,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #ecj ,,new ,,york1 ,,february #bg1 #ahhf ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxi1 ,no4 #ecj4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,chemistry ,,etc4--,decomposition and ,fermentation of ,milk4 ,,ii4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics4--,the ,ethics of ,engineering ,practice4--,an address by ,mr4 ,,jas4 ,c4 ,,bayles1 before the ,american ,institute of ,mining ,engineers4 ,lifting a #dj-;inch ,water ,main4--,with engraving4 ,the ,inter-oceanic ,canal ,question4 ,the ,mersey ,tunnel4 ,improved ,revolver4--,with #d figures4 ,motors for ,street ,railways4--,results of experiments on mechanical motors for tramways made by the jury on railway appliances at the ,antwerp ,exhibition4--,by ,capt4 ,,douglas ,,galton4 ,,iii4 ,,technology4--,alizarine ,dyes4--,process of dyeing4--,recipes for various colors4 ,cement ,paving4--,composition made by the ,wilkes' ,metallic ,flooring ,company4--,other compositions4 ,a ,new ,bleaching ,process4--,the ,mather-,thompson system4 ,instruments for ,drawing ,curves4--,by ,prof4 ,c4,w4 ,,maccord--#a4 ,the ,hyperbola--#b figures4 ,experiments with ,fibers4--,by ,dr4 ,,thos4 ,,taylor4--,detection of ,fraud4--,method employed4--,cotton mixed with linen4--,experiments with flax4--,wool tested with acid4--,tests of dyed black silk4 ,orthochromatic ,plates4--,by ,,ch4 ,,scolik4 ,a ,new ,photographic ,apparatus4--,with engraving4 ,,iv4 ,,electricity1 ,,physics1 ,,etc4--,on the ,theory of the ,electro-magnetic ,telephone ,transmitter4--,by ,e4 ,,mercadier4 ,on the ,theory of the ,receiver of the ,electro-magnetic ,telephone4--,by ,e4 ,,mercadier4 ,frew's ,improved ,pyrometer4--,with engraving4 ,dew4--,abstract of a paper read before the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh4--,by ,mr4 ,,aitken4--,source of dew4--,observations of the temperature of the ground4--,experiments4--,effects of wind4--,excretion of drops of liquid by plants4--,radiating power of different surfaces at night4 ,v4 ,,astronomy4--,meteorites4--,the ,dhurmsala ,meteorite4 ,telescopic ,search for the ,trans-,neptunian ,planet4--,by ,,david ,p4 ,,todd4 ,,vi4 ,,architecture4--,the ,new ,burgtheater in ,vienna4--,with full page engraving4 ,the ,new ,german ,bookdealers' ,exchange in ,leipzig4--,with engraving4 ,,vii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,notes on ,manual ,spelling4--,by ,,jas4 ,c4 ,,gordon4--,origin of ,finger ,spelling4--,finger alphabets4--,with engraving of ,american alphabet4 ,fruits and ,seeds for ,dress ,trimming4--,origin of the use of ,fruits and ,seeds4--,preparation by ,,mr4 ,,collin4 ,,viii4 ,,biography4--,hon4 ,hiram ,sibley4--,the founder of the ,sibley ,college of ,mechanic ,arts of ,cornell ,university4--,with portrait4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hon4 ,,hiram ,,sibley4 ,hon4 ,hiram ,sibley1 of the city of ,rochester1 a man of national reputation as the originator of great enterprises1 and as the most extensive farmer and seedsman in this country1 was born at ,north ,adams1 ,berkshire ,county1 ,mass41 ,february #f1 #ahjg1 and is the second son of ,benjamin and ,zilpha ,davis ,sibley4 ,benjamin was the son of ,timothy ,sibley1 of ,sutton1 ,mass41 who was the father of fifteen children--twelve sons and three daughters2 eight of these1 including ,benjamin1 lived to the aggregate age of #fgg years1 an average of about seventy-five years and three months4 ,from the most unpromising beginnings1 without education1 ,hiram ,sibley has risen to a postion of usefulness and influence4 ,his youth was passed among his native hills4 ,he was a mechanical genius by nature4 ,banter with a neighboring shoemaker led to his attempt to make a shoe on the spot1 and he was at once placed on the shoemaker's bench4 ,at the age of sixteen he migrated to the ,genesee ,valley1 where he was employed in a machine shop1 and subsequently in wool carding4 ,before he was of age he had mastered five different trades4 ,three of these years were passed in ,livingston ,county4 ,his first occupation on his own account was as a shoemaker at ,north ,adams2 then he did business successfully as a machinist and wool carder in ,livingston ,county1 ,n4,y42 after which he established himself at ,mendon1 fourteen miles south of ,rochester1 a manufacturing village1 now known as ,sibleyville1 where he had a foundry and machine shop4 ,when in the wool carding business at ,sparta and ,mount ,morris1 in ,livingston ,county1 he worked in the same shop1 located near the line of the two towns1 where ,millard ,filmore had been employed and learned his trade2 beginning just after a farewell ball was given to ,mr4 ,filmore by his fellow workmen4 ,increase of reputation and influence brought ,mr4 ,sibley opportunities for office4 ,he was elected by the ,democrats ,sheriff of ,monroe ,county in #ahdc when he removed to ,rochester2 but his political career was short1 for a more important matter was occupying his mind4 ,from the moment of the first success of ,professor ,morse with his experiments in telegraphy1 ,mr4 ,sibley had been quick to discern the vast promise of the invention2 and in #ahdj he went to ,washington to assist ,professor ,morse and ,ezra ,cornell in procuring an appropriation of #dj1jjj from ,congress to build a line from ,washington to ,baltimore1 the first put up in ,america4 ,strong prejudices had to be overcome4 ,on ,mr4 ,sibley's meeting the chairman of the committee having the matter in charge1 and expressing the hope that the application would be granted1 he received for answer3 ,we had made up our minds to allow the appropriation1 when the ,professor came in and upset everything4 ,why6 he undertook to tell us that he could send ten words from ,washington to ,baltimore in two minutes4 ,good heavens6 ,twenty minutes is quick enough1 but two minutes is nonsense4 ,the ,professor is too radical and visionary1 and ,i doubt if the committee recommend the sum to be risked in such a manner4 ,mr4 ,sibley's sound arguments and persuasiveness prevailed1 though he took care not to say what he believed1 that the ,professor was right as to the two minutes4 ,their joint efforts secured the subsidy of #dj1jjj4 ,this example stimulated other inventors1 and in a few years several patents were in use1 and various lines had been constructed by different companies4 ,the business was so divided as to be always unprofitable4 ,mr4 ,sibley conceived the plan of uniting all the patents and companies in one organization4 ,after three years of almost unceasing toil1 he succeeded in buying up the stock of the different corporations1 some of it at a price as low as two cents on the dollar1 and in consolidating the lines which then extended over portions of thirteen ,states4 ,the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company was then organized1 with ,mr4 ,sibley as the first president4 ,under his management for sixteen years1 the number of telegraph offices was increased from #acb to over #d1jjj1 and the value of the property from #bbj1jjj to #dh1jjj1jjj4 ,in the project of uniting the ,atlantic and ,pacific by a line to ,california1 he stood nearly alone4 ,at a meeting of the prominent telegraph men of ,new ,york1 a committee was appointed to report upon his proposed plan1 whose verdict was that it would be next to impossible to build the line2 that1 if built1 the ,indians would destroy it2 and that it would not pay1 even if built1 and not destroyed4 ,his reply was characteristic2 that it should be built1 if he had to build it alone4 ,he went to ,washington1 procured the necessary legislation1 and was the sole contractor with the ,government4 ,the ,western ,union ,telegraph ,company afterward assumed the contract1 and built the line1 under ,mr4 ,sibley's administration as president1 ten years in advance of the railroad4 ,illustration3 ,,hiram ,,sibley4 ,not satisfied with this success at home1 he sought to unite the two hemispheres by way of ,alaska and ,siberia1 under ,p4 ,mc,d4 ,collins' franchise4 ,on visiting ,russia with ,mr4 ,collins in the winter of #ahfd-e1 he was cordially received and entertained by the ,czar1 who approved the plan4 ,a most favorable impression had preceded him4 ,for when the ,russian squadron visited ,new ,york in #ahfc--the year after ,russia and ,great ,britain had declined the overture of the ,french government for joint mediation in the ,american conflict--,mr4 ,sibley and other prominent gentlemen were untiring in efforts to entertain the ,russian admiral1 ,lusoffski1 in a becoming mariner4 ,mr4 ,sibley was among the foremost in the arrangements of the committee of reception4 ,so marked were his personal kindnesses that when the admiral returned he mentioned ,mr4 ,sibley by name to the ,emperor ,alexander1 and thus unexpectedly prepared the way for the friendship of that generous monarch4 ,during ,mr4 ,sibley's stay in ,st4 ,petersburg1 he was honored in a manner only accorded to those who enjoy the special favor of royalty4 ,just before his arrival the ,czar had returned from the burial of his son at ,nice2 and1 in accordance with a long honored custom when the head of the empire goes abroad and returns1 he held the ceremony of counting the emperor's jewels2 which means an invitation to those whom his majesty desires to compliment as his friends1 without regard to court etiquette or the formalities of official rank4 ,at this grand reception in the palace at ,tsarskozela1 seventeen miles from ,st4 ,petersburg1 ,mr4 ,sibley was the second on the list1 the ,french ambassador being the first1 and ,prince ,gortchakoff1 the ,prime ,minister1 the third4 ,this order was observed also in the procession of #bej court carriages with outriders1 ,mr4 ,sibley's carriage being the second in the line4 ,on this occasion ,prince ,gortchakoff turning to ,mr4 ,sibley1 said3 ,sir1 if ,i remember rightly1 in the course of a very pleasant conversation had with you a few days since1 at the ,state department1 you expressed your surprise at the pomp and circumstance attending upon all court ceremony4 ,now1 sir1 when you take precedence of the ,prime ,minister1 ,i trust you are more reconciled to the usage attendant upon royalty1 which was so repugnant to your democratic ideas4 ,such an honor was greatly appreciated by ,mr4 ,sibley2 for it meant the most sincere respect of the ,autocrat of all the ,russias for the people of the ,united ,states1 and a recognition of the courtesies conferred upon his fleet when in ,american waters4 ,mr4 ,sibley was duly complimented by the members of the royal family and others present1 including the ambassadors of the great powers4 ,mr4 ,collins1 his colleague in the telegraph enterprise1 shared in these attentions4 ,mr4 ,sibley was recorded in the official blue book of the ,state department of ,st4 ,petersburg as the distinguished ,american1 by which title he was generally known4 ,of this book he has a copy as a souvenir of his ,russian experience4 ,his intercourse with the ,russian authorities was also facilitated by a very complimentary letter from ,secretary ,seward to ,prince ,gortchakoff4 ,the ,russian government agreed to build the line from ,irkootsk to the mouth of the ,amoor ,river4 ,after #a1ejj miles of wire had been put up1 the final success of the ,atlantic cable caused the abandonment of the line1 at a loss of #c1jjj1jjj4 ,this was a loss in the midst of success1 for ,mr4 ,sibley had demonstrated the feasibility of putting a telegraphic girdle round the earth4 ,in railway enterprises the accomplishments of his energy and management have been no less signal than in the establishment of the telegraph4 ,one of these was the important line of the ,southern ,michigan and ,northern ,indiana ,railway4 ,his principal efforts in this direction have been in the ,southern ,states4 ,after the war1 prompted more by the desire of restoring amicable relations than by the prospect of gain1 he made large and varied investments at the ,south1 and did much to promote renewed business activity4 ,at ,saginaw4 ,mich41 he became a large lumber and salt manufacturer4 ,he bought much property in ,michigan1 and at one time owned vast tracts in the ,lake ,superior region1 where the most valuable mines have since been worked4 ,while he has been interested in bank and manufacturing stocks1 his larger investments have been in land4 ,much of his pleasure has been in reclaiming waste territory and unproductive investments1 which have been abandoned by others as hopeless4 ,the satisfying aim of his ambition incites him to difficult undertakings1 that add to the wealth and happiness of the community1 from which others have shrunk1 or in which others have made shipwreck4 ,besides his stupendous achievements in telegraph and railway extension1 he is unrivaled as a farmer and seed grower1 and he has placed the stamp of his genius on these occupations1 in which many have been content to work in the well-worn ruts of their predecessors4 ,the seed business was commenced in ,rochester thirty years ago4 ,later1 ,mr4 ,sibley undertook to supply seeds of his own importation and raising and others' growth1 under a personal knowledge of their vitality and comparative value4 ,he instituted many experiments for the improvements of plants1 with reference to their seed-bearing qualities1 and has built up a business as unique in its character as it is unprecedented in amount4 ,he cultivates the largest farm in the ,state1 occupying ,howland ,island1 of #c1ejj acres1 in ,cayuga ,county1 near the ,erie ,canal and the ,new ,york ,central ,railroad1 which is largely devoted to seed culture2 a portion is used for cereals1 and #ejj head of cattle are kept4 ,on the ,fox ,ridge farm1 through which the ,new ,york ,central ,railroad passes1 where many seeds and bulbs are grown1 he has reclaimed a swamp of six hundred acres1 making of great value what was worthless in other hands1 a kind of operation which affords him much delight4 ,his ownership embraces fourteen other farms in this ,state1 and also large estates in ,michigan and ,illinois4 ,the seed business is conducted under the firm name of ,hiram ,sibley ,co41 at ,rochester and ,chicago1 where huge structures afford accommodations for the storage and handling of seeds on the most extensive scale4 ,an efficient means for the improvement of the seeds is their cultivation in different climates4 ,in addition to widely separated seed farms in this country1 the firm has growing under its directions several thousands of acres in ,canada1 ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,holland1 and ,italy4 ,experimental grounds and greenhouses are attached to the ,rochester and ,chicago establishments1 where a sample of every parcel of seed is tested1 and experiments conducted with new varieties4 ,one department of the business is for the sale of horticultural and agricultural implements of all kinds4 ,a new department supplies ornamental grasses1 immortelles1 and similar plants used by florists for decorating and for funeral emblems4 ,plants for these purposes are imported from ,germany1 ,france1 the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and other countries1 and dyed and colored by the best artists here4 ,as an illustration of their methods of business1 it may be mentioned that the firm has distributed gratuitously1 the past year1 #e1jjj in seeds and prizes for essays on gardening in the ,southern ,states1 designed to foster the interests of horticulture in that section4 ,the largest farm owned by ,mr4 ,sibley1 and the largest cultivated farm in the world1 deserves a special description4 ,this is the ,sullivant ,farm1 as formerly designated1 but now known as the ,burr ,oaks ,farm1 originally #dj1jjj acres1 situated about #ajj miles south of ,chicago1 on both sides of the ,wabash1 ,st4 ,louis1 and ,pacific ,railroad4 ,the property passed into the hands of an assignee1 and1 on ,mr4 ,sullivant's death in #ahgi1 came into the possession of ,mr4 ,sibley4 ,his first step was to change the whole plan of cultivation4 ,convinced that so large a territory could not be worked profitably by hired labor1 he divided it into small tracts1 until there are now many hundreds of such farms2 #adf of these are occupied by tenants working on shares1 consisting of about equal proportions of ,americans1 ,germans1 ,swedes1 and ,frenchmen4 ,a house and a barn have been erected on each tract1 and implements and agricultural machines provided4 ,at the center1 on the railway1 is a four-story warehouse1 having a storage capacity of #bj1jjj bushels1 used as a depot for the seeds grown on the farm1 from which they are shipped as wanted to the establishments in ,chicago and ,rochester4 ,the largest elevator on the line of the railway has been built1 at a cost of over #bj1jjj2 its capacity is #ej1jjj bushels1 and it has a mill capable of shelling and loading twenty-five cars of corn a day4 ,near by is a flax mill1 also run by steam1 for converting flax straw into stock for bagging and upholstery4 ,another engine is used for grinding feed4 ,within four years there has sprung up on the property a village containing one hundred buildings1 called ,sibley by the people1 which is supplied with schools1 churches1 a newspaper1 telegraph office1 and the largest hotel on the route between ,chicago and ,st4 ,louis4 ,a fine station house is to be erected by the railway company4 ,mr4 ,sibley is the president and largest stockholder of the ,bank of ,monroe1 at ,rochester1 and is connected with various institutions4 ,he has not acquired wealth simply to hoard it4 ,the ,sibley ,college of ,mechanic ,arts of ,cornell ,university1 at ,ithaca1 which he founded1 and endowed at a cost of #ajj1jjj1 has afforded a practical education to many hundreds of students4 ,sibley ,hall1 costing more than #ajj1jjj1 is his contribution for a public library1 and for the use of the ,university of ,rochester for its library and cabinets2 it is a magnificent fire-proof structure of brownstone trimmed with white1 and enriched with appropriate statuary4 ,mrs4 ,sibley has also made large donations to the hospitals and other charitable institutions in ,rochester and elsewhere4 ,she erected1 at a cost of #be1jjj1 ,st4 ,john's ,episcopal ,church1 in ,north ,adams1 ,mass41 her native village4 ,mr4 ,sibley has one son and one daughter living--,hiram ,w4 ,sibley1 who married the only child of ,fletcher ,harper1 ,jr41 and resides in ,new ,york1 and ,emily ,sibley ,averell1 who resides in ,rochester4 ,he has lost two children--,louise ,sibley ,atkinson and ,giles ,b4 ,sibley4 ,a quotation from ,mr4 ,sibley's address to the students of ,sibley ,college1 during a recent visit to ,ithaca1 is illustrative of his practical thought and expression1 and a fitting close to this brief sketch of his practical life3 ,there are two most valuable possessions which no search warrant can get at1 which no execution can take away1 and which no reverse of fortune can destroy2 they are what a man puts into his head--knowledge2 and in to his hands--skill4--,encyclopdia of ,contemporary ,biography4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hydrastis ,,in ,,dyspepsia4--,several correspondents in ,the ,lancet have lauded hydrastis as a most useful drug in dyspepsia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,ethics ,,of ,,engineering ,,practice4 ,at the ,pittsburg meeting of the ,american ,institute of ,mining ,engineers1 held from the #afth to the #aith of ,february1 ,mr4 ,james ,c4 ,bayles1 the ,president1 delivered the following address3 ,,gentlemen ,,of ,,the ,,institute3 ,having availed myself somewhat liberally during the past two years of the latitude which is accorded the president in the selection of the topics presented in addresses from the chair1 ,i do not need to plead safe precedent as my warrant for devoting the address which marks the conclusion of my service in the dignified and honorable office to which1 through your unmerited favor1 ,i have been twice chosen1 to the consideration of some of the questions in casuistry the answers to which will be found to furnish a basis for a code of professional ethics4 ,it is not asking too much of the engineer that his professional morality shall conform to higher standards than those which govern men who buy and sell with no other object than the getting of gain4 ,the professional man stands in a more confidential relation to his client than is supposed to exist between buyer and seller in trade4 ,he is necessarily more trusted1 and has larger opportunities of betraying the confidence reposed in him than is offered the merchant or the business agent4 ,for the reason that he cannot be held to the same strict accountability which law and usage establish in mercantile business1 he is under a moral obligation to fix his own rules of conduct by high standards and conform to them under all circumstances4 ,whatever the measure of his professional success--whether wealth and reputation crown his career1 or disappointment and poverty be his constant and unwelcome companions--no taint of suspicion should attach to any professional act or utterance4 ,not only should we be able to write above the wreck of bright hopes1 ,honor alone remains1 but upon our great and successful achievements should it be possible for others to inscribe the legend1 ,in honor wrought2 with honor crowned4 ,it is frequently and confidently asserted that at no time in the history of the world were the standards of business honor so high as now4 ,the prevalence of dishonesty1 in one form or another1 is held to show that there is a great deal of moral weakness which is unequal to the strain to which principle is subjected in the keenness of business competition1 and in the presence of the almost unlimited confidence which apparently characterizes commercial intercourse4 ,the enormous volume of the daily transactions on 'change1 where a verbal agreement or a sign made and recognized in the midst of indescribable confusion has all the binding force of a formal contract2 the real-estate and merchandise transactions effected on unwitnessed and unrecorded understandings2 the certification of checks on the promise of deposits or collaterals1 and a hundred other evidences of confidence1 are cited as proof that the accepted standards of business honor are high1 and are kept so by public opinion4 ,all of this is true1 in a certain limited sense2 but the confidence which is the basis of all business creates opportunities for dishonesty which changes its shape with more than ,protean facility when detected and denounced4 ,the keenness of competition in all departments of professional and business enterprise presents a constant temptation to seize every advantage1 fair or unfair1 which promises immediate profit4 ,it is unfortunately true that the successful cleverness which sacrifices honor to gain is more easily condoned by public opinion than honest dullness which is caught in the snares laid for it by the cunning manipulators of speculation4 ,the man who fails to deliver what he has bought1 to meet his paper at maturity and make good the certifications of his banker1 loses at once his business standing1 and is practically excluded from business competition2 but if he keeps his engagements and is successful1 the public is kindly blind to the agencies he may employ to depreciate what he wants to buy or impart a fictitious value to what he wants to sell4 ,viewed from this standpoint1 it may be questioned whether the accepted standards of business morality are not1 after all1 those fixed by the revised statutes4 ,in so far as the engineer is brought in contact with the activities of trade1 he cannot fail to be conscious of the fact that serious temptations surround him4 ,such reputation as he has gained is assumed to have a market value1 and the price is held out to him on every side4 ,it should not be difficult for the conscientious engineer1 jealous of his professional honor1 to decide what is right and what is not4 ,he does not need to be reminded that he cannot sell his independence nor make merchandise of his good name4 ,but as delicate problems in casuistry may mislead or confuse him1 it is to be regretted that so little effort has been made to formulate a code of professional ethics which would help to right decisions those who cannot reach them unaided4 ,standing in the presence of so many of those who have dignified the profession of engineering1 ,i should hesitate to express my views on this subject did ,i not believe that many earnest and right-minded young men in our active and associate membership will be glad to know what rules of conduct govern those whose example they would willingly follow1 and how one not a practicing engineer1 but with good opportunities of observation and judgment1 would characterize practices which have been to some extent sanctioned by custom4 ,to those who have yet to win the gilded spurs of professional knighthood1 but who cherish a high and honorable ambition1 my suggestions are chiefly addressed4 ,an ever present stumbling block in the path of the young engineer is what is lightly spoken of as the customary commission--a percentage paid him on the price of machinery and supplies purchased or recommended by him4 ,that manufacturers expect to pay commissions to engineers who are instrumental in effecting the sale of their products is a striking proof that the standards of business morality are quite as low as ,i have assumed them to be2 that engineers do not unite in indignant protest against the custom1 and denounce as bribe-givers and bribe-takers those who thus exchange services1 shows that the iron has entered the souls of many who may be disposed to resent such plain terms as those in which ,i decree it my duty to describe transactions of this kind4 ,the young man who is tendered a commission will naturally ask himself whether he can accept and retain it1 and may1 perhaps1 reason somewhat in this way3 ,my professional advice was given without expectation of personal profit other than that earned in my fee1 and it expressed my best judgment4 ,the price at which the goods were purchased was that which every consumer must pay1 and was not increased for my advantage4 ,the transaction was satisfactory to buyer and seller1 and was concluded when payment was made4 ,i am now tendered a commission which ,i am at liberty to accept or to decline4 ,if ,i decline it1 ,i lose something1 my client gains nothing1 and the remaining profit to the seller is greater than he expected by that amount4 ,if ,i accept it1 ,i do my client no wrong4 ,if it is the custom of manufacturers to pay commissions1 it must be the custom of engineers to receive them2 and there is no reason why ,i should be supersensitive on a point long since decided by usage4 ,this is false reasoning1 based upon erroneous assumptions4 ,why do manufacturers pay commissions8 ,is it probable they make it a part of their business policy to give something for nothing8 ,is it not certain that they expect an equivalent for every dollar thus disbursed1 and that in paying the engineer a commission they are seeking to establish relations with him which shall warp his judgment and make him their agent8 ,it may be urged in the case of reputable manufacturers that they yield to this custom because other manufacturers have established it1 and that in following the pernicious example they have no other object than to equalize the influences tending to the formation of professional judgment4 ,this reasoning does not change in the least the moral aspects of the question from the manufacturer's standpoint1 but what engineer with a delicate sense of professional honor could offer or hear such an explanation without feeling the hot blush of shame suffuse his cheeks8 ,the plain truth about the commission is that the manufacturer or dealer adds it to the selling price of his goods1 and the buyer unconsciously pays the bribe designed to corrupt his own agent4 ,can an engineer receive and retain for his own use a commission thus collected from his client without a surrender of his independence1 and having surrendered that1 can he conscientiously serve the client who seeks disinterested advice and assistance in the planning and construction of work8 ,it is possible1 perhaps1 for a man to dissociate his preferences from his interests2 so1 also1 is it possible for one to walk through fire and not scorch his garments but how few are able to do it6 ,the young man in professional life who begins by accepting commissions will soon find himself expecting and demanding them1 and from that moment his professional judgment is as much for sale as pork in the shambles4 ,i counsel the young man thus tempted to ask himself1 ,am ,i entitled to pay from the manufacturer who offers it8 ,if so1 for what8 ,if not1 will my self-respect permit me to become his debtor for a gratuity to which ,i have no claim8 ,does not this money belong to my client1 as an overcharge unconsciously paid by him for my benefit8 ,if ,i refuse it1 can ,i not with propriety demand in future that the percentage which this commission represents shall be deducted in advance from the manufacturer's price1 that my client may have the benefit of it8 ,if this is denied1 can ,i resist the conclusion that it is a bribe to command future services at my hands8 ,is not the smile of incredulity with which the dealer receives my assurance that ,i can only take it for my client and hand it over to him1 an insult to the profession1 which1 as a man of honor1 ,i am bound to resent8 ,gentlemen1 it is not true that custom sanctions the acceptance of commissions by the engineer4 ,that it is much too general ,i will not deny1 but there are very few men of recognized professional standing who would confess that they have yielded to the temptation and retained for their own benefit the commissions received by them4 ,i do not hesitate to give it as my opinion that the acceptance and retention of a commission is incompatible with a standard of professional honor to which every self-respecting engineer should seek to conform4 ,those who defend it as proper and right1 and plead the sanction of usage1 are not the ones to whom the young engineer can safely go for counsel and advice4 ,the most dangerous and least reputable of all the competition he will encounter in an attempt to make an honest living in the practice of his profession is that of the engineer who charges little for professional services and expects to be paid by those whose goods are purchased on his recommendation4 ,with equal emphasis would ,i characterize as unprofessional the framing of specifications calling for patented or controlled specialties when1 to deceive the client1 bids are invited4 ,i am well aware that it is easier to procure drawings and specifications from manufacturers than to make them4 ,many manufacturers are very willing to furnish them1 but those who do are careful to so frame the specifications that they can secure the contracts at prices to include the cost of the professional work for which the engineer is also paid4 ,there is nothing unprofessional in recommending a patented article or process if it be1 in the judgment of the engineer1 the best for the purpose to be accomplished1 but he will do it openly and with the courage of his convictions4 ,the young engineer should1 ,i think1 have no difficulty in recognizing the important difference which inheres in the methods by which a given result is accomplished4 ,in the relations of engineers to contractors there is many a snare and pitfall for the unwary feet of the beginner4 ,in superintending the construction of work the engineer may err on the side of unreasonable strictness or on that of improper leniency4 ,if so disposed1 he can involve any contractor in loss and do him great wrong1 but it more often happens that the engineer is forced to assume a defensive attitude and to resist influences too strong for a man of average courage and strength of will1 especially if his experience in charge of work is limited4 ,he should enter upon the discharge of his delicate and responsible duties with a desire to do impartial justice between client and contractor4 ,he is warranted in assuming that his judgment and discretion are his chief qualifications for the position of supervising engineer1 and that all specifications are designed to be in some measure elastic1 since the conditions to be encountered in carrying them out cannot possibly be known in advance4 ,he should not impose unnecessary and unreasonable requirements upon the contractor1 even if empowered to do so by the letter of the specifications4 ,the danger1 however1 is principally in the opposite direction4 ,frequently the engineer has all he can do to hold the contractor to a faithful performance of the spirit of his agreement4 ,he is bullied1 misled1 deceived1 and sometimes openly defied4 ,he must constantly defend himself against charges impeaching his personal integrity and his professional intelligence4 ,the contractor can usually succeed in making it appear that he is the victim of persecution1 and especially in public work he is likely to have more influence than the engineer with those for whom the work is done4 ,it often happens that the engineer1 defeated and discouraged1 gives up the unequal battle4 ,from that moment he is of no further use as an engineer1 and if he remains for an hour in responsible charge of work he cannot control1 he rates his fee as more desirable than a reputation unsullied by the stain of dishonor4 ,he has a right to decline a conflict for which he feels unequal1 but he has no right to consent to a sacrifice of the interests of his client while he is paid to protect them4 ,the questions of professional ethics arising out of the relations between the engineer and the contractor are much too complex to be decided by an inflexible rule of professional conduct1 but the engineer cannot make a mistake in refusing to remain in responsible charge of work when1 by remaining1 he must give consent to that which his judgment tells him involves a wrong to his client4 ,with equal confidence may it be asserted that the engineer who secretly participates in the profits of the contractor1 whatever the arrangement by which such participation is brought about1 sacrifices his professional standing4 ,in making reports for contingent fees or fees of contingent value1 the young engineer needs to exercise great discretion4 ,this may be done without impropriety if done openly2 but it is safe to assume that few opportunities will come to the young man with a reputation still to make in which he can do clean and creditable work on any such basis4 ,the engineer called upon to make a report for a fee in stock which depends for its value upon the effect of his report in creating confidence in the public mind1 takes a fearful risk4 ,however honest he may be1 he places himself in a position in which the danger is obvious and the advantage uncertain4 ,if1 having a contingent interest in the result of his work1 he is afraid to say so in his report1 he may safely consider his position unprofessional and unsafe4 ,contingent fees are a delusion and a snare1 and in making it a rule to refuse them the young engineer will be likely to gain more than he loses4 ,reports intended to influence the public upon subjects concerning which the engineer knows himself unqualified to speak with authority are to be classed with other forms of charlatanry4 ,no man can claim infallibility of judgment1 nor is this expected of the engineer1 whatever his position2 but those who pay for professional services have a right to demand that the man who assumes to speak as an expert shall have the special knowledge which will command for his opinion the respect of those who are well informed4 ,i consider it unprofessional for the engineer to enter upon the discharge of any duties for which he knows he is not qualified1 if for the satisfactory discharge of those duties he must assume a knowledge he does not possess4 ,there has been an immense amount of unprofessional work done in the field of reporting1 and many reputations have been blasted by a failure to draw nice distinctions in questions of professional honor4 ,the young engineer cannot be too careful in this matter1 and he will be fortunate if1 with all the prudence he can exercise1 he is able to avoid disaster4 ,of a professional reputation dependent upon the accuracy as well as the honesty of reports ordered and used for speculative purposes1 one may say as a marine underwriter lately said of an unseaworthy steamer1 that he would not insure her against sinking1 from ,castle ,garden to ,sandy ,hook1 with a cargo of shavings4 ,in the matter of expert service in the courts ,i am disposed to speak guardedly4 ,i see no reason why an engineer should not willingly go upon the witness stand to give expert testimony if he has made proper preparation and has an honest conviction that his testimony can be given with a conscientious regard for the obligations of his oath as a witness4 ,it is his duty and his privilege to defend his opinions1 for the man without opinions which he is prepared to defend is worthless as a witness and cannot properly be called an expert4 ,but the conscientious engineer has no right to appear as a partisan of anything except what he believes to be the truth4 ,if he finds himself parrying the questions of the cross-examination with a view to concealing the truth1 if he realizes that he is a partisan of the side which retains him1 and feels a temptation to earn his fee by falsehood1 concealment1 or evasion1 he can be sure that he is in a position in which no man of honor has a right to be4 ,the abuses of expert testimony in civil and criminal suits are many and grave2 its uses are perhaps exaggerated1 and the witness stand is not an inviting field for the young engineer seeking a satisfactory career4 ,how far an engineer can properly use for his own advantage information gained in the discharge of duties of a confidential nature1 is a question at once delicate and difficult4 ,he cannot help knowing what he has learned1 and his knowledge is his capital4 ,he must be governed in this matter by the considerations which influence men of honor in the ordinary relations of life4 ,stock and real estate operations1 on confidential information which belongs to one's principals1 are usually in violation of the simplest rules of professional honor4 ,the manager who advises his brokers by telegraph and his principals by mail cannot1 ,i think1 claim to have a very delicate sense of right and wrong4 ,he can judge his own conduct by the standard he would apply in judging like infidelity on the part of those employed by him4 ,in professional criticism of professional work1 it is easy to fall into ways which are wrong1 morally and professionally4 ,criticism which is designed merely to advertise the critic serves no good purpose1 and savors of charlatanry or something worse4 ,only a small proportion of the current critical literature of engineering serves any good or useful purpose1 since it has no other or higher object than to help the critics to climb into notoriety on the shoulders of the older and wiser men with whom they are brought into competition4 ,i regard as unprofessional every effort to discredit honest and intelligent work1 and every form of disguised advertising designed to give an engineer a greater prominence than he has earned by successful and creditable work1 or is entitled to claim by virtue of fitness for more than average professional achievements4 ,it is neither possible nor desirable to catalogue the unprofessional practices which in one way or another come to the notice of those observant of current happenings in the several departments of engineering4 ,it is the contention of some that right and wrong are relative terms1 applying to no action or line of conduct save as it is considered in relation to coincident and contingent circumstances4 ,i will not deny that this may be true of all professional acts1 but the impossibility of an arbitrary classification under the heads right and wrong1 honorable and dishonorable1 need not make it difficult for a man to formulate a code of professional ethics by which his own conduct shall be governed4 ,there are certain broad ethical principles which never change4 ,one is that a man cannot serve two masters having conflicting interests1 and be faithful to each4 ,another is that1 however skillfully one may juggle words to conceal meanings or evade responsibility1 if the intent to deceive is there1 he lies4 ,professional ethics are no different from the ethics of the ,decalogue2 they are specific applications of the rules of conduct which have governed enlightened and honorable men in all ages and in all walks of life4 ,it is only when the moral sense is blunted or temptation presents itself in some new and unrecognized form that it is difficult to draw the line between right and wrong4 ,i am aware that a delicate sense of honor often comes between a man and his opportunities of profit1 and that a fine sensitiveness is rarely appreciated at its value by those who employ professional service4 ,i know that in this busy world men of affairs do not always stop to weigh motives1 and that confident assurance always commands respect1 while modest merit is distrusted4 ,but ,i do not know that a man can sell his honor for a price1 and retain thereafter the right to stand erect in the presence of his fellows4 ,i do not know that any engineer can make for himself a creditable and satisfactory career of whom it cannot be said that1 whatever his mistakes or successes1 his failures or triumphs1 he has held his professional honor above suspicion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lifting ,a ,,forty ,,inch ,,water ,,main4 ,illustration3 ,,raising ,a ,,forty ,,inch ,,main ,,on ,,the ,,boston ,,water ,,works4 ,the sketch below1 reproduced from a photograph1 shows the general method adopted for lifting a #dj inch water main on ,brookline ,avenue1 in ,boston1 ,mass4 ,engineering ,news says3 ,the work1 which was commenced in ,june1 #ahhd1 included the raising of #a1jjj feet of this main from to #ah feet to adjust it to a new grade in the avenue4 ,the plan pursued by the ,boston ,water ,department was about as follows3 ,after the pipe was uncovered1 piles were driven in pairs on each side1 #e feet #f inches apart1 and in bents #ab feet apart2 the pile-heads were then tenoned1 and a cap made of two pieces of #d by #ab in4 stuff was bolted on as shown1 and the bents stayed longitudinally4 ,the lifting was done with the pipe empty1 by screws #h feet long1 working in square nuts resting on a broad iron plate on the cap pieces4 ,after all preparatory work was completed1 the lifting of the pipe to its new position was accomplished in about nine hours4 ,after the pipe was raised1 two more #d by #ab inch pieces were bolted to the piles just under the pipe1 and the bottoms of the piles were cross-braced4 ,stringers made of two #f by #ab inch timbers were then placed on the caps1 and a track of standard gauge put into place1 upon which the dump cars used in filling the avenue were run out4 ,the engineer in charge was ,mr4 ,dexter ,brackett1 and we understand from him that a #dh inch main is to be raised in a somewhat similar manner during the present year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,interoceanic ,,canal ,,question4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,foster ,crowell lately read a paper before the ,engineers' ,club of ,philadelphia upon the ,present ,situation of the ,inter-oceanic ,canal ,question1 presenting the subject from a general standpoint4 ,he sketched the history of the various past attempts to establish communication through the ,american ,isthmus1 and traced the developments in the different directions of effort1 which finally concentrated the problem upon the three projects now before the world1 summarizing the progress in each case1 and stating the following propositions3 ,i4 ,that ,panama is the only possible site for a ,sea ,level ,canal1 and that such treatment is the only feasible method at that place4 ,,ii4 ,that ,nicaragua is the only practicable site for a ,slack ,water system 7for a canal with locks71 and that it is pre-eminently adapted by nature for such a use2 that there are no obstacles in an engineering sense1 and no physical drawbacks that need deter the undertaking4 ,,iii4 ,that the ,ship ,railway1 as a mechanical contrivance1 has the indorsement of the best authorities1 and may be admitted to be the ne plus ultra as a means of taking ships from their natural element and transporting them over the land4 ,,iv4 ,that none of these plans has as yet advanced sufficiently to warrant our considering its completion as beyond doubt4 ,v4 ,that1 as the additional sum now asked for by ,de ,lesseps 7even if sufficient7 to complete the ,panama ,canal is greater than the estimated cost of either ,nicaragua ,canal or the ,ship ,railway1 it would be economical to abandon the ,panama ,canal1 and the money sunk in it1 to date1 unless its location and form possess paramount advantages2 and we therefore may profitably consider the relative merits of the three lines without regard to the past1 from four standpoints1 viz43 #a4 ,geographical convenience of location4 #b4 ,adaptiveness to all marine requirements1 present and future4 #c4 ,political security4 #d4 ,economy of construction and operation4 ,he then discussed the comparative claims to excellence4 ,in the first consideration1 after classifying the several grand divisions of future ocean traffic1 and noting especially the needs of the ,united ,states1 he claimed that while there was little to choose1 in this respect1 between ,nicaragua and ,tehuantepec1 either was far superior to ,panama4 ,in the second particular he maintained that owing to the characteristics of the ,panama ,canal and the practical impossibility of enlarging it hereafter1 excepting at stupendous cost1 it could not serve the purposes of the future1 although it might1 if completed1 supply present need4 ,he praised the ingenuity of the plans for the ,ship ,railway1 but emphasized the fact that it will be the movement of the traffic1 not merely the lifting and supporting of ships in transit1 that will test the system1 and suggested that even the beautiful application of mechanical force which had been contrived might be powerless to insure the high grade of service which is an absolute necessity4 ,in this connection the general features of the ,nicaragua ,canal1 in its latest form1 were referred to1 and the opinion expressed that even were all difficulties in the way of the ,ship ,railway eliminated1 it could not be superior to the canal in respect of adaptiveness4 ,in point of political security he claimed that both ,tehuantepec and ,nicaragua were reasonably free from doubts1 with the advantage in favor of the latter1 while at ,panama no security1 for ,united ,states interests at least1 could be counted on1 without the liability of a military expenditure far exceeding the cost of the canal itself4 ,the matter of comparative cost of construction and operation was discussed generally1 and in conclusion the author stated that this all-important question is still an open one1 of which the future needs of our country justify and demand at this time a most searching scrutiny1 and moreover our interest and the interest of mankind require that before this century closes1 the best possible pathway between the ,atlantic and the ,pacific shall be open to the navies of the world4 ,the paper was illustrated with maps and diagrams4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,mersey ,,tunnel4 ,the ,mersey ,tunnel was lately opened by the ,prince of ,wales1 and1 as the ,london ,standard says1 after an infancy of troubles and failures1 and a ten years' middle age of inaction1 the ,mersey ,tunnel emerges into notoriety under the hands of ,mr4 ,james ,brunlees and ,mr4 ,c4,d4 ,fox1 and of ,mr4 ,waddell1 the contractor1 as a triumph of engineering skill4 ,the tunnel is #a1bej yards in length4 ,it is driven through solid1 but porous1 red sandstone1 through which the water has percolated in volumes during construction1 at a level of about #cj feet below the bed of the river4 ,it is lined throughout with blue bricks1 the brickwork of the invert being #c feet in thickness4 ,its transverse section is a depressed oval #bf feet in width and #ba feet in height1 and it contains two lines of railway4 ,at a depth of about #ah feet below the main tunnel there is a continuous drainage culvert #g feet in diameter1 entered at intervals by staple shafts4 ,there are two capacious underground terminal stations #djj feet long1 #ej feet broad1 and #ch feet high1 and gigantic lifts for raising #bdj passengers in forty seconds1 from more than three times the depth of the ,metropolitan ,railway to the busy streets above4 ,these splendid lifts1 the finest in the world1 are now1 through the engineering skill of ,messrs4 ,easton ,anderson1 like the tunnel1 accomplished facts2 and their construction and working were tested and reported on in high terms of favor by the ,government ,inspector1 ,general ,hutchinson1 a few weeks ago4 ,at the ,liverpool end the direct descent to the underground platform of the ,mersey ,railway is about #ij feet2 at the ,birkenhead end the depth is something more4 ,the description of the ,liverpool lifts will well suffice also for the ,birkenhead lifts4 ,the former are under ,james ,street1 where above ground1 rising in lofty stateliness1 is a fine tower for the hydraulic power1 the water being intended to be stored in a circular tank near its summit1 the dimensions of which will be #ae feet in diameter and its internal depth #i feet4 ,from the level of the rails of the ,mersey ,railway to the bottom of this water-tank the vertical distance is #aih feet4 ,at the western side of the subterranean railway there is1 above the arrival platform1 a lower booking-hall1 or1 more properly1 a large waiting room1 #cb feet square and #bi feet high1 the access to which on this side is by a broad flight of steps rising #ab feet1 and to and from which all passengers on the departure platform have communication by a lattice bridge #af feet above the line of rails4 ,from the western side of this hall the passengers will have access to the three lifts1 and will thence ascend in large ascending rooms or cages1 capable of containing one hundred persons each1 to the upper booking-hall on the ground level of ,james ,street4 ,intermediate in height between the lower and upper halls the engine-room for the pumps is located4 ,from the lower hall also there is provided1 independent of the lifts1 an inclined subway1 leading up toward the ,exchange4 ,in this lower subterranean chamber there are four doorways1 #e feet wide1 three of them being fitted with ticket gateways1 and leading to the three lift-shafts1 excavated in the rock1 and lined1 where needed1 with brick4 ,in each of these shafts1 which are #ba feet by #ai feet in sectional area1 a handsome ascending wood-paneled room1 or cage1 formed of teak and ,american oak1 is fitted1 its dimensions in plan being #bj feet by #ag feet1 and its general internal height #h feet2 but in the central portion the roof rises into a flat lantern #aj feet high1 the sides of which are lined with mirrors that reflect into the ascending-room the rays of a powerful gas-lamp4 ,the foundation of this room is a very stiff structure1 consisting of two wrought-iron special-form girders crossing beneath it1 the cross1 #ad inches deep1 connecting them being of steel1 and forged from a single ingot4 ,the central boss of the cross is #bb inches in diameter1 and in this is bored out a central cavity1 into which the head of the steel ram1 #ah inches in diameter1 is fitted2 the ram itself being built up of steel cylinders or tubes1 #aa feet #c inches in length1 which are connected together by internal screws4 ,there is also a central rod within the ram1 as an additional security4 ,the ram descends into a very strong cast-iron cylinder1 #ba inches internal diameter1 which is suspended in a boring #dj inches internal diameter1 and carried down to a depth of over #ajj feet in the rock4 ,the two iron girders under the frame of the ascending-room or cage cross the entire lift space1 and then at their outer ends are attached to four chains which rise over pulleys fixed about #ab feet above the floor of the upper booking-office4 ,these chains thence descend to suspend two heavy counterweights1 so arranged as to work in guides and to pass the ascending-room in the #ab inch interspace between the cage and the side walls of the shaft4 ,these chains are of #a-a_/h inch bar iron1 and have each been tested with a load of over #ae tons4 ,the maximum load which can ever come as a strain upon any chain is about three tons4 ,two chains are attached to each counter-weight1 and special attention has been paid to the attachments of these chains to the cage girders4 ,the stroke of each hydraulic lift is #if feet #g inches4 ,in the engine-room there are three marine boilers1 each #f feet #f inches diameter and #aa feet #f inches long1 and three pairs of pumping engines of patented type1 each capable of raising thirty thousand gallons of water per hour from the waste tanks below the engine-room to the top tank of the tower above ground4 ,there are three suction and three delivery mains1 and these are connected direct to the lifts by a series of change sluices1 admirably1 neatly1 and handily arranged in the engine-room by ,mr4 ,rich1 and in such a way that any engine1 any lift1 or any supply main can be disconnected without interference with the rest of the system4 ,when the tower tank is completed1 it alone1 under any circumstances1 would be able to supply the lifts if every pumping engine were stopped4 ,but if any or all the engines were working1 they would automatically assist the top tank1 for nominally they will keep the top tank exactly full1 and will then stop of themselves4 ,the tower1 as we have indicated1 is not yet completed1 and the pumping engines are consequently doing all the work of the lifts4 ,the ascent and descent of the cages is effected by the attendant who accompanies the passengers1 by means of a rope arrangement4 ,each cage or room is intended ordinarily to take a maximum freight of #ajj passengers1 calculated at about #ae1jjj lb4 ,the hydraulic ram weighs about #aa1jjj lb41 the iron frame and cross of the cage about #f1ejj lb41 and the cage itself about #ac1bjj lb41 the total being about #cj1gjj lb4 ,the mass in motion when a cage is fully loaded is estimated at #fc1jjj lb4 dead weight4 ,the journey of elevation will ordinarily be made within one minute1 but in the experimental trials which have been made the full journey has actually been accomplished in #cb seconds4 ,in the ,board of ,trade tests under ,general ,hutchinson1 weights to the extent of #ae1jjj lb4 were variously shifted1 and in certain cases concentrated in trying localities1 but the cage stood the trials without any appreciable change of form1 and in neither the cage nor the chains were any objectionable features developed4 ,the three lifts can be worked singly or combined1 so that the accommodation is always ready for from #ajj to #cjj persons4 ,further railway connections between the ,mersey ,subaqueous ,railway and the surrounding land lines than those which yet exist are in contemplation4 ,all the booking-halls1 waiting-rooms1 etc41 etc41 in connection with the four stations have been laid with ,lowe's patent wood-block flooring4 ,the blocks are only #a-a_/b inches thick1 but1 being made of hard wood and securely fastened to the concrete bed with ,lowe's patent preservative composition1 they cannot become loose1 and will wear for a long series of years1 until1 in fact1 the wood is made too thin by incessant traffic4 ,the engineer1 ,mr4 ,fox1 and the architect1 ,mr4 ,grayson1 are much pleased with the work1 especially as it is so noiseless and warm to the feet4 ,these floors ought to be adopted more frequently by railway companies in connection with their station buildings1 as dry rot and dampness are effectually prevented1 and a durable and noiseless floor secured4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,revolver4 ,the ,kynoch revolver1 manufactured by the ,kynoch ,gun ,factory1 at ,aston1 ,birmingham1 is the invention of ,mr4 ,henry ,schlund4 ,it may be regarded as the most simple in respect of lock mechanism of any existing revolver1 whether single or double action4 ,it extracts the cartridges automatically1 and combines with this important feature strength and safety in the closing of the breech4 ,certainty of aim when firing is obtained by means of a double trigger1 which serves many purposes4 ,this secures quick repeating as in the double-action revolvers1 and at the same time the revolver is not pulled out of the line of sight1 as the trigger is pulled off by the forefinger1 independently of the cocking motion1 the cocking trigger being longer than the ordinary double-action triggers4 ,the cocking trigger further serves to tighten the grasp1 and so enables the power of the first recoil1 which affects the shooting of all revolvers1 to be held in check4 ,the light pull-off enables a steady shooter to make surpassingly fine diagrams4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,kynoch ,,revolver4 ,the upper side of the barrel is perfectly free from obstruction1 so that the sighting can be done with the greatest ease1 and the entire weapon is flush and without projections which can catch surrounding objects1 with the exception of the cocking trigger1 which seems to require a second guard to render it secure when thrusting the pistol hastily into a holster4 ,at the same time1 it should be remembered that the cocking trigger does not effect the firing4 ,it puts the hammer to full cock and rotates the cylinder1 and these operations may be performed time after time with safety4 ,turning to the mechanical details1 it is noticeable that no tools are required to take the weapon to pieces and to put it together4 ,by removing a milled headed screw seen to the left of the general view1 every individual part of the lock action comes apart1 and can be cleaned and put together again in a few minutes4 ,this screw is numbered #bd in ,fig4 #d4 ,to load the pistol the thumb piece 7marked #b in ,fig4 #d and shown separately in ,fig4 #c7 is drawn back1 and thus withdraws the sliding bolt1 #c1 from the barrel1 #bj4 ,the barrel and cylinder are then tilted on the pin1 #ae--;a shake will effect this if only one hand be available--and as the chamber rises1 the extractor is forced back by the lifter1 #ae1 and the empty shells are thrown out4 ,when the barrel has moved about #hj deg41 the spring1 #ad1 which works the lifter1 #ae1 is tripped1 and the spring #ac carries the extractor home ready for the fresh cartridge to be inserted4 ,when these are in place1 the barrel and cylinder are returned to the position shown in ,fig4 #a1 and are automatically locked by the bolt1 #c4 ,all is then ready for firing4 ,the middle finger is placed on the cocking lever1 and the forefinger within the trigger guard4 ,the cocking trigger is drawn back1 taking with it the firing trigger for the greater part of its stroke4 ,at the same time the lifter1 #h1 which is pivoted to the cocking lever1 engages with a ratchet wheel 7seen in ,fig4 #b7 attached to the cylinder1 and rotates it through one-sixth of a revolution4 ,to insure the exact amount of rotation1 a heel on the trigger1 not to be seen in the engravings1 engages in one of the six slots 7,figs4 #a and #b7 formed round the barrel4 ,the end of the slot is square1 and comes up against the heel1 which tightly grips the cylinder1 and holds it steady while firing4 ,a toe-piece1 just over the figure #d1 in ,fig4 #c1 holds the cylinder when the cocking trigger is in its normal position4 ,the cocking lever also compresses the main spring1 #g1 and holds it in this state until the firing trigger1 #ab1 is pressed by the forefinger against the sear1 #i1 and the hammer1 #e1 is driven forward against the cartridge4 ,if the pistol be not fired1 the release of the cocking trigger takes the pressure off the spring1 and there is thus no danger of accidental discharge4 ,it will thus be seen1 says ,engineering1 that the weapon presents many advantages4 ,it can be loaded on horseback when one hand is engaged with the reins2 there is nothing to obstruct the aim1 and the act of firing does not throw up the muzzle1 for the two operations of cocking and shooting are separate1 and consequently the latter needs only a very light pressure of the finger to effect it4 ,the breech is well protected1 so that the flash from a burst cartridge cannot reach the face of the user4 ,the mechanism is as nearly dust proof as possible1 and can be entirely taken to pieces and cleaned in a few moments1 and the whole forms as handy a weapon as can be desired1 where rapid and accurate shooting is required4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,journal ,,of ,,the ,,society or ,,arts4 ,,motors ,,for ,,street ,,railways4 ,,results ,,of ,,experiments ,,on ,,mechanical ,,motors ,,for ,,tramways ,,made ,,by ,,the ,,jury ,,on ,,railway ,,appliances ,,at ,,the ,,antwerp ,,exhibition4 ,by ,captain ,,douglas ,,galton1 ,d4,c4,l41 ,o4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,an interesting feature of the ,international ,exhibition at ,antwerp was the competition which was invited between different forms of mechanical motors on tramways for use in towns1 and between different forms of engines for use on light railways in country districts1 or as these are termed1 ,chemins de ,fer ,vicinaux4 ,these latter have obtained a considerable development in ,belgium1 ,italy1 and other ,continental states2 and are found to be most valuable as a means of cheapening the cost of transit in thinly peopled districts4 ,but owing to the fact that the ,board of ,trade regulations in this country have not recognized a different standard of construction for this class of railway from that adopted on main lines1 there has been no opportunity for the construction of such lines in ,england4 ,there has1 however1 been a great development of tramway lines in ,england1 which in populous districts supply a want which railways never could fully respond to2 and although hitherto mechanical traction has not attained any very considerable extension1 it is quite evident that if tramways are to fullfil their object satisfactorily1 it must be by means of mechanical traction4 ,it is also certain that the mechanical motor which shall be found to be most universally adaptable1 that is to say1 most pliant in accommodating itself to the various lines and to the varying work of the traffic1 will be the form of motor which will eventually carry the day4 ,the competition between different forms of motors at the ,antwerp ,exhibition1 which was carefully superintended1 and which was arranged to be carried on for a reasonable time1 so as to enable the qualities and defects of the different motors to be ascertained1 affords a starting point from which it will be possible to carry on future investigations4 ,i have1 therefore1 thought it advantageous to the interests of the community in this country to bring the results arrived at before this ,society2 and as the ,chemins de ,fer ,vicinaux1 to which one part of the competition was devoted1 have no counterpart in this country1 it is proposed to limit the present paper to an account of the experiments made on the motors for tramways4 ,certain conditions were laid down in the programme published at the opening of the ,exhibition1 to regulate the competition1 in order that the competitors might understand the points which would be taken into account by the judges in awarding the prizes4 ,the experiments were made upon a line of tramway laid down for the purpose in the city of ,antwerp1 carried along the boulevards from near the main entrance of the exhibition to the vicinity of the principal railway station1 a distance of #b1bib meters4 ,the line ended in a triangle of #eje meters1 in order that those motors which required to run always in the same direction should be enabled to do so4 ,out of the whole length of the line1 viz41 #b1gig meters1 #b1bie meters were in a straight line1 #ahi meters in curves of #a chains radius1 and #cac meters in curves of #a chain radius4 ,there were on the line four passing places1 besides a passing place at the terminus2 these were joined to the main line by curves of #a chains radius4 ,the line was practically level1 the steepest incline being #a in #a1jjj2 this circumstance is somewhat to be regretted1 but the city of ,antwerp afforded no convenient locality where a line with steep gradients could have been obtained4 ,the motors were kept in sheds close to the commencement of the line of tramway near the exhibition1 where all necessary cleaning and such minor repairs as were required could take place4 ,a regular service was established1 according to a fixed time-table1 to which each motor was required to conform4 ,each journey was reckoned as starting from the end near the exhibition1 proceeding to the beginning of the triangle1 and returning to the starting point4 ,an hour was allowed between the commencement of each journey1 fourteen minutes were allowed for a stoppage at the end near the exhibition1 and eighteen minutes at the other end--thus allowing twenty-eight minutes for traveling #b miles #a1ejj yards1 or a traveling speed of about #f miles an hour4 ,the motors were required to work four days out of six1 and on one of the four days to draw a supplementary carriage4 ,an official1 assisted by a storekeeper1 was appointed to keep a detailed record-- #a4 ,of the work done by each of the motors4 #b4 ,of any delays occurring on the journey1 and of the causes of delay4 #c4 ,of the consumption of fuel1 both for lighting the fires and for working4 #d4 ,of the consumption of grease4 #e4 ,of the consumption of water4 #f4 ,of all repairs of whatever nature4 #g4 ,of the frequency of cleaning and other necessary operations required for the efficient service of the motor4 ,the experiments lasted about four months4 ,five competitors offered themselves1 which may be classed as follows3 ,three were propelled by the direct action of steam1 and two were propelled by stored-up force supplied from fixed engines4 ,propelled by the direct action of the steam4 #a4 ,the ,krauss locomotive engine1 separate from the carriage4 #b4 ,the ,wilkinson locomotive engine 7i4e41 ,black and ,hawthorn71 also separate from the carriage4 #c4 ,the ,rowan engine and carriage combined4 ,propelled by stored-up force4 #d4 ,the ,beaumont compressed-air engine4 #e4 ,the electric carriage4 ,it is somewhat to be regretted in the public interest that other forms of mechanical motors1 such as the ,mekarski compressed-air engine1 or the engine worked with superheated water1 or cable tramways1 or electrical tramways1 were not also presented for competition4 #a4 ,the ,krauss locomotive is of the general type of a tramway locomotive1 but with certain specialties of construction4 ,it has coupled wheels4 ,the weight is suspended on three points4 ,the water-tanks form part of the framing on each side2 a covering conceals all except the dome of the boiler4 ,above the roof is a surface condenser1 consisting of #ajh copper tubes placed transversely1 each of which has an external diameter of #a4de inches4 ,the boiler is similar to that of an ordinary locomotive2 its axis is #c feet #aj inches above the road4 ,the body of the engine is #i feet #aa inches long1 and #g feet #b inches wide4 ,the axles are #d feet #aa inches from center to center4 ,the platform extends along each side of the boiler2 the door of the fire-box is in the axis of the road4 ,the engine driver stands on the right-hand side1 in the middle of the motor1 where he has command of all the appliances for regulating the movements of the engine as well as of the brake4 ,the ,wilkinson 7,black and ,hawthorn7 engine had a vertical boiler and machinery4 ,the cylinders were on the opposite side of the boiler from the door of the fire box1 and mounted independently2 the motion of the piston was communicated by means of a crank shaft and toothed wheels to the driving axle4 ,the wheels were coupled4 ,a regulator1 injector1 and a hand-brake were placed at each end1 so that the engine driver could always stand in the front1 whichever was the direction in which the engine moved2 and there was a platform of communication between the two ends1 carried along one side of the boiler4 ,the boiler was constructed with ,field tubes1 the horizontal tube plate having a flue in the middle which carried the heated gases into the chimney4 ,the visible escape of the steam is prevented by superheating4 ,to effect this1 the steam1 as it leaves the cylinder1 passes into a cast iron chamber adjacent to the boiler1 which is intended to retain the water carried off with the steam4 ,from thence the steam passes into a second chamber1 suspended at a small height above the grate in the axis of the boiler and of the flue which conveys the heated gases into the chimney1 and thence into a sort of pocket inclosed in the last-mentioned chamber1 which is open at the bottom1 and the upper part of which terminates in a tube passing into the open air4 ,this method of dissipating the steam avoids the necessity of a condenser2 but if it be admitted that the steam in escaping has a minimum temperature of #egb ,fahr41 it will carry away #ab per cent4 more caloric than would have been required to raise it to a pressure of #aej lb4 per square inch4 ,the steam escaping through the safety valve is passed through the same apparatus4 ,the toothed wheel on the driving axle is arranged to act upon another toothed wheel on a shaft connected with the regulator1 so as to control its speed automatically4 ,the length of the engine is #aj ft4 #aj in41 its width #e ft4 #i in41 and the distance from center to center of the wheels #e ft4 #b in4 ,the ,rowan tram-car consists of a body #ca feet long and #g feet wide1 resting on a two-wheeled bogie behind and on a four-wheeled bogie in front1 this front bogie being the motor1 and the whole has the appearance of a long railway carriage1 somewhat in the form of an omnibus with a platform at each end1 of which the front platform is occupied by the engine4 ,it requires1 therefore1 either a turntable or a triangle at the end of the line1 so as to enable it to reverse its direction4 ,this motor is a steam engine of light and simple form1 supplied with steam from a water tube boiler with very perfect combustion1 so that no smoke escapes4 ,the boiler is somewhat on the principle of a ,shand and ,mason boiler2 it is so built that ,it can easily be opened and every part of the interior examined and cleaned4 ,the peculiarity of the ,rowan motor is the simplicity of the attachment of the engine to the carriage1 and the facility with which it can be detached when required for cleaning or repair1 viz41 in five or six minutes4 ,the steam can be got up in the engine with great rapidity if a change of engine is required4 ,when1 however1 the engine is detached1 the carriage loses its support in front1 and is therefore not serviceable4 ,when necessary1 the combined motor can draw a second ordinary carriage4 ,the motor by itself occupies a length of #i ft4 #h in4 ,it has two horizontal cylinders2 the four wheels of the bogie are coupled1 and between the wheels the sides of the framing are rounded to allow two vertical boilers to stand4 ,these boilers have vertical tubes for the water1 which are joined together at the top by a horizontal cylinder4 ,each boiler1 with its covering1 is #a ft4 #i in4 in diameter4 ,the boilers stand #a ft4 #i in4 apart1 thus affording space between them for the motive machinery1 including the pump4 ,the crank axle is behind the boilers4 ,the levers1 the injector1 the access to the fire-box1 a pedal for working the engine brake as well as a screw brake for the carriage1 are all in front4 ,the brakes act on all six wheels1 are worked by the driver1 and the whole weight of the engine1 car1 and passengers being carried on these wheels1 the car can be stopped almost instantaneously2 and as over two-thirds of the entire weight of the car and passengers rests on the four driving wheels2 there is always sufficient adhesion on all reasonable inclines1 and the adhesion is augmented as the number of passengers carried increases4 ,hence this car is adapted for lines with heavy grades4 ,a small water tank is attached to the framing2 two small boxes for coal or coke1 with a cubic capacity of about #c feet1 are attached to the plate in front of the bogie4 ,the covering of the boilers is in two parts1 which are put on from each side horizontally1 and screwed together in the center4 ,the removal of the upper part enables the tubes to be examined and cleaned4 ,the draught is natural2 the base of the chimney is #c ft4 #b in1 from the grate2 the height of the chimney is #e ft4 #b in4 ,the steam from the cylinders passes directly into a condenser placed on the top of the carriage4 ,the condenser is made of corrigated copper sheets millimeter thick4 ,two sheets1 about #ae to #ah inches wide and #ae feet long1 are laid together and firmly soldered1 forming a chamber4 ,twenty of these chambers are placed side by side on the top of the carriage1 connected with a tube at each end1 so as to allow the steam to pass freely through them4 ,the lower corrugations in the several chambers are connected together1 and thence a pipe with a siphon to stop the steam is carried to a water tank under the carriage1 which thus receives the condensed water4 ,this arrangement afforded a condensing surface of about #hjj square feet4 ,it should be mentioned that with larger engines ,mr4 ,rowan employs as much as #a1fjj feet of condensing surface4 ,the nearness of the chambers to each other tends no doubt to diminish the power of condensing the steam1 but this is somewhat compensated by the artificial circulation of air produced by the movement of the carriage4 ,but in any case1 if there is surplus steam1 the pipe from the condenser causes it to pass under the grate1 whence it rises superheated and invisible through the fire and up the chimney4 ,under the carriage attached to the framing are four reservoirs1 holding about three and a half cubic feet of water1 of which water space one-half acts as a reservoir for cold feed water1 and half for the condensed water4 ,a tube from the small reservoir on the engine communicates through valves with the reservoirs of hot and cold water on the carriage4 ,the consumption of cold water measured during two days was #b4hf lb4 per kilometer2 assuming that the boiler evaporated #f4e lb4 of water per pound of coal1 the cold water formed one-fifth of the total feed water required4 ,the carriage1 i4 e41 the part occupied by passengers1 is #ba ft4 #h in4 in length4 ,it holds seats for forty-five passengers1 besides those who would stand on the gangway and platform4 ,the seats are placed transversely on each side of a central corridor1 each seat holding two people4 ,the platform of the carriage is about #b ft4 #f in4 above the rails4 ,passengers have access to the interior from behind by means of the end platform1 and in front near the engine from the two sides4 ,as already mentioned1 the hind part of the carriage rests upon two wheels1 the front part being1 as already mentioned1 supported on the engine bogie4 ,to effect this support1 the hinder part of the framing of the engine is formed in a half circle1 with a broad groove1 in which the ends of two springs are arranged to slide4 ,the centers of the springs form the support of the framing of the carriage4 ,the framing of the engine bogie is attached to the hind bogie truck of the carriage by two diagonal drawbars4 ,the coupling is effected by bolts close to the engine1 and the car is drawn entirely by means of the bogie pin of the hind bogie4 ,the trucks are #af4e ft4 apart4 ,table ,i4 above shows the dimensions of different parts of these three steam motors1 as well as their weights4 ,the ,beaumont engine1 worked by compressed air1 may be generally said to be similar to that described in a paper read before the ,society of ,arts on the #afth ,march1 #ahha1 to which1 however1 some improvements have been since introduced4 ,the apparatus for compressing the air was placed in the shed4 ,the air was compressed to #fc atmospheres by a pump worked by a steam engine1 and stored in cylindrical reservoirs of wrought iron without rivets4 ,a pipe led the air from the reservoirs to the head of the tramway1 where the cylinder placed on the motor for storing the air during the journey could be conveniently charged4 ,the air was compressed by means of four pumps1 placed two and two in a water-box1 and worked by the direct action of a compound engine1 with cylinders1 placed in juxtaposition1 of #h in4 and #ad in4 diameter respectively1 with an equal length of stroke of #ac in4 ,,table ,i4 ,krauss4 ,wilkinson4 ,rowan4 ,diameter of cylinder444444444d #e4e in4 #f4e in4 #e4a in4 ,length of stroke4444444444444l #aa4h in4 #i in4 #i4h in4 ,diameter of wheels44444444444,d #ca4e in4 #bg4e in4 #bi4e in4 ,pressure at which boiler is worked44444444444,p #bbj lb4 #adg lb4 #aia lb4 7p7d#b7l7_/7#b;,d74444444444444,e #a1baj lb4 #a1eji lb4 #hje lb4 ,total heating surface44444444,s #aje sq4 ft4 #aje sq4 ft4 #fd sq4 ft4 ,grate surface4444444444444444,g #b4g sq4 ft4 #e4d sq4 ft4 #c4a sq4 ft4 ,surface of condenser444444444,c #bgd4dhb s4 ft4 ,none4 #hfa4abj s4 ft4 ,weight in running order 7motor only7444444444444444,p' #ae1djj lb4 #ae1djj lb4 #i1jbj lb4 ,weight in running order 7total744444444444444444444,p - - #ae1djj lb4 ,contents of water tank4444444- #bh4bd cub4 ft4 #ac cub4 ft4 #d4b cub4 ft4 ,contents of coal bunks4444444- #ad4ab cub4 ft4 #ab4e cub4 ft4 #h4e cub4 ft4 ,p'_/,e #ab4g lb4 #aj4b lb4 #aa4b lb4 ,p_/,e - - #ai4abe lb4 ,p'_/,s #adf #adg #adj ,p'_/,g #e1gbb #b1hee #b1hhi ,c_/,s #b4f - #ac4d ,c_/,g #ajb - #bge ,the air1 after being forced through the first pump cylinder1 passed successively through the other three1 the diameters of which were of proportionately decreasing sizes1 viz41 #h4b in41 #e in41 #c4e in41 and #b in41 and the air on leaving each cylinder passed on its way to the next cylinder through a coiled pipe immersed in flowing water to remove the heat generated4 ,this cooling surface amounted to nearly #ed sq4 ft4 ,the cooling of the air was very efficient4 ,in an experiment made on this question1 the temperature of the compressor did not vary to the extent of #i ,f4 in charging the reservoir from #dj to #fc atmospheres1 occupying an hour and a half1 the consumption of water during the time being about #a1djj gallons4 ,the fixed reservoirs were of about #bdj cubic feet capacity4 ,the motor formed part of a compound vehicle1 which may be said to have consisted of two parts joined together by an articulated corridor1 the whole being covered by a roof which was approached from the platform behind by an easy staircase4 ,on this roof were seats for outside passengers4 ,the front part of the compound vehicle contained the motor1 as well as a compartment for six inside passengers1 with roof space for twenty passengers1 and weighed about #ae1djj lb4 when empty2 the hind part contained accommodation inside for twelve passengers1 and outside for fourteen passengers1 and weighed #f1fjj lb4 ,the combined vehicle was entered from the platform in the rear1 which could hold four passengers1 and from thence1 as already mentioned1 the staircase led on to the roof4 ,the total number of passengers this vehicle could accommodate was thus eighteen inside1 thirty-four on the roof1 four on the platform1 or fifty-six in all4 ,the total length of the carriage was #bi ft4 #g in41 the width #g ft4 ,the distance between the axes of the bogies was #af ft4 #i in4 ,the distances apart of the centers of the wheels were in the case of the hind bogie #c ft4 #i in41 and in the case of the front bogie #d ft4 #d4f in4 ,the motor is a compound engine1 the diameters of the cylinders being #d4i in4 and #a4i in41 with a #ab in4 stroke4 ,the diameter of the wheels was #b ft4 #d in4 ,a small boiler is placed on one side1 in front1 for creating steam1 which passes into a steam-jacket1 inclosing the pipe of communication from the reservoir to the cylinders1 as well as the cylinders themselves1 so that the air was warmed before it escaped4 ,the reservoirs on the motor contained #ga cubic feet4 ,in an experiment made on charging the reservoir in the motor1 the pressure in the fixed reservoirs1 at the time of charging the reservoirs on the motor1 was #fc4h atmospheres1 at a temperature of #fh ,f4 ,one atmosphere was lost by letting the air into the pipe laid between the shed and the tramway where the motor stood2 when the reservoir on the motor was charged1 the pressure fell to #db4f atmospheres in the fixed reservoirs1 at a temperature of #ee ,f4 ,the pressure in the reservoir on the motor1 when ready to start1 was #db4f atmospheres1 at a temperature of #hd ,f4 ,on its return1 at the end of forty-six minutes1 after a journey as above mentioned of about three and a quarter miles including the triangle1 the pressure had fallen to #bj4i atmospheres1 and the temperature to #ga ,f4 ,the weight of air used during the journey was thus about #aaj lb41 or1 say1 #cd lb4 per mile4 ,the coal consumed by the stationary engine to compress the air amounted to #ci lb4 per mile1 in addition to #c lb4 of coke per mile for warming the exhaust4 ,while the motor was performing its journey1 the stationary steam-engine was employed in raising the pressure in the fixed cylinders to #fc atmospheres1 and worked1 on an average1 during fifty minutes in each hour2 during the rest of the journey it remained idle4 ,it was thus always employed in doing work in excess of the pressure which could be utilized on the car1 and the work was1 under the circumstances of the case1 necessarily intermittent4 ,this was a very unfavorable condition of working4 ,in the electric tram-car the haulage was effected by means of accumulators4 ,the car was of the ordinary type with two platforms4 ,it was said to have been running as an ordinary tram-car since #ahgf4 ,it had been altered in #ahhd by raising the body about six inches1 so as to lift it clear of the wheels1 in order to allow the space under the seats to be available for receiving the accumulators1 which consisted of ,faure batteries of a modified construction4 ,the accumulators employed were of an improved kind1 devised by ,m4 ,julien1 the under manager of the ,compagnie l',electrique1 which undertook the work4 ,the principal modification consists in the substitution1 for the lead core of the plates1 of one composed of a new unalterable metal4 ,by this change the resistance is considerably diminished1 the electromotive force rises to #b4dj volts1 the return is greater1 the output more constant1 and the weight is considerably reduced4 ,the plates being no longer subject to deformation have the prospect of lasting indefinitely4 ,the accumulators used were constructed in ,august1 #ahhd4 ,the car1 as altered1 had been running as an electric tram-car on the ,brussels tramways since ,october1 #ahhd1 till it was transferred to the experimental tramway at ,antwerp4 ,the accumulators had been in use upon the car during the whole of this period1 and they were in good order at the end of the experiments1 that is to say1 when the exhibition closed at the end of ,october1 #ahhe4 ,the accumulator had forty elements1 divided into four series1 each series communicating1 by means of wires fixed to the floor of the car1 with commutators which connected them with the dynamo used as a motor4 ,there were two sets of these batteries or accumulators1 one of which was being charged in the shed while the other was in use4 ,the exchange required ten minutes1 including the time for the car to go off the tramway into the shed and return to the tramway4 ,this exchange took place after every seven journeys4 ,therefore1 the two batteries would have sufficed for working the car over a distance of about forty-two miles during sixteen hours4 ,it may be observed that the first service in the morning would be performed by means of the accumulators charged during the afternoon and evening of the previous day4 ,each element of a battery was composed of nineteen plates1 of which nine were positive1 four millimeters thick1 and ten negative1 three millimeters thick4 ,each positive plate weighed #a4dd lb41 of which about twenty-five per cent4 consisted of active material4 ,each negative plate weighed nearly #a lb41 of which one-third consisted of active matter4 ,the weight of the metallic part of the battery amounted1 therefore1 to #a1hdf lb42 and the whole battery1 including the case and the liquid1 amounted to #b1dfd lb41 which contained #dii lb4 of active matter1 or about #bj4be per cent4 ,the four cases in which the battery was contained were so arranged as to divide the weight equally between the wheels4 ,two commutators inclosed in a box were placed on the platforms at the two ends of the carriage1 so as to be available for moving in either direction4 ,the accumulators were divided into four series of ten double elements1 which1 by means of the commutators1 could be united under four combinations1 viz43 #ast4 #d series in quantity--#a in tension4 #b;d4 #b #b #c;d4 #c #dth4 #d ,finally1 a fifth movement united the four series in quantity1 coupling them on each other1 and putting the dynamo out of circuit1 thus restoring equilibrium4 ,when in a state of repose1 the handle was so arranged as to keep this latter switch turned on4 ,the accumulators were arranged for charging in two series united in quantity1 each containing twenty double elements4 ,the charge was effected by a ,gramme machine1 worked by a portable engine4 ,each of these series received its charge during seven hours for the ordinary service of the car1 and during nine hours for the accelerated service4 ,the accumulators on the car actuated a ,siemens dynamo1 acting as a motor1 such as is used for lighting1 having a normal speed of #a1jjj revolutions1 fixed on the frame of the carriage4 ,the motion was conveyed from the pulley on the dynamo by means of a belt passing round a shaft fixed on movable bearings to regulate its tension1 and thence to the axles by means of a flat chain of phosphor bronze4 ,the chain was adopted as the means of moving the axle1 on account of its simplicity and facility of repair by unskilled labor4 ,the speed was fixed at #d meters per second 7which corresponds with a speed of nearly #i miles per hour7 for #a1jjj revolutions of the dynamo2 and it was regulated by cutting a certain number of the accumulators out of circuit1 instead of by the device of inserting resistances1 which cause a waste of energy4 ,by breaking the circuit entirely the motive power ceased1 and the vehicle might either be stopped by the brakes or allowed to run forward by gravity1 if the road were sufficiently inclined4 ,the reversal of the motor was effected by means of a lever which reversed the position of the brushes of the dynamo4 ,the dynamo could be set in motion1 and the carriage worked from either end1 as desired4 ,the handle to effect this was movable1 and as there was only one handle1 and this one was in charge of the conductor1 he used it at either end as required4 ,it should be mentioned that the car was lighted at night by two incandescent lamps1 which absorbed #a4e amperes each2 and the brakes also were worked by the accumulators4 ,the weight of the tram-car was #e1fed lb42 the weight of the accumulators was #b1dfj lb42 the weight of the machinery1 including dynamo1 #a1bcb lb4 ,the car contained room for fourteen persons inside and twenty outside4 ,under the conditions of the competition the car was required to draw a second car occasionally4 ,the jury made special observations upon the work required to move the car between the #bjth ,september and #aeth ,october1 #ahhe4 ,seals were attached to the accumulators4 ,moreover1 from the #bgth of ,september1 after each charge1 seals were placed on the belts from the steam-engine to prevent any movement of the ,gramme machine1 so that there could be no charges put into the accumulators beyond those measured by the jury4 ,the instruments used for measuring were ,ayrton's amperemeter and ,deprez's voltmeter1 which had been tested in the exhibition by the ,commission for ,experiments on ,electrical ,instruments1 under the presidency of ,professor ,rousseau4 ,besides this1 ,siemens' electro-dynamometer and ,ayrton's voltmeter were used to check the results2 but there was no practical difference discovered4 ,during the period of charging the accumulators1 the intensity of the current and the electromotive force was measured every quarter of an hour1 and thence the energy stored up in the battery was deduced4 ,it may be mentioned that the charge in the accumulators1 when the experiments were commenced1 was equal in amount to that at their termination4 ,an experiment was made on #bast ,october to ascertain1 as a practical question1 what was the work absorbed by the ,gramme machine in charging the accumulators4 ,the work transmitted from the steam-engine was measured every quarter of an hour by a ,siemens dynamometer2 at the same time the intensity of the electromotive force given out by the machine1 as well as the number of the revolutions it was making1 was noted4 ,it resulted that for a mean development of #d mechanical horse power1 the dynamometer gave into the accumulators to be stored up #b4bh electrical horse power1 or #eg per cent4 ,the intensity varied between #be4jc and #bc4ea amperes during the whole time of charging4 ,of this amount stored up in the accumulators a further loss took place in working the motor2 so that from #cj to #dj per cent4 of the work originally given out by the steam-engine must be taken as the utmost useful effect on the rail4 ,it was estimated that to draw the carriage on the level #j4gad horse power was required1 or if a second carriage was attached1 #j4hdh horse power would draw the two together4 ,this would mean that1 say1 #b horse power on the fixed engine would be employed to create the electricity for producing the energy required to draw the carriage on the level4 ,the electric tram-car was quite equal in speed to those driven by steam or compressed air1 and was characterized by its noiselessness and by the care with which it was manipulated4 ,assuming the car1 by itself1 cost the same as an ordinary tram-car1 the extra cost relatively to other systems was stated as being according to the following figures1 viz43 the ,gramme machine cost #dh1 the motor #bjh1 and the accumulators #b4be francs per kilogramme 7#aj;d4 per pound74 ,to these must be added the cost of erection1 and of switches for manipulating the current2 as well as the proportion of the cost of a fixed engine to create the electricity4 ,having thus given a general description of the various motors which were presented for competition1 ,i will now give a brief summary of some of the principal particulars obtained during the competition4 ,in the first place1 it may be mentioned that the jury consisted of the following3 ,president4--,m4 ,hubert1 ,ingnieur en ,chef1 ,inspecteur de ,direction l'administration des chemins de fer de l',etat ,belge4 ,vice-,president4--,m4 ,beliard1 ,ingnieur des ,arts et ,manufactures1 dlgu par le ,gouvernenent ,franais4 ,members4--,,mm4 ,douglas ,galton1 ,capitaine du ,gnie1 dlgu par le ,gouvernement ,anglais2 ,gunther1 ,ingnieur1 ,commissaire ,gnral de la ,section allemande l',exposition d',anvers2 ,huberti1 ,ingnieur l'administration des chemins de fer de l',etat ,belge1 ,professeur l',universit de ,bruxelles2 ,dery1 ,ingnieur ,chef de service l'administration des chemins de fer de l',etat ,belge4 ,secretary4--,m4 ,dupuich1 ,ingnieur ,chef du service du matrial et de la traction la ,socit ,gnrale des chemins de fer conomiques4 ,reporter4--,m4 ,belleroche1 ,ingnieur en ,chef1 la traction et au matrial des chemins de fer du ,grand ,central4 ,members added by the ,jury4--,,mm4 ,vincotte1 ,ingnieur1 ,directeur de l',association pour la surveillance des machines vapeur2 ,laurent1 ,ingnieur des mines et de l',institut lectro-technique de l',universit de ,lige4 ,the original programme of the conditions which were laid down in the invitation to competitors1 as those upon which the adjudication of merit would be awarded1 contained twenty heads1 to each of which a certain value was to be attached2 and1 in addition to these special heads1 there were also to be weighed the following general considerations1 viz43 a4 ,the defects or inconveniences established in the course of the trials4 b4 ,the necessity or otherwise of turning the motor1 or the carriage with motor1 at the termini4 c4 ,whether one or two men would be required for the management of the engine4 ,as regards these preliminary special points1 the compressed air motor1 as well as the ,rowan engine1 required to be turned for the return journey1 whereas the other motors could run in either direction4 ,in regard to this1 the electric car was peculiarly manageable1 as it moved in either direction1 and the handle by which it was managed was always in front1 close to the brake4 ,this carriage was the only one which was entirely free from the necessity of attending to the fire during the progress of the journey1 for even the compressed air engine had its small furnace and boiler for heating the air4 ,each of the motors under trial was managed by one man4 ,the several conditions of the programme may be conveniently classified in three groups1 under the letters ,a1 ,b1 ,c4 ,under the letter ,a have been classed accessory considerations1 such as those of safety and of police4 ,these are of special importance in towns4 ,but their relative importance varies somewhat with the habits of the people as well as with the requirements of the authorities2 for instance1 in one locality or country conditions are not objected to which1 in another locality1 are considered entirely prohibitory4 ,the conditions under this head are3 #a4 ,absence of steam4 #b4 ,absence of smoke and cinders4 #c4 ,absence1 more or less complete1 of noise4 #d4 ,elegance of aspect4 #e4 ,the facility with which the motor can be separated from the carriage itself4 #f4 ,capacity of the brake for acting upon the greatest possible number of wheels of the vehicle or vehicles4 #g4 ,the degree to which the outside covering of the motor conceals the machinery from the public1 while allowing it to be visible and accessible in all parts to the engineer4 #h4 ,facility of communication between the engineer and the conductor of the train4 ,in deciding upon the relative merits of the several motors1 so far as the eight points included under this heading are concerned1 it is clear that1 except possibly as regards absence of noise1 the electrical car surpassed all the others4 ,the compressed air car followed1 in its superiority in respect of the first three points1 viz41 absence of steam1 absence of smoke1 and absence of noise2 but the ,rowan was considered superior in respect of the other points included in this class4 ,under the letter ,b have been classed considerations of maintenance and construction4 #i4 ,protection1 more or less complete1 of the machinery against the action of dust and mud4 #aj4 ,regularity and smoothness of motion4 #aa4 ,capacity for passing over curves of small radius4 #ab4 ,the simplest and most rational construction4 #ac4 ,facility for inspecting and cleaning the interior of the boilers4 #ad4 ,dead weight of the train compared with the number of places4 #ae4 ,effective power of traction when the carriages are completely full4 #af4 ,rapidity with which the motor can be taken out of the shed and made ready for running4 #ag4 ,the longest daily service without stops other than those compatible with the requirements of the service4 #ah4 ,cost of maintenance per kilometer4 7,it was assumed1 for the purposes of this sub-heading1 that the motor or carriage which gave the best results under the conditions relating to paragraphs #i1 #aj1 #ab1 and #ac would be least costly for repairs47 ,as regards the first of these1 viz41 protection of the machinery against dirt1 the machinery of the electrical car had no protection4 ,it was not found in the experiments at ,antwerp that inconvenience resulted from this2 but it is a question whether in very dusty localities1 and especially in a locality where there is metallic dust1 the absence of protection might not entail serious difficulties1 and even cause the destruction of parts of the machinery4 ,in respect to the smoothness of motion and facility of passing curves1 the cars did not present vary material differences1 except that the cars in which the motor formed part of the car had the preference4 ,in the case of simplicity of construction1 it is evident that the simplest and most rational construction is that of a car which depends on itself for its movement1 which can move in either direction with equal facility1 which can be applied to any existing tramway without expense for altering the road1 and the use of which will not throw out of employment vehicles already used on the lines2 the electric car fulfilled this condition best1 as also the condition numbered #ac1 as it possessed no boiler4 ,in respect to ,no4 #ad1 viz41 the ratio of the dead weight of the train to passengers1 if we assume #aed lb4 as the average weight per passenger1 the following is the result in respect of the three cars in which the power formed part of the car3 #i1cej lb4 ,electric car4 --------- #a4gh #aed #cd #ae1iej lb4 ,rowan4 ---------- #b4cj #aed #de #bb1jjj lb4 ,compressed air4 ---------- #b4ee #aed #ef ,the detached engines gave1 of course1 less favorable results under this head4 ,under head ,no4 #ae the tractive power of all the motors was sufficient during the trials1 but the line was practically level1 therefore this question could only be resolved theoretically1 so far as these trials were concerned1 and the table before given affords all the necessary data for the theoretical calculation4 ,as regards the rapidity with which the motors could be brought into use from standing empty in the shed1 the electric car could receive its accumulators more rapidly than could the boiler for heating the exhaust of the compressed-air car be brought into use4 ,as regards the steam motors1 the following were the results from the time of lighting the fires3 ,the ,rowan-- ,in #cd minutes #c atmospheres4 #cf #d ,at this pressure the vehicle could move-- ,in #dj minutes #h atmospheres4 ,the ,wilkinson-- ,in #ce minutes #b atmospheres4 #dj #d #dd #f #dg #h ,the ,krauss machine required two hours to give #f atmospheres1 which was the lowest pressure at which it could be worked4 ,the results under ,no4 #ag1 viz41 the fewest interruptions to the daily service1 class the motors in the following order3 ,krauss1 electric1 ,rowan1 ,wilkinson1 compressed air4 ,the chief cause of injury to the compressed air motor arose from the carelessness of the drivers1 who allowed the steam boiler to be burnt out4 ,unfortunately1 these drivers were new to the work4 ,under the letter ,c are classed considerations of economy in the consumption of materials used for generating the power necessary for working4 #ai4 ,minimum consumption of fuel 7either coke or coal71 in proportion to the number of kilometers run1 and to the number of places1 assuming for the seats a width of at least sixteen inches for each person seated4 ,it must be borne in mind that the conditions of the competition required that a second car should be periodically drawn by the motor1 and that the calculations which follow include the total number of miles run1 the total amount of fuel1 etc41 consumed1 and the total number of passengers which could be conveyed by each motor1 during the total time that the experiments were being carried on4 ,,table ,,ii4 ,total ,description of motor4 number of ,total ,no4 of lb4 train miles ,consumption per run4 of fuel4 train mile4 lb4 ,electric4 #b1ceh4i #ad #ghf #f4af ,rowan4 #b1faf4i #ad1dih #e4db ,wilkinson4 #b1dgc4c #bb1jjj #h4hb ,krauss4 #b1deg4h #bb1gbf #i4aj ,compressed air4 #b1bei4a #ij1dbj #ci4dh ,,table ,,iii4 ,no4 of places ,no4 of lb4 of ,description of motor4 indicated on fuel consumed the cars1 per ,consumption per places mile run4 of fuel4 indicated per mile run4 lb4 ,electric #hj1bjc4e #ad1ghf #j4ah ,rowan #adh1cii4f #ad1dih #j4ji ,wilkinson #aai1jhe4a #bb1jjj #j4ah ,krauss #ajh1ihc4i #bb1gbf #j4bj ,compressed air #abh1ahi4c #ij1dbj #j4fi ,,table ,,iv4 ,description of motor4 ,no4 of seats per ,no1 of lb4 of mile run4 ,consumption fuel consumed of fuel4 per seat per mile run4 lb4 ,electric #fa1eia4b #ad1ghf #j4bc ,rowan #ace1ibh4h #ad1dih #j4aj ,wilkinson #ic1ife4f #bb1jjj #j4bc ,krauss #hf1jci4i #bb1gbf #j4be ,compressed air #acb1gcb4g #ij1dbj #j4ff ,as regards the figures in these tables1 it is to be observed that the consumption of fuel for the electric car is1 to a certain extent1 an estimate2 because the engine which furnished the electricity to the motor also supplied electricity for electric lights1 as well as for an experimental electric motor which was running on the lines of tramway1 but was not brought into competition4 #bj4 ,minimum consumption of oil1 of grease1 tallow1 etc4 7the same conditions as in ,no4 #ai74 ,,table ,v4 ,total ,consumption ,total consumption of oil1 tallow1 ,description of number of of etc41 motor4 miles run4 oil1 tallow1 per train mile etc4 run4 lb4 ,electric #b1ceh4i #ii4j #j4jch ,rowan1 steam #b1faf4i #ajf4g #j4jch ,krauss1 steam #b1deg4h #ahh4e #j4jgc ,wilkinson1 steam #b1dgc4c #bee4d #j4aja ,compressed air #b1bei4a #ehe4b #j4bee ,in addition to these considerations1 it was thought useful to investigate the quantity of water consumed in the case of those engines which used steam4 ,the experiments made on this point showed as the consumption of water3 ,gallons per mile4 ,rowan #j4ge ,compressed air #a4jf ,wilkinson #e4hi ,krauss #f4eb ,thus1 owing to the large proportion of water returned from the condenser to the tanks1 the ,rowan actually used less water than the compressed air engine4 ,,conclusion4 ,the general conclusion to which these experiments bring us is that1 undoubtedly1 if it could certainly be relied upon1 the electric car would be the preferable form of tramway motor in towns1 because it is simply a self-contained ordinary tram-car1 and in a town the service requires a number of separate cars1 occupying as small a space each as is compatible with accommodating the passengers1 and which follow each other at rapid intervals4 ,but the practicability and the economy of a system of electric tram-cars has yet to be proved2 for the experiments at ,antwerp1 while they show the perfection of the electric car as a means of conveyance1 have not yet finally determined all the questions which arise in the consideration of the subject4 ,for instance1 with regard to economy1 the engine employed to generate the electricity was not in thoroughly good order1 and from its being used to do other work than charging the accumulators of the tram-car1 the consumption of fuel had to be to some extent estimated4 ,in the next place1 the durability of the accumulators is still to be ascertained2 upon this much of the economy would depend4 ,and in addition to this question1 there is also that of the durability of parts of the machinery if exposed to dust and mud4 ,after the electric car1 there is no question but that at the ,antwerp ,exhibition the most taking of the tramway motors was the ,rowan1 which was very economical in fuel1 quite free from the appearance of steam1 and very convenient and manageable4 ,the economy of the ,rowan motor arises in a large degree from the extent of its condensing power1 by means of which a considerable supply of warm water is constantly supplied for use in the boiler1 and consequently the quantity of water which has to be carried is lessened1 and the fuel is economized4 ,independently1 however1 of its convenience as a motor for tramways in towns1 the ,rowan machine has been adapted on the ,continent to the conveyance of goods as well as passenger traffic on light branch railways1 and fitted to pass over curves of #ej feet radius1 and up gradients of #a3aj4 ,in ,england1 with our depressed trade and agriculture1 there is a great want in many parts of the country of a cheap means of conveyance from the railway stations into the surrounding districts2 such a means of conveyance might be afforded by light railways along or near the road-side1 the cost of which would be comparatively small1 provided that the expensive methods of construction1 of signaling1 and of working which have been required for main lines1 and which are perfectly unnecessary for such light railways1 were dispensed with4 ,it is certain that this question will acquire prominence as soon as a system of local government has been adopted1 in which the wants of the several communities have full opportunity of asserting themselves1 and in which each local authority shall have power to decide on those measures which are essential to the development of the resources of its own district1 without interference from a centralized bureaucracy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,telephone ,,transmitter4 ,by ,e4 ,,mercadier4 ,footnote3 ,note presented to the ,academy of ,sciences1 ,oct4 #ai1 #ahhe4 ,the first point to be studied in this theory is the role performed by the iron or steel diaphragm of the telephone1 both as regards the nature of the movements that it effects through elasticity and the conversion of mechanical into magnetic energy as a result of its motions4 ,i4 ,when we produce simple or complex vibratory motions in the air in front of the diaphragm1 like those that result from articulate speech1 either the fundamental and harmonic sounds of the diaphragm are not produced1 or else they play but a secondary role4 7#a47 ,in fact1 diaphragms are never set in vibration1 as is supposed1 when we desire to determine the series of harmonics and nodal lines1 since we do not leave them to themselves until they have been set in motion1 and we do not allow a free play to the action of elastic forces2 in a word1 the vibrations that they are capable of effecting are constantly forced ones4 7#b47 ,when a disk is set into a groove1 and its edges are fixed1 theory indicates that the first harmonics of the free disk should only rise a little4 ,let us take steel disks #d inches in diameter and but #j4jh inch in thickness1 and of which the fundamental sound in a free state is about ut#e1 and which the setting only further increases4 ,it is impossible to see how this fundamental and the harmonics can be set in play when a continuous series of sounds or accords below ut#e1 are produced before the disk2 and yet these sounds are produced perfectly 7with feeble intensity1 it is true1 in an ordinary telephone7 with their pitch and quality4 ,they produce1 then1 in the transmitting diaphragm other motions than those of the fundamental sound and of its peculiar harmonics4 7#c47 ,it is true that in practice the edges of the telephone diaphragm are in nowise fixed1 but merely set into a groove1 or rather clamped between wooden or metallic rings1 whose mass is comparable to their own2 and they are1 therefore1 as regards elasticity1 in an ill ascertained state4 ,yet a diaphragm of the usual diameter 7from #b to #d inches71 and very thin 7from #j4jja to #j4jb inch71 clamped in this way by its edges1 is capable of vibrating when a continuous series of sounds are produced near it1 by means1 for example1 of a series of organ pipes4 ,but the series of sounds that it clearly re-enforces1 in exhibiting a kind of complex nodal lines1 is plainly discontinuous2 and how1 therefore1 would the existence of such series suffice to explain the production of a continuous scale of isolated or superposed sounds1 the chief property of the telephone8 7#d47 ,the interposition of a plate of any substance whatever between the diaphragm and the source of the vibratory motions in nowise alters the telephonic qualities of the diaphragm1 and consequently the nature of the motions that it effects--a fact that would be very astonishing if the motions were those that corresponded to the peculiar sounds of the diaphragm4 ,this fact is already known1 and ,i have verified it with mica1 glass1 zinc1 copper1 cork1 wood1 paper1 cotton1 a feather1 soft wax1 sand1 and water1 even in taking thicknesses of from #e to #h inches of these substances4 7#e47 ,we can put a diaphragm manifestly out of condition to effect its peculiar scale of harmonics by placing small1 unequal1 and irregularly distributed bodies upon its surface1 by cutting it out in the form of a wheel1 and by punching a sufficient number of holes in it to reduce it half in bulk4 ,none of these modifications removes its telephonic qualities4 7#f47 ,we can go still further1 and employ diaphragms of scarcely any stiffness and elasticity without altering their essential telephonic properties1 the reproduction of a continuous series of sounds1 accords1 and timbres4 ,such is the case with a sheet iron diaphragm4 ,it is very difficult1 then1 to imagine a fundamental sound and its harmonics4 ,the conclusion from all this appears to me to be that the mechanism by virtue of which telephone diaphragms perform their motions is at least analogous to1 if not identical with1 that through which solid bodies of any form whatever 7a wall1 for example7 transmit to all of their surfaces all the simple or complex successive or simultaneous vibratory motions1 of periods varying in a continuous or discontinuous manner1 that are produced in the air in contact with the other surface4 ,in a word1 we have here a phenomenon of resonance4 ,in diaphragms of sufficient thickness this kind of motion would exist alone4 ,in thin diaphragms the motions that correspond to their special sounds might become superposed upon the preceding1 and this would be prejudicial rather than useful1 since1 in such a case1 if there resulted a re-enforcement of the effects produced1 it would be at the expense of the reproduction of the timbre1 the harmonics of the diaphragm being capable of coinciding only through the merest accident with those of the sounds that were setting in play the fundamental sound of the diaphragm4 ,this is what experiment clearly demonstrates4 ,,ii4 ,let us now pass to the magnetic role of the telephone diaphragm4 ,such role can be clearly enough defined by the following facts3 7#a47 ,the presence of the magnetic field of the telephone in nowise changes the preceding conclusions4 7#b47 ,upon farther and farther diminishing the stiffness and elasticity of the diaphragm1 ,i have succeeded in suppressing it entirely4 ,in fact1 it is only necessary to substitute for it1 in any telephone whatever1 a few grains of iron filings1 thrown upon the pole of the magnet1 covered with a bit of paper or cardboard1 in order to render it possible to reproduce all sounds1 and articulate speech with its characteristic quality1 although1 it is true1 with very feeble intensity4 7#c47 ,in order to increase the intensity of the effect produced1 it suffices to substitute for the iron diaphragm a thin disk of any sort of slightly flexible substance1 metallic or otherwise1 cardboard1 for example1 and through the aperture of the usual cover of the instrument to scatter over it from #a to #c grains of iron filings4 ,in this way we obtain an iron filings telephone4 ,by properly increasing the intensity of the magnetic field1 ,i have been able to form telephones of this kind that produced in an ordinary receiver as intense effects as those given by the usual transmitters with stiff disks1 and which1 too1 were reversible4 ,but for a field of given intensity1 there is a weight of iron filings that produces a maximum of effect4 ,we thus see that the advantage of the iron diaphragm over filings is truly reduced to the presentation of a much larger number of magnetic molecules to the action of the field and to external actions1 within the same volume4 ,it increases the intensity of the telephonic effects1 although for the production of the latter with all their variety1 fineness1 and perfection it is nowise indispensable4 ,it suffices1 after a manner1 to materialize the lines of force with iron filings1 and to act mechanically upon them1 and consequently upon the field itself4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,receiver ,,of ,,the ,,electro-,,magnetic ,,telephone4 ,by ,e4 ,,mercadier4 ,footnote3 ,note presented to the ,academy of ,sciences1 ,november #af1 #ahhe4 ,on a former occasion ,i described some experiments that had led me to a theory of the telephone transmitter2 a few words will suffice to expose that of the receiver4 ,such theory gave rise during the first years succeeding the invention of the telephone to a considerable number of investigations1 the principal results of which may be summed up in the two following points3 #a4 ,all the parts of a telephone receiver--core1 helix1 disk1 handle1 etc4--vibrate simultaneously 7,boudet1 ,laborde1 ,breguet1 ,ader1 ,du ,moncel1 and others74 ,but there is no doubt that by far the most energetic effects are those of the disk4 ,it has been possible to put the vibrations of the core and helix beyond a doubt only by employing very energetic transmitter currents1 or very simplified and special arrangements of the receiver 7,ader1 ,du ,moncel1 and others74 #b4 ,in telephone receivers we may employ disks or diaphragms of any thickness up to six inches 7,bell1 ,breguet1 and others74 ,from the first point it had already resulted that the diaphragm was no more indispensable in the receiver than it was in the transmitter1 as ,i have already shown 7,comptes ,rendus1 t4 ci41 p4 #idd72 and1 from the second point1 that there were other effects in a receiver than those that could result from the transverse vibrations corresponding to the fundamental sound and to the harmonics of the diaphragm4 ,so ,du ,moncel1 basing a theory upon these two categories of facts1 asserted that the effects of the telephone receiver were principally due to the molecular vibrations of the core of the electro-magnet 7analogous to those that had been studied by ,page1 ,de la ,rive1 ,wetheim1 ,reis1 and others71 super-excited and re-enforced by the iron diaphragm operating as an armature4 ,this theory has certainly truth for a basis2 but it is incomplete1 in that the molecular vibrations of the core are but a very feeble accessory phenomenon1 and not a prominent one4 ,at all events1 ,i believe that we can1 in a few words1 and very simply1 present the theory of the telephone receiver by going back to the facts that served me as a basis for the theory of the transmitter1 and that result from studies made with telephones of ordinary forms4 ,in fact1 it is enough to remark that the iron filings telephone transmitter described in a preceding article 7#a4 c47 is reversible and capable of serving as a receiver--not a very intense one1 it is true1 but here it is a question of the nature of the phenomena1 and not of their intensity4 ,it at once results that in receivers1 as in transmitters1 the rigidity of the iron diaphragm is in nowise indispensable for telephonic effects1 such as the production of continuous series of successive or simultaneous sounds and of articulate speech4 ,the diaphragm serves but to increase the intensity of these effects1 as in the transmitter1 by concentrating the lines of force of the field1 and by presenting a greater surface to the air--the necessary vehicle of sound4 ,when it is thick1 the internal motions that it takes on in consequence of variations in the field1 and which are transmitted to the surrounding air and the ear1 are solely those of resonance4 ,when it is very thin1 the peculiar motions resulting from its geometric form and its structure may become superposed upon the preceding1 because it may then happen that the corresponding sounds remain within the limits of the pitch wherein the human voice usually moves 7from ut#b to ut#e72 but then1 also1 as the harmonics of the voice in nowise coincide with the proper sounds of the diaphragm1 the intensity of the effects is obtained at the expense of a good reproduction of the timbre4 ,this is certainly one of the causes of the nasal timbre of most thin-diaphragmed telephones4 ,by diminishing their thickness1 we lose in quality what we gain in intensity4 ,but even in this latter respect there is a maximum for receivers1 as ,i have already pointed out that there is for iron filings transmitters4 ,for a magnetic field of given intensity1 there is1 all things equal1 a diaphragm thickness that gives a maximum telephonic result4 ,such result1 which is analogous to those that occur in other electro-magnetic phenomena1 may explain the want of success of many tentatives made somewhat at haphazard1 with a view to increasing the intensity of telephonic effects4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,decomposition ,,and ,,fermentation ,,of ,,milk4 ,dr4 ,f4 ,hueppe1 who has paid great attention to this subject1 describes five distinct organisms which he finds to be invariable accompaniments of lactic fermentation4 ,one of these he isolated on nutrient gelatine in the form of white1 shining1 flat1 minute beads4 ,this organism has the power of transforming milk sugar and other saccharoses into lactic acid1 with evolution of carbonic acid gas4 ,it is rarely found in the saliva or mucilage of the teeth4 ,in these are two micrococci1 both of which cause the production of lactic acid1 but which manifest differences in their development under cultivation4 ,there are also two pigment forming bacteria1 ,micrococcus prodigiosus1 which produces intensely red spots1 and the yellow micrococcus of osteomyelitis4 ,these five bacteria are so different and so constant in their properties that they must1 in ,dr4 ,hueppe's opinion1 be regarded as distinct species4 ,in addition to them there is in milk an organism resembling ,mycoderma aceti1 which transforms milk sugar into gluconic acid4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,new ,,burgtheater ,,in ,,vienna4 ,at last the new ,burgtheater in ,vienna is completed4 ,we say at last1 for work was begun on this new theater more than ten years ago4 ,one after another1 monumental architectural works have been erected1 which are no less grand and beautiful than this4 ,they were finished long ago1 and given over to their respective uses--the ,parliament buildings1 the ,rathhaus1 the ,university2 but ,baron ,hasenauer1 who had charge of the construction of this building1 as well as of many others1 could not bring himself to the quicker tempo of ,messrs ,hansen1 ,schmid1 and ,ferstel4 ,the citizens of ,vienna were naturally impatient to see their beautiful ,ringstrasse completed1 and only the ,hasenauer buildings were needed to make it perfect4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,imperial ,,palace ,,theatre1 ,,vienna4 ,,original ,,design ,,by ,j4,j4 ,,kirchner4 ,the building was built according to the plans of ,semper and ,hasenauer2 for1 as in the other great buildings erected by ,hasenauer1 the new palace and the museums1 ,semper's plans served as a foundation4 ,all the modern improvements in the architecture of theaters have been embodied in the new theater1 for the terrible catastrophe at the ,ringtheater taught a lesson which has not been forgotten1 and the greatest care has been taken to guard against fire4 ,the new ,burgtheater stands directly opposite the imposing ,rathhaus 7senate-house71 and is separated from the same by a charming park2 to the right stands the ,university1 and to the left the ,houses of ,parliament4 ,in order to be worthy of such company1 and not be overshadowed by these buildings1 it was necessary that the theater should be very grand4 ,the most important requirements have been perfectly fulfilled2 beauty1 elegance1 appropriateness1 and security against fire1 nothing has been neglected4 ,the principal part of the building stands out strongly1 and is flanked on either side by a pavilion-like wing4 ,the audience room will accommodate about two thousand people4 ,the public and the actors alike rejoice in the new ,burgtheater1 for which they have waited so long4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,new ,,german ,,bookdealers' ,,exchange ,,in ,,leipzig4 ,it seems strange that book-printing and the book trade in general should have developed so slowly in the busy city of ,leipzig1 where a university was established as early as the beginning of the fifteenth century4 ,the first honorable mention of the printing of ,leipzig was made during the first decade of the sixteenth century1 but it was not until the end of the seventeenth century that the printing and publishing of books received a notable impulse1 which was given it by ,messrs4 ,j4,f4 ,gleditsch and ,thomas ,fritsche and ,profs4 ,carpzov and ,mericke1 who published many works of great typographical beauty4 ,from #afhb to #agjj ninety-one papers and periodicals appeared in ,leipzig1 of which the ,acta eruditorum was the oldest1 being the first ,german scientific paper4 ,at this time there were seventeen printing establishments in ,leipzig1 and the seventy presses in use printed1 on an average1 #b1jjj bales of paper yearly4 ,one of the leading bookdealers1 ,philipp ,emanuel ,reich1 won the approbation of his fellow citizens by establishing the first ,bookdealers' ,association at the time of the ,easter ,fair in ,leipzig1 in #agfd1 and it was through his efforts that the ,book ,exchange or ,fair was founded1 which has placed ,leipzig at the head of the book trade2 but several years passed before this private undertaking become a public association4 ,about #ahcd a building was erected specially for a book exchange or bourse1 but this building was soon outgrown1 and it was decided to build a new one which should be adequate to the requirements of the institution4 ,a competition for designs for the new building was opened1 and five designs were presented1 from which the plan of ,messrs4 ,kayser and ,von4 ,grossheim1 of ,berlin1 was selected4 ,this design1 which is shown in the accompanying cut1 taken from the ,illustrirte ,zeitung1 presents a picturesque grouping of the different parts of the building1 the main building being on one street and the adjoining building on another street4 ,the roof1 which forms a beautiful sky-line1 is ornamented with dormer-windows and little towers1 there being a large tower on the main building4 ,illustration3 ,,prize ,,plan ,,for ,,the ,,new ,,book ,,exchange ,,in ,,leipzig1 ,,by ,,messrs4 ,,kayser ,,and ,,von ,,grossheim1 ,,architects4 ,to the left of the principal hall in the main building1 which has three large ornamental windows1 there is a little hall1 the central office1 and committee rooms1 while the restaurant and the assembly rooms are on the right4 ,in the smaller building1 through which there is a central corridor1 are the order rooms1 assorting rooms1 editorial sanctum of the ,borsenblat 7,bourse journal71 and the post office1 with telegraph offices4 ,a low building runs almost the entire length of the main building1 to which it is joined at the right and left by side wings1 thus inclosing an open court4 ,in this low building the exhibition rooms are arranged1 and in the middle is a vestibule through which these exhibition rooms1 the wardrobes1 and the great hall can be reached4 ,over the vestibule is a cupola4 ,the arrangements for lighting1 heating1 and ventilation are excellent4 ,steam heat is used1 and the large hall is ventilated by the pulsation system4 ,the building1 which is of red brick and sandstone1 is worthy of holding a place among the numerous beautiful buildings which have been erected in ,leipzig during the last few years4 ,the cost of the building was limited to #gjj1jjj ,m41 or about #afj1jjj4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a correspondent has transmitted to the editor of ,l',union ,pharmaceutique the prospectus of an oyster dealer who1 besides dealing in the ordinary bivalves1 advertises specialties in medicinal oysters1 such as huitres ferrugineuses and huitres au goudron4 ,the huitres ferrugineuses are recommended to anmic persons1 and the huitres au goudron are said to replace with advantage all other means of administering tar1 while of both it is alleged that analyses made by distinguished savants leave no doubt as to their valuable qualities4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,alizarine ,,dyes4 ,notwithstanding the unprecedented progress of the coal-tar dyestuff industry during the past few decades1 the time-honored indigo1 logwood1 fustic1 etc41 have been only partly displaced by the coal-tar products in wool dyeing4 ,the cause is that1 though the dyer handled many aniline dyestuffs which dyed as fast against light as logwood or fustic1 the dye proved unsatisfactory for fulling goods1 because it bled in the treatment with soap and soda1 and often more or less changed its tone4 ,we intend to render a service to our readers by calling their special attention to some products of the coal-tar industry which are free from these defects of aniline dyestuffs1 and for which it is claimed that they far surpass logwood1 fustic1 cudbear1 etc41 as to fastness against light1 and excellently stand fulling4 ,we allude to the alizarine dyestuffs1 which have long since been introduced and are largely employed in cotton dyeing and printing4 ,alizarine1 which has been extensively discussed in various articles in our journal1 is the coloring matter contained in the madder root4 ,in #ahfi1 two ,german chemists1 ,graebe and ,liebermann1 succeeded in artificially producing this dyestuff from anthracene1 a component of coal-tar4 ,the artificial dyestuff being perfectly pure and free from those contaminations which render the use of madder difficult1 it soon was preferred to the latter1 which it has at present nearly completely displaced4 ,the discovery of alizarine red was soon followed by those of alizarine orange1 galleine1 coeruleine1 and1 in #ahgh1 of alizarine blue4 ,the slow adoption of these dyestuffs in the wool-dyeing industry is principally attributable to the deep-rooted distrust of wool dyers against any innovation4 ,this resistance1 however1 is speedily disappearing1 as every manufacturer and dyer trying the new dyestuffs invariably finds that they are in no respect inferior to his fastest dyes produced with indigo and madder1 but are simpler to apply and more advantageous for wool4 ,the alizarine colors are dyed after an old method which is known to every wool dyer4 ,the wool is first boiled for #a hours with chromate of potash and tartar1 then dyed upon a fresh bath by #b to #c hours' boiling4 ,all alizarine colors 7such as those of the ,badische ,anilin und ,soda ,fabrik1 of ,ludwigshafen and ,stuttgart2 ,wm4 ,pickhardt ,kuttroff1 ,new ,york1 ,boston1 and ,philadelphia1 viz473 ,alizarine orange ,w1 for brown orange1 ,alizarine red ,,wr1 for yellow touch ponceau or scarlet1 ,alizarine red ,,wb1 for blue touch yellow or scarlet1 ,alizarine blue ,,wx and ,,sw1 for bright blue1 ,alizarine blue ,,wr ,,srw1 for dark reddish blue1 ,coeruleine ,w and ,,sw1 for green1 and ,galleine ,w1 for dahlia1 are dyed after the same method1 which offers the great advantage that all these colors can be dyed upon one bath1 and that by their mixture numerous fast colors can be produced4 ,on the ground of numerous careful experiments1 the writer recommends the following method1 which gives well developed and well fixed colors1 viz43 ,for #ajj kil4--,the scoured and washed wool is mordanted by boiling for #a hours in a bath containing #c kil4 chromate of potash and #b kil4 tartar1 and lightly rinsed2 when it can immediately be dyed4 ,for #a1jjj lit4 water1 #a lit4 acetic acid of about #g ,be4 is added to the bath4 ,if the water is very hard1 double the quantity of acetic acid1 which is indispensable1 is added4 ,then the required quantity of dyestuff is added1 well stirred1 the wool entered1 and the temperature raised to boiling1 which is continued for #b to #c hours1 that is1 until a sample taken does no longer surrender any color to a hot solution of soap4 ,loose wool and worsted slubbing can be entered at #fj ,c4 7#adj ,f474 ,in dyeing yarn and piece-goods1 however1 it is advisable to enter the bath cold1 work for about #a_/d hour in the cold1 and then slowly to raise the temperature in about one hour to the boiling point4 ,with this precaution1 level and thoroughly dyed goods are always obtained4 ,if the wool is entered in a hot bath1 or if it is rapidly brought to a boil1 the dyestuff is too rapidly fixed by the mordant and is liable to run up unevenly1 and1 with piece-goods1 more superficially4 ,for the same reason the goods must always be well wetted out before entering the bath4 ,we add some special recipes for the various colors1 the mordant for all of them being of #c per cent4 chromate of potash and #b per cent4 tartar for #ajj by weight of dry wool4 #a4 ,orange1 ,brown ,touch4 #bj kil4 wool1 mordant with #fjj grm4 chromate of potash and #ejj grm4 tartar1 dye with #c kil4 alizarine orange ,w4 #b4 ,ponceau1 ,yellow ,touch4 #bj kil4 wool1 mordant as for ,no4 #a1 dye with #b kil4 alizarine red ,,wr #bj per cent4 #c4 ,ponceau1 ,blue ,touch4 #bj kil4 wool1 mordant like ,no4 #a1 dye with #b kil4 alizarine red ,,wb #bj per cent4 #d4 ,dahlia4 #bj kil4 wool1 mordant like ,no4 #a1 dye with #e kil4 galleine ,w4 #e4 ,green4 #bj kil4 wool1 mordant like ,no4 #a1 dye with #f kil4 coeruleine ,w4 ,for ,piece-goods4 #bj kil cloth1 mordant the same1 dye with #a kil4 #bjj grm4 coeruleine ,,sw4 #f4 ,blue1 ,bright4 #bj kil4 wool1 mordant the same1 dye with #f kil4 alizarine blue ,,wx4 ,for ,piece-goods4 #bj kil4 cloth1 mordant the same1 dye with #a kil4 #bjj grm4 alizarine blue ,,sw4 #g4 ,blue1 ,dark and ,red ,touch4 #bj kil4 wool1 mordant like ,no4 #a1 dye with #f kil4 alizarine blue ,,wr4 ,for ,piece-goods4 #bj kil4 cloth1 mordant the same1 dye with #a kil4 #bjj grm4 alizarine blue ,,srw4 ,particular stress is to be laid upon the great fastness of the alizarine dyes against light and fulling4 ,besides1 these dyestuffs contain nothing whatever injurious to the wool fiber4 ,sanders1 which very much tenders the wool1 as every dyer knows1 can in all cases be replaced by alizarine red and alizarine orange1 making an end to the spinners' frequent complaints about too much waste4 ,alizarine blue in particular seems to be destined to replace indigo in the majority of its applications1 having at least the same power of resisting light and acids1 and relieving the dyer of the troublesome1 protracted rinsings required for indigo dyed goods4 ,every piece-dyer knows that the medium and dark indigo blue goods still rub off1 even after eight hours' rinsing2 but alizarine blue pieces are perfectly dyed through and clean after one hour of rinsing4 ,another advantage of alizarine blue and the other alizarine dyestuffs is that they unite with all wood colors1 as well as with indigo carmine and all aniline dyestuffs4 ,a fine and cheap dark blue1 for instance1 is obtained by mordanting the wool as above stated and dyeing 7#bj kil47 in the second bath with #f kil4 alizarine ,,wx and #b kil4 logwood chips2 the wood is added to the bath together with the alizarine blue ,,wx1 and the best method is to put it into a bag which is hung in the bath4--,d4 ,woll4-,gew42 ,tex4 ,colorist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,papier mach has come of late to be largely used in the manufacture of theatrical properties1 and nearly all the magnificent vases1 the handsome plaques1 the graceful statues1 and the superb gold and silver plate seen to-day on the stage are made of that material4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cement ,,paving4 ,the streets of ,old ,london at the recent ,inventions ,exhibition at ,south ,kensington were paved with a material in imitation of old1 worn bowlder stones and red1 herring-boned brickwork1 all in one piece from one side of the street to the other4 ,the composition is made by ,wilkes' ,metallic ,flooring ,company1 out of a mixture consisting chiefly of iron slag and ,portland cement1 a compound possessing properties which won the only gold medal given for paving at that ,exhibition4 ,at the present time the colonnade in ,pall ,mall1 near ,her ,majesty's ,theater1 is being laid with this paving1 which is also being extensively used in ,london and the provinces for roads1 tramways1 and flooring2 the composition is likewise sometimes cast into artistic forms for the ornamentation of buildings1 or into slabs for roofing1 facing1 and other purposes4 ,the subway from the ,exhibition to the ,district ,railway is laid with the same material4 ,the works of the ,wilkes ,metallic ,flooring ,company are in the goods yard of the ,midland ,railway ,company at ,west ,kensington4 ,the ,portland cement1 before it is accepted at the works1 is tested by means of an ,aidie's machine4 ,the general strain the set cement is required to bear is #gej lb4 to the square inch4 ,all samples which will not bear a strain of #ejj lb4 are rejected4 ,the various iron slags are carefully selected1 and rejected when too soft1 and at the works a small percentage of black slag1 rich in iron1 is mixed in with them4 ,the lumps of slag are first crushed in a ,mason ,co4's stone breaker1 and then sifted through #a_/h in41 #a_/d in41 and #a_/af in4 wire meshes into these three sizes for mixing4 ,next the granulated substance is thoroughly well washed with water to remove soluble matter and impalpable dust1 and afterward placed where it is protected from the access of dust and dirt4 ,the washing waters carry off some sulphides1 as well as mechanical impurities4 ,the ,portland cement is not used just as it1 comes from the works1 but is exposed to the air in a drying room for about fourteen days1 and turned over two or three times during that period4 ,the slag is also turned over three times dry and three times wet1 and mixed with the ,portland cement by means of water containing #e per cent4 of ,reekie cement to make the whole mass set quickly4 ,the mixture is then turned over twice and put into moulds2 each mould is first half filled1 and the mixture then hammered down with iron beaters4 ,the rest of the composition is then poured in1 beaten down1 and the whole mould violently jolted by machinery to shake down the mixture and to get rid of air holes4 ,while it is still wet the casting is taken out of the mould1 its edges are cleaned1 and after the lapse of one day it is placed in a bath1 of silicate of soda4 ,should the casting be allowed to get dry before it is placed in this bath1 no good results would be obtained2 it is left in the bath for seven days4 ,when delicate stone carvings have to be copied1 the moulds are of a compound of gelatine1 from the flexible nature of which material designs much undercut can be reproduced4 ,for the foregoing particulars we are indebted to ,mr4 ,william ,millar1 the working manager at ,west ,kensington4 ,sometimes the composition is cast in large1 heavy slabs1 moulded on the top to resemble the surface of roads of granite blocks4 ,a feature of the invention is the rapidity with which the composition sets4 ,for instance1 the manager states that a roadway was finished at the ,inventions ,exhibition at seven o'clock one night1 and at six o'clock next morning four or five tons of paper in vans passed over it into the building1 without doing any harm to the new road4 ,in laying down roads1 much of the preparation of the material is done on the spot1 and the composition after being put down unsilicated in a large layer has the required design stamped upon its wet surface by means of wooden or gutta-percha moulds4 ,as regards the durability of the composition1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,grover1 one of the directors1 says that the company guarantees its paving work for ten years1 and that the paving1 the whole of the ornamental tracings1 and some of the other work at ,upton ,church1 ,forest ,gate1 ,essex1 were executed by means of ,wilkes' metallic cement three years ago1 and will now bear examination as to its resistance to the action of weather4 ,some of this paving has been down in ,oxford ,street1 ,london1 for more than six years4 ,mr4 ,a4,r4 ,robinson1 ,c4,e41 ,london agent of the company1 states that the ,north ,metropolitan ,tramway ,company has about #be1jjj yards of it in use at the present time1 and that the paving is largely used by the ,war ,office for cavalry stables4 ,the latter is a good test1 for paving for stables must be non-slippery and have good power of resisting chemical action4 ,in the ,wm4 ,millar and ,christian ,fair ,nichols patent for ,improvements in the means of accelerating the setting and hardening of cements1 they take advantage of the hydraulicity of certain of the salts of magnesia1 by which the cements set hard and quickly while wet4 ,for accelerating the setting of cements they use carbonate of soda1 alum1 and carbonate of ammonia2 for indurating or increasing the hardening properties of cements they use chloride of calcium1 oxide of magnesia1 and chloride of magnesia or bittern water2 for obtaining an intense hardness they use oxychloride of magnesia4 ,the inventors do not bind themselves to any fixed proportions1 but give the following as the best within their knowledge4 ,for colored concretes for casts or other purposes they use ,carbonate of soda1 #h4da2 carbonate of ammonia1 #a4ab2 chloride of magnesia1 #j4bh2 borax1 #j4ef2 water1 #hi4fc2 total1 #ajj4jj4 ,for gray concrete for any purpose they use3 ,alum1 #h4df2 caustic soda1 #j4bh2 whitening or chalk1 #j4ef2 borax1 #j4ef2 water1 #ij4ad2 total1 #ajj4jj4 ,for floors or slabs in situ they add to cement1 well mixed and incorporated with any required proportion of agglomerate for a base1 liquid composition of the following proportions3 ,oxide of magnesia1 #j4bi2 chloride of magnesia1 #j4bi2 carbonate of soda or alum1 #d4gd2 water1 #id4fh2 total1 #ajj4jj4 ,articles manufactured by the invention are afterward wetted with chloride of calcium and placed in a bath containing a solution of silicate of soda or chloride of calcium4 ,the strength of the chloride of calcium is equal to about #bj deg4 specific gravity4 ,c4,a4 ,wilkes and ,william ,millar's improved metallic compound for flooring1 paving1 and other purposes1 has for its object to provide a paving compound which is not slippery or liable to soften in hot weather1 which sets rapidly1 and is durable4 ,to three parts of blast furnace slag are added one part of hydraulic cement and enough water to give the proper consistency4 ,to each gallon of water used is added one part of bittern water--the dregs from the manufacture of sea salt--or one part of brine1 or about #e per cent4 of carbonate of soda1 and #b per cent4 of carbonate of ammonia4 ,in the compound they sometimes use potash in the proportion of about #e per cent4 of the carbonate of ammonia and carbonate of soda1 and when potash is used with bittern water or brine1 the proportion of the latter is correspondingly reduced4 ,the compound is of a blue gray color2 but when a more striking color is desired1 red or yellow oxide of iron may be added4 ,when more speedy induration is necessary1 they add about #a oz4 of copperas to every gallon of compound used4 ,the claim is the admixture of bittern water1 carbonate of soda1 and carbonate of ammonia with the washed slag and cement4 ,another improvement1 by ,c4,a4 ,wilkes1 relates1 in laying in situ any metallic or other materials for street roadways1 to completing the convenience thereof by roughening or grooving the surfaces4 ,the concrete is laid in a plastic condition upon a bed of hard core1 broken stone1 or preferably rough concrete4 ,for footpaths the material may be laid in convenient sections1 say #d ft4 to #h ft4 square and #b in4 to #d in4 thick2 and in order to allow for the expansion of the material during the setting of the sections or subsequent variations in temperature1 he packs the joints between the sections with a layer of felting cloth or other compressible material1 thus forming expansion joints4 ,sometimes he slightly roughens the surface of the material1 to give better foothold to pedestrians4 ,sometimes the grooving is made in imitation of ordinary granite paving sets4 ,in tramway pavement there are grooves to give a grip to the horses' feet1 and a slight camber between the rails4 ,he states that a great advantage in laying a pavement by the method is that1 when any repairs are necessary1 a piece of the exact size can be manufactured at the works1 and stamped to the same pattern as the adjoining pavement1 then placed at once in position on the removal of the worn portion1 thus saving the time necessary for the setting of the concrete on the spot4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,bleaching ,,process4 ,in the spring of #ahhc a ,mr4 ,j4,b4 ,thompson1 of ,new ,cross1 ,london1 patented a new process of bleaching1 the main feature of which consisted in the use of carbonic acid gas in a closed vessel to decompose the chloride of lime4 ,the chemicking and souring operations he performed at one and the same time4 ,the reactions which took place in his bleaching keir were stated by the inventor as follows3 ,cl4 #a4 ,ca 7 ,,co#b ,ca,c,o#c ,cl#b4 ,o,cl4_/ #b4 ,,oh#b ,cl#b 7,cl,h7#b ,o4 #c4 ,ca,c,o#c 7,cl,h7#b ,ca,cl#b ,,co#b ,h#b,o4 ,that is1 in #a chloride of lime and carbonic acid react upon each other1 producing chalk and nascent chlorine2 in #b the nascent chlorine reacts upon the water of the solution and decomposes it1 producing hydrochloric acid and nascent oxygen1 which bleaches2 in #c the hydrochloric acid just formed reacts upon chalk formed in #a1 and produces calcium chloride and one equivalent of water1 and at the same time frees the carbonic acid to be used again in the process of decomposing the chloride of lime4 ,when the process was first brought to the notice of the ,lancashire bleachers1 it met with an amount of opposition4 ,some bleaching chemists declared the process was not patentable1 as fully half a century ago carbonic acid was known to decompose chloride of lime4 ,the patentee's answer was emphatic1 that carbonic acid gas had never been applied in bleaching before4 ,after some delay one of the largest ,english cotton bleachers1 ,messrs4 ,ainsworth1 ,son ,co41 ,halliwell1 ,bolton1 threw open their works for a fair test of the ,thompson process on a commercial scale4 ,the result of trial was so satisfactory that a company was formed to work the patent4 ,soon after this the well-known authorities on the oxidation of cellulose1 ,messrs4 ,cross ,bevan and ,mr4 ,mather1 the principal partner in the engineering firm of ,mather ,platt1 of ,salford1 ,lancashire1 joined the company4 ,for the last twelve months these gentlemen have devoted considerable attention to improving the original contrivance of ,thompson1 and a few weeks since they handed over to ,messrs4 ,ainsworth the machinery and instructions for what they considered the most complete and best process of bleaching that has ever been introduced4 ,recently a demonstration of the ,mather-,thompson process of bleaching took place at ,halliwell1 and to which were invited numerous chemists and practical bleachers4 ,having been favored with an invitation1 ,i propose to lay before your readers a concise report of the proceedings4 ,it is usual in this country to give a short preliminary boil to the cloth before it is brought in contact with the alkali1 the object being to well scour the cloth from the loose impurities present in the raw fiber and also the added sizing materials4 ,in the new process the waste or spent alkaline liquors of the succeeding process are employed1 with the result that the bleaching proper is much facilitated4 ,the economy effected by this change is considerable1 but in the next operation1 that of saponification1 the new process differs even more widely from those generally in use4 ,in ,england1 market or white bleaching requires a number of operations4 ,there is first the alkaline treatment divided into the two stages or processes of lime stewing and bowking in soda-ash1 which only imperfectly breaks down the motes4 ,there is consequently a second round given to the goods1 consisting of a bowk in soda-ash1 followed by the second and usually final chemicking4 ,there is1 therefore1 much handling of the cloth1 with the consequent increase of time and therefore expense4 ,now1 in the saponification process1 the ,mather-,thompson ,company claim to have achieved a complete triumph4 ,they use a steamer keir1 the invention of ,mr4 ,mather4 ,this keir is so constructed that it will allow of two wire wagons being run in and the door securely fastened4 ,at the top of the keir is fixed a mechanical appliance for steaming the cloth4 ,the steamer keir process consists essentially in3 #a4 ,the application of the alkali in solution and in its most effective form1 viz41 as caustic alkali1 to each portion of fiber in such quantity as to produce the complete result upon that portion4 #b4 ,the immediate and sustained action of heat in the most effective form of steam4 ,before the cloth is run into the steamer keir on the wire wagons1 it is saturated with about twice its weight of a dilute solution of caustic soda 7#b to #d ,twaddell #j4e to #a ,na#b,o7 at a boiling-temperature1 when in the steamer keir it is exposed to an atmosphere of steam at four pounds pressure for five hours4 ,this part of the process is entirely new4 ,the advantage of using caustic soda alone in the one operation1 such as ,i describe1 has been long recognized1 but hitherto no one has been able to effect this improvement4 ,it will be observed that the ,mather-,thompson process does away entirely with the use of lime and soda-ash in at least two boilings and the accessory souring operation4 ,in the space of the five hours necessary for the steamer keir process the goods are thoroughly bottomed and all the motes removed1 no matter what be the texture or weight of the cloth4 ,after the cloth is washed in hot water it is removed from the steamer keir1 then follows a rinse in cold water1 and the goods are ready for the bleaching process4 ,in passing to the bleaching and whitening process1 it may be necessary to say that thus far the original ,thompson process has been entirely altered4 ,now we come to that part of the bleaching operation where the essential feature in ,thompson's patent is utilized4 ,the patentee has apparently thoroughly grasped the fact that carbonic acid has great affinity for lime and that it liberates1 in its gaseous condition1 the hypochlorous acid1 which bleaches4 ,the most perfect contact is realized between the nascent hypochlorous acid resulting from its action and the fiber constituent in the exposure of the cloth treated with the bleaching solution to the action of the gas4 ,the order of treatment is as follows3 7#a7 ,saturation with weak chemic 7#a ,tw471 squeeze1 and passage to gas chamber4 7#b7 ,wash 7running74 7#c7 ,soda scald4 7#d7 ,wash4 7#e7 ,repetition of #a1 but with weaker chemic 7 ,tw474 7#f7 ,wash4 7#g7 ,scouring4 ,the whole of the above operations are carried out on a continuous plan1 the machinery being the invention of ,mr4 ,mather4 ,the cloth travels along at the rate of sixty or eighty yards a minute1 and comes out a splendid white bleach4 ,the company consider1 however1 that it is necessary in the case of some cloth to give a second treatment with chemic and gas1 each of thirty seconds duration1 with an intermediate scald in a boiling very dilute alkaline solution4 ,mr4 ,thompson originally claimed that the use of carbonic acid gas rendered the employment of a mineral acid for souring unnecessary4 ,it is considered now to be advisable to employ it1 and the souring is included1 as will be observed1 in the continuous operation4 ,the new process for treating cloth differs materially from that originally proposed by ,mr4 ,thompson4 ,his plan was to use an air-tight keir in conjunction with a gas-holder4 ,it is obvious that the continuous process would not answer for yarns2 ,thompson's keir is1 therefore1 employed for these and all heavy piece-goods4 ,thus far ,i have given a concise outline of the ,mather-,thompson process of bleaching1 which1 it cannot be denied1 differs materially from any system hitherto recommended to the trade4 ,beyond doubt the goods are as perfectly bleached by this process as by any now in use4 ,the question arises1 ,what pecuniary advantage does it offer8 ,mr4 ,manby1 the manager of ,messrs4 ,ainsworth1 has informed me that he has bleached as much as ten miles of cloth by the new process1 and is1 therefore1 entitled to be heard on the subject of cost4 ,in regard to the consumption of chemicals1 he estimates the saving to amount to 7in money value7 one-fourth2 steam 7coal71 one-half2 labor1 one-half2 water1 four-fifths2 time1 two-thirds4 ,it might be well to contrast the process formerly employed by ,messrs4 ,ainsworth with that they have recently adopted3 ,,mather-,,thompson ,,system4 ,alkali4 ,bleach ,acid ,machine 7chemic74 ,washes4 _/ ,saturate4 7#a7 ,steam4 _/ 7#b7 ,continuous 7chemic7 machine 7or keir if 7#b7 for yarns1 etc474 7#b;a7 ,machine or pit sour4 7#c7 ,wash up for finishing4 ,,ordinary ,,system4 ,alkali4 ,bleach4 ,acid ,machine ,washes4 7#a7 ,lime stew4 7#a7 ,wash4 7#b7 ,sour4 7#b7 7#c7 ,gray bowk 7#c7 7soda ash74 7#d7;,i ,chemic4 7#d7 7#e7 ,sour4 7#e7 7#f7 ,white bowk4 7#f7 7#g7;,,ii ,chemic4 7#g7 7#h7 ,sour4 7#h7 ,it will be understood that #b and #b;a are merged into a single process by using the continuous machine4 ,of course1 it will be understood that the cloth has in each case to be cleansed from size and loose impurities4 ,the ,mather-,thompson ,company claim that their system takes twelve hours in the case of market or white bleaching4 ,they reckon eight hours for the steaming process and four for bleaching and washing4 ,this has to be compared with the old system1 which generally takes forty hours1 made up as follows3 #h treatments with reagents and the necessary washings1 the former taking four hours and the latter one hour each4 ,the ,mather-,thompson system has created considerable commotion in ,english bleaching circles4 ,it is generally considered that the bleachers throughout the whole country will be compelled to adopt it1 so great is the saving in time and cost4 ,in commencing a bleachery1 the cost of plant by this system is1 ,i understand1 less than by the old processes4--,textile ,colorist4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,instruments ,,for ,,drawing ,,curves4 ,by ,prof4 ,c4,w4 ,mac,cord1 ,sc4,d4 ,i4 ,,the ,,hyperbola4 ,we are free to express the opinion at the outset1 that for various reasons the draughtsman is likely to gain very little advantage by the use of mechanical devices for describing mathematical curves by continuous motion4 ,such instruments are as a rule not only complicated and expensive1 but cumbersome and difficult of adjustment4 ,it may be suggested1 per contra1 that these objections do not apply to the familiar combination of two pins and a string1 for tracing the gardener's ellipse4 ,but we question the propriety of classing a string among strictly mechanical devices2 it has its uses1 to be sure1 but in respect to perfect flexibility and inextensibility it cannot be relied on when rigid accuracy is required in drawing any of the conic sections4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,nevertheless1 the construction of such apparatus affords a study which to some is fascinating1 and even in the abstract is not devoid of utility4 ,in each case a definite object is presented1 and usually a choice of methods of attaining it2 success requires a thorough knowledge of the properties of the curve in hand1 while ingenuity is stimulated1 and familiarity with expedients is cultivated1 by the effort to select the most available of those properties1 and to arrange parts whose motions shall be in accordance with them4 ,such exercise of the inventive faculties1 then1 is good training for the mechanician4 ,and it must not be forgotten that a mechanical movement thus devised for one purpose very frequently is either itself applicable to a different one1 or proves to be the germ from which are developed new movements which can be made so2 the solution of one problem sometimes furnishing a hint or clew of great value in dealing with another4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,we proceed1 then1 to describe a few instruments of this kind1 which we believe to be new1 in the hope that in the manner just pointed out they may render a greater service than that for which they are directly intended4 ,the first of these1 shown in ,fig4 #a1 is for the purpose of describing the hyperbola4 ,the properties of the curve1 upon which the action of the instrument depends1 are illustrated in ,fig4 #b1 where ,,mm1 ,,nn1 are the two branches of an hyperbola2 ,c the center2 ,,ab the major axis2 ,f and ,f' the foci4 ,if now a tangent ,,tt be drawn at any point as ,p of either branch1 and a perpendicular let fall upon it from the nearer focus ,f be produced to cut at ,g a line drawn from ,p to the farther focus ,f'1 then this perpendicular will cut the tangent at a point ,i upon the circumference of a circle described about ,c upon ,,ab as a diameter1 and also the distance ,f',g will be equal to ,,ab4 ,in ,fig4 #a1 then1 we have a crank ,,ci1 whose radius is equal to ,,cb1 half the major axis1 turning about a fixed center ,c4 ,upon the crank-pin ,i is hung1 so as to turn freely1 a rigid cross composed of a long slotted piece ,,tt1 in which slides a block1 and two cylindrical arms at right angles to it and in line with each other1 the axis ,,ee passing through ,i4 ,the arm on the right slides through a socket pivoted at the focus ,f2 the one on the left slides through a similar socket1 which is pivoted at ,g to a third socket longer than the others1 which again is pivoted at the focus ,f'2 the distance ,f',g being equal to ,,ab4 ,through this long socket slides a rod ,,kp1 the end ,p being formed into an eye1 by which this rod is pivoted to the block which slides in the long slot1 and thus controls the motion of the block2 and the pivot at ,p is centrally drilled to carry the pencil4 ,it is thus apparent that the center line of the slot ,,tt must in all positions be tangent to the hyperbola ,,pbr1 which will be traced by the pencil1 whose motions are so restricted as always to satisfy the conditions explained in connection with ,fig4 #b4 ,the apparatus as thus represented does not at first sight appear unduly complicated4 ,but in order to render it adjustable1 so that hyperbolas of varying eccentricities and on different scales may be drawn with it1 several parts not here shown must be added4 ,a frame must be provided1 in which to arrange supports for the pivots at ,f and ,f'1 and these supports connected by a right and left handed screw1 or equivalent means of altering the distance between the foci2 the crank ,,ci and the socket ,f',g must be of variable length1 and these in each case would require to be carefully adjusted4 ,so that1 as we stated in the beginning1 it is questionable whether a draughtsman of ordinary skill could draw the curve any more readily by the aid of such a piece of mechanism than he could without it2 but it may claim a passing notice as a novel device1 and the first one1 we believe1 for describing the hyperbola by a combination of rigid parts4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,experiments ,,with ,,fibers4 ,by ,dr4 ,,thomas ,,taylor4 ,as ,microscopist of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 ,i am frequently called upon to make investigations as to the character of textile fibers and fabrics1 not only for the public generally1 but also for several departments of the ,government4 ,textile fibers are presented both in the raw and as articles of manufacture4 ,in the latter case they may have been dyed1 stained1 or painted4 ,it is obvious that under these conditions the fibers should be subjected to chemical reaction to bring them as nearly as possible to their normal condition4 ,considering how well the structures of the common textile fibers of commerce--cotton1 flax1 ramie1 hemp1 jute1 ,manila hemp1 silk1 and wool--have been investigated and minutely described by able and exact microscopists1 ,i will in this paper confine myself chiefly to such experiments as ,i have personally made with textile fibers1 treating them with chemical agents while under the objective4 ,while ,i am aware that this method is not wholly new1 ,i am satisfied that comparatively little work has been done in this direction1 and that a wide field is still open for future research4 ,as microscopists1 we have to fortify ourselves in every way that will sustain1 by truthful work1 the value of the microscope as a means of research1 sometimes conducting our experiments under the most trying circumstances4 ,fibers may be so treated by experts as to make it difficult to determine how their changed appearance has been effected1 and it may happen in this age of experiment and of fraud that important decisions in commercial transactions and in criminal cases may depend on our observations4 ,,detection ,,of ,a ,,fraud4 ,a case in point will illustrate this4 ,while ,dr4 ,dyrenforth was chief of the chemical division of the ,u4,s4 ,patent ,office1 a person applied for a patent on what he called cottonized silk1 inclosing specimens4 ,he claimed that he had discovered a mode of covering cotton fiber with a solution of silk which could be woven into goods of various kinds2 in order to satisfy the public of the reality of his invention1 he placed on exhibition1 in various localities1 specimens of silk-like goods in the form of ribbons in the web and skeins of thread1 representing them to be cottonized silk4 ,dr4 ,dyrenforth was not satisfied that the so-called discovery was an accomplished fact1 and he forwarded a few fibers of the material to the division of which ,i have charge for investigation4 ,i subjected them to my usual tests1 and found them to consist of pure silk1 and ,i so reported to ,dr4 ,dyrenforth1 who rejected the application for a patent4 ,the microscope was thus usefully employed to protect capitalists from imposition4 ,,methods ,,employed4 ,it may be well to state briefly the methods ,i employed in detecting the real character of the material4 ,the fibers were first viewed under plain transmitted light1 secondly1 polarized light and selenite plate4 ,since silk and cotton are polarizing bodies1 cottonized silk1 if such could be made as described1 would give1 in this case1 the prismatic colors of both fibers1 and the complementary colors would differ greatly because of the great disparity of their respective polarizing and refractive powers4 ,the fact will be observed that a cotton fiber presents the appearance of a twisted ribbon when viewed by the microscope1 while silk1 owing to its cylindrical form1 cannot twist on itself4 ,it should also be considered that the diameter of cottonized silk1 so called1 would be greater than that of a fiber of silk1 because the silk solution would have to be applied to an actual thread of cotton1 and not to a single cotton fiber1 by reason of the shortness of the original hairs of the latter4 ,were a single fiber of such a combination put under a suitable objective1 and a drop of nitric acid brought in contact with the fiber1 it would be seen that the acid would destroy the silk and leave the fibers of cotton untouched1 the latter being insoluble in cold nitric acid4 ,the action of muriatic acid is similar in this respect4 ,were a fiber of cotton present and a drop of pure sulphuric acid placed on it1 followed quickly by a drop of a transparent solution of the tincture of iodine1 a peculiar change in the fiber would take place1 provided the right proportion of acid be used4 ,cotton fiber1 and especially flax fiber1 under such conditions1 forms into disks or beads of a beautiful blue color4 ,fig4 #a represents a cotton fiber1 and #b1 #c1 #d1 #e those of flax1 as they appear under the acid treatment4 ,every textile amylaceous fiber is convertible into these forms1 more or less1 by strong sulphuric acid4 ,the fibers of cotton1 flax1 and ramie are examples of amylaceous cellulose1 that is to say1 these fibers are converted into starchy matter by treatment with the last-named acid4 ,therefore combinations of these fibers in any composition of non-amylaceous fiber 7ligneous or woody fiber7 will be dissolved1 leaving the latter unharmed2 the woody fibers remaining will prove suitable objects for examination under the microscope4 ,,cotton ,,mixed ,,with ,,linen4 ,again1 it might be important to know whether a certain pulp or composition contained flax in combination with cotton4 ,the composition might be of such a well-digested character as to destroy all appearance of normal form1 that is to say1 the twisted ribbon character of cotton1 as well as that of the cylindrical and jointed characteristic of flax1 might be lost to ordinary view4 ,in this case make a watery solution of the pulp1 spread it out thinly on a glass slide #c inches by one1 draw off any superfluous water1 then add one or two drops of a strong solution of chromic acid to the preparation1 and place over it a glass cover2 when viewed by the microscope1 any portion of the flax joints present will appear of a dark brown color2 a solution of iodine has a similar effect4 ,the brown portions of the joints are nitrogenous in character2 cotton fibers are devoid of nitrogen4 ,illustration3 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,,experiments ,,with ,,flax4 ,a chemist of the ,department of ,agriculture had once occasion to make experiments with flax fibers1 his object being to make them chemically pure2 and to this end he treated them with excess of bleaching agents1 thus rendering them of a beautiful white1 silky appearance1 to the naked eye2 but when ,i examined them under the microscope1 ,i found the brown nitrogenous matter of the joints still present1 and on using the chromic acid test1 they became deeply stained4 ,a chemical solution of flax therefore would prove for some purposes undesirable1 owing to the presence of this ligneous matter4 ,a chemical solution of cotton which is destitute of ligneous matter will give a chemically pure solution4 ,cotton is therefore better adapted than flax for collodion compounds4 ,,wool ,,tested ,,with ,,acid4 ,it is known that when wool is treated with the sulphuric acid of commerce or in strong dilute sulphuric acid1 the surface scales of the fiber are liberated at one end1 and appear1 under a low power1 as hairs proceeding from the body of the fibers4 ,wool may remain thus saturated in the acid for several hours1 without appearing to undergo any further change1 as far as is revealed by the microscope4 ,when treated in mass in a bath of sulphuric acid1 strength #fj ,b41 for several minutes1 and afterward quickly washed in a weak solution of soda1 and finally in pure water and dried1 it feels rough to the fingers1 owing to the separation of the scales4 ,i have preserved a small quantity of wool thus treated for the last twelve years1 my object being to ascertain whether the chemical action to which it was exposed would impair its strength4 ,as far as ,i can observe1 without the aid of the proper tests1 it seems to have retained its original tenacity4 ,wool thus treated seems to possess the property of resisting the ravages of the larv of the moth4 ,this specimen1 although openly exposed for the period named1 suffered no injury from them4 ,under the microscope1 the lubrications appear to have resumed their natural position1 and appear finer4 ,from these experiments it would seem not improbable that a new article of commerce might be produced from wool thus treated1 considering that it seems to be moth-proof4 ,i find in practice that when sable brushes are washed in a weak solution of pure phenic alcohol and afterward in warm water1 the moth worm will not eat them4 ,in this way ,i preserve sable brushes4 ,i mention this chemical fact because it shows that a change of this material is brought about by the phenol as to its edibility1 and this may explain why wool treated with sulphuric acid is rendered moth-proof4 ,i find that when brain matter has been subjected to a solution of weak phenic alcohol1 weak alkaline solutions afterward applied fail to separate its nerve-cells on the process of maceration4 7,this is probably owing to its albuminoids being coagulated by the action of the phenol47 ,when brain matter is subjected to a weak solution of soda alone1 the nerve-cells are easily separated by maceration1 and well adapted for microscopic use4 ,,tests ,,of ,,dyed ,,black ,,silk4 ,the fibers of dyed black silk may be viewed with interest under the microscope4 ,if a few threads of its warp are placed on a glass slide1 and one or two drops of concentrated nitric acid placed in contact with them1 the black color changes first to green1 then to blue2 a life-like motion is observed in all the fibers2 they appear marked crosswise like the rings of an earthworm2 the surface of each fiber appears loaded with particles of dyestuff2 finally the fibers wholly dissolve in the acid4 ,if we now treat a few threads of the weft in the same manner1 a similar change of color takes place4 ,when the fibers assume the blue color1 a dark line is observed in the center of each1 running longitudinally the whole length2 this dark line is doubtless the dividing line of the two original normal threads formed directly by the two spinnerets2 the dark air line or shadow finally breaks up1 and in the course of a few minutes the silk is wholly dissolved4 ,were ramie1 cotton1 flax1 or hemp present1 they would be observed1 as all their fibers remain unchanged under this treatment4 ,if wool be present1 rapid decomposition will follow1 giving off copious fumes of nitrous acid1 allowing1 however1 sufficient time to observe the separation of the scales of the fibers and to demonstrate by observation under the microscope that the fibers are those of wool4 ,in making these experiments it is not necessary to use a glass disk over the treated fibers4 ,if a disk or cover is pressed on them while undergoing this treatment1 the life-like motion of the silk will not be so apparent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,pyrometer4 ,mr4 ,john ,frew1 ,langloan ,iron ,works1 ,coatbridge1 has been successful in perfecting a most ingenious pyrometer1 an instrument which is capable of continuously indicating every variation of temperature with a remarkable degree of correctness4 ,this instrument1 which we here illustrate1 has already become known to a number of proprietors and managers of blast furnaces2 and on the occasion of the members of the ,iron and ,steel ,institute visiting ,coatbridge1 in connection with the meeting of that body which was held in ,glasgow last autumn1 many persons became interested in its construction and in the practical determination of blast temperatures by its readings4 ,furthermore1 ,sir ,william ,thomson has expressed himself as being highly delighted with it on account of the manner in which its use illustrates various beautiful scientific principles4 ,the leading principle on which the construction of this pyrometer has been based is the well-known law of the expansion of gases4 ,referring to our engraving1 it will be seen that at ,a is a pipe through which air from the cold blast main is admitted into another and larger pipe1 ,b1 which reaches nearly to the bottom of a water cistern1 ,c4 ,by means of the inlet and outlet pipes1 ,d and ,e1 the height of the water in the cistern is maintained at a uniform level4 ,in this way there is provided a head of water which retains within the pipe1 ,b1 a constant pressure of air1 equivalent to the head of water between the open end of that pipe and the overflow at ,e4 ,any excess of pressure is prevented by means of the open-ended pipe1 which permits the air to escape by the central tube4 ,this latter prevents the agitation caused by the upward rushing air from disturbing the level of the water in the cistern2 and in order further to assist this1 the central tube is filled loosely in its upper part with lead bullets or other suitable materials supported on a perforated plate4 ,the water level in the cistern is indicated by means of a glass gauge1 which is represented at ,g4 ,to the upper end of the pipe1 ,b1 another pipe1 ,h1 is attached4 ,this is required for conveying the cold air to the pyrometer proper1 for the piece of apparatus above described is simply an arrangement for securing a flow or current of air at constant pressure4 ,at any point where it is desired to fix a pyrometer1 a connection is made with the pipe last spoken of1 by means of a small pipe such as is indicated at ,j1 into which is fixed a platinum or other metallic nozzle of small bore1 as shown at ,k4 ,to this same pipe there is attached a solid-drawn copper spiral heater or worm1 ,l1 which is fixed into the place or the material the temperature of which it is desired to indicate4 ,into the outlet of this worm another similar but larger nozzle1 ,m1 is fixed4 ,at ,n is shown a small pipe which is connected with the pipe1 ,j1 at any convenient point between the inlet nozzle1 ,k1 and the spiral heater1 ,l4 ,the other end of this pipe passes through the ,india rubber stopper of a small cistern or bottle1 ,o1 which1 when in use1 is about two-thirds filled with a colored liquid4 ,it will be seen that the tube1 ,n1 only passes through the stopper1 so that it may convey pressure to the surface of the liquid4 ,at ,p is a glass tube which also passes through the stopper and then to the bottom of the colored liquid2 and as its upper end is open1 any variation of pressure in the spiral heater is directly transmitted to the indicating column of colored liquid4 ,illustration3 ,,frew',s ,,pyrometer4 ,the operation of the instrument is as follows3 ,as the cold blast used in the apparatus would be useless for the working of the pyrometer if taken direct from the cold blast main1 owing to its irregularity of pressure1 the regulator that has been described is employed1 and by its means an absolutely steady flow of cold blast air at an unvarying pressure is secured4 ,the diameters of the inlet and outlet nozzles are so nicely adjusted that1 so long as both are at the same temperature1 the outlet nozzle1 which is open to the atmosphere1 will pass all the air that the inlet nozzle can deliver without disturbing the pressure in the cistern1 ,o2 but if heat be applied to the circulating air through the walls of the spiral heater1 the air expands in volume1 and is unable to pass through the outlet nozzle in its heated condition as rapidly as it is delivered cold by the inlet nozzle4 ,the consequence is that an increase of pressure takes place in the apparatus between the two nozzles1 and it is this pressure that indicates the amount of heat that the air has taken up from the hot blast pipe1 in which the spiral heater is fixed4 ,then1 again1 as this pressure is directly transmitted to the indicating liquid in the cistern and the vertical tube immersed in it1 a rise takes place in the column which is in exact proportion to the expansion of the current of blast passing through the spiral heater4 ,the method of graduating the indicator scales of the ,frew pyrometer is worthy of special notice4 ,when the apparatus is fitted up1 and before it is permanently fixed in position1 the spiral heater is placed in cold water of known temperature1 and the point noted at which the colored liquid stands in the indicator tube4 ,the water is then boiled1 and the rise in the liquid in the tube is again noted4 ,suppose1 in the first instance1 the cold water temperature to be #fb deg4 ,fahr41 and that1 from this point up to #bab deg4 ,fahr41 the liquid to have risen #b in4 in the tube2 this is equal to #a in4 per #ajj deg4 ,fahr41 and from these data a scale is constructed1 the correctness of which is easily verified by transferring the spiral heater into an air bath or oil of high boiling point1 and then comparing the readings of the pyrometer scale with those of a mercurial thermometer placed alongside of the spiral heater4 ,by this means it can be clearly demonstrated that1 up to the highest point to which it is safe to use a mercurial thermometer1 the readings of the pyrometer scale and that of the thermometer are identical4 ,while this pyrometer is particularly valuable for indicating the temperature of hot blast stoves of every description1 there are doubtless many uses that will suggest themselves to persons engaged in various industrial arts and manufactures4 ,the apparatus is neat and substantial in its parts1 while it occupies very little space1 is not at all liable to derangement1 and is entirely automatic in its action4 ,a number of the instruments have been in continuous use at the ,langloan ,iron ,works1 with the most satisfactory results1 for about eight months4 ,the temperatures they are graduated for vary according to the furnaces with which they are connected and the kind of work to which these are applied4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,an exchange gives the following very simple way of avoiding the disagreeable smoke and gas which always pours into the room when a fire is lit in a stove1 heater1 or fireplace on a damp day3 ,put in the wood and coal as usual2 but before lighting them1 ignite a handful of paper or shavings placed on top of the coal4 ,this produces a current of hot air in the chimney1 which draws up the smoke and gas at once4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,from ,,photographische ,,correspondenz4 ,,orthochromatic ,,plates4 ,by ,,ch ,,scolik4 ,since the emulsion process has taken root1 no improvement has awakened such a lively1 steadily increasing interest as photography of colored objects in their correct tone proportions2 a process which makes it possible to reproduce the warmer color-tones1 particularly yellow1 orange-red1 and yellow-green1 in their correct light value as they appear to the eye4 ,in professional circles1 as also among the public1 the value of this invention cannot possibly be underestimated2 an invention with which a new epoch in photography may begin1 and by which the handsomest results1 particularly in reproductions of oil paintings1 can be attained4 ,but in portraiture1 as well as in landscape photography1 recourse must also be had to orthochromatic plates to obtain effective pictures1 particularly as plates can now be produced in which the relative sensitiveness closely resembles that of the ordinary emulsion plate4 ,although a good deal has been written about this subject1 none of these sometimes excellent treatises contains a complete and generally comprehensive formula for the production of color-sensitive plates1 and this circumstance causes me to publish my own experiences4 ,the following coloring matters are particularly recommended in the several publications as preferable3 ,eosine yellow and eosine blue shade1 iodine cyanin1 erythrosine1 methyl violet1 aniline violet1 iodine green1 azalein1 ,hoffmann's violet1 acid green1 methyl green1 rose bengal1 pyrosine1 chlorophyl1 saffrosine1 coralline1 saffranine1 etc4 ,particularly important is the correct concentration4 ,the most excellent color matters make the plates oftentimes quite useless by an incorrect proportion of concentration4 ,if this should be too strong1 the total sensitiveness will sink 7decrease72 but when too weak1 the color sensitiveness is much reduced4 ,this fault1 particularly1 cannot be corrected during washing1 but ,i have mentioned1 at the end1 how such overcolored emulsion can be made of use before wetting 7flowing74 ,by the addition of some coloring matter to the emulsion1 the light sensitiveness of the film toward some individual colored rays is increased1 but the sensitiveness for the stronger refractive rays is1 as a rule1 generally reduced4 ,the result is a loss of the total sensitiveness for white light4 ,color-sensitive plates are therefore less sensitive to light than ordinary plates of the same origin4 ,the action of the coloring matter depends also very essentially upon the emulsion4 ,if the emulsion contains iodide of silver1 it has a greater sensitiveness for light blue and blue-green light4 ,at all events1 the iodide combination must not amount to more than one or two per cent41 a small quantity of iodine acting much better upon the total sensitiveness of the plates than can be obtained by pure bromide of silver emulsion4 ,methyl violet1 rose bengal1 and azalein act perceptibly in #a_/ajjjj per cent4 upon yellow sensitiveness4 ,eosine and its varieties1 eosine yellow shade1 or eosine ,j1 pyrosine ,j1 erythrosine yellowish1 may all be noted as very good sensitizers for green1 yellow-green1 and eventually for yellow4 ,the bluish shades of eosine colors1 on the contrary1 have an absorption band further in the yellow4 ,this is also the case with the blue shade eosine 7eosine ,b7 and the most bluish of all eosines1 the bengal rosa4 ,of both eosines1 yellow shade and blue shade1 the latter gives a little more intensity4 ,although the eosine permits a large limit in the quantity1 it will reduce the sensitiveness greatly in larger quantity4 ,if eosine solution is mixed with bromide of silver emulsion1 which is entirely free from nitrate of silver1 no eosine silver can form2 it acts1 therefore1 only as an optical sensitizer4 ,of the several kinds of cyanin1 chlorosulphate1 nitrate1 and iodide1 the latter acts best1 as stated by ,eder4 ,schumann has already said that one drop of cyanin solution1 #a to #b1ejj to #f c4 c4 emulsion1 already acted as sensitizing in orange2 five to ten drops cyanin4 #a to #a1ejj to #ae c4 c4 emulsion1 even gave red action4 ,there are two ways to color the gelatine film with a suitable coloring matter3 by mixing the latter directly before filtering into the ready made emulsion1 to produce at once colored plates2 or to bathe dry emulsion plates for one to five minutes in a solution containing the sensitizing coloring matter4 ,the plates have previously to be soaked for a few minutes1 whereupon they are bathed in an aqueous alcoholic solution 7with eosine yellow shade and eosine blue shade1 in a solution of #a to #c1jjj2 but with cyanin in a diluted solution of #a to #e1jjj74 ,a mixture of #a_/aj cyanin and #i_/aj eosine yellow shade 7of above concentration7 acts as a very favorable sensitizer4 ,lohse recommended bathing of the gelatine plates in a solution of #j4jc eosine and #aj c4 c4 ammonia in #ajj parts of water4 ,he found that very diluted eosine solutions1 #a to #bj1jjj1 acted as a yellow sensitizer4 ,after washing1 the plates have to be rinsed and dried--colored plates1 as long as they remain moist1 being less sensitive than dry ones1 and very seldom the reverse4 ,this bathing of the ready made plates may give good results1 but pure and faultless plates are very seldom obtained1 wherefore the first mentioned manner 7direct addition of color to the emulsion7 is to be preferred4 ,after the experiments made by me1 eosine mixtures acted equally in the yellow and blue shade2 likewise mixtures of cyanin #a_/aj and eosine yellow shade #i_/aj were the most favorable4 ,the process with eosine underwent first of all a thorough test1 of which the following are the results4 ,the color1 solution ,i made as follows3 ,i4 #j4e grm4 eosine yellow shade in #gej c4c4 alcohol 7#ie per cent47 is dissolved under good shaking4 ,,ii4 #j4e grm4 eosine blue shade is also dissolved in #gej c4c4 alcohol4 7,the emulsion preparation ,i do not repeat1 supposing that everybody is conversant with the same47 ,to an emulsion after ,monckhoven's method1 ,i add1 before filtering1 above eosine solutions to #a1jjj c4c4 emulsion1 #ae c4c4 each of yellow shade and #ae c4c4 of blue shade eosine2 mix with a glass stirring-rod1 filter1 and begin the flowing of the plates4 ,on the contrary1 to an emulsion made after ,henderson's method1 double the quantity of coloring matter can be added before flowing1 without reducing the sensitiveness perceptibly4 ,cyanin and eosine mixtures ,i give in the following proportions2 ,,iii4 #j4e grm4 cyanin 7iodo-cyanin7 dissolved in #a1jjj c4c4 alcohol under good shaking4 7,all coloring matter solutions have to be filtered47 ,to #a1jjj c4c4 ,monckhoven emulsion ,i give3 #be c4c4 eosine solution1 yellow shade 7,i474 #e c4c4 cyanine solution 7,,iii474 ,with ,henderson emulsion ,i increase to double the quantity4 ,further experiments taught me that even if #fj to #hj c4c41 and more1 of these coloring matter solutions were added1 and the emulsion was left to coagulate and then laid in alcohol for several days1 after which it was washed well1 so that hardly any coloration could be observed1 it showed1 when making a copy of an oil painting1 that the color sensitiveness of the emulsion was not reduced1 and that it had rather increased in relative sensitiveness4 ,anyhow1 ,i put every colored emulsion for eight days in alcohol1 having experienced that hereby1 after washing1 just a sufficient quantity of the coloring matter will remain as is necessary for the color sensitiveness4 ,for the correctness of what ,i have said here1 the following experiment made by me will speak3 ,i mixed with an emulsion a quantity of coloring matter five times increased1 flowed a plate with same1 which ,i then exposed1 but obtained no picture whatever4 ,the same emulsion ,i placed for fourteen days in alcohol1 washed it well1 and flowed a plate again1 which latter had not only the full color sensitiveness1 but almost equaled an ordinary emulsion plate in total sensitiveness4 ,from this can be concluded that--as above said--by placing the emulsion in alcohol1 all superfluous coloring matter is removed from the same1 and that only the quantity necessary for the color sensitiveness remains therein4 ,further1 it may be mentioned that it might be of advantage to add to all emulsions eosine besides iodide of silver1 because this will give to the emulsion clearness and brilliancy besides color sensitiveness1 and produce fine lights4 ,finally1 ,i express the hope that these communications may be useful to the practical photographer1 and it is my intention to report also about other coloring matters at some future time4--,h4,d41 in ,anthony's ,bulletin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,photographic ,,apparatus4 ,this apparatus consists of a box containing a camera1 ,a1 and a frame1 ,c1 containing the desired number of plates1 each held in a small frame of black ,bristol board4 ,the camera contains a mirror1 ,m1 which pivots upon an axis and is maneuvered by the extreme bottom1 ,b4 ,this mirror stops at an angle of #de1 and sends the image coming from the objective to the horizontal plate1 ,d1 at the upper part of the camera4 ,the image thus reflected is righted upon this plate4 ,illustration3 ,,new ,,photographic ,,apparatus4 ,as the objective is of short focus1 every object situated beyond a distance of three yards from the apparatus is in focus4 ,in exceptional cases1 where the operator might be nearer the object to be photographed1 the focusing would be done by means of the rack of the objective4 ,the latter can also slide up and down1 so that the apparatus need not be inclined when buildings or high trees are being photographed4 ,the door1 ,e1 performs the role of a shade4 ,when the apparatus has been fixed upon its tripod and properly directed1 all the operator has to do is to close the door1 ,p1 and raise the mirror1 ,m1 by turning the button1 ,b1 and then expose the plate4 ,the sensitized plates are introduced into the apparatus through the door1 ,i1 and are always brought automatically to the focus of the objective through the pressure of the springs1 ,r4 ,the shutter of the frame1 ,b1 opens through a hook1 ,h1 with in the pocket1 ,n4 ,after exposure1 each plate is lifted by means of the extractor1 ,k1 into the pocket1 whence it is taken by hand and introduced through a slit1 ,s1 behind the springs1 ,r1 and the other plates that the frame contains4 ,all these operations are performed in the interior of the pocket1 ,n1 through the impermeable1 triple fabric of which no light can enter4 ,an automatic marker shows the number of plates exposed4 ,when the operations are finished1 the objective is put back in the interior of the camera1 the doors1 ,p and ,e1 are closed1 and the pocket is rolled up4 ,the apparatus is thus hermetically closed1 and1 containing all the accessories1 forms one of the most practical of systems for the itinerant photographer4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,meteorites4 ,in our ,,supplement ,no4 #ebi we gave an abstract of ,prof4 ,dewars recent series of lectures on the above subject at the ,royal ,institution4 ,we now present an abstract of the last and concluding lecture4 ,,the ,,dhurmsala4 ,,meteorite4 ,after the conclusion of his last lecture1 ,prof4 ,dewar distributed among the younger listeners small pieces of a portion of the ,dhurmsala meteorite1 which had been broken up for presentation to them by ,mr4 ,j4,r4 ,gregory1 whose collection of rare minerals was recently to some extent described in these pages4 ,the lecturer stated that ,sir ,f4 ,abel had given him a large piece of a large meteorite1 because he thought that the speaker's piece ought to be bigger than theirs4 ,professor ,dewar also presented the listeners with a printed detailed account of the fall of the ,dhurmsala meteorite1 including the report of the occurrence sent to the ,punjaub ,government1 and dated ,july #bh1 #ahfj4 ,the following are the main facts3 ,on the afternoon of ,saturday1 the #adth of ,july1 #ahfj1 between the hours of #b and #b3cj ,p4,m41 the station of ,dhurmsala was startled by a terrific bursting noise1 which was supposed at first to proceed from a succession of loud blastings or from the explosion of a mine in the upper part of the station2 others1 imagining it to be an earthquake or very large landslip1 rushed from their houses in the firm belief that they must fall upon them4 ,it soon became apparent that this was not the case4 ,the first report1 which was far louder in its discharge than any volley of artillery1 was quickly followed by another and another1 to the number of fourteen or sixteen4 ,most of the latter reports grew gradually less and less loud4 ,these were probably but the reverberations of the former1 not among the hills1 but among the clouds1 just as is the case with thunder4 ,it was difficult to say which were the reports and which the echoes4 ,there could certainly not have been fewer than four or five actual reports4 ,during the time that the sound lasted the ground trembled and shook convulsively4 ,from the different accounts of three eyewitnesses there appears to have been observed a flame of fire1 described as about #b ft4 in depth and #i ft4 in length1 darting in an oblique direction above the station after the first explosion had taken place4 ,the stones as they fell buried themselves from #a ft4 to #a ft4 in the ground1 sending up a cloud of dust in all directions4 ,most providentially1 no loss of life or property has occurred4 ,some coolies1 passing by where one fell1 ran to the spot to pick up the pieces2 before they had held them in their hands half a minute they had to drop them1 owing to the intensity of the cold1 which benumbed their fingers4 ,this1 considering the fact that they were apparently but a moment before in a state of ignition1 is very remarkable4 ,each stone that fell bore unmistakable marks of partial fusion4 ,several meteors were seen at ,dhurmsala on the evening of the same day4 ,dr4 ,c4,t4 ,jackson analyzed a portion of one meteorite weighing #d oz42 the piece was #b in4 long1 #a in4 wide1 and #a in4 in average thickness4 ,in the course of his report he stated3 ,its specific gravity is #c4def at #fh deg4 ,fahr41 barom4 #bi4i4 ,its structure is imperfectly granular1 but not crystallized1 and there are small black specks of the size of a pin's head1 and smaller1 of malleable meteoric iron1 which are readily removed from the crushed stone by the magnet4 ,the color of the mass is ash gray4 ,a portion of the surface is black and is scarified by fusion4 ,its hardness is not superior to that of olivine or massive chrysolite4 ,chemical analysis shows that its composition is that of a ferruginous olivine4 ,one gramme of the stone1 crushed in an agate mortar1 and acted on by a magnet1 yielded #j4dc gramme of meteoric iron1 which was malleable4 ,after the removal of this a qualitative analysis was made of the residual powder4 ,another gramme was also taken1 without picking out the metallic iron1 and was tested for chlorine and for phosphoric acid4 ,the results of the qualitative analysis were that the stone contains silica1 magnesia1 a little alumina1 oxide of iron and nickel1 a little tin1 an alloy of iron and nickel1 phosphoric acid1 and a trace of chlorine4 ,these ingredients being determined1 the plan for a quantitative analysis was laid out1 and was duly executed by the usual and approved methods ,the following are the results of this analysis1 per centum3 ,silica1 with traces of tin #dj4jjj ,magnesia #bf4fjj ,peroxide of iron #bg4gjj ,metallic iron #c4ejj ,metallic nickel #j4hjj ,alumina #j4djj ,chlorine #j4jdi ,phosphoric acid not weighed -- #ii4jdi ,messrs4 ,dewar and ,ansdell analyzed the gases in the meteorite1 of which it contained three times its volume2 the gases were in the following proportions to each other3 ,carbonic acid #fa4bi ,carbonic oxide #g4eb ,hydrogen #cj4if ,nitrogen #j4bc #ajj4jj 99 99 99 99 99 ,,telescopic ,,search ,,for ,,the ,,trans-,,neptunian ,,planet4 ,footnote3 ,by ,david ,p4 ,todd1 ,m4,a41 from the ,proceedings of the ,american ,academy of ,arts and ,science4 ,in the twentieth volume of the ,american ,journal of ,science1 at page #bbe1 ,i gave a preliminary account of my search1 theoretic and practical1 for the trans-,neptunian planet4 ,i say the trans-,neptunian planet1 because ,i regard the evidence of its existence as well-founded1 and further because1 since the time when ,i was engaged upon this search1 nothing has in the least weakened my entire conviction as to its existence in about that part of the sky assigned2 while1 as is well known1 the independent researches in cometary perturbations by ,prof4 ,forbes conducted him to a result identical with my own--a coincidence not to be lightly set aside as pure accident4 ,that five years have elapsed since this coincidence was remarked1 and the planet is still unfound1 is not sufficient assurance to me that its existence is merely fanciful4 ,in so far as ,i am informed1 this spot of the sky has received very little scrutiny with telescopes competent to such a search2 and most observers finding nothing would1 ,i suspect1 prefer not to announce their ineffective search4 ,the time has now come when this search can be profitably undertaken by any observer having the rare combination of time1 enthusiasm1 and the necessary appliances4 ,strongly marked developments in astronomical photography have been effected since this optical search was conducted2 and the capacity of the modern dry-plate for the registry of the light of very faint stars makes the application of this method the shortest and surest way of detecting any such object4 ,nor is this purely an opinion of my own4 ,but the required apparatus would be costly2 and the instrument1 together with the services of an astronomer and a photographer1 would1 for the time being1 be necessarily devoted exclusively to the work4 ,while1 however1 the photographic search might have to be ended with a negative result1 in so far as the trans-,neptunian planet is concerned1 there would still remain the series of photographic maps of the region explored1 and these would be of incalculable service in the astronomy of the future4 ,in the latter part of the paper alluded to above1 ,i stated the speculative basis upon which ,i restricted the stellar region to be examined2 also the fact that between ,november of #ahgg and ,march of #ahgh ,i was engaged in a telescopic scrutiny of this region1 employing the twenty-six inch refractor of the ,naval ,observatory4 ,for the purposes contemplated ,i had no hesitation in adopting the method of search whereby ,i expected to detect the planet by the contrast of its disk and light with the appearance of an average star of about the thirteenth magnitude4 ,a power of #fjj diameters was often employed1 but the field of view of this eye-piece was so restricted that a power of #djj diameters had to be used most of the time4 ,i say1 too1 that1 after the first few nights1 ,i was surprised at the readiness with which my eye detected any variation from the average appearance of a star of a given faint magnitude2 as a consequence whereof my observing book contains a large stock of memoranda of suspected objects4 ,my general plan with these was to observe with a sufficient degree of accuracy the position of all suspected objects4 ,on the succeeding night of observation they were re-observed2 and1 at an interval of several weeks thereafter1 the observation was again verified4 ,subjoined to the original observations are printed these verifications in heavy-faced type4 ,in conducting the search1 the plans were several times varied in slight detail1 generally because experience with the work enabled me to make improvements in method4 ,usually1 ,i prepared every few days a new zone chart of the region over which ,i was about to search2 and these charts while containing memoranda of all the instrumental data which could be prepared beforehand1 were likewise so adjusted with reference to the opposition-time of the planet as to avoid1 if possible1 its stationary point4 ,the same thing1 too1 was kept in mind in selecting the times of subsequent observation4 ,notwithstanding this precaution1 however1 it would be well if some observer who has a large telescope should now re-examine the positions of these objects4 ,researches in faint nebul and nebulous stars appearing likely to constitute a separate and interesting branch of the astronomy of the future1 it has seemed to me that the astronomers engaged in this work may like to make a careful examination of some of the stars entered in my observing book under the category of suspected objects4 ,the method ,i adopted of insuring re-observation of these objects was by the determination1 not of their absolute1 but only of their relative1 positions1 through the agency of the larger finder of the great telescope4 ,this has an aperture of five inches1 a power of thirty diameters1 and a field of view of seventy-eight minutes of arc4 ,two diagrams were usually drawn in the book for each of these objects1 the one showing the relation of adjacent objects in the great telescope1 and the other the configuration of the more conspicuous objects in the field of view of the finder4 ,adjacent to these finder diagrams are the settings--to the nearest minute of arc in declination1 and of time in right ascension--as read from the large finding-circles1 divided in black and white4 ,the field of view of the finder is crossed by two pairs of hairlines1 making a square of about twelve minutes on a side by their intersection at the center4 ,the diagrams in all cases represent the objects as seen with an inverting eye-piece4 ,as the adjustment of the finder was occasionally verified1 as well as the readings of the large circles1 there should be no trouble in identifying any of these objects1 notwithstanding the fact that no estimates of absolute magnitude were recorded4 ,the relative magnitudes1 while intended to be only approximate1 are still shown with sufficient accuracy for the purpose of the research1 and the diagrams are1 in general1 faithful tracings from the original memoranda4 ,mr4 ,todd transcribes the observing book entire4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,american ,,annals ,,of ,,the ,,deaf ,,and ,,dumb4 ,,notes ,,on ,,manual ,,spelling4 ,the inestimable value of speech-reading and the practicability of its acquisition under favorable conditions is a matter of common experience and observation but justice to the deaf requires a recognition of the fact that speech-reading has its limitations4 ,certain ,english words1 chiefly short ones1 are practically alike to the speech-reader and the context may fail sometimes to give a clew4 ,it is necessary1 at times1 in communicating with even expert speech-readers1 to have recourse to writing or oral spelling to convey the names of persons1 places1 technical terms1 etc41 not in common use4 ,moreover1 it is convenient to have accurate and rapid means of conversation under unfavorable conditions as to light and distance1 or when from any cause the deaf person's voice cannot be heard4 ,writing is slow1 inconvenient1 and often impossible4 ,writing upon the palm of the hand was proposed by the ,abbe ,deschamps in #aggh1 as utilizing the sense of touch1 and was used in darkness by him as a substitute for speech1 but it is neither accurate nor rapid4 ,writing in the air#a with the finger is also slow and uncertain1 while the action is unpleasantly conspicuous4 ,footnote #a3 ,the brilliant but wily ,sicard1 whose show pupils were accustomed to honoring drafts at sight in appropriate responses to all sorts of questions1 acting upon the motto1 ,mundus vult decipi1 ergo decipiatur1 schooled certain pupils in deciphering writing in the air1 and was thus prepared1 in emergencies at his public exhibitions1 to convey intimations of the answers1 while supposed to be using signs in putting questions4 ,finger-spelling would appear to be a far more convenient1 easy1 rapid1 and accurate adjunct to speech or substitute for it than writing4 ,it is a common error to consider the ordinary manual alphabets as deaf-mute alphabets and finger-spelling as the sign-language of the deaf4 ,finger-spelling is to the deaf a borrowed art4 ,it is used by many of the educated deaf and their friends as a substitute for the sign-language1 and it enables them also to supply the deficiencies of the sign-language by incorporating words from written language4 ,scagliotti1 of ,turin1 devised a system of initial signs#b which begin with letters of the manual alphabet1 and ,dr4 ,isaac ,lewis ,peet1 of ,new ,york1 has made a similar application of manual letters to signs to suggest words of our written language to the initiated deaf4 ,but it should not be forgotten that practice in finger-spelling is practice in our language4 ,footnote #b3 ,quatrieme ,circulaire1 ,paris1 #ahcf1 p4 #af4 ,carton's ,memoire1 #ahde1 p4 #gc4 ,the origin of finger-spelling is not known4 ,barrois1 a distinguished orientalist1 in his ,dactylologie et ,langage primitif#c1 ingeniously traces evidences of finger-spelling1 from the ,assyrian antiquities down to the fifteenth century upon monuments of art4 ,footnote #c3 ,barrois3 ,dactylologie et langage primitif1 ,paris1 #ahej1 ,firmin ,didot freres4 ,the ancient ,egyptians1 ,greeks1 and ,romans were familiar with manual arithmetic and finger-numeration1 as quaint ,john ,bulwer shows by numerous citations in his ,chironomia 7#afdd74 ,the earliest finger-alphabets extant appear to have been based upon finger-signs for numbers1 as1 for instance1 that given by the ,venerable ,bede 7#fgb-gce7 in his ,de ,loguela per ,gestum ,digitorum sive ,indigitatione1 figured in the ,ratisbon edition of #aecb4d ,monks and others who had special reason to prize secret and silent modes of communication1 beyond doubt invented and used many forms of finger alphabets as well as systems of manual signs4#e ,the oldest plates in the library of the ,national ,deaf ,mute ,college are found in the ,thesaurus ,artificiosae ,memoriae of frater ,cosmas ,p4 ,rossellius of ,florence1 printed in #aegi1 which gives three forms of one-hand alphabets4 ,bonet's work#f of #afbj gives one form of the one hand ,spanish manual alphabet1 which contains forms identical with certain letters in the alphabets of #aegi4 ,this was introduced into ,france by ,pereire and taught to the ,abbe de l',epee by ,saboureux de ,fontenay1 the gifted pupil of ,pereire4 ,the good ,abbe however continued to use a ,french#g two-hand alphabet which1 he had learned when a child and which he said all school-children knew4 ,he mentions also a ,spanish alphabet in part requiring both hands1 and remarks that different nations have different manual alphabets4 ,the ,abbe ,deschamps1 a rival of ,de l',epee1 made use of a finger alphabet in teaching the deaf to speak1 which was not adapted to rapid use4 ,john ,bulwer1 in his ,chirologia1 or the ,naturall ,language of the ,hand1 printed in #afdd1 figures five manual alphabets for secret communication4 ,footnote #d3 ,the library of the ,new ,york ,institution contains a copy of this very rare edition1 bearing the title ,abacus atque velustissima ,latinorum per digitos manusque numerandi 7quinetiam loquendi7 consuetudo1 etc41 ,ratisbonae1 #aecb4 ,footnote #e3 ,for an exhaustive account of the gesture speech in ,anglo-,saxon monasteries and of the ,cistercian monks1 who were under rigid vows of silence1 see ,f4 ,kluge3 ,zur ,geschichte der ,zeichensprache4--,angelsachsische indicia ,monaslerialia1 in ,international ,zeitschrift fur ,allgemeine ,sprachwissenschaft1 ,,ii4 ,band1 ,i4 ,halfte4 ,leipzig1 #ahhe4 ,footnote #f3 ,reduccion de lasletras y arte para ensenar a hablar los mudos1 #afbj4 ,the writer is under obligations to ,sr4 ,santos ,m4 ,robledo1 of the ,ministry of ,public ,works and ,education1 for advance sheets of the reprint in beautiful facsimile of this rare work ordered by the ,spanish ,government in #ahha4 ,footnote #g3 ,the ,abbe de l',epee did not master the ,spanish alphabet1 and1 attaching but little importance to manual spelling1 he was unsparing in his criticism of ,messieurs the dactylologists1 but by the irony of fate this alphabet occupies a face of the pedestal of one statue to his memory1 and in another statue the good ,abbe is represented either as receiving this alphabet from the skies or as devoutly using it4 ,the first alphabet which appears to have been devised expressly for use in teaching the deaf is that of ,george ,dalgarno1 of ,aberdeen 7#afbf-afhg71 given in his remarkable philosophical treatise1 ,didascalocophus1 or the ,deaf and ,dumb ,man's ,tutor1 ,oxford1 #afhj4 ,a facsimile of this alphabet is given in the ,annals1 vol4 ix41 page #ai4 ,words are spelled by touching with your finger the positions indicated1 either upon your hand or upon the hand of your interlocutor4 ,an alphabet of the same character1 however1 was not unknown at an earlier date4 ,for ,bulwer1 in #afdh1 says3 ,a pregnant example of the officious nature of the ,touch in supplying the defect or temporall incapacity of the other senses we have in one ,master ,babington of ,burntwood in the ,county of ,essex1 an ingenious gentleman1 who through some sicknesse becoming deaf1 doth notwithstanding feele words1 and as if he had an eye in his finger1 sees signes in the darke2 whose ,wife discourseth very perfectly with him by a strange way of ,arthrologie or ,alphabet contrived on the joynts of his ,fingers2 who taking him by the hand in the night1 can so discourse with him very exactly2 for he feeling the joynts which she toucheth for letters1 by them collected into words1 very readily conceives what shee would suggest unto him4 ,by which examples referring to this case and to that of an abbot who became deaf1 dumb1 and blind1 who understood writing traced upon his naked arm you may see how ready upon any invitation of ,art1 the ,tact is1 to supply the defect1 and to officiate for any or all of the other senses1 as being the most faithfull sense to man1 being both the ,founder1 and ,vicar generall to all the rest4#h ,footnote #h3 ,philocophus3 or1 ,,the ,,deafe and ,dumbe ,mans ,friend4 ,by ,i4,b4 ,john ,bulwer sirnamed the ,chorosopher4 ,london1 #afdh4 ,pp4 #ajf1ajg4 ,dr4 ,alexander ,graham ,bell has modified the ,dalgarno alphabet1 and has made considerable use of it in its modified form as figured in the ,annals1 vol4 xxviii41 page #acc4 ,he esteems it highly for certain purposes1 especially as employing touch to assist the sight or to release the sight for other employment1 as in reading speech for instance4 ,here a touch-alphabet may be an efficient aid to the sight1 as the touch may fairly keep pace with the rapidity of oral expression in deliberate speech4 ,an objection of ,dr4 ,kitto to the two-hand alphabet so widely know by school-children and others in ,great ,britain and in this country would seem to apply with greater force to the ,dalgarno alphabet3 ,to hit the right digit on all occasions is by far the most difficult point to learn in the use of the two-hand manual alphabet1 and it is hard to be sure which fingers have been touched4#i ,footnote #i3 ,dr4 ,kitto remaks the following common mistakes in reading rapid two-hand spelling3 the confounding i with e or o2 d with p2 l with t2 f with x2 r with t and with one form of j2 n with v1 and adds3 ,upon the whole1 the system is very defective1 and is capable of great improvement4 --,the ,lost ,senses1 p4 #ajg4 ,it is not the purpose of the writer to attempt even a catalogue of the numerous finger alphabets1 common1 tactile1 phonetic1 phonomimic1 phonodactylologic1 and syllabic1 which have been proposed for the special use of the deaf4 ,the one-hand alphabet used by ,ponce and figured by ,bonet was common in ,spanish almanacs hawked by ballad-mongers upon the streets of ,madrid in the days of ,de l',epee1 and although rejected by him1 it was adopted by his pupils4 ,this with slight modifications became the ,french manual alphabet which was introduced at ,hartford by ,dr4 ,thomas ,hopkins ,gallaudet4 ,this alphabet is known in almost every hamlet in the land4 ,slight changes in the form of certain letters1 or in the position of the hand1 in the direction of greater perspicuity and capacity for rapid use1 have taken place gradually1 though there is no absolute uniformity of usage among instructors or pupils4 ,this ,american alphabet1 as here presented1 through the liberality of ,dr4 ,a4 ,graham ,bell1 has been drawn and engraved from photographs1 and represents typical positions of the fingers1 hand and fore-arm from a uniform point of view in front of the person spelling1 or as seen in a large mirror by the user himself4#aj ,footnote #aj3 ,see an interesting paper on figured manual alphabets by ,h4,h4 ,hollister1 ,annals1 xv41 #hh-ic4 ,this alphabet can be learned in less than an hour1 and many have learned it by extraordinary application in ten minutes4 ,it is recommended that the arm be held in an easy position near the body1 with the fore-arm as in the plates4 ,each letter should be mastered before leaving it4 ,speed will come with use2 it should not be attempted nor permitted until the forms of the letters and the appropriate positions of the hand are thoroughly familiar4 ,the forms as given are legible from the distant parts of a public hall4 ,in colloquial use the fingers need not be so closely held nor firmly flexed1 as represented1 but sprawling should be avoided4 ,it is not necessary to move the arm1 but a slight leverage at the elbow is conducive to ease and is permissible1 provided the hand delivers the letters steadily within an imaginary immovable ring of1 say1 ten inches in diameter4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,one-,,hand ,,alphabet ,,in ,,general ,,use4--,,front ,,view4 ,this adjunct to speech-reading is recommended for its convenience1 clearness1 rapidity1 and ease in colloquial use1 as well as for its value as an educational instrument in impressing words1 phrases1 and sentences in their spelled form upon the mind1 in testing the comprehension of children1 and in affording by easy steps a substitute for the sign-language4 ,in the simultaneous instruction of large classes not able to follow speech1 finger-spelling may take the place of signs to a great extent in the definition1 explanation1 and illustration of single words and phrases1 and in questions and answers upon the lessons1 and in communications of every kind to which the stock of language already acquired may be adequate4#aa ,footnote #aa3 ,the ,use of the ,manual ,alphabet1 by ,s4 ,porter3 ,proceedings of the ,eighth ,convention of ,american ,instructors1 pp4 #ba-cj4 ,copies of the ,proceedings which contain this extremely valuable paper may be obtained of ,r4 ,mathison1 ,superintendent of the ,ontario ,institution1 ,belleville1 ,ontario4 ,all who have anything to do with the school instruction of the deaf may well bear in mind the matured opinion and wise counsel of ,professor ,samuel ,porter1 of the ,national ,college1 the ,nestor of ,american instructors4 ,in this connection1 ,professor ,porter says3 ,in short1 let the gestural signs come in only as a last resort1 or1 so far as possible1 merely as supplementary to words1 re-enforcing them in some instances1 or employed as a test of the pupil's knowledge of words1 but always1 so far as possible1 falling behind and taking a subordinate place4 ,and let the pupils be required1 in what they have to say to their teachers in the schoolroom or elsewhere1 to employ the finger-alphabet instead of natural signs to the utmost possible extent1 and this by complete sentences and not in a fragmentary way4 ,,joseph ,c4 ,,gordon1 ,m4,a41 ,professor in the ,national ,college1 ,washington1 ,d4,c44 99 99 99 99 99 ,,fruits ,,and ,,seeds ,,for ,,dress-,,trimming4 ,the use of natural flowers for decorating the person is instinctive among certain peoples1 and a question of fashion among others4 ,it is in ,oceanica especially that this taste seems to be nationally developed1 and from the narrative of ,cook we know that the ,tahitian belles use in their toilet the perfumed flowers of the pua and tiare 7,carissa grandis and ,gardenia ,tahitensis71 whose dazzling whiteness renders still more marked the ebony blackness of their wealth of hair4 ,in ,europe this custom is traditional in many countries4 ,women of fashion scarcely ever appear at a soiree or ball without wearing a camellia or an exotic orchid on their breast or in their head-dress1 and so1 too1 gentlemen of high life do not go out without a boutonniere of white violets or ,cape jasmine4 ,but natural flowers1 being ephemeral1 were once replaced in the toilets of ladies by artificial ones4 ,the artificial flower industry originated in ,china1 and from thence passed into ,italy and afterward into ,france4 ,in course of time people got tired of artificial flowers for decorative purposes1 and then imitation fruits made their appearance1 and were worn in the toilets of dowagers and mothers of families4 ,now that fashion1 that tyrant born of dressmakers1 milliners1 and tailors of renown1 obliges us to clothe ourselves according to accepted models1 the kaleidoscope no longer suffices to find the most varied designs and most fantastic cuts for garbs or ornament4 ,in recent years pleasing objects have been borrowed from the animal kingdom1 such as small birds and quadrupeds1 and insects with brilliant colors and of strange forms4 ,what formerly would have been a repulsive object 7such as a great longicorn or beetle7 is worn with ease by the belles of our time4 ,the use of such objects of natural history1 however1 has been about confined to the decoration of head-dresses or the manufacture of jewelry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,dress ,,trimmings ,,of ,,fruits ,,and ,,seeds4 #a4 ,seeds of ,casuarina and fruit of alder4 #b4 ,acorn cup1 involcure of beech1 and pod of medick4 #c4 ,fruit of ,eucalyptus1 cups of acorns1 ,job's tears1 and cones of cypress4 ,as the need of creating new models is always making itself felt1 one ingenious manufacturer1 ,mr4 ,collin1 has turned toward the vegetable kingdom1 and brought out an elegant and original style of dress-trimming made of certain indigenous and exotic fruits and seeds that no one would ever have thought of using for such a purpose4 ,instead of pendants made of wood and covered with silk or velvet1 ,mr4 ,collin uses dry fruits or seeds1 which he has previously dyed1 gilded1 or silvered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,dress ,,trimmings ,,of ,,fruits ,,and ,,seeds4 #d and #e4 ,fruit of alder4 #f4 ,fruit of ,casuarina4 #g4 ,fruit of ,arbutus4 #h4 ,fruit of ,casuarina4 ,in order that the effect may be good1 it is necessary that the objects be not uniform4 ,their surface must be naturally carved and hollowed1 and the projecting parts must detach themselves well from each other4 ,the number of species now used is relatively large1 but a selection from these will inevitably be made4 ,some patterns will be better liked than others1 and ladies who are to wear these new trimmings this winter will be able to make their choice of them at the fashion stores4 ,when such articles as these make their appearance1 they often spread with surprising rapidity4 ,it is now but a few days since the great dressmaker ,worth adopted them1 and the linen trade already has them in stock4 ,we recently saw at ,suzange's some linen aprons and collars ornamented with small groups of fruits and seeds prepared by the ,collin process1 and which produced a most pleasing effect4 ,the idea has even occurred to apply these trimmings to furniture and upholstery4 ,in the manufacture of these articles the cones of several species of ,casuarina1 the tags of alder1 as well as the naturally carved fruits of certain ,eloeocarpi of ,india and ,australia1 were first used2 then came the fruits of the umbelliferous plant1 ,oenanthe1 the spiral pods of ,medicago1 the fruit of the water-caltrops1 ,melia and ,zizyphus1 the cups of the acorn1 the involucres of the beech1 the seeds of ,coix lacryma1 etc4 ,the naturalist ought to be glad to see objects that form the base of his studies taking a direction favorable to the industry of his country4 ,on another hand1 these products themselves cannot fail to arouse the curiosity of ladies who have the instinct of observation4 ,and1 who knows8 ,perhaps a frock or mantle trimmed with these vegetable ornaments may prove a more certain propaganda in favor of botany than the most classic lessons on this gentle1 science6--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dew4 ,footnote3 ,abstract of paper read before the ,royal ,society of ,edinburgh on ,dec4 #ba1 #ahhe1 by ,mr4 ,aitken1 communicated by permission of the ,council of the ,society4--,nature4 ,the first point referred to in this paper is the source of the vapor that condenses to form dew4 ,a short historical sketch is given of the successive theories from time to time advanced on this point1 showing how in early times dew was supposed to descend from the heavens1 and then afterward it was suggested that it rose from the earth1 while ,dr4 ,wells1 who has justly been considered the great master of this subject1 thought it came neither from above nor from below1 but was condensed out of the air near the surface of the earth4 ,he combated ,gersten's idea that it rose from the earth1 and showed that all the phenomena observed by ,gersten and others which were advanced to support this theory could be equally well explained according to the theory that it was simply formed from the vapor present at the time in the air1 and which had risen from the ground during the day1 and concluded that if any did rise from the ground during night1 the quantity must be small1 but1 with great caution1 he adds that he was not acquainted with any means of determining the proportion of this part to the whole4 ,a few observations of the temperature of the ground near the surface1 and of the air over it1 first raised doubts as to the correctness of the now generally received opinion that dew is formed of vapor existing at the time in the air4 ,these observations1 made at night1 showed the ground at a short distance below the surface to be always hotter than the air over it1 and it was thought that so long as this excess is sufficient to keep the temperature of the surface of the ground above the dew point of the air1 it will1 if moist1 give off vapor1 and it will be this rising vapor that will condense on the grass and form dew1 and not the vapor that was previously present in the air4 ,the first question to be determined was whether vapor does1 or does not1 rise from the ground on dewy nights4 ,one method tried of testing this point was by placing over the grass1 in an inverted position1 shallow trays made of thin metal and painted4 ,these trays were put over the ground to be tested after sunset and examined at night1 and also next morning4 ,it was expected that1 if vapor was rising from the ground during dewy nights1 it would be trapped inside the trays4 ,the result in all the experiments was that the inside was dewed every night1 and the grass inside was wetter than that outside4 ,on some nights there was no dew outside the trays1 and on all nights the inside deposit was heavier than the outside one4 ,an analysis of the action of these trays is given1 and it is concluded that they act very much the same as if the air was quite still4 ,under these conditions vapor will rise from the ground so long as the vapor-tension on the surface of the ground is higher than that at the top of the grass1 and much of this rising vapor is1 under ordinary conditions1 carried away by the passing air1 and mixed with a large amount of drier air1 whereas the vapor rising under the trays is not so diluted2 and hence1 though only cooled to the same amount as the air outside1 it yields a heavier deposit of dew4 ,another method of testing this point was employed1 which consisted in weighing a small area of the exposed surface of the ground1 as it was evident that if the soil gave off vapor during a dewy night1 it must lose weight4 ,a small turf about #f inches 7#aeb mm47 square was cut out of the lawn1 and placed in a small shallow pan of about the same size4 ,the pan with its turf1 after being carefully weighed1 was put out on the lawn in the place where the turf had been cut4 ,it was exposed for some hours while dew was forming1 and on these occasions it was always found to lose weight4 ,it was thus evident that vapor was rising from the ground while dew was forming1 and therefore the dew found on the grass was formed of part of the rising vapor1 trapped or held back by coming into contact with the cold blades of grass4 ,the difference between these experiments1 in which the exposed bodies lose weight1 and the well-known ones in which bodies are exposed to radiation1 and the amount of dew formed is estimated by the increase in their weight1 is pointed out4 ,in the former case1 the bodies are in good heat-communication with the ground1 whereas in the latter little or no heat is received by conduction from the earth4 ,another method employed for determining whether the conditions found in nature were favorable for dew rising from the ground on dewy nights was by observations of the temperatures indicated by two thermometers1 one placed on the surface of the grass and the other under the surface1 among the stems1 but on the top of the soil4 ,the difference in the readings of these two thermometers on dewy nights was found to be very considerable4 ,from #aj to #ah ,f4 was frequently observed4 ,a minimum thermometer placed on1 and another under1 the grass showed that during the whole night a considerable difference was always maintained4 ,as a result of this difference of temperature1 it is evident that vapor will rise from the hotter soil underneath into the colder air above1 and some of it will be trapped by coming into contact with the cold grass4 ,while the experiments were being conducted on grass land1 parallel observations were made on bare soil4 ,over soil the inverted traps collected more dew inside them than those over grass4 ,a small area of soil was spread over a shallow pan1 and after being weighed was exposed at the place where the soil had been taken out1 to see if bare soil as well as grass lost weight during dewy nights4 ,the result was that on all nights on which the tests were made the soil lost weight1 and lost very nearly the same amount as the grass-land4 ,another method employed of testing whether vapor is rising from bare soil1 or is being condensed upon it1 consisted in placing on the soil1 and in good contact with it1 small pieces of black mirror1 or any substance having a surface that shows dewing easily4 ,in this way a small area of the surface of the earth is converted into a hygroscope1 and these test surfaces tell us whether the ground is cooled to the dew-point or not4 ,so long as they remain clear and undewed1 the surface of the soil is hotter than the dew-point1 and vapor is being given off1 while if they get dewed1 the soil will also be condensing vapor4 ,on all nights observed1 these test-surfaces kept clear1 and showed the soil to be always giving off vapor4 ,all these different methods of testing point to the conclusion that during dewy nights1 in this climate1 vapor is constantly being given off from grass land1 and almost always from bare soil2 that the tide of vapor almost always sets outward from the earth and but rarely ebbs1 save after being condensed to cloud and rain1 or on those rarer occasions on which1 after the earth has got greatly cooled1 a warm moist air blows over it4 ,the results of the experiments are given1 showing1 from weighings1 the amount of vapor lost by the soil at night1 and also the heat lost by the surface soil4 ,it seems probable that when the radiation is strong1 that soil1 especially if it is loose and not in good heat-communication with the ground1 will get cooled below the dew-point1 and have vapor condensed upon it4 ,on some occasions the soil certainly got wetter on the surface1 but the question still remains1 ,whence the vapor8 ,came it from the air1 or from the soil underneath8 ,the latter seems the more probable source2 the vapor rising from the hot soil underneath will be trapped by the cold surface-soil1 in the same way as it is trapped by grass over grass-land4 ,during frost1 opportunities are afforded of studying this point in a satisfactory manner1 as the trapped vapor keeps its place where it is condensed4 ,on these occasions the under sides of the clods1 at the surface of the soil1 are found to be thickly covered with hoar-frost1 while there is little on their upper or exposed surfaces1 showing that the vapor condensed on the surface-soil has come from below4 ,the next division of the subject is on dew on roads4 ,it is generally said that dew forms copiously on grass1 while none is deposited on roads1 because grass is a good radiator and cools quicker1 and cools more1 than the surface of a road4 ,it is shown that the above statement is wrong1 and that dew really does form abundantly on roads1 and that the reason it has not been observed is that it has not been sought for at the correct place4 ,we are not entitled to expect to find dew on the surface of roads as on the surface of grass4 because stones are good conductors of heat1 and1 the vapor-tension being higher underneath than above the stones1 the result is1 the rising vapor gets condensed on the under sides of the stones4 ,if a road is examined on a dewy night1 and the gravel turned up1 the under sides of the stones are found to be dripping wet4 ,another reason why no dew forms on the surface of roads is that the stones1 being fair conductors1 and in heat communication with the ground1 the temperature of the surface of the road is1 from observations taken on several occasions1 higher than that of the surface of the grass alongside4 ,the air in contact with the stones is1 therefore1 not cooled so much as that in contact with the grass4 ,for studying the formation of dew on roads1 slates were found to be useful4 ,one slate was placed over a gravelly part of the road1 and another over a hard dry part4 ,examined on dewy nights1 the under sides of these slates were always found to be dripping wet1 while their upper surfaces1 and the ground all round1 were quite dry4 ,the importance of the heat communicated from the ground is illustrated by a simple experiment with two slates or two iron weights1 one of them being placed on the ground1 either on grass or on bare soil1 and the other elevated a few inches above the surface4 ,the one resting on the ground1 and in heat-communication with it1 is found always to keep dry on dewy nights1 whereas the elevated one gets dewed all over4 ,the effect of wind in preventing the formation of dew is referred to4 ,it is shown that1 in addition to the other ways already known1 wind hinders the formation of dew by preventing an accumulation of moist air near the surface of the ground4 ,an examination of the different forms of vegetation was made on dewy nights4 ,it was soon evident that something else than radiation and condensation was at work to produce the varied appearances then seen on plants4 ,some kinds of plants were found to be wet1 while others of a different kind1 and growing close to them1 were dry1 and even on the same plant some branches were wet1 while others were dry4 ,the examination of the leaf of a broccoli plant showed better than any other that the wetting was not what we might expect if it were dew4 ,the surface of the leaf was not wet all over1 and the amount of deposit on any part had no relation to its exposure to radiation or access to moist air2 but the moisture was collected in little drops1 placed at short distances apart1 along the very edge of the leaf4 ,closer examination showed that the position of these drops had a close relation to the structure of the leaf2 they were all placed at the points where the veins in the leaf came to the outer edge1 at once suggesting that these veins were the channels through which the liquid had been expelled4 ,an examination of grass revealed a similar condition of matters2 the moisture was not equally distributed over the blade1 but was in drops attached to the tips of some of the blades4 ,these drops1 seen on vegetation on dewy nights1 are therefore not dew at all1 but are an effect of the vitality of the plant4 ,it is pointed out that the excretion of drops of liquid by plants is no new discovery1 as it has been long well known1 and the experiments of ,dr4 ,moll on this subject are referred to2 but what seems strange is that the relation of it to dew does not seem to have been recognized4 ,some experiments were made on this subject in its relation to dew4 ,leaves of plants that had been seen to be wet on dewy nights were experimented on4 ,they were connected by means of an ,india-rubber tube with a head of water of about one meter1 and the leaf surrounded with saturated air4 ,all were found to exude a watery liquid after being subjected to pressure for some hours1 and a broccoli leaf got studded all along its edge with drops1 and presented exactly the same appearance it did on dewy nights4 ,a stem of grass was also found to exude at the tips of one or two blades when pressure was applied4 ,the question as to whether these drops are really exuded by the plant1 or are produced in some other way1 is considered4 ,the tip of a blade of grass was put under conditions in which it could not extract moisture from the surrounding air1 and1 as the drop grew as rapidly under these conditions as did those on the unprotected blades1 it is concluded that these drops are really exuded by the plant4 ,grass was found to get dewed in air not quite saturated4 ,on many nights no true dew is formed1 and nothing but these exuded drops appear on the grass2 and on all nights when vegetation is active1 these drops appear before the true dew2 and if the radiation is strong enough and the supply of vapor sufficient1 true dew makes its appearance1 and now the plants get equally wet all over1 in the same manner as dead matter4 ,the difference between true dew on grass and these exuded drops can be detected at a glance4 ,the drops are always exuded at a point near the tip of the blade1 and form a drop of some size1 while true dew is distributed all over the blade4 ,the exuded liquid forms a large diamond-like drop1 while the dew coats the blade with a pearly luster4 ,toward the end of the paper the radiating powers of different surfaces at night is considered1 and after a reference to some early experiments on this subject1 the paper proceeds to describe some experiments made with the radiation thermometer described by the author in a previous paper4 ,when working with this instrument1 it is placed in a situation having a clear view of the sky all round1 and is fixed at the same height as the ordinary thermometer screen1 which is worked along with it1 the difference between the thermometer in the screen and the radiation thermometer being observed4 ,this difference in clear nights amounts to from #g to #aj4 ,by means of the radiation thermometer the radiating powers of different surfaces were observed4 ,black and white cloths were found to radiate equally well2 soil and grass were also almost exactly equal to each other4 ,lampblack was equal to whitening4 ,sulphur was about two-thirds of black paint1 and polished tin about one-seventh of black paint4 ,snow in the shade on a bright day was at midday #g colder than the air1 while a black surface at the same time was only #d colder4 ,this difference diminished as the sun got lower1 and at night both radiated almost equally well4 ,in the concluding pages of the paper some less important subjects are considered4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,terms of ,subscription1 #e a ,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any 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