,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #hba ,,new ,,york1 ,september #bf1 #ahia ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxxii1 ,no4 #hba4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,architectural4--,the ,new ,labor ,exchange in ,paris4--,with views of the interior and exterior of the building ,,ii4 ,electrical4--,the ,construction and ,maintenance of ,underground ,circuits4--,by ,s4,b4 ,,fowler4--,a comprehensive article1 discussing at length the various devices for protecting underground circuits1 methods of inserting the cables1 etc4 ,,iii4 ,engineering4--,railroads to the ,clouds4--,sketches of a number of mountain railroads ,,iv4 ,marine ,engineering4--,the ,french ,armored ,turret ,ship the ,marceau4--#a engraving4--,a full description of the vessel1 giving dimensions and cost ,a ,review of ,marine ,engineering during the ,past ,decade4--,a paper read before the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers by ,mr4 ,alfred ,blechynben1 of ,barrow-in-,furness4--,this paper1 which is continued from ,supplement ,no4 #hbj1 treats on steam pipes1 feed water heating1 twin screws1 etc4 ,v4 ,miscellaneous4--,the ,little ,house4--,an article giving various hints about the arrangement and management of small dwellings1 with special view to the best sanitary arrangements ,stilt ,walking4--,a sketch1 with engraving1 of ,sylvain ,dornon1 the stilt walker of ,landes ,remains of a ,roman ,villa in ,england ,gum ,arabic and its ,modern ,substitutes4--,a continuation of a paper by ,dr4 ,s4 ,rideal and ,w4,e4 ,youle4--,with #bf tables ,a ,new ,method of ,extinguishing ,fires4--,invented by ,george ,dickson and ,david ,a4 ,jones1 of ,toronto1 ,canada4--,apparatus designed to utilize a mixture of water and liquefied carbonic acid ,,vi4 ,medicine and ,hygiene4--,the ,hygienic ,treatment of ,obesity4--,by ,dr4 ,paul ,chebon4--,methods of eating1 drinking1 and exercising for the purpose of reducing fat4--,an extended article1 giving valuable information to people troubled with too much flesh ,,vii4 ,photography4--,spectroscopic ,determination of the ,sensitiveness of ,dry ,plates4--,a full description of the new plan of ,mr4 ,g4,f4 ,,williams1 for determining the sensitiveness of dry plates by the use of a small direct vision pocket spectroscope ,,viii4 ,physics4--,a ,physical ,laboratory ,indicator4--,by ,j4,w4 ,,moore1 of ,lafayette ,college4--#a engraving4--,this is a modification of the old peg board adapted to use in the laboratory4--,it indicates the names of the members of the class1 contains a full list of the experiments to be performed1 refers the student to the book and page where information in reference to experiments or apparatus may be found1 it shows what experiments are to be performed by each student at a given time1 etc4 ,cailletet's ,cryogen4--,a description1 with one engraving1 of ,mr4 ,cailletet's new apparatus for producing temperatures from #gj degrees to #hj degrees ,c41 below zero1 through the expansion of liquid carbonic acid ,,ix4 ,technology4--,the ,manufacture of ,roll ,tar ,paper4--,an extended article containing a historical sketch and full information as to the materials used and the methods of manufacture ,smokeless ,gunpowder4--,by ,hudson ,maxim4--,a comprehensive article on the manufacture and use of smokeless gunpowder1 giving a sketch of its history1 and describing the methods of manufacture and its characteristics ,method of ,producing ,alcohol4--,a description of an improved process for making alcohol4--,invented by ,mr4 ,alfred ,springer1 of ,cincinnati1 ,ohio 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,interior ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,labor ,,exchange1 ,,paris4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,labor ,,exchange1 ,,paris4 ,,the ,,new ,,labor ,,exchange1 ,,paris4 ,the new ,labor ,exchange is soon to be inaugurated4 ,we give herewith a view of the entrance facade of the meeting hall4 ,the buildings1 which are the work of ,mr ,bouvard1 architect1 of the city of ,paris1 are comprised within the block of houses whose sharp angle forms upon ,place de la ,republique1 the intersection of ,boulevard ,magenta and ,bondy street4 ,one of the entrances of the ,exchange is on a level with this street4 ,the three others are on ,chateau d',eau street1 where the facade of the edifice extends for a length of one hundred feet4 ,from the facade and above the balcony that projects from the first story1 stand out in bold relief three heads surrounded by foliage and fruit that dominate the three entrance doors4 ,these sculptures represent the ,republic between ,labor and ,peace4 ,the windows of the upper stories are set within nine rows of columns1 from between the capitals of which stand out the names of the manufacturers1 inventors1 and statesmen that have sprung from the laboring classes4 ,upon the same line1 at the two extremities of the facade1 two modillions1 traversed through their center by palms1 bear the devices ,labor and ,peace4 ,above1 there is a dial surmounted by a shield bearing the device of the city of ,paris4 ,the central door of the ground floor opens upon a large vestibule1 around which are arranged symmetrically the post1 telegraph1 telephone1 and intelligence offices1 etc4 ,beyond the vestibule there is a gallery that leads to the central court1 upon the site of which has been erected the grand assembly hall4 ,this latter1 which measures #bj meters in length1 #bb in width1 and #f in height1 is lighted by a glazed ceiling1 and contains ten rows of benches4 ,these latter contain #ijj seats1 arranged in the form of circular steps1 radiating around the president's platform1 which is one meter in height4 ,a special combination will permit of increasing the number of seats reserved for the labor associations on occasions of grand reunions to #a1bjj4 ,the oak doors forming the lateral bays of the hall will open upon the two large assembly rooms and the three waiting rooms constructed around the faces of the large hall4 ,in the assembly rooms forming one with the central hall will take place the deliberations of the syndic chambers4 ,the walls of the hall will1 ere long1 receive decorative paintings4--,l',illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,manufacture ,,of ,,roll ,,tar ,,paper4 ,roofing paper was first used in ,scandinavia early as the last century1 the invention being accredited to ,faxa1 an official of the ,swedish ,admiralty4 ,the first tar and gravel roofs in ,sweden were very defective4 ,the impregnation of the paper with a water-proofing liquid had not been thought of1 and the roofs were constructed by laying over the rafters a boarding1 upon which the unsaturated paper1 the sides of which lapped over the other1 was fastened with short tacks4 ,the surface of the paper was next coated with heated pine tar to make it waterproof4 ,the thin layer of tar was soon destroyed by the weather1 so that the paper1 swelled by the absorption of rain water1 lost its cohesiveness and was soon destroyed by the elements4 ,this imperfect method of roof covering found no great favor and was but seldom employed4 ,in ,germany the architect ,gilly was first to become interested in tar paper roofing1 and recommended it in his architecture for the country4 ,nevertheless the new style of roof covering was but little employed1 and was finally abandoned during the first year of the #aith century4 ,it was revived again in #ahdj1 when people began to take a renewed interest in tar paper roofs1 the method of manufacturing an impermeable paper being already so far perfected that the squares of paper were dipped in tar until thoroughly saturated4 ,the roof constructed of these waterproof paper sheets proved itself to be a durable covering1 being unimpenetrable to atmospheric precipitations1 and soon several factories commenced manufacturing the paper4 ,the product was improved continually and its method of manufacture perfected4 ,the good qualities of tar paper roofs being recognized by the public1 they were gradually adopted4 ,the costly pine tar was soon replaced by the cheaper coal tar4 ,square sheets of paper were made at first2 they were dipped sufficiently long in ordinary heated coal tar1 until perfectly saturated4 ,the excess of tar was then permitted to drip off1 and the sheets were dried in the air4 ,the improvement of passing them through rollers to get rid of the surplus tar was reserved for a future time1 when an enterprising manufacturer commenced to make endless tar paper in place of sheets4 ,special apparatus were constructed to impregnate these rolls with tar2 they were imperfect at first1 but gradually improved to a high degree4 ,much progress was also made in the construction of the roofs1 and several methods of covering were devised4 ,the defects caused by the old method of nailing the tar paper direct upon the roof boarding were corrected2 the consequence of this method was that the paper was apt to tear1 caused by the unequal expansion of the roofing boards and paper1 and this soon led to the idea of making the latter independent of the former by nailing the sides of the paper upon strips running parallel with the gable4 ,the use of endless tar paper proved to be an essential advantage1 because the number of seams as well as places where it had to be nailed to the roof boarding was largely decreased4 ,the manufacture of tar paper has remained at about the same stage and no essential improvements have been made up to the present4 ,as partial improvement may be mentioned the preparation of tar1 especially since the introduction of the tar distillery1 and the manufacture of special roof lacquers1 which have been used for coating in place of the coal tar4 ,as an essential progress in the tar paper roofing may be mentioned the invention of the double tar paper roof1 and the wood cement roof1 which is regarded as an offshoot4 ,the tar paper industry has1 within the last forty years1 assumed great dimensions1 and the preferences for this roofing are gaining ground daily4 ,in view of the small weight of the covering material1 the wood construction of the roof can be much lighter1 and the building is therefore less strained by the weight of the roof than one with the other kind1 so that the outer walls need not be as heavy4 ,considering the price1 the paper roof is not only cheaper than other fireproof roofs1 but its light weight makes it possible for the whole building to be constructed lighter and cheaper4 ,the durability of the tar paper roof is satisfactory1 if carefully made of good material2 the double tar paper roof1 the gravel double roof1 and the wood cement roof are distinguished by their great durability4 ,these roofs may be used for all kinds of buildings1 and not only are factories1 storehouses1 and country buildings covered with it1 but also many dwellings4 ,the most stylish residences and villas are at present being inclosed with the more durable kinds2 the double roof1 the gravel double roof1 and the wood cement roof4 ,for factory buildings1 which are constantly shaken by the vibrations of the machinery1 the tar paper roof is preferable to any other4 ,in order to ascertain to what degree tar paper roofs would resist fire1 experiments were instituted at the instigation of some of the larger manufacturers of roofing paper1 in the presence of experts1 architects1 and others1 embracing the most severe tests1 and it was fully proved that the tar paper roof is as fireproof as any other4 ,these experiments were made in two different ways2 first1 the readiness of ignition of the tar paper roof by a spark or flame from the outside was considered1 and1 second1 it was tested in how far it would resist a fire in the interior of the building4 ,in the former case1 it was ascertained that a bright1 intense fire could be kept burning upon the roof for some time1 without igniting the woodwork of the roof1 but heat from above caused some of the more volatile constituents of the tar to be expelled1 whereby small flames appeared upon the surface within the limits of the fire2 the roofing paper was not completely destroyed4 ,there always remained a cohesive substance1 although it was charred and friable1 which by reason of its bad conductivity of heat protected the roof boarding to such an extent that it was browned only by the developed tar vapors4 ,a fire was next started within a building covered with a tar paper roof2 the flame touched the roof boarding1 which partly commenced to char and smoulder1 but the bright burning of the wood was prevented by the air-tight condition of the roof2 the fire gases could not escape from the building4 ,the smoke collecting under the roof prevented the entrance of fresh air1 in consequence of which the want of oxygen smothered the fire4 ,the roofing paper remained unchanged4 ,by making openings in the sides of the building so that the fire gases could escape1 the wood part of the roof was consumed1 but the roofing paper itself was only charred and did not burn4 ,after removing the fire in contact with the paper1 this ceased burning at once and evinced no disposition whatever to spread4 ,in large conflagrations1 also1 the tar paper roofs behaved in identically a similar manner4 ,many instances have occurred where the tar paper roof prevented the fire from spreading inside the building1 and developing with sufficient intensity to work injury4 ,as it is of interest to the roofer to know the manner of making the material he uses1 we give in the following a short description of the manufacture of roofing paper4 ,at first1 when square sheets were used exclusively1 the raw paper consisted of ordinary dipped or formed sheets4 ,the materials used in its manufacture were common woolen rags and other material4 ,in order to prepare the pulp from the rags it is necessary to cut them so small that the fabric is entirely dissolved and converted into short fibers4 ,the rags are for this purpose first cut into pieces1 which are again reduced by special machines4 ,the rags are cut in a rag cutting machine1 which was formerly constructed similar to a feed cutter2 later on1 more complicated machines of various constructions were employed4 ,it is not our task to describe the various kinds1 but we remain content with the general remark that they are all based on the principles of causing revolving knives to operate upon the rags4 ,the careful cleansing of the cut rags1 necessary for the manufacture of paper1 is not required for roofing paper4 ,it is sufficient to rinse away the sand and other solid extraneous matter4 ,the further reduction of the cut rags was formerly performed in a stamp mill1 which is no longer employed1 the pulp mill or rag engine being universally used4 ,the construction of this engine may be described as follows3 ,a box or trough of wood1 iron1 or stone is by a partition divided into two parts which are connected at their ends4 ,at one side upon the bottom of the box lies an oakwood block1 called the back fall4 ,in a hollow of this back fall is sunk the so-called plate1 furnished with a number of sharp steel cutters or knives1 lying alongside of each other4 ,a roller of solid oakwood1 the circumference of which is also furnished with sharp steel cutters or knives1 is fastened upon a shaft and revolves within the hollow4 ,the journal bearings of the shaft are let into and fastened in movable wooden carriers4 ,the carriers of the bearings may be raised and lowered by turning suitable thumbscrews1 whereby the distance between the roller and the back fall is increased or decreased4 ,the whole is above covered with a dome1 the so-called case1 to prevent the throwing out of the mass under the operation of grinding4 ,the roller is revolved with a velocity of from #ajj to #aej revolutions per minute1 whereby the rags are sucked in between the roller and the back fall and cut and torn between the knives4 ,at the beginning of the operation1 the distance between the roller and the back fall is made as great as possible1 the intention being less to cut the rags than to wash them thoroughly4 ,the dirty water is then drawn off and replaced by clean1 and the space of the grinding apparatus is lessened gradually1 so as to cut the rags between the knives4 ,the mass is constantly kept in motion and each piece of rag passes repeatedly between the knives4 ,the case protects the mass from being thrown out by the centrifugal force4 ,the work of beating the rags is ended in a few hours1 and the ensuing thin paste is drawn off into the pulp chest1 this being a square box lined with lead4 ,from the pulp chest it passes to the form of the paper machine4 ,this form consists of an endless fine web of brass wire1 which revolves around rollers4 ,the upper part of this form rests upon a number of hollow copper rollers1 whereby a level place is formed4 ,the form revolves uniformly around the two end rollers1 and has at the same time a vibratory motion1 by which the pulp running upon the form is spread out uniformly and conducted along1 more flowing on as the latter progresses4 ,the water escapes rapidly through the close wire web4 ,in order to limit the form on the sides two endless leather straps revolve around the rollers on each side1 which touch with their lower parts the form on both sides and confine the fluid within a proper breadth4 ,the thickness of the pulp is regulated at the head of the form by a brass rule standing at a certain height2 its function is to level the pulp and distribute it at a certain thickness4 ,the continually moving pulp layer assumes greater consistency the nearer it approaches to the dandy roll4 ,this is a cylinder covered with brass wire1 and is for the purpose of compressing the paper1 after it has left the form1 and free it from a great part of the water1 which escapes into a box4 ,the paper is now freed of a good deal of the fluid1 and assumes a consistency with which it is enabled to leave the form1 which now commences to return underneath the paper1 passing on to an endless felt1 which revolves around rollers and delivers it to two iron rolls4 ,the paper passes through a second pair of iron rollers1 the interiors of which are heated by steam4 ,these rollers cause the last of the water to be evaporated1 so that it can then be rolled upon reels4 ,a special arrangement shaves the edges to the exact size required4 ,the paper is made in different thicknesses and designated by numbers to the size and weight4 ,waste paper1 bookbinders' shavings1 etc41 can be used for making the paper4 ,as much wool as possible should be employed1 because the wool fiber has a greater resistance than vegetable fiber to the effects of the temperature4 ,by wool fiber is understood the horny substance resembling hair1 with the difference that the former has no marrowy tissue4 ,the covering pellicle of the wool fiber consists of flat1 mostly elongated leaves1 with more or less corners1 lying over each other like scales1 which makes the surface of the fiber rough2 this condition1 together with the inclination of curling1 renders it capable of felting readily4 ,pure wool consists of a horny substance1 containing both nitrogen and sulphur1 and dissolves in a potash solution4 ,in a clean condition1 the wool contains from #j4c to #j4e per cent4 of ash4 ,it is very hygroscopical1 and under ordinary circumstances it contains from #ac to #af per cent4 humidity1 in dry air from #g to #aa per cent41 which can be entirely expelled at a temperature of from #bbf to #bcj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,wool when ignited does not burn with a bright flame1 as vegetable fiber does1 but consumes with a feeble smouldering glow1 soon extinguishes1 spreading a disagreeable pungent vapor1 as of burning horn4 ,by placing a test tube with a solution of five parts caustic potash in #ajj parts water1 a mixture of vegetable fibers and wool fibers1 the latter dissolve if the fluid is brought to boiling above an alcohol flame1 while the cotton and linen fibers remain intact4 ,the solubility of the woolen fibers in potash lye is a ready means of ascertaining the percentage of wool fiber in the paper4 ,an exhaustive analysis of the latter can be performed in the following manner3 ,a known quantity of the paper is slowly dried in a drying apparatus at temperature of #bcj ,fahrenheit1 until a sample weighed on a scale remains constant4 ,the loss of weight indicates the degree of humidity4 ,to determine the ash percentage1 the sample is placed in a platinum crucible1 and held over a lamp until all the organic matter is burned out and the ash has assumed a light color4 ,the cold ash is then moistened with a carbonate of ammonia solution1 and the crucible again exposed until it is dark red2 the weight of the ash is then taken4 ,to determine the percentage of wool1 a sample of the paper is dried at #bcj ,fahrenheit and weighed1 boiled in a porcelain dish in potash lye #ab ,b4 strong1 and frequently stirred with a glass rod4 ,the wool fiber soon dissolves in the potash lye1 while the vegetable fiber remains unaltered4 ,the pulpy mass resulting is placed upon a filter1 dried at #bab ,fahrenheit1 and after the potash lye has dripped off1 the residue1 consisting of vegetable fiber and earthy ash ingredients1 is washed until the water ceases to dissolve anything4 ,the residue dried at #bab ,fahrenheit is weighed with a filter1 after which that of the latter is deducted4 ,the loss of weight experienced is essentially equal to the loss of the wool fiber4 ,if the filtrate is saturated with hydrochloric acid1 the dissolved wool fiber separates again1 and after having been collected upon a weighed filter1 it may be weighed and the quantity ascertained4 ,the weight of the mineral substances in the raw paper is ascertained by analyzing the ash in a manner similar to that above described4 ,the several constituents of the ash and the mineral added to the raw paper are ascertained as follows3 ,sufficient of the paper is calcined in the manner described2 a known quantity of the ash is weighed and thrown into a small porcelain dish containing a little distilled water and an excess of chemically pure hydrochloric acid4 ,in this solution are dissolved the carbonates1 carbonate of lime1 carbonate of magnesia1 a little of sulphate of alumina1 as well as metallic oxides1 while silicate of magnesia1 silicic acid1 sulphate of lime 7gypsum7 remain undissolved4 ,the substance is heated until the water and excess of free hydrochloric acid have been driven off2 it is then moistened with a little hydrochloric acid1 diluted with distilled water and heated4 ,the undissolved residue is by filtering separated from the dissolved1 the filter washed with distilled water1 and the wash water added to the filtrate4 ,the undissolved residue is dried1 and after the filter has also been burned in due manner and the ash added1 the weight is ascertained4 ,it consists of clay1 sand1 silicic acid and gypsum4 ,the filtrate is then poured into a cylinder capable of holding #ajj cubic centimeters1 and furnished with a scale2 sufficient distilled water is then added until the well-shaken fluid measures precisely #ajj cubic centimeters4 ,by means of this measuring instrument1 the filtrate is then divided into two equal portions4 ,one of these parts is in a beaker glass over-saturated with chemically pure chloride of ammonia1 whereby any iron of oxide present and a little dissolved alumina fall down as deposit4 ,the precipitate is separated by filtering1 washed1 dried at #bab ,fahrenheit and weighed4 ,to the filtrate is then added a solution of oxalate of ammonia until a white precipitate of oxalate of lime is formed4 ,this precipitate is separated by filtering1 washed1 dried and when separated from the filter1 is collected upon dark satinized paper2 the filter itself is burned and the ash added to the oxalate of lime4 ,this oxalate of lime is then heated to a dark red heat in a platinum crucible with lid until the oxalate of lime is converted into carbonate of lime4 ,by the addition of a few drops of carbonate of ammonia solution and another slight heating of the crucible1 also the caustic lime produced in the filter ash by heating1 is reconverted into carbonate of lime1 and after cooling in the exsiccator1 the whole contents of the crucible is weighed as carbonate of lime1 after deducting the known quantity of filter ash4 ,any magnesia present in the filtrate of the oxalate of lime is by the addition of a solution of phosphate of soda separated as phosphate of ammonia and magnesia1 after having stood twenty-four hours4 ,the precipitate is filtered off1 washed with water to which a little chloride of ammonia is added1 dried1 and after calcining the fiber and adding the filter ash1 glow heated in the crucible4 ,the glowed substance is weighed after cooling1 and is pyrophosphate of magnesia1 from which the magnesia or carbonate of magnesia is calculated stoichiometrically4 ,all the ascertained sums must be multiplied by #b1 if they are to correspond to the analyzed and weighed quantity of ash4 ,the second half of the filtrate is used for determining the small quantity of sulphate of lime still contained in the hydrochlorate solution4 ,by adding chloride of barium solution the sulphuric acid is bound to the barytes and sulphate of baryta separates as white precipitate4 ,this is separated by filtering1 washed1 dried and weighed in the customary manner4 ,from the weight of the sulphate of baryta is then computed the weight of sulphate of lime1 which has passed over into solution4 ,the ascertained sum is also to be multiplied with #b4 ,the manufacture of roll tar paper from the roll paper was at first found to be difficult1 as it was impossible to submerge a surface larger than from ten to fifteen square yards1 rolled up1 in the tar1 because more would have required too large a pan4 ,besides this1 the paper tears easily1 when it is in the hot tar4 ,all kinds of experiments were tried1 in order to impregnate the surface of the paper without employing too large a pan4 ,the following method was tried at first3 ,the roll paper was cut into lengths of ten yards1 which were rolled up loosely1 so that a certain space was left between the different coils4 ,these loose rolls1 of course1 occupied much space and could be put into the tar only in a standing position1 because in a horizontal one the several coils would have pressed together again4 ,the loose roll was therefore slipped over a vertical iron rod fastened into a circular perforated wooden foot4 ,the upper end of this iron rod ended in a ring1 in which the hook of a chain or rope could be fastened4 ,with the aid of a windlass the roll was raised or lowered4 ,when placed in the pan with boiling tar1 it was left there until thoroughly saturated4 ,it was then taken out1 placed upon a table1 and the excess of tar allowed to drip off into a vessel underneath4 ,after partially drying1 the roll was spread out in open air1 occasionally turned1 until sufficiently dried1 when it was rolled up again4 ,in order to neutralize the smeary1 sticky condition of the surface and avoid the disagreeable drying in open air1 the experiment of strewing sand on the sticky places was tried next4 ,the weight of the paper was largely increased by the sand1 and appeared considerably thicker4 ,for this reason the method of sanding the paper was at once universally adopted4 ,to dispense with the process of permitting the surplus tar to drip off1 means were devised by which it was taken off by scrapers1 or by pressing through rollers4 ,the scrapers1 two sharp edged rods fastened across the pan1 were then so placed that the paper was drawn through them4 ,the excess of tar adhering to its surface was thereby scraped off and ran back into the pan4 ,this work1 however1 was performed better and to more satisfaction by a pair of rollers fastened to the pan4 ,these performed a double duty2 thoroughly removed the tar from the surface and by reason of their pressure they caused a more perfect incorporation of the tar with the fibers of the paper4 ,finally1 different factories employed different methods of manufacture1 one of which was to cut the rolls into definite lengths of about ten yards2 these were then rerolled very loosely and immersed in the hot tar until sufficiently saturated4 ,the paper was then passed through the roller1 much pressure exerted1 and then loosely rolled up again4 ,being tarred once1 it was then laid into a second pan with hot tar1 reeled out after a time1 strewn with sand1 and rolled up again4 ,another method was to cut clothes lines into lengths of about fifteen yards1 and at a distance of two inches have knots tied in them4 ,the paper was cut in lengths of ten or fifteen yards1 three pieces of the knotted clothes line were then rolled between the loose coils of paper1 which was then submerged in the tar1 which on account of the knots could penetrate the paper4 ,the paper was next sanded by permitting its lower surface to pass over dry sand in a box standing on the floor4 ,a workman rolled off the paper1 and with his hand he strews sand on the upper surface4 ,the rolling taking place on the edge of a table1 by means of a crank1 the excess of sand dropped off4 ,it is said by this method two workmen1 one of which tends to the rolling and sanding1 the other turning the crank1 could turn out eighty rolls per day4 ,this method is still in use4 ,it is useless to describe the many antiquated methods in vogue in smaller factories1 and it can truthfully be said that nearly all of them are out of date4 ,it appears to be the fact of almost all inventions that when reduced to practical use1 the arrangements1 apparatus1 and working methods employed are generally of the most complicated nature1 and time and experience only will simplify them4 ,this has been also the case with the methods in the roofing paper industry1 which are at present gradually being reduced to a practical basis4 ,the method gradually adopted has been described in the preceding4 ,the pan is of a certain length1 whereby it becomes possible to saturate the paper by slowly drawing it through the heated tar4 ,this is the chief feature4 ,the work is much simplified thereby and the workmen need not dip their hands into the tar or soil them with it4 ,the work of impregnating has become much cleaner and easier1 while at the same time the tar can be heated to a much higher temperature4 ,the pan is generally filled with distilled coal tar1 and the heating is regulated in such a manner that the temperature of the impregnating mass is raised far beyond #bab ,fahrenheit4 ,this accelerates the penetration1 which takes place more quickly as the degree of heat is raised1 which may be almost up to the boiling point of the tar1 as at this degree the paper is not destroyed by the heat4 ,in order to prevent the evaporation of the volatile ingredients of the tar1 the pan is covered with a sheet iron cover1 with a slot at the place where the paper enters into the impregnating mass and another at the place where it issues4 ,the tar is always kept at the same level1 by occasional additions4 ,the roll of paper is mounted upon a shaft at the back end of the pan1 and by suitable arrangement of guide rollers it unwinds slowly1 passes into the tar in which it is kept submerged4 ,the guide rollers can be raised so that when a new roller is set up they can be raised out of the tar4 ,the end of the paper is then slipped underneath them above the surface of the tar1 when having passed through the squeezing rollers1 it is fastened to the beaming roller1 and the guide rollers are submerged again4 ,a workman slowly turns the crank of the beaming roller4 ,this motion draws the paper slowly through the fluid1 the roll at the back end unwinding4 ,the speed with which the squeezing rollers are turned is regulated in such a manner that the paper remains sufficiently long underneath the fluid to be thoroughly impregnated with it4 ,the workmen quickly learn by experience how fast to turn the crank4 ,the hotter the tar1 the more rapid the saturation2 the high degree of heat expels the air and evaporates the hygroscopic fluid in the pores of the paper4 ,the strong heating of the tar causes another advantage connected with this method4 ,the surface of the paper as it issues from the squeezing rollers is still very hot1 and a part of the volatile oils evaporate very quickly at this high temperature4 ,the surface is thereby at once dried to a certain degree and at the same time receives a handsome luster1 as if it had been coated with a black lacquer4 ,the paper is sanded in a very simple manner without the use of mechanical apparatus2 as it is being wrapped into a coil1 it passes with its lower surface over a layer of sand1 while the workman who tends to rolling up strews the inside with sand4 ,the lower surface is coated very equally4 ,care only being necessary that the sand lies smooth and even at all times4 ,when the workman has rolled up ten or fifteen yards1 he cuts it across with a knife and straightedge1 so that the paper is cut at right angles with its sides4 ,there are three different sorts of roofing paper1 according to the impregnating fluid used in its manufacture4 ,the ordinary tar paper is that saturated with clear cold tar4 ,this contains the greatest amount of fluid ingredients and is very raggy in a fresh condition4 ,it is easy to see that the volatile hydrocarbons evaporate in a short time1 and when expelled1 the paper becomes stiffer and apparently drier4 ,this drying1 or the volatilization of the hydrocarbons1 causes pores between the fibers of the paper4 ,these pores are highly injurious to it1 as they facilitate a process of decomposition which will ruin it in a short time4 ,roofing paper can be called good only when it is essentially made from woolen rags1 and contains either very few or no earthy additions4 ,it is beyond doubt that the durability of a roofing paper increases with the quality of wool fiber it contains--vegetable fibers and earthy additions cause a direct injury4 ,reprehensible altogether is any combination with lime1 either in form of a carbonate or sulphate1 because the lime enters into chemical combination with the decomposition products of the tar4 ,the general nature of gravel is too well known to require description4 ,the grains of quartz sand are either sharp cornered or else rounded pieces of stone of quartz1 occasionally mixed with grains of other amorphous pieces of silica--such as horn stone1 silicious slate1 carnelian1 etc42 again1 with lustrous pieces of mica1 or red and white pieces of feldspar4 ,the gravel used for a tar paper roof must be of a special nature and be prepared for the purpose4 ,the size of its grains must not exceed a certain standard--say1 the size of a pea4 ,when found in the gravel bank1 it is frequently mixed with clay1 etc41 and it cannot be used in this condition for a roof1 but must be washed4 ,the utensils necessary for this purpose are of so simple and suggestive a nature that they need not be described4 ,slag is being successfully used in place of the gravel4 ,it is easily reduced to suitable size1 by letting the red hot mass1 as it runs from the furnace1 run into a vessel with water4 ,the sudden chilling of the slag causes it to burst into fragments of a sharp cornered structure4 ,it is next passed through a sieve1 and the suitably sized gravel makes an excellent material1 as it gives a clean appearance to the roof4 ,the thinking mind can easily go one step further and imagine that1 since the tar contains a number of volatile hydrocarbons1 it might be made more adaptable for impregnation by paper by distilling it1 as by this process the fluid would lose its tendency to evaporate and the percentage of resinous substances increase4 ,singular to say1 there was a prejudice against the employment of distilled tar1 entertained by builders and people who had no knowledge of chemistry4 ,increasing intelligence and altered business circumstances1 however1 brought about the almost universal employment of distilled tar1 and every large factory uses it at present4 ,the roofing paper prepared with distilled tar is perhaps most suitably called asphaltum paper1 as this has been used in its manufacture4 ,it possesses properties superior to the ordinary tar paper1 one of which is that immediately after its manufacture1 as soon as cold1 it is dry and ready for shipment2 nor does it require to be kept in store for a length of time1 and it has also a good1 firm body1 being as flexible and tough as leather4 ,it is very durable upon the roof1 and remains flexible for a long time4 ,it is true that asphaltum papers will always in a fresh state contain a small percentage of volatile ingredients1 which after a while make it hard and friable upon the roof2 but1 by reason of its greater percentage of resinous components1 it will always preserve a superior degree of durability and become far less porous4 ,one hundred parts by weight absorb #adj or #aej parts by weight of coal tar4 ,a factory which distilled a good standard tar for roofing paper recovered1 besides benzole and naphtha1 also about ten per cent4 of creosote oil1 used for one hundred parts raw paper1 #agf4d partially distilled tar4 ,experiments on a larger as well as a smaller scale reduced this quantity to an average of #ada4e parts for one hundred parts raw paper4 ,the weight of sanded paper is very variable1 as it depends altogether upon the size of the sand grains4 ,it may be stated generally that the weight of the sand is as large as that of the tarred paper4 ,the kinds of roofing paper saturated with other additions besides coal tar form a separate class1 in order to neutralize the defects inherent in coal tar4 ,these additions were originally for the purpose of thickening the paper and making it stiffer and drier4 ,the most ordinary and cheapest thickener was the coal pitch4 ,although the resinous substances are increased thereby1 still the light tar oils remain to evaporate1 and the paper prepared with such a substance readily becomes hard and brittle4 ,a better addition is the natural asphaltum1 because it resists better the destroying influence of the decomposition process1 and also1 to a certain degree1 protects the coal tar in which it is dissolved4 ,the addition of natural asphaltum doubtless caused the name of asphaltum roofing paper4 ,resin1 sulphur1 wood tar and other substances were also used as additions2 each manufacturer kept his method secret1 however1 and simply pointed out by high sounding title in what manner his paper was composed4 ,in most cases1 however1 this appellation was applied to the ordinary tar paper2 the impregnating substance was mixed only with coal pitch1 or else a roofing paper saturated with distilled tar4 ,the costly additions1 by the use of which a high grade of roofing paper can doubtless be produced1 largely increased its price1 and on account of the constant fall of prices of the article1 its use became rather one of those things more honored in the breach than in the observance1 and was dispensed with whenever practicable4 ,the crude paper is the foundation of the roofing paper4 ,the qualities of a good1 unadulterated paper have already been stated4 ,at times1 the crude paper contains too many earthy ingredients which impair the cohesion of the felted fibrous substance1 and which especially the carbonate of lime is very injurious1 as it readily effects the decomposition of the coal tar4 ,the percentage of wool1 upon which the durability of the paper depends very largely1 is very small in some of the paper found in the market4 ,in place of woolen rags1 cheap substitutes have been used1 such as waste1 which contains vegetable fibers4 ,since this cannot resist the decomposition process for any length of time1 it is evident that the roofing paper which contains a noticeable quantity of vegetable fibers cannot be very durable4 ,to judge from the endeavors made to improve the coal tar1 it may be concluded that this material does not fully comply with its function of making the roofing paper perfectly and durably waterproof4 ,the coal tar1 be it either crude or distilled1 is not a perfect impregnating material1 and the roofing paper1 saturated with it1 possesses several defects4 ,let us in the following try to ascertain their shortcomings1 and then express our idea in what manner the roofing paper may be improved4 ,it was previously mentioned that every tar roofing paper will1 after a greater or smaller lapse of time1 assume a dry1 porous1 friable condition1 caused by the volatilization of a part of the constituents of the tar4 ,this alteration is materially assisted by the oxygen of the air1 which causes the latter to become resinous and exerts a chemical influence upon them4 ,by the volatilization of the lighter tar oils1 pores are generated between the fibers of the roofing paper1 into which the air and humidity penetrate4 ,in consequence of the greatly enlarged surface1 not only the solid ingredients of the tar1 which still remain unaltered1 are exposed to the action of the oxygen1 but also the fibers of the roofing paper are exposed to decomposition4 ,how destructive the alternating influence of the oxygen and the atmospheric precipitations are for the roofing paper will be shown by the following results of tests4 ,it will have been observed that the rain water running from an old paper roof1 especially after dry weather1 has a yellowish1 sometimes a brown yellow color4 ,the supposition that this colored rain water might contain decomposition products of the roofing paper readily prompted itself1 and it has been collected and analyzed at different seasons of the year4 ,after a period of several weeks of fair weather during the summer1 rain fell1 and the sample of water running from a roof was caught and evaporated2 the residue when dried weighed #a4fh grammes4 ,it was of a brownish black color1 fusible in heat and readily soluble1 with a yellow brown color in water4 ,the dark brown substance readily dissolved in ammonia1 alcohol1 dilute acid1 hydrochloric acid1 sulphuric acid1 and decomposed in nitric acid1 but did not dissolve in benzine or fat oil4 ,after several days' rain during the summer1 a quantity of the water was caught1 evaporated1 and the residue dried4 ,its characteristics were similar to those above mentioned4 ,by an experiment instituted in water under conditions similar to the first mentioned1 the dry brown substance weighed #ga grammes4 ,it possessed the same characteristics4 ,in the solution effected with water containing some aqua ammonia of the brown substance1 a white precipitate of oxalate of lime occurred when an oxalate of ammonia solution was added1 but the brown substance remained in solution4 ,a further precipitation of oxalate of lime was produced by a solution of oxalic acid1 but the brown organic substance remained in solution4 ,this organic substance being liberated from the lime was evaporated1 and left a dry1 resinous1 fusible brownish black substance1 which also dissolved readily in water4 ,it will be seen from these trials that the substance obtained from the rain water running from a paper roof is a combination of an organic acid with lime1 which readily dissolves in water1 and that also the free organic acid combined with the lime dissolves easily in water4 ,the question concerning the origin of this organic substance or its combination with lime can only be answered in one way1 viz41 that it must have been washed by the rain water out of the paper4 ,but since such a solid substance1 easily soluble in water1 is contained neither in the fresh roofing paper nor in the coal tar1 the only deduction is that it must have arisen by the decomposition of the tar1 in consequence of the operation of the oxygen4 ,the lime comes from the coating substance of the roof1 for which tar mixed with coal pitch was used4 ,the latter was fused with carbonate of lime4 ,these analyses furthermore show that the formation of the organic acid easily soluble in water depends upon the season2 and that a larger quantity of it is generated in warm1 sunny weather than in cold1 without sunshine4 ,this peculiarity of the solid1 resinous constituents of the coal tar1 to be by the operation of the atmospheric oxygen altered into such products that are readily soluble in water1 makes the tar very unsuitable as a saturative substance for a roofing paper4 ,how rapidly a paper roof can be ruined by the generation of this injurious organic acid will be seen from the following calculation3 ,let us suppose that an average of #acb gallons of rain water falls upon ten square feet roof surface per year1 and that the arithmetical mean #j4icb of the largest 7#a4fhj7 and smallest number 7#j4ahd7 be the quantity of the soluble brown substance which on an average is dissolved in one quart of rain water2 hence from ten square feet of roof surface are rinsed away with the rain water per year #dff grammes of the soluble decomposition products of the tar4 ,the oxidation process will not always occur as intensely as by a paper roof1 ten years old and painted two years ago1 which instigated above described experiment4 ,as long as the roofing paper is fresh and less porous1 especially if the occurring pores are filled and closed again by repeated coatings1 oxidation will take place far less rapidly4 ,besides this1 the protective coating applied to the roof surface is exposed most to this oxidation process4 ,even by assuming this constantly progressive destructive action of the oxygen on the roofing paper to be much less than above stated1 we can readily imagine that it must be quite large4 ,if it is desired to produce a material free of faults1 it is first of all indispensable that unobjectionable raw material be procured4 ,coal tar was formerly used almost exclusively for the coating of a roof4 ,it was heated and applied hot upon the surface4 ,in order to avoid the running off of the thinly fluid mass1 the freshly coated surface was strewn with sand4 ,the most volatile portion of the tar evaporated soon1 whereby the coating became thicker and finally dried4 ,the bad properties of the coal tar1 pointed out elsewhere1 made it very unsuitable even for this purpose1 and experiments were instituted to compound mixtures1 by adding other ingredients to the tar1 that should more fully comply with its function4 ,it may be said in general that the coating masses for roofs can be divided into two classes3 either as lacquers or as cements4 ,to the former may be classed those of a fairly thinly fluid consistency1 and which contain volatile oils in such quantities that they will dry quickly4 ,cements are those of a thickly fluid consistency1 and are rendered thus fluid by heating4 ,it is not necessary that the coating applied should harden quickly1 as it assumes soon after its application a firmness sufficient to prevent it from running off the roof4 ,coal tar is to be classed among lacquers4 ,if it has been liberated by distillation from the volatile oils1 it is made better suited for the purpose than the ordinary kind4 ,the mass contains much more asphaltum1 and after drying1 which takes place soon1 it leaves a far thicker layer upon the roof surface1 while the pores1 which had formed in the roofing paper consequent on drying1 are better filled up4 ,nevertheless1 the distilled tar also has retained the property of drying with time into a hard1 vitreous mass1 and ultimately to be destroyed by decomposition4--,the ,roofer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,physical ,,laboratory ,,indicator4 ,the difficulties attending the management of a physical laboratory are much greater than those of a chemical one4 ,the cause of this lies in the fact that in the latter the apparatus is less complicated and the pieces less varied4 ,any contrivance that will reduce the labor and worry connected with the running of a laboratory is valuable4 ,a physical laboratory may be arranged in several ways4 ,the apparatus may be kept in a store room and such as is needed may be given to the student each day and removed after the experiments are performed2 or the apparatus for each experiment or system of experiments may be kept in a fixed place in the laboratory ready for assembling2 for certain experiments the apparatus may be kept in a fixed place in the laboratory and permanently arranged for service4 ,each student may have his own desk and apparatus or he may be required to pass from desk to desk4 ,the latter method is preferable4 ,when a store room is used the services of a man are required to distribute and afterward to collect4 ,if the apparatus is permanently distributed1 a large room is necessary1 but the labor of collecting and distributing is done away with4 ,there are certain general experiments intended to show the use of measuring instruments which all students must perform4 ,to illustrate the use of the indicator ,i have selected an elementary class1 although the instrument is equally applicable to all classes of experiments4 ,having selected a suitable room1 tables may be placed against the walls between the windows and at other convenient places4 ,shallow closets are built upon these tables against the wall2 they have glass doors and are fitted with shelves properly spaced4 ,a large number of light wooden boxes are prepared1 numbered from one up to the limit of the storage capacity of the closets4 ,a number corresponding to that upon the box is placed upon the shelf1 so that each one after removal may be returned to its proper place without difficulty4 ,on the front of the box is a label upon which is written the experiment to be performed or the name of the apparatus whose use is to be learned1 references to various books1 which may be found in the laboratory library1 and the apparatus necessary for the experiment1 which ought to be found in the box4 ,if any parts of the apparatus are too large to be placed in the box1 the label indicates by a number where it may be found in the storage case4 ,it is evident that1 instead of the above arrangement1 all the boxes can be stacked in piles in a general store room4 ,the described arrangement is preferable1 as it prevents confusion in collecting and distributing apparatus when the class is large4 ,the ,indicator 7see figure74--,some device is evidently desirable to direct the work of a laboratory with the least trouble and friction possible4 ,i have found that the old fashioned peg board1 formerly used in schools to record the demerits of scholars1 modified as in the following description1 leaves nothing to be desired4 ,the requirements of such an instrument are these3 ,it must show the names of the members of the class2 it must contain a full list of the experiments to be performed2 it must refer the student to the book and page where information in reference to the experiments or apparatus may be found2 it must show what experiments are to be performed by each student at a given time2 it must give information as to the place in the laboratory where the apparatus is deposited2 it must show to the instructor what experiments have been performed by each student2 it must prevent the assignment of the same experiment to two students2 it must enable the instructor to assign the same experiment to two or more students2 it must form a complete record of what has been done1 what work is incomplete1 and what experiments have not yet been assigned2 it must also be so arranged that new experiments or sets of experiments may be exhibited4 ------------------------------ ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ------------------------------ #a 99 o o 99 o o o o #b 99 o 99 99 o o o o #c 99 99 99 o o o o #d o 99 99 o o o o #e o 99 99 99 99 o o #f o 99 99 o 99 o o #g o o 99 o o o o #h o o o 99 o o o #i o o o 99 o o o #aj o o o o o o o #aa o o o 99 o o 99 #ab o o 99 99 o #ac o o 99 o o o o o #ad o o 99 o o o o o #ae o o o o o o o #af o o 99 o o 99 -------------------------------------- ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 etc41 are cards upon which are the names of students4 #a1 #b1 #c1 etc41 are cards like the one described in the article4 ,the small circles 7o7 represent unassigned experiments4 ,the black circles 7997 7slate nails7 represent work done4 ,the caudate circles 77 7brass nail7 represent work assigned4 ,the indicator consists of a plank of any convenient length and breadth4 ,the front surface is divided into squares of such size that the pegs may be introduced and withdrawn with ease4 ,at each corner of the squares holes are bored into which nails may be placed4 ,there is a blank border at the top and another on the left side4 ,at the top of each vertical column of holes is placed a card holder4 ,this is made of light tin turned up on the long edges--which are vertical--and tacked to the board4 ,opposite each horizontal row of holes is a similar tin card holder1 but of greater length1 and having its length horizontal4 ,the holders at the top of the board contain cards upon which the names of the class are written4 ,cards1 like the following1 are prepared for the horizontal holders4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,stewart ,gee #bbi ,physical ,manip4 #he ,intensity of ,gravity--,borda's ,method #ci ,glazebrook ,shaw #acb ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,these cards are numbered from one to any desired number and are arranged in the holders consecutively4 ,two kinds of nails are provided to fit the holes in the board3 ,an ordinary slate nail and a common picture frame nail with a brass head4 ,the latter indicates work to be done1 the former work done4 ,to prepare the board for service1 brass headed nails are placed opposite each experiment1 and below the names1 care being taken not to have more than one nail in the same horizontal row1 unless it is intended that two persons or more are to work upon the same experiment4 ,there will be no conflict when the brass nails occupy diagonal lines4 ,if they do not1 a glance will show the fact4 ,after an experiment has been performed and a report made upon the usual blank1 the brass nail is removed and a slate nail put in its place4 ,the board will show by the slate nails what work has been done by each student1 by the brass nails what is yet to be done1 and by the empty holes1 experiments which have been omitted or are yet to be assigned4 ,a slate nail opposite an experiment card indicates that that experiment may now be assigned to another person4 ,it is evident that the schedule for a whole term may be arranged in a few minutes and that the daily changes require very little time4 ,the board is hung in a convenient place4 ,the student as he enters the laboratory looks for his name on the upper cards and under it for the first brass nail in the vertical column3 to the left he finds the experiment card4 ,on the left hand end of the slip he sees the book references1 on the right hand end a number--#ci in the sample card given above4 ,knowing the number1 he proceeds to a desk and finds a box numbered in the same manner4 ,he removes the box from the closet4 ,on the label of the box is a list of all the apparatus necessary1 which he will find in the box2 the label also contains the book references4 ,he performs the experiment1 fills up a blank which he gives to the instructor1 puts all the materials back in the box1 replaces the box in its proper place in the closet and proceeds with the next experiment4 ,with this indicator there is no difficulty in managing fifty students or more4 ,comparatively little apparatus need be duplicated4 ,where apparatus is fixed against a wall a number may be tacked upon the wall and a card containing the information desired4 ,the procedure is then the same as with the boxes4 ,the cards on the board being removable1 other ones may be inserted containing information in reference to other boxes having the same number but containing different materials4 ,there can be no successful tampering with the board1 for the record of experiments performed is upon the blanks which the students turn in and also in the individual note books which are written up and given to the instructor for daily examination4 ,lafayette ,college4 ,j4,w4 ,,moore4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,method ,,of ,,extinguishing ,,fires ,this is by ,george ,dickson1 of ,toronto1 ,canada1 and ,david ,alanson ,jones4 ,a mixture of water and liquefied carbon dioxide upon being discharged through pipes at high pressure causes the rapid expansion of the gas and converts the mixture into spray more or less frozen1 and portions of the liquid carbon dioxide are frozen1 owing to its rapid expansion1 and are thus thrown upon the fire in a solid state1 where said frozen carbon dioxide in its further expansion not only acts to put out the fire1 but cools the surface upon which it falls1 and thus tends to prevent reignition4 ,a represents a receptacle sufficiently strong to stand a pressure of not less than a thousand pounds to the square inch4 ,b ,b water receptacles4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,in the drawings we have shown two receptacles ,b and only one receptacle ,a2 but we do not wish to confine ourselves to any particular number1 nor do we wish to confine ourselves to the horizontal position in which the receptacles are shown4 ,c is a pipe leading from the receptacle ,a to a point at or near the bottom of the receptacle ,b4 ,f is a pipe through which the mixture of water and liquefied gas from the receptacle ,b is forced by the expansion of said liquefied gas1 the said pipe taking the mixture of water and liquefied gas from the bottom of the receptacle4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,to use the apparatus1 open the stop cock ,d in the pipe ,c1 leading to one of the receptacles ,b1 whereupon1 owing to the lower pressure in the cylinder ,b1 the liquid carbon dioxide expands and rises to the top of the cylinder ,a and forces the liquid carbon dioxide into the cylinder ,b1 the same as the superior steam of a boiler forces the water of the boiler out when the same is tapped below the surface of the liquid4 ,now upon opening the tap ,h1 this superior gas forces out the mixture of water and liquid carbon dioxide1 which suddenly expanding causes portions of the globules of liquefied gas to be frozen1 and these1 being protected by a rapidly evaporating portion of the liquefied gas1 are thrown on the fire in solid particles4 ,at the same time the water is blown into a spray1 which is more or less frozen4 ,the fire is thus rapidly extinguished by the vaporization of the carbon dioxide and water spray4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,smokeless ,,gunpowder4 ,,by ,,hudson ,,maxim4 ,during the last forty years leading chemists have continued to experiment with a view to the production of a gunpowder which should be smokeless4 ,but not until the last few years has any considerable degree of success been attained4 ,to be smokeless1 a gunpowder must yield only gaseous products of combustion4 ,none of the so-called smokeless powders are entirely smokeless1 although some of them are very nearly so4 ,the smoke of common black gunpowder is largely due to minute particles of solid matter which float in the air4 ,about one-half of the total products of combustion of black gunpowder of ordinary composition consists of potassium carbonate in a finely divided condition and of potassium sulphate1 which is produced chiefly by the burning in the air of potassium sulphide1 another production of combustion1 as on the outrushing gases it is borne into the air in a fine state of division4 ,another cause for the smoke of gunpowder is the formation of small liquid vesicles which condense from some of the products of combustion thrown into the air in a state of vapor1 in the same manner as vesicles of aqueous vapor form in the air on the escape of highly heated steam from the whistle of a locomotive4 ,broadly speaking1 an explosive compound is one which contains1 within itself1 all the elements necessary for its complete combustion1 and whose heated gaseous products occupy vastly more space than the original compound4 ,such compound usually consists of oxygen1 associated with other elements1 for which it has great affinity1 and from which it is held from more intimate union1 or direct chemical combination1 under normal conditions1 by being in combination as well with other elements for which it has less affinity1 but which it readily gives up for the stronger affinities when explosion takes place1 the other elements either combining with one another to form new compounds or being set free in an uncombined state4 ,an explosive is said to detonate when the above changes take place instantaneously1 the action being transmitted with the speed of electricity by a sort of molecular rhythm from molecule to molecule throughout the entire substance of the compound4 ,an explosive is said to explode when the above changes do not occur instantaneously throughout the whole substance1 but whose combustion takes place from the surface inward of the particles or grains of which it is composed1 thus requiring some definite lapse of time4 ,the elements of an explosive compound may be associated chemically as in nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton1 which are chemical compounds1 being the results of definite reactions4 ,or1 an explosive may be a mere mechanical mixture of different substances comprising the necessary elements1 as is ordinary black gunpowder1 which is a compound of charcoal1 sulphur and saltpeter1 the saltpeter supplying the necessary oxygen4 ,no gunpowder can be smokeless in which saltpeter or any oxygen-bearing salt having a metallic base is employed1 for when the salt gives up its oxygen1 the base combines with other elements to produce a sulphate1 a carbonate1 or other salt1 which1 being solid1 produces smoke4 ,therefore1 to be smokeless1 a gunpowder must contain no other elements than oxygen1 hydrogen1 nitrogen1 and carbon1 and in such proportions that the products of combustion shall be wholly gaseous4 ,the nitric ethers--gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine--constitute such explosive compounds4 ,these substances were formerly thought to be nitro-substitution compounds1 but are now known to belong to the compound ethers of nitric acid4 ,gun-cotton1 discovered by ,schonbein1 in #ahde1 has since been looked upon as the most promising material for a smokeless gunpowder1 it being a very powerful explosive and burning with practically no smoke4 ,to-day1 gun-cotton1 in some form or other1 constitutes the base of substantially all of the smokeless powders with which have been attained any considerable degree of success4 ,gun-cotton alone and in its fibrous state has been found to be too quick1 or violent1 for propulsive purposes1 such as use in firearms2 as under such conditions of confinement it is very likely to detonate and burst the gun4 ,however1 if gun-cotton be dissolved in a suitable solvent1 which is capable of being evaporated out1 such as acetone1 or acetate of ethyl1 which are very volatile1 it becomes1 when thus dissolved and dried1 a very hard1 horn-like1 amorphous substance1 which may be used for a smokeless gunpowder4 ,but this substance taken alone is very difficult to mould or granulate1 and the loss of expensive solvents must necessarily be quite considerable4 ,when gun-cotton is reduced to a collodial solid1 as above1 and used as a smokeless gunpowder1 the grains must be made comparatively small to insure prompt and certain ignition1 and consequently the pressures developed in the gun are apt to be too great when charges sufficiently large are used to give desired velocities4 ,if1 however1 a compound be made of gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine1 in about equal parts1 by means of a volatile solvent or combining agent1 such as one of the before mentioned1 and the solvent evaporated out1 we obtain practically a new substance and one which1 as regards its explosive nature1 is quite unlike either of its two constituents taken alone4 ,the nitro-glycerine1 furthermore1 being itself a solvent of gun-cotton1 much less of the volatile ether is necessary to render the compound of an amorphous character4 ,being quite plastic this substance may be wrought or moulded into any desired size or form of grain4 ,this simple compound of nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton1 or with some slight modifications1 has been found1 when properly granulated1 to be the most smokeless powder that has yet been discovered or invented4 ,if pure chemicals are employed in the manufacture1 and the gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine be made of the highest nitration and best quality1 we have a smokeless powder which will possess the following desirable qualities3 #ast4 ,it is absolutely smokeless1 that is1 its products of combustion are entirely gaseous4 #b;d4 ,its products of combustion are in no way deleterious or unpleasant4 #c;d4 ,it is perfectly safe to manufacture1 handle and transport4 ,there is no more danger of its exploding accidentally than there would be of an explosion of shavings or sawdust2 for1 unless well confined and set off with a strong primer1 it will not explode at all4 ,in the open its combustion is so slow as to in no way resemble or partake of the nature of an explosion4 #dth4 ,it is perfectly stable1 and will keep any length of time absolutely without undergoing any change whatever1 under all conditions of temperature or exposure to which gunpowder would ever be subjected4 #eth4 ,it is not hygroscopic1 and may be soaked in water without being at all affected by it4 #fth4 ,it will not corrode the cartridge case4 #gth4 ,it will not foul the gun4 #hth4 ,it is sure of ignition with a good primer1 and may be made to burn as slowly as desired by varying the character and size of the grains4 ,indeed1 it may be made to burn so slowly as to fail of complete combustion before the bullet leaves the gun1 and after firing several rounds1 partly burned pieces of the powder may be picked up in front of the gun4 #ith4 ,in a shoulder arm1 a velocity of #b1jjj feet per second may be imparted to the bullet with this powder1 and with a pressure in the chamber of the gun of not more than fifteen ,english tons4 ,this is1 of course1 when the gun1 cartridge case1 primer1 and projectile are adapted to the use of smokeless powder1 and the granulation of the powder is adapted to them4 ,if what ,i have here claimed for the above smokeless powder be true1 it would appear that it may be taken as really an ideal smokeless powder4 ,why1 then1 has it not already been universally adopted8 ,surely such a powder is just what every government is seeking4 ,in reply to this1 let me say that1 in order for the above compound to be an effective and successful smokeless powder1 with the manifestation of the many desirable qualities which ,i have recited1 a great many other conditions are necessary1 some of which ,i will mention4 ,to arrive at the knowledge that this compound would constitute the best smokeless powder has required a great deal of experimenting4 ,it was first thought that gun-cotton colloid1 without any nitro-glycerine1 that is1 gun-cotton dissolved and dried1 would burn more slowly1 keep better1 and give better ballistics than it would if combined with nitro-glycerine4 ,it was also thought that gun-cotton of a high degree of nitration when made into colloidal form would even then burn too quickly to be suitable for use in firearms4 ,consequently1 the first experiments were with low grade gun-cotton1 what is called collodion cotton1 such as is employed in the manufacture of celluloid4 ,but1 as this would not explode without the addition of some oxygen-bearing element1 various oxygen-bearing salts were combined with it1 such as nitrate of potassium1 nitrate of ammonia1 nitrate of baryta1 etc4 ,also a great many of the first smokeless powders were made of low grade gun-cotton combined with nitro-glycerine in varying proportions4 ,these powders would often give very good results when first made2 but low grade gun-cotton or di-nitro-cellulose1 as it is called1 is a very unstable compound1 and these powders1 after giving very promising results1 were found to be constantly undergoing change1 sooner or later resulting in complete decomposition4 ,when nitro-glycerine was first combined with gun-cotton in small quantities1 camphor was often added1 to lessen the rapidity of combustion which the nitro-glycerine was supposed to impart and also to render the compound more plastic1 and to tend to prevent the decomposition of the low grade gun-cotton4 ,but camphor being volatile1 would1 by its evaporation1 cause the powder to constantly change in character4 ,castor oil has been found to be a better diluent1 as this will not evaporate4 ,as all of the smokeless powders made of a low grade gun-cotton were found to deteriorate and spoil1 experiments were made with gun-cotton of the highest degree of nitration1 both alone and in combination with nitro-glycerine4 ,these experiments were first conducted in ,england by private parties and by the ,british government1 when it was found that high grade gun-cotton would give excellent results if made into a colloidal solid and used alone1 or in combination with certain other constituents4 ,with a view to saving the large quantity of solvents necessary to reduce the gun-cotton1 and to get a more prompt and certain ignition with a larger grain1 experiments were cautiously made by the admixture of varying proportions of nitro-glycerine to the gun-cotton when dissolved1 or rather along with other solvents in the process of dissolving it4 ,it was soon found that nitro-glycerine added in quantities1 even equal in weight to the gun-cotton itself1 did not materially increase the rapidity of the explosion of the compound4 ,and it was also found that high grade gun-cotton1 when combined with nitro-glycerine1 gave very much better results than low grade gun-cotton4 ,i have spoken here of high and low grade gun-cotton1 when in fact the word gun-cotton should be applied only to the highest nitro-compound of cellulose4 ,the word gun cotton has always been rather loosely used4 ,pyroxyline would be a better word1 as this applies to all grades4 ,when cotton fiber is soaked in a large excess of a mixture of the strongest nitric and sulphuric acids1 gun-cotton proper1 or that of the highest grade1 is produced4 ,when weaker acids are used1 lower grades of nitro-cellulose are formed4 ,the first mentioned or highest grade gun-cotton1 when thoroughly freed from its acids1 has always proved to be a perfectly stable compound4 ,the lower grades have always been found to be unstable and subject to spontaneous decomposition4 ,nitro-glycerine has also been erroneously thought to be a very unstable compound4 ,but experiments have proved that1 when made pure1 it is perfectly stable4 ,having now explained how the knowledge came to be arrived at that the aforementioned compound of highest grade nitro-glycerine and highest grade gun-cotton would constitute the best basis for a smokeless powder1 ,i will now mention a few of the other conditions necessary to success with its use1 without assuming that smokeless powder has yet passed its experimental stage1 and is beyond further improvement4 ,nevertheless1 such is the compound which has come to stay as the basis of all smokeless powders2 and any smokeless powder1 if a successful one1 may be counted upon as being made of this compound of gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine1 or of a colloid of gun-cotton1 either alone or combined with diluents1 oxygen-bearing salts1 or inert matter4 ,the fact that smokeless powder may still be said to be in somewhat of an experimental stage is not to admit that it is not a success4 ,firearms1 cartridge cases1 and projectiles are also still in an experimental stage1 for they are constantly being improved2 yet their use has been a great success for a good many years4 ,the question of success of a smokeless powder does not rest alone with the powder itself4 ,the gun1 the cartridge case1 primer1 and bullet have been as much the subjects of experiments in adapting them to the use of smokeless powder as has the smokeless powder in being adapted to them4 ,to impart a velocity of #b1jjj feet per second to a rifle ball1 with corresponding long range and accuracy of flight1 has been a question as much of improvement in rifles and projectiles as in the powder4 ,to give a velocity of #b1jjj feet per second to a bullet1 requires a pressure of at least #ae ,english tons in the chamber of a gun4 ,this would be a dangerous pressure in an old-fashioned shoulder arm2 while a bullet made only of lead would strip on striking the rifling and pass right through the barrel of the gun without taking any rotary motion whatever4 ,it might at first seem that the powder is the only thing to be considered2 but high ballistics can only be obtained when everything else is adapted to its use4 ,the projectile1 the cartridge case1 the fulminating cap1 and the gun have had to be all built up together1 and a very large amount of experimenting has been necessary to determine what would constitute the best projectile1 best cartridge case1 best fulminating cap1 and what should be the character of the rifling and the quality and temper of the steel of the gun barrel4 ,it has been necessary first to conduct experiments to test the smokeless powders for velocities and pressures1 and then with the powders test various kinds of projectiles and guns4 ,in order to obtain the high ballistics which have been secured1 it has been found necessary to cover the bullet with something harder than lead and to rifle the gun in a special manner4 ,the ,french1 who were the first to definitely adopt smokeless powder1 were the first also to make a rifle1 projectile1 cartridge case and primer suited to its use4 ,to obtain long range with a small long bullet such as is now used1 it should rotate at a very high speed4 ,it is well known to artillerists that a projectile of four or more calibers in length has to be rotated at a much higher speed than one of half that length1 in order to keep the projectile stiff in the air1 and to prevent it from ending over in its flight4 ,to communicate this very high rotary movement to the bullet in the instant of time during which it is passing through the barrel1 the rifling of the gun has to exert an enormous torsion on the bullet4 ,lead1 no matter how hardened1 is not sufficiently strong1 as it will not only strip and pass straight through the gun without taking any rotary movement whatever1 but under such very high pressures it behaves like wax1 and is thrown from the gun in a distorted mass4 ,the ,french cover their bullets with ,german silver1 a substance made of nickel1 zinc and copper2 and in order to put as little strain upon the rifling and projectile as possible1 the rifling of the gun is made with an increasing twist1 and has no sharp edges4 ,the ,french rifle is made very strong at the breech and is of tempered steel throughout4 ,in this way the ,french have made smokeless powder a success--a smokeless powder made substantially of a character such as ,i have herein described4 ,with smokeless powder1 the ,french rifle imparts a muzzle velocity of #b1jjj feet per second to the bullet1 with a range of about #b1djj meters4 ,if smokeless powder be divided into sufficiently small grains to be ignited by an ordinary fulminating cap1 it would burn too quickly1 thereby causing the pressure to mount too high1 and without giving the desired velocity4 ,consequently very large and strong fulminating caps have to be employed4 ,smokeless powder is not ignited in the same manner as black powder4 ,something besides ignition is necessary4 ,black powder simply requires to be set on fire2 while a smokeless powder1 on the contrary1 not only requires that it be set on fire1 but that a certain degree of pressure be set up inside of the cartridge case4 ,for instance1 if a primer of a certain size should be found to operate perfectly well1 giving prompt ignition in the cartridge case of a rifle of small caliber1 it would be found that the same primer would not ignite a charge of the same powder if loaded into a gun of one inch caliber4 ,in the latter case a few grains only lying near the primer would be ignited1 and these would soon become extinguished by sudden release of pressure bringing about a cooling effect due to expansion of the gases4 ,in small cartridges a large fulminating cap is all that is required1 but in large cartridges it is necessary to resort to additional means of ignition4 ,in ,france1 where experiments were conducted with a #cg millimeter ,maxim gun1 it was found to be impracticable to use a fulminating cap sufficiently large to ignite the powder and cause it to burn4 ,therefore1 a small ignition charge of black powder was employed1 it being put in a capsule or bag and placed next the primer4 ,on firing at the rate of #cjj rounds per minute1 the black powder1 though small in quantity1 produced a cloud of smoke through which it was quite impossible to see4 ,the inventor of the gun then prepared for the ,french some wafers of pyroxyline canvas1 which were placed next to the primer1 securing thereby prompt ignition without the production of any smoke4 ,smokeless powder1 made as ,i have described1 cannot be detonated by a fulminating cap of any size or by any means whatever4 ,a large charge of fulminate of mercury placed inside the cartridge case next the primer will not detonate the powder1 it serving only to ignite it and cause it to explode4 ,but even this would not cause the powder to explode except it be confined behind a projectile1 that sufficient pressure may be run up to make it burn in its own gases4 ,some curious experiments with smokeless powder may be tried with a shot gun4 ,if the fulminating cap be large1 the powder fine1 the wads numerous and hard and the charge of shot heavy1 all being well rammed down1 and the paper case well spun over the last pasteboard wad1 a charge of smokeless powder about equal in weight to one-half of what would be employed of black powder would give about the same results as black powder4 ,but if the charge of shot be omitted1 the primer will only ignite the powder1 and there will be set up sufficient pressure merely to throw the wads about half way up the barrel of the gun1 when the powder will go out4 ,now if this same charge of powder be collected and reloaded into a new cartridge case and well confined behind wads and a charge of shot1 as above explained1 it will all burn1 giving the same results as black powder4 ,attempts have been made to use this powder in pistols and revolvers1 but here it has proved a failure1 as the pressure is not great enough to cause the powder to be consumed1 unless it be in the form of very fine grains or dust1 in which case the pressure mounts too high4 ,however1 this might be overcome to a degree by making the powder porous4 ,the chemical conditions of the powder might be the same1 but the physical conditions must be different4 ,a powder suitable for shot guns and pistols would not be suitable for rifles4 ,one not familiar with the characteristics of smokeless powder would be almost certain to fail in his first attempt to fire it4 ,many persons have been convinced by their first experiments that this powder would not burn at all in a gun1 any more than so much sand4 ,smokeless powder is consumed with a rapidity which accords with the conditions of its confinement4 ,therefore1 the bullets which have been experimented with by different governments have been the cause of much of the varying pressures attributed to the smokeless powders4 ,the ,austrians use the ,mannlicher steel jacketed bullet4 ,the steel casing or jacket is first tinned on the inside and then the lead is cast in1 thus melting the tin and adhering firmly to the jacket4 ,this projectile sets up enormous friction in the barrel of the gun when used with smokeless powder2 as the smokeless powder leaves the gun barrel perfectly clean and the two steel surfaces being in absolute contact cause tremendous friction2 and as the coefficient of friction varies with every shot1 the pressure in the gun constantly varies greatly4 ,the ,german silver covered bullet used by the ,french has the disadvantage that when firing rapidly the chamber of the barrel becomes nickel plated and great friction is caused1 mounting up the pressures and causing the muzzle velocities to fall off4 ,the ,austrians1 in order to prevent their steel cased bullets from rusting and to lessen the friction in the barrel of the gun1 cover them with a heavy lubricant1 which gives the cartridges an unsightly appearance and causes them to gather dust and sand4 ,the ,french employ a lubricant at the base of the projectile1 with a small copper disk between the same and the powder4 ,col4 ,a4,r4 ,buffington1 commander of the ,national ,armory at ,springfield1 ,mass41 has made a steel covered projectile which he prevents from rusting by blackening by a niter process4 ,several grooves are pressed in the base of the bullet which carry a lubricant1 and when the bullet is inserted in the cartridge case the grooves are covered by it4 ,furthermore1 these grooves prevent the lead filling from bursting through the steel casing1 leaving the latter in the barrel1 as often occurs with the ,austrian and ,french projectiles when using smokeless powder4 ,a new projectile has lately come out1 the invention of ,captain ,edward ,palliser1 of the ,british army4 ,this bullet consists of a jacket made of very soft ,swedish wrought iron1 coated with zinc and filled with lead1 the lead being pressed into this jacket4 ,the bullet is corrugated at its base1 after the manner of the one made by ,colonel ,buffington4 ,this projectile has been experimented with very extensively by the ,british government1 and at the works of the ,maxim-,nordenfelt ,guns and ,ammunition ,company1 in ,england4 ,the zinc coating of the bullet is too soft to stick to the barrel of the gun1 and also in a measure acts as a lubricant4 ,this projectile has given better results than any other that has been experimented with4 ,the great velocities and the most uniform pressures by the use of smokeless powder have been attained with this ,palliser bullet4 ,,noiselessness4 ,a great many stories have been told about the noiselessness of smokeless powder4 ,but there is no such thing as a noiseless gunpowder4 ,the report of a gun charged with smokeless powder is very sharp1 and is as loud as when black powder is used1 yet the volume of sound is much less1 so that the report cannot be heard at so great a distance4 ,the report of a gun using smokeless powder is a sound of much higher pitch than when black powder is used1 and consequently cannot be heard at so great a distance as the lower notes given by black powder4 ,as smokeless powder exerts a much greater pressure than common black powder when burned in a gun1 one would naturally think that the recoil of the barrel would be greater1 owing to the greater pressure exerted by the smokeless powder on the base of the cartridge case and the breech mechanism4 ,however1 such is not the fact2 for the barrel actually recoils very much less when smokeless powder is used4 ,this is due to the suddenness with which the pressure is exerted by smokeless powder1 it acting more like a very sharp blow on the metal1 whereby more of the energy is converted into heat instead of being spent in overcoming the inertia of the barrel to give recoil4 ,similarly when smokeless powder is fired in a gun1 the displacement of the air is so sudden that the sound waves do not possess the same amplitude of recoil or vibration as is given by black powder4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,construction ,,and ,,maintenance ,,of ,,underground ,,circuits4 ,,by ,s4,b4 ,,fowler4 ,the numerous disastrous storms of the last winter have brought out very vividly the advantages of having all wires placed underground1 and many inquiries have been addressed to the companies operating underground circuits as to their success4 ,it is not probable that all of the answers to these inquiries have been of the most favorable character4 ,to many central station managers an underground system means frequent break-downs and interruptions of service1 with1 perhaps1 slow and expensive repairs1 which bring in their turn numerous complaints1 loss of customers1 and reduced profits4 ,in many installations burn-outs both underground and in the station are frequent1 with the natural result that the operating of circuits underground is not there considered an unqualified success4 ,the writer has in mind two very different experiences with underground cables4 ,several miles of cable were bought by a certain company1 carefully laid1 and up to to-day not a single burn-out or interruption of service can be attributed to failure of cables2 at about the same time another company bought about an equal amount of the same kind of cable1 and in a comparatively short time the current had to be shut off the lines and the whole installation repaired and parts of it replaced4 ,both of these experiences have been repeated many times and will be again1 although it is simply a distinction between a good cable properly laid and a good cable ruined by careless and incompetent workmanship4 ,every failure can be traced to poor work in the original installation or to the use of a cheap cable1 both causes being due1 generally1 to that false economy which looks for too quick returns4 ,a poorly insulated line wire and a poorly insulated cable are two very different things4 ,however1 it is a fact that by the use of a good cable it is not difficult to construct an underground system for light1 power1 telegraph or telephone uses that will be superior to overhead lines in its service and in cost of maintenance4 ,the ideal underground system must have as a starting point a system of subways admitting of the easy drawing in and out of cables and affording means of making subsidiary connections readily and with the minimum of expense and interruption of service4 ,this is practically accomplished by a subway consisting of lines of pipe terminating at convenient intervals1 say at street intersections1 in manholes1 for convenience in jointing and in running out house connections4 ,these pipes1 or ducts1 as they are called1 should be for two kinds of service2 the lower or deeper laid lines for the main or trunk circuits1 and a second series of ducts laid nearer the surface1 running into service boxes placed near together for lines to house to house connections4 ,in some cities where it is allowed to run overhead lines1 the plan of running but one service connection in a block is followed1 all customers in the block being supplied from a line run over the housetops or strung on the rear walls4 ,this makes unnecessary all subsidiary ducts except a short one from the manhole to the nearest building in the block1 and effects a considerable saving in pipe1 service boxes1 cables and labor4 ,the manholes should have their walls built up of brick1 the floors should be of concrete1 and there should be an inside lid which can be fastened down and the manhole thus made water-tight4 ,for ducts wood1 iron or cement lined pipe may be used4 ,to preserve the wood it is generally treated with creosote1 which1 in contact with the lead cover of the cable1 sets up a chemical action1 resulting in the destruction of the lead4 ,wood offers but little protection for the cable1 as it is too easily damaged and broken through in the frequent street openings made by companies operating lines of pipe in the streets1 and as one of the main purposes of a subway is that of a protection to cables1 wooden ducts have little to recommend them except their cheapness4 ,iron pipes are either laid in trenches filled in with earth or are laid in cement4 ,iron pipe will of course rust out in time1 and if absolute permanence in construction is desired1 should be laid in cement1 for after the pipe rusts out1 the duct of cement is still left4 ,however1 if we are going to the expense of laying in cement1 it would be much preferable to use cement lined pipe1 which is not only cheaper than iron pipe1 but makes the most perfect cable conduit1 as it affords a perfectly smooth surface to draw the cable over and give a good duct edge4 ,it is not necessary1 however1 in small installations of cable1 especially where additional connections will not be of frequent occurrence1 to go to the expense of subways1 for cable may be safely laid in the ground in trenches filled in with earth1 or can be inclosed in a plain wooden box or a wooden box filled with pitch4 ,there are1 of course1 many localities where1 if the cable is laid in contact with the earth1 a chemical action would take place which might result in the destruction of the cable4 ,underground cables are of the following classes3 #a4 ,rubber insulated cables1 insulated with rubber or other homogeneous material4 #b4 ,fibrous cables1 so called from the conductors being covered with some fibrous material1 as cotton or paper1 which is saturated with the insulating material1 paraffine1 resin oil1 or some special compound4 ,under this latter head is also included the dry core paper cables4 ,the first thing to do is to get the cable drawn into the ducts1 and on the proper accomplishment of this depends to a great extent the success or failure of the whole installation4 ,probably the ducts have been wired when the subway was constructed1 but if not a wire must be run through as a means of pulling in the draw rope4 ,there are several kinds of apparatus for getting a wire through a duct--rods1 flexible tapes1 mechanical creepers1 etc42 but probably the best is the sectional rod4 ,this simply consists of three or four foot lengths of hard wood rods1 having metal tips that screw into each other4 ,a rod is placed in a duct at a manhole1 one screwed to that1 both are pushed forward1 another one added and pushed forward1 and so on until they extend the entire length of the duct4 ,then the wire is attached and the rods are pulled out and detached one at a time and with the last rod the wire is through4 ,at least ,no4 #ad galvanized iron or steel wire should be used1 for any smaller size cannot be used a second time1 as a rule4 ,in starting to pull in the draw rope a wire brush should be attached to the wire and to this again the rope1 and when the brush arrives at the distant end of the duct it very likely will bring with it a miscellaneous collection of material which for the good of the cable had better be in the manhole than in the duct4 ,the reel or drum carrying the cable should be mounted on wheels or jacks and placed on the same side of the manhole as the duct into which the cable is to be drawn1 and must always be so placed that the cable will run off the top of the reel4 ,there are several methods of attaching the draw rope to the cable4 ,as simple and strong a method as any is to punch two of these holes through the cable1 lead and all1 and attach the rope by means of an iron wire--some of the draw wire will do--run through these holes4 ,depending on the length and weight of cable to be pulled it can be drawn either by hand or by a multiplying winch4 ,the rope should run through a block fastened in the manhole in such a position that the rope shall have a good straightaway lead from the mouth of the duct4 ,the strain on the cable should be perfectly uniform and steady2 if the power is applied by a series of jerks either the lead covering may be pulled apart or some of the conductors broken4 ,at the reel there must always be a large enough number of men to turn it and keep the cable from rubbing on anything1 and in the manhole one or more men to see that the cable feeds into the duct straight and to guide it if necessary4 ,if the ducts are of iron and are not perfectly smooth at the ends1 these should be made so with a file1 and in addition a protector of some sort should be placed in the mouths of the duct1 both above and below the cable4 ,six inches of lead pipe1 split lengthwise and bent over at one end to prevent being drawn into the duct with the cable1 makes a very good protector4 ,the cable should be reeled off the drum just fast enough to prevent any of the power used in pulling the cable through the duct being utilized in unreeling it4 ,if this latter is allowed to occur the cable will be bent too short and the lead covering buckled or broken1 and also the cable may be jammed against the upper edge of the duct and perhaps cut through4 ,if the reel is allowed to turn faster than the cable is drawn in1 the first three or four turns on the reel will slacken up1 and the lead covering may either be dented or cut through by scraping on the ground4 ,if the cable end when pulled through up to the block is not long enough to bend around the hole more than half way1 the rope should be unfastened from its end1 a length of rope with a well frayed out end should be run through the block1 and by fastening to the cable close to the duct1 with a series of half hitches1 as much slack as necessary can be pulled in4 ,if this is properly manipulated there need not be a scratch on the cable1 but unless great care is taken the lead may be pressed up into ridges and the core itself damaged4 ,immediately after the cable is drawn in1 if the joint is not to be at once made1 the open end or ends should be cut off and the cable soldered up1 as most cables are very susceptible to moisture and readily absorb water even from the atmosphere4 ,where practicable it is always a good plan to pull the cable through as many manholes as possible without cutting the cable2 for the joint is1 especially in telephone or telegraph cables1 the weak point4 ,to do this the rope should be pulled through the proper duct in the next section without unfastening it from the cable2 the winch should be moved to the next manhole1 and pulling through then done as before4 ,there should always be a man in every hole through which the cable is running to see that it does not bind anywhere and to keep protectors around the cable4 ,it is not advisable to pull more than one cable into a duct1 and never advisable to pull a cable into a duct containing another cable1 but if two or more cables have to go into the same duct1 they should always be drawn in together4 ,lead covered cables and those with no lead on the outside should never be pulled into the same duct1 for if they bind anywhere the soft cable will suffer where two lead covered cables would get through all right4 ,some manufacturers are now putting on their cables a tape or braid covering1 which saves the lead many bad bruises and cuts1 and is a valuable addition to a cable at very little additional expense4 ,practically all electric light and power cables are either single or double conductors1 and the jointing of these is comparatively a simple matter1 although requiring considerable care4 ,the lead is cut back from each end about four or five inches1 and the conductors bared of insulation for two or three inches4 ,the bare conductors should be thoroughly tinned by dipping in the metal pot or pouring the melted solder over them4 ,a sperm candle is better than resin or acid for any part of the operations where solder is used4 ,a lead sleeve is here slipped back over the cable1 out of the way1 and the ends of the conductors brought together in a copper sleeve which is then sweated to a firm joint4 ,this part must be as good a piece of work mechanically as electrically4 ,the bare splice is then wrapped tightly with cotton or silk tape to a thickness slightly greater than that of the insulation of the cable1 and is thoroughly saturated with the insulating compound until all moisture previously absorbed by the tape is driven off4 ,the lead sleeve is then brought over the splice and wiped to the cable4 ,the joint is then filled with the insulating compound poured through holes in the top of the sleeve2 these holes are then closed and the joint is complete1 and there is no reason why1 in light and power cables1 that joint should not be as perfect as any other part of the cable4 ,when the cable ends are prepared for jointing they should be hung up in such a position that they are in the same plane1 both horizontal and vertically1 and firmly secured there1 so that when the lead sleeve is wiped on the conductor may be in its exact center1 and great care must be taken not to move the cables again until the sleeve is filled and the insulation sufficiently cooled to hold the conductor in position4 ,it is also very important to see that there are no sharp points on the conductors themselves1 on the copper sleeve1 on the edges of the lead covering or on the lead sleeve4 ,all these should be made perfectly smooth1 for points facilitate disruptive discharges4 ,branch joints had better be made as ,t-joints rather than as ,y-joints1 for they are better electrically and mechanically1 although they occupy more room in the manholes4 ,they are of course made in the same way as straight joints1 a lead ,t-sleeve being used1 however4 ,for multiple arc circuits copper ,t-sleeves and for series circuits copper ,l-sleeves are used4 ,telephone and telegraph cables are made of any required gauge of wire and with from #a to #aej conductors in a cable4 ,in jointing these the splices are never soldered1 the conductors being joined either with a twist joint or with the so-called ,western ,union splice4 ,each splice is covered with a cotton or silk sleeve or a wrapping of tape1 the latter being preferable1 although considerably increasing the time necessary for making the joint4 ,great care must be taken that no ends of wire are left sticking up1 for they will surely work their way through the tape and grounds1 and crosses will be the result4 ,the wires should always be joined layer to layer and each splice very tightly taped in order to get as much insulating compound around each splice as possible in the limited space4 ,the splices should be broken as much as possible1 so as to avoid having adjoining splices coming over each other4 ,after the joint has been saturated with insulating compound the wires should have an outside wrapping of tape to keep them in shape1 and then the sleeve is wiped on and filled4 ,if the insulation resistance of the jointed telegraph or telephone cable is a quarter of what the cable tested in the factory1 it may be considered that an exceptionally good piece of work has been done4 ,i have spoken more particularly of fibrous lead covered cables1 as the handling of them includes practically every step of the work on any other kind of underground cable4 ,in insulating dry core paper cables a paper sleeve is slipped over the splice1 and in rubber cables the splice is wrapped with rubber tape2 all other details are the same for these as for the fibrous cable4 ,in the laying of light and power cables every joint1 as made1 should be tested for insulation with a ,thomson galvanometer1 as the insulation must necessarily be very high1 and if one joint or section of cable is any weaker than another it may be very important in the future to know it4 ,all tests must be made after the joint has cooled1 for while hot its insulation resistance will be very low4 ,tests for copper resistance should also be made to determine if the splices are electrically perfect2 an imperfect splice may cause considerable trouble4 ,in telegraph and telephone cables the conductors should be of very soft copper1 for in stripping the conductor of insulation it is very easy to nick the wire1 and if of hard drawn copper open wires will be the result4 ,all work should be frequently tested for continuity with telephones1 magnetos1 or small portable galvanometers4 ,it is only necessary to ground the conductors at one end and try each wire at the other end4 ,for this sort of work a telephone receiver used with one cell of some dry battery is most convenient1 and has the additional advantage of affording a means of communication while testing1 and is by far the best thing for identifying and tagging conductors4 ,these cables should be frequently tested during the progress of the work for grounds and crosses with a ,thomson instrument1 and when the cable is complete1 a careful series of tests of the capacity1 insulation resistance1 and copper resistance of each wire should be made and the exact condition of the cable determined before it is put in service1 and thereafter an intelligent oversight of the condition of the circuits can thus be more readily maintained4 ,where a company has extensive underground service1 a regular cable gang should be in its employ1 for quick and safe handling of cables demands the employment of men accustomed to the work4 ,if the cable has been properly laid and tests show it to be in good condition before current is turned on1 almost the only trouble to be anticipated will be due to mechanical injury4 ,disruptive discharge1 puncturing the lead1 may occur2 but the small chance of its occurring can be greatly lessened by the use of some kind of cable protector1 which will provide for the spark an artificial path of less resistance than the dielectric of the condenser1 which the cable in fact becomes4 ,if a fault suddenly develops on a circuit1 the chances are it will be found in a manhole1 and an inspection of the cable in the manhole will generally reveal the trouble without resorting to locating with a ,wheatstone bridge4 ,the cable is often cut through at the edge of the duct1 or damaged by something falling on it1 or by some one walking all over it4 ,to guard against these1 the ducts should always be fitted with protectors both above and below the cable4 ,the cables should never be left across the manholes1 for they then answer the purpose of a ladder1 but should be bent1 around the walls of the hole and securely fastened with lead straps1 that they may not be moved and the lead gradually worn through4 ,in telegraph cables1 when one or two conductors go1 it will probably be useless to look for trouble except with instruments2 but if several wires are lost at once it will probably be found to be caused by mechanical injury1 which can be located by inspection4 ,if it is ever necessary to loop out conductors1 a joint can be readily opened and the conductors wanted picked out and connected into the branch cable and the joint again closed without disturbing the working wires4 ,in doing this a split sleeve must be used1 and the only additional precaution to be taken is in filling the sleeve to have the insulating compound not hot enough to melt the solder and open up the split in the sleeve4 ,in cutting in service on light and power cables it is entirely practicable to do so without interruption of service on multiple arc circuits1 even those of very high voltage2 but they require great precaution and involve considerable risk to the jointer1 and where possible the circuit to which the connection is to be made should previously be cut dead4 ,where the voltage is not dangerous to human life1 almost any service connection can be made without interruption of service4 ,i have only indicated a very few of the operations that may be found necessary1 and the probable causes of troubles that may be encountered in the operating of underground circuits1 believing that the different problems that arise can1 with a little experience1 be successfully met by any one who has a fair knowledge of the original construction of cable lines4--,electrical ,world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,railroads ,,to ,,the ,,clouds4 ,if ,george ,stephenson1 when he placed the first locomotive on the track and guaranteed it a speed of six miles an hour1 could have foreseen that in less than eighty years the successors of his rude machine would be climbing the sides of mountain ranges1 piercing gorges hitherto deemed inaccessible1 crossing ravines on bridges higher than the dome of ,st4 ,paul's1 and traversing the bowels of the earth by means of tunnels1 no doubt his big blue eyes would have stood out with wonder and amazement4 ,but he foresaw nothing of the kind2 the only problem present in his mind was how to get goods from the seaports in western ,england to ,london as easily and cheaply as possible1 and to do this he substituted for horses1 which had for #aej years been drawing cars along wooden or iron tracks1 the wonderful machine which has revolutionized the freight and passenger traffic of the world4 ,it was1 indeed1 impossible for any one to foresee the triumphs of engineering which have accompanied the advances in transportation4 ,to the engineer of the present day there are no impossibilities4 ,the engineer is a wizard at whose command space and matter are annihilated4 ,the highest mountain1 the deepest valley1 has no terrors for him4 ,he can bridge the latter and encircle or tunnel the former4 ,the only requisites which he demands are that something in his line be needed1 and that the money is forthcoming to defray the expense1 and the thing will be done4 ,but the railroad he is asked to construct must be necessary1 and the necessity must be plainly shown1 or no funds will be advanced2 and although the theory does not invariably hold good1 especially when a craze for railroad building is raging1 as a rule no expense for the construction of a road will be incurred without a prospect of remuneration4 ,hence the need of railroad communication has caused lines to be constructed through districts where only a few years ago the thing would have been deemed impossible4 ,the ,pacific roads of this country were a necessity long before their construction1 and in the face of difficulties almost insuperable were carried to successful completion4 ,so1 also1 of the railroads in the ,andes of ,south ,america4 ,the famous road from ,callao through the heart of ,peru is one of the highest mountain roads in the world1 as well as of the most difficult construction4 ,the grades are often of #cjj feet and more to the mile1 and when the mountains were reached so great were the difficulties the engineers were forced to confront that in some places laborers were lowered from cliffs by ropes in order that1 with toil and difficulty1 they might carve a foothold in order to begin the cutting for the roadway4 ,in some sections tunnels are more numerous than open cuts1 and so far as the road has gone sixty-one tunnels1 great and small1 have been constructed1 aggregating over #bj1jjj feet in length4 ,the road attains a height of #ae1jjj feet above the level of the sea1 and at the highest point of the track is about as high as the topmost peak of ,mont ,blanc4 ,it pierces the range above it by a tunnel #c1hdg feet long4 ,the stern necessities of business compelled the construction of this road1 otherwise it never would have been begun4 ,the tunnels of the ,andes1 however1 do not bear comparison with the tunnels1 bridges1 and snow sheds of the ,union ,pacific1 nor do even these compare with the vast undertakings in the ,alps--three great tunnels of nine to eleven miles in length1 which have been prepared for the transit of travelers and freight4 ,the requirements of business necessitated the piercing of the ,alps1 and as soon as the necessity was shown1 funds in abundance were forthcoming for the enterprise4 ,but tunneling a mountain is a different thing from climbing it4 ,many years ago the attention of inventors was directed to the practicability of constructing a railroad up the side of a mountain on grades which1 to an ordinary engine1 were quite impossible4 ,the improvements in locomotives twenty-five and thirty years ago rendered them capable of climbing grades which1 in the early days of railroad engineering1 were deemed out of the question4 ,the improvements proved a serious stumbling block in the way of the inventors1 who found that an ordinary locomotive was able to climb a much steeper grade than was commonly supposed4 ,the first railroads were laid almost level1 but it was soon discovered that a grade of a few feet to the mile was no impediment to progress1 and gradually the grade was steepened4 ,the inventors of mountain railroad transportation might have been discouraged by this discovery1 but it is a characteristic of an inventor that he is not set back by opposition1 which1 in fact1 only serves to stimulate his zeal4 ,the projectors of inclined roads and mountain engines kept steadily on1 and in ,france1 ,germany1 ,england1 and the ,united ,states many experimental roads were constructed1 each of a few hundred yards in length1 and locomotive models were built and put in motion to the amazement of the general public1 who jeered alike at the contrivances and the contrivers1 deeming the former impracticable and the latter crazy4 ,but the idea of building a road up the side of a hill was not to be dismissed4 ,there was money in it for the successful man1 so the cranky inventors kept on at work in spite of the jeers of the rabble and the discouragements of capitalists loath to invest their money in an uncertain scheme4 ,to the energy and perseverance of railroad inventors the success of the mountain railroad is due1 as also is the construction of the various mountain roads1 of which the road up ,mt4 ,washington1 finished in #ahfh1 was the first1 and the road up ,pike's ,peak1 completed the other day1 was the latest4 ,of all the mountain roads which have been constructed since the one up ,mt4 ,washington was finished1 the best known is that which ascends the world-famous ,rigi4 ,with the exception of ,mont ,blanc1 ,rigi is1 perhaps1 the best known of any peak in the ,alps1 though it is by no means the highest1 its summit being but #e1ije feet above the level of the sea4 ,although scarcely more than a third of the height of some other mountains in the ,alps1 it seems much higher because of its isolated position4 ,standing as it does between lakes ,lucerne1 ,zug1 and ,lowertz1 it commands a series of fine views in every direction1 and he who looks from the summit of ,rigi1 if he does no other traveling in ,switzerland1 can gain a fair idea of the ,swiss mountain scenery4 ,many of the most noted peaks are in sight1 and from the ,rigi can be seen the three lakes beneath1 the villages which here and there dot the shores1 and1 further on1 the mighty ,alps1 with their glaciers and eternal snows4 ,many years ago a hotel was built on the summit of the ,rigi for the benefit of the tourists who daily flocked to this remarkable peak to enjoy the benefit of its wonderful scenery4 ,the mountain is densely wooded save where the trees have been cut away to clear the land for pastures4 ,the ease of its ascent by the six or eight mule paths which had been made1 the gradual and almost regular slope1 and the throngs of travelers who resorted to it1 made it a favorable place for an experiment1 and to ,rigi went the engineers in order to ascertain the practicability of such a road4 ,the credit of the designs is due to a ,german engineer named ,regenbach1 who1 about the year #ahfa1 designed the idea of a mountain road1 and drew up plans not only for the bed but also for the engine and cars4 ,the scheme dragged4 ,capitalists were slow to invest their money in what they deemed a wild and impracticable undertaking1 and even the owners of the land on the ,rigi were reluctant for such an experiment to be tried4 ,but ,regenbach persevered1 and toward the close of the decade the inhabitants of ,vitznau1 at the base of the ,rigi1 were astonished to see gangs of laborers begin the work of making a clearing through the forests on the mountain slope4 ,they inquired what it meant1 and were told that a road up the ,rigi was to be made4 ,the ,vitznauers were delighted1 for they had no roads1 and there was not a wheeled vehicle in the town1 nor a highway by which it could be brought thither4 ,the idea of a railroad in their desolate mountain region1 and1 above all1 a railroad up the ,rigi1 never entered their heads1 and a report which some time after obtained currency in the town1 that the laborers were beginning the construction of a railroad1 was greeted with a shout of derision4 ,nevertheless1 that was the beginning of the ,rigi line1 and in ,may1 #ahga1 the road was opened for traffic4 ,it begins at ,vitznau1 on ,lake ,lucerne1 and extends to the border of the canton and almost to the top of the mountain4 ,it is #ai1jjj feet long1 and during that distance rises #d1jjj feet at an average grade of #a foot in #d4 ,though steep1 it is by no means so much so as the ,mt4 ,washington road1 which rises #e1bhe feet above the sea1 at an average of #a foot in #c4 ,there are1 however1 stretches of the ,rigi road at which the grade is about #a foot in #b1 which is believed to be the steepest in the world4 ,the ,rigi road has several special features aside from its terrific slopes which entitle it to be considered a triumph of the engineer's skill4 ,about midway up the mountains the builders came to a solid mass of rock1 which presented a barrier that to a surface road was impassable4 ,they determined to tunnel it1 and1 after an enormous expenditure of labor1 finished an inclined tunnel #bbe feet in length1 of the same gradient as the road4 ,a gorge in the side of the mountain where a small stream1 the ,schnurtobel1 had cut itself a passage also hindered their way1 and was crossed by a bridge of lattice girder work in three spans1 each #he feet long4 ,the entire roadbed1 from beginning to end1 was cut in the solid rock4 ,a channel was chiseled out to admit the central beam1 which contains the cogs fitting the driving wheel of the locomotive4 ,the engine is in the rear of the train1 and presents the exceedingly curious feature of a boiler greatly inclined1 in order that at the steeper gradients it may remain almost perpendicular4 ,the coal and water are contained in boxes over the driving wheels1 so that all the weight of the engine is really concentrated on the cogs--a precaution to prevent their slipping4 ,the cost of the road1 including three of these strangely constructed locomotives1 three passenger coaches1 and three open wagons1 was #bfj1jjj1 and it is a good paying investment4 ,the fare demanded for the trip up the mountains is #e francs1 while half that sum is required for the downward passage1 and the road is annually traversed by from #cj1jjj to #ej1jjj passengers4 ,curious sensations are produced by a ride up this remarkable line4 ,the seats of the cars are inclined like the boiler of the locomotive1 and so long as the cars are on a level the seats tilt at an angle which renders it almost impossible to use them4 ,but when the start is made the frightful tilt places the body in an upright position1 and1 with the engine in the rear1 the train starts up the hill with an easy1 gliding motion1 passing up the ascent1 somewhat steeper than the roof of a house1 without the slightest apparent effort4 ,but if the going up excites tremor1 much more peculiar are the feelings aroused on the down grade4 ,the trip begins with a gentle descent1 and all at once the traveler looking ahead sees the road apparently come an end4 ,on a nearer approach he is undeceived and observes before him a long decline which appears too steep even to walk down4 ,involuntarily he catches at the seats1 expecting a great acceleration of speed4 ,very nervous are his feelings as the train approaches this terrible slope1 but on coming to the incline the engine dips and goes on not a whit faster than before and not more rapidly on the down than on the up grade4 ,many people are made sick by the sensation of falling experienced on the down run4 ,some faint1 and a few years ago one traveler1 supposed to be afflicted with heart disease1 died of fright when the train was going over the ,schnurtobel bridge4 ,the danger is really very slight1 there not having been a serious accident since the road was opened4 ,the attendants are watchful1 the brakes are strong1 but even with all these safeguards1 men of the steadiest nerves cannot help wondering what would become of them in case anything went wrong4 ,bold as was the project of a railroad on the ,rigi1 a still bolder scheme was broached ten years later1 when a daring genius proposed a railroad up ,mt4 ,vesuvius4 ,a railroad up the side of an ordinary mountain seemed hazardous enough1 but to build a line on the slope of a volcano1 which in its eruption had buried cities1 and every few years was subject to a violent spasm1 seemed as hazardous as to trust the rails of an ordinary line to the rotten river ice in spring time4 ,the proposal was not1 however1 so impracticable as it looked4 ,while the summit of ,vesuvius changes from time to time from the frequent eruptions1 and varies in height and in the size of the crater1 the general slope and contour of the mountain are about the same to-day as when ,vesuvius1 a wooded hill1 with a valley and lake in the center of its quiescent crater1 served as the stronghold of ,spartacus and his rebel gladiators4 ,there have been scores of eruptions since that in which ,herculaneum and ,pompeii were overthrown1 but the sides of the mountain have never been seriously disturbed4 ,a road on ,vesuvius gave promise of being a good speculation4 ,naples and the other resorts of the neighborhood annually attracted many thousands of visitors1 and a considerable number of these every year ascended the volcano1 even when forced to contend with all the difficulties of the way4 ,many1 however1 desiring to ascend1 but being unable or unwilling to walk up1 a chair service was established--a peculiar chair being slung on poles and borne by porters4 ,in course of time the chair service proved to be inadequate for the numbers who desired to make the ascent1 and the time was deemed fit for the establishment of more speedy communication4 ,notwithstanding the necessity1 the proposal to establish a railroad met with general derision1 but the scheme was soon shown to be perfectly practicable1 and a beginning was made in #ahgi4 ,the road is what is known as a cable road1 there being a single sleeper with three rails1 one on the top which really bore the weight1 and one on each side near the bottom1 which supported the wheels1 which coming out from the axle at a sharp angle1 prevented the vehicle from being overturned4 ,the road covers the last #d1jjj feet of the ascent1 and the power house is at the bottom1 a steel cable running up1 passing round a wheel at the top and returning to the engine in the power house4 ,the ascent to the lower terminus of the road is made on mules or donkeys2 then1 in a comfortable car1 the traveler is carried to a point not far from the crater4 ,the car is a combined grip and a passenger car1 similar in some points to the grip car of the present day1 while the seats of the passenger portion are inclined as in the cars on the ,rigi road4 ,but the angle of the road being from thirty-three to forty-five degrees1 makes both ascent and descent seem fearfully perilous4 ,every precaution1 however1 is taken to insure the safety of passengers2 each car is provided with several strong and independent brakes1 and thus far no accident worth recording has occurred4 ,the road was opened in ,june1 #ahhj4 ,although there have been several considerable eruptions since that date1 none of them did any damage to the line but what was repaired in a few hours4 ,the fashion thus set will1 no doubt1 be followed in many other quarters4 ,wherever there is sufficient travel to pay working expenses and a profit on a steep grade mountain road it will probably be built4 ,already there is talk of a road on ,mont ,blanc1 of another up the ,yungfrau1 and several have been projected in the ,schwartz and ,hartz mountains4 ,a route on ,ben ,nevis1 in ,scotland1 is already surveyed1 and it is said surveys have also been made up ,snowden1 with a view to the establishment of a road to the summit of the highest ,welsh peak4 ,sufficient travel is all that is necessary1 and when that is guaranteed1 whenever a mountain possesses sufficient interest to induce people to make its ascent in considerable numbers1 means of transportation1 safe and speedy1 will soon be provided4 ,the modern engineer is able1 willing and ready to build a road to the top of ,mt4 ,everest in the ,himalayas if he is paid for doing so4--,st4 ,louis ,globe-,democrat4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to clean hair brushes1 wash with weak solution of washing soda1 rinse out all the soda1 and expose to sun4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,marceau4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,french ,,armored ,,turret ,,ship ,,marceau ,the ,marceau1 the last ironclad completed and added to the ,french navy1 was put in commission at ,toulon in ,april last1 and has lately left that town to join the ,french squadron of the north at ,brest4 ,the original designs of this ship were prepared by ,m4 ,huin1 of the ,french ,department of ,naval ,construction1 but since the laying down of the keel in the year #ahhb they have been very considerably modified1 and many improvements have been introduced4 ,both ship and engines were constructed by the celebrated ,french firm1 the ,socit des ,forges et ,chantiers de la ,mediterrane1 the former at their shipyard in ,la ,seyne and the latter at their engine works in ,marseilles4 ,the ship was five years in construction on the stocks1 was launched in ,may1 #ahhg1 and not having been put in commission until the present year1 was thus nearly nine years in construction4 ,she is a barbette belted ship of somewhat similar design to the ,french ironclads ,magenta1 now being completed at the ,toulon arsenal1 and the ,neptune1 in construction at ,brest4 ,the hull is constructed partly of steel and partly of iron1 and has the principal dimensions as follows4 ,length1 #ccj ft4 at the water line2 beam1 #ff ft4 outside the armor2 draught1 #bg ft4 #f in4 aft42 displacement1 #aj1dcj ,english or #aj1fjj ,french tons4 ,the engines are two in number1 one driving each propeller2 they are of the vertical compound type1 and on the speed trials developed #aa1cjj indicated horse power under forced and #e1ejj indicated horse power under natural draught1 the former giving a speed of #af4b knots per hour with #ij revolutions per minute4 ,the boilers are eight in number1 of the cylindrical marine type1 and work at a pressure of #he4c lb4 per square inch4 ,during the trials the steering powers of the ship were found to be excellent1 but the bow wave is said1 by one critic1 to have been very great4 ,the ship is completely belted with ,creusot steel armor1 which varies in thickness from #i in4 forward to #ag in4 midships4 ,in addition to this belt the ship is protected by an armored deck of #c in41 while the barbette gun towers are protected with #ae in4 steel armor with a hood of #b in4 to protect the men against machine gun fire4 ,as a further means of insuring the life of the ship in combat and also against accidents at sea1 the ,marceau is divided into #ajb water-tight compartments and is fitted with torpedo defense netting4 ,there are two masts1 each carrying double military tops2 and a conning tower is mounted on each mast1 from either of which the ship may be worked in time of action1 and both of which are in telegraphic communication with the engine rooms and magazines4 ,provision is made for carrying #fjj tons of coal1 which1 at a speed of #aj knots1 should be sufficient to supply the boilers for a voyage of #d1jjj miles4 ,the armament of the ,marceau is good for the tonnage of the ship and consists principally of four guns of #cd centimeters 7#ac4ci in47 of the ,french #ahhd model1 having a weight of #eb tons1 a length of #bh calibers1 and being able to pierce #cj in4 of iron armor at the muzzle4 ,the projectiles weigh #ibd lb41 and are fired with a charge of #chg lb4 of powder4 ,the muzzle velocity has been calculated to be #a1ifh ft4 per second4 ,the guns are entirely of steel and are mounted on ,canet carriages in four barbette towers1 one forward1 one aft1 and one on each side amidships4 ,on the firing trials both the guns and all the ,canet machinery1 for working the guns and hoisting the ammunition1 gave very great satisfaction to all present at the time4 ,in addition to the above four heavy guns there are1 in the broadside battery1 sixteen guns of #ad centimeters 7#e4ea in471 eight on each side1 and a gun of equal caliber is mounted right forward on the same deck4 ,the armament is completed by a large number of ,hotchkiss quick-firing and revolver guns and four torpedo tubes1 one forward1 one aft1 and one on each side4 ,the crew of the ,marceau has been fixed at #fjj men1 and the cost is stated to have been about #c1gej1jjj4--;,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #hbj1 page #acjig4 ,a ,,review ,,of ,,marine ,,engineering ,,during ,,the ,,past ,,decade4#a ,footnote #a3 ,paper read before the ,institution of ,mechanical ,engineers1 ,july #bh1 #ahia4 ,,by ,,mr4 ,,alfred ,,blechynden1 ,,of ,,barrow-,,in-,,furness ,steam ,pipes4--,the failures of copper steam pipes on board the ,elbe1 ,lahn1 and other vessels have drawn serious attention both to the material and to the modes of construction of the pipes4 ,the want of elastic strength in copper is an important element in the matter2 and the three following remedies have been proposed1 while still retaining copper as the material4 ,first1 in view of the fact that in the operation of brazing the copper may be seriously injured1 to use solid drawn tubes4 ,this appears fairly to meet the main dangers incidental to brazing2 but as solid drawn pipes of over #g inches diameter are difficult to procure1 it hardly meets the case sufficiently4 ,secondly1 to use electrically deposited tubes4 ,at first much was promised in this direction2 but up to the present time it can hardly be regarded as more than in the experimental stage4 ,thirdly1 to use the ordinary brazed or solid drawn tubes1 and to re-enforce them by serving with steel cord or steel or copper wire4 ,this has been tried1 and found to answer perfectly4 ,for economical reasons1 as well as for insuring the minimum of torsion to the material during manufacture1 it is important to make as few bends as possible2 but in practice much less difficulty has been experienced in serving bent pipes in a machine than would have been expected4 ,discarding copper1 it has been proposed to substitute steel or iron4 ,in the early days of the higher pressures1 ,mr4 ,alexander ,taylor adopted wrought iron for steam pipes4 ,one fitted in the ,claremont in ,february1 #ahhb1 was recently removed from the vessel for experimental purposes1 and was reported upon by ,mr4 ,magnus ,sandison in a paper read before the ,northeast ,coast ,institution of ,engineers and ,shipbuilders4#b ,the following is a summary of the facts4 ,the pipe was #e inches external diameter1 and #j4cge inch thick4 ,it was lap welded in the works of ,messrs4 ,a4 ,j4 ,stewart4 ,the flanges were screwed on and brazed externally4 ,the pipe was not lagged or protected in any manner4 ,after eight and a half years' service the metal measured where cut #j4cb and #j4cge inch in thickness1 showing that the wasting during that time had been very slight4 ,the interior surface of the tube exhibited no signs of pitting or corrosion4 ,it was covered by a thin crust of black oxide1 the maximum thickness of which did not exceed #a_/cb inch4 ,where the deposit was thickest it was curiously striated by the action of the steam4 ,on the scale being removed1 the original bloom on the surface of the metal was exposed4 ,it would thus appear that the danger from corrosion of iron steam pipes is not borne out in their actual use2 and hence so much of the way is cleared for a stronger and more reliable material than copper4 ,so far the source of danger seems to be in the weld1 which would be inadmissible in larger pipes2 but there is no reason why these should not be lapped and riveted4 ,there seems1 however1 a more promising way out of the difficulty in the ,mannesmann steel tubes which are now being spun out of solid bars1 so as to form weldless tubes4 ,footnote #b3 ,transactions ,northeast ,coast ,institution of ,engineers and ,shipbuilders1 vol4 #g1 #ahij-ia1 p4 #agi4 ,,table ,i4--,,tensile ,,strength ,,of ,,gun ,,metal ,,at ,,high ,,temperatures4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,composition ,temperature ,tensile ,elastic ,elongation of of oil strength limit in gun metal4 bath4 per square per square length of inch4 inch4 #b inches ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,per cent4 ,fahr4 ,tons ,tons ,per cent4 ,copper #hg _/ #ej #ab4cd #h4ch #ad4fd ,tin #h _/ ,zinc #c ,lead #a #djj #aj4hc #f4cj #aa4gi ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,copper #hg _/ #ej #ac4hf #h4cc #bj4cj ,tin #h ,zinc #e #deh #aj4gj #g4dc #ab4db ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,cast steel has been freely used by the writer for bends1 junction pieces1 etc41 of steam pipes1 as well as for steam valve chests2 and except for the fact that steel makers' promises of delivery are generally better than their performance1 the result has thus far been satisfactory in all respects4 ,these were adopted because there existed some doubt as to the strength of gun metal under a high temperature2 and as the data respecting its strength appeared of a doubtful character1 a series of careful tests were made to determine the tensile strength of gun metal when at atmospheric and higher temperatures4 ,the test bars were all #j4ge in diameter1 or #j4ddag square inch sectional area2 and those tested at the higher temperatures were broken while immersed in a bath of oil at the temperature here stated1 each line being the mean of four experiments4 ,the result of these experiments was to give somewhat greater faith in gun metal as a material to be used under a higher temperature2 but as steel is much stronger1 it is probably the most advisable material to use1 when the time necessary to procure it can be allowed4 ,feed ,heating4--,with the double object of obviating strain on the boiler through the introduction of the feed water at a low temperature1 and also of securing a greater economy of fuel1 the principle of previously heating the feed water by auxiliary means has received considerable attention1 and the ingenious method introduced by ,mr4 ,james ,weir has been widely adopted4 ,it is founded on the fact that1 if the feed water as it is drawn from the hot well be raised in temperature by the heat of a portion of steam introduced into it from one of the steam receivers1 the decrease of the coal necessary to generate steam from the water of the higher temperature bears a greater ratio to the coal required without feed heating than the power which would be developed in the cylinder by that portion of steam would bear to the whole power developed when passing all the steam through all the cylinders4 ,the temperature of the feed is of course limited by the temperature of the steam in the receiver from which the supply for heating is drawn4 ,supposing1 for example1 a triple expansion engine were working under the following conditions without feed heating3 ,boiler pressure1 #aej lb42--indicated horse power in high pressure cylinder #cih1 in intermediate and low pressure cylinders together #gij1 total1 #a1ahh2 and temperature of hot well #ajj ,fahr4 ,then with feed heating the same engine might work as follows3 ,the feed might be heated to #bbj ,fahr41 and the percentage of steam from the first receiver required to heat it would be #ab4b per cent42 the indicated horse power in the high pressure cylinder would be as before #cih1 and in the intermediate and low pressure cylinders it would be #ab4b per cent1 less than before1 or #fid1 and the total would be #a1jib1 or #ib per cent4 of the power developed without feed heating4 ,meanwhile the heat to be added to each pound of the feed water at #bbj ,fahr4 for converting it into steam would be #a1jje units against #a1abe units with feed at #ajj ,fahr41 equivalent to an expenditure of only #hi4d per cent4 of the heat required without feed heating4 ,hence the expenditure of heat in relation to power would be #hi4d #ib4j #ig4b per cent41 equivalent to a heat economy of #b4h per cent4 ,if the steam for heating can be taken from the low pressure receiver1 the economy is about doubled4 ,other feed heaters1 more or less upon the same principle1 have been introduced4 ,also others which heat the feed in a series of pipes within the boiler1 so that it is introduced into the water in the boiler practically at boiling temperature2 this is economical1 however1 only in the sense that wear and tear of the boiler is saved2 in principle the plan does not involve economy of fuel4 ,auxiliary ,supply of ,fresh ,water4--,intimately associated with the feed is the means adopted for making up the losses of fresh water due to leakage of steam from safety valves1 glands1 joints1 etc41 and of water discharged from the air pumps4 ,a few years ago this loss was regularly made up from the sea1 with the result that the water in the boilers was gradually increased in density2 whence followed deposit on the internal surfaces1 and consequent loss of efficiency1 and danger of accident through overheating the plates4 ,with the higher pressures now adopted1 the danger arising from overheating is much more serious1 and the necessity is absolute of maintaining the heating surfaces free from deposit4 ,this can be done only by filling the boiler with fresh water in the first instance1 and maintaining it in that condition4 ,to do this two methods are adopted1 either separately or in conjunction4 ,either a reserve supply of fresh water is carried in tanks or the supplementary feed is distilled from sea water by special apparatus provided for the purpose4 ,in the construction of the distilling or evaporating apparatus advantage has been taken of two important physical facts1 namely1 that1 if water be heated to a temperature higher than that corresponding with the pressure on its surface1 evaporation will take place2 and that the passage of heat from steam at one side of a plate to water at the other is very rapid4 ,in practice the distillation is effected by passing steam1 say from the first receiver1 through a nest of tubes inside a still or evaporator1 of which the steam space is connected either with the second receiver or with the condenser4 ,the temperature of the steam inside the tubes being higher than that of the steam either in the second receiver or in the condenser1 the result is that the water inside the still is evaporated1 and passes with the rest of the steam into the condenser1 where it is condensed1 and serves to make up the loss4 ,this plan localizes the trouble of deposit1 and frees it from its dangerous character1 because an evaporator cannot become overheated like a boiler1 even though it be neglected until it salts up solid2 and if the same precautions are taken in working the evaporator which used to be adopted with low pressure boilers when they were fed with salt water1 no serious trouble should result4 ,when the tubes do become incrusted with deposit1 they can be either withdrawn or exposed1 as the apparatus is generally so arranged2 and they can then be cleaned4 ,screw ,propeller4--,in ,mr4 ,marshall's paper of #ahha it was said that the screw propeller is still to a great extent an unsolved problem4 ,this was at the time a fairly true remark4 ,it was true the problem had been made the subject of general theoretical investigation by various eminent mathematicians1 notably by ,professor ,rankine and ,mr4 ,william ,froude1 and of special experimental investigation by various engineers4 ,as examples of the latter may be mentioned the extended series of investigations in the ,french vessel ,pelican1 and the series made by ,mr4 ,isherwood on a steam launch about #ahgd4 ,these experiments1 however1 such as they were1 did little to bring out general facts and to reduce the subject to a practical analysis4 ,since the date of ,mr4 ,marshall's paper1 the literature on this subject has grown rapidly1 and1 has been almost entirely of a practical character4 ,the screw has been made the subject of most careful experiments4 ,one of the earliest extensive series of experiments was made under the writer's direction in #ahha1 with a large number of models1 the primary object being to determine what value there was in a few of the various twists which inventive ingenuity can give to a screw blade4 ,the results led the experimenters to the conclusion that in free water such twists and curves are valueless as serving to augment efficiency4 ,the experiments were then carried further with a view to determine quantitative moduli for the resistance of screws with different ratios of pitch to diameter1 or pitch ratios1 and afterward with different ratios of surface to the area of the circle described by the tips of the blades1 or surface ratios4 ,as these results have to some extent been analyzed and published1 no further reference need be made to them now4 ,in #ahhf1 ,mr4 ,r4,e4 ,froude published in the ,transactions of the ,institution of ,naval ,architects the deductions drawn from an extensive series of trials made with four models of similar form and equal diameter1 but having different pitch ratios4 ,mr4 ,s4,w4 ,barnaby has published some of the results of experiments made under the direction of ,mr4 ,j4,i4 ,thornycroft2 and in his paper read before the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers in #ahij he has also put ,mr4 ,r4,e4 ,froude's results into a shape more suitable for comparison with practice4 ,nor ought ,mr4 ,g4,a4 ,calvert's carefully planned experiments to pass unnoticed1 of which an account was given in the ,transactions of the ,institution of ,naval ,architects in #ahhg4 ,these experiments were made on rectangular bodies with sections of propeller blade form1 moved through the water at various velocities in straight lines1 in directions oblique to their plane faces2 and from their results an estimate was formed of the resistance of a screw4 ,one of the most important results deduced from experiments on model screws is that they appear to have practically equal efficiencies throughout a wide range both in pitch ratio and in surface ratio2 so that great latitude is left to the designer in regard to the form of the propeller4 ,another important feature is that1 although these experiments are not a direct guide to the selection of the most efficient propeller for a particular ship1 they supply the means of analyzing the performances of screws fitted to vessels1 and of thus indirectly determining what are likely to be the best dimensions of screw for a vessel of a class whose results are known4 ,thus a great advance has been made on the old method of trial upon the ship itself1 which was the origin of almost every conceivable erroneous view respecting the screw propeller4 ,the fact was lost sight of that any modification in form1 dimensions1 or proportions referred only to that particular combination of ship and propeller1 or to one similar thereto2 so something like chaos was the result4 ,this1 however1 need not be the case much longer4 ,in regard to the materials used for propellers1 steel has been largely adopted for both solid and loose-bladed screws2 but unless protected in some way1 the tips of the blades are apt to corrode rapidly and become unserviceable4 ,one of the stronger kinds of bronze is often judiciously employed for the blades1 in conjunction with a steel boss4 ,where the first extra expense can be afforded1 bronze seems the preferable material2 the castings are of a reliable character1 and the metal does not rapidly corrode2 the bronze blades can therefore with safety be made lighter than steel blades1 which favors their springing and accommodating themselves more readily to the various speeds of the different parts of the wake4 ,this might be expected to result in some slight increase of efficiency2 of which1 however1 the writer has never had the opportunity of satisfactorily determining the exact extent4 ,instances can be brought forward where bronze blades have been substituted for steel or iron with markedly improved results2 but in cases of this kind which the writer has had the opportunity of analyzing1 the whole improvement might be accounted for by the modified proportions of the screw when in working condition4 ,in other words1 both experiment and practical working alike go to show that1 although cast iron and steel blades as usually proportioned are sufficiently stiff to retain their form while at work1 bronze blades1 being made much lighter1 are not2 and the result is that the measured or set pitch is less than that which the blades assume while at work4 ,some facts relative to this subject have already been given in a recent paper by the author4 ,twin ,screws4--,the great question of twin screw propulsion has been put to the test upon a large scale in the mercantile marine1 or rather in what would usually be termed the passenger service4 ,while engineers1 however1 are prepared to admit its advantages so far as greater security from total breakdown is concerned1 there is by no means thorough agreement as to whether single or twin screws have the greater propulsive efficiency4 ,what is required to form a sound judgment upon the whole question is a series of examples of twin and single screw vessels1 each of which is known to be fitted with the most suitable propeller for the type of vessel and speed2 and until this information is available1 little can be said upon the subject with any certainty4 ,so far the following large passenger steamers1 particulars of which are given in table ,,ii41 have been fitted with twin screws4 ,it appears t be a current opinion that the twin screw arrangement necessitates a greater weight of machinery4 ,this is not necessarily so1 however2 on the contrary1 the opportunity is offered for reducing the weight of all that part of the machinery of which the weight relatively to power is inversely proportional to the revolutions for a given power4 ,this can be reduced in the proportion of #a to the square root of #b1 that is #ga per cent4 of its weight in the single screw engine2 for since approximately the same total disk area is required in both cases with similar proportioned propellers1 the twins will work at a greater speed of revolution than the single screw4 ,from a commercial point of view there ought to be little disagreement as to the advantage of twin screws1 so long as the loss of space incurred by the necessity for double tunnels is not important2 and for the larger passenger vessels now built for ocean service the disadvantage should not be great4 ,besides their superiority in the matter of immunity from total breakdown1 and in greatly diminished weight of machinery1 they also offer the opportunity of reducing to some extent the cost of machinery4 ,a slightly greater engine room staff is necessary2 but this seems of little importance compared with the foregoing advantages4 ,,table ,,ii4--,,passenger ,,steamers ,,fitted ,,with ,,twin ,,screws4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,length ,cylinders1 ,boiler ,indi- between two sets in all pressurecated ,vessels4 perpen- ,beam4 cases4 per horse- diculars4 ------------------ square power4 ,diameters4 ,stroke4 inch4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,feet4 ,feet4 ,inches4 ,inches4 ,lb4 ,city of ,paris4 #ebe #fc #de1 #ga1 #aac #fj #aej #bj1jjj ,city of ,new ,york4_/ ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,teutonic4 #efe #eh #dc1 #fh1 #aaj #fj #ahj #ah1jjj ,majestic4 _/ ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,normannia4 #ejj #eg #dj1 #fg1 #ajf #ff #afj #aa1ejj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,columbia4 #dfc #ee #da1 #ff1 #aja #ff #afj #ab1ejj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,empress of ,india4 ,empress of ,japan4 #ddj #ea #cb1 #ea1 #hb #ed #afj #aj1abe ,empress of ,china4_/ ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,orel4 #dae #dh #cd1 #ed1 #he #ea #afj #aj1jjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,weight of ,machinery ,relatively to ,power4--,it is interesting to compare the weight of machinery relatively to the power developed2 for this comparison has sometimes been adopted as the standard of excellence in design1 in respect of economy in the use of material4 ,the principle1 however1 on which this has generally been done is open to some objections4 ,it has been usual to compare the weight directly with the indicated horse-power1 and to express the comparison in pounds per horse-power4 ,so long as the machinery thus compared is for vessels of the same class and working at about the same speed of revolution1 no great fault can be found2 but as speed of revolution is a great factor in the development of power1 and as it is often dependent on circumstances altogether external to the engine and concerning rather the speed of the ship1 the engines fitted to high speed ships will thus generally appear to greater advantage than is their due4 ,leaving the condenser out of the question1 the weight of an engine would be much better referred to cylinder capacity and working pressures1 where these are materially different1 than directly to the indicated power4 ,the advantages of saving weight of machinery1 so long as it can be done with efficiency1 are well known and acknowledged4 ,if weight is to be reduced1 it must be done by care in design1 not by reduction of strength1 because safety and saving of repairs are much more important than the mere capability of carrying a few tons more of paying load4 ,it must also be done with economy2 but this is a matter which generally settles itself aright1 as no shipowner will pay more for a saving in weight than will bring in a remunerative interest on his outlay4 ,in his paper on the weight of machinery in the mercantile marine1#c ,mr4 ,william ,boyd discussed this question at some length1 and proposed to attain the end of reducing the weight of machinery by the legitimate method of augmenting the speed of revolution and so developing the required power with smaller engines4 ,this method1 while promising1 is limited by the efficiency of the screw1 but may be adopted with advantage so long as the increase in speed of revolution involves no such change in the screw as to reduce its efficiency as a propeller4 ,but when the point is reached beyond which a further change involves loss of propelling efficiency1 it is time to stop2 and the writer ventures to say that in many cargo vessels now at work the limit has been reached1 while in many others it has certainly been passed4 ,footnote #c3 ,transactions ,northeast ,coast ,institution of ,engineers and ,shipbuilders1 vol4 #f1 #ahhi-ij1 p4 #bec4 ,economy of ,fuel4--,coming to the highly important question of economy of fuel1 the average consumption of coal per indicated horse-power is #a4ebb lb4 per hour4 ,the average working pressure is #aeh4e lb4 per square inch4 ,comparing this working pressure with #gg4d lb4 in #ahha1 a superior economy of #ai per cent4 might be expected now1 on account of the higher pressure1 or taking the #a4hbh lb4 of coal per hour per indicated horse-power in #ahha1 the present performance under similar conditions should be #a4dh lb4 per hour per indicated horse-power4 ,it appears that the working pressures have been increased twice in the last ten years1 and nearly three times in the last nineteen4 ,the coal consumptions have been reduced #af4g per cent4 in the last ten years and #bg4i per cent4 in the last nineteen4 ,the revolutions per minute have increased in the ratios of #ajj1 #aje1 #aad2 and the piston speeds as #ajj1 #abd1 #adj4 ,although it is quite possible that the further investigations of the ,research ,committee on ,marine ,engine ,trials may show that the present actual consumption of coal per indicated horse-power is understated1 yet it is hardly probable that the relative results will be affected thereby4 ,dimensions4--,in the matter of the power put into individual vessels1 considerable strides have been made4 ,in #ahha1 probably the greatest power which has been put into one vessel was in the case of the ,arizona1 whose machinery indicated about #f1cfj horse-power4 ,the following table gives an idea of the dimensions and power of the larger machinery in the later passenger vessels3 ,,table ,,iii4--,,dimensions ,,and ,,power ,,of ,,machinery ,,in ,,later ,,passenger ,,vessels4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,length ,year4 ,name of vessel4 ,diameters of of ,indicated cylinders4 ,stroke4horsepower4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,inches4 ,inches4 #ahha ,alaska #fh1 #ajj1 #ajj #gb #aj1fhf ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #ahha ,city of ,rome #df1 #hf2 #df1 #hf2 #df1 #hf #gb #aa1hjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #ahha ,servia #gb1 #ajj1 #ajj #gh #aj1cjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #ahha ,livadia yacht #fj1 #gh1 #gh2 #fj1 #gh1 #ci #ab1ejj #gh2 #fj1 #gh1 #gh _/ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #ahhc ,oregon #gj1 #ajd1 #ajd #gb #ac1cjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #ahhd ,umbria #ga1 #aje1 #aje #gb #ad1cbj #ahhd ,etruria _/ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #ahhh ,city of ,new ,york #de1 #ga1 #aac2 #fj #bj1jjj #ahhi ,city of ,paris _/ #de1 #ga1 #aac _/ about ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #ahhi ,majestic #dc1 #fh1 #aaj2 #fj #ah1jjj #ahhi ,teutonic _/ #dc1 #fh1 #aaj _/ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,in war vessels the increase has been equally marked4 ,in #ahha the maximum power seems to have been in the ,inflexible1 namely1 #h1dhe indicated horse-power4 ,the following will give an idea of the recent advance made3 ,howe 7,admiral class71 #aa1fjj indicated horse-power2 ,italia and ,lepanto1 #ai1jjj indicated horse-power2 ,re ,umberto1 #ai1jjj indicated horse-power2 ,blake and ,blenheim 7building71 #ah1jjj indicated horse-power2 ,sardegna 7building71 #bb1hjj indicated horse-power4 ,it is thus evident that there are vessels at work to-day having about three times the maximum power of any before #ahha4 ,general ,conclusions4--,the progress made during the last ten years having been sketched out1 however roughly1 the general conclusions may be stated briefly as follows3 ,first1 the working pressure has been about doubled4 ,second1 the increase of working pressure and other improvements have brought with them their equivalent in economy of coal1 which is about #bj per cent4 ,third1 marked progress has been made in the direction of dimension1 more than twice the power having been put into individual vessels4 ,fourth1 substantial advance has been made in the scientific principles of engineering4 ,it only remains for the writer to thank the various friends who have so kindly furnished him with data for some of the tables which have been given2 and to express the hope that the next ten years may be marked by such progress as has been witnessed in the past4 ,but it must be remembered that1 if future progress be equal in merit or ratio1 it may well be less in quantity1 because advance becomes more difficult of achievement as perfection is more nearly approached4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,little ,,house4 ,,by ,m4,m4 ,one of the highest medical authorities is credited with the statement that nine-tenths of the diseases that afflict humanity are caused by neglect to answer the calls of ,nature4 ,this state of affairs is generally admitted1 but is usually attributed to individual indolence4 ,that1 doubtless1 has a great deal to do with it1 but should not part of the blame be laid upon the often unpleasant environments1 which make us shrink as from the performance of a painful duty8 ,in social life1 unless from absolute necessity or charity1 people of refined habits do not call on those whose surroundings shock their sense of decency2 but when they go to pay the calls of ,nature1 they are often compelled to visit her in the meanest and most offensive of abodes2 built for her by men's hands2 for ,nature herself makes no such mistakes in conducting her operations4 ,she does not always surround herself with the pomp and pride of life1 but she invariably hedges herself in with the thousand decencies and the pomp of privacy4 ,but what do we often do8 ,we build what is sometimes aptly termed an out-house1 because it is placed so that the delicate minded among its frequenters may be made keenly alive to the fact that they can be plainly seen by every passer-by and by every idle neighbor on the lookout4 ,this tiny building is seldom weatherproof2 ,in consequence1 keen cold winds from above1 below1 and all around find ready entrance1 chill the uncovered person1 frequently check the motions1 and make the strong as well as the weak1 the young as well as the old1 very sorry indeed that they are so often uselessly obliged to answer the calls of ,nature4 ,it is true1 the floor is sometimes carpeted with snow1 but the feet feel that to be but cold comfort1 though the door may enjoy rattling its broken hasp and creaking its loose hinges4 ,how often1 too1 are the nose and the eye offended by disregard of the ,mosaic injunction1 found in the twelfth1 thirteenth1 and fourteenth verses of the twenty-third chapter of ,deuteronomy6 ,of course this injunction was addressed to a people who had been debased by slavery1 but who were being trained to fit them for their high calling as the chosen of ,god2 but is not some such sanitary regulation needed in these times1 when a natural office is often made so offensive to us by its environments that it is difficult for us to believe that ,god made man a little lower than the angels1 or that the human body is the temple of the ,holy ,ghost8 ,dwellers in the aristocratic regions of a well drained city1 whose wealth enables them to surround themselves with all devices tending to a refined seclusion1 may doubt all this1 but sanitary inspectors who have made a round of domiciliary visits in the suburbs1 or the older1 neglected parts of a large city1 of to any part of a country town or village1 will readily affirm as to its general truth4 ,this unpardonable neglect of one of the minor decencies by the mass of the people seems to be caused partly by a feeling of false shame1 and partly by an idea that it is expensive and troublesome to make any change that will improve their sanitary condition or dignify their daily lives4 ,the ,rev4 ,henry ,moule1 of ,fordington ,vicarage1 ,dorsetshire1 ,england1 was one of the first to turn his attention to this matter4 ,with the threefold object of improving the sanitary condition of his people1 refining their habits1 and enriching their gardens1 he invented what he called the dry earth closet4 ,it is based on the power of clay and the decomposed organic matter found in the soil to absorb and retain all offensive odors and all fertilizing matters2 and it consists1 essentially1 of a mechanical contrivance 7attached to the ordinary seat7 for measuring out and discharging into the vault or pan below a sufficient quantity of sifted dry earth to entirely cover the solid ordure and to absorb the urine4 ,the discharge of earth is effected by an ordinary pull-up1 similar to that used in the water closet1 or 7in the self-acting apparatus7 by the rising of the seat when the weight of the person is removed4 ,the vault or pan under the seat is so arranged that the accumulation can be removed at pleasure4 ,from the moment when the earth is discharged and the evacuation covered1 all offensive exhalation entirely ceases4 ,under certain circumstances there may be1 at times1 a slight odor as of guano mixed with earth1 but this is so trifling and so local that a commode arranged on this plan may1 without the least annoyance1 be kept in use in any room4 ,the dry earth closet of the philanthropic clergyman was found to work well1 and was acceptable to his parishioners4 ,one reason why it was so was because dry earth was ready to hand1 or could be easily procured in a country district where labor was cheap4 ,but where labor was dear and dry earth scarce1 those who had to pay for the carting of the earth and the removal of the deodorized increment found it both expensive and troublesome4 ,but a modification of this dry earth closet1 the joint contrivance of an ,english church clergyman and his brother1 the doctor1 residents of a ,canadian country town1 who had heard of ,moule's invention1 is a good substitute1 and is within the reach of all4 ,this will be briefly described4 ,the vault was dug as for an ordinary closet1 about fifteen feet deep1 and a rough wooden shell fitted in4 ,about four feet below the surface of this wooden shell a stout wide ledge was firmly fastened all around4 ,upon this ledge a substantially made wooden box was placed1 just as we place a well fitting tray into our trunks4 ,about three feet of the back of the wooden shell was then taken out1 leaving the back of the box exposed4 ,from the center of the back of the box a square was cut out and a trap door fitted in and hasped down4 ,the tiny building1 on which pains1 paint1 and inventive genius had not been spared to make it snug1 comfortable1 well lighted and well ventilated1 was placed securely on this vault4 ,after stones had been embedded in the earth at the back of the vault1 to keep it from falling upon the trap door1 two or three heavy planks were laid across the hollow close to the closet4 ,these were first covered with a barrowful of earth and then with a heap of brushwood4 ,within the closet1 in the left hand corner1 a tall wooden box was placed1 about two-thirds full of dry1 well sifted wood ashes4 ,the box also contained a small long-handled fire shovel4 ,when about six inches of the ashes had been strewn into the vault the closet was ready for use4 ,no2 not quite2 for squares of suitable paper had to be cut1 looped together with twine1 and hung within convenient reaching distance of the right hand2 also a little to the left of this pad of paper1 and above the range of sight when seated1 a ten pound paper bag of the toughest texture had to be hung by a loop on a nail driven into the corner4 ,at first the rector thought that his guests would be quick-witted enough to understand the arrangement1 but when he found that the majority of them were1 as the ,scotch say1 dull in the uptak1 he had to think of some plan to enforce his rules and regulations4 ,as by-word-of-mouth instructions would have been rather embarrassing to both sides1 he tacked up explicit written orders1 which must have provoked many a smile4 ,above the bin of sifted ashes he nailed a card which instructed ,those who use this closet must strew two shovelfuls of ashes into the vault4 ,above the pad of clean paper he tacked the thrifty proverb3 ,waste not1 want not2 and above the paper bag he suspended a card bearing this warning3 ,all refuse paper must be put into this bag2 not a scrap of clean or unclean paper must be thrown into the vault4 ,this had the desired effect4 ,some complacently united to humor their host's whim1 as they called it1 and others1 immediately recognizing its utility and decency1 took notes with a view to modifying their own closet arrangements4 ,sarah1 the maid of all work1 caused a good deal of amusement in the family circle by writing her instructions in blue pencil on the front of the ash bin4 ,these were3 ,strew two shuffefuls of ashes into the volt1 but don't spill two shuffefuls onto the floor4 ,by order of the ,gurl who has to sweap up4 ,this order was emphatically approved of by those fastidious ones who didn't have to sweep up4 ,this closet opened off the woodshed1 and besides being snugly weatherproof in itself1 was sheltered on one side by the shed and on another by a high board fence4 ,the other two sides were screened from observation by lattice work1 outside of which evergreens were planted to give added seclusion and shade4 ,a ventilator in the roof and two sunny little windows1 screened at will from within by tiny ,venetian shutters1 gave ample light and currents of fresh air4 ,for winter use1 the rector's wife and daughters made hooked mats for floor and for foot support4 ,these were hung up every night in the shed to air and put back first thing in the morning4 ,for the greater protection and comfort of invalids1 an old-fashioned foot warmer1 with a handle like a basket1 was always at hand ready to be filled with live coals and carried out4 ,the little place was always kept as exquisitely clean as the dainty1 old-fashioned drawing room1 and so vigilant was the overseeing care bestowed on every detail1 that the most delicate and acute sense of smell could not detect the slightest abiding unpleasant odor4 ,the paper bag was frequently changed1 and every night the accumulated contents were burned2 out of doors in the summer1 and in the kitchen stove--after a strong draught had been secured--in the winter4 ,at stated times the deodorized mass of solid increment--in which there was not or ought not to have been any refuse paper to add useless bulk--was spaded1 through the trap door1 out of the box in the upper part of the vault1 into a wheelbarrow1 thrown upon the garden soil1 and thoroughly incorporated with it4 ,in this cleansing out process there was little to offend1 so well had the ashes done their concealing deodorizing work4 ,in using this modified form of ,moule's invention1 it is not necessary to dig a deep vault4 ,the rector1 given to forecasting1 thought that some day his property might be bought by those who preferred the old style1 but his brother1 the doctor1 not troubling about what might be1 simply fitted his well made1 four feet deep box1 with its trap door1 into a smoothly dug hole that exactly held it1 and set the closet over it4 ,in all other respects it was a model of his brother's4 ,this last is within the reach of all1 even those who live in other people's houses2 for1 when they find themselves in possession of an unspeakably foul closet1 they can cover up the old vault and set the well cleaned1 repaired1 fumigated closet upon a vault fashioned after the doctor's plan4 ,a stout drygoods box1 which can be bought for a trifle1 answers well for this purpose1 after a little tinkering to form a trap door4 ,of course1 dry earth is by far the best deodorizer and absorbent1 but when it cannot be easily and cheaply procured1 well sifted wood or coal ashes--wood preferred--is a good substitute4 ,the ashes must be kept dry4 ,if they are not1 they lose their absorbing1 deodorizing powers4 ,they must also be well sifted4 ,if they are not1 the cinders add a useless and very heavy bulk to the increment4 ,an ash sifter can be made by knocking the bottom out of a shallow box1 studding the edge all round with tacks1 and using them to cross and recross with odd lengths of stovepipe wire to form a sieve4--,the ,sanitarian4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,hygienic ,,treatment ,,of ,,obesity4#a ,footnote #a3 ,translated by ,mr4 ,jos4 ,helfman1 ,detroit1 ,mich4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,paul ,,cheron4 ,in order to properly regulate the regimen of the obese1 it is first necessary to determine the source of the superfluous adipose of the organism1 since either the albuminoids or the hydrocarbons may furnish fat4 ,alimentary fat becomes fixed in the tissues1 as has been proved by ,lebede1 who fed dogs1 emaciated by long fast1 with meat wholly deprived of fat1 and substituted for the latter linseed oil1 when he was able to recover the oil in each instance from the animal2 parallel experiments with mutton fat1 in lieu of oil1 afforded like results4 ,hoffman also deprived dogs of fat for a month1 causing them to lose as high as twenty-two pounds weight1 then began nourishing with bacon fat with but little lean2 the quantity of fat formed in five days1 in the dog that lost twenty-two pounds1 was more than three pounds1 which could have been derived only from the bacon fat4 ,it has been stated1 however1 that alimentary fat seems to preserve from destruction the fat of the organism which arises from other sources4 ,be this as it may1 it is a fact that the pre-existence of fat furthers the accumulation of more adipose2 or in other words1 fat induces fattening6 ,that adipose may be formed through the transformation of albuminous matters 7meat7 is an extremely important corollary1 one established beyond cavil by ,pettinkofer and ,voit1 in an indirect way1 by first estimating the nitrogen and carbon ingested1 and second the amount eliminated4 ,giving a dog meat that was wholly deprived of fat1 they found it impossible to recover more than a portion of the contained carbon2 hence some must necessarily have been utilized in the organism1 and this would be possible only by the transformation of the carbon into fat6 ,it goes without saying1 however1 that the amount of adipose thus deposited is meager4 ,other facts also plead in favor of the transformation of a portion of albumen into fat within the economy1 notably the changing of a portion of dead organism into what is known as cadaveric fat1 and the very rapid fatty degeneration of organs that supervenes upon certain forms of poisoning1 as by phosphorus4 ,the carbohydrates1 or more properly speaking hydrocarbons1 are regarded by all physiologists as specially capable of producing fat1 and numerous alimentary experiments have been undertaken to prove this point4 ,chaniewski1 ,meissl1 and ,munk obtained results that evidenced1 apparently1 sugar and starch provide more fat than do the albuminoids4 ,voit1 however1 disapproves this1 maintaining the greater part of the hydrocarbons is burned 7furnishes fuel for the immediate evolution of force71 and that fat cannot be stored up unless a due proportion of albuminoids is also administered4 ,he believes the hydrocarbons exert a direct influence only2 being more oxidizable than fats1 they guard the latter from oxidation4 ,this protective role of the hydrocarbons applies also to the albuminoids4 ,we may believe1 then1 that the three great classes of aliment yield fat1 in some degree2 that alimentary fat may be fixed in the tissues2 and that hydrocarbons favor the deposition of adipose either directly or indirectly4 ,it is well understood that fat may disappear with great rapidity under certain conditions2 many maladies are accompanied by speedy emaciation2 therefore1 as fat never passes into the secretions1 at least not in appreciable quantities1 it probably undergoes transformation1 perhaps by oxidation or a form of fermentation1 the final results of which are1 directly or indirectly1 water and cadaveric acid4 ,it is certain the process of oxidation favors the destruction of adipose1 and that everything which inhibits such destruction tends to fat accumulation4 ,since the earliest period of history1 there seems to have been an anxiety to secure some regimen of general application that would reduce or combat obesity4 ,thus ,hippocrates says3 ,fat people1 and all those who would become lean1 should perform laborious tasks while fasting1 and eat while still breathless from fatigue1 without rest1 and after having drunk diluted wine not very cold4 ,their meats should be prepared with sesamum1 with sweets1 and other similar substances1 and these dishes should be free from fat4 ,in this manner one will be satiated through eating less4 ,but1 besides1 one should take only one meal2 take no bath2 sleep on a hard bed2 and walk as much as may be4 ,how much has medical science gained in this direction during the interval of more than two thousand years8 ,let us see3 ,first among moderns to seek to establish on a scientific basis a regimen for the obese1 was ,dancel1 who forbade fats1 starchy foods1 etc41 prescribed soups and aqueous aliment1 and reduced the quantity of beverage to the lowest possible limit2 at the same time he employed frequent and profuse purgation4 ,this regimen1 which permits1 at most1 but seven to twelve ounces of fluid at each repast1 is somewhat difficult to follow1 though it may be obtained1 gradually1 with ease4 ,dr4 ,constantine ,paul records a case in which this regimen1 gradually induced1 and followed for ten years1 rewarded the patient with moderate flesh and most excellent health4 ,in ,great ,britain1 a mode of treatment instituted in one ,banting1 by ,dr4 ,harvey1 whereby the former was decreased in weight forty pounds1 has obtained somewhat wide celebrity2 and what is more remarkable1 it is known as ,bantingism1 taking its name from the patient instead of the physician who originated it4 ,the dietary is as follows3 ,breakfast4--,five to six ounces of lean meat1 broiled fish1 or smoked bacon--veal and pork interdicted2 a cup of tea or coffee without milk or sugar2 one ounce of toast or dry biscuit 7crackers74 ,dinner4--,five or six ounces of lean meat or fish--excluding eel1 salmon1 and herring2 a small quantity of vegetables1 but no potatoes1 parsnips1 carrots1 beets1 peas1 or beans2 one ounce of toast1 fruit1 or fowl2 two glasses of red wine--beer1 champagne1 and port forbidden4 ,tea4--,two or three ounces of fruit2 one kind of pastry2 one cup of tea4 ,supper4--,three or four ounces of lean beef or fish2 one or two glasses of red wine4 ,at bed-time4--,grog without sugar 7whisky and water1 or rum and water71 and one or two glasses of sherry or ,bordeaux4 ,bantingism1 to be effective1 must be most closely followed1 when1 unfortunately also1 it proves extremely debilitating2 it is suitable only for sturdy1 hard riding gluttons of the ,squire ,western type4 ,the patient rapidly loses strength as well as flesh1 and speedily acquires an unconquerable repugnance to the dietary4 ,further1 from a strictly physiological point of view1 the quantity of meat is greatly in excess1 while with the cessation of the regimen1 the fat quickly reappears4 ,next ,ebstein formulated a dietary that is certainly much better tolerated than that of ,harvey and ,banting1 and yields as good1 or even better1 results4 ,he allows patients to take a definite quantity--two to two and a half ounces-of fat daily1 in the form of bacon or butter which1 theoretically at least1 offers several advantages3 ,it diminishes the sensations of hunger and thirst1 and plays a special role with respect to the albuminoids2 the latter may thus be assimilated by the economy without being resolved into fat1 and thus the adipose of the organism at this period is drawn upon without subsequent renewal4 ,the following is the outline3 ,breakfast4--,at #f a4m4 in summer2 #g3cj in winter3--,eight ounces of black tea without either milk or sugar2 two ounces of white bread or toast1 with a copious layer of butter4 ,dinner4--#b p4m43--,a modicum of beef marrow soup2 four ounces of meat1 preferably of fatty character2 moderate quantity of vegetable1 especially the legumines1 but no potatoes or anything containing starch2 raw fruits in season1 and cooked fruits 7stewed1 without sugar72 two or three glasses of light wine as a beverage1 and after eating1 a cup of black tea without sugar4 ,supper4--#g3cj p m43--,an egg1 bit of fat roast1 ham1 or bacon2 a slice of white bread well buttered2 a large cup of black tea without milk or sugar2 from time to time1 cheese and fresh fruits4 ,germain ,see suggests as a modification of this regimen1 the abundant use of beverage1 the addition of gelatins1 and at times small doses of potassium iodide in twenty cases he claims constant and relatively prompt results4 ,whatever may be urged for ,ebstein's system--and it has afforded most excellent results to ,unna and to ,lube1 as well as its author--it certainly exposes the patient to the terrors of dyspepsia1 when the routine must needs be interrupted or modified2 hence it is not always to be depended upon4 ,as between dyspepsia and obesity1 there are few1 ,i fancy1 who would not prefer the latter4 ,another system that has acquired no little celebrity1 and which has for its aim the reduction as far as possible of alimentary hydrocarbons while permitting a certain proportion of fat1 is that1 of ,denneth1 which necessarily follows somewhat closely the lines laid down by ,ebstein4 ,oertels' treatment1 somewhat widely known1 and not without due measure of fame1 is based upon a series of measures having as object the withdrawal from both circulation and the economy at large1 as much of the fluids as possible4 ,it is especially adapted for the relief of those obese who are suffering fatty degeneration of the heart4 ,the menu is as follows3 ,breakfast4--,pour to five ounces of tea or coffee with a little milk2 two to two and a half ounces bread4 ,dinner4--,three or four ounces of roast or boiled meat1 or moderately fat food2 fish1 slightly fat2 salad and vegetables at pleasure2 one and a half ounces of bread 7in certain cases as much as three ounces of farinaceous food may be permitted72 three to six ounces of fruit2 at times a little pastry for dessert4--,in summer1 if fruit is not obtainable1 six to eight ounces of light wine may be allowed4 ,tea1--,a cupful 7four to five ounces7 of tea or coffee1 with a trifle of milk1 as at breakfast2 one and three-fourths ounces of bread2 and exceptionally 7and at most7 six ounces of water4 ,supper4--,one to two soft boiled eggs2 four or five ounces of meat2 one and three fourths ounces of bread2 a trifle of cheese1 salad1 or fruit2 six to eight ounces of light wine diluted with an eighth volume of water4 ,the quantity of beverage may be slightly augmented at each meal if necessary1 especially if there is no morbid heart trouble4 ,schwenninger 7,bismarck's physician71 who opened a large sanitarium near ,berlin a few years since for the treatment of the obese1 employs ,oertel's treatment1 modified in that an abundance of beverage is permitted1 provided it is not indulged in at meals2 it is forbidden until two hours after eating4 ,both ,oertel's and ,schwenninger's methods have procured grave dyspepsias1 and fatal albuminurias as well1 according to ,meyer and ,rosenfield4 ,it has been charged the allowance of beverage upon which ,schwenninger lays so much stress in the treatment at his sanitarium has a pecuniary basis1 in other words a commission upon the sale of wines4#b ,footnote #b3 ,the sanitarium is owned by a stock company1 ,schwenninger being merely ,medical ,director4--,,ed4 ,thus1 it will be observed that while some forbid beverage1 others rather insist upon its employment in greater or less quantities4 ,under such circumstances1 it would seem but rational1 before undertaking to relieve obesity1 to establish its exact nature1 and also the role taken by fluids in the phenomena of nutrition4 ,physiologists generally admit water facilitates nutritive exchanges1 which is explained by the elimination of a large quantity of urine2 the experiments of ,genth and ,robin in this direction appear conclusive4 ,bischoff1 ,voit1 and ,hermann have shown that water increases1 not alone the elimination of urine1 but also of sodium chloride1 phosphoric acid1 etc4 ,grigoriantz observed augmentation of disintegration when the quantity of beverage exceeded forty-six to eighty ounces 7#a1djj to #b1djj cubic centimeters7 per diem4 ,oppenheim1 ,fraenkel1 and ,debove1 while believing water has but little influence upon the exchanges1 admit it certainly need not diminish the latter2 and ,debove and ,flament1 after administering water in quantities varying from two to eight pints per diem1 concluded that urine was diminished below the former figure1 while above the latter it increased somewhat1 being dependent upon the amount ingested4 ,it was on the strength of the foregoing that ,lallemand declared water to have no influence upon the exchanges4 ,the results claimed by ,oppenheim1 ,debove1 et al4 were immediately challenged--and it is now generally admitted1 not without some justice--by ,germain ,see4 ,it seems certain1 to say the least1 that water taken during the repast does tend to augment the quantity and facilitate the elimination of urine4 ,abundance of beverage1 moreover1 presents other advantages1 in that it facilitates digestion by reason of its diluent action1 a fact well worth bearing in mind when treating the obese who are possessed of gouty diathesis1 and whose kidneys are accordingly encumbered with uric and oxalic acids4 ,the foregoing presents the ground upon which ,germain ,see permits an abundance of beverage2 but he also expresses strong reservation as regards beer and alcohol1 either of which 7more especially the former7 tends to the production of adipose4 ,in his opinion1 the only beverage of the alcoholic class that is at all permissible1 and then only for cases suffering from fatty heart1 is a little liqueur or diluted wine4 ,coffee and tea he commends highly1 and recommends the ingestion of large quantities at high temperature1 both during the repasts and their intervals4 ,coffee in large doses is undoubtedly a means of de-nutrition1 and so1 too1 in no less extent1 is tea2 both act vigorously owing to the contained alkaloids1 though1 to be sure1 they sometimes1 at first1 tend to insomnia and palpitation1 to which no attention need be paid1 however4 ,the treatment outlined by ,see is3 #a4 ,a physiological regimen comprising four to five ounces of nitrogenous principles as derived from eight to ten ounces animal muscle and albuminates2 three to six ounces of fat2 eight to ten ounces of hydrocarbons as yielded by ten to twelve ounces of sugar or starch food4 ,these proportions to be modified in such manner that the musculo-albuminates shall not sensibly exceed the normal ratio1 for meat in excess itself furnishes fat during transformation4 ,the fatty substances of easy digestion may1 without inconvenience1 be utilized in doses of two to three ounces4 ,the hydrocarbons should be reduced to a minimum4 ,as for the herbaceous elements1 they contain nothing nutritive4 #b4 ,beverage1 far from being suppressed1 should be augmented1 in order to facilitate stomachal digestion and promote general nutrition1 though alcoholic liquids must be inhibited2 likewise mineral waters1 except1 perhaps1 for occasional use4 ,both should be replaced by infusions of coffee or tea1 taken as hot as can be drank4 ,henrich ,kisch insists that any method which promises rapid and marked decrease of adipose must1 per se1 be objectionable1 even if not positively injurious1 since it tends to provoke general troubles of nutrition4 ,he suggests that first the fats and hydrocarbons be reduced as little as possible2 that a moderate mixed regimen is required1 containing a preponderance of albumen1 small quantities of hydrocarbons and gelatinous matters1 with but very little fat4 ,certain fatty meats1 however1 should be generally interdicted1 such as pork sausage1 smoked beef tongue1 goose breast1 smoked ham1 fat salmon1 and herring in any form4 ,eggs1 however1 may be partaken of in moderation1 giving preference to the albumen over the yelk4 ,farinaceous foods1 in the main1 should be rejected1 even bread being allowed only in small quantities1 and then preferably in the form of toast4 ,cheese likewise contains too much fat2 and mushrooms are so rich in hydrocarbons that they should be rejected4 ,condiments1 water1 vegetable acids 7vinegars excepted7 may be permitted2 especially pernicious is vinegar where there is any tendency to gout or gravel4 ,all fatty beverages--bouillon1 unskimmed milk1 chocolate1 or cacao--and all alcoholics1 are hurtful2 breakfast tea is undoubtedly the best beverage1 but1 after a little1 is advantageously replaced by light white wine diluted with water4 ,kisch believes in a free and abundant use of water by the obese1 especially where there is a tendency to plethora1 since this fluid facilitates oxidation as the result of absorption2 thus he advocates the inhibition of large quantities of cold water by all1 save those presenting evidence of cardiac insufficiency4 ,in short1 his regimen is based upon the administration of a large quantity of albumen1 like that of ,harvey-,banting4 ,e4 ,munk recommends an almost identical dietary1 save that he prefers great moderation in fluids employed as beverage4 ,m4 ,robin has sought to harmonize the opposing views regarding fluids1 and therefore declares obesity arises from two distinct sources3 #a4 ,augmentation of assimilation4 #b4 ,reduced disassimilation4 ,in the former1 he insists water must be interdicted1 while in the latter it may be allowed ad libitum4 ,again1 in order to recognize the exact variety of obesity1 he divides his patients into three classes1 each recognizable by the volume of urea excreted4 ,in the first there is an increase above normal2 in the second the volume of urea is stationary2 in the third decreased1 increased1 or stationary4 ,when the urea is stationary1 which is most frequently the case1 it is necessary to calculate the coefficient of oxidation2 that is1 the relation existing between the solid matters of the urine and the urea4 ,the elevation of the coefficient is prima facie evidence the obesity is due to excess of assimilation1 while depression of the coefficient indicates default of assimilation4 ,in the first case1 water and liquids must be denied as far as possible1 the same as if there was no augmentation of urea2 in the second1 the same as if there was diminution of urea1 the patients may be permitted to imbibe fluids at pleasure4 ,for the obese from default of disassimilation1 ,robin recommends a regimen of green vegetables and bread chiefly--the latter in small quantities1 however1 and fluids as may be desired4 ,by this means1 on one occasion1 he was able in the course of one month to diminish the weight of a female patient by twelve and a half pounds1 her measurement around the waist at the same time decreasing #e4b inches and across the stomach #d4h inches4 ,m4 ,de ,st4 ,germain achieved good results by combining judicious exercise with moderate alimentation1 excluding wine and bread4 ,m4 ,dujardin ,beaumetz1 who professes to have given most close and careful study and attention to regimen for the obese1 outlines the following1 provided there is no evidence of fatty degeneration of heart4 ,breakfast 7at #h a4 m47--,three-fourths of an ounce of bread en flute--that is abounding with crust2 one and a half ounces of cold meat1 ham or beef1 six ounces weak black tea1 sans sugar4 ,lunch 7at #a p4m47--,an ounce and a half to two ounces of bread1 or a ragout1 or two eggs2 three ounces green vegetables2 one-half ounce of cheese2 fruits at discretion4 ,dinner 7at #g p4m47--,an ounce and a half to two ounces of bread2 three to four ounces of meat1 or ragout2 ditto of green vegetables1 salad1 half an ounce of cheese1 fruit ad libitum4 ,at meal times the patient may take only a glass and a half of liquid--approximately ten ounces--though a greater amount may be permitted if he abstains during the intervals4 ,special alimentary regimen1 however1 does not constitute the sole treatment of obesity4 ,concurrently must be employed a number of practical adjuvants which are oftentimes of the utmost assistance4 ,for one thing1 exercise is indispensable2 all authorities agree on this point4 ,the exercise taken in the gymnasium is one of the best1 notably the wall exercise1 which is more particularly suited to those afflicted with pendulous and protuberant abdomens as the result of feebleness of the hypogastric muscles1 to accumulation of fat under the skin and in the omentum1 and to dilation of the stomach and intestines4 ,in the wall exercise1 the patient stands erect against an absolutely straight and plumb wall1 lifts his hands 7carrying a weight7 straight over the head1 and causes them to describe a semicircle forward4 ,zantz particularly insists upon arm and leg exercise for the obese1 especially the former1 since with the same amount of effort a larger amount of oxygen is consumed than is possible by the latter4 ,however1 of whatever character1 the exercise should be continued to the point of fatigue or dyspnoea--three thousand movements daily1 gradually increased to twenty-five thousand1 if the system can bear it2 and under such conditions1 not only is there consumption of hydrocarbons1 but there is provided a veritable greed for air that augments waste4 ,the experiments of ,oertel indicate that loss of weight due to fatiguing exercise arises more particularly from dehydration1 which is made good by absorption of the fluids employed as beverage2 the fluids are claimed by ,germain ,see to act as accelerants of oxidation4 ,during exercise there is obviously more abundant absorption of oxygen1 and consequently greater elimination of carbonic acid1 and as a consequence 7as shown by researches of ,voit71 the reserve fat of the economy is attacked and diminished2 in intense labor there is an average hourly consumption of about #h4b percent4 of fat4 ,further physical activity is useful in exercising the voluntary muscles1 and thus opposing the invasion by interstitial fat of the muscle fibrils4 ,extreme exercise also1 to a certain degree1 exerts a favorable influence on the cardiac muscle1 augmenting both its nutrition and its capacity for labor4 ,with the anmic obese1 however1 it is necessary to be most circumspect in prescribing forced exercise2 also with the elderly obese possessed of enfeebled or fatty heart4 ,hydrotherapy1 especially in the form of cold douches1 particularly when combined with massage1 is often of considerable value in relieving obesity2 the method of ,harmman1 of ,st4 ,germain1 which has in many instances induced rapid loss of adipose1 is of this class4 ,tepid saline baths and vapor baths have many advocates1 and may afford material aid when the heart and circulation do not inhibit their employment4 ,hot baths elevate the temperature of the body and increase the organic exchanges1 hence1 as ,bert and ,reynard have pointed out1 tend to the elimination of oxygen and carbonic acid2 but when employed1 the patient should be introduced while the temperature is below #acj ,f41 when it may be gradually raised in the course of thirty or forty minutes to #adj ,f4 ,it has already been intimated1 the chief feature of the treatment of obesity is acceleration of the exchanges2 and this is in the main true1 though it must also be borne in mind that1 while there are obese who excrete little urea and have a depressed central nervous temperature1 many may be azoturic1 and besides eliminate phosphate in excess1 when an oxidating treatment will not only fail1 but prove positively injurious4 ,the bile throws out fat1 therefore1 to accelerate nutritive oxidations1 the liver and nervous system must be acted upon1 i4e41 stimulated4 ,everything that tends to diminish the activity of the former1 or depress the latter1 must be avoided4 ,hence intellectual labor should be encouraged1 or in lieu thereof1 travel advised4 ,exercise should be taken chiefly while fasting2 the limits of sleep confined to strict necessity1 and siestas after meals and during the day strictly forbidden2 the skin stimulated by hydro-therapeutic measures1 including massage under cold affusions1 during warm salt baths1 etc4 ,to increase the activity of the liver1 salicylate of soda may often be advantageously administered for its cholagogue effect2 or resort may be had to saline purgatives such as are afforded by the springs of ,marienbad1 ,kissengen1 ,homburg1 ,carlsbad1 ,brides1 ,hunyadi1 or ,chatel-,guyon2 and it is somewhat remarkable that while undergoing a course of these waters1 there is often no appreciable change in weight or obesity1 though the decrease becomes most marked almost immediately upon cessation of treatment4 ,everything tending to increased or fuller respiration is to be encouraged1 for the fats are thus supplied with oxygen1 hastening their disintegration and consumption4 ,direct medicinal treatment presents no very wide scope4 ,bouchard imagines lime water may be useful by accelerating nutrition1 but this is problematical1 since fat in emulsion or in droplets does not burn4 ,nevertheless1 alkalies in general1 alkaline carbonates1 liquor potassa1 soaps1 etc41 aid in rendering fat more soluble1 and consequently more susceptible to attack4 ,the alkaline waters1 however1 are much less active in obesity than the saline mineral waters1 unless1 as sometimes happens1 there is a complication of diabetes and obesity4 ,purgatives are always more or less useful1 and often required to be renewed with all the regularity of habit4 ,then too1 the iodides1 especially iodide of sodium or potassium1 as recommended by ,m4 ,germain ,see1 frequently prove of excellent service by aiding elimination and facilitating the mutations4 ,according to ,kisch1 the cold mineral waters containing an abundance of sulphate of soda1 like ,hunyadi and ,marienbad1 are to be preferred to the hot mineral waters1 such as ,carlsbad1 because of their lesser irritant action on the vascular system1 and because they strongly excite diuresis through their low temperature and contained carbonic acid2 ,carlsbad deserves preference only when obesity is combined with uric acid calculi1 or with diabetes4 ,for very anmic persons1 however1 the weak alkaline and saline waters should be selected2 or they should confine themselves to chalybeate waters containing an excess of sulphate of soda4 ,water containing sulphate of soda is also indicated as a beverage where there are troubles of the circulatory apparatus2 it is contraindicated only in accentuated arterio-sclerosis4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,i find the suggestion of ,m4 ,dujardin-,beaumetz1 that the obese should be divided into two groups1 a most practical one1 for some are strong and vigorous--great eaters1 perhaps even gluttons--while others1 on the contrary1 are feeble and debilitated1 with flesh soft and flaccid2 and upon the former may be imposed all the rigors of the reducing system1 while the latter must be dealt with more carefully4 ,in general1 it must be noted1 the regimen prescribed for the obese is insufficient1 as the following table prepared by ,m4,c4 ,paul abundantly proves3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,author4 ,albuminous ,fatty ,matters4 ,matters4 ,hydrocarbons4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,voit4 #aah #dj #aej ,harvey-,banting4 #agj #aj #hj ,ebstein4 #ajj #he #ej ,oertel4 #aee-agi #be-da #gj-aaj ,kisch 7plethoric74 #afj #aj #hj 7anmic74 #bjj #ab #ajj ,normal ration4 #abd #ee #dee ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,there is1 therefore1 as ,dujardin-,beaumetz asserts1 autophagia in the obese1 and all these varieties of treatment have but one end1 viz43 ,reduction of the daily ration4 ,but the quantity of nourishment should not be too greatly curtailed1 for1 manifestly1 if the fat disappears the more surely1 the muscles 7rich in albumen7 undergo too rapid modification4 ,it is progressive action that should always be sought4 ,the quantity of aliment may be reduced either by imposing an always uniform regimen1 which soon begets anorexia and disgust1 or by withholding from the food a considerable quantity of fat1 or1 finally1 by forbidding beverage during meals4 ,emaciation is obtained readily enough in either way1 and demands only the constant exercise of will power on the part of the patient2 but unhappily1 severe regimen cannot always be prescribed4 ,when the obese patient has passed the age of forty2 when the heart suffers from degeneration2 or when the heart is anmic--in all1 rigorous treatment will serve to still further enfeeble the central organ of circulation1 and tend to precipitate accidents that1 by all means1 are to be avoided4 ,in such cases1 by not treating the obesity1 the days of the patient will be prolonged4 ,in degeneration of the heart1 however1 the method of ,ebstein may be tried2 and when there is renal calculi and gouty diathesis1 that of ,germain ,see may prove satisfactory4 ,paris1 ,france4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,stilt ,,walking4 ,illustration3 ,,sylvain ,,dornon1 ,,the ,,stilt ,,walker ,,of ,,landes4 ,sylvain ,dornon1 the stilt walker of ,landes1 started from ,paris on the #abth of last ,march for ,moscow1 and reached the end of his journey at the end of a fifty-eight days' walk4 ,this long journey upon stilts constitutes a genuine curiosity1 not only to the ,russians1 to whom this sort of locomotion is unknown1 but also to many ,frenchmen4 ,walking on stilts1 in fact1 which was common twenty years ago in certain parts of ,france1 is gradually tending to become a thing of the past4 ,in the wastes of ,gascony it was formerly a means of locomotion adapted to the nature of the country4 ,the waste lands were then great level plains covered with stunted bushes and dry heath4 ,moreover1 on account of the permeability of the subsoil1 all the declivities were transformed into marshes after the slightest fall of rain4 ,there were no roads of any kind1 and the population1 relying upon sheep raising for a living1 was much scattered4 ,it was evidently in order to be able to move around under these very peculiar conditions that the shepherds devised and adopted stilts4 ,the stilts of ,landes are called1 in the language of the country1 tchangues1 which signifies big legs1 and those who use them are called tchangus4 ,the stilts are pieces of wood about five feet in length1 provided with a shoulder and strap to support the foot4 ,the upper part of the wood is flattened and rests against the leg1 where it is held by a strong strap4 ,the lower part1 that which rests upon the earth1 is enlarged and is sometimes strengthened with a sheep's bone4 ,the ,landese shepherd is provided with a staff which he uses for numerous purposes1 such as a point of support for getting on to the stilts and as a crook for directing his flocks4 ,again1 being provided with a board1 the staff constitutes a comfortable seat adapted to the height of the stilts4 ,resting in this manner1 the shepherd seems to be upon a gigantic tripod4 ,when he stops he knits or he spins with the distaff thrust in his girdle4 ,his usual costume consists of a sort of jacket without sleeves1 made of sheep skin1 of canvas gaiters1 and of a drugget cloak4 ,his head gear consists of a beret or a large hat4 ,this accouterment was formerly completed by a gun to defend the flock against wolves1 and a stove for preparing meals4 ,the aspect of the ,landeses is doubtless most picturesque1 but their poverty is extreme4 ,they are generally spare and sickly1 they are poorly fed and are preyed upon by fever4 ,mounted on their stilts1 the shepherds of ,landes drive their flocks across the wastes1 going through bushes1 brush and pools of water1 and traversing marshes with safety1 without having to seek roads or beaten footpaths4 ,moreover1 this elevation permits them to easily watch their sheep1 which are often scattered over a wide surface4 ,in the morning the shepherd1 in order to get on his stilts1 mounts by a ladder or seats himself upon the sill of a window1 or else climbs upon the mantel of a large chimney4 ,even in a flat country1 being seated upon the ground1 and having fixed his stilts1 he easily rises with the aid of his staff4 ,to persons accustomed to walking on foot1 it is evident that locomotion upon stilts would be somewhat appalling4 ,one may judge by what results from the fall of a pedestrian what danger may result from a fall from a pair of stilts4 ,but the shepherds of ,landes1 accustomed from their childhood to this sort of exercise1 acquire an extraordinary freedom and skill therein4 ,the tchangu knows very well how to preserve his equilibrium2 he walks with great strides1 stands upright1 runs with agility1 or executes a few feats of true acrobatism1 such as picking up a pebble from the ground1 plucking a flower1 simulating a fall and quickly rising1 running on one foot1 etc4 ,the speed that the stilt walkers attain is easily explained4 ,although the angle of the legs at every step is less than that of ordinary walking with the feet on the ground1 the sides prolonged by the stilts are five or six feet apart at the base4 ,it will be seen that with steps of such a length1 distances must be rapidly covered4 ,when1 in #ahjh1 the ,empress ,josephine went to ,bayonne to rejoin ,napoleon ,i1 who resided there by reason of the affairs of ,spain1 the municipality sent an escort of young ,landese stilt walkers to meet her4 ,on the return1 these followed the carriages with the greatest facility1 although the horses went at a full trot4 ,during the stay of the empress1 the shepherds1 mounted upon their stilts1 much amused the ladies of the court1 who took delight in making them race1 or in throwing money upon the ground and seeing several of them go for it at once1 the result being a scramble and a skillful and cunning onset1 often accompanied with falls4 ,up to recent years scarcely any merry-makings occurred in the villages of ,gascony that were not accompanied with stilt races4 ,the prizes usually consisted of a gun1 a sheep1 a cock1 etc4 ,the young people vied with each other in speed and agility1 and plucky young girls often took part in the contests4 ,some of the municipalities of the environs of ,bayonne and ,biarritz still organize stilt races1 at the period of the influx of travelers2 but the latter claim that the stiltsmen thus presented are not genuine ,landese shepherds1 but simple supernumeraries recruited at hazard1 and in most cases from among strolling acrobats4 ,the stilt walkers of ,landes not only attain a great speed1 but are capable of traveling long distances without appreciable fatigue4 ,formerly1 on the market days at ,bayonne and ,bordeaux1 long files of peasants were seen coming in on stilts1 and1 although they were loaded with bags and baskets1 they came from the villages situated at #aj1 #ae1 or #bj leagues distance4 ,to-day the sight of a stilt walker is a curiosity almost as great at ,bordeaux as at ,paris4 ,the peasant of ,landes now comes to the city in a wagon or even by railway4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,remains ,,of ,a ,,roman ,,villa ,,in ,,england4 ,a correspondent of the ,lincolnshire ,chronicle writes3 ,for some weeks past1 remains of a ,roman villa have been exposed to view by ,mr4 ,ramsden's miners in ,greetwell ,fields4 ,from1 the extent of the tesselated pavements laid bare there is hardly any doubt that in the ,greetwell ,fields1 in centuries long gone by1 there stood a ,roman mansion1 which for magnitude was perhaps unrivaled in ,england4 ,six years ago ,i drew attention to it4 ,the digging for iron ore soon after this was brought to a standstill by the company1 which at the time was working the mines1 ceasing their operations4 ,then the property came into other hands1 and since then more extensive basement floors of the villa have from time to time been laid bare1 and from tentative explorations which have been just made1 still more floors remain to be uncovered which may be of a most interesting and instructive character4 ,what a pity it is that the inhabitants of ,lincoln have not made an effort to preserve these precious relics of the grandeur of the ,roman occupation1 an occupation to which ,england owes so much4 ,from the ,romans the people of this country inherit the sturdy self-reliance and perseverance in action which have helped to make ,england what it is1 and from the ,romans too1 in a great degree1 does ,england also inherit her colonizing instincts1 which impel her people to cover the waste places of the world with colonies4 ,if the ,roman remains which have been so abundantly discovered of late years in ,lincoln and its vicinity had been collected and laid out for exhibition1 they would have formed a most interesting collection of antiquities worthy of the town1 and well worth showing to visitors who now annually make ,lincoln a visitation4 ,although these relics of a remote age are being dug up and are being destroyed1 it is not the fault of ,mr4 ,ramsden1 for he not only preserved them as long as he conveniently could1 but he also had the soil removed from over them1 and had them thoroughly washed1 in order that people might have an opportunity of seeing their extent and beauty4 ,one of these patches of pavement extended #dh yards northward from what might be called the main building1 which had previously been broken up4 ,this strip was #ac ft4 in breadth1 and down its center ran an intricate pattern worked in blue tesser4 ,the pattern is much used in these days in fabrics and works of art1 and is1 ,i think1 called the ,grecian or ,roman key pattern4 ,on each side of this ran alternately broad ribbons of white and narrower ribbons of red tesser4 ,there is also another strip of pavement to the south of the preceding patch1 which has been laid bare to the extent of #bg yards4 ,this patch is about #aj ft4 in breadth1 and its western portion is cut up in neat patterns1 which show that they formed the floors of rooms4 ,from the eastern extremity of these floors evidently another long strip of #dh or #ej yards still remains to be uncovered4 ,doubtless there are other remains beneath the ground which will be laid bare as the work of mining goes on4 ,all these floors were not deeper than from #ah to #cj inches below the surface of the soil4 ,the bones of animals and other relics have been found in the covering soil and have been turned up by the miners from time to time4 ,the pavement is all worked out with cubes1 varying in size from an inch and a half to two inches square1 each piece being placed in position with most careful exactness4 ,the strip which extends #dh yards and is #ac ft4 wide runs due north and south4 ,there is a second patch1 running east and west1 and this is #bg ft4 long by #aj ft4 wide1 while a third is #bg ft4 long by #aa ft4 wide1 this also running in a northern direction4 ,to the north of this latter piece1 and separated only by about two feet 7about the width of a wall1 which very possibly was the original division71 there is a strip of tesser #af ft4 wide1 which had been laid bare #dj yards4 ,it was thought probable that at the end of the last named strip still another patch would be found4 ,mr4 ,ramsden1 the manager of the ,ironstone ,works1 is keeping a plan of the whole of the pavement1 which he is coloring in exact imitation of the original work4 ,this1 when completed1 will be most interesting1 and he will be quite willing to show it to any one desirous of inspecting the same4 ,many persons have paid a visit to the spot where the discoveries have been made1 and surprise is invariably expressed at the magnitude and beautiful symmetry of the work4 ,several interesting fragments of ,roman work have been brought to light in the course of excavations that are being made for building purposes at ,twyford1 near ,winchester4 ,about a month ago1 a paved way1 composed entirely of small red tiles1 six feet in width and extending probably a considerable distance 7a length of #ad ft4 was uncovered71 was found while digging on the site for flints4 ,the more recent excavations are #bj ft4 west of this passage1 and there is now to be seen1 in a very perfect state of preservation1 an oven or kiln with three openings4 ,five yards away from this is a chamber about eight feet square1 paved with tiles1 and the sides coated with a reddish plaster4 ,on one side is a ledge #ae in4 from the ground1 extending the whole length of the chamber2 on the floor is a sunk channel with an opening at the end for the water to escape4 ,this chamber evidently represents the bath4 ,portions of the dividing walls of the different chambers have also been discovered1 together with various bones1 teeth1 horns and ornaments1 but very few coins4 ,it is probable that an alteration in the plans of the house which was about to be built on the spot will be made so as to preserve all the more interesting features of these remains in the basement4 ,these discoveries were made at a depth of only two or three feet from the surface of the ground1 and are within about a quarter of a mile of other ,roman remains which were similarly brought to light a few months ago4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #hcj1 page #acaaj4 ,,gum ,,arabic ,,and ,,its ,,modern ,,substitutes4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a paper read before the ,society of ,chemical ,industry1 ,london1 #ahia4 ,from the ,journal ,,by ,,dr4 ,s4 ,,rideal ,,and ,w4,e4 ,,youle4 ,subjoined is a table giving the absolute viscosity of various gums4 ,a comparison of the uncorrected viscosities with the corrected shows the great importance of ,slotte's correction for dextrins and inferior gum arabics2 in other words1 for solutions of low viscosity1 while it will be observed to have little influence upon the uncorrected eta obtained for the ,ghatti gums and the best samples of gum arabic4 ,,table ,,of ,,absolute ,,viscosities ,,of #aj ,,per ,,cent4 ,,gum ,,and ,,dextrin ,,solutions4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,sample4 eta eta ,z ,water ,uncorrected4 ,corrected4 #ajj4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,gum arabic4444444444 #j4ahgf #j4ahef #a1bcc ,cape gum444444444444 #j4aege #j4aeee #a1jbi ,indian gum4444444444 #j4jedj #j4jdgj #caa ,eastern gum444444444 #j4jfhi #j4jfci #dag ,gum arabic4444444444 #j4jeej #j4jdhj #cag ,senegal4444444444444 #j4jdid #j4jdaj #bga ,senegal4444444444444 #j4jdfh #j4jchj #bea ,senegal4444444444444 #j4jfbg #j4jeeg #cfd ,gum arabic4444444444 #j4jeaa #j4jdcj #bhe ,water444444444444444 #j4jadi #j4jabd #ajj ,ghatti44444444444444 #j4bijc #j4bhhj #b1cbb ,ghatti1 #e per cent44 #j4jijc #j4jhbh #fhh ,ghatti1 #e per cent44 #j4acia #j4acej #a1jhi ,ghatti1 #e per cent44 #j4agie #j4agfj #a1dbj ,ghatti1 #e per cent44 #j4aebg #j4adhe #a1aih ,ghatti1 #e per cent44 #j4aaci #j4ajhc #hgc ,ghatti1 #e per cent44 #j4adai #j4acfi #a1ajd ,dextrin4444444444444 #j4jcih #j4jbee #afi ,dextrin4444444444444 #j4jcda #j4jaif #abi ,dextrin4444444444444 #j4jdee #j4jchj #cjf ,gum substitute444444 #j4jcah #j4jbbd #ahj ,gum substitute444444 #j4jcah #j4jbbd #ahj ,amrad444444444444444 #j4jgic #j4jgjh #egj ,australian4444444444 #j4jcgh #j4jbhc #bbh ,australian4444444444 #j4jcfe #j4jbfh #baf ,brazilian44444444444 #j4jffh #j4jfbg #ejf ,brazilian44444444444 #j4jeaf #j4jdde #cei ,ghatti44444444444444 #j4cfcf #j4cfba #b1ibj ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,in the column for eta corrected the differences due to the use of different instruments are of course eliminated4 ,the absolute viscosity of water at #ae ,c4 determined in four different instruments is shown below4 ,poiseuille's value for water being #j4jabb4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,instrument4 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- eta corrtd4 #j4jaji #j4jaahe #j4jabd #j4jabj of water4 ,k#a value44 #j4jjjjjjhih #j4jjjjjjhfc #j4jjjjjjicb #j4jjjjjjeb ,k#b value44 #j4bce #j4bage #j4bbf #j4jbjd ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the above values for various gums and dextrins were obtained at a constant temperature of #ae ,c4 and are compared with water at that temperature4 ,it is of the utmost importance that the temperature of the water surrounding the bulbs should be adjusted for each series of experiments to the temperature at which the absolute viscosity of the water was determined4 ,as far as we have ascertained1 in gum solutions there is a steady diminution in viscosity with increase of temperature until a certain temperature is reached1 beyond which increase of heat does not markedly influence the viscosity1 and it is possible that above this critical point1 as we may term it1 the gum solutions once more begin to increase in viscosity4 ,the temperature at which the viscosity becomes stationary varies somewhat with different gums1 but broadly speaking it lies between #fj ,c4 and #ij ,c41 no gums showing any marked decrease in viscosity between #hj ,c4 and #ij ,c4 ,the experiments we have made in this direction were conducted as follows4 ,the #cjj c4c4 bottle containing the gum was placed in a capacious beaker full of hot water1 and the viscosity instrument was also surrounded with water at the same temperature4 ,thermometers were suspended both in the beaker and the outer jar4 ,the viscosity at the highest temperature obtained1 about #ij ,c41 was then taken and repeated for every fall of #d ,c4 till the water reached the temperature of the air4 ,the values so obtained gradually diminished with the increase of temperature4 ,from the eta values obtained the ,z values were calculated1 using water at #ae ,c4 as a standard4 ,from the ,z values thus obtained taken as the ordinate1 and the temperature of each experiment as the abscissa1 curves were plotted out embodying the results1 examples of which are given below4 ,the curves yielded by three gums #b1 #g1 and #h changed between #ij ,c and #ajj ,c41 while gum sample #d has a curve bending between #fj ,c4 and #gj ,c4 ,experimentally this increase of viscosity of the latter gum above #fj ,c4 was confirmed1 but the critical point of the other solutions tried approaches too nearly to the boiling point of water for experiments to be conducted with accuracy1 as the temperature of the bulbs diminishes sensibly while the experiment is being made4 ,if viscosity values have been determined it is possible to calculate the remaining or intermediate values for ,z at any particular temperature from the general equation-- ,zt ,a ,bt ,ct ,as an example of the mode of calculation we may quote the following4 ,a gum gave the following values for ,z at the temperature stated3 ,gum4 #ej ,c4 ,z#ej #bbh ,gum4 #cj ,c4 ,z#cj #cci ,gum4 #bj ,c4 ,z#bj #dab from which the constants-- ,a #eib4ii ,b -#aj4baec ,c #j4jehc can be obtained1 and thus the value of ,zt for any required temperature4 ,the numbers calculated for gums all point to a diminution in viscosity up to a certain point1 and then a gradual increase4 ,a comparison of some of the figures actually obtained in some of these experiments1 compared with the calculated figures for the same temperature1 shows their general agreement4 ,illustration3 ,curves showing viscosity change with temperature for three typical gums4 ,a--,arabic ,,vii4 ,b--,senegal ,,viii4 ,c--,ghatti #ae4 ,,effect ,,of ,,temperature ,,upon ,,viscosity--,,gum ,,vii4 --------------------------------------- ,temperature4 eta,z found4,z calculated4 --------------------------------------- ,c #ej #j4jbhc #bbh #bbh4jj #de #j4jcje #bdf #bdf4ee #db #j4jceb #bhd #bff4ge #ch #j4jcfh #big #bhi4jj #cd #j4jdaj #ccj #cac4jf #cj #j4jdai #cci #cci4jj #bf #j4jdde #cei #cfg4hj #bb #j4jdib #cih #cif4dg #bj #j4jeaa #dab #dab4jj #ah #j4jeca #dbh #dbh4jj --------------------------------------- ,,effect ,,of ,,temperature ,,upon ,,viscosity4--,,gum ,,viii4 --------------------------------------- ,temperature4 eta,z found4,z calculated4 --------------------------------------- ,c4 #ej #j4jdcj #cdg #cdg #df #j4jdge #chc #cga4ad #db #j4jejb #dje #cig4ji #ch #j4jeaj #daa #dbd4gc #cd #j4jege #dfc #ded4jf #cj #j4jfjb #dhe #dhe #bf #j4jfcg #eac #eag4hb #bb #j4jffg #ech #eeb4be #bj #j4jgjg #egj #egj #ah #j4jgee #fji #ehc4jg --------------------------------------- ,the constants for the first gum are those given in the preceding column1 while for the latter they were-- ,a #gga4i3 ,b -#aa4ae3 ,c #j4jec ,as will be observed1 the effect of heat appears to be the same upon the two typical gum arabics quoted above1 an increase of temperature from #ah ,c4 to #ej ,c4 decreasing the viscosity by nearly one half in both cases1 and the same seems to be true of most gum arabics4 ,roughly also the same holds good for ,ghattis1 as the following numbers show3 ------------------------------------- ,gum4 ,z at #ah ,c4 ,z at #ej ,c4 ------------------------------------- ,gum arabic4 #ajaf #egi ,gum arabic4 #dbh #bbh ,gum arabic4 #fji #cdg ,gum arabic4 #eha #beh ,ghatti4 #egb #cjf ,ghatti4 #ghb #dah --------------------------------------- ,the following table shows the effect of heat upon the viscosity of a typical ,ghatti3 ,,ghatti ,,gum ,,no4 #ae4--,,viscosity4 ----------------------- ,temperature4 eta ,z4 ----------------------- ,c4 #ej #j4jeag #dah #df #j4jeha #dfh #db #j4jfbh #ejf #ch #j4jgbf #ehe #cd #j4jghh #fce #cj #j4jheg #fia #bf #j4jhhi #gag #bb #j4jiai #gda #bj #j4jidf #gfc #ah #j4jifd #ggg ----------------------- ,there is therefore no essential difference in the behavior of a ,ghatti and a gum arabic on heating4 ,some interesting results1 however1 were obtained by heating gums1 both ,ghattis and arabics1 at a fixed temperature for the same time1 cooling1 and then after making the solutions up to the original volume taking their viscosities at the ordinary temperature4 ,the effect of heating for two hours to #fj ,c41 #hj ,c41 or #ajj ,c4 was a small permanent alteration in viscosity of the solution1 and it would therefore seem desirable that gum solutions should be made up cold to get the maximum results4 ,the following numbers illustrate this change1 viz43 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,after heating to ,gum ,arabic ,without --------------------- #aj ,per ,cent4 heat4 #fj;,c4 #hj;,c4 #ajj;,c ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,z at #ah;,c #egj #dfh #dgj #eag ,z at #cj;,c #dhe #djj #dbb #dci ,z at #ej;,c #cdg #bhg #beh #cja ,ghatti gum ,no4 #ae1 #e per cent4 ,z at #ah;,c4 #a1ajd #ghj #ffj #geh ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,the variation of viscosity with strength of solution was also studied with one or two typical gums4 ,a #aj per cent4 is invariably more than twice as viscous as a #e per cent4 solution4 ,the following curve was obtained from one of the ,ghattis4 ,similar results were shown by other gums4 ,illustration3 ,variation of ,viscosity1 with ,dilution4 ,ghatti ,no4 #hhh4 ,it would seem1 therefore1 that strong solutions1 say of #ej per cent4 strength1 would be more alike in viscosity than solutions of #e per cent4 strength of the same gums4 ,in other words1 the viscosity of a gum solution should be taken as nearly as possible to the strength it is used at1 to obtain an exact quantitative idea of its gumming value4 ,the observation of this fact was one of the circumstances which decided us to use #e per cent4 solutions for the determination of ,ghatti gum viscosities1 the ratio between the #e per cent4 and #aj per cent4 solutions of gum arabics being roughly the same as that between the respective weights required for gumming solutions of equal value4 ,from observation of the general nature of the solutions of ,ghatti gums1 and from the fact that when allowed to stand portions of the apparently insoluble matter passed into solution1 the hypothesis suggested itself that metarabin was soluble in arabin1 although insoluble in cold water4 ,if this hypothesis were correct1 it would explain the apparent anomaly of ,ghattis giving solutions of higher viscosity than gum arabics1 although they leave insoluble matter behind4 ,the increase in viscosity would be due to the thickening of the arabic acid by the metarabin4 ,moreover1 the solutions yielded by various ,ghattis leaving insoluble matter behind would be all of the same kind1 viz41 a saturated solution of metarabin in arabin more or less diluted by water4 ,still further1 if the insoluble residue of a ,ghatti be the residual metarabin over and above that required to saturate the arabin1 then it will be possible to dissolve this by the addition of more arabin in the form of ordinary gum arabic4 ,in order to see if this were the case the following experiments were performed4 ,equal parts of a ,ghatti and of a gum arabic were ground up together and dissolved in water4 ,the resulting solution was clear4 ,it was diluted until of #aj per cent4 strength1 and its viscosity then taken3 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,contains #ej per ,cent4 ,ghatti4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,a4 ,pressure #bjj mm eta ,z4 ,temperature #ae ,c #j4beag #b1jcj ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,the viscosity of this solution therefore was considerably greater than the mean viscosity of the #aj per cent4 solutions of the ,ghatti and the gum arabic1 viz41 7#j4bhh #j4jfcf7_/b #j4ageh for the calculated eta4 ,hence it is evident that the increase in viscosity is due to the solution of the metarabin4 ,next a solution was made from a mixture of #gj per cent4 ,ghatti and #cj per cent4 gum arabic4 ,this was also clear and gave a considerably higher viscosity than the previous solution4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,contains #gj per ,cent4 ,ghatti4 ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,b4 ,pressure #bjj mm eta ,z4 ,temperature #ae ,c #j4cagg #b1efb ---------------------------------------- ---------- ,it will be obvious that the increase of viscosity over the previous solution in this case must be due to the smaller amount of the thin gum arabic which is present1 i4e41 in the first case there is more gum arabic than is required to dissolve the whole of the insoluble metarabin4 ,further experiments showed that this is also true of the second mixture1 as the viscosities of the following mixtures illustrate3 ---------------------------------------- ,strength of ,solution4 eta ,z4 ---------------------------------------- ,c4 #hj per cent4 ,ghatti4 #j4cfdb #b1icg ,d4 #ge per cent4 ,ghatti4 #j4ccjie #b1ffi ,e4 #gg4e per cent4 ,ghatti4#j4dhfj #c1hai ---------------------------------------- ,this last solution ,e we called for convenience the maximum viscosity solution1 as we believe it to be a #aj per cent4 solution containing arabin very nearly saturated with metarabin4 ,as will be observed1 its viscosity differs widely from those of solutions ,c and ,d1 between which it lies in percentage of ,ghatti4 ,the first named solution ,c contains too little of gum arabic to dissolve the whole of the metarabin4 ,consequently there is a residue left undissolved1 which of course diminishes its viscosity4 ,the second solution ,d is too low in viscosity1 as it still contains too much of the weak gum arabic1 and as will be seen further on1 a very slight change in the proportions increases or decreases the viscosity enormously4 ,we next tried a series of similar experiments with a ,ghatti containing far less insoluble residue and which consequently would require less gum arabic to produce a perfect solution4 ,mixtures were made in the following proportions1 viz43 ---------------------------------------- ----- ----- #ac4c per ,cent4 ,ghatti4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,f4 ,pressure #bjj mm4 eta ,z4 ,temperature #ae ,c4 #j4jigf #ghg ---------------------------------------- ----- ---------------------------------------- ----- ----- #hf4f per ,cent4 ,ghatti4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,g4 ,pressure #bjj mm4 eta ,z4 ,temperature #ae ,c4 #j4dccf #c1dig ---------------------------------------- ----- ,this latter solution is approaching fairly closely to our maximum viscosity with the previous ,ghatti1 and probably a very slight decrease in the amount of gum arabic would bring about the required increase in viscosity4 ,when these experiments were first commenced we were still under the impression1 which several months' experience of working with gums had produced1 namely1 that the ,ghattis were quite distinct in their properties to ordinary gum arabics4 ,but the new hypothesis1 and the experiments undertaken to confirm it1 showed clearly that if the viscosity of a gum solution depends on the ratio of metarabin to arabin1 then there is no absolute line of demarkation between a ,ghatti and a gum arabic4 ,in other words1 there is a constant gradation between gum arabic and ,ghattis1 down to such gums as cherry gum1 consisting wholly of metarabin and quite insoluble in water4 ,therefore those gum arabics which are low in viscosity consist of nearly pure arabin1 while as the viscosity increases so does the amount of metarabin1 until we come to ,ghattis which contain more metarabin than their arabin can hold in solution1 when their viscosity goes down again4 ,from these observations it would follow1 that by taking a gum of less viscosity than the gum arabic previously used to dissolve the ,ghatti1 less of it would be required to do the same work4 ,we confirmed this suggestion experimentally by taking another gum arabic of viscosity #j4jeeg at #ae ,c4 ,a mixture containing #ic4c per cent4 of this ,ghatti and #f4g per cent4 of our thinnest gum arabic gave a clear solution which had the highest viscocity we have yet obtained for a #aj per cent4 solution4 ------------------------------------- ,h4 ,pressure #bjj mm4 eta ,z4 ,temperature #ae ,c4 #j4eebe #d1def ------------------------------------- ,this gum arabic may be regarded as nearly pure arabin 7as calcium and potassium1 etc41 salt74 ,by diluting the new maximum viscosity solution1 therefore1 with the #aj per cent4 solution of the gum arabic in fixed proportions we obtain a series of viscosities which are shown in the following curve4 ,illustration3 ,curve ,showing ,influence of ,ghatti upon ,viscosity4 ,besides obtaining this curve for change in viscosity from maximum amount of metarabin to no metarabin at all1 we also traced the decrease in viscosity of the maximum solution by dilution with water4 ,the following numbers were thus obtained1 and plotted out into a curve4 ,having obtained this curve1 we are now in a position to follow up the hypothesis by calculating the surplus amount of insoluble matter in a ,ghatti4 ,for1 let it be conceded that the solution of any ,ghatti leaving an insoluble residue is a mixture of arabin and metarabin in the same ratio as our maximum solution1 only more diluted with water1 then from the found viscosity we obtain a point on the curve for dilution1 which gives the percentage of dissolved matter4 ,now to show the use of this3 ,the ,z value for a #aj per cent4 solution of the second ,ghatti at #ae ,c4 is #b1idj4 ,this corresponds on the curve to #h4d dissolved matter4 #aj - #h4d #a4f grammes in #aj grammes1 which is insoluble4 ,,change ,,of ,,viscosity ,,with ,,dilution--,,maximum ,,solution4 #ae ,c4 ,,temperature4 ----------------------------------- ,percentage4 eta ,z4 ----------------------------------- #aj #j4eebej #d1def #i #j4dbhej #c1def #h #j4ceabj #b1hcb #g #j4bgffj #b1bcj #f #j4bbbij #a1gig #e #j4afhaj #a1cee #d #j4aahdb #iee #c #j4jhjbj #fdg #b #j4jfaij #dii #a #j4jcfaj #bia ----------------------------------- ,illustration3 ,curve of ,variation in ,viscosity on ,dilution of the ,maximum ,solution4 ,we have already shown that a maximum viscosity solution of this gum is formed when #f4g per cent1 of thin gum arabic is added to it1 and therefore #f4g parts of a thin gum arabic are required to bring #af parts of metarabin into solution4 ,a convenient rule1 therefore1 in order to obtain complete solution of a ,ghatti gum is to add half the weight in thin gum of the insoluble metarabin found from the viscosity determination4 ,but the portion of the gum which dissolved is made up in a similar manner 7being a diluted maximum solution74 ,therefore the #hd per cent4 of soluble matter contains #eh parts of metarabin1 and the total metarabin in this gum is #eh #af #gd per cent1 on the dry gum4 ,with these solutions of high viscosity some other work was done which may be of interest4 ,the temperature curves of the mixtures marked ,e1 ,g1 and ,f were obtained between #fj ,c4 and #ae ,c4 ,the two former curves showed a direction practically parallel to that at the #aj per cent4 solutions1 and as they were approaching to the maximum solution1 this is what one would expect4 ,mr4 ,s4 ,skinner1 of ,cambridge1 was also good enough to determine the electrical resistances of these solutions and the ,ghattis and gum arabics employed in their preparation4 ,the electrical resistance of these gum solutions steadily diminishes as the temperature increases1 and the curve is similar to those obtained for rate of change with temperature4 ,although the curves run in1 roughly1 the same direction1 there does not appear to be any exact ratio between the viscosities of two gums say at #ae ,c4 and their electrical resistances at the same temperature2 hence it would not seem possible to substitute a determination of the electrical resistance for the viscosity determination4 ,the results appear to be greatly influenced by the amount of mineral matter present1 gums with the greatest ash giving lower resistances4 ,experiments were conducted with two ,ghattis and two gum arabics1 besides the mixtures marked ,e1 ,f1 and ,h4 ,comparison of the electrical resistances with the viscosities at #ae ,c4 shows the absence of any fixed ratio between them4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,gum or ,c4 ,ohms ,z ,viscosity ,mixture4 ,resistance4 at #ae ,c4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,ghatti1 #a #aj #e1ffg #a1dij ,ghatti1 #b #ae #b1bbj #b1idj ,arabic #a #ae #a1cej #fje ,arabic #b #aj #b1jba #ddi ,mixture ,f #ae #a1icj #ghg ,mixture ,e #aa4c #b1jeh #c1iai ---------------------------------------- --- ,while performing these experiments1 an attempt was made to obtain an ash-free gum1 in order to compare its viscosity with that of the same gum in its natural state4 ,a gum low in ash was dissolved in water1 and the solution poured on to a dialyzer1 and sufficient hydrochloric acid added to convert the salts into chlorides4 ,when the dialyzed gum solution ceased to contain any trace of chlorides1 it was made up to a #aj per cent4 solution1 and its viscosity determined under #ajj mm4 pressure1 giving the following results at #ae ,c43 ------------------------------------ -------- eta ,z ------------------------------------ ,natural gum44444 #j4jeegj #ddi ,ash-free gum44 #j4jedca #dch ------------------------------------ ,thus showing that the viscosity of pure arabin is almost identical with that of its salts in gum4 ,the yield of furfuraldehyde by the breaking down of arabin and metarabin was thought possibly to be of some value in differentiating the natural gums from one another1 but we have not succeeded in obtaining results of much value4 #j4b gramme of a gum were heated with #ajj c4c4 of #ae per cent4 sulphuric acid for about #b hours in an ,erlenmeyer flask with a reflux condenser4 ,after this period of time1 further treating did not increase the amount of furfuraldehyde produced4 ,the acid liquid1 which was generally yellow in color1 was then cooled and neutralized with strong caustic soda4 ,the neutral or very faintly alkaline solution was then distilled almost to dryness1 when practically the whole of the furfuraldehyde comes over4 ,the color produced by the gum distillate with aniline acetate can now be compared with that obtained from some standard substance treated similarly4 ,the body we have taken as a standard is the distillate from the same weight of cane sugar4 ,the tint obtained with the standard was then compared with that yielded by the gum distillate from which the respective ratios of furfuraldehyde are obtained4 ,the following table shows some of these results3 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,comparative ,yield ,amount of ,substance4 of ,furfuraldehyde4 ,glucose ,produced4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,cane sugar #a4jj 44 ,starch #j4ej 44 ,gum arabic #a4cc #cd4gb ,gum arabic #a4bj #dc4fe ,ghatti1 #a #a4jj #bf4gh ,ghatti1 #b #a4cc #bb4hf ,metarabin #a4ge 44 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,the amount of reducing sugar calculated as glucose is also appended4 ,this was estimated in the residue left in the flask after distillation by ,fehling's solution in the usual way4 ,the yields of furfuraldehyde would appear to have no definite relation to the other chemical data about a gum1 such as the potash and baryta absorptions or the sugar produced on inversion4 ,the action of gum solutions upon polarized light is interesting1 especially in view of the fact that arabin is itself strongly lvo-rotatory alpha,d -#ii1 while certain gums are distinctly dextro-rotatory4 ,hence it is evident that some other body besides arabin is present in the gum4 ,we have determined the rotatory power of a number of gum solutions1 the results of which are subjoined4 ,on first commencing the experiments we experienced great difficulty from the nature of the solutions4 ,most of them are distinctly yellow in color and almost opaque to light1 even in dilute solutions such as #e percent4 ,we found it necessary first to bleach the gums by a special process2 #e grammes of gum are dissolved in about #dj c4c4 of lukewarm water1 then a drop of potassium permanganate is added1 and the solution is heated on a water bath with constant stirring until the permanganate is decomposed and the solution becomes brown4 ,a drop of sodium hydrogen sulphate is now added to destroy excess of permanganate4 ,at the same time the solution becomes perfectly colorless4 ,it can now be cooled down and made up to #ajj c4c41 yielding a #e per cent4 solution of which the rotatory power can be taken with ease4 ,using a #bj mm4 tube and white light the above numbers were obtained4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,gum or ,dextrin4 ,solution used4 alpha,d ---------------------------------------- --------- ,per ,cent4 ,aden1 #a #e - #cc4h ,cape1 #b #e #bh4f ,indian1 #c #e #ff4b ,eastern1 #d #e - #bf4j ,eastern1 #e #e - #cj4f ,senegal1 #f #e - #ag4f ,senegal1 #g #e - #ah4d ,senegal1 #h #b - #ai4f ,senegal1 #i #e - #ch4b ,senegal1 #aj #e - #be4h ,amrad #b #eg4f ,australian1 #a #e - #bh4b ,australian1 #b #e - #bf4d ,brazilian1 #a #b - #cf4h ,brazilian1 #b #b #ba4j ,dextrin1 #a #e #adh4j ,dextrin1 #b #e #acc4b ,ghatti1 #a #e - #ci4b ,ghatti1 #b #e - #hj4d ---------------------------------------- --------- ,these numbers do not show any marked connection between the viscosity1 etc41 of a gum and its specific rotatory power4 ,when gum arabic solution is treated with alcohol the gum is precipitated entirely if a large excess of spirit be used4 ,with a view to seeing if the precipitate yielded by the partial precipitation of a gum solution was identical in properties to the original gum1 we examined several such precipitates from various gums to ascertain their rotatory power4 ,we found in each case that the specific rotatory power of the alcohol precipitate redissolved in water was not the same as that of the original gum4 ,in other words these gums contained at least two bodies of different rotatory powers1 of which one is more soluble in alcohol than the other4 ,o',sullivan obtained similar results with pure arabin4 ,the experiments were conducted in the following manner3 7a47 ,five grammes of a dextro-rotatory gum 7,no4 #c in table7 were dissolved in #bj c4c4 of water4 ,to the solution was added #ij c4c4 of #ie per cent4 alcohol4 ,the white precipitate which formed was thrown on to a tared filter and washed with #cj c4c4 more alcohol4 ,the total filtrate therefore was #adj c4c4 ,the precipitate was dried and weighed #b4gid grammes or #ee4hh per cent4 of the total gum4 ,the precipitate was then redissolved in water1 bleached as before and diluted to a #e per cent4 solution4 ,this was then examined in the polarimeter4 ,readings gave the value alpha,d #eh4d4 ,the previous rotatory power of the gum was #ff4 ,now the alcohol was driven off from the filtrate1 which1 allowing for the #aa4ie per cent4 of water in the gum1 should contain #cb4ag per cent4 of gum4 ,the alcohol-free liquid was then diluted to a known volume 7for #e per cent1 solution71 and alpha,j found to be #eg4g4 ,this experiment was then repeated again1 using #e grammes of ,no4 #c1 when #c4ehje grammes of precipitate were obtained1 using the same volumes of alcohol and water4 ,the precipitate gave alpha,j #eg4d2 the filtrate treated as before1 only the percentage of gum dissolved being directly determined instead of being calculated by difference1 gave alpha,j #eb4e4 7b47 ,another gum 7,no4 #i7 with alpha,j -#ch4b and containing #ac4hf per cent1 of moisture1 gave #b4ccae grms4 of precipitate when similarly treated4 ,the precipitate gave when redissolved in water alpha,j -#bj4h4 ,the filtrate containing #ci4e per cent1 real gum gave alpha,j -#fg4e1 so that the least lvo-rotatory gum4 was precipitated by the alcohol4 ,the ,ghattis apparently are all lvo-rotatory1 and give much less alcoholic precipitates than the gum arabic4 ,the precipitation moreover was in the opposite direction1 that is1 the most lvo-rotatory gum was thrown down by the alcohol4 ,the appended table shows the nature of the precipitates and the respective amounts from two ,ghattis and two gum arabics4 ,it will be observed that the angle of rotation in three of the cases is decidedly less both for precipitate and filtrate than for the original solution3 ,,specific ,,rotatory ,,powers ,,of ,,gums4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,gum ,weight ,weight ,weight alpha,jalpha,j alpha,j used4 ,gum ,alcohol ,gum ,original ,alcohol ,filtrate4 ,waken4 ,precip-,filtrate ,gum4 ,precipitate4 itate4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,grms4 _/a444444 #e #b4gidj #a4idae #eh4d #ec4g #c #ff4b b444444 #e #c4ehje #j4hiaj #eg4d -#eb4e _/a444444 #e #b4ccae #b4cgcf -#bj4h -#fg4e #i -#ch4b b444444#d4ifbj #b4ccaj #b4dahj -#ai4d -#fc4d _/a4#c4dijj #j4cibe #b4gibj -#ajd4b -#gf4j ,ghatti -#adj4h b4#c4bdej #j4dfje #b4hche -#ajf4j -#gb4d _/a4#b4beej #j4bijj #a4hjgh -#ajf4jd #fh4j ,ghatti -#adg4je b4#b4ffce #j4bhde #b4ccfj -#ajb4jd -#ff4b ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the hygrometric nature of a gum or dextrin is a point of considerable importance when the material is to be used for adhesive purposes4 ,the apparatus which we finally adopted after many trials for testing this property consists simply of a tinplate box about #a ft4 square1 with two holes of #b in4 diameter bored in opposite sides4 ,through these holes is passed a piece of wide glass tubing #ah in4 long4 ,this is fitted with ,india rubber corks at each end1 one single and the other double bored4 ,through the double bored cork goes a glass tube to a ,woulffe's bottle containing warm water4 ,a thermometer is passed into the interior of the tube by the second hole4 ,the other stopper is connected by glass tubing to a pump1 and thus draws warm air laden with moisture through the tube4 ,papers gummed with the gums or dextrins1 etc41 to be tested are placed in the tube and the warm moist air passed over them for varying periods1 and their proneness to become sticky noted from time to time4 ,by this means the gums can be classified in the order in which they succumbed to the combined influences of heat and moisture4 ,we find that in resisting such influences any natural gum is better than a dextrin or a gum substitute containing dextrin or gelatin4 ,the ,ghattis are especially good in withstanding climatic changes4 ,dextrins containing much starch are less hygroscopic than those which are nearly free from it1 as the same conditions which promote the complete conversion of the starch into dextrin also favor the production of sugars1 and it is to these sugars probably that commercial dextrin owes its hygroscopic nature4 ,we have been in part able to confirm these results by a series of tests of the same gums in ,india1 but have not yet obtained information as to their behavior in the early part of the year4 ,the fermentation of natural gum solutions is accompanied by a decrease in the viscosity of the liquid and the separation of a portion of the gum in lumps4 ,apparently those gums which contain most sugar1 as indicated by their reduction of ,fehling's solution1 are the most susceptible to this change4 ,oxalic acid is formed by the fermentation1 which by combination with the lime present renders the fermenting liquid turbid1 and also some volatile acid1 probably acetic4 ,we have made some experiments with a gum which readily fermented--in a week--as to the respective value of various antiseptics in retarding the fermentation4 ,portions of the gum solutions were mixed with small quantities of menthol1 thymol1 salol1 and saccharin in alkaline solution1 also with boric acid1 sodium phosphate1 and potash alum in aqueous solution4 ,within a week a growth appeared in a portion to which no antiseptic had been added2 the others remained clear4 ,after over five months the solutions were again examined1 when the following results were observed3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,antiseptics4 ,solution after ,five ,months4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,menthol in ,,koh44444 ,some growth at bottom1 upper layer clear4 ,thymol in ,,koh44444 ,growth at top1 gum white and opaque4 ,salol in ,,koh44444444 ,growth at top1 gum black and opaque ,saccharin in ,,koh 444 ,white growth at top4 ,boric acid444444444444 ,remained clear2 did not smell4 ,sodium phosphate 444 ,slight growth at top4 ,potash alum444444444 ,slight growth at top4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,the solution to which no antiseptic had been added was of course quite putrid1 and gave the reactions for acetic acid4 ,in the earlier part of this paper we have given a short account of the chief characteristics of the more important gum substitutes4 ,the following additional notes may be of interest4 ,the ashes of most gum substitutes1 consisting chiefly of dextrin1 are characterized by the high percentage of chlorides they contain1 due no doubt to the use of hydrochloric acid in their preparation4 ,the soluble constituents of the ash consist of neutral alkaline salts1 but as a rule no alkaline carbonates1 and it is thus possible to demonstrate the absence of any natural gum in such a compound4 ,we have seldom noticed the presence of any sulphates in such ashes1 but when sulphurous or sulphuric acids have been used in the starch conversion it will be found in small quantities4 ,we have already pointed out that the potash absorption value of a gum is low and that dextrins give high numbers1 but the latter vary very considerably1 and as the starch and sugar present also influence the potash absorption value1 it does not give information of much service4 ,the following table shows the kind of results obtained3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,sample4 ,,koh ,starch4 ,real ,gum4 absorbed4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,per ,cent4 ,per ,cent4 ,dextrin1 #a #be4dj #a4ii 44 ,dextrin1 #b #ai4gj #ac4ac 44 ,dextrin1 #c #g4eg #bd4gb 44 ,artificial gum1 #a #ai4gj #aj4ih #i4jj ,artificial gum1 #b #ac4gj #h4je #bc4ej ,starch #i4dc #ajj4jj ,none ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,the baryta absorptions seem to be chiefly due to the quantity of starch present in the composition3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,sample4 ,starch4 ,ba,o absorbed4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,per ,cent4 ,per ,cent4 ,dextrin1 #a #a4ii #a4ge ,dextrin1 #b #ac4ac #c4ec ,dextrin1 #c #bd4gb #e4fd ,starch #ajj4jj #bc4fa ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,the viscosity of a dextrin or artificial gum is determined in exactly the same way as a natural gum1 using #aj per cent4 solutions4 ,it would probably be an improvement to use #aj per cent4 solutions for many of the dextrins1 as they are when low in starch extremely thin4 ,the hygroscopic nature of dextrins renders them unsuitable for foreign work1 but when the quantity of starch is appreciable1 better results are obtainable4 ,a large percentage of unaltered starch is usually accompanied with a small percentage of sugar1 and no doubt this is the explanation of this fact4 ,an admixture containing natural gum of course behaved better than when no such gum is present4 ,bodies like arabol made up with water and containing gelatin are very hygroscopic when dry1 although as sold they lose water on exposure to the air4 ,gum substitutes consisting entirely of some form of gelatin with water1 like fish glue1 are also somewhat hygroscopic when dried4 ,the behavior of these artificial gums and dextrins on exposure to a warm moist atmosphere can be determined in the same apparatus as described for gums4 ,the process we have adopted for estimating the glucose starch and dextrin in commercial gum substitutes is based on ,c4 ,hanofsky's method for the assay of brewers' dextrins 7this ,journal1 #h1 #efa74 ,a weighed quantity of the dextrin is dissolved in cold water1 filtered from any insoluble starch1 and then the glucose determined directly in the clear filtrate by ,fehling's solution4 ,the real dextrin is determined by inverting a portion of the filtered liquid with ,h,cl1 and then determining its reducing power4 ,the starch is estimated by inverting a portion of the solid dextrin1 and determining the glucose formed by ,fehling4 ,after deducting the amounts due to the original glucose and the inverted dextrin present1 the residue is calculated as starch4 ,a determination of the acidity of the solution is also made with decinormal soda1 and results returned in number of c4c4 alkali required to neutralize #ajj grammes of the dextrin4 ,results we have obtained using this method are embodied in the following table3 ,,analysis ,,of ,,gum ,,substitutes ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,no4 ,glucose4 ,dextrin4 ,starch4 ,moisture4 ,gum1 ,ash4 ,acidity4 c4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- cc4 #a #h4ib #ha4eg #a4ii #aj4ab ,none #j4bjg #eg4c #b #g4ai #ga4df #ac4ac #aj4dj ,none #j4abj #dd4h #c #a4bi #fi4db #bd4gb #d4ag #a4ab #j4bhj #e4bb #d #h4dj #fj4ih #aj4ih #aj4ji #i4jb #j4ecj #bj4j #e #aj4fj #dd4ih #h4je #ab4bj #bc4eg #j4fjj #eb4j #f #ad4hj #aa4eg #cf4df #cd4hg #a4hi #j4ehj #h4j #g #h4jj #bi4fa #bf4gh #cc4ih #j4hh #j4gej #hh4j #h #b4bi #eb4ch #cg4fe ,none #g4cce #j4cae #i4f ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,in those cases in which the substitute is made by admixture with gelatin or liquid glue the quantity of other organic matter obtained can be checked by a ,kjeldahl determination of the total nitrogen4 ,if a natural gum is added1 it will be partially converted into sugar when the filtered liquid is inverted1 and so make the dextrin determination slightly too high4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mr4 ,,cailletet',s ,,cryogen4 ,the cryogen1 a new apparatus constructed by ,mr4 ,e4 ,ducretet1 from instructions given by ,mr4 ,cailletet1 is designed for effecting a fall of temperature of from #gj to #hj ,c4 below zero1 through the expansion of liquid carbonic acid4 ,the apparatus consists of two concentric vessels having an annular space between them of a few centimeters4 ,a worm1 ,s1 is placed in the internal vessel ,r4 ,all this is of nickel plated copper4 ,the worm1 ,s carries1 at ,ro'1 an expansion cock and ends1 at ,o in the annular space1 ,r'4 ,a very strong tube is fixed to the cock1 ,ro'1 and to the ajutage1 ,a'4 ,it receives the tube1 ,tu1 which1 at the time of an experiment1 is coupled with the cylinder of carbonic acid1 ,,co4 ,a tubulure1 ,d1 usually closed by a plug1 ,bo1 communicates with the inner receptacle1 ,r4 ,this is capable of serving in certain experiments in condensation4 ,the table1 ,ta1 of the tripod receives the various vessels or bottles for the condensed products4 ,the entire apparatus is placed in a box1 ,b1 lined with silk waste and provided with a cover1 ,c1 of the same structure4 ,apertures1 ,th1 ,ro1 and ,t1 allow of the passage of a key for acting upon the cock1 ,ro'1 as well as of thermometers and stirrers if they are necessary4 ,when it is desired to operate1 the internal vessel1 ,r1 is filled with alcohol 7#c quarts for the ordinary model74 ,this serves as a refrigerant bath for the experiments to be made4 ,the worm1 ,s1 having been put in communication with the carbonic acid cylinder1 ,,co1 the cock1 ,ro1 of the latter is turned full on4 ,the cock of the worm1 which is closed1 is opened slightly4 ,the vaporization and expansion of the liquid carbonic acid cause it to congeal in the form of snow1 which distributes itself and circulates in the worm1 ,s1 and then in ,r4 ,the flakes thus coming in contact with the metallic sides of ,s rapidly return to the gaseous state and produce an energetic refrigeration4 ,at the lower part of the annular space1 ,r'1 are placed fragments of sponge impregnated with alcohol4 ,the snow that has traversed the worm without vaporizing reaches ,r'4 and dissolves in this alcohol1 and the refrigeration that results therefrom completes the lowering of the temperature4 ,the gas finally escapes at ,o1 and then through the bent tube1 ,t4 ,illustration3 ,,cailletet',s ,,cryogen4 ,the apparatus may be constructed with an inverse circulation1 the carbonic acid then entering the annular vessel1 ,r1 directly1 and afterward the worm1 ,s1 whence it escapes to the exterior of the apparatus4 ,the expansion cock sometimes becomes obstructed by the solidification of the snow4 ,it will then suffice to wait until the circulation becomes re-established of itself4 ,it may be brought about by giving the cock1 ,ro'1 a few turns with the wooden handled key that serves to maneuver the latter4 ,it is not necessary to have a large discharge of carbonic acid1 and consequently the expansion cock needs to be opened but a little bit4 ,a few minutes suffice to reduce the temperature of the alcohol bath to #gj1 with an output of about from #d to #e lb4 of liquid carbonic acid4 ,when the circulation is arrested1 the apparatus thus surrounded by its isolating protective jackets becomes heated again with extreme slowness4 ,in one experiment1 it was observed that at the end of nine hours the temperature of the alcohol had risen but from #gj to #bb4 ,on injecting a very small quantity of liquid carbonic acid from time to time1 a sensibly constant and extremely low temperature may be maintained indefinitely4--,le ,genie ,civil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,method ,,of ,,producing ,,alcohol4 ,in carrying out my improved process in and with the apparatus employed in ordinary commercial distilleries1 says ,mr4 ,alfred ,springer1 of ,cincinnati1 ,o41 ,i preferably employ separate vats or tubs for the nitric acid solution and the material to be treated1 and a convenient arrangement is to locate the nitric acid tub directly under the grain tub1 so that one may discharge into the other4 ,in the upper vat is placed the farinaceous material1 preferably ground1 thoroughly steeped in three times its weight of water1 and1 where whole grain is used1 preferably cooked in the ordinary manner4 ,the vat into which the dilute acid is placed is an ordinary cooking tub of suitable material to resist the acid1 provided with closed steam coils and also nozzles for the discharge of steam into the contained mass4 ,into this vat is placed for each one hundred parts of the grain to be treated one part of commercial nitric acid diluted with fifty parts of water and brought to a state of ebullition and agitation by the steam coils and the discharge through the nozzles1 the latter being regulated so that the gain by condensation of steam approximately equals the loss by evaporation4 ,the farinaceous contents of the upper vat are allowed to flow slowly into the nitric acid solution while the ebullition and agitation of the mass is continued4 ,this condition is then maintained for six to eight hours1 after which the mass is allowed to stand for one day or until the saccharification becomes complete4 ,the conversion can be followed by the iodine test for intermediary dextrins and the alcohol test for dextrin4 ,after the saccharification is complete ,i may partially or wholly neutralize the nitric acid1 preferably with potassium or ,ammonium carbonate1 preferably employing only one-half the amount necessary to neutralize the original quantity of nitric acid used1 so that the mass now ready to undergo fermentation has an acid reaction4 ,the purpose in view here is to keep the peptones in solution also1 because an acid medium is best adapted to the propagation of the yeast cells4 ,it is not absolutely necessary to even partially neutralize the nitric acid1 but it is preferable4 ,yeast is now added1 and the remaining processes are similar to those generally employed in distilleries1 excepting that just prior to distillation potassium carbonate sufficient to neutralize the remaining nitric acid is added1 in order to avoid corrosion of the still and correct the acid reaction of the slop4 ,as a variant of the process ,i sometimes add to the usual amount of nitric acid an additional one one-hundredth part of phosphoric acid on account of its beneficial nutritive powers--that is to say1 to one hundred parts of grain one part of nitric acid and one one-hundredth part of phosphoric acid4 ,while my improved process is based on the well-known converting power of acids on starch1 ,i am not aware that it has ever been applied in the manner and for the purposes ,i have described4 ,for example1 sulphuric and hydrochloric1 also sulphuric and nitric1 acids have been employed in the manufacture of glucose2 but in every such case the resulting products were not capable of superseding those obtained by the existing methods of saccharification used in distilleries4 ,in my process1 on the other hand1 the product is so capable4 ,not only may malted grain be entirely omitted1 but more fermentable products are formed and the products of fermentation are purer4 ,the saccharification being more complete1 there are less intermediary and nonfermentable dextrins1 and the yield of spirits is therefore increased4 ,malted grain being omitted or used in reduced quantity1 there is less lactic acid and few or foreign ferments to contaminate the fermenting mass2 also1 the formation of higher alcohols than the ethyl alcohol is almost totally suppressed4 ,consequently the final yield of spirits is purer in quality and requires little or no further purification4 ,also1 further1 the nitrates themselves acting as nutrients to the yeast cells1 these become more active and require less nutrition to be taken from the grain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,spectroscopic ,,determination ,,of ,,the ,,sensitiveness ,,of ,,dry ,,plates4 ,after describing other methods of determining the sensitiveness of plates1 ,mr4 ,g4,f4 ,williams1 in the ,br4 ,jour4 of ,photo41 thus explains his plan4 ,i will now explain the method ,i adopt to ascertain the relative sensitiveness of plates to daylight4 ,procure a small direct vision pocket spectroscope1 having adjustable slit and sliding focus4 ,to the front of any ordinary camera that will extend to sixteen or eighteen inches1 fit a temporary front of soft pine half an inch thick1 and in the center of this bore neatly with a center bit a hole of such diameter as will take the eye end of the spectroscope2 unscrew the eyehole1 and push the tube into the hole in wood1 bushing the hole1 if necessary1 with a strip of black velvet glued in to make a tight fit4 ,by fixing the smaller tube in the front of camera we can focus by sliding the outer tube thereon2 if we fix the larger tube in the front1 we should have to focus inside the camera1 obviously most inconvenient in practice4 ,place the front carrying the spectroscope in situ in the camera1 and rack the latter out to its full extent2 point the camera toward a bright sky1 or the sun itself1 if you can1 while you endeavor to get a good focus4 ,the spectrum will be seen on the ground glass1 probably equal in dimensions to that of a quarter plate4 ,proceed to focus by sliding the outer tube to and fro until the colors are quite clear and distinct1 and at same time screw down the slit until the ,fraunhofer lines appear4 ,by using the direct rays of the sun1 and focusing carefully1 and adjusting the slit to the correct width1 the lines can be got fairly sharply4 ,slide your front so that the spectrum falls on the ground glass in just such a position as a quarter plate glass would occupy when in the dark slide1 and arrange matters so that the red comes to your left1 and the violet to the right1 and invariably adopt that plan4 ,it is advisable to include the double ,h lines in the violet on the right hand edge of your plate4 ,they afford an unerring point from which you can calculate backward1 finding ,g1 ,f1 ,e1 etc41 by their relative positions to the violet lines4 ,otherwise you may be mistaken as to what portion of the spectrum you are really photographing4 ,the red should just be seen along the left edge of the quarter plate4 ,when all is arranged thus1 you utilize three-fourths of your plate with the spectrum1 with just a little clear glass at each end4 ,before disturbing the arrangement of the apparatus1 it is desirable to scratch a mark on the sliding tube1 and make a memorandum of the position of all the parts1 so that they may be taken away and replaced exactly and thus save time in future4 ,to take a photograph of the spectrum1 put a quarter plate in the dark slide and place in camera2 point the camera toward a bright sky1 or white cloud1 near the sun--not at the sun1 as there is considerable difficulty in keeping the direct rays exactly in the axis of the spectroscope--draw the shutter1 and give1 say1 sixty seconds4 ,on development1 you will probably obtain a good spectrum at the first trial4 ,the duration of exposure must1 of course1 depend upon the brightness of the day2 but if the experiments are to have relative values1 the period of exposure must be distinctly noted1 and comparisons made for a normal exposure of sixty seconds1 ninety seconds1 two minutes or more1 just according to whatever object one has in view in making the experiments4 ,with a given exposure the results will vary with the light and the width of the slit1 as well as being influenced by the character of the instrument itself4 ,further1 all such experiments should be made with a normal developer1 and development continued for a definite time4 ,the only exception to this rule would be in the event of wishing to ascertain the utmost that could be got out of a plate1 but1 under ordinary circumstances1 the developer ought never to vary1 nor yet the duration of development4 ,to try the effect of various developers1 or varying time in development1 a departure must be made of such a nature as would operate to bring out upon each plate1 or piece of a plate1 the utmost it would develop short of fog1 against which caution must be adopted in all spectrum experiments4 ,on development1 say for one1 two1 or three minutes1 wash off and fix4 ,you will recognize the ,h violet lines and the others to the left1 and this experiment shows what is the sensitiveness of this particular plate to the various regions of the spectrum with this particular apparatus1 and with a normal exposure and development4 ,so far1 this teaches very little2 it merely indicates that this particular plate is sensitive or insensitive to certain rays of colored light4 ,to make this teaching of any value1 we must institute comparisons4 ,accordingly1 instead of simply exposing one plate1 suppose we cut a strip from two1 three1 four1 or even half a dozen different plates1 and arrange them side by side1 horizontally1 in the dark slide1 so that the spectrum falls upon the whole when they are placed in the camera and exposed4 ,there is really no difficulty in cutting strips a quarter of an inch wide1 the lengthway of a quarter plate4 ,lay the gelatine plate film up1 and hold a straight edge on it firmly1 so that when we use a suitable diamond we can plow through the film and cut a strip which will break off easily between the thumb and finger4 ,a quarter plate can thus be cut up into strips to yield about a dozen comparative experiments4 ,when cut and snapped off1 mark each with pencil with such a distinguishing mark as shall be clearly seen after fixing4 ,the cut up strips can be kept in the maker's plate box4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the deep down underground electric railway in ,london has so far proved an unprofitable concern for its stockholders4 ,it is #c miles long1 touches some of the greatest points of traffic1 but somehow or other people won't patronize it4 ,the total receipts for the last six months were a little under #ajj1jjj1 and they only carried seventeen persons per train mile4 ,on this road the passengers are carried on elevators up and down from the street level to the cars4 ,the poor results so far make the stockholders sick of the project of extending the road4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,catalogue ,,of ,,value ,contained in ,scientific ,american ,supplement during the past ten years1 sent free of charge to any address4 ,munn ,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,architects ,,and ,,builders ,,edition #b4ej a ,year4 ,single ,copies1 #be cts4 ,this is a ,special ,edition of the ,scientific ,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the month4 ,each number contains about forty large quarto pages1 equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages1 forming1 practically1 a large and splendid ,magazine of ,architecture1 richly adorned with elegant plates in colors and with fine engravings1 illustrating the most interesting examples of modern ,architectural ,construction and allied subjects4 ,a special feature is the presentation 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