1  are    
attached to what is termed the          
deckel-frame1 which corresponds to  the 
deckel used by paper-makers in the days 

when the manufacture was  carried on by 
hand4 ,as the stream flows onto the     
endless belt of wire  cloth1 the water  
which has borne the fibers filters into 
the trough  beneath4 ,being charged with
 very fine fibers1 size1 coloring       
matter1 and  other similar ingredients1 
it is carried back into the pulp-chest  
to  save these materials1 as well as to 
contribute again to the extra supply  of
 water needed4 ,for this reason the     
trough into which it falls from the     
revolving wire is called the save-all4  
,a shaking motion is imparted  to the   
wire from the frame upon which rest the 
rolls that keep it in  its never-ending 
round4 ,this aids in draining away the  
water and mats or  interlaces the fibers
 together4 ,at the end of the save-all1 
where the  fibers are to leave the wire 
for the next stage of their journey1    
suction-boxes are placed1 provided with 
an air-pump to take up the  surplus     
water that has not yet found its way    
through the meshes4 ,between  these     

suction-boxes above the wire is a       
wire-covered roll which  impresses the  
newly formed sheet2 this impression     
cylinder is called a  dandy roll1 and it
 is from this that the web receives the 
markings or  impressions that           
characterize different papers4 ,all     
watermarks1  patterns1 and designs which
 it is desired to have appear in the    
paper  are put upon this roll and here  
impressed upon the soft sheet1 which is 
clarified and left transparent at the   
point of contact4 ,thus the  impression 
is permanently fixed in the fiber1 so   
that it can be seen at  any time by     
holding the sheet to the light4 ,the    
power of suggestiveness  is a quality   
which is highly esteemed wherever it is 
found1 and which  frequently furnishes a
 standard of judgment4    ,judged by    
such a criterion1 the impression        
cylinder1 or dandy roll1  has an added  
value1 for in all probability its       
operation suggested the  idea of        
printing from cylinders1 as in our      

present web or perfecting  presses4     
,the matted pulp1 now having sufficient 
body1 passes on between two rolls       
covered with felt which deliver the web 
of damp paper upon an endless  belt of  
moist felt1 while the wire passes under 
and back to continue  a fresh supply4   
,the paper is as yet too fragile to     
travel alone1 and  the web felt carries 
it between two metal rolls called the   
first  press-rolls4 ,these squeeze out  
more water1 give a greater degree of    
compactness to the fibers1 smooth the   
upper surface1 and finally deliver  the 
web of paper to a second felt apron     
which carries it under and to  the back 
of the second press-rolls4 ,in this way 
the under surface comes  to the top1 and
 is in its turn subjected to the        
smoothing process4 ,a  delicate scraper 
or blade1 the length of the press-rolls1
 is so placed  on each roll that should 
the endless web from any cause be       
broken1 the  blade may operate with     
sufficient force to prevent the wet     

paper from  clinging to the rolls and   
winding about them4 ,from this point the
 paper  travels alone1 having become    
firm and strong enough to sustain its   
own  weight2 passing above the second   
press-rolls1 it resumes its onward      
journey around the drying cylinders1    
passing over and under and over and     
under4 ,the drying cylinders are hollow 
and heated by steam1 their  temperature 
being regulated according to            
requirements4 ,these driers1  made from 
iron or steel1 are usually from three to
 four feet in diameter  and vary in     
length according to the width of the    
machine4 ,there are from  twelve to     
fifty of these cylinders1 their number  
depending upon the  character and weight
 of the paper to be produced1 very heavy
 sheets  requiring many more drying     
cylinders than sheets of lighter weight4
    ,strange1 almost phenomenal1        
conditions come about in the            
transformation  from filmy pulp to      
finished paper4 ,a sheet which1 though  

formed1 is at  the first press-roll too 
fragile to carry its own weight1 becomes
  possessed of a final strength and     
power that is almost incredible4 ,the   
myriad of minute fibers composing the   
sheet1 upon drying uniformly1  possesses
 great aggregate strength4 ,a sheet of  
paper yields readily to  tearing1 but   
the same sheet1 when a perfectly even   
tension is applied1  will demonstrate   
that it is possessed of wonderful       
resisting power4 ,in  evidence may be   
cited an instance that seems almost     
beyond belief4  ,through some curious   
mishap a web of heavy paper1 in fact1   
bristol  board1 which had been          
thoroughly formed1 was suddenly         
superheated and  then cooled while still
 on the driers4 ,this was caused by a   
difference  in temperature of the driers
 and resulted in the sudden contraction 
of  the web of bristol2 the strain on   
the machine was so great that not only  
were the driving-cogs broken on two of  
the driers around which the paper  was  

at the moment passing1 but the driers   
themselves were actually  lifted out of 
place1 showing a resisting power in the 
paper of at least  several tons4 ,the   
paper now passes to the upright stack of
 rolls which  are known as calenders4   
,the word is derived from calendra2 a   
corruption of cylindrus1 a roller or    
cylinder4 ,they are simply rollers      
revolving in contact1 and heated from   
the interior by steam4 ,these  calenders
 are used for giving to the paper a     
smooth and even surface1  and are also  
employed in the smoothing and finishing 
of cloth4 ,the speed  with which the    
paper passes through these cylinders is 
remarkable1 from  one hundred to five   
hundred feet running through and over   
the machine in  a minute2 and in some of
 the most recent mills the web is as    
wide as one  hundred and fifty-six      
inches 7thirteen feet72 this is very    
nearly double  the average machine width
 of a very few years ago1 while the     
speed has  increased in proportionate   

ratio2 only a few years ago the maximum 
speed  was from two hundred and fifty to
 three hundred feet per minute2 at this 
writing 7#aijj7 there are machines in   
operation which run as high as five     
hundred feet per minute4 ,but great as  
has been the increase in the  production
 of paper1 the demand has kept pace     
steadily4 ,the wonderful  product of the
 rag-bag holds an invincible position in
 the world's  economy4    ,for          
machine-finished book and print papers1 
as well as for other cheaper  grades1   
the process ends with the calenders1    
after which the paper is  slit into     
required widths by disc-knives which are
 revolving1 and so cut  continuously4   
,paper intended for web newspaper       
presses is taken off in  continuous     
rolls of the widths required1 varying   
from seventeen to  seventy-six inches1  
according to the size of the paper to be
 printed4  ,these reels contain from    
fifteen to twenty-five thousand lineal  
feet of  paper1 or from three to five   

miles4 ,the amount of paper used in     
disseminating the news of the day is    
enormous2 sometimes one or two  mills   
are required to manufacture the supply  
for a single metropolitan  daily1 while 
one ,new ,york newspaper claims to have 
used four hundred and  fifty tons of    
paper in one ,christmas edition1 which  
is about four times  the amount of its  
regular daily consumption4    ,after    
having been slit into the proper widths 
by the revolving knives1  ordinary flat 
and book papers are cut into sheets by a
 straight knife  revolving at proper    
intervals on a horizontal drum4 ,the    
paper1 in  sheets1 is carried by a      
travelling apron to a receiving table at
 the end  of the machine1 where the     
sheets as they fall are carefully       
examined by  experts1 usually women1 who
 remove any that may be imperfect4      
,the entire length of a paper machine1  
from the screens to the calenders1  is  
about one hundred and twenty-five feet1 
while the height varies1 the  average   

being about ten feet4 ,the machines1    
while necessarily of the  finest        
adjustment1 are ponderous and heavy1    
weighing in some cases as  much as four 
hundred tons1 this being the weight of  
the machine itself1  exclusive of its   
foundations4 ,the machine-room is of    
necessity well  lighted and thoroughly  
ventilated1 and should be kept clean    
throughout1  as cleanliness is an       
essential factor in the making of good  
paper4 ,while  the same general process 
applies to all classes of paper made1   
the  particular character of any paper  
that is to be produced determines       
exactly the details of the process      
through which it shall pass and         
regulates the deviations to be made from
 the general operations in order  to    
secure special results4 ,for example1   
some papers are wanted with a  rough or 
antique finish1 as it is called2 in such
 cases calendering is  omitted4 ,another
 special process is that by which the   
paper is made with  a ragged or         

deckel-edge2 this result is obtained in 
some mills by  playing a stream of water
 upon the edge of the pulp1 crushing and
  thinning it1 and thus giving it a     
jagged appearance4 ,at the present time 
this deckel-edge paper is being quite   
extensively used in high-class          
bookwork4 ,in the case of writing       
papers1 as has already been stated in   
the description of the beating engines1 
a vegetable sizing made from  resinous  
matter is introduced into the paper pulp
 while it is still in  solution1 and    
mixes with it thoroughly1 thus filling  
more or less  completely the pores of   
the pulp fibers4 ,this is found         
sufficient for  all ordinary            
book-papers1 for papers that are to be  
printed upon in the  usual way1 and for 
the cheapest grades of writing-paper1   
where the  requirements are not very    
exacting and where a curtailment of     
expense is  necessary4 ,for the higher  
grades of writing-paper1 however1 a     
distinctly  separate and additional     

process is required4 ,these papers while
 on the  machine in web form are passed 
through a vat which is called the       
size-tub1 and which is filled with a    
liquid sizing made of gelatine from     
clippings of the horns1 hides1 and hoofs
 of cattle1 this gelatine or  glue being
 mixed with dissolved alum and made     
fluid in the vat4 ,papers  which are    
treated in this way are known as animal1
 or tub-sized4    ,we have duly         
described machine-dried papers1 but     
these higher grades of  writing-papers  
are dried by what is known as the loft1 
or pole-dried  process4 ,such paper is  
permitted to dry very slowly in a loft  
specially  constructed for the purpose1 
where it is hung on poles several days1 
during which time the loft is kept at a 
temperature of about #ajj  ,fahrenheit4 
,another detail of considerable         
importance is that of the finish or     
surface of the paper4 ,when paper with a
 particularly high or glossy  surface is
 desired1 it is subjected to a separate 

process1 after leaving  the paper       
machine1 known as supercalendering4     
,supercalendering is effected by passing
 the web through a stack of  rolls which
 are similar to the machine calenders   
already described4  ,these rolls are    
composed of metal cylinders1 alternating
 with rolls made  of solidified paper or
 cotton1 turned exactly true1 the top   
and bottom  rolls being of metal and    
heavier than the others2 a stack of     
supercalenders is necessarily composed  
of an odd number of rolls1 as  seven1   
nine1 or eleven4 ,the paper passes and  
repasses through these  calenders until 
the requisite degree of smoothness and  
polish has been  acquired4 ,the friction
 in this machine produces so much       
electricity that  ground wires are often
 used to carry it off in order that the 
paper may  not become so highly charged 
as to attract dust or cause the sheets  
to  cling together4 ,when the fine      
polish has been imparted1 the rolls of  
paper go to the cutting machines1 which 

are automatic in action1 cutting        
regular sheets of the required length as
 the paper is fed to them in a          
continuous web4 ,in the manufacture of  
some high grades of paper1 such as      
linens and bonds1 where an especially   
fine1 smooth surface is required1  the  
sheets after being cut are arranged in  
piles of from twelve to  fifteen sheets1
 plates of zinc are inserted alternately
 between them1  and they are subjected  
to powerful hydraulic pressure4 ,this   
process is  termed plating1 and is1 of  
course1 very much more expensive than   
the  process of supercalendering        
described above4    ,from the cutters1  
the sheets are carried to the           
inspectors1 who are  seated in a row    
along an extended board table before two
 divisions with  partitions ten or      
twelve inches high1 affording spaces for
 the sheets  before and after sorting4  
,the work of inspection is performed by 
women1  who detect almost instantly any 
blemish or imperfection in the finished 

product as it passes through their      
hands4 ,if the paper is to be ruled  for
 writing purposes1 it is then taken to  
the ruling machines1 where it  is passed
 under revolving discs or pens1 set at  
regular intervals4 ,these  convey the   
ruling ink to the paper as it passes on 
through the machine1  and thus form true
 and continuous lines4 ,if the paper is 
to be folded  after ruling1 as in the   
case of fine note-papers1 the sheets    
pass on  from the ruling machine to the 
folding machines1 which are entirely    
automatic in their action4 ,the paper is
 stacked at the back of the first       
folding guide and is fed in by the      
action of small rubber rollers which    
loosen each sheet from the one beneath1 
and push it forward until it is  caught 
by the folding apparatus4 ,man's        
mechanical ingenuity has given to  the  
machines of his invention something that
 seems almost like human  intelligence1 
and in the case of the folding machine1 
the action is so  regular and perfect   

that there seems to be no need of an    
attendant1 save  to furnish a constant  
supply of sheets4 ,the folding          
completed1 cutting  machines are again  
brought into requisition1 to cut and    
trim the sheets  to the size of folded  
note or letter-paper1 which is the final
 operation  before they are sent out    
into the world on their mission of      
usefulness4  ,the finished paper may or 
may not have passed through the ruling  
and  folding process1 but in either case
 it goes from the cutters to the        
wrappers and packers1 and then to the   
shipping-clerks1 all of whom  perform   
the duties indicated by their names4    
,the wonderful  transformation wrought  
by the magic wand of science and human  
invention  is complete1 and what came   
into the factory as great bales of      
offensive  rags1 disgusting to sight and
 smell1 goes forth as delicate1         
beautiful1  perfected paper1 redeemed   
from filth1 and glorified into a high   
and  noble use4 ,purity and beauty have 

come from what was foul and             
unwholesome2 the highly useful has been 
summoned forth from the  seemingly      
useless2 a product that is one of the   
essential factors in the  world's       
progress1 and that promises to serve an 
ever-increasing purpose1  has been      
developed from a material that          
apparently held not the  slightest      
promise4 ,well might the ,boston ,news  
,letter of #agfi exclaim  in quaint old 
rhyme3        ,rags are as beauties     
which conceald lie1      ,but when in   
paper1 charming to the eye6      ,pray  
save your rags1 new beauties to         
discover1      ,for of paper truly every
 one's a lover2      ,by the pen and    
press such knowledge is displayed       
,as would not exist if paper was not    
made4    ,and well may man pride himself
 on this achievement1 this marvelous    
transformation1 which represents the    
fruitage of centuries of striving  and  
endeavor6    ,up to this point the      
reference has been almost entirely to   

paper made  from rags1 but radical      
improvements have been made1 caused by  
the  introduction of wood pulp1 and     
these are of such importance that the   
account would not be complete without   
some mention of them4 ,these  changes   
are mainly in the methods of            
manipulating the wood to obtain the     
pulp1 for when that is ready1 the       
process from and including the  washers 
and beaters1 is very similar to that    
already described4 ,all  papers1 whether
 made from rags or wood1 depend upon    
vegetable fiber for  their substance and
 fundamental base1 and it is found that 
the different  fibers used in           
paper-making1 when finally subdued1 do  
not differ1 in  fact1 whether obtained  
from rags or from the tree growing in   
the forest4  ,in the latter case the raw
 wood is subjected to chemical treatment
 which  destroys all resinous and       
foreign matters1 leaving merely the     
cellular  tissue1 which1 it is found1   
does not differ in substance from the   

cell  tissue obtained after treating    
rags4 ,in either case this cellular     
tissue1 through the treatment to which  
the raw material is subjected1  becomes 
perfectly plastic or moldable1 and while
 the paper made from one  differs       
slightly in certain characteristics from
 the paper made from the  other1 they   
are nevertheless very similar1 and it   
might be safe to  predict that further  
perfecting of processes will eventually 
make them  practically alike4    ,the   
woods used for this purpose are         
principally poplar and spruce1 and      
there are three classes of the wood     
pulp3 7#a7 mechanical wood1 7#b7 soda   
process wood1 and 7#c7 sulphite wood    
pulp4 ,the first method was invented  in
 ,germany in #ahdd4 ,the logs are hewn  
in the forest1 roughly barked1 and      
shipped to the factory1 where the first 
operation is to cut them up by  steam   
saws into blocks about two feet in      
length4 ,any bark that may still  cling 
to the log is removed by a rapidly      

revolving corrugated wheel of  steel1   
while the larger blocks are split by a  
steam splitter4 ,the next  stage of     
their journey takes these blocks to a   
great millstone set  perpendicularly    
instead of horizontally4 ,here a very   
strong and  ingenious machine receives  
one block at a time1 and with an        
automatically elastic pressure holds it 
sidewise against the millstone1  which1 
like the mills of the gods1 grinds      
exceeding fine1 and with the  aid of    
constantly flowing water rapidly reduces
 these blocks to a pulpy  form4 ,this   
pulp is carried into tanks1 from which  
it is passed between  rollers1 which    
leave it in thick1 damp sheets1 which   
are folded up  evenly for shipment1 or  
for storage for future use4 ,if a       
paper-mill is  operated in connection   
with the pulp-mill1 the wood pulp is not
  necessarily rolled out in sheets1 but 
is pumped directly from the tanks  to   
the beaters4    ,in the preparation of  
pulp by the other processes1 the blocks 

are first  thrown into a chipping       
machine with great wheels1 the short1   
slanting  knives of which quickly cut   
the blocks into small chips4    ,in the 
soda process1 invented by ,m4 ,meliner  
in ,france in #ahfe1 the chips  from    
spruce and poplar logs are boiled under 
pressure in a strong  solution of       
caustic soda4    ,when sulphite wood    
pulp is to be prepared1 the chips are   
conveyed from  the chipper into hoppers 
in the upper part of the building4 ,here
 they  are thrown into great upright    
iron boilers or digesters charged with  
lime-water and fed with the fumes of    
sulphur which is burned for the  purpose
 in a furnace adjoining the building and
 which thus forms acid  sulphide of     
lime4 ,the sulphite process was         
originally invented by a  celebrated    
,philadelphia chemist1 but was perfected
 in ,europe4    ,the cooking1 or        
boiling1 to which the wood is subjected 
in both the  soda and sulphite          
processes1 effects a complete separation

 of all  resinous and foreign substances
 from the fine and true cell tissue1 or 
cellulose1 which is left a pure fiber1  
ready for use as described4 ,in  the    
case of all fibers1 whether rag or wood1
 painstaking work counts1  and the      
excellence of the paper is largely      
dependent upon the time and  care given 
to the reduction of the pulp from the   
original raw material4    ,chemical wood
 pulp of the best quality makes an      
excellent product1 and  is largely used 
for both print and book paper2 it is    
frequently mixed  with rag pulp1 making 
a paper that can scarcely be            
distinguished from  that made entirely  
from fine rags1 though it is not of the 
proper  firmness for the best flat or   
writing papers4 ,all ordinary           
newspapers1  as well as some of the     
cheaper grades of book and wrapping     
paper1 are  made entirely from wood1 the
 sulphite or soda process supplying the 
fiber1 and ground wood being used as a  
filler4 ,in the average newspaper  of   

to-day's issue1 twenty-five per cent of 
sulphite fiber is sufficient  to carry  
seventy-five per cent of the ground wood
 filler4 ,the value of  the idea is an  
economical one entirely1 as the ground  
wood employed  costs less than any other
 of the component parts of a print-paper
 sheet4    ,the cylinder machine1 to    
which reference was made earlier in the 
chapter1 was patented in #ahji by a     
prominent paper-maker of ,england1 ,mr4 
,john ,dickinson4 ,in this machine1 a   
cylinder covered with wire cloth        
revolves with its lower portion dipping 
into a vat of pulp1 while by  suction a 
partial vacuum is maintained in the     
cylinder1 causing the pulp  to cling to 
the wire until it is conveyed to a      
covered cylinder1 which  takes it up and
 carries it forward in a manner similar 
to the system  already described4 ,this 
machine is employed in making           
straw-board and  other heavy and cheap  
grades of paper4    ,generous ,mother   
,nature1 who supplies man's wants in    

such bountiful  fashion1 has furnished  
on her plains and in her forests an     
abundance of  material that may be      
transformed into this fine product of   
human  ingenuity4 ,esparto1 a ,spanish  
grass grown in ,south ,africa1 has      
entered  largely into the making of     
print-paper in ,england4 ,mixed with    
rags it  makes an excellent product1 but
 the chemicals required to free it from 
resin and gritty silica are expensive1  
while the cost of importation has       
rendered its use in ,america            
impractical4 ,flax1 hemp1 manila1 jute  
and  straw1 and of course old paper that
 has been once used1 are extensively    
employed in this manufacture1 the       
process beginning with the chemical     
treatment and boiling that are found    
necessary in the manipulation of  rags4 
,the successful use of these materials  
has met demands that would  not         
otherwise have been supplied4 ,as a     
result1 the price has been so  cheapened
 that the demand for paper has greatly  

increased1 and its use  has been        
extended to many and various purposes4  
,many additional items of interest might
 be described in connection with  the   
methods of manufacturing paper1 but as  
this work is intended for the  general  
reader1 rather than for the             
manufacturer1 those wishing further     
information are referred to technical   
works on the subject4    ,the best linen
 rags are used for the highest grades of
 writing and bond  papers1 while        
ordinary note1 letter1 and flat papers  
are made from  cotton rags4 ,in some    
mills1 such as the government mill at   
,dalton1  ,massachusetts1 where the     
government paper is made for banknotes1 
and in  others where the finest ledger  
papers are manufactured1 none but new1  
clean rags are used4 ,these come from   
the remnants left in the making of      
linen goods4 ,in the government mill    
where is made the paper for our         
national currency1 or greenbacks1 there 
is a special attachment on the  machine 

for introducing into the paper the silk 
threads that are always  to be seen in  
our paper money4 ,this attachment is    
just above the wire  on the machine1 and
 consists of a little conducting trough1
 through  which flows1 from a receptacle
 near the machine1 a stream of water    
holding the silk threads in solution4   
,the trough extends across the  machine1
 and is provided at intervals with      
openings through which the  short pieces
 of silk thread are automatically       
released1 and sprinkled  continuously   
onto the web of pulp as it passes       
beneath4 ,the paper is  thus            
distinguished1 and infringement and     
possible counterfeiting are  made       
extremely difficult by the fact that the
 government absolutely  forbids the     
making of paper by others under a       
similar process1 as well  as the        
production of any paper containing these
 silk threads4 ,the laws  of the ,united
 ,states pertaining to anything that    
borders on infringement  of our various 

money issues1 both metal and currency1  
are most rigid2  anything approaching a 
similarity of impression is prohibited1 
and a  cut1 stamp1 or impression of any 
character that approaches in its        
appearance any money issue of our       
government is considered a violation  of
 the law against counterfeiting1 and is 
dealt with severely4 ,the  government   
takes the same uncompromising position  
in regard to the  fabrics used in       
printing its paper-money issues1 and it 
will be quickly  seen that the silk     
thread process described above it is so 
great a  variation from anything        
required in the mercantile world that it
 would  be difficult to produce a paper 
at all similar without an ulterior      
purpose being at once apparent4 ,for    
this reason the silk thread             
interspersion is in reality a very      
effective medium in preventing          
counterfeiting1 not only on account of  
its peculiar appearance but also        
because of the elaborate methods        

necessary in its production4    ,in     
those mills making the finest grades of 
paper1 much of the process of           
thrashing1 beating1 dusting1 and        
cleaning necessary in the ordinary mill 
is omitted4 ,the cleanliness and        
brightness which are reached only at the
  washer and beater engines in the      
process of manufacturing the lower      
grades of paper from cheaper rags1      
prevail at every step in these higher   
grade mills4    ,one of the first       
requisites in making good paper1        
especially the better  grades1 is an    
abundance of pure water1 and            
spring-water1 where  available1 is      
preferred4    ,the effort has been made 
in the description given to cover the   
process  of making paper from the       
crudest rags4 ,in enumerating the       
several kinds  of paper in another      
chapter1 brief reference will be made to
 the varying  methods required in their 
manufacture4 ,in this chapter1 no       
attempt has  been made to cover more    

than the principal divisions or         
varieties of  paper--writing1 print1 and
 wrapping papers4    ,the ,united       
,states1 with characteristic enterprise1
 leads the world in  paper-making1      
supplying about one-third of all that is
 used on the  globe4 ,the city of       
,holyoke1 in ,massachusetts1 is the     
greatest paper  center in the world1    
turning out each working-day some two   
hundred tons  of paper1 nearly one-half 
of which is tub-sized1 loft-dried       
writings4 ,the region in the vicinity of
 ,holyoke is dotted with  paper-mills1  
and within a few miles of the city is   
made about one-half  of all the         
loft-dried writings produced in the     
,united ,states4 ,the tiny  acorn       
planted two centuries ago has waxed with
 the years1 gaining  strength and vigor 
with the increasing strength of the     
nation1 till now  it has become a giant 
oak1 whose branches extend to the lands 
beyond the  seas4    ,,footnotes3       
,footnote #e3 ,from ,the ,story of      

,paper-making1 ,chapter ,v4,j4,w4       
,butler  ,paper ,company1 ,chicago1     
#aija4          ,,the ,,exposition ,,of 
,,an ,,idea    ,,the ,,gospel ,,of      
,,relaxation#f    ,william ,james       
,i wish in the following hour to take   
certain psychological doctrines and     
show their practical applications to    
mental hygiene1--to the hygiene of  our 
,american life more particularly4 ,our  
people1 especially in academic  circles1
 are turning towards psychology nowadays
 with great  expectations2 and1 if      
psychology is to justify them1 it must  
be by  showing fruits in the pedagogic  
and therapeutic lines4    ,the reader   
may possibly have heard of a peculiar   
theory of the emotions1  commonly       
referred to in psychological literature 
as the ,lange-,james  theory4 ,according
 to this theory1 our emotions are mainly
 due to those  organic stirrings that   
are aroused in us in a reflex way by the
 stimulus  of the exciting object or    
situation4 ,an emotion of fear1 for     

example1 or  surprise1 is not a direct  
effect of the object's presence on the  
mind1  but an effect of that still      
earlier effect1 the bodily commotion    
which  the object suddenly excites2 so  
that1 were this bodily commotion        
suppressed1 we should not so much feel  
fear as call the situation  fearful2 we 
should not feel surprise1 but coldly    
recognize that the  object was indeed   
astonishing4 ,one enthusiast has even   
gone so far as to  say that when we feel
 sorry it is because we weep1 when we   
feel afraid  it is because we run away1 
and not conversely4 ,some of you may    
perhaps  be acquainted with the         
paradoxical formula4 ,now1 whatever     
exaggeration  may possibly lurk in this 
account of our emotions 7and ,i doubt   
myself  whether the exaggeration be very
 great71 it is certain that the main    
core of it is true1 and that the mere   
giving way to tears1 for example1  or to
 the outward expression of an anger-fit1
 will result for the moment  in making  

the inner grief or anger more acutely   
felt4 ,there is1  accordingly1 no better
 known or more generally useful precept 
in the  moral training of youth1 or in  
one's personal self-discipline1 than    
that  which bids us pay primary         
attention to what we do and express1 and
 not  to care too much for what we feel4
 ,if we only check a cowardly impulse   
in time1 for example1 or if we only     
don't strike the blow or rip out  with  
the complaining or insulting word that  
we shall regret as long as  we live1 our
 feelings themselves will presently be  
the calmer and  better1 with no         
particular guidance from us on their own
 account4 ,action  seems to follow      
feeling1 but really action and feeling  
go together2 and  by regulating the     
action1 which is under the more direct  
control of the  will1 we can indirectly 
regulate the feeling1 which is not4     
,thus the sovereign voluntary path to   
cheerfulness1 if our spontaneous        
cheerfulness be lost1 is to sit up      

cheerfully1 to look round cheerfully1   
and to act and speak as if cheerfulness 
were already there4 ,if such  conduct   
does not make you soon feel cheerful1   
nothing else on that  occasion can4 ,so 
to feel brave1 act as if we were brave1 
use all our  will to that end1 and a    
courage-fit will very likely replace the
 fit of  fear4 ,again1 in order to feel 
kindly toward a person to whom we have  
been inimical1 the only way is more or  
less deliberately to smile1 to  make    
sympathetic inquiries1 and to force     
ourselves to say genial things4  ,one   
hearty laugh together will bring enemies
 into a closer communion of  heart than 
hours spent on both sides in inward     
wrestling with the mental  demon of     
uncharitable feeling4 ,to wrestle with a
 bad feeling only pins  our attention on
 it1 and keeps it still fastened in the 
mind2 whereas1  if we act as if from    
some better feeling1 the old bad feeling
 soon folds  its tent like an ,arab1 and
 silently steals away4    ,the best     

manuals of religious devotion           
accordingly reiterate the maxim  that we
 must let our feelings go1 and pay no   
regard to them whatever4 ,in  an        
admirable and widely successful little  
book called ,the ,christian's  ,secret  
of a ,happy ,life1 by ,mrs4 ,hannah     
,whitall ,smith1 ,i find this  lesson on
 almost every page4 ,act faithfully1 and
 you really have  faith1 no matter how  
cold and even how dubious you may feel4 
,it is your  purpose ,god looks at1     
writes ,mrs4 ,smith1 not your feelings  
about that  purpose2 and your purpose1  
or will1 is therefore the only thing you
 need  attend to4444 ,let your emotions 
come or let them go1 just as ,god       
pleases1 and make no account of them    
either way4444 ,they really have        
nothing to do with the matter4 ,they are
 not the indicators of your  spiritual  
state1 but are merely the indicators of 
your temperament or of  your present    
physical condition4    ,but you all know
 these facts already1 so ,i need no     

longer press them on  your attention4   
,from our acts and from our attitudes   
ceaseless inpouring  currents of        
sensation come1 which help to determine 
from moment to  moment what our inner   
states shall be3 that is a fundamental  
law of  psychology which ,i will        
therefore proceed to assume4    ,a      
,viennese neurologist of considerable   
reputation has recently written  about  
the ,binnenleben1 as he terms it1 or    
buried life of human beings4  ,no       
doctor1 this writer says1 can get into  
really profitable relations  with a     
nervous patient until he gets some sense
 of what the patient's  ,binnenleben is1
 of the sort of unuttered inner         
atmosphere in which his  consciousness  
dwells alone with the secrets of its    
prison-house4 ,this  inner personal tone
 is what we can't communicate or        
describe  articulately to others2 but   
the wraith and ghost of it1 so to speak1
 are  often what our friends and        
intimates feel as our most              

characteristic  quality4 ,in the        
unhealthy-minded1 apart from all sorts  
of old regrets1  ambitions checked by   
shames and aspirations obstructed by    
timidities1 it  consists mainly of      
bodily discomforts not distinctly       
localized by the  sufferer1 but breeding
 a general self-mistrust and sense that 
things are  not as they should be with  
him4 ,half the thirst for alcohol that  
exists  in the world exists simply      
because alcohol acts as a temporary     
anaesthetic and effacer to all these    
morbid feelings that never ought to  be 
in a human being at all4 ,in the        
healthy-minded1 on the contrary1  there 
are no fears or shames to discover2 and 
the sensations that pour  in from the   
organism only help to swell the general 
vital sense of  security and readiness  
for anything that may turn up4          
,consider1 for example1 the effects of a
 well-toned motor-apparatus1  nervous   
and muscular1 on our general personal   
self-consciousness1 the  sense of       

elasticity and efficiency that results4 
,they tell us that in  ,norway the life 
of the women has lately been entirely   
revolutionized by  the new order of     
muscular feelings with which the use of 
the ski1 or  long snow-shoes1 as a sport
 for both sexes1 has made the women     
acquainted4 ,fifteen years ago the      
,norwegian women were even more than    
the women of other lands votaries of the
 old-fashioned ideal of  femininity1 the
 domestic angel1 the gentle and refining
 influence  sort of thing4 ,now these   
sedentary fireside tabby-cats of ,norway
 have  been trained1 they say1 by the   
snow-shoes into lithe and audacious     
creatures1 for whom no night is too dark
 or height too giddy1 and who  are not  
only saying good-bye to the traditional 
feminine pallor and  delicacy of        
constitution1 but actually taking the   
lead in every  educational and social   
reform4 ,i cannot but think that the    
tennis and  tramping and skating habits 
and the bicycle-craze which are so      

rapidly  extending among our dear       
sisters and daughters in this country   
are going  also2 to lead to a sounder   
and heartier moral tone1 which will send
 its  tonic breath through all our      
,american life4    ,i hope that here in 
,america more and more the ideal of the 
well-trained  and vigorous body will be 
maintained neck by neck with that of the
  well-trained and vigorous mind as the 
two coequal halves of the higher        
education for men and women alike4 ,the 
strength of the ,british ,empire  lies  
in the strength of character of the     
individual ,englishman1 taken  all alone
 by himself4 ,and that strength1 ,i am  
persuaded1 is perennially  nourished and
 kept up by nothing so much as by the   
national worship1 in  which all classes 
meet1 of athletic outdoor life and      
sport4    ,i recollect1 years ago1      
reading a certain work by an ,american  
doctor on  hygiene and the laws of life 
and the type of future humanity4 ,i have
  forgotten its author's name and its   

title1 but ,i remember well an awful    
prophecy that it contained about the    
future of our muscular system4  ,human  
perfection1 the writer said1 means      
ability to cope with the  environment2  
but the environment will more and more  
require mental power  from us1 and less 
and less will ask for bare brute        
strength4 ,wars will  cease1 machines   
will do all our heavy work1 man will    
become more and  more a mere director of
 nature's energies1 and less and less an
 exerter  of energy on his own account4 
,so that1 if the homo sapiens of the    
future can only digest his food and     
think1 what need will he have of        
well-developed muscles at all8 ,and why1
 pursued this writer1 should we  not    
even now be satisfied with a more       
delicate and intellectual type of       
beauty than that which pleased our      
ancestors8 ,nay1 ,i have heard a        
fanciful friend make a still further    
advance in this new-man  direction4     
,with our future food1 he says1 itself  

prepared in liquid form  from the       
chemical elements of the atmosphere1    
pepsinated or  half-digested in advance1
 and sucked up through a glass tube from
 a tin  can1 what need shall we have of 
teeth1 or stomachs even8 ,they may go1  
along with our muscles and our physical 
courage1 while1 challenging even  more  
and more our proper admiration1 will    
grow the gigantic domes of our  crania1 
arching over our spectacled eyes1 and   
animating our flexible  little lips to  
those floods of learned and ingenious   
talk which will  constitute our most    
congenial occupation4    ,i am sure that
 your flesh creeps at this apocalyptic  
vision4 ,mine  certainly did so2 and ,i 
cannot believe that our muscular vigor  
will ever  be a superfluity4 ,even if   
the day ever dawns in which it will not 
be  needed for fighting the old heavy   
battles against ,nature1 it will still  
always be needed to furnish the         
background of sanity1 serenity1 and     
cheerfulness to life1 to give moral     

elasticity to our disposition1 to  round
 off the wiry edge of our fretfulness1  
and make us good-humored and  easy to   
approach4 ,weakness is too apt to be    
what the doctors call  irritable        
weakness4 ,and that blessed internal    
peace and confidence1 that              
acquiescentia in seipso1 as ,spinoza    
used to call it1 that wells up  from    
every part of the body of a muscularly  
well-trained human being1  and soaks the
 indwelling soul of him with            
satisfaction1 is1 quite apart  from     
every consideration of its mechanical   
utility1 an element of  spiritual       
hygiene of supreme significance4    ,and
 now let me go a step deeper into mental
 hygiene1 and try to enlist  your       
insight and sympathy in a cause which ,i
 believe is one of paramount  patriotic 
importance to us ,yankees4 ,many years  
ago a ,scottish medical  man1 ,dr4      
,clouston1 a mad-doctor as they call him
 there1 or what we  should call an      
asylum physician 7the most eminent one  

in ,scotland71  visited this country1   
and said something that has remained in 
my memory  ever since4 ,you ,americans1 
he said1 wear too much expression on    
your  faces4 ,you are living like an    
army with all its reserves engaged in   
action4 ,the duller countenances of the 
,british population betoken a  better   
scheme of life4 ,they suggest stores of 
reserved nervous force to  fall back    
upon1 if any occasion should arise that 
requires it4 ,this  inexcitability1 this
 presence at all times of power not     
used1 ,i regard1  continued ,dr4        
,clouston1 as the great safeguard of our
 ,british people4  ,the other thing in  
you gives me a sense of insecurity1 and 
you ought  somehow to tone yourselves   
down4 ,you really do carry too much     
expression1 you take too intensely the  
trivial moments of life4    ,now ,dr4   
,clouston is a trained reader of the    
secrets of the soul as  expressed upon  
the countenance1 and the observation of 
his which ,i quote  seems to me to mean 

a great deal4 ,and all ,americans who   
stay in ,europe  long enough to get     
accustomed to the spirit1 that reigns   
and expresses  itself there1 so         
unexcitable as compared with ours1 make 
a similar  observation when they return 
to their native shores4 ,they find a    
wild-eyed look upon their compatriots'  
faces1 either of too desperate          
eagerness and anxiety or of too intense 
responsiveness and good-will4 ,it  is   
hard to say whether the men or the women
 show it most4 ,it is true  that we do  
not all feel about it as ,dr4 ,clouston 
felt4 ,many of us1 far  from deploring  
it1 admire it4 ,we say3 ,what           
intelligence it shows6 ,how  different  
from the stolid cheeks1 the codfish     
eyes1 the slow1 inanimate  demeanor we  
have been seeing in the ,british ,isles6
 ,intensity1 rapidity1  vivacity of     
appearance1 are indeed with us something
 of a nationally  accepted ideal2 and   
the medical notion of irritable weakness
 is not  the first thing suggested by   

them to our mind1 as it was to ,dr4     
,clouston's4 ,in a weekly paper not very
 long ago ,i remember reading a  story  
in which1 after describing the beauty   
and interest of the  heroine's          
personality1 the author summed up her   
charms by saying that to  all who looked
 upon her an impression as of bottled   
lightning was  irresistibly conveyed4   
,bottled lightning1 in truth1 is one of 
our ,american ideals1 even of a1  young 
girl's character6 ,now it is most       
ungracious1 and it may seem to  some    
persons unpatriotic1 to criticise in    
public the physical  peculiarities of   
one's own people1 of one's own family1  
so to speak4  ,besides1 it may be said1 
and said with justice1 that there are   
plenty of  bottled-lightning            
temperaments in other countries1 and    
plenty of  phlegmatic temperaments here2
 and that1 when all is said and done1   
the  more or less of tension about which
 ,i am making such a fuss is a small    
item in the sum total of a nation's     

life1 and not worth solemn treatment  at
 a time when agreeable rather than      
disagreeable things should be  talked   
about4 ,well1 in one sense the more or  
less of tension in our  faces and in our
 unused muscles is a small thing3 not   
much mechanical  work is done by these  
contractions4 ,but it is not always the 
material  size of a thing that measures 
its importance3 often it is its place   
and  function4 ,one of the most         
philosophical remarks ,i ever heard made
 was by  an unlettered workman who was  
doing some repairs at my house many     
years  ago4 ,there is very little       
difference between one man and another1 
he  said1 when you go to the bottom of  
it4 ,but what little there is1 is  very 
important4 ,and the remark certainly    
applies to this case4 ,the  general     
over-contraction may be small when      
estimated in foot-pounds1  but its      
importance is immense on account of its 
effects on the  over-contracted person's
 spiritual life4 ,this follows as a     

necessary  consequence from the theory  
of our emotions to which ,i made        
reference at  the beginning of this     
article4 ,for by the sensations that so 
incessantly  pour in from the over-tense
 excited body the over-tense and excited
  habit of mind is kept up2 and the     
sultry1 threatening1 exhausting1        
thunderous inner atmosphere never quite 
clears away4 ,if you never wholly  give 
yourself up to the chair you sit in1 but
 always keep your leg- and  body-muscles
 half contracted for a rise2 if you     
breathe eighteen or  nineteen instead of
 sixteen times a minute1 and never quite
 breathe out  at that1--what mental mood
 can you be in but one of inner panting 
and  expectancy1 and how can the future 
and its worries possibly forsake your   
mind8 ,on the other hand1 how can they  
gain admission to your mind if  your    
brow be unruffled1 your respiration calm
 and complete1 and your  muscles all    
relaxed8    ,now what is the cause of   
this absence of repose1 this            

bottled-lightning  quality in us        
,americans8 ,the explanation of it that 
is usually given is  that it comes from 
the extreme dryness of our climate and  
the acrobatic  performances of our      
thermometer1 coupled with the           
extraordinary  progressiveness of our   
life1 the hard work1 the railroad speed1
 the  rapid success1 and all the other  
things we know so well by heart4 ,well1 
our climate is certainly exciting1 but  
hardly more so than that of many  parts 
of ,europe1 where nevertheless no       
bottled-lightning girls are  found4 ,and
 the work done and the pace of life are 
as extreme in every  great capital of   
,europe as they are here4 ,to me both of
 these pretended  causes are utterly    
insufficient to explain the facts4      
,to explain them1 we must go not to     
physical geography1 but to psychology   
and sociology4 ,the latest chapter both 
in sociology and in psychology to  be   
developed in a manner that approaches   
adequacy is the chapter on the          

imitative impulse4 ,first ,bagehot1 then
 ,tarde1 then ,royce and ,baldwin  here1
 have shown that invention and          
imitation1 taken together1 form1 one    
may say1 the entire warp and woof of    
human life1 in so far as it is  social4 
,the ,american over-tension and         
jerkiness and breathlessness and        
intensity and agony of expression are   
primarily social1 and only  secondarily 
physiological1 phenomena4 ,they are bad 
habits1 nothing  more or less1 bred of  
custom and example1 born of the         
imitation of bad  models and the        
cultivation of false personal ideals4   
,how are idioms  acquired1 how do local 
peculiarities of phrase and accent come 
about8  ,through an accidental example  
set by some one1 which struck the ears  
of  others1 and was quoted and copied   
till at last every one in the locality  
chimed in4 ,just so it is with national 
tricks of vocalization or  intonation1  
with national manners1 fashions of      
movement and gesture1 and  habitual     

expressions of face4 ,we1 here in       
,america1 through following a           
succession of pattern-setters whom it is
 now impossible to trace1 and  through  
influencing each other in a bad         
direction1 have at last settled  down   
collectively into what1 for better or   
worse1 is our own  characteristic       
national type1--a type with the         
production of which1 so  far as these   
habits go1 the climate and conditions   
have had practically  nothing at all to 
do4    ,this type2 which we have thus   
reached by our imitativeness1 we now    
have  fixed upon us1 for better or      
worse4 ,now no type can be wholly       
disadvantageous2 but1 so far as our type
 follows the bottled-lightning  fashion1
 it cannot be wholly good4 ,dr4         
,clouston was certainly right in        
thinking that eagerness1 breathlessness1
 and anxiety are not signs of  strength3
 they are signs of weakness and of bad  
co-ordination4 ,the even  forehead1 the 
slab-like cheek1 the codfish eye1 may be

 less interesting  for the moment2 but  
they are more promising signs than      
intense  expression is of what we may   
expect of their possessor in the long   
run4  ,your dull1 unhurried worker gets 
over a great deal of ground1 because he 
never goes backward or breaks down4     
,your intense1 convulsive worker  breaks
 down and has bad moods so often that   
you never know where he may  be when you
 most need his help1--he may be having  
one of his bad days4  ,we say that so   
many of our fellow-countrymen collapse1 
and have to be  sent abroad to rest     
their nerves1 because they work so hard4
 ,i suspect  that this is an immense    
mistake4 ,i suspect that neither the    
nature nor  the amount of our work is   
accountable for the frequency and       
severity of  our breakdowns1 but that   
their cause lies rather in those absurd 
feelings of hurry and having no time1 in
 that breathlessness and  tension1 that 
anxiety of feature and that solicitude  
for results1 that  lack of inner harmony

 and ease1 in short1 by which with us   
the work is  so apt to be accompanied1  
and from which a ,european who should do
 the  same work would nine times out of 
ten be free4 ,these perfectly wanton    
and unnecessary tricks of inner attitude
 and outer manner in us1 caught  from   
the social atmosphere1 kept up by       
tradition1 and idealized by many  as the
 admirable way of life1 are the last    
straws that break the  ,american camel's
 back1 the final overflowers of our     
measure of wear and  tear and fatigue4  
,the voice1 for example1 in a           
surprisingly large number of us has a   
tired  and plaintive sound4 ,some of us 
are really tired 7for ,i do not mean    
absolutely to deny that our climate has 
a tiring quality72 but far more  of us  
are not tired at all1 or would not be   
tired at all unless we had  got into a  
wretched trick of feeling tired1 by     
following the prevalent  habits of      
vocalization and expression4 ,and if    
talking high and tired1  and living     

excitedly and hurriedly1 would only     
enable us to do more by  the way1 even  
while breaking us down in the end1 it   
would be different4  ,there would be    
some compensation1 some excuse1 for     
going on so4 ,but the  exact reverse is 
the case4 ,it is your relaxed and easy  
worker1 who is in  no hurry1 and quite  
thoughtless most of the while of        
consequences1 who  is your efficient    
worker2 and tension and anxiety1 and    
present and  future1 all mixed up       
together in our mind at once1 are the   
surest drags  upon steady progress and  
hindrances to our success4 ,my          
colleague1  ,professor ,mnsterberg1 an  
excellent observer1 who came here       
recently1  has written some notes on    
,america to ,german papers4 ,he says in 
substance  that the appearance of       
unusual energy in ,america is           
superficial and  illusory1 being really 
due to nothing but the habits of        
jerkiness and  bad co-ordination for    
which we have to thank the defective    

training of  our people4 ,i think myself
 that it is high time for old legends   
and  traditional opinions to be changed2
 and that1 if any one should begin  to  
write about ,yankee inefficiency and    
feebleness1 and inability to do         
anything with time except to waste it1  
he would have a very pretty  paradoxical
 thesis to sustain1 with a great many   
facts to quote1 and a  great deal of    
experience to appeal to in its proof4   
,well1 my friends1 if our dear ,american
 character is weakened by all this      
over-tension1--and ,i think1 whatever   
reserves you may make1 that you  will   
agree as to the main facts1--where does 
the remedy lie8 ,it lies1 of  course1   
where lay the origins of the disease4   
,if a vicious fashion and  taste are to 
blame for the thing1 the fashion and    
taste must be changed4  ,and1 though it 
is no small thing to inoculate seventy  
millions of people  with new standards1 
yet1 if there is to be any relief1 that 
will have to  be done4 ,we must change  

ourselves from a race that admires jerk 
and snap  for their own sakes1 and looks
 down upon low voices and quiet ways as 
dull1 to one that1 on the contrary1 has 
calm for its ideal1 and for  their own  
sakes loves harmony1 dignity1 and ease4 
,so we go back to the psychology of     
imitation again4 ,there is only one  way
 to improve ourselves1 and that is by   
some of us setting an example  which the
 others may pick up and imitate till the
 new fashion spreads  from east to west4
 ,some of us are in more favorable      
positions than  others to set new       
fashions4 ,some are much more striking  
personally and  imitable1 so to speak4  
,but no living person is sunk so low as 
not to be  imitated by somebody4        
,thackeray somewhere says of the ,irish 
nation that  there never was an         
,irishman so poor that he didn't have a 
still poorer  ,irishman living at his   
expense2 and1 surely1 there is no human 
being  whose example doesn't work       
contagiously in some particular4 ,the   

very  idiots at our public institutions 
imitate each other's peculiarities4     
,and1 if you should individually achieve
 calmness and harmony in your own       
person1 you may depend upon it that a   
wave of imitation will spread from  you1
 as surely as the circles spread outward
 when a stone is dropped  into a lake4  
,fortunately1 we shall not have to be   
absolute pioneers4 ,even now in ,new    
,york they have formed a society for the
 improvement of our national            
vocalization1 and one perceives its     
machinations already in the shape of    
various newspaper paragraphs intended to
 stir up dissatisfaction with  the awful
 thing that it is4 ,and1 better still   
than that1 because more  radical and    
general1 is the gospel of relaxation1 as
 one may call it1  preached by ,miss    
,annie ,payson ,call1 of ,boston1 in her
 admirable little  volume called ,power 
,through ,repose1 a book that ought to  
be in the  hands of every teacher and   
student in ,america of either sex4 ,you 

need  only be followers1 then1 on a path
 already opened up by others4 ,but of   
one thing be confident3 others still    
will follow you4    ,and this brings me 
to one more application of psychology to
 practical  life1 to which ,i will call 
attention briefly1 and then close4 ,if  
one's  example of easy and calm ways is 
to be effectively contagious1 one feels 
by instinct that the less voluntarily   
one aims at getting imitated1 the  more 
unconscious one keeps in the matter1 the
 more likely one is to  succeed4 ,become
 the imitable thing1 and you may then   
discharge your  minds of all            
responsibility for the imitation4 ,the  
laws of social  nature will take care of
 that result4 ,now the psychological    
principle on  which this precept reposes
 is a law of very deep and widespread   
importance in the conduct of our lives1 
and at the same time a law which  we    
,americans most grievously neglect4     
,stated technically1 the law is  this3  
that strong feeling about one's self    

tends to arrest the free  association of
 one's objective ideas and motor        
processes4 ,we get the  extreme example 
of this in the mental disease called    
melancholia4    ,a melancholic patient  
is filled through and through with      
intensely  painful emotion about        
himself4 ,he is threatened1 he is       
guilty1 he is  doomed1 he is            
annihilated1 he is lost4 ,his mind is   
fixed as if in a  cramp on these        
feelings of his own situation1 and in   
all the books on  insanity you may read 
that the usual varied flow of his       
thoughts has  ceased4 ,his associative  
processes1 to use the technical phrase1 
are  inhibited2 and his ideas stand     
stock-still1 shut up to their one       
monotonous function of reiterating      
inwardly the fact of the man's          
desperate estate4 ,and this inhibitive  
influence is not due to the mere  fact  
that his emotion is painful4 ,joyous    
emotions about the self also  stop the  
association of our ideas4 ,a saint in   

ecstasy is as motionless  and           
irresponsive and one-idea'd as a        
melancholiac4 ,and1 without going as    
far as ecstatic saints1 we know how in  
every one a great or sudden  pleasure   
may paralyze the flow of thought4 ,ask  
young people returning  from a party or 
a spectacle1 and all excited about it1  
what it was4 ,oh1  it was fine6 it was  
fine6 it was fine6 is all the           
information you  are likely to receive  
until the excitement has calmed down4   
,probably  every one of my hearers has  
been made temporarily half-idiotic by   
some  great success or piece of good    
fortune4 ,good6 ,,good6 ,,good6 is all  
we  can at such times say to ourselves  
until we smile at our own very          
foolishness4    ,now from all this we   
can draw an extremely practical         
conclusion4 ,if1  namely1 we wish our   
trains of ideation and volition to be   
copious and  varied and effective1 we   
must form the habit of freeing them from
 the  inhibitive influence of reflection

 upon them1 of egoistic pre-occupation  
about their results4 ,such a habit1 like
 other habits1 can be formed4  ,prudence
 and duty and self-regard1 emotions of  
ambition and emotions of  anxiety1 have1
 of course1 a needful part to play in   
our lives4 ,but  confine them as far as 
possible to the occasions when you are  
making  your general resolutions and    
deciding on your plan of campaign1 and  
keep  them out of the details4 ,when    
once a decision is reached and execution
  is the order of the day1 dismiss      
absolutely all responsibility and care  
about the outcome4 ,unclamp1 in a word1 
your intellectual and practical         
machinery1 and let it run free2 and the 
service it will do you will be  twice as
 good4 ,who are the scholars who get    
rattled in the  recitation-room8 ,those 
who think of the possibilities of       
failure and  feel the great importance  
of the act4 ,who are those who do recite
 well8  ,often those who are most       
indifferent4 ,their ideas reel          

themselves out  of their memory of their
 own accord4 ,why do we hear the        
complaint so  often that social life in 
,new ,england is either less rich and   
expressive  or more fatiguing than it is
 in some other parts of the world8 ,to  
what  is the fact1 if fact it be1 due   
unless to the over-active conscience of 
the people1 afraid of either saying     
something too trivial and obvious1  or  
something insincere1 or something       
unworthy of one's interlocutor1 or      
something in some way or other not      
adequate to the occasion8 ,how can      
conversation possibly steer itself      
through such a sea of  responsibilities 
and inhibitions as this8 ,on the other  
hand1  conversation does flourish and   
society is refreshing1 and neither dull 
on the one hand nor exhausting from its 
efforts on the other1 wherever  people  
forget their scruples and take the      
brakes off their hearts1 and  let their 
tongues wag as automatically and        
irresponsibly as they will4    ,they    

talk much in pedagogic circles to-day   
about the duty of the teacher  to       
prepare for every lesson in advance4 ,to
 some extent this is useful4  ,but we   
,yankees are assuredly not those to whom
 such a general doctrine  should be     
preached4 ,we are only too careful as it
 is4 ,the advice ,i  should give to most
 teachers would be in the words of one  
who is herself  an admirable teacher4   
,prepare yourself in the subject so well
 that it  shall be always on tap3 then  
in the class-room trust your spontaneity
  and fling away all further care4      
,my advice to students1 especially to   
girl-students1 would be somewhat        
similar4 ,just as a bicycle-chain may be
 too tight1 so may one's  carefulness   
and conscientiousness be so tense as to 
hinder the running  of one's mind4      
,take1 for example1 periods when there  
are many successive  days of examination
 pending4 ,one ounce of good nervous    
tone in an  examination is worth many   
pounds of anxious study for it in       

advance4 ,if  you want really to do your
 best at an examination1 fling away the 
book  the day before1 say to yourself1  
,i won't waste another minute on this   
miserable thing1 and ,i don't care an   
iota whether ,i succeed or not4 ,say    
this sincerely and feel it2 and go out  
and play1 or go to bed and sleep1  and  
,i am sure the results next day will    
encourage you to use the method         
permanently4 ,i have heard this advice  
given to a student by ,miss ,call1      
whose book on muscular relaxation ,i    
quoted a moment ago4 ,in her later      
book1 entitled ,as a ,matter of ,course1
 the gospel of moral relaxation1  of    
dropping things from the mind1 and not  
caring1 is preached with  equal success4
 ,not only our preachers1 but our       
friends the theosophists  and           
mind-curers of various religious sects  
are also harping on this  string4 ,and  
with the doctors1 the ,delsarteans1 the 
various mind-curing  sects1 and such    
writers as ,mr4 ,dresser1 ,prentice     

,mulford1 ,mr4 ,horace  ,fletcher1 and  
,mr4 ,trine to help1 and the whole band 
of schoolteachers  and magazine-readers 
chiming in1 it really looks as if a good
 start  might be made in the direction  
of changing our ,american mental habit  
into something more indifferent and     
strong4    ,worry means always and      
invariably inhibition of associations   
and loss of  effective power4 ,of       
course1 the sovereign cure for worry is 
religious  faith2 and this1 of course1  
you also know4 ,the turbulent billows of
 the  fretful surface leave the deep    
parts of the ocean undisturbed1 and to  
him who has a hold on vaster and more   
permanent realities the hourly          
vicissitudes of his personal destiny    
seem relatively insignificant  things4  
,the really religious person is         
accordingly unshakable and full  of     
equanimity1 and calmly ready for any    
duty that the day may bring  forth4     
,this is charmingly illustrated by a    
little work with which ,i  recently     

became acquainted1 ,the ,practice of the
 ,presence of ,god1 the  ,best ,ruler of
 a ,holy ,life1 by ,brother ,lawrence1  
being ,conversations and  ,letters of   
,nicholas ,herman of ,lorraine1         
,translated from the ,french4#g  ,i     
extract a few passages1 the             
conversations being given in indirect   
discourse4 ,brother ,lawrence was a     
,carmelite friar1 converted at ,paris in
  #afff4 ,he said that he had been      
footman to ,m4 ,fieubert1 the           
,treasurer1  and that he was a great    
awkward fellow1 who broke everything4   
,that he  had desired to be received    
into a monastery1 thinking that he would
  there be made to smart for his        
awkwardness and the faults he should    
commit1 and so he should sacrifice to   
,god his life1 with its pleasures2  but 
that ,god had disappointed him1 he      
having met with nothing but             
satisfaction in that state4444    ,that 
he had long been troubled in mind from a
 certain belief that he  should be      

damned2 that all the men in the world   
could not have persuaded  him to the    
contrary2 but that he had thus reasoned 
with himself about  it3 ,i engaged in a 
religious life only for the love of     
,god1 and ,i have  endeavored to act    
only for ,him2 whatever becomes of me1  
whether ,i be  lost or saved1 ,i will   
always continue to act purely for the   
love of ,god4  ,i shall have this good  
at least1 that till death ,i shall have 
done all  that is in me to love ,him 444
 ,that since then he had passed his life
 in  perfect liberty and continual joy4 
,that when an occasion of practicing    
some virtue offered1 he addressed       
himself to ,god1 saying1 ',lord1 ,i     
cannot do this unless ,thou enablest    
me'2 and that then he received strength 
more than sufficient4 ,that1 when  he   
had failed in his duty1 he only         
confessed his fault1 saying to ,god1    
',i shall never do otherwise1 if ,you   
leave me to myself3 it is ,you who  must
 hinder my failing1 and mend what is    

amiss4' ,that after this he gave        
himself no further uneasiness about it4 
,that he had been lately sent into      
,burgundy to buy the provision of wine  
for the society1 which was a very       
unwelcome task for him1 because he had  
no turn for business1 and because he was
 lame1 and could not go about  the boat 
but by rolling himself over the casks4  
,that1 however1 he gave  himself no     
uneasiness about it1 nor about the      
purchase of the wine4 ,that  he said to 
,god1 ',it was his business he was      
about1' and that he  afterward found it 
well performed4 ,that he had been sent  
into ,auvergne1  the year before1 upon  
the same account2 that he could not tell
 how the  matter passed1 but that it    
proved very well4    ,so1 likewise1 in  
his business in the kitchen 7to which he
 had naturally  a great aversion71      
having accustomed himself to do         
everything there for  the love of ,god1 
and with prayer upon all occasions1 for 
his grace to do  his work well1 he had  

found everything easy during fifteen    
years that he  had been employed there4 
,that he was very well pleased with the 
post he was now in1 but that he  was as 
ready to quit that as the former1 since 
he was always pleasing  himself in every
 condition1 by doing little things for  
the love of ,god4    ,that the goodness 
of ,god assured him ,he would not       
forsake him utterly1  and that ,he would
 give him strength to bear whatever evil
 ,he permitted  to happen to him2 and1  
therefore1 that he feared nothing1 and  
had no  occasion to consult with anybody
 about his state4 ,that1 when he had    
attempted to do it1 he had always come  
away more perplexed4    ,the            
simple-heartedness of the good ,brother 
,lawrence1 and the relaxation  of all   
unnecessary solicitudes and anxieties in
 him is a refreshing  spectacle4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,the need of feeling responsible all the
 livelong day has been preached  long   
enough in our ,new ,england4 ,long      

enough exclusively1 at any  rate1--and  
long enough to the female sex4 ,what our
 girl-students and  women-teachers most 
need nowadays is not the exacerbation1  
but rather  the toning-down of their    
moral tensions4 ,even now ,i fear that  
some one  of my fair hearers may be     
making an undying resolve to become     
strenuously relaxed1 cost what it will1 
for the remainder of her life4  ,it is  
needless to say that that is not the way
 to do it4 ,the way to do  it1          
paradoxical as it may seem1 is genuinely
 not to care whether you are  doing it  
or not4 ,then1 possibly1 by the grace of
 ,god1 you may all at  once find that   
you are doing it1 and1 having learned   
what the trick  feels like1 you may     
7again by the grace of ,god7 be enabled 
to go on4    ,and that something like   
this may be the happy experience of all 
my  hearers is1 in closing1 my most     
earnest wish4    ,,footnotes3           
,footnote #f3 ,from ,talks to ,teachers 
on ,psychology and to ,students on      

,some of ,life's ,problems4 ,henry ,holt
 and ,company1 ,new ,york1 #aijb4       
,footnote #g3 ,fleming ,h4 ,revell      
,company1 ,new ,york 7,,author74        
,,science ,,and ,,religion#h    ,charles
 ,proteus ,steinmetz      ,the problem  
of religion--that is1 of the relations  
of man with the  supernatural1 with ,god
 and immortality1 with the soul1 our    
personality  or the ego1 and its        
existence or nonexistence after         
death--is the  greatest and deepest     
which ever confronted mankind4 ,in the  
present state  of human knowledge1      
science can give no definite and final  
conclusions  on these subjects1 because 
of the limitations inherent in science4 
,we must realize that all our knowledge 
and information and the entire          
structure of science are ultimately     
derived from the perceptions of our     
senses and thereby limited in the same  
manner and to the same extent as  our   
sense perceptions and our intellect are 
limited4 ,the success or  failure of    

scientific achievement largely depends  
on the extent to which  we can          
abstract--that is1 make our observations
 and conclusions  independent of the    
limitations of the human mind4 ,but     
there are  limitations inherent in the  
human mind beyond which our intellect   
cannot  reach1 and therefore science    
does not and cannot show us the world as
 it  actually is1 with its true facts   
and laws1 but only as it appears to us  
within the inherent limitations of the  
human mind4    ,the greatest limitation 
of the human mind is that all its       
perceptions  are finite1 and our        
intellect cannot grasp the conception of
 infinity4  ,the same limitation        
therefore applies to the world as it    
appears to our  reasoning intellect1 and
 in the world of science there is no    
infinity1  and conceptions such as ,god 
and the immortality of the ego are      
beyond  the realm of empirical science4 
,science deals only with finite events  
in  finite time and space1 and the      

farther we pass onward in space or time1
  the more uncertain becomes the        
scientific reasoning1 until1 in trying  
to  approach the infinite1 we are lost  
in the fog of unreasonable              
contradiction1 beyond science--that is1 
transcendental4    ,thus1 we may never  
know and understand the infinite1       
whether in nature1  in the ultimate     
deductions from the laws of nature in   
time and in space1  or beyond nature1 on
 such transcendental conceptions as ,god
 and  immortality4 ,but we may approach 
these subjects as far as the            
limitations of our mind permit1 reach   
the border line beyond which we  cannot 
go1 and so derive some understanding of 
how far these subjects  may appear      
nonexisting or unreasonable1 merely     
because they are beyond  the limitations
 of our intellect4    ,there appear to  
me two promising directions of          
approach--first1 from the  complex of   
thought and research1 which in physics  
has culminated in the  theory of        

relativity2 and1 second1 in a study of  
the gaps found in the  structure of     
empirical science and what they may     
teach us4    ,all events of nature occur
 in space and in time4 ,whatever we     
perceive1  whatever record we receive   
through our senses1 always is attached  
to1  and contained in1 space and time4  
,but are space and time real existing   
things8 ,have they an absolute reality  
outside of our mind1 as a part or       
framework of nature1 as entities--that  
is1 things that are8 ,or are they       
merely a conception of the human mind1 a
 form given by the character of  our    
mind to the events of nature--that is1  
to the hypothetical cause of  our sense 
perceptions8 ,kant1 the greatest and    
most critical of all  philosophers1 in  
his ,critique of ,pure ,reason 7,kritik 
der ,reinen  ,vernunft71 concludes that 
space and time have no absolute         
existence1  but are categories--that is1
 forms in which the human mind conceives
 his  relation to nature4 ,the same idea

 is expressed by the poet-philosopher   
,goethe in his dramatic autobiography   
,faust 7in the second part71 when  he   
refers to the ,mtter1 to the marriage of
 ,achilles and ,helena  outside of all  
time4 ,it is found in ancient time4 ,so 
,revelation speaks  of there should be  
time no longer 7hoti chronos ouketi     
estai74    ,the work of the great       
mathematicians of the nineteenth        
century--,gauss1  ,riemann1             
,lobatschefsky1 ,bolyai--offered further
 evidence that space is  not an         
empirical deduction from nature1 but a  
conception of the mind1 by  showing that
 various forms of space can be          
conceived1 differing from one  another  
and from the form in which the mind has 
cast the events of  nature 7the         
,euclidean space74 ,finally1 physical   
science1 in the theory  of relativity1  
has deduced the same conclusions3 space 
and time do not  exist in nature by     
themselves1 as empty space and empty    
time1 but their  existence is only due  

to things and events as they occur in   
nature4 ,they  are relative in the      
relation between us and the events of   
nature1 so  much so that they are not   
fixed and invariable in their           
properties1 but  depend upon the        
observer and the conditions of          
observation4    ,we can get an idea of  
how utterly our perception of nature    
depends on  the particular form of our  
time conception by picturing to         
ourselves how  nature would look if our 
time perception were #ajj1jjj times     
faster1 or  #ajj1jjj times slower4      
,in the first case1 with our sense      
perceptions #ajj1jjj times faster1 all  
events in nature would appear to us     
#ajj1jjj times slower4 ,this would  then
 be a stationary and immovable world4   
,the only motion which we could  see    
with our eyes would be that of the      
cannon ball1 which would crawl  slowly  
along1 at less than a snail's pace4 ,the
 express train going at  sixty miles per
 hour would appear to stand still1 and  

deliberate  experiment be required to   
discover its motion4 ,by noting its     
position on  the track1 and noting it   
again after a period of time as long as 
five  minutes appears to us now1 we     
should find its position changed by     
three  inches4 ,it would be a dangerous 
world1 as there would be many           
objects--not distinguishable to the     
senses from other harmless              
objects--contact with which would be    
dangerous1 even fatal2 and one and  the 
same object 7as the express train7 might
 sometimes be harmless 7when  at rest71 
sometimes dangerous 7when in motion71   
without our senses being  able to see   
any difference4    ,on the other hand1  
with our sense perceptions #ajj1jjj     
times slower1 all  events in nature     
would appear to us to occur #ajj1jjj    
times faster4 ,there  would be little   
rest in nature1 and we should see       
plants1 and even  stones1 move4 ,we     
should observe1 in a period of time not 
longer than a  minute or two appear to  

us now1 a plant start from seed1 grow   
up1  flower1 bring fruit1 and die4 ,sun 
and moon would be luminous bands        
traversing the sky2 day and night       
alternate seconds of light and          
darkness4 ,much of nature1 all moving   
things1 would be invisible to us4  ,if  
,i moved my arm1 it would disappear1 to 
reappear again when ,i held it  still4  
,it would be a usual occurrence to have 
somebody suddenly appear  and just as   
suddenly disappear from our midst1 or to
 see only a part of  a body4 ,the       
vanishing and the appearance of objects 
would be common  occurrences in nature2 
and we should speak of vanishing and    
appearing1 instead of moving and        
stopping4 ,collisions1 usually          
harmless1 with invisible objects would  
be common occurrences4    ,as seen1     
nature and its laws would appear to us  
very different from what  we find them  
now1 with our present time perception4  
,thus philosophy1 mathematics1 and      
physical science agree that space and   

time cannot be entities1 but are        
conceptions of the human mind in its    
relation to nature4 ,but what does this 
mean1 and what conclusions follow  from 
it8    ,the space of our conception is  
three-dimensional--that is1 extended in 
three directions4 ,for instance1 the    
north-south direction1 the east-west    
direction1 and the up-down direction4   
,any place or point in space thus  is   
located1 relative to some other point1  
by giving its three distances  from the 
latter1 in three 7arbitrarily chosen7   
directions4    ,time has only one       
dimension--that is1 extends in one      
direction only1  from the past to the   
future--and a moment or point in time   
thus is  located1 with reference to     
another point in time1 by one time      
distance4    ,but there is a fundamental
 difference between our space conception
 and  our time conception1 in that we   
can pass through time only in one       
direction1 from the past to the future1 
while we can pass through space  in any 

direction1 from north to south1 as well 
as from south to  north--that is1 time  
is irreversible1 flows uniformly in one 
direction1  while space is reversible1  
can be traversed in any direction4 ,this
 means  that when we enter a thing in   
space1 as a house1 we can approach it1  
pass through it1 leave it1 come back to 
it1 and the thing therefore  appears    
permanent to us1 and we know1 even when 
we have left the house  and do not see  
it any more1 that it still exists1 and  
that we can go  back to it again and    
enter it4 ,not so with time4 ,on        
approaching a thing  in time1 an event  
such as a human life1 it extends from a 
point in  time--birth--over a length of 
time--the life--to an end point in      
time--death--just as the house in space 
extends from a point in  space--say the 
north wall--over a length of space--its 
extent--to an end  point in space--say  
the south wall4 ,but when we pass beyond
 the end  point of an event in time--the
 death of a life--we cannot go back to  

the  event any more2 the event has      
ceased1 ended1 the life is extinct4     
,but let us imagine that the same       
irreversibility applied to the          
conception of space--that is1 that we   
could move through space only from      
north to south1 and not in the opposite 
direction4 ,then a thing in  space1 as a
 house1 would not exist for us until we 
approached it4 ,when  we were           
approaching it1 it would first appear   
indistinctly1 and more and  more        
distinctly the nearer we approached it1 
just as an event in time  does not exist
 until we reach the point of its        
beginning1 but may appear  in           
anticipation1 in time perspective1 when 
we approach it1 the more  distinctly1   
the closer we approach it1 until we     
reach the threshold of  the time span   
covered by the event1 and the event     
begins to exist1 the  life is born4 ,so 
to us1 if we could move only from north 
to south1 the  house would begin to     
exist only when we reached its north    

door4 ,that  point would be the birth of
 the house4 ,passing through the span of
  space covered by the house--this would
 for us be its existence1 its  life1 and
 when we stepped out of the south door  
the house would cease  to exist for us1 
we could never enter it and turn back to
 it again--that  is1 it would be dead   
and extinct1 just as the life when we   
pass beyond  its end point in time4     
,thus birth and death1 appearance and   
extinction  of an event in time1 as our 
life1 are the same as the beginning and 
end  point of a thing in space1 like a  
house4 ,but the house appears to us to  
exist permanently1 whether we are in it1
 within the length between  beginning   
and end point1 or not2 while the event  
in time1 our life1  appears to us to    
exist only during the length of time    
when we are  between its beginning and  
its end point in time1 and before and   
after it  does not exist for us1 because
 we cannot go back to it or ahead into  
it4  ,but assume time were reversible1  

like space--that is1 we could go        
through it in any direction4 ,there     
would then be no such thing as birth  or
 origin1 and death or extinction1 but   
our life would exist  permanently1 as a 
part or span of time1 just as the house 
exists as a  part or section of space1  
and the question of immortality1 of     
extinction  or nonextinction by death1  
would then be meaningless4 ,we should   
not  exist outside of the span of time  
covered by our life1 just as we do not  
exist outside of the part of space      
covered by our body in space1 and to    
reach an event1 as our life1 we should  
have to go to the part of space  and to 
the part of time where it occurs2 but   
there would be no more  extinction of   
the life by going beyond its length in  
time as there is  extinction of a house 
by going outside of its door1 and       
everything1 like  a human being1 would  
have four extensions or                 
dimensions--three  extensions in space  
and one in time4#i    ,if space and     

time1 and therefore the characteristics 
of space and time1  are not real things 
or entities1 but conceptions of the     
human mind1 then  those transcendental  
questions1 as that of immortality after 
death and  existence before birth1 are  
not problems of fact in nature or       
outside of  nature1 but are meaningless1
 just as the question whether a house   
exists  for an observer outside of the  
space covered by it4 ,in other words1   
the  questions of birth and death1 of   
extinction or immortality1 are merely   
the incidental results of the           
peculiarity of our conceptions of time1 
the peculiarity that the time of our    
conceptions is irreversible1 flows      
continuously at a uniform rate in the   
same direction from the past to  the    
future4    ,but if time has no reality1 
is not an existing entity1 then these   
transcendental problems resulting from  
our time conception1 of  extinction or  
immortality1 have no real existence1 but
 are really  phenomena of the human     

mind1 and cease to exist if we go beyond
 the  limitations of our mind1 beyond   
our peculiar time conception4    ,it is 
interesting to realize that the modern  
development of science1 in  the         
relativity theory1 has proved not only  
that time is not real1 but a            
conception1 but also has proved that the
 time of our conception does not  flow  
uniformly at constant rate from past to 
future1 but that the rate  of the flow  
of time varies with the conditions2 the 
rate of time flow of  an event slows    
down with the motion relative to the    
event4    ,but the conception of a      
reversal of the flow of time is no more 
illogical than the conception of a      
change of the rate of the flow of  time4
 ,it is inconceivable1 because it is    
beyond the limitations of our  mind4    
,thus we see that the questions of life 
and death1 of extinction and            
immortality1 are not absolute problems1 
but merely the result of the            
limitations of our mind in its          

conception of time1 and have no         
existence  outside of us4    ,after all1
 to some extent we conceive time as     
reversible1 in the  conception of       
historical time4 ,in history we go back 
in time at our  will1 and traverse with 
the mind's eye the times of the past1   
and we  then find that death and        
extinction do not exist in history1 but 
the  events of history1 the lives of    
those who made history1 exist just as   
much outside of the span of time of     
their physiological life--that is1  are 
immortal in historical time4 ,they may  
fade and become more  indistinct with   
the distance in time1 just as things in 
space become  more indistinct with the  
distance in space1 but they can be      
brought back  to full clearness and     
distinction by again approaching the    
things and  events1 the former moving   
through space1 the latter moving through
 the  historical time--that is1 by      
looking up and studying the history of  
the  time4      ,,the ,,entity ,x       

,scientifically1 life is a              
physico-chemical process4               
,transformations of  matter1 with which 
the chemist deals1 and transformations  
of energy1  with which the physicist    
deals1 are all that is comprised in the 
phenomenon of life2 and mind1 intellect1
 soul1 personality1 the ego1 are  mere  
functions of the physico-chemical       
process of life1 vanishing when  this   
process ceases1 but are not a part of   
the transformations of matter  and of   
energy4 ,if you thus speak of mental    
energy1 it scientifically  is a         
misnomer1 and mind is not energy in the 
physical sense4 ,it is true  that mental
 effort1 intellectual work1 is          
accompanied by transformations  of      
matter1 chemical changes in the brain1  
and by transformations of  energy4 ,but 
the mental activity is not a part of the
 energy or of the  matter which is      
transformed1 but the balance of energy  
and of matter  closes4    ,in the energy
 transformations accompanying mental    

activity1 just as much  energy of one   
form appears as energy of some other    
form is consumed1 and  the mental       
activity is no part of the energy4 ,in  
the transformations of  matter          
accompanying mental activity1 just as   
much matter of one form  appears as     
matter of some other form is consumed1  
and the mental  activity is no part of  
either--that is1 neither energy nor     
matter has  been transformed into mental
 activity1 nor has energy or matter been
  produced by mental activity4 ,all     
attempts to account for the mental      
activity as produced by the expenditure 
of physical energy1 or as  producing    
physical energy--that is1 exerting      
forces and action--have  failed and must
 fail1 and so must any attempt to record
 or observe and  measure mental activity
 by physical methods--that is1 methods  
sensitive  to the action of physical    
forces4    ,but what1 then1 is mind8 ,is
 it a mere phenomenon1 accompanying the 
physico-chemical reactions of life and  

vanishing with the end of the  reaction1
 just as the phenomenon of a flame may  
accompany a chemical  reaction1 and     
vanish when the reaction is completed8  
,or is mind an  entity1 just like the   
entity energy and the entity matter1 but
 differing  from either of them--in     
short1 a third entity8 ,we have compared
 mind  with the phenomenon of a flame   
accompanying a chemical reaction2 but1  
after all1 the flame is not a mere      
phenomenon1 but is an entity1 is        
energy4    ,more than once1 in the      
apparently continuous and unbroken      
structure of  science1 wide gaps have   
been discovered into which new sections 
of  knowledge fitted1 sections the      
existence of which had never been       
suspected4 ,so in ,mendelejeff's        
,periodic ,system of the ,elements all  
chemical elements fitted in without     
gaps--in a continuous series 7except  a 
few missing links1 which were gradually 
discovered and filled in74              
,nevertheless1 the whole group of six   

noble gases1 from helium to  emanium1   
were discovered and fitted into the     
periodic system at a place  where nobody
 had suspected a gap4    ,one of the    
most interesting of such unsuspected    
gaps in the structure of  science is the
 following1 because of its pertinency to
 the subject of  our discussion4    ,in 
studying the transformations of matter1 
the chemist records them by  equations  
of the form3    7#a7 #b;,h#b  ,o#b      
#b;,h#b,o1 which means3    ,two gram    
molecules of hydrogen ,h#b7b ,x #b  #d  
grams7 and #a gram  molecule of oxygen  
,o#b7a ,x #cb grams71 combine to #b gram
 molecules of  water vapor ,h#b,o 7#b ,x
 #ah  #cf grams74    ,for nearly a      
hundred years chemists wrote and        
accepted this equation2  innumerable    
times it has been experimentally proved 
by combining #d parts  of hydrogen and  
#cb parts of oxygen to #cf parts of     
water vapor2 so that  this chemical     
equation would appear as correct and    
unquestionable as  anything can be4     

,nevertheless1 it is wrong1 or rather   
incomplete4 ,it does not give the  whole
 event1 but omits an essential part of  
it1 and now we write it3    7#b7 #b;,h#b
  ,o#b  #b;,h#b,o  #bic1jjj ,j41 which  
means3    ,the matter and energy of #b  
gram molecules of hydrogen1 and the     
matter  and energy of #a gram molecule  
of oxygen1 combine to the matter and    
energy of #b gram molecules of water    
vapor and #bic1jjj joules1 or units1  of
 free energy4    ,for a hundred years   
the chemists thus saw only the material 
transformation as represented by        
equation 7#a71 but overlooked and did   
not recognize the energy transformation 
coincident with the  transformation of  
matter1 though every time the experiment
 was made1 the  #bic1jjj ,j4 of energy  
in equation 7#b7 made themselves felt as
 flame1 as  heat and mechanical force1  
sometimes even explosively shattering   
the  container in which the experiment  
was made4 ,but the flame and the        
explosion appeared only as an incidental

 phenomenon without  significance1 as it
 represents and contains no part of the 
matter1 but  equation 7#a7 gives the    
complete balance of matter in           
transformation4 ,it  was much later that
 the scientists realized the            
significance of the  flame accompanying 
the material transformation as not a    
mere incidental  phenomenon1 but as the 
manifestation of the entity energy1     
permanent and  indestructible1 like     
matter1 and the complete equation 7#b7  
appeared1  giving the balance of energy 
as well as the balance of matter--that  
is1  coincident with the transformation 
of matter is a transformation of        
energy1 and both are indissoluble from  
each other1 either involves the  other1 
and both may be called different aspects
 of the same phenomenon4    ,but we have
 seen1 when mental activity occurs in   
our mind1 chemical and  physical        
transformations accompany it1 are       
coincident with it1 and  apparently     
indissoluble from it4 ,does there       

possibly exist the same  relation       
between mental activity and the         
transformations of energy and  matter1  
as we have seen to exist between the    
latter two8 ,are mental  activity1      
energy transformation1 and              
transformation of matter three  aspects 
of the same biochemical phenomenon8     
,if for nearly a hundred years equation 
7#a7 was considered complete1  until we 
found that one side was incomplete1 and 
arrived at the more  complete equation  
7#b71 the question may well be raised3  
,is equation 7#b7  complete1 dealing as 
it does with two entities1 matter and   
energy1 or is  it not possibly still    
incomplete1 and a third entity should   
appear in  the equation1 an entity ,x1  
as ,i may call it1 differing from energy
 and  from matter1 just as energy and   
matter differ from each other1 and      
therefore not recognizable and          
measurable by the means which measure   
energy or matter1 just as energy cannot 
be measured by the same means as        

matter8    ,that is1 the complete       
equation of transformation would read3  
7#c7 #b;,h#b  ,o#b  #b;,h#b,o  #bic1jjj 
,j4  ,x1 involving all three  entities1 
matter1 energy1 and mind1 pertaining1   
respectively1 to the  realm of          
chemistry1 of physics1 and of           
psychology1 or possibly a broader       
science of which psychology is one      
branch4    ,there is no scientific      
evidence whatsoever of the existence of 
such a  third entity1 ,x1 but all our   
deductions have been by analogy1 which  
proves nothing--that is1 by speculation1
 dreaming1 and unavoidably  so--since in
 these conceptions we are close to the  
border line of the  human mind where    
logical reasoning loses itself in the   
fog of  contradiction4 ,but at the same 
time there is no evidence against the   
conception of an entity ,x2 it is not   
illogical1 at least no more so  than all
 such general conceptions1 no more so   
than1 for instance1 that  of energy or  
of matter4 ,as empirical science deals  

with energy and  matter1 and entity ,x  
is neither1 it could not be observed by 
any of  the methods of experimental     
physics or chemistry4    ,if mind is a  
third entity1 correlated with the       
entities of energy and  of matter1 we   
should expect that mental activity1 or  
entity ,x1 should  occur not only in the
 highly complex transformations of      
energy and of  matter taking place in   
the brains of the highest orders of     
living  beings1 but that entity ,x      
should appear in all physico-chemical   
reactions1 just as energy               
transformations always occur in         
transformations of matter1 and          
inversely4 ,but this seems not so1 and  
in  most of the transformations of      
energy and of matter entity ,x does not 
appear4 ,however1 we have no            
satisfactory means of recognizing entity
  ,x1 no methods of studying it4        
,therefore1 it may well be that it is   
noticed only in those rare instances    
when it appears of high intensity1  but 

in most reactions entity ,x may be so   
small or appear in such way  as to      
escape observation by the means and by  
the methods now available4  ,like energy
 or matter1 entity ,x may have many     
forms in which it is not  recognized by 
us1 just as for a long time the flame   
was not recognized  as the entity       
energy4    ,to illustrate1 again by     
analogy3 ,in many transformations of    
matter1  indeed1 in most of the more    
complex ones of the organic world1 the  
concurrent energy transformation is of  
such slowness and of such low  intensity
 that it appears nonexisting1 and can be
 discovered and  measured only by the   
delicate experiments devised by science4
  ,furthermore1 the energy may appear in
 different forms4 ,thus the #bic1jjj    
,j4 of energy in equation 7#b7 may      
appear as heat1 or as electrical        
energy1 or as a combination of heat1    
light1 sound1 and mechanical  energy4   
,now assume that we could observe and   
notice only one of the  forms of        

energy--for instance1 only electrical   
energy4 ,we should then  find that in   
the equation 7#a7 we only sometimes get 
energy--that is1  electrical            
energy--under special peculiar          
conditions1 but usually do not  seem to 
get any of the entity energy1 simply    
because we do not recognize  it in the  
form in which it appears4 ,analogously1 
there might be a term  of entity ,x in  
all transformations1 even such simple   
ones as equation  7#c71 but entity ,x   
may appear in a far different1 simpler  
form4 ,it  would mean that mind is only 
one form of entity ,x1 perhaps the      
high-grade form1 as it appears in highly
 complex reactions4 ,in the  simpler    
physico-chemical processes of nature1   
entity ,x also would  appear1 but in    
other1 simpler forms4 ,it would mean    
that things such as  mind and intellect 
are not limited to the higher living    
beings1 but  characteristics akin       
thereto would be found grading down     
throughout all  living and inanimate    

nature4 ,this does not appear           
unreasonable when we  consider that some
 characteristics of life are found      
throughout all  nature1 even in the     
crystal which1 in its mother liquor1    
repairs a  lesion1 heals a wound1 or    
which1 in the colloidal solution1 may be
  poisoned by prussic acid4    ,assume1 
then1 that mind1 intellect1 personality1
 the ego1 were forms of  a third entity1
 an entity ,x1 correlated in nature with
 the entities  energy and matter4 ,then1
 just as energy and matter continuously 
change  their forms1 so with the        
transformations of energy and of matter1
 entity  ,x would continuously change1  
disappear in one form and reappear in   
another form4 ,entity ,x could therefore
 not exist permanently in one  and the  
same form1 and the permanency of the    
ego--that is1  immortality--would still 
be illogical1 would not exist within the
 realm  of science1 but would carry us  
beyond the limitations of the human mind
  into the unknowable4 ,permanency of   

the ego--that is1 individual            
immortality--would require a form of    
entity ,x1 in which it is not  further  
transformable4 ,this would be the case  
if the transformations of  entity ,x are
 not completely reversible1 but tend one
 definite  direction1 from lower-grade  
to higher-grade forms1 and the latter   
thus  would gradually build up to       
increasing permanency4 ,there is nothing
  unreasonable in this1 but a similar   
condition--in the reverse               
direction--exists with the              
transformations of energy4 ,they also   
are not  completely reversible1 but tend
 in a definite direction1 from higher-  
to  lower-grade form--unavailable heat  
energy 7the increase of entropy by  the 
second law of thermodynamics74 ,thus in 
infinite time the universe  should come 
to a standstill1 in spite of the law of 
conservation of  energy1 by all energy  
becoming unavailable for further        
transformation--that is1 becoming dead  
energy4 ,if entity ,x existed1  could it

 not also have become unavailable for   
further transformation by  reaching its 
maximum high-grade form and thus become 
not susceptible to  further change--that
 is1 immortal--just as the unavailable  
heat of the  physicist is immortal1 and 
not capable of further transformation8  
,here  we are again in the fog of       
illogic1 beyond the limitations4        
,however1 it  sounds familiar to the    
,nirvana of the ,buddhist4    ,physics  
and chemistry obviously could not deal  
with entity ,x1 and the  most delicate  
and sensitive physical or chemical      
instruments could get  no indication of 
it1 and all attempts at investigation by
 physical or  chemical means thus must  
be doomed to failure4 ,but such         
investigations  of entity ,x belong to  
the realm of the science of psychology1 
or1  rather1 a broader science1 of which
 psychology is one branch dealing  with 
one form of entity ,x1 mind1 just as1   
for instance1  electro-physics is one   
branch of the broader science of        

physics1 dealing  with electrical       
energy1 while physics deals with all    
forms of energy4    ,in concluding1 ,i  
wish to say that nothing in the         
preceding speculations  can possibly    
encourage spiritism or other            
pseudo-science4 ,on the  contrary1 from 
the preceding it is obvious that the    
alleged  manifestations of spiritism    
must be fake or self-deception1 since   
they  are manifestations of energy4     
,entity ,x1 if it exists1 certainly is  
not  energy1 and therefore could not    
manifest itself as such4    ,,footnotes3
    ,footnote #h3 ,from ,harpers        
,magazine for ,february1 #aibb4         
,footnote #i3 ,it is interesting to note
 that the relativity theory leads  to   
the conception of a symmetrical         
four-dimensional world space            
7,minkowski71 in which in general each  
of the four dimensions comprises  space 
and time conceptions1 and the           
segregation into three dimensions of    
space and one dimension of time occurs  

only under special conditions of        
observation4 7,,author47                
,,biographical ,,and ,,critical ,,notes 
,,sir ,,arthur ,,keith1 ,m4,d41         
,,ll4,d41 ,f4,r4,s41 born in ,aberdeen1 
#ahff1 was  educated at the ,university 
of ,aberdeen2 at ,university ,college1  
,london2  and at the ,university of     
,leipzig4 ,from #ahii to #aijb1 he was  
,secretary of  the ,anatomical ,society 
of ,great ,britain1 and was ,president  
of the ,royal  ,anthropological         
,institute from #aiab to #aiad4 ,at     
present he is ,hunterian  ,professor and
 ,conservator of ,museum1 ,royal        
,college of ,surgeons1 ,london1  and    
also holds the ,fullerian ,professorship
 of ,physiology1 ,royal  ,institution of
 ,great ,britain and ,ireland4          
,beginning with his  ,introduction to   
the ,study of ,anthropoid ,apes in      
#ahif1 he has produced  some ten        
volumes4 ,among them are ,human         
,embryology and ,morphology  7#aija72   
,ancient ,types of ,man 7#aiaa72 ,the   

,human ,body 7#aiab72 ,menders  of the  
,maimed 7#aiai72 and ,nationality and   
,race 7#aibj74 ,he was  knighted in     
#aiba4    ,the ,levers of the ,human    
,body is helpful in illustrating the    
value of  diagrams and of analogy in the
 exposition of a mechanism4 ,it may be  
used  also for teaching the student to  
adapt his work to the audience1 for1    
although prepared at first for an       
immature audience1 its material has     
since been so adapted that in addition  
to the general reader it is of          
particular interest to the physician and
 to the engineer4      ,the series of   
volumes in which ,modern ,methods of    
,book ,composition  appears1 is but one 
of the distinguished services in        
improving the  practice of typography   
rendered by ,,theodore ,,low ,,de       
,,vinne 7#ahbh-aiad74 ,at  his          
invitation1 the chapter1 ,mechanical    
,composition1 was contributed  by       
,,philip ,t4 ,,dodge1 ,president of the 
,mergenthaler ,linotype ,company4       

,the ,mergenthaler ,linotype1 which is  
taken from ,mr4 ,dodge's chapter1 is    
well adapted for teaching the           
correlation of diagrams and text in the 
exposition of mechanisms and machines4  
,some idea of the length of ,,jean      
,,henri ,,fabre',s life 7#ahbc-aiae7 may
 be  obtained when we recall that his   
place as a scientist was established    
early enough for ,victor ,hugo to refer 
to him as the insects' ,homer and  for  
,darwin to refer to him in ,the ,origin 
of ,species as that  incomparable       
observer4 ,by #ahda1 ,fabre had escaped 
from the poverty of  his boyhood and had
 qualified as a pupil teacher at the    
,normal ,college  at ,vaucluse4 ,later1 
he became ,professor of ,physics and    
,chemistry at the  lyce of ,ajaccio and1
 by #aheb1 held a similar position at   
,avignon4 ,the  greater part of his life
 was spent in the study of insects4 ,the
 results  are recorded in several       
volumes4 ,an interesting ,life1 written 
by the  ,abb ,augustin ,fabre and       

translated by ,mr4 ,miall1 was published
 in #aiba4    ,the ,pea ,weevil1 which  
offers an example of the exposition of a
 process  achieved by impersonal        
narration1 should prove especially      
helpful in  showing the student how     
interest may be secured in such work4   
,the ,j4,w4 ,,butler ,,paper ,,company1 
which published the little volume from  
which the selection is taken1 is        
recognized as an important factor in    
the industry4    ,modern ,paper-making  
may be utilized in teaching the emphasis
 placed on  chronological order in the  
impersonal narration of a process2 the  
explanation of machines by generalized  
description in such narration2  and the 
methods employed in explaining alternate
 or parallel steps in  the process4     
,,william ,,james 7#ahdb-aiaj71 like his
 equally distinguished brother1         
received his elementary education in    
,new ,york ,city and in ,europe4 ,from  
#ahfa to #ahfc1 he studied at the       
,lawrence ,scientific ,school1 ,harvard 

,university1 leaving to join the ,thayer
 ,expedition to ,brazil4 ,he was        
graduated in #ahgj from the ,harvard    
,medical ,school and1 two years later1  
was appointed ,instructor in ,anatomy   
and ,physiology4 ,in #ahhe1 while       
,assistant ,professor of ,physiology at 
the ,medical ,school1 he was  appointed 
,assistant ,professor of ,philosophy at 
,harvard ,university4 ,his  later work  
at the ,university is well-known4 ,among
 his published works  are his           
,principles of ,psychology 7#ahhi72 ,the
 ,will to ,believe 7#ahig72  ,the       
,varieties of ,religious ,experience    
7#aijb72 ,pragmatism 7#aijg72  ,memories
 and ,studies 7#aiaa72 and ,essays in   
,radical ,empiricism  7#aiab74 ,his     
,letters1 edited by his son1 appeared in
 #aibj4    ,the ,gospel of ,relaxation  
offers a model in the adaptation of     
scientific material to a lay audience1  
through the way in which the  author    
makes clear the ,lange-,james ,theory by
 concrete examples and  practical       

applications4      ,,charles ,,proteus  
,,steinmetz 7#ahfe-71 born in ,breslau1 
,germany1 was  educated at ,breslau1    
,berlin1 and ,zurich4 ,for twenty-five  
years he has  been ,consulting ,engineer
 to the ,general ,electric ,company1 and
 for twenty  years ,professor of        
,electro-physics at ,union ,university4 
,besides several  authoritative volumes 
on subjects within his field1 he is the 
author of  ,america and the ,new ,epoch 
7#aijf7 and is a frequent contributor to
  literary as well as to technical      
journals4    ,science and ,religion may 
be used to show the student how even so 
technical a topic as the ,einstein      
,theory may be rendered concrete for    
the general reader through analogy and  
specific examples4