,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #hjc ,,new ,,york1 ,may #bc1 #ahia ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xxxi41 ,no4 #hjc4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,astronomy4--,the ,great ,equatorial of the ,paris ,observatory4-- ,the new telescope recently put in use in ,paris4--,description of the instrument and of its effects4--#c illustrations ,,ii4 ,,chemistry4--,an ,apparatus for ,heating ,substances in ,glass ,tubes under ,pressure4--,by ,h4 ,,pemberton1 ,jr4--,a simple apparatus for effecting this purpose1 avoiding risk of personal injury4-- #b illustrations ,table of ,atomic ,weights4--,a revised table of atomic weights1 giving the results of the last determinations1 and designed for every-day use ,testing ,cement4--,a laboratory process for testing ,portland cement ,,iii4 ,,civil ,,engineering4--,the ,compressed ,air ,system of ,paris4 --,an elaborate review of this great installation for the transmission of power4--,the new compressed air station1 with full details of performances of apparatus1 etc4--#aj illustrations ,,iv4 ,,entomology4--,report on ,insects4--,continuation of this report on noxious insects4--,their habits and how to cope with them4 --#ah illustrations ,v4 ,,floriculture4--,lily of the ,valley4--,practical notes on the cultivation of this popular flower4--,how to raise it and force the growth ,,vi4 ,,mathematics4--,the ,conic ,sections4--,by ,prof4 ,c4,w4 ,,maccord4--,examination of the four conic sections with a general definition applicable to all4--#f illustrations ,,vii4 ,,mechanical ,,engineering4--,the ,builders of the ,steam ,engine--,the ,founders of ,modern ,industries and ,nations4--,by ,dr4 ,r4,h4 ,,thurston4--,prof4 ,thurston's address before the ,centennial ,celebration of the ,american ,patent ,system at ,washington1 ,d4,c4--,the early history of the steam engine and its present position in the world ,,viii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,the ,breeds of ,dogs4--,popular description of the different breeds of dogs most affected by amateurs4--#f illustrations ,,ix4 ,,naval ,,engineering4--,modern ,armor4--,by ,f4,r4 ,,brainard4--,the development of modern ship armor1 from laminated sandwiched and compound types to the present solid armor4--#i illustrations ,x4 ,,pisciculture4--,restocking the ,seine with ,fish4--,the introduction of #dj1jjj fry of ,california trout and salmon1 designed to restock the ,seine1 depopulated of fish by explosions of dynamite used in breaking up the ice4--#a illustration ,,xi4 ,,railway ,,engineering4--,improved ,hand ,car4--,a novelty in the construction of hand cars1 avoiding the production of a dead center4--#a illustration ,,xii4 ,,technology4--,the ,tanning ,materials of ,europe4--,the natural tanning materials and pathological or abnormal growth tanning materials described and classified1 with relative power 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,great ,,equatorial ,,of ,,the ,,paris ,,observatory4 ,the great instrument which has just completed the installation of our national observatory is constructed upon the same principle as the elbowed equatorial1 #aa in4 in diameter1 established in #ahhb1 according to the ingenious arrangement devised as long ago as #ahgb1 by ,mr4 ,loewy1 assistant director of the ,paris ,observatory4 ,we shall here recall the fact that the elbowed equatorial consists of two parts joined at right angles4 ,one of these is directed according to the axis of the world1 and is capable of revolving around its own axis1 and the other1 which is at right angles to it1 is capable of describing around the first a plane representing the celestial equator4 ,at the apex of the right angle there is a plane mirror of silvered glass inclined at an angle of #de deg4 with respect to the optical axis1 and which sends toward the ocular the image coming from the objective and already reflected by another and similar plane mirror4 ,the objective and this second mirror 7which is inclined at an angle of #de deg47 are placed at the extremity of the external part of the tube1 and form part of a cube1 movable around the axis of the instrument at right angles with the axis of the world4 ,the diagram in ,fig4 #c will allow the course of a luminous ray coming from space to be easily understood4 ,the image of the star1 ,a1 toward which the instrument is directed1 traverses the objective1 ,b ,c1 is reflected first from the mirror1 ,b ,d1 and next from the central mirror1 ,e ,f1 and finally reaches ,o1 at the ocular where the observer is stationed4 ,this new equatorial differs from the first model by its much larger dimensions and its extremely remarkable mechanical improvements4 ,the optical part1 which is admirably elaborated1 consists of a large astronomical objective #bd in4 in diameter1 and of a photographic objective of the same aperture1 capable of being substituted1 one for the other1 according to the nature of the work that it is desired to accomplish by the aid of this colossal telescope1 the total length of which is #ei ft4 ,the two plane mirrors which complete the optical system have1 respectively1 diameters of #cd in4 and #bi in4 ,these two magnificent objectives and the two mirrors were constructed by the ,brothers ,henry1 whose double reputation as astronomers and opticians is so universally established4 ,the mechanical part is the successful work of ,mr4 ,gautier1 who has looked after every detail with the greatest care1 and has thus realized a true chef d'oeuvre4 ,the colossal instrument1 the total weight of which is #bf1djj lb41 is maneuvered by hand with the greatest ease4 ,a clockwork movement1 due to the same able manufacturer1 is capable1 besides1 of moving the instrument with all the precision desirable1 and of permitting it to follow the stars in their travel across the heavens4 ,a star appearing in the horizon can thus be observed from its rising to its setting4 ,the astronomer1 his eye at the ocular1 is always conveniently seated at the same place1 observing the distant worlds1 rendered immovable1 so to speak1 in the field of the instrument4 ,for stars which1 like the moon and the planets1 have a course different from the diurnal motion1 it is possible to modify the running of the clockwork1 so that they can thus be as easily followed as in the preceding case4 ,fig4 #a gives a general view of the new installation1 for which it became necessary to build a special edifice #fe ft4 in height on the ground south of the observatory bordering on the ,arago ,boulevard4 ,a large movable structure serves for covering the external part of the instrument4 ,this structure rests on rails1 upon which it slides toward the south when it is desired to make observations4 ,it will be seen from the figure how the principal axis of the instrument rests upon the two masonry pillars1 one of which is #di ft4 and the other #ac ft4 in height4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #a4--,,the ,,great ,,equatorial ,,of ,,the ,,paris ,,observatory4 ,the total cost of the pavilion1 rolling structure1 and instrument 7including the two objectives7 will amount to about #hj1jjj after the new equatorial has been provided with the scientific apparatus that necessarily have to accompany it for the various and numerous applications to which the use of it will give rise4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #b4--,,ocular ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,equatorial4 ,fig4 #b shows us the room in the observatory in which the astronomer1 seated in his chair1 is completely protected against the inclemencies of the weather4 ,here1 with his eye applied to the ocular1 he can1 without changing position 7owing to all the handles that act at his will upon the many transmissions necessary for the maneuvering71 direct his instrument unaided toward every point of the heavens with wonderful sureness and precision4 ,the observer has before him on the same plane two divided circles1 one of which gives the right ascensions and the other the declinations1 and which he consults at each observation for the exact orientation of the equatorial4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,diagram ,,showing ,,the ,,course ,,of ,a ,,luminous ,,ray ,,in ,,the ,,great ,,equatorial4 ,all the readings are done by the aid of electric lamps of very small dimensions1 supplied by accumulators1 and which are lighted at will4 ,each of these lamps is of one candle power2 two of them are designed for the reading of the two circles of right ascension and of declination2 a third serves for the reading of the position circle of the micrometer2 two others are employed for the reading of the drums fixed upon the micrometric screws2 four others serve for rendering the spider threads of the reticule brilliant upon a black ground2 and still another serves for illuminating the field of the instrument where the same threads remain black upon a luminous ground4 ,the currents that supply these lamps are brought over two different circuits1 in which are interposed rheostats that permit of graduating the intensity of the light at will4 ,since the installation of the first model of an elbowed equatorial of #aa in4 aperture1 in #ahhb1 at the ,paris ,observatory1 the numerous and indisputable advantages of this sort of instrument have led a certain number of observatories to have similar1 but larger1 instruments constructed4 ,in ,france1 the observatories of ,alger1 ,besancon1 and ,lyons have telescopes of this kind1 the objectives of which have diameters of from #ab in4 to #ac in41 and which have been used for several years past in equatorial observations of all kinds4 ,the ,vienna ,observatory has for the last two years been using an instrument of this kind whose objective has an aperture of #ae inches4 ,another equatorial of the same kind1 of #af in4 aperture1 is now in course of construction for the ,nice ,observatory1 where it will be especially employed as a seeker of exceptional power--a role to which this kind of instrument lends itself admirably4 ,the optical part of all these instruments was furnished by the ,messrs4 ,henry1 and the mechanical part by ,mr4 ,gautier4 ,the largest elbowed equatorial is1 therefore1 that of the ,paris ,observatory4 ,its optical power1 moreover1 corresponds perfectly to its huge dimensions4 ,the experimental observations which have already been made with it fully justify the hopes that we had a right to found upon the professional skill of the eminent artists to whom we owe this colossal instrument4 ,the images of the stars were given with the greatest sharpness1 and it was possible to study the details of the surface of the moon and other planets1 and several star clusters1 in all their peculiarities1 in the most remarkable manner4 ,when it shall become possible to make use of this equatorial for celestial photography1 there is no doubt that we shall obtain the most important results4 ,as regards the moon1 in particular1 the photographing of which has already made so great progress1 its direct image at the focus of the large #bd in4 photographic objective will have a diameter of #aa in41 and1 being magnified1 will be capable of giving images of more than #c ft4 in diameter4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lily ,,of ,,the ,,valley4 ,there is no flower more truly and universally popular than the lily of the valley4 ,what can be more delicious and refreshing than the scent of its fragrant flowers8 ,what other plant can equal in spring the attractiveness of its pillars of pure white bells half hidden in their beautiful foliage8 ,there are few gardens without a bed of lily of the valley1 but too often the place chosen for it is some dark corner where nothing else would be expected to grow1 but it is supposed as a matter of course that it will do for a lily bed4 ,the consequence is that although these lilies are very easy things to cultivate1 as indeed they ought to be1 seeing that they grow wild in the woods of this and other countries1 yet one hears so often from those who take only a slight interest in practical gardening1 ,i have a lily bed1 but ,i scarcely ever get any lilies4 ,wild lilies are hardly worth the trouble of gathering1 they are so thin and poor2 it is interesting to find a plant so beautiful and precious in the garden growing wild in the woods1 but beyond that the flowers themselves are worth but very little4 ,this at once tells us an evident fact about the lily of the valley1 viz41 that it does require cultivation4 ,it is not a thing to be left alone in a dark and dreary corner to take care of itself anyhow year after year4 ,people who treat it so deserve to be disappointed when in ,may they go to the lily bed and find plenty of leaves1 but no flowers1 or1 if any1 a few poor1 weak attempts at producing blossoms1 which ought to be so beautiful and fragrant4 ,one great advantage of this lovely spring flower is that it can be so readily and easily forced4 ,gardeners in large places usually spend several pounds in the purchase of crowns and clumps of the lily of the valley1 which they either import direct from foreign nurserymen or else procure from their own dealer in such things1 who imports his lilies in large quantities from abroad4 ,but we may well ask1 ,have foreign gardeners found out some great secret in the cultivation of this plant8 ,or is their climate more suitable for it8 ,or their soil adapted to growing it and getting it into splendid condition for forcing8 ,it is impossible that the conditions for growing large and fine heads of this lily can be in any way better in ,berlin or elsewhere than they are in our own land1 unless greater heat in summer than we experience in ,england is necessary for ripening the growths in autumn4 ,there is another question certainly as to varieties2 one variety may be superior to another1 but surely if so it is only on the principle of the survival of the fittest1 that is to say1 by carefully working on the finest forms only and propagating from them1 a strong and vigorous stock may be the result1 and this stock may be dignified with a special name4 ,for my own part what ,i want is to have a great abundance of lily of the valley from ,february till the out-door season is over4 ,to do this with imported clumps would1 of course1 be most costly1 and far beyond what any person ought to spend on mere flowers4 ,though it must be remembered that it is an immense advantage to the parish priest to be able to take bright and sweet flowers to the bedside of the sick1 or to gratify the weary spirit of a confirmed invalid1 confined through all the lovely spring time to the narrow limits of a dull room1 with the fragrant flowers of the lily of the valley4 ,i determined1 therefore1 that ,i would have an abundance of early lilies1 and that they should not be costly1 but simply produced at about the same expense as any other flowers1 and ,i have been very successful in accomplishing this by very simple means4 ,first of all1 it is necessary to have the means of forcing1 that is to say the required heat1 which in my case is obtained from an early vinery4 ,i have seen lilies forced by pushing the clumps in under the material for making a hot bed for early cucumbers1 the clumps being drawn out1 of course1 as soon as the flowers had made a good start4 ,they have then to be carefully and very gradually exposed to full light1 but often1 although fine heads of bloom may be produced in this way1 the leaves will be few and poor4 ,my method is simply this3 ,in the kitchen garden there is the old original bed of lilies of the valley in a corner certainly1 but not a dark corner4 ,this is the reservoir1 as were1 from whence the regular supply of heads for special cultivation is taken4 ,this large bed is not neglected and left alone to take care of itself1 but carefully manured with leaf mould and peat moss manure from the stable every year4 ,especially the vacant places made by taking out the heads for cultivation are thus filled up4 ,then under the east wall another piece of ground is laid out and divided into four plots4 ,when ,i first began to prepare for forcing ,i waited four years1 and had one plot planted with divided heads each year4 ,clumps are taken up from the reserve bed and then shaken out and the heads separated1 each with its little bunch of fibrous roots4 ,they are then carefully planted in one of the plots about #d in4 or #e in4 apart1 the ground having previously been made as light and rich as possible with plenty of leaf mould4 ,i think the best time for doing this is in autumn1 after the leaves have turned yellow and have rotted away2 but frequently the operation has been delayed till spring1 without much difference in the result4 ,asparagus is usually transplanted in spring1 and there is a wonderful affinity between the two plants1 which1 of course1 belong to the same order4 ,it was a long time to wait--four years--but ,i felt there was no use in being in too great a hurry1 and every year the plants manifestly improved1 and the buds swelled up nicely and looked more plump each winter when the leaves were gone4 ,it must be remembered also that a nice crop of flowers could be gathered each year4 ,when the fourth year came1 the first plot was divided up into squares about #b ft4 each way1 and taken up before any hard frost or snow had made their appearance1 and put away on the floor of an unused stable4 ,from the stable they are removed as required in the squares to the vinery1 where they grow beautifully1 not sending up merely fine heads of bloom without a vestige of leaf1 but growing as they would in spring out of doors with a mass of foliage1 among which one has to search for the spikes of flower1 so precious for all sorts of purposes at that early season of the year4 ,the spikes produced in this way do not equal in thickness and substance of petal the flowers which come from more carefully prepared clumps imported from ,berlin1 but they are fine and strong1 and above all most abundant4 ,i can not only supply the house and small vases for the church1 but also send away boxes of the flowers to friends at a distance1 besides the many gifts which can be made to those who are ill or invalids4 ,few gifts at such a time are more acceptable than a fragrant nosegay of lily of the valley4 ,in order to keep the supply of prepared roots ready year after year1 a plot of ground has only to be planted each autumn1 so that in the rotation of years it may be ready for forcing when its turn shall come4 ,as the season advances1 as every one knows who has attempted to force the lily of the valley1 much less time is taken in bringing the flowers to perfection under precisely the same circumstances as those in which the first sods are forced4 ,in ,february or earlier the buds are more unwilling to start2 there seems to be a natural repugnance against being so soon forced out of the winter's sleep and rest4 ,but when the flowers do come1 they are nearly as fine and their leaves are quite as abundant in this way of forcing as from the pieces introduced much later into heat4 ,it would be easy to preserve the squares after all the flowers are gathered1 but ,i found that they would not1 like strawberries1 kindly furnish forth another crop later on in the year1 and1 therefore1 mine are flung away2 and ,i have often pitied the tender leaves in the frost and snow after their short sojourn in the hot climate of the vinery4 ,but the reserve bed will always supply an ample quantity of fresh heads1 and it is best to take the new plants for preparation in the kitchen garden from this reserve bed4 ,this very simple method of forcing lilies of the valley is within the reach of any one who has even a small garden and a warm house1 and these two things are becoming more and more common among us every day4--,a ,gloucestershire ,parson1 in ,the ,garden4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #hjb1 page #abhbj4 ,,report ,,on ,,insects4 ,,the ,,onion ,,maggot4 ,phorbia ceparum 7,meig47 ,early in ,june a somewhat hairy fly1 ,fig4 #i1 may be seen flying about1 and depositing its eggs on the leaves of the young onion plants1 near the roots1 ,fig4 #aj4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,dr4 ,fitch describes this fly as follows3 ,it has a considerable resemblance to the common house fly1 though when the two are placed side by side1 this is observed as being more slender in its form4 ,the two sexes are readily distinguished from each other by the eyes1 which in the males are close together1 and so large as to occupy almost the whole surface of the head1 while in the females they are widely separated from each other4 ,these flies are of an ash gray color1 with the head silvery1 and a rusty black stripe between the eyes1 forked at its hind end4 ,and this species is particularly distinguished by having a row of black spots along the middle of the abdomen or hind body1 which sometimes run into each other1 and then forming a continuous stripe4 ,this row of spots is quite distinct in the male1 but in the female is very faint1 or is often wholly imperceptible4 ,this fly measured #j4bb to #j4be inch in length1 the females being usually rather larger than the males4 ,the eggs are white1 smooth1 somewhat oval in outline1 and about one twenty-fifth of an inch in length4 ,usually not more than half a dozen are laid on a single plant1 and the young maggot burrows downward within the sheath1 leaving a streak of pale green to indicate its path1 and making its way into the root1 devours all except the outer skin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,the maggots reach their full growth in about two weeks1 when they are about one-third of an inch long1 white and glossy1 tapering from the posterior end to the head1 which is armed with a pair of black1 hook-like jaws4 ,the opposite end is cut off obliquely and has eight tooth-like projections around the edge1 and a pair of small brown tubercles near the middle4 ,fig4 #aa shows the eggs1 larva1 and pupa1 natural size and enlarged4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,they usually leave the onions and transform to pup within the ground4 ,the form of the pupa does not differ very much from the maggot1 but the skin has hardened and changed to a chestnut brown color1 and they remain in this stage about two weeks in the summer1 when the perfect flies emerge4 ,there are successive broods during the season1 and the winter is passed in the pupa stage4 ,the following remedies have been suggested3 ,scattering dry1 unleached wood ashes over the plants as soon as they are up1 while they are wet with dew1 and continuing this as often as once a week through the month of ,june1 is said to prevent the deposit of eggs on the plants4 ,planting the onions in a new place as remote as possible from where they were grown the previous year has been found useful1 as the flies are not supposed to migrate very far4 ,pulverized gas lime scattered along between the rows has been useful in keeping the flies away4 ,watering with liquid from pig pens collected in a tank provided for the purpose1 was found by ,miss ,ormerod to be a better preventive than the gas lime4 ,when the onions have been attacked and show it by wilting and changing color1 they should either be taken up with a trowel and burned1 or else a little diluted carbolic acid1 or kerosene oil1 should be dropped on the infested plants to run down them and destroy the maggots in the roots and in the soil around them4 ,instead of sowing onion seed in rows1 they should be grown in hills1 so that the maggots1 which are footless1 cannot make their way from one hill to another4 ,,the ,,cabbage ,,butterfly4 ,pieris rapae 7,linn47 ,in the ,new ,england ,states there are three broods of this insect in a year1 according to ,mr4 ,scudder1 the butterflies being on the wing in ,may1 ,july1 and ,september2 but as the time of the emergence varies1 we see them on the wing continuously through the season4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,the expanded wings1 ,fig4 #ab1 male1 measure about two inches1 are white above1 with the base dusky4 ,both sexes have the apex black and a black spot a little beyond the middle1 and the female1 ,fig4 #ac1 has another spot below this4 ,the under side of the fore wings is white1 yellowish toward the apex1 and with two black spots in both sexes corresponding to those on the upper side of the female4 ,a little beyond the middle of the costa1 on the hind wings1 is an irregular black spot on the upper surface1 while the under surface is pale lemon yellow without marks1 but sprinkled more or less with dark atoms4 ,the body is black above and white beneath4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,the caterpillars of this insect feed on the leaves of cabbage1 cauliflower1 turnip1 mignonette1 and some other plants4 ,the female lays her eggs on the under side of the leaves of the food plants1 generally1 but sometimes on the upper sides or even on the leaf stalks4 ,they are sugar loaf shaped1 flattened at the base1 and with the apex cut off square at the top1 pale lemon yellow in color1 about one twenty-fifth of an inch long and one fourth as wide1 and have twelve longitudinal ribs with fine cross lines between them4 ,the eggs hatch in about a week1 and the young caterpillars1 which are very pale yellow1 first eat the shells from which they have escaped1 and then spin a carpet of silk1 upon which they remain except when feeding4 ,they now eat small round holes through the leaves1 but as they grow older change to a greenish color1 with a pale yellow line along the back1 and a row of small yellow spots along the sides1 and eat their way down into the head of the cabbage4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,having reached its full growth1 the caterpillar1 ,fig4 #ad1 a1 which is about an inch in length1 wanders off to some sheltered place1 as under a board1 fence rail1 or even under the edge of clapboards on the side of a building1 where it spins a button of silk1 in which to secure its hind legs1 then the loop of silk to support the forward part of the body4 ,it now casts its skin1 changing to a chrysalis1 ,fig4 #ad1 b1 about three-fourths of an inch in length1 quite rough and uneven1 with projecting ridges and angular points on the back1 and the head is prolonged into a tapering horn4 ,in color they are very variable1 some are pale green1 others are flesh colored or pale ashy gray1 and sprinkled with numerous black dots4 ,the winter is passed in the chrysalis stage4 ,after the caterpillar changes to a chrysalis1 their minute parasites frequently bore through the outside and deposit their eggs within4 ,these hatch before the time for the butterflies to emerge1 and feeding on the contents1 destroy the life of the chrysalis4 ,birds and spiders are of great service in destroying these insects4 ,the pup should be collected and burned if the abdomen is flexible2 but if the joints of the abdomen are stiff and cannot be easily moved1 they should be left1 as they contain parasites4 ,several applications of poisons have been used1 the best results being obtained from the use of pyrethrum as a powder blown on to the plants by a hand bellows1 during the hottest part of the day1 in the proportion of one part to four or five of flour4 ,as the eggs are laid at different times1 any application1 to be thoroughly tested1 must be repeated several times4 ,,the ,,apple ,,tree ,,tent ,,caterpillar4 ,clisiocampa ,americana 7,harr47 ,large1 white1 silken web-like tents1 ,fig4 #ae1 are noticed by the roadsides1 in the early summer1 on wild cherry trees1 and also on fruit trees in orchards1 containing numerous caterpillars of a blackish color1 with fine gray hairs scattered over the body4 ,this well known pest has been very abundant throughout the ,state for several years past1 and the trees in many neglected orchards have been greatly injured by it1 some being entirely stripped of their leaves4 ,the trees in these orchards and the neglected ones by the roadsides form excellent breeding places for this insect1 and such as are of little of no value should be destroyed4 ,if this were well done1 and all fruit growers in any given region were to destroy all the tents on their trees1 even for a single season1 the work of holding them in check or destroying them in the following year would be comparatively light4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,the moths1 ,fig4 #af1 appear in great numbers in ,july1 their wings measuring1 when expanded1 from one and a quarter to one and a half inches or more4 ,they are of a reddish brown color1 the fore wings being tinged with gray on the base and middle1 and crossed by two oblique whitish stripes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,the females lay their eggs1 about three hundred in number1 in a belt1 ,fig4 #ae1 c1 around the twigs of apple1 cherry1 and a few other trees1 the belt being covered by a thick coating of glutinous matter1 which probably serves as a protection against the cold weather during winter4 ,the following spring1 when the buds begin to swell1 the egg hatch and the young caterpillar seek some fork of a branch1 where they rest side by side4 ,they are about one-tenth of an inch long1 of a blackish color1 with numerous fine gray hairs on the body4 ,they feed on the young and tender leaves1 eating on an average two apiece each day4 ,therefore the young of one pair of moths would consume from ten to twelve thousand leaves2 and it is not uncommon to see from six to eight nests or tents on a single tree1 from which no less than seventy-five thousand leaves would be destroyed--a drain no tree can long endure4 ,as the caterpillars grow1 a new and much larger skin is formed underneath the old one1 which splits along the back and is cast off4 ,when fully grown1 ,fig4 #ae1 a and b1 which is in about thirty-five to forty days after emerging from the eggs1 they are about two inches long1 with a black head and body1 with numerous yellowish hairs on the surface1 with a white stripe along the middle of the back1 and minute whitish or yellowish streaks1 which are broken and irregular along the sides2 and there is also a row of transverse1 small1 pale blue spots along each side of the back4 ,as they move about they form a continuous thread of silk from a fleshy tube on the lower side of the mouth1 which is connected with the silk-producing glands in the interior of the body1 and by means of this thread they appear to find their way back from the feeding grounds4 ,it is also by the combined efforts of all the young from one belt of eggs that the tents are formed4 ,these caterpillars do not feed during damp1 cold weather1 but take two meals a day when it is pleasant4 ,after reaching their full growth1 they leave their tents and scatter in all directions1 seeking for some protected place where each one spins its spindle-shaped cocoon of whitish silk intermingled with sulphur colored powder1 ,fig4 #ae1 d4 ,they remain in these cocoons1 where they have changed to pup1 from twenty to twenty-five days1 after which the moths emerge1 pair1 and the females lay their eggs for another brood4 ,several remedies have been suggested1 a few of which are given below4 ,search the trees carefully1 when they are bare1 for clusters of eggs2 and1 when found1 cut off the twigs to which they are attached1 and burn them4 ,as soon as any tents are observed in the orchard they should be destroyed1 which may be readily and effectually done by climbing the trees1 and with the hand protected by a mitten or glove1 seize the tent and crush it with its entire contents2 also swab them down with strong soapsuds or other substances2 or tear them down with a rounded bottle brush4 ,burning with a torch not only destroys the caterpillars but injures the trees4 ,it should be observed1 however1 since the caterpillars1 are quite regular in taking their meals1 in the middle of the forenoon and afternoon1 that they should be destroyed only in the morning or evening1 when all are in the tent4 ,another remedy is to shower the trees with ,paris green in water1 in the proportion of one pound to one hundred and fifty gallons of water4 ,,the ,,forest ,,tent ,,caterpillar4 ,clisiocampa disstria 7,hbner47 ,this species1 commonly known as the forest tent caterpillar1 closely resembles the apple tree tent caterpillar1 but does not construct a visible tent4 ,it feeds on various species of forest trees1 such as oak1 ash1 walnut1 hickory1 etc41 besides being very injurious to apple and other fruit trees4 ,the moth1 ,fig4 #ag1 b1 expands an inch and a half or more4 ,the general color is brownish yellow1 and on the fore wings are two oblique brown lines1 the space between them being darker than the rest of the wing4 ,the eggs1 ,fig4 #ag1 c and d1 which are about one twenty fifth of an inch long and one fortieth wide1 are arranged1 three or four hundred in a cluster1 around the twigs of the trees1 ,fig4 #ag1 a4 ,these clusters are uniform in diameter and cut off squarely at the ends4 ,the eggs are white1 and are firmly fastened to the twigs and to each other1 by a brown substance1 like varnish1 which dries1 leaving the eggs with a brownish covering4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,the eggs hatch about the time the buds burst1 or before1 and the young caterpillars go for some time without food1 but they are hardy and have been known to live three weeks with nothing to eat1 although the weather was very cold4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,as soon as hatched they spin a silken thread wherever they go1 and when older wander about in search for food4 ,the caterpillars are about one and a half inches long when fully grown1 ,fig4 #ah4 ,the general color is pale blue1 tinged with greenish low down on the sides1 and everywhere sprinkled with black dots or points1 while along the middle of the back is a row of white spots each side of which is an orange yellow stripe1 and a pale1 cream yellow stripe below that4 ,these stripes and spots are margined with black4 ,each segment has two elevated black points on the back1 from each of which arise four or more coarse black hairs4 ,the back is clothed with whitish hairs1 the head is dark bluish freckled with black dots1 and clothed with black and fox-colored hairs1 and the legs are black1 clothed with whitish hairs4 ,at this stage the caterpillars may be seen wandering about on fences1 trees1 and along the roads in search of a suitable place to spin their cocoons1 which are creamy white1 and look very much like those of the common tent caterpillar1 except that they are more loosely constructed4 ,within the cocoons1 in two or three days they transform to pup of a reddish brown color1 densely clothed with short pale yellowish hairs4 ,the moths appear in two or three weeks1 soon lay their eggs and then die4 ,the insects are not abundant many years in succession1 as their enemies1 the parasites1 increase and check them4 ,many methods have been suggested for their destruction1 but the most available and economical are to remove the clusters of eggs whenever found1 and burn them1 and to shower the trees with ,paris green in the proportion of one pound to one hundred and fifty gallons of water4 ,,the ,,stalk ,,borer4 ,gortyna nitela 7,gruen47 ,the perfect moth1 ,fig4 #ai1 #a1 expands from one to one and a half inches4 ,the fore wings are a mouse gray color1 tinged with lilac and sprinkled with fine yellow dots1 and distinguished mainly by a white band extending across the outer part4 ,the moths hibernate in the perfect state1 and in ,april or ,may deposit their eggs singly on the outside of the plant upon which the young are to feed4 ,as soon as the eggs hatch1 which is in about a month1 the young larv1 or caterpillars1 gnaw their way from the outside into the pith4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,the plant does not show any sign of decay until the caterpillar is fully grown1 when it dies4 ,the caterpillar1 ,fig4 #ai1 #b1 is about one and one-fourth inches long1 of a reddish brown color1 with whitish stripes along the body4 ,the stripes on the sides are not continuous1 and the shading of the body varies1 being darker on the anterior than on the posterior portion4 ,when fully grown1 ,fig4 #bj1 the color is lighter and the stripes are broader4 ,at this stage of life it burrows into the ground just beneath the surface1 and changes into the pupa state4 ,the pupa is three-fourths of an inch long1 and of a mahogany brown color4 ,the perfect moth appears about the first of ,september1 and there is only one brood in a season4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,the caterpillars feed in the stalks of corn1 tomatoes1 potatoes1 dahlias1 asters1 and also in young currant bushes1 besides feeding on many species of weeds4 ,by a close inspection of the plants about the beginning of ,july1 the spot where the borer entered1 which is generally quite a distance from the ground1 may be detected1 and the caterpillar cut out without injury to the plant4 ,this plan is impracticable for an extensive crop1 but by destroying the borers found in the vines that wilt suddenly1 one can lessen the number another year4 ,,the ,,pyramidal ,,grapevine ,,caterpillar4 ,pyrophila pyramidoides 7,guen47 ,this caterpillar1 ,fig4 #ba1 is generally found on grapevines early in ,june1 but also feeds on apple1 plum1 raspberry1 maple1 poplar1 etc4 ,it is about an inch and a half in length1 with the body tapering toward the head2 of a whitish green color1 darker on the sides2 with a longitudinal white stripe on the back1 broader on the last segments4 ,low down on each side is a bright yellow stripe1 between this and the one on the back is another less distinct1 and the under surface of the body is pale green4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,the caterpillar is fully grown about the middle or last of ,june1 when it descends to the ground1 draws together some of the fallen leaves1 and makes a cocoon1 in which it soon changes to a mahogany brown pupa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,in the latter part of ,july the perfect moth1 ,fig4 #bb1 emerges1 measuring1 when its wings are expanded1 about one and three-fourths inches2 the fore wings are dark brown shaded with lighter1 with dots and wavy lines of dull white4 ,the hind wings are reddish1 or of a bright copper color1 shading to brown on the outer angle of the front edge of the wing1 and paler toward the hinder and inner angle4 ,the under surface of the wings is lighter than the upper1 and the body is dark brown1 with its posterior portion banded with lines of a paler hue4 ,this pest may be destroyed by hand picking1 or by jarring the trees or vines on which they are feeding1 when they will fall to the ground and may be crushed or burned4 ,,the ,,grape ,,berry ,,moth4 ,eudemis botrana 7,s4,v47 ,the moths emerge and fly early in ,june1 and are quite small1 measuring1 when the wings are expanded1 only two-fifths of an inch1 ,fig4 #bc1 a1 enlarged4 ,the fore wings are purplish or slate brown from the base to the middle1 the outer half being irregularly marked with dark and light brown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,these insects are two-brooded and the first brood feeds not only on the leaves of the grape1 but on tulip1 sassafras1 vernonia and raspberry4 ,the caterpillars of the second brood emerge when the grapes are nearly grown1 and bore in them a winding channel to the pulp1 continuing to eat the interior of the berry till the pulp is all consumed1 ,fig4 #bc1 d1 when1 if not full grown1 they draw one or two other berries close to the first and eat the inside of those4 ,the mature caterpillar1 ,fig4 #bc1 b1 measures about half an inch in length1 is dull greenish1 with head and thoracic shield somewhat darker2 the internal organs give the body a reddish tinge4 ,it then leaves the grape and forms its cocoon by cutting out a piece of a leaf1 leaving it hinged on one side2 then rolling the cut end over1 fastens it to the leaf1 thus making for itself a cocoon in which to pupate4 ,the pupa is dark reddish brown4 ,the second generation passes the winter in the pupa state1 attached to leaves which fall to the ground2 therefore1 if all the dead and dried leaves be gathered in the fall and burned1 also all the decayed fruit1 a great many of these insects would be destroyed4 ,as the caterpillars feed inside of the berry1 no spraying of the vines with poisons would reach them4 ,the caterpillar makes a discolored spot where it enters the berry1 ,fig4 #bc1 c4 ,therefore the infested fruit may be easily detected and destroyed4 ,there is a small parasite that attacks this insect and helps to keep it in check4 ,the insect has been known in ,europe over a hundred years4 ,it is not certain when it was introduced into ,america1 but it is now found from ,canada to the ,gulf of ,mexico1 and from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,,the ,,codling ,,moth4 ,carpocapsa pomonella 7,linn47 ,this well known insect has a world-wide reputation1 and is now found wherever apples are raised4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,the moths are on the wing about the time the young apples are beginning to set1 and the female lays a single egg in the blossom end of each apple4 ,the fore wings of the moths when expanded1 ,fig4 #bd1 g 7f1 with the wings closed71 measure about half an inch across1 and are marked with alternate wavy1 transverse streaks of ashy gray and brown1 and have on the inner hind angle a large tawny brown1 horseshoe shaped spot1 streaked with light bronze or copper color4 ,the hind wings and abdomen are light brown with a luster of satin4 ,each female lays about fifty eggs1 which are minute1 flattened1 scale-like bodies of a yellowish color4 ,in about a week the eggs hatch and the tiny caterpillar begins to eat through the apple to the core1 ,fig4 #bd1 a1 pushing its castings out through the hole where it entered1 ,fig4 #bd1 b4 ,oftentimes these are in sight on the outside in a dark colored mass1 thus making wormy apples plainly seen at quite a distance4 ,the caterpillar is about two-fifths of an inch in length1 of a glossy1 pale yellowish white color1 with a light brown head4 ,the skin is transparent and the internal organs give to it a reddish tinge4 ,when mature the caterpillars1 ,fig4 #bd1 e1 top of head and second segment1 h1 emerge from the apples and seek some sheltered place1 such as crevices of bark1 or corners of the boxes or barrels in which the fruit is stored1 where they spin a tough whitish cocoon1 ,fig4 #bd1 i1 in which they remain unchanged all winter1 and transform to pup1 ,fig4 #bd1 d1 the next spring1 the perfect moths emerging in time to lay their eggs in the new crop of apples4 ,one good remedy is to gather all the fallen apples1 and feed them to hogs2 another is to let swine and sheep run in the orchard1 and eat the infested fruit4 ,it has been recommended to place bands of cloth or hay around the trunks of the trees for the caterpillars to spin their cocoons beneath1 and to remove them at the proper time1 and put them in scalding water to destroy the worms4 ,by far the most successful method as yet adopted is to shower the apple trees with ,paris green in water1 one pound to one hundred and fifty gallons of water1 when the apples are about the size of peas1 and again in about a week4 ,,the ,,cabbage ,,leaf ,,miner4 ,plutella cruciferarum 7,zell47 ,the cabbage leaf miner is not a native of this country1 but was imported from ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,the perfect moth1 ,fig4 #be1 f1 with the wings expanded 7h1 with the wings closed1 g1 a dark variety71 measures three-quarters of an inch4 ,the fore wings are ashy gray1 and on the hinder margin is a white or yellowish white stripe having three points extending into the gray1 thus forming1 when the wings are closed1 three diamond-shaped white spots4 ,generally there is a dark brown stripe between the white and the gray4 ,there are also black dots scattered about on the anterior part of these wings4 ,the hind wings are leaden brown1 and the under side of all the wings is leaden brown1 glossy1 and without any dots4 ,the antenn are whitish with dark rings1 and the abdomen white4 ,there are two broods of this insect in this region1 the moths of the first appearing in ,may1 and those of the second in ,august4 ,they hibernate in the pupa stage4 ,the caterpillars1 ,fig4 #be1 a 7b1 the top and c1 the side of a segment71 appear in ,june or ,july and ,september2 they are small and cylindrical1 tapering at both ends1 pale green1 and about one-fourth of an inch long4 ,the head has a yellowish tinge1 and there are several dark stiff hairs scattered over the body4 ,when ready to transform1 this caterpillar spins a delicate gauze-like cocoon1 ,fig4 #be1 e1 made of white1 silken threads1 on the under side of a cabbage leaf4 ,the pupa1 ,fig4 #be1 d1 and i1 the end of a pupa1 is commonly white1 sometimes shaded with reddish brown1 and can be distinctly seen through the silken case4 ,the first brood is more injurious than the second1 as it feeds on the young cabbage leaves before the head is formed1 and this must surely stunt the growth and make weak1 sickly plants2 while the second brood feeds only on the outside leaves4 ,the caterpillars are very active1 wriggling violently when disturbed1 and falling by a white silken thread4 ,hot dry weather is favorable to them and enables them to multiply rapidly4 ,advantage has been taken of this fact1 and spraying the plants thoroughly with water is strongly recommended4 ,prof4 ,riley states that the insects are very readily destroyed by pyrethrum4 ,there are two species of spiders and a species of ichneumon fly that destroy them4 ,,the ,,gartered ,,plume ,,moth4 ,oxyptilus periscelidactylus 7,fitch47 ,the caterpillars of this species draw together the young grape leaves1 ,fig4 #bf1 a1 in the spring1 with fine silken threads1 and feed on the inside1 thus doing much damage in proportion to their size4 ,these caterpillars1 ,fig4 #bf1 a1 and e1 a segment greatly enlarged1 are full grown in about two weeks1 when they are about one-fourth of an inch long1 pale green with whitish hairs arising from a transverse row of warts on each segment4 ,early in ,june they transform to pup1 ,fig4 #bf1 b1 which are pale green at first and change to dark brown4 ,the surface is rough and the head is cut off obliquely1 while on the upper side near the middle are two sharp pointed horns1 ,fig4 #bf1 c4 ,they remain in this stage from a week to ten days1 when the moths emerge4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,the moths1 ,fig4 #bf1 d1 belong to the family commonly known as plume moths or feather wings 7,pterophorid71 from having their wings divided into feather-like lobes4 ,when the wings are expanded they measure about seven-tenths of an inch across4 ,they are yellowish brown with a metallic luster1 and have several dull whitish streaks and spots4 ,the fore wings are split down the middle about half way to their base1 the posterior half having a notch in the outer margin4 ,the body is somewhat darker than the wings4 ,it is not known positively in what stage the winter is passed1 but it is supposed to be the perfect1 or imago stage4 ,the unnatural grouping and spinning of the leaves together leads to their detection1 and they can be easily destroyed by hand picking and then crushing or burning them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,breeds ,,of ,,dogs4 ,the dog exhibitions that have annually taken place for the last eight years at ,paris and in the principal cities of ,france have shown how numerous and varied the breeds of dogs now are4 ,it is estimated that there are at present1 in ,europe1 about a hundred very distinct and very fine breeds 7that is to say1 such as reproduce their kind with constant characters71 without counting a host of sub-breeds or varieties that a number of breeders are trying to fix4 ,most of the breeds of dogs1 especially those of modern creation1 are the work of man1 and have been obtained by intercrossing older breeds and discarding all the animals that departed from the type sought4 ,but many of these breeds are also the result of accident1 or rather of modifications of certain parts of the organism--of a sort of rachitic or teratological degeneration which has become hereditary and has been due to domestication2 for it is proved that the dog is the most anciently domesticated animal1 and that its submission to man dates back to more than five thousand years4 ,such is the origin of the breeds of terriers1 bulldogs1 and all of the small house dogs4 ,man has often1 designedly or undesignedly1 aided in the production of breeds of this last category by submitting the dog to a regimen contrary to nature1 or setting to work to reproduce an animal born monstrous1 either for curiosity or for interest4 ,as well known1 the accidental characters and the spontaneous modifications which work no injury to the essential functions of life became easily hereditary1 and the same is the case with certain artificial modifications pursued for a long series of generations4 ,it was the opinion of ,buffon that the breeds of dogs1 which were already numerous in his time1 were all derived from a single type1 which1 according to him1 was the shepherd's dog4 ,other scientists have insisted that the dog descended from the wolf1 and others from the jackal4 ,at the present time1 it is rightly admitted that several species of wild dogs have concurred in the formation of the different breeds of dogs as we now have them4 ,in the lacustrine habitations of the stone age in ,sweden1 and in the kjoekkenmoedding 7kitchen remains7 of ,denmark1 of the same epoch1 we find the remains of a dog1 which1 according to ,rutymeyer1 belongs to a breed which is constant up to its least details1 and which is of a light and elegant conformation1 of medium size1 with a spacious and rounded cranium and a short1 blunt muzzle1 and a medium sized jaw1 the teeth of which form a regular series4 ,this dog1 which has been named by geologists ,canis palustris1 fully resembles in size1 slenderness of the limbs1 and weakness of the muscular insertions1 the spaniel1 the brach hound1 or the griffon4 ,this dog of the stone age is entirely distinct from the wolf and jackal1 of which some regard the domestic dog as a descendant1 and as it has appeared in ,denmark as well as in ,sweden1 there is no doubt that this species1 peculiar to ,europe1 was subjugated by man and used by him1 in the first place1 for hunting1 and later on for guarding houses and cattle4 ,later still1 in the age of metals1 we observe the appearance1 both in ,denmark and ,sweden1 of larger and stronger breeds of dogs1 having in their jaws the character of mastiffs1 and probably introduced by the first emigrants from ,asia4 ,there are1 moreover1 historic proofs that the dogs of the strongest breeds are indigenous to ,asia1 where we still find the dog of ,thibet1 the most colossal of all2 in fact1 in ,pliny we read the following narrative3 ,alexander the ,great received from a king of ,asia a dog of huge size4 ,he wished to pit it against bears and wild boars1 but the dog remained undisturbed and did not even rise1 and ,alexander had it killed4 ,on hearing of this1 the royal donor sent a second dog like the first1 along with word that these dogs did not fight so weak animals1 but rather the lion and the elephant1 and that he had only two of such individuals1 and in case that ,alexander had this one killed1 too1 he would no longer find his equal4 ,alexander matched this dog with a lion and then with an elephant1 and he killed them both4 ,alexander was so afflicted at the premature death of the first dog1 that he built a city and temples in honor of the animal4 ,did the mountainous province of ,epirus called ,molossia1 in ancient ,greece1 give its name to the molossi that it produced1 or did these large dogs give their name to the country8 ,at all events1 we know that it was from ,epirus that the ,romans obtained the molossi which fought wild animals in the circuses1 and that from ,rome they were introduced into the ,british islands and have became the present mastiffs4 ,although our hunting and shepherd's dogs have a ,european and the mastiffs an ,asiatic ancestry1 the ancestry of the harriers is ,african1 and especially ,egyptian2 in fact1 in ,upper ,egypt we find a sort of large white jackal 7,simenia simensis7 with the form of a harrier1 and which ,paul ,gervais regarded with some reason as the progenitor of the domestic harrier1 and a comparison of their skulls lends support to this opinion4 ,a study of the most ancient monuments of the ,pharaohs shows that the ancient ,egyptians already had at least five breeds of dogs3 two very slim watch dogs1 much resembling the harrier1 a genuine harrier1 a species of brach hound and a sort of terrier with short and straight legs4 ,all these dogs had erect ears1 except the brach1 in which these organs were pendent1 and this proves that the animal had already undergone the effects of domestication to a greater degree than the others4 ,the harrier of the time of the ,pharaohs still exists in great numbers in ,kordofan1 according to ,brehm4 ,upon the whole1 we here have1 then1 at least three stocks of very distinct dogs3 #a1 a hunting or shepherd's dog1 of ,european origin2 #b1 a mastiff1 typical of the large breed of dogs indigenous to ,asia2 and #c1 a harrier1 indigenous to ,africa4 ,we shall not follow the effects of the combination of these three types through the ages1 and the formation of the different breeds2 for that we shall refer our readers to a complete work upon which we have been laboring for some years1 and two parts of which have already appeared4#a ,footnote #a3 ,les ,races des ,chiens1 in ,la ,bibliotheque de l',eleveur4 ,we shall rapidly pass in review the different breeds of dogs that one may chance to meet with in our dog shows1 beginning with the largest4 ,it is again in mountainous countries that the largest dogs are raised1 and the character common to all of these is a very thick coat4 ,the largest of all1 according to travelers1 is the ,thibetan dog4 ,buffon tells of having seen one which1 when seated1 was five feet in height4 ,one brought back by the ,prince of ,wales from his voyage to the ,indies was taller in stature1 stronger and more stocky than a large mastiff1 from which it differed1 moreover1 in its long and somewhat coarse hair1 which was black on the back and russet beneath1 the thighs and the tail being clothed with very long and silky hair4 ,in ,france1 we have a beautiful mountain dog--the dog of the ,pyrenees--which is from #cb to #cd inches in height at the shoulders1 and has a very thick white coat1 spotted above with pale yellow or grayish fox color4 ,it is very powerful1 and is capable of successfully defending property or flocks against bears and wolves4 ,the ,alpine dog is the type of the mountain dog4 ,it is of the same size as the dog of the ,pyrenees1 and differs therefrom especially in its coloring4 ,it is white beneath1 with a wide patch of orange red covering the back and rump4 ,the head and ears are of the same color1 with the addition of black on the edges2 but the muzzle is white1 and a stripe of the same color advances upon the forehead nearly up to the nape of the neck4 ,the neck also is entirely white4 ,there are two varieties of the ,alpine or ,st4 ,bernard dog1 one having long hair and the other shorter and very thick hair4 ,we give in ,fig4 #a a portrait of ,cano1 a large ,st4 ,bernard belonging to ,mr4 ,gaston ,leonnard4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a--,,large ,,st4 ,,bernard ,,dog ,,belonging ,,to ,,mr4 ,,leonard4 ,although this breed originated at the celebrated convent of ,st4 ,bernard1 it no longer exists there in a state of purity1 and in order to find fine types of it we have to go to special breeders of ,switzerland and ,england4 ,the famous ,plinnlimon1 which was bought for #e1jjj by an ,american two or three years ago1 and about which there was much talk in the papers1 even the political ones1 was born and reared in ,england4 ,it appears that it is necessary1 too1 to reduce the number of life-saving acts that it is said are daily performed by the ,st4 ,bernard dogs4 ,this is no longer but a legend4 ,there was1 it is true1 a ,st4 ,bernard named ,barry1 now exhibited in a stuffed state in the ,berne ,museum1 which accomplished wonders in the way of saving life1 but this was an exception1 and the reputation of this animal has extended to all others of its kind4 ,these latter are simply watch dogs kept by the monks for their own safety1 and which do not go at all by themselves alone to search for travelers that have lost their way in the snow4 ,the ,newfoundland dog1 which differs from the preceding in its wholly black or black and white coat1 was1 it appears1 also of mountain origin4 ,according to certain authors1 it is indigenous to ,norway1 and was carried to ,newfoundland by the ,norwegian explorers who discovered the island4 ,adapted to their new existence1 they have become excellent water dogs1 good swimmers1 and better life savers by far than the majority of their congeners4 ,is it from descending to the plain that the mountain dogs have lost their long hair and have become short haired dogs like the ,english dog or mastiff and the ,german or large ,danish dogs8 ,it is very probable4 ,at all events1 it is by this character of having short hair that mastiffs are distinguished from the mountain dogs4 ,again1 the large breed of dogs are distinguished from each other by the following characters3 ,the mastiff is not very high at the shoulders 7#cj inches71 but he is very heavy and thick set1 with powerful limbs1 large head1 short and wide muzzle and of a yellowish or caf-au-lait color accompanying a black face2 that is to say1 the ears1 the circumference of the eyes and the muzzle are of a very dark color4 ,the ,german or large ,danish dogs constitute but one breed1 but of three varieties1 according to the coat3 7#a7 those whose coat is of a uniform color1 say a slaty gray or isobelline of varying depth1 without any white spots2 7#b7 those having a fawn colored coat striped transversely with black like the zebra1 but much less distinctly2 7#c7 those having a spotted coat1 that is to say1 a coat with a white ground strewed with irregular black spots of varying size4 ,these1 like those of the first variety are generally small-eyed4 ,whatever be the variety to which they belong1 the ,german or large ,danish dogs are slimmer than1 and not so heavy as1 the mastiffs4 ,some1 even1 are so light that it might be supposed that they had some heavier blood in their veins4 ,they have also a longer muzzle1 although square1 and are quicker in gait and motions4 ,the largest dogs are to be met with in this breed1 and the beautiful ,danish dog belonging to ,prof4 ,charcot 7,fig4 #b7 is certainly the largest dog in ,france and perhaps in ,europe4 ,it measures #cf inches at the shoulders and has an osseous and muscular development perfectly in keeping with its large stature1 and at the same time has admirable proportions and lightness1 and its motions are comparable to those of the finest horse4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b--;,,dr4 ,,charcot',s ,,large ,,danish ,,dog4 ,among the ,english dogs or mastiffs1 we very frequently meet with individuals in which the upper incisors and canines are placed back of the corresponding ones in the lower jaw1 this being due to a slight shortening of the bones of the upper jaw1 not visible externally4 ,this is the first degree of an artist of teratological development1 which1 since the middle ages1 has become very marked in certain subjects1 and has given rise to a variety in which this defect has become hereditary4 ,such is the origin of the breed of bulldogs4 ,the latter were originally as large as the mastiffs4 ,carried to ,spain under ,philip ,,ii41 they have there preserved their primitive characters1 but the bulldogs remaining in ,england have continued to degenerate1 so that now the largest are scarcely half the size of the ,spanish bulldog1 and the small ones attain hardly the size of the pug1 although they preserve considerable width of chest and muscular strength4 ,,pointers4 ,man hunted for ages with dogs that he united in a pack2 but these packs were of a very heterogeneous composition1 since they included strong dogs1 light dogs very swift of foot1 shepherds' dogs1 and others noted for acuteness of scent1 and even mongrels due to a crossing with the wolf4 ,it is from the promiscuousness of all these breeds that has arisen our ordinary modern dog4 ,the pointer is of relatively recent creation1 and is due to the falconers4 ,in our western countries1 falconry dates from the fourth and fifth centuries1 as is proved by the capitularies of ,dagobert4 ,this art1 therefore1 was not brought to us from the ,east by the crusaders in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries1 as stated by ,le ,maout in his ,natural ,history of ,birds4 ,the falconer soon saw the necessity of having a dog of nice scent having for its role the finding or hunting up of game without pursuing it1 in order to permit the falcons themselves to enter into the sport4 ,this animal was called the bird dog1 and was regarded as coming from various countries1 especially from ,spain1 whence the name of spaniel that a breed of pointers has preserved4 ,it is quite curious to find that for three or four centuries back there have been no spaniels in ,spain4 ,from ,italy also and from southern climes comes what is called the bracco1 whence doubtless is derived the ,french name braque and ,english brach4 ,finally the agasse of the ,bretons was certainly also one of the progenitors of our present pointers4 ,it was1 says ,oppian1 a breed of small and very courageous dogs1 with long hair1 provided with strong claws and jaws1 that followed hares on the sly under shelter of vine-stocks and reeds and sportively brought them back to their masters after they had captured them4 ,we have certainly here the source of our barbets and griffons4 ,finally the net hunters of the middle ages also contributed much to the creation of the pointer1 for it is to them that we owe the setter4 ,it is erroneously1 in fact1 that certain authors have attributed the creation of this dog to hunters with the arquebuse1 since this weapon did not begin to be utilized in hunting until the sixteenth century4 ,gaston ,phoebus1 who died in #acia1 shows1 in his remarkable work1 that the net hunters made use of ,spanish setters and that it was they who created the true pointer--the animal that fascinates game by its gaze4 ,by the same pull of their draw net they enveloped in its meshes both the setter and the prey that it held spellbound4 ,upon the whole1 we see that at the end of the middle ages there existed three types of pointers3 spaniels1 brachs and very hairy dogs1 that ,charles ,estienne1 in his ,maison ,rustique1 of the sixteenth century1 calls barbets4 ,it is again with these three types that are connected all the present pointers1 which we are going to pass rapidly in review4 ,the ,brach hounds4--,to-day we reserve the name of brachs for all pointers with short hair4 ,the type of the old brach still exists in ,italy1 ,spain1 the south of ,france and in ,germany4 ,it is characterized by its large size1 its robust form1 its large head1 its long1 flat ears1 its square muzzle separated from the forehead by a deep depression1 its large nose1 often double 7that is to say1 with nostrils separated by a deep vertical groove71 its pendent lips1 its thick neck1 its long and strong paws provided with dew claws1 both on the fore and the hind feet1 and its short hair1 which is usually white and marked with brown or orange-yellow spots4 ,the old brach breed has been modified by the breeders of different countries1 either by hygiene or by crossing with ordinary dogs1 according to the manner of hunting1 according to taste1 and even according to fashion4 ,thus in ,england1 where time is money reigns in every thing and where they like to hunt quickly and not leisurely1 the brach has been rendered lighter and swifter of foot and has become the pointer4 ,in ,france1 while it has lost a little in size and weight1 it has preserved its moderate gait and has continued to hunt near its master1 under the gun1 as they say4 ,the same is the case in ,spain1 ,italy and ,germany even4 ,in ,france there are several varieties or sub-breeds of brach hounds4 ,the old ,french brach1 which is nothing more than the old type1 preserved especially in the south1 where it is called the ,charles the ,tenth brach1 is about twenty-four inches in height1 and has a white and a maroon coat1 which is somewhat coarse4 ,it often has a cleft nose and dew-claws on all the feet4 ,the brach of the south scarcely differs from the preceding except in color4 ,its coat has a white ground covered with pale orange blotches and spots of the same color4 ,the ,st4 ,germain brach is finer bred1 and appears to be a pointer introduced into ,france in the time of ,charles ,x4 ,it has a very fine skin1 very fine hair of a white and orange color4 ,the ,bourbon brach has the characters of the old ,french brach1 with a white coat marked here and there with large brown blotches1 and the white ground spotted with the same color2 but what particularly characterizes this dog is that it is born with a stumpy tail1 as if three-quarters of it had been chopped off4 ,the ,dupuy brach is slender and has a narrow muzzle1 as if it had some harrier blood in its veins4 ,it is white1 with large dark maroon blotches4 ,the ,auvergne brach resembles the southern brach1 but has a white and black coat spotted with black upon white4 ,the pointer1 or ,english brach 7,fig4 #c71 descends from the old ,spanish brach1 but has been improved and rendered lighter and much swifter of foot by the introduction of the blood of the foxhound into its veins1 according to the ,english cynegetic authors themselves4 ,the old pointer was of a white and orange color1 and was indistinguishable from our ,st4 ,germain4 ,the pointer now fancied is white and maroon and has a stronger frame than the pointer of twenty years ago4 ,the ,italian brachs are heavy1 with lighter varieties1 usually white and orange color1 more rarely roan1 and provided with dew-claws1 this being a sign of purity of breed according to ,italian fanciers4 ,the ,german brachs are of the type of the old brach1 with a stiff white and maroon coat1 the latter color being so extensively distributed in spots on the white as to make the coat very dark4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #c4--,,pointer4 ,spaniels4--,the old type of spaniel has nearly disappeared1 yet we still find a few families of it in ,france1 especially in ,picardy and perhaps in a few remote parts of ,germany4 ,the old spaniel was of the same build as the brach1 and differed from it in that the head1 while being short-haired1 was provided with ears clothed with long1 wavy hair4 ,the same kind of hair also clothed the whole body up to the tail1 where it constituted a beautiful tuft4 ,the ,picard spaniel is a little lighter than the old spaniel4 ,it has large maroon blotches upon a white ground thickly spotted with maroon1 with a touch of flame color on the cheeks1 over the eyes1 and on the legs4 ,the ,pont-,andemer spaniel is a ,norman variety1 with very curly hair1 almost entirely maroon colored1 the white parts thickly spotted with a little color as in the ,picard variety1 and a characteristic forelock on the top of the head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #d4--;,,english ,,setters4 ,in ,england1 the spaniel has given rise to several varieties4 ,in the first place there are several sub-breeds of setters1 viz43 ,the ,english setter1 still called laverack1 which has large black or orange-colored blotches on the head1 the rest of the body being entirely white1 with numerous spots of the same color as the markings on the head 7,fig4 #d72 the ,irish setter1 which is entirely of a bright yellowish mahogany color2 and the ,gordon setter1 which is entirely black1 with orange color on the cheeks1 under the throat1 within and at the extremity of the limbs 7,fig4 #e74 ,next come the field spaniels1 a group of terrier spaniels1 which includes the ,clumber spaniel1 which is white and orange color2 the ,sussex spaniel1 which is white and maroon2 the black spaniel1 which is wholly black2 and the cocker1 which is the smallest of all1 and is entirely black1 and white and maroon1 or white and orange-colored1 or tricolored4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #e4--;,,gordon ,,setter4 ,barbets and ,griffons4--,to this latter category belong the dogs1 par excellence1 for hunting in swamps4 ,the barbets are entirely covered with long curly hair1 like the poodles1 which are directly derived from them4 ,they are white or gray1 with large black or brown blotches4 ,the griffons differ from the poodles in their coarse and stiff hair1 which never curls4 ,they have large brown blotches upon a white ground1 which is much spotted or mixed1 as in the color of the hair called roan4 ,there is an excellent white and orange-colored variety4 ,the griffons1 neglected for a long time on account of the infatuation that was and is still had for ,english hunting dogs1 are being received again with that favor which they have never ceased to be the object of in ,germany and in ,italy 7where they bear the name of spinone74 ,breeders of merit1 such as ,mr4 ,korthals1 in ,germany1 and ,mr4 ,e4 ,boulet1 in ,france1 are endeavoring to bring them into prominence 7,fig4 #f74 ,finally1 we reckon also among hunting dogs some very happy crosses between the spaniels and the barbets1 which in ,england are called retrievers or water spaniels4--,p4 ,megnin1 in ,la ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #f4--;,,coarse ,,haired ,,griffon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,restocking ,,the ,,seine ,,with ,,fish4 ,a few days ago1 at ,bougival1 a short distance below the dam of the ,marly machine1 there were put into water #dj1jjj fry of ,california trout and salmon1 designed to restock the ,seine1 which1 in this region1 has been depopulated by the explosions of dynamite which last winter effected the breaking up of the ice jam that formed at this place4 ,illustration3 ,,restocking ,,the ,,seine ,,with ,,fish4 ,the operation1 which is quite simple in itself1 attracted a large number of inquisitive people by reason of the exceptional publicity given to the conflict provoked by a government engineer1 who1 under the pretext that he had not been consulted1 made objections to the submersion of the little fish4 ,as well known1 the affair was terminated by a sharp reprimand from ,mr4 ,yves ,guyot1 addressed to his overzealous subordinate4 ,it would have been a great pity1 moreover1 if this interesting experiment had not taken place1 and had not come to corroborate the favorable results already obtained4 ,in three years the ,california salmon reaches a weight of eleven pounds1 and1 from this time1 is capable of reproduction4 ,its flesh is delicious1 and comparable to that of the trout1 the development of which is less rapid1 but just as sure4 ,the fry put into the water on ,sunday were but two months old4 ,the trout were1 on an average1 one and a half inches in length1 and the salmon two and three-quarter inches4 ,they were transported in three iron plate vessels1 weighing altogether1 inclusive of the water1 #ggj lb41 and provided with air tubes through which1 during the voyage1 the employes1 by means of pumps1 assured the respiration of the little fish4 ,our engraving represents the submersion at the moment at which the cylinders 7of which the temperature has just been taken and compared with that of the ,seine1 in order to prevent too abrupt a transition for the fry7 are being carefully let down into the river4--,l',illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,figures show that the consumption of iron in general construction--other than railroads--in this country has grown from a little more than a million and a half of tons in #ahgi to more than six million tons in #ahhi4 ,much of this increase has gone into iron buildings4 ,by using huge iron frames and thin curtain walls for each story supported thereon1 as is done in a building going up on lower ,broadway1 ,new ,york city1 a good deal of space can be saved4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,modern ,,armor4 ,by ,f4,r4 ,,brainard1 ,u4,s4,n4 ,the building of a navy1 which has been actively going on for the past few years1 has drawn public attention to naval subjects1 and recent important experiments with armor plates have attracted large attention1 hence it may not be amiss to give a description of the manufacture and testing of armor4 ,it would be interesting to wade through the history of armor1 studying each little step in its development1 but we shall simply take a hasty glance at the past1 and then devote our attention to modern armor and its immediate future4 ,modern armor has arrived at its present state of development through a long series of experiments4 ,these experiments have been conducted with great care and skill1 and have been varied from time to time as the improvements in the manufacture of materials have developed1 and as the physical laws connected with the subject have been better understood4 ,there has been very little war experience to draw from1 and hence about all that is now known has been acquired in peaceful experiments4 ,the fundamental object to be obtained by the use of armor is to keep out the enemy's shot1 and thus protect from destruction the vulnerable things that may be behind it4 ,the first serious effort to do this dates with the introduction of iron armor4 ,with this form of armor we have had a small amount of war experience4 ,the combat of the ,monitor and ,merrimac1 in ,hampton ,roads1 in ,may1 #ahfb1 not only marked an epoch in the development of models of fighting ships1 but also marked one in the use of armor4 ,the ,monitor's turret was composed of nine one-inch plates of wrought iron1 bolted together4 ,plates built in this manner form what is known as laminated armor4 7,see ,fig4 #a47 ,the side armor of the hull was composed of four one-inch plates4 ,the ,merrimac's casemate was composed of four one-inch plates or two two-inch plates backed by oak4 ,the later monitors had laminated armor composed of one-inch plates4 ,the foregoing1 with the ,albemarle and ,tennessee rams under the ,confederate flag1 are about the sum of our practical experience in the use of armor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,european nations took up the subject of armor and energetically conducted experiments which have cost large sums of money1 but have given much valuable data4 ,for a long time wrought iron was the only material used for armor1 and the resisting power depending on the thickness2 and the caliber and penetration of guns rapidly increasing1 it was not long before a point was reached where the requisite thickness made the load of armor so great that it was impracticable for a ship to carry it4 ,the question then arose as to what were the most important parts of a ship to protect4 ,the attempted solutions of this question brought out various systems of distributions4 ,armored ships were formerly of two classes2 in one the guns were mounted in broadside1 in the other in turrets4 ,every part of the ship was protected with iron to a greater or less thickness4 ,in more modern ships the guns are mounted in an armored citadel1 in armored barbettes or turrets1 the engines1 boilers and waterline being the only other parts protected4 ,there may be said to be three systems of armor distribution4 ,the belt system consists in protecting the whole waterline by an armored belt1 the armor being thickest abreast of the engines and boilers4 ,the guns are protected by breastworks1 turrets or barbettes1 the other parts of the ship being unprotected4 ,the ,french use the belt system1 and our own monitors may be classed under it4 ,the central citadel system consists in armoring that part of the waterline which is abreast of the engines and boilers4 ,forward and aft the waterline is unprotected1 but a protective deck extends from the citadel in each direction1 preventing the projectiles from entering the compartments below4 ,the hull is divided into numerous compartments by water-tight bulkheads1 and1 having a reserve of flotation1 the stability of the ship is not lost1 even though the parts above the protective deck1 forward and aft1 be destroyed or filled with water4 ,the guns are protected by turrets or barbettes4 ,the deflective system consists in inclining the armor1 or in so placing it that it will be difficult or impossible to make a projectile strike normal to the face of the plate4 ,a plate that is inclined to the path of a projectile will1 of course1 offer greater resistance to penetration than one which is perpendicular2 hence1 when there is no other condition to outweigh this one1 the armor is placed in such a manner as to be at the smallest possible angle with the probable path of the projectile4 ,this system is designed to cause the projectile to glance or deflect on impact4 ,deflective armor should be at such an angle that the projectiles fired at it cannot bite1 and hence the angle will vary according to the projectile most likely to be used4 ,in the usual form of deflective deck the armor is at such a small inclination with the horizon that it becomes very effective4 ,turret and barbette armor may be considered as deflective armor4 ,the term inclined armor denotes deflective armor that is inclined to the vertical4 ,the kinds of armor that are in use may be designated as rolled iron1 chilled cast iron1 compound1 forged and tempered steel1 and nickel steel4 ,iron armor consists of wrought iron plates1 rolled or forged1 and of cast iron or chilled cast iron1 as in the ,gruson armor4 ,compound armor consists of a forged combination of a steel plate and an iron plate4 ,steel armor consists of wrought steel plates4 ,nickel-steel armor consists of plates made from an alloy of nickel and steel4 ,i have spoken above of laminated armor4 ,to secure the full benefit of this kind1 the plates must be neatly fitted to each other2 the surfaces must make close contact4 ,this requires accurate machining1 and hence is expensive4 ,to overcome this point sandwiched armor was suggested4 ,this consists in placing a layer of wood between the laminations1 as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,it was found that laminated and sandwiched armor gave very much less resisting power than solid rolled plates of the same thickness4 ,wrought iron armor is made under the hammer or under the rolls1 in the ordinary manner of making plates1 and has been exhaustively studied and experimented with--more so than any other form of armor4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,chilled cast iron armor is manufactured by ,gruson1 in ,germany1 and is used in sea coast defense forts of ,europe4 ,in #ahfg several compound plates were made by ,chas4 ,cammell ,co41 of ,sheffield1 ,england1 and were tested at ,shoeburyness1 in ,england1 and at ,tegel1 in ,russia4 ,these plates were made by welding slabs of steel to iron2 but the difficulties were so great that the idea was abandoned for the time4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,compound armor1 as now manufactured1 is of two types3 ,wilson's patent1 a backing of rolled iron1 faced with ,bessemer steel2 ,ellis' patent1 a backing of rolled iron1 faced with a plate of hard rolled steel1 cemented with a layer of ,bessemer steel4 ,both these kinds are manufactured in ,england and ,france in sizes up to fifty tons weight4 ,the ,wilson process is used at the works of ,messrs4 ,cammell ,co41 of ,sheffield1 ,england1 and the ,ellis process at the ,atlas ,works of ,sir ,john ,brown ,co41 of the same place4 ,these are the two leading manufacturers of compound plate4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4 ,the method employed by ,wilson in making compound plate is to first make a good wrought iron plate4 ,to the surface of this and along each side of the length of the plate are fixed two small channel irons1 as shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,the plate is then raised to a welding heat in a gas furnace1 and transferred to an iron flask or mould4 ,wedges are driven in between the back of the plate and the side of the mould1 thus forcing the channel irons up snug against the opposite side of the mould4 ,moulding sand is then packed around the back and sides of the plate 7see ,fig4 #f74 ,the mould is lowered in a vertical position into a pit4 ,molten steel1 manufactured by either the ,siemens-,martin or ,bessemer process1 is then poured in through a trough that forms several streams1 and forms the hard face of the plate4 ,the molten steel as it runs down cleans the face of the wrought iron plate1 scoring it in places1 and1 being of much higher temperature1 the excessive heat carbonates the iron to a depth of one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch1 forming a zone of mild steel between the hard steel and soft iron4 ,the mould is placed in a vertical position to insure closeness of structure and the forcing of gases out of the steel4 ,after solidifying1 the whole plate is pressed1 and passed through the rolls to obtain thorough welding4 ,it is then bent1 planed1 fitted1 tempered1 and annealed to remove internal strains4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4 ,in #ahhg1 ,wilson took out a patent for improvements in his process of making compound plates4 ,in this method of manufacture he takes a wrought iron1 fibrous plate1 fifteen inches thick1 built up from a number of thin plates4 ,while hot from the forging press1 he places this plate in an iron mould 7see ,fig4 #g7 about #bh inches deep1 and upon it runs ingot iron or very mild steel to a depth of thirteen inches4 ,in this form of mould the plate rests on brickwork1 and is held in place by two grooved side clamps or strips which are caused to grip the plate by means of screws which extend through the sides of the mould4 ,after solidifying1 the plate1 which is twenty-eight inches thick1 is reheated and rolled down to eighteen inches4 ,this is the iron backing of the finished plate1 and it is again put in the iron mould and heated1 when a layer of hard steel is run on the exposed surface of the original wrought iron plate to a depth of eight inches4 ,this makes a plate about twenty-eight inches thick4 ,it is taken from the mould1 reheated1 rolled1 hammered or pressed down to twenty inches4 ,after cooling1 it is bent1 planed1 and fitted as desired1 then tempered and annealed to relieve internal strains4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,the method employed by ,ellis in making compound plates is to take two separate plates1 one of good wrought iron and one of hard forged steel1 placing the forged steel plate on the wrought iron plate1 keeping them separate by a wedge frame or berm of steel around three sides1 and placing small blocks of steel at various points near the middle of the plates 7see ,fig4 #h74 ,these blocks are called distance blocks4 ,after covering all the exposed steel surfaces with ganister1 the plates are put in a gas furnace and heated to a welding heat4 ,they are then lowered into a vertical iron pit with the open side uppermost4 ,the plates are held in position by hydraulic rams1 which also prevent bulging4 ,molten steel of medium softness is then poured into the space between the plates1 by means of a distributing trough having holes in the bottom1 and after this has solidified1 the whole plate is placed under the hydraulic press and reduced about twenty per cent4 in thickness4 ,the plate is then passed through the rolls1 bent1 planed1 fitted1 tempered1 and annealed to reduce internal strains4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4 ,in heating the compound plates for rolling1 the plate is placed in the furnace with the steel face down1 so that the iron part gets well heated and the steel does not become too hot4 ,great care must be taken not to overheat the plate1 and in working1 many passes are given the plate with small closings of the rolls4 ,the steel part of a compound plate is usually about one third of the full thickness of the plate4 ,forged steel armor1 tempered in oil1 is fabricated at ,le ,creusot1 ,france1 by ,schneider ,co41 using open-hearth steel1 and forging under the #ajj ton hammer4 ,the ingots are cast1 with twenty-five per cent4 sinking head and are cubical in form4 ,the porter bar is attached to a lug on one side of the ingot4 ,by means of a crane with a curved jib which gives springiness under the hammer1 the ingot is thrust into the heating furnace4 ,on arriving at a good forging heat it is swung around to the #ajj ton hammer1 under which it is worked down to the required shape4 ,a seventy-five ton ingot requires about eight reheatings before being reduced to shape4 ,having been reduced to shape1 the plate is carefully annealed1 then raised to a high tempering heat1 and the face tempered in oil4 ,it is reannealed to take out the internal strains1 care being taken not to reduce the face hardness more than necessary4 ,the ,schneider process of tempering is based upon the utilization of the absorption of heat caused by the fusing or melting of a solid substance1 and of the fact that so long as a solid is melting or dissolving in a liquid substance1 the liquid cannot get appreciably hotter1 except locally around the heating surface4 ,the body to be hardened is plunged at the requisite temperature into a bath containing the solid melting body1 or is kept under pressure in the solid material of low melting point until the required extraction of heat has taken place1 more solid material being added if necessary as that originally present melts and dissolves4 ,nickel steel armor is made in a similar manner to the steel plates1 the material used in casting the ingot being an alloy of nickel and steel containing between three and four per cent4 of nickel4 ,the ,harvey process of making armor consists in taking an all-steel plate and carbonizing the face4 ,this carbonizing process is very similar to the cementation process of producing steel1 and by it the face of the plate is made high in carbon and very hard4 ,the system invented by ,sir ,joseph ,whitworth1 of ,manchester1 ,england1 consists in what might be called scale armor4 ,a section of a sample of the armor represents four plates4 ,the outer layer1 one inch thick1 is composed of steel of a tensile strength of #hj tons per square inch2 the second layer1 one inch thick1 of steel whose tensile strength is #dj tons per square inch2 the third and fourth layers1 each one-half inch thickness1 of mild steel4 ,the outer layer is in small squares of about ten inches on a side1 and is fastened to the second layer by bolts at the corners and one in the middle of each square4 ,the surface is flush4 7,see ,fig4 #i47 ,the end sought by the above system is to break up the shot by the hard steel face and to restrict any starring or cracking of the metal to the limit of the squares or scales struck4 ,the bolts are of high carbon and are extremely hard steel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,armor plates must often be bent or curved to single or double curvature and sometimes to a warped surface to fit the form of the ship4 ,there are several methods of bending plates4 ,one method employs a cast iron slab of the required form1 which is placed on the piston of a hydraulic press4 ,the armor plate is placed face down on this slab1 and on top of the plate are laid packing blocks of cast iron1 of such sizes and shapes as to conform to the required curve4 ,these blocks take against the upper table of the press1 when the piston is forced up1 and the hot plate is thus dished to the proper form4 ,in the ,french method of bending1 an anvil or bed plate of the required curve is used1 and the armor plate is forced to take the curve by being hammered all over its upper surface with a specially designed steam hammer4 ,the edges of the plate are trimmed by large1 powerful slotting machines or circular saws2 the latter1 however1 operate in exactly the same manner as a slotter1 except that there is no return motion to the tool4 ,each tooth of the saw is but a slotting tool1 and these teeth are1 by screws1 rendered capable of being nicely adjusted in the circumference of the saw4 ,the plates are fastened to the hulls and backing by heavy bolts1 varying in size according to the weight of the individual plate4 ,for the #f1jjj ton armored ships1 these bolts are from #b4ge to #c4a inches in diameter and from #ah4de to #bc inches in length4 ,they are tapped two or three inches into the armor and do not go through the plate4 ,they pass through wrought iron tubes in the backing and set up with cups1 washers and nuts against the inner skin of the ship4 ,at steel works where plates for our new navy are being manufactured1 there are inspectors who look after the government's interests4 ,officers of the navy are detailed for this work1 and their duty is to watch the manufacture of plates through each part of the process and to see that the conditions of the specifications and contract are complied with4 ,the inspection and testing of armor plates consists in examining them for pits1 scales1 laminations1 forging cracks1 etc41 in determining the chemical analysis of specimens taken from different parts1 in determining the physical qualities of specimens taken longitudinally and transversely1 and the ballistic test4 ,specifications for these different tests are constantly undergoing change1 and it would be impossible to state1 with exactness1 what the requirements are or will be in the near future4 ,the ballistic test is the important one1 and is made by taking one plate of a group and subjecting it to the fire of a suitable gun4 ,the other tests are simply to insure1 as far as practicable1 that all the other plates of the group are similar to and are capable of standing as severe a ballistic test as the test plate4 ,the following will give an idea of the ballistic test as prescribed by the ,bureau of ,ordnance1 ,navy ,department4 ,the test plate1 irrespective of its thickness1 is to be backed by thirty-six inches of oak or other substantial wood4 ,near the middle region of the plate an equilateral triangle will be marked1 each side of which will be three and one-half calibers long4 ,the lower side of the triangle will be horizontal4 ,three shots will be fired1 the points of impact being as near as possible the extremities of the triangle4 ,the velocity of the shot will be such as to give the projectile sufficient energy to just pass through a wrought iron plate of equal thickness to the test plate1 and through its wood backing4 ,the velocity is calculated by the ,gavre formula3 a ,v --- #cejg ,e #bbfedfd e#a4d w ,,tex3 ,v#b fracaw #cejg ,e#b times #bbfedfd e#a4d ,v the velocity of the projectile in feet per second4 a the diameter of the projectile in inches4 w the weight of the projectile in pounds4 ,e the thickness of the backing in inches4 e the thickness of the plate in inches4 ,using the above formula we can make out a table as follows3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,plate4 ,backi'g ,gun1 service w1 a1 ,v4 ,energy1 ,inches4,inches4 shot4 ,pounds4,inches4 f4 #h4 ,impact4 f4 tons4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #f #cf #f ,b4,l4,r4 #ajj #e4if #achi #accg #g #cf #f #ajj #e4if #aebh #afai #h #cf #h #bej #g4if #abac #beej #i #cf #h #bej #g4if #acjh #biff #aj #cf #h #bej #g4if #acii #ccij #aa #cf #h #bej #g4if #adhi #chci #ab #cf #aj #ejj #i4if #abdg #echf #ac #cf #aj #ejj #i4if #acae #eihg #ad #cf #aj #ejj #i4if #acha #ffjh #ae #cf #ab #hej #aa4if #abae #hfii #af #cf #ab #hej #aa4if #abfi #igaj #ag #cf #ab #hej #aa4if #accb #ajded #ah #cf #ab #hej #aa4if #acgd #aaabd #ai #cf #ab #hej #aa4if #adbe #aaife #bj #cf #ab #hej #aa4if #adgf #abhcg ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,no projectile or fragment of the plate or projectile must get wholly through the plate and backing4 ,the plate must not break up or give such cracks as to expose the backing1 previous to the third shot4 ,the penetration of projectiles of different forms into various styles of armor has been very thoroughly studied and many attempts have been made to bring the subject down to mathematical formul4 ,these formul are based on several suppositions1 and agree very closely with results obtained in actual experiments1 but there are so many varying conditions that it is extremely doubtful if any formul will ever be written that will properly express the penetration4 ,many different forms have been given to the heads of projectiles1 as flat1 ogival1 hemispherical1 conoidal1 parabolic1 blunt trifaced1 etc4 ,the flat headed projectile has the shape of a right cylinder1 and acts like a punch1 driving the material of the armor plate in front of it4 ,these projectiles are especially valuable when firing at oblique armor1 for they will bite or cut into the armor when striking at an angle of thirty degrees4 ,the ogival head acts more as a wedge1 pushing the metal aside1 and generally will give more penetration in thick solid plates than the flat headed projectile4 ,the ogival head is usually designed by using a radius of two calibers4 ,the hemispherical1 conoidal1 parabolic and blunt trifaced all give more or less of the wedging effect4 ,the blunt trifaced has all the good qualities of the ogival of two calibers4 ,it bites at a slightly less angle1 and the three faces start cracks radiating from the point of impact4 ,forged steel is the best material for armor-piercing projectiles1 but many are made of chilled cast iron1 on account of its great hardness and cheapness4 ,the best weight for a projectile is found by the formula w d 7#j4de to #j4e7 w being the weight in pounds1 d the diameter in inches and #j4de to #j4e having been determined by experiment4 ,with a light projectile we get a flat trajectory1 and accuracy at short ranges is increased4 ,with a heavy projectile the resistance of the air has less effect and the projectile is advantageously employed at long ranges4 ,in the following formul1 used in calculating the penetration of projectiles in rolled iron armor1 g the force of gravity4 w the weight of projectile in pounds4 d the diameter of projectile in inches4 v the striking velocity in feet per second4 ,p the penetration in inches4 ,major ,noble1 ,r4,a41 gives #a4f _/ w v ,p _/ _/ ---------------- _/ pi g d #aaccd4d ,,tex3 ,p sqrt#a4f;fracw v#bpi g d #aaccd4d ,u4,s4 ,naval ,ordnance ,proving ,ground uses #b4jce_/ w v ,p _/ _/ --------------- _/ pi g d #cheb4h ,,tex3 ,p sqrt#b4jce;fracw v#bpi g d #cheb4h ,col4 ,maitland gives w v ,p ------------ g d #affed4d ,,tex3 ,p fracw v#b;g d#b #affed4d ,maitland's latest formula1 now used in ,england1 is v _/w ,p ----- _/ - - #j4ad d #fjh4c d ,,tex3 ,p fracv#fjh4c sqrtfracwd - #j4ad d ,general ,froloff1 ,russian army1 gives w v ,p ------ d #egf ,,tex3 ,p fracw vd#b #egf for plates less than two and one-half inches thick1 and w v ,p ------ - #a4e d #djj ,,tex3 ,p fracw vd#b #djj - #a4e for plates more than two and one-half inches thick4 ,if theta be the angle between the path of the projectile and the face of the plate1 then v in the above formul becomes v sin theta4 ,when we come to back the plates1 their power to resist penetration becomes greater1 and our formula changes4 ,the ,gavre formula1 given above1 is used to determine the velocity necessary for a projectile to pass entirely through an iron plate and its wood backing4 ,compound and steel armor are said to give about #bi per cent4 more resisting power than wrought iron1 but in one experiment at the proving ground1 at ,annapolis1 a compound plate gave over #ej per cent4 more resisting power than wrought iron4 ,the ,italian government1 after most expensive and elaborate comparative tests1 has decided in favor of the ,creusot or ,schneider all-steel plates1 and has established a plant for their manufacture at ,terni1 near ,rome4 ,the ,french use both steel and compound plates2 the ,russians1 compound2 the ,germans1 compound2 the ,swedes and ,danes use both4 ,spain has adopted and accepted the ,creusot plate for its new formidable armored vessel1 the ,pelayo2 and ,china too has recently become a purchaser of ,creusot plates4 ,certain general rules may be laid down for attacking armor4 ,if the armor is iron1 it is useless to attack with projectiles having less than #a1jjj feet striking velocity for each caliber in thickness of plate4 ,it is unadvisable to fire steel or chilled iron filled shells at thick armor1 unless a normal hit can be made4 ,when perforation is to be attempted1 steel-forged armor-piercing shells1 unfilled1 should be used4 ,they may be filled if the guns are of great power as compared to the armor4 ,steel and compound armor are not likely to be pierced by a single blow1 but continued hammering may break up the plate1 and that with comparatively low-powered guns4 ,wrought iron must be perforated1 and hard armor1 compound or steel1 must be broken up4 ,against wrought iron plates the projectile may be made of chilled cast iron1 but hard armor exacts for its penetration or destruction the use of steel1 forged and tempered4 ,against unarmored ships1 and against unarmored portions of ironclads1 the value of rapid-firing guns1 especially those of large caliber1 can hardly be overestimated4 ,the relative value of steel and compound armor is much debated1 and at present the rivalry is great1 but the weight of evidence and opinion seems to favor the all-steel plate4 ,the hard face of a compound plate is supposed to break up the projectile1 that is1 make the projectile expend its energy on itself rather than upon the plate1 and the backing of wrought iron is1 by its greater ductility1 to prevent the destruction of the plate4 ,it seems probable that these two systems will approach each other as the development goes on4 ,an alloy of nickel and steel is now attracting attention and bids fair to give very good results4 ,the problem to be solved1 as far as naval armor is concerned1 is to get the greatest amount of protection with the least possible weight and volume1 and this reduction of weight and volume must be accomplished1 in the main1 by reducing the thickness of the plates by increasing the resisting power of the material4 ,in the compound plate great surface hardness is readily and safely attained1 but it has not yet been definitely determined what the proper proportionate thickness of iron and steel is4 ,a considerable thickness of steel is necessary to aid1 by its stiffness1 in preventing the very ductile iron from giving back to such an extent as to distort the steel face and thus tear or separate the parts of the plate4 ,the ductile iron gives a very low resisting power1 its duty being to hold the steel face up to its work4 ,if now we substitute a soft steel plate in the place of the ductile iron1 we will get greater resisting power1 but our compound plate then becomes virtually an all-steel one1 only differing in process of manufacture4 ,the greatest faults of the compound plate are the imperfect welding of the parts and the lack of solidity of the iron4 ,when fired at1 the surface has a tendency to chip4 ,in the all-steel plate we have the greatest resisting power throughout1 but there are manufacturing difficulties1 and surface hardness equal to that of the compound plate has not been obtained4 ,the manufacturing difficulties are being gradually overcome1 and artillerists are in high hopes that the requisite surface hardness will soon be obtained4 ,the following may be stated as well proved3 #a4 ,that steel armor promises to replace both iron and compound4 #b4 ,that projectiles designed for the piercing of hard armor must be made of steel4 #c4 ,that the larger the plate1 the better it is able to absorb the energy of impact without injury to itself4 #d4 ,that the backing must be as rigid as possible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,from ,,engineering4 ,,the ,,compressed ,,air ,,system ,,of ,,paris4 ,the demand for compressed air as a motive power is constantly increasing in ,paris2 the company1 according to its official reports1 is financially prosperous1 and it seems difficult to understand how it should continue as an actively going concern1 unless it at all events paid its way4 ,the central station of ,st4 ,fargeau1 originally started on modest lines1 for maintaining a uniform time by pneumatic pressure throughout ,paris1 has grown rapidly to very large proportions1 though it has never been able to supply the demand made on it for power2 and at the present time a second and still larger station is being constructed in another part of ,paris4 ,we confess that we do not understand why such large sums of money should continue to be spent if the enterprise is not commercially a sound one1 nor how men of such eminence in the scientific world as ,professor ,riedler should1 without hesitation1 risk their reputation on the correctness of the system1 if it were the idle dream of an enthusiast1 as many persons--chiefly those interested in electric transmission--have declared it to be4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,,map ,,of ,,paris ,,with ,,st4 ,,fargeau ,,station ,in describing the developments that have taken place during the last two years1 we shall confine ourselves entirely to the details of a report recently made on the subject by ,professor ,riedler4 ,as soon as it became evident that a very largely increased installation was necessary1 it was determined that the new central station should be as free as possible from the defects of the first one4 ,these defects1 which were the natural results of the somewhat hasty development of an experimental system1 were of several kinds4 ,in the first place1 so large a growth had not been contemplated1 and the extensions were made more or less piecemeal1 instead of being on a regular plan2 the location of the central station itself was very unfavorable1 both as regards the facilities for obtaining coal and other supplies2 the cost of water was excessive1 and the amount available1 inadequate4 ,this evil was partly remedied by elaborate arrangements for cooling the injection water so that it could be repeatedly used1 a device costly and ineffective1 and resulting in extravagant working1 to say nothing of the high charges made by the ,paris company for supplying water4 ,to these drawbacks had to be added others of an even more serious character4 ,the engines first laid down were not economical1 and the compressors employed gave but a very inferior result2 with each extension of the plant1 the efficiency of both engines and compressors was increased1 the most satisfactory1 we believe1 having been those supplied by the ,societe ,cockerill1 and one of which was exhibited at the ,paris exhibition in #ahhi4 ,still it was clearly recognized that much better results were possible1 results which ,professor ,riedler claims have been attained and which will be embodied in the new installation now in progress4 ,this central station is located on the left bank of the ,seine1 close to the fortifications1 opposite ,vincennes and not far from the terminal stations of the ,orleans and the ,paris1 ,lyons1 and ,mediterranean ,railways2 the plan1 ,fig4 #a1 shows the position4 ,the works are separated from the river by the quay1 over which a bridge will be constructed for the transfer of coal from the landing stages belonging to the company1 into the works2 as will be readily seen from the plan1 it would be quite easy to run junction lines to the two adjacent railways1 but with all the advantages given by water carriage1 it was considered unnecessary to incur the expense4 ,the river also affords a constant and unlimited water supply1 so that none of the difficulties existing at ,st4 ,fargeau ,station in imperfect condensation and cooling will be met with4 ,the new installation1 called the ,central ,station of the ,quai de la ,gare1 is laid out on a very large scale1 the total generating energy provided for being no less than #bd1jjj horse power2 of this it is intended that #h1jjj horse power will be in operation this year1 and an extension of #aj1jjj horsepower in #ahib2 the power now in course of completion comprises four engines of #b1jjj horse power each4 ,four batteries of boilers will provide steam for these engines4 ,figs4 #b1 #c1 and #d show the first section of the installation now in progress2 the four groups of engines 7three-cylinder condensing7 are shown at #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d2 the four groups of boilers ranged behind them at ,f1 ,f2 the feed water heaters belonging to each group at ,v ,v4 ,illustration3 ,,compressed ,,air ,,station ,,on ,,the ,,qua ,,de ,,la ,,gare1 ,,paris4 7,,fig4 #b1c1d7 ,the end of the building abuts against the ,seine1 and the position of the water conduits for inlet and discharge are indicated at ,c and ,a respectively4 ,the installation1 when completed1 will include very extensive arrangements for transporting and storing coal1 and the interior of the boiler houses will be furnished with an overhead system of rails and carriers for handling the coal automatically1 as far as possible4 ,all the principal mains and steam pipes are made in duplicate1 not only for greater security1 but in order that each set of engines and boilers may be connected interchangeably without delay4 ,the ,seine supplies an ample quantity of water1 but not in a condition either for feeding the boilers1 for condensation1 or for the air compressors4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,new ,,compressed ,,air ,,station ,,at ,,paris4 7,,fig4 #e1 #f7 ,special provisions have therefore to be made to filter the water efficiently before it is used4 ,for this purpose the water is led to a group of four filters 7see ,l1 ,fig4 #d72 from them it passes into the tanks1 ,,jj1 and is pumped into the heaters4 ,the filters can be rapidly and automatically cleaned by reversing the flow of water through them4 ,figs4 #e and #f show the general form of the type of engine adopted1 as well as the engine house1 some of the mains1 etc4 ,they are vertical triple-expansion engines1 and are being constructed by ,,mm4 ,schneider et ,cie1 of ,creusot1 with a guarantee of coal consumption not to exceed #a4ed lb4 per horse power per hour1 with a penalty of #b1jjj francs for every #ajj grammes in excess of this limit4 ,it is evident that with this restricted fuel consumption1 a large margin for economy will exist at the new works1 as compared with the ,st4 ,fargeau station1 where the best engines cannot show anything like this result1 while some of the earlier ones are distinctly extravagant1 and the whole installation is handicapped with imperfect means of condensation4 ,moreover1 according to ,professor ,riedler1 the consumption of steam by the new ,schneider engines will be only #e4c kilos4 per horse power and per hour as compared with some of the large engines requiring #i kilos41 and the ,cockerill engines--using #h kilos4 per hour1 not to speak of the older motors that are very extravagant in the use of steam4 ,the ,st4 ,fargeau station is worked under a further disadvantage4 ,the constantly increasing demand from subscribers taxes the resources of the station to their fullest extent1 so that practically there is no reserve power4 ,in the new installation the work will be equally constant1 but care will be taken always to have a sufficient reserve4 ,electric lighting will form a considerable part of the duty to be done from this station1 and in all cases it is intended to work with accumulators1 so that the resistance to be overcome by the engines1 so far as this part of the duty is concerned1 will be well known and uniform4 ,the engineers of the ,compressed ,air ,co41 of ,paris1 have during the last five years acquired an experience which could only be attained at a high price and at the expense of a certain amount of failure2 this period1 it is claimed1 is now passed1 and in the new installation it is possible to put into practice all the valuable lessons learned at ,st4 ,fargeau1 to say nothing of the more favorable natural conditions under which the extension is being started and the improvements in the compression of the air made by ,mr4 ,popp and ,professor ,riedler1 and to which we shall refer later4 ,chiefly in consequence of the high value of the ground1 vertical engines were adopted at the new station2 the proximity to the river made the foundations somewhat costly1 and the risk of occasional floods rendered it desirable to set the level of the engine bedplates #bj inches above the floor of the building2 the foundations of the engines are continuous1 but are quite independent of the building4 ,there are three compressing cylinders in each set of engines1 one being above each steam cylinder4 ,two of these are employed to compress the air to about #cj lb4 per square inch1 after which it passes into a receiver and is cooled2 it is then admitted into the third or final compressing cylinder and raised to the working pressure at which it flows into the mains4 ,in the illustrations1 h1 m1 and b are the high1 intermediate1 and low pressure cylinders of one set of engines2 as will be seen1 each cylinder is on a separate frame connected by girders2 directly above the cylinders are the two low and the one high pressure air cylinders1 b1 m1 and h respectively4 ,the former deliver the air compressed to the first stage into the receiver1 ,t 7see ,fig4 #e71 whence it passes into the third compression cylinder1 and thence by a main into the cylinders1 ,r ,r1 which are in direct communication with the delivery mains2 these mains terminate in the subway1 ,t4 ,the water for condensation is brought into the engine house by the channel1 ,c1 and the condenser pumps1 a1 draw direct from this supply2 the discharge main back to the river is shown at ,a4 ,the relative positions of the engine and boiler houses are indicated in ,figs4 #b to #e1 where ,f shows the end of one group of boilers2 the air supply for the compressors is led from the central raised portion1 ,s1 of the roof4 ,professor ,riedler's first experiments in improving the efficiency of air compressors were made with one of the ,cockerill compressors in use at the ,st4 ,fargeau ,station1 and considerable difficulty attended this work1 because the machinery was necessarily kept almost in constant operation4 ,these compressors were designed by ,,mm4 ,dubois and ,francois1 of ,seraing4 ,two of their leading features were the delivery of the compressed air at as low a temperature as possible1 and with a relatively high piston speed of about #djj ft4 a minute4 ,the former object is attained by the injection of a very fine water spray at each end of the air cylinder1 and its rapid removal with each stroke2 the free as well as the compressed air flows through the same passages1 one at each end of the cylinder2 the inlet valves being placed at the side of these passages1 and the outlet or compressed air valves at the top1 the compressed air1 entering a chamber above the cylinder1 common to both valves1 and passing thence to the reservoir4 ,the compressed air valves1 which are seven in4 in diameter1 are brought back sharply to their seats at each stroke1 by a small piston operated by compressed air flowing through a by-pass from the chamber4 ,the illustrations published by us on page #fhf of our forty-seventh volume show the construction of these compressors4 ,the engravings on page #fhc of the same volume illustrate the compressors used in a somewhat older part of the installation2 they were made by ,m4 ,blanchod1 of ,vevey1 and a passing reference may be made to them4 ,the air is admitted through valves in the cylinder1 and is forced out through spring-loaded valves2 water is admitted into the cylinder to cool the air4 ,fig4 #g indicates the modification made by ,professor ,riedler in one of the ,cockerill compressors3 a receiver1 ,a1 was placed under the two compressing cylinders1 ,b and ,c4 ,the first stage is completed in the large cylinder1 ,b1 the air being compressed to about #cj lb4 per square inch2 from this it is discharged into the receiver1 ,a1 through the pipe1 ,b1 where it meets with a spray injection that cools it to the temperature of the water4 ,the final stage is then effected in the smaller cylinder1 ,c1 which1 drawing the air from the receiver through the pipe1 ,c1 compresses it to about #ij lb4 and delivers it through the pipe1 d1 to the mains4 ,we hope shortly to publish drawings of this compressor in its final form2 in its elementary stage ,professor ,riedler claims to have obtained some very remarkable results4 ,he says that the waste spaces in his modification were much smaller than in the ,cockerill compressor1 while the efficiency of the apparatus was largely increased4 ,the actual engine duty per horse power and per hour was raised1 as a maximum1 to #chd cubic feet of air at atmospheric pressure1 and compressed to #ij lb4 per square inch1 a marked increase on the duty of the compressors in use at the ,st4 ,fargeau station4 ,the ,cockerill compressors experimented on at the same time showed a maximum duty of #cjf cubic feet of air4 ,a considerable advantage is claimed in drawing clean and cool air from the outside of the building1 and beyond the main feature of carrying out the compression in two stages1 ,mr4 ,riedler appears to have shown great skill in introducing several minor alterations and improvements in the plant4 ,illustration3 ,,efficiency ,,curves ,,for ,,three ,,types ,,of ,,compressors4 7,fig4 #h1 #i1 #aj7 ,figs4 #h1 #i and #aj are diagrams showing the comparative efficiency of the three types of compressors at ,st4 ,fargeau--,fig4 #aj being a diagram of the ,riedler compressor--and indicate the gain derived from the intermediate cooling4 ,the loss is shown to be only #ab per cent41 as compared with a loss of #dc per cent4 in a large part of the plant1 and of #aje per cent4 in the earlier compressors of the ,st4 ,gothard type4 ,the table given herewith contains a summary of trials made by ,professor ,gutermuth1 and are intended to show the comparative results of an extended trial with three kinds of compressors at ,st4 ,fargeau4 ,,performances ,,of ,,compressors ,,at ,,the ,,st4 ,,fargeau ,,central ,,station4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,r p ,e e o e ,horse- f ,amount ,quantity ,cubic ,compressors4 v f r ,power f of ,air of ,air ,feet of ,final ,air o ,absorbed i ,passing ,passing,air per ,pressure4 l ,e m by c through through ,horse- u n i ,compres- i ,inlet ,valves ,power t g n sors4 e ,valves per and per i i u n each ,hour4 ,hour4 o n t c ,revolu- n e e y tion4 s 4 4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- cubic cubic lb4 per #a4 feet feet sq4 in4 ,sturgeon ,compressor #cg #cjb 4#hg #da4fg #ia1ejg #bfa4c #ij ,diameter of #cg #beh 4#hg #ch4ac #hd1fej #bgf4a #ij cylinder1 #bc4fb in4 and #ba4ff in42 stroke1 #dh4fc in4 #b4 ,cockerill #dj #ccg 4#hc #df4fa #aaa1hfd #bha4hc #ij ,compressor4 #de #cec 4#hc #df4fa #abe1hdd #cjb4ff #ij ,diameter of #dj #cdb 4#hh #di4dc #aah1fcb #bif4fe #ij cylinder1 #df #cgg 4#he #dh4jb #acb1ecd #bih4gg #ij #be4ih in42 #ch4fg #cbd 4#hi #ej4ad #aaf1dcd #cjf4ai #ij stroke1 #ch4e #ccg 4#hi #ej4ad #aae1hah #bid4ah #ij #dg4bd in4 #ch4f #cbi 4#ia #ej4hd #aag1gdj #cje4ac #ij #c4 ,riedler #eb #fae 4#ihe #gg4cd #bda1cjj #cec4ej #ij ,compressor4 #fj #gji 4#ihe #gf4ih #bgg1abh #cec4ej #ij ,diameter of #ch #dbb 4#ihe #gg4cd #agf1ccj #cgf4ab #ij low-pressure #ci #dbd 4#ihe #gg4cd #aha1jcj #chd4fj #ij cylinder1 #db4ia in42 diameter of high-pressure cylinder1 #bf4ch in42 stroke1 #dg4bd in4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,the results thus obtained were so satisfactory that the designs were prepared for the great compressors to be operated at the new central station on the ,quai de la ,gare by the #b1jjj horse power engines4 ,the transmission of the compressed air through the mains is unavoidably attended with a certain percentage of loss1 which1 of course1 increases with the length of the transmission1 the presence of leakage at the joints1 etc4 ,professor ,riedler has devoted considerable time to the investigation of this source of waste1 and we shall presently refer to the results he has recorded2 in the first place1 however1 we propose to consider what he has to say on the subject of utilizing the air at the points of delivery1 and the means employed for obtaining a relatively high efficiency of the motor4 ,in the earliest stages of the ,popp system in ,paris it was recognized that no good results could be obtained if the air were allowed to expand direct into the motor2 not only did the formation of ice due to the expansion of the air rapidly accumulate and choke the exhaust1 but the percentage of useful work obtained1 compared with that put into the air at the central station1 was so small as to render commercial results hopeless4 ,the practice of heating the air before admitting it to the motor is quite old1 but until a few years ago it never seems to have been properly carried out2 in several mining installations where this motive power had been long used1 more or less imperfect attempts had been made to heat the air2 in one instance only1 recorded by ,professor ,riedler1 was an efficient means employed4 ,in this case a spray of boiling water was injected into the cylinder and mixed with the air at each stroke1 with the result that a very marked economy was obtained4 ,after a number of experiments1 ,mr4 ,popp arrived at the conclusion that the simplest mode of heating1 if not the most efficient1 was at all events the most suitable1 as it was a matter of the first importance that subscribers should not be troubled with the charge of any apparatus involving complication or careful management2 he therefore adopted a simple form of cast iron stove lined with fireclay1 heated either by a gas jet or by a small coke fire4 ,it was found that this apparatus1 crude as it was1 answered the desired purpose1 until some better arrangement was perfected1 and the type was accordingly adopted throughout the whole system4 ,it was quite recognized that this method still left much to be desired1 and the economy resulting from the use of an improved form was very marked4 ,from a large number of trials very carefully carried out by ,professor ,gutermuth1 it was found that more than #gj per cent4 of the total number of calories in the fuel employed was absorbed by the air and transformed into useful work4 ,whether gas or coal be employed as the fuel1 the amount required is so small as to be scarcely worth consideration2 according to the experiments carried out1 it does not exceed #j4ji kilo4 per horse power and per hour1 but it is scarcely to be expected that in regular practice this quantity is not largely exceeded4 ,professor ,weyrauch has also carefully investigated this part of the subject and fully confirms1 if he1 indeed1 does not go beyond ,professor ,gutermuth4 ,he claims that the efficiency of fuel consumed in this way is six times greater than when burnt under a boiler to generate steam4 ,he goes so far as to assert that with a good method of heating the air1 not only can all the losses due to the production and the transmission of the compressed air be made good1 but also that it will actually contain more useful energy at the motor than was expended at the central station in compressing it4 ,according to ,professor ,riedler1 from #ae to #bj per cent4 above the power at the central station can be obtained by means at the disposal of the power users1 and it has been shown by experiment that by heating the air to #bej deg4 ,cent4 an increased efficiency of #cj per cent4 can be obtained4 ,better results than those heretofore obtained may1 therefore1 be confidently expected with a more perfect and economical application of the fuel in heating the air1 and a better means of regulation in admitting it to the motors4 ,in his report ,professor ,riedler indicates a method by the use of which he considers considerable advantages may be secured4 ,this is the heating the air in two stages instead of at one operation1 and passing it through two motors1 to the first of which the air is admitted heated only to a moderate extent2 the exhaust from this motor then passes into a second heater and thence into the second motor4 ,a series of experiments with this arrangement were recently carried out4 ,the consumption of air per brake horse power was reduced from #hab cubic feet per hour1 a favorable duty in the single motor1 to #gbj1 and in the best result to #fdf cubic feet with the two motors and double heaters4 ,it should be added that these trials were carried out with steam engines but ill adapted for the purpose4 ,it is to be regretted that the experiments of ,professor ,riedler could not have been conducted with more perfect appliances1 but it must be borne in mind that the utilization of compressed air1 especially as regards the motors1 is still in a very imperfect stage1 and that a great deal remains to be done before the maximum power available at the motor can be obtained4 ,investigations in this direction for a considerable time to come must be directed1 therefore1 toward improving the design and construction of the motors and the treatment of the air at the point of delivery into the engine4 ,a large number of motors in use among the subscribers to the ,compressed ,air ,company1 of ,paris1 are rotary engines developing one horse power and less1 and these in the early times of the industry were extravagant in their consumption1 to a very high degree4 ,to some extent this condition of things has been improved1 chiefly by the addition of better regulating valves to control the air admission4 ,as altered1 the two horse power rotary motors1 when employed as cold air engines1 a method often desired in special industries1 consume #a1jei cubic feet per hour and per indicated horse power2 with a moderate degree of heating1 say to #ej deg4 ,cent41 this consumption falls to #hdg cubic feet4 ,the efficiency of this type of rotary motors with air heated to #ej deg4 may now be assumed at #dc per cent41 not a very economical result1 it is true1 and one that may be largely improved1 yet it is evident that with such an efficiency the use of small motors in many industries becomes possible1 while in cases where it is necessary to have a constant supply of cold air1 economy ceases to be a matter of the first importance4 ,some useful results were obtained with compressed air used in crank engines2 it is to be regretted that with this1 also1 apologies have to be made for the imperfect design and construction2 they were old steam engines1 some of those of two horse power losing from #be to #cj per cent4 by their own friction2 some of the others tried1 however1 were far better1 a newer type losing only from #h to #aj per cent41 while the #hj horse power referred to below showed an efficiency of #ia per cent4 ,from these trials ,prof4 ,riedler deduces--assuming #he per cent4 efficiency--a consumption of #faa1 #geb1 and #gbj cubic feet per brake horse power4 ,it is very evident from the foregoing that the ,compressed ,air ,company1 of ,paris1 will never do itself justice until as much thought and care has been devoted to the economical use of the motive power as has been expended in the means of producing it1 and ,professor ,riedler's recent investigations should be especially useful in this respect4 ,the question has indeed attracted the attention of more than one manufacturer1 and reference is made to a particular type of small rotary motors which are being constructed by ,,mm4 ,riedinger ,co41 and which is stated have given very excellent results4 ,these engines were specially used for working sewing machines and developed on the brake an efficiency of #cd4jg and #ea4fc foot pounds per second4 ,trials were made with a half horse power variable expansion ,riedinger engine4 ,,trials ,,of ,a ,,small ,,rotary ,,riedinger ,,engine4 ,number of trials4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,initial air pressure4 lb4 per square inch #hf #ga4h temperature4 deg4 ,cent4 #ab #agj ,ft4 pounds per second measured on the brake4 #ea4fc #cd4jg ,revolutions per minute4 #chd #cjj ,consumption of air for one horse power per hour4 #a1cgg #ihh ,,trials ,,of ,a #j4e ,,horse ,,power ,,riedinger ,,rotary ,,engine4 ,number of trials4 ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,initial pressure of air4 lb4 per sq4 in4 #ed #fi4g #he #ga4h temperature of air4 deg4 ,cent4 #agj #ahj #aih #h ,final #be #bj 444 #be ,revolutions per minute4 #cce #cej #caj #bdc ,foot pounds per second measured on brake4 #bga #dgg #cgf #caf ,consumption of air per horse power and per hour4 #hhc #gia #ijj #a1adh ,,trial ,,of ,,an #hj ,,horse ,,power 7,,nominal7 ,,farcot ,,steam ,,engine4 ,r p e e ,i ,consumption of v r n ,temperature air per horse o d h p of air4 power and per l m i o o hour4 u i c r w t n a s e ,motor4 i u t e r,admission,exhaust4,nominal ,brake o t e 4 horse horse n e d power4 power4 s4 deg4 ,c deg4 ,c ,nominal #hj horse #ed4c #gb4c #abi #ba #dfi #eag power single #ed4c #gb4c #aeb #bi #dcg #dge cylinder ,farcot #ed4j #gb4c #afj #ce #dbd #dfe engine4 #dj #fe4j #agj #di #dch #dgg ,these motors1 it may be assumed1 represent the best practice that has been obtained up to the present time in the construction of compressed air motors2 with the smallest of them1 indicating about one-tenth of a horse power1 the consumption of air1 when admitted cold1 was #acgg cubic feet and #ihh cubic feet when the air was heated before admission4 ,the half horse power engine consumed #aadh cubic feet of cold air1 and of heated air #gia cubic feet per horse power and per hour4 ,it should be mentioned that these1 the most valuable and suggestive of all the trials carried out by ,professor ,riedler1 were conducted with the greatest care1 two distinct modes of measuring the air supplied being followed on two occasions for each test2 it may therefore be considered that the results given are absolutely correct4 ,the trials were made with an old single cylinder ,farcot engine1 nominally of #hj horse power1 but indicating over #gb4c4 ,with this engine the consumption of air varied from #dfe to #eag cubic feet1 the larger consumption being due to the lower temperature 7#abi deg4 ,cent47 to which the air was raised before admission2 in the most economical result the temperature was #afj deg4 ,cent4 ,the volumes of air referred to are1 of course1 in all cases taken at atmospheric pressure4 ,among the important losses that have to be reckoned with in every system of distributing motive power from a central station--whether by steam or by electricity1 water1 or compressed air--losses must occur in the mains by which the power generated is transferred from the point of production to that of consumption4 ,in the case we are now considering very careful tests were conducted in #ahhi by ,professor ,kennedy1 to whose report we have already referred4 ,since that time important changes have been made by the ,compressed ,air ,company1 at ,paris1 in the details of distribution1 and on this account the later investigations of ,professor ,riedler on the losses due to this cause are of special interest4 ,before its admission into the mains a certain loss occurs at the ,st4 ,fargeau station1 in the large reservoirs to which the air is delivered from the compressors4 ,this question of preliminary storage was one that received considerable attention when the designs of the new station on the ,quai de la ,gare were being considered4 ,it was intended to construct very large receivers in the basement of the station1 and the foundations for these were even commenced4 ,it was decided1 however1 that for the #aj1jjj horse power which is to form the first section of the new station1 and for which the complete system of mains has already been laid down1 storage reservoirs would be unnecessary1 and a saving both in first cost and subsequent loss of air would be effected4 ,the length of mains of #ai4fi in4 diameter is so considerable that they will contain at all times a sufficient reserve of air to prevent any irregularities in pressure at the motors4 ,with reference to these mains it may be mentioned that1 unlike the #aa4ha in4 conductors of the ,st4 ,fargeau system1 of which #ag kilometers are laid in the ,paris subways1 the new mains are entirely laid in the streets1 it having been found impossible to make room for these large pipes in the subways already crowded with telegraph and telephone wires1 water mains1 etc4 ,professor ,riedler investigated the two causes of loss in the mains--leakage and resistance4 ,it was superficially evident that the mains of the old system were so well laid1 and the joints so well designed1 that the loss from leakage was never a serious one4 ,in order1 however1 to ascertain the amount accurately1 a series of careful experiments were carried out by ,professor ,gutermuth with the #aa4ha in4 mains of the ,st4 ,fargeau system4 ,,experiments ,,on ,,leakage ,,in ,,mains4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,l ,p ,a ,air ,pressure ,loss of o e i in ,mains4 ,pressure4 s r r ---------------------------- s ,b ,c ,d ,system of ,mains ,length4 e ,t o e e ,n ,tried4 g r ,at f n l u ,a i o i ,end ,during ,per t i m t n f a of ,trials,hour4 ,a 4 v b n l,trials4 i e e i s r o r r n 4 f e g d ---------------------------------------- --------------------- yards4 atm4 atm4 #a,southern reseau to ,place de la ,concorde4 #i1ihj #f4e #f4j #j4e #a4e #c #b ,total reseau #ah1ejj #f4i #e4i #a4j #a4e #f4c #c,to ,place de la ,concorde #i1ihj #g4j #f4dc #j4eg #j4ge #b4af #d,total reseau #ah1ejj #f4g #e4bh #j4hh #a4cb #e4e #e,northern reseau to ,rue de ,belle- ville4 #a1ecj #f4j #e4j #a4j #j4f #b4c #f,to the ,rue des ,pyrenees4 #fjj #f4a #c4g #b4d #j4ef #b4b ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,these trials refer to the mains running from the ,st4 ,fargeau station to the ,place de la ,concorde1 a length of #i4adb kilometers2 to the whole system of mains1 #af4e kilometers2 to the northern mains running from ,st4 ,fargeau to the ,rue de ,belleville1 #a4d kilometers2 and from ,st4 ,fargeau to the ,rue des ,pyrenees1 #f4e kilometers4 ,it will be seen from the figures given in the table that the actual loss is small1 and it is stated that this is due chiefly to the elastic joint employed throughout the system1 excepting in the ,rue de ,belleville1 where rigid couplings are used1 and continual trouble is experienced from loss by leakage4 ,in all cases the losses given are the maximum1 which only occur under the most unfavorable conditions4 ,it was found1 during the first1 second1 and fourth tests1 that considerable leakage occurred between the ,st4 ,fargeau central station and the ,rue de ,belleville4 ,during the trials two and four1 an uncertain amount of loss occurred from the consumption of air required to work the pneumatic clocks1 and also motors in the circuit1 that could not be stopped4 ,the tests two and four include all losses in the service pipes1 as well as the mains4 ,the production of compressed air at the central station is assumed at #cj1jjj cubic feet per hour 7atmospheric pressure71 and in all cases the loss in the mains is taken as a percentage of the total production4 ,the losses due to resistance in the mains were also examined with great care1 over independent sections1 as well as through the complete rseau4 ,during the early part of these trials1 an unusual and excessive loss was recorded1 the cause of which could not be at first ascertained4 ,at intervals along these mains are placed a number of water reservoirs which receive the water injected into the mains2 in addition to these the direct flow of the air is interrupted by numerous siphons1 the stop valves to branches1 etc4 ,investigation showed that the presence of these reservoirs created considerable resistance on account of an increased and subsequently reduced section4 ,the exact loss from this cause was1 therefore1 carefully measured1 as well as the losses existing in the mains not so interrupted4 ,the results show that the loss by expansion at one reservoir1 when the speed of the air flow was #bc ft4 per second1 was equal to #j4ae atmosphere2 with a speed of #bi ft4 #f in4 per second1 it amounted to #j4b atmosphere4 ,therefore1 the presence of five such reservoirs would cause a loss in pressure equal to one atmosphere4 ,this very undesirable arrangement is not repeated in the new system1 the sumphs being connected in such a way as not to modify the section of the tube1 nor consequently the pressure of the air4 ,the presence of the siphons and stop valves did not seem to affect the pressure to any measurable extent4 ,the following table contains a list of the more important mains tested1 and it may be mentioned that the resistance1 due to the reservoirs1 was at first partially included4 ,the trials were carried out while the mains were not being drawn upon by subscribers4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,section of ,mains ,tested4 ,length4 ,no4 of ,tests4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- yards4 ,from the central station to the end of reseau and back to central station by return circuit #ah1ajj #g ,from the central station to the ,rue ,fontaine au #ad1fjj _/ #c ,roi _/ #i1ijj #d ,from the central station to the ,rue de la ,charonne #i1dij #e ,from the ,rue de la ,charonne to ,fontaine au ,roi #d1ggj #c ,from the central station to the ,avenue de la ,republique #a1hfj #h ,various trials on different lengths of mains #ggj to #h1jjj #aa ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,over the whole system of #af4e kilometers1 which was also tested when no air was being taken off1 there were four reservoirs of considerable size1 and which offered a large resistance with a corresponding loss of pressure2 on the line there were also #bc siphons and #db stop valves4 ,these trials were repeated several times to secure accuracy1 and the speed of the air was brought to #di ft4 a second4 ,the results obtained in one of these trials may be taken as an example4 ,the main between the ,rue ,st4 ,fargeau and the ,fontaine au ,roi1 on which there are no collecting reservoirs1 but three siphons and eight stop valves1 gave1 with an average speed of #ba ft4 #c in41 a loss in pressure of #j4je atmosphere for each kilometer of main4 ,from these experiments it would appear that1 assuming a speed of #ba ft4 per second1 a loss in pressure of one atmosphere would correspond to a distance of #bj kilometers2 that is to say1 a central station could extend its mains on all sides with a radius of #bj kilometers1 and the motors at the ends of the lines would receive the air at a pressure #ae lb4 less than at the central station4 ,professor ,riedler states that as an actually measured result1 the velocity of the air through the mains of the ,st4 ,fargeau system is #ai ft4 #h in4 per second1 and that the loss in pressure per kilometer is #j4jg atmosphere4 ,from this it follows that including the resistances due to the four reservoirs1 and other obstructions actually existing1 an allowance of one atmosphere loss on a #ad kilometer radius is ample4 ,by increasing the initial pressure of the air1 much better results can be obtained1 and future attention in practice should be devoted to this point4 ,the amount of work required to compress air does not increase in the same ratio as the pressure1 and for this reason considerable economy can be effected at the first stage1 and the loss in the mains will be reduced4 ,passing to another point of the same subject1 ,professor ,riedler considers the best dimensions that should be given to the mains4 ,resistance decreases with an increase in the diameter of these and in direct ratio to their diameter2 for this reason--still assuming a pressure corresponding to a velocity of #bj ft4 per second--with a fall of one atmosphere1 a length of #dj kilometers could be succesfully worked4 ,the mains of the new rseau for the ,quai de la ,gare station are #ai4fi in4 in diameter2 they are built up of steel plates riveted1 and this ,professor ,riedler considers to have been a serious error on account of the extra resistance offered by the large number of rivet heads4 ,the following may be taken as a brief summary of ,professor ,riedler's conclusions3 ,recent improvements in central station practice have resulted in an increased efficiency of about #cj per cent4 in the compressors1 but this benefit can only be realized when the new station is in operation4 ,that the small and very imperfect air engines in use on the system give an efficiency of #ej per cent41 while with ordinary steam engines driven by air an efficiency of #hj per cent4 can be reached with a very small expenditure of fuel for heating the air before admitting it into the motor4 ,that special attention should be given to the improvement of air engines1 and that with increased initial pressures at the central station the distance of the transmission can be very considerably augmented4 ,finally1 ,professor ,riedler claims that power can be transmitted by compressed air more conveniently and more economically than by any other means4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #hjb1 page #abhaj4 ,,the ,,builders ,,of ,,the ,,steam ,,engine--,,the ,,founders ,,of ,,modern ,,industries ,,and ,,nations4#a ,footnote #a3 ,an address delivered at the ,centennial ,celebration of the ,american ,patent ,system1 ,washington1 ,april1 #ahia4 ,by ,dr4 ,r4,h4 ,,thurston1 ,director of ,sibley ,college1 ,cornell ,university4 ,papin1 ,worcester1 ,savery1 were the authors of the period of application of the power of steam to useful work in our later days4 ,the world was1 in their time1 just waking into a new life under the stimulus of a new freedom that1 from the time of ,shakespeare1 of ,newton1 and of ,gilbert1 the physicist1 has steadily become wider1 higher1 and more fruitful year by year4 ,all the modern sciences and all the modern arts had their reawakening with the seventeenth century4 ,every aspect of freedom for humanity came into view in those days of a new birth4 ,both the possibility of the introduction of new sciences and of new arts and the power of utilizing all new intellectual and physical forces came together4 ,the steam engine could not earlier have taken form1 and1 taking form1 it could not have promoted the advance of civilization in the earlier centuries4 ,the invention becoming possible of development and application1 the promotion of the arts and of all forms of human activity became a possible consequence of its final successful introduction into the rude arts that it was to so effectively promote and improve4 ,but the work of these inventors was in itself but little more important than that of the ,greek inventor of the steam lopile1 for each brought forward a machine which was1 from a business point of view1 utterly impracticable1 and which1 in each case1 only served to show that a better device might prove useful and lead the way to its introduction4 ,the merit of the inventors of the eighteenth century was that they were able to lead the way1 to point out the path to success1 to furnish evidence of the value of the coming1 crowning invention4 ,the fire engines1 as they were then called1 of these now famous men were merely contrivances by the use of which the pressure of confined steam of high tension could be brought to act on the surface of a mass of confined water1 forcing it downward into pipes through which it was led off and upward to a higher level2 and thus a mine could be drained1 ineffectively and expensively to be sure1 but vastly more satisfactorily than by the animal power of the time4 ,the machine of ,savery was the best of all2 but that was only a somewhat improved and manageable rearrangement of the engines of ,papin and ,worcester4 ,and1 after all1 ,papin1 the greatest man of science perhaps of his time1 died in poverty2 ,worcester languished in prison his whole life1 and the later efforts of his widow brought nothing by way of a return for his invention2 nor did either they or their successor1 ,morland1 make the introduction of the engine either general or remunerative4 ,savery1 coming on the stage at more nearly the right time to seize upon an opportunity1 gained more than either of his predecessors2 but we have no evidence that he ever acquired any large compensation or met with any remarkable business success in the introduction of the rude engine which bore his name2 nor did ,desaguliers1 the great philosopher1 or even ,smeaton1 the great engineer1 of the later years of that century1 make any great success of it4 ,it was reserved for ,watt to reap the harvest4 ,but1 though he so effectively reaped where his predecessors had sown1 ,watt is not the greatest of the inventors of the steam engine1 if we rate his standing by the magnitude of the improvement which marked his reconstruction of the engine4 ,it was ,,newcomen who made the modern steam engine4 ,when ,newcomen came forward the labors of ,worcester in ,great ,britain had sufficed to attract the attention of all intelligent men to the character of the problem to be solved1 and to convince them of its importance and promise4 ,the work of ,savery had shown the practicability of the solution of the problem1 both in mechanics and finance4 ,he succeeded1 though under great disadvantages and comparatively inefficiently4 ,once the task had been performed1 though ever so rudely1 the rest came easily and promptly4 ,the defects of the ,savery system were at once recognized2 its great wastes of heat and of steam were noted1 and the fact that they were inherent in the system itself was perceived4 ,a complete change of type of machine was obviously requisite2 it was this which constituted the greatest invention in the whole history of the steam engine1 from ,hero's time to our own2 and to ,newcomen we owe more than to any other man who ever lived1 the value of the invention itself being considered1 and the importance of the services of its introducer being left out of consideration4 ,no such complete and vital improvement and modification of the machine has ever been effected by any other man1 ,watt and ,corliss not excepted4 ,newcomen and his comrade ,calley--we do not know how the honors should be divided--produced the modern steam engine4 ,its predecessor1 the ,savery engine1 had been a mere steam squirt4 ,newcomen constructed an engine4 ,savery built a simple combination of cylindrical or ellipsoidal vessels which wastefully and at once performed all the several offices of engine1 pump1 condenser1 and boiler2 ,newcomen divided the several elements among as many parts1 each especially adapted to the performance of its task in the most effective manner--the condenser excepted2 for that was ,watt's principal invention--and thus produced the first steam engine in the modern sense of that term4 ,it was ,newcomen1 not ,watt1 who gave us the train of mechanism that we now call the steam engine4 ,it is to ,newcomen1 rather than ,watt1 that we owe the highest honors as an inventor in this series of the most important of all the products of the inventive genius of mankind4 ,newcomen brought into existence a new1 the modern1 type of engine1 and effected the greatest revolution that has been recorded in the history of the arts4 ,without ,newcomen1 there might have been no ,watt2 without ,watt1 there very possibly may not even yet have been brought into existence that giant of our time1 whose mighty powers are employed more effectively than ever those of ,aladdin's genii1 in building palaces1 in transporting men and material1 in doing the work of the whole world2 promoting the welfare of the race1 in a single century1 more than had all the forces of matter and mind together in the whole previous history of the world4 ,newcomen laid down a foundation beneath our whole economic system1 out of sight1 almost1 but the essential base1 nevertheless1 on which ,watt and his successors have carried up the great superstructure which seems to us to-day so imposing2 which is so tremendous in magnitude1 importance1 and result4 ,if to any one man could be assigned the credit1 it is ,newcomen who is to be considered the inventor of the steam engine4 ,james ,watt1 indisputably the great inventor that he was1 found the steam engine ready to his hand1 applied himself to its improvement1 and made it substantially what it is to-day4 ,his most important work1 the most unique service performed by him1 was1 however1 that of its adaptation and introduction to do the work of the world4 ,james ,watt was the inaugurator of the era of refinement of the machine already invented1 and the greatest of its builders and distributors4 ,his inventions were all directed to the improvement of its details1 and his labors to its introduction and its application to the myriad tasks awaiting it4 ,by the hands of ,watt it was made to pump water1 to spin1 to weave1 to drive every mill2 and he it was who gave it the form demanded by ,stephenson1 by ,fulton1 by the whole industrial world1 for use on railway and steamboat1 and in mill and factory1 throughout the civilized countries of the globe4 ,it was this great mechanic who showed how it might be made to do its work with least expense1 with highest efficiency1 with greatest regularity1 with utmost concentration of power4 ,the grand secret of his success was historical and economic1 as much as scientific and mechanical4 ,he brought out his inventions just when the world was economically and historically ready for them4 ,the age of authority was past1 that of freedom was come2 the period of political and ecclesiastical tyranny was gone by1 and that of the spontaneous development of man was arrived4 ,the great invention was offered to a world ready and needing it1 and1 more than all1 competent1 for the first time in history1 to make and use it4 ,james ,watt was himself a product of the modern scientific spirit4 ,he was a man so constituted mentally that he could apply scientific methods to problems which his logical and clairvoyant mind could readily and exactly formulate the instant he was led to their consideration in the natural course of his progress4 ,he was the ideal great inventor and mechanic4 ,with inventive genius he combined strong common sense--not always a quality distinguishing the inventor--clear perception1 breadth of view1 and scientific method and spirit in the treatment of every question4 ,his natural talent was re-enforced by an experience and an environment which led him to develop these ways and this mental habit4 ,his trade was that of an instrument maker1 his position was that of custodian and repairer of the apparatus of ,glasgow ,university4 ,he had for his daily companions and stimulus the great men and ozonized atmosphere of that famous institution4 ,he kept pace with advancing science1 and was imbued1 both naturally and through contact with its promoters1 with that ambition and those aspirations which are the life element of all progress1 whether scientific or other4 ,he was aware of the nature of the problems seeking solution at the time1 and familiar with the state of his own art and that of the great mechanicians about him4 ,everything was favorable to his progress1 so soon as he should be given an opportunity to take a step in advance and to come into sight at the front4 ,the man and the time were both ready1 and all conditions1 internal and external1 social and personal1 were favorable to his development4 ,the invention upon which ,watt was to improve was at his hand4 ,a word in regard to its status at the moment will throw some light upon that of ,watt and his creation4 ,newcomen had1 as we have seen1 produced the modern type of steam engine as an original and wholly novel invention4 ,but this machine1 marvelous as an advance upon pre-existing forms of the steam engine1 was still1 as seen in the light of recent knowledge and experience1 exceedingly defective4 ,the purpose of a steam engine is to convert into usefully applicable power the hidden energy of fuel1 stored ages ago in the earth1 by transformation1 through the action of vegetation1 from the original form1 the heat of the sun1 into an available form for reconversion1 through thermodynamic operations4 ,in this process of reconversion1 whatever the nature of the machine used in the operation1 there are invariably wastes1 both of heat required for conversion into power and of the power thus produced4 ,that machine which effects the most complete transmutation of the heat supplied it into mechanical power1 which wastes the least amount of heat supplied and of power produced1 is the best engine1 and constitutes an advance over every other4 ,it was this reduction of wastes that made the ,newcomen engine so much superior to that of ,savery4 ,the latter was by far the simpler and less costly construction2 but its enormous losses1 both of heat and of power1 mainly the former1 however1 made it an extravagant expenditure of money to buy and use it4 ,the ,newcomen engine1 costly and cumbrous1 comparatively1 nevertheless wasted so much less heat and steam and fuel that no one could afford to buy the cheaper machine4 ,before considering what ,watt accomplished1 we may find it profitable to examine into the nature of the wastes which characterized this later and better machine on which he effected his improvements4 ,the ,newcomen engine consisted of a steam boiler1 a steam cylinder1 a beam and a set of pumps4 ,by making the boiler do its work separately1 the engine acting independently1 and the pumps as a detached portion of the mechanism1 this inventor had reduced to an enormous extent those wastes of heat and of steam and of fuel which were unavoidable in the older machines in which all these parts were represented by a single vessel1 or by two at most1 in each element4 ,in the ,savery engine1 the steam entering first heated up the interior of the working vessel to its own temperature1 and held it at that temperature in spite of the cooling influence of the water present4 ,this consumed large quantities of heat4 ,it then was compelled to surrender probably much greater quantities still to the water itself1 coming in direct contact as it did with its surface4 ,if the water was agitated1 either by the currents produced during its ingress or by the impact of the steam entering the vessel1 this heating action penetrated to considerable depths and perhaps even warmed the whole mass very far above its initial temperature4 ,this constituted another and a very serious loss4 ,then1 again1 as the water was gradually driven out of the containing vessel by the steam pressing on its surface1 new portions of the vessel and new masses of water were continually brought in contact with the hot steam1 taking its full temperature1 and thus1 often1 probably1 finally heating the whole mass of the forcing vessel1 and a large proportion of the water as well1 up to the temperature1 approximately at least1 of the steam itself4 ,thus in many instances1 if not always1 vastly more heat and steam were wasted1 in this undesirable heating of water and forcing vessel1 than were usefully employed in the legitimate work of raising the water to a higher level4 ,in fact1 in some cases in which these quantities were measured1 the wastes were one hundred times as much as the work done4 ,one per cent4 of the heat supplied did the work2 while ninety-nine per cent4 was thrown away4 ,one dollar or one shilling expended for fuel to do the work was accompanied by an expenditure of ninety-nine dollars or shillings thrown away1 because of the imperfections of the system and machine4 ,the whole history of the development of the steam engine has been one of gradual reduction of these wastes2 until to-day1 our best engines only compel us to spend five dollars for wastes to each dollar paid out for useful work4 ,a business man would think that amply extravagant1 however1 and the man of science is continually seeking methods of evading these losses1 a large proportion of which are now apparently unavoidable in heat engines1 by finding some new system of heat and energy transformation4 ,watt was the instrument maker and repairer at ,glasgow ,university in the year #agfc4 ,his companions were1 among others1 the professors of natural philosophy and of mathematics in the university4 ,their conversation and their frequent presentation of practical and scientific questions and problems stimulated his naturally inquiring and inventive mind to the pursuit of a thousand interesting and promising schemes for the improvement of existing methods and machinery4 ,dr4 ,robison1 then a student1 suggested the invention of a steam carriage for use on common roads1 and the young mechanician at once began experiments that1 resulting in nothing at the time1 were nevertheless continued1 in one or another form1 until all modern applications of steam came into view4 ,dr4 ,black taught ,watt chemistry1 then a newly constructed science1 and led him on to the discovery1 finally made by them independently1 of the fact and the magnitude of the latent heat of steam2 the discovery coming of a series of scientifically planned and accurately conducted investigations1 such as the man of science of to-day would deem creditable4 ,the treatises of ,desaguliers and others on physics gave ,watt a knowledge of that domain of natural phenomena which stood him in good stead later1 when he attempted to apply its principles to the reduction of the wastes of the steam engine4 ,it was while at ,glasgow ,university1 working under such influences and in such an atmosphere of intellectual activity1 that the accident of the ,newcomen model engine needing repair brought to the mind of ,watt the opportunity which1 availed of at once1 made him famous and gave the world its greatest aid1 its most powerful servant4 ,the observing mind of the great mechanic immediately noted its defects1 sought their causes1 found their remedy4 ,he discovered1 at once1 that the quantity of steam entering the cylinder of the little engine has four times the volume of the cylinder receiving it3 in other words1 three-fourths of that steam must be condensed immediately on entrance4 ,this meant1 evidently1 that only one-fourth of the steam supplied was utilized1 and even then inefficiently1 in doing its work4 ,the reason of this was as easily seen1 immediately the fact was revealed4 ,as ,watt himself expressed it1 the causes of this loss1 causes which would obviously be exaggerated in a small engine1 were3 ,first1 the dissipation of heat by the cylinder itself1 which was of brass and both a good conductor and a good radiator4 ,secondly1 the loss of heat consequent upon the necessity of cooling down the cylinder at every stroke in producing the vacuum4 ,thirdly1 the loss of power due to the pressure of vapor beneath the piston1 which was a consequence of the imperfect method of condensation4 ,this much determined1 the next step looked toward the confirmation of his conclusions and the remedy of the defects4 ,to meet the first difficulty he made a cylinder of wood1 soaked in oil and baked1 a non-conducting and non-radiating material4 ,then he was able to determine with some accuracy the quantities of steam and injection water used in the engine2 and a comparison with the original cylinder and its operation showed that not only four times the quantity of steam1 but also four times the amount of injection water was used as was necessary1 assuming wastes checked4 ,further scientific research on the part of ,watt gave him measures of specific heats of the metals and of wood1 the specific volumes of steam at various working pressures1 the evaporative efficiency of boilers1 the pressures and temperatures of steam in the boiler under specified conditions1 the quantities of steam and of water required for the operation of his little condensing engine4 ,then came his enunciation of the grand principle of economy in the construction and operation of the steam engine3 ,keep the cylinder as hot as the steam which enters it1 as he expressed it4 ,this was ,watt's guiding principle1 as it has been that of all his successors in the improvement of the economic performance of the steam engine and of all other heat engines4 ,the great source of waste is the dispersion of heat1 uselessly1 which should be applied to the production of work by its transformation1 thermodynamically1 into the latter form of energy4 ,the second form of waste is that of power thus produced in the unprofitable work of moving the parts of the engine itself2 and the third is that of heat by transfer1 without transformation1 by conduction and radiation to surrounding bodies4 ,in modern engines1 the latter is but three or five per cent41 in the best cases2 the second waste constitutes perhaps ten per cent42 while the first of these losses amounts very usually to seventy per cent41 of which last one-third or one-fourth is of the kind discovered by ,watt1 the rest being the thermodynamic waste incident to all known methods of operation of heat engines1 and apparently unavoidable4 ,in our very best and largest engines1 the waste found by ,watt to constitute three fourths of all heat supplied has been brought down to ten per cent41 a fact which well exemplifies the advances made since his time of apprenticeship by himself and his successors of this nineteenth century4 ,the steam engine of to-day1 in its most successful operation1 gives us twenty-five times as much power from a pound of coal as did the engine that the great inventor sought to improve3 this is the magnificent fruit of that one discovery of ,james ,watt1 and of application of the simple principle which he so concisely and clearly stated4 ,the method adopted by ,watt to secure a remedy1 so far as practicable1 of this defect of the older machine was as simple and as perfect as was the principle which it embodied4 ,he first removed from the cylinder the prime source of its wastes2 providing a separate condenser1 and thus avoiding the repeated chilling of its surfaces by the cold water used in condensing the steam at exhaust1 and also permitting its strokes to be made with far greater frequency1 thus giving less time for cooling by the influence of the remaining vapors after condensation4 ,he next went still further1 and provided the cylinder with a closed top1 keeping out the air1 and a jacket of hot boiler steam to keep it as hot as the steam which entered it4 ,these were the two great improvements which converted the first real steam engine into an economical form of heat engine and essentially finished the work so grandly begun by ,newcomen and ,calley4 ,these changes gave us the modern steam engine2 and these are ,watt's first and greatest1 but by no means only1 contributions to the production of the modern world with all its comforts1 its luxuries and its opportunities for material1 intellectual and moral advancement of individual and of race4 ,his work was to this extent complete in #agfe4 ,but ,watt did not stop here4 ,there still remained for him the no less important and the1 in some senses1 still more imposing1 work of finding employment for the new servant of mankind and of setting it at its work of giving the human arm a thousand times greater strength1 to the mind of man uncounted opportunities to promote the advancement of knowledge1 of civilization1 of every good of the race4 ,his was still the task of adapting the new machine to all the purposes of modern industry4 ,it had been hitherto confined to the task of raising water from the depths of the mine2 it was now to be harnessed to the railway train2 to be made to drive the machinery of the mill1 to apply its marvelous power to the impulsion of the river boat and ocean steamer2 to furnish energy1 through endless systems of transfer and use1 to every kind of work that man could devise and should invent4 ,all this meant the giving of the machine forms as various as the purposes to which it was to be devoted4 ,it had previously only raised and depressed a rod2 it must now turn a shaft4 ,it had then only operated a pump2 it must now turn a mill1 grind our grain1 spin our threads1 weave our cloths1 drive our shops and factories1 supply the powerful blast of the iron furnace4 ,it must be made to move with the utmost conceivable regularity1 and must1 with all this1 do its work in the development of the hidden energy of the fuel1 with the greatest possible economy1 through the expansion of its steam4 ,all this was achieved by ,james ,watt4 ,the invention of the double-acting engine1 in which the impulsion of the steam is felt both in driving the piston forward and in forcing it backward1 both upward and downward1 the application of its force through crank and fly wheel1 the creation of an automatic system of governing its speed1 and the discovery of the economy due to its complete expansion1 were all improvements of the first magnitude1 and of the greatest practical importance2 and all these were in rapid succession brought into existence by the creative mind that had apparently been brought into the world for the express purpose of giving to the hand of man this mighty agent1 to perfect the mightiest power that mind of man has yet conceived4 ,but to do the rest required more than inventive genius and mechanical skill4 ,it demanded capital and the stored energy of labor and genius in other fields1 directed by the mind of a great captain of industry4 ,this came to ,watt through ,matthew ,boulton1 a manufacturer of ,birmingham1 whose father and ancestors had gradually and toilsomely1 as always1 accumulated the property needed for the prosecution of a great business4 ,the combination of genius and capital is always an essential to success in such cases2 and good fortune1 a ,providence1 we may well say1 brought together the genius and the capitalist to do their work1 hand in hand1 of providing the world with the steam engine4 ,hand in hand they worked1 and all the world to-day1 and the race throughout its future life1 must testify gratitude for the inexpressible obligations under which these two men have placed them1 doing the work of the world4 ,boulton ,watt1 the capitalist with the inventor1 gave the world the steam engine1 finally1 in such form and in such numbers that its permanent establishment as the servant of man was insured4 ,the capitalist was as essential an element of success as was the inventor1 and1 in this instance1 as in a thousand others1 the race is indebted to that much-abused friend of the race1 the capitalist1 for much that it enjoys of all that it desires4 ,the industry and patience1 the skill and the wisdom required for the accumulation of this energy stored for future use in great enterprises is as important1 as essential1 as inventive power or any other form of genius4 ,talent and genius must always aid each other4 ,this firm was established in #agfd and its main resources1 aside from the bank account1 were ,watt's patent1 about expiring1 and ,watt's genius1 and ,boulton's talent as a man of business4 ,the patent was extended for twenty-four years1 the new inventions of ,watt1 now beginning to pour from his prolific brain in a wonderful stream1 were also patented1 and the whole works were soon employed upon the construction of engines for which numerous orders soon began to pour in upon the now prosperous builders4 ,the patent law established ,boulton and ,watt and the firm paid back the nation with handsome usury1 giving it unimaginable profits indirectly through its control of the work of the world and large profits directly through the business brought them from all parts of the then civilized globe4 ,there has never1 in the history of the world1 been a more impressive illustration of the value to a nation of that generous public policy1 that simply just legislation1 which gives to the man of brain control of the products of his mind4 ,for a hundred years1 ,great ,britain has1 largely through her encouragement of the inventor and her protection of his mental property by securing the fruits of his labors1 in fair portion1 to him1 gained the power of dictating to the world and has gained an advance that cannot be measured4 ,watt and ,arkwright and ,stephenson and ,crompton and their ilk1 protected by their government and its patent laws1 made their country the peaceful conqueror of the world4 ,the story of the work of the inventor is a poem of mighty meaning and of wonderful deeds4 ,the inventor proved himself a mightier magician than ever the world had seen4 ,a creature he called to wait on his will1 ,half iron1 half vapor--a dread to behold2 ,which evermore panted1 and evermore rolled1 ,and uttered his words a millionfold4 ,such was the outcome of this grand modern trust1 a combination of the wisest legislation1 the most brilliant invention1 and the most wisely applied capital4 ,there are trusts of which the outcome is most beneficent4 ,since the days of ,watt1 the improvement of the steam engine and the work of inventors has been confined to matters of detail4 ,all the fundamental principles were developed by ,watt and his predecessors and contemporaries and it only was left to his successors to find the best ways of carrying them into effect4 ,but these matters of detail have been found to involve opportunities to make enormous strides in the direction of securing improved efficiency of the machine4 ,the further application of the principle which led ,watt to his greatest inventions2 of the principle1 keep the cylinder as hot as the steam which enters it1 of that which he enunciated relative to the advantage of expanding steam1 and of that affecting the regulation of the machine2 have reduced the costs of steam and of fuel to a small fraction of their earlier magnitude4 ,one ton of engine to-day does the work of eight or ten in the time of ,watt3 one pound of fuel or of steam gives to-day ten times the power then obtained from it4 ,a steamship now crosses the ,atlantic in one-eighth the time required by the famous liner of the ,black ,ball ,line4 ,the wastes of the engine have been brought down from above eighty per cent4 to eight2 and a half-ounce of fuel on board ship will now transport a ton of cargo over a mile of ocean4 ,,frederick ,e4 ,,sickels gave us the first practicable form of expansion gear in #ahda2 ,,george ,h4 ,,corliss gave a new type of engine of marvelous perfection and economy in #ahdi2 ,noble ,t4 ,green1 ,wm4 ,wright and many less well known but no less meritorious inventors have since done their part in the transformation of the old engine of ,watt into the modern wonder of concentrated and economical power1 and marvel of accurate and beautiful design and workmanship4 ,the trip cut-off1 with reduced clearances1 increased boiler pressure1 higher rates of expansion1 accelerated speeds of engine1 better construction in all respects1 as well as improved design1 have enabled us to avail ourselves to the utmost of the principles of ,watt1 and our mills1 our railways1 our steamers and our fields1 even1 have gained almost as extraordinarily by these advances1 since the days of the great inventor1 as through his immediate labors4 ,with the introduction of the new form of older energy1 electricity1 with the reduction of the lightning into thraldom1 has now come a new impulse affecting all the industries4 ,through its mysterious1 its still unknown action1 steam now reaches out far from its own place1 driving the electric car along miles of rail2 giving light throughout all the country about it1 turning night into day1 and repressing crime while encouraging legitimate labor1 reaching into distant chambers and every little workshop1 to offer its powerful aid in all the distributed work of cities4 ,without the steam engine there would be little work available for electricity1 but the appearance of this1 the latest and most useful handmaid of steam1 has given the engine work to do in an uncounted number of new fields1 has called in the inventor once more to adapt steam to its new work4 ,the high-speed engine is the latest form of the universal helper4 ,and such has been the readiness and the intelligence of the contemporary inventor that we now have engines capable of turning their shafts three hundred rotations a minute and without a perceptible variation of velocity1 whatever the change of load or the suddenness with which it is varied4 ,in the days of ,watt a fluctuation of five per cent4 in speed was thought wonderfully small2 in those of ,corliss1 the variation was restricted to two per cent4 and we wondered at this unanticipated success4 ,to-day1 thanks to ,porter and ,allen1 to ,hartnell1 to ,hoadley1 to ,sims1 to ,thomson1 to ,sweet1 to ,ide1 and to ,ball1 we have seen the speed fluctuation restricted to even less than one per cent4 of its normal average4 ,the inventors of the steam engine are1 through their representatives of to-day1 according to the statisticians1 doing the equivalent of twelve times the work of a horse1 for every man1 woman and child on the globe4 ,we have not less1 probably1 than a half million of miles of railway1 transporting something over #aej1jjj1jjj1jjj of tons a mile a year4 ,a horse is reckoned to haul a ton weight about six and a half miles1 day by day1 by the year together4 ,in the ,united ,states1 it is reckoned that the steam engine1 on the railways alone1 hauls a thousand tons one mile1 for every inhabitant of the country1 every year1 or1 if it is preferred to so state it1 a ton a thousand miles4 ,this is the way in which the ,east and the ,west are1 by the inventors of the steam engine1 enabled to help each other4 ,this costs about #aj each individual2 it would require some #be millions of horses to do the work1 and would cost about #a1jjj a family1 which is more than twice the average family earnings4 ,dr4 ,strong1 in that remarkable book1 ,our ,country1 says3 ,one man1 by the aid of steam1 is able to do the work which required two hundred and fifty men at the beginning of the century4 ,the machinery of ,massachusetts alone represents the labor of more than #ajj1jjj1jjj men1 as if one-half of all the workmen of the globe had engaged in her service4 ,and again3 ,some thirty years ago1 the power of machinery in the mills of ,great ,britain was estimated to be equal to #fjj1jjj1jjj men1 or more than all the adults1 male and female1 of all mankind4 ,mr4 ,gladstone estimated that the aggregation of wealth on the globe during the whole period from the birth of ,christ to that of ,watt was equaled by the production in twenty years1 at the middle of this century1 with the aid of machinery driven by the fruit of the brain of the inventors of the steam engine4 ,we may probably now safely estimate the former quantity as rivaled in less than five years1 while1 since the birth of ,watt and his engine1 and the production of the spinning mule1 the power loom1 the cotton gin and our own patent system and its marvelous mechanism1 all events of a century ago1 we may estimate that they have1 together1 accomplished more in this period which we now celebrate than could have been done in a millenium of milleniums without these now subjected genii4 ,but the power behind all these curious inventions and their work is that of steam4 ,the steam engine even supplies power to the telegraph and transports words and thought as well as cotton bales and coal4 ,and now what has this combination of legislation for private protection and public good1 of a genius producing great inventions1 and of the accumulated capital of earlier years1 brought about8 ,it has given us the best fruits of science in permanent possession4 ,the study of science invariably aids1 in a thousand ways1 the progress of mankind4 ,it gives us new conceptions of nature and of the possibilities of art2 it promotes right ways of work and of study2 it teaches the inventor and the discoverer how most surely and promptly to gain their several ends1 it gives the world the results of all acquired knowledge in concrete form4 ,this one instance which we are now especially interested in contemplating has performed more wonderful miracles than ever ,aladdin's genii attempted4 ,one man1 with a steam engine at his hand1 turns the wheels of a great mill1 drives forty thousand spindles1 applies a thousand horse power to daily work in the spinning of threads1 the weaving of cloth1 the impulsion of a steamboat1 or the drawing of great masses of hot iron into finest wire4 ,this puny creature1 his mind in his finger tips1 exerts the power of ten thousand men1 working with muscle alone1 and1 aided by a handful of women1 boys and girls1 clothes a city4 ,a half dozen men in the engine room of an ocean steamer1 with a hundred strong laborers in the boiler room and on deck1 transports colonies and makes new nations1 brings separated peoples together1 unites countries on opposite sides of the globe1 brings about easy exchanges between pole and equator4 ,one man on the footboard of the locomotive1 one man shoveling into the furnaces the black powder that incloses the energy stored in early geological ages1 a half dozen men mounted on the long train of following vehicles1 combine to bring to the mill girl in ,massachusetts1 the miner in ,pennsylvania1 the sewing woman1 and the wealthy merchant1 her neighbor in ,new ,york1 the flour made in ,minnesota from the grain harvested a few weeks earlier in ,dakota4 ,all the world is served faithfully and efficiently by this unimaginable power1 this product of the brain of the inventor1 protected by the law1 stimulated and aided by the capital that it has itself almost alone produced4 ,and thus have the inventors of the steam engine set in motion and placed at the disposal of mankind for every form of useful work all the great forces of nature2 thus ,hero of ,alexandria touched the then concealed spring which called all the genii of earth1 fire1 water and air to do the bidding of the race4 ,thus ,papin1 ,worcester1 ,newcomen1 ,watt1 and ,corliss and others of our own contemporaries1 have applied the genii to their task of leveling mountains1 traversing seas1 continents1 and the depths of the earth1 building ships1 locomotives1 hamlets and cities1 cottages and palaces1 turning the spindle1 operating the loom1 and setting motion and giving energy to every machine1 doing the work of thousands of millions of men1 converting barbarism into civilization1 giving necessaries of life in profusion1 comforts in plenty1 and luxuries in superabundance4 ,aiding and working hand in hand with those other genii of progress1 the inventors of the printing press and of the telegraph1 the telephone1 and the electric railway1 of the modern system of textile manufactures1 of iron and steel making1 of the mowing machine and the harvester1 they have compressed into two centuries the progress of a millennium1 destitute of their aid4 ,every step taken under their stimulus1 and with their help1 is a step toward a higher life for all1 intellectually and morally as well as physically2 every advance in the improvement of their work is a gain to every man1 woman1 and child2 every improvement of the steam engine is a help to the whole world4 ,this progress makes the day of the extinction of the system now grinding the populations of the earth into the ground1 the day of the abolition of armies and the restoration to the people of that freedom which characterized the times of the patriarchs1 and of the restoration of the rights of the citizen to his own time and strength and producing power1 perceptibly nearer4 ,when this final revolution shall have been accomplished1 and when all the world has settled down to the steady and undisturbed work of production by daily and regular labor1 aided by the genii of steam1 of electricity1 of all nature1 combined for good1 the results of the intellectual activity of the inventors of the steam engine will be fully seen4 ,then no monument will be required to keep green the memory of ,watt1 ,corliss1 or any other of these great men1 but it will be said of them1 as of ,sir ,christopher ,wren in the epitaph in ,st4 ,paul's3 ,seek you a monument1 look about you6 ,every wreath of steam rising to the heavens from factory1 mill or workshop will be a reminder of ,hero of ,alexandria1 every mine will possess a memorial to ,papin1 ,worcester and ,savery2 every steamship will bring into grateful memory ,fitch and ,stevens1 and ,bell and ,fulton2 thousands of locomotives1 crossing the continents1 will perpetuate the thought of the ,stephensons and their colleagues in the introduction of the railway2 the hum of millions of spindles and the music of the electric wire will tell of the work of ,corliss and his contemporaries and successors who made these things possible1 and all kingdoms and races1 all nations1 will revere the name of ,james ,watt1 the genius to whom the world is most indebted for the beginnings of all this later and grander civilization which has converted the slow progress of earlier centuries into the meteor-like advance of to-day toward a future as grand and as mighty and as noble as humanity shall choose to make it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,hand ,,car4 ,illustration ,in the accompanying illustration we show a new design of hand car1 being introduced by the ,courtright ,manufacturing ,co41 of ,detroit4 ,it will be seen that the apparatus for propelling the car is very different from the mechanism generally used4 ,an upright framework secured to the platform carries a large sprocket wheel1 which is connected to a smaller one upon one of the axles by means of a chain4 ,the larger sprocket wheel is rotated by means of a triangular shaped lever attached at the lower corner to the crank of the sprocket wheel and having a handle at each of its upper corners4 ,it is hinged upon a fulcrum which slides upon the two vertical rods shown in the illustration4 ,it will be seen that this gives a peculiar movement to the handles by which the operators propel the car1 but it has been found that the motion is an excellent one1 and it is claimed that a higher speed can be obtained with the mechanism here shown than with any other now in use4 ,there is practically no dead center1 as in the case where the ordinary crank and lever is used4 ,a number of leading roads have given the car a trial1 and being well satisfied it1 have given orders for more4 ,the company claim that a car with #bj in4 wheels can easily be made to attain a speed of #ae miles an hour by two men4--,railway ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,conic ,,sections4 ,by ,prof4 ,c4,w4 ,,maccord1 ,sc4,d4 ,in ,fig4 #a let ,d be a given point1 and ,o the center of a given circle1 whose diameter is ,,fg4 ,bisect ,,df at ,a4 ,also about ,d describe an arc with any radius ,,dp greater than ,,da1 and about ,o another arc with a radius ,,op ,,dp ,,fo1 intersecting the first arc at ,p1 then draw ,,pd1 and also ,,po1 cutting the circumference of the given circle in ,l4 ,since ,,pd ,,pl1 and ,,da ,,af1 it is evident that by repeating this process we shall construct a curve ,,par1 which satisfies the condition that every point in it is equally distant from a given point and from the circumference of a given circle4 ,since ,,po-,,pd ,,lo1 and ,,ao-,,ad ,,fo1 this curve is one branch of the hyperbola of which ,d and ,o are the foci4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,bisect ,,dg at ,b1 then about ,d describe an arc with any radius ,,dq greater than ,,db1 and about ,o another are with radius ,,oq ,,dq-,,fo2 draw from ,q the intersections of these arcs1 the line ,,qd1 and also ,,qo1 producing the latter to cut the circumference in ,e4 ,by this process we may construct the curve ,,qbz1 each point of which is also equally distant from the given point ,d1 and from the concave instead of the convex arc of the given circumference4 ,the difference between ,,qd and ,,qo being constant and equal to ,,fo1 and ,,ab being also equal to ,,fo1 this curve is the other branch of the same hyperbola1 whose major axis is equal to the radius of the given circle4 ,the tangent at ,p bisects the angle ,,dpl1 and is perpendicular to ,,dl1 which it bisects at a point ,i on the circumference of the circle whose diameter is ,,ab1 the major axis1 the center being ,c1 the middle point of ,d ,o4 ,as ,p recedes from ,a1 it is evident that the angles ,p ,d ,l1 ,p ,l ,d1 will increase1 until ,d ,l assumes the position ,d ,t tangent to the given circle1 when they will become right angles4 ,p will therefore be infinitely remote1 and the point ,i having then reached t1 where ,d ,t touches the smaller circle1 ,c t ,s will be an asymptote to the curve4 ,this shows that the measurements from the convex arc1 for the construction of ,a ,p1 are made only from the portion ,f ,t of the given circumference4 ,in the diagram the point ,q is so chosen that ,d ,l produced passes through ,e1 so that ,q ,j1 the tangent at ,q1 is parallel to ,p ,i4 ,it will thus be seen that the measurements from the concave arc1 for the construction of ,b ,q1 are confined to the portion ,g ,t of the given circumference4 ,as ,d ,l ,e rises1 the points ,p and ,q recede from ,a and ,b1 the points ,l and ,e approach each other1 finally coinciding at ,t2 at this instant ,i and ,j fall together at t1 so that ,s ,s is the common asymptote to ,a ,p and ,b ,q4 ,in ,fig4 #b the given point ,d lies within the circumference of the given circle4 ,bisect ,d ,f at ,a1 and ,d ,g at ,b2 about ,d describe an arc with any radius ,d ,p greater than ,d ,a1 and about ,o another1 with radius ,o ,p ,o ,f--,d ,p1 these arcs intersect in ,p1 and producing ,o ,p to cut the circumference in ,l1 we have ,p ,d ,p ,l4 ,similarly ,e ,d ,e ,h1 ,u ,d ,u ,w1 etc4 ,and since ,p ,d ,p ,o ,l ,p ,p ,o1 ,d ,e ,e ,o ,h ,e ,e ,o1 and so on1 the curve is obviously the ellipse of which the foci are ,d and ,o1 and the major axis is ,a ,b ,f ,o1 the radius of the given circle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #b4 ,if1 as in ,fig4 #c1 the given point be made to coincide with the center of the circle1 the ellipse becomes a circle with diameter ,a ,b ,f ,o4 ,but if the point be placed upon the circumference1 as in ,fig4 #d1 the ellipse will reduce to the right line ,a ,b coinciding with ,f ,o4 ,illustration3 ,,figs #c1 #d1 #e1 #f4 ,in this case we may also apply the same process as in ,fig4 #a2 ,d ,t becomes a tangent at ,d to the circumference1 and the asymptotes coincide with the axis of the hyperbola1 of which one branch reduces to the right line ,a ,p extending from ,a to infinity on the left1 and the other reduces to the right line ,b ,g ,q1 extending from ,b to infinity on the right4 ,if the circle be reduced to a point1 as in ,fig4 #e1 the resulting locus is a right line perpendicular to and bisecting ,d ,o4 ,if on the other hand the diameter of the given circle be infinite1 the circumference1 as in ,fig4 #f1 becomes a right line perpendicular to the axis at ,f1 and the curve satisfies the familiar definition of the parabola1 ,d ,e being equal to ,e ,h1 ,d ,p equal to ,p ,l1 and so on4 ,in ,fig4 #g1 as in ,fig4 #a1 ,,dt is tangent at ,t to the given circle whose center is ,o1 and at t to the circle about ,c whose diameter is ,,ab1 the major axis4 ,since ,,dto is a right angle1 ,t lies upon the circumference of the circle whose center is ,c1 and diameter ,,do2 this circle cuts the asymptote ,,scs at ,m and ,n4 ,the semi-conjugate axis is a mean proportional between ,d ,a and ,,ao2 now drawing ,,tm and ,,tn1 it is seen that ,tt is that mean proportional2 and a circle described about ,c with that radius will be tangent to ,,to4 ,,dt1 then1 is the radius of the circle to be described about the focus of the conjugate hyperbola for its construction according to the enunciation first given3 and we observe that ,,dt and ,,to are supplementary chords in the circle about ,c through ,d and ,o4 ,the conjugate foci must therefore lie upon this circumference1 at ,d' and ,o'2 and since ,d',o' is perpendicular to ,,do1 ,d',t will be perpendicular and ,t',o' will be parallel to ,,scs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #g4 ,now as ,,to increases1 ,t',o' will diminish1 until1 when ,,to equals ,,do1 ,t',o' will vanish and with it ,ct'2 and at this crisis1 the case is the same as in ,fig4 #d2 but the conjugate hyperbola logically reduces to two right lines1 extending from ,c to infinity on the right and left4 ,as indeed it should from the familiar construction1 since the distances from ,d' and ,o' to any point on the horizontal axis being equal1 their difference is constant and equal to zero4 ,it appears1 then1 that a conic section may be defined as the locus of a point which is equally distant from a given point and from the circumference of a given circle4 ,boscovich defines it as the locus of a point so moving that its distances from a given point and from a given right line shall have a constant ratio4 ,the latter definition involves the conceptions of a rectilinear directrix1 and a varying ratio in the cases of the different curves1 this ratio being unity for the parabola1 less for the ellipse1 and greater for the hyperbola4 ,the former involves the conception of a circular directrix with a ratio equal to unity in all cases2 and the two definitions become identical in the construction of the parabola1 which is in fact the only curve of which a clear idea is given by either of them4 ,that of ,boscovich has been given a prominence far in excess of its merits1 being made the foundation for the discussion of these important curves1 and this in a textbook whose preface contains the following true and emphatic statement1 viz43 ,the abstract nature of a ratio1 and the fact that it is a compound concept1 peculiarly unfit it for elementary purposes4 ,the definition herein set forth has not been given in any treatise on the subject1 so far as we have been able to ascertain4 ,and it is presented with the distinctly expressed hope that it never will be1 except as a mere matter of abstract interest4 ,of this it may1 like the other1 possess a little1 but both have the great disadvantage that1 except in relation to the parabola1 the idea which they convey to the mind of the curves to which they relate1 if indeed they convey any at all1 is most obscure and indirect2 and of practical utility neither one can claim a particle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,atomic ,,weights4 7,issued ,december #f1 #ahij47 ,by request of the ,committee of ,revision and ,publication of the ,pharmacopoeia of the ,united ,states of ,america1 ,prof4 ,f4,w4 ,clarke1 chief chemist of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey1 has furnished a table of atomic weights1 revised upon the basis of the most recent data and his latest computations4 ,the committee has resolved that this table be printed and furnished for publication to the professional press4 ,the committee also requests that all calculations and analytical data which are to be given in reports or contributions intended for its use or cognizance be based upon the values in the table4 ,it would be highly desirable that this table be adopted and uniformly followed by chemists in general1 at least for practical purposes1 until it is superseded by a revised edition4 ,it would only be necessary for any author of a paper1 etc41 to state that his analytical figures are based upon ,prof4 ,clarke's table of atomic weights of ,december #f1 #ahij1 or some subsequent issue4 ,this table represents the latest and most trustworthy results1 reduced to a uniform basis of comparison1 with oxygen#af as starting point of the system4 ,no decimal places representing large uncertainties are used4 ,when values vary1 with equal probability on both sides1 so far as our present knowledge goes1 as in the case of cadmium 7#aaa4h and #aab4b71 the mean value is given in the table4 ,the names of elements occurring in pharmaceutical1 medicinal1 chemicals1 are printed in italics#a3 ,transcriber's ,note #a3 ,,italics represented by surrounding with 4 ,name4 ,symbol4 ,atomic ,weight4 ,aluminum4 ,al #bg4 ,antimony4 ,sb #abj4 ,arsenic4 ,as #ge4 ,barium4 ,ba #acg4 ,bismuth4 ,bi #bjh4i ,boron4 ,b #aa4 ,bromine4 ,br #gi4ie ,cadmium4 ,cd #aab4 ,caesium4 ,cs #acb4i ,calcium4 ,ca #dj4 ,carbon4 ,c #ab4 ,cerium4 ,ce #adj4b ,chlorine4 ,cl #ce4de ,chromium4 ,cr #eb4a ,cobalt4 ,co #ei4 ,columbium4#a ,cb #id4 ,copper4 ,cu #fc4d ,didymium4#b ,di #adb4c ,erbium4 ,er #aff4c ,fluorine4 ,f #ai4 ,gallium4 ,ga #fi4 ,germanium4 ,ge #gb4c ,glucinum4#c ,gl #i4 ,gold4 ,au #aig4c ,hydrogen4 ,h #a4jjg ,indium4 ,in #aac4g ,iodine4 ,i #abf4he ,iridium4 ,ir #aic4a ,iron4 ,fe #ef4 ,lanthanum4 ,la #ach4b ,lead4 ,pb #bjf4ie ,lithium4 ,li #g4jb ,magnesium4 ,mg #bd4c ,manganese4 ,mn #ee4 ,mercury4 ,hg #bjj4 ,molybdenum4 ,mo #if4 ,nickel4 ,ni #eh4g ,nitrogen4 ,n #ad4jc ,osmium4 ,os #aia4g ,oxygen4#d ,o #af4 ,palladium4 ,pd #ajf4f ,phosphorus4 ,p #ca4 ,platinum4 ,pt #aie4 ,potassium4 ,k #ci4aa ,rhodium4 ,rh #ajc4e ,rubidium4 ,rb #he4e ,ruthenium4 ,ru #aja4f ,samarium4 ,sm #aej4 ,scandium4 ,sc #dd4 ,selenium4 ,se #gi4 ,silicon4 ,si #bh4d ,silver4 ,ag #ajg4ib ,sodium4 ,na #bc4je ,strontium4 ,sr #hg4f ,sulphur4 ,s #cb4jf ,tantalum4 ,ta #ahb4f ,tellurium4 ,te #abe4 ,terbium4 ,tb #aei4e ,thallium4 ,tl #bjd4ah ,thorium4 ,th #bcb4f ,tin4 ,sn #aai4 ,titanium4 ,ti #dh4 ,tungsten4 ,w #ahd4 ,uranium4 ,u #bci4f ,vanadium4 ,v #ea4d ,yterbium4 ,yb #agc4 ,yttrium4 ,yt #hi4a ,zinc4 ,zn #fe4c ,zirconium4 ,zr #ij4f --,am4 ,jour4 ,pharm4 ,footnote #a3 ,has priority over niobium4 ,footnote #b3 ,now split into neo-and praseo-didymium4 ,footnote #c3 ,has priority over beryllium4 ,footnote #d3 ,standard1 or basis of the system4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,tanning ,,materials ,,of ,,europe4 ,the tanning materials of ,europe are of an altogether different type from those of the ,united ,states4 ,the population is so dense that the quantity of home materials produced is not nearly proportionate to the amount consumed1 and consequently they must draw upon surrounding lands for their supply4 ,the vegetation of these adjacent countries is of a much more tropical nature1 and it naturally follows that the tanning materials are also of a different species4 ,tanning materials may be divided into two great classes1 viz43 ,physiological and pathological4 ,,physiological4 ,the first class includes those tannins which are the results of perfectly natural or normal growth1 and a growth necessary to the development of vegetation1 for instance1 bark1 sumac1 etc41 whereas the second class contains those which are the results of abnormal growth1 caused by diseases1 stings of insects1 etc4 ,an example of this is the gall4 ,both of these classes are used to a great extent in ,europe1 while only the first division is in general use in the ,united ,states4 ,we will first consider the physiological tannins4 ,oak ,bark4--,this material was1 is1 and will be for some time to come the main tanning material in use here in ,europe4 ,the advantages of the oak tannage are as fully appreciated here as in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,european oak gives a light colored1 firm leather1 with good weight results1 is comparatively cheap and of an excellent quality4 ,the varieties are numerous1 each country having its own kind4 ,those in most general use are3 ,spiegel ,rinde 7mirror bark74--,this bark is well distributed throughout ,europe1 and is peeled when the tree has attained a growth of from #ab to #bd years4 ,it is marketed in three grades4 ,reitel ,rinde--,is obtained from the same tree as the spiegel rinde1 but after the tree has attained a growth of from #be to #dj years4 ,alte ,pische 7old oak74--,obtained from the aged tree4 ,it is not as valuable as the younger bark1 and consequently brings a much lower price4 ,spiegel rinde may be judged by small warts which appear on the shining surface of the bark4 ,the presence of a great number of these1 as a rule1 indicates a high tannin percentage4 ,bosnia has fine oak trees1 the bark containing #aj to #aa per cent4 tannin4 ,bohemia has the trauben eiche 7grape oak74 ,france uses the kirmess oak1 which grows in the south of that country and in northern ,africa4 ,two grades are made1 viz41 root and trunk4 ,tyrol has the evergreen oak--#ab to #ac per cent4 tannin4 ,sardinia possesses a cork oak1 which yields #ac to #ad per cent4 ,white oak is found throughout ,europe1 yielding #aj per cent4 ,the price of oak bark varies a great deal4 ,the assortment is much more strict than in the ,united ,states4 ,in ,austria it brings #d to #e fl41 equal to #a4fj to #b per kilo4 7#bbd lb472 in ,germany1 #aa to #af marks per #ajj kilos4#a ,footnote #a3 ,in the principal districts in ,america1 removed from the cities1 the price of oak bark is about #d to #f per cord or per ton of #b1bdj lb4 ,the hemlock bark1 which gives a sole leather just as thoroughly tanned1 but of a darker and reddish color1 costs the larger tanners from #c to #d a cord4 ,the above mentioned varieties are all used for both upper and sole leather4 ,in ,germany a great deal of upper leather is pure oak tannage1 but one seldom finds a pure oak tanned sole leather2 it is almost always in combination with other tannics4 ,pine ,bark--,is well distributed and is a very important tanning material4 ,it bears the same relation to oak bark here as does hemlock in ,america1 but its effects are quite different from hemlock4 ,the best ,austrian sorts are those of ,styria and ,bohemia1 but that of ,karuthen is also of good quality4 ,the ,german pine comes from ,thuringia to a great extent4 ,the countries that consume the greatest amount of pine bark are ,austria1 ,germany1 ,russia and ,italy4 ,the tannin contained varies from #e to #af per cent4 ,its use is almost wholly confined to the handlers1 as its weight returns are not so satisfactory as oak or valonia4 ,in case it should be used for layers it is always in combination with some better weight-giving tannic4 ,for upper leather its use is limited4 ,the bark is always peeled from the felled tree1 and often the woodman accepts the bark in part payment for his labor2 he then sells the bark to the tanner or agents who go about the country collecting bark4 ,it is generally very nicely cleaned4 ,i would here like to correct a mistake which tanners often make in their estimations of the value of barks4 ,a tanner usually buys the bark of southern-grown trees in preference to that of trees grown in northern countries1 as it is a common idea that southern vegetation contains more tannin than that of the north4 ,this is a fallacy1 as has not only been proved by careful analyses1 but may also be found to be an incorrect conclusion after a moments' thought4 ,those trees which flourish in southern countries grow very rapidly1 and as tannin is necessary to the development of leaf structure1 etc41 it is absorbed to a greater extent than is the case with the slower-growing tree of the north4 ,the tannin contained in the sap does not increase in the same ratio as does the rapid growth1 and it follows that the remainder in the bark is less than in the tree of slower growth4 ,birch ,bark--,is at home in ,russia1 ,norway1 and ,sweden4 ,it is used for both upper and sole leather1 but seldom alone4 ,the bark is usually peeled from the full grown tree1 and contains #d to #i per cent4 tannin4 ,willow ,bark--,may also be found in the above mentioned countries and also in ,germany4 ,this material is used for both upper and sole leather1 and contains #f to #i per cent4 tannin4 ,it is a very delicate material to use1 as its tannin decomposes rapidly4 ,erlen ,rinde--,is also a native of ,germany1 but is not used to any great extent4 ,the same may be said of the larch1 although this variety is also to be met with in ,russia4 ,mimosa ,bark--,is obtained from the acacia of ,australia4 ,it is a favorite in ,england4 ,the varieties are as follows3 ,gold wattle1 silver wattle 7blackwood1 lightwood71 black wattle1 green wattle4 ,the gold wattle is a native of ,victoria4 ,its cultivation was tried as an experiment in ,algeria and met with some success4 ,the trees are always grown from seeds4 ,these seeds are laid in warm water for a few hours before sowing4 ,the acacia may be peeled at eight years' growth and carries seeds4 ,the ,tasmania bark is very good2 that from ,adelaide likewise good4 ,sydney does not produce so good an article1 but ,queensland better4 ,the bark is marketed in the stick1 ground or chopped4 ,madagascar and the ,reunion ,islands have also a mimosa bark4 ,the mimosa barks give a reddish colored leather1 pump well and contain a high tannin percentage1 #aj to #ce per cent4 ,now we will consider the fruit tanning materials4 ,valonia may truly be called one of the most generally used tanning agents at present employed in ,europe4 ,all countries consume it more or less4 ,valonia was first used in ,england about the beginning of this century4 ,a few years later ,germany began using it1 and still later ,austria introduced it4 ,it is the fruit of the oak tree and is obtainable in ,asia ,minor and the adjacent islands4 ,in form it resembles the ,american acorn1 but in size it nearly trebles it4 ,the fruit may be divided into two parts1 namely1 the cup and acorn1 and the cup again divided into trillor and inner cup4 ,the acorn only contains #aj per cent4 tannin1 whereas the cup contains from #be to #dj per cent4 ,the percentage depends altogether upon the time of harvesting and the place of growth4 ,the best valonia is derived from ,smyrna1 and is naturally the highest priced article4 ,valonia is worth from #bb to #bh florins 7#i to #aa7 per #ajj kilos4 7#bbd pounds7 at present4 ,the other provinces and islands from which it is obtainable are ,demergick1 ,govalia1 ,idem1 ,ivalzick1 ,troy 7this is the best72 ,metelino ,island1 the vicinity of ,smyrna4 ,the material sold in three grades--prime1 mazzano2 seconds1 una aqua2 thirds1 skart4 ,the product of ,smyrna generally averages3 ,tons4 ,price4 ,prime4 #b1jjj to #c1jjj #bh florins4 ,seconds4 #e1jjj to #aj1jjj #be ,thirds4 #bj1jjj to #cj1jjj #bb ,the ,metilino valonia is a product of a neighboring island1 and is a very good article4 ,it may be easily distinguished by its thin cup4 ,it is harvested in ,september4 ,the ,candia valonia is nearly as long as it is wide1 in contrast to the ,smyrna1 which is much wider than long4 ,the recent harvest showed a return of #hjj to #a1jjj tons1 but no assortment is made4 ,a grade called the ,erstlige is sold1 this being the first which has fallen to the ground before maturing4 ,a peculiarity of the valonia is that it often strikes out a sort of sugar sweat1 which gives the cup a less attractive appearance1 but denotes the presence of large quantities of tannin4 ,valonia is used almost wholly for sole leather1 either alone or in combination with pine or oak bark or knoppern and myrabolams4 ,the union of valonia and knoppern is that in most general use4 ,valonia gives the leather a yellowish appearance1 as it deposits a great deal of yellow bloom4 ,the leather is very firm and of good wearing qualities4 ,the weight results are also excellent1 as will be seen below4 ,to sole leather there are usually given from one to three layers of valonia4 ,the demand for valonia is increasing more and more every year1 and the present outlook does not indicate any relaxation of its popularity4 ,its use for upper leather is very limited4 ,myrabolams are mainly used in ,england and ,austria1 and give a nice light-colored leather1 both upper and sole1 although rarely used alone4 ,their main use is for dyeing purposes4 ,they are indigenous to the ,east ,indies4 ,sumac is so well known that treating of it is superfluous4 ,its use is very extensive1 and it is a general favorite for light1 fine leather1 which is mostly used for colors4 ,gambier--,is in general use in ,england and to some extent in ,germany4 ,catechu4--,obtained from ,india1 resembles gambier greatly4 ,its use is almost wholly confined to ,england4 ,it is also consumed by the silk manufacturers in preference to gambier1 for weighting purposes4 ,,pathological4 ,we now leave the physiological class and take up those tanning materials included in the pathological class1 or those of abnormal growth4 ,galls4--,these are not consumed to any great extent at the present period1 but formerly they were used quite extensively4 ,the galls are found upon the leaves of the oak or sumac1 etc4 ,the direct cause of their growth is that a certain wasp 7cynips galles7 stings into the leaf and after depositing its egg1 flies away4 ,the egg develops into a larva and then into a full-fledged wasp1 boring its way out of the gall which has served as a protection and nourisher4 ,this accounts for the hole noticed in almost every gall4 ,the different varieties include ,aleppo4 ,it is found upon the same trees as the valonia and contains #fj to #ge per cent4 tannin2 ,istrian galls1 #cb per cent4 tannin2 ,persian1 #bh to #bi per cent4 tannin4 ,chinese galls1 giving #hj to #hb per cent4 tannin1 are the results of the sting of a louse1 and make a very light-colored leather4 ,the dyers also use this material for coloring4 ,knoppern--,belongs to the family of galls1 and is a most important factor of commerce in ,austria4 ,the knopper is generally found on the acorn or leaf of the oak tree4 ,the greatest quantity is derived from the steel oak of ,hungary4 ,the tannin contained varies from #bg to #cc per cent4 ,knoppern are not being used so much now as formerly1 and consequently the amount harvested lessens from year to year4 ,its main use was and is in combination with valonia as layers for sole leather4 ,valonia gives better weight results than knoppern1 and is replacing knoppern more and more every year4 ,the combination of knoppern1 valonia and myrabolams is also quite popular1 and gives good results4 ,knoppern are seldom used alone1 being generally combined with some other tannin4 ,austria is almost the only consumer at present1 but ,germany used it extensively formerly4 ,bark and ,wood ,extracts--,are becoming general favorites throughout ,europe1 partly because of their weight-giving qualities and partly as the transportation costs so little2 they can be used to strengthen weak bark liquors4 ,oak ,extracts--,are well liked1 both wood and bark1 and are used extensively4 ,slavonia furnishes a great deal of it4 ,chestnut ,oak ,wood ,extract--,is manufactured in quantities1 and easily finds purchasers4 ,pine ,bark ,extract--,is also consumed in goodly amounts4 ,quebracho ,wood ,extract4--,the wood is shipped from ,brazil to ,hamburg and other ports1 and the tannin extracted there4 ,hamburg furnishes quantities of it4 ,hemlock ,extract--,is used in ,russia1 and seems to have taken a hold on the shoe buyers' fancies1 as they now make imitations of it in color4 ,the hemlock that is consumed is imported from ,america4 ,as most leather is sold by weight in ,europe1 the leather manufacturers aim to obtain as good weight results as possible1 and often1 ,i am sorry to say1 do so at the sacrifice of quality4 ,this is common to both upper and sole leather4 ,sole leather is nine times out of ten given false weight by forcing entirely foreign substances into the leather1 such as glucose1 barium chloride1 magnesium chloride1 resins1 etc4 ,glucose and resin are also used for weighting upper leather4 ,leather is also weighted with extracts by overtanning4 ,leather buyers have become very wary of late and do not purchase large quantities before an analysis is made of a fair sample4 ,one more word before ,i close4 ,the governments and private individuals in ,europe cultivate and raise trees for both lumber and bark purposes4 ,the forests are excellently cared for by efficient foresters1 and the result is that the tanners obtain much cleaner and better bark1 and of a very even quality4 ,would it not be a good idea if some individual1 who would certainly earn the everlasting gratefulness of the tanners1 would look into this matter1 and see that not only the lumber side of our forest cultivation is not neglected1 but that the bark also is preserved and cared for8 ,of course1 we can obtain all the bark necessary at present and for some time to come1 but the time will come when we shall certainly regret not having taken these steps1 if the lumbermen and bark peelers go on devastating magnificent forests4 ,below will be found a table of weight results4 ,sole leather tanned with these materials gives for every #ajj lb4 green hide the following quantities of finished leather3 lb4 ,oak bark #dh to #ed extract #ee to #ef ,pine bark #dd to #df extract #dh to #ej ,willow #de to #df ,birch bark and oak extract #di to #ea ,quebracho wood and extract #dh to #di ,valonia #eb to #ef ,knoppern #ea to #ec ,myrabolams #ej ,knoppern1 myrabolams and valonia #eb to #ec ,hemlock #ee ,specification of tanning materials used in different countries3 ,france4 ,oak bark 7kirmess74 ,sumac4 ,chestnut wood extract4 ,quebracho ,some gambier4 ,italy4 ,oak bark4 ,pine ,sumac4 ,valonia4 ,england4 ,oak bark4 ,divi divi4 ,myrabolams4 ,valonia4 ,mimosa4 ,extracts ,oak bark and wood hemlock4 ,gambier4 ,cutch4 ,germany and ,austria4 ,oak bark4 ,pine ,willow bark4 ,valonia4 ,knoppern4 ,myrabolams4 ,oak bark and wood4 ,extracts ,pine bark and wood4 ,russia4 ,birch bark4 ,willow ,oak ,pine ,hemlock extract4 ,norway and ,sweden4 ,birch bark4 ,willow ,oak ,,walter ,j4 ,,salomon4 --,shoe and ,leather ,reporter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,apparatus ,,for ,,heating ,,substances ,,in ,,glass ,,tubes ,,under ,,pressure4#a ,footnote #a3 ,read at the meeting of the ,chemical ,section of the ,franklin ,institute held ,march #ag1 #ahia4 ,by ,h4 ,,pemberton1 ,jr4 ,chemists who do not happen to have in their laboratories oil or air baths for heating closed tubes can make an air bath at short notice from materials furnished by all dealers in steam fittings4 ,order3 7#a7 ,one four-inch wrought iron pipe1 eighteen inches out to out1 with usual thread on each end4 ,at about nine inches from either end this pipe is drilled and tapped for a one-inch nipple1 in such a manner that a pipe introduced would pass1 not on a line with the radius1 but about half way between the axis of the four-inch pipe and its walls2 in other words1 it would be on a line with a chord of the circle4 7#b7 ,one one-inch wrought iron nipple1 two inches long1 one-inch thread on one end4 7#c7 ,two four-inch malleable iron caps1 drilled and tapped for a one-inch pipe4 7#d7 ,one one-inch wrought iron pipe1 twenty-four inches out to out1 with a three-inch straight thread on each end4 7#e7 ,two one-inch iron caps4 ,a hole1 one-eighth of an inch in diameter1 is drilled in the end of one of these caps4 ,the above order can be given literatim1 and will be understood by the dealer1 who will furnish1 at a trifling cost1 the materials1 cut and tapped as ordered4 ,fig4 #a shows how the whole is put together4 ,the numbers on the figure correspond also to the numbers of the paragraphs of the order as given above4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,fig4 #b is an end section4 ,a cork is inserted in #b and through it a thermometer1 the bulb of which is on a level with the interior pipe4 ,the whole is supported on a few bricks at either end1 and is kept steady and in place by a couple of weights or half bricks4 ,it is heated by one or two ,bunsen burners1 according to the temperature desired4--,jour4 ,fr4 ,institute4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,testing ,,cement4 ,an improved method of testing ,portland cement has been adopted by ,m4 ,deval1 ,chief ,superintendent of ,bridges and ,roads1 who has charge1 under ,m4 ,saele1 of the ,public ,works ,laboratory of the ,city of ,paris4 ,the principal difference in ,m4 ,deval's method consists in the use of hot water for the period of hardening4 ,the briquettes are made in the usual way1 and of the ordinary size2 and the cement to be tested is gauged with three times its weight of normal sand1 and the smallest quantity of water possible4 ,after preparation1 the briquettes are allowed to harden in air for a period ranging from #bd hours for ,portland cement to #cj days for certain slow-setting hydraulic limes4 ,after this period1 the samples are immersed in water kept at a temperature of #hj ,c41 in which they remain for from two to seven days4 ,the briquettes are then broken in the ordinary way4 ,after careful comparisons of many varieties of cement hardened hot and cold1 ,m4 ,deval finds that cold tests are fallacious1 inasmuch as they may fail to detect bad material4 ,portland cement of good quality will not only stand water at #hj ,c41 but will attain in seven days about the same strength as is reached in the cold after #bh days4 ,the hot test therefore saves time4 ,the hot test is an unfailing proof for free lime2 cements containing this constituent betraying weakness1 and cracking1 swelling1 and disintegrating in a very significant manner4 ,this last result is regarded as a valuable quality of the new method of testing cement1 the general effect of which appears to be to enhance the test value of really good cements1 while depreciating those of an inferior character4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,architects and ,builders ,edition #b4ej a ,year4 ,single ,copies1 #be cts4 ,this is a ,special ,edition of the ,,scientific ,,american1 issued monthly--on the first day of the month4 ,each number contains about forty large quarto pages1 equal to about two hundred ordinary book pages1 forming1 practically1 a large and splendid ,magazine of ,architecture1 richly adorned with elegant plates in colors and with fine engravings1 illustrating the most interesting examples of modern ,architectural ,construction and allied subjects4 ,a special feature is the presentation in each number of a variety of the latest and best plans for private residences1 city and country1 including those of very moderate cost as well as the more expensive4 ,drawings in perspective and in color are given1 together with full ,plans1 ,specifications1 ,costs1 ,bills of ,estimate1 and ,sheets of ,details4 ,no other building paper contains so many plans1 details1 and specifications regularly presented as the ,,scientific ,,american4 ,hundreds of dwellings have already been erected on the various plans we have issued during the past year1 and many others are in process of construction4 ,architects1 ,builders1 and ,owners will find this work valuable in furnishing fresh and useful suggestions4 ,all who contemplate building or improving homes1 or erecting structures of any kind1 have before them in this work an almost endless series of the latest and best examples from which to make selections1 thus saving time and money4 ,many other subjects1 including ,sewerage1 ,piping1 ,lighting1 ,warming1 ,ventilating1 ,decorating1 ,laying out of ,grounds1 etc41 are illustrated4 ,an extensive ,compendium of ,manufacturers' ,announcements is also given1 in which the most reliable and approved ,building ,materials1 ,goods1 ,machines1 ,tools1 and ,appliances are described and illustrated1 with addresses of the makers1 etc4 ,the fullness1 richness1 cheapness1 and convenience of this work have won for it the ,largest ,circulation of any ,architectural publication in the world4 ,a ,catalogue of valuable books on ,architecture1 ,building1 ,carpentry1 ,masonry1 ,heating1 ,warming1 ,lighting1 ,ventilation1 and all branches of industry pertaining to the art of ,building1 is supplied free of 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