,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #gie ,,new ,,york1 ,march #bh1 #ahia4 ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxxi41 ,no4 #gie4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,aviculture4--,the ,effect on ,fowls of ,nitrogenous and ,carbonaceous ,rations4--,a very valuable report upon the effects of different diet on chickens1 with tables of data4--#a illustration ,,ii4 ,,biography4--,n4,f4 ,burnham and his ,life ,work4--,by ,w4,h4 ,,burnham4 --,the life of one of the earliest turbine wheel manufacturers1 an inventor of turbine wheels and auxiliary machinery4 --#a illustration ,,iii4 ,,botany4--,the ,source of ,chinese ,ginger4--,an identification of a long unknown plant ,,iv4 ,,civil ,,engineering4--,a ,railway through the ,andes4--,an interesting enterprise now in progress in ,south ,america1 with maps4--#b illustrations ,chicago as a ,seaport4--,proposed connection of ,chicago with the waters of the ,mississippi ,river1 thereby placing it in water communication with the sea4--#b illustrations ,floating ,elevator and ,spoil ,distributor4--,a machine for removing dredged material from barges1 as employed on the ,baltic ,sea ,canal ,works4--#aj illustrations ,v4 ,,electricity4--,alternate ,current ,condensers4--,a valuable review of the difficulties of constructing these condensers4--,an important contribution to the subject4--#a illustration ,electricity in ,transitu4--,from ,plenum to ,vacuum4--,by ,prof4 ,,william ,,crookes4--,continuation of this important lecture with profuse illustrations of experiments4--#ad illustrations ,the ,telegraphic ,communication between ,great ,britain1 ,europe1 ,america1 and the ,east4--,by ,,george ,,walter ,,niven4-- ,the engineering aspects of electricity4--,the world's cables and connections4--#b illustrations ,,vi4 ,,horticulture4--,herbaceous ,grafting4--,a hitherto little practiced and successful method of treating herbs1 with curious results ,,vii4 ,,mechanical ,,engineering4--,improved ,cold ,iron ,saw4--,the ,demon cold saw for cutting ,iron4--,its capacity and general principles4--#a illustration ,,viii4 ,,medicine ,,and ,,hygiene4--,how to ,prevent ,hay ,fever4--,by ,,alexander ,,rixa4--,a systematic treatment of this very troublesome complaint1 with a special prescription and other treatment4 ,,ix4 ,,miscellaneous4--,the ,business ,end of the ,american ,newspaper4--,by ,a4,h4 ,,siegfried4--,a graphic presentation of the technique of the newspaper office1 circulation of the ,american papers1 methods of printing1 etc4 ,the ,new ,labor ,exchange at ,paris4--,a new establishment1 long demanded by the laboring population of ,paris4--,its scope and prospects4--#b illustrations ,x4 ,,naval ,,engineering4--,the ,empress of ,india4--,the pioneer of a fast mail service to ply in connection with the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway between ,vancouver1 ,china1 and ,japan4--#a illustration ,,xi4 ,,physics4--,stereoscopic ,projections4--,a most curious method of securing stereoscopic effects with the magic lantern upon the screen1 involving the use of colored spectacles by the spectators4 --#a illustration ,,xii4 ,,technology4--,gaseous ,illuminants4--,by ,prof4 ,,vivian ,b4 ,,lewes4--,the fifth and last of ,prof4 ,lewes' ,society of ,arts lectures1 concluding his review of the subject of gas manufacture 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,new ,,labor ,,exchange ,,at ,,paris4 ,there will soon be inaugurated 7probably about the #adth of ,july7 a new establishment that has long been demanded by the laboring population1 that is to say1 a new labor exchange1 the buildings of which1 situated on ,chateau d',eau ,street1 are to succeed the provisional exchange installed in the vicinity of ,le ,louvre ,street4 ,the new structures have been erected from plans by ,mr4 ,bouvard1 and occupy an area of seventeen hundred meters4 ,the main work is now entirely terminated1 but the interior decorations are not yet completely finished4 ,the distribution comprises a vast meeting room1 committee rooms for the various syndicates1 offices in which the workmen of the various bodies of trades will find information and advice1 and will be enabled to be put in relation with employers without passing through the more or less recommendable agencies to which they have hitherto been obliged to have recourse4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,labor ,,exchange1 ,,paris4 ,upon the whole1 the institution1 if wisely conducted1 is capable of bearing fruit and ought to do so1 and the laboring population of ,paris should be grateful to the municipal council for the six million francs that our ediles have so generously voted for making this interesting work a success4 ,on seeing the precautions1 perhaps necessary1 that the laborer now takes against the capitalist1 we cannot help instituting a comparison with the antique and solid organization of labor that formerly governed the trades unions4 ,each corporation possessed a syndic charged with watching over the management of affairs1 and over the receipts and the use of the common resources4 ,these syndics were appointed for two years1 and had to make annually1 at least1 four visits to all the masters1 in order to learn how the laborers were treated and paid1 and how loyally the regulations of the corporation were observed4 ,they rendered an account of this to the first assembly of the community and cited all the masters in fault4 ,evidently1 the new ,labor ,exchange will not cause a revival of these old ways of doing things 7which perhaps may have had something of good in them71 but we may hope that laborers will find in it protection against those who would require of them an excess of work1 as well as against those who would preach idleness and revolt to them4--,le ,monde ,illustr4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,labor ,,exchange--,,hall ,,for ,,meetings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,business ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,newspaper4#a ,footnote #a3 ,a recent address before the ,outlook ,club1 of ,montclair1 ,n4,j4 ,by ,a4,h4 ,,siegfried4 ,the controlling motive and direct purpose of the average newspaper are financial profit4 ,one is now and then founded1 and conducted even at a loss1 to serve party1 social1 religious or other ends1 but where the primary intent is unselfish there remains hope for monetary gain4 ,the first newspapers never dreamed of teaching or influencing men1 but were made to collect news and entertainment and deal in them as in any other commodity4 ,but because this was the work of intelligence upon intelligence1 and because of conditions inherent in this kind of business1 it soon took higher form and service1 and came into responsibilities of which1 in its origin1 it had taken no thought4 ,wingate's ,views and ,interviews on ,journalism gives the opinions of the leading editors and publishers of fifteen years ago upon this point of newspaper motive and work4 ,the first notable utterance was by ,mr4 ,whitelaw ,reid1 who said the idea and object of the modern daily newspaper are to collect and give news1 with the promptest and best elucidation and discussion thereof1 that is1 the selling of these in the open market2 primarily a merchant of news4 ,substantially and distinctly the same ideas were given by ,william ,cullen ,bryant1 ,henry ,watterson1 ,samuel ,bowles1 ,charles ,a4 ,dana1 ,henry ,j4 ,raymond1 ,horace ,white1 ,david ,g4 ,croly1 ,murat ,halstead1 ,frederick ,hudson1 ,george ,william ,curtis1 ,e4,l4 ,godkin1 ,manton ,marble1 ,parke ,godwin1 ,george ,w4 ,smalley1 ,james ,gordon ,bennett and ,horace ,greeley4 ,the book is fat with discussion by these and other eminent newspaper men1 as to the motives1 methods and ethics of their profession1 disclosing high ideals and genuine seeking of good for all the world1 but the whole of it at last rests upon primary motives and controlling principles in nowise different or better or worse than those of the ,produce ,exchange and the dry goods district1 of ,wall ,street and ,broadway1 so that1 taking publications in the lump1 it is neither untrue nor ungenerous1 nor1 when fully considered1 is it surprising1 to say that the world's doing1 fact and fancy are collected1 reported1 discussed1 scandalized1 condemned1 commended1 supported and turned back upon the world as the publisher's merchandise4 ,the force and reach of this controlling motive elude the reckoning of the closest observation and ripest experience1 but as somewhat measuring its strength and pervasiveness hear1 and for a moment think1 of these facts and figures4 ,the ,american ,newspaper ,directory for #ahij1 accepted as the standard compiler and analyst of newspaper statistics1 gives as the number of regularly issued publications in the ,united ,states and territories1 #ag1gfj4 ,then when we know that these have an aggregate circulation for each separate issue--not for each week1 or month1 or for a year1 but for each separate issue of each individual publication1 a total of #da1ebd1jjj copies--many of them repeating themselves each day1 some each alternate day1 some each third day and the remainder each week1 month or quarter1 and that in a single year they produce #c1dha1faj1jjj copies1 knowing1 though dimly realizing1 this tremendous output1 we have some faint impression of the numerical strength of this mighty force which holds close relation to and bears strong influence upon life1 thought and work1 and which1 measured by its units1 is as the ,june leaves on the trees--in its vast aggregate almost inconceivable2 a force expansive1 aggressive1 pervasive2 going everywhere2 stopping nowhere2 ceasing never4 ,i am to speak to you of ,the ,business ,end of the ,american newspaper2 that is of the work of the publisher's department--not the editor's4 ,at the outset ,i am confronted with divisions and subdivisions of the subject so many and so far reaching that right regard for time compels the merest generalization2 but1 as best ,i can1 and as briefly as ,i can1 ,i shall speak upon the topic under three general divisions3 ,first4--,the personal and material forces which make the newspaper4 ,second4--,the sources of revenue from the joint working of these forces4 ,third4--,the direct office1 bearing and influence of these forces4 ,it is but natural that the general public has limited idea of the personality and mechanism of the publication business1 for much of its movement is at night1 and there is separation and isolation of departments1 as well as complicated relation of the several parts to the whole4 ,not many years ago a very few men and boys could edit1 print and distribute the most important of newspapers1 where now hundreds are necessary parts in a tremendous complexity4 ,but even to-day1 of the nearly #ah1jjj publications in the ,united ,states1 more than #aa1jjj are of that class which1 in all their departments1 are operated by from two to four or five persons1 and which furnish scant remuneration even for these4 ,among the thin populations and in the remote regions are thousands of weekly papers--and you may spell the weekly either with a double e or an ea--where there are two men and a boy1 one of whom does a little writing and much scissoring1 loafing among the corner groceries and worse1 begging for subscribers1 button-holing for advertisements1 and occasionally and indiscriminatingly thrashing or being thrashed by the esteemed contemporary or the outraged citizen2 the second of whom sets the type1 reads the proofs1 corrects them more or less1 makes the rollers1 works the old hand press1 and curses the editor and the boy impartially2 and the third of whom sweeps the office weekly1 bi-weekly or monthly1 inks the forms and sometimes pis them1 carries the papers1 and does generally the humble and diversified works of the printer's devil1 while between the three the whole thing periodically goes to the ---- level pretty sure to be reached now and then by papers of this class4 ,yet there are many of these country papers that ,mr4 ,watterson once styled the ,rural ,roosters which are useful and honored1 and which actively employ as editors and publishers men of fair culture and good common sense1 with typographical and mechanical assistants who are worthy of their craft4 ,but the personal workers upon the great magazines and the daily newspapers are for each a battalion or a regiment1 and in the aggregate a vast army4 ,the ,century ,magazine regularly employs in its editorial department three editors and eight editorial assistants1 of whom five are women2 in the art department two artists in charge and four assistants1 of whom three are women2 in the business department fifty-eight persons1 men and women--a total of seventy six persons employed on the magazine regularly and wholly1 while the printers and binders engaged in preparing a monthly edition of #bjj1jjj magazines are at least a duplicate of the number engaged in the editorial1 art and business divisions4 ,the actual working force upon the average large daily newspaper1 as well as an outline idea of the work done in each department1 and of its unified result in the printed sheet1 as such newspapers are operated in ,new ,york1 ,chicago and ,boston1 may be realized from an exhibit of the exact current status in the establishment of a well known ,chicago paper4 ,in its editorial department there are the editor-in-chief1 managing editors1 city editors1 telegraph editors1 exchange editors1 editorial writers1 special writers and about thirty reporters--#ef in all4 ,working in direct connection with this department1 and as part of it1 are three telegraph operators and nine artists1 etchers1 photographers and engravers2 in the ,washington office three staff correspondents1 and in the ,milwaukee office one such correspondent--making for what ,mr4 ,bennett calls the intellectual end a force of #gb men1 who are usually regarded by the business end as a necessary evil1 to be fed and clothed1 but on the whole as hardly worth the counting4 ,in the business and mechanical departments the men and women and their work are these3 ,the business office1 for general clerical work1 receiving and caring for advertisements1 receiving and disbursing cash1 and for the general bookkeeping1 employs #bd men and women4 ,on the city circulation1 stimulating and managing it within the city and the immediate vicinity1 #aj persons4 ,on the country circulation1 for handling all out-of-town subscriptions and orders of wholesale news agents1 #cj persons4 ,on mailing and delivery1 for sending out by mail and express of the outside circulation1 and for distribution to city agents and newsboys1 #ca persons4 ,in the ,new ,york office1 caring for the paper's business throughout the ,east1 the ,canadas1 ,great ,britain and ,europe1 two persons4 ,in the composing room1 where the copy is put into type1 and in the linotype room1 where a part of the type-setting is done by machinery1 #ie persons4 ,in the stereotype foundry1 where the plates are cast 7for the type itself never is put on the press71 #aa persons4 ,in the press room1 where the printing1 folding1 cutting1 pasting and counting of the papers is done1 #cj persons4 ,in the engine and dynamo room1 #h persons4 ,in the care of the building1 #c persons4 ,these numbers include only the minimum and always necessary force1 and make an aggregate of #caf persons daily and nightly engaged for their entire working time1 and borne on a pay roll of six thousand dollars a week for salaries and wages alone4 ,but this takes no account of special correspondents subject to instant call in several hundred places throughout the country2 of ,european correspondents2 of #a1ijj news agents throughout the ,west2 of #bjj city carriers2 of #db wholesale city dealers1 with their horses and wagons2 of #bjj branch advertisement offices throughout the city1 all connected with the main office by telephone2 and of more than #c #jjj news boys--all making their living1 in whole or in part1 from work upon or business relations with this one paper--a little army of #f1cjj men1 women1 and children1 producing and distributing but one of the #a1fbf daily newspapers in the ,united ,states4 ,the leading material forces in newspaper production are type1 paper1 and presses4 ,printing types are cast from a composition which is made one-half of lead1 one-fourth of tin1 and one-fourth of antimony1 though these proportions are slightly reduced1 so as to admit what the chemist calls of copper a trace1 the sum of these parts aiming at a metal which shall be hard1 yet not brittle2 ductile1 yet tough2 flowing freely1 yet hardening quickly4 ,body type1 that is1 those classes ever seen in ordinary print1 aside from display and fancy styles1 is in thirteen classes1 the smallest technically called brilliant and the largest great primer4 ,in the reading columns of newspapers but four classes are ordinarily used--agate for the small advertisements2 agate1 nonpareil1 and minion for news1 miscellany1 etc41 and minion and brevier for editorials--the minion being used for what are called minor editorials1 and the brevier for leading articles1 as to which it may be said that young editorial writers consider life very real and very earnest until they are promoted from minion to brevier4 ,a complete assortment of any one of these classes is called a font1 the average weight of which is about #hjj pounds4 ,whereas our alphabet has #bf letters1 the compositor must really use of letters1 spaces1 accent marks1 and other characters in an ,english font #aeb distinct types1 and in each font there are #aie1jjj individual pieces4 ,the largest number of letters in a font belongs to small e--#ab1jjj2 and the least number to the z--#bjj4 ,the letters1 characters1 spaces1 etc41 are distributed by the printer in a pair of cases1 the upper one for capitals1 small capitals1 and various characters1 having #ih boxes1 and the lower one1 for the small letters1 punctuation marks1 etc41 having #ed boxes4 ,a few newspapers are using typesetting machines for all or part of their composition4 ,the ,new ,york ,tribune is using the ,linotype machine for all its typesetting except the displayed advertisements1 and other papers are using it for a portion of their work1 while still others are using the ,rogers and various machines1 of which there are already six or more4 ,it seems probable that within the early future newspaper composition will very generally be done by machinery4 ,it has been suggested to me that many of my hearers this evening know little or nothing of the processes of the printer's art1 and that some exposition of it may interest a considerable portion of this audience4 ,the vast number of these little messengers of thought which are required in a single modern daily newspaper is little known to newspaper readers4 ,set in the manner of ordinary reading1 a column of the ,new ,york ,tribune contains #ab1bjj pieces1 counting head lines1 leads1 and so on2 while1 if set solidly in its medium-sized type1 there are #ah1hjj pieces in one column1 or about #aac1jjj in a page1 or about #a1ced1jjj in one of its ordinary #ab-page issues4 ,a #cb-page ,sunday issue of the ,new ,york ,herald contains nearly1 if not quite1 #b1ejj1jjj distinct types and other pieces of metal1 each of which must be separately handled between thumb and finger twice--once put into the case and once taken out of it--each issue of the paper4 ,no one inexperienced in this delicate work has the slightest conception of the intensity of attention1 fixity of eye1 deftness of touch1 readiness of intelligence1 exhaustion of vitality1 and destruction of brain and nerve which enters into the daily newspaper from type-setters alone4 ,each type is marked upon one side by slight nicks1 by sight and touch of which the compositor is guided in rapidly placing them right side up in the line4 ,they are taken1 one by one1 between thumb and forefinger1 while the mind not only spells out each word1 but is always carrying phrases and whole sentences ahead of the fingers1 and each letter1 syllable and word is set in its order in lines in the composing stick1 each line being spaced out in the stick so as to exactly fit the column width1 this process being repeated until the stick is full4 ,then the stickful is emptied upon a galley4 ,then1 when the page or the paper is up1 as the printers phrase it1 the galleys are collected1 and the foreman makes up the pages1 article by article1 as they come to us in the printed paper--the preliminary processes of printing proofs from the galleys1 reading them by the proof readers1 who mark the errors1 and making the corrections by the compositors 7each one correcting his own work71 having been quietly and swiftly going on all the while4 ,the page is made up on a portable slab of iron1 upon which it is sent to the stereotyping room4 ,there wet stereotyping paper1 several sheets in thickness1 is laid over the page1 and this almost pulpy paper is rapidly and dexterously beaten evenly all over with stiff hair brushes until the soft paper is pressed down into all the interstices between the type2 then this is covered with blankets and the whole is placed upon a steam chest1 where it is subjected to heat and pressure until the wet paper becomes perfectly dry4 ,then1 this dried and hardened paper1 called a matrix1 is placed in a circular mould1 and melted stereotype metal is poured in and cooled1 resulting in the circular plate1 which is rapidly carried to the press room1 clamped upon its cylinder1 and when all the cylinders are filled1 page by page in proper sequence1 the pressman gives the signal1 the burr and whirr begin1 and men and scarcely less sentient machines enter upon their swift race for the early trains4 ,as a matter of general interest it may be remarked that this whole process of stereotyping a page1 from the time the type leaves the composing room until the plate is clamped upon the press1 averages fifteen minutes1 and that cases are upon record when the complex task has been accomplished in eleven minutes4 ,the paper is brought from the mill tightly rolled upon wooden or iron cores4 ,some presses take paper the narrow way of the paper1 rolls for which average between #fjj and #gjj pounds4 ,others work upon paper of double the width of two pages1 that is1 four pages wide1 and then the rolls are sometimes as wide as six feet1 and have an average weight of #a1cej pounds4 ,each roll from which the ,new ,york ,tribune is printed contains an unbroken sheet #bc1jjj feet 7#d-a_/c miles7 long4 ,a few hours before the paper is to be printed1 an iron shaft having journal ends is passed through the core1 the roll is placed in a frame where it may revolve1 the end of the sheet is grasped by steel fingers and the roll is unwound at a speed of from #ac to #ae miles an hour1 while a fan-like spray of water plays evenly across its width1 so that the entire sheet is unrolled1 dampened1 for the better taking of the impression to be made upon it1 and firmly rewound1 all in twenty minutes4 ,each of these rolls will make about #g1fjj copies of the ,tribune4 ,when all is ready1 paper and stereotyped pages in place1 and all adjustments carefully attended to1 the almost thinking machine starts at the pressman's touch1 and with well nigh incredible speed prints1 places sheet within sheet1 pastes the parts together1 cuts1 folds and counts out the completed papers with an accuracy and constancy beyond the power of human eye and hand4 ,the printing press has held its own in the rapid advance of that wonderful evolution which1 within the last half century1 in every phase of thought and in every movement of material forces placed under the dominion of men1 has almost made one of our years the equivalent of one of the old centuries4 ,within average recollection the single cylinder printing machine1 run by hand or steam1 and able under best conditions to print one side of a thousand sheets in one hour1 was the marvel of mankind4 ,in #ahej1 one such1 that we started in an eastern ,ohio town1 drew such crowds of wondering on-lookers that we were obliged to bar the open doorway to keep them at a distance which would allow the astonishing thing to work at all4 ,to-day1 in the ,united ,states alone1 five millions of dollars are invested in the building of printing presses1 many of which1 by slightest violence to figure of speech1 do think and speak4 ,inspiration was not wholly a thing of long-gone ages1 for if ever men received into brain and worked out through hand the divine touch1 then were ,hoe1 and ,scott1 and ,campbell taught of ,god4 ,under existing conditions newspapers of any importance1 in the smaller cities1 use one and sometimes two presses1 capable of producing from #g1jjj to #i1jjj complete eight page papers each hour1 each machine costing from #aj1jjj to #ae1jjj4 ,papers of the second class in the large cities use treble or quadruple this press capacity1 while the great papers1 in the four or five leading cities1 have machinery plants of from four to ten presses of greatest capacity1 costing from #cb1jjj to #ej1jjj each1 and able to produce papers of the different numbers of pages required1 at a speed of from #bd1jjj to #ij1jjj four page sheets1 or of from #bd1jjj to #dh1jjj eight1 ten1 or twelve page sheets per hour1 each paper complete as you receive it at your breakfast table--printed1 pasted1 cut and folded1 and the entire product for the day accurately counted in lots of tens1 fifties1 hundreds or thousands1 as may be required for instantaneous delivery1 while1 as if to illustrate and emphasize the ever upward trend of public demand for the day's news1 quick and inclusive1 ,hoe ,co4 are now building machines capable of producing in all completeness #aej1jjj four page papers each hour4 ,all this tremendous combination of brain1 nerve1 muscle1 material1 machinery and capital depends for its movement and remuneration upon but two sources of income--circulation and advertisements--the unit measurements of which are infinitesimal--for the most part represented by wholesale prices2 from one-half a cent to two cents per copy for the daily newspaper1 and in like proportion for the weeklies and monthlies2 and by from one-tenth of a cent to one cent per line per thousand of circulation for advertising space4 ,verily1 in a certain and large sense1 the vast publishing interests rest upon drops of water and grains of sand4 ,under right conditions no kind of business or property is more valuable1 and yet no basis of values is more intangible4 ,nothing in all trade or commerce is so difficult to establish or more environed by competitions1 and yet1 once established1 almost nothing save interior dry rot can pull it down4 ,it depends upon the judgment and favor of the million1 yet instances are few where any external force has seriously and permanently impaired it4 ,about two hundred years have gone since the publication of the first number of the first ,american newspaper4 ,it was a monthly1 called ,publick ,occurrences1 both ,foreign and ,domestic1 first printed ,september #be1 #afij1 by ,richard ,pierce1 and founded by ,benjamin ,harris4 ,at that time public favor did seem to control newspaper interests1 for that first paper aroused antagonism1 and it was almost immediately suppressed by the authorities4 ,only one copy of it is now in existence1 and that is in ,london4 ,the first newspaper to live1 in this country1 was the ,boston ,news ,letter1 first issued in #agjd and continued until #aggf4 ,new ,york's first newspaper1 the ,new ,york ,gazette1 appeared ,october #af1 #agbe4 ,at the outbreak of the revolution there were #cg newspapers1 and in #ahjj there were #bjj1 of which several were dailies4 ,in #ahij there were #ag1gfj1 of which there were #ac1afd weeklies1 #b1aia monthlies1 #a1fbf dailies1 #bhj semi-monthlies1 #bag semi-weeklies1 #abf quarterlies1 #hb bi-weeklies1 #ch bi-monthlies1 and #cf tri-weeklies4 ,the circulations belong largely to the weeklies1 monthlies and dailies1 the weeklies having #bc1bbh1gej1 the monthlies #i1bde1gej1 the dailies #f1fec1bej1 leaving only #b1djj1jjj for all the others4 ,the largest definitely ascertainable daily average circulation for one year1 in this country1 has been #bbb1gde4 ,only one other daily paper in the world has had more--,le ,petit ,journal1 in ,paris1 which really1 as we understand it1 is not a newspaper1 but which regularly prints and sells for one sou more than #gej1jjj copies4 ,the largest ,american weekly is the ,youth's ,companion1 ,boston1 #dfa1dgj4 ,the largest monthly is the ,ladies' ,home ,journal1 ,philadelphia1 #edb1jjj4 ,the largest among the better known magazines is the ,century1 #bjj1jjj4 ,of the daily papers which directly interest us--those of the city of ,new ,york--the actual or approximate daily averages of the morning papers are given by ,dauchy's ,newspaper ,catalogue for #ahia1 as follows3 ,tribune1 daily1 #hj1jjj2 ,sunday1 #he1jjj4 ,times1 daily1 #dj1jjj2 ,sunday1 #ee1jjj4 ,herald1 daily1 #ajj1jjj2 ,sunday1 #abj1jjj4 ,morning ,journal1 #bjj1jjj4 ,press1 daily1 #he1jjj2 ,sunday1 #de1jjj4 ,sun1 daily1 #ij1jjj2 ,sunday1 #abj1jjj4 ,world1 daily1 #ahb1jjj2 ,sunday1 #bge1jjj4 ,of the afternoon papers1 ,commercial ,advertiser1 #ae1jjj2 ,evening ,post1 #ah1jjj2 ,telegram1 #be1jjj2 ,graphic 7not the old1 but a new one71 #aj1jjj2 ,mail and ,express1 #dj1jjj2 ,news1 #agc1jjj2 ,evening ,sun1 #ej1jjj2 ,evening ,world1 #afh1jjj4 ,the entire circulation of ,new ,york dailies1 including with those named others of minor importance1 and the ,german1 ,french1 ,italian1 ,bohemian1 ,hebrew and ,spanish daily newspapers1 is #a1edj1bjj copies4 ,obviously1 there is and must be ceaseless1 incisive and merciless competition in securing and holding circulations1 as well as in the outward statements made of individual circulations to those who purchase advertising space4 ,in this1 as in all other forms of enterprise1 there are honest1 clean-cut and business-like methods1 and there are the methods of the time-server1 the trickster and the liar4 ,the vastly greater number of publications secure and hold their clientage by making the best possible goods1 pushing them upon public patronage by aggressive and business-like means1 and selling at the lowest price consistent with excellence of product and fairness alike to producer and consumer4 ,but of the baser sort there are always enough to make rugged paths for those who walk uprightly1 and to contribute to instability of values on the one hand1 and on the other to flooding the country with publications which the home and the world would be better without4 ,every great city has more of the rightly made and rightly sold papers than of the other sort1 and the business man1 the working man1 the professional man1 the family1 no matter of what taste1 or political faith1 or economic bias1 or social status1 or financial plenty or paucity1 can have the daily visits of newspapers which are able1 brilliant1 comprehensive1 clean and honest4 ,but all the time1 these men and families will have pressed upon their attention and patronage1 by every device and artifice of the energetic and more or less unscrupulous publisher1 other papers equally able and brilliant and comprehensive1 but bringing also their burden of needless sensationalism and mendacity1 undue expansion of all manner of scandal1 amplification of every detail and kind of crime1 and every phase of covert innuendo or open attack upon official doing and private character--the whole infernal mass procured1 and stimulated and broadcast among the people by the business end of it1 with the one and only intent of securing and holding circulation4 ,take a representative and pertinent example4 ,eight years ago there were in ,new ,york ten or eleven standard newspapers1 as ably and inclusively edited and as energetically and successfully conducted1 business-wise1 as they are now4 ,even at their worst they were decently mindful of life's proprieties and moralities and they throve by legitimate sale of the most and best news and the best possible elucidation and discussion thereof4 ,the father could bring the paper of his choice to his breakfast table with no fear that his own moral sense and self-respect might be outraged1 or that the face of his wife might be crimsoned and the minds of his children befouled4 ,but there came from out of the ,west new men and new forces1 quick to see the larger opportunity opened in the very center of five millions of people1 and almost in a night came the metamorphosis of the old ,world into the new4 ,it was deftly given out that existing conditions were inadequate to the better deserts of the ,knickerbocker1 the ,jersey-man1 and the ,yankee1 and that a new purveyor of more highly seasoned news and a more doughty champion of their rights and interests was hither from the land of life and movement--at two cents per copy4 ,there was a panic in ,new ,york newspaper counting rooms1 and prices tumbled in two days from the three and four cents of fair profit to the two and three cents of bare cost or less4 ,the new factors in demoralization cared nothing for competition in prices or legitimate goods1 for they had other ideas of coddling the dear people4 ,ready to their purpose lay disintegrated ,liberty1 waiting for a rock upon which to plant her feet and raise her torch1 and the new combination between the world1 the flesh and the devil1 waiting and ready for access to the pockets of the public1 was only too ready to set up ,liberty and itself at one stroke1 if only the joint operation could be done without expense to itself4 ,the people said1 ,what wonderful enterprise6 ,what a generous spirit6 ,the combination1 with tongue in cheek and finger laid alongside nose1 said to itself as it saw its circulation spring in one bound from five figures into six1 ,verily we've got there6 for these on the ,hudson are greater gudgeons than are they on the ,mississippi4 ,from then until now1 with an outward semblance and constant pretense of serving the people2 with blare of trumpet and rattle of drum2 with finding ,stanley1 who never had been lost2 with scurrying peripatetic petticoats around the globe2 with all manner of unprofessional and illegitimate devices2 with so-called contests and with all manner of schemes without limit in number1 kind1 or degree2 with every cunningly devised form of appeal to curiosity and cupidity--from then until now that combination has been struggling to hold and has held an audience of the undiscriminating and the unthinking4 ,but1 further1 and worse1 a short-sighted instinct of self-preservation has led other papers to follow somewhat at a distance in this demoralizing race4 ,none of them has gone to such lengths1 but the tendency to literary1 mental and moral dissipation induced by a hitherto unknown form of competition has swerved and largely recast the methods of every ,new ,york daily save only the ,tribune1 ,times1 ,commercial ,advertiser1 and ,evening ,post1 while the converse side of securing business clientage is illustrated in a way that would be amusing if it were not pathetic1 by that abnormal and fantastic cross between news and pietetics which mails and expresses itself to the truly good4 ,these are forms of competition which the business end of legitimately conducted newspapers is compelled to meet4 ,in a certain way these methods do succeed1 but how1 and how long and how much shall they succeed except by unsettling the mental and moral poise of the people1 and by setting a new and false pace for publishers everywhere whose thoughts take less account of means than of ends8 ,which shall we hold in higher esteem and in our business patronage--,manton ,marble and ,hurlbut1 gentlemen1 scholarly1 wise leaders1 conscientious teachers1 with barely living financial income2 or their successors1 parvenus1 superficial1 meretricious1 false guides1 time-serving leaders1 a thousand dollars a day of clear profit1 housed in the tower of ,babel8 ,considered in the large1 the circulation side of the ,american newspaper has many indefensible aspects4 ,as nothing succeeds like success1 or the appearance of success1 the prestige of not a few newspapers is ministered unto by rotund and deceptive representations of circulation4 ,then1 as few can live1 much less profit1 on their circulations alone1 it becomes greatly important to make the advertiser see circulations through the large end of the telescope1 and so the fine art of telling truth without lying is a live and perennial study in many counting rooms4 ,discussing the circulation question not long ago with the head of a leading religious paper1 he told me that the number of copies he printed was a thing that he never stated definitely1 because the publishers of the other religious newspapers lied so about their circulations that he would do himself injustice if he were to tell the truth about his own4 ,the secular papers should set an example for their religious brethren1 but they do not1 for from many of them there is lying--systematic1 persistent1 and more or less colossal4 ,not long ago1 within a few days of each other1 three men who were simultaneously employed on a certain paper told me their actual circulation1 confidentially1 too4 ,one of them put it at #he1jjj1 the second at #aaj1jjj1 and the third at #acj1jjj1 and each of them lied1 for their lying was so diversified and entertaining that ,i felt a real interest in securing the truth1 and so ,i took some trouble to ask the pressman about it4 ,he told me1 very confidentially1 that it was #abj1jjj--;and he lied4 ,by this time my interest was so heightened that ,i told my personal friend1 the publisher1 about the inartistic and incoherent mendacity of his subordinates1 whereupon he laughingly showed me his circulation book1 which clearly1 and ,i have no doubt truthfully1 exhibited an average of #hh1jjj4 ,the wicked partner is nearly always ready to show the actual record of the counting machines on the presses1 and figures never lie but the truth-telling machines which record actual work of the impression cylinders make no mention of damaged copies thrown aside1 of sample copies1 files1 exchanges1 copies kept against possible future need1 copies unsold1 copies nominally sold but sooner or later returned and finally sold to the junk shop1 and all that sort of thing4 ,one prints a large extra issue on a certain day for some business corporation which has its own purpose to serve by publication of an article in its own interest1 whereby many thousands of copies are added to that day's normal output1 and he makes the exceptional number for that day serve as the exponent of his circulation until good fortune brings him a similar and possibly larger order1 and his circulation is reported as still increasing4 ,another struck a high-water mark of #aij1ejj the day after ,mr4 ,cleveland was elected1 and that has been the implied measure of circulation for the last six years4 ,another1 during a heated political campaign1 or a great financial crisis1 or some other dominant factor in public interest1 makes a large and genuine temporary increase1 but the highest mark gained does enforced duty in the eyes of the marines until another flood tide sweeps him to a greater transient height4 ,these are types of the competitions of the circulation liar4 ,at this very hour there are four daily newspapers each of which has the largest circulation in the ,united ,states4 ,of the nearly #ah1jjj ,american publications only #ajc furnish detailed1 open1 and entirely trustworthy statements of circulation4 ,as to the general public this is no great matter1 but to the vast number of business men who buy the real or fancied publicity afforded by newspaper advertising it is of exceeding importance4 ,that the large buyers of advertising space are not more and oftener swindled is because they understand the circulation extravaganza and buy space according to their understanding4 ,the time is coming1 and it should come soon1 when newspaper circulations shall be open to the same inspection and publicity as is now the case with banks and insurance companies1 and when the circulation liar and swindler shall be amenable to the same law and liable to the same penalty as stands against and is visited upon any other perjurer and thief4 7,to be continued47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,how ,,to ,,prevent ,,hay ,,fever4 ,by ,,alexander ,,rixa1 ,m4,d41 ,new ,york4 ,in the ,may 7#ahij7 number of the ,therapeutic ,gazette ,i furnished some contribution to the ,treatment of ,hay ,fever4 ,i reported therein a favorable result in the treatment of this mysterious disease in the experience of my last year's cases4 ,my experience of this year is far more gratifying1 and worthy of receiving a wide publicity4 ,i treated six cases in all1 four of which have been habitual for years to hay fever proper without complications1 while the other two used to have the disease aggravated with reflex asthma and bronchial catarrh4 ,i succeeded in preventing the outbreak of the disease in every individual case4 ,the treatment ,i applied was very simple1 and consisted of the following3 ,from the fact that ,i had known all my patients from previous years1 ,i ordered them to my office two weeks before the usual onset of the disease4 ,i advised them to irrigate the nose with a warm solution of chloride of sodium four times a day--morning1 noon1 evening1 and on retiring2 and1 a few minutes after the cleansing of the parts1 had the nares thoroughly sprayed with peroxide of hydrogen and c4p4 glycerin1 half and half4 ,those subject to a conjunctivitis ,i prescribed a two per cent4 solution of boric acid as a wash4 ,at this period no internal medication was given1 but three days previous to the usual onset of the disease ,i prescribed phenacetin and salol1 five grains of each three times a day4 ,on the respective expected days1 to the great surprise of all the members concerned successively1 who have been in the habit of getting the disease almost invariably at a certain date1 no hay fever symptoms appeared1 though everyone had been the victim of the disease for a great number of years1 varying from five to nineteen years' standing4 ,it is self-understood that this treatment was kept up all through the season1 and1 as no symptoms developed1 the applications were reduced1 toward the termination1 to twice and once a day4 ,the internal medication1 however1 was stopped after the expiration of the first week1 and all the patients could attend to their various respective vocations1 something they never have been able to do in previous years4 ,in two cases1 though no nasal symptoms developed1 about two weeks after the calculated onset1 slight symptoms of asthma made their appearance4 ,however1 ,i could easily suppress them at this time with the aid of the hand atomizer and ozonizer1 a very ingenious little apparatus1 of which ,i gave a thorough description in my last year's article4 ,i used the ozone inhalations every four hours1 in connection with the internal administration of the following prescription3 ,rx ,iodide of ammonia1 #h2 ,fl4 ex4 quebracho1 #cj2 ,fl4 ex4 grindelia robusta1 #ae2 ,tr4 lobelia1 #ab2 ,tr4 belladonna1 #h2 ,syr4 pruni1 virg41 q4s41 ad #abj4 ,sig4--,teaspoonful three or more times during twenty-four hours4 ,however1 toward the end of the fourth week1 especially in one case--a stout1 heavy-set gentleman--very grave asthmatic symptoms developed1 which compelled me to apply ,chapman's spinal ice bag1 as well as resort to the internal administration of large doses of codeine during the paroxysm1 with the most beneficial result4 ,i gave also oxygen inhalations a fair trial in the two cases4 ,i find them to act very soothingly in the simple asthma1 facilitating respiration after a few minutes2 but during the paroxysmal stage they cannot be utilized1 for the reason that respiration is short and rapid1 and does not permit of a control in the quantity of the gas to be inhaled4 ,consequently1 it is either of little use as a remedy2 or1 if too much is taken1 a disagreeable headache will be the consequence4 ,during the catarrhal stage1 which1 however1 was very mild compared with last year1 ,i derived great benefit from the administration of codeine1 in combination with terpine hydrate1 in the pill form4 ,the codeine has the advantage over all other opium preparations that it does not affect the digestive organs1 and still acts in a soothing manner4 ,while during last year's sickness my patients lost from ten to twenty pounds of their bodily weight1 this year but one lost eight pounds and the other five pounds4 ,as the etiology of this troublesome disease is yet enveloped in obscurity1 we may fairly conclude1 by the success of my treatment1 if it should meet with the confirmation of the profession1 that the much pretended sensitive area1 situated1 according to ,dr4 ,sajous1 at the posterior end of the inferior turbinated bones and the corresponding portion of the septum1 or1 according to ,dr4 ,john ,mackenzie1 who locates this area at the anterior extremity of the inferior turbinated bone1 need not necessarily be removed or destroyed by cautery1 in order to accomplish a cure of hay fever proper4 ,i examined my patients twice a week1 and the closest rhinoscopical exploration would not reveal the slightest pathological change in the mucous membrane of the nares4 ,now1 what is the etiological factor of the disease8 ,is it a specific germ conveyed by the air to the parts and--locus minoris resistencia--deposited at the pretended area1 or is the germinal matter present in the nasal mucous membrane with certain persons1 and requires only at a certain time and under certain conditions physiological stimulation to manifest periodical pathological changes1 which give rise to the train of symptoms called hay fever8 ,dropping all hypothetical reasoning1 ,i think some outside vegetable germ is causing the disease in those predisposed1 and peroxide of hydrogen acts on them as it does on the pus corpuscles1 i4e41 drives them out when and wherever it finds them4 ,i hope the profession will give this new measure a thorough trial and report their results4--,therapeutic ,gazette4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,source ,,of ,,chinese ,,ginger4 ,in the ,kew ,bulletin for ,january an interesting account is given of the identification of the plant yielding the rhizome employed to make the well-known ,chinese preserved ginger4 ,as long ago as #ahgh ,dr4 ,e4 ,percival ,wright1 of ,trinity ,college1 ,dublin1 called the attention of ,mr4 ,thiselton ,dyer to the fact that the preserved ginger has very much larger rhizomes than ,zingiber officinale1 and that it was quite improbable that it was the product of that plant4 ,the difficulty in identifying the plant arose from the fact that1 like many others cultivated for the root or tuber1 it rarely flowers4 ,the first flowering plant was sent to ,kew from ,jamaica by ,mr4 ,harris1 the superintendent of the ,hope ,garden there4 ,during the past year the plant has flowered both at ,dominica in the ,west ,indies and in the ,botanic ,garden at ,hong-,kong4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,ford1 the director of the ,botanic ,garden at ,hong-,kong1 has identified the plant as ,alpinia ,galanga1 the source of the greater or ,java galangal root of commerce4 ,mr4 ,watson1 of ,kew1 appears to have been the first to suggest that the ,chinese ginger plant is probably a species of ,alpinia1 and possibly identical with the ,siam ginger plant1 which was described by ,sir ,j4 ,hooker in the ,botanical ,magazine 7tab4 #f1idf7 in #ahhg as a new species under the name of ,alpinia zingiberina4 ,mr4 ,j4,g4 ,baker1 in working up the ,scitamine for the ,flora of ,british ,india1 arrived at the conclusion that it is not distinct from the ,alpinia ,galanga1 ,willd4 ,the ,siam and ,chinese gingers are therefore identical1 and both are the produce of ,alpinia ,galanga1 ,willd4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,floating ,,elevator ,,and ,,spoil ,,distributor4 ,we illustrate a floating elevator and spoil distributor constructed by ,mr4 ,a4,f4 ,smulders1 ,utrecht1 ,holland1 for removing dredged material out of barges at the ,baltic ,sea ,canal ,works4 ,we give a perspective view showing the apparatus at work1 and on a page plate are given plans1 longitudinal and cross sections1 with details which are from ,engineering4 ,the dredged material is raised out of the launches or barges by means of a double ranged bucket chain to a height of #aj4e meters 7#cd ft4 #e in47 above the water line1 from whence it is pushed to the place of deposition by a heavy stream of water supplied by centrifugal pumps4 ,illustration3 ,,floating ,,elevator ,,and ,,spoil ,,distributor ,,for ,,the ,,baltic ,,sea ,,canal4 ,the necessary machinery and superstructure are supported on two vessels connected1 as shown in ,figs4 #d and #e1 with cross girders1 a sufficient width being left between each vessel to form a well large enough for a barge to float into1 and for the working of the bucket ladder utilized in raising the material from the barges4 ,the girders are braced together and carry the framing for the bucket chains1 gears1 etc4 ,the port vessel is provided with a compound engine of #aej indicated horse power1 with injection condenser actuating two powerful centrifugal pumps1 raising water which enters by a series of holes into the bottom of the shoots underneath the dredged material1 carrying the material to the conduit 7as indicated on ,fig4 #d and in detail on ,figs4 #f and #g74 ,a steel boiler of #hj square meters 7#hfj square feet7 heating surface1 and #f atmospheres 7#ij lb47 working pressure1 supplies steam to the engine4 ,forward on the deck of the same vessel there is a vertical two-cylinder high pressure engine of #cj indicated horse power1 which helps to bring the barge to the desired position between the parallel vessels4 ,a horizontal two-cylinder engine of the same power1 fitted with reversing gear1 placed in the middle of the foremost iron girder1 raises and lowers the bucket ladder by the interposition of a strongly framed capstan1 as shown on ,fig4 #e4 ,the gearing throughout is of friction pulleys and worm and wormwheel4 ,it is driven by belts4 ,in the starboard vessel there is a compound engine of #ajj indicated horse power1 with injection condenser1 working the bucket chain by means of belts and wheel gearing1 as shown on ,fig4 #b4 ,a marine boiler of #df square meters 7#die square feet7 heating surface and #f atmospheres 7#ij lb47 working pressure1 supplies steam4 ,in this vessel1 it may be added1 there is a cabin for the crew4 ,the dimensions of the vessels are as follows2 ,extreme length1 #be meters 7#hb ft472 breadth1 #d4e meters 7#ad ft4 #i in472 depth 7moulded71 #b4g meters 7#f ft4 #f in472 average draught of water1 #a4d meters 7#d ft4 #g in472 space between the ships1 #f4ee meters 7#ba ft4 #f in47 ,the iron structure connecting the ships is composed of four upright box-form stanchions on both ships1 connected at the top by two strong box girders with tie pieces supporting the main framing4 ,this main framing1 also of the box girder form1 is strengthened with angle irons and braced together at the tops by a platform supporting the gearing of the bucket chains1 as shown on ,fig4 #e4 ,the buckets have a capacity of #afj liters 7#e4fe cubic feet7 and the speed in travel is at the rate of #be to #cj buckets per minute1 so that with both ladders working1 #ej to #fj buckets are discharged per minute4 ,the top tumbler shaft is placed at a height of #ac meters 7#db ft4 #h in47 above the water line 7,fig4 #d71 and the dredge conduit has a length of #ej meters 7#afd ft471 ,fig4 #a4 ,the shooting is done at a height of #h4e meters 7#bg ft4 #aj in47 above the water line1 and the shoot catches the dredged products at a height of #aj4e meters 7#cd ft4 #e in47 above the water line1 the sliding gradient being #d to #ajj4 ,the dredge conduit is carried by timberwork resting on two of the upright box form stanchions4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,floating ,,elevator ,,and ,,spoil ,,distributor4 ,all cables are of galvanized steel and provided with open twin buckles4 ,the main parts of the apparatus are of steel1 and all pieces subject to wear and tear are fitted with bushes so formed that they can be easily replaced4 ,the quantity of suitable soil removed by these apparatus amounts to #cej cubic meters 7#ab1cfj square feet7 per hour4 ,four plants of similar construction have been built for the new ,baltic ,sea ,canal1 besides a fixed elevator of the same power and disposition1 with the exception that the top tumbler shaft was suspended at a height of #af4a meters 7#ea ft4 #aj in47 above the water line1 and the dredge conduit placed at a distance of #ac meters 7#dc ft47 from it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,cold ,,iron ,,saw4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,cold ,,iron ,,saw4 ,the engraving given herewith shows a general view of the ,demon cold saw1 designed for cutting iron1 mild steel1 or other metals of fairly large sections1 that is1 up square or round1 and any rectangular section up to #h in4 by #d in4 ,the maker1 ,mr4 ,r4,g4 ,fiege1 of ,london1 claims for this appliance that it is a cold iron saw1 at once powerful1 simple and effective4 ,it is always in readiness for work1 can be worked by inexperienced workmen4 ,the bed plate has ,t slots1 to receive a parallel vise1 which can be fixed at any angle for angular cutting4 ,the articulated lever carries a saw of #aj in4 or #ab in4 diameter1 on the spindle of which a bronze pinion is fixed1 gearing with the worm shown4 ,the latter derives motion from a pair of bevel wheels1 which are in turn actuated from the pulley shown in the engraving4 ,the lever and the saw connected with it can be raised and held up by a pawl while the work is being fixed4 ,in small work the weight of the lever itself is found sufficient to feed the saw1 but in heavier work it is found necessary to attach a weight on the end of the lever4 ,the machine is fitted with fast and loose pulleys1 strap fork and bar4 ,we are informed that one of these machines is capable of making #djj cuts through bars of ,bessemer steel #d in4 diameter1 each cutting occupying six minutes on an average1 without changing the saw4--,industries4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,railway ,,through ,,the ,,andes4 ,the railway system of the ,argentine ,republic is separated from the ,chilian system by the chain of the ,andes4 ,the ,english contractors1 ,messrs4 ,clark ,co41 have undertaken to connect them by a line which starts from ,mendoza1 the terminus of the ,argentine system1 and ends at ,santa ,rosa in ,chili1 with a total length of #add miles4 ,the distance from ,buenos ,ayres to ,valparaiso will thus be reduced to #haf miles4 ,the ,argentine lines are of #e4d foot gauge1 and those of ,chili of #d4f foot4 ,the line in course of construction traverses an extremely hilly region4 ,the starting and terminal points are at the levels of #b1cch feet 7,mendoza7 and #b1gjf feet 7,santa ,rosa7 above the sea2 the lowest neck of the chain is at the level of #aa1bhg feet4 ,study having shown that a direction line without tunnels1 and even with the steepest gradients for traction by adhesion1 would lead to a considerable lengthening of the line1 and would expose it to avalanches and to obstructions by snow1 there was adopted upon a certain length a rack track of the ,abt system1 with gradients of #h per cent41 and the neck is traversed by a tunnel #c miles in length and #a1ifh feet beneath the surface4 ,the number and length of the tunnels upon the two declivities1 moreover1 are considerable4 ,they are all provided with rack tracks4 ,the first #hj miles1 starting from ,mendoza1 are exploited by adhesion1 with maximum gradients of #b per cent4 ,upon the remaining #fd miles1 traction can be effected either by adhesion or racks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,region ,,traversed ,,by ,,the ,,railway ,,through ,,the ,,andes4 ,the track is of #c4bh foot gauge1 and this will necessitate trans-shipments upon the two systems4 ,the rails weigh #ai pounds to the running foot in the parts where the exploitation can be effected either through adhesion or racks1 and #ag pounds in those in which adhesion alone will be employed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,direction ,,line ,,of ,,the ,,railway ,,through ,,the ,,andes4 ,the special locomotives for use on the rack sections will weigh #de tons in service and will haul #gj ton trains over gradients of #h percent4 ,those that are to be employed upon the parts where traction will be by adhesion will be locomotives with five pairs of wheels1 three of them coupled4 ,the weight distributed over these latter will be #bh tons4 ,these engines will haul #adj ton trains over gradients of #b per cent4 ,the earthwork is now finished over two-thirds of the length1 and the track has been laid for a length of #eh miles from ,mendoza4 ,it is hoped that it will be possible to open the line to traffic as far as to the summit tunnels in #ahia1 and to finish the tunnels in #ahic4 ,these tunnels will have to be excavated through hard rock4 ,to this effect1 it is intended to use drills actuated by electricity through dynamos driven by waterfalls4 ,the ,ferroux system seems preferable to the ,brandt and other hydraulic systems1 seeing the danger of the water being frozen in the conduits placed outside of the tunnels4--,le ,genie ,civil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,empress ,,of ,,india4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,british ,,pacific ,,line ,,empress ,,of ,,india4 ,the ,empress of ,india is intended to be the pioneer of three fast mail steamers1 built by the ,barrow ,shipbuilding ,company for service in connection with the ,canadian ,pacific ,railway1 between ,vancouver and the ports of ,china and ,japan1 thus forming the last link in the new route to the ,east through ,british territory4 ,her sister ships1 the ,empress of ,china and ,empress of ,japan1 are to be ready in ,april next4 ,these three ships all fulfill the requirements of the ,board of ,trade and of the ,admiralty and ,lloyd's1 and are classed as #ajj ,a#a4 ,they will also be placed on the list of ,british armed cruisers for service as commerce protectors in time of war4 ,for this service each vessel is to be thoroughly fitted4 ,there are two platforms forward and two aft1 for mounting #g in4 ,armstrong guns4 ,these weapons1 in the case of the ,empress of ,india1 are already awaiting the vessel at ,vancouver4 ,the ,empress of ,india is painted white all over1 has three pole masts to carry fore and aft sails4 ,she has two buff-colored funnels and a clipper stern1 and in external build much resembles the ,city of ,rome4 ,her length over all is #dhe feet2 beam1 #ea feet2 depth1 #cf feet2 and gross tonnage1 #e1ibj tons4 ,the hull1 of steel1 is divided into fifteen compartments by bulkheads1 and has a cellular double bottom #d feet in depth and #g feet below the engine room4 ,there are four complete decks4 ,the ship is designed to carry #bjj saloon passengers1 #fj second cabin1 and #ejj steerage--these last chiefly ,chinese coolies1 for whose special delectation an opium room has been provided on board4--,daily ,graphic4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chicago ,,as ,a ,,seaport4 ,the prairie land in the southwest corner of ,lake ,michigan1 which1 seventy years ago1 was half morass from the overflowing of the sluggish creek1 whose waters1 during flood1 spread over the low-lying1 level plain1 or were supplemented in the dry season by the inflow from the lake1 showed no sign of any future development and prosperity4 ,the few streets of wooden houses that had been built by their handful of isolated inhabitants seemed likely rather to decay from neglect and desertion than to increase1 and ultimately to be swept away by fire1 to make room for the extravagant and gigantic buildings that to-day characterize ,american civilization and commercial prosperity4 ,nearly #a1jjj miles from the ,atlantic1 a greater distance from the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and #b1jjj miles from the ,pacific1 no wilder dream could have been imagined fifty years ago than that ,chicago should become a seaport1 the volume of whose business should be second only to that of ,new ,york2 that forty miles of wharves and docks lining the branches of the river should be insufficient for the wants of her commerce1 and that none of the magnificent lake frontage could be spared to supply the demand4 ,yet this is the situation to-day1 the difficulties of which must increase many fold as years pass and business grows1 unless some changes are made by which increased accommodation can be obtained4 ,the nature of these changes has long engrossed the attention of the municipality and their engineers1 and necessity is forcing them from discussion to action4 ,as such action is likely to be taken soon1 the subject is of sufficient interest to the ,english reader to devote some space to its consideration4 ,the most important problem1 however1 which the works to be undertaken--and which must of necessity be soon commenced--will have to solve1 is not one of wharf accommodation or of increased facilities of commerce4 ,it is the better disposal of the sewage of the city1 the system in use at present being inadequate1 and growing more and more imperfect as the city and its population increase4 ,during the early days of ,chicago1 and indeed long after1 the sewage question was treated with primitive simplicity1 and with a complete disregard of sanitary laws4 ,the river and the lake in front of the city were close at hand and convenient to receive all the discharge from the drains that flowed into them4 ,but this condition of things had to come to an end1 for the lake supplied the population with water1 and it became too contaminated for use4 ,to obtain even this temporary relief involved much of the ground level of the city being raised to a height of #ad ft4 above low water1 a great undertaking carried out a number of years ago4 ,to obtain an adequate supply of pure water1 ,mr4 ,e4,s4 ,chesborough1 the city engineer1 adopted the ingenious plan of driving a long tunnel beneath the bed of the lake1 connected at the outer end to an inlet tower built in the water1 and on shore to pumping engines4 ,this plan proved so successful that it is now being repeated on a larger scale1 and with a much longer tunnel1 to meet the increased demands of the large population4 ,but to improve the sanitary condition of the city has been a much more difficult undertaking1 as may be gathered from the following extract from an official report3 ,the present sanitary condition calls loudly for relief4 ,the pollution of the ,desplaines and the ,illinois ,rivers extends #ha miles1 as far as the mouth of the ,fox 7see plan1 ,fig4 #a7 in summer low water1 and occasionally to ,peoria 7#aeh miles7 in winter4 ,outside of the direct circulation the river harbor is indescribable4 ,the spewing of the harbor contents into the lake1 the sewers constantly discharging therein1 clouds the source of water supply 7the lake7 with contamination4 ,relief to ,chicago and equity to her neighbors is a necessity of the early future4 ,to make this quotation clear it is necessary to explain the actual condition of the ,chicago sewage question4 ,long before the present metropolis had arrived at the title and dignity of a city1 the advantage to be derived from a waterway between ,lake ,michigan and the ,illinois ,river1 and thence to the ,mississippi1 was well understood4 ,the scheme was1 in fact1 considered of sufficient importance to call for legislation as early as #ahbb1 in which year an act was passed authorizing the construction of a canal having this object4 ,it was not commenced1 however1 till #ahcf1 and was opened to navigation in the spring of #ahdh4 ,this canal extended from ,chicago to ,la ,salle1 a distance of #ig miles1 and it had a fall of #adf ft4 to low water in the ,illinois ,river 7see ,fig4 #a74 ,it was only a small affair1 #f ft4 deep1 and #fj ft4 wide on the surface2 the locks were #aaj ft4 long and #ah ft4 wide4 ,the summit level1 which was only #h ft4 above the lake1 was #ba miles in length4 ,this limited waterway remained in use for a number of years1 until1 in fact1 the growth of ,chicago rendered it impossible to allow the sewage to flow any longer into the lake4 ,in #ahfe the ,state of ,illinois sanctioned widening and lowering the canal so that it should flow by gravity from ,lake ,michigan4 ,the enlargement was completed in #ahga1 by the city of ,chicago1 and the sewage was then discharged toward the ,illinois ,river4 ,but the flow was insufficient1 and in #ahha the ,state called on the city to supplement the flow by pumping water into the canal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,in #ahhd1 engines delivering #fj1jjj gallons a minute were set to work and remedied the evil for a time1 so far as the city of ,chicago was concerned1 but the large discharge of sewage through the sluggish current of the canal and into the ,illinois ,river proved a serious and ever-increasing nuisance to the inhabitants in the adjoining districts4 ,to enlarge the existing canal1 increase the volume and speed of its discharge1 and to alter the levels1 so that there shall be a relatively rapid stream flowing at all times from ,lake ,michigan1 appears the only practical means of affording relief to the city1 and immunity to other towns and villages lying along the route of the stream4 ,the physical nature of the country is well suited for carrying out such a project on a scale far larger than that required for sewage purposes1 and works thus carried out would1 to a small extent1 restore the old water regime in this part of the continent4 ,before the vast surface changes produced during the last glacial period1 three of the great lakes--,michigan1 ,huron and ,superior--discharged their waters southward into the ,gulf of ,mexico by a broad river4 ,the accumulation of glacial debris changed all this2 the southern outlet was cut off1 and a new one to the north was opened near where ,detroit stands1 making a channel to ,lake ,erie1 which then became the outlet for the whole chain by way of ,niagara4 ,a very slight change in levels would serve to restore the present regime4 ,around ,lake ,michigan the land has been slightly raised1 the summit above mean water level being only about #h ft4 ,thirty miles from the south shore the lake level is again reached at a point near ,lockport 7see ,fig4 #b72 the fall then becomes more marked4 ,at ,lake ,joliet1 #aj miles further1 the fall is #gg ft42 and at ,la ,salle1 #ajj miles from ,chicago1 the total fall reaches #adf feet4 ,at ,la ,salle the ,illinois ,river is met1 and this stream1 after a course of #bbe miles1 enters the ,missouri4 ,in the whole distance the ,illinois ,river has a fall of #bi ft4 ,it has a sluggish current2 an oozy bed and bars1 formed chiefly by tributaries1 with natural depths of #b ft4 to #d ft42 banks half way to high waters1 and low bottoms1 one to six miles wide1 bounded by terraces1 overflowed during high water from #d ft4 to #ab ft4 deep1 and intersected in dry seasons by lake1 bayou1 lagoon1 and marsh1 the wreck of a mighty past4 ,the rectification of the ,illinois and the construction of a large canal from ,la ,salle to ,lake ,michigan are1 therefore1 all that is necessary to open a waterway to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and to make ,chicago doubly a port2 on the one hand1 for the enormous lake traffic now existing2 on the other1 for the trade that would be created in both directions1 northward to ,lake ,michigan1 and southward to the ,gulf4 ,as a matter of fact this great scheme has long occupied the attention of the ,united ,states government4 ,a bill in #ahhb authorized surveys for a canal from a point on the ,illinois ,river1 at or near the town of ,hennepin1 by the most practical route to the ,mississippi ,river 444 and a survey of the ,illinois and ,michigan ,canal connecting the ,illinois ,river with ,chicago1 and estimates from its enlargements4 ,this scheme only contemplated navigation for boats up to #fjj tons4 ,in #ahhe the ,citizens' ,association1 of ,chicago caused a report to be made for an extended plan4 ,the name of ,mr4 ,l4,e4 ,cooly1 at that time municipal sanitary engineer1 was closely associated with this report1 as it is at the present time for the agitation for carrying out the works4 ,this report recommended that an ample channel be created from ,chicago to the ,illinois ,river1 sufficient to carry away in a diluted state the sewage of a large population4 ,that this channel may be enlarged by the ,state or national government to any requirement of navigation or water supply for the whole river1 creating incidentally a great water power in the ,desplaines valley4 ,following this report and that of a ,drainage and ,water ,supply ,commission1 a bill was introduced into ,congress supporting the recommendations that had been made1 and providing the financial machinery for carrying it into execution4 ,since that date much discussion has taken place1 and some little action2 meanwhile the sanitary requirements of the city are growing more urgent1 and the pressure created from this cause will enforce some decision before long4 ,whether the new waterway is to be practically an open sewer or a ship canal remains yet to be seen1 but it is tolerably certain that its dimensions and volume of water must approximate to the latter1 if the large populations of other towns are to be satisfied4 ,in fact the actual necessities are so great as regards sectional area of canal and flow of water--at least #fjj1jjj ft4 a minute--that comparatively small extra outlay would be needed to complete the ship canal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,the attention of engineers in ,chicago1 as well as of the ,united ,states government1 is consequently closely directed at the present time to such a solution of the problem as shall secure to ,chicago such a waterway as will dispose of the sewage question for very many years to come2 that shall relieve the inhabitants on the line of the canal from all nuisances arising from the sewage disposal1 and shall provide a navigable channel for vessels of deep draught4 ,the maps1 ,figs4 #a and #b1 give an idea of the most favored scheme--that of ,mr4 ,cooley4 ,as will be seen1 the canal commencing near the mouth of the ,chicago ,river passes through a cut in the low ridge forming the summit level2 then it runs to ,lake ,joliet1 and through the valleys of the ,desplaines and ,illinois ,rivers1 to the ,mississippi at ,grafton1 a distance of #cbe miles4 ,the elevations and distances of the principal points are as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,low ,water ,miles from ,level below ,high ,water ,lake ,chicago above ,low ,michigan4 ,datum4 ,water4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ft4 ft4 ,lake ,michigan #d4g ,lake ,joliet #dj #gg #e to #f ,kankakee ,river #ea4cj #ic4gj #ah to #bj ,morris #fa #ajj4c #ba ,marseilles #gg #ajb4h #d to #e ,ottawa #hd4e #acb4a #bf ,la ,salle #ajj4c #adf4f #bh ,hennepin #aae4h #adh4g #be ,peoria #afa4d #aea4c #ba ,mouth of the ,illinois #cbe #agb4d #bj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the project in contemplation provides that the depth of the canal as far as ,lake ,joliet 7which is about six miles long7 shall be not less than #bb ft41 and on to ,la ,salle not less than #ad ft4 at first1 with facilities to increase it to #bb ft4 ,beyond ,la ,salle to the mouth of the ,illinois1 dredging and flushing by the large volume of water pouring in from ,lake ,michigan would make and maintain ultimately a similar depth4 ,as it appears recognized that the sewage channel of ,chicago must be #ae ft4 deep1 and as provision is now being made all over the great lake system for vessels drawing #bj ft4 of water1 a comparatively small additional outlay would provide for a channel available for the largest lake vessels4 ,it is claimed that by the co-operation of the ,chicago municipality and the general government--the latter to advance a sum of not less than #ej1jjj1jjj--;a ship 7and sanitary7 canal #bb ft4 deep could be made from the lake to ,joliet1 extended thence to ,utica1 #bj ft4 deep1 and from there to the ,mississippi1 #ad ft4 deep4 ,that such a work would vastly enhance the commerce1 not only of ,chicago1 but of the whole section of the country through which the canal would pass1 admits of but little doubt1 and probably the outlay would be justified by results similar to those achieved with other great canal works and rectified rivers in the ,united ,states4 ,the following figures1 showing the tonnage carried in #ahhh-hi1 give some idea of the volumes of water-borne traffic in ,america3 ,tons4 ,detroit ,river #ai1jii1jfj ,erie ,canal #e1cgj1cfi ,sault ,ste4 ,marie #g1eaf1jbb ,welland ,canal #hbh1bga ,st4 ,lawrence ,canal #a1ejj1jif ,mississippi to ,new ,orleans #c1agg1jjj below ,st4 ,louis #hde1jjj ,ohio #b1bcf1iag ,chicago ,canal and lake #aa1jbi1ege ,except on the ,mississippi1 it may be reckoned that navigation is closed by ice during five months a year4 ,it may be mentioned1 by way of comparison1 that the traffic on the ,suez ,canal during the year #ahhh-hi was #f1fdj1hcd tons4 ,one very interesting point in connection with this work is the effect that the diversion of so large a body of water from the lakes will have upon their regime4 ,at least #aj1jjj cubic feet a second would be taken from ,lake ,michigan and find its way into the ,mississippi2 this is approximately #d per cent4 of the total amount that now passes through the ,st4 ,clair ,river and thence over ,niagara4 ,the following table gives some particulars of the great lakes and the discharge from them3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,cubic ,feet per ,second4 ,elevation ,area of ,area of--------------------- above ,basin1 ,lake1 ,lake4 ,mean ,tide4 ,square ,square ,rain- ,evapo- ,dis- ,feet4 ,miles4 ,miles4 fall4 ration4charge4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,superior #fja4gh #ij1eje #ch1hge #ahg1chf #cd1die #hj1hgj ,huron and ,mich4 #eha4bh #aba1ida #ej1djj #bfb1ifd #ff1gedbaf1dce ,erie #egb4hf #dj1bih #aj1jjj #if1fed #ac1hgjbce1egh ,ontario #bdf4fa #ca1eeh #g1bbj #ge1fib #aj1efhbgb1jie ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,the average variation in level of the lakes is from #ah in4 to #bd in4 during the year1 and the range in evaporation from year to year is also very considerable2 thus the evaporation per second on ,huron and ,michigan1 as given in the table above1 is nearly #fg1jjj ft41 but the figures for another year show nearly #hi1jjj ft4 per second1 which would represent a difference of #f in4 in water level4 ,as a discharge of #aj1jjj cubic feet a second into the new canal would lower the level of these two lakes by #b4hg in4 in a year1 it follows that the difference between a year of maximum and one of minimum evaporation is more than twice as great as would be required for the canal1 and even under the most unfavorable conditions the volume taken from the whole chain of lakes would not lower them an inch4 ,when the variations in level due to different causes--rain1 wind1 and evaporation being the chief--are taken into consideration1 the effect of #aj1jjj cubic feet a second abstracted would probably not be noticeable4 ,that this would be so is the opinion1 after careful investigation1 of many eminent ,american engineers4 ,on the other hand there is a similar unanimity of opinion as to the advantages that would be obtained in the condition of the ,mississippi by adding to it a tributary of such importance as the proposed canal4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,n4,f4 ,,burnham ,,and ,,his ,,life ,,work4 ,by ,w4,h4 ,,burnham4 ,the inventor and patentee of all water wheels known as the ,burham turbine died from ,bright's disease of the kidneys at his home1 ,york1 ,pa41 ,dec4 #bb1 #ahij1 aged #fh years #i months and #i days4 ,he was born in the city of ,new ,york1 ,march #ac1 #ahbb1 and was of ,english-,irish and ,french descent4 ,his father was a millwright and with him worked at the trade in ,orange county1 ,n4,y41 until he was #af years old4 ,he then commenced learning the watchmakers' business1 which he was obliged to relinquish1 after three years1 on account of his health4 ,he then went to ,laurel1 ,md41 in #ahdd1 and engaged with ,patuxent ,co4 as mercantile clerk and bookkeeper4 ,in #ahef he commenced the manufacture of the ,french turbine water wheel4 ,in #ahgi he sold out his ,laurel interests1 went to ,new ,york and commenced manufacturing his own patents4 ,on ,may #bb1 #ahhc1 he founded the ,drovers' and ,mechanics' ,national ,bank of ,york1 and was elected its first president1 which position he held at the time of his death4 ,in #ahha1 with others1 he built the ,york opera house1 at a cost of #dj1jjj4 ,he was a ,knight ,templar1 and past master of the ,i4,o4,o4,f41 and past sachem of ,red ,men4 ,illustration3 ,n4,f4 ,,burnham4 ,he was the oldest turbine wheel manufacturer living1 having been actually engaged in the manufacture of turbines since #ahef4 ,he first made and sold the ,french ,jonval turbine1 which was then the best turbine made1 but being complicated in construction1 it soon wore out and leaked4 ,from the experience he had from this wheel he invented and patented ,feb4 #bb1 #ahei1 his improved ,jonval turbine1 which was very simply constructed and yielded a greater percentage of power than the ,french ,jonval turbines4 ,hundreds of these improved wheels1 which were put in operation between the years #ahei and #ahfh1 are still in use4 7,we show no cut of this wheel1 but it had four chutes instead of six1 as shown in ,march #bd1 #ahfc1 patent47 ,the first wheel 7#gb inch7 made after the patent was granted was sold to ,brightwell ,davis1 ,farmville1 ,va41 and put into their flour mill under six feet head4 ,in #ahgj1 ,brightwell ,davis sold their mill to ,scott ,davis4 ,afterward ,g4,w4 ,davis owned and operated the mill and put in one #aheh patent ,new ,turbine4 ,in #ahhi the ,farmville ,mill ,company bought and remodeled the mill to roller process and required more power than the old #ahef ,jonval turbine and #ahfh ,new ,turbine would yield1 and on ,aug4 #cj1 #ahhi1 sold the ,farmville ,mill ,company two #ed inch new improved ,standard turbines to displace the two old wheels4 ,in #ahfj he commenced experimenting with different forms of buckets and chutes1 and used six chutes instead of four as first made1 and was granted patent ,march #bd1 #ahfc4 ,this addition of chutes proved beneficial1 as the wheel worked better with the gates partly opened than it did with four chutes4 ,his next invention was granted him ,dec4 #bd1 #ahfg1 which he called ,burnham's improved central and vertical discharge turbine4 ,this improvement consisted in making the guide blade straight on the outside 7instead of rounding1 as then made by all others71 from inner point back to bolt or gudgeon1 and thick enough at the latter point to let water pass without being obstructed by said bolt and the arrangement for shifting the water guides4 ,two #db-;inch wheels of this pattern were built and put into operation1 but they soon commenced leaking water and became troublesome on account of the many small pieces of castings and bolts1 and were abandoned as worthless4 ,there are several manufacturers of this style of wheel that advertise them as simple and durable4 ,such a complicated case with twelve chutes cannot be made to operate unless by a large number of castings1 bolts and studs4 ,with these adjustable water guides1 one of the objects was obtained4 ,admitting the water to the wheel through chutes corresponding in height to the outer edge of buckets exposed1 but not placing the water against the face of the buckets at right angles with the center of the wheel1 except when the guide blades were full opened1 for as the guides are changed so is the current of the water likewise changed4 ,after making several differently constructed wheels and testing them a number of times1 he selected the best one and obtained a patent for it ,march #c1 #ahfh1 and called it new turbine1 which he still further improved and patented ,may #i1 #ahga4 ,this new turbine consisted of the former improved ,jonval wheel1 hub and buckets1 with a new circular case and new form of chutes1 having a register gate entirely surrounding the case and having apertures corresponding to those in the case for admitting water to the wheel4 ,this register gate was moved by means of a segment and pinion4 ,this new turbine soon gained for itself a reputation enjoyed by no other water wheel4 ,it was selected by the ,united ,states ,patent ,office1 and put at work in room #ahi1 to run a pump which forces water to the top of the building4 ,it was likewise selected by the ,japan commission when they were in this country to select samples of our best machines4 ,he continued making the #ahfh patent and improved in #ahga new turbine but a few years1 for as long as he could detect a defect in the wheel1 case or gate1 he continued improving and simplifying them1 and in #ahgc he erected a very complete testing flume1 also made a very sensitive dynamometer1 it having a combination screw for tightening the friction band1 which required #ajj turns to make one inch1 and commenced making and experimenting with different constructed turbines4 ,he made five different wheels and made over a hundred tests before he was satisfied4 ,application was then made for a patent1 which was granted ,march #ca1 #ahgd1 for his ,standard turbine4 ,this ,standard turbine was a combination of his former improvements1 with the cover extending over top of the gate to prevent it from tilting1 and an eccentric wheel working in cam yoke to open and close the gate4 ,thousands of ,standard turbines are to-day working and giving the best satisfaction1 and we venture to say that not one of the ,standard turbines has been displaced by any other make of turbine1 which gave better results for the water used4 ,in #ahha he again commenced experimenting to find out how much water could be put through a wheel of given diameter4 ,after making and testing several wheels it was found that the amount of water with full gate drawn named in tables found in ,burnham ,bros4' latest catalogue for each size wheel yielded #hd per cent4 and that the water used with #g_/h gate drawn yielded the same percentage 7#hd71 or with #c_/d gate #hb per cent41 #e_/h gate #gi1 and #a_/b gate #ge per cent4 ,a patent for the mechanism was applied for and granted ,march #bg1 #ahhc1 and named ,burnham's ,improved ,standard ,turbine4 ,it was found that the brackets with brass rollers attached1 to prevent the gate from rising and tilting and rubbing the curb1 soon wore and allowed the gate to rub against the curb1 and he experimented with several devices of gate arms4 ,while so engaged he found that the great weight of water on the top of the cover sprang it1 causing the sleeve bearing on the under side of the cover to be thrown out of place1 and the gate pressed so hard against the case that it was almost impossible to move it1 and after thoroughly testing with the different devices of gate arms1 application was made and patent granted for adjustable gate arms1 also for the new worm gate gearing ,may #a1 #ahhh1 and named ,burham's new improved standard turbine4 ,this he improved and patented ,may #ac1 #ahij1 to run on horizontal shaft4 ,in the year #ahgb he had two patents granted him for improvement in water wheels1 but never had any wheels built of that pattern4 ,after completing and patents granted for his new improved ,standard turbine1 he was perfectly satisfied1 and often remarked1 ,i cannot improve on my register gate turbine any more1 as it is as near perfection as can be made1 and he was fully convinced1 for the past year he was experimenting with a cylinder gate turbine1 and patent was granted ,oct4 #ba1 #ahij4 ,previously he had made a #bd-;inch wheel1 which was tested ,aug4 #ad1 #ahij1 at ,holyoke testing flume1 and gave fair results1 and at the time of his demise he was having made a new runner for the cylinder gate turbine1 which we will complete and have tested4 ,his idea was to have us manufacture and sell register and cylinder gate turbines4 ,his inventive powers were not confined to water wheels1 for on ,feb4 #bc1 #ahhf1 patents were granted him for automatic steam engine1 governor and lubricating device4 ,we also remember in the year #ahgc or #ahgd1 when his mind was occupied with his ,standard turbine1 he was hindered by some device used now on locomotives of the present construction 7what it was we are unable to say71 but when draughting at his water wheel1 would conflict the two1 and by his invitation we wrote to a prominent locomotive builder and had him examine the drawings1 which he had not fully completed1 and sold same to him4 ,of this we only have a faint recollection1 but do recollect his saying3 ,well1 that is off my mind now1 and ,i can devote it to the finishing of my new wheel4--,american ,miller4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,alternate ,,current ,,condensers4 ,at a recent meeting of the ,physical ,society1 ,london1 ,mr4 ,james ,swinburne read a paper on alternate current condensers4 ,it is1 he said1 generally assumed that there is no difficulty in making commercial condensers for high pressure alternating currents4 ,the first difficulty is insulation1 for the dielectric must be very thin1 else the volume of the condenser is too great4 ,some dielectrics #j4b mm4 thick can be made to stand up to #h1jjj volts when in small pieces1 but in complete condensers a much greater margin must be allowed4 ,another difficulty arises from absorption1 and whenever this occurs1 the apparent capacity is greater than the calculated4 ,supposing the fibers of paper in a paper condenser to be conductors embedded in insulating hydrocarbon1 then every time the condenser is charged the fibers have their ends at different potentials1 so a current passes to equalize them and energy is lost4 ,this current increases the capacity4 ,one condenser made of paper boiled in ozokerite took an abnormally large current and heated rapidly4 ,at a high temperature it gave off water1 and the power wasted and current taken gradually decreased4 ,when a thin plate of mica is put between tin foils1 it heats excessively2 and the fall of potential over the air films separating the mica and foil is great enough to cause disruptive discharge to the surface of the mica4 ,there appears to be a luminous layer of minute sparks under the foils1 and there is a strong smell of ozone4 ,in a dielectric which heats1 there may be three kinds of conduction1 viz41 metallic1 when an ordinary conductor is embedded in an insulator2 disruptive1 as probably occurs in the case of mica2 and electrolytic1 which might occur in glass4 ,in a transparent dielectric the conduction must be either electrolytic or disruptive1 otherwise light vibrations would be damped4 ,the dielectric loss in a cable may be serious4 ,calculating from the waste in a condenser made of paper soaked in hot ozokerite1 the loss in one of the ,deptford mains came out #g1jjj watts4 ,another effect observed at ,deptford is a rise of pressure in the mains4 ,there is as yet no authoritative statement as to exactly what happens1 and it is generally assumed that the effect depends on the relation of capacity to self-induction1 and is a sort of resonator action4 ,this would need a large self-induction1 and a small change of speed would stop the effect4 ,the following explanation is suggested4 ,when a condenser is put on a dynamo1 the condenser current leads relatively to the electromotive force1 and therefore strengthens the field magnets and increases the pressure4 ,illustration3 ,t#a and ,t#b are large transformers2 t#a and t#b are small transformers or voltmeters ,v#a and ,v#b4 ,the numbers #a1 #d1 #a1 #be1 represent their conversion ratios4 ,in order to test this1 the following experiment was made for the author by ,mr4 ,w4,f4 ,bourne4 ,a ,gramme alternator was coupled to the low pressure coil of a transformer1 and a hot wire voltmeter put across the primary circuit4 ,on putting a condenser on the high pressure circuit1 the voltmeter wire fused4 ,the possibility of making an alternator excite itself like a series machine1 by putting a condenser on it1 was pointed out4 ,prof4 ,perry said it would seem possible to obtain energy from an alternator without exciting the magnets independently1 the field being altogether due to the armature currents4 ,mr4 ,swinburne remarked that this could be done by making the rotating magnets a star-shaped mass of iron4 ,sir ,w4 ,thomson thought ,mr4 ,swinburne's estimate of the loss in the ,deptford mains was rather high4 ,he himself had calculated the power spent in charging them1 and found it to be about #af horse power1 and although a considerable fraction might be lost1 it would not amount to nine-sixteenths4 ,he was surprised to hear that glass condensers heated1 and inquired whether this heating was due to flashes passing between the foil and the glass4 ,mr4 ,a4,p4 ,trotter said ,mr4 ,ferranti informed him that the capacity of his mains was about #a_/c microfarad per mile1 thus making #b-a_/c microfarads for the seven miles4 ,the heaping up of the potential only took place when transformers were used1 and not when the dynamos were connected direct4 ,in the former case the increase of volts was proportional to the length of main used1 and #h1ejj at ,deptford gave #aj1jjj at ,london4 ,mr4 ,blakesley described a simple method of determining the loss of power in a condenser by the use of three electrodynamometers1 one of which has its coils separate4 ,of these coils1 one is put in the condenser circuit1 and the other in series with a non-inductive resistance r1 shutting the condenser4 ,if a#b be the reading of a dynamometer in the shunt circuit1 and a#c that of the divided dynamometer1 the power lost is given by r 7,ca#c - ,ba#b7 where ,b and ,c are the constants of the instruments on which a#b and a#c are the respective readings4 ,prof4 ,s4,p4 ,thompson asked if ,mr4 ,swinburne had found any dielectric which had no absorption4 ,so far as he was aware1 pure quartz crystal was the only substance4 ,prof4 ,forbes said ,dr4 ,hopkinson had found a glass which showed none4 ,sir ,william ,thomson1 referring to the same subject1 said that many years ago he made some tests on glass bottles1 which showed no appreciable absorption4 ,sulphuric acid was used for the coatings1 and he found them to be completely discharged by an instantaneous contact of two balls4 ,the duration of contact would1 according to some remarkable mathematical work done by ,hertz in #ahhb1 be about #j4jjjd second1 and even this short time sufficed to discharge them completely4 ,on the other hand1 ,leyden jars with tinfoil coatings showed considerable absorption1 and this he thought due to want of close contact between the foil and the glass4 ,to test this he suggested that mercury coatings be tried4 ,mr4 ,kapp considered the loss of power in condensers due to two causes3 first1 that due to the charge soaking in2 and second1 to imperfect elasticity of the dielectric4 ,speaking of the extraordinary rise of pressure on the ,deptford mains1 he said he had observed similar effects with other cables4 ,in his experiments the sparking distance of a #ad1jjj volt transformer was increased from #c_/af of an inch to #a inch by connecting the cables to its terminals4 ,no difference was detected between the sparking distances at the two ends of the cable1 nor was any rise of pressure observed when the cables were joined direct on the dynamo4 ,in his opinion the rise was due to some kind of resonance1 and would be a maximum for some particular frequency4 ,mr4 ,mordey mentioned a peculiar phenomenon observed in the manufacture of his alternators4 ,each coil1 he said1 was tested to double the pressure of the completed dynamo1 but when they were all fitted together1 their insulation broke down at the same volts4 ,the difficulty had been overcome by making the separate coils to stand much higher pressures4 ,prof4 ,rucker called attention to the fact that dielectrics alter in volume under electric stress1 and said that if the material was imperfectly elastic1 some loss would result4 ,the president said that1 as some doubt existed as to what ,mr4 ,ferranti had actually observed1 he would illustrate the arrangements by a diagram4 ,speaking of condensers1 he said he had recently tried lead plates in water to get large capacities1 but so far had not been successful4 ,mr4 ,swinburne1 in replying1 said he had not made a perfect condenser yet1 for1 although he had some which did not heat much1 they made a great noise4 ,he did not see how the rise of pressure observed by ,mr4 ,ferranti and ,mr4 ,kapp could be due to resonance4 ,mr4 ,kapp's experiment was not conclusive1 for the length of spark is not an accurate measure of electromotive force4 ,as regards ,mr4 ,mordey's observation1 he thought the action explicable on the theory of the leading condenser current acting on the field magnets4 ,the same explanation is also applicable to the ,deptford case1 for when the dynamo is direct on1 the condenser current is about #aj amperes1 and this exerts only a small influence on the strongly magnetized magnets4 ,when transformers are used1 the field magnets are weak1 while the condenser current rises to #dj amperes4 ,mr4 ,blakesley's method of determining losses was1 he said1 inapplicable except where the currents were sine functions of the time2 and consequently could not be used to determine loss due to hysteresis in iron1 or in a transparent dielectric4--,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,telegraphic ,,communication ,,between ,,great ,,britain1 ,,europe1 ,,america1 ,,and ,,the ,,east4 ,by ,,george ,,walter ,,niven4 ,there are at present twenty-six submarine cable companies1 the combined capital of which is about forty million pounds sterling4 ,their revenue1 including subsidies1 amounts to #c1bjd1jfj42 and their reserves and sinking funds to #c1faj1jjj42 and their dividends are from one to #ad per cent4 ,the receipts from the ,atlantic cables alone amount to about #hjj1jjj4 annually4 ,the number of cables laid down throughout the world is #a1jde1 of which #gih belong to governments and #bdg to private companies4 ,the total length of those cables is #abj1jgj nautical miles1 of which #ajg1edf are owned by private telegraph companies1 nearly all ,british2 the remainder1 or #ab1ebd miles1 are owned by governments4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,cables ,,from ,,great ,,britain ,,to ,,america ,,and ,,the ,,continent4 ,the largest telegraphic organization in the world is that of the ,eastern ,telegraphic ,company1 with seventy cables1 of a total length of #ba1hei nautical miles4 ,the second largest is the ,eastern ,extension1 ,australasia and ,china ,telegraph ,company1 with twenty-two cables1 of a total length of #ab1ieh nautical miles4 ,the ,eastern ,company work all the cables on the way to ,bombay1 and the ,eastern ,extension ,company from ,madras eastward4 ,the cables landing in ,japan1 however1 are owned by a ,danish company1 the ,great ,northern4 ,the ,english station of the ,eastern ,company is at ,porthcurno1 ,cornwall1 and through it pass most of the messages for ,spain1 ,portugal1 ,egypt1 ,india1 ,china1 ,japan1 and ,australia4 ,the third largest cable company is the ,anglo-,american ,telegraph ,company1 with thirteen cables1 of a total length of #aj1aif miles4 ,the ,british government has one hundred and three cables around our shores1 of a total length of #a1dhi miles4 ,if we include ,india and the colonies1 the ,british empire owns altogether two hundred and sixteen cables of a total length of #c1haa miles4 ,the longest government cable in ,british waters is that from ,sinclair ,bay1 ,wick1 to ,sandwick ,bay1 ,shetland1 of the length of #abb miles1 and laid in #ahhe4 ,the shortest being four cables across the ,gloucester and ,sharpness ,canal1 at the latter place1 and each less than #cjj ft4 in length4 ,of government cables the greatest number is owned by ,norway1 with two hundred and thirty-six1 averaging1 however1 less than a mile each in length4 ,the greatest mileage is owned by the government of ,france with #c1bfi miles1 of the total length of fifty-one cables4 ,the next being ,british ,india with #a1gad miles1 and eighty-nine cables2 and ,germany third with #a1egj miles and forty-three cables4 ,britain being fourth with ninety miles less4 ,the oldest cable still in use is the one that was first laid1 that namely from ,dover to ,calais4 ,it dates from #ahea4 ,the two next oldest cables in use being those respectively from ,ramsgate to ,ostend1 and ,st4 ,petersburg to ,cronstadt1 and both laid down in #ahec4 ,several unsuccessful attempts were made to connect ,england and ,ireland by means of a cable between ,holyhead and ,howth2 but communication between the two countries was finally effected in #ahec1 when a cable was successfully laid between ,portpatrick and ,donaghadee 7#ca74 ,as showing one of the dangers to which cables laid in comparatively shallow waters are exposed1 we may relate the curious accident that befell the ,portpatrick cable in #ahgc4 ,during a severe storm in that year the ,port ,glasgow ship ,marseilles capsized in the vicinity of ,portpatrick1 the anchor fell out and caught on to the telegraph cable1 which1 however1 gave way4 ,the ship was afterward captured and towed into ,rothesay ,bay1 in an inverted position1 by a ,greenock tug1 when part of the cable was found entangled about the anchor4 ,the smallest private companies are the ,indo-,european ,telegraph ,company1 with two cables in the ,crimea1 of a total length of fourteen and a half miles2 and the ,river ,plate ,telegraph ,company1 with one cable from ,montevideo to ,buenos ,ayres1 thirty-two miles long4 ,the smallest government telegraph organization is that of ,new ,caledonia1 with its one solitary cable one mile long4 ,we will now proceed to give a few particulars regarding the companies having cables from ,europe to ,america4 ,the most important company is the ,anglo-,american ,telegraph ,company1 whose history is inseparably connected with that of the trials and struggles of the pioneers of cable laying4 ,its history begins in #ahea when ,tebets1 an ,american1 and ,gisborne1 an ,english engineer1 formed the ,electric ,telegraph ,company of ,newfoundland1 and laid down twelve miles of cable between ,cape ,breton and ,nova ,scotia4 ,this company was shortly afterward dissolved1 and its property transferred to the ,telegraphic ,company of ,new ,york1 ,newfoundland and ,london1 founded by ,cyrus ,w4 ,field1 and who in #ahed obtained an extension of the monopoly from the government to lay cables4 ,a cable1 eighty-five miles long1 was laid between ,cape ,breton and ,newfoundland 7#bb74 ,field then came to ,england and floated an ,english company1 which amalgamated with the ,american one under the title of the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company4 ,the story of the laying of the ,atlantic cables of #aheg and #ahfe1 their success and failures1 has often been told1 so we need not go into any details4 ,it may be noted1 however1 that communication was first established between ,valentia and ,newfoundland on ,august #e4 #aheh1 but the cable ceased to transmit signals on ,september #a1 following4 ,during that period1 ninety-seven messages had been sent from ,valentia1 and two hundred and sixty-nine from ,newfoundland4 ,at the present time1 the ten ,atlantic cables now convey about ten thousand messages daily between the two continents4 ,the losses attending the laying of the #ahfe cable resulted in the financial ruin of the ,atlantic company and its amalgamation with the ,anglo-,american4 ,in #ahff the ,great ,eastern successfully laid the first cable for the new company1 and with the assistance of other vessels succeeded in picking up the broken end of the #ahfe cable and completing its connection with ,newfoundland4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,main ,,cables ,,from ,,europe ,,and ,,their ,,connections ,,with ,,canada ,,and ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,reference to places--,a1 ,heart's ,content2 ,b1 ,placentia2 ,c1 ,st4 ,peter ,miquelon2 ,d1 ,north ,sydney1 ,cape ,breton ,island2 ,e1 ,louisbourg2 ,f ,canso1 ,nova ,scotia2 ,g1 ,halifax2 ,h1 ,bird ,rock2 ,i1 ,madeline ,isles2 ,j1 ,anticosti2 ,k1 ,charlotte ,town1 ,prince ,edward's ,island2 ,,lll1 ,banks of ,newfoundland4 ,the three cables of this company presently in use and connecting ,valentia in ,ireland with ,heart's ,content in ,newfoundland1 were laid in #ahgc1 #ahgd1 and #ahhj2 and 7#a7 are respectively #ahhf1 #ahdf1 and #ahij nautical miles in length4 ,this company also owns the longest cable in the world1 that namely from ,brest in ,france to ,st4 ,pierre ,miquelon1 one of a small group of islands off the south coast of ,newfoundland and which1 strange to say1 still belongs to ,france 7#f74 ,the length of this cable is #b1fhe nautical miles1 or #c1jib statute miles4 ,it was laid in #ahfi4 ,there are seven cables of a total length of #aggc miles1 connecting ,heart's ,content1 ,placentia ,bay and ,st4 ,pierre1 with ,north ,sydney1 ,nova ,scotia1 and ,duxbury1 near ,boston1 belonging to the ,american company4 ,communication is maintained with ,germany and the rest of the ,continent by means of a cable from ,valentia to ,emden #hdf miles long 7#g72 and a cable from ,brest to ,salcombe1 ,devon1 connects the ,st4 ,pierre and ,brest cable with the ,london office of the company 7#aj74a ,footnote #a3 ,cables not fully described in the text1 ,map ,b4 ,eight cables at the ,anglo-,american ,company3 #g1 ,heart's ,content to ,placentia1 two cables2 #h1 ,placentia to ,st4 ,pierre2 #i1 ,st4 ,pierre to ,north ,sydney2 #aj1 ,placentia to ,north ,sydney1 two cables2 #aa1 ,st4 ,pierre to ,duxbury2 #ah1 ,charlotte's ,town to ,nova ,scotia2 #ai1 ,government ,cable1 ,north ,sydney to ,bird ,rock1 ,madeline ,isles1 and ,anticosti2 #ba1 ,halifax and ,bermuda ,cable ,company's proposed cable to ,bermuda4 ,the station of the ,direct ,united ,states ,cable ,company is situated at ,ballinskelligs ,bay1 ,ireland 7#b74 ,its cable was laid in #ahgd-e1 and is #b1efe miles in length4 ,the terminal point on the other side of the ,atlantic is at ,halifax1 ,nova ,scotia1 from whence the cable is continued to ,rye ,beach1 ,new ,hampshire1 a distance of #ecf miles1 and thence by a land line of #ejj miles to ,new ,york 7#ag74 ,the ,commercial ,cable ,company's station in ,ireland is at ,waterville1 a short distance from ,ballinskelligs 7#c74 ,it owns two cables laid in #ahhe2 the northern cable being #b1cej1 and the southern #b1chh miles long4 ,they terminate in ,america at ,canso1 ,nova ,scotia4 ,from ,canso a cable is laid to ,rockfort1 about thirty miles south of ,boston1 ,mass41 a distance of #eah miles 7#af71 and another is laid to ,new ,york1 #hdj miles in length 7#ae74 ,this company has direct communication with the ,continent by means of a cable from ,waterville to ,havre of #eaj miles 7#i71 and with ,england by a cable to ,weston-super-,mare1 near ,bristol1 of #cbh miles 7#h74 ,the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company 7the lessees of the lines of the ,american ,telegraph and ,cable ,company7 has two cables from ,sennen ,cove1 ,land's ,end1 to ,canso1 ,nova ,scotia 7#d74 ,the cable of #ahha is #b1eca and that of #ahhb is #b1egf miles in length4 ,two cables were laid ,november1 #ahhi1 between ,canso and ,new ,york 7#ad74 ,the ,compagnie ,franaise du ,telegraphe de ,paris ,new ,york has a cable from ,brest to ,st4 ,pierre ,miquelon of #b1bdb miles in length 7#e71 from thence a cable is laid to ,louisbourg1 ,cape ,breton 7#ab71 and another to ,cape ,cod 7#ac74 ,it has also a cable from ,brest to ,porcella ,cove1 ,cornwall 7#aa74 ,those ten cables owned by the six companies named1 of the total milage of #bb1iei1 not counting connections1 represent the entire direct communication between the continents of ,europe and ,north ,america4 ,a new company1 not included in the preceding statistics1 proposes to lay a cable from ,westport1 ,ireland1 to some point in the ,straits of ,belle ,isle on the ,labrador coast 7,map ,a#cb1 ,map ,b#bj74 ,the station of the ,eastern ,telegraph ,company is at ,porthcurno ,cove1 ,penzance1 from whence it has two cables to ,lisbon1 one laid in #ahhj1 #hej miles long1 the other laid in #ahhg1 #hib miles long 7#ab71 and one cable to ,vigo1 ,spain1 laid in #ahgc1 #fbb miles long 7#ac74 ,from ,lisbon the cable is continued to ,gibraltar and the ,east1 whither we need not follow it1 our intention being to confine ourselves entirely to a brief account of those cables communicating directly with ,europe and ,america4 ,as already stated1 this company has altogether seventy cables1 of a total length of nearly #bb1jjj miles4 ,the ,direct ,spanish ,telegraph ,company has a cable1 laid in #ahhd1 from ,kennach ,cove1 ,cornwall1 to ,bilbao1 ,spain1 #dhf miles in length 7#ad74 ,coming now to shorter cables connecting ,britain with the ,continent1 we have those of the ,great ,northern ,telegraph ,company1 namely1 ,peterhead to ,ekersund1 ,norway1 #bfg miles 7#ae74 ,newbiggin1 near ,newcastle1 to ,arendal1 ,norway1 #dbd miles1 and thence to ,marstrand1 ,sweden1 #ih miles4 ,two cables from the same place in ,england to ,denmark 7,hirstals and ,sondervig7 of #dbj and #ccg miles respectively 7#ag and #ah74 ,the great ,northern ,company has altogether twenty-two cables1 of a total length of #f1aaj miles4 ,the line from ,newcastle1 is worked direct to ,nylstud1 in ,russia--a distance of #hij miles--by means of a relay or repeater1 at ,gothenburg4 ,the relay is the apparatus at which the ,newcastle current terminates1 but in ending there it itself starts a fresh current on to ,russia4 ,the other continental connections belong to the government1 and are as follows3 two cables to ,germany1 ,lowestoft to ,norderney1 #bcb miles1 and to ,emden1 #bbf miles 7#ai and #bj74 ,two cables to ,holland3 ,lowestoft to ,zandvoort1 laid in #aheh 7#ba71 and from ,benacre1 ,kessingland1 to ,zandvoort 7#bb74 ,two cables to ,belgium3 ,ramsgate to ,ostend 7#bc71 and ,dover to ,furness 7#bd74 ,four cables to ,france3 ,dover to ,calais1 laid in #ahea 7#be71 and to ,boulogne 7#bf71 laid in #ahei2 ,beachy ,head to ,dieppe 7#bg71 and to ,havre 7#bh74 ,there is a cable from the ,dorset coast to ,alderney and ,guernsey1 and from the ,devon coast to ,guernsey1 ,jersey1 and ,coutances1 ,france 7#bi and #cj74 ,a word now as to the instruments used for the transmission of messages4 ,those for cables are of two kinds1 the mirror galvanometer and the siphon recorder1 both the product of ,sir ,wm4 ,thomson's great inventive genius4 ,when the ,calais-,dover and other short cables were first worked1 it was found that the ordinary needle instrument in use on land lines was not sufficiently sensitive to be affected trustworthily by the ordinary current it was possible to send through a cable4 ,either the current must be increased in strength or the instruments used must be more sensitive4 ,the latter alternative was chosen1 and the mirror galvanometer was the result4 ,the principle on which this instrument works may be briefly described thus3 the transmitted current of electricity causes the deflection of a small magnet1 to which is attached a mirror about three-eighths of an inch in diameter1 a beam of light is reflected from a properly arranged lamp1 by the mirror1 on to a paper scale4 ,the dots and dashes of the ,morse code are indicated by the motions of the spot of light to the right and left respectively of the center of the scale4 ,the mirror galvanometer is now almost entirely superseded by the siphon recorder4 ,this is a somewhat complicated apparatus1 with the details of which we need not trouble our readers4 ,suffice it for us to explain that a suspended coil is made to communicate its motions1 by means of fine silk fibers1 to a very fine glass siphon1 one end of which dips into an insulated metallic vessel containing ink1 while the other extremity rests1 when no current is passing1 just over the center of a paper ribbon4 ,when the instrument is in use the ink is driven out of the siphon in small drops by means of an electrical arrangement1 and the ribbon underneath is at the same time caused to pass underneath its point by means of clockwork4 ,if a current be now sent through the line1 the siphon will move above or below the central line1 thus giving a permanent record of the message1 which the mirror instrument does not4 ,the waves written by the siphon above the central line corresponding to the dots of the ,morse code1 and the waves underneath corresponding to the dashes4 ,the cost of the transmission of a cablegram varies from one shilling per word1 the rate to ,new ,york and east of the ,mississippi1 to ten shillings and seven pence per word1 the rate to ,new ,zealand4 ,in order to minimize that cost as much as possible1 the use of codes1 whereby one word is made to do duty for a lengthy phrase1 is much resorted to4 ,of course those code messages form a series of words having no apparent relation to each other1 but occasionally queer sentences result from the chance grouping of the code words4 ,thus a certain tea firm was once astonished to receive from its agent abroad the startling code message--,unboiled babies detested6 ,suppose we now follow the adventures of a few cablegrams in their travels over the world4 ,a message to ,india from ,london by the cable route requires to be transmitted eight times at the following places3 ,porthcurno 7,cornwall71 ,lisbon1 ,gibraltar1 ,malta1 ,alexandria1 ,suez1 ,aden1 ,bombay4 ,a message to ,australia has thirteen stoppages2 the route taken beyond ,bombay being via ,madras1 ,penang1 ,singapore1 ,banjoewangie and ,port ,darwin 7,north ,australia72 or from ,banjoewangie to ,roebuck ,bay 7,western ,australia74 ,to ,india by the ,indo-,european land lines1 messages go through ,emden1 ,warsaw1 ,odessa1 ,kertch1 ,tiflis1 ,teheran1 ,bushire 7,persian ,gulf71 ,jask and ,kurrachee1 but only stop twice between ,london and ,teheran--namely1 at ,emden and ,odessa4 ,messages from ,london to ,new ,york are transmitted only twice--at the ,irish or ,cornwall stations1 and at the stations in ,canada4 ,owing to the great competition for the ,american traffic1 the service between ,london1 ,liverpool1 and ,glasgow and ,new ,york is said to be much superior to that between any two towns in ,britain4 ,the cables are extensively used by stock brokers1 and it is a common occurrence for one to send a message and receive a reply within five minutes4 ,during breakages in cables messages have sometimes to take very circuitous routes4 ,for instance1 during the two days1 three years ago1 that a tremendous storm committed such havoc among the telegraph wires around ,london1 cutting off all communication with the lines connected with the ,channel cables at ,dover1 ,lowestoft1 etc41 it was of common occurrence for ,london merchants to communicate with ,paris through ,new ,york4 ,the cablegram leaving ,london going north to ,holyhead and ,ireland1 across the ,atlantic to ,new ,york and back via ,st4 ,pierre to ,brest and thence on to ,paris1 a total distance of about seven thousand miles4 ,three years ago1 when the great blizzard cut off all communication between ,new ,york and ,boston1 messages were accepted in ,new ,york1 sent to this country1 and thence back to ,boston4 ,some time ago the cables between ,madeira and ,st4 ,vincent were out of order1 cutting off communication by the direct route to ,brazil1 and a message to reach ,rio ,janeiro had to pass through ,ireland1 ,canada1 ,united ,states1 to ,galveston1 thence to ,vera ,cruz1 ,guatemala1 ,nicaragua1 ,panama1 ,ecuador1 ,peru1 ,chili2 from ,valparaiso across the ,andes1 through the ,argentine ,republic to ,buenos ,ayres1 and thence by ,east ,coast cables to ,rio ,janeiro1 the message having traversed a distance of about twelve thousand miles and having passed through twenty-four cables and some very long land lines1 instead of passing1 had it been possible to have sent it by the direct route1 over one short land line and six cables1 in all under six thousand miles4 ,perhaps some of our readers may remember having read in the newspapers of the result of last year's ,derby having been sent from ,epsom to ,new ,york in fifteen seconds1 and may be interested to know how it was done4 ,a wire was laid from near the winning post on the race course to the cable company's office in ,london1 and an operator was at the instrument ready to signal the two or three letters previously arranged upon for each horse immediately the winner had passed the post4 ,when the race began1 the cable company suspended work on all the lines from ,london to ,new ,york and kept operators at the ,irish and ,nova ,scotian stations ready to transmit the letters representing the winning horse immediately1 and without having the message written out in the usual way4 ,when the race was finished1 the operator at ,epsom at once sent the letters representing the winner1 and before he had finished the third letter1 the operator in ,london had started the first one to ,ireland4 ,the clerk in ,ireland immediately on bearing the first signal from ,london passed it on to ,nova ,scotia1 from whence it was again passed on to ,new ,york4 ,the result being that the name of the winner was actually known in ,new ,york before the horses had pulled up after passing the judge4 ,it seems almost incredible that such information could be transmitted such a great distance in fifteen seconds1 but when we get behind the scenes and see exactly how it is accomplished1 and see how the labor and time of signaling can be economized1 we can easily realize the fact4 ,the humors of telegraphic mistakes have often been described2 we will conclude by giving only one example4 ,a ,st4 ,louis merchant had gone to ,new ,york on business1 and while there received a telegram from the family doctor1 which ran3 ,your wife has had a child1 if we can keep her from having another to-night1 all will be well4 ,as the little stranger had not been expected1 further inquiry was made and elicited the fact that his wife had simply had a chill6 ,this important difference having been caused simply by the omission of a single dot4 -4-4 4444 44 4-44 4-44 c h i l l chill -4-4 4444 44 4-44 -44 c h i l d child --,hardwicke's ,science-,gossip4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electricity ,,in ,,transitu--,,from ,,plenum ,,to ,,vacuum4#a ,footnote #a3 ,presidential address before the ,institute of ,electrical ,engineers1 ,london2 continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #gib1 page #abfef4 ,by ,prof4 ,,william ,,crookes1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,if an idle pole1 ,c1 ,c1 ,fig4 #ab 7,p#j4jjja millimeter or #j4ac ,m71 protected all but the point by a thick coating of glass1 is brought into the center of the molecular stream in front of the negative pole1 ,a1 and the whole of the inside and outside of the tube walls are coated with metal1 ,d1 ,d1 and earthed so as to carry away the positive electricity as rapidly as possible1 then it is seen that the molecules leaving the negative pole and striking upon the idle pole1 ,c1 on their journey along the tube carry a negative charge and communicate negative electricity to the idle pole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,pressure #j4jjja ,,mm4 #j4ac ,m4 ,this tube is of interest1 since it is the one in which ,i was first able to perceive how1 in my earlier results1 ,i always obtained a positive charge from an idle pole placed in the direct stream from the negative pole4 ,having got so far1 it was easy to devise a form of apparatus that completely verified the theory1 and at the same time threw considerably more light upon the subject4 ,fig4 #ac1 a1 b1 c1 is such a tube1 and in this model ,i have endeavored to show the electrical state of it at a high vacuum by marking a number of and - signs4 ,the exhaustion has been carried to #j4jjja millimeter1 or #j4ac ,m1 and you see that in the neighborhood of the positive pole1 and extending almost to the negative1 the tube is strongly electrified with positive electricity1 the negative atoms shooting out from the negative pole in a rapidly diminishing cone4 ,if an idle pole is placed in the position shown at ,fig4 #ac1 a1 the impacts of positive and negative molecules are about equal1 and no decided current will pass from it1 through the galvanometer1 to earth4 ,this is the neutral point4 ,but if we imagine the idle pole to be as at ,fig4 #ac1 b1 then the positively electrified molecules greatly preponderate over the negative molecules1 and positive electricity is shown4 ,if the idle pole is now shifted1 as shown at ,fig4 #ac1 c1 the negative molecules preponderate1 and the pole will give negative electricity4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac ,a4--,,pressure #j4jjja ,,mm4 #j4ac ,m4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac ,b4--,,pressure #j4jjja ,,mm4 #j4ac ,m4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac ,c4--,,pressure #j4jjja ,,mm4 #j4ac ,m4 ,as the exhaustion proceeds1 the positive charge in the tube increases and the neutral point approaches closer to the negative pole1 and at a point just short of non-conduction so greatly does the positive electrification preponderate that it is almost impossible to get negative electricity from the idle pole1 unless it actually touches the negative pole4 ,this tube is before you1 and ,i will now proceed to show the change in direction of current by moving the idle pole4 ,i have not succeeded in getting the ,edison current incandescent lamps to change in direction at even the highest degree of exhaustion which my pump will produce4 ,the subject requires further investigation1 and like other residual phenomena these discrepancies promise a rich harvest of future discoveries to the experimental philosopher1 just as the waste products of the chemist have often proved the source of new and valuable bodies4 ,,properties ,,of ,,radiant ,,matter4 ,one of the most characteristic attributes of radiant matter--whence its name--is that it moves in approximately straight lines and in a direction almost normal to the surface of the electrode4 ,if we keep the induction current passing continuously through a vacuum tube in the same direction1 we can imagine two ways in which the action proceeds3 either the supply of gaseous molecules at the surface of the negative pole must run short and the phenomena come to an end1 or the molecules must find some means of getting back4 ,i will show you an experiment which reveals the molecules in the very act of returning4 ,here is a tube 7,fig4 #ad7 exhausted to a pressure of #j4jja millimeter or #a4c ,m4 ,in the middle of the tube is a thin glass diaphragm1 ,c1 pierced with two holes1 ,d and ,e4 ,at one part of the tube a concave pole1 ,a'1 is focused on the upper hole1 ,d1 in the diaphragm4 ,behind the upper hole and in front of the lower one are movable vanes1 ,f and ,g1 capable of rotation by the slightest current of gas through the holes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad--,,pressure #j4jja ,,mm4 #a4c ,m4 ,on passing the current with the concave pole negative1 the small veins rotate in such a manner as to prove that at this high exhaustion a stream of molecules issues from the lower hole in the diaphragm1 while at the same time a stream of freshly charged molecules is forced by the negative pole through the upper hole4 ,the experiment speaks for itself1 showing as forcibly as an experiment can show that so far the theory is right4 ,this view of the ultra-gaseous state of matter is advanced merely as a working hypothesis1 which1 in the present state of our knowledge1 may be regarded as a necessary help to be retained only so long as it proves useful4 ,in experimental research early hypotheses have necessarily to be modified1 or adjusted1 or perhaps entirely abandoned1 in deference to more accurate observations4 ,dumas said1 truly1 that hypotheses were like crutches1 which we throw away when we are able to walk without them4 ,,radiant ,,matter ,,and ,,radiant ,,electrode ,,matter4 ,in recording my investigations on the subject of radiant matter and the state of gaseous residues in high vacua under electrical strain1 ,i must refer to certain attacks on the views ,i have propounded4 ,the most important of these questionings are contained in a volume of ,physical ,memoirs1 selected and translated from foreign sources under the direction of the ,physical ,society 7vol4 i41 part #b74 ,this volume contains two memoirs1 one by ,hittorff on the ,conduction of ,electricity in ,gases1 and the other by ,puluj on ,radiant ,electrode ,matter and the ,so-called ,fourth ,state4 ,dr4 ,puluj's paper concerns me most1 as the author has set himself vigorously to the task of opposing my conclusions4 ,apart from my desire to keep controversial matter out of an address of this sort1 time would not permit me to discuss the points raised by my critic2 ,i will1 therefore1 only observe in passing that ,dr4 ,puluj has no authority for linking my theory of a fourth state of matter with the highly transcendental doctrine of four dimensional space4 ,reference has already been made to the mistaken supposition that ,i have pronounced the thickness of the dark space in a highly exhausted tube through which an induction spark is passed to be identical with the natural mean free path of the molecules of gas at that exhaustion4 ,i could quote numerous passages from my writings to show that what ,i meant and said was the mean free path as amplified and modified by the electrification4#b ,in this view ,i am supported by ,prof4 ,schuster1#c who1 in a passage quoted below1 distinctly admits that the mean free path of an electrified molecule may differ from that of one in its ordinary state4 ,footnote #b3 ,the thickness of the dark space surrounding the negative pole is the measure of the mean length of the path of the gaseous molecules between successive collisions4 ,the electrified molecules are projected from the negative pole with enormous velocity1 varying1 however1 with the degree of exhaustion and intensity of the induction current4--,phil4 ,trans41 part i41 #ahgi1 par4 #ecj4 ,the extra velocity with which the molecules rebound from the excited negative pole keeps back the more slowly moving molecules which are advancing toward the pole4 ,the conflict occurs at the boundary of the dark space1 where the luminous margin bears witness to the energy of the discharge4--,phil4 ,trans41 part i41 #ahgi1 par4 #ejg4 ,here1 then1 we see the induction spark actually illuminating the lines of molecular pressure caused by the excitement of the negative pole4--,r4,i4 ,lecture1 ,friday1 ,april #d1 #ahgi4 ,the electrically excited negative pole supplies the force majeure1 which entirely1 or partially1 changes into a rectilinear action the irregular vibration in all directions4--,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 #ahhj4 page #dgb4 ,it is also probable that the absolute velocity of the molecules is increased so as to make the mean velocity with which they leave the negative pole greater than that of ordinary gaseous molecules4--,phil4 ,trans41 part ii41 #ahha1 par4 #gai4 ,footnote #c3 ,it has been suggested that the extent of the dark space represents the mean free path of the molecules4444 ,it has been pointed out by others that the extent of the dark space is really considerably greater than the mean free path of the molecules1 calculated according to the ordinary way4 ,my measurements make it nearly twenty times as great4 ,this1 however1 is not in itself a fatal objection2 for1 as we have seen1 the mean free path of an ion may be different from that of a molecule moving among others4--,schuster1 ,proc4 ,roy4 ,soc41 xlvii41 pp4 #eef-g4 ,the great difference between ,puluj and me lies in his statement that#d the matter which fills the dark space consists of mechanical detached particles of the electrodes which are charged with statically negative electricity1 and move progressively in a straight direction4 ,footnote #d3 ,physical ,memoirs1 part ii41 vol4 i41 p4 #bdd4 ,the paragraph is italicized in the original4 ,to these mechanically detached particles of the electrodes1 of different sizes1 often large lumps1#e ,puluj attributes all the phenomena of heat1 force and phosphorescence that ,i from time to time have described in my several papers4 ,footnote #e3 ,loc4 cit41 p4 #bdb4 ,puluj objects energetically to my definition ,radiant ,matter1 and then proposes in its stead the misleading term ,radiant ,electrode ,matter4 ,i say misleading1 for while both his and my definitions equally admit the existence of ,radiant ,matter1 he drags in the hypothesis that the radiant matter is actually the disintegrated material of the poles4 ,puluj declares that the phenomena ,i have described in high vacua are produced by his irregularly shaped lumps of radiant electrode matter4 ,my contention is that they are produced by radiant matter of the residual molecules of gas4 ,were it not that in this case we can turn to experimental evidence1 ,i would not mention the subject to you4 ,on such an occasion as this controversial matter must have no place2 therefore ,i content myself at present by showing a few novel experiments which demonstratively prove my case4 ,let me first deal with the radiant electrode hypothesis4 ,some metals1 it is well known1 such as silver1 gold or platinum1 when used for the negative electrode in a vacuum tube1 volatilize more or less rapidly1 coating any object in their neighborhood with a very even film4 ,on this depends the well known method of electrically preparing small mirrors1 etc4 ,aluminum1 however1 seems exempt from this volatility4 ,hence1 and for other reasons1 it is generally used for electrodes4 ,if1 then1 the phenomena in a high vacuum are due to the electrode matter1 the more volatile the metal used1 the greater should be the effect4#f ,footnote #f3 ,in a valuable paper read before the ,royal ,society1 ,november #bj1 #ahij1 by ,professors ,liveing and ,dewar1 on finely divided metallic dust thrown off the surface of various electrodes1 in vacuum tubes1 they find not only that dust1 however fine1 suspended in a gas will not act like gaseous matter in becoming luminous with its characteristic spectrum in an electric discharge1 but that it is driven with extraordinary rapidity out of the course of the discharge4 ,here is a tube 7,fig4 #ae1 ,p#j4jjjfh millimeter1 or #j4i ,m71 with two negative electrodes1 ,,aa'1 so placed as to protect two luminous spots on the phosphorescent glass of the tube4 ,one electrode1 ,a'1 is of pure silver1 a volatile metal2 the other1 ,a1 is of aluminum1 practically non-volatile4 ,a quantity of electrode matter will be shot off from the silver pole1 and practically none from the aluminum pole2 but you see that in each case the phosphorescence1 ,,cc'1 is identical4 ,had the radiant electrode matter been the active agent1 the more intense phosphorescence would proceed from the more volatile pole4 ,a drawing of another experimental piece of apparatus is shown in ,fig4 #af4 ,a pear-shaped bulb of ,german glass has near the small end an inner concave negative pole1 ,a1 of pure silver1 so mounted that its inverted image is thrown upon the opposite end of the tube4 ,in front of this pole is a screen of mica1 ,c1 having a small hole in the center1 so that only a narrow pencil of rays from the silver pole can pass through1 forming a bright spot1 ,d1 at the far end of the bulb4 ,the exhaustion is about the same as in the previous tube1 and the current has been allowed to pass continuously for many hours so as to drive off a certain portion of the silver electrode2 and upon examination it is found that the silver has all been deposited in the immediate neighborhood of the pole2 while the spot1 ,d1 at the far end of the tube1 that has been continuously glowing with phosphorescent light1 is practically free from silver4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,pressure #j4jjjfh ,,mm4 #j4i ,m4 ,the experiment is too lengthy for me to repeat it here1 so ,i shall not attempt it2 but ,i have on the table the results for examination4 ,the identity of action of silver and aluminum in the first case1 and the non-projection of silver in this second instance1 are in themselves sufficient to condemn ,dr4 ,puluj's hypotheses1 since they prove that phosphorescence is independent of the material of the negative electrode4 ,in front of me is a set of tubes that to my mind puts the matter wholly beyond doubt4 ,the tubes contain no inside electrodes with the residual gaseous molecules2 and with them ,i will proceed to give some of the most striking radiant-matter experiments without any inner metallic poles at all4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,,pressure #j4jjjfh ,,mm4 #j4i ,m4 ,in all these tubes the electrodes1 which are of silver1 are on the outside1 the current acting through the body of the glass4 ,the first tube contains gas only slightly rarefied and at the stratification stage4 ,it is simply a closed glass cylinder1 with a coat of silver deposited outside at each end1 and exhausted to a pressure of #b millimeters4 ,the outline of the tube is shown in ,fig4 #ag4 ,i pass a current1 and1 as you see1 the stratifications1 though faint1 are perfectly formed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,,pressure #b ,,mm4 ,the next tube1 seen in outline in ,fig4 #ah1 shows the dark space4 ,like the first it is a closed cylinder of glass1 with a central indentation forming a kind of hanging pocket and almost dividing the tube into two compartments4 ,this pocket1 silvered on the air side1 forms a hollow glass diaphragm that can be connected electrically from the outside1 forming the negative pole1 ,a2 the two ends of the tube1 also outwardly silvered1 form the positive poles1 ,b ,b4 ,i pass the current1 and you will see the dark space distinctly visible4 ,the pressure here is #j4jgf millimeter1 or #ajj ,m4 ,the next stage1 dealing with more rarefied matter1 is that of phosphorescence4 ,here is an egg-shaped bulb1 shown in ,fig #ai1 containing some pure yttria and a few rough rubies4 ,the positive electrode1 ,b1 is on the bottom of the tube under the phosphorescent material2 the negative1 ,a1 is on the upper part of the tube4 ,see how well the rubies and yttria phosphorescence shows under molecular bombardment1 at an internal pressure of #j4jjjfh millimeter1 or #j4i ,m4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,,pressure #j4jgf ,,mm4 #ajj ,m4 ,a shadow of an object inside a bulb can also be projected on to the opposite wall of the bulb by means of an outside pole4 ,a mica cross is supported in the middle of the bulb 7,fig4 #bj71 and on connecting a small silvered patch1 ,a1 on one side of the bulb with the negative pole of the induction coil1 and putting the positive pole to another patch of silver1 ,b1 at the top1 the opposite side of the bulb glows with a phosphorescent light1 on which the black shadow of the cross seems sharply cut out4 ,here the internal pressure is #j4jjjfh millimeter1 or #j4i ,m4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,,pressure #j4jjjfh ,,mm4 #j4i ,m4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,,pressure #j4jjjfh ,,mm4 #j4i ,m4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,,pressure #j4jja ,,mm4 #a4c ,m4 ,passing to the next phenomenon1 ,i proceed to show the production of mechanical energy in a tube without internal poles4 ,it is shown in ,fig4 #ba 7,p #j4jja millimeter1 or #a4c ,m74 ,it contains a light wheel of aluminum1 carrying vanes of transparent mica1 the poles1 ,a ,b1 being in such a position outside that the molecular focus falls upon the vanes on one side only4 ,the bulb is placed in the lantern and the image is projected on the screen2 if ,i now pass the current1 you see the wheels rotate rapidly1 reversing in direction as ,i reverse the current4 ,here is an apparatus 7,fig4 #bb7 which shows that the residual gaseous molecules when brought to a focus produce heat4 ,it consists of a glass tube with a bulb blown at one end and a small bundle of carbon wool1 ,c1 fixed in the center1 and exhausted to a pressure of #j4jjjjgf millimeter1 or #j4a ,m4 ,the negative electrode1 ,a1 is formed by coating part of the outside of the bulb with silver1 and it is in such a position that the focus of rays falls upon the carbon wool4 ,the positive electrode1 ,b1 is an outer coating at the other end of the tube4 ,i pass the current1 and those who are close may see the bright sparks of carbon raised to incandescence by the impact of the molecular stream4 ,you thus have seen that all the old radiant matter effects can be produced in tubes containing no metallic electrodes to volatilize4 ,it may be suggested that the sides of the tube in contact with the outside poles become electrodes in this case1 and that particles of the glass itself may be torn off and projected across1 and so produce the effects4 ,this is a strong argument1 which fortunately can be tested by experiment4 ,in the case of this tube 7,fig4 #bc1 ,p #j4jjjfh millimeter1 or #j4i ,m71 the bulb is made of lead glass phosphorescing blue under molecular bombardment4 ,inside the bulb1 completely covering the part that would form the negative pole1 ,a1 ,i have placed a substantial coat of yttria1 so as to interpose a layer of this earth between the glass and the inside of the tube4 ,the negative and positive poles are silver disks on the outside of the bulb1 ,a being the negative and ,b the positive poles4 ,if1 therefore1 particles are torn off and projected across the tube to cause phosphorescence1 these particles will not be particles of glass1 but of yttria2 and the spot of phosphorescent light1 ,c1 on the opposite side of the bulb will not be the dull blue of lead glass1 but the golden yellow of yttria4 ,you see there is no such indication2 the glass phosphoresces with its usual blue glow1 and there is no evidence that a single particle of yttria is striking it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,pressure #j4jjjjgf ,,mm4 #j4a ,m4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--,pressure #j4jjjfh ,,mm4 #j4i ,m4 ,witnessing these effects ,i think you will agree ,i am justified in adhering to my original theory1 that the phenomena are caused by the radiant matter of the residual gaseous molecules1 and certainly not by the torn-off particles of the negative electrode4 ,,phosphorescence ,,in ,,high ,,vacua4 ,i have already pointed out that the molecular motions rendered visible in a vacuum tube are not the motions of molecules under ordinary conditions1 but are compounded of these ordinary or kinetic motions and the extra motion due to the electrical impetus4 ,experiments show that in such tubes a few molecules may traverse more than a hundred times the mean free path1 with a correspondingly increased velocity1 until they are arrested by collisions4 ,indeed1 the molecular free path may vary in one and the same tube1 and at one and the same degree of exhaustion4 ,very many bodies1 such as ruby1 diamond1 emerald1 alumina1 yttria1 samaria1 and a large class of earthy oxides and sulphides1 phosphoresce in vacuum tubes when placed in the path of the stream of electrified molecules proceeding from the negative pole4 ,the composition of the gaseous residue present does not affect phosphorescence2 thus1 the earth yttria phosphoresces well in the residual vacua of atmospherical air1 of oxygen1 nitrogen1 carbonic anhydride1 hydrogen1 iodine1 sulphur and mercury4 ,with yttria in a vacuum tube1 the point of maximum phosphorescence1 as ,i have already pointed out1 lies on the margin of the dark space4 ,the diagram 7,fig4 #bd7 shows approximately the degree of phosphorescence in different parts of a tube at an internal pressure of #j4be millimeter1 or #ccj ,m4 ,on the top you see the positive and negative poles1 ,a and ,b1 the latter having the outline of the dark space shown by a dotted line1 ,c4 ,the curve1 ,d ,e ,f1 shows the relative intensities of the phosphorescence at different distances from the negative pole1 and the position inside the dark space at which phosphorescence does not occur4 ,the height of the curve represents the degree of phosphorescence4 ,the most decisive effects of phosphorescence are reached by making the tube so large that the walls are outside the dark space1 while the material submitted to experiment is placed just at the edge of the dark space4 ,hitherto ,i have spoken only of the phosphorescence of substances placed under the negative pole4 ,but from numerous experiments ,i find that bodies will phosphoresce in actual contact with the negative pole4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd--,,pressure #j4be ,,mm4 #ccj ,m4 ,this is only a temporary phenomenon1 and ceases entirely when the exhaustion is pushed to a very high point4 ,the experiment is one scarcely possible to exhibit to an audience1 so ,i must content myself with describing it4 ,a ,u-tube1 shown in ,fig4 #be1 has a flat aluminum pole1 in the form of a disk1 at each end1 both coated with a paint of phosphorescent yttria4 ,as the rarefaction approaches about #j4e millimeter the surface of the negative pole1 ,a1 becomes faintly phosphorescent4 ,on continuing the exhaustion this luminosity rapidly diminishes1 not only in intensity but in extent1 contracting more and more from the edge of the disk1 until ultimately it is visible only as a bright spot in the center4 ,this fact does not prop a recent theory1 that as the exhaustion gets higher the discharge leaves the center of the pole and takes place only between the edge and the walls of the tube4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,if the exhaustion is further pushed1 then1 at the point where the surface of the negative pole ceases to be luminous1 the material on the positive pole1 ,b1 commences to phosphoresce1 increasing in intensity until the tube refuses to conduct1 its greatest brilliancy being just short of this degree of exhaustion4 ,the probable explanation is that the vagrant molecules ,i introduce in the next experiment1 happening to come within the sphere of influence of the positive pole1 rush violently to it1 and excite phosphorescence in the yttria1 while losing their negative charge4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #gid1 page #abfij4 ,,gaseous ,,illuminants4#a ,footnote #a3 ,lectures recently delivered before the ,society of ,arts1 ,london4 ,from the ,journal of the ,society4 ,by ,prof4 ,,vivian ,b4 ,,lewes4 ,v4 ,having now brought before you the various methods by which ordinary coal gas can be enriched1 so as to give an increased luminosity to the flame1 ,i wish now to discuss the methods by which the gas can be burnt1 in order to yield the greatest amount of light1 and also the compounds which are produced during combustion4 ,in the first lecture1 while discussing the theory of luminous flames1 ,i pointed out that1 in an atmospheric burner1 it was not the oxygen of the air introduced combining with and burning up the hydrocarbons1 and so preventing the separation of incandescent carbon1 which gave the non-luminous flame1 but the diluting action of the nitrogen1 which acted by increasing the temperature at which the hydrocarbons are broken up1 and carbon liberated1 a fact which was proved by observation that heating the mixture of gas and air again restored the luminosity of the flame4 ,this experiment clearly shows that temperature is a most important factor in the illuminating value of a flame1 and this is still further shown by a study of the action of the diluents present in coal gas1 the non-combustible ones being far more deleterious than the combustible1 as they not only dilute1 but withdraw heat4 ,anything which will increase the temperature of the flame will also increase the illuminating power1 provided1 of course1 that the increase in temperature is not obtained at the expense of the too rapid combustion of the hydrocarbons4 ,as has been shown in the experiments relating to the action of diluents on flame1 already quoted1 oxygen1 when added to coal gas1 increases its illuminating value to a marked and increasing degree1 until a certain percentage has been added1 after which the illuminating power is rapidly decreased1 until the point is reached when the mixture becomes explosive4 ,this is due to the fact that the added oxygen increases the temperature of the flame by doing the work of the air1 but without the cooling and diluting action of the nitrogen2 when1 however1 a certain proportion is added1 it begins to burn up the heavy hydrocarbons1 and although the temperature goes on increasing1 the light-giving power is rapidly diminished by the diminution of the amount of free carbon in the flame4 ,it has been proposed to carburet and enrich poor coal gas by admixture with it of an oxy-oil gas made under ,tatham's patents1 in which crude oils are cracked at a comparatively low temperature1 and are there mixed with from #ab to #bd per cent4 of oxygen gas4 ,oil gas made at low temperatures1 per se1 is of little use as an illuminant1 as it burns with a smoky flame1 and does not travel well1 but when mixed with a certain amount of oxygen1 it gives a very brilliant white light1 and no smoke1 while as far as experiments have at present gone1 its traveling powers are much improved4 ,at first sight it seems a dangerous experiment to mix a heavy hydrocarbon gas with oxygen1 but it must be remembered that although hydrogen and carbon monoxide only need to be mixed with half their own volume of oxygen to give a most explosive mixture1 yet as the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in the combustible gas increase1 so does the amount of oxygen needed to give explosion4 ,thus coal gas needs rather more than its own volume1 and ethylene three times its volume1 to give the maximum explosive results1 while these mixtures begin to be explosive when #aj per cent4 of oxygen is mixed with hydrogen or water gas1 #cj per cent4 with coal gas1 and over #ej per cent4 of oil gas of the character used4 ,it is claimed that if this gas was used as an enricher of coal gas1 #e per cent4 of it would increase the luminosity of #af-;candle gas by about #dj per cent4 ,oxygen has been obtained for some time past from the air on a commercial scale by the ,brin process1 and at the present time there seems every prospect of our being able to obtain oxygen at a rate of about #cs4 #f;d4 per #a1jjj cubic feet4 ,another process by which this important result can also be obtained was first introduced by ,tessie du ,mothay1 and has now just been revived4 ,it consists of passing alternate currents of steam and air over sodic manganate heated to dull redness in an iron tube2 the process has never been commercially successful1 for the reason that the contents of the tube fused1 and flowing over the surface of the iron rapidly destroyed the tubes or retorts1 and also as soon as fusion took place1 the mass became so dense that it had little or no action on the air passing over it4 ,now1 however1 this difficulty has been partly overcome by so preparing the manganate as to prevent fusion1 and to keep it in a spongy state1 which gives very high results1 and the substance being practically everlasting1 the cost of production is extremely low4 ,it is proposed to feed this by a separate system of pipes to small gas jets1 and by converting them into practically oxyhydrogen blow pipes1 to raise solid masses of refractory material to incandescence1 and also by supplying oxygen in the same way to oil lamps of particular construction1 to obtain a very great increase in illuminating power4 ,whether these methods of employing cheap oxygen would be successful or not1 ,i do not wish to discuss at the present time1 but there is no doubt but that cheap oxygen would be an enormous boon to the gas manager1 as by mixing #j4h per cent4 of oxygen with his coal gas before purification1 he could not only utilize the method so successfully introduced by ,mr4 ,valon at ,ramsgate1 but could also increase the illuminating value of his gas4 ,in speaking of the structure of flame1 ,i pointed out that close to the burner from which the gas giving the flame is issuing1 a space exists in which no combustion is going on--in other words1 a flame is never in contact with the rim of the burner4 ,this is best seen when the gas is turned low--with a batswing burner1 for instance--turned so low that only a small non-luminous flame is left1 the space between burner and flame will appear as great as the flame itself1 while1 if the gas is mixed with an inert diluent like carbon dioxide1 the space can be very much increased4 ,several theories have been brought forward to explain this phenomenon1 but the true one is that the burner abstracts so much heat from the flame at that point that it is unable to burn there1 and this can be proved by the fact that where a cold object touches the flame1 a dividing space1 similar to that noticed between flame and burner1 will always be observed1 and the colder the object and the more diluted the gas the greater is the observed space4 ,if a cold metal wire or rod is held in a non-luminous flame1 it causes an extinction of the gas for some considerable space around itself2 but as the temperature of the rod rises1 this space becomes smaller and smaller until the rod is heated to redness1 and then the flame comes in contact with the rod4 ,in the same way1 if the burner from which the gas is issuing be heated to redness1 the space between burner and flame disappears4 ,it has already been shown that cooling the flame by an inert diluent reduces the illuminating value1 and finally renders it more luminous2 and we are now in a position to discuss the points which should be aimed at in the construction of a good gas burner4 ,in the first place1 a sensible diminution in light takes place when a metal burner is employed1 and the larger the surface and thickness of the metal the worse will be its action on the illuminating power of the flame2 but this cooling action is only influencing the bottom of the flame1 so that with a small flame the total effect is very great1 and with a very large flame almost nil4 ,the first point1 therefore1 to attend to is that the burner shall be made of a good non-conductor4 ,in the next place1 the flow of the gas must be regulated to the burner1 as1 if you have a pressure higher than that for which the burner is constructed1 you at once obtain a roaring flame and a loss of illuminating power1 as the too rapid rush of gas from the burner causes a mingling of gas and air and a consequent cooling of the flame4 ,the tap also which regulates the flame is better at a distance from the burner than close to it1 as any constriction near the burner causes eddies1 which give an unsteady flame4 ,these general principles govern all burners1 and we will now take the ordinary forms in detail4 ,in the ordinary flat flame burner1 given a good non-conducting material1 and a well regulated gas supply1 little more can be done1 while burning it in the ordinary way1 to increase its luminosity2 and it is the large surface of flame exposed to the cooling action of the air which causes this form of burner to give the lowest service of any per cubic foot of gas consumed4 ,much is done1 moreover1 by faulty fittings and shades1 to reduce the already poor light given out1 because the light-yielding power of the flame largely depends upon its having a well rounded base and broad1 luminous zone2 and when a globe with a narrow opening is used with such a flame--as is done in #ii out of #ajj cases--the updraught drags the flame out of shape1 and seriously impairs its light-giving powers1 a trouble which can be got over by having the globe with an opening at the bottom not less than #d inches in diameter1 and having small shoulders fixed to the burner1 which draw out the flame and protect the base from the disturbing influence of draughts4 ,the ,argand burner differs from the flat flame burners in that a circular flame is employed4 ,the air supply is regulated by a cylindrical glass1 and this form of burner gives a better service than the flat flame burner1 as not only can the supply of gas and air be better adjusted1 but the air being slightly warmed by the hot glass adds to the temperature of the flame1 which is also increased by radiation from the opposite side of the flame itself4 ,the chief loss of light in such a burner depends upon the fact that1 being circular1 the light from the inner surface has to pass through the wall of flame1 and careful photometric experiments show that the solid particles present in the flame so reduce its transparency that a loss amounting to about #be per cent4 of light takes place during its transmission4 ,the height of the flame also must be carefully adjusted to the size of the flame1 as too long a chimney1 by increasing the air supply unduly1 cools1 and so lowers the illuminating power of the flame4 ,experiments with carbureted water gas gave the following results1 with a consumption of #e cubic feet per hour3 ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,size of ,chimney4 ,height of ,flame4 ,candle ,power4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- #f ,x #a-g_/h #b-a_/b #ba #g ,x #a-g_/h #b-a_/d #ba4c #h ,x #a-g_/h #b-a_/h #bj4h #i ,x #a-g_/h #a-g_/h #ah4b ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,for many years no advance was made upon these forms of burner1 but when1 ten years ago1 it was recognized that anything which cools the flame reduces its value1 while anything which increases its temperature raises its illuminating power1 then a change took place in the forms of burner in use1 and the regenerative burners1 introduced by such men as ,siemens1 ,grimston1 and ,bower1 commenced what was really a revolution in gas lighting4 ,by utilizing the heat contained in the escaping products of combustion to raise the temperature of the gas and air which are to enter into combination in the flame1 an enormous increase in the temperature of the solid particles of carbon in the flame is obtained1 and a far greater and whiter light is the result4 ,the ,bower lamp1 in which 7at any rate in the later forms7 the flame burns between a downward and an upward current of air1 was one of the first produced1 and so well has it been kept up to date that it still holds its own2 while as types of the inverted cone regenerative burner1 we may also take the ,cromarty and ,wenham lights1 which have been followed by a host of imitators1 and so closely are the original types adhered to that one begins seriously to wonder what the use of the ,patent ,office really is4 ,the ,schulke1 and the last form of ,siemens regenerative burner1 however1 stand apart from all the others by dealing with flat and not conical flames1 and in both regeneration is carried on to a high degree4 ,the only drawback to the regenerative burner is that it is by far the best form of gas stove as well as burner1 and that the amount of heat thrown out by the radiant solid matter in the flame is1 under some circumstances1 an annoyance4 ,but1 on the other hand1 we must not forget that this is the form best adapted for overhead burners1 and that nearly every form of regenerative lamp can be adapted as a ventilating agent1 and that with the withdrawal of the products of combustion from the air of the room1 the great and only serious objection to gas as an illuminant disappears4 ,when coal gas is burned1 the hydrogen is supposed to be entirely converted into water vapor1 and the carbon to finally escape into the air as carbon dioxide2 and if this were so1 every cubic foot of gas consumed would produce approximately #j4eb cubic foot of carbon dioxide and #a4cd cubic feet of water vapor1 while the illuminating power yielded by the cubic foot of gas will1 of course1 vary with the kind of burner used4 ,roughly speaking1 the ordinary types of burner give the following results3 ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,illuminating ,products of ,combustion ,power in per ,name of ,burner4 ,candles per ,candle ,power4 c4f4 of gas ------------------------ ,consumed4 ,carbon ,water ,dioxide4 ,vapor4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,batswing4 #b4i #j4ah c4f4 #j4df c4f4 ,argand4 #c4c #j4af c4f4 #j4dj c4f4 ,regenerative4 #aj4j #j4je c4f4 #j4ac c4f4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,so that the regenerative forms of burner1 by giving the greatest illuminating power per cubic foot of gas consumed1 yield a smaller amount of vitiation to the air per candle of light emitted4 ,an ordinary room1 say #af' ,x #ab' ,x #aj'1 would not be considered properly illuminated unless the light were at least equal to #cb candle power2 and in the table below the amount of the oxygen used up and the products of combustion formed by each class of illuminant and burner in attaining this result are given1 the number of adults who would exhale the same amount during respiration being also stated4 ,from these data it appears1 according to rules by which the degree of vitiation of the air in any confined space is measured by the amount of oxygen used up and carbon dioxide formed1 that candles are the worst offenders against health and comfort4 ,oil lamps come next1 and gas least4 ,this1 however1 is an assumption which practical experience does not bear out4 ,discomfort and oppression in a room lighted by candles or oil are less felt than in one lighted by any of the older forms of gas burner2 and the partial explanation of this is to be found in the fact that1 when a room is illuminated with candles or oil1 people are contented with a feebler and more local light than when using gas4 ,in a room of the size described1 the inmates would be more likely to use two candles placed near their books1 or on a table1 than thirty-two scattered about the room4 ,moreover1 the amount of water vapor given off during the combustion of gas is greater than in the case of the other illuminants4 ,water vapor having a great power of absorbing radiant heat from the burning gas becomes heated1 and diffusing itself about the room1 causes great feeling of oppression2 the air also being highly charged with moisture1 is unable to take up so rapidly the water vapor which is always evaporating from the surface of our skin1 whereby the functions of the body receive a slight check1 resulting in a feeling of malaise4 ,added to these1 however1 is a far more serious factor which has1 up to the present1 been overlooked1 and that is that an ordinary gas flame1 in burning1 yields distinct quantities of carbon monoxide and acetylene1 the prolonged breathing of which in the smallest traces produces headache and general physical discomfort1 while its effect upon plant life is equally marked4 ,,amount ,,of ,,oxygen ,,removed ,,from ,,the ,,air1 ,,and ,,carbon ,,dioxide ,,and ,,water ,,vapor ,,generated ,,to ,,give ,,an ,,illumination ,,equal ,,to #cb ,,candle ,,power4 7,the amount of light required in a room #af' ,x #ab' x #aj'47 ,quantity of ,products of ,combustion ,materials ,oxygen ,carbon ,illuminant ,used ,removed ,water ,vapor ,dioxide ,adults ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,sperm ,candles #c1hdj grains#ai4bg c4f4#ac4ab c4f4 #ac4ab c4f4 #ba4h ,paraffin ,oil #a1ihd #ab4dh c4f4 #g4jd c4f4 #h4if c4f4 #ad4i ,gas 7,london7-- ,burners3 ,batswing #aa c4f4 #ac4jf c4f4#ad4gb c4f4 #e4gf c4f4 #i4f ,argand #i4g c4f4 #aa4eb c4f4#ab4hj c4f4 #e4ab c4f4 #h4e ,regenerative #c4b c4f4 #c4fh c4f4 #d4af c4f4 #a4fj c4f4 #b4f ,ever since the structure of flame has been noted and discussed1 it has been accepted as a fact beyond dispute that the outer almost invisible zone which is interposed between the air and the luminous zone of the flame is the area of complete combustion1 and that here the unburnt remnants of the flame gases1 meeting the air1 freely take up oxygen and are converted into the comparatively harmless products of combustion1 carbon dioxide and water vapor1 which only need partial removal by any haphazard process of ventilation to keep the air of the room fit to support animal life4 ,i have1 however1 long doubted this fact1 and at length1 by a delicate process of analysis have been able to confirm my suspicions4 ,the outer zone of a luminous flame is not the zone of complete combustion2 it is a zone in which luminosity is destroyed in exactly the same way that it is destroyed in the ,bunsen burner2 that is the air penetrating the flame so dilutes and cools down the outer layer of incandescent gas that it is rendered non-luminous1 while some of the gas sinks below the point at which it is capable of burning1 with the result that considerable quantities of the products of incomplete combustion carbon monoxide and acetylene escape into the air1 and render it actively injurious4 ,i have proved this by taking a small platinum pipe1 with a circular loop on the end1 the interior of the loop being pierced with minute holes1 and by making a circular flame burn within the loop so that the non-luminous zone of the flame just touched the inside of the loop1 and then by aspiration so gentle as not to distort the shape of the flame1 withdrawing the gases escaping from the outer zone4 ,on analyzing these by a delicate process1 which will be described elsewhere1 ,i arrived at the following results3 ,,gases ,,escaping ,,from ,,the ,,outer ,,zone ,,of ,,flame4 ,luminous4 ,bunsen4 ,nitrogen4 #gf4fab #hj4bdb ,water vapor4 #ad4gjb #ac4cde ,carbon dioxide4 #b4bja #d4iff ,carbon monoxide4 #a4ahi #j4jjf ,oxygen4 #b4cjj #a4dcj ,marsh gas4 #j4jgb #j4jjc ,hydrogen4 #b4hhh #j4jjh ,acetylene4 #j4jcf ,nil4 ------- ------- #ajj4jjj #ajj4jjj ,the gases leaving the luminous flame show that the diluting action of the nitrogen is so great that considerable quantities even of the highly inflammable and rapidly burning hydrogen escape combustion1 while the products of incomplete combustion are present in sufficient quantity to account perfectly for the deleterious effects of gas burners in ill-ventilated rooms4 ,the analyses also bring out very clearly the fact that1 although the dilution of coal gas by air in atmospheric burners is sufficient to prevent the decomposition of the heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of carbon1 and so destroy luminosity1 yet the presence of the extra supply of oxygen does make the combustion far more perfect1 so that the products of incomplete combustion are hardly to be found in the escaping gases4 ,these experiments are of the gravest import1 as they show more clearly than has ever been done before the absolute necessity for special and perfect ventilation where coal gas is employed for the illumination of our dwelling rooms4 ,when coal gas was first employed during the early part of this century as an illuminating agent1 the low pitch of the old fashioned rooms1 and the excess of impurities in the gas1 rendered it imperative that the products of combustion of the sulphur-laden gas should be conducted from the apartment1 and for this purpose arrangements of tubes with funnel shaped openings were suspended over the burners4 ,the noxious gases were thus conveyed either to the flue or open air2 but this type of ventilator was unsightly in the extreme1 and some few attempts were made to replace it by a more elegant arrangement1 as in the ventilating lamp invented by ,faraday1 and in the adaptation of the same principle by ,mr4 ,i4,o4,n4 ,rutter1 who strove for many years to direct attention to the necessity of removing the products of combustion from the room4 ,but with the increase of the gas industry1 the methods for purifying the coal gas became gradually more and more perfect1 while the rooms in the modern houses were made more lofty2 and the products of combustion being mixed with a larger volume of air1 and not containing so many deleterious constituents1 became1 if not much less noxious1 at all events less perceptible to the nose4 ,as soon as this point was reached1 the ventilating tubes were discarded1 and from that day to this the air of our dwelling rooms has been contaminated by illuminants1 with hardly an effort to alleviate the effect produced upon health4 ,i say hardly an effort1 for the ,messrs4 ,boyle tried1 by their concentric tube ventilators1 to meet the difficulty1 while ,mr4 ,de la ,garde and ,mr4 ,hammond have each constructed lamps more or less on the principle of the ,rutter lamp2 but either from their being somewhat unsightly1 or from their diminishing the amount of light given out1 none of them have met with any degree of success4 ,in places of public entertainment1 where large quantities of coal gas are consumed for illuminating purposes1 the absolute necessity for special ventilation gave rise to the sun burner1 with its ventilating shaft4 ,this1 however1 gives but a very poor illuminating power per cubic foot of gas consumed1 due partly to the cooling of the flame by the current of air produced1 and partly to its distance from the objects to be illuminated4 ,the great difficulty which in the whole history of ventilation has opposed itself to the adoption of proper arrangements for removing the products of combustion has been the necessity of bringing the tube to carry off the gases low down into the room1 and of incasing the burner in such a way that none of the products should escape2 but with the present revolution in gas burners this necessity is entirely done away with1 and the regenerative burner offers the means not only of removing all the products of combustion but also of effecting thorough ventilation of the room itself1 as experiments made some few years ago showed me that a ventilating regenerative burner1 burning #bj cubic feet of gas per hour and properly fitted1 will not only remove all its own products of combustion1 but also over #e1jjj cubic feet per hour of the vitiated air from the upper part of the room4 ,i am quite aware that many regenerative lamp makers raise various objections to fitting ventilating lamps1 these being chiefly due to the fact that it requires considerable trouble to fit them properly2 but ,i think ,i have said enough to show the absolute necessity of some such system1 and when there is a general demand for ventilating lamps1 engineering skill will soon find means to overcome any slight difficulties which exist4 ,having disposed in a few words of a subject which1 if fully treated1 would occupy a long course of lectures by itself1 ,i will pass on to the consideration of gas as at present used as a fuel4 ,there is no doubt that gas is the most convenient and in many ways one of the best forms of fuel for heating and cooking purposes1 and the efforts which all large gas companies are now making to popularize and increase the use of gas for such purposes will undoubtedly bear fruit in the future4 ,but before the day can come for gas to be used in this way on a large scale1 there is one fact which the gas manager and gas stove manufacturer must clearly realize and submit to1 and that is that no gas stove or gas water heater1 of any construction1 should be sent out or fitted without just as great care being taken to provide for the carrying away of the products of combustion as if an ordinary fuel range was being fitted4 ,do not for one moment allow yourself to be persuaded that1 because a gas stove or geyser does not send out a mass of black smoke1 the products of combustion can be neglected and with safety allowed to mingle with the atmosphere we are to breathe4 ,scarcely a winter passes but one or more deaths are recorded from the products of combustion given off from various forms of water heaters used in bath rooms2 scarcely a cookery class is given1 with gas stoves1 that one or more ladies do not have to leave suffering from an intense headache1 and often in an almost fainting condition4 ,and the same cause which brings about these extreme cases1 on a smaller scale causes such physical discomfort to many delicately organized persons that a large class exist who absolutely and resolutely decline to have gas as an illuminant or fuel in any of their living rooms2 and if the use of gas1 more especially as fuel1 is to be extended1 and if gas is to hold its own in the future against such rivals as the electric light1 then those interested in gas and gas stoves must face the problem1 and by improving the methods of burning and using gas do away with the present serious drawbacks which exist to its use4 ,the feeling has gradually been gaining ground in the public mind that1 when atmospheric burners and other devices for burning coal gas are employed for heating purposes1 certain deleterious products of incomplete combustion find their way into the air1 and that this takes place to a considerable extent is shown by the facts brought forward in a paper read by ,mr4 ,william ,thomson before the last meeting of the ,british ,association4 ,mr4 ,thomson attempted to separate and determine the quantity of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons present in the flue gases from various forms of gas stoves and burners1 but1 like every other observer who has attempted to solve this most difficult problem1 he found it so beset with difficulties that he had to abandon it1 and contented himself with determining the total amounts of carbon and hydrogen escaping in an unburned condition1 experiments which showed that the combustion of gas in stoves for heating purposes is much more incomplete than one had been in the habit of supposing1 but his experiments give no clew as to whether the incompletely burned matter consisted of such deleterious gases as carbon monoxide and acetylene1 or comparatively harmless gases1 such as marsh gas and hydrogen4 ,after considerable work upon the subject1 ,i have succeeded in doing this by a very delicate process of analysis1 and ,i now wish to lay some of my results before you4 ,if a cold substance1 metal or non-metal1 be placed in a flame1 whether it be luminous or non-luminous1 it will be observed that there is a clear space1 in which no combustion is taking place1 formed round the cool surface1 and that as the body gets heated so this space gets less and less until1 when the substance is at the same temperature as the flame itself1 there is contact between the two4 ,moreover1 when a luminous flame is employed in this experiment the space still exists between the cool body and the flame1 but you also notice that the luminosity is decreased over a still larger area although the flame exists4 ,this meaning that1 in immediate contact with the cold body1 the temperature is so reduced that the flame cannot exist1 and so is extinguished over a small area2 while over a still larger space the temperature is so reduced that it is not hot enough to bring about decomposition of the heavy hydrocarbons with liberation of carbon to the same extent as in hotter portions of the flame4 ,now1 inasmuch as when water is heated or boiled in an open vessel1 the temperature cannot rise above #ajj;,c41 and as the temperature of an ordinary flame is over #a1jjj;,c41 it is evident that the burning gas can never be in contact with the bottom of the vessel1 or1 in other words1 the gas is put out before combustion is completed1 and the unburned gas and products of incomplete combustion find their way into the air and render it perfectly unfit for respiration4 ,the portion of the flame which is supposed to be the hottest is about half an inch above the tip of the inner zone of the flame1 and it is at this point that most vessels containing water to be heated are made to impinge on the flame2 and it is this portion of the flame1 also1 which is utilized for raising various solids to a temperature at which they radiate heat4 ,in order to gain an insight into the amount of contamination which the air undergoes when a geyser or cooking stove is at work1 ,i have determined the composition of the products of combustion1 and the unburned gases escaping when a vessel containing water at the ordinary temperatures is heated up to the boiling point by a gas flame1 the vessel being placed1 in the first case1 half an inch above the inner cone of the flame1 and in the second1 at the extreme outer tip of the flame4 ,,gases ,,escaping ,,during ,,checked ,,combustion4 ,bunsen flame4 ,luminous flame4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,inner4 ,outer4 ,inner4 ,outer4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,nitrogen #ge4ge #gi4ag #gg4eb #fi4da ,water vapor #ac4dg #ad4bi #aa4hj #ai4bd ,carbon dioxide #b4ii #e4ac #d4ic #h4ch ,carbon monoxide #c4fi ,nil4 #b4de #b4eh ,marsh gas #j4ea #j4ca #j4ie #j4ci ,acetylene #j4jd ,nil4 #j4bg ,nil4 ,hydrogen #c4ee #j4dg #b4jh ,nil4 ---------------------------------------- ----- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,these figures are of the greatest interest1 as they show conclusively that the extreme top of the ,bunsen flame is the only portion of the flame which can be used for heating a solid substance without liberating deleterious gases2 and this corroborates the previous experiment on the gases in the outer zone of a flame1 which showed that the outer zone of a ,bunsen flame is the only place where complete combustion is approached4 ,moreover1 this sets at rest a question which has been over and over again under discussion1 and that is whether it is better to use a luminous or a non-luminous flame for heating purposes4 ,using a luminous flame1 it is impossible to prevent a deposit of carbon1 which is kept by the flame at a red heat on its outer surface1 and the carbon dioxide formed by the complete combustion of the carbon already burned up in flame is reduced by this back to carbon monoxide1 so that even in the extreme tip of a luminous flame it is impossible to heat a cool body without giving rise to carbon monoxide1 although acetylene being absent1 gas stoves1 in which small flat flame burners are used1 have not that subtile and penetrating odor which marks the ordinary atmospheric burner stove1 with the combustion checked just at the right spot for the formation of the greatest volume of noxious products4 ,it is the contact of the body to be heated with the flame before combustion is complete which gives rise to the greatest mischief2 any cooling of the flame extinguishes a portion of the flame1 and the gases present in the flame at the moment of extinction creep along the cooled surface and escape combustion4 ,dr4 ,blochmann has shown the composition of the gases in various parts of the ,bunsen flame to be as follows3 ,height above tube4 ,in tube4 #a inch4 #b inch4 #c inch4 ,complete combustion ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,air with #ajj vols4 gas #bec4i #bhd4g #bhd4e #dhd4c #fjh4h ,hydrogen #dh4f #cf4d #ag4g #af4a ,nil4 ,marsh gas #ci4j #dj4a #bh4j #e4g ,nil4 ,carbon monoxide #b4i #b4b #ai4i #ab4g ,nil4 ,olefiant gas #d4j #c4d #b4b ,nil4 ,nil4 ,buteylene #c4j #b4e #a4f ,nil4 ,nil4 ,oxygen #eb4g #eb4j #ba4g ,nil4 ,nil4 ,nitrogen #aii4a #bbc4h #bbe4i #chb4d #dhb4c ,carbon dioxide #j4h #c4e #ac4j #da4g #fb4d ,water vapor #c4a #aa4h #de4h #aaf4a #ada4b ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,which results show that it would be impossible to check the flame anywhere short of the extreme tip 7where complete combustion is approximately taking place71 without liberating deleterious products4 ,i think ,i have said enough to show that no gas stove1 geyser or gas cooking stove should be used without ample and thorough means of ventilation being provided1 and no trace of the products of combustion should be allowed to escape into the air2 until this is done1 the use of improper forms of stoves will continue to inflict serious injury on the health of the people using them1 and this will gradually result in the abandonment of gas as a fuel1 instead of1 as should be the case1 its coming into general use4 ,the ,english householder is far too prone to accept what is offered to him1 without using his own common sense1 and will buy the article which tickles his eye the most and his pocket the least1 on the bare assurance of the shopkeeper1 who is only anxious to sell2 but when he finds that health and comfort are in jeopardy1 and has discarded the gas stove1 it will take years of labor to convince him that it was the misuse of gas which caused the trouble4 ,already signs are not wanting that the employers of gas stoves are beginning to fight shy of them1 and ,i earnestly hope that the gas managers of the kingdom will bring pressure to bear upon the stove manufacturers to give proper attention to this all important question4 ,so strongly do ,i feel the importance of this question to the gas world and the public1 that ,i freely offer to analyze the products of combustion given off by any gas stove or water heater sent to me at ,greenwich during the next six months1 on one condition1 and that is that the results1 good1 bad1 or indifferent1 will be published in a paper before this ,society1 which has always been in the front when matters of great sanitary importance to the public had to be taken up4 ,and if after that the public like to buy forms of apparatus which have not been certified1 it is their own fault2 but ,i do think that the maker of any stove or geyser which causes a death should be put upon his trial for manslaughter4 ,in conclusion1 let us consider for a moment what is likely to be the future of gas during the next half century4 ,the labor troubles1 bad as they are and have been1 will not cease for many a weary year4 ,the victims of imperfect education 7more dangerous than none at all1 as1 while destroying natural instinct1 it leaves nothing in its place7 will still listen and be led by the baneful influence of irresponsible demagogues1 who care for naught so long as they can read their own inflammatory utterances in the local press1 and gain a temporary notoriety at the expense of the poor fools whose cause they profess to serve4 ,the natural tendency of this will be that every labor-saving contrivance that can will be pressed into the gas manager's service2 and that1 although coal 7of a poorer class than at present used7 will still be employed as a source of gas1 the present retort setting will quickly give way to inclined retorts on the ,coze principle2 while1 instead of the present wasteful method of quenching the red hot coke1 it will be shot direct into the generator of the water gas plant1 and the water gas carbureted with the benzene hydrocarbons derived from the smoke of the blast furnace and coke oven1 or from the creosote oil of the tar distiller1 by the process foreshadowed in the concluding sentences of my last lecture4 ,it will then be mixed with the gas from the retorts1 and will supply a far higher illuminant than we at present possess4 ,in parts of the ,united ,kingdom1 such as ,south ,wales1 where gas coal is dear1 and anthracite and bastard coals are cheap1 water gas highly carbureted will entirely supplant coal gas1 with a saving of fifty per cent4 on the prices now existing in those districts4 ,while these changes have been going on1 and while improved methods of manufacture have been tending to the cheapening of gas1 it will have been steadily growing in public favor as a fuel2 and if in years to come the generation of electricity should have been so cheapened as to allow it to successfully compete with gas as an illuminant1 the gas works will still be found as busy as of yore1 the holder of gas shares as contented as to-day2 for with a desire for a purer atmosphere and a white mist instead of a yellow fog1 gas will have largely supplanted coal as a fuel1 and gas stoves1 properly ventilated and free from the reproaches ,i have hurled at them to-night1 will burn a gas far higher in its heating power1 far better in its power of bearing illuminating hydrocarbons1 and free from poisonous constituents4 ,when the demand for it arises1 hydrogen gas can be made as cheaply as water gas itself1 and when time is ripe for a fuel gas for use in the house1 it is hydrogen and not water gas which will form its basis4 ,with carbureted water gas and #bj per cent4 of carbon monoxide we are still below the limit of danger1 but a pure water gas with over #dj per cent4 of the same insidious element of danger will never be tolerated in our households4 ,already a patent has been taken by ,messrs4 ,crookes and ,ricarde-,seaver for purifying water gas from carbon monoxide1 and converting it mainly into hydrogen by passing it at a high temperature through a mixture of lime and soda lime1 a process which is chemically perfect1 as the most expensive portion of the material used could be recovered2 but in the present state of the labor market it is not practical1 as for the making of every #ajj1jjj cubic feet of gas1 fifteen tons of material would have to be handled1 the cost of labor alone being sufficient to prevent its being adopted2 moreover1 hydrogen can be made far cheaper directly4 ,from the earliest days of gas making1 the manufacture of hydrogen by the passage of steam over red-hot iron has been over and over again mooted1 and attempted on a large scale1 but several factors have combined to render it futile4 ,in the first place1 for every #dgh4e cubic feet of hydrogen made under perfect theoretical conditions never likely to be obtained in practice1 #ef lb4 of iron were converted into the magnetic oxide1 and as there was no ready sale for this article1 this alone would prevent its being used as a cheap source of hydrogen2 the next point was that when steam was passed over the red-hot iron1 the temperature was so rapidly lowered that the generation of gas could only go on for a very short period1 while1 finally1 the swelling of the mass in the retort and fusion of some of the magnetic oxide into the side renders the removal of the spent material almost an impossibility4 ,these difficulties can1 however1 be got over4 ,take a fire clay retort1 six feet long and a foot in diameter1 and cap it with a casting bearing two outlet tubes closed by screw valves1 while a similar tube leads from the bottom of the retort4 ,inclose this retort by a furnace chamber of iron lined with fire brick1 leaving a space of two feet six inches round the retort1 and connect the top of the furnace chamber with one opening at the top of the upright retort1 while air blasts lead into the bottom of the furnace chamber1 below rocking fire bars1 which start at bottom of the retort1 and slope upward1 to leave room for ash holes closed by gas tight covers4 ,the retort is filled with iron or steel borings1 alone if pure hydrogen is required1 or cast into balls with pitch if a little carbon monoxide is not a drawback1 as in foundry work4 ,the furnace chamber is now filled with coke1 fed in through manholes1 or hoppers1 in the top1 and the fuel being ignited1 the blast is turned on1 and the mixture of nitrogen and carbon monoxide passes over the iron1 heating it to a red heat1 while the fuel in contact with the retort does the same thing4 ,when the fuel and retort full of iron are at a cherry-red heat1 the air blast is cut off1 and the pipe connecting the furnace and retort1 together with the pipe in connection with the bottom of the retort1 are closed1 and steam1 superheated by passing through a pipe led round the retort or interior wall of the furnace1 is injected at the bottom of the red-hot mass of iron1 which decomposes it1 forming magnetic oxide of iron and hydrogen1 which escapes by the second tube at the top of the retort1 and is led away either to a carbureting chamber if required for illumination1 or direct to the gasholder if wanted as a fuel4 ,the mass of incandescent fuel in the furnace chamber1 surrounding the retort1 keeping up the temperature of retort and iron sufficiently long to enable the decomposition to be completed4 ,the hydrogen and steam valves are now closed and the air blast turned on4 ,the hot carbon monoxide passing over the hot magnetic oxide quickly reduces it down to metallic iron1 which1 being in a spongy condition1 acts more freely on the steam during later makes than it did at first1 and being infusible at the temperature employed1 may be used for a practically unlimited period4 ,what more simple method than this could be desired8 ,here we have the formation of the most valuable of all fuel gases at the cost of the coke and steam used1 a gas also which has double the carrying power for hydrocarbon vapors possessed by coal gas1 while its combustion gives rise to nothing but water vapor4 ,in this course of lectures ,i have left much unsaid and undone which ,i should have liked to have had time to accomplish1 and if ,i have been obliged to leave out of consideration many important points1 it is the time at my disposal and not my will which is to blame4 ,and now1 in conclusion1 ,i wish to express my thanks to my assistants1 ,messrs4 ,j4,a4 ,foster and ,j4,b4 ,warden1 who have heartily co-operated with me in much of the work embodied in these lectures4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,stereoscopic ,,projections4 ,the celebrated philosopher ,bacon1 the founder of the experimental method1 claimed that we see better with one eye than with two1 because the attention is more concentrated and becomes profounder4 ,on looking in a mirror1 says he1 we may observe that1 if we shut one eye1 the pupil of the other dilates4 ,to this question3 ,but why1 then1 have we two eyes8 he responds3 ,in order that one may remain if the other gets injured4 ,despite the reasoning of the learned philosopher1 we may be permitted to believe that the reason that we have two eyes is for seeing better and especially for perceiving the effects of perspective and the relief of objects4 ,we have no intention of setting forth here the theory of binocular vision2 one simple experiment will permit any one to see that the real place of an object is poorly estimated with one eye4 ,seated before a desk1 pen in hand1 suddenly close one eye1 and1 at the same time1 stretch out the arm in order to dip the pen in the inkstand2 you will fail nine times out of ten4 ,it is not in one day that the effects of binocular vision have been established1 for the ancients made many observations on the subject4 ,it was in #aeic that the celebrated ,italian physicist ,porta was the first to give an accurate figure of two images seen by each eye separately1 but he desired no apparatus that permitted of reconstituting the relief on looking at them4 ,those savants who1 after him1 occupied themselves with the question1 treated it no further than from a theoretical point of view4 ,it was not till #ahch that the ,english physicist ,wheatstone constructed the first stereoscopic apparatus permitting of seeing the relief on examining simultaneously with each of the eyes two different images of an object1 one having the perspective that the right eye perceives1 and the other that the left eye perceives4 ,this apparatus is described in almost all treatises on physics4 ,we may merely recall the fact that it operated by reflection1 that is to say1 the two images were seen through the intermedium of two mirrors making an angle of #de degrees4 ,the instrument was very cumbersome and not very practical4 ,another ,english physicist1 ,david ,brewster1 in #ahdd devised the stereoscope that we all know2 but1 what is a curious thing1 he could not succeed in having it constructed in ,england1 where it was not at first appreciated4 ,it was not till #ahej that he brought it to ,paris1 where it was constructed by ,mr4 ,soleil and his son-in-law ,duboscq4 ,abbot ,moigno and the two celebrated opticians succeeded1 not without some difficulty1 in having it examined by the official savants2 but1 at the great exposition of #ahea1 it was remarked by the ,queen of ,england1 and from this moment ,messrs4 ,soleil ,duboscq succeeded with difficulty only in satisfying the numerous orders that came from all parts4 ,as photography permitted of easily making identical images1 but with different perspective1 it contributed greatly to the dissemination of the apparatus4 ,the stereoscope1 such as we know it1 presents the inconvenience of being incapable of being used by but one person at once4 ,several inventors have endeavored to render the stereoscopic images visible to several spectators at the same time4 ,in #aheh1 ,mr4 ,claudet conceived the idea of projecting the two stereoscopic images upon ground glass in superposing them4 ,the relief was seen1 it appears1 but we cannot very well explain why2 the idea1 however1 had no outcome1 because the image1 being quite small1 could be observed by but three or four persons at once4 ,it was ,mr4 ,d',almeida1 a ,french physicist1 who toward the same epoch solved the problem in a most admirable manner1 and we cannot explain why his process 7that required no special apparatus7 fell into the desuetude from which ,mr4 ,molteni has just rescued it and obtained much success4 ,illustration3 ,,stereoscopic ,,projections ,this is in what it consists3 ,the impression of the relief appears when each eye sees that one of the two images which presents the perspective that it would perceive if it saw the real object4 ,if we take two transparent stereoscopic images and place each of them in a projection lantern1 in such a way that they can be superposed upon the screen1 we shall obtain thereby a single image4 ,it will always be a little light and soft1 as the superposition cannot be effected accurately1 the perspective not being the same for each of them4 ,it is a question now to make each eye see the one of the two images proper to it4 ,to this effect1 ,mr4 ,d',almeida conceived the very ingenious idea of placing green glass in the lantern in front of the image having the perspective of the right eye1 and a red glass in front of the other image4 ,as green and red are complementary colors1 the result was not changed upon the screen2 there was a little less light1 that was all4 ,but if1 at this moment1 the spectator places a green glass before his right eye and a red one before his left1 he will find himself in the condition desired for realizing the effect sought4 ,each eye will then see only the image responding to the coloration chosen1 and1 as it is precisely the one which has the perspective proper to it1 the relief appears immediately4 ,the effect is striking4 ,we perceive a diffused image upon the screen with the naked eye1 but as soon as we use one special eye-glass the relief appears with as much distinctness as in the best stereoscope4 ,one must not1 for example1 reverse his eye-glass1 for if 7things being arranged as we have said7 he looks through a red glass before his right eye1 and through a green one before his left1 it is the image carrying the perspective designed for the right eye that will be seen by the left eye1 and reciprocally4 ,there is then produced1 especially with certain images1 a very curious effect of reversed perspective1 the background coming to the front4 ,now that photography is within every one's reach1 and that many amateurs are making stereopticon views and own projection lanterns1 we are persuaded that the experiment will be much more successful than it formerly was4 ,an assemblage of persons all provided with colored eye-glasses is quite curious to contemplate4 ,our engraving represents a stereopticon seance1 and the draughtsman has well rendered the effect of the two luminous and differently colored fascicles superposed upon the screen4 ,in a preceding note upon the same subject1 ,mr4 ,hospitalier remarked that upon combining these effects of perspective with those of the praxinoscope1 which give the sensation of motion1 we would obtain entirely new effects4 ,it would be perhaps complicated as to the installation1 and especially as to the making of the images1 but1 in certain special cases 7for giving the effect of a machine in motion1 for example71 it might render genuine services4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,effect ,,on ,,fowls ,,of ,,nitrogenous ,,and ,,carbonaceous ,,rations4#a ,footnote #a3 ,this article is condensed by permission from a thesis prepared for the degree of ,bachelor of ,science in ,agriculture1 by ,james ,edward ,rice1 a graduate of the class of #ahij4 ,the work was planned and wholly carried out in the most careful manner by ,mr4 ,rice under the immediate supervision of the ,director4 ,the results have been thought worthy of publication in the ,cornell ,station ,bulletin4 ,on ,july #b1 #ahhi1 ten ,plymouth ,rock hens1 one year old1 and as nearly as possible of uniform size1 were selected from a flock of thirty-five4 ,at the same time ten chickens1 hatched from the same hens mated with a ,plymouth ,rock cock1 were similarly chosen4 ,the chickens were about six weeks old1 healthy and vigorous and of nearly the same size4 ,up to the time of purchase both hens and chickens had full run of the farm4 ,the hens foraged for themselves and were given no food2 the chickens had been fed corn meal dough1 sour milk and table scraps4 ,a preliminary feeding trial was continued for twenty-five days1 during which time both hens and chickens were confined1 all together1 in a fairly well lighted and ventilated room1 and fed a great variety of food1 in order that all should go into the feeding trial as nearly as possible in the same condition4 ,during this preliminary feeding both hens and chickens increased in live weight4 ,the ten hens from a total of #dd lb4 #ab oz4 to #dg lb4 #a4e oz41 or #c4ge oz4 each1 and laid #ic eggs4 ,the chickens from a total of #i lb4 #ae oz4 to #ah lb41 or #ab4i oz4 each4 ,food1 shells and water were kept constantly before the fowls4 ,basins which contained the food and water were kept within a box constructed of lath1 so arranged that the fowls could reach between the slats and procure food and drink without wasting or soiling4 ,july #bfth the hens and chickens were each separated into two lots of five each1 as follows3 ,hens1 nitrogenous ration1 weighed #bc lb4 #h4e oz4 ,hens1 carbonaceous ration1 weighed #bc lb4 #i oz4 ,chickens1 nitrogenous ration1 weighed #h lb4 #ae oz4 ,chickens1 carbonaceous ration1 weighed #i lb4 #a oz4 ,the four lots were placed in separate pens where they remained during the entire experiment1 which lasted #abe days4 ,they were fed and watered once daily1 and an account kept of the food eaten and water drank4 ,at each feeding the food and water remaining were weighed back and deducted from the amount charged at the previous feeding4 ,the hens and chickens fed a nitrogenous ration were given daily all they would eat of the following mixture3 #a_/c part wheat bran1 #a_/c part wheat shorts1 #a_/c part cotton seed meal1 #b parts skimmed milk1 and will be designated ,lot ,i4 ,the hens and chickens fed a carbonaceous ration were given daily all they would eat of a ration of cracked maize and maize dough1 and will be designated ,lot ,,ii4 ,both groups were given a small amount of green clover as long as it lasted1 and afterward cabbage4 ,for convenience the experiment was divided into five periods of twenty five days4 ,,food ,,consumed ,,and ,,increase ,,in ,,live ,,weight4 ,during the first period all the fowls seemed in good health except the carbonaceous fed chickens2 they1 during this as in all succeeding periods1 were restless and peevish1 always moping or hunting for something to eat1 though their trough was filled4 ,when fed they would greedily take a few mouthfuls and then1 with their hunger still unappeased1 would leave the dish4 ,they always ate ravenously the green food which was given them1 as did the hens and chickens of ,lot ,i4 ,the hens of ,lot ,,ii41 on the contrary1 seemed quite willing to squat about the pen and subsist on the maize diet1 and strangely enough cared little for green food4 ,the clear maize diet was accompanied by such ill effects that the chickens of each lot1 after the first period1 were given daily each one-fourth ounce of wheat1 and the hens each one ounce4 ,the wheat was increased during the fourth and fifth periods in the case of the chickens to one ounce each4 ,during the second period one of the chickens fed nitrogenous food1 and during the third period another of the same lot were taken ill and removed from the experiment4 ,both seemed to be suffering from impacted crops1 as the stomach and gizzard in each case were found to be empty4 ,the fact that the sick chickens disliked the nitrogenous ration1 and since the first period the amount of food eaten by the hens and chickens of ,lot ,i had continually decreased1 led to the belief that their food might be too nitrogenous1 and as during the last days of the third period one of the hens in ,lot ,i was also ill1 it was decided to discontinue the use of cotton seed meal and to use linseed meal instead4 ,the hen recovered soon after the change in food4 ,the supply of skim milk running short in the last two periods1 water was used instead in mixing the ration of the lots fed nitrogenous food4 ,at the beginning of the fifth period one-half of the linseed meal in the ration of ,lot ,i was removed1 and cotton seed meal substituted4 ,this combination seemed a happy one1 for on this ration both hens and chickens made large gains4 ,at the end of the experiment little difference could be seen in the hens of the two groups2 but the two lots of chickens were in striking contrast4 ,while the chickens fed on nitrogenous food were large1 plump1 healthy1 active1 and well feathered1 the chickens fed on a carbonaceous ration were in general much smaller1 sickly1 and in several cases almost destitute of feathers4 ,two of them had perfectly bare backs1 and so ravenous were they for flesh and blood that they began eating one another4 ,the inability of the chickens fed on a carbonaceous diet to throw out new feathers and the ability of the chickens fed on a nitrogenous diet to grow an enormous coat of feathers is a splendid illustration of the effect of the composition of the food in supplying certain requirements of animal growth4 ,it was plain to see that maize1 even when assisted by a small amount of wheat and green clover1 could not supply sufficient nitrogen for the growth of feathers4 ,it will thus be seen that while both lots of hens lost weight during the experiment1 the loss was slightly greater with those fed nitrogenous food1 but these produced by far the most eggs4 ,the chickens fed on nitrogenous food just about doubled in weight1 while those fed carbonaceous food only added about one-third to their weight4 ,,production ,,of ,,eggs4 ,during the first week the carbonaceous fed hens laid three eggs while the others laid two4 ,the two groups were1 therefore1 practically evenly divided at the start as to the condition of the laying stage4 ,at the end of the first period the nitrogenous fed hens had laid forty-three eggs and the carbonaceous fed hens had laid twenty4 ,during the next twenty-five days the former laid thirty and the latter six2 during the third period the former laid six and the latter not any4 ,from this time on no eggs were received from either group4 ,the decline in egg production was probably due in large part to the fact that the hens began to moult during the second period1 and continued to do so during the rest of the experiment4 ,the eggs laid by the nitrogenous fed hens were of small size1 having a disagreeable flavor and smell1 watery albumen1 an especially small1 dark colored yolk1 with a tender vitelline membrane1 which turned black after being kept several weeks4 ,while the eggs of the carbonaceous fed hens were large1 of fine flavor1 of natural smell1 large normal albumen1 an especially large1 rich yellow yolk1 with strong vitelline membrane1 which was perfectly preserved after being kept for weeks in the same brine with the other eggs4 ,,total ,,food ,,consumed ,,during ,,experiment4 ,lot4 ,i4--,nitrogenous4 ,lot4 ,,ii4--,carbonaceous4 ,hens4 99,chicks ,hens4 ,chicks4 lb4 lb4 lb4 lb4 ,bran4 #bi4ij #ba4he ,maize4 #hb4ae #ea4cj ,shorts4 #bi4ij #ba4he ,green clover4 #ah4ge #ah4ge ,cotton seed meal4 #ba4dh #ac4bd ,cabbage4 #af4jj #af4jj ,linseed meal4 #h4dc #h4fa ,wheat #ae4fc #aa4ga ,skimmed milk4 #aje4di #fa4cc ,wheat4 #ae4fc #aa4ga ,green clover4 #ah4ge #ah4ge ,cabbage4 #af4jj #af4jj ,total4 #bde4eh #agc4cd ,total4 #acb4ec #ib4gf ,nutritive ratio4 #a3c4a #a3c ,nutritive ratio4 #a3g4h #a3h 99 ,calculated for five chicks1 based upon the amount eaten by the three after the two sick were removed4 ,,eggs ,,laid ,,and ,,gain ,,in ,,weight--,,hens4 ,lot ,i4 ,lot ,,ii4 ,nitrogenous4 ,carbonaceous4 ,live weight1 ,july #bf4 #bc4ec #bc4ef ,november #bg4 #ba4ca #bb4jj ,loss4 #b4bb #a4ef ,number of eggs laid4 #gi4jj #bf4jj ,weight lb4 #h4be #b4ib ,average weight of eggs1 oz4 #a4fg #a4hj ,gain in weight1 including eggs1 lb4 #f4jc #a4cf ,,gain ,,in ,,live ,,weight--,,chickens4 ,lot ,i4 ,lot ,,ii4 ,nitrogenous4 ,carbonaceous4 ,live weight1 ,july #bf4 #h4id #i4jf ,november #bg4 #ag4hi #ab4fc ,gain1 lb4 #h4ie #c4eg per cent4 #ajj4aa #ci4dj ,samples of the eggs from each lot of fowls were privately marked and sold to a boarding house where the cook did not know that the eggs were undergoing a test4 ,on meeting the cook several days later the following words were heard3 ,do you expect me to cook such eggs as these6 ,about every other one is spoiled4 ,on examination of the ovaries after slaughtering1 it was found that in the case of one of the carbonaceous fed hens the ovules were in a more advanced stage1 but on the whole the nitrogenous fed hens were much nearer the laying period4 ,with this single exception1 the clusters of ovules in the carbonaceous fed hens were uniformly small4 ,neither group would have laid under any probability for several weeks4 ,it would seem from these facts1 together with the fact that during the experiment the nitrogenous fed hens laid more than three times as many eggs1 that a nitrogenous ration stimulates egg production4 ,,the ,,results ,,of ,,slaughtering4 ,on ,november #bg the fowls were slaughtered4 ,each fowl was weighed1 wrapped in a bag to prevent floundering1 and killed by severing an artery in the roof of the mouth4 ,the blood was caught in a glass jar4 ,the fowls were then picked and the feathers weighed1 after which the body was laid open longitudinally by cutting alongside the sternum and through the back bone4 ,when all had been thus prepared1 they were hung up in groups to be photographed1 but the photographs were quite unsatisfactory so far as showing the relative proportions of fat and lean4 ,the accompanying drawing made from the photograph shows the relative development of an average pair of chickens4 ,attention is particularly called to the thighs4 ,illustration ,one-half of each fowl was tested by cooking for flavor1 succulence1 and tenderness4 ,the other half was carefully prepared for chemical analysis by separating the meat from the bones4 ,the flesh was thoroughly mixed and run through a sausage cutter1 mixed again1 and the process repeated three times4 ,from different parts of this mixture a large sample was taken1 from which the chemist took his samples for analysis4 ,the right tibia of each fowl was tested for strength by placing it across two parallel bars and suspending a wire on its center1 on which were placed small weights until the bone gave way4 ,,dressed ,,weight1 ,,internal ,,organs1 ,,etc4 ,hens4 ,chickens4 ,lot ,i4 ,lot ,,ii4 ,lot ,i4 ,lot ,,ii4 ,nitro- ,carbon- ,nitro- ,carbon- genous4 aceous4 genous4 aceous4 lb4 lb4 lb4 lb4 ,live weight4 #ba4ca #bb4j #ag4hi #ab4fc ,dressed weight4 #ad4hf #ae4ji #ab4ja #h4hi per cent4 #fi4g #fh4f #fg4a #gj4e ,weight of blood4 #j4ge #j4ff #j4ee #j4cd feathers4 #a4da #a4be #a4bh #j4ff intestinal fat4 #j4ei #a4ih #j4cd #j4ff offal4 #c4gj #c4jb #c4fb #b4jh bones4 #c4dg #c4fc #c4ah #b4fi flesh4 #aa4ci #aa4dg #h4ic #f4bj ,the breaking strain of the right tibia was as follows for the hens and chickens of the various lots3 ,average hens1 nitrogenous4 #dh4af carbonaceous4 #ea4gd chickens1 nitrogenous4 #df4fd carbonaceous4 #ca4ah ,there was little difference in the strength of the bones of the hens1 undoubtedly because the bones were mature before the feeding began1 and were little affected by the feeding4 ,we find1 however1 that the bones of the chickens fed on nitrogenous food were almost fifty per cent4 7#di4f7 stronger than those fed carbonaceous food4 ,the difference in the composition of the flesh1 as shown by the analysis of ,mr4 ,w4,p4 ,cutter1 is given below3 ,hens4 ,chickens4 ,lot ,i4 ,lot ,,ii4 ,lot ,i4 ,lot ,,ii4 ,nitro- ,carbon- ,nitro- ,carbon- genous4 aceous4 genous4 aceous4 ,albuminoids4 #dc4ha #be4ac #eb4jj #cj4jf ,fat4 #ab4ei #bj4gf #e4ed #aa4cd ,the flesh of each group was submitted to a number of persons for a cooking test1 and the almost unanimous verdict was that the flesh of the fowls fed a nitrogenous ration was darker colored1 more succulent1 more tender1 and better flavored1 though on this last there was some difference of opinion4 ,,conclusions4 ,so far as it is warrantable to draw any conclusions from a single experiment of this kind1 it would seem that3 ,chickens fed on an exclusive corn diet will not make a satisfactory development1 particularly of feathers4 ,the bones of chickens fed upon a nitrogenous ration are fifty per cent4 stronger than those fed upon a carbonaceous ration4 ,hens fed on a nitrogenous ration lay many more eggs but of smaller size and poorer quality than those fed exclusively on corn4 ,hens fed on corn1 while not suffering in general health1 become sluggish1 deposit large masses of fat on the internal organs1 and lay a few eggs of large size and excellent quality4 ,the flesh of nitrogenous fed fowls contains more albuminoids and less fat than those fed on a carbonaceous ration1 and is darker colored1 juicier and tenderer4 ,i4,p4 ,,roberts1 ,director4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,herbaceous ,,grafting4 ,my attention has been called a number of times to the unsatisfactory records and directions concerning the grafting of herbaceous plants4 ,there appears to have been very little attention given to the subject1 and the scant discussions of it are mostly copied from one author to another4 ,a few years ago ,i made some attempts at herbaceous grafting1 but it was not until last winter that experiments were seriously undertaken4 ,the work was put in the hands of ,j4,r4 ,lochary as a subject for a graduating thesis4 ,the experiments were undertaken primarily for the purpose of learning the best methods of grafting herbs1 but a secondary and more important object was the study of the reciprocal influences of stock and cion1 particularly in relation to variegation and coloration4 ,this second feature of the work is still under way1 in one form or another1 and we hope for definite results in a few years4 ,as a matter of immediate advantage1 however1 herbaceous grafting has its uses1 particularly in securing different kinds of foliage and flowers upon the same plant4 ,there is no difficulty in growing a half dozen kinds or colors1 on geraniums1 chrysanthemums1 or other plants from one stock of the respective species4 ,six hundred grafts were made in our trials last winter4 ,it was found that the wood must be somewhat hardened to secure best results4 ,the very soft and flabby shoots are likely to be injured in the operation of grafting1 and union does not take place readily4 ,vigorous coleus stocks1 three months old1 gave best results if cut to within two or three inches of the pot and all or nearly all the leaves removed from the stump4 ,geraniums1 being harder in wood1 made good unions at almost any place except on the soft growing points4 ,the stock must not have ceased growth1 however4 ,most of the leaves should be kept down on the stock4 ,cions an inch or two long were usually taken from firm growing tips1 in essentially the same manner as in the making of cuttings4 ,sometimes an eye of the old wood was used1 and in most cases union took place and a new shoot arose from the bud4 ,the leaves were usually partly removed from the cion4 ,various styles of grafting were employed1 of which the common cleft and the veneer or side graft were perhaps the most satisfactory4 ,in most instances it was only necessary to bind the parts together snugly with bass or raffia4 ,in some soft wooded plants1 like coleus1 a covering of common grafting wax over the bandage was an advantage1 probably because it prevented the drying out of the parts4 ,in some cases1 however1 wax injured the tissues where it overreached the bandage4 ,sphagnum moss was used in many cases tied in a small mass about the union1 but unless the parts were well bandaged the cion sent roots into the moss and did not unite1 and in no case did moss appear to possess decided advantages4 ,best results were obtained by placing the plants at once in a propagating frame1 where a damp and confined atmosphere could be obtained4 ,in some plants1 successful unions were made in the open greenhouse1 but they were placed in shade and kept sprinkled for a day after the grafts were made4 ,the operation should always be performed quickly to prevent flagging of the cions4 ,or1 if the cions cannot be used at once1 they may be thrust into sand or moss in the same manner as cuttings1 and kept for several days4 ,in one series1 tomato and potato cuttings1 which had flagged in the cutting bed1 revived when grafted4 ,and cuttings which had been transported in the mail for three days grew readily1 but they were in good condition when received4 ,the mealy bugs were particularly troublesome upon these grafted plants1 for they delighted to crawl under the bandages and suck the juices from the wounded surfaces4 ,although it is foreign to the purpose of this note1 it may be worth while to mention a few of the plants upon which the experiments were made4 ,sections were taken of many of the grafts and microscopic examinations made to determine the extent of cell union4 ,coleuses of many kinds were used1 with uniform success1 and the cions of some of them were vigorous a year after being set4 ,even iresine 7better known as ,achyranthes ,verschaffeltii7 united with coleus and grew for a time4 ,zonale geraniums bloomed upon the common rose geranium4 ,tomatoes upon potatoes and potatoes upon tomatoes grew well and were transplanted to the open ground1 where they grew1 flowered and fruited until killed by frost4 ,the tomato-on-potato plants bore good tomatoes above and good potatoes beneath1 even though no sprouts from the potato stock were allowed to grow4 ,peppers united with tomatoes and tomatoes united with peppers4 ,egg plants1 tomatoes and peppers grew upon the ,european husk tomato or alkekengi 7,physalis ,alkekengi74 ,peppers and egg plants united with each other reciprocally4 ,a coleus cion was placed upon a tomato plant and was simply bound with raffia4 ,the cion remained green and healthy1 and at the end of forty-eight days the bandage was removed1 but it was found that no union had taken place4 ,ageratums united upon each other with difficulty4 ,chrysanthemums united readily4 ,a bean plant1 bearing two partially grown beans1 chanced to grow in a chrysanthemum pot4 ,the stem bearing the pods was inarched into the chrysanthemum4 ,union took place readily1 but the beans turned yellow and died4 ,pumpkin vines united with squash vines1 cucumbers with cucumbers1 muskmelons with watermelons1 and muskmelons1 watermelons and cucumbers with the wild cucumber or balsam apple 7,echinocystis lobata74 ,another interesting feature of the work was the grafting of one fruit upon another1 as a tomato fruit upon a tomato fruit or a cucumber upon another cucumber4 ,this work is still under progress and it promises some interesting results in a new and unexpected direction1 reports of which may be expected later4--,cornell ,station ,bulletin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,humorous ,,health ,,officer4 ,the ,michigan ,state ,board of ,health recently took ,health ,officer ,davis1 of ,close ,village1 to task for failing to send in his weekly reports4 ,his reply was unique4 ,he says3 ,there has not been enough sickness here the last two or three years to do much good4 ,the physicians find time to go to ,milwaukee on excursions1 serve as jurors in justice courts1 sit around on drygoods boxes1 and beg tobacco1 chew gum1 and swap lies4 ,a few sporadic cases of measles have existed1 but they were treated mostly by old women1 and no deaths occurred4 ,there was an undertaker in the village1 but he is now in the ,state prison4 ,it is hoped and expected when green truck gets around1 melons plenty1 and cucumbers in abundance1 that something may revive business4 ,if it does1 ,i will let you know4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,catalogue ,,of ,,valuable ,,papers ,contained in ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement during the past ten years1 sent free of charge to any address4 ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,architects ,,and ,,builders ,,edition4 #b4ej a ,year4 ,single ,copies1 #be cts4 ,this is a ,special ,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the month4 ,each number contains about forty large quarto pages1 equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages1 forming1 practically1 a large and splendid ,,magazine ,,of ,,architecture1 richly adorned with elegant plates in colors and with fine engravings1 illustrating the most interesting examples of modern ,architectural ,construction and allied subjects4 ,a special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of the latest and best plans for private residences1 city and country1 including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive4 ,drawings in perspective and in color are given1 together with full ,plans1 ,specifications1 ,costs1 ,bills of ,estimate1 and ,sheets of ,details4 ,no other building paper contains so many plans1 details1 and specifications regularly presented as the ,,scientific ,,american4 ,hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans we have issued during the past year1 and many others are in process of construction4 ,architects1 ,builders1 and ,owners will find this work valuable in furnishing fresh and useful suggestions4 ,all who contemplate building or improving homes1 or erecting structures of any kind1 have before them in this work an almost endless series of the latest and best examples from which to make selections1 thus saving time and money4 ,many other subjects1 including ,sewerage1 ,piping1 ,lighting1 ,warming1 ,ventilating1 ,decorating1 ,laying out of ,grounds1 etc41 are illustrated4 ,an extensive ,compendium of ,manufacturers' ,announcements is also given1 in which the most reliable and approved ,building ,materials1 ,goods1 ,machines1 ,tools1 and ,appliances are described and illustrated1 with addresses of the makers1 etc4 ,the fullness1 richness1 cheapness1 and convenience of this work have won for it the ,,largest ,,circulation of any ,architectural publication in the world4 ,a ,catalogue of valuable books on ,architecture1 ,building1 ,carpentry1 ,masonry1 ,heating1 ,warming1 ,lighting1 ,ventilation1 and all branches of industry pertaining to the art of ,building1 is supplied free of charge1 sent to any address4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publishers1 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,building ,,plans ,,and ,,specifications4 ,in connection with the publication of the ,,building ,,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 ,messrs4 ,munn ,co4 furnish plans and specifications for buildings of every kind1 including ,churches1 ,schools1 ,stores1 ,dwellings1 ,carriage ,houses1 ,barns1 etc4 ,in this work they are assisted by able and experienced architects4 ,full plans1 details1 and specifications for the various buildings illustrated in this paper can be supplied4 ,those who contemplate building1 or who wish to alter1 improve1 extend1 or add to existing buildings1 whether wings1 porches1 bay windows1 or attic rooms1 are invited to communicate with the undersigned4 ,our work extends to all parts of the country4 ,estimates1 plans1 and drawings promptly prepared4 ,terms moderate4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,the 99 99 99 99 99 ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,,terms ,,of ,,subscription1 #e ,a ,,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 ,all the back numbers of ,,the ,,supplement1 from the commencement1 ,january ,i1 #ahgf1 can be had4 ,price1 #aj cents each4 ,all the back volumes of ,,the ,,supplement can likewise be supplied4 ,two volumes are issued yearly4 ,price of each volume1 #b4ej stitched in paper1 or #c4ej bound in stiff covers4 ,,combined ,,rates4--,one copy of ,,scientific ,,american and one copy of ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 one year1 postpaid1 #g4jj4 ,a liberal discount to booksellers1 news agents1 and canvassers4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publishers1 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york1 ,n4,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,useful ,,engineering ,,books ,manufacturers1 ,agriculturists1 ,chemists1 ,engineers1 ,mechanics1 ,builders1 men of leisure1 and professional men1 of all classes1 need good books in the line of their respective callings4 ,our post office department permits the transmission of books through the mails at very small cost4 ,a comprehensive catalogue of useful books by different authors1 on more than fifty different subjects1 has recently been published1 for free circulation1 at the office of this paper4 ,subjects classified with names of author4 ,persons desiring a copy have only to ask for it1 and it will be mailed to them4 ,address1 ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,broadway1 ,new ,york4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,patents4 ,in connection with the ,scientific ,american1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,co4 are solicitors of ,american and ,foreign ,patents1 have had #db years' experience1 and now have the largest establishment in the world4 ,patents are obtained on the best terms4 ,a special notice is made in the ,scientific ,american of all inventions patented through this ,agency1 with the name and residence of the ,patentee4 ,by the immense circulation thus given1 public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent1 and sales or introduction often easily effected4 ,any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain1 free of charge1 whether a patent can probably be obtained1 by writing to ,,munn ,co4 ,we also send free our ,hand ,book about the ,patent ,laws1 ,patents1 ,caveats1 ,trade ,marks1 their costs and how procured4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #cfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,branch ,,office1 #fbb ,,and #fbd ,f ,,st41 ,,washington1 ,d4,c4