,note3 ,the spelling of some place names in the index differs from that given in the main text4 ,,how ,,to ,,observe ,,in ,,archaeology ,suggestions for ,travellers in the ,near and ,middle ,east ,,the ,,british ,,museum #aibj ,,contents ,preface4 ,by ,sir ,f4 ,g4 ,keynon ,,part ,i ,chapter ,i4 ,,introductory4 ,by ,g4 ,f4 ,hill ,chapter ,,ii4 ,,method4 ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,british ,,institutions ,,and ,,societies ,,concerned ,,with ,,the ,,archaeology ,,of ,,the ,,near ,,and ,,middle ,,east ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,archaeological ,,joint ,,committee ,,part ,,ii ,,introductory ,,note ,chapter ,i4 ,,flint ,,implements4 ,chapter ,,ii4 ,,greece ,,proper4 ,by ,t4 ,p4 ,droop ,chapter ,,iii4 ,,asia ,,minor4 ,by ,j4 ,g4 ,c4 ,anderson and ,j4 ,l4 ,myres ,chapter ,,iv4 ,,cyprus4 ,by ,j4 ,l4 ,myres ,chapter ,v4 ,,central ,,and ,,north ,,syria4 ,by ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth ,chapter ,,vi4 ,,palestine4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,macalister ,chapter ,,vii4 ,,egypt4 ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie ,chapter ,,viii4 ,,mesopotamia4 ,by ,h4 ,r4 ,hall ,,appendix ,,summaries ,,of ,,laws ,,of ,,antiquities ,,index ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,and ,,tables ,some ,hieroglyphic ,signs liable to be confused with each other ,flint ,implements ,types of ,greek ,pottery1 c4 ,greek ,alphabets ,asia ,minor ,pottery types ,hittite ,inscriptions1 c4 ,bilingual 7,greek and ,cypriote7 ,dedication to ,demeter and ,persephone from ,curium ,syrian ,pottery4 ,syrian ,weapons1 c4 ,west ,semitic ,alphabets ,west ,semitic ,numerals ,palestinian ,pottery types ,egyptian ,pottery types ,mesopotamian ,pottery1 ,seals1 c4 ,cuneiform and other ,scripts ,,preface ,this ,handbook is intended primarily for the use of travellers in the ,near and ,middle ,east who are interested in antiquities without being already trained archaeologists4 ,it is the outcome of a recommendation made by the ,archaeological ,joint ,committee1 a body recently established1 on the initiative of the ,british ,academy and at the request of the ,foreign ,office1 to focus the knowledge and experience of ,british scholars and archaeologists and to place it at the disposal of the ,government when advice or information is needed upon matters connected with archaeological science4 ,the ,committee is composed of representatives of the principal ,english societies connected with ,archaeology1 and it is hoped that it may be recognized as the natural body of reference1 both for ,government ,departments and for the public1 on matters connected with archaeological research in foreign lands4 ,it represents no one institution and no one interest4 ,its purpose is to protect the interests of archaeological science1 to secure a sane and enlightened administration of antiquities in the lands which are now being more fully opened to research1 and to promote the advance of knowledge in the spheres to which its competence extends4 ,one means of serving this cause is to provide information for the guidance of travellers in the lands of antiquity4 ,much knowledge is lost because it comes in the way of those who do not know how to profit by it or to record it4 ,accordingly1 just as the ,natural ,history ,museum has issued a series of pamphlets of advice to the collectors of natural history specimens1 so it has been thought that a handbook of elementary information and advice may be found of service by travellers with archaeological tastes2 and the ,trustees of the ,british ,museum have undertaken the publication of it4 ,the handbook has been prepared by a number of persons1 whose competence is beyond dispute2 and the thanks of all who find it useful are due to ,mr4 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill 7who has acted as general editor as well as part author71 ,prof4 ,w4 ,m4 ,flinders ,petrie1 ,mr4 ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,l4 ,myres1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,c4 ,anderson1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,p4 ,droop1 ,prof4 ,r4 ,a4 ,s4 ,macalister1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,r4 ,hall1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,b4 ,wace1 ,mr4 #j4 ,m4 ,dalton1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,l4 ,hobson1 ,mr4 ,e4 ,j4 ,forsdyke1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,h4 ,smith1 ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,b4 ,cook1 and ,prof4 ,g4 ,a4 ,cooke4 ,each contributor has been left considerable latitude as to the method of treatment of the subject allotted to him1 and no attempt has been made to bring the various sections into uniformity of pattern4 ,owing to ,prof4 ,petrie's absence in ,egypt1 it has not been possible to submit final proofs of his contributions to him4 ,suggestions for improvement in future editions will be welcomed1 and will no doubt be forthcoming as the result of experience4 ,meanwhile it is hoped that this little book will accompany many travellers in foreign lands1 and that the labour expended on it will bear fruit in the improved observation and record of archaeological data1 in establishing sound principles for the administration of antiquities1 and in enforcing proper methods of excavation and conservation4 ,it may also be found of service by those who study the results of research as they appear in museums4 ,f4 ,g4 ,,kenyon4 ,,part ,i ,,chapter ,i ,,introductory ,the hints which it is the object of this volume to convey are not meant for experienced archaeologists4 ,they are rather addressed to those who1 while anxious to observe and record the antiquities which they may see on their travels1 are likely1 owing to lack of training1 to miss things that may be of importance1 or1 having observed them1 to bring home an imperfect record4 ,it is hoped also that they may catch the attention of some of those who are not interested in the subject1 but1 coming into possession of antiquities1 may unwittingly do incalculable harm by allowing them to be destroyed or dispersed before any record has been made4 ,most1 if not all1 of the countries with which we are concerned1 have their ,laws of ,antiquities4 ,it cannot be too strongly insisted that those laws1 even if they might be better than they are1 should be obeyed by the traveller4 ,he should familiarize himself with their main provisions1 which are summarized in an ,appendix4 ,the traveller who makes it his object to loot a country of its antiquities1 smuggling objects out of it and disguising the sources from which they are obtained1 does a distinct dis-service to archaeological science4 ,although he may enrich collections1 public or private1 half or more than half of the scientific value of his acquisitions is destroyed by the fact that their provenance is kept secret or falsely stated4 ,such action is equivalent to tearing out whole pages from a history and destroying them for ever1 for each antiquity1 whatever it may be1 is in its way a part of history1 whether of politics1 arts1 or civilization4 ,for the same reason anything like unauthorized excavation1 especially by unskilled hands1 is gravely to be deprecated4 ,to dig an ancient site unskilfully or without keeping a proper record is to obliterate part of a manuscript which no one else will ever be able to read4 ,the tendency of recent legislation is to allow more generous terms in the matter of licences for export to excavators and collectors1 and the harsher provisions of some of the existing laws are likely soon to be amended4 ,before leaving home1 the traveller will be well advised to make inquiries at the museums or at the head-quarters of the archaeological societies which concern themselves specially with the places which he intends to visit4 ,a list of these museums and societies is appended to this section 7p4 #bf74 ,it is hardly necessary to warn him that archaeological training cannot be acquired in a few days1 and that he will have to buy his experience in various ways2 but the more time he can devote to working through the collections in this country1 the more useful will be his observations abroad4 ,he will be able to learn what kind of antiquities it is especially desirable to look for1 not merely with the object of filling gaps in the public collections1 but for the advancement of archaeological knowledge in general4 ,the object of archaeological travel and excavation is not to collect antiquities so that they may be arranged according to the existing catalogues of museums1 but to collect fresh information to amplify and correct what we now know1 to make our knowledge of the past more complete and useful4 ,on arrival in the country of his choice1 he is recommended to continue at the ,national ,museum the study1 which we suppose he has already begun in the museums at home1 of the kind of antiquities which he is likely to come across4 ,but he should also take an early opportunity of getting into touch with the local ,british ,archaeological ,school or other similar institution1 where he will receive advice what to look for and where and how to look1 and assistance in procuring suitable equipment4 ,thus the traveller who starts from ,athens or ,jerusalem should apply at the ,british ,school of ,archaeology4 ,he may there1 it he desires1 receive instruction in any of the methods described in ,chapter ,,ii1 in which a little practical demonstration is worth pages of print1 and will be given all possible assistance in obtaining such articles of equipment as are available on the spot4 7,photographic supplies and all scientific instruments should be brought out from ,england47 ,the best maps of the district will also be accessible for examination 7but the traveller is recommended to make inquiries in this respect before leaving ,england72 the libraries will provide the literature dealing with the routes he proposes to take2 and such a collection as the type-series of pottery and the ,finlay collection of prehistoric antiquities at the ,british ,school at ,athens may be useful to supplement his previous studies at museums1 and enable him to observe with intelligence the potsherds1 c41 that he may find on an ancient site4 ,in return1 he will be expected to report his results either to the ,school or to some other scientific society or museum at home4 ,it should be unnecessary to remind him that the conditions of the law of the land relating to the reporting of discoveries to the competent authorities should be strictly observed4 ,such authorities should also be informed of any destruction or removal of monuments which may be noticed4 ,another matter which should not be neglected is the obtaining of such licences as may be required by law for the acquisition in the country or export therefrom of objects of antiquity4 ,advice on this matter can be obtained at the local ,school or ,national ,museum4 ,it is possible that the traveller will begin his journey at a point other than the capital4 ,inquiries should be made at the ,london head- quarters of the ,schools concerning residents at such places who may be able to give advice to intending travellers4 ,the traveller will doubtless bring back with him such antiquities as he is permitted to export4 ,a word of general advice on this matter may not be out of place here4 ,the essential value of antiquities1 apart from their purely artistic interest1 lies in the circumstances in which they are found4 ,the inexperienced traveller is apt to pick up a number of objects haphazard1 without accurately noting their find-spots1 and even1 getting tired of them1 as a child of flowers that he has picked1 to discard them a mile or two away4 ,if the first act is a blunder1 the second is a crime2 it is better to leave them lying in place4 ,for the same reason1 it is highly desirable that objects found together 7e4g4 the contents of a tomb7 should as far as possible be kept together1 or at least that accurate record of the whole group should be made1 since the archaeological value of a find may depend on a single object1 apparently of small importance4 ,nothing1 for instance1 is more common1 or more distressing to the numismatist1 than the division of a hoard of coins among various persons before they have been examined by an expert4 ,if they must be divided1 good impressions should at least be made by one of the methods described in ,chapter ,,ii1 and1 if the coins are of gold or silver1 the weights should be noted4 ,this should be done even if the coins1 to the inexperienced eye1 appear to be all alike4 ,the knowledge that any coin from a hoard may be of greater value than a similar coin found singly may induce finders to report such finds before dispersing them4 ,what applies to coins is equally applicable1 in various ways1 to all classes of antiquities4 ,it is assumed that the primary object of the traveller is not speculation in the pecuniary value of the antiquities that he may acquire1 although he may be not unreasonably inclined to recover some of his expenses by disposing of objects which do not appeal to him4 ,should that be so1 although the authorities of public museums obviously cannot be agents or valuers in such transactions between the owner and private collectors1 they are as obviously willing to consider offers which are made to their museums in the first instance and1 if the objects are not required by them1 to advise the owner in what quarter he may be likely to meet with a purchaser4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,method #a4 ,outfit4 ,each traveller will require to provide for his special interests2 but for any archaeological work the following things are desirable4 ,note- books of squared paper4 ,drawing-blocks of blue-squared paper4 ,paper for wet squeezes1 and for dry squeezes4 ,brush for wet squeezes 7spoke brush74 ,one or two so-metre tapes4 ,a few bamboo gardening canes for markers in planning4 ,divide one in inches or centimetres for measuring buildings4 ,a steel rod1 #c ft4 x #a inch for probing4 ,field- glass1 or low-power telescope4 ,prismatic compass with card partly black1 to see at night4 ,large and small celluloid protractors for plotting angles on plans4 ,plotting-scale1 tenths of inches and millimetres4 ,maps of the district1 the best available4 ,aneroid barometer1 if collecting flints2 small size2 can be tested by observing in a tall lift1 or by putting in a tumbler and pressing the hand air-tight over the mouth4 ,the zero error1 or absolute values1 are not wanted for levelling1 only delicacy in small variations4 ,magnifiers1 a few pocket size2 will also serve for presents4 ,indelible pencils1 pens1 and ink in strong corked pocket bottle4 ,reservoir pens dry up too much in some climates4 ,china ink for permanent marking4 ,strips of adhesive paper1 about a inch and a inches wide1 to put round objects for labelling4 ,strong steel pliers1 wire-cutting4 ,a few pocket-knives will serve for presents4 ,it is best to carry money in a little bag or screw of paper1 loose in the jacket pocket1 it in a risky district4 ,it can then be dropped on any alarm and picked up afterwards4 ,photographic4#a ,in the selection of a camera much will depend upon the nature of the work to be undertaken1 the conditions of travel1 and the climate to which the camera will be exposed4 ,for accurate work a stand camera is always to be preferred to one of the hand variety1 and care should be taken to choose an instrument that is strongly made and of simple construction4 ,the essentials of a good stand camera are that it shall be rigid1 possess a rising and falling front1 a swing back1 and bellows which will be capable of extension to fully double the focal length of the lens to be used with it4 #a,prof4 ,petrie is not responsible for this section1 which is due to the kind assistance of some professional photographers4-,,ed4 ,the rising and falling front gives a power of modifying the field of view in a vertical direction4 ,the swing back preserves the verticality of architectural subjects4 ,in some cases1 when used with the pivots vertical1 it is a help in focussing the subject4 ,the possible extension of the distance between the lens stop and the ground glass to twice the focal length 7which is as a rule the distance between the same points1 when a distant object is in focus7 enables a small subject to be reproduced in natural size4 ,for work abroad where extremes of temperature or excessive variations have to be contended with1 a special tropical camera is supplied by most of the leading makers4 ,its well-seasoned hard wood and metal- bound joints render it suitable for hard wear1 and reduce the risk of leakage through warping or shrinkage4 ,the tripod stand should be of the so-called threefold variety1 with sliding legs which can be adapted to broken ground4 ,if a loose screw is used for attaching the camera to the stand1 a spare screw should be kept in reserve4 ,it is important that this stand should be strongly made1 and light patterns subject to undue vibrations in the wind should be discarded4 ,for photographing small objects in the studio1 a small table is more convenient than a tripod support4 ,if the camera will not sit flat on the table1 a bed can easily be designed for it4 ,better work will be done if this is prepared in advance than if an improvised support is used4 ,as regards the size of the outfit1 quarter-plate 7#c #a_/d x #d #a_/d inches7 will usually be found to be large enough for the traveller4 ,for anything in the nature of studio work in a museum or in connexion with an excavation a half-plate camera 7#f #a_/b x #d #c_/d inches7 is more satisfactory4 ,where a hand camera is preferred it should be one capable of adjustment of focus1 and here again1 strength and simplicity should be looked for4 ,it should be provided with effective tripod legs1 for studied exposures4 ,plates or flat films are preferable to roll fills #b which are difficult to manipulate away from home4 ,flat films are less bulky and less breakable than glass1 and can be sent by post4 ,they are supplied by the makers in packs of #ab for daylight loading into a film-pack adapter1 which must be provided to take the place of the ordinary dark slides for glass plates4 ,the lens should be a modern anastigmatic by a good maker4 ,a focal length of about six inches will be best for a quarter-plate camera4 ,a bad lens makes success impossible even by accident4 #b ,transcriber's note3 'fills' in the original text is possibly a misprint for 'films'4 ,the stops will probably be of the ,iris pattern1 incorporated in the lens and so not likely to be lost1 as often happens with loose stops4 ,a few words on the theory and use of the stops and on the ,f-notation may be of service4 ,the speed of a photographic lens depends on the ratio of the effective aperture to the focal length4 ,thus any two lenses used at apertures of ,f_/#h1 that is at apertures having diameters one-eighth of their respective focal lengths1 should be of the same speed1 though both lenses and apertures may be very different4 ,in a given lens1 the speed varies directly with the area of the aperture admitting the light1 that is with the square of the diameter of the aperture4 ,the series of stops usually employed is calculated so that each aperture is half the area of the preceding4 ,stated in terms of the focal length they are known as ,f_/#e4f1 ,f_/#h1 ,f_/#aa4c1 ,f_/#af1 ,f_/#bb4f1 ,f_/#cb1 c4 ,since the squares of those numbers1 #ca4d1 #fd1 #abg4g1 #bef1 #eaj4g1 #ajbd are approximately each twice the preceding number of the series1 the apertures1 ,f7ocal length71 divided by the successive numbers as denominators1 are each half the area of the preceding and require twice the exposure1 ,f_/#af requires twice the 'exposure of ,f_/#aa4c1 and four times that of ,f_/#h1 and so throughout the scale4 ,stops are used to regulate either 'depth of focus' or length of exposure4 ,the 'depth of focus' means the distance before and behind the point in theoretically accurate focus1 at which objects are sufficiently focussed1 for the purpose the photographer has in view4 ,this length is greatest when only the central portion of the lens is in use4 ,it is greatest with a pinhole1 and least with a full aperture4 ,hence a small stop is required if the picture is to include near and far objects1 while a large aperture may be used if all the subject is far enough away to be in clear focus--say more than #be feet--or if it is a flat surface4 ,the small stop is also required when the rising front or the swing back is in use4 ,the power of regulating the time of exposure is convenient for shortening long exposures in dark interiors1 or for lengthening inconveniently short exposures in a bright light4 ,in practice it will be best to become familiar with the use of about three stops1 say the full aperture 7perhaps ,f_/#e4f or ,f_/#h71 ,f_/#af1 and ,f_/#cb4 ,for judging long exposures1 the use of an actinometer 7issued in many inexpensive forms7 is helpful4 ,a telephoto attachment increases the photographer's power of rendering distant details on a large scale4 ,the results are greatly superior to enlargements of a small plate4 ,it is1 however1 useless in a wind1 unless the camera is specially supported1 and is otherwise rather tricky to use4 ,the traveller is strongly advised to master its management at home4 ,it should be adjusted by the maker to the camera for which it is intended4 ,unless a photographer's dark room can be had the developing of the bulk is best left until the return home1 but tests should be made to see that the exposures are correct4 ,a piece of ruby fabric or ruby paper tied over an electric light will give a safe light after dark1 and ',scalol' or some such one-solution developer which requires merely the addition of water1 will give all that is needed for developing4 ,for fixing use #d oz4 hypo to a pint of water4 ,in warm climates1 use cold water4 ,if it is not cool enough1 the gelatine of the negatives may give trouble4 ,in that case1 get colder water1 and use an alum bath4 ,if water is precious1 plates can be sufficiently washed by moving them forward in succession1 through half-dozen soup plates filled with water4 ,if habitual use is not made of tabloid developers1 c41 it is advisable to have some in reserve1 for use in the case of broken bottles and spilt solutions4 ,useful notes and maxims4 ,an over-exposed plate gives no dark shadows in the print4 ,an under-exposed plate gives no high lights4 ,when in doubt1 choose the risk of over-exposure4 ,to test the safety of your camera--,half draw the shutter1 and expose part of the plate in the camera1 in the sunshine1 without uncapping the lens1 and develop4 ,to test the safety of your red light--,expose a plate1 divide it into two1 develop half in the dark1 and half for the same time1 with the same solution by the light you are testing1 and compare the results4 ,this test is worth making1 as photographers are apt to give themselves much discomfort from exaggerated caution4 #b4 ,itinerary4 ,where there are efficient maps the only need is to mark in the position of any antiquities1 by cross-bearings to clear points1 with the compass1 drawn in with a sharp pencil4 ,where the maps are too small1 or deficient1 a continuous register of time should be made1 noting the minute of starting and of stopping2 this over known distances will serve to give the value over the unknown4 ,note whether mounted or walking1 and the compass bearing of the track2 also the bearings of known points around1 whenever stopping4 ,without any known bearings pacing and compass used carefully may go over the roughest ground without five per cent4 error in the day4 ,it is better when on unknown ground to plot a map as you go1 so that no misunderstanding of notes can arise after4 ,if a squared block cannot be used1 at least draw the bearings and distances roughly1 writing in the amounts4 ,this should be plotted up accurately in the evening4 ,a photograph may be unintelligible later in its detail4 ,it is best where known features1 a temple1 tombs1 c41 are in a view1 to sketch the outline when photographing1 and write in the details1 so as to give a key to the photograph4 ,inquire about antiquities whenever stopping4 ,when camping1 villagers usually come up to see who it is2 then tell them the directions of the places around4 ,they will ask how you know2 show them the map1 and they are puzzled2 talk over all the names a few miles round1 and then anything notable in the district may be remarked1 and inquiries made4 ,several men together help each other to remember1 and bring out more remarks4 ,sometimes an intelligent man will describe all the antiquities he knows in the district3 this should be followed closely on the map1 and difficulties resolved at once1 so as to get a clear record noted4 ,of course1 enormous exaggerations are met with1 and not one report in ten will prove to be anything4 ,tracking up the source of bought antiquities is one of the best methods1 and the one by which ,naukratis was found4 ,if travelling by camel1 it is practicable to diverge widely on foot1 if objects are looked for well ahead4 ,a foot track diverging #d4e degrees1 and then converging likewise1 will easily keep in touch with a baggage camel4 ,fix on the camping-place in the morning1 and let every one know of it1 so that if accidentally parted all can rejoin by night4 #c4 ,recording4 ,buildings or ruins4 ,fix position by bearings to mapped points2 also note bearings of any prominent feature near by1 which may serve for finding the position again4 ,sketch a plan1 always north up in the book1 note bearing of main wall1 and then measure with bamboo rod all original dimensions1 with some diagonals to fix angles2 do not forget the thickness of the walls4 ,it is best for a long length to stretch a tape1 pegged down by the ring1 and pulled tight by hand3 read off all positions of doors1 windows1 cross-walls1 c41 on one long length1 and not as separate short lengths4 ,if possible plot the measures on squared paper as you go1 and then any errors or omissions will be checked at once4 ',e4 and ,o4,e4' has no place in a plan4 ,town mounds4 ,estimate height over bare land outside2 eye height is a trifle over five feet4 ,at the foot of the mound see where the horizon cuts the shoulder of it to find eye height2 walk up to that point1 and sight another five feet2 so on1 till you see over the top4 ,if there is any section1 by a stream side1 or digging1 or land-slip1 look for strata1 stone or brick walls and floor levels1 and for any distinctive potsherds2 observing levels as before4 ,look all over the top for potsherds1 to find the latest period of the town4 ,look around the mound for any early potsherds4 ,sherds on the slopes are worth less2 as they have probably slipped down4 ,red burnt brick in ,egypt is all ,roman or ,arab2 in ,greece and ,asia ,minor1 red brick and mortar is ,roman1 ,byzantine1 or later4 ,walk to the middle of the site or mound1 and see its extent4 ,then walk round the wall line1 or circuit of it1 pacing and compass noting1 to sketch the shape and size of the site3 especially look for any straight lines of wall showing4 ,sometimes a mud-brick wall may be entirely denuded away1 yet the position is shown by the sharp edge of the strew of potsherds on the surface4 ,look for any slag-heaps2 these are the remains of lime burning1 and show where stone buildings existed2 sometimes foundations still remain4 ,look for any recent pits or trenches2 these show where stone or burnt brick has been dug out in modern times1 and may give the position and plan of a temple or church4 ,see if any rubbish mounds can be traced outside of the town site2 usually marked by a gentle walk-up slope1 and a steep thrown-down slope1 and mainly consisting of pottery1 e4g4 ,monte ,testaccio at ,rome1 and mounds east of ,cairo4 ,town sites rise in ,egypt about forty inches a century1 by the dust1 rubbish1 and decay of mud-brick buildings4 ,in ,palestine the rise is five feet a century1 owing to the rains4 ,cemeteries4 ,these have generally been more or less plundered2 if recently1 the pits show2 if anciently1 there are scraps of pottery lying about4 ,if there are pebbles or marl thrown up from deep levels1 there is evidence of tombs1 and they may be unplundered4 ,blown sand or grass may hide all trace of tombs4 ,sometimes the whole masonry of a tomb may have been removed1 and the gravel filling-in have spread so uniformly that there is no sign of building1 although a course or two of stone may yet remain under the surface4 ,the surface of ground should be closely looked over at sunrise or sunset to show up the slight hollows or ridges by the shadows4 ,after rain differences will often appear in the drying of the ground4 ,ask any one near a site if he knows of any one getting stones1 or bronze1 or plunder from tombs4 ,anything found will probably be greatly exaggerated1 and no clear idea of the time of finding can be reached2 yet any such detail may be useful4 ,any large town site must have a cemetery1 which is near it in most cases4 ,in ,egypt the towns being in the inundated land1 the cemeteries are at some miles distant on the desert4 ,the prehistoric cemeteries may be anywhere2 the historic cemeteries are usually round the ends of the dyke roads1 which were thrown up in the early dynasties as irrigation dams1 and still serve as the roads of the country4 ,in ,greek lands cemeteries are always outside a town1 usually by the side of the roads4 ,caves should always be carefully explored2 the roof and sides searched for inscriptions or carvings2 rock pockets in the sides examined2 and the floor dug over for potsherds and any small objects4 ,if there are different strata these should be each removed separately1 and the depth and positions of objects noted4 #d4 ,methods of ,planning4 ,though we cannot here give full technical details of all the methods for plans and surveys1 it will be useful to state the scope of each method1 so that they may be kept in mind1 and whichever is best suited to the individual and his work may be provided for4 #a4 ,plain pacing4 ,after pacing lengths of a few hundred feet1 up and down hill and flat1 tape the distances1 and learn true value of pace4 ,careful pacing can be done to one or two per cent4 of the whole2 and properly used1 in triangles1 may give a useful plan4 #b4 ,pacing and compass4 ,this covers large spaces quickly1 but the compass is less accurate than the pace4 #c4 ,tape4 ,lines of taping must be well planned1 with triangle ties to secure the angles4 ,pulling up straight is difficult in a wind1 especially on broken ground1 and one per cent4 error is quite possible then4 ,when working alone peg the tape down by the ring1 or round a stone4 #d4 ,tapes and cross lines4 ,stretch two strings crossing squarely on the ground3 fix the square by laying a squared drawing block below and looking at strings over it4 ,two helpers each hold a tape1 zero on a string1 and the two tapes are held together by the observer and read off1 giving the distance to each string2 this is to be plotted at once on squared paper1 and the plan is completed in detail as it progresses1 without any note- book or later plotting4 ,the helpers must be capable of holding the tape square to the string4 ,good for sites up to two hundred or three hundred feet4 #e4 ,plane table4 ,excellent for some ground1 where objects are visible from a distance3 otherwise it requires a marker put up at every point to be fixed4 ,cumbrous to carry1 much slower than #d4 #f4 ,box sextant1 used as giving angular accuracy to any of the foregoing2 most useful with taping1 and in following4 #g4 ,sextant and three points4 ,the most rapid accurate method is to adopt three points visible all over the ground 7as trees or chimneys7 or set up three markers4 ,find shape and size of this triangle4 ,then at any point take two angles visible between the points1 and this fixes position of observer4 ,a large site may have forty points fixed in two hours thus to about #a in #ajjj4 ,for detail and plotting see ,petrie1 ,methods and ,aims in ,archaeology4 #h4 ,theodolite4 ,for the most accurate work a theodolite is used1 giving points to about #a in #ejjj4 ,it is almost essential for any astronomical meridian or latitude4 ,none of these methods necessitate any helper1 except #d which needs two helpers4 ,the observation is from the point to be fixed in #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 and #g2 but it is to the point1 needing signals or visible features on the points1 in #e1 #f1 and #h1 and for those methods a large stock of rods must be taken1 and the whole ground gone over1 before the work of observation2 such methods take far more time than the others4 ,the able surveyor will know by instinct how to use all the inferior methods as supplements to the higher1 whenever time demands and accuracy allows4 ,when first searching a site1 note the direction of any wall to the horizon point1 and so see if other walls are parallel4 ,in all cases a plumb line is wanted for alining foundations and scattered blocks4 ,always carry six feet of thin string1 and pick up the nearest suitable stone for a weight1 up to three or four pounds in a wind4 #e4 ,drawing and ,copying4 ,inscriptions4 ,if there is any chance of being interrupted by any claimant1 or by crowds1 always make a hand copy at once1 as quickly as possible4 ,after a squeeze or photograph is taken1 yet the hand copy is often of value to explain positions of squeeze slips or detail of photographs4 ,if there is no chance of interruption1 then a carefully drawn copy full size should be made4 ,for this a dry squeeze is the ground work4 ,lay a sheet of thin paper1 such as thin wrapping or plain paper1 on the stone1 and press all the letters over with the fingers1 so as to make a sharp bend2 a break in the deep hollows does not matter4 ,then1 putting the paper on a drawing-board or sheet of millboard1 cock it up so that the shadow of the squeeze is seen1 and draw over the lines 7starting at right base71 referring to the stone whenever uncertain4 ,this is the only right way to copy hieroglyphics by hand4 ,note that the edges are usually rather worn1 and the drawn lines should be inside the squeeze lines4 ,if the stone is large1 several lesser sheets are best4 ,where there is writing1 or the relief is too faint to squeeze1 put the paper immediately below the first line1 and draw it sign for sign1 so that the spacing is preserved and no omission is possible4 ,fold back the paper as each line is copied1 and so always keep the copying close below the line of inscription4 ,if the signs are in an alphabet that is not familiar1 refer to the table of alphabets4 ,sculpture ,sculpture in low relief can be copied best by dry squeeze4 ,as the connexion of the sheets used should be exact1 put up the first sheet truly vertical1 and mark little pencil crosses at the corners on the stone4 ,then the corners of successive sheets should be fitted into the angles of the crosses4 ,when inking in the pencil drawings1 do not carry the lines within two inches of the edges of the sheets4 ,then place sheets edge to edge1 adjust them to fit as best they may1 weight them heavily with books1 turn back one edge and weight it1 and then slip a strip of wetted adhesive paper half-way under the edge that is down2 at once liberate the edge that is up1 and dab 7not rub7 both heavily down on the adhesive4 ,this makes a joint free of cockling1 and when dry the inking can be completed across the joint4 ,where there is any colour remaining on sculpture or inscription1 only dry squeezing is permissible4 ,where signs are worn or decayed it is needful to try various lighting4 ,this can be done in the open air1 by shading the part by the hands placed around it as a sort of tube1 the head blocking out the light over the tube4 ,then quickly raise a hand alternately1 so as to reverse the oblique lighting1 and watch the effect on the sign4 ,if the stone has not too tender a face1 careful washing often brings out an inscription2 and in such cases it is usually far easier to copy from a wet than from a dry stone4 ,if reliefs have been much weathered they can be made plain for photographing by laying horizontal and covering with sand2 on wiping away the sand from the relief the ground will be left flat sand1 so hiding the confused hollows of weathering4 ,the safest way for drawings to travel is to post them at the nearest post direct to where they will be worked up4 ,the ,postal ,union takes rolls of #ba cm4 thick1 #fj cm4 long1 up to #e kilos as parcels1 or rolls of #aj cm4 thick1 #ge cm4 long1 up to #b kilos by book post open at ends4 ,this is far better than carrying rolls by hand4 ,wet squeezing4 ,where there is no colour1 and the stone is strong and not crumbling1 a wet squeeze is the best copy4 ,there are three purposes for it1 and the method differs for each2 7#a7 thin single sheet kept fresh on the outer face for photographing later2 or 7#b7 single sheet well beaten in and patched1 depending on pricking the outlines and hand-copy from it1 or blacking over the relief on the inner side and photographing2 or 7#c7 double sheet hard beaten1 and patched in the hollows1 for plaster casting afterwards4 ,for 7#a7 there is no need to get an impression of the hollows to the bottom1 and the face of the paper should be smooth4 ,a soft paper1 with little or no size1 and a soft clothes-brush will do well for this4 ,the sheet should cover the whole inscription1 or have as few joints as may be4 ,the stone should be dabbed with a wet brush so as to saturate the face1 the sheet of paper well soaked in water laid upon it1 taking care not to leave bubbles1 and then dabbing firmly with the brush will drive the paper into the hollows4 ,if the stone is polished or very smooth1 it is needful to peel off the paper while wet by holding two corners1 and lay it reversed on a flat surface to dry2 if left on the stone the contraction will destroy the impress4 ,out of doors the paper can be held down by pebbles around it1 or by sand on the edges1 to prevent the wind catching it4 7#b7 ,the stronger squeeze should be of a tough paper with moderate sizing4 ,cut the paper to the form of the stone4 ,thrust it into a pail of water1 knead it about vigorously1 roll it into a ball and pummel it1 so as to break the grain and let the water well into it4 ,then wet the stone1 shake out the paper like a wet handkerchief1 full of creases1 lay it on the stone and begin to beat it in with a hard1 long spoke-brush4 ,a few strokes round the edge will catch it down so that the wind does not disturb it4 ,then begin to beat it heavily along the top edge2 beat it to a pulp1 and patch with strips left soaking in the water wherever breaks occur4 ,if the stone is porous the paper may part from it1 especially if expanded by beating2 the only course then is to slush more water on the face so that it will go through the breaks and hold the paper down again4 ,it may be needful to slit the paper to let the water go below it4 ,beat down again1 enough to fix it4 7#c7 ,for casting purposes a final backing sheet1 moderately beaten on1 is needed to hold the squeeze together and stiffen it4 ,either 7#b7 or 7#c7 can be left on the face of the stone till quite dry1 and then carefully detached by lifting up from one corner1 and slipping a dinner-knife or a slip of wood under the paper to lift any part that sticks4 ,stiff squeezes as 7#c7 must be packed flat2 thin1 as 7#a7 and sometimes 7#b71 may be rolled in a large curve1 but this always deteriorates a squeeze4 ,for plaster casting1 a squeeze should be heated on a stove and brushed over with melted paraffin1 or better wax1 sufficient to cover the face without choking the finer detail4 ,before each cast the face should be lightly oiled with a tuft of wool4 ,small objects4 ,these can be copied by a thin paper squeeze1 and the squeeze may be mounted by pasting a card and lightly pressing the squeeze back down on it4 ,this will take out all cockling and make it lie flat for photographing4 ,tin-foil is very handy for squeezes1 and may be saved from chocolate for this4 ,press it firmly on a coin or seal with a tuft of wool1 or beat it with a soft tooth-brush1 being careful to avoid creases4 ,the foil should then be floated on water1 hollow back up1 and blazing sealing-wax dropped into it to back it4 ,the resulting positive can be then stuck on card4 ,for plaster casts of coins the face should be dusted with ,french chalk1 as also a smooth bed of plasticine2 the coin can then be pressed in safely without any possible risk1 and afterward plaster cast in the mould4 ,sealing-wax is said to be sharper1 but there is a risk of its sticking to the coin4 ,if it is used1 breathe hard on the coin1 or wet it1 before impressing2 and when first set lift it slightly to detach it1 and then replace till cold4 ,or tin-foil may be used1 as in making positives2 but1 instead of floating on water1 press plasticine on the foil while it is still on the object4 ,for curved surfaces1 as cylinders1 any of these methods can be used2 the plasticine is the more successful4 ,in all casting of plaster on a small scale1 use a soft camel-hair brush4 ,mix the plaster in the palm of the hand with a knife1 take up some of the wettest to brush over the face of the moulds 7a dozen scarabs or small coins done at once72 then put he brush in water1 and take up thicker plaster with a pocket-knife to drop on as a backing4 ,this avoids air bubbles without using too weak a plaster4 ,copying hieroglyphic inscriptions4 ,where possible a wet or a dry squeeze should be taken of any inscription4 ,when hand copying is necessary1 the main matter is to get the cartouches of king's names accurately1 and the date at the beginning1 examining specially whether single strokes1 ,i ,i ,i ,i1 have been connected above1 n n1 forming the ten sign4 ,the main difficulty for any one not knowing the #hjj signs is to distinguish between those that are alike1 especially when damaged4 ,for this purpose the commonest signs that may be confused are here placed together1 so that the essential points of difference may be noticed4 ,a small cross is placed here by small points of distinction which might escape notice4 ,illustration ,i3 ,,some ,,hieroglyphic ,,signs ,,liable ,,to ,,be ,,confused ,,with ,,each ,,other #f4 ,photography4 ,the camera and material have been described under outfit4 ,lighting and preparation of objects is a main element of success4 ,when first looking over any ruins1 make a list of every view wanted1 with the time of day when the sun will be right for it4 ,then follow the time-table1 and so get the best lighting all in one day4 ,for movable stones or figures place them in half-shade1 as a doorway1 and then tilt every way until the best lighting is found1 fix them in that position1 and then set up the camera square with them4 ,the camera should usually be fixed to look downward vertically1 and then variation up to #dj degrees can be got by the legs4 ,hold the camera in the right position1 keeping the legs off the ground1 and then drop the legs to find their own place2 thus very skew positions can be fixed quickly4 ,small objects are best laid on black velvet1 and taken vertically4 ,scraps of charcoal are useful to prop them in exact positions4 ,a sheet of white paper stuck on a leg of the stand may be useful to prevent shadows being too heavy4 ,where outline1 and not flat detail1 is wanted1 then a light ground is best2 the most perfect is a sheet of ground glass with white paper a foot or two below it4 ,if the ground glass cannot be had1 a good substitute-also useful for a camera glass-is plain glass with a sheet of tissue paper 7or the packing paper of films7 stuck on with paraffin wax4 ,the dressing of objects to show up clearly is often needful4 ,incised objects can be filled in with charcoal powder if light1 or chalk if dark2 in any case a coarse powder1 so as not to stain the object4 ,for faint cutting on glass or crystal go over the lines with ',china ink in a pen1 so as to cover them4 ,harden the ink in the sun1 and then gently wipe with a damp finger until all the excess is removed and only the roughness of the lines remains black4 ,on large objects light dust or sand is often useful1 to make relief clearer4 ,for objects in a bad light1 or in the interior of tombs1 reflected light must be used4 ,lids of biscuit tins serve well2 a lid in the sun sixty feet off1 and another lid reflecting the light on to a wall1 will suffice for a two minutes' exposure of a slow plate4 ,three or four successive reflections into a totally dark chamber will suffice in five or six minutes4 ,when an important subject cannot be revisited it is well to take duplicates2 the camera should be shifted laterally a few inches for a near object1 or a few feet for a distant view1 and then the two films will form a stereograph1 if both succeed4 ,in arranging groups of small objects1 put together what will go in a three-inch circle1 and minor pieces around1 and then the best in the middle can be printed direct on lantern slides4 #g4 ,preservation and ,packing4 ,while travelling little can be done for preserving objects4 ,papyrus rolls should be wrapped at once in a damp handkerchief1 to be carried1 and then wrapped in paper1 packed in a tin box1 and filled round with cotton wool4 ,small papyri can be safely damped in a wet cloth1 and flattened out between the leaves of a book2 secure one edge straight in the hinge1 and gradually press flat and secure by advancing leaves over it4 ,glass1 if perfect1 should be packed in tins with wool2 old food or tobacco tins do well for tender things4 ,flint implements and coins1 though hardy1 should be saved from grinding by wrapping in waste paper4 ,ivory1 if it has been buried1 is very liable to flake4 ,the cure is to soak it in paraffin wax2 but temporarily it is secured by winding cotton thread round it in many directions4 ,some anoint it with vaseline1 but if vaseline penetrates the ivory1 it will not take up paraffin or gelatine later4 ,tender wood may be likewise saved4 ,a much-cracked glazed jar was packed by winding string round it in all directions1 with tufts of wool under the string4 ,a whole mummy in most fragile condition1 so that it could not be lifted1 was made up solid with #dj lb4 of paraffin wax which was melted out of it afterwards in ,england1 making hardly any change4 ,if contracted burials should be preserved1 dust carefully1 splash on about #e lb4 of paraffin wax heated to smoking-point4 ,when cold1 detach from soil1 turn over1 paraffin the lower side1 and build up weak parts with a sludge of melted paraffin and sand1 nearly chilled4 ,about #h to #aj lb4 of wax will do the whole4 ,the skull should be packed separately4 ,pad all hollows of the body with soft rag to spread pressure in packing4 ,paraffin wax is the best preservative as it is tough1 and may be used as a coat over an object for safety4 ,when not needed it can be cut away1 or melted away1 and cleaned off completely with benzol4 ,it should be melted in an iron saucepan1 as solder will give way if it is superheated4 ,as it melts at about #abj degrees ,f41 and boils at about #fjj degrees ,f41 it can be greatly superheated1 and used when smoking1 so as to penetrate deeply into wood or porous material4 ,it is perfect for strengthening skulls2 most rotten examples slopped with paraffin1 and finally soused for a few seconds so as entirely to cover the bone in and out1 will travel safely1 if not crushed4 ,boxes must always have corner posts1 inside or out2 see that the sides are nailed up to the edges to the posts1 or the lid or bottom may part by the side splitting4 ,see that all nails--except for the lid--are driven slanting alternately one way and reversed1 this prevents sides or bottom drawing off4 ,nail the lid with many short nails1 so that it can be raised without splitting4 ,to secure heavy objects in a mixed box1 an inverted rough stool is the best1 the cross piece on the object below1 and the sides coming up to the lid4 ,if cross bars are nailed in a box1 damage may be done to an object in forcing the bars loose4 ,it is often best to put heavy and light things in the same box1 to equalize weights in journeying2 if well secured1 a mixed boxful travels well4 ,be very careful that a wedge-shaped stone cannot force itself loose by repeated jolts1 or it may split a box4 ,slabs of stone ire best packed in open shallow boxes face down on straw or wool1 secured by a few diagonal cross bars on the top1 as then they do not need to be opened for customs4 ,all stones of regular form should be supported at a fifth of the length from each end4 ,no bedding on a box is worth anything1 as the box will bend more than the stone1 and the strain will all come on the middle4 ,very heavy blocks are best with sacking on the face1 and roped round in various parts4 ,pottery is most difficult to pack safely4 ,for large jars1 mark the points of contact on the box1 and nail on cushions of old cloth stuffed hard with straw1 so as to pad the jar on all sides2 make sure that it cannot twist about into a diagonal position off the pads4 ,long boxes1 five or six feet1 with three or four cross divisions1 are best4 ,begin packing1 say four pots with straw1 at one end of the box1 press up a cross board tight on them1 and nail through the sides3 then another batch likewise2 about one inch thick of hard-pressed straw is needful at each contact4 ,twist straw into rough bands1 and wind it round each pot4 ,fill up corners to prevent the bands shifting loose4 ,empty small tins make good stuffing for blank spaces4 ,old newspapers torn to bits and rolled into balls make good packing for pots and hold them firmly1 but this method is dangerous if the packing becomes wetted4 ,pots should always be packed tight4 ,old sacking or cotton stuff may be tied on over the mouth of large pots1 to prevent straw slipping in1 and loosening the packing4 ,bronzes and coins should not be cleaned in any way1 till in a settled work place4 #h4 ,forgeries and4 ,buying4 ,most travellers wish to buy some things of interest1 and in remote districts they may do good service in rescuing important objects which may be wanted in museums4 ,forgeries are ubiquitous1 even in most obscure places in the hands of peasants1 either supplied by dealers1 or casually obtained1 often in good faith4 ,it is best to inquire of local collectors and museums as to the kinds of forgeries met with4 ,the following notes are to show the novice how far he may go safely4 ,bronze figures with a thick red patina1 which scales off readily sometimes1 or with thick green patina cracked1 or hard green or brown patina1 are safe4 ,thin green patina1 or bare brown or black metal is dubious4 ,papyri in roll1 flexible though fragile1 in known ,greek or ,egyptian writing1 are fairly safe4 ,lumps stuck together1 brown and scrappy1 are made up4 ,coins cannot be safely bought unless patinated1 copper or silver4 ,only an expert can judge of gold or 'clean silver4 ,jewellery of small size1 as earrings and bracelets1 is generally safe1 if the age of the design is known4 ,modern wire is always drawn1 ancient is irregular4 ,look for concretions of lime in the hollows1 and for the dull face of old gold4 ,if once cleaned there is little to distinguish old from modern gold4 ,stone vases if turned are ,roman or modern4 ,the ancient irregularities should be studied from specimens4 ,scarabs with nacreous or decomposed glaze in the hollows 7as in the deep cuts at the side7 are safe2 also1 if there are natural cracks by age1 which would prevent modern cutting4 ,there is a large variety of skilful forgeries4 ,stone statuettes3 a skilled forger may be paid up to #ajj pounds for a figure to order4 ,only an expert can judge4 ,never buy in the dusk or in dark rooms4 ,when buying never have any one at hand who calls attention to things1 nor let any attendant interfere4 ,seem entirely unconcerned4 ,get the reputation of never advancing on offers1 or bargaining2 let taking or leaving things at once be the rule4 ,time and delays are money to the traveller1 and it is worth much to save time in haggling4 ,your donkey-boy will soon spread your character4 ,when offering for single things to a peasant1 put the money by the side of the antiquity1 and say that he must take one or the other3 fingering the cash is irresistible1 and no time is lost4 ,if it is likely that the source of an object will not be truly stated1 the way is to make the best guess you can1 and say it dogmatically3 the pleasure of setting you right will often bring out the truth1 or if you guessed right it will gain you credit and break down reserve4 ,as a principle it is well to be looked on as a liberal buyer1 so as to encourage the offer of antiquities4 ,a little more thus spent will be a trifling extra on the whole journey1 and may largely increase the results in objects and information for future work4 ,though prices can only be learned by practice1 and they vary in time and place1 yet the following scale may be taken as fairly safe4 ,bronze figures if good work1 inches high squared shillings3 except in bad state1 or ,osiris1 or bad clumsy work1 or votive animals4 ,papyri or parchment1 continuous text1 #a pound a square foot1 accounts1 half or a third4 ,jewellery1 between weight in coin and double that1 according to work4 ,scarabs1 common but fair #bs41 names #bs4-#es42 up to #e pounds or #aj pounds if beautiful4 ,engraved gems1 small common ,roman1 #bs4-#ds4 in ,london1 more in ,east2 for a fair ,greek #a pound-#aj pounds4 ,coins often higher in the ,east than in ,london4 ,in ,greek lands copper coins may be bought by weight1 and picked over at leisure1 and the worthless coins rejected4 ,for single coins fix a price1 say half a franc1 and offers of large numbers may come in1 from which the best can be chosen and the rest refused4 ,glass vases1 blown1 inches high squared at #d;d4 or #f;d4 each4 ,coloured glass double or triple4 ,ushabtis1 poor #as4-#ds41 fair #es4-#ajs41 fine blue or engraved #a pound- #aj pounds4 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,chief ,,british ,,institutions ,,and ,,societies ,,concerned ,,with ,,the ,,archaeology ,,of ,,the ,,near ,,and ,,middle ,,east4 ,,london4 ,,british ,,museum1 ,bloomsbury1 ,w4,c4#a4 ,director1 ,sir ,f4 ,g4 ,kenyon1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,p4,b4,a4 ,keeper of ,egyptian and ,assyrian ,antiquities1 ,sir ,ernest ,wallis ,budge1 ,litt4,d4 ,keeper of ,british and ,mediaeval ,antiquities 7including ,prehistoric ,antiquities1 ,ethnology1 and ,oriental ,antiquities7 ,sir ,hercules ,read1 ,f4,b4,a41 ,p4,s4,a4 ,keeper of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities1 ,a4 ,h4 ,smith ,m4,a4 ,keeper of ,coins1 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 ,f4,b4,a4 ,keeper of ,,mss41 ,j4 ,p4 ,gilson1 ,m4,a4 ,keeper of ,oriental ,,mss4 and ,printed ,books4 ,l4 ,d4 ,barnett1 ,litt4,d4 ,,victoria ,,and ,,albert ,,museum1 ,s4 ,kensington1 ,s4,w4#g4 ,director1 ,sir ,cecil ,harcourt ,smith1 ,c4,v4,o4 ,assistant ,keeper of ,architecture and ,sculpture1 ,e4 ,r4 ,d4 ,maclagan4 ,assistant ,keeper of ,ceramics1 ,c4 ,h4 ,wylde4 ,keeper of ,metalwork1 ,w4 ,w4 ,watts4 ,keeper of ,textiles1 ,a4 ,f4 ,kendrick4 ,keeper of ,woodwork1 ,e4 ,f4 ,strange1 ,c4,b4,e4 ,,british ,,academy1 ,burlington ,house1 ,piccadilly1 ,w4#a4 ,secretary1 ,sir ,i4 ,gollancz1 ,litt4,d4 ,,british ,,school ,,at ,,athens1 #ai ,bloomsbury ,square1 ,w4,c4#a1 ,secretary1 ,john ,penoyre1 ,c4,b4,e4 ,,british ,,school ,,in ,,jerusalem1 c_/o4 ,palestine ,exploration ,fund1 #b ,hinde ,st41 ,manchester ,square1 ,w4 #a4 ,secretary1 ,miss ,r4 ,woodley4 ,,british ,,school ,,at ,,rome1 #ai ,bloomsbury ,square1 ,w4,c4#a4 ,secretary of the ,faculty of ,archaeology1 ,history and ,letters1 ,e4 ,j4 ,forsdyke4 ,,palestine ,,exploration ,,fund1 #b ,hinde ,st41 ,manchester ,square1 ,w4#a ,secretary1 ,e4 ,w4 ,g4 ,masterman1 ,m4,d4 ,,egypt ,,exploration ,,society1 #ac ,tavistock ,square1 ,w4,c4#a4 ,secretary1 ,miss ,jonas4 ,,egyptian ,,research ,,account ,,and ,,british ,,school ,,of ,,archaeology ,,in ,,egypt4 ,hon4 ,director1 ,prof4 ,w4 ,m4 ,f4 ,petrie1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,b4,a41 ,university ,college1 ,gower ,st41 ,w4,c4#a4 ,,society ,,of ,,antiquaries ,,of ,,london1 ,burlington ,house1 ,w4#a4 ,secretary1 ,c4 ,r4 ,peers1 ,f4,s4,a4 ,,royal ,,asiatic ,,society1 #gd ,grosvenor ,st41 ,w4 #a4 ,secretary1 ,miss ,eleanor ,hull4 ,,society ,,for ,,the ,,promotion ,,of ,,hellenic ,,studies1 #ai ,bloomsbury ,square1 ,w4,c4#a4 ,secretary and ,librarian1 ,john ,penoyre1 ,c4,b4,e4 ,,royal ,,institute ,,of ,,british ,,architects1 #i ,conduit ,st41 ,w4#a4 ,secretary1 ,ian ,mac,alister4 ,,society ,,for ,,the ,,promotion ,,of ,,roman ,,studies1 #ai ,bloomsbury ,square1 ,w4,c4#a4 ,secretary1 ,miss ,margaret ,ramsay4 ,,royal ,,anthropological ,,institute1 #ej ,gt4 ,russell ,st41 ,w4,c4#a4 ,secretaries1 ,h4 ,s4 ,harrison1 ,t4 ,a4 ,joyce1 ,o4,b4,e4 ,,royal ,,numismatic ,,society1 #bb ,russell ,square1 ,w4,c4#a4 ,secretaries1 ,j4 ,allan1 ,lt4 ,col4 ,w4 ,morrieson4 ,,royal ,,geographical ,,society1 ,lowther ,lodge1 ,kensington ,gore1 ,s4 ,w4 #g4 ,secretary1 ,a4 ,r4 ,hinks1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,archaeological ,,joint ,,committee4 ,hon4 ,secretary1 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill1 ,british ,museum1 ,w4,c4#a4 ,,cambridge4 ,,museum ,,of ,,archaeology ,,and ,,ethnology4 ,curator1 ,baron ,a4 von ,hugel4 ,,fitzwilliam ,,museum4 ,director1 ,s4 ,c4 ,cockerell1 ,m4,a4 ,,oxford4 ,,ashmolean ,,museum4 ,keeper1 ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 ,c4,m4,g41 ,f4,b4,a4 ,,athens4 ,,british ,,school4 ,director1 ,a4 ,j4 ,b4 ,wace4 ,,jerusalem4 ,,british ,,school4 ,director1 ,prof4 ,j4 ,garstang4 ,,rome4 ,,british ,,school1 ,valle ,giulia4 ,director1 ,thomas ,ashby1 ,d4,litt4 ,,the ,,archaeological ,,joint ,,committee ,society or other ,body4 ,representatives4 ,british ,academy ,sir ,f4 ,g4 ,kenyon1 ,k4,c4,b4 7,chairman of ,committee74 ,prof4 ,percy ,gardner4 ,sir ,w4 ,m4 ,ramsay4 ,royal ,anthropological ,institute ,sir ,everard ,im ,thurn4 ,prof4 ,arthur ,keith4 ,society of ,antiquaries ,sir ,arthur ,evans4 ,sir ,hercules ,read4 ,royal ,institute of ,british ,architects ,prof4 ,w4 ,r4 ,lethaby4 ,prof4 ,a4 ,g4 ,dickie4 ,royal ,asiatic ,society ,f4 ,legge4 ,r4 ,sewell4 ,british ,school at ,athens ,j4 ,p4 ,droop4 ,byzantine ,research ,fund ,sir ,hercules ,read4 ,egypt ,exploration ,society ,sir ,f4 ,g4 ,kenyon1 ,k4,c4,b4 ,dr4 ,alan ,gardiner4 ,egyptian ,research ,account ,prof4 ,flinders ,petrie4 ,prof4 ,ernest ,gardner4 ,society for the ,promotion ,a4 ,h4 ,smith4 of ,hellenic ,studies ,g4 ,f4 ,hill 7,hon4 ,sec4 of ,committee74 ,british ,school at ,jerusalem ,prof4 ,flinders ,petrie4 ,d4 ,g4 ,hogarth1 ,c4,m4,g4 ,royal ,numismatic ,society ,prof4 ,c4 ,oman1 ,m4,p4 ,g4 ,f4 ,hill4 ,palestine ,exploration ,fund ,dr4 ,g4 ,buchanan ,gray4 ,prof4 ,a4 ,g4 ,dickie ,society for the ,promotion of ,miss ,gertrude ,bell4 ,roman ,studies ,o4 ,m4 ,dalton4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,british ,museum ,sir ,f4 ,g4 ,kenyon1 ,k4,c4,b4 ,victoria and ,albert ,museum ,sir ,cecil ,harcourt ,smith1 ,c4,v4,o4 ,,part ,,ii ,,introductory ,,note ,the aim of the special sections contained in ,chapters ,,iii-,,viii is to describe1 not the objects usually to be seen in ,museums1 but only such things as will be found lying out on mounds and sites1 and as are more or less distinctive of a period4 ,thus certain comparatively trivial objects are named1 because they are peculiar to a period1 and likely to be found in a casual passage over a site1 whereas other objects1 common to several periods1 are ignored4 ,only the distinctive1 key objects are mentioned4 ,the great features of ,greek ,art1 for instance1 are not dealt with in ,chapter ,,ii2 nor are coins1 the probabilities of finding them being too slender1 and the possibilities too wide4 ,nevertheless1 coins when found should be carefully quoted4 ,pottery naturally takes the largest place1 as it was abundant1 and its fragments are a good guide to period1 and being practically indestructible and of no intrinsic value are most likely to be met with4 ,the difference between pottery made with the use of the wheel and that made without is important to be noted4 ,the use of the wheel can usually be detected through the slight inequalities of the clay that make a series of parallel lines on the inner surface4 ,the diagrammatic representations of the pot-forms characteristic of various periods or of other objects ranging through a civilization the main features of which can be shown in outline will1 it is hoped1 be found useful4 ,simplified tables of alphabets1 intended to make it possible roughly to identify the script1 if not the date1 of an inscription1 are also given4 ,,chapter ,i ,,flint ,,implements ,see ,diagrams1 ,illustrations ,,ii3 ,flint ,implements ,as the development of ,flint ,implements follows more or less the same course in all the districts with which this volume deals1 a general description is given here1 to avoid repetition in the special sections4 ,the earlier periods of man are so remote that geological changes1 wet1 and decay1 have removed nearly all his works except the flint tools4 ,it is to these chiefly that we must look for our knowledge of his abilities4 ,flints are nearly all that we have for the early stages1 to supply what arts1 history1 and literature give in later stages4 ,to preserve and educe all we possibly can obtain from their situation1 and purpose1 is a main duty to history4 ,to destroy or confuse the evidence1 by removing specimens without a record1 or by shifting them to a different place1 is a crime in science4 ,as there is no temptation to ignorant peasants to move flints until they are induced by collectors1 so the whole fault of the wreckage that has taken place in many sites lies on the plundering collector4 ,no money or reward should be given for any flints2 a few fine specimens may be lost1 but vastly more harm would be done by encouraging mere raiding4 ,the periods and styles that are now recognized are shown on the diagram--and their conditions were3 ,style ,climate ,sea level ,eolithic 7,pliocene7 8 ,rostrocarinate 7,crag7 8 ,strepyan warmer lower ,chellean warm low ,acheulian cooler rising ,mousterian cold high ,aurignacian less cold lower ,solutrean warmer low ,magdalenian colder rising ,neolithic as present ,differences of heat may be #bj degrees or #cj degrees or - ,differences of level may be #fjj-hjj ft4 or - ,the information required of all observers is the level and conditions of all flint tools that they may see or collect4 ,gravels containing tools may be surface gravels on a plateau2 note then the level1 and the relation of them to any cliffs2 do they end abruptly at a cliff edge1 showing that the valley was filled up2 or do they fade away to the edge1 showing that they are older than the valley erosion8 ,gravels may be the filling up of a valley which was previously eroded2 note the highest level at which they can be traced2 often little pockets of deposit1 or traces of sandy strata1 can be found clinging high up on cliffs2 also note the depths in the gravel at which any tools are found4 ,any shells or bones in the gravels are of the greatest value2 the depth at which they are found should be written on them at once1 with the locality4 ,surface flints should have levels noted on them4 ,if sharp they show that probably submergence has not reached that level since2 if worn1 then water has been up to a higher level1 from which they have been washed down4 ,levelling may be read from a contour map1 if there is such available4 ,in most countries it must be done by reading feet on an aneroid barometer1 set with zero of level scale to #cj ins4 or #gfj mm4 ,then visit as soon as possible some point where a level is marked on the map1 as a hill top1 and read the barometer4 ,this will give the correction to be made to all the previous notes4 ,if there is no level recorded1 get down to a stream bed 7the larger the better7 and read it there1 recording the exact place on the map4 ,the level may then be worked out approximately by points above and below on the stream1 for accurate reading1 hold the aneroid face up1 gently tap it1 and read2 then face down similarly1 and take the mean4 ,guard that the wind does not blow against any keyhole in the case4 ,pencil all levels and localities on flints as soon as found4 ,ink in the notes on the least prominent parts of the flint1 in small capital letters1 when in camp1 with waterproof ,china ink4 ,styles of flint work4 ,the ,eoliths are worn pebbles1 chipped as if for scraping4 ,the ,rostro- carinate flints found at the base of the ,crag are long bars with a beak-end1 suited for breaking up earth4 ,the human origin of both of these classes is contested4 ,flints of ,strepy type are nodular and partly trimmed into cutting edges1 the smooth surface being left as a handle4 ,the ,chelles types are remarkable for regularity and fine bold flaking2 the worn butt 7though best for handling7 was eventually flaked away to obtain an artistic uniform finish4 ,the ,st4 ,acheul series has finer flaking1 the crust being completely removed3 there is a tendency to ovate or almond shapes1 and the edges are often curved1 the reverse ,s-curve being preferred1 ,they diminish in size towards the end of the period4 ,the ,chelles and ,st4 ,acheul series are core implements1 made by detaching flakes2 and the succeeding 7,le ,moustier7 method is to use the flakes1 generally for scraping4 ,the ,,la1 ,,em the diagram is transitional from ,st4 ,acheul to ,le ,moustier4 ,the form marked ,m is the predecessor of the ,solutrean form next below it4 ,the ,aurignacian is a smaller flake industry1 with many lumps more or less conical1 and often with careful parallel flaking or fluting4 ,the ,solutre culture brought in a new style1 particularly thin blades with delicate surface flaking which seems to have reappeared in the late ,neolithic4 ,the pointed borers1 certain arrow-heads and minutely chipped rods of flint are characteristic of the period1 and flints of this age are found on the ,egyptian and ,syrian deserts4 ,longer blades1 sometimes very coarse1 with ends worn by scraping1 mark the period of ,la ,madeleine4 ,they are found in prehistoric ,egyptian graves1 along with ,neolithic knives and lances4 ,as a technical advance on flaking by blows or pressure1 grinding and incidental polishing of flint implements are regarded as characteristic of the ,neolithic period2 and the practice may have started in areas devoid of flint1 where it was necessary to utilize local material that could not be flaked like flint4 ,in ,europe generally1 polished celts belong to the ,megalithic or latest division of the ,neolithic1 but this implement appeared much earlier1 and in a sense succeeded the ,palaeolithic hand-axe4 ,the latter is not known to have been hafted1 and its working edges were at the pointed end2 whereas in ,neolithic times the implement had become an axe in the modern sense1 with the pointed end inserted in a haft1 and the cutting edge removed to the broader end4 ,there are many other ,neolithic types1 used with or without a haft1 and only a small proportion were finished by grinding on sandstone4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,greece ,see the diagrams of flint implements1 ,illustration ,,ii of pottery1 ,illustration ,,iii2 and of alphabets1 ,illustration ,,iv ,the ,periods into which the subject must be divided are roughly as follows3 ,i4 ,prehistoric down to about #ajjj ,b4,c4 ,,ii4 ,prehistoric ,greek down to about #gjj ,b4,c4 ,,iii4 ,archaic ,greek #gjj-ejj ,b4,c4 ,,iv4 ,classical ,greek #ejj-cjj ,b4,c4 ,v4 ,hellenistic after #cjj4 ,,vi4 ,roman4 ,,vii4 ,byzantine4 ,i4 ,,prehistoric ,a4 ,,north ,,greece4 ,,neolithic4--,neolithic settlements on low mounds 7maghoules7 rising from the plains4 ,stone implements4 ,axes1 hammers1 chisels1 querns1 c4 ,flint chips1 bone needles1 obsidian4 ,pottery4 ,hand-made burnished1 yellow1 brown1 black or red4 ,handles rare4 ,holes in rim1 or lugs pierced for suspension1 ,earliest remains show painted sherds4 ,long period of unpainted ware followed4 ,patterns irregular1 rectangular and curved4 ,no naturalism4 7,figs4 #a and #b47 ,ware differs slightly with locality4 ,in ,thessaly fine red ware undecorated contemporary with red decoration on white4 ,chocolate paint on deep buff follows4 ,incised ware1 geometric patterns white rubbed in4 ,figurines4 ,rude clay4 ,steatopygous4 ,this civilization extended from northern edge of ,thessaly as far south as ,chaeronea4 ,use of bronze before end uncertain4 ,civilization undisturbed by ,aegean culture that spread over southern ,greece until just before both were swept away by iron-using people4 ,b4 ,,crete1 ,,aegean1 ,,south ,,greece4 ,,crete4 ,,neolithic4 ,black or red burnished pottery4 ,,bronze ,,age4 ,early ,minoan4 ,painted pottery1 dark paint on light ground1 geometric designs4 ,unpainted1 surface mottled red and black4 ,middle ,minoan4 circa4 #cjjj ,b4,c4--,white designs geometric on dark ground4 ,orange and crimson added4 ,pottery very thin and fine 7,kamares ware74 ,patterns very various but not naturalistic except in rare instances4 7,figs4 #c and #d2 hatched linesred47 ,late ,minoan4 circa4 #aejj ,b4,c4--,return to use of light ground4 ,brown lustrous paint1 fine surface to clay4 ,decoration naturalistic1 flowers1 cuttle-fish1 shells1 spirals1 ripple patterns1 white and orange dots and bands occasionally super-imposed on dark glaze 7,figs4 #g1 #aj1 and #ab74 ,white and orange disappear4 ,decoration stiffer and more conventional4 ,,aegean4 ,,neolithic4 ,nothing known4 ,,bronze ,,age4 ,contemporary with ,early ,minoan4 ,pottery with geometric patterns normally dark on light buff or reddish coarse clay4 ,sometimes red or white on black burnished clay4 ,marble figurines 'fiddle-shaped' from ,naxos and ,paros 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #f74 ,contemporary with ,middle ,minoan4 ,pottery with very pale sometimes greenish clay1 and grey black totally unlustrous paint4 ,patterns mainly geometric4 ,rather sparse decoration4 ,later1 with addition of red1 decoration becomes fully naturalistic4 ,lilies and birds in red and black 7,melos7 7,,iii1 ,figs4 #e and #i2 hatched linesred74 ,beaked jugs 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #e7 most characteristic shape of this period4 ,cretan influence strong in ,middle ,minoan completely drowned local efforts in first ,late ,minoan days4 ,thenceforward local ware imitative4 ,,south ,,greece4 ,,neolithic4 ,nothing known4 ,,bronze ,,age4 ,geometric ,ware with matt paint and pale clay corresponding to that of islands found in ,argolid and ,boeotia4 ',urfirnis' ,ware4 ,hand-made4 ,whole vase covered with thin semi- lustrous wash varying from red-brown to black4 ,sometimes mere smears4 ,mainly found in ,boeotia1 but extends north to valley of ,spercheius and south to ,argolid4 ,date uncertain1 but in ,boeotia evidence that it ended before rise of ',minyan' ware4 ',minyan ,ware4' ,grey unpainted pottery1 polished4 ,no decoration except 7rarely7 incised lines4 ,usually wheel-made4 ,characteristic shapes3 ,goblet with tall ringed stem 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #ae72 wide open cup with high handles4 ,appears to range ,between ,middle ,minoan ,,ii and ,late ,minoan ,,iii4 ,most frequent in ,boeotia to which it owes its name4 ,found as far north as ,thessaly and as far south as ,crete4 ,local imitations1 obvious but distinct1 found with imported specimens 7,melos74 ,provenance unknown2 connexion with ,troy suspected4 ',mycenaean4' ,the ,cretan civilization swept over ,south ,greece in the first ,late ,minoan period4 ,characterized by exuberance both in shape and ornament 7,,iii1 ,figs4 #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #af1 #ag74 ,bulk of what is likely to be found is of latest period when style has become conventionalized4 ,compare ,fig4 #aa 7,mycenaean7 with ,,iii1 ,fig4 #g ,late ,minoan ,i4 ,characteristic shapes high goblet and 'stirrup' vase 7,,iii1 ,figs4 #ag and #af74 ,female clay figurines common 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #ad71 also animals1 oxen4 ,objects ,characteristic of ,aegean ,civilization4 ,seal ,stones4 ,round or bean-shaped1 pierced for suspension1 usually soft stone1 e4g4 slate or steatite4 ,sometimes hard1 as hematite or rock crystal4 ,carved with naturalistic designs3 lions1 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #h71 stags1 bulls1 cows or hinds suckling their young1 cuttle-fish1 dolphins1 c4 ,two animals ranged like heraldic supporters characteristic4 ,obsidian4 ,natural glass1 volcanic1 black4 ,source ,melos4 ,used for knives throughout ,bronze ,age4 ,chips of ,knife or razor blades1 and sometimes the cores from which these were flaked1 may be picked up on any ,bronze ,age site1 and even on ,thessalian neolithic settlements4 ,glistening black unmistakable4 ,terra-cotta lamps4 ,the characteristic lamp of the ,aegean civilization is open1 as opposed to the ,greek and ,roman lamp where the body is partly covered in4 ,walls4 ,cyclopean walls of huge irregular stones4 ,also good square-cut masonry4 ',corbelling' system for arches1 each layer of stones projecting inwards over the one below4 ,also used for the vaults of ',beehive' ,tombs towards end of period4 ,illustration ,,iii3 ,,types ,,of ,,greek ,,pottery1 ,,etc4 ,,ii4 ,,prehistoric ,,greek ,geometric or ,dipylon ,period4 ,pottery4 ,iron ,age4 circ4 #ajjj ,b4,c4--,absolute break in continuity from what preceded4 ,no naturalism4 ,prevalence of geometric patterns 7,,iii1 ,figs4 #ah and #ai74 ,not much variety4 ,meanders1 lozenges1 and zigzags4 ,circles joined by tangents replace ,mycenaean spirals4 ,ornament crowded4 ,rows or single specimens of long-legged water birds4 ,human figures rare1 rude angular silhouettes4 ,local characteristics discernible 7e4g4 between ware of ,thessaly1 ,attica1 ,boeotia1 ,delphi1 ,argolid1 ,laconia1 ,thera1 and ,crete71 but strong family resemblance4 7,lower specimen ,,iii1 ,fig4 #ai characteristic of ,boeotia47 ,dark paint on natural clay 7sometimes lightened by a white slip1 e4 g4 ,laconia7 differs distinctly from ,mycenaean4 ,shapes fewer and curves less flowing4 ,amphorae1 plates1 bowls1 and jugs4 ,trefoil lip to jug first appears4 ,terra-cotta loom weights from now onwards often pyramidal in form and glazed4 ,bronzes4 ,figurines4 ,three types3-- ,human1 rare 7as on vases74 ,quadrupeds1 mainly horses4 ,cylindrical muzzle and narrow cylindrical belly 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #bc74 ,birds4 ,long neck and legs1 flat bill and body4 ,stands to above1 flat1 square or round1 with open-work snake or spiral4 ,pins 7to fasten dress at shoulder74 ,long head with small bosses like strung beads sometimes separated by discs 7,,iii1 ,fig #ba74 ,sometimes larger flat disc at end of head 7often missing7 ,pin itself usually iron1 rarely extant4 ,brooches4 #a4 ,spiral type4 ,of wire coiled into spirals4 ,made of one1 two1 or three wires crossing with two1 four1 or six spirals respectively4 ,boss at centre4 ,spectacle type 7two spirals7 common4 ,in 'spectacle' type 7sometimes very large7 spiral purely utilitarian1 giving spring to the pin4 ,with four or more spirals the additions are ornament1 noteworthy in view of absence of spirals on pottery4 #b4 ,bow type4 7a7 ,high arched bow solid4 7b7 ,arched bow hollowed like boat inverted4 ,this type often has flat plate attached to one end1 lower edge of which is bent to form catch4 ,plate incised1 crossed leaves1 ships1 horses1 or men4 7c7 ,arched bow consisting of crescent-shaped plate1 similar incised decoration4 ,paste ,beads4 ,a type pyramidal1 dark with yellow spirals round corners1 much resembling 'bull's eye' sweets1 was common in ,laconia 7,,iii1 ,fig4#bg74 ,terra-cotta ,figurines4 ,series of rude horses sometimes with riders characteristic of end of period4 ,chiefly from ,boeotia4 ,painted like pottery1 but chiefly in lines4 ,,iii4 ,,archaic ,,greek ,a4 ,orientalising4 ,pottery4 #gjj ,b4,c4--,influence from ,asia ,minor4 ,recrudescence there of spirit of ,mycenaean art8 ,lions1 stags1 sphinxes1 sirens1 either in procession or arranged in pairs like heraldic supporters4 ,stylized plant motifs in decoration4 ,rays 7or flower petals7 rising from foot most characteristic 7,,iii1 ,figs4 #bd1 #bf1 and #bh74 ,use of purple paint to supplement black both for details of figures and for band decoration4 ,geometric ornament 7though perhaps with a difference7 survives to fill blank spaces on backgrounds of scenes4 ,varieties of style4 ,beasts drawn in silhouette1 heads outlined1 eyes1 c41 drawn in1 early1 and mainly in the islands 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #bi74 ,later whole figures in silhouette with details incised1 particularly identified with ,corinthian and ,boeotian and ,laconian styles 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #bf74 ,styles most likely to be found on the mainland are ',proto- ,corinthian' and ',corinthian'4 ',proto-,corinthian' 7also called ,argive ,linear74 ,small vases1 very fine pale clay4 ,decoration chiefly horizontal lines very fine4 ,rays from feet4 ,sometimes silhouette animals round shoulder4 ,characteristic shapes3 pear-shaped aryballoi1 and lekythi with conical body1 long neck1 and trefoil lip 7,,iii1 ,figs4 #bd and #be74 ',corinthian'4 ,clay pale buff to warm biscuit colour4 ,rays round foot4 ,purple bands4 ,rows of usual animals4 ,incisions4 ,details in purple4 ,ground ornaments1 incised rosettes more or less carefully drawn4 ,these in great profusion leaving very little bare space4 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #bf2 hatched linespurple47 ,throughout this period desire for a light ground was felt1 and where the natural colour of the clay did not give sufficient contrast it was covered with a strip of cream-or white clay 7e4g4 ,rhodian1 ,naucratite1 ,laconian2 see ,,iii1 ,fig4 #bh1 ,early ,laconian ,vase74 ,terra-cotta ,figurines4 ,series that culminates with ,tanagra figures of fourth century begins4 ,may be said always to be a step in advance of contemporary sculpture if any4 ,statuettes rare at this date1 but relief heads on flat plaques or on vase handles common4 ,treatment of hair usually resembles ,restoration wig 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #bj74 ,rosette frequent on shoulders represents head of bronze 7rarely silver or gold7 shoulder pin4 ,bronzes4 ,pins 7to fasten dress at shoulder74 ,three large bosses increasing in size as they near head replace many small equal bosses of preceding period4 ,disc heavier 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #bb74 ,brooches4 ,spiral type has disappeared4 ,couchant lion type with snake tail has been found at ,olympia and ,sparta4 ,in general brooches cease to be common4 ,plaques 7doubtless affixed to wood74 ,relief patterns of guilloches or rows of bosses4 ,figure scenes similar to those on pottery4 ,characteristic of seventh century4 ,chance of picking up slight4 ,inscriptions4 ,earliest extant examples of use of ,greek script on stone may date from this period4 ,for developments1 see tables of alphabets1 ,illustration ,,iv4 ,illustration ,,iv3 ,,greek ,,alphabets ,b4 ,black ,figured ,period4 #fjj ,b4,c4--,predominance of ,attic pottery4 ,decay of local styles4 ,introduction of red colouring into clay and of superlative ,attic black glaze4 ,figure scenes 7battle scenes and scenes from mythology7 largely predominate4 ,black silhouettes1 details marked with fine incisions1 additions of purple and white 7latter for linen and flesh of women74 ,elaborate palmettos characteristic 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #ca74 ,,iv4 ,,classical ,,greek ,red ,figured ,period4 #ebe ,b4,c4 ,same clay and glaze1 but whole vase covered with glaze and figures reserved showing in colour of clay1 details being added with fine-drawn lines of glaze4 ,white ,attic ,vases4 ,the older style of figures drawn in outline on a light ground 7e4 g4 ,naucratite and ,rhodian ware71 the space within outlines being filled more or less with wash of colour1 survived in ,athens side by side with the more usual black glazed ware1 and in the fifth century was particularly affected for the class of funerary lekythi1 vases made for offering at a tomb 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #cj74 ,outlines at first drawn in black1 then golden brown1 lastly a dull red4 ,miscellaneous4 ,walls4 ,sixth century4 ,characteristic type of polygonal wall1 each irregular stone very carefully fitted to its neighbours4 ,fortifications usually built with square towers and bastions projecting from the curtain4 ,round watch towers here and there to be met with4 ,bricks4 ,baked bricks rarely used till ,roman days4 ,bricks stamped by ,king ,nabis 7early second century7 have been found at ,sparta4 ,terra-cotta roof tiles 7sometimes with stamped inscriptions7 largely used4 ,laconian ,pottery ,characteristics4 ,fragments of black glazed ,attic ware are the class of remains easiest to pick up on any ,greek inhabited site1 except perhaps in ,laconia1 where perhaps for political reasons the local style was never ousted and pursued its natural process of decay until ,hellenistic times4 ,use of white slip over pink clay complete at end of seventh century1 then partial2 abandoned by beginning of fifth century4 ,characteristic patterns1 squares1 and dots 7,,iii1 ,fig4 #bh7 seventh century2 lotus and pomegranates sixth century and fifth century4 #ejj ,b4,c4--,after the end of the fifth century1 manufacture of vases at ,athens decayed4 ,supply chiefly from ,south ,italy4 ,growing use of additional white 7rare in ,attic red figure vases71 sometimes addition of detail in yellowish brown1 and a general coarseness of execution1 mark the change4 ,terra-cotta figurines 7figures of everyday life1 mostly female2 head- quarters ,tanagra in ,boeotia7 prevalent4 ,v4 ,,hellenistic #cjj ,b4,c4 ,side by side with decay of red-figure style appear two classes of vase that became very prevalent4 7#a7 ,white designs1 often floral1 on totally black ground of inferior dull glaze4 7#b7 ,black ware decorated not by paint but by moulded figures and patterns4 ,also the handles of unpainted jars with stamped impressions 7buff clay7 not uncommon4 ,provenance mainly ,rhodes4 ,,vi4 ,,roman ,hellenistic ware 7#b7 is forerunner of ,samian or ,aretine red pottery with moulded designs4 ,very widespread in ,greece in ,imperial days4 ,,vii4 ,,byzantine ,,age ,remains as far as the scope of this section is concerned are few4 ,fragments of pottery may be found at ,sparta4 ,these bear strong resemblance to the contemporary wares found in ,egypt belonging to the early ,mohammedan period4 ,transparent lustrous glaze4 ,ground usually pale yellow or cream1 sometimes pale green4 ,designs childish in character4 ,lions1 birds1 human figures painted in brown under the glaze or incised through4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,asia ,,minor ,see the diagrams of pottery1 ,illustration ,v3 ,,asia ,,minor ,,pottery #a4 ,introductory4 ,travellers are more likely to make new discoveries elsewhere than on the actual sites of ancient towns and villages4 ,in many cases the site is found to be entirely bare of all remains except sometimes small fragments of pottery4 ,in general1 inscribed and other stones have been carried away to serve as building material for mosques1 houses1 fountains1 bridges1 c41 or as headstones for graves in cemeteries or for other utilitarian purposes4 ,it is1 therefore1 in and near modern villages and towns that inscriptions are chiefly to be found1 as well as smaller antiquities1 such as clay tablets1 pots or fragments of them1 terra-cotta figures1 coins1 and so forth4 ,the smaller articles may sometimes be found in the bazaars1 but they are usually in the hands of individuals4 ,it should not be assumed that inscriptions which are exposed to public view have all been copied2 moreover1 new stones are constantly being turned up1 especially where building is going on and where there are old sites or cemeteries close at hand4 ,great numbers of inscribed stones are hidden away in private dwellings1 where they are difficult of discovery and of access4 ,travellers should take advantage of opportunities that may offer of examining antiquities in private houses1 and of visiting sites or monuments about which information may be received1 particularly if they are a little off the beaten track4 ,reward will often come in the shape of valuable discoveries1 of which many remain to be made4 ,cilicia in particular has been imperfectly explored1 and interesting monuments and inscriptions1 particularly ,hittite1 may be found there4 #b4 ,pottery ,fabrics4 ,it is not yet possible to describe fully or accurately the succession of styles1 or even to assign all known fabrics to their proper periods4 ,for this reason1 even the most fragmentary specimens are of interest1 provided only that3 7#a7 the outer surface is fairly well preserved1 7#b7 the place of discovery is known4 ,all fragments showing a rim or spout1 handles or part of a base1 should be preserved until they can be compared with a more perfect specimen4 ,the following fabrics1 however1 are widely distributed1 and usually seem to have flourished in the order in which they are here described3 ,a4 ,hand-made wares1 rough within1 but smooth or burnished surface1 self- coloured 7drab or brown71 or intentionally coloured black 7by charred matter in the clay1 or by a smoky fire71 or red 7by a clear fire1 sometimes aided by a wash or 'slip' of more ferruginous clay74 ,sometimes a black ware is 'overfired' to an ashy grey4 ,in such wares ornament is rare1 and consists mainly of 7a7 incised dots1 dashes1 or lines1 in simple rectilinear patterns 7chevrons1 zigzags1 lozenges71 often enhanced by a white chalky filling 7,v1 ,figs #e- #h72 7b7 ridges or bosses modelled in the clay surface1 or adhering to it4 ,the forms are plump and globular1 often round-bottomed or standing on short feet4 ,rims are absent or ill-developed2 necks actually prolonged into trough-spouts or long beaks2 handles are very simple and short4 ,vases are sometimes modelled like animals1 or have human faces or breasts 7,v1 ,figs4 #a-d74 ,these wares begin in the ,stone ,age1 and seem to predominate in the early and middle ,bronze ,age4 ,locally they may have lasted even later1 but the use of the potter's wheel spread rapidly in the early ,bronze ,age4 ,b4 ,hand-made wares of light-coloured clay1 with painted decoration1 usually in black or reddish-brown4 ,the paint is generally without glaze1 but sometimes is decayed and easily washes off4 ,the forms and ornaments resemble those of class ,a1 but are less rude and more varied4 ,distinct rims and standing-bases appear1 and spouts give place to a pinched lip4 ,c4 ,hand-made wares of black or other dark clay1 with painted decoration in white or ochre4 ,these fabrics are rather rare1 and the paint is easily washed off4 ,the forms follow those of class ,b4 ,classes ,b and ,c seem to begin early in the ,bronze ,age1 and are gradually replaced by the corresponding wheel-made fabrics of class ,d4 ,d4 ,wheel-made pottery begins in the ,bronze ,age1 and is distinguished by its symmetrical forms1 and by the texture of the inner surface1 especially about the rim and base1 where the potter's fingers have grazed the whirling clay4 ,self-coloured wares still occur1 and are sometimes elegant 7'bucchero' ware72 but the improved furnaces now permit general use of light-coloured clays1 suited to painted decoration4 ,glazed paint is still rare1 and may be taken as probable token of date not earlier than the end of the ,bronze ,age4 ,the glaze- painted wares of the ,greek island-world occasionally wandered to the mainland a little earlier than this1 but not far from the coast4 ,on wheel-made pottery the ornament is either 7a7 applied while the pot is on the wheel1 and consequently limited to lines and bands following the plane of rotation1 or 7b7 added afterwards1 free-hand1 usually between such bands1 and especially on the neck and shoulder4 ,simple rectilinear schemes are commonest 7panels1 lozenges1 and triangles1 enriched with lattice and chequers7 7,v1 ,figs4 #i1 #aj1 #aa1 #ab72 with these in the ,early ,iron ,age appear little targets of concentric circles drawn mechanically with compasses 7,v1 ,figs4 #ac-ae72 also1 by degrees1 birds 7,v1 ,fig4 #af71 animals1 and simple plant designs 7rosettes1 lotus1 palmette71 and occasionally human figures4 ,but as a rule1 the mainland pottery is very simply decorated1 and insular imports are rare1 except within the area within ,greek colonization4 ,in the ,later ,iron ,age or ,historic ,period1 from the seventh century onward1 the pot-fabrics of ,asia ,minor rapidly assimilate two main classes of foreign fashions1 ,greek and ,oriental4 ,e4 ,the ,oriental types 7mainly from ,syria7 are all plump and heavy looking1 usually in coarse buff or cream-coloured ware1 almost without paint4 ,the ,greek forms are more graceful1 varied1 and specialized2 light-coloured clays predominate1 with simple bands of black ill-glazed paint1 absorbed by the inferior clays4 ,after ,alexander's time the ,greek and the ,oriental forms became confused2 the general level of style and execution falls1 painted decoration almost disappears1 and the outer surface is often ribbed by uneven pressure of the fingers on the whirling clay4 ,this fashion is a sign of late ,hellenistic or ,graeco-,roman date4 ,f4 ,meanwhile1 the black-glazed ,greek 7mainly ,athenian7 wares spread widely for table use1 and were imitated locally from the fourth century onwards4 ,the clay is pale or reddish 7genuine ,greek fabrics are usually quite red within7 and the glaze thick1 black1 and of a brilliant glassy smoothness4 ,imitations are of all degrees of inferiority4 ,g4 ,other late fabrics have smooth ill-glazed surfaces1 of various red1 brown1 or chocolate tints1 over hard-baked dull-fractured paste not unlike modern earthenware1 but usually dark-coloured4 ,these wares begin in the ,hellenistic period1 and go on into the ,roman and early ,byzantine ,ages4 ,they have sometimes a little ornament in a hard white or cream 'slip' which stands up above the surface of the vase4 ,these fabrics are all for table use1 or for tomb-furniture1 and are usually of small size4 ,h4 ,pottery with vitreous glaze like modern earthenware only appears on ,byzantine and ,turkish sites4 ,there a few late ,greek and ,roman fabrics of glazed ware1 mostly of dark brown and olive-green tints2 but they are rare1 and usually found in tombs4 ,the earlier glazes are applied directly to the clay2 later a white or coloured slip is applied first1 and a clear siliceous glaze over this4 #c4 ,inscriptions and ,monuments4 ,a4 ,hittite ,civilization4 7,see figures1 ,illustration ,,vi3 ,hittite ,inscriptions1 etc47 7#a7 ,from #bjjj ,b4,c4 onwards baked clay tablets with cuneiform 7or wedge-shaped7 writing 7,illustration ,,vi1 ,fig4 #a7 to be found anywhere in ,eastern ,asia ,minor1 within the ,halys bend and south of it1 in ,southern ,cappadocia1 in ,cilicia1 and in ,north ,syria up to the ,euphrates4 7#b7 #ajjj-gjj ,b4,c4 probably3 inscriptions generally cut on stone1 dark and hard 7black basalt71 or on the living rock1 in hieroglyphic writing4 ,the hieroglyphs are either cut in relief 7,,vi1 ,fig4 #d7 or incised 7,,vi1 ,fig4 #b74 ,found in the same region and sporadically west of the ,halys4 7#c7 ,from #adjj ,b4,c4 and #ijj ,b4,c4 onwards monuments and sculpture4 ,human figures are short and thick1 generally wearing boots with toes turned up 7,,vi1 ,fig4 #c47 ,found in the same regions as the inscriptions and also west of the ,halys to the sea4 ,b4 ,lydian inscriptions4 ,from about #ejj ,b4,c4 ,letters mostly like ,greek capitals 7sometimes reversed72 7,illustration ,,iv1 at bottom74 ,c4 ,lycian inscriptions and monuments4 ,from about #ejj ,b4,c4 inscriptions1 sometimes with a ,greek translation4 7,,iv1 at bottom47 ,monuments1 mostly with inscriptions1 are generally tombs in stone1 built to imitate wood1 with the ends of beams projecting or showing4 ,d4 ,greek antiquities4 7#a7 ,early period to #cbc ,b4,c4 the great ,greek colonies on the seaboard and in the coast valleys really formed an outlying part of ,greece1 and for them the section on ,greece should be consulted4 7#b7 ,periods of ,seleucid and ,pergamene rule1 #cbc-acj ,b4,c4 ,inscriptions of these periods to be found mostly in the coastal region1 rarely on the plateau4 ,chiefly royal ordinances1 thank offerings1 municipal honorary inscriptions1 decrees1 covenants1 and the like4 7#c7 ,graeco-,roman period1 #acj ,b4,c4-,a4,d4 #djj4 ,language of inscriptions remains normally ,greek1 though the lettering gradually assumes a different character from century to century1 steadily deteriorating4 ,the ,phrygian language1 written in ,greek letters1 survives for several centuries in epitaphs1 part of the inscription often being in ,greek4 ,latin inscriptions are not common except in ,roman colonies during the earlier centuries of their existence4 ,elsewhere they are chiefly official documents of various kinds 7e4g4 imperial ordinances1 milestones usually of columnar shape with the ,emperor's titles1 boundary stones1 c471 or expressions of homage to ,emperors1 honorary inscriptions to governors and other officials1 dedications1 epitaphs1 c4 ,sometimes a ,greek version is added4 ,latin inscriptions of the ,republican period 7recording decrees of the ,senate7 are extremely rare4 ,,illustration ,,vi3 ,,hittite ,,inscriptions1 ,,etc4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,cyprus ,the traveller will find the ,catalogue of the ,cyprus ,museum1 by ,j4 ,l4 ,myres and ,m4 ,ohnefalsch-,richter 7,oxford1 #ahii7 indispensable for the study of ,cypriote ,antiquities4 ,reference may also be made to ,myres1 ,catalogue of the ,cesnola ,collection of ,antiquities from ,cyprus 7,new ,york1 #aiad74 ,they contain numerous illustrations of types1 and make diagrams for the present section unnecessary4 ,the principal classes of ancient remains are as follows3 ,settlements4 ,these are usually much devastated by the removal of building materials to more recent habitations2 or are obscured by modern towns and villages on the same site4 ,all foundations in squared masonry1 or composed of unusually large stones1 should be noted and protected as far as possible4 ,the frequent presence of large building stones1 and especially of architectural fragments1 in recent house-walls probably indicates the neighbourhood of an ancient building3 and all reconstructions and fresh foundation-trenches should be kept under observation4 ,the present ,antiquity ,law provides for the inspection and custody of ancient remains so exposed3 the ,curator of ,ancient ,monuments is charged with the supervision of all buildings and monuments above ground2 the ,keeper of ,antiquities for the custody of movable objects1 and for the registration of those already in private possession4 ,taking into consideration the utility of good building material to the present owners of such sites1 active co-operation to preserve ancient masonry is not to be expected1 unless local patriotism and expectation of traffic from tourists can be enlisted in support of ,government regulations4 ,architectural fragments found in reconstruction are often best preserved by arranging that they shall be built conspicuously into one of the new walls1 well above ground-level1 or transferred to the nearest church or school-house4 ,sanctuaries usually consist of a walled enclosure containing numerous pedestals and bases of votive statues and other monuments4 ,usually only the foundation-walls are of stone1 as the same sun-dried brick was commonly used in ancient as in modern times for the superstructure4 ,such sites are often vary shallow1 and when they occur in the open country are liable to be disturbed by ploughing1 when the smaller statuettes and terra-cotta figures may be turned up in considerable numbers4 ,as most of our knowledge of the sculpture1 as well as of the religious observances1 of ancient ,cyprus is derived from such sites1 all such indications should be reported at once to the ,keeper of ,antiquities1 and arrangements made for the site to be examined with a view to excavation before it is cultivated further4 ,the sculpture on these sites begins usually in the seventh century ,b4,c42 before that period terra-cotta figures were in use as far back as the ninth or tenth century4 ,figures of ',mixed ,oriental' style1 resembling ,assyrian or ,egyptian work1 give place about #ejj ,b4,c4 to a provincial ,greek style1 which passes gradually into ,hellenistic and ,graeco-,roman4 ,the material is almost invariably the soft local limestone1 and the workmanship is often clumsy2 but even the coarser examples should be treated carefully1 as they were sometimes completed in colours which are easily destroyed by too vigorous washing4 ,the first cleaning should be with gently running water only4 ,tombs are of all periods1 and are found not only around historical sites and actual ruins1 but also in localities where the settlement to which they belonged has wholly disappeared4 ,though simple graves were always in use among the poorest folk1 the commonest form of tomb at all periods is a rock-cut chamber entered by a door in one side1 to which access is given by a shaft or sloping passage 7dromos7 cut likewise in the rock4 ,the earliest are but a few feet from the surface1 just deep enough to ensure a firm roof to the chamber2 later the depth is as much as #ab or #ae feet4 ,occasionally the chamber1 and even the passage1 is built of masonry and roofed with stone slabs or a corbel vault1 and the simple door-slab gives place to a stone door1 hinged1 or sliding in a grooved frame4 ,cremation was occasionally practised in the ,hellenistic ,age1 but the regular custom was to bury the body2 during the ,bronze ,age in a sitting or a contracted posture1 in all later periods lying at full length4 ,stone coffins 7sarcophagi71 with a lid1 were used occasionally by the rich from the sixth century onwards1 and wooden coffins in the ,graeco-,roman period4 ,there is always as rich a tomb-equipment as the mourners could afford1 of personal ornaments1 wreaths1 provisions1 weapons1 and other gear1 especially pottery2 and terra-cotta figures of men1 animals1 furniture1 and other objects for the use of the deceased4 ,in ,graeco-,roman tombs pottery is supplemented or replaced by glass vessels1 and coins are frequent1 and are important evidence of date4 ,most of our knowledge of ,cypriote arts and industries comes from this tomb-equipment1 which should therefore if possible be preserved entire and kept together1 tomb by tomb2 not neglecting the skeletons themselves1 which are of value to indicate changes in the island population4 ,the position of tombs was often marked by gravestones above ground2 these remain scattered in the surface soil1 or collected to block the entrances to later tombs4 ,they are frequently inscribed4 ,a very common form in ,greco-,roman times is the cippus1 a short column1 like an altar4 ,pottery and other objects from tombs1 and also from settlements1 is classified as follows3 ,stone ,age3 not clearly represented in ,cyprus2 but some of the earliest tombs 7with rude varieties of red hand-made ware7 contain no metallic objects1 and may belong to the latest neolithic period4 ,stone implements are very rare1 and should be carefully recorded1 with a note of the spot where they were found4 ,bronze ,age1 early period 7before #bjjj ,b4,c473 polished red ware1 hand-made1 sometimes with incised ornament filled with white powder4 ,bronze ,age1 middle period 7#bjjj-aejj ,b4,c473 polished red ware1 and also white hand-made ware with painted linear ornament in dull black or brown4 ,bronze ,age1 late period 7#aejj-abjj ,b4,c473 degenerate polished red and painted white ware2 wheel-made white ware with painted ornament in glazed black or brown1 of the ',late ,minoan' or ',mycenaean' style introduced from the ,aegean2 various hand-made wares of foreign styles1 probably from ,syria or ,asia ,minor4 ,in these periods1 weapons1 implements1 and ornaments are of copper 7with bronze in the 'late' period72 gold occurs rarely2 terra-cotta figures are few and rude2 engraved seals are cylindrical like those of ,babylonia4 ,early ,iron ,age3 wheel-made pottery1 either white or bright red1 with painted geometrical ornament in black 7supplemented on the white ware with purple-red72 there is also a black fabric imitating metallic forms4 ,the early period 7#abjj-ajjj ,b4,c47 marks the transition from bronze to iron implements1 with survival of ,mycenaean decoration on the pottery1 and replacement of cylindrical by conical seals4 ,the middle period 7#ajjj-gej ,b4,c47 has purely geometrical decoration3 terra-cotta figures are modelled rudely by hand1 and painted like the pottery4 ,the late period 7#gej-ejj ,b4,c47 shows foreign influences from ,greece and from ,phoenicia or ,egypt1 competing with and enriching the native geometrical style4 ,scarab seals1 blue-glaze beads1 and other personal ornaments1 and silver objects1 appear4 ,terra-cotta figures stamped in a mould occur side by side with modelled4 ,hellenic ,age1 with increasing influence of ,greek arts and industries4 ,early or ,hellenic period 7#ejj-cjj ,b4,c473 the native pottery degenerates1 and ,greek vases and terra-cottas are imported and imitated2 jewellery of gold and silver is fairly common and of good quality2 with engraved seals set in signet rings3 the bronze mirrors are circular1 with a handle-spike4 ,middle or ,hellenistic period 7#cjj-ej ,b4,c473 the native pottery is almost wholly replaced by imitations of forms from other parts of the ,greek world1 especially from ,syria and ,asia ,minor3 large handled wine-jars 7amphorae7 are common3 terra-cottas and jewellery also follow ,greek styles3 coloured stones are set in rings and ear-rings4 ,late or ,graeco-,roman period 7#ej ,b4,c4-,a4,d4 #djj73 pottery is partly replaced by vessels of blown glass3 clay lamps1 red-glazed jugs1 so called 'tear-bottles' of spindle-shapes1 ear-rings of beads strung on wire1 bronze rings and bracelets1 circular mirrors without handles1 and bronze coins are characteristics4 ,byzantine ,age 7after ,a4,d4 #djj73 ,christian burial in surface graves supersedes the use of rock-hewn tombs3 funerary equipment goes out of use1 except a few personal ornaments1 which are of mean appearance1 and may bear ,christian symbols4 ,domestic pottery is coarse1 ungraceful1 and frequently ribbed on the outside4 ,clay lamps have long nozzles1 and ,christian symbols4 ,glass becomes clumsy and less common2 and glazed bowls and cups come into use4 ,occasional rich finds of silver plate 7salvers1 cups1 spoons1 c47 and personal ornaments1 have been made among ,byzantine ruins4 ,on mediaeval and later sites1 various glazed fabrics of pottery are found1 and occasionally examples of the glazed and painted jugs1 plates1 and tiles known to collectors as ',rhodian' or ',damascus' ware4 ,inscriptions occur on settlement-sites1 in sanctuaries and associated with tombs3 usually cut on slabs or blocks of soft limestone1 though marble and other harder stones were used in ,hellenistic and ,roman times4 ,besides the ordinary ,greek 7see ,illustration ,,iv71 and ,roman alphabets the ,phoenician alphabet 7see ,illustrations ,x and ,,xi7 was in use at ,kition 7,larnaca71 in the great sanctuaries at ,idalion 7,dali71 and occasionally elsewhere2 and from early times until the fourth century a syllabary peculiar to ,cyprus1 often very rudely hewn1 in irregular lines1 on ill-shaped blocks4 ,such ',cypriote inscriptions' 7see accompanying ,illustration ,,vii7 are of great value and interest1 and have been often overlooked among building material drawn from old sites4 ,in all doubtful cases1 a 'squeeze' should be made by one of the methods described in the first part of this volume and submitted to the ,keeper of ,antiquities4 ,the stamped inscriptions on the handles of wine-jars are worth preserving1 as evidence for the course of trade4 ,coins were issued in ,cyprus from the sixth century onward2 first in silver2 later 7in the fourth century ,b4,c47 occasionally in gold1 and from the fourth century commonly in copper4 ,a ,ptolemaic coinage succeeded in the third century that of the local rulers2 the ,roman coinage1 with inscriptions sometimes in ,greek1 sometimes in ,latin1 lasts from ,augustus to the beginning of the third century4 ,coins of the ,byzantine ,emperors and of the ,lusignan ,kings are common4 ,,illustration ,,vii3 ,,bilingual 7,,greek ,,and ,,cypriote7 ,,dedication ,,to ,,demeter ,,and ,,persephone ,,from ,,curium4 ,,chapter ,v ,,central ,,and ,,north ,,syria ,see the diagrams of flint implements1 ,illustration ,,ii2 of pottery and weapons1 c41 ,,viii ,,ix2 of alphabets1 ,x ,,xi4 ,the following notes are to be accepted as only a rough and imperfect guide1 since no part of ,syria1 north of ,palestine1 has been widely or minutely explored1 and the archaeology of the earliest period1 in ,central ,syria1 for example1 is almost unknown4 ,the periods into which the archaeological history of ,syria should be divided are roughly1 as follows3 ,i4 ,neolithic and ,chalcolithic ,age1 to about #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,,ii4 ,bronze ,age or ,early ,hittite1 to about #aajj ,b4,c4 ,,iii4 ,iron ,age or ,late ,hittite1 to about #eej ,b4,c4 ,,iv4 ,persian ,period1 to about #ccj ,b4,c4 ,v4 ,hellenistic ,period1 to about #ajj ,b4,c4 ,,vi4 ,roman ,period4 ,,vii4 ,byzantine ,period4 ,i4 ,neolithic4 ,no purely ,neolithic sites yet known1 but lowest strata of remains at ,sakjegozu and ,sinjerli1 on the ,carchemish citadel1 and in certain kilns at ,yunus near by1 and also pot-burials among house remains are of this ,age4 7,but see ,chapter ,,viii1 ,mesopotamia1 whose ,neolithic period is similar47 ,stone implements3 as in ,greece1 including obsidian of very clear texture1 probably of inner ,asiatic1 not ,aegean production4 ,bone needles and other implements4 ,pottery4 ,four varieties have been observed3 7#a7 buff ground with simple linear decoration applied direct on the gritty body-clay in lustreless pigments1 black1 chocolate-brown1 or red1 according to the firing2 7#b7 greenish-buff face1 hand-polished1 with polychrome varnish decoration of vandykes and other geometric motives2 7#c7 monochrome1 black to grey1 not burnished1 but sometimes decorated with incised linear patterns2 7#d7 plain red or buff 7e4g4 large urns in which ,neolithic burials were found on the ,carchemish citadel74 ,all pottery hand-made4 ,figurines3 rude clay and stone figurines are likely to occur1 but have as yet been found very rarely in ,neolithic strata4 ,copper implements3 traces observed at ,carchemish3 to be looked for4 ,,ii4 ,bronze ,age 7,early ,hittite74 7a7 ,early period to about #aejj ,b4,c4 ,cist-graves made of rough stone slabs1 near crude brick houses4 ,conjunction of such slabs with bricks would be an indication of an early ,bronze ,age site4 ,rare pot-burials survive4 ,implements4 ,spear-heads of long tapering form rounded sharply at the base which has long tang 7,,ix1 ,fig4 #e73 poker-like butts 7,,ix1 ,fig4 #b73 knives with curved tangs3 'toggle' pins3 all bronze 7but a silver toggle-pin has been found7 7,,ix1 ,figs4 #a1h74 ,pottery4 ,all wheel-made but rough3 light red or buff faced of reddish clay3 decoration rare and only in simple zigzags or waves in reddish-brown pigment3 long-stemmed vases of 'champagne-glass' form are common 7,,viii1 ,fig4 #d73 rarely a creamy slip is applied to the red clay4 7b7 ,later period4 ,cist-graves apart from houses1 in cemeteries4 ,implements4 ,long narrow celts often riveted3 spear-heads1 leaf-shaped or triangular 7,,ix1 ,figs4 #c1 #f1 #aj73 axe-heads with socket1 swelling blade and curved cutting edge3 pins both 'toggle' and unpierced1 straight and bent over4 ,pottery4 ,wheel-made1 well potted1 and commonly ring-burnished1 the process beginning at the base of a vase and climbing spirally3 little painted decoration3 face usually dusky brown over pinkish body clay1 but red and yellow-white faced wares also found3 shapes1 mostly bowls1 open and half closed3 ring feet1 but no handles to vases3 only occasionally lug-ears 7,,ix1 ,figs4 #a1b1c1e1f74 ,rims well turned over belong to the latest period1 in which elaborate ring-burnishing is common4 ,beads1 c4 ,diamond-shaped1 with incised decoration1 in clay or stone1 common4 ,pendants1 c41 of shell1 lapis lazuli1 cornelian1 crystal4 ,cylinders1 of rude design like ,babylonian ,first ,dynasty1 in stone and bone4 ,spindle-whorls in steatite and clay4 ,,illustration ,,viii3 ,,syrian ,,pottery ,,iii4 ,iron ,age 7,late ,hittite74 ,to this belong the mass of ',hittite' remains in ,syria4 ,graves are unlined pits1 with urn burials1 the corpse having been cremated4 ,cylinders1 c41 showing traces of fire1 will belong to this ,age4 ,implements and weapons4 ,arrow-heads of bronze3 spear-heads of bronze and iron3 axes1 knives1 and picks of iron 7miniature models occur in graves73 daggers of iron4 ,fibulae1 of bronze1 semicircular and triangular 7as in ,asia ,minor7 7,,ix1 ,figs4 #d1 #i1 #aa73 plain armlets of bronze3 pins1 spatulae1 c41 of bronze3 thin applique ornaments4 ,bronze bowls 7gilt7 with gadroon or lotus ornament 7moulded7 in later period4 ,steatite censers1 in form of a cup held by a human hand1 are not uncommon 7,,ix1 ,fig4 #g74 ,pottery4 ,tall narrow-mouthed urns1 bath-shaped vessels1 and bell-kraters common 7,,viii1 ,fig4 #aj73 trefoil-mouth oenochoae and hydriae2 also amphorae 7,,viii1 ,fig4 #g74 ,in earlier period1 white or drab slipped surface with geometric patterns 7rarely rude birds7 in black4 ,in later period1 pinkish glaze with geometric patterns in black-brown1 concentric circles being a common motive4 ,tripod bowls in unslipped 'kitchen' ware 7,,viii1 ,fig4 #h74 ,blue or greenish glazed albarelli1 with white1 brown1 or yellow bands1 occur 7as in ,rhodes74 ,figurines4 ,drab clay1 painted with red or black bands and details4 ,two types3 7a7 ,horsemen2 7b7 ,goddesses of columnar shape1 often with flower headdresses1 and sometimes carrying a child4 ,seals1 c4 ,scarabs with designs of ,egyptian appearance3 cylinders1 steatite or 7more commonly7 glazed paste1 lightly and often scratchily engraved3 hard stone seals finely engraved3 flattened spheroids in steatite with ,hittite symbols on both faces1 inscriptions being often garbled4 ,inscriptions4 ,most of those in ,hittite script1 both relieved and incised1 found in ,syria1 are of this ,age1 but chiefly of the earlier part of it 7cf4 ,illustration ,,vi74 ,those in ,semitic characters begin in this ,age2 and to its later part 7#hth-#gth cents47 belong important ,aramaic inscriptions1 e4g4 the ,bar-,rekub monuments of ,sinjerli 7,shamal74 ,see tables of letter-forms appended to ,palestine section1 ,illustrations ,x ,,xi4 ,,iv4 ,persian ,period4 ,imported ,egyptian and ,egypto-,phoenician objects 7bronze bowls as in ,age ,,iii3 scarabs3 figure-amulets71 ,rhodian 7pottery71 ,attic 7coins1 small black-figure vases1 c474 ,weapons and implements4 ,iron4 ,long swords3 spearheads1 socketed1 often with square or diamond mid-rib3 short double-edged daggers with round pommels3 chapes 7bronze7 with moulded or beaten relief-work3 knives1 small and slightly curved3 arrow-heads 7usually bronze and triangular73 horse- bits 7usually bronze7 with heavy knobbed side-bars3 ear-rings1 wire armlets and pins 7generally plain7 of bronze3 fibulae as in ,age ,,iii3 circular mirrors1 plain1 of bronze3 anklets of heavy bronze3 kohl-pots1 bronze1 of hollow cylindrical form1 with plain sticks4 ,pottery4 ,as in ,age ,,ii1 plain1 polished1 rarely ring-burnished1 but of less careful workmanship 7,,viii1 ,fig4 #i47 ,glazed albarelli1 'pilgrim- bottles'1 aryballi1 c41 7as in ,age ,,iii7 common4 ,white-yellow slipped ware with bands of black survives rarely from ,age ,,iii4 ,stone vessels4 ,bowls on inverted cup-shaped feet not uncommon 7,,viii1 ,fig4 #aa74 ,beads and seals4 ,eye-beads in mosaic glass1 and other glass beads 7hard stone and bronze more rarely73 conoid seals in hard crystalline stones1 usually engraved with figure praying to the ,moon-god3 also soft stone1 glass and paste conoids4 ,scarabs and scaraboids in paste4 ,cylinders become scarce4 ,v4 ,hellenistic4 ,,vi4 ,roman4 ,,vii4 ,byzantine4 ,most of the characteristic ,syrian products of all these ,periods do not differ materially from those found in other ,east ,mediterranean lands1 e4g4 ,greece and ,asia ,minor4 ,the change to ,persian 7,sassanian7 types comes in the late seventh century ,a4,d4 ,two classes of objects1 examples of the first of which are mostly of ,age ,,iii1 but may be ,persian1 ,hellenistic1 or even ,roman1 are very commonly met with in ,syria3 #a4 ,figurines1 single or in pairs or threes1 of bronze or terra-cotta1 representing cult-types4 ,most common is a standing god with peaked cap1 short tunic1 and arm raised in act of smiting3 a seated goddess also common3 figures of animals1 especially a bull2 and phallic objects 7these mainly ,roman74 #b4 ,glass plain 7iridescent from decay71 ribbed1 or moulded1 in great variety of forms-bowls1 jugs1 cups1 c4 ,mostly late ,hellenistic1 ,roman1 and ,byzantine1 and especially common and of fine quality in the ,orontes valley4 ,parti-coloured glass 7with white or yellow bands and threads7 is earlier 7,persian ,period74 ,painted and enamelled glass with gilt or polychrome designs is later 7ninth to fifteenth century1 ,arab74 ,,illustration ,,ix3 ,,syrian ,,weapons1 ,,etc4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,palestine ,see the diagrams of flint implements1 ,illustrations ,,ii2 pottery1 ,,xii2 alphabets1 ,,xiv ,,xv4 ,i4 ,general ,principles4 #a4 ,study of the pottery of the country1 not merely from books but from actual specimens1 is an absolutely essential preliminary4 ,without an acquaintance with this branch of ,palestinian archaeology1 so thorough that any sherd presenting the least character can be immediately assigned to its proper period1 no field research of any value can be carried out4 7,see further ,v below47 #b4 ,a knowledge of the various ,semitic alphabets is necessary for copying inscriptions4 ,unless the traveller be also acquainted with the languages he had better be cautious about copying ,semitic inscriptions2 without such knowledge he runs the risk of confusing different ,semitic letters1 which often closely resemble one another4 ,he should1 however1 be able to make squeezes and photographs4 ,the following are the languages and scripts which may be found in ,palestinian ,epigraphy4 ,egyptian1 in ,hieroglyphics4 ,greek4 ,babylonian ,cuneiform4 ,latin4 ,assyrian ,cuneiform4 ,arabic1 in ,cufic script4 ,hebrew1 in ancient script4 ,arabic1 in modern script4 ,hebrew1 in square character4 ,armenian 7in mosaic ,phoenician4 pavements1 also graffiti ,moabite4 in ,church of ,holy ,aramaic4 ,sepulchre74 ,tables of the chief alphabetic and numeral forms of the ,west ,semitic scripts are given in ,illustrations ,x ,,xi2 for the ,greek1 see ,illustration ,,iv4 #c4 ,the traveller should have had practice in making measured drawings of buildings4 #d4 ,for some branches of work a good knowledge of ,arabic is indispensable--not the miserable pidgin jargon usually spoken by ,europeans1 nor yet the highly complex literary language1 which is unintelligible to the ordinary native1 but the colloquial of the country1 spoken grammatically and properly pronounced4 ,work done through dragomans is never entirely satisfactory1 because it requires the unattainable condition that the dragoman should be as much a scientific student of anthropology and of archaeology as the traveller himself4 #e4 ,the student for whom these pages are written should not attempt any excavation1 unless he has been trained under a practical excavator1 and has learnt how work1 which is essentially and inevitably destructive of evidence1 can be made to yield profitable fruit4 ,there is plenty of work that can be done on the surface of the ground without excavation4 ,illustrations ,x ,,xi3 ,table of ,west ,semitic ,alphabets ,numerals4 ,,ii4 ,sites of ,towns and ,villages4 #a4 ,nomenclature4 ,the sites of ancient towns and villages are usually conspicuous in ,palestine1 and are recognized in the local nomenclature4 ,they are denoted by the words tall1 plural tulul1 meaning 'mound'1 and khirbah1 plural khirab meaning 'ruin'4 ,these words are commonly spelt in ,english tell and khirbet 7less correctly khurbet7 and we use these more familiar forms here4 ,as a rule1 though not invariably1 the sense of these terms is distinguished4 ,a tell is a site represented by a mound of stratified accumulation1 the result of occupation extending over many centuries1 and easily recognizable among natural hillocks by its regular shape1 smooth sides1 and flat top4 ,a khirbet is a field of ruins in which there is little or no stratification4 ,nearly all the sites of the latter type are the remains of villages not older than the ,byzantine or ,roman period4 #b4 ,identification of ancient sites4 ,this is a task less easy than it appears to be1 and many of the current identifications of ,biblical sites call for revision4 ,similarity of name1 on which most of these identifications depend1 is apt to be misleading2 in many cases sites identified thus with ,old ,testament places are not older than the ,byzantine ,period4 #a ,this similarity of name may sometimes be a mere accident2 it may also sometimes be accounted for by a transference of site1 the inhabitants having for some special reason moved their town to a new situation4 ,in such cases the tell representing the older site may perhaps await identification in the neighbourhood4 ,in attempting to establish identifications1 the date of the site1 as determined from the potsherds1 and its suitability to the recorded history of the ancient site in question1 are elements of equal importance with its name4 #a ,an example is ,khirbet ,teku'a1 long identified with the ,biblical ,tekoa4 ,note3 ,the traveller should be cautioned against embarking on the study of place-names1 identification of scriptural sites1 c41 before mastering the principles of ,arabic phonetics4 ,many of the attempts made at rendering the names of ,palestinian place-names in ,european books are simply grotesque4 ,the following are the chief pitfalls3 7#a7 ,confusion of the vowels1 the pronunciation of which is obscure4 7#b7 ,the consonant 'ain1 to which the untrained ,european ear is deaf1 and which in consequence is often omitted4 ,less frequently it may be over-conscientiously inserted in a place where it does not exist4 ,sometimes the 'ain and its associated vowel are transposed 7as ,m'alula for ,ma'lula7 making unpronounceable combinations of consonants4 7#c7 ,the letter kaf1 often dropped in pronunciation1 and therefore often omitted4 7#d7 ,the letter ghain1 which an unaccustomed ear confuses with either g or r4 7#e7 ,the reduplicated letters1 which a ,european is apt to hear and to write as single4 7#f7 ,the nuances between the different d1 h1 k1 t1 and s sounds4 #c4 ,surface-exploration of a tell4 ,the stratification can rarely be studied on the surface only3 superficial indications of this are obscured by the plough1 weather1 vegetation1 and the activities of modern natives who grub for building-stone and for the chance of buried treasure4 ,only by trenching can the strata be exposed4 ,an exception to this rule is afforded by ,tell el-,hesy 7,lachish7 explored by ,dr4 ,petrie in #ahij- #a3 here the erosion of a stream had exposed enough of the strata for a reconnaissance4 ,in the majority of cases the most that a visitor can hope to do is to pick up stray antiquities on the surface of the ground1 and ascertain therefrom the limits of date4 ,the chief clue is afforded by the pottery 7see below1 ,v71 sherds of which1 large and small1 are strewn in considerable numbers on every ancient site4 ,scarabs1 seals1 bronze implements1 iron fragments1 beads1 bone ornaments1 and the like may also be noticed4 ,a trained eye is essential even for such surface finds3 one man may walk over a mound and find nothing1 another may walk in his steps and gather quite an interesting harvest of small objects4 ,surface indications of buried buildings 7or rather foundations7 may be noted both on the top and on the sides of a tell4 ,lines of wall may not infrequently be traced4 ,often the vegetation growing on the surface indicates the presence of structures underneath 7either by burnt-up patches amid luxuriant growths1 or vice versa74 #d4 ,surface exploration of a khirbet4 ,the task here is1 generally sneaking1 simpler4 ,in a khirbet there is usually no great depth of accumulation2 indeed1 the bare rock frequently crops up in the middle of such a site4 ,there is1 therefore1 as a rule only one historical period represented4 ,potsherds1 coins 7,roman1 ,jewish1 ,byzantine1 early ,islamic1 sometimes ,crusader71 tesserae of mosaic pavements1 fragments of iron nails1 beads1 minute metal ornaments 7as bronze wire finger-rings7 are to be picked up on khirbet sites4 ,the remains of walls are usually more easily traceable in khirbet than in tell sites1 though much damage has been done by quarrying for modern buildings4 ,these walls should be carefully examined3 buildings other than mere houses 7churches1 synagogues1 baths7 may sometimes be detected4 ,cisterns should be noted4 ,some of these are not very obvious and the traveller should be on his guard against falling into them4 ,all stones should be examined1 as there is a chance of finding inscriptions4 #e4 ,in all work on ancient sites the investigator must make a point of noting everything1 irrespective of its apparent importance1 and of carefully training a critical judgement in interpreting his observations4 ,it is impossible to lay down general principles that govern every case completely3 every site presents its own individual problems4 ,,iii4 ,rock-cut ,tombs4 #a4 ,all ,palestine is honeycombed with rock-cut tombs1 which form a fascinating and inexhaustible field of study4 ,unfortunately all that are in the least degree visible have long ago been rifled1 and in recent years those pests1 the curio-hunting tourists1 have done incalculable harm by stimulating the native tomb-robber and dealer4 #b4 ,the explorer of rock-cut tombs must be indifferent to mud1 damp1 evil smells1 noxious insects1 and other discomforts1 and he must be prepared to squeeze through very narrow passages1 much clogged with earth4 ,he is recommended to be on his guard against scorpions and snakes4 #c4 ,a plan and vertical section of the tomb should be drawn4 ,the measurements should be taken carefully1 not only for the sake of the accuracy of the plan1 but also for metrological purposes4 #d4 ,the rock outside the entrance of the tomb-chamber should be examined4 ,it often shows rebating or other cutting1 designed to receive the foundations of a masonry mausoleum 7resembling in general style the rock-hewn monuments in the ,kedron ,valley at ,jerusalem74 ,as a rule such structures have been entirely destroyed for the sake of their stones4 #e4 ,the tool-marks of the tomb-quarriers should be examined1 as they sometimes reveal interesting technical points4 #f4 ,every inch of the surface of the excavation1 inside and out1 must be examined for ornaments1 symbols1 or inscriptions4 ,these may be either cut or painted1 and often are very inconspicuous4 ,ornaments are usually floral in type1 though in late tombs figure-subjects are occasionally to be found4 ,symbols are either ,jewish 7the seven- branched candlestick7 or ,christian 7the cross1 ,a-omega1 or the like74 ,inscriptions are not necessarily formally cut3 they are sometimes mere scratched graffiti1 which would be sure to escape notice unless carefully looked for 7as in the so-called ',tombs of the ,prophets' on the ,mount of ,olives74 #g4 ,dating of tombs4 ,the savage rifling to which ,palestinian tombs have been subjected has much reduced the material available for dating them4 ,the following general principles apply to ,southern ,palestine3 those in ,northern ,palestine and ,syria still await a more exact study3 ,the earliest tombs known in the country were mere natural caves1 into which the dead were cast1 often very unceremoniously4 ,in the ,second ,semitic ,period 7circa #ahjj-adjj ,b4,c47 hewn chambers began to be used4 ,these are in the form of cylindrical shafts with a doorway at the bottom leading sideways into the burial-chamber4 ,natural caves are still frequently used4 ,in the ,third ,semitic ,period 7circa #adjj-ajjj ,b4,c47 the shaft3 form disappears and an artificial cave1 rudely hewn out1 takes its place4 ,the entrance is in the side of the chamber1 though not necessarily at the level of the floor4 ,rude shelves for the reception of the bodies are sometimes1 but not always1 cut in the sides of the chamber4 ,in the ,fourth ,semitic ,period 7circa #ajjj-eej ,b4,c47 the tomb- chambers are of the same kind1 but are as a rule smaller4 ,in ,southern ,palestine the well-made tomb-chambers1 such as are to be seen in great numbers around ,jerusalem1 are all post-exilic4 ,there is an immense variety in plan1 some tombs being single chambers1 others complications of several chambers4 ,the late excavation absurdly called the ',tombs of the ,kings' at ,jerusalem is quite a labyrinth of rockcut chambers4 ,in exploring such a structure a careful search should be made for devices for deluding thieves3 special precautions are sometimes taken to conceal the entrance to inner groups of chambers4 ,there are some interesting examples of this in the cemetery in the ,wadi er-,rababi1 south of ,jerusalem4 ,however1 all tombs of this period fall into two groups1 kok tombs and arcosolium tombs4 ,in the former the receptacles for bodies are of the kind known by the ,hebrew name kokim--shafts1 of a size to accommodate one body 7sometimes large enough for two or three7 driven horizontally into the wall of the chamber4 ,in the normal kok tomb-chamber there are nine kokim1 three in each wall except the wall containing the entrance doorway4 ,but there are many other arrangements4 ,in the ',tombs of the ,judges' there is a double row of kokim in the entrance chamber4 ,the explorer should not forget that a kok sometimes contains a secret entrance to further chambers at its inner end4 ,in arcosolium tombs the receptacles are benches cut in the wall1 like the berths in a steamer's cabin4 ,these are sometimes sunk1 so as to resemble rock-cut sarcophagi4 ,the late tombs round ,jerusalem are in the form of caves driven horizontally into the hill-sides4 ,further south1 e4g4 in the region round ,beit ,jibrin1 they are more frequently sunk vertically1 the entrance being in the roof of the burial chamber1 or approached by a square shaft 7a reversion to the ,second ,semitic form1 except that these latter have round shafts74 ,,iv4 ,caves4 ,the history of the artificial caves hewn in the soft limestone of ,palestine1 is quite unknown4 ,the caves of the neighbourhood of ,beit ,jibrin provide ample material for several months' exploration4 ,though the caves are labyrinthine there is little fear of an explorer losing his way3 he should1 however1 be well provided with lights1 as it would be extremely awkward to be left in the innermost recess of a cave consisting of ten or a dozen chambers united by narrow creep- passages1 without adequate illumination4 ,there are occasionally unexpected and dangerous pitfalls3 and hyenas and serpents often shelter in the caves4 ,the present writer has explored many of them entirely alone1 but this is1 on the whole1 not to be recommended4 ,besides planning the cave1 its walls should be searched for inscriptions1 c4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that these may have been added at any time and do not necessarily belong to the original excavation4 ,symbols1 apparently of a phallic nature1 are sometimes cut on the walls1 as well as crosses and other ,christian devices1 and ,cufic inscriptions4 ,frequently the walls are pitted with the loculi of a columbarium1 which1 however1 appear to be too small to receive cinerary urns and must be intended for some other purpose4 ,v4 ,pottery4 ,owing to the importance of the subject a special section on ,pottery is given here1 and the two accompanying plates 7,,xii7 show some of the commonest types of vessels4 ,but the student cannot learn all he will need to know of ,palestinian pottery from a few pages of print4 ,a representative series of specimens will be found in the ,jerusalem ,museum3 he may supplement his study of these by the perusal of reports on excavations1 such as ,petrie1 ,tell el-,hesy 7pp4 #dj-ej72 ,bliss1 ,a ,mound of ,many ,cities 7passim72 ,excavations in ,palestine 7pp4 #ga-ada72 ,macalister1 ,excavation of ,gezer 7vol4 ii1 pp4 #abh-bci2 and plates72 ,sellin1 ,jericho2 ,schumacher1 ,tell et-,mutasellim4 ,pre-,semitic ,period 7down to circa #bjjj ,b4,c474 ,ware hand-modelled1 without wheel1 coarse1 gritty1 and generally soft-baked and very porous4 ,the section of a clean fracture is usually of a dirty yellowish colour1 resembling in appearance coarse oatmeal porridge4 ,bases usually flat1 loop-handles or wavy handles on the bodies of the vessels3 mouths wide and lips curved outward4 ,the body of the vessel often decorated with drip lines or with a criss- cross1 in red paint4 ,first ,semitic ,period 7circa #bjjj-ahjj ,b4,c474 ,similar to the last3 but the potter's wheel is used1 and horizontal painted and moulded rope-like ornament also found4 ,combed ornament and burnished lines frequent4 ,second ,semitic ,period 7circa #ahjj-adjj ,b4,c474 ,during this period imports from ,egypt1 ,crete1 the ,aegean ,sea1 and especially ,cyprus were common1 and potsherds originating in those countries are frequently to be picked up3 also local imitations of these foreign wares4 ,the ware of this period is on the whole well- refined and well-modelled3 the most graceful shapes1 in jugs and bowls1 belong to it4 ,elaborate polychrome decoration1 including figures of birds4 ,but little moulded ornament4 ,third ,semitic ,period 7circa #adjj-ajjj ,b4,c474 ,the same foreign influences are traceable1 but rather as reminiscent local imitations than as direct imports4 ,late ,minoan ,mycenaean sherds are1 however1 frequent4 ,the shapes of vessels are less artistic than in the preceding period3 the painted ornament is also degenerated1 being traced in wiry lines rather than in the bold wash of the preceding period4 ,fourth ,semitic ,period 7circa #ajjj-eej ,b4,c474 ,late ,cypriote imports4 ,the local ware very poor1 coarse1 gritty1 inartistic4 ,no painted ornament except mere lines3 clumsy moulded ornament frequent4 ,post-,exilic and ,hellenistic ,period 7circa #eej-ajj ,b4,c474 ,imports from ,greece 7sometimes fragments of black or red figured vases1 or lekythoi7 and from the ,aegean ,islands 7especially wine-jars from ,rhodes3 stamped handles of such are frequent74 ,the native ware is easily recognizable by its smoothness and hardness2 when struck with a stick a sherd emits a musical clink4 ,the vessels are very fair imitations of classical models1 occasionally with painted ornament1 but more frequently moulded4 ,roman and ,byzantine ,period 7circa #ajj ,b4,c4-,a4,d4 #fjj74 ,the unmistakable character of the ware of this period is the ribbed surface1 with which nearly all vessels are decorated4 ,fragments of ribbed pottery are strewn almost over all ,palestine4 ,ornament consisting of repeated impressions of stamps now begins to appear4 ,lamps with decoration1 inscriptions1 ,christian or ,jewish symbols common4 ,glass vessels also frequent4 ,arab ,period 7circa ,a4,d4 #fjj onwards74 ,the early ,arab ware often bears painted decoration singularly like that on ,second and ,third ,semitic pottery1 but a fatty soapy texture characterizes the ,arab ware1 which is absent from the earlier sherds4 ,there is likewise a complete absence of representation of natural forms 7birds and the like74 ,in or about the ,crusader period the use of ornamental glaze makes its appearance4 ,illustration ,,xii3 ,,palestinian ,,pottery ,,types ,,vi4 ,sanctuaries4 ,the hill-top shrines1 now consecrated to saints of ,islam1 are doubtless in origin ancient ,canaanite high places4 ,there is here a rich but a very difficult field for investigation4 ,the difficulty lies in 7a7 gaining the confidence of those to whom the sanctuaries are holy1 and 7b7 guarding against wilful or unconscious deception4 ,only long residence and frequent intercourse1 with the ,muslim population will make it possible for any one to obtain really trustworthy information as to the traditions or the sites of these ancient sanctuaries4 ,a knowledge of ,arabic is essential for a study of the sites themselves1 as there are frequently inscriptions cut or painted on the walls which should be studied4 ,the casual traveller cannot hope to carry out researches of any value on these ancient sites4 ,sometimes the buildings are ,crusaders' churches transformed4 ,the one really certain fact as to masonry dressing in ,palestine may here conveniently be noticed--that ,crusader structures are built of well- squared stones with a plane surface finished off with a dressing consisting of very fine diagonal lines4 ,once seen1 this masonry dressing is absolutely unmistakable4 ,buildings thus identified as ,crusader should be examined for masons' marks4 ,,vii4 ,miscellaneous4 ,the following are some other types of ancient remains with which the traveller may meet almost anywhere in ,palestine3 7#a7 ,prehistoric 7,stone ,age7 sites4 ,marked by being strewn with flint implements and chips3 see a fine collection in the ,museum of the ,assumptionists 7,notre-,dame de ,france7 at ,jerusalem4 ,specimens should be collected and the site mapped4 7#b7 ,dolmens4 ,frequent east of ,jordan2 rare1 though not unknown1 in ,western ,palestine4 ,should be measured1 photographed1 described1 and mapped4 7#c7 ,rock-cuttings of various kinds1 which should be measured1 planned1 and mapped4 ,among these the commonest are3 7a7 ,cisterns 7usually bottle-shaped1 a narrow neck expanding below74 7b7 ,cup-markings1 common everywhere4 ,often associated with cisterns4 7c7 ,wine and olive presses3 there is a great variety in form1 but they generally consist of two essential parts--a shallow pressing- vat on which the fruit was crushed1 and a deeper receiving-vat in which the expressed juice was collected4 ,the vats are often lined with cement containing datable potsherds1 and are sometimes paved with mosaic tesserae4 7d7 ,quarries4 7#d7 ,sacred trees and bushes1 recognized by the rags with which they are festooned4 ,should be photographed and mapped1 and their legends ascertained1 subject to the cautions given above under the head of ,sanctuaries4 7#e7 ,castles and churches1 usually of the ,crusader period3 early ,saracenic buildings4 ,should be recorded by means of plans1 photographs1 measured drawings1 and written descriptions4 7#f7 ,mosaic pavements1 usually belonging to ,byzantine buildings2 should be recorded by means of coloured drawings4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,egypt ,see the diagrams of flint implements1 ,illustration ,,ii2 pottery1 ,illustration ,,xiii2 and the table of hieroglyphic signs liable to be confused with each other1 ,illustration ,i ,first ,prehistoric ,age1 #hjjj8-gjjj8 ,b4,c4 ,cemeteries of round or oval pits on the desert2 no towns known4 ,red faced pottery1 often with lustrous black top1 earliest with patterns of white slip lines3 all hand-made4 ,block figures of ivory or paste4 ,combs with long teeth and animal tops4 ,second ,prehistoric ,age1 #gjjj8-eejj ,b4,c4 ,graves1 square pits4 ,red faced1 and much coarse brown pottery4 ,buff with red painting of cordage1 spirals1 and ships4 ,pot forms copied from stone4 ,some pots globular with wavy ledge handles1 changing to cylinders with wavy band4 ,slate palettes in all prehistoric periods4 ,early ,dynasties1 #eejj-dgjj ,b4,c4 ,towns and cemeteries4 ,great mastabas of brick4 ,wooden coffins begin4 ,great jars2 hard1 wheel-made pottery4 ,glazed tiles1 c4 ,stone bowls common4 ,cylinder sealings on clay4 ,pyramid ,period1 ,,iv-,vl ,dynasties1 #dgjj-djjj ,b4,c4 ,sculptured stone tomb-chapels4 ,diorite bowls4 ,thick brown pot offering bowls4 ,limestone statues1 painted4 ,cornelian amulets in strings4 ,vl-,,xi ,dynasties1 #dbjj-cfjj ,b4,c4 ,copper mirrors begin4 ,buttons1 wide face1 un-,egyptian work4 ,pottery models of houses placed on grave edge4 ,middle ,kingdom1 ,xll-,,xiii ,dynasties1 #cfjj-bijj ,b4,c4 ,brick pyramids4 ,large rock tomb-chapels1 painted4 ,hard drab pottery4 ,alabaster kohl-pots1 good forms4 ,globular beads1 large2 cornelian1 amethyst1 and green glaze4 ,scroll pattern scarabs4 ,,xiv-,,xvii ,dynasties4 #bijj-afjj ,b4,c4 ,small flasks with handles1 black with pricked patterns4 ,coarsely cut scarabs4 ,shell beads4 ,new ,kingdom ,,xviii-,,xxi ,dynasties1 #aehg-ieb ,b4,c4 ,small painted tombs4 ,pottery1 red face black edge to #aejj2 buff1 red and black lines to #adjj2 blue bands #adjj-abjj4 ,hard polished drab1 about #adjj-acej4 ,glass beads1 c41 abundant #adjj-acjj4 ,glaze deep blue #aejj1 brilliant blue #adjj1 poor blue #acjj1 green #abjj3 deep blue ushabtis #aajj1 pale and rough #ajjj4 ,ushabtis1 stone or wood engraved #aeej-adej1 pottery #adej to very coarse #abej1 wood very coarse by #abej2 glazed fine #acjj1 decline to small rough lumps #hjj4 ,beads1 minute coloured glaze and stone to #adej1 thin discs #adej-acej1 coloured pastes red and blue #adej to #acjj1 yellow glass mainly #acjj- #abjj1 poor glaze after #abjj4 ,alabaster kohl-pots1 clumsy forms to #adej2 tubes of stone1 glaze1 wood1 or reed #adej-abjj4 ,bubastites1 ,,xxii-,,xxv ,dynasties1 #iej-ffd ,b4,c4 ,clumsy large jars1 widening to bottom1 small handles4 ,green glazed figures of cat-head goddess1 cats1 pigs1 and sacred eyes2 coarse glass beads1 yellow and black3 copper wire bracelets4 ,glass beads with blue spots in circles of brown and white4 ,scarabs coarse and worst at #gej4 ,fine work revived at #gjj by ,ethiopians4 ,glazes dull1 dirty1 green4 ,glass unknown4 ,coffins very roughly painted4 ,saites1 ,,xxvi-,,xxx ,dynasties1 #ffd-cdb ,b4,c4 ,pottery clumsy1 mostly rough3 some thin1 smooth red4 ,greek influence2 silver coins from #ejj onward4 ,iron tools beginning4 ,glaze pale greyish and olive3 some fine blue at #cej4 ,no glass4 ,bronze figures common4 ,ushabtis with back pier and beard2 fine #fej to poor at #cej4 ,ptolemies1 #ccb-cj ,b4,c4 ,pottery clumsy and small4 ,many ,rhodian jars with ,greek stamped handles4 ,glazes1 dark violet and yellow-green4 ,glass revived for inlay figures in shrines3 minute mosaic begins4 ,glazed beads scarce1 no scarabs4 ,large copper coins1 silver tetradrachms1 base in later time1 and concave on reverse4 ,romans1 #cj ,b4,c4-,a4,d4 #fda4 ,the earlier half1 to ,a4,d4 #cjj4 ,large brown amphorae1 peg bottoms2 ribbed after #ahj1 wide ribbing at first1 then narrower4 ,glass blown2 fine white and cut facets in #ast cent42 hollow brims #bnd-#dth2 stems and pressed feet1 #crd-#dth4 ,glass mosaic #ast cent42 coarser wall mosaic #bnd cent4 ,glaze coarse blue1 on thick clumsy bowls and jugs4 ,red brick buildings as well as mud brick1 coins3 billon tetradrachms in #ast cent41 almost copper in #bnd1 small copper dumps in #crd1 leaden tokens from ,a4,d4 #ahj to #bfj4 ,some large copper in #ast and #bnd1 thinner than the ,ptolemaic4 ,potsherds used for writing receipts and letters4 ,abundance of moulded terra- cottas1 and small lamps4 ,roman1 ,second ,period1 ,a4,d4 #cjj-fda4 ,the ,constantinian ,age brings in new styles4 ,much salmon-coloured hard pottery1 mainly platters and flat dishes4 ,brown amphorae soft and smaller1 with narrow ribbing4 ,no glaze4 ,much very thin glass4 ,coins3 little thin flat copper1 as in rest of ,empire1 ending about #dej4 ,no ,egyptian coinage1 except a very few rough lumps from ,justinian to ,heraclius1 ,i,b on back4 ,letters written on potsherds and flakes of limestone4 ,red brick the material for all large buildings4 ,limestone capitals of debased leafage4 ,rudely cut relief patterns in wood4 ,coarsely carved and turned bone or ivory4 ,pottery in ,byzantine ,age with white facing and rudely painted figures4 ,textiles1 with embroidery in colours1 and especially purple discs with thread designs of the earlier ,arab period4 ,a characteristic of late ,roman and ,arab mounds is the organic smell4 ,muhammadan ,period4 ,seventh to fifteenth centuries4 ,characterized by great amounts of glazed pottery4 ,smaller antiquities found in cemeteries or on ruined sites1 the earliest transitional1 and related to ,coptic examples of the same kinds4 ,pottery3 lamps at first continue ,christian forms and are unglazed2 afterwards long spouted lamps of dark green glaze4 ,fragments of vessels1 c41 from the rubbish heaps of old ,cairo are glazed2 a typical faience has a soft sandy body of light colour with painted designs in blue or blue and brown with transparent glaze4 ,those of the ,mamluk period1 and probably some of earlier date1 show a general resemblance to ,western ,asiatic contemporary wares1 due to importation of potters from ,syria1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,persia 7between twelfth and fifteenth centuries74 ,other varieties have decoration in metallic lustre on an opaque white tin glaze2 others again have monochrome glazes imitating imported ,chinese wares4 ,inscriptions very rare4 ,glass3 if found1 is in fragments2 rich coloured enamel designs are seldom earlier than the thirteenth century4 ,textiles3 chiefly found in small pieces2 the colours rich2 ornament consisting of geometrical designs and ,cufic inscriptions4 ,any silk1 or printed patterns1 should be secured4 ,no information about papyri is given here1 for the reason that any site containing them should not be touched except by a trained excavator4 ,,illustration ,,xiii3 ,,egyptian ,,pottery ,,types ,,chapter ,,viii ,,mesopotamia ,see the diagrams of flint implements1 ,illustration ,,ii2 pottery and brick-forms1 ,illustration ,,xiv2 cuneiform signs1 and other scripts ,illustration ,,xv4 ,mesopotamian antiquities are nearly always found in ,tells1 or artificial mounds1 which are the sites of ancient towns or temples4 ,the surrounding plain for a distance of several hundred yards out1 whether steppe-desert or untilled land1 will usually be found to be productive of antiquities1 either a few inches or few feet deep or1 in the case of the dessert1 actually lying upon the surface4 ,these are usually the result of rainstorms washing out antiquities from the tell itself4 ,each tell or ganglion of connected tells usually has a number of small subsidiary tells round about it1 the sites of small isolated buildings or villages connected with the central settlement4 ,originally the settlements were built upon natural rises of the ground which stood up as islands in the fen-country4 ,visitors should give the local names of tells in ,arabic characters1 when possible1 so that mistakes in transliteration into ,english may be avoided4 ,antiquities bought in the neighbourhood of a tell should be noted as coming from that neighbourhood4 ,depredations by ,arabs 7or by others67 should be noted1 and reported to the nearest ,political ,officer or ,inspector of ,antiquities4 ,the barbarous practice of forcibly dislodging inscribed bricks from walls1 as trophies and 'souvenirs'1 which has unhappily been common during the war1 should never be imitated and always discountenanced as much as possible4 ,other good spots for antiquities than tells are rare4 ,in the mountainous and stony country of the ,north we may meet with rock- sculptures1 as at ,bavian1 and these should always be recorded by a traveller1 even if he is not certain that they have not been remarked before3 something new may turn up at any time4 ,antiquities acquired in the neighbourhood of such monuments should be noted1 and their precise place of origin ascertained1 if possible1 as in this way the site of some ancient settlement adjoining the monument may be identified4 ,the open ruin-fields1 or ,khurbas1 characteristic of ,palestine are not usual1 except in the case of ,parthian or ,sassanian palace ruins such as ,ctesiphon1 ,hatra1 or ,ukheidhir1 which were often abandoned almost as soon as they were built1 so that no later population could pile up rubbish-heaps or graves above them4 ,in order to aid the visitor to get some idea of the age of a tell or other site from the antiquities found on its surface and its neighbourhood1 and so to be able to give some idea of what is likely to be found in it1 the following hints have been drawn up4 ,in the first place1 most of the surface remains1 are1 as elsewhere1 pottery sherds4 ,these should tell us their date by their appearance4 ,it must be said1 however1 that our experience on the subject of the development of ,mesopotamian pottery is limited4 ,owing to the attention of ,assyriologists having been so long focussed on the study of the cuneiform records1 to the neglect of general archaeology1 we have nothing like the knowledge of these things that we have in ,egypt or in ,greece4 ,such minutiae of information as our common knowledge of ceramic development in ,egypt or in ,greece gives us with regard to these countries1 enabling us to date sites with great accuracy1 are not vet available for ,mesopotamia4 ,and if for this reason all possible information as to the objects found on archaeological sites is desirable1 it is also impossible yet to give the visitor any absolute guide to the distinctive appearance of pottery at every period4 ,the main periods are known4 ,the 'prehistoric'1 the ,sumerian1 the late ,babylonian1 and the ,parthian styles are easily distinguishable4 ,if a visitor is able to tell us that such-and-such a mound is prehistoric or is ,parthian1 or that settlements of both periods existed on it1 this is what we want4 ,one of the most general of criteria with regard to pottery is whether it is glazed or not4 ,if glazed1 it is1 generally speaking1 late4 ,other things besides pottery are of course found1 and the presence or the absence of metal1 and the occurrence of stone implements1 are important4 ,but it must be remembered that stone was used long into the ',bronze' ,age1 and contemporaneously with copper4 ,there is no sudden break between the two periods4 ,fragments of shell and mother-of-pearl1 often with incised designs1 are very characteristic of the earliest period4 ,coins are of late date2 a tell with coins on it is certain to contain buildings as late as the fourth or third century ,b4,c4 7though it may also contain far older buildings as well74 ,one of the most useful criteria of age is3 ,bricks4 ,the form of the brick is a very good guide to date4 ,the ,babylonians used both kiln-baked and crude bricks4 ,the oldest type1 whether baked or crude1 is plano-convex in form1 and uninscribed4 ,the mortar is bitumen4 ,later on rectangular bricks1 often square1 made in moulds1 were introduced4 ,these usually bore the name of the royal builder4 ,later on bricks became generally oblong and much like our own4 ,in the sixth century the square shape was revived4 ,both shapes were in use at the ,nebuchadnezzar period4 ,glazed bricks were then common4 ,under the ,persians mortar took the place of bitumen4 ,under the ,parthians and ,sassanians1 bricks were yellow1 oblong1 small1 and very hard4 ,details will be found below1 ,the names of various excavated sites are given in brackets as the 'classical' sources of information on certain points1 and as the places from which type-antiquities have come to our ,museums4 ,ancient names are in capitals2 museums in italics4 ,i4 ,,prehistoric 787 ,,age3 ,chalcolithic 7aeneolithic7 period1 before #cejj ,b4,c4 ,until quite recently no traces of the ,stone ,age had been discovered in ,babylonia other than a few possible palaeoliths lying on the surface of the desert3 all traces of a ,neolithic ,age were supposed to have been buried beneath the alluvium of the valley4 ,in ,assyria1 however1 neolithic traces in the shape of obsidian flakes had been discovered by the late ,prof4 ,l4 ,w4 ,king in the course of his excavation of the mound of ,kuyunjik 7,,nineveh71 besides fragments of painted pottery resembling those from the earliest deposits in ,asia ,minor and those found by the ,american geologist ,pumpelly in his diggings in the kurgans of ,turkestan1 7to which he assigned an extremely remote date ,b4,c474 ,in ,persia1 and about the head of the ,persian ,gulf1 somewhat similar pottery was discovered by de ,morgan and the other ,french excavators at ,susa1 ,tepe ,musyan1 ,bandar ,bushir1 and other places3 here again the dates were put at a very remote period4 ,with the exception of a few flint saw-blades from ,warka #a1 ,fara1 ,zurghul1 and ,babylon #b1 no similar remains had been found in ,babylonia until1 in #aiah1 ,capt4 ,r4 ,campbell ,thompson1 exploring on behalf of the ,british ,museum1 discovered flint and obsidian flakes and painted pottery lying on the surface of the desert at ,tell ,abu ,shahrein 7,,eridu71 and also at ,tell ,muqayyar 7,,ur74 ,the continued excavations carried out by ,mr4 ,h4 ,r4 ,hall for the ,museum in #aiai have produced more of the same evidence from both places1 besides a new 'prehistoric' site at ,tell el-,ma'abed or ,tell el-',obeid near ,ur4 ,it seems that these antiquities date from the very end of the neolithic1 or rather to the succeeding 'chalcolithic'1 age2 whether they are really prehistoric1 as regards ,babylonian history1 must until more evidence from stratified deposits is found remain undecided4 ,they prove the occupation of the head of the ,persian ,gulf at the beginning of history by a people whose primitive art was closely akin to that of early ,elam1 and distinct from that of the ,sumerians4 #a ,found by ,loftus in #ahed3 their early date was not recognized at the time4 #b ,koldewey1 ,excavations at ,babylon1 ,e4,t41 p4 #bfa1 fig4 #ahb4 ,koldewey curiously speaks of the saw-blades as 'palaeolithic4' ,they are1 of course1 nothing of the sort4 ,characteristics3 flint1 chert1 obsidian1 green and red jasper1 and quartz-crystal flakes1 arrowheads1 cores1 and saw-blades4 ,chert and limestone rough hoe-blades 7easily mistaken for palaeolithic implements2 they are1 however1 much flatter72 polished serpentine or jasper celts2 lentoid 7lentil-shaped71 amygdaloid 7almond-shaped71 and discoid beads of cornelian1 crystal1 obsidian1 c41 unpolished2 nails of translucent quartz and obsidian 7obviously imitations of metal types72 hard grey pottery sickles1 pottery cones of various sizes1 and pottery objects like gigantic nails bent up at the ends2 pottery painted with designs in black1 usually geometrical 7see illustration ,,xiv1 ,fig4 #a71 but sometimes showing plant-forms or even animals4 ,this ware is often very fine1 so much so as to look as if wheelmade4 ,the shapes are chiefly bowls 7often closely resembling early ,egyptian stone bowl types71 pots with suspension-handles or lugs1 and spouted 'kettles'4 ,all these objects are at ,shahrein and el-',obeid found lying on the desert surface at the distance of #ej or #ajj yards from the tell2 they are supposed to have been washed out of the lower strata of the latter by rains4 ,objects of this kind should be recorded from any site1 and the neighbourhood of a desert tell should always be searched for them4 ,,illustration ,,xiv ,,mesopotamian ,,pottery1 ,,seals1 ,,etc4 ,,illustration ,,xv3 ,,cuneiform ,,and ,,other ,,scripts4 ,,ii4 ,,early ,,bronze 7,copper7 ,,age3 ,first ,sumerian 7pre-,sargonic7 ,period2 c4 #cejj-cjjj ,b4,c4 ,earliest ,sumerian civilization4 ,typical sites4 ,older strata at ,telloh 7,,lagash72 ,fara 7,,shuruppak72 ,tell ',obeid 7ancient name as yet unknown72 ,shahrein 7,,eridu74 ,characteristics4 ,writing4 ,first appearance of script1 already conventionalized from pictographs4 ,cut on stone and incised on clay tablets and bricks of characteristic early style4 ,brick buildings1 with crenellated walls 7until the discovery of ,tell ',obeid supposed to date only from the later ,sumerian period7 of typical plano-convex bricks1 baked or crude1 usually with thumb-mark down length of convex side 7,shahrein71 or with two thumb-holes 7for carrying the brick when wet871 or vent-holes 7',obeid72 at first uninscribed1 later with long inscriptions2 measuring #aj x #f x #b-b #a_/d ins4 7,shahrein71 and #h x #f x #b-b #a_/d ins4 7',obeid72 poorly shaped and baked 7see ,,xiv1 ,fig4 #c74 ,bitumen used for mortar2 laid very thick4 ,hard white stucco on internal faces of crude brick house walls1 often decorated with red1 white1 and black painted horizontal stripes 7,shahrein47 ,pottery4 ,wheel and hand-made2 drab1 fine or coarse paste1 unpainted and usually undecorated4 ,typical shapes3 7see ,,xiv1 ,figs4 #b abc7 mostly handleless vases1 and cups1 and spouted 'kettles' 7again often resembling early ,egyptian types74 ,metals3 ,copper4 ,extensive use3 large copper figures of animals1 heads cast1 bodies of copper plates fastened by nails over a core of clay with a mixture of bitumen and straw2 the figures have eyes1 tongues1 and teeth of red and white stone and nacre 7,tell ',obeid72 goat's head with inlaid eyes of nacre 7,fara74 ,otherwise ordinary treatment of eye shows a number of wrinkle lines round it1 and it is always disproportionately large 7bull's heads1 ,tell ',obeid and ,telloh74 ,small fragments of copper or bronze on the surface of a tell should never be neglected1 as there may be enough in any fragment to give an idea of possible archaic remains within the tell4 ,silver4 ,rare4 ,fine engraved vase of ,entemena 7,telloh1 ,louvre74 ,gold4 ,not uncommon4 ,copper nails with gold-plated heads 7,shahrein74 ,stone4 ,portrait figures in round 7,bismaya1 ,telloh1 c471 usually representing men1 with face and head shaven2 very prominent large curved nose2 usually squatting with arms crossed1 sometimes standing2 only garment a kilt apparently made of locks of natural wool4 ,usually inscribed in archaic characters on back of shoulders4 ,material3 a grey or a white limestone most usual2 tufa and dolerite also used4 ,reliefs3 large stelae 7,stele of the ,vultures2 ,telloh1 ,louvre1 fragment in ,b4 ,m471 completely inscribed2 small relief plaques1 inscribed 7,telloh1 ,louvre74 ,flint carved and engraved cylinder- seals1 of limestone1 black basalt1 jasper1 diorite1 c4 ,vases1 bowls1 and cups 7usually fragmentary71 of white and pink limestone and breccia4 ,maceheads of breccia1 granite1 c41 of same type as the early ,egyptian 7,shahrein74 ,shell4 ,very largely used for decoration2 small plaques of nacre often engraved with scenes of men worshipping1 c4 7,telloh72 tessellated pillars with nacre plaques 7',obeid74 ,seal-cylinders of shell4 ,wood4 ,rarely survives2 small beams plated with copper 7',obeid74 ,burials4 ,pottery coffins with lids1 mat burials2 bodies contracted2 funerary furniture1 copper1 stone or pottery drinking cups held near mouth3 copper weapons1 fish-hooks1 net weights2 beads of agate1 lapis1 shell 7unpolished72 colour-dishes1 7,fara74 7,the idea that the ,babylonians ever burnt their dead is now discredited2 the supposed 'fire-necropoles' at ,zurghul1 c41 are not substantiated47 ,the burials are hard to distinguish from similar contracted interments of later date1 except that the furniture is more abundant in early times and mat graves are unusual in later days ,mounds of this age may be known by the occurrence on the surface of scraps of oxydized copper1 nails1 c42 shell-fragments2 undecorated light drab sherds2 and the typical small plano-convex bricks4 ,,iii4 ,,middle ,,bronze ,,age4 #a4 ,early ,semitic or ,akkadian 7,sargonid7 period2 c4 #cjjj-bejj ,b4,c4 ,characteristics4 ,less crude style of art3 development of writing 7see ,,xiv1 ,fig4 #a72 first inscribed clay tablets of usual style2 beginnings of cuneiform1 developed from the archaic semi-pictographic character4 ,bricks still plano-convex2 stamped inscriptions begin4 ,stone maceheads of same type as earlier4 ,large and well-cut cylinder-seals of fine limestone1 lapis1 diorite1 granite1 and shell are characteristic of the period3 they are generally of an easily recognizable form 7reel-shaped7 with sides showing a marked concavity 7see ,,xiv1 ,fig4 #e74 ,the great development of art is shown by the stele of ,naram-,sin 7,louvre7 found at ,susa4 ,not many mounds of this period have been dug4 #b4 ,later ,sumerian 7,gudea7 and early ,semitic ,babylonian 7,hammurabi7 periods2 c4 #bejj-ahjj ,b4,c4 ,characteristics4 ,typical ',gudea' style of sculpture1 in round and relief 7,telloh1 ,louvre72 materials hard diorite1 dolerite and basalt as well as limestone3 characteristic treatment of eye with heavily marked brows3 elaborate tiaras and head-dresses of female figures1 c4 ,very high development4 ,regular use of cuneiform on clay tablets and cones 7see ,,xv1 ,figs4 #ac-ae72 non-cuneiform character 7in a developed form7 still used in brick stamps 7,,xv1 ,fig4 #aj7 and on stone monuments4 ,bricks 7,,xiv1 ,fig4 #d7 now rectangular and well made1 either square 7#ad ins41 usually1 by #b #a_/b ins4 thick7 or oblong 7#aa #a_/b x #h x #b #a_/b ins41 or #aj x #e x #b #a_/b ins47 with stamps or incised inscriptions of ,ur-,engur1 ,dungi1 ,bur-,sin1 ,gudea and other kings 7,,xv1 ,fig4 #aj71 from ,ur1 ,shahrein1 ,telloh1 ,niffer1 c4 ,bricks of ,bur-,sin from ,shahrein often have inscription-stamps also on the smaller sides 7thickness74 ,great buildings of crude and baked brick 7,telloh1 ,ur72 temple-towers 7ziggurats7 of crude brick faced with burnt brick 7,ur1 ,shahrein1 ,niffer74 ,town ruins of ,hammurabi's age 7,babylon73 crude brick3 plans always confused and haphazard4 ,bitumen still used for mortar4 ,burials1 contracted1 often in double pots 7mouth to mouth71 sealed with bitumen4 ,with the bodies are found large numbers of agate and cornelian beads1 unpolished4 ,mounds of this period may be recognized by the typical square or oblong bricks 7often with thumb-holes71 with stamps of kings' names1 c41 in non-cuneiform characters1 or with hand-incised inscriptions in early cuneiform1 made while the clay was wet2 clay tablets or cones inscribed in early cuneiform2 copper nails 7those with gold- plated heads found at ,shahrein may also date from this time72 drab or black pottery sherds with impressed or incised designs1 generally rough and evidently made with a piece of stick or the thumb-nail2 rough stone quern-slabs with rubbers1 grinding and hammer-stones1 c42 and the burials described above 7these1 however1 also occur in later times74 ,,iv4 ,,later ,,bronze ,,age3 ,kassite1 ,middle ,babylonian1 and ,early ,assyrian periods2 c4 #ahjj- #ajjj ,b4,c4 ,characteristics4 ,stabilization of ,babylonian art2 typical ',kassite' cylinder-seals with straight sides 7,,xiv1 ,fig4 #f72 disappearance of old non-cuneiform character with gradual disuse of ,sumerian2 early stone-cut inscriptions in cuneiform 7see ,,xv1 ,fig4 #af2 an ,elamite inscription74 ,occasional and rare appearance of glazed pottery 7imitation of ,egyptian71 and multi-coloured glass2 early ,assyrian sculpture 7those unversed in minutiae of ,mesopotamian art will only be able to tell this earlier work from the later by the earlier style of the accompanying inscriptions74 ,not many mounds of this period have been dug4 ,v4 ,,early ,,iron ,,age3 #a4 ,late ,babylonian and ,assyrian periods2 c4 #ajjj-edj ,b4,c4 ,characteristics4 ,flourishing period of ,assyrian art and writing 7for details see the archaeological books1 which are very full on this period74 ,mounds may be known by the occurrence of fragments of granite or basalt bowl-querns1 often with feet2 pieces or whole vases of the multi-coloured opaque glass usually called ',phoenician' 7which are already found in the preceding period72 alabaster pots2 straight- sided cylinder seals 7see ,,xiv1 ,fig4 #f72 ,syrian conical seals of steatite 7,,xiv1 ,fig4 #g72 small and rude clay figures of deities1 such as ,ishtar or ,papsukal 7the guardian of buildings71 and animals1 such as horses1 sheep1 doves1 ducks1 c42 bronze pins1 often with birds on the heads2 baked clay tablets of the fine ,kuyunjik type 7see ,,xv1 ,fig4 #ab2 script1 ,fig4 #ag72 pottery lamps with long protruding curved nozzles2 pottery vases simple and undecorated save by incised lines1 as for many centuries past 7for types see ,,xiv1 ,figs4 #i a b c d72 light-blue glazed ware introduced from ,egypt towards end of period2 polychrome glazed ware with designs of rosettes1 chevrons7 c41 somewhat earlier2 large pots without feet common for storage of grain and oil1 sometimes for tablets3 mouth often closed with a brick4 ,stone pithoi are also found4 ,vertical drains or sinks1 made of a number of pottery cylindrical drums1 fitting on top of or into one another1 are found everywhere on town-mounds of this period2 visitors should avoid tumbling into them1 as they are often open or only covered by a very thin crust of earth4 ,usually they are perforated to allow of soaking into the surrounding earth1 and are1 when excavated whole1 generally found capped by1 a beehive-shaped perforated cover4 ,sometimes these drains were made of old pots with their lower parts broken off1 and fitted into one another4 ,secular buildings were of burnt brick2 sacred buildings usually of crude brick1 from religious conservatism4 ,crude bricks nearly always oblong2 burnt bricks square 7#ad ins47 or oblong 7#ix#fx#c ins474 ,the burnt brick of ,nebuchadnezzar's time is extraordinarily fine and hard1 and the bitumen-mortar so finely spread as to be almost invisible 7,babylon74 ,walls of this reign have a rock-like solidity and tenacity that should make them easily recognizable4 ,those of immediately preceding reigns show the bitumen far more clearly1 and the bricks are usually not as finely made as ,nebuchadnezzar's2 at ,babylon the latter's work is thus at once distinguishable from that of ,nabopolassar4 ,a typical brick- inscription of ,nebuchadnezzar is illustrated above1 ,,xv1 ,fig4 #aa4 ,it is in the revived archaic script1 always used for this purpose by the late ,babylonian kings4 ,use of coloured glazed brick is characteristic of period2 often relief figures of animals are made up of glazed bricks each specially moulded for its proper position and numbered 7,ishtar ,gate1 ,babylon74 ,royal palaces were often decorated with reliefs depicting conquests1 c41 carved on slabs of alabastrine marble placed along the brick walls1 with great statues of human- headed bulls 7,cherubim71 c4 7,nimrud ,,calah1 ,kuyunjik ,,nineveh1 ,khorsabad4 ,brit4 ,mus4 and ,louvre47 ,burials usually in drab clay pot-coffins 7larnakes7 with covers2 bodies still contracted2 funerary furniture scanty1 consisting chiefly of pins1 beads1 an occasional cylinder-seal1 and a few pots 7,,xiv1 ,figs4 #i a b c d74 ,ribbed pots with blue 7weathered green7 glaze1 often pitched both within and without1 were also employed towards the end of the period1 inverted over the bodies4 ,also anthropoid pottery sarcophagi1 an idea imported from ,egypt4 ,child burials in bowls4 ,iron objects sometimes buried with the dead2 often found in palace-ruins 7weapons1 horse-furniture1 c474 ,bronze commonly used for gates1 door1 bolts1 c4 7,gates of ,shalmaneser's palace2 ,brit4 ,mus474 #b4 ,persian 7,achaemenian7 period3 c4 #edj-ccj ,b4,c4 ,this period is distinguished from the former by the less frequent use of bronze1 the introduction of coinage1 and the development of the simplified ,persian cuneiform writing 7never on tablets1 only on stone monuments2 see ,,xv1 ,fig4 #ah74 ,bitumen ceased to be used as mortar in buildings4 ,persian walls 7e4 g4 the ,apadana at ,babylon7 are easily distinguished by the use of clay mortar1 and the unusual thickness of the mortar-courses between the bricks4 ,burials in shallow trough-like pottery coffins1 with the bodies at full length1 but with the knees slightly flexed 7these continued during the next period74 ,,vi4 ,,middle ,,iron ,,age3 #a4 ,greek and ,parthian periods2 c4 #ccj ,b4,c4-#bbj ,a4,d4 ,characteristics4 ,sudden degeneration and disappearance of the ancient native civilization and art2 imitation of ,greek culture1 ,greek buildings 7theatre at ,babylon71 and inscriptions2 ,greek legends on ,parthian coins2 ,parthian kings call themselves ',philhellenes'2 ,graeco-,roman architecture imitated 7,hatra74 ,graeco-,roman terra- cottas1 pottery lamps1 pilgrim-flasks and bone-carvings2 classical seal gems2 ,roman glass2 fragments of imitation of classical sculpture in marble 7the material being adopted as well as the style72 and1 of course1 coins--these are characteristic remains found on mounds of this period4 ,about l#jj ,b4,c4 the use of cuneiform was given up2 clay tablets were no longer used4 ,aramaic became the usual form of writing2 ink used on sherds2 wax tablets4 ,small bowls often found with ink-written incantations in ,judaeo-,aramaic 7see ,,xv1 ,fig4 #ai74 ,mounds of this period are perhaps most easily recognized by the quantities of deep-blue glazed sherds found lying about on them4 ,the glaze is rather thin1 laid on a coarse drab ware1 and is often cracked4 ,the blue is very fine1 rivalling the old ,egyptian4 ,burials of this period are often found in 7besides the shallow pottery coffins mentioned above7 rectangular oblong boxes of thin coarse ware with light friable blue glaze 7,babylon71 or 7later7 in slipper-shaped coffins 7possibly ,sassanian7 of the same ware1 rudely decorated with human figures 7warriors7 in relief1 on panels 7,warka74 ,the blue glaze has often changed to a dark green1 especially in the case of the ,warka slipper-coffins4 ,the lids are cemented to the coffins4 ,internments are now full length1 the old custom of contraction having been entirely abandoned #a4 ,gold ornaments and pieces of gold leaf1 gold fillets1 c41 are not unfrequently found with the bodies1 besides armlets1 toe and finger rings1 c41 of silver and bronze1 the finger-rings usually of ordinary ,roman types2 pottery1 lamps1 and glass vessels4 ,these coffins are often in brick vaults1 usually placed haphazard in the ground1 as in earlier times4 ,bricks small1 hard1 and yellow4 #a ,the western custom of cremation was never adopted1 in spite of the ,hellenization of culture4 ,it offended both ,babylonian and ,iranian sentiment1 although the ,parthians were never very orthodox followers of ,ahuramazda1 and venerated 7at least platonically7 the most popular deities of the ,greek pantheon4 #b4 ,sassanian ,period2 c4 #bbj-fej ,a4,d4 ,characteristics4 ,reaction towards ,oriental motives in art3 a typical antika of the period is the ,sassanian seal of cornelian1 chalcedony1 or haematite1 in shape sometimes a ring1 more often a flat sphere with one-third cut off to form a seal-base1 perforated for stringing 7see ,,xiv1 ,fig4 #h71 and inscribed in ,pehlevi 7see ,,xv1 ,fig4 #bj7 a script that to the unitiated looks very like ,cufie ,arabic3 the language is ,old-,persian1 which was spoken by the court officials at ,ctesiphon1 the language of the people being ,aramaic4 ,sculpture barbarized1 but with a picturesque character of its own 7,nakhsh-i- ,rustam1 ,tak-i-,bostan71 sometimes reminiscent of ,indian work4 ,architecture3 ,parthian-,roman traditions 7,ctesiphon74 ,pottery usually glazed blue 7thicker glaze74 ,unglazed bowls with ,hebrew and ,mandaitic magical inscriptions4 ,bronze no longer used except for coins4 ,objects from mounds very like those of preceding age1 but less of ,roman origin4 ,not much known of burials2 the ,warka slipper-coffins usually regarded as ,parthian may possibly be of early ,sassanian age4 ,,vii4 ,,later ,,iron ,,age3 ,muhammadan ,period2 c4 #fej-aejj ,a4,d4#a ,characteristics4 ,development of art under ,persian influence till ,tartar conquest in thirteenth century3 the destruction and depopulation of the country at that time brought all real artistic development to an end4 ,flourishing period3 the ',abbasid ,khalifate3 ninth century3 ,harun al-,rashid4 ,ruins of the ancient city and palaces of ,samarra3 halls with modelled and painted plaster-decorations1 not only geometrical but also 7,persian heterodox influence7 representing trees1 birds1 c4 ,no more sculpture in round or relief of human figures or animals4 ,the only survival of classical tradition would appear to be to some extent in architecture3 ,greek architects4 ,coins3 thin gold1 and silver1 with ,cufic inscriptions only 7see ,,xv1 ,fig4 #ba74 ,mounds of this period may be known by fragments of marble- carving with ,cufic inscriptions1 plasterwork1 ,arab and ,persian vase and tile fragments in thick blue1 green1 yellow1 or brown glaze1 metallic lustre-glaze1 c41 variegated glass bangles1 and rings2 bits of cloudy white glass 7from lamps72 fragments of wood1 carved and inlaid with bone1 nacre1 c41 in geometrical patterns2 textile fragments1 7which are naturally not commonly found in older mounds71 c4 ,nothing is said with regard to burials as these may not be touched4 #a ,the limit of age which constitutes an 'antiquity' for legal purposes is fixed in most antiquity-laws at #aejj ,a4,d4 ,,appendix ,,laws ,,of ,,antiquities ,the following brief notes on the ,laws of ,antiquities in force in the various territories with which this book is concerned must not be taken as absolving the traveller from the necessity of consulting the full text of the laws4 ,at the time of going to press1 the ,turkish ,law presumably prevails in such parts of the ,turkish ,empire as are not occupied by the troops of the ,entente2 in the remainder1 temporary regulations are in force which will doubtless be modified when the new governments are established2 and it is possible that the ,turkish ,law itself may be brought into greater harmony with modern ideas4 ,the ,greek ,law of ,antiquities4 ,greek1 #bd ,july #ahii1 ,athens1 ,greek #ahhi4 ,all antiquities found are the property of the ,government and are controlled by an ,archaeological ,commission1 consisting of the ,ephor ,general of ,antiquities and the ephors of the archaeological collections in ,athens4 ,fixed antiquities must be reported by the discoverer to the ,ephor ,general or one of the ephors of antiquities or other official4 ,damaging of ruins or remains of monuments is forbidden4 ,owners of the land on which portable antiquities desirable for the ,national ,museums are found are compensated to the extent of half their value4 ,any person who finds antiquities on his land must report them within five days1 on pain of confiscation4 ,the same applies to any one who finds antiquities on another person's land1 or in any other way comes into possession of antiquities4 ,informers against breaches of the law are rewarded by the amount of the compensation due to those who keep the law4 ,objects not considered worth keeping by the ,museums are returned to the owner of the land4 ,excavations1 even on private property1 must be authorized by the ,ministry of ,education4 ,the ,government has the right of expropriating land for purposes of excavation4 ,in ,government excavations1 the owner of the land receives one-third of the value of the objects considered worth keeping by the ,museums4 ,secret excavation is punished by confiscation of the finds1 imprisonment and temporary loss of civil rights4 ,in authorized excavations by a landowner or his representative the excavator receives half the value of the finds taken by the ,museums4 ,any one attempting to excavate on another man's land is punished by imprisonment4 ,antiquities found in the country may not be exported 7on pain of imprisonment or fine and temporary loss of civil rights7 without permission1 which is only granted for objects not considered by the ,archaeological ,commission to be of use to the ,museums4 ,such objects on export are subject to a tax of #aj percent4 ad valorem unless declared entirely valueless by the ,commission4 ,antiquities imported into the country must be declared in the ,customs ,house and reported to the ,ephor ,general of ,antiquities1 a descriptive catalogue in duplicate being sent1 and cannot be re- exported without permission1 which is obtained by producing the articles with the original catalogue to the ,ephor ,general2 if not reported they are regarded as having been found in the country4 ,the ,turkish ,law of ,antiquities4 ,loi sur les ,antiquites promulguee le #bi ,sefer #acbd 7#aj ,avril #acbb74 ,extrait du ,levant ,herald du #h1 #i1 #aa et #ac ,juin #aijf4 ,constantinople1 ,imprimerie du ,levant ,herald1 ,pera1 #aijf4 ,antiquities are controlled by the ,director-,general of the ,imperial ,museums and a ,commission1 the ,directors of ,public ,instruction in the provinces acting as agents4 ,all ancient monuments and objects 7including those of ,islamic date7 are the property of the ,government4 ,any fixed antiquities discovered must be reported under pain of fine within #ae days to the official in charge of antiquities1 or in his absence to the nearest civil or military official4 ,punishment by fine and imprisonment is inflicted for destroying or injuring monuments1 measuring or making impressions without authorization4 ,transportable antiquities found on a man's land must be reported by him within a week4 ,the landowner receives half the value of objects thus reported and bought by the ,state2 objects not reported are confiscated1 and the landowner fined4 ,this clause applies to those who find antiquities on land belonging to other private persons or to the ,state4 ,excavation is the exclusive privilege of the ,museums1 but firmans may be obtained by scientific societies and specialists4 ,unauthorized excavation is punished by imprisonment and confiscation4 ,the ,state has the right of making preliminary soundings and of expropriation4 ,applications for leave to excavate must be made to the ,minister of ,public ,instruction4 ,all finds belong to the ,state4 ,unauthorized dealing in antiquities is punishable by fine1 imprisonment1 and confiscation4 ,exportation of antiquities found in the ,empire is forbidden4 ,antiquities imported must be reported to the directorate of antiquities1 and may not be sent from one part of the ,empire to another1 or re-exported1 without permission from the ,director-,general4 ,the ,cypriote ,law of ,antiquities4 ,to ,consolidate and ,amend the ,law relating to ,ancient ,monuments and ,antiquities1 and to provide ,museums4 ,law no4 ,,iv of #aije4 ,see ,sir ,j4 ,t4 ,hutchinson and ,s4 ,fisher1 ,the ,statute ,laws of ,cyprus1 #ahgh-aijf 7,london1 #aijf71 pp4 #eie-fjh4 ,objects later than the ,turkish conquest1 and coins of ,byzantine or later times1 are not deemed to be antiquities4 ,all undiscovered antiquities of movable character are the property of the ,government2 all immovable antiquities are also the property of the ,government1 unless some person shall be the owner of them4 ,all antiquities must be reported by the person in possession of them to the ,museum ,committee1 on pain of confiscation2 antiquities found except in the course of authorized excavations must be reported within five days to the ,district ,commissioner1 ,one-third of such movable antiquities is taken by the ,government1 one-third by the finder1 and one-third by the owner of the land4 ,damage to ancient monuments is punished by fine or imprisonment or both4 ,unauthorized excavation1 even on land belonging to the excavator1 and the purchasing of objects illegally excavated1 are punished by fine or imprisonment or both4 ,application for leave to excavate must be made to the ,chief ,secretary for ,government4 ,all antiquities found in excavation belong to the ,government2 only duplicates1 and objects not required by the ,museum1 are given to the excavator4 ,the ,government has the right to expropriate land for the purpose of excavations4 ,the ,museum ,committee may acquire the interests of any private person in an antiquity on payment of compensation4 ,if the sum agreed on is not paid within six months1 the ,museum ,committee loses all right to its acquisition4 ,export of antiquities is forbidden except with the permission of the ,high ,commissioner1 which is granted only for objects not required by the ,museum or for antiquities the interests in which the ,museum ,committee has failed to acquire in the manner described4 ,the ,egyptian ,law of ,antiquities4 ,la ,nouvelle ,loi sur les ,antiquites de l',egypte et ses annexes4 ,service des ,antiquites4 ,le ,caire1 ,imprimerie de l',institut francais d'archeologie orientala4 #aiac4 ,all antiquities belong to the ,state4 ,the ,state has the right of expropriating ground containing antiquities4 ,transportable antiquities when found must be reported to nearest administrative authority or agents of the ,service of ,antiquities3 the finder receives half the objects thus reported or their value4 ,excavation1 dealing in antiquities1 and exportation are forbidden unless under authorization4 ,destruction of and damage to antiquities is punishable by fine and imprisonment4 ,applications for leave to export or to excavate should be made to the ,director-,general of ,service of ,antiquities4 ,a tax of #a #a_/b per cent4 is levied on the declared value of objects passed for export4 ,leave to excavate is granted only to savants recommended by ,governments or learned societies1 or to private persons presenting proper guarantees4 ,the excavator pays the cost of guarding the site4 ,the ,government takes half the portable objects found4 ,general ,principles of a ,model ,law of ,antiquities for the ,near and ,middle ,east4 ,the following statement of ,principles which should form the foundation of the ,laws of ,antiquities to be enacted for the various ,provinces formerly under ,turkish rule was drawn up by an ,international ,committee in ,paris and recommended to the ,commission for regulating the ,mandates under the ,league of ,nations4 ,it follows closely the ,recommendations of the ,archaeological ,joint ,committee on the same subject4 ,it was proposed at the same time that the ,treaty with ,turkey should enjoin the adoption by that ,power of a ,law of ,antiquities on the same lines3 ,principes du reglement devant etre adopte par chacune des ,puissances mandataires4 #a4 ',,antiquity' signifie toute construction1 tout produit de l'activite humaine1 anterieur a l'annee #agjj4 #b1 ,toute personne qui1 ayant decouvert une antiquite1 la signalera a un employe du ,departement des ,antiquites du pays1 sera recompensee suivant la valeur de l'objet1 le principe a adopter devant etre d'agir par encouragement plutot que par menace4 #c4 ,aucun objet antique ne pourra etre vendu sauf au ,departement des ,antiquites du pays1 mais si ce ,departement renonce a l'acquerir la vente en deviendra libre4 ,aucune antiquite ne pourra sortir du pays sans un permis d'exportation dudit ,departement4 #d4 ,toute personne qui1 expres ou par negligence1 detruira ou deteriorera un objet ou une construction antique1 devra etre passible d'une peine a fixer par l'autorite du pays4 #e4 ,aucun deblaiement ni aucune fouille ayant pour objet la recherche d'antiquites ne seront permis sous peine d'amendc1 sauf aux personnes autorisees par le ,departement des ,antiquites du pays4 #f4 ,des conditions equitables devront etre fixees par chaque ,puissance mandataire pour l'expropriation temporaire ou permanente des terrains qui pourraient offrir un interet historique ou archeologique4 #g4 ,les autorisations pour les fouilles ne devront etre accordees qu'aux personnes qui offrent des garanties suffisantes d'experience archeologique4 ,aucune des ,puissances mandataires ne devra1 en accordant ces autorisations1 agir de facon a ecarter1 sans motif valable1 les savants des autres nations4 #h4 ,les produits des fouilles pourront etre divises entre le fouilleur et le ,departement des ,antiquites de chaque pays dans une proportion fixee par ce ,departement4 ,si1 pour des raisons scientifiques1 la division ne semble pas possible1 le fouilleur devra recevoir1 au lieu d'une partie de la trouvaille1 une juste indemnite4 ,,index ,abu ,shahrein1 #he1 #hh1 #ij4 ,achaemenian period in ,mesopotamia1 #ic4 ,aegean1 prehistoric age in the #cf f3 pottery in ,palestine1 #gc4 ,aeneolithic2 see ,chalcolithic4 ,akkadian period1 #ij4 ,alphabets3 see ,inscriptions4 ,aramaic inscriptions1 #fb1 #ff2 in ,mesopotamia1 #ic4 ,archaeological ,joint ,committee1 #ch4 ,arches1 corbelled1 #dj4 ,arcosolium tombs1 #ga f4 ,asia ,minor1 #dg ff4 ,assyrian period1 #ia4 ,attic pottery1 #dd f4 ,babylon4 #he1 #ij1 #ib f4 ,babylonian period1 #ia4 ,bandar ,bushir1 #he4 ,barometer1 #aj1 #cc4 ,bavian1 #hc4 ,beads3 ,cypriote1 #ef3 ,egyptian1 #gh f42 ,greek1 #da2 ,hittite1 #fj2 ,mesopotamian1 #hh ff42 ,syrian1 #fd4 ,belt ,jibrin1 #gc4 ,bitumen in ,mesopotamia1 #hd1 #hh4 ,black-figured ,greek pottery1 #dd4 ,bricks1 #ad f42 in ,egypt1 #hb2 in ,mesopotamia1 #hd-ic4 ,bronze ,age3 in ,asia ,minor1 #dh2 in ,cyprus1 #ef2 in ,greece1 #cf f42 in ,mesopotamia1 #hh2 in ,syria1 #fj4 ,bronze1 forgeries in1 #bd4 ,brooches 7fibulae73 ,greek1 #dj1 #dd2 in ,syria1 #fa f4 ,bubastites1 #gi4 ,buildings1 recording of1 #ad4 ,burials3 see ,tombs4 ,buying1 advice about4 #bd f4 ,calah1 #ib4 ,camera1 #aj f4 ,casting in plaster1 #ai4 ,caves1 #ae1 #gb4 ,cemeteries1 #ae1 #ee1 #gj1 #gh3 see also ,tombs4 ,chalcolithic period3 in ,mesopotamia1 #he3 in ,syria1 #ei f4 ,cisterns in ,palestine1 #gg4 ,coins2 in ,cyprus1 #eh2 in ,egypt1 #gi2 in ,mesopotamia1 #hd1 #ib ff42 forgeries of1 #bd2 making impressions of1 #ai f2 recording finds of1 #i4 ,combs1 ,egyptian1 #gh4 ,committee1 ,archaeological ,joint1 #bh4 ,compass1 prismatic1 #aj4 ,copper3 in ,mesopotamia1 #hh f42 in ,syria1 #fj4 ,copying1 #ag ff4 ,corbelled arches1 #dj4 ',corinthian' pottery1 #da4 ,crete1 #cf2 pottery from1 in ,palestine1 #gc4 ,crusaders' churches in ,palestine1 #gf4 ,ctesiphon1 #hd1 #id4 ,cuneiform inscriptions3 in ,asia ,minor1 #ea2 in ,mesopotamia1 #ij ff4 ,cup-markings in ,palestine1 #gg4 ,cyclopean walls1 #dj ,cylinders and cylinder-sealings3 in ,cyprus1 #ef2 in ,egypt1 #gh2 ,hittite1 #fj1 #fb1 #fd2 in ,mesopotamia1 #hi ff4 ,cyprus1 #ed ff42 ,law of ,antiquities1 #ig2 pottery from1 in ,palestine1 #gc4 ,dipylon period1 #dj4 ,dolmens in ,palestine1 #gg4 ,drawing and copying1 #ag f4 ,egypt1 #gh-hb2 ,law of ,antiquities1 #ih4 ,egyptian hieroglyphics1 #bj2 pottery in ,palestine1 #gc2 scarabs imitated in ,syria1 #fb2 stone bowls1 ,mesopotamian pottery types resembling1 #hh4 ,eridu1 #he1 #hh4 ,excavations3 laws controlling1 #ie ff42 unauthorized1 #g4 ,fara1 #he1 #hh f4 ,fibulae3 see ,brooches4 ,figurines3 ,cypriote1 #ee2 ,greek1 #ce1 #dj f41 #dd f42 ,syrian1 #fj1 #fb1 #fd4 ,finds1 importance of not breaking up1 #i4 ,flint implements1 #bi ff43 see also ,stone ,age4 ,forgeries1 #bd f4 ,geometric bronze age ware in ,greece1 #cf2 period1 #dj4 ,glass2 in ,cyprus1 #eg2 in ,egypt1 #gh ff42 in ,mesopotamia1 #ia2 in ,syria1 #fd4 ,glaze1 ,egyptian1 #gh f42 imitated in ,babylonia1 #ia4 ,greece1 #ce ff41 ,law of ,antiquities1 #ie4 ,hatra1 #hd4 ,hebrew alphabets1 #ff4 ,hieroglyphics1 copying of1 #ag1 #bj2 ,hittite1 #ea1 #fb4 ,hill sanctuaries in ,palestine1 #gf4 ,hittite antiquities3 in ,asia ,minor1 #ea2 in ,syria1 #ei ff4 ,inscriptions3 copying of1 #ag1 #bj f42 ,aramaic1 #fc1 #ff1 #ic2 cuneiform1 #ea1 #hg1 in ,cyprus1 #eg1 ,greek1 #dd1 #ea f2 ,hittite1 #ea1 #fb2 ,latin1 #ec2 ,lycian1#ea2 ,lydian1 #ea2 in ,palestinian tombs1 #ga2 ,semitic1 #fb1 #ff f41 #hg4 ,institutions1 archaeological1 #bf f4 ,iron ,age3 in ,asia ,minor1 #ej2 in ,cyprus1 #ef2 in ,greece1 #dj2 in ,mesopotamia1 #ia-ic2 in ,syria1 #fj1 #fb4 ,itinerary1 recording of1 #ac f4 ,jewellery1 forged1 #bd4 ,kassite period1 #ia4 ,khirbet 7khirbah71 #fh ff4 ,khorsabad1 #ib4 ,kohl-pots1 #fb1gh f4 ,kok tombs1 #ga f4 ,kuyunjik1 #he1 #ib4 ,laconian pottery1 #de4 ,lagash1 #hh4 ,lamps1 ,aegean1 #cg4 ,latin inscriptions in ,asia ,minor1 #ec4 ,laws of ,antiquities1 #g1 #ie ff4 ,levelling1 #cc4 ,licences for acquiring antiquities1 #i4 ,lycian inscriptions and monuments1 #ea4 ,lydian inscriptions1 #ea4 ,ma'abed1 ,tell el-1 #he4 ,mastabas1 #gh4 ,mapping1 #ac4 ,mesopotamia1 #hc ff4 ,minoan ,age4 #cf2 pottery in ,palestine1 #gc4 ',minyan' ware1 #cg4 ,mortar1 bitumen1 #hd1 #ij1 #ib4 ,mosaic1 #gg1 #gi4 ,mounds1 #ad3 see also ,tell4 ,muqayyar1 ,tell1 #he4 ,museums1 use of1 #g f4 ',mycenaean' ,age1 #cg2 pottery in ,palestine1 #gc4 ,naksh-i-,rustam1 #id4 ,neolithic ,age3 see ,stone ,age4 ,niffer1 #ij4 ,nimrud1 #ib4 ,nineveh1 #he1 #ib4 ,numerals1 ,west ,semitic1 #fg4 ',obeid1 ,tell el-1 #he1 #hh f4 ,obsidian3 ,aegean1 #cg2 ,mesopotamian1 #he1 #hh4 ,olive-presses in ,palestine1 #gg4 ,orientalizing ,greek antiquities1 #da1 #dd4 ,outfit1 #aj f4 ,packing of antiquities1 #bb f4 ,palestine1 #fe ff4 ,papyri1 forged1 #bd4 ,paraffin-wax1 #bb f4 ,parthian period in ,mesopotamia1 #ic4 ,pehlevi script1 #ic f4 ,persian period3 in ,mesopotamia1 #ib2 in ,syria1 #fb4 ,photography1 #aj f41 #ba f4 ,phrygian inscriptions1 #ee4 ,pins3 ,greek1 #dj1 #dd2 ,hittite1 #fj1 #fb2 ,mesopotamian1 #ia4 ,place-names1 ,eastern1 #fh f41 #hc4 ,planning1 #ad1 #af f4 ,plaster casting1 #ai f4 ,pottery1 passim2 hand-made and wheel-made1 #bi1 #di f2 importance of1 #bi4 #hd2 packing of1 #bc4 ,preservation of antiquities1 #bb f4 ',proto-,corinthian' pottery1 #da4 ,ptolemaic period1 #gi4 ,red-figured ,greek pottery1 #dd4 ,rhodian jar-handles3 in ,egypt1 #gi2 in ,palestine1 #gc4 ,rock-cut tombs1 #gj f4 ,rock-sculptures in ,mesopotamia1 #hc4 ,saites1 #gi4 ,samarra1 #id4 ,sanctuaries3 in ,cyprus1 #ed f42 in ,palestine1 #gf4 ,sargonid period1 #ij4 ,sassanian period1 #ic f4 ,scarabs3 in ,cyprus1 #ef2 in ,egypt1 #gh2 in ,syria1 #fb1 #fd2 forged1 #bd4 ,schools of archaeology1 #h1 #bf f4 ,sculpture1 squeezing of1 #ah4 ,seals3 ,aegean1 #cg2 ,hittite1 #fb2 ,mesopotamian1 #hf1 #hi1 #ia2 ,sassanian1 #ic2 ,syrian1 of ,persian period1 #fd3 see also ,cylinders1 ,scarabs4 ,semitic inscriptions1 #fb1 #fe-g1 #hg4 ,shahrein1 ,tell ,abu1 #he1 #hh1 #ij4 ,shuruppak1 #hh4 ,sinjerli1 #ei1 #fb4 ,sites1 identification of1 #fh4 ,societies1 archaeological1 #h1 #bf f4 ,squeezing1 #ag ff4 ,stone ,age1 #bi ff42 in ,asia ,minor1 #dh2 in ,cyprus1 #ef2 in ,greece1 #ce f42 in ,mesopotamia1 #hd f41 #hh2 in ,palestine1 #gf2 in ,syria1 #ei f4 ,sumerian period1 #hh ff4 ,susa1 #he4 ,syria1 ,central and ,north1 #ei;ff4 ,tak-i-,bostan1 #id4 ,tall3 see ,tell4 ,telephotography1 #ab4 ,tell 7mound71 #fh f41 #hc4 ,telloh1 #hh ff4 ,tepe ,musyan1 #he4 ,terra-cottas2 see ,figurines4 ,trees1 sacred1 #gg4 ,tombs and burials3 in ,cyprus1 #ee2 in ,mesopotamia4 #hi-id2 'of the ,kings'1 at ,jerusalem1 #ga2 rockcut1 in ,palestine1 #gj f42 in ,syria1 #ei f3 see also ,cemeteries4 ,turkish ,law of ,antiquities1 #if4 ,ukheidir1 #hd4 ,ur1 #he1 #ij4 ',urfirnis' ware1 #cg4 ,ushabtis1 #gh f4 ,warka1 #he1 #ic f4 ,wine-presses in ,palestine1 #gg4 ,zurghul1 #he1 #hi4