,,the ,,world',s ,,greatest ,,books     
,,joint ,,editors    ,,arthur ,,mee     
,j4,a4 ,,hammerton        ,,vol4 ,,xiii 
,,religion ,,philosophy      ,copyright1
 ,,mcmx ,,mckinlay1 ,,stoke  ,,mackekzu 
99       99       99       99       99  
,,table ,,of ,,contents                 
,,religion        ,,apocrypha           
,,augustine1 ,,st4        ,city of ,god 
,,baxter1 ,,richard        ,saints'     
,everlasting ,rest        ,,book ,,of   
,,the ,,dead        ,,brahmanism1       
,,books ,,of        ,,browne1 ,,sir     
,,thomas        ,religio ,medici        
,,calvin1 ,,john        ,institution of 
the ,christian ,religion                
,,coleridge1 ,s4,t4        ,aids to     
,reflection        ,,confucianism       
,f,,nelon        ,existence of ,god     
,,galileo ,,galilei        ,authority of
 ,scripture        ,,hegel1 ,g4,w4,f4   
,philosophy of ,religion                
,,hinduism1 ,,books ,,of                
,,kempis1 ,,thomas         ,imitation of
 ,christ        ,,koran        ,,newman1

 ,,cardinal        ,apologia pro ,vit   
,sua        ,,paine1 ,,thomas           
,age of ,reason        ,,pascal1        
,,blaise        ,letters to a           
,provincial        ,,penn1 ,,william    
,some ,fruits of ,solitude              
,,renan1 ,,ernest        ,life of ,jesus
        ,,swedenborg1 ,,emanuel         
,heaven and ,hell        ,,talmud       
,,zoroastrianism          ,,philosophy  
,,aristotle        ,ethics              
,,aurelius1 ,,marcus        ,discourses 
with ,himself        ,,bacon1 ,,francis 
,advancement of ,learning               
,,berkeley1 ,,george        ,principles 
of ,human ,knowledge        ,,descartes 
,discourse on ,method        ,,emerson1 
,,ralph ,,waldo        ,nature          
,,epictetus        ,discourses and      
,encheiridion      ,a ,,complete ,,index
 ,,of ,,the ,,world',s ,,greatest       
,,books ,,will ,,be ,,found ,,at ,,the  
,,end  ,,of ,,volume ,,xx4           99 
99       99       99       99           
,,religion      ,,the ,,apocrypha       

,apocrypha is a ,greek word1 signifying 
secret or hidden1       but in the      
sixteenth century it came to be applied 
to a list       of books contained in   
the ,septuagint1 or ,greek translation  
of       the ,old ,testament1 but not in
 the ,palestinian1 or ,hebrew           
,canon4 ,hence1 by theological or       
bibliographic purists1 these       books
 were not regarded as genuine           
,scripture4 ,that view was       adopted
 by the early ,greek ,church1 though the
 ,western ,church       was divided in  
opinion4 ,they appeared as a separate   
section in       ,coverdale's ,english  
,bible in #aech1 and in ,luther's       
,german       ,bible in #aecg4 ,the     
,council of ,trent in #aedf admitted    
them as       canonical1 except the     
,first and ,second ,esdras and the      
,prayer       of ,manasses--a view      
rejected after the ,reformation by      
,protestants1 who recognised only the   
,palestinian ,record as       canonical4
 ,the ,westminster ,confession declared 

that they were       only to be made use
 of as human writings1 and the ,sixth   
,article of the ,church of ,england     
states that they are to be       read   
for example of life and instruction of  
manners1 but not       to establish     
doctrine4 ,as the result of a violent   
controversy       in ,scotland and      
,america between #ahbe and #ahbg1 the   
,apocrypha       was deleted from the   
copies of the ,holy ,scriptures issued  
by       the ,british and ,foreign      
,bible ,society4 ,the controversy was   
revived in #ahfb when a quotation was   
engraved on the ,prince       ,consort's
 ,memorial in ,kensington ,gardens from 
the ,wisdom of       ,solomon3 ,he1     
being made perfect in a short time1     
fulfilled a       long time4 ,for his   
soul pleased the ,lord3 ,therefore      
hasted ,he       to take him away from  
among the wicked4 ,all the books bear   
evidence of having been written long    
after the date to which       they are  
ascribed4      ,,first ,,esdras         

,and ,josias held the feast of the      
,passover in ,jerusalem unto his ,lord1 
the #adth day of the first month of the 
#ahth year of his reign1 and  ordered   
the ,levites1 the holy ministers of     
,israel1 to hallow themselves  unto the 
,lord1 and set the ,holy ,ark of the    
,lord in the house that ,king  ,solomon 
had built4 ,and there were offered in   
sacrifices to the ,lord on  the altar   
#cg1fjj lambs and kids1 and #d1cjj      
calves4 ,and they roasted the  ,passover
 with fire3 as for the sacrifices1 they 
sod them in brass pots  and pans with a 
good savour1 and set them before all the
 people4 ,and  such a ,passover was not 
kept in ,israel since the time of the   
,prophet  ,samuel4 ,and the works of    
,josias were upright before his ,lord   
with an  heart full of godliness4       
,now1 after all these acts of ,josias1  
it came to pass that ,pharaoh1 the      
,king of ,egypt1 came to raise war at   
,carchamis upon ,euphrates2 and         
,josias1 not regarding the words of the 

,prophet ,jeremy1 spoken by the  mouth  
of the ,lord1 went out against him and  
joined battle with him in  the plain of 
,magiddo4 ,then said the king unto his  
servants3 ,carry me  away out of the    
battle2 for ,i am very weak4 ,and being 
brought back to  ,jerusalem he died and 
was buried in his father's sepulchre4   
,and in all  ,jewry the chief men1 with 
the women1 yea ,jeremy the prophet1 made
  lamentation for him unto this day4    
,and the people took ,joachaz1 the son  
of ,josias1 and made him king2 but  the 
,king of ,egypt deposed him1 and made   
,joacim1 his brother1 ,king of  ,judea  
and ,jerusalem1 who did evil before the 
,lord4 ,wherefore1 against  him1        
,nabuchodonosor1 ,king of ,babylon1 came
 up and bound him with a chain  of      
brass1 and carried him into ,babylon4   
,nabuchodonosor also took of the  holy  
vessels of the ,lord and carried them   
away1 and set them in his own  temple at
 ,babylon1 and made ,zedechias king4    
,zedechias reigned eleven  years1 but   

did evil also in the sight of the ,lord4
    ,the governors of the people and of 
the priests did likewise many things    
against the ,lord1 and defiled the      
,temple of the ,lord1 who1 being wrath  
with his people for their great         
ungodliness1 commanded the ,kings of the
  ,chaldees to come up against them4    
,this they did1 and slew and spared     
neither young man nor maid1 old man nor 
child1 among them4 ,and they took  all  
the holy vessels of the ,lord1 both     
great and small1 with the vessels  of   
the ,ark of ,god and the king's         
treasures1 and carried them away into   
,babylon4 ,as for the ,house of the     
,lord1 they burnt it1 and broke down the
  walls of ,jerusalem and set fire upon 
her towers4 ,and the people that  were  
not slain with the sword were carried   
unto ,babylon1 who became  servants to  
,nabuchodonosor1 till the ,persians     
reigned1 to fulfil the  word of the     
,lord spoken by the mouth of ,jeremy4   
,in the first year of ,cyrus1 ,king of  

the ,persians1 the ,lord raised up his  
spirit1 and he made proclamation through
 all his kingdom1 saying3 ,the  ,lord of
 ,israel1 the most high ,lord1 hath made
 me king of the whole  world1 and       
commanded me to build him an house at   
,jerusalem in ,jewry4 ,if  there be any 
of you that are of his people1 let the  
,lord1 even his ,lord1  be with him2 let
 him go up to ,jerusalem and build the  
house of the ,lord  of ,israel4    ,then
 the chief of the families of ,judea and
 of the tribe of ,benjamin1  the priests
 also1 and the ,levites moved up to     
,jerusalem to build an  house for the   
,lord there4 ,and they were helped in   
all things with silver  and gold1 with  
horses and cattle1 and with very many   
free gifts4 ,king  ,cyrus also brought  
forth the holy vessels which            
,nabuchodonosor had  carried away from  
,jerusalem and had set up in his temple 
of idols4 ,the  vessels of gold and of  
silver which were brought back by       
,sanabassar1  together with them of the 

captivity from ,babylon to ,jerusalem1  
were1 in  number1 five thousand four    
hundred three score and nine4    ,but in
 the time of ,artaxerxes1 the building  
of the ,temple ceased4 ,now1  when      
,darius reigned1 he made a great feast  
unto all the governors and  captains    
that were under him from ,india unto    
,ethiopia1 of an hundred and            
twenty-seven provinces4 ,and when they  
had eaten and drunken1 three young  men 
that were of the guard that kept the    
king's body strove to excel  each other 
in wise speeches4 ,every one wrote his  
sentence and referred  the writings to  
the judgment of the king4 ,the first    
declareth the  strength of wine2 the    
second declareth the power of a king2   
the third  the force of women and of    
truth4 ,the third1 who was ,zorobabel1  
was  judged to be wisest2 and all the   
people then shouted3 ,great is ,truth1  
and mighty above all things4    ,then   
said the king unto him3 ,ask what thou  
wilt1 and we will give it to  thee1     

because thou art found wisest4 ,then    
,zorobabel said unto the king3          
,remember thy vow which thou hast vowed 
to build ,jerusalem in the day  when    
thou camest into thy kingdom1 and to    
build up the ,temple1 which the         
,edomites burned when ,judea was made   
desolate by the ,chaldees4    ,then     
,darius the king stood up and kissed    
him1 and wrote letters for him  unto all
 the treasurers and governors that they 
should safely convey on  their way both 
him and all those that went with him to 
build ,jerusalem4  ,he also wrote       
letters unto the lieutenants in         
,celosyria1 ,phenice1 and  ,libanus1    
that they should bring cedar wood from  
,libanus to ,jerusalem2  and that they  
should build the city4 ,then the        
families and tribes with  their         
men-servants and maid-servants and      
singing men and women1 escorted  by a   
thousand horsemen which ,darius sent    
with them1 were brought back to         
,jerusalem4    ,on the first day of the 

second month1 in the second year after  
they were  come back to ,jerusalem1 the 
foundation of the ,house of ,god was    
laid2 and  the ,temple was finished in  
the three and twentieth day of the month
 of  ,adar1 in the sixth year of        
,darius1 and dedicated with a great     
feast and  sacrifices4    ,after these  
things1 when ,artaxerxes1 the ,king of  
the ,persians1 reigned1  came ,esdras of
 the family of ,aaron1 the chief priest1
 from ,babylon1 and  with him certain   
priests1 ,levites1 holy singers and     
ministers of the  ,temple unto          
,jerusalem4 ,he brought commission from 
the king to look into  the affairs of   
,judea and ,jerusalem1 agreeably to that
 which is in the  ,law of the ,lord1 and
 gifts of vessels of gold and silver for
 the use of  the ,temple of the ,lord4  
,then ,esdras made proclamation in all  
,jewry and ,jerusalem to all them who   
were of the captivity1 that they should 
be gathered together at  ,jerusalem4    
,three days after all the multitude     

gathered in the broad  court of the     
,temple1 and they gave their hands to   
put away their heathen  wives and       
children1 and to offer rams to make     
reconcilement for the  errors they had  
committed4 ,and ,esdras stood up upon a 
pulpit of wood1  which was made for that
 purpose1 and opened the ,law of ,moses 
to the  people4    ,so ,esdras blessed  
the ,lord ,god1 most ,high1 the ,god of 
,hosts1 ,almighty4  ,and all the people 
answered3 ,amen2 and1 lifting up their  
hands1 they  fell to the ground and     
worshipped the ,lord1 saying3 ,this day 
is holy  unto the ,lord2 for they all   
wept when they heard the ,law4 ,so the  
,levites  published all things to the   
people1 saying3 ,this day is holy to the
  ,lord2 be not sorrowful4 ,then went   
they their way every one to eat and     
drink1 and make merry and to give to    
them that have nothing1 and to make     
great cheer4      ,,second ,,esdras     
,the word of the ,lord came unto the    
prophet ,esdras1 saying3 ,go thy way1   

and show my people their sinful deeds   
which they have done against me1  for   
they have forgotten me1 and have offered
 unto strange gods4 ,i  gathered you    
together1 as a hen gathereth her        
chickens under her wings3  ,but now ,i  
will cast you out from my face4 ,then   
,esdras willed to comfort  ,israel1 but 
they refused1 and despised the          
commandments of the ,lord2  therefore he
 announced that the heathen were called 
to the heavenly  kingdom4 ,after that1  
,esdras saw upon the ,mount ,sion a     
great people who  praised the ,lord with
 songs2 and the angel said unto him3    
,these be they  that have put off the   
mortal clothing1 and put on the         
immortal1 and have  confessed the name  
of ,god4 ,now are they crowned1 and     
receive palms in  their hands from the  
,son of ,god in their midst4    ,in the 
thirtieth year after the ruin of the    
city1 ,esdras was in ,babylon  and      
troubled because of the desolation of   
,sion4 ,he acknowledged to ,god  the    

sins of the people1 yet complained that 
the heathen who were lords  over them   
were more wicked than they4 ,uriel1 the 
angel1 then said that  when ,adam       
transgressed ,god's statutes the way was
 made narrow1 and the  days few and     
evil2 but1 behold1 the time shall come  
when my son ,jesus  shall be revealed   
and shall die1 and all men that have    
life4 ,and after  seven days of silence1
 the earth shall restore those that are 
asleep1  and the most ,high shall appear
 upon the seat of judgment2 and misery  
shall pass away but judgment shall      
remain2 truth shall stand2 and faith    
wax strong4    ,then ,esdras said3 ,i   
know the most ,high is called merciful1 
and he  pardoneth2 for if he did not so 
that they which have committed          
iniquities might be eased of them1 the  
ten thousandth part of men should  not  
remain living2 there should be very few 
left1 peradventure1 in an  innumerable  
multitude4 ,and the angel answered3     
,there be many created1  but few shall  

be saved4 ,every one that shall be saved
 shall be able to  escape by his works  
and by faith1 and then they shall be    
shown great  wonders4 ,and it came to   
pass that a voice out of a bush called  
,esdras1  which prophesied that ,god    
would take vengeance upon ,egypt1       
,syria1  ,babylon1 and ,asia2 that the  
servants of the ,lord must look for     
troubles1  and not hide their sins but  
depart from evil1 and they would be     
delivered because ,god is their guide4  
,,tobit      ,this is the ,book of      
,tobit1 of the tribe of ,nephthali1 who 
in the time of  ,enemessar1 ,king of the
 ,assyrians1 was led captive to ,nineve4
 ,tobit in  captivity still remembered  
,god with all his heart1 and was        
deprived of  his goods under ,king      
,sennacherib for privily burying        
fellow-captives who  had been killed4   
,then ,tobit1 who became blind1         
remembered that he had in  the days of  
his prosperity committed to ,gabael in  
,rages of ,media the sum  of ten        

talents2 and he called his son ,tobias  
to go forth and seek  ,gabael1 giving   
him handwriting4 ,tobias sought a guide 
and found ,raphael1  who was an angel   
though ,tobias knew it not1 and who said
 he knew and had  lodged with ,gabael4  
,so they went forth both4    ,when      
,tobias and ,raphael came to the ,river 
,tigris1 a fish leaped out of  the water
 and would have devoured him1 but the   
young man laid hold of  it1 and drew it 
to land4 ,the ,angel bade ,tobias open  
the fish1 and take  the heart and the   
liver and the gall1 and put them up     
safely4 ,the young  man said to the     
,angel3 ,to what use are these8 ,and the
 ,angel said3  ,touching the heart and  
the liver1 if an evil spirit trouble    
any1 we must  make a smoke thereof1 and 
the party shall be no more vexed4 ,as   
for the  gall3 it is good to anoint a   
man that a whiteness in his eyes shall  
be  healed4    ,when they came near to  
,rages1 the ,angel said3 ,to-day we     
shall lodge with  ,raguel1 who is thy   

cousin and hath an only daughter named  
,sara4 ,the maid  is fair and wise1 and 
,i will speak that she may be given thee
 as a wife4  ,then the young man        
answered the ,angel1 that he had heard  
that this maid  had been given to seven 
men who all died in the marriage        
chamber1 and he  feared lest he should  
also die4 ,but the ,angel said3 ,fear   
not1 for she is  appointed unto thee    
from the beginning4    ,now they came to
 the house of ,raguel1 and ,sara met    
them and brought them  therein4 ,raguel 
and ,edna his wife recognised ,tobias as
 a kinsman1 and  kissed and blessed him4
 ,tobias and ,raphael were entertained  
cheerfully2  and after ,raphael had     
communicated with ,raguel1 ,edna1 his   
wife1 was  called and an instrument of  
covenants of marriage between ,sara and 
,tobias were written and sealed4 ,and a 
chamber was prepared for them by  ,edna1
 who blessed ,sara and asked the ,lord  
of ,heaven and ,earth to give  her joy4 
,and when they had all supped1 ,tobias  

was brought in unto ,sara4  ,and1 as he 
went he remembered the words of         
,raphael1 and put the heart  and liver  
of the fish upon the ashes of the       
perfume1 and made a smoke  therewith4   
,when the evil spirit had smelled the   
smoke he fled into the  utmost parts of 
,egypt1 where an angel bound him4 ,then 
,tobias and ,sara  arose and prayed that
 ,god would have pity upon them1 and    
bless them1 and  mercifully ordain that 
they might become aged together4 ,so    
they slept  both that night4    ,raguel 
praised ,god because the ,lord had had  
mercy upon two that were the  only      
begotten children of their fathers1 and 
prayed that they might  finish their    
life in health and joy4 ,raphael then   
went to ,rages to  ,gabael for the      
money1 and the two returned to ,raguel's
 house with the  bags sealed up4    ,now
 ,tobit and his wife longed for their   
son1 and ,tobias said to ,raguel3  ,let 
me go1 for my father and mother look no 
more to see me4 ,then ,raguel  gave him 

,sara1 his wife1 and half his goods1    
servants1 cattle and money4  ,and he and
 ,edna blessed them and sent them away4 
,after a prosperous journey1 they drew  
near unto ,nineve4 ,then ,raphael  told 
,tobias to make haste before his wife to
 prepare the house1 and to  take in his 
hand the gall of the fish4 ,now ,anna   
sat looking about toward  the way for   
her son1 and when she espied him coming1
 she said to his  father3 ,behold1 thy  
son cometh and the man that went with   
him4 ,and ,anna  ran forth1 and fell    
upon the neck of her son and said3 ,from
 henceforth ,i  am content to die4      
,tobias met his father at the door1 and 
strake of the  gall on his father's     
eyes1 saying3 ,be of good hope1 my      
father4 ,and ,tobit  recovered his      
sight4 ,when he saw his son1 he fell    
upon his neck and  wept1 and blessed    
,god4 ,then ,tobit went out to meet his 
daughter-in-law  at the gate of ,nineve1
 and welcomed and blessed her2 and there
 was joy  among all his brethren which  

were at ,nineve4    ,tobit offered to   
,raphael half of all that had been      
brought from ,rages2  but ,raphael      
called him and ,tobias apart and        
exhorted them to praise and  magnify the
 ,lord for all the things which he had  
done unto them2 and  told them that he1 
,raphael1 was one of the seven holy     
angels which  present the prayers of the
 saints1 and which go in and out before 
the  glory of the ,holy ,one4 ,then they
 were both troubled and fell upon their 
faces2 but he said3 ,fear not1 for it   
shall go well with you4 ,i go up to  him
 that sent me2 but write all the things 
which were done in a book4  ,and when   
they arose they saw him no more4        
,tobit wrote a prayer of rejoicing1     
saying3 ,in the land of my captivity  do
 ,i praise thee1 ,o ,lord1 and declare  
thy might and majesty to a sinful       
nation4 ,for ,jerusalem shall be built  
up1 her walls and towers and            
battlements restored4 ,and all her      
streets shall say3 ,alleluia4    ,and   

when he was very aged1 ,tobit called his
 son and the six sons of his  son1 and  
bade them go into ,media1 for he was    
ready to depart out of this  life1 and  
he surely believed that which ,jonas the
 prophet spake of  ,nineve1 that it     
should be overthrown4 ,when he had said 
these things he  gave up the ghost4     
,tobias departed with his wife to       
,media1 and died  there2 but before he  
died he heard of the destruction of     
,nineve1 which  was taken by            
,nabuchodonosor4      ,,judith      ,in 
the days of ,arphaxad1 which reigned    
over the ,medes in ,ecbatane1 he        
fortified ,ecbatane with great stone    
walls1 and towers and gates1 for the    
going forth of his mighty armies4       
,nabuchodonosor1 who reigned in ,nineve1
  made war with ,king ,arphaxad1 and    
sent ambassadors to ,cilicia1 ,damascus 
and ,syria1 and the land of ,moab and   
,ammon and ,judea and all ,egypt asking 
aid2 but the inhabitants thereof made   
light of the commandment1 and sent  away

 his ambassadors with disgrace4         
,therefore1 ,nabuchodonosor was very    
angry1 and sware by his throne that he  
would be avenged upon all the           
inhabitants of these countries1 and     
would slay them with the sword4         
,nabuchodonosor1 in the seventeenth year
 of his reign1 marched in battle  array 
against ,arphaxad and overthrew his     
power and1 all his horsemen and         
chariots1 and took his cities even unto 
,ecbatane1 and spoiled the  streets     
thereof1 and turned the beauty of the   
city into shame4 ,he also  took         
,arphaxad in the mountains of ,ragau and
 smote him4 ,so he returned to  ,nineve 
with all his company of sundry nations  
and feasted4 ,in the  eighteenth year1  
,nabuchodonosor called the chief captain
 of his army1  ,holofernes1 and         
commanded him to take one hundred and   
twenty thousand  footmen and twelve     
thousand horsemen and go against all the
 west country  because they had         
disobeyed his commandment4 ,he charged  

also ,holofernes  to spare none that    
would not yield1 and put them to the    
slaughter1 and  spoil them4 ,and the    
army went forth with a great number of  
allies like  locusts into ,cilicia1 and 
destroyed ,phud and ,lud1 and all the   
children  of ,rasses and ,ishmael4 ,then
 the army went over ,euphrates and went 
through ,mesopotamia1 and destroyed all 
the high cities on the river  ,arbonai  
to the sea1 and then to ,japheth over   
against ,arabia1 and ,media  and        
,damascus1 and burned up their          
tabernacles1 destroyed their flocks  and
 herds1 utterly wasted their countries1 
and smote all their young men  with the 
edge of the sword4 ,then fear fell upon 
the inhabitants of ,tyrus  and ,sidon1  
on the sea coasts1 who sent ambassadors 
unto ,holofernes1 and  made submission4 
,he received them1 yet he cast down     
their frontiers1 cut  down their groves1
 destroyed all the gods of the land1 and
 decreed that  all the nations should   
worship ,nabuchodonosor only1 and call  

upon him as  ,god4    ,now1 the children
 of ,israel that dwelt in ,judea1 who   
were newly returned  from captivity1    
were exceedingly afraid for ,jerusalem  
and for the ,temple  of the ,lord their 
,god4 ,therefore1 they possessed        
themselves of all tops  of the high     
mountains1 and fortified the villages1  
and laid up victuals  for the provision 
of war4 ,and ,joacim and all the priests
 ministered unto  the ,lord in the      
,temple1 and offered sacrifices and     
prayed that he would  not give the      
children of ,israel for a prey1 their   
wives for a spoil1 the  cities of their 
inheritance to destruction1 and the     
sanctuary to  profanation4              
,holofernes was very angry when he heard
 this4 ,and ,achior1 captain of the     
sons of ,ammon1 told ,holofernes what   
the ,jews were1 their history1 and  what
 their ,god had done for them2 and      
advised ,holofernes not to meddle  with 
them4 ,there was then tumult in the     
council of the ,assyrian host1  and     

,holofernes despised the ,god of the    
people of ,israel1 and sent ,achior  to 
the children of ,israel that were in    
,bethulia1 in the hill country4  ,then  
,holofernes with all his army besieged  
,bethulia1 and took possession  of the  
fountains of water1 so that the         
inhabitants fainted for thirst1  and    
there was no longer any strength in     
them4 ,they murmured against the        
governors1 and called upon them to      
deliver the city to ,holofernes and  his
 army4 ,ozias1 the chief of the city1   
said3 ,brethren1 be of good  courage2   
let us yet endure five days1 in which   
space the ,lord our ,god  may turn his  
mercy towards us2 for he will not       
forsake us utterly4    ,now ,judith     
heard thereof4 ,she was a widow and was 
of a goodly  countenance and very       
beautiful to behold1 and she feared ,god
 greatly4  ,judith sent for the ancients
 of the city1 and blamed them for       
provoking  the ,lord to anger by their  
lack of trust1 and she promised that she

  would do a thing within the days      
before the city was to be delivered to  
their enemies which should go throughout
 all generations to the children  of the
 nation4 ,then ,judith went to the      
,house of the ,lord and fell upon  her  
face and called upon the ,lord who      
breakest the battles to bless her       
purpose4 ,she went thereafter to her    
house1 put off the garments of          
widowhood and of sackcloth1 and bathed1 
and anointed herself with  precious     
ointment1 and put on the garments of    
gladness1 with bracelets  and chains and
 rings and ornaments to lure the eyes of
 all the men that  should see her4 ,then
 she went forth with her maid out of the
 city of  ,bethulia into the camp of the
 ,assyrians1 and was taken by the guard 
to  the tent of ,holofernes1 who        
marvelled at her beauty4 ,holofernes    
asked  ,judith the cause of her coming1 
and she declared that if he would follow
  her words1 he and his army would be   
led by her through the midst of  ,judea 

unto ,jerusalem wherein he would set op 
his throne4    ,holofernes and all his  
servants were pleased1 and said there   
was not  such a woman in all the earth  
for beauty of face and wisdom of words4 
,judith would not eat of the meats and  
wine which ,holofernes offered her1  but
 partook only of the provisions which   
her maid had brought with her  in a bag4
 ,then she was brought into a tent and  
abode in the camp three  days1 going out
 every night into the valley of         
,bethulia to pray4 ,in the  fourth day  
,holofernes made a feast1 and said to   
,bagoas1 the eunuch1 to  go and persuade
 the ,hebrew woman to come and eat and  
drink with him and  his officers4       
,judith arose and decked herself1 and   
went in and sat on  the ground on soft  
skins over against ,holofernes1 whose   
heart was  ravished with her1 and his   
mind moved1 and he desired greatly her  
company4    ,now ,judith took and ate   
and drank what her maid had prepared1   
and  ,holofernes was greatly delighted  

with her1 and drank much more wine than 
he had drunk at any time in one day     
since he was born4 ,judith1 when the    
evening was come1 was left alone with   
,holofernes1 and the servants were      
dismissed4 ,then she came to the pillar 
of the bed1 which was at  ,holofernes's 
head1 took down his fauchion1 seized    
hold of the hair of  his head1 and said3
 ,strengthen me1 ,o ,lord ,god of       
,israel1 this day4 ,and  she smote twice
 upon his neck with all her might1 and  
took away his head  from him4    ,she   
put the head in her bag of meat and gave
 it to her maid1 and the  twain went    
forth together1 according to their      
custom1 as unto prayer1  and passed the 
camp4 ,then came they to ,bethulia1 and 
were admitted into  the city2 and the   
people were astonished wonderfully and  
worshipped ,god1  and said3 ,blessed be 
thou1 ,o our ,god1 which hast this day  
brought to  nought the enemies of thy   
people4 ,the head of ,holofernes was    
hanged up  on the highest place of the  

city walls1 and the men of ,israel went 
forth  by bands into the passes of the  
mountain4 ,when the ,assyrians saw this1
  they sent to ,holofernes's tent1 and  
said that the slaves of ,israelites  had
 come forth against them in battle4     
,then ,bagoas went into the tent  and   
found the body of ,holofernes cast upon 
the ground and his head taken  away4    
,when also he found not ,judith1 he     
leaped out to the people and  told them2
 and great fear and trembling fell upon 
them1 and they fled1  being chased until
 past ,damascus and the borders thereof 
by the children  of ,israel1 who gat    
many spoils4 ,then ,judith sang a song  
of thanksgiving  in all ,israel1 and the
 people sang after her4 ,she dedicated  
the spoil of  ,holofernes1 which the    
people had given her1 for a gift unto   
the ,lord2  and when she died in        
,bethulia1 a widow of great honour1 all 
,israel did  lament4      ,,the ,,book  
,,of ,,esther           ,these are the  
chapters of the ,book of ,esther1 which 

are found       neither in the ,hebrew  
nor in the ,chaldee4      ,in the second
 year of the reign of ,artaxerxes the   
,great1 ,mardocheus1 who  was a ,jew and
 dwelt in the city of ,susa1 had a      
dream4 ,and the same night  he overheard
 two eunuchs plotting to lay hands on   
,artaxerxes1 and he1  being a servitor  
in the king's court1 told the king2 and 
the eunuchs1  after examination1 were   
strangled4 ,aman1 because of this1      
induced  ,artaxerxes to write to all the
 princes and governors from ,india unto 
,ethiopia to destroy all the ,jews1 with
 their wives and children1 without      
pity1 on the fourteenth day of the      
twelfth month of ,adar4 ,mardocheus and 
,queen ,esther1 being in the fear of    
death1 resorted unto the ,lord1 and     
prayed for deliverance1 and for the     
preservation of the children of         
,israel4 ,on the third day1 ,queen      
,esther cometh unto the king's presence2
  and she was ruddy through the         
perfection of her beauty1 but her heart 

was in anguish for fear4 ,the king      
looketh angrily at her as she stood     
before his royal throne1 and she        
fainteth4 ,then ,god changed the spirit 
of the king1 who leaped from his throne1
 took her in his arms1 saying3  ,be of  
good cheer1 thou shalt not die1 though  
our commandment be general4  ,as he was 
speaking1 she fell a second time for    
faintness1 and the king  was troubled   
and all his servants comforted her4     
,artaxerxes then wrote a letter to all  
the princes wherein he taxed ,aman1  the
 ,macedonian1 with having by manifold   
and cunning deceits sought the          
destruction of ,mardocheus1 who had     
saved the king's life1 and also of  the 
blameless ,esther1 partaker of his      
kingdom1 with their whole nation4  ,the 
king revoked the decree procured by     
,aman1 who1 with all his family1  was   
hanged at the gates of ,susa4 ,and the  
king commanded the day of their         
deliverance to be kept holy4      ,,the 
,,wisdom ,,of ,,solomon      ,love      

righteousness1 ye that be judges of the 
earth1 for into a malicious  soul wisdom
 shall not enter4 ,the spirit of the    
,lord filleth the world3  therefore he  
that speaketh unrighteous things cannot 
be hid4 ,seek not  death in the error of
 your life3 for ,god made not death1 and
  righteousness is immortal4 ,the       
ungodly reason1 but not aright3 life is 
short and tedious1 which1 being         
extinguished1 our bodies shall be turned
  into ashes1 and our spirit vanish as  
the soft air4 ,come1 therefore1 let  us 
enjoy the good things that are present4 
,their own wickedness hath  blinded     
them1 for ,god created man to be        
immortal4    ,nevertheless1 through envy
 of the devil came death into the world4
 ,the  souls of the righteous are in the
 hands of ,god1 and there shall no      
torments touch them4 ,having been a     
little chastised they shall be  greatly 
rewarded4 ,better to have no children   
and to have virtue2 for  children       
begotten of unlawful beds are witnesses 

against their parents4  ,honourable age 
is not measured by number of years4 ,he1
 being made  perfect in a short time1   
fulfilled a long time4 ,for his soul    
pleased the  ,lord3 ,therefore1 hasted  
he to take him away from among the      
wicked4 ,this  the people saw and       
understood it not1 neither laid they up 
this in their  minds4 ,that his grace   
and mercy are with his saints1 and that 
he hath  respect unto his chosen4 ,the  
wicked wonder at the godly1 and say3    
,what  hath pride profited us8 ,and what
 good hath riches1 with our vaunting1   
brought us8 ,all those things are passed
 away like a shadow4 ,the hope of  the  
ungodly is like dust that is blown away3
 but the righteous live for  evermore3  
their reward is a beautiful crown from  
the ,lord's hand4 ,wisdom  is easily    
found of such as seek her1 therefore    
princes must desire her2  for a wise    
prince is the stay of his people4 ,he   
that hath ,wisdom hath  every good      
thing4 ,moreover1 by her means man shall

 obtain immortality1  and leave behind  
him an everlasting memorial4      ,,the 
,,wisdom ,,of ,,jesus ,,the ,,son ,,of  
,,sirach2 ,,or ,,ecclesiasticus4        
,there are two prologues to this book4  
,the first is by an       uncertain     
author1 stating that the book is the    
compilation of       three hands and is 
in imitation of the ,book of ,solomon4  
,the       second prologue is by ,jesus1
 the son of ,sirach and grandchild      
to ,jesus of the same name1 who had read
 the law and the       prophets and     
other books of the fathers1 and had been
 drawn       himself to write something 
pertaining to wisdom and learning4      
,coming into ,egypt when ,euergetes was 
king1 ,jesus1 son of       ,sirach1     
found a book of no small learning and   
bestowed       diligence and travail to 
interpret it1 and to bring it to an     
end4 ,the following are among the       
precepts given3      ,all wisdom cometh 
from the ,lord3 she is with all flesh   
according to his  gift4 ,the fear of the

 ,lord is the beginning of wisdom1 and  
driveth away  sins4 ,my son1 if thou    
come to serve the ,lord1 prepare thy    
soul for  temptation4 ,set thy heart    
aright1 and constantly endure4 ,woe be  
to  fearful hearts2 but they that fear  
the ,lord shall be filled with the  law4
 ,whoso honoureth his father maketh an  
atonement for his sins4 ,he  that       
honoureth his mother layeth up treasure4
 ,seek not out the things  that are too 
hard for thee3 profess not the knowledge
 that thou hast  not4 ,defraud not the  
poor of his living3 and be not          
fainthearted when  thou sittest in      
judgment4 ,set not thy heart upon thy   
goods1 for the ,lord  will surely       
revenge thy pride4 ,winnow not with     
every wind1 and let thy  life be        
sincere4 ,do not extol thy own conceit3 
if thou wouldst get a  friend1 prove him
 first4 ,a faithful friend is a strong  
defence4 ,seek not  of the ,lord        
preeminence3 humble thy soul greatly4   
,fear the ,lord1 and  reverence his     

priests4 ,stretch thine hand unto the   
poor1 and mourn with  them that mourn4  
,strive not with a mighty man3 kindle   
not the coals of a  sinner4 ,lend not   
unto him that is mightier than thyself3 
be not surety  above thy power4 ,go not 
to law with a judge3 consult not with a 
fool4  ,judge none blessed before his   
death4 ,he that toucheth pitch shall be 
denied therewith3 like will to like4    
,say not thou3 it is through the  ,lord 
that ,i fell away3 ,he has caused me to 
err4 ,the ,lord made man from  the      
beginning and left him in the hand of   
his counsel4 ,he has commanded  no man  
to do wickedly1 neither has he given any
 man licence to sin4 ,the  knowledge of 
wickedness is not wisdom3 neither at any
 time the counsel  of sinners prudence4 
,whoso discovereth secrets loseth his   
credit and  shall never find friend to  
his mind4 ,health and good estate of    
body are  above all gold4 ,there is no  
joy above the joy of the heart4 ,give   
not  over thy mind to heaviness3 the    

joyfulness of a man prolongeth his days4
  ,envy and wrath shorten life3         
carefulness bringeth age before the     
time4    ,then follow praises of a good 
householder1 a good physician1 a wise   
interpreter of the law1 and injunctions 
as to how a man should bear the         
miseries of life1 and face the approach 
of death4 ,and the book concludes  with 
praises of the ,patriarchs and the      
,prophets4      ,,baruch      ,baruch1  
the son of ,nerias1 wrote a book in     
,babylon what time the  ,chaldeans took 
,jerusalem and burnt it with fire4      
,baruch read the words  of his book in  
the hearing of ,jechonias1 the son of   
the ,king of ,juda1  and in the ears of 
all the people4 ,the ,jews wept at the  
reading of it1  by the river ,sud1 and  
made a collection of money to send to   
,jerusalem1  unto the ,high ,priest     
,joachim1 to buy burnt offerings and sin
 offerings  and incense1 and to prepare 
manna to be offered upon the altar of   
the  ,lord4 ,the people at ,jerusalem   

are asked also to pray for the life of  
,nabuchodonosor1 ,king of ,babylon1 and 
his son ,balthasar1 and for those  who  
sent the gifts and the book4 ,the book  
begins with a prayer and  confession    
which the ,jews at ,babylon make1       
acknowledging that they are  yet this   
day in captivity for a reproach and a   
curse1 and to be subject  to payments   
according to all the iniquities of their
 fathers which  departed from the ,lord 
our ,god4 ,then beginneth the book3     
,hear1 ,israel1 the commandments of     
life3 give ear to understand wisdom4    
,let them that dwell about ,sion come1  
and remember the captivity of my  sons  
and daughters1 which the ,everlasting   
hath brought upon them4 ,be of  good    
cheer1 ,o my children1 crying unto the  
,lord1 and ,he shall deliver  you from  
the power and hand of the enemies4 ,i   
sent you out with mourning  and weeping3
 but ,god will give you to me again with
 joy and gladness for  ever4 ,put off1  
,o ,jerusalem1 the garment of thy       

mourning and affliction1  and put on the
 comeliness of the glory that cometh    
from ,god for ever2  for behold1 thy    
children gathereth from the west and    
from the east and  return out of        
captivity with glory4    ,with this book
 of ,baruch there is an ,epistle of     
,jeremy1 which he sent  unto them that  
were to be led captive into ,babylon    
because of their  sins4 ,the prophet    
describes the idols and the conduct of  
the priests and  those who attend the   
heathen temples and warns the captives  
not to  worship the false gods in       
,babylon4      ,,song ,,of ,,the ,,three
 ,,holy ,,children      ,this ,song is  
not in the ,hebrew of the ,book of      
,daniel4    ,they walked in the midst of
 the fire praising ,god and blessing the
 ,lord4  ,azarias opened his mouth in   
the midst of the flame and made         
confession  of sins1 and prayer for     
deliverance to the confusion of their   
enemies4  ,whereupon1 the king's        
servants that put them in ceased not to 

make the  oven hot with rosin1 pitch1   
tow1 and small wood1 so that the flame  
passed through and burned those         
,chaldeans it found about the furnace4  
,but the ,angel of the ,lord came down  
into the oven and made the midst of  the
 furnace as it had been a moist         
whistling wind1 so that the fire        
touched ,azarias and his fellows not at 
all1 neither hurt nor troubled  them4   
,then the three1 as out of one mouth1   
praised1 glorified1 and  blessed ,god in
 the furnace1 saying3 ,the ,lord hath   
delivered us from  hell1 and saved us   
from the hand of death3 for his mercy   
endureth for  ever4      ,,the ,,history
 ,,of ,,susanna      ,there dwelt a man 
in ,babylon called ,joacim4 ,and he took
 a wife whose  name was ,susanna1 a very
 fair woman1 and one that feared the    
,lord4 ,the  same year were appointed   
two of the ancients of the people to be 
judges2  and they saw ,susanna walking  
in her husband's garden1 and their lust 
was  inflamed towards her4 ,now1        

,susanna went into the garden to bathe1 
for it  was hot1 and dismissed her      
maids4 ,the two elders1 who had hidden  
in the  garden1 rose up and said3       
,consent and lie with us4 ,if thou wilt 
not1 we  will bear witness against thee 
that a young man was with thee1 and     
therefore thou didst send thy maids     
away4 ,then ,susanna cried with a loud  
voice1 and the two elders cried out     
against her1 and declared their  matter4
 ,the servants rushed in at the privy   
door and were greatly  ashamed1 for     
there was never such a report made of   
,susanna4 ,it came to  pass the next day
 when the people were assembled to her  
husband ,joacim1  with the two elders   
full of mischievous imagination against 
,susanna1  these wicked men commanded   
,susanna to uncover her face that they  
might  be filled with her beauty1 and   
her friends and all that saw her wept4  
,then the elders made their charge which
 they had agreed upon against  ,susanna1
 and the assembled people believed them3

 so they condemned her  to death4 ,then 
,susanna cried to the ,everlasting ,god1
 saying3 ,thou  knowest that they have  
borne false witness against me1 and that
 ,i never  did such things as these men 
have maliciously invented against me4   
,and  the ,lord heard her voice4        
,when she was led to be put to death1   
the ,lord raised up the holy spirit  of 
a youth named ,daniel1 who said3 ,are ye
 such fools1 ye sons of ,israel1  that  
without examination or knowledge of the 
truth ye have condemned a  daughter of  
,israel8 ,then ,daniel put the two      
elders aside1 one far from  the other1  
to examine them4 ,to the first he said3 
,if thou hast seen her1  under what tree
 sawest thou them companying together8  
,he answered3 ,under  a mastic tree4    
,daniel said3 ,very well2 and he put him
 aside and  commanded the other to be   
brought4 ,tell me1 he said1 under what  
tree  didst thou take them companying   
together8 ,he answered3 ,under an holm  
tree4 ,then ,daniel said3 ,these men    

have lied against their own heads1 for  
even now the ,angel of ,god waiteth with
 the sword that he may destroy  them4   
,then all the assembly arose against the
 two elders1 for ,daniel had  convicted 
them of false witness by their own      
mouth2 and they put them to  death4     
,thus the innocent blood was saved the  
same day2 and from that  time forth was 
,daniel had in great reputation in the  
sight of the  people4      ,,the        
,,history ,,of ,,the ,,destruction ,,of 
,,bel ,,and ,,the ,,dragon      ,when   
,cyrus of ,persia received his kingdom1 
,daniel conversed with him1  and was    
honoured above all his friends4 ,now1   
the ,babylonians had an idol  called    
,bel1 which the king worshipped1 but    
,daniel worshipped his own  ,god4 ,the  
king said unto him3 ,why dost thou not  
worship ,bel8 ,daniel  answered3        
,because ,i may not worship idols made  
with hands1 but the  living ,god4 ,then 
the king said3 ,thinkest thou not that  
,bel is a living  god8 ,seest thou not  

how much he eateth and drinketh every   
day8 ,then  ,daniel smiled and said3 ,o 
king1 be not deceived2 for this is but  
clay  within and brass without1 and it  
never eateth or drinketh anything4 ,then
  trial was made by order of the king1  
and meat and wine were set in the       
temple1 the door made fast1 and sealed  
with the king's signet4 ,the  priests of
 ,bel were three score and ten1 besides 
their wives and  children1 and they     
little regarded the trial1 for under the
 table they  had made a privy entrance1 
whereby they entered the temple         
continually  and consumed the meat and  
the wine4 ,but ,daniel had commanded his
  servants to strew the temple floor    
with ashes1 before the door was shut    
and sealed4 ,now1 in the night came the 
priests with their wives and  children1 
as they were wont1 and did eat and drink
 up all4    ,in the morning betimes the 
king arose1 and ,daniel with him4 ,as   
soon as  the door was opened1 the king  
looked upon the table1 and cried with a 

loud voice3 ,great art thou1 ,o ,bel1   
and with thee is no deceit at all4      
,then laughed ,daniel1 and said3 ,behold
 the pavement1 and mark well whose      
footsteps are these4 ,and the king saw  
the footsteps of men1 women1 and        
children1 and was angry when he was     
shown the privy doors where they  came  
in and consumed such things as were upon
 the table4 ,therefore the  king slew   
them1 and delivered ,bel into ,daniel's 
power1 who destroyed the  idol and the  
temple4    ,in the same place there was 
a great dragon1 which they of ,babylon  
worshipped4 ,the king said to ,daniel3  
,lo6 this dragon liveth1 eateth1        
drinketh2 thou canst not say that he is 
no living god2 therefore worship  him4  
,then said ,daniel3 ,i will worship the 
,lord1 for he is the living  ,god4 ,but 
give me leave1 ,o king1 and ,i shall    
slay this dragon without  sword or      
staff4    ,the king gave him leave1 and 
,daniel took pitch1 and fat1 and hair1  
and  did seethe them together1 and made 

lumps thereof4 ,these he put in the     
dragon's mouth1 and the dragon burst in 
sunder4 ,then ,daniel said3 ,lo1  these 
are the gods ye worship6    ,when they  
of ,babylon heard that1 they conspired  
against the king1  saying3 ,the king is 
become a ,jew4 ,so they came to the     
king1 and said3  ,deliver us ,daniel1 or
 else we will destroy thee and thine    
house4 ,being  sore constrained1 the    
king delivered ,daniel unto them1 and   
they cast him  into the lions' den1     
where he was six days1 during which the 
seven lions  were given no carcases1 to 
the intent that they might devour       
,daniel4    ,now1 there was in ,jewry a 
prophet called ,habakkuk who made       
pottage and  broken bread to take to the
 reapers in the field4 ,an ,angel of the
 ,lord  said unto ,habakkuk3 ,go1 carry 
the dinner that thou hast into ,babylon 
unto ,daniel1 who is in the lions' den4 
,and ,habakkuk said3 ,lord1 ,i never    
saw ,babylon2 neither do ,i know where  
the den is4 ,then the ,angel of the     

,lord took ,habakkuk by the crown1 and  
bare him by the hair of his head1  and  
through the vehemency of his spirit set 
him in ,babylon over the den4  ,and     
,habakkuk cried3 ,o ,daniel1 take the   
dinner which ,god has sent thee4  ,and  
,daniel said3 ,thou hast remembered me1 
,o ,god3 neither hast thou  forsaken    
them that seek thee and love thee4 ,so  
,daniel arose1 and did  eat3 ,and the   
,angel of the ,lord set ,habakkuk in his
 own place  immediately4 ,upon the      
seventh day the king went to bewail     
,daniel2 and  when he came to the den1  
behold1 ,daniel was sitting4 ,then cried
 the king  with a loud voice1 saying3   
,great art thou1 ,o ,lord ,god of       
,daniel1 and  there is none other       
besides thee4 ,and he drew ,daniel out1 
and cast those  that were the cause of  
his suffering into the den2 and they    
were  devoured by the lions in a moment 
before his face4      ,,the ,,prayer    
,,of ,,manasses      ,the ,prayer of    
,manasses1 ,king of ,juda1 when he was  

holden captive in  ,babylon1 is an      
enumeration of the attributes of the    
,almighty ,god of  ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and
 ,jacob1 and of their righteous seed2 a 
general  confession of sins2 and an     
entreaty that ,god would show him great 
mercy  and goodness1 forgive him1 and   
condemn him not into the lower parts of 
the earth4 ,therefore1 he would praise  
the ,lord for ever1 all the days of  his
 life4      ,,the ,,first ,,book ,,of   
,,the ,,maccabees      ,antiochus1      
surnamed ,epiphanes1 reigned in the     
hundred and thirty-seventh  year of the 
kingdom of the ,greeks4 ,in those days  
certain wicked men of  ,israel went to  
the king1 who gave them licence to do   
after the  ordinances of the heathen4   
,whereupon1 they built a place of       
exercise at  ,jerusalem according to the
 custom of the heathen4 ,now1 ,antiochus
 made  war against ,egypt1 and when he  
had smitten the strong cities1 and taken
  the spoils thereof1 he returned in the
 hundred forty and third year and  went 

up against ,israel and ,jerusalem1 and  
captured the city with great  massacre  
and spoiled the ,temple1 and took away  
the vessels of gold and  silver and     
hidden treasures which he found therein4
 ,therefore1 there was  great mourning  
in ,israel4 ,two years after1 the king  
sent his chief  collector of tribute    
unto the cities of ,juda1 and he fell   
suddenly upon  ,jerusalem1 set fire to  
it1 and pulled down the houses and walls
 thereof4  ,and the women and children  
he took away captive1 and defiled the   
sanctuary4    ,but the enemy builded the
 city of ,david1 with a great and strong
 wall  and mighty towers1 and stored it 
with armour and victuals and the spoils 
of ,jerusalem1 so that it became a sore 
snare against the sanctuary and  an evil
 adversary to ,israel4 ,moreover1 ,king 
,antiochus wrote to his whole  kingdom  
that all should be one people1 and sent 
letters unto ,jerusalem  and the cities 
of ,juda commanding that the ,israelites
 should abandon  their own worship1     

cease to circumcise their children1 and 
adore his  idols4 ,then was the         
abomination of desolation set up in the 
,temple1 and  idol altars were builded  
throughout the cities of ,juda1 and the 
books of  the law were burned4 ,howbeit 
many in ,israel chose rather to die that
  they might not be defiled with meats  
and profane the ,holy ,covenant4 ,in    
those days arose ,mattathias1 a priest  
of the sons of ,joarib4 ,he dwelt in    
,modin1 and had five sons--,joannan1    
,simon1 ,judas who was called           
,maccabeus1 ,eleazar1 and ,jonathan4    
,the king's officers came to ,modin and 
asked ,mattathias to fulfil the king's  
commandment2 but ,mattathias said3      
,though all the nations consent1 yet    
will ,i and my sons walk in the         
covenant of our fathers4 ,and he slew a 
,jew that did sacrifice to idols  in his
 presence1 and the king's messenger     
also4 ,so he and his sons fled  into the
 mountains1 and1 being joined by a      
company of mighty men of  ,israel1 went 

round about1 and pulled down idol altars
 and circumcised  the children          
valiantly4 ,and the work prospered in   
their hands1 and they  recovered the law
 out of the hands of the ,gentiles4     
,when ,mattathias came  to die he       
appointed ,simon as a man of counsel1   
and ,judas ,maccabeus1 who  had been    
mighty and strong in battle even from   
his youth up1 to be their  captain to   
avenge the wrongs of their people4 ,so  
he died in his hundred  forty and sixth 
year1 and was buried in the sepulchre of
 his fathers at  ,modin1 and all ,israel
 made great lamentation for him4        
,now1 ,judas ,maccabeus fought the      
battles of his people with great        
valiance1 captured the cities of ,juda1 
drove ,apollonius and a great host  out 
of ,samaria1 slew ,apollonius1 took     
their spoils1 and ,apollonius's  sword  
also1 and therewith he fought all his   
life long4 ,judas also  overthrew ,seron
 and the great army of ,syria4 ,then    
,judas was renowned  unto the utmost    

parts of the earth1 and an exceeding    
great dread fell  upon the nations round
 about4 ,now1 when ,king ,antiochus     
heard these  things he was full of      
indignation2 wherefore he sent and      
gathered  together all the forces of his
 realm4 ,and the king sent ,lysias1 one 
of  the blood royal1 with a great army  
to go into the land of ,juda and        
destroy it4 ,judas and his brethren1    
when he heard this1 assembled the       
,israelites at ,maspha1 over against    
,jerusalem1 where they fasted2 and      
,judas organised and armed them to      
battle1 and camped at ,emmaus4 ,gorgias1
  the lieutenant of ,lysias1 attempted  
to surprise ,judas1 but ,judas joined   
him in battle and discomfited him1      
putting his host to flight and  gaining 
great spoil4 ,next year ,lysias gathered
 another army1 that he  might subdue the
 ,israelites1 and came into ,idumea1 and
 pitched tents at  ,bethsura4 ,but      
,judas joined him in battle1 and put    
,lysias and his army to  flight4 ,after 

this1 ,judas and his brethren came to   
,jerusalem1 pulled  down the altar which
 the heathen had profaned1 and set up a 
new altar4  ,he also builded up ,mount  
,sion with strong towers and high walls4
 ,after  that ,judas smote the children 
of ,esau1 ,bean1 and ,ammon1 and sent   
,simon  into ,galilee1 while he1 with   
his brother ,jonathan1 went over        
,jordan1 and  captured the cities of    
,galaad4 ,about that time ,antiochus was
 in ,persia1  and heard of the doings of
 ,judas4 ,he was astonished and sore    
moved1 and  fell sick of grief and died4
 ,lysias set up ,antiochus1 his son1 as 
king1  and called him ,eupator1 and     
brought a great army into ,juda4 ,the   
number  of his army was an hundred      
thousand footmen1 twenty thousand       
horsemen1  and two and thirty elephants4
 ,judas went out from ,jerusalem and    
pitched  in ,bathzacharias over against 
the king's camp4 ,then a great battle   
was  fought1 when ,judas was defeated4  
,there being a famine in the city1 he   

made peace with ,eupator1 who1 however1 
ordered the wall round about ,sion  to  
be pulled down4    ,demetrius came from 
,rome and attacked ,eupator in ,antioch1
 captured the  city1 and slew ,eupator  
and ,lysias4 ,alsimus1 who wished to be 
high  priest1 complained to ,demetrius  
of ,judas1 and the king sent ,nicanor1 a
  man that bare deadly hate unto        
,israel1 to destroy the people2 but he  
was  defeated by ,judas at ,capharsalama
 with great slaughter1 and in a second  
battle ,nicanor's host was discomfited  
and he himself was slain1 and his  head 
and right hand were hanged up on the    
tower at ,jerusalem4 ,this was a  day of
 great gladness to ,israel1 and the     
victory was kept holy every  year after4
    ,now1 ,judas1 being informed of the 
power and policy of the ,romans1 made a 
league with them of mutual help4        
,notwithstanding1 ,demetrius sent       
,bacchides and ,alcimus a second time   
into ,judea with a great host1 and      
camped at ,berea4 ,now1 ,judas had      

pitched his tent at ,eleasa1 where1     
seeing the multitude of the other army  
to be so great1 his men began to  desert
 him1 whereupon ,judas said3 ,god forbid
 that ,i should flee away  from the     
enemy2 if our time be come1 let us die  
manfully for our  brethren1 and let us  
not stain our honour4    ,the armies    
came to battle1 and the earth shook at  
the noise thereof1 and  the fight       
continued from morning to night4 ,judas 
discomfited the right  wing of the enemy
 under ,bacchides and pursued them to   
,mount ,azotus1 but  the left wing      
followed upon ,judas and a sore battle  
took place1 insomuch  that many were    
slain on both sides4 ,judas was killed  
also1 and the rest  of his army fled4   
,the body of ,judas was taken to the    
sepulchre of his  fathers at ,modin by  
,jonathan and ,simon1 his brothers1 and 
all ,israel  made lamentation for him1  
and mourned many days1 saying3 ,how is  
the  valiant man fallen that delivered  
,israel6    ,jonathan took command of   

the ,israelites in the room of ,judas1  
and made  peace with ,bacchides4        
,thereafter1 ,demetrius made large      
offers to have  peace with ,jonathan1   
including freedom of worship and release
 of  tribute1 together with the         
rebuilding of the walls of ,jerusalem   
and the  towers thereof1 and the repairs
 of the sanctuary2 but ,jonathan and the
  people gave no credit to these words  
because they remembered the great  evil 
,demetrius had done in ,israel4         
,jonathan made peace with ,alexander1   
and joined him in battle against        
,demetrius1 whose host fled1 and he     
himself was slain4    ,after that       
,demetrius the younger came out of      
,crete1 and sent a great  host to       
,azotus4 ,here ,jonathan attacked him1  
and with the help of ,simon1  his       
brother1 defeated the enemy and set fire
 to ,azotus1 and the temple  of ,dagon  
therein4 ,there were burned and slain   
with the sword eight  thousand men4     
,now1 ,king ,alexander honoured         

,jonathan and sent him a  buckle of gold
 such as is given to those of the king's
 blood4 ,after  these days1 ,jonathan   
did many wonderful exploits in ,galilee 
and  ,damascus1 and then returned to    
,jerusalem4 ,now1 when ,jonathan saw    
that  the time served him1 he renewed   
his league with the ,romans and         
,lacedemonians1 and pursued the         
,arabians unto ,damascus4 ,he           
strengthened  the cities of ,juda1 but  
he was captured by fraud by ,tryphon at 
,ptolemais4 ,simon was made captain in  
his brother ,jonathan's room1 and       
prepared to attack ,tryphon and1 rescue 
his brother1 but ,tryphon slew          
,jonathan1 and returned into his own    
country4    ,the land of ,juda was quiet
 all the days of ,simon1 and every man  
sat  under his own vine and fig-tree4   
,when ,simon was visiting the cities    
that  were in the country1 ,ptolemeus1  
son of ,abubus1 the captain of ,jerico1 
invited ,simon and his two sons into his
 castle1 called ,docus4 ,there a  great 

banquet was given1 at which ,simon and  
his sons drank largely1 and  ,ptolemeus 
and his men came into the banqueting    
place and slew them4      ,,the ,,second
 ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,maccabees      ,the
 brethren1 the ,jews that were at       
,jerusalem and in the land of ,judea1   
wrote a letter to the ,jews that were   
throughout ,egypt to thank ,god for  the
 death of ,antiochus4 ,in his letter are
 recounted all the sayings of  ,jeremy1 
and the great deeds of ,judas ,maccabeus
 and his brother ,simon1 as  recorded in
 the books of ,jason1 until ,nicanor the
 blasphemer was killed1  and his head   
hanged upon the tower at ,jerusalem1    
from which time forth  the ,hebrews had 
the city in their power4           99   
99       99       99       99           
,,st4 ,,augustine      ,,the ,,city ,,of
 ,,god           ,a ,french critic has  
said of ,augustine's ,city of ,god that 
it       is the earliest serious attempt
 to write a philosophy of       history1
 and another has spoken of it as the    

encyclopaedia of       the fifth        
century4 ,these two remarks together    
characterise the       work excellently4
 ,it is a huge treatise in twenty-two   
books1       begun in the year #dac1 and
 finished in #dbf1 and was given to     
the public in sections as these were    
completed4 ,augustine 7see       ,,lives
 ,,and ,,letters7 himself explains the  
origin of the work4       ,the fall of  
,rome by ,alaric's invasion in #daj had 
been ascribed       to the desertion of 
the old gods of ,rome and to the wide   
extension of ,christianity1 or the ,city
 of ,god1 throughout the       empire4  
,it was to refute this calumny that the 
learned ,african       bishop elaborated
 his great defense of ,christ's kingdom1
 the       ,catholic ,church1 which     
should include all nations and speak    
in all tongues4 ,in ,books #a-e ,st4    
,augustine shows that the               
catastrophe of ,rome was not due to the 
neglect of the old       mythological   
superstitions2 and in ,books #f-aj that 

the heathen       cult was helpless for 
the life after death4 ,books #aa-ad deal
       with the origin of the two       
cities1 namely1 of ,god and the         
,world2 ,books #ae-ah with their        
respective histories1 and ,books        
#ai-bb with their respective ultimate   
destinies4      ,i4--,,the ,,origin ,,of
 ,,the ,,two ,,cities      ,i write1    
dear ,marcellinus1 of that most glorious
 ,city of ,god1 both in  her present    
pilgrimage and life by faith1 and in    
that fixed and  everlasting seat which  
she awaits in patience4 ,i write to     
defend her  against those who place     
their gods above her ,founder--a great  
and  arduous work1 but ,god is my aid4  
,i well know what power a writer needs  
who would show the proud how great is   
the virtue of humility4 ,for the  law of
 our ,king and ,founder is this3 ,god is
 against the proud but gives  grace to  
the humble2 but the swollen and insolent
 soul loves herein to  usurp the divine 
,majesty1 and itself to spare the       

subject and subdue  the proud4          
,wherefore ,i may not pass over in      
silence that earthly city  also1        
enslaved by its lust of empire4    ,for 
it is from this ,city of the ,world that
 those enemies have arisen1  against    
whom we have to defend the ,city of     
,god2 ,romans1 spared by the  barbarians
 on ,christ's account1 are haters of the
 name of ,christ4 ,the  shrines of the  
martyrs and the basilicas of the        
apostles received1 in  the devastation  
of the city1 not their own people only1 
but every  fugitive2 and the fury and   
greed of the invaders were quenched at  
these  holy thresholds4 ,yet with       
thankless arrogance and impious frenzy  
these  men1 who took refuge under that  
,name in order that they might enjoy the
  light of fugitive years1 perversely   
oppose it now1 that they may  languish  
in sempiternal gloom4    ,never has it  
been known1 in so many wars as are      
recorded from before the  foundation of 
,rome to the present day1 that an enemy1

 having reduced any  city1 should have  
spared those who had fled to the temples
 of their  gods2 not even the ,romans   
themselves1 whose moderation in victory 
has so  often been justly praised1 have 
respected the sanctuary of vanquished   
deities4 ,the devastation and massacre  
and pillage and conflagrations of  the  
sack of ,rome were nothing new4 ,but    
this one thing was new and  unheard     
of--these savages became suddenly so    
mild as to set apart  spacious basilicas
 and to fill them with people on whom   
they had mercy2  no one might be killed 
therein nor any dragged from thence4    
,who does not  see that this is due to  
the name of ,christ and to a ,christian 
age8 ,who  can deny that these          
sanguinary hordes were bridled by ,him  
,who had said3  ,i will visit their sins
 with the rod1 but will not take my     
mercy from  them8    ,all natures1      
because they exist and therefore have   
their manner and  species and a certain 
peace with themselves1 are good2 and    

when they are  in the places belonging  
to the order of nature1 they preserve   
the being  which they have received4    
,the truest cause of the felicity of the
 good angels is to be found in  this1   
that they adhere to ,him ,who supremely 
is2 and the cause of the  misery of bad 
angels lies in this1 that they have     
turned away from ,him  ,who supremely   
is1 to themselves1 who have not supreme 
being4 ,this vice  has no other name but
 pride1 which is the beginning of every 
sin4 ,they  refused to preserve their   
strength for ,him1 and so threw away    
that in  which all their greatness      
consisted4 ,it is vain to seek for an   
efficient  cause for the bad will2 we   
have to do1 not with anything efficient1
 but  with a deficiency4 ,the mere      
defection from that which supremely is  
to  things which are on a lower grade of
 being is to begin to have a bad  will4 
,now ,god founded mankind1 not as the   
angels1 so that even did they sin  they 
should not die2 but in such a way that  

did they obey1 they should  enter1      
without death1 on a blessed eternity2   
but1 did they disobey1 they  should     
suffer the most just penalty1 both of   
body and of soul4 ,for  though the human
 soul is truly said to be immortal1 yet 
is there a sense  in which it dies when 
,god forsakes it4    ,only because they 
had begun inwardly to be evil did the   
first of mankind  fall into overt       
disobedience4 ,a bad will had preceded  
the bad action1  and of that bad will   
the beginning was pride1 or the appetite
 for an  inordinate rank4 ,to lift      
oneself up is in itself to be cast down 
and to  fall4 ,wherefore humility is    
most highly of all things commended in  
and  to the ,city of ,god1 and in       
,christ her ,king2 but the contrary vice
 of  arrogance especially rules her     
adversary1 the devil1 and this is       
unquestionably the great difference by  
which the two cities are divided1  and  
the society of the pious from the       
society of the impious4 ,thus two  loves

 have founded two cities1 the love of   
,self extending to contempt of  ,god has
 made the ,city of the ,world2 the love 
of ,god extending to  contempt of ,self 
has made the ,heavenly ,city4           
,,ii4--,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,the        
,,cities      ,this whole universal time
 or age1 in which the dying give way and
 the  newborn succeed them1 is the scene
 and history of those two cities which  
are our theme4 ,the ,city of the ,world1
 which lasts not for ever1 has its  good
 here below1 and rejoices in it with    
such joy as is possible4 ,the  objects  
of its desire are not otherwise than    
good1 and itself is the  best of the    
good things of earth4 ,it desires an    
earthly peace for lower  ends1 makes    
wars to gain this peace1 wins glorious  
victories1 and when  victory crowns a   
just cause1 who shall not acclaim the   
wished-for peace8  ,these things are    
good indeed1 and unquestionably are the 
gifts of ,god4  ,but if1 neglecting the 
better things1 which belong to the      

supernal city1  they covet these lower  
ends as if there were none higher1      
misery must  inevitably follow4    ,all 
men1 indeed1 desire peace2 but while the
 society which does not live  by faith  
seeks its peace in the temporal         
advantages of the present life1  that   
which lives by faith awaits the promised
 blessings1 and makes use  of earthly   
and temporal things only as pilgrims do4
 ,the earthly city  seeks its peace in a
 harmony of the wills of men with       
respect to the  things of this life4    
,and the heavenly city also1 or1 rather1
 that part  of it which travels in this 
mortality1 must use that earthly peace  
while  mortality remains4 ,living a     
captive life in the midst of the earthly
  city1 it does not hesitate to respect 
its laws4 ,since this mortality is      
common to both cities1 there is a       
concord between them in the things  that
 belong to it4 ,only1 the heavenly city 
cannot have common laws of  religion    
with the earthly city1 but has been     

forced to dissent1 and to  suffer hatred
 and the storms of persecution4         
,therefore1 this heavenly city1 a       
pilgrim upon earth1 calls out citizens  
from all peoples and collects a pilgrim 
society of all tongues1 careless  what  
differences there may be in manners1    
laws and institutions by which  earthly 
peace is achieved and maintained1       
destroying none of these1 but  rather   
serving and fulfilling them4 ,even the  
celestial city1 therefore1  uses the    
earthly peace1 and uses it as a means to
 the heavenly peace2  for that alone can
 be called the peace of a rational      
creature which  consists in a harmonious
 society devoted to the enjoyment of    
,god and one  another in ,god4    ,as   
for that uncertainty with regard to     
everything1 which characterises  the    
,new ,academy1 the ,city of ,god detests
 all such doubting as a form of         
madness1 since she has the most certain 
knowledge of those things which  she    
understands by mind and reason1 however 

that knowledge may be  limited by our   
corruptible body4 ,she believes also the
 evidence of the  senses1 which the mind
 uses through the body1 for he is       
miserably  deceived who regards them as 
untrustworthy4 ,she believes also the   
holy  ,scriptures1 which we call        
canonical4    ,it is no matter to the   
,city of ,god what dress the citizen    
wears1 or what  manner of life he       
follows1 so long as it is not contrary  
to the ,divine  commands2 so that she   
does not compel the philosophers1 who   
become  ,christians1 to change their    
habit or their means of life1 which are 
no  hindrance to religion1 but only     
their false opinions4 ,as for these     
three  kinds of life1 the contemplative1
 the active1 and that which partakes of 
both qualities1 although a man living in
 faith may adopt any of them1  and      
therein reach eternal reward1 yet the   
love of truth and the duties  of charity
 alike must have their place4 ,one may  
not so give himself to  contemplation as

 to neglect the good of his neighbour1  
nor be so deeply  immersed in action as 
to neglect the contemplation of ,god4   
,in leisure we  ought to delight1 not in
 an empty inertia1 but in the           
inquisition or  discovery of truth1 in  
such a way that each may make progress  
without  envying the attainments of     
another4 ,in action we ought to seek    
neither  the honours of this life nor   
power1 since all that is under the sun  
is  vanity2 but only the work itself1   
which our situation enables us to do1   
and to do it rightly and serviceably4   
,according to the definitions which     
,scipio used in ,cicero's ,republic1    
there never really existed a ,roman     
republic4 ,for he briefly defines a     
republic as the estate of the           
people--res publica as res populi1 and  
defines the people as a multitudinous   
assemblage1 united by consent to  law   
and by community of advantage4 ,so1     
then1 where justice is not1 there  can  
be no people2 and if no people1 then no 

estate of the people1 but  only of a    
confused multitude unworthy of the name 
of a people4 ,where no  justice is1     
there is no commonwealth4 ,now1 justice 
is a virtue  distributing unto everyone 
his due4 ,where1 then1 is the justice of
 the  man who deserts the true ,god and 
gives himself over to unclean demons8   
,is this giving everyone his due8       
,but if we define a people in another   
way1 and consider it as an  assemblage  
of rational beings united by unanimity  
as to the objects of  their love1 then1 
in order to ascertain the character of a
 people1 we  must ascertain what things 
they love4 ,whatever it loves1 so long  
as it  is an assemblage of rational     
creatures and not a herd of cattle1 and 
is  agreed as to the objects of its     
love1 it is truly a people1 though so   
much the better as its concord lies in  
better things1 and so much the  worse as
 its concord lies in inferior things4   
,according to this  definition1 then1   
the ,roman people is indeed a people1   

and its estate is  a commonwealth4 ,but 
what things that people has loved in its
 earlier and  later times1 and how it   
fell into bloody seditions and into     
social and  civil wars1 breaking and    
corrupting that concord which is the    
health of  a people--of these things    
history is witness4 ,yet ,i would not on
 that  account deny it the name of a    
people1 nor its estate the name of a    
republic1 so long as there remains some 
assemblage of rational persons          
associated by unanimity with regard to  
the objects of love4 ,but in  general1  
whatever be the nation in question1     
whether ,athens1 ,egypt1  ,babylon1 or  
,rome1 the city of the ungodly--refusing
 obedience to the  commandment of ,god  
that no sacrifice should be offered but 
to ,him  alone--is without true justice4
    ,for though there may be an apparent
 mastery of the soul over the body1  and
 of reason over vices1 yet if soul and  
reason do not serve ,god as ,he  has    
commanded1 they can have no true        

dominion over the body and its          
passions4 ,how can the mind which is    
ignorant of the true ,god1 and  instead 
of obeying ,him is prostituted to impure
 demons1 be true mistress  of the body  
and the vices8 ,nay1 the very virtues   
which it appears to  itself to possess1 
by which it rules the body and the vices
 in order  that it may obtain and guard 
the objects which it desires1 being     
undirected to ,god1 are rather vices    
than virtues4 ,for as that which  makes 
flesh to live is not flesh but above it1
 so that which enables man  to live in  
blessedness is not of man1 but above    
him4      ,,iii4--,,the ,,destiny ,,of  
,,the ,,just      ,who is able to tell  
of the creation1 with its beauty and    
utility1 which  ,god has set before the 
eyes of man1 though here condemned to   
labour and  sorrow8 ,the innumerable    
loveliness of sky1 earth and sea1 the   
abundance  and wonder of light1 the sun1
 moon and stars1 the shade of trees1 the
  colours and fragrance of flowers1 the 

multitude of birds of varied hue  and   
song1 the many forms of animals1 of     
which the smallest are more  wonderful  
than the greatest1 the works of bees    
more amazing than the  vast bodies of   
whales--who shall describe them8        
,what shall those rewards1 then1 be8    
,what will ,god give them whom ,he has  
predestined to life1 having given such  
great things to those whom ,he has      
predestined to death8 ,what in that     
blessed life will ,he lavish upon  those
 for whom ,he gave ,his ,son to death8  
,what will the state of man's  spirit be
 when it has become wholly free from    
vice2 yielding to none1  enslaved by    
none1 warring against none1 but         
perfectly and wholly at  peace with     
itself8    ,who can say1 or even        
imagine1 what degrees of glory shall    
there be given  to the degrees of merit8
 ,yet we cannot doubt that there will be
 degrees2  and that in that blessed city
 no one in lower place shall envy his   
superior2 for no one will wish to be    

that which he has not received1  though 
bound in closest concord with him who   
has received4 ,together with  his       
reward1 each shall have the gift of     
contentment1 so as to desire no  more   
than he has4 ,there we shall rest and   
see1 we shall see and love1 we  shall   
love and praise4 ,for what other end    
have we1 but to reach the  kingdom of   
which there is no end8           99     
99       99       99       99           
,,richard ,,baxter      ,,the ,,saints' 
,,everlasting ,,rest           ,richard 
,baxter1 the ,puritan author of one     
hundred and       sixty-eight volumes1  
of which ,the ,saints ,everlasting ,rest
       was1 and is1 the most popular1   
was born in #afae during the       reign
 of ,james ,i41 and died in #afia1 soon 
after the accession       of ,william   
,,iii4 ,his lifetime1 therefore1 was    
coincident with       the troubles of   
the ,stuart ,house4 ,for fifty years    
,baxter was       one of the best known 
divines in ,england4 ,throughout1 his   

was       a moderating influence in     
politics1 the ,church1 and theology4    
,his best known pastorate1 one of       
extraordinary success1 was at           
,kidderminster1 between his twenty-sixth
 and forty-fifth years1       and there1
 in an interlude of ill-health of more  
than       customary severity--for all  
his life he was ailing--he wrote1       
anticipatory of death1 ,the ,saints     
,everlasting ,rest4 ,the       book1    
which was dedicated to his dearly       
beloved friends the       inhabitants of
 the ,borrough and ,forreign of         
,kederminster1 was       published in   
#afej and had an immediate and almost   
unparallelled success4 ,twenty thousand 
copies were sold in the       year after
 publication1 and various editions are  
now in       circulation4 ,the          
saintliness of this broad-minded        
divine's       character emerges        
unsullied from an age of contentious    
bigotry4      ,i4--,,the ,,nature ,,of  
,,rest        ,there remaineth therefore

 a rest to the people of ,god4          
--,heb4 iv1 #i4      ,it was not only   
our interest in ,god and actual fruition
 of ,him which was  lost in ,adam's     
covenant-breaking fall1 but all         
spiritual knowledge of  ,him1 and true  
disposition towards such a felicity4    
,man hath now a heart  too suitable to  
his low estate--a low state1 and a low  
spirit4 ,and when  the ,son of ,god     
comes with tenders of a spiritual and   
eternal happiness  and glory1 ,he finds 
not faith in man to believe it2 but1 as 
the poor man  would not believe that any
 one man had such a sum as a hundred    
pounds--it was so far above what he     
possessed--so no man will hardly now    
believe that there is such a happiness  
as once he had1 much less as  ,christ   
hath now procured4    ,the ,apostle     
bestows most of his epistle against this
 distemper1 and  clearly and largely    
proves that the rest of ,sabbaths and   
,canaan should  teach men to look for   
further rest1 which indeed is their     

happiness4  ,what more welcome to men   
under personal afflictions1 tiring duty1
  successions of sufferings1 than rest8 
,what more welcome news to men  under   
public calamities1 unpleasing           
employment1 plundering losses1 sad      
tidings1 than this of rest8    ,now let 
us see what this rest is4 ,though the   
sense of the text includes  in the word 
rest all that ease and safety which a   
soul hath with  ,christ in this         
life--the rest of grace--yet because it 
chiefly intends  the rest of eternal    
glory ,i shall confine my discourse to  
this last4    ,rest is the end and      
perfection of motion4 ,the saints' rest1
 here in  question1 is the most happy   
estate of a ,christian having obtained  
the  end of his course4    ,may we show 
what this rest containeth4 ,alas6 how   
little know ,i of that  whereof ,i am   
about to speak4 ,shall ,i speak before  
,i know8 ,if ,i stay till  ,i clearly   
know ,i shall not come again to speak4  
,therefore will ,i speak  that little   

which ,i do know of it rather than be   
wholly silent4    ,there is contained in
 this rest a cessation from motion or   
action4 ,when  we have obtained the     
haven we have done with sailing2 when we
 are at our  journey's end we have done 
with the way4 ,there shall be no more   
prayer  because no more necessity1 but  
the full enjoyment of what we prayed    
for4  ,neither shall we need to fast and
 weep and watch any more1 being out of  
the reach of sin and temptations4 ,nor  
will there be use for instructions  and 
exhortations2 preaching is done2 the    
ministry of man ceaseth2  sacraments    
useless2 the labourer called in because 
the harvest is  gathered1 the tares     
burned1 the work done4    ,this rest    
containeth a perfect freedom from all   
the evils that accompany  us through our
 course1 and which necessarily follow   
our absence from the  chief good4       
,doubtless there is not such a thing as 
grief and sorrow  known there2 nor is   
there such a thing as a pale face1 a    

languid body1  feeble joints1 unable    
infancy1 decrepit age1 peccant humours1 
dolorous  sickness1 griping fears1      
consuming care1 nor whatsoever deserveth
 the  name of evil4 ,indeed1 a gale of  
groans and sighs1 a stream of tears     
accompanied us to the very gates1 and   
there bid us farewell for ever4    ,this
 rest containeth the highest degree of  
the saints' personal  perfection1 both  
of soul and body4 ,this necessarily     
qualifies them to  enjoy the glory and  
thoroughly to partake the sweetness of  
it4 ,this is  one thing that makes the  
saints' joy there so great4 ,here eye   
hath not  seen1 nor ear heard1 nor heart
 conceived what ,god hath laid up for   
them  that wait for ,him2 but there the 
eye and ear and heart are made capable1 
else how do they enjoy it8 ,the more    
perfect the appetite the sweeter the    
food2 the more musical the ear the more 
pleasant the melody2 the more  perfect  
the soul the more joyous those joys1 and
 the more glorious to us  is that glory4

    ,this rest containeth1 as the       
principal part1 our nearest fruition of 
,god1 the chiefest good4 ,and here1     
wonder not if ,i be at a loss4 ,when ,i 
know so little of ,god1 ,i cannot know  
how much it is to enjoy ,him4 ,when  it 
is so little ,i know of mine own        
soul--either its quiddity or quality1   
while it is here in this tabernacle--how
 little must ,i needs know of the       
infinite majesty1 or the state of this  
soul when it is advanced to that        
enjoyment4 ,nay1 if ,i never saw that   
creature which contains not  something  
unsearchable1 nor the worm so small     
which afforded not matter  for questions
 to puzzle the greatest philosopher that
 ever ,i met with1  no wonder if mine   
eye fail when ,i look at ,god1 my tongue
 fail me in  speaking of ,him1 and my   
heart in conceiving4 ,what strange      
conceivings  hath a man born blind of   
the sun of its light2 or a man born deaf
 of the  nature of music2 so do we want 
that sense by which ,god must be clearly

  known4 ,but this we know1 the chief   
good is for us to be near to ,god4      
,,ii4--,,how ,,the ,,saints ,,will ,,be 
,,employed      ,this rest containeth a 
sweet and constant action of all the    
powers of  the soul and body in this    
fruition of ,god4 ,it is not the rest of
 a stone  which ceaseth from motion when
 it attains the centre4 ,whether the    
external senses1 such as now we have1   
shall be continued and employed in  this
 work is a great doubt4 ,for some of    
them1 it is usually  acknowledged1 they 
shall cease1 because their being        
importeth their use1  and their use     
implieth our state of imperfection--as  
there is no use for  eating and         
drinking1 so neither for taste4 ,but do 
not all senses imply  our imperfection8 
,as the ore is cast into the fire a     
stone1 but comes  forth so pure a metal 
that it deserves another name1 so far   
greater will  the change of our body and
 senses be--even so great as now we     
cannot  conceive4 ,and1 doubtless1 as   

,god advanceth our sense and enlargeth  
our  capacity1 so will ,he advance the  
happiness of those senses1 and fill up  
with ,himself all that capacity4    ,and
 if the body shall be thus employed1 oh1
 how shall the soul be taken  up6 ,as   
the bodily senses have their proper     
aptitude and action1 so doth  the soul  
in its own action enjoy its own         
object--by knowing1 by  thinking1 by    
remembering1 by loving4 ,this is the    
soul's enjoying4    ,knowledge of itself
 is very desirable1 even the knowledge  
of some evil1  though not the evil      
itself4 ,as far as a rational soul      
exceeds the  sensitive1 so far the      
delights of a philosopher in discovering
 the  secrets of ,nature1 and knowing   
the mysteries of science1 exceed the    
delights of the glutton1 the drunkard1  
the unclean1 and of all  voluptuous     
sensualists whatsoever--so excellent is 
all truth4 ,what1  then1 is their       
delight who know the ,god of truth6     
,what would ,i not give  so that all the

 uncertain1 questionable principles in  
logic1 natural  philosophy1 metaphysics1
 and medicine were but certain in       
themselves and  to me1 that my dull1    
obscure notions of them were but quick  
and clear4  ,oh1 what then should ,i not
 either perform or part with to enjoy a 
clear  and true apprehension of the most
 true ,god6    ,how noble a faculty of  
the soul is this understanding6 ,it can 
compass  the earth2 it can measure the  
sun1 moon1 stars1 and heaven2 it can    
foreknow each eclipse to a minute many  
years before2 yea1 but the top of  all  
its excellency is that it can know ,god1
 who is infinite1 who made  all these--a
 little here1 and more1 much more1      
hereafter4 ,oh1 the wisdom  and goodness
 of our blessed ,lord6 ,he hath created 
the understanding with  a natural bias  
and inclination to truth as its object1 
and to the prime  truth as its prime    
object2 and lest we should turn aside to
 any  creature1 ,he hath kept this as   
,his own divine prerogative1 not        

communicable to any creature1 namely1 to
 be the prime truth4    ,and1 doubtless1
 memory will not be idle or useless in  
this blessed work1  if it be but by     
looking back to help the soul to value  
its enjoyment4  ,our knowledge will be  
enlarged1 not diminished2 therefore the 
knowledge  of things past shall not be  
taken away4 ,and what is that knowledge 
but a  remembrance8 ,doubtless1 from    
that height the saint can look behind   
him  and before him2 and to compare past
 with present things must needs raise   
in the blessed soul an unconceivable    
esteem and sense of its condition4  ,to 
stand on that mount whence we can see   
the wilderness and ,canaan both  at     
once2 to stand in heaven and look back  
on earth1 and weigh them  together in   
the balance of a comparing sense and    
judgment1 how must it  needs transport  
the soul and make it cry out3 ,have the 
gales of grace  blown me into such a    
harbour6 ,o1 blessed way1 and thrice    
blessed end6    ,and now if there be    

such a thing as indignation left how    
will it here  let fly3 ,o vile nature   
that resisted so much and so long such a
  blessing6 ,unworthy soul1 is this the 
place thou camest so unwillingly        
towards8 ,was duty wearisome8 ,was the  
world too good to lose8 ,didst thou     
stick at leaving all1 denying all1 and  
suffering anything for this8 ,wast  thou
 loth to die to come to this8 ,o false  
heart1 that had almost  betrayed me and 
lost me this glory6    ,but oh1 the     
full1 the near1 the sweet enjoyment is  
that of the  affections--love and joy6  
,it is near1 for love is of the essence 
of the  soul2 love is the essence of    
,god1 for ,god is love4 ,oh1 the high   
delights  of this love6 ,the content    
that the heart findeth in it6 ,surely   
love is  both work and wages4    ,but1  
alas6 my fearful heart scarce dares     
proceed4 ,methinks ,i hear the          
,almighty's voice saying to me1 as to   
,job1 ,who is this that darkeneth       
counsel by words without knowledge8 ,but

 pardon1 ,o ,lord1 ,thy servant's  sin4 
,i have not pried into unrevealed       
things1 nor with audacious wits         
curiously searched into ,thy counsels2  
but1 indeed1 ,i have dishonoured  ,thy  
,holiness1 wronged ,thine ,excellency1  
disgraced ,thy saints' glory by  my own 
exceeding disproportionate pourtraying4 
,i bewail that my  conceivings fall so  
short1 my apprehensions are so dull1 my 
thoughts so  mean1 my affections so     
stupid1 expressions so low1 and         
unbeseeming such  a glory4 ,but ,i have 
only heard by the hearing of the ear4   
,oh1 let ,thy  servant see ,thee and    
possess these joys1 and then ,i shall   
have more  suitable conceivings1 and    
shall give ,thee fuller glory6          
,,iii4--,,how ,,the ,,eternal ,,rest    
,,is ,,reached      ,having thus opened 
to you a window towards the temple1 and 
showed you a  small glimpse of the back 
parts of that resemblance of the saints'
 rest  which ,i had seen in the         
,gospel-glass1 it follows that we       

proceed to view  a little the adjuncts  
and blessed properties of this rest1 and
 first  consider the eminent            
antecedents1 the great preparations1 the
 notable  introduction to this rest2 for
 the porch of this temple is exceeding  
glorious1 and the gate of it is called  
beautiful4 ,and here offer  themselves  
to our observation as the four corners  
of this porch the most  glorious coming 
and appearing of the ,son of ,god2 ,his 
wonderful raising  of our bodies from   
the dust1 and uniting them again with   
the soul2 ,his  public and solemn       
proceedings in their judgment2 ,his     
solemn celebration  of their coronation1
 and ,his enthronising of them in their 
glory4    ,well may the coming of       
,christ be reckoned into ,his people's  
glory and  enumerated with those        
ingredients that compound this precious 
antidote  of rest1 for to this end it is
 intended1 and to this end it is of     
apparent necessity4 ,alas1 fellow       
,christians1 what should we do if our   

,lord should not return8 ,what a case   
are we here left in6 ,it cannot be2     
never fear it1 it cannot be4 ,and ,o1   
fellow-,christians1 what a day will     
that be when we1 who have been kept     
prisoners by sin and the grave1  shall  
be fetched out by the ,lord ,himself6   
,it will not be such a coming  as ,his  
first was--in meanness and poverty and  
contempt4 ,he will not  come1 ,o        
careless world1 to be slighted and      
neglected by you any more4 ,to  think   
and speak of that day with horror doth  
well beseem the impenitent  sinner1 but 
ill the believing saint4 ,how full of   
joy was that blessed  martyr ,mr4       
,glover1 with the discovery of ,christ  
to his soul1 after long  doubting and   
waiting in sorrow1 so that he cries out3
 ,he is come6 ,he is  come6 ,if thou    
have but a dear friend returned1 that   
hath been far and  long absent1 how do  
all run out to meet him with joy6 ,oh1  
said the  child1 ,my father is come6    
,saith the wife1 ,my husband is come6   

,and  shall not we1 when we behold our  
,lord in ,his majesty returning1 cry    
out3  ,he is come6 ,he is come6    ,the 
second stream that leadeth to ,paradise 
is that great work of ,jesus  ,christ in
 raising our bodies from the dust and   
uniting them again unto  the soul4 ,a   
wonderful effect of infinite power and  
love4 ,yea1 wonderful  indeed1 saith    
unbelief1 if it be true4 ,what1 saith   
the ,atheist and  ,sadducee1 shall all  
these scattered bones and dust become a 
man8 ,a man  drowned in the sea is eaten
 by fishes1 and they by men again1 and  
these  men by worms4 ,what is to become 
of the body of that first man8 ,shall it
  rise again8 ,thou fool--for so ,paul  
calls thee--dost thou dispute  against  
the power of the ,almighty8 ,wilt thou  
pose him with thy  sophistry8 ,dost thou
 object difficulties to infinite        
strength8 ,thou  blind mole1 thou silly 
worm2 thou little piece of creeping1    
breathing  clay2 thou dust1 thou        
nothing1 knowest thou who it is whose   

power thou  dost question8 ,if thou     
shouldst see ,him1 thou wouldst         
presently die4 ,if  ,he should come and 
dispute ,his cause with thee1 couldst   
thou bear it8 ,if  thou shouldst hear   
,his voice1 couldst thou endure8        
,come then1 fellow-,christians1 let us  
contentedly commit these carcasses  to  
the dust1 knowing that prison shall not 
long contain them4 ,let us lie  down in 
peace and take our rest2 it will not be 
an everlasting night or  endless sleep4 
,as sure as we awake in the morning when
 we have slept out  the night1 so sure  
shall we then awake4 ,what if our       
carcasses become as  vile as those of   
the beasts that perish1 what if our     
bones are digged up  and scattered about
 the pit brink1 and worms consume our   
flesh1 yet we  know that our ,redeemer  
liveth1 and shall stand at the last on  
earth1 and  we shall see ,him with these
 eyes4    ,the third part of this       
prologue to the saints' rest is the     
public and  solemn process at their     

judgment4 ,o terrible1 ,o joyful day6   
,then shall  the world behold the       
goodness and the severity of the        
,lord--on them who  perish1 severity2   
but to ,his chosen1 goodness4 ,then1    
fellow-,christians1  let the terror of  
that day be never so great1 surely our  
,lord can mean  no ill to us4    ,the   
fourth antecedent and highest step to   
the saints' advancement is  their solemn
 coronation1 enthronising and receiving 
into the kingdom4  ,they that have been 
faithful unto death shall receive the   
crown of life1  and according to the    
improvement of their talents here so    
shall their  rule and dignity be        
enlarged4      ,,iv4--,,excellences ,,of
 ,,the ,,eternal ,,rest      ,a         
comfortable adjunct of this rest is the 
fellowship of the blessed  saints and   
angels of ,god4 ,oh1 when ,i look in the
 faces of the precious  people of ,god1 
and believing1 think of this day1 what a
 refreshing  thought is it6 ,shall we   
not there remember1 think you1 the pikes

 which  we passed through here2 our     
fellowship in duty and in sufferings2   
how  oft our groans made as it were one 
sound1 our conjunct tears but one       
stream1 and our conjunct desires but one
 prayer4 ,and now all our praises  shall
 make up one melody1 and all our        
churches one church2 and all  ourselves 
but one body2 for we shall be one in    
,christ1 even as ,he and  the ,father   
are one4    ,it is a question with some 
whether we shall know each other in     
heaven or  no4 ,surely there shall no   
knowledge cease which we now have1 but  
only  that which implieth imperfection6 
,and what imperfection can this imply8  
,nay1 our present knowledge shall be    
increased beyond belief4 ,it shall be   
done away1 but as the light of candles  
and stars is done away by the  rising of
 the sun1 which is more properly a doing
 away of our ignorance  than of our     
knowledge4 ,indeed1 we shall not know   
each other after the  flesh2 nor by     
stature1 voice1 colour1 complexion1     

visage1 or outward  shape1 but by the   
image of ,christ and spiritual relation1
 and former  faithfulness in improving  
our talents we shall know and be known4 
,again1 a further excellence is this--it
 will be unto us a seasonable  rest4    
,when we have passed a long and tedious 
journey1 and that through  no small     
dangers1 is not home then seasonable8   
,when we have had a long  and perilous  
war1 and have lived in the midst of     
furious enemies1 and  have been forced  
to stand on a perpetual watch1 and      
received from them  many a wound1 would 
not a peace with victory be now         
seasonable8 ,some are  complaining under
 the pressure of the times--weary of    
their taxes1 weary  of their            
quarterings1 weary of plunderings1 weary
 of their fears and  dangers1 weary of  
their poverty and wants1 and is not rest
 yet  seasonable8 ,some of us languish  
under continual weakness1 and groan     
under most grievous pains1 weary of     
going1 weary of sitting1 weary of       

standing1 weary of lying1 weary of      
eating1 weary of speaking1 weary of     
waking1 weary of our very friends1 weary
 of ourselves4 ,oh1 how oft hath  this  
been mine own case--and is not rest yet 
seasonable8    ,a further excellence is 
that this is a suitable rest4 ,gold and 
earthly  glory1 temporal crowns and     
kingdoms could not make rest for saints4
 ,such  as their nature and desire such 
will be their rest4    ,it will1 too1 be
 absolutely perfect and complete--as    
there is no  mixture of our corruption  
with our graces1 so there will be no    
mixture  of our sufferings with our     
solace4 ,we shall know which was the    
right  side and which the wrong4 ,then  
shall our understandings receive their  
light from the face of ,god1 as the full
 moon from the open sun when  there is  
no earth to interpose betwixt them4 ,it 
is a perfect rest from  perplexing      
doubts and fear1 from all sense of      
,god's displeasure1 from  all the       
temptations of ,satan1 the world1 and   

the flesh4 ,and it is an  eternal rest4 
,this is the crown of our crown4        
,mortality is the  disgrace of all      
sublunary delights4 ,but1 ,o blessed    
eternity1 where our  lives are perplexed
 by no such thoughts1 nor our joys      
interrupted by any  such fears6 ,our    
first paradise in ,eden had a way out1  
but none in again2  but this eternal    
paradise hath a way in1 but no way out  
again4 ,the ,lord  heal our carnal      
hearts lest we enter not into ,his      
eternal rest because  of our unbelief4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,,book ,,of ,,the ,,dead           ,this
 is probably the oldest religious book  
in the world4       ,properly speaking1 
indeed1 it is no book at all1 but rather
 a       collection of hymns and        
litanies which have no more connection  
with each other than the ,psalms4 ,like 
the ,psalter1 too1 this       so-called 
book has grown by degrees to the        
magnitude which it       now usually    
assumes in ,european and other          

libraries--#age       chapters of       
varying sizes4 ,its ,egyptian name is   
,the ,book of       the ,coming ,forth  
by ,day 7,renouf71 or ,the ,coming ,out 
of the       ,day 7,naville72 the latter
 being probably more correct1 day       
in this connection denoting man's life  
with its morning and       evening4 ,the
 hymns in this collection are supposed  
to be       recited by the deceased     
person with whose body they were        
commonly buried1 and by the recital of  
these and other sacred       texts the  
departed was believed to be protected   
against injury       in his journey to  
the underworld1 and also to have secured
 for       him a safe return in the form
 of a resurrection4 ,it was             
,lepsius1 the great ,german             
,egyptologist1 who gave this            
compilation the name ,book of the ,dead4
 ,even this name1       however1 though 
more correct than any other1 gives by no
 means       an adequate account of that
 for which it stands4 ,this1 and        

other summaries of the sacred books of  
the ,east appearing in       ,,the      
,,world',s ,,greatest ,,books present in
 quite original ways the       systems  
and philosophies of the great           
non-,christian religions4               
,,introductory      ,the ,book of the   
,dead may be described as the soul's    
vade mecum in the  journey from this    
world4 ,it prescribes the forms the soul
 must have at  command in order to ward 
off the dangers on the way to the       
underworld1  during residence in the    
world1 and on the journey back4    ,the 
ancient ,egyptians considered this book 
as inspired by the gods1 who  caused    
their scribe1 ,thoth1 to write it down4 
,every chapter is supposed  to exist for
 the sake of persons who have died4     
,sometimes chapters had  to be recited  
before the body was put down out of     
sight4 ,often a  chapter1 or more than  
one1 was inscribed on the coffin1 or    
sarcophagus1  or mummy wrappings1 this  
being thought a sure protection against 

foes of  every kind4    ,this collection
 has been chiefly found written on      
papyrus in  hieroglyphic or hieratic    
characters on coffins1 mummies1         
sepulchral  wrappings1 statues1 and on  
the walls of tombs4 ,complete copies    
have been  found written on tombs of the
 time of the #bfth ,dynasty 7about #hjj 
,b4,c474    ,there are many recensions1 
or editions1 in the various libraries of
  ,europe and also in the ,east1 and no 
two of them are identical in the  text4 
,lepsius translated from the ,turin     
papyrus2 ,budge bases his  translations 
on what is called the ,theban recension4
 ,but in all the text  is exceedingly   
corrupt1 and translation is often no    
more than a guess4  ,owing to the number
 of proper names and technical terms    
which we have no  means of              
understanding1 it is often quite        
impossible to know the drift  of large  
paragraphs1 and even of whole chapters4 
,since many of the  chapters were       
treated merely as having a magical      

efficacy either when  recited or when   
inscribed on something buried with the  
body1 it was of  small consequence      
whether or not the words were           
understood4 ,the bare  recital or       
writing of names of gods1 etc41 had a   
magical efficacy  according to the      
people who counted the ,book of the     
,dead their sacred  scriptures4    ,as  
regards date1 the greater number of the 
hymns and prayers were  recited by the  
people of ,egypt on behalf of their     
deceased friends  before the first      
dynasty had begun to reign4 ,birch says 
before #cjjj ,b4,c4  ,the hymns and     
prayers were first of all preserved in  
the memory only1  and their number was  
at an early time but small4 ,they were  
written down  when the priests had      
doubts with regard to the meaning of    
certain terms1  and wished to hand them 
on unimpaired to posterity1 being       
influenced by  the belief that the words
 of this sacred book were1 as such1     
magically  potent4 ,the oldest extant   

papyrus containing the ,book of the     
,dead  belongs to the #ahth ,dynasty1   
i4e41 about #aejj ,b4,c42 but we do not 
come  across a complete copy1 with the  
chapters collected and set in order     
much as they are to-day1 until the #bfth
 ,dynasty 7about the #gth century       
,b4,c474 ,previous to this the chapters 
seem to have been put together with  no 
regard to order2 probably they existed  
on different papyri1 which  were used as
 occasion required4 ,commonly they would
 be sold1 and for  that purpose stored  
up4    ,the translations which can be   
recommended to students are those by    
,renouf1 with text and notes2 ,budge1   
with text and notes2 and that by        
,c4,h4,s4 ,davis1 ,u4,s4,a4 7based on   
,pirre74 ,all these editions include the
  vignettes1 which are very helpful in  
understanding the text4      ,i4--,,the 
,,scribe ,,ani ,,pleads ,,with ,,osiris 
,,through ,,thoth ,,for ,,admission ,,to
  ,,the ,,underworld ,,and ,,for ,a     
,,safe ,,evit 7,,resurrection7          

7,osiris7#a ,ani the ,scribe says3      
,praise be to thee1 ,osiris ,bull so he 
was often represented4 ,o ,amentet the  
lower world the eternal king is  here to
 put words into my mouth4 ,i am ,thoth1 
the great god in the sacred  book1 who  
fought for thee4 ,i am one of the great 
gods that fought on  behalf of ,osiris4 
,ra1 the sun-,god1 commanded            
me--,thoth--to do battle on  the earth  
for the wronged ,osiris1 and ,i obeyed4 
,i am among them moreover  who wait over
 ,osiris1 now king of the underworld4   
,i am with ,horus1 son of ,osiris1 on   
the day when the great feast of  ,osiris
 is kept4 ,i am the priest pouring forth
 libations at ,tattu1 ,i am  the prophet
 in ,abydos4 ,i am here1 ,o ye that     
bring perfected souls into  the abode of
 ,osiris1 bring ye the perfected soul of
 7,osiris7 the ,scribe  ,ani1 into the  
blissful home of ,osiris4 ,let him see1 
hear1 stand1 and sit  as ye do in the   
home of ,osiris4    ,o ye who give cakes
 and ale to perfected souls1 give ye at 

morn and at  eve cakes and ale to the   
soul of ,ani the ,scribe4    ,o ye who  
open the way and prepare the paths to   
the abode of ,osiris1 open  the way and 
prepare the path that the soul of       
7,osiris7 ,ani the ,scribe  may enter in
 confidence and come forth on the       
resurrection  victoriously4 ,may he not 
be turned back1 may he enter and come   
forth2  for he has been weighed in the  
scale and is not lacking4#b             
,,ii4--,,the ,,prayer ,,of ,,ani ,,the  
,,scribe      ,the chapter about coming 
forth by day and living after death4    
,says 7,osiris7 ,ani3 ,o thou1 only     
shining one of the moon2 let me1        
departing from the crowd on earth1 find 
entrance into the abode of  shades4     
,open then for me the door to the       
underworld1 and at length let  me come  
back to earth and perform my part among 
men4    ,a chapter whereby the funeral  
statuettes 7,shabti7 may be made to work
  for a man in the underworld4#c    ,o  
thou statuette there6 ,if in the        

underworld ,i shall be called upon to   
perform any tasks1 be thou my           
representative and act for me--planting 
and sowing fields1 watering the soil and
 carrying the sands of ,east and  ,west4
    ,a chapter concerning the piercing  
of the back of ,apepi4#d    ,tur1 the   
overseer of the houses1 says through his
 god ,tmu3 ,o thou wax  one#e who takest
 thy victims captive and destroyest     
them1 who preyest  upon the weak and    
helpless1 may ,i never be thy victim2   
may ,i never  suffer collapse before    
thee4 ,may the venom never enter my     
limbs1 which  are as those of the god   
,tmu4 ,o let not the pains of death1    
which have  reached thee2 come upon me4 
,i am the god ,tmu1 living in the       
foremost  part of ,tur the sky4 ,i am   
the only one in the primordial water4 ,i
 have  many mysterious names1 and       
provide myself a dwelling to endure     
millions  of years4 ,i was born of ,tmu1
 and ,i am safe and sound4    ,about    
contending against fever with the shield

 of truth and good  conduct4    ,says   
7,osiris7 ,ani3 ,i go forth against my  
foes endowed with the defence  of truth 
and good conduct4 ,i cross the heavens1 
and traverse the earth4  ,though a      
denizen of the underworld1 ,i tread the 
earth like one alive1  following in the 
footsteps of the blessed spirits4 ,i    
have the gift of  living a million      
years4 ,i eat with my mouth and chew    
with my jaw1  because ,i worship him who
 is master of the lower world4          
,,iii4--,,nu ,,praises ,,ra 7,,the      
,,sun-,,god7 ,,for ,,his ,,ability ,,to 
,,go ,,down ,,into ,,the  ,,grave ,,and 
,,return ,,to ,,earth ,,through ,,the   
,,magic ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,sacred       
,,texts      ,about entering the        
underworld and coming forth therefrom4  
,nu says3 ,i cry aloud to thee1 ,o ,ra1 
thou guardian of the secret portals  of 
,seb the grave1 which leads to where ,ra
 in the underworld holds the  balance   
which weighs every man's righteousness  
every day4 ,i have burst  the earth     

returned to earth2 grant that ,i may    
remain on to a good old  age4           
,,iv4--,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,the        
,,scribe ,,mesemneter ,,prays ,,that    
,,some ,,offended ,,god  ,,may ,,be     
,,conciliated      ,about removing the  
anger of the god towards the departed   
one4    ,the scribe ,mesemneter1 chief  
deputy of ,amon1 says3 ,praise be to    
thee1 ,o  ,god1 who makest the moments  
to glide by1 who guardest the secrets of
 the  life beyond that of the earth1 and
 guidest me when ,i utter words4 ,the   
god is angered against me4 ,but let my  
faults be wasted away1 and let the  god 
of ,right and ,truth bear them upon me4 
,remove them wholly from me1 ,o  god of 
,right and ,truth4 ,let the offended one
 be at peace with me4 ,remove  the wall 
of separation from before us4    ,a hymn
 to ,ra at his rising and setting4      
7,osiris7 the scribe says3 ,praise to   
thee1 ,o ,ra1 when thou risest4 ,shine  
thou upon my face4 ,let me arise with   
thee into the heavens1 and travel  with 

thee in the boat wherein thou sailest on
 the clouds4    ,thou passest in peace  
across the heavens1 and art victorious  
over all  thy foes4    ,praise to thee  
who art ,ra when thou risest1 and ,tmu  
when in beauty thou  settest4 ,the      
dwellers in the land of night come forth
 to see thee ascend  the sky4 ,i1 too1  
would join the throng2 ,o let me not be 
held back4    ,hymn of praise to        
,osiris4    ,praise be unto thee1       
,osiris1 lord of eternity1 who appearest
 in many  guises1 and whose attributes  
are glorious4    ,thou lookest towards  
the underworld and causest the earth to 
shine as  with gold4    ,the dead rise  
up to gaze on thy face2 their hearts are
 at peace if they  but look on thee4    
,v4--,,litany ,,to ,,osiris             
,prayer4 ,praise to thee1 ,o lord of the
 starry gods of ,annu1 more  glorious   
than the gods hidden in ,annu4          
,answer 7repeated after each prayer74   
,grant thou me a peaceful life1  for ,i 
am truthful and just4 ,i have uttered no

 falsehoods nor acted  deceitfully4     
,prayer4 ,praise to thee1 ,o ,ani2 with 
thy long strides movest thou  across the
 heavens4    ,prayer4 ,praise to thee1  
,o thou who art mighty in thy hour1     
great and  mighty prince1 lord and      
creator of eternity4    ,prayer4 ,praise
 to those whose throne is ,right and    
,truth1 who hatest  fraud and deceit4   
,prayer4 ,praise to thee who bringest   
,hapi the ,nile2 in thy boat from  his  
source4    ,prayer4 ,praise to thee1 ,o 
creator of the gods1 thou king of the   
,north  and the ,south4 ,o ,osiris1 the 
all-conquering one1 ruler of the world1 
lord of the heavens4      ,,vi4--,,hymn 
,,of ,,praise ,,to ,,the ,,setting ,,sun
      ,about the mystery of the         
underworld and about travelling through 
the  underworld4    ,when he sets on the
 underworld the gods adore him4 ,the    
great god ,ra  rises with two eyes sun  
and moon2 all the seven gods 7,kuas7    
welcome  him in the evening into the    
underworld4 ,they sing his praises1     

calling  him ,tmu4 ,the deceased one    
says1 ,praise be to thee1 ,o ,ra1 praise
 be to  thee1 ,o ,tmu4 ,thou hast risen 
and put on strength1 and thou settest in
  glorious splendour into the           
underworld4 ,thou sailest in thy boat   
across  the heavens1 and thou           
establisheth the earth4 ,east and ,west 
adore thee1  bowing and doing homage to 
thee day and night4      ,,vii4--,,about
 ,,the ,,resurrection1 ,,or ,,the       
,,coming ,,back ,,to ,,life 7,,day71    
,,of  ,,departed ,,shades4      ,this is
 one of the oldest 7cir4 ,b4,c4 #bgjj7  
and most remarkable  chapters1 though   
also one of the hardest to follow in its
 details4 ,the  vignettes reproduced in 
the editions of ,davis1 ,renouf1 and    
,budge help  considerably in following  
the line of thought4 ,an exact copy of  
this  chapter has been found on the tomb
 of ,horhotep4    ,the soul of the      
deceased encounters all manner of       
obstacles and  opponents in the attempt 
to pass to the upper air1 and he seeks  

constantly the help of ,ra1 etc41 that  
he may be victorious4    ,of the praises
 of entering the lower world and of     
coming out4    7,osiris7 the scribe ,ani
 says it is a good and profitable thing 
on earth  for a man to recite this text1
 since all the words written herein     
shall  come to pass4    ,i am ,ra1 who  
at my rising rule all things4 ,i am the 
great self-made god4    ,i am yesterday 
and to-morrow4 ,i gave the command1 and 
a scene of strife  among the gods arose 
i4e41 the sun awakened all the forces of
 ,nature  into action4 ,what is this8   
,it is ,amentet1 the underworld4        
,what is this8 ,the horizon of my father
 ,tmu the setting sun4 ,all of my       
failings are now supplied1 my sins      
cleansed as ,i pass through the two     
lakes which purify the offences which   
men offer the gods4    ,i advance on the
 path1 descending to the realm of       
,osiris1 passing  through the gate      
,teser4 ,o all ye who have passed this  
way in safety1 let  me grasp your hands 

and be brought to your abode4    ,o ye  
divine powers of ,maert1 the sworn foes 
of falsehood1 may ,i come to  you4    ,i
 am the great ,cat i4e41 ,ra himself1   
and therefore in his name which  ,i     
bear1 ,i can tread on all my enemies4 ,o
 great ,ra1 who climbest the  heavenly  
vaults and who sailest in thy boat      
across the firmament with  undisputed   
authority1 do thou save me from that    
austere god whose  eyebrows are as      
menacing as the balance that weighs the 
deeds of men4  ,save me1 ,i pray thee1  
from these guardians of the passages who
 will1 if  they-may1 impede my progress4
 ,o ,tmu1 who livest in the august      
abode1 god  of gods1 who thrivest upon  
damned souls1 thou dog-faced1           
human-skinned  one1 devourer of shades1 
digester of human hearts1 ,o fearful    
one1 save  me from the great soul-foe   
who gnaws and destroys shades of men4   
,o ,chepera in thy bark1 save me from   
the testing guardians into whose  charge
 the glorious inviolate god has         

committed his foes2 deliver thou  me4   
,may these never undo me1 may ,i never  
fall helpless into the chambers  of     
torture4 ,o ye gods1 in the presence of 
,osiris1 reach1 forth your  arms1 for ,i
 am one of the gods in your midst4      
,the 7,osiris7 ,ani flies away like a   
hawk1 he clucks like a goose1 he is     
safe from destruction as the serpent    
,nehebkau4 ,avaunt1 ye lions that       
obstruct my path4 ,o ,ra1 thou ascending
 one1 let me rise with thee1 and  have a
 triumphant arrival to my old earthly   
abode4      ,,viii4--,a ,,litany        
,,addressed ,,to ,,thoth      ,the      
speech of ,ammautef1 the priest3    ,i  
have come to you1 ye gods of heaven1    
earth1 and the underworld1  bringing    
with me ,ani1 the scribe1 who has done  
no wrong against any  gods1 so that ye  
may protect him and give him good-speed 
to the  underworld4    ,the speech of   
,ani himself3    ,praise be to thee1 ,o 
thou ruler of ,amenta1 ,unneferu1 who   
presides in  ,abydos4 ,i have come to   

thee with a pure heart1 free from sin4  
,i have  told no falsehoods nor acted   
deceitfully4 ,give thou me in the tomb  
the  food ,i need for the journey1 so   
let me have a safe entrance to the      
underworld and a sure exit4    ,the     
speech of the priest ,samerif3    ,i    
come to the gods residing at ,restau4 ,i
 have brought you 7,osiris7 ,ani2  grant
 him bread1 water1 and air1 and also an 
abode in the ,sechithotepu  ,field of   
,peace4    ,the speech of ,ani himself3 
,praise be to ,osiris1 everlasting lord1
 and to the gods of ,restau4 ,i come  to
 thee knowing thy goodwill and having   
learned those rites which thou          
requirest for entrance into the lower   
world4 ,may ,i have a safe arrival1  and
 find food in thy presence4    ,litany  
to ,thoth3    ,o thou who makest ,osiris
 triumphant over his foes1 make thou    
this scribe  ,nebenseri victorious over 
his foes4    ,o ,thoth1 make ,ani       
triumphant over his enemies1 etc41 etc4 
,if this chapter is recited over the    

deceased he shall come forth into  the  
day and pass through the transformations
 which the departed one  desires4       
,,ix4--,a ,,magical ,,chapter           
,chapter of the ,crown of ,triumph4     
,thy father ,tmu has made thee this     
beautiful crown as a magical charm so   
that thou mayest live for ever4 ,thy    
father ,seb gives thee his  inheritance4
 ,osiris1 the prince of ,amenta1 makes  
thee victorious over  thy foes4 ,go thou
 as ,horus1 son of ,isis and ,osiris1   
and triumph ever on  thy way to the     
underworld4    ,yea 7,osiris7 ,aufankh  
shall1 through this recited text1 live  
and triumph  for ever and ever4 ,horus  
repeated these words four times1 and his
  enemies fell headlong4 ,and 7,osiris7 
,aufankh has repeated these words  four 
times1 so let him be victorious4        
,this chapter is to be recited over a   
consecrated crown placed over the  face 
of the deceased1 and thou shalt cast    
incense into the flame on  behalf of    
7,osiris7 ,aufankh1 so securing triumph 

over all his foes4 ,and  food and drink 
shall in the underworld be reached him  
in the presence of  ,osiris its king4   
,chapter about making the deceased      
remember his name in the underworld4    
,nu triumphant1 son of ,amen-hotep1     
says3 ,let me remember my name in the   
great ,house below on the night when    
years are counted and months are        
reckoned up4 ,if any god come to me1 let
 me at once be able to utter his  name#f
 and thus disarm him4    ,a chapter     
about not letting the heart of the      
deceased act against him  in the        
underworld4    ,my heart1 received from 
my mother1 my heart1 without which life 
on earth  was not possible1 rise then   
not up against me in the presence of the
  gods in the great day of judgment when
 human thoughts1 words1 and acts  shall 
all be weighed in a balance4    ,these  
words are to be inscribed on a hard     
green1 gold-coated scarab1  which is to 
be inserted through the mouth into the  
bosom of the  deceased4    ,chapter     

about repelling the ass-eater#g4        
,avaunt6 serpent ,hai1 impure one1 hater
 of ,osiris4 ,get thee back1 for  ,thoth
 has cut off thy head4 ,let alone the   
ass1 that ,i may have clear  skies when 
,i cross to the underworld in the       
,neshmet boat4 ,i am guiltless  before  
the gods1 and have wronged none4 ,so    
avaunt6 thou sun-beclouding  one1 and   
let me have a prosperous voyage4        
,chapter about reserving for the        
deceased his seat in the underworld4    
,nu says3 ,my seat1 my throne1 come ye  
to me1 surround me1 divine ones4 ,i  am 
a mummy-shaped person4 ,o grant that ,i 
may become like the great god1          
successful1 having seat and throne4     
,a chapter about coming forth by day    
from the underworld 7i4e41 the          
resurrection74    ,one of the very      
oldest chapters in the ,book of the     
,dead1 as old at  least as the first    
dynasty1 say #dejj ,b4,c4 ,no chapter   
was regarded with  greater reverence1 or
 recited or copied with more confidence 

in its  efficacy1 probably because it is
 a summing up of the important chapters 
on the coming forth by day from the     
underworld4 ,he who knows this  chapter 
by heart is safe against danger in this 
world and in all other  abodes4         
,nebseni1 lord of reverence1 says3 ,i am
 yesterday and know to-morrow4 ,i  am   
able to be born again4 ,here is the     
invisible force which creates gods  and 
gives food to denizens of the           
underworld4 ,i go as a messenger to     
,osiris4    ,o goddess ,aucherit1 grant 
that ,i may come forth from the         
underworld to  see ,ra's blazing orb4 ,o
 thou conductor of shades1 let me have a
 fair  path to the underworld and a sure
 arrival4 ,may ,i be defended against   
all  opposing powers4 ,may the cycle of 
gods listen to me and grant my request  
99       99       99       99       99  
,,books ,,of ,,brahmanism               
,,introductory           ,the religion  
of the ancient ,persians and of the     
ancient ,aryan       ,indians was at one

 time the same1 and it is easy now to   
see       the common basis of the       
beliefs and practices embodied in the   
,hindu ,vedas and the ,zend ,avesta 7see
 ,,zoroastrianism71 and       their     
general resemblance4 ,the religion of   
the ancient ,aryan       ,indians has   
passed through three outstanding phases1
       designated by modern scholars3   
,vedism1 or that taught by the          
,vedas2 ,brahmanism1 based on the       
,brahmans1 or ritual additions       to 
the ,vedas2 and ,hinduism 7q4v471 the   
form which revived       ,brahmanism    
took after the expulsion of ,buddhism4  
,though the       latter is strictly an 
,indian religion1 judged by its origin  
and characteristic features1 it has for 
centuries almost       ceased to exist  
in ,india proper4 ,it will be found     
generally       true that in ,brahmanism
 there is1 as compared with ,vedism1 an 
increase of the ritual1 and a           
corresponding decrease of the           
moral element4 ,the gods become more    

material1 and the means of              
conciliating them ceremonial and        
magical4 ,so also there is a            
growth in the power of the priesthood4  
,one may compare this       with the    
course of development among the         
,hebrews--the ritual       and          
ceremonial bulking more and more1 and   
the ethical       receding1 according to
 most modern scholars4 ,it has to be    
remembered carefully1 however1 that the 
distinction between       ,vedism1      
,brahmanism1 and ,hinduism is more      
logical than actual4       ,the seeds of
 ,hinduism1 even the doctrine of caste1 
may be       traced in the ,rig ,veda1  
and a modern orthodox4 ,hindu will tell 
you that his principal scriptures are   
the ,vedas1 and that his       creed and
 practice have their source in these    
scriptures4       ,brahmanism may be    
represented as a system of law and      
custom in       the ,laws of ,manu2 as a
 philosophy in the ,upanishads2 and as a
       mythology in the ,ramayana and   

,mahabharata4      ,,mahabharata        
,the word ,mahabharata means ,the ,great
 ,bharata1 the name of a  well-known    
people in ancient ,india4 ,the epic so  
called is a very long  one1 containing  
at least #bbj1jjj lengthy lines4 ,it is 
really an  encyclopaedia of ,hindu      
history1 legend1 mythology1 and         
philosophy4  ,four-fifths of the poem   
consist of episodes1 some of them very  
beautiful1 as the tale of ,nala and his 
wife ,damayanti4 ,these have no  primary
 connection with the original1 though   
they are worked in so  deftly as to make
 the whole appear a splendid unity4 ,for
 pathos1  sublimity1 and matchless      
language1 no poem in the world exceeds  
this  one4    ,it is arranged in        
eighteen books1 all of which claim to   
have been  composed by ,vyasa--another  
name for the god ,krishna--who is said  
also in  the course of the epic to have 
composed the ,vedas and the ,puranas4   
,this  is1 of course1 mythology1 and not
 literary history4    ,the historical   

nucleus underlying this poem is the     
conflict which raged  in ancient ,india 
between two neighbouring tribes1 the    
,kurus 7or  ,kauravas7 and the          
,pandavas4 ,but this is worked up into  
another long tale  into which and around
 which ,brahman teachers and            
philosophers have woven  a very network 
of religious1 theosophic1 and           
philosophic speculation4  ,the tale is1 
in fact1 made a vehicle for teaching    
,brahman ism as it  existed in ,india in
 the first five centuries of our era1   
though much of  the ,mahabharata goes   
back to a thousand years or so ,b4,c4   
,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,epic      ,the   
descendants of ,bharata1 the king of    
,hastinapura1 about sixty miles  north  
of ,delhi1 were divided into two        
branches1 the ,kauravas and the         
,pandavas1 each of which occupied the   
territory which had come down to it  by 
inheritance4 ,they lived together in    
peace and prosperity1 worshipping  the  
gods1 studying the ,vedas1 and spending 

much time in meditation about  higher   
things4 ,but there came a change for the
 worse4 ,the ,kauravas1 not  content    
with their own territory1 looked with   
jealous eyes upon that of  their        
kinsmen1 the ,pandavas4 ,soon their     
covetousness realised itself in  action1
 for gathering their armed men together1
 they sprang suddenly  upon the land of 
their neighbours1 whom they disarmed    
previously by  professions of friendship
 and goodwill ,the ,pandavas were       
conquered and  driven into a far        
country1 where they wandered homelessly 
and yet filled  with undying love for   
the old home of their fathers and with a
 resolve  to regain at the first        
opportunity their ancestral territory4  
,with the help of as many princes and   
generals as they could win to their     
side they marched towards the land which
 they had lost1 taking back by  force   
what had been wrested from them by      
force4 ,the two armies met face  to face
 on the field of ,kurukshetra 7land of  

the ,kurus71 and the battle1  which     
lasted eighteen days1 was about to      
begin4 ,the father and king of  the     
,kauravas1 called ,dhritarashtra1 aged  
and blind1 felt that he could  not stand
 to witness the bloody affray4 ,he      
accordingly accepted the  offer of      
,vyasa 7,krishna71 a relative of both   
the contending parties1 to  have the    
entire course of events described to him
 when all was over1 one  ,sangara1 being
 deputed to perform the task4 ,the      
battle began and  proceeded for ten long
 days when ,bhrisma1 the chief general  
of the  ,kauravas1 fell4    ,at this    
point ,sangara advanced to the old ,king
 ,dhritarashtra to acquaint  him with   
the course things had taken1 and among  
the rest to recite to  him a            
conversation which had taken place      
between ,krishna and ,arguna1 the       
,pandavan prince and general4 ,it is    
this dialogue which constitutes the     
,holy ,song1 known as the               
,bhagavad-,gita1 or ,krishna ,song1 the 

,krishna of  this philosophic poem      
being1 of course1 the eighth avatara2 or
  incarnation1 of ,vishnu4    ,the      
remaining books of the ,mahabharata     
recount the subsequent incidents  of the
 war1 which1 in all1 lasted for eighteen
 days4 ,the ,kauravas were  destroyed1  
the only survivors being the ,pandavas  
and ,krishna with his  charioteer4 ,the 
many dead that were left on the field   
were buried with  the rites of religion1
 and amid many signs of touching        
affection and  grief4    ,bhrisma1      
leader of the ,kauravas1 instructs      
,yudhishthira on the duties of  kings   
and other topics4 ,the poem then ends4  
,,the ,,bhagavad-,,gita1 ,,or ,,holy    
,,song ,,of ,,brahmanism      ,this poem
 forms one of the finest episodes in the
 great ,iliad of ,india1  and1 in fact1 
is hardly surpassed for profound        
thought1 deep feeling1  and exquisite   
phrasing1 in the whole literature of    
,india4 ,telang holds  that the song is 
at least as old as the #dth century1 and

 is inclined to  regard it as an        
original part of the epic4 ,according to
 most scholars1  however1 the ,divine   
,song was added at a later period1 and1 
in fact1 in  its present form it is     
scarcely older than #ejj ,a4,d4 ,it is  
so thoroughly  ,brahmanic in its        
teaching that there can be little doubt 
but that this  song was introduced in   
order to convey the teaching of         
,brahmanism  prevalent at the time4 ,the
 ,german scholar1 ,dr4 ,lorinser1 has   
tried to  prove that the author of this 
song had a knowledge of the ,new        
,testament  and used it4 ,the following 
passages are pointed out by him as      
dependent  on ,new ,testament passages4 
,,bhagavad-,,gita        ,i am          
exceedingly dear to the      wise man2  
he also is dear      to me4        ,i am
 the way1 supporter1      lord1 witness1
 abode1 refuge1      friend4        ,i  
never depart from him 7the      true    
,yogis72 he never departs      from me4 
,they who worship me with      true     

devotion1 are in me      and ,i in them4
        ,be assured that he who worships
      me perishes not4        ,i am the 
beginning and the      middle and the   
end of existent      things4        ,i  
will deliver thee from all      sin2 do 
not grieve4        ,he who knows me as  
unborn      and without beginning1 the  
mighty ,lord of the ,world1      he     
among mortals is undeluded1      he is  
delivered from      all sins4           
,what sacrifice1 almsgiving1 or         
austerity is done without      faith is 
evil4        ,that man obtains the      
perfect      state who honours by his   
proper work him from      whom all      
things have issued1      and by whom    
this ,all      was spread out4          
,,new ,,testament        ,he that loveth
 ,me shall be      loved of ,my ,father1
 and ,i      will love him 7,john xiv4  
#ba74        ,i am the way1 the truth1  
and      the life 7,john xiv4 #f7 ,i am 
the first and the last 7,rev4      i4   
#ag74        ,he that dwelleth in ,me   

and ,i      in ,him 7,john vi4 #ef74    
,i in them and thou in ,me1      that   
they may be made perfect      in one    
7,john xvii4 #bc74        ,whosoever    
believeth in ,him      shall not perish1
 but have      everlasting life 7,john  
iii4      #af74        ,i am ,alpha and 
,omega1 the      beginning and ending   
7,rev4      i4 #h74        ,son1 be of  
good cheer2 thy      sins be forgiven   
thee 7,matt4      ix4 #b74        ,this 
is life eternal1 that they      might   
know ,thee1 the only      true ,god1 and
 ,jesus ,christ1      ,whom ,thou hast  
sent 7,john      xvii1 #c74             
,whatsover is not of faith is      sin  
7,rom4 xiv4 #bc74        ,whether       
therefore ye eat or      drink1 or      
whatsoever ye do1      do all to the    
glory of ,god      7#a ,cor4 x4 #ca74   
,,outline ,,of ,,the ,,bhagavad-,,gita  
,the blind old father of the ,kauravas  
asked ,sangara to tell him how the      
battle had gone4 ,he replied that1 just 
as the fighting began1 ,krishna1  the   

,heaven-,born ,one1 stationed his       
glorious chariot between the armies  and
 entered into a long conversation1 with 
,arguna1 the prince-general of  the     
,pandavas4 ,said ,arguna1 ,my grief at  
seeing these kindred peoples at  war is 
beyond bearing1 and the omens are       
unfavourable4 ,i long not for  victory1 
but for peace and for the prosperity of 
all4 ,behold1 in battle  array          
grandfathers1 fathers1 sons1 friends1   
and allies4 ,we have resolved  to commit
 a great sin1 to slay our kindred and   
associates1 and all for  lust of wealth 
and power4    ,the ,holy ,one 7,krishna7
 said in reply1 ,thou grievest for those
 who need  no grief of thine2 yet are   
thy words words of wisdom4 ,the wise    
have no  grief for dead or living2 know 
thou1 ,o ,arguna1 that the man who has  
knowledge of the ,eternal and ,absolute 
,one will never more be born1 nor  will 
he know death4 ,as one puts away an old 
used garment1 putting on a  new one1 so 
the self in a man puts away the old body

 and assumes one  that is new4 ,he1 the 
,everlasting ,one1 is unchanging and    
inconceivable4  ,be not thou grieved and
 have no fear4 ,if slain in the battle1 
thou shalt  reach endless bliss in      
heaven4 ,if victorious1 thou shalt have 
happiness  on the earth2 get thee1      
therefore1 honoured one1 to the fight   
and have  no care for pleasure or pain4 
,some obtain comfort from what the      
,vedas promise with reference to        
eternal bliss4 ,but these very ,vedas   
teach that a man should strive at       
self-mortification and advancement in   
virtue with no regard to any  reward4   
,the final good after which men are     
chiefly to aim is a state of  supreme   
indifference and contempt4    ,but1     
asked ,arguna1 what1 pray1 is that state
 of equipoise of spirit  which thou     
urgest8    ,said the ,holy ,one1 ,there 
is a twofold law3 that of ,sankhyas1 or 
intellectual devotion1 and that of      
,yogis1 or practical devotion4 ,men     
must strive after the highest knowledge1

 that of ,brahma1 and also seek  after  
right conduct4 ,what1 asked ,arguna1 is 
the cause of sin8 ,to  which the ,holy  
,one replied1 ,love and hatred1 for     
hatred is begotten of  love1 and        
ignorance of moral distinctions and of  
anger2 from all this  comes             
unreasonableness and resulting ruin4 ,a 
man's knowledge carries  always with it 
desire1 as the fire smoke4 ,the senses  
are great1 the mind  is greater1 and the
 intellect still greater1 but the       
greatest of all is  the ,eternal        
,essence1 ,brahma4    ,many1 said the   
,holy ,one1 are my births1 and ,i know  
them2 many too1  are thine1 but thou    
knowest them not4 ,i am born from age to
 age for the  defence of the virtuous   
and the undoing of the wicked4 ,he who  
believes  in my divine birth and work   
has no second birth1 but enters me and  
abides with me for ever4 ,know me as the
 creator of the cates1 know me  also as 
the ,eternal one that creates nothing4  
,faith brings with it  knowledge1 and   

knowledge contentment4 ,without         
knowledge and faith the  soul is lost4  
,arguna asked1 ,how fares it with the   
man who is not able to suppress his     
lower instincts and to undergo the      
discipline of ,yogis8 ,is he for this1  
to be undone for ever8    ,no1 replied  
the ,holy ,one1 neither in this world   
nor in the next is he  lost4 ,the       
virtuous man does not enter an evil     
state4 ,he reaches that  heaven provided
 for all the good1 and is born          
thereafter with higher  moral           
capacities1 with which1 and by means of 
the knowledge gained in  his previous   
existence1 he rises to greater          
perfection2 so that after  many births  
he reaches absolute perfection and is   
united for ever with  ,brahma4 ,but     
learn thou my higher nature2 what thou  
seest is my lower1  for ,i am divine and
 human4 ,all the world came forth from  
me1 and ,i will  at the last destroy it4
 ,higher than ,i does not exist4 ,i am  
taste1 light1  moon1 sun2 ,i am the     

mystic ,,om2 ,i am the mystic seed from 
which all  things grow4 ,he that offers 
sacrifice to inferior gods goes after   
death  to those gods1 but they that     
worship me come to me4    ,what1 asked  
,arguna1 is ,brahma1 the supreme spirit1
 the supreme  sacrifice8    ,the ,holy  
,one answered1 ,he is the ,supreme1 the 
,indestructible ,one2 ,i am  the        
,supreme ,sacrifice in my present body4 
,hear now1 ,son of ,pritha1 said the    
,holy ,one4 ,if thy heart be fixed on   
me1 and thou seekest refuge in me1 thou 
shalt know me fully1 and ,i shall       
reveal to thee the perfect knowledge of 
,god and man4 ,there are countless      
myriads of men in this world1 but few   
there are who seek after  perfection1   
and fewer still there are who obtain it4
      ,,other ,,parts ,,of ,,the        
,,mahabharata      ,though the husband  
die unhappy on account of his wife's    
ill-treatment  and disobedience1 yet if 
she consign herself to the flames after 
his  death she is deserving of great    

praise4 ,how much more should a woman be
  venerated who flings herself of her   
own accord into the flames after the    
death of a husband whom she has treated 
with affection and submission6    ,let  
gifts be avoided2 for receiving them is 
a sin4 ,the silkworm dies of  its       
riches4    ,it is not proper to rebuke  
or even blame wrong acts of gods or     
priests  or seers2 though no one is     
justified in following them in these    
acts4    ,virtue is better than         
everlasting life2 kingdom1 sons1 renown1
 and  wealth all put together do not    
make up one-sixteenth part of the value 
of virtue4    ,the greatest sin that a  
king can commit is atoned for by        
sacrifices  accompanied with large gifts
 cows1 etc4 to the priests4           99
       99       99       99       99    
,,sir ,,thomas ,,browne      ,,religio  
,,medici           ,sir ,thomas ,browne1
 ,english essayist1 came of a ,cheshire 
family1 but was born in ,london on      
,october #ai1 #afje4 ,educated       at 

,oxford1 where he graduated in #afbf1 he
 next studied       medicine at the     
great universities of ,montpelier1      
,padua1 and       ,leyden1 and in #afcg 
went to live at ,norwich1 where he      
remained       until his death on       
,october #ai1 #afhb4 ,he was happily    
married in       #afda1 and was knighted
 by ,charles ,,ii4 in #afga4 ,sir       
,thomas       ,browne is one of the     
greatest figures in ,english literary   
history4 ,he had extraordinary learning1
 a magnificent style1 a       certain   
dry humour1 and1 above all1 great power 
and nobility       of mind4 ,in his two 
most valued works1 ,religio ,medici1 or 
,religion of a ,physician1 published in 
#afdc1 and ,urn       ,burial1 in #afeh1
 he deals with the greatest of all      
themes1       the mysteries of faith and
 of human destiny4 ,the ,religio        
,medici1 written about #afce1 was not at
 first intended for       publication2  
but the manuscript had been handed about
 and       copied1 and the appearance1  

in #afdb1 of private editions1          
forced the author to issue it himself4  
,i4--,,the ,,broad-,,minded ,,christian 
,for my religion ,i dare1 without       
usurpation1 assume the honourable style 
of a ,christian4 ,not that ,i merely owe
 this title to the font1 my  education1 
or the clime wherein ,i was born2 but   
that having1 in my riper  years and     
confirmed judgment1 seen and examined   
all1 ,i find myself  obliged1 by the    
principles of grace and the law of mine 
own reason1 to  embrace no other name   
but this4    ,but1 because the name of a
 ,christian is become too general to    
express  our faith--there being a       
geography of religion as well as        
lands--,i am of  that reformed new-cast 
religion1 wherein ,i dislike nothing but
 the name3  of the same belief our      
,saviour taught1 the apostles           
disseminated1 the  fathers authorised1  
and the martyrs confirmed2 but1 by the  
sinister ends  of princes1 the ambition 
and avarice of prelates1 and the fatal  

corruption of the times1 so decayed1    
impaired1 and fallen from its  native   
beauty1 that it required the careful and
 charitable hands of  these times to    
restore it to its primitive integrity4  
,yet do ,i not stand at sword's point   
with those who had rather  promiscuously
 retain all than abridge any1 and       
obstinately be what they  are than what 
they have been4 ,we have reformed from  
them1 not against  them1 for there is   
between us one common name and          
appellation1 one faith  and necessary   
body of principles common to us both2   
and therefore ,i am  not scrupulous to  
converse and live with them1 to enter   
their churches  in defect of ours1 and  
either pray with them or for them4    ,i
 am naturally inclined to that which    
misguided zeal terms superstition2  at  
my devotion ,i love to use the civility 
of my knee1 my hat1 my hand1  with all  
those outward and sensible motions which
 may express or promote  my invisible   
devotion4 ,at the sight of a crucifix ,i

 can dispense with my  hat1 but scarce  
with the thought or memory of my        
,saviour4 ,i could never  hear the      
,ave-,mary bell without an oraison1 or  
think it a sufficient  warrant1 because 
they erred in one circumstance1 for me  
to err in  all--that is1 in silence and 
dumb contempt4    ,i could never divide 
myself from any man upon the difference 
of an  opinion2 ,i have no genius to    
disputes in religion4 ,a man may be in  
as  just possession of truth as of a    
city1 and yet be forced to surrender2   
'tis therefore far better to enjoy her  
with peace than to hazard her  upon a   
battle4 ,if1 therefore1 there rise any  
doubts in my way1 ,i do  forget them1 or
 at least defer them1 till my better    
settled judgment be  able to resolve    
them4 ,in philosophy1 where truth seems 
double-faced1  there is no man more     
paradoxical than myself2 but in divinity
 ,i love to  keep the road1 and1 though 
not in an implicit1 yet an humble1 faith
  follow the great wheel of the ,church4

    ,heads that are disposed unto       
schism1 and complexionally propense to  
innovation1 are naturally indisposed for
 a community1 nor will be ever  confined
 unto the order or economy of one body2 
and1 therefore1 when  they separate from
 others1 they knit but loosely among    
themselves2 nor  contented with a       
general breach or dichotomy with their  
church1 do  subdivide and mince         
themselves almost into atoms4    ,as for
 those wingy mysteries in divinity and  
airy subtleties in religion  which have 
unhinged the brains of better heads1    
they have never  stretched the membranes
 of mine4 ,methinks there be not        
impossibilities  enough in religion for 
an active faith2 ,i love to lose myself 
in a  mystery1 to pursue my reason to an
 ,o altitudo6 ,i can answer all the     
objections of ,satan and my rebellious  
reason with that odd resolution of      
,tertullian3 ,it is certain because it  
is impossible4      ,,ii4--,,the        
,,divine ,,wisdom      ,in my solitary  

and retired imagination ,i remember ,i  
am not alone2 and  therefore forget not 
to contemplate ,him and ,his attributes 
who is ever  with me1 especially those  
two mighty ones1 ,his wisdom and        
eternity4 ,with  the one ,i recreate1   
with the other ,i confound1 my          
understanding2 for who  can speak of    
eternity without a solecism1 or think   
thereof without an  ecstasy8    ,in this
 mass of ,nature there is a set of      
things that carry in their  front1      
though not in capital letters1 yet in   
stenography and short  characters1      
something of divinity2 which1 to wiser  
reasons1 serve as  luminaries in the    
abyss of knowledge1 and to judicious    
beliefs as scales  to mount the         
pinnacles of divinity4    ,that other   
attribute wherewith ,i recreate my      
devotion is ,his wisdom1 in  which ,i am
 happy2 and for the contemplation of    
this only1 do not repent  me that ,i was
 bred in the way of study4 ,the         
advantage ,i have of the  vulgar1 with  

the content and happiness ,i conceive   
therein1 is an ample  recompense for all
 my endeavours in what part of knowledge
 soever4  ,wisdom is ,his most beauteous
 attribute2 no man can attain unto it2  
yet  ,solomon pleased ,god when he      
desired it4 ,he is wise because ,he     
knows all  things2 and ,he knows all    
things because ,he made them all2 but   
,his  greatest knowledge is in          
comprehending that ,he made not--that   
is1  ,himself4 ,the wisdom of ,god      
receives small honour from those heads  
that  rudely stare about1 and with a    
gross rusticity admire ,his works4      
,those  highly magnify ,him whose       
judicious inquiry into ,his acts1 and a 
deliberate research into ,his creatures1
 return the duty of a devout and        
learned admiration4 ,every essence1     
created or uncreated1 hath its final    
cause and some positive end both of its 
essence and operation4 ,this is  the    
cause ,i grope after in the works of    
,nature2 on this hangs the  providence  

of ,god4    ,that ,nature does nothing  
in vain is the only indisputable axiom  
in  philosophy4 ,there are no grotesques
 in ,nature1 nor anything framed to     
fill up unnecessary spaces4 ,i could    
never content my contemplation with     
those general pieces of wonder1 the flux
 and reflux of the sea1 the  increase of
 the ,nile1 the conversion of the needle
 to the north2 but  have studied to     
match and parallel those in the more    
obvious and  neglected pieces of ,nature
 which1 without further travel1 ,i find 
in the  cosmography of myself4 ,we carry
 with us the wonders we seek without us2
  there is all ,africa and her prodigies
 in us4    ,thus there are two books    
from whence ,i collect my divinity3     
besides that  written one of ,god1      
another of ,his servant1 ,nature1 that  
universal and  public manuscript1 that  
lies expansed unto the eyes of all4     
,surely the  heathens knew better how to
 join and read these mystical letters   
than we  ,christians1 who cast a more   

careless eye on these common            
hieroglyphics1  and disdain to suck     
divinity from the flowers of ,nature4   
,now1 ,nature is  not at variance with  
art1 nor art with ,nature1 they being   
both the  servants of ,his providence4  
,art is the perfection of ,nature4      
,nature hath  made one world1 and art   
another4 ,in brief1 all things are      
artificial1  for ,nature is the art of  
,god4    ,this is the ordinary and open 
way of ,his providence1 which art and   
industry have in good part discovered1  
whose effects we may foretell  without  
an oracle4 ,but there is another way1   
full of meanders and  labyrinths1 and   
that is a more particular and obscure   
method of ,his  providence1 directing   
the operations of individual and single 
essences4  ,this we call fortune1 that  
serpentine and crooked line whereby ,he 
draws  those actions ,his wisdom intends
 in a more unknown and secret way4      
,this cryptic and involved method of    
,his providence have ,i ever admired2   

nor can ,i relate the history of my     
life1 the occurrences of my days1 the   
escapes1 or dangers1 and hits of chance1
 with a bare grammercy to my  good      
stars4 ,surely there are in every man's 
life certain rubs1  doublings1 and      
wrenches1 which pass a while under the  
effects of chance2  but at the last1    
well examined1 prove the mere hand of   
,god4 ',twas not  dumb chance that1 to  
discover the fougade1 or powder plot1   
contrived a  miscarriage in the letter4 
,i like the victory of '#hh the better  
for that  one occurrence which our      
enemies imputed to our dishonour and the
  partiality of fortune3 to wit1 the    
tempests and contrariety of winds4      
,there is no liberty for causes to      
operate in a loose and straggling way1  
nor any effect whatever but hath its    
warrant from some universal or  superior
 cause4 ',tis not a ridiculous devotion 
to say a prayer before a  game at       
tables2 for even in sortileges and      
matters of greatest  uncertainty there  

is a settled and pre-ordered course of  
effects4 ,it is  we that are blind1 not 
fortune4 ,because our eye is too dim to 
discover  the mystery of her effects1 we
 foolishly paint her blind1 and hoodwink
  the providence of the ,almighty4      
',tis1 ,i confess1 the common fate of   
men of singular gifts of mind to be     
destitute of those of fortune2 which    
doth not any way deject the spirit  of  
wiser judgments1 who thoroughly         
understand the justice of this          
proceeding2 and1 being enriched with    
higher donatives1 cast a more  careless 
eye on these vulgar parts of felicity4  
,it is a most unjust  ambition to desire
 to engross the mercies of the          
,almighty4    ,i have heard some with   
deep sighs lament the lost lines of     
,cicero2  others with as many groans    
deplore the combustion of the library of
  ,alexandria2 for my own part1 ,i think
 there be too many in the world1 and    
could with patience behold the urn and  
ashes of the ,vatican1 could ,i1  with a

 few others1 recover the perished leaves
 of ,solomon4 ,some men have  written   
more than others have spoken4 ,of those 
three great inventions in  ,germany1    
there are two which are not without     
their incommodities4 ,tis  not a        
melancholy wish of my own1 but the      
desires of better heads1 that  there    
were a general synod--not to unite the  
incompatible difference of  religion1   
but for the benefit of learning1 to     
reduce it1 as it lay at  first1 in a few
 and solid authors2 and to condemn to   
the fire those  swarms and millions of  
rhapsodies1 begotten only to distract   
and abuse  the weaker judgments of      
scholars and to maintain the trade and  
mystery  of typographers4    ,as all    
that die in the war are not termed      
soldiers1 so neither can ,i  properly   
term all those that suffer in matters of
 religion1 martyrs4  ,there are many1   
questionless1 canonised on earth that   
shall never be  saints in heaven1 and   
have their names in histories and       

martyrologies  who1 in the eyes of ,god1
 are not so perfect martyrs as was that 
wise  heathen ,socrates1 that suffered  
on a fundamental point of religion--the 
unity of ,god4 ,the leaven and ferment  
of all1 not only civil but  religious   
actions1 is wisdom2 without which to    
commit ourselves to the  flames is      
homicide1 and1 ,i fear1 but to pass     
through one fire into  another4         
,,iii4--,,the ,,hope ,,of ,,immortality 
,i thank ,god ,i have not those strait  
ligaments or narrow obligations to  the 
world as to dote on life or tremble at  
the name of death4 ,not that ,i  am     
insensible of the horror thereof1 or1 by
 raking into the bowels of  the deceased
 and continual sight of anatomies1 ,i   
have forgot the  apprehension of        
mortality2 but that1 marshalling all the
 horrors1 ,i find  not anything therein 
able to daunt the courage of a man1 much
 less a  well-resolved ,christian4 ,were
 there not another life that ,i hope    
for1  all the vanities of this world    

should not entreat a moment's breath    
from  me4 ,those strange and mystical   
transmigrations that ,i have observed in
  silkworms turned my philosophy into   
divinity4 ,there is in these works of   
,nature which seem to puzzle reason1    
something divine1 that hath more in  it 
than the eye of a common spectator doth 
discover4    ,some1 upon the courage of 
a fruitful issue1 wherein1 as in the    
truest  chronicle1 they seem to outlive 
themselves1 can with greater patience   
away with death4 ,this seems to me a    
mere fallacy1 unworthy the desires  of a
 man that can but conceive a thought of 
the next world2 who1 in a  nobler       
ambition1 should desire to live in his  
substance in heaven rather  than his    
name and shadow in the earth4 ,were     
there any hopes to outlive  vice1 or a  
point to be superannuated from sin1 it  
were worthy our knees  to implore the   
days of ,methuselah4 ,but age doth not  
rectify but brings  on incurable vices1 
and the number of our days doth but make

 our sins  innumerable4 ,there is but   
one comfort left1 that though it be in  
the  power of the weakest arm to take   
away life1 it is not in the strongest   
to deprive us of death4    ,there is no 
happiness within this circle of flesh1  
nor is it in the  optics of these eyes  
to behold felicity4 ,but besides this   
literal and  positive kind of death1    
there are others whereof divines make   
mention1  as mortification1 dying unto  
sin and the world4 ,in these moral      
acceptations1 the way to be immortal is 
to die daily2 and ,i have  enlarged that
 common ,remember death into a more     
,christian  memorandum--,remember the   
four last things--death1 judgment1      
heaven1  and hell4 ,i believe that the  
world grows near its end2 but that      
general  opinion1 that the world grows  
near its end1 hath possessed all ages   
past  as nearly as ours4    ,there is no
 road or ready way to virtue2 it is not 
an easy point of art  to disentangle    
ourselves from this riddle or web of    

sin4 ,to perfect  virtue1 as to         
religion1 there is required a panoplia1 
or complete  armour2 that whilst we lie 
at close ward against one vice1 we lie  
not  open to the assault of another4    
,there go so many circumstances to piece
  up one good action that it is a lesson
 to be good1 and we are forced to  be   
virtuous by the book4    ,insolent zeals
 that do decry good works1 and rely only
 upon faith1 take  not away merit2 for1 
depending upon the efficacy of their    
faith1 they  enforce the condition of   
,god1 and in a more sophistical way do  
seem to  challenge heaven4 ,i do not    
deny but that true faith is not only a  
mark  or token1 but also a means1 of our
 salvation2 but1 where to find this is  
as obscure to me as my last end4 ,if a  
faith to the quantity of a grain  of    
mustard seed is able to remove          
mountains1 surely that which we boast   
of is not anything1 or1 at the most1 but
 a remove from nothing4    ,for that    
other virtue of charity1 without which  

faith is a mere notion  and of no       
existence1 ,i have ever endeavoured to  
nourish the merciful  disposition and   
humane inclination ,i borrowed from my  
parents1 and  regulate it to the written
 and prescribed laws of charity4 ,i give
 no  alms to satisfy the hunger of my   
brother1 but to fulfil the command of   
my ,god2 ,i draw not my purse for his   
sake that demands it1 but ,his that     
enjoined it4 ,again1 it is no greater   
charity to clothe his body than to      
apparel the nakedness of his soul2 and  
to this1 as calling myself a  scholar1  
,i am obliged by the duty of my         
condition4    ,bless me in this life    
with but the peace of my conscience2    
command of my  affections the love of   
,thyself and my dearest friends2 and ,i 
shall be  happy enough to pity ,caesar6 
,these are1 ,o ,lord1 the humble desires
 of my  most reasonable ambition1 and   
all ,i dare call happiness on earth3    
wherein ,i set no limit to ,thy hand or 
providence2 dispose of me  according to 

the wisdom of ,thy pleasure4 ,thy will  
be done1 though in my  own undoing4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,,john ,,calvin      ,,institution ,,of 
,,the ,,christian ,,religion            
,john ,calvin was born on ,july #aj1    
#aeji1 at ,noyon1 in ,picardy1          
,northern ,france4 ,although the        
,calvins1 his ancestors1 had been       
bargemen on the ,oise1 his father was   
notary apostolic1                       
procurator-fiscal of the county1 clerk  
of the church court1       and diocesan 
secretary4 ,young ,jean ,calvin was     
eight years old       when ,luther      
nailed his theses to the door of the    
castle church       in ,wittenburg4 ,the
 new religion gaining very quickly a    
footing       in ,france1 the youth     
became influenced by it when studying in
       ,paris at the ,college de la     
,marche4 ,he held meetings with         
,protestants in a cave at ,poitiers4    
,his precocity was       remarkable4 ,at
 the age of twenty-three he wrote his   

first       book1 a commentary on       
,seneca's ,treatise on ,clemency4 ,at   
twenty-five he revised a translation of 
the ,french ,bible4 ,at                 
twenty-seven he published the first     
edition of his mighty       work1 ,the  
,institution of the ,christian          
,religion1 a treatise       which has   
been styled one of the landmarks of the 
history of       ,christian doctrine4   
,at twenty-eight ,calvin was the        
foremost       man in ,geneva1 and was  
already one of the most remarkable      
reformers in the world4 ,his career has 
rarely been paralleled4       ,calvin   
died on ,may #bg1 #aefd4      ,i4--,,the
 ,,knowledge ,,of ,,god ,,the ,,creator 
,our wisdom consists almost exclusively 
of two parts3 the knowledge of  ,god1   
and of ourselves4 ,but1 as these are    
connected together by many  ties1 it is 
not easy to determine which of the two  
precedes1 and which  gives birth to the 
others4 ,our weakness1 ignorance1 and   
depravity remind  us that in the ,lord1 

and in none but ,him only1 dwell the two
 lights of  wisdom1 of virtue1 and of   
piety4 ,it is evident that man never    
attains to  a true self-knowledge until 
after he has contemplated the face of   
,god1  and come down after such         
contemplation to look into himself4     
,it is beyond dispute that there exists 
in the human mind1 and indeed by        
natural instinct1 some sense of deity4  
,as ,cicero1 though a pagan1 tells  us1 
there is no nation so brutish as not to 
be imbued with the  conviction that     
there is a ,god4 ,even idolatry is an   
evidence of this  fact4 ,but1 though    
experience teaches that a seed of       
religion is divinely  sown in all1 few  
cherish it in the heart4 ,some lose     
themselves in  superstitious            
observances2 others1 of set purpose1    
wickedly revolt from  ,god2 and many    
think of ,god against their will1 never 
approaching ,him  without being dragged 
into ,his presence4    ,but since the   
perfection of blessedness consists in   

the knowledge of  ,god1 ,he has been    
pleased not only to deposit in our minds
 the seed of  religion1 of which we have
 already spoken1 but so to manifest ,his
  perfections in the whole structure of 
the universe1 and daily place  ,himself 
in our view1 that we cannot open our    
eyes without being  compelled to behold 
,him4 ,his essence is1 indeed1          
transcendent and  incomparable1 but on  
each of ,his works ,his glory is        
engraven in  characters so bright that  
none1 however dull and illiterate1 can  
plead  ignorance as an excuse4          
,herein appears the shameful ingratitude
 of men1 that1 though they have  in     
their own persons a factory where       
countless operations of ,god are        
carried on1 instead of praising ,him1   
they are the more inflated with  pride4 
,how few are there among us who1 in     
lifting our eyes to the  heavens1 or    
looking abroad on the earth1 ever think 
of the ,creator6 ,in  vain1 because of  
our dulness1 does creation exhibit so   

many bright lamps  lit up to show forth 
the glory of its ,author4 ,therefore1   
another and  better help must be given  
to guide us properly to ,god as our     
,creator1  and ,he has added the light  
of ,his ,word in order to make known    
,his  salvation4    ,here it seems      
proper to make some observations on the 
authority of  ,scripture4 ,nothing can  
be more absurd than the fiction that the
 power of  judging ,scripture is in the 
,church4 ,when the ,church gives it the 
stamp  of her authority1 she does not   
thus make it authentic1 but shows her   
reverence for it as the truth of ,god by
 her unhesitating assent4  ,scripture   
bears1 on the face of it1 as clear      
evidence of its truth as  black and     
white do of their colour1 sweet and     
bitter of their taste4 ,it  is          
preposterous to attempt1 by discussion1 
to rear up a full faith in  ,scripture4 
,those who are inwardly taught by the   
,holy ,spirit acquiesce in  it          
implicitly1 for it carries with it its  

own testimony4    ,it is foolish to     
attempt to prove to infidels that the   
,scripture is the  ,word of ,god4 ,for  
it cannot be known to be1 except by     
faith4 ,justly does  ,augustine remind  
us that every man who would have any    
understanding in  such high matters must
 previously possess piety and mental    
peace4 ,in  order to direct us to the   
true ,god1 the ,scripture excludes all  
the gods  of the heathen4 ,this         
exclusiveness annihilates every deity   
which men  frame for themselves1 of     
their own accord4 ,whence had idols     
their  origin1 but from the will of man8
    ,there was thus ground for the      
sarcasm of the heathen poet 7,horace1   
,satires1 ,i4#h74 ,i was once the trunk 
of a fig-tree1 a useless log1 when  the 
tradesman1 uncertain whether he should  
make me a stool1 etc41 chose  rather    
that ,i should be a god4 ,in regard to  
the origin of idols1 the  statement of  
the ,book of ,wisdom has been received  
with almost universal  consent1 that    

they originated with those who bestowed 
this honour on the  dead1 from a        
superstitious regard to their memory4   
,,ii4--,,the ,,grace ,,of ,,christ ,,the
 ,,redeemer      ,through the fall of   
,adam arose the need of a ,redeemer1 the
 whole human  race having by that event 
been made accursed and degenerate4 ,man 
thereby  became deprived of freedom of  
will and miserably enslaved4 ,the       
dominion  of sin1 ever since the first  
man was brought under it1 not only      
extends  to the whole race1 but has     
complete possession of every soul4 ,free
 will  does not enable any man to       
perform good works unless he is assisted
 by  grace4 ,yet1 since man is by nature
 a social being1 he is disposed1 from   
natural instinct1 to cherish and        
preserve society2 and1 accordingly1 we  
see that the minds of all men have      
impressions of order and civil  honesty4
 ,so that1 in regard to the constitution
 of the present life1 no  man is devoid 
of the light of reason4 ,and this gift  

ought justly to be  ascribed to the     
divine indulgence4 ,had ,god not so     
spared us1 our revolt  would have       
carried with it the entire destruction  
of nature4 ,but to the  great truth1    
what ,god is in ,himself1 and what ,he  
is in relation to us1  human reason     
makes not the least approach4 ,the      
natural man has no  capacity for such   
sublime wisdom as to apprehend ,god1    
unless illumined  by ,his ,spirit1 and  
none can enter the kingdom of ,god save 
those whose  minds have been renewed by 
the power of the spirit4    ,it is      
certain that after the fall of our first
 parent1 no knowledge of  ,god without a
 ,mediator was effectual to salvation4  
,hence it is that ,god  never showed    
,himself propitious to ,his ancient     
people1 nor gave them any  hope of grace
 without a ,mediator4 ,the prosperous   
and happy state of the  ,church was     
always founded in the person of ,christ4
 ,the primary adoption  of the chosen   
people depended on the grace of the     

,mediator1 and ,christ  was always held 
forth to the holy fathers under the law 
as the object of  their faith4    ,it   
deeply concerns us that ,he who was to  
become our ,mediator should be  very    
,god and very man4 ,the work to be by   
,him performed was of no common         
description1 being to restore us to the 
divine favour so as to make us  sons of 
,god and heirs of the heavenly kingdom4 
,in ,him the divinity was  so conjoined 
with the humanity that the entire       
properties of each nature  remained     
entire1 and yet the two natures         
constitute only one ,christ4            
,everything needful for us exists in    
,christ4    ,when we see that the whole 
sum of our salvation1 and every single  
part  of it1 are comprehended in        
,christ1 we must beware of deriving even
 the  minutest part of it from any other
 quarter4 ,if we seek salvation1 we are 
taught by the very name of ,jesus that  
,he possesses it2 if we seek any  other 
gifts of the ,spirit1 we shall find them

 in ,his unction2 strength  in ,his     
permanent government2 purity in ,his    
conception2 indulgence in ,his          
nativity1 in which ,he was made like us 
in all respects1 in order that ,he      
might learn to sympathise with us2 if we
 seek redemption we shall find  it in   
,his passion2 acquittal in ,his         
condemnation2 remission of the curse  in
 ,his cross2 satisfaction in ,his       
sacrifice2 purification in ,his blood2  
reconciliation in ,his descent into     
hell2 mortification of the flesh in     
,his sepulchre2 newness of life in ,his 
resurrection2 immortality also in  ,his 
resurrection2 the inheritance of a      
celestial kingdom in ,his entrance  into
 heaven2 protection1 security1 and the  
abundant supply of all  blessings1 in   
,his kingdom2 secure anticipation of    
judgment in the power  of judging       
committed to ,him4 ,in fine1 since in   
,him blessings are  treasured up1 let us
 draw a full supply from ,him1 and none 
from another  quarter4                  

,,iii4--,,the ,,merit ,,of ,,christ ,,as
 ,,our ,,saviour      ,it may be proved 
both from reason and from ,scripture    
that the grace of  ,god and the merit of
 ,christ 7the ,prince and ,author of our
 salvation7 are  perfectly compatible4  
,christ is not only the minister1 but   
also the  cause of our salvation1 and   
divine grace is not obscured by this    
expression4 ,christ1 by ,his obedience1 
truly merited this divine grace  for us1
 which was obtained by the shedding of  
,his blood1 and ,his  obedience even    
unto death1 whereby ,he paid our ransom4
    ,it is by the secret operation of   
the ,holy ,spirit that we enjoy ,christ 
and all ,his benefits4 ,in ,christ the  
,mediator the gifts of the ,holy        
,spirit are to be seen in all their     
fulness4 ,as salvation is perfected in  
the person of ,christ1 so1 in order to  
make us partakers of it1 ,he  baptizes  
us with the ,holy ,spirit and with fire1
 enlightening us into  the faith of ,his
 ,gospel1 and so regenerating us to be  

new creatures4  ,thus cleansed from all 
pollution1 ,he dedicates us as holy     
temples to the  ,lord4    ,but here it  
is proper to consider the nature of     
faith4 ,the true  knowledge of ,christ  
consists in receiving ,him as ,he is    
offered by the  ,father1 namely1 as     
invested with ,his ,gospel4 ,there is an
 inseparable  relation between faith and
 the ,word1 and these can no more be    
disconnected from each other than rays  
of light from the sun4 ,john  points to 
this fountain of faith thus3 ,to-day1 if
 ye will hear ,his  voice1 to hear being
 uniformly taken for to believe4 ,take  
away the  ,word and no faith will       
remain4 ,hence ,paul designates faith as
 the  obedience which is given to the   
,gospel4    ,the mere assent of the     
intellect to the ,word is1 according to 
some1 the  faith insisted on in         
,scripture1 but this is a mere fiction4 
,such as thus  define faith do not duly 
ponder the saying of ,paul1 ,with the   
heart man  believeth unto righteousness4

 ,assent itself is more a matter of the 
heart than the head1 of the affection   
than the intellect4      ,,iv4--,,of    
,,repentance      ,repentance follows   
faith and is produced by it4 ,in the    
conversion of the  life to ,god we      
require a transformation not only in    
external works1 but  in the soul itself1
 which is able only after it has put off
 its old  habits to bring forth fruits  
conformable to its renovation4          
,repentance  proceeds from a sincere    
fear of ,god1 and it consists of two    
parts1 the  mortification of the flesh  
and the quickening of the spirit4 ,both 
of  these we obtain by union with       
,christ4 ,if we are partakers in ,his   
resurrection we are raised up by means  
of it to newness of life1 which         
conforms us to the righteousness of     
,god4 ,in one word1 then1 by  repentance
 ,i understand regeneration1 the only   
aim of which is to form  us anew in the 
image of ,god1 which was sullied and all
 but effaced by  the transgression of   

,adam4    ,the apostle1 in his          
description of repentance 7#b           
,corinthians vii4 #b71  enumerates seven
 causes1 effects1 or parts belonging to 
it4 ,these are  carefulness1 excuse1    
indignation1 fear1 desire1 zeal1        
revenge4 ,i stop  not to consider       
whether these are causes or effects2    
both views may be  maintained4 ,the     
penitent will be careful not in future  
to offend ,god2 in  his excuses he will 
trust1 not to his own apologies1 but to 
,christ's  intercession2 his indignation
 will be directed against his own       
iniquities2 his fear will be lest he    
cause ,god displeasure2 his desire  is  
equivalent to alacrity in duty2 zeal    
will follow2 and revenge will be        
practised in the censure passed on his  
own sins4      ,v4--,,of ,,justification
 ,,by ,,faith      ,a man is said to be 
justified in the sight of ,god when1 in 
the judgment  of ,god1 he is deemed     
righteous1 and is accepted on account of
 his  righteousness4 ,so we interpret   

justification as the acceptance with    
which ,god receives us into ,his favour 
as if we were righteous2 and we  say    
that this justification consists in the 
forgiveness of sins and the  imputation 
of the righteousness to ,christ4 ,since 
many imagine a  righteousness compounded
 of faith and works1 let it be noted    
that there  is so wide a difference     
between justification by faith and by   
works that  one necessarily overthrows  
the other4 ,if we destroy the           
righteousness by  faith by establishing 
our own righteousness1 then1 in order to
 obtain  ,his righteousness1 our own    
must be entirely abandoned4 ,the ,gospel
  differs from the law in this1 that it 
entirely places justification in  the   
mercy of ,god and does not confine it to
 works4 ,it is entirely by the          
intervention of ,christ's righteousness 
that we obtain justification  before    
,god4    ,the doctrine of ,christian    
liberty is founded on this justification
 by  faith4 ,this liberty consists of   

three parts4 ,first1 believers          
renouncing  the righteousness of the law
 look only to ,christ4 ,secondly1 the   
conscience1 freed from the yoke of the  
law1 voluntarily obeys the will  of     
,god4 ,this cannot be done under the    
dominion of the law4 ,thirdly1  under   
the ,gospel we are free to use things   
indifferent4 ,the consciences  of       
believers1 while seeking the assurance  
of their justification before  ,god1    
must rise above the law1 and think no   
more of obtaining  justification by it4 
,our consciences being free from the    
yoke of the law  itself1 voluntarily    
obey the will of ,god4      ,,vi4--,,on 
,,the ,,doctrine ,,of ,,election        
,ignorance of the doctrine of election  
and predestination impairs the  glory of
 ,god and fosters pride4 ,the covenant  
of life is not preached  equally to all1
 and among those to whom it is preached 
does not always  meet with the same     
reception4 ,the reason of this          
discrimination belongs  to the secret   

thing of ,god4 ,this doctrine is        
cavilled at2 yet when we  see one nation
 preferred to another1 shall we plead   
against ,god for  having chosen to give 
such a manifestation of ,his mercy8 ,god
 has  displayed ,his grace in special   
forms4 ,thus of the family of ,abraham  
,he  rejected some1 and kept others     
within ,his ,church1 showing that ,he   
retained them among ,his sons4          
,although the election of ,god is       
secret1 it is made manifest by effectual
  calling4 ,both election and effectual 
calling are founded on the free  mercy  
of ,god ,calling is proved to be        
according to the free grace of ,god  by 
the declarations of ,scripture1 by the  
mode in which it is dispensed1  by the  
instance of ,abraham's vocation1 by the 
testimony of ,john1 and by  the example 
of all those who have been called4      
,there are two species of  calling4     
,there is a universal call by which     
,god1 through the preaching  of ,his    
,word1 invites all men alike4 ,besides  

this1 there is a special  call1 which1  
for the most part1 ,god bestows on      
believers only1 when by  the internal   
illumination of ,his ,spirit he causes  
the ,gospel to take  deep root in their 
hearts4           99       99       99  
99       99        ,,samuel ,,taylor    
,,coleridge      ,,aids ,,to            
,,reflection           ,this famous     
book1 of which the full title is ,aids  
to       ,reflection in the ,formation  
of a ,manly ,character on the           
several ,grounds of ,prudence1          
,morality1 and ,religion1 was           
published in #ahbe1 nine years before   
the author's death4 ,its       influence
 on thoughtful minds was very great1 and
 many of the       first divines of that
 period owed to it their profoundest    
religious ideas4 ,it has been said that 
the fame of ,coleridge       7see       
,,lives ,,and ,,letters7 as a           
philosophic thinker is not so           
great as it was during the twenty years 
immediately after his       death2 but  

one imagines that this statement merely 
means that       not so many people now 
read ,coleridge as did fifty years ago4 
,the book1 at any rate1 has not yet been
 written which exposes       a fallacy  
in his argument or demolishes his       
system4 ,it should       be remembered  
that this poet and searching thinker1 to
 whom       men like ,wordsworth and    
,haslitt listened with reverence1 was   
for some time in his life a ,unitarian1 
and won to faith in the       divinity  
of ,christ by the use of his reason4    
,i4--,,introductory ,,aphorisms      ,it
 is the most useful prerogative of      
genius to rescue truths from the        
neglect caused by the very circumstance 
of their universal admission4  ,truths1 
of all others the most awful and        
interesting1 are too often  considered  
as so true that they lose the power of  
truth1 and lie  bedridden in the        
dormitory of the soul4    ,there is one 
sure way of giving freshness and        
importance to the most  commonplace     

maxims--that of reflecting on them in   
direct reference to  our own state and  
conduct1 to our own past and future     
being4 ,a  reflecting mind1 says an     
ancient writer1 is the spring and source
 of  every good thing4 ,as a man without
 forethought scarce deserves the name   
of man1 so forethought without          
reflection is but a metaphorical phrase 
for the instinct of a beast4    ,in     
order to learn1 we must attend2 in order
 to profit by what we have  learnt1 we  
must think2 he only thinks who reflects4
    ,to assign a feeling and a          
determination of their will as a        
satisfactory  reason for embracing or   
rejecting an opinion is the habit of    
many  educated people2 to me1 this seems
 little less irrational than to apply   
the nose to a picture1 and to decide on 
its genuineness by the sense of  smell4 
,in attention we keep the mind passive2 
in thought we rouse it into  activity4  
,an hour of solitude passed in sincere  
and earnest prayer1 or the  conflict    

with and conquest over a single passion 
or subtle bosom sin1  will teach us more
 of thought1 will more effectually      
awaken the faculty1  and form the habit 
of reflection1 than will a year's study 
in the  schools without them4    ,never 
yet did there exist a full faith in the 
,divine ,word which did not  expand the 
intellect1 while it purified the heart2 
which did not  multiply the aims and    
objects of the understanding1 while it  
fixed and  simplified those of the      
desires and passions4 ,give me          
understanding1  says ,david1 and ,i     
shall observe ,thy laws with my whole   
heart4    ,it is worthy of especial     
observation that the ,scriptures are    
distinguished from all other writings   
pretending to inspiration1 by the       
strong and frequent recommendations of  
knowledge and a spirit of  inquiry4 ,the
 word rational has been strongly abused 
of late times4  ,this must not1 however1
 disincline us to the weighty           
consideration that  thoughtfulness and a

 desire to rest all our convictions on  
grounds of  right reasoning1 are        
inseparable from the character of a     
,christian4 ,he  who begins by loving   
,christianity better than truth will    
proceed by  loving his own sect and     
church better than ,christianity1 and   
end in  loving himself best of all4     
,,ii4--,,reflections ,,respecting       
,,morality      ,sensibility1 that is a 
constitutional quickness1 of sympathy   
with pain  and pleasure1 is not to be   
confounded with the moral principle4    
,sensibility is not even a sure pledge  
of a good heart4 ,how many are  prompted
 to remove those evils alone1 which by  
hideous spectacle or  clamorous outcry  
are present to their senses and disturb 
their selfish  enjoyments8 ,provided the
 dunghill is not before their parlour   
window1  they are well contented to know
 that it exists1 and perhaps is the     
hotbed on which their own luxuries are  
reared4 ,sensibility is not  necessarily
 benevolence4    ,all the evil of the   

materialists is inconsiderable besides  
the mischief  effected and occasioned by
 the sentimental philosophy of ,sterne  
and his  numerous imitators4 ,the vilest
 appetites and the most remorseless     
inconstancy towards their objects1      
acquired the titles of the heart1  the  
irresistible feelings1 the too-tender   
sensibility2 and if the  frosts of      
prudence1 the icy chain of human law1   
thawed and vanished at  the genial      
warmth of human nature1 who could help  
it8 ,it was an amiable  weakness6 ,at   
this time the profanation of the word   
love rose to its  height2 the muse of   
science condescended to seek admission  
at the  saloons of fashion and          
frivolity1 rouged like a harlot and with
 the  harlot's wanton leer4 ,i know not 
how the annals of guilt could be better 
forced into the service of virtue than  
by such a comment on the present        
paragraph as would be afforded by       
sentimental correspondence produced in  
courts of justice1 fairly translated    

into the true meaning of the words1  and
 the actual object and purpose of the   
infamous writers4    ,do you in good    
earnest aim at dignity of character8 ,i 
conjure you1 turn  away from those who  
live in the twilight between vice and   
virtue4 ,are  not reason1               
discrimination1 law1 and deliberate     
choice the  distinguishing characters of
 humanity8 ,can anything manly proceed  
from  those who for law and light would 
substitute shapeless feelings1          
sentiments1 impulses1 which1 as far as  
they differ from the vital  workings in 
the brute animals1 owe the difference to
 their former  connection with the      
proper virtues of humanity8 ,remember   
that love  itself1 in its highest       
earthly bearing1 as the ground of the   
marriage  union1 becomes love by an     
inward fiat of the will1 by a completing
 and  sealing act of moral election1 and
 lays claim to permanence only under    
the form of duty4    ,all things strive 
to ascend1 and ascend in the striving4  

,while you  labour for anything below   
your proper humanity1 you seek a happy  
life in  the region of death4           
,unless above himself he can      ,erect
 himself1 how mean a thing is man6      
,,iii4--,,prudential ,,aphorisms        
,with respect to any final aim or end1  
the greater part of mankind live  at    
hazard4 ,they have no certain harbour in
 view1 nor direct their course  by any  
fixed star4 ,but to him that knoweth not
 the port to which he is  bound1 no wind
 can be favourable2 neither can he who  
has not yet  determined at what mark he 
is to shoot1 direct his arrow aright4   
,it is not1 however1 the less true that 
there is a proper object to aim  at2 and
 if this object be meant by the term    
happiness1 the perfection of  which     
consists in the exclusion of all hap    
i4e41 chance1 ,i assert  that there is  
such a thing as summum bonum1 or        
ultimate good4 ,what  this is1 the      
,bible alone shows certainly1 and points
 out the way4 ,in  ,cicero and ,plato1  

says ,augustine1 ,i meet with many      
things acutely  said1 and things that   
excite a certain warmth of emotion1 but 
in none of  them do ,i find these words1
 ',come unto ,me1 all ye that labour and
 are  heavy laden1 and ,i will give you 
rest6'    ,in the works of ,christian   
and pagan moralists1 it is declared that
  virtue is the only happiness of this  
life4 ,you cannot become better1 but    
you will become happier2 you cannot     
become worse without an increase of     
misery4 ,few men are so reprobate as not
 to have some lucid moments1 and  in    
such moments few can stand up unshaken  
against the appeal of their  own        
experience4 ,what have been the wages of
 sin8 ,what has the devil done  for you8
    ,though prudence in itself is       
neither virtue nor holiness1 yet without
  prudence neither virtue nor holiness  
can exist4    ,art thou under the       
tyranny of sin1 a slave to vicious      
habits1 at enmity  with ,god1 a fugitive
 from thy own conscience8 ,oh1 how idle 

the disputes  whether the listening to  
the dictates of prudence from           
self-interested  motives be virtue1 when
 the not listening is guilt1 misery1    
madness1  and despair6 ,the most        
,christian-like pity thou canst show is 
to take  pity on thy own soul4 ,the best
 service thou canst render is to show   
mercy to thyself4                       
,,iv4--,,aphorisms ,,on ,,spiritual     
,,religion      ,if there be aught      
spiritual in man1 the will must be such4
 ,if there be a  will1 there must be    
spirituality in man4    ,there is more  
in man than can be rationally referred  
to the life of  ,nature and the         
mechanism of organisation4 ,he has a    
will not included in  his mechanism2 the
 will is1 in an especial sense1 the     
spiritual part of  our humanity4    ,i  
assume a something1 the proof of which  
no man can give to another1  yet every  
man may find for himself4 ,if any man   
say that he cannot find  it1 ,i am bound
 to disbelieve him4 ,i cannot do        

otherwise without  unsettling the       
foundations of my own moral nature4 ,if 
he will not find  it1 he excommunicates 
himself1 forfeits his personal rights1  
and becomes  a thing--i4e41 one who may 
be used against his will and without    
regard  to his interest4 ,if the        
materialist use the words right and     
obligation1 he does it deceptively1 and 
means only compulsion and  power4 ,to   
overthrow faith in aught higher than    
nature and physical  necessity is the   
very purpose of his argument4 ,but he   
cannot be ignorant  that the best and   
greatest of men have devoted their lives
 to enforce  the contrary2 and there is 
not a language in which he could argue  
for  ten minutes in support of his      
scheme without sliding into phrases that
  imply the contrary4    ,the ,christian
 grounds his philosophy on assertions   
which have nothing in  them of theory or
 hypothesis2 they are in immediate      
reference to three  ultimate            
facts--namely1 the reality of the law of

 conscience2 the  existence of a        
responsible will as the subject of the  
law2 and lastly1  the existence of      
evil--of evil essentially such1 not by  
accident of  circumstances1 not derived 
from physical consequences1 nor from any
  cause out of itself4 ,the first is a  
fact of consciousness1 the second a     
fact of reason necessarily concluded    
from the first1 and the third a  fact of
 history interpreted by both4    ,i     
maintain that a will conceived          
separately from intelligence is a       
non-entity1 and that a will the state of
 which does in no sense  originate in   
its own act is a contradiction4 ,it     
might be an instinct1 an  impulse1 and1 
if accompanied with consciousness1 a    
desire2 but a will it  could not be4    
,and this every human being knows with  
equal clearness1  though different minds
 may reflect on it with different       
degrees of  distinctness2 for who would 
not smile at the notion of a rose       
willing to  put forth its buds and      

expand them into flowers8    ,i deem it 
impious and absurd to hold that the     
,creator would have given  us the       
faculty of reason1 or that the ,redeemer
 would in so many varied  forms of      
argument and persuasion have appealed to
 it1 if it had been  useless or         
impotent4 ,i believe that the imperfect 
human understanding  can be effectually 
exerted only in subordination to1 and in
 a dependent  alliance with1 the means  
and aidances supplied by the supreme    
reason4    ,christianity is not a       
theory1 or a speculation1 but a life4   
,not a  philosophy of life1 but life1   
and a living process4 ,it has been      
eighteen  hundred years in existence4   
,the practical inquirer has his foot on 
the rock when he knows that  whoever    
needs not a ,redeemer is more than      
human4 ,remove from him the             
difficulties that perplex his belief in 
a crucified ,saviour1 convince  him of  
the reality of sin1 and then satisfy him
 as to the fact  historically1 and as to

 the truth spiritually1 of a redemption 
therefrom  by ,christ4 ,do this for him1
 and there is little fear that he will  
let  either logical quirks or           
metaphysical puzzles contravene the     
plain  dictate of his commonsense1 that 
the ,sinless ,one that redeemed mankind 
from sin must have been more than man1  
and that ,he who brought light and      
immortality into the world could not in 
,his own nature have been an  inheritor 
of death and darkness4    ,a moral evil 
is an evil that has its origin in a     
will4 ,an evil common to  all must have 
a ground common to all4 ,now1 this evil 
ground cannot  originate in the ,divine 
will2 it must1 therefore1 be referred to
 the  will of man4 ,and this evil ground
 we call original sin4 ,it is a         
mystery--that is1 a fact which we see1  
but cannot explain2 and the  doctrine a 
truth which we apprehend1 but can       
neither comprehend nor  communicate4    
,the article on original sin is binding 
on the ,christian only as showing  the  

antecedent ground and occasion of       
,christianity1 which is the edifice     
raised on this ground4 ,the two great   
moments of the ,christian religion  are1
 original sin and redemption2 that the  
ground1 this the  superstructure of our 
faith4 ,christianity and redemption are 
equivalent  terms4    ,the agent and    
personal cause of the redemption of     
mankind is--the  co-eternal word and    
only begotten ,son of the living ,god4  
,the causation  act is--a spiritual and 
transcendent mystery1 that passeth all  
understanding4 ,the effect caused       
is--the being born anew1 as before in   
the flesh to the world1 so now born in  
the spirit to ,christ4    ,now1 albeit  
the causative act is a transcendent     
mystery1 the fact1 or  actual truth1 of 
it having been assured to us by         
revelation1 it is not  impossible1 by   
steadfast meditation on the idea and    
supernatural  character of a personal   
will1 for a mind spiritually disciplined
 to  satisfy itself that the redemptive 

act supposes an agent who can at once   
act on the will as an exciting cause1   
and in the will1 as the condition  of   
its potential1 and the ground of its    
actual1 being4    ,the frequent1 not to 
say ordinary1 disproportion between     
moral worth and  worldly prosperity has 
at all times led the observant and      
reflecting few  to a nicer consideration
 of the current belief1 whether         
instinctive or  traditional4 ,by forcing
 the soul in upon herself1 this enigma  
of saint  and sage1 from ,job1 ,david1  
and ,solomon to ,claudian and ,botius1  
this  perplexing disparity of success   
and desert1 has been the occasion of a  
steadier and more distinct consciousness
 of a something in man1  different in   
kind1 which distinguishes and           
contra-distinguishes him from           
animals--at the same time that it has   
brought into closer view an enigma  of  
yet harder solution--the fact1 ,i mean1 
of a contradiction in the  human being1 
of which no traces are observable       

elsewhere1 in animated or  inanimate    
nature4    ,a struggle of jarring       
impulses2 a mysterious division between 
the  injunctions of the mind and the    
elections of the will2 and the utter    
incommensurateness and the unsatisfying 
qualities of the things around  us1 that
 yet are the only objects which our     
senses discover or our  appetites       
require us to pursue2 these facts       
suggest that the riddle of  fortune and 
circumstance is but a form of the riddle
 of man1 and that  the solution of both 
problems lies in the acknowledgement    
that the soul  of man1 as the subject of
 mind and will1 possesses a principle of
  permanence and is destined to endure4 
,evidences of ,christianity6 ,i am weary
 of the word4 ,make a man feel the  want
 of it2 rouse him1 if you can1 to the   
self-knowledge of his need of  it2 and  
you may safely trust it to its own      
evidence--remembering only  the express 
declaration of ,christ himself1 ,no man 
cometh to ,me1 unless  the ,father      

leadeth him4    ,christ's awful         
recalling of the drowsed soul from the  
dreams and phantom  world of sensuality 
to actual reality--how has it been      
evaded6 ,his word1  that was spirit6    
,his mysteries1 which even the apostles 
must wait for  the parable in order to  
comprehend6 ,these spiritual things1    
which can  only be spiritually          
discerned1 were--say some--mere         
metaphors6 ,figures  of speech6         
,oriental hyperboles6 ,all this means   
only morality6 ,ah6 how  far nearer the 
truth to say that morality means all    
this6             99       99       99  
99       99        ,,confucianism       
,,the ,,lun ,,yu1 ,,or ,,sayings ,,of   
,,confucius           ,the so-called    
,four ,books of ,chinese literature are 
held in       less esteem than the ,five
 ,kings1 or ,primary ,classics1 but     
they are still studied first by every   
,chinaman as a       preparation for    
what is regarded as the higher and more 
important literature4 ,it should be     

borne in mind that the four       ,shus1
 as these books are called1 tell us much
 more about the       actual teaching   
and history of ,confucius4 ,the four    
books are3       7i7 ,the ,lun ,yu1 or  
the ,analects of ,confucius1 which      
contain chiefly the sayings and         
conversations of ,confucius1       and  
give1 ostensibly in his own words1 his  
teaching1 and1 in a       subordinate   
degree1 that of his principal disciples2
 7#b7 the       ,ta-,hsio1 or ,teaching 
for ,adults1 rendered also the ,great   
,learning1 a treatise dealing with      
ethical and especially with             
political matters1 forming ,book #ci of 
the ,li-,ki1 or ,book of       ,rites1  
the ,fourth ,classic1 7#c7 the ,chung   
,yung1 or       ,doctrine of the ,mean1 
more correctly the ,state of            
,equilibrium or harmony1 forming ,book  
#bh of the ,li-,ki2 and       7#d7      
,meng-tse1 ,latinised ,mencius1 that is1
 the       conversations and opinions of
 ,mencius4 ,the first1 the ,lun         

,yu1 or ,analects1 is the most important
 of these1 the next       in importance 
being the teaching of ,mencius4 ,the    
book to which       we are most indebted
 in the preparation of the following    
epitomes is ,the ,chinese ,classics1    
edited by ,dr4 ,j4 ,legge4       ,other 
books are ,the ,sayings of ,confucius1  
translated by ,s4,a4       ,lyall2      
,chinese ,literature1 by ,h4,a4 ,giles2 
and ,the ,wisdom of       ,confucius1 by
 ,g4 ,dimsdale ,stacker4                
,,introductory      ,the original of the
 ,chinese title of the ,lun ,yu is      
literally  ,discourses and ,dialogues4  
,by ,legge and most ,british ,chinese   
scholars  this work is called ,the      
,confucian ,analects1 the word analect  
denoting things chosen1 in the present  
case from the utterances of the  master4
    ,the ,lun ,yu is arranged in twenty 
chapters or books1 and gives1           
ostensibly in his own words1 the        
teaching of ,confucius and that of his  
leading disciples4 ,it is here that we  

learn nearly all that we know  about    
,confucius4 ,since the work was         
composed1 as we have it1 within a       
century of the master's death1 there    
seems good reason for believing  that we
 have here a bona-fide record of what he
 thought and said4 ,we  may compare with
 the ,lun ,yu the ,christian ,gospels   
which profess to  give the doctrines and
 sayings of ,jesus1 and also the        
traditional  utterances of ,mohammed    
edited by ,al-,bokhari1 who died in #hgj
 ,a4,d4 ,the  utterances which follow   
are by the master 7,confucius7 himself1 
unless it  is otherwise stated4 ,other  
speakers are generally disciples of     
,confucius4      ,,general ,,maxims     
,i care little who makes a nation's laws
 if ,i have the making of its  ballads4 
,the young child ought to be obedient at
 home1 modest from home1  attentive1    
faithful1 full of benevolence1 spending 
spare time mostly  upon poetry1 music1  
and deportment4    ,a son ought to study
 his father's wishes as long as the     

father lives2  and after the father is  
dead he should study his life1 and      
respect his  memory4    ,a man who is   
fond of learning is not a glutton1 nor  
is he indolent2 he  is earnest and      
sincere in what he says and does1 seeks 
the company of  the good1 and profits by
 it4    ,at fifteen my whole mind was on
 study4 ,at thirty ,i was able to stand 
alone4 ,at forty my speculative doubts  
came to an end4 ,at fifty ,i  understood
 ,heaven's laws4 ,at sixty my passions  
responded to higher  instincts4 ,at     
seventy my better nature ruled me       
altogether4    ,mere study without      
thought is useless1 but thought without 
study is  dangerous4    ,fine words and 
attractive appearances are seldom       
associated with true  goodness4    ,if a
 man keeps cultivating his old knowledge
 and be ever adding to it  new1 that man
 is fit to be a teacher of others4      
,the superior man is broad-minded1 and  
no partisan4 ,the mean man is  biased   
and narrow4    ,tze-chang studied with a

 view to official promotion4 ,the master
 said1  ,this is wrong1 adding1 ,thou   
shouldest listen much1 keep silent when 
there is doubt1 and guard thy tongue4   
,see much1 beware of dangers1 and  walk 
warily4 ,then shalt thou have little    
cause for repentance4    ,i do not know 
how a man can get on without truth4 ,it 
is easier for a  waggon to go without a 
cross-pole1 or a carriage to be drawn   
without  harness4    ,neither courtesy  
nor music avail a man if he has not     
virtue and love4    ,worship the dead as
 though they stood alive before you4    
,sacrifice to the  spirits as if they   
were in your immediate presence4    ,if 
,i am not personally present when the   
sacrifice is being made1 then ,i  do not
 sacrifice4 ,there can be no proxy in   
this matter4    ,tze-kung wanted to do  
away with the offering of a sheep at the
 new moon4  ,the master said1 ,thou     
lovest the sheep1 but ,i love the       
ceremony4    ,these things are not to be
 tolerated3 ,rank without generosity1   

ritual  without reverence1 and mourning 
without genuine sorrow4    ,it is better
 to have virtue with want and ignominy1 
than wealth and  honour without virtue4 
,if a man in the morning learns the     
right way of life he may die at night   
without regret4    ,a scholar's mind    
should be set on the search for truth1  
and he should  not be ashamed of poor   
clothes or of plain or even of          
insufficient food4    ,the superior man 
loves the good and pursues it2 besides  
this1 he has no  likes or dislikes4     
,the good man considers what is right2  
the bad man what will pay4    ,as long  
as thy parents live thou must not go far
 from them4 ,but if  through necessity  
thou leavest them1 let them know where  
thou art1 and  be ready to come to them 
when needed4    ,the man who governs    
himself1 restraining his passions1      
seldom goes  wrong4    ,the good man    
desires to be slow of speech1 but active
 in conduct4    ,virtue stands never    
alone4 ,it will always make neighbours4 

,in my first dealings with men ,i       
listened to their words1 and gave them  
credit for good conduct4 ,experience has
 taught me not to listen to their  words
 but to watch their conduct4 ,it was    
from ,yu that ,i learned this  lesson4  
,i have met no man of strong and        
unbending will2 even ,chang is          
passionate4    ,on being asked why      
,kung-wan was said to be cultured1 the  
master replied1  ,because he was quick  
to learn1 fond of learning1 and         
especially because  he was not ashamed  
to ask questions of those below him4 ,of
 ,tze-chang  the master said that he had
 four characteristics of the gentleman3 
he  was humble in his own life1         
respectful towards seniors1 generous in 
supplying the needs of the people1 and  
just in all his demands of them4    ,yen
 ,yuan and ,chi ,lu were once sitting by
 the master1 who turned to them  and    
said1 ,come1 ,i want each of you to tell
 me his wishes4 ,chi ,lu said1  ,i      
should like to have carriages and horses

 and light fur robes to share  with my  
friends that they1 and ,i1 may          
carelessly wear them out4 ,yen  ,yuan   
said1 ,my wish is to make no boast of   
moral or intellectual  excellence4 ,the 
master said1 ,my wish is this3 to make  
the aged happy1  to show sincerity      
towards friends1 and to treat young     
people with  tenderness and sympathy4   
,nature preponderating over art begets  
coarseness2 art preponderating  over    
nature begets pedantry2 art and nature  
united make a proper  gentleman4    ,to 
men whose talents are above mediocrity  
we speak of superior things4  ,to men   
whose talents are below the common we   
must speak things suited to  their      
culture4    ,on being asked1 ,what is   
wisdom1 the master replied1 ,to promote 
right  thoughts and feelings among men2 
to honour the spirits of the dead4 ,in  
reply to the question1 ,what is love8   
the master answered1 ,making most  of   
self-sacrificing efforts but of success 
only in a subordinate  degree4          

,perfect virtue consists in keeping to  
the ,golden ,mean4 ,he who has  offended
 against ,heaven has no one to whom he  
can pray4    ,men should not murmur     
against ,heaven1 for all that ,heaven   
does is good4    ,the master paid great 
attention to three things--piety1 peace1
 and  health4    ,if ,i have coarse rice
 to eat and pure water to drink1 and my 
bent arm  for a pillow1 ,i am content   
and happy4 ,but ill-gotten riches and   
honour  are to me as a floating cloud4  
,if my life could be lengthened out by a
 few years1 ,i would devote at  least   
fifty years to the study of the ,yi     
,king ,book of ,changes1 then  might ,i 
be purified from my sin4      ,,on      
,,poetry1 ,,history1 ,,and ,,propriety  
,the master constantly talked about     
poetry1 history1 and the rules of       
propriety4    ,tze-lu1 on being asked   
about ,confucius1 gave no answer4 ,the  
master asked  about being present1 said1
 ,why didst thou not say to him1        
',confucius is  a man so eager in the   

pursuit of knowledge that he forgets his
 food1 so  jubilant in its attainment   
that he forgets his grief and grows old 
without knowing it'8    ,i was not born 
in the possession of knowledge1 but ,i  
am fond of the past  and study it       
closely1 and hence knowledge is coming  
to me4    ,my pupils1 do not think that 
,i hide anything from you4 ,whatever ,i 
think  and do ,i tell you frankly and   
truly4 ,i keep no secrets from my       
disciples4    ,the master used to teach 
four things3 culture1 morals1 and       
manners1  piety1 and faithfulness4      
,in knowledge and in culture ,i am      
perhaps the equal of other men4 ,i have 
not yet attained to perfection1 nor are 
my knowledge and living  consistent4    
,the master once being very ill1 ,tze-lu
 asked permission to pray for him4  ,the
 master asked1 ,is that customary8 ,it  
is1 replied the disciple1  for the      
memorials have it1 ',pray to the spirits
 in heaven above and on  earth below4'  
,the master replied1 ,i have for long   

prayed for myself1  and that is best4   
,the master was dignified1 yet gentle4  
,he was majestic1 but inspired no  fear4
 ,he was gentlemanly1 but always at     
ease4    ,poetry rouses the mind1 the   
rules of propriety establish the        
character1  music crowns a man's        
education4    ,it would be hard to meet 
a man who has studied for three years   
without  learning something good4       
,learn as though you felt you could     
never learn enough1 and as though you   
feared you could not learn in your short
 life what is needful for  conduct4     
,a man from a certain village once said1
 ,confucius is1 no doubt1 a very        
learned man1 but he has not made himself
 a name in any special thing4  ,when the
 master heard this1 he said to his      
disciples1 ,what shall ,i  undertake3   
charioteering1 archery1 or what8 ,i     
think ,i shall become a  charioteer1 and
 thus get me a name4    ,a high officer 
asked ,tze-kung1 ,may we not say that   
the master is a sage  because he can do 

so many things8 ,to which ,tze-kung     
replied1 ,heaven  has indeed highly     
endowed him1 and he is almost a sage2   
and he is very  many-sided4    ,on      
hearing this the master said1 ,does the 
officer know me8 ,being of  lowly birth 
when ,i was young1 ,i learnt many a     
trade1 but there was  nothing great in  
that4 ,the superior man may excel in one
 thing only1 and  not in many things4   
,wishing to go and live among the nine  
wild tribes of the ,east1 one of  his   
friends remonstrated with the master and
 said1 ,they are low4 ,how  can you go  
and live among them8 ,to which he gave  
for answer1 ,nothing  that is low can   
survive where the virtuous and the      
good-mannered man  is4    ,after ,i     
returned from ,wei to ,lu ,i found the  
music had been reformed1 and  that each 
song was given its proper place4    ,the
 master said1 ,to serve ministers and   
nobles when abroad1 fathers and  elder  
brothers when at home1 to avoid neglect 
in offerings of the dead1  and to be no 

slave to wine3 to which of these have ,i
 attained8      ,,confucius ,,at ,,home 
,,and ,,at ,,court      ,in his own     
village ,confucius looked homely and    
sincere1 as if he had no  word to say2  
but in the ancestral temple and in the  
court he was full of  words1 though     
careful in using them4    ,when waiting 
at court he talked with the lower       
officers frankly1 but to  the higher    
officers more blandly and precisely4    
,when the sovereign was  present he used
 to be respectful but easy1 solemn yet  
self-possessed4  ,when the sovereign    
bade him receive visitors his           
countenance changed1  and his legs      
appeared to bend4 ,bowing to those      
beside him1 he  straightened his robes  
in front and behind1 hastening forward  
with his  elbows extended like a bird's 
wings4 ,when the guest had retired he   
used  to report to the prince1 saying1  
,the guest does not any more look  back4
 ,when he entered the palace gate he    
seemed to stoop as though it  were not  

high enough for him4 ,ascending the     
dais1 lifting up his robes  with both   
hands1 he held his breath as if he would
 cease breathing4 ,as  he came down his 
face relaxed after the first step1 and  
looked more at  ease4 ,at the bottom of 
the steps he would hurry on1 spreading  
out his  elbows like wings1 and on      
gaining his seat he would sit intent as 
previously4    ,he was never arrayed in 
deep purple or in puce-coloured         
garments4 ,even  at home he wore nothing
 of a red or reddish colour4 ,in hot    
weather he  used to wear a single       
garment of fine texture1 but always over
 an inner  garment4 ,over lambs' fur he 
wore a garment of black1 over fawns' fur
 one  of white1 and over foxes' fur one 
of yellow4 ,his sleeping-dress was half 
as long again as his body4 ,on the first
 day of the month he always went  to    
court in court robes4 ,on fast days he  
wore pale-hued garments1  changed his   
food1 and made a change in his          
apartment4    ,he liked to have his rice

 carefully cleaned and his minced meat  
chopped  small4 ,he did not eat rice    
that had been injured by heat or damp or
 that  had turned sour1 nor could he eat
 fish or meat which had gone4 ,he did   
not eat anything that was discoloured or
 that had a bad flavour1 or that  was   
not in season4 ,he would not eat meat   
badly cut1 or that was served  with the 
wrong sauce4 ,no choice of meats could  
induce him to eat more  than he thought 
right4    ,after sacrificing at the     
ancestral temple he would never keep the
 meat  there overnight1 nor would he    
keep it more than three days at home4   
,if  by any mishap it were kept longer1 
it was not eaten4    ,he never talked at
 meals1 nor would he speak a word in    
bed4 ,though there  were on the table   
nothing but coarse rice and vegetable   
soup1 he would  always reverently offer 
some of it to his ancestors4 ,if his mat
 was not  straight he would not sit on  
it4      ,,on ,,learning ,,and ,,virtue 
,chung-kung asked about virtue4 ,the    

master said3 ,it consists in these      
things3 ,to treat those outside thine   
own home as if thou wert welcoming  a   
great guest2 to treat the people as if  
thou wert assisting at a high           
sacrifice2 not to do to others what thou
 wouldest not have them do to  thee2 to 
encourage no wrongs in the state nor any
 in the home4    ,the master being once 
asked ,who is the virtuous man8         
answered1 ,one  that has neither anxiety
 nor fear1 for he finds no evil in his  
heart4  ,what1 then1 is there to cause  
anxiety or fear8    ,the master1 on     
being once asked by one of his disciples
 ,on what does  the art of government   
depend8 answered1 ,sufficient food1     
troops1 and a  loyal people4 ,if1       
however1 the same disciple asked1 one of
 them had  to be dispensed with1 which  
of the three could we best spare8       
,troops1  said the master4 ,and which1  
the disciple then asked1 of the other   
two  could be better spared8 ,food1 said
 the master4    ,tze-chang asked the    

master1 ,when may a scholar or an       
officer be called  eminent8 ,the master 
asked1 ,what dost thou mean by being    
eminent8 ,to  which the other answered1 
,to be famous throughout the state and  
throughout his clan4 ,but that1 said the
 master1 is fame1 not  eminence4 ,the   
truly eminent man is genuine and        
straightforward2 he loves               
righteousness1 weighs people's words1   
and looks at their countenances4  ,he   
humbles himself to others1 and is       
sincerely desirous of helping all4      
,that is the1 eminent man1 though he may
 not be a famous one4    ,if a ruler can
 govern himself1 he is likely to be able
 to govern his  people4 ,but how can a  
man who has not control of himself keep 
his people  in subjection8    ,tze-kung 
asked1 ,is it proper that a man should  
be liked by all his  neighbours8        
,certainly not1 said the master4 ,is it 
then proper1  asked the same1 that a man
 should be hated by all his neighbours8 
,decidedly not1 said the master4 ,the   

good man is loved by his good           
neighbours1 and hated by his bad ones4  
,the virtuous man is hard to satisfy1   
but easy to serve4 ,nothing that  thou  
doest to please him satisfies him unless
 it is strictly according  to right4    
,but in all his demands upon his        
servants he expects according  to       
capacity1 and is satisfied if the       
servant does his best1 though it be     
little4 ,the bad man is easy to satisfy1
 but hard to serve4 ,he is  satisfied   
with whatever pleases him1 though it be 
not right2 and he  demands of his       
servants whatever he requires1 making no
 allowance for  capacity4    ,a scholar 
whose mind is set upon comfort is not   
worthy of the name4    ,where there's a 
will1 said the master1 there's a way4   
,to refrain from speaking to a man who  
is disposed to hear is to wrong  the    
man2 to speak to a man not disposed to  
listen is to waste words4    ,how can   
one in brief express man's whole duty8  
,is not reciprocity such a word8 said   

the master2 that is1 what thou  dost not
 want others to do to thee1 do thou not 
to others4    ,there are three things   
which the virtuous man has to guard     
against4 ,in  youth1 lust2 in full      
manhood1 strife2 and in old age1        
covetousness4    ,the highest class of  
men are those who are born wise2 the    
next those who  become wise by study2   
next and third1 those who learn much1   
without  having much natural ability4   
,the lowest class of people are those   
who  have neither natural ability nor   
perseverance4 ,men are very similar at  
birth2 it is afterwards the great       
differences arise4    ,it is only the   
wisest and the silliest of men who never
 alter their  opinions4    ,my children1
 said the master once to his disciples1 
,why do you not  study the ,book of     
,poetry the ,shih ,king8 ,it would      
stimulate your mind1  encourage         
introspection1 teach you to love your   
fellows1 and to forbear  with all4 ,it  
would show you your duty to your fathers

 and your king2 and  you would also     
learn from it the names of many birds   
and beasts and  plants and trees4       
,,ta-,,hsio1 ,,or ,,teaching ,,for      
,,adults      ,,introductory      ,the  
,ta-,hsio1 or ,teaching for ,adults1    
rendered also ,the ,great  ,learning1 is
 really a treatise dealing with ethical1
 and especially  with political1        
matters1 the duties of rulers1          
ministers1 etc4 ,it is  usually ascribed
 in part to the master himself1 and in  
part to ,tseng  ,tsan1 one of the most  
illustrious of his disciples4 ,this     
forms ,book #ci  of the ,li ,ki1 or     
,book of ,rites1 and it is admitted by  
the best  scholars to be a genuine      
specimen of the teaching of ,confucius1 
though  no one believes that the master 
is the author of the book as it now     
stands4 ,the likeliest suggestion as to 
authorship is that which ascribes  the  
present treatise1 and also the ,chung   
,yung 7,no4 #bh of the ,li ,ki7  to     
,khung ,chi1 the grandson of ,confucius4

    ,the great ,chinese philosopher     
,chang said of this book3 ',the teaching
  for ,adults' is a book belonging to   
the ,confucian school1 forming the  gate
 through which youthful students enter  
the great temple of virtue4  ,we should 
not have been able to ascertain the     
methods of learning  pursued by the     
ancients if this book and the works of  
,mencius had not  been preserved4       
,beginners ought to start their studies 
with this book1  and then pass on to the
 harder books1 after which the ,five    
,classics  should be read and pondered  
over4    ,the object of the ,ta-,hsio is
 to illustrate outstanding virtue1 to   
promote love of the people and their    
improvement in morals and manners4  ,in 
order that these results may be         
obtained1 this treatise must be         
patiently calmly1 and thoughtfully      
studied4      ,,how ,,the ,,empire ,,is 
,,to ,,be ,,improved      ,the ancients1
 wishing to make their empire perfect1  
first endeavoured to  make their states 

perfect4 ,for this last purpose they    
exerted themselves  to improve their    
famines1 and to this end they took great
 pains to  improve their personal       
character4 ,in order to improve their   
personal  character1 they endeavoured to
 purify their hearts and to make their  
thoughts sincere4    ,from the ,son of  
,heaven the ,emperor to the masses of   
the people1 the  cultivation of personal
 character was regarded as the root of  
all  amelioration4 ,to know this has    
been called knowing the root1 which is  
the perfection of knowledge4    ,on     
,thang's bathing-tub these words were   
inscribed3    ,renovate thyself day by  
day1 yea1 every day renovate thyself4   
,at the  opening of his reign1 ,thang   
was exhorted to renovate his people4    
,in the ,book of ,poetry it is said that
 although ,kau was an ancient state1    
yet it regarded ,heaven's commands as   
ever new4 ,in the same book we read     
that the thoughts of the ,emperor ,wan  
were deep1 and his conduct firm4 ,in    

all his relationships he was reverent   
and true4 ,as a sovereign he was        
benevolent2 as a minister respectful2 as
 a son he exhibited filial  piety2 as a 
father he was kind and considerate2     
towards his subjects he  was steadfastly
 faithful4 ,this virtuous and           
accomplished sovereign1 ,wan1  took     
great pains to sharpen his intellect and
 to make his heart more  sensitive to   
all obligations4 ,how majestic1 how     
glorious was he2 he  shall ever be      
remembered by his grateful people at the
 ancestral shrine4    ,the cultivation  
of personal character depends upon the  
regulation of  the mind4 ,what does this
 mean8 ,if a man's passions are not kept
 under  control1 he will form wrong     
judgments about actions and never have a
  well-balanced mind4 ,therefore must   
man regulate his mind in order to       
cultivate himself4 ,the government of   
the family depends upon the  cultivation
 of personal character4 ,what does this 
mean8 ,where there is  affection1       

judgment is distorted4 ,we see the good 
qualities of those we  love1 but are    
blind to the bad ones4 ,we see the bad  
qualities of those  we hate1 but are    
blind to the good ones4 ,in order to be 
able to govern a  family rightly1 we    
must train our minds to judge fairly and
 impartially  of those nearest to       
us--i4e41 it requires careful           
self-training to be  able to train a    
family4    ,we must be able to govern   
the family before we can rule a state4  
,what  means this8 ,if a man fails to   
teach the members of his own family to  
be  obedient and loyal to their head1   
how can he train a nation to be  united1
 obedient1 and loyal8    ,yas and ,shun 
ruled with love1 and the people became  
loving4 ,kieh and ,kau  ruled with      
violence1 and the people became violent4
 ,the sovereign must  have and exhibit  
the same qualities that he wishes his   
subjects to  cultivate4 ,nor has he the 
right to expect his people to be free   
from bad  qualities which are in        

himself4 ,the ruler must himself be what
 he wants  his people to be4 ,thus it is
 that the government of the state rests 
upon  the proper government of the      
family4    ,that the empire should have 
peace and prosperity depends upon the   
government of the constituting states4  
,what does this mean8    ,when ruler and
 ministers treat their aged ones as they
 ought to1 the  inhabitants in general  
become filial4 ,similarly1 the          
inhabitants learn  to show respect      
towards their seniors and sympathy      
towards the young  when their superiors 
set them the right example in these     
matters4 ,no man  should treat his      
inferiors as he would not like his      
superiors to treat  him4 ,what he       
disapproves of in his inferiors1 let him
 not exhibit in his  dealings towards   
his superiors4    ,in the ,book of      
,poetry it is written1 ,the parents of  
the people are much  to be              
congratulated4 ,a sovereign whose loves 
and hates correspond with  those of his 

people is his people's father4 ,to gain 
the people is to  gain the state2       
therefore a ruler's primary concern     
should be his own  integrity1 for       
thereby he wins his people's loyalty1   
and through that  loyalty he obtains the
 state1 and therewith the wealth of the 
whole  country4    ,virtue is the root1 
wealth but the branches4 ,see first1    
therefore1 to  the root4    ,in the     
,records of ,khu one reads1 ,the ,state 
of ,khu values men1 not gems  nor robes4
    ,a country is wealthy if it consumes
 less than it produces1 and that man  is
 rich whose income exceeds his          
expenditure4    ,the virtuous ruler     
gathers wealth on account of the        
reputation it can  bring him4 ,the      
wicked ruler seeks wealth for its own   
sake1 sacrificing  even virtue to obtain
 it4    ,a benevolent sovereign makes a 
just people4 ,when the people are just  
the  affairs of the sovereign prosper4  
,the state's prosperity consists in     
righteousness1 not in riches4           

,,chung ,,yung1 ,,or ,,doctrine ,,of    
,,the ,,mean      ,,introductory        
,the ,chung ,yung is more correctly     
rendered ,the state of equilibrium  and 
harmony 7,legge1 etc47 than by ,the     
,doctrine of the ,mean1 its usual       
appellation4 ,other titles suggested    
have been ,the ,just ,mean1 ,the ,true  
,mean1 ,the ,golden ,mean1 and ,the     
,constant ,mean4 ,the word chung  means 
middle1 yung denoting course or way4    
,hence1 ,chung ,yung  means literally1  
,the middle way4 ,compare ,aristotle's  
doctrine of ,the  ,mean 7,ethics ,book  
,,ii474    ,this treatise occurs as     
,book #bh of the ,li-,ki and by ,chinese
 scholars  has been declared to be the  
most valuable part of the ,book of      
,rites4 ,we  have here the fullest      
account existing of the philosophy and  
ethics of  the master4 ,apart from its  
value as such1 the ,chung ,yung is      
exceedingly interesting as a monument of
 the teaching of the ancient  ,chinese4 
,in its existing form the ,chung ,yung  

is arranged in five  divisions1         
containing1 in all1 thirty-three        
chapters4 ,no attempt is made  in the   
epitomes that follow to retain these    
divisions and chapters4 ,for  the       
authorship and date of this third book  
see what is said in the  introduction to
 the ,ta-,hsio4      ,,the ,,good       
,,man',s ,,path      ,the sense of      
obligation has been implanted in man by 
,heaven4 ,the path of  duty is a life in
 accordance with this heaven-implanted  
intuition4 ,every  man ought always to  
tread this path2 the true doctrine      
teaches how this  is to be accomplished4
 ,the good man will ever be on his guard
 lest he  depart a hair's breadth from  
the right way4    ,the mental state of  
equilibrium is reached when a man is    
free from the  distracting influences of
 anger and goodwill1 joy and sorrow4    
,when these  emotions exist in due      
proportion and extent the state of      
harmony is  attained4 ,from the first   
proceed all great human enterprises4    

,the state  of harmony is the path along
 which all good men will go4 ,when the  
states  of equilibrium and harmony exist
 in their fulness gods and men receive  
their dues1 and there is prosperity and 
happiness4    ,kung-ni#h said1 ,the     
virtuous man embodies in himself the    
states of  equilibrium and harmony1 but 
the low man knows neither of these      
states4  ,this perfect condition of     
human character in which there is       
complete  equilibrium and harmony is    
reached but by few4 ,why is this so8 ,it
 is  because those who are wise consider
 these ideal states too commonplace1    
and they aim at things which the world  
values more highly4 ,the low man1  on   
the other hand1 grovels in the dust and 
never rises to higher  thoughts or      
nobler aims4 ,men could1 if they would1 
distinguish the  worthy from the        
unworthy1 just as with a healthy palate 
they can tell  good food from bad4 ,but 
men's moral discernment has been blunted
 by a  life of sensuality and sin1 just 

as the physical palate loses its power  
of tasting when in a diseased condition4
    ,in order to find out the ,mean1 our
 ,father ,shun1 of blessed memory1 used 
to question the people#i and study their
 answers1 even the shallow  ones4 ,he   
used to encourage them to speak out by  
seeming to value the  poorest answers4  
,he would take the extremest sayings he 
heard1 and from  them deduce the ,mean4 
,it is hard to keep in the middle way3  
men rule kingdoms and accept  honours   
and emoluments who have yet signally    
failed to govern themselves  by the     
rules of the ,mean4    ,the good man's  
ambition is not to perform feats which  
startle the world  and give him fame1   
but rather to live the life of the      
moderate and  harmonious one2 yet how   
often for lack of true discernment he   
fails6  ,this middle path is not1       
however1 hidden from the sincere and    
pure2 even  common men and women may    
know it1 though in its highest reaches  
it  baffles the wisest4 ,the greatest   

and the wisest and the best find lodged 
within them unrealised ideals4 ,whoever 
strenuously aims at realising  these    
ideals1 though he fails1 is near the    
right path4    ,the good man has four   
difficulties1 said the master1 and ,i   
have not  myself been able to overcome  
them4 7#a7 ,to serve my father as ,i    
should  like my son to serve me4 7#b7   
,to serve my ruler as ,i should like him
 to  serve me were ,i his ruler4 7#c7   
,to serve an elder brother as ,i should 
like him to serve me were he my younger 
brother4 7#d7 ,to act towards a  friend 
as ,i should like him to act towards me 
were our relations  reversed4#aj    ,the
 good man suits his conduct to his      
station in life4 ,if he has wealth  and 
high office he acts becomingly1 never   
treating his inferiors with  harshness  
or contempt4 ,if he be poor and         
unrecognised1 he never murmurs  against 
heaven1 or pines over his lot1 or       
cringes before superiors1 or  does      
anything immoral for applause or gain4  

,the virtuous man accepts  heaven's     
allotments thankfully and               
uncomplainingly4    ,in order to attain 
to the middle path we must carefully    
perform the  duties which lie nearest to
 us1 not waiting to do great things4 ,in
 the  ,book of ,poetry we read of the   
love of wife1 of children1 and brothers4
  ,cultivate this love on the home      
hearth1 and thy charity will expand and 
take in mankind4 ,note how charity1     
though beginning at home1 travels  far  
afield4    ,shun displayed his filial   
piety on a huge scale1 and brought great
  honour to his parents and to himself4 
,no wonder that such filial piety  as   
his was rewarded with dominion1 wealth1 
and fame4 ,it is well said in  the ,book
 of ,poetry1 ,the good man receives     
,heaven's benediction4    ,the ,emperor 
,wan was the only man with no cause for 
grief1 his father  being the admirable  
,ki1 and his son the equally admirable  
,wu4 ,the father  laid the foundation of
 all this excellence1 the son           

transmitting it to  his own son4 ,the   
,emperor ,wu retained the honour and    
distinction of his  forebears ,thai1    
,kai1 and ,wan4 ,he had the dignity of  
the true ,son of  ,heaven1 and owned all
 within the ,four ,seas4#aa ,he         
sacrificed regularly  in the ancestral  
temple1 and after death his successors  
sacrificed to  him4 ,the ,duke of ,kau  
continued the glorious traditions handed
 on by ,wu4  ,both these great rulers   
realised the aspirations and wishes of  
their  forefathers1 restoring and       
improving the ancestral temple1         
renovating  the sacred vessels and      
offering sacrifices suited to each year4
 ,in other  ways also they perpetuated  
the good deeds of their ancestors1      
observed  their religious rites1        
encouraged the study of music and       
poetry1  honoured the honourable1 and   
loved the lovable4 ,they showed due     
respect  to their departed ones1 and    
thus discharged their duty to the living
 and  the dead4      ,,the ,,works ,,of 

,,mencius    ,,introductory             
,mencius is the ,latinised form of      
,mengtse1 which means the philosopher   
,meng1 ,meng 7or ,meng-sun7 being the   
name of one of the three great  ,houses 
of ,lu1 whose usurpations gave so much  
offence to ,confucius4 ,his  personal   
name was ,ko1 though this does not occur
 in his own works4 ,he  was born in     
,b4,c4 #cgb1 and died in ,b4,c4 #bhi at 
the age of #hc1 in the  twenty-sixth    
year of the ,emperor ,nan1 with whom    
ended the long  sovereignty of ,kau     
7,chow7 dynasty4 ,he was thus a         
contemporary of ,plato  7whose last     
twenty-three years synchronised with his
 first  twenty-three71 ,aristotle1      
,zeno1 ,epicurus1 and ,demosthenes1 and 
he is  well worthy of being ranked with 
these illustrious men4    ,mencius was  
reared by his widowed mother1 whose     
virtue and wisdom are  still proverbial 
in ,china4 ,the first forty years of his
 life are  virtually a blank to us1 so  
that we know very little of his early   

education4 ,he is said1 however1 to have
 studied under ,khung ,chi1 the         
grandson of ,confucius4    ,in the      
hundred and six years between the death 
of ,confucius 7,b4,c4 #dgh7  and the    
birth of ,mencius 7,b4,c4 #cgb71 the    
political and moral state of  ,china had
 altered greatly for the worse4 ,the    
smaller feudal states had  been         
swallowed up by larger ones1 the princes
 were constantly at war  with one       
another1 and there was but little       
loyalty to the occupant of  the imperial
 throne2 moreover1 the moral standard of
 things had lowered  very much4 ,at     
about the age of forty-five ,mencius    
became ,minister under  ,prince ,hsuan1 
of the ,chi state4 ,but as his master   
refused to carry out  the reforms he    
urged1 he resigned his post and         
travelled through many  lands1 advising 
rulers and ministers with whom he came  
in contact4 ,in  the year ,b4,c4 #cai he
 resumed his former position in the     
state of ,chi1  resigning once more     

eight years later4 ,he now gave himself 
up to a life  of study and teaching1    
preparing the works presently to be     
noticed4 ,his  main purpose was to      
expound and enforce the teaching of     
,confucius4 ,but  his own doctrine      
stands on a lower level than that of the
 master1 for he  views man's well-being 
rather from the point of view of        
political  economy4 ,he was justly named
 by ,chao ,chi ,the ,second ,holy ,one  
or  ,prophet--the name by which ,china  
still knows him4    ,the treatise called
 ,the ,works of ,mencius is a           
compilation of the  conversation and    
opinions of ,mencius1 having a similar  
relation to that  great philosopher that
 the ,analects 7or ,lun ,yu7 have to    
,confucius4 ,it  is arranged in seven   
books4 ,according to tradition the work1
 in its  existing form1 is as it came   
from the philosopher himself4           
,,virtue1 ,,not ,,profit1 ,,to ,,be     
,,the ,,chief ,,quest      ,when        
,mencius visited ,king ,hui1 of ,liang1 

the latter asked him what  counsel he   
could give to profit his kingdom4 ,the  
philosopher replied1  ,why does your    
majesty use the word profit8 ,the only  
things which ,i have  to counsel are    
righteousness and goodwill4 ,if the king
 seeks mainly the  profit of his        
kingdom1 the great officers will seek   
the profit of  their families and the   
common people that of theirs4 ,the chief
 things to  be aimed at by king and     
people are virtue and benevolence4 ,all 
else is  as nothing4 ,no benevolent man 
has neglected his parents1 nor has any  
virtuous man slighted his sovereign4    
,how comes it1 asked the king1 that my  
state ,tsin has deteriorated  since ,i  
became its ruler1 and that calamities   
many and great have fallen  on it8      
,mencius answered1 ,with so great an    
extent of territory as thine  prosperity
 ought to be within easy reach2 but in  
order to procure it  your majesty must  
govern thy subjects justly and kindly1  
moderating  penalties1 lightening taxes1

 promoting thus and otherwise their     
industries1 increasing their comforts as
 well as lessening their  burdens1      
deepening the faithfulness of the people
 to one another and to  the throne4     
,then will thy people be loyal to thee  
and formidable towards  thy foes4 ,thou 
shalt make thy subjects loyal friends1  
for the benevolent  one has no enemy4   
,a ,,prosperous ,,ruler ,,the ,,friend  
,,and ,,father ,,of ,,his ,,people      
,on one occasion the ,emperor ,hsuan of 
,chi visited ,mencius in the ,snow      
,palace1 and asked him1 ,do the people  
find enjoyment in music and in the      
chase8 ,certainly1 answered ,mencius2 it
 is when ruler and people  share each   
other's joys and sorrows that the       
sovereign attains to his  highest       
dignity4 ,moreover1 a ruler1 when moving
 amongst his people ought  to copy the  
ancient sovereigns4 ,in the good old    
days1 when the ruler  made a tour of    
inspection among his people he was      
received with great  acclamation        

everywhere1 for joy and gladness came in
 his train4 ,in the  spring he inspected
 the ploughing and supplied all that was
 lacking in  the way of seed4 ,in the   
autumn he examined the reaping and made 
up for  any deficiency in the yield4 ,it
 was a common saying during the ,hsia   
dynasty1 ',if the ,emperor visiteth not1
 what will become of us8' ,but now1  may
 your majesty permit me to say1 matters 
are very different1 for1 when  in these 
days a ruler visits his people he is    
accompanied by a huge  army1 who with   
himself and suite have to be maintained 
by the people  visited4 ,and so it comes
 to be that the hungry are robbed of    
their food1  and the toilers are wearied
 with the extra tasks imposed upon them4
 ,if a  ruler wishes to have the hearts 
of his people1 and to' be regarded as   
their father1 he must consider their    
needs and endeavour to supply  them4    
,,mencius ,,uses ,,stratagem ,,to       
,,bring ,,home ,,to ,,the ,,emperor     
,,his ,,guilt      ,mencius said on one 

occasion to ,hsuan1 ,king of ,chi1      
,suppose one of thy  ministers were to  
entrust his family during his absence to
 a  subordinate1 and that the latter    
neglected his duty so that the wife and 
children were exposed to great suffering
 and danger4 ,what should that  minister
 do8    ,dismiss him at once1 was the   
royal reply4    ,but1 continued the     
philosopher1 suppose that the government
 of your  own kingdom were bad1 the     
people suffering and disunited and      
disloyal on  account of their king's bad
 rule4 ,what then should be done8 ,the  
king1  looking this way and that1 turned
 the conversation to other themes4      
,,it ,,may ,,be ,,right ,,to ,,kill ,a  
,,sovereign      ,king ,hsuan asked     
,mencius1 ,is it true that ,thang       
banished his own  sovereign1 ,kieh the  
last king of the ,hsia dynasty1 and that
 ,wu  attacked the tyrant ,emperor      
,kau-hsin and slew him8 ,it is true1    
said  ,mencius1 for it is so written in 
the ',shu ,king4' ,but if a sovereign   

acts as ,kieh did he is no longer a     
sovereign but a robber1 and to be  dealt
 with as such4 ,and if a ruler is1 like 
,kau-hsin1 the enemy of his  people1 he 
is no longer their ruler1 and therefore 
to be put out of the  way1 and how      
better than by death8      ,,the ,,gifts
 ,,that ,,may ,,and ,,those ,,that ,,may
 ,,not ,,be ,,accepted      ,chan ,tsin 
spoke to ,mencius as follows3    ,the   
,king of ,chi once offered thee a       
present and thou declinedst it1 but     
didst accept gifts offered at ,sung and 
at ,hsieh4 ,why this inconsistency8  ,if
 it were right to refuse in the first   
case it was equally right to  refuse in 
the other two4 ,if it were right to     
accept in the latter two  cases1 it was 
equally right to accept in the first    
case4 ,the  philosopher answered1 ,i    
acted rightly and consistently4 ,the    
gifts at  ,sung were to provide me with 
what was needed for a long journey which
 ,i  was about to undertake4 ,why should
 ,i refuse such gifts when needed8 ,at  

,hsieh ,i was in some personal danger   
and needed help to procure the means  of
 self-defence4 ,the gifts were to enable
 me to procure arms4 ,why should  ,i    
have refused such needed help8 ,but at  
,chi ,i needed no money1 and  therefore 
refused it when offered1 for to accept  
money when it is not  needed is to      
accept a bribe4 ,why should ,i take such
 money8      ,,wrong ,,conduct ,,should 
,,be ,,ended ,,at ,,once      ,a        
distinguished officer of ,sung1 called  
,tai ,ying-chib1 called upon  ,mencius  
and said1 ,i am unable as yet to        
dispense with the tax on goods  and the 
duties charged at the frontier passes   
and in the markets1 though  this is a   
right and proper thing to do4 ,but it is
 my intention1 until  the next year1 to 
lighten the tax and the duties1 and then
 next year ,i  shall remove them        
altogether4 ,the philosopher replied1   
,here is a man  who daily steals a score
 of his neighbour's fowls4 ,someone     
remonstrates1  and1 feeling that he is  

guilty of acting dishonestly1 he says1  
',i know  that this stealing is wrong1  
but in the future ,i shall be content   
with  stealing one fowl a month4 ,but   
next year ,i will stop stealing fowls   
altogether4' ,if1 continued ,mencius1   
this task and these duties are1 as  you 
admit1 wrong1 end them at once4 ,why    
should you wait a year8      ,,the      
,,inherent ,,goodness ,,of ,,human      
,,nature      ,kao ,tzu said to         
,mencius1 ,human nature resembles       
running water1 which  flows east or west
 according as it can find an outlet4 ,so
 human nature  is inclined equally to   
what is good and to what is bad4 ,it is 
true1  answered ,mencius1 that water    
will flow indifferently to the east or  
to  the west4 ,but it will not flow     
indifferently up or down2 it can only   
flow down4 ,the tendency of human nature
 is towards what is good1 as that  of   
water is to flow downwards4 ,one may1   
indeed1 by splashing water1 make  it    
spurt upwards1 but that is forcing it   

against its true character4  ,even so1  
when a man becomes prone to what is evil
 it is because his  ,heaven-implanted   
nature has been diverted from its true  
bent4      ,,people ,,first1 ,,kings    
,,last      ,the people1 said ,mencius1 
are first in importance2 next come the  
gods4 ,the kings are last and least4    
,,every ,,man ,,should ,,accept ,,his   
,,lot      ,mencius said1 ,every man's  
lot is fixed for him1 and it is a proof 
of  wisdom to accept it uncomplainingly4
 ,he who does this faces misfortune  and
 even death unmoved4      ,,what ,,the  
,,good ,,king ,,delights ,,in ,,most    
,the virtuous king1 said ,mencius1 is   
glad to have a large extent of          
territory and a numerous people to rule 
over2 but his heart is not on  these    
things4 ,to be at the head of a great   
kingdom and to see his people  loyal1   
united1 and flourishing1 gives the good 
king joy2 but his heart  is not on these
 things4 ,it is on benevolence1 justice1
 propriety1 and  knowledge that the good

 king's heart is set4      ,,the        
,,influence ,,of ,,example      ,mencius
 said1 ,in the good days of old1 men of 
virtue and talent  abounded in the land1
 and their influence for good was great 
upon their  fellows4 ,but now1 alas1 the
 masses of the people are ignorant1 and 
depraved1 and their dominant influence  
is bad4      ,,counsellors ,,should     
,,love ,,righteousness ,,rather ,,than  
,,riches      ,mencius said1 ,those who 
counsel men in high places should feel  
contempt  for their pomp and display4 ,i
 have no wish for huge and gorgeous     
halls1  for luxurious food with hundreds
 of attendants1 or for sparkling wine or
  bewitching women4 ,these things ,i    
esteem not2 what ,i esteem are the rules
  of propriety handed down by the       
ancients4           99       99       99
       99       99        ,f,,nelon     
,,the ,,existence ,,of ,,god            
,franois de ,salignac de la ,mothe      
,fnelon was born at the       chteau of 
,fnelon1 in the ancient territorial     

division of       ,prigord1 ,france1    
,august #f1 #afea4 ,at twenty-four he   
became a       priest4 ,he was for many 
years a friend of his celebrated        
contemporary ,bossuet1 but later        
,bossuet attacked a spiritual       and 
unworldly work of ,fnelon1 who was      
condemned by the ,pope4       ,he died  
on ,january #ag1 #agae1 leaving behind  
him many books1 of       which the      
,treatise on the ,existence of ,god1    
first published       in #agac1 is the  
masterpiece4 ,this noble and profound   
work1       though it accepts the       
argument from design1 which the         
discovery of universal evolution        
necessarily modifies1 does so       with
 such rare philosophical insight as to  
stand for ever far       above any other
 works of the kind4 ,fnelon can scarcely
 be       called a mystic1 for his      
reason was of the finest1 and never     
surrendered its claims2 but1 though a   
strictly rational       thinker1 he had 
the insight of the mystic or the        

idealist who       sees in external     
nature1 and in the mind of man alike1   
what       ,goethe called the living    
garment of ,god4      ,i4--,,the ,,hand 
,,that ,,makes ,,everything      ,i     
cannot open my eyes without admiring the
 art that shines throughout  all nature2
 the least cast suffices to make me     
perceive the ,hand that  makes          
everything4    ,men the least exercised 
in reasoning1 and the most tenacious of 
the  prejudices of the senses1 may yet  
with one look discover ,him who has     
drawn ,himself in all ,his works4 ,the  
wisdom and power ,he has stamped upon   
everything ,he has made are seen1 as it 
were1 in a glass by those that  cannot  
contemplate ,him in ,his own idea4 ,this
 is a sensible and popular  philosophy1 
of which any man free from passion and  
prejudice is capable4    ,if a great    
number of men of subtle and penetrating 
wit have not  discovered ,god with one  
cast of the eye upon nature1 it is not  
matter of  wonder1 for either the       

passions they have been tossed by have  
still  rendered them incapable of any   
fixed reflection1 or the false          
prejudices  that result from passions   
have1 like a thick cloud1 interposed    
between  their eyes and that noble      
spectacle4    ,a man deeply concerned in
 an affair of great importance1 that    
should  take up all the attention of his
 mind1 might pass several days in a room
  treating about his concerns without   
taking notice of the proportions of  the
 chamber1 the ornaments of the chimney1 
and the pictures about him1  all of     
which objects would continually be      
before his eyes1 and yet none  of them  
make any impression upon him4 ,in this  
manner it is that men  spend their      
lives4 ,everything offers ,god to their 
sight1 and yet they  see ,him nowhere4  
,they pass away their lives without     
perceiving that sensible  representation
 of the ,deity4 ,such is the fascination
 of worldly trifles  that obscure their 
eyes4 ,nay1 oftentimes they will not so 

much as open  them1 but rather affect to
 keep them shut1 lest they should find  
,him  they do not look for4 ,in short1  
what ought to help most to open their   
eyes serves only to close them faster4  
,i mean the constant duration and       
regularity of the motions which the     
,supreme ,wisdom has put in the         
universe4    ,but1 after all1 whole     
nature shows the infinite art of its    
,maker4 ,when ,i  speak of an art1 ,i   
mean a collection of proper means chosen
 on purpose  to arrive at a certain end2
 or1 if you please1 it is an order1 a   
method1  an industry1 or a set design4  
,chance1 on the contrary1 is a blind and
  necessary cause1 which neither sets in
 order nor chooses anything1 and  has   
neither will nor understanding4 ,now1 ,i
 maintain that the universe  bears the  
character and stamp of a cause          
infinitely powerful and  industrious2   
and1 at the same time1 that chance--that
 is1 the fortuitous  concourse of causes
 void of reason--cannot have formed this

 universe4    ,who will believe that so 
perfect a poem as ,homer's ,iliad was   
not the  product of the genius of a     
great poet1 but that the letters of the 
alphabet1 being confusedly jumbled and  
mixed1 were by chance1 as it were  by   
the cast of a pair of dice1 brought     
together in such an order as is         
necessary to describe1 in verses full of
 harmony and variety1 so many  great    
events2 to place and connect them so    
well together2 to paint every  object   
with all its most graceful1 most noble1 
and most affecting  attendants2 in      
short1 to make every person speak       
according to his  character in so       
natural and so forcible a manner8 ,let  
people subtilise  upon the matter as    
much as they please1 yet they never will
 persuade a  man of sense that the      
,iliad was the mere result of chance4   
,how1 then1  can a man of sense be      
induced to believe1 with respect to the 
universe1  what his reason will never   
suffer him to believe in relation to the

  ,iliad8      ,,ii4--,,earth1 ,,the    
,,mother ,,of ,,all ,,living      ,after
 these comparisons1 about which ,i only 
desire the reader to consult  himself1  
without any argumentation1 ,i think it  
is high time to enter  into a detail of 
nature4 ,i do not pretend to penetrate  
through the  whole4 ,who is able to do  
it8 ,neither do ,i pretend to enter into
 any  physical discussion4 ,such way of 
reasoning requires a certain deep       
knowledge1 which abundance of men of wit
 and sense never acquire2 and  therefore
 ,i will offer nothing to them but the  
simple prospect of the  face of nature4 
,i will entertain them with nothing but 
what everybody  knows1 which requires   
only a little calm and serious          
attention4    ,let us1 in the first     
place1 stop at the great object that    
first strikes  our sight--,i mean the   
general structure of the universe4 ,let 
us cast our  eyes on this earth that    
bears us4    ,who is it that hung and   
poised this motionless globe of the     

earth8 ,who  laid its foundation8       
,nothing seems more vile and            
contemptible1 for the  meanest wretches 
tread it under foot2 but yet it is in   
order to possess  it that we part with  
the greatest treasures4 ,if it were     
harder than it  is1 men could not open  
its bosom to cultivate it2 and if it    
were less  hard it could not bear them1 
and they would sink everywhere as they  
do  in sand1 or in a bog4 ,it is from   
the inexhaustible bosom of the earth we 
draw what is most precious4 ,that       
shapeless1 vile1 and rude mass assumes  
the most various forms1 and yields      
alone1 by turns1 all the goods we can   
desire4 ,that dirty soil transforms     
itself into a thousand fine objects     
that charm the eye4 ,in the compass of  
one year it turns into branches1  twigs1
 buds1 leaves1 blossoms1 fruits1 and    
seeds1 in order1 by those  various      
shapes1 to multiply its liberalities to 
mankind4    ,nothing exhausts the earth2
 the more we tear her bowels the more   

she is  liberal4 ,after so many ages1   
during which she has produced           
everything1  she is not yet worn out4   
,she feels no decay from old age1 and   
her  entrails still contain the same    
treasures4 ,a thousand generations have 
passed away1 and returned into her      
bosom4    ,everything grows old1 she    
alone excepted2 for she grows young     
again  every year in the spring4 ,she is
 never wanting to men2 but foolish men  
are wanting to themselves in neglecting 
to cultivate her4 ,it is through  their 
laziness and extravagance they suffer   
brambles and briars to grow  instead of 
grapes and corn4 ,they contend for a    
good they let perish4 ,the  conquerors  
leave uncultivated the ground for the   
possession of which  they have          
sacrificed the lives of so many thousand
 men1 and have spent  their own in hurry
 and trouble4 ,men have before them vast
 tracts of land  uninhabited and        
uncultivated1 and they turn mankind     
topsy-turvy for one  nook of that       

neglected ground in dispute4 ,the earth1
 if well cultivated1  would feed a      
hundred times more men than she does    
now4 ,even the  unevenness of ground1   
which at first seems to be a defect1    
turns either  into ornament or profit4  
,the mountains arose and the valleys    
descended  to the place the ,lord had   
appointed for them4 ,those different    
grounds  have their particular          
advantages1 according to the divers     
aspects of the  sun4 ,in those deep     
valleys grow fresh and tender grass to  
feed cattle4  ,next to them opens a vast
 champaign covered with a rich harvest4 
,here1  hills rise like an amphitheatre1
 and are crowned with vineyards and     
fruit-trees4 ,there1 high mountains     
carry aloft their frozen brows to the   
very clouds1 and the torrents that run  
down from them become the springs  of   
rivers4 ,the rocks that show their      
craggy tops bear up the earth of        
mountains just as the bones bear up the 
flesh in human bodies4    ,there is     

scarce any spot of ground absolutely    
barren if a man do not  grow weary of   
digging1 and turning it to the          
enlivening sun1 and if he  require no   
more from it than it is proper to bear4 
,amidst stone and  rocks there is       
sometimes excellent pasture1 and their  
cavities have  veins which1 being       
penetrated by the piercing rays of the  
sun1 furnish  plants with most savoury  
juices for the feeding of herds and     
flocks4  ,even sea-coasts that seem to  
be the most sterile and wild yield      
sometimes either delicious fruits or    
most wholesome medicines that are       
wanting in the most fertile countries4  
,besides1 it is the effect of a  wise   
over-ruling ,providence that no land    
yields all that is useful to  human     
life4 ,for want invites men to commerce1
 in order to supply one  another's      
necessities4 ,it is therefore that want 
which is the natural  tie of society    
between nations2 otherwise1 all the     
people of the earth  would be reduced to

 one sort of food and clothing1 and     
nothing would  invite them to know and  
visit one another4    ,all that the     
earth produces1 being corrupted1 returns
 into her bosom1  and becomes the source
 of a new production4 ,thus she resumes 
all she has  given in order to give     
again4 ,thus the corruption of plants1  
and of the  animals she feeds1 feed her1
 and improve her fertility4 ,thus1 the  
more  she gives the more she resumes2   
and she is never exhausted1 provided    
they who cultivate her restore to her   
what she has given4 ,everything  comes  
from her bosom1 everything returns to   
it1 and nothing is lost in  it4 ,nay1   
all seeds multiply there4    ,admire the
 plants that spring from the earth2 they
 yield food for the  healthy1 and       
remedies for the sick4 ,their species   
and virtues are  innumerable4 ,they deck
 the earth1 yield verdure1 fragrant     
flowers1 and  delicious fruits4 ,do you 
see those vast forests that seem as old 
as the  world8 ,those trees sink into   

the earth by their roots1 as deep as    
their  branches shoot up to the sky4    
,their roots defend them against the    
winds1  and fetch up1 as it were by     
subterranean pipes1 all the juices      
destined  to feed the trunk4 ,the trunk 
itself is covered with a tough bark that
  shelters the tender wood from the     
injuries of the air4 ,the branches      
distribute1 by several pipes1 the sap   
which the roots had gathered up in  the 
trunk4 ,in summer the boughs protect us 
with their shadow against the  scorching
 rays of the sun4    ,the farther we    
seek through the universe the more sure 
is her teaching4  ,that which we learnt 
from the earth and from plants is taught
 us again  by water1 by the air1 and by 
fire4 ,it is the lesson of the skies1   
and of  the sun and the stars4 ,the     
whole animal world teaches us the same4 
,if we  turn from things that are large1
 we shall find wonders no less in the   
infinitely little2 if we turn from the  
bodies of animals to the study of  their

 instincts1 their sleep1 their food1 the
 persistence of their races  from age to
 age--though all individuals are        
mortal--again we find  evidence of the  
skill and power of the ,author of all   
things4    ,still more wonderful is the 
body of man1 his skin and veins1 his    
bones  and joints1 his senses1 tongue   
and teeth1 the proportions of his body1 
and1 above all things1 his soul1 which  
alone among all creatures thinks  and   
knows and is sovereign master over the  
body4    ,it is this reason that is in  
man which1 above all1 demonstrates the  
residence of ,god in us4                
,,iii4--,,god ,,in ,,the ,,mind ,,of    
,,man      ,it cannot be said that man  
gives himself the thoughts he had not   
before2  much less can it be said that  
he receives them from other men1 since  
it  is certain he neither does nor can  
admit anything from without1 unless  he 
finds it in his own foundation1 by      
consulting within him the  principles of
 reason1 in order to examine whether    

what he is told is  agreeable or        
repugnant to them4 ,therefore1 there is 
an inward school  wherein man receives  
what he neither can give himself1 nor   
expect from  other men who live upon    
trust as well as himself4    ,here1     
then1 are two reasons ,i find within me1
 one of which is myself1  the other is  
above me4 ,that which is myself is very 
imperfect1  prejudiced1 liable to error1
 changeable1 headstrong1 ignorant1 and  
limited2 in short1 it possesses nothing 
but what is borrowed4 ,the other  is    
common to all men1 and superior to them4
 ,it is perfect1 eternal1  immutable1   
ever ready to communicate itself in all 
places1 and to  rectify all minds that  
err and mistake2 in short1 incapable of 
ever  being either exhausted or divided1
 although it communicates itself to  all
 who desire it4    ,where is that       
perfect reason which is so near me1 and 
yet so different  from me8 ,surely it   
must be something real1 for nothing     
cannot either be  perfect or make       

perfect imperfect natures4 ,where is    
that supreme reason8  ,is it not the    
very ,god ,i look for8    ,we have seen 
the prints of the ,deity1 or1 to speak  
more properly1 the  seal and stamp of   
,god ,himself1 in all that is called the
 works of  nature4 ,when a man does not 
enter into philosophical subtleties1 he 
observes with the first cast of the eye 
a hand1 that was the first  mover1 in   
all the parts of the universe1 and set  
all the wheels of the  great machine    
agoing4 ,everything shows and proclaims 
an order1 an exact  measure1 an art1 a  
wisdom1 a mind superior to us1 which is1
 as it were1  the soul of the whole     
world1 and which leads and directs      
everything to  ,his ends1 with a gentle 
and insensible1 though ever an          
omnipotent force4    ,we have seen1 as  
it were1 the architecture and frame of  
the universe2  the just proportion of   
all its parts2 and the bare cast of the 
eye has  sufficed us to find and        
discover even in an ant1 more than in   

the sun1 a  wisdom and power that       
delights to exert itself in polishing   
and adorning  its vilest works4    ,this
 is obvious1 without any speculative    
discussion1 to the most  ignorant of    
men2 but what a world of other wonders  
should we discover  should we penetrate 
into the secrets of physics1 and dissect
 the inward  parts of animals1 which are
 framed according to the most perfect   
mechanics4    ,let a man study the world
 as much as he pleases2 let him descend 
into  the minutest details2 dissect the 
vilest of animals2 narrowly consider    
the least grain of corn sown in the     
ground1 and the manner in which it      
germinates and multiplies2 attentively  
observe with what precautions a         
rose-bud blows and opens in the sun1 and
 closes again at night2 and he  will    
find in all these more design1 conduct1 
and industry than in all  the works of  
art4 ,nay1 what is called the art of men
 is but a faint  imitation of the great 
art called the laws of nature1 which the

 impious  did not blush to call blind   
chance4 ,is it1 therefore1 a wonder that
  poets animated the whole universe1    
bestowed wings upon the winds1 and      
arrows on the sun1 and described great  
rivers impetuously running to           
precipitate themselves into the sea and 
trees shooting up to heaven to  repel   
the rays of the sun by their thick      
shades8 ,these images and  figures have 
also been received in the language of   
the vulgar1 so  natural it is for men to
 be sensible of the wonderful art that  
fills all  nature4    ,poetry did only  
ascribe to inanimate creatures the art  
and design of the  ,creator1 who does   
everything in them4 ,from the figurative
 language of  the poets those notions   
passed into the theology of the         
heathens1 whose  divines were the poets4
 ,they supposed an art1 a power1 or a   
wisdom1  which they called numen        
divinity1 in creatures the most         
destitute of  understanding4 ,with them 
great rivers were gods1 and spring      

naiads4  ,woods and mountains had their 
particular deities2 flowers had their   
,flora2 and fruits1 ,pomona4 ,after all1
 the more a man contemplates  nature1   
the more he discovers in it an          
inexhaustible stock of wisdom1  which   
is1 as it were1 the soul of the         
universe4    ,what must we infer from   
thence8 ,the consequence flows of       
itself4 ,if so  much wisdom and         
penetration1 says ,minutius ,felix1 are 
required to  observe the wonderful order
 and design of the structure of the     
world1  how much more were necessary to 
form it6    ,if men so much admire      
philosophers because they discover a    
small part of  the wisdom that made all 
things1 they must be stark blind not to 
admire  that wisdom itself4             
,,iv4--,a ,,prayer ,,to ,,god      ,o my
 ,god1 if so many men do not discover   
,thee in this great spectacle  ,thou    
givest them of all nature1 it is not    
because ,thou art far from any  of us4  
,every one of us feels ,thee1 as it     

were1 with his hand2 but the  senses1   
and the passions they raise1 take up all
 the attention of our  minds4 ,thus1 ,o 
,lord1 ,thy light shines in darkness2   
but darkness is so  thick and gloomy    
that it does not admit the beams of ,thy
 light4    ,thou appearest everywhere2  
and everywhere inattentive mortals      
neglect to  perceive ,thee4 ,all nature 
speaks of ,thee1 and resounds with ,thy 
holy  name2 but she speaks to deaf men1 
whose deafness proceeds from the noise  
and clatter they make to stun           
themselves4 ,thou art near and within   
them2  but they are fugitive1 and       
wandering1 as it were1 out of           
themselves4  ,they would find ,thee1 ,o 
,sweet ,light1 ,o ,eternal ,beauty1 ever
 old and ever  young1 ,o ,fountain of   
,chaste ,delights1 ,o ,pure and ,happy  
,life of all who  live truly1 should    
they look for ,thee within themselves4  
,but the impious  lose ,thee only by    
losing themselves4 ,alas6 ,thy very     
gifts1 which should  show them the hand 

from whence they flow1 amuse them to    
such a degree as  to hinder them from   
perceiving it4 ,they live by ,thee1 and 
yet they live  without thinking on ,thee
 or1 rather1 they die by the ,fountain  
of ,life  for want of quenching their   
drought in that vivifying stream2 for   
what  greater death can there be than   
not to know ,thee1 ,o ,lord8 ,they fall 
asleep in ,thy soft and paternal bosom1 
and1 full of the deceitful dreams  by   
which they are tossed in their sleep1   
they are insensible of the  powerful    
hand that supports them4    ,if ,thou   
wert a barren1 impotent1 and inanimate  
body1 like a flower that  fades away1 a 
river that runs1 a house that decays and
 falls to ruin1 a  picture that is but a
 collection of colours to strike the    
imagination1  or a useless metal that   
glistens1 they would perceive ,thee1 and
 fondly  ascribe to ,thee the power of  
giving them some pleasure1 although in  
reality pleasure cannot proceed from    
inanimate beings1 which are  themselves 

void and incapable of it1 but from ,thee
 alone1 the true  spring of all joy4    
,if1 therefore1 ,thou wert but a        
lumpish1 frail1 and  inanimate being1 a 
mass without any virtue or power1 a     
shadow of a  being1 ,thy vain fantastic 
nature would busy their vanity1 and be a
  proper object to entertain their mean 
and brutish thoughts4 ,but because      
,thou art too intimately within them1   
and they never at home1 ,thou art to    
them an unknown ,god2 for while they    
rise and wander abroad1 the intimate    
part of themselves is most remote from  
their sight4 ,the order and beauty      
,thou scatterest over the face of ,thy  
creatures are like a glaring light  that
 hides ,thee from them and dazzles their
 sore eyes4 ,in fine1 because  ,thou art
 too elevated and too pure a truth to   
affect gross senses1 men  who are become
 like beasts cannot conceive ,thee1     
though man has daily  convincing        
instances of wisdom and virtue without  
the testimony of any  of his senses2 for

 those virtues have not sound1 colour1  
odour1 taste1  figure1 nor any sensible 
quality4    ,why1 then1 ,o my ,god1 do  
men call ,thy existence1 wisdom1 and    
power more  in question than they do    
those other things most real and        
manifest1 the  truth of which they      
suppose as certain1 in all the serious  
affairs of  life1 and which1            
nevertheless1 as well as ,thou1 escape  
our feeble  senses8 ,o misery6 ,o dismal
 night that surrounds the children of   
,adam6 ,o  monstrous stupidity6 ,o      
confusion of the whole man6 ,man has    
eyes only to  see shadows1 and truth    
appears a phantom to him4 ,what is      
nothing is all2  and what is all is     
nothing to him4 ,what do ,i behold in   
all nature8 ,god4  ,god everywhere1 and 
still ,god alone4    ,when ,i think1 ,o 
,lord1 that all being is in ,thee1 ,thou
 exhaustest and  swallowest up1 ,o      
,abyss of ,truth1 all my thoughts4 ,i   
know not what  becomes of me4 ,whatever 
is not ,thou disappears2 and scarce so  

much of  myself remains wherewithal to  
find myself again4 ,who sees ,thee not  
never  saw anything2 and who is not     
sensible of ,thee1 never was sensible of
  anything4 ,he is as if he were not4   
,his whole life is but a dream4 ,arise1 
,o ,lord1 arise1 ,let ,thy enemies melt 
like wax and vanish like smoke  before  
,thy face4 ,how unhappy is the impious  
soul who1 far from ,thee1 is  without   
,god1 without hope1 without eternal     
comfort6 ,how happy he who  searches1   
sighs1 and thirsts after ,thee4 ,but    
fully happy he on whom are  reflected   
the beams of ,thy countenance1 whose    
tears ,thy hand has wiped  off1 and     
whose desires ,thy love has already     
completed4    ,when will that time be1  
,o ,lord8 ,o fair day1 without either   
cloud or end1  of which ,thyself shalt  
be the sun1 and wherein ,thou shalt run 
through my  soul like a torrent of      
delight6 ,upon this pleasing hope ,i cry
 out3 ,who  is like ,thee1 ,o ,lord8 ,my
 heart melts and my flesh faints1 ,o    

,god of my  soul1 and my eternal wealth4
           99       99       99       99
       99        ,,galileo      ,,the   
,,authority ,,of ,,scripture            
,galileo's treatise on ,the ,authority  
of ,scripture in       ,philosophical   
,controversies was written at a time    
when the       ,copernican theory of the
 constitution of the universe was       
engaging the attention of the world4 ,a 
,benedictine monk1       ,benedetto     
,castelli1 called upon to defend the    
theory at the       grand-ducal table of
 ,tuscany1 asked ,galileo's assistance  
in       reconciling it with orthodoxy4 
,his answer was an exposition of       a
 formal theory as to the relations of   
physical science to       ,holy ,writ4  
,this answer was further amplified in   
the ,authority       of the ,scripture1 
addressed in #afad to ,christina of     
,lorraine1       ,dowager               
,grand-,duchess of ,tuscany1 an able and
 acute defence of       his position4 ,a
 year later another monk laid ,galileo's

 letter       to ,castelli before the   
,inquisition1 whereupon the philosopher 
was summoned by ,pope ,paul ,v4 to the  
palace of ,cardinal       ,bellarmine1  
and there warned against henceforth     
holding1       teaching1 or defending   
the condemned doctrine4 ,nevertheless1  
in a few years ,galileo 7see ,,science1 
vol4 ,,xv7 had to suffer       trial and
 condemnation by the ,inquisition for   
publishing his       ,dialogues on the  
,system of the ,world1 which gave the   
,ptolemaic theory its death-blow4       
,i4--,,the ,,defenders ,,of ,,fallacy   
,some years ago ,i discovered many      
astronomical facts till then unknown4   
,their novelty and their antagonism to  
some physical propositions  commonly    
received by the schools did stir up     
against me many who  professed the      
vulgar philosophy1 as if1 forsooth1 ,i  
had with my own hand  placed these      
things in the heavens to obscure and    
disturb nature and  science4 ,these     
opponents1 more affectionate to their   

own opinion than to  truth1 tried to    
deny and disprove my discoveries1 which 
they might have  discerned with their   
own eyes2 and they published vain       
discourses1  interwoven with irrelevant 
passages1 not rightly understood1 of the
  sacred ,scriptures4 ,from this folly  
they might have been saved had they     
remembered the advice of ,st4           
,augustine1 who1 dealing with celestial 
bodies1 writes3 ,we ought to believe    
nothing unadvisedly in a doubtful       
point1 lest in favour of our error we   
conceive a prejudice against that  which
 truth hereafter may discover to be     
nowise contrary to the sacred  books4   
,time has proved every one of my        
statements1 and proving them has also   
proved that my opponents were of two    
kinds4 ,those who had doubted simply    
because the discoveries were new and    
strange have been gradually  converted1 
while those whose incredulity was based 
on personal ill-will  to me have shut   
their eyes to the facts and have        

endeavoured to asperse  my moral        
character and to ruin me4    ,knowing   
that ,i have confuted the ,ptolemaic and
 ,aristotelian arguments1  and          
distrusting their defence in the field  
of philosophy1 they have  tried to      
shield their fallacies under the mantle 
of a feigned religion  and of scriptural
 authority1 and have endeavoured to     
spread the opinion  that my propositions
 are contrary to the ,scriptures1 and   
therefore  heretical4 ,to this end they 
have found accomplices in the pulpits1  
and  have scattered rumours that my     
theory of the world-system would ere    
long  be condemned by supreme authority4
    ,further1 they have endeavoured to  
make the theory peculiar to myself1     
ignoring the fact that the author1 or   
rather restorer1 of the doctrine  was   
,nicholas ,copernicus1 a ,catholic1 and 
a much-esteemed priest1 who was         
summoned to ,rome to correct the        
ecclesiastic calendar1 and in the course
  of his inquiries reached this view of 

the universe4    ,the calendar has since
 been regulated by his doctrine1 and on 
his  principles the motions of the      
planets have been calculated4 ,having   
reduced his doctrine to six books1 he   
published them under the title of  ,de  
,revolutionibus ,coelestibus1 at the    
instance of the ,cardinal of  ,capua1   
and of the ,bishop of ,culma2 and1 since
 he undertook the task at  the order of 
,pope ,leo ,x41 he dedicated the work to
 his successor ,paul  ,,iii41 and it was
 received by the ,holy ,church and      
studied by all the  world4    ,in the   
end of his dedicatory epistle           
,copernicus writes3 ,if there should    
chance to be any mateologists who1      
ignorant in mathematics yet  pretending 
to skill in that science1 should dare1  
upon the authority of  some passage of  
,scripture wrested to their purpose1 to 
condemn and  censure my hypothesis1 ,i  
value them not1 and scorn their         
inconsiderate  judgment4 ,for it is not 
unknown that ,lactantius 7a famous      

author though  poor mathematician7      
writes very childishly concerning the   
form of the  earth when he scoffs at    
those who affirm the earth to be in form
 of a  globe4 ,so that it ought not to  
seem strange to the intelligent if any  
such should likewise now deride us4 ,the
 mathematics are written for            
mathematicians1 to whom 7if ,i deceive  
not myself7 these labours of mine  shall
 seem to add something1 as also to the  
commonweal of the ,church  whose        
government is now in the hands of ,your 
,holiness4    ,it is such as ,lactantius
 who would now condemn ,copernicus      
unread1 and  produce authorities of the 
,scripture1 of divines1 and of councils 
in  support of their condemnation4 ,i   
hold these authorities in reverence1    
but ,i hold that in this instance they  
are used for personal ends in a  manner 
very different from the most sacred     
intention of the ,holy ,church4  ,i am  
ready to renounce any religious errors  
into which ,i may run in this           

discourse1 and if my book be not        
beneficial to the ,holy ,church may it  
be  torn and burnt2 but ,i hold that ,i 
have a right to defend myself against   
the attacks of ignorant opponents4      
,the doctrine of the movement of the    
earth and the fixity of the sun is      
condemned on the ground that the        
,scriptures speak in many places of the 
sun moving and the earth standing still4
 ,the ,scriptures not being  capable of 
lying or erring1 it followeth that the  
position of those is  erroneous and     
heretical who maintain that the sun is  
fixed and the earth  in motion4    ,it  
is piously spoken that the ,scriptures  
cannot lie4 ,but none will deny  that   
they are frequently abstruse and their  
true meaning difficult to  discover1 and
 more than the bare words signify4 ,one 
taking the sense too  literally might   
pervert the truth and conceive          
blasphemies1 and give ,god  feet1 and   
hands1 and eyes1 and human affections1  
such as anger1  repentance1             

forgetfulness1 ignorance1 whereas these 
expressions are  employed merely to     
accommodate the truth to the mental     
capacity of the  unlearned4    ,this    
being granted1 ,i think that in the     
discussion of natural problems  we ought
 to begin not with the ,scriptures1 but 
with experiments and  demonstrations4   
,nor does ,god less admirably discover  
,himself to us in  nature than in       
,scripture1 and having found the truth  
in nature we may  use it as an aid to   
the true exposition of the ,scriptures4 
,the  ,scriptures were intended to teach
 men those things which cannot be       
learned otherwise than by the mouth of  
the ,holy ,spirit2 but we are meant  to 
use our senses and reason in discovering
 for ourselves things within  their     
scope and capacity1 and hence certain   
sciences are neglected in  the ,holy    
,writ4    ,astronomy1 for instance1 is  
hardly mentioned1 and only the sun1 and 
the  moon1 and ,lucifer are named4      
,surely1 if the holy writers had        

intended us  to derive our astronomical 
knowledge from the ,sacred ,books1 they 
would  not have left us so uninformed4  
,that they intentionally forbore to     
speak  of the movements and constitution
 of the stars is the opinion of the     
most holy and most learned fathers4 ,and
 if the ,holy ,spirit has omitted  to   
teach us those matters as not pertinent 
to our salvation1 how can it  be said   
that one view is de ,fide and the other 
heretical8 ,i might here  insert the    
opinion of an ecclesiastic raised to the
 degree of  ,eminentissimo3 ,that the   
intention of the ,holy ,ghost is to     
teach us how  we shall go to ,heaven1   
and not how the heavens go4             
,,ii4--,,scriptural ,,and ,,experimental
 ,,truth      ,since the ,holy ,writ is 
true1 and all truth agrees with truth1  
the truth  of ,holy ,writ cannot be     
contrary to the truth obtained by reason
 and  experiment4 ,this being true1 it  
is the business of the judicious        
expositor to find the true meaning of   

scriptural passages which must  accord  
with the conclusions of observation and 
experiment1 and care must  be taken that
 the work of exposition do not fall into
 foolish and  ignorant hands4 ,it must  
be remembered that there are very few   
men  capable of understanding both the  
sacred ,scriptures and science1 and     
that there are many with a superficial  
knowledge of the ,scriptures and  with  
no knowledge of science who would fain  
arrogate to themselves the  power of    
decreeing upon all questions of nature4 
,as ,st4 ,jerome writes3  ,the talking  
old woman1 the dotard1 the garrulous    
sophist1 all venture  upon1 lacerate1   
teach1 before they have learnt4 ,others1
 induced by  pride1 dive into hard      
words1 and philosophate among women     
touching the  ,holy ,scriptures4 ,others
 7oh1 shameful67 learn of women what    
they teach  to men4    ,i will not rank 
among these same secular writers any    
theologists whom ,i  repute to be men of
 profound learning and sober manners1   

and therefore  hold in great esteem and 
veneration2 yet it vexes me when they   
would  constrain science by the         
authority of the ,scriptures1 and yet do
 not  consider themselves bound to      
answer reason and experiment4 ,it is    
true  that theology is the queen of all 
the sciences1 but queen only in the     
sense that she deals with high matters  
revealed in noble ways1 and if  she     
condescends not to study the more humble
 matters of the inferior  sciences she  
ought not to arrogate to herself the    
right to judge them2  for this would be 
as if an autocratic prince1 being       
neither physician  nor architect1 should
 undertake to administer medicines and  
erect  buildings to the danger of the   
lives of his subjects4    ,again1 to    
command the professors of astronomy to  
confute their own  observations is to   
enjoin an impossibility1 for it is to   
command them  not to see what they do   
see1 and not to understand what they do 
understand1 and to find what they do not

 discover4 ,i would entreat the  wise   
and prudent fathers to consider the     
difference between matters of  opinion  
and matters of demonstration1 for       
demonstrated conclusions  touching the  
things of nature and of the heavens     
cannot be changed with  the same        
facility as opinions touching what is   
lawful in a contract1  bargain1 or bill 
of exchange4 ,your highness knows what  
happened to the  late professor of      
mathematics in the ,university of       
,pisa--how1 believing  that the         
,copernican doctrine was false1 he      
started to confute it1 but in  his study
 became convinced of its truth4    ,in  
order to suppress the ,copernican       
doctrine1 it would be necessary not     
only to prohibit the book of ,copernicus
 and the writings of authors who  agree 
with him1 but to interdict the whole    
science of astronomy1 and  even to      
forbid men to look at the sky lest they 
might see ,mars and ,venus  at very     
varying distances from the earth1 and   

discover ,venus at one time  crescent1  
at another time round1 or make other    
observations  irreconcilable with the   
,ptolemaic system4    ,it is surely     
harmful to souls to make it a heresy to 
believe what is  proved4 ,the           
prohibition of astronomy would be an    
open contempt of a  hundred texts of the
 ,holy ,scriptures1 which teach us that 
the glory and  the greatness of         
,almighty ,god are admirably discerned  
in all ,his works1  and divinely read in
 the open book of the heavens4          
,,iii4--,,fact ,,and ,,faith      ,it   
may be said that the doctrine of the    
movement of the sun and the  fixity of  
the earth must de ,fide be held for true
 since the ,scriptures  affirm it1 and  
all the fathers unanimously accept the  
scriptural words  in their naked and    
literal sense4 ,but it was necessary to 
assign motion  to the sun and rest to   
the earth lest the shallow minds of the 
vulgar  should be confounded1 amused1   
and rendered obstinate and contumacious 

with regard to doctrines of faith4 ,st4 
,jerome writes3 ,it is the custom  for  
the pen-men of ,scripture to deliver    
their judgments in many things          
according to the common received opinion
 that their times had of them4  ,even   
,copernicus himself1 knowing the power  
of custom1 and unwilling to  create     
confusion in our comprehension1         
continues to talk of the rising  and    
setting of the sun and stars and of     
variations in the obliquity of  the     
zodiac4 ,whence it is to be noted how   
necessary it is to accommodate  our     
discourse to our accustomed manner of   
understanding4    ,in the next place1   
the common consent of the fathers to a  
natural  proposition should authorise it
 only if it have been discussed and     
debated with all possible diligence1 and
 this question was in those  times      
totally buried4    ,besides1 it is not  
enough to say that the fathers accept   
the ,ptolemaic  doctrine2 it is         
necessary to prove that they condemned  

the ,copernican4  ,was the ,copernican  
doctrine ever formally condemned as     
contrary to the  ,scriptures8 ,and      
,didacus1 discoursing on the ,copernican
 hypothesis1  concludes that the motion 
of the earth is not contrary to the     
,scriptures4    ,let my opponents1      
therefore1 apply themselves to examine  
the arguments  of ,copernicus and       
others2 and let them not hope to find   
such rash and  impetuous decisions in   
the wary and holy fathers1 or in the    
absolute  wisdom of him that cannot err1
 as those into which they have suffered 
themselves to be hurried by prejudice or
 personal feeling4 ,his holiness  has   
certainly an absolute power of admitting
 or condemning propositions  not        
directly de ,fide1 but it is not in the 
power of any creature to  make them true
 or false otherwise than of their own   
nature and de  facto they are4    ,in my
 judgment it would be well first to     
examine the truth of the fact  7over    
which none hath power7 before invoking  

supreme authority2 for if  it be not    
possible that a conclusion should be    
declared heretical while  we are not    
certain but that it may be true1 their  
pains are vain who  pretend to condemn  
the doctrine of the mobility of the     
earth and the  fixity of the sun1 unless
 they have first demonstrated the       
doctrine to  be impossible and false4   
,let us now consider how we may         
interpret the command of ,joshua that   
the  sun should stand still4            
,according to the ,ptolemaic system1 the
 sun moves from east to west  through   
the ecliptic1 and therefore the standing
 still of the sun would  shorten and not
 lengthen the day4 ,indeed1 in order to 
lengthen the day  on this system it     
would be necessary not to hold the sun1 
but to  accelerate its pace about three 
hundred and sixty times4 ,possibly      
,joshua  used the words to suit the     
comprehension of the ignorant people2   
possibly--as ,st4 ,augustine says--he   
commanded the whole system of the       

celestial spheres to stand still1 and   
his command to the moon rather  confirms
 this conjecture4    ,on the ,copernican
 system interpretation is simplified2   
for if we  consider the mobility of the 
sun and how it is in a certain sense the
  soul and heart of the universe1 it is 
not illogical to say that it gives  not 
only light1 but also motion to the      
bodies round it4 ,in this manner1  by   
the standing still of the sun at        
,joshua's command1 the day might be     
lengthened without disturbing the order 
of the universe or the mutual  positions
 of the stars4 ,this interpretation also
 explains the statement  that the sun   
stood still in medio coeli4 ,had the sun
 been in the  middle of the heavens in  
the sense of rising and setting1 it had 
hardly  been necessary to check its     
course2 but in medio coeli probably     
signifies in the middle or centre of the
 universe where it resides4    ,i have  
no doubt that other passages of the     
,scriptures could be likewise           

interpreted in accordance with the      
,copernican system by divines with      
knowledge of astronomy4 ,they might say 
that the word firmament very  well      
agrees1 ad literam1 with the starry     
sphere4 ,ad literam1 if they  admit the 
rotation of the earth1 they might       
understand its poles1 when  it is said  
,nec dum terram fecerat1 et flumina1 et 
cardines orbis  terrae4 ,nor yet had ,he
 created the earth1 or the rivers1 or   
the hinges  for the globe of the earth4 
,surely cardines1 or hinges1 are        
ascribed to the earth in vain if it be  
not to turn upon them4           99     
99       99       99       99           
,,georg ,,wilhelm ,,friedrich ,,hegel   
,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,religion      
,hegel's ,philosophy of ,religion was   
published the year       following the  
philosopher's death1 at ,berlin1 in     
#ahcb2 and the       rugged shape and   
uneven construction of some of it may   
fairly       be attributed to the fact  
that1 as it stands1 it is largely an    

editorial compilation4 ,such faults1    
however1 as ,dr4 ,edward       ,caird   
has remarked1 if they take from the     
lectures as       expressions of their  
author's mind1 and from their value as  
scientific treatises1 have some         
compensating advantages if we           
regard them as a means of education in  
philosophy2 for in this       point of  
view their very artlessness gives them  
something of       the same stimulating1
 suggestive power which is attained by  
the consummate art of the ,platonic     
dialogues4 ,the importance       of the 
work is evidenced by the influence it   
has exercised       over the mind of a  
later generation2 and many readers1 to  
whom       ,hegel 7see ,vol4 ,,xiv7 is  
little more than a name1 will           
certainly find here the sources of much 
that has become       familiar as an    
essential part of the religious         
atmosphere of a       later day1 and of 
the apologies of modern speculative     
theology4      ,i4 ,,the ,,relation ,,of

 ,,philosophy ,,to ,,religion      ,the 
object of religion is the same as that  
of philosophy2 it is the  external      
verity itself in its objective          
existence2 it is ,god--nothing  but ,god
 and the unfolding of ,god4 ,philosophy 
is not the wisdom of the  world1 but the
 knowledge of things which are not of   
this world4 ,it is  not the knowledge of
 external mass1 of empirical life and   
existence1 but  of the eternal1 of the  
nature of ,god1 and of all which flows  
from ,his  nature4 ,for this nature     
ought to manifest and develop itself4   
,consequently1 philosophy in unfolding  
religion merely unfolds itself1  and in 
unfolding itself it unfolds religion4   
,in so far as philosophy is  occupied   
with the eternal truth1 the truth which 
is in and for itself2  in so far as it  
is occupied with this as thinking       
spirit1 rather than in  an arbitrary    
fashion and in view of a particular     
interest1 philosophy  has the same      
sphere of activity as has religion4 ,and

 if the religious  consciousness aspires
 to abolish all that is peculiar to     
itself and to  be absorbed in its       
object1 the philosophic spirit likewise 
plunges with  the same energy into its  
object and renounces all particularity4 
,religion and philosophy are thus at one
 in having one and the same  object4    
,philosophy1 in fact1 also is the       
adoration of ,god1 it is  religion2 for1
 seeing that ,god is its object1 it     
involves the same  renunciation of every
 opinion and every thought that is      
arbitrary and  subjective4 ,philosophy  
is1 in consequence1 identical with      
religion4 ,only  it is religion in a    
peculiar manner1 and this it is which   
distinguishes  it from religion commonly
 so called4 ,so philosophy and religion 
are both  religion1 and that which      
distinguishes one from the other is no  
more  than the characteristic mode in   
which respectively they consider their  
object1 ,god4    ,here is the difficulty
 of understanding how philosophy can    

make but one  with religion1 a          
difficulty which has even been mistaken 
for  impossibility4 ,thence also arise  
the fears which philosophy inspires in  
theology and the hostile attitudes which
 they assume towards each other4  ,what 
brings about this attitude is1 on the   
side of theology1 that for  her         
philosophy does nothing but corrupt1    
pull down1 and profane the  content of  
religion1 and that she understands ,god 
in a totally different  manner from that
 after which religion understands ,him4 
,it is the same  opposition which long  
ago among the ,greeks caused a free and 
democratic  people like the ,athenians  
to burn books and to condemn ,socrates4 
,in our  own day1 however1 this         
opposition is considered a thing which  
it is  natural to admit--more natural   
indeed than the other opinion concerning
  the unity of religion and philosophy4 
,diverse religions offer us1 it is true1
 only too often the most bizarre  and   
monstrous representations of the divine 

essence4 ,but we must not  confine      
ourselves to a superficial consideration
 and consequent  rejection of these     
representations and the religious       
practices which  follow upon them as    
being engendered by superstition1 by    
error1 or by  imposture1 or even by a   
simple piety1 and so neglect their      
essential  value4 ,there is need to     
discover in these representations and in
 these  practices their relation with   
truth4      ,,ii4--,,god ,,the          
,,universal      ,for us1 who have      
religion1 ,god is a familiar being1 a   
substantial truth  existing in our      
subjective consciousness4 ,but1         
scientifically  considered1 ,god is a   
general and abstract term4 ,the         
philosophy of  religion it is which     
develops and grasps the divine nature   
and which  teaches us what ,god is4 ,god
 is a familiar idea1 but an idea which  
has  still to be scientifically         
developed4    ,the result of philosophic
 examination is that ,god is the        

absolute truth1  the universal in and   
for itself1 embracing all things and in 
which all  things subsist4 ,and in      
regard to this assertion1 we may appeal 
in the  first place to the religious    
consciousness1 and to its conviction    
that  ,god is the absolute truth whence 
all things proceed1 whither they all    
return1 upon which all things depend1   
and in respect of which nothing  can    
possess a true and absolute             
independence4    ,the heart may very    
well be full of this representation of  
,god1 but  science is not built up of   
what is in the heart4 ,the object of    
science  is that which has arisen to the
 level of consciousness1 and of thinking
  consciousness that is1 in other words1
 that which has attained to the  form of
 thought4    ,in so much as ,he is the  
universal1 ,god is1 for us1 in relation 
to  development1 ,being enclosed in     
itself1 ,being at unity with itself4    
,when  we say ,god is ,being enclosed in
 itself1 we enunciate a proposition     

which  is bound to a development which  
we await4 ,but this envelopment of ,god 
in  ,himself which we have called ,his  
universality we must not conceive1      
relatively to ,god ,himself and ,his    
content1 as an abstract universality1   
outside of which1 and as opposed to     
which1 the particular has an            
independent existence4    ,so we must   
consider this universal as an absolutely
 concrete universal4  ,this sense of    
fulness is the sense in which ,god is   
one1 and there is but  one ,god--that is
 to say1 ,god is not one merely by      
contrast with other  gods1 but because  
it is ,he that is the ,one1 that is1    
,god4    ,the things which are1 the     
developments of the worlds of nature and
 of  mind1 show a multiplicity of forms 
and an infinite variety of  existences4 
,but whatever may be their difference of
 degree1 of force1 of  content1 these   
things have no true independence2 their 
being is  consequent1 and1 so to speak1 
contingent4 ,when we predicate being of 

particular things1 it is not of ,being  
which is absolute that we  speak--,being
 of and from itself2 that is1 ,god--but 
a borrowed being1 a  semblance of being4
    ,god in ,his universality--that is1 
this universal ,being which has no      
limit1 no bounds1 no particularity--is a
 ,being which subsists  absolutely1 and 
which subsists alone2 all else which    
subsists has its  root in this unity1   
and by this alone subsists4 ,in thus    
representing to  ourselves this first   
content we may say that ,god is absolute
 substance1  the only veritable reality4
 ,for not everything which has a reality
 has a  reality of its own1 or subsists 
by itself4 ,god is the only absolute    
reality1 and thereby the absolute       
substance4    ,if we stop at this       
abstract thought we have ,spinozism1 for
 in ,spinozism  subjectivity is not yet 
differentiated from substantiality1 from
  substance as such4 ,but in the        
presupposition just made there is also  
this thought--,god is spirit1 absolute  

and eternal2 spirit which comes  not    
forth from itself in differentiation4   
,this ideality1 this  subjectivity of   
spirit1 which is transparency1 ideality 
excluding all  particular determination1
 is precisely the universal1 pure       
relation to  self1 ,being which remains 
absolutely within itself4    ,if we halt
 at substance1 we fail to grasp this    
universal under its  concrete form4 ,in 
its concrete determination spirit always
 preserves its  unity1 this unity of its
 reality which we call substance4 ,but  
one should  add that this               
substantiality1 the unity of the        
absolute reality with  itself1 is but   
the foundation1 but a moment in the     
determination of ,god  as spirit4       
,hence1 principally1 arises the reproach
 which is directed  against             
philosophy--to wit1 that philosophy1 to 
be consistent with  itself1 is          
necessarily ,spinozism1 and consequently
 atheism and fatalism4  ,but at the     
beginning we have not yet determinations

 distinguished one  from another as aye 
and nay4 ,we have the one but not the   
other4    ,consequently1 what we have   
here is1 to start with1 content under   
the  form of substance4 ,even when we   
say1 ,god1 spirit1 we have only  words1 
indeterminate representations4 ,the     
essential point is to know  what has    
been produced in the consciousness4 ,and
 that is1 first1 the  simple1 the       
abstract4 ,here1 in this first simple   
determination1 we have  ,god only under 
the form of universality4 ,only we do   
not halt at this  moment4               
,nevertheless1 this content remains the 
foundation of all further  developments1
 for in these developments ,god comes   
not forth from ,his  unity4 ,when ,god  
creates the world--to use the expression
 of every  day--there comes not into    
existence an evil1 a contrary1 existing 
in  itself independently of ,god4       
,,iii4--,,god ,,exists ,,for ,,thought  
,this ,beginning is an object for us or 
a content in us4 ,we possess this       

object4 ,immediately the question       
arises1 ,who are we8 ,we1 ,i1           
spirit--here  also is a complex being1 a
 multiplied being4 ,i have perceptions2 
,i see1  ,i hear1 etc4 ,seeing1 hearing2
 all this is ,i4 ,consequently1 the     
precise  sense of this question is1     
,which among these determinations is it 
in  accordance with which this content  
exists for our minds8 ,idea1 will1      
imagination1 feeling--which is the seat1
 the proper domain of this  content1 of 
this object8    ,if we accept the common
 answers to this question1 ,god will    
abide in us  as the object of faith1 of 
feeling1 of representation1 of          
knowledge4    ,we shall have to examine 
more closely later on in a special      
fashion with  respect to this point1    
these forms1 faculties1 aspects of      
ourselves4 ,in  this place we shall not 
seek a reply to this question2 nor shall
 we say1  basing our answer on          
experience and observation1 that ,god is
 in our  feeling1 etc4 ,but1 to begin   

with1 we will confine ourselves to what 
we  have actually before us1 to this    
,one1 to this universal1 to this        
concrete ,being4    ,if we take this    
,one1 and ask for what power1 for what  
activity of our  mind does this ,one1   
this absolutely universal ,being1 exist1
 we cannot  but name the one activity of
 mind which corresponds to it as        
constituting its proper natural domain4 
,this activity1 which corresponds  to   
the universal1 is thought4    ,thought  
is the field in which this content      
moves2 it is the energising  of the     
universal1 or the universal in the      
reality of its activity4 ,or1  if we say
 that thought embraces the universal1   
that for which the  universal is will   
still be thought4    ,this universal    
which can be produced by thought1 and   
which is for  thought1 may be a quite   
abstract universal4 ,in this sense it is
 the  unlimited1 the infinite1 the being
 without bounds1 without particular     
determination4 ,this universal1 negative

 to begin with1 has its seat not        
elsewhere than in thought4    ,to think 
of ,god is to rise above the things of  
sense1 exterior and  individual1 above  
simple feeling into the region of pure  
being2 being at  unity with itself--that
 is to say1 into the pure region of the 
universal4 ,and this region is thought4 
,such is the substratum for this content
 considered on the subjective  side4    
,here the content is that ,being in     
which is no difference1 no  schism2     
,being which abides in itself1 the      
universal2 and thought is the  form for 
which this universal is4    ,thus we    
have a difference between thought and   
the universal which we  have called     
,god4 ,it is a difference which in the  
first place belongs  only to our        
reflection1 and is by no means to be    
found in the content on  its own        
account4 ,there is the result to which  
philosophy comes--a result  already     
comprised in religion as under the form 
of faith--to wit1 that  ,god is the sole

 veritable reality1 the ,being without  
which no other  reality would exist4    
,in the unity of this reality1 in this  
cloudless shining1 the reality and  the 
distinction which we call thinking-being
 have as yet no place4    ,what we have 
before us is this absolute unity4 ,this 
content1 this  determination we cannot  
yet call religion because to religion   
belongs  subjective spirit              
consciousness4 ,thought is the seat of  
this universal1  but this seat is1 to   
begin with1 absorbed in this being which
 is one1  eternal1 in and for itself4   
,this universal constitutes the         
beginning and the point of departure1   
but  only as unity which so abides4 ,it 
is not a mere substratum whence         
differences are born2 rather1 all       
differences are included in this        
universal4 ,no more is it an abstract   
and inert universal1 but the  absolute  
principle of all activity1 the matrix1  
the infinite source  whence all things  
proceed1 whither all things return1 and 

in which they  are eternally preserved4 
,thus the universal is never separated  
from this ethereal element1 from  this  
,unity with itself1 this concentration  
within itself4      ,,iv4--,,what ,,is  
,,evil8      ,as the universal1 ,god    
could not find ,himself faced by a      
contrary whereof  the reality should    
pretend to rise above the phantasmal    
level4 ,for this  pure unity and this   
perfect transparency matter is nothing  
impenetrable1  and spirit1 the ego1 is  
not so independent as to possess a true1
  individual1 substantiality of its own4
    ,there has been a tendency to label 
this idea pantheism4 ,it would be more  
exact to call it the conception of      
substantiality4 ,god is first           
determined as substance only4 ,the      
absolute subject spirit is also         
substance2 but it is determined rather  
as subject4 ,this is the  difference    
generally ignored by those who assert   
that speculative  philosophy is         
pantheism4 ,as usual1 they miss the     

essential point and  disparage          
philosophy by falsifying it4            
,pantheism is commonly taken to mean    
that ,god is all things--the whole1  the
 universe1 the collection of all        
existences1 of things infinite and      
infinitely diverse4 ,from which notion  
the charge is brought against           
philosophy that it teaches that all     
things are ,god2 that is to say1 that   
,god is1 not the universal which is in  
and for itself1 but the infinite        
multiplicity of individual things in    
their empirical and immediate           
existence4    ,if you say ,god is all   
that is here1 this paper1 etc41 you have
 indeed  committed yourself to the      
pantheism with which philosophy is      
reproached2  that is1 the whole is      
understood as equivalent to all         
individual things4  ,but there is also  
the genus1 which is equally the         
universal1 yet is  wholly different from
 this totality in which the universal is
 but the  collection of individual      

things1 and the basis1 the content1 is  
constituted by these things themselves4 
,to say that there has ever been  a     
religion which has taught this pantheism
 is to say what is absolutely  untrue4  
,it has never entered any man's mind    
that everything is ,god2 that  is to    
say1 that ,god is things in their       
individual and contingent  existence4   
,far less has philosophy ever taught    
this doctrine4    ,spinozism itself1 as 
such1 as well as ,oriental pantheism1   
contains this  doctrine3 that the divine
 in all things is no more than that     
which is  universal in their content1   
their essence2 and in such sense that   
this  essence is conceived of as a      
determinate essence4    ,when ,brahma   
says1 ,in the metal ,i am the brightness
 of its shining2  among the rivers ,i am
 the ,ganges2 ,i am the life of all that
 lives1 he  thereby suppresses the      
individual4 ,he says not1 ,i am the     
metal1 the  rivers1 the individual      
things of various kinds as such1 nor in 

the  fashion of their immediate         
existence4    ,here1 at this stage1 what
 is expressed is no longer pantheism2   
but  rather that of the essence in      
individual things4    ,in the living    
being are time and space4 ,but in this  
individual being it  is only the        
changeless element that is made to stand
 out4 ,the life of  being that lives is 
in this latter sphere of life the       
unlimited1 the  universal4 ,but if it be
 said ,god is all things1 here we       
understand  individuality with all its  
limitations1 its finity1 its passing    
existence4 ,this notion of pantheism    
arises out of the conception of  unity1 
not as spiritual unity but abstract     
unity2 and then1 when the  idea takes   
its religious form1 where only the      
substance1 the ,one1 is  possessed of   
true reality1 there is a tendency to    
forget that it is  precisely in presence
 of this unity that individual and      
finite things  are effaced1 and to      
continue to place these in a material   

fashion side  by side with this unity4  
,they will not admit the teaching of the
  ,eleatics1 who1 when they say ,there  
is only ,one1 add expressly that        
non-entity is not4 ,all that is finite  
would be limitation1 a negation of  the 
,one1 but non-entity1 the boundary1     
term1 limit1 and that which is  limited1
 exist not at all4    ,spinozism has    
been accused of atheism4 ,but ,spinozism
 does not teach that  ,god is the world1
 that ,he is all things4 ,things have   
indeed a  phenomenal existence--that is1
 an existence as appearances4 ,we speak 
of  our existence1 and our life is      
indeed comprised in this existence1 but 
to speak philosophically the world has  
no reality1 it has no existence4        
,individual things are finite things to 
which no reality can be  attributed2 it 
may be said of them that they have no   
existence4    ,spinozism--this is the   
accusation directed against it--involves
 by way  of consequence that1 if all    
things make but one1 good and evil make 

but  one2 there is no difference between
 them2 and thereby all religion is      
destroyed4 ,in themselves1 it is said   
there is no difference between good  and
 evil2 consequently it is a matter of   
indifference whether one be  righteous  
or wicked4 ,it may be granted that in   
themselves--that is1 in  ,god1 who is   
the sole veritable reality--the         
difference between good and  evil       
disappears4 ,in ,god there is no evil4  
,but the difference between  good and   
evil can exist only on condition that   
,god is the evil4 ,but it  cannot be    
allowed that evil is an affirmative     
thing1 and that this  affirmation is in 
,god4 ,god is good1 and nothing else    
than good2 the  distinction between good
 and evil is not present in this unity1 
in this  substance1 and comes into      
existence only with differentiation4    
,god is unity abiding absolutely in     
itself4 ,in the substance there is no   
differentiation4 ,the distinction of    
good and evil begins with the           

distinction of ,god from the world1 and 
particularly from man4 ,it is the       
fundamental principle of ,spinozism with
 regard to this distinction of  ,god and
 the world that man must have no other  
end than ,god4 ,the love of  ,god1      
therefore1 it is that ,spinozism marks  
out for man as the law to be  followed  
in order to bring about the healing of  
this breach4    ,and it is the loftiest 
morality that teaches that evil has no  
existence  and that man is not bound to 
permit the substantial existence of this
  distinction1 this negation4 ,yet it is
 possible for him to desire to  maintain
 the difference and even to push it to  
the point of sheer  opposition to ,god1 
who is the universal1 self-contained and
  self-sufficing4 ,in this case man is  
evil4 ,but1 alternatively1 he may  annul
 this distinction and place his true    
existence in ,god alone and in  his     
aspiration towards ,him2 and in this    
case he is good4    ,in ,spinozism there
 is indeed the difference between good  

and evil1  opposition between ,god and  
man2 but side by side with it we have   
also  the principle that evil is to be  
deemed a non-entity4 ,in ,god as ,god1  
in  ,god as substance1 there is no      
distinction4 ,it is for man that the    
distinction exists1 as also for him     
exists the distinction of good and      
evil4      ,v4--,,the ,,determination   
,,of ,,unity      ,the superficial      
method of appraising philosophy is      
exemplified also in  those who assert   
that it is a system of identity4 ,it is 
perfectly true  that substance is this  
unity at one with itself1 but spirit no 
less is  this self-identity4            
,ultimately1 all is identity1 unity with
 itself4 ,but  when they speak of the   
philosophy of identity they have in view
 abstract  identity or unity in general2
 and they neglect the essential point1  
to  wit1 the determination of this unity
 in itself2 in other words1 they  omit  
to consider whether this unity is       
determined as substance or as  spirit4  

,philosophy from beginning to end is    
nothing else than the study  of         
determinations of unity4    ,in the     
sphere of the ,notion many unities are  
comprised4 ,the combination  of water   
and earth is a unity1 but this unity is 
mixture4 ,if we bring  together a base  
and an acid1 we have as the result a    
crystal2 also  water2 but water which   
cannot be discerned and which gives no  
trace of  humidity4 ,here the unity of  
the water and of this matter is a unity 
different from the mixture of water and 
earth4 ,the essential point is  the     
difference of these determinations4 ,the
 unity of ,god is always  unity1 but    
what is of primary importance is to know
 the modes and forms  of the            
determination of this unity4            
,manifestation1 development1            
determination do not go on to infinity1 
nor  yet do they stop accidentally4 ,but
 in the course of its true development  
the ,notion completes its course by a   
return upon itself1 whereby it has      

attained the reality adequate to it4 ,so
 it is that the manifestation is        
infinite in nature1 that the content is 
adequate to the ,notion of  spirit1 and 
that the phenomenal world exists1 like  
spirit1 in and for  itself4 ,in         
religion1 the ,notion of religion has   
become its own object4  ,spirit which is
 in and for itself has now no longer in 
its development  individual forms and   
determinations1 it knows itself no      
longer as spirit  in such               
determinability or such a limited       
moment2 but it has triumphed  over these
 limitations and this finiteness1 and is
 for itself that which  also it is in   
itself4 ,this cognisance in which spirit
 is for itself what  it is in itself    
constitutes the in-and-for of spirit    
which is in  possession of knowledge1   
the perfect and absolute religion1 in   
which is  revealed what spirit is1 what 
,god is4 ,that is the ,christian        
religion4           99       99       99
       99       99        ,,the ,,books 

,,of ,,hinduism      ,,the ,,vedanta    
,,sutras           ,hinduism1 though    
usually understood to include           
,brahmanism       7q4v471 is1 in fact1 a
 later development of it4 ,its central  
doctrine is the trinity1 or ,trimurti1  
which embraces the       three-fold     
manifestation of the god-head as        
,brahma1 the one       supreme being1   
the ,creator2 ,vishnu the ,preserver2   
and ,siva the       ,destroyer4 ,the    
three principal books of ,hinduism are  
the       ,vedanta ,sutras1 the         
,puranas1 and the ,tantras1 of which    
only the first is epitomised here4 ,the 
,sutras are the       earliest4 ,the    
,vedanta 7literally goal or issue of the
       ,veda7 is a purely pantheistic   
and monastic philosophical       system1
 and by far the most prevalent in       
,modern ,india4 ,it is       ascribed to
 ,badarayana1 sometimes called ,vyasa1  
though this       last is really a      
generic name denoting a collector4 ,the 
word       sutra denotes literally      

threads1 and is used by ,brahmanic      
writers for short1 dry sentences1 brief 
expositions4 ,vedanta       ,sutras     
means literally compendious expressions 
of the       ,vedantic 7not ,vedic7     
doctrine4 ,the second great division of 
,hindu sacred literature is the         
,puranas1 the last and most       modern
 of the books of ,hinduism4 ,the word   
,purana means       old1 and in ancient 
,sanscrit writings it has the same      
meaning as our cosmology4 ,the ,puranas1
 however1 are       ill-arranged        
collections of theological and          
philosophical       reflections1 myths  
and legends1 ritual1 and ascetic rules4 
,they depend very much on the two great 
epics1 especially the                   
,mahabharata4 ,the ,sanscrit writings   
called ,tantras are really       manuals
 of religion1 of magic1 and of          
counter-charms1 with       songs in     
praise of ,sakti1 the female side of    
,siva4      ,,introductory      ,the    
,vedanta is sometimes called the        

,mimamsa 7 philosophical  reflections74 
,the aphorisms of which the ,vedanta    
,sutras consist are in  themselves      
almost as unintelligible as the         
,confucian ,book of ,changes1  the      
compiler having been only too successful
 in aiding the memory of the  ,hindu    
student by a system of multum in parvo4 
,it is usual to accept the              
interpretation put on the ,sutras by the
  ,sanscrit commentator ,sankara1       
commonly called ,sankara ,karya1 who    
flourished about ,a4,d4 #gjj4 ,there    
are1 however1 many other commentaries1  
notably that of ,ramanuga4 ,george      
,thibaut1 in the ,sacred ,books of the  
,east 7vols4 #cd1 #ch1 and #dh71 gives  
the interpretation of ,sankara1 and     
also that of ,ramanuga when it differs  
essentially4 ,on the whole it may  be   
said that ,sankara is a thorough-going  
,vedantist and pantheist4  ,ramanuga1 on
 the other hand1 has leanings towards   
the dualism of the  ,sankhya philosophy1
 and endeavours to make the ,vedanta    

,sutras support  his opinions4    ,the  
,vedanta ,sutras embrace five hundred   
and fifty-five aphorisms1 or  ,sutras1  
arranged in four books 7,adhyay71 each  
having four-chapters  7,pada71 the      
chapters being severally divided into   
sections  7,adhikarana74 ,these ,sutras 
are of the utmost importance1 as nearly 
all  ,hindu sects base their belief and 
practices on them4 ,it should be        
remembered that these ,sutras form a    
collection1 and that they are the  work 
of many hands1 and belong to different  
periods4      ,,book ,i4--,,brahman1    
,,the ,,sum ,,and ,,substance ,,of      
,,everything      ,the ego and the      
non-ego differ in themselves and in     
their attributes4 ,it  will be found1   
however1 that the non-ego depends on the
 ego1 and is its  product4 ,individual  
souls1 on the other hand1 representing  
so many egos1  are themselves but       
manifestations of the supreme universal 
soul--,brahman2 that is1 ,brahman and   
the ,atman the individual soul are      

identical1 the latter being the product 
of the self-revealing of the  former4   
,with this one may compare the          
ontological ideas of ,plato1 the        
absolute substance of ,spinoza1 and the 
absolute idea of ,hegel2 all  of them   
standing for the ,one only existing     
,being which manifests itself  to       
thought and to sense in various forms4  
,what1 then1 asks the ,vedantist1 is    
,brahman8    ,the word comes from brih1 
to be great4 ,hence ,brahman is         
something1  or someone1 transcendently  
great4 ,the word may be defined as      
connoting  that whence all things       
proceed4 ,this implies absolute1        
unoriginated  origin1 absolute          
subsistence1 and also reabsorption1 for 
as all things  go forth from ,brahman1  
so shall all things return to that      
whence they  started forth4    ,the     
,scriptures ,vedas lay most stress on   
,brahman as the source and  origin of   
all things4 ,what qualities there are in
 the world inhere in  ,brahman1 or they 

could not be in the world which has     
sprung from him4  ,there could be no    
intelligent souls without a previously  
existing  intelligent ,brahman4 ,that   
,brahman1 the ,supreme ,being1 is       
all-knowing is  proved from the fact    
that the ,veda itself1 the source and   
centre of what  is knowable1 proceeds   
from ,him as its one1 only author4      
,this ,brahman1 as set forth in the     
,vedanta texts as the cause of the      
world1 is therefore intelligent1 and by 
no means to be identified with  the     
non-intelligent ,pradhna 7,prakriti7    
which the ,sankhya atheistic  philosophy
 makes to be the world's cause4 ,what   
looks like a separate1  conscious1      
individual soul or mind is really but   
the outworking of  ,brahman1 the highest
 and first of beings4    ,the difference
 is apparent1 but not real4 ,so teaches 
,sankara2 but his  rival commentator1   
,ramanuga1 endeavours to show that      
,brahman1 the  supreme self of the      
universe1 is absolutely free from the   

effects of  conduct4 ,but the individual
 selves1 which we call souls1 are not1  
for it  is the effect of conduct in a   
previous state of existence ,karma that 
decides the character and form of the   
new life to be lived1 or whether  there 
is to be a new life lived at all1 since 
conduct sufficiently good  entitles to  
absorption in the one all--,brahman4    
,it may be objected that ,brahman cannot
 be the creator of this actual  world1  
for there is in it suffering1 injustice1
 and cruelty4 ,he could  not be the     
author of these4 ,to which the          
commentator ,sankara answers3  ,brahman 
is himself1 with all his greatness1     
subject to the operation of  the great  
moral laws according to which virtue is 
rewarded and vice  punished4 ,all men   
are free1 and it is their self-chosen   
conduct that  determines their destiny4 
,this is a law that pervades all        
existence1  conditions existence1 and   
without which there could be no         
existence4    ,it may be again asked3   

,how can a being with perfect life      
produce a  world that is lifeless8 ,in  
other words1 ,how can the effect differ 
from  its cause8 ,the same commentator  
replies3 ,just as lifeless hair can     
grow out of a living man4    ,again1 it 
is said1 ,in the universe ,brahman is at
 once he who enjoys and  he who is      
enjoyed4 ,how can he be both one and the
 other--agent and  object8 ,to which    
,sankara replies3 ,it is as possible for
 these two to  go together as for the   
ocean to be itself and to be at the same
 time  foam1 waves1 billows1 and        
bubbles4 ,the same earth produces       
diamonds1  rock crystal1 and vermilion4 
,do they differ from the earth8    ,the 
same sun causes plants of various kinds 
to grow1 and the very same  nourishment 
taken into the body is changed to flesh1
 hair1 nails1 etc4  ,the spider spins   
its web from its own substance1 and     
spirits assume many  forms when they    
appear on the earth4 ,all these are but 
images of the  eternal world-process by 

which ,brahman reveals ,himself in souls
 and in  material objects4        ,,the 
,,highest ,,knowledge ,,inaccessible    
,,to ,,low        ,,caste ,,men    ,no  
,sudra or lowest caste man is capable of
 such knowledge as leads to             
,brahmanhood the state of being absorbed
 in ,brahman4 ,only the  twice-born#ab  
are allowed to study the ,vedic         
,scriptures1 a knowledge of  which is   
essential to salvation4 ,the twice-born 
are likewise alone  permitted to offer  
sacrifice1 for how can a man sacrifice  
aright who is  ignorant of the sacred   
scriptures1 which are alone adequate for
 a man's  guidance8 ,if the ,sudras1 or 
fourth-caste men1 are excluded from the 
summum bonum of humanity--absorption in 
the one great all--how much  more are   
,pariahs1 or non-caste men1 deprived of 
this great boon6 ,brahman  is the       
material1 as well as the efficient1     
cause of the world1 which  springs from 
him by way of modification1 but is his  
manifested self and  nothing more4      

,,book ,,ii4--,,objections ,,to         
,,vedantic ,,doctrines ,,stated ,,and   
,,refuted      ,the ,vedanta texts1 the 
,vedas and the ,upanishads1 teach that  
,brahman is  the one only source of     
whatever exists outside himself2 that   
his nature  is not only mighty1 but also
 intelligent4 ,the evidence for this    
supplied  in ,book ,i4 is1 for the most 
part1 the authority of the above texts2 
that  which they say must be accepted as
 gospel1 whatever human reason may  see 
or say to the contrary4    ,book ,,ii4  
begins by stating and answering         
speculative objections on the  part of  
,sankhyaists4 ,though himself           
intelligence 7not merely  intelligent7  
,brahman may give birth to a            
non-intelligent world1 seeing  that like
 does not always spring from like see   
above4    ,atomists hold that there is  
apparent difference and separateness in 
things4 ,where1 then1 they ask1 is the  
oneness1 the monism1 for which  the     
,vedantists argue8 ,it is replied that  

it is only superficial thought  that    
fixes itself upon the manifoldness of   
things1 losing sight of their  oneness4 
,deeper thought sees underneath the many
 a oneness which binds  them1 and of    
which they are only the outward         
expressions4 ,the great  ocean is one1  
but its waves and ripples are many4 ,all
 at bottom is but  one3 the ,universal  
,being4    ,a non-intelligent first     
cause 7,prakriti71 such as the          
,sankhyaists  postulate1 could never    
call into being an orderly world1 for   
how could  unreason produce reason8 ,nor
 could atoms set in motion produce a    
planned  or intelligent universe1 as the
 ,atomists falsely say4 ,there must be  
an  intelligent power controlling the   
atoms and contemplating the result to   
be attained4    ,the view put forth by  
the ,sankhya philosophers1 that an      
external and  internal world exists in  
mutual independence1 is contrary to     
thought and  experience--is1 in fact1   
unthinkable4 ,we know no external world3

 we have  never had any experience      
outside the region of our own           
consciousness2  yet what is regarded as 
external to the individual consciousness
 is not  ,maya1 as is taught in some of 
the ,upanishads1 and maintained by later
  philosophers4 ,this external world as 
a fact of consciousness is as real  as  
that consciousness and as the individual
 mind which makes mental  experience    
possible1 and is the great ,all1 of     
which the individual mind  is the       
working and manifestation4        ,,the 
,,relation ,,of ,,brahman ,,to          
,,elements ,,and ,,the        ,,soul    
,are the elementary substances 7ether1  
air1 etc7 co-eternal1 with  ,brahman1 or
 do they issue from him8 ,it can be     
shown1 and is shown1 that  one          
elementary substance proceeds from      
another 7e4g41 air from ether71  and    
that in the last resort all such        
substances have come forth from         
,brahman1 who has not only produced     
them1 but also guided and effected      

their evolution4    ,the individual soul
 is1 according to the scriptures ,vedas 
and  ,upanishads1 eternal and permanent1
 and has not been produced by  ,brahman2
 who is1 however1 as noted1 the producer
 of the elementary  substances4 ,like   
,brahman himself1 the individual soul is
 uncreated and  eternal4 ,what is in    
time and belongs to time is the         
connection of the  soul with the        
conditions of space and time4 ,this is  
the interpretation  given by ,sankara4  
,ramanuga1 however1 holds that the soul 
is a creature  of ,brahman1 though an   
eternal one1 it having existed ever as a
 mode of  the great ,all compare the    
doctrine of the eternal procession of   
the  ,son4        ,,what ,,is ,,soul8   
,what is soul8 ,it is gna1 or knowledge4
 ,the etymology of both these  latter   
words is identical--compare ,greek      
gnosco1 etc4 ,this means1  according to 
,sankara1 that knowledge is of the very 
essence of soul1 and  not a mere        
attribute of it4 ,the soul is not merely

 a knower 7gnatri71  but it is          
knowledge4 ,ramanuga1 on the other hand1
 explains that the  knowledge spoken of 
in this ,sutra means the knower2 that   
the soul is  not knowledge1 but that    
which can and does know4    ,is the soul
 limited in size1 and capable1          
therefore1 of occupying but a           
restricted space8 ,or is it1 on the     
contrary1 omnipresent8    ,sankara      
maintains that the ,sutra in question   
teaches the latter2 the  soul is        
everywhere4 ,ramanuga makes the same    
,sutra teach the very  contrary4 ,as a  
matter of fact1 the ,sutra in question  
seems to teach both  these contradictory
 doctrines1 perhaps because it registers
 different  traditions4 ,sankara1       
however1 explains further on that as    
long as the  soul is passing through the
 changes involved in ,samsara           
transmigration it is limited and local1 
but on reaching ,brahmanhood it  becomes
 omnipresent4 ,in this way the great    
commentator seeks to  reconcile teaching

 apparently contradictory in this       
,sutra4    ,is this soul an agent8 ,some
 of the ,sutras say it is1 others say it
 is  not4 ,how are the conflicting      
statements to be reconciled8 ,sankara   
does  this in the following way4 ,as    
long as the soul is tied down to        
material  conditions--that is1 is       
passing through the processes of        
,samsara--it is  an agent4 ,but as soon 
as it has escaped from this bondage of  
transmigration it dwells in a state of  
perfect repose1 inactive and  restful4  
,in all its activities the soul is      
prompted by ,brahman1 without  whose    
inspiration and guidance the soul could 
perform nothing1 and could  never1      
therefore1 reach the true goal of all   
souls1 absorption in the  one ,all1     
which can be obtained in no other way   
than by the performance  of good deeds1 
which means action4      ,,book         
,,iii4--,,of ,,the ,,soul ,,and ,,its   
,,summum ,,bonum      ,when at death the
 soul passes from the body its subtle   

material elements  still cling to it4   
,good souls pass on to the moon1 whence 
they  afterwards descend in a form and  
state determined by their former        
actions ,karma4 ,if the previous life   
has been a moral failure1 the new  life 
now entered upon will belong to a lower 
level of being1 i4e41 the  man may      
become an animal1 the higher1 animal may
 become a lower one4 ,on  the other     
hand1 there may be an ascent in the     
scale of being4    ,when the soul is    
a-dreaming1 what it thinks it sees and  
hears1 etc41 is  all illusion1 for it   
does not see or hear1 etc41 what it     
thinks it does4  ,in a state of profound
 dreaminess the soul leaves the body and
 lives in  close fellowship with        
,brahman4    ,how is the soul to obtain 
final release from the thraldom of      
material  conditions8 ,by meditating on 
,brahman as he is set forth in the      
sacred  scriptures4 ,brahman must be    
thought about and meditated on in all   
his  attributes1 and this produces      

identity with the one great self of     
existence4    ,though ,sankara makes    
this to be the teaching of the ,sutras1 
in another  place he insists that       
,brahman is without attributes4 ,he is  
not1  therefore1 consistent4 ,the       
meditation on ,brahman which leads to   
soul-freedom must have regard also to   
,brahman's negative qualities1  i4e41   
his not being gross1 nor subtle1 wise   
nor foolish1 etc4        ,,the          
,,relation ,,of ,,knowledge ,,and       
,,conduct    ,the knowledge of ,brahman 
is independent of action1 and not       
subordinate  to it4 ,it is vidya compare
 vision1 which has the same etymology1  
or knowledge1 that is alone prescribed  
in the holy writings1 not  conduct4     
,where1 however1 there is right         
knowledge1 there will be  rightness of  
life4 ,but mere rightness of life is    
nothing2 it is that  which leads to it  
and is the cause that is alone commanded
 and commended  compare the controversy 
among ,christian theologians about faith

 and  works4 ,the knowledge which saves 
and enfranchises may be reached by a    
man in this present life1 and will be1  
if the appropriate means are  employed4 
,,of ,,brahmanhood    ,meditation is a  
duty to be observed to the very close of
 life1 and the  amount and intensity of 
it are the measure of a man's virtue and
 piety4  ,when he has reached the full  
knowledge of ,brahman1 a man is freed   
from  the consequences karma of all his 
evil deeds1 past1 present1 and  future4 
,one would think that the state of      
,brahmanhood excluded the  possibility  
of sin1 but this ,sutra seems to imply  
the contrary4 ,the  ,sutras1 however1   
make a distinction between a lower state
 of ,brahmanhood  and a higher4 ,see    
below4    ,what happens to the knowing  
one 7vidvan7 at death8 ,the soul of him 
who  has at death the lower ,brahman    
knowledge merges into the subtler       
elements4 ,but when the highest         
knowledge is attained there is complete 
absorption in ,brahman4 ,whoever dies in

 possession of this highest  knowledge  
is at once merged in ,brahman1 and rests
 eternally and  perfectly in him4       
,the ,upanishads describe the stations  
on the way which leads up to  ,brahman4 
,these stations are to be understood not
 merely as terminuses of  the various   
stages of the journey1 but they denote  
also the divine  beings who direct the  
soul in its progress and enable it to   
move forward  and upward4 ,according to 
some ,sutras in this book the guardians 
of the  path conducting to the gods lead
 the departed soul1 not to the highest  
,brahman1 but to the effected 7karya71  
or qualified 7saguna71  ,brahman4 ,but  
in other ,sutras in this book the       
opposite view is stated  and defended1  
according to which the vidvan1 or       
knower1 goes direct to  the highest     
,brahman without halting anywhere short 
of that god4    ,the ,sutras teach1 on  
the whole1 the doctrine that the        
enfranchised soul1  being identical with
 ,brahman1 is inseparable from him just 

as a mode of  substance is incapable of 
existing apart from the substance of    
which it  is a mode4 ,ramanuga points   
out1 however1 that some of the ,sutras  
in this  book give it clearly to be     
understood that the freed soul can exist
 in  isolation and in separation from   
the great ,all4    ,the released soul   
can enter several bodies at the same    
time1 since it is  not subject to space 
relations as other souls are4           
99       99       99       99       99  
,,thomas  ,,kempis      ,,the           
,,imitation ,,of ,,christ               
,thomas  ,kempis1 whose family name was 
,haemmerlein1 received       the name of
 ,kempis from ,kempen1 in ,holland1 the 
place of his       birth4 ,either       
,thomas ,haemmerlein or ,thomas         
,kempensis would be       a more correct
 name than the form  ,kempis1 by which  
he is       generally known2 and ,musica
 ,ecclesiastica is the more             
correct title of the ,imitatio ,christi4
 ,it is not even       certain that     

,thomas was the author of it1 for the   
names of       other authors have been  
put forward with more or less           
probability2 but he was certainly its   
copyist1 and the balance       of       
evidence is in favour of his authorship4
 ,thomas was born in       #acgi1 the   
son of a shoemaker2 entered in #adjj a  
monastery at       ,agnetenberg1 near   
,zwolle1 and died in the monastery on   
,august       #h1 #adga1 with a great   
reputation for learning and for         
sanctity4 ,the ,imitation was completed 
about #adbj4 ,editions       and        
translations in all principal languages 
are innumerable2       but the          
definitive edition is the ,latin text by
 ,dr4 ,carl       ,hirsche1 of ,hamburg 
7#ahgd71 from which the following       
epitome       has been made4 ,the       
,imitation consists of four books of    
meditations1 which are among the most   
priceless treasures of       ,christian 
literature4      ,i4--,,admonitions     
,,useful ,,to ,,the ,,spiritual ,,life  

,whoever follows ,me does not walk in   
darkness1 says the ,lord4 ,these are    
the words of ,christ by which we are    
admonished how far we should imitate    
,his life and manners if we wish to be  
truly illumined and liberated from  all 
blindness of heart4 ,let it1 therefore1 
be our supreme study to  meditate on the
 life of ,jesus ,christ4    ,vanity of  
vanities1 all things are vanity1 except 
to love ,god and to  serve ,him only4   
,the highest wisdom is to strive towards
 celestial  kingdoms1 through contempt  
of the world4 ,it is1 therefore1 vanity 
to  seek the riches that are about to   
perish1 and to hope in them4 ,it is     
vanity also to solicit honours1 and to  
exalt oneself to high place4 ,it  is    
vanity to follow after the desires of   
the flesh1 and to seek that for  which  
we must soon be heavily punished4 ,it is
 vanity to wish a long  life1 and to    
care little about a good life4 ,it is   
vanity to attend only  to the present   
life1 and not to provide for things     

which are to come4 ,it  is vanity to    
love that which passes away so speedily1
 and not to hasten  thither where       
eternal joy remains4    ,remember often 
that proverb--,the eye is not satisfied 
with seeing nor  the ear with hearing4  
,study1 therefore1 to withdraw your     
heart from the  love of visible things1 
and turn yourself to the invisible4 ,for
 those  who follow their sensuality     
stain their conscience1 and lose the    
grace  of ,god4    ,every man naturally 
desires to know1 but what does knowledge
 signify  without the fear of ,god8 ,the
 humble peasant who serves ,god is far  
better  than the proud philosopher who  
neglects himself and considers the      
courses of the stars4 ,whoever knows    
himself well contemns himself1 and      
takes no delight in human praise4 ,if ,i
 should know all things in the  world1  
and yet not be in charity1 what would it
 advantage me in the  presence of ,god1 
,who is about to judge me for my deeds8 
,desist from too much desire of knowing1

 because great distraction and          
deception are found in it4 ,those who   
know1 desire to seem and to be  called  
wise4 ,there are many things of which   
the knowledge is of little  or no value 
to the soul1 and the man is very foolish
 who turns to other  things than those  
which subserve his health4 ,many words  
do not satisfy  the soul2 but a good    
life cools down the mind1 and a good    
conscience  affords great confidence    
towards ,god4    ,we might have great   
peace if we did not occupy ourselves    
with the words  and deeds which are no  
concern of ours4 ,how can he remain long
 in peace  who meddles with cares which 
are foreign to him1 who seeks           
opportunities  without1 and recollects  
himself little or rarely8 ,blessed are  
the  simple1 for they shall have much   
peace4    ,without charity1 an outward  
work is of value2 but whatever is done  
from  charity1 however small and trivial
 it may be1 becomes wholly fruitful4    
,for ,god weighs more the source from   

which an action comes than the work     
which it does4 ,he does much who loves  
much4 ,he does much who does the  deed  
well4 ,he does well who serves the      
community rather than his own  will4    
,that often seems to be charity which is
 rather carnality2 for natural          
inclination1 one's own will1 the hope of
 reward1 and the liking for  comfort are
 rarely absent4 ,but whoever has true   
and perfect charity  seeks himself in   
nothing1 but desires only the glory of  
,god4 ,he envies  no one1 because he    
loves no joy of his own1 nor cares to   
rejoice in  himself2 but wishes1 above  
all good things1 to find felicity in    
,god4  ,whoever has a spark of true     
charity feels at once that all earthly  
things are full ,of vanity4             
,,ii4--,,admonitions ,,leading ,,to     
,,inward ,,life      ,the kingdom of    
,god is within you1 says the ,lord4     
,turn yourself with  your whole heart to
 the ,lord1 and leave this miserable    
world1 and your  soul shall find rest4  

,learn to despise outward things1 and to
 give  yourself to inward things1 and   
you shall see the kingdom of ,god rise  
within you4 ,for the kingdom of ,god is 
peace and joy in the ,holy ,spirit1  and
 is not given to the impious4 ,christ   
shall come to you showing you  ,his     
consolation1 if you prepare within you a
 home fit for ,him4 ,all ,his  glory and
 beauty are from within1 and it is there
 that ,he delights  ,himself4 ,he often 
visits the man of inward mind1 with     
sweet colloquy1  pleasant consolation1  
great peace1 and most astounding        
familiarity4    ,if you know not how to 
contemplate high and celestial things1  
rest in  the passion of ,christ1 and    
willingly dwell in ,his holy wounds4    
,for if  you devoutly have recourse to  
the wounds of ,jesus you will feel great
  comfort in trouble1 care little for   
human contempt1 and easily bear         
detracting words4 ,for ,christ1 in the  
world1 was despised by men1 and in  ,his
 greatest need was deserted1 among      

insults1 by ,his friends4 ,christ       
willed to suffer and to be despised1 and
 shall you dare to complain of          
anything8 ,christ had enemies and       
detractors1 and do you wish to have all 
friends and benefactors8 ,whence shall  
your patience be crowned if you  have   
suffered no adversity8 ,if you desire to
 suffer nothing contrary to  you1 how   
shall you be the friend of ,christ8     
,he to whom all things taste as they    
really are1 and not as they are  spoken 
of or esteemed1 is the truly wise man1  
taught by ,god rather than  by men4     
,whoever knows how to walk from within1 
and to put little value  on things      
without1 needs not to find a place nor  
wait a time for his  devout prayers4    
,the man of inward mind quickly         
recollects himself1  because he never   
spends himself wholly upon outward      
things4    ,first hold yourself in      
peace1 and then you will be able to     
pacify  others4 ,the pacific man is of  
more service than the learned4 ,but the 

passionate man turns even good to evil1 
easily believing evil4 ,the  peaceful   
man is good1 and turns all things to    
good4 ,the man who is well  at peace is 
suspicious of nothing1 but the          
discontented and turbulent is  agitated 
by divers suspicions4 ,he can neither   
himself be quiet1 nor  leave others in  
quiet4 ,he often says what he ought not 
to say1 and  leaves undone what he ought
 to do4 ,he thinks about what others    
ought to  do1 and neglects his own duty4
    ,man is raised from earthly matters 
by two wings--namely1 simplicity and    
purity4 ,simplicity should be in his    
intention1 and purity in his  affection4
 ,simplicity tends towards ,god1 purity 
takes hold of ,him4    ,always to do    
well1 and to hold oneself in small      
esteem1 is the mark of a  humble soul4  
,to desire no consolation from any      
created thing is the sign  of great     
purity and inward confidence4 ,the man  
who seeks no witness for  himself from  
without has plainly committed himself   

altogether to ,god4  ,for not he who    
commends himself is approved1 says      
blessed ,paul1 but  he whom ,god        
commends4 ,to walk with ,god within1 and
 to be held by no  affection without1 is
 the state of the inwardly-minded man4  
,jesus has now many lovers of ,his      
celestial kingdom1 but few bearers of   
,his ,cross4 ,he has many who desire    
consolation1 but few who desire         
tribulation4 ,he finds many companions  
of ,his table1 but few of ,his          
abstinence4 ,all wish to rejoice with   
,him2 few are willing to bear  anything 
for ,him4    ,in the ,cross is safety2  
in the ,cross is life2 in the ,cross is 
protection  from enemies2 in the ,cross 
is the sweetness of heaven2 in the      
,cross is  strength of mind2 in the     
,cross is the perfection of sanctity4   
,there is  no health for the soul nor   
hope of eternal life except in the      
,cross4  ,take up your cross1 therefore1
 and follow ,jesus4    ,if anything were
 better and more useful for the welfare 

of men than to  suffer1 ,christ would   
have shown it both in ,his words and in 
,his example4  ,for ,he calls to the    
disciples who follow ,him1 and to all   
who desire to  follow ,him1 and says3   
,if any will come after ,me1 let him    
deny himself1  and lift up his cross and
 follow ,me4 ,when all has been read and
  studied1 let this be our              
conclusion--,that through many          
tribulations we  must enter into the    
kingdom of ,god4      ,,iii4--,,of      
,,inward ,,consolation      ,i will hear
 what the ,lord ,god may say in me4 ,it 
is a blessed soul which  hears the ,lord
 speaking in it1 and receives the word  
of consolation from  ,his lips4 ,speak1 
,lord1 for your servant hears4    ,i    
have taught the prophets from the       
beginning1 says the ,lord1 and  until   
now ,i have not ceased to speak at all2 
but many are deaf and hard  to ,my      
voice4 ,many listen more willingly to   
the world than to ,god1 and  more easily
 follow the appetite of the flesh than  

,god's good pleasure4  ,the world       
promises small and temporary things1 and
 is served with great  eagerness2 ,i    
promise supreme and eternal things1 but 
the hearts of  mortals are torpid4 ,who 
serves and obeys ,me in everything with 
so great  care as the world and its     
lords are served8 ,men run a long way   
for a  trifling reward1 but for eternal 
life many scarcely lift a foot once     
from earth4    ,lord ,god1 you are all  
my good4 ,and who am ,i that ,i should  
dare to speak  to you8 ,i am the poorest
 and least of your servants1 a wretched 
little  worm1 far more miserable and    
contemptible than ,i know or dare to    
say1  ,yet remember me1 ,lord1 because  
,i am nothing1 ,i have nothing1 and am  
worth nothing4 ,do not turn your face   
from me2 do not defer your coming2  do  
not withdraw your consolation1 lest my  
soul become like a waterless  land      
before you4 ,lord1 teach me to do your  
will2 teach me to walk  worthily and    
humbly in your presence2 because you are

 my wisdom1 who  truly know me1 and knew
 me before the world was made and before
 ,i was  born in the world4    ,son1    
walk in ,my presence in truth1 and seek 
,me always in the simplicity  of your   
heart4 ,whoever walks in ,my presence in
 truth will be kept safe  from the      
assaults of evil1 and truth will        
liberate him from those who  lead astray
 and from the detractions of unjust men4
 ,if truth shall have  liberated you1   
then you will be truly free1 and you    
will not care for  the vain words of    
men4    ,it is true1 ,lord1 ,i pray that
 it may be done with me as you say4 ,let
  your truth teach me and guard me1 and 
keep me to a salutary end4 ,let it      
liberate me from every evil affection   
and inordinate love1 and ,i shall  walk 
with you in great liberty of heart4     
,i will teach you1 says ,truth1 what    
things are right and pleasing in  my    
,bight4 ,think on your sins with great  
displeasure and sorrow1 and  never      
imagine yourself to be anything because 

of your good works4 ,you  are really a  
sinner1 liable to many passions and     
entangled in them4 ,of  yourself1 you   
are always tending to nothingness2 you  
quickly slip1 you  are quickly overcome1
 you are quickly disturbed1 you quickly 
pass away4  ,you have nothing in which  
you can glory1 but much for which you   
ought to  hold yourself cheap2 you are  
far more infirm than you are able to    
understand4    ,some do not sincerely   
walk before me1 but1 led by a certain   
curiosity  and arrogance1 wish to know  
my secrets1 and to understand the high  
things of ,god1 neglecting themselves   
and their welfare4 ,these often fall    
into great temptations and sins1 when ,i
 resist them on account of their  pride 
and curiosity4 ,fear the judgments of   
,god2 be exceedingly afraid of  the     
anger of the ,omnipotent4 ,do not       
discuss the works of the ,highest1  but 
scrutinise your iniquities1 and see how 
gravely you have offended  and how many 
good deeds you have neglected4    ,there

 are others1 enlightened in their minds 
and purged in their  affections1 who are
 always panting after eternal things and
 listen  unwillingly to earthly things2 
these perceive what the spirit of truth 
says within them4    ,love is a great   
thing1 altogether a great good1 which   
alone makes light  everything that is   
heavy1 and carries evenly all that is   
uneven4 ,for it  bears the burden       
without being burdened1 and makes sweet 
and tasteful  everything that is bitter4
 ,the noble love of ,jesus drives on to 
great  deeds1 and always excites to the 
desire of more perfect things4 ,love    
wills to rise upwards1 and not to be    
held back by the lowest things4         
,nothing is sweeter than love1 nothing  
is stronger1 nothing higher or  broader2
 nothing is more delightful or fuller in
 heaven or in earth2 for  love is born  
of ,god1 and cannot rest except in ,god1
 above all created  things4             
,,iv4--,,devout ,,exhortation ,,to      
,,holy ,,communion      ,the voice of   

,christ1 ,come to ,me all who labour and
 are burdened1 and ,i  will refresh you1
 says the ,lord4 ,the bread which ,i    
will give you is ,my  flesh for the life
 of the world4 ,receive and consume it2 
this is ,my body  which will be         
delivered for you2 do this in           
commemoration of ,me4 ,whoever  eats ,my
 flesh and drinks ,my blood remains in  
,me1 and ,i in him4 ,the words  which ,i
 have spoken to you are spirit and life4
    ,these are your words1 ,christ1     
,eternal ,truth1 although not given at  
one  time nor written in one place4     
,because they are yours1 and true1 they 
are all to be received gratefully by me4
 ,they are yours1 and you  pronounced   
them2 and they are mine also because you
 uttered them for my  welfare4 ,i gladly
 accept them from your lips1 that they  
may be more  closely buried in my heart4
 ,words of such kindness1 full of       
sweetness  and love1 arouse me4 ,but my 
own sins frighten me1 and my impure     
conscience repels me from taking hold of

 such great mysteries4    ,you bid me   
come to you trustfully if ,i would have 
part with you2 and to  receive the food 
of immortality if ,i wish to obtain     
eternal life and  glory4 ,come to ,me1  
you say1 all who labour and are         
burdened1 and ,i  will refresh you4 ,o  
sweet and friendly word in the ear of a 
sinner1  that you1 my ,lord ,god1 invite
 the destitute and poor to the communion
 of  your most holy ,body4    ,lord1 all
 things in heaven and in earth are      
yours4 ,i desire to offer  myself as a  
willing oblation1 and to remain yours in
 perpetuity4 ,lord1  in the simplicity  
of my heart ,i offer myself to you      
to-day to be for  ever your             
servant--offer myself for obedience and 
for a sacrifice of  eternal praise4     
,receive me with this holy offering of  
your precious  ,body1 which ,i offer to 
you to-day in the presence of angels1   
assisting  though unseen1 that it may be
 for my welfare and for the welfare of  
all  your people4    ,the voice of the  

beloved3 ,god does not deceive you2 he  
is deceived who  trusts too much to     
himself4 ,god walks with the simple1    
reveals ,himself  to the humble1 gives  
understanding to the feeble1 opens ,his 
meaning to  pure minds1 and hides ,his  
grace from the inquisitive and proud4   
,human  reason is weak and may be       
deceived1 but true faith cannot be      
deceived4    ,all reason and natural    
investigation ought to follow faith1 and
 not  precede it nor impair it4 ,for    
faith and love excel here most of all1  
and  work in hidden ways in1 this most  
holy and transcendent sacrament4 ,the   
eternal and immeasurable ,god of        
infinite power does great and           
inscrutable things in heaven and in     
earth1 and there is no finding out  of  
,his wonderful works4 ,if the works of  
,god were such that they could  easily  
be seized by human reason1 they would   
not deserve to be called  wonderful or  
ineffable4           99       99        
99       99       99        ,,the       

,,koran           ,the ,koran1 the      
sacred book of ,islam1 and of more than 
a       hundred millions of men1 is the 
least original of all existing          
sacred books4 ,muslims agree in         
believing that it is from               
beginning to end1 and word for word1    
inspired2 and that it       existed     
before the ,creation on what is called  
the ,preserved       ,tablet4 ,this     
tablet was brought by the ,archangel    
,gabriel from       the highest to the  
lowest heaven1 whence it was dictated   
sura       chapter by sura1 verse by    
verse1 and word by word1 to the         
,prophet ,muhammad4 ,its matter is1     
however1 taken for the most       part  
from the ,old ,testament1 especially the
 narrative portions       of the        
,pentateuch2 from the ,new ,testament2  
from the traditions       of the ancient
 ,arabs2 and also from ,zoroastrian and 
other       scriptures or traditions4   
,it is not likely that ,muhammad used   
literary sources1 except in a small     

measure4 ,but there were       ,jews1   
,christians1 ,zoroastrians1 and others  
in and around       ,arabia1 and he must
 have learned from their lips the       
principal       doctrines of their      
respective religions4 ,nevertheless1    
planless and fragmentary compilation    
though it be1 the ,koran1               
particularly in the earlier suras       
written at ,mekka1 has much       of the
 grandeur and poetry of style and the   
passionate       exaltation of a true   
prophet1 the sincerity of whose zeal is 
unquestioned4      ,,introductory       
,the word ,koran1 or ,quran1#ac from a  
root qara  to read1 means  literally    
what is to be read1 i4e41 the written   
authority on all  matters1 religions1   
etc4 ,it is the exact equivalent of the 
,rabbinical  ,hebrew word ,miqra 7from  
the ,hebrew qara  to read74 ,the idea   
involved in both the ,arabic and ,hebrew
 words is that what is so  designated is
 the ultimate authority deciding all    
questions4 ,the ,rabbis  of             

post-,biblical times 7compare the       
,jewish ,qabbalah7 regarded the ,old    
,testament as an encyclopaedia of       
universal knowledge4 ,in the best-known 
,muslim universities of modern times    
philosophy1 science1 and everything     
else are taught from the ,koran1 which  
is made in some way to contain          
implicitly the latest words of modern   
thought1 invention1 and discovery4      
,the ,koran did not exist as a whole    
until after the ,prophet  ,muhammad's#ad
 death4 ,it was then compiled by the    
order of ,abu ,bekr1 the  first ,sunnite
 ,caliph4 ,its contents were found      
written on palm leaves  white stones1   
and other articles capable of being     
written on4 ,the  compilers depended1 to
 a large extent1 upon the memory of the 
prophet's  first followers1 but the     
,koran1 as we now have it1 existed      
without any  appreciable divergence by  
the end of the first year1 after        
,muhammad's  death 7,a4,d4 #fcb74       
,this ,muslim ,bible has no scheme or   

plan because it is an almost  haphazard 
compilation of unconnected discourses1  
uttered on various  unexplained         
occasions1 and dealing with many        
incidents and themes4 ,there  is        
practically no editing1 and no attempt  
is made to explain when1 or  how1 or why
 the various speeches were delivered4   
,the earliest native writers and        
commentators on the ,koran arranged its 
suras in two main classes3 7#a7 ,those  
uttered at ,mekka before the flight  in 
,a4,d4 #fbb2 7#b7 those written at      
,medinah during the next ten years4     
,most recent scholars follow the        
chronological arrangement proposed by   
the great ,orientalist ,nldeke in #ahfj4
 ,friedrich ,schwally in his newly      
revised edition of ,nldeke's great work 
on the ,koran follows his master  in    
almost every detail4 ,rodwell's         
translation of the ,koran1 recently     
issued in ,everyman's ,library1 arranges
 the suras chronologically  according to
 ,nldeke's scheme4 ,in the summaries    

that follow1 it is this  chronological  
order that is adopted4 ,in the ,arabic  
editions followed by  the well-known and
 valuable translations of ,sale1 ,e4,h4 
,palmer 7,clarendon  ,press1 ,sacred    
,books of the ,east1 vols4 #f and #i71  
and others1 the  principle adopted is to
 put the longest suras first and the    
shortest  last4    ,the ,mekkan suras   
are much more original than the ,medinah
 ones1  especially those of the first   
period--i4e41 those belonging to the    
first four years of ,muhammad's         
prophetic mission1 e4g41 suras #if1 #gd1
  etc4 ,in these suras the style is     
grander1 more passionate1 and fuller of 
poetry4 ,the prophet appears in a state 
of great mental exaltation1 full  of a  
zeal which no words can adequately      
express1 and of a sincerity  which few  
scholars have questioned4    ,the suras 
of the second period1 the following two 
years of the prophet's  mission 7e4g41  
suras #ed1 #cg1 etc471 have the same    
general character1  but are less        

vehement4 ,still less vehement and more 
restrained are the  suras of the third  
,mekkan period--i4e41 from the seventh  
year of the  prophet's mission to his   
flight in ,a4,d4 #fbb 7e4g41 suras #cb1 
#da1  etc474 ,the style of the ,medinah 
suras resembles that of the ,mekkan     
revelations of the third period1 only   
they are still more matter of fact  and 
restrained1 and are largely made up of  
appeals to ,jews1 ,christians1  and     
others to abandon their unbelief1 and to
 accept the prophet who  had come to    
them with the true religion1 a religion 
as old as ,abraham1  though forgotten   
for many ages4    ,the ,koran differs   
from the ,scriptures of the ,old and    
,new ,testaments1  including the        
,apocrypha1 in that these latter are    
much-more varied1 as  emanating from    
many minds1 and belonging to very       
different occasions4  ,the ,koran is1   
from beginning to end1 the effusions    
7often very wild7 of  one man4    ,the  
present editor has kept before him the  

,arabic text of ,maracci1  ,fluegel1 and
 ,redslob1 and also several ,oriental   
editions 7,cairo1  ,constantinople1     
,calcutta1 etc474 ,but1 of course1 the  
best known  translations1 and also the  
native commentaries 7,baidhawi1 etc471  
have  been consulted4    ,in the        
summaries which follow1 numerals        
following the paragraphs  indicate the  
number of the sura or suras in the      
,arabic text as well as  in ,sale's     
translation4      ,,mekkan ,,suras      
,i4--,,first ,,period 7,a4,d4 #fac-fag7 
,,muhammad',s ,,first ,,call ,,to ,,read
 ,,the ,,koran      ,in the name of the 
gracious and compassionate ,god4#ae     
,recite in the name of thy ,lord1 who   
created man and taught men to write1    
recite what ,god has revealed to thee   
,his ,prophet1 and be not afraid4       
,consider not the opposition of ,abu    
,gahl1 who has threatened to put his    
foot on thy neck if thou dost worship   
,allah4 7#if47      ,,denunciation ,,of 
,,abu ,,lahab#af      ,abu ,lahab's two 

hands shall perish1 and he himself shall
 perish4 ,his  wealth shall not avail   
him1 nor all that he has gained4 ,he    
shall be  burnt in the fiery flames#ag  
of ,hell1 his wife carrying wood for    
fuel1  with a cord of palm-tree fibres  
twisted round her neck4 7,,iii47        
,,muhammad ,,commanded ,,to ,,offer     
,,sacrifices      ,we have given to     
thee1 ,o ,prophet1 great wealth and     
abounding riches4  ,pray thou to ,allah1
 and offer ,him suitable sacrifices out 
of what ,he has  bestowed upon thee4    
7#ajh47    ,compare with this paragraph 
the following1 from sura #bb of the     
,medinah  group3    ,we have ordained   
that ye offer sacrifices unto ,allah1   
and that ye  receive much benefit       
therefrom4 ,when1 therefore1 ye slay    
your camels let  the name of ,allah be  
pronounced over them4 ,then eat of them 
and give to  those who ask humbly1      
giving also to the poor and needy who   
ask not4  ,flesh and blood can never    
reach unto ,allah 7,god71 but your      

obedience and  piety will reach unto    
,him4      ,,believers ,,and            
,,unbelievers      ,we will make the    
path to happiness easy and safe to all  
such as fear  ,allah1 and give alms1 and
 believe the truth proclaimed by        
,allah's  messenger4 ,but we will make  
easy the path to distress and misery for
 all  such as are niggardly1 are bent on
 making riches1 and deny the truth  when
 it is proclaimed to them4 ,when these  
last fall headlong into ,hell1  their   
wealth will avail them nothing4 ,in the 
burning furnace they shall  burn and    
broil4 7#ib47      ,,the ,,duty ,,of    
,,exercising ,,charity      ,verily1 ,we
 7,god7 have created some men in such   
poverty and distress as  to need the    
help of others4 ,what does that braggart
 man mean when he  says1 ,none shall    
prevail over me2 ,i have and have       
scattered riches  boundless8 ,does he   
not know that there is a ,divine eye    
that sees him8  ,have not ,we created   
him with a capacity of distinguishing   

between the  two highways1 that which   
descends towards evil1 and that which   
ascends  towards the good8 ,this        
niggardly man1 however1 makes no attempt
 to scale  the heights4 ,what is it to  
ascend the upward road8 ,it is to free  
the  prisoner1 to feed the hungry1 to   
defend the orphan who is akin1 and the  
down-trodden poor4 ,besides this1 it is 
enjoined that men believe in  ,allah and
 ,his ,prophet2 that they encourage each
 other to be steadfast in  the faith1   
exercising mutual consideration and     
sympathy4 ,all such as do  these things 
shall be the people of the right hand4  
,but all those who  disbelieve ,our     
signs shall be the companions of the    
left hand1 over whom  shall be a vault  
of fire4 7#ij47      ,,muhammad         
,,commanded ,,to ,,arise ,,and ,,preach 
,o thou mantle-wrapped one1 arise and   
warn the people1 and magnify the  ,lord4
 ,the ,day of ,judgment will be a sad   
day for unbelievers4 ,leave thou  thine 
enemy in ,mine hands1 and let ,me visit 

upon him his well deserved  punishment4 
,for he has ridiculed the ,koran2 he has
 said3 ,this is  nothing else than      
magic1 they are the words of a man4 ,i  
,god will cast  him into ,hell1 where he
 shall burn in torment4 ,the fires of   
this ,hell  leave nothing unconsumed4   
,it scorches men's flesh4 ,we have      
appointed  nineteen angels as guardians 
over ,hell fire4 ,but why nineteen8     
,that  believers may be sure of the     
veracity of this ,book1 and that        
unbelievers  may have occasion for      
denying the divinity of the ,koran1     
saying3 ,what  means this number8 7#gd47
      ,,the ,,koran ,,given ,,to        
,,muhammad      ,verily1 ,we have       
brought down to ,muhammad the ,koran on 
the ,night of  ,power4#ah ,this one     
,night of ,power is better than a       
thousand months4 ,on  that night did    
,gabriel and the angels descend and     
reveal to ,our ,prophet  all the words  
of the ,koran4 7#ig47      ,,muhammad   
,,not ,,mad ,,nor ,,an ,,impostor       

,believe thou not1 ,o ,messenger of     
,mine1 when they say1 ,thou art bereft  
of thy senses1 when they charge thee    
with imposture4 ,thy ,lord knoweth  who 
are bereft of their senses1 and who are 
the impostors4 ,warn thou  those        
maligners of the awful judgment which   
awaits them4 7#fh47      ,,god',s       
,,promise ,,to ,,help ,,muhammad ,,to   
,,recite ,,the ,,koran      ,we ,allah  
shall enable thee to remember all the   
parts of the ,koran1 so  that thou      
mayest recite them for the encouragement
 of those who believe  and as a warning 
to all unbelievers4 ,nor shalt thou     
forget aught of this  ,revelation except
 what ,we please4#ai ,all those who fear
 ,god will  receive the prophet's       
warning1 but all those who disbelieve   
shall be  cast into terrible fire where 
they will neither live nor die4 ,this   
doctrine which ,we command thee to      
preach is that taught in the ancient    
,books1 the ,books of ,abraham and of   
,moses1 who were faithful ,muslims4     

7#hg47      ,,the ,,koran ,,inspired    
,by the falling star1 your comrade      
,muhammad does not err1 nor does he     
speak his own mind4 ,what he utters has 
been revealed to him4 ,the ,koran  is   
from ,god through ,gabriel2 it is not   
the work of man4 ,why worship ye        
goddesses like ,allat and ,al',uzza and 
,manah8 ,there are no goddesses4#bj     
7#ec47      ,,the ,,treatment ,,of      
,,women ,,believers      ,when believing
 women come to you as fugitives1 leaving
 behind them  unbelieving husbands1 send
 them not back to the infidels1 but test
 their  faith1 and if they are found    
true ,muslims1 pay back to their        
husbands  the dowries which they have   
expended4 ,then may ye marry them1      
provided  ye give them the accustomed   
dowries4 7#fj47      ,,god',s ,,unity#ba
      ,say ,he is but one ,god1 the     
everlasting ,god who begets not1#bb nor 
is  begotten1 and there is none like    
unto ,him4 7#aj47      ,,formul ,,of    
,,exorcism      ,i flee for refuge to   

the ,lord1 that ,he may protect me      
against the evil  things which ,he has  
created4 ,against night goblins when the
 night comes  on1 and from witches who  
bind by their magic knots1 and from such
 as  injure by the evil eye2 ,i seek    
refuge with the ,lord from charmers1    
from  jinns demons1 and from evil men4  
7#aac47      ,,the ,,heaven ,,of ,,the  
,,muslims      ,all who believe in      
,allah and ,his ,prophet shall be       
admitted hereafter  into delightful     
gardens ,paradise4 ,they shall repose   
for ever on  couches decked with gold   
and precious stones1 being supplied with
  abundance of luscious wine1 fruits of 
the choicest variety1 and the  flesh of 
birds4 ,they shall be accompanied by    
damsels of unsurpassed  beauty1 with    
large black1 pearl-like eyes4 7#ef47    
,,ii4--,,second ,,period 7,a4,d4        
#fag-fai7      ,,winds ,,and ,,demons   
,,subject ,,to ,,solomon      ,and ,we  
made a strong wind subject to ,solomon1 
so that it conveyed him  whither he     

would4 ,we also gave him the power of   
commanding demons1 so  that they dived  
into the sea to bring him pearls1 and   
did everything  else that he wished4#bc 
7#ba47      ,,the ,,miraculous ,,birth  
,,of ,,jesus      ,remember ,mary1 who  
preserved her virginity1 and into whom  
,we breathed  ,our own spirit1 so that  
when her son ,isa ,jesus was born1      
mother and  son became a sign unto all  
mankind4 7#ba47      ,,the ,,virgin     
,,mary      ,after ,mary1 the ,virgin1  
had begotten her son ,isa ,jesus she was
 found  one day carrying the child in   
her arms when some pious men met her and
  rebuked her1 saying3 ,o ,mary1 thou   
sister of ,aaron1#bd what is this       
strange thing thou hast done8 ,thy      
father ,amram was an upright man1 and   
thy mother was no harlot1 as thou       
seemest to be4 ,in answer to all this   
the infant child1 not having previously 
lisped a syllable1 said1  ,verily1 ,i am
 the servant of ,allah1 who has given me
 the ,book of the  ,gospel1 and         

appointed me to be ,his ,prophet4 ,he   
has made me blessed1 and  to be a       
blessing4 ,happy the day wherein ,i was 
born1 and the day wherein  ,i shall die1
 and the day whereon ,i shall be raised 
again4 7#ai47      ,,devils ,,sent ,,by 
,,god ,,to ,,make ,,men ,,sin      ,de  
ye not know that ,we ,god send devils   
against the unbelievers to move  them1  
by their suggestions1 to the sin of     
which these unbelievers become  guilty8 
7#ai47      ,,solomon',s ,,army ,,of    
,,men1 ,,birds1 ,,and ,,jinns 7,,demons7
      ,solomon was able to understand   
the speech of birds and to make them    
understand his speech4#be ,there        
gathered to him on a certain day his    
entire army of men1 birds1 and jinns in 
the ,valley of ,ants4 ,the crowd  was so
 great that one of the ants said to his 
fellows1 ,get you at once  into your    
ant-homes1 or you will be trampled to   
death by one of these  myriad feet4     
,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,sheba',s ,,visit   
,,to ,,solomon      ,solomon1 one day   

reviewing his varied troops1 missed     
among the birds the  hoopoe1 and asked  
whither this bird had gone1 threatening 
all manner of  punishments for his      
absence4 ,soon the missing bird came    
flying to the  king1 uttering the words1
 ,i have just come from ,sheba1 where ,i
 have  looked upon the most wonderful   
queen1 sitting upon the most magnificent
  throne that ,i have ever set eyes on4 
,but this queen and her subjects1       
unfortunately1 worshipped not ,allah1   
the true ,god1 but the sun4    ,i will  
test the truth of thy words6 replied the
 angry monarch4 ,take  thou this note of
 mine to the queen thou laudest so      
highly1 bidding her  come to my kingdom 
to acknowledge my authority4    ,almost 
in a twinkling the hoopoe was back with 
the queen's answer  consenting to visit 
,solomon and his dominions4 ,solomon1   
having received  this answer1 asked the 
nobles of his kingdom1 ,which of you    
will bring  me at once the ,queen of    
,sheba's throne1 to be here before she  

arrives8    ,i will6 said one of the    
wickedest of the jinns4    ,and so will 
,i1 in a whiff6 answered a jinn that was
 well acquainted  with the ,scriptures4 
,in a very short time the throne was in 
,solomon's palace4 ,alter ye it1  said  
the king1 as much as ye may1 to see     
whether she has any  supernatural       
knowledge to identify it4    ,when the  
queen arrived1 she was asked1 ,what     
throne is this8    ,she replied1 ,it is 
mine--strangely mine4 ,after she had    
witnessed the  glory and wisdom of      
,solomon1 she gave up her idols1 and    
became the  worshipper of ,allah1 the   
true ,god4 7#bg47      ,,iii4--,,third  
,,period 7,a4,d4 #fai-fbb7              
,,punishment ,,for ,,violating ,,the    
,,sabbath      ,ye know how ,we tested  
and proved those wicked people who dwelt
 in ,elath  on the ,red ,sea4 ,on the   
,sabbath day ,we made the fish come     
right up to  them1 as if asking to be   
caught2 but not so on other days4 ,those
 who  yielded to the temptation1 and    

thus violated the sanctity of the sacred
  day1 ,we turned into apes as a        
punishment for their wrong-doing4 7#g47 
,,mount ,,sinai ,,shaken ,,above ,,the  
,,israelites      ,when the ,israelites 
doubted the authority of the ,law which 
,we had given  them through ,moses1 ,our
 servant1 ,we caused ,mount ,sinai to   
rear itself  above them as a covering1  
so that the people feared it was going  
to fall  upon them4 ,and ,we said to    
them1 ,receive ye with reverence that   
,law  which ,we have given you1 and     
remember what is contained therein1     
taking  heed thereto4#bf 7#g47          
,,medinah ,,suras    ,,salvation ,,for  
,,others ,,than ,,muslims      ,all such
 as believe in ,allah and in the last   
day1 and who do that which  is right1   
whether they are ,jews1 ,christians1    
,sabeans1 or ,muslims1 shall  have their
 reward from ,allah1 who will take away 
from them all fear and  grief4 7#c47    
,muslims ,only to be ,saved      ,no one
 that follows any other religion than   

,islam will be accepted by  ,god or     
saved from perishing in the life that is
 to come4 7#b47      ,,abraham1         
,,ishmael1 ,,isaac1 ,,jacob1 ,,and ,,the
 ,,tribes ,,of ,,israel ,,all ,,muslims 
,do ye ,jews say that ,abraham1         
,ishmael1 ,isaac1 ,jacob1 and the tribes
 of  ,israel were ,jews1 or do ye       
,christians say that they were          
,christians8 ,but  ,god knows better1   
and has revealed to you the truth that  
all these were  ,muslims1 followers of  
the religion of ,islam4 ,but ,god is    
cognisant of  your unbelief1 and will   
bring you to account4 7#b47      ,,the  
,,qiblah ,,changed ,,from ,,jerusalem   
,,to ,,mekka      ,foolish men will say1
 ,why have they changed the ,qiblah#bg  
from  ,jerusalem to the ,kaabah#bh in   
,mekka8 ,say to them1 ,god's is the east
  and the west1 and ,he has commanded us
 to turn our face1 when we pray1 to  the
 sacred mosque at ,mekka4 7#b47         
,,against ,,jews ,,and ,,christians1    
,,who ,,capriciously ,,choose ,,and     

,,reject ,,what  ,,divine ,,revelations 
,,they ,,please      ,why1 then1 do ye  
believe part only of the ,book1 and deny
 that part which  authenticates the     
mission of the ,prophet of ,allah8 ,all 
those who are  guilty of this sin shall 
have shame in this life1 and on the     
,resurrection ,day shall be driven into 
the most excrutiating torments4  7#b47  
,,the ,,mekka ,,temple ,,founded ,,by   
,,abraham      ,it was ,abraham1 our    
father1 who first entered the ,kaabah   
sanctuary at  ,mekka1 and it is our     
bounden duty1 if at all able1 to visit  
this sacred  house4 7#c47      ,,jesus  
,,predicts ,,the ,,coming ,,of          
,,muhammad      ,jesus1 ,mary's ,son1   
said1 ,o ,israelites1 ,i am ,allah's    
,apostle1 sent to  confirm the ,law of  
the ,old ,testament1 and to bring you   
good tidings of a  great ,apostle to    
come after me1 whose name is ,ahmad4#bi 
7#fa47      ,,muhammad ,,the ,,last     
,,and ,,greatest ,,of ,,god',s          
,,messengers      ,in the former times  

,we sent ,our apostles with convincing  
arguments and  all decisive miracles1   
and ,we gave them the ,scriptures4 ,we  
sent to men  ,noah1 ,abraham1 and the   
prophets1 but many believed not4 ,then  
,we sent ,our  apostles1 after whom came
 ,jesus1 ,son of ,mary4 ,then1 last of  
all1 came  ,our great apostle1          
,muhammad4 ,o all ye believers1 fear    
,god and obey the  words of ,allah's    
messenger4 7#eg47      ,,the ,,koran    
,,consistent ,,throughout      ,why do  
they not carefully and impartially      
consider the ,koran8 ,if it had  not    
been wholly of ,god1 unbelievers would  
have been able to find out              
contradictions4 7#d47      ,,muhammad   
,,contradicts ,,the ,,fact ,,of ,,the   
,,crucifixion ,,of ,,christ             
,christians say that ,christ ,jesus1    
,son of ,mary1 was slain4 ,but ,he was  
not  slain1 nor crucified1 but another  
was taken for ,him4 ,the true ,isa      
,jesus was taken up by ,god unto        
,himself1 not seeing death4 7#d47       

,,muhammad ,,admits ,,the ,,fact ,,of   
,,the ,,crucifixion ,,of ,,christ       
,and ,god said1 ,o ,isa ,jesus1 ,i will 
cause ,thee to die1 but ,i will take    
,thee up to ,myself and deliver ,thee   
from unbelievers6 7#d47      ,,one      
,,god1 ,,not ,,three ,,gods1 ,,according
 ,,to ,,the ,,scripture      ,o ye who  
have received the ,scriptures1 do not   
believe more than these  sacred writings
 teach6 ,jesus1 ,son of ,mary1 was      
,god's ,apostle1 ,his ,word1  a spirit  
proceeding from ,god4 ,do not say there 
are three gods--,allah1  ,isa1 and      
,mary4#cj ,there is but one ,god1 and   
,he can have no son4 7#d47              
,,forbidden ,,food      ,ye are         
forbidden to eat that which dies of     
itself1 blood1 swine's flesh1  and that 
on which the name of any other god than 
,allah has been  invoked2#ca that which 
has been strangled1 or killed by a blow1
 or by a  fall1 or what has been gored  
to death1 and whatever has been         
sacrificed  to idols4 7#e47             

,,divination ,,by ,,arrows ,,condemned  
,it is not allowed you to make division 
by casting lots with arrows4            
,,denial ,,of ,,the ,,divinity ,,of     
,,christ ,,and ,,the ,,trinity          
,those are unbelievers who say that ,god
 is the ,christ lit41 ,messiah1  ,son of
 ,mary4 ,nay1 this ,christ ,himself     
said1 ,o ,israelites1 worship ,god1  ,my
 ,lord and yours6 ,he who associates    
with ,god any companion ,his equal      
shall be excluded from ,paradise1 and   
have his place in ,hell fire4 7#e47     
,jesus ,denies that ,he and ,his ,mother
 were ,gods      ,at the last day ,god  
will say unto ,isa1 ,o ,isa1 ,son of    
,mary1 didst ,thou  say unto men1 ',take
 ,me and ,my ,mother for two ,gods in   
addition to  ,allah'8 ,and ,he shall    
answer1 ,praise be unto ,thee4 ,thou    
knowest all  things1 and ,thou knowest  
that ,i commanded men to worship ,allah 
alone4           99       99       99   
99       99        ,,cardinal ,,newman  
,,apologia ,,pro ,,vit ,,sua            

,that most remarkable ecclesiastic of   
the nineteenth century1       ,john     
,henry ,newman1 born in ,london on      
,february #ba1 #ahja1 was of            
,dutch extraction1 but the name itself1 
at one time spelt       ,newmann1       
suggests ,hebrew origin4 ,his mother    
came of a       ,huguenot family1 long  
established in ,england as engravers and
       paper manufacturers4 ,his early  
education he obtained at a       school 
at ,ealing1 where he distinguished      
himself by diligence       and good     
conduct1 as also by a certain aloofness 
and shyness4       ,the only important  
incident ,newman connects with this     
period       is his conversion1 an      
incident more certain to him than       
that he had hands and feet4 ,in #ahbj he
 graduated at ,trinity       ,college1  
,oxford4 ,the various phases of his     
religious career       are amply set    
forth in his famous ,apologia pro ,vit  
,sua       7,apology for ,his ,life71   
afterwards called ,a ,history of my     

,religious ,opinions4 ,the work was     
called out by an attack1 in             
,january1 #ahfd1 by ,charles ,kingsley1 
in a review of ,froude's       ,history 
of ,england4 ,kingsley wrote3 ,truth1   
for its own       sake1 had never been a
 virtue with the ,roman clergy4 ,father 
,newman informs us that it need not1    
and1 on the whole1 ought       not to   
be4 ,challenged to withdraw or          
substantiate this       charge1         
,kingsley did neither1 whereupon        
,newman1 after much                     
correspondence1 wrote his ,apologia1    
which was published in       bi-monthly 
parts4 ,newman died on ,august #aa1     
#ahij4      ,i4--,,history ,,of ,,my    
,,religious ,,opinions ,,to #ahcc       
,i was brought up to delight in the     
,bible1 but ,i had no formed religious  
convictions till ,i was fifteen4 ,of    
course1  had a perfect knowledge of  my 
,catechism4 ,but when ,i was fifteen ,i 
fell under the influence of a  definite 
creed1 and believed that the inward     

conversion of which ,i was  conscious1  
and of which ,i am still more certain   
than that ,i have hands  and feet1 would
 last into the next life1 and that ,i   
was elected to  eternal glory4 ,this    
belief faded away at the age of         
twenty-one2 but it  had had some        
influence on my opinions1 in isolating  
me from the objects  which surrounded   
me1 in confirming my mistrust of the    
reality of  material phenomena1 and in  
making me rest in the thought of two1   
and two  only1 absolute and luminously  
self-evident beings1 myself and my      
,creator4 ,at the age of fifteen also ,i
 was deeply impressed by the works  of  
,thomas ,scott1 by ,law's ,serious      
,call1 by ,joseph ,milner's ,church     
,history1 and by ,newton1 ,on the       
,prophecies4 ,newton's book stained my  
imagination1 till #ahdc1 with the       
doctrine that the ,pope was ,antichrist4
  ,at this same time1 the autumn of     
#ahaf1 ,i realised that it would be the 
will of ,god that ,i should lead a      

single life1 and this anticipation      
strengthened my feeling of separation   
from the visible world4    ,in #ahbb1 at
 ,oxford1 ,i came under new influences4 
,dr4 ,hawkins1 then vicar  of ,st4      
,mary's1 a man of most exact mind1 led  
me to the doctrine of  tradition1 and   
taught me to anticipate that before many
 years there  would be an attack made   
upon the books and the canon of         
,scripture4 ,he  gave me ,summer's      
,treatise on ,apostolic ,preaching1 by  
which ,i was led  to give up my         
remaining ,calvinism1 and to receive the
 doctrine of  baptismal regeneration4 ,i
 now read ,butler's ,analogy1 from which
 ,i  learned two principles which       
underlie much of my teaching3 first1    
that  the idea of an analogy between the
 separate works of ,god leads to the    
conclusion that the less important      
system is sacramentally connected  with 
the more momentous system2 and secondly1
 ,butler's doctrine that  probability is
 the guide of life led me to the        

question of the logical  cogency of     
faith4    ,i owe much to ,dr4 ,whately1 
who taught me the existence of the      
,church as  a substantive corporation1  
and fixed in me those anti-,erastian    
views of  ,church polity which          
characterized the ,tractarian movement4 
,that  movement1 unknown to ourselves1  
was taking form4 ,its true author1 ,john
  ,keble1 had left ,oxford for a country
 parish1 but his ,christian ,year  had  
waked a new music in the hearts of      
thousands4 ,his creative mind  repeated1
 in a new form1 ,butler's two           
principles3 that material  phenomena are
 the types and instruments of real      
things unseen2 and that1  in religious  
certitude1 faith and love give to       
probability a force which  it has not in
 itself4    ,hurrell ,froude1 one of his
 pupils and a man of high genius1 taught
 me to  venerate the ,church of ,rome   
and to dislike the ,reformation4 ,about 
#ahcj ,i  set to work on ,the ,arians of
 the ,fourth ,century1 and the broad    

philosophy of ,clement and ,origen1     
based on the mystical or sacramental    
principle1 came like music to my inward 
ear4    ,great events were now happening
 at home and abroad4 ,there had been a  
revolution in ,france1 and the reform   
agitation was going on around me as  ,i 
wrote4 ,the vital question was1 how were
 we to keep the ,church from  being     
liberalised8 ,i saw that reformation    
principles were powerless to  rescue    
her4 ,i ever kept before me that there  
was something greater than  the         
,establishd ,church1 and that was the   
,church ,catholic and ,apostolic1  of   
which she was but the local presence and
 the organ4 ,she was nothing1  unless   
she was this4 ,i was now disengaged from
 college duties2 my health  had suffered
 from work2 and in ,december1 #ahcb1 ,i 
joined ,hurrell ,froude  and his father1
 who were going to the south of ,europe4
 ,i went to various  coasts of the      
,mediterranean4 ,i saw nothing but what 
was external2 of the  hidden life of    

,catholics ,i knew nothing4 ,england was
 in my thoughts  solely1 and the success
 of the liberal cause fretted me4 ,the  
thought  came upon me that deliverance  
is wrought not by the many but by the   
few1  not by bodies but by persons4     
,i began to think that ,i had a mission4
 ,i reached ,england on ,july #i1 and   
on ,july #ad ,mr4 ,keble preached in the
 university pulpit on ,national         
,apostasy4 ,this day was the start of   
the religious movement of #ahcc4        
,,ii4--,,with ,,the ,,tractarians       
,a movement had begun in opposition to  
the danger of liberalism which was      
threatening the religion of the nation4 
,mr4 ,keble1 ,hurrell ,froude1 ,mr4     
,william ,palmer1 ,mr4 ,arthur          
,purceval1 ,mr4 ,hugh ,rose1 and other  
zealous1  and able men had united their 
counsels4 ,i had the exultation of      
health  restored1 a joyous energy which 
,i never had before or since4 ,and ,i   
had a  supreme confidence in our cause2 
we were upholding that primitive        

,christianity which was delivered for   
all time by the early teachers of  the  
,church4 ,owing to this supreme         
confidence1 my behaviour had a mixture  
in it both of fierceness1 and of sport1 
and on this account it gave  offence to 
many4    ,the three propositions about  
which ,i was so confident were as       
follow3  ,first was the principle of    
dogma2 my battle was with               
liberalism--and by  liberalism ,i mean  
the anti-dogmatic principle and its     
developments4 ,i  have changed in many  
things1 but not in this2 religion1 as a 
mere  sentiment1 has been to me from    
childhood a dream and a mockery4        
,secondly1 ,i was confident that there  
was a visible ,church1 with  sacraments 
and rites which are the channels of     
invisible grace4 ,here1  again1 ,i have 
not changed4 ,but1 thirdly1 ,i held a   
view of the ,church of  ,rome which ,i  
have utterly renounced since4    ,the   
attack of liberalism upon the university
 and upon the old orthodoxy  of ,england

 began in #ahcd4 ,thus1 in a pamphlet by
 ,dr4 ,hampden it was  maintained that  
religion is distinct from theological   
opinion1 that it  is but a common       
prejudice to identify theological       
propositions with the  simple religion  
of ,christ2 and so on4 ,the tracts were 
widely read and  discussed1 but the     
counter-attack against liberalism was   
not a power  until ,dr4 ,pusey joined   
us4 ,his great learning1 his immense    
diligence1  his simple devotion to the  
cause of religion1 no less than his     
great  influence in the university1 at  
once gave us a position and a name4 ,he 
taught us that there ought to be more   
sense of responsibility in the  tracts  
and in the whole movement4 ,under his   
influence ,i wrote a work  defining our 
relation to the ,church of ,rome1       
namely1 ,the ,prophetical  ,office of   
the ,church viewed relatively to        
,romanism and to ,popular               
,protestantism4 ,the subject of this    
volume1 published in #ahcg1 is the  ,via

 ,media4 ,this was followed by my ,essay
 on ,justification1 and other  works2   
and so ,i went on for years up to #ahda4
 ,it was1 in a human point  of view1 the
 happiest time of my life4 ,we prospered
 and spread4    ,but the movement was to
 come into collision with the nation1   
and with  the ,church of the nation4 ,in
 #ahch my bishop made some light        
animadversions on the tracts4 ,but my   
tract on the ,thirty-nine ,articles1    
designed to show that the ,articles do  
not oppose ,catholic teaching1 and  but 
partially oppose ,roman dogma1 while    
they do oppose the dominant  errors of  
,rome1 brought down1 in #ahci1 a storm  
of indignation throughout  the country4 
,i saw that my place in the movement was
 lost4      ,,iii4--,a ,,theological    
,,death-,,bed      ,in the long vacation
 of #ahci ,i began to study the history 
of the  ,monophysites1 and was-absorbed 
in the doctrinal question4 ,it was      
during  this course of reading that for 
the first time a doubt came upon me of  

the tenableness of ,anglicism1 and by   
the end of ,august ,i was seriously     
alarmed4 ,my stronghold was antiquity2  
yet here1 in the fifth century1 ,i      
found ,christendom of the sixteenth and 
nineteenth centuries reflected4    ,the 
drama of religion and the combat of     
truth and error were ever one  and the  
same2 the principles of the ,roman      
,church now were those of the  ,church  
then2 the principles of heretics then   
were those of ,protestants  now2 there  
was an awful similitude4 ,be my soul    
with the saints6 ,in the  same month the
 words of ,st4 ,augustine were pointed  
out to me1 ,securus  judicat orbis      
terrarum2 they struck me with a power   
which ,i had never  felt from any words 
before2 the theory of the ,via ,media   
was absolutely  pulverised4    ,in the  
summer of #ahda1 in retirement at       
,littlemore1 ,i received three  blows   
which broke me4 ,first1 in the history  
of the ,arians ,i found the  same       
phenomena which ,i had found in the     

,monophysites3 the pure ,arians  were   
the ,protestants1 the semi-,arians were 
the ,anglicans1 and ,rome now  was what 
it was then4 ,secondly1 the bishops1 one
 after another1 began to  charge against
 me in a formal1 determinate movement4  
,third1 it was  proposed by ,anglican   
authorities to establish an ,anglican   
bishopric in  ,jerusalem--a step which  
amounted to a formal denial that the    
,anglican  ,church was a branch of the  
,catholic ,church1 and to a formal      
assertion  that the ,anglican was a     
,protestant ,church4 ,the ,jerusalem    
bishopric  brought me to the beginning  
of the end4    ,from the end of #ahda ,i
 was on my death-bed1 as regards my     
membership of  the ,anglican ,church1   
though at the time ,i became aware of it
 only by  degrees4 ,a death-bed has     
scarcely a history2 it is a tedious     
decline1  with seasons of rallying and  
seasons of falling back4 ,my position at
  first was this3 ,i had given up my    
place in the movement in the spring of  

#ahda1 but ,i could not give up my      
duties towards the many and various     
minds who had been brought into it by   
me2 ,i expected gradually to fall  back 
into lay communion2 ,i never            
contemplated leaving the ,church of     
,england2 ,i could not hold office in   
its service if ,i were not allowed to   
hold the ,catholic sense of the         
,articles2 ,i could not go to ,rome     
while  she suffered honours to be paid  
to the ,blessed ,virgin and the saints  
which ,i thought in my conscience to be 
incompatible with the supreme  glory of 
the ,one1 ,infinite and ,eternal2 ,i    
desired a union with ,rome  under       
conditions1 ,church with ,church2 ,i    
called ,littlemore my ,torres  ,vedras1 
and thought that some day we might      
advance again within the  ,anglican     
,church2 ,i kept back all persons who   
were disposed to go to ,rome  with all  
my might4    ,the ,via ,media was now an
 impossible idea2 ,i abandoned that old 
ground1  and took another4 ,i said1     

,much as ,roman ,catholics may denounce 
us at  present as schismatical1 they    
could not resist us if the ,anglican    
communion had but that one note of the  
,church upon it--sanctity4 ,i was       
pleased with my new view1 but my friends
 were naturally offended at a  novel    
line of argument which substituted a    
sort of methodistic  self-contemplation 
for the plain and honest tokens of a    
divine mission  in the ,anglican        
,church4    ,in spite of my ingrained   
fears of ,rome1 in spite of my affection
 for  ,oxford and ,oriel1 yet ,i had a  
secret longing love of ,rome1 the       
,mother of  ,english ,christianity4 ,it 
was the consciousness of this bias in   
myself  which made me preach so         
earnestly against the danger of being   
swayed in  religious inquiry by our     
sympathy rather than by our reason4 ,i  
was in  great perplexity1 and hardly    
knew where ,i stood2 ,i incurred the    
charge  of weakness from some men1 and  
of mysteriousness and underhand dealing 

from the majority4 ,but ,i have never   
had any suspicion of my own honesty4    
,in ,july1 #ahdd1 ,i wrote to a friend3 
,i am far more certain1 according to    
the fathers1 that we are in a state of  
culpable separation than that           
developments do not exist under the     
,gospel1 and that the ,roman            
developments are not the true ones4 ,i  
then saw that the principle of          
development was discernible from the    
first years of the ,catholic  teaching  
up to the present day4 ,i came to the   
conclusion that there was  no medium1 in
 true philosophy1 between atheism and   
,catholicity1 and that  a perfectly     
consistent mind must embrace either the 
one or the other4 ,i  saw that no valid 
reasons could be assigned for continuing
 in the  ,anglican ,church1 and that no 
,valid objections could be taken to     
joining  the ,roman4    ,in ,february1  
#ahdc1 ,i had made a formal retraction  
of all the hard things  which ,i had    
said against the ,church of ,rome1 and  

in ,september ,i had  resigned the      
living of ,st4 ,mary's1 ,littlemore     
included4 ,i began my  ,essay on the    
,development of ,doctrine in the        
beginning of #ahde1 and was  hard at it 
till ,october4 ,before ,i got to the    
end1 ,i resolved to be  received into   
the ,catholic ,church4 ,father ,dominic 
came to ,littlemore on  ,october #h1 and
 did for me this charitable service4 ,i 
left ,oxford for  good on ,february #bc1
 #ahdf4      ,,iv4--,,the ,,faith ,,of  
,a ,,catholic      ,from the time that  
,i became a ,catholic of course ,i have 
no further  history of my religious     
opinions to narrate4 ,i do not mean that
 ,i have  given up thinking on          
theological subjects1 but that ,i have  
had no  variations to record1 and have  
had no anxiety of heart whatever4 ,i    
have  been in perfect peace2 ,i never   
have had one doubt4    ,nor had ,i any  
trouble about receiving those additional
 articles which  are not found in the   
,anglican creed4 ,i am far from denying 

that every  article of the ,christian   
creed is beset with difficulties1 and it
 is  simple fact that ,i cannot answer  
those difficulties4 ,but ten thousand   
difficulties do not make one doubt4 ,of 
all points of faith1 the being of  a    
,god is encompassed with most           
difficulty1 and yet borne in upon our   
minds with most power4    ,starting1    
then1 with the being of a ,god1 which is
 as certain to me as my  own existence1 
,i look out of myself into the world of 
men1 and there ,i  see a sight which    
fills me with unspeakable distress4 ,the
 world seems  simply to give the lie to 
that great truth1 of which my whole     
being is  so full2 ,i look into this    
living1 busy world1 and see no          
reflection of  its ,creator4 ,to        
consider the world in its length and    
breadth1 its  various history2 the      
progress of things1 as if from          
unreasoning  elements1 not towards final
 causes2 the greatness and littleness of
 man1  his far-reaching aims1 his short 

duration1 the curtain hung over his     
futurity1 the defeat of good1 the       
prevalence and intensity of sin1 the    
dreary1 hopeless irreligion--all this is
 a vision to dizzy and appal1  and      
inflicts upon the mind the sense of a   
profound mystery which is  absolutely   
beyond human solution4 ,what shall be   
said to this  heart-piercing1           
reason-bewildering fact8 ,i can only    
answer1 that either  there is no        
,creator1 or this living society of men 
is in a true sense  discarded from ,his 
presence4    ,and now1 supposing it were
 the blessed will of the ,creator to    
interfere  in this anarchical condition 
of things1 what would be the methods    
which  might be necessarily or naturally
 involved in ,his purpose of mercy8     
,what  must be the face-to-face         
antagonist1 by which to withstand and   
baffle  the fierce energy and passion   
and the all-corroding1 all-dissolving   
scepticism of the intellect in religious
 inquiries8 ,there is nothing to        

surprise the mind1 if ,he should think  
fit to introduce a power into the       
world1 invested with the prerogative of 
infallibility in religious  matters4    
,such a provision would be a direct1    
immediate1 active1 and  prompt means of 
withstanding the difficulty2 and when ,i
 find that this  is the very claim of   
the ,catholic ,church1 not only do ,i   
feel no  difficulty in admitting the    
idea1 but there is a fitness in it which
  recommends it to my mind4    ,i am    
defending myself from the charge that   
,i1 as a ,catholic1 not only  make      
profession to hold doctrines which ,i   
cannot possibly believe in my  heart1   
but that ,i also believe in a power on  
earth1 which at its own  will imposes   
upon men any new set of credenda1 when  
it pleases1 by a  claim to              
infallibility2 and that the necessary   
effect of such a  condition of mind must
 be a degrading bondage1 or a bitter    
inward  rebellion relieving itself in   
secret infidelity1 or the necessity of  

ignoring the whole subject of religion  
in a sort of disgust1 and of            
mechanically saying everything that the 
,church says4 ,but this is far  from the
 result2 it is far from borne out by the
 history of the conflict  between       
infallibility and reason in the past1   
and the prospect in the  future4    ,the
 energy of the human intellect thrives  
and is joyous1 with a tough1  elastic   
strength1 under the terrible blows of   
the divinely fashioned  weapon4         
,protestant writers consider that they  
have all the private  judgment to       
themselves1 and that we have the        
superincumbent oppression  of authority4
 ,but this is not so2 it is the vast    
,catholic body itself1  and it only1    
which affords an arena for both         
combatants in that awful1  never-dying  
duel4 ,st4 ,paul says that his          
apostolical power is given him  to      
edification1 and not to destruction4    
,there can be no better account  of the 
infallibility of the ,church4 ,its      

object is1 and its effect also1  not to 
enfeeble the freedom or vigour of human 
thought in religious  speculation1 but  
resist and control its extravagance4    
,i will go on in fairness to say what ,i
 think is the great trial to the  reason
 when confronted with that august       
prerogative of the ,catholic  ,church4  
,the ,church claims1 not only to judge  
infallibly on religious  questions1 but 
to animadvert on opinions in secular    
matters which bear  upon religion1 on   
matters of philosophy1 of science1 of   
literature1 of  history1 and it demands 
our submission to her claim4 ,in this   
province1  taken as a whole1 it does not
 so much speak doctrinally1 as enforce  
measures of discipline4    ,i will go on
 to say further1 that1 in spite of all  
the most hostile  critics may urge about
 these verities of high ecclesiastics in
 time  past1 in the use of their power1 
,i think that the event has shown1 after
  all1 that they were mainly in the     
right1 and that those whom they were    

hard upon were mainly in the wrong4     
,there is a time for everything1 and    
many a man desires a reformation of an  
abuse1 or the fuller development  of a  
doctrine1 or the adoption of a          
particular policy1 but forgets to  ask  
himself whether the right time for it is
 come4    ,there is only one other      
subject which ,i think it necessary to  
introduce  here1 as bearing upon the    
vague suspicions which are attached in  
this  country to the ,catholic          
priesthood4 ,it is one of which my      
accusers have  before now said much--the
 charge of reserve and economy4 ,i come 
to the  direct question of truth1 and of
 the truthfulness of ,catholic priests  
generally in their dealings with the    
world1 as bearing on the general        
question of their honesty1 and of their 
internal belief in their  religious     
professions4 ,first1 ,i will say that   
when ,i became a ,catholic1  nothing    
struck me more at once than the ,english
 outspoken manner of the  priests4      

,there was nothing of that smoothness or
 mannerism which is  commonly imputed to
 them4 ,next1 ,i was struck1 when ,i had
 more  opportunity of judging of the    
priests1 by the simple faith in the     
,catholic creed and system1 of which    
they always give evidence1 and which    
they never seemed to feel in any sense  
at all to be a burden4    ,vague charges
 against us are drawn from our books of 
moral theology4 ,st4  ,alfonso ,liguori1
 for instance1 lays down that an        
equivocation is  allowable in an        
extraordinary case4 ,i avow at once that
 in this  department of morality1 ,i    
like the ,english rule of conduct       
better4 ,yet1  great ,english authors1  
,jeremy ,taylor1 ,milton1 ,paley1       
,johnson1 distinctly  say that under    
extraordinary circumstances it is       
allowable to tell a  lie4 ,would anyone 
give ever so little weight to these     
statements1 in  forming an estimate of  
the veracity of the writers8 ,and1 in   
fact1 it is  notorious from ,st4        

,alfonso's life that he had one of the  
most scrupulous  and anxious of         
consciences2 and1 further1 he was       
originally in the law1  and was betrayed
 on one occasion by accident into what  
seemed like a  deceit1 and this was the 
very occasion of his leaving the        
profession4    ,if ,protestants wish to 
know what our real teaching is1 let them
 look at  the ,catechism of the ,council
 of ,trent4 ,let me appeal also to the  
life of  ,st4 ,philip ,neri1 founder of 
the ,oratory3 ,as for liars1 he could   
not  endure them1 and he was continually
 reminding his spiritual children to    
avoid them as they would a pestilence4  
,these are the principles on which ,i   
have acted before ,i was a ,catholic1   
these are the principles which1 ,i      
trust1 will be my stay and guidance to  
the end4           99       99       99 
99       99        ,,thomas ,,paine     
,,the ,,age ,,of ,,reason           ,in 
#aggd1 ,thomas ,paine1 thirty-seven     
years of age1 landed       unknown and  

penniless in the ,american colonies4    
,born at       ,thetford1 ,norfolk1     
,england1 ,jan4 #bi1 #agcg1 of poor     
,quaker       parents1 he had tried many
 occupations1 and had succeeded in      
none4 ,within two years he had become an
 intellectual leader of       the       
,american ,revolution4 ,beginning his   
literary career with an       attack on 
slavery1 he continued it in #aggf by    
publishing his       pamphlet ,common   
,sense1 which gave an electric          
inspiration to       the cause of       
separation and republicanism among the  
colonists4       ,after serving the new 
commonwealth in office and with his pen1
       he went to ,france on an official
 mission in #agha2 then       returned  
to his native ,england1 intent on       
furthering his       views4 ,in #agic   
,paine wrote the first part of ,the ,age
 of       ,reason1 which aroused a storm
 of indignation1 but undaunted1       he
 added a second and a third part to the 
work1 consisting       mostly of        

amplifications of some of the           
contentions advanced       in the first 
part1 in the writing of which ,paine had
 no ,bible       to consult4 ,the book1 
the first part of which was published in
       #agid1 the second part in #agie1 
and the third in #ahja1 is an           
exposition of ,deism on a purely        
scientific basis2 the visible           
creation was everything to ,paine in his
 reasonings1 the       religious hopes1 
fears and aspirations of men were       
nothing at       all--this universal    
human phenomenon was curtly dismissed by
       him as a universal human         
delusion4 ,many of his comments on the  
,bible were rather crude anticipations  
of the modern ,higher       ,criticism4 
,but in dealing with the ,bible1 ,paine 
showed the       animus of a prosecuting
 counsel rather than the impartiality   
of a judge4 ,his stormy life ended on   
,july #h1 #ahji4 7,see also             
,,economics1 ,vol4 ,,xiv47              
,i4--,,revealed ,,religion      ,it has 

been my intention1 for several years    
past1 to publish my thoughts  upon      
religion4 ,as several of my colleagues1 
and others of my fellow  citizens of    
,france1 have given me the example of   
making their voluntary  and individual  
profession of faith1 ,i also will make  
mine2 and ,i do this  with all that     
sincerity and frankness with which the  
mind of man  communicates with itself4  
,i believe in one ,god1 and no more2 and
 ,i hope for happiness beyond this      
life4    ,i believe in the equality of  
man1 and ,i believe that religious      
duties  consist in doing justice1 loving
 mercy1 and endeavouring to make our    
fellow-creatures happy4    ,i do not    
believe in the creed professed by the   
,jewish ,church1 by the  ,roman ,church1
 by the ,greek ,church1 by the ,turkish 
,church1 by the  ,protestant ,church1   
nor by any church that ,i know of4 ,my  
own mind is my  own church4    ,all     
national institutions of churches appear
 to me no other than human  inventions  

set up to terrify and enslave mankind1  
and monopolise power  and profit4       
,each of those churches show certain    
books which they call revelation1  or   
the word of ,god4 ,the ,jews say that   
the word of ,god was given by ,god  to  
,moses face to face2 the ,christians say
 that their word of ,god came by  divine
 inspiration2 and the ,turks say their  
word of ,god 7the ,koran7 was  brought  
by an angel from heaven4 ,each of these 
churches accuses the  other of unbelief2
 and1 for my own part1 ,i disbelieve    
them all4    ,as it is necessary to     
affix right ideas to words1 ,i will1    
before ,i  proceed further into the     
subject1 offer some observations on the 
word  revelation4 ,revelation1 when     
applied to religion1 means something    
communicated immediately from ,god to   
man4    ,no one will deny or dispute the
 power of the ,almighty to make such a  
communication if he pleases4 ,but       
admitting1 for the sake of a case1 that 
something has been revealed to a certain

 person1 and not revealed to any  other 
person1 it is revelation to that person 
only4    ,when he tells it to a second  
person1 a second to a third1 a third to 
a  fourth1 and so on1 it ceases to be a 
revelation to all those persons4 ,it  is
 a revelation to the first person only1 
and hearsay to every other2             
consequently they are not obliged to    
believe it1 for they have only the  word
 of the first person that it was made to
 him4    ,the world has been amused with
 the terms revealed religion1 and the   
generality of priests apply this term to
 the books called the ,old and  ,new    
,testament4 ,there is no man that       
believes in revealed religion  stronger 
than ,i do2 but it is not the reveries  
of the ,old and ,new  ,testament that ,i
 dignify with that sacred title4 ,that  
which is a  revelation to me exists in  
something which no human mind can       
invent1 no  human hand can counterfeit  
or alter4    ,the word of ,god is the   
,creation we behold2 and this word of   

,god  revealeth to man all that is      
necessary for him to know of his        
,creator4    ,do we want to contemplate 
his power8 ,we see it in the immensity  
of his  creation4    ,do we want to     
contemplate his wisdom8 ,we see it in   
the unchangeable  order by which the    
incomprehensible whole is governed4     
,do we want to contemplate his          
munificence8 ,we see it in the abundance
  with which he fills the earth4    ,do 
we want to contemplate his mercy8 ,we   
see it in his not withholding  that     
abundance even from the unthankful4     
,do we want to contemplate his will1 so 
far as it respects man8 ,the  goodness  
he shows to all is a lesson for our     
conduct to each other4    ,in fine1 do  
we want to know what ,god is8 ,search   
not the book called the  ,scripture1    
which any human hand might make1 but the
 ,scripture called the  ,creation4      
,,ii4--,,theology ,,and ,,religion      
,as to the ,christian system of faith1  
it appears to me as a compound made  up 

chiefly of manism with but little       
,deism1 and is near to ,atheism as      
twilight is to darkness4    ,that which 
is now called natural philosophy1       
embracing the whole circle  of science1 
of which astronomy occupies the chief   
place1 is the study of  the works of    
,god1 and of the power and wisdom of    
,god in his works1 and  is the true     
theology4    ,as to the theology that is
 now studied in its place1 it is the    
study of  human opinions and of human   
fancies concerning ,god4 ,it is not the 
study  of ,god ,himself in the works    
that ,he has made1 but in the works or  
writings that man has made2 and it is   
not among the least of the  mischiefs   
that the ,christian system has done to  
the world that it has  abandoned the    
original and beautiful system of        
theology1 like a  beautiful innocent1 to
 distress and reproach1 to make room for
 the bag  of superstition4    ,it is an 
inconsistency1 scarcely possible to be  
credited1 that anything  should exist   

under the name of a religion that held  
it to be irreligious  to study and      
contemplate the structure of the        
universe that ,god had  made4 ,but the  
fact is too well established to be      
denied4 ,the event that  served more    
than any other to break the first link  
in the long chain of  despotic ignorance
 is that known by the name of the       
,reformation by  ,luther4 ,from that    
time1 though it does not appear to have 
made part of  the intention of ,luther1 
or of these who are called ,reformers1  
the  sciences began to revive1 and      
liberality1 their natural associate1    
began  to appear4 ,this was the only    
public good the ,reformation did2 for   
with  respect to religious good it might
 as well not have taken place4 ,the     
mythology still continued the same2 and 
the multiplicity of national  popes grew
 out of the downfall of the ,pope of    
,christendom4    ,the prejudice of      
unfounded belief often degenerates into 
the prejudice  of custom1 and becomes at

 last rank hypocrisy4 ,when men from    
custom or  fashion1 or any worldly      
motive profess or pretend to believe    
what they  do not believe1 nor can give 
any reason for believing1 they unship   
the  helm of their morality1 and1 being 
no longer honest in their own minds1    
they feel no moral difficulty in being  
unjust to others4 ,it is from the       
influence of this vice1 hypocrisy1 that 
we see so many church and  meeting-going
 professors and pretenders to religion  
so full of tricks  and deceit in their  
dealings1 and so loose in the           
performance of their  engagements that  
they are not to be trusted further than 
the laws of the  country will bind them4
 ,morality has no hold on their minds1  
no  restraint on their actions4    ,one 
set of preachers make salvation to      
consist in believing4 ,they tell  their 
congregations that if they believe in   
,christ their sins shall be  forgiven4  
,this1 in the first place1 is an        
encouragement to sin2 in the  next      

place1 the doctrine these men preach    
cannot be true4    ,another set of      
preachers tell their congregations that 
,god predestined  and selected from all 
eternity a certain number to be saved1  
and a  certain number to be damned      
eternally4 ,if this were true1 the day  
of  judgment is past2 their preaching is
 in vain1 and they had better work  at  
some useful calling for their           
livelihood4    ,nothing that is here    
said can apply1 even with the most      
distant  disrespect1 to the real        
character of ,jesus ,christ4 ,he was a  
virtuous and  an amiable man4 ,the      
morality that he preached and practised 
was of the  most benevolent kind1 and1  
though similar systems of morality had  
been  preached by ,confucius and by some
 of the ,greek philosophers many years  
before1 by the ,quakers since1 and by   
many good men in all ages1 it has  not  
been exceeded by any4      ,,iii4--,,the
 ,,bible      ,if we permit ourselves to
 conceive right ideas of things1 we must

  necessarily affix the idea1 not only  
of unchangeableness1 but of the  utter  
impossibility of any change taking      
place1 by any means or accident         
whatever1 in that which we would honour 
with the name of ,god2 and  therefore   
the word of ,god cannot exist in any    
written or human language4    ,the      
continually progressive change to which 
the meaning of words is  subject1 the   
want of an universal language which     
renders translation  necessary1 the     
errors to which translations are again  
subject1 the  mistakes of copyists and  
printers1 together with the possibility 
of  wilful alteration1 are of themselves
 evidences that human language1  whether
 in speech or in print1 cannot be the   
vehicle of the word of ,god4  ,the word 
of ,god exists in something else4    ,it
 has been the practice of all ,christian
 commentators on the ,bible1 and  of all
 ,christian priests and preachers1 to   
impose the ,bible on the world  as a    
mass of truth1 and as the word of ,god2 

they have disputed and  wrangled1 and   
have anathematised each other about the 
supposable meaning  of particular parts 
and passages therein2 one has said and  
insisted that  such a passage meant such
 a thing2 another1 that it meant        
directly the  contrary2 and a third1    
that it meant neither the one nor the   
other1 but  something different from    
both2 and this they have called         
understanding  the ,bible4    ,now1     
instead of wasting their time1 and      
heating themselves in fractious         
disputations about doctrinal points     
drawn from the ,bible1 these men  ought 
to know1 and if they do not it is       
civility to inform them1 that  the first
 thing to be understood is1 whether     
there is sufficient  authority for      
believing the ,bible to be the word of  
,god1 or whether  there is not4    ,i   
therefore pass on to an examination of  
the ,books called the ,old and  the ,new
 ,testament4 ,the case historically     
appears to be as follows3    ,when the  

,church mythologists established their  
system1 they collected  all the writings
 they could find and managed them as    
they pleased4 ,it is  a matter          
altogether of uncertainty to us whether 
such of the writings as  now appear     
under the name of the ,old and the ,new 
,testament are in the  same state in    
which these collectors say they found   
them2 or whether  they added1 altered1  
abridged1 or dressed them up4    ,be    
this as it may1 they decided by vote    
which of the books out of the           
collection they had made should be the  
word of ,god1 and which should  not4    
,they rejected several2 they voted      
others to be doubtful1 such as  the     
books called the ,apocrypha2 and those  
books which had a majority of  votes    
they voted to be the word of ,god4 ,had 
they voted otherwise1 all  the people   
since calling themselves ,christians1   
had believed otherwise2  for the belief 
of the one comes from the vote of the   
other4 ,who the  people were that did   

all this we know nothing of2 they call  
themselves  by the general name of the  
,church2 and this is all we know of the 
matter4    ,there are matters in the    
,bible1 said to be done by the express  
command  of ,god1 that are as shocking  
to humanity and to every idea we have of
  moral justice as anything done by     
,robespierre1 by ,carrier1 by ,joseph le
  ,ben1 in ,france2 by the ,english     
,government in the ,east ,indies2 or by 
any  other assassin in modern times4    
,are we sure that the ,creator of man   
commissioned these things to be done8   
,are we sure that the books that  tell  
us so were written by ,his authority8   
,to read the ,bible without  horror1 we 
must undo everything that is tender1    
sympathising1 and  benevolent in the    
heart of man4 ,speaking for myself1 if  
,i had no other  evidence that the      
,bible is fabulous than the sacrifice ,i
 must make to  believe it to be true1   
that alone would be sufficient to       
determine my  choice4    ,but it can be 

shown by internal evidence that the     
,bible is not entitled  to credit as the
 word of ,god4 ,it can readily be proved
 that the first  five books of the      
,bible1 attributed to ,moses1 were not  
written by him  nor in his time1 but    
several hundred years afterwards4 ,moses
 could not  have described his own      
death1 nor mentioned that he was buried 
in a  valley in the land of ,moab4      
,similarly1 the book of ,joshua was not 
written by ,joshua2 it is manifest that 
,joshua could not write that  ,israel   
served the ,lord not only in his days1  
but in the days of the  elders that     
over-lived him4 ,the book of ,judges is 
anonymous on the face  of it4 ,the books
 of ,samuel were not written by ,samuel1
 for they relate  many things that did  
not happen till after his death4    ,the
 history in the two books of ,kings1    
which is little more than a  history of 
assassinations1 treachery1 and war1     
sometimes contradicts  itself2 and      
several of the most extraordinary       

matters related in ,kings  are not      
mentioned in the companion books of     
,chronicles4 ,the book of ,job  has no  
internal evidence of being a ,hebrew    
book2 it appears to have been           
translated from another language into   
,hebrew2 and it is the only book in  the
 ,bible that can be read without        
indignation or disgust4 ,it is an  error
 to call the ,psalms the ,psalms of     
,david because historical evidence      
shows that some of them were not written
 until long after the time of  ,david4  
,the books of the prophets are wild1    
disorderly1 and obscure  compositions1  
the so-called prophecies in which do not
 refer to ,jesus  ,christ1 but to       
circumstances the ,jewish nation was in 
at the time they  were written or       
spoken4    ,i now go on to the book     
called the ,new ,testament4 ,had it been
 the object  of ,jesus ,christ to       
establish a new religion1 he would      
undoubtedly have  written the system    
himself1 or procured it to be written in

 ,his  lifetime4 ,but there is no       
publication extant authenticated with   
his  name4 ,all the books called the    
,new ,testament were written after his  
death4 ,he was a ,jew by birth and      
profession1 and he was the ,son of ,god 
in like manner that every other person  
is2 for the ,creator is the ,father  of 
,all4    ,the first four                
books--,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and      
,john--are altogether  anecdotal4 ,they 
relate events after they had taken      
place4 ,they tell what  ,jesus ,christ  
did and said1 and what others did and   
said to him2 and in  several instances  
they relate the same event differently4 
,revelation1  therefore1 is out of the  
question with respect to these books4   
,the  presumption1 moreover1 is that    
they are written by other persons than  
these whose name they bear4    ,the book
 of ,acts of the ,apostles belongs also 
to the anecdotal part4 ,all  the rest of
 the ,new ,testament1 except the book of
 enigmas called the  ,revelation1 are a 

collection of letters under the name of 
epistles1 and  the forgery of letters   
under the name of epistles4 ,one thing1 
however1  is certain1 which is that out 
of the matters contained in these books1
  together with the assistance of some  
old stories1 the ,church has set up  a  
system of religion very contradictory to
 the character of the person  whose name
 it bears4 ,it has set up a religion of 
pomp and reverence in  pretended        
imitation of a person whose life was    
humility and poverty4                   
,,iv4--,,mystery1 ,,miracle1 ,,and      
,,prophecy      ,i proceed to speak of  
the three principal means that have been
 employed  in all ages and perhaps in   
all countries to impose upon mankind4   
,these three means are mystery1 miracle1
 and prophecy4 ,the two first are       
incompatible with true religion1 and the
 third ought always to be  suspected4   
,with respect to mystery1 everything we 
behold is1 in one  sense1 a mystery to  
us4 ,our own existence is a mystery1 the

 whole  vegetable world is a mystery4   
,we know not how it is that the seed we 
sow  unfolds and multiplies itself4     
,the fact1 however1 as distinct from the
 operating cause1 is not a  mystery1    
because we see it2 and we know also the 
means we are to use1  which is no other 
than putting the seed in the ground4 ,we
 know1  therefore1 as much as is        
necessary for us to know2 and that part 
of the  operation that we do not know1  
and which if we did we could not        
perform1  the ,creator takes upon       
,himself and performs it for us4    ,but
 though every created thing is in this  
sense a mystery1 the word  mystery      
cannot be applied to moral truth1 any   
more than obscurity can be  applied to  
light4 ,the ,god in whom we believe is a
 ,god of moral truth1  and not of       
mystery4 ,mystery is the antagonist of  
truth4 ,it is a fog of  human invention 
that obscures truth1 and represents it  
in distortion4    ,religion1 therefore1 
being the belief of a ,god1 and the     

practice of  moral truth1 cannot have   
connection with mystery4 ,the belief of 
a ,god1  so far from having anything of 
mystery in it1 is of all beliefs the    
most  easy1 becauses it arises to us out
 of necessity4 ,and the practice of     
moral truth1 or1 in other words1 a      
practical imitation of the goodness  of 
,god1 is no other than our acting       
towards each other as he acts  benignly 
towards all4    ,when men1 whether from 
policy or pious fraud1 set up systems of
 religion  incompatible with the word or
 works of ,god in the creation1 they    
were  under the necessity of inventing  
or adopting a word that should serve as 
a bar to all inquiries and speculations4
 ,the word mystery answered  this       
purpose1 and thus it has happened that  
religion1 which in itself is  without   
mystery1 has been corrupted into a fog  
of mysteries4    ,as mystery answered   
all general purposes1 miracle followed  
as an  occasional auxiliary4 ,of all the
 modes of evidence that ever were       

invented to obtain belief to any system 
or opinion to which the name of         
religion has been given1 that of miracle
 is the most inconsistent4 ,for1  in the
 first place1 whenever recourse is had  
to show1 for the purpose of  procuring  
that belief1 it implies a lameness or   
weakness in the doctrine  that is       
preached4 ,and1 in the second place1 it 
is degrading the ,almighty  into the    
character of a showman1 playing tricks  
to amuse and make the  people stare and 
wonder4 ,it is also the most equivocal  
sort of evidence  that can be set up2   
for the belief is not to depend upon the
 thing  called a miracle1 but upon the  
credit of the reporter who says that he 
saw it2 and therefore the thing1 were it
 true1 would have no better  chance of  
being believed than if it were a lie4   
,as mystery and miracle took charge of  
the past and the present1 prophecy  took
 charge of the future1 and rounded the  
tenses of faith4 ,the original  meaning 
of the words prophet and prophesying has

 been changed1 the  ,old ,testament     
prophets were simply poets and          
musicians4 ,it is owing to  this change 
in the meaning of the words that the    
flights and metaphors  of the ,jewish   
poets1 and phrases and expressions now  
rendered obscure by  our not being      
acquainted with the local circumstances 
to which they  applied at the time they 
were used1 have been erected into       
prophecies1  and made to bend           
explanations at the will and whimsical  
conceits of  sectaries1 expounders1 and 
commentators4 ,everything unintelligible
 was  prophetical4      ,v4--,,deism    
,fom the time ,i was capable of         
conceiving an idea1 and acting upon it  
by  reflection1 ,i either doubted the   
truth of the ,christian system or       
thought it to be a strange affair4 ,it  
seems as if parents of the  ,christian  
profession were ashamed to tell their   
children anything about  the principles 
of their religion4 ,they sometimes      
instruct them in  morals1 and talk to   

them of the goodness of what they call  
,providence4  ,but the ,christian story 
of what they call ,god the ,father      
putting his son  to death1 or employing 
people to do it--for that is the plain  
language  of the story--cannot be told  
by a parent to a child2 and to tell him 
it  was done to make mankind happier and
 better is making the story still       
worse2 and to tell him that all this is 
a mystery is only making an  excuse for 
the incredibility of it4    ,how        
different is this from the pure and     
simple profession of deism6 ,the  true  
deist has but one ,deity1 and his       
religion consists in contemplating  the 
power1 wisdom1 and benignity of the     
,deity in his works1 and in             
endeavouring to imitate him in          
everything moral1 scientific1 and       
mechanical4    ,the religion that       
approaches the nearest of all others to 
true deism1 in  the moral and benign    
part thereof1 is that professed by the  
,quakers2 but  they have contracted     

themselves too much by leaving the works
 of ,god out  of their system4 ,though  
,i reverence their philanthropy1 ,i     
cannot help  smiling at the conceit1    
that if the taste of the ,quaker could  
have been  consulted at the creation    
what a silent and drab-coloured creation
 it  would have been6 ,not a flower     
would have blossomed its gaieties1 not a
  bird been permitted to sing4          
,quitting these reflections1 ,i proceed 
to other matters4 ,our ideas1 not  only 
of the almightiness of the ,creator1 but
 of ,his wisdom and ,his  beneficence1  
become enlarged as we contemplate the   
extent and structure  of the universe4  
,the solitary idea of a solitary world  
rolling or at  rest in the immense ocean
 of space gives place to the cheerful   
idea of a  society of worlds1 so happily
 contrived as to administer1 even by    
their  motion1 instruction to man4 ,we  
see our own earth filled with abundance1
  but we forget to consider how much of 
that abundance is owing to the          

scientific knowledge the vast machinery 
of the universe has unfolded4    ,but   
what are we to think of the ,christian  
system of faith that forms  itself upon 
the idea of only one world8 ,alas6 what 
is this to the mighty  ocean of space   
and the almighty power of the ,creator8 
,from whence1 then1  could arise the    
solitary and strange conceit that the   
,almighty1 who had  millions of worlds  
equally dependent on ,his protection1   
should quit the  care of all the rest   
and come to die in our world1 because   
they say one  man and one woman had     
eaten an apple8    ,it has been by      
rejecting the evidence that the word or 
works of ,god in  the creation affords  
to our senses1 and the action of our    
reason upon  that evidence1 that so many
 wild and whimsical systems of faith1   
and of  religion1 have been fabricated  
and set up4 ,there may be many systems  
of  religion that so far from being     
morally bad are in many respects morally
  good2 but there can be but one that is

 true1 and that one necessarily  must1  
as it ever will1 be in all things       
consistent with the  ever-existing word 
of ,god that we behold in ,his works4   
,i shall close by giving a summary of   
the deistic belief3    ,first1 that the 
creation we behold is the real word of  
,god1 in which we  cannot be deceived4  
,it proclaims ,his power1 it            
demonstrates ,his wisdom1  it manifests 
,his goodness and beneficence4          
,secondly1 that the moral duty of man   
consists in imitating the moral         
goodness and beneficence of ,god        
manifested in the creation towards all  
,his creatures4 ,that seeing1 as we     
daily do1 the goodness of ,god to all   
men1 it is an example calling upon all  
men to practise the same towards  each  
other1 and consequently that everything 
of persecution and revenge  between man 
and man1 and everything of cruelty to   
animals1 is a  violation of moral duty4 
,it is certain that1 in one point1 all  
nations of the earth and all  religions 

agree4 ,all believe in a ,god4 ,the     
things in which they disagree  are the  
redundancies annexed to that belief2    
and1 therefore1 if ever an  universal   
religion should prevail1 it will not be 
in believing anything  new1 but in      
getting rid of redundancies1 and        
believing as man believed  at first4    
,but in the meantime let every man      
follow1 as he has a right to  do1 the   
religion and the worship he prefers4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,,blaise ,,pascal      ,,letters ,,to ,a
 ,,provincial           ,blaise ,pascal1
 mathematician1 theologian1 and one of  
the       greatest writers of ,french   
prose1 was born on ,june #ai1 #afbc1    
at ,clermont-,ferrand1 and died on      
,august #ai1 #affb4 ,his mother         
died in his fourth year1 and the father1
 an eminent lawyer1       took the boy  
with his two sisters to ,paris4 ,pascal 
showed the       most astonishing       
mathematical genius2 he produced at the 
age       of seventeen a profound work  

on conic sections1 and devoted       the
 following years to physical researches 
and to       investigations in the      
higher mathematics4 ,in #afed1 ,pascal1 
having experienced a remarkable vision1 
which he recorded on a       parchment  
known as his amulet1 renounced the world
 and       entered on the ascetic life1 
in close relations with the             
,jansenist community4 ,hence1 in the    
interests of ,arnauld1 the              
,jansenist leader1 ,pascal issued the   
famous ,letters ,written to       a     
,provincial 7,lettres crites par ,louis 
de ,montalte  un       ,provincial de   
ses ,amis71 a series of eighteen tracts 
directed       with the keenest and     
bitterest irony against the casuistry of
       the ,jesuits4 ,the ,letters      
appeared during a period of             
fourteen months1 the first being dated  
,january #bc1 #afef1 and       the last 
,march #bd1 #afeg4 ,they took the form  
of little       pamphlets1 each of eight
 or twelve quarto pages2 they had a     

very large circulation1 and created an  
immense impression       throughout     
,catholic countries4 ,they are open     
letters1 intended       really for the  
public and not for any individual4      
,i4--,,lax ,,casuists      ,,sir1--,i   
send you1 as ,i promised1 the chief     
outlines of the moral  teaching of these
 good ,jesuit fathers1 these men so     
eminent in doctrine  and in wisdom1 who 
are led by that divine wisdom which is  
more  trustworthy than all philosophy4  
,possibly you think that ,i speak in    
jest4 ,i speak seriously1 or1 rather1 it
 is they who have spoken thus of        
themselves4 ,i only copy their words    
where they write1 ,it is a society  of  
men1 or1 rather1 of angels1 foretold by 
the prophet ,isaiah4 ,they  claim to    
have changed the face of ,christianity4 
,we must believe it1  since they have   
told us so2 and1 indeed1 you will see   
how far they have  done so1 when you    
have mastered their maxims4    ,i took  
care to be instructed by themselves and 

trusted to nothing which  my friend had 
told me4 ,i had been told such strange  
things that ,i could  hardly believe    
them1 until ,i was shown them in their  
own books2 and then  ,i could say       
nothing in their defence1 except that   
these must be the  principles of certain
 isolated ,jesuits1 and not those of the
 whole  society4 ,indeed1 ,i was able to
 say that ,i knew ,jesuits who were as  
severe as these were lax4    ,it was on 
that occasion that the spirit of the    
society was explained to  me1 for it is 
not by any means known to every one4 ,i 
was told as  follows3    ,you imagine   
that you are speaking in their favour   
when you say that  there are among them 
fathers who are as obedient to the      
principles of  the ,gospel as others are
 distant from those principles1 and you 
conclude  therefore that these loose    
opinions do not characterise the whole  
society4 ,that is true4 ,but since the  
society admits of so licentious a       
doctrine within it1 you must conclude   

that its spirit is not one of           
,christian severity4    ,but what then1 
said ,i1 is the purpose of the whole    
institution8 ,is it  that everyone      
should be free to say whatever he may   
happen to think8    ,that is not so1 was
 the reply4 ,so great a society could   
not exist  without discipline1 and      
without one spirit governing and ruling 
all its  movements4    ,the objects of  
the ,jesuits is not to corrupt morals1  
but1 on the other  hand1 they have not  
in view as their single object the      
reformation of  morals1 because they    
would find this a political             
disadvantage4 ,their  principle is this3
 they have so high an opinion of        
themselves as to  believe that it is    
advantageous1 and even necessary1 to the
 good of  religion that their credit    
should extend everywhere and that they  
should  govern all consciences4 ,and as 
the severe maxims of the ,gospel are    
suitable for governing certain          
temperaments1 they make use of these    

whenever they serve their purpose4 ,but 
since these same maxims do not at  all  
suit the wishes of the generality of    
mankind1 they usually put them  aside so
 as to be able to please everyone4      
,therefore1 having to do with people of 
all sorts and conditions1 and of        
diverse nationalities1 they need        
casuists suited to all this diversity4  
,from this principle you will easily see
 that if they had none but lax  casuists
 they would defeat their chief purpose1 
which is to include the  whole world4   
,truly pious people seek a more severe  
direction1 but as  there are not many   
who are truly pious the ,jesuits do not 
need many  strict directors to guide    
them4 ,they have a few for the few who  
need  them4 ,on the other hand1 the vast
 number of their lax casuists are at    
the service of the innumerable multitude
 who seek the broad and easy  way4      
,it is by this obliging and             
accommodating conduct that they open    
their  arms to all the world4 ,thus1 if 

someone comes to them already determined
  to make restitution of goods which he 
has wrongly acquired1 you need not  fear
 that they will dissuade him4 ,on the   
contrary1 they will praise and  confirm 
his holy resolution4 ,but if another    
should come wishing to have  absolution 
without making restitution1 their       
position would be a  difficult one1 if  
they had not the means of giving him his
 desire4 ,it is  thus that they keep all
 their friends and defend themselves    
against  their enemies4 ,and if anyone  
accuses them of extreme laxity1 they    
immediately bring forward their most    
austere directors1 and certain  books   
which they have written on the severity 
of the ,christian law2 and  simple and  
uninquiring people are contented with   
these proofs4    ,they have proofs for  
all sorts of people1 and make such      
ingenious  replies to every question    
that when they find themselves in       
countries  where a crucified ,god seems 
like madness1 they suppress the scandal 

of  the ,cross and preach only ,christ  
in glory4 ,this they have done in ,india
  and ,china1 where they even condone   
idolatry by a subtle device2 they  allow
 their people to carry with them hidden 
images of ,christ1 to which  they should
 address the public worship ostensibly  
paid to their idols4  ,this conduct led 
to their being forbidden under pain of  
excommunication  to permit the adoration
 of idols1 under any pretext1 or to hide
 the  mystery of the ,cross from those  
whom they instruct in religion1 and they
  have been forbidden to receive anyone 
in baptism until he has this  knowledge1
 and are enjoined to erect in their     
churches the image of the  crucifix4    
,thus they have spread over the whole   
earth in the strength of their  doctrine
 of probable opinions1 which is the     
fount and origin of all  these          
irregularities4 ,you may learn of this  
from themselves1 for they  take no pains
 to hide it1 except that they cover     
their human and  political prudence with

 the pretence of a divine and ,christian
 prudence4  ,they act as if the faith   
and the tradition which maintains it    
were not  for ever invariable at all    
times and in all places1 and as if      
nothing  more were required1 in order to
 remove the stains of guilt1 than to    
corrupt the law of the ,lord1 instead of
 regarding that stainless and  holy law 
as itself the instrument of conversion1 
and conforming human  souls to its      
salutary precepts4      ,,ii4--,,the    
,,doctrine ,,of ,,intention             
,sir1--,i must now let you know what the
 good ,jesuit father told me about  the 
maxims of their casuists1 with regard to
 the point of honour among  gentlemen4  
,you know1 said he1 that this point of  
honour is the  dominating passion of men
 in that rank of life1 and is constantly
  leading them into acts of violence    
which appear quite contrary to          
,christian piety4 ,indeed1 we should    
have to exclude all of them from our    
confessionals1 if our fathers had not in

 some degree relaxed the  severity of   
religion and accommodated it to the     
weakness of men4 ,but  since they wished
 to remain attached to the ,gospel by   
their duty towards  ,god1 and to men of 
the world by their charity towards their
 neighbour1  they had to seek expedients
 by which they might make it possible   
for a  man to maintain his honour in the
 ordinary way of the world without      
wounding his conscience4 ,they had to   
preserve1 at the same time1 two  things 
which are apparently so opposed to one  
another as piety and  honour4 ,but1     
however valuable their purpose might be1
 its execution was  exceedingly         
difficult4    ,i am surprised1 ,i said1 
that you find it difficult4    ,are you8
 he replied4 ,do you not know that on   
the one hand the law of  the ,gospel    
commands us never to render evil for    
evil1 and to leave  vengeance to ,god2  
and that on the other hand the laws of  
the world  forbid that we should suffer 
injury without executing justice1 even  

by  the death of our enemies8 ,is it    
possible that two precepts should be    
more contrary to one another8    ,what  
,i meant to say was1 that after what ,i 
have seen of your fathers1 ,i  know that
 they can easily do things which are    
impossible to other men4 ,i  am quite   
ready to believe that they have         
discovered some means of  reconciling   
these two precepts1 and ,i beg of you to
 inform me what it  is4    ,you must    
know1 then1 he replied1 that this       
wonderful principle is our  grand method
 of directing the intention1 a principle
 of great  importance in our moral      
system4 ,you have already seen certain  
examples  of it4 ,thus1 when ,i         
explained to you how servants could     
carry with a  clear conscience certain  
harmful messages1 you must have seen    
that it  was by diverting their         
intention from the evil of which they   
are the  bearers and by turning it to   
the gain which they receive for their   
service4 ,this is what we call          

'directing the intention4' ,in the same 
way  you have seen that those who give  
money in return for benefices would be  
guilty of simony unless they diverted   
their intention from the  transaction4  
,but ,i am going to show you this grand 
method in all its  beauty in relation to
 homicide1 which it justifies under a   
thousand  circumstances4    ,i am ready 
to believe1 ,i said1 that your principle
 will permit  everything1 and that      
nothing will escape it4    ,not at all1 
he replied2 you are always running from 
one extreme to  the other4 ,we by no    
means permit everything4 ,for instance1 
we never  permit the formal intention of
 sin1 for the mere sake of sinning1 and 
we  will have nothing to do with anyone 
who persists in seeking evil as an  end 
in itself1 for that is a devilish       
intention1 in whatever age1 sex1  or    
rank it may be found4 ,but so long as   
there is no such unhappy  disposition as
 that1 we try to put in practice our    
method of directing  intention1 which   

consists in proposing a lawful object as
 the end of  one's actions4 ,in so far  
as it is in our power1 we turn away from
  forbidden things2 but when we are     
unable to prevent the action1 we at     
least try to purify the intention1 and  
so correct the vice of the means  by the
 purity of the end4    ,that is how our 
fathers have been able to permit the    
acts of violence  which are committed in
 the defence of honour4 ,it is only     
necessary to  turn away one's intention 
from the desire of vengeance1 which is  
criminal1 and to restrict it to the     
desire of defending one's honour1  which
 is a lawful desire4 ,it is thus that   
our fathers are able to fulfil  their   
duties towards ,god and towards men     
alike4 ,they please the world by        
permitting the actions1 and they satisfy
 the ,gospel by purifying the           
intentions4 ,it is a method which was   
unknown to the ancients1 and is         
entirely due to our fathers4 ,do you    
understand it now8    ,i understand it  

very well1 ,i said4 ,you allow to men   
the external and  material effect of the
 action1 and you give to ,god the       
internal and  spiritual movement of     
intention1 and thus reconcile the human 
with the  divine law4 ,but though ,i    
understand your principle well enough1  
,i should  like to know what are its    
consequences4--,i should like to know1  
for  instance1 all the cases in which   
your method permits one to kill4 ,you   
have told me that whoever receives a    
blow may repay it with a  sword-thrust  
without the guilt of vengeance1 but you 
have not yet told  me how far one may   
go4    ,you can hardly make a mistake1  
said the father4 ,you may go as far as  
to kill the man4 ,one of our authorities
 speaks3 ',it is permitted to kill  a   
man who has given a blow1 even though he
 runs away1 on the condition  that it is
 not done through hatred or through     
vengeance1 and that one's  actions do   
not lead to murders which are excessive 
and harmful to the  state4' ,the reason 

is1 that one may thus run after one's   
honour as if  after a stolen object4    
,for though your honour is not exactly  
in the  hands of your enemy as if it    
were something which he had picked up1  
you  can yet recover it in the same way 
by giving a proof of greatness and of   
authority1 and by thus acquiring human  
esteem4 ,indeed1 he continues3 ',is  it 
not true that he who has received a blow
 is considered disgraced  until he has  
slain his enemy8'    ,this appeared to  
me so horrible that ,i had difficulty in
 restraining  myself4 ,i felt that ,i   
had heard enough4      ,,iii4--,,the    
,,charge ,,of ,,raillery      ,reverend 
,fathers1--,i have read the letters     
which you have published in  answer to  
some of mine on the subject of your     
moral principles2 and ,i  find that one 
of the principal points in your defence 
is that ,i have not  spoken seriously   
enough of your maxims4 ,you repeat this 
charge in all  your writings1 and you go
 so far as to say that ,i have turned   

holy  things into ridicule4    ,this is 
a surprising and very unjust reproach2  
for where is a passage to  be found in  
which ,i have treated holy things with  
raillery8 ,it is true  that ,i have     
spoken with little respect of the       
teachings of certain among  you1 but do 
you suppose that the imaginations of    
your authors are to be  taken as the    
verities of the faith8 ,is it impossible
 to laugh at  passages of ,escobar1 and 
at the very fantastic and unchristian   
conclusions of others of your authors   
without being accused of  ridiculing    
religion8 ,are you not afraid lest your 
reproaches should give  me a new subject
 for ridicule1 or lest it should be seen
 that when ,i  make sport of your moral 
principles ,i am as far from laughing at
 holy  things as the doctrine of your   
casuists is far from the holy teaching  
of  the ,evangel6    ,truly1 fathers1   
there is a great difference between     
laughing at  religion1 and laughing at  
those whose extravagant opinions are its

  profanation4 ,it would be impious to  
be wanting in respect for the truths    
which the ,spirit of ,god has revealed1 
but it would hardly be less  impious    
that we should not show our contempt for
 the falsities which the  human spirit  
has opposed to them4    ,i pray you to  
consider that just as ,christian truth  
is worthy of love  and of respect1 the  
errors that are contrary to it deserve  
our contempt  and hatred4 ,for there are
 two qualities in the truths of our     
religion1 a  divine beauty which compels
 our love1 and a holy majesty that      
demands  our veneration2 and there are  
two qualities in error1 the impiety     
which  makes it horrible1 and the       
impertinence which renders it absurd4   
,do not hope1 therefore1 to persuade the
 world that it is unworthy of           
,christians to deal with errors as      
absurdities1 since this method has  been
 common to the early fathers of the     
church1 and is authorised by  ,holy     
,scriptures1 by the example of the      

greatest saints1 and even by that  of   
,god himself4 ,for do we not see that   
,god at the same time hates and         
despises sinners in such a degree that  
at the hour of their death1 when  their 
condition is at its saddest and most    
deplorable1 the divine wisdom  is said  
to unite mockery and laughter with the  
vengeance and fury which  condemns them 
to perpetual torments4    ,nay1 it is   
worthy of our notice that in the first  
words which ,god spake  to man after the
 fall the fathers of the church have    
discovered a tone  of mockery1 a        
stinging irony4 ,after ,adam had        
disobeyed1 in the hope that  the devil  
had given that he would then be made    
like a ,god1 it appears  from ,scripture
 that ,god's punishment made him subject
 to death1 and that  after having       
reduced ,adam to the miserable condition
 which his sin had  deserved1 ,god      
mocked him with words of piercing irony1
 saying3 ,there is  the man who has     
become as one of us4    ,you see1       

therefore1 that mockery is sometimes    
designed to turn men from  their        
follies1 and is then an act of          
righteousness4 ,thus ,jeremiah says     
that the deeds of the foolish are worthy
 of laughter because of their  vanity4  
,and1 again1 ,st4 ,augustine says that  
the wise laugh at the  foolish because  
they are wise1 but in virtue not of     
their own wisdom1  but of the divine    
wisdom which will mock at the death of  
the wicked4    ,what8 ,must we call in  
,scripture and tradition to prove that  
cutting down  one's enemy from behind1  
and in an ambush is a treacherous       
murder8 ,or  that giving a present of   
money to secure an ecclesiastical       
benefice is  to purchase it8 ,of course1
 there are teachings which deserve our  
contempt1 and can only be dealt with by 
mockery4 ,are you1 fathers1 to be       
permitted to teach that it is lawful to 
slay in order to avoid a blow  and an   
affront1 yet are we to be forbidden to  
refute publicly so grave  an error8 ,are

 you to be at liberty to say that a     
judge may  conscientiously retain a     
bribe given him to purchase injustice1  
yet may  we never contradict you8 ,are  
you formally to pronounce that a man may
 be  saved without ever having loved    
,god1 and yet close the mouths of those 
who would defend the truth of the faith1
 on the ground that their  defence must 
wound fraternal charity by attacking    
you1 and must grieve  ,christian modesty
 by laughing at your maxims8            
,,iv4--,,the ,,sin ,,of ,,simony        
,reverend ,fathers1--,i was about to    
write to you concerning the  accusations
 which you have so long brought against 
me1 wherein you call  me impious1       
buffoon1 rogue1 impostor1 calumniator1  
swindler1 heretic1  disguised           
,calvinist1 one possessed of a legion of
 devils4 ,i wish the  world to know why 
you speak thus1 for ,i should be sorry  
that anyone  should think thus of me2   
and ,i had already made up my mind to   
complain  publicly of your calumnies and

 impostures when ,i saw your replies1   
wherein you bring the same charges      
against me4 ,you have thus forced me  to
 change my purpose4 ,yet ,i shall still 
carry it out in some degree1  inasmuch  
as ,i hope that my defence will convict 
you of more real  impostures which you  
have imputed to me4 ,truly1 fathers1    
your position  is more open to suspicion
 than mine1 for it is very unlikely that
 ,i1  being alone as ,i am1 and without 
strength or human support against so    
powerful a society as yours1 and being  
sustained only by truth and  sincerity1 
should have exposed myself to the risk  
of losing all1 by  exposing myself to a 
conviction of imposture4 ,but your      
position1  fathers1 is different2 you   
can say of me what you please1 and ,i   
can find  no one to whom ,i may         
complain4 ,well1 you have chosen your   
ground1 and  the war shall be made in   
your country and at your expense4 ,do   
not fear  that ,i shall be tedious2     
there is something so diverting about   

your  maxims that they never fail to    
rejoice the world4    ,let me closely   
explain1 for instance1 your doctrine    
with regard to  simony4 ,finding        
yourself in a dilemma between the canons
 of the church1  which forbid with the  
severest penalties any trade in         
ecclesiastical  benefices1 and the      
avarice of so many people who promote   
this infamous  traffic1 you have        
followed your ordinary method1 which is 
to give to men  what they desire1 and to
 offer to ,god nothing but words and    
appearances4  ,for what do simonfacal   
persons demand1 if not that they shall  
receive  money in return for their      
benefices8    ,but that is precisely the
 transaction which you have cleared from
 the  guilt of simony4 ,yet1 since you  
cannot do away with the name of simony1 
and there must be some matter to which  
the name attaches1 you have  devised for
 that purpose an imaginary idea1 which  
never enters the minds  of simoniacs at 
all1 and indeed would be quite useless  

to them4 ,this is1  that simony consists
 in valuing the money1 considered in    
itself1 as  highly as the spiritual     
privilege1 considered in itself4 ,who   
would ever  dream of comparing things   
which are so disproportionate and of    
such  different kinds8 ,yet1 according  
to your authors1 so long as a man does  
not entertain this metaphysical         
comparison1 he may give his benefice to 
another1 and may receive money in       
return1 without incurring the guilt of  
simony4 ,it is thus that you make game  
of religion in order to pander to  human
 passions4    ,the abusive language     
which you utter against me will never   
clear up our  differences1 nor shall any
 of your threats restrain me from       
defending  myself4 ,you trust in your   
strength and impunity1 but ,i believe   
that ,i  possess truth and innocence4   
,the war by which violence attempts to  
oppress the truth is a strange and a    
long one1 for all the efforts of        
violence are unable to weaken truth1 and

 serve only to make it more  evident4   
,on the other hand1 all the light of    
truth can do nothing to  arrest         
violence1 but rather inflames it4 ,when 
force combats force1 the  stronger      
destroys the weaker2 when argument is   
opposed to argument1 true  and          
convincing reasoning confounds that     
which is based on vanity and  lies2 but 
violence and truth have1 no power one   
over the other4 ,that is  not to say    
that these two things are equal4 ,there 
is this extreme  difference between     
them3 the career of violence is limited 
by the divine  order1 which determines  
its effects to the glory of the truth   
which it  attacks2 but truth1 on the    
other hand1 exists externally1 and      
triumphs  at last over its enemies1     
because it is eternal and powerful as   
,god  ,himself4      ,v4--,,homicide    
,let us now see1 fathers1 how you value 
that life of man1 which is so  jealously
 safeguarded by human justice4 ,it      
appears from your novel laws  that there

 is only one judge in a case of affront 
or injury1 and that  this judge is to be
 he who has received the offence4 ,he is
 to be at the  same time judge1         
plaintiff1 and executioner4 ,he demands 
the death of the  offender1 sentences   
him to death1 and immediately executes  
the sentence2  and so1 without respect  
either for the body or for the soul of  
his  brother1 slays and imperils the    
salvation of him for whom ,christ died4 
,and all this is to be done to avoid a  
blow1 a slander1 an insulting  word1 or 
some other offence for which neither the
 law nor any authorised  judge could    
assign the penalty of death4    ,not    
only so1 but even a priest is held to   
have contracted neither sin  nor        
irregularity in this infliction of death
 without authority and  against law4    
,can these be religious men and priests 
who speak in this  way8 ,are they       
,christians or ,turks--men or demons8   
,spread over the whole  earth1 according
 to ,st4 ,augustine1 there are two      

peoples and two  worlds--the world of   
the children of ,god1 who form one body1
 of which  ,jesus ,christ is king1 and  
the world of the enemies of ,god1 of    
whom the  devil is king4    ,now1       
,christ has founded honour on suffering2
 the devil has founded it on  the       
refusal to suffer4 ,christ has taught   
those who receive a blow to  offer the  
other cheek2 but the devil has taught   
those who are in danger  of a blow to   
kill the enemy who threatens them4      
,consider1 therefore1 fathers1 to which 
of these two kingdoms you belong4  ,you 
have heard the language of the city of  
peace1 which is called the  mystical    
,jerusalem1 and you have heard the      
language of the city of  turmoil1 which 
is called in the ,scriptures the        
spiritual ,sodom4 ,which of  these two  
languages do you understand8 ,according 
to ,st4 ,paul1 those who  belong to     
,christ act and speak on his principles2
 and1 according to the  words of        
,christ1 those who are the children of  

the devil1 who has been a  murderer from
 the beginning of the world1 follow his 
maxims4 ,we listen1  therefore1 to the  
language of your teachers1 and ask of   
them whether  when a blow is threatened1
 we ought to suffer it rather than slay 
the  offender1 or whether we may kill   
him in order to escape the affront8     
,lessius1 ,molina1 ,escobar1 and other  
,jesuits say that it is lawful to  kill 
the man who threatens a blow4 ,is that  
the language of ,jesus ,christ8         
99       99       99       99       99  
,,william ,,penn      ,,some ,,fruits   
,,of ,,solitude           ,william ,penn
 was born in ,london on ,october #ad1   
#afdd4 ,in early       life he joined   
the ,quakers1 and while still a young   
man       underwent imprisonment for the
 expression of his religious            
views4 ,for ,a ,sandy ,foundation       
,shaken1 an attack on the               
,athanasian ,creed1 he was in #affh sent
 to the ,tower1 where he       wrote1   
,no ,cross1 ,no ,crown4 ,under ,james   

,,ii41 however1 he was       high in the
 favour of the court1 and received a    
grant of the       region afterwards    
known as ,pennsylvania1 whither he went 
with       a number of his              
co-religionists in #afhb4 ,after his    
return to       ,england1 he suffered by
 the fall of ,james ,,ii41 but under    
,william ,,iii4 was acquitted of        
treason1 and spent his later       years
 in retirement4 ,he died at ,ruscombe1  
in ,berkshire1 on       ,july #cj1      
#agah4 ,some ,fruits of ,solitude1 or   
the ,maxims of       ,william ,penn1    
evidently the result of one of his      
sojourns in       prison1 was licensed  
in #afic4 ,it was followed by ,more     
,fruits       of ,solitude4 ,the whole  
forms a collection of maxims which are  
shrewd1 wise1 and charitable1 informed  
with a good courage for       life1 and 
a contempt for mean ends1 if in their   
variety they       do not always escape 
the touch of the commonplace4 ,the book 
has become known as a favourite of      

,r4,l4 ,stevenson1 who said of       it 
that there is not the man living--no1   
nor recently       dead--that could put1
 with so lovely a spirit1 so much       
honest1       kind wisdom into words4   
,,to ,,the ,,reader      ,reader1 this  
,enchiridion ,i present thee which is   
the fruit of solitude2  a school few    
care to learn in1 though none instructs 
us better4 ,some  parts of it are the   
result of serious reflection2 others the
 flashings  of lucid intervals4 ,writ   
for private satisfaction1 and now       
published for  an help to human conduct4
    ,the author blesseth ,god for his   
retirement1 and kisses that ,gentle     
,hand  which led him into it2 for though
 it should prove barren to the world1   
it can never do so to him4    ,he has   
now had some time he could call his own2
 a property he was never  so much master
 of before2 in which he has taken a view
 of himself and  the world2 and observed
 wherein he hath hit and mist the mark2 
what  might have been done1 what mended1

 and what avoided in his human  conduct2
 together with the omissions and        
excesses of others1 as well  societies  
and governments1 as private families and
 persons4 ,and he  verily thinks1 were  
he to live over his life again1 he could
 not only1  with ,god's grace1 serve    
,him1 but his neighbour and himself1    
better than  he hath done1 and have     
seven years of his time to spare4 ,and  
yet perhaps  he hath not been the worst 
or the idlest man in the world1 nor is  
he the  oldest4 ,and this is the rather 
said1 that it might quicken thee1       
reader1  to lose none of the time that  
is yet thine4    ,there is nothing of   
which we are apt to be so lavish as of  
time1 and  about which we ought to be   
more solicitous2 since without it we can
 do  nothing in this world4 ,time is    
what we want most1 but what1 alas6 we   
use  worst2 and for which ,god will     
certainly most strictly reckon with us1 
when time shall be no more4    ,the     
author does not pretend to deliver thee 

an exact piece2 his business  not being 
ostentation1 but charity4 ',tis         
miscellaneous in the matter of  it1 and 
by no means artificial in the composure4
 ,but it contains hints  that may serve 
thee for texts to preach to thyself     
upon1 and which  comprehend much of the 
course of human life4 ,since whatever be
 thy  inclination or aversion1 practice 
or duty1 thou wilt find something not   
unsuitably said for thy direction and   
advantage4 ,accept and improve what     
deserves thy notice2 the rest excuse1   
and place to account of good will  to   
thee and the whole creation of ,god4    
,,ignorance      ,it is admirable to    
consider how many millions of people    
come into and go  out of the world      
ignorant of themselves and of the world 
they have lived  in4 ,if one went to see
 ,windsor ,castle or ,hampton ,court it 
would be  strange not to observe and    
remember the situation1 the building1   
the  gardens1 fountains1 etc41 that make
 up the beauty and pleasure of such a   

seat4 ,and yet few people know          
themselves2 no1 not their own bodies1   
the  houses of their minds1 the most    
curious structure of the world1 a living
  walking tabernacle3 nor the world of  
which it was made1 and out of which  it 
is fed2 which would be so much our      
benefit as well as our pleasure to      
know4 ,we cannot doubt of this when we  
are told the ,invisible things of  ,god 
are brought to light by the things that 
are seen2 and consequently  we read our 
duty in them as often as we look upon   
them1 to ,him that is  the ,great and   
,wise ,author of them1 if we look as we 
should do4    ,the world is certainly a 
great and stately volume of natural     
things2 and  may not be improperly      
styled the hieroglyphics of a better4   
,but1 alas6  how very few leaves of it  
do we really turn over6 ,this ought to  
be the  subject of the education of our 
youth1 who at twenty1 when they should  
be fit for business1 know little or     
nothing of it4      ,,education      ,we

 are in pain to make them scholars1 but 
not men2 to talk rather than  to know1  
which is true canting4 ,the first thing 
obvious to children is  what is         
sensible2 and that we make no part of   
their rudiments4    ,we press their     
memory too soon1 and puzzle1 strain1 and
 load them with  words and rules2 to    
know grammar and rhetoric1 and a strange
 tongue or  two1 that it is ten to one  
may never be useful to them2 leaving    
their  natural genius to mechanical and 
physical1 or natural knowledge          
uncultivated and neglected2 which would 
be of exceeding use and pleasure  to    
them through the whole course of their  
life4    ,to be sure1 languages are not 
to be despised or neglected2 but things 
are still to be preferred4    ,children 
had rather be making of tools and       
instruments of play2 shaping1  drawing1 
framing1 and building1 etc41 than       
getting some rules of  propriety of     
speech by heart2 and those also would   
follow with more  judgment and less     

trouble and time4    ,it were happy if  
we studied nature more in natural       
things1 and acted  according to nature2 
whose rules are few1 plain1 and most    
reasonable4    ,let us begin where she  
begins1 go her pace1 and close always   
where she  ends1 and we cannot miss of  
being good naturalists4    ,the creation
 would not be longer a riddle to us3 the
 heavens1 earth1 and  waters1 with their
 respective1 various1 and numerous      
inhabitants3 their  productions1        
natures1 seasons1 sympathies1 and       
antipathies2 their use1  benefit1 and   
pleasure would be better understood by  
us3 and an eternal  wisdom1 power1      
majesty1 and goodness very conspicuous  
to us through  those sensible and       
passing forms3 the world wearing the    
mark of its  ,maker1 whose stamp is     
everywhere visible1 and the characters  
very  legible to the children of wisdom4
    ,and it would go a great way to     
caution and direct people in their use  
of  the world that they were better     

studied and known in the creation of it4
    ,for how could man find the         
confidence to abuse it1 while they      
should  find the ,great ,creator stare  
them in the face1 in all and every part 
thereof8    ,their ignorance makes them 
insensible and that insensibility hardy 
in  misusing this noble creation1 that  
has the stamp and voice of a ,deity     
everywhere1 and in everything to the    
observing4    ,it is pity1 therefore1   
that books have not been composed for   
youth1 by  some curious and careful     
naturalists1 and also mechanics1 in the 
,latin  tongue1 to be used in schools1  
that they might learn things with words3
  things obvious and familiar to them1  
and which would make the tongue  easier 
to be obtained by them4    ,many able   
gardeners and husbandmen are yet        
ignorant of the reason of  their        
calling2 as most artificers are of the  
reason of their own rules  that govern  
their excellent workmanship4 ,but a     
naturalist and mechanick  of this sort  

is master of the reason of both1 and    
might be of the  practice1 too1 if his  
industry kept pace with his speculation2
 which  were very commendable1 and      
without which he cannot be said to be a 
complete naturalist or mechanic4        
,finally1 if man be the index or epitome
 of the world1 as philosophers  tell us1
 we have only to read ourselves well to 
be learned in it4 ,but  because there is
 nothing we less regard than the        
characters of the ,power  that made us1 
which are so clearly written upon us and
 the world ,he has  given us1 and can   
best tell us what we are and should be1 
we are even  strangers to our own       
genius2 the glass in which we should see
 that true  instructing and agreeable   
variety1 which is to be observed in     
nature1 to  the admiration of that      
wisdom and adoration of that ,power     
which made us  all4      ,,frugality    
,,or ,,bounty      ,frugality is good1  
if liberality be joined with it4 ,the   
first is leaving  off superfluous       

expenses2 the last bestowing them to the
 benefit of  others that need4 ,the     
first without the last begins           
covetousness2 the  last without the     
first begins prodigality4 ,both together
 make an  excellent temper4 ,happy the  
place wherever that is found4    ,were  
it universal1 we should be cured of two 
extremes1 want and excess3  and the one 
would supply the other1 and so bring    
both nearer to a mean2  the just degree 
of earthly happiness4    ,it is a       
reproach to religion and government to  
suffer so much poverty  and excess4     
,were the superfluities of a nation     
valued1 and made a perpetual tax on     
benevolence1 there were be more         
alms-houses than poor1 schools than     
scholars2 and enough to spare for       
government besides4      ,,industry     
,love labour2 for if thou dost not want 
it for food thou mayest for  physick4   
,it is wholesome for thy body1 and good 
for thy mind4 ,it  prevents the fruits  
of idleness1 which many times come of   

having nothing  to do1 and lead too many
 to do what is worse than nothing4    ,a
 garden1 an elaboratory1 a work-house1  
improvements and breeding1 are  pleasant
 and profitable diversions to the idle  
and ingenious2 for here  they miss ill  
company1 and converse with nature and   
art2 whose variety  are equally grateful
 and instructing2 and preserve a good   
constitution  of body and mind4         
,,knowledge      ,knowledge is the      
treature1 but judgment the treasurer of 
a wise man4    ,he that has more        
knowledge than judgment is made for     
another man's use  more than his own4   
,it cannot be a good constitution1 where
 the appetite is great and the          
digestion is weak4    ,there are some   
men like dictionaries2 to be looked into
 upon occasions1  but have no           
connection1 and are little entertaining4
    ,less knowledge than judgment will  
always have the advantage over the      
injudicious knowing man4    ,a wise man 
makes what he learns his own1 t'other   

shows he's but a copy1  or a collection 
at most4      ,,on ,,the ,,government   
,,of ,,thoughts      ,man being made a  
reasonable1 and so a thinking creature1 
there is  nothing more worthy of his    
being than the right direction and      
employment  of his thoughts2 since upon 
this depends both his usefulness to the 
publick and his own present and future  
benefit in all respects4    ,the        
consideration of this has often obliged 
me to lament the unhappiness  of        
mankind1 that through too great a       
mixture and confusion of thoughts  have 
been hardly able to make a right or     
mature judgment of things4    ,clear1   
therefore1 thy head1 and rally1 and     
manage thy thoughts rightly1  and thou  
wilt save time1 and see and do thy      
business well2 for thy  judgment will be
 distinct1 thy mind free1 and the       
faculties strong and  regular4          
,always remember to bound thy thoughts  
to the present occasion4    ,make not   
more business necessary than is so2 and 

rather lessen than  augment work for    
thyself4    ,upon the whole matter      
employ thy thoughts as thy business     
requires1 and  let that have place      
according to merit and urgency1 giving  
everything a  review and due digestion1 
and thou wilt prevent many errors and   
vexations1 as well as save much time to 
thyself in the course of thy  life4     
,,friendship      ,friendship is an     
union of spirits1 a marriage of hearts1 
and the bond  thereof virtue4    ,there 
can be no friendship where there is no  
freedom4 ,friendship loves a  free air1 
and will not be penned up in strait and 
narrow enclosures4 ,it  will speak      
freely1 and act so too2 and take nothing
 ill where no ill is  meant2 nay1 where 
it is 'twill easily forgive1 and forget1
 too1 upon  small acknowledgements4     
,friends are true twins in soul2 they   
sympathise in everything1 and have  the 
same love and aversion4    ,one is not  
happy without the other1 nor can either 
be miserable alone4  ,as if they could  

change bodies1 they take their turns in 
pain as well as  in pleasure2 relieving 
one another in their most adverse       
conditions4    ,what one enjoys the     
other cannot want4 ,like the primitive  
,christians1  they have all things in   
common1 and no property but in one      
another4    ,they that love beyond the  
world cannot be separated by it4        
,death cannot kill what never dies4     
,nor can spirits ever be divided that   
love and live in the same divine        
principle1 the root and record of their 
friendship4    ,if absence be not death1
 neither is theirs4    ,death is but    
crossing the world1 as friends do the   
seas2 they live in  one another still4  
,for they must needs be present that    
love and live in that which is          
omnipresent4 ,in this divine glass they 
see face to face2 and their  converse is
 free1 as well as pure4    ,this is the 
comfort of friends1 that though they may
 be said to die yet  their friendship   
and society are in the best sense ever  

present1 because  immortal4      ,,of   
,,charity      ,charity has various     
senses1 but is excellent in all of them4
    ,it imports1 first1 the             
commiseration of the poor and unhappy of
 mankind1  and extends an helping hand  
to mend their condition4    ,next1      
charity makes the best construction of  
things and persons2 it  makes the best  
of everything1 forgives everybody1      
serves all1 and hopes  to the end4      
,it is an universal remedy against      
discord1 an holy cement for mankind4    
,and1 lastly1 'tis love to ,god and the 
brethren which raises the soul  above   
all earthly considerations2 and as it   
gives a taste of heaven upon  earth1 so 
'tis heaven in the fulness of it        
hereafter to the truly  charitable here4
    ,this is the noblest sense charity  
has1 after which all should press as    
being the more excellent way4    ,would 
,god this divine virtue were more       
implanted and diffused among  mankind1  
the pretenders to ,christianity         

especially2 and then we should          
certainly mind piety more than          
controversy1 and exercise love and      
compassion instead of censuring and     
persecuting one another in any  manner  
whatsoever4           99       99       
99       99       99          ,,ernest  
,,renan      ,,life ,,of ,,jesus        
,ernest ,renan1 the most widely read    
writer of religious history       in his
 day1 was forty years old when the ,vie 
de ,jsus1 his       most popular book1  
appeared as the first volume of a       
,history       of the ,origins of       
,christianity4 ,he was born at ,trguier 
in       ,brittany1 ,france1 ,feb4 #bg1 
#ahbc1 a ,breton through his father     
and a ,gascon through his mother4       
,educated for the ,church1       under  
priestly tutelage1 he specialised in the
 study of       ,oriental languages1    
with the result that he found it        
impossible to accept the traditional    
view of ,christian and       ,jewish    
history4 ,after holding an appointment  

in the ,department       of ,manuscripts
 in the ,bibliothque ,nationale1 he     
became       ,professor of ,hebrew in   
the ,collge de ,france4 ,at the age of  
#ee       he was elected a member of the
 ,french ,academy4 ,his works           
include ,a ,history of ,semitic         
,languages1 a ,history of the           
,origins of ,christianity1 and a        
,history of the ,people of              
,israel1 besides many volumes of essays 
and criticism1 and       several        
autobiographical books of great charm4  
,everybody read       ,renan1 and       
disagreed with him4 ,the orthodox       
rejected his       opinions1 and the    
unorthodox his sentiment4 ,but his books
       marked an epoch in religious     
criticism4 ,the ,life of ,jesus         
was the outcome of a visit to ,palestine
 in pursuance of       research studies 
of ,phoenician civilisation4 ,a feature 
is the       importance given to scenic 
surroundings which he could so          
happily describe4 ,renan died on        

,october #b1 #ahib1 widely              
admired1 honoured1 and also condemned1  
and was buried in the       ,pantheon4  
,,the ,,hour ,,and ,,the ,,man      ,the
 principal event in the history of the  
world is the revolution by  which the   
noblest portions of humanity have       
forsaken the ancient  religions of      
,paganism for a religion founded on the 
,divine ,unity1 the  ,trinity1 and the  
,incarnation of the ,son of ,god4       
,nearly a thousand years  were required 
to achieve this conversion4 ,the new    
religion itself took  at least three    
hundred years in its formation4 ,but the
 origin of the  revolution is a         
historical event which happened in the  
reigns of  ,augustus and ,tiberius4 ,at 
that time there lived a man of supreme  
personality1 who1 by his bold           
originality1 and by the love which he   
was  able to inspire1 became the object1
 and settled the direction1 of the      
future faith of mankind4    ,the great  
empires which succeeded each other in   

,western ,asia annihilated  all the     
hopes of the ,jewish race for a         
terrestial kingdom1 and cast it  back on
 religious dreams1 which it cherished   
with a kind of sombre  passion4 ,the    
establishment of the ,roman empire      
exalted men's  imaginations1 and the    
great era of peace on which the world   
was entering  gave birth to illimitable 
hopes4 ,this confused medley of dreams  
found at  length an interpretation in   
the peerless man to whom the universal  
conscience has decreed the title of the 
,son of ,god1 and that with  justice1   
since he gave religion an impetus       
greater than that which any  other man  
has been capable of giving--an impetus  
with which1 in all  probability1 no     
further advance will be comparable4     
,,youth ,,and ,,education      ,jesus   
was born at ,nazareth1 a small town in  
,galilee1 which before his  time was not
 known to fame4 ,the precise date of his
 birth is unknown4 ,it  took place in   
the reign of ,augustus1 probably some   

years before the year  one of the era   
which all civilised peoples date from   
the day of his  birth4 ,jesus came from 
the ranks of the common folk4 ,his      
father1 ,joseph1  and his mother1 ,mary1
 were people in humble circumstances1   
artisans  living by their handiwork in  
the state1 so usual in the ,east1 which 
is  neither ease nor poverty4 ,the      
family was somewhat large4 ,jesus had   
brothers and sisters who seem to have   
been younger than he4 ,they all         
remained obscure4 ,the four men who were
 called his brothers1 and among  whom   
one at least1 ,james1 became of great   
importance in the early years  of the   
development of ,christianity1 were his  
cousins-german4 ,the sisters  of ,jesus 
were married at ,nazareth1 and there he 
spent the early years of  his youth4    
,the town must have presented the       
poverty-stricken aspect still           
characteristic of villages in the ,east4
 ,we see to-day the streets where       
,jesus played as a child in the stony   

paths or little lanes which  separate   
the dwellings from each other4 ,no doubt
 the house of ,joseph  much resembled   
these poor domiciles1 lighted only by   
the doorway1  serving at once as        
workshop1 kitchen1 and bedroom1 and     
having for  furniture a mat1 some       
cushions on the ground1 one or two clay 
pots1 and  a painted chest4 ,but the    
surroundings are charming1 and no place 
in the  world could be so well adapted  
for dreams of perfect happiness4 ,if we 
ascend to the plateau1 swept by a       
perpetual breeze1 above the highest     
houses1 the landscape is magnificent4   
,an enchanted circle1 cradle of the     
,kingdom of ,god1 was for years the     
horizon of ,jesus1 and indeed during    
his whole life he went but little beyond
 these1 the familiar bounds of  his     
childhood4    ,no doubt he learnt to    
read and write according to the ,eastern
 method2  but it is doubtful if he      
understood the ,hebrew writings in their
  original tongue4 ,his biographers make

 him cite translations in the  ,aramean 
language4 ,nevertheless1 it would be a  
great error to imagine  that ,jesus was 
what we should call an ignorant man4    
,refinement of  manners and acuteness of
 intellect have1 in the ,east1 nothing  
in common  with what we call education4 
,in all probability ,jesus did not know 
,greek4 ,his mother tongue was the      
,syrian dialect1 mingled with ,hebrew4  
,no  element of secular teaching reached
 him4 ,he was ignorant of all beyond    
,judaism2 his mind kept that free       
innocence which an extended and varied  
culture always weakens4 ,happily1 he was
 also ignorant of the grotesque         
scholasticism which was taught at       
,jerusalem1 and which was soon to       
constitute the ,talmud4 ,the reading of 
the books of the ,old ,testament  made a
 deep impression on him1 especially the 
book of ,daniel1 and the  religious     
poetry of the ,psalms was in marvellous 
accordance with his  lyrical soul1 and  
all his life was his sustenance and     

support4 ,that he  had no knowledge of  
the general state of the world is       
evident from every  feature of his most 
authentic discourses1 and he never      
conceived of  aristocratic society1 save
 as a young villager who sees the world 
through the prism of his simplicity4    
,although born at a time when the       
principles of positive science had      
already been proclaimed1 he lived in    
entirely supernatural ideas4 ,to him the
 marvellous was not the  exceptional but
 the normal statf of things1 since to   
him the whole  course of things was the 
result of the free-will of the ,deity4  
,this led  to a profound conception of  
the close relations of man with ,god4   
,,idyllic ,,surroundings      ,a mighty 
dream haunted the ,jewish people for    
centuries1 constantly  renewing its     
youth4 ,judaea believed that she        
possessed divine promises  of a         
boundless future4 ,in combination with  
the belief in the ,messiah and  the     
doctrine of an approaching renewal of   

all things1 the dogma of the            
resurrection had emerged and produced a 
great fermentation from one end  of the 
,jewish world to the other4 ,jesus1 as  
soon as he had any thought  of his own1 
entered into the burning atmosphere     
created in ,palestine by  these ideas1  
and his soul was soon filled with them4 
,a beautiful natural  environment       
imprinted a charming and idyllic        
character on all the dreams  of         
,galilee4 ,during the months of ,march  
and ,april that green1 shady1  smiling  
land is a carpet of flowers of an       
incomparable variety of  colours4 ,the  
animals are small and extremely         
gentle--delicate and  playful           
turtle-doves1 blackbirds so light that  
they rest on a blade of  grass without  
bending it1 tufted larks which almost   
venture under the  feet of the          
traveller1 little river-tortoises with  
mild bright eyes1  storks of gravely    
modest mien1 which1 casting aside all   
timidity1 allow  men to come quite near 

them1 and indeed seem to invite his     
approach4 ,in  no country in the world  
do the mountains extend with more       
harmonious  outlines1 or inspire higher 
thought4 ,jesus seems to have had an    
especial  love for them4 ,the most      
important events of his divine career   
took place  upon the mountains4 ,this   
beautiful country in his time was filled
 with  prosperity and gaiety4 ,there    
,jesus lived and grew up4 ,true1 every  
year  he knew the sweet solemnity of the
 pilgrimage to ,jerusalem1 and it is    
believed that early in life the         
wilderness had some influence on his    
development1 but it was when he returned
 into his beloved ,galilee that  he once
 more found his ,heavenly ,father in the
 midst of green hills and  clear        
fountains1 and women and children who   
with joyous soul awaited the  salvation 
of ,israel4      ,a ,,character ,,to    
,,love      ,jesus followed the trade of
 his father1 which was that of a        
carpenter4  ,in this there was nothing  

irksome or humiliating4 ,the ,jewish    
custom  required that a man devoted to  
intellectual work should learn a        
handicraft4 ,jesus never married4 ,his  
whole capacity for love was             
concentrated upon that which he felt was
 his heavenly vocation4 ,he was  no     
doubt more beloved than loving4 ,thus1  
as often happens in very lofty  natures1
 tenderness of heart was in him         
transformed into an infinite  sweetness1
 a vague poetry1 a universal charm4     
,through what stages did the ideas of   
,jesus progress during this obscure     
early period of his life8 ,a high       
conception of the ,divinity1 the        
creation of his own great mind1 was the 
guiding principle to which his  power   
was due4 ,god did not speak to him as to
 one outside of himself2  ,god was in   
him2 he felt himself with ,god1 and from
 his own heart drew  all he said of his 
,father4 ,the highest consciousness of  
,god which ever  existed in the heart of
 man was that of ,jesus2 but he never   

once gave  utterance to the sacrilegious
 idea that he was ,god4 ,from the first 
he  looked upon his relationship with   
,god as that of a son with his father4  
,herein was his great originality2 in   
this he had nothing in common with  his 
race4 ,neither ,jew nor ,musselman has  
understood this sweet theology  of love4
 ,the ,god of ,jesus is our ,father4 ,he
 is the ,god of humanity4 ,the  ,jesus  
who founded the true ,kingdom of ,god1  
the kingdom of the humble and  meek1 was
 the ,jesus of early life--of those     
chaste and simple days when  the voice  
of his ,father re-echoed within him in  
clearer tones4 ,it was  then1 for some  
months1 perhaps a year1 that ,god truly 
dwelt on earth4      ,a ,,stimulating   
,,acquaintance      ,an extraordinary   
man1 whose position remains to some     
extent enigmatical1  appeared about this
 time and unquestionably had some       
intercourse with  ,jesus4 ,about the    
year #bh of our era there spread through
 the whole of  ,palestine the reputation

 of a certain ,john1 a young ascetic1   
full of  fervour and passion4 ,the      
fundamental practice which characterised
 his  sect was baptism2 but baptism with
 ,john was only a sign to impress the   
minds of the people and to prepare them 
for some great movement4 ,there  can be 
no doubt he was possessed in the highest
 degree with hope for the  coming of the
 ,messiah4 ,he was of the same age as   
,jesus1 and the two  young enthusiasts1 
full of the same hopes and the same     
hatreds1 were  able to lend each other  
mutual support1 ,jesus recognizing ,john
 as his  superior1 and timidly          
developing his own individual genius4   
,john was  soon cut short in his        
prophetic career1 and cast into prison1 
from  which1 however1 he still exercised
 a wide influence4    ,jesus returned   
from the neighbourhood of the ,dead ,sea
 and the ,jordan to  ,galilee1 his true 
home1 ripened by intercourse with a     
great man of very  different nature1 and
 having acquired full consciousness of  

his own  originality4 ,from that time he
 preached with greater power and made   
the  multitude feel his authority4 ,the 
persuasion that he was to make ,god     
reign upon earth took absolute          
possession of his spirit4 ,he looked    
upon  himself as the universal reformer4
 ,he aimed at founding the ,kingdom of  
,god1 or1 in other words1 the ,kingdom  
of the ,soul4 ,jesus was1 in some       
respects1 an anarchist1 for he had no   
idea of civil government4 ,he never     
showed any desire to put himself in the 
place of the rich and mighty4  ,the idea
 of being all-powerful by suffering and 
resignation1 and of  triumphing over    
force by purity of heart was his        
peculiar idea4 ,the  founders of the    
,kingdom of ,god are the simple--not the
 rich1 not the  learned1 not the        
priests2 but women1 common folk1 the    
humble1 and the  young4 ,he now boldly  
announced the good tidings of the       
,kingdom of ,god1  and himself as that  
,son of ,man1 whom ,daniel in his vision

 had beheld  as the divine herald of the
 last and supreme revelation4           
,,early ,,successes      ,the success of
 the new prophet's teaching was         
decisive4 ,a group of men  and women1   
all characterised by the same spirit of 
childish frankness  and simple          
innocence1 adhered to him1 and said1    
,thou art the ,messiah4  ,the centre of 
his operations was the little town of   
,capernaum1 on the  shore of the ,lake  
of ,genesareth4 ,jesus was much attached
 to the town and  made it a second home4
 ,he had attempted to begin the work at 
,nazareth1  but without success4 ,the   
fact that his family1 which was of      
humble rank1  was known in the district 
lessened his authority too much2 and it 
is  moreover remarkable that his family 
were strongly opposed to him1 and       
flatly declined to believe in his       
mission4 ,in ,capernaum he was much more
  favourably received1 and it became his
 own city4 ,these good ,galileans  had  
never heard preaching so well adapted to

 their cheerful  imaginations4 ,they    
admired him1 they encouraged him1 they  
found that he  spoke well1 and that his 
reasons were convincing4 ,the almost    
poetical  harmony of his discourses won 
their affections4 ,the authority of the 
young master increased day by day1 and  
naturally the more that people  believed
 in him the more he believed in himself4
 ,four or five large  villages1 lying at
 half an hour's journey from one        
another1 formed the  little world of    
,jesus at this time4 ,sometimes1        
however1 he wandered  beyond his        
favourite region1 once in the direction 
of ,tyre and ,sidon1 a  country which   
must have been marvellously prosperous  
at that time4 ,but  he returned always  
to his well-beloved shore of            
,genesareth4 ,the  motherland of his    
thoughts was there2 there he found faith
 and love4    ,in this earthly paradise 
lived a population in perfect harmony   
with the  land itself1 active1 honest1  
joyous1 and tender of heart1 and here   

,jesus  became the centre of a little   
circle which adored him4 ,in this       
friendly  group he evidently had his    
favourites4 ,peter1 for whom his        
affection was  very deep1 ,james1 son of
 ,zebedee1 and ,john1 his brother1      
formed a sort  of privy council4 ,jesus 
owed his conquests to the infinite charm
 of his  personality and speech4        
,everyone thought that he lived in a    
sphere  higher than that of humanity4   
,the aristocracy of the group was       
represented by a customs-officer1 and by
 the wife of one of ,herod's  stewards4 
,the rest were fishermen and common     
folk4 ,jesus lived with his  disciples  
almost always in the open air1 the      
faithful band leading a  joyous         
wandering life1 and gathering the       
inspirations of the ,master in  their   
first bloom4 ,his preaching was soft and
 gentle1 inspired with a  feeling for   
nature and the perfume of the fields4   
,it was above all in  parable that the  
,master excelled4 ,there was nothing in 

,judaism to give  him a model for this  
delightful feature4 ,he created it4 ,in 
freeing man  from what he called the    
cares of this world ,jesus might go to  
excess  and injure the essential        
conditions of human society2 but he     
founded  that spiritual exaltation which
 for centuries has filled souls with joy
  in the midst of this vale of tears4   
,in our busy civilisation the memory  of
 the free life of ,galilee has been like
 perfume from another world1  like the  
dew of ,hermon1 which has kept drought  
and grossness from  entirely invading   
the fields of ,god4      ,a ,,gospel    
,,for ,,the ,,poor      ,jesus very soon
 understood that the official world of  
his time would by  no means lend its    
support to his kingdom4 ,he took his    
resolution with  extreme daring4        
,leaving the world1 with its hard heart 
and narrow  prejudices1 on one side1 he 
turned towards the simple4 ,a vast      
rearrangement of classes was to take    
place4 ,the ,kingdom of ,god was made   

for children1 and those like them2 for  
the world's outcasts1 victims of  that  
social arrogance which repulses the good
 but humble man2 for  heretics and      
schismatics1 publicans1 ,samaritans1 and
 the pagans of ,tyre  and ,sidon4 ,that 
the reign of the poor is at hand was the
 doctrine of  ,jesus4 ,this exaggerated 
taste for poverty could not last very   
long1 but  although it quickly passed1  
poverty remained an ideal from which    
true  descendants of ,jesus were never  
afterwards separated4    ,like all great
 men1 ,jesus was fond of common folk1   
and felt at his ease  with them4 ,he    
particularly esteemed all those whom    
orthodox ,judaism  disdained4 ,love of  
the people1 pity for their              
powerlessness1 the feeling  of the      
democratic leader who has the spirit of 
the multitude quick  within him1 reveal 
themselves at every instant in his acts 
and sayings4  ,he had no external       
affection1 and made no display of       
austerity4 ,he did  not shun pleasure2  

but went willingly to marriage feasts4  
,his gentle  gaiety found constant      
expression in amiable pleasantries4     
,thus he  journeyed through ,galilee in 
the midst of continual festivities4     
,when he  entered a house1 it was       
considered a joy and a blessing4        
,children and  women adored him4 ,the   
children1 indeed1 were like a young     
guard about  him1 for the inauguration  
of his innocent kingship1 and gave him  
little  ovations4 ,it was childhood1 in 
fact1 in its divine spontaneity1 in its 
simple bewilderment of joy1 that took   
possession of the earth4    ,how long   
did this intoxication last8 ,we cannot  
tell4 ,but whether it  filled years or  
months1 the dream was so beautiful that 
humanity has  lived upon it ever since4 
,happy he to whom it has been granted to
 behold  with his own eyes this divine  
blossoming1 and to share1 if but for a  
day1 the incomparable illusion6 ,but yet
 more happy1 ,jesus would tell us1      
shall he be who1 by the uprightness of  

his will1 and the poetry of his  soul1  
shall be able to create anew in his own 
heart the true ,kingdom of  ,god6       
,,the ,,priest ,,in ,,the ,,path        
,nearly every year ,jesus went to       
,jerusalem for the feast of the         
,passover4  ,it was1 it appears1 in the 
year #ca that the most important of     
these  visits took place4 ,jesus felt   
that to play a leading part he must     
leave  ,galilee and attack ,judaism in  
its stronghold1 ,jerusalem4 ,there the  
little ,galilean community was far from 
feeling at home4 ,jerusalem was a  city 
of pedantry1 acrimony1 disputation1     
hatreds1 and pettiness of mind4  ,its   
fanaticism was extreme4 ,all the        
religious discussions of the ,jewish    
schools1 all the canonical instruction1 
even the legal business and  civil      
actions--in a word1 all form of national
 activity1 were  concentrated in the    
temple4 ,the ,romans refrained from     
entering the  sactuary2 the surveillance
 of the ,temple was in the hands of the 

,jews4  ,it was in the ,temple that     
,jesus spent his days during his sojourn
 at  ,jerusalem1 and all that he saw    
aroused his aversion4 ,these old ,jewish
  institutions displeased him1 and the  
necessity of conforming to them  gave   
him pain4 ,he who gave forgiveness to   
all men1 provided they loved  him1 could
 find nothing congenial in vain         
disputations and obsolete  sacrifices1  
and apparently he brought from          
,jerusalem one idea  thenceforth rooted 
in his mind--that there was no          
understanding possible  between him and 
the ancient ,jewish religion4 ,he no    
longer took his stand  as a ,jewish     
reformer1 but as a destroyer of         
,judaism4 ,in other words1  ,jesus is no
 longer a ,jew4 ,he is1 in the highest  
degree1 a revolutionary2  he calls all  
men to a worship founded solely on the  
ground of their  being children of ,god4
 ,love of ,god1 charity1 and mutual     
forgiveness--in  these consisted his    
whole law4 ,nothing could be less       

sacerdotal4 ,it was  on his return from 
,jerusalem1 as he passed near ,shechem1 
and when  talking with a ,samaritan     
woman1 that ,jesus gave utterance to the
 saying  upon which will rest the       
edifice of eternal religion--,believe   
me1 the  hour cometh when neither in    
this mountain nor in ,jerusalem shall ye
  worship the ,father 444 but the hour  
cometh1 and now is1 when the true       
worshippers shall worship the ,father in
 spirit and in truth4 ,on the day  when 
he said these words he was truly ,son of
 ,god4    ,jesus returned to ,galilee   
full of revolutionary ardour4 ,his      
innocent  aphorisms and beautiful moral 
precepts now culminated in a decided    
policy4 ,the law is to be abolished1 and
 it is he that will abolish it4  ,the   
,messiah is come1 and it is he that is  
the ,messiah4 ,the ,kingdom of  ,god is 
about to be revealed1 and it is he that 
will reveal it4 ,he knew  well that he  
would be the victim of his own audacity1
 but it was by  cries and the rending of

 hearts that the kingdom had to be      
established4    ,the proposition ,jesus 
is the ,messiah was followed by the     
proposition  ,jesus is the ,son of      
,david1 and1 by an entirely spontaneous 
conspiracy1  fictitious genealogies     
arose in the imaginations of his        
partisans1 while  he was still alive1 to
 prove his royal descent4 ,we cannot    
tell whether  he knew anything of these 
legends4 ,he never designated himself   
,son of  ,david4 ,that he ever dreamed  
of making himself pass for an           
incarnation of  ,god is a matter about  
which no doubt can exist4 ,such an idea 
was  entirely foreign to the ,jewish    
mind4 ,he believed himself to be more   
than  an ordinary man1 but separated by 
an infinite distance from ,god4 ,he was 
the ,son of ,god1 but all men are1 or   
may become so in divers degrees4  ,jesus
 apparently remained a stranger to the  
theological subtleties which  were soon 
to fill the world with sterile          
disputations4      ,,time-,,worm        

,,proofs      ,two means of             
proof--miracles and the accomplishment  
of prophecies--could  alone establish a 
supernatural mission in the opinion of  
the  contemporaries of ,jesus4 ,he      
himself1 but more especially his        
disciples1  employed these two methods  
of demonstration in perfect good faith4 
,for a  long time ,jesus had recognised 
himself in the sacred oracles of the    
prophets4 ,as to miracles1 they were    
considered at this epoch the            
indispensable mark of the divine1 and   
the sign of the prophetic  vocation4    
,jesus1 therefore1 was compelled either 
to renounce his mission  or become a    
thaumaturgist4 ,it must be remembered   
that not only did he  believe in        
miracles1 but he had not the least idea 
of an order of nature  under the reign  
of law4 ,on that point1 his knowledge   
was in no way  superior to that of his  
contemporaries4 ,indeed1 one of his most
  deeply-rooted opinions was that by    
faith and prayer man had entire power   

over nature4 ,almost all the miracles   
,jesus believed he performed seem to    
have been miracles of healing4 ,the kind
 of healing which he most often         
practised was exorcism1 or the expulsion
 of demons4 ,there can be no  doubt that
 he had in his lifetime the reputation  
of possessing the  greatest secrets of  
the art4 ,there were many lunatics in   
,judaea  wandering at large1 and no     
doubt ,jesus had great influence over   
these  unhappy beings4 ,circumstances   
seem to indicate that he became a       
thaumaturgist late in life and against  
his own inclinations4 ,he accepted      
miracles exacted by public opinion      
rather than performed them4      ,,the  
,,new ,,kingdom ,,of ,,god      ,during 
the eighteen months between the return  
from the ,passover of the  year #ca and 
his journey to the feast of tabernacles 
in the year #cb1 all  that was within   
,jesus developed with an ever-increasing
 degree of power  and audacity4 ,the    
fundamental idea of ,jesus from his     

earliest days was  the establishment of 
the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,this kingdom he  
appears to have  understood in divers   
senses4 ,at times it is the literal     
consummation of  apocalyptic visions    
relating to the ,messiah4 ,at other     
times it is the  spiritual kingdom1 and 
the deliverance at hand is the          
deliverance of the  soul4 ,the          
revolution desired by ,jesus in this    
last sense is the one  which has really 
taken place4 ,that the coming of the end
 of the world  and the appearance of the
 ,messiah in judgment was taken         
literally by the  disciples1 and at     
certain moments by the ,master himself1 
appears  absolutely clear4 ,these formal
 declarations absorbed the minds of the 
,christian family for nearly seventy    
years4 ,the world has not ended1 as     
,jesus announced1 and as his disciples  
believed it would end4 ,but it has  been
 renewed and in one sense renewed as    
,jesus desired4 ,by the side of  the    
false1 cold1 impossible idea of an      

ostentatious advent1 he conceived  the  
real ,city of ,god1 the raising up of   
the weak1 the love of the  people1      
esteem for the poor1 and the restoration
 of all that is humble  and true and    
simple4 ,this restoration he has        
depicted1 as an  incomparable artist1 in
 touches which will last for eternity4  
,his  ,kingdom of ,god was doubtless the
 apocalypse which was soon to be        
unfolded in the heavens4 ,but besides   
this1 and probably above all1 was  the  
soul's kingdom1 founded on freedom1 and 
on the feeling of sonship  which the    
good man knows in his rest on the bosom 
of his ,father4 ,this is  what was      
destined to live4 ,this is what has     
lived4      ,,the ,,clash ,,of ,,old    
,,and ,,new      ,throughout the first  
epoch of his career1 it seems as though 
,jesus met  with no serious opposition2 
but when he entered upon a path         
brilliant  with public successes the    
first mutterings of the storm began to  
make  themselves heard4 ,he recognised  

only the religion of the heart1 while   
the religion of the ,pharisees almost   
exclusively consisted of  observances4  
,as his mission proceeded1 his conflicts
 with official  hypocrisy became        
incessant4 ,his goal was in the future1 
not in the past4  ,he was more than the 
reformer of an obsolete religion2 he was
 the  creator of the eternal religion of
 humanity4 ,a hatred which death alone  
could satisfy was the consequence of    
these controversies4 ,the war was to    
the death4 ,judaea drew him as by a     
charm2 he wished to attempt one last    
effort to win the rebellious city1 and  
seemed anxious to fulfil the  proverb   
that a prophet ought not to die outside 
,jerusalem4    ,at the feast of         
tabernacles in the year #cb1 his        
relatives1 always  malevolent and       
sceptical1 pressed him to go there4 ,he 
set out on the  journey unknown to every
 one and almost alone1 and never again  
saw his  beloved northern land4    ,in  
,jerusalem1 ,jesus was a stranger4      

,there he felt a wall of resistance  he 
could not penetrate4 ,at every step he  
met with obstinate scepticism4  ,the    
arrogance of the priests made the courts
 of the ,temple disagreeable  to him1   
and his criticisms naturally exasperated
 the sacerdotal caste4  ,imagine a      
reformer going1 in our own time1 to     
preach the overthrow of  ,islamism round
 the ,mosque of ,omar6 ,his teaching in 
this new world was  greatly modified2 he
 had to become controversialist1 jurist1
 theologian1  though when alone with his
 disciples his gentle and irresistible  
genius  inspired him with accents full  
of tenderness4      ,,approaching ,,the 
,,crisis      ,jesus spent the autumn   
and part of the winter in ,jerusalem4   
,in the new  year he undertook a journey
 to the banks of the ,jordan1 the       
district he  had visited when he        
followed the school of ,john4 ,after    
this pilgrimage  he returned to         
,bethany1 a place he especially loved1  
and where he knew a  family whose       

friendship had a great charm for him4   
,in impure and  depressing ,jerusalem1  
,jesus was no longer himself4 ,his      
mission weighed  him down1 and he let   
himself be carried away by the torrent4 
,the  contrast between his              
ever-increasing exaltation and the      
indifference of  the ,jews became wider 
day by day4 ,at the same time the public
  authorities began to be bitter against
 him4 ,in ,february1 or early in        
,march1 the council of the chief priests
 asked clearly the question ,can  ,jesus
 and ,judaism exist together8 ,the ,high
 ,priest was ,joseph ,kaiapha1  but     
beside and behind him we always see     
another man1 ,hanan1 his  father-in-law4
 ,he had been ,high ,priest1 and in     
reality kept all the  authority of the  
office4 ,during fifty years the         
pontificate remained in  his family     
almost without interruption4 ,the family
 spirit was haughty1  bold1 and cruel4  
,it was ,hanan1 his family1 and the     
party he represented1  who really put   

,jesus to death4 ,after the death of    
,jesus was decided1 he  escaped for a   
short time by withdrawing to an obscure 
town1 ,ephron1 and  letting the storm   
pass over2 but when the feast of the    
,passover drew  nigh1 he set out to see 
for the last time the unbelieving city4 
,his  followers all believed that the   
,kingdom of ,god was about to be        
realised  there4 ,as to ,jesus1 he grew 
confirmed in the conviction that he was 
about to die1 but that his death would  
save the world4    ,during these last   
days a deep sadness appears to have     
filled the soul of  ,jesus1 which was   
generally so joyous and serene4 ,the    
enormous weight of  the mission he had  
accepted bore cruelly upon him4 ,all    
these inward  troubles were evidently a 
sealed chapter to his disciples4 ,his   
divine  nature1 however1 soon gained the
 supremacy1 and henceforth we behold him
  entirely himself and with his         
character unclouded4 ,each moment of    
this  period is solemn1 and counts more 

than whole ages in the history of       
humanity4 ,a lofty feeling of love1 of  
concord1 of charity1 and of mutual      
deference1 animated the memories        
cherished of these last hours4          
,,victory ,,through ,,defeat      ,it   
was in the garden of ,gethsemane that   
the guards of the ,temple1  supported by
 a detachment of ,roman soldiers1       
executed the warrant of  arrest4 ,the   
course which the priests had determined 
to take against  ,jesus was in perfect  
conformity with the established law4    
,the warrant of  arrest probably came   
from ,hanan1 and before this powerful   
man ,jesus was  first brought for       
examination as to his doctrine4 ,jesus1 
with just  pride1 declined to enter into
 long explanations--he asked the ex-high
  priest to question those who had      
listened to him4 ,hanan then sent him to
  his son-in-law1 ,kaiapha1 at whose    
house the ,sanhedrim was assembled4 ,it 
is probable that here1 too1 he kept     
silence4 ,the sentence was already      

decided1 and they only sought for       
pretexts4 ,with one voice the assembly  
declared him guilty of a capital crime4 
,the point now was to get ,pilate  to   
ratify the sentence4 ,on being informed 
of the accusation1 ,pilate  showed his  
annoyance at being mixed up in the      
matter1 and called upon to  play a cruel
 part for the sake of a law he detested4
 ,perhaps the  dignified and calm       
attitude of the accused made an         
impression upon him4  ,to excite the    
suspicion of the ,roman authorities1 the
 charges now made  were those of        
sedition and treason against the        
government4 ,nothing could  be more     
unjust1 for ,jesus had always recognised
 the ,roman government as  the          
established power4 ,asked by ,pilate if 
he really were the king of the  ,jews1  
,jesus1 according to the fourth gospel1 
avowed his kingship1 but  uttered at the
 same time the profound saying1 ,my     
kingdom is not of this  world4 ,of this 
lofty idealism ,pilate understood       

nothing4 ,no doubt ,jesus  impressed him
 as being a harmless dreamer4 ,when1    
however1 the people  began to denounce  
,pilate's lack of zeal1 in protecting an
 enemy of  ,caesar1 he surrendered1     
throwing on the ,jews the responsibility
 for what  was about to take place4 ,it 
was not ,pilate who condemned ,jesus4   
,it was  the old ,jewish party2 it was  
the ,mosaic law4 ,intolerance is a      
,jewish  characteristic4 ,the           
,pentateuch has been the first code of  
religious  terrorism in the world4 ,it  
was1 however1 the chimerical ,king of   
the  ,jews1 not the heteradox dogmatist1
 who was punished1 and the execution    
took the ,roman form of crucifixion1    
carried out by ,roman soldiers4    ,the 
horrors of that ignominious death were  
suffered by ,jesus in all  their        
atrocity4 ,for a moment1 according to   
certain narratives1 his heart  failed   
him2 a cloud hid from him the face of   
his ,father2 he endured an  agony of    
despair more acute a thousand times than

 all his torments4 ,but  his divine     
instinct again sustained him4 ,in       
measure as the life of the  body        
flickered out1 his soul grew serene1 and
 by degrees returned to its  heavenly   
source4 ,he regained the idea of his    
mission1 in his death he  saw the       
salvation of the world2 the hideous     
spectacle spread at his feet  melted    
from his sight1 and profoundly united to
 his ,father1 he began  upon the gibbet 
the divine life which he was to live in 
the heart of  humanity through infinite 
years4    ,rest now in thy glory1 noble 
pioneer6 ,thy work is achieved1 thy     
divinity  established4 ,at the price of 
a few hours of suffering1 which have not
  even touched thy mighty soul1 thou    
hast purchased the fullest  immortality4
 ,for thousands of years the world will 
depend upon thee6 ,a  thousand times    
more alive1 a thousand times more loved 
since thy death  than during the days of
 thy pilgrimage here below1 thou shalt  
become so  truly the cornerstone of     

humanity that to tear thy name from this
 world  were to shake it to its         
foundations4    ,whatever the unexpected
 phenomena of the future1 ,jesus will   
never be  surpassed4 ,his worship will  
constantly renew its youth2 the legend  
of  his life will bring ceaseless tears2
 his sufferings will soften the best    
hearts2 all the ages will proclaim that 
amongst the sons of men none has  been  
born who is greater than ,jesus4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,,emanuel ,,swedenborg      ,,heaven    
,,and ,,hell           ,emanuel         
,swedenborg1 author of a strange system 
of mystical       theology1 was of      
,swedish nationality and was born at    
,stockholm       on ,january #bi1 #afhh4
 ,he was educated at ,upsala1 and after 
travelling for several years in ,western
 ,europe was appointed       to a post  
in the ,swedish ,college of ,mines4     
,thenceforth1 until       he was #ee    
years of age1 ,swedenborg pursued1 with 
equal       industry and ingenuity1 the 

career of a man of science1 doing       
valuable work in mathematics1 astronomy1
 navigation1       engineering1         
chemistry1 and especially in mining and 
metallurgy4 ,these inquiries were       
followed by studies in       philosophy 
and anatomy and physiology4 ,but about  
the year #agdd       certain visions and
 other mystical experiences began to    
take       hold of his mind1 and three  
years later ,swedenborg had come to     
regard himself as the medium of a new   
revelation of divine       truth4 ,his  
message1 or theory1 or vision1 was first
       promulgated in the eight quarto  
volumes of the ,heavenly       ,arcana1 
published in ,london from #agdi to      
#agef1 and this was       followed by   
,heaven and ,hell1 #ageh1 the work now  
before us1       the full title of which
 is ,heaven and ,its ,wonders1 the      
,world       of ,spirits1 and ,hell3    
described by one who had heard and seen 
what he relates1 and several other      
apocalyptic books1 all of       which   

were written in ,latin4 ,the main       
features of ,swedenborg's       theology
 were a strong emphasis on the divinity 
of ,christ1 the       proclamation of   
the immediate advent of the ,new        
,jerusalem1       foretold by the seer  
of ,patmos1 and the conception of       
correspondences between the natural1    
spiritual1 and mental       worlds4 ,his
 followers1 known as ,swedenborgians1 or
 more       properly as ,the ,new       
,church signified by the ,new ,jerusalem
 in       the ,revelation1 are widely   
spread but not very numerous1 in        
,england and in the ,united ,states4    
,swedenborg died in ,london on          
,march #bi1 #aggb4      ,i4--,,of       
,,heaven      ,the first thing necessary
 to be known is1 who is the ,god of     
heaven2 for  everything else depends on 
this4 ,in the universal heaven1 no other
 is  acknowledged for its ,god1 but the 
,lord ,alone2 they say there1 as ,he    
,himself taught1 that ,he is ,one with  
the ,father2 that the ,father is in     

,him1 and ,he in the ,father2 that      
whosoever seeth ,him1 seeth the ,father2
  and that everything holy proceeds from
 ,him4 ,i have often conversed with  the
 angels on this subject1 and they       
constantly declared that they are       
unable to divide the ,divine ,being into
 three1 because they know and  perceive 
that the ,divine ,being is one1 and that
 ,he is ,one in the ,lord4    ,the      
angels1 taken collectively1 are called  
heaven1 because they compose  it3 but   
still it is the ,divine ,sphere         
proceeding from the ,lord1 which  enters
 the angels by influx1 and is by them   
received1 which essentially  constitutes
 it1 both in general and in particular4 
,the ,divine ,sphere  proceeding from   
the ,lord is the good of love and the   
truth of faith3 in  proportion1         
therefore1 as the angels receive good   
and truth from the  ,lord1 so far they  
are angels1 and so far they are heaven4 
,as in heaven there are infinite        
varieties1 and no society is exactly    

like another1 nor indeed any angel1     
therefore heaven is divided in a        
general1 in a specific1 and in a        
particular manner4 ,it is divided1 in   
general1 into two kingdoms1             
specifically1 into three heavens1 and in
  particular1 into innumerable          
societies4    ,there are angels who     
receive the ,divine ,sphere proceeding  
from the ,lord  more and less           
interiorly4 ,they who receive it more   
interiorly are called  celestial angels2
 but they who receive it less interiorly
 are called  spiritual angels4 ,hence1  
heaven is divided into two kingdoms1 one
 of  which is called the ,celestial     
,kingdom1 and the other1 the ,spiritual 
,kingdom4    ,the angels of each heaven 
do not dwell all together in one place1 
but  are divided into larger and smaller
 societies1 according to the  difference
 of the good of love and faith in which 
they are grounded2  those who are       
grounded in similar good forming one    
society4 ,there is an  infinite variety 

of kinds of good in the heavens2 and    
every angel is  such in quality as is   
the good belonging to him4    ,that     
heaven1 viewed collectively1 is in form 
as one man1 is a mystery  which is not  
yet known to the world3 but it is well  
known in the  heavens2 for the knowledge
 of this mystery1 with the particular   
and most  particular circumstances      
relating to it1 is the chief article of 
the  intelligence of the angels2 since  
many other things depend upon it1       
which1 without a knowledge of this as   
their common centre1 could not  possibly
 enter distinctly and clearly into their
 ideas4 ,as they know  that all the     
heavens together with their societies   
are in form as one  man1 they also call 
heaven ,,the ,,grand ,,and ,,divine     
,,man2 divine1 because the  ,divine     
,sphere of the ,lord constitutes heaven4
    ,from my experience1 which ,i have  
enjoyed for many years1 ,i can affirm   
that angels are in every respect men2   
that they have faces1 eyes1 ears1  a    

body1 arms1 hands1 and that they see1   
hear1 and converse with each  other2 in 
short they are deficient in nothing that
 belongs to a man  except that they are 
not super-invested with a material body4
    ,their habitations are exactly like 
our houses on earth1 but more           
beautiful4 ,they contain chambers1      
with-drawing-rooms1 and bed-chambers1   
in great numbers1 and are encompassed   
with gardens and flower-beds4  ,where   
the angels live together in societies   
the habitations are  contiguous1 and    
arranged in the form of a city1 with    
streets1 squares1  and churches4 ,it has
 also been granted to me to walk through
 them1 and  to look about on all sides1 
and occasionally to enter the houses4   
,this  occurred to me when wide awake1  
my interior sight being open at the     
time4    ,that it is by derelation from 
the ,lord's ,divine ,humanity that      
heaven1  both in whole and in parts1 is 
in form as a man1 follows as a          
conclusion  from all that has been      

advanced4    ,there is a correspondence 
between all things belonging to heaven  
and all  things belonging to man4 ,it is
 unknown at this day what correspondence
  is4 ,this ignorance is owing to       
various causes2 the chief of which is1  
that man has removed himself from       
heaven1 through cherishing the love of  
self and of the world4 ,for he that     
supremely loves himself and the world   
cares only for worldly things1 because  
they soothe the external senses  and are
 agreeable to his natural disposition2  
but has no concern about  spiritual     
things1 because these only soothe the   
internal senses and are  agreeable to   
the internal or rational mind4 ,these1  
therefore1 they cast  aside1 saying that
 they are too high for man's            
comprehension4 ,not so did  the         
ancients4 ,with them the science of     
correspondences was the chief of  all   
sciences3 by means of its discoveries1  
also1 they imbibed  intelligence and    
wisdom1 and such of them as belonged to 

the church had  by it communication with
 heaven2 for the science of             
correspondences is  the science of      
angels4    ,it shall first be stated    
what correspondence is4 ,the whole      
natural world  corresponds to the       
spiritual world2 and not only the       
natural world  collectively1 but also in
 its individual parts3 wherefore every  
object  in the natural world1 existing  
from something in the spiritual world1  
is  called its correspondent4 ,the      
natural world exists and subsists from  
the  spiritual world1 just as the effect
 exists from the efficient cause4       
,since man is both a heaven and a world 
in miniature1 he has belonging to  him  
both a spiritual world and a natural    
world4 ,the interiors1 which  belong to 
his mind1 and have relation to his      
understanding and will1  constitute his 
spiritual world2 but his exteriors1     
which belong to his  body1 and have     
reference to its senses and actions1    
constitute his  natural world4    ,the  

nature of correspondence may be seen    
from the face of man4 ,in a  countenance
 which has not been taught to dissemble1
 all the affections  of the mind display
 themselves vividly1 in a natural form1 
as in their  type2 whence the face is   
called the index of the mind4 ,thus     
man's  spiritual world shows itself in  
its natural world4 ,all things1         
therefore1 which take effect in the     
body1 whether in the countenance1  the  
speech1 or the gestures1 are called     
correspondences4    ,the angels rejoice 
that it has pleased the ,lord to reveal 
many  particulars to mankind4 ,they     
desire me to state from their lips1 that
  there does not exist1 in the universal
 heaven1 a single angel who was  created
 such from the first1 nor any devil in  
hell who was created an  angel of light 
and afterwards cast down thither2 but   
that all the  inhabitants1 both of      
heaven and of hell1 are derived from the
 human  race2 the inhabitants of heaven 
being those who had lived in heavenly   

love and faith1 and those of hell who   
had lived in infernal love and  faith4  
,,ii--,,of ,,the ,,world ,,of ,,spirits 
,the world of spirits is not heaven nor 
yet hell1 but is a place or state       
intermediate between the two4 ,thither  
man goes after death2 and having        
completed the period of his stay there1 
according to his life in the  world he  
is either elevated into heaven or cast  
into hell4    ,the world of spirits     
contains a great number of inhabitants1 
because it  is the region in which all  
first assemble1 and where all are       
examined  and are prepared for their    
final abode4 ,their stay there is not   
limited  to any fixed period3 some do   
but just enter it1 and are presently    
either  taken up to heaven or cast down 
to hell3 some remain there only a few   
weeks2 and some for several years1 but  
never more than thirty4 ,the  varieties 
in the length of their stay depend upon 
the correspondence1 or                  
noncorrespondence between their         

interiors and their exteriors4    ,as   
men enter the world of spirits1 they are
 distinguished by the ,lord  into       
classes4 ,the wicked are immediately    
connected by invisible bonds  with the  
society of hell1 and the good1 in a     
similar way1 with the  society of       
heaven1 but notwithstanding these bonds1
 they meet and  converse together4 ,i   
saw a father conversing with his six    
sons1 all of  whom he recognised2 but as
 they were different in disposition1    
resulting  from their course of life in 
the world1 after a short time they were 
parted4    ,the spirit of a man1 when   
first he enters the world of spirits1 is
  similar in countenance and in the tone
 of his voice to what he was in  the    
world4 ,the reason is1 because he is    
then in the state of his  exteriors and 
his interiors are not yet laid open4    
,this is the first  state of man after  
death4 ,but afterwards his countenance  
is changed2  being rendered similar to  
his governing affection or love1 which  

is that  in which the interiors         
belonging to his mind had been grounded 
while in  the world1 and which had      
reigned in his spirit while this was in 
the  body4 ,for the face of a man's     
spirit differs exceedingly from that of 
his body2 the face of his body being    
derived from his parents1 but that  of  
his spirit from his affection1 of which 
it is the image4    ,that his own life  
remains with everyone after death is    
known to every  ,christian from the     
,word4 ,everyone1 also1 who thinks under
 the influence  of good and of real     
truth1 has no other idea than that he   
who has lived  well will go to heaven1  
and he who has lived ill will go to     
hell4    ,but by deeds and works are not
 merely meant deeds and works as they   
appear in their external form1 but as   
they appear internally4 ,everyone       
knows1 that every deed or work proceeds 
from the will and thought of the  doer2 
for otherwise they would be mere        
motions1 such as are performed by       

automatons and images4 ,the deed or     
work1 then1 viewed in itself1 is        
nothing but an effect1 which derives its
 soul and life from the will and        
thought from which it is performed2 and 
so completely is this the case  that the
 deed or work is the will and thought in
 their effect1 and is1  consequently1   
the will and thought in their external  
form4 ,it hence  follows1 that such as  
are1 in quality1 the will and thought   
which  produce the deed or work1 such1  
also1 is the deed or work itself2 and   
that if the thought and will are good   
the deeds or works are good2 and  if the
 thought and will are evil the deeds and
 works are evil1  notwithstanding in    
their external form they appear like the
 former4    ,to sum up the truths       
concerning man's state after death1 ,i  
will say1  first3 that man1 after death1
 is his own love1 or his own will2      
secondly3 that1 in quality1 man remains 
to eternity1 such as he is with  respect
 to his will or governing love2 thirdly3

 that the man whose love  is celestial  
and spiritual goes to heaven1 but that  
the man whose love  is corporeal and    
worldly1 destitute of such as is        
celestial and  spiritual1 goes to hell2 
fourthly3 that faith does not remain    
with man1  if not grounded in heavenly  
love2 fifthly3 that what remains with   
man is  love in act1 consequently his   
life4      ,,iii4--,,of ,,hell          
,when treating above respecting heaven1 
it has everywhere been shown1  that the 
,lord is the ,god of heaven1 and thus   
that the whole government  of the       
heavens is that of the ,lord4 ,now as   
the relation which heaven  bears to     
hell1 and that which hell bears to      
heaven1 is such as exists  between two  
opposites1 which mutually act against   
each other1 and the  result of whose    
action and reaction is a state of       
equilibrium1 in which  all things may   
subsist1 therefore1 in order that all   
and everything  should be maintained in 
equilibrium1 it is necessary that he who

 governs  the one should also govern the
 other4 ,for unless the same ruler were 
to  restrain the assaults made by the   
hells1 and to keep down the insanities  
which rage in them1 the equilibrium     
would be destroyed1 and with it the     
whole universe4    ,it is this spiritual
 equilibrium that causes man to enjoy   
freedom in  thinking and willing4 ,for  
whatever a man thinks and wills has     
reference  either to evil and the       
falsity proceeding from it1 or to good  
and the  truth which comes from that    
source3 consequently1 when he is placed 
in  that equilibrium he enjoys the      
liberty of either1 admitting and        
receiving evil and its falsity from     
hell1 or good in its truth from  heaven4
 ,every man is maintained in this       
equilibrium by the ,lord1 because  he   
governs both--heaven as well as hell4   
,hell1 like heaven1 is divided into     
societies2 and every society in  heaven 
has a society opposite to it in hell2   
which is provided for the  preservation 

of the equilibrium4    ,it is by        
influence from hell that man does evil1 
and by influence from  the ,lord that he
 does good4 ,but as man believes that   
whatever he does1  he does from himself1
 the consequence is that the evil which 
he does  adheres to him as his own4 ,it 
hence follows that the cause of his own 
evil lies with man1 and not at all with 
the ,lord4 ,evil as existing with  man  
is hell1 as existing with him3 for      
whether you say evil or hell1  amounts  
to the same thing4 ,now since the cause 
of his own evil lies with  man himself1 
it follows that it is he who casts      
himself into hell1 and  not the ,lord2  
and so far is the ,lord from leading man
 into hell1 that he  delivers from hell1
 so far as the man does not will and    
loves to abide  in his own evil4 ,but   
the whole of man's will and love remains
 with him  after death3 whoever wills   
and loves evil in the world1 wills and  
loves  the same evil in the other life2 
and he then no longer suffers himself   

to be withdrawn from it4 ,it hence      
results1 that the man who is immersed   
in evil is connected by invisible bonds 
with hell3 he is also actually  there as
 to his spirit2 and1 after death1 he    
desires nothing more  earnestly than to 
be where his evil is4    ,from an       
inspection of the monstrous forms       
belonging to the spirits in  the hells1 
it was made evident to me that they all1
 in general1 are  forms of self-love and
 the love of the world1 and that the    
evils1 of  which in particular they are 
the forms1 derive their origin from     
those  two loves4 ,it has also been told
 me from heaven1 and proved to me by    
much experimental evidence1 that those  
two loves--self-love and the love  of   
the world--reign in the hells and also  
constitute them2 whereas love  to the   
,lord and love towards the neighbour    
reign in the heavens and also           
constitute them3 and that the two former
 loves1 which are the loves of  hell1   
and the two latter1 which are the loves 

of heaven1 are  diametrically opposite  
to each other4    ,as by the fire of    
hell is to be understood all the lust of
 doing evil  flowing from self-love1 by 
the same is also meant torment1 such as 
exists in the hells4 ,for the lust      
flowing from that love is1 in those  who
 are inflamed by it1 the lust of doing  
injury to all who do not  honour1       
respect1 and pay court to them2 and in  
proportion to the anger  which they     
thence conceive against such            
individuals1 and to the hatred  and     
revenge inspired by such anger1 is their
 lust of committing outrages  against   
them4 ,now when such a lust rages in    
everyone in a society1 and  they have no
 external bond to keep them under       
restraint1 such as the  fear of the law1
 and of the loss of character1 of       
honour1 of gain1 and  of the like1      
everyone under the influence of his own 
evil attracts  another and1 so far as he
 is strong enough1 subjugates him1      
subjects the  rest to his own authority1

 and exercises ferocious outrages with  
delight  upon all who do not submit to  
him4 ,all the hells are societies of    
this  description3 on which account1    
every spirit1 and every society1        
cherishes hatred in his heart against   
every other1 and1 under the  influence  
of such hatred1 breaks out into savage  
outrages against him1  as far as he is  
able to inflict them4 ,these outrages1  
and the torments  so occasioned1 are    
also meant by hell fire2 for they are   
the effects of  the lusts which there   
prevail4    ,in order that man may be in
 a state of liberty1 as necessary to his
  being reformed1 he is connected1 as to
 his spirit1 with heaven and with  hell3
 for spirits from hell1 and angels from 
heaven1 are attendant on  every man4 ,by
 the spirits from hell1 man is held in  
his evil2 but by the  ,angels from      
heaven1 he is held in good by the ,lord4
    ,thus he is preserved in spiritual  
equilibrium1 that is1 in freedom or     
liberty4    ,the particulars which have 

been delivered in this work respecting  
heaven1 the world of spirits1 and hell1 
will appear obscure to those who  take  
no pleasure in acquiring a knowledge of 
spiritual truths2 but they  will appear 
clear to those who take pleasure in that
 acquirement2 and  especially those who 
cherish an affection of truth for its   
own  sake1--that is1 who love truth     
because it is truth4 ,for everything    
that  is loved enters with light into   
the ideas of the mind3 and this is      
eminently the case1 when that which is  
loved is truth3 for all truth  dwells in
 light4           99       99       99  
99       99        ,,the ,,talmud       
,the word ,talmud1 from the ,hebrew verb
 lamad1 equalling to       learn1       
denotes literally what-is-learning4     
,then it comes to       mean            
instruction1 teaching1 doctrine4 ,what  
is usually       called the ,talmud     
consists of two parts3 #a4 ,the ,mishnah
       7literally1 tradition and then   
traditional doctrine7 a       code of   

,jewish laws1 civil1 criminal1          
religious1 and so forth2       based    
ostensibly on the ,pentateuch1          
expounding1 applying1 and               
developing the laws contained in the    
so-called five books of       ,moses4   
#b4 ,the ,gemara1 a word which means    
literally       completion1 or          
supplement1 i4e41 in reference to the   
,mishnah4 ,some1 however1 explain the   
word as meaning       teaching4 ,the    
word is used technically to denote the  
expansion1 exposition1 and illustration 
of the ,mishnah which       is found in 
the ,talmud4 ,strictly speaking1 the    
word ,talmud       denotes the ,gemara  
only1 but in its ordinary sense the word
       denotes the ,mishnah together    
with its completion in the              
,gemara4 ,in the ,talmud itself1 as     
usually printed1 the section       of   
the ,mishnah to be commented on and     
illustrated is followed       by the    
,gemara in which the opinions of the    
great ,rabbi are       stated and       

discussed4         ,as in the case of   
the ,mishnah1 so1 also1 the ,talmud has 
six       principal divisions3 these    
will be followed in the subsequent      
epitomes and need not1 therefore1 be    
given here4 ,there are two              
versions or forms of the ,talmud3 #a4   
,the ,babylonian1 or that       due to  
the studies and discussions of the      
,jewish doctors in       the various    
,hebrew colleges of ,babylon 7,sura1    
,pumbaditha1 and       so forth73 in    
this the ,gemara is some ten times as   
large as       the ,mishnah4 ,when we   
speak of the ,talmud it is that of      
,babylon       which is always meant4   
,its language is ,eastern ,aramaic4 #b4 
,the       ,palestinian ,talmud1        
compiled and edited by the heads of the 
,hebrew schools in ,palestine1          
,tiberius1 ,sepphoris1 and so           
forth4 ,its language is ,western        
,aramaic1 and its final editor       is 
said to be ,rabbi ,ashe1 who died ,a4,d4
 #dbg4 ,this is often       erroneously 

called the ,jerusalem ,talmud4 ,in its  
present form       it is only about     
one-fourth as large as the ,babylonian  
,talmud4       ,the latter discusses    
nearly every section of the ,mishnah1   
whereas the ,palestine ,talmud passes by
 a large proportion of       the        
,mishnah without note or comment4 ,that 
is1 however1 because       much of this 
latter ,talmud has been lost1 for1 in   
the time of       ,maimonides 7died at  
,cairo ,a4,d4 #abjd7 the ,gemara of the 
,jerusalem ,talmud discussed nearly     
every part of the ,mishnah4       ,the  
,mishnah is usually said to have been   
completed by ,rabbi       ,jehudah      
,hannasi1 or the ,prince 7,hannasi71    
called simply       ,rabbi by way of    
preeminence1 who died in ,a4,d4 #baj in 
his       sixtieth year4 ,but there are 
parts of the ,mishnah which are         
older1 and parts also at least a century
 later than the death       of that     
great scholar4 ,there is no absolute    
proof that the       ,mishnah was       

committed to writing until some time    
after the       completion of the       
,palestinian 7about ,a4,d4 #djj7 or even
 of the       ,babylonian 7about ,a4,d4 
#ejj7 ,talmud1 for1 in neither ,gemara  
is       there any reference to a       
written ,mishnah1 nor is a written      
form of the ,mishnah implied anywhere4  
,the preservation of this               
wonderful code of ,jewish laws was due  
to memory alone1 men       being        
appointed in the various synagogues to  
learn the       ,mishnaic sections and  
to recite them whenever it was          
necessary4 ,extracts will be given below
 from the ,mishnah and       also from  
the ,gemara1 the letters ,m and ,g      
preceding paragraphs       indicating   
which of the two is summarised4         
,,division ,i4--,,called ,,seeds        
,this part deals first of all with      
prayer1 and then most of all with the   
various tithes and donations which are  
due to the priests1 ,levites1 and  the  
poor1 from the products of the land4    

,,section ,i4 ,,treatise ,,on           
,,blessings 7,berakot74 ,the time for   
reading or  reciting the ,shemang4#cb   
,m4 ,at what time in the evening may    
shemang be read8 ,from the time when    
the priests1 having cleansed themselves1
 enter the sanctuary to partake  of the 
offering 7#b7 7i4e41 when the stars come
 out7 until the end of  the first watch 
7about #aj p4m474 ,so says ,rabbi       
,eliezar1 but otherwise  men extend the 
time until midnight4 ,rabbi ,gameliel   
makes the time reach  even to the dawn  
of the following day4 ,it happened once 
that his sons  returned home at midnight
 without having read the shemang4 ,on   
asking  their father if it was too late 
he replied that the obligation to       
perform the duties of each day is valid 
until the first light of morning  shows 
itself4      ,the morning ,shemang4     
,m4 ,from what time may the morning     
shemang be read8 ,from the moment  when 
there is light enough to distinguish    
between purple-blue and white4  ,rabbi  

,eliezar says between purple-blue and   
leek-green 7which are  harder to        
distinguish7 7#c74 ,up to when may the  
morning shemang be read8  ,until the sun
 has risen4 ,rabbi ,jose says until the 
end of the third  hour after sunrise1   
for it is the custom of kings' sons to  
rise in the  third hour of the day4 ,yet
 a good act1 such as shemang is1 never  
loses  its virtue whenever it is        
performed4      ,the attitude in which  
the shemang should be read4    ,m4 ,the 
7strict7 ,school of ,shammai say men    
ought to bow in reading the  evening    
shemang1 but to stand upright when      
saying shemang in the  morning1 their   
scripture warrant being ,deut4 vi1 #g1  
when thou liest  down and when thou     
risest up4 ,but according to 7the more  
liberal7  ,school of ,hillel1 people    
must be allowed to read the shemang in  
whatever  attitude they choose1         
referring to the words in the same      
passage3 ,when  thou sittest in thy     
house and when thou walkest in the way4 

,why then  the words when thou liest    
down and when thou risest up8 ,because  
these  are the acts that men perform    
when the shemang would be usually read4 
,rabbi ,tarphon said that once when     
journeying of an evening1 he stooped  in
 order to read the shemang1 with the    
result that his goods were almost  taken
 from him by unsuspected robbers4 ,he   
was told that he would have  deserved   
it1 had he been actually robbed1 for not
 having followed the  decision of the   
,hillel ,school4 ,the ,gemara on the    
above ,mishnahs gives  the opinions of a
 large number of ,rabbis1 reporting also
 discussions in  which they took part4  
,the benedictions before and after the  
,shemang4    ,m4 ,two benedictions 7#d7 
are to be said before the morning       
shemang1 and  one after it4      ,when  
the ,shemang is rightly read4    ,m4 ,he
 who reads the shemang without hearing  
his own voice has yet  discharged his   
duty if only his heart has gone with the
 reading4      ,persons not to read the 

,shemang3    ,women1 slaves1 and minors 
are not commanded to read the ,shemang1 
or to  wear phylacteries4 ,they are1    
however1 expected to recite the eighteen
  benedictions1 the grace after meat1   
and also to see that the ,mezuza is     
attached to the doorpost4#cc4      ,g4  
,where are we taught that the ,shechinah
 rests upon one who studies  the law8   
,in ,exodus xx1 #bd1 where it is        
written3 ,in all places where ,i  record
 my name ,i will come unto thee1 and ,i 
will bless thee4 ,the  ,palestine       
,talmud paraphrases thus3 ,in every     
place in which ye shall  memorialise ,my
 holy name1 ,my word shall be revealed  
unto you1 and  shall bless you4 ,hear1  
,o ,israel1 ,jehovah our ,god1 even     
,jehovah is  one4 ,deut4 vi1 #d4        
,whoever prolongs the utterance of the  
word one 7,heb4  ekhad71 his days and   
years shall be prolonged4    ,once1 the 
,rabbis say1 the ,roman government      
decreed that no ,israelite  should be   
allowed to study the ,law4 ,immediately 

after1 ,rabbi ,agiba was  found teaching
 the ,law to crowds of people who had   
gathered around him4  ,some one passing 
by asked him ,fearest thou not the      
,roman government8  ,to which he said1  
,i will answer by a parable3 ,a fox was 
once walking by  a river side when he   
saw the fish rushing distractedly hither
 and  thither4 ,on asking them the cause
 of all their perturbation1 they        
replied3 ',we are afraid of the nets    
which wicked men are ever setting to    
catch us4' ',why1 then1' said the fox1  
'do you not leave that dangerous        
element and try the dry land with me8'  
',surely1' replied the fish1 'thou  art 
in this most foolish and unfoxlike1 for 
if it is dangerous for us to  dwell in  
this1 our native element1 how much more 
would it be if we left  it for the dry  
land8' ,so1 continued ,agiba1 all those 
who study the ,law  have the ,divine    
,promise1 ,deut4 xxx1 #bj3 ,he is thy   
life and the length  of thy days4       
,,division ,,ii--,,feasts 7,,mong,d7    

contains directions for observing the   
festivals1 including the ,sabbath4  ,the
 aim in all is professedly to make      
explicit what is implicit in the        
,pentateuch4 ,but many late ideas and   
customs are brought into this  division1
 of which the ,pentateuch knows nothing4
 ,even the feast of ,purim  mentioned   
here it quite unmencioned in the        
,pentateuch4      #a4 ,,treatise ,,on   
,,the ,,sabbath4 ,law regarding transfer
 of goods on the  ,sabbath4    ,m4 ,it  
is commanded in ,exodus xvi1 #bi1 that  
no man go out of his place  on the      
,sabbath day4 ,this implies that no one 
is to take goods from his  own premises 
to those of another47#f74 ,what1        
however1 constitutes one's  own         
premises8 7,reshut74 ,there are many    
cases to be considered4 ,suppose  a     
beggar stand outside and the master of  
the house inside4 ,if the first  reaches
 his hand through a window or door to   
the second1 or takes  something out of  
the hand of the latter1 the beggar is   

guilty1 but the  master is absolved4    
,if1 on the other hand1 the master puts 
his hand  outside the house1 and places 
something in the beggar's hands1 he is  
guilty1 but the beggar is absolved4     
,there are in all four cases treating of
 the man inside and four of the  man    
outside4    ,g4 ,rabbi ,mathra said to  
,abazi1 ,there are eight or even ten    
cases of  transfer4 ,rab questioned     
,rabbi1 ,suppose one from the outside   
were  laden in the house with food1     
fruit1 etc4 ,how stands the law8 ,is the
  removal of his body tantamount to the 
removal of a thing from its  place8     
,yes1 said ,rabbi2 this is not like the 
case of removing the  hand1 because the 
latter was not at rest1 while in the    
former1 the body1  before and after     
removal1 was entirely at rest4 ,suppose1
 said one  ,rabbi to another1 that a    
person has put bread into an oven and it
 is  not done by the time the ,sabbath  
begins4 ,may he take it out before it is
  spoiled8 ,he may lawfully do so if he 

put it there1 believing it would  be    
fully baked before the ,sabbath arrived4
      ,acts forbidden on ,sabbath eve4  
,m4 ,just before the time of ,sabbath   
evening prayer 7#g71 a man is not       
allowed to sit to a barber1 to enter a  
bath1 a tanyard1 to sit to a  meal1 or  
to begin to act as judge in a ,law      
,court4 ,he must first of all  perform  
his devotions4 ,but supposing that one  
has commenced any one of  these acts1   
then let them be finished4    ,g4 ,a man
 begins the act of haircutting when the 
barber's cloth is  spread over him4     
,bathing has begun if the outer coat has
 been pulled  off4 ,a man has commenced 
to tan if his working apron has been    
tied  around him4 ,a meal begins when   
the hands are washed or 7as some say7   
when the girdle has been removed4 ,the  
process of judging has begun when  the  
judges have donned their professional   
robes1 or 7as some have it7  directly   
the litigants begin pleading4      ,the 
,jew and a non-,jew4    ,m4 ,the school 

of ,shammai forbids a ,jew to sell      
anything to a non-,jew  on the ,sabbath 
eve1 or to help him with a load unless  
the ,jew can reach  some neighbouring   
village before the ,sabbath fully sets  
in4 ,the ,school  of ,hillel1 however1  
allows it4      ,miscellaneous          
prohibitions4    ,m4 ,a tailor must not 
go out on the ,sabbath eve with his     
needle1 lest  he forget it and carry it 
during the ,sabbath4 ,nor must the      
professional  writer 7scribe7 go out    
with his writing reed on the ,sabbath   
eve4  ,according to the ,school of      
,shammai it is unlawful on the ,sabbath 
eve to  deliver skins to a heathen      
tanner1 or clothes to be washed to a    
non-,jewish laundress1 unless there be  
time enough for them to be got  quite   
ready before the ,sabbath begins4 ,but  
the ,school of ,hillel allowed  perfect 
freedom in the matter4 ,rabbi ,simeon   
ben ,gemaliel says1 it was  the custom  
in my parental home to hand over to the 
non-,jewish laundress  things to be     

washed1 three days before the ,sabbath4 
,it is forbidden to  fry meat1 onions1  
or eggs1 on the ,sabbath eve1 unless    
they can be  completely cooked before   
the ,sabbath begins4 ,bread must not be 
put into  the oven1 nor cakes on the    
coal1 unless there is time before the   
,sabbath  comes in for the surface to   
become encrusted4      ,concerning the  
,sabbath lamp4#cd4    ,m4 ,wherewith may
 one light the ,sabbath lamp8 ,not with 
wicks made with  cedar moss1 or raw     
flax1 or silk fibre1 or weeds growing in
 water1 or  ship moss4 ,nor shall pitch1
 wax1 cottonseed oil1 or oil of rejected
  offerings1 or oil from sheeptail fat1 
be used for these lamps4    ,g4 ,the    
,rabbis allowed the aforementioned      
ingredients to be used for  the ,sabbath
 fires1 though not for the ,sabbath     
lamps4 ,why are wicks made  of the above
 materials prohibited8 ,because they    
give but a flickering  light4 ,the oily 
substances mentioned are forbidden      
because they do not  adhere to the wick4

      ,about extinguishing the ,sabbath 
lamp4    ,m4 ,he who extinguishes the   
,sabbath lamp for fear of non-,jews or  
robbers or of evil spirits1 or in order 
that the sick may sleep1 is free  from  
guilt4 ,but if the object is merely to  
save expense the lamp  extinguisher     
stands condemned4      ,three things to 
say on the ,sabbath eve4    ,m4 ,i4     
,have ye tithed the food to be eaten on 
the    ,sabbath8 #b4 ,have ye made the  
erub8 #c4 ,light ye the ,sabbath lamp4  
,man's two ,sabbath angels4    ,g4 ,as  
he returns home from the ,synagogue on  
the ,sabbath eve1 every man  is         
accompanied by two angels1 one good1 the
 other evil4 ,if1 on coming  home1 the  
man finds the lamp lit1 the tables      
spread1 and everything in  order1 the   
good angel says1 ,may the coming        
,sabbath be as this present  one4 ,to   
which the evil angel is compelled       
reluctantly to respond  ,amen4 ,but if  
everything be in disorder the bad angel 
says1 ,may the  coming ,sabbath be as   

the present one4 ,to which the good     
angel is  obliged reluctantly to        
respond1 ,amen4      ,the overturning of
 ,mount ,sinai4 7#i74    ,g4 ,when the  
,israelites refused to believe the words
 of ,moses after he  had returned from  
the mountain1 the ,holy ,one1 blessed be
 ,he1 inverted  the mountain above them 
like a top1 and said unto them1 ,if ye  
receive  the ,law1 well1 but if not1    
your graves shall be here4      ,lucky  
and unlucky birthdays4    ,g4 ,rabbi    
,simon ben ,levi said that whoever is   
born on the first day of  the week      
7,sunday7 will be either thoroughly good
 or thoroughly bad1  because on that day
 light and darkness were created4 ,if on
 the second  day of the week1 he will be
 stingy1 because the waters were divided
 on  that day4 ,if on the third day1 he 
will be rich and prosperous1 because  on
 that day abundant vegetation was       
created4 ,if on the fourth day1 he  will
 be wise and happy1 because on that day 
the luminaries were fixed4  ,if on the  

fifth day1 he will be good-natured1     
because fishes and fowls  were then     
created1 and these are fed by ,god      
alone4 ,if on the sixth day1  he will be
 likely to give himself to good works1  
because that is the  ,sabbath           
preparation day4 ,if1 however1 he be    
born on the ,sabbath1 he will  also die 
on the ,sabbath1 as a punishment for his
 desecration of that  sacred day by his 
birth4      #b4 ,,treatise ,,on ,,the   
,,passover 7,pesakhin74 ,no4 #c in      
order4    ,m4 ,on the eve of the        
fourteenth ,nisan1 search must be made  
for leaven  by the light of a lamp      
7#aj74    ,g4 ,what means the ,hebrew   
word or8 7,translated above on the eve  
of74 ,rabbi ,huna says it means1 when   
the day begins to dawn3 but  according  
to ,rabbi ,jehuda it means at night1 but
 in ,genesis xliv1 #c1  and #bnd ,sam4  
xxiii1 #d1 the verb means to get day1 to
 dawn1 so that  ,rabbi ,huna is right4  
,abazi said that no student should enter
 upon his  studies just before the dawn 

of the fourteenth ,nizan1 lest he forget
 to  search for leaven4    ,g4 ,to      
,amorain 7#aa7 propose the following    
question3 ,suppose a man let  a house to
 another1 telling him that he had       
removed all leaven but  subsequently it 
was found that some leaven had been     
left4 ,is the  agreement to take the    
house binding8 ,abazi said1 ,yes1 it is1
 for it is  better that each householder
 sees for himself that all leaven has   
been  removed4 ,before beginning the    
search for leaven a blessing must be    
said1  as1 indeed1 before any religious 
act is performed4      ,by the light of 
the lamp4    ,g4 ,the light of the sun  
or of the moon or of a flame of fire may
 not  be used in searching for leaven1  
as the ,rabbis say is taught in         
,zephaniah i1 #ab 7,i will search       
,jerusalem with lights71 and ,prov4 xx1 
#bg  7,man's soul is ,jehovah's lamp    
searching the inner chambers of the     
body47      #c4 ,,treatise ,,on ,,new   
,,year',s ,,day 7,rosh ,hashshanah74    

,no4 #h in order4    ,g4 ,the generation
 before the flood was punished with     
boiling water4  7#ab74      #d4         
,,treatise ,,on ,,the ,,roll 7#ac7      
7,megillah74 ,no4 #aj in order4    ,m4  
,the ,megillah 7i4e41 ,esther7 is       
sometimes read on the #aath1 #abth1     
#acth1 #adth1 or #aeth of the month     
,adar1 not earlier nor later 7for       
details see the ,mishnah and ,gemara74  
,g4 ,rabbi ,jehuda says on the authority
 of ,samuel1 that the book of  ,esther  
does not defile the hands 7#ad71 i4e41  
that this book was not  given by the    
inspiration of ,god4 ,samuel1 however1  
explained that ,esther  was dictated by 
the ,spirit of ,god1 but only to be     
orally repeated1 and  not to be written4
    ,g4 ,when a scroll of the ,law has  
become through age unfit for use it is  
to be buried in an earthen vessel1 as is
 said in ,jeremiah xxii1 #ad1 ,and  put 
them in an earthen vessel1 that they may
 continue many days4 ,a  scroll of the  
,law ought never to be sold unless the  

object be to enable  the seller to study
 the ,law better1 or to take himself a  
wife4 ,rabbi  ,simon ben ,gemaliel said 
whoever sells a scroll of the ,law1 or a
  daughter1 though he does it because he
 has nothing to eat1 will have no  good 
from the purchase money4      #e4       
,,treatise ,,dealing ,,with ,,the ,,laws
 ,,about ,,festival ,,offerings4        
7,khagiga74  ,no4 #ab in order4         
,those under an obligation to offer the 
burnt offerings during the three  great 
annual ,feasts4    ,m4 ,everyone is     
under an obligation to offer the burnt  
offering except  the following3 ,a deaf 
man1 a fool1 a child1 one of doubtful   
sex1 one of  double sex1 a woman1 a     
slave1 a lame man1 a blind man1 a sick  
man4    ,what is meant by a child8 ,one 
not able to ride upon his father's      
shoulders in order to go up from        
,jerusalem to the ,temple4 ,so say the  
,school of ,shammai1 but the ,hillel    
,school define child1 ,one unable to    
take hold of his father's hand to go    

from ,jerusalem to the ,temple4    ,g4  
,what does the expression everyone      
include8    ,him who is half a slave and
 half free and also him who is lame on  
the  first day and well on the second   
day1 as well as the man who is blind in 
one eye1 except the deaf man1 a fool1   
and  child1 and so forth4 ,a deaf  man  
is like a fool and a child1 for he is   
not responsible for his  actions any    
more than they are4      ,,the ,,word   
,,tohu ,,rightly ,,translated ,,void    
,,in ,,genesis i4 #b4    ,g4 ,tohu is a 
green line 7,heb4 ,qav or ,qaw7 which   
surrounds the entire  world1 and from   
which darkness proceeds4 7#ae74         
,,the ,,seven ,,heavens 7#af74    ,g4   
,resh ,lagish used to say1 ,there are   
seven heavens1 named as  follows3 #a4   
,vilon 7equals ,velum1 a curtain74 #b4  
,ragiang4 #c4 ,sheklagim4  #d4 ,zebul4  
#e4 ,mangon4 #f4 ,makon4 #g4 ,ngarabot4 
,,satan ,,and ,,his ,,companions        
,,endeavouring ,,to ,,steal ,a ,,hearing
 ,,of ,,god',s ,,words4    ,g4 ,satan   

and his fellow-fallen angels are in the 
habit of listening  from behind a       
curtain to the words which ,god speaks  
to the angels in  heaven 7#ag74         
,,iii4--,,women 7,,nashim7      ,this   
division deals with betrothals1         
marriage1 divorce1 and the like4  ,one  
treatise discusses vows4      #a4       
,,treatise ,,on ,,widows ,,under ,,an   
,,obligation ,,to ,,undergo ,,the       
,,levirite  ,,marriage 7,yebamot74 ,no4 
,i in order 7#ah74    ,m4 ,a childless  
widow is under an obligation to marry   
the eldest  unmarried brother of her    
deceased husband4 ,if that              
brother-in-law  refuses to marry her1   
she is allowed in the presence of the   
nation's  leaders to loose his shoe from
 his foot1 to spit in his face1 and to  
say  to him1 ,thus shall be done to the 
man who will not build up his  brother's
 house4 7see ,deut4 xxii1 #i74    ,the  
following classes of women are released 
from the necessity of  marrying any     
brother-in-law3 #a4 ,the illegitimate   

daughter of the  brother4 #b4 ,her      
daughter4 #c4 ,the daughter of his      
illegitimate son4 #d4  ,his wife's      
daughter4 #e4 ,her son's daughter4 #f4  
,her daughter's daughter4  #g4 ,his     
mother-in-law4 #h4 ,the mother of his   
mother-in-law4 #i4 ,the mother  of his  
father-in-law1 and so forth4      #b4   
,,treatise ,,on ,,vows 7,nedarim74 ,no4 
#c in order4    ,the ,scriptures ,given 
as a ,punishment for ,men's ,sin4    ,g4
 ,if the ,israelites had not been guilty
 of sin they would never have  required 
more ,scripture than the ,pentateuch and
 the ,book of ,joshua4 ,the  last is    
indispensable as it records the way in  
which the land was  divided among the   
,israelites4 ,the other ,scriptures 7the
 ,prophets and the  ,writing7 because in
 much wisdom there is grief4 7,eccles4  
i1 #ah74      #c4 ,,treatise ,,on       
,,betrothals 7,qidushin74 ,no4 #g in    
order4    ,the ,families ,who went up   
from ,babylon to ,jerusalem4    ,m4 ,ten
 kinds of families left ,babylon for    

,palestine after the edict of  ,cyrus   
went forth in ,b4,c4 #ech permitting the
 nation to return4 ,these were  as      
follows3 #a4 ,priests4 #b4 ,levites4 #c4
 ,israelites4 #d4 ,degraded ,priests    
7lit4 profaned ones74 #e4 ,proselytes   
7#ai74 #f4 ,freedmen4 #g4 ,bastards4 #h4
  ,netinim4 #i4 ,those of unknown       
lineage4 #aj4 ,foundlings4 ,the three   
first  are allowed to intermarry3 the   
last six may also intermarry4 ,all those
  whose mother is known but not their   
father are said to be of unknown        
lineage4 ,a foundling is one picked up  
in the streets whose parents are  both  
unknown4      ,the ,evil of ,idolatry4  
,g4 ,the worship of idols is so grave a 
sin that he who renounces or  disavows  
it does as much as if he confessed his  
belief in the whole law4      ,sons     
,more ,desirable than ,daughters4    ,g4
 ,the world cannot exist without males  
and females1 yet blessed is he  whose   
children are boys1 and unlucky he whose 
children are girls4 ,cf4  ,baba ,bathra1

 p4 #aac1 col4 ,i3--,whoever does not   
leave a son to be heir1  ,god will heap 
wrath upon him4      ,,iv4--,,concerning
 ,,penalties 7,,nezikin7      ,in this  
division the principal part of the civil
 and criminal court of  the ,hebrews is 
included4 ,see especially the treatise  
,sanhedrin4      #a4 ,,treatise ,,called
 ,,lit4 ,chap4 ,i1 or ,,the ,,first     
,,gate4 7#bj77;,heb4 ,baba  ,qama47     
,damages to be made good by those       
responsible for them4    ,m4 ,there are 
four principal causes of damage to life 
and property4 ,i4  ,the ,ox4 #b4 ,the   
,uncovered ,pit4 #c4 ,the ,man who sets 
fire to anything4 #d4  ,the ,fire which 
starts of its own accord through        
neglect4    ,whenever damage is done in 
any of these four ways the one that is  
responsible for it must make the loss   
good4    ,g4 ,the ,rabbis teach that    
there are many specific forms of the    
above  four kinds of injuries1 i4e41 the
 ox can do an injury with his horns1    
his teeth1 or his feet4      ,accident  

through falling over a jug or barrel4   
,m4 ,if anyone places a jug on a public 
road and another person stumbles  over  
it and breaks it1 the latter is not     
liable for the breakage4 ,but if  he is 
injured by the fall1 the owner of the   
barrel is liable for the  damage4    ,g4
 ,the ,mishnah uses jug in the first    
clause and barrel in the  second4 ,rabbi
 ,papa said that the same thing is meant
 in both cases4      ,on breaking a jug 
full of water on a public road4    ,m4  
,if a jug full of water breaks on a     
public road and its contents  cause a   
person to slip1 or if in any way one is 
injured by the pieces1  he who carries  
the jug is liable for any injury4 ,rabbi
 ,jehuda1 however1  says he is only     
liable if he breaks it intentionally4   
#b4 ,,treatise ,,called ,,the ,,middle  
,,chapter 7,heb4 ,baba ,metsia74 #bnd in
  order4    ,g4 ,it was ,elijah's custom
 to frequent the ,rabbi's council       
chamber4 ,on  one occasion1 being later 
than usual1 ,rabbi asked him to explain 

his  delay4 ,elijah answered as follows3
 ,it is my business to wake up          
,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob one after  
the other1 to wash each one's hand1  and
 to wait until each one has said his    
prayers and returned to rest4  ,but1    
said ,rabbi1 why don't they all rise at 
the same time8  ,because1 was ,elijah's 
reply1 if they all three prayed at once1
 their  united prayers would precipitate
 the advent of the ,messiah before its  
appointed time4 ,then1 said ,rabbi1 have
 we amongst us such praying  people8    
,elijah said there were1 mentioning     
,rabbi ,khizah and his sons4  ,rabbi    
then proclaimed a fast1 which ,rabbi    
,khizah and his sons came to  observe4  
,when repeating the #ah benedictions    
7#ba7 they were about to say  ,thou     
restorest life to the dead when the     
world was convulsed and it  was asked in
 ,heaven who revealed to them the       
secret4 ,elijah was then  beaten sixty  
times with a rod of fire4 ,he afterwards
 came down like a  fiery bear and       

scattered the congregation4      #c4    
,,treatise ,,called ,,the ,,last        
,,chapter 7,baba ,bathra74 ,no4 #c in   
order4    ,g4 ,the members of the ,great
 ,synagogue who wrote the ,book of      
,ezekiel1  the ,books of the twelve     
minor prophets1 the ,book of ,daniel1   
and the ,book  of ,ezra 7#bb74      #d4 
,,treatise ,,called ,,sanhedrin4 ,,no4  
#d in order4 ,it treats at length of    
the institution of the municipal and    
provincial courts called ,sanhedrin     
from a ,greek word1 and also of the     
great ,sanhedrin1 or ,bethdin1 at       
,jerusalem4      ,jewish ,courts and    
their ,constitution4    ,g4 ,the        
,sanhedrin was composed of #ga members4 
,if an ,israelite had a  point of law to
 decide1 he first proposed it to the    
,court which met in  his own city4 ,if  
they failed to decide the matter1 it was
 submitted to  the judgment of the      
,court of the next city4 ,if the        
,justices of the  immediate district    
failed to come to a decision1 the case  

was laid  before the ,court which met at
 the entrance of the ,temple area4 ,in  
the  event of their failing to decide1  
they appealed to the ,court which met   
at the entrance to the ante-court4      
,failure in this ,court was followed by 
an appeal to the ,supreme ,court of #ga1
 where the matter was finally  disposed 
of by a majority of votes4    ,the      
,sanhedrin sat in a semicircle in order 
that the members might be  able to see  
one another4 ,there were two notaries1  
one on the right and  the other on the  
left1 to count the ,ayes and ,noes in   
all cases of  voting4      ,the         
authorship of the ,,book ,,of ,,ezra4   
,g4 ,the ,book of ,ezra was written by  
,nehemiah4 ,he does not attach his  name
 to it because he gave too much         
attention to his own merits1 as it  is  
written 7,neh4 v1 #ai7 ,think upon me1  
my ,god1 for good1 according to  all    
that ,i have done for my people4        
#e4 ,,treatise ,,on ,,idolatry 7,aboda  
,zara74 ,no4 #h in order4    ,m4 ,it is 

forbidden to have any dealings with     
non-,jews for three days  before they   
hold their unholy festivals 7#bc74 ,one 
must not lend them any  money1 for that 
could be useful to them in preparing for
 the festival4  ,nor must one borrow    
from them1 for they would gain thereby  
and be more  able1 out of the interest1 
to meet the expenses of their coming    
feasts4  ,similarly1 one must not pay   
them any money1 even though due1 nor in 
return must payment be received4        
,rabbi ,jehuda1 however1 maintains that 
payment should be allowed because  that 
is a displeasure and a disadvantage to  
those who pay4    ,m4 ,when there is an 
idol in the city one may go to that     
city1  providing that the road does not 
lead to the idol alone4 ,jews are not   
allowed to sell to non-,jews any of the 
following things1 because they  can be  
used for purposes of heathen            
worship3--,fir cones1 white figs1 or    
their stems1 frankincense1 and a white  
cock4 ,a white cock may1 however1  be   

sold if one of its claws has been cut   
off1 since non-,jews do not  sacrifice  
an animal when an organ is lacking4     
,,the ,,book ,,of ,,yashar 7see #bnd    
,sam4 i1 #ah74    ,g4 ,what is meant by 
the ,book of ,yashar8 ,rabbi ,khyiah bar
 ,abba on the  authority of ,rabbi      
,jokhanan says ,it is the book of       
,abraham1 ,isaac and  ,jacob1 they being
 called righteous 7yesharim71 and       
concerning whom it  is written1 ,numb1  
xxiii1 #aj1 ',let me die the death of   
the righteous'  7yesharim74      #f4    
,,treatise ,,called ,,sentences ,,of    
,,the ,,fathers 7,heb4 ,pirga ,abot74   
,no4 #i  in order4    ,this treatise1 on
 which no ,gemara has been handed down1 
contains moral  precepts1 aphorisms1 and
 so forth1 of the elder ,tannain4 ,it   
has been  often translated1 an excellent
 rendering by the late ,dr4 ,charles    
,taylor  having been published by the   
,cambridge ,press4      ,the ,two       
,tables of the ,law4    ,m4 ,the two    
,tables of the ,law1 handed to ,moses on

 ,mount ,sinai1 were  created1 along    
with nine other things1 at the time when
 the world was  made1 and at sunset1    
before the first ,sabbath began4        
,v4--,,sacred ,,things1 ,,sacrifices1   
,,measurements ,,of ,,the ,,temple1     
,,etc4      #a4 ,,treatise ,,on ,,the   
,,measurements ,,of ,,the ,,temple      
7,middot74 #ajth in order4    ,extent of
 the ,temple ,area4    ,m4 ,the ,temple 
,mount was #ejj cubits square4 ,the     
space was largest on  the south1 next   
largest on the east1 the third largest  
being on the  north1 and the least1     
westward4 ,all who entered this area did
 so on the  south side1 going round and 
passing on to the left4                 
,,vi4--,,legal ,,purifications1 ,,laws  
,,of ,,clean ,,and ,,unclean1 ,,etc4    
7,,teharot7      #a4 ,,treatise ,,on    
,,preserving ,,the ,,hands ,,from       
,,ceremonial ,,uncleanness4  7,jadaim74 
,the ,aramaic passages in ,ezra and     
,daniel make the hands unclean 7#be74   
,but  ,aramaic written in ,hebrew       

characters and ,hebrew written in       
,aramaic  7,syriac7 characters1 or in   
the primitive ,hebrew characters 7much  
like  the ,phoenician7 do not make the  
hands unclean4 ,scriptures1 though the  
matter is the same1 never make the hands
 unclean unless the characters  or      
letters1 in which they are written1 are 
the square ,assyrian letters  introduced
 by ,ezra1 the second ,moses4           
99       99       99       99       99  
,,zoroastrianism      ,,zend ,,avesta   
,zoroastrianism1 or1 more correctly1    
,zarathustraism1 is derived       from  
,zoroaster1 or1 more strictly1          
,zarathustra1 the founder of       the  
religion4 ,modern scholarship inclines  
to the belief that       this great     
religious leader was born in ,west      
,media about ,b4,c4       #fjj1 and     
carried on his great work in ,bactria4  
,the religion       with which his name 
is connected is really a reformed and   
spiritualised kind of that ,magism which
 prevailed in ,media and                

contiguous countries4 ,the priests1 who 
are called ,atharvans1                  
fire-priests1 in the ,avesta 7compare   
the same name in       ,hinduism1 the   
,atharvan ,veda1 etc47 are identical    
with the       ,magi1 priests of the    
religion which ,zarathustra 7,zoroaster7
       found in his original and adopted
 home4 ,according to some1 the          
founder of ,zarathustrianism lived at a 
very much earlier time1       and there 
are great scholars 7,tiele1             
,darmesteter1 ,edouard       ,meyer7 who
 wholly deny the historicity of such a  
character4 ,no       doubt1 in later    
years1 there gathered around            
,zarathustra an       immense number of 
fictitious and silly legends1 as was the
       case with ,buddha1 ,jesus1 and   
even ,muhammad2 but that each one       
of these religious teachers lived and   
wrought is beyond the       reach of    
reasonable doubt4      ,,introductory   
,this is the ,bible of the              
,zarathustrians and of their modern     

representatives1 the ,parsees1 who      
flourish for the most part in ,bombay4  
,the title ,zend ,avesta is an anomaly1 
for ,zend is not the name of a  language
 at all1 but means commentary1 the word 
,avesta connoting the  original text on 
which the commentary is written4 ,the   
original title  denotes ,avesta and     
,zend1 which is a correct description1  
for what is now  known as the ,zend     
,avesta is really a combination of text 
7,avesta7 and  commentary 7,zend71 just 
as the ,jewish ,talmud is a combination 
of ,mishnah  7text7 and ,gemara         
7commentary1 or1 literally1 completion74
 ,the word  ,avesta denotes 7perhaps    
literally7 knowledge1 being cognate with
 the  ,sanscrit word ,veda4 ,but        
,a4,v4,w4 ,jackson derives it from a    
form  ,upasta1 denoting the original    
text4 ,darmesteter makes the word ,old  
,persian1 denoting law4    ,the existing
 ,avesta is more like a prayer book than
 a ,bible1 for it is  as a liturgical   
work that it took on its present form1  

and as such that  it is now generally   
used1 though the part called ,vendidad  
includes a  large number of laws for    
religious ceremonies and the like4      
,what is known to modern scholars as the
 ,avesta is1 however1 only a  portion of
 the original work1 the latter having   
been largely lost  through the conquests
 over ,persia of ,alexander the ,great1 
and especially  owing to the more       
thorough subjugation of the ,sassanid   
,persians by the  ,muslims in ,a4,d4    
#fcb4 ,the latter were much more bigoted
 and  uncompromising in their treatment 
of other religions and their            
literatures than were ,alexander the    
,great and his successors4 ,the         
original ,avesta1 as described in       
,pahlavi text which have come down to   
us1 contain twenty-one ,nasks or books4 
,these existed1 in a more or less       
incomplete state1 down to the ninth     
century of our era1 to which century    
the ,pahlavi work ,dindard belongs4     
,the ,avesta which exists to-day may be 

divided thus3--    ,i4 ,the strictly    
canonical parts1 including the          
following1 which will be  more fully    
described in connection with the        
summaries4          #a4 ,yasnas1        
including the ,gathas4      #b4         
,vispereds4      #c4 ,vendidads4        
,,ii4 ,the ,apocryphal ,avesta usually  
called the ,khorda ,avesta1 or the short
  ,avesta4 ,this is much less esteemed  
than the ,avesta proper4 ,it comprises1 
#a4 ,yashts 7invocation74      #b4      
,minor ,prayers4    ,the language of the
 ,avesta can be correctly described only
 as ,avestan1  for no other literature  
in the same language exists4 ,it        
resembles the  ,pahlavi1 or ,ancient    
,persian1 but it is identical with no   
language4 ,the  ,zend1 or commentary1 is
 written in the ,pahlavi language4      
,the present writer wishes to express   
his obligation to the translation  of   
the ,avesta by ,spiegel 7in ,german72   
,hang in his ,essays on ,sacred         
,language1 ,writing1 and ,religion of   

the ,parsees 2 and also to those by     
,darmesteter and ,l4,h4 ,mills in the   
,sacred ,books of the ,east1 volumes    
iv1 xxiii1 xxxiii4 ,on the question     
whether or not the ,achaemenian kings   
of ,persia1 ,cyrus ,i41 and so forth1   
were ,zarathustrians1 see ,century      
,bible1--,ezra--,nehemiah--,esther4     
,i4--,,yasnas1 ,,or ,,sacrificial       
,,prayers ,,and ,,songs      ,this      
section of the ,avesta constitutes the  
principal liturgical  text-book of the  
great ,yasna ceremony1 which is made up 
chiefly of the  preparation and offering
 of the ,parahoma 7the juice of the homa
 or soma  plant mixed with milk and     
aromatic ingredients74 ,there are       
seventy-two  chapters in the ,yasnas1   
though they contain a good number of    
repetitions4 ,it is in this main part of
 the ,avesta that the five  metrical    
,gathas are to be found1 these being the
 oldest and by far the  most important  
of the ,avesta4    ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the  
,,proclamation ,,of ,,salvation4 ,i     

7,zarathustra7 make known to            
,ahura-,mazda the ,great ,god1 that ,i  
am about to offer him my prayers and    
sacrifices4 7,yasnas47 ,he is the       
greatest and best1 the most powerful and
  wise4 ,i pay homage1 also1 to the     
bountiful immortals 7the                
,amensha-,spentas71 the guardians of the
 world4 ,and to the body of the  sacred 
cow and its soul2 7i7 to ,ahura         
7,jupiter71 ,mithra the sun1 to the     
star ,sirius2 and to the ,fravashis     
7guardian angels of the saints74 ,if ,i 
have offended thee1 oh thou greatest    
one1 ,ahura-,mazda1 or if ,i have       
diminished ought of the sacrifices      
7,yasnas7 due to thee1 forgive me1 ,o   
forgive me1 thou unerring one4 ,i       
declare myself to be a ,mazdaist1 a     
,zarathustrian1 a sworn foe to the      
,daevas 7#b7 and a worshipper of        
,ahura-,mazda4    ,,chapter #d4 ,we     
present as offerings1 pure thoughts1    
kind words1  beneficent works1 the ,homa
 7,soma7 flesh-offerings1 zaothras 7#c71

 the  holy veresma 7#d71 suitable       
prayers1 ,gatha hymns1 and mathra 7the  
,vedic  mantra7 sacred songs--these all 
we present as sacrifices to             
,ahura-,mazda1  the holy ,srosh 7#e71 to
 the bountiful immortals1 to the        
,fravashis1 and  souls of the pure1 and 
also to the sacred fire of              
,ahura-,mazda4    ,,chapter #h4 ,i offer
 to thee1 ,o ,ahura-,mazda1 sacrifices  
of all kinds4  ,mayest thou1 ,o         
all-powerful1 all-wise one1 rule over   
thy creatures1 over  all waters and     
trees1 all empires and dominions1       
causing fertility1  happiness1 and      
universal justice to abound in the      
world4 ,in all  conflicts between light 
and darkness1 between the good and the  
bad1 let  the right prevail1 ,o thou    
king of righteousness4 ,i1 ,zarathustra1
 urge  heads of families1 chiefs of     
clans1 and rulers of states1 to follow  
the  true religion1 that revealed by    
,ahura-,mazda and proclaimed by his     
prophet ,zarathustra4    ,,chapters #i  

,,and #aj4 ,in some manuscripts these   
chapters are designated  ,homa-,yashts1 
because they celebrate the praises of   
,homa and have the  form of ,yashts4 ,in
 these chapters ,homa is personified1   
as1 also1 in the  ,vedas1 is the        
,sanscrit ,soma4 ,in the period before  
the separation of the  ,iranians and    
,indians the worship of the ,homa plant 
7the god of  inspiration1 etc47 bulked  
largely4 ,it died out1 however1 among   
the  ,iranians at an early period1      
perhaps owing to its prevalence among   
their  ,indian rivals1 who traced to it 
that very courage with which they       
contended against the ,iranians4 ,the   
present chapters belong to the  period  
of the revival of the ,homa cult among  
the ,mazdaists or  ,zarathustrians4     
,this comparatively late date is        
confirmed by the  vocabulary and style  
of the chapters4    ,when ,zarathustra  
was engaged in singing the ,dathas and  
attending the  sacred fire1 ,homa       
appeared before him in resplendently    

supernatural  guise and explained ,i am 
,homa1 whom thou shouldst worship as the
 sages  and prophets of old have done4  
,tell me1 replied ,zarathustra1 who was 
it that first worshipped thee by        
extracting thy juice from the plant8    
,the first1 said ,homa1 was             
,vivan-,ghvant whose reward was the     
birth of  his august and renowned son1  
,yima1 7#f7 the king1 in whose reign    
there  was neither death1 nor scorching 
heat1 nor benumbing cold1 but when      
fulness of life1 perfection of          
happiness1 and unfailing justice        
prevailed4 ,the second to worship me1   
said ,homa1 was ,athwya1 the  blessed   
one1 and to him as a reward was born    
,thraetaona1 who slew the               
three-mouthed1 three-tailed1 six-eyed1  
thousand-scaled dragon that  wrought    
such dire havoc in the world4 ,the third
 to worship me was  ,thrita1 to whom1 in
 recompense1 were born two sons of      
illustrious name1  one great as ruler of
 men1 and the other a brave warrior who 

slew the  man-and-horse-swallowing      
dragon4 ,the fourth was thine own       
distinguished  father1 ,pourushasha1 and
 the reward that he received was to have
 thee1 ,o  great prophet of men1 for his
 son4 ,on hearing which ,zarathustra    
immediately set about walking around the
 sacred fire singing lustily the        
praises of the god ,homa1 whom his      
father had worshipped4 ,it is ,homa1    
sang the prophet1 that gives men        
knowledge of things new and old4 ,even  
men buried under a weight of book-lore  
receive from him inspiration and        
perception of truth that no books can   
impart4 ,it is ,homa that gives kind    
and wealthy husbands to unwed maidens2  
that fills the sky with clouds  and     
refreshes the ground with life-giving   
showers1 causing the plants to  grow on 
the lofty mountains on whose brow thine 
own sacred plant  7asclepias7           
flourishes4    ,,chapter #ab4           
,profession of faith on the part of the 
new convert1 uttered  by the ancient    

,iranians on their giving up the worship
 of ,daevas and the  nomad life1 and on 
their being received into the religious 
community  established by ,zarathustra4 
,now cease ,i to be a ,daeva worshipper 
and make profession of the religion  of 
,ahura-,mazda1 proclaimed by            
,zarathustra4 ,i ascribe all good things
  everywhere to ,ahura-,mazda1 the true1
 shining and holy one4 ,i will never    
more molest ,mazdaists4 ,i will forsake 
the ,daevas1 the false and wicked       
originators of all the mischief in the  
universe4 ,i forsake also all  ,daeva   
like beings1 witches1 wizards1 and the  
like4 ,i belong to the  ,mazdaist       
religion1 and will support it to my     
dying day4 ,there is no joy  of virtue  
but has come from ,ahura-,mazda4        
,,chapter #ai4 ,the importance and value
 of the ,ahuna-,vairya prayer1 said     
,zarathustra to ,ahura-,mazda ,o holiest
 and best of beings1 what words         
taughtest thou me before the world was1 
or human life began its  history8 ,it   

was1 responded the supreme being1 the   
,ahuna-,vairya  prayer4 ,whoever1 ,o    
,zarathustra1 recites this prayer or    
intones it1 or  even whispers it under  
his breath1 ,i will carry him safely    
across the  bridge which leads to       
paradise4 ,but whoever cuts this prayer 
short by a  half1 a third1 a fourth1 or 
by any quantity1 his soul shall ,i keep 
out  of paradise and it shall wander in 
sorrow for ever4    ,,chapter #bb4      
,,adoration ,,of ,,the ,,fravashis      
7,,guardian ,,angels ,,of ,,the         
,,saints74  ,i will praise the          
,fravashis1 who have existed from time  
immemorial4  ,those of the houses1      
villages1 and provinces1 who preserve   
order in the  heavens above1 on the     
earth1 and in the waters4 ,i praise the 
,fravashis  of ,ahura-,mazda1 the       
,fravashis of the bountiful immortals1  
and those of  ,zarathustra and of the   
,holy ,counsellors4 ,all good ,yazads   
7#g7 deserve  homage and sacrifice4     
,,chapter #ce4 ,,ahura-,,mazda ,,and    

,,the ,,immortals ,,adored ,,and        
,,supplicated4 ,we  adore thee1 ,o thou 
great ,god1 ,ahura-,mazda1 and also the 
bountiful  immortals4 ,we laud all good 
thoughts and words and deeds that have  
been1  are1 or will be4 ,it is our duty 
to live the good life1 for that is best 
for both worlds4 ,thine1 ,o lofty       
spirit1 is the kingdom1 thine the power1
  and thine the glory4 ,thy righteous   
rule surpasses every other rule2 thy    
praise all other praise2 thy hymns are  
the loftiest and best4    ,,chapter #eg4
 ,,in ,,honour ,,of ,,srosh4 ,we pay    
homage to thee1 ,srosh1 the  obedient   
and blessed one1 the first of creatures 
to worship ,ahura-,mazda1  the ,creator4
 ,thou didst also worship the bountiful 
immortals1 and wast  the first to       
brandish the veresma and to sing the    
,gathas4 ,thou didst  slay the          
all-destroying demon1 and thou          
protectest the world and its  denizens4 
,thou sleepest not1 nor slumberest day  
or night4 ,thou teachest  men the true  

religion--that of ,ahura-,mazda4        
,,the ,,five ,,gathas      ,gatha means 
song1 and is the same word as the       
,sanscrit ,gita 7,cf4  p4 #fa           
,bhagavad-,gita74 ,these five gathas    
include yasnas #bh-cd1 #dc-df1  #dg-ej1 
and #ea-ec4 ,in metre1 vocabulary1 and  
matter1 the gathas prove  themselves to 
be the oldest part of the ,avesta4 ,the 
doctrines taught are  likewise purer and
 more rational4 ,note the               
following3--,i4 ,there is one  supreme  
good deity1 ,ahura-,mazda1 the          
conception of whom is so lofty  that1 in
 order to save his character1 a spirit  
of evil 7,ahriman7 has  been invented4  
,to the supreme good spirit are ascribed
 six attributes  which are often        
personified4 ,in the later parts of the 
,avesta these  attributes are made      
independent persons 7the bountiful      
immortals1 or the  ,amesha ,spentas74   
,but in the ,gathas they form with      
,ahura-,mazda a unity  much resembling  
the ,sabellian trinity4 #b4 ,the        

doctrine of reward and  punishment that 
is taught in the ,gathas is subjective1 
i4e41 it makes  a man's reward and      
punishment consist in change of         
character1  disposition1 etc4    ,it is 
a strange coincidence that the highest  
form of ,indian and ,iranian  belief is 
to be found in the earliest literature  
of these religions1  i4e41 the ,vedas   
and the ,gathas4 ,this does not agree   
with the opinion  that most prevails1   
that in religions there is ever progress
 from lower  to higher forms4    ,in    
these ,gathas there is a unity of       
thought and feeling suggesting  strongly
 unity of authorship4 ,there is general 
agreement that the one  author to whom  
at least the great bulk of the ,gathas  
is due is  ,zarathustra himself4 ,roth1 
,l4,h4 ,mills1 and other scholars date  
the  ,gathas as they would the ,vedas1  
somewhere between ,b4,c4 #abjj and      
#aejj1  and they therefore fix upon the 
same date for the work of ,zarathustra  
himself4 ,other ,avestan scholars       

7,a4,v4,w4 ,jackson1 etc47 fix the date 
of  ,zarathustra's life1 and therefore  
of the ,gathas1 some time near ,b4,c4   
#fjj4 ,if the latter opinion is held1 it
 is probable that the substance of  the 
,gathas is much older than the form     
which they take in the ,avesta4         
,,gatha ,i1 ,yasnas #bh-cd1 #bi1 which  
is earlier than #bh4    ,,the ,,call    
,,of ,,zarathustra4 ,the afflicted      
people cry out aloud to thee1 ,o        
,ahura-,mazda1 and also to the ,asha1   
the author of the divine order4 ,why    
were we made to be exposed to the       
attacks of suffering and of sin8 ,the   
divine one asked ,asha ,hast thou       
appointed a guardian over this people   
to defend them from evil8 ,said ,asha3  
,there is no man in this world  that has
 to bear his lot of suffering and to    
resist moral adversaries1  but the great
 ,creator knows all about his life1 and 
demands from him all  that he is capable
 of4 ,no man can choose anyone who is   
able to secure  justice and happiness in

 the world4 ,but ,i1 said ,ahura-,mazda1
 have  chosen one for this great task1  
it is ,zarathustra1 the prophet and     
priest4 ,on hearing of his divine       
appointment1 ,zarathustra prayed to his 
god1 saying1 ,do thou1 ,o all-wise one1 
aid me1 directing my thoughts1  choosing
 for me my words1 and guiding my steps1 
for without thee ,i can  do nothing4    
#bh4 ,,zarathustra',s ,,prayer ,,for    
,,help4 ,teach me1 ,o loftiest one1 thy 
ways1  and encourage me by thy promises 
to observe thy ceremonies4 ,when shall  
,i  become acquainted with thine own    
pure mind1 and know what is truly good8 
,when shall ,i realise thee in my own   
soul1 and have fellowship with thee     
without the mediation of man or angels8 
,i do not ask for riches1 or  booty1 or 
worldly prosperity1 but for             
righteousness4    ,,gratitude ,,for     
,,blessings ,,already ,,received4 ,thou 
hast granted my requests1  and given me 
the boon which ,i asked for4 ,may ,i    
never offend thee1 nor be  ungrateful6  

,supply my lot with what thou knowest to
 be best1 and not  with what ,i desire4 
,make thou clear to me the laws which   
govern thy  kingdom1 that ,i may be a   
safe guide to others4    #cj4 ,,the     
,,creed ,,which ,,zarathustra ,,is ,,to 
,,preach4 ,i announce to all who  desire
 to know1 the true doctrine about the   
,creation4 ,let all that  listen give   
heed and shape their ways according to  
this teaching3--,there  were at the     
beginning two spirits and nothing       
more--a better principle  and a worse4  
,this pair existed independently each of
 the other4 ,the good  spirit           
7,ahura-,mazda7 made all that he created
 perfect and just1 like  himself1 but   
the evil spirit 7,ahriman7 created      
things that were evil4  ,why have the   
,daevas-worshippers perverted the truth 
and gone astray from  the right path8   
,because the creator of evil has taken  
possession of  them4 ,all such as make  
their thoughts1 words1 and deeds conform
 to the  will of the good spirit have an

 eternal reward1 and their salvation has
  already begun4 ,but such as yield to  
the evil impulses prompted by  ,ahriman 
shall abide eternally in woe and misery4
    #ca4 ,,the ,,two ,,parties4 ,many   
there are who hiss at this teaching of  
mine1  and will have none of it1 but the
 people of ,ahura give heed thereto4 ,o 
supreme spirit of good1 grant me by the 
sacred fire and the holy ritual  some   
sign that will convince and convert men1
 so that all may be brought  to thee and
 be made to abandon their ,daevas4 ,o ye
 bountiful immortals1  will ye give me  
prophetic knowledge that ,i may lead men
 aside from the  error of their ways2   
what punishment shall be his who strives
 to set up  in our midst a king         
belonging to the ,daeva party8          
,,gatha #b4 #dc-df4    ,this part of the
 ,avesta gives a fuller and correcter   
view of the work  and teaching of       
,zarathustra than any other4    #dc4    
,the ,theophany of ,ahura-,mazda to     
,zarathustra4 ,i saw ,ahura-,mazda on   

high and he made known to me his truth1 
that ,i may tell it to men4    #dd4 ,a  
,,prayer ,,for ,,knowledge4 ,speak thou 
truly to me1 ,o ,ahura-,mazda1 and  not 
falsely as the ,daevas do to their      
worshippers4 ,how came this present     
world to be1 and to be supported1 if not
 through thee8 ,who made the sun  and   
moon and stars1 and the waters and the  
winds and the trees1 who1 if  not thou8 
,reveal thou to me1 ,o great one1 the   
inner truth of things4    ,o ye crowds  
of men1 when will ye call evil1 evil1   
and good1 good1  instead of the         
contrary8 ,have the ,daevas ever        
supplied good rulers8                   
,,ii4--,,vispereds      ,the word       
,vispered means all the lords1 and this 
section is so called  because it        
contains invocations to all the lords or
 gods4 ,it consists  almost entirely of 
extracts from other parts of the        
,avesta1 especially  from the ,yasnas4  
,what is not found elsewhere has no     
special value and  need not be          

summarised4      ,,iii4--,,vendidads    
7,,lit4 ,,laws ,,against ,,demons7      
,this is not strictly a liturgical work1
 but a priestly code describing  the    
various purifications1 penalties and    
expiations by which faults of  various  
kinds are atoned for1 or their          
consequences annulled4 ,the  existing   
,vendidads agree almost exactly with    
,nask 7#ai7 of the original  ,avesta1   
the only part of the ,avesta in which   
one of the ,nasks has been  completely  
preserved4 ,the ,vendidads are divided  
into twenty-two ,fargads1  or sections4 
,,fargad #c4 ,,the ,,sanctity ,,of      
,,agriculture4 ,the earth should be     
cultivated1  #a4 that it may bring forth
 food for man and beast1 #b4 because it 
promotes human piety4 ,how is it1 ,o    
great creator1 asks ,zarathustra1  that 
religion is to be spread8 ,by           
cultivating barley1 was the  answer1 for
 he who cultivates barley1 cultivates   
purity4 ,when barley is  threshed or    
ground1 and when flour is produced1     

devils whistle1 whine1  and waste away1 
knowing full well that man's idleness is
 their only  opportunity4 7,cf4 compare 
,dr4 ,watts' line ,satan finds some     
mischief  still1 for idle hands to do47 
,,fargad #d4 ,,civil ,,and ,,criminal   
,,law4 ,whoever refuses to restore      
property to  one to whom he knows it    
belongs by right1 is a thief4 ,every day
 and  night that he keeps this property 
he is guilty of theft4 ,how many kinds  
of property are there8 asked            
,zarathustra4 ,these six1 was the       
answer4  #a4 ,that made by mere words4  
#b4 ,that made by striking hands4 #c4   
,that  made by depositing a sheep as    
security4 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,those cases in   
which  the security is respectively an  
ox1 a man's value1 and the value of a   
full field4 ,then there follow details  
of penalties for violating these        
several contracts3--e4g41 for breaking  
the first--#cjj stripes of the  rod1 and
 so forth4    ,,fargads #e-ah1 give the 
laws for the treatment of dead bodies4  

,the two  determining principles        
are--#a4 ,that a dead body is impure4   
#b4 ,the  elements earth1 fire1 and     
water1 are absolutely pure and sacred4  
,bodies  are not1 therefore1 to be      
buried1 or they would pollute the earth2
 nor  are they to be burnt1 or they     
would pollute fire1 nor thrown into     
water  of any kind4 ,they must be       
carried up to a lofty mountain1 placed  
on  stones1 or iron plates1 and exposed 
to dogs and vultures4 ,impurity from    
contact with a dead body1 etc41 is      
removed by pure water 7,cf4 the water   
of baptism74 ,then there follow laws    
prescribing the counter-charms to be    
used against evil spirits2 the methods  
by which the sacred fire must be  made  
and used1 and so forth4    ,,fargad #ai1
 treats of the fate of the soul after   
death4      ,the ,aprocryphal or ,khorda
 ,avesta    ,the ,yashts resemble       
closely the prayers of the ,yasnas and  
the  ,vispereds1 differing only in this1
 that each one of the twenty-four       

extant is devoted to the traits of a    
single deity1 or at least of one  class 
of divine beings 7the bountiful         
immortals1 and so forth74 ,the  usual   
word in the ,yashts for the superhuman  
beings at rest is ,yazads4    ,,yasht   
,i4 ,the names of ,ahura-,mazda and     
their efficacy4    ,asked ,zarathustra1 
,what1 ,o ,most ,high1 are the most     
effective  counter-charms 7mantras7     
against evil spirits8 ,he received for  
answer  that the pronunciation of the   
twenty different names of ,ahura-,mazda 
are  the best and strongest spells4     
,these are the following3--#a4 ,the     
,revealer4 #b4 ,the ,herd-giver1 etc41  
etc4 ,the twentieth and last is ,mazda1 
the ,all-knowing ,one4           99     
99       99       99       99           
,,philosophy               99       99  
99       99       99                    
,,aristotle      ,,the ,,ethics ,,of    
,,aristotle           ,aristotle was    
born at ,stagira1 a ,greek colony on the
       ,macedonian frontier1 in #chd    

,b4,c41 when ,plato was forty-three1    
fifteen years after the death of        
,socrates4 ,going to ,athens1 he        
became one of ,plato's pupils in        
philosophy at the age of       twenty4  
,in #cdb he became tutor to the future  
,alexander the       ,great1 and some   
years later opened1 again at ,athens1   
his own       school1 whose disciples   
were called the ,peripatetics4 ,he died 
in #cbb ,b4,c4 ,his works laid the      
systematic foundations of every         
science known in his time4 ,his various 
treatises on logic were       comprised 
in the ,organon2 he dealt with          
psychology and       metaphysics2 with  
rhetoric and the principles of literary 
criticism4 ,he also systematised the    
natural sciences2 and the       two     
works here given1 the ,ethics and       
,politics1 have       profoundly        
influenced ethical and political thought
 from his       own day to ours4 ,in    
particular1 his classification of the   
virtues1 and his doctrine that virtue   

lies in a mean1 have       dominated a  
vast amount of moral speculation4 ,the  
treatises as       we know them are so  
crabbed and condensed in style as to    
give       the impression that they are 
to a large extent not the       finished
 works1 but notes and summaries4        
,i4--,,the ,,end ,,of ,,life ,,and ,,the
 ,,meaning ,,of ,,virtue      ,every art
 and science1 every action1 has for its 
end some good1 whether  this be a form  
of activity or an actual product4 ,the  
ends of minor arts  are only means to   
the ends of superior arts4 ,if there is 
one supreme  end1 this is ,the ,good1   
inquiry into which belongs to the       
supreme ,social  ,science for which the 
,greek term is ,politics4 ,the name     
given to this  supreme good1 the        
attainment of which is the object of    
,politics1 is  ,happiness1 good living1 
or welfare4    ,but ,happiness itself is
 variously defined2 some identify it    
with  ,pleasure1 others with            
,honour--the first a degrading1 and the 

second an  inadequate view4 ,platonists 
find it in an abstract ,idea of ,good1 a
  ,universal which precludes            
particulars4 ,there is a great deal to  
be said  against this doctrine1 even as 
a question of logic or metaphysic2 but  
apart from that1 the theory is out of   
court1 for the all sufficient  reason   
that its practical value is             
nil--knowledge of the great  ,universal 
,good in the abstract is of no practical
 use whatever in  everyday life1 which  
is a fundamental point for us4    ,if1  
then1 there is a supreme dominating     
,good to be aimed at1 what are  the     
essential characteristics it must       
display8 ,the ,good of all ,goods1  the 
,best1 must be complete in itself1 a    
consummation4 ,whatsoever is a  means to
 some end beyond fails so far of        
completeness2 when we say that  our end 
must be complete1 it follows that it    
must always be an end1  never a means4  
,it is not merely one amongst others of 
which it is the  best1 but the one in   

which all the others are summed up4 ,it 
is of itself  quite sufficient for the  
individual1 and that not merely in      
isolation1  but as a member of          
society--which it is his nature to be4  
,let us then define ,happiness as ,man's
 ,work--the performance of his  function
 as man4 ,everything has some specific  
function1 the performance  of which is  
its ,good1 and man1 too1 must have a    
specific function4 ,now1  this cannot be
 the kind of life which he shares with  
the vegetable or  with the brute        
creation1 therefore it must be the      
active life of his  distinctive--i4q41  
his rational--part1 exercised in        
accordance with  the virtue or virtues  
which perfect it1 and in his life as a  
whole1 not  merely at moments4          
,testing our conclusions by the         
judgments of common experience1 we      
gather  support from them4 ,goods       
external1 and goods of the body1 are    
reckoned  inferior to goods of the soul1
 which is recognised as the seat of     

activities4 ,the identification of      
happiness with virtue1 however1         
necessitates the distinction between    
active virtue and virtuousness4 ,as     
conducing to active virtue1 the other   
kinds of goods are elements in          
happiness4 ,we must assume it to be not 
something granted to us1 outside  our   
own control1 but attainable by effort   
and education4    ,virtues are of two   
kinds3 of the intellect1 acquired by    
study2 and  moral1 acquired by practice4
 ,the moral virtues are not implanted by
  nature1 but we have the capacity for  
them by nature1 and achieve them by     
practice1 as by practice we acquire     
excellence in the arts1 or control  over
 our passions4 ,education1 then1 is of  
the utmost importance1 since  the state 
or habit of virtue is the outcome of    
virtue in act4    ,the manner1 the how  
of action1 must be in accord with ,right
 ,reason1  whereof we shall speak       
elsewhere4 ,here we must recognise that 
we are not  laying down universal       

propositions1 but general rules which   
are modified  by circumstances4 ,our    
activities must lie in a mean between   
the two  extremes of excess and defect1 
and this applies both to the process of 
generating virtue1 and to its           
manifestation4 ,the virtues are         
concerned  with pleasure and pain1      
because these act as inducements or     
opposing  influences2 ,beauty1          
,advantage1 and ,pleasure being the     
three standing  inducements1 and        
,pleasure entering into both the others2
 so that in one  aspect ,virtue is the  
,best action in respect to pleasure4    
,but it does not lie in the mere act2   
the act must be born of knowledge  and  
of choice done for its own sake1 and    
persistently--the first1  knowledge1    
being the least important2 to make it   
the most important is a  speculative    
error4    ,now1 there are three modes of
 mind3 feeling or passion1 faculty1 and 
habit4 ,we do not praise or blame       
passion in itself1 or the faculty2      

therefore virtue can lie in neither1 but
 must be found in habit or  condition4  
,the virtuous habit or condition is what
 enables that whereof  it is the virtue 
to perform its function1 which1 in the  
case of man1 is  the activity of the    
soul1 preserving always a middle course 
between  excess and deficiency1 by      
choice4    ,in another sense1 however1  
we must remember that there are         
qualities in  themselves wrong1 and that
 virtue may be presented as not         
something  intermediate1 but a          
consummation4 ,but when we name each of 
these  virtues--,courage1 ,temperance1  
,liberality1 etc42 the social virtues1  
or  good manners2 the virtues concerned 
with the passions--we can name the      
corresponding excess or deficiency4     
,justice and the intellectual virtues   
demand a separate analysis4    ,each    
virtue stands in opposition to each of  
the extremes1 and each of  these to the 
other extreme1 though in some cases the 
virtue may be more  antagonistic to one 

extreme than to the other1 as courage to
 cowardice  more than to rashness4 ,in  
individual cases1 it is difficult to    
avoid  being deflected towards one or   
other of the extremes4    ,before       
proceeding with this analysis1 we must  
examine the question of  choice4 ,to be 
praiseworthy1 an act must be voluntary4 
,an act is not  voluntary if it is the  
outcome of external compulsion4 ,where  
there is a  margin of choice1 an act    
must still1 on the whole1 be regarded as
  voluntary1 though done against our    
will4 ,of properly involuntary acts1  we
 must distinguish between the           
unintentional and the unwilling1 meaning
  by the latter1 in effect1 what the    
agent would not have done if he had     
known4    ,choice is not the same thing 
as a voluntary act2 nor is it desire1 or
  emotion1 or exactly wish1 since we may
 wish for1 but cannot make  choice of1  
the unattainable4 ,nor is it            
,deliberation--rather1 it is the  act of
 decision following deliberation4 ,if   

man has the power to say yes1  he has   
equally the power to say no1 and is     
master of his own action4 ,if  we make a
 wrong choice through ignorance for     
which we are ourselves  responsible1 the
 ignorance itself is culpable1 and      
cannot excuse the  wrong choice2 and so1
 when the choice is the outcome of a    
judgment  disordered by bad habits1 men 
cannot escape by saying they were made  
so--they made themselves so4 ,to say    
they could not help doing wrong  things 
is only an evasion4      ,,ii4--,,the   
,,moral ,,virtues ,,examined            
,virtues1 then1 are habits1 issuing in  
acts corresponding to those by  which   
the habit was established1 directed by  
,right ,reason1 every such  act being   
voluntary1 and the whole process a      
voluntary process4    ,we may now turn  
to the analysis of the several virtues4 
,courage has to do with fear4 ,not all  
kinds2 for there are some things we     
ought to fear1 such as dishonour and    
pauperism1 the fear of which is         

compatible with dauntless courage1 while
 the coward may not fear them4          
,fearlessness of what is in our control1
 and endurance of what is not1  for the 
sake of true honour1 constitute the     
courageous habit4 ,its excess  is       
rashness or foolhardiness1 the          
deficiency cowardice4 ,akin to it1 but  
still spurious1 is the courage of which 
the motive is not ,honour but  honours  
or reputation4 ,spurious also is the    
courage which arises from  the knowledge
 that the danger is infinitesimal2 so is
 that which is born  of blind anger1 or 
of elated self-confidence1 or of mere   
unconsciousness  of danger4 ,true       
,courage lies in resisting a temptation 
to pleasure or to  escaping pain1 and1  
above all1 death1 for ,honour's sake4   
,the exercise of  a virtue may be very  
far from pleasant1 except1 of course1 in
 so far as  the end for which it was    
exercised is achieved4    ,temperance is
 concerned with pleasures of the senses2
 mainly of touch1  in a much less degree

 of taste2 but not of sight1 hearing1 or
 smell1  except indirectly4 ,of carnal  
pleasures1 some are common to all1 some 
have an individual application4         
,temperance lies in being content to do 
without them1 and desiring them only so 
far as they conduce to health  and      
comfort4 ,the characteristic of         
intemperance is that it has to do  with 
pleasures only1 not with pains4 ,hence1 
it is more purely voluntary  than       
cowardice1 as being less influenced by  
perturbing outward  circumstances as    
concerns the particular case1 though not
 the habit4    ,liberality is concerned 
with money matters1 and lies between    
extravagance and meanness4 ,really it   
means the right treatment of money1     
both in spending and receiving it--the  
former rather than the latter4 ,a  man  
is not really liberal who lavishes money
 for baser purposes1 or  takes it whence
 he should not1 or fails to take due    
care of his  property4 ,the liberal man 
tends to err in the direction of        

lavishness4  ,extravagance is curable1  
but is frequently accompanied by        
carelessness  as to the objects on which
 the money is spent and the sources from
 which  it is obtained4 ,the habit of   
meanness is apt to be ineradicable1 and 
is  displayed both in the acquisition   
and in the hoarding of money4           
,munificence is a virtue concerned only 
with expenditure on a large  scale1 and 
it implies liberality4 ,it lies between 
vulgar ostentation and  niggardliness4  
,it is possible only for the wealthy1   
and is concerned  mainly with public    
works1 but also with private occasions  
of ceremony4  ,the error of vulgar      
ostentation is misdirection of          
expenditure1 not  excess4 ,niggardliness
 abstains from a proper expenditure4    
,magnanimity is the virtue of the       
aristocrat2 its excess is               
self-glorification1 its deficiency      
self-depreciation4 ,the magnanimous  man
 will bate nothing of his claim to      
honour1 power and wealth1 not as  caring

 greatly for them1 but as demanding what
 he knows to be his due4  ,this         
character involves the possession of the
 virtues2 the man must act  in the grand
 manner and on the grand scale4 ,he     
knows his own  superiority1 does not    
conceal it1 and acts up to it4          
,self-glorification  overrates its own  
capacities2 self-depreciation underrates
 them and  shuns its responsibilities1  
being the more reprehensible of the two4
    ,there is a nameless virtue which   
stands to magnanimity in the same       
relation as that of liberality to       
munificence2 these being concerned  with
 honours1 as those with money4 ,the     
excess is ambition1 the  deficiency is  
the lack of it2 but here terminology    
fails us4    ,good temper is a mean     
between ill-temper--whether of the      
irascible1 the  sulky1 or the           
cantankerous kind--and something for    
which we have no name                   
7poor-spiritedness74 ,friendliness comes
 between the excessive desire to  please

 and boorishness4 ,it is a social virtue
 which might be defined as  goodwill    
plus tact4 ,sincerity there is no       
,english term quite  corresponding to   
the ,greek is the quality opposed on the
 one side to  boastfulness1 and on the  
other to mock-modesty2 it is displayed  
by the  man who acknowledges1 but who   
never exaggerates his own merits4 ,in   
the  social display of wit and humour1  
there is a marked mean between the      
buffoon and the dullard or prig4 ,shame 
is a term implying a feeling  rather    
than a habit2 like fear1 it has a       
physical effect1 producing  blushes1 and
 seems1 in fact1 to be fear of          
disrepute4 ,to the young1 it  is a      
safeguard against vice2 the virtuous man
 need never feel it2 to be  unable to   
feel it implies the habit of vice4      
,continence is not properly  in the     
category of moral virtues4              
,,iii4--,,justice      ,we come now to  
,justice4 ,a specific habit differs from
 a specific faculty  or science1 as each

 of the latter covers opposites1 e4g41  
the science  of health is also the      
science of sickness2 whereas the habit  
of ,justice  does not cover but is      
opposed to the habit of ,injustice4     
,justice itself  is a term used in      
various senses2 and the senses in which 
injustice is  used vary correspondingly4
 ,confusion is apt to arise from these  
varying  senses not being distinguished4
 ,injustice includes law-breaking1      
grasping and unfairness4 ,grasping is   
taking too much of what is good  only2  
unfairness is concerned with both what  
is good and what is  injurious4 ,but in 
the legal sense1 whatever law lays down 
is assumed to  be just4 ,law1 however1  
covers the whole field of virtuous      
action as it  affects our neighbours1 so
 that in this general sense justice is  
an  inclusive term equivalent to        
righteousness4 ,we1 however1 must       
confine  ourselves to the specific sense
 of the terms4    ,grasping is1 in fact1
 included in unfairness1 which is the   

real opposite  of specific justice2 it  
includes law-breaking only so far as the
 law is  broken for the sake of gain4   
,the justice with which we are concerned
 has  two branches3 ,distributive1 of   
honours and the like among citizens by  
the ,state1 and of private property by  
contract and agreement2 and             
,corrective1 the remedying of unfair    
distribution4 ,there are always two     
parties1 and justice is the mean between
 the unfairness which favours ,a  and   
the unfairness which favours ,b4        
,distributive justice takes into        
consideration the merits of the parties2
 corrective justice is concerned  only  
with restoring a balance which has been 
disturbed4 ,the distribution  is a      
question not of equality1 but of right  
proportion2 and this applies  to        
retribution1 which is recognised as one 
of its aspects1 e4g41 the  retribution  
for an officer striking a private and   
for a private striking  an officer4     
,proportional requital is the economic  

basis of society1  arrived at by the    
existence of a comparatively            
unfluctuating currency  which provides a
 criterion4    ,in the ,state1 as such1 
justice is obtained from the law and its
  administrators2 justice is the virtue 
of the magistrate4 ,since he has        
nothing to gain or lose himself1 it has 
been supposed that justice is  another's
 good1 not our own4 ,in the family1     
justice does not come in1  the whole    
household being1 in a sense1 parts of   
the pater familias2  and as you cannot  
be unjust to yourself1 you cannot be    
unjust to your  household4 ,in the      
,state1 what is just is fixed partly by 
the nature of  things1 partly by law or 
convention4    ,as to individual acts1  
injury may arise from a miscalculation1 
or from  an incalculable accident2 it   
becomes a wrong when it was intentional 
but  not premeditated1 an injustice when
 premeditated4 ,an act prima facie      
unjust is not so if done with the free  
consent of the person injured4 ,it  is  

the agent of distribution1 not the      
recipient1 who is unjust 7when  they are
 different persons72 and similarly1 the 
agent1 not the  instrument4 ,and even   
the agent of unjust distribution is not 
really  unjust unless he was really     
actuated by motives of personal gain4   
,the performance of a particular act is 
easy4 ,to perform it rightly as  the    
outcome of a right habit1 is not2 nor is
 it easy to be confident as  to what is 
right in the particular case4 ,the man  
who is just1 having the  habit1 does not
 find it easy to act unjustly4    ,what 
we must call equity may be opposed to   
justice1 but only in the  legal sense of
 that term4 ,it is justice freed from   
the errors incidental  to the particular
 case1 for which the law cannot provide4
 ,injustice1  again1 is found in        
self-injury or suicide2 which the law   
penalises1 not  because the individual  
thereby treats himself unjustly1 but    
because he  does an injustice to the    
community4 ,it is only by metaphor that 

a man  may be called unjust to himself1 
an expression which means that the      
relation between one part of him and    
another part of him is analogous to  the
 unjust relation between persons4       
,,iv4--,,wisdom1 ,,prudence ,,and       
,,continence      ,the ensuing          
discussion of intellectual virtue       
requires some remarks on  the soul4 ,we 
distinguish in the rational part1 that  
which knows1  concerned1 with the       
unchanging2 and that which reasons1     
concerned with  the changing4 ,our      
intellects and our propensions--not our 
sense-perceptions1 which are shared with
 animals--guide our actions and  our    
apprehension of truth4 ,attraction and  
repulsion1 in correspondence  with      
affirmation and denial1 combine to form 
right choice2 the  practical--as opposed
 to the pure--reason having an external 
object1 and  being a motive power4      
,there are five modes of attaining      
truth3 7#a7 ,concerning things          
unalterable1 defined as demonstrative   

science2 7#b7 concerning the making  of 
things changeable1 art2 7#c7 concerning 
the doing--not making--of  things       
changeable1 prudence2 7#d7 intuitive    
reason1 the basis of  demonstrative     
science2 7#e7 wisdom1 the union of      
intuitive reason and  science4          
,wisdom and prudence are the two virtues
 of the intellect4 ,wisdom implies      
intuitive reason1 which grasps          
undemonstrable first principles2 it is  
concerned with the interests not of the 
moment1 the individual1 or the          
locality4 ,whereas prudence is concerned
 precisely with these2 it is            
essentially practical4 ,wisdom cannot be
 identified with statesmanship2  which1 
again1 is not the same as               
prudence--which applies to the self1    
and to the family1 as well as to the    
,state2 it differs from wisdom as       
requiring experience4    ,wisdom1       
knowledge of the ultimate bases1 is     
equally without practical  bearing for  
those who have acquired a right habit   

and for those who have  not2 just as a  
knowledge of medical theory is of no use
 to the average  man4 ,but being an     
activity of the soul1 ipso facto1 it    
conduces to  happiness4 ,the general    
conclusion is that what we have called  
prudence  shows the means to the end    
which the moral virtues aim at4 ,it is  
not a  moral virtue1 but the moral      
virtues accord with it4 ,both are       
necessary  to the achievement of        
goodness4    ,we come now to a second   
group of qualities1 concerned with      
conduct4 ,we  have dealt with the       
virtues and their opposing vices4 ,we   
pass by the  infra-human and the        
supra-human bestiality and holiness2 but
 have still  to deal with ,continence   
and its contrasted qualities1 which are 
concerned with the passions4    ,in the 
popular view1 continence1 self-control1 
is adherence to our  formed judgment4   
,incontinence is yielding to passion    
where we know it to  be wrong1 and may  
be indulged in the pursuit of vengeance1

 honour1 or  gain4 ,a number of prima   
facie contradictions are started out of 
the  popular views4 ,we find that a man 
does not act against complete  knowledge
 or knowledge of which he is fully      
conscious4 ,the knowledge  may1 so to   
speak1 be there1 but is in abeyance1 a  
condition which is  palpably exemplified
 in a drunken man4 ,now1 incontinence is
 concerned  with pleasures1 which are   
necessary--as for sustenance of         
life--and  unnecessary but1 per se1     
desirable1 as honour4 ,incontinence is a
 term  applied only by analogy in the   
case of the latter2 its proper          
concern--as with the moral vice1 which  
we call intemperance--is with the       
former4 ,it implies1 however1 violent   
desire1 which intemperance does  not4   
,we have examples of such desires in a  
morbid or diseased form1  species of    
mania2 but here again the term          
incontinence is only applied  by        
analogy4 ,its legitimate application1 in
 short1 is restricted to the  normal4   

,incontinence in respect of anger is not
 so bad as in respect of desire4  ,it is
 often constitutional1 it is in itself  
painful1 and it is not  wanton1 being in
 all three points unlike the other4     
,what we spoke of as  bestiality is more
 horrible than vice or incontinence1 as 
being inhuman2  but it does less harm4  
,incontinence means transgressing the   
ordinary  standards in respect of       
pleasure and pain4 ,such transgression1 
when of  set purpose1 and not followed  
by repentance--consequently1            
incurable--is  the moral vice of        
intemperance2 which1 being characterised
 by the  absence of violent desire1 is  
worse than incontinence4 ,the latter is 
open1 and is curable4 ,the confusion    
between the two is due to their  issuing
 in like acts2 the passionate impulse is
 temporary2 it is not a  formed habit of
 wrong choice4    ,continence is acting 
on conviction in resistance to passion2 
not merely  sticking to any and every   
opinion1 which is really rather more    

like  incontinence4 ,the other extreme1 
of actual apathy1 is rare4 ,continence  
differs from temperance1 as implying    
resistance to strong desires2  whereas  
temperance implies that such desires are
 not active4  ,prudence--but not the    
acuteness which is sometimes confused   
with  prudence--is incompatible with    
incontinence1 which is least curable    
when  the outcome of weakness4    ,here 
it becomes necessary to make some       
inquiry as to ,pleasure and ,pain4      
,some maintain that pleasure is never   
good1 some that it is partly good  and  
partly not2 some that it is good1 but   
not the best ,but it cannot be  bad per 
se1 since it may be defined as the      
unimpeded activity of a  formed faculty4
 ,pleasure1 as such1 is not a hindrance 
to any activity1  but its fulfilment2   
e4g41 the pleasure of speculative       
inquiry does not  hinder it4 ,as a      
matter of fact1 everyone does pursue    
pleasure2 the  denial that it is good   
results from thinking of it as meaning  

only  bodily pleasures4 ,and even they  
are not evil1 but only the excessive    
pursuit of them4 ,as to pleasure being  
fleeting1 that is only because          
circumstances vary4 ,the pleasure of the
 unchanging would be permanent4         
,v4--,,friendship      ,a quality       
rendered as ,friendship--though the     
,greek and ,english terms  are not      
identical in content--now comes under   
examination4 ,it is a  relation to some 
other person or persons without which   
life is hardly  worth living4 ,some     
account for it on the principle of like 
to like1  others on the opposite theory4
 ,now1 lovableness comes of goodness1 or
  pleasantness1 or usefulness4 ,love is 
not bestowed on the inanimate1 and  it  
must be mutual2 it is to be             
distinguished from goodwill or devotion1
  which need not be reciprocated4       
,genuine friendship must be based on    
goodness2 what rests on pleasantness    
7as with the young71 or on utility 7as  
with the old71 is only to be  recognised

 conventionally as friendship4 ,in      
perfection it cannot subsist  without   
perfect mutual knowledge1 and only      
between the good2 hence it is  not      
possible for anyone to have many real   
friends4 ,of the conventional  forms1   
that which is born of intellectual      
sympathy is more enduring than  what    
springs from sexual attraction2 while   
what comes of utility is  quite         
accidental4 ,the former may develop into
 genuine friendship if  there be virtue 
in both parties4 ,companionship is a    
necessary condition1  in any case4      
,variants of friendship1 however1 may   
subsist between unequals1 as  between   
parents and children1 princes and       
subjects1 men and women1 where  there is
 a difference in the character of the   
affection of the two  parties4 ,a       
certain degree of inequality--though we 
cannot lay down the  limitation--makes  
friendship a misnomer4 ,one would not   
desire the  actual apotheosis of a      
friend1 because that would take him out 

of reach2  it would end friendship4     
,friendship lies rather in the active   
loving  than in being loved1 though most
 people are more anxious to be loved    
than to love4    ,every form of social  
community--typified in the              
,state--involves  relationships into    
which friendship enters4 ,the           
relationships in the  family correspond 
to those in states2 monarch to subjects 
as father to  children1 tyrant to       
subjects as master to slaves2 autocratic
 rule to  that of the husband1          
oligarchic rule to that of the wife2    
what we call  ,timocracy to the         
fraternal relation1 and ,democracy to   
the entirely  unregulated household4 ,in
 some kinds of association1 friendship  
takes  the form of esprit de corps4 ,it 
may be seen that quarrels arise most    
readily in those friendships between    
equals which are based upon  interest1  
and in friendships between unequals4    
,friendship is a kind of exchange--equal
 between equals1 and proportional       

between unequals2 a repayment4 ,this    
suggests various questions as to        
priority of claim--e4g41 between paying 
your father's ransom and  repaying a    
loan1 both being in a sort the repayment
 of a debt4 ,no fixed  law can be laid  
down--i4e41 it cannot be said that one  
obligation at  all times and in all     
circumstances overrides all others4     
,the dissolution of friendship is       
warranted when one party has become     
depraved1 since he has changed from     
being the person who was the object  of 
friendship4 ,but he should not be given 
up while there is hope of  restoring his
 character4 ,again1 if one develops a   
great superiority1  friendship proper   
cannot persist--at least1 in its first  
form4 ,our  relations with a friend are 
much like those with our own selves2 the
  true friend is a sort of alter ego4   
,friendship is not to be identified     
with goodwill1 though the latter is a   
condition precedent2 we may feel        
goodwill1 but not friendship1 towards a 

person we have never seen or  spoken to4
 ,unanimity of feeling--not as to facts1
 but as to ends and  means--is a sort of
 equivalent to friendship in the body   
politic4 ,the  reason why conferring a  
benefit creates more affection than     
receiving it  seems to be that the      
benefactor feels himself the maker of   
the other2 we  all incline to love what 
we produced--as parents their children1 
or the  artist his own creations4       
,self-love is wrong in a sense--the     
usual sense in which the term is  used1 
of giving priority to oneself in the    
acquisition of material  pleasures4 ,but
 the seeking of the noblest things for  
oneself is really  self-love1 and may   
involve giving others1 especially       
friends1 the  priority in respect of    
desirable things--even to resigning to  
another  the opportunity of doing a     
noble deed4 ,in this higher sense1      
self-love  is praiseworthy4    ,the good
 man is self-sufficing1 but friends are 
desirable1 if not  actually necessary to

 him1 as giving scope for the exercise  
of  beneficent activities1 not as       
conferring benefits upon him4 ,besides1 
man's highest activities must be        
exercised not in isolation1 but as a    
member of society1 and such life lacks  
completeness if without friends4        
,finally1 friendship attains its        
completest realisation where comradeship
  is complete2 that is to say1 in a     
common life4      ,,vi4--,,conclusion   
,we must revert once more to the        
question of ,pleasure and ,pain4 ,to say
  that pleasure is not good is absurd2  
he who does so stultifies himself  by   
his own acts4 ,eudoxus thought it was   
the good1 his opinion being  the        
weightier because of his temperateness4 
,it is desired for its own sake2 its    
opposite is admittedly undesirable4     
,but since it may be added to other good
 things1 it cannot be the good3  though 
to say that what every one desires is   
not good at all is folly4  ,that it is  
not a quality1 or that it is            

indeterminate1 are  irrelevant          
arguments1 both statements applying to  
what are admittedly  among goods4 ,the  
doctrine that it is a process1 again1   
will not hold  water4 ,pleasure is a    
thing complete2 whereas a process is    
complete at no  moment unless it be that
 of its termination4 ,it is the         
completion of its  appropriate activity2
 not in the sense that a habit makes the
 activity  complete1 but as its         
accompaniment and complement4           
,continuous it is not1  just as the     
activity is not4 ,it is not the complete
 life1 but is  inseparable from it4     
,pleasures1 however1 differ specifically
 and in  value1 as do the qualities with
 whose activities they are associated4  
,the pleasures proper to men are those  
associated with the activities  proper  
to man as man1 those shared with other  
animals being so only in a  less degree4
    ,it remains to recapitulate the sum 
of our conclusions regarding ,happiness4
  ,it is not a habit1 but lies in the   

habitual activities--desirable in  and  
for themselves not as means--exercised  
deliberately1 excluding mere  amusement4
 ,man's highest faculty being           
intelligence1 its activity is his       
highest                                 
happiness--contemplation--constant1     
sufficient1 and sought not  as a means1 
but as an end4    ,this kind of         
happiness belongs to the gods also4     
,exclusively human1 but  below the      
other1 is the fulfilment of the moral   
life1 conditioned by  human society1 and
 more affected by environments and      
material wants4 ,for  contemplative     
activity1 the barest material needs     
suffice4 ,but this does  not of itself  
induce the moral life1 being apart from 
conduct4 ,to induce  morality1 not only 
knowledge1 but the right habit of       
action--which does  not follow from     
knowledge and may be implanted without  
it--is absolutely  necessary4           
,compulsion may successfully establish  
the habit where  argument might fail4   

,compulsion1 therefore1 is the proper   
course for the  ,state to take4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,,marcus ,,aurelius      ,,his          
,,discourses ,,with ,,himself           
,marcus ,aurelius ,antoninus1 ,roman    
emperor and ,stoic       philosopher1   
was born on ,april #bj1 #aba ,a4,d4     
,having been       adopted by ,antoninus
 ,pius1 whose daughter ,faustina he     
married1       he succeeded him as      
emperor in #afa1 but freely shared the  
imperial throne with ,lucius ,verus1 who
 also had been adopted       by ,pius4  
,marcus ,aurelius reigned until his     
death1 on ,march #ag1       #ahj1 in    
almost uninterrupted conflict with      
rebellious       provinces1 and often   
heavily burdened with the internal      
troubles of ,rome4 ,but the serenity of 
this august mind1 and       his         
constancy to wisdom1 virtue and         
religion1 were never       shaken4 ,for 
magnanimity1 fidelity1 resignation1     
fortitude and       mercy1 he stands    

unrivalled by any other figure of the   
pagan       world4 ,nor did that world  
produce any other book which1 like      
his1 remains as an unfailing companion  
to every generation of       the modern 
age4 ,the charm of these fragmentary    
meditations       depends greatly on    
their convincing candour2 there is not a
       trace of the cant and            
exaggeration that so taint the          
moralisings of lesser men4 ,it depends  
also on their iron       stoicism2 there
 are here no doubtful comforts1 no rosy 
illusions4 ,but it depends chiefly on   
the admirable and lovable       human   
character which is revealed in them4    
,they were written       in ,greek1 and 
were probably jotted down at odd moments
 under       the most various           
circumstances4 ,tradition says that they
 were       intended for the guidance of
 his son4      ,,book ,i      ,the      
example of my grandfather ,verus taught 
me to be candid and to  control my      
temper4 ,by the memory of my father's   

character ,i learned to  be modest and  
manly4 ,my mother taught me regard for  
religion1 to be  generous and           
open-handed1 and neither to do an ill   
turn to anyone nor  even to think of it4
 ,she bred me also to a plain and       
inexpensive way of  living4 ,i owe it to
 my grandfather that ,i had not a public
 education1  but had good masters at    
home4 ,from my tutor ,i learned not to  
identify  myself with popular sporting  
interests1 but to work hard1 endure     
fatigue1 and not to meddle with other   
people's affairs4 ,diognetus taught  me 
to bear freedom and plain dealing in    
others1 and gave me a taste for         
philosophy4 ,rusticus first set me to   
improve my character1 and prevented  me 
from running after the vanity of the    
,sophists1 and from concerning  myself  
with rhetorical and poetic conceits1 or 
with the affectations of  a dandy4 ,he  
taught me to read an author carefully1  
and gave me a copy of  ,epictetus4      
,apollonius showed me how to give my    

mind its due freedom1 to  disregard     
everything that was not true and        
reasonable1 and to maintain  an equable 
temper under the most trying            
circumstances4 ,sextus taught me  good  
humour1 to be obliging1 and to bear with
 the ignorant and  thoughtless4 ,from   
,maximus ,i learned to command myself1  
and to put  through business            
efficiently1 without drudging or        
complaint4 ,from my  adoptive father ,i 
learned a smooth and inoffensive temper1
 and a  greatness proof against vanity  
and the impressions of pomp and power2  
,i  learned that it was the part of a   
prince to check flattery1 to have his   
exchequer well furnished1 to be frugal  
in his expenses1 not to worship  the    
gods to superstition1 but to be         
reserved1 vigilant and well poised4     
,i thank the gods that my grandfathers1 
parents1 sister1 preceptors1  relatives1
 friends and domestics were almost all  
persons of probity1 and  that ,i never  
happened to disoblige any of them4 ,by  

the goodness of the  gods ,i was not    
provoked to expose my infirmities4 ,i   
owe it to them also  that my wife is so 
deferential1 affectionate and frugal2   
and that when ,i  had a mind to look    
into philosophy ,i did not spend too    
much time in  reading or logic-chopping4
 ,all these points could never have been
  guarded without a protection from     
above4      ,,book ,,ii      ,put       
yourself in mind1 every morning1 that   
before night you will meet  with some   
meddlesome1 ungrateful and abusive      
fellow1 with some envious  or unsociable
 churl4 ,remember that their perversity 
proceeds from  ignorance of good and    
evil2 and that since it has fallen to my
 share to  understand the natural beauty
 of a good action and the deformity of  
an  ill one2 since ,i am satisfied that 
the disobliging person is of kin to  me1
 our minds being both extracted from the
 ,deity2 since no man can do  me a real 
injury because no man can force me to   
misbehave myself2 ,i  cannot therefore  

hate or be angry with one of my own     
nature and family4  ,for we are all made
 for mutual assistance1 no less than the
 parts of the  body are for the service 
of the whole2 whence it follows that    
clashing  and opposition are utterly    
unnatural4 ,this being of mine consists 
of  body1 breath1 and that part which   
governs4 ,put away your books and face  
the matter itself4 ,as for your body1   
value it no more than if you were  just 
expiring2 it is nothing but a little    
blood and bones4 ,your breath  is but a 
little air pumped in and out4 ,but the  
third part is your mind4  ,here make a  
stand4 ,consider that you are an old    
man1 and do not let this  noble part of 
you languish in slavery any longer4 ,let
 it not be  overborne with selfish      
passions2 let it not quarrel with fate1 
or be  uneasy at the present1 or afraid 
of the future4 ,providence shines       
clearly through the work of the gods4   
,let these reflections satisfy you1  and
 make them your rule to live by4 ,as for

 books1 cease to be eager for  them1    
that you may die in good humour1        
heartily thanking the gods for  what you
 have had4    ,remember that you are a  
man and a ,roman1 and let your actions  
be done  with dignity1 gravity1         
humanity1 freedom and justice2 let every
 action  be done as though it were your 
last4 ,have neither insincerity nor     
self-love4 ,man has to gain but few     
points in order to live a happy and     
godlike life4 ,and what1 after all1 is  
there to be afraid of in death8 ,if  the
 gods exist1 you can suffer no harm2 and
 if they do not exist1 or  take no care 
of us mortals1 a world without gods or  
,providence is not  worth a man's while 
to live in4 ,but the being of the gods1 
and their  concern in human affairs1 is 
beyond dispute2 and they have put it in 
every man's power not to fall into any  
calamity properly so called4  ,living   
and dying1 honour and infamy1 pleasure  
and pain1 riches and  poverty--all these
 are common to the virtuous and the     

depraved1 and are  therefore            
intrinsically neither good nor evil4 ,we
 live but for a moment2  our being is in
 a perpetual flux1 our faculties are    
dim1 our bodies tend  ever to           
corruption2 the soul is an eddy1 fortune
 is not to be guessed  at1 and          
posthumous fame is oblivion4 ,to what1  
then1 may we trust8 ,why1  to nothing   
but philosophy4 ,this is1 to keep the   
interior divinity from  injury and      
disgrace1 and superior to pleasure and  
pain1 and to acquiesce  in one's        
appointed lot4      ,,book ,,iii        
,observe that the least things and      
effects in ,nature are not without      
charm and beauty1 as the little cracks  
in the crust of a loaf1 though  not     
intended by the baker1 are agreeable and
 invite the appetite4 ,thus  figs1 when 
they are ripest1 open and gape2 and     
olives1 when they are  near decaying1   
are peculiarly attractive4 ,the bending 
of an ear of corn1  the frown of a lion1
 the foam of a boar1 and many other like

 things1 if  you take them singly1 are  
far from beautiful2 but seen in their   
natural  relations are characteristic   
and effective4 ,so if a man have but    
inclination and thought to examine the  
product of the universe1 he will  find  
that the most unpromising appearances   
have their own appropriate  charm4      
,do not spend your thoughts upon other  
people1 nor pry into the talk1  fancies 
and projects of another1 nor guess at   
what he is about1 or why  he is doing   
it4 ,think upon nothing but what you    
could willingly tell  about1 so that if 
your soul were laid open there would    
appear nothing  but what was sincere1   
good-natured1 and public-spirited4 ,a   
man thus  qualified is a sort of priest 
and minister of the gods1 and makes a   
right use of the divinity within him4   
,be cheerful2 depend not at all on      
foreign supports1 nor beg your happiness
 of another2 don't throw away  your legs
 to stand upon crutches4    ,if1 in the 
whole compass of human life1 you find   

anything preferable to  justice and     
truth1 temperance and fortitude1 or to a
 mind self-satisfied  with its own      
rational conduct and entirely resigned  
to fate1 then turn  to it as to your    
supreme happiness4 ,but if there be     
nothing more  valuable than the divinity
 within you1 if all things are trifles  
in  comparison with this1 then don't    
divide your allegiance4 ,let your choice
  run all one way1 and be resolute for  
that which is best4 ,as for other       
speculations1 throw them once for all   
out of your hand4      ,,book ,,iv      
,it is the custom of people to go to    
unfrequented places and to the  seashore
 and to the hills for retirement2 and   
you yourself have often  wished this    
solitude4 ,but1 after all1 this is only 
a vulgar fancy1 for  it is in your power
 to withdraw into yourself whenever you 
have a mind  to it4 ,one's own heart is 
a place the most free from crowd and    
noise in  the world if only one's       
thoughts are serene and the mind well   

ordered4  ,make1 therefore1 frequent use
 of this retirement1 therein to refresh 
your virtue4 ,and to this end be always 
provided with a few short1  uncontested 
notions1 to keep your understanding     
true4 ,do not forget to  retire to this 
solitude of yours2 let there be no      
straining or  struggling in the matter1 
but move at ease4    ,if understanding  
be common to us all1 then reason1 its   
cause1 must be  common1 too4 ,and so    
also must the reason which governs      
conduct by  commands and prohibitions be
 common to us all4 ,mankind is therefore
  under one common law1 and so are      
fellow-citizens2 and the whole world is 
but one commonwealth1 for there is no   
other society in which mankind can  be  
incorporated4    ,do not suppose that   
you are hurt1 and your complaint will   
cease4    ,if a man affronts you1 do not
 defer to his opinion1 or think just as 
he  would have you do4 ,no2 look upon   
things as reality presents them4 ,when  
incense is thrown upon the altar1 one   

grain usually falls before  another2 but
 it matters not4    ,adhere to the      
principles of wisdom1 and those who now 
take you for a  monkey or a beast will  
make a god of you in a week4    ,a thing
 is neither better nor worse for being  
praised4 ,do virtues stand  in need of a
 good word1 or are they the worse for a 
bad one8 ,an emerald  will shine none   
the less though its worth be not spoken 
of4    ,whatever is agreeable to ,you1  
,o ,universe1 is so to me1 too4 ,your   
operations are never mistimed4 ,whatever
 ,your seasons bring is fruit for  me1  
,o ,nature4 ,from ,you all things       
proceed1 subsist in ,you1 and return to 
,you4 ,the poet said1 ,dear ,city of    
,cecrops2 shall we not say1 ,dear ,city 
of ,god8    ,the greater part of what we
 say and do is unnecessary2 and if this 
were  only retrenched we should have    
more leisure and less disturbance4 ,this
  applies to our thoughts also1 for     
impertinence of thought leads to        
unnecessary action4    ,mankind are     

poor1 transitory things3 one day in     
life1 and the next  turned to mummy or  
ashes4 ,therefore manage this minute    
wisely1 and part  with it cheerfully2   
and like a ripe fruit1 when you drop1   
make your  acknowledgments to the tree  
that bore you4      ,,book ,v      ,when
 you feel unwilling to rise early in the
 morning1 make this short  speech to    
yourself3 ,i am getting up now to do the
 business of a man2  and am ,i out of   
humour for going about that ,i was made 
for1 and for the  sake of which ,i was  
sent into the world8 ,was ,i then       
designed for nothing  but to doze       
beneath the counterpane8 ,surely action 
is the end of your  being4 ,look upon   
the plants and birds1 the ants1 spiders 
and bees1 and  you will see that they   
are all exerting their nature1 and busy 
in their  station4 ,shall not a man act 
like a man8    ,be not ashamed of any   
action which is in accordance with      
,nature1 and  never be misled by the    
fear of censure or reproach4 ,where     

honesty  prompts you to say or do       
anything1 let not the opinion of others 
hold  you back4 ,go forward by the      
straight path1 pursuing your own and the
  common interest4    ,some men1 when   
they do you a kindness1 ask for the     
payment of gratitude2  others1 more     
modest1 remember the favour and look    
upon you as their  debtor4 ,but there   
are yet other benefactors who forget    
their good deeds2  and these are like   
the vine1 which is satisfied by being   
fruitful in its  kind1 and bears a bunch
 of grapes without expecting any thanks 
for it4 ,a  truly kind man never talks  
of a good turn that he has done1 but    
does  another as soon as he can1 just   
like a vine that bears again the next   
season4    ,we commonly say that        
,aesculapius has prescribed riding for  
one patient1  walking for another1 a    
cold bath for a third4 ,in the same way 
we may say  that the nature of the      
,universe has ordered this or that      
person a  disease1 loss of limbs or     

estate1 or some such other calamity4    
,for as1  in the first case1 the word   
prescribed means a direction for the    
health of the patient1 so1 in the       
latter1 it means an application         
suitable for his constitution and       
destiny4    ,be not uneasy1 discouraged 
or out of humour1 because practice falls
  short of precept in some particulars4 
,if you happen to be vanquished1  come  
on again1 and be glad if most of what   
you do is worthy of a man4    ,we ought 
to live with the gods4 ,this is done by 
being contented with the  appointments  
of ,providence1 and by obeying the      
orders of that divinity  which is ,god's
 deputy2 and this divine authority is no
 more nor less  than that soul and      
reason which every man carries within   
him4      ,,book ,,vi      ,the best way
 of revenge is not to imitate the       
injury4 ,be always doing  something     
serviceable to mankind2 and let this    
constant generosity be  your only       
pleasure1 not forgetting a due regard to

 ,god4    ,the world is either an       
aggregation of atoms1 or it is a unity  
ruled by  ,law and ,providence4 ,if the 
first1 what should ,i stay for1 where   
,nature  is a chaos and things are      
blindly jumbled together8 ,but if there 
is a  ,providence1 then ,i adore the    
great ,governor of the world1 and am at 
ease  and cheerful in the prospect of   
protection4    ,suppose you had a       
stepmother and a mother at the same     
time2 though you  would pay regard to   
the first1 your converse would be       
principally with  the latter4 ,let the  
court and philosophy represent these two
 relations  to me4    ,if an antagonist 
in the circus tears our flesh with his  
nails1 or tilts  against us with his    
head1 we do not cry out foul play1 nor  
are we  offended1 nor do we suspect him 
afterwards as a dangerous person4 ,let  
us  act thus in the other instances of  
life4 ,when we receive a blow1 let us   
think that we are but at a trial of     
skill1 and depart without malice or     

ill-will4    ,it is enough to do my     
duty2 as for other things1 ,i will not  
be disturbed  about them4    ,the vast  
continents of ,europe and of ,asia are  
but corners of the  creation2 the ocean 
is but a drop1 and ,mount ,athos but a  
grain in  respect of the universe2 and  
the present instant of time is but a    
point  to the extent of eternity4       
,when you have a mind to divert your    
fancy1 try to consider the good         
qualities of your acquaintance--such as 
the enterprising vigour of this  man1   
the modesty of another1 the liberality  
of a third1 and so on4 ,let  this       
practice be always at hand4      ,,book 
,,vii      ,what is wickedness8 ,it is  
nothing new4 ,when you are in danger of 
being  shocked1 consider that the sight 
is nothing but what you have frequently 
seen already4 ,all ages and histories1  
towns and families1 are full of  the    
same stories2 there is nothing new to be
 met with1 but all things  are common   
and quickly over4    ,nature works up   

the matter of the universe like wax2 now
 it is a horse2  soon afterwards you    
will find it melted down and run into   
the figure of  a tree2 then it is a man2
 and so on4 ,only for a brief time is it
 fixed  in any species4    ,antisthenes 
said3 ,it is the fate of princes to be  
ill spoken of for  their good deeds4    
,consider the course of the stars as if 
you were driving through the sky  and   
kept them company4 ,such contemplations 
as these scour off the rust  contracted 
by conversing here below4    ,rational  
creatures are designed for the advantage
 of each other4 ,a  sociable temper is  
that for which human nature was         
principally intended4    ,it is a saying
 of ,plato's that no one misses the     
truth by his own  goodwill4 ,the same   
may be said of honesty1 sobriety1 good  
nature1 and  the like4 ,remember this1  
for it will help to sweeten your temper4
    ,though the gods are immortal1 and  
have had their patience tried through   
so many ages1 yet they not only bear    

with a wicked world1 but even  provide  
liberally for it4 ,and are you tired    
with evil men already1  though you are  
one of those unhappy mortals yourself8  
,,book ,,viii      ,every man has three 
relations to acquit himself in3 his body
 is one1 ,god  is another1 and his      
neighbours are the third4 ,have you seen
 a hand or a  foot cut off and removed  
from the body8 ,just such a thing is the
 man who  is discontented with destiny  
or cuts himself off by selfishness from 
the  interest of mankind4 ,but here is  
the fortunate aspect of the case--it    
lies in his power to set the limb on    
again4 ,consider the peculiar bounty  of
 ,god to man in this privilege3 ,he has 
set him above the necessity of  breaking
 off from ,nature and ,providence at    
all2 but supposing this  misfortune to  
have occurred1 it is in man's power to  
rejoin the body1  and grow together     
again1 and recover the advantage of     
being the same  member that he was at   
first4    ,do not take your whole life  

into your head at a time1 nor burden    
yourself with the weight of the future1 
nor form an image of all  probable      
misfortunes4 ,neither what is past nor  
what is to come need  afflict you1 for  
you have only to deal with the present2 
and this is  strangely lessened if you  
take it singly and by itself4 ,chide    
your  fancy1 therefore1 if it offers to 
grow faint under so slender a trial4    
,throw me into what climate or state you
 please1 for all that ,i will keep  my  
soul content4 ,is any misadventure big  
enough to ruffle my peace1 or  to make  
my mind mean1 craving and servile8 ,what
 is there that can  justify such        
disorders8    ,be not heavy in business1
 nor disturbed in conversation1 nor     
rambling in  thought4 ,do not burden    
yourself with too much employment4 ,do  
men curse  you8 ,this cannot prevent you
 from keeping a wise1 temperate1 and    
upright  mind4 ,if a man standing by a  
lovely spring should rail at it1 the    
water  is none the worse for his foul   

language2 and if he throw in dirt it    
will  quickly disappear1 and the        
fountain will be as wholesome as ever4  
,how  are you to keep your springs      
always running1 and never stagnate into 
a  pool8 ,you must persevere in the     
virtues of freedom1 sincerity1          
moderation1 and good nature4      ,,book
 ,,ix      ,do not drudge like a        
galley-slave1 nor do business in a      
laborious  manner1 as if you wish to be 
pitied or wondered at4    ,as virtue and
 vice consist in action1 and not in the 
impressions of the  senses1 so it is not
 what they feel1 but what they do1 which
 makes  mankind either happy or         
miserable4    ,this man prays that he   
may gain such a woman2 but do you rather
 pray  that you may have no such        
inclination4 ,another invokes the gods  
to set  him free from some troublesome  
circumstance2 but let it be your        
petition  that your mind may not be set 
upon such a wish4 ,a third is devout in 
order to prevent the loss of his son2   

but ,i would have you pray rather       
against the fear of losing him4 ,let    
this be the rule for your devotions1    
and watch the event4      ,,book ,x     
,o my soul1 are you ever to be rightly  
good1 sincere1 and uniform1 and  made   
more visible to yourself than the body  
that hangs about you8 ,are  you ever    
likely to relish good nature and general
 kindness as you ought8  ,will you ever 
be fully satisfied1 rise above wanting  
and wishing1 and  never desire to obtain
 your pleasure out of anything foreign1 
either  living or inanimate8 ,are you   
ever likely to be so happily qualified  
as  to converse with the gods and men in
 such a manner as neither to  complain  
of them nor to be condemned by them8    
,put it out of the power of all men to  
give you a bad name1 and if anyone      
reports you not to be an honest or a    
good man let your practice give him  the
 lie4 ,this is quite feasible2 for who  
can hinder you from being just  and     
sincere8    ,there is no one so happy in

 his family and friends but that some of
  them1 when they see him going1 will   
rejoice at a good riddance4 ,let him  be
 a person of never so much probity and  
prudence1 yet someone will say  at his  
grave3 ,well1 our man of order and      
gravity is gone2 we shall be  no more   
troubled with his discipline4 ,this is  
the best treatment a good  man must     
expect4      ,,book ,,xi      ,what a   
brave soul it is that is always ready to
 depart from the body1  and is          
unconcerned as to whether she will be   
extinguished1 scattered1 or  removed6   
,but she must be prepared upon          
reasonable grounds1 and not out  of mere
 obstinacy like the ,christians2 her    
fortitude must have nothing  of noise or
 of tragic ostentation1 but must be     
grave and seemly4    ,how fulsome and   
hollow does that man seem who cries3    
,i'm resolved to  deal sincerely with   
you6 ,hark you1 friend1 what need of all
 this  flourish8 ,let your actions      
speak4 ,your face ought to vouch for    

you4 ,i  would have virtue look out of  
the eye no less apparently than love    
does4  ,a man of integrity and good     
nature can never be concealed1 for his  
character is wrought into his           
countenance4    ,gentleness and good    
humour are invincible1 provided they are
 of the  right stamp and without        
hypocrisy4 ,this is the way to disarm   
the most  outrageous person--to continue
 kind and unmoved under ill usage1 and  
to  strike in at the right opportunity  
with advice4 ,but let all be done out   
of mere love and kindness4      ,,book  
,,xii      ,i have often wondered how it
 is that everyone should love himself   
best1  and yet value his neighbour's    
opinion of him more than his own4 ,if   
any  man should be ordered to turn his  
inside outwards1 and publish every      
thought and fancy as fast as they come  
into his head1 he would not  submit to  
so much as a day of this discipline4    
,thus it is that we dread  our          
neighbour's judgment more than our own4 

,what a mighty privilege man is born to1
 since it is in his power not to  do    
anything but what ,god ,almighty        
approves1 and to be satisfied with all  
the distributions of ,providence6       
,reflect upon those who have made the   
most glorious figure or have met  with  
the greatest misfortunes4 ,where are    
they all now8 ,they are vanished  like a
 little smoke4 ,the prize is            
insignificant1 and the play not worth   
the candle4 ,it is much more becoming to
 a philosopher to stand clear of        
affectation1 to be honest and moderate  
upon all occasions1 and to follow       
cheerfully wherever the gods lead on1   
remembering that nothing is more        
scandalous than a man who is proud of   
his humility4    ,listen1 friend6 ,you  
have been a burgher of this great city4 
,what matter  though you have lived in  
it fewer years or more8 ,if you have    
kept the  laws of the corporation1 the  
length or shortness of the time makes no
  difference4 ,where is the hardship1   

then1 if ,nature1 that planted you      
here1 orders your removal8 ,you cannot  
say you are sent off by an unjust       
tyrant ,no6 ,you quit the stage as      
fairly as a player does who has his     
discharge from the master of the revels4
 ,but ,i have only gone through  three  
acts1 and not held out to the end of the
 fifth6 ,true2 but in life  three acts  
may complete the play4 ,he is the only  
judge of completeness  who first ordered
 your entrance and now your exit2 you   
are accountable  for neither the one nor
 the other4 ,retire therefore1 in       
serenity1 as ,he  who dismisses you is  
serene4           99       99       99  
99       99        ,,francis ,,bacon    
,,the ,,advancement ,,of ,,learning     
,francis ,bacon1 ,english philosopher   
and ,chancellor1 was born on            
,january #bb1 #aefa1 the son of ,lord   
,keeper ,bacon1 was sent to             
,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 in #aegc1
 and entered ,gray's ,inn in            
#aegf4 ,he had already become profoundly

 dissatisfied at       ,cambridge with  
the ,aristotelian philosophy1 and the   
conception       of a humble and        
methodical study of ,nature had early   
become       the dominant passion of his
 life4 ,bacon became a member of        
parliament in #aehd1 and nine years     
later distinguished himself       by    
coming forward as the champion of the   
privileges of the       ,house of       
,commons against the ,lords4 ,the       
,essays were       published in #aeig4  
,bacon was knighted in #afjc1 on the    
accession of ,james ,i4 ,in ,october1   
#afje1 he published the                 
,advancement of ,learning1 a work       
designed to interest the       king in  
the new philosophy1 of which book we    
here give a       summary4 ,this review 
of the existing state of knowledge was  
intended to be made1 later1 into the    
first part of the       ,instauratio    
,magna under the title of ,partitiones  
,scientiarum4 ,for this purpose ,bacon  
was constantly revising       it1 and   

eventually he had it translated into    
,latin1 and it was       so published1  
greatly enlarged1 in #afbc1 under the   
title of       ,de ,dignitate et        
,augmentis ,scientiarum4 ,the summit of 
his       career was reached in #afba1  
when he became ,viscount ,st4           
,albans4 ,his fall1 on a charge of      
corruptions in the ,court of            
,chancery1 took place in the following  
,march1 and from this       period until
 his death1 on ,april #i1 #afbf1 he     
devoted himself       to his            
philosophical and literary works4       
,first ,book      ,let us weigh the     
dignity of knowledge in the balance with
 other things4  ,in its archetype it is 
the ,divine wisdom1 or sapience1        
manifested in the  creation4 ,in the    
celestial hierarchy the supposed        
,dionysius of ,athens  places the angels
 of knowledge and illumination before   
those of office  and domination4 ,then1 
the first material form that was created
 was  light1 which corresponds in       

corporal things to knowledge in         
incorporai4  ,the day wherein ,god      
contemplated ,his own works was blessed 
above the  days wherein ,he accomplished
 them4 ,man's first employment in       
,paradise  consisted of the two chief   
parts of knowledge1 the view of         
creatures1  and the imposition of names4
 ,in the age before the ,flood1         
,scripture  honours the names of the    
inventors of music and of works in      
metal4 ,moses  was accomplished in all  
the learning of the ,egyptians4 ,the    
book of ,job  is pregnant with natural  
philosophy4 ,in ,solomon1 the gift of   
wisdom and  learning is preferred before
 all other earthly and temporal         
felicity4    ,our ,saviour first showed 
,his power to subdue ignorance by ,his  
conference  with the doctors1 before ,he
 showed ,his power to subdue ,nature by 
miracles2 and the coming of the ,holy   
,spirit was chiefly figured in the  gift
 of tongues1 which are the vehicles of  
knowledge4 ,st4 ,paul1 most  learned of 

the apostles1 had his pen most used in  
the ,new ,testament4  ,many of the      
ancient fathers of the ,church were     
excellently read in all  the learning of
 the heathen2 and that heathen learning 
was preserved1  amid ,scythian and      
,saracen invasions1 in the sacred bosom 
of the ,church4  ,and in our own day1   
when ,god has called the ,roman ,church 
to account for  degenerate manners and  
obnoxious doctrines4 ,he has also       
ordained a  renovation of all other     
knowledges2 and1 on the other side1 the 
,jesuits1  by quickening the state of   
learning1 have done notable service to  
the  ,roman ,see4 ,wherefore two        
principal services are performed to     
religion by  human learning3 first1 the 
contemplation of ,god's works is an     
effectual  inducement to the exaltation 
of ,his glory2 and1 secondly1 true      
learning  is a singular preservative    
against unbelief and error4    ,to pass 
now to human proofs of the dignity of   
learning1 we find that  among the       

heathen the inventors of new arts1 such 
as ,ceres1 ,bacchus1 and  ,apollo1 were 
consecrated among the gods themselves by
 apotheosis4 ,the  fable of ,orpheus1   
wherein quarrelsome beasts stood        
sociably listening to  the harp1 aptly  
described the nature of men among whom  
peace is  maintained so long as they    
give ear to precepts1 laws1 and         
religion4 ,it  has been said that people
 would then be happy1 when kings were   
philosophers1 or philosophers kings2 and
 history shows that the best  times have
 ever been under learned princes4    ,as
 for the services of knowledge to       
private virtue1 it takes away all       
levity1 temerity1 and insolence by      
copious suggestion of all doubts and    
difficulties1 and acquainting the mind  
to balance reasons on both sides4  ,it  
takes away vain admiration of anything1 
which is the root of all  weakness4 ,no 
man can marvel at the play of puppets   
that goes behind the  curtain4 ,and     
certainly1 if a man meditate much upon  

the universal frame  of ,nature1 the    
earth with men upon it 7the divineness  
of souls except7  will not seem much    
other than an ant-hill1 where some ants 
carry corn1  and some carry their young1
 and some go empty1 and all to and fro a
  little heap of dust4 ,but especially  
learning disposes the mind to be        
capable of growth and reformation4 ,for 
the unlearned man knows not what  it is 
to descend into himself or to call      
himself to account1 nor the  pleasure of
 feeling himself each day a better man  
than he was the day  before2 he is like 
an ill mower1 that mows on still and    
never whets his  scythe4 ,knowledge     
crowns man's nature with power4 ,it even
 gives fortune  to particular persons2  
and it is hard to say whether arms or   
learning  have advanced greater numbers4
 ,as for the pleasure and delight       
thereof1  in knowledge there is no      
satiety4 ,it is a pleasure incomparable1
 says  ,lucretius1 for the mind of man  
to be settled1 landed1 and fortified in 

the certainty of truth2 and from thence 
to descry the errors and  perturbations 
of other men4    ,lastly1 by learning   
man excels man in that wherein man      
excels beasts4  ,the great dignity of   
knowledge lies in immortality or        
continuance1 and  the monuments of      
learning are more durable than the      
monuments of power4  ,have not the      
verses of ,homer continued twenty-five  
hundred years or  more1 without the loss
 of a syllable or letter1 during which  
time  infinite palaces1 temples1        
castles1 cities1 have been decayed and  
demolished8    ,if the invention of the 
ship was thought so noble1 which carries
 riches  and commodities from place to  
place1 and consociates the most remote  
regions in participation of their       
fruits1 how much more are letters to  be
 magnified8 ,popular and mistaken       
judgments will continue as they have    
ever been1 but so will that also        
continue whereupon learning has ever    
relied1 and which fails not4    ,wisdom 

is justified of her children4           
,,second ,,book      ,the parts of human
 learning have reference to the three   
parts of man's  understanding--history  
to his memory1 poetry to his            
imagination1 and  philosophy to his     
reason4 ,divine learning receives the   
same  distribution1 so that theology    
consisteth of history of the ,church2 of
  parables1 which are divine poetry2 and
 of holy doctrine or precept4 ,for      
prophecy is but divine history1 in which
 the narrative is before the  fact4     
,history is natural1 civil1             
ecclesiastical1 and literary 2  whereof 
the first three are extant1 but the     
fourth is deficient4 ,a true  history of
 learning throughout the ages is        
wanting4 ,history of ,nature is  of     
three sorts--of ,nature in course1 of   
,nature erring or varying1 and of       
,nature altered or worked2 that is1     
history of creatures1 history of        
marvels1 and history of arts4 ,the first
 of these is extant in good  perfection2

 the two others are handled so weakly   
that ,i note them as  deficient4 ,the   
history of arts is of great use towards 
natural  philosophy such as shall be    
operative to the benefit of man's life4 
,civil history is of three kinds3       
memorials1 perfect histories1 and       
antiquities1 comparable to unfinished1  
perfect and defaced pictures4  ,just or 
perfect history represents a time1 a    
person1 or an action4 ,the  first we    
call chronicles2 the second1 lives2 and 
the third1  narrations1 or relations4   
,of modern histories the greater part   
are beneath mediocrity4 ,annals and     
journals are a kind of history not to be
 forgotten2 and there is also  ruminated
 history1 wherein political discourse   
and observations are  mingled with the  
history of the events themselves4 ,the  
history of  cosmography is compounded of
 natural history1 civil history1 and    
mathematics4 ,ecclesiastical history    
receives the same divisions with  civil 
history1 but may further be divided into

 history of the ,church1  history of    
prophecy1 and history of ,providence4   
,the first of these is  not deficient1  
only ,i would that the sincerity of it  
were proportionate  to its mass and     
quantity4 ,the history of prophecy1     
sorting every  prophecy with the event  
fulfilling the same1 is deficient2 but  
the  history of ,providence1 and the    
notable examples of ,god's judgments and
  deliverances have passed through the  
labour of many4 ,orations1 letters1  and
 brief sayings1 or apophthegms1 are     
appendices to history4 ,thus much       
concerning history1 which answers to    
memory4    ,poetry refers to the        
imagination4 ,in respect of its words it
 is but a  character of style1 but in   
respect of its matter it is nothing else
 but  feigned history1 which may as well
 be in prose as in verse4 ,the use of   
this feigned history is to give some    
shadow of satisfaction to the mind  of  
man in those points wherein the nature  
of things denies it2 poetry  serves     

magnanimity1 morality1 and delectation4 
,it is divided into  narrative1         
representative1 and allusive or         
parabolical poetry4 ,in poetry  ,i can  
report no deficience2 it has sprung up  
and spread abroad more than  any other  
kind of learning4    ,in philosophy1 the
 contemplations of man either penetrate 
unto ,god1 or  are circumferred to      
,nature1 or are reflected upon himself2 
whence arise  three knowledges--divine  
philosophy1 natural philosophy1 and     
human  philosophy or humanity4 ,but it  
is good to erect one universal science1 
,philosophia ,prima1 primitive or       
summary philosophy1 before we come      
where the ways part and divide2 and this
 universal philosophy is a  receptacle  
for all such profitable observations and
 axioms as do not  fall within the      
compass of any of the special parts of  
philosophy or  sciences1 but are common 
and of a higher stage4 ,divine          
philosophy1 or  natural theology1 is    
that knowledge concerning ,god which may

 be obtained  by the contemplation of   
,his creatures2 and in this ,i note an  
excess  rather than a deficience1       
because of the extreme prejudice which  
both  religion and philosophy have      
received by being mixed together1 making
 an  heretical religion and a fabulous  
philosophy4    ,of natural philosophy   
there are two parts1 the inquisition of 
causes and  the production of effects2  
speculative and operative2 natural      
science  and natural prudence4 ,natural 
science is divided into physic and      
metaphysic4 ,but since ,i have already  
defined a summary philosophy1 and1      
again1 a natural theology1 both of which
 are commonly confounded with           
metaphysic1 what is there remaining for 
metaphysic8 ,this1 that physic  inquires
 concerning the material and efficient  
causes1 but metaphysic  handles the     
formal and final causes4 ,so physic is  
in a middle term  between natural       
history and metaphysic2 for natural     
history describes  the variety of       

things1 physic the variable or          
respective causes1 and  metaphysic the  
fixed and constant causes4 ,of          
metaphysic ,i find that it  is partly   
omitted and partly misplaced4 ,in       
mathematics1 which ,i place as  a part  
of metaphysic1 ,i can report no         
deficience4 ,but natural prudence1  or  
the operative part of natural           
philosophy1 is very deficient4 ,it were 
desirable that there should be a        
calendar or inventory made of all the   
inventions whereof man is possessed1    
with a note of useful things not  yet   
invented4 ,a calendar1 also1 of doubts1 
and another of popular  errors1 are to  
be desired4    ,we come now to the      
knowledge of ourselves--that is1 to     
human philosophy  or humanity4 ,first1 a
 general study of human nature will have
 regard to  the sympathies and          
concordances between mind and body4     
,then1 since the  good of man's body is 
of four kinds--health1 beauty1 strength1
 and  pleasure--the knowledge of the    

body is also of four kinds--medicine1   
decoration or cosmetic1 athletic1 and   
the art voluptuary4 ,medicine has  been 
more professed than laboured1 and more  
laboured than advanced1 the  labour     
having been rather in circle than in    
progression4    ,as for human knowledge 
concerning the mind1 it has two parts1  
one  inquiring of the substance or      
nature of the soul1 and the other of its
  faculties or functions4 ,i believe    
that the first of these may be more     
soundly inquired than it has been1 yet  
,i hold that in the end it must be      
bounded by religion4 ,it has two        
appendices1 concerning divination and   
fascination2 these have rather vapoured 
forth fables than kindled truth4  ,the  
knowledge respecting the faculties of   
the mind is of two kinds1 the  one      
respecting understanding and reason1 and
 the other respecting will1  appetite1  
and affection1 the imagination being    
active in both provinces4  ,the         
intellectual arts are four--inquiry or  

invention1 examination or  judgment1    
custody or memory1 and elocution or     
tradition2 and these are  severally     
divided into various sciences and arts4 
,the knowledge of the  appetite and     
will1 or moral philosophy1 leading to   
the culture and  regiment of the mind1  
is very deficient4    ,civil knowledge  
has three parts--conversation1          
negotiation1 and  government--since man 
seeks in society comfort1 use1 and      
protection4 ,the  first of these is well
 laboured1 the second and third are     
deficient4  ,thus we conclude human     
philosophy1 and turn to the sacred and  
inspired  divinity1 the port of all     
men's labours and peregrinations4       
,sacred theology1 or divinity1 is       
grounded only upon the word and oracle  
of ,god1 and not upon the light of      
,nature4 ,herein there has not been     
sufficiently inquired the true limits   
and use of reason in spiritual  things4 
,exposition of ,scriptures1 on the other
 hand1 is not deficient4  ,divinity has 

four main branches--faith1 manners1     
liturgy1 and  government--in which ,i   
can find no ground vacant and unsown1 so
 diligent  have men been1 either in     
sowing of seed or tares4           99   
99       99       99       99           
,,george ,,berkeley      ,,principles   
,,of ,,human ,,knowledge                
,george ,berkeley1 the metaphysician1   
was born on ,march #ab1       #afhe1    
near ,thomastown1 ,kilkenny1 the son of 
a collector of       revenue4 ,he       
entered ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 at  
the age of       fifteen1 and was       
admitted ,fellow in #agjg4 ,in that year
 he       published two mathematical    
essays2 two years later1 his            
,theory of ,vision1 and in #agaj his    
,principles of ,human       ,knowledge4 
,in #agac1 in ,london1 where he had     
published further       philosophical   
papers1 he formed the acquaintance of   
,steele1       ,swift1 and ,pope4 ,after
 travels in ,europe he became chaplain  
to       the ,lord-,lieutenant of       

,ireland in #agba1 and a few years after
       emigrated to ,newport1 ,rhode    
,island1 with a view to the             
establishment of a college in ,bermuda  
for the education of       ,indians4    
,this scheme fell through1 because of   
the failure of       the promised       
government support4 ,berkeley returned  
to ,london1       and in #agcd1 by      
desire of ,queen ,caroline1 was         
consecrated       ,bishop of ,cloyne1 in
 ,ireland4 ,here he lived until #ageb1  
but       spent his last months in      
retirement at ,oxford1 where he died    
on ,january #ad1 #agec4 ,berkeley's     
,principles of ,human       ,knowledge  
is one of the most eminent of that      
sequence of       metaphysical systems  
which1 beginning with ,descartes1       
constitutes what is known as modern     
philosophy4      ,i4--,,the ,,analysis  
,,of ,,perception      ,it is evident to
 anyone who takes a survey of the       
objects of human  knowledge that they   
are either ideas actually imprinted on  

the senses1  or else such as are        
perceived by attending to the passions  
and  operations of the mind2 or1 lastly1
 ideas formed by help of memory and     
imagination1 either compounding1        
dividing1 or representing those         
originally perceived in the aforesaid   
ways4 ,by sight1 touch1 and other       
senses1 ,i receive various sensations2  
and any group of sensations1  frequently
 accompanying one another1 come to be   
known as one thing4 ,thus  a certain    
colour1 taste1 smell1 figure1 and       
consistence1 having been  observed to go
 together1 are accounted one distinct   
thing--for instance1  an apple4    ,but1
 besides this endless variety of objects
 of knowledge1 there is also  the mind1 
spirit1 soul1 or myself1 which perceives
 them4 ,neither  our thoughts or        
imaginations1 nor even the sensations   
which compose the  objects of           
perception1 can exist otherwise than in 
a mind perceiving  them4 ,it is         
impossible that objects should have any 

existence out of the  minds for which   
they exist2 to conceive them as existing
 unperceived is  a mere abstraction4    
,whence it follows that there is no     
other substance  but spirit1 or that    
which perceives4    ,some1 indeed1      
distinguish between primary and         
secondary qualities1  and hold that the 
former1 such as extension1 figure1      
motion1 and  solidity1 have some        
existence outside of the mind in an     
unthinking  substance which they call   
matter4 ,but extension1 figure1 and     
motion  are only ideas existing in the  
mind1 and neither these ideas nor their 
archetypes can exist in an unperceiving 
substance4 ,the very notion of  what is 
called matter involves a contradiction  
within it4 ,not only  primary and       
secondary qualities alike1 but also     
great and small1  swift and slow1       
extension1 number1 and even unity       
itself1  being all of them purely       
relative1 exist only in the mind4 ,the  
conception of material substance has no 

meaning but that of being in  general4  
,even if we were to give to the         
materialists their external bodies1     
they are by their own confession no     
nearer to knowledge how our ideas  are  
produced1 since they own themselves     
unable to comprehend in what  manner    
body can act upon spirit1 or how it is  
possible that it should  imprint any    
idea on the mind4    ,it is evident that
 the production of ideas in our minds   
can be no reason  why we should suppose 
corporeal substances to exist1 since the
 rise of  those ideas is acknowledged to
 remain equally inexplicable with or    
without the supposition of material     
existences4 ,in short1 if there were    
external bodies1 it is impossible that  
we should ever come to know it2  and if 
there were not1 we should have the same 
reasons to think there  were1 that we   
have now4 ,we perceive a continual      
succession of ideas2  some are anew     
excited1 others are changed or totally  
disappear4 ,there  is1 therefore1 some  

cause of these ideas1 whereon they      
depend1 which  produces and changes     
them4 ,this cause must be a substance2  
but it has  been shown that there is no 
corporeal or material substance4 ,it    
remains1  therefore1 that the cause of  
ideas is an incorporeal active substance
 or  spirit4    ,a spirit is one simple1
 undivided1 active being2 as it         
perceives ideas  it is called the       
understanding1 and as it produces or    
otherwise  operates about them1 it is   
called the will4 ,such is the nature of 
spirit that it cannot be of itself      
perceived1 but only by the effects      
which it produceth4    ,the ideas of    
sense are more strong1 lively1 and      
distinct than those of  the imagination2
 they have likewise a steadiness1 order1
 and coherence1  and are excited in a   
regular series1 the admirable connection
 whereof  sufficiently testifies the    
wisdom and benevolence of its ,author4  
,the set  rules or established methods1 
wherein the mind that we depend on      

excites  in us the ideas of sense1 are  
called the laws of ,nature4    ,these we
 learn by experience1 and so obtain a   
sort of foresight which  enables us to  
regulate our actions for the benefit of 
life4 ,in general1  to obtain such or   
such ends such or such means are        
conducive2 and all  this we know1 not by
 discovering any necessary connection   
between our  ideas1 but only by the     
observation of the laws of ,nature4     
,and yet this constant uniform working1 
which so evidently displays the         
goodness and wisdom of that governing   
spirit whose will constitutes the  laws 
of ,nature1 is so far from leading our  
thoughts to ,him that it  rather sends  
them wandering after second causes4 ,for
 when we perceive  certain ideas of     
sense constantly followed by other      
ideas1 and we know  that it is not of   
our own doing1 we forthwith attribute   
power and agency  to the ideas          
themselves1 and make one the cause of   
another1 than which  nothing can be more

 absurd4      ,,ii4--,,the ,,roots ,,of 
,,scepticism      ,several difficult and
 obscure questions1 on which abundance  
of  speculation hath been thrown away1  
are by our own principles entirely      
banished from philosophy4 ,whether      
corporeal substance can think1  whether 
matter be infinitely divisible1 how     
matter operates on  spirit--these and   
the like inquiries have given infinfte  
amusement to  philosophers in all ages4 
,but since they depend on the existence 
of  matter1 they have no longer any     
place in our principles4 ,it follows1   
also1 that human knowledge may be       
reduced to two heads--knowledge of      
ideas1 and knowledge of spirits4 ,our   
knowledge of the former hath been  much 
obscured and confounded1 and we have    
been led into very dangerous  errors1 by
 supposing a twofold existence of the   
objects of sense1 the  one intelligible1
 or in the mind1 the other real1 and    
without the  mind2 whereby unthinking   
things are thought to have a natural    

subsistence of their own1 distinct from 
being perceived by spirits4    ,this is 
the very root of scepticism2 for so long
 as men thought that  real things       
subsisted without the mind1 and that    
their knowledge was  only so far real as
 it was conformable to real things1 they
 could  not be certain that they had any
 real knowledge at all4    ,so long as  
we attribute a real existence to        
unthinking things1 distinct  from their 
being perceived1 it is not only         
impossible for us to know the  nature of
 any real unthinking being1 but it is   
impossible for us even to  know that it 
exists4 ,hence it is that we see        
philosophers distrust their  senses1 and
 doubt of the existence of heaven and   
earth1 of everything  they see or feel4 
,but all this doubtfulness1 which so    
bewilders and  confounds the mind1      
vanishes if we annex a meaning to our   
words and do  not amuse ourselves with  
the terms absolute1 external1 exist1 and
  such like1 signifying we know not     

what4 ,i can as well doubt of my own    
being as of the being of those things   
which ,i perceive by sense2 the  very   
existence of unthinking beings consists 
in their being perceived4    ,it were a 
mistake to think that what is here said 
derogates in the least  from the reality
 of things4 ,the unthinking beings      
perceived by sense  exist in those      
unextended1 indivisible substances1 or  
spirits1 which  act1 think1 and perceive
 them2 whereas philosophers vulgarly    
hold that  the sensible qualities exist 
in an inert1 extended1 unperceiving     
substance1 which they call matter1 to   
which they attribute a natural          
subsistence distinct from being         
perceived by any mind whatsoever1 even  
the eternal mind of the ,creator4    ,as
 we have shown the doctrine of matter to
 have been the main support of          
scepticism1 so likewise upon the same   
foundation have been raised all  the    
impious schemes of atheism and          
irreligion4 ,all these monstrous        

systems have so visible and necessary a 
dependence on this supposed  material   
substance that1 when this cornerstone is
 once removed1 the  whole fabric cannot 
choose but fall to the ground4    ,on   
the same principle does not only        
fatalism but also idolatry depend in    
all its varying forms4 ,did men but     
consider that the sun1 moon1 and  stars1
 and every other object of the senses1  
are only so many sensations  in their   
minds1 which have no other existence but
 barely being  perceived1 they would    
never fall down and worship their own   
ideas1 but  rather address their homage 
to that ,eternal ,invisible ,mind which 
produces and sustains all things4    ,as
 in reading books1 a wise man will      
choose to fix his thoughts on the  sense
 rather than lay them out on grammatical
 remarks2 so1 in perusing  the volume of
 ,nature1 it seems beneath the dignity  
of the mind to affect  an exactness in  
reducing each particular phenomenon to  
general rules1 or  showing how it       

follows from them4 ,we should propose to
 ourselves nobler  views1 such as to    
recreate and exalt the mind1 with a     
prospect of the  beauty1 order1 extent1 
and variety1 of natural things2 hence1  
by proper  inferences1 to enlarge our   
notions of the grandeur1 wisdom1 and    
beneficence of the ,creator4    ,the    
reason that is assigned for our being   
thought ignorant of the nature  of      
spirits is our not having an idea of    
them4 ,but it is manifestly  impossible 
that there should be any such idea4 ,a  
spirit is the only  substance or support
 wherein the unthinking beings or ideas 
can exist2  but that this substance     
which supports or perceives ideas should
 itself  be an idea is absurd4    ,from 
the opinion that spirits are to be known
 after the manner of an  idea or        
sensation have arisen many heterodox    
tenets and much scepticism  about the   
nature of the soul4 ,it is even probable
 that this opinion may  have produced a 
doubt in some whether they had any soul 

at all distinct  from their body1 since 
they could not find that they had an    
idea of it4  ,but the spirit is a real  
thing1 which is neither an idea nor like
 an  idea4 ,what ,i am myself1 that     
which ,i denote by the term ,i1 is what 
we  mean by soul or spiritual substance2
 and we know other spirits by means  of 
our own soul1 which in that sense is an 
image or idea of them4    ,by the       
natural immortality of the soul we mean 
that it is not liable to  be either     
broken or dissolved by the ordinary laws
 of ,nature or motion4  ,the soul itself
 is indivisible1 incorporeal1           
unextended1 and is  consequently        
incorruptible4      ,,iii4--,,our       
,,knowledge ,,of ,,god      ,though     
there be some things which convince us  
that human agents are  concerned in     
producing them1 yet it is evident to    
everyone that those  things which are   
called the works of ,nature--that is1   
the far greater  part of the ideas or   
sensations perceived by us--are not     

produced by1  nor dependent on1 the     
wills of men4 ,there is1 therefore1 some
 other  spirit that causes them1 since  
they cannot subsist themselves4    ,if  
we attentively consider the constant    
regularity1 order1 and  concatenation of
 natural things1 the surprising         
magnificence1 beauty1  and perfection of
 the larger1 and the exquisite          
contrivance of the  smaller parts       
together with the exact harmony and     
correspondence of the  whole--,i say1 if
 we consider all these things1 and at   
the same time  attend to the import of  
the attributes1 one eternal1 infinitely 
wise1  good1 and perfect1 we shall      
clearly perceive that they belong to the
  aforesaid ,spirit1 who works all in   
all1 and by whom all things consist4    
,hence it is evident that ,god is known 
as certainly and immediately as  any    
other mind or spirit whatsoever1        
distinct from ourselves4 ,we may  even  
assert that the existence of ,god is far
 more evidently perceived  than the     

existence of men1 because the effects of
 ,nature are infinitely  more numerous  
and considerable than those ascribed to 
human agents4  ,there is not any one    
mark that denotes a man1 or effect      
produced by him1  which does not more   
strongly evince the being of that       
,spirit who is the  ,author of ,nature4 
,it seems to be a general pretence of   
the unthinking herd that they  cannot   
see ,god4 ,could we but see ,him1 say   
they1 as we see a man1 we  should       
believe that ,he is1 and1 believing1    
obey ,his commands4 ,but we  need only  
open our eyes to see the sovereign ,lord
 of all things with a  more full and    
clear view than we do any one of our    
fellow-creatures4 ,we  do not see a man1
 if by man is meant that which lives1   
moves1  perceives1 and thinks as we do2 
but only such a collection of ideas as  
directs us to think there is a distinct 
principle of thought and motion  like to
 ourselves1 accompanying and represented
 by it4 ,and after the  same manner we  

see ,god4    ,men are surrounded with   
such clear manifestations of ,deity1 yet
 are so  little affected by them that   
they seem1 as it were1 blinded with     
excess  of light4           99       99 
99       99       99        ,,descartes 
,,discourse ,,on ,,method           ,ren
 ,descartes was born ,march #ca1 #aeif1 
at ,la ,haye1 in the       ancient      
province of ,touraine1 ,france1 of a    
noble family of       ,touraine2 and was
 educated at the ,college of ,la ,flche 
by the       ,jesuits4 ,the decisive    
crisis of his life arrived in #afai1    
while he was serving as a volunteer with
 ,prince ,maurice of       ,nassau1 and 
the next nine years may be regarded as  
the period       of his formation4 ,the 
most fruitful years of his life were    
spent in ,holland1 whence he made       
occasional excursions into              
,france1 and perhaps paid a visit to    
,england4 ,in #afcc he       finished   
his treatise on ,the ,world2 or on      
,light1 an epitome       of his         

,physics1 which1 however1 he deemed it  
wise1 in view       of ,galileo's fate1 
to withhold from publication during his 
lifetime4 ,besides the ,discourse on    
,method 7#afcg71 with the               
treatises on dioptrics1 meteors1 and    
geometry1 his principal       works were
 his ,meditations addressed to the      
,deans of the       ,faculty of         
,theology in the ,university of ,paris2 
the ,principia       ,philosophiae1 and 
the ,trait des ,passions de ,l',ame1 in 
which1 he handled morals4 ,descartes    
died at ,stockholm1 whither       he had
 been summoned by ,queen ,christina1 on 
,february #aa1 #afdi4       ,his work   
stands a landmark in the modern history 
of       philosophic thought4           
,i4--,,the ,,aim ,,of ,,this ,,discourse
      ,good sense or reason must be     
better distributed than anything else in
  the world1 for no man desires more of 
it than he already has4 ,this shows     
that reason is by nature equal in all   
men4 ,if there is diversity of  opinion1

 this arises from the fact that we      
conduct our thought by  different ways1 
and consider not the same things4 ,it   
does not suffice  that the understanding
 be good--it must be well applied4      
,my mind is no better than another's1   
but ,i have been lucky enough to  chance
 on certain ways1 which have led me to a
 certain method by means  of which it   
seems to me that ,i may by degrees      
augment my knowledge to  the modest     
measure of my intellect and my length of
 days4 ,i shall be  very glad to make   
plain in this discourse the paths ,i    
have followed1 and  to picture my life  
so that all may judge of it1 and by the 
setting forth  of their opinions may    
furnish me with yet other means of      
improvement4    ,it is my design not to 
teach the method which each man ought to
 follow  for the right guidance of his  
reason1 but only to show in what manner 
,i  have tried to conduct my own4    ,i 
had been nourished on letters from my   
infancy1 but as soon as ,i had  finished

 the customary course of study1 ,i found
 myself hampered by so  many doubts and 
errors that ,i seemed to have reaped no 
benefits1 except  that ,i had observed  
more and more of my ignorance3 ,yet ,i  
was at one of  the most celebrated      
schools in ,europe1 and ,i was not held 
inferior to my  fellow-students1 some of
 whom were destined to take the place of
 our  masters2 nor did our age seem less
 fruitful of good wits than any which   
had gone before4 ,though ,i did not     
cease to esteem the studies of the      
schools1 ,i began to think that ,i had  
given enough time to languages1  enough 
also to ancient books1 their stories and
 their fables2 for when a  man spends   
too much time in travelling abroad he   
becomes a stranger in  his own country2 
and so1 when he is too curious          
concerning what went on  in past ages1  
he is apt to remain ignorant of what is 
taking place in  his own day4 ,i set a  
high price on eloquence1 and ,i was in  
love with  poetry2 above all1 ,i        

rejoiced in mathematics1 but ,i knew    
nothing of its  true use4    ,i revered 
our theology1 but1 since the way to     
heaven lies open to the  ignorant no    
less than to the learned1 and the       
revealed truths which lead  thither are 
beyond our intelligence1 ,i did not dare
 to submit them to my  feeble           
reasonings4    ,in philosophy there is  
no truth which is not disputed1 and     
which1  consequently1 is not doubtful2  
and1 as to the other sciences1 they all 
borrow their principles from philosophy4
    ,therefore1 ,i entirely gave up the 
study of letters1 and employed the  rest
 of my youth in travelling1 being       
resolved to seek no other science  than 
that which ,i might find within myself1 
or in the ,great ,book of the  ,world4  
,here the best lesson that ,i learned   
was not to believe too firmly  anything 
of which ,i had learnt merely by example
 and custom2 and thus  little by little 
was delivered from many errors which are
 liable to  obscure the light of nature1

 and to diminish our capacity of hearing
  reason4 ,finally1 ,i resolved one day 
to study myself in the same way1 and  in
 this it seems to me ,i succeeded much  
better than if ,i had never  departed   
from either my country or my books4     
,,ii4--,,the ,,intellectual ,,crisis    
,being in ,germany1 on my way to rejoin 
the army after the coronation of  the   
,emperor ,ferdinand ,,ii41 ,i was lying 
at an inn where1 in default of  other   
conversation1 ,i was at liberty to      
entertain my own thoughts4 ,of  these1  
one of the first was that often there is
 less perfection in works  which are    
composite than in those which issue from
 a single hand4 ,such  was the case with
 buildings1 cities1 states2 for a people
 which has made  its laws from time to  
time to meet particular occasions will  
enjoy a  less perfect polity than a     
people which from the beginning has     
observed  the constitution of a         
far-sighted legislator4 ,this is very   
certain1 that  the estate of true       

religion1 which ,god alone has ordained1
 must be  incomparably better guided    
than any other4 ,and again1 ,i          
considered that  as1 during our         
childhood1 we had been governed by our  
appetites and our  tutors1 which are    
often at variance1 which neither of them
 perhaps  always gave us the best       
counsel1 it is almost impossible that   
our  judgments should be so pure and so 
solid as they would have been if we  had
 had the perfect use of our reason from 
the time of our birth1 and  had never   
been guided by anything else4    ,hence1
 as regarded the opinions that ,i had   
received into my belief1 ,i  thought    
that1 as a private person may pull down 
his own house to build a  finer1 so ,i  
could not do better than remove them    
therefrom in order to  replace them by  
sounder1 or1 after ,i should have       
adjusted them to the  level of reason1  
to establish the same once more4        
,when ,i was younger ,i had studied     
logic1 analytical geometry1 and         

algebra4 ,of these1 ,i found that logic 
served rather for explaining  things we 
already know2 while of geometry and     
algebra1 the former is so  tied to the  
consideration of figures that it cannot 
exercise the  understanding without     
wearying the imagination1 and the latter
 is so  bound down to certain rules and 
ciphers that it has been made a confused
  and obscure art which hampers the mind
 instead of a science which  cultivates 
it4 ,and as a state is better governed  
which has but few laws1  and those laws 
strictly observed1 ,i believed that ,i  
should find  sufficient four precepts   
which follow4    ,the first was never to
 accept anything as true when ,i did not
 recognise  it clearly to be so--that is
 to say1 carefully to avoid             
precipitation  and prejudice1 but to    
include in my opinions nothing beyond   
that which  should present itself so    
clearly and distinctly to my mind that  
,i might  have no occasion to doubt it4 
,the second was to divide up the        

difficulties which ,i should examine    
into  as many parts as possible1 and as 
should be required for their better     
solution4    ,the third was to conduct  
my thoughts in order1 by beginning with 
the  simplest objects and those most    
easy to know1 so as to mount little by  
little1 by stages1 to the most complex  
knowledge1 even supposing an  order     
among things which did not naturally    
stand in an order of  antecedent and    
consequent4    ,and the last was to make
 everywhere enumerations so complete1   
and  surveys so wide1 that ,i should be 
sure of omitting nothing4    ,exact     
observation of these precepts gave me   
such facility in unravelling  the       
questions comprehended in geometrical   
analysis and in algebra1 that  in two or
 three months not only did ,i find my   
way through many which ,i  had formerly 
accounted too hard for me1 but1 towards 
the end1 ,i seemed  to be able to       
determine1 in those which were new to   
me1 by what means  and to what extent it

 was possible to resolve them4 ,and so  
,i promised  myself that ,i would apply 
my system with equal success to the     
difficulties of other sciences2 but     
since their principles must all be      
borrowed from philosophy1 in which ,i   
found no certain principles of its  own1
 ,i thought that before all else ,i must
 try to establish some  therein4 ,by way
 of preparation 7for ,i was then but    
twenty-three years  old7 ,i must root up
 from my mind my previous bad opinion of
 it1 and must  practise my method in    
order that ,i might be confirmed in it  
more and  more4      ,,iii4--,a ,,rule  
,,of ,,life      ,meanwhile ,i must have
 a rule of life as a shelter while my   
new house was  in building1 and this    
consisted of three or four maxims4      
,the first was to conform myself to the 
laws and customs of my country1  and to 
hold to the religion in which1 by ,god's
 grace1 ,i had been brought  up2 guiding
 myself1 for the rest1 by the least     
extreme opinions of the  most           

intelligent4 ,among extremes ,i counted 
all promises by which a man  curtails   
anything of his liberty2 for ,i should  
have deemed it a grave  fault against   
good sense if1 because ,i approved      
something in a given  moment1 ,i had    
bound myself to accept it as good for   
ever after4    ,my second maxim was to  
follow resolutely even doubtful opinions
 when  sure opinions were not available1
 just as the traveller1 lost in some    
forest1 had better walk straight        
forward1 though in a chance direction2  
for thus he will arrive1 if not         
precisely at the place where he desires 
to be1 at least probably at a better    
place than the middle of a forest4      
,my third maxim was to endeavour always 
to conquer myself rather than  fortune1 
and to change my desires rather than the
 order of the world1  and in general to 
bring myself to believe that there is   
nothing wholly  in our power except our 
thoughts4 ,and ,i believe that herein   
lay the  secret of those philosophers   

who1 in the days of old1 could withdraw 
from the domination of fortune1 and1    
despite pain and poverty1 challenge  the
 felicity of their gods4    ,finally1   
after looking out upon the divers       
occupations of men1 ,i  pondered that ,i
 could do no better than persevere in   
that which ,i had  chosen--so deep was  
my content in discovering every day by  
its means  truths which seemed to me    
important1 yet were unknown to the      
world4    ,having thus made myself sure 
of these maxims1 and having set them    
apart  together with the verities of    
faith1 ,i judged that for the rest of my
  opinions ,i might set freely to work  
to divest myself of them4 ,for nine     
years1 therefore1 ,i went up and down   
the world a spectator rather than  an   
actor4 ,these nine years slipped away   
before ,i had begun to seek for  the    
foundations of any philosophy more      
certain1 nor perhaps should ,i  have    
dared to undertake the quest had it not 
been put about that ,i had  already     

succeeded4      ,,iv4--,i ,,think1      
,,therefore ,i ,,am      ,i had long    
since remarked that in matters of       
conduct it is necessary  sometimes to   
follow opinions known to be uncertain1  
as if they were not  subject to doubt2  
but1 because now ,i was desirous to     
devote myself to  the search after      
truth1 ,i considered that ,i must do    
just the contrary1  and reject as       
absolutely false everything concerning  
which ,i could  imagine the least doubt 
to exist4    ,thus1 because our senses  
sometimes deceive us ,i would suppose   
that  nothing is such as they make us to
 imagine it2 and because ,i was as      
likely to err as another in reasoning1  
,i rejected as false all the  reasons   
which ,i had formerly accepted as       
demonstrative2 and finally1  considering
 that all the thoughts we have when     
awake can come to us also  when we sleep
 without any of them being true1 ,i     
resolved to feign that  everything which
 had ever entered into my mind was no   

more truth than  the illusion of my     
dreams4    ,but ,i observed that1 while 
,i was thus resolved to feign that      
everything  was false1 ,i who thought   
must of necessity be somewhat2 and      
remarking  this truth--,i think1        
therefore ,i am--was so firm and so     
assured that  all the most extravagant  
suppositions of the sceptics were unable
 to  shake it1 ,i judged that ,i could  
unhesitatingly accept it as the first   
principle of the philosophy ,i was      
seeking4 ,i could feign that there was  
no world1 ,i could not feign that ,i did
 not exist4 ,and ,i judged that ,i      
might take it as a general rule that the
 things which we conceive very  clearly 
and very distinctly are all true1 and   
that the only difficulty  lies in the   
way of discerning which those things are
 that we conceive  distinctly4    ,after
 this1 reflecting upon the fact that ,i 
doubted1 and that  consequently my being
 was not quite perfected 7for ,i saw    
that to know  is a greater perfection   

than to doubt71 ,i bethought me to      
inquire  whence ,i had learned to think 
of something more perfect than myself2  
and  it was clear to me that this must  
come from some nature which was in  fact
 more perfect4 ,for other things ,i     
could regard as dependencies of my      
nature if they were real1 and if they   
were not real they might proceed  from  
nothing--that is to say1 they might     
exist in me by way of defect4  ,but it  
could not be the same with the idea of a
 being more perfect than  my own2 for to
 derive it from nothing was manifestly  
impossible2 and1  because it is no less 
repugnant that the more perfect should  
follow and  depend upon the less perfect
 than that something should come forth  
out  of nothing1 ,i could not derive it 
from myself4    ,it remained1 then1 to  
conclude that it was put into me by a   
nature truly  more perfect than was ,i1 
and possessing in itself all the        
perfections of  what ,i could form an   
idea--in a word1 by ,god4 ,to which ,i  

added that1  since ,i knew some         
perfections which ,i did not possess1 ,i
 was not the  only being who existed1   
but that there must of necessity be some
 other  being1 more perfect1 on whom ,i 
depended1 and from whom ,i had acquired 
all that ,i possessed2 for if ,i had    
existed alone and independent of all    
other1 so that ,i had of myself all this
 little whereby ,i participated in  the 
,perfect ,being1 ,i should have been    
able to have in myself all those  other 
qualities which ,i knew myself to lack1 
and so to be infinite1  eternal1        
immutable1 omniscient1 almighty--in     
fine1 to possess all the  perfections   
which ,i could observe in ,god4         
,proposing to myself the geometer's     
subject matter1 and then turning  again 
to examine my idea of a ,perfect ,being1
 ,i found that existence was            
comprehended in that idea just as1 in   
the idea of a triangle is  comprehended 
the notion that the sum of its angles is
 equal to two right  angles2 and that   

consequently it is as certain that ,god1
 this ,perfect  ,being1 is or exists1 as
 any geometrical demonstration could be4
    ,that there are many who persuade   
themselves that there is a difficulty   
in knowing ,him is due to the scholastic
 maxim that there is nothing in  the    
understanding which has not first been  
in the senses2 where the  ideas of ,god 
and the soul have never been4    ,than  
the existence of ,god all other things1 
even those which it seems to  a man     
extravagant to doubt1 such as his having
 a body1 are less certain4  ,nor is     
there any reason sufficient to remove   
such doubt but such as  presupposes the 
existence of ,god4 ,from ,his existence 
it follows that our  ideas or notions1  
being real things1 and coming from ,god1
 cannot but be  true in so far as they  
are clear and distinct4 ,in so far as   
they contain  falsity1 they are confused
 and obscure1 there is in them an       
element of  mere negation 7elles        
participent du nant72 that is to say1   

they are  thus confused in us because we
 ourselves are not all perfect4 ,and it 
is  evident that falsity or imperfection
 can no more come forth from ,god  than 
can perfection proceed from nothingness4
 ,but1 did we not know that  all which  
is in us of the real and the true comes 
from a perfect and  infinite being1     
however clear and distinct our ideas    
might be1 we should  have no reason for 
assurance that they possessed the final 
perfection--truth4    ,reason instructs 
us that all our ideas must have some    
foundation of  truth1 for it could not  
be that the ,all-,perfect and the       
,all-,true should  otherwise have put   
them into us2 and because our reasonings
 are never so  evident or so complete   
when we sleep as when we wake1 although 
sometimes  during sleep our imagination 
may be more vivid and positive1 it also 
instructs us that such truth as our     
thoughts have will assuredly be in  our 
waking thoughts rather than in our      
dreams4      ,v4--,,why ,i ,,do ,,not   

,,publish ,,the ,,world      ,i have    
always remained firm in my resolve to   
assume no other principle  than that    
which ,i have used to demonstrate the   
existence of ,god and of  the soul1 and 
to receive nothing which did not seem to
 me clearer and  more certain than the  
demonstrations of the philosophers had  
seemed  before2 yet not only have ,i    
found means of satisfying myself with   
regard  to the principal difficulties   
which are usually treated of in         
philosophy1 but also ,i have remarked   
certain laws which ,god has so          
established in nature1 and of which ,he 
has implanted such notions in our       
souls1 that we cannot doubt that they   
are observed in all which happens  in   
the world4    ,the principal truths     
which flow from these ,i have tried to  
unfold in a  treatise 7,on the ,world1  
or on ,light71 which certain            
considerations  prevent me from         
publishing4 ,this ,i concluded three    
years ago1 and had  begun to revise it  

for the printer when ,i learned that    
certain persons  to whom ,i defer had   
disapproved an opinion on physics       
published a short  time before by a     
certain person ,galileo1 condemned by   
the ,roman  ,inquisition in #afcc1 in   
which opinion ,i had noticed nothing    
prejudicial  to religion2 and this made 
me fear that there might be some among  
my  opinions in which ,i was mistaken4  
,i now believe that ,i ought to continue
 to write all the things which ,i  judge
 of importance1 but ought in no wise to 
consent to their  publication during my 
life4 ,for my experience of the         
objections which  might be made forbids 
me to hope for any profit from them4 ,i 
have tried  both friends and enemies1   
yet it has seldom happened that they    
have  offered any objection which ,i had
 not in some measure foreseen2 so that  
,i have never1 ,i may say1 found a      
critic who did not seem to be either    
less rigorous or less fair-minded than  
myself4    ,whereupon ,i gladly take    

this opportunity to beg those who shall 
come  after us never to believe that the
 things which they are told come from   
me unless ,i have divulged them myself2 
and ,i am in nowise astonished at  the  
extravagances attributed to those old   
philosophers whose writings  have not   
come down to us4 ,they were the greatest
 minds of their time1  but have been    
ill-reported4 ,why1 ,i am sure that the 
most devoted of  those who now follow   
,aristotle would esteem themselves happy
 if they had  as much knowledge of      
nature as he had1 even on the condition 
that they  should never have more6 ,they
 are like ivy1 which never mounts higher
  than the trees which support it1 and  
which even comes down again after  it   
has attained their summit4 ,so at least1
 it seems to me1 do they who1  not      
content with knowing all that is        
explained by their author1 would  find  
in him the solution also of many        
difficulties of which he says  nothing1 
and of which1 perhaps1 he never thought4

    ,yet their method of philosophising 
is very convenient for those who have   
but middling minds1 for the obscurity of
 the distinctions and principles  which 
they employ enables them to speak of all
 things as boldly as if  they had       
knowledge of them1 and sustain all they 
have to say against the  most subtle and
 skilful without there being any means  
of convincing  them2 wherein they seem  
to me like a blind man who1 in order to 
fight on  equal terms with a man who has
 his sight1 invites him into the depths 
of  a cavern4 ,and ,i may say that it is
 to their interest that ,i should       
abstain from publishing the principles  
of the philosophy which ,i employ1  for 
so simple and so evident are they that  
to publish them would be like  opening  
windows into their caverns and letting  
in the day4 ,but if they  prefer        
acquaintance with a little truth1 and   
desire to follow a plan  like mine1     
there is no need for me to say to them  
any more in this  discourse than ,i have

 already said4    ,for if they are      
capable of passing beyond what ,i have  
done1 much rather  will they be able to 
discover for themselves whatever ,i     
believe myself  to have found out2      
besides which1 the practice which they  
will acquire  in seeking out easy things
 and thence passing to others which are 
more  difficult1 will stead them better 
than all my instructions4    ,but if    
some of the matters spoken about at the 
beginning of the  ,dioptrics and the    
,meteors published with the ,discourse  
on ,method  should at first give offence
 because ,i have called them            
suppositions1  and have shown no desire 
to prove them1 let the reader have      
patience to  read the whole attentively1
 and ,i have hope that he will be       
satisfied4    ,the time remaining to me 
,i have resolved to employ in trying to 
acquire  some knowledge of nature1 such 
that we may be able to draw from it more
  certain rules for medicine than those 
which up to the present we  possess4    

,and ,i hereby declare that ,i shall    
always hold myself more  obliged to     
those by whose favour ,i enjoy my       
leisure undisturbed than ,i  should be  
to any who should offer me the most     
esteemed employments in  the world4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,,ralph ,,waldo ,,emerson      ,,nature 
,ralph ,waldo ,emerson1 the ,american   
writer and moralist1 was       born at  
,boston on ,may #be1 #ahjc1 of ,english 
stock and a family       of preachers4  
,he was educated at ,harvard for the    
,unitarian       ministry1 and became a 
settled pastor in ,boston before he was 
twenty-six4 ,three years later he       
resigned his charge owing to            
theological disagreements4 ,in #ahcc he 
visited ,europe and       ,england as a 
hero worshipper1 his desire being to    
meet ,landor1       ,coleridge1         
,wordsworth1 and ,carlyle4 ,he saw them 
all1 and       formed a lifelong        
friendship with ,carlyle4 ,returning to 
,america1 he settled at ,concord1 where 

he lived till his death1       on       
,april4 #bg1 #ahhb4 ,his public work    
took the form of lectures1       of     
which his books are reproductions4 ,in  
#ahcf he published his       first book1
 ,nature1 anonymously4 ,nature was the  
germ essay       from which all         
,emerson's later work sprang1 a first   
expression       of thoughts that were  
expanded and developed later4 ,it was   
published in #ahcf1 when its writer was 
thirty-three years of       age1 and    
known only as a preacher who had become 
a lecturer4       ,already ,emerson had 
adopted the methods of a seer rather    
than       those of the consecutive     
thinker4 ,nature was one of the         
first-written books of great writers    
that made a deep       impression on the
 understanding few1 but had only a few  
readers4 ,it presaged the greatness to  
be2 and indeed its       poetical       
quality carries a charm1 which ,emerson 
sometimes       failed to reproduce and 
never afterwards surpassed4             

,i4--,,to ,,what ,,end ,,is ,,nature8   
,our age is retrospective4 ,it builds   
the sepulchres of the fathers4 ,it      
writes biographies1 histories1 and      
criticisms4 ,the foregoing generations  
beheld ,god face to face2 we through    
their eyes4 ,why should not we also     
have an original relation to the        
universe8 ,why should we grope among the
  dry bones of the past1 or put the     
living generation into masquerade out   
of its faded wardrobe8 ,let us          
interrogate the great apparition that   
shines so peacefully around us4 ,let us 
inquire to what end is ,nature4         
,philosophically considered1 the        
universe is composed of ,nature and     
,soul4  ,strictly speaking1 therefore1  
all that is separate from us1 all which 
philosophy distinguishes as not me1 that
 is both ,nature and ,art1 all  other   
men and my own body1 must be ranked     
under this name1 ,nature4  ,nature1 in  
the common sense1 refers to essences    
unchanged by man3 space1  the air1 the  

river1 the leaf4 ,art is applied to the 
mixture of his will  with the same      
things1 as in a house1 a canal1 a       
statue1 a picture4 ,but  his operations1
 taken together1 are so insignificant1 a
 little chipping1  baking1 patching1 and
 washing1 that in an impression so grand
 as that of  the world on the human mind
 they do not vary the result4    ,to go 
into solitude1 a man needs to retire as 
much from his chamber as  from society4 
,but if a man would be alone let him    
look at the stars4 ,the  rays that come 
from those heavenly bodies will separate
 between him and  what he touches4 ,one 
might think the atmosphere was made     
transparent  with this design1 to give  
man in the heavenly bodies the perpetual
  presence of the sublime4 ,seen in the 
streets of cities1 how great they  are6 
,if the stars should appear one night in
 a thousand years1 how men  would       
believe and adore1 and preserve for many
 generations the  remembrance of the    
city of ,god which had been shown6 ,but 

every night  come out these envoys of   
beauty1 and light the universe with     
their  admonishing smile4    ,nature    
never wears a mean appearance4 ,neither 
does the wisest man extort  her secret1 
and lose his curiosity by finding out   
all her perfection4  ,when we speak of  
,nature in this manner we have a        
distinct but most  poetical sense in the
 mind4 ,we mean the integrity of        
impression made by  manifold natural    
objects4 ,the charming landscape which  
,i saw this  morning is indubitably made
 up of some twenty or thirty farms4     
,miller  owns this field1 ,locke that1  
and ,manning the woodland beyond4 ,but  
none  owns the landscape4 ,there is a   
property in the horizon which no man has
  but he whose eye can integrate all the
 parts--that is1 the poet4 ,this is  the
 best part of these men's farms1 yet to 
this their warranty-deeds  give no      
title4      ,,ii4--,,her ,,delight      
,in the presence of ,nature a wild      
delight runs through the man in spite   

of real sorrow4 ,not the sun or the     
summer alone1 but every hour and  season
 yields its tribute of delight2 for     
every hour and change  corresponds to   
and authorises a different state of     
mind1 from breathless  noon to grimmest 
midnight4 ,crossing a bare common1 in   
snow puddles1 at  twilight1 under a     
clouded sky1 without having in my       
thoughts any  occurrence of special good
 fortune1 ,i have enjoyed a perfect     
exhilaration4 ,i am glad to the brink of
 fear4 ,in the woods1 too1 a man  casts 
off his years as the snake his slough1  
and at what period soever  of life is   
always a child4 ,within these           
plantations of ,god a decorum and       
sanctity reign1 a perennial festival is 
dressed1 and the guest sees not  how he 
should tire of them in a thousand years4
 ,standing on the bare  ground1 my head 
bathed in the blithe air1 and uplifted  
into infinite  space1 all mean egotism  
vanishes4 ,i become a transparent       
eyeball2 ,i am  nothing2 ,i see all2 the

 currents of universal being circulate  
through  me2 ,i am a part or particle of
 ,god4 ,i am the lover of uncontained   
and  immortal beauty4    ,yet it is     
certain that the power to produce this  
delight does not reside  in ,nature1 but
 in man1 or in a harmony of both4 ,it is
 necessary to use  these pleasures with 
great temperance4 ,for ,nature is not   
always tricked  in holiday attire1 but  
the same scene which yesterday breathed 
perfume  and glittered as for the frolic
 of nymphs is overspread with melancholy
  to-day4 ,nature always wears the      
colours of the spirit4    ,the misery of
 man appears like childish petulance    
when we explore the  steady and prodigal
 provision that has been made for his   
support and  delight on this green ball 
which floats him through the heavens4   
,all the  parts incessantly work into   
each other's hands for the profit of    
man4  ,the wind sows the seed2 the sun  
evaporates the sea2 the wind blows the  
vapour to the field2 the ice on the     

other side of the planet condenses  the 
rain on this2 the plant feeds the       
animal2 and thus the endless            
circulations of the divine charity      
nourish man4    ,the useful arts are    
reproductions or new combinations by the
 wit of man  of the same natural        
benefactors4 ,the private poor man hath 
cities1  ships1 canals1 bridges1 built  
for him4 ,he goes to the post-office1   
and  the human race run on his errands2 
to the book-shop1 and the human race    
read and write all that happens for him2
 to the court-house1 and nations  repair
 his wrongs4      ,,iii4--,,her         
,,loveliness      ,a nobler want of man 
is served by ,nature1 namely1 the love  
of beauty4  ,such is the constitution of
 all things1 or such the plastic power  
of the  human eye1 that the primary     
forms1 as the sky1 the mountain1 the    
tree1  the animal1 give us a delight in 
and for themselves1 a pleasure arising  
from art1 line1 colour1 motion1 and     
grouping4 ,this seems partly owing to   

the eye itself4 ,the eye is the best of 
artists1 as light is the first of       
painters4    ,to the body and mind which
 have been cramped by noxious work or   
company  ,nature is medicinal1 and      
restores their tone4 ,but in other hours
 ,nature  satisfies by her loveliness   
and without any mixture of corporeal    
benefit4 ,i see the spectacle of morning
 from the hilltop over against my  house
 from daybreak to sunrise with emotion  
which an angel might share4  ,how does  
,nature deify us with a few and cheap   
elements4 ,give me health  and a day1   
and ,i will make the pomp of emperors   
ridiculous4 ,the dawn is  my ,assyria2  
the sunset and moonrise my ,paphos1 and 
unimaginable realms  of faerie2 broad   
noon shall be my ,england of the senses 
and the  understanding2 the night shall 
be my ,germany of mystic philosophy and 
dreams4    ,the inhabitants of cities   
suppose that the country landscape is   
pleasant  only half the year4 ,to the   
attentive eye each moment of the year   

has its  own beauty1 and in the same    
fields it beholds every hour a picture  
which  was never seen before1 and which 
shall never be seen again4    ,every    
rational creature has all ,nature for   
his dowry and estate4 ,he may  divest   
himself of it1 he may creep into a      
corner and abdicate his  kingdom1 as    
most men do1 but he is entitled to the  
world by his  constitution4 ,in         
proportion to the energy of his thought 
and will he  takes up the world into    
himself4      ,,iv4--,,her ,,gift ,,of  
,,language      ,language is another use
 which ,nature subserves to man4 ,words 
are signs  of natural facts4 ,the use of
 natural history is to give us aid in   
supernatural history4 ,every word which 
is used to express a moral or           
intellectual fact1 if traced to its     
root1 is found to be borrowed from  some
 material appearance4 ,right means      
straight2 wrong means twisted2          
transgression the crossing of a line4   
,most of the process by which this      

transformation is made is hidden from us
 in the remote time when  language was  
framed2 but the same tendency may be    
daily observed in  children4    ,it is  
not words only that are emblematic1 it  
is things4 ,every appearance  in ,nature
 corresponds to some state of mind1 and 
that state of mind can  only be         
described by presenting that natural    
appearance as its picture4  ,an enraged 
man is a lion1 a cunning man is a fox1 a
 firm man is a rock1  a learned man is a
 torch4 ,visible distance behind and    
before us is  respectively an image of  
memory and hope4    ,man is conscious of
 a universal soul within or behind his  
individual  life1 wherein1 as in a      
firmament1 the natures of justice1      
truth1 love1  freedom1 arise and shine4 
,this universal soul he calls reason3 it
 is not  mine1 or thine1 or his1 but we 
are its2 we are its property and men4   
,and  the blue sky in which the private 
earth is buried1 the sky with its       
eternal calm and full of everlasting    

orbs is the type of reason4 ,that       
which1 intellectually considered1 we    
call reason1 considered in relation  to 
,nature we call spirit4 ,spirit is the  
creator4 ,spirit hath life in  itself1  
and man in all ages and countries       
embodies it in his language as  the     
,father4    ,as we go back in history   
language becomes more picturesque until 
its  infancy1 when it is all poetry4    
,when simplicity of character and the   
sovereignty of ideas are broken up1 new 
imagery ceases to be created and  old   
words are perverted to stand for things 
which are not2 a paper  currency is     
employed when there is no bullion in the
 vaults4      ,v4--,,her ,,moral        
,,discipline      ,in view of the       
significance of ,nature we arrive at the
 fact that ,nature  is a discipline4    
,what tedious training1 day after day1  
year after year1  never ending1 to form 
the common sense2 what continual        
reproduction of  annoyances1            
inconveniences1 dilemmas2 what rejoicing

 over us of little  men1 what disputing 
of prices1 what reckoning of            
interest--and all to  form the hand of  
the mind6    ,the exercise of will or   
the lesson of power is taught in every  
event4  ,nature is thoroughly mediate4  
,it is made to serve4 ,it receives the  
dominion of man as meekly as the ass on 
which the ,saviour rode4 ,it  offers all
 its kingdoms to man as the raw material
 which he may mould  into what is       
useful4 ,and he is never weary of       
working it up4 ,he forges  the subtle   
and delicate air into wise and melodious
 words1 and gives  them wings as angels 
of persuasion and command4 ,one after   
another his  victorious thought comes up
 with and reduces all things1 until the 
world  becomes at last a realised will4 
,every natural process is a version of a
 moral sentence4 ,the moral law  lies at
 the centre of ,nature and radiates to  
the circumference4 ,what is  a farm but 
a mute gospel8 ,the chaff and the wheat1
 weeds and plants1  blight1 rain1       

insects1 sun--it is a sacred emblem from
 the first furrow  of spring to the last
 stack which the snow of winter         
overtakes in the  fields4 ,who can guess
 how much firmness the sea-beaten rock  
has taught  the fisherman8 ,how much    
tranquillity has been reflected to man  
from the  azure sky8 ,how much industry 
and providence and affection we have    
caught  from the pantomime of brutes8   
,the unity of ,nature meets us          
everywhere4 ,resemblances exist in      
things  wherein there is great          
superficial unlikeness4 ,thus           
architecture is  called frozen music by 
,goethe4 ,a ,gothic church1 said        
,coleridge1 is  petrified religion4 ,the
 law of harmonic sounds reappears in the
  harmonic colours4 ,the granite is     
different in its laws only by the more  
or less of heat from the river that     
wears it away4 ,the river1 as it  flows1
 resembles the air that flows over it2  
the air resembles the light  that       
traverses it with more subtle currents4 

,each creature is only a modification of
 the other1 the likeness in them  is    
more than the difference1 and their     
radical law is one and the same4  ,this 
unity pervades thought also4            
,,vi4--,,is ,,nature ,,real8      ,a    
noble doubt suggests itself whether     
discipline be not the final cause  of   
the universe1 and whether ,nature       
outwardly exists4 ,the frivolous make   
themselves merry with the ideal theory  
as if its consequences were  burlesque1 
as if it affected the stability of      
,nature4 ,it surely does  not4 ,the     
wheels and springs of man are all set to
 the hypothesis of the  permanence of   
,nature4    ,but while we acquiesce     
entirely in the permanence of natural   
laws1 the  question of the absolute     
existence of ,nature still remains open4
 ,it is  the uniform effect of culture  
on the human mind to lead us to regard  
,nature as a phenomenon1 not a          
substance2 to attribute necessary       
existence to spirit4    ,intellectual   

science fastens the attention upon      
immortal necessary  uncreated natures1  
that is1 upon ideas2 and in their       
presence we feel  that the outward      
circumstance is a dream and a shade4    
,whilst we wait in  this ,olympus of the
 gods we think of ,nature as an appendix
 to the soul4  ,finally1 religion and   
ethics1 which may be fitly called the   
practice of  ideas1 have an analogous   
effect4 ,the first and last lesson of   
religion  is3 ,the things that are seen 
are temporal2 the things that are unseen
  are eternal4      ,,vii4--,,the       
,,spirit ,,behind ,,nature      ,the    
aspect of ,nature is devout4 ,like the  
figure of ,jesus1 she stands  with      
bended head and hands folded on the     
breast4 ,the happiest man is he  who    
learns from ,nature the lesson of       
worship4 ,of that ineffable essence  we 
call spirit1 he that thinks most will   
say least4 ,we can foresee ,god  in the 
coarse1 as it were1 distant phenomena of
 matter2 but when we try  to define and 

describe ,himself1 both language and    
thought desert us1 and  we are as       
helpless as fools and savages4 ,the     
noblest ministry of ,nature  is to stand
 as the apparition of ,god4 ,it is the  
organ through which the  universal      
spirit speaks to the individual1 and    
strives to bring back the  individual to
 it4    ,i conclude this essay with some
 traditions of man and ,nature which a  
certain poet sang to me4    ,the        
foundations of man are not in matter1   
but in spirit4 ,and the element  of     
spirit is eternity4 ,to it1 therefore1  
the longest series of events1  the      
oldest chronologies are young and       
recent4 ,a man is a god in ruins4  ,when
 men are innocent1 life shall be longer 
and shall pass into the  immortal as    
gently as we awake from dreams4 ,infancy
 is the perpetual  ,messiah which comes 
into the arms of fallen men1 and pleads 
with them to  return to paradise4 ,the  
problem of restoring to the world the   
original  and eternal beauty is solved  

by the redemption of the soul4 ,the ruin
  that we see when we look at ,nature is
 in our own eye4 ,man cannot be a       
naturalist until he satisfies all the   
demands of the spirit4 ,love is as  much
 its demand as perception4 ,when a      
faithful thinker shall kindle  science  
with the fire of the holiest affection1 
then will ,god go forth  anew into the  
creation4    ,nature is not fixed1 but  
fluid4 ,spirit alters1 moulds1 makes it4
 ,the  immobility1 or bruteness1 of     
,nature is the absence of spirit4 ,every
  spirit builds itself a house1 and     
beyond its house a world1 and beyond    
its world a heaven4 ,what we are1 that  
only can we see4 ,all that ,adam  had1  
all that ,caesar could1 you have and can
 do4 ,adam called his house  heaven and 
earth2 ,caesar called his house ,rome2  
you1 perhaps1 call yours  a cobbler's   
trade1 a hundred acres of ploughed land1
 or a scholar's  garret4 ,yet1 line for 
line1 and point for point1 your dominion
 is as  great as theirs1 though without 

fine names4 ,build1 therefore1 your own 
world4 ,as fast as you conform your life
 to the pure idea in your mind1  that   
will unfold its great proportions4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,epictetus      ,,discourses ,,and     
,,encheiridion           ,the ,stoic    
philosopher ,epictetus was born about   
#ej ,a4,d41 at       ,hierapolis1 in    
,phrygia1 at that time a ,roman province
 of ,asia       ,minor1 and was at first
 a slave in ,rome4 ,on being freed he   
devoted himself to philosophy1 and      
thereafter lived and taught       at    
,nicopolis1 in ,epirus 7then a portion  
of ,macedonia1       corresponding to   
,albania to-day71 from about #ij ,a4,d4 
to #ach       ,a4,d4 ,he left no works1 
but his utterances have been collected  
in four books of ,discourses or         
,dissertations by his pupil       and   
friend ,arrian4 ,in the ,encheiridion   
,epictete--a ,handbook       to         
,epictetus compiled and condensed from  
the chaos of the       almost verbatim  

,discourses--,arrian gives the most     
authentic       account of the          
philosophy of the ,greek and ,roman     
,stoics1 the       sect founded by ,zeno
 about #cjj years before the ,christian 
era1       which flourished until the   
decline of ,rome4 ,arrian himself was   
born about #ij ,a4,d4 at ,nicomedia4 ,he
 wrote in the style of       ,xenophon  
the ,anabasis of ,alexander1 a book on  
,tactics1 and       several histories   
which have been lost4 ,he is chiefly of 
note1       however1 as the ,boswell of 
,epictetus4 ,he died about #ahj ,a4,d4  
,i4--,,of ,,the ,,will1 ,,and ,,of ,,god
      ,the reasoning faculty alone      
considers both itself and all other     
powers1  and judges of the appearance of
 things4 ,and1 as was fit1 this most    
excellent and superior faculty1 the     
faculty of a right use of the           
appearances of things1 is that alone    
which the gods have placed in our  own  
power1 while all the other matters they 
have placed not in our  power4 ,was it  

because they would not8 ,i rather think 
that if they could1  they had granted us
 these1 too2 but they certainly could   
not4 ,for1  placed upon earth1 and      
confined to such a body and such        
companions1 how  was it possible that we
 should not be hindered by things       
without us8    ,but what says ,jupiter8 
,o ,epictetus1 if it were possible1 ,i  
had made  this little body and          
possession of thine free1 and not liable
 to  hindrance4 ,but now do not mistake2
 it is not thine own1 but only a finer  
mixture of clay4 ,since1 then1 ,i could 
not give thee this1 ,i have given  thee 
a certain portion of myself--this       
faculty of exerting the powers of       
pursuit and avoidance1 of desire and    
aversion1 and1 in a word1 the use  of   
the appearances of things4 ,taking care 
of this point1 and making what  is thy  
own to consist in this1 thou wilt never 
be restrained1 never be  hindered2 thou 
wilt not groan1 wilt not complain1 wilt 
not flatter  anyone4 ,how then6 ,do all 

these advantages seem small to thee8    
,heaven  forbid6 ,let them suffice thee1
 then1 and thank the gods4    ,but now1 
when it is in our power to take care of 
one thing1 and apply  ourselves to it1  
we choose rather to encumber ourselves  
with many--body1  property1 brother1    
friend1 child1 slave--and thus we are   
burdened and  weighed down4 ,when the   
weather happens not to be fair for      
sailing1 we  sit screwing ourselves and 
perpetually looking out for the way of  
the  wind4    ,what then is to be done8 
,to make the best of what is in our     
power1 and take the rest as it          
naturally happens4    ,and how is that8 
,as it pleases ,god4    ,to a reasonable
 creature1 that alone is unsupportable  
which is  unreasonable2 everything      
reasonable may be supported4 ,when      
,vespasian had  sent to forbid ,priscus 
,helvidius going to the senate1 he      
answered1 ,it  is in your power to      
prevent my continuing a senator1 but    
while ,i am one  ,i must go4    ,well1  

then1 at least be silent there4    ,do  
not ask my opinion1 and ,i will be      
silent4    ,but ,i must ask it4    ,and 
,i must speak what appears to me to be  
right4    ,but if you do ,i will put you
 to death4    ,did ,i ever tell you that
 ,i was immortal8 ,you will do your     
part1 and ,i  mine2 it is yours to kill1
 and mine to die intrepid2 yours to     
banish me1  mine to depart untroubled4  
,what good1 then1 did ,priscus do1 who  
was but a single person8 ,why1 what     
good does the purple do to the garment8 
,what but the being a shining  character
 in himself1 and setting a good example 
to others8 ,another1  perhaps1 if in    
such circumstances ,caesar had forbidden
 his going to the  senate1 would have   
said1 ,i am obliged to you for excusing 
me4 ,but such  a one ,caesar would not  
have forbidden1 well knowing that he    
would either  sit like a statue1 or1 if 
he spoke1 he would say what he knew to  
be  agreeable to ,caesar4    ,only      
consider at what price you sell your own

 will and choice1 man--if  for nothing  
else1 that you may not sell it for a    
trifle4    ,if a person could be        
persuaded1 as he ought of this          
principle1 that we  are all originally  
descended from ,god1 and that ,he is the
 ,father of gods  and men1 ,i conceive  
he never would think meanly or          
degenerately  concerning himself4       
,suppose ,caesar were to adopt you1     
there would be no  bearing your haughty 
looks4 ,will you not be elated on       
knowing yourself  to be the son of      
,jupiter1 of ,god ,himself8 ,yet1 in    
fact1 we are not  elated2 but having two
 things in our composition1 intimately  
united1 a  body in common with the      
brutes1 and reason and sentiment in     
common with  the gods1 many of us       
incline to this unhappy and mortal      
kindred1 and  only some few to the      
divine and happy one4    ,by means of   
this animal kindred some of us1         
deviating towards it1 become  like      
wolves1 faithless and insidious and     

mischievous2 others like lions1  wild   
and savage and untamed2 but most of us  
like foxes1 wretches even  among brutes4
 ,for what else is a slanderous and     
ill-natured man than a  fox1 or         
something still more wretched and mean8 
,to ,triptolemus all men have raised    
temples and altars1 because he gave  us 
a milder kind of food2 but to ,him who  
has discovered and communicated  to all 
the truth1 the means not of living but  
of living well1 who ever  raised an     
altar or built a statue8    ,if what    
philosophers say of the kindred between 
,god and man be true1  what has anyone  
to do but1 like ,socrates1 when he is   
asked what  countryman he is1 never to  
say that he is a citizen of ,athens1 or 
of  ,corinth1 but of the world8 ,why may
 not he who has learned that from ,god  
the seeds of being are descended1 not   
only to my father or grandfather1  but  
to all things that are produced and born
 on the earth--and  especially to       
rational natures1 as they alone are     

qualified to partake  of a communication
 with the ,deity1 being connected with  
,him by  reason--why may not such a one 
call himself a citizen of the world8    
,why  not a son of ,god8 ,and why shall 
he fear anything that happens among men8
  ,shall kindred to ,caesar1 or any     
other of the great at ,rome1 enable a   
man  to live secure1 above contempt1 and
 void of fear2 and shall not the  having
 ,god for our ,maker and ,father and    
,guardian free us from griefs and       
terrors8      ,,ii4--,,the ,,citizen    
,,of ,,the ,,world ,,and ,,his ,,high   
,,calling      ,you are a distinct      
portion of the essence of ,god1 and     
contain a certain  part of ,him in      
yourself4 ,why do not you consider      
whence you came8 ,you  carry a god about
 with you1 wretch1 and know nothing of  
it4 ,do you  suppose ,i mean some god   
without you1 of gold or silver8 ,it is  
within  yourself you carry ,him1 and    
profane ,him1 without being sensible of 
it1  by impure thoughts and unclean     

actions4 ,if even the image of ,god were
  present1 you would not dare to act as 
you do2 when ,god ,himself is within    
you1 and hears and sees all1 are not you
 ashamed to think and act thus1         
insensible of your own nature and       
hateful to ,god8    ,you are a citizen  
of the world1 and a part of it2 not a   
subservient1 but  a principal part4 ,you
 are capable of comprehending the divine
 economy  and of considering the        
connection of things4 ,what1 then1 does 
the  character of a citizen promise8 ,to
 hold no private interest1 to           
deliberate of nothing as a separate     
individual1 but like the hand or the    
foot1 which1 if they had reason1 and    
comprehended the constitution of        
nature1 would never pursue1 or desire1  
but with a reference to the  whole4     
,ah1 when shall ,i see ,athens and the  
citadel again8 ,wretch1 are not you     
contented with what you see every day8  
,can you see anything better than  the  
sun1 the moon1 the stars1 the whole     

earth1 the sea8 ,if1 besides1 you       
comprehend ,him who administers the     
whole1 and carry ,him about in          
yourself1 do you still long after       
pebbles and a fine rock8    ,boldly make
 a desperate push1 man1 for prosperity1 
for freedom1 for  magnanimity4 ,lift up 
your head at last as free from slavery4 
,dare to  look up to ,god1 and say1     
,make use of me for the future as ,thou 
wilt4 ,i  am of the same mind2 ,i am    
equal with ,thee4 ,i refuse nothing     
which seems  good to ,thee4 ,lead me    
whither ,thou wilt4 ,clothe me in       
whatever dress  ,thou wilt4 ,is it ,thy 
will that ,i should be in a public or a 
private  condition1 dwell here or be    
banished1 be poor or rich8 ,under all   
these  circumstances ,i will make ,thy  
defence to men4 ,i will show what the   
nature of everything is4 ,no1 rather sit
 alone in a warm place1 and wait  till  
your nurse comes to feed you4 ,if       
,hercules had sat loitering at  home1   
what would he have been8 ,you are not   

,hercules1 to extirpate the  evils of   
others4 ,extirpate your own1 then4      
,expel grief1 fear1 desire1  envy1      
malevolence1 avarice1 effeminacy1       
intemperance1 from your mind4    ,but   
these can be no otherwise expelled than 
by looking up to ,god alone  as your    
pattern2 by attaching yourself to ,him  
alone and being  consecrated to ,his    
commands4 ,if you wish for anything     
else1 you will1  with sighs and groans1 
follow what is stronger than you1 always
 seeking  prosperity without1 and never 
finding it4 ,for you seek it where it is
  not1 and neglect to seek it where it  
is4      ,,iii4--,,his ,,will ,,is ,,my 
,,will      ,have ,i ever been          
restrained from what ,i willed8 ,or     
compelled against my  will8 ,how is this
 possible8 ,i have ranged my pursuits   
under the  direction of ,god4 ,is it    
,his will that ,i should have a fever8  
,it is my  will too4 ,is it ,his will   
that ,i should pursue anything8 ,it is  
my will  too4 ,is it ,his will that ,i  

should desire8 ,it is my will too4 ,is  
it ,his  will that ,i should obtain     
anything8 ,it is mine too4 ,is it not   
,his will8  ,it is not mine4 ,is it ,his
 will that ,i should be tortured8 ,then 
it is my  will to be tortured4 ,is it   
,his will that ,i should die8 ,then it  
is my  will to die4    ,he has given me 
whatever depends upon choice4 ,the      
things in my power ,he  has made        
incapable of hindrance or restraint4    
,but how could ,he make a  body of clay 
incapable of hindrance8 ,therefore ,he  
hath subjected my  body1 possessions1   
furniture1 house1 children1 wife1 to the
 revolution  of the universe4 ,he who   
gave takes away4 ,for whence had ,i     
these things  when ,i came into the     
world8    ,but ,i would enjoy the feast 
still longer4 ,so perhaps would the     
spectators at ,olympia see more         
combatants4 ,but the solemnity is over4 
,go  away4 ,depart like a grateful and  
modest person2 make room for others4    
,do not you know that sickness and death

 must overtake us8 ,at what  employment8
 ,the husbandman at his plough2 the     
sailor on his voyage4 ,at  what         
employment would you be taken8 ,indeed1 
at what employment ought you  to be     
taken8 ,for if there is any better      
employment at which you can be  taken1  
follow that4    ,for my own part1 ,i    
would be engaged in nothing but the care
 of my own  faculty of choice1 how to   
render it undisturbed1 unrestrained1    
uncompelled1 free4 ,i would be found    
studying this1 that ,i may be able to   
say to ,god1 ,have ,i transgressed ,thy 
commands8 ,have ,i perverted the        
powers1 the senses1 the preconceptions  
which ,thou hast given me8 ,have ,i     
ever accused ,thee or censured ,thy     
dispensations8 ,i have been sick1       
because it was ,thy pleasure4 ,i have   
been poor1 with joy4 ,i have not been   
in power1 because it was not ,thy will1 
and power ,i have never desired4  ,have 
,i not always approached ,thee          
cheerfully1 prepared to execute ,thy    

commands8 ,is it ,thy pleasure that ,i  
depart from this assembly8 ,i depart4   
,i give ,thee thanks that ,thou hast    
thought me worthy to have a share in  it
 with ,thee2 to behold ,thy works1 and  
to join with ,thee in  comprehending    
,thy administration4 ,let death overtake
 me while ,i am  thinking1 writing1     
reading such things as these4 ,of       
things1 some are in  our power1 others  
not4 ,in our power are opinion1 pursuit1
 desire1  accession2 in a word1 whatever
 are our own actions4 ,not in our power 
are  body1 property1 reputation1        
command2 in a word1 whatever are not our
 own  actions4    ,now1 the things in   
our power are free1 unrestrained1       
unhindered1 while  those not in our     
power are weak1 slavish1 restrained1    
belonging to  others4 ,remember1 then1  
that if you suppose these latter things 
free1  and what belongs to others your  
own1 you will be hindered2 you will     
lament2 you will be disturbed2 you will 
find fault with both gods and  men4 ,but

 if you regard that only as your own    
which is your own1 and what  is others1 
as theirs1 no one will ever compel you2 
no one will restrain  you2 you will find
 fault with no one2 you will accuse no  
one2 you will  do nothing against your  
will2 you will have no enemy and will   
suffer no  harm4    ,aiming1 therefore1 
at great things1 remember that you must 
not allow  yourself to be carried out of
 your course1 however slightly4         
,study to be able to say to every       
hostile appearance1 ,you are but an     
appearance1 and not the thing you appear
 to be4 ,then examine it by your  rules1
 and first and chiefly by this3 whether 
it concerns the things in  your own     
power or those which are not4 ,and if it
 concerns anything not  in your own     
power1 be prepared to say it is nothing 
to you4    ,with regard to whatever     
objects either delight the mind1 or     
contribute  to use1 or are loved with   
fondness1 remember to tell yourself of  
what  nature they are1 beginning from   

the most trifling things4 ,if you are   
fond of an earthen cup1 remind yourself 
it is an earthen cup of which  you are  
fond2 thus1 if it be broken1 you will   
not be disturbed4 ,if you  kiss your    
child1 or your wife1 remember you kiss a
 being subject to the  accidents of     
humanity2 thus you will not be disturbed
 if either die4    ,men are disturbed1  
not by things1 but by their own notions 
regarding  them4    ,be not elated over 
excellences not your own4 ,if a horse   
should be elated  and say1 ,i am        
handsome1 it would be supportable4 ,but 
when you are  elated and say1 ,i have a 
handsome horse1 know that you are elated
 on  what is1 in fact1 only the good of 
the horse4    ,require not things to    
happen as you wish1 but wish them to    
happen as  they do happen4 ,then all    
will go well4    ,in every happening1   
inquire of your mind how to turn it to  
proper  account4    ,never say of       
anything ,i have lost it1 but ,i have   
restored it4 ,is  your child dead8 ,it  

is restored4 ,is your wife dead8 ,she is
 restored4 ,is  your estate taken away  
from you8 ,well1 and is not that        
likewise  restored8 ,but he who took it 
away is a bad man4 ,what is it to you by
  whose hands ,he who gave it hath      
demanded it again8 ,while ,he gives you 
to  possess it1 take care of it1 but as 
of something not your own1 like a       
passenger in an inn4      ,,iv4--,,of   
,,tranquillity ,,and ,,the ,,means      
,,thereto      ,if you would improve1   
lay aside such reasonings as prevent    
tranquillity4  ,it is better to die with
 hunger1 exempt from grief and fear1    
than to  live in affluence with         
perturbation4 ,it is better your servant
 should be  bad than you unhappy4 ,is a 
little oil spilt8 ,a little wine stolen8
 ,say  to yourself1 ,this is the        
purchase paid for peace1 for            
tranquillity1 and  nothing is to be had 
for nothing4 ,when you call your        
servant1 consider  it possible he may   
not come at your call2 or if he doth1   

that he may not  do what you would have 
him do4 ,he is by no means of such      
importance that  it should be in his    
power to give you disturbance4    ,be   
content to be thought foolish and stupid
 with regard to externals and           
unessentials4 ,do not wish to be thought
 to know4 ,and though you appear  to    
others to be somebody1 distrust         
yourself4 ,for be assured it is not     
easy at once to preserve your faculty of
 choice in a state conformable  to      
nature1 and to secure externals1 since  
while you are careful of the  one you   
will neglect the other4    ,behave in   
life as at an entertainment4 ,is        
anything brought round to you8  ,put out
 your hand and take your share1 with    
moderation4 ,doth it pass by  you8 ,do  
not stop it4 ,is it not yet come8 ,do   
not stretch forth your  desire towards  
it1 but wait till it reaches you4 ,thus 
do with regard to  children1 to a wife1 
to public posts1 to riches1 and you will
 be1 some  time or other1 a worthy      

partner of the feasts of the gods4 ,and 
if you do  not so much as take the      
things set before you1 but are able even
 to  despise them1 then you will not    
only be a partner of the gods' feasts1  
but of their empire4    ,remember that  
you are an actor in a drama1 of such a  
kind as the ,author  pleases to make it4
 ,if short1 of a short one2 if long1 of 
a long one4 ,if  it be ,his pleasure you
 should act a poor man1 a cripple1 a    
governor1 or  a private person1 see that
 you act it naturally4 ,for this is your
  business1 to act well the character   
assigned you2 to choose it is           
another's4    ,to me all the portents   
are lucky1 if ,i will4 ,for1 whatever   
happens1 it  is in my power to derive   
advantage from it4    ,remember that not
 he who gives ill language or a blow    
affronts1 but the  principle which      
represents these things as affronting4  
,when1 therefore1  anyone provokes you1 
be assured that it is your own opinion  
which  provokes you4 ,try in the first  

place not to be hurried away with the   
appearance4 ,for if you once gain time  
and respite you will more easily        
command yourself4    ,be assured that   
the essential property of piety towards 
the gods is to  form right opinions     
concerning them as existing and as      
governing the  universe with goodness   
and justice4 ,and fix yourself in the   
resolution  to obey them1 and yield to  
them1 and willingly follow them in all  
events1 as produced by the most perfect 
understanding4 ,for thus you will  never
 find fault with the gods1 nor accuse   
them of neglecting you4 ,and  it is not 
possible for this to be effected any    
other way than by  withdrawing yourself 
from things not in your own power and   
placing good  or evil in those only     
which are4 ,for if you suppose any of   
the things  not in your own power to be 
either good or evil1 when you are       
disappointed at what you wish1 or incur 
what you would avoid1 you must          
necessarily find fault with and blame   

the authors4    ,be for the most part   
silent1 or speak merely what is         
necessary1 and in  few words4 ,we may   
sparingly enter into discourse when     
occasion calls for  it1 but not on the  
vulgar topics of gladiators1            
horse-races1 feasts1 and  so on2 above  
all1 not of men1 so as either to blame1 
praise1 or make  comparisons4    ,if    
anyone tells you such a person speaks   
ill of you1 make no excuses1  but       
answer1 ,he does not know my other      
faults1 or he would not have  mentioned 
only these4    ,when you do anything    
from a clear judgment that it ought to  
be done1  never shun the being seen to  
do it1 even though the world should make
 a  wrong supposition about it4 ,for if 
you do not act right1 shun the action   
itself2 and if you do1 why be afraid of 
mistaken censure8    ,when any person   
does ill by you1 or speaks ill of you1  
remember that he  acts or speaks from a 
supposition of its being his duty4 ,now1
 it is not  possible that he should     

follow what appears right to you1 but   
what  appears so to himself4 ,therefore1
 if he misjudges1 he is the person      
hurt1 for he is the one deceived4       
,meekly bear1 then1 a person who        
reviles you1 for you will say upon every
 occasion1 ,it seemed so to  him4       
,the condition and characteristic of a  
vulgar person is that he never  expects 
either benefit or hurt from himself1 but
 from externals4 ,the  condition and    
characteristic of a philosopher is that 
he expects all  hurt and benefit from   
himself4 ,the marks of a proficient are 
that he  censures no one1 praises no    
one1 blames no one1 accuses no one1 says
  nothing concerning himself as being   
anybody or knowing anything2 when he  is
 hindered or restrained1 he accuses     
himself2 when praised1 he secretly      
laughs2 if censured1 he makes no        
defence4 ,he suppresses all desire2     
transfers his aversion to things only   
which thwart the proper use of his  own 
will2 is gentle in all exercise of his  

powers2 and does not care if  he appears
 stupid and ignorant1 but watches       
himself as an enemy1 like  one in       
ambush4    ,whatever rules of life you  
have deliberately proposed to yourself1 
abide  by them as laws1 and as if it    
were impious to transgress them2 and do 
not regard what anyone says of you2 for 
this1 after all1 is no concern  of      
yours4 ,let whatever appears to you to  
be the best be to you an  inviolable    
law4 ,socrates became perfect1 improving
 himself in everything  by attending to 
reason only4 ,and though you be not yet 
a ,socrates1 live  as one who would     
become a ,socrates4    ,upon all        
occasions we ought to have ready at hand
 these three maxims3        ,conduct me1
 ,god1 and thou1 ,o ,destiny1           
,wherever your decrees have fixed my    
station4      ,i follow cheerfully4 ,and
 did ,i not1      ,wicked and wretched1 
,i must follow still4        ,whoe'er   
yields properly to ,fate is deemed      
,wise among men and knows the laws of   

heaven4    ,o ,crito1 if it thus pleases
 the gods1 thus let it be4 ,anytus and  
,melitus may kill me indeed1 but hurt my
 soul they cannot4           99       99
       99       99       99             
,,footnotes        ,footnote #a3 ,the   
deceased speaks constantly as if he were
 ,osiris or some  other god4 ,this is   
supposed to give him the privileges and 
power of the  god whose name he bears4  
,footnote #b3 ,the ,egyptians thought   
that in the lower world the heart or    
conscience was weighed1 i4e41 judged4   
,footnote #c3 ,this chapter and the like
 are found on stone1 wood1  porcelain1  
etc41 figures1 and attached to the      
mummy4 ,it was supposed to  act         
magically in transferring the tasks of  
the underworld from the  person4        
,footnote #d3 ,the storm-god1 the       
arch-fiend of ,ra1 the sun-god          
,footnote #e3 ,the suppliant has made a 
wax figure of ,apepi1 and1 by           
sympathetic magic1 imagines that by     
burning it he is destroying the  power  

of the original4 ,such wax figures of   
the gods made for magical  purposes were
 generally illegal4    ,footnote #f3    
,there are many examples in the ,book of
 the ,dead of the  magical potency      
attached to names4 ,to invoke a god by  
his name was to  control him4           
,footnote #g3 ,the ass stands for ,ra1  
the sun-god1 and the eater of the ass   
is darkness or some eclipse1 represented
 as one of the foes of ,ra1 in  the     
vignette figured as a serpent on the    
back of an ass4 ,compare the            
,babylonian myth of ,marduk and ,tiamat4
    ,footnote #h3 ,the married name of  
,confucius4    ,footnote #i3 ,compare   
the method of ,socrates in the          
investigation of  truth4    ,footnote   
#aj3 ,in the above four difficulties1   
note the reappearance of  the law of    
reciprocity1 the negative form of the   
,golden ,rule4    ,footnote #aa3 ,a     
technical name for ,china1 which was    
supposed to be  enclosed by the four    
great oceans of the world4 ,china is    

also called  ,the ,middle ,kingdom4     
,footnote #ab3 ,that is1 those who have 
been invested with the sacred  thread1  
which is a sign of having been initiated
 into the paternal  caste4 ,this        
ceremony takes place at the age of seven
 or nine years1 but  is only observed by
 the three higher castes4 ,it is to be  
compared with  the ,christian rites of  
baptism and confirmation4 ,hindu boys1  
when  invested with the sacred thread or
 cord1 are said to be born again4       
,footnote #ac3 ,this spelling of the    
word 7,quran7 represents the native     
,arabic pronunciation if it be          
remembered that q stands for a k sound  
proceeding from the lower part of the   
throat4 ,the initial sound is  therefore
 to be distinguished from that of the   
,arabic and ,hebrew letters  properly   
transliterated k4    ,footnote #ad3 ,the
 pronunciation heard by the present     
writer among the  ,muslim ,arabs of     
,egypt1 ,syria1 etc4 ,the word means    
literally ,the ,praised  ,one or ,the   

,one to be ,praised4 ,the h1 however1 in
 the word is not  the ordinary one1 but 
that pronounced at the lower part of the
 throat1  as the ,arabic equivalent of q
 is4 ,hence this h is transliterated as 
h with a dot underneath it4    ,footnote
 #ae3 ,all the suras1 except the ninth1 
begin with this formula1  as1 indeed1 do
 most ,arabic books1 often even books of
 an immoral nature4    ,footnote #af3   
,muhammad's uncle1 who1 with his wife1  
rejected the  prophet' claims4          
,footnote #ag3 ,a word-play1 ,lahab     
meaning flame4    ,footnote #ah3 ,said  
by ,muslim commentators to be one of the
 last ten  nights of ,ramadhan1 the     
seventh of those nights reckoning       
backwards4    ,footnote #ai3 ,the       
earliest mention of the doctrine of     
abrogation of  previous revelations4    
,when ,muhammad was convinced that what 
he had  previously taught was erroneous 
he always professed to have received a  
new revelation annulling the earlier one
 bearing on the matter4    ,footnote    

#bj3 ,there is perhaps here an indirect 
reference to the alleged  deification of
 the ,virgin ,mary by the ,christians   
with whom ,muhammad came  in contact4   
,footnote #ba3 ,this is from one of the 
oldest suras4 ,a most important  ,muslim
 tradition says that ,muhammad declares 
this sura to be equal to a  third of the
 rest of the ,koran4 ,some say it       
represents the prophet's  creed when he 
entered upon his mission4    ,footnote  
#bb3 ,this is directed against both the 
,mekkan belief that angels  were        
daughters of ,god and also against the  
,christian doctrine that ,jesus  was the
 ,son of ,god4 ,reference is also made1 
perhaps1 to the ,jewish  description of 
,ezra as ,god's son4    ,footnote #bc3  
,muhammad here adopts the ,jewish and   
,arab myth that ,solomon  had a seal    
with the divine name 7,yahwe7 inscribed 
on it giving him  control over winds and
 jinns1 or demons4    ,footnote #bd3 ,in
 ,arabic1 ,mary and ,miriam are spelt   
exactly alike  7,miriam74 ,this         

evidently misled ,muhammad4 ,in sura #ef
 he describes the  ,virgin as a daughter
 of ,amram1 the father of ,aaron1       
,moses1 and ,miriam4  7,see ,numbers    
xxvi4 #ei1 and ,exodus xv4 #bj47        
,footnote #be3 ,this is a well-known    
,arab fable1 based on a                 
misunderstanding of ,i ,kings iv4 #cc1  
influenced by the second ,targum on     
,esther4 ,see an ,english translation of
 this last in a commentary on  ,esther  
by ,paul ,cassel 7,t4  ,t4 ,clark71 p4  
#bfc4 ,this ,targum is certainly  older 
than the ,koran1 and it embodies ,jewish
 legends of a still greater  antiquity4 
,footnote #bf3 ,this legend about ,mount
 ,sinai is contained twice in the       
,jewish ,talmud 7,abodah ,zarah ,mishnah
 ,,ii1 #b1 and ,shabbath ,gemarah       
lxxxviii4 #a74 ,it is no doubt this     
,jewish tradition that suggested the    
above passage4    ,footnote #bg3 ,the   
point to which men turn in prayer1      
,zoroastrians pray  towards the         
east--the direction of the rising sun2  

,jews towards  ,jerusalem1 where the    
,temple was2 and ,muslims1 from the     
utterance of this  sura1 towards ,mekka4
 ,at first ,muhammad adopted no ,qiblah4
 ,on reaching  ,medinah1 in order to    
conciliate the ,jews he adopted         
,jerusalem as the  ,qiblah4 ,but a year 
after reaching ,medinah1 he broke with  
the ,jews and  commanded his people to  
make the ,kaabah their ,qiblah4         
,footnote #bh3 ,the cube-like building  
in the centre of the mosque at  ,mekka1 
which contains the sacred black stone4  
,footnote #bi3 ,ahmad and ,muhammad have
 both the same meaning1 i4e41 the       
,praiseworthy ,one4 ,muslim commentators
 hold that the ,paraclete  7,comforter7 
promised in ,john xvi4 #g means         
,muhammad4 ,in order to make  this      
clear1 however1 they say we ought to    
read ,periklutos1 i4e41  virtually      
,ahmad and ,muhammad1 instead of        
,paracletos4    ,footnote #cj3          
,according to the ,koran1 ,mary was     
worshipped as ,god by the  ,christians  

of ,arabia4    ,footnote #ca3 ,according
 to sura #b1 verse #agd1 the ,bismillah 
7lit4 ,in  the name of ,allah1 etc47    
must be uttered before animals to be    
eaten are  killed4