,,plato',s ,,apology1 ,,crito ,,and ,,ph,,do ,,of ,,socrates4 ,literally ,translated ,by ,,henry ,,cary1 ,m4,a41 ,worcester ,college1 ,oxford ,with ,an ,introduction ,by ,,edward ,,brooks1 ,,jr4 ,,contents4 ,,introduction ,,the ,,apology ,,of ,,socrates ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,crito ,,crito2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,duty ,,of ,a ,,citizen ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,ph,,do ,,ph,,do2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,immortality ,,of ,,the ,,soul ,,introduction4 ,of all writers of speculative philosophy1 both ancient and modern1 there is probably no one who has attained so eminent a position as ,plato4 ,what ,homer was to ,epic poetry1 what ,cicero and ,demosthenes were to oratory1 and what ,shakespeare was to the drama of ,england1 ,plato was to ancient philosophy1 not unapproachable nor unapproached1 but possessing an inexplicable but unquestioned supremacy4 ,the authentic records of his life are meagre1 and much that has been written concerning him is of a speculative nature4 ,he was born at ,athens in the year #dbg ,b4,c4 ,his father's name was ,ariston1 and his mother's family1 which claimed its descent from ,solon1 included among its members many ,athenian notables1 among whom was ,oritias1 one of the thirty tyrants4 ,in his early youth ,plato applied himself to poetry and painting1 both of which pursuits he relinquished to become the disciple and follower of ,socrates4 ,it is said that his name was originally ,aristocles1 but that it was changed to ,plato on account of the breadth of his shoulders and forehead4 ,he is also said to have been an expert wrestler and to have taken part in several important battles4 ,he was the devoted friend and pupil of ,socrates1 and during the imprisonment of his master he attended him constantly1 and committed to writing his last discourses on the immortality of the soul4 ,after the death of ,socrates it is supposed that ,plato took refuge with ,euclides in ,megara1 and subsequently extended his travels into ,magna ,graecia and ,egypt4 ,upon his return to ,athens he taught those who came to him for instruction in the grove named ,academus1 near the ,cephisus1 and thus founded the first great philosophical school1 over which he continued to preside until the day of his death4 ,above the entrance to this grove was inscribed the legend3 ,let no one ignorant of geometry enter here4 ,here he was attended by persons of every description1 among the more illustrious of whom were ,aristotle1 ,lycurgus1 ,demosthenes and ,isocrates4 ,there is a story to the effect that ,plato three times visited ,sicily1 once upon the invitation of the elder ,dionysius1 and twice at the earnest solicitations of the younger4 ,the former he is said to have so seriously offended as to cause the tyrant to have him seized on his return home and sold as a slave1 from which state of bondage he was1 however1 released by ,anicerius of ,cyrene4 ,the people of his time thought more of him than they did of all their other philosophers1 and called him the ,divine ,plato4 ,so great was the regard and veneration for him that it was considered better to err with ,plato than be right with any one else4 ,the writings of ,plato are numerous1 and most of them are in the form of dialogues4 ,the following pages contain translations of three of his works1 viz43 ,the ,apologia1 ,the ,crito and ,the ,phdo1 all of which have reference to the trial1 imprisonment and death of ,socrates4 ,the ,apologia represents ,socrates on trial for his life1 undertaking his own defence1 though unaccustomed to the language of the courts1 the occasion being1 as he says1 the first time he has ever been before a court of justice1 though seventy years of age4 ,plato was present at the trial1 and no doubt gives us the very arguments used by the accused4 ,two charges were brought against ,socrates--one that he did not believe in the gods recognized by the ,state1 the other that he had corrupted the ,athenian youth by his teachings4 ,socrates does not have recourse to the ordinary methods adopted by orators on similar occasions4 ,he prefers to stand upon his own integrity and innocence1 uninfluenced by the fear of that imaginary evil1 death4 ,he1 therefore1 does not firmly grapple with either of the charges preferred against him4 ,he neither denies nor confesses the first accusation1 but shows that in several instances he conformed to the religious customs of his country1 and that he believes in ,god more than he fears man4 ,the second charge he meets by a cross-examination of his accuser1 ,melitus1 whom he reduces to the dilemma of charging him with corrupting the youth designedly1 which would be absurd1 or with doing so undesignedly1 for which he could not be liable to punishment4 ,his defence1 however1 avails him nothing1 and he is condemned by the judges to die by drinking the poisonous hemlock4 ,in the closing part of ,the ,apologia ,socrates is represented as commenting upon the sentence which has been passed upon him1 and as expressing his belief that in going to his death he is only passing to a better and a happier life4 ,in ,the ,crito ,socrates is represented in conversation with a friend of his named ,crito1 who had been present at his trial1 and who had offered to assist ,socrates in paying a fine1 had a fine been the sentence imposed4 ,crito visits ,socrates in his confinement to bring to him the intelligence that the ship1 the arrival of which was to be the signal for his death upon the following day1 would arrive forthwith1 and to urge him to adopt the means of escape which had already been prepared4 ,socrates promises to follow the advice of ,crito if1 upon a full discussion of the matter1 it seems right to do so4 ,in the conversation which ensues ,socrates argues that it is wrong to return evil for evil and that the obligations which a citizen owes to his ,state are more binding than those which a child owes his parents or a slave his master1 and1 therefore1 it is his duty to submit to the laws of ,athens at whatever cost to himself4 ,crito has no answer to make to this argument1 and ,socrates thereupon decides to submit to his fate4 ,plato is said to have had two objects in writing this dialogue3 ,first1 to acquit ,socrates of the charge of corrupting the ,athenian youth2 and1 second1 to establish the fact that it is necessary under all circumstances to submit to the established laws of his country4 ,the ,phdo relates the manner in which ,socrates spent the last day of his life and the circumstances attending his death4 ,he is visited by a number of his friends1 among whom are ,phdo1 ,simmias and ,crito4 ,when his friends arrive they find him sitting upon a bed rubbing his legs1 which have just been released from bonds4 ,he remarks upon the unaccountable connection between pleasure and pain1 and from this the conversation gradually turns to a consideration of the question of the immortality of the soul4 ,he convinces his listeners of the pre-existence of the soul2 but they are still skeptical as to its immortality1 urging that its pre-existence and the fact that it is more durable than the body does not preclude the possibility of its being mortal4 ,socrates1 however1 argues that contraries cannot exist in the same thing at the same time1 as1 for example1 the same object cannot partake of both magnitude and littleness at the same time4 ,in like manner1 heat while it is heat can never admit the idea of cold4 ,life and death are contraries and can never coexist2 but wherever there is life there is soul1 so that the soul contains that which is contrary to death and can never admit death2 consequently the soul is immortal4 ,having convinced his listeners1 ,socrates bathes and takes leave of his children and the women of his family4 ,thereupon the officer appears and tells him it is time for him to drink the poison4 ,at this his friends commence to weep and are rebuked by ,socrates for their weakness4 ,he drinks the poison calmly and without hesitation1 and then begins to walk about1 still conversing with his friends4 ,his limbs soon grow stiff and heavy and he lays himself down upon his back4 ,his last words are3 ,crito1 we owe a cock to sculapius2 pay it1 therefore1 and do not neglect it4 ,,the ,,apology ,,of ,,socrates4 ,i know not1 ,o ,athenians6 how far you have been influenced by my accusers for my part1 in listening to them ,i almost forgot myself1 so plausible were their arguments however1 so to speak1 they have said nothing true4 ,but of the many falsehoods which they uttered ,i wondered at one of them especially1 that in which they said that you ought to be on your guard lest you should be deceived by me1 as being eloquent in speech4 ,for that they are not ashamed of being forthwith convicted by me in fact1 when ,i shall show that ,i am not by any means eloquent1 this seemed to me the most shameless thing in them1 unless indeed they call him eloquent who speaks the truth4 ,for1 if they mean this1 then ,i would allow that ,i am an orator1 but not after their fashion for they1 as ,i affirm1 have said nothing true1 but from me you shall hear the whole truth4 ,not indeed1 ,athenians1 arguments highly wrought1 as theirs were1 with choice phrases and expressions1 nor adorned1 but you shall hear a speech uttered without premeditation in such words as first present themselves4 ,for ,i am confident that what ,i say will be just1 and let none of you expect otherwise1 for surely it would not become my time of life to come before you like a youth with a got up speech4 ,above all things1 therefore1 ,i beg and implore this of you1 ,o ,athenians6 if you hear me defending myself in the same language as that in which ,i am accustomed to speak both in the forum at the counters1 where many of you have heard me1 and elsewhere1 not to be surprised or disturbed on this account4 ,for the case is this3 ,i now for the first time come before a court of justice1 though more than seventy years old2 ,i am therefore utterly a stranger to the language here4 ,as1 then1 if ,i were really a stranger1 you would have pardoned me if ,i spoke in the language and the manner in which ,i had been educated1 so now ,i ask this of you as an act of justice1 as it appears to me1 to disregard the manner of my speech1 for perhaps it may be somewhat worse1 and perhaps better1 and to consider this only1 and to give your attention to this1 whether ,i speak what is just or not2 for this is the virtue of a judge1 but of an orator to speak the truth4 #b4 ,first1 then1 ,o ,athenians6 ,i am right in defending myself against the first false accusations alleged against me1 and my first accusers1 and then against the latest accusations1 and the latest accusers4 ,for many have been accusers of me to you1 and for many years1 who have asserted nothing true1 of whom ,i am more afraid than of ,anytus and his party1 although they too are formidable2 but those are still more formidable1 ,athenians1 who1 laying hold of many of you from childhood1 have persuaded you1 and accused me of what is not true3 that there is one ,socrates1 a wise man1 who occupies himself about celestial matters1 and has explored every thing under the earth1 and makes the worse appear the better reason4 ,those1 ,o ,athenians6 who have spread abroad this report are my formidable accusers2 for they who hear them think that such as search into these things do not believe that there are gods4 ,in the next place1 these accusers are numerous1 and have accused me now for a long time2 moreover1 they said these things to you at that time of life in which you were most credulous1 when you were boys and some of you youths1 and they accused me altogether in my absence1 when there was no one to defend me4 ,but the most unreasonable thing of all is1 that it is not possible to learn and mention their names1 except that one of them happens to be a comic poet4#a ,such1 however1 as1 influenced by envy and calumny1 have persuaded you1 and those who1 being themselves persuaded1 have persuaded others1 all these are most difficult to deal with2 for it is not possible to bring any of them forward here1 nor to confute any2 but it is altogether necessary to fight1 as it were with a shadow1 in making my defense1 and to convict when there is no one to answer4 ,consider1 therefore1 as ,i have said1 that my accusers are twofold1 some who have lately accused me1 and others long since1 whom ,i have made mention of2 and believe that ,i ought to defend myself against these first2 for you heard them accusing me first1 and much more than these last4 ,well4 ,i must make my defense1 then1 ,o ,athenians6 and endeavor in this so short a space of time to remove from your minds the calumny which you have long entertained4 ,i wish1 indeed1 it might be so1 if it were at all better both for you and me1 and that in making my defense ,i could effect something more advantageous still3 ,i think1 however1 that it will be difficult1 and ,i am not entirely ignorant what the difficulty is4 ,nevertheless1 let this turn out as may be pleasing to ,god1 ,i must obey the law and make my defense4 #c4 ,let us1 then1 repeat from the beginning what the accusation is from which the calumny against me has arisen1 and relying on which ,melitus has preferred this indictment against me4 ,well4 ,what1 then1 do they who charge me say in their charge8 ,for it is necessary to read their deposition as of public accusers4 ,socrates acts wickedly1 and is criminally curious in searching into things under the earth1 and in the heavens1 and in making the worse appear the better cause1 and in teaching these same things to others4 ,such is the accusation3 for such things you have yourselves seen in the comedy of ,aristophanes1 one ,socrates there carried about1 saying that he walks in the air1 and acting many other buffooneries1 of which ,i understand nothing whatever4 ,nor do ,i say this as disparaging such a science1 if there be any one skilled in such things1 only let me not be prosecuted by ,melitus on a charge of this kind2 but ,i say it1 ,o ,athenians6 because ,i have nothing to do with such matters4 ,and ,i call upon most of you as witnesses of this1 and require you to inform and tell each other1 as many of you as have ever heard me conversing2 and there are many such among you4 ,therefore tell each other1 if any one of you has ever heard me conversing little or much on such subjects4 ,and from this you will know that other things also1 which the multitude assert of me1 are of a similar nature4 #d4 ,however not one of these things is true2 nor1 if you have heard from any one that ,i attempt to teach men1 and require payment1 is this true4 ,though this1 indeed1 appears to me to be an honorable thing1 if one should be able to instruct men1 like ,gorgias the ,leontine1 ,prodicus the ,cean1 and ,hippias the ,elean4 ,for each of these1 ,o ,athenians6 is able1 by going through the several cities1 to persuade the young men1 who can attach themselves gratuitously to such of their own fellow-citizens as they please1 to abandon their fellow-citizens and associate with them1 giving them money and thanks besides4 ,there is also another wise man here1 a ,parian1 who1 ,i hear1 is staying in the city4 ,for ,i happened to visit a person who spends more money on the sophists than all others together3 ,i mean ,callias1 son of ,hipponicus4 ,i therefore asked him1 for he has two sons1 ,callias1 ,i said1 if your two sons were colts or calves1 we should have had to choose a master for them1 and hire a person who would make them excel in such qualities as belong to their nature2 and he would have been a groom or an agricultural laborer4 ,but now1 since your sons are men1 what master do you intend to choose for them8 ,who is there skilled in the qualities that become a man and a citizen8 ,for ,i suppose you must have considered this1 since you have sons4 ,is there any one1 ,i said1 or not8 ,certainly1 he answered4 ,who is he8 said ,i1 and whence does he come8 and on what terms does he teach8 ,he replied1 ,evenus the ,parian1 ,socrates1 for five minae4 ,and ,i deemed ,evenus happy1 if he really possesses this art1 and teaches admirably4 ,and ,i too should think highly of myself1 and be very proud1 if ,i possessed this knowledge1 but ,i possess it not1 ,o ,athenians4 #e4 ,perhaps1 one of you may now object3 ,but1 ,socrates1 what have you done1 then8 ,whence have these calumnies against you arisen8 ,for surely if you had not busied yourself more than others1 such a report and story would never have got abroad1 unless you had done something different from what most men do4 ,tell us1 therefore1 what it is1 that we may not pass a hasty judgment on you4 ,he who speaks thus appears to me to speak justly1 and ,i will endeavor to show you what it is that has occasioned me this character and imputation4 ,listen1 then3 to some of you perhaps ,i shall appear to jest1 yet be assured that ,i shall tell you the whole truth4 ,for ,i1 ,o ,athenians6 have acquired this character through nothing else than a certain wisdom4 ,of what kind1 then1 is this wisdom8 ,perhaps it is merely human wisdom4 ,for in this1 in truth1 ,i appear to be wise4 ,they probably1 whom ,i have just now mentioned1 possessed a wisdom more than human1 otherwise ,i know not what to say about it2 for ,i am not acquainted with it1 and whosoever says ,i am1 speaks falsely1 and for the purpose of calumniating me4 ,but1 ,o ,athenians6 do not cry out against me1 even though ,i should seem to you to speak somewhat arrogantly4 ,for the account which ,i am going to give you is not my own2 but ,i shall refer to an authority whom you will deem worthy of credit4 ,for ,i shall adduce to you the god at ,delphi as a witness of my wisdom1 if ,i have any1 and of what it is4 ,you doubtless know ,chrepho3 he was my associate from youth1 and the associate of most of you2 he accompanied you in your late exile1 and returned with you4 ,you know1 then1 what kind of a man ,chrepho was1 how earnest in whatever he undertook4 ,having once gone to ,delphi1 he ventured to make the following inquiry of the oracle 7and1 as ,i said1 ,o ,athenians6 do not cry out71 for he asked if there was any one wiser than ,i4 ,the ,pythian thereupon answered that there was not one wiser2 and of this1 his brother here will give you proofs1 since he himself is dead4 #f4 ,consider1 then1 why ,i mention these things3 it is because ,i am going to show you whence the calumny against me arose4 ,for when ,i heard this1 ,i reasoned thus with myself1 ,what does the god mean8 ,what enigma is this8 ,for ,i am not conscious to myself that ,i am wise1 either much or little4 ,what1 then1 does he mean by saying that ,i am the wisest8 ,for assuredly he does not speak falsely3 that he could not do4 ,and for a long time ,i was in doubt what he meant2 afterward1 with considerable difficulty1 ,i had recourse to the following method of searching out his meaning4 ,i went to one of those who have the character of being wise1 thinking that there1 if anywhere1 ,i should confute the oracle1 and show in answer to the response that ,this man is wiser than ,i1 though you affirmed that ,i was the wisest4 ,having1 then1 examined this man 7for there is no occasion to mention his name2 he was1 however1 one of our great politicians1 in examining whom ,i felt as ,i proceed to describe1 ,o ,athenians671 having fallen into conversation with him1 this man appeared to be wise in the opinion of most other men1 and especially in his own opinion1 though in fact he was not so4 ,i thereupon endeavored to show him that he fancied himself to be wise1 but really was not4 ,hence ,i became odious1 both to him and to many others who were present4 ,when ,i left him1 ,i reasoned thus with myself3 ,i am wiser than this man1 for neither of us appears to know anything great and good2 but he fancies he knows something1 although he knows nothing2 whereas ,i1 as ,i do not know anything1 so ,i do not fancy ,i do4 ,in this trifling particular1 then1 ,i appear to be wiser than he1 because ,i do not fancy ,i know what ,i do not know4 ,after that ,i went to another who was thought to be wiser than the former1 and formed the very same opinion4 ,hence ,i became odious to him and to many others4 #g4 ,after this ,i went to others in turn1 perceiving indeed1 and grieving and alarmed1 that ,i was making myself odious2 however1 it appeared necessary to regard the oracle of the god as of the greatest moment1 and that1 in order to discover its meaning1 ,i must go to all who had the reputation of possessing any knowledge4 ,and by the dog1 ,o ,athenians6 for ,i must tell you the truth1 ,i came to some such conclusion as this3 those who bore the highest reputation appeared to me to be most deficient1 in my researches in obedience to the god1 and others who were considered inferior more nearly approaching to the possession of understanding4 ,but ,i must relate to you my wandering1 and the labors which ,i underwent1 in order that the oracle might prove incontrovertible4 ,for after the politicians ,i went to the poets1 as well the tragic as the dithyrambic and others1 expecting that here ,i should in very fact find myself more ignorant than they4 ,taking up1 therefore1 some of their poems1 which appeared to me most elaborately finished1 ,i questioned them as to their meaning1 that at the same time ,i might learn something from them4 ,i am ashamed1 ,o ,athenians6 to tell you the truth2 however1 it must be told4 ,for1 in a word1 almost all who were present could have given a better account of them than those by whom they had been composed4 ,i soon discovered this1 therefore1 with regard to the poets1 that they do not effect their object by wisdom1 but by a certain natural inspiration1 and under the influence of enthusiasm1 like prophets and seers2 for these also say many fine things1 but they understand nothing that they say4 ,the poets appeared to me to be affected in a similar manner2 and at the same time ,i perceived that they considered themselves1 on account of their poetry1 to be the wisest of men in other things1 in which they were not4 ,i left them1 therefore1 under the persuasion that ,i was superior to them1 in the same way that ,i was to the politicians4 #h4 ,at last1 therefore1 ,i went to the artisans4 ,for ,i was conscious to myself that ,i knew scarcely anything1 but ,i was sure that ,i should find them possessed of much beautiful knowledge4 ,and in this ,i was not deceived2 for they knew things which ,i did not1 and in this respect they were wiser than ,i4 ,but1 ,o ,athenians6 even the best workmen appeared to me to have fallen into the same error as the poets2 for each1 because he excelled in the practice of his art1 thought that he was very wise in other most important matters1 and this mistake of theirs obscured the wisdom that they really possessed4 ,i therefore asked myself1 in behalf of the oracle1 whether ,i should prefer to continue as ,i am1 possessing none1 either of their wisdom or their ignorance1 or to have both as they have4 ,i answered1 therefore1 to myself and to the oracle1 that it was better for me to continue as ,i am4 #i4 ,from this investigation1 then1 ,o ,athenians6 many enmities have arisen against me1 and those the most grievous and severe1 so that many calumnies have sprung from them1 and among them this appellation of being wise2 for those who are from time to time present think that ,i am wise in those things1 with respect to which ,i expose the ignorance of others4 ,the god1 however1 ,o ,athenians6 appears to be really wise1 and to mean this by his oracle3 that human wisdom is worth little or nothing2 and it is clear that he did not say this to ,socrates1 but made use of my name1 putting me forward as an example1 as if he had said1 that man is the wisest among you1 who1 like ,socrates1 knows that he is in reality worth nothing with respect to wisdom4 ,still1 therefore1 ,i go about and search and inquire into these things1 in obedience to the god1 both among citizens and strangers1 if ,i think any one of them is wise2 and when he appears to me not to be so1 ,i take the part of the god1 and show that he is not wise4 ,and1 in consequence of this occupation1 ,i have no leisure to attend in any considerable degree to the affairs of the state or my own2 but ,i am in the greatest poverty through my devotion to the service of the god4 #aj4 ,in addition to this1 young men1 who have much leisure and belong to the wealthiest families1 following me of their own accord1 take great delight in hearing men put to the test1 and often imitate me1 and themselves attempt to put others to the test2 and then1 ,i think1 they find a great abundance of men who fancy they know something1 although they know little or nothing4 ,hence those who are put to the test by them are angry with me1 and not with them1 and say that there is one ,socrates1 a most pestilent fellow1 who corrupts the youth4 ,and when any one asks them by doing or teaching what1 they have nothing to say1 for they do not know2 but1 that they may not seem to be at a loss1 they say such things as are ready at hand against all philosophers2 that he searches into things in heaven and things under the earth1 that he does not believe there are gods1 and that he makes the worse appear the better reason4 ,for they would not1 ,i think1 be willing to tell the truth that they have been detected in pretending to possess knowledge1 whereas they know nothing4 ,therefore1 ,i think1 being ambitions and vehement and numerous1 and speaking systematically and persuasively about me1 they have filled your ears1 for a long time and diligently calumniating me4 ,from among these1 ,melitus1 ,anytus and ,lycon have attacked me2 ,melitus being angry on account of the poets1 ,anytus on account of the artisans and politicians1 and ,lycon on account of the rhetoricians4 ,so that1 as ,i said in the beginning1 ,i should wonder if ,i were able in so short a time to remove from your minds a calumny that has prevailed so long4 ,this1 ,o ,athenians6 is the truth2 and ,i speak it without concealing or disguising anything from you1 much or little2 though ,i very well know that by so doing ,i shall expose myself to odium4 ,this1 however1 is a proof that ,i speak the truth1 and that this is the nature of the calumny against me1 and that these are its causes4 ,and if you will investigate the matter1 either now or hereafter1 you will find it to be so4 #aa4 ,with respect1 then1 to the charges which my first accusers have alleged against me1 let this be a sufficient apology to you4 ,to ,melitus1 that good and patriotic man1 as he says1 and to my later accusers1 ,i will next endeavor to give an answer2 and here1 again1 as there are different accusers1 let us take up their deposition4 ,it is pretty much as follows3 ,socrates1 it says1 acts unjustly in corrupting the youth1 and in not believing in those gods in whom the city believes1 but in other strange divinities4 ,such is the accusation2 let us examine each particular of it4 ,it says that ,i act unjustly in corrupting the youth4 ,but ,i1 ,o ,athenians6 say that ,melitus acts unjustly1 because he jests on serious subjects1 rashly putting men upon trial1 under pretense of being zealous and solicitous about things in which he never at any time took any concern4 ,but that this is the case ,i will endeavor to prove to you4 #ab4 ,come1 then1 ,melitus1 tell me1 do you not consider it of the greatest importance that the youth should be made as virtuous as possible8 ,mel4 ,i do4 ,socr4 ,well1 now1 tell the judges who it is that makes them better1 for it is evident that you know1 since it concerns you so much2 for1 having detected me in corrupting them1 as you say1 you have cited me here1 and accused me3 come1 then1 say1 and inform the judges who it is that makes them better4 ,do you see1 ,melitus1 that you are silent1 and have nothing to say8 ,but does it not appear to you to be disgraceful1 and a sufficient proof of what ,i say1 that you never took any concern about the matter8 ,but tell me1 friend1 who makes them better8 ,mel4 ,the laws4 ,socr4 ,i do not ask this1 most excellent sir1 but what man1 who surely must first know this very thing1 the laws8 ,mel4 ,these1 ,socrates1 the judges4 ,socr4 ,how say you1 ,melitus8 ,are these able to instruct the youth1 and make them better8 ,mel4 ,certainly4 ,socr4 ,whether all1 or some of them1 and others not8 ,mel4 ,all4 ,socr4 ,you say well1 by ,juno6 and have found a great abundance of those that confer benefit4 ,but what further8 ,can these hearers make them better1 or not8 ,mel4 ,they1 too1 can4 ,socr4 ,and what of the senators8 ,mel4 ,the senators1 also4 ,socr4 ,but1 ,melitus1 do those who attend the public assemblies corrupt the younger men8 or do they all make them better8 ,mel4 ,they too4 ,socr4 ,all the ,athenians1 therefore1 as it seems1 make them honorable and good1 except me2 but ,i alone corrupt them4 ,do you say so8 ,mel4 ,i do assert this very thing4 ,socr4 ,you charge me with great ill-fortune4 ,but answer me3 does it appear to you to be the same1 with respect to horses8 ,do all men make them better1 and is there only some one that spoils them8 or does quite the contrary of this take place8 ,is there some one person who can make them better1 or very few2 that is1 the trainers8 ,but if the generality of men should meddle with and make use of horses1 do they spoil them8 ,is not this the case1 ,melitus1 both with respect to horses and all other animals8 ,it certainly is so1 whether you and ,anytus deny it or not4 ,for it would be a great good-fortune for the youth if only one person corrupted1 and the rest benefited them4 ,however1 ,melitus1 you have sufficiently shown that you never bestowed any care upon youth2 and you clearly evince your own negligence1 in that you have never paid any attention to the things with respect to which you accuse me4 #ac4 ,tell us further1 ,melitus1 in the name of ,jupiter1 whether is it better to dwell with good or bad citizens8 ,answer1 my friend2 for ,i ask you nothing difficult4 ,do not the bad work some evil to those that are continually near them1 but the good some good8 ,mel4 ,certainly4 ,socr4 ,is there any one that wishes to be injured rather than benefited by his associates8 ,answer1 good man2 for the law requires you to answer4 ,is there any one who wishes to be injured8 ,mel4 ,no1 surely4 ,socr4 ,come1 then1 whether do you accuse me here1 as one that corrupts the youth1 and makes them more depraved1 designedly or undesignedly8 ,mel4 ,designedly1 ,i say4 ,socr4 ,what1 then1 ,melitus1 are you at your time of life so much wiser than ,i at my time of life1 as to know that the evil are always working some evil to those that are most near to them1 and the good some good2 but ,i have arrived at such a pitch of ignorance as not to know that if ,i make any one of my associates depraved1 ,i shall be in danger of receiving some evil from him2 and yet ,i designedly bring about this so great evil1 as you say8 ,in this ,i can not believe you1 ,melitus1 nor do ,i think would any other man in the world4 ,but either ,i do not corrupt the youth1 or1 if ,i do corrupt them1 ,i do it undesignedly3 so that in both cases you speak falsely4 ,but if ,i corrupt them undesignedly1 for such involuntary offenses it is not usual to accuse one here1 but to take one apart1 and teach and admonish one4 ,for it is evident that if ,i am taught1 ,i shall cease doing what ,i do undesignedly4 ,but you shunned me1 and were not willing to associate with and instruct me2 but you accuse me here1 where it is usual to accuse those who need punishment1 and not instruction4 #ad4 ,thus1 then1 ,o ,athenians6 this now is clear that ,i have said2 that ,melitus never paid any attention to these matters1 much or little4 ,however1 tell us1 ,melitus1 how you say ,i corrupt the youth8 ,is it not evidently1 according to the indictment which you have preferred1 by teaching them not to believe in the gods in whom the city believes1 but in other strange deities8 ,do you not say that1 by teaching these things1 ,i corrupt the youth8 ,mel4 ,certainly ,i do say so4 ,socr4 ,by those very gods1 therefore1 ,melitus1 of whom the discussion now is1 speak still more clearly both to me and to these men4 ,for ,i can not understand whether you say that ,i teach them to believe that there are certain gods 7and in that case ,i do believe that there are gods1 and am not altogether an atheist1 nor in this respect to blame71 not1 however1 those which the city believes in1 but others2 and this it is that you accuse me of1 that ,i introduce others4 ,or do you say outright that ,i do not myself believe that there are gods1 and that ,i teach others the same8 ,mel4 ,i say this3 that you do not believe in any gods at all4 ,socr4 ,o wonderful ,melitus1 how come you to say this8 ,do ,i not1 then1 like the rest of mankind1 believe that the sun and moon are gods8 ,mel4 ,no1 by ,jupiter1 ,o judges6 for he says that the sun is a stone1 and the moon an earth4 ,socr4 ,you fancy that you are accusing ,anaxagoras1 my dear ,melitus1 and thus you put a slight on these men1 and suppose them to be so illiterate as not to know that the books of ,anaxagoras of ,clazomene are full of such assertions4 ,and the young1 moreover1 learn these things from me1 which they might purchase for a drachma1 at most1 in the orchestra1 and so ridicule ,socrates1 if he pretended they were his own1 especially since they are so absurd8 ,i ask then1 by ,jupiter1 do ,i appear to you to believe that there is no god8 ,mel4 ,no1 by ,jupiter1 none whatever4 ,socr4 ,you say what is incredible1 ,melitus1 and that1 as appears to me1 even to yourself4 ,for this man1 ,o ,athenians6 appears to me to be very insolent and intemperate and to have preferred this indictment through downright insolence1 intemperance1 and wantonness4 ,for he seems1 as it were1 to have composed an enigma for the purpose of making an experiment4 ,whether will ,socrates the wise know that ,i am jesting1 and contradict myself1 or shall ,i deceive him and all who hear me8 ,for1 in my opinion1 he clearly contradicts himself in the indictment1 as if he should say1 ,socrates is guilty of wrong in not believing that there are gods1 and in believing that there are gods4 ,and this1 surely1 is the act of one who is trifling4 #ae4 ,consider with me now1 ,athenians1 in what respect he appears to me to say so4 ,and do you1 ,melitus1 answer me2 and do ye1 as ,i besought you at the outset1 remember not to make an uproar if ,i speak after my usual manner4 ,is there any man1 ,melitus1 who believes that there are human affairs1 but does not believe that there are men8 ,let him answer1 judges1 and not make so much noise4 ,is there any one who does not believe that there are horses1 but that there are things pertaining to horses8 or who does not believe that there are pipers1 but that there are things pertaining to pipes8 ,there is not1 ,o best of men6 for since you are not willing to answer1 ,i say it to you and to all here present4 ,but answer to this at least3 is there any one who believes that there are things relating to demons1 but does not believe that there are demons8 ,mel4 ,there is not4 ,socr4 ,how obliging you are in having hardly answered2 though compelled by these judges6 ,you assert1 then1 that ,i do believe and teach things relating to demons1 whether they be new or old2 therefore1 according to your admission1 ,i do believe in things relating to demons1 and this you have sworn in the bill of indictment4 ,if1 then1 ,i believe in things relating to demons1 there is surely an absolute necessity that ,i should believe that there are demons4 ,is it not so8 ,it is4 ,for ,i suppose you to assent1 since you do not answer4 ,but with respect to demons1 do we not allow that they are gods1 or the children of gods8 ,do you admit this or not8 ,mel4 ,certainly4 ,socr4 ,since1 then1 ,i allow that there are demons1 as you admit1 if demons are a kind of gods1 this is the point in which ,i say you speak enigmatically and divert yourself in saying that ,i do not allow there are gods1 and again that ,i do allow there are1 since ,i allow that there are demons8 ,but if demons are the children of gods1 spurious ones1 either from nymphs or any others1 of whom they are reported to be1 what man can think that there are sons of gods1 and yet that there are not gods8 ,for it would be just as absurd as if any one should think that there are mules1 the offspring of horses and asses1 but should not think there are horses and asses4 ,however1 ,melitus1 it can not be otherwise than that you have preferred this indictment for the purpose of trying me1 or because you were at a loss what real crime to allege against me2 for that you should persuade any man who has the smallest degree of sense that the same person can think that there are things relating to demons and to gods1 and yet that there are neither demons1 nor gods1 not heroes1 is utterly impossible4 #af4 ,that ,i am not guilty1 then1 ,o ,athenians6 according to the indictment of ,melitus1 appears to me not to require a lengthened defense2 but what ,i have said is sufficient4 ,and as to what ,i said at the beginning1 that there is a great enmity toward me among the multitude1 be assured it is true4 ,and this it is which will condemn me1 if ,i am condemned1 not ,melitus1 nor ,anytus1 but the calumny and envy of the multitude1 which have already condemned many others1 and those good men1 and will1 ,i think1 condemn others also2 for there is no danger that it will stop with me4 ,perhaps1 however1 some one may say1 ,are you not ashamed1 ,socrates1 to have pursued a study from which you are now in danger of dying8 ,to such a person ,i should answer with good reason1 ,you do not say well1 friend1 if you think that a man1 who is even of the least value1 ought to take into the account the risk of life or death1 and ought not to consider that alone when be performs any action1 whether he is acting justly or unjustly1 and the part of a good man or bad man4 ,for1 according to your reasoning1 all those demi-gods that died at ,troy would be vile characters1 as well all the rest as the son of ,thetis1 who so far despised danger in comparison of submitting to disgrace1 that when his mother1 who was a goddess1 spoke to him1 in his impatience to kill ,hector1 something to this effect1 as ,i think1#b ,my son1 if you revenge the death of your friend ,patroclus1 and slay ,hector1 you will yourself die1 for1 she said1 death awaits you immediately after ,hector2 but he1 on hearing this1 despised death and danger1 and dreading much more to live as a coward1 and not avenge his friend1 said1 ,may ,i die immediately when ,i have inflicted punishment on the guilty1 that ,i may not stay here an object of ridicule1 by the curved ships1 a burden to the ground8--do you think that he cared for death and danger8 ,for thus it is1 ,o ,athenians6 in truth3 wherever any one has posted himself1 either thinking it to be better1 or has been posted by his chief1 there1 as it appears to me1 he ought to remain and meet danger1 taking no account either of death or anything else in comparison with disgrace4 #ag4 ,i then should be acting strangely1 ,o ,athenians6 if1 when the generals whom you chose to command me assigned me my post at ,potida1 at ,amphipolis1 and at ,delium1 ,i then remained where they posted me1 like any other person1 and encountered the danger of death2 but when the deity1 as ,i thought and believed1 assigned it as my duty to pass my life in the study of philosophy1 and examining myself and others1 ,i should on that occasion1 through fear of death or any thing else whatsoever1 desert my post1 strange indeed would it be2 and then1 in truth1 any one might justly bring me to trial1 and accuse me of not believing in the gods1 from disobeying the oracle1 fearing death1 and thinking myself to be wise when ,i am not4 ,for to fear death1 ,o ,athenians6 is nothing else than to appear to be wise1 without being so2 for it is to appear to know what one does not know4 ,for no one knows but that death is the greatest of all good to man2 but men fear it1 as if they well knew that it is the greatest of evils4 ,and how is not this the most reprehensible ignorance1 to think that one knows what one does not know8 ,but ,i1 ,o ,athenians6 in this1 perhaps1 differ from most men2 and if ,i should say that ,i am in any thing wiser than another1 it would be in this1 that not having a competent knowledge of the things in ,hades1 ,i also think that ,i have not such knowledge4 ,but to act unjustly1 and to disobey my superior1 whether ,god or man1 ,i know is evil and base4 ,i shall never1 therefore1 fear or shun things which1 for aught ,i know1 maybe good1 before evils which ,i know to be evils4 ,so that1 even if you should now dismiss me1 not yielding to the instances of ,anytus1 who said that either ,i should not#c appear here at all1 or that1 if ,i did appear1 it was impossible not to put me to death1 telling you that if ,i escaped1 your sons1 studying what ,socrates teaches1 would all be utterly corrupted2 if you should address me thus1 ,socrates1 we shall not now yield to ,anytus1 but dismiss you1 on this condition1 however1 that you no longer persevere in your researches nor study philosophy2 and if hereafter you are detected in so doing1 you shall die--if1 as ,i said1 you should dismiss1 me on these terms1 ,i should say to you1 ,o ,athenians6 ,i honor and love you2 but ,i shall obey ,god rather than you2 and so long as ,i breathe and am able1 ,i shall not cease studying philosophy1 and exhorting you and warning any one of you ,i may happen to meet1 saying1 as ,i have been accustomed to do3 ',o best of men6 seeing you are an ,athenian1 of a city the most powerful and most renowned for wisdom and strength1 are you not ashamed of being careful for riches1 how you may acquire them in greatest abundance1 and for glory1 and honor1 but care not nor take any thought for wisdom and truth1 and for your soul1 how it maybe made most perfect8' ,and if any one of you should question my assertion1 and affirm that he does care for these things1 ,i shall not at once let him go1 nor depart1 but ,i shall question him1 sift and prove him4 ,and if he should appear to me not to possess virtue1 but to pretend that he does1 ,i shall reproach him for that he sets the least value on things of the greatest worth1 but the highest on things that are worthless4 ,thus ,i shall act to all whom ,i meet1 both young and old1 stranger and citizen1 but rather to you1 my fellow-citizens1 because ye are more nearly allied to me4 ,for be well assured1 this the deity commands4 ,and ,i think that no greater good has ever befallen you in the city than my zeal for the service of the god4 ,for ,i go about doing nothing else than persuading you1 both young and old1 to take no care either for the body1 or for riches1 prior to or so much as for the soul1 how it may be made most perfect1 telling you that virtue does not spring from riches1 but riches and all other human blessings1 both private and public1 from virtue4 ,if1 then1 by saying these things1 ,i corrupt the youth1 these things must be mischievous2 but if any one says that ,i speak other things than these1 he misleads you4#d ,therefore ,i must say1 ,o ,athenians6 either yield to ,anytus1 or do not1 either dismiss me or not1 since ,i shall not act otherwise1 even though ,i must die many deaths4 #ah4 ,murmur not1 ,o ,athenians6 but continue to attend to my request1 not to murmur at what ,i say1 but to listen1 for1 as ,i think1 you will derive benefit from listening4 ,for ,i am going to say other things to you1 at which1 perhaps1 you will raise a clamor2 but on no account do so4 ,be well assured1 then1 if you put me to death1 being such a man as ,i say ,i am1 you will not injure me more than yourselves4 ,for neither will ,melitus nor ,anytus harm me2 nor have they the power2 for ,i do not think that it is possible for a better man to be injured by a worse4 ,he may perhaps have me condemned to death1 or banished1 or deprived of civil rights2 and he or others may perhaps consider these as mighty evils2 ,i1 how ever1 do not consider them so1 but that it is much more so to do what he is now doing1 to endeavor to put a man to death unjustly4 ,now1 therefore1 ,o ,athenians6 ,i am far from making a defense on my behalf1 as any one might think1 but ,i do so on your own behalf1 lest by condemning me you should offend at all with respect to the gift of the deity to you4 ,for1 if you should put me to death1 you will not easily find such another1 though it may be ridiculous to say so1 altogether attached by the deity to this city as to a powerful and generous horse1 somewhat sluggish from his size1 and requiring to be roused by a gad-fly2 so the deity appears to have united me1 being such a person as ,i am1 to the city1 that ,i may rouse you1 and persuade and reprove every one of you1 nor ever cease besetting you throughout the whole day4 ,such another man1 ,o ,athenians6 will not easily be found2 therefore1 if you will take my advice1 you will spare me4 ,but you1 perhaps1 being irritated like drowsy persons who are roused from sleep1 will strike me1 and1 yielding to ,anytus1 will unthinkingly condemn me to death2 and then you will pass the rest of your life in sleep1 unless the deity1 caring for you1 should send some one else to you4 ,but that ,i am a person who has been given by the deity to this city1 you may discern from hence2 for it is not like the ordinary conduct of men1 that ,i should have neglected all my own affairs1 and suffered my private interest to be neglected for so many years1 and that ,i should constantly attend to your concerns1 addressing myself to each of you separately1 like a father1 or elder brother1 persuading you to the pursuit of virtue4 ,and if ,i had derived any profit from this course1 and had received pay for my exhortations1 there would have been some reason for my conduct2 but now you see yourselves that my accusers1 who have so shamelessly calumniated me in everything else1 have not had the impudence to charge me with this1 and to bring witnesses to prove that ,i ever either exacted or demanded any reward4 ,and ,i think ,i produce a sufficient proof that ,i speak the truth1 namely1 my poverty4 #ai4 ,perhaps1 however1 it may appear absurd that ,i1 going about1 thus advise you in private and make myself busy1 but never venture to present myself in public before your assemblies and give advice to the city4 ,the cause of this is that which you have often and in many places heard me mention2 because ,i am moved by a certain divine and spiritual influence1 which also ,melitus1 through mockery1 has set out in the indictment4 ,this began with me from childhood1 being a kind of voice which1 when present1 always diverts me from what ,i am about to do1 but never urges me on4 ,this it is which opposed my meddling in public politics2 and it appears to me to have opposed me very properly4 ,for be well assured1 ,o ,athenians6 if ,i had long since attempted to intermeddle with politics1 ,i should have perished long ago1 and should not have at all benefited you or myself4 ,and be not angry with me for speaking the truth4 ,for it is not possible that any man should be safe who sincerely opposes either you1 or any other multitude1 and who prevents many unjust and illegal actions from being committed in a city2 but it is necessary that he who in earnest contends for justice1 if he will be safe for but a short time1 should live privately1 and take no part in public affairs4 #bj4 ,i will give you strong proofs of this1 not words1 but what you value1 facts4 ,hear1 then1 what has happened to me1 that you may know that ,i would not yield to any one contrary to what is just1 through fear of death1 at the same time by not yielding ,i must perish4 ,i shall tell you what will be displeasing and wearisome1#e yet true4 ,for ,i1 ,o ,athenians6 never bore any other magisterial office in the city1 but have been a senator3 and our ,antiochean tribe happened to supply the ,prytanes when you chose to condemn in a body the ten generals who had not taken off those that perished in the sea-fight1 in violation of the law1 as you afterward all thought4 ,at that time ,i alone of the ,prytanes opposed your doing anything contrary to the laws1 and ,i voted against you2 and when the orators were ready to denounce me1 and to carry me before a magistrate1 and you urged and cheered them on1 ,i thought ,i ought rather to meet the danger with law and justice on my side1 than through fear of imprisonment or death1 to take part with you in your unjust designs4 ,and this happened while the city was governed by a democracy4 ,but when it became an oligarchy1 the ,thirty1 having sent for me with four others to the ,tholus1 ordered us to bring ,leon the ,salaminian from ,salamis1 that he might be put to death2 and they gave many similar orders to many others1 wishing to involve as many as they could in guilt4 ,then1 however1 ,i showed1 not in word but in deed1 that ,i did not care for death1 if the expression be not too rude1 in the smallest degree2 but that all my care was to do nothing unjust or unholy4 ,for that government1 strong as it was1 did not so overawe me as to make me commit an unjust action2 but when we came out from the ,tholus1 the four went to ,salamis1 and brought back ,leon2 but ,i went away home4 ,and perhaps for this ,i should have been put to death1 if that government had not been speedily broken up4 ,and of this you can have many witnesses4 #ba4 ,do you think1 then1 that ,i should have survived so many years if ,i had engaged in public affairs1 and1 acting as becomes a good man1 had aided the cause of justice1 and1 as ,i ought1 had deemed this of the highest importance8 ,far from it1 ,o ,athenians6 nor would any other man have done so4 ,but ,i1 through the whole of my life1 if ,i have done anything in public1 shall be found to be a man1 and the very same in private1 who has never made a concession to any one contrary to justice1 neither to any other1 nor to any one of these whom my calumniators say are my disciples4 ,i1 however1 was never the preceptor of any one2 but if any one desired to hear me speaking1 and to see me busied about my own mission1 whether he were young or old1 ,i never refused him4 ,nor do ,i discourse when ,i receive money1 and not when ,i do not receive any1 but ,i allow both rich and poor alike to question me1 and1 if any one wishes it1 to answer me and hear what ,i have to say4 ,and for these1 whether any one proves to be a good man or not1 ,i cannot justly be responsible1 because ,i never either promised them any instruction or taught them at all4 ,but if any one says that he has ever learned or heard anything from me in private which all others have not1 be well assured that he does not speak the truth4 #bb4 ,but why do some delight to spend so long a time with me8 ,ye have heard1 ,o ,athenians6 ,i have told you the whole truth1 that they delight to hear those closely questioned who think that they are wise but are not2 for this is by no means disagreeable4 ,but this duty1 as ,i say1 has been enjoined me by the deity1 by oracles1 by dreams1 and by every mode by which any other divine decree has ever enjoined anything to man to do4 ,these things1 ,o ,athenians6 are both true1 and easily confuted if not true4 ,for if ,i am now corrupting some of the youths1 and have already corrupted others1 it were fitting1 surely1 that if any of them1 having become advanced in life1 had discovered that ,i gave them bad advice when they were young1 they should now rise up against me1 accuse me1 and have me punished2 or if they were themselves unwilling to do this1 some of their kindred1 their fathers1 or brothers1 or other relatives1 if their kinsman have ever sustained any damage from me1 should now call it to mind4 ,many of them1 however1 are here present1 whom ,i see3 first1 ,crito1 my contemporary and fellow-burgher1 father of this ,critobulus2 then ,lysanias of ,sphettus1 father of this schines2 again1 ,antiphon of ,cephisus1 father of ,epigenes4 ,there are those others1 too1 whose brothers maintained the same intimacy with me1 namely1 ,nicostratus1 son of ,theodotus1 brother of ,theodotus--,theodotus indeed is dead1 so that he could not deprecate his brother's proceedings--and ,paralus here1 son of ,demodocus1 whose brother was ,theages2 and ,adimantus1 son of ,ariston1 whose brother is this ,plato2 and antodorus1 whose brother is this ,apollodorus4 ,i could also mention many others to you1 some one of whom certainly ,melitus ought to have adduced in his speech as a witness4 ,if1 however1 he then forgot to do so1 let him now adduce them2 ,i give him leave to do so1 and let him say it1 if he has anything of the kind to allege4 ,but1 quite contrary to this1 you will find1 ,o ,athenians6 all ready to assist me1 who have corrupted and injured their relatives1 as ,melitus and ,anytus say4 ,for those who have been themselves corrupted might perhaps have some reason for assisting me2 but those who have not been corrupted1 men now advanced in life1 their relatives1 what other reason can they have for assisting me1 except that right and just one1 that they know that ,melitus speaks falsely1 and that ,i speak the truth4 #bc4 ,well1 then1 ,athenians1 these are pretty much the things ,i have to say in my defense1 and others perhaps of the same kind4 ,perhaps1 however1 some among you will be indignant on recollecting his own case1 if he1 when engaged in a cause far less than this1 implored and besought the judges with many tears1 bringing forward his children in order that he might excite their utmost compassion1 and many others of his relatives and friends1 whereas ,i do none of these things1 although ,i may appear to be incurring the extremity of danger4 ,perhaps1 therefore1 some one1 taking notice of this1 may become more determined against me1 and1 being enraged at this very conduct of mine1 may give his vote under the influence of anger4 ,if1 then1 any one of you is thus affected--,i do not1 however1 suppose that there is--but if there should be1 ,i think ,i may reasonably say to him3 ,i1 too1 ,o best of men1 have relatives2 for1 to make use of that saying of ,homer1 ,i am not sprung from an oak1 nor from a rock1 but from men1 so that ,i1 too1 ,o ,athenians6 have relatives1 and three sons1 one now grown up1 and two boys3 ,i shall not1 however1 bring any one of them forward and implore you to acquit me4 ,why1 then1 shall ,i not do this8 ,not from contumacy1 ,o ,athenians6 nor disrespect toward you4 ,whether or not ,i am undaunted at the prospect of death is another question2 but1 out of regard to my own character1 and yours1 and that of the whole city1 it does not appear to me to be honorable that ,i should do any thing of this kind at my age1 and with the reputation ,i have1 whether true or false4 ,for it is commonly agreed that ,socrates in some respects excels the generality of men4 ,if1 then1 those among you who appear to excel either in wisdom1 or fortitude1 or any other virtue whatsoever1 should act in such a manner as ,i have often seen some when they have been brought to trial1 it would be shameful1 who appearing indeed to be something1 have conducted themselves in a surprising manner1 as thinking they should suffer something dreadful by dying1 and as if they would be immortal if you did not put them to death4 ,such men appear to me to bring disgrace on the city1 so that any stranger might suppose that such of the ,athenians as excel in virtue1 and whom they themselves choose in preference to themselves for magistracies and other honors1 are in no respect superior to women4 ,for these things1 ,o ,athenians6 neither ought we to do who have attained to any height of reputation1 nor1 should we do them1 ought you to suffer us2 but you should make this manifest1 that you will much rather condemn him who introduces these piteous dramas1 and makes the city ridiculous1 than him who quietly awaits your decision4 #bd4 ,but1 reputation apart1 ,o ,athenians6 it does not appear to me to be right to entreat a judge1 or to escape by entreaty2 but one ought to inform and persuade him4 ,for a judge does not sit for the purpose of administering justice out of favor1 but that he may judge rightly1 and he is sworn not to show favor to whom he pleases1 but that he will decide according to the laws4 ,it is1 therefore1 right that neither should we accustom you1 nor should you accustom yourselves1 to violate your oaths2 for in so doing neither of us would act righteously4 ,think not then1 ,o ,athenians6 that ,i ought to adopt such a course toward you as ,i neither consider honorable1 nor just1 nor holy1 as well1 by ,jupiter6 on any other occasion1 and now especially when ,i am accused of impiety by this ,melitus4 ,for clearly1 if ,i should persuade you1 and by my entreaties should put a constraint on you who are bound by an oath1 ,i should teach you to think that there are no gods1 and in reality1 while making my defense1 should accuse myself of not believing in the gods4 ,this1 however1 is far from being the case2 for ,i believe1 ,o ,athenians6 as none of my accusers do1 and ,i leave it to you and to the deity to judge concerning me in such way as will be best both for me and for you4 ,socrates here concludes his defense1 and1 the votes being taken1 he is declared guilty by a majority of voices4 ,he thereupon resumes his address4 #be4 ,that ,i should not be grieved1 ,o ,athenians6 at what has happened--namely1 that you have condemned me--as well many other circumstances concur in bringing to pass2 and1 moreover this1 that what has happened has not happened contrary to my expectation2 but ,i much rather wonder at the number of votes on either side4 ,for ,i did not expect that ,i should be condemned by so small a number1 but by a large majority2 but now1 as it seems1 if only three more votes had changed sides1 ,i should have been acquitted4 ,so far as ,melitus is concerned1 as it appears to me1 ,i have been already acquitted2 and not only have ,i been acquitted1 but it is clear to every one that had not ,anytus and ,lycon come forward to accuse me1 he would have been fined a thousand drachmas1 for not having obtained a fifth part of the votes4 #bf4 ,the man1 then1 awards me the penalty of death4 ,well4 ,but what shall ,i1 on my part1 ,o ,athenians6 award myself8 ,is it not clear that it will be such as ,i deserve8 ,what1 then1 is that8 ,do ,i deserve to suffer1 or to pay a fine8 for that ,i have purposely during my life not remained quiet1 but neglecting what most men seek after1 money-making1 domestic concerns1 military command1 popular oratory1 and1 moreover1 all the magistracies1 conspiracies1 and cabals that are met with in the city1 thinking that ,i was in reality too upright a man to be safe if ,i took part in such things1 ,i therefore did not apply myself to those pursuits1 by attending to which ,i should have been of no service either to you or to myself2 but in order to confer the greatest benefit on each of you privately1 as ,i affirm1 ,i thereupon applied myself to that object1 endeavoring to persuade every one of you not to take any care of his own affairs before he had taken care of himself in what way he may become the best and wisest1 nor of the affairs of the city before he took care of the city itself2 and that he should attend to other things in the same manner4 ,what treatment1 then1 do ,i deserve1 seeing ,i am such a man8 ,some reward1 ,o ,athenians6 if1 at least1 ,i am to be estimated according to my real deserts2 and1 moreover1 such a reward as would be suitable to me4 ,what1 then1 is suitable to a poor man1 a benefactor1 and who has need of leisure in order to give you good advice8 ,there is nothing so suitable1 ,o ,athenians6 as that such a man should be maintained in the ,prytaneum1 and this much more than if one of you had been victorious at the ,olympic games in a horserace1 or in the two or four horsed chariot race3 for such a one makes you appear to be happy1 but ,i1 to be so2 and he does not need support1 but ,i do4 ,if1 therefore1 ,i must award a sentence according to my just deserts1 ,i award this1 maintenance in the ,prytaneum4 #bg4 ,perhaps1 however1 in speaking to you thus1 ,i appear to you to speak in the same presumptuous manner as ,i did respecting commiseration and entreaties2 but such is not the case1 ,o ,athenians6 it is rather this3 ,i am persuaded that ,i never designedly injured any man1 though ,i can not persuade you of this1 for we have conversed with each other but for a short time4 ,for if there were the same law with you as with other men1 that in capital cases the trial should list not only one day1 but many1 ,i think you would be persuaded2 but it is not easy in a short time to do away with1 great calumnies4 ,being persuaded1 then1 that ,i have injured no one1 ,i am far from intending to injure myself1 and of pronouncing against myself that ,i am deserving of punishment1 and from awarding myself any thing of the kind4 ,through fear of what8 lest ,i should suffer that which ,melitus awards me1 of which ,i say ,i know not whether it he good or evil8 ,instead of this1 shall ,i choose what ,i well know to be evil1 and award that8 ,shall ,i choose imprisonment8 ,and why should ,i live in prison1 a slave to the established magistracy1 the ,eleven8 ,shall ,i choose a fine1 and to be imprisoned until ,i have paid it8 ,but this is the same as that which ,i just now mentioned1 for ,i have not money to pay it4 ,shall ,i1 then1 award myself exile8 ,for perhaps you would consent to this award4 ,i should indeed be very fond of life1 ,o ,athenians6 if ,i were so devoid of reason as not to be able to reflect that you1 who are my fellow-citizens1 have been unable to endure my manner of life and discourses1 but they have become so burdensome and odious to you that you now seek to be rid of them3 others1 however1 will easily bear them4 ,far from it1 ,o ,athenians6 ,a fine life it would be for me at my age to go out wandering1 and driven from city to city1 and so to live4 ,for ,i well know that1 wherever ,i may go1 the youth will listen to me when ,i speak1 as they do here4 ,and if ,i repulse them1 they will themselves drive me out1 persuading the elders2 and if ,i do not repulse them1 their fathers and kindred will banish me on their account4 #bh4 ,perhaps1 however1 some one will say1 ,can you not1 ,socrates1 when you have gone from us1 live a silent and quiet life8 ,this is the most difficult thing of all to persuade some of you4 ,for if ,i say that that would be to disobey the deity1 and that1 therefore1 it is impossible for me to live quietly1 you would not believe me1 thinking ,i spoke ironically4 ,if1 on the other hand1 ,i say that this is the greatest good to man1 to discourse daily on virtue1 and other things which you have heard me discussing1 examining both myself and others1 but that a life without investigation is not worth living for1 still less would you believe me if ,i said this4 ,such1 however1 is the case1 as ,i affirm1 ,o ,athenians6 though it is not easy to persuade you4 ,and at the same time ,i am not accustomed to think myself deserving of any ill4 ,if1 indeed1 ,i were rich1 ,i would amerce myself in such a sum as ,i should be able to pay2 for then ,i should have suffered no harm1 but now--for ,i can not1 unless you are willing to amerce me in such a sum as ,i am able to pay4 ,but perhaps ,i could pay you a mina of silver3 in that sum1 then1 ,i amerce myself4 ,but ,plato here1 ,o ,athenians6 and ,crito ,critobulus1 and ,apollodorus bid me amerce myself in thirty minae1 and they offer to be sureties4 ,i amerce myself1 then1 to you in that sum2 and they will be sufficient sureties for the money4 ,the judges now proceeded to pass the sentence1 and condemned ,socrates to death2 whereupon he continued3 #bi4 ,for the sake of no long space of time1 ,o ,athenians6 you will incur the character and reproach at the hands of those who wish to defame the city1 of having put that wise man1 ,socrates1 to death4 ,for those who wish to defame you will assert that ,i am wise1 though ,i am not4 ,if1 then1 you had waited for a short time1 this would have happened of its own accord2 for observe my age1 that it is far advanced in life1 and near death4 ,but ,i say this not to you all1 but to those only who have condemned me to die4 ,and ,i say this1 too1 to the same persons4 ,perhaps you think1 ,o ,athenians6 that ,i have been convicted through the want of arguments1 by which ,i might have persuaded you1 had ,i thought it right to do and say any thing1 so that ,i might escape punishment4 ,far otherwise3 ,i have been convicted through want indeed1 yet not of arguments1 but of audacity and impudence1 and of the inclination to say such things to you as would have been most agreeable for you to hear1 had ,i lamented and bewailed and done and said many other things unworthy of me1 as ,i affirm1 but such as you are accustomed to hear from others4 ,but neither did ,i then think that ,i ought1 for the sake of avoiding danger1 to do any thing unworthy of a freeman1 nor do ,i now repent of having so defended myself2 but ,i should much rather choose to die1 having so defended myself1 than to live in that way4 ,for neither in a trial nor in battle is it right that ,i or any one else should employ every possible means whereby he may avoid death2 for in battle it is frequently evident that a man might escape death by laying down his arms1 and throwing himself on the mercy of his pursuers4 ,and there are many other devices in every danger1 by which to avoid death1 if a man dares to do and say every thing4 ,but this is not difficult1 ,o ,athenians6 to escape death2 but it is much more difficult to avoid depravity1 for it runs swifter than death4 ,and now ,i1 being slow and aged1 am overtaken by the slower of the two2 but my accusers1 being strong and active1 have been overtaken by the swifter1 wickedness4 ,and now ,i depart1 condemned by you to death2 but they condemned by truth1 as guilty of iniquity and injustice3 and ,i abide my sentence1 and so do they4 ,these things1 perhaps1 ought so to be1 and ,i think that they are for the best4 #cj4 ,in the next place1 ,i desire to predict to you who have condemned me1 what will be your fate2 for ,i am now in that condition in which men most frequently prophesy--namely1 when they are about to die4 ,i say1 then1 to you1 ,o ,athenians6 who have condemned me to death1 that immediately after my death a punishment will overtake you1 far more severe1 by ,jupiter6 than that which you have inflicted on me4 ,for you have done this1 thinking you should be freed from the necessity of giving an account of your lives4 ,the very contrary1 however1 as ,i affirm1 will happen to you4 ,your accusers will be more numerous1 whom ,i have now restrained1 though you did not perceive it2 and they will be more severe1 inasmuch as they are younger1 and you will be more indignant4 ,for if you think that by putting men to death you will restrain any one from upbraiding you because you do not live well1 you are much mistaken2 for this method of escape is neither possible nor honorable2 but that other is most honorable and most easy1 not to put a check upon others1 but for a man to take heed to himself how he may be most perfect4 ,having predicted thus much to those of you who have condemned me1 ,i take my leave of you4 #ca4 ,but with you who have voted for my acquittal ,i would gladly hold converse on what has now taken place1 while the magistrates are busy1 and ,i am not yet carried to the place where ,i must die4 ,stay with me1 then1 so long1 ,o ,athenians6 for nothing hinders our conversing with each other1 while we are permitted to do so2 for ,i wish to make known to you1 as being my friends1 the meaning of that which has just now befallen me4 ,to me1 then1 ,o my judges6 and in calling you judges ,i call you rightly--a strange thing has happened4 ,for the wonted prophetic voice of my guardian deity on every former occasion1 even in the most trifling affairs1 opposed me if ,i was about to do any thing wrong2 but now that has befallen me which ye yourselves behold1 and which any one would think1 and which is supposed to be the extremity of evil2 yet neither when ,i departed from home in the morning did the warning of the god oppose me1 nor when ,i came up here to the place of trial1 nor in my address when ,i was about to say any thing2 yet on other occasions it has frequently restrained me in the midst of speaking4 ,but now it has never1 throughout this proceeding1 opposed me1 either in what ,i did or said4 ,what1 then1 do ,i suppose to be the cause of this8 ,i will tell you3 what has befallen me appears to be a blessing2 and it is impossible that we think rightly who suppose that death is an evil4 ,a great proof of this to me is the fact that it is impossible but that the accustomed signal should have opposed me1 unless ,i had been about to meet with some good4 #cb4 ,moreover1 we may hence conclude that there is great hope that death is a blessing4 ,for to die is one of two things3 for either the dead may be annihilated1 and have no sensation of any thing whatever2 or1 as it is said1 there are a certain change and passage of the soul from one place to another4 ,and if it is a privation of all sensation1 as it were a sleep in which the sleeper has no dream1 death would be a wonderful gain4 ,for ,i think that if any one1 having selected a night in which he slept so soundly as not to have had a dream1 and having compared this night with all the other nights and days of his life1 should be required1 on consideration1 to say how many days and nights he had passed better and more pleasantly than this night throughout his life1 ,i think that not only a private person1 but even the great king himself1 would find them easy to number1 in comparison with other days and nights4 ,if1 therefore1 death is a thing of this kind1 ,i say it is a gain2 for thus all futurity appears to be nothing more than one night4 ,but if1 on the other hand1 death is a removal from hence to another place1 and what is said be true1 that all the dead are there1 what greater blessing can there be than this1 my judges8 ,for if1 on arriving at ,hades1 released from these who pretend to be judges1 one shall find those who are true judges1 and who are said to judge there1 ,minos and ,rhadamanthus1 acus and ,triptolemus1 and such others of the demi-gods as were just during their own life1 would this be a sad removal8 ,at what price would you not estimate a conference with ,orpheus and ,musus1 ,hesiod and ,homer8 ,i indeed should be willing to die often1 if this be true4 ,for to me the sojourn there would be admirable1 when ,i should meet with ,palamedes1 and ,ajax1 son of ,telamon1 and any other of the ancients who has died by an unjust sentence4 ,the comparing my sufferings with theirs would1 ,i think1 be no unpleasing occupation4 ,but the greatest pleasure would be to spend my time in questioning and examining the people there as ,i have done those here1 and discovering who among them is wise1 and who fancies himself to be so1 but is not4 ,at what price1 my judges1 would not any one estimate the opportunity of questioning him who led that mighty army against ,troy1 or ,ulysses1 or ,sisyphus1 or ten thousand others whom one might mention both men and women--with whom to converse and associate1 and to question them1 would be an inconceivable happiness8 ,surely for that the judges there do not condemn to death2 for in other respects those who live there are more happy than those who are here1 and are henceforth immortal1 if1 at least1 what is said be true4 #cc4 ,you1 therefore1 ,o my judges6 ought to entertain good hopes with respect to death1 and to meditate on this one truth1 that to a good man nothing is evil1 neither while living nor when dead1 nor are his concerns neglected by the gods4 ,and what has befallen me is not the effect of chance2 but this is clear to me1 that now to die1 and be freed from my cares is better for me ,on this account the warning in no way turned me aside2 and ,i bear no resentment toward those who condemned me1 or against my accusers1 although they did not condemn and accuse me with this intention1 but thinking to injure me3 in this they deserve to be blamed4 ,thus much1 however1 ,i beg of them4 ,punish my sons when they grow up1 ,o judges6 paining them as ,i have pained you1 if they appear to you to care for riches or anything else before virtue2 and if they think themselves to be something when they are nothing1 reproach them as ,i have done you1 for not attending to what they ought1 and for conceiving themselves to be something when they are worth nothing4 ,if ye do this1 both ,i and my sons shall have met with just treatment at your hands4 ,but it is now time to depart--for me to die1 for you to live4 ,but which of us is going to a better state is unknown to every one but ,god4 ,,footnotes #a ,aristophanes4 #b ,iliad1 lib4 xviii4 ver4 #id1 etc4 #c ,see the ,crito1 sec4 #e4 #d ouden legei1 literally1 he says nothing3 on se trompe1 ou l'on vous impose1 ,cousin4 #e ,but for the authority of ,stallbaum1 ,i should have translated dikanika forensic2 that is1 such arguments as an advocate would use in a court of justice4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,crito4 ,it has been remarked by ,stallbaum that ,plato had a twofold design in this dialogue--one1 and that the primary one1 to free ,socrates from the imputation of having attempted to corrupt the ,athenian youth2 the other1 to establish the principle that under all circumstances it is the duty of a good citizen to obey the laws of his country4 ,these two points1 however1 are so closely interwoven with each other1 that the general principle appears only to be illustrated by the example of ,socrates4 ,crito was one of those friends of ,socrates who had been present at his trial1 and had offered to assist in paying a fine1 had a fine been imposed instead of the sentence of death4 ,he appears to have frequently visited his friend in prison after his condemnation2 and now1 having obtained access to his cell very early in the morning1 finds him composed in a quiet sleep4 ,he brings intelligence that the ship1 the arrival of which would be the signal for his death on the following day1 is expected to arrive forthwith1 and takes occasion to entreat ,socrates to make his escape1 the means of which were already prepared4 ,socrates thereupon1 having promised to follow the advice of ,crito if1 after the matter had been fully discussed1 it should appear to be right to do so1 proposes to consider the duty of a citizen toward his country2 and having established the divine principle that it is wrong to return evil for evil1 goes on to show that the obligations of a citizen to his country are even more binding than those of a child to its parent1 or a slave to his master1 and that therefore it is his duty to obey the established laws1 at whatever cost to himself4 ,at length ,crito admits that he has no answer to make1 and ,socrates resolves to submit himself to the will of ,providence4 ,,crito2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,duty ,,of ,a ,,citizen4 ,,socrates1 ,,crito4 ,socr4 ,why have you come at this hour1 ,crito8 ,is it not very early8 ,cri4 ,it is4 ,socr4 ,about what time8 ,cri4 ,scarce day-break4 ,socr4 ,i wonder how the keeper of the prison came to admit you4 ,cri4 ,he is familiar with me1 ,socrates1 from my having frequently come hither2 and he is under some obligations to me4 ,socr4 ,have you just now come1 or some time since8 ,cri4 ,a considerable time since4 ,socr4 ,why1 then1 did you not wake me at once1 instead of sitting down by me in silence8 ,cri4 ,by ,jupiter6 ,socrates1 ,i should not myself like to be so long awake1 and in such affliction4 ,but ,i have been for some time wondering at you1 perceiving how sweetly you slept2 and ,i purposely did not awake you1 that you might pass your time as pleasantly as possible4 ,and1 indeed1 ,i have often before throughout your whole life considered you happy in your disposition1 but far more so in the present calamity1 seeing how easily and meekly you bear it4 ,socr4 ,however1 ,crito1 it would be disconsonant for a man at my time of life to repine because he must needs die4 ,cri4 ,but others1 ,socrates1 at your age have been involved in similar calamities1 yet their age has not hindered their repining at their present fortune4 ,socr4 ,so it is4 ,but why did you come so early8 ,cri4 ,bringing sad tidings1 ,socrates1 not sad to you1 as it appears1 but to me1 and all your friends1 sad and heavy1 and which ,i1 ,i think1 shall bear worst of all4 ,socr4 ,what tidings8 ,has the ship#f arrived from ,delos1 on the arrival of which ,i must die8 ,cri4 ,it has not yet arrived1 but it appears to me that it will come to-day1 from what certain persons report who have come from ,sunium1#g and left it there4 ,it is clear1 therefore1 from these messengers1 that it will come to day1 and consequently it will be necessary1 ,socrates1 for you to die to-morrow4 #b4 ,socr4 ,but with good fortune1 ,crito1 and if so it please the gods1 so be it4 ,i do not think1 however1 that it will come to day4 ,cri4 ,whence do you form this conjecture8 ,socr4 ,i will tell you4 ,i must die on the day after that on which the ship arrives4 ,cri4 ,so they say#h who have the control of these things4 ,socr4 ,i do not think1 then1 that it will come to-day1 but to-morrow4 ,i conjecture this from a dream which ,i had this very night1 not long ago1 and you seem very opportunely to have refrained from waking me4 ,cri4 ,but what was this dream8 ,socr4 ,a beautiful and majestic woman1 clad in white garments seemed to approach me1 and to call to me and say1 ,socrates1 three days hence you will reach fertile ,pythia#i4 ,cri4 ,what a strange dream1 ,socrates6 ,socr4 ,very clear1 however1 as it appears to me1 ,crito4 #c4 ,cri4 ,very much so1 as it seems4 ,but1 my dear ,socrates1 even now be persuaded by me1 and save yourself4 ,for if you die1 not only a single calamity will befall me1 but1 besides being deprived of such a friend as ,i shall never meet with again1 ,i shall also appear to many who do not know you and me well1 when ,i might have saved you had ,i been willing to spend my money1 to have neglected to do so4 ,and what character can be more disgraceful than this--to appear to value one's riches more than one's friends8 ,for the generality of men will not be persuaded that you were unwilling to depart hence1 when we urged you to it4 ,socr4 ,but why1 my dear ,crito1 should we care so much for the opinion of the many8 ,for the most worthy men1 whom we ought rather to regard1 will think that matters have transpired as they really have4 ,cri4 ,yet you see1 ,socrates1 that it is necessary to attend to the opinion of the many4 ,for the very circumstances of the present case show that the multitude are able to effect not only the smallest evils1 but even the greatest1 if any one is calumniated to them4 ,socr4 ,would1 ,o ,crito that the multitude could effect the greatest evils1 that they might also effect the greatest good1 for then it would be well4 ,but now they can do neither2 for they can make a man neither wise nor foolish2 but they do whatever chances4 #d4 ,cri4 ,so let it be1 then4 ,but answer me this1 ,socrates3 are you not anxious for me and other friends1 lest1 if you should escape from hence1 informers should give us trouble1 as having secretly carried you off1 and so we should be compelled either to lose all our property1 or a very large sum1 or to suffer something else besides this8 ,for1 if you fear any thing of the kind1 dismiss your fears2 for we are justified in running the risk to save you--and1 if need be1 even a greater risk than this4 ,but be persuaded by me1 and do not refuse4 ,socr4 ,i am anxious about this1 ,crito1 and about many other things4 ,cri4 ,do not fear this1 however2 for the sum is not large on receipt of which certain persons are willing to save you1 and take you hence4 ,in the next place1 do you not see how cheap these informers are1 so that there would be no need of a large sum for them8 ,my fortune is at your service1 sufficient1 ,i think1 for the purpose2 then if1 out of regard to me1 you do not think right to spend my money1 these strangers here are ready to spend theirs4 ,one of them1 ,simmias the ,theban1 has brought with him a sufficient sum for the very purpose4 ,cebes1 too1 is ready1 and very many others4 ,so that1 as ,i said1 do not1 through fears of this kind1 hesitate to save yourself1 nor let what you said in court give you any trouble1 that if you went from hence you would not know what to do with yourself4 ,for in many places1 and wherever you go1 men will love you2 and if you are disposed to go to ,thessaly1 ,i have friends there who will esteem you very highly1 and will insure your safety1 so that no one in ,thessaly will molest you4 #e4 ,moreover1 ,socrates1 you do not appear to me to pursue a just course in giving yourself up when you might be saved2 and you press on the very results with respect to yourself which your enemies would press1 and have pressed1 in their anxiety to destroy you4 ,besides this1 too1 you appear to me to betray your own sons1 whom1 when it is in your power to rear and educate them1 you will abandon1 and1 so far as you are concerned1 they will meet with such a fate as chance brings them1 and1 as is probable1 they will meet with such things as orphans are wont to experience in a state of orphanage4 ,surely one ought not to have children1 or one should go through the toil of rearing and instructing them4 ,but you appear to me to have chosen the most indolent course2 though you ought to have chosen such a course as a good and brave man would have done1 since you profess to have made virtue your study through the whole of your life2 so that ,i am ashamed both for you and for us who are your friends1 lest this whole affair of yours should seem to be the effect of cowardice on our part--your appearing to stand your trial in the court1 since you appeared when it was in your power not to have done so1 the very manner in which the trial was conducted1 and this last circumstance1 as it were1 a ridiculous consummation of the whole business2 your appearing to have escaped from us through our indolence and cowardice1 who did not save you2 nor did you save yourself1 when it was practicable and possible1 had we but exerted ourselves a little4 ,think of these things1 therefore1 ,socrates1 and beware1 lest1 besides the evil that will result1 they be disgraceful both to you and to us2 advise1 then1 with yourself2 though1 indeed1 there is no longer time for advising--your resolve should be already made4 ,and there is but one plan2 for in the following night the whole must be accomplished4 ,if we delay1 it will be impossible and no longer practicable4 ,by all means1 therefore1 ,socrates1 be persuaded by me1 and on no account refuse4 #f4 ,socr4 ,my dear ,crito1 your zeal would be very commendable were it united with right principle2 otherwise1 by how much the more earnest it is1 by so much is it the more sad4 ,we must consider1 therefore1 whether this plan should be adopted or not4 ,for ,i not now only1 but always1 am a person who will obey nothing within me but reason1 according as it appears to me on mature deliberation to be best4 ,and the reasons which ,i formerly professed ,i can not now reject1 because this misfortune has befallen me2 but they appear to me in much the same light1 and ,i respect and honor them as before2 so that if we are unable to adduce any better at the present time1 be assured that ,i shall not give in to you1 even though the power of the multitude should endeavor to terrify us like children1 by threatening more than it does now1 bonds and death1 and confiscation of property4 ,how1 therefore1 may we consider the matter most conveniently8 ,first of all1 if we recur to the argument which you used about opinions1 whether on former occasions it was rightly resolved or not1 that we ought to pay attention to some opinions1 and to others not2 or whether1 before it was necessary that ,i should die1 it was rightly resolved2 but now it has become clear that it was said idly for argument's sake1 though in reality it was merely jest and trifling4 ,i desire then1 ,crito1 to consider1 in common with you1 whether it will appear to me in a different light1 now that ,i am in this condition1 or the same1 and whether we shall give it up or yield to it4 ,it was said1 ,i think1 on former occasions1 by those who were thought to speak seriously1 as ,i just now observed1 that of the opinions which men entertain some should be very highly esteemed and others not4 ,by the gods6 ,crito1 does not this appear to you to be well said8 ,for you1 in all human probability1 are out of all danger of dying to-morrow1 and the present calamity will not lead your judgment astray4 ,consider1 then2 does it not appear to you to have been rightly settled that we ought not to respect all the opinions of men1 but some we should1 and others not8 ,nor yet the opinions of all men1 but of some we should1 and of others not8 ,what say you8 ,is not this rightly resolved8 ,cri4 ,it is4 ,socr4 ,therefore we should respect the good1 but not the bad8 ,cri4 ,yes4 ,socr4 ,and are not the good those of the wise1 and the bad those of the foolish8 ,cri4 ,how can it be otherwise8 #g4 ,socr4 ,come1 then3 how1 again1 were the following points settled8 ,does a man who practices gymnastic exercises and applies himself to them1 pay attention to the praise and censure and opinion of every one1 or of that one man only who happens to be a physician1 or teacher of the exercises8 ,cri4 ,of that one only4 ,socr4 ,he ought1 therefore1 to fear the censures and covet the praises of that one1 but not those of the multitude4 ,cri4 ,clearly4 ,socr4 ,he ought1 therefore1 so to practice and exercise himself1 and to eat and drink1 as seems fitting to the one who presides and knows1 rather than to all others together4 ,cri4 ,it is so4 ,socr4 ,well1 then1 if he disobeys the one1 and disregards his opinion and praise1 but respects that of the multitude and of those who know nothing1 will he not suffer some evil8 ,cri4 ,how should he not8 ,socr4 ,but what is this evil8 ,whither does it tend1 and on what part of him that disobeys will it fall8 ,cri4 ,clearly on his body1 for this it ruins4 ,socr4 ,you say well4 ,the case is the same1 too1 ,crito1 with all other things1 not to go through them all4 ,with respect then1 to things just and unjust1 base and honorable1 good and evil1 about which we are now consulting1 ought we to follow the opinion of the multitude1 and to respect it1 or that of one1 if there is any one who understands1 whom we ought to reverence and respect rather than all others together8 ,and if we do not obey him1 shall we not corrupt and injure that part of ourselves which becomes better by justice1 but is ruined by injustice8 ,or is this nothing8 ,cri4 ,i agree with you1 ,socrates4 #h4 ,socr4 ,come1 then1 if we destroy that which becomes better by what is wholesome1 but is impaired by what is unwholesome1 through being persuaded by those who do not understand1 can we enjoy life when that is impaired8 ,and this is the body we are speaking of1 is it not8 ,cri4 ,yes4 ,socr4 ,can we1 then1 enjoy life with a diseased and impaired body8 ,cri4 ,by no means4 ,socr4 ,but can we enjoy life when that is impaired which injustice ruins but justice benefits8 ,or do we think that to be of less value than the body1 whatever part of us it may be1 about which injustice and justice are concerned' ,cri4 ,by no means4 ,socr4 ,but of more value8 ,cri4 ,much more4 ,socr4 ,we must not then1 my excellent friend1 so much regard what the multitude will say of us1 but what he will say who understands the just and the unjust1 the one1 even truth itself4 ,so that at first you did not set out with a right principle1 when you laid it down that we ought to regard the opinion of the multitude with respect to things just and honorable and good1 and their contraries4 ,how ever1 some one may say1 are not the multitude able to put us to death8 ,cri4 ,this1 too1 is clear1 ,socrates1 any one might say so4 ,socr4 ,you say truly4 ,but1 my admirable friend1 this principle which we have just discussed appears to me to be the same as it was before#aj4 ,and consider this1 moreover1 whether it still holds good with us or not1 that we are not to be anxious about living but about living well4 ,cri4 ,it does hold good4 ,socr4 ,and does this hold good or not1 that to live well and ,honorable and justly are the same thing8 ,cri4 ,it does4 #i4 ,socr4 ,from what has been admitted1 then1 this consideration arises1 whether it is just or not that ,i should endeavor to leave this place without the permission of the ,athenians4 ,and should it appear to be just1 we will make the attempt1 but if not1 we will give it up4 ,but as to the considerations which you mention1 of an outlay of money1 reputation1 and the education of children1 beware1 ,crito1 lest such considerations as these in reality belong to these multitudes1 who rashly put one to death1 and would restore one to life1 if they could do so1 without any reason at all4 ,but we1 since reason so requires1 must consider nothing else than what we just now mentioned1 whether we shall act justly in paying money and contracting obligations to those who will lead me hence1 as well they who lead me as we who are led hence1 or whether1 in truth1 we shall not act unjustly in doing all these things4 ,and if we should appear in so doing to be acting unjustly1 observe that we must not consider whether from remaining here and continuing quiet we must needs die1 or suffer any thing else1 rather than whether we shall be acting unjustly4 ,cri4 ,you appear to me to speak wisely1 ,socrates1 but see what we are to do4 ,socr4 ,let us consider the matter together1 my friend1 and if you have any thing to object to what ,i say1 make good your objection1 and ,i will yield to you1 but if not1 cease1 my excellent friend1 to urge upon me the same thing so often1 that ,i ought to depart hence against the will of the ,athenians4 ,for ,i highly esteem your endeavors to persuade me thus to act1 so long as it is not against my will ,consider1 then1 the beginning of our inquiry1 whether it is stated to your entire satisfaction1 and endeavor to answer the question put to you exactly as you think right4 ,cri4 ,i will endeavor to do so4 #aj4 ,socr4 ,say we1 then1 that we should on no account deliberately commit injustice1 or may we commit injustice under certain circumstances1 under others not8 ,or is it on no account either good or honorable to commit injustice1 as we have often agreed on former occasions1 and as we just now said8 ,or have all those our former admissions been dissipated in these few days1 and have we1 ,crito1 old men as we are1 been for a long time seriously conversing with each other without knowing that we in no respect differ from children8 ,or does the case1 beyond all question1 stand as we then determined8 ,whether the multitude allow it or not1 and whether we must suffer a more severe or a milder punishment than this1 still is injustice on every account both evil and disgraceful to him who commits it8 ,do we admit this1 or not8 ,cri4 ,we do admit it4 ,socr4 ,on no account1 therefore1 ought we to act unjustly4 ,cri4 ,surely not4 ,socr4 ,neither ought one who is injured to return the injury1 as the multitude think1 since it is on no account right to act unjustly4 ,cri4 ,it appears not4 ,socr4 ,what1 then8 ,is it right to do evil1 ,crito1 or not8 ,cri4 ,surely it is not right1 ,socrates4 ,socr4 ,but what8 ,to do evil in return when one has been evil-entreated1 is that right1 or not8 ,cri4 ,by no means4 ,socr4 ,for to do evil to men differs in no respect from committing injustice4 ,cri4 ,you say truly4 ,socr4 ,it is not right1 therefore1 to return an injury1 or to do evil to any man1 however one may have suffered from him4 ,but take care1 ,crito1 that in allowing these things you do not allow them contrary to your opinion1 for ,i know that to some few only these things both do appear1 and will appear1 to be true4 ,they1 then1 to whom these things appear true1 and they to whom they do not1 have no sentiment in common1 and must needs despise each other1 while they look to each other's opinions4 ,consider well1 then1 whether you coincide and think with me1 and whether we can begin our deliberations from this point--that it is never right either to do an injury or to return an injury1 or when one has been evil-entreated1 to revenge one's self by doing evil in return1 or do you dissent from1 and not coincide in this principle8 ,for so it appears to me1 both long since and now1 but if you in any respect think otherwise1 say so and inform me4 ,but if you persist in your former opinions1 hear what follows4 ,cri4 ,i do persist in them1 and think with you4 ,speak on1 then4 ,socr4 ,i say next1 then1 or rather ,i ask2 whether when a man has promised to do things that are just he ought to do them1 or evade his promise8 ,cri4 ,he ought to do them4 #aa4 ,socr4 ,observe1 then1 what follows4 ,by departing hence without the leave of the city1 are we not doing evil to some1 and that to those to whom we ought least of all to do it1 or not8 ,and do we abide by what we agreed on as being just1 or do we not8 ,cri4 ,i am unable to answer your question1 ,socrates2 for ,i do not understand it4 ,socr4 ,then1 consider it thus4 ,if1 while we were preparing to run away1 or by whatever name we should call it1 the laws and commonwealth should come1 and1 presenting themselves before us1 should say1 ,tell me1 ,socrates1 what do you purpose doing8 ,do you design any thing else by this proceeding in which you are engaged than to destroy us1 the laws1 and the whole city1 so far as you are able8 ,or do you think it possible for that city any longer to subsist1 and not be subverted1 in which judgments that are passed have no force1 but are set aside and destroyed by private persons8--what should we say1 ,crito1 to these and similar remonstrances8 ,for any one1 especially an orator1 would have much to say on the violation of the law1 which enjoins that judgments passed shall be enforced4 ,shall we say to them that the city has done us an injustice1 and not passed a right sentence8 ,shall we say this1 or what else8 ,cri4 ,this1 by ,jupiter6 ,socrates4 #ab4 ,socr4 ,what1 then1 if the laws should say1 ,socrates1 was it not agreed between us that you should abide by the judgments which the city should pronounce8 ,and if we should wonder at their speaking thus1 perhaps they would say1 ,wonder not1 ,socrates1 at what we say1 but answer1 since you are accustomed to make use of questions and answers4 ,for1 come1 what charge have you against us and the city1 that you attempt to destroy us8 ,did we not first give you being8 and did not your father1 through us1 take your mother to wife and beget you8 ,say1 then1 do you find fault with those laws among us that relate to marriage as being bad8 ,i should say1 ,i do not find fault with them4 ,do you with those that relate to your nurture when born1 and the education with which you were instructed8 ,or did not the laws1 ordained on this point1 enjoin rightly1 in requiring your father to instruct you in music and gymnastic exercises8 ,i should say1 rightly4 ,well1 then1 since you were born1 nurtured1 and educated through our means1 can you say1 first of all1 that you are not both our offspring and our slave1 as well you as your ancestors8 ,and if this be so1 do you think that there are equal rights between us8 and whatever we attempt to do to you1 do you think you may justly do to us in turn8 ,or had you not equal rights with your father1 or master1 if you happened to have one1 so as to return what you suffered1 neither to retort when found fault with1 nor1 when stricken1 to strike again1 nor many other things of the kind2 but that with your country and the laws you may do so2 so that if we attempt to destroy you1 thinking it to be just1 you also should endeavor1 so far as you are able1 in return1 to destroy us1 the laws1 and your country2 and in doing this will you say that you act justly--you who1 in reality1 make virtue your chief object8 ,or are you so wise as not to know that one's country is more honorable1 venerable1 and sacred1 and more highly prized both by gods1 and men possessed of understanding1 than mother and father1 and all other progenitors2 and that one ought to reverence1 submit to1 and appease one's country1 when angry1 rather than one's father2 and either persuade it or do what it orders1 and to suffer quietly if it bids one suffer1 whether to be beaten1 or put in bonds2 or if it sends one out to battle there to be wounded or slain1 this must be done2 for justice so requires1 and one must not give way1 or retreat1 or leave one's post2 but that both in war and in a court of justice1 and everywhere one must do what one's city and country enjoin1 or persuade it in such manner as justice allows2 but that to offer violence either to one's mother or father is not holy1 much less to one's country8 ,what shall we say to these things1 ,crito8 ,that the laws speak the truth1 or not8 ,cri4 ,it seems so to me4 #ac4 ,socr4 ,consider1 then1 ,socrates1 the laws perhaps might say1 whether we say truly that in what you are now attempting you are attempting to do what is not just toward us4 ,for we1 having given you birth1 nurtured1 instructed you1 and having imparted to you and all other citizens all the good in our power1 still proclaim1 by giving the power to every ,athenian who pleases1 when he has arrived at years of discretion1 and become acquainted with the business of the state1 and us1 the laws1 that any one who is not satisfied with us may take his property1 and go wherever he pleases4 ,and if any one of you wishes to go to a colony1 if he is not satisfied with us and the city1 or to migrate and settle in another country1 none of us1 the laws1 hinder or forbid him going whithersoever he pleases1 taking with him all his property4 ,but whoever continues with us after he has seen the manner in which we administer justice1 and in other respects govern the city1 we now say that he has in fact entered into a compact with us to do what we order2 and we affirm that he who does not obey is in three respects guilty of injustice--because he does not obey us who gave him being1 and because he does not obey us who nurtured him1 and because1 having made a compact that he would obey us1 he neither does so1 nor does he persuade us if we do any thing wrongly2 though we propose for his consideration1 and do not rigidly command him to do what we order1 but leave him the choice of one of two things1 either to persuade us1 or to do what we require1 and yet he does neither of these4 #ad4 ,and we say that you1 ,o ,socrates6 will be subject to these charges if you accomplish your design1 and that not least of the ,athenians1 but most so of all4 ,and if ,i should ask1 ,for what reason8 they would probably justly retort on me by saying that1 among all the ,athenians1 ,i especially made this compact with them4 ,for they would say1 ,socrates1 we have strong proof of this1 that you were satisfied both with us and the city2 for1 of all the ,athenians1 you especially would never have dwelt in it if it had not been especially agreeable to you2 for you never went out of the city to any of the public spectacles1 except once to the ,isthmian games1 nor anywhere else1 except on military service1 nor have you ever gone abroad as other men do1 nor had you ever had any desire to become acquainted with any other city or other laws1 but we and our city were sufficient for you2 so strongly were you attached to us1 and so far did you consent to submit to our government1 both in other respects and in begetting children in this city1 in consequence of your being satisfied with it4 ,moreover1 in your very trial1 it was in your power to have imposed on yourself a sentence of exile1 if you pleased1 and might then have done1 with the consent of the city1 what you now attempt against its consent4 ,then1 indeed1 you boasted yourself as not being grieved if you must needs die2 but you preferred1 as you said1 death to exile4 ,now1 however1 you are neither ashamed of those professions1 nor do you revere us1 the laws1 since you endeavor to destroy us1 and you act as the vilest slave would act1 by endeavoring to make your escape contrary to the conventions and the compacts by which you engaged to submit to our government4 ,first1 then1 therefore1 answer us this1 whether we speak the truth or not in affirming that you agreed to be governed by us in deed1 though not in word8 ,what shall we say to this1 ,crito8 ,can we do otherwise than assent8 ,cri4 ,we must needs do so1 ,socrates4 ,socr4 ,what else1 then1 they will say1 are you doing but violating the conventions and compacts which you made with us1 though you did not enter into them from compulsion or through deception1 or from being compelled to determine in a short time but during the space of seventy years1 in which you might have departed if you had been dissatisfied with us1 and the compacts had not appeared to you to be just8 ,you1 however1 preferred neither ,lacedmon nor ,crete1 which you several times said are governed by good laws1 nor any other of the ,grecian or barbarian cities2 but you have been less out of ,athens than the lame and the blind1 and other maimed persons4 ,so much1 it is evident1 were you satisfied with the city and us1 the laws1 beyond the rest of the ,athenians2 for who can be satisfied with a city without laws8 ,but now will you not abide by your compacts8 ,you will1 if you are persuaded by us1 ,socrates1 and will not make yourself ridiculous by leaving the city4 #ae4 ,for consider1 by violating these compacts and offending against any of them1 what good you will do to yourself or your friends4 ,for that your friends will run the risk of being themselves banished1 and deprived of the rights of citizenship1 or of forfeiting their property1 is pretty clear4 ,and as for yourself1 if you should go to one of the neighboring cities1 either ,thebes or ,megara1 for both are governed by good laws1 you will go there1 ,socrates1 as an enemy to their polity2 and such as have any regard for their country will look upon you with suspicion1 regarding you as a corrupter of the laws2 and you will confirm the opinion of the judges1 so that they will appear to have condemned you rightly1 for whose is a corrupter of the laws will appear in all likelihood to be a corrupter of youths and weak-minded men4 ,will you1 then1 avoid these well-governed cities1 and the best-ordered men8 ,and should you do so1 will it be worth your while to live8 ,or will you approach them1 and have the effrontery to converse with them1 ,socrates1 on subjects the same as you did here--that virtue and justice1 legal institutions and laws1 should be most highly valued by men8 ,and do you not think that this conduct of ,socrates would be very indecorous8 ,you must think so4 ,but you will keep clear of these places1 and go to ,thessaly1 to ,crito's friends1 for there are the greatest disorder and licentiousness2 and perhaps they will gladly hear you relating how drolly you escaped from prison1 clad in some dress or covered with a skin1 or in some other disguise such as fugitives are wont to dress themselves in1 having so changed your usual appearance4 ,and will no one say that you1 though an old man1 with but a short time to live1 in all probability1 have dared to have such a base desire of life as to violate the most sacred laws8 ,perhaps not1 should you not offend any one4 ,but if you should1 you will hear1 ,socrates1 many things utterly unworthy of you4 ,you will live1 too1 in a state of abject dependence on all men1 and as their slave4 ,but what will you do in ,thessaly besides feasting1 as if you had gone to ,thessaly to a banquet8 ,and what will become of those discourses about justice and all other virtues8 ,but do you wish to live for the sake of your children1 that you may rear and educate them8 ,what then8 ,will you take them to ,thessaly1 and there rear and educate them1 making them aliens to their country1 that they may owe you this obligation too8 ,or1 if not so1 being reared here1 will they be better reared and educated while you are living1 though not with them1 for your friends will take care of them8 ,whether1 if you go to ,thessaly1 will they take care of them1 but if you go to ,hades will they not take care of them8 ,if1 however1 any advantage is to be derived from those that say they are your friends1 we must think they will4 #af4 ,then1 ,o ,socrates6 be persuaded by us who have nurtured you1 and do not set a higher value on your children1 or on life1 or on any thing else than justice1 that1 when you arrive in ,hades1 you may have all this to say in your defense before those who have dominion there4 ,for neither here in this life1 if you do what is proposed1 does it appear to be better1 or more just1 or more holy to yourself1 or any of your friends2 nor will it be better for you when you arrive there4 ,but now you depart1 if you do depart1 unjustly treated1 not by us1 the laws1 but by men2 but should you escape1 having thus disgracefully returned injury for injury1 and evil for evil1 having violated your own compacts and conventions which you made with us1 and having done evil to those to whom you least of all should have done it--namely1 yourself1 your friends1 your country1 and us--both we shall be indignant with you as long as you live1 and there our brothers1 the laws in ,hades1 will not receive you favorably knowing that you attempted1 so far as you were able1 to destroy us4 ,let not ,crito1 then1 persuade you to do what he advises1 rather than we4 #ag4 ,these things1 my dear friend ,crito1 be assured1 ,i seem to hear as the votaries of ,cybele#aa seem to hear the flutes4 ,and the sound of these words booms in my ear1 and makes me incapable of hearing any thing else4 ,be sure1 then1 so long as ,i retain my present opinions1 if you should say any thing contrary to these1 you will speak in vain4 ,if1 however1 you think that you can prevail at all1 say on4 ,cri4 ,but1 ,socrates1 ,i have nothing to say4 ,socr4 ,desist1 then1 ,crito1 and let us pursue this course1 since this way the deity leads us4 ,,footnotes #f ,see the ,phdo sec #a4 #g ,a promontory at the southern extremity of ,attica #h ,the ,eleven #i ,see ,homer's ,iliad1 #a ,,ix1 v #cfc #aj ,that is to say1 the principle which we had laid down in former discussions that no regard is to be had to popular opinion1 is still found to hold good4 #aa ,the ,corybantes1 priests of ,cybele1 who in their solemn festivals made such a noise with flutes that the hearers could hear no other sound4 ,,introduction ,,to ,,the ,,ph,,do4 ,this dialogue presents us with an account of the manner ,in which ,socrates spent the last day of his1 life1 and how he met his death4 ,the main subject is that of the soul's immortality1 which ,socrates takes upon himself to prove with as much certainty as it is possible for the human mind to arrive at4 ,the question itself1 though none could be better suited to the occasion1 arises simply and naturally from the general conversation that precedes it4 ,when his friends visit him in the morning for the purpose of spending this his last day with him1 they find him sitting up in bed1 and rubbing his leg1 which had just been freed from bonds4 ,he remarks on the unaccountable alternation and connection between pleasure and pain1 and adds that sop1 had he observed it1 would have made a fable from it4 ,this remark reminds ,cebes of ,socrates's having put some of sop's fables into metre since his imprisonment1 and he asks1 for the satisfaction of the poet ,evenus1 what has induced him to do so4 ,socrates explains his reason1 and concludes by bidding him tell ,evenus to follow him as soon as he can4 ,simmias expresses his surprise at this message1 on which ,socrates asks1 ,is not ,evenus a philosopher8 and on the question being answered in the affirmative1 he says that he or any philosopher would be willing to die1 though perhaps he would not commit violence on himself4 ,this1 again1 seems a contradiction to ,simmias2 but ,socrates explains it by showing that our souls are placed in the body by ,god1 and may not leave it without his permission4 ,whereupon ,cebes objects that in that case foolish men only would wish to die1 and quit the service of the best of masters1 to which ,simmias agrees4 ,socrates1 therefore1 proposes to plead his cause before them1 and to show that there is a great probability that after this life he shall go into the presence of ,god and good men1 and be happy in proportion to the purity of his own mind4 ,he begins#ab by stating that philosophy itself is nothing else than a preparation for and meditation on death4 ,death and philosophy have this in common3 death separates the soul from the body2 philosophy draws off the mind from bodily things to the contemplation of truth and virtue3 for he is not a true philosopher who is led away by bodily pleasures1 since the senses are the source of ignorance and all evil4 ,the mind1 therefore1 is entirely occupied in meditating on death1 and freeing itself as much as possible from the body4 ,how1 then1 can such a man be afraid of death8 ,he who grieves at the approach of death can not be a true lover of wisdom1 but is a lover of his body4 ,and1 indeed1 most men are temperate through intemperance2 that is to say1 they abstain from some pleasures that they may the more easily and permanently enjoy others4 ,they embrace only a shadow of virtue1 not virtue itself1 since they estimate the value of all things by the pleasures they afford4 ,whereas the philosopher purifies his mind from all such things1 and pursues virtue and wisdom for their own sakes4 ,this course ,socrates himself has pursued to the utmost of his ability1 with what success he should shortly know2 and on these grounds he did not repine at leaving his friends in this world1 being persuaded that in another he should meet with good masters and good friends4 ,upon this ,cebes#ac says that he agrees with all else that had been said1 but can not help entertaining doubts of what will become of the soul when separated from the body1 for the common opinion is that it is dispersed and vanishes like breath or smoke1 and no longer exists anywhere4 ,socrates1 therefore1 proposes to inquire into the probability of the case1 a fit employment for him under his present circumstances4 ,his first argument#ad is drawn from the ancient belief prevalent among men1 that souls departing hence exist in ,hades1 and are produced again from the dead4 ,if this be true1 it must follow that our souls are there1 for they could not be produced again if they did not exist2 and its truth is confirmed by this1 that it is a general law of nature that contraries are produced from contraries--the greater from the less1 strong from weak1 slow from swift1 heat from cold1 and in like manner life from death1 and vice versa4 ,to explain this more clearly1 he proceeds to show that what is changed passes from one state to another1 and so undergoes three different states--first1 the actual state2 then the transition2 and1 thirdly1 the new state2 as from a state of sleep1 by awaking to being awake4 ,in like manner birth is a transition from a state of death to life1 and dying from life to death2 so that the soul1 by the act of dying1 only passes to another state4 ,if it were not so1 all nature would in time become dead1 just as if people did not awake out of sleep all would at last be buried in eternal sleep4 ,whence the conclusion is that the souls of men are not annihilated by death4 ,cebes#ae agrees to this reasoning1 and adds that he is further convinced1 of its truth by calling to mind an argument used by ,socrates on former occasions1 that knowledge is nothing but reminiscence2 and if this is so1 the soul must have existed1 and had knowledge1 before it became united to the body4 ,but in case ,simmias should not yet be satisfied1 ,socrates#af proceeds to enlarge on this1 his second argument1 drawn from reminiscence4 ,we daily find that we are carried from the knowledge of one thing to another4 ,things perceived by the eyes1 ears1 and other senses bring up the thought of other things2 thus the sight of a lyre or a garment reminds us of a friend1 and not only are we thus reminded of sensible objects1 but of things which are comprehended by the mind alone1 and have no sensitive existence4 ,for we have formed in our minds an idea of abstract equality1 of the beautiful1 the just1 the good2 in short1 of every thing which we say exists without the aid of the senses1 for we use them only in the perception of individual things2 whence it follows that the mind did not acquire this knowledge in this life1 but must have had it before1 and therefore the soul must have existed before4 ,simmias and ,cebes#ag both agree in admitting that ,socrates has proved the pre-existence of the soul1 but insist that he has not shown it to be immortal1 for that nothing hinders but that1 according to the popular opinion1 it may be dispersed at the dissolution of the body4 ,to which ,socrates replies1 that if their former admissions are joined to his last argument1 the immortality1 as well as the pre-existence1 of the soul has been sufficiently proved4 ,for if it is true that any thing living is produced from that which is dead1 then the soul must exist after death1 otherwise it could not be produced again4 ,however1 to remove the apprehension that the soul may be dispersed by a wind1 as it were1 ,socrates proceeds1 in his third argument1#ah to examine that doubt more thoroughly4 ,what1 then1 is meant by being dispersed but being dissolved into its parts8 ,in order1 therefore1 to a thing being capable of dispersion it must be compounded of parts4 ,now1 there are two kinds of things--one compounded1 the other simple ,the former kind is subject to change1 the latter not1 and can be comprehended by the mind alone4 ,the one is visible1 the other invisible2 and the soul1 which is invisible1 when it employs the bodily senses1 wanders and is confused1 but when it abstracts itself from the body it attains to the knowledge of that which is eternal1 immortal1 and unchangeable4 ,the soul1 therefore1 being uncompounded and invisible1 must be indissoluble2 that is to say1 immortal4 ,still ,simmias and ,cebes#ai are unconvinced4 ,the former objects that the soul1 according to ,socrates's own showing1 is nothing but a harmony resulting from a combination of the parts of the body1 and so may perish with the body1 as the harmony of a lyre does when the lyre itself is broken4 ,and ,cebes1 though he admits that the soul is more durable than the body1 yet objects that it is not1 therefore1 of necessity immortal1 but may in time wear out2 and it is by no means clear that this is not its last period4 ,these objections produce a powerful effect on the rest of the company2 but ,socrates1 undismayed1 exhorts them not to suffer themselves to be deterred from seeking the truth by any difficulties they may meet with2 and then proceeds#bj to show1 in a moment1 the fallacy of ,simmias's objection4 ,it was before admitted1 he says1 that the soul existed before the body2 but harmony is produced after the lyre is formed1 so that the two cases are totally different4 ,and1 further1 there are various degrees of harmony1 but every soul is as much a soul as any other4 ,but1 then1 what will a person who holds this doctrine1 that the soul is harmony1 say of virtue and vice in the soul8 ,will he call them another kind of harmony and discord8 ,if so1 he will contradict himself2 for it is admitted that one soul is not more or less a soul than another1 and therefore one can not he more or less harmonized than another1 and one could not admit of a greater degree of virtue or vice than another2 and indeed a soul1 being harmony1 could not partake of vice at all1 which is discord4 ,socrates1 having thus satisfactorily answered the argument adduced by ,simmias1 goes on to rebut that of ,cebes1#ba who objected that the soul might in time wear out4 ,in order to do this1 he relates that1 when a young man1 he attempted to investigate the causes of all things1 why they exist and why they perish2 and in the course of his researches1 finding the futility of attributing the existence of things to what are called natural causes1 he resolved on endeavoring to find out the reasons of things4 ,he therefore assumed that there are a certain abstract beauty and goodness and magnitude1 and so of all other things2 the truth of which being granted1 he thinks he shall be able to prove that the soul is immortal4 ,this1 then1 being conceded by ,cebes1 ,socrates#bb argues that every thing that is beautiful is so from partaking of abstract beauty1 and great from partaking of magnitude1 and little from partaking of littleness4 ,now1 it is impossible1 he argues1 that contraries can exist in the same thing at the same time2 for instance1 the same thing can not possess both magnitude and littleness1 but one will withdraw at the approach of the other2 and not only so1 but things which1 though not contrary to each other1 yet always contain contraries within themselves1 can not co-exist2 for instance1 the number three has no contrary1 yet it contains within itself the idea of odd1 which is the contrary of even1 and so three never can become even2 in like manner1 heat while it is heat can never admit the idea of its contrary1 cold4 ,now1 if this method of reasoning is applied to the soul1 it will be found to be immortal2 for life and death are contraries1 and never can co-exist2 but wherever the soul is1 there is life3 so that it contains within itself that which is contrary to death1 and consequently can never admit of death2 therefore it is immortal4 ,with this he closes his arguments in support of the soul's immortality4 ,cebes owns himself convinced1 but ,simmias1 though he is unable to make any objection to the soundness of ,socrates's reasoning1 can not help still entertaining doubts on the subject4 ,if1 however1 the soul is immortal1 ,socrates proceeds1#bc great need is there in this life to endeavor to become as wise and good as possible4 ,for if death were a deliverance from every thing1 it would be a great gain for the wicked2 but since the soul appears to be immortal1 it must go to the place suited to its nature4 ,for it is said that each person's demon conducts him to a place where he receives sentence according to his deserts4 ,he then#bd draws a fanciful picture of the various regions of the earth1 to which the good and the bad will respectively go after death1 and exhorts his friends to use every endeavor to acquire virtue and wisdom in this life1 for1 he adds1 the reward is noble1 and the hope great4 ,having thus brought his subject to a conclusion1 ,socrates proposes to bathe himself1 in order not to trouble others to wash his dead body4 ,crito thereupon asks if he has any commands to give1 and especially how he would be buried1 to which he1 with his usual cheerfulness1 makes answer1 ,just as you please1 if only you can catch me2 and then1 smiling1 he reminds them that after death he shall be no longer with them1 and begs the others of the party to be sureties to ,crito for his absence from the body1 as they had been before bound for his presence before his judges4 ,after he had bathed1 and taken leave of his children and the women of his family the officer of the ,eleven comes in to intimate to him that it is now time to drink the poison4 ,crito urges a little delay1 as the sun had not yet set2 but ,socrates refuses to make himself ridiculous by showing such a fondness for life4 ,the man who is to administer the poison is therefore sent for2 and on his holding out the cup1 ,socrates1 neither trembling nor changing color or countenance at all1 but1 as he was wont1 looking steadfastly at the man1 asked if he might make a libation to any one2 and being told that no more poison than enough had been mixed1 he simply prayed that his departure from this to another world might be happy1 and then drank off the poison1 readily and calmly4 ,his friends1 who had hitherto with difficulty restrained themselves1 could no longer control the outward expressions of grief1 to which ,socrates said1 ,what are you doing1 my friends8 ,i1 for this reason1 chiefly1 sent away the women1 that they might not commit any folly of this kind2 for ,i have heard that it is right to die with good omens4 ,be quiet1 therefore1 and bear up4 ,when he had walked about for a while his legs began to grow heavy1 so he lay down on his back2 and his body1 from the feet upward1 gradually grew cold and stiff4 ,his last words were1 ,crito1 we owe a cock to sculapius2 pay it1 therefore1 and do not neglect it4 ,this1 concludes ,phdo1 was the end of our friend--a man1 as we may say1 the best of all his time1 that we have known1 and1 moreover1 the most wise and just4 ,,footnotes #ab ,sec4 #ba-ci4 #ac ,sec4 #ci1 #dj4 #ad ,sec4 #dj-df4 #ae ,sec4 #dg4 #af ,sec4 #dh-eg4 #ag ,sec4 #ee-ei4 #ah ,sec4 #fa-ge4 #ai ,sec4 #gf-hd4 #bj ,sec4 #ic-ii4 #ba ,sec4 #ajj-aab4 #bb ,sec4 #aab-abh4 #bc ,sec4 #abi-aca4 #bd ,sec4 #acb-ade4 ,,ph,,do2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,immortality ,,of ,,the ,,soul4 ,,first ,,echecrates1 ,,ph,,do4 ,,then ,,socrates1 ,,apollodorus1 ,,cebes1 ,,simmias1 ,,and ,,crito4 ,ech4 ,were you personally present1 ,phdo1 with ,socrates on that day when he drank the poison in prison1 or did you hear an account of it from some one else8 ,phd4 ,i was there myself1 ,echecrates4 ,ech4 ,what1 then1 did he say before his death1 and how did he die8 for ,i should be glad to hear3 for scarcely any citizen of ,phlius#be ever visits ,athens now1 nor has any stranger for a long time come from thence who was able to give us a clear account of the particulars1 except that he had died from drinking poison2 but he was unable to tell us any thing more4 #b4 ,phd4 ,and did you not hear about the trial--how it went off8 ,ech4 ,yes2 some one told me this2 and ,i wondered that1 as it took place so long ago1 he appears to have died long afterward4 ,what was the reason of this1 ,phdo8 ,phd4 ,an accidental circumstance happened in his favor1 ,echecrates2 for the poop of the ship which the ,athenians send to ,delos chanced to be crowned on the day before the trial4 ,ech4 ,but what is this ship8 ,phd4 ,it is the ship1 as the ,athenians say1 in which ,theseus formerly conveyed the fourteen boys and girls to ,crete1 and saved both them and himself4 ,they1 therefore1 made a vow to ,apollo on that occasion1 as it is said1 that if they were saved they would every year dispatch a solemn embassy to ,delos2 which1 from that time to the present1 they send yearly to the god4 #c4 ,when they begin the preparations for this solemn embassy1 they have a law that the city shall be purified during this period1 and that no public execution shall take place until the ship has reached ,delos1 and returned to ,athens2 and this occasionally takes a long time1 when the winds happen to impede their passage4 ,the commencement of the embassy is when the priest of ,apollo has crowned the poop of the ship4 ,and this was done1 as ,i said1 on the day before the trial3 on this account ,socrates had a long interval in prison between the trial and his death4 #d4 ,ech4 ,and what1 ,phdo1 were the circumstances of his death8 ,what was said and done8 and who of his friends were with him8 or would not the magistrates allow them to be present1 but did he die destitute of friends8 ,phd4 ,by no means2 but some1 indeed several1 were present4 ,ech4 ,take the trouble1 then1 to relate to me all the particulars as clearly as you can1 unless you have any pressing business4 ,phd4 ,i am at leisure1 and will endeavor to give you a full account2 for to call ,socrates to mind1 whether speaking myself or listening to some one else1 is always most delightful to me4 #e4 ,ech4 ,and indeed1 ,phdo1 you have others to listen to you who are of the same mind4 ,however1 endeavor to relate every thing as accurately as you can4 ,phd4 ,i was1 indeed1 wonderfully affected by being present1 for ,i was not impressed with a feeling of pity1 like one present at the death of a friend2 for the man appeared to me to be happy1 ,echecrates1 both from his manner and discourse1 so fearlessly and nobly did he meet his death3 so much so1 that it occurred to me that in going to ,hades he was not going without a divine destiny1 but that when he arrived there he would be happy1 if any one ever was4 ,for this reason ,i was entirely uninfluenced by any feeling of pity1 as would seem likely to be the case with one present on so mournful an occasion2 nor was ,i affected by pleasure from being engaged in philosophical discussions1 as was our custom2 for our conversation was of that kind4 ,but an altogether unaccountable feeling possessed me1 a kind of unusual mixture compounded of pleasure and pain together1 when ,i considered that he was immediately about to die4 ,and all of us who were present were affected in much the same manner1 at one time laughing1 at another weeping--one of us especially1 ,apollodorus1 for you know the man and his manner4 ,ech4 ,how should ,i not8 #f4 ,phd4 ,he1 then1 was entirely overcome by these emotions2 and ,i1 too1 was troubled1 as well as the others4 ,ech4 ,but who were present1 ,phdo8 ,phd4 ,of his fellow-countrymen1 this ,apollodorus was present1 and ,critobulus1 and his father1 ,crito2 moreover1 ,hermogenes1 ,epigenes1 schines and ,antisthenes2 ,ctesippus the ,panian1 ,menexenus1 and some others of his countrymen1 were also there3 ,plato1 ,i think1 was sick4 ,ech4 ,were any strangers present8 ,phd4 ,yes2 ,simmias1 the ,theban1 ,cebes and ,phdondes2 and from ,megara1 ,euclides and ,terpsion4 #g4 ,ech4 ,but what6 were not ,aristippus and ,cleombrotus present8 ,phd4 ,no1 for they were said to be at gina4 ,ech4 ,was any one else there8 ,phd4 ,i think that these were nearly all who were present4 ,ech4 ,well1 now1 what do you say was the subject of conversation8 ,phd4 ,i will endeavor to relate the whole to you from the beginning4 ,on the preceding days ,i and the others were constantly in the habit of visiting ,socrates1 meeting early in the morning at the court house where the trial took place1 for it was near the prison4 #h4 ,here1 then1 we waited every day till the prison was opened1 conversing with each other1 for it was not opened very early2 but as soon as it was opened we went in to ,socrates1 and usually spent the day with him4 ,on that occasion1 however1 we met earlier than usual2 for on the preceding day1 when we left the prison in the evening1 we heard that the ship had arrived from ,delos4 ,we therefore urged each other to come as early as possible to the accustomed place4 ,accordingly we came2 and the porter1 who used to admit us1 coming out1 told us to wait1 and not to enter until he had called us4 ,for1 he said1 the ,eleven are now freeing ,socrates from his bonds1 and announcing to him that he must die to-day4 ,but in no long time he returned1 and bade us enter4 #i4 ,when we entered1 we found ,socrates just freed from his bonds1 and ,xantippe1 you know her1 holding his little boy1 and sitting by him4 ,as soon as ,xantippe saw us she wept aloud1 and said such things as women usually do on such occasions--as1 ,socrates1 your friends will now converse with you for the last time1 and you with them4 ,but ,socrates1 looking towards ,crito1 said3 ,crito1 let some one take her home4 ,upon which some of ,crito's attendants led her away1 wailing and beating herself4 ,but ,socrates1 sitting up in bed1 drew up his leg1 and rubbed it with his hand1 and as he rubbed it1 said3 ,what an unaccountable thing1 my friends1 that seems to be1 which men call pleasure6 and how wonderfully is it related toward that which appears to be its contrary1 pain1 in that they will not both be present to a man at the same time6 ,yet if any one pursues and attains the one1 he is almost always compelled to receive the other1 as if they were both united together from one head4 #aj4 ,and it seems tome1 he said1 that if sop had observed this he would have made a fable from it1 how the deity1 wishing to reconcile these warring principles1 when he could not do so1 united their heads together1 and from hence whomsoever the one visits the other attends immediately after2 as appears to be the case with me1 since ,i suffered pain in my leg before from the chain1 but now pleasure seems to have succeeded4 ,hereupon ,cebes1 interrupting him1 said3 ,by ,jupiter6 ,socrates1 you have done well in reminding me2 with respect to the poems which you made1 by putting into metre those ,fables of sop and the hymn to ,apollo1 several other persons asked me1 and especially ,evenus recently1 with what design you made them after you came here1 whereas before you had never made any4 #aa4 ,if therefore1 you care at all that ,i should be able to answer ,evenus1 when he asks me again--for ,i am sure he will do so--tell me what ,i must say to him4 ,tell him the truth1 then1 ,cebes1 he replied1 that ,i did not make them from a wish to compete with him1 or his poems1 for ,i knew that this would be no easy matter2 but that ,i might discover the meaning of certain dreams1 and discharge my conscience1 if this should happen to be the music which they have often ordered me to apply myself to4 ,for they were to the following purport3 often in my past life the same dream visited me1 appearing at different times in different forms1 yet always saying the same thing--',socrates1' it said1 'apply yourself to and practice music4' #ab4 ,and ,i formerly supposed that it exhorted and encouraged me to continue the pursuit ,i was engaged in1 as those who cheer on racers1 so that the dream encouraged me to continue the pursuit ,i was engaged in--namely1 to apply myself to music1 since philosophy is the highest music1 and ,i was devoted to it4 ,but now since my trial took place1 and the festival of the god retarded my death1 it appeared to me that if by chance the dream so frequently enjoined me to apply myself to popular music1 ,i ought not to disobey it1 but do so1 for that it would be safer for me not to depart hence before ,i had discharged my conscience by making some poems in obedience to the dream4 ,thus1 then1 ,i first of all composed a hymn to the god whose festival was present2 and after the god1 considering that a poet1 if he means to be a poet1 ought to make fables1 and not discourses1 and knowing that ,i was not skilled in making fables1 ,i therefore put into verse those ,fables of sop1 which were at hand1 and were known to me1 and which first occurred to me4 #ac4 ,tell this1 then1 to ,evenus1 ,cebes1 and bid him farewell1 and if he is wise1 to follow me as soon as he can4 ,but ,i depart1 as it seems1 to-day2 for so the ,athenians order4 ,to this ,simmias said1 ,what is this1 ,socrates1 which you exhort ,evenus to do8 for ,i often meet with him2 and1 from what ,i know of him1 ,i am pretty certain that he will not at all be willing to comply with your advice4 ,what1 then1 said he1 is not ,evenus a philosopher8 ,to me he seems to be so1 said ,simmias4 ,then he will be willing1 rejoined ,socrates1 and so will every one who worthily engages in this study4 ,perhaps1 indeed1 he will not commit violence on himself2 for that1 they say1 is not allowable4 ,and as he said this he let down his leg from the bed on the ground1 and in this posture continued during the remainder of the discussion4 ,cebes then asked him1 ,what do you mean1 ,socrates1 by saying that it is not lawful to commit violence on one's self1 but that a philosopher should be willing to follow one who is dying8 #ad4 ,what1 ,cebes6 have not you and ,simmias1 who have conversed familiarly with ,philolaus#bf on this subject1 heard8 ,nothing very clearly1 ,socrates4 ,i1 however1 speak only from hearsay2 what1 then1 ,i have heard ,i have no scruple in telling4 ,and perhaps it is most becoming for one who is about to travel there to inquire and speculate about the journey thither1 what kind we think it is4 ,what else can one do in the interval before sunset8 ,why1 then1 ,socrates1 do they say that it is not allowable to kill one's self8 for ,i1 as you asked just now1 have heard both ,philolaus1 when he lived with us1 and several others1 say that it was not right to do this2 but ,i never heard any thing clear upon the subject from any one4 #ae4 ,then1 you should consider it attentively1 said ,socrates1 for perhaps you may hear4 ,probably1 however1 it will appear wonderful to you1 if this alone1 of all other things1 is a universal truth1#bg and it never happens to a man1 as is the case in all other things1 that at some times and to some persons only it is better to die than to live2 yet that these men for whom it is better to die--this probably will appear wonderful to you--may not without impiety do this good to themselves1 but must await another benefactor4 #af4 ,then ,cebes1 gently smiling1 said1 speaking in his own dialect1#bh ,jove be witness6 ,and1 indeed1 said ,socrates1 it would appear to be unreasonable2 yet still1 perhaps1 it has some reason on its side4 ,the maxim1 indeed1 given on this subject in the mystical doctrines1#bi that we men are in a kind of prison1 and that we ought not to free ourselves from it and escape1 appears to me difficult to be understood1 and not easy to penetrate4 ,this1 however1 appears to me1 ,cebes1 to be well said3 that the gods take care of us1 and that we men are one of their possessions4 ,does it not seem so to you8 ,it does1 replied ,cebes4 ,therefore1 said he1 if one of your slaves were to kill himself1 without your having intimated that you wished him to die1 should you not be angry with him1 and should you not punish him if you could8 ,certainly1 he replied4 ,perhaps1 then1 in this point of view1 it is not unreasonable to assert that a man ought not to kill himself before the deity lays him under a necessity of doing so1 such as that now laid on me4 #ag4 ,this1 indeed1 said ,cebes1 appears to be probable4 ,but what you said just now1 ,socrates1 that philosophers should be very willing to die1 appears to be an absurdity1 if what we said just now is agreeable to reason--that it is ,god who takes care of us1 and that we are his property4 ,for that the wisest men should not be grieved at leaving that service in which they govern them who are the best of all masters--namely1 the gods--is not consistent with reason2 for surely he can not think that he will take better care of himself when he has become free4 ,but a foolish man might perhaps think thus1 that he should fly from his master1 and would not reflect that he ought not to fly from a good one1 but should cling to him as much as possible2 therefore he would fly against all reason2 but a man of sense would desire to be constantly with one better than himself4 ,thus1 ,socrates1 the contrary of what you just now said is likely to be the case2 for it becomes the wise to be grieved at dying1 but the foolish to rejoice4 #ah4 ,socrates1 on hearing this1 appeared to me to be pleased with the pertinacity of ,cebes1 and1 looking toward us1 said1 ,cebes1 you see1 always searches out arguments1 and is not at all willing to admit at once any thing one has said4 ,whereupon ,simmias replied1 ,but1 indeed1 ,socrates1 ,cebes appears to me now to say something to the purpose2 for with what design should men really wise fly from masters who are better than themselves1 and so readily leave them8 ,and ,cebes appears to me to direct his argument against you1 because you so easily endure to abandon both us and those good rulers1 as you yourself confess1 the gods4 ,you speak justly1 said ,socrates1 for ,i think you mean that ,i ought to make my defense to this charge1 as if ,i were in a court of justice4 ,certainly1 replied ,simmias4 #ai4 ,come1 then1 said he1 ,i will endeavor to defend myself more successfully before you than before the judges4 ,for1 he proceeded1 ,simmias and ,cebes1 if ,i did not think that ,i should go1 first of all1 among other deities who are both wise and good1 and1 next1 among men who have departed this life1 better than any here1 ,i should be wrong in not grieving at death2 but now1 be assured1 ,i hope to go among good men1 though ,i would not positively assert it4 ,that1 however1 ,i shall go among gods who are perfectly good masters1 be assured ,i can positively assert this1 if ,i can any thing of the kind4 ,so that1 on this account1 ,i am not so much troubled1 but ,i entertain a good hope that something awaits those who die1 and that1 as was said long since1 it will be far better for the good than the evil4 #bj4 ,what1 then1 ,socrates1 said ,simmias1 would you go away keeping this persuasion to yourself1 or would you impart it to us8 ,for this good appears to me to be also common to us2 and at the same time it will be an apology for you1 if you can persuade us to believe what you say4 ,i will endeavor to do so1 he said4 ,but first let us attend to ,crito here1 and see what it is he seems to have for some time wished to say4 ,what else1 ,socrates1 said ,crito1 but what he who is to give you the poison told me some time ago1 that ,i should tell you to speak as little as possible8 ,for he says that men become too much heated by speaking1 and that nothing of this kind ought to interfere with the poison2 and that1 otherwise1 those who did so were sometimes compelled to drink two or three times4 ,to which ,socrates replied1 ,let him alone1 and let him attend to his own business1 and prepare to give it me twice1 or1 if occasion require1 even thrice4 #ba4 ,i was almost certain what you would say1 answered ,crito1 but he has been some time pestering me4 ,never mind him1 he rejoined4 ,but now ,i wish to render an account to you1 my judges1 of the reason why a man who has really devoted his life to philosophy1 when he is about to die1 appears to me1 on good grounds1 to have confidence1 and to entertain a firm hope that the greatest good will befall him in the other world when he has departed this life4 ,how1 then1 this comes to pass1 ,simmias and ,cebes1 ,i will endeavor to explain4 ,for as many as rightly apply themselves to philosophy seem to have left all others in ignorance1 that they aim at nothing else than to die and be dead4 ,if this1 then1 is true1 it would surely be absurd to be anxious about nothing else than this during their whole life1 but1 when it arrives1 to be grieved at what they have been long anxious about and aimed at4 #bb4 ,upon this1 ,simmias1 smiling1 said1 ,by ,jupiter6 ,socrates1 though ,i am not now at all inclined to smile1 you have made me do so2 for ,i think that the multitude1 if they heard this1 would think it was very well said in reference to philosophers1 and that our countrymen particularly would agree with you1 that true philosophers do desire death1 and that they are by no means ignorant that they deserve to suffer it4 ,and1 indeed1 ,simmias1 they would speak the truth1 except in asserting that they are not ignorant2 for they are ignorant of the sense in which true philosophers desire to die1 and in what sense they deserve death1 and what kind of death4 ,but1 he said1 let us take leave of them1 and speak to one another4 ,do we think that death is any thing8 ,certainly1 replied ,simmias4 #bc4 ,is it any thing else than the separation of the soul from the body8 ,and is not this to die1 for the body to be apart by itself separated from the soul1 and for the soul to subsist apart by itself separated from the body8 ,is death any thing else than this8 ,no1 but this1 he replied4 ,consider1 then1 my good friend1 whether you are of the same opinion as ,i2 for thus1 ,i think1 we shall understand better the subject we are considering4 ,does it appear to you to be becoming in a philosopher to be anxious about pleasures1 as they are called1 such as meats and drinks8 ,by no means1 ,socrates1 said ,simmias4 ,but what8 about the pleasures of love8 ,not at all4 #bd4 ,what1 then8 ,does such a man appear to you to think other bodily indulgences of value8 ,for instance1 does he seem to you to value or despise the possession of magnificent garments and sandals1 and other ornaments of the body except so far as necessity compels him to use them8 ,the true philosopher1 he answered1 appears to me to despise them4 ,does not1 then1 he continued1 the whole employment of such a man appear to you to be1 not about the body1 but to separate himself from it as much as possible1 and be occupied about his soul8 ,it does4 ,first of all1 then1 in such matters1 does not the philosopher1 above all other men1 evidently free his soul as much as he can from communion with the body8 ,it appears so4 #be4 ,and it appears1 ,simmias1 to the generality of men1 that he who takes no pleasure in such things1 and who does not use them1 does not deserve to live2 but that he nearly approaches to death who cares nothing for the pleasures that subsist through the body4 ,you speak very truly4 ,but what with respect to the acquisition of wisdom8 ,is the body an impediment1 or not1 if any one takes it with him as a partner in the search8 ,what ,i mean is this3 ,do sight and hearing convey any truth to men1 or are they such as the poets constantly sing1 who say that we neither hear nor see any thing with accuracy8 ,if1 however1 these bodily senses are neither accurate nor clear1 much less can the others be so2 for they are all far inferior to these4 ,do they not seem so to you8 ,certainly1 he replied4 #bf4 ,when1 then1 said he1 does the soul light on the truth8 for when it attempts to consider any thing in conjunction with the body1 it is plain that it is then led astray by it4 ,you say truly4 ,must it not1 then1 be by reasoning1 if at all1 that any of the things that really are become known to it8 ,yes4 ,and surely the soul then reasons best when none of these things disturb it--neither hearing1 nor sight1 nor pain1 nor pleasure of any kind2 but it retires as much as possible within itself1 taking leave of the body2 and1 so far as it can1 not communicating or being in contact with it1 it aims at the discovery of that which is4 ,such is the case4 ,does not1 then1 the soul of the philosopher1 in these cases1 despise the body1 and flee from it1 and seek to retire within itself8 ,it appears so4 #bg4 ,but what as to such things as these1 ,simmias8 ,do we say that justice itself is something or nothing8 ,we say it is something1 by ,jupiter6 ,and that beauty and goodness are something8 ,how not8 ,now1 then1 have you ever seen any thing of this kind with your eyes8 ,by no means1 he replied4 ,did you ever lay hold of them by any other bodily sense8 ,but ,i speak generally1 as of magnitude1 health1 strength and1 in a word1 of the essence of every thing2 that is to say1 what each is4 ,is1 then1 the exact truth of these perceived by means of the body1 or is it thus1 whoever among us habituates himself to reflect most deeply and accurately on each several thing about which he is considering1 he will make the nearest approach to the knowledge of it8 ,certainly4 #bh4 ,would not he1 then1 do this with the utmost purity1 who should in the highest degree approach each subject by means of the mere mental faculties1 neither employing the sight in conjunction with the reflective faculty1 nor introducing any other sense together with reasoning2 but who1 using pure reflection by itself1 should attempt to search out each essence purely by itself1 freed as much as possible from the eyes and ears1 and1 in a word1 from the whole body1 as disturbing the soul1 and not suffering it to acquire truth and wisdom1 when it is in communion with it4 ,is not he the person1 ,simmias1 if any one can1 who will arrive at the knowledge of that which is8 #bi4 ,you speak with wonderful truth1 ,socrates1 replied ,simmias4 ,wherefore1 he said1 it necessarily follows from all this that some such opinion as this should be entertained by genuine philosophers1 so that they should speak among themselves as follows3 ',a by-path1 as it were1 seems to lead us on in our researches undertaken by reason1' because so long as we are encumbered with the body1 and our soul is contaminated with such an evil1 we can never fully attain to what we desire2 and this1 we say1 is truth4 ,for the body subjects us to innumerable hinderances on account of its necessary support2 and1 moreover1 if any diseases befall us1 they impede us in our search after that which is2 and it fills us with longings1 desires1 fears1 all kinds of fancies1 and a multitude of absurdities1 so that1 as it is said in real truth1 by reason of the body it is never possible for us to make any advances in wisdom4 #cj4 ,for nothing else than the body and its desires occasion wars1 seditions1 and contests2 for all wars among us arise on account of our desire to acquire wealth3 and we are compelled to acquire wealth on account of the body1 being enslaved to its service2 and consequently on all these accounts we are hindered in the pursuit of philosophy4 ,but the worst of all is1 that if it leaves us any leisure1 and we apply ourselves to the consideration of any subject1 it constantly obtrudes itself in the midst of our researches1 and occasions trouble and disturbance1 and confounds us so that we are not able1 by reason of it1 to discern the truth4 ,it has1 then1 in reality been demonstrated to us that if we are ever to know any thing purely1 we must be separated from the body1 and contemplate the things themselves by the mere soul2 and then1 as it seems1 we shall obtain that which we desire1 and which we profess ourselves to be lovers of--wisdom--when we are dead1 as reason shows1 but not while we are alive4 #ca4 ,for if it is not possible to know any thing purely in conjunction with the body1 one of these two things must follow1 either that we can never acquire knowledge1 or only after we are dead2 for then the soul will subsist apart by itself1 separate from the body1 but not before4 ,and while we live we shall thus1 as it seems1 approach nearest to knowledge1 if we hold no intercourse or communion at all with the body1 except what absolute necessity requires1 nor suffer ourselves to be polluted by its nature1 but purify ourselves from it1 until ,god himself shall release us4 ,and thus being pure1 and freed from the folly of body1 we shall in all likelihood be with others like ourselves1 and shall of ourselves know the whole real essence1 and that probably is truth2 for it is not allowable for the impure to attain to the pure4 ,such things1 ,i think1 ,simmias1 all true lovers of wisdom must both think and say to one another4 ,does it not seem so to you8 ,most assuredly1 ,socrates4 #cb4 ,if this1 then1 said ,socrates1 is true1 my friend1 there is great hope for one who arrives where ,i am going1 there1 if anywhere1 to acquire that in perfection for the sake of which we have taken so much pains during our past life2 so that the journey now appointed me is set out upon with good hope1 and will be so by any other man who thinks that his mind has been1 as it were1 purified4 ,certainly1 said ,simmias4 ,but does not purification consist in this1 as was said in a former part of our discourse1 in separating as much as possible the soul from the body1 and in accustoming it to gather and collect itself by itself on all sides apart from the body1 and to dwell1 so far as it can1 both now and hereafter1 alone by itself1 delivered1 as it were1 from the shackles of the body8 ,certainly1 he replied4 #cc4 ,is this1 then1 called death1 this deliverance and separation of the soul from the body8 ,assuredly1 he answered4 ,but1 as we affirmed1 those who pursue philosophy rightly are especially and alone desirous to deliver it2 and this is the very study of philosophers1 the deliverance and separation of the soul from the body1 is it not8 ,it appears so4 ,then1 as ,i said at first1 would it not be ridiculous for a man who has endeavored throughout his life to live as near as possible to death1 then1 when death arrives1 to grieve8 would not this be ridiculous8 ,how should it not8 ,in reality1 then1 ,simmias1 he continued1 those who pursue philosophy rightly1 study to die2 and to them1 of all men1 death is least formidable4 ,judge from this4 ,since they altogether hate the body and desire to keep the soul by itself1 would it not be irrational if1 when this comes to pass1 they should be afraid and grieve1 and not be glad to go to that place where1 on their arrival1 they may hope to obtain that which they longed for throughout life8 ,but they longed for wisdom1 and to be freed from association with that which they hated4 #cd4 ,have many of their own accord wished to descend into ,hades1 on account of human objects of affection1 their wives and sons1 induced by this very hope of their seeing and being with those whom they have loved8 and shall one who really loves wisdom1 and firmly cherishes this very hope1 that he shall nowhere else attain it in a manner worthy of the name1 except in ,hades1 be grieved at dying1 and not gladly go there8 ,we must think that he would gladly go1 my friend1 if he be in truth a philosopher2 for he will be firmly persuaded of this1 that he will nowhere else than there attain wisdom in its purity2 and if this be so1 would it not be very irrational1 as ,i just now said1 if such a man were to be afraid of death8 ,very much so1 by ,jupiter6 he replied4 #ce4 ,would not this1 then1 he resumed1 be a sufficient proof to you with respect to a man whom you should see grieved when about to die1 that he was not a lover of wisdom1 but a lover of his body8 ,and this same person is probably a lover of riches and a lover of honor1 one or both of these4 ,it certainly is as you say1 he replied4 ,does not1 then1 he said1 that which is called fortitude1 ,simmias1 eminently belong to philosophers8 ,by all means1 he answered4 ,and temperance1 also1 which even the multitude call temperance1 and which consists in not being carried away by the passions1 but in holding them in contempt1 and keeping them in subjection1 does not this belong to those only who most despise the body1 and live in the study of philosophy8 ,necessarily so1 he replied4 #cf4 ,for1 he continued1 if you will consider the fortitude and temperance of others1 they will appear to you to be absurd4 ,how so1 ,socrates8 ,do you know1 he said1 that all others consider death among the great evils8 ,they do indeed1 he answered4 ,then1 do the brave among them endure death when they do endure it1 through dread of greater evils8 ,it is so4 ,all men1 therefore1 except philosophers1 are brave through being afraid and fear2 though it is absurd that any one should be brave through fear and cowardice4 ,certainly4 ,but what1 are not those among them who keep their passions in subjection affected in the same way8 and are they not temperate through a kind of intemperance8 ,and although we may say1 perhaps1 that this is impossible1 nevertheless the manner in which they are affected with respect to this silly temperance resembles this1 for1 fearing to be deprived of other pleasures1 and desiring them1 they abstain from some1 being mastered by others4 ,and though they call intemperance the being governed by pleasures1 yet it happens to them that1 by being mastered by some pleasures1 they master others1 and this is similar to what was just now said1 that in a certain manner they become temperate through intemperance4 ,so it seems1 #cg4 ,my dear ,simmias1 consider that this is not a right exchange for virtue1 to barter pleasures for pleasures1 pains for pains1 fear for fear1 and the greater for the lesser1 like pieces of money1 but that that alone is the right coin1 for which we ought to barter all these things1 wisdom1 and for this and with this everything is in reality bought and sold ,fortitude1 temperance and justice1 and1 in a word true virtue1 subsist with wisdom1 whether pleasures and fears1 and everything else of the kind1 are present or absent1 but when separated from wisdom and changed one for another1 consider whether such virtue is not a mere outline and in reality servile1 possessing neither soundness nor truth4 ,but the really true virtue is a purification from all such things1 and temperance1 justice1 fortitude and wisdom itself1 are a kind of initiatory purification #ch4 ,and those who instituted the mysteries for us appear to have been by no means contemptible1 but in reality to have intimated long since that whoever shall arrive in ,hades unexpiated and uninitiated shall lie in mud1 but he that arrives there purified and initiated shall dwell with the gods ',for there are1' say those who preside at the mysteries1 'many wand-bearers1 but few inspired'4 ,these last1 in my opinion1 are no other than those who have pursued philosophy rightly that ,i might be of their number4 ,i have to the utmost of my ability left no means untried1 but have endeavored to the utmost of my power4 ,but whether ,i have endeavored rightly1 and have in any respect succeeded1 on arriving there ,i shall know clearly1 if it please ,god--very shortly1 as it appears to me4 #ci4 ,such1 then1 ,simmias and ,cebes1 he added1 is the defense ,i make1 for that ,i1 on good grounds1 do not repine or grieve at leaving you and my masters here1 being persuaded that there1 no less than here1 ,i shall meet with good masters and friends4 ,but to the multitude this is incredible ,if1 however1 ,i have succeeded better with you in my defense than ,i did with the ,athenian judges1 it is well4 ,when ,socrates had thus spoken1 ,cebes1 taking up the discussion1 said ,socrates1 all the rest appears to me to be said rightly1 but what you have said respecting the soul will occasion much incredulity in many from the apprehension that when it is separated from the body it no longer exists anywhere1 but is destroyed and perishes on the very day in which a man dies1 and that immediately it is separated and goes out from the body it is dispersed1 and vanishes like breath or smoke1 and is no longer anywhere1 since if it remained anywhere united in itself1 and freed from those evils which you have just now enumerated1 there would be an abundant and good hope1 ,socrates1 that what you say is true #dj4 ,but this probably needs no little persuasion and proof1 that the soul of a man who dies exists1 and possesses activity and intelligence4 ,you say truly1 ,cebes1 said ,socrates1 but what shall we do8 ,are you willing that we should converse on these points1 whether such is probably the case or not8 ,indeed1 replied ,cebes1 ,i should gladly hear your opinion on these matters4 ,i do not think1 said ,socrates1 that any one who should now hear us1 even though he were a comic poet1 would say that ,i am talking idly1 or discoursing on subjects that do not concern me4 ,if you please1 then1 we will examine into it4 ,let us consider it in this point of view1 whether the souls of men who are dead exist in ,hades1 or not4 ,this is an ancient saying1 which we now call to mind1 that souls departing hence exist there1 and return hither again1 and are produced from the dead4 #da4 ,and if this is so1 that the living are produced again from the dead1 can there be any other consequence than that our souls are there8 for surely they could not be produced again if they did not exist2 and this would be sufficient proof that these things are so1 if it should in reality be evident that the living are produced from no other source than the dead4 ,but if this is not the case1 there will be need of other arguments4 ,certainly1 said ,cebes4 ,you must not1 then1 he continued1 consider this only with respect to men1 if you wish to ascertain it with greater certainty1 but also with respect to all animals and plants1 and1 in a word1 with respect to every thing that is subject to generation4 ,let us see whether they are not all so produced1 no otherwise than contraries from contraries1 wherever they have any such quality2 as1 for instance1 the honorable is contrary to the base1 and the just to the unjust1 and so with ten thousand other things4 #db4 ,let us consider this1 then1 whether it is necessary that all things which have a contrary should be produced from nothing else than their contrary4 ,as1 for instance1 when any thing becomes greater1 is it not necessary that1 from being previously smaller1 it afterward became greater8 ,yes4 ,and if it becomes smaller1 will it not1 from being previously greater1 afterward become smaller8 ,it is so1 he replied4 ,and from stronger1 weaker8 and from slower1 swifter8 ,certainly4 ,what1 then8 ,if any thing becomes worse1 must it not become so from better8 and if more just1 from more unjust8 ,how should it not8 ,we have then1 he said1 sufficiently determined this1 that all things are thus produced1 contraries from contraries8 ,certainly4 ,what next8 ,is there also something of this kind in them2 for instance1 between all two contraries a mutual twofold production1 from one to the other1 and from that other back again8 for between a greater thing and a smaller there are increase and decrease1 and do we not accordingly call the one to increase1 the other to decrease8 ,yes1 he replied4 #dc4 ,and must not to be separated and commingled1 to grow cold and to grow warm1 and every thing in the same manner1 even though sometimes we have not names to designate them1 yet in fact be everywhere thus circumstanced1 of necessity1 as to be produced from each other1 and be subject to a reciprocal generation8 ,certainly1 he replied4 ,what1 then8 said ,socrates1 has life any contrary1 as waking has its contrary1 sleeping8 ,certainly1 he answered4 ,what8 ,death1 he replied4 ,are not these1 then1 produced from each other1 since they are contraries2 and are not the modes by which they are produced two-fold intervening between these two8 ,how should it be otherwise8 ,i then1 continued ,socrates1 will describe to you one pair of the contraries which ,i have just now mentioned1 both what it is and its mode of production3 and do you describe to me the other4 ,i say that one is to sleep1 the other to awake2 and from sleeping awaking is produced1 and from awaking sleeping1 and that the modes of their production are1 the one to fall asleep1 the other to be roused4 #dd4 ,have ,i sufficiently explained this to you or not8 ,certainly4 ,do you1 then1 he said1 describe to me in the same manner with respect to life and death8 ,do you not say that life is contrary to death8 ,i do4 ,and that they are produced from each other8 ,yes4 ,what1 then1 is produced from life8 ,death1 he replied4 ,what1 then1 said he is produced from death8 ,i must needs confess1 he replied1 that life is4 ,from the dead1 then1 ,o ,cebes6 living things and living men are produced4 ,it appears so1 he said4 ,our souls1 therefore1 said ,socrates1 exist in ,hades4 ,so it seems4 ,with respect1 then1 to their mode of production1 is not one of them very clear8 for to die surely is clear1 is it not8 ,certainly1 he replied4 ,what1 then1 shall we do8 he continued2 shall we not find a corresponding contrary mode of production1 or will nature be defective in this8 ,or must we discover a contrary mode of production to dying8 ,by all means1 he said4 ,what is this8 ,to revive4 ,therefore1 he proceeded1 if there is such a thing as to revive1 will not this reviving be a mode of production from the dead to the living8 ,certainly4 ,thus1 then1 we have agreed that the living are produced from the dead1 no less than the dead from the living2 but1 this being the case1 there appears to me sufficient proof that the souls of the dead must necessarily exist somewhere1 from whence they are again produced4 #de4 ,it appears to me1 ,socrates1 he said that this must necessarily follow from what has been admitted4 ,see now1 ,o ,cebes6 he said1 that we have not agreed on these things improperly1 as it appears to me2 for if one class of things were not constantly given back in the place of another1 revolving1 as it were1 in a circle1 but generation were direct from one thing alone into its opposite1 and did not turn round again to the other1 or retrace its course1 do you know that all things would at length have the same form1 be in the same state1 and cease to be produced8 ,how say you8 he asked4 ,it is by no means difficult1 he replied1 to understand what ,i mean2 if1 for instance1 there should be such a thing as falling asleep1 but no reciprocal waking again produced from a state of sleep1 you know that at length all things would show the fable of ,endymion to be a jest1 and it would be thought nothing at all of1 because everything else would be in the same state as he--namely1 asleep4 ,and if all things were mingled together1 but never separated1 that doctrine of ,anaxagoras would soon be verified1 'all things would be together4' #df4 ,likewise1 my dear ,cebes1 if all things that partake of life should die1 and after they are dead should remain in this state of death1 and not revive again1 would it not necessarily follow that at length all things should be dead1 and nothing alive8 ,for if living beings are produced from other things1 and living beings die1 what could prevent their being all absorbed in death8 ,nothing whatever1 ,i think1 ,socrates1 replied ,cebes2 but you appear to me to speak the exact truth4 ,for1 ,cebes1 he continued1 as it seems to me1 such undoubtedly is the case1 and we have not admitted these things under a delusion1 for it is in reality true that there is a reviving again1 that the living are produced from the dead1 that the souls of the dead exist1 and that the condition of the good is better1 and of the evil worse4 #dg4 ,and1 indeed1 said ,cebes1 interrupting him1 according to that doctrine1 ,socrates1 which you are frequently in the habit of advancing1 if it is true1 that our learning is nothing else than reminiscence1 according to this it is surely necessary that we must at some former time have learned what we now remember4 ,but this is impossible1 unless our soul existed somewhere before it came into this human form2 so that from hence1 also1 the soul appears to be something immortal4 ,but1 ,cebes1 said ,simmias1 interrupting him1 what proofs are there of these things8 ,remind me of them1 for ,i do not very well remember them at present4 #dh4 ,it is proved1 said ,cebes1 by one argument1 and that a most beautiful one1 that men1 when questioned 7if one questions them properly7 of themselves1 describe all things as they are1 however1 if they had not innate knowledge and right reason1 they would never be able to do this4 ,moreover1 if one leads them to diagrams1 or any thing else of the kind1 it is then most clearly apparent that this is the case4 ,but if you are not persuaded in this way1 ,simmias1 said ,socrates1 see if you will agree with us in considering the matter thus4 ,for do you doubt how that which is called learning is reminiscence8 ,i do not doubt1 said ,simmias2 but ,i require this very thing of which we are speaking1 to be reminded2 and1 indeed1 from what ,cebes has begun to say1 ,i almost now remember1 and am persuaded2 nevertheless1 however1 ,i should like to hear now how you would attempt to prove it4 ,i do it thus he replied3 we admit1 surely1 that if any one be reminded of any thing1 he must needs have known that thing at some time or other before4 ,certainly1 he said4 #di4 ,do we1 then1 admit this also1 that when knowledge comes in a certain manner it is reminiscence8 ,but the manner ,i mean is this3 if any one1 upon seeing or hearing1 or perceiving through the medium of any other sense1 some particular thing1 should not only know that1 but also form an idea of something else1 of which the knowledge is not the same1 but different1 should we not justly say that he remembered that of which he received the idea8 ,how mean you8 ,for instance1 the knowledge of a man is different from that of a lyre4 ,how not8 ,do you not know1 then1 that lovers when they see a lyre1 or a garment1 or any thing else which their favorite is accustomed to use1 are thus affected2 they both recognize the lyre1 and receive in their minds the form of the person to whom the lyre belonged8 ,this is reminiscence3 just as any one1 seeing ,simmias1 is often reminded of ,cebes1 and so in an infinite number of similar instances4 ,an infinite number1 indeed1 by ,jupiter6 said ,simmias4 ,is not1 then1 he said1 something of this sort a kind of reminiscence1 especially when one is thus affected with respect to things which1 from lapse of time1 and not thinking of them1 one has now forgotten8 ,certainly1 he replied4 #ej4 ,but what8 he continued4 ,does it happen that when one sees a painted horse or a painted lyre one is reminded of a man1 and that when one sees a picture of ,simmias one is reminded of ,cebes8 ,certainly4 ,and does it not also happen that on seeing a picture of ,simmias one is reminded of ,simmias himself8 ,it does1 indeed1 he replied4 ,does it not happen1 then1 according to all this1 that reminiscence arises partly from things like1 and partly from things unlike8 ,it does4 ,but when one is reminded by things like1 is it not necessary that one should be thus further affected1 so as to perceive whether1 as regards likeness1 this falls short or not of the thing of which one has been reminded8 ,it is necessary1 he replied4 ,consider1 then1 said ,socrates1 if the case is thus4 ,do we allow that there is such a thing as equality8 ,i do not mean of one log with another1 nor one stone with another1 nor any thing else of this kind1 but something altogether different from all these--abstract equality2 do we allow that there is any such thing1 or not8 ,by ,jupiter6 we most assuredly do allow it1 replied ,simmias4 #ea4 ,and do we know what it is itself8 ,certainly1 he replied4 ,whence have we derived the knowledge of it8 ,is it not from the things we have just now mentioned1 and that from seeing logs1 or stones1 or other things of the kind1 equal1 we have from these formed an idea of that which is different from these--for does it not appear to you to be different8 ,consider the matter thus4 ,do not stones that are equal1 and logs sometimes that are the same1 appear at one time equal1 and at another not8 ,certainly4 ,but what8 ,does abstract equality ever appear to you unequal8 or equality inequality8 ,never1 ,socrates1 at any time4 ,these equal things1 then1 he said1 and abstract equality1 are not the same8 ,by no means1 ,socrates1 as it appears4 ,however1 from these equal things1 he said1 which are different from that abstract equality1 have you not formed your idea and derived your knowledge of it8 ,you speak most truly1 he replied4 ,is it not1 therefore1 from its being like or unlike them8 ,certainly4 ,but it makes no difference1 he said4 ,when1 therefore1 on seeing one thing1 you form1 from the sight of it1 the notion of another1 whether like or unlike1 this1 he said1 must necessarily be reminiscence4 ,certainly4 #eb4 ,what1 then1 as to this8 he continued4 ,are we affected in any such way with regard to logs and the equal things we have just now spoken of8 ,and do they appear to us to be equal in the same manner as abstract equality itself is1 or do they fall short in some degree1 or not at all1 of being such as equality itself is8 ,they fall far short1 he replied4 ,do we admit1 then1 that when one1 on beholding some particular thing1 perceives that it aims1 as that which ,i now see1 at being like something else that exists1 but falls short of it1 and can not become such as that is1 but is inferior to it--do we admit that he who perceives this must necessarily have had a previous knowledge of that which he says it resembles1 though imperfectly8 ,it is necessary4 ,what1 then8 ,are we affected in some such way1 or not1 with respect to things equal and abstract equality itself8 ,assuredly4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 that we must have known abstract equality before the time when1 on first seeing equal things1 we perceived that they all aimed at resembling equality1 but failed in doing so4 ,such is the case4 #ec4 ,moreover1 we admit this too1 that we perceived this1 and could not possibly perceive it by any other means than the sight1 or touch1 or some other of the senses1 for ,i say the same of them all4 ,for they are the same1 ,socrates1 so far as1 our argument is concerned4 ,however1 we must perceive1 by means of the senses1 that all things which come under the senses aim at that abstract equality1 and yet fall short of it2 or how shall we say it is8 ,even so4 ,before1 then1 we began to see1 and hear1 and use our other senses1 we must have had a knowledge of equality itself--what it is1 if we were to refer to it those equal things that come under the senses1 and observe that all such things aim at resembling that1 but fall far short of it4 ,this necessarily follows1 ,socrates1 from what has been already said4 ,but did we not1 as soon as we were born1 see and hear1 and possess our other senses8 ,certainly4 ,but1 we have said1 before we possessed these1 we must have had a knowledge of abstract equality8 ,yes4 ,we must have had it1 then1 as it seems1 before we were born4 ,it seems so4 #ed4 ,if1 therefore1 having this before we were born1 we were born possessing it1 we knew1 both before we were born and as soon as we were born1 not only the equal and the greater and smaller1 but all things of the kind2 for our present discussion is not more respecting equality than the beautiful itself1 the good1 the just1 and the holy1 and1 in one word1 respecting every thing which we mark with the seal of existence1 both in the questions we ask and the answers we give4 ,so that we must necessarily have had a knowledge of all these before we were born4 ,such is the case4 ,and if1 having once had it1 we did not constantly forget it1 we should always be born with this knowledge1 and should always retain it through life4 ,for to know is this1 when one has got a knowledge of any thing1 to retain and not lose it2 for do we not call this oblivion1 ,simmias1 the loss of knowledge8 ,assuredly1 ,socrates1 he replied4 #ee4 ,but if1 having had it before we were born1 we lose it at our birth1 and afterward1 through exercising the senses about these things1 we recover the knowledge which we once before possessed1 would not that which we call learning be a recovery of our own knowledge8 ,and in saying that this is to remember1 should we not say rightly8 ,certainly4 ,for this appeared to be possible1 for one having perceived any thing1 either by seeing or hearing1 or employing any other sense1 to form an idea of something different from this1 which he had forgotten1 and with which this was connected by being unlike or like4 ,so that1 as ,i said1 one of these two things must follow3 either we are all born with this knowledge1 and we retain it through life1 or those whom we say learn afterward do nothing else than remember1 and this learning will be reminiscence4 ,such1 certainly1 is the case1 ,socrates4 #ef4 ,which1 then1 do you choose1 ,simmias3 that we are born with knowledge1 or that we afterward remember what we had formerly known8 ,at present1 ,socrates1 ,i am unable to choose4 ,but what8 ,are you able to choose in this case1 and what do you think about it8 ,can a man who possesses knowledge give a reason for the things that he knows1 or not8 ,he needs must be able to do so1 ,socrates1 he replied4 ,and do all men appear to you to be able to give a reason for the things of which we have just now been speaking8 ,i wish they could1 said ,simmias2 but ,i am much more afraid that at this time to-morrow there will no longer be any one able to do this properly4 ,do not all men1 then1 ,simmias1 he said1 seem to you to know these things8 ,by no means4 ,do they remember1 then1 what they once learned8 ,necessarily so4 ,when did our souls receive this knowledge8 ,not surely1 since we were born into the world4 ,assuredly not4 ,before1 then8 ,yes4 ,our souls1 therefore1 ,simmias1 existed before they were in a human form1 separate from bodies1 and possessed intelligence4 #eg4 ,unless1 ,socrates1 we receive this knowledge at our birth1 for this period yet remains4 ,be it so1 my friend4 ,but at what other time do we lose it8 for we are not born with it1 as we have just now admitted4 ,do we lose it1 then1 at the very time in which we receive it8 ,or can you mention any other time8 ,by no means1 ,socrates2 ,i was not aware that ,i was saying nothing to the purpose4 ,does the case then stand thus with us1 ,simmias8 he proceeded3 ,if those things which we are continually talking about really exist1 the beautiful1 the good1 and every such essence1 and to this we refer all things that come under the senses1 as finding it to have a prior existence1 and to be our own1 and if we compare these things to it1 it necessarily follows1 that as these exist1 so likewise our soul exists even before we are born2 but if these do not exist1 this discussion will have been undertaken in vain1 is it not so8 ,and is there not an equal necessity both that these things should exist1 and our souls also1 before we are born2 and if not the former1 neither the latter8 #eh4 ,most assuredly1 ,socrates1 said ,simmias1 there appears to me to be the same necessity2 and the argument admirably tends to prove that our souls exist before we are born1 just as that essence does which you have now mentioned4 ,for ,i hold nothing so clear to me as this1 that all such things most certainly exist1 as the beautiful1 the good1 and all the rest that you just now spoke of2 and1 so far as ,i am concerned1 the case is sufficiently demonstrated4 ,but how does it appear to ,cebes8 said ,socrates2 for it is necessary to persuade ,cebes too4 ,he is sufficiently persuaded1 ,i think1 said ,simmias1 although he is the most pertinacious of men in distrusting arguments4 ,yet ,i think he is sufficiently persuaded of this1 that our soul existed before we were born4 ,but whether1 when we are dead1 it will still exist does not appear to me to have been demonstrated1 ,socrates1 he continued2 but that popular doubt1 which ,cebes just now mentioned1 still stands in our way1 whether1 when a man dies1 the soul is not dispersed1 and this is the end of its existence4 #ei4 ,for what hinders it being born1 and formed from some other source1 and existing before it came into a human body1 and yet1 when it has come1 and is separated from this body1 its then also dying itself1 and being destroyed8 ,you say well1 ,simmias1 said ,cebes2 for it appears that only one half of what is necessary has been demonstrated--namely1 that our soul existed before we were born2 but it is necessary to demonstrate further1 that when we are dead it will exist no less than before we were born1 if the demonstration is to be made complete4 ,this has been even now demonstrated1 ,simmias and ,cebes1 said ,socrates1 if you will only connect this last argument with that which we before assented to1 that every thing living is produced from that which is dead4 ,for if the soul exists before1 and it is necessary for it when it enters into life1 and is born1 to be produced from nothing else than death1 and from being dead1 how is it not necessary for it also to exist after death1 since it must needs be produced again8 #fj4 ,what you require1 then1 has been already demonstrated4 ,however1 both you and ,simmias appear to me as if you wished to sift this argument more thoroughly1 and to be afraid1 like children1 lest1 on the soul's departure from the body1 the winds should blow it away and disperse it1 especially if one should happen to die1 not in a calm1 but in a violent storm4 ,upon this ,cebes1 smiling1 said1 ,endeavor to teach us better1 ,socrates1 as if we were afraid1 or rather not as if we were afraid1 though perhaps there is some boy#cj within us who has such a dread4 ,let us1 then1 endeavor to persuade him not to be afraid of death1 as of hobgoblins4 ,but you must charm him every day1 said ,socrates1 until you have quieted his fears4 ,but whence1 ,socrates1 he said1 can we procure a skillful charmer for such a case1 now that you are about to leave us8 #fa4 ,greece is wide1 ,cebes1 he replied1 and in it surely there are skillful men4 ,there are also many barbarous nations1 all of which you should search through1 seeking such a charmer1 sparing neither money nor toil1 as there is nothing on which you can more seasonably spend your money4 ,you should also seek for him among yourselves2 for perhaps you could not easily find any more competent than yourselves to do this4 ,this shall be done1 said ,cebes2 but1 if it is agreeable to you1 let us return to the point from whence we digressed4 ,it will be agreeable to me1 for how should it not8 ,you say well1 rejoined ,cebes4 ,we ought1 then1 said ,socrates1 to ask ourselves some such question as this3 to what kind of thing it appertains to be thus affected--namely1 to be dispersed--and for what we ought to fear1 lest it should be so affected1 and for what not4 ,and after this we should consider which of the two the soul is1 and in the result should either be confident or fearful for our soul4 ,you speak truly1 said he4 #fb4 ,does it not1 then1 appertain to that which is formed by composition1 and is naturally compounded1 to be thus affected1 to be dissolved in the same manner as that in which it was compounded2 and if there is any thing not compounded1 does it not appertain to this alone1 if to any thing1 not to be thus affected8 ,it appears to me to be so1 said ,cebes4 ,is it not most probable1 then1 that things which are always the same1 and in the same state1 are uncompounded1 but that things which are constantly changing1 and are never in the same state1 are compounded8 ,to me it appears so4 ,let us return1 then1 he said1 to the subjects on which we before discoursed4 ,whether is essence itself1 of which we gave this account that it exists1 both in our questions and answers1 always the same1 or does it sometimes change8 ,does equality itself1 the beautiful itself1 and each several thing which is1 ever undergo any change1 however small8 ,or does each of them which exists1 being an unmixed essence by itself1 continue always the same1 and in the same state1 and never undergo any variation at all under any circumstances8 ,they must of necessity continue the same and in the same state1 ,socrates1 said ,cebes4 #fc4 ,but what shall we say of the many beautiful things1 such as men1 horses1 garments1 or other things of the kind1 whether equal or beautiful1 or of all things synonymous with them8 ,do they continue the same1 or1 quite contrary to the former1 are they never at any time1 so to say1 the same1 either with respect to themselves or one another8 ,these1 on the other hand1 replied ,cebes1 never continue the same4 ,these1 then1 you can touch1 or see1 or perceive by the other senses2 but those that continue the same1 you can not apprehend in any other way than by the exercise of thought2 for such things are invisible1 and are not seen8 ,you say what is strictly true1 replied ,cebes4 #fd4 ,we may assume1 then1 if you please1 he continued1 that there are two species of things2 the one visible1 the other invisible8 ,we may1 he said4 ,and the invisible always continuing the same1 but the visible never the same8 ,this1 too1 he said1 we may assume4 ,come1 then1 he asked1 is there anything else belonging to us than1 on the one hand1 body1 and1 on the other1 soul8 ,nothing else1 he replied4 ,to which species1 then1 shall we say the body is more like1 and more nearly allied8 ,it is clear to everyone1 he said1 that it is to the visible4 ,but what of the soul8 ,is it visible or invisible8 ,it is not visible to men1 ,socrates1 he replied4 ,but we speak of things which are visible1 or not so1 to the nature of men2 or to some other nature1 think you8 ,to that of men4 ,what1 then1 shall we say of the soul--that it is visible1 or not visible8 ,not visible4 ,is it1 then1 invisible8 ,yes4 ,the soul1 then1 is more like the invisible than the body2 and the body1 the visible8 ,it must needs be so1 ,socrates4 #fe4 ,and did we not1 some time since1 say this too1 that the soul1 when it employs the body to examine any thing1 either by means of the sight or hearing1 or any other sense 7for to examine any thing by means of the body is to do so by the senses71 is then drawn by the body to things that never continue the same1 and wanders and is confused1 and reels as if intoxicated1 through coming into contact with things of this kind8 ,certainly4 ,but when it examines anything by itself1 does it approach that which is pure1 eternal1 immortal1 and unchangeable1 and1 as being allied to it1 continue constantly with it1 so long as it subsists by itself1 and has the power1 and does it cease from its wandering1 and constantly continue the same with respect to those things1 through coming into contact with things of this kind8 ,and is this affection of the soul called wisdom8 ,you speak1 he said1 in every respect1 well and truly1 ,socrates4 ,to which species of the two1 then1 both from what was before and now said1 does the soul appear to you to be more like and more nearly allied8 #ff4 ,every one1 ,i think1 would allow1 ,socrates1 he replied1 even the dullest person1 from this method of reasoning1 that the soul is in every respect more like that which continues constantly the same than that which does not so4 ,but what as to the body8 ,it is more like the other4 ,consider it also thus1 that1 when soul and body are together1 nature enjoins the latter to be subservient and obey1 the former to rule and exercise dominion4 ,and1 in this way1 which of the two appears to you to be like the divine1 and which the mortal8 ,does it not appear to you to be natural that the divine should rule and command1 but the mortal obey and be subservient8 ,to me it does so4 ,which1 then1 does the soul resemble8 ,it is clear1 ,socrates1 that the soul resembles the divine2 but the body1 the mortal4 ,consider1 then1 ,cebes1 said he1 whether1 from all that has been said1 these conclusions follow1 that the soul is most like that which is divine1 immortal1 intelligent1 uniform1 indissoluble1 and which always continues in the same state2 but that the body1 on the other hand1 is most like that which is human1 mortal1 unintelligent1 multiform1 dissoluble1 and which never continues in the same state4 ,can we say any thing against this1 my dear ,cebes1 to show that it is not so8 ,we can not4 #fg4 ,what1 then8 ,since these things are so1 does it not appertain to the body to be quickly dissolved1 but to the soul1 on the contrary1 to be altogether indissoluble or nearly so8 ,how not8 ,you perceive1 however1 he said1 that when a man dies1 the visible part of him1 the body1 which is exposed to sight1 and which we call a corpse1 to which it appertains to be dissolved1 to fall asunder and be dispersed1 does not immediately undergo any of these affections1 but remains for a considerable time1 and especially so if any one should die with his body in full vigor1 and at a corresponding age2#ca for when the body has collapsed and been embalmed1 as those that are embalmed in ,egypt1 it remains almost entire for an incredible length of time2 and some parts of the body1 even though it does decay1 such as the bones and nerves1 and every thing of that kind1 are1 nevertheless1 as one may say1 immortal4 ,is it not so8 ,yes4 #fh4 ,can the soul1 then1 which is invisible1 and which goes to another place like itself1 excellent1 pure and invisible1 and therefore truly called the invisible world1#cb to the presence of a good and wise ,god 7whither1 if ,god will1 my soul also must shortly go7--can this soul of ours1 ,i ask1 being such and of such a nature1 when separated from the body1 be immediately dispersed and destroyed1 as most men assert8 ,far from it1 my dear ,cebes and ,simmias4 ,but the case is much rather thus3 if it is separated in a pure state1 taking nothing of the body with it1 as not having willingly communicated with it in the present life1 but having shunned it1 and gathered itself within itself1 as constantly studying this 7but this is nothing else than to pursue philosophy aright1 and in reality to study how to die easily71 would not this be to study how to die8 ,most assuredly4 ,does not the soul1 then1 when in this state1 depart to that which resembles itself1 the invisible1 the divine1 immortal and wise8 ,and on its arrival there1 is it not its lot to be happy1 free from error1 ignorance1 fears1 wild passions1 and all the other evils to which human nature is subject2 and1 as is said of the initiated1 does it not in truth pass the rest of its time with the gods8 ,must we affirm that it is so1 ,cebes1 or otherwise8 ,so1 by ,jupiter6 said ,cebes4 #fi4 ,but1 ,i think1 if it departs from the body polluted and impure1 as having constantly held communion with the body1 and having served and loved it1 and been bewitched by it1 through desires and pleasures1 so as to think that there is nothing real except what is corporeal1 which one can touch and see1 and drink and eat1 and employ for sensual purposes2 but what is dark and invisible to the eyes1 which is intellectual and apprehended by philosophy1 having been accustomed to hate1 fear1 and shun this1 do you think that a soul thus affected can depart from the body by itself1 and uncontaminated8 ,by no means whatever1 he replied4 ,but ,i think it will be impressed with that which is corporeal1 which the intercourse and communion of the body1 through constant association and great attention1 have made natural to it4 ,certainly4 ,we must think1 my dear ,cebes1 that this is ponderous and heavy1 earthly and visible1 by possessing which such a soul is weighed down1 and drawn again into the visible world through dread of the invisible and of ,hades1 wandering1 as it is said1 among monuments and tombs1 about which1 indeed1 certain shadowy phantoms of souls have been seen1 being such images as those souls produced which have not departed pure from the body1 but which partake of the visible2 on which account1 also1 they are visible4 ,that is probable1 ,socrates4 #gj4 ,probable indeed1 ,cebes2 and not that these are the souls of the good1 but of the wicked1 which are compelled to wander about such places1 paying the penalty of their former conduct1 which was evil2 and they wander about so long until1 through the desire of the corporeal nature that accompanies them1 they are again united to a body2 and they are united1 as is probable1 to animals having the same habits as those they have given themselves up to during life4 ,but what do you say these are1 ,socrates8 ,for instance1 those who have given themselves up to gluttony1 wantonness and drinking1 and have put no restraint on themselves1 will probably be clothed in the form of asses and brutes of that kind4 ,do you not think so8 ,you say what is very probable4 ,and that such as have set great value on injustice1 tyranny and rapine1 will be clothed in the species of wolves1 hawks and kites6 ,where else can we say such souls go8 ,without doubt1 said ,cebes1 into such as these4 ,is it not1 then1 evident1 he continued1 as to the rest1 whither each will go1 according to the resemblances of their several pursuits8 #ga4 ,it is evident1 he replied4 ,how not8 ,of these1 then1 he said1 are not they the most happy1 and do they not go to the best place1 who have practiced that social and civilized virtue which they call temperance and justice1 and which is produced from habit and exercise1 without philosophy and reflection8 ,in what respect are these the most happy8 ,because it is probable that these should again migrate into a corresponding civilized and peaceable kind of animals1 such as bees perhaps1 or wasps1 or ants1 or even into the same human species again1 and from these become moderate men4 ,it is probable4 ,but it is not lawful for any one who has not studied philosophy1 and departed this life perfectly pure1 to pass into the rank of gods1 but only for the true lover of wisdom4 ,and on this account1 my friends ,simmias and ,cebes1 those who philosophize rightly1 abstain from all bodily desires1 and persevere in doing so1 and do not give themselves up to them1 not fearing the loss of property and poverty1 as the generality of men and the lovers of wealth2 nor1 again1 dreading disgrace and ignominy1 like those who are lovers of power and honor1 do they then abstain from them4 ,for it would not become them to do so1 ,socrates1 says ,cebes4 #gb4 ,it would not1 by ,jupiter6 he rejoined4 ,wherefore1 ,cebes1 they who care at all for their soul1 and do not spend their lives in the culture of their bodies1 despising all these1 proceed not in the same way with them1 as being ignorant whither they are going1 but1 being convinced that they ought not to act contrary to philosophy1 but in accordance with the freedom and purification she affords1 they give themselves up to her direction1 following her wherever she leads4 ,how1 ,socrates8 ,i will tell you1 he replied4 ,the lovers of wisdom know that philosophy1 receiving their soul plainly bound and glued to the body1 and compelled to view things through this1 as through a prison1 and not directly by herself1 and sunk in utter ignorance1 and perceiving1 too1 the strength of the prison1 that it arises from desire1 so that he who is bound as much as possible assists in binding himself4 #gc4 ,i say1 then1 the lovers of wisdom know that philosophy1 receiving their soul in this state1 gently exhorts it1 and endeavors to free it1 by showing that the view of things by means of the eyes is full of deception1 as also is that through the ears and the other senses2 persuading an abandonment of these so far as it is not absolutely necessary to use them1 and advising the soul to be collected and concentrated within itself1 and to believe nothing else than herself1 with respect to what she herself understands of things that have a real subsistence2 and to consider nothing true which she views through the medium of others1 and which differ under different aspects2#cb for that a thing of this kind is sensible and visible1 but that what she herself perceives is intelligible and invisible4 ,the soul of the true philosopher1 therefore1 thinking that she ought not to oppose this deliverance1 accordingly abstains as much as possible from pleasures and desires1 griefs and fears1 considering that when any one is exceedingly delighted or alarmed1 grieved or influenced by desire1 he does not merely suffer such evil from these things as one might suppose1 such as either being sick or wasting his property through indulging his desires2 but that which is the greatest evil1 and the worst of all1 this he suffers1 and is not conscious of it4 ,but what is this evil1 ,socrates8 said ,cebes4 #gd4 ,that the soul of every man is compelled to be either vehemently delighted or grieved about some particular thing1 and1 at the same time1 to consider that the thing about which it is thus strongly affected is most real and most true1 though it is not so4 ,but these are chiefly visible objects1 are they not8 ,certainly4 ,in this state of affection1 then1 is not the soul especially shackled by the body8 ,how so8 ,because each pleasure and pain1 having a nail1 as it were1 nails the soul to the body1 and fastens it to it1 and causes it to become corporeal1 deeming those things to be true whatever the body asserts to be so4 ,for1 in consequence of its forming the same opinions with the body1 and delighting in the same things1 it is compelled1 ,i think1 to possess similar manners1 and to be similarly nourished2 so that it can never pass into ,hades in a pure state1 but must ever depart polluted by the body1 and so quickly falls again into another body1 and grows up as if it were sown1 and consequently is deprived of all association with that which is divine1 and pure1 and uniform4 ,you speak most truly1 ,socrates1 said ,cebes4 #ge4 ,for these reasons1 therefore1 ,cebes1 those who are truly lovers of wisdom are moderate and resolute1 and not for the reasons that most people say4 ,do you think as they do8 ,assuredly not4 ,no1 truly4 ,but the soul of a philosopher would reason thus1 and would not think that philosophy ought to set it free1 and that when it is freed it should give itself up again to pleasures and pains1 to bind it down again1 and make her work void1 weaving a kind of ,penelope's web the reverse way4 ,on the contrary1 effecting a calm of the passions1 and following the guidance of reason1 and being always intent on this1 contemplating that which is true and divine1 and not subject to opinion2 and being nourished by it1 it thinks that it ought to live in this manner as long as it does live1 and that when it dies it shall go to a kindred essence1 and one like itself1 and shall be free from human evils4 ,from such a regimen as this the soul has no occasion to fear1 ,simmias and ,cebes1 while it strictly attends to these things1 lest1 being torn to pieces at its departure from the body1 it should be blown about and dissipated by the winds1 and no longer have an existence anywhere4 #gf4 ,when ,socrates had thus spoken1 a long silence ensued2 and ,socrates himself was pondering upon what had been said1 as he appeared1 and so did most of us2 but ,cebes and ,simmias were conversing a little while with each other4 ,at length ,socrates1 perceiving them1 said1 ,what think you of what has been said8 ,does it appear to you to have been proved sufficiently8 for many doubts and objections still remain if any one will examine them thoroughly4 ,if1 then1 you are considering some other subject1 ,i have nothing to say2 but if you are doubting about this1 do not hesitate both yourselves to speak and express your opinion1 if it appears to you in any respect that it might have been argued better1 and to call me in again to your assistance1 if you think you can be at all benefited by my help4 ,upon this ,simmias said1 ,indeed1 ,socrates1 ,i will tell you the truth3 for some time each of us1 being in doubt1 has been urging and exhorting the other to question you1 from a desire to hear our doubts solved2 but we were afraid of giving you trouble1 lest it should be disagreeable to you in your present circumstances4 #gg4 ,but he1 upon hearing this1 gently smiled1 and said1 ,bless me1 ,simmias2 with difficulty1 indeed1 could ,i persuade other men that ,i do not consider my present condition a calamity1 since ,i am not able to persuade even you2 but you are afraid lest ,i should be more morose now than during the former part of my life4 ,and1 as it seems1 ,i appear to you to be inferior to swans with respect to divination1 who1 when they perceive that they must needs die1 though they have been used to sing before1 sing then more than ever1 rejoicing that they are about to depart to that deity whose servants they are4 ,but men1 through their own fear of death1 belie the swans too1 and say that they1 lamenting their death1 sing their last song through grief2 and they do not consider that no bird sings when it is hungry or cold1 or is afflicted with any other pain1 not even the nightingale1 or swallow1 or the hoopoes1 which1 they say1 sing lamenting through grief4 ,but neither do these birds appear to me to sing through sorrow1 nor yet do swans2 but1 in my opinion1 belonging to ,apollo1 they are prophetic1 and1 foreseeing the blessings of ,hades1 they sing and rejoice on that day more excellently than at any preceding time4 #gh4 ,but ,i1 too1 consider myself to be a fellow-servant of the swans1 and sacred to the same god2 and that ,i have received the power of divination from our common master no less than they1 and that ,i do not depart from this life with less spirits than they4 ,on this account1 therefore1 it is right that you should both speak and ask whatever you please1 so long as the ,athenian ,eleven permit4 ,you say well1 said ,simmias1 and both ,i will tell you what are my doubts1 and he1 in turn1 how far he does not assent to what has been said4 ,for it appears to me1 ,socrates1 probably as it does to you with respect to these matters1 that to know them clearly in the present life is either impossible or very difficult3 on the other hand1 however1 not to test what has been said of them in every possible way1 so as not to desist until1 on examining them in every point of view1 one has exhausted every effort1 is the part of a very weak man4 ,for we ought1 with respect to these things1 either to learn from others how they stand or to discover them for one's self2 or1 if both these are impossible1 then1 taking the best of human reasonings and that which is the most difficult to be confuted1 and embarking on this1 as one who risks himself on a raft1 so to sail through life1 unless one could be carried more safely1 and with less risk1 on a surer conveyance1 or some divine reason4 #gi4 ,i1 therefore1 shall not now be ashamed to question you1 since you bid me do so1 nor shall ,i blame myself hereafter for not having now told you what ,i think2 for to me1 ,socrates1 when ,i consider the matter1 both with myself and with ,cebes1 what has been said does not appear to have been sufficiently proved4 ,then said ,socrates1 ,perhaps1 my friend1 you have the truth on your side2 but tell me in what respect it was not sufficiently proved4 ,in this1 he answered1 because any one might use the same argument with respect to harmony1 and a lyre1 and its chords1 that harmony is something invisible and incorporeal1 very beautiful and divine1 in a well-modulated lyre2 but the lyre and its chords are bodies1 and of corporeal form1 compounded and earthly1 and akin to that which is mortal4 ,when any one1 then1 has either broken the lyre1 or cut or burst the chords1 he might maintain from the same reasoning as yours that it is necessary the harmony should still exist and not be destroyed2 for there could be no possibility that the lyre should subsist any longer when the chords are burst2 and that the chords1 which are of a mortal nature1 should subsist1 but that the harmony1 which is of the same nature and akin to that which is divine and immortal1 should become extinct1 and perish before that which is mortal2 but he might say that the harmony must needs subsist somewhere1 and that the wood and chords must decay before it can undergo any change4 #hj4 ,for ,i think1 ,socrates1 that you yourself have arrived at this conclusion1 that we consider the soul to be pretty much of this kind--namely1 that our body being compacted and held together by heat and cold1 dryness and moisture1 and other such qualities1 our soul is the fusion and harmony of these1 when they are well and duly combined with each other4 ,if1 then1 the soul is a kind of harmony1 it is evident that when our bodies are unduly relaxed or strained1 through diseases and other maladies1 the soul must1 of necessity1 immediately perish1 although it is most divine1 just as other harmonies which subsist in sounds or in the various works of artisans2 but that the remains of the body of each person last for a long time1 till they are either burned or decayed4 ,consider1 then1 what we shall say to this reasoning1 if any one should maintain that the soul1 being a fusion of the several qualities in the body1 perishes first in that which is called death4 #ha4 ,socrates1 therefore1 looking steadfastly at us1 as he was generally accustomed to do1 and smiling1 said1 ,simmias indeed speaks justly4 ,if1 then1 any one of you is more prompt than ,i am1 why does he not answer1 for he seems to have handled my argument not badly8 ,it appears to me1 however1 that before we make our reply we should first hear from ,cebes1 what he1 too1 objects to our argument1 in order that1 some time intervening1 we may consider what we shall say1 and then when we have heard them1 we may give up to them1 if they appear to speak agreeably to truth2 or1 if not1 we may then uphold our own argument4 ,come1 then1 ,cebes1 he continued1 say what it is that disturbs you1 so as to cause your unbelief4 ,i will tell you1 said ,cebes2 the argument seems to me to rest where it was1 and to be liable to the same objection that we mentioned before4 ,for1 that our soul existed even before ,it came into this present form1 ,i do not deny has been very elegantly1 and1 if it is not too much to say so1 very fully1 demonstrated2 but that it still exists anywhere when we are dead does not appear to me to have been clearly proved2 nor do ,i give in to the objection of ,simmias1 that the soul is not stronger and more durable than the body1 for it appears to me to excel very far all things of this kind4 #hb4 ',why1 then1' reason might say1 'do you still disbelieve8 for1 since you see that when a man dies his weaker part still exists1 does it not appear to you to be necessary that the more durable part should still be preserved during this period8' ,consider1 then1 whether ,i say any thing to the purpose in reply to this4 ,for ,i1 too1 as well as ,simmias1 as it seems1 stand in need of an illustration2 for the argument appears to me to have been put thus1 as if any one should advance this argument about an aged weaver who had died1 that the man has not yet perished1 but perhaps still exists somewhere2 and1 as a proof1 should exhibit the garment which he wore and had woven himself1 that it is entire and has not perished2 and if any one should disbelieve him1 he would ask1 which of the two is the more durable1 the species of a man or of a garment1 that is constantly in use and being worn2 then1 should any one answer that the species of man is much more durable1 he would think it demonstrated that1 beyond all question1 the man is preserved1 since that which is less durable has not perished4 #hc4 ,but ,i do not think1 ,simmias1 that this is the case1 and do you consider what ,i say1 for every one must think that he who argues thus argues1 foolishly4 ,for this weaver1 having worn and woven many such garments1 perished after almost all of them1 but before the last1 ,i suppose2 and yet it does not on this account follow any the more that a man is inferior to or weaker than a garment4 ,and ,i think1 the soul might admit this same illustration with respect to the body1 and he who should say the same things concerning them would appear to me to speak correctly1 that the soul is more durable1 but the body weaker and less durable2 for he would say that each soul wears out many bodies1 especially if it lives many years2 for if the body wastes and is dissolved while the man still lives1 but the soul continually weaves anew what is worn out1 it must necessarily follow that when the soul is dissolved it must then have on its last garment1 and perish before this alone2 but when the soul has perished the body would show the weakness of its nature1 and quickly rot and vanish4 #hd4 ,so that it is not by any means right to place implicit reliance on this argument1 and to believe that when we die our soul still exists somewhere4 ,for1 if any one should concede to him who admits even more than you do1 and should grant to him that not only did our soul exist before we were born1 but that even when we die nothing hinders the souls of some of us from still existing1 and continuing to exist hereafter1 and from being often born1 and dying again--for so strong is it by nature1 that it can hold out against repeated births--if he granted this1 he would not yet concede that it does not exhaust itself in its many births1 and at length perish altogether in some one of the deaths4 ,but he would say that no one knows this death and dissolution of the body1 which brings destruction to the soul2 for it is impossible for any one of us to perceive it4 ,if1 however1 this be the case1 it follows that every one who is confident at the approach of death is foolishly confident1 unless he is able to prove that the soul is absolutely immortal and imperishable2 otherwise it necessarily follows that he who is about to die must be alarmed for his soul1 lest in its present disunion from the body it should entirely perish4 #he4 ,upon this1 all of us who had heard them speaking were disagreeably affected1 as we afterward mentioned to each other2 because1 after we had been fully persuaded by the former arguments1 they seemed to disturb us anew1 and to cast us into a distrust1 not only of the arguments already adduced1 but of such as might afterward be urged1 for fear lest we should not be fit judges of anything1 or lest the things themselves should be incredible4 ,echec4 ,by the gods6 ,phdo1 ,i can readily excuse you2 for1 while ,i am now hearing you1 it occurs to me to ask myself some such question as this3 ,what arguments can we any longer believe8 since the argument which ,socrates advanced1 and which was exceedingly credible1 has now fallen into discredit4 ,for this argument1 that our soul is a kind of harmony1 produces a wonderful impression on me1 both now and always1 and in being mentioned1 it has reminded me1 as it were1 that ,i1 too1 was formerly of the same opinion2 so that ,i stand in need again1 as if from the very beginning1 of some other argument which may persuade me that the soul of one who dies does not die with the body4 ,tell me1 therefore1 by ,jupiter6 how ,socrates followed up the argument2 and whether he1 too1 as you confess was the case with yourselves1 seemed disconcerted at all1 or not1 but calmly maintained his position2 and maintained it sufficiently or defectively4 ,relate everything to me as accurately as you can4 #hf4 ,phd4 ,indeed1 ,echecrates1 though ,i have often admired ,socrates1 ,i was never more delighted than at being with him on that occasion4 ,that he should be able to say something is perhaps not at all surprising2 but ,i especially admired this in him--first of all1 that he listened to the argument of the young men so sweetly1 affably1 and approvingly2 in the next place1 that he so quickly perceived how we were affected by their arguments2 and1 lastly1 that he cured us so well and recalled us1 when we were put to flight1 as it were1 and vanquished1 and encouraged us to accompany him1 and consider the argument with him4 ,echec4 ,how was that8 ,phd4 ,i will tell you3 ,i happened to be sitting at his right hand1 near the bed1 upon a low seat1 but he himself sat much higher than ,i4 ,stroking my head1 then1 and laying hold of the hair that hung on my neck--for he used1 often1 to play with my hairs--,to-morrow1 he said1 perhaps1 ,phdo1 you will cut off these beautiful locks8 ,it seems likely1 ,socrates1 said ,i4 #hg4 ,not if you are persuaded by me4 ,why so8 ,i asked4 ,to-day1 he replied1 both ,i ought to cut off mine and you yours1 if our argument must die1 and we are unable to revive it4 ,and ,i1 if ,i were you1 and the arguments were to escape me1 would take an oath1 as the ,argives do1 not to suffer my hair to grow until ,i had renewed the contest1 and vanquished the arguments of ,simmias and ,cebes4 ,but1 ,i said1 even ,hercules himself is said not to have been a match for two4 ,call upon me1 then1 he said1 as your ,iolaus1 while it is yet day4 ,i do call on you1 then1 ,i said1 not as ,hercules upon ,iolaus1 but as ,iolaus upon ,hercules4 ,it will make no difference1 he replied4 ,but1 first of all1 we must beware lest we meet with some mischance4 ,what8 ,i asked4 ,that we do not become1 he answered1 haters of reasoning1 as some become haters of men2 for no greater evil can happen to any one than to hate reasoning4 #hh4 ,but hatred of reasoning and hatred of mankind both spring from the same source4 ,for hatred of mankind is produced in us from having placed too great reliance on some one without sufficient knowledge of him1 and from having considered him to be a man altogether true1 sincere1 and faithful1 and then1 after a little while1 finding him depraved and unfaithful1 and after him another4 ,and when a man has often experienced this1 and especially from those whom he considered his most intimate and best friends1 at length1 having frequently stumbled1 he hates all men1 and thinks that there is no soundness at all in any of them4 ,have you not perceived that this happens so8 ,certainly1 ,i replied4 ,is it not a shame8 he said ,and is it not evident that such a one attempts to deal with men without sufficient knowledge of human affairs8 ,for if he had dealt with them with competent knowledge1 as the case really is1 so he would have considered that the good and the bad are each very few in number1 and that those between both are most numerous4 #hi4 ,how say you8 ,i asked4 ,in the same manner1 he replied1 as with things very little and very large ,do you think that any thing is more rare than to find a very large on a very little man1 or dog1 or any thing else8 and1 again1 swift or slow1 beautiful or ugly1 white or black8 ,do you not perceive that of all such things the extremes are rare and few1 but that the intermediate are abundant and numerous8 ,certainly1 ,i replied4 ,do you not think1 then1 he continued1 that if a contest in wickedness were proposed1 even here very few would be found pre-eminent8 ,it is probable1 ,i said4 ,it is so1 he said1 but in this respect reasonings do not resemble men1 for ,i was just now following you as my leader1 but in this they do resemble them1 when any one believes in any argument as true without being skilled in the art of reasoning1 and then shortly afterward it appears to him to be false1 at one time being so and at another time not1 and so on with one after another1#cd and especially they who devote themselves to controversial arguments1 you are aware1 at length think they have become very wise and have alone discovered that there is nothing sound and stable either in things or reasonings but that all things that exist1 as is the case with the ,euripus1 are in a constant state of flux and reflux1 and never continue in any one condition for any length of time4 ,you speak perfectly true1 ,i said4 #ij4 ,would it not1 then1 ,phdo he said be a sad thing if1 when there is a true and sound reasoning1 and such as one can understand1 one should then1 through lighting upon such arguments as appear to be at one time true and at another false1 not blame one's self and one's own want of skill1 but at length1 through grief1 should anxiously transfer the blame from one's self to the arguments1 and thereupon pass the rest of one's life in hating and reviling arguments and so be depraved of the truth and knowledge of things that exist8 ,by ,jupiter6 ,i said1 it would be sad1 indeed4 ,in the first place1 then1 he said1 let us beware of this1 and let us not admit into our souls the notion that there appears to be nothing sound in reasoning1 but much rather that we are not yet in a sound condition1 and that we ought vigorously and strenuously to endeavor to become sound1 you and the others1 on account of your whole future life1 but ,i1 on account of my death1 since ,i am in danger1 at the present time1 of not behaving as becomes a philosopher with respect to this very subject1 but as a wrangler1 like those who are utterly uninformed #ia4 ,for they1 when they dispute about any thing1 care nothing at all for the subject about which the discussion is1 but are anxious about this1 that what they have themselves advanced shall appear true to the persons present4 ,and ,i seem to myself on the present occasion to differ from them only in this respect1 for ,i shall not be anxious to make what ,i say appear true to those who are present1 except that may happen by the way1 but that it may appear certainly to be so to myself4 ,for ,i thus reason1 my dear friend1 and observe how interestedly4 ,if what ,i say be true1 it is well to be persuaded of it1 but if nothing remains to one that is dead1 ,i shall1 at least1 during the interval before death be less disagreeable to those present by my lamentations4 ,but this ignorance of mine will not continue long1 for that would be bad1 but will shortly be put an end to4 ,thus prepared1 then1 ,simmias and ,cebes1 he continued1 ,i now proceed to my argument4 ,do you1 however1 if you will be persuaded by me1 pay little attention to ,socrates1 but much more to the truth1 and if ,i appear to you to say any thing true1 assent to it1 but if not1 oppose me with all your might1 taking good care that in my zeal ,i do not deceive both myself and you1 and1 like a bee1 depart leaving my sting behind4 #ib4 ,but let us proceed1 he said ,first of all1 remind me of what you said1 if ,i should appear to have forgotten it ,for ,simmias1 as ,i think1 is in doubt1 and fears lest the soul1 though more divine and beautiful than the body1 should perish before it1 as being a species of harmony4 ,but ,cebes appeared to me to grant me this1 that the soul is more durable than the body1 but he argued that it is uncertain to every one1 whether when the soul has worn out many bodies and that repeatedly1 it does not1 on leaving the last body1 itself also perish1 so that this very thing is death1 the destruction of the soul1 since the body never ceases decaying ,are not these the things1 ,simmias and ,cebes1 which we have to inquire into8 ,they both agreed that they were4 ,whether1 then1 he continued do you reject all our former arguments1 or some of them only1 and not others8 ,some we do1 they replied1 and others not4 ,what1 then1 he proceeded1 do you say about that argument in which we asserted that knowledge is reminiscence1 and that1 this being the case1 our soul must necessarily have existed somewhere before it was inclosed in the body8 #ic4 ,i1 indeed1 replied ,cebes was both then wonderfully persuaded by it1 and now persist in it1 as in no other argument4 ,and ,i1 too1 said ,simmias1 am of the same mind1 and should very much wonder if ,i should ever think otherwise on that point4 ,then1 ,socrates said1 you must needs think otherwise1 my ,theban friend1 if this opinion holds good1 that harmony is something compounded1 and that the soul is a kind of harmony that results from the parts compacted together in the body4 ,for surely you will not allow yourself to say that harmony was composed prior to the things from which it required to be composed ,would you allow this8 ,by no means1 ,socrates he replied4 ,do you perceive1 then1 he said1 that this result from what you say1 when you assert that the soul existed before it came into a human form and body1 but that it was composed from things that did not yet exist8 ,for harmony is not such as that to which you compare it1 but first the lyre1 and the chords1 and the sounds yet unharmonized1 exist1 and1 last of all1 harmony is produced1 and first perishes4 ,how1 then1 will this argument accord with that8 ,not at all1 said ,simmias4 #id4 ,and yet1 he said1 if in any argument1 there ought to be an accordance in one respecting harmony4 ,there ought1 said ,simmias4 ,this of yours1 however1 he said1 is not in accordance4 ,consider1 then1 which of these two statements do you prefer--that knowledge is reminiscence1 or the soul harmony8 ,the former by far1 ,socrates1 he replied2 for the latter occurred to me without demonstration1 through a certain probability and speciousness whence most men derive their opinions4 ,but ,i am well aware that arguments which draw their demonstrations from probabilities are idle2 and1 unless one is on one's guard against them1 they are very deceptive1 both in geometry and all other subjects4 ,but the argument respecting reminiscence and knowledge may be said to have been demonstrated by a satisfactory hypothesis4 ,for in this way it was said that our soul existed before it came into the body1 because the essence that bears the appellation of 'that which is' belongs to it4 ,but of this1 as ,i persuade myself1 ,i am fully and rightly convinced4 ,it is therefore necessary1 as it seems1 that ,i should neither allow myself nor any one else to maintain that the soul is harmony4 #ie4 ,but what1 ,simmias1 said he1 if you consider it thus8 ,does it appear to you to appertain to harmony1 or to any other composition1 to subsist in any other way than the very things do of which it is composed8 ,by no means4 ,and indeed1 as ,i think1 neither to do any thing1 nor suffer any thing else1 besides what they do or suffer4 ,he agreed4 ,it does not1 therefore1 appertain to harmony to take the lead of the things of which it is composed1 but to follow them4 ,he assented4 ,it is1 then1 far from being the case that harmony is moved or sends forth sounds contrariwise1 or is in any other respect opposed to its parts8 ,far1 indeed1 he said4 ,what1 then8 ,is not every harmony naturally harmony1 so far as it has been made to accord8 ,i do not understand you1 he replied4 ,whether1 he said1 if it should be in a greater degree and more fully made to accord1 supposing that were possible1 would the harmony be greater and more full2 but if in a less degree and less fully1 then would it be inferior and less full8 ,certainly4 ,is this1 then1 the case with the soul that1 even in the smallest extent1 one soul is more fully and in a greater degree1 or less fully and in a less degree1 this very thing1 a soul1 than another8 ,in no respect whatever1 he replied4 #if4 ,well1 then1 he said1 by ,jupiter6 is one soul said to possess intelligence and virtue1 and to be good1 and another folly and vice1 and to be bad8 and is this said with truth8 ,with truth1 certainly4 ,of those1 then1 who maintain that the soul is harmony1 what will any one say that these things are in the soul1 virtue and vice8 ,will he call them another kind of harmony and discord1 and say that the one1 the good soul1 is harmonized1 and1 being harmony1 contains within itself another harmony1 but that the other is discordant1 and does not contain within itself another harmony8 ,i am unable to say1 replied ,simmias2 but it is clear that he who maintains that opinion would say something of the kind4 ,but it has been already granted1 said he1 that one soul is not more or less a soul than another2 and this is an admission that one harmony is not to a greater degree or more fully1 or to a less degree or less fully1 a harmony1 than another2 is it not so8 ,certainly4 ,and that that which is neither more or less harmony is neither more nor less harmonized3 is it so8 ,it is4 ,but does that which is neither more or less harmonized partake of more or less harmony1 or an equal amount8 ,an equal amount4 #ig4 ,a soul1 therefore1 since it is not more or less this very thing1 a soul1 than another1 is not more or less harmonized8 ,even so4 ,such1 then1 being its condition1 it can not partake of a greater degree of discord or harmony8 ,certainly not4 ,and1 again1 such being its condition1 can one soul partake of a greater degree of vice or virtue than another1 if vice be discord1 and virtue harmony8 ,it can not4 ,or rather1 surely1 ,simmias1 according to right reason1 no soul will partake of vice1 if it is harmony2 for doubtless harmony1 which is perfectly such1 can never partake of discord8 ,certainly not4 ,neither1 therefore1 can a soul which is perfectly a soul partake of vice4 ,how can it1 from what has been already said8 ,from this reasoning1 then1 all souls of all animals will be equally good1 if1 at least1 they are by nature equally this very thing1 souls8 ,it appears so to me1 ,socrates1 he said4 ,and does it appear to you1 he said1 to have been thus rightly argued1 and that the argument would lead to this result1 if the hypothesis were correct1 that the soul is harmony8 #ih4 ,on no account whatever1 he replied4 ,but what1 said he1 of all the things that are in man8 ,is there any thing else that you say bears rule except the soul1 especially if it be wise8 ,i should say not4 ,whether by yielding to the passions in the body1 or by opposing them8 ,my meaning is this3 for instance1 when heat and thirst are present1 by drawing it the contrary way1 so as to hinder it from drinking2 and when hunger is present1 by hindering it from eating2 and in ten thousand other instances we see the soul opposing the desires of the body4 ,do we not8 ,certainly4 ,but have we not before allowed that if the soul were harmony1 it would never utter a sound contrary to the tension1 relaxation1 vibration1 or any other affection to which its component parts are subject1 but would follow1 and never govern them8 ,we did allow it1 he replied1 for how could we do otherwise8 ,what1 then8 ,does not the soul now appear to act quite the contrary1 ruling over all the parts from which any one might say it subsists1 and resisting almost all of them through the whole of life1 and exercising dominion over them in all manner of ways2 punishing some more severely even with pain1 both by gymnastics and medicine1 and others more mildly2 partly threatening1 and partly admonishing the desires1 angers and fears1 as if1 being itself of a different nature1 it were conversing with something quite different8 #ii4 ,just as ,homer has done in the ,odyssey1#ce where he speaks of ,ulysses--',having struck his breast1 he chid his heart in the following words3 ,bear up1 my heart2 ere this thou hast borne far worse4' ,do you think that he composed this in the belief that the soul was harmony1 and capable of being led by the passions of the body1 and not rather that it was able to lead and govern them1 as being something much more divine than to be compared with harmony8 ,by ,jupiter6 ,socrates1 it appears so to me4 ,therefore1 my excellent friend1 it is on no account correct for us to say that the soul is a kind of harmony2 for1 as it appears1 we should neither agree with ,homer1 that divine poet1 nor with ourselves4 ,such is the case1 he replied4 ,be it so1 then1 said ,socrates1 we have already1 as it seems1 sufficiently appeased this ,theban harmony4 ,but how1 ,cebes1 and by what arguments1 shall we appease this ,cadmus8#cf #ajj4 ,you appear to me1 replied ,cebes1 to be likely to find out2 for you have made out this argument against harmony wonderfully beyond my expectation4 ,for when ,simmias was saying what his doubts were1 ,i wondered very much whether any one would be able to answer his reasoning4 ,it1 therefore1 appeared to me unaccountable that he did not withstand the very first onset of your argument4 ,i should not1 therefore1 be surprised if the arguments of ,cadmus met with the same fate4 ,my good friend1 said ,socrates1 do not speak so boastfully1 lest some envious power should overthrow the argument that is about to be urged4 ,these things1 however1 will be cared for by the deity2 but let us1 meeting hand to hand1 in the manner of ,homer1 try whether you say any thing to the purpose4 ,this1 then1 is the sum of what you inquire you require it to be proved that our soul is imperishable and immortal2 if a philosopher that is about to die1 full of confidence and hope that after death he shall be far happier than if he had died after leading a different kind of life1 shall not entertain this confidence foolishly and vainly4 #aja4 ,but to show that the soul is something strong and divine1 and that it existed before we men were born1 you say not at all hinders1 but that all these things may evince1 not its immortality1 but that the soul is durable1 and existed an immense space of time before1 and knew and did many things4 ,but that1 for all this1 it was not at all the more immortal1 but that its very entrance into the body of a man was the beginning of its destruction1 as if it were a disease2 so that it passes through this life in wretchedness1 and at last perishes in that which is called death4 ,but you say that it is of no consequence whether it comes into a body once or often1 with respect to our occasion of fear2 for it is right he should be afraid1 unless he is foolish1 who does not know1 and can not give a reason to prove1 that the soul is immortal4 ,such1 ,i think1 ,cebes1 is the sum of what you say2 and ,i purposely repeat it often1 that nothing may escape us1 and1 if you please1 you may add to or take from it4 ,cebes replied1 ,i do not wish at present either to take from or add to it2 that is what ,i mean4 #ajb4 ,socrates1 then having paused for some time1 and considered something within himself1 said1 ,you inquire into no easy matter1 ,cebes2 for it is absolutely necessary to discuss the whole question of generation and corruption4 ,if you please1 then1 ,i will relate to you what happened to me with reference to them2 and afterward1 if any thing that ,i shall say shall appear to you useful toward producing conviction on the subject you are now treating of1 make use of it4 ,i do indeed wish it1 replied ,cebes4 ,hear my relation1 then4 ,when ,i was a young man1 ,cebes1 ,i was wonderfully desirous of that wisdom which they call a history of nature2 for it appeared to me to be a very sublime thing to know the causes of every thing--why each thing is generated1 why it perishes1 and why it exists4 ,and ,i often tossed myself upward and downward1 considering first such things as these1 whether when heat and cold have undergone a certain corruption1 as some say1 then animals are formed2 and whether the blood is that by means of which we think1 or air1 or fire1 or none of these1 but that it is the brain that produces the perceptions of hearing1 seeing1 and smelling2 and that from these come memory and opinion2 and from memory and opinion1 when in a state of rest1 in the same way knowledge is produced4 #ajc4 ,and1 again1 considering the corruptions of these1 and the affections incidental to the heavens and the earth1 ,i at length appeared to myself so unskillful in these speculations that nothing could be more so4 ,but ,i will give you a sufficient proof of this2 for ,i then became1 by these very speculations1 so very blind with respect to things which ,i knew clearly before1 as it appeared to myself and others1 that ,i unlearned even the things which ,i thought ,i knew before1 both on many other subjects and also this1 why a man grows4 ,for1 before1 ,i thought this was evident to every one--that it proceeds from eating and drinking2 for that1 when1 from the food1 flesh is added to flesh1 bone to bone1 and so on in the same proportion1 what is proper to them is added to the several other parts1 then the bulk which was small becomes afterward large1 and thus that a little man becomes a big one4 ,such was my opinion at that time4 ,does it appear to you correct8 ,to me it does1 said ,cebes4 #ajd4 ,consider this further4 ,i thought that ,i had formed a right opinion1 when1 on seeing a tall man standing by a short one1 ,i judged that he was taller by the head1 and in like manner1 one horse than another2 and1 still more clearly than this1 ten appeared to me to be more than eight by two being added to them1 and that two cubits are greater than one cubit by exceeding it a half4 ,but now1 said ,cebes1 what think you of these matters8 ,by ,jupiter6 said he1 ,i am far from thinking that ,i know the cause of these1 for that ,i can not even persuade myself of this3 when a person has added one to one1 whether the one to which the addition has been made has become two1 or whether that which has been added1 and that to which the addition has been made1 have become two by the addition of the one to the other4 ,for ,i wonder if1 when each of these was separate from the other1 each was one1 and they were not yet two2 but when they have approached nearer each other this should be the cause of their becoming two--namely1 the union by which they have been placed nearer one another4 #aje4 ,nor yet1 if any person should divide one1 am ,i able to persuade myself that this1 their division1 is the cause of its becoming two4 ,for this cause is the contrary to the former one of their becoming two2 for then it was because they were brought nearer to each other1 and the one was added to the other2 but now it is because one is removed and separated from the other4 ,nor do ,i yet persuade myself that ,i know why one is one1 nor1 in a word1 why any thing else is produced1 or perishes1 or exists1 according to this method of proceeding2 but ,i mix up another method of my own at random1 for this ,i can on no account give in to4 ,but1 having once heard a person reading from a book1 written1 as he said1 by ,anaxagoras1 and which said that it is intelligence that sets in order and is the cause of all things1 ,i was delighted with this cause1 and it appeared to me in a manner to be well that intelligence should be the cause of all things1 and ,i considered with myself1 if this is so1 that the regulating intelligence orders all things1 and disposes each in such way as will be best for it4 #ajf4 ,if any one1 then1 should desire to discover the cause of every thing1 in what way it is produced1 or perishes1 or exists1 he must discover this respecting it--in what way it is best for it either to exist1 or to suffer1 or do any thing else4 ,from this mode of reasoning1 then1 it is proper that a man should consider nothing else1 both with respect to himself and others1 than what is most excellent and best2 and it necessarily follows that this same person must also know that which is worst1 for that the knowledge of both of them is the same4 ,thus reasoning with myself1 ,i was delighted to think ,i had found in ,anaxagoras a preceptor who would instruct me in the causes of things1 agreeably to my own mind1 and that he would inform me1 first1 whether the earth is flat or round1 and1 when he had informed me1 would1 moreover1 explain the cause and necessity of its being so1 arguing on the principle of the better1 and showing that it is better for it to be such as it is2 and if he should say that it is in the middle1 that he would1 moreover1 explain how it is better for it to be in the middle2 and if he should make all this clear to me1 ,i was prepared no longer to require any other species of cause4 #ajg4 ,i was in like manner prepared to inquire respecting the sun and moon and the other stars1 with respect to their velocities in reference to each other1 and their revolutions and other conditions1 in what way it is better for both to act and be affected as it does and is4 ,for ,i never thought that after he had said that these things were set in order by intelligence1 he would introduce any other cause for them than that it is best for them to be as they are4 ,hence1 ,i thought1 that in assigning the cause to each of them1 and to all in common1 he would explain that which is best for each1 and the common good of all4 ,and ,i would not have given up my hopes for a good deal2 but1 having taken up his books with great eagerness1 ,i read through them as quickly as ,i could1 that ,i might as soon as possible know the best and the worst4 #ajh4 ,from this wonderful hope1 however1 my friend1 ,i was speedily thrown down1 when1 as ,i advance and read over his works1 ,i meet with a man who makes no use of intelligence1 nor assigns any causes for the ordering of all things1 but makes the causes to consist of air1 ether1 and water1 and many other things equally absurd4 ,and he appeared to me to be very like one who should say that whatever ,socrates does he does by intelligence1 and then1 attempting to describe the causes of each particular action1 should say1 first of all1 that for this reason ,i am now sitting here1 because my body is composed of bones and sinews and that the bones are hard1 and have joints separate from each other1 but that the sinews1 being capable of tension and contraction1 cover the bones1 together with the flesh and skin which contain them4 ,the bones1 therefore1 being suspended in their sockets1 the nerves1 relaxing and tightening1 enable me to bend my limbs as ,i now do1 and from this cause ,i sit here bent up4 #aji4 ,and if1 again1 he should assign other similar causes for my conversing with you1 assigning as causes voice1 and air1 and hearing1 and ten thousand other things of the kind1 omitting to mention the real causes1 that since it appeared better to the ,athenians to condemn me1 ,i therefore thought it better to sit here1 and more just to remain and submit to the punishment which they have ordered2 for1 by the dog6 ,i think these sinews and bones would have been long ago either in ,megara or ,boeotia1 borne thither by an opinion of that which is best1 if ,i had not thought it more just and honorable to submit to whatever sentence the city might order than to flee and run stealthily away4 ,but to call such things causes is too absurd4 ,but if any one should say that without possessing such things as bones and sinews1 and whatever else ,i have1 ,i could not do what ,i pleased1 he would speak the truth2 but to say that ,i do as ,i do through them1 and that ,i act thus by intelligence1 and not from the choice of what is best1 would be a great and extreme disregard of reason4 #aaj4 ,for this would be not to be able to distinguish that the real cause is one thing1 and that another1 without which a cause could not be a cause2 which1 indeed1 the generality of men appear to me to do1 fumbling1 as it were1 in the dark1 and making use of strange names1 so as to denominate them as the very cause4 ,wherefore one encompassing the earth with a vortex from heaven makes the earth remain fixed2 but another1 as if it were a broad trough1 rests it upon the air as its base2 but the power by which these things are now so disposed that they may be placed in the best manner possible1 this they neither inquire into1 nor do they think that it requires any superhuman strength2 but they think they will some time or other find out an ,atlas stronger and more immortal than this1 and more capable of containing all things2 and in reality1 the good1 and that which ought to hold them together and contain them1 they take no account of at all4 ,i1 then1 should most gladly have become the disciple of any one who would teach me of such a cause1 in what way it is4 ,but when ,i was disappointed of this1 and was neither able to discover it myself1 nor to learn it from another1 do you wish1 ,cebes1 that ,i should show you in what way ,i set out upon a second voyage in search of the cause8 #aaa4 ,i wish it exceedingly1 he replied4 ,it appeared to me1 then1 said he1 after this1 when ,i was wearied with considering things that exist1 that ,i ought to beware lest ,i should suffer in the same way as they do who look at and examine an eclipse of the sun1 for some lose the sight of their eyes1 unless they behold its image in water1 or some similar medium4 ,and ,i was affected with a similar feeling1 and was afraid lest ,i should be utterly blinded in my soul through beholding things with the eyes1 and endeavoring to grasp them by means of the several senses4 ,it seemed to me1 therefore1 that ,i ought to have recourse to reasons1 and to consider in them the truth of things4 ,perhaps1 however1 this similitude of mine may in some respect be incorrect2 for ,i do not altogether admit that he who considers things in their reasons considers them in their images1 more than he does who views them in their effects4 ,however1 ,i proceeded thus1 and on each occasion laying down the reason1 which ,i deem to be the strongest1 whatever things appear to me to accord with this ,i regard as true1 both with respect to the cause and every thing else2 but such as do not accord ,i regard as not true4 #aab4 ,but ,i wish to explain my meaning to you in a clearer manner2 for ,i think that you do not yet understand me4 ,no1 by ,jupiter6 said ,cebes1 not well4 ,however1 continued he1 ,i am now saying nothing new1 but what ,i have always at other times1 and in a former part of this discussion1 never ceased to say4 ,i proceed1 then1 to attempt to explain to you that species of cause which ,i have busied myself about1 and return again to those well-known subjects1 and set out from them1 laying down as an hypothesis1 that there is a certain abstract beauty1 and goodness1 and magnitude1 and so of all other things2 which if you grant me1 and allow that they do exist1 ,i hope that ,i shall be able from these to explain the cause to you1 and to discover that the soul is immortal4 ,but1 said ,cebes1 since ,i grant you this1 you may draw your conclusion at once4 ,but consider1 he said1 what follows from thence1 and see if you can agree with me4 ,for it appears to me that if there is any thing else beautiful besides beauty itself1 it is not beautiful for any other reason than because it partakes of that abstract beauty2 and ,i say the same of every thing4 ,do you admit such a cause8 ,i do admit it1 he replied4 #aac4 ,i do not yet understand1 he continued1 nor am ,i able to conceive1 those other wise causes2 but if any one should tell me why any thing is beautiful1 either because it has a blooming florid color1 or figure1 or any thing else of the kind1 ,i dismiss all other reasons1 for ,i am confounded by them all2 but ,i simply1 wholly1 and perhaps foolishly1 confine myself to this1 that nothing else causes it to be beautiful except either the presence or communication of that abstract beauty1 by whatever means and in whatever way communicated2 for ,i can not yet affirm this with certainty1 but only that by means of beauty all beautiful things become beautiful4 ,for this appears to me the safest answer to give both to myself and others2 and adhering to this1 ,i think that ,i shall never fall1 but that it is a safe answer both for me and any one else to give--that by means of beauty beautiful things become beautiful4 ,does it not also seem so to you8 ,it does4 ,and that by magnitude great things become great1 and greater things1 greater2 and by littleness less things become less8 ,yes4 #aad4 ,you would not1 then1 approve of it1 if any one said that one person is greater than another by the head1 and that the less is less by the very same thing2 but you would maintain that you mean nothing else than that every thing that is greater than another is greater by nothing else than magnitude1 and that it is greater on this account--that is1 on account of magnitude2 and that the less is less by nothing else than littleness1 and on this account less--that is1 on account of littleness2 being afraid1 ,i think1 lest some opposite argument should meet you if you should say that any one is greater and less by the head2 as1 first1 that the greater is greater1 and the less less1 by the very same thing2 and1 next1 that the greater is greater by the head1 which is small2 and that it is monstrous to suppose that any one is great through something small4 ,should you not be afraid of this8 ,to which said ,cebes1 smilingly1 ,indeed1 ,i should4 ,should you not1 then1 he continued1 be afraid to say that ten is more than eight by two1 and for this cause exceeds it1 and not by number1 and on account of number8 and that two cubits are greater than one cubit by half1 and not by magnitude 7for the fear is surely the same78 ,certainly1 he replied4 #aae4 ,what1 then8 ,when one has been added to one1 would you not beware of saying that the addition is the cause of its being two1 or division when it has been divided2 and would you not loudly assert that you know no other way in which each thing subsists1 than by partaking of the peculiar essence of each of which it partakes1 and that in these cases you can assign no other cause of its becoming two than its partaking of duality2 and that such things as are to become two must needs partake of this1 and what is to become one1 of unity2 but these divisions and additions1 and other such subtleties1 you would dismiss1 leaving them to be given as answers by persons wiser than yourself2 whereas you1 fearing1 as it is said1 your own shadow and inexperience1 would adhere to this safe hypothesis1 and answer accordingly8 ,but if any one should assail this hypothesis of yours1 would you not dismiss him1 and refrain from answering him till you had considered the consequences resulting from it1 whether in your opinion they agree with or differ from each other8 ,but when it should be necessary for you to give a reason for it1 would you give one in a similar way1 by again laying down another hypothesis1 which should appear the best of higher principles1 until you arrived at something satisfactory2 but1 at the same time1 you would avoid making confusion1 as disputants do1 in treating of the first principle and the results arising from it1 if you really desire to arrive at the truth of things8 #aaf4 ,for they1 perhaps1 make no account at all of this1 nor pay any attention to it2 for they are able1 through their wisdom1 to mingle all things together1 and at the same time please themselves4 ,but you1 if you are a philosopher1 would act1 ,i think1 as ,i now describe4 ,you speak most truly1 said ,simmias and ,cebes together4 ,echec4 ,by ,jupiter6 ,phdo1 they said so with good reason2 for he appears to me to have explained these things with wonderful clearness1 even to one endued with a small degree of intelligence4 ,phd4 ,certainly1 ,echecrates1 and so it appeared to all who were present4 ,echec4 ,and so it appears to me1 who was absent1 and now hear it related4 ,but what was said after this8 ,as well as ,i remember1 when these things had been granted him1 and it was allowed that each several idea exists of itself1#cg and that other things partaking of them receive their denomination from them1 he next asked3 ,if1 then1 he said1 you admit that things are so1 whether1 when you say that ,simmias is greater than ,socrates1 but less than ,phdo1 do you not then say that magnitude and littleness are both in ,simmias8 ,i do4 #aag4 ,and yet1 he said1 you must confess that ,simmias's exceeding ,socrates is not actually true in the manner in which the words express it2 for ,simmias does not naturally exceed ,socrates in that he is ,simmias1 but in consequence of the magnitude which he happens to have2 nor1 again1 does he exceed ,socrates because ,socrates is ,socrates1 but because ,socrates possesses littleness in comparison with his magnitude8 ,true4 ,nor1 again1 is ,simmias exceeded by ,phdo1 because ,phdo is ,phdo1 but because ,phdo possesses magnitude in comparison with ,simmias's littleness8 ,it is so4 ,thus1 then1 ,simmias has the appellation of being both little and great1 being between both1 by exceeding the littleness of one through his own magnitude1 and to the other yielding a magnitude that exceeds his own littleness4 ,and at the same time1 smiling1 he said1 ,i seem to speak with the precision of a short-hand writer2 however1 it is as ,i say4 ,he allowed it4 #aah4 ,but ,i say it for this reason1 wishing you to be of the same opinion as myself4 ,for it appears to me1 not only that magnitude itself is never disposed to be at the same time great and little1 but that magnitude in us never admits the little nor is disposed to be exceeded1 but one of two things1 either to flee and withdraw when its contrary1 the little1 approaches it1 or1 when it has actually come1 to perish2 but that it is not disposed1 by sustaining and receiving littleness1 to be different from what it was4 ,just as ,i1 having received and sustained littleness1 and still continuing the person that ,i am1 am this same little person2 but that1 while it is great1 never endures to be little4 ,and1 in like manner1 the little that is in us is not disposed at any time to become or to be great1 nor is any thing else among contraries1 while it continues what it was1 at the same time disposed to become and to be its contrary2 but in this contingency it either departs or perishes4 #aai4 ,it appears so to me1 said ,cebes1 in every respect4 ,but some one of those present1 on hearing this1 ,i do not clearly remember who he was1 said1 ,by the gods6 was not the very contrary of what is now asserted admitted in the former part of our discussion1 that the greater is produced from the less1 and the less from the greater1 and1 in a word1 that the very production of contraries is from contraries8 ,but now it appears to me to be asserted that this can never be the case4 ,upon this ,socrates1 having leaned his head forward and listened1 said1 ,you have reminded me in a manly way2 you do not1 however1 perceive the difference between what is now and what was then asserted4 ,for then it was said that a contrary thing is produced from a contrary2 but now1 that a contrary can never become contrary to itself--neither that which is in us1 nor that which is in nature4 ,for then1 my friend1 we spoke of things that have contraries1 calling them by the appellation of those things2 but now we are speaking of those very things from the presence of which things so called receive their appellation1 and of these very things we say that they are never disposed to admit of production from each other4 #abj4 ,and1 at the same time looking at ,cebes1 ,has anything that has been said1 ,cebes1 disturbed you8 ,indeed1 said ,cebes1 ,i am not at all so disposed2 however1 ,i by no means say that there are not many things that disturb me4 ,then1 he continued1 we have quite agreed to this1 that a contrary can never be contrary to itself4 ,most certainly1 he replied4 ,but1 further1 he said1 consider whether you will agree with me in this also4 ,do you call heat and cold any thing8 ,i do4 ,the same as snow and fire8 ,by ,jupiter6 ,i do not4 ,but heat is something different from fire1 and cold something different from snow8 ,yes4 ,but this1 ,i think1 is apparent to you--that snow1 while it is snow1 can never1 when it has admitted heat1 as we said before1 continue to be what it was1 snow and hot2 but1 on the approach of heat1 it must either withdraw or perish8 ,certainly4 ,and1 again1 that fire1 when cold approaches it1 must either depart or perish2 but that it will never endure1 when it has admitted coldness1 to continue what it was1 fire and cold8 #aba4 ,you speak truly1 he said4 ,it happens1 then1 he continued1 with respect to some of such things1 that not only is the idea itself always thought worthy of the same appellation1 but likewise something else which is not1 indeed1 that idea itself1 but constantly retains its form so long as it exists4 ,what ,i mean will perhaps be clearer in the following examples3 the odd in number must always possess the name by which we now call it1 must it not8 ,certainly4 ,must it alone1 of all things--for this ,i ask--or is there any thing else which is not the same as the odd1 but yet which we must always call odd1 together with its own name1 because it is so constituted by nature that it can never be without the odd8 ,but this1 ,i say1 is the case with the number three1 and many others4 ,for consider with respect to the number three3 does it not appear to you that it must always be called by its own name1 as well as by that of the odd1 which is not the same as the number three8 ,yet such is the nature of the number three1 five1 and the entire half of number1 that though they are not the same as the odd1 yet each of them is always odd4 ,and1 again1 two and four1 and the whole other series of number1 though not the same as the even1 are nevertheless each of them always even3 do you admit this1 or not8 #abb4 ,how should ,i not8 he replied4 ,observe then1 said he1 what ,i wish to prove4 ,it is this--that it appears not only that these contraries do not admit each other1 but that even such things as are not contrary to each other1 and yet always possess contraries1 do not appear to admit that idea which is contrary to the idea that exists in themselves1 but1 when it approaches1 perish or depart4 ,shall we not allow that the number three would first perish1 and suffer any thing whatever1 rather than endure1 while it is still three1 to become even8 ,most certainly1 said ,cebes4 ,and yet1 said he1 the number two is not contrary to three4 ,surely not4 ,not only1 then1 do ideas that are contrary never allow the approach of each other1 but some other things also do not allow the approach of contraries4 ,you say very truly1 he replied4 ,do you wish1 then1 he said1 that1 if we are able1 we should define what these things are8 ,certainly4 ,would they not then1 ,cebes1 he said1 be such things as1 whatever they occupy1 compel that thing not only to retain its own idea1 but also that of something which is always a contrary8 ,how do you mean8 #abc4 ,as we just now said4 ,for you know1 surely1 that whatever things the idea of three occupies must of necessity not only be three1 but also odd8 ,certainly4 ,to such a thing1 then1 we assert1 that the idea contrary to that form which constitutes this can never come4 ,it can not4 ,but did the odd make it so8 ,yes4 ,and is the contrary to this the idea of the even8 ,yes4 ,the idea of the even1 then1 will never come to the three8 ,no1 surely4 ,three1 then1 has no part in the even8 ,none whatever4 ,the number three is uneven8 ,yes4 ,what1 therefore1 ,i said should be defined--namely1 what things they are which1 though not contrary to some particular thing1 yet do not admit of the contrary itself2 as1 in the present instance1 the number three1 though not contrary to the even1 does not any the more admit it1 for it always brings the contrary with it1 just as the number two does to the odd1 fire to cold1 and many other particulars4 ,consider1 then1 whether you would thus define1 not only that a contrary does not admit a contrary1 but also that that which brings with it a contrary to that to which it approaches will never admit the contrary of that which it brings with it4 #abd4 ,but call it to mind again1 for it will not be useless to hear it often repeated4 ,five will not admit the idea of the even1 nor ten1 its double1 that of the odd4 ,this double1 then1 though it is itself contrary to something else1#ch yet will not admit the idea of the odd1 nor will half as much again1 nor other things of the kind1 such as the half and the third part1 admit the idea of the whole1 if you follow me1 and agree with me that it is so4 ,i entirely agree with you1 he said1 and follow you4 ,tell me again1 then1 he said1 from the beginning2 and do not answer me in the terms in which ,i put the question1 but in different ones1 imitating my example4 ,for ,i say this because1 besides that safe mode of answering which ,i mentioned at first1#ci from what has now been said1 ,i see another no less safe one4 ,for if you should ask me what that is which1 if it be in the body1 will cause it to be hot1 ,i should not give you that safe but unlearned answer1 that it is heat1 but one more elegant1 from what we have just now said1 that it is fire2 nor1 if you should ask me what that is which1 if it be in the body1 will cause it to be diseased1 should ,i say that it is disease1 but fever2 nor if you should ask what that is which1 if it be in number1 will cause it to be odd1 should ,i say that it is unevenness1 but unity2 and so with other things4 ,but consider whether you sufficiently understand what ,i mean4 #abe4 ,perfectly so1 he replied4 ,answer me1 then1 he said1 what that is which1 when it is in the body1 the body will be alive8 ,soul1 he replied4 ,is not this1 then1 always the case8 ,how should it not be8 said he4 ,does the soul1 then1 always bring life to whatever it occupies8 ,it does indeed1 he replied4 ,whether1 then1 is there any thing contrary to life or not8 ,there is1 he replied4 ,what8 ,death4 ,the soul1 then1 will never admit the contrary of that which it brings with it1 as has been already allowed8 ,most assuredly1 replied ,cebes4 ,what1 then8 ,how do we denominate that which does not admit the idea of the even8 ,uneven1 he replied4 ,and that which does not admit the just1 nor the musical8 ,unmusical1 he said1 and unjust4 ,be it so4 ,but what do we call that which does not admit death8 ,immortal1 he replied4 ,therefore1 does not the soul admit death8 ,no4 ,is the soul1 then1 immortal8 ,immortal4 #abf4 ,be it so1 he said4 ,shall we say1 then1 that this has been now demonstrated8 or how think you8 ,most completely1 ,socrates4 ,what1 then1 said he1 ,cebes1 if it were necessary for the uneven to be imperishable1 would the number three be otherwise than imperishable8 ,how should it not8 ,if1 therefore1 it were also necessary that what is without heat should be imperishable1 when any one should introduce heat to snow1 would not the snow withdraw itself1 safe and unmelted8 ,for it would not perish2 nor yet would it stay and admit the heat4 ,you say truly1 he replied4 ,in like manner1 ,i think1 if that which is insusceptible of cold were imperishable1 that when any thing cold approached the fire1 it would neither be extinguished nor perish1 but would depart quite safe4 ,of necessity1 he said4 ,must we not1 then1 of necessity1 he continued1 speak thus of that which is immortal8 if that which is immortal is imperishable1 it is impossible for the soul to perish1 when death approaches it4 ,for1 from what has been said already1 it will not admit death1 nor will ever be dead2 just as we said that three will never be even1 nor1 again1 will the odd2 nor will fire be cold1 nor yet the heat that is in fire4 #abg4 ,but some one may say1 what hinders1 though the odd can never become even by the approach of the even1 as we have allowed1 yet1 when the odd is destroyed1 that the even should succeed in its place8 ,we could not contend with him who should make this objection that it is not destroyed1 for the uneven is not imperishable2 since1 if this were granted us1 we might easily have contended that1 on the approach of the even1 the odd and the three depart2 and we might have contended in the same way with respect to fire1 heat1 and the rest1 might we not8 ,certainly4 ,wherefore1 with respect to the immortal1 if we have allowed that it is imperishable1 the soul1 in addition to its being immortal1 must also be imperishable2 if not1 there will be need of other arguments4 ,but there is no need1 he said1 so far as that is concerned2 for scarcely could any thing not admit of corruption1 if that which is immortal and eternal is liable to it4 #abh4 ,the deity1 indeed1 ,i think1 said ,socrates1 and the idea itself of life1 and if anything else is immortal1 must be allowed by all beings to be incapable of dissolution4 ,by ,jupiter6 he replied1 by all men1 indeed1 and still more1 as ,i think1 by the gods4 ,since1 then1 that which is immortal is also incorruptible1 can the soul1 since it is immortal1 be any thing else than imperishable8 ,it must1 of necessity1 be so4 ,when1 therefore1 death approaches a man1 the mortal part of him1 as it appears1 dies1 but the immortal part departs safe and uncorrupted1 having withdrawn itself from death8 ,it appears so4 ,the soul1 therefore1 he said1 ,cebes1 is most certainly immortal and imperishable1 and our souls will really exist in ,hades4 ,therefore1 ,socrates1 he said1 ,i have nothing further to say against this1 nor any reason for doubting your arguments4 ,but if ,simmias here1 or any one else1 has any thing to say1 it were well for him not to be silent2 for ,i know not to what other opportunity beyond the present any one can defer it1 who wishes either to speak or hear about these things4 ,but1 indeed1 said ,simmias1 neither have ,i any reason to doubt what has been urged2 yet1 from the magnitude of the subject discussed1 and from my low opinion of human weakness1 ,i am compelled still to retain a doubt within myself with respect to what has been said4 ,not only so1 ,simmias1 said ,socrates1 but you say this well2 and1 moreover1 the first hypotheses1 even though they are credible to you1 should nevertheless be examined more carefully2 and if you should investigate them sufficiently1 ,i think you will follow my reasoning as far as it is possible for man to do so2 and if this very point becomes clear1 you will inquire no further4 ,you speak truly1 he said4 ,but it is right1 my friends1 he said1 that we should consider this--- that if the soul is immortal1 it requires our care not only for the present time1 which we call life1 but for all time2 and the danger would now appear to be dreadful if one should neglect it4 #acj4 ,for if death were a deliverance from every thing1 it would be a great gain for the wicked1 when they die1 to be delivered at the same time from the body1 and from their vices together with the soul2 but now1 since it appears to be immortal1 it can have no other refuge from evils1 nor safety1 except by becoming as good and wise as possible4 ,for the soul goes to ,hades possessing nothing else than its discipline and education1 which are said to be of the greatest advantage or detriment to the dead1 on the very beginning of his journey thither4 ,for1 thus1 it is said that each person's demon who was assigned to him while living1 when he dies conducts him to some place1 where they that are assembled together must receive sentence1 and then proceed to ,hades with that guide who has been ordered to conduct them from hence thither4 ,but there having received their deserts1 and having remained the appointed time1 another guide brings them back hither again1 after many and long revolutions of time4 ,the journey1 then1 is not such as the ,telephus of schylus describes it2 for he says that a simple path leads to ,hades2 but it appears to me to be neither simple nor one1 for there would be no need of guides1 nor could any one ever miss the way1 if there were but one4 ,but now it appears to have many divisions and windings2 and this ,i conjecture from our religious and funeral rites4#dj #aca4 ,the well-ordered and wise soul1 then1 both follows1 and is not ignorant of its present condition2 but that which through passion clings to the body1 as ,i said before1 having longingly fluttered about it for a long time1 and about its visible place1#da after vehement resistance and great suffering1 is forcibly and with great difficulty led away by its appointed demon4 ,and when it arrives at the place where the others are1 impure and having done any such thing as the committal of unrighteous murders or other similar actions1 which are kindred to these1 and are the deeds of kindred souls1 every one shuns it and turns away from it1 and will be neither its fellow-traveler nor guide2 but it wanders about1 oppressed with every kind of helplessness1 until certain periods have elapsed2 and when these are completed1 it is carried1 of necessity1 to an abode suitable to it4 ,but the soul which has passed through life with purity and moderation1 having obtained the gods for its fellow-travelers and guides1 settles each in the place suited to it4 #acb4 ,there are1 indeed1 many and wonderful places in the earth1 and it is itself neither of such a kind nor of such a magnitude as is supposed by those who are accustomed to speak of the earth1 as ,i have been persuaded by a certain person4 ,whereupon ,simmias said1 ,how mean you1 ,socrates8 ,for ,i1 too1 have heard many things about the earth--not1 however1 those things which have obtained your belief4 ,i would1 therefore1 gladly hear them4 ,indeed1 ,simmias1 the art of ,glaucus#db does not seem to me to be required to relate what these things are4 ,that they are true1 however1 appears to me more than the art of ,glaucus can prove1 and1 besides1 ,i should probably not be able to do it2 and even if ,i did know how1 what remains to me of life1 ,simmias1 seems insufficient for the length of the subject4 ,however1 the form of the earth1 such as ,i am persuaded it is1 and the different places in it1 nothing hinders me from telling4 ,but that will be enough1 said ,simmias4 ,i am persuaded1 then1 said he1 in the first place1 that1 if the earth is in the middle of the heavens1 and is of a spherical form1 it has no need of air1 nor of any other similar force1 to prevent it from falling2 but that the similarity of the heavens to themselves on every side1 and the equilibrium of the earth itself1 are sufficient to support it2 for a thing in a state of equilibrium when placed in the middle of something that presses it equally on all sides can not incline more or less on any side1 but1 being equally affected all around1 remains unmoved4 #acc4 ,in the first place1 then1 he said1 ,i am persuaded of this4 ,and very properly so1 said ,simmias4 ,yet1 further1 said he1 that it is very large1 and that we who inhabit some small portion of it1 from the river ,phasis to the pillars of ,hercules1 dwell about the sea1 like ants or frogs about a marsh2 and that many others elsewhere dwell in many similar places1 for that there are everywhere about the earth many hollows of various forms and sizes into which there is a confluence of water1 mist and air2 but that the earth itself1 being pure1 is situated in the pure heavens1 in which are the stars1 and which most persons who are accustomed to speak about such things call ether2 of which these things are the sediment1 and are continually flowing into the hollow parts of the earth4 #acd4 ,that we are ignorant1 then1 that we are dwelling in its hollows1 and imagine that we inhabit the upper parts of the earth1 just as if any one dwelling in the bottom of the sea should think that he dwelt on the sea1 and1 beholding the sun and the other stars through the water1 should imagine that the sea was the heavens2 but1 through sloth and weakness1 should never have reached the surface of the sea2 nor1 having emerged and risen up from the sea to this region1 have seen how much more pure and more beautiful it is than the place where he is1 nor has heard of it from any one else who has seen it4 ,this1 then1 is the very condition in which we are2 for1 dwelling in some hollow of the earth1 we think that we dwell on the surface of it1 and call the air heaven1 as if the stars moved through this1 being heaven itself4 ,but this is because1 by reason of our weakness and sloth1 we are unable to reach to the summit of the air4 ,since1 if any one could arrive at its summit1 or1 becoming winged1 could fly up thither1 or1 emerging from hence1 he would see--just as with us1 fishes1 emerging from the sea1 behold what is here1 so any one would behold the things there2 and if his nature were able to endure the contemplation1 he would know that that is the true heaven1 and the true light1 and the true earth4 #ace4 ,for this earth and these stones1 and the whole region here1 are decayed and corroded1 as things in the sea by the saltness2 for nothing of any value grows in the sea1 nor1 in a word1 does it contain any thing perfect2 but there are caverns and sand1 and mud in abundance1 and filth1 in whatever parts of the sea there is earth1 nor are they at all worthy to be compared with the beautiful things with us4 ,but1 on the other hand1 those things in the upper regions of the earth would appear far more to excel the things with us4 ,for1 if we may tell a beautiful fable1 it is well worth hearing1 ,simmias1 what kind the things are on the earth beneath the heavens4 ,indeed1 ,socrates1 said ,simmias1 we should be very glad to hear that fable4 #acf4 ,first of all1 then1 my friend1 he continued1 this earth1 if any one should survey it from above1 is said to have the appearance of balls covered with twelve different pieces of leather1 variegated and distinguished with colors1 of which the colors found here1 and which painters use1 are1 as it were1 copies4 ,but there the whole earth is composed of such1 and far more brilliant and pure than these2 for one part of it is purple1 and of wonderful beauty1 part of a golden color1 and part of white1 more white than chalk or snow1 and1 in like manner1 composed of other colors1 and those more in number and more beautiful than any we have ever beheld4 ,and those very hollow parts of the earth1 though filled with water and air1 exhibit a certain species of color1 shining among the variety of other colors1 so that one continually variegated aspect presents itself to the view4 ,in this earth1 being such1 all things that grow1 grow in a manner proportioned to its nature--trees1 flowers and fruits2 and1 again1 in like manner1 its mountains and stones possess1 in the same proportion1 smoothness and transparency1 and more beautiful colors2 of which the well-known stones here that are so highly prized are but fragments1 such as sardine-stones1 jaspers1 and emeralds1 and all of that kind4 ,but there1 there is nothing subsists that is not of this character1 and even more beautiful than these4 #acg4 ,but the reason of this is1 because the stones there are pure1 and not eaten up and decayed1 like those here1 by rottenness and saltness1 which flow down hither together1 and which produce deformity and disease in the stones and the earth1 and in other things1 even animals and plants4 ,but that earth is adorned with all these1 and1 moreover1 with gold and silver1 and other things of the kind3 for they are naturally conspicuous1 being numerous and large1 and in all parts of the earth2 so that to behold it is a sight for the blessed4 ,there are also many other animals and men upon it1 some dwelling in mid-earth1 others about the air1 as we do about the sea1 and others in islands which the air flows round1 and which are near the continent2 and1 in one word1 what water and the sea are to us1 for our necessities1 the air is to them2 and what air is to us1 that ether is to them4 #ach4 ,but their seasons are of such a temperament that they are free from disease1 and live for a much longer time than those here1 and surpass us in sight1 hearing1 and smelling1 and every thing of this kind1 as much as air excels water1 and ether air1 in purity4 ,moreover1 they have abodes and temples of the gods1 in which gods really dwell1 and voices and oracles1 and sensible visions of the gods1 and such-like intercourse with them2 the sun1 too1 and moon1 and stars1 are seen by them such as they really are1 and their felicity in other respects is correspondent with these things4 ,and1 such1 indeed1 is the nature of the whole earth1 and the parts about the earth2 but there are many places all round it throughout its cavities1 some deeper and more open than that in which we dwell2 but others that are deeper have a less chasm than our region1 and others are shallower in depth than it is here1 and broader4 #aci4 ,but all these are in many places perforated one into another under the earth1 some with narrower and some with wider channels1 and have passages through1 by which a great quantity of water flows from one into another1 as into basins1 and there are immense bulks of ever-flowing rivers under the earth1 both of hot and cold water1 and a great quantity of fire1 and mighty rivers of fire1 and many of liquid mire1 some purer1 and some more miry1 as in ,sicily there are rivers of mud that flow before the lava1 and the lava itself1 and from these the several places are filled1 according as the overflow from time to time happens to come to each of them4 ,but all these move up and down1 as it were1 by a certain oscillation existing in the earth4 ,and this oscillation proceeds from such natural cause as this2 one of the chasms of the earth is exceedingly large1 and perforated through the entire earth1 and is that which ,homer#dc speaks of1 'very far off1 where is the most profound abyss beneath the earth1' which elsewhere both he and many other poets have called ,tartarus4 ,for into this chasm all rivers flow together1 and from it flow out again2 but they severally derive their character from the earth through which they flow4 #adj4 ,and the reason why all streams flow out from thence1 and flow into it1 is because this liquid has neither bottom nor base4 ,therefore1 it oscillates and fluctuates up and down1 and the air and the wind around it do the same2 for they accompany it both when it rushes to those parts of the earth1 and when to these4 ,and as in respiration the flowing breath is continually breathed out and drawn in1 so there the wind oscillating with the liquid causes certain vehement and irresistible winds both as it enters and goes out4 ,when1 therefore1 the water rushing in descends to the place which we call the lower region1 it flows through the earth into the streams there1 and fills them1 just as men pump up water4 ,but when again it leaves those regions and rushes hither1 it again fills the rivers here2 and these1 when filled1 flow through channels and through the earth1 and1 having severally reached the several places to which they are journeying1 they make seas1 lakes1 rivers1 and fountains4 #ada4 ,then1 sinking again from thence beneath the earth1 some of them having gone round longer and more numerous places1 and others round fewer and shorter1 they again discharge themselves into ,tartarus--some much lower than they were drawn up1 others only a little so2 but all of them flow in again beneath the point at which they flowed out4 ,and some issue out directly opposite the place by which they flow in1 others on the same side4 ,there are also some which1 having gone round altogether in a circle1 folding themselves once or several times round the earth1 like serpents1 when they have descended as low as possible1 discharge themselves again2 and it is possible for them to descend on either side as far as the middle1 but not beyond2 for in each direction there is an acclivity to the streams both ways4 ,now1 there are many other large and various streams2 but among this great number there are four certain streams1 of which the largest1 and that which flows most outwardly round the earth1 is called ,ocean2 but directly opposite this1 and flowing in a contrary direction1 is ,acheron1 which flows through other desert places1 and1 moreover1 passing under the earth1 reaches the ,acherusian lake1 where the souls of most who die arrive2 and1 having remained there for certain destined periods1 some longer and some shorter1 are again sent forth into the generations of animals4 #adb4 ,a third river issues midway between these1 and1 near its source1 falls into a vast region1 burning with abundance of fire1 and forms a lake larger than our sea1 boiling with water and mud4 ,from hence it proceeds in a circle1 turbulent and muddy1 and1 folding itself round it1 reaches both other places and the extremity of the ,acherusian lake1 but does not mingle with its water2 but1 folding itself oftentimes beneath the earth1 it discharges itself into the lower parts of ,tartarus4 ,and this is the river which they call ,pyriphlegethon1 whose burning streams emit dissevered fragments in whatever part of the earth they happen to be4 ,opposite to this1 again1 the fourth river first falls into a place dreadful and savage1 as it is said1 having its whole color like cyanus3#dd this they call ,stygian1 and the lake which the river forms by its discharge1 ,styx4 ,this river1 having fallen in here1 and received awful power in the water1 sinking beneath the earth1 proceeds1 folding itself round1 in an opposite course to ,pyriphlegethon1 and meets it in the ,acherusian lake from1 a contrary direction4 ,neither does the water of this river mingle with any other2 but it1 too1 having gone round in a circle1 discharges itself into ,tartarus1 opposite to ,pyriphlegethon4 ,its name1 as the poets say1 is ,cocytus4 #adc4 ,these things being thus constituted1 when the dead arrive at the place to which their demon leads them severally1 first of all they are judged1 as well those who have lived well and piously1 as those who have not4 ,and those who appear to have passed a middle kind of life1 proceeding to ,acheron1 and embarking in the vessels they have1 on these arrive at the lake1 and there dwell2 and when they are purified1 and have suffered punishment for the iniquities they may have committed1 they are set free1 and each receives the reward of his good deeds1 according to his deserts4 ,but those who appear to be incurable1 through the magnitude of their offenses1 either from having committed many and great sacrileges1 or many unjust and lawless murders1 or other similar crimes1 these a suitable destiny hurls into ,tartarus1 whence they never come forth4 #add4 ,but those who appear to have been guilty of curable yet great offenses--such as those who1 through anger1 have committed any violence against father or mother1 and have lived the remainder of their life in a state of penitence1 or they who have become homicides in a similar manner--these must1 of necessity1 fall into ,tartarus4 ,but after they have fallen1 and have been there for a year1 the wave casts them forth1 the homicides into ,cocytus1 but the parricides and matricides into ,pyriphlegethon4 ,but when1 being borne along1 they arrive at the ,acherusian lake1 there they cry out to and invoke1 some those whom they slew1 others those whom they injured1 and1 invoking them1 they entreat and implore them to suffer them to go out into the lake1 and to receive them1 and if they persuade them1 they go out1 and are freed from their sufferings1 but if not1 they are borne back to ,tartarus1 and thence again to the rivers4 ,and they do not cease from suffering this until they have persuaded those whom they have injured1 for this sentence was imposed on them by the judges4 #ade4 ,but those who are found to have lived an eminently holy life1 these are they who1 being freed and set at large from these regions in the earth as from a prison1 arrive at the pure abode above1 and dwell on the upper parts of the earth4 ,and among these1 they who have sufficiently purified themselves by philosophy shall live without bodies1 throughout all future time1 and shall arrive at habitations yet more beautiful than these which it is neither easy to describe1 nor at present is there sufficient time for the purpose4 ,but1 for the sake of these things which we have described1 we should use every endeavor1 ,simmias1 so as to acquire virtue and wisdom in this life1 for the reward is noble1 and the hope great4 ,to affirm positively1 indeed1 that these things are exactly as ,i have described them does not become a man of sense4 ,that1 however1 either this1 or something of the kind1 takes place with respect to our souls and their habitations--since our soul is certainly immortal--this appears to me most fitting to be believed1 and worthy the hazard for one who trusts in its reality2 for the hazard is noble1 and it is right to allure ourselves with such things1 as with enchantments1 for which reason ,i have prolonged my story to such a length4 #adf4 ,on account of these things1 then1 a man ought to be confident about his soul who1 during this life1 has disregarded all the pleasures and ornaments of the body as foreign from his nature1 and who1 having thought that they do more harm than good1 has zealously applied himself to the acquirement of knowledge1 and who1 having adorned his soul1 not with a foreign1 but its own proper ornament--temperance1 justice1 fortitude1 freedom1 and truth--thus waits for his passage to ,hades1 as one who is ready to depart whenever destiny shall summon him4 ,you1 then1 he continued1 ,simmias and ,cebes1 and the rest1 will each of you depart at some future time1 but now destiny summons me1 as a tragic writer would say1 and it is nearly time for me to betake myself to the bath1 for it appears to me to be better to drink the poison after ,i have bathed myself1 and not to trouble the women with washing my dead body4 #adg4 ,when he had thus spoken1 ,crito said1 ,so be it1 ,socrates1 but what commands have you to give to these or to me1 either respecting your children1 or any other matter1 in attending to which we can most oblige you8 ,what ,i always say1 ,crito1 he replied1 nothing new that by taking care of yourselves you will oblige both me and mine1 and yourselves1 whatever you do1 though you should not now promise it1 and if you neglect yourselves1 and will not live1 as it were1 in the footsteps of what has been now and formerly said1 even though you should promise much at present1 and that earnestly1 you will do no good at all4 ,we will endeavor1 then1 so to do1 he said4 ,but how shall we bury you8 ,just as you please1 he said1 if only you can catch me1 and ,i do not escape from you4 #adh4 ,and1 at the same time smiling gently1 and looking round on us1 he said1 ,i cannot persuade ,crito1 my friends1 that ,i am that ,socrates who is now conversing with you1 and who methodizes each part of the discourse2 but he thinks that ,i am he whom he will shortly behold dead1 and asks how he should bury me4 ,but that which ,i some time since argued at length1 that when ,i have drunk the poison ,i shall no longer remain with you1 but shall depart to some happy state of the blessed1 this ,i seem to have urged to him in vain1 though ,i meant at the same time to console both you and myself4 ,be ye1 then1 my sureties to ,crito1 he said1 in an obligation contrary to that which he made to the judges 7for he undertook that ,i should remain72 but do you be sureties that1 when ,i die1 ,i shall not remain1 but shall depart1 that ,crito may more easily bear it2 and1 when he sees my body either burned or buried1 may not be afflicted for me1 as if ,i suffered from some dreadful thing2 nor say at my interment that ,socrates is laid out1 or is carried out1 or is buried4 #adi4 ,for be well assured1 he said1 most excellent ,crito1 that to speak improperly is not only culpable as to the thing itself1 but likewise occasions some injury to our souls4 ,you must have a good courage1 then1 and say that you bury my body1 and bury it in such a manner as is pleasing to you1 and as you think is most agreeable to our laws4 ,when he had said thus1 he rose1 and went into a chamber to bathe1 and ,crito followed him1 but he directed us to wait for him4 ,we waited1 therefore1 conversing among ourselves about what had been said1 and considering it again1 and sometimes speaking about our calamity1 how severe it would be to us1 sincerely thinking that1 like those who are deprived of a father1 we should pass the rest of our life as orphans4 ,when he had bathed1 and his children were brought to him 7for he had two little sons and one grown up71 and the women belonging to his family were come1 having conversed with them in the presence of ,crito1 and given them such injunctions as he wished1 he directed the women and children to go away1 and then returned to us4 ,and it was now near sunset2 for he spent a considerable time within4 #aej4 ,but when he came from bathing he sat down1 and did not speak much afterward2 then the officer of the ,eleven came in1 and1 standing near him1 said1 ,socrates1 ,i shall not have to find that fault with you that ,i do with others1 that they are angry with me1 and curse me1 when1 by order of the archons1 ,i bid them drink the poison4 ,but you1 on all other occasions during the time you have been here1 ,i have found to be the most noble1 meek1 and excellent man of all that ever came into this place2 and1 therefore1 ,i am now well convinced that you will not be angry with me 7for you know who are to blame71 but with them4 ,now1 then 7for you know what ,i came to announce to you71 farewell1 and endeavor to bear what is inevitable as easily as possible4 ,and at the same time1 bursting into tears1 he turned away and withdrew4 #aea4 ,and ,socrates1 looking after him1 said1 ,and thou1 too1 farewell4 ,we will do as you direct4 ,at the same time turning to us1 he said1 ,how courteous the man is6 ,during the whole time ,i have been here he has visited me1 and conversed with me sometimes1 and proved the worthiest of men2 and now how generously he weeps for me6 ,but come1 ,crito1 let us obey him1 and let some one bring the poison1 if it is ready pounded2 but if not1 let the man pound it4 ,then ,crito said1 ,but ,i think1 ,socrates1 that the sun is still on the mountains1 and has not yet set4 ,besides1 ,i know that others have drunk the poison very late1 after it had been announced to them1 and have supped and drunk freely1 and some even have enjoyed the objects of their love4 ,do not hasten1 then1 for there is yet time4 ,upon this ,socrates replied1 ,these men whom you mention1 ,crito1 do these things with good reason1 for they think they shall gain by so doing2 and ,i1 too1 with good reason1 shall not do so2 for ,i think ,i shall gain nothing by drinking a little later1 except to become ridiculous to myself1 in being so fond of life1 and sparing of it1 when none any longer remains4 ,go then1 he said1 obey1 and do not resist4 #aeb4 ,crito1 having heard this1 nodded to the boy that stood near4 ,and the boy1 having gone out and staid for some time1 came1 bringing with him the man that was to administer the poison1 who brought it ready pounded in a cup4 ,and ,socrates1 on seeing the man1 said1 ,well1 my good friend1 as you are skilled in these matters1 what must ,i do8 ,nothing else1 he replied1 than1 when you have drunk it1 walk about until there is a heaviness in your legs2 then lie down3 thus it will do its purpose4 ,and at the same time he held out the cup to ,socrates4 ,and he having received it very cheerfully1 ,echecrates neither trembling1 nor changing at all in color or countenance1 but1 as he was wont1 looking steadfastly at the man1 said1 ,what say you of this potion1 with respect to making a libation to any one1 is it lawful or not8 ,we only pound so much1 ,socrates1 he said1 as we think sufficient to drink4 #aec4 ,i understand you1 he said2 but it is certainly both lawful and right to pray to the gods1 that my departure hence thither may be happy2 which1 therefore1 ,i pray1 and so may it be4 ,and as he said this1 he drank it off readily and calmly4 ,thus far1 most of us were with difficulty able to restrain ourselves from weeping2 but when we saw him drinking1 and having finished the draught1 we could do so no longer2 but1 in spite of myself1 the tears came in full torrent1 so that1 covering my face1 ,i wept for myself2 for ,i did not weep for him1 but for my own fortune1 in being deprived of such a friend4 ,but ,crito1 even before me1 when he could not restrain his tears1 had risen up4 #aed4 ,but ,apollodorus1 even before this1 had not ceased weeping2 and then1 bursting into an agony of grief1 weeping and lamenting1 he pierced the heart of every one present1 except ,socrates himself4 ,but he said1 ,what are you doing1 my admirable friends8 ,i1 indeed1 for this reason chiefly1 sent away the women1 that they might not commit any folly of this kind4 ,for ,i have heard that it is right to die with good omens4 ,be quiet1 therefore1 and bear up4 ,when we heard this1 we were ashamed1 and restrained our tears4 ,but he1 having walked about1 when he said that his legs were growing heavy1 lay down on his back2 for the man had so directed him4 ,and1 at the same time1 he who gave the poison taking hold of him1 after a short interval1 examined his feet and legs2 and then1 having pressed his foot hard1 he asked if he felt it3 he said that he did not4 ,and after this he pressed his thighs2 and1 thus going higher1 he showed us that he was growing cold and stiff4 ,then ,socrates touched himself1 and said that when the poison reached his heart he should then depart4 #aee4 ,but now the parts around the lower belly were almost cold2 when1 uncovering himself1 for he had been covered over1 he said 7and they were his last words71 ,crito1 we owe a cock to ,aesculapius2 pay it1 therefore2 and do not neglect it4 ,it shall be done1 said ,crito2 but consider whether you have any thing else to say4 ,to this question he gave no reply2 but1 shortly after1 he gave a convulsive movement1 and the man covered him1 and his eyes were fixed2 and ,crito1 perceiving it1 closed his mouth and eyes4 ,this1 ,echecrates1 was the end of our friend1--a man1 as we may say1 the best of all of his time that we have known1 and1 moreover1 the most wise and just4 ,,footnotes #be ,phlius1 to which ,echecrates belonged1 was a town of ,sicyonia1 in ,peloponnesus4 #bf ,a ,pythagorean of ,crotona4 #bg ,namely1 that it is better to die than to live4 #bh ,hitto1 ,boetian for hioto4 #bi ,of ,pythagoras4 #cj ,some boyish spirit4 #ca ,that is1 at a time of life when the body is in full vigor4 #cb ,in the original there is a play on the words ,haides and haeides1 which ,i can only attempt to retain by departing from the usual rendering of the former word4 #cc ,by this ,i understand him to mean that the soul alone can perceive the truth1 but the senses1 as they are different1 receive and convey different impressions of the same thing2 thus1 the eye receives one impression of an object1 the ear a totally different one4 #cd kai ahythis eteros kai eteros1 that is1 with one argument after another ,though ,cousin translates it et successivement tout different de luimeme and ,ast1 et rursus alia atque alia1 which may be taken in either sense1 yet it appears to me to mean that1 when a man repeatedly discovers the fallacy of arguments which he before believed to be true1 he distrusts reasoning altogether1 just as one who meets with friend after friend who proves unfaithful becomes a misanthrope4 #ce ,lib4 xx1 v4 #g4 #cf ,harmony was the wife of ,cadmus1 the founder of ,thebes2 ,socrates1 therefore1 compares his two ,theban friends1 ,simmias and ,cebes1 with them1 and says that1 having overcome ,simmias1 the advocate of ,harmony1 he must now deal with ,cebes1 who is represented by ,cadmus4 #cg einai ti1 literally1 is something4 #ch ,that is1 to single4 #ci ,sec4 #aac4 #dj ,it is difficult to express the distinction between osia and nomima4 ,the former word seems to have reference to the souls of the dead2 the latter1 to their bodies4 #da ,its place of interment4 #db ,a proverb meaning a matter of great difficulty4 #dc ,iliad1 lib4 viii41 v4 #ad4 #dd ,a metallic substance of a deep-blue color1 frequently mentioned by the earliest ,grecian writers1 but of which the nature is unknown4