,,the ,,freethinker',s ,,text-,,book4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,christianity3 ,,its ,,evidences4 ,,its ,,origin4 ,,its ,,morality4 ,,its ,,history4 ,,by ,,annie ,,besant4 ,,section ,i4--,,its ,,evidences ,,unreliable4 ,the origin of all religions1 and the ignorance which is the root of the ,god-idea1 having been dealt with in ,part ,i4 of this ,text-,book1 it now becomes our duty to investigate the evidences of the origin and of the growth of ,christianity1 to examine its morality and its dogmas1 to study the history of its supposed founder1 to trace out its symbols and its ceremonies2 in fine1 to show cause for its utter rejection by the ,freethinker4 ,the foundation stone of ,christianity1 laid in ,paradise by the ,creation and ,fall of ,man #f1jjj years ago1 has already been destroyed in the first section of this work2 and we may at once1 therefore1 proceed to ,christianity itself4 ,the history of the origin of the creed is naturally the first point to deal with1 and this may be divided into two parts3 #a4 ,the evidences afforded by profane history as to its origin and early growth4 #b4 ,its story as told by itself in its own documents4 ,the most remarkable thing in the evidences afforded by profane history is their extreme paucity2 the very existence of ,jesus cannot be proved from contemporary documents4 ,a child whose birth is heralded by a star which guides foreign sages to ,juda2 a massacre of all the infants of a town within the ,roman ,empire by command of a subject king2 a teacher who heals the leper1 the blind1 the deaf1 the dumb1 the lame1 and who raises the mouldering corpse2 a ,king of the ,jews entering ,jerusalem in triumphal procession1 without opposition from the ,roman legions of ,csar2 an accused ringleader of sedition arrested by his own countrymen1 and handed over to the imperial governor2 a rebel adjudged to death by ,roman law2 a three hours' darkness over all the land2 an earthquake breaking open graves and rending the temple veil2 a number of ghosts wandering about ,jerusalem2 a crucified corpse rising again to life1 and appearing to a crowd of above #ejj people2 a man risen from the dead ascending bodily into heaven without any concealment1 and in the broad daylight1 from a mountain near ,jerusalem2 all these marvellous events took place1 we are told1 and yet they have left no ripple on the current of contemporary history4 ,there is1 however1 no lack of such history1 and an exhaustive account of the country and age in which the hero of the story lived is given by one of his own nation--a most painstaking and laborious historian4 ,how shall we excuse the supine inattention of the ,pagan and philosophic world to those evidences which were presented by the hand of ,omnipotence1 not to their reason1 but to their senses8 ,during the age of ,christ1 of his apostles1 and of their first disciples1 the doctrine which they preached was confirmed by innumerable prodigies4 ,the lame walked1 the blind saw1 the sick were healed1 the dead were raised1 demons were expelled1 and the laws of nature were frequently suspended for the benefit of the ,church4 ,but the sages of ,greece and ,rome turned aside from the awful spectacle1 and1 pursuing the ordinary occupations of life and study1 appeared unconscious of any alterations in the moral or physical government of the world4 ,under the reign of ,tiberius the whole earth1 or at least a celebrated province of the ,roman ,empire1 was involved in a preternatural darkness of three hours4 ,even this miraculous event1 which ought to have excited the wonder1 the curiosity1 and the devotion of mankind1 passed without notice in an age of science and history4 ,it happened during the lifetime of ,seneca and the elder ,pliny1 who must have experienced the immediate effects1 or received the earliest intelligence1 of the prodigy4 ,each of these philosophers1 in a laborious work1 has recorded all the great phenomena of nature--earthquakes1 meteors1 comets1 and eclipses1 which his indefatigable curiosity could collect4 ,both the one and the other have omitted to mention the greatest phenomenon to which the mortal eye has been witness since the creation of the globe4 ,a distinct chapter of ,pliny is designed for eclipses of an extraordinary nature and unusual duration2 but he contents himself with describing the singular defect of light which followed the murder of ,csar1 when1 during the greatest part of the year1 the orb of the sun appeared pale and without splendour4 ,this season of obscurity1 which cannot surely be compared with the preternatural darkness of the ,passion1 had been already celebrated by most of the poets and historians of that memorable age 7,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #aia1 #aib4 ,ed4 #ahba74 ,if ,pagan historians are thus curiously silent1 what deduction shall we draw from the similar silence of the great ,jewish annalist8 ,is it credible that ,josephus should thus have ignored ,jesus ,christ1 if one tithe of the marvels related in the ,gospels really took place8 ,so damning to the story of ,christianity has this difficulty been felt1 that a passage has been inserted in ,josephus 7born ,a4,d4 #cg1 died about ,a4,d4 #ajj7 relating to ,jesus ,christ1 which runs as follows3 ,now1 there was about this time ,jesus1 a wise man1 if it be lawful to call him a man1 for he was a doer of wonderful works--a teacher of such men as receive the truth with pleasure4 ,he drew over to him both many of the ,jews1 and many of the ,gentiles4 ,he was the ,christ2 and when ,pilate1 at the suggestion of the principal men amongst us1 had condemned him to the cross1 those that loved him at the first did not forsake him1 for he appeared to them alive again the third day1 as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him2 and the tribe of ,christians1 so named from him1 are not extinct at this day 7,antiquities of the ,jews1 book xviii41 ch4 iii41 sect4 #c74 ,the passage itself proves its own forgery3 ,christ drew over scarcely any ,gentiles1 if the ,gospel story be true1 as he himself said3 ,i am not sent but unto the lost sheep of the house of ,israel 7,matthew xv4 #bd74 ,a ,jew would not believe that a doer of wonderful works must necessarily be more than man1 since their own prophets were said to have performed miracles4 ,if ,josephus believed ,jesus to be ,christ1 he would assuredly have become a ,christian2 while1 if he believed him to be ,god1 he would have drawn full attention to so unique a fact as the incarnation of the ,deity4 ,finally1 the concluding remark that the ,christians were not extinct scarcely coincides with the idea that ,josephus1 at ,rome1 must have been cognisant of their increasing numbers1 and of their persecution by ,nero4 ,it is1 however1 scarcely pretended now-a-days1 by any scholar of note1 that the passage is authentic4 ,sections #b and #d were manifestly written one after the other4 ,there were a great number of them slain by this means1 and others of them ran away wounded2 and thus an end was put to this sedition4 ,about the same time another sad calamity put the ,jews into disorder4 ,the forged passage breaks the continuity of the history4 ,the oldest ,,mss4 do not contain this section4 ,it is first quoted by ,eusebius1 who probably himself forged it2 and its authenticity is given up by ,lardner1 ,gibbon1 ,bishop ,warburton1 and many others4 ,lardner well summarises the arguments against its authenticity3-- ,i do not perceive that we at all want the suspected testimony to ,jesus1 which was never quoted by any of our ,christian ancestors before ,eusebius4 ,nor do ,i recollect that ,josephus has any where mentioned the name or word ,christ1 in any of his works2 except the testimony above mentioned1 and the passage concerning ,james1 the ,lord's brother4 ,it interrupts the narrative4 ,the language is quite ,christian4 ,it is not quoted by ,chrysostom1 though he often refers to ,josephus1 and could not have omitted quoting it1 had it been then in the text4 ,it is not quoted by ,photius1 though he has three articles concerning ,josephus4 ,under the article ,justus of ,tiberias1 this author 7,photius7 expressly states that historian 7,josephus7 being a ,jew1 has not taken the least notice of ,christ4 ,neither ,justin in his dialogue with ,trypho the ,jew1 nor ,clemens ,alexandrinus1 who made so many extracts from ,christian authors1 nor ,origen against ,celsus1 have ever mentioned this testimony4 ,but1 on the contrary1 in chapter xxxv4 of the first book of that work1 ,origen openly affirms1 that ,josephus1 who had mentioned ,john the ,baptist1 did not acknowledge ,christ 7,answer to ,dr4 ,chandler1 as quoted in ,taylor's ,diegesis1 pp4 #cfh1 #cfi4 ,ed4 #ahdd74 ,keim thinks that the remarks of ,origen caused the forgery2 after criticising the passage he winds up3 ,for all these reasons1 the passage cannot be maintained2 it has first appeared in this form in the ,catholic ,church of the ,jews and ,gentiles1 and under the dominion of the ,fourth ,gospel1 and hardly before the third century1 probably before ,eusebius1 and after ,origen1 whose bitter criticisms of ,josephus may have given cause for it 7,jesus of ,nazara1 p4 #be1 ,english edition1 #ahgc74 ,those who are best acquainted with the character of ,josephus1 and the style of his writings1 have no hesitation in condemning this passage as a forgery interpolated in the text during the third century by some pious ,christian1 who was scandalised that so famous a writer as ,josephus should have taken no notice of the ,gospels1 or of ,christ their subject4 ,but the zeal of the interpolator has outrun his discretion1 for we might as well expect to gather grapes from thorns1 or figs from thistles1 as to find this notice of ,christ among the ,judaising writings of ,josephus4 ,it is well known that this author was a zealous ,jew1 devoted to the laws of ,moses and the traditions of his countrymen4 ,how then could he have written that ,jesus was the ,christ8 ,such an admission would have proved him to be a ,christian himself1 in which case the passage under consideration1 too long for a ,jew1 would have been far too short for a believer in the new religion1 and thus the passage stands forth1 like an ill-set jewel1 contrasting most inharmoniously with everything around it4 ,if it had been genuine1 we might be sure that ,justin ,martyr1 ,tertullian1 and ,chrysostom would have quoted it in their controversies with the ,jews1 and that ,origen or ,photius would have mentioned it4 ,but ,eusebius1 the ecclesiastical historian 7i41 ,,ii71 is the first who quotes it1 and our reliance on the judgment or even the honesty of this writer is not so great as to allow of our considering everything found in his works as undoubtedly genuine 7,christian ,records1 by ,rev4 ,dr4 ,giles1 p4 #cj4 ,ed4 #ahed74 ,on the other side the student should consult ,hartwell ,horne's ,introduction4 ,ed4 #ahbe1 vol4 i41 p4 #cjg-aa4 ,renan observes that the passage--in the authenticity of which he believes--is in the style of ,josephus1 but adds that it has been retouched by a ,christian hand4 ,the two statements seem scarcely consistent1 as such retouching would surely alter the style 7,vie de ,jsus1 ,introduction1 p4 #aj4 ,ed4 #ahfc74 ,paley argues that when the multitude of ,christians living in the time of ,josephus is considered1 it cannot be believed that the religion1 and the transaction upon which it was founded1 were too obscure to engage the attention of ,josephus1 or to obtain a place in his history 7,evid4 of ,christianity1 p4 #gc4 ,ed4 #ahde74 ,we answer1 it is plain1 from the fact that ,josephus entirely ignores both1 that the pretended story of ,jesus was not widely known among his contemporaries1 and that the early spread of ,christianity is much exaggerated4 ,but says ,paley3 ,be1 however1 the fact1 or the cause of the omission in ,josephus1 what it may1 no other or different history on the subject has been given by him or is pretended to have been given 7,ibid1 pp4 #gc1 #gd74 ,our contention being that the supposed occurrences never took place at all1 no history of them is to be looked for in the pages of a writer who was relating only facts4 ,josephus speaks of ,james1 the brother of ,jesus1 who was called ,christ 7,antiquities1 book xx41 ch4 ix41 sect4 #a71 and this passage shares the fate of the longer one1 being likewise rejected because of being an interpolation4 ,the other supposed reference of ,josephus to ,jesus is found in his discourse on ,hades1 wherein he says that all men shall be brought before ,god the ,word2 for to him hath the ,father committed all judgment2 and he1 in order to fulfil the will of his ,father1 shall come as judge1 whom we call ,christ 7,works of ,josephus1 by ,whiston1 p4 #ffa74 ,supposing that this passage were genuine1 it would simply convey the ,jewish belief that the ,messiah--,christ--the ,anointed1 was the appointed judge1 as in ,dan4 vii41 #i-ad1 and more largely in the ,book of ,enoch4 ,the silence of ,jewish writers of this period is not confined to ,josephus1 and this silence tells with tremendous weight against the ,christian story4 ,judge ,strange writes3 ,josephus knew nothing of these wonderments1 and he wrote up to the year #ic1 being familiar with all the chief scenes of the alleged ,christianity4 ,nicolaus of ,damascus1 who preceded him and lived to the time of ,herod's successor ,archelaus1 and ,justus of ,tiberias1 who was the contemporary and rival of ,josephus in ,galilee1 equally knew nothing of the movement4 ,philo-,judus1 who occupied the whole period ascribed to ,jesus1 and engaged himself deeply in figuring out the ,logos1 had heard nothing of the being who was realising at ,jerusalem the image his fancy was creating 7,portraiture and ,mission of ,jesus1 p4 #bg74 ,we propose now to go carefully through the alleged testimonies to ,christianity1 as urged in ,paley's ,evidences of ,christianity1 following his presentment of the argument step by step1 and offering objections to each point as raised by him4 ,the next historian who is claimed as a witness to ,christianity is ,tacitus 7born ,a4,d4 #ed or #ee1 died ,a4,d4 #acd or #ace71 who writes1 dealing with the reign of ,nero1 that this ,emperor inflicted the most cruel punishments upon a set of people1 who were holden in abhorrence for their crimes1 and were commonly called ,christians4 ,the founder of that name was ,christus1 who1 in the reign of ,tiberius1 was punished as a criminal by the procurator1 ,pontius ,pilate4 ,this pernicious superstition1 thus checked for awhile1 broke out again2 and spread not only over ,juda the source of this evil1 but reached the city also3 whither flow from all quarters all things vile and shameful1 and where they find shelter and encouragement4 ,at first1 only those were apprehended who confessed themselves of that sect2 afterwards1 a vast multitude discovered by them2 all which were condemned1 not so much for the crime of burning the city1 as for their hatred of mankind4 ,their executions were so contrived as to expose them to derision and contempt4 ,some were covered over with the skins of wild beasts1 and torn to pieces by dogs2 some were crucified4 ,others1 having been daubed over with combustible materials1 were set up as lights in the night-time1 and thus burned to death4 ,nero made use of his own gardens as a theatre on this occasion1 and also exhibited the diversions of the circus1 sometimes standing in the crowd as a spectator1 in the habit of a charioteer2 at other times driving a chariot himself2 till at length these men1 though really criminal1 and deserving exemplary punishment1 began to be commiserated as people who were destroyed1 not out of regard to the public welfare1 but only to gratify the cruelty of one man 7,annals1 book xv41 sect4 #dd74 ,this was probably written1 if authentic1 about ,a4,d4 #ajg4 ,the reasons against the authenticity of this passage are thus given by ,robert ,taylor3 ,this passage1 which would have served the purpose of ,christian quotation better than any other in all the writings of ,tacitus1 or of any ,pagan writer whatever1 is not quoted by any of the ,christian ,fathers4 ,it is not quoted by ,tertullian1 though he had read and largely quotes the works of ,tacitus3 and though his argument immediately called for the use of this quotation with so loud a voice1 that his omission of it1 if it had really existed1 amounts to a violent improbability4 ,this ,father has spoken of ,tacitus in a way that it is absolutely impossible that he should have spoken of him had his writings contained such a passage4 ,it is not quoted by ,clemens ,alexandrinus1 who set himself entirely to the work of adducing and bringing together all the admissions and recognitions which ,pagan authors had made of the existence of ,christ or ,christians before his time4 ,it has nowhere been stumbled on by the laborious and all-seeking ,eusebius1 who could by no possibility have missed of it4444 ,there is no vestige nor trace of its existence anywhere in the world before the fifteenth century4 ,it rests then entirely upon the fidelity of a single individual4 ,and he1 having the ability1 the opportunity1 and the strongest possible incitement of interest to induce him to introduce the interpolation4 ,the passage itself1 though unquestionably the work of a master1 and entitled to be pronounced the chef d'oeuvre of the art1 betrays the penchant of that delight in blood1 and in descriptions of bloody horrors1 as peculiarly characteristic of the ,christian disposition as it was abhorrent to the mild and gentle mind1 and highly cultivated taste of ,tacitus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is falsified by the ',apology of ,tertullian1' and the far more respectable testimony of ,melito1 ,bishop of ,sardis1 who explicitly states that the ,christians1 up to his time1 the third century1 had never been victims of persecution2 and that it was in provinces lying beyond the boundaries of the ,roman ,empire1 and not in ,juda1 that ,christianity originated4 ,tacitus has1 in no other part of his writings1 made the least allusion to ,christ or ,christians4 ,the use of this passage as a part of the ',evidences of the ,christian ,religion1' is absolutely modern 7,diegesis1 pp4 #cgd--cgf74 ,judge ,strange--writing on another point--gives us an argument against the authenticity of this passage3 ,as ,josephus made ,rome his place of abode from the year #gj to the end of the century1 there inditing his history of all that concerned the ,jews1 it is apparent that1 had there been a sect flourishing in the city who were proclaiming the risen ,jesus as the ,messiah in his time1 the circumstance was one this careful and discerning writer could not have failed to notice and to comment on 7,portraiture and ,mission of ,jesus1 p4 #ae74 ,it is1 indeed1 passing strange that ,josephus1 who tells us so much about false ,messiahs and their followers1 should omit--as he must have done if this passage of ,tacitus be authentic--all reference to this additional false ,messiah1 whose followers in the very city where ,josephus was living1 underwent such terrible tortures1 either during his residence there1 or immediately before it4 ,burning men1 used as torches1 adherents of a ,jewish ,messiah1 ought surely to have been unusual enough to have attracted his attention4 ,we may add to these arguments that1 supposing such a passage were really written by ,tacitus1 the two lines regarding ,christus look much like an interpolation1 as the remainder would run more connectedly if they were omitted4 ,but the whole passage is of more than doubtful authenticity1 being in itself incredible1 if the ,acts and the ,epistles of the ,new ,testament be true2 for this persecution is said to have occurred during the reign of ,nero1 during which ,paul abode in ,rome1 teaching in peace1 no man forbidding him 7,acts xxviii4 #ca72 during which1 also1 he wrote to the ,romans that they need not be afraid of the government if they did right 7,romans xii4 #cd72 clearly1 if these passages are true1 the account in ,tacitus must be false2 and as he himself had no reason for composing such a tale1 it must have been forged by ,christians to glorify their creed4 ,the extreme ease with which this passage might have been inserted in all editions of ,tacitus used in modern times arises from the fact that all such editions are but copies of one single ,,ms41 which was in the possession of one single individual2 the solitary owner might make any interpolations he pleased1 and there was no second copy by which his accuracy might be tested4 ,the first publication of any part of the ',annals of ,tacitus' was by ,johannes de ,spire1 at ,venice1 in the year #adfh--;his imprint being made from a single ,,ms41 in his own power and possession only1 and purporting to have been written in the eighth century4444 from this all other ,,mss4 and printed copies of the works of ,tacitus are derived4 7,diegesis1 p4 #cgc47 ,suetonius 7born about ,a4,d4 #fe1 died in second century7 writes3 ,the ,christians1 a race of men of a new and mischievous 7or magical7 superstition1 were punished4 ,in another passage we read of ,claudius1 who reigned ,a4,d4 #da-ed3 ,he drove the ,jews1 who1 at the suggestion of ,chrestus1 were constantly rioting1 out of ,rome4 ,from this we might infer that there was at that time a ,jewish leader1 named ,chrestus1 living in ,rome1 and inciting the ,jews to rebellion4 ,his followers would probably take his name1 and1 expelled from ,rome1 they would spread this name in all directions4 ,if the passage in ,acts xi4 #bj and #bf be of any historical value1 it would curiously strengthen this hypothesis1 since the disciples were called ,christians first in ,antioch1 and the missionaries to ,antioch1 who preached unto the ,jews only1 came from ,cyprus and ,cyrene1 which would naturally lie in the way of fugitives from ,rome to ,asia ,minor4 ,they would bring the name ,christian with them1 and the date in the ,acts synchronises with that in ,suetonius4 ,chrestus would appear to have left a sect behind him in ,rome1 bearing his name1 the members of which were prosecuted by the ,government1 very likely as traitors and rebels4 ,keim's good opinion of ,suetonius is much degraded by this ,chrestus3 ,in his ',life of ,claudius1' who expelled the ,jews from ,rome1 he has shown his undoubted inferiority to ,tacitus as a historian by treating ',christ' as a restless and seditious ,jewish agitator1 who was still living in the time of ,claudius1 and1 indeed1 in ,rome 7,jesus of ,nazara1 p4 #cc74 ,it is natural that modern ,christians should object to a ,jewish ,chrestus starting up at ,rome simultaneously with their ,jewish ,christus in ,juda1 who1 according to ,luke's chronology1 must have been crucified about ,a4,d4 #dc4 ,the coincidence is certainly inconvenient2 but if they refuse the testimony of ,suetonius concerning ,chrestus1 the leader1 why should they accept it concerning the ,christians1 the followers8 ,paley1 of course1 although he quotes ,suetonius1 omits all reference at this stage to the unlucky ,chrestus2 his duty was to present evidences of1 not against1 ,christianity4 ,most dishonestly1 however1 he inserts a reference to it later on 7p4 #gc71 where1 in a brief rsum of the evidence1 he uses it as a link in his chain3 ,when ,suetonius1 an historian contemporary with ,tacitus1 relates that1 in the time of ,claudius1 the ,jews were making disturbances at ,rome1 ,christus being their leader4 ,why does not ,paley explain to us how ,jesus came to be leading ,jews at ,rome during the reign of ,claudius1 and why he incited them to riot8 ,no such incident is related in the life of ,jesus of ,nazareth2 and if ,suetonius be correct1 the credit of the ,gospels is destroyed4 ,to his shame be it said1 that ,paley here deliberately refers to a passage1 which he has not ventured to quote1 simply that he may use the great name of ,suetonius to strengthen his lamentably weak argument1 by the pretence that ,suetonius mentions ,jesus of ,nazareth1 and thus makes him a historical character4 ,few more disgraceful perversions of evidence can be found1 even in the annals of controversy4 ,h4 ,horne refers to this passage in proof of the existence of ,christ 7,introduction1 vol4 i41 page #bjb72 but without offering any explanation of the appearance of ,christ in ,rome some years after he ought to have been dead4 ,juvenal is next dragged forward by ,paley as a witness1 because he mentioned the punishment of some criminals3 ,i think it sufficiently probable that these ,christian executions were the executions to which the poet refers 7,evidences1 p4 #bi47 ,needless to say that there is not a particle of proof that they were anything of the kind2 but when evidence is lacking1 it is necessary to invent it4 ,pliny the ,younger 7born ,a4,d4 #fa1 died ,a4,d4 #aae7 writes to the ,emperor ,trajan1 about ,a4,d4 #ajg1 to ask him how he shall treat the ,christians1 and as ,paley has so grossly misrepresented this letter1 it will be well to reproduce the whole of it4 ,it contains no word of ,christians dying boldly as ,paley pretends1 nor1 indeed1 of the punishment of death being inflicted at all4 ,the word translated punishment is supplicium 7acc4 of supplicium7 in the original1 and is a term which1 like the ,french supplice1 derived from it1 may mean the punishment of death1 or any other heavy penalty4 ,the translation of the letter runs as follows3 ,c4 ,pliny to the ,emperor ,trajan1 ,health4--,it is customary with me to refer to you1 my lord1 matters about which ,i entertain a doubt4 ,for who is better able either to rule my hesitation1 or to instruct my ignorance8 ,i have never been present at the inquiries about the ,christians1 and1 therefore1 cannot say for what crime1 or to what extent1 they are usually punished1 or what is the nature of the inquiry about them4 ,nor have ,i been free from great doubts whether there should not be a distinction between ages1 or how far those of a tender frame should be treated differently from the robust2 whether those who repent should not be pardoned1 so that one who has been a ,christian should not derive advantage from having ceased to be one2 whether the name itself of being a ,christian should be punished1 or only crime attendant upon the name8 ,in the meantime ,i have laid down this rule in dealing with those who were brought before me for being ,christians4 ,i asked whether they were ,christians2 if they confessed1 ,i asked them a second and a third time1 threatening them with punishment2 if they persevered1 ,i ordered them to be led off4 ,for ,i had no doubt in my mind that1 whatever it might be which they acknowledged1 obduracy and inflexible obstinacy1 at all events should be punished4 ,there were others guilty of like folly1 whom ,i set aside to be sent to ,rome1 because they were ,roman citizens4 ,in the next place1 when this crime began1 as usual1 gradually to spread1 it showed itself in a variety of ways4 ,an indictment was set forth without any author1 containing the names of many who denied that they were ,christians or ever had been2 and1 when ,i set the example1 they called on the gods1 and made offerings of frankincense and wine to your image1 which ,i1 for this purpose1 had ordered to be brought out1 together with the images of the gods4 ,moreover1 they cursed ,christ2 none of which acts can be extorted from those who are really ,christians4 ,i consequently gave orders that they should be discharged4 ,again1 others1 who have been informed against1 said that they were ,christians1 and afterwards denied it2 that they had been so once but had ceased to be so1 some three years ago1 some longer than that1 some even twenty years before2 all of these worshipped your image1 and the statues of the gods2 they also cursed ,christ4 ,but they asserted that this was the sum total of their crime or error1 whichever it may be called1 that they were used to come together on a stated day before it was light1 and to sing in turn1 among themselves1 a hymn to ,christ1 as to a god1 and to bind themselves by an oath--not to anything wicked--but that they would not commit theft1 robbery1 or adultery1 nor break their word1 nor deny that anything had been entrusted to them when called upon to restore it4 ,after this they said that it was their custom to separate1 and again to meet together to take their meals1 which were in common and of a harmless nature2 but that they had ceased even to do this since the proclamation which ,i issued according to your commands1 forbidding such meetings to be held4 ,i therefore deemed it the more necessary to enquire of two servant maids1 who were said to be attendants1 what was the real truth1 and to apply the torture4 ,but ,i found that it was nothing but a bad and excessive superstition1 and ,i consequently adjourned the inquiry1 and consulted you upon the subject4 ,for it seemed to me to be a matter on which it was desirable to take advice1 in consequence of the number of those who are in danger4 ,for there are many of every age1 of every rank1 and even of both sexes1 who are invited to incur the danger1 and will still be invited4 ,for the infection of this superstition has spread through not only cities1 but also villages and the country1 though it seems possible to check and remedy it4 ,at all events it is evident that the temples1 which had been almost deserted1 have begun to be frequented1 and the sacred solemnities1 which had been intermitted1 are revived1 and victims are sold everywhere1 though formerly it was difficult to find a buyer4 ,it is1 therefore1 easy to believe that a number of persons may be corrected1 if the door of repentance be left open 7,ep4 #ig74 ,it is urged by ,christian advocates that this letter at least shows how widely ,christianity had spread at this early date2 but we shall later have occasion to draw attention to the fact that the name ,christian was used before the reputed time of ,christ to describe some extensively-spread sects1 and that the worshippers of the ,egyptian ,serapis were known by that title4 ,it may be added that the authenticity of this letter is by no means beyond dispute1 and that ,r4 ,taylor urges some very strong arguments against it4 ,among others1 he suggests3 ,the undeniable fact that the first ,christians were the greatest liars and forgers that had ever been in the whole world1 and that they actually stopped at nothing4444 ,the flagrant atopism of ,christians being found in the remote province of ,bithynia1 before they had acquired any notoriety in ,rome4444 ,the inconsistency of the supposition that so just and moral a people as the primitive ,christians are assumed to have been1 should have been the first to provoke the ,roman ,government to depart from its universal maxims of toleration1 liberality1 and indifference4444 ,the use of the torture to extort confession4444 ,the choice of women to be the subjects of this torture1 when the ill-usage of women was1 in like manner1 abhorrent to the ,roman character 7,diegesis1 pp4 #chc1 #chd74 ,paley boldly states that ,martial 7born ,a4,d4 #dc1 died about ,a4,d4 #ajj7 makes the ,christians the subject of his ridicule1 because he wrote an epigram on the stupidity of admiring any vain-glorious fool who would rush to be tormented for the sake of notoriety4 ,hard-set must ,christians be for evidence1 when reduced to rely on such pretended allusions4 ,epictetus 7flourished first half of second century7 is claimed as another witness1 because he states that ,it is possible a man may arrive at this temper1 and become indifferent to these things from madness1 or from habit1 as the ,galileans 7,book iv41 chapter #g74 ,the ,galileans1 i4e41 the people of ,galilee1 appear to have had a bad name1 and it is highly probable that ,epictetus simply referred to them1 just as he might have said as an equivalent phrase for stupidity1 like the ,boeotians4 ,in addition to this1 the followers of ,judas the ,gaulonite were known as ,galileans1 and were remarkable for the inflexible constancy which1 in defence of their cause1 rendered them insensible of death and tortures 7,decline and ,fall1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bad74 ,marcus ,aurelius 7born ,a4,d4 #aba1 died ,a4,d4 #ahj7 is ,paley's last support1 as he urges that fortitude in the face of death should arise from judgment1 and not from obstinacy1 like the ,christians4 ,as no one disputes the existence of a sect called ,christians when ,marcus ,aurelius wrote1 this testimony is not specially valuable4 ,paley1 so keen to swoop down on any hint that can be twisted into an allusion to the ,christians1 entirely omits the interesting letter written by the ,emperor ,adrian to his brother-in-law ,servianus1 ,a4,d4 #acd4 ,the evidence is not of an edifying character1 and this accounts for the omission3 ,the worshippers of ,serapis are ,christians1 and those are consecrated to the god ,serapis1 who1 ,i find1 call themselves the bishops of ,christ 7,quoted in ,diegesis1 p4 #chf74 ,such are the whole external evidences of ,christianity until after ,a4,d4 #afj4 ,in a time rich in historians and philosophers one man1 ,tacitus1 in a disputed passage1 mentions a ,christus punished under ,pontius ,pilate1 and the existence of a sect bearing his name4 ,suetonius1 ,pliny1 ,adrian1 possibly ,epictetus1 and ,marcus ,aurelius1 casually mention some people called ,christians4 ,the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,giles thus summarises the proofs of the weakness of early ,christian evidences in profane history3-- ,though the remains of ,grecian and ,latin profane literature which belong to the first and second centuries of our era are enough to form a library of themselves1 they contain no allusion to the ,new ,testament4444 ,the ,latin writers1 who lived between the time of ,christ's crucifixion and the year ,a4,d4 #bjj1 are ,seneca1 ,lucan1 ,suetonius1 ,tacitus1 ,persius1 ,juvenal1 ,martial1 ,pliny the ,elder1 ,silius ,italicus1 ,statius1 ,quintilian1 and ,pliny the ,younger1 besides numerous others of inferior note4 ,the greater number of these make mention of the ,jews1 but not of the ,christians4 ,in fact1 ,suetonius1 ,tacitus1 and the younger ,pliny1 are the only ,roman writers who mention the ,christian religion or its founder 7,christian ,records1 by ,rev4 ,dr4 ,giles1 ,p4 #cf74 ,the ,greek classic writers1 who lived between the time of ,christ's crucifixion and the year #bjj1 are those which follow3 ,epictetus1 ,plutarch1 lian1 ,arrian1 ,galen1 ,lucian1 ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus1 ,ptolemy1 ,marcus ,aurelius 7who1 though a ,roman emperor1 wrote in ,greek71 ,pausanias1 and many others of less note4 ,the allusions to ,christianity found in their works are singularly brief 7,ibid1 p4 #db74 ,what does it all1 this evidence1 amount to8 ,one writer1 ,tacitus1 records that a man1 called by his followers ,christ--for no one pretends that ,christ is anything more than a title given by his disciples to a certain ,jew named ,jesus--was put to death by ,pontius ,pilate4 ,and suppose he were1 what then8 ,how is this a proof of the religion called ,christianity8 ,tacitus knows nothing of the miracle-worker1 of the risen and ascended man2 he is strangely ignorant of all the wonders that had occurred2 and1 allowing the passage to be genuine1 it tells sorely against the marvellous history given by the ,christians of their leader1 whose fame is supposed to have spread far and wide1 and whose fame most certainly must so have spread had he really performed all the wonderful works attributed to him4 ,but no necessity lies upon the ,freethinker1 when he rejects ,christianity1 to disprove the historical existence of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 although we point to the inadequacy of the evidence even of his existence4 ,the strength of the ,freethought position is in no-wise injured by the admission that a young ,jew named ,joshua 7i4e4 ,jesus7 may have wandered up and down ,galilee and ,juda in the reign of ,tiberius1 that he may have been a religious reformer1 that he may have been put to death by ,pontius ,pilate for sedition4 ,all this is perfectly likely1 and to allow it in no way endorses the mass of legend and myth encrusted round this tiny nucleus of possible fact4 ,this obscure peasant is not the ,christian ,jesus1 who is--as we shall later urge--only a new presentation of the ancient ,sun-,god1 with unmistakeable family likeness to his elder brothers4 ,the ,reverend ,robert ,taylor very rightly remarks1 concerning this small historical possibility3 ,these are circumstances which fall entirely within the scale of rational possibility1 and draw for no more than an ordinary and indifferent testimony of history1 to command the mind's assent4 ,the mere relation of any historian1 living near enough to the time supposed to guarantee the probability of his competent information on the subject1 would have been entitled to our acquiescence4 ,we could have no reason to deny or to doubt what such an historian could have had no motive to feign or to exaggerate4 ,the proof1 even to demonstration1 of these circumstances would constitute no step or advance towards the proof of the truth of the ,christian religion2 while the absence of a sufficient degree of evidence to render even these circumstances unquestionable must1 fortiori1 be fatal to the credibility of the less credible circumstances founded upon them 7,diegesis1 p4 #g74 ,but ,paley pleads some indirect evidence on behalf of ,christianity1 which deserves a word of notice since the direct evidence so lamentably breaks down4 ,he urges that3 there is satisfactory evidence that many1 professing to be original witnesses of the ,christian miracles1 passed their lives in labours1 dangers1 and sufferings1 voluntarily under-gone1 in attestation of the accounts which they delivered1 and solely in consequence of their belief of those accounts2 and that they also submitted1 from the same motives1 to new rules of conduct4 ,nearly #bjj pages are devoted to the proof of this proposition1 a proposition which it is difficult to characterise with becoming courtesy1 when we know the complete and utter absence of any satisfactory evidence that the original witnesses did anything of the kind4 ,it is pleaded that the original witnesses passed their lives in labours1 etc41 in attestation of the accounts they delivered4 ,the evidence of this may be looked for either in ,pagan or in ,christian writings4 ,pagan writers know literally nothing about the original witnesses1 mentioning1 at the utmost1 but the ,christians2 and these ,christians1 when put to death1 were not so executed in attestation of any accounts delivered by them1 but wholly and solely because of the evil deeds and the scandalous practices rightly or wrongly attributed to them4 ,supposing--what is not true--that they had been executed for their creed1 there is no pretence that they were eye-witnesses of the miracles of ,christ4 ,paley's first argument is drawn from the nature of the case--i4e41 that persecution ought to have taken place1 whether it did or not1 because both ,jews and ,gentiles would reject the new creed4 ,so far as the ,jews are concerned1 we hear of no persecution from ,josephus4 ,if we interrogate the ,christian ,acts1 we hear but of little1 two persons only being killed4 ,we learn also that many thousands of ,jews belonged to the new sect1 and were propitiated by ,christian conformity to the law2 and that1 when the ,jews rose against ,paul--not as a ,christian1 but as a breaker of the ,mosaic law--he was promptly delivered by the ,romans1 who would have set him at liberty had he not elected to be tried at ,rome4 ,if we turn to the conduct of the ,pagans1 we meet the same blank absence of evidence of persecution1 until we come to the disputed passage in ,tacitus1 wherein none of the eye-witnesses are said to have been concerned2 and we have1 on the other side1 the undisputed fact that1 under the imperial rule of ,rome1 every subject nation practised its own creed undisturbed1 so long as it did not incite to civil disturbances4 ,the religious tenets of the ,galileans1 or ,christians1 were never made a subject of punishment1 or even of inquiry 7,decline and ,fall1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bae74 ,this view of the matter is thoroughly corroborated by ,lardner3 ,the disciples of ,jesus ,christ were under the protection of the ,roman law1 since the ,god they worshipped and whose worship they recommended1 was the ,god of the heavens and the earth1 the same ,god whom the ,jews worshipped1 and the worship of whom was allowed of all over the ,roman ,empire1 and established by special edicts and decrees in most1 perhaps in all the places1 in which we meet with ,st4 ,paul in his travels 7,credibility1 vol4 i41 pt4 ,i1 pp4 #djf1 #djg4 ,ed4 #agbg74 ,he also quotes a remarkable piece of justice done the ,jews at ,doris1 in ,syria1 by ,petronius1 ,president of that province4 ,the fact is this3 ,some rash young fellows of the place got in and set up a statue of the ,emperor in the ,jews' synagogue4 ,agrippa the ,great made complaints to ,petronius concerning this injury4 ,whereupon ,petronius issued a very sharp precept to the magistrates of ,doris4 ,he terms this action an offence1 not against the ,jews only1 but also against the ,emperor2 says1 it is agreeable to the law of nature that every man should be master of his own places1 according to the decree of the ,emperor4 ,i have1 says he1 given directions that they who have dared to do these things contrary to the edict of ,augustus1 be delivered to the centurion ,vitellius ,proculus1 that they may be brought to me1 and answer for their behaviour4 ,and ,i require the chief men in the magistracy to discover the guilty to the centurion1 unless they are willing to have it thought1 that this injustice has been done with their consent2 and that they see to it1 that no sedition or tumult happen upon this occasion1 which1 ,i perceive1 is what some are aiming at4444 ,i do also require1 that for the future1 you seek no pretence for sedition or disturbance1 but that all men worship ,god according to their own customs 7,ibid1 pp4 #chb1 #chc74 ,after giving some other facts1 ,lardner sums up3 ,these are authentic testimonies in behalf of the equity of the ,roman ,government in general1 and of the impartial administration of justice by the ,roman presidents--toward all the people of their provinces1 how much soever they differed from each other in matters of religion 7,ibid1 p4 #dja74 ,the evidence of persecution which consists in quotations from the ,christian books 7,evidences1 pages #cc-eb7 cannot be admitted without evidence of the authenticity of the books quoted4 ,the ,acts and the ,pauline epistles so grossly contradict each other that1 having nothing outside themselves with which to compare them1 they are mutually destructive4 ,the epistle to the ,romans presents special difficulties to its acceptance as a genuine address to the ,church of ,rome in the era ascribed to it4 ,the faith of this ,church1 at this early period1 is said to be 'spoken of throughout the whole world'2 and yet when ,paul1 according to the ,acts1 at a later time visited ,rome1 so little had this alleged ,church influenced the neighbourhood1 that the inquiring ,jews of ,rome are shown to be totally ignorant of what constituted ,christianity1 and to have looked to ,paul to enlighten them 7,portraiture and ,mission of ,jesus1 p4 #ae74 #b ,cor4 is of very doubtful authenticity4 ,the passage in ,james shows no fiery persecution4 ,hebrews is of later date4 #b ,thess4 again very doubtful4 ,the suffering spoken of by ,peter appears1 from the context1 to refer chiefly to reproaches1 and a problematical if any man suffer as a ,christian4 ,had those he wrote to been then suffering1 surely the apostle would have said3 ,when any man suffers 444 let him not be ashamed4 ,the whole question of the authenticity of the canonical books will be challenged later1 and the weakness of this division of ,paley's evidences will then be more fully apparent4 ,meanwhile we subjoin ,lardner's view of these passages4 ,he has been arguing that the ,romans protected the many rites of all their provinces2 and he proceeds3 ,there is1 however1 one difficulty which1 ,i am aware1 may be started by some persons4 ,if the ,roman ,government1 to which all the world was then subject1 was so mild and gentle1 and protected all men in the profession of their several religious tenets1 and the practice of all their peculiar rites1 whence comes it to pass that there are in the ,epistles so many exhortations to the ,christians to patience and constancy1 and so many arguments of consolation suggested to them1 as a suffering body of men8 ,here follow some passages as in ,paley4 ,to this ,i answer3 #a4 ,that the account ,st4 ,luke has given in the ,acts of the ,apostles of the behaviour of the ,roman officers out of ,juda1 and in it1 is confirmed not only by the account ,i have given of the genius and nature of the ,roman ,government1 but also by the testimony of the most ancient ,christian writers4 ,the ,romans did afterwards depart from these moderate maxims2 but it is certain that they were governed by them as long as the history of the ,acts of the ,apostles reaches4 ,tertullian and divers others do affirm that ,nero was the first ,emperor that persecuted the ,christians2 nor did he begin to disturb them till after ,paul had left ,rome the first time he was there 7when he was sent thither by ,festus71 and1 therefore1 not until he was become an enemy to all mankind4 ,and ,i think that1 according to the account which ,tacitus has given of ,nero's inhumane treatment of the ,christians at ,rome1 in the tenth year of his reign1 what he did then was not owing to their having different principles in religion from the ,romans1 but proceeded from a desire he had to throw off from himself the odium of a vile action--namely1 setting fire to the city--which he was generally charged with4 ,and ,sulpicius ,severus1 a ,christian historian of the fourth century1 says the same thing 7,credibility of the ,gospel ,history1 vol4 i41 pages #daf-dbj74 ,lardner1 however1 allows that the ,jews persecuted the ,christians where they could although they were unable to slay them4 ,they probably persecuted them much in the same fashion that the ,christians have persecuted ,freethinkers during the present century4 ,but ,paley adduces further the evidence of ,clement1 ,hermas1 ,polycarp1 ,ignatius1 and a circular letter of the ,church of ,smyrna1 to prove the sufferings of the eye-witnesses 7,evidences1 pages #eb-ee74 ,when we pass into writings of this description in later times1 there is1 indeed1 plenty of evidence--in fact1 a good deal too much1 for they testify to such marvellous occurrences1 that no trust is possible in anything which they say4 ,not only was ,st4 ,paul's head cut off1 but the worthy ,bishop of ,rome1 ,linus1 his contemporary 7who is supposed to relate his martyrdom71 tells us how1 instead of blood1 nought but a stream of pure milk flowed from his veins2 and we are further instructed that his severed head took three jumps in honour of the ,trinity1 and at each spot on which it jumped there instantly struck up a spring of living water1 which retains at this day a plain and distinct taste of milk 7,diegesis1 pp4 #bef1 #beg74 ,against a mass of absurd stories of this kind1 the only evidence of the persecution of ,paley's eye-witnesses1 we may set the remarks of ,gibbon3 ,in the time of ,tertullian and ,clemens of ,alexandria the glory of martyrdom was confined to ,st4 ,peter1 ,st4 ,paul1 and ,st4 ,james4 ,it was gradually bestowed on the rest of the ,apostles by the more recent ,greeks1 who prudently selected for the theatre of their preaching and sufferings some remote country beyond the limits of the ,roman ,empire 7,decline and ,fall1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bjh1 note74 ,later there was1 indeed1 more persecution2 but even then the martyrdoms afford no evidence of the truth of ,christianity4 ,martyrdom proves the sincerity1 but not the truth1 of the sufferer's belief2 every creed has had its martyrs1 and as the truth of one creed excludes the truth of every other1 it follows that the vast majority have died for a delusion1 and that1 therefore1 the number of martyrs it can reckon is no criterion of the truth of a creed1 but only of the devotion it inspires4 ,while we allow that the ,christians underwent much persecution1 there can be no doubt that the number of the sufferers has been grossly exaggerated4 ,one can scarcely help suspecting that1 as real martyrs were not forthcoming in as vast numbers as their supposed bones1 martyrs were invented to fit the wealth-producing relics1 as the relics did not fit the historical martyrs4 ,the total disregard of truth and probability in the representations of these primitive martyrdoms was occasioned by a very natural mistake4 ,the ecclesiastical writers of the fourth and fifth centuries ascribed to the magistrates of ,rome the same degree of implacable and unrelenting zeal which filled their own breasts against the heretics1 or the idolaters of their own time4444 ,but it is certain1 and we may appeal to the grateful confessions of the first ,christians1 that the greatest part of those magistrates1 who exercised in the provinces the authority of the ,emperor1 or of the ,senate1 and to whose hands alone the jurisdiction of life and death was entrusted1 behaved like men of polished manners and liberal education1 who respected the rules of justice1 and who were conversant with the precepts of philosophy4 ,they frequently declined the odious task of persecution1 dismissed the charge with contempt1 or suggested to the accused ,christian some legal evasion by which he might elude the severity of the laws4 7,tertullian1 in his epistle to the ,governor of ,africa1 mentions several remarkable instances of lenity and forbearance which had happened within his own knowledge47444 ,the learned ,origen1 who1 from his experience1 as well as reading1 was intimately acquainted with the history of the ,christians1 declares1 in the most express terms1 that the number of martyrs was very inconsiderable4444 ,the general assertion of ,origen may be explained and confirmed by the particular testimony of his friend ,dionysius1 who1 in the immense city of ,alexandria1 and under the rigorous persecution of ,decius1 reckons only ten men and seven women who suffered for the profession of the ,christian name 7,decline and ,fall1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #bbd-bbf4 ,see throughout chap4 xvi474 ,gibbon calculates the whole number of martyrs of the ,early ,church at somewhat less than two thousand persons2 and remarks caustically that the ,christians1 in the course of their intestine dissensions1 have inflicted far greater severities on each other than they had experienced from the zeal of infidels 7pp4 #bgc1 #bgd74 ,supposing1 however1 that the most exaggerated accounts of ,church historians were correct1 how would that support ,paley's argument8 ,his contention is that the eye-witnesses of miraculous events died in testimony of their belief in them2 and myriads of martyrs in the second and third centuries are of no assistance to him4 ,so we will retrace our steps to the eye-witnesses1 and we find the position of ,gibbon--as to the lives and labours of the ,apostles being written later by men not confining themselves to facts--endorsed by ,mosheim1 who judiciously observes3 ,many have undertaken to write this history of the ,apostles1 a history which we find loaded with fables1 doubts1 and difficulties1 when we pursue it further than the books of the ,new ,testament1 and the most ancient writers in the ,christian ,church 7,eccles4 ,hist41 p4 #bg1 ed4 #ahdg74 ,what ancient writers ,mosheim alludes to it is difficult to guess1 as may be judged from his criticisms quoted below1 on the ,apostolic ,fathers1 the most ancient of all2 and in estimating the worth of his opinion1 it is necessary to remember that he was himself an earnest ,christian1 although a learned and candid one1 so that every admission he makes1 which tells against ,christianity1 is of double weight1 it being the admission of a friend and defender4 ,to the credit of ,paley's apostolic evidences 7,clement1 ,hermas1 ,polycarp1 ,ignatius1 and letter from ,smyrna71 we may urge the following objections4 ,clement's writings are much disputed3 ,the accounts which remain of his life1 actions1 and death are1 for the most part1 uncertain4 ,two ,epistles to the ,corinthians1 written in ,greek1 have been attributed to him1 of which the second has been looked upon as spurious1 and the first as genuine1 by many learned writers4 ,but even this latter seems to have been corrupted and interpolated by some ignorant and presumptuous author4444 ,the learned are now unanimous in regarding the other writings which bear the name of ,clemens 7,clement7 444 as spurious productions ascribed by some impostor to this venerable prelate1 in order to procure them a high degree of authority 7,ibid1 pp4 #ca1 #cb74 ,the first epistle1 bearing the name of ,clement1 has been preserved to us in a single manuscript only4 ,though very frequently referred to by ancient ,christian writers1 it remained unknown to the scholars of ,western ,europe until happily discovered in the ,alexandrian manuscript4444 ,who the ,clement was1 to whom these writings are ascribed1 cannot with absolute certainty be determined4 ,the general opinion is1 that he is the same as the person of that name referred to by ,st4 ,paul 7,phil4 iv4 #c74 ,the writings themselves contain no statement as to their author4444 ,although1 as has been said1 positive certainty cannot be reached on the subject1 we may with great probability conclude that we have in this epistle a composition of that ,clement who is known to us from ,scripture as having been an associate of the great apostle4 ,the date of this epistle has been the subject of considerable controversy4 ,it is clear from the writing itself that it was composed soon after some persecution 7chapter ,i7 which the ,roman ,church had endured2 and the only question is1 whether we are to fix upon the persecution under ,nero or ,domitian4 ,if the former1 the date will be about the year #fh2 if the latter1 we must place it towards the close of the first century1 or the beginning of the second4 ,we possess no external aid to the settlement of this question4 ,the lists of early ,roman bishops are in hopeless confusion1 some making ,clement the immediate successor of ,st4 ,peter1 others placing ,linus1 and others still ,linus and ,anacletus1 between him and the apostle4 ,the internal evidence1 again1 leaves the matter doubtful1 though it has been strongly pressed on both sides4 ,the probability seems1 on the whole1 to be in favour of the ,domitian period1 so that the epistle may be dated about ,a4,d4 #ig 7,the ,writings of the ,apostolic ,fathers4 ,translated by ,rev4 ,dr4 ,roberts1 ,dr4 ,donaldson1 and ,rev4 ,f4 ,crombie1 pp4 #c1 #d4 ,ed4 #ahfg74 ,only a single-manuscript copy of the work is extant1 at the end of the ,alexandrian manuscript of the ,scriptures4 ,this copy is considerably mutilated4 ,in some passages the text is manifestly corrupt1 and other passages have been suspected of being interpolations 7,norton's ,genuineness of the ,gospels1 vol4 i1 p4 #ccf4 ,ed4 #ahdg74 ,the second epistle is rejected on all sides4 ,it is now generally regarded as one of the many writings which have been falsely ascribed to ,clement4444 ,the diversity of style clearly points to a different writer from that of the first epistle 7,apostolic ,fathers1 page #ec74 ,the second epistle 444 is not mentioned at all by the earlier ,fathers who refer to the first4 ,eusebius1 who is the first writer who mentions it1 expresses doubt regarding it1 while ,jerome and ,photius state that it was rejected by the ancients4 ,it is now universally regarded as spurious 7,supernatural ,religion1 pp4 #bbj1 #bba74 ,there is a second epistle ascribed to ,clement1 but we know not that this is as highly approved as the former1 and know not that it has been in use with the ancients4 ,there are also other writings reported to be his1 verbose and of great length4 ,lately1 and some time ago1 those were produced that contain the dialogues of ,peter and ,apion1 of which1 however1 not a syllable is recorded by the primitive ,church 7,eusebius' ,eccles4 ,hist4 bk4 iii41 chap4 #ch74 ,the first ,greek ,epistle alone can be confidently pronounced genuine 7,westcott on the ,canon of the ,new ,testament1 p4 #bd4 ,ed4 #ahge74 ,the first epistle is the only piece of ,clement that can be relied on as genuine 7,lardner's ,credibility1 pt4 ii41 vol4 i41 p4 #fb4 ,ed4 #agcd74 ,besides the ,epistle of ,clement to the ,corinthians there is a fragment of a piece1 called his second epistle1 which being doubtful1 or rather plainly not ,clement's1 ,i don't quote as his4 7,ibid1 p4 #ajf47 ,this very dubious ,clement 7,paley quotes1 be it said1 from the first--or least doubtful--of his writings7 only says that one of ,paley's original witnesses was martyred1 namely ,peter2 ,paul1 of course1 was not an eye-witness of ,christ's proceedings4 ,the ,vision of ,hermas is a simple rhapsody1 unworthy of a moment's consideration1 of which ,mosheim justly remarks3 ,the discourse which he puts into the mouths of those celestial beings is more insipid and senseless than what we commonly hear among the meanest of the multitude 7,eccles4 ,hist1 p4 #cb74 ,its date is very doubtful2 the ,canon of ,muratori puts it in the middle of the second century1 saying that it was written by ,hermas1 brother to ,pius1 ,bishop of ,rome1 who died ,a4,d4 #adb4 7,see ,norton's ,genuineness of the ,gospels1 vol4 i41 pp4 #cda1 #cdb47 ,the ,epistle to the ,philippians1 which is ascribed to ,polycarp1 ,bishop of ,smyrna1 who1 in the middle of the second century1 suffered martyrdom in a venerable and advanced age1 is looked upon by some as genuine2 by others as spurious2 and it is no easy matter to determine this question 7,eccles4 ,hist1 p4 #cb74 ,upon no internal ground can any part of this ,epistle be pronounced genuine2 there are potent reasons for considering it spurious1 and there is no evidence of any value whatever supporting its authenticity 7,sup4 ,rel41 p4 #bhc74 ,the editors of the ,apostolic ,fathers dispute this assertion1 and say3 ,it is abundantly established by external testimony1 and is also supported by the internal evidence 7p4 #fg74 ,but they add3 ,the epistle before us is not perfect in any of the ,greek ,,mss4 which contain it4 ,but the chapters wanting in ,greek are contained in an ancient ,latin version4 ,while there is no ground for supposing1 as some have done1 that the whole epistle is spurious1 there seems considerable force in the arguments by which many others have sought to prove chap4 xiii4 to be an interpolation4 ,the date of the epistle cannot be satisfactorily determined4 ,it depends on the conclusion we reach as to some points1 very difficult and obscure1 connected with that account of the martyrdom of ,polycarp which has come down to us4 ,we shall not1 however1 be far wrong if we fix it about the middle of the second century 7,ibid1 pp4 #fg1 #fh74 ,poor ,paley6 this weak evidence to the martyrdom of his eye-witnesses comes #aej years after ,christ2 and even then all that ,polycarp may have said1 if the epistle chance to be authentic1 is that they suffered1 without any word of their martyrdom6 ,the authenticity of the letters of ,ignatius has long been a matter of dispute4 ,mosheim1 who accepts the seven epistles1 says that1 ,though ,i am willing to adopt this opinion as preferable to any other1 yet ,i cannot help looking upon the authenticity of the epistle to ,polycarp as extremely dubious1 on account of the difference of style2 and1 indeed1 the whole question relating to the epistles of ,st4 ,ignatius in general seems to me to labour under much obscurity1 and to be embarrassed with many difficulties 7,eccles4 ,hist41 p4 #bb74 ,there are in all fifteen epistles which bear the name of ,ignatius4 ,these are the following3 ,one to the ,virgin ,mary1 two to the ,apostle ,john1 one to ,mary of ,cassobel1 one to the ,tarsians1 one to the ,antiochians1 one to ,hero 7a deacon of ,antioch71 one to the ,philippians1 one to the ,ephesians1 one to the ,magnesians1 one to the ,trallians1 one to the ,romans1 one to the ,philadelphians1 one to the ,smyrnians1 and one to ,polycarp4 ,the first three exist only in ,latin2 all the rest are extant also in ,greek4 ,it is now the universal opinions of critics that the first eight of these professedly ,ignatian letters are spurious4 ,they bear in themselves indubitable proofs of being the production of a later age than that in which ,ignatius lived4 ,neither ,eusebius nor ,jerome makes the least reference to them2 and they are now1 by common consent1 set aside as forgeries1 which were at various dates1 and to serve special purposes1 put forth under the name of the celebrated ,bishop of ,antioch4 ,but1 after the question has been thus simplified1 it still remains sufficiently complex4 ,of the seven epistles which are acknowledged by ,eusebius 7,eccles4 ,hist1 bk4 iii41 chap4 #cf71 we possess two ,greek recensions1 a shorter and a longer4 ,it is plain that one or other of these exhibits a corrupt text2 and scholars have1 for the most part1 agreed to accept the shorter form as representing the genuine letters of ,ignatius4444 ,but although the shorter form of the ,ignatian letters had been generally accepted in preference to the longer1 there was still a pretty prevalent opinion among scholars that even it could not be regarded as absolutely free from interpolations1 or as of undoubted authenticity4444 ,upon the whole1 however1 the shorter recension was1 until recently1 accepted without much opposition 444 as exhibiting the genuine form of the epistles of ,ignatius4 ,but a totally different aspect was given to the question by the discovery of a ,syriac version of three of these epistles among the ,,mss4 procured from the monastery of ,st4 ,mary ,deipara1 in the desert of ,nitria1 in ,egypt between #ahch and #ahdb4444 ,on these being deposited in the ,british ,museum1 the late ,dr4 ,cureton1 who then had charge of the ,syriac department1 discovered among them1 first1 the epistle to ,polycarp1 and then again the same epistle1 with those to the ,ephesians and to the ,romans1 in two other volumes of manuscripts 7,apostolic ,fathers1 pp4 #aci-adb74 ,dr4 ,cureton gave it as his opinion that the ,syriac letters are the only true and genuine letters of the venerable ,bishop of ,antioch that have either come down to our times or were ever known in the earliest ages of the ,christian ,church 7,corpus ,ignatianum1 ed4 #ahdi1 as quoted in the ,apostolic ,fathers1 p4 #adb74 ,i have carefully compared the two editions1 and am very well satisfied upon that comparison that the larger are an interpolation of the smaller1 and not the smaller an epitome or abridgment of the larger4 ,i desire no better evidence in a thing of this nature4444 ,but whether the smaller themselves are the genuine writings of ,ignatius1 ,bishop of ,antioch1 is a question that has been much disputed1 and has employed the pens of the ablest critics4 ,and whatever positiveness some may have shown on either side1 ,i must own ,i have found it a very difficult question 7,credibility1 pt4 #b1 vol4 ii41 p4 #aec74 ,the ,syriac version was then1 of course1 unknown4 ,professor ,norton1 the learned ,christian defender of the ,gospels1 says3 ,the seven shorter epistles1 the genuineness of which is contended for1 come to us in bad company4444 ,there is1 as it seems to me1 no reasonable doubt that the seven shorter epistles ascribed to ,ignatius are equally1 with all the rest1 fabrications of a date long subsequent to his time4 ,i doubt whether any book1 in its general tone of sentiment and language1 ever betrayed itself as a forgery more clearly than do these pretended epistles of ,ignatius 7,genuineness of the ,gospels1 vol4 i41 pp4 #cej and #cec1 ed4 #ahdg74 ,what1 then1 is the position of the so-called ,ignatian epistles8 ,towards the end of the second century ,irenus makes a very short quotation from a source unnamed1 which ,eusebius1 in the fourth century1 finds in an epistle attributed to ,ignatius4 ,origen1 in the third century1 quotes a few words1 which he ascribes to ,ignatius1 although without definite reference to any particular epistle2 and1 in the fourth century1 ,eusebius mentions seven epistles ascribed to ,ignatius4 ,there is no other evidence4 ,there are1 however1 fifteen epistles extant1 all of which are attributed to ,ignatius1 of all of which1 with the exception of three1 which are only known in a ,latin version1 we possess both ,greek and ,latin versions4 ,of seven of these epistles--and they are those mentioned by ,eusebius--we have two ,greek versions1 one of which is very much shorter than the other2 and1 finally1 we now possess a ,syriac version of three epistles1 only in a form still shorter than the shorter ,greek version1 in which are found all the quotations of the ,fathers1 without exception1 up to the fourth century4 ,eight of the fifteen epistles are universally rejected as spurious 7ante1 p4 #bfc74 ,the longer ,greek version of the remaining seven epistles is almost unanimously condemned as grossly interpolated2 and the great majority of critics recognise that the shorter ,greek version is also much interpolated2 whilst the ,syriac version1 which1 so far as ,,mss4 are concerned1 is by far the most ancient text of any letters which we possess1 reduces their number to three1 and their contents to a very small compass indeed4 ,it is not surprising that the vast majority of critics have expressed doubt more or less strong regarding the authenticity of all these epistles1 and that so large a number have repudiated them altogether4 ,one thing is quite evident--that1 amidst such a mass of falsification1 interpolation1 and fraud1 the ,ignatian epistles cannot1 in any form1 be considered evidence on any important point4444 ,in fact1 the whole of the ,ignatian literature is a mass of falsification and fraud 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 pp4 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgd74 ,the student may judge from this confusion1 of fifteen reduced to seven long1 and seven long reduced to seven short1 and seven short reduced to three1 and those three very doubtful1 how thoroughly reliable must be ,paley's arguments drawn from this contemporary of ,polycarp4 ,our editors of the ,fathers very frankly remark3 ,as to the personal history of ,ignatius1 almost nothing is known 7,apostolic ,fathers1 p4 #adc74 ,why1 acknowledging this1 they call him celebrated1 it is hard to say4 ,truly1 the ways of ,christian commentators are dark6 ,paley's quotation is taken from the epistle to the ,smyrnaeans 7not one of the ,syriac1 be it noted71 and is from the shorter ,greek recension4 ,it occurs in chap4 iii41 and only says that ,peter1 and those who were with him1 saw ,jesus after the resurrection1 and believed3 for this cause also they despised death1 and were found its conquerors4 ,men who believed in a resurrection might naturally despise death2 but it is hard to see how this quotation--even were it authentic--shows that the apostles suffered for their belief4 ,what strikes one as most remarkable--if ,paley's contention of the sufferings of the witnesses be true1 and these writings authentic--is that so very little mention is made of the apostles1 of their labours1 toils1 and sufferings1 and that these epistles are simply a kind of patchwork1 chiefly of ,old ,testament materials1 mixed up with exhortations about ,christ4 ,the circular epistle of the ,church of ,smyrna is a curious document4 ,paley quotes a terrible account of the tortures inflicted1 and one would imagine on reading it that many must have been put to death4 ,we are surprised to learn1 from the epistle itself1 that ,polycarp was only the twelfth martyr between the two towns of ,smyrna and ,philadelphia6 ,the amount of dependence to be placed on the narrative may be judged by the following3--,as the flame blazed forth in great fury1 we1 to whom it was given to witness it1 beheld a great miracle1 and have been preserved that we might report to others what then took place4 ,for the fire1 shaping itself into the form of an arch1 like the sail of a ship when filled with the wind1 encompassed as by a circle the body of the martyr4 ,and he appeared within1 not like flesh which is burnt1 but as bread that is baked1 or as gold and silver glowing in a furnace4 ,moreover1 we perceived such a sweet odour1 as if frankincense or some such precious spices had been burning there4 ,at length1 when those men perceived that his body could not be consumed by the fire1 they commanded an executioner to go near1 and pierce him with a dagger4 ,and on his doing this1 there came forth a dove1 and a great quantity of blood1 so that the fire was extinguished 7,apostolic ,fathers1 p4 #ib74 ,what reliance can be placed on historians787 who gravely relate that fire does not burn1 and that when a man is pierced with a dagger a dove flies out1 together with sufficient blood to quench a flaming pile8 ,to make this precious epistle still more valuable1 one of its transcribers adds to it3--,i again1 ,pionius1 wrote them 7these things7 from the previously written copy1 having carefully searched into them1 and the blessed ,polycarp having manifested them to me through a revelation6 even as ,i shall show in what follows4 ,i have collected these things1 when they had almost faded away through the lapse of time 7,ibid1 p4 #if74 ,if this is history1 then any absurd dream may be taken as the basis of belief4 ,we may add that this epistle does not mention the martyrdoms of the eye-witnesses1 and it is hard to know why ,paley drags it in1 unless he wants to make us believe that his eye-witnesses suffered all the tortures he quotes2 but even ,paley cannot pretend that there is a scintilla of proof of their undergoing any such trials4 ,thus falls the whole argument based on the twelve men1 whose probity and good sense ,i had long known1 dying for the persistent assertion of a miracle wrought before their eyes1 who are used as a parallel of the apostles1 as an argument against ,hume4 ,for we have not yet proved that there were any eye-witnesses1 or that they made any assertions1 and we have entirely failed to prove that the eye-witnesses were martyred at all1 or that the death of any one of them1 save that of ,peter1 is even mentioned in the alleged documents1 so that the satisfactory evidences of the original witnesses of the ,christian miracles suffering and dying in attestation of those miracles amount to this1 that in a disputed document ,peter is said to have been martyred1 and in another1 still more doubtful1 the rest of the apostles are said to have suffered4 ,thus the first proposition of ,paley falls entirely to the ground4 ,the honest truth is that the history of the twelve apostles is utterly unknown1 and that around their names gathers a mass of incredible and nonsensical myth and legend1 similar in kind to other mythological fables1 and entirely unworthy of credence by reasonable people4 ,nor is proof less lacking of submission from the same motives1 to new rules of conduct4 ,nowhere is there a sign that ,christian morality was enforced by appeal to the miracles of ,christ2 miracles were1 in those days1 too common an incident to attract much attention1 and1 indeed1 if they could not win belief in the mission from those ,jews before whom they were said to have been performed1 what chance would they have had when the story of their working was only repeated by hearsay8 ,again1 the rules of conduct were not new2 the best parts of the ,christian morality had been taught long before ,christ 7as we shall prove later on by quotations71 and were familiar to the ,greeks1 ,romans1 and ,egyptians1 from the writings of their own philosophers4 ,there would have been nothing remarkable in a new sect growing up among these peoples1 accustomed as they were to the schools of the philosophers1 with their various groups of disciples distinguished by special names4 ,why is there anything more wonderful in these ,christian societies with a high moral code1 than in the severe and stately morality inculcated and practised by the ,stoics8 ,for the submission of conduct to the new rules1 the less said the better4 #a ,corinthians does not give us a very lofty idea of the morality current among the ,christians there1 and the angry reproaches of ,jude imply much depravity2 the messages to the seven ,churches are generally reproving1 not to dwell on many scattered passages of the same character4 ,outsiders1 moreover1 speak very harshly of the ,christian societies4 ,tacitus--whose testimony must be allowed some weight1 if he be quoted as a proof of the existence of the sect--says that they were held in abhorrence for their crimes1 and were condemned for their enmity to mankind 7the expression of ,tacitus may either mean haters of mankind1 or hated by mankind71 expressions which show that the adherents of the higher and purer morality were1 at least1 singularly unfortunate in the impressions of it which they conveyed to their neighbours by their lives2 and we find1 further1 the most scandalous crimes imputed to the ,christians1 necessitating the enforcement against them of edicts passed to put down the shameful ,bacchanalian mysteries4 ,and here1 indeed1 is the true cause of the persecution to which they were subjected under the just and merciful ,roman sway1 and this is a point that should not be lost sight of by the student4 ,about #ahf ,b4,c41 according to ,livy 7lib4 xxxix4 c4 #h-ai71 the ,roman ,government1 discovering that certain ,bacchanalian mysteries were habitually celebrated in ,rome1 issued stern edicts against the participants in them1 and succeeding in1 at least partially1 suppressing them4 ,the reason given by the ,consul ,postumius for these edicts was political1 not religious4 ,could they think1 he asked1 that youths1 initiated under such oaths as theirs1 were fit to be made soldiers8 ,that wretches brought out of the temple of obscenity could be trusted with arms8 ,that those contaminated with the foul debaucheries of these meetings should be the champions for the chastity of the wives and children of the ,roman people8 ,let us now closely examine how far the ,eleusinian and ,bacchanalian feasts resembled the ,christian ,agapae--whether the latter1 modified and altered a little according to the change which would take place in the taste of the age1 originated from the former1 or were altogether from a different source4 ,we have seen that the forementioned ,pagan feasts were1 throughout ,italy1 in a very flourishing state about #ahf years before the ,christian era4 ,we have also seen that about this time they were1 at least1 partially suppressed in ,italy1 and those who were wont to take part in them dispersed over the world4 ,being zealously devoted to the religion of which these feasts were part1 it is very natural to suppose that1 wherever the votaries of this superstition settled1 they soon established these feasts1 which they were enabled to carry on secretly1 and1 therefore1 for a considerable time1 undetected4444 ,both ,pagans and ,christians1 in ancient times1 were particularly careful not to disclose their mysteries2 to do so1 in violation of their oaths1 would cost their lives 7,the ,prophet of ,nazareth1 by ,e4,p4 ,meredith1 notes1 pp4 #bbe1 #bbf74 ,mr4 ,meredith then points out how in ,rome1 in ,lyons1 in ,vienne1 the ,christians were actually accused of murdering children and others--of committing adultery1 incest1 and other flagrant crimes in their secret lovefeasts4 ,the question1 therefore1 arises--were they really guilty of the barbarous crimes with which they were so often formally charged1 and for the commission of which they were almost as often legally condemned1 and punished with death8 ,is it probable that persons at ,rome1 who had once belonged to these lovefeasts1 should tell a deliberate falsehood that the ,christians perpetrated these abominable vices1 and that other persons in ,france1 who had also been connected with these feasts1 should falsely state that the ,christians were guilty of the very same execrable crimes8 ,there was no collusion or connection whatever between these parties1 and in making their statements1 they could have no self-interested motive4 ,they lived in different countries1 they did not make their statements within twenty years of the same time1 and by making such statements they rendered themselves liable to be punished with death4444 ,the same remark applies to the disclosures made1 about #aej years after1 by certain females in ,damascus1 far remote from either ,lyons or ,rome4 ,these make precisely the same statement--that they had once been ,christians1 that they were privy to criminal acts among them1 and that these ,christians1 in their very churches1 committed licentious deeds4 ,the ,romans would never have so relentlessly persecuted the ,christians had they not been guilty of some such atrocities as were laid to their charge4 ,there are on record abundant proofs that the ,romans1 from the earliest account we have of them1 tolerated all harmless religions--all such as were not directly calculated to endanger the public peace1 or vitiate public morals1 or render life and property unsafe4444 ,so well known were those horrid vices to be carried on by all ,christians in their nocturnal and secret assemblies1 and so certain it was thought that every one who was a ,christian participated in them1 that for a person to be known to be a ,christian was thought a strong presumptive proof that he was guilty of these offences4 ,hence1 persons in their preliminary examinations1 who1 on being interrogated1 answered that they were ,christians1 were thought proper subjects for committal to prison4444 ,pliny further indicates that while some brought before him1 on information1 refused to tell him anything as to the nature of their nocturnal meetings1 others replied to his questions as far as their oath permitted them4 ,they told him that it was their practice1 as ,christians1 to meet on a stated day1 before daylight1 to sing hymns2 and to bind themselves by a solemn oath that they would do no wrong2 that they would not steal1 nor rob1 nor commit any act of unchastity2 that they would never violate a trust2 and that they joined together in a common and innocent repast4 ,while all these answers to the questions of the ,proconsul are suggestive of the crimes with which the ,christians were charged1 still they are a denial of every one of them4444 ,the whole tenor of historical facts is1 however1 against their testimony1 and the ,proconsul did not believe them2 but1 in order to get at the entire truth1 put some of them to the torture1 and ultimately adjourned their trial see ante1 pp4 #bjc-bje4 ,the manner in which ,greek and ,latin writers mention the ,christians goes far to show that they were guilty of the atrocious crimes laid to their charge4 ,suetonius 7in ,nero7 calls them1 ',a race of men of new and villainous superstition' see ante1 p4 #bja4 ,the ,emperor ,adrian1 in a letter to his brother-in-law1 ,servianus1 in the year #acd1 as given by ,vospicius1 says3 ',there is no presbyter of the ,christians who is not either an astrologer1 a soothsayer1 or a minister of obscene pleasures4' ,tacitus tells us that ,nero inflicted exquisite punishment upon those people who1 under the vulgar appellation of ,christians1 were held in abhorrence for their crimes4 ,he also1 in the same place1 says they were 'odious to mankind2' and calls their religion a 'pernicious superstition' see ante1 p4 #ii4 ,maximus1 likewise1 in his letter1 calls them 'votaries of execrable vanity1' who had 'filled the world with infamy4' ,it would appear1 however1 that owing to the extreme measures taken against them by the ,romans1 both in ,italy and in all the provinces1 the ,christians1 by degrees1 were forced to abandon entirely in their ,agapae infant murders1 together with every species of obscenity1 retaining1 nevertheless1 some relics of them1 such as the kiss of charity1 and the bread and wine1 which they contended was transubstantiated into real flesh and blood4444 ,a very common way of repelling these charges was for one sect of ,christians1 which1 of course1 denounced all other sects as heretics1 to urge that human sacrifices and incestuous festivals were not celebrated by that sect1 but that they were practised by other sects2 such1 for example1 as the ,marcionites and the ,capocratians4 7,justin ,mart41 ',apology1' i41 #ce2 ,iren41 adv4 ,haer4 i41 #bd2 ,clem4 ,alex41 i41 #c47 ,when ,tertullian joined the ,montanists1 another sect of ,christians1 he divulged the criminal secrets of the ,church which he had so zealously defended1 by saying1 in his ',treatise on ,fasting1' c4 #ag1 that 'in the ,agapae the young men lay with their sisters1 and wallowed in wantonness and luxury'4444 ,remnants of these execrable customs remained for a long time1 and vestiges of them exist to this very day1 as well in certain words and phrases as in practice4 ,the communion table to this very day is called the altar1 the name of that upon which the ancients sacrificed their victims4 ,the word sacrament has a meaning1 as used by ,pliny already cited1 which carries us back to the solemn oath of the ,agapaeists4 ,the word mass carries us back still further1 and identifies the present mass with that of the ,pagans4444 ,formerly the consecrated bread was called host1 which word signifies a victim offered as sacrifice1 anciently human very often4444 ,jerome and other ,fathers called the communion bread--little body1 and the communion table--mystical table2 the latter1 in allusion to the heathen and early ,christian mysteries1 and the former1 in reference to the children sacrificed at the ,agapae4 ,the great doctrine of transubstantiation directly points to the abominable practice of eating human flesh at the ,agapae4444 ,upon the whole1 it is impossible1 from the mass of evidence already adduced1 to avoid the conclusion that the early ,christians1 in their ,agapae1 were really guilty of the execrable vices with which they were so often charged1 and for which they were sentenced to death4 ,this once admitted1 a reasonable and adequate cause can be assigned for the severe persecutions of the ,christians by the ,roman ,government--a ,government which applied precisely the same laws and modes of persecution and punishment to them as to the votaries of the ,bacchanalian and ,eleusinian mysteries1 well known to have been accustomed to offer human sacrifices1 and indulge in the most obscene lasciviousness in their secret assemblies2 and a ,government which tolerated all kinds of religions1 except those which encouraged practices dangerous to human life1 or pernicious to the morals of subjects4 ,nor can the facts already advanced fail to show clearly that the ,christian ,agapae were of ,pagan origin--were identically the same as those ,pagan feasts which existed simultaneously with them 7,ibid1 notes1 pp4 #bbg1 #bca74 ,there can be no doubt that the ,christians suffered for these crimes whether or no they were guilty of them3 ,three things are alleged against us3 ,atheism1 ,thyestean feasts1 ,o,edipodean intercourse1 says ,athenagoras 7,apology1 ch4 iii74 ,justin ,martyr refers to the same charges 7#bnd ,apology1 ch4 xii74 ,monsters of wickedness1 we are accused of observing a holy rite1 in which we kill a little child and then eat it1 in which after the feast we practise incest4444 ,come1 plunge your knife into the babe1 enemy of none1 accused of none1 child of all2 or if that is another's work1 simply take your place beside a human being dying before he has really lived1 await the departure of the lately-given soul1 receive the fresh young blood1 saturate your bread with it1 freely partake 7,apology1 ,tertullian1 secs4 #g1 #h74 ,tertullian pleads earnestly that these accusations were false3 if you cannot do it1 you ought not to believe it of others4 ,for a ,christian is a man as well as you 7,ibid74 ,yet1 when ,tertullian became a ,montanist1 he declared that these very crimes were committed at the ,agapae1 so that he spoke falsely either in the one case or in the other4 ,it was sometimes faintly insinuated1 and sometimes boldly asserted1 that the same bloody sacrifices and the same incestuous festivals1 which were so falsely ascribed to the orthodox believers1 were in reality celebrated by the ,marcionites1 by the ,carpocratians1 and by several other sects of the ,gnostics4444 ,accusations of a similar kind were retorted upon the ,church by the schismatics who had departed from its communion2 and it was confessed on all sides that the most scandalous licentiousness of manners prevailed among great numbers of those who affected the name of ,christians4 ,a ,pagan magistrate1 who possessed neither leisure nor abilities to discern the almost imperceptible line which divides the orthodox faith from heretical depravity1 might easily have imagined that their mutual animosity had extorted the discovery of their common guilt 7,decline and ,fall1 ,gibbon1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #bjd1 #bje74 ,it was fortunate1 the historian concludes1 that some of the magistrates reported that they discovered no such criminality4 ,it is1 be it noted1 simultaneously with the promulgation of these charges that the persecution of the ,christians takes place2 during the first century very little is heard of such1 and there is very little persecution see ante1 pp4 #bji-bac4 ,in the following century the charges are frequent1 and so are the persecutions4 ,to these strong arguments may be added the acknowledgment in #a4 ,cor4 xi41 #ag1 #bb1 of disorder and drunkenness at these ,agapae2 the habit of speaking of the communion feast as the ,christian mysteries1 a habit still kept up in the ,anglican prayer-book2 the fact that they took place at night1 under cover of darkness1 a custom for which there was not the smallest reason1 unless the service were of a nature so objectionable as to bring it under the ban of the tolerant ,roman law2 and lastly1 the use of the cross1 and the sign of the cross1 the central ,christian emblem1 and one that1 especially in connection with the mysteries1 is of no dubious signification4 ,thus1 in the twilight in which they were veiled in those early days1 the ,christians appear to us as a sect of very different character to that bestowed upon them by ,paley4 ,a little later1 when they emerge into historical light1 their own writers give us sufficient evidence whereby we may judge them2 and we find them superstitious1 grossly ignorant1 quarrelsome1 cruel1 divided into ascetics and profligates1 between whom it is hard to award the palm for degradation and indecency4 ,having proved--in the above fashion--that a number of people in the first century advanced an extraordinary story1 underwent persecution1 and altered their manner of life1 because of it1 ,paley thinks it in the highest degree probable1 that the story for which these persons voluntarily exposed themselves to the fatigues and hardships which they endured1 was a miraculous story2 ,i mean1 that they pretended to miraculous evidence of some kind or other 7,evidences1 p4 #fd74 ,that the ,christians believed in a miraculous story may freely be acknowledged1 but it is evidence of the truth of the story that we want1 not evidence of their belief in it4 ,many ignorant people believe in witchcraft and in fortune-telling now-a-days1 but their belief only proves their own ignorance1 and not the truth of either superstition4 ,the next step in the argument is that the story which ,christians have now is the story which ,christians had then and it is urged that there is in existence no trace of any story of ,jesus ,christ substantially different from ours 7,evidences1 p4 #fi74 ,it is hard to judge how much difference is covered by the word substantially4 ,all the apocryphal gospels differ very much from the canonical1 insert sayings and doings of ,christ not to be found in the received histories1 and make his character the reverse of good or lovable to a far greater extent than the four4 ,that ,christ was miraculously born1 worked miracles1 was crucified1 buried1 rose again1 ascended1 may be accepted as substantial parts of the story4 ,yet ,mark and ,john knew nothing of the birth1 while1 if the ,acts and the ,epistles are to be trusted1 the apostles were equally ignorant2 thus the great doctrine of the ,incarnation of ,god without natural generation1 is thoroughly ignored by all save ,matthew and ,luke1 and even these destroy their own story by giving genealogies of ,jesus through ,joseph1 which are useless unless ,joseph was his real father4 ,the birth from a virgin1 then has no claim to be part of ,paley's miraculous story in the earliest times4 ,the evidence of miracle-working by ,christ to be found in the ,epistles is chiefly conspicuous by its absence1 but it figures largely in post-apostolic works4 ,the crucifixion1 resurrection1 and ascension are generally acknowledged1 and these three incidents compose the whole story for which a consensus of testimony can be claimed2 it will1 perhaps1 be fair to concede also that ,christ is recognised universally as a miracle-worker1 in spite of the strange silence of the epistles4 ,we need not refer to the testimony of ,clement1 ,polycarp or ,ignatius1 having already shown what dependence may be placed on their writings4 ,but we have now three new witnesses1 ,barnabas1 ,quadratus1 and ,justin ,martyr4 ,paley says3 ,in an epistle1 bearing the name of ,barnabas1 the companion of ,paul1 probably genuine1 certainly belonging to that age1 we have the sufferings of ,christ1 etc4 7,evidences p4 #ge74 ,probably genuine1 certainly belonging to that age6 ,is ,paley joking with his readers1 or only trading on their ignorance8 ,the letter itself bears no author's name1 is not dated from any place1 and is not addressed to any special community4 ,towards the end of the second century1 however1 tradition began to ascribe it to ,barnabas1 the companion of ,paul4 ,the first writer who mentions it is ,clement of ,alexandria head of the ,alexandrian ,school1 ,a4,d4 #bje who calls its author several times the ',apostle ,barnabas'4444 ,we have already seen in the case of the ,epistles ascribed to ,clement of ,rome1 and1 as we proceed1 we shall become only too familiar with the fact1 the singular facility with which1 in the total absence of critical discrimination1 spurious writings were ascribed by the ,fathers to ,apostles and their followers4444 ,credulous piety which attributed writings to every ,apostle1 and even to ,jesus himself1 soon found authors for each anonymous work of an edifying character4444 ,in the earlier days of criticism1 some writers1 without much question1 adopted the traditional view as to the authorship of the ,epistles1 but the great mass of critics are now agreed in asserting that the composition1 which itself is perfectly anonymous1 cannot be attributed to ,barnabas the friend and fellow worker of ,paul4 ,those who maintain the former opinion date the ,epistle about ,a4,d4 #gj-gc1 or even earlier1 but this is scarcely the view of any living critic 7,supernatural ,religion1 vol4 i41 pp4 #bcg-bci74 ,from its contents it seems unlikely that it was written by a companion of ,apostles and a ,levite4 ,in addition to this1 it is probable that ,barnabas died before ,a4,d4 #fb2 and the letter contains not only an allusion to the destruction of the ,jewish temple1 but also affirms the abnegation of the ,sabbath1 and the general celebration of the ,lord's ,day1 which seems to show that it could not have been written before the beginning of the second century 7,westcott on the ,canon1 p4 #da74 ,nothing certain is known as to the author of the following epistle4 ,the writer's name is ,barnabas2 but scarcely any scholars now ascribe it to the illustrious friend and companion of ,st4 ,paul4444 ,the internal evidence is now generally regarded as conclusive against this opinion4444 ,the external evidence ascribing it to ,barnabas is of itself weak1 and should not make us hesitate for a moment in refusing to ascribe this writing to ,barnabas1 the apostle4444 ,the general opinion is1 that its date is not later than the middle of the second century1 and that it cannot be placed earlier than some twenty or thirty years or so before4 ,in point of style1 both as respects thought and expression1 a very low place must be assigned it4 ,we know nothing certain of the region in which the author lived1 or where the first readers were to be found 7,apostolic ,fathers1 pp4 #ii1 #ajj74 ,the ,epistle is not ascribed to ,barnabas at all until the close of the second century4 ,eusebius marks it as spurious 7,eccles4 ,hist1 bk4 iii41 chap4 xxv74 ,lardner speaks of it as probably ,barnabas's1 and certainly ancient 7,credibility1 pt4 ii41 vol4 ii41 p4 #cj74 ,when we see the utter conflict of evidence as to the writings of all these primitive authors1 we can scarcely wonder at the frank avowal of the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,giles3 ,the writings of the ,apostolical ,fathers labour under a more heavy load of doubt and suspicion than any other ancient compositions1 either sacred or profane 7,christian ,records1 p4 #ec74 ,paley1 in quoting ,quadratus1 does not tell us that the passage he quotes is the only writing of ,quadratus extant1 and is only preserved by ,eusebius1 who says that he takes it from an apology addressed by ,quadratus to the ,emperor ,adrian4 ,adrian reigned from ,a4,d4 #aag-ach1 and the apology must consequently have been presented between these dates4 ,if the apology be genuine1 ,quadratus makes the extraordinary assertion that some of the people raised from the dead by ,jesus were then living4 ,jesus is only recorded to have raised three people--a girl1 a young man1 and ,lazarus2 we will take their ages at ten1 twenty1 and thirty4 ,some of those raised cannot be less than two out of the three2 we will say the two youngest4 ,then they were alive at the respectable ages of from #ie-aaf1 and from #aje-abf4 ,the first may be taken as just within the limits of possibility2 the second as beyond them2 but ,quadratus talks in a wholesale fashion1 which quite destroys his credibility1 and we can lay but little stress on the carefulness or trustworthiness of a historian who speaks in such reckless words4 ,added to this1 we find no trace of this passage until ,eusebius writes it in the fourth century1 and it is well known that ,eusebius was not too particular in his quotations1 thinking that his duty was only to make out the best case he could4 ,he frankly says3 ,we are totally unable to find even the bare vestiges of those who may have travelled the way before us2 unless1 perhaps1 what is only presented in the slight intimations1 which some in different ways have transmitted to us in certain partial narratives of the times in which they lived4444 ,whatsoever1 therefore1 we deem likely to be advantageous to the proposed subject we shall endeavour to reduce to a compact body 7,eccles4 ,hist41 bk4 i41 chap4 i74 ,accordingly1 he produces a full ,church ,history out of materials which are only slight intimations1 and carefully draws out in detail a path of which not even the bare vestiges are left4 ,little wonder that he had to rely so much upon his imagination1 when he had to build a church1 and had no straws for his bricks4 ,paley brings ,justin ,martyr 7born about ,a4,d4 #ajc1 died about ,a4,d4 #afg7 as his last authority--as after his time the story may be taken as established--and says3 ,from ,justin's works1 which are still extant1 might be collected a tolerably complete account of ,christ's life1 in all points agreeing with that which is delivered in our ,scriptures2 taken1 indeed1 in a great measure1 from those ,scriptures1 but still proving that this account1 and no other1 was the account known and extant in that age 7,evidences1 p4 #gg74 ,if no other account was extant1 ,justin must have largely drawn on his own imagination when he pretends to be quoting4 ,jesus1 according to ,justin1 is conceived of the ,word 7,apol41 i4 #cc71 not of the ,holy ,ghost1 the third person1 the ,holy ,ghost being said to be identical with the ,word2 and he is thus conceived by himself4 ,he is born1 not in ,bethlehem in a stable1 but in a cave near the village1 because ,joseph could find no lodging in ,bethlehem 7,dial4 #gh74 ,the magi come1 not from the ,east1 but from ,arabia 7,dial4 #gg74 ,jesus works as a carpenter1 making ploughs and yokes 7,dial4 #hh74 ,the story of the baptism is very different 7,dial4 #hh74 ,in the trial ,jesus is set on the judgment seat1 and tauntingly bidden to judge his accusers 7,apol41 i4 #ce74 ,all the apostles deny him1 and forsake him1 after he is crucified 7,apol41 i4 #ej74 ,these instances might be increased1 and1 as we shall see later1 ,justin manifestly quotes from accounts other than the canonical gospels4 ,yet ,paley pretends that no other account was extant1 and that in the very face of ,luke i4 #a1 which declares that many have taken in hand the writing of such histories4 ,if ,paley had simply said that the story of a miracle-worker1 named the ,anointed ,saviour1 who was born of a virgin1 was crucified1 rose and ascended into heaven1 was told with many variations among the ,christians4 from about #ajj years after his supposed birth1 he would have spoken truly2 and had he added to this1 that the very same story was told among ,egyptians and ,hindoos1 many hundreds of years earlier1 he would have treated his readers honestly1 although he might not thereby have increased their belief in the divine origin of ,christianity4 ,before we pass on to the last evidences offered by ,paley1 which necessitate a closer investigation into the value of the testimony borne by the patristic1 to the canonical1 writings1 it will be well to put broadly the fact1 that these ,fathers are simply worthless as witnesses to any matter of fact1 owing to the absurd and incredible stories which they relate with the most perfect faith4 ,of critical faculty they have none2 the most childish nonsense is accepted by them1 with the gravest face2 no story is too silly1 no falsehood too glaring1 for them to believe and to retail1 in fullest confidence of its truth4 ,gross ignorance is one of their characteristics2 they are superstitious1 credulous1 illiterate1 to an almost incredible extent4 ,clement considers that the ,lord continually proves to us that there shall be a future resurrection by the following fact1 among others3 ,let us consider that wonderful sign which takes place in ,eastern lands--that is1 in ,arabia and the countries round about4 ,there is a certain bird which is called a phoenix4 ,this is the only one of its kind1 and lives #ejj years4 ,and when the time of its dissolution draws near that it must die1 it builds itself a nest of frankincense1 and myrrh1 and other spices1 into which1 when the time is fulfilled1 it enters and dies4 ,but1 as the flesh decays1 a certain kind of worm is produced1 which1 being nourished by the juices of the dead bird1 brings forth feathers4 ,then1 when it has acquired strength1 it takes up that nest in which are the bones of its parent1 and1 bearing these1 it passes from the land of ,arabia into ,egypt1 to the city called ,heliopolis4 ,and in open day1 flying in the sight of all men1 it places them on the altar of the sun1 and1 having done this1 hastens back to its former abode4 ,the priests then inspect the registers of the dates1 and find that it has returned exactly as the #ejjth year was completed 7#ast ,epistle of ,clement1 chap4 xxv474 ,surely the evidence here should satisfy ,paley as to the truth of this story3 the open day1 flying in the sight of all men1 the priests inspecting the registers1 and all this vouched for by ,clement himself6 ,how reliable must be the testimony of the apostolic ,clement6 ,tertullian1 the ,apostolic ,constitutions1 and ,cyril of ,jerusalem mention the same tale4 ,we have already drawn attention to that which was seen by the writers of the circular letter of the ,church of ,smyrna4 ,barnabas loses himself in a maze of allegorical meanings1 and gives us some delightful instruction in natural history2 he is dealing with the directions of ,moses as to clean and unclean animals3 ',thou shalt not1' he says1 'eat the hare4' ,wherefore8 ',thou shalt not be a corrupter of boys1 nor like unto such4' ,because the hare multiplies1 year by year1 the places of its conception2 for as many years as it lives1 so many foramina it has4 ,moreover1 ',thou shalt not eat the hyaena4'444 ,wherefore8 ,because that animal annually changes its sex1 and is at one time male1 and at another female4 ,moreover1 he has rightly detested the weasel 444 ,for this animal conceives by the mouth4444 ,behold how well ,moses legislated 7,epistle of ,barnabas1 chapter x474 ',and ,abraham circumcised ten and eight and three hundred men of his household4' ,what1 then1 was the knowledge given to him in this8 ,learn the eighteen first1 and then the three hundred4 ,the ten and the eight are thus denoted--,ten by ,i1 and ,eight by ,h4 ,you have ,jesus4 ,and because the cross was to express the grace by the letter ,t1 he says also ,three ,hundred4 ,he signifies1 therefore1 ,jesus by two letters1 and the cross by one4444 ,no one has been admitted by me to a more excellent piece of knowledge than this1 but ,i know that ye are worthy 7,ibid1 chapter ix474 ,and this is ,paley's companion of the ,apostles6 ,ignatius tells us of the star of ,bethlehem4 ,a star shone forth in heaven above all other stars1 and the light of which was inexpressible1 while its novelty struck men with astonishment4 ,and all the rest of the stars1 with the sun and moon1 formed a chorus to this star 7,epistle to the ,ephesians1 chap4 xix474 ,why should we accept ,ignatius' testimony to the star1 and reject his testimony to the sun and moon and stars singing to it8 ,or take ,origen against ,celsus3 ,i have this further to say to the ,greeks1 who will not believe that our ,saviour was born of a virgin3 that the ,creator of the world1 if he pleases1 can make every animal bring forth its young in the same wonderful manner4 ,as1 for instance1 the vultures propagate their kind in this uncommon way1 as the best writers of natural history do acquaint us 7chap1 xxxiii41 as quoted in ,diegesis1 p4 #cai74 ,or shall we turn to ,irenus1 so invaluable a witness1 since he knew ,polycarp1 who knew ,john1 who knew ,jesus8 ,listen1 then1 to the reminiscences of ,john1 as reported by ,irenus3 ,john related the words of the ,lord concerning the times of the kingdom of ,god3 the days would come when vines would grow1 each with #aj1jjj shoots1 and to each shoot #aj1jjj branches1 and to each branch #aj1jjj twigs1 and to each twig #aj1jjj clusters1 and to each cluster #aj1jjj grapes1 and each grape which is crushed will yield twenty-five measures of wine4 ,and when one of the saints will reach after one of these clusters1 another will cry3 ',i am a better cluster than it2 take me1 and praise the ,lord because of me4' ,likewise1 a grain of wheat will produce #aj1jjj ears1 each ear #aj1jjj grains1 each grain ten pounds of fine white flour4 ,other fruits1 and seeds1 and herbs in proportion4 ,the whole brute creation1 feeding on such things as the earth brings forth1 will become sociable and peaceable together1 and subject to man with all humility 7,iren4 ,haer41 v41 #cc1 #c-d1 as quoted in ,keim's ,jesus of ,nazara1 p4 #de74 ,what trust can be placed in the truth of facts to which these men pretend to bear witness when we find ,st4 ,augustine preaching that he himself1 being at that time ,bishop of ,hippo ,regius1 had preached the ,gospel of our ,lord and ,saviour ,jesus ,christ to a whole nation of men and women that had no heads1 but had their eyes in their bosoms2 and in countries still more southerly he preached to a nation among whom each individual had but one eye1 and that situate in the middle of the forehead 7,syntagma1 p4 #cc1 as quoted in ,diegesis1 p4 #beg74 ,eusebius tells us of a man1 named ,sanctus1 who was tortured until his body was one continued wound1 mangled and shrivelled1 that had entirely lost the form of man2 and1 when the tormentors began again on the same day1 he recovered the former shape and habit of his limbs 7,eccles4 ,hist1 bk4 v41 chap4 i474 ,he then was sent to the amphitheatre1 passing down the lane of scourgers1 was dragged about and lacerated by the wild beast1 roasted in an iron chair1 and after this was at last dispatched6 ,other accounts1 such as that of a man scourged till his bones were bared of the flesh1 and then slowly tortured1 are given as history1 as though a man in that condition would not speedily bleed to death4 ,but it is useless to give more of these foolish stories1 which weary us as we toil through the writings of the early ,church4 ,well may ,mosheim say that the ,apostolic ,fathers1 and the other writers1 who1 in the infancy of the ,church1 employed their pens in the cause of ,christianity1 were neither remarkable for their learning nor their eloquence 7,eccles4 ,hist1 p4 #cb74 ,thoroughly unreliable as they are1 they are useless as witnesses of supposed miraculous events2 and1 in relating ordinary occurrences1 they should not be depended upon in any matter of importance1 unless they be corroborated by more trustworthy historians4 ,the last point ,paley urges in support of his proposition is1 that the accounts contained in the historical ,books of the ,new ,testament are deserving of credit as histories1 and that such is the situation of the authors to whom the four ,gospels are ascribed that1 if any one of the four be genuine1 it is sufficient for our purpose4 ,this brings us1 indeed1 to the crucial point of our investigation1 for1 as we can gain so little information from external sources1 we are perforce driven to the ,christian writings themselves4 ,if they break down under criticism as completely as the external evidences have done1 then ,christianity becomes hopelessly discredited as to its historical basis1 and must simply take rank with the other mythologies of the world4 ,but before we can accept the writings as historical1 we are bound to investigate their authenticity and credibility4 ,does the external evidence suffice to prove their authenticity8 ,do the contents of the books themselves commend them as credible to our intelligence8 ,it is possible that1 although the historical evidence authenticating them be somewhat defective1 yet the thorough coherency and reasonableness of the books may induce us to consider them as reliable2 or1 if the latter points be lacking from the supernatural character of the occurrences related1 yet the evidence of authenticity may be so overwhelming as to place the accuracy of the accounts beyond cavil4 ,but if external evidence be wanting1 and internal evidence be fatal to the truthfulness of the writings1 then it will become our duty to remove them from the temple of history1 and to place them in the fairy gardens of fancy and of myth1 where they may amuse and instruct the student1 without misleading him as to questions of fact4 ,the positions which we here lay down are3-- a4 ,that forgeries bearing the names of ,christ1 and of the apostles1 and of the early ,fathers1 were very common in the primitive ,church4 b4 ,that there is nothing to distinguish the canonical from the apocryphal writings4 c4 ,that it is not known where1 when1 by whom1 the canonical writings were selected4 d4 ,that before about ,a4,d4 #ahj there is no trace of four ,gospels among the ,christians4 e4 ,that before that date ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and ,john are not selected as the four evangelists4 f4 ,that there is no evidence that the four ,gospels mentioned about that date were the same as those we have now4 g4 ,that there is evidence that two of them were not the same4 h4 ,that there is evidence that the earlier records were not the ,gospels now esteemed canonical4 i4 ,that the books themselves show marks of their later origin4 j4 ,that the language in which they are written is presumptive evidence against their authenticity4 k4 ,that they are in themselves utterly unworthy of credit1 from 7#a7 the miracles with which they abound1 7#b7 the numerous contradictions of each by the others1 7#c7 the fact that the story of the hero1 the doctrines1 the miracles1 were current long before the supposed dates of the ,gospels2 so that these ,gospels are simply a patchwork composed of older materials4 ,paley begins his argument by supposing that the first and fourth ,gospels were written by the apostles ,matthew and ,john1 from personal knowledge and recollection 7,evidences1 p4 #hg71 and that they must therefore be either true1 or wilfully false2 the latter being most improbable1 as they would then be villains for no end but to teach honesty1 and martyrs without the least prospect of honour or advantage 7,ibid1 page #hh74 ,but supposing that ,matthew and ,john wrote some ,gospels1 we should need proof that the ,gospels which we have1 supposing them to be copies of those thus written1 have not been much altered since they left the apostles' hands4 ,we should next ask how ,matthew can report from personal knowledge and recollection all that comes in his ,gospel before he was called from his tax-gathering1 as well as many incidents at which he was not present8 and whether his reliability as a witness is not terribly weakened by his making no distinction between what was fact within his own knowledge1 and what was simple hearsay8 ,further1 we remark that some of the teaching is the reverse of teaching honesty1 and that such instruction as ,matt4 v4 #ci-db would1 if accepted1 exactly suit villains2 that the extreme glorification of the master would naturally be reflected upon the twelve who followed him1 and the authority of the writers would thereby be much increased and confirmed2 that pure moral teaching on some points is no guarantee of the morality of the teacher1 for a tyrant1 or an ambitious priest1 would naturally wish to discourage crime of some kinds in those he desired to rule2 that such tyrant or priest could find no better creed to serve his purpose than meek1 submissive1 non-resisting1 heaven-seeking ,christianity4 ,thus we find ,mosheim saying of ,constantine3 ,it is1 indeed1 probable that this prince perceived the admirable tendency of the ,christian doctrine and precepts to promote the stability of government1 by preserving the citizens in their obedience to the reigning powers1 and in the practice of those virtues that render a ,state happy 7,eccles4 ,hist1 p4 #hg74 ,we discover ,charlemagne enforcing ,christianity among the ,saxons by sword and fire1 hoping that it would1 among other things1 induce them to submit more tamely to the government of the ,franks 7,ibid1 p4 #agj74 ,and we see missionaries among the savages usurping a despotic dominion over their obsequious proselytes 7,ibid1 p4 #aeg72 and ,st4 ,boniface1 the apostle of ,germany1 often employing violence and terror1 and sometimes artifice and fraud1 in order to multiply the number of ,christians 7,ibid1 p4 #afi74 ,thus do villains very often teach honesty4 ,nor is it true that these apostles were martyrs their martyrdom being unproved without the least prospect of honour or advantage2 on the contrary1 they desired to know what they would get by following ,jesus4 ,what shall we have1 therefore8444 ,ye which have followed me shall sit upon twelve thrones 7,matt4 xix4 #bg-cj72 and1 further1 in ,mark ix4 #bh-ca1 we are told that any one who forsakes anything for ,jesus shall receive an hundredfold now in this time1 as well as eternal life in the world to come4 ,surely1 then1 there was prospect enough of honour and advantage8 ,these remarks apply quite as strongly to ,mark and ,luke1 neither of whom are pretended to be eye-witnesses4 ,of ,mark we know nothing1 except that it is said that there was a man named ,john1 whose surname was ,mark 7,acts xii4 #ab and #be71 who ran away from his work 7,acts xv4 #ch72 and a man named ,marcus1 nephew of ,barnabas 7,col4 iv4 #aj71 who may1 or may not1 be the same1 but is probably somebody else1 as he is with ,paul2 and one of the same name is spoken of 7#b ,tim4 ii47 as profitable for the ministry1 which ,john ,mark was not1 and who 7,philemon #bd7 was a fellow-labourer with ,paul in ,rome1 while ,john ,mark was rejected in this capacity by ,paul at ,antioch4 ,why ,mark1 or ,john ,mark1 should write a ,gospel1 he not having been an eye-witness1 or why ,mark1 or ,john ,mark1 should be identical with ,mark the ,evangelist1 only writers of ,christian evidences can hope to understand4 ,a4 ,that forgeries1 bearing the names of ,christ1 of the apostles1 and of the early ,fathers1 were very common in the primitive ,church4 ,the opinions1 or rather the conjectures1 of the learned concerning the time when the books of the ,new ,testament were collected into one volume1 as also about the authors of that collection1 are extremely different4 ,this important question is attended with great and almost insuperable difficulties to us in these latter times 7,mosheim's ,eccles4 ,hist41 p4 #ca74 ,these difficulties arise1 to a great extent1 from the large number of forgeries1 purporting to be writings of ,christ1 of the apostles1 and of the apostolic ,fathers1 current in the early ,church4 ,for1 not long after ,christ's ascension into heaven1 several histories of his life and doctrines1 full of pious frauds and fabulous wonders1 were composed by persons whose intentions1 perhaps1 were not bad1 but whose writings discovered the greatest superstition and ignorance4 ,nor was this all2 productions appeared which were imposed upon the world by fraudulent men1 as the writings of the holy apostles 7,ibid1 p4 #ca74 ,another erroneous practice was adopted by them1 which1 though it was not so universal as the other1 was yet extremely pernicious1 and proved a source of numberless evils to the ,christian ,church4 ,the ,platonists and ,pythagoreans held it as a maxim1 that it was not only lawful1 but even praiseworthy1 to deceive1 and even to use the expedient of a lie1 in order to advance the cause of truth and piety4 ,the ,jews1 who lived in ,egypt1 had learned and received this maxim from them1 before the coming of ,christ1 as appears incontestably from a multitude of ancient records2 and the ,christians were infected from both these sources with the same pernicious error1 as appears from the number of books attributed falsely to great and venerable names1 from the ,sibylline verses1 and several suppositious productions which were spread abroad in this and the following century4 ,it does not1 indeed1 seem probable that all these pious frauds were chargeable upon the professors of real ,christianity1 upon those who entertained just and rational sentiments of the religion of ,jesus4 ,the greatest part of these fictitious writings undoubtedly flowed from the fertile invention of the ,gnostic sects1 though it cannot be affirmed that even true ,christians were entirely innocent and irreproachable in this matter 7,ibid1 p4 #ee74 ,this disingenuous and vicious method of surprising their adversaries by artifice1 and striking them down1 as it were1 by lies and fiction1 produced1 among other disagreeable effects1 a great number of books1 which were falsely attributed to certain great men1 in order to give these spurious productions more credit and weight 7,ibid1 page #gg74 ,these forged writings being so widely circulated1 it will be readily understood that ,it is not so easy a matter as is commonly imagined rightly to settle the ,canon of the ,new ,testament4 ,for my own part1 ,i declare1 with many learned men1 that1 in the whole compass of learning1 ,i know no question involved with more intricacies and perplexing difficulties than this4 ,there are1 indeed1 considerable difficulties relating to the ,canon of the ,old ,testament1 as appears by the large controversies between the ,protestants and ,papists on this head in the last1 and latter end of the preceding1 century2 but these are solved with much more ease than those of the ,new4444 ,in settling the old ,testament collection1 all that is requisite is to disprove the claim of a few obscure books1 which have but the weakest pretences to be looked upon as ,scripture2 but1 in the ,new1 we have not only a few to disprove1 but a vast number to exclude from the ,canon1 which seem to have much more right to admission than any of the apocryphal books of the ,old ,testament2 and1 besides1 to evidence the genuineness of all those which we do receive1 since1 according to the sentiments of some who would be thought learned1 there are none of them whose authority has not been controverted in the earliest ages of ,christianity4444 ,the number of books that claim admission to the canon is very considerable4 ,mr4 ,toland1 in his celebrated catalogue1 has presented us with the names of above eighty4444 ,there are many more of the same sort which he has not mentioned 7,j4 ,jones on ,the ,canon of the ,new ,testament1 vol4 i41 pp4 #b-d4 ,ed4 #aghh74 ,the following list will give some idea of the number of the apocryphal writings from which the four ,gospels1 and other books of the ,new ,testament1 finally emerge as canonical3-- ,,gospels4 #a4 ,gospel according to the ,hebrews4 #b4 ,gospel written by ,judas ,iscariot4 #c4 ,gospel of ,truth1 made use of by the ,valentinians4 #d4 ,gospel of ,peter4 #e4 ,gospel according to the ,egyptians4 #f4 ,gospel of ,valentinus4 #g4 ,gospel of ,marcion4 #h4 ,gospel according to the ,twelve ,apostles4 #i4 ,gospel of ,basilides4 #aj4 ,gospel of ,thomas 7extant74 #aa4 ,gospel of ,matthias4 #ab4 ,gospel of ,tatian4 #ac4 ,gospel of ,scythianus4 #ad4 ,gospel of ,bartholomew4 #ae4 ,gospel of ,apelles4 #af4 ,gospels published by ,lucianus and ,hesychius #ag4 ,gospel of ,perfection4 #ah4 ,gospel of ,eve4 #ai4 ,gospel of ,philip4 #bj4 ,gospel of the ,nazarenes 7qy4 same as first7 #ba4 ,gospel of the ,ebionites4 #bb4 ,gospel of ,jude4 #bc4 ,gospel of ,encratites4 #bd4 ,gospel of ,cerinthus4 #be4 ,gospel of ,merinthus4 #bf4 ,gospel of ,thaddaeus4 #bg4 ,gospel of ,barnabas4 #bh4 ,gospel of ,andrew4 #bi4 ,gospel of the ,infancy 7extant74 #cj4 ,gospel of ,nicodemus1 or ,acts of ,pilate and ,descent of ,christ to the ,under ,world 7extant74 #ca4 ,gospel of ,james1 or ,protevangelium 7extant74 #cb4 ,gospel of the ,nativity of ,mary 7extant74 #cc4 ,arabic ,gospel of the ,infancy 7extant74 #cd4 ,syriac ,gospel of the ,boyhood of our ,lord ,jesus 7extant74 ,,miscellaneous4 #ce4 ,letter to ,agbarus by ,christ 7extant74 #cf4 ,letter to ,leopas by ,christ 7extant74 #cg4 ,epistle to ,peter and ,paul by ,christ4 #ch4 ,epistle by ,christ produced by ,manichees4 #ci4 ,hymn by ,christ 7extant74 #dj4 ,magical ,book by ,christ4 #da4 ,prayer by ,christ 7extant74 #db4 ,preaching of ,peter4 #dc4 ,revelation of ,peter4 #dd4 ,doctrine of ,peter4 #de4 ,acts of ,peter4 #df4 ,book of ,judgment by ,peter4 #dg4 ,book1 under the name of ,peter1 forged by ,lentius4 #dh4 ,preaching of ,peter and ,paul at ,rome4 #di4 ,the ,vision1 or ,acts of ,paul and ,thecla4 #ej4 ,acts of ,paul4 #ea4 ,preaching of ,paul4 #eb4 ,piece under name of ,paul1 forged by an anonymous writer in ,cyprian's time4 #ec4 ,epistle to the ,laodiceans under name of ,paul 7extant74 #ed4 ,six letters to ,seneca under name of ,paul 7extant74 #ee4 ,anabaticon or ,revelation of ,paul4 #ef4 ,the traditions of ,matthias4 #eg4 ,book of ,james4 #eh4 ,book1 under name of ,james1 forged by ,ebionites4 #ei4 ,acts of ,andrew1 ,john1 and ,thomas4 #fj4 ,acts of ,john4 #fa4 ,book1 under name of ,john1 forged by ,ebionites4 #fb4 ,book under name of ,john4 #fc4 ,book1 under name of ,john1 forged by ,lentius4 #fd4 ,acts of ,andrew4 #fe4 ,book under name of ,andrew4 #ff4 ,book1 under name of ,andrew1 by ,naxochristes and ,leonides4 #fg4 ,book under name of ,thomas4 #fh4 ,acts of ,thomas4 #fi4 ,revelation of ,thomas4 #gj4 ,writings of ,bartholomew4 #ga4 ,book1 under name of ,matthew1 forged by ,ebionites4 #gb4 ,acts of the ,apostles by ,leuthon1 or ,seleucus4 #gc4 ,acts of the ,apostles used by ,ebionites4 #gd4 ,acts of the ,apostles by ,lenticius4 #ge4 ,acts of the ,apostles used by ,manichees4 #gf4 ,history of the ,twelve ,apostles by ,abdias 7extant74 #gg4 ,creed of the ,apostles 7extant74 #gh4 ,constitutions of the ,apostles 7extant74 #gi4 ,acts1 under ,apostles' names1 by ,leontius4 #hj4 ,acts1 under ,apostles' names1 by ,lenticius4 #ha4 ,catholic ,epistle1 in imitation of the ,apostles of ,themis1 on the ,montanists4 #hb4 ,revelation of ,cerinthus1 nominally apostolical4 #hc4 ,book of the ,helkesaites which fell from ,heaven4 #hd4 ,books of ,lentitius4 #he4 ,revelation of ,stephen4 #hf4 ,works of ,dionysius the ,areopagite 7extant74 #hg4 ,history of ,joseph the carpenter 7extant74 #hh4 ,letter of ,agbarus to ,jesus 7extant74 #hi4 ,letter of ,lentulus 7extant74 #ij4 ,story of ,veronica 7extant74 #ia4 ,letter of ,pilate to ,tiberius 7extant74 #ib4 ,letters of ,pilate to ,herod 7extant74 #ic4 ,epistle of ,pilate to ,csar 7extant74 #id4 ,report of ,pilate the ,governor 7extant74 #ie4 ,trial and condemnation of ,pilate 7extant74 #if4 ,death of ,pilate 7extant74 #ig4 ,story of ,joseph of ,arimathraea 7extant74 #ih4 ,revenging of the ,saviour 7extant74 #ii4 ,epistle of ,barnabas4 #ajj4 ,epistle of ,polycarp4 #aja-ae4 ,fifteen epistles of ,ignatius 7see above1 pages #bag-bbj47 #aaf4 ,shepherd of ,hermas4 #aag4 ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians of ,clement 7possibly partly authentic74 #aah4 ,second ,epistle to the ,corinthians of ,clement4 #aai4 ,apostolic ,canons of ,clement4 #abj4 ,recognitions of ,clement and ,clementina4 #aba-abb4 ,two ,epistles of ,st4 ,clement of ,rome 7written in ,syriac74 #abc-abh4 ,six books of ,justin ,martyr4 #abi-acb4 ,four books of ,justin ,martyr4 ,the above are collected from ,jones' ,on the ,canon1 ,supernatural ,religion1 ,eusebius1 ,mosheim's ,ecclesiastical ,history1 ,cowper's ,apocryphal ,gospels1 ,dr4 ,giles' ,christian ,records1 and the ,apostolic ,fathers4 ,after reading this list1 the student will be able to appreciate the value of ,paley's argument1 that1 if it had been an easy thing in the early times of the institution to have forged ,christian writings1 and to have obtained currency and reception to the forgeries1 we should have had many appearing in the name of ,christ himself 7,evidences1 p4 #ajf74 ,paley acknowledges one attempt of this sort1 deserving of the smallest notice2 and1 in a note1 adds three more of those mentioned above4 ,let us see what the evidence is of the genuineness of the letter to ,agbarus1 the one attempt in question1 as given by ,eusebius4 ,agbarus1 the prince of ,edessa1 reigning over the nations beyond the ,euphrates with great glory1 was afflicted with an incurable disease1 and1 hearing of ,jesus1 sent to him to entreat deliverance4 ,the letter of ,agbarus is carried to ,jesus1 at ,jerusalem1 by ,ananias1 the courier1 and the answer of ,jesus1 also written1 is returned by the same hands4 ,the letter of ,jesus runs as follows1 and is written in ,syriac3 ,blessed art thou1 ,o ,agbarus1 who1 without seeing me1 hast believed in me6 ,for it is written concerning me1 that they who have seen me will not believe1 that they who have not seen me may believe and live4 ,but in regard to what thou hast written1 that ,i should come to thee1 it is necessary that ,i should fulfil all things here1 for which ,i have been sent4 ,and1 after this fulfilment1 thus to be received again by ,him that sent me4 ,and after ,i have been received up1 ,i will send to thee a certain one of my disciples1 that he may heal thy affliction1 and give life to thee1 and to those who are with thee4 ,after the ascension of ,jesus1 ,thaddaeus1 one of the seventy1 is sent to ,edessa1 and lodges in the house of ,tobias1 the son of ,tobias1 and heals ,agbarus and many others4 ,these things were done in the #cdjth year 7,eusebius does not state what he reckons from74 ,the proof given by ,eusebius for the truth of the account is as follows3 ,of this also we have the evidence1 in a written answer1 taken from the public records of the city of ,edessa1 then under the government of the king4 ,for1 in the public registers there1 which embrace the ancient history and the transactions of ,agbarus1 these circumstances respecting him are found still preserved down to the present day4 ,there is nothing1 however1 like hearing the epistles themselves1 taken by us from the archives1 and the style of it1 as it has been literally translated by us1 from the ,syriac language 7,eccles4 ,hist41 bk4 i41 chap4 xiii474 ,and ,paley calls this an attempt at forgery1 deserving of the smallest notice1 and dismisses it in a few lines4 ,it would be interesting to know for what other ,scripture1 canonical or uncanonical1 there is evidence of authenticity so strong as for this2 exactness of detail in names2 absence of any exaggeration more than is implied in recounting any miracle2 the transaction recorded in the public archives2 seen there by ,eusebius himself2 copied down and translated by him2 such evidence for any one of the ,gospels would make belief far easier than it is at present4 ,the assertion of ,eusebius was easily verifiable at the time 7to use the favourite argument of ,christians for the truth of any account72 and if ,eusebius here wrote falsely1 of what value is his evidence on any other point8 ,a ,freethinker may fairly urge that ,eusebius is not trustworthy1 and that this assertion of his about the archives is as likely to be false as true2 but the ,christian can scarcely admit this1 when so much depends1 for him1 on the reliability of the great ,church historian1 all whose evidence would become worthless if he be once allowed to have deliberately fabricated that which did not exist4 ,we have already noticed the writings of the ,apostolic ,fathers1 and pointed out the numerous forgeries circulated under their names1 and the consequent haze hanging over all the early ,christian writers1 until we reach the time of ,justin ,martyr4 ,thus we entirely destroy the whole basis of ,paley's argument1 that the historical books of the ,new ,testament 444 are quoted1 or alluded to1 by a series of ,christian writers1 beginning with those who were contemporary with the ,apostles1 or who immediately followed them 7,evidences1 page #aaa27 for we have no certain writings of any such contemporaries4 ,in dealing with the positions f4 and h41 we shall seek to prove that in the writings of the ,apostolic ,fathers--taking them as genuine--as well as in ,justin ,martyr1 and in other ,christian works up to about ,a4,d4 #ahj1 the quotations said to be from the canonical ,gospels conclusively show that other ,gospels were used1 and not our present ones2 but no further evidence than the long list of apocryphal writings1 given on pp4 #bdj-bdc is needed in order to prove our first proposition1 that forgeries1 bearing the name of ,christ1 of the apostles1 and of the early fathers1 were very common in the primitive ,church4 ,b4 ,that there is nothing to distinguish the canonical from the apocryphal writings4 ,their pretences are specious and plausible1 for the most part going under the name of our ,saviour himself1 his apostles1 their companions1 or immediate successors4 ,they are generally thought to be cited by the first ,christian writers with the same authority 7at least1 many of them7 as the sacred books we receive4 ,this ,mr4 ,toland labours hard to persuade us2 but1 what is more to be regarded1 men of greater merit and probity have unwarily dropped expressions of the like nature4 ,everybody knows 7says the learned ,casaubon against ,cardinal ,baronius7 that ,justin ,martyr1 ,clemens ,alexandrinus1 ,tertullian1 and the rest of the primitive writers1 were wont to approve and cite books which now all men know to be apocryphal4 ,clemens ,alexandrinus 7says his learned annotator1 ,sylburgius7 was too much pleased with apocryphal writings4 ,mr4 ,dodwell 7in his learned dissertation on ,irenus7 tells us that1 till ,trajan1 or1 perhaps1 ,adrian's time1 no canon was fixed2 the supposititious pieces of the heretics were received by the faithful1 the apostles' writings bound up with theirs1 and indifferently used in the churches4 ,to mention no more1 the learned ,mr4 ,spanheim observes1 that ,clemens ,alexandrinus and ,origen very often cite apocryphal books under the express name of ,scripture4444 ,how much ,mr4 ,whiston has enlarged the ,canon of the ,new ,testament1 is sufficiently known to the learned among us4 ,for the sake of those who have not perused his truly valuable books ,i would observe1 that he imagines the ',constitutions of the ,apostles' to be inspired1 and of greater authority than the occasional writings of single ,apostles and ,evangelists4 ,that the two ,epistles of ,clemens1 the ,doctrine of the ,apostles1 the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 the second book of ,esdras1 the ,epistles of ,ignatius1 and the ,epistle of ,polycarp1 are to be reckoned among the sacred authentic books of the ,new ,testament2 as also that the ,acts of ,paul1 the ,revelation1 ,preaching1 ,gospel and ,acts of ,peter1 were sacred books1 and1 if they were extant1 should be of the same authority as any of the rest 7,j4 ,jones1 on the ,canon1 p4 #d-f74 ,this same learned writer further says3 ,that many1 or most of the books of the ,new ,testament1 have been rejected by heretics in the first ages1 is also certain4 ,faustus ,manichus and his followers are said to have rejected all the ,new ,testament1 as not written by the ,apostles4 ,marcion rejected all1 except ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel4 ,the ,manichees disputed much against the authority of ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel4 ,the ,alogians rejected the ,gospel of ,st4 ,john as not his1 but made by ,cerinthus4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles were rejected by ,severus1 and the sect of his name4 ,the same rejected all ,paul's ,epistles1 as also did the ,ebionites1 and the ,helkesaites4 ,others1 who did not reject all1 rejected some particular epistles4444 ,several of the books of the ,new ,testament were not universally received1 even among them who were not heretics1 in the first ages4444 ,several of them have had their authority disputed by learned men in later times 7,ibid1 pp4 #h1 #i74 ,if recognition by the early writers be taken as a proof of the authenticity of the works quoted1 many apocryphal documents must stand high4 ,eusebius1 who ranks together the ,acts of ,paul1 the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 the ,revelation of ,peter1 the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 the ,institutions of the ,apostles1 and the ,revelation of ,john 7now accounted canonical7 says that these were not embodied in the ,canon 7in his time7 notwithstanding that they are recognised by most ecclesiastical writers 7,eccles4 ,hist41 bk4 iii41 chap4 xxv474 ,the ,canon1 in his time1 was almost the same as at present1 but the canonicity of the epistles of ,james and ,jude1 the #bnd of ,peter1 the #bnd and #crd of ,john1 and the ,revelation1 was disputed even as late as when he wrote4 ,irenus ranks the ,pastor of ,hermas as ,scripture2 he not only knew1 but also admitted the book called ,pastor 7,ibid1 bk4 v41 chap4 viii474 ,the ,pastor of ,hermas is another work which very nearly secured permanent canonical rank with the writings of the ,new ,testament4 ,it was quoted as ,holy ,scripture by the ,fathers1 and held to be divinely inspired1 and it was publicly read in the churches4 ,it has place with the ,epistle of ,barnabas in the ,sinaitic ,codex1 after the canonical books 7,supernatural ,religion1 vol4 i41 p4 #bfa74 ,the two ,epistles of ,clement are only preserved to us in the ,codex ,alexandrinus1 a ,,ms4 assigned by the most competent judges to the second half of the fifth1 or beginning of the sixth century1 in which these ,epistles follow the books of the ,new ,testament4 ,the second ,epistle 444 thus shares with the first the honour of a canonical position in one of the most ancient codices of the ,new ,testament 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 p4 #bbj74 ,these epistles are1 also1 amongst those mentioned in the ,apostolic ,canons4 ,until a comparatively late date this the first of ,clement ,epistle was quoted as ,holy ,scripture 7,ibid1 p4 #bbb74 ,origen quotes the ,epistle of ,barnabas as ,scripture1 and calls it a ,catholic ,epistle 7,ibid1 p4 #bcg71 and this same ,father regards the ,shepherd of ,hermas as also divinely inspired4 7,norton's ,genuineness of the ,gospels1 vol4 i41 p4 #cda74 ,gospels1 other than the four canonical1 are quoted as authentic by the earliest ,christian writers1 as we shall see in establishing position h2 thus destroying ,paley's contention 7,evidences1 p4 #ahg7 that there are no quotations from apocryphal writings in the ,apostolical ,fathers1 the fact being that such quotations are sown throughout their supposed writings4 ,it is often urged that the expression1 it is written1 is enough to prove that the quotation following it is of canonical authority4 ,now with regard to the value of the expression1 'it is written1' it may be remarked that in no case could its use1 in the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 indicate more than individual opinion1 and it could not1 for reasons to be presently given1 be considered to represent the opinion of the ,church4 ,in the very same chapter in which the formula is used in connection with the passage we are considering1 it is also employed to introduce a quotation from the ,book of ,enoch1 ,greek3 peri hou gegraptai hos ,henoch legei1 and elsewhere 7c4 xii47 he quotes from another apocryphal book as one of the prophets4444 ,he also quotes 7c4 vi47 the apocryphal book of ,wisdom as ,holy ,scripture1 and in like manner several unknown works4 ,when it is remembered that the ,epistle of ,clement to the ,corinthians1 the ,pastor of ,hermas1 the ,epistle of ,barnabas itself1 and many other apocryphal works have been quoted by the ,fathers as ,holy ,scripture1 the distinctive value of such an expression may be understood 7,ibid1 pp4 #bdb1 #bdc74 ,the first ,christian writers 444 quote ecclesiastical books from time to time as if they were canonical 7,westcott on ,the ,canon1 p4 #i74 ,in regard to the use of the word ,greek3 gegraptai1 introducing the quotation1 the same writer ,hilgenfeld urges reasonably enough that it cannot surprise us at a time when we learn from ,justin ,martyr that the ,gospels were read regularly at public worship or rather1 that the memorials of the ,apostles were so read2 it ought not1 however1 to be pressed too far as involving a claim to special divine inspiration1 as the same word is used in the epistle in regard to the apocryphal book of ,enoch2 and it is clear1 also1 from ,justin1 that the ,canon of the ,gospels was not yet formed1 but only forming 7,gospels in the ,second ,century1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,sanday1 p4 #gc4 ,ed4 #ahgf74 ,yet1 in spite of all this1 ,paley says1 ,the phrase1 'it is written1' was the very form in which the ,jews quoted their ,scriptures4 ,it is not probable1 therefore1 that he would have used this phrase1 and without qualification1 of any books but what had acquired a kind of ,scriptural authority 7,evidences1 p4 #aac74 ,tischendorf argues on ,paley's lines and says that it was natural1 therefore1 to apply this form of expression to the ,apostles' writings1 as soon as they had been placed in the ,canon with the books of the ,old ,testament4 ,when we find1 therefore1 in ancient ecclesiastical writings1 quotations from the ,gospels introduced with this formula1 'it is written1' we must infer that1 at the time when the expression was used1 the ,gospels were certainly treated as of equal authority with the books of the ,old ,testament 7,when ,were ,our ,gospels ,written8 p4 #hi4 ,eng4 ,ed41 #ahfg74 ,dr4 ,tischendorf1 if he believe in his own argument1 must greatly enlarge his ,canon of the ,new ,testament4 ,paley's further plea that these apocryphal writings were not read in the churches of ,christians 7,evidences1 p4 #ahg7 is thoroughly false4 ,eusebius tells us of the ,pastor of ,hermas3 ,we know that it has been already in public use in our churches 7,eccles4 ,hist41 bk4 iii41 ch4 #c74 ,clement's ,epistle was publicly read in the churches at the ,sunday meetings of ,christians 7,sup4 ,rel1 vol4 i41 p4 #bbb74 ,dionysius of ,corinth mentions this same early habit of reading any valued writing in the churches3 ,in this same letter he mentions that of ,clement to the ,corinthians1 showing that it was the practice to read in the churches1 even from the earliest times4 ',to-day1' says he1 'we have passed the ,lord's holy-day1 in which we have read your epistle1 in reading which we shall always have our minds stored with admonition1 as we shall1 also1 from that written to us before by ,clement' 7,eusebius' ,eccles4 ,hist41 bk4 iv41 ch4 #bc74 ,so far is reading in the churches to be accepted as a proof1 even of canonicity1 much less of genuineness1 that ,eusebius remarks that the disputed writings were publicly used by many in most of the churches 7,ibid1 bk4 iii41 ch4 #ca74 ,paley then takes as a further mark of distinction1 between canonical and uncanonical1 that the latter were not admitted into their volume and do not appear in their catalogues1 but we have already seen that the only ,,ms4 copy of ,clement's first ,epistle is in the ,codex ,alexandrinus 7see ante p4 #bdf71 while the ,epistle of ,barnabas and the ,pastor of ,hermas find their place in the ,sinaitic ,codex 7see ante p4 #bdf72 the second ,epistle of ,clement is also in the ,codex ,alexandrinus1 and both epistles are in the ,apostolic constitutions 7see ante p4 #bdg74 ,the ,canon of ,muratori--worthless as it is1 it is used as evidence by ,christians--brackets the ,apocalypse of ,john and of ,peter 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 ii41 p4 #bda74 ,canon ,westcott says3 ',apocryphal' writings were added to manuscripts of the ,new ,testament1 and read in churches2 and the practice thus begun continued for a long time4 ,the ,epistle of ,barnabas was still read among the 'apocryphal ,scriptures' in the time of ,jerome2 a translation of the ,shepherd of ,hermas is found in a ,,ms4 of the ,latin ,bible as late as the fifteenth century4 ,the spurious ,epistle to the ,laodicenes is found very commonly in ,english copies of the ,vulgate from the ninth century downwards1 and an important catalogue of the ,apocrypha of the ,new ,testament is added to the ,canon of ,scripture subjoined to the ,chronographia of ,nicephorus1 published in the ninth century 7,on the ,canon1 pp4 #h1 #i74 ,paley's fifth distinction1 that they were not noticed by their heretical adversaries is as untrue as the preceding ones1 for even the fragments of the adversaries preserved in ,christian documents bear traces of reference to the apocryphal writings1 although1 owing to the orthodox custom of destroying unorthodox books1 references of any sort by heretics are difficult to find4 ,again1 ,paley should have known1 when he asserted that the uncanonical writings were not alleged as of authority1 that the heretics did appeal to gospels other than the canonical4 ,marcion1 for instance1 maintained a ,gospel varying from the recognised one1 while the ,ebionites contended that their ,hebrew ,gospel was the only true one4 ,eusebius further tells us of books adduced by the heretics under the name of the ,apostles1 such1 viz41 as compose the ,gospels of ,peter1 ,thomas1 and ,matthew1 and others beside them1 or such as contain the ,acts of the ,apostles1 by ,andrew and ,john1 and others 7,eccles4 ,hist1 bk4 iii41 ch4 #be4 ,see also ante p4 #bdf74 ,it is hard to believe that ,paley was so grossly ignorant as to know nothing of these facts2 did he then deliberately state what he knew to be utterly untrue8 ,his last mark does not touch our position1 as the commentaries1 etc41 are too late to be valuable as evidence for the alleged superiority of the canonical writings during the first two centuries4 ,the other section of ,paley's argument1 that when the ,scriptures a very vague word are quoted1 or alluded to1 they are quoted with peculiar respect1 as books sui generis is met by the details given above as to the fashion in which the ,fathers referred to the writings now called uncanonical1 and by the evidence adduced in this section we may fairly claim to have proved that1 so far as external testimony goes1 there is nothing to distinguish the canonical from the apocryphal writings4 ,but there is another class of evidence relied upon by ,christians1 wherewith they seek to build up an impassable barrier between their sacred books and the dangerous uncanonical ,scriptures1 namely1 the intrinsic difference between them1 the dignity of the one1 and the puerility of the other4 ,of the uncanonical ,gospels ,dr4 ,ellicott writes3 ,their real demerits1 their mendacities1 their absurdities1 their coarseness1 the barbarities of their style1 and the inconsequence of their narratives1 have never been excused or condoned 7,cambridge ,essays1 for #ahef1 p4 #aec1 as quoted in introduction of ,the ,apocryphal ,gospels1 by ,b4,h4 ,cowper1 p4 x4 ,ed4 #ahfg74 ,we know before we read them that they are weak1 silly1 and profitless--that they are despicable monuments even of religious fiction 7,ibid1 p4 xlvii74 ,how far are such harsh expressions consonant with fact8 ,it is true that many of the tales related are absurd1 but are they more absurd than the tales related in the canonical ,gospels8 ,one story1 repeated with variations1 runs as follows3 ,this child ,jesus1 being five years old1 was playing at the crossing of a stream1 and he collected the running waters into pools1 and immediately made them pure1 and by his word alone he commanded them4 ,and having made some soft clay1 he fashioned out of it twelve sparrows2 and it was the ,sabbath when he did these things4 ,and there were also many other children playing with him4 ,and a certain ,jew1 seeing what ,jesus did1 playing on the ,sabbath1 went immediately and said to ,joseph1 his father1 ,behold1 thy child is at the water-course1 and hath taken clay and formed twelve birds1 and hath profaned the ,sabbath4 ,and ,joseph came to the place1 and when he saw him1 he cried unto him1 saying1 ,why art thou doing these things on the ,sabbath1 which it is not lawful to do8 ,and ,jesus clapped his hands1 and cried unto the sparrows1 and said to them1 ,go away2 and the sparrows flew up and departed1 making a noise4 ,and the ,jews who saw it were astonished1 and went and told their leaders what they had seen ,jesus do 7,gospel of ,thomas3 ,apocryphal ,gospels1 ,b4,h4 ,cowper1 pp4 #acj1 #aca74 ,making the water pure by a word is no more absurd than turning water into wine 7,john ii4 #a-aa72 or than sending an angel to trouble it1 and thereby making it health-giving 7,john v4 #b-d72 or than casting a tree into bitter waters1 and making them sweet 7,ex4 xv4 #be74 ,the fashioning of twelve sparrows out of soft clay is not stranger than making a woman out of a man's rib 7,gen4 ii4 #ba72 neither is it more1 or nearly so1 curious as making clay with spittle1 and plastering it on a blind man's eyes in order to make him see 7,john ix4 #f72 nay1 arguing la ,f4,d4 ,maurice1 a very strong reason might be made out for this proceeding4 ,thus1 ,jesus came to reveal the ,father to men1 and his miracles were specially arranged to show how ,god works in the world2 by turning the water into wine1 and by multiplying the loaves1 he reminds men that it is ,god whose hand feeds them by all the ordinary processes of nature4 ,in this instructive miracle of the clay formed into sparrows1 which fly away at his bidding1 ,jesus reveals his unity with the ,father1 as the ,word by whom all things were originally made2 for out of the ground1 the ,lord ,god formed every beast of the field and every fowl of the air 7,gen4 ii4 #ai7 at the creation1 and when the ,son was revealed to bring about the new creation1 what more appropriate miracle could he perform than this reminiscence of paradise1 clearly suggesting to the ,jews that the ,jehovah1 who1 of old1 formed the fowls of the air out of the ground1 was present among them in the incarnate ,word1 performing the same mighty work8 ,exactly in this fashion do ,maurice1 ,robertson1 and others of their school1 deal with the miracles of ,christ recorded in the canonical gospels 7see ,maurice on the ,miracles1 ,sermon ,,iv41 in ,what is ,revelation874 ,the number1 twelve1 is also significant1 being that of the tribes of ,israel1 and the local colouring--the complaining ,jews and the violated ,sabbath--is in perfect harmony with the other gospels4 ,the action of ,jesus1 vindicating the conduct complained of by the performance of a miracle1 is in the fullest accord with similar instances related in the received stories4 ,it is1 however1 urged that some of the miracles of ,jesus1 as given in the apocrypha1 are dishonouring to him1 because of their destructive character2 the son of ,annas1 the scribe1 spills the water the child ,jesus has collected1 and ,jesus gets angry and says1 ,thou also shalt wither like a tree2 and suddenly the boy withered altogether 7,ap4 ,gos41 p4 #aca74 ,this seems in thorough unity with the spirit ,jesus showed in later life1 when he cursed the fig-tree1 because it did not bear fruit in the wrong season1 and presently the fig-tree withered away 7,matt4 xxi4 #ai74 ,or a child1 running against him purposely1 falls dead2 or a master lifting his hand against him1 has the arm withered which essays to strike4 ,later1 of ,judas1 who betrays him1 we read that1 falling headlong1 he burst asunder in the midst1 and all his bowels gushed out 7,acts i4 #ah72 while1 in the ,old ,testament1 which speaks of ,christ1 we are told1 in figures1 we learn that1 when ,jeroboam tried to seize a prophet1 his hand1 which he put forth against him1 dried up1 so that he could not pull it in again to him 7#a ,kings xiii4 #d74 ,if destructiveness be thought injurious when related of ,jesus1 what shall we say to the wanton destruction of the herd of swine which ,jesus filled with devils1 and sent racing into the sea8 7,matt4 viii4 #bh-cd47 ,the miracle the child works to rectify a mistake of his father's in his carpenter's business1 taking hold of some wood which has been cut too short and lengthening it1 is certainly not more silly than the miracle worked by the man when money is short1 and he 7,matt4 xvii4 #bd-bg7 sends ,peter to catch a fish with money in its mouth 7why not1 by the way1 have fished directly for the coin8 it would be quite as possible for a coin to transfix itself on a hook1 as for a fish1 with a piece of money in its mouth1 to swallow a hook74 ,other miracles recorded in the apocryphal gospels1 of healing and of raising the dead1 are identical in spirit with those told of him in the canonical4 ,we may also remark that1 unless there were some received traditions of miracles worked by ,jesus in his household1 there is no reason for the evident expectation of some help which is said to have been shown by ,mary when the guests want wine at the wedding 7,john ii4 #c-e74 ,that verse #aa states that this was his first miracle is only one of the many inconsistencies of the gospel stories4 ,passing from these gospels of the infancy to those which tell of the sufferings of ,jesus1 we shall find in the ,gospel of ,nicodemus1 or ,acts of ,pilate1 much that shows their full accordance with the received writings of the ,new ,testament4 ,this point is so important1 as equalising the canonical and uncanonical gospels1 that no excuse is needed for proving it by somewhat extensive extracts4 ,the gospel opens as follows3 ,i1 ,ananias1 a provincial warden1 being a disciple of the law1 from the divine ,scriptures recognised our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 and came to him by faith2 and was also accounted worthy of holy baptism4 ,now1 when searching the records of what was wrought in the time of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 which the ,jews laid up under ,pontius ,pilate1 ,i found that these ,acts were written in ,hebrew1 and by the good pleasure of ,god ,i translated them into ,greek for the information of all who call on the name of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 under the government of our ,lord ,flavius ,theodosius1 the #agth year1 and in the #fth consulate of ,flavius ,valentinianus1 in the #ith indiction4 ,it may here be noted for what it is worth that ,justin ,martyr 7#ast ,apology1 chap1 xxxv47 refers the ,romans to the ,acts of ,pilate as public documents open to them1 which is testimony far stronger than he gives to any canonical gospel4 ,in the #aeth year of the government of ,tiberius ,csar1 ,king of the ,romans1 and of ,herod1 ,king of ,galilee1 the #ith year of his reign1 on the #hth before the calends of ,april1 which is the #beth of ,march2 in the consulship of ,rufus and ,rubellio2 in the #dth year of the #bjbnd ,olympiad1 when ,joseph ,caiaphas was high priest of the ,jews4 ,whatsoever1 after the cross and passion of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 the ,saviour ,god1 ,nicodemus recorded and wrote in ,hebrew1 and left to posterity1 is after this fashion 7,apocryphal ,gospels1 ,b4,h4 ,cowper1 pp4 #bbi1 #bcj74 ,in the first chapter we learn how the ,jews came to ,pilate1 and accuse ,jesus1 that he saith he is the son of ,god and a king2 moreover1 he profaneth the ,sabbaths1 and wisheth to abolish the law of our fathers4 ,after some conversation1 ,jesus is brought1 and in chap4 #b we read the message from ,pilate's wife1 and ,pilate1 having called the ,jews1 said to them1 ,ye know that my wife is religious1 and inclined to practise ,judaism with you4 ,they said unto him1 ,yea1 we know it4 ,pilate saith to them1 ,behold my wife hath sent to me1 saying1 ,have nothing to do with this just man1 for ,i have suffered very much because of him in the night4 ,but the ,jews answered1 and said to ,pilate1 ,did we not tell thee that he is a magician8 ,behold1 he hath sent a dream to thy wife4 ,the trial goes on1 and ,pilate declares the innocence of ,jesus1 and then confers with him as in ,john xviii4 #cc-cg4 ,then comes the question 7chaps1 iii4 and iv473 ,pilate saith unto him1 ,what is truth8 ,jesus saith to him1 ,truth is from heaven4 ,pilate saith1 ,is truth not upon earth8 ,jesus saith to ,pilate1 ,thou seest how they who say the truth are judged by those who have power upon earth4 ,and1 leaving ,jesus within the prtorium1 ,pilate went out to the ,jews1 and saith unto them1 ,i find no fault in him4 ,the conversation between ,pilate and the ,jews is then related more fully than in the canonical accounts1 and after this follows a scene of much pathos1 which is far more in accord with the rest of the tale than the accepted story1 wherein the multitude are represented as crying with one voice for his death4 ,nicodemus 7chap4 v47 first rises and speaks for ,jesus3 ,release him1 and wish no evil against him4 ,if the miracles which he doth are of ,god1 they will stand2 but1 if of men1 they will come to nought444 ,now1 therefore1 release this man1 for he is not deserving of death4 ,then 7chaps4 vi41 vii41 and viii473 ,one of the ,jews1 starting up1 asked the governor that he might say a word4 ,the governor saith1 ,if thou wilt speak1 speak4 ,and the ,jew said1 ,i lay thirty-eight years on my bed in pain and affliction4 ,and when ,jesus came1 many demoniacs1 and persons suffering various diseases1 were healed by him2 and some young men had pity on me1 and carried me with my bed1 and took me to him2 and when ,jesus saw me1 he had compassion1 and said the word to me1 ,take up thy bed1 and walk2 and ,i took up my bed and walked4 ,the ,jews said to ,pilate1 ,ask him what day it was when he was healed4 ,he that was healed said1 ,on the ,sabbath4 ,the ,jews said1 ,did we not tell thee so8 that on the ,sabbath he healeth and casteth out demons8 ,and another ,jew1 starting up1 said1 ,i was born blind2 ,i heard a voice1 but saw no person2 and as ,jesus passed by1 ,i cried with a loud voice1 ,have pity on me1 ,son of ,david1 and he had pity on me1 and placed his hands upon my eyes1 and immediately ,i saw4 ,and another ,jew1 leaping up1 said1 ,i was a cripple1 and he made me straight with a word4 ,and another said1 ,i was a leper1 and he healed me with a word4 ,and a certain woman cried out from a distance1 and said1 ,i had an issue of blood1 and ,i touched the hem of his garment1 and my issue of blood1 which had been for twelve years1 was stayed4 ,the ,jews said1 ,we have a law not to admit a woman to witness4 ,and others1 a multitude1 both of men and of women1 cried and said1 ,this man is a prophet1 and demons are subject unto him4 ,pilate said to those who said that demons were subject to him1 ,why were your teachers not also subject to him8 ,they say unto ,pilate1 ,we know not4 ,and others said1 ,that he raised up ,lazarus from the sepulchre1 when he had been dead four days4 ,and the governor1 becoming afraid1 said to all the multitude of the ,jews1 ,why will ye shed innocent blood8 ,the story proceeds much as in the gospels1 the names of the malefactors being given2 and when ,pilate remarks the three hours' darkness to the ,jews1 they answer1 ,an eclipse of the sun has happened in the usual manner 7chap4 xi474 ,chap4 xiii4 gives a full account of the conversation between the ,jews and the ,roman soldiers alluded to in ,matt4 xxviii4 #aa-ae4 ,the remaining chapters relate the proceedings of the ,jews after the resurrection1 and are of no special interest4 ,there is a second ,gospel of ,nicodemus1 varying on some points from the one quoted above1 which assumes to be compiled by a ,jew1 named ,aeneas2 translated from the ,hebrew tongue into the ,greek1 by ,nicodemus1 a ,roman ,toparch4 ,then we find a second part of the ,gospel of ,nicodemus1 or ,the ,descent of ,christ to the ,under ,world1 which relates how ,jesus descended into ,hades1 and how he ordered ,satan to be bound1 and then he blessed ,adam on the forehead with the sign of the cross2 and he did this also to the patriarchs1 and the prophets1 and martyrs1 and forefathers1 and took them up1 and sprang up out of ,hades4 ,this story manifestly runs side by side with the tradition in #a4 ,pet4 iii4 #ai1 #bj1 wherein it is stated that ,jesus went and preached unto the spirits in prison1 and that preaching is placed between his death 7v4 #ah7 and his resurrection 7v4 #ba74 ,the saving by baptism 7v4 #ba7 is also alluded to in this connection in ,nicodemus1 wherein 7chap1 xi47 the dead are baptised4 ,the ,latin versions of the ,gospels of ,nicodemus vary in details from the ,greek1 but not more than do the four canonical4 ,in these1 as in all the apocryphal writings1 there is nothing specially to distinguish them from the accepted ,scriptures2 improbabilities and contradictions abound in all2 miracles render them all alike incredible2 myriad chains of similarity bind them all to each other1 necessitating either the rejection of all as fabulous1 or the acceptance of all as historical4 ,whether we regard external or internal evidence1 we come to the same conclusion1 that there is nothing to distinguish the canonical from the uncanonical writings4 ,c4 ,that it is not known where1 when1 by whom1 the canonical writings were selected4 ,tremendously damaging to the authenticity of the ,new ,testament as this statement is1 it is yet practically undisputed by ,christian scholars4 ,canon ,westcott says frankly3 ,it cannot be denied that the ,canon was formed gradually4 ,the condition of society and the internal relations of the ,church presented obstacles to the immediate and absolute determination of the question1 which are disregarded now1 only because they have ceased to exist4 ,the tradition which represents ,st4 ,john as fixing the contents of the ,new ,testament1 betrays the spirit of a later age 7,westcott ,on the ,canon1 p4 #d74 ,the track1 however1 which we have to follow is often obscure and broken4 ,the evidence of the earliest ,christian writers is not only uncritical and casual1 but is also fragmentary 7,ibid1 p4 #aa74 ,from the close of the second century1 the history of the ,canon is simple1 and its proof clear444 ,before that time there is more or less difficulty in making out the details of the question4444 ,here1 however1 we are again beset with peculiar difficulties4 ,the proof of the ,canon is embarrassed both by the general characteristics of the age in which it was fixed1 and by the particular form of the evidence on which it first depends4 ,the spirit of the ancient world was essentially uncritical 7,ibid1 pp4 #f-h74 ,in dealing with the early versions of the ,new ,testament1 ,westcott admits that it is not easy to over-rate the difficulties which beset any inquiry into the early versions of the ,new ,testament 7,on the ,canon1 p4 #bca74 ,he speaks of the comparatively scanty materials and vague or conflicting traditions 7,ibid74 ,the original versions of the ,east and ,west are carefully examined by him2 the oldest is the ,peshito1 in ,syriac--i4e41 ,araman1 or ,syro-,chaldaic4 ,this must1 of course1 be only a translation of the ,testament1 if it be true that the original books were written in ,greek4 ,the time when this version was formed is unknown1 and ,westcott argues that the very obscurity which hangs over its origin is a proof of its venerable age 7,ibid1 p4 #bdj72 and he refers it to the first half of the second century1 while acknowledging that he does so without conclusive authority 7,ibid74 ,the ,peshito omits the second and third epistles of ,john1 second of ,peter1 that of ,jude1 and the ,apocalypse4 ,the origin of the ,western version1 in ,latin1 is quite as obscure as that of the ,syriac2 and it is also incomplete1 compared with the present ,canon1 omitting the epistle of ,james and the second of ,peter 7,ibid1 p4 #bed74 ,all the evidence so laboriously gathered together by the learned ,canon proves our proposition to demonstration4 ,but1 it is admitted on all hands1 that it is impossible to assign any certain time when a collection of these books1 either by the ,apostles1 or by any council of inspired or learned men1 near their time1 was made4444 ,the matter is too certain to need much to be said of it 7,jones ,on the ,canon1 vol4 i1 p4 #g74 ,jones adds that he hopes to confute these specious objections 444 in the fourth part of this book1 in which he endeavours to prove the ,gospels and ,acts to be genuine1 so that it does not much matter when they were collected together4 ,in the time of ,eusebius the ,canon was still unsettled1 as he ranks among the disputed and spurious works1 the epistles of ,james and ,jude1 second of ,peter1 second and third of ,john1 and the ,apocalypse 7,eccles4 ,hist41 bk4 iii41 chap4 #be74 ,it is not necessary to offer any further proof in support of our position1 that it is not known where1 when1 by whom1 the canonical writings were selected4 ,d4 ,that before about ,a4,d4 #ahj there is no trace of ,,four gospels among the ,christians4 ,the first step we take in attacking the four canonical gospels1 apart from the writings of the ,new ,testament as a whole1 is to show that there was no sacred quaternion spoken of before about ,a4,d4 #ahj1 i4e41 the supposed time of ,irenus4 ,irenus is said to have been a bishop of ,lyons towards the close of the second century2 we find him mentioned in the letter sent by the ,churches of ,vienne and ,lyons to brethren in ,asia and ,phrygia1 as our brother and companion ,irenus1 and as a presbyter much esteemed by them 7,eccles4 ,hist4 bk4 v41 chs4 #a1 #d74 ,this letter relates a persecution which occurred in the #agth year of the reign of the ,emperor ,antoninus ,verus1 i4e41 ,a4,d4 #agg4 ,paley dates the letter about ,a4,d4 #agj1 but as it relates the persecution of ,a4,d4 #agg1 it is difficult to see how it could be written about seven years before the persecution took place4 ,in that persecution ,pothinus1 bishop of ,lyons1 is said to have been slain2 he was succeeded by ,irenus 7,ibid bk4 v41 ch4 #e71 who1 therefore1 could not possibly have been bishop before ,a4,d4 #agg1 while he ought probably to be put a year or two later1 since time is needed1 after the persecution1 to send the account of it to ,asia by the hands of ,irenus1 and he must be supposed to have returned and to have settled down in ,lyons before he wrote his voluminous works2 ,a4,d4 #ahj is1 therefore1 an almost impossibly early date1 but it is1 at any rate1 the very earliest that can be pretended for the testimony now to be examined4 ,the works against heresies were probably written1 the first three about ,a4,d4 #aij1 and the remainder about ,a4,d4 #aih4 ,irenus is the first ,christian writer who mentions four ,gospels2 he says3--,matthew produced his ,gospel1 written among the ,hebrews1 in their own dialect1 whilst ,peter and ,paul proclaimed the ,gospel and founded the church at ,rome4 ,after the departure of these1 ,mark1 the disciple and interpreter of ,peter1 also transmitted to us in writing what had been preached by him4 ,and ,luke1 the companion of ,paul1 committed to writing the ,gospel preached by him4 ,afterwards ,john1 the disciple of our ,lord1 the same that lay upon his bosom1 also published the ,gospel1 whilst he was yet at ,ephesus in ,asia 7,quoted by ,eusebius1 bk4 v41 ch4 #h1 from #crd bk4 of ,refutation and ,overthrow of ,false ,doctrine1 by ,irenus74 ,the reasons which compelled ,irenus to believe that there must be neither less nor more than four ,gospels in the ,church are so convincing that they deserve to be here put on record4 ,it is not possible that the ,gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are4 ,for1 since there are four zones sometimes translated 'corners' or 'quarters' of the world in which we live1 and four ,catholic spirits1 while the ,church is scattered throughout all the world1 and the pillar and grounding of the ,church is the ,gospel and the spirit of life2 it is fitting she should have four pillars1 breathing out immortality on every side1 and vivifying men afresh4 ,from which fact it is evident that the ,word1 the ,artificer of all1 ,he that sitteth upon the ,cherubim1 and contains all things1 ,he who was manifested to men1 has given us the ,gospel under four aspects1 but bound together by one ,spirit4444 ,for the ,cherubim too were four-faced1 and their faces were images of the dispensation of the ,son of ,god4444 ,and1 therefore1 the ,gospels are in accord with these things1 among which ,christ ,jesus is seated 7,irenus1 bk4 iii41 chap1 xi41 sec4 #h74 ,the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,giles1 writing on ,justin ,martyr1 the great ,christian apologist1 candidly says3 ,the very names of the ,evangelists ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and ,john1 are never mentioned by him--do not occur once in all his works4 ,it is1 therefore1 childish to say that he has quoted from our existing ,gospels1 and so proves their existence1 as they now are1 in his own time4444 ,he has nowhere remarked1 like those ,fathers of the ,church who lived several ages after him1 that there are four ,gospels of higher importance and estimation than any others4444 ,all this was the creation of a later age1 but it is wanting in ,justin ,martyr1 and the defect leads us to the conclusion that our four ,gospels had not then emerged from obscurity1 but were still1 if in being1 confounded with a larger mass of ,christian traditions which1 about this very time1 were beginning to be set down in writing 7,christian ,records1 pp4 #ga1 #gb74 ,had these four ,gospels emerged before ,a4,d4 #ahj1 we should most certainly find some mention of them in the ,mishna4 ,the ,mishna1 a collection of ,jewish traditions compiled about the year #ahj1 takes no notice of ,christianity1 though it contains a chapter headed ',de ,cultu ,peregrino1 of strange worship4' ,this omission is thought by ,dr4 ,paley to prove nothing1 for1 says he1 'it cannot be disputed but that ,christianity was perfectly well known to the world at this time4' ,it cannot1 certainly1 be disputed that ,christianity was beginning to be known to the world1 but whether it had yet emerged from the lower classes of persons among whom it originated1 may well be doubted4 ,it is a prevailing error1 in biblical criticism1 to suppose that the whole world was feelingly alive to what was going on in small and obscure parts of it4 ,the existence of ,christians was probably known to the compilers of the ,mishna in #ahj1 even though they did not deign to notice them1 but they could not have had any knowledge of the ,new ,testament1 or they would undoubtedly have noticed it2 if1 at least1 we are right in ascribing to it so high a character1 attracting 7as we know it does7 the admiration of every one in every country to which it is carried 7,ibid1 p4 #ce74 ,there is1 however1 one alleged proof of the existence of four1 and only four1 ,gospels1 put forward by ,paley3--,tatian1 a follower of ,justin ,martyr1 and who flourished about the year #agj1 composed a harmony or collection of the ,gospels1 which he called ,diatessaron1 of the ,four4 ,this title1 as well as the work1 is remarkable1 because it shows1 that then1 as now1 there were four and only four1 ,gospels in general use with ,christians 7,evidences1 pp4 #aed1 #aee74 ,paley does not state1 until later1 that the follower of ,justin ,martyr turned heretic and joined the ,encratites1 an ascetic and mystic sect who taught abstinence from marriage1 and from meat1 etc42 nor does he tell us how doubtful it is what the ,diatessaron--now lost--really contained4 ,he blandly assures us that it is a harmony of the four ,gospels1 although all the evidence is against him4 ,irenus1 as quoted by ,eusebius1 says of ,tatian that having apostatised from the ,church1 and being elated with the conceit of a teacher1 and vainly puffed up as if he surpassed all others1 he invented some new doctrines1 and ,eusebius further tells us3 ,their chief and founder1 ,tatianus1 having formed a certain body and collection of ,gospels1 ,i know not how1 has given this the title ,diatessaron1 that is the ,gospel by the four1 or the ,gospel formed of the four 7,eccles4 ,hist1 bk4 iv41 ch4 #bi74 ,could ,eusebius have written that ,tatian formed this1 ,i know not how1 if it had been a harmony of the ,gospels recognised by the ,church when he wrote8 and how is it that ,paley knows all about it1 though ,eusebius did not8 ,and still further1 after mentioning the ,diatessaron1 ,eusebius says of another of ,tatian's books3 ,this book1 indeed1 appears to be the most elegant and profitable of all his works 7,ibid74 ,more profitable than a harmony of the four ,gospels6 ,so far as the name goes1 as given by ,eusebius1 it would seem to imply one ,gospel written by four authors4 ,epiphanius states3 ,tatian is said to have composed the ,gospel by four1 which is called by some1 the ,gospel according to the ,hebrews 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 ii41 p4 #aee74 ,here we get the ,diatessaron identified with the widely-spread and popular early ,gospel of the ,hebrews4 ,theodoret 7circa ,a4,d4 #deg7 says that he found more than #bjj such books in use in ,syria1 the ,christians not perceiving the evil design of the composition2 and this is ,paley's harmony of the ,gospels6 ,theodoret states that he took these books away1 and instead introduced the ,gospels of the four ,evangelists2 how strange an action in dealing with so useful a work as a harmony of the ,gospels1 to confiscate it entirely and call it an evil design6 ,to complete the value of this work as evidence to four1 and only four1 ,gospels1 we are told by ,victor of ,capua1 that it was also called ,diapente1 i4e41 by five 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 ii41 p4 #aec74 ,in fact1 there is no possible reason for calling the work--whose contents ate utterly unknown--a harmony of the ,gospels at all2 the notion that it is a harmony is the purest of assumptions4 ,there is some slight evidence in favour of the identity of the ,diatessaron with the ,gospel of the ,hebrews4 ,those1 however1 who called the ,gospel used by ,tatian the ,gospel according to the ,hebrews1 must have read the work1 and all that we know confirms their conclusion4 ,the work was1 in point of fact1 found in wide circulation precisely in the places in which1 earlier1 the ,gospel according to the ,hebrews was more particularly current4 ,the singular fact that the earliest reference to ,tatian's 'harmony' is made a century and a half after its supposed composition1 that no writer before the #eth century had seen the work itself1 indeed1 that only two writers before that period mention it at all1 receives its natural explanation in the conclusion that ,tatian did not actually compose any harmony at all1 but simply made use of the same ,gospel as his master ,justin ,martyr1 namely1 the ,gospel according to the ,hebrews1 by which name his ,gospel had been called by those best informed 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 ii41 pp4 #aeh1 #aei74 ,as it is not pretended by any that there is any mention of four ,gospels before the time of ,irenus1 excepting this harmony1 pleaded by some as dated about ,a4,d4 #agj1 and by others as between #agj and #ahj1 it would be sheer waste of time and space to prove further a point admitted on all hands4 ,this step of our argument is1 then1 on solid and unassailable ground--that before about ,a4,d4 #ahj there is no trace of ,,four ,gospels among the ,christians4 ,e4 ,that1 before that date1 ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and ,john1 are not selected as the four evangelists4 ,this position necessarily follows from the preceding one1 since four evangelists could not be selected until four ,gospels were recognised4 ,here1 again1 ,dr4 ,giles supports the argument we are building up4 ,he says3 ,justin ,martyr never once mentions by name the evangelists ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and ,john4 ,this circumstance is of great importance2 for those who assert that our four canonical ,gospels are contemporary records of our ,saviour's ministry1 ascribe them to ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and ,john1 and to no other writers4 ,in this they are1 in a certain sense1 consistent2 for contemporary writings 8 histories are very rarely anonymous4 ,if so1 how could they be proved to be contemporary8 ,justin ,martyr1 it must be remembered1 wrote in #aej2 but neither he1 nor any writer before him1 has alluded1 in the most remote degree1 to four specific ,gospels1 bearing the names of ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and ,john4 ,let those who think differently produce the passages in which such mention is to be found 7,christian ,records1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,giles1 p4 #gc74 ,two of these names had1 however1 emerged a little earlier1 being mentioned as evangelists by ,papias1 of ,hierapolis4 ,his testimony will be fully considered below in establishing position g4 ,f4 ,that there is no evidence that the four ,gospels mentioned about that date were the same as those we have now4 ,this brings us to a most important point in our examination2 for we now attack the very key of the ,christian position--viz41 that1 although the ,gospels be not mentioned by name previous to ,irenus1 their existence can yet be conclusively proved by quotations from them1 to be found in the writings of the ,fathers who lived before ,irenus4 ,paley says3 ,the historical books of the ,new ,testament--meaning thereby the four ,gospels and the ,acts of the ,apostles--are quoted1 or alluded to1 by a series of ,christian writers1 beginning with those who were contemporary with the ,apostles or who immediately followed them1 and proceeding in close and regular succession from their time to the present4 ,and he urges that the medium of proof stated in this proposition is1 of all others1 the most unquestionable1 the least liable to any practices of fraud1 and is not diminished by the lapse of ages 7,evidences1 pp4 #aaa1 #aab74 ,the writers brought in evidence are3 ,barnabas1 ,clement1 ,hermas1 ,ignatius1 ,polycarp1 ,papias1 ,justin ,martyr1 ,hegesippus1 and the epistle from ,lyons and ,vienne4 ,before examining the supposed quotations in as great detail as our space will allow1 two or three preliminary remarks are needed on the value of this offered evidence as a whole4 ,in the first place1 the greater part of the works brought forward as witnesses are themselves challenged1 and their own dates are unknown2 their now accepted writings are only the residuum of a mass of forgeries1 and ,dr4 ,giles justly says3 ,the process of elimination1 which gradually reduced the so-called writings of the first century from two folio volumes to fifty slender pages1 would1 in the case of any other profane works1 have prepared the inquirer for casting from him1 with disgust1 the small remnant1 even if not fully convicted of spuriousness2 for there is no other case in record of so wide a disproportion between what is genuine and what is spurious 7,christian ,records1 p4 #fg74 ,their testimony is absolutely worthless until they are themselves substantiated2 and from the account given of them above 7pp #bad-bba1 and #bcb-bce71 the student is in a position to judge of the value of evidence depending on the ,apostolic ,fathers4 ,professor ,norton remarks3 ,when we endeavour to strengthen this evidence by appealing to the writings ascribed to ,apostolical ,fathers1 we1 in fact1 weaken its force4 ,at the very extremity of the chain of evidence1 where it ought to be strongest1 we are attaching defective links1 which will bear no weight 7,genuineness of the ,gospels1 vol4 i41 p4 #ceg74 ,again1 supposing that we admit these witnesses1 their repetition of sayings of ,christ1 or references to his life1 do not--in the absence of quotations specified by them as taken from ,gospels written by ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 and ,john--prove that1 because similar sayings or actions are recorded in the present canonical ,gospels1 therefore1 these latter existed in their days1 and were in their hands4 ,lardner says on this point3 ,here is1 however1 one difficulty1 and 'tis a difficulty which may frequently occur1 whilst we are considering these very early writers1 who were conversant with the ,apostles1 and others who had seen or heard our ,lord2 and were1 in a manner1 as well acquainted with our ,saviour's doctrine and history as the ,evangelists themselves1 unless their quotations or allusions are very express and clear4 ,the question1 then1 here is1 whether ,clement in these places refers to words of ,christ1 written and recorded1 or whether he reminds the ,corinthians of words of ,christ1 which he and they might have heard from the ,apostles1 or other eye-and-ear-witnesses of our ,lord4 ,le ,clerc1 in his dissertation on the four ,gospels1 is of opinion that ,clement refers to written words of our ,lord1 which were in the hands of the ,corinthians1 and well known to them4 ,on the other hand1 ,i find1 ,bishop ,pearson thought1 that ,clement speaks of words which he had heard from the ,apostles themselves1 or their disciples4 ,i certainly make no question but the three first ,gospels were writ before this time4 ,and ,i am well satisfied that ,clement might refer to our written ,gospels1 though he does not exactly agree with them in expression4 ,but whether he does refer to them is not easy to determine concerning a man who1 very probably1 knew these things before they were committed to writing2 and1 even after they were so1 might continue to speak of them1 in the same manner he had been wont to do1 as things he was well informed of1 without appealing to the ,scriptures themselves 7,credibility1 pt4 ,,ii41 vol4 i41 pp4 #fh-gj74 ,canon ,westcott1 after arguing that the ,apostolic ,fathers are much influenced by the ,pauline ,epistles1 goes on to remark3 ,nothing has been said hitherto of the coincidences between the ,apostolic ,fathers and the ,canonical ,gospels4 ,from the nature of the case1 casual coincidences of language cannot be brought forward in the same manner to prove the use of a history as of a letter4 ,the same facts and words1 especially if they be recent and striking1 may be preserved in several narratives4 ,references in the sub-apostolic age to the discourses or actions of our ,lord1 as we find them recorded in the ,gospels1 show1 as far as they go1 that what the ,gospels relate was then held to be true2 but it does not necessarily follow that they were already in use1 and were the actual source of the passages in question4 ,on the contrary1 the mode in which ,clement refers to our ,lord's teaching--'the ,lord said1' not 'saith'--seems to imply that he was indebted to tradition1 and not to any written accounts1 for words most closely resembling those which are still found in our ,gospels4 ,the main testimony of the ,apostolic ,fathers is1 therefore1 to the substance1 and not to the authenticity1 of the ,gospels 7,on the ,canon1 pp4 #ea1 #eb74 ,an examination of the ,apostolic ,fathers gives us little testimony as to the substance of the ,gospels2 but the whole passage is here given to show how much ,canon ,westcott1 writing in defence of the ,canon1 finds himself obliged to give up of the position occupied by earlier apologists4 ,dr4 ,giles agrees with the justice of these remarks of ,lardner and ,westcott4 ,he writes3 ,the sayings of ,christ were1 no doubt1 treasured up like household jewels by his disciples and followers4 ,why1 then1 may we not refer the quotation of ,christ's words1 occurring in the ,apostolical ,fathers1 to an origin of this kind8 ,if we examine a few of those quotations1 the supposition1 just stated1 will expand into reality4444 ,the same may be said of every single sentence found in any of the ,apostolical ,fathers1 which1 on first sight1 might be thought to be a decided quotation from one of the ,gospels according to ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 or ,john4 ,it is impossible to deny the truth of this observation2 for we see it confirmed by the fact that the ,apostolical ,fathers do actually quote ,moses1 and other old ,testament writers1 by name--',moses hath said1' 'but ,moses says1' etc4--in numerous passages4 ,but we nowhere meet with the words1 ',matthew hath said in his ,gospel1' ',john hath said1' etc4 ,they always quote1 not the words of the ,evangelists1 but the words of ,christ himself directly1 which furnishes the strongest presumption that1 though the sayings of ,christ were in general vogue1 yet the evangelical histories1 into which they were afterwards embodied1 were not then in being4 ,but the converse of this view of the case leads us to the same conclusion4 ,the ,apostolical ,fathers quote sayings of ,christ which are not found in our ,gospels4444 ,there is no proof that our ,new ,testament was in existence during the lives of the ,apostolical ,fathers1 who1 therefore1 could not make citations out of books which they had never seen 7,christian ,records1 pp4 #ea-ec74 ,there is no evidence that they the four ,gospels existed earlier than the middle of the second century1 for they are not named by any writer who lived before that time 7,ibid1 p4 #ef74 ,in searching for evidence of the existence of the ,gospels during the earlier period of the ,church's history1 ,christian apologists have hitherto been content to seize upon a phrase here and there somewhat resembling a phrase in the canonical ,gospels1 and to put that forward as a proof that the ,gospels then were the same as those we have now4 ,this rough-and-ready plan must now be given up1 since the most learned ,christian writers now agree1 with the ,freethinkers1 that such a method is thoroughly unsatisfactory4 ,yet1 again1 admitting these writers as witnesses1 and allowing that they quote from the same ,gospels1 their quotations only prove that the isolated phrases they use were in the ,gospels of their day1 and are also in the present ones2 and many such cases might occur in spite of great variations in the remainder of the respective ,gospels1 and would by no means prove that the ,gospels they used were identical with ours4 ,if ,josephus1 for instance1 had ever quoted some sentences of ,socrates recorded by ,plato1 that quotation1 supposing that ,josephus were reliable1 would prove that ,plato and ,socrates both lived before ,josephus1 and that ,plato wrote down some of the sayings of ,socrates2 but it would not prove that a version of ,plato in our hands to-day was identical with that used by ,josephus4 ,the scattered and isolated passages woven in by the ,fathers in their works would fail to prove the identity of the ,gospels of the second century with those of the nineteenth1 even were they as like parallel passages in the canonical ,gospels as they are unlike them4 ,it is important1 says the able anonymous writer of ,supernatural ,religion1 that we should constantly bear in mind that a great number of ,gospels existed in the early ,church which are no longer extant1 and of most of which even the names are lost4 ,we will not here do more than refer1 in corroboration of this fact1 to the preliminary statement of the author of the third ,gospel3 ',forasmuch as many 7,greek3 polloi7 have taken in hand to set forth a declaration of those things which are surely believed among us1 etc4' ,it is1 therefore1 evident that before our third synoptic was written1 many similar works were already in circulation4 ,looking at the close similarity of the large portions of the three synoptics1 it is almost certain that many of the ,greek3 polloi here mentioned bore a close analogy to each other1 and to our ,gospels2 and this is known to have been the case1 for instance1 amongst the various forms of the ',gospel according to the ,hebrews1' distinct mention of which we meet with long before we hear anything of our ,gospels4 ,when1 therefore1 in early writings1 we meet with quotations closely resembling1 or1 we may add1 even identical with passages which are found in our ,gospels--the source of which1 however1 is not mentioned1 nor is any author's name indicated--the similarity1 or even identity1 cannot by any means be admitted as evidence that the quotation is necessarily from our ,gospels1 and not from some other similar work now no longer extant2 and more especially not when1 in the same writings1 there are other quotations from apocryphal sources different from our ,gospels4 ,whether regarded as historical records or as writings embodying the mere tradition of the early ,christians1 our ,gospels cannot for a moment be recognised as the exclusive depositaries of the genuine sayings and doings of ,jesus2 and so far from the common possession by many works in early times of such words of ,jesus1 in closely similar form1 being either strange or improbable1 the really remarkable phenomena is that such material variation in the report of the more important historical teaching should exist amongst them4 ,but whilst similarity to our ,gospels in passages quoted by early writers from unnamed sources cannot prove the use of our ,gospels1 variation from them would suggest or prove a different origin2 and1 at least1 it is obvious that quotations which do not agree with our ,gospels cannot1 in any case1 indicate their existence 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 pp4 #bag-bai74 ,we will now turn to the witness of ,paley's ,apostolic ,fathers1 bearing always in mind the utter worthlessness of their testimony2 worthless as it is1 however1 it is the only evidence ,christians have to bring forward to prove the identity of their ,gospels with those supposed to have been written in the first century4 ,let us listen to the opinion given by ,bishop ,marsh3 ,from the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 no inference can be deduced that he had read any part of the ,new ,testament4 ,from the genuine epistle1 as it is called1 of ,clement of ,rome1 it may be inferred that ,clement had read the first ,epistle to the ,corinthians4 ,from the ,shepherd of ,hermas no inference whatsoever can be drawn4 ,from the ,epistles of ,ignatius1 it may be concluded that he had read ,st4 ,paul's ,epistle to the ,ephesians1 and that there existed in his time evangelical writings1 though it cannot be shown that he has quoted from them4 ,from ,polycarp's ,epistle to the ,philippians1 it appears that he had heard of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistle to that community1 and he quotes a passage which is in the first ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 and another which is in the ,epistle to the ,ephesians2 but no positive conclusion can be drawn with respect to any other epistle1 or any of the four ,gospels 7,marsh's ,michaelis1 vol4 i41 p4 #ced1 as quoted in ,norton's ,genuineness of the ,gospels1 vol4 i41 p4 #c74 ,very heavily does this tell against the authenticity of these records1 for if the four ,gospels and other books were written by those who had been eye-witnesses of ,christ's miracles1 and the five ,apostolic ,fathers had conversed with the ,apostles1 it is not to be conceived that they would not have named the actual books themselves which possessed so high authority1 and would be looked up to with so much respect by all the ,christians4 ,this is the only way in which their evidence could be of use to support the authenticity of the ,new ,testament as being the work of the ,apostles2 but this is a testimony which the five ,apostolical ,fathers fail to supply4 ,there is not a single sentence1 in all their remaining works1 in which a clear allusion to the ,new ,testament is to be found 7,christian ,records1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,giles1 p4 #ej74 ,westcott1 while claiming in the ,apostolic ,fathers a knowledge of most of the epistles1 writes very doubtfully as to their knowledge of the ,gospels 7see above p4 #bfd71 and after giving careful citations of all possible quotations1 he sums up thus3 #a4 ,no evangelic reference in the ,apostolic ,fathers can be referred certainly to a written record4 #b4 ,it appears most probable from the form of the quotations that they were derived from oral tradition4 #c4 ,no quotation contains any element which is not substantially preserved in our ,gospels4 #d4 ,when the text given differs from the text of our ,gospels it represents a later form of the evangelic tradition4 #e4 ,the text of ,st4 ,matthew corresponds more nearly than the other synoptic texts with the quotations and references as a whole 7,on the ,canon1 p4 #fb74 ,there appears to be no proof whatever of conclusions #c and #d1 but we give them all as they stand4 ,but we will take these ,apostolic ,fathers one by one1 in the order used by ,paley4 ,,barnabas4 ,we have already quoted ,bishop ,marsh and ,dr4 ,giles as regards him4 ,there is nothing in this epistle worthy of the name of evidence even of the existence of our ,gospels 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 p4 #bfj74 ,the quotation sometimes urged1 ,there are many called1 few chosen1 is spoken of by ,westcott as a proverbial phrase1 and phrases similar in meaning and manner may be found in iv4 ,ezra1 viii4 #c1 ix4 #ae 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 p4 #bde72 in the latter work the words occur in a relation similar to that in which we find them in ,barnabas2 in both the judgment is described1 and in both the moral drawn is that there are many lost and few saved2 it is the more likely that the quotation is taken from the apocryphal work1 since many other quotations are drawn from it throughout the epistle4 ,the quotation ,give to every one that asketh thee1 is not found in the supposed oldest ,,ms41 the ,codex ,sinaiticus1 and is a later interpolation1 clearly written in by some transcriber as appropriate to the passage in ,barnabas4 ,the last supposed quotation1 that ,christ chose men of bad character to be his disciples1 that he might show that he came not to call the righteous1 but sinners1 is another clearly later interpolation1 for it jars with the reasoning of ,barnabas1 and when ,origen quotes the passage he omits the phrase4 ,in a work which has been written at the request1 and is published at the cost of the ,christian ,evidence ,society1 and which may fairly1 therefore1 be taken as the opinion of learned1 yet most orthodox1 ,christian opinion1 the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,sanday writes3 ,the general result of our examination of the ,epistle of ,barnabas may1 perhaps1 be stated thus1 that while not supplying by itself certain and conclusive proof of the use of our ,gospels1 still the phenomena accord better with the hypothesis of such a use4 ,this epistle stands in the second line of the ,evidence1 and as a witness is rather confirmatory than principal 7,gospels in the ,second ,century1 p4 #gf4 ,ed4 #ahgf74 ,and this is all that the most modern apologetic criticism can draw from an epistle of which ,paley makes a great display1 saying that if the passage remarked in this ancient writing had been found in one of ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles1 it would have been esteemed by every one a high testimony to ,st4 ,matthew's ,gospel 7,evidences1 p4 #aac74 ,,clement ,,of ,,rome4--,tischendorf1 who is ever ready to claim the slightest resemblance in language as a reference to new ,testament writings1 admits that although this ,epistle is rich in quotations from the ,old ,testament1 and here and there that ,clement also makes use of passages from ,pauline ,epistles1 he nowhere refers to the ,gospels 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i4 pp4 #bbg1 #bbh74 ,the ,christian ,evidence ,society1 through ,mr4 ,sanday1 thus criticises ,clement3 ,now what is the bearing of the ,epistle of ,clement upon the question of the currency and authority of the ,synoptic ,gospels8 ,there are two passages of some length which are1 without doubt1 evangelical quotations1 though whether they are derived from the ,canonical ,gospels or not may be doubted 7,gospels in the ,second ,century1 page #fa74 ,after balancing the arguments for and against the first of these passages1 ,mr4 ,sanday concludes3 ,looking at the arguments on both sides1 so far as we can give them1 ,i incline1 on the whole1 to the opinion that ,clement is not quoting from our ,gospels2 but ,i am quite aware of the insecure ground on which this opinion rests4 ,it is a nice balance of probabilities1 and the element of ignorance is so large that the conclusion1 whatever it is1 must be purely provisional4 ,anything like confident dogmatism on the subject seems to me entirely out of place4 ,very much the same is to be said of the second passage 7,ibid1 p4 #ff74 ,the quotations in ,clement1 apparently from some other evangelic work1 will be noted under head h1 and these are those cited in ,paley4 ,,hermas4--,tischendorf relinquishes this work also as evidence for the ,gospels4 ,lardner writes3 ,in ,hermas are no express citations of any books of the ,new ,testament 7,credibility1 vol4 i4 pt4 #b1 p4 #aaf74 ,he thinks1 however1 that he can trace allusions to words of ,scripture4 ,westcott says that ,the ,shepherd contains no definite quotation from either ,old or ,new ,testament 7,on the ,canon1 p4 #aig72 but he also thinks that ,hermas was familiar with some records of ,christ's teaching4 ,westcott1 however1 does not admit ,hermas as an ,apostolic ,father at all1 but places him in the middle of the second century4 ,as regards the direct historical evidence for the genuineness of the ,gospels1 it is of no importance4 ,no book is cited in it by name4 ,there are no evident quotations from the ,gospels 7,norton's ,genuineness of the ,gospels1 vol4 i1 pp4 #cdb1 #cdc74 ,,ignatius4--,it would be wasted time to trouble about ,ignatius at all1 after knowing the vicissitudes through which his supposed works have passed 7see ante pp4 #bag-bbj72 and ,paley's references are such vague quotations that they may safely be left to the judgment of the reader4 ,tischendorf1 claiming two and three phrases in it1 says somewhat confusedly3 ,though we do not wish to give to these references a decisive value1 and though they do not exclude all doubt as to their applicability to our ,gospels1 and more particularly to that of ,st4 ,john1 they nevertheless undoubtedly bear traces of such a reference 7,when were our ,gospels ,written1 p4 #fa1 ,eng4 ed474 ,this conclusion refers1 in ,tischendorf1 to ,polycarp1 as well as to ,ignatius4 ,in these ,ignatian ,epistles1 ,mr4 ,sanday only treats the ,curetonian ,epistles 7see ante1 p4 #bah7 as genuine1 and in these he finds scarcely any coincidences with the ,gospels4 ,the parallel to ,matthew x4 #af1 ,be ye1 therefore1 wise as serpents and harmless as doves1 is doubtful1 as it is possible that ,ignatius may be quoting1 not directly from our ,gospel1 but from one of the original documents 7such as ,ewald's hypothetical ',spruch-,sammlung'71 out of which our ,gospel was composed 7,gospels in the ,second ,century1 p4 #gh74 ,an allusion to the star of ,bethlehem may have1 as it appears to have1 reference to the narrative of ,matt1 ii444 but see1 ante1 p4 #bcc1 where the account given of the star is widely different from the evangelic notice4 ,these are 7so far as ,i am aware7 the only coincidences to be found in the ,curetonian version 7,ibid1 pp4 #gh1 #gi74 ,,polycarp4--,this epistle lies under a heavy weight of suspicion1 and has besides little worth analysing as possible quotations from the ,gospels4 ,paley quotes1 beseeching the all-seeing ,god not to lead us into temptation4 ,why not finish the passage8 ,because1 if he had done so1 the context would have shown that it was not a quotation from a gospel identical with our own--beseeching the all-seeing ,god not to lead us into temptation1 as the ,lord hath said1 ,the spirit1 indeed1 is willing1 but the flesh is weak4 ,if this be a quotation at all1 it is from some lost gospel1 as these words are nowhere found thus conjoined in the ,synoptics4 ,thus briefly may these ,apostolic ,fathers be dismissed1 since their testimony fades away as soon as it is examined1 as a mist evaporates before the rays of the rising sun4 ,we will call up ,paley's other witnesses4 ,,papias4--,in the fragment preserved by ,eusebius there is no quotation of any kind2 the testimony of ,papias is to the names of the authors of two of the ,gospels1 and will be considered under g4 ,,justin ,,martyr4--,we now come to the most important of the supposed witnesses1 and1 although students must study the details of the controversy in larger works1 we will endeavour to put briefly before them the main reasons why ,freethinkers reject ,justin ,martyr as bearing evidence to the authenticity of the present ,gospels1 and in this rsum we begin by condensing chapter iii4 of ,supernatural ,religion1 vol4 i41 pp4 #bhh-dcc1 so far as it bears on our present position4 ,justin ,martyr is supposed to have died about ,a4,d4 #aff1 having been put to death in the reign of ,marcus ,aurelius2 he was by descent a ,greek1 but became a convert to ,christianity1 strongly tinged with ,judaism4 ,the longer ,apology1 and the ,dialogue with ,trypho1 are the works chiefly relied upon to prove the authenticity4 ,the date of the first ,apology is probably about ,a4,d4 #adg2 the ,dialogue was written later1 perhaps between ,a4,d4 #aej and #afj4 ,in these writings ,justin quotes very copiously from the ,old ,testament1 and he also very frequently refers to facts of ,christian history1 and to sayings of ,jesus4 ,of these references1 for instance1 some fifty occur in the first ,apology1 and upwards of seventy in the ,dialogue with ,trypho2 a goodly number1 it will be admitted1 by means of which to identify the source from which he quotes4 ,justin himself frequently and distinctly says that his information and quotations are derived from the ,memoirs of the ,apostles1 but1 except upon one occasion1 which we shall hereafter consider1 when he indicates ,peter1 he never mentions an author's name4 ,upon examination it is found that1 with only one or two brief exceptions1 the numerous quotations from these ,memoirs differ more or less widely from parallel passages in our ,synoptic ,gospels1 and in many cases differ in the same respects as similar quotations found in other writings of the second century1 the writers of which are known to have made use of uncanonical ,gospels2 and further1 that these passages are quoted several times1 at intervals1 by ,justin1 with the same variations4 ,moreover1 sayings of ,jesus are quoted from the ,memoirs which are not found in our ,gospels at all1 and facts in the life of ,jesus1 and circumstances of ,christian history1 derived from the same source1 not only are not found in our ,gospels1 but are in contradiction with them4 ,various theories have been put forward by ,christian apologists to lessen the force of these objections4 ,it has been suggested that ,justin quoted from memory1 condensed or combined to suit his immediate purpose2 that the ,memoirs were a harmony of the ,gospels1 with additions from some apocryphal work2 that along with our ,gospels ,justin used apocryphal ,gospels2 that he made use of our ,gospels1 preferring1 however1 to rely chiefly on an apocryphal one4 ,results so diverse show how dubious must be the value of the witness of ,justin ,martyr4 ,competent critics almost universally admit that ,justin had no idea of ranking the ,memoirs of the ,apostles among canonical writings4 ,the word translated ,memoirs would be more correctly rendered ,recollections1 or ,memorabilia1 and none of these three terms is an appropriate title for works ranking as canonical ,gospels4 ,great numbers of spurious writings1 under the names of apostles1 were current in the early ,church1 and ,justin names no authors for the ,recollections he quotes from1 only saying that they were composed by his ,apostles and their followers1 clearly indicating that he was using some collective recollections of the ,apostles and those who followed them4 ,the word ,gospels1 in the plural1 is only once applied to these ,recollections2 ,for the ,apostles1 in the ',memoirs' composed by them1 which are called ,gospels4 ,the last expression ,greek3 kaleitai euaggelai1 as many scholars have declared1 is a manifest interpolation4 ,it is1 in all probability1 a gloss on the margin of some old ,,ms4 which some copyist afterwards inserted in the text4 ,if ,justin really stated that the ',memoirs' were called ,gospels1 it seems incomprehensible that he should never call them so himself4 ,in no other place in his writings does he apply the plural to them1 but1 on the contrary1 we find ,trypho referring to the 'so-called ,gospel1' which he states that he had carefully read1 and which1 of course1 can only be ,justin's ',memoirs1' and again1 in another part of the same dialogue1 ,justin quotes passages which are written 'in the ,gospel4' ,the term ',gospel' is nowhere else used by ,justin in reference to a written record4 ,the public reading of the ,recollections1 mentioned by ,justin1 proves nothing1 since many works1 now acknowledged as spurious1 were thus read 7see ante1 pp4 #bdh1 #bdi74 ,justin does not regard the ,recollections as inspired1 attributing inspiration only to prophetic writings1 and he accepts them as authentic solely because the events they narrate are prophesied of in the ,old ,testament4 ,the omission of any author's name is remarkable1 since1 in quoting from the ,old ,testament1 he constantly refers to the author by name1 or to the book used2 but in the very numerous quotations1 supposed to be from the ,gospels1 he never does this1 save in one single instance1 mentioned below1 when he quotes ,peter4 ,on the theory that he had our four ,gospels before him1 this is the more singular1 since he would naturally have distinguished one from the other4 ,the only writing in the ,new ,testament referred to by name is the ,apocalypse1 by a certain man whose name was ,john1 one of the apostles of ,christ1 and it is impossible that ,john should be thus mentioned1 if ,justin had already been quoting from a ,gospel bearing his name under the general title of ,recollections4 ,justin clearly quotes from a written source and excludes oral tradition1 saying that in the ,recollections is recorded everything that concerns our ,saviour ,christ4 7,the proofs that ,justin quotes from records other than the ,gospels will be classed under position h1 and are here omitted47 ,justin knows nothing of the shepherds of the plain1 and the angelic appearance to them1 nor of the star guiding the wise men to the place where ,jesus was1 although he relates the story of the birth1 and the visit of the wise men4 ,two short passages in ,justin are identical with parallel passages in ,matthew1 but it cannot be too often repeated1 that the mere coincidence of short historical sayings in two works by no means warrants the conclusion that the one is dependent on the other4 ,in the first ,apology1 chaps1 xv41 xvi41 and xvii4 are composed almost entirely of examples of ,christ's teaching1 and with the exception of these two brief passages1 not one quotation agrees verbally with the canonical ,gospels4 ,we have referred to one instance wherein the name of ,peter is mentioned in connection with the ,recollections4 ,justin says3 ,the statement also that he 7,jesus7 changed the name of ,peter1 one of the ,apostles1 and that this is also written in his ',memoirs1' etc4 ,this refers the ,memoirs to ,peter1 and it is suggested that it is1 therefore1 a reference to the ,gospel of ,mark1 ,mark having been supposed to have written his ,gospel under the direction of ,peter4 ,there was a ,gospel according to ,peter current in the early ,church1 probably a variation from the ,gospel of the ,hebrews1 so highly respected and so widely used by the primitive writers4 ,it is very probable that this is the work to which ,justin so often refers1 and that it originally bore the simple title of ,the ,gospel1 or the ,recollections of ,peter4 ,a version of this ,gospel was also known as the ,gospel ,according to the ,apostles1 a title singularly like the ,recollections of the ,apostles by ,justin4 ,seeing that in ,justin's works his quotations1 although so copious1 do not agree with parallel passages in our ,gospels1 we may reasonably conclude that there is no evidence that he made use of any of our ,gospels1 and he cannot1 therefore1 even be cited to prove their very existence1 and much less the authenticity and character of records whose authors he does not once name4 ,passing from this case1 ably worked out by this learned and clever writer 7and we earnestly recommend our readers1 if possible1 to study his careful analysis for themselves1 since he makes the whole question thoroughly intelligible to ,english readers1 and gives them evidence whereby they can form their own judgments1 instead of accepting ready-made conclusions71 we will examine ,canon ,westcott's contention4 ,he admits that the difficulties perplexing the evidence of ,justin are great2 that there are additions to the received narrative1 and remarkable variations from its text1 which1 in some cases1 are both repeated by ,justin and found also in other writings 7,on the ,canon1 p4 #ih74 ,we regret to say that ,dr4 ,westcott1 in laying the case before his readers1 somewhat misleads them1 although1 doubtless1 unintentionally4 ,he speaks of ,justin telling us that ,christ was descended from ,abraham through ,jacob1 ,judah1 ,phares1 ,jesse1 and ,david1 and omits the fact that ,justin traces the descent to ,mary alone1 and knows nothing as to a descent traced to ,joseph1 as in both ,matthew and ,luke 7see below1 under h74 ,he speaks of ,justin mentioning wise men guided by a star1 forgetting that ,justin says nothing of the guidance1 but only writes3 ,that he should arise like a star from the seed of ,abraham1 ,moses showed beforehand4444 ,accordingly1 when a star rose in heaven at the time of his birth1 as is recorded in the ',memoirs' of his ,apostles1 the ,magi from ,arabia1 recognising the sign by this1 came and worshipped him 7,dial41 ch4 cvi474 ,he speaks of ,justin recording the singing of the ,psalm afterwards 7after the last supper71 omitting that ,justin only says generally 7,dial41 ch4 cvi41 to which ,dr4 ,westcott refers us7 that when living with them 7,christ7 sang praises to ,god4 ,but as we hereafter deal with these discrepancies1 we need not dwell on them now1 only warning our readers that since even such a man as ,dr4 ,westcott thus misrepresents facts1 it will be well never to accept any inferences drawn from such references as these without comparing them with the original4 ,one of the chief difficulties to the ,english reader is to get a reliable translation4 ,to give but a single instance4 ,in the version of ,justin here used 7that published by ,t4 ,clark1 ,edinburgh71 we find in the ,dialogue1 ch4 ciii41 the following passage3 ,his sweat fell down like drops of blood while he was praying4 ,and this is referred to by ,canon ,westcott 7p4 #ajd7 as a record of the bloody sweat4 ,yet1 in the original1 there is no word analogous to of blood2 the passage runs3 sweat as drops fell down1 and it is recorded by ,justin as a proof that the prophecy1 my bones are poured out like water was fulfilled in ,christ4 ,the clumsy endeavour to create a likeness to ,luke xxii4 #dd destroys ,justin's argument4 ,further on 7p4 #aac7 ,dr4 ,westcott admits that the words of blood are not found in ,justin2 but it is surely misleading1 under these circumstances1 to say that ,justin mentions the bloody sweat4 ,westcott only maintains seven passages in the whole of ,justin's writings1 wherein he distinctly quotes from the ,memoirs2 i4e41 only seven that can be maintained as quotations from the canonical ,gospels--the contention being that the ,memoirs are the ,gospels4 ,he says truly1 if naively1 ,the result of a first view of these passages is striking4 ,very striking1 indeed2 for1 of the seven1 five agree verbally with the text of ,st4 ,matthew or ,st4 ,luke1 exhibiting1 indeed1 three slight various readings not elsewhere found1 but such as are easily explicable4 ,the sixth is a condensed summary of words related by ,st4 ,matthew2 the seventh alone presents an important variation in the text of a verse1 which is1 however1 otherwise very uncertain 7pp4 #acj1 #aca4 ,the italics are our own74 ,that is1 there are only seven distinct quotations1 and all of these1 save two1 are different from our ,gospels4 ,the whole of ,dr4 ,westcott's analysis of these passages is severely criticised in ,supernatural ,religion1 and in the edition of #ahge of ,dr4 ,westcott's book1 from which we quote1 some of the expressions he previously used are a little modified4 ,the author of ,supernatural ,religion justly says3 ,the striking result1 to summarise ,canon ,westcott's own words1 is this4 ,out of seven professed quotations from the ',memoirs1' in which he admits we may expect to find the exact language preserved1 five present three variations2 one is a compressed summary1 and does not agree verbally at all2 and the seventh presents an important variation 7vol4 i41 p4 #cid74 ,dr4 ,giles speaks very strongly against ,paley's distortion of ,justin ,martyr's testimony1 complaining3 ,the works of ,justin ,martyr do not fall in the way of one in a hundred thousand of our countrymen4 ,how is it1 then1 to be deprecated that erroneous statements should be current about him6 ,how is it to be censured that his testimony should be changed1 and he should be made to speak a falsehood6 7,christian ,records1 p4 #ga74 ,dr4 ,giles then argues that ,justin would have certainly named the books and their authors had they been current and reverenced in his time2 that there were numberless ,gospels current at that date2 that ,justin mentions occurrences that are only found related in such apocryphal ,gospels4 ,he then compares seventeen passages in ,justin ,martyr with parallel passages in the ,gospels1 and concludes that ,justin gives us ,christ's sayings in their traditionary forms1 and not in the words which are found in our four ,gospels4 ,we will select two1 to show his method of criticising1 translating the ,greek1 instead of giving it1 as he does1 in the original4 ,in the ,apology1 ch4 xv41 ,justin writes3 ,if thy right eye offend thee1 cut it out1 for it is profitable for thee to enter into the kingdom of heaven with one eye1 than having two to be thrust into the everlasting fire4 ,this passage is very like ,matt4 v4 #bi3 ',if thy right eye offend thee1 pluck it out1 and cast it from thee2 for it is profitable for thee that one of thy members should perish1 and not that thy whole body should be cast into hell4' ,but it is also like ,matt1 xviii4 #i3 ',and if thine eye offend thee1 pluck it out and cast it from thee2 it is better for thee to enter into life with one eye1 rather than having two eyes to be cast into hell-fire4' ,and it bears an equal likeness to ,mark ix4 #dg3 ',and if thine eye offend thee1 pluck it out2 it is better for thee to enter into the kingdom of ,god with one eye than1 having two eyes1 to be cast into hell-fire4' ,yet1 strange to say1 it is not identical in words with either of the three 7pp4 #hc1 #hd74 ,i came not to call the righteous but sinners to repentance4 ,in this only instance is there a perfect agreement between the words of ,justin and the canonical ,gospels1 three of which1 ,matthew1 ,mark1 and ,luke1 give the same saying of ,christ in the same words4 ,a variety of thoughts here rush upon the mind4 ,are these three ,gospels based upon a common document8 ,if so1 is not ,justin ,martyr's citation drawn from the same anonymous document1 rather than from the three ,gospels1 seeing he does not name them8 ,if1 on the other hand1 ,justin has cited them accurately in this instance1 why has he failed to do so in the others8 ,for no other reason than that traditionary sayings are generally thus irregularly exact or inexact1 and ,justin1 citing from them1 has been as irregularly exact as they were 7,ibid1 p4 #he74 ,the result to which a perusal of his works will lead is of the gravest character4 ,he will be found to quote nearly two hundred sentiments or sayings of ,christ2 but makes hardly a single clear allusion to all those circumstances of time or place which give so much interest to ,christ's teaching1 as recorded in the four ,gospels4 ,the inference is that he quotes ,christ's sayings as delivered by tradition or taken down in writing before the four ,gospels were compiled 7,ibid1 pp4 #hi1 #ij74 ,paley and ,lardner both deal with ,justin somewhat briefly1 calling every passage in his works resembling slightly any passage in the ,gospels a quotation2 in both cases only ignorance of ,justin's writings can lead any reader to assent to the inferences they draw4 ,,hegesippus was a ,jewish ,christian1 who1 according to ,eusebius1 flourished about ,a4,d4 #aff4 ,soter is said to have succeeded ,anicetus in the bishopric of ,rome in that year1 and ,hegesippus appears to have been in ,rome during the episcopacy of both4 ,he travelled about from place to place1 and his testimony to the ,gospels is that in every city the doctrine prevails according to what is declared by the law1 and the prophets1 and the ,lord 7,eccles4 ,hist1 bk4 iv41 ch4 #bb74 ,further1 ,eusebius quotes the story of the death of ,james1 the ,apostle1 written by ,hegesippus1 and in this ,james is reported to have said to the ,jews3 ,why do ye now ask me respecting ,jesus1 the ,son of ,man8 ,he is now sitting in the heavens1 on the right hand of great power1 and is about to come on the clouds of heaven4 ,and when he is being murdered1 he prays1 ,o ,lord ,god and ,father forgive them1 for they know not what they do 7see ,eccles4 ,hist41 bk4 ii41 ch4 #bc74 ,the full absurdity of regarding this as a testimony to the ,gospels will be seen when it is remembered that it is implied thereby that ,james1 the brother and apostle of ,christ1 knew nothing of his words until he read them in the ,gospels1 and that he was murdered before the ,gospel of ,luke1 from which alone he could quote the prayer of ,jesus1 is thought1 by most ,christians1 to have been written4 ,one other fragment of ,hegesippus is preserved by ,stephanus ,gobarus1 wherein ,hegesippus1 speaking against ,paul's assertion that eye hath not seen1 nor ear heard1 opposes to it the saying of the ,lord1 ,blessed are your eyes1 for they see1 and your ears that hear4 ,this is paralleled by ,matt4 xiii4 #af and ,luke x4 #bc4 ,we need not point out that the saying referred to by ,hegesippus1 whilst conveying the same sense as that in the two ,gospels1 differs as materially from them as they do from each other1 and as we might expect a quotation taken from a different1 though kindred1 source1 like the ,gospel according to the ,hebrews1 to do 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 p4 #ddg74 ,why does not ,paley tell us that ,eusebius writes of him1 not that he quoted from the ,gospels1 but that he also states some particulars from the ,gospel of the ,hebrews and from the ,syriac1 and particularly from the ,hebrew language1 showing that he himself was a convert from the ,hebrews4 ,other matters he also records as taken from the unwritten tradition of the ,jews 7,eccles4 ,hist41 bk4 iv41 ch #bb74 ,here1 then1 we have the source of the quotations in ,hegesippus1 and yet ,paley conceals this1 and deliberately speaks of him as referring to our ,gospel of ,matthew6 ,,epistle ,,of ,,the ,,churches ,,of ,,lyons ,,and ,,vienne4--,paley quietly dates this ,a4,d4 #agj1 although the persecution it describes occurred in ,a4,d4 #agg 7see ante1 pp4 #beg1 #beh74 ,the exact references to the ,gospels of ,luke and ,john and to the ,acts of the ,apostles1 spoken of by ,paley 7,evidences1 p4 #abe71 are not easy to find4 ,westcott says3 ,it contains no reference by name to any book of the ,new ,testament1 but its coincidences of language with the ,gospels of ,st4 ,luke and ,st4 ,john1 with the ,acts of the ,apostles1 with the ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul to the ,romans1 ,corinthians 7871 ,ephesians1 ,philippians1 and the ,first to ,timothy1 with the first ,catholic ,epistles of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,john1 and with the ,apocalypse1 are indisputable 7,on the ,canon1 p4 #ccf74 ,unfortunately1 neither ,paley nor ,dr4 ,westcott refer us to the passages in question1 ,paley quoting only one4 ,we will1 therefore1 give one of these at full length1 leaving our readers to judge of it as an exact reference3 ,vattius ,epagathus1 one of the brethren who abounded in the fulness of the love of ,god and man1 and whose walk and conversation had been so unexceptionable1 though he was only young1 shared in the same testimony with the elder ,zacharias4 ,he walked in all the commandments and righteousness of the ,lord blameless1 full of love to ,god and his neighbour 7,eusebius1 bk4 v41 chap4 i74 ,this is1 it appears1 an exact reference to ,luke i4 #f1 and we own we should not have known it unless it had been noted in ,supernatural ,religion4 ,tischendorf1 on the other hand1 refers the allusion to ,zacharias to the ,protevangelium of ,james 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 ii41 p4 #bjb74 ,the second exact reference is1 that ,vattius had the ,spirit more abundantly than ,zacharias2 such an unnecessary and insidious comparison would scarcely have been made had the writer known our ,gospel and regarded it as inspired ,scripture 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 ii41 p4 #bjd74 ,the quotation that the day would come when everyone that slayeth you will think he is doing ,god a service1 is one of those isolated sayings referred to ,christ which might be found in any account of his works1 or might have been handed down by tradition4 ,this epistle is the last witness called by ,paley1 prior to ,irenus1 and might1 indeed1 fairly be regarded as contemporary with him4 ,although ,paley does not allude to the ,clementines1 books falsely ascribed to ,clement of ,rome1 these are sometimes brought to prove the existence of the ,gospels in the second century4 ,but they are useless as witnesses1 from the fact that the date at which they were themselves written is a matter of dispute4 ,critics variously date the composition of the original ,recognitions from about the middle of the second century to the end of the third1 though the majority are agreed in placing them1 at least1 in the latter century 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 ii41 p4 #e74 ,it is unfortunate that there are not sufficient materials for determining the date of the ,clementine ,homilies 7,gospels in the ,second ,century1 ,rev4 ,w4 ,sanday1 p4 #afa74 ,part of the ,clementines1 called the ,recognitions1 is useless as a basis for argument1 for these are only extant in a ,latin translation by ,rufinus1 in which the quotations from the ,gospels have evidently been assimilated to the canonical text which ,rufinus himself uses 7,ibid74 ,of the rest1 we are struck at once by the small amount of exact coincidence1 which is considerably less than that which is found in the quotations from the ,old ,testament 7,ibid1 p4 #afh74 ,in the ,homilies there are very numerous quotations of expressions of ,jesus1 and of ,gospel ,history1 which are generally placed in the mouth of ,peter1 or introduced with such formula as ',the teacher said1' ',jesus said1' ',he said1' ',the prophet said1' but in no case does the author name the source from which these sayings and quotations are derived4444 ,de ,wette says1 ',the quotations of evangelical works and histories in the pseudo-,clementine writings1 from their free and unsatisfactory nature1 permit only uncertain conclusions as to their written source4' ,critics have maintained very free and conflicting views regarding that source4 ,apologists1 of course1 assert that the quotations in the ,homilies are taken from our ,gospels only4 ,others ascribe them to our ,gospels1 with a supplementary apocryphal work1 the ,gospel according to the ,hebrews1 or the ,gospel according to ,peter4 ,some1 whilst admitting a subsidiary use of some of our ,gospels1 assert that the author of the ,homilies employs1 in preference1 the ,gospel according to ,peter2 whilst others1 recognising also the similarity of the phenomena presented by these quotations with those of ,justin's1 conclude that the author does not quote our ,gospels at all1 but makes use of the ,gospel according to ,peter1 or the ,gospel according to the ,hebrews4 ,evidence permitting of such divergent conclusions manifestly cannot be of a decided character 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 ii41 pp4 #f1 #g74 ,on ,basilides 7teaching c4 ,a4,d4 #ace7 and ,valentinus 7,a4,d4 #adj71 two of the early ,gnostic teachers1 we need not delay1 for there is scarcely anything left of their writings1 and all we know of them is drawn from the writings of their antagonists2 it is claimed that they knew and made use of the canonical ,gospels1 and ,canon ,westcott urges this view of ,basilides1 but the writer of ,supernatural ,religion characterises this plea as unworthy of a scholar1 and only calculated to mislead readers who must generally be ignorant of the actual facts of the case 7vol4 ii41 p4 #db74 ,basilides says that he received his doctrine from ,glaucias1 the interpreter of ,peter1 and it is apparent1 however1 that ,basilides1 in basing his doctrines on these apocryphal books as inspired1 and upon tradition1 and in having a special ,gospel called after his own name1 which1 therefore1 he clearly adopts as the exponent of his ideas of ,christian truth1 absolutely ignores the canonical ,gospels altogether1 and not only does not offer any evidence for their existence1 but proves that he did not recognise any such works as of authority4 ,therefore1 there is no ground whatever for ,tischendorf's assumption that the ,commentary of ,basilides ',on the ,gospel' was written upon our ,gospels1 but that idea is1 on the contrary1 negatived in the strongest way by all the facts of the case 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 ii41 pp4 #de1 #df74 ,both with this ancient heretic1 as with ,valentinus1 it is impossible to distinguish what is ascribed to him from what is ascribed to his followers1 and thus evidence drawn from either of them is weaker even than usual4 ,marcion1 the greatest heretic of the second century1 ought to prove a useful witness to the ,christians if the present ,gospels had been accepted in his time as canonical4 ,he was the son of the ,christian ,bishop of ,sinope1 in ,pontus1 and taught in ,rome for some twenty years1 dating from about ,a4,d4 #adj4 ,only one ,gospel was acknowledged by him1 and fierce has been the controversy as to what this ,gospel was4 ,it is only known to us through his antagonists1 who generally assert that the ,gospel used by him was the third ,synoptic1 changed and adapted to suit his heretical views4 ,paley says1 ,this rash and wild controversialist published a recension or chastised edition of ,st4 ,luke's ,gospel 7,evidences1 p4 #afg71 but does not condescend to give us the smallest reason for so broad an assertion4 ,this question has1 however1 been thoroughly debated among ,german critics1 the one side maintaining that ,marcion mutilated ,luke's ,gospel1 the other that ,marcion's ,gospel was earlier than ,luke's1 and that ,luke's was made from it2 while some1 again1 maintained that both were versions of an older original4 ,from this controversy we may conclude that there was a strong likeness between ,marcion's ,gospel and the third ,synoptic1 and that it is impossible to know which is the earlier of the two4 ,the resolution of the question is made hopeless by the fact that the principal sources of our information regarding ,marcion's ,gospel are the works of his most bitter denouncers ,tertullian and ,epiphanius 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 ii41 p4 #hh74 ,at the very best1 even if the hypothesis that ,marcion's ,gospel was a mutilated ,luke were established1 ,marcion affords no evidence in favour of the authenticity or trustworthy character of our third ,synoptic4 ,his ,gospel was nameless1 and his followers repudiated the idea of its having been written by ,luke2 and regarded even as the earliest testimony for the existence of ,luke's ,gospel1 that testimony is not in confirmation of its genuineness and reliability1 but1 on the contrary1 condemns it as garbled and interpolated 7,ibid1 pp4 #adf1 #adg74 ,it is scarcely worth while to refer to the supposed evidence of the ,canon of ,muratori1 since the date of this fragment is utterly unknown4 ,in the year #agdj ,muratori published this document in a collection of ,italian antiquities1 stating that he had found it in the ,ambrosian library at ,milan1 and that he believed that the ,,ms4 from which he took it had been in existence about #ajjj years4 ,it is not known by whom the original was written1 and it bears no date3 it is but a fragment1 commencing3 at which1 nevertheless1 he was present1 and thus he placed it4 ,third book of the ,gospel according to ,luke4 ,further on it speaks of the fourth of the ,gospels of ,john4 ,the value of the evidence of an anonymous fragment of unknown date is simply nil4 ,it is by some affirmed to be a complete treatise on the books received by the ,church1 from which fragments have been lost2 while others consider it a mere fragment itself4 ,it is written in ,latin1 which by some is represented as most corrupt1 whilst others uphold it as most correct4 ,the text is further rendered almost unintelligible by every possible inaccuracy of orthography and grammar1 which is ascribed diversely to the transcriber1 to the translator1 and to both4 ,indeed1 such is the elastic condition of the text1 resulting from errors and obscurity of every imaginable description1 that1 by means of ingenious conjectures1 critics are able to find in it almost any sense they desire4 ,considerable difference of opinion exists as to the original language of the fragment1 the greater number of critics maintaining that the composition is a translation from the ,greek1 while others assert it to have been originally written in ,latin4 ,its composition is variously attributed to the ,church of ,africa1 and to a member of the ,church in ,rome 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 ii41 pp4 #bch1 #bci74 ,on a disputable scrap of this kind no argument can be based2 there is no evidence even to show that the thing was in existence at all until ,muratori published it2 it is never referred to by any early writer1 nor is there a scintilla of evidence that it was known to the early ,church4 ,after a full and searching analysis of all the documents1 orthodox and heretical1 supposed to have been written in the first two centuries after ,christ1 the author of ,supernatural ,religion thus sums up3--,after having exhausted the literature and the testimony bearing on the point1 we have not found a single distinct trace of any one of those ,gospels during the first century and a half after the death of ,jesus4444 ,any argument for the mere existence of our ,synoptics based upon their supposed rejection by heretical leaders and sects has the inevitable disadvantage1 that the very testimony which would show their existence would oppose their authenticity4 ,there is no evidence of their use by heretical leaders1 however1 and no direct reference to them by any writer1 heretical or orthodox1 whom we have examined 7vol4 ii41 pp1 #bdh1 #bdi74 ,nor is the fact of this blank absence of evidence of identity all that can be brought to bear in support of our proposition1 for there is another fact that tells very heavily against the identity of the now accepted ,gospels with those that were current in earlier days1 namely1 the noteworthy charge brought against the ,christians that they changed and altered their sacred books2 the orthodox accused the unorthodox of varying the ,scriptures1 and the heretics retorted the charge with equal pertinacity4 ,the ,ebionites maintained that the ,hebrew ,gospel of ,matthew was the only authentic ,gospel1 and regarded the four ,greek ,gospels as unreliable4 ,the ,marcionites admitted only the ,gospel resembling that of ,luke1 and were accused by the orthodox of having altered that to suit themselves4 ,celsus1 writing against ,christianity1 formulates the charge3 ,some believers1 like men driven by drunkenness to commit violence on themselves1 have altered the ,gospel history1 since its first composition1 three times1 four times1 and oftener1 and have re-fashioned it1 so as to be able to deny the objections made against it 7,origen ,cont4 ,celsus1 bk4 ii41 chap4 #bg1 as quoted by ,norton1 p4 #fc74 ,origen admits that there are those who have altered the ,gospels1 but pleads that it has been done by heretics1 and that this is no reproach against true ,christianity 7,ibid74 ,only1 most reverend ,father of the ,church1 if heretics accuse orthodox1 and orthodox accuse heretics1 of altering the ,gospels1 how are we to be sure that they have come down unaltered to us8 ,clement of ,alexandria notes alterations that had been made4 ,dionysius1 of ,corinth1 complaining of the changes made in his own writings1 bears witness to this same fact3 ,it is not1 therefore1 matter of wonder if some have also attempted to adulterate the sacred writings of the ,lord1 since they have attempted the same in other works that are not to be compared with these 7,eusebius1 bk4 iv41 ch4 #bc74 ,faustus1 the ,manichan1 the great opponent of ,augustine1 writes3 ,for many things have been inserted by your ancestors in the speeches of our ,lord1 which1 though put forth under his name1 agree not with his faith2 especially since--as already it has been often proved by us--that these things were not written by ,christ1 nor his ,apostles1 but a long while after their assumption1 by ,i know not what sort of half ,jews1 not even agreeing with themselves1 who made up their tale out of report and opinions merely2 and yet1 fathering the whole upon the names of the ,apostles of the ,lord1 or on those who were supposed to have followed the ,apostles2 they mendaciously pretended that they had written their lies and conceits according to them 7,lib4 #cc1 ch4 #c1 as quoted and translated in ,diegesis1 pp4 #fa1 #fb74 ,the truth is1 that in those days1 when books were only written1 the widest door was opened to alterations1 additions1 and omissions2 incidents or remarks written1 perhaps1 in the margin of the text by one transcriber1 were transferred into the text itself by the next copyist1 and were thereafter indistinguishable from the original matter4 ,in this way the celebrated text of the three witnesses 7#a ,john1 v4 #g7 is supposed to have crept into the text4 ,dealing with this1 in reference to the ,new ,testament1 ,eichhorn points out that it was easy to alter a manuscript in transcribing it1 and that1 as manuscripts were written for individual use1 such alterations were considered allowable1 and that the altered manuscript1 being copied in its turn1 such changes passed into circulation unnoticed4 ,owners of manuscripts added to them incidents of the life of ,christ1 or any of his sayings1 which they had heard of1 and which were not recorded in their own copies1 and thus the story grew and grew1 and additional legends were incorporated with it1 until the historical basis became overlaid with myth4 ,the vast number of readings in the ,new ,testament1 no less--according to ,dr4 ,angus1 one of the present ,revision ,committee--than #ajj1jjj1 prove the facility with which variations were introduced into ,,mss4 by those who had charge of them4 ,in heated and angry controversy between different schools of monks appeals were naturally made to the authority of the ,scriptures1 and what more likely--indeed more certain--than that these monks should introduce variations into their ,,ms4 copies favouring the positions for which they were severally contending8 ,the most likely way in which the ,gospels grew into their present forms is1 that the various traditions relating to ,christ were written down in different places for the instruction of catechumens1 and that these1 passing from hand to hand1 and mouth to mouth1 grew into a large mass of disjointed stories1 common to many churches4 ,this mass was gradually sifted1 arranged1 moulded into historical shape1 which should fit into the preconceived notions of the ,messiah1 and thus the four ,gospels gradually grew into their present form1 and were accepted on all hands as the legacy of the apostolic age4 ,no careful reader can avoid noticing the many coincidences of expression between the three synoptics1 and deducing from these coincidences the conclusion that one narrative formed the basis of the three histories4 ,ewald supposes the existence of a ,spruchsammlung--collected sayings of ,christ--but such a collection is not enough to explain the phenomena we refer to4 ,dr4 ,davidson says3 ,the rudiments of an original oral ,gospel were formed in ,jerusalem1 in the bosom of the first ,christian ,church2 and the language of it must have been ,araman1 since the members consisted of ,galileans1 to whom that tongue was vernacular4 ,it is natural to suppose that they were accustomed to converse with one another on the life1 actions1 and doctrines of their departed ,lord1 dwelling on the particulars that interested them most1 and rectifying the accounts given by one another1 where such accounts were erroneous1 or seriously defective4 ,the ,apostles1 who were eye-witnesses of the public life of ,christ1 could impart correctness to the narratives1 giving them a fixed character in regard to authenticity and form4 ,in this manner an original oral ,gospel in ,araman was formed4 ,we must not1 however1 conceive of it as put into the shape of any of our present ,gospels1 or as being of like extent2 but as consisting of leading particulars in the life of ,christ1 probably the most striking and the most affecting1 such as would leave the best impression on the minds of the disciples4 ,the incidents and sayings connected with their ,divine ,master naturally assumed a particular shape from repetition1 though it was simply a rudimental one4 ,they were not compactly linked in regular or systematic sequence4 ,they were the oral germ and essence of a ,gospel1 rather than a proper ,gospel itself1 at least1 according to our modern ideas of it4 ,but the ,araman language was soon laid aside4 ,when ,hellenists evinced a disposition to receive ,christianity1 and associated themselves with the small number of ,palestinian converts1 ,greek was necessarily adopted4 ,as the ,greek-speaking members far out-numbered the ,araman-speaking brethren1 the oral ,gospel was put into ,greek4 ,henceforward ,greek1 the language of the ,hellenists1 became the medium of instruction4 ,the truths and facts1 before repeated in ,hebrew1 were now generally promulgated in ,greek by the apostles and their converts4 ,the historical cyclus1 which had been forming in the ,church at ,jerusalem1 assumed a determinate character in the ,greek tongue 7,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 by ,s4 ,davidson1 ,,ll4,d41 p4 #dje4 ,ed4 #ahdh74 ,thus we find learned ,christians obliged to admit an uninspired collection as the basis of the inspired ,gospel1 and laying down a theory which is entirely incompatible with the idea that the ,synoptic ,gospels were written by ,matthew1 ,mark1 and ,luke4 ,our ,gospels are degraded into versions of an older ,gospel1 instead of being the inspired record of contemporaries1 speaking that we do know4 ,canon ,westcott writes of the three ,synoptic ,gospels1 that they represent1 as is shown by their structure1 a common basis1 common materials1 treated in special ways4 ,they evidently contain only a very small selection from the words and works of ,christ1 and yet their contents are included broadly in one outline4 ,their substance is evidently much older than their form4444 ,the only explanation of the narrow and definite limit within which the evangelic history 7exclusive of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel7 is confined1 seems to be that a collection of representative words and works was made by an authoritative body1 such as the ,twelve1 at a very early date1 and that this1 which formed the basis of popular teaching1 gained exclusive currency1 receiving only subordinate additions and modifications4 ,this ,apostolic ,gospel--the oral basis1 as ,i have endeavoured to show elsewhere1 of the ,synoptic narratives--dates unquestionably from the very beginning of the ,christian society 7,on the ,canon1 preface1 pp4 xxxviii41 xxxix74 ,mr4 ,sanday speaks of the original documents out of which our ,gospel was composed 7,gospels in the ,second ,century1 page #gh71 and he writes3 ,doubtless light would be thrown upon the question if we only knew what was the common original of the two ,synoptic texts 7,ibid1 p4 #fe74 ,the first three ,gospels of our ,canon are remarkably alike1 their writers agree in relating the same thing1 not only in the same manner1 but likewise in the very words1 as must be evident to every common reader who has paid the slightest attention to the subject4444 ,here follow a number of parallel passages from the three synoptics4 ,the agreement between the three evangelists in these extracts is remarkable1 and leads to the question how such coincidences could arise between works which1 from the first years of ,christianity until the beginning of the seventeenth century1 were understood to be perfectly independent1 and to have had each a separate and independent origin4 ,the answer to this question may at last1 after more than a hundred years of discussion1 be given with tolerable certainty1 if we are allowed to judge of this subject according to the rules of reason and common sense1 by which all other such difficulties are resolved4 ',the most eminent critics'--we quote from ',marsh's ,michaelis1' vol4 iii41 part #b1 page #agj--';are at present decidedly of opinion that one of the two suppositions must necessarily be adopted--either that the three evangelists copied from each other1 or that all the three drew from a common source1 and that the notion of an absolute independence1 in respect to the composition of our three first ,gospels1 is no longer tenable'4444 ,the alternative between a common source and copying from each other1 is now no longer in the same position as in the days of ,michaelis or ,bishop ,marsh4 ,to decide between the two is no longer difficult4 ,no one will now admit that either of the four evangelists has copied from the other three1 #a4 ,because in neither of the four is there the slightest notice of the others4 #b4 ,because1 if either of the evangelists may be thought1 from the remarkable similarity of any particular part of his narrative1 to have copied out of either of the other ,gospels1 we immediately light upon so many other passages1 wholly inconsistent with what the other three have related on the same subject1 that we immediately ask why he has not copied from the others on those points also4 ,it only remains1 therefore1 for us to infer that there was a common source1 first traditional and then written--the ,greek3 ,apomnemoneumata1 in short1 or ',memorials1' etc41 of ,justin ,martyr1 and that from this source the four canonical ,gospels1 together with thirty or forty others1 many of which are still in existence1 were1 at various periods of early ,christianity1 compiled by various writers 7,christian ,records1 ,dr4 ,giles1 pp4 #bff1 #bgj1 #bga74 ,dean ,alford puts forward a somewhat similar theory2 he considers that the oral teaching of the apostles to catechumens and others1 the simple narrative of facts relating to ,christ1 gradually grew into form and was written down1 and that this accounts for the marked similarity of some passages in the different ,gospels4 ,he says3--,i believe1 then1 that the ,apostles1 in virtue not merely of their having been eye-and-ear witnesses of the ,evangelic history1 but especially of their office1 gave to the various ,churches their testimony in a narrative of facts1 such narrative being modified in each case by the individual mind of the ,apostle himself1 and his sense of what was requisite for the particular community to which he was ministering4444 ,it would be easy and interesting to follow the probable origin and growth of this cycle of narratives of the words and deeds of our ,lord in the ,church at ,jerusalem1 for both the ,jews and the ,hellenists--the latter under such teachers as ,philip and ,stephen--commissioned and authenticated by the ,apostles4 ,in the course of such a process some portions would naturally be written down by private believers for their own use1 or that of friends4 ,and as the ,church spread to ,samaria1 ,caesarea1 and ,antioch1 the want would be felt in each of those places of similar cycles of oral teaching1 which1 when supplied1 would thenceforward belong to1 and be current in1 those respective ,churches4 ,and these portions of the ,evangelic history1 oral or partially documentary1 would be adopted under the sanction of the ,apostles1 who were as in all things1 so especially in this1 the appointed and divinely-guided overseers of the whole ,church4 ,this common substratum of ,apostolic teachings--never formally adopted by all1 but subject to all the varieties of diction and arrangement1 addition and omission1 incident to transmission through many individual minds1 and into many different localities--,i believe to have been the original source of the common part of our three ,gospels 7,greek ,test41 ,dean ,alford1 vol4 i41 ,prolegomena1 ch4 i41 sec4 #c1 par4 #f2 ed4 #ahei4 ,the italics are ,dean ,alford's74 ,eichhorn's theory of the growth of the ,gospels is one very generally accepted2 he considers that the present ,gospels were not in common circulation before the end of the second century1 and that before that time other ,gospels were in common use1 differing considerably from each other1 but resting on a common foundation of historical fact2 all these1 he thinks1 were versions of an original ,gospel1 a kind of rough outline of ,christ's life and discourses1 put together without method or plan1 and one of these would be the ,memoirs of the ,apostles1 of which ,justin ,martyr speaks4 ,the ,gospels1 as we have them1 are careful compilations made from these earlier histories1 and we notice that1 at the end of the second1 and the beginning of the third1 centuries1 the leaders of the ,church endeavour to establish the authority of the four more methodically arranged ,gospels1 so as to check the reception of other ,gospels1 which were relied upon by heretics in their controversies4 ,strauss gives a careful resume of the various theories of the formation of the ,gospels held by learned men1 and shows how the mythic theory was gradually developed and strengthened2 according to ,george1 mythus is the creation of a fact out of an idea 7,life of ,jesus1 ,strauss1 vol4 i41 p4 #db2 ed4 #ahdf71 and the mythic theory supposes that the ideas of the ,messiah were already in existence1 and that the story of the ,gospels grew up by the translation of these ideas into facts3 ,many of the legends respecting him ,jesus had not to be newly invented2 they already existed in the popular hope of the ,messiah1 having been mostly derived1 with various modifications1 from the ,old ,testament1 and had merely to be transferred to ,jesus1 and accommodated to his character and doctrines4 ,in no case could it be easier for the person who first added any new feature to the description of ,jesus1 to believe himself its genuineness1 since his argument would be3 ,such and such things must have happened to the ,messiah2 ,jesus was the ,messiah2 therefore1 such and such things happened to him 7,ibid1 pp4 #ha1 #hb74 ,it is not1 however1 to be imagined that any one individual seated himself at his table to invent them out of his own head1 and write them down as he would a poem2 on the contrary1 these narratives1 like all other legends1 were fashioned by degrees1 by steps which can no longer be traced2 gradually acquired consistency1 and at length received a fixed form in our written ,gospels 7,ibid1 p4 #ce74 ,from the considerations here adduced--the lack of quotations from our ,gospels in the earliest ,christian writers1 both orthodox and heretical2 the accusations against each made by the other of introducing chants and modifications in the ,gospels2 the facility with which ,,mss4 were altered before the introduction of printing2 the coincidences between the ,gospels1 showing that they are drawn from a common source2 from all these facts we finally conclude that there is no evidence that the ,four ,gospels mentioned about that date 7,a4,d4 #ahj7 were the same as those we have now4 ,g4 ,that there is evidence that two of them were not the same4 ,the testimony of ,papias is of great interest and importance in connection with our inquiry1 inasmuch as he is the first ecclesiastical writer who mentions the tradition that ,matthew and ,mark composed written records of the life and teaching of ,jesus2 but no question has been more continuously contested than that of the identity of the works to which he refers with our actual ,canonical ,gospels4 ,papias was ,bishop of ,hierapolis1 in ,phrygia1 in the first half of the second century1 and is said to have suffered martyrdom under ,marcus ,aurelius about ,a4,d4 #afd-afg4 ,about the middle of the second century he wrote a work in five books1 entitled ',exposition of the ,lord's ,oracles1' which1 with the exception of a few fragments preserved to us chiefly by ,eusebius and ,irenus1 is unfortunately no longer extant4 ,this work was less based on written records of the teaching of ,jesus than on that which ,papias had been able to collect from tradition1 which he considered more authentic1 for1 like his contemporary1 ,hegesippus1 ,papias avowedly prefers tradition to any written works with which he was acquainted 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 pp4 #ddi1 #dej74 ,before giving the testimony attributed to ,papias1 we must remark two or three points which will influence our judgment concerning him4 ,paley speaks of him1 on the authority of ,irenus1 as a hearer of ,john1 and companion of ,polycarp 7,evidences1 p4 #aba72 but ,paley omits to tell us that ,eusebius points out that ,irenus was mistaken in this statement1 and that ,papias by no means asserts that he was a hearer and an eye-witness of the holy ,apostles1 but informs us that he received the doctrines of faith from their intimate friends 7,eccles4 ,hist41 bk4 iii41 ch4 #ci74 ,eusebius subjoins the passage from ,papias1 which states that if ,i met with any one who had been a follower of the elders anywhere1 ,i made it a point to inquire what were the declarations of the elders3 what was said by ,andrew1 ,peter1 or ,philip2 what by ,thomas1 ,james1 ,john1 ,matthew1 or any other of the disciples of our ,lord2 what was said by ,aristion1 and the ,presbyter ,john1 disciples of the ,lord 7,ibid74 ,seeing that ,papias died between ,a4,d4 #afd and #afg1 and that the disciples of ,jesus were ,jesus' own contemporaries1 any disciple that ,papias heard1 when a boy1 would have reached a portentous age1 and1 between the age of the disciple and the youth of ,papias1 the reminiscences would probably be of a somewhat hazy character4 ,it is to ,papias that we owe the wonderful account of the vines 7ante1 p4 #bcd7 of the kingdom of ,god1 given by ,irenus1 who states that these things are borne witness to in writing by ,papias1 the hearer of ,john1 and a companion of ,polycarp4444 ,and he says1 in addition1 ',now these things are credible to believers4' ,and he says that 'when the traitor1 ,judas1 did not give credit to them1 and put the question1 ,how then can things about to bring forth so abundantly be wrought by the ,lord8 the ,lord declared1 ,they who shall come to these 7times7 shall see' 7,irenus ,against ,heresies1 bk4 v41 ch4 #cc1 sec4 #d74 ,the recollections of ,papias scarcely seem valuable as to quality4 ,next we note that ,papias could scarcely put a very high value on the ,apostolic writings1 since he states that ,i do not think that ,i derived so much benefit from books as from the living voice of those that are still surviving 7,eccles4 ,hist1 bk4 iii41 ch4 #ci71 i4e41 of those who had been followers of the ,apostles4 ,how this remark of ,papias tallies with the supposed respect shown to the ,canonical ,gospels by primitive writers1 it is for ,christian apologists to explain4 ,we then mark that we have no writing of ,papias to refer to that pretends to be original4 ,we have only passages1 said to be taken from his writings1 preserved in the works of ,irenus and ,eusebius1 and neither of these ecclesiastical penmen inspire the student with full confidence2 even ,eusebius mentions him in doubtful fashion2 there are said to be five books of ,papias2 he gives certain strange parables of our ,lord and of his doctrine1 and some other matters rather too fabulous2 he was very limited in his comprehension1 as is evident from his discourses 7,eccles4 ,hist41 bk4 iii41 ch4 #ci74 ,we thus see that the evidence of ,papias is discredited at the very outset1 perhaps to the advantage of the ,christians1 however1 for his testimony is fatal to the ,canonical ,gospels4 ,papias is said to have written3 ,and ,john the ,presbyter also said this3 ,mark being the interpreter of ,peter1 whatsoever he recorded he wrote with great accuracy1 but not1 however1 in the order in which it was spoken or done by our ,lord1 but as before said1 he was in company with ,peter1 who gave him such instruction as was necessary1 but not to give a history of our ,lord's discourses2 wherefore ,mark has not erred in anything1 by writing some things as he has recorded them2 for he was carefully attentive to one thing1 not to pass by anything that he heard1 or to state anything falsely in these accounts 7,eccles4 ,hist41 bk iii41 ch4 #ci74 ,how far does this account apply to the ,gospel now known as according to ,st4 ,mark8 ,far from showing traces of ,petrine influence1 such traces are conspicuous by their absence4 ,not only are some of the most important episodes in which ,peter is represented by the other ,gospels as a principal actor altogether omitted1 but throughout the ,gospel there is the total absence of anything which is specially characteristic of ,petrine influence and teaching4 ,the argument that these omissions are due to the modesty of ,peter is quite untenable1 for not only does ,irenus1 the most ancient authority on the point1 state that this ,gospel was only written after the death of ,peter1 but also there is no modesty in omitting passages of importance in the history of ,jesus1 simply because ,peter himself was in some way concerned in them1 or1 for instance1 in decreasing his penitence for such a denial of his master1 which could not but have filled a sad place in the ,apostle's memory4 ,on the other hand1 there is no adequate record of special matter which the intimate knowledge of the doings and sayings of ,jesus possessed by ,peter might have supplied to counterbalance the singular omissions4 ,there is infinitely more of the spirit of ,peter in the first ,gospel than there is in the second4 ,the whole internal evidence1 therefore1 shows that this part of the tradition of the ,presbyter ,john transmitted by ,papias does not apply to our ,gospel 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 pp4 #dei1 #dfj74 ,but a far stronger objection to the identity of the work spoken of by ,papias with the present ,gospel of ,mark1 is drawn from the description of the document as given by him4 ,the discrepancy1 however1 is still more marked when we compare with our actual second ,gospel the account of the work of ,mark1 which ,papias received from the ,presbyter4 ,mark wrote down from memory some parts ,greek3 enia of the teaching of ,peter regarding the life of ,jesus1 but as ,peter adapted his instructions to the actual circumstances ,greek3 pros tas chreias and did not give a consecutive report ,greek3 suntaxis of the discourses or doings of ,jesus1 ,mark was only careful to be accurate1 and did not trouble himself to arrange in historical order ,greek3 taxis his narrative of the things which were said or done by ,jesus1 but merely wrote down facts as he remembered them4 ,this description would lead us to expect a work composed of fragmentary reminiscences of the teaching of ,peter1 without orderly sequence or connection4 ,the absence of orderly arrangement is the most prominent feature in the description1 and forms the burden of the whole4 ,mark writes 'what he remembered2' 'he did not arrange in order the things that were either said or done by ,christ2' and then follow the apologetic expressions of explanation--he was not himself a hearer or follower of the ,lord1 but derived his information from the occasional preaching of ,peter1 who did not attempt to give a consecutive narrative1 and1 therefore1 ,mark was not wrong in merely writing things without order as he happened to hear or remember them4 ,now it is impossible in the work of ,mark here described to recognise our present second ,gospel1 which does not depart in any important degree from the order of the other two ,synoptics1 and which1 throughout1 has the most evident character of orderly arrangement4444 ,the great majority of critics1 therefore1 are agreed in concluding that the account of the ,presbyter ,john recorded by ,papias does not apply to our second ,canonical ,gospel at all 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 #a1 pp4 #dfj1 #dfa74 ,this document1 also1 is mentioned by ,papias1 as quoted by ,eusebius2 the account which they give of it is not applicable to the work which we now have4 ,for the ',gospel according to ,st4 ,mark' professes to give a continuous history of ,christ's life1 as regularly as the other three ,gospels1 but the work noticed by ,papias is expressly stated to have been memoranda1 taken down from time to time as ,peter delivered them1 and it is not said that ,mark ever reduced these notes into the form of a more perfect history 7,christian ,records1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,giles1 pp4 #id1 #ie74 ,it is difficult to see in what respects ,mark's ,gospel is more loose and disjointed than those of ,matthew and ,luke4444 ,we are inclined to agree with those who consider the expression ,greek3 ou taxei unsuitable to the present ,gospel of ,mark4 ,as far as we are able to understand the entire fragment1 it is most natural to consider ,john the ,presbyter or ,papias assigning a sense to ,greek3 ou taxei which does not agree with the character of the canonical document 7,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 ,dr4 ,davidson1 p4 #aeh74 ,this ,christian commentator is so disgusted with the conviction he honestly expresses as to the unsuitability of the phrase in question as applied to ,mark1 that he exclaims3 ,we presume that ,john the ,presbyter was not infallible4444 ,in the present instance1 he appears to have been mistaken in his opinion4 ,his power of perception was feeble1 else he would have seen that the ,gospel which he describes as being written ,greek3 ou taxei1 does not differ materially in arrangement from that of ,luke4 ,like ,papias1 the ,presbyter was apparently destitute of critical ability and good judgment1 else he could not have entertained an idea so much at variance with fact 7,ibid1 p4 #aei74 ,we may add1 for what it is worth1 that according to the unanimous belief of the early ,church this ,gospel was written at ,rome4 ,hence the conclusion was drawn that it must have been composed in the language of the ,romans2 that is1 ,latin4 ,even in the old ,syriac version1 a remark is annexed1 stating that the writer preached the ,gospel in ,roman 7,latin7 at ,rome2 and the ,philoxenian version has a marginal annotation to the same effect4 ,the ,syrian ,churches seem to have entertained this opinion generally1 as may be inferred not only from these versions1 but from some of their most distinguished ecclesiastical writers1 such as ,ebedjesu4 ,many ,greek ,manuscripts1 too1 have a similar remark regarding the language of our ,gospel1 originally taken1 perhaps from the ,syriac 7,ibid1 pp4 #aed1 #aee74 ,we conclude1 then1 that the document alluded to by the ,presbyter ,john1 as reported by ,papias through ,eusebius1 cannot be identical with the present canonical ,gospel of ,mark4 ,nor is the testimony regarding ,matthew less conclusive3 ,of ,matthew he has stated as follows3 ',matthew composed his history in the ,hebrew dialect1 and every one translated it as he was able' 7,eccles4 ,hist1 ,eusebius1 bk4 iii41 ch4 #ci74 ,the word here translated history is ,greek3 ta logia and would be more correctly rendered by oracles or discourses1 and much controversy has arisen over this term1 it being contended that ,greek3 logia could not rightly be extended so as to include any records of the life of ,christ3 ,it is impossible upon any but arbitrary grounds1 and from a foregone conclusion1 to maintain that a work commencing with a detailed history of the birth and infancy of ,jesus1 his genealogy1 and the preaching of ,john the ,baptist1 and concluding with an equally minute history of his betrayal1 trial1 crucifixion1 and resurrection1 and which relates all the miracles1 and has for its evident aim throughout the demonstration that ,messianic prophecy was fulfilled in ,jesus1 could be entitled ,greek3 ta logia the oracles or discourses of the ,lord4 ,for these and other reasons 444 the majority of critics deny that the work described by ,papias can be the same as the ,gospel in our ,canon bearing the name of ,matthew 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 pp4 #dga1 #dgb74 ,but the fact which puts the difference between the present ,matthew and that spoken of by ,papias beyond dispute is that ,matthew1 according to ,papias1 wrote in the ,hebrew dialect1 i4e41 the ,syro-,chaldaic1 or ,araman1 while the canonical ,matthew is written in ,greek4 ,there is no point1 however1 on which the testimony of the ,fathers is more invariable and complete than that the work of ,matthew was written in ,hebrew or ,aramaic 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 p4 #dge74 ,this industrious author quotes ,papias1 ,irenus1 ,pantnus in ,eusebius1 ,eusebius1 ,origen1 ,cyril of ,jerusalem1 ,epiphanius1 ,jerome1 in support of his assertion1 and remarks that the same tradition is repeated by ,chrysostom1 ,augustine and others 7,ibid1 pp4 #dge-dgg74 ,we believe that ,matthew wrote his ,gospel in ,hebrew1 meaning by that term the common language of the ,jews of his time1 because such is the uniform statement of all ancient writers who advert to the subject4 ,to pass over others whose authority is of less weight1 he is affirmed to have written in ,hebrew by ,papias1 ,irenus1 ,origen1 ,eusebius1 and ,jerome4 ,nor does any ancient author advance a contrary opinion 7,genuineness of the ,gospels1 ,norton1 vol4 i41 pp4 #aif1 #aig74 ,ancient historical testimony is unanimous in declaring that ,matthew wrote his ,gospel in ,hebrew1 i4e41 in the ,araman or ,syro-,chaldaic language1 at that time the vernacular tongue of the ,jews in ,palestine 7,davidson's ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 p4 #c74 ,after a most elaborate presentation of the evidences1 the learned doctor says3 ,let us now pause to consider this account of the original ,gospel of ,matthew4 ,it runs through all antiquity4 ,none doubted of its truth1 as far as we can judge from their writings4 ,there is not the least trace of an opposite tradition 7,ibid1 p4 #cg74 ,the difficulty of ,christian apologists is1 then1 to prove that the ,gospel written by ,matthew in ,hebrew is the same as the ,gospel according to ,matthew in ,greek1 and sore have been the shifts to which they have been driven in the effort4 ,dean ,alford1 unable to deny that all the testimony which could be relied upon to prove that ,matthew wrote at all1 also proved that he wrote in ,hebrew1 and aware that an unauthorised translation1 which could not be identified with the original1 could never claim canonicity1 fell back on the remarkable notion that he himself translated his ,hebrew ,gospel into ,greek2 in the edition of his ,greek ,testament published in #ahei1 however1 he gives up this notion in favour of the idea that the original ,gospel of ,matthew was written in ,greek4 ,of his earlier theory of translation by ,matthew1 ,davidson justly says3 ,it is easy to perceive its gratuitous character4 ,it is a clumsy expedient1 devised for the purpose of uniting two conflicting opinions--for saving the credit of ancient testimony1 which is on the side of a ,hebrew original1 and of meeting1 at the same time1 the difficulties supposed to arise from the early circulation of the ,greek4444 ,the advocates of the double hypothesis go in the face of ancient testimony4 ,besides1 they believe that ,matthew wrote in ,hebrew1 for the use of ,jewish converts4 ,do they also suppose his ,greek ,gospel to have been intended for the same class8 ,if so1 the latter was plainly unnecessary3 one ,gospel was sufficient for the same persons4 ,or do they believe that the second edition of it was designed for ,gentile ,christians8 if so1 the notion is contradicted by internal evidence1 which proves that it was written specially for ,jews4 ,in short1 the hypothesis is wholly untenable1 and we are surprised that it should have found so many advocates 7,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 p4 #eb74 ,the fact is1 that no one knows who was the translator--or1 rather1 the writer--of the ,greek ,gospel4 ,jerome honestly says that it is not known who translated it into ,greek4 ,dr4 ,davidson has the following strange remarks3 ,the author indeed must ever remain unknown2 but whether he were an apostle or not1 he must have had the highest sanction in his proceeding4 ,his work was performed with the cognisance1 and under the eye of ,apostolic men4 ,the reception it met with proved the general belief of his calling1 and competency to the task4 ,divine superintendence was exercised over him 7,ibid1 pp4 #gb1 #gc74 ,it is difficult to understand how ,dr4 ,davidson knows that divine superintendence was exercised over an unknown individual4 ,dr4 ,giles argues against the hypothesis that our ,greek ,gospel is a translation3 ,if ,st4 ,matthew wrote his ,gospel in ,hebrew1 why has the original perished8 ,the existing ,greek text is either a translation of the ,hebrew1 or it is a separate work4 ,but it cannot be a translation1 for many reasons1 #a4 ,because there is not the slightest evidence on record of its being a translation4 #b4 ,because it is unreasonable to believe that an authentic work--written by inspiration--would perish1 or be superseded by1 an unauthenticated translation--for all translations are less authentic than their originals4 #c4 ,because there are many features in our present ,gospel according to ,st4 ,matthew1 which are common to the ,gospels of ,st4 ,mark and ,st4 ,luke2 which would lead to the inference that the latter are translations also4 ,besides1 there is nothing in the ,gospel of ,st4 ,matthew1 as regards its style or construction1 that would lead to the inference of its being a translation1 any more than all the other books contained in the ,new ,testament4 ,for these reasons we conclude that the ',hebrew ,gospel of ,st4 ,matthew1' which perhaps no one has seen since ,pantnus1 who brought it from ,india1 and the ',greek ,gospel according to ,st4 ,matthew1' are separate and independent works 7,christian ,records4 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,giles1 pp4 #ic1 #id74 ,it must not be forgotten that there was in existence in the early ,church a ,hebrew ,gospel which was widely spread1 and much used4 ,it was regarded by the ,ebionites1 or ,jewish ,christians1 later known as ,nazarenes1 as the only authentic ,gospel1 and ,epiphanius1 writing in the fourth century1 says3 ,they have the ,gospel of ,matthew very complete2 for it is well known that this is preserved among them as it was first written in ,hebrew 7,opp41 i4 #abd1 as quoted by ,norton74 ,but this ,gospel1 known as the ,gospel according to the ,hebrews1 was not the same as the ,greek ,gospel according to ,st4 ,matthew4 ,if it had been the same1 ,jerome would not have thought it worth while to translate it2 the quotations that he makes from it are enough to prove to demonstration that the present ,gospel of ,matthew is not that spoken of in the earliest days4 ,the following positions are deducible from ,st4 ,jerome's writings3 #a4 ,the authentic ,gospel of ,matthew was written in ,hebrew4 #b4 ,the ,gospel according to the ,hebrews was used by the ,nazarenes and ,ebionites4 #c4 ,this ,gospel was identical with the ,araman original of ,matthew 7,davidson's ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 p4 #ab74 ,to these arguments may be added the significant fact that the quotations in ,matthew from the ,old ,testament are taken from the ,septuagint1 and not from the ,hebrew version4 ,the original ,hebrew ,gospel of ,matthew would surely not have contained quotations from the ,greek translation1 rather than from the ,hebrew original1 of the ,jewish ,scriptures4 ,if our present ,gospel is an accurate translation of the original ,matthew1 we must believe that the ,jewish ,matthew1 writing for ,jews1 did not use the ,hebrew ,scriptures1 with which his readers would be familiar1 but went out of his way to find the hated ,septuagint1 and re-translated it into ,hebrew4 ,thus we find that the boasted testimony said to be recorded by ,papias to the effect that ,matthew and ,mark wrote our two first synoptical ,gospels breaks down completely under examination1 and that instead of proving the authenticity of the present ,gospels1 it proves directly the reverse1 since the description there given of the writings ascribed to ,matthew and ,mark is not applicable to the writings that now bear their names1 so that we find that in ,papias there is evidence that two of the ,gospels were not the same4 ,h4 ,that there is evidence that the earlier records were not the ,gospels now esteemed ,canonical4 ,this position is based on the undisputed fact that the ,evangelical quotations in early ,christian writings differ very widely from sentences of somewhat similar character in the ,canonical ,gospels1 and also from the circumstance that quotations not to be found in the ,canonical ,gospels are found in the writings referred to4 ,various theories are put forward1 as we have already seen1 to account for the differences of expression and arrangement3 the ,fathers are said to have quoted loosely1 to have quoted from memory1 to have combined1 expanded1 condensed1 at pleasure4 ,to prove this general laxity of quotation1 ,christian apologists rely much on what they assert is a similar laxity shown in quoting from the ,old ,testament2 and ,mr4 ,sanday has used this argument with considerable skill4 ,but it does not follow that variations in quotations from the ,old ,testament spring from laxity and carelessness2 they are generally quite as likely to spring from multiplicity of versions1 for we find ,mr4 ,sanday himself saying that most of the quotations that we meet with are taken from the ,,lxx4 ,version2 and the text of that version was1 at this particular time especially1 uncertain and fluctuating4 ,there is evidence to show that it must have existed in several forms1 which differed more or less from that of the extant ,,mss4 ,it would be rash1 therefore1 to conclude at once1 because we find a quotation differing from the present text of the ,,lxx41 that it differed from that which was used by the writer making the quotation 7,gospels in the ,second ,century1 pp4 #af1 #ag74 ,besides1 it must not be forgotten that the variation is sometimes too persistent to spring from looseness of quotation1 and that the same variation is not always confined to one author4 ,the position for which we contend will be most clearly appreciated by giving1 at full length1 one of the passages most relied upon by ,christian apologists2 and we will take1 as an example of supposed quotation1 the long passage in ,clement1 chap4 xiii43-- ,,matthew4 ,,clement4 ,,luke4 ,especially remembering the word of the ,lord ,jesus when he spake1 teaching gentleness and long-suffering4 ,for this he said3 v4 #g4 ,blessed are ,pity he1 that he may be vi4 #cf4 ,be ye1 the pitiful1 for they pitied3 forgive1 that it therefore1 shall be pitied4 may be forgiven unto merciful1 as vi4 #ad4 ,for if ye you4 your ,father also forgive men their ,as ye do1 so shall it is merciful4 trespasses1 your heavenly be done unto you2 vi4 #cg4 ,acquit1 ,father will as ye give1 so shall it and ye shall be also forgive you4 be given unto you2 as acquitted4 vii4 #ab4 ,all things1 ye judge1 so shall it vi4 #ca4 ,and as ye therefore1 whatsoever be judged unto you2 would that they ye would that as ye are kind1 so should do unto men should do unto shall kindness be you1 do ye also you1 even so do ye shown unto you2 with unto them unto them4 that measure ye mete1 likewise4 vii4 #b4 ,for with with it shall it be vi4 #ah4 ,give1 and what judgment ye measured unto you4 it shall be given judge1 ye shall be unto you4 judged1 and with vi4 #cg4 ,and judge what measure ye not1 and ye shall mete it shall be not be judged4 ,for measured unto you4 with what measure ye mete1 it shall be measured unto you again4 ,the ,english1 as here given1 represents as closely as possible both the resemblances and the differences of the ,greek text4 ,what reader1 in reading this1 can believe that ,clement picked out a bit here and a bit there from the ,canonical ,gospels1 and then wove them into one connected whole1 which he forthwith represented as said thus by ,christ8 ,to the unprejudiced student the hypothesis will1 at once1 suggest itself--there must have been some other document current in ,clement's time1 which contained the sayings of ,christ1 from which this quotation was made4 ,only the exigencies of ,christian apologetic work forbid the general adoption of so simple and so natural a solution of the question4 ,mr4 ,sanday says3 ,doubtless light would be thrown upon the question if we only knew what was the common original of the two ,synoptic texts 444 ,the differences in these extra-,canonical quotations do not exceed the differences between the ,synoptic ,gospels themselves2 yet by far the larger proportion of critics regard the resemblances in the ,synoptics as due to a common written source used either by all three or by two of them 7,gospels in the ,second ,century1 p4 #fe74 ,it is clear that ,jesus could not have said these passages in the words given by ,matthew1 ,clement1 and ,luke1 repeating himself in three different forms1 now connectedly1 now in fragments2 two1 at least1 out of the three must give an imperfect report4 ,mr4 ,sanday1 by speaking of the common original of the two ,synoptic texts1 clearly shows that he does not regard the ,synoptic version as original1 and thereby helps to buttress our contention1 that the ,gospels we have now are not the only ones that were current in the early ,church1 and that they had no exclusive authority--in fact1 that they were not ,canonical4 ,further on1 ,mr4 ,sanday1 referring to ,polycarp1 says3 ,i cannot but think that there has been somewhere a written version different from our ,gospels to which he and ,clement have had access 444 ,it will be observed that all the quotations refer either to the double or treble ,synoptics1 where we have already proof of the existence of the saying in question in more than a single form1 and not to those portions that are peculiar to the individual ,evangelists4 ,the author of ',supernatural ,religion' is1 therefore1 not without reason when he says that they may be derived from other collections than our actual ,gospels4 ,the possibility cannot be excluded 7,gospels in the ,second ,century1 pp4 #hf1 #hg74 ,the other passage from ,clement is yet more unlike anything in the ,canonical ,gospels3 in chap4 xlvi4 we read3-- ,,matthew4 ,,clement4 ,,luke4 ,,mark4 xxvi4 #bd4 ,he said3 xvii4 #a4 xiv4 #ba4 ,woe to ,woe to that ,woe to that man2 ,woe through that man by whom man by whom well for him whom they the ,son of man is the ,son of man that he had not 7offences7 delivered up1 well is delivered been born1 than come4 for him if that up2 well for that he should #b4 ,it were man had not been him if that offend one of my advantageous for born4 man had not elect2 better him that a great ix4 #db4 ,and been born4 for him a millstone were whosoever shall xviii4 #f4 ,but millstone should hanged around offend one of whoso shall be attached 7to his neck1 and he these little ones offend one of him71 and he cast in the sea1 which believe in these little should be than that he me1 it is well for ones which drowned in the should offend him rather that a believe in me1 it sea1 than that one of these great millstone were profitable he should offend little ones4 were hanged about for him that a one of my little his neck1 and he great millstone ones4 thrown in the sea4 were suspended upon his neck1 and that he were drowned in the depth of the sea4 ,this quotation is clearly not from our ,gospels1 but is derived from a different written source4444 ,the slightest comparison of the passage with our ,gospels is sufficient to convince any unprejudiced mind that it is neither a combination of texts1 nor a quotation from memory4 ,the language throughout is markedly different1 and1 to present even a superficial parallel1 it is necessary to take a fragment of the discourse of ,jesus at the ,last ,supper1 regarding the traitor who should deliver him up 7,matt4 xxvi4 #bd71 and join it to a fragment of his remarks in connection with the little child whom he set in the midst 7xviii4 #f7 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 pp4 #bcc1 #bcd74 ,in ,polycarp a passage is found much resembling that given from ,clement1 chap1 xiii41 but not exactly reproducing it1 which is open to the same criticism as that passed on ,clement4 ,if we desire to prove that ,gospels other than the ,canonical were in use1 the proof lies ready to our hands4 ,in chap4 xlvi4 of ,clement we read3 ,it is written1 cleave to the holy1 for they who cleave to them shall be made holy4 ,in chap4 xliv43 ,and our ,apostles knew1 through our ,lord ,jesus ,christ1 that there would be contention regarding the office of the episcopate4 ,the author of ,supernatural ,religion gives us passages somewhat resembling this4 ,he said3 ,there shall be schisms and heresies1 from ,justin ,martyr 7,trypho1 chap4 xxxv73 ,there shall be1 as the ,lord said1 false apostles1 false prophets1 heresies1 desires for supremacy1 from the ,clementine ,homilies3 ,from these came the false ,christs1 false prophets1 false apostles1 who divided the unity of the ,church1 from ,hegesippus 7vol4 i4 p4 #bcf74 ,in ,barnabas we read1 chap4 vi43 ,the ,lord saith1 ,he maketh a new creation in the last times4 ,the ,lord saith1 ,behold ,i make the first as the last4 ,chap4 vii43 ,jesus says3 ,those who desire to behold me1 and to enter into my kingdom1 must1 through tribulation and suffering1 lay hold upon me4 ,in ,ignatius we find3 ,ep4 ,phil41 chap1 vii43 ,but the ,spirit proclaimed1 saying these words3 ,do ye nothing without the ,bishop4 ,there is1 however1 one quotation1 introduced as such1 in this same ,epistle1 the source of which ,eusebius did not know1 but which ,origen refers to 'the ,preaching of ,peter1' and ,jerome seems to have found in the ,nazarene version of the ',gospel according to the ,hebrews4' ,this phrase is attributed to our ,lord when he appeared 'to those about ,peter and said to them1 ,handle me1 and see that ,i am not an incorporeal spirit4' ,but for the statement of ,origen1 that these words occurred in the ',preaching of ,peter1' they might have been referred without much difficulty to ,luke xxiv4 #ci 7,gospels in the ,second ,century1 p4 #ha74 ,and they most certainly would have been so referred1 and dire would have been ,christian wrath against those who refused to admit these words as a proof of the canonicity of ,luke's ,gospel in the time of ,ignatius4 ,if1 turning to ,justin ,martyr1 we take one or two passages resembling other passages to be found in the ,canonical1 we shall then see the same type of differences as we have already remarked in ,clement4 ,in the fifteenth and sixteenth chapters of the first ,apology we find a collection of the sayings of ,christ1 most of which are to be read in the ,sermon on the ,mount2 in giving these ,justin mentions no written work from which he quotes4 ,he says3 ,we consider it right1 before giving you the promised explanation1 to cite a few precepts given by ,christ himself 7,apology1 chap4 xiv74 ,if these had been taken from ,gospels written by ,apostles1 is it conceivable that ,justin would not have used their authority to support himself8 ,,matthew4 ,,justin4 v4 #df4 ,for if ye should love ,and of our love to all1 he them which love you1 what reward taught this3 ,if ye love them have ye8 do not even the that love ye1 what new things publicans the same8 do ye8 for even fornicators do this2 but ,i say unto you3 ,pray v4 #dd4 ,but ,i say unto you1 for your enemies1 and love them love your enemies1 bless them which hate you1 and bless them which curse you1 do good to which curse you1 and offer them which hate you1 and pray prayer for them which for them which despitefully use despitefully use you4 you and persecute you4 ,the corresponding passage in ,luke is still further from ,justin 7,luke vi4 #cb-ce74 ,it will be observed that here again ,justin's ,gospel reverses the order in which the parallel passage is found in our synoptics4 ,it does so indeed1 with a clearness of design which1 even without the actual peculiarities of diction and construction1 would indicate a special and different source4 ,the passage varies throughout from our ,gospels1 but ,justin repeats the same phrases in the same order elsewhere 7,sup4 ,rel1 v4 i4 p4 #cec1 note #b74 ,,matthew4 ,,justin4 v4 #db4 ,give thou to him that ,he said3 ,give ye to every one asketh thee1 and from him that that asketh1 and from him that would borrow of thee turn not desireth to borrow turn not ye thou away4 away3 for if ye lend to them from whom ye hope to receive1 ,luke vi4 #cd4 ,and if you lend what new thing do ye8 for even to them from whom ye hope to the publicans do this4 receive1 what thank have ye2 for sinners also lend to sinners to ,but ye1 lay not up for yourselves receive as much again4 upon the earth1 where moth and rust do corrupt1 and robbers ,matt4 vi4 #ai1 #bj4 ,lay not up for break through1 but lay up for yourselves treasures upon earth1 yourselves in the heavens1 where where moth and rust doth corrupt1 neither moth nor rust doth and where thieves break corrupt4 through and steal4 ,but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven1 ,for what is a man profited1 is he where neither moth nor shall gain the whole world1 but rust doth corrupt1 and where destroy his soul8 or what shall he thieves do not break through give in exchange for it8 ,lay up1 nor steal4 therefore1 in the heavens1 where neither most nor rust doth corrupt4 xvi4 #bf4 ,for what shall a man be profited if he shall gain the whole world1 but lose his soul8 or what shall a man give in exchange for his soul8 ,this passage is clearly unbroken in ,justin1 and forms one connected whole2 to parallel it from the ,synoptics we must go from ,matthew v41 #db1 to ,luke vi41 #cd1 then to ,matthew vi41 #ai1 #bj1 off to ,matthew xvi4 #bf1 and back again to ,matthew vi4 #ai2 is such a method of quotation likely1 especially when we notice that ,justin1 in quoting passages on a given subject 7as at the beginning of chap4 xv4 on chastity71 separates the quotations by an emphatic ,and1 marking the quotation taken from another place8 ,these passages will show the student how necessary it is that he should not accept a few words as proof of a quotation from a synoptic1 without reading the whole passage in which they occur4 ,the coincidence of half a dozen words is no quotation when the context is different1 and there is no break between the context and the words relied upon4 ,it is absurd and most arbitrary to dissect a passage1 quoted by ,justin as a consecutive and harmonious whole1 and finding parallels more or less approximate to its various phrases scattered up and down distant parts of our ,gospels1 scarcely one of which is not materially different from the reading of ,justin1 to assert that he is quoting these ,gospels freely from memory1 altering1 excising1 combining1 and inter-weaving texts1 and introverting their order1 but nevertheless making use of them and not of others4 ,it is perfectly obvious that such an assertion is nothing but the merest assumption 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 p4 #cfd74 ,mr4 ,sanday's conclusion as to ,justin is3 ,the priori probabilities of the case1 as well as the actual phenomena of ,justin's ,gospel1 alike tend to show that he did make use either mediately or immediately of our ,gospels1 but that he did not assign to them an exclusive authority1 and that he probably made use along with them of other documents no longer extant 7,gospels in the ,second ,century1 p4 #aag74 ,it is needless to multiply analyses of quotations1 as the system applied to the two given above can be carried out for himself by the student in other cases4 ,but a far weightier proof remains that ,justin's ,memoirs of the ,apostles were not the ,canonical ,gospels2 and that is1 that ,justin used expressions1 and mentions incidents which are not to be found in our ,gospels1 and some of which are to be found in ,apocryphal ,gospels4 ,for instance1 in the first ,apology1 chap4 xiii41 we read3 ,we have been taught that the only honour that is worthy of him is not to consume by fire what he has brought into being for our sustenance1 but to use it for ourselves and those who need1 and with gratitude to him to offer thanks by invocations and hymns for our creation1 and for all the means of health1 and for the various qualities of the different kinds of things1 and for the changes of the seasons2 and to present before him petitions for our existing again in incorruption through faith in him4 ,our teacher of these things is ,jesus ,christ1 who also was born for this purpose4 ,he has exhorted us to lead all men1 by patience and gentleness1 from shame and the love of evil 7,ibid1 chap4 xvi474 ,for the foal of an ass stood bound to a vine 7,ibid1 chap4 xxxii474 ,the angel said to the ,virgin1 ,thou shalt call his name ,jesus1 for he shall save his people from their sins 7chap4 xxxiii474 ,they tormented him1 and set him on the judgment seat1 and said1 ,judge us 7chap4 xxxv474 ,our ,lord ,jesus ,christ said1 ,in whatsoever things ,i shall take you1 in these ,i shall judge you 7,trypho1 chapter xlviii474 ,these are only some out of the many passages of which no resemblance is to be found in the ,canonical ,gospels4 ,the best way to show the truth of ,paley's contention--that from ,justin's works1 which are still extant1 might be collected a tolerably complete account of ,christ's life1 in all points agreeing with that which is delivered in our ,scriptures2 taken indeed1 in a great measure1 from those ,scriptures1 but still proving that this account and no other1 was the account known and extant in that age 7,evidences1 p4 #gg7--will be to give the story from ,justin1 mentioning every notice of ,christ in his works1 which gives anything of his supposed life1 only omitting passages relating solely to his teaching1 such as those given above4 ,the large majority of these are taken from the ,dialogue with ,trypho1 a wearisome production1 in which ,justin endeavours to convince a ,jew that ,christ is the ,messiah1 by quotations from the ,jewish ,scriptures 7which1 by the way1 include ,esdras1 thus placing that book on a level with the other inspired volumes74 ,a noticeable peculiarity of this ,dialogue is1 that any alleged incident in ,christ's life is taken as true1 not because it is authenticated as historical1 but simply because it was prophesied of2 ,justin's ,christ is1 in fact1 an ideal1 composed out of the prophecies of the ,jews1 and fitted on to a ,jew named ,jesus4 ,christ was the offspring truly brought forth from the ,father1 before the creation of anything else1 the ,word begotten of ,god1 before all his works1 and he appeared before his birth1 sometimes as a flame of fire1 sometimes as an angel1 as at ,sodom1 to ,moses1 to ,joshua4 ,he was called by ,solomon1 ,wisdom2 and by the ,prophets and by ,christians1 the ,king1 the ,eternal ,priest1 ,god1 ,lord1 ,angel1 ,man1 the ,flower1 the ,stone1 the ,cornerstone1 the ,rod1 the ,day1 the ,east1 the ,glory1 the ,rock1 the ,sword1 ,jacob1 ,israel1 the ,captain1 the ,son1 the ,helper1 the ,redeemer4 ,he was born into the ,world by the over-shadowing of ,god the ,holy ,ghost1 who is none other than the ,word himself1 and produced without sexual union by a virgin of the seed of ,jacob1 ,judah1 ,phares1 ,jesse1 and ,david1 his birth being announced by an angel1 who told the ,virgin to call his name ,jesus1 for he should save his people from their sins4 ,joseph1 the spouse of ,mary1 desired to put her away1 but was commanded in a vision not to put away his wife1 the angel telling him that what was in her womb was of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,at the first census taken in ,juda1 under ,cyrenius1 the first ,roman ,procurator1 he left ,nazareth where he lived1 and went to ,bethlehem1 to which he belonged1 his family being of the tribe of ,judah1 and then was ordered to proceed to ,egypt with ,mary and the child1 and remain there until another revelation warned them to return to ,juda4 ,at ,bethlehem ,joseph could find no lodging in the village1 so took up his quarters in a cave near1 where ,christ was born and placed in a manger4 ,here he was found by the ,magi from ,arabia1 who had been to ,jerusalem inquiring what king was born there1 they having seen a star rise in heaven4 ,they worshipped the child and gave him gold1 frankincense1 and myrrh1 and warned by a revelation1 went home without telling ,herod where they had found the child4 ,so ,herod1 when ,joseph1 ,mary1 and the child had gone into ,egypt1 as they were commanded1 ordered the whole of the children then in ,bethlehem to be massacred4 ,archelaus succeeded ,herod1 and was succeeded himself by another ,herod4 ,the child grew up like all other men1 and was a man without comeliness1 and inglorious1 working as a carpenter1 making ploughs and yokes1 and when he was thirty years of age1 more or less1 he went to ,jordan to be baptised by ,john1 who was the herald of his approach4 ,when he stepped into the water a fire was kindled in the ,jordan1 and when he came out of the water the ,holy ,ghost lighted on him like a dove1 and at the same instant a voice came from the heavens3 ,thou art my son2 this day have ,i begotten thee4 ,he was tempted by ,satan1 and of like passions with men2 he was spotless and sinless1 and the blameless and righteous man2 he made whole the lame1 the paralytic1 and those born blind1 and he raised the dead2 he was called1 because of his mighty works1 a magician1 and a deceiver of the people4 ,he stood in the midst of his brethren the ,apostles1 and when living with them sang praises unto ,god4 ,he changed the names of the sons of ,zebedee to ,boanerges1 and of another of the ,apostles to ,peter4 ,he ordered his acquaintance to bring him an ass1 and the foal of an ass which stood bound to a vine1 and he mounted and rode into ,jerusalem4 ,he overthrew the tables of the money-changers in the temple4 ,he gave us bread and wine in remembrance of his taking our flesh and of shedding his blood4 ,he took upon him the curses of all1 and by his stripes the human race is healed4 ,on the day in which he was to be crucified 7elsewhere called the night before7 he took three disciples to the hill called ,olivet1 and prayed2 his sweat fell to the ground like drops1 his heart and also his bones trembling2 men went to the ,mount of ,olives to seize him2 he was seized on the day of the ,passover1 and crucified during the ,passover2 ,pilate sent ,jesus bound to ,herod2 before ,pilate he kept silence2 they set ,christ on the judgment seat1 and said3 ,judge us2 he was crucified under ,pontius ,pilate2 his hands and feet were pierced2 they cast lots for his vesture1 and divided it2 they that saw him crucified1 shook their heads and mocked him1 saying3 ,let him who raised the dead save himself4 ,he said he was the ,son of ,god2 let him come down2 let ,god save him4 ,he gave up his spirit to the ,father1 and after he was crucified all his acquaintance forsook him1 having denied him4 ,he rose on the third day2 he was crucified on ,friday1 and rose on the day of the ,sun1 and appeared to the ,apostles and taught them to read the prophecies1 and they repented of their flight1 after they were persuaded by himself that he had beforehand warned them of his sufferings1 and that these sufferings were prophesied of4 ,they saw him ascend4 ,the rulers in heaven were commanded to admit the ,king of ,glory1 but seeing him uncomely and dishonoured they asked1 ,who is this ,king of ,glory8 ,god will keep ,christ in heaven until he has subdued his enemies the devils4 ,he will return in glory1 raise the bodies of the dead1 clothe the good with immortality1 and send the bad1 endued with eternal sensibility into everlasting fire4 ,he has the everlasting kingdom4 ,these references to ,jesus are scattered up and down through ,justin's writings1 without any chronological order1 a phrase here1 a phrase there2 only in one or two instances are two or three things related even in the same chapter4 ,they are arranged here connectedly1 as nearly as possible in the usually accepted order1 and the greatest care has been taken not to omit any4 ,it will be worth while to note the differences between this and our ,gospels1 and also the allusions to other ,gospels which it contains4 ,christ is clearly subsequent in time to the ,father1 being brought forth from him2 he conceives himself1 he being here identified with the ,holy ,ghost2 it is the virgin who descends from ,david1 a fact of which there is no hint given in our ,gospels2 the reason of the name ,jesus is told to the ,virgin instead of to ,joseph2 we hear nothing of the shepherds and the glory of the ,lord round the chanting angels2 ,jesus is uncomely1 and works making ploughs and yokes1 of which1 we hear nothing in the ,gospels2 the fire at the baptism is not mentioned in the ,gospels1 and the voice from heaven speaks in words not found in them2 he is called a magician1 of which accusation we know nothing from the four2 the colt of the ass is tied to a vine1 a circumstance omitted in the canonical writings2 it is no where said in the ,new ,testament that the bread at the ,lord's supper is given in remembrance of the incarnation1 but1 on the contrary1 it is in remembrance of the death of ,christ2 the crucifixion is not stated to have taken place during the ,passover1 but on the contrary the ,fourth ,gospel places it before1 the others after1 the ,passover2 we hear nothing of ,christ set on the judgment seat in the ,gospels3 the vesture is not divided according to ,john1 who draws a distinction between the vesture and the raiment which is not recognised by ,justin2 the taunts of the crowd are different2 the denial of ,christ by all the ,apostles is uncanonical1 as is also their forsaking him after the crucifixion2 we do not hear of the day of the ,sun in our ,gospels1 nor of the rulers of heaven and their reception of ,christ4 ,in fact1 there are more points of divergence than of coincidence between the details of the story of ,jesus given by ,justin and that given in the ,four ,gospels1 and yet ,paley says that3 all the references in ,justin are made without mentioning the author2 which proves that these books were perfectly notorious1 and that there were no other accounts of ,christ then extant1 or1 at least1 no others so received and credited1 as to make it necessary to distinguish these from the rest 7,evidences1 p4 #abc74 ,and ,paley has actually the hardihood to state that what seems extremely to be observed is1 that in all ,justin's works1 from which might be extracted almost a complete life of ,christ1 there are but two instances in which he refers to anything as said or done by ,christ1 which is not related concerning him in our present ,gospels2 which shows that these ,gospels1 and these1 we may say1 alone1 were the authorities from which the ,christians of that day drew the information upon which they depended 7,ibid pp4 #abb1 #abc74 ,paley1 probably1 never intended that a life of ,christ should be extracted from all ,justin's works4 ,it is done above1 and the reader may judge for himself of ,paley's truthfulness4 ,one of the two instances is given as follows3 ,the other1 of a circumstance in ,christ's baptism1 namely1 a fiery or luminous appearance upon the water1 which1 according to ,epiphanius1 is noticed in the ,gospel of the ,hebrews2 and which might be true2 but which1 whether true or false1 is mentioned by ,justin with a plain mark of diminution when compared with what he quotes as resting upon ,scripture authority4 ,the reader will advert to this distinction4 ',and then1 when ,jesus came to the river ,jordan1 where ,john was baptising1 as ,jesus descended into the water1 a fire also was kindled in ,jordan2 and when he came up out of the water1 the apostles of this our ,christ have written1 that the ,holy ,ghost lighted upon him as a dove' 7,ibid1 p4 #abc74 ,the italics here are ,paley's own4 ,now let the reader turn to the passage itself1 and he will find that ,paley has deliberately altered the construction of the phrases1 in order to make a distinction that ,justin does not make1 inserting the reference to the apostles in a different place to that which it holds in ,justin4 ,is it credible that such duplicity passes to-day for argument8 one can only hope that the large majority of ,christians who quote ,paley are ignorant1 and are1 therefore1 unconscious of the untruthfulness of the apologist2 the passage quoted is taken from the ,dialogue with ,trypho1 chap4 #hh1 and runs as follows3 ,then1 when ,jesus had gone to the river ,jordan1 where ,john was baptising1 and when he had stepped into the water1 a fire was kindled in the ,jordan2 and when he came out of the water1 the ,holy ,ghost lighted on him like a dove2 the apostles of this very ,christ of ours wrote thus4 ,the phrase italicised by ,paley concludes the account1 and if it refers to one part of the story1 it refers to all2 thus the reader can see for himself that ,justin makes no mark of diminution of any kind1 but gives the whole story1 fire1 ,holy ,ghost1 and all1 as from the ,memoirs4 ,the mockery of ,christ on the cross is worded differently in ,justin and in the ,gospels1 and he distinctly says that he quotes from the ,memoirs4 ,they spoke in mockery the words which are recorded in the memoirs of his ,apostles3 ',he said he was the ,son of ,god2 let him come down3 let ,god save him' 7,dial4 chap4 ci474 ,if we turn to the ,clementines1 we find1 in the same way1 passages not to be found in the ,canonical ,gospels4 ,and ,peter said3 ,we remember that our ,lord and ,teacher1 as commanding us1 said3 ,keep the mysteries for me1 and the sons of my house 7,hom4 xix4 chap4 #bj74 ,and ,peter said3 ,if1 therefore1 of the ,scriptures some are true and some are false1 our ,teacher rightly said3 ',be ye good money-changers1' as in the ,scriptures there are some true sayings and some spurious 7,hom4 ii4 chap4 #ea2 see also iii4 chap4 #ej4 and xviii4 chap4 #bj74 ,this saying of ,christ is found in many of the ,fathers4 ,to those who think that ,god tempts1 as the ,scriptures say he ,jesus said3 ',the tempter is the wicked one1 who also tempted himself' 7,hom4 iii4 chap4 #ee74 ,of the ,clementine ,homilies ,mr4 ,sanday remarks1 several apocryphal sayings1 and some apocryphal details1 are added4 ,thus the ,clementine writer calls ,john a ',hemerobaptist1' i4e41 member of a sect which practised daily baptism4 ,he talks about a rumour which became current in the reign of ,tiberius1 about the 'vernal equinox1' that at the same time a ,king should arise in ,juda who should work miracles1 making the blind to see1 the lame to walk1 healing every disease1 including leprosy1 and raising the dead2 in the incident of the ,canaanite woman 7whom1 with ,mark1 he calls a ,syrophoenician7 he adds her name1 ',justa1' and that of her daughter ',bernice4' ,he also limits the ministry of our ,lord to one year 7,gospels in the ,second ,century1 pp4 #afg1 #afh74 ,but it is needless to multiply such passages2 three or four would be enough to prove our position3 whence were they drawn1 if not from records differing from the ,gospels now received8 ,we1 therefore1 conclude that in the numerous ,evangelical passages quoted by the ,fathers1 which are not in the ,canonical ,gospels1 we find evidence that the earlier records were not the ,gospels now esteemed ,canonical4 ,i4 ,that the books themselves show marks of their later origin4 ,we should draw this conclusion from phrases scattered throughout the ,gospels1 which show that the writers were ignorant of local customs1 habits1 and laws1 and therefore could not have been ,jews contemporary with ,jesus at the date when he is alleged to have lived4 ,we find a clear instance of this ignorance in the mention made by ,luke of the census which is supposed to have brought ,joseph and ,mary to ,bethlehem immediately before the birth of ,jesus4 ,if ,jesus was born at the time alleged the ,roman census in question must have been made either under ,herod the ,great1 or at the commencement of the reign of ,archelaus4 ,this is in the highest degree improbable1 for in those countries which were not reduced in formam provinci1 but were governed by regibus sociis1 the taxes were levied by these princes1 who paid a tribute to the ,romans2 and this was the state of things in ,juda prior to the deposition of ,archelaus4444 ,the ,evangelist relieves us from a further inquiry into this more or less historical or arbitrary combination by adding that this taxing was first made when ,cyrenius 7,quirinus7 was ,governor of ,syria ,greek3 haegemoneuontos taes ,surias ,kuraeniou for it is an authenticated point that the assessment of ,quirinus did not take place either under ,herod or early in the reign of ,archelaus1 the period at which1 according to ,luke1 ,jesus was born4 ,quirinus was not at that time ,governor of ,syria1 a situation held during the last years of ,herod by ,lentius ,saturninus1 and after him by ,quintilius ,varus2 and it was not till long after the death of ,herod that ,quirinus was appointed ,governor of ,syria4 ,that ,quirinus undertook a census of ,juda we know certainly from ,josephus1 who1 however1 remarks that he was sent to execute this measure when ,archelaus' country was laid to the province of ,syria 7compare ,ant41 bk4 xvii4 ch4 #ac1 sec4 #e2 bk4 xviii4 ch4 #a1 sec4 #a2 ,wars of the ,jews1 bk4 ii4 ch4 #h1 sec4 #a2 and ch4 #i1 sec4 #a7 thus1 about ten years after the time at which1 according to ,matthew and ,luke1 ,jesus must have been born 7,strauss's ,life of ,jesus1 vol4 i41 pp4 #bjb-bjd74 ,the confusion of dates1 as given in ,luke1 proves that the writer was ignorant of the internal history of ,juda and the neighbouring provinces4 ,the birth of ,jesus1 according to ,luke1 must have taken place six months after the birth of ,john ,baptist1 and as ,john was born during the reign of ,herod1 ,jesus must also have been born under the same ,king1 or else at the commencement of the reign of ,archelaus4 ,yet ,luke says that he was born during the census in ,juda1 which1 as we have seen just above1 took place ten years later4 ,the ,evangelist1 therefore1 in order to get a census1 must have conceived the condition of things such as they were after the deposition of ,archelaus2 but in order to get a census extending to ,galilee1 he must have imagined the kingdom to have continued undivided1 as in the time of ,herod the ,great4 ,strauss had explained that the reduction of the kingdom of ,archelaus into a ,roman province did not affect ,galilee1 which was still ruled by ,herod ,antipas as an allied prince1 and that a census taken by the ,roman ,governor would1 therefore1 not extend to ,galilee1 and could not affect ,joseph1 who1 living at ,nazareth1 would be the subject of ,herod4 ,see1 as illustrative of this1 ,luke xxiii4 #f1 #g4 ,thus he deals in manifest contradictions2 or1 rather1 he has an exceedingly sorry acquaintance with the political relations of that period2 for he extends the census not only to the whole of ,palestine1 but also 7which we must not forget7 to the whole ,roman world 7,strauss's ,life of ,jesus1 vol4 i41 p4 #bjf74 ,after quoting one of the passages of ,josephus referred to above1 ,dr4 ,giles says3 ,there can be little doubt that this is the mission of ,cyrenius which the ,evangelist supposed to be the occasion of the visit of ,christ's parents to ,bethlehem4 ,but such an error betrays on the part of the writer a great ignorance of the ,jewish history1 and of ,jewish politics2 for1 if ,christ was born in the reign of ,herod the ,great1 no ,roman census or enrolment could have taken place in the dominions of an independent ,king4 ,if1 however1 ,christ was born in the year of the census1 not only ,herod the ,great1 but ,archelaus1 also1 his son1 was dead4 ,nay1 by no possibility can the two events be brought together2 for even after the death of ,archelaus1 ,juda alone became a ,roman province2 ,galilee was still governed by ,herod ,antipas as an independent prince1 and ,christ's parents would not have been required to go out of their own country to ,jerusalem1 for the purpose of a census which did not comprise their own country1 ,galilee4 ,besides which1 it is notorious that the ,roman census was taken from house to house1 at the residence of each1 and not at the birth-place or family rendezvous of each tribe 7,christian ,records1 pp4 #abj1 #aba74 ,another striking witness to the late composition of the ,gospels is furnished by expressions1 denoting ideas that could not have had any being in the time of ,christ and his disciples1 but must have been developed afterwards1 at a time when the ,christian religion was established on a broader and still increasing basis 7,ibid1 p4 #afi74 ,dr4 ,giles has collected many of these1 and we take them from his pages4 ,in ,john i4 #ae1 #af1 we read3 ,john bare witness of him1 and cried1 saying1 ,this was he of whom ,i spake1 ,he that cometh after me is preferred before me3 for he was before me4 ,and of his fulness have all we received1 and grace for grace4 ,at that time none had received of the fulness of ,christ1 and the saying in the mouth of ,john ,baptist is an anachronism4 ,the word cross is several times used symbolically by ,christ1 as expressing patience and self-denial2 but before his own crucifixion the expression would be incomprehensible1 and he would surely not select a phraseology his disciples could not understand2 ,bearing the cross is a later phrase1 common among ,christians4 ,matthew xi4 #ab1 ,jesus1 speaking while ,john the ,baptist is still living1 says3 ,from the days of ,john the ,baptist until now--an expression that implies a lapse of time4 ,the word gospel was not in use among ,christians before the end of the second century2 yet we find it in ,matthew iv4 #bc1 ix4 #ce1 xxiv4 #ad1 xxvi4 #ac2 ,mark i4 #ad1 viii4 #ce1 x4 #bi1 xiii4 #aj1 xiv4 #i2 ,luke ix4 #f4 ,the unclean spirit1 or rather spirits1 who were sent into the swine 7,mark v4 #i1 ,luke viii4 #cj71 answered to the question1 ,what is thy name8 that his name was ,legion4 ,the ,four ,gospels are written in ,greek1 and the word 'legion' is ,latin2 but in ,galilee and ,peraea the people spoke neither ,latin nor ,greek1 but ,hebrew1 or a dialect of it4 ,the word 'legion' would be perfectly unintelligible to the disciples of ,christ1 and to almost everybody in the country 7,ibid1 p4 #aig74 ,the account of ,matthew1 that ,jesus rode on the ass and the colt1 to fulfil the prophecy1 ,behold thy king cometh unto thee1 meek1 and sitting upon an ass1 and a colt the foal of an ass 7xxi4 #e4 #g71 shows that ,matthew did not understand the ,hebrew idiom1 which should be rendered sitting upon an ass1 even upon a colt1 the foal of an ass1 and related an impossible riding feat to fulfil the misunderstood prophecy4 ,the whole trial scene shows ignorance of ,roman customs3 the judge running in and out between accused and people1 offering to scourge him and let him go--a course not consistent with ,roman justice2 then presenting him to the people with a crown of thorns and purple robe4 ,the ,roman administration would not condescend to a procedure so unjust and so undignified4 ,the mass of contradictions in the ,gospels1 noticed under k1 show that they could not have been written by disciples possessing personal knowledge of the events narrated2 while the fact that they are written in ,greek1 as we shall see below1 under j1 proves that they were not written by unlearned and ignorant ,jews1 and were not contemporary records1 penned by the immediate followers of ,jesus4 ,from these facts we draw the conclusion4 that the books themselves show marks of their later origin4 ,j4 ,that the language in which they are written is presumptive evidence against their authenticity4 ,we are here dealing with the supposed history of a ,jewish prophet written by ,jews1 and yet we find it written in ,greek1 a language not commonly known among the ,jews1 as we learn from the testimony of ,josephus3 ,i have so completely perfected the work ,i proposed to myself to do1 that no other person1 whether he were a ,jew or a foreigner1 had he ever so great an inclination to it1 could so accurately deliver these accounts to the ,greeks as is done in these books4 ,for those of my own nation freely acknowledge that ,i far exceed them in the learning belonging to the ,jews4 ,i have also taken a great deal of pains to obtain the learning of the ,greeks1 and understand the elements of the ,greek language1 although ,i have so long accustomed myself to speak our own tongue1 that ,i cannot pronounce ,greek with sufficient exactness2 for our nation does not encourage those that learn the languages of many nations 444 on which account1 as there have been many who have done their endeavours with great patience to obtain this learning1 there have yet hardly been so many as two or three that have succeeded therein1 who were immediately well rewarded for their pains 7,ant4 bk4 xx4 ch4 #aa1 sec #b74 ,he further tells us that ,i grew weary1 and went on slowly1 it being a large subject1 and a difficult thing to translate our history into a foreign and1 to us1 unaccustomed language 7,ibid1 ,preface74 ,the chief reason1 perhaps1 for this general ignorance of ,greek was the barbarous aversion of the ,rabbis to foreign literature4 ,no one will be partaker of eternal life who reads foreign literature4 ,execrable is he1 as the swineherd1 execrable alike1 who teaches his son the wisdom of the ,greeks 7translated from ,latin translation of ,rabbi ,akiba1 as given in note in ,keim's ,jesus of ,nazara1 vol4 i4 p1 #bie74 ,it is noteworthy1 also1 that the ,evangelists quote generally from the ,septuagint1 and that loyal ,jews would have avoided doing so1 since the translation of the ,bible into ,greek had already been the cause of grief1 and even of hatred1 in ,jerusalem 7,ibid1 p4 #bid74 ,in the face of this we are asked to believe that a ,galilean fisherman1 by the testimony of ,acts iv4 #ac1 unlearned and ignorant1 outstripped his whole nation1 save the two or three that have succeeded in learning ,greek1 and wrote a philosophical and historical treatise in that language4 ,also that ,matthew1 a publican1 a member of the most degraded class of the ,jews1 was equally learned1 and published a history in the same tongue4 ,yet these two marvels of erudition were unknown to ,josephus1 who expressly states that the two or three who had learned ,greek1 were immediately well rewarded for their pains4 ,the argument does not tell against ,mark and ,luke1 as no one knows anything about these two writers1 and they may have been ,greeks1 for anything we know to the contrary4 ,if ,mark1 however1 is to be identified with ,john ,mark1 sister's son to ,barnabas1 then it will lie also against him4 ,leaving aside the main difficulty1 pointed out above1 it is grossly improbable1 on the face of it1 that these ,jewish writers should employ ,greek1 even if they knew it1 instead of their own tongue4 ,they were writing the story of a ,jew2 why should they translate all his sayings instead of writing them down as they fell from his lips8 ,their work lay among the ,jews4 ,eight years after the death of ,jesus they rebuked one of their number1 ,peter1 who eat with men uncircumcised 7,acts xi4 #c72 nineteen years afterwards they still went only unto the circumcision 7,gal4 ii4 #i72 twenty-seven years afterwards they were still in ,jerusalem1 teaching ,jews1 and carefully fulfilling the law 7,acts xxi4 #ah-bd72 after this1 we hear no more of them1 and they must all have been old men1 not likely to then change the ,jewish habits of their lives4 ,besides1 why should they do so8 their whole sphere of work was entirely ,jewish1 and1 if they were educated enough to write at all1 they would surely write for the benefit of those amongst whom they worked4 ,the only parallel for so curious a phenomenon as these ,greek ,gospels1 written by ignorant ,jews1 would be found if a ,cornish fisherman and a low ,london attorney1 both perfectly ignorant of ,german1 wrote in ,german the sayings and doings of a ,middlesex carpenter1 and as their work was entirely confined to the lower classes of the people1 who knew nothing of ,german1 and they desired to place within their reach full knowledge of the carpenter's life1 they circulated it among them in ,german only1 and never wrote anything about him in ,english4 ,the ,greek text of the ,gospels proves that they were written in later times1 when ,christianity found its adherents among the ,gentile populations4 ,it might1 indeed1 be fairly urged that the ,greek text is a suggestion that the creed did not originate in ,juda at all1 but was the offshoot of ,gentile thought rather than of ,jewish4 ,however that may be1 the ,greek text forbids us to believe that these ,gospels were written by the ,jewish contemporaries of ,jesus1 and we conclude that the language in which they are written is presumptive evidence against their authenticity4 ,k4 ,that they are in themselves utterly unworthy of credit from 7#a7 the miracles with which they abound4 7#b7 ,the numerous contradictions of each by the others4 7#c7 ,the fact that the story of the hero1 the doctrines1 the miracles1 were current long before the supposed dates of the ,gospels1 so that these ,gospels are simply a patchwork composed of older materials4 7#a7 ,the miracles with which they abound4 ,paley asks3 ,why should we question the genuineness of these books8 ,is it for that they contain accounts of supernatural events8 ,i apprehend that this1 at the bottom1 is the real1 though secret cause of our hesitation about them2 for1 had the writings1 inscribed with the names of ,matthew and ,john1 related nothing but ordinary history1 there would have been no more doubt whether these writings were theirs1 than there is concerning the acknowledged works of ,josephus or ,philo2 that is1 there would have been no doubt at all 7,evidences1 pp4 #aje1 #ajf74 ,there is a certain amount of truth in this argument4 ,we do--openly1 however1 and not secretly--doubt any and every book which is said to be a record of miracles1 written by an eye-witness of them2 the more important the contents of a book1 the more keenly are its credentials scrutinised2 the more extraordinary the story it contains1 the more carefully are its evidences sifted4 ,in dealing with ,josephus1 we examine his authenticity before relying at all on his history2 finding there is little doubt that the book was written by him1 we value it as the account of an apparently careful writer4 ,when we come to passages like one in ,wars of the ,jews1 bk4 vi4 ch4 #e1 sec4 #c--which tells us among the portents which forewarned the ,jews of the fall of the temple3 ,a heifer1 as she was led by the high priest to be sacrificed1 brought forth a lamb in the midst of the temple--we do not believe it1 any more than we believe that the devils went into the swine4 ,if such fables1 instead of forming excrescences here and there on the history of ,josephus1 which may be cut off without injury to the main record1 were so interwoven with the history as to be part and parcel of it1 so that no history would remain if they were all taken away1 then we should reject ,josephus as a teller of fables1 and not a writer of history4 ,if it were urged that ,josephus was an eye-witness1 and recorded what he saw1 then we should answer3 ,either your history is not written by ,josephus at all1 but is falsely assigned to him in order to give it the credit of being written by a contemporary and an eye-witness2 or else your ,josephus is a charlatan1 who pretended to have seen miracles in order to increase his prestige4 ,if this supposed history of ,josephus were widely spread and exercised much influence over mankind1 then its authenticity would be very carefully examined and every weak point in the evidences for it tested1 just as the ,gospels are to-day4 ,we may add1 that it is absurd to parallel the ,evangelists and ,josephus1 as though we knew of the one no more than we do of the others4 ,josephus relates his own life1 giving us an account of his family1 his childhood1 and his education2 he then tells us of his travels1 of all he did1 and of the books he wrote1 and the books themselves bear his own announcement of his authorship2 for instance1 we read3 ,i1 ,joseph1 the son of ,matthias1 by birth an ,hebrew1 a priest also1 and one who at first fought against the ,romans myself1 and was forced to be present at what was done afterwards1 am the author of this work 7,wars of the ,jews1 ,preface1 sec4 ,i74 ,to which of the ,gospels is such an announcement prefixed8 even in ,luke1 where the historian writes a preface1 it is not said3 ,i1 ,luke1 and anonymous writings must be of doubtful authenticity4 ,which of the ,evangelists has related for us his own life1 so that we may judge of his opportunities of knowing what he tells8 ,to which of their histories is such external testimony given as that of ,tacitus to ,josephus1 in spite of the contempt felt by the polished ,roman towards the whole ,jewish race8 ,nothing can be more misleading than to speak of ,josephus and of the ,evangelists as though their writings stood on the same level2 every mark of authenticity is present in the one2 every mark of authenticity is absent in the other4 ,we shall argue as against the miraculous accounts of the ,gospels--first1 that the evidence is insufficient and far below the amount of evidence brought in support of more modern miracles2 secondly1 that the power to work miracles has been claimed by the ,church all through her history1 and is still so claimed1 and it is1 therefore1 impossible to mark any period wherein miracles ceased2 and1 thirdly1 that not only are ,christian miracles unproven1 but that all miracles are impossible1 as well as useless if possible4 ,paley1 arguing for the truth of ,christian miracles1 and of these only1 endeavours to lay down canons which shall exclude all others4 ,thus1 he excludes3 ,i4 ,such accounts of supernatural events as are found only in histories by some ages posterior to the transaction4444 ,,ii4 ,accounts published in one country of what passed in a distant country1 without any proof that such accounts were known or received at home4444 ,,iii4 ,transient rumours4444 ,,iv4 ,naked history 7fragments1 unconnected with subsequent events dependent on the miracles74444 ,v4 ,in a certain way1 and to a certain degree1 particularity1 in names1 dates1 places1 circumstances1 and in the order of events preceding or following4444 ,,vi4 ,stories on which nothing depends1 in which no interest is involved1 nothing is to be done or changed in consequence of believing them4444 ,,vii4 ,accounts which come merely in affirmance of opinions already formed4444 ,it is not necessary to admit as a miracle1 what can be resolved into a false perception 7such miracles as healing the blind1 lame1 etc41 cannot be reduced under this head71 444 or imposture 444 or tentative miracles 7where1 out of many attempts1 one succeeds7 444 or doubtful 7possibly explainable as coincidence1 or effect of imagination7 444 or exaggeration 7,evidences1 pp4 #aii-bah74 ,paley then criticises some miracles alleged by ,hume1 and argues against them4 ,he very fairly criticises and disposes of them1 but fails to see that the same style of argument would dispose of his ,gospel ones4 ,the ,cardinal de ,retz sees1 at a church in ,saragossa1 a man who lighted the lamps1 and the canons told him that he had been several years at the gate with one leg only4 ,i saw him with two4 ,paley urges that it nowhere appears that he 7the ,cardinal7 either examined the limb1 or asked the patient1 or indeed any one1 a single question about the matter 7,evidences1 page #bbd74 ,well argued1 ,dr4 ,paley2 and in the man who sat outside the beautiful gate of the ,temple1 who examined the limb1 or questioned the patient8 ,canons ,i4 and ,,ii4 exclude the ,gospel miracles1 unless the ,gospels are proved to be written by those whose names they bear1 and even then there is no proof that either ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke1 or ,john1 published their ,gospels in ,juda1 or that their accounts were received at home4 ,the doubt and obscurity hanging over the origin of the ,gospels themselves1 throws the like doubt and obscurity on all that they relate4 ,transient rumours1 false perception1 imposture1 doubtful1 and exaggeration--there is a door open to all these things in the slow and gradual putting together of the collection of legends now known as the ,gospels4 ,we argue that the witness of the ,gospels to the miracles cannot be accepted until the ,gospels themselves are authenticated1 and that the evidence in support of the miracles is1 therefore1 insufficient4 ,strauss shows us very clearly how the miracles recorded in the ,gospels became ascribed to ,jesus4 ,that the ,jewish people in the time of ,jesus expected miracles from the ,messiah is in itself natural1 since the ,messiah was a second ,moses1 and the greatest of the prophets1 and to ,moses and the prophets the national legend attributed miracles of all kinds4444 ,but not only was it pre-determined in the popular expectation that the ,messiah should work miracles in general--the particular kinds of miracles which he was to perform were fixed1 also in accordance with ,old ,testament types and declarations4 ,moses dispensed meat and drink to the people in a supernatural manner 7,ex4 xvi4 xvii473 the same was expected1 as the rabbis explicitly say1 from the ,messiah4 ,at the prayer of ,elisha1 eyes were in one case closed1 in another1 opened supernaturally 7#b ,kings vi473 the ,messiah also was to open the eyes of the blind4 ,by this prophet and his master1 even the dead had been raised 7#a ,kings xvii2 #b ,kings iv472 hence to the ,messiah also power over death could not be wanting4 ,among the prophecies1 ,is4 xxxv1 #e1 #f 7comp4 xlii4 #g71 was especially influential in forming this part of the ,messianic idea4 ,it is here said of the ,messianic times3 ,then shall the eyes of the blind be opened and the ears of the deaf unstopped2 then shall the lame man leap as a hart1 and the tongue of the dumb shall sing 7,life of ,jesus1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #bce1 #bcf47 ,in dealing with the alleged healing of the blind1 ,strauss remarks3 ,how should we represent to ourselves the sudden restoration of vision to a blind eye by a word or a touch8 as purely miraculous and magical8 ,that would be to give up thinking on the subject4 ,as magnetic8 ,there is no precedent of magnetism having influence over a disease of this nature4 ,or1 lastly1 as psychical8 ,but blindness is something so independent of the mental life1 so entirely corporeal1 that the idea of its removal at all1 still less of its sudden removal by means of a mental operation1 is not to be entertained4 ,we must1 therefore1 acknowledge that an historical conception of these narratives is more than merely difficult to us2 and we proceed to inquire whether we cannot show it to be probable that legends of this kind should arise unhistorically4444 ,that these deeds of ,elisha were conceived1 doubtless with reference to the passage of ,isaiah1 as a real opening of the eyes of the blind1 is proved by the above rabbinical passage stating that the ,messiah would do all that in ancient times had been done by the hands of the righteous1 vol4 i41 p4 #ha1 note1 and hence cures of the blind were expected from the ,messiah4 ,now1 if the ,christian community1 proceeding as it did from the bosom of ,judaism1 held ,jesus to be the ,messianic personage1 it must manifest the tendency to ascribe to him every ,messianic predicate1 and1 therefore1 the one in question 7,ibid1 #bib1 #bic74 ,not only1 then1 are the miracles rendered doubtful by the dubious character of the records in which they are found1 but there is a clear and reasonable explanation why we should expect to find them in any history of a supposed ,messiah4 ,christian apologists appear to have overlooked the statement in the ,gospels that ,jesus objected to publicity being given to his supposed miracles2 the natural conclusion that sceptics draw from this assertion1 is that the miracles never took place at all1 and that the supposed modesty of ,jesus is invented in order to account for the ignorance of the people concerning the alleged marvels4 ,judge ,strange fairly remarks3 ,the appeal to miracles is a very questionable resort4 ,now1 as ,jesus is repeatedly represented to have exhorted those on whose behalf they were wrought to keep the matter secret to themselves1 and as when such signs1 upon being asked for1 were refused to be accorded by him1 and the desire to have them was repressed as sinful1 it is to be gathered1 in spite of the sayings to the contrary1 that the writers were aware that there was no such public sense of the occurrence of these marvels as must have attached to them had they really been enacted1 and we are left to the conclusion that there were in fact no such demonstrations 7,the ,portraiture and ,mission of ,jesus1 p4 #bc74 ,clearly1 miracles are useless1 as evidence1 unless they are publicly performed1 and the secresy used by ,jesus suggests fraud rather than miraculous power1 and savours of the conjuror rather than of the ,god4 ,but1 further1 there is far stronger evidence for later ,church miracles than for those of ,christ1 or of the apostles1 and if evidence in support of miracles is good for anything1 these more modern miracles must command our belief4 ,eusebius relates the following miracle of ,narcissus1 the thirtieth ,bishop of ,jerusalem1 ,a4,d4 #ahj1 as one among many3 ,whilst the deacons were keeping the vigils the oil failed them2 upon which all the people being very much dejected1 ,narcissus commanded the men that managed the lights to draw water from a neighbouring well1 and to bring it to him4 ,they having done it as soon as said1 ,narcissus prayed over the water1 and then commanded them1 in a firm faith in ,christ1 to pour it into the lamps4 ,when they had also done this1 contrary to all natural expectation1 by an extraordinary and divine influence1 the nature of the water was changed into the quality of oil1 and by most of the brethren a small quantity was preserved from that time until our own1 as a specimen of the wonder then performed 7,eccles4 ,hist1 bk4 vi41 chap4 #i74 ,st4 ,augustine bears personal witness to more than one miracle which happened in his own presence1 and gives a long list of cures performed in his time4 ,one thing may be affirmed1 that nothing of importance is omitted1 and in regard to essential details they are as explicit as the mass of other cases reported4 ,in every instance names and addresses are stated1 and it will have been observed that all these miracles occurred in1 or near to1 ,hippo1 and in his own diocese4 ,it is very certain that in every case the fact of the miracle is asserted in the most direct and positive terms 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 pp4 #afg1 #afh74 ,none can deny that miraculous powers have been claimed by ,christian ,churches from the time of ,christ down to the present day1 and that there is no break which can be pointed to as the date at which these powers ceased4 ,from the first of the ,fathers to the last of the ,popes a succession of bishops1 of saints1 and of martyrs1 and of miracles1 is continued without interruption2 and the progress of superstition was so gradual1 and almost imperceptible1 that we know not in what particular link we should break the chain of tradition4 ,every age bears testimony to the wonderful events by which it was distinguished2 and its testimony appears no less weighty and respectable than that of the preceding generation1 till we are insensibly led on to accuse our own inconsistency1 if in the eighth or in the twelfth century we deny to the venerable ,bede1 or to the holy ,bernard1 the same degree of confidence which1 in the second century1 we had so liberally granted to ,justin or to ,irenus4 ,if the truth of any of those miracles is appreciated by their apparent use and propriety1 every age had unbelievers to convince1 heretics to confute1 and idolatrous nations to convert2 and sufficient motives might always be produced to justify the interposition of heaven4 ,and yet1 since every friend to revelation is persuaded of the reality1 and every reasonable man is convinced of the cessation1 of miraculous powers1 it is evident that there must have been some period in which they were either suddenly or gradually withdrawn from the ,christian ,church4 ,whatever era is chosen for that purpose1 the death of the ,apostles1 the conversion of the ,roman empire1 or the extinction of the ,arian heresy1 the insensibility of the ,christians who lived at that time will equally afford a just matter of surprise4 ,they still supported their pretensions after they had lost their power4 ,credulity performed the office of faith2 fanaticism was permitted to assume the language of inspiration2 and the effects of accident or contrivance were ascribed to supernatural causes4 ,the recent experience of genuine miracles should have instructed the ,christian world in the ways of ,providence1 and habituated their eye 7if we may use a very inadequate expression7 to the style of the ,divine ,artist 7,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall1 vol4 ii41 chap1 xv41 p4 #ade74 ,the miraculous powers were said to have been given by ,christ himself to his disciples4 ,these signs shall follow them that believe2 in my name shall they cast out devils2 they shall speak with mew tongues2 they shall take up serpents2 and1 if they drink any deadly thing1 it shall not hurt them2 they shall lay hands on the sick1 and they shall recover 7,mark xvi4 #ag1 #ah74 ,this power is exercised by the ,apostles 7see ,acts throughout71 by believers in the ,churches 7#a ,cor4 xii4 #i1 #aj2 ,gal4 iii4 #e2 ,james v4 #ad1 #ae72 at any rate1 it was in force in the time with which these books treat1 according to the ,christians4 ,justus1 surnamed ,barsabas1 drinks poison1 and is unhurt 7,eusebius1 bk4 iii41 chap4 xxxix474 ,polycarp's martyrdom1 supposed to be in the next generation1 is accompanied by miracle 7,epistle of ,church of ,smyrna2 ,apostolical ,fathers1 p4 #ib2 see ante1 pp4 #bbj1 #bba74 ,at ,hierapolis the daughters of ,philip the ,apostle tell ,papias how one was there raised from the dead 7,eusebius1 bk4 iii41 ch4 xxxix474 ,justin ,martyr pleads the miracles worked in his own time in ,rome itself 7second ,apol41 ch4 vi474 ,irenus urges that the heretics cannot work miracles as can the ,catholics3 they can neither confer sight on the blind1 nor hearing on the deaf1 nor chase away all sorts of demons 444 nor can they cure the weak1 or the lame1 or the paralytic 7,against ,heretics1 bk4 ii41 ch4 xxxi41 sec4 #b74 ,tertullian encourages ,christians to give up worldly pleasures by reminding them of their grander powers3 what nobler than to tread under foot the gods of the nations1 to exorcise evil spirits1 to perform cures8 7,de ,spectaculis1 sec4 #bi74 ,origen claims for ,christians the power still to expel demons1 and to heal diseases1 in the name of ,jesus2 and he states that he had seen many persons so cured of madness1 and countless other evils 7quoted from ,origen against ,celsus in ,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 p4 #aed4 ,a mass of evidence on this subject will be found in chap4 v4 of this work1 on ,the ,permanent ,stream of ,miraculous ,pretension74 ,st4 ,augustine's testimony has been already referred to4 ,st4 ,ambrose discovered the bones of ,,ss4 ,gervasius and ,protasius2 and these relics were laid in the ,faustinian ,basilic1 and the next morning were translated into the ,ambrosian ,basilic2 during which translation a blind man1 named ,severus1 a butcher by trade1 was cured by touching the bier on which the relics lay with a handkerchief1 and then applying it to his eyes4 ,he had been blind several years1 was known to the whole city1 and the miracle was performed before a prodigious number of people2 and is testified also by ,st4 ,austin ,augustine1 who was then at ,milan1 in three several parts of his works1 and by ,paulinus in the ,life of ,st4 ,ambrose 7,lives of the ,fathers1 ,martyrs1 etc41 by ,rev4 ,alban ,butler1 vol4 xii41 pp4 #ajja1 #ajjb2 ed4 #ahch2 published in two vols41 each containing six vols474 ,the sacred stigmata of ,st4 ,francis d',assisi 7died #abbf7 were seen and touched by ,st4 ,bonaventure1 ,pope ,alexander ,,iv41 ,pope-,gregory ,,ix41 fifty friars1 many nuns1 and innumerable crowds 7,ibid1 vol4 x41 pp4 #ehb1 #ehc74 ,this same saint underwent the operation of searing1 and1 when the surgeon was about to apply the searing-iron1 the saint spoke to the fire1 saying3 ',brother fire1 ,i beseech thee to burn me gently1 that ,i may be able to endure thee4' ,he was seared very deep1 from the ear to the eyebrow1 but seemed to feel no pain at all 7,ibid1 p4 #ege74 ,the miracles of ,st4 ,francis ,xavier 7died #aeeb7 are borne witness to on all sides1 and resulted in the conversion of crowds of ,indians2 even so late as #agdd1 when the ,archbishop of ,goa1 by order of ,john ,v4 of ,portugal1 attended by the ,viceroy1 the ,marquis of ,castel ,nuovo1 visited the saint's relics1 the body was found without the least bad smell1 and had not suffered the least alteration1 or symptom of corruption 7,ibid1 vol4 xii41 p4 #igd74 ,the chain of miracles extends right down to the present day4 ,at ,lourdes1 in this year 7#ahgf71 the ,virgin was crowned by the ,cardinal ,archbishop of ,paris in the presence of thirty-five prelates and one hundred thousand people4 ,during the mass performed at the ,grotto by the ,nuncio1 ,madeleine ,lancereau1 of ,poictiers1 aged #fa1 known by a large number of the pilgrims as having been unable to walk without crutches for nineteen years1 was radically cured4 ,here is a better authenticated miracle than anyone in the ,gospel story2 yet no ,protestant even cares to investigate the matter1 or believes its truth to be within the limits of possibility4 ,thus we see that not a century has1 passed since ,a4,d4 #cj which has not been thickly sown with miracles1 and there is no reason why we should believe in the miracles of the first century1 and reject those of the following eighteen2 nor is the first century even the beginning of miracles1 for before that date ,jewish and ,pagan miracles are to be found in abundance4 ,why should ,bible miracles be severed from their relations all over the world1 so that belief in them is commendable faith1 while belief in the rest is reprehensible credulity8 ,the fact is1 however1 that the ,gospel miracles were preceded and accompanied by others of the same type2 and we may here merely mention exorcism of demons1 and the miraculous cure of disease1 as popular instances2 they were also followed by a long succession of others1 quite as well authenticated1 whose occurrence only became less frequent in proportion as the diffusion of knowledge dispelled popular credulity4 ,even at the present day a stray miracle is from time to time reported in outlying districts1 where the ignorance and superstition which formerly produced so abundant a growth of them are not yet entirely dispelled 7,sup4 ,rel41 vol4 i41 p4 #adh74 ,ignorance1 and its invariable attendant1 superstition1 have done more than mere love of the marvellous to produce and perpetuate belief in miracles1 and there cannot be any doubt that the removal of ignorance always leads to the cessation of miracles 7,ibid1 p4 #add74 ,special objection has often been raised against one class of miracles--common to the ,gospels and to all miraculous narratives--which has severely taxed the faith even of the ,christians themselves--that class1 namely1 which consists of the healing of those possessed with devils4 ,exorcism has always been a favourite kind of miracle1 but1 in these days1 very few believe in the possibility of possession1 and the language of the ,evangelists on the subject has consequently given rise to much trouble of mind4 ,prebendary ,row1 in a work on ,the ,supernatural in the ,new ,testament ,possible1 ,credible1 and ,historical--one of the volumes issued by the ,christian ,evidence ,society in answer to ,supernatural ,religion--deals fully with this difficulty2 it has been urged that possession was simply a form of mania1 and on this ,mr4 ,row say3 ,now1 on the assumption that possession was simple mania1 and nothing more1 the following suppositions are the only possible ones4 ,first1 that our ,lord really distinguished between mania and possession2 but that the ,evangelists have inaccurately reported his words and actions1 through the media of their own subjective impressions1 or1 in short1 have attributed to him language that he did not really utter4 ,second1 that our ,lord knew that possession was a form of mania1 and adopted the current notions of the time in speaking of it1 and that the words were really uttered by him4 ,third1 that with similar knowledge1 he adopted the language as part of the curative process4 ,fourth1 that he accepted the validity of the distinction1 and that it was a real one during those times 7,supernatural in the ,new ,testament1 pp4 #bea1 #beb74 ,mr4 ,row argues that3 ,if possession be mania1 there is nothing in the language which the ,evangelists have attributed to our ,lord which compromises the truthfulness of his character4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we assume that possession was an objective fact1 there is nothing in our existing scientific knowledge of the human mind which proves that the possessions of the ,new ,testament were impossible 7,ibid74 ,mr4 ,row rejects the first alternative1 and accepts the accuracy of the ,evangelic records4 ,but he considers that if possession were simply mania1 ,jesus1 knowing the nature of the disease1 might reasonably use language suited to the delusion1 as most likely to effect a cure2 he could not argue with a maniac that he was under a delusion1 but would rightly use whatever method was best fitted to ensure recovery4 ,if this idea be rejected1 and the reality of demoniacal possession maintained as most consonant with the behaviour of ,jesus1 then ,mr4 ,row argues that there is no reason to consider it impossible that either good or evil spirits should be able to influence man1 and that psychological science does not warrant us in a denial of the possibility of such influence4 ,the utter uselessness of miracles--supposing them to be possible--is worthy of remembrance4 ,they must not be accepted as proofs of a divine mission1 for false prophets can work them as well as true 7,deut4 xiii41 #a-e2 ,matt4 xxiv41 #bd2 #b ,thess4 ii41 #i2 ,rev4 xiii41 #ac-ae1 etc47 and it may be that ,god himself works them to deceive 7,deut4 xiii41 #c74 ,satan can work miracles to authenticate the false doctrines of his emissaries1 and there is no test whereby to distinguish the miracle worked by ,god from the miracle worked by ,satan4 ,hence a miracle is utterly useless1 for the credibility of a teacher rests on the morality that he teaches1 and if this is good1 it is accepted without a miracle to attest its goodness1 so that the attesting miracle is superfluous4 ,if it is bad1 it is rejected in spite of a miracle to attest its authority1 so that the attesting miracle is deceptive4 ,the only use of a miracle might be to attest a revelation of otherwise unknowable facts1 which had nothing to do with any moral teaching2 and seeing that such revelation could not be investigated1 as it dealt with the unknowable1 it would be highly dangerous--and1 perhaps1 blasphemous--to accept it on the faith of the miracle1 for it might quite as likely be a revelation made by ,satan to injure1 as by ,god to benefit1 mankind4 ,allowing that ,god and ,satan exist1 it would seem likely--judging ,christianity by its fruits--that the ,christian religion is such a malevolent revelation of the evil one4 ,the objection we raise is1 however1 of far wider scope than the assertion of the lack of evidence for the ,new ,testament miracles2 it is against all1 and not only against ,christian1 miracles4 ,as far as the impossibility of supernatural occurrences is concerned1 ,pantheism and ,atheism occupy precisely the same grounds4 ,if either of them propounds a true theory of the universe1 any supernatural occurrence1 which necessarily implies a supernatural agent to bring it about1 is impossible1 and the entire controversy as to whether miracles have ever been actually performed is a foregone conclusion4 ,modern ,atheism1 while it does not venture in categorical terms to affirm that no ,god exists1 definitely asserts that there is no evidence that there is one4 ,it follows that1 if there is no evidence that there is a ,god1 there can be no evidence that a miracle ever has been performed1 for the very idea of a miracle implies the idea of a ,god to work one4 ,if1 therefore1 ,atheism is true1 all controversy about miracles is useless4 ,they are simply impossible1 and to inquire whether an impossible event has happened is absurd4 ,to such a person the historical inquiry1 as far as a miracle is concerned1 must be a foregone conclusion4 ,it might have a little interest as a matter of curiosity2 but even if the most unequivocal evidence could be adduced that an occurrence such as we call supernatural had taken place1 the utmost that it could prove would be that some most extraordinary and abnormal fact had taken place in nature of which we did not know the cause4 ,but to prove a miracle to any person who consistently denies that he has any evidence that any being exists which is not a portion of and included in the material universe1 or developed out of it1 is impossible 7,the ,supernatural in the ,new ,testament1 by ,prebendary ,row1 pp4 #ad1 #ae74 ,we maintain that ,nature includes everything1 and that1 therefore1 the supernatural is an impossibility4 ,every new fact1 however marvellous1 must1 therefore1 be within ,nature2 and while our ignorance may for awhile prevent us from knowing in what category the newly-observed phenomenon should be classed1 it is none the less certain that wider knowledge will allot to it its own place1 and that more careful observation will reduce it under law1 i4e41 within the observed sequence or concurrence of phenomena4 ,the natural1 to the unthinking1 coincides with their own knowledge1 and supernatural1 to them1 simply means super-known2 therefore1 in ignorant ages1 miracles are every-day occurrences1 and as knowledge widens the miraculous diminishes4 ,the books of unscientific ages--that is1 all early literature--are full of miraculous events1 and it may be taken as an axiom of criticism that the miraculous is unhistorical4 7#b74 ,the numerous contradictions of each by the others4--,we shall here only present a few of the most glaring contradictions in the ,gospels1 leaving untouched a mass of minor discrepancies4 ,we find the principal of these when we compare the three synoptics with the ,fourth ,gospel1 but there are some irreconcilable differences even between the three4 ,the contradictory genealogies of ,christ given in ,matthew and ,luke--farther complicated1 in part1 by a third discordant genealogy in ,chronicles--have long been the despair of ,christian harmonists4 ,on comparing these lists1 we find that between ,david and ,christ there are only two names which occur in both ,matthew and ,luke--those of ,zorobabel and of ,joseph1 the reputed father of ,jesus4 ,in tracing the list downwards from ,david there would be less difficulty in explaining this1 at least1 to a certain point1 for ,matthew follows the line of ,solomon1 and ,luke that of ,nathan--both of whom were sons of ,david4 ,but even in the downward line1 on reaching ,salathiel1 where the two genealogies again come into contact1 we find1 to our astonishment1 that in ,luke he is the son of ,neri1 whilst in ,matthew his father's name is ,jechonias4 ,from ,zorobabel downwards1 the lists are again divergent1 until we reach ,joseph1 who in ,st4 ,luke is placed as the son of ,heli1 whilst in ,st4 ,matthew his father's name is ,jacob 7,christian ,records1 ,dr4 ,giles1 p4 #aja74 ,according to ,chronicles1 ,jotham is the great-great-grandson of ,ahaziah2 according to ,matthew1 he is his son 7admitting that the ,ahaziah of ,chronicles is the ,ozias of ,matthew72 according to ,chronicles1 ,jechonias is the grandson of ,josiah1 according to ,matthew1 he is his son2 according to ,chronicles1 ,zorababel is the son of ,pedaiah1 according to ,matthew1 he is the son of ,salathiel1 according to ,luke1 he is the son of ,neri2 according to ,chronicles1 ,zorobabel left eight children1 but neither ,matthew's ,abiud1 nor ,luke's ,rhesa1 are among them4 ,the same discordance is found when ,matthew and ,luke again touch each other in ,joseph1 the husband of ,mary2 according to the one1 ,jacob begat ,joseph1 according to the other1 ,joseph was the son of ,heli4 ,to crown the absurdity of the whole1 we are given two genealogies of ,joseph1 who is no relation to ,jesus at all1 if the story of the virgin-birth be true1 while none is given of ,mary1 through whom alone ,jesus is said to have derived his humanity4 ,we have1 therefore1 no genealogy at all of ,jesus in the ,gospels4 ,various theories have been put forward to reconcile the irreconcilable2 some say that the genealogy in ,luke is that of ,mary1 of which supposition it is enough to remark that ,mary1 the daughter of1 can scarcely be indicated by ,joseph1 the son of4 ,it is also said that ,joseph was legally the son of ,jacob1 although naturally the son of ,heli1 it being supposed that ,jacob died childless1 and that his brother ,heli according to the ,levitical law1 married the widow of ,jacob2 but here ,joseph's grand-fathers and great-grand-fathers should be the same1 ,heli and ,jacob being supposed to be brothers4 ,besides1 if ,joseph were legally the son of ,jacob1 only the genealogy of ,jacob should be given1 since that only would be ,joseph's genealogy4 ,no man can reckon his paternal ancestry through two differing lines4 ,to make matters in yet more hopeless confusion1 we find ,chronicles giving twenty-two generations where ,matthew gives seventeen1 and ,luke twenty-three2 while1 from ,david to ,christ1 ,matthew reckons twenty-eight and ,luke forty-three1 a most marvellous discrepancy4 ,if we compare the genealogies of ,matthew and ,luke together1 we become aware of still more striking discrepancies4 ,some of these differences indeed are unimportant1 as the opposite direction of the two tables4444 ,more important is the considerable difference in the number of generations for equal periods1 ,luke having forty-one between ,david and ,jesus1 whilst ,matthew has only twenty-six4 ,the main difficulty1 however1 lies in this3 that in some parts of the genealogy in ,luke totally different persons are made the ancestors of ,jesus from those in ,matthew4 ,it is true1 both writers agree in deriving the lineage of ,jesus through ,joseph from ,david and ,abraham1 and that the names of the individual members of the series correspond from ,abraham to ,david1 as well as two of the names in the subsequent portion3 those of ,salathiel and ,zorobabel4 ,but the difficulty becomes desperate when we find that1 with these two exceptions about midway1 the whole of the names from ,david to the foster father of ,jesus are totally different in ,matthew and in ,luke4 ,in ,matthew the father of ,joseph is called ,jacob2 in ,luke1 ,heli4 ,in ,matthew the son of ,david through whom ,joseph descended from that ,king is ,solomon2 in ,luke1 ,nathan2 and so on1 the line descends1 in ,matthew1 through the race of known ,kings2 in ,luke1 through an unknown collateral branch1 coinciding only with respect to ,salathiel and ,zorobabel1 whilst they still differ in the names of the father of ,salathiel and the son of ,zorobabel4444 ,a consideration of the insurmountable difficulties1 which unavoidably embarrass every attempt to bring these two genealogies into harmony with one another1 will lead us to despair of reconciling them1 and will incline us to acknowledge1 with the more free-thinking class of critics1 that they are mutually contradictory4 ,consequently1 they cannot both be true4444 ,in fact1 then1 neither table has any advantage over the other4 ,if the one is unhistorical1 so also is the other1 since it is very improbable that the genealogy of an obscure family like that of ,joseph1 extending through so long a series of generations1 should have been preserved during all the confusion of the exile1 and the disturbed period that followed4444 ,according to the prophecies1 the ,messiah could only spring from ,david4 ,when1 therefore1 a ,galilean1 whose lineage was utterly unknown1 and of whom consequently no one could prove that he was not descended from ,david1 had acquired the reputation of being the ,messiah2 what more natural than that tradition should1 under different forms1 have early ascribed to him a ,davidical descent1 and that genealogical tables1 corresponding with this tradition1 should have been formed8 which1 however1 as they were constructed upon no certain data1 would necessarily exhibit such differences and contradictions as we find actually existing between the genealogies in ,matthew and in ,luke 7,life of ,jesus1 by ,strauss1 vol4 i41 pp4 #acj1 #aca1 and #acg-aci74 ,the accounts of the several angelic warnings to ,mary and to ,joseph appear to be mutually exclusive4 ,most theologians1 says ,strauss1 maintaining1 and justly1 that the silence of one ,evangelist concerning an event which is narrated by the other1 is not a negation of the event1 they blend the two accounts together in the following manner3 #a1 the angel makes known to ,mary her approaching pregnancy 7,luke72 #b1 she then journeys to ,elizabeth 7the same ,gospel72 #c1 after her return1 her situation being discovered1 ,joseph takes offence 7,matthew72 whereupon1 #d1 he likewise is visited by an angelic apparition 7the same ,gospel74 ,but this arrangement of the incidents is1 as ,schliermacher has already remarked1 full of difficulty2 and it seems that what is related by one ,evangelist is not only pre-supposed1 but excluded1 by the other4 ,for1 in the first place1 the conduct of the angel who appears to ,joseph is not easily explained1 if the same1 or another1 angel had previously appeared to ,mary4 ,the angel 7in ,matthew7 speaks altogether as if his communication were the first in this affair4 ,he neither refers to the message previously received by ,mary1 nor reproaches ,joseph because he had not believed it2 but1 more than all1 the informing ,joseph of the name of the expected child1 and the giving him a full detail of the reasons why he should be so called 7,mat4 i4 #ba71 would have been wholly superfluous had the angel 7according to ,luke i4 #ca7 already indicated this name to ,mary4 ,still more incomprehensible is the conduct of the betrothed parties1 according to this arrangement of events4 ,had ,mary been visited by an angel1 who had made known to her an approaching supernatural pregnancy1 would not the first impulse of a delicate woman have been to hasten to impart to her betrothed the import of the divine message1 and by this means to anticipate the humiliating discovery of her situation1 and an injurious suspicion on the part of her affianced husband8 ,but exactly this discovery ,mary allows ,joseph to make from others1 and thus excites suspicion2 for it is evident that the expression ,greek3 heurethae en gastri echousa 7,mat4 i4 #ah7 signifies a discovery made independent of any communication on ,mary's part1 and it is equally clear that in this manner only does ,joseph obtain the knowledge of her situation1 since his conduct is represented as the result of that discovery ,greek3 7euriskesthai7 7,life of ,jesus1 v4 i41 pp4 #adf1 #adg74 ,strauss gives a curious list1 showing the gradual growth of the myth relating to the birth of ,jesus 7we may remark ,no4 #c is distinctly out of place when referred to ,olshausen3 it should be referred to the early ,fathers1 from whom ,olshausen derived it73-- #a4 ,contemporaries of ,jesus and composers of the genealogies3 ,joseph and ,mary man and wife--,jesus the offspring of their marriage4 #b4 ,the age and authors of our histories of the birth of ,jesus3 ,mary and ,joseph betrothed only2 ,joseph having no participation in the conception of the child1 and1 previous to his birth1 no conjugal connection with ,mary4 #c4 ,olshausen and others3 subsequent to the birth of ,jesus1 ,joseph1 though then the husband of ,mary1 relinquishes his matrimonial rights4 #d4 ,epiphanius1 ,protevangelium1 ,jacobi1 and others3 ,joseph a decrepit old man1 no longer to be thought of as a husband2 the children attributed to him are of a former marriage4 ,more especially it is not as a bride and wife that he receives ,mary2 he takes her merely under his guardianship4 #e4 ,protevang41 ,chrysostom1 and others3 ,mary's virginity was not only not destroyed by any subsequent births of children by ,joseph1 it was not in the slightest degree impaired by the birth of ,jesus4 #f4 ,jerome3 ,not ,mary only1 but ,joseph also1 observed an absolute virginity1 and the pretended brothers of ,jesus were not his sons1 hut merely cousins to ,jesus 7,life of ,jesus1 vol4 i41 p4 #ahh74 ,thus we see how a myth gradually forms itself1 bit after bit being added to it1 until the story is complete4 ,the account given by ,luke of the meeting of ,elizabeth and ,mary is clearly mythical1 and not historical3 ,apart from the intention of the narrator1 can it be thought natural that two friends visiting one another should1 even in the midst of the most extraordinary occurrences1 break forth into long hymns1 and that their conversation should entirely lose the character of dialogue1 the natural form on such occasions8 ,by a supernatural influence alone could the minds of the two friends be attuned to a state of elevation1 so foreign to their every-day life4 ,but if indeed ,mary's hymn is to be understood as the work of the ,holy ,spirit1 it is surprising that a speech emanating immediately from the divine source of inspiration should not be more striking for its originality1 but should be so interlarded with reminiscences from the ,old ,testament1 borrowed from the song of praise spoken by the mother of ,samuel 7#a ,sam4 ii7 under analogous circumstances4 ,accordingly1 we must admit that the compilation of this hymn1 consisting of recollections from the ,old ,testament1 was put together in a natural way2 but allowing its composition to have been perfectly natural1 it cannot be ascribed to the artless ,mary1 but to him who poetically wrought out the tradition in circulation respecting the scene in question 7,life of ,jesus1 by ,strauss1 vol4 i41 pp4 #aif1 #aig74 ,the notes of time given for the birth of ,christ are irreconcilable4 ,according to ,matthew he is born in the reign of ,herod the ,king3 according to ,luke1 he is born six months after ,john ,baptist1 whose birth is referred to the reign of the same monarch2 yet in ,luke1 he is also born at the time of the census1 which must have taken place at least ten years later2 thus ,luke contradicts ,matthew1 and also contradicts himself4 ,the discrepancies surrounding the birth are not yet complete2 passing the curious differences between ,matthew and ,luke1 ,matthew knowing nothing about the visit of the shepherds1 and ,luke nothing of the visit of the ,magi1 and the consequent slaughter of the babes1 we come to a direct conflict between the ,evangelists2 ,matthew informs us that ,joseph1 ,mary1 and the child1 fled into ,egypt from ,bethlehem to avoid the wrath of ,king ,herod1 and that they were returning to ,juda1 when ,joseph1 hearing that ,archelaus was ruling there1 turned aside to ,galilee1 and came and dwelt in a city called ,nazareth4 ,luke1 on the contrary1 says that when the days of ,mary's purification were accomplished they took the child up to ,jerusalem1 and presented him in the ,temple1 and then1 after this1 returned to ,galilee1 to their own city1 ,nazareth4 ,moreover1 had ,herod wanted to find him1 he could have taken him at the ,temple1 where his presentation caused much commotion4 ,in ,matthew1 the turning into ,galilee is clearly a new thing2 in ,luke1 it is returning home2 and in ,luke there is no space of time wherein the flight into ,egypt can by any possibility be inserted4 ,we may add a wonder why ,galilee was a safer residence than ,juda1 since ,antipas1 its ruler1 was a son of ,herod1 and would1 prim facie1 be as dangerous as his brother ,archelaus4 ,the conduct of ,herod is incredible if we accept ,matthew's account3 ,herod's first anxious question to the magi is to ascertain the time of the appearance of the star4 ,he 'inquires diligently' 7ii4 #g72 and he must have had a motive for so doing4 ,what was this motive8 ,could he have any other purpose than that of determining the age under which no infants in the neighbourhood of ,bethlehem should be allowed to live8 ,but1 according to the narrative1 ,herod never conceived the idea of slaughtering the children till he found that he had been 'mocked of the wise men2' and the mythical nature of the story is betrayed by this anticipation of motives which1 at the time spoken of could have no existence4 ,yet1 further1 ,herod1 who1 though in a high degree cruel1 unjust1 and unscrupulous1 is represented as a man of no slight sagacity1 clearness of purpose1 and strength of will1 and who feels a deadly jealousy of an infant whom he knows to have been recently born in ,bethlehem1 a place only a few miles distant from ,jerusalem1 is here described not as sending his own emissaries privately to put him to death1 or despatching them with the ,magi1 or detaining the ,magi at ,jerusalem1 until he had ascertained the truth of their tale1 and the correctness of the answer of the priests and scribes1 but as simply suffering the ,magi to go by themselves1 at the same time charging them to return with the information for which he had shown himself so feverishly anxious4 ,this strange conduct can be accounted for only on the ground of a judicial blindness2 but they who resort to such an explanation must suppose that it was inflicted in order to save the new-born ,christ from the death thus threatened2 and if they adopt this hypothesis1 they must further believe that this arrangement likewise ensured the death of a large number of infants instead of one4 ,a natural reluctance to take up such a notion might prompt the question1 ,why were the ,magi brought to ,jerusalem at all8 ,if they knew that the star was the star of ,christ 7ii4 #b71 and were by this knowledge conducted to ,jerusalem1 why did it not suffice to guide them straight to ,bethlehem1 and thus prevent the slaughter of the innocents8 ,why did the star desert them after its first appearance1 not to be seen again till they issued from ,jerusalem8 or1 if it did not desert them1 why did they ask of ,herod and the priests the road which they should take1 when1 by the hypothesis1 the star was ready to guide8 7,the ,english ,life of ,jesus1 by ,thomas ,scott1 pp4 #cd1 #ce2 ed4 #ahgb74 ,to these improbabilities must be added the remarkable fact that ,josephus1 who gives a very detailed history of ,herod1 entirely omits any hint of this stupendous crime4 ,the story of the temptation of ,jesus is full of contradictions4 ,matthew iv4 #b1 #c1 implies that the first visit of the tempter was made after the forty days' fast1 while ,mark and ,luke speak of his being tempted for forty days4 ,according to ,matthew1 the angels came to him when the ,devil left him2 but1 according to ,mark1 they ministered to him throughout4 ,according to ,matthew1 the temptation to cast himself down is the second trial1 and the offer of the kingdoms of the world the third3 in ,luke the order is reversed4 ,in additions to these contradictions1 we must note the absurdity of the story4 ,the ,devil set him on a pinnacle of the temple4 ,did ,jesus and the ,devil go flying through the air together1 till the ,devil put ,jesus down8 ,what did the people in the courts below think of the ,devil and a man standing on a point of the temple in the full sight of ,jerusalem8 ,did so unusual an occurrence cause no astonishment in the city8 ,where is the high mountain from which ,jesus and the ,devil saw all round the globe8 ,is it true that the ,devil gives power to whom he will8 ,if so1 why is it said that the powers are ordained of ,god8 ,another discrepancy1 concerning the denial of ,christ by ,peter1 furnishes a still stronger proof that these records have not come down to us with the exactness of a contemporary character1 much less with the authority of inspiration4 ,the four accounts of ,peter's denial vary considerably4 ,the variations will be more intelligible1 exhibited in a tabular form 7,giles' ,christian ,records1 p4 #bbh74 ,we present the table1 slightly altered in arrangement1 and corrected in some details3-- ,,matthew4 ,,mark4 ,,luke4 ,,john4 #ast4 ,seated without ,beneath in ,in the ,on entering in the the palace1 by midst of the to the palace1 to a the fire1 to a hall where damsel that damsel4 maid4 ,jesus was kept the being tried1 door4 seated by the fire1 to a maid4 #bnd4 ,out in the ,out in the ,still in the ,in the hall1 porch1 having porch1 having hall1 in standing by left the room1 left the room1 answer to a the fire1 in in answer to in answer to man4 answer to the a second a second bystanders4 maid4 maid4 #crd4 ,out in the ,out in the ,still in the ,still in the porch1 to the porch1 to the hall1 to a man4 hall1 to a bystanders4 bystanders4 man4 ,in addition to these discrepancies1 we find that ,jesus prophesies that ,peter shall deny him thrice before the cock crow1 while in ,mark the cock crows immediately after the first denial3 in ,luke1 ,jesus and ,peter remain throughout the scene of the denial in the same hall1 so that the ,lord may turn and look upon ,peter2 while ,matthew and ,mark place him beneath or without1 and make the third denial take place in the porch outside--a place where ,jesus1 by the context1 certainly could not see him4 ,how long did the ministry of ,jesus last8 ,luke places his baptism in the fifteenth year of ,tiberius 7iii4 #a71 and he might have been crucified under ,pontius ,pilate at any time within the seven years following4 ,the ,synoptics mention but one ,passover1 and at that ,jesus was crucified1 thus limiting his ministry to one year1 unless he broke the ,mosaic law1 and disregarded the feast2 clearly his triumphal entry into ,jerusalem is his first visit there in his manhood1 since we find all the city moved and the people asking3 ,who is this8 ,and the multitude said1 ,this is ,jesus the ,prophet of ,nazareth of ,galilee 7,matt4 xxi4 #aj1 #aa74 ,his person would have been well known1 had he visited ,jerusalem before and worked miracles there4 ,if1 however1 we turn to the ,fourth ,gospel1 his ministry must extend over at least two years4 ,according to ,irenus1 he did not want much of being fifty years old when the ,jews disputed with him 7,against ,heresies1 bk4 ii41 ch4 #bb1 sec4 #f71 and he taught for nearly twenty years4 ,dr4 ,giles remarks that the first three ,gospels plainly exhibit the events of only one year2 to prove them erroneous or defective in so important a feature as this1 would be to detract greatly from their value 7,christian ,records1 p4 #aab74 ,according to the first three ,gospels1 ,christ's public life lasted only one year1 at the end of which he went up to ,jerusalem and was crucified 7,ibid1 p4 #aa74 ,would this questioning on the triumphal entry have taken place if ,jesus had often made visits to ,jerusalem1 and been well known there8 ,the multitude who answered the question1 and who knew ,jesus1 consisted of those 'who had come to the feast1'--,st4 ,john indicates this xii4 #ab--;but the people of ,jerusalem knew him not1 and1 therefore1 asked ',who is this8' 7,ibid1 p4 #aac74 ,the fact is1 that we know nothing certainly as to the birth1 life1 death1 of this supposed ,christ4 ,his story is one tissue of contradictions4 ,it is impossible to believe that the ,synoptics and the fourth ,gospel are even telling the history of the same person4 ,the discourses of ,jesus in the ,synoptics are simple1 although parabolical2 in the ,fourth they are mystical1 and are being continually misunderstood by the people4 ,the historical divergences are marked4 ,the fourth ,gospel tells us 7ch4 #a7 that at the beginning of his ministry ,jesus was at ,bethabara1 a town near the junction of the ,jordan with the ,dead ,sea2 here he gains three disciples1 ,andrew and another1 and then ,simon ,peter3 the next day he goes into ,galilee and finds ,philip and ,nathanael1 and on the following day--somewhat rapid travelling--he is present1 with these disciples1 at ,cana1 where he performs his first miracle1 going afterwards with them to ,capernaum and ,jerusalem4 ,at ,jerusalem1 whither he goes for 'the ,jews' passover1' he drives out the traders from the temple and remarks1 ',destroy this temple1 and in three days ,i will raise it up3' which remark causes the first of the strange misunderstandings between ,jesus and the ,jews peculiar to this ,gospel1 simple misconceptions which ,jesus never troubles himself to set right4 ,jesus and his disciples then go to the ,jordan1 baptising1 whence ,jesus departs into ,galilee with them1 because he hears that the ,pharisees know he is becoming more popular than the ,baptist 7ch4 iv41 #a1 #c74 ,all this happens before ,john is cast into prison1 an occurrence which is a convenient note of time4 ,we turn to the beginning of the ministry of ,jesus as related by the three4 ,jesus is in the south of ,palestine1 but1 hearing that ,john is cast into prison1 he departs into ,galilee1 and resides at ,capernaum4 ,there is no mention of any ministry in ,galilee and ,juda before this2 on the contrary1 it is only 'from that time' that ',jesus began to preach4' ,he is alone1 without disciples1 but1 walking by the sea1 he comes upon ,peter1 ,andrew1 ,james1 and ,john1 and calls them4 ,now if the fourth ,gospel is true1 these men had joined him in ,juda1 followed him to ,galilee1 south again to ,jerusalem1 and back to ,galilee1 had seen his miracles and acknowledged him as ,christ1 so it seems strange that they had deserted him and needed a second call1 and yet more strange is it that ,peter 7,luke v4 #a-aa7 was so astonished and amazed at the miracle of the fishes4 ,the driving out of the traders from the temple is placed by the ,synoptics at the very end of his ministry1 and the remark following it is used against him at his trial3 so was probably made just before it4 ,the next point of contact is the history of the #e1jjj fed by five loaves 7ch4 vi472 the preceding chapter relates to a visit to ,jerusalem unnoticed by the three3 indeed1 the histories seem written of two men1 one the 'prophet of ,galilee' teaching in its cities1 the other concentrating his energies on ,jerusalem4 ,the account of the miraculous feeding is alike in all3 not so the succeeding account of the multitude4 ,in the fourth ,gospel1 ,jesus and the crowd fall to disputing1 as usual1 and he loses many disciples3 among the three1 ,luke says nothing of the immediately following events1 while ,matthew and ,mark tell us that the multitudes--as would be natural--crowded round him to touch even the hem of his garment4 ,this is the same as always3 in the three the crowd loves him2 in the fourth it carps at and argues with him4 ,we must again miss the sojourn of ,jesus in ,galilee according to the three1 and his visit to ,jerusalem according to the one1 and pass to his entry into ,jerusalem in triumph4 ,here we notice a most remarkable divergence3 the ,synoptics tell us that he was going up to ,jerusalem from ,galilee1 and1 arriving on his way at ,bethphage1 he sent for an ass and rode thereon into ,jerusalem3 the fourth ,gospel relates that he was dwelling at ,jerusalem1 and leaving it1 for fear of the ,jews1 he retired1 not into ,galilee1 but 'beyond ,jordan1 into a place where ,john at first baptised1' i4e41 ,bethabara1 'and there he abode4' ,from thence he went to ,bethany and raised to life a putrefying corpse3 this stupendous miracle is never appealed to by the earlier historians in proof of their master's greatness1 though 'much people of the ,jews' are said to have seen ,lazarus after his resurrection2 this miracle is also given as the reason for the active hostility of the priests1 'from that day forward4' ,jesus then retires to ,ephraim near the wilderness1 from which town he goes to ,bethany1 and thence in triumph to ,jerusalem1 being met by the people 'for that they heard that he had done this miracle4' ,the two accounts have absolutely nothing in common except the entry into ,jerusalem1 and the preceding events of the ,synoptics exclude those of the fourth ,gospel1 as does the latter theirs4 ,if ,jesus abode in ,bethabara and ,ephraim1 he could not have come from ,galilee2 if he started from ,galilee1 he was not abiding in the south4 ,john xiii4-xvii4 stand alone1 with the exception of the mention of the traitor4 ,on the arrest of ,jesus1 he is led 7ch4 xviii4 #ac7 to ,annas1 who sends him to ,caiaphas1 while the others send him direct to ,caiaphas1 but this is immaterial4 ,he is then taken to ,pilate3 the ,jews do not enter the judgment-hall1 lest1 being defiled1 they could not eat the passover1 a feast which1 according to the ,synoptics1 was over1 ,jesus and his disciples having eaten it the night before4 ,jesus is exposed to the people at the sixth hour 7ch4 xix4 #ad71 while ,mark tells us he was crucified three hours before--at the third hour--a note of time which agrees with the others1 since they all relate that there was darkness from the sixth to the ninth hour1 i4e41 there was thick darkness at the time when1 'according to ,st4 ,john1' ,jesus was exposed4 ,here our evangelist is in hopeless conflict with the three4 ,the accounts about the resurrection are irreconcilable in all the ,gospels1 and mutually destructive4 ,it remains to notice1 among these discrepancies1 one or two points which did not come in conveniently in the course of the narrative4 ,during the whole of the fourth ,gospel1 we find ,jesus constantly arguing for his right to the title of ,messiah4 ,andrew speaks of him as such 7i4 #da72 the ,samaritans acknowledge him 7iv4 #db72 ,peter owns him 7vi4 #fi72 the people call him so 7vii4 #bf1 #ca1 #da72 ,jesus claims it 7viii4 #bd72 it is the subject of a law 7ix4 #bb72 ,jesus speaks of it as already claimed by him 7x4 #bd1 #be72 ,martha recognises it 7xi4 #bg74 ,we thus find that1 from the very first1 this title is openly claimed by ,jesus1 and his right to it openly canvassed by the ,jews4 ,but--in the three--the disciples acknowledge him as ,christ1 and he charges them to 'tell no man that he was ,jesus the ,christ 7,matt4 xvi4 #bj2 ,mark viii4 #bi1 #cj2 ,luke ix4 #bj1 #ba72 and this in the same year that he blames the ,jews for not owning this ,messiahship1 since he had told them who he was 'from the beginning' 7ch4 viii4 #bd1 #be73 so that1 if ',john' was right1 we fail to see the object of all the mystery about it1 related by the ,synoptics4 ,we mark1 too1 how ,peter is1 in their account1 praised for confessing him1 for flesh and blood had not revealed it to him1 while in the fourth ,gospel1 'flesh and blood1' in the person of ,andrew1 reveal to ,peter that the ,christ is found2 and there seems little praise due to ,peter for a confession which had been made two or three years earlier by ,andrew1 ,nathanael1 ,john ,baptist1 and the ,samaritans4 ,contradiction can scarcely be more direct4 ,in ,john vii4 ,jesus owns that the ,jews know his birthplace 7#bh71 and they state 7#da1 #db7 that he comes from ,galilee1 while ,christ should be born at ,bethlehem4 ,matthew and ,luke distinctly say ,jesus was born at ,bethlehem2 but here ,jesus confesses the right knowledge of those who attribute his birthplace to ,galilee1 instead of setting their difficulty at rest by explaining that though brought up at ,nazareth he was born in ,bethlehem4 ,but our writer was apparently ignorant of their accounts 7,according to ,st ,john1 by ,annie ,besant4 ,scott ,series1 pp4 #aa-ad1 ed4 #ahgc74 ,these are but a few of the contradictions in the ,gospels1 which compel us to reject them as historical narratives4 7#c7 ,the fact that the story of the hero1 the doctrines1 the miracles1 were current long before the supposed dates of the ,gospels1 etc4 ,there are two mythical theories as to the growth of the story of ,jesus1 which demand our attention2 the first1 that of which ,strauss is the best known exponent1 which acknowledges the historical existence of ,jesus1 but regards him as the figure round which has grown a mythus1 moulded by the ,messianic expectations of the ,jews3 the second1 which is indifferent to his historical existence1 and regards him as a new hero of the ancient sun-worship1 the successor of ,mithra1 ,krishna1 ,osiris1 ,bacchus1 etc4 ,to this school1 it matters not whether there was a ,jesus of ,nazareth or not1 just as it matters not whether a ,krishna or an ,osiris had an historical existence or not2 it is ,christ1 the ,sun-god1 not ,jesus1 the ,jewish peasant1 whom they find worshipped in ,christendom1 and who is1 therefore1 the object of their interest4 ,according to the first theory1 whatever was expected of the ,messiah has been attributed to ,jesus4 ,when not merely the particular nature and manner of an occurrence is critically suspicious1 its external circumstances represented as miraculous and the like2 but where likewise the essential substance and groundwork is either inconceivable in itself1 or is in striking harmony with some ,messianic idea of the ,jews of that age1 then not the particular alleged course and mode of the transaction only1 but the entire occurrence must be regarded as unhistorical 7,strauss' ,life of ,jesus1 vol4 i41 p4 #id74 ,the mythic theory accepts an historical groundwork for many of the stories about ,jesus1 but it does not seek to explain the miraculous by attenuating it into the natural--as by explaining the story of the transfiguration to have been developed from the fact of ,jesus meeting secretly two men1 and from the brilliancy of the sunlight dazzling the eyes of the disciples--but it attributes the incredible portions of the history to the ,messianic theories current among the ,jews4 ,the ,messiah would do this and that2 ,jesus was the ,messiah2 therefore1 ,jesus did this and that--such1 argue the supporters of the mythical theory1 was the method in which the mythus was developed4 ,the theory finds some support in the peculiar attitude of ,justin ,martyr1 for instance1 who believes a number of things about ,jesus1 not because the things are thus recorded of him in history1 but because the prophets stated that such things should happen to the ,messiah4 ,thus1 ,jesus is descended from ,david1 because the ,messiah was to come of ,david's lineage4 ,his birth is announced by an angelic visitant1 because the birth of the ,messiah must not be less honoured than that of ,isaac or of ,samson2 he is born of a virgin1 because ,god says of the ,messiah1 this day have ,i begotten thee1 implying the direct paternity of ,god1 and because the prophecy in ,is4 vii4 #ad was applied to the ,messiah by the later ,jews 7see ,septuagint translation1 ,greek3 parthenos1 a pure virgin1 while the ,hebrew word ,hebrew3 almah signifies a young woman2 the ,hebrew word for virgin ,hebrew3 betulah not being used in the text of ,isaiah71 the ideas of son of ,god and son of a virgin completing each other2 born at ,bethlehem1 because there the ,messiah was to be born 7,micah v4 #a72 announced to shepherds1 because ,moses was visited among the flocks1 and ,david taken from the sheepfolds at ,bethlehem2 heralded by a star1 because a star should arise out of ,jacob 7,num4 xxiv4 #ag71 and the ,gentiles shall come to thy light 7,is4 lx4 #c72 worshipped by magi1 because the star was seen by ,balaam1 the magus1 and astrologers would be those who would most notice a star2 presented with gifts by these ,eastern sages1 because kings of ,arabia and ,saba shall offer gifts 7,ps4 lxxii4 #aj72 saved from the destruction of the infants by a jealous king1 because ,moses1 one of the great types of the ,messiah1 was so saved2 flying into ,egypt and thence returning1 because ,israel1 again a type of the ,messiah1 so fled and returned1 and out of ,egypt have ,i called my son 7,hos4 xi4 #a72 at twelve years of age found in the temple1 because the duties of the law devolved on the ,jewish boy at that age1 and where should the ,messiah then be found save in his ,father's temple8 recognised at his baptism by a divine voice1 to fulfil ,is4 xlii4 #a2 hovered over by a dove1 because the brooding ,spirit 7,gen4 i4 #b7 was regarded as dove-like1 and the ,spirit was to be especially poured on the ,messiah 7,is4 xlii4 #a72 tempted by the devil to test him1 because ,god tested his greatest servants1 and would surely test the ,messiah2 fasting forty days in the wilderness1 because the types of the ,messiah--,moses and ,elijah--thus fasted in the desert2 healing all manner of disease1 because ,messiah was to heal 7,is4 xxxv4 #e1 #f72 preaching1 because ,messiah was to preach 7,is4 lxi4 #a1 #b72 crucified1 because the hands and feet of ,messiah were to be pierced 7,ps4 xxii4 #af72 mocked1 because ,messiah was to be mocked 7,ibid #f-h72 his garments divided1 because thus it was spoken of ,messiah 7,ibid1 #ah72 silent before his judges1 because ,messiah was not to open his mouth 7,is4 liii4 #g72 buried by the rich1 because ,messiah was thus to find his grave 7,ib4 #i72 rising again1 because ,messiah's could not be left in hell 7,ps4 xvi4 #aj72 sitting at ,god's right hand1 because there ,messiah was to sit as king 7,ps4 cx4 #a74 ,thus the form of the ,messiah was cast1 and all that had to be done was to pour in the human metal2 those who alleged that the ,messiah had come in the person of ,jesus of ,nazareth1 adapted his story to the story of the ,messiah1 pouring the history of ,jesus into the mould already made for the ,messiah1 and thus the mythus was transformed into a history4 ,this theory is much strengthened by a study of the prophecies quoted in the ,new ,testament1 since we find that they are very badly set2 take as a specimen those referred to in ,matthew i4 and ii4 ,now all this was done1 that it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the ,lord by the prophet1 saying1 ,behold a virgin shall be with child1 etc 7i4 #bb1 #bc74 ,if we refer to ,is4 vii41 from whence the prophecy is taken1 we shall see the wresting of the passage which is necessary to make it into a ,messianic prophecy4 ,ahaz1 king of ,judah1 is hard pressed by the kings of ,samaria and ,syria1 and he is promised deliverance by the ,lord1 before the virgin's son1 ,immanuel1 should be of an age to discern between good and evil4 ,how ,ahaz could be given as a sign of a birth which was not to take place until more than #gjj years afterwards1 it is hard to say1 nor can we believe that ,ahaz was not delivered from his enemies until ,jesus was old enough to know right from wrong4 ,according to the ,gospels1 the name ,immanuel was never given to ,jesus1 and in the prophecy is bestowed on the child simply as a promise that1 ,god being with us1 ,judah should be delivered from its foes4 ,the same child is clearly spoken of as the child of ,isaiah and his wife in ,is4 viii4 #c1 #d2 and in verses #f-h we find that the two kings of ,samaria and ,syria are to be conquered by the king of ,assyria1 who shall fill thy land1 ,o ,immanuel6 thus referring distinctly to the promised child as living in that time4 ,the ,hebrew word translated virgin does not1 as we have already shown1 mean a pure virgin1 as translated in the ,septuagint4 ,it is used for a young woman1 a marriageable woman1 or even to describe a woman who is being embraced by a man4 ,micah's supposed prophecy in ,matt4 ii4 #e1 #f1 is as inapplicable to ,christ as that of ,isaiah4 ,turning back to ,micah1 we find that he that is to be ruler in ,israel shall be born in ,bethlehem1 but ,jesus was never ruler in ,israel1 and the description cannot therefore be applied to him2 besides1 finishing the passage in ,micah 7v4 #e7 we read that this same ruler shall be the peace when the ,assyrian shall come into our land1 so that the prophecy has a local and immediate fulfilment in the circumstances of the time4 ,matthew ii4 #ae is only made into a prophecy by taking the second half of a historical reference in ,hosea to the ,exodus of ,israel from ,egypt2 it would be as reasonable to prove in this fashion that the ,bible teaches a denial of ,god1 as is spoken by ,david the prophet1 ,there is no ,god4 ,the fulfilment of the saying of ,jeremy the prophet is as true as all the preceding 7verses #ag1 #ah72 ,jeremy bids ,rahel not to weep for the children who are carried into bondage1 for they shall come again from the land of the enemy 444 thy children shall come again to their own border 7,jer4 xxxi4 #af1 #ag74 ,very applicable to the slaughtered babes1 and so honest of ,matthew to quote just so much of the prophecy as served his purpose1 leaving out that which altered its whole meaning4 ,after these specimens1 we are not surprised to find that--unable to find a prophecy fit to twist to suit his object--our evangelist quietly invents one1 and 7verse #bc7 uses a prophecy which has no existence in what was spoken by the prophets4 ,it is needless to go through all the other passages known as ,messianic prophecies1 for they may all be dealt with as above2 the guiding rule is to refer to the ,old ,testament in each case1 and not to trust to the quotation as given in the ,new1 and then to read the whole context of the prophecy1 instead of resting content with the few words which1 violently wrested from their natural meaning1 are forced into a superficial resemblance with the story recorded in the ,gospels4 ,the second theory1 which regards ,jesus as a new hero of the ancient sun-worship1 is full of intensest interest4 ,dupuis1 in his great work on sun-worship 7,origines de ,tous les ,cultes7 has drawn out in detail the various sun-myths1 and has pointed to their common features4 ,briefly stated1 these points are as follows3 the hero is born about ,dec4 #beth1 without sexual intercourse1 for the sun1 entering the winter solstice1 emerges in the sign of ,virgo1 the heavenly virgin4 ,his mother remains ever-virgin1 since the rays of the sun1 passing through the zodiacal sign1 leave it intact4 ,his infancy is begirt with dangers1 because the new-born sun is feeble in the midst of the winter's fogs and mists1 which threaten to devour him2 his life is one of toil and peril1 culminating at the spring equinox in a final struggle with the powers of darkness4 ,at that period the day and the night are equal1 and both fight for the mastery2 though the night veil the sun1 and he seems dead2 though he has descended out of sight1 below the earth1 yet he rises again triumphant1 and he rises in the sign of the ,lamb1 and is thus the ,lamb of ,god1 carrying away the darkness and death of the winter months4 ,henceforth1 he triumphs1 growing ever stronger and more brilliant4 ,he ascends into the zenith1 and there he glows1 on the right hand of ,god1 himself ,god1 the very substance of the ,father1 the brightness of his glory1 and the express image of his person1 upholding all things by his heat and his life-giving power2 thence he pours down life and warmth on his worshippers1 giving them his very self to be their life2 his substance passes into the grape and the corn1 the sustainers of health2 around him are his twelve followers1 the twelve signs of the zodiac1 the twelve months of the year2 his day1 the ,lord's ,day1 is ,sunday1 the day of the ,sun1 and his yearly course1 ever renewed1 is marked each year1 by the renewed memorials of his career4 ,the signs appear in the long array of sun-heroes1 making the succession of deities1 old in reality1 although new-named4 ,it may be worth noting that ,jesus is said to be born at ,bethlehem1 a word that ,dr4 ,inman translates as the house of the hot one 7,ancient ,faiths1 vol4 i41 p4 #ceh2 ed4 #ahfh72 ,bethlehem is generally translated house of bread1 and the doubt arises from the ,hebrew letters being originally unpointed1 and the points--equivalent to vowel sounds--being inserted in later times2 this naturally gives rise to great latitude of interpretation1 the vowels being inserted whenever the writer or translator thinks they ought to come in1 or where the traditionary reading requires them 7see ,part #a41 pp4 #ac1 and #ca1 #cb74 ,each point in the story of ,jesus may be paralleled in earlier tales2 the birth of ,krishna was prophesied of2 he was born of ,devaki1 although she was shut up in a tower1 and no man was permitted to approach her4 ,his birth was hymned by the ,devas--the ,hindoo equivalent for angels--and a bright light shone round where he was4 ,he was pursued by the wrath of the tyrant king1 ,kansa1 who feared that ,krishna would supplant him in the kingdom4 ,the infants of the district were massacred1 but ,krishna miraculously escaped4 ,he was brought up among the poor until he reached maturity4 ,he preached a pure morality1 and went about doing good4 ,he healed the leper1 the sick1 the injured1 and he raised the dead4 ,his head was anointed by a woman2 he washed the feet of the ,brahmins2 he was persecuted1 and finally slain1 being crucified4 ,he went down into hell1 rose again from the dead1 and ascended into heaven 7see ,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 i42 on ,the ,gods of ,greece1 ,italy1 and ,india1 by ,sir ,william ,jones1 an essay which1 though very imperfect1 has much in it that is highly instructive74 ,he is pictorially represented as standing on the serpent1 the type of evil2 his foot crushes its head1 while the fang of the serpent pierces his heel2 also1 with a halo round his head1 this halo being always the symbol of the ,sun-god2 also1 with his hands and feet pierced--the sacred stigmata--and with a hole in his side4 ,in fact1 some of the representations of him could not be distinguished from the representations of the crucified ,jesus4 ,the name of ,krishna is by ,sir ,william ,jones1 and by many others written ,crishna1 and ,i have seen it spelt ,cristna4 ,the resemblance it bears1 when thus written1 to ,christ is apparent only1 there is no etymological similarity4 ,krishna is derived from the ,sanscrit ,krish1 to scrape1 to draw1 to colour4 ,krishna means black1 or violet-coloured2 ,christ comes from the ,greek ,greek3 christos the anointed4 ,colonel ,vallancy1 ,sir ,w4 ,jones tells us1 informed him that ,crishna in ,irish means the ,sun 7,as4 ,res41 p4 #bfb2 ed4 #ahja72 and there is no doubt that the ,hindu ,krishna is a ,sun-god2 the violet-coloured might well be a reference to the deep blue of the summer sky4 ,if ,moses be a type of ,christ1 must not ,bacchus be admitted to the same honour8 ,in the ancient ,orphic verses it was said that he was born in ,arabia2 picked up in a box that floated on the water2 was known by the name of ,mises1 as drawn from the water2 had a rod which he could change into a serpent1 and by means of which he performed miracles2 leading his army1 he passed the ,red ,sea dryshod2 he divided the rivers ,orontes and ,hydaspes with his rod2 he drew water from a rock2 where he passed the land flowed with wine1 milk1 and honey 7see ,diegesis1 pp4 #agh1 #agi74 ,the name ,christ ,jesus is simply the anointed ,saviour1 or else ,chrestos ,jesus1 the good ,saviour2 a title not peculiar to ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,we find ,hesus1 ,jesous1 ,yes or ,ies4 ,this last name1 ,greek3 ,iaes1 was one of the titles of ,bacchus1 and the simple termination us makes it ,jesus2 from this comes the sacred monogram ,i4,h4,s41 really the ,greek ,greek3 ,u,ae,s--,,ies2 the ,greek letter ,greek3 ,ae1 which is the capital ,e1 has by ignorance been mistaken for the ,latin ,h1 and the ancient name of ,bacchus has been thus transformed into the ,latin monogram of ,jesus4 ,in both cases the letters are surrounded with a halo1 the sun-rays1 symbolical of the sun-deity to whom they refer4 ,this halo surrounds the heads of gods who typify the sun1 and is continually met with in ,indian sculptures and paintings4 ,hercules1 with his twelve labours1 is another source of ,christian fable4 ,it is well known that by ,hercules1 in the physical mythology of the heathens1 was meant the ,sun1 or solar light1 and his twelve famous labours have been referred to the sun's passing through the twelve zodiacal signs2 and this1 perhaps1 not without some foundation4 ,but the labours of ,hercules seem to have had a still higher view1 and to have been originally designed as emblematic memorials of what the real ,son of ,god and ,saviour of the world was to do and suffer for our sakes--,greek3 ,noson ,theletaeria panta komixon--',bringing a cure for all our ills1' as the ,orphic hymn speaks of ,hercules 7,parkhurst's ,hebrew ,lexicon1 page #ebj2 ed4 #ahac74 ,as the story of ,hercules came first in time1 it must be either a prophecy of ,christ1 an inadmissible supposition1 or else of the sources whence the story of ,christ has been drawn4 ,aesculapius1 the heathen ,good ,physician1 and the good ,saviour1 healed the sick and raised the dead4 ,he was the son of ,god and of ,coronis1 and was guarded by a goatherd4 ,prometheus is another forerunner of ,christ1 stretched in cruciform position on the rocks1 tormented by ,jove1 the ,father1 because he brought help to man1 and winning for man1 by his agony1 light and knowledge4 ,osiris1 the great ,egyptian ,god1 has much in common with the ,christian ,jesus4 ,he was both god and man1 and once lived on earth4 ,he was slain by the evil ,typhon1 but rose again from the dead4 ,after his resurrection he became the ,judge of all men4 ,once a year the ,egyptians used to celebrate his death1 mourning his slaying by the evil one3 this grief for the death of ,osiris did not escape some ridicule2 for ,xenophanes1 the ,ionian1 wittily remarked to the priests of ,memphis1 that if they thought ,osiris a man they should not worship him1 and if they thought him a ,god they need not talk of his death and suffering4444 ,of all the gods ,osiris alone had a place of birth and a place of burial4 ,his birthplace was ,mount ,sinai1 called by the ,egyptians ,mount ,nyssa4 ,hence was derived the god's ,greek name ,dionysus1 which is the same as the ,hebrew ,jehovah-,nissi 7,egyptian ,mythology and ,egyptian ,christianity1 by ,samuel ,sharpe1 pp4 #aj1 #aa2 ed4 #ahfc74 ,various places claimed the honour of his burial4 ,serapis was a god's name1 formed out of ,osiris and ,apis1 the sacred bull1 and we find 7see ante1 p4 #bjf7 that the ,emperor ,adrian wrote that the worshippers of ,serapis are ,christians1 and that bishops of ,serapis were bishops of ,christ2 although the stories differ in detail1 as is natural1 since the ,christian tale is modified by other myths--,osiris1 for instance1 is married--the general outline is the same4 ,we shall see1 in ,section ,,ii41 how thoroughly ,pagan is the origin of ,christianity4 ,we find the ,early ,fathers ready enough to claim these analogies1 in order to recommend their religion4 ,justin ,martyr argues3 ,when we say that the word1 who is the first birth of ,god1 was produced without sexual union1 and that he1 ,jesus ,christ1 our teacher1 was crucified and died1 and rose again1 and ascended into heaven1 we propound nothing different from what you believe regarding those whom you esteem sons of ,jupiter4 ,for you know how many sons your esteemed writers ascribe to ,jupiter2 ,mercury1 the interpreting word and teacher of all2 ,aesculapius1 who1 though he was a great physician1 was struck by a thunderbolt1 and so ascended to heaven2 and ,bacchus too1 after he had been torn limb from limb2 and ,hercules1 when he had committed himself to the flames to escape his toils2 and the sons of ,leda1 the ,dioscuri2 and ,perseus1 son of ,danae2 and ,bellerophon1 who1 though sprung from mortals1 rose to heaven on the horse ,pegasus 7,first ,apology1 ch4 xxi474 ,if we assert that the ,word of ,god was born of ,god in a peculiar manner1 different from ordinary generation1 let this1 as said above1 be no extraordinary thing to you1 who say that ,mercury is the angelic word of ,god4 ,but if anyone objects that he was crucified1 in this also he is on a par with those reputed sons of ,jupiter of yours1 who suffered as we have now enumerated4444 ,and if we even affirm that he was born of a virgin1 accept this in common with what you accept of ,perseus4 ,and in that we say that he made whole the lame1 the paralytic1 and those born blind1 we seem to say what is very similar to the deeds said to have been done by ,a,esculapius 7,ibid1 ch4 xxi474 ,plato1 in like manner1 used to say that ,rhadamanthus and ,minos would punish the wicked who came before them2 and we say that the same thing will be done1 but at the hand of ,christ 7,ibid1 ch4 viii47 ,in ch4 liv4 ,justin argues that the devils invented all these gods in order that when ,christ came his story should be thought to be another marvellous tale like its predecessors6 ,on the whole1 we can scarcely wonder that ,caecilius 7about ,a4,d4 #baa7 taunted the early ,christians with those facts3 ,all these figments of cracked-brained opiniatry and silly solaces played off in the sweetness of song by deceitful poets1 by you1 too credulous creatures1 have been shamefully reformed1 and made over to your own ,god 7as quoted in ,r4 ,taylor's ,diegesis1 p4 #bda74 ,that the doctrines of ,christianity had the same origin as the story of ,christ1 and the miracles ascribed to him1 we shall prove under section ii41 while section iii4 will prove the same as to his morality4 ,judge ,strange fairly says3 ,the ,jewish ,scriptures and the traditionary teaching of their doctors1 the ,essenes and ,therapeuts1 the ,greek philosophers1 the neo-platonism of ,alexandria1 and the ,buddhism of the ,east1 gave ample supplies for the composition of the doctrinal portion of the new faith2 the divinely procreated personages of the ,grecian and ,roman pantheons1 the tales of the ,egyptian ,osiris1 and of the ,indian ,rama1 ,krishna1 and ,buddha1 furnished the materials for the image of the new saviour of mankind2 and every surrounding mythology poured forth samples of the 'mighty works' that were to be attributed to him to attract and enslave his followers3 and thus1 first from ,judaism1 and finally from the bosom of heathendom1 we have our matured expression of ,christianity 7,the ,portraiture and ,mission of ,jesus1 p4 #bg74 ,from the mass of facts brought together above1 we contend that the ,gospels are in themselves utterly unworthy of credit1 from 7#a7 the miracles with which they abound1 7#b7 the numerous contradictions of each by the others1 7#c7 the fact that the story of the hero1 the doctrines1 the miracles1 were current long before the supposed dates of the ,gospels2 so that these ,gospels are simply a patchwork composed of older materials4 ,we have thus examined1 step by step1 the alleged evidences of ,christianity1 both external and internal2 we have found it impossible to rely on its external witnesses1 while the internal testimony is fatal to its claims2 it is1 at once1 unauthenticated without1 and incredible within4 ,after earnest study1 and a careful balancing of proofs1 we find ourselves forced to assert that ,,the ,,evidences ,,of ,,christianity ,,are ,,unreliable4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,approximate ,,dates ,,claimed ,,for ,,the ,,chief ,,christian ,,and ,,heretical ,,authorities4 ,a4,d4 ,between #ib and #abe ,clement of ,rome ,very doubtful ,between #ij and #ach ,barnabas ,said to be martyred #ajg ,ignatius ,between #aag and #ach ,quadratus ,possibly #ach ,hermas ,about #aej-agj ,papias ,about #ace-ade ,basilides and ,valentinus ,about #adj-afj ,marcion ,said to be martyred #aff ,polycarp ,very doubtful ,said to be martyred #aff ,justin ,martyr ,after #aff ,hegesippus ,about #agg ,epistle of ,lyons and ,vienne ,between #aej and #bij ,clementines ,real date quite unknown ,between #aff and #agf ,dionysius of ,corinth ,about #agf ,athenagoras ,between #agj and #age ,tatian #agg to about #bjj ,irenus ,about #aic ,tertullian ,about #bjj ,celsus ,very doubtful #bje ,clement of ,alexandria succeeded as head of ,school4 ,about #bje ,porphyry #bje-bdi ,origen ,,the ,,so-,,called ,,ten ,,persecutions4 ,a4,d4 #fa under ,nero #ha ,domitian #ajg ,trajan #aff ,marcus ,aurelius #aic ,severus #bce under ,maximin #bdi ,decius #bed ,valerian #bgb ,aurelian #cjc ,diocletian ,,dates ,,of ,,roman ,,emperors4 ,,at ,,alleged ,,birth ,,of ,,christ4 ,augustus ,csar ,a4,d4 #ad ,tiberius #cc ,caligula #da ,claudius #ed ,nero #fh ,galba ,otho #fi ,vitellius #fi ,vespasian #gi ,titus #ha ,domitian #if ,nerva #ih ,trajan associated #aag ,hadrian #ach ,antoninus ,pius #afa ,marcus ,aurelius #ahj ,commodus #aib ,pertinax #aic ,julian ,severus #baa ,caracalla and ,geta #bag ,macrinus #bah ,heliogabalus #bbb ,alexander ,severus #bce ,maximin #bcg ,the ,gordians ,maximus and ,galbinus #bch ,maximus1 ,galbinus1 and ,gordian #bch ,gordian alone #bdd ,philip #bdi ,decius #bea ,gallus #bec ,valerian #bfj ,gallienus #bfh ,claudius #bgj ,aurelian #bge ,tacitus #bgf ,florianus #bgf ,probus #bhb ,carus #bhc ,carinus and ,numerian #bhe ,diocletian #bhf ,maximian associated #cje ,galerius and ,constantius #cje ,severus and ,maximin #cjf ,constantine ,licinius ,maxentius #cbd ,constantine alone 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,to ,,section ,i4 ,,of ,,part ,,ii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,of ,,books ,,used4 ,adrian444#bjf quoted by ,meredith444#bbe ,agbarus1 letter of1 in ,eusebius444#bdc ,akiba1 quoted in ,keim444#cae ,alford1 ,greek ,testament444#bhh ,apostolic ,fathers444#bae1 #baf1 #bag1 #bah1 #bbj1 #bba1 #bcj ,athenagoras1 ,apology444#bbf ,augustine1 ,syntagma1 quoted in ,diegesis444#bcd ,barnabas1 ,epistle of444#bcc1 #cjb ,besant1 ,according to ,st4 ,john444#ccg ,butler1 ,lives of the ,fathers1 etc444#cbd ,caecilius1 quoted in ,diegesis444#cdh ,celsus1 quoted by ,norton444#bcc ,clement1 ,first ,epistle444#bcc1 #bii1 #cjj1 #cja ,clementine1 ,homilies444#caj quoted in ,supernatural ,religion444#cja ,corpus ,ignatianum1 quoted in ,apostolic ,fathers444#bah ,davidson1 ,introduction to ,new ,testament444#bhf1 #bid1 #bie1 #bif1 #bih ,ellicott1 quoted in ,cowper's ,apocryphal ,gospels444#bej ,epictetus444#bjf ,epiphanius1 quoted by ,norton444#big ,eusebius1 ,ecclesiastical ,history444#baf1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bcd1 #bdc1 #bdf1 #bdh #bej1 #beg1 #bfj1 #bgg1 #bgi1 #bhd1 #bij #bia1 #bib1 #bid1 #cba1 #cbc quoted in ,apostolic ,fathers444#bag ,faustus1 quoted in ,diegesis444#bhd ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire444#aie1 #bjf1 #bji1 #aab #bac1 #bbg1 #cbb ,giles1 ,christian ,records444#aig1 #bjg1 #bcj1 #bei1 #bfa1 #bfc1 #bfe #bfg1 #bgf1 #bhh1 #bic1 #big1 #cac1 #cbh #cce1 #ccf ,hegesippus1 quoted in ,supernatural ,religion444#cjb ,home1 ,introduction to ,new ,testament444#aig1 #bjc ,ignatius1 ,epistle to the ,smyrnaeans444#bbj ,ephesians444#bcc ,philippians444#cjb ,inman1 ,ancient ,faiths444#cdd ,irenus1 ,against ,heresies444#beh1 #bia1 #cbc1 #ccf quoted in ,keim444#bcd quoted in ,eusebius444#beh ,jones1 ,the ,canon of the ,new ,testament444#bdj1 #bde1 #beg ,jones1 ,sir ,w41 ,asiatic ,researches444#cde ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews444#aie1 #aih1 #cae ,wars of the ,jews444#cag ,discourse on ,hades444#aih ,justin ,martyr1 ,first ,apology444#bca1 #bec1 #cjb1 #cdg ,second ,apology444#bbf1 #cbc ,dialogue with ,trypho444#bca1 #bge1 #cjb1 #caj ,juvenal444#bjc ,keim1 ,jesus of ,nazara444#aig1 #bjb1 #cae ,lardner1 ,answer to ,dr4 ,chandler1 quoted from ,diegesis444#aif ,credibility of the ,gospels444#bji1 #baj1 #baa1 #baf1 #bah #bcj1 #bfc1 #bfi ,livy444#bbb ,marcus ,aurelius444#bjf ,marsh1 quoted in ,norton444#bfg quoted in ,giles444#bhg ,meredith1 ,prophet of ,nazareth444#bbc ,mosheim1 ,ecclesiastical ,history444#bad1 #baf1 #bag1 #bce1 #bcg1 #bch1 #bci ,muratori1 ,canon of444#bhb ,nicodemus1 ,gospel of444#bec ,norton1 ,genuineness of the ,gospels444#bae1 #baf1 #bai1 #bdg1 #bfc1 #bfi1 #bie ,origen1 quoted in ,gibbon444#bac ,diegesis444#bcd ,supernatural ,religion444#cbc ,paley1 ,evidences of ,christianity444#aih1 #bjb1 #bjc1 #bje #bjh1 #bji1 #baj1 #bab1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bca #bce1 #bcf1 #bdc1 #bdd1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #bfj #bfb1 #bfi1 #bgc1 #bha1 #bij1 #cji1 #cag #cai ,papias1 quoted by ,eusebius444#bia ,irenus444#bia ,parkhurst1 ,hebrew ,lexicon444#cdf ,pliny1 ,epistles444#bjc ,pilate1 ,acts of444#bec ,quadratus1 quoted by ,eusebius444#bcj ,renan1 ,vie de ,jsus444#aig ,row1 ,the ,supernatural in the ,new ,testament444#cbe1 #cbg ,sanday1 ,gospels in the ,second ,century444#bdh1 #bfi1 #bgj #bgi1 #bhg1 #bih1 #cjj1 #cjb1 #cje1 #caa ,scott1 ,english ,life of ,jesus444#ccd ,sharpe1 ,egyptian ,mythology444#cdg ,smyrna1 ,circular ,epistle of the ,church of444#bba ,strange1 ,portraiture and ,mission of ,jesus444#aih1 #bja1 #baj #cba1 #cdh ,strauss1 ,life of ,jesus444#bhi1 #cab1 #cbj1 #ccj1 #cca1 #ccb ,suetonius444#bja1 #bjb1 #bbe ,supernatural ,religion444 #bae1 #baf1 #bai1 #bbi1 #bdf1 #bdg1 #bdh #bdi1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bff1 #bfh1 #bfi1 #bga #bgf1 #bgh1 #bgi1 #bhj1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhc #bij1 #bib1 #bic1 #bie1 #cja1 #cjb1 #cjc #cjd1 #cbb1 #cbe ,tacitus1 ,annals444#aii1 #bbb1 #bbe ,taylor1 ,diegesis444#aif1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjh1 #bab1 #cdf ,tertullian1 ,apology444#bbf ,de ,spectaculis444#cbc quoted in ,gibbon444#bac ,meredith444#bbe ,thomas1 ,gospel of444#bea ,tischendorf1 ,when were our ,gospels ,written8444#bdh1 #bgj ,westcott1 ,on the ,canon of the ,new ,testament444#baf1 #bbi1 #bdg1 #bdi #bef1 #bfh1 #bgj1 #bgd #bge1 #bgh1 #bhf 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,of ,,subjects4 ,analogies of ,christian doctrines444#cdg ,apocryphal ,gospels1 specimens of444#bej ,books1 recognised444#bde ,authenticity of ,apology of ,quadratus444#bcj ,epistle of ,barnabas444#bbi ,clement444#bad ,ignatius444#bag ,polycarp444#baf ,smyrna444#bbj ,vision of ,hermas444#baf ,books read in churches444#bdh in volume of ,scriptures444#bdi ,christian ,agapae444#bbc ,christianity advantageous to tyrants444#bcg ,date of birth of ,christ444#ccc ,dates of ,fathers1 etc444#cdi ,dates of ,roman ,emperors444#cej ,diatessaron of ,tatian444#bei ,evidence of ,adrian444#bjf ,apostolic ,fathers444#bfc1 #bfg ,barnabas444#bfh ,basilides and ,valentinus444#bhj ,canon of ,muratori444#bhb ,clement 444#bfi ,clementines444#bgi ,hegesippus444#bgg ,hermas444#bfi ,ignatius444#bgj ,josephus444#aie ,justin ,martyr444#bga ,marcion444#bha ,marcus ,aurelius444#bjf ,papias444#bga ,pliny444#bjc ,polycarp444#bgj ,suetonius444#bja ,tacitus444#aii ,forgeries in ,early ,church444#bch ,list of444#bdj ,four ,gospels3 when recognised444#beg why only four444#beh ,gospels1 changes made in444#bhc contradictions in444#cbh contradictions between synoptical and fourth444#ccg growth of444#bhe1 #bhi identity of modern and ancient unproven444#bfb many current444#bff of later origin444#caa of ,matthew and ,mark not those of ,papias444#bij original1 different from canonical444#bih similarity of canonical and uncanonical444#bde synoptical444#bhf time of selection unknown444#bef ,genealogies of ,jesus444#cbh ,greek not commonly known by ,jews444#cad ,ignorance of ,early ,fathers444#bcb ,krishna1 meaning of444#cde ,length of ,jesus' ,ministry44#ccf ,life of ,christ from ,justin ,martyr444#cjf ,martyrs1 small number of444#bab ,massacre of infants unlikely444#ccc ,matthew1 written in ,hebrew444#cid ,miracles444#caf ,morality of ,early ,christians444#bba ,mythical ,theory of ,jesus444#cdj ,passages in ,fathers1 not in canonical ,gospels444#cja ,persecution1 absence of444#bji ,phrase it is written444#bdg ,positions laid down as to ,gospels444#bcf ,position ,a444#bch ,b444#bde ,c444#bef ,d444#beg ,e444#bfa ,f444#bfb ,g444#bij ,h444#bih ,i444#caa ,j444#cad ,k444#caf ,prophecies1 ,messianic444#cdb ,silence of ,jewish writers444#aih1 #bja1 #bei ,pagan 444#aic1 #bjf ,story of ,christ pre-,christian444#cdj ,son-worship and ,christ444#cdc ,temptation of ,christ444#ccd ,ten ,persecutions444#cej ,types of ,christ444#cde ,,section ,,ii4--,,its ,,origin ,,pagan4 ,there are two ancient and widely-spread creeds to which we must chiefly look for the origin of ,christianity1 namely1 ,sun-worship and ,nature-worship4 ,it is doubtful which of the twain is the elder1 and they are closely intertwined1 the central idea of each being the same2 personally1 ,i am inclined to think that ,nature-worship is the older of the two1 because it is the simpler and the nearer2 the barbarian1 slowly emerging into humanity1 would be more likely to worship the force which was the most immediately wonderful to him1 the power of generation of new life2 to recognise the sun as the great life producer seems to imply some little growth of reason and of imagination2 sun-worship seems the idealisation of nature-worship1 for the same generative force is adored in both1 and round the idea of this production of new life all creeds revolve4 ,christian symbols and ,christian ceremonies speak as plainly to the student of ancient religions as the stars speak to the astronomer1 and the rocks to the geologian2 ,christian ,churches are as full of the fossil relics of the old creeds as are the earth's strata of the bones of extinct animals4 ,we shall expect to find1 then1 a family resemblance running through all ,eastern creeds--of which ,christianity is one--and we shall not be surprised to find similar symbols expressing similar ideas2 there are1 in fact1 cardinal symbols re-appearing in all these allied religions2 the virgin and child2 the trinity in unity2 the cross2 these have their roots struck deep in human nature1 and are found in every ,eastern creed4 ,so also can we trace sacraments and ceremonies1 and many minor dogmas4 ,in looking back into those ancient creeds it is necessary to get rid of the modern fashion of regarding any natural object as immodest4 ,sir ,william ,jones justly remarks that in ,hindustan it never seems to have entered the heads of the legislators1 or people1 that anything natural could be offensively obscene2 a singularity which pervades all their writings and conversation1 but is no proof of depravity in their morals 7,asiatic ,researches1 vol4 i41 p4 #bee74 ,gross injustice is sometimes done to ancient creeds by contemplating them from a modern point of view2 in those days every power of ,nature was thought divine1 and most divine of all was deemed the power of creation1 whether worshipped in the sun1 whose beams impregnated the earth1 or in the male and female organs of generation1 the universal creators of life in the animal world2 thus we find in all ancient sculptures carvings of the phallus and the yoni1 expressed both naturally and symbolically1 the representations becoming more and more conventional and refined as civilisation advanced2 of the infant world it may be said that it was naked1 and was not ashamed2 as it grew older1 and clothed the human form1 it also draped its religious symbols1 but as the body remains unaltered under its garments1 so the idea concealed beneath the emblems remains the same4 ,the union of male and female is1 then1 the foundation of all religions2 the heaven marries the earth1 as man marries woman1 and that union is the first marriage4 ,saturn is the sky1 the male1 or active energy2 ,rhea is the earth1 the female1 or receptive2 and these are the father and the mother of all4 ,the ,persians of old called the sky ,jupiter1 or ,jupater1 ,ju the ,father4 ,the sun is the agent of the generative power of the sky1 and his beams fecundate the earth1 so that from her all life is produced4 ,thus the sun becomes worshipped as the ,father of all1 and the sun is the emblem which crowns the images of the ,supreme ,god2 the vernal equinox is the resurrection of the sun1 and the sign of the zodiac in which he then is becomes the symbol of his life-producing power2 thus the bull1 and afterwards the ram1 became his sign as ,life-,giver1 and the ,sun-god was pictured as bull1 or as ram 7or lamb71 or else with the horns of his1 emblem1 and the earthly animals became sacred for his sake4 ,mithra1 the ,sun-god of ,persia1 is sculptured as riding on a bull2 ,osiris1 the ,sun-god of ,egypt1 wears the horns of the bull1 and is worshipped as ,osiris-,apis1 or ,serapis1 the ,sun-god in the sign of ,apis1 the bull4 ,later1 by the precession of the equinoxes1 the sun at the vernal equinox has passed into the sign of the ram 7called in ,persia1 the lamb71 and we find ,jupiter ,ammon1 ,jupiter with ram's horns1 and ,jesus the ,lamb of ,god4 ,these symbols all denote the sun victorious over darkness and death1 giving life to the world4 ,the phallus is the other great symbol of the ,life-,giver1 generating life in woman1 as the sun in the earth4 ,bacchus1 ,adonis1 ,dionysius1 ,apollo1 ,hercules1 ,hermes1 ,thammuz1 ,jupiter1 ,jehovah1 ,jao1 or ,jah1 ,moloch1 ,baal1 ,asher1 ,mahadeva1 ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 ,mithra1 ,atys1 ,ammon1 ,belus1 with many another1 these are all the ,life-,giver under different names2 they are the ,sun1 the ,creator1 the ,phallus4 ,red is their appropriate colour4 ,when the sun or the ,phallus is not drawn in its natural form1 it is indicated by a symbol3 the symbol must be upright1 hard1 or else burning1 either conical1 or clubbed at one end4 ,thus--the torch1 flame of fire1 cone1 serpent1 thyrsus1 triangle1 letter ,t1 cross1 crosier1 sceptre1 caduceus1 knobbed stick1 tall tree1 upright stone1 spire1 tower1 minaret1 upright pole1 arrow1 spear1 sword1 club1 upright stump1 etc41 are all symbols of the generative force of the male energy in ,nature of the ,supreme ,god4 ,one of the most common1 and the most universally used1 is ,,the ,,cross4 ,carved at first simply as phallus1 it was gradually refined2 we meet it as three balls1 one above the two2 the letter ,t indicated it1 which1 by the slightest alteration1 became the cross now known as the ,latin3 thus ,barnabas says that the cross was to express the grace by the letter ,t 7ante1 p4 #bcc74 ,we find the cross in ,india1 ,egypt1 ,thibet1 ,japan1 always as the sign of life-giving power2 it was worn as an amulet by girls and women1 and seems to have been specially worn by the women attached to the temples1 as a symbol of what was1 to them1 a religious calling4 ,the cross is1 in fact1 nothing but the refined phallus1 and in the ,christian religion is a significant emblem of its ,pagan origin2 it was adored1 carved in temples1 and worn as a sacred emblem by sun and nature worshippers1 long before there were any ,christians to adore1 carve1 and wear it4 ,the crowd kneeling before the cross in ,roman ,catholic and in ,high ,anglican ,churches1 is a simple reproduction of the crowd who knelt before it in the temples of ancient days1 and the girls who wear it amongst ourselves1 are--in the most innocent unconsciousness of its real signification--exactly copying the ,indian and ,egyptian women of an elder time4 ,saturn's symbol was a cross and a ram's horn4 ,jupiter bore a cross with a horn4 ,venus a circle with a cross4 ,the ,egyptian deities a cross and oval4 7,the signification of these will be dealt with below47 ,the ,druids sought oak trees with two main arms growing in shape of a cross1 and1 if they failed to find such1 nailed a beam cross-wise4 ,the chief pagodas in ,india are built1 like many ,christian churches1 in the form of a cross4 ,i have read in a book on church architecture that churches should be built either in the form of a cross1 or else in that of a ship1 typifying the ark2 i4e41 they should either be built in the form of the phallus or the yoni1 the ship or ark being one of the symbols of the female energy 7see below1 p4 #cfa74 ,the ,,crucifix1 or cross with human figure stretched upon it1 is also found in ancient times1 although not so frequently as the simple cross4 ,the crucifix appears to have arisen from the circle of the horizon being divided into four parts1 ,north1 ,south1 ,east1 and ,west1 and the ,sun-god1 drawn within1 or on1 the circle1 came into contact with each cardinal point1 his feet and head touching1 or intersecting1 two1 while his outstretched arms point to the other quarters4 ,plato says that the next power to the ,supreme ,god was decussated1 or figured in the shape of a cross1 on the universe4 ,krishna is painted and sculptured on a cross4 ,the ,egyptians thus drew ,osiris1 and sometimes we find a circle drawn with the dividing lines1 and in the midst is stretched the dead body of ,osiris4 ,robert ,taylor gives another origin for the crucifix3 ,the ignorant gratitude of a superstitious people1 while they adored the river ,nile on whose inundations the fertility of their provinces depended1 could not fail of attaching notions of sanctity and holiness to the posts that were erected along its course1 and which1 by a transverse beam1 indicated the height to which1 at the spot where the beam was fixed1 the waters might be expected to rise4 ,this cross at once warned the traveller to secure his safety1 and formed a standard of the value of land4 ,other rivers may add to the fertility of the country through which they pass1 but the ,nile is the absolute cause of that great fertility of the ,lower ,egypt1 which would be all a desert1 as bad as the most sandy parts of ,africa without this river4 ,it supplies it both with soil and moisture1 and was therefore gratefully addressed1 not merely as an ordinary river-god1 but by its express title of the ,egyptian ,jupiter4 ,the crosses1 therefore1 along the banks of the river would naturally share in the honour of the stream1 and be the most expressive emblem of good fortune1 peace1 and plenty4 ,the two ideas could never be separated3 the fertilising flood was the waters of life1 that conveyed every blessing1 and even existence itself1 to the provinces through which they flowed4 ,one other and most obvious hieroglyph completed the expressive allegory4 ,the ,demon of ,famine1 who1 should the waters fail of their inundation1 or not reach the elevation indicated by the position of the transverse beam upon the upright1 would reign in all his horrors over their desolated lands4 ,this symbolical personification was1 therefore1 represented as a miserable emaciated wretch1 who had grown up 'as a tender plant1 and as a root out of a dry ground1 who had no form nor comeliness2 and when they should see him1 there was no beauty that they should desire him4' ,meagre were his looks2 sharp misery had worn him to the bone4 ,his crown of thorns indicated the sterility of the territories over which he reigned4 ,the reed in his hand1 gathered from the banks of the ,nile1 indicated that it was only the mighty river1 by keeping within its banks1 and thus withholding its wonted munificence1 that placed an unreal sceptre in his gripe4 ,he was nailed to the cross1 in indication of his entire defeat4 ,and the superscription of his infamous title1 ',,this ,,is ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,the ,,jews1' expressively indicated that ,famine1 ,want1 or ,poverty1 ruled the destinies of the most slavish1 beggarly1 and mean race of men with whom they had the honour of being acquainted 7,diegesis1 p4 #ahg74 ,while it may very likely be true that the miserable aspect given to ,jesus crucified is copied from some such original as ,mr4 ,taylor here sketches1 we are tolerably certain that the general idea of the crucifix had the solar origin described above4 ,very closely joined to the notion of the cross is the idea of the ,,trinity ,,in ,,unity1 and we need not delay upon it long4 ,it is as universal in ,eastern religions as the cross1 and comes from the same idea2 all life springs from a trinity in unity in man1 and1 therefore1 ,god is three in one4 ,this trinity is1 of course1 symbolised by the cross1 and especially by the lotus1 and any three in one leaf2 from this has come to ,christianity the conventional triple foliage so constantly seen in ,church carvings1 the fleur-de-lis1 the triangle1 etc41 which are now--as of old--accepted as the emblems of the trinity4 ,the persons of the trinity are found each with his own name2 in ,india1 ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 ,siva1 and it is ,vishnu who becomes incarnate2 in ,egypt different cities had different trinities1 and we have a hieroglyphical inscription in the ,british ,museum as early as the reign of ,sevechus of the eighth century before the ,christian era1 showing that the doctrine of ,trinity in ,unity already formed part of their religion1 and that in each of the two groups last mentioned the three gods only made one person 7,egyptian ,mythology and ,egyptian ,christology1 by ,s4 ,sharpe1 p4 #ad74 ,mr4 ,sharpe might have gone to much earlier times and already have found the adoration of the trinity in unity2 as far back as the first who bowed in worship before the generative force of the male three in one4 ,osiris1 ,horus1 and ,ra form one of the ,egyptian trinities2 ,horus the ,son1 is also one of a trinity in unity made into an amulet1 and called the ,great ,god1 the ,son ,god1 and the ,spirit ,god4 ,horus is the slayer of ,typhon1 the evil one1 and is sometimes represented as standing on its head1 and as piercing its head with a spear1 reminding us of ,krishna1 the incarnation of ,vishnu1 the second person of the ,indian ,trinity4 ,these trinities1 however1 were not complete in themselves1 for the female element is needed for the production of life2 hence1 we find that in most nations a fourth person is joined to the trinity1 as ,isis1 the mother of ,horus1 in ,egypt1 and ,mary1 the mother of ,jesus1 in ,christendom2 the ,egyptian trinity is often represented as ,osiris1 ,horus1 and ,isis1 but we more generally find the female constituting the fourth element1 in addition to the triune1 and symbolised by an oval1 or circle1 typical of the female organ of reproduction2 thus the crux ansata of the ,egyptians1 the symbol of life held in the hand by the ,egyptian deities1 is a cross or oval1 i4e41 the ,t with an oval at the top2 the circle with the cross inside1 symbolises1 again1 the male and female union2 also the six-rayed star1 the pentacle1 the double triangle1 the triangle and circle1 the pit with a post in it1 the key1 the staff with a half-moon1 the complicated cross4 ,the same union is imaged out in all androgynous deities1 in ,elohim1 ,baalim1 ,baalath1 ,arba-il1 the bearded ,venus1 the feminine ,jove1 the virgin and child4 ,in countries where the ,yoni worship was more popular than that of the ,phallus1 the ,,virgin and ,,child was a favourite deity1 and to this we now turn4 ,here1 as in the history of the cross1 we find sun and nature worship intertwined4 ,the female element is sometimes the ,earth1 and sometimes the individual4 ,the goddesses are as various in names as the gods4 ,is1 ,isis1 ,ishtar1 ,astarte1 ,mylitta1 ,sara1 ,mrira1 ,maia1 ,parvati1 ,mary1 ,miriam1 ,eve1 ,juno1 ,venus1 ,diana1 ,artemis1 ,aphrodite1 ,hera1 ,rhea1 ,cybele1 ,ceres1 and others1 are the earth under many names2 the receptive female1 the producer of life1 the ,yoni4 ,black is the special colour of female deities1 and the black ,isis and ,horus1 the black ,mary and ,jesus are of peculiar sanctity4 ,their emblems are3 the earth1 moon1 star of the sea1 circle1 oval1 triangle1 pomegranate1 door1 ark1 fish1 ship1 horseshoe1 chasm1 cave1 hole1 celestial virgin1 etc4 ,they bore first the titles now worn by ,mary1 the virgin mother of ,jesus1 and were reverenced as the queen of heaven4 ,ishtar1 of ,babylonia1 was the ,mother of the ,gods1 and the ,queen of the ,stars4 ,isis1 of ,egypt1 was our ,immaculate ,lady4 ,she was figured with a crown of stars1 and with the crescent moon4 ,venus was an ark brooded over by a dove1 or the moon floating on the water4 ,they are the mother1 mamma1 emma1 ummah1 or the woman4 ,the symbols are everywhere the same1 though given with different names4 ,everywhere it is ,mary1 the mother2 the female principle in nature1 adored side by side with the male4 ,she shares in the work of creation and salvation1 and has a kind of equality with the ,father of all2 hence we hear of the immaculate conception4 ,she produces a child alone in some stories1 without even divine co-operation4 ,the ,virgo of the ,zodiac is represented in ancient sculptures and drawings as a woman suckling a child1 and the ,paamylian feasts were celebrated at the spring equinox1 and were the equivalent of the ,christian feast of the ,annunciation1 when the power of the highest overshadowed ,mary of ,nazareth4 ,thus in ,india1 we have ,devaki and ,krishna2 in ,egypt1 ,osiris and ,horus--the ,saviour of the ,world2 in ,christendom1 ,mary and ,christ2 the pictures and carvings of ,india and ,egypt would be indistinguishable from those of ,europe1 were it not for the differences of dress4 ,apis1 the sacred ,egyptian bull1 was always born without an earthly father1 and his mother never had a second calf4 ,so the later ,sun-god1 ,jesus1 is born without sexual intercourse1 and ,mary never bears another child4 ,jupiter visits ,leda as a swan2 ,god visits ,mary as an overshadowing dove4 ,the salutation of ,gabriel to ,mary is curiously like that of ,mercury to ,electra3 ,hail1 most happy of all women1 you whom ,jupiter has honoured with his couch2 your blood will give laws to the world1 ,i am the messenger of the gods4 ,the mother of ,fohi1 the great ,chinese ,god1 became enceinte by walking in the footsteps of a giant4 ,the mother of ,hercules did not lose her virginity4 ,the savages of ,st4 ,domingo represented the chief divinity by a female figure called the mother of ,god4 ,on ,friday1 the day of ,freya1 or ,venus1 many ,christians still eat only fish1 fish being sacred to the female deity4 ,in ,comtism we find the latest development of woman-worship1 wherein the emotional sex becomes the sacred sex1 to be guarded1 cherished1 sustained1 adored2 and thus in the youngest religion the stamp of the eldest is found4 ,thus womanhood has been worshipped in all ages of the world1 and maternity has been deified by all creeds3 from the savage who bowed before the female symbol of motherhood1 to the philosophic ,comtist who adores woman in the past1 the present1 and the future1 as mother1 wife1 and daughter1 the worship of the female element in nature has run side by side with that of the male2 the worship is one and the same in all religions1 and runs in an unbroken thread from the barbarous ages to the present time4 ,the doctrines of the mediation1 and the divinity of ,christ1 and of the immortality of the soul1 are as pre-,christian as the symbols which we have examined4 ,the idea of the ,mediator comes to us from ,persia1 and the title was borne by ,mithra before it was ascribed to ,christ4 ,zoroaster taught that there was existence itself1 the unknown1 the eternal1 ,zeruane ,akerne1 time without bounds4 ,from this issued ,ormuzd1 the good1 the light1 the creator of all4 ,opposite to ,ormuzd is ,ahriman1 the bad1 the dark1 the deformer of all4 ,between these two great deities comes ,mithra1 the ,mediator1 who is the ,reconciler of all things to ,god1 who is one with ,ormuzd1 although distinct from him4 ,mithra1 as we have seen1 is the ,sun in the sign of the ,bull1 exactly parallel to ,jesus1 the ,sun in the sign of the ,lamb1 both the one and the other being symbolised by that sign of the zodiac in which the sun was at the spring equinox of his supposed date4 ,mithras is spiritual light contending with spiritual darkness1 and through his labours the kingdom of darkness shall be lit with heaven's own light2 the ,eternal will receive all things back into his favour1 the world will be redeemed to ,god4 ,the impure are to be purified1 and the evil made good1 through the mediation of ,mithras1 the reconciler of ,ormuzd and ,ahriman4 ,mithras is the ,good1 his name is ,love4 ,in relation to the ,eternal he is the source of grace1 in relation to man he is the life-giver and mediator4 ,he brings the ',word1' as ,brahma brings the ,vedas1 from the mouth of the ,eternal4 7,see ,plutarch ',de ,isid4 et ,osirid42' also ,dr4 ,hyde's ',de ,religione ,vet4 ,pers41' ch4 #bb2 see also ',essay on ,pantheism1' by ,rev4 ,j4 ,hunt47 ,it was just prior to the return of the ,jews from living among the people who were dominated by these ideas1 that the splendid chapter of ,isaiah 7xl471 or indeed the series of chapters which form the closing portion of the book1 were written3 ',comfort ye1 comfort ye my people1 saith your ,god4 ,prepare ye the way of the ,lord1 make straight in the desert a highway for our ,god4 ,every valley shall be exalted1 and every mountain and hill shall be made low1 and the crooked shall be made straight1 and the rough places plain4' ,and then follows a magnificent description of the greatness and supremacy of ,god1 and this is followed by chapters which tell of a ,messiah1 or conquering prince1 who will redeem the nation from its enemies1 and restore them to the light of the divine favour1 and which predict a millennium1 a golden age of purified and glorified humanity4 ,it is thus manifest that the inspiration of these writings came to the ,jewish people from their contact with the religious thought of the ,persians1 and not from any supernatural source4 ,from this time the ,jews began to hold worthier ideas concerning ,god1 and to cherish expectations of a golden age1 a kingdom of heaven1 which the ,messiah1 who was to be the sent messenger of ,god1 should inaugurate4 ,and this kingdom was to be a kingdom of righteousness1 a day of marvellous light1 a rule under which all evil and darkness were to perish 7,plato1 ,philo1 and ,paul1 ,rev4 ,j4,w4 ,lake1 pp4 #ae1 l#f47 ,the growth of the philosophical side of the dogma of the ,divinity of ,christ is as clearly traceable in ,pagan and ,jewish thought as is the dogma of the incarnation of the ,saviour-,god in the myths of ,krishna1 ,osiris1 etc4 ,two great teachers of the doctrine of the ,logos1 the ,word1 of ,god1 stand out in pre-,christian times--the ,greek ,plato and the ,jewish ,philo4 ,we borrow the following extract from pp4 #ai1 #bj1 of the pamphlet by ,mr4 ,lake above referred to1 as showing the general theological position of ,plato2 its resemblance to ,christian teaching will be at once apparent 7it must not be forgotten that ,plato lived ,b4,c4 #djj73-- ,the speculative thought and the religious teaching of ,plato are diffused throughout his voluminous writings2 but the following is a popular summary of them1 by ,madame ,dacier1 contained in her introduction to what have been classed as the ',divine ,dialogues3'-- ',that there is but one ,god1 and that we ought to love and serve him1 and to endeavour to resemble him in holiness and righteousness2 that this ,god rewards humility and punishes pride4 ',that the true happiness of man consists in being united to ,god1 and his only misery in being separated from him4 ',that the soul is mere darkness1 unless it be illuminated by ,god2 that men are incapable even of praying well1 unless ,god teaches them that prayer which alone can be useful to them4 ',that there is nothing solid and substantial but piety2 that this is the source of all virtues1 and that it is the gift of ,god4 ',that it is better to die than to sin4 ',that it is better to suffer wrong than to do it4 ',that the ,word 7,greek3 ,logos7 formed the world1 and rendered it visible2 that the knowledge of the ,word makes us live very happily here below1 and that thereby we obtain felicity after death4 ',that the soul is immortal1 that the dead shall rise again1 that there shall be a final judgment--both of the righteous and of the wicked1 when men shall appear only with their virtues or vices1 which shall be the occasion of their eternal happiness or misery4' ,it is this ,logos who was figured in the shape of a cross on the universe 7ante1 p4 #ceh74 ,the universe1 which is but the materialised thought of ,god1 is made by his ,logos1 his ,word1 which is the expression of his thought4 ,in the ,christian creed it is the ,logos1 the ,word of ,god1 by whom all things are made 7,john i4 #a-c74 ,the very name1 as well as the thought1 is the same1 whether we turn over the pages of ,plato or those of ,john4 ,philo1 the great ,jewish ,platonist1 living in ,alexandria at the close of the last century ,b4,c4 and in the first half of the first century after ,christ1 speaks of the ,logos in terms that1 to our ears1 seem purely ,christian4 ,philo was a man of high position among the ,jews in ,alexandria1 being a man eminent on all accounts1 brother to ,alexander the alabarch governor of the ,jews1 and one not unskilful in philosophy 7,josephus' ,antiquities of the ,jews1 bk4 xviii41 ch4 #h1 sec4 #a74 ,this ,alexander was a principal person among all his contemporaries both for his family and wealth 7,ibid1 bk4 xx1 ch4 #e1 sec4 #b74 ,he was the principal man in the ,jewish embassage to ,caius 7,caligula7 ,a4,d4 #ci-dj1 and was then a grey-headed old man4 ,keim speaks of him as about sixty or seventy years old at that time1 and puts his birth at about ,b4,c4 #bj4 ,he writes3 ,the ,theology of ,philo is in great measure founded on his peculiar combination of the ,jewish1 the ,platonic1 and the ,neo-,platonic conception of ,god4 ,the ,god of the ,old ,testament1 the exalted ,god1 as he is called by the modern ,hegelian philosophy1 stood in close relations to the ,greek ,philosophers' conception of ,god1 which believed that the ,supreme ,being could be accurately defined by the negative of all that was finite4 ,in accordance with this1 ,philo also described ,god as the simple ,entity2 he disclaimed for him every name1 every quality1 even that of the ,good1 the ,beautiful1 the ,blessed1 the ,one4 ,since he is still better than the good1 higher than the ,unity1 he can never be known as1 but only that1 he is3 his perfect name is only the four mysterious letters 7,jhvh7--that is1 pure ,being4 ,by such means1 indeed1 neither a fuller theology nor ,god's influence on the world was to be obtained4 ,and yet it was the problem of philosophy1 as well as of religion1 to shed the light of ,god upon the world1 and to lead it again to ,god4 ,but how could this ,being which was veiled from the world be brought to bear upon it8 ,by ,philo1 as well as by all the philosophy of the time1 the problem could only be solved illogically4 ,yet1 by modifying his exalted nature1 it might be done4 ,if not by his being1 yet by his work he influences the world2 his powers1 his angels1 all in it that is best and mightiest1 the instrument1 the interpreter1 the mediator and messenger of ,god2 his pattern and his first-born1 the ,son of ,god1 the ,second ,god1 even himself ,god1 the divine ,word or ,logos communicate with the world2 he is the ideal and actual type of the world and of humanity1 the architect and upholder of the world1 the manna and the rock in the wilderness 7,jesus of ,nazara1 vol4 i41 pp4 #bha1 #bhb74 ,man is fallen4444 ,there is no man who is without sin1 and even the perfect man1 if he should be born1 does not escape from it4444 ,yet there is a redemption1 willed by ,god himself1 and brought to pass by the act of a wise man4 ,adam's successors still preserve the types of their relationship to the ,father1 although in an obscure form1 each man possesses the knowledge of good and evil and an incorruptible judgment1 subject to reason2 his spiritual strength is even now aided by the ,divine ,logos1 the image1 copy1 and reflection of the blessed nature4 ,hence it follows that man can discern and see all the stains with which he has wilfully or involuntarily defiled his life1 that man by means of his self-knowledge can decide to subdue his passions1 to despise his pleasures and desires1 to wage the battle of repentance1 and to be just at any cost1 and by the fundamental virtues of humanity1 piety1 and justice1 to imitate the virtues of the ,father4444 ,in such perfection as is possible to all1 even to women and to slaves1 since no one is a slave by nature1 the wise man is truly rich4 ,he is noble and free who can proudly utter the saying of ,sophocles1 ,god is my ruler1 not one among men6 ,such a one is priest1 king1 and prophet1 he is no longer merely a son and scholar of the ,logos1 he is the companion and son of ,god4444 ,god is the eternal guide and director of the world1 himself requiring nothing1 and giving all to his children4 ,it is of his goodness that he does not punish as a judge1 but that1 as the giver of grace1 he bears with all4 ,with him all things are possible2 he deals with all1 even with that which is almost beyond redemption4 ,from him all the world hopes for forgiveness of sins1 the ,logos1 the high priest1 and intercessor1 and the patriarchs pray for it2 he grants it1 not for the world's sake1 but of his own gracious nature1 to those who can truly believe4 ,he loves the humble1 and saves those whom he knows to be worthy of healing4 ,his grace elects the pious before they are born1 giving them victory over sensuality1 and steadfastness in virtue4 ,he reveals himself to holy souls by his ,spirit1 and by his divine light leads those who are too weak by nature even to understand the external world1 beyond the limits of human nature to that which is divine 7,jesus of ,nazara1 pp4 #bhc-bhg74 ,such are the most important passages of ,keim's rsum of ,philo's philosophy1 and its resemblance to ,christian doctrine is unmistakeable1 and adds one more proof to the fact that ,christianity is ,alexandrian rather than ,judan4 ,it will be well to add to this sketch the passages carefully gathered out of ,philo's works by ,jacob ,bryant1 who endeavoured to prove1 from their resemblance to passages in the ,new ,testament1 that ,philo was a ,christian1 forgetting that ,philo's works were mostly written when ,jesus was a child and a youth1 and that he never once mentions ,jesus or ,christianity4 ,it must not be forgotten that ,philo lived in ,alexandria1 not in ,juda1 and that between the ,canaanitish and the ,hellenic ,jews there existed the most bitter hostility1 so that--even were the story of ,jesus true--it could not have reached ,philo before ,a4,d4 #dj1 at which time he was old and gray-headed4 ,we again quote from ,mr4 ,lake's treatise1 who prints the parallel passages1 and we would draw special attention to the similarity of phraseology as well as of idea3 ,identity of the ,christ of the ,new ,testament with the ,logos of ,philo4 ,philo1 describing the ,logos1 ,the ,new ,testament1 speaking says3-- of ,jesus says3-- ',the ,logos is the ,son ',this is the ,son of ,god4' of ,god the ,father4'--,de ,john i4 #cd4 ,profugis4 ',the first begotten of ,god4' ',and when he again bringeth --,de ,somniis4 his first-born into the world4'--,heb4 i4 #f4 ',and the most ancient of ',that he is the first-born all beings4'--,de ,conf4 ,ling4 of every creature4'--,col4 i4 #ae4 ',the ,logos is the image ',christ1 the image of the and likeness of ,god4'--,de invisible ,god4'--,col4 i4 #ae4 ,monarch4 ',the brightness of his 7,god's7 glory1 and the express image of his person4'--,heb4 i4 #c4 ',the ,logos is superior to ',being made so much the angels4'--,de ,profugis4 better that the angels4 ,let all the angels of ,god worship him4'--,heb4 i4 #d1 #f4 ',the ,logos is superior to ',thou hast put all things all beings in the world4'--,de in subjection under his feet4' ,leg4 ,allegor4 --,heb4 ii4 #h4 ',the ,logos is the instrument ',all things were made by by whom the world was him 7the ,word or ,logos71 made4'--,de ,leg4 ,allegor4 and without him was not anything made that was ',the divine word by whom made4'--,john i4 #c all things were ordered and disposed4'--,de ,mundi ,opificio4 ',jesus ,christ1 by whom are all things4'--i ,cor4 viii4 #f4 ',by whom also he made the worlds4'--,heb4 i4 #b4 ',the ,logos is the light of ',the ,word 7,logos7 was the world1 and the intellectual the true light4'--,john i4 #i4 sun4'--,de ,somniis4 ',the life and the light of men4'--,john i4 #d4 ',i am the light of the world4' --,john viii4 #ab4 ',the ,logos only can see ',he that is of ,god1 he ,god4'--,de ,confus4 ,ling4 hath seen the ,father4'--,john vi4 #df4 ',no man hath seen ,god at any time4 ,the only begotten ,son which is in the bosom of the ,father1 he hath declared him4--,john i4 #ah4 ',he is the most ancient ',now1 ,o ,father1 glorify of ,god's works4'--,de ,confus thou me with thine own self ,ling4 with the glory which ,i had with thee before the world ',and was before all things4' was4'--,john xvii4 #e4 --,de ,leg4 ,allegor4 ',he was in the beginning with ,god4'--,john i4 #b4 ',before all worlds4'--#b ,tim4 i4 #i4 ',the ,logos is esteemed ',christ1 who is over all1 the same as ,god4'--,de ,god blessed for evermore4' ,somniis4 --,rom4 ix4 #e4 ',who1 being in the form of ,god4 thought it no robbery to be equal with ,god4'--,phil4 ii4 #f4 ',the ,logos was eternal4' ',christ abideth for ever4 --,de ,plant4 ,no4 --,john xii4 #cd4 ',but to the ,son he saith1 ,thy throne1 ,o ,god1 is for ever and ever4'--,heb4 i4 #h4 ',the ,logos supports the ',upholding all things by world1 is the connecting the word of his power4'--,heb4 power by which all things i4 #c4 are united4'--,de ,profugis4 ',by him all things consist4' ',the ,logos is nearest to --,col4 i4 #ag4 ,god1 without any separation2 being1 as it were1 fixed upon ',i and my ,father are one4' the only true existing ,deity1 --,john x4 #cj4 nothing coming between to ',that they may be one as disturb that unity4--,de we are4'--,john i4 #ah4 ,profugis4 ',the ,logos is free from ',the only begotten ,son1 all taint of sin1 either who is in the bosom of the voluntary or involuntary4'--,de ,father4'--,john i4 #ah4 ,profugis4 ',the blood of ,christ1 who ',the ,logos the fountain offered himself without of life4 spot to ,god4'--,heb4 ix4 #ad4 ',it is of the greatest ',who did no sin1 neither consequence to every person to was guile found in his strive without remission to mouth4'--#a ,pet4 ii4 #bb4 approach to the divine ,logos1 the ,word of ,god above1 who ',whosoever shall drink of the is the fountain of all wisdom2 water that ,i shall give him1 that by drinking largely shall never thirst1 but the of that sacred spring1 instead water that ,i shall give him of death1 he may be rewarded shall be in him a well of with everlasting life4'--,de water springing up into ,profugis4 everlasting life1'--,john iv4 #ad4 ',the ,logos is the shepherd ',the great shepherd of the of ,god's flock4 flock444 our ,lord ,jesus4'-- ,heb4 xiii4 #bj4 ',the deity1 like a shepherd1 and at the same time ',i am the good shepherd1 and like a monarch1 acts with the know my sheep1 and am known most consummate order and of mine4'--,john x4 #ad4 rectitude1 and has appointed his ,first-born1 the upright ',christ 444 the shepherd and ,logos1 like the substitute of guardian of your souls4'-- a mighty prince1 to take care #a ,pet4 ii4 #be4 of his sacred flock4'--,de ,agricult4 ',for ,christ must reign till he hath put all his enemies under ,the ,logos1 ,philo says1 is his feet4'--#a ,cor xv4 #be4 ',the great governor of the world2 he is the creative and ',christ1 above all principality1 princely power1 and through and might1 and dominion1 and these the heavens and the every name that is named1 not whole world were produced4' only in this world1 but in the --,de ,profugis4 world to come 44 and ,god hath put all things under his feet4'-- ,eph4 i4 #ba1 #bb ',the ,logos is the physician ',the spirit of the ,lord is that heals all evil4'--,de upon me1 because he hath ,leg4 ,allegor4 anointed me to heal the broken-hearted4'--,luke iv4 #ah4 ,the ,logos the ,seal of ,god4 ,christ the ,seal of ,god4 ',the ,logos1 by whom the ',in whom also1 after that world was framed1 is the seal1 ye believed1 ye were sealed after the impression of which with the holy seal of promise4' everything is made1 and is --,eph4 i4 #ac rendered the similitude and ',jesus1 the son of man 444 him image of the perfect ,word of hath ,god the ,father ,god4'--,de ,profugis4 sealed4'--,john vi4 #bg4 ',the soul of man is an ',christ1 the brightness of impression of a seal1 of which his 7,god's7 glory1 and the the prototype and original express image of his person4 characteristic is the everlasting --,heb4 i4 #c4 ,logos4'--,de ,plantatione ,no4 ,the ,logos the source of ,christ the source of eternal immortal life4 life4 ,philo says 'that when the ',the dead 7in ,christ7 shall soul strives after its best and be raised incorruptible4'--#a noblest life1 then the ,logos ,cor4 xv4 #eb frees it from all corruption1 ',because the creature itself and confers upon it the gift also shall be delivered of immortality4'--,de ,c4,q4 from the bondage of corruption ,erud4 ,grati4 into the glorious liberty of the children of ,god4'--,rom4 vii4 #ba4 ,the ,new ,testament calls ,philo speaks of the ,logos ,christ the ,beloved ,son3--',this not only as the ,son of ,god is my beloved ,son and his first begotten1 but in whom ,i am well pleased4' also styles him 'his beloved --,matt4 iii4 #ag2 ,luke ix4 #ce2 ,son4'--,de ,leg4 ,allegor4 #b ,pet4 i4 #ag ',the ,son of his love4'--,col4 i4 #ac4 ,philo says 'that good men ',but ye are come unto mount are admitted to the assembly ,zion1 and to the city of the of the saints above4 living ,god1 and to an innumerable company of angels1 ',those who relinquish human and to the spirits of just men doctrines1 and become made perfect4'--,heb4 xii4 #bb1 #bc the well-disposed disciples of ,god1 will be one day translated ',giving thanks unto the ,father to an incorruptible and which hath made us the perfect order of beings4--,de inheritance of the saints in ,sacrifices4 light4'--,col4 i4 #ab4 ,philo says 'that the just ,the ,new ,testament makes ,jesus to man1 when he dies is translated say3 to another state by the ,logos1 by whom the world ',no man can come to me1 except was created4 ,for ,god by the ,father which hath sent me his said ,word 7,logos71 by draw him2 and ,i will raise him which he made all things1 up on the last day4'--,john vi4 #dd will raise the perfect man from the dregs of this world1 ',no man cometh to the ,father but and exalt him near himself4 by me4'--,john xvi4 #f4 ,he will place him near his own person4'--,de ,sacrificiis4 ',where ,i am1 there also shall my servant be 444 him will my father ,philo says that the ,logos honour4' is the true ,high ,priest1 who is without sin and anointed ,the ,new ,testament speaks of ,jesus by ,god3-- as the ,high ,priest3 ',it is the world1 in which ',seeing then that we have a great the ,logos1 ,god's ,first-born1 ,high ,priest that is passed into that great ,high ,priest1 resides4 the heavens1 ,jesus1 the ,son of ,and ,i assert that this ,god1 let is hold fast our ,high ,priest is no man1 but profession4'--,heb4 iv4 #ad4 the ,holy ,word of ,god2 who is not capable of either ',for such an ,high ,priest became us1 voluntary or involuntary sin1 who is holy1 harmless1 undefiled1 and hence his head is anointed separate from sinners4'--,heb4 vii4 #bf4 with oil4'--,de ,profugis4 ,the ,new ,testament says of ,christ3 ,philo mentions the ,logos as the great ,high ,priest and ',we have such an ,high ,priest1 who is ,mediator for the sins of the set on the throne of the majest in world4 ,speaking of the rebellion the heavens1 a mediator of a of ,korah1 he introduces the better covenant4'--,heb4 viii4 #a-f4 ,logos as saying 3-- ',but ,christ being come an ,high ',it was ,i who stood in the ,priest 444 entered at once into middle between the ,lord and the holy place1 having obtained you4 eternal redemption for us4'--,heb4 ix4 #aa1 #ab4 ',the sacred ,logos pressed with zeal and without remission ,the ,new ,testament says of ,john1 the that he might stand forerunner of ,jesus1 that he preached between the dead and the 'the baptism of repentance for the living4--,quis ,rerum ,div4 remission of sins4'--,mark i4 #d4 ,haeres4 ,jesus says3-- ,the ,logos1 the ,saviour ,god1 who brings salvation as ',ye will not come to me1 that ye the reward of repentance and might have life4'--,john v4 #dj4 righteousness4 ',beloved1 we be now the sons of ',if then men have from ,god2 and it doth not yet appear their very souls a just what we shall be2 but we know that contrition1 and are changed1 when he doth appear we shall be and have humbled themselves for like him4'--#a ,john iii4 #b4 their past errors1 acknowledging and confessing their ',as we have born the image of the sins1 such persons shall find earthy1 we shall also bear the image pardon from the ,saviour and of the heavenly4'--#a ,cor4 xv4 #di4 merciful ,god1 and receive a most choice and great advantage ',for if we have been planted of being like the ,logos together in the likeness of his of ,god1 who was originally death1 we shall be also in the the great archetype after likeness of his resurrection4'-- which the soul of man was ,rom4 vi4 #e4 formed4'--,de ,execrationibus4 ,here1 then1 we get1 complete1 the idea of ,christ as the ,word of ,god1 and we see that ,christianity is as lacking in originality on these points as in everything else4 ,we may note1 also1 that this ,platonic idea was current among the ,jews before ,philo1 although he gives it to us more thoroughly and fully worked out3 in the apocryphal books of the ,jews we find the idea of the ,logos in many passages in ,wisdom1 to take but a single case4 ,the widely-spread existence of this notion is acknowledged by ,dean ,milman in his ,history of ,christianity4 ,he says3 ,this ,being was more or less distinctly impersonated1 according to the more popular or more philosophic1 the more material or the more abstract1 notions of the age or people4 ,this was the doctrine from the ,ganges1 or even the shores of the ,yellow ,sea to the ,ilissus2 it was the fundamental principle of the ,indian religion and the ,indian philosophy2 it was the basis of ,zoroastrianism2 it was pure ,platonism2 it was the ,platonic ,judaism of the ,alexandrian school4 ,many fine passages might be quoted from ,philo1 on the impossibility that the first self-existing ,being should become cognisable to the sense of man2 and even in ,palestine1 no doubt1 ,john the ,baptist and our ,lord himself spoke no new doctrine1 but rather the common sentiment of the more enlightened1 when they declared that 'no man had seen ,god at any time4' ,in conformity with this principle1 the ,jews1 in the interpretation of the older ,scriptures1 instead of direct and sensible communication from the one great ,deity1 had interposed either one or more intermediate beings as the channels of communication4 ,according to one accredited tradition alluded to by ,st4 ,stephen1 the law was delivered by the 'disposition of angels2' according to another1 this office was delegated to a single angel1 sometimes called the angel of the ,law 7see ,gal4 iii4 #ai72 at others1 the ,metatron4 ,but the more ordinary representative1 as it were1 of ,god1 to the sense and mind of man1 was the ,memra1 or the ,divine ,word2 and it is remarkable that the same appellation is found in the ,indian1 the ,persian1 the ,platonic1 and the ,alexandrian systems4 ,by the ,targumists1 the earliest ,jewish commentators on the ,scriptures1 this term had been already applied to the ,messiah2 nor is it necessary to observe the manner in which it has been sanctified by its introduction into the ,christian scheme4 ,this uniformity of conception and coincidence of language indicates the general acquiescence of the human mind in the necessity of some mediation between the pure spiritual nature of the ,deity and the moral and intellectual nature of man 7as quoted by ,lake74 ,and this uniformity of conception and coincidence of language indicates1 also1 that ,christianity has only received and repeated the religious ideas which existed in earlier times4 ,how can that be a revelation from ,god which was well known in the world long before ,god revealed it8 ,the acknowledgment of the priority of ,pagan thought is the destruction of the supernatural claims of ,christianity based on the same thought2 that cannot be supernatural after ,christ which was natural before him1 nor that sent down from heaven which was already on earth as the product of human reason4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,lake fairly says3 ,we have evidence--clear1 conclusive1 irrefutable evidence--as to what this doctrine really is4 ,we can trace its birth-place in the philosophic speculations of the ancient world1 we can note its gradual development and growth1 we can see it in its early youth passing 7through ,philo and others7 from ,grecian philosophy into the current of ,jewish thought2 then1 after resting awhile in the ,judaism of the period of the ,christian era1 we see it slightly changing its character1 as it passes through ,gamaliel1 ,paul--the writers of the ,fourth ,gospel and of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews--through ,justin ,martyr and ,tertullian1 into the stream of early ,christian thought1 and now from a sublime philosophical speculation it becomes dwarfed and corrupted into a church dogma1 and finally gets hardened as a frozen mass of absurdity1 stupidity1 and blasphemy1 in the ,nicene and ,athanasian creeds 7,philo1 ,plato1 and ,paul1 pp4 #ga1 #gb74 ,the idea of ,,immortality was by no means brought to light by ,christ1 as is pretended4 ,the early ,jews had clearly no idea of life after death2 for in death there is no remembrance of thee2 in the grave who shall give thee thanks8 7,ps4 vi4 #e74 ,like the slain that lie in the grave1 whom thou rememberest no more4444 ,wilt thou shew wonders to the dead8 ,shall the dead arise and praise thee8 ,shall thy lovingkindness be declared in the grave8 or thy faithfulness in destruction8 ,shall thy wonders be known in the dark8 and thy righteousness in the land of forgetfulness8 7,ps4 lxxxviii4 #e1 #aj-ab74 ,the dead praise not the ,lord 7,ps4 cxv4 #ag74 ,i said in mine heart concerning the estate of the sons of men1 that ,god might manifest them1 and that they might see that they themselves are beasts4 ,for that which befalleth the sons of men befalleth beasts2 even one thing befalleth them3 as the one dieth1 so dieth the other2 yea1 they have all one breath2 so that man hath no pre-eminence above a beast 7,eccles4 iii4 #ah1 #ai74 ,there is no work1 nor device1 nor knowledge1 nor wisdom1 in the grave 7,ibid1 ix4 #aj74 ,the grave cannot praise thee1 death cannot celebrate thee3 they that go down into the pit cannot hope for thy truth4 ,the living1 the living1 he shall praise thee 7,is4 xxxviii4 #ah1 #ai74 ,in strict accordance with this belief1 that death was the end of man1 the pre-captivity ,jews regarded wealth1 strength1 prosperity1 and all earthly blessings1 as the reward of virtue4 ,after the captivity they change their tone2 in the post-,babylonian ,psalms life after death is distinctly spoken of3 ,my flesh also shall rest in hope4 ,for thou wilt not leave my soul in hell 7,ps4 xvi4 #i1 #aj72 together with other passages4 ,in the apocryphal ,jewish ,scriptures the belief in immortality appears over and over again4 ,to say that ,jesus brought life and immortality to light through the ,gospel1 even to the ,jews1 is to contend for a position against all evidence4 ,if from the ,jews we turn to the ,pagan thinkers1 immortality is proclaimed by them long before the ,jews have dreamed about it4 ,the ,egyptians1 in their funeral ritual1 went through the judgment of the soul before ,osiris3 ,the resurrection of the dead to a second life had been a deep-rooted religious opinion among the ,egyptians from the earliest times 7,egyptian ,mythology1 ,sharpe1 p4 #eb71 and they appear to have believed in a transmigration of souls through the lower animals1 and an ultimate return to the original body2 to this end they preserved the body as a mummy1 so that the soul1 on its return1 might find its original habitation still in existence3 any who believe in the resurrection of the body should clearly follow the example of the ancient ,egyptians4 ,in later times1 the more instructed ,egyptians believed in a spiritual resurrection only1 but the mass of the people clung to the idea of a bodily resurrection 7,ibid1 p4 #ed74 ,it is to the later times of ,egyptian history1 perhaps to the five centuries immediately before the ,christian era1 that the religious opinions contained in the funeral papyri chiefly belong4 ,the roll of papyrus buried with the mummy often describes the funeral1 and then goes on to the return of the soul to the body1 the resurrection1 the various trials and difficulties which the deceased will meet and overcome in the next world1 and the garden of paradise in which he awaits the day of judgment1 the trial on that day1 and it then shows the punishment which would have awaited him if he had been found guilty 7,ibid1 p4 #fd74 ,we have already seen that the immortality of the soul was taught by ,plato 7ante1 p4 #cfd74 ,the ,hindus taught that happiness or misery hereafter depended upon the life here4 ,if duty is performed1 a good name will be obtained1 as well as happiness1 here and after death 7,mahabharata1 xii41 #f1ech1 in ,religious and ,moral ,sentiments from ,indian ,writers1 by ,j4 ,muir1 p4 #bb74 ,the ,mahabharata was written1 or rather collected1 in the second century before ,christ4 ,poor ,king ,rantideva bestowed water with a pure mind1 and thence ascended to heaven4444 ,king ,nriga gave thousands of largesses of cows to ,brahmans2 but because he gave away one belonging to another person1 he went to hell 7,ibid1 xiv4 #b1ghg and #b1ghi4 ,muir1 pp1 #ca1 #cb74 ,let us now examine into the theology of ,india1 as reported by ,megasthenes1 about ,b4,c4 #cjj 7,cory's ',ancient ,fragments1' p4 #bbf1 et seq474 ',they1 the ,brahmins1 regard the present life merely as the conception of persons presently to be born1 and death as the birth into a life of reality and happiness1 to those who rightly philosophise3 upon this account they are studiously careful in preparing for death' 7,inman's ,ancient ,faiths1 vol4 ii41 p4 #hbj74 ,zoroaster 7,b4,c4 #a1bjj1 or possibly #b1jjj7 taught3 ,the soul1 being a bright fire1 by the power of the ,father remains immortal1 and is the mistress of life 7,ibid1 p4 #hba74 ,the ,indians were believers in the immortality of the soul1 and conscious future existence4 ,they taught that immediately after death the souls of men1 both good and bad1 proceed together along an appointed path to the bridge of the gatherer1 a narrow path to heaven1 over which the souls of the pious alone could pass1 whilst the wicked fall from it into the gulf below2 that the prayers of his living friends are of much value to the dead1 and greatly help him on his journey4 ,as his soul enters the abode of bliss1 it is greeted with the word1 ',how happy art thou1 who hast come here to us1 mortality to immortality6' ,then the pious soul goes joyfully onward to ,ahura-,mazdao1 to the immortal saints1 the golden throne1 and ,paradise 7,ibid1 p4 #hcd74 ,from these notions the writer of the story of ,jesus drew his idea of the narrow way that led to heaven1 and of the strait gate through which many would be unable to pass4 ,cicero 7bk4 vi4 ,commonwealth1 quoted by ,inman7 says3 ,be assured that1 for all those who have in any way conducted to the preservation1 defence1 and enlargement of their native country1 there is a certain place in heaven1 where they shall enjoy an eternity and happiness4 ,it is needless to further multiply quotations in order to show that our latest development of these ,eastern creeds only reiterated the teaching of the earlier phases of religious thought4 ,but1 at least1 urge the ,christians1 we owe the sublime idea of the ,,unity ,,of ,,god to revelation1 and this is grander than the ,polytheism of the ,pagan world4 ,is it not1 however1 true1 that just as ,christians urge that the ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,ghost1 are but one ,god1 so the thinkers of old believed in one ,supreme ,being1 while the multitudinous gods were but as the angels and saints of ,christianity1 his messengers1 his subordinates1 not his rivals8 ,all savages are ,polytheists1 just as were the ,hebrews1 whose god ,jehovah was but their special god1 stronger than the gods of the nations around them1 gods whose existence they never denied2 but as thought grew1 the superior minds in each nation rose over the multitude of deities to the idea of one ,supreme ,being working in many ways1 and the loftiest flights of the prophets of the ,jewish ,scriptures may be paralleled by those of the sages of other creeds4 ,zoroaster taught that ,god is the first1 indestructible1 eternal1 unbegotten1 indivisible1 dissimilar 7,ancient ,fragments1 ,cory1 p4 #bci1 quoted by ,inman74 ,in the ,sabaean ,litany 7two extracts only of this ancient work are preserved by ,el ,wardi1 the great ,arabic historian7 we read3 ,thou art the ,eternal ,one1 in whom all order is centred4444 ,thou dost embrace all things4 ,thou art the ,infinite and ,incomprehensible1 who standest alone 7,sacred ,anthology1 by ,m4,d4 ,conway1 pp4 #gd1 #ge74 ,there is only one ,deity1 the great soul4 ,he is called the ,sun1 for he is the soul of all beings4 ,that which is ,one1 the wise call it in divers manners4 ,wise poets1 by words1 make the beautiful-winged manifold1 though he is ,one 7,rig-,veda1 ,b4,c4 #aejj1 from ,anthology1 p4#gf74 ,the ,divine ,mind alone is the whole assemblage of the gods4444 ,he 7the ,brahmin7 may contemplate castle1 air1 fire1 water1 the subtile ether1 in his own body and organs2 in his heart1 the ,star2 in his motion1 ,vishnu2 in his vigour1 ,hara2 in his speech1 ,agni2 in digestion1 ,mitra2 in production1 ,brahma2 but he must consider the supreme ,omnipresent ,reason as sovereign of them all 7,manu1 about ,b4,c4 #abjj2 his code collected about ,b4,c4 #cjj2 from ,anthology1 p4 #ha74 ,on an ancient stone at ,bonddha ,gaya is a ,sanscrit inscription to ,buddha1 in which we find3 ,reverence be unto thee1 an incarnation of the ,deity and the ,eternal ,one4 ,,om6 the mysterious name of ,god1 equivalent to pure existence1 or the ,jewish ,jhvh the possessor of all things in vital form6 ,thou art ,brahma1 ,veeshnoo1 and ,mahesa6444 ,i adore thee1 who art celebrated by a thousand names1 and under various forms 7,asiatic ,researches1 ,essay xi41 by ,mr4 ,wilmot2 vol4 i41 p4 #bhe74 ,plato's teaching is1 that there is but one ,god 7ante1 p4 #cfd71 and wherever we search1 we find that the more thoughtful proclaimed the unity of the ,deity4 ,this doctrine must1 then1 go the way of the rest1 and it must be acknowledged that the boasted revelation is1 once more1 but the speculation of man's unassisted reason4 ,turning from these cardinal doctrines to the minor dogmas and ceremonies of ,christianity1 we shall still discover it to be nothing but a survival of ,paganism4 ,,baptism seems to have been practised as a religious rite in all solar creeds1 and has naturally1 therefore1 found its due place in the latest solar faith4 ,the idea of using water as emblematic of spiritual washing1 is too obvious to allow surprise at the antiquity of this rite4 ,dr4 ,hyde1 in his treatise on the ',religion of the ,ancient ,persians1' xxxiv4 #djf1 tells us that it prevailed among that people4 ',they do not use circumcision for their children1 but only baptism or washing for the inward purification of the soul4 ,they bring the child to the priest into the church1 and place him in front of the sun and fire1 which ceremony being completed1 they look upon him as more sacred than before4 ,lord says that they bring the water for this purpose in bark of the ,holm-tree2 that tree is in truth the ,haum of the ,magi1 of which we spoke before on another occasion4 ,sometimes also it is otherwise done by immersing him in a large vessel of water1 as ,tavernier tells us4 ,after such washing1 or baptism1 the priest imposes on the child the name given by his parents' 7,christian ,records1 ,rev4 ,dr4 ,giles1 p4 #abi74 ,the ,baptismal fonts in our ,protestant churches1 and we can hardly say more especially the little cisterns at the entrance of our ,catholic chapels1 are not imitations1 but an unbroken and never interrupted continuation of the same aquaminaria1 or amula1 which the learned ,montfaucon1 in his ',antiquities1' shows to have been vases of holy water1 which were placed by the heathens at the entrance of their temples1 to sprinkle themselves with upon entering those sacred edifices 7,diegesis1 ,r4 ,taylor1 p4 #bai74 ,among the ,hindus1 to bathe in the ,ganges is to be regenerated1 and the water is holy because it flows from ,brahma's feet4 ,tertullian1 arguing that water1 as being ,god's earliest and most favoured creation1 and brooded over by the spirit--,vishnu also is called ,narayan1 moving on the waters--was sanctifying in its nature1 says3 ',well1 but the nations1 who are strangers to all understanding of spiritual powers1 ascribe to their idols the imbuing of waters with the self-same efficacy4' ,so they do1 but these cheat themselves with waters which are widowed4 ,for washing is the channel through which they are initiated into some sacred rites of some notorious ,isis or ,mithra2 and the gods themselves likewise they honour by washings4444 ,at the ,appollinarian and ,eleusinian games they are baptised2 and they presume that the effect of their doing that is the regeneration1 and the remission of the penalties due to their perjuries4444 ,which fact1 being acknowledged1 we recognise here also the zeal of the devil rivalling the things of ,god1 while we find him1 too1 practising baptism in his subjects 7,on ,baptism1 chap4 v474 ,as the devil did it first1 it seems scarcely fair to accuse him of copying4 ,closely allied to baptism is the idea of regeneration1 being born again4 ,in baptism the purification is wrought by the male deity1 typified in the water flowing from the throne or the feet of the god4 ,in regeneration without water the purification is wrought by the female deity4 ,the earth is the mother of all1 and as at birth the new being emerges from the mother1 so it was supposed that emergence from a terrestrial cleft was equivalent to a new birth 7,inman's ,ancient ,faiths1 vol4 i41 p4 #dae2 ed4 #ahfh74 ,hence the custom of squeezing through a hole in a rock1 or passing through a perforated stone1 or between and under stones set up for the purpose2 a natural cleft in a rock or in the earth was considered as specially holy1 and to some of these long pilgrimages are still made in ,eastern lands4 ,on emerging from the hole1 the devotee is re-born1 and the sins of the past are no longer counted against him4 ,,confirmation was also a rite employed by the ancient ,persians4 ,afterwards1 in the fifteenth year of his age1 when he begins to put on the tunic1 the sudra and the girdle1 that he may enter upon religion1 and is engaged upon the articles of belief1 the priest bestows upon him confirmation1 that he may from that time be admitted into the number of the faithful1 and may be looked upon as a believer himself 7,dr4 ,hyde on ,religion of the ,ancient ,persians1 tr4 by ,dr4 ,giles in ,christian ,records1 pp4 #abi1 #acj74 ,,lord',s ,,supper4--,bread and wine appear to have been a regular offering to the ,sun-god1 whose beams ripen the corn and the grape1 and who may indeed1 by a figure1 be said to be transubstantiated thus for the food of man4 ,the ,persians offered bread and wine to ,mithra2 the people of ,thibet and ,tartary did the same4 ,cakes were made for the ,queen of heaven1 kneaded of dough1 and were offered up to her with incense and drink-libations 7,jer4 vii4 #ah1 and xliv4 #ai74 ,ishtar was worshipped with cakes1 or buns1 made out of the finest flour1 mingled with honey1 and the ancient ,greeks offered the same3 this bread seems to have been sometimes only offered to the deity1 sometimes also eaten by the worshippers2 in the same way the bread and the wine are offered to ,god in the ,eucharist1 and he is prayed to accept our alms and oblations4 ,the ,easter ,cakes presented by the clergyman to his parishioners--an old ,english custom1 now rarely met with--are the cakes of ,ishtar1 oval in form1 symbolising the yoni4 ,we have already dealt fully with the apparent similarity between the ,christian ,agapae1 and the ,bacchanalian mysteries 7ante1 pp4 #bbb-bbg74 ,the supper of ,adoneus1 ,adonai1 literally1 the supper of the ,lord1 formed part of these feasts1 identical in name with the supper of the ,christian mysteries4 ,the ,eleusinian mysteries1 celebrated at ,eleusis1 in honour of ,ceres1 goddess of corn1 and ,bacchus1 god of wine1 compel us to think of bread and wine1 the very substance of the gods1 as it were1 there adored4 ,and ,mosheim gives us the origin of many of the ,christian eucharistic ceremonies4 ,he writes3 ,the profound respect that was paid to the ,greek and ,roman mysteries1 and the extraordinary sanctity that was attributed to them1 was a further circumstance that induced the ,christians to give their religion a mystic air1 in order to put it upon an equal foot1 in point of dignity1 with that of the ,pagans4 ,for this purpose they gave the name of mysteries to the institutions of the gospel1 and decorated particularly the holy ,sacrament with that solemn title4 ,they used in that sacred institution1 as also in that of baptism1 several of the terms employed in the heathen mysteries2 and proceeded so far1 at length1 as even to adopt some of the rites and ceremonies of which these renowned mysteries consisted4 ,this imitation began in the ,eastern provinces2 but after the time of ,adrian1 who first introduced the mysteries among the ,latins1 it was followed by the ,christians1 who dwelt in the ,western parts of the ,empire4 ,a great part1 therefore1 of the service of the church1 in this century ,a4,d4 #ajj-bjj1 had a certain air of the heathen mysteries1 and resembled them considerably in many particulars 7,eccles4 ,hist41 #bnd century1 p4 #ef74 ,the whole system of ,,the ,,priesthood was transplanted into ,christianity from ,paganism2 the ,egyptian priesthood1 however1 was in great part hereditary1 and in this differs from the ,christian1 while resembling the ,jewish4 ,the priests of the temple of ,dea 7,syria7 were1 on the other hand1 celibate1 and so were some orders of the ,egyptian priests4 ,some classes of priests closely resembled ,christian monks1 living in monasteries1 and undergoing many austerities2 they prayed twice a day1 fasted often1 spoke little1 and lived much apart in their cells in solitary meditation2 in the most insignificant matters the same similarity may be traced4 ,when the ,roman ,catholic priest shaves the top of his head1 it is because the ,egyptian priest had done the same before4 ,when the ,english clergyman--though he preaches his sermon in a silk or woollen robe--may read the ,liturgy in no dress but linen1 it is because linen was the clothing of the ,egyptians4 ,two thousand years before the ,bishop of ,rome pretended to hold the keys of heaven and earth1 there was an ,egyptian priest with the high-sounding title of ,appointed keeper of the two doors of heaven1 in the city of ,thebes 7,egyptian ,mythology1 ,s4 ,sharpe1 preface1 p4 xi474 ,the white robes of modern priests are remnants of the same old faith2 the more gorgeous vestments are the ancient garb of the priests officiating in the temple of female deities2 the stole is the characteristic of woman's dress2 the pallium is the emblem of the yoni2 the alb is the chemise2 the oval or circular chasuble is again the yoni2 the ,christian mitre is the high cap of the ,egyptian priests1 and its peculiar shape is simply the open mouth of the fish1 the female emblem4 ,in old sculptures a fish's head1 with open mouth pointing upwards1 is often worn by the priests1 and is scarcely distinguishable from the present mitre4 ,the modern crozier is the hooked staff1 emblem of the phallus2 the oval frame for divine things is the female symbol once more4 ,thus holy medals are generally oval1 and the ,virgin is constantly represented in an oval frame1 with the child in her arms4 ,in some old missals1 in representations of the ,annunciation1 we see the ,virgin standing1 with the dove hovering in front above her1 and from the dove issues a beam of light1 from the end of which1 as it touches her stomach1 depends an oval containing the infant ,jesus4 ,the tinkling bell--used at the ,mass at the moment of consecration--is the symbol of male and female together--the clapper1 the male1 within the hollow shell1 the female--and was used in solar services at the moment of sacrifice4 ,the position of the fingers of the priest in blessing the congregation is the old symbolical position of the fingers of the solar priest4 ,the ,latin form1 with the two fingers and thumb upraised--copied in ,anglican churches--is said rightly by ecclesiastical writers to represent the trinity2 but the trinity it represents is the real human trinity3 the more elaborate ,greek form is intended to represent the cross as well4 ,the decoration of the cross with flowers1 specially at ,easter-tide1 was practised in the solar temples1 and there the phallus1 upright on the altar1 was garlanded with spring blossoms1 and was adored as the ,lord and ,giver of ,life1 proceeding from the ,father1 and indeed one with him1 his very self4 ,the sacred books of the ,egyptians were written by the god ,thoth1 just as the sacred books of the ,christians were written by the god the ,holy ,ghost4 ,the rosary and cross were used by ,buddhists in ,thibet and ,tartary4 ,the head of the religion in those countries1 the ,grand ,llama1 is elected by the priests of a certain rank1 as the ,pope by his ,cardinals4 ,the faithful observe fasts1 offer sacrifice for the dead1 practise confession1 use holy water1 honour relics1 make processions2 they have monasteries and convents1 whose inmates take vows of poverty and chastity2 they flagellate themselves1 have priests and bishops--in fact1 they carry out the whole system of ,catholicism1 and have done so1 since centuries before ,christ1 so that a ,roman ,catholic priest1 on his first mission among them1 exclaimed that the ,devil had invented an imitation of ,christianity in order to deceive and ruin men4 ,as with baptism1 the imitation is older than the original6 ,the rites and institutions1 by which the ,greeks1 ,romans1 and other nations1 had formerly testified their religious veneration for fictitious deities1 were now adopted1 with some slight alterations1 by ,christian bishops1 and employed in the service of the true ,god4 ,this is the way a ,christian writer accounts for the resemblance his candour forces him to confess2 we should put it1 that ,christianity1 growing out of ,paganism1 naturally preserved many of its customs44444 ,hence it happened that in these times the religion of the ,greeks and ,romans differed very little in its external appearance from that of the ,christians4 ,they had both a most pompous and splendid ritual4 ,gorgeous robes1 mitres1 tiaras1 wax-tapers1 crosiers1 processions1 lustrations1 images1 gold and silver vases1 and many such circumstances of pageantry1 were equally to be seen in the heathen temples and the ,christian churches 7,mosheim's ,eccles4 ,hist41 fourth century1 p4 #aje74 ,says ,dulaure3 ,these two ,fathers ,justin and ,tertullian are in no fashion embarrassed by this astonishing resemblance2 they both say that the devil1 knowing beforehand of the establishment of ,christianity1 and of the ceremonies of this religion1 inspired the ,pagans to do the same1 so as to rival ,god and injure ,christian worship 7,histoire ,abrge de ,differens ,cultes1 t4 i41 p4 #ebb2 ed4 #ahbe74 ,the idea of angels and devils has also spread from the far ,east2 the ,jews learned it from the ,babylonians1 and from the ,jews and the ,egyptians it passed into ,christianity4 ,the ,persian theology had seven angels of the highest order1 who ever surrounded ,ormuzd1 the good creator2 and from this the ,jews derived the seven archangels always before the ,lord1 and the ,christians the seven spirits of ,god 7,rev4 iii4 #a71 and the seven angels which stood before ,god 7,ibid1 viii4 #b74 ,the ,persians had four angels--one at each corner of the world2 ,revelation has four angels standing on the four corners of the earth 7vii4 #a74 ,the ,persians employed them as ,mediators with the ,supreme2 the majority of ,christians now do the same1 and all ,christians did so in earlier times4 ,origen1 ,tertullian1 ,chrysostom1 and other ,fathers1 speak of angels as ruling the earth1 the planets1 etc4 ,michael is the angel of the ,sun1 as was ,hercules1 and he fights with and conquers the dragon1 as ,hercules the ,python1 ,horus the monster ,typhon1 ,krishna the serpent4 ,the ,persians believed in devils as well as in angels1 and they also had their chief1 ,ahriman1 the pattern of ,satan4 ,these devils--or dews1 or devs--struggled against the good1 and in the end would be destroyed1 and ,ahriman would be chained down in the abyss1 as ,satan in ,rev4 xx4 ,ahriman flew down to earth from heaven as a great dragon 7,rev4 xii4 #c and #i71 the angels arming themselves against him 7,ibid1 verse #g74 ,strauss remarks3 ,had the belief in celestial beings1 occupying a particular station in the court of heaven1 and distinguished by particular names1 originated from the revealed religion of the ,hebrews--had such a belief been established by ,moses1 or some later prophet--then1 according to the views of the supranaturalist1 they might--nay1 they must--be admitted to be correct4 ,but it is in the ,maccabaean ,daniel and in the apocryphal ,tobit that this doctrine of angels1 in its more precise form1 first appears2 and it is evidently a product of the influence of the ,zend religion of the ,persians on the ,jewish mind4 ,we have the testimony of the ,jews themselves that they brought the names of the angels with them from ,babylon 7,life of ,jesus1 vol4 i41 p4 #aja74 ,dr4 ,kalisch1 after having remarked that the notions of the ,jews concerning angels fluctuated and changed1 says that at an early period1 the belief in spirits was introduced into ,palestine from eastern ,asia through the ordinary channels of political and commercial interchange1 and that to the ,hebrew notions heathen mythology offers striking analogies2 it would be unwarranted1 the learned doctor goes on1 to distinguish between the 'established belief of the ,hebrews' and 'popular superstition2' we have no means of fixing the boundary line between both2 we must consider the one to coincide with the other1 or we should be obliged to renounce all historical inquiry4 ,the belief in spirits and demons was not a concession made by educated men to the prejudices of the masses1 but a concession which all--the educated as well as the uneducated--made to ,pagan ,polytheism 7,historical and ,critical ,commentary on the ,old ,testament4 ,leviticus1 part ii41 pp4 #bhd-bhg4 ,ed4 #ahgb74 ,when the ,jews1 ever open to foreign influence in matters of faith1 lived under ,persian rule1 they imbibed1 among many other religious views of their masters1 especially their doctrines of angels and spirits1 which1 in the region of the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 were most luxuriantly developed4 ,some of the angels are now distinguished by names1 which the ,jews themselves admit to have borrowed from their heathen rulers2 their chief is ,mithron1 or ,metatron1 corresponding to the ,persian ,mithra1 the mediator between eternal light and eternal darkness2 he is the embodiment of divine omnipotence and omnipresence1 the guardian of the world1 the instructor of ,moses1 and the preserver of the law1 but also a terrible avenger of disobedience and wickedness1 especially in his capacity of ,supreme ,judge of the dead 7,ibid1 pp4 #bhg1 #bhh74 ,this is the angel of the ,lord who went before the children of ,israel1 of whom ,god said my name is in him 7see ,ex4 xxiii4 #bj-bc71 and who is identified by many ,christian commentators as the second person in the ,trinity4 ,the belief in devils is the other side of the belief in angels1 and we see1 above all1 ,satan rise to greater and more perilous eminence both with regard to his power and the diversity of his functions4 ,this remarkable advance in demonology cannot be surprising1 if we consider that the ,persian system known as that of ,zoroaster1 and centering in the dualism of a good and evil principle1 flourished most and attained its fullest development1 just about the time of the ,babylonian exile 7,ibid1 pp4 #bib1 #bic74 ,the ,persian creed supplies us1 as ,dr4 ,kalisch has well said1 with the sources from which the demonology of the ,talmud1 the ,fathers and the ,catholic ,church has been derived 7,ibid1 p4 #cah74 ,the whole ideas of the judgment of the dead1 the destruction of the world by fire1 and the punishment of the wicked1 are also purely ,pagan4 ,justin ,martyr says truly that as ,minos and ,rhadamanthus would punish the wicked1 we say that the same thing will be done1 but by the hand of ,christ 7,apology #a1 chap4 viii74 ,while we say that there will be a burning up of all1 we shall seem to utter the doctrine of the ,stoics2 and while we affirm that the souls of the wicked1 being endowed with sensation even after death1 are punished1 and that those of the good being delivered from punishment spend a blessed existence1 we shall seem to say the same things as the poets and philosophers 7,ibid1 chap4 xx74 ,in the ,egyptian creed ,osiris is generally the ,judge of the dead1 though sometimes ,horus is represented in that character2 the dead man is accused before the ,judge by ,typhon1 the evil one1 as ,satan is the accuser of the brethren2 forty-two assessors declare the innocence of the accused of the crimes they severally note2 the recording angel writes down the judgment2 the soul is interceded for by the lesser gods1 who offer themselves as an atoning sacrifice 7see ,sharpe's ,egyptian ,mythology1 pp4 #di-eb74 ,a pit1 or lake of fire1 is the doom of the condemned4 ,the good pass to ,paradise1 where is the tree of life3 the fruit of this tree confers health and immortality4 ,in the ,persian mythology the tree of life is planted by the stream that flows from the throne of ,ormuzd 7,rev4 xxii4 i and #b74 ,the ,hindu creed has the same story1 and it is also found among the ,chinese4 ,the monastic life comes to us from ,india and from ,egypt2 in both countries solitaries and communities are found4 ,bartholmy ,st4 ,hilaire1 in his book on ,buddha1 gives an account of the ,buddhist monasteries which is worthy perusal4 ,from ,egypt the contagion of asceticism spread over ,christendom4 ,from ,philo also we learn that a large body of ,egyptian ,jews had embraced the monastic rules and the life of self-denial1 which we have already noted among the ,egyptian priests4 ,they bore the name of ,therapeuts4 ,they spent their time in solitary meditation and prayer1 and only saw one another on the seventh day4 ,they did not marry2 the women lived the same solitary and religious life as the men4 ,fasting and mortification of the flesh were the foundation of their virtues 7,egyptian ,mythology1 ,s4 ,sharpe1 p4 #gi74 ,in these ,egyptian deserts grew up those wild and bigoted fanatics--some ,jews1 some ,pagans1 and apparently no difference between them--who1 appearing later under the name of ,christians1 formed the original of the ,western monasticism4 ,it was these monks who tore ,hypatia to pieces in the great church of ,alexandria1 and who formed the strength of that savage and illiterate party1 who looked upon all sorts of erudition1 particularly that of a philosophical kind1 as pernicious1 and even destructive to true piety and religion 7,mosheim's ,eccles4 ,hist1 p4 #ic74 ,there can be no doubt of the identity of the ,christians and the ,therapeuts1 and this identity is the real key to the spread of ,christianity in ,egypt and the surrounding countries4 ,eusebius tells us that ,mark was said to be the first who preached the ,gospel in ,egypt1 and so great a multitude of believers1 both of men and women1 were collected there at the very outset1 that in consequence of their extreme philosophical discipline and austerity1 ,philo has considered their pursuits1 their assemblies1 and entertainments1 as deserving a place in his descriptions 7,eccles4 ,hist1 bk4 ii41 chap4 xvi74 ,we will see what ,philo found in ,egypt1 before remarking on the date at which he lived4 ,eusebius states 7we condense bk4 ii41 chap4 xvii7 that ,philo comprehends the regulations that are still observed in our churches even to the present time2 that he describes1 with the greatest accuracy1 the lives of our ascetics2 these ,therapeuts1 stated by ,eusebius to be ,christians1 were everywhere scattered over the world1 but they abound in ,egypt1 in each of its districts1 and particularly about ,alexandria4 ,in every house one room was set aside for worship1 reading1 and meditation1 and here they kept the inspired declarations of the prophets1 and hymns1 they had also commentaries of ancient men1 who were the founders of the sect2 it is highly probable that the ancient commentaries which he says they have1 are the very ,gospels and writings of the apostles2 ,eusebius thinks that none can be so hardy as to contradict his statement that these ,therapeuts were ,christians1 when their practices are to be found among none but in the religion of ,christians2 and why should we add to these their meetings1 and the separate abodes of the men and the women in these meetings1 and the exercises performed by them1 which are still in vogue among us at the present day1 and which1 especially at the festival of our ,saviour's passion1 we are accustomed to pass in fasting and watching1 and in the study of the divine word8 ,all these the above-mentioned author has accurately described and stated in his writings1 and are the same customs that are observed by us alone1 at the present day1 particularly the vigils of the great festival1 and the exercises in them1 and the hymns that are commonly recited among us4444 ,besides this1 he describes the grades of dignity among those who administer the ecclesiastical services committed to them1 those of the deacons1 and the presidencies of the episcopate as the highest4 ,thus ,philo wrote of the original practices handed down from the apostles4 ,the important points to notice here are3 that in the time of ,philo1 these ,christians were scattered all over the world2 that the commentaries they had1 which ,eusebius says were the ,christian's gospels1 were the works of ancient men1 who founded the sect1 so that the founders were men who lived long before ,philo's time2 that they were thoroughly organised1 proving thereby that their sect was not a new one in his day2 that the discipline1 organised association1 ranks of priests1 etc41 implied a long existence of the sect before ,philo studied it1 and that such existence was clearly not consistent with any persecution being then directed against it4 ,philo writes of flourishing and orderly communities1 founded by men who had long since passed away1 and had bequeathed their writings to their followers for their instruction and guidance4 ,and what was the date of ,philo8 ,he himself gives us a clear note of time2 in ,a4,d4 #dj he was sent on an embassy to the ,emperor ,caligula at ,rome1 to complain of a persecution to which the ,jews were being subjected by ,flaccus2 he describes himself as being1 in ,a4,d4 #dj1 a grey-headed old man4 ,the ,rev4 ,j4,w4 ,lake puts him at sixty-five or seventy years of age at that period1 and consequently would place his birth twenty-five or thirty years before the birth of ,jesus 7,plato1 ,philo1 and ,paul1 by ,rev4 ,j4,w4 ,lake1 pp4 #cc1 #cd74 ,gibbon1 in a note to chap4 #ae1 vol4 ii4 7p4 #ahj71 says that by proving it 7the treatise on the ,therapeuts7 was composed as early as the time of ,augustus1 ,basnage has demonstrated1 in spite of ,eusebius1 and a crowd of modern ,catholics1 that the ,therapeuts were neither ,christians nor monks4 ,or rather1 he has proved that ,christians existed before the time of ,christ1 since ,augustus died ,a4,d4 #ad1 and before that date ,philo found a long-established sect holding ,christian doctrines and practising apostolic customs4 ,a man1 who in ,a4,d4 #dj was grey-headed1 spoke of the ,christian ,gospels as writings of ancient men1 founders of a well-organised sect4 ,now we see why ,christianity has so much in common with the ,egyptian mythology4 ,because it grew out of ,egypt2 its ,gospels came from thence2 its ceremonies were learned there2 its virgin is ,isis2 its ,christ ,osiris and ,horus2 the mask of the revelation of ,god drops from off it1 and we see the true face1 the ancient ,egyptian religion1 with a feature here and there moulded by the cognate ideas of other ,eastern creeds1 all of which flowed into ,alexandria1 and mingled in its seething cauldron of thought4 ,there is also a ,jewish sect which we must not overlook1 in dealing with the sources of ,christianity1 that1 namely1 known as the ,essenes4 ,gibbon regards the ,therapeuts and the ,essenes as interchangeable terms1 but more careful investigation does not bear out this conclusion1 although the two sects strongly resemble each other1 and have many doctrines in common2 he says1 however1 truly3 ,the austere life of the ,essenians1 their fasts and excommunications1 the community of goods1 the love of celibacy1 their zeal for martyrdom1 and the warmth1 though not the purity of their faith1 already offered a lively image of the primitive discipline 7,decline and ,fall1 vol4 ii41 ch4 xv41 p4 #ahj74 ,it is to ,josephus that we must turn for an account of the ,essenes2 a brief sketch of them is given in ,antiquities of the ,jews1 bk4 xviii41 chap4 i4 ,he says3 ,the doctrine of the ,essenes is this3 ,that all things are best ascribed to ,god4 ,they teach the immortality of souls1 and esteem that the rewards of righteousness are to be earnestly striven for2 and when they send what they have dedicated to ,god into the temple1 they do not offer sacrifices1 because they have more pure lustrations of their own2 on which account they are excluded from the common court of the temple1 but offer their sacrifices themselves2 yet is their course of life better than that of other men2 and they entirely addict themselves to husbandry4 ,they had all things in common1 did not marry and kept no servants1 thus none called any master 7,matt4 xxiii4 #h1 #aj74 ,in the ,wars of the ,jews1 bk4 ii41 chap1 viii41 ,josephus gives us a fuller account4 ,there are three philosophical sects among the ,jews4 ,the followers of the first of whom are the ,pharisees2 of the second the ,sadducees2 and the third sect who pretends to a severer discipline are called ,essenes4 ,these last are ,jews by birth1 and seem to have a greater affection for one another than the other sects ,john xiii4 #ce4 ,these ,essenes reject pleasures as an evil ,matt4 xvi4 #bd1 but esteem continence and the conquest over our passions to be virtue4 ,they neglect wedlock4444 ,they do not absolutely deny the fitness of marriage ,matt4 xix4 #ab1 last clause of verse1 #a ,cor4 vii4 #bg1 #bh1 #cb-ce1 #cg1 #ch1 #dj4444 ,these men are despisers of riches ,matt4 xix4 #ba1 #bc1 #bd 444 it is a law among them1 that those who come to them must let what they have be common to the whole order ,acts iv4 #cb-cg1 v4 #a-aa4444 ,they also have stewards appointed to take care of their common affairs ,acts vi4 #a-f4444 ,if any of their sect come from other places1 what they have lies open for them1 just as if it were their own ,matt4 x4 #aa4444 ,for which reason they carry nothing with them when they travel into remote parts ,matt4 x4 #i1 #aj4444 ,as for their piety towards ,god1 it is very extraordinary2 for before sunrising they speak not a word about profane matters1 but put up certain prayers which they have received from their forefathers1 as if they made a supplication for its rising the ,essenes were then sun-worshippers4444 ,a priest says grace before meat2 and it is unlawful for anyone to taste of the food before grace be said4 ,the same priest1 when he hath dined1 says grace again after meat2 and when they begin1 and when they end1 they praise ,god1 as he that bestows their food upon them ,eph4 v4 #ah-bj4 #a ,cor4 x4 #cj1 #ca4 #a ,tim4 iv4 #d1 #e4444 ,they dispense their anger after a just manner1 and restrain their passion ,eph4 iv4 #bf4444 ,whatsoever they say also is firmer than an oath2 but swearing is avoided by them1 and they esteem it worse than perjury2 for they say1 that he who cannot be believed without swearing by ,god1 is already condemned ,matt4 v4 #cd-cg4 ,we insert these references into the account given by ,josephus of the ,essenes1 in order to show the identity of teaching of the ,gospels and the ,essenes4 ,the ,essenes excommunicated those who sinned grievously2 each promised1 on entrance to the society1 to exercise piety1 observe justice1 do no harm to any1 show fidelity to all1 and especially to those in authority1 love truth1 reprove lying1 keep his hands clear from theft1 and his soul from unlawful gains4 ,the resemblance between the ,essenes and the early ,christians is on many points so strong that it is impossible to deny that the two are connected2 if ,jesus of ,nazareth had any historical existence1 he must have been one of the sect of the ,essenes1 who publicly preached many of their doctrines1 and endeavoured to popularise them4 ,we are thus led to conclude that the ,jewish side of ,christianity is simply ,essenian1 but that the major part of the religion is purely ,pagan1 and that its rise under the name of ,christianity must be sought for in ,alexandria rather than in ,juda4 ,the saints who play so great a part in the history of ,christianity are1 solely and simply1 the old ,pagan deities under new names4 ,the ancient creeds were intertwined with the daily life of the people1 and passed on1 practically unchanged1 although altered in name4 ,ancient errors1 in spite of the progress of knowledge1 were respected4 ,civilisation1 as it grew1 only refined them1 embellished them1 or hid them under an allegorical veil 7,histoire ,abrge de ,differens ,cultes1 ,dulaur1 t4 i41 p4 #bj74 ,a remarkable passage in the life of ,gregory1 surnamed ,thaumaturgus1 i4e41 the wonder-worker1 will illustrate this point in the clearest manner4 ,this passage is as follows here it is given in ,latin3 ',when ,gregory perceived that the ignorant multitude persisted in their idolatry1 on account of the pleasures and sensual gratifications which they enjoyed at the ,pagan festivals1 he granted them a permission to indulge themselves in the like pleasures1 in celebrating the memory of the holy martyrs1 hoping that1 in process of time they would return1 of their own accord1 to a more virtuous and regular course of life4' ,there is no sort of doubt that1 by this permission1 ,gregory allowed the ,christians to dance1 sport1 and feast at the tombs of the martyrs upon their respective festivals1 and to do everything which the ,pagans were accustomed to do in their temples1 during the feasts celebrated in honour of their gods 7,mosheim's ,eccles4 ,hist41 #bnd century2 note1 p4 #ef74 ,the virtues that had formerly been ascribed to the heathen temples1 to their lustrations1 to the statues of their gods and heroes1 were now attributed to ,christian churches1 to water consecrated by certain forms of prayer1 and to the images of holy men4 ,and the same privileges that the former enjoyed under the darkness of ,paganism1 were conferred upon the latter under the light of the ,gospel1 or1 rather1 under that cloud of superstition that was obscuring its glory4 ,it is true that1 as yet1 images were not very common of this there is no proof2 nor were there any statues at all equally unproven4 ,but it is1 at the same time1 as undoubtedly certain1 as it is extravagant and monstrous1 that the worship of the martyrs was modelled1 by degrees1 according to the religious services that were paid to the gods before the coming of ,christ 7,ibid1 #dth century2 p4 #ih74 ,the fact is1 that wherever there was a popular god1 he passed into the pantheon of ,christendom under a new name1 as ,christianity spread4 ,dulaure1 in his work above-quoted1 gives a mass of details--mostly very unsavoury--which leave no doubt upon this point4 ,the essence of the old worship was the worship of ,nature1 as we have seen1 and a favourite deity was ,priapus2 this god was worshipped under the names of ,st4 ,fontin1 ,st4 ,guerlichon1 or ,greluchon1 ,st4 ,remi1 ,st4 ,gilles1 ,st4 ,arnaud1 ,,ss4 ,cosmo and ,damian1 etc41 in the various provinces of ,france1 ,italy1 and other ,roman ,catholic lands2 and his worship1 with its distinctive rites of the most indecent character1 remained in practice up to1 at least1 #agdj in ,france1 and #aghj in ,italy4 7,see throughout the above work47 ,if ,christians knew a little more about their creed they would be far less proud of it1 and far less devout1 than they are at present4 ,mr4 ,glennie1 in a pamphlet reprinted from ,in the ,morning ,land1 points out the resemblance between ,christianity and ,osirianism1 as he names the religion of ,osiris3 ',the peculiar character of ,osiris1' says ,sir ,gardner ,wilkinson1 'his coming upon earth for the benefit of mankind1 with the titles of ,manifester of ,good and ,revealer of ,truth2 his being put to death by the malice of the ,evil ,one2 his burial and resurrection1 and his becoming the judge of the dead1 are the most interesting features of the ,egyptian religion4 ,this was the great mystery2 and this myth and his worship were of the earliest times1 and universal in ,egypt4' ,and1 with this central doctrine of ,osirianism1 so perfectly similar to that of ,christianism1 doctrines are associated precisely analogous to those associated in ,christianism with its central doctrine4 ,in ancient ,osirianism1 as in modern ,christianism1 the ,godhead is conceived as a ,trinity1 yet are the three ,gods declared to be only one ,god4 ,in ancient ,osirianism1 as in modern ,christianism1 we find the worship of a divine mother and child4 ,in ancient ,osirianism1 as in modern ,christianism1 there is a doctrine of atonement4 ,in ancient ,osirianism1 as in modern ,christianism1 we find the vision of a last judgment1 and resurrection of the body4 ,and finally1 in ancient ,osirianism1 as in modern ,christianism1 the sanctions of morality are a lake of fire and tormenting demons on the one hand1 and on the other1 eternal life in the presence of ,god4 ,is it possible1 then1 that such similarities of doctrines should not raise the most serious questions as to the relation of the beliefs about ,christ to those about ,osiris2 as to the cause of this wonderful similarity of the doctrines of ,christianism to those of ,osirianism2 nay1 as to the possibility of the whole doctrinal system of modern orthodoxy being but a transformation of the ,osiris-myth8 7,christ and ,osiris1 pp4 #ac1 #ad74 ,thus we find that the cardinal doctrines and the ceremonies of ,christianity are of purely ,pagan origin1 and that ,christianity was in existence long ages before ,christ4 ,christianity is only1 as we have said1 a patchwork composed of old materials2 from the later ,jews comes the ,unity of ,god2 from ,india and ,egypt the ,trinity in ,unity2 from ,india and ,egypt the crucified ,redeemer2 from ,india1 ,egypt1 ,greece1 and ,rome1 the virgin mother and the divine son2 from ,egypt its priests and its ritual2 from the ,essenes and the ,therapeuts its ascetism2 from ,persia1 ,india1 and ,egypt1 its ,sacraments2 from ,persia and ,babylonia its angels and its devils2 from ,alexandria the blending into one of many lines of thought4 ,there is nothing original in this creed1 save its special appeal to the ignorant and to babes2 not many wise men after the flesh are found among its adherents2 it is an appeal to the darkness of the world1 not to its light3 to superstition1 not to knowledge2 to faith1 not to reason4 ,as its root is1 so also are its fruits1 and when--after glancing at its morality--we turn to its history1 we shall see that the corrupt tree bears corrupt fruit1 and that from the evil stem of a thinly disguised ,paganism spring forth the death-bringing branches of the ,upas-tree ,christianity1 stunting the growth of the young civilisation of the ,west1 and drugging1 with its poisonous dew-droppings1 the ,europe which lay beneath its shade1 swoon-slumbering in the death stupor of the ,ages of ,darkness and of ,faith4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,to ,,section ,,ii4 ,,of ,,part ,,ii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,of ,,books ,,used4 ,cicero1 ,commonwealth1 quoted by ,inman444#cgf ,cory1 ,ancient ,fragments1 quoted by ,inman444#cgg ,dulaure1 ,histoire ,abregee de ,differens ,cultes444#chc1 #cij ,eusebius1 ,ecclesiastical ,history444#chf ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall444#chh ,glennie1 ,in the ,morning ,land444#cia ,hyde1 quoted by ,giles444#cgh1 #cgi ,inman1 ,ancient ,faiths444#cgf1 #cgi ,jones1 ,sir ,w41 ,asiatic ,researches444#cef1 #cgg ,josephus1 ,antiquities of the ,jews444#cfd1 #chh ,wars of the ,jews444#chi ,justin ,martyr1 ,first ,apology444#che ,kalisch1 ,historical and ,critical ,commentary444#chd1 #che ,keim1 ,jesus of ,nazara444#cfe ,lake1 ,plato1 ,philo1 and ,paul444#cfc1 #cfd1 #cfg1 #cgd1 #chh ,mahabharata1 quoted by ,muir444#cgf ,manu1 quoted in ,anthology444#cgg ,milman1 ,history of ,christianity1 quoted by ,lake444#cgc ,mosheim1 ,ecclesiastical ,history444#chj1 #chb1 #chf1 #cij1 #cia ,plato444#ceh summarised by ,mdme4 ,dacier444#cfd ,rig ,veda1 quoted in ,anthology444#cgg ,sabaean ,litany1 quoted in ,anthology444#cgg ,sharpe1 ,egyptian ,mythology444#cfj1 #cge1 #cha1 #che1 #chf ,strauss1 ,life of ,jesus444#chc ,taylor1 ,diegesis444#cei1 #cgh ,tertullian1 ,on ,baptism444#cgi ,zoroaster1 quoted by ,inman444#cgf 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,of ,,subjects4 ,angels and devils444#chc ,baptism444#cgh ,confirmation444#cgi ,cross444#ceg ,crucifix444#ceh ,devils and angels444#chc ,divinity of ,christ444#cfc ,essenes444#chh ,immortality444#cgd ,judgment of the ,dead444#che ,logos1 ideas of444#cfd ,lord's ,supper444#cgi ,mediator444#cfb ,mithras444#cfb ,monasticism444#che ,nature and ,sun-worship the origin of creeds444#cee ,osirianism and ,christianity444#cia ,philo1 date of444#cfg1 #chg ,plato's teaching444#cfd ,priesthood444#cha ,saints1 old gods444#cia ,symbols of male energy444#cef female energy444#cfa both in present ceremonies444#cha ,therapeuts444#chf ,trinity444#cei ,union of male and female foundation of religion444#cee ,unity of ,god444#cgg ,virgin and child444#cfj ,zoroaster's teaching444#cfb1 #cgf ,,section ,,iii4--,,its ,,morality ,,fallible4 ,how much may fairly be included under the title ,christian ,morality8 ,some of the more enlightened ,christians would confine the term to the morality of the ,new ,testament1 and would exclude the ,hebrew code as being the outcome of a barbarous age4 ,but the ,freethinker may fairly contend that any moral rules taught by the ,bible are part of ,christian morality4 ,by the statute #i and #aj ,william ,,iii1 cap4 #cb1 the ,holy ,scriptures of the ,old and ,new ,testament are declared to be of divine authority1 and there is no exclusion indicated of the ,mosaic code2 this statute is binding on all ,british subjects educated as ,christians1 and enacts penalties against those who infringe it4 ,by ,article ,,vi4 of the ,church of ,england1 ,holy ,scripture is defined as those canonical books of the ,old and ,new ,testament1 of whose authority was never any doubt in the ,church1 and a list is subjoined4 ,in ,article ,,vii4 we are instructed that the ,commandments which are called moral are to be obeyed1 but that the civil precepts of the ,mosaic code ought not of necessity to be received in any commonwealth2 from which we may conclude that the ,church does not feel bound to enforce1 as of necessity1 polygamy1 prostitution1 murder of heretics1 and slavery4 ,she does not venture to designate such precepts as immoral1 but she does not feel bound in conscience to enforce them1 for which small concession we must feel grateful4 ,passing from the law of the land to the ,bible itself1 we find that the ,mosaic code must certainly be recognised as divine4 ,jesus himself proclaims3 ,think not that ,i am come to destroy the law and the prophets1 ,i am not come to destroy but to fulfil1 and this is emphasised by the declaration3 ,whosoever1 therefore1 shall break one of these least commandments1 and shall teach men so1 he shall be called least in the kingdom of heaven4 ,the ,broad ,church party will be very little1 if this be true4 ,turning to the ,old ,testament1 we find that some of the most immoral precepts are spoken by ,god himself1 immediately after the ,ten ,commandments2 surely that which ,the ,lord said out of the thick darkness where ,god was1 from the top of ,sinai on a smoke1 with the thunderings and lightnings1 and the noise of the trumpet1 can scarcely be reverently designated as the outcome of a barbarous age8 ,yet it is under these circumstances that ,god taught that a ,hebrew servant might be bought for seven years2 that a wife might be given him by his master1 and that the wife and the children proceeding from the union belonged to the master2 that the servant could only go free by deserting his wife and his own children and leaving them in slavery 7,ex4 xxi4 #a-f74 ,it was under these circumstances that ,god taught that a man might sell his daughter to be a maid servant 7the translator's euphemism for concubine71 and that1 if she please not her master she may be bought back again1 or if he take him another 7translator supplying wife as throwing an air of respectability over the transaction7 she may go free 7,ibid4 #g-aa74 ,it was under these circumstances that ,god taught that if a man should beat a male or female slave to death1 he should not be punished1 providing the slave did not die till a day or two after1 because the slave was only his money 7,ibid4 #bj1 #ba74 ,why blame a ,legree1 when he only acts on the permission given by ,god from ,mount ,sinai8 ,dr4 ,colenso writes3 ,i shall never forget the revulsion of feeling with which a very intelligent ,christian native1 with whose help ,i was translating these words into the ,zulu tongue1 first heard them as words said to be uttered by the same great and gracious ,being whom ,i was teaching him to trust in and adore4 ,his whole soul revolted against the notion1 that the great and blessed ,god1 the merciful ,father of all mankind1 would speak of a servant1 or maid1 as mere 'money1' and allow a horrible crime to go unpunished1 because the victim of the brutal usage had survived a few hours4 ,my own heart and conscience at the time fully sympathised with his 7,the ,pentateuch and ,book of ,joshua1 p4 #i1 ed4 #ahfb74 ,it was under these circumstances that ,god taught that a thief1 who possessed nothing of his own1 should be sold for his theft 7,ex4 xxii4 #c74 ,it was under these circumstances that ,god taught3 ,thou shalt not suffer a witch to live 7,ibid #ah74 ,to this cruel and wicked command myriads of unfortunate human beings have been sacrificed2 in the course of the ,middle ,ages hundreds of thousands perished2 in ,france and ,germany many districts and large towns burned two1 three1 and four hundred witches every year1 in some the annual executions destroyed nearly one per cent4 of the whole population4444 ,the ,reformation1 which swept away so many superstitions1 left this1 the most odious of all1 in full activity4 ,the ,churchmen of ,england1 the ,lutherans of ,germany1 the ,calvinists of ,geneva1 ,scotland1 and ,new ,england rivalled the most bigoted ,roman ,catholics in their severities4 ,indeed1 the ,calvinists1 though the most opposite of all to the ,church of ,rome1 were in this respect perhaps the most implicit imitators of her delusions 7,the ,bible2 ,what it is1 by ,c4 ,bradlaugh1 p4 #bfb74 ,during the seventeenth century1 #dj1jjj persons are said to have been put to death for witchcraft in ,england alone4 ,in ,scotland the number was probably1 in proportion to the population1 much greater2 for it is certain that even in the last forty years of the sixteenth century the executions were not fewer than #ag1jjj 7,ibid1 p4 #bfc74 ,the ,puritans in ,new ,england signalised themselves by their merciless severity towards wizards and witches4 ,france was the first country to stem the tide of cruelty4 ,in #afhj ,louis ,,xiv4 issued a proclamation prohibiting all future prosecutions for witchcraft2 and directing that even those who might profess the art should only be punished as impostors4 ,in ,england the last execution was at ,huntingdon1 in #agaf2 in ,scotland1 at ,darnock1 in #agbb4 ,the last person burned as a witch was ,maria ,sanger1 at ,wurzburg1 in ,bavaria1 #agdi 7,ibid1 p4 #bfe74 ,such fruit has borne the command of ,god from ,sinai4 ,it was under these circumstances that ,god taught that any who sacrificed to any ,god but himself should be utterly destroyed 7,ex4 xxii4 #bj74 ,the practical effect of this we shall presently see1 in conjunction with other passages4 ,if we pass from these precepts1 given with such special solemnity1 to the other articles of the so-called ,mosaic code1 we shall find rules of an equally immoral character4 ,lev4 xxiv4 #af commands that he that blasphemeth the name of the ,lord shall be stoned4 ,lev4 xxv4 #dd-df directs the ,hebrews to buy bondmen and bondwomen of the nations around them1 and ye shall take them as an inheritance for your children after you1 to inherit them for a possession1 thus sanctioning the slave-traffic4 ,leviticus xxvii4 #bi distinctly commands human sacrifice1 forbidding the redemption of any that are devoted of men4 ,clear as the words are1 their meaning has been hotly contested1 because of the stain they affix on the ,mosaic code4 ,hebrew3 ,,mot ,,vomot that he die4 ,the commentators take much trouble to soften this terrible sentence4 ,according to ,raschi1 it concerns a man condemned to death1 in which case he must not be redeemed for money4 ,according to others1 it is necessary that the person shall be devoted by public authority1 and not by private vow2 and the ,talmud speaks of ,jephthah as a fanatic for having thought that a human being could serve as a victim1 as a burnt-offering2 but there are too many facts which prove the existence and the execution of this barbarous law2 see1 besides1 the paraphrase of ,ben ,ouziel3 ,hebrew3 ,,kl ,a,p,r,sh,a ,,tmvl ,,ddyn ,q,sh,v,l ,m,y,t,ch,y,y,b all anathema which shall be anathematised of the human race cannot be redeemed neither by money1 by vows1 nor by sacrifices1 neither by prayers for mercy before ,god1 since he is condemned to death 7,lvitique1 par ,cahen1 p4 #adc2 ed4 #ahee74 ,thus ,jephthah devoted to the ,lord whatsoever cometh out of the doors of my house to meet me1 and1 his daughter being the one who came1 he did with her according to his vow 7,judges xi4 #cj-dj74 ,kalisch1 in his ,commentary on the ,old ,testament1 gives us an exhaustive essay on ,human ,sacrifices among the ,hebrews1 endeavouring1 as far as possible1 to defend his people from the charge of offering such sacrifices to ,jehovah by reducing instances of it to a minimum4 ,he says1 however3 ,yet we have at least two clear and unquestionable instances of human sacrifices offered to ,jehovah4 ,the first is the immolation of ,jephthah's daughter4 ,he then analyses the account1 pointing out that it was clearly a sacrifice to ,jehovah1 and that ,jephthah's intention of sacrificing his daughter was publicly known for two full months2 no priest1 no prophet1 no elder1 no magistrate interfered1 or even remonstrated4 ,even further3 ,the event gave rise to a popular custom annually observed by the maidens of ,israel2 ,jephthah's deed evidently met with universal approbation2 it was regarded as praiseworthy piety2 and indeed he could not have ventured to make his vow1 had not human victims offered to ,jehovah been deemed particularly meritorious in his time2 otherwise he must have apprehended to provoke by it the wrath of ,god1 rather than procure his assistance4 ,nothing can be clearer or more decided4444 ,the fact stands indisputable that human sacrifices offered to ,jehovah were possible among the ,hebrews long after the time of ,moses1 without meeting a check or censure from the teachers and leaders of the nation--a fact for which the sad political confusion that prevailed in the period of the ,judges is insufficient to account 7,leviticus1 ,part ,i41 pp4 #chc-che2 ed4 #ahfg74 ,kalisch further points out that the vow of ,jephthah promises a human sacrifice2 the ,hebrew expression signifies whoever comes forth 7see p4 #chc71 and the ,hebrew words1 in fact1 absolutely exclude any animal whatever2 they admit none but a human being1 who alone can be described as going out of the house to meet somebody2 for1 though the restrictive usage of the ,east binds girls generally to the seclusion of the house1 it seems to have been a common custom for ,hebrew women to proceed and meet returning conquerors with music and rejoicing2 and the sacrifice of one animal1 an extremely poor offering after a most signal and most important success1 would certainly not have been promised by a previous vow solemnly pronounced 7,ibid1 pp4 #che1 #chf74 ,our commentator justly adds3 ,from the tenour of the narrative it is manifest that the deed was no isolated case1 but that human sacrifices were on emergencies of peculiar moment habitually offered to ,god1 and expected to secure his aid4 ,one instance like that of ,jephthah not only justifies1 but necessitates1 the influence of a general custom4 ,pious men slaughtered human victims not to ,moloch1 nor to any other foreign deity1 but to the national ,god ,jehovah 7,ibid1 p4 #cij74 ,the second recorded instance of human sacrifices killed in honour of ,jehovah forms a remarkable incident in the life of ,david 7,ibid1 p4 #cij74 ,we read in #b ,sam4 xxi4 that ,god said that a famine then prevailing was on account of ,saul and of his bloody house2 that ,david desired to make an atonement2 that seven men of ,saul's family were hanged in the hill before the ,lord2 that then they were buried1 with ,saul and ,jonathan1 and1 after that1 ,god was intreated for the land4 ,it particularly concerns us to observe that the whole matter was1 in the first instance1 referred to ,jehovah2 that ,david was plainly informed of the intention of the ,gibeonites of 'hanging up' the seven persons 'before ,jehovah' as an 'atonement2' that he willingly surrendered them for that atrocity2 that he evidently expected from that act a cessation of the famine2 and that this calamity is reported to have really disappeared in consequence of the offering 7,ibid1 p4 #cib74 ,kalisch1 in his anxiety to diminish as far as possible the evidence that human sacrifices were enjoined by the law1 urges that the passage in ,leviticus 7xxvii4 #bi7 merely implies that everything so devoted shall be destroyed4 ,the extirpation of the men1 as a rule heathen enemies in ,canaan1 or ,hebrew idolaters1 is indeed referred to a command of ,jehovah1 but it is not intended as a sacrifice to him 7,ibid1 p4 #dji74 ,surely this verges on quibbling1 and is not even then borne out by the context4 ,leviticus xxvii4 deals entirely with private singular vows1 and the devoting 7,cherem7 of man and beast and of the field of his possession1 is not the judicial devoting to destruction of an idolatrous city or individual1 but a special voluntary offering from a pious worshipper4 ,besides1 even if such judicial duties were the rule1 what of the exceptions8 ,there are several indications of the practice of human sacrifice to ,jehovah beyond the two related by ,kalisch 7the command to sacrifice ,isaac is in itself a consecration by ,god of the abomination72 the curious account of ,aaron's death--whose garments are taken off and put on his son1 and who thereupon dies at the top of the mount1 having walked up there for that purpose1 clearly indicates that he did not die a natural death 7,numbers xx4 #bc-bh74 ,many think that the fire from the ,lord which devoured ,nadab and ,abihu 7,lev4 x4 #a-e7 denotes the sacrifice before the ,lord of the offending priests4 ,kalisch demurs to these latter charges1 and to some other additional ones1 but says3 ,it is1 therefore1 undoubted that human sacrifices were offered by the ,hebrews from the earliest times up to the ,babylonian period1 both in honour of ,jehovah and of heathen deities1 not only by depraved idolaters1 but sometimes even by pious servants of ,god2 they probably ceased to be presented to ,jehovah not much before they ceased to be presented at all 7,leviticus1 part i41 p4 #cif74 ,we cannot here omit to notice the command of ,god in ,exodus xxii4 #bi1 #cj3 ,the first-born of thy sons shalt thou give to me4 ,likewise thou shalt do with thine oxen and with thy sheep1 etc4 ,as against this we read a command in chap4 xiii4 #ac1 ,all the first-born of man among thy children thou shalt redeem4 ,here1 as in many other instances1 we get contradictory commands1 best explained by the fact that the ,pentateuch is the work of many hands4 ,kalisch says3 ,it is impossible to deny that the first-born sons were frequently sacrificed1 not only by idolatrous ,israelites1 in honour of foreign gods1 as ,moloch and ,baal1 but by pious men in honour of ,jehovah2 but the ,pentateuch1 the embodiment of the more enlightened and advanced creed of the ,hebrews1 distinctly commanded the redemption of the first-born 7,ibid1 p4 #djd74 ,kalisch--we may point out--considers the ,pentateuch in its present form as post ,babylonian1 and regards it as a reforming agent in the ,jewish community4 ,in ,numbers v4 #ab-ca we find the command to practise the brutal and superstitious custom of the ordeal1 the endorsement of the whole ordeal system of the ,middle ,ages4 ,deuteronomy xiii4 is entirely devoted to commands of murder1 and is the indulgence given beforehand to every persecuting priest4 ,the prophet whom ,god uses to prove his people1 is to be put to death for being ,god's instrument2 anyone who tries to turn people aside from ,god is to be stoned1 and the hand of the nearest and dearest is to be first upon him to put him to death2 any city which becomes idolatrous is to be destroyed1 the inhabitants and the cattle are to be slain1 and everything else is to be burnt4 ,deuteronomy xvii4 #b-g is to the same effect4 ,these commands have also borne abundant fruit4 ,who can reckon the millions of human lives that have been spilt in obedience to them8 ,the slaughter of the ,midianites1 of the people of ,jericho1 ,ai1 ,makkedah1 ,libnah1 ,lachish1 and of many another city1 marking with blood each step of the people of ,god1 who smote all the souls that were in each1 and let none remain--all these are but as the first-fruits of the great harvest of human slaughter1 reaped for the glory of ,god4 ,right through the sacred volume runs the scarlet river1 staining every page2 when its record closes1 the ,church takes it up1 and the river rolls on down the centuries2 let the ,inquisition tell over its victims2 let ,spain reckon her murdered ones1 #ca1iab burnt alive in that one land alone2 let the ,netherlands speak of their slain sons and daughters2 let ,france and ,italy swell the tale2 nor let ,england and ,scotland be forgotten1 nor the blood-roll of ,ireland be missed2 ,catholic murdering ,arian2 ,arian slaying ,catholic2 ,romanist burning ,protestant2 ,protestant hanging ,romanist4 ,the names of those who obey ,god's command may be changed1 but they all do the same accursed work1 spreading religion everywhere with fire and sword2 nor does the harm confine itself to ,jews and ,christians only1 for ,mahomet1 the prophet of ,arabia1 catches up the teaching of ,moses and re-echoes it1 and the ,moslem follows on the inspired path1 and stains it once again with human blood4 ,a ,god1 a ,bible1 a priesthood--how have they ruined the world2 how fair and bright might earth have been had there been no teachers of religion6 ,how powerless were the mightiest monarch's arm1 ,vain his loud threat and impotent his frown6 ,how ludicrous the priest's dogmatic roar6 ,the weight of his exterminating curse ,how light6 and his affected charity1 ,to suit the pressure of the changing times1 ,what palpable deceit6 but for thy aid1 ,religion6 but for thee1 prolific fiend1 ,who peoplest earth with demons1 hell with men1 ,and heaven with slaves6 ,thou taintest all thou look'st upon4444444 --7,queen ,mab1 by ,p4,b4 ,shelley2 can4 #f4 ,collected works1 p4 #ab1 edition #ahci47 ,deuteronomy xxi4 #aj-ad instructs the ,hebrew that if1 after victory1 he sees a beautiful woman and desires her1 he may take her1 and if later1 thou have no delight in her1 then thou shalt let her go whither she will1 to starvation1 to misery1 what matter1 after ,god's chosen is satisfied4 ,deut4 xxiii4 #b punishes a man for that which is no fault of his1 his illegitimate birth4 ,we have omitted many absurd precepts found in this ,mosaic code1 and have only chosen those which are grossly immoral1 and can be defended by no kind of reasoning as to defective1 or imperfect morality1 suited to a nation in a low stage of civilisation4 ,these laws not only fall short of a perfect morality1 but they are distinctly and foully immoral1 and tend directly to the brutalisation of the nation which should live under them4 ,it is true that there is much pure morality in this code1 and some refined feeling here and there4 ,these jewels are curiously out of place in their surroundings4 ,imagine a people so savage as to need laws permitting all the abominations referred to above1 and yet so cultivated as to be capable of appreciating the beauty of3 ,if thou see the ass of him that hateth thee lying under his burden1 and wouldest forbear to help him2 thou shalt surely help him 7,exodus xxiii4 #e74 ,it is time that it should be publicly acknowledged that the so-called ,mosaic code is literally a mosaic of scattered fragments of legislation1 of various ages1 and various stages of civilisation1 put together a few hundred years before ,christ4 ,at present1 the whole code lies on the shoulders of ,christianity1 and is fairly pleaded against it by the ,freethinker4 ,it is not necessary to speak here against the practical morality of ,old ,testament saints2 the very names of ,lot1 ,abraham1 ,isaac1 ,jacob1 ,moses1 ,joshua1 ,samuel1 ,david1 etc41 bring before the mind's eye a list of crimes so foul1 so cowardly1 so bloody1 that no enumeration of them can be needed4 ,of them1 we may fairly say with ,virgil3-- ,non ragioniam di lor1 ma guarda e passa4 ,turning to the ,new ,testament morality1 we may attack it in various ways3 we may argue that the better part of it is not new1 and therefore cannot be regarded as especially inspired1 or that it leaves out of account many virtues necessary to the well-being of families and states2 or we may contend that much of it is harmful1 and much of it impracticable4 ,the better part is that which is ,,non-,,original4 ,all that is fair and beautiful in ,christian morality had been taught in the world ages before ,christ was born4 ,buddha1 ,confucius1 ,lao-,tsze1 ,mencius1 ,zoroaster1 ,manu1 taught the noble human morality found in some of the teaching ascribed to ,christ 7throughout this ,section the morality put into ,christ's mouth in the ,new ,testament will be treated as his74 ,christ taught the duty of returning good for evil4 ,buddha said3 ,a man who foolishly does me wrong ,i will return to him the protection of my ungrudging love2 the more evil comes from him1 the more good shall go from me 7,anthology1 by ,moncure ,d4 ,conway1 page #bdj74 ,in the ,buddhist ,dhammapada we read3 ,let a man overcome anger by love2 let him overcome evil by good2 let him overcome the greedy by liberality1 the liar by truth 7,ibid1 p4 #cjg74 ,again3 ,hatred does not cease by hatred at any time2 hatred ceases by love2 this is an old rule 7,ibid1 p4 #aca74 ,lao-,tsze says3 ,the good ,i would meet with goodness4 ,the not good ,i would meet with goodness also4 ,the faithful ,i would meet with faith4 ,the not faithful ,i would meet with faith also4 ,virtue is faithful4 ,recompense injury with kindness 7,ibid1 p4 #cfe74 ,confucius struck a yet higher and truer note3 ,some one said1 ',what do you say concerning the principle that injury should be recompensed with kindness8' ,the ,sage replied1 ',with what1 then1 will you recompense kindness8 ,recompense kindness with kindness1 and injury with justice' 7,ibid1 p4 #f74 ,manu places returning good for evil in his tenfold system of duties2 in his code also we find3 ,by forgiveness of injuries the learned are purified 7,ibid1 p4 #caa74 ,the golden rule is as old as the generous and just heart4 ,the ,saboean ,book of the ,law taught3 ,let none of you treat his brother in a way which he himself would dislike 7,ibid1 p4 #g74 ,tsze-,kung asked1 ',is there one word which may serve as a rule for one's whole life8' ,confucius answered1 ',is not reciprocity such a word8 ,what you do not wish done to yourself1 do not to others4 ,when you are labouring for others let it be with the same zeal as if it were for yourself' 7,ibid1 pp4 #f1 #g74 ,if ,christ taught humility1 we read from ,lao-,tsze3 ,i have three precious things which ,i hold fast and prize--,compassion1 ,economy1 ,humility4 ,being compassionate1 ,i can therefore be brave4 ,being economical1 ,i can therefore be liberal4 ,not daring to take precedence of the world1 ,i can therefore become chief among the perfect ones4 ,in the present day men give up compassion1 and cultivate only courage4 ,they give up economy and aim only at liberality4 ,they give up the last place1 and seek only the first4 ,it is their death 7,ibid1 p4 #baf74 ,lao-,tsze says again3 ,by undivided attention to the passion-nature and tenderness it is possible to be a little child4 ,by putting away impurity from the hidden eye of the heart1 it is possible to be without spot4 ,there is a purity and quietude by which we may rule the whole world4 ,to keep tenderness1 ,i pronounce strength4444 ,the fact that the weak can conquer the strong and the tender the hard1 is known to all the world2 yet none carry it out in practice4 ,the reason of heaven does not strive1 yet conquers well2 does not call1 yet things come of their own accord2 is slack1 yet plans well 7,ibid1 pp4 #cbc1 #cbd74 ,again3 ,the sage 444 puts himself last1 and yet is first2 abandons himself1 and yet is preserved4 ,is not this through having no selfishness8 ,hereby he preserves self-interest intact4 ,he is not self-displaying1 and therefore he shines4 ,he is not self-approving1 and therefore he is distinguished4 ,he is not self-praising1 and therefore he has merit4 ,he is not self-exalting1 and therefore he stands high2 and inasmuch as he does not strive1 no one in all the world strives with him4 ,that ancient saying1 ',he that humbles himself shall be preserved entire'--oh1 it is no vain utterance 7,ibid1 pp4 #cbg1 #cbh74 ,jesus is said to be pre-eminent as a moral teacher because he directed his teaching to the improvement of the heart1 knowing that from a good heart a good life would flow2 in ,manu's code we read3 ,action1 either mental1 verbal1 or corporeal1 bears good or evil fruit as itself is good or evil 444 of that threefold action be it known in the world that the heart is the instigator 7,ibid1 p4 #d74 ,buddha said3 ,it is the heart of love and faith accompanying good actions which spreads1 as it were1 a beneficent shade from the world of men to the world of angels 7,ibid1 p4 #bcd74 ,jesus reminded the people that the ceremonial duties of religion were small compared with the weightier matters of the law1 justice1 mercy1 and truth2 ,manu wrote3 ,to a man contaminated by sensuality1 neither the ,vedas1 nor liberality1 nor sacrifices1 nor observances1 nor pious austerities will procure felicity4 ,a wise man must faithfully discharge his moral duties1 even though he dares not constantly perform the ceremonies of religion4 ,he will fall very low if he performs ceremonial acts only1 and fails to discharge his moral duties 7,ibid1 p4 #c74 ,exactly parallel to a saying of ,jesus is one in the ,saboean ,book of the ,law3 ,adhere so firmly to the truth that your yea shall be yea1 and your nay1 nay 7,ibid1 p4 #g74 ,in urging that all great moral duties were taught by pre-,christian thinkers1 we do not mean that ,christ took his moral sayings from the books of these great ,eastern teachers2 there was no necessity that he should go so far in search of them1 for in the teachings of the ,rabbis of his nation he found all of which he stood in need4 ,many of these teachings have been preserved in the more modern ,talmud1 grains of wheat amid much chaff1 the moral thoughts of some of the purest ,jewish minds4 ,take the ,talmud and study it1 and then judge from what uninspired source ,jesus drew much of his highest teaching4 ',whoso looketh on the wife of another with a lustful eye1 is considered as if he had committed adultery'--7,kalah74 ',with what measure we mete1 we shall be measured again'--7,johanan74 ',what thou wouldst not like to be done to thyself1 do not to others2 this is the fundamental law'--7,hillel74 ',if he be admonished to take the splinter out of his eye1 he would answer1 ,take the beam out of thine own'--7,tarphon74 ',imitate ,god in his goodness4 ,be towards thy fellow-creatures as he is towards the whole creation4 ,clothe the naked2 heal the sick2 comfort the afflicted2 be a brother to the children of thy ,father4' ,the whole parable of the houses built on the rock and on the sand is taken out of the ,talmud1 and such instances of quotation might be indefinitely multiplied 7,on ,inspiration2 by ,annie ,besant2 ,scott ,series1 p4 #bj74 ,from these founts ,jesus drew his morality1 and spoke as ,jew to ,jews1 out of the ,jewish teachings4 ,to point out these facts is by no means to disparage the nobler part of ,christian morality4 ,it is rather to elevate ,humanity by showing that pure thoughts and gracious words are human1 not divine2 that the so-called inspiration is in all races cultivated to a certain point1 and not in one alone2 that morality is a fair blossom of earth1 not a heaven-transplanted exotic1 and grows naturally out of the rich soil of the loving human heart and the noble human brain4 ,what nobler or grander moral teachings can be found anywhere than breathe through the following passages1 taken from the bibles of all nations so ably collected for us by ,mr4 ,corway in the ,sacred ,anthology quoted from above8 ,let a man continually take pleasure in truth1 in justice1 in laudable practices and in purity2 let him keep in subjection his speech1 his arm1 and his appetites4 ,wealth and pleasures repugnant to law1 let him shun2 and even lawful acts which may cause pain1 or be offensive to mankind4 ,let him not have nimble hands1 restless feet1 or voluble eyes2 let him not be flippant in his speech1 nor intelligent in doing mischief4 ,let him walk in the path of good men 7,manu1 p4 #g74 ,he who neglecteth the duties of this life is unfit for this1 much less for any higher world 7,bhagavat ,gita1 p4 #bf74 ,charity is the free gift of anything not injurious4 ,if no benefit is intended1 or the gift is harmful1 it is not charity4 ,there must also be the desire to assist1 or to show gratitude4 ,it is not charity when gifts are given from other considerations1 as when animals are fed that they may be used1 or presents given by lovers to bind affection1 or to slaves to stimulate labour4 ,it is found where man1 seeking to diffuse happiness among all men--those he loves1 and those he loves not--digs canals and pools1 makes roads1 bridges1 and seats1 and plants trees for shade4 ,it is found where1 from compassion for the miserable and the poor1 who have none to help them1 a man erects resting-places for wanderers1 and drinking-fountains1 or provides food1 raiment1 medicine for the needy1 not selecting one more than another4 ,this is true charity1 and bears much fruit 7,katha ,chari1 pp4 #bai1 #bbj74 ,never will ,i seek1 nor receive1 private individual salvation--never enter into final peace alone2 but for ever1 and everywhere1 will ,i live and strive for the universal redemption of every creature throughout the world 7,kwan-yin1 p4 #bcc74 ,all men have in themselves the feelings of mercy and pity1 of shame and hatred of vice4 ,it is for each one by culture to let these feelings grow1 or to let them wither4 ,they are part of the organisation of men1 as much as the limbs or senses1 and may be trained as well4 ,the mountain ,nicon-chau naturally brings forth beautiful trees4 ,even when the trunks are cut down1 young shoots will constantly rise up4 ,if cattle are allowed to feed there1 the mountain looks bare4 ,shall we say1 then1 that bareness is natural to the mountain8 ,so the lower passions are let loose to eat down the nobler growths of reverence and love in the heart of man2 shall we1 therefore1 say that there are no such feelings in his heart at all8 ,under the quiet peaceful airs of morning and evening the shoots tend to grow again4 ,humanity is the heart of man2 justice is the path of man4 ,to know heaven is to develop the principle of our higher nature 7,mencius1 pp4 #bge1 #bgf74 ,the first requisite in the pursuit of virtue is1 that the learner think of his own improvement1 and do not act from a regard to 7the admiration of7 others 7,the ,she-,king1 p4 #bhf74 ,benevolence1 justice1 fidelity1 and truth1 and to delight in virtue without weariness1 constitute divine nobility 7,mencius1 p4 #cci74 ,virtue is a service man owes himself2 and though there were no heaven1 nor any ,god to rule the world1 it were not less the binding law of life4 ,it is man's privilege to know the right and follow it4 ,betray and prosecute me1 brother men6 ,pour out your rage on me1 ,o malignant devils6 ,smile1 or watch my agony with cold disdain1 ye blissful gods6 ,earth1 hell1 heaven1 combine your might to crush me--,i will still hold fast by this inheritance6 ,my strength is nothing--time can shake and cripple it2 my youth is transient--already grief has withered up my days2 my heart--alas6 it seems well nigh broken now6 ,anguish may crush it utterly1 and life may fail2 but even so my soul1 that has not tripped1 shall triumph1 and dying1 give the lie to soulless destiny1 that dares to boast itself man's master 7,ramayana1 pp4 #cdj1 #cda74 ,what ,christian apostle left behind him the records of such words as those of ,confucius1 boldly spoken to a king3 ,ke ,k'ang1 distressed about the number of thieves in his kingdom1 inquired of ,confucius how he might do away with them8 ,the sage said1 ',if you1 sir1 were not covetous1 the people would not steal1 though you should pay them for it4' ,ke ,k'ang asked1 ',what do you say about killing the unprincipled for the good of the principled8' ,confucius said1 ',in carrying out your government1 why use killing at all8 ,let the rulers desire what is good1 and the people will be good4 ,the grass must bend when the wind blows across it4' ,how can men who cannot rectify themselves1 rectify others8 7,analects of ,confucius1 p4 #ceh74 ,in ,the ,wheel of the ,law1 by ,henry ,alabaster1 we find some most interesting information on the moral teaching of ,buddhism1 and the following quotation is taken from one of the ,sutras3 ,on a certain occasion the ,lord ,buddha led a number of his disciples to a village of the ,kalamachou1 where his wisdom and merit and holiness were known4 ,and the ,kalamachou assembled1 and did homage to him and said1 ',many priests and ,brahmins have at different times visited us1 and explained their religious tenets1 declaring them to be excellent1 but each abused the tenets of every one else1 whereupon we are in doubt as to whose religion is right and whose wrong2 but we have heard that the ,lord ,buddha teaches an excellent religion1 and we beg that we may be freed from doubt1 and learn the truth4' ,and the ,lord ,buddha answered1 ',you were right to doubt1 for it was a doubtful matter4 ,i say unto all of you1 ,do not believe in what ye have heard2 that is1 when you have heard anyone say this is especially good or extremely bad2 do not reason with yourselves that if it had not been true1 it would not have been asserted1 and so believe in its truth4 ,neither have faith in traditions1 because they have been handed down for many generations and in many places4 ,do not believe in anything because it is rumoured and spoken of by many2 do not think that it is a proof of its truth4 ,do not believe merely because the written statement of some old sage is produced2 do not be sure that the writing has ever been revised by the said sage1 or can be relied on4 ,do not believe in what you have fancied1 thinking that because an idea is extraordinary it must have been implanted by a ,dewa1 or some wonderful being4 ,do not believe in guesses1 that is1 assuming some thing at haphazard as a starting-point1 draw your conclusions from it2 reckoning your two and your three and your four before you have fixed your number one4 ,do not believe because you think there is analogy1 that is1 a suitability in things and occurrences1 such as believing that there must be walls of the world1 because you see water in a basin1 or that ,mount ,meru must exist because you have seen the reflection of trees3 or that there must be a creating ,god because houses and towns have builders4444 ,do not believe merely on the authority of your teachers and masters1 or believe and practise merely because they believe and practise4 ,i tell you all1 you must of your own selves know that 'this is evil this is punishable1 this is censured by wise men1 belief in this will bring no advantage to one1 but will cause sorrow4' ,and when you know this1 then eschew it4 ,i say to all you dwellers in this village1 answer me this4 ,lopho1 that is covetousness1 ,thoso1 that is anger and savageness1 and ,moho1 that is ignorance and folly--when any or all of these arise in the hearts of men1 is the result beneficial or the reverse8' ,and they answered1 ',it is not beneficial1 ,o ,lord6' ,then the ,lord continued1 ',covetous1 passionate1 and ignorant men destroy life and steal1 and commit adultery1 and tell lies1 and incite others to follow their example1 is it not so8' ,and they answered1 ',it is as the ,lord says4' ,and he continued1 ',covetousness1 passion1 ignorance1 the destruction of life1 theft1 adultery1 and lying1 are these good or bad1 right or wrong8 ,do wise men praise or blame them8 ,are they not unprofitable1 and causes of sorrow8' ,and they replied1 ',it is as the ,lord has spoken4' ,and the ,lord said1 ',for this ,i said to you1 do not believe merely because you have heard1 but when of your own consciousness you know a thing to be evil1 abstain from it4' ,and then the ,lord taught of that which is good1 saying1 ',if any of you know of yourselves that anything is good and not evil1 praised by wise men1 advantageous1 and productive of happiness1 then act abundantly according to your belief4 ,now ,i ask you1 ,alopho1 absence of covetousness1 ,athoso1 absence of passion1 ,amoho1 absence of folly1 are these profitable or not8' ,and they answered1 ',profitable4' ,the ,lord continued1 ',men who are not covetous1 or passionate1 or foolish1 will not destroy life1 nor steal1 nor commit adultery1 nor tell lies2 is it not so8' ,and they answered1 ',it is as the ,lord says4' ,then the ,lord asked1 ',is freedom from covetousness1 passion1 and folly1 from destruction of life1 theft1 adultery1 and lying1 good or bad1 right or wrong1 praised or blamed by wise men1 profitable1 and tending to happiness or not8' ,and they replied1 ',it is good1 right1 praised by the wise1 profitable1 and tending to happiness4' ,and the ,lord said1 ',for this ,i taught you1 not to believe merely because you have heard1 but when you believed of your own consciousness1 then to act accordingly and abundantly' 7pp4 #ce-ch74 ,in this wise fashion did ,buddha found his morality1 basing it on utility1 the true measure of right and wrong4 ,buddhism has its ,five ,commandments1 certainly equal in value to the ,ten ,commandments of ,jews and ,christians3-- ,first4 ,thou shall abstain from destroying or causing the destruction of any living thing4 ,second4 ,thou shalt abstain from acquiring or keeping1 by fraud or violence1 the property of another4 ,third4 ,thou shalt abstain from those who are not proper objects for thy lust4 ,fourth4 ,thou shalt abstain from deceiving others either by word or deed4 ,fifth4 ,thou shalt abstain from intoxication 7,ibid1 p4 #eg74 ,from ,dr4 ,muir's translations of religious and moral sentiments1 already quoted from1 we might fill page after page with purest morality4 ,let a man be virtuous even while yet a youth2 for life is transitory4 ,if duty is performed1 a good name will be obtained1 as well as happiness1 here and after death 7,mahabharata1 xii41 #fech1 p4 #bb74 ,deluded by avarice1 anger1 fear1 a man does not understand himself4 ,he plumes himself upon his high birth1 contemning those who are not well-born2 and overcome by the pride of wealth1 he reviles the poor4 ,he calls others fools1 and does not look to himself4 ,he blames the faults of others1 but does not govern himself4 ,when the wise and the foolish1 the rich and the poor1 the noble and the ignoble1 the proud and the humble1 have departed to the cemetery and all sleep there1 their troubles are at an end1 and their bodies are stripped of flesh1 little else than bones1 united by tendons--other men then perceive no difference between them1 whereby they could recognise a distinction of birth or of form4 ,seeing that all sleep1 deposited together in the earth1 why do men foolishly seek to treat each other injuriously8 ,he who1 after bearing this admonition1 acts in conformity therewith from his birth onwards1 shall attain the highest blessedness 7,ibid1 xi4 #aaf1 p4 #bc74 ,such are a few of the moral teachings current in the ,east before the time of ,christ4 ,since that period1 these non-,christian nations have gone on in their paths1 and many a gem of pure morality might be culled from their later writings1 but we have only here presented teachings that were pre-,christian1 so as to prove how little need there was for a ,god to become incarnate to teach morality to the world4 ,revealed morality has nothing grander to say than this earth-born morality1 nothing sublimer comes from ,juda than comes from ,hindustan and from ,china4 ,just as the symbolism of ,christianity comes from nature1 and is common to many creeds1 so does the morality of ,christianity flow from nature1 and is common to many faiths2 when nations attain to a certain stage of civilisation1 and inherit a certain amount of culture1 they also develop a morality proportionate to the point they have reached1 because morality is necessary to the stability of ,states1 and utility formulates the code of moral laws4 ,christianity can no longer stand on a pinnacle as the sole possessor of a pure and high morality4 ,the pedestal she has occupied is built out of the bricks of ignorance1 and her apostles and her master must take rank among their brethren of every age and clime4 ,it is a serious fault in ,christian morality that it has so many ,,omissions in it4 ,it is full of exhortations to bear1 to suffer1 to be patient2 it sorely lacks appeals to patriotism1 to courage1 to self-respect4 ,the heroes of ,paganism exemplified the heroism of enterprise4 ,patriotism1 chivalrous deeds of valour1 high-souled aspirations after glory1 stern justice taking its course in their hands1 while natural feeling was held in abeyance--this was the line in which they shone4 ,our blessed ,lord illustrated all virtues indeed1 but most especially the passive ones4 ,his heroism took its colouring from endurance4 ,women1 though inferior to men in enterprise1 usually come out better than men in suffering2 and it is always to be remembered that our blessed ,lord held his humanity1 not of the stronger1 but of the weaker sex 7,thoughts on ,personal ,religion1 by ,dean ,goulburn1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ii2 ed4 #ahff74 ,what is this but to say1 in polite language1 that ,jesus was very effeminate8 ,the ,christian religion has all the vices of slavery1 and encourages submission to evil instead of resistance to it2 it has in it the pathetic beauty of the meekness of the bruised and beaten wife still loving the injurer1 of the slave forgiving the slave-driver1 but it is a beauty which perpetuates the wrong of which it is born4 ,better1 far better1 both for oppressor and for oppressed1 is resistance to cruelty than submission to it2 submission encourages the wrong-doer where resistance would check him1 and ,christianity fails in that it omits to value strong men and true patriots1 rebels against authority which is unjust4 ,rome taught its citizens to reverence themselves1 to love their country1 to maintain freedom3 the ,roman would die gladly for his mother-country1 and deemed his duty as a citizen the foremost of his obligations4 ,the love of country1 and the sense of service owed to the ,state1 is the grandest and sublimest virtue of the ,pagan world4 ,all felt it1 from the highest to the lowest3 at ,thermopylae the ,spartans died gladly for the land they covered with their bodies1 faithful unto death to the duty entrusted to them by their country2 men and women equally felt the paramount claim of the ,state1 and mothers gave their sons to death rather than that they should fail in duty there4 ,the ,roman was taught to value the ,republic above its officers2 to resist the highest if he grasped at unfair supremacy2 to maintain inviolate the rights and the liberties of the people4 ,christianity undermined all these manly virtues2 it preached obedience to the powers that be1 whether they were good or bad2 it upheld the authority of a ,nero as ordained of ,god1 and pronounced damnation on those who resisted him2 and so it paved the way for the despotism of the ,middle ,ages1 by crushing out the manhood of the nations1 and fashioning them into ,oriental slaves4 ,little wonder that kings embraced ,christianity1 and forced it on their subjects1 for it placed the nations bound at their footstools1 and endorsed the tyranny of man with the authority of ,god4 ,throughout the ,new ,testament what word is there of patriotism8 ,the citizenship is in heaven4 ,what incitement to heroism8 ,resist not the power4 ,what appeal to self-reverence8 ,in my flesh dwelleth no good thing4 ,what cry against injustice and oppression8 ,honour the king1 and give obedience to the froward4 ,christianity makes a paradise for tyrants and a hell for the oppressed4 ,intertwined with the evil of omissions of duty is the direct injury of commanding ,,non-,,resistance1 and of enforcing ,,indifference ,,to ,,earthly ,,cares4 ,i say unto you that ye resist not evil3 but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek1 turn to him the other also4 ,and if any man will sue thee at the law1 and take away thy coat1 let him have thy cloak also4 ,and whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile1 go with him twain4 ,give to him that asketh thee1 and from him that would borrow of thee turn not thou away 7,matt4 v4 #ci-db74 ,the surface meaning of these words is undeniable2 they are the amplification of the command1 resist not evil4 ,what effect would obedience to these injunctions have upon a ,state8 ,none committing an assault would be punished2 every unjust suit would succeed2 every forced concession would be endorsed2 every beggar would live in luxury2 every borrower would spend at will4 ,nay more2 those who did wrong would be rewarded1 and would be thus encouraged to go on in their evil ways4 ,meanwhile1 the man who was insulted would be again struck2 the poor man who had lost one thing would lose two2 the hard-working1 frugal labourer would have to support the beggar and the borrower out of the fruits of his toil4 ,such is ,christ's code of civil laws3 he is deliberately abrogating the ,mosaic code1 an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth1 and is replacing it by his own4 ,if the ,mosaic law is to be taken literally--as it was--that which is to replace it must also be taken literally1 or else one code would be abolished1 and there would be none to succeed it1 so that the ,state would be left in a condition of lawlessness4 ,suppose1 however1 that we allow that the passage is to be taken metaphorically1 what then8 ,a metaphor must mean something3 what does this metaphor mean8 ,it can scarcely signify the exact opposite of what it intimates1 and yet the exact opposite is true morality4 ,only a system of taking ,christ's words contrariwise can make them useful as civil rules1 and even oriental exaggeration can scarcely be credited with saying the diametrically contrary of its real meaning4 ,but it is urged that1 if all men were ,christians1 then this teaching would be right1 and ,christ was bound to give a perfect morality4 ,that is to say1 if people were different to what they are1 this teaching of ,christ would not be injurious because--it would be unneeded6 ,if there were no robbers1 and no assaulters1 and no borrowers1 then the morality of the ,sermon on the ,mount would be most harmless4 ,high praise1 truly1 for a legislator that his laws would not be injurious when they were no longer needed4 ,christ should have remembered that the law is made for sinners1 and that such a law as he gives here is a direct encouragement to sin4 ,we can scarcely wonder that1 inculcating a course of conduct which must inevitably lead to poverty1 ,christ should hold up a state of poverty as desirable4 ,we read in ,matthew v4 #c1 ,blessed are the poor in spirit and it is contended that it is poverty only of spirit which ,christ blesses2 if so1 he blesses the source of much wretchedness1 for poor-spirited people get trampled down1 and are a misery to themselves and a burden to those about them4 ,if1 however1 we turn to ,luke vi4 #bj1 we find the declaration3 ,blessed are ye poor1 addressed directly to his ,apostles1 who were anything but poor in spirit 7,luke ix4 #df1 and xxii4 #bd72 and we find it1 further1 joined with the announcement1 blessed are ye that hunger now1 and followed by the curses3 ,woe unto you that are rich 444 woe unto you that are full4 ,if hunger means hunger after righteousness1 the antithesis full must also mean full of righteousness1 a state on which ,christ would surely not pronounce a woe4 ,mr4 ,bradlaugh well draws out the various thoughts in these most unfortunate sayings3 ,is poverty of spirit the chief amongst virtues1 that ,jesus gives it the prime place in his teaching8 ,is poverty of spirit a virtue at all8 ,surely not4 ,manliness of spirit1 honesty of spirit1 fulness of rightful purpose1 these are virtues2 but poverty of spirit is a crime4 ,when men are poor in spirit1 then do the proud and haughty in spirit oppress and trample upon them1 but when men are true in spirit and determined 7as true men should be7 to resist and prevent evil1 wrong1 and injustice whenever they can1 then is there greater opportunity for happiness here1 and no lesser fitness for the enjoyment of future happiness1 in some may be heaven1 hereafter4 ,are you poor in spirit1 and are you smitten2 in such case what did ,jesus teach8 ',unto him that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other' 7,luke vi4 #bi74 ,it were better far to teach that 'he who courts oppression shares the crime4' ,rather say1 if smitten once1 take careful measures to prevent a future smiting4 ,i have heard men preach passive resistance1 but this teaches actual invitation of injury1 a course degrading in the extreme 444 the poverty of spirit principle is enforced to the fullest conceivable extent--',him that taketh away thy cloak1 forbid not to take thy coat also4 ,give to every man that asketh of thee1 and of him that taketh away thy goods ask them not again' 7,luke vi4 #bi1 #cj74 ,poverty of person is the only possible sequence to this extraordinary manifestation of poverty of spirit4 ,poverty of person is attended with many unpleasantnesses2 and if ,jesus knew that poverty of goods would result from his teaching1 we might expect some notice of this4 ,and so there is--as if he wished to keep the poor content through their lives with poverty1 he says1 ',blessed be ye poor1 for yours is the kingdom of ,god' 7,luke vi4 #bj7 444 ,poor in spirit and poor in pocket4 ,with no courage to work for food1 or money to purchase it1 we might well expect to find the man who held these doctrines with empty stomach also2 and what does ,jesus teach8 ',blessed are ye that hunger now1 for ye shall be filled' 444 ,craven in spirit1 with an empty purse and hungry mouth--what next8 ,the man who has not manliness enough to prevent wrong1 will probably bemoan his hard fate1 and cry bitterly that so sore are the misfortunes he endures4 ,and what does ,jesus teach8 ',blessed are ye that weep now1 for ye shall laugh' 7,luke vi4 #ba7 444 ,jesus teaches that the poor1 the hungry1 and the wretched shall be blessed4 ,this is not so4 ,the blessing only comes when they have ceased to be poor1 hungry1 and wretched4 ,contentment under poverty1 hunger1 and misery is high treason1 not to yourself alone but to your fellows4 ,these three1 like foul diseases1 spread quickly wherever humanity is stagnant and content with wrong 7,what ,did ,jesus ,teach8 pp4 #a-c74 ,but ,jesus did more than panegyrise poverty2 he gave still more exact directions to his disciples as to how poverty should be attained4 ,matt4 vi4 #be-cd is as mischievous a passage as has been penned by any moralist4 ,take no thought for your life1 what ye shall eat or what ye shall drink2 nor yet for your body1 what ye shall put on4 ,it is said that take no thought means1 be not over anxious2 if this be so1 why does ,christ emphasise it by quoting birds and lilies as examples1 things1 which1 literally1 take no thought8 the argument is3 birds do not store food in barns1 yet ,god feeds them4 ,you are more valuable than the birds4 ,god will take equal care of you if you follow the birds' example4 ,the lilies spin no raiment1 yet ,god clothes them4 ,so shall he clothe you1 if you follow their example4 ,the passage has no meaning1 the illustrations no appositeness1 unless ,christ means that no thought is to be taken for the future4 ,he makes the argument still stronger3 the ,gentiles seek meat1 drink1 and clothing4 ,but ,god1 your ,father1 knows your need for all these things4 ,therefore1 seek ye first the kingdom of ,god and his righteousness1 and all these things shall be added unto you4 ,take1 therefore1 no thought for the morrow3 for the morrow shall take thought for the things of itself4 ,sufficient unto the day is the evil thereof4 ,if ,christ only meant the common-place advice1 do not be over-anxious1 he then lays the most absurd stress on it1 and speaks in the most exaggerated way4 ,sensible ,gentiles do not worry themselves by over-anxiety1 after they have taken for the morrow's needs all the care they can2 but they do not act like birds or like lilies1 for they know that many a bird starves in a hard winter because it is not capable of gathering and storing food into barns1 and that many a garbless lily is shrivelled up by the cold east wind4 ,they notice that though men and women are much better than birds and lilies1 yet ,god does not always feed and clothe them2 that1 on the contrary1 many a poor creature dies of starvation and of winter's bitter cold2 when our daily papers record no inquests on those who die from want1 because none but ,god takes thought for them1 then it will be time enough for us to cease from preparing for the morrow1 and to trust that heavenly ,father who at present knoweth that we have need of these things1 and1 knowing1 lets so many of his children starve for lack of them4 ,the true meaning of ,christ is plainly shown by his injunctions to the twelve apostles and to the seventy when he sent them on a journey3 ,take nothing for your journey1 neither staves1 nor scrip1 neither bread1 nor money2 neither have two coats apiece 7,luke ix4 #c72 and3 ,carry neither purse1 nor scrip1 nor shoes 444 in the same house remain1 eating and drinking such things as they give 7,ibid1 x4 #d1 #g74 ,the same spirit breathes in his injunction to the young man3 ,go and sell that thou hast1 and give to the poor1 and thou shalt have treasure in heaven2 and come and follow me 7,matt4 xix4 #ba74 ,the fact is that ,jesus held the ascetic doctrine1 that poverty was1 in itself1 meritorious2 and1 in common with many sects1 he regarded the highest life as the life of the mendicant teacher4 ,his doctrine of poverty passed on into the ,church that bears his name1 and one of the three vows taken by those who aspire to lead the angelic life is the vow of poverty4 ,the mendicant friars of the ,middle ,ages1 the sturdy beggars1 are the lineal descendants of the ,eastern mendicants1 and are the fruits of the morality taught by ,christ4 ,on this point1 as on many others1 the morality of the ,epistles is far higher than that of the ,gospels1 and the common-sense and righteous law1 that if any would not work neither should he eat is1 however1 incompatible with ,christ's admiration for mendicancy1 a far more wholesome and salutary kind of moral teaching than that which we have been considering4 ,the dogma of rewards and punishments as taught by ,christ is fatal to all reality of virtue4 ,to do right from hope of heaven3 to avoid wrong for fear of hell3 such virtue is only skin-deep1 and will not stand rough usage4 ,true virtue does right because it is right1 and therefore beneficial1 and not from hope of a personal reward1 or from dread of a personal punishment1 hereafter4 ,christianity is the apotheosis of selfishness1 gilded over with piety2 self is the pivot on which all turns3 ,what shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world1 and lose his own soul8 7,mark viii4 #cf74 ,he that receiveth a prophet in the name of a prophet shall receive a prophet's reward2 and he that receiveth a righteous man in the name of a righteous man shall receive a righteous man's reward4 ,and whosoever shall give to drink unto one of these little ones a cup of cold water only in the name of a disciple1 verily ,i say unto you1 he shall in nowise lose his reward 7,matt4 x4 #da1 #db74 ,whosoever therefore shall confess me before men1 him will ,i confess also before my ,father which is in heaven4 ,but whosoever shall deny me before men1 him will ,i also deny before my ,father which is in heaven 7,ibid1 #cb1 #cc74 ,pray to thy ,father which is in secret2 and thy ,father1 which seeth in secret1 shall reward thee openly 7,ibid1 vi4 #f74 ,we have forsaken all and followed thee3 what shall we have therefore8444 ,when the ,son of man shall sit in the throne of his glory1 ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones 7,matt4 xix4 #bg1 #bh74 ,the passages might be multiplied2 but these are sufficient to show the thorough selfishness inculcated4 ,all is done with an eye to personal gain in the future2 even the cold water is to be given1 not because the little one is thirsty and needs it1 but for the reward promised therefore to the giver4 ,pure1 generous love is excluded3 there is a taint of selfishness in every gift4 ,the thought of ,heaven is also injurious to human welfare1 because men learn to disregard earth for the sake of the glory to be revealed4 ,people whose citizenship is in heaven1 make but sorry citizens of earth1 for they regard this world as no continuing city1 while they seek one to come4 ,hence1 as all history shows us1 they are apt to despise this world while dreaming about another1 to trouble little about earth's wrongs while thinking of the mansions in the skies2 to acquiesce in any assertion that the whole world lieth in wickedness1 and to trouble themselves but little as to the means of improving it4 ,from this line of thought follows the long list of monasteries and nunneries1 wherein people separate themselves from this world in order to prepare for another4 ,all this evil flows directly from the ,christian morality which teaches that all hopes1 efforts1 and aims should be turned towards laying up treasures in heaven1 where also the heart should be4 ,one need scarcely add a word of reprobation as to the horrible doctrine of eternal torture1 although that1 too1 is part of the teaching of ,christ4 ,the whole conscience of civilised mankind is so turning against that shameful and cruel dogma1 that it is only now believed among the illiterate and uncultured of the ,christians1 and soon will be too savage even for them4 ,it has1 however1 hardened the hearts of many in days gone by1 and has made the burning of heretics seem an appropriate act of faith1 since men only began on earth the roasting which ,god was to continue to all eternity4 ,the morality of ,christ is also faulty because it shares in the persecuting spirit of the ,mosaic code4 ,the disciples are told3 ,whosoever shall not receive you1 nor hear your words1 when ye depart out of that house or city1 shake off the dust of your feet4 ,verily1 ,i say unto you1 ,it shall be more tolerable for the land of ,sodom and ,gomorrah in the day of judgment1 than for that city 7,matt4 x4 #ad1 #ae74 ,christ proclaims openly3 ,think not that ,i am come to send peace on earth3 ,i came not to send peace1 but a sword4 ,for ,i am come to set a man at variance against his father1 and the daughter against her mother1 and the daughter-in-law against her mother-in-law4 ,and a man's foes shall be they of his own household 7,ibid1 #cd-cf74 ,to a man whom he calls to follow him1 and who asks to be allowed first to bury his father1 ,christ gives the brutal reply3 ,let the dead bury their dead3 but go thou and preach the kingdom of ,god 7,luke x4 #fj74 ,another time he says3 ,if any man come to me1 and hate not his father1 and mother1 and wife1 and children1 and brethren1 and sisters1 yea1 and his own life also1 he cannot be my disciple 7,ibid1 xiv4 #bf74 ,a religion that destroys the home1 that introduces discord into the family1 that bids its votaries hate all else save ,christ1 acts as a disintegrating force in human life1 and cannot be too strongly opposed4 ,neither must we forget the teaching of ,christ regarding marriage4 ,he deliberately places virginity above marriage1 and counsels self-mutilation to those capable of making the sacrifice4 ,all men cannot receive this saying1 save they to whom it is given 444 there be eunuchs which have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven's sake4 ,he that is able to receive it1 let him receive it 7,matt4 xix4 #aa1 #ab74 ,following this1 #a ,cor4 vii4 teaches the superiority of an unmarried state1 and threatens trouble in the flesh to those who marry4 ,and in ,rev4 xiv4 #a-d1 we find1 following the ,lamb1 with special privileges1 #add1jjj who were not defiled with women2 for they are virgins4 ,this coarse and insulting way of regarding women1 as though they existed merely to be the safety-valves of men's passions1 and that the best men were above the temptation of loving them1 has been the source of unnumbered evils4 ,to this saying of ,christ are due the self-mutilations of many1 such as ,origen1 and the destruction of myriads of human lives in celibacy2 monks and nuns innumerable owe to this evil teaching their shrivelled lives and withered hearts4 ,for centuries the leaders of ,christian thought spoke of women as of a necessary evil1 and the greatest saints of the ,church are those who despised women the most4 ,the subjection of women in ,western lands is wholly due to ,christianity4 ,among the ,teutons women were honoured1 and held a noble and dignified place in the tribe2 ,christianity brought with it the evil ,eastern habit of regarding women as intended for the toys and drudges of man1 and intensified it with a special spite against them1 as the daughters of ,eve1 who was first deceived4 ,strangely different to the 99general ,eastern feeling and showing a truer and nobler view of life1 is the precept of ,manu3 ,where women are honoured1 there the deities are pleased2 but where they are dishonoured1 there all religious acts become fruitless 7,anthology1 p4 #caj74 ,evil also is the teaching that repentance is higher than purity3 joy shall be in heaven over one sinner that repenth1 more than over ninety and nine just persons which need no repentance 7,luke xv4 #g1 #aj74 ,the fatted calf is slain for the prodigal son1 who returns home after he has wasted all his substance2 and to the laborious elder son1 during the many years of his service1 the father never gave even a kid that he might make merry with his friends 7,ibid1 #bi74 ,what is all this but putting a premium upon immorality1 and instructing people that the more they sin1 the more joyous will be their welcome whenever they may choose to reform1 and1 like the prodigal1 think to mend their broken fortunes by repentance8 ,thoroughly immoral is the teaching contained in the two parables in ,luke xvi4 ,in the one1 a steward who has wasted his master's goods1 is commended because he went and bribed his employer's debtors to assist him1 by suggesting to them that they should cheat his master by altering the amount of the bills they owed him4 ,in the other1 the parable of the rich man and ,lazarus1 the evil moral is taught that riches are in themselves deserving of punishment1 and poverty of reward4 ,the rich man is in hell simply because he was rich1 and the poor man in ,abraham's bosom simply because he was poor2 it can scarcely add1 one may remark1 to the pleasure of heaven for the ,lazaruses all to look at the ,diveses1 and be unable to reach them1 even to give them a single drop of water4 ,thus whether we see that the nobler part of the ,christian morality is pre-,christian1 and is neither ,christian1 nor ,jewish1 nor ,hindu1 nor ,buddhist1 but is simply human1 and belongs to the race and not to one creed4 ,whether we note the omissions in its code1 making it insufficient for human guidance2 whether we mark its errors1 mistakes1 and injurious teachings2 whichever point of view we take from which to consider it1 we find in it nothing to distinguish it above other moral codes1 or to prevent it from being classed among other moralities1 as being a mixture of good and bad1 and1 therefore1 not to be taken as an1 unerring guide1 being like them1 all ,,fallible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,to ,,section ,,iii4 ,,of ,,part ,,ii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,of ,,books ,,used4 ,bhagavat ,gita1 in ,anthology444#djf ,bradlaugh1 ,the ,bible3 what it is444#cig ,what ,did ,jesus ,teach8444#dad ,buddha1 in ,anthology444#djc1 #dje ,wheel of the ,law444#djh ,cahen1 ,lvitique444#cih ,colenso1 ,pentateuch and ,book of ,joshua444#cif ,confucius1 in ,anthology444#djc1 #djd1 #djh ,dante1 ,inferno444#djc ,dhammapada1 in ,anthology444#djc ,gouldburn1 ,thoughts on ,personal ,religion444#daa ,kalisch1 ,leviticus444#cii1 #djj1 #dja ,katha-,chari1 in ,anthology444#djg ,kwan-yin1 in ,anthology444#djg ,lao-,tsze1 in ,anthology444#djc1 #djd ,mahabharata1 in ,muir444#daj ,manu1 in ,anthology444#djd1 #dje1 #djf1 #dai ,mencius1 in ,anthology444#djg ,prayer ,book1 ,art4 vi4 vii4444#cie ,ramayana1 in ,anthology444#djg ,sabaean ,book of the ,law1 in ,anthology444#djd1 #dje ,shelley1 ,queen ,mab444#djb ,she-,king1 in ,anthology444#djg ,statutes1 #i and #aj ,william ,,iii4 cap4 #cb444cie ,talmud1 quoted by ,besant444#dje 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,of ,,subjects4 ,christian morality1 compared with others444#djc degrading to women444#dai immoral towards sin444#dai non-original444#djc non-resistant444#dab omissions in444#daa paved way for despotism444#dab persecuting in spirit444#dah sanctions mendicancy444#daf selfish444#dag what included in444#cie ,heaven and ,hell1 harm done by belief in444#dag ,heroism of ,paganism444#dab ,human sacrifice1 sanctioned by ,god444#cih among ,jews444#cih ,marriage1 teaching of ,christ concerning444#dai ,morality of great ,pagan teachers444#djf compared with that of ,christ444#djc ,murder of blasphemer1 sanctioned by ,god444#cig heretics444#dja ,ordeal1 sanctioned by ,god444#dja ,poverty inculcated by ,christ444#dad ,prostitution1 sanctioned by ,god444#djb ,religion1 evil of444#djb ,sale of daughter sanctioned by ,god444#cif thief444#cif ,slaves1 beaten to death444#cif ,slavery1 sanctioned by ,god444#cif1 #cig ,unthrift taught by ,christ444#dae ,utility the test of morality444#daa religion according to ,buddha444#djh ,value of ,christianity to tyrants444#dab ,witches1 number of killed444#cig ,witch-murder1 sanctioned by ,god444#cig ,,section ,,iv4--,,its ,,history4 ,this section does not pretend1 within the short limits of some fifty pages1 to give even a complete summary of ,christian history4 ,it proposes only to draw up an impeachment against ,christianity from the facts of its history which occurred in the day of its power1 from the time of ,constantine1 up to the time of the ,reformation4 ,if it be urged that ,christianity was corrupt during this period1 and ought not therefore to be judged by it1 we can only reply that1 corrupt or not1 it is the only ,christianity there was1 and if only bad fruit is brought forth1 it is fair to conclude that the tree which bears nothing else is also bad4 ,if the bishops1 and clergy1 and missionaries were ignorant1 sensual1 tyrannical1 and superstitious1 they are none the less the representatives of ,christianity1 and if these are not true ,christians1 where are the true ,christians from ,a4,d4 #cbd to ,a4,d4 #a1ejj8 ,we propose1 in this section1 to practically condense the dark side of ,mosheim's ,ecclesiastical ,history1 as translated from the ,latin by ,dr4 ,a4 ,maclaine 7ed4 #ahdg71 only adding1 here and there1 extracts from other writers2 all extracts1 therefore1 except where otherwise specified1 will be taken from this valuable history1 a history which1 perhaps from its size and dryness1 is not nearly so much studied by ,freethinkers as it should be2 its special worth for our object is that ,dr4 ,mosheim is a sincere ,christian1 and cannot1 therefore1 be supposed to strain any point unduly against the religion to which he himself belongs4 ,during the second and third centuries the ,christians appear to have grown in power and influence1 and their faith1 made up out of many older creeds and forming a kind of eclectic religion1 gradually spread throughout the ,roman empire1 and became a factor in political problems4 ,in the struggles between the opposing ,roman emperors1 ,a4,d4 #caj-cbd1 the weight of the ,christian influence was thrown on the side of ,constantine1 his rivals being strongly opposed to ,christianity2 ,maximin ,galerius was a bitter persecutor1 and his successor1 ,maximin1 trod in his steps in ,a4,d4 #cab1 and #cac1 ,maxentius was defeated by ,constantine1 and ,maximin by ,licinius1 and in ,a4,d4 #cab ,constantine and ,licinius granted liberty of worship to the ,christians2 in the following year1 according to ,mosheim1 or in ,a4,d4 #cad according to ,eusebius1 a second edict was issued from ,milan1 by the two emperors1 which granted to the ,christians and to all1 the free choice to follow that mode of worship which they may wish 444 that no freedom at all shall be refused to ,christians1 to follow or to keep their observances or worship2 but that to each one power be granted to devote his mind to that worship which he may think adapted to himself 7,eusebius1 ,eccles4 ,hist4 p4 #dca74 ,licinius1 however1 renewed the war against ,constantine1 who immediately embraced ,christianity1 thus securing to himself the sympathy and assistance of the faith which now for the first time saw its votary on the imperial throne of the world1 and ,licinius1 by allying himself with ,paganism1 and persecuting the ,christians1 drove them entirely over to ,constantine1 and was finally defeated and dethroned1 ,a4,d4 #cbd4 ,from that date ,christianity was supreme1 and became the established religion of the ,state4 ,dr4 ,draper regards the conversion of ,constantine from the point of view taken above4 ,he says3 ,it had now become evident that the ,christians constituted a powerful party in the ,state1 animated with indignation at the atrocities they had suffered1 and determined to endure them no longer4 ,after the abdication of ,diocletian 7,a4,d4 #cje71 ,constantine1 one of the competitors for the purple1 perceiving the advantages that would accrue to him from such a policy1 put himself forth as the head of the ,christian party4 ,this gave him1 in every part of the empire1 men and women ready to encounter fire and sword in his behalf2 it gave him unwavering adherents in every legion of the armies4 ,in a decisive battle1 near the ,milvian bridge1 victory crowned his schemes4 ,the death of ,maximin1 and subsequently that of ,licinius1 removed all obstacles4 ,he ascended the throne of the ,csars--the first ,christian emperor4 ,place1 profit1 power--these were in view of whoever now joined the conquering sect4 ,crowds of worldly persons1 who cared nothing about its religious ideas1 became its warmest supporters4 ,pagans at heart1 their influence was soon manifested in the ,paganisation of ,christianity that forthwith ensued4 ,the emperor1 no better than they1 did nothing to check their proceedings4 ,but he did not personally conform to the ceremonial requirements of the ,church until the close of his evil life1 ,a4,d4 #ccg 7,history of the ,conflict between ,religion and ,science1 p4 #ci2 ed4 #ahge74 ,constantine1 in fact1 was not baptised until a few days before his death4 ,the character of the first ,christian emperor is not one which strikes us with admiration4 ,as emperor he sank into a cruel and dissolute monarch1 corrupted by his fortune1 or raised by conquest above the necessity of dissimulation 444 the old age of ,constantine was disgraced by the opposite yet reconcilable vices of rapaciousness and prodigality 7,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall1 vol4 ii41 p4 #cdg74 ,he was as effeminate as he was vicious4 ,he is represented with false hair of various colours1 laboriously arranged by the skilful artists of the time2 a diadem of a new and more expensive fashion2 a profusion of gems and pearls1 of collars and bracelets1 and a variegated flowing robe of silk1 most curiously embroidered with flowers of gold4 ,to his other vices he added most bloodthirsty cruelty4 ,he strangled ,licinius1 after defeating him2 murdered his own son ,crispus1 his nephew ,licinius1 and his wife ,fausta1 together with a number of others4 ,it must indeed have needed an efficacious baptism to wash away his crimes2 and future tyrants were encouraged to believe that the innocent blood which they might shed in a long reign would instantly be washed away in the waters of regeneration 7,ibid1 pp4 #dga1 #dgb74 ,the wealth of the ,christian churches was considerable during the third century1 and the bishops and clergy lived in much pomp and luxury4 ,though several bishops yet continued to exhibit to the world illustrious examples of primitive piety and ,christian virtue1 yet many were sunk in luxury and voluptuousness1 puffed up with vanity1 arrogance1 and ambition1 possessed with a spirit of contention and discord1 and addicted to many other vices that cast an undeserved reproach upon the holy religion of which they were the unworthy professors and ministers4 ,this is testified in such an ample manner by the repeated complaints of many of the most respectable writers of this age1 that truth will not permit us to spread the veil which we should otherwise be desirous to cast over such enormities among an order so sacred4444 ,the example of the bishops was ambitiously imitated by the presbyters1 who1 neglecting the sacred duties of their station1 abandoned themselves to the indolence and delicacy of an effeminate and luxurious life4 ,the deacons1 beholding the presbyters deserting thus their functions1 boldly usurped their rights and privileges2 and the effects of a corrupt ambition were spread through every rank of the sacred order 7p4 #gc74 ,during this century also we find much scandal caused by the pretended celibacy of the clergy1 for the people--regarding celibacy as purer than marriage1 and considering that they1 who took wives1 were of all others the most subject to the influence of malignant demons--urged their clergy to remain celibate1 and many of the sacred order1 especially in ,africa1 consented to satisfy the desires of the people1 and endeavoured to do this in such a manner as not to offer an entire violence to their own inclinations4 ,for this purpose1 they formed connections with those women who had made vows of perpetual chastity2 and it was an ordinary thing for an ecclesiastic to admit one of these fair saints to the participation of his bed1 but still under the most solemn declarations1 that nothing passed in this commerce that was contrary to the rules of chastity and virtue 7p4 #gc74 ,such was the morality of the clergy as early as the third century6 ,the doctrine of the ,church in these primitive times was as confused as its morality was impure4 ,in the first century 7during which we really know nothing of the ,christian ,church71 ,dr4 ,mosheim1 in dealing with divisions and heresies1 points to the false teachers mentioned in the ,new ,testament1 and the rise of the ,gnostic heresy4 ,gnosticism 7from ,greek3 gnosis knowledge71 a system compounded of ,christianity and ,oriental philosophy1 long divided the ,church with the doctrines known as orthodox4 ,the ,gnostics believed in the existence of the two opposing principles of good and evil1 the latter being by many considered as the creator of the world4 ,they held that from the ,supreme ,god emanated a number of ons--generally put at thirty2 7see throughout ,irenus ,against ,heresies7--and some maintained that one of these1 ,christ1 descended on the man ,jesus at his baptism1 and left him again just before his passion2 others that ,jesus had not a real1 but only an apparent1 body of flesh4 ,the ,gnostic philosophy had many forms and many interdivisions2 but most of the heresies of the first centuries were branches of this one tree3 it rose into prominence1 it is said1 about the time of ,adrian1 and among its early leaders were ,marcion1 ,basilides1 and ,valentinus4 ,in addition to the various ,gnostic theories1 there was a deep mark of division between the ,jewish and the ,gentile ,christians2 the former developed into the sects1 of ,nazarenes and ,ebionites1 but were naturally never very powerful in the ,church4 ,in the second century1 as the ,christians become more visible1 their dissensions are also more clearly marked2 and it is important to observe that there is no period in the history of ,christianity wherein those who laid claim to the name ,christian were agreed amongst themselves as to what ,christianity was4 ,gnosticism we see now divided into two main branches1 ,asiatic and ,egyptian4 ,the ,asiatic believed that1 in addition to the two principles of good and evil1 there was a third being1 a mixture of both1 the ,demiurgus1 the creator1 whose son ,jesus was2 they maintained that the body of ,jesus was only apparent2 they enforced the severest discipline against the body1 which was evil1 in that it was material2 and marriage1 flesh1 and wine were forbidden4 ,the ,elcesaites were a judaising branch of this ,asiatic ,gnosticism2 ,saturninus of ,antioch1 ,ardo of ,syria1 and ,marcion of ,pontus headed the movement1 and after them ,lucan1 ,severus1 ,blastes1 ,apelles1 and ,bardesanes formed new sects4 ,tatian 7see ante1 pp4 #bei1 #bfj7 had many followers called ,tatianists1 and in connection with him and his doctrines we hear of the ,eucratites1 ,hydroparastates 7the water-drinkers71 and ,apotactites4 ,the ,eucratites appear to have been in existence before ,tatian professed ,gnosticism1 but he so increased their influence as to be sometimes regarded as their founder4 ,the ,egyptian ,gnostics were less ascetic1 and mostly favoured the idea that ,jesus had a real body on which the on descended and joined himself thereunto4 ,they regarded him as born naturally of ,joseph and ,mary4 ,basilides1 and ,valentinus headed the ,egyptians1 and then we have as sub-divisions the ,carpocratians1 ,ptolemaites1 ,secundians1 ,heracleonites1 ,marcosians1 ,adamites1 ,cainites1 ,sethites1 ,florinians1 ,ophites1 ,artemonites1 and ,hermogenists2 in addition to these we have the ,monarchians or ,patripassians1 who maintained that there was but one ,god1 and that the ,father suffered 7whence this name7 in the person of ,christ4 ,this long list may be closed with the ,montanists1 a sect joined by ,tertullian 7see his account of the orthodox after he became a ,montanist1 ante1 p4 #bbe72 they held that ,montanes1 their founder1 was the ,paraclete promised by ,christ1 missioned to complete the ,christian code2 he forbade second marriages1 the reception into the ,church of those who had been excommunicated for grievous sin1 and inculcated the sternest asceticism4 ,he opposed all learning as anti-,christian1 a doctrine which was rapidly spreading among ,christians1 and which seems1 indeed1 to have been an integral part of the religion from its very beginning 7,matt4 xi4 #be1 #a ,cor4 i4 #bf1 #bg74 ,in the third century the heretic camp received a new light in the person of ,manes1 or ,manichus1 a ,persian magus2 he appears to have been a man of great learning1 a physician1 an astronomer1 a philosopher4 ,he taught the old ,persian creed tinctured with ,christianity1 ,christ being identical with ,mithras 7see ante1 p4 #cfb71 and having come upon earth in an apparent body only to deliver mankind4 ,manes was the paraclete sent to complete his teaching2 the body was evil1 and only by long struggle and mortification could man be delivered from it1 and reach final blessedness4 ,those who desired to lead the highest life1 the elect1 abstained from flesh1 eggs1 milk1 fish1 wine1 and all intoxicating drink1 and remained in the strictest celibacy2 they were to live on bread1 herbs1 pulse1 and melons1 and deny themselves every comfort and every gratification 7see pp4 #hj-hb74 ,the ,hieracites in ,egypt were closely allied with the ,manichans4 ,the ,novatians differed from the orthodox only in their refusal to receive again into the ,church any who had committed grievous crimes1 or who had lapsed during persecution4 ,the ,arabians denied the immortality of the soul1 maintaining that it died with the body1 and that body and soul together would be revivified by ,god4 ,the controversies on the persons of the ,godhead now increased in intensity4 ,noctus of ,smyrna maintained the doctrine of the ,patripassians1 that ,god was one and indivisible1 and suffered to redeem mankind2 ,sabellius also taught that ,god was one1 but that ,jesus was a man1 to whom was united a certain energy only1 proceeding from the ,supreme ,parent 7p4 #hc74 ,he also denied the separate personality of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,paul of ,samosata1 ,bishop of ,antioch1 taught a cognate doctrine1 and founded the sect of the ,paulians or ,paulianists1 and was consequently degraded from his office4 ,thus we see that the history of the ,church1 before it came to power1 is a mass of quarrels and divisions1 varied by ignorance and licentiousness4 ,if we exclude ,origen1 whose writings contain much that is valuable1 the works produced by ,christian writers in these centuries might be thrown into the sea1 and the world would be none the poorer for the loss4 ,,century ,,iv4 ,constantine attained undisputed and sole authority ,a4,d4 #cbd1 and in the year #cbe he summoned the first general council1 that of ,nicea1 or ,nice1 which condemned the errors of ,arius1 and declared ,christ to be of the same substance as the ,father4 ,this council has given its name to the ,nicene ,creed1 although that creed1 as now recited1 differs somewhat from the creed issued at ,nice1 and received its present form at the ,council of ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #cha4 ,during the reign of ,constantine1 the ,church grew swiftly in power and influence1 a growth much aided by the penal laws passed against ,paganism4 ,the moment ,christianity was able to seize the sword1 it wielded it remorselessly1 and cut its way to supremacy in the ,roman world4 ,bribes and penalties shared together in the work of conversion4 ,the hopes of wealth and honours1 the example of an emperor1 his exhortations1 his irresistible smiles1 diffused conviction among the venal and obsequious crowds which usually fill the apartments of a palace4 ,the cities1 which signalised a forward zeal by the voluntary destruction of their temples1 were distinguished by municipal privileges and rewarded with popular donatives2 and the new capital of the ,east gloried in the singular advantage that ,constantinople was never profaned by the worship of idols4 ,as the lower ranks of society are governed by imitation1 the conversion of those who possessed any eminence of birth1 of power1 or of riches1 was soon followed by dependent multitudes4 ,the salvation of the common people was purchased at an easy rate1 if it be true1 that1 in one year1 twelve thousand men were baptised at ,rome1 besides a proportionable number of women and children2 and that a white garment1 with twenty pieces of gold1 had been promised by the emperor to every convert 7,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #dgb1 #dgc74 ,with ,constantine began the ruinous system of dowering the ,church with ,state funds4 ,the emperor directed the treasurers of the province of ,carthage to pay over to the bishop of that district #ah1jjj sterling1 and to honour his further drafts4 ,constantine also gave his subjects permission to bequeath their fortunes to the ,church1 and scattered public money among the bishops with a lavish hand4 ,the three sons of ,constantine followed in his steps1 continuing to abrogate and efface the ancient superstitions of the ,romans1 and other idolatrous nations1 and to accelerate the progress of the ,christian religion throughout the empire4 ,this zeal was no doubt1 laudable2 its end was excellent2 but1 in the means used to accomplish it1 there were many things worthy of blame 7p4 #hh74 ,julian succeded to part of the empire in ,a4,d4 #cfj1 and to sole authority in ,a4,d4 #cfa4 ,he was educated as a ,christian1 but reverted to philosophic ,paganism1 and during his short reign he revoked the special privileges granted to ,christianity1 and placed all creeds on the most perfect civil equality4 ,julian's dislike of ,christianity1 and his philosophic writings directed against it1 have gained for him1 from ,christian writers1 the title of the ,apostate4 ,the emperors who succeeded were1 however1 all ,christian1 and used their best endeavours to destroy ,paganism4 ,christianity spread apace2 multitudes were drawn into the profession of ,christianity1 not by the power of conviction and argument1 but by the prospect of gain1 and the fear of punishment 7p4 #ajb74 ,the zeal and diligence with which ,constantine and his successors exerted themselves in the cause of ,christianity1 and in extending the limits of the ,church1 prevent our surprise at the number of barbarous and uncivilised nations1 which received the ,gospel 7p4 #ij72 and ,dr4 ,mosheim admits that3 ,there is no doubt but that the victories of ,constantine the ,great1 the fear of punishment1 and the desire of pleasing this mighty conqueror and his imperial successors1 were the weighty arguments that moved whole nations1 as well as particular persons1 to embrace ,christianity 7p4 #ia74 ,fraud1 as well as force and favour1 lent its aid to the progress of the ,gospel4 ,we hear of the imprudent methods employed to allure the different nations to embrace the ,gospel 7p4 #ih73 disgraceful would be a fitter term whereby to designate them1 for ,dr4 ,mosheim speaks of the endless frauds of those odious impostors1 who were so far destitute of all principles1 as to enrich themselves by the ignorance and errors of the people4 ,rumours were artfully spread abroad of prodigies and miracles to be seen in certain places 7a trick often practised by the heathen priests71 and the design of these reports was to draw the populace1 in multitudes1 to these places1 and to impose upon their credulity 444 ,nor was this all2 certain tombs were falsely given out for the sepulchres of saints and confessors4 ,the list of the saints was augmented by fictitious names1 and even robbers were converted into martyrs4 ,some buried the bones of dead men in certain retired places1 and then affirmed that they were divinely admonished1 by a dream1 that the body of some friend of ,god lay there4 ,many1 especially of the monks1 travelled through the different provinces2 and not only sold1 with most frontless impudence1 their fictitious relics1 but also deceived the eyes of the multitude with ludicrous combats with evil spirits or genii4 ,a whole volume would be requisite to contain an enumeration of the various frauds which artful knaves practised1 with success1 to delude the ignorant1 when true religion was almost entirely superseded by horrid superstition 7p4 #ih74 ,when to all these weapons we add the forgeries everywhere circulated 7see ante1 pp4 #bdj-bdc71 we can understand how rapidly ,christianity spread1 and how the faithful were rendered pliable to those whose interests lay in deceiving them4 ,during this century flourished some of the greatest fathers of the ,church1 pre-eminent among whom we note ,ambrose1 of ,milan1 ,augustine1 of ,hippo1 and the great ecclesiastical doctor1 ,jerome4 ,already1 in this century1 we find clear traces of the supremacy of the bishop of ,rome1 and when a new pontiff was to be elected by the suffrages of the presbyters and the people1 the city of ,rome was generally agitated with dissensions1 tumults1 and cabals1 whose consequences were often deplorable and fatal 7p4 #id74 ,by a decree of the ,council of ,constantinople1 the bishop of that city was given precedence next after the ,roman prelate1 and the jealousy which arose between the bishops of the two imperial cities fomented the disputes which ended1 finally1 in the separation of the ,eastern and ,western ,churches4 ,of the officers of the ,church in this century we read that3 ,the bishops1 on the one hand1 contended with each other1 in the most scandalous manner1 concerning the extent of their respective jurisdictions1 while1 on the other1 they trampled upon the rights of the people1 violated the privileges of the inferior ministers1 and imitated1 in their conduct1 and in their manner of living1 the arrogance1 voluptuousness1 and luxury of magistrates and princes 7pp4 #ie1 #if74 ,in this century is the first instance of the burning alive of a heretic1 and it was ,spain who lighted that first pile4 ,theodosius1 of all the emperors of this age1 was the bitterest persecutor of the heretic sects4 ,the orthodox emperor considered every heretic as a rebel against the supreme powers of heaven and of earth2 and each of those powers might exercise their peculiar jurisdiction over the soul and body of the guilty4444 ,in the space of fifteen years ,a4,d4 #chj-cid1 he promulgated at least fifteen severe edicts against the heretics2 more especially against those who rejected the doctrine of the ,trinity2 and to deprive them of every hope of escape1 he sternly enacted1 that if any laws or rescripts should be alleged in their favour1 the judges should consider them as the illegal productions either of fraud or forgery4444 ,the heretical teachers 444 were exposed to the heavy penalties of exile and confiscation1 if they presumed to preach the doctrine1 or to practise the rites of their accursed sects4444 ,their religious meetings1 whether public or secret1 by day or by night1 in cities or in the country1 were equally proscribed by the edicts of ,theodosius3 and the building or ground1 which had been used for that illegal purpose1 was forfeited to the imperial domain4 ,it was supposed1 that the error of the heretics could proceed only from the obstinate temper of their minds2 and that such a temper was a fit object of censure and punishment4444 ,the sectaries were gradually disqualified for the possession of honourable or lucrative employments2 and ,theodosius was satisfied with his own justice1 when he decreed1 that as the ,eunonians distinguished the nature of the ,son from that of the ,father1 they should be incapable of making their wills1 or of receiving any advantages from testamentary donations 7,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #dab1 #dac74 ,one important event of this century must not be omitted1 the dispersion of the great ,alexandrine library1 collected by the ,ptolemies4 ,in the siege of ,alexandria by ,julius ,csar1 the ,philadelphian library in the museum1 containing some #djj1jjj volumes1 had been burned2 but there still remained the daughter library in the ,serapion1 containing about #cjj1jjj books4 ,during the episcopate of ,theophilus1 predecessor of ,cyril1 a riot took place between the ,christians and the ,pagans1 and the latter held the ,serapion as their head-quarters4 ,such were the disorder and bloodshed that the emperor had to interfere4 ,he despatched a rescript to ,alexandria1 enjoining the bishop1 ,theophilus1 to destroy the ,serapion2 and the great library1 which had been collected by the ,ptolemies1 and had escaped the fire of ,julius ,csar1 was by that fanatic dispersed 7,conflict of ,religion and ,science1 p4 #ed71 ,a4,d4 #chi4 ,to ,christian bigotry it is that we owe the loss of these rich treasures of antiquity4 ,heresies grew and strengthened during this fourth century4 ,chief leader in the heretic camp was ,arius1 a presbyter of ,alexandria2 he asserted that the ,son1 although begotten of the ,father before the creation of aught else1 was not of the same substance as the ,father1 but only of like substance2 a vast number of the ,christians embraced his definition1 and thus began the long struggle between the ,arians and the ,catholics4 ,arius also took the ground that there was a time when1 from the very nature of sonship1 the ,son did not exist1 and a time at which he commenced to be1 asserting that it is the necessary condition of the filial relation that a father must be older than his son4 ,but this assertion evidently denied the co-eternity of the three persons of the ,trinity2 it suggested a subordination or inequality among them1 and indeed implied a time when the ,trinity did not exist4 ,hereupon the bishop1 who had been the successful competitor against ,arius for the episcopate1 displayed his rhetorical powers in public debates on the question1 and1 the strife spreading1 the ,jews and ,pagans1 who formed a very large portion of the population of ,alexandria1 amused themselves with theatrical representations of the contest on the stage--the point of their burlesques being the equality of age of the ,father and his ,son 7,ibid1 p4 #ec74 ,gibbon quotes an amusing passage to show how widely spread was the interest in the subject debated between the rival parties3 ,this city is full of mechanics and slaves1 who are all of them profound theologians1 and preach in the shops and in the streets4 ,if you desire a man to change a piece of silver1 he informs you wherein the ,son differs from the ,father2 if you ask the price of a loaf1 you are told1 by way of reply1 that the ,son is inferior to the ,father2 and if you inquire whether the bath is ready1 the answer is1 that the ,son was made out of nothing 7,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall1 vol4 iii4 p4 #djb74 ,arius maintained that the ,logos was a dependent and spontaneous production1 created from nothing by the will of the ,father4 ,the ,son1 by whom all things were made1 had been begotten before all worlds1 and the longest of the astronomical periods could be compared only as a fleeting moment to the extent of his duration2 yet this duration was not infinite1 and there had been a time which preceded the ineffable generation of the ,logos4444 ,he governed the universe in obedience to the will of his ,father and ,monarch 7,ibid1 pp4 #ah1ai74 ,the ,nicene creed of the ,prayer-book consists of the creed promulgated by the ,council of ,nice1 with the anathema at the end omitted1 and with the addition of some phrases joined to it at the ,council at ,constantinople1 and the insertion of the ,filioque4 ,at the ,council of ,nice1 ,arius was condemned and banished1 to the triumph of his great opponent1 ,athanasius2 but he was recalled in ,a4,d4 #ccj1 obtained the banishment of ,athanasius in ,a4,d4 #cce1 and died suddenly1 under very suspicious circumstances1 in ,a4,d4 #ccf4 ,throughout this century the struggle proceeded furiously1 each party in turn getting the upper hand1 as the emperor of the time inclined towards ,catholicism or towards ,arianism1 and each persecuting the adherents of the other4 ,among ,arian subdivisions we find ,semi-,arians1 ,eusebians1 ,aetians1 ,eunomians1 ,acasians1 ,psathyrians1 etc4 ,then we have the ,apollinarians1 who maintained that ,christ had no human soul1 the divinity supplying its place2 the ,marcellians1 who taught that a divine emanation descended on ,christ4 ,allied to the ,manichan heresy were the ,priscillians1 the ,saccophori1 the ,solitaries1 and many others2 and1 in addition1 the ,messalians or ,euchites1 the ,luciferians1 the ,origenists1 the ,antidicomarianites1 and the ,collyridians4 ,a quarrel about the consecration of a bishop gave rise to fierce struggles not connected with the doctrine1 so much as with the discipline of the ,church4 ,the ,bishops of ,numidia were angered by not having been called to the consecration of ,ccilianus ,bishop of ,carthage1 and1 assembling together1 they elected and consecrated a rival bishop to that see1 and declared ,ccilianus incompetent for the episcopal office4 ,donatus1 ,bishop of ,casa ,nigra1 was the foremost of these ,numidian malcontents1 and from him the sect of ,donatists took its name2 they denied the orders of those ordained by ,ccilianus1 and hence the validity of the ,sacraments administered by them4 ,excommunicated themselves1 they boldly excommunicated the rest of mankind who had embraced the impious party of ,ccilianus1 and of the traditors1 from whom he derived his pretended ordination4 ,they asserted with confidence1 and almost with exultation1 that the apostolical succession was interrupted1 that all the bishops of ,europe and ,asia were infected by the contagion of guilt and schism1 and that the prerogatives of the ,catholic ,church were confined to the chosen portion of the ,african believers1 who alone had preserved inviolate the integrity of their faith and discipline4 ,this rigid theory was supported by the most uncharitable conduct4 ,whenever they acquired a proselyte1 even from the distant provinces of the east1 they carefully repeated the sacred rites of baptism and ordination2 as they rejected the validity of those which he had already received from the hands of heretics or of schismatics 7,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #e1 #f74 ,a number of ,donatists1 known as ,circumcelliones1 maintained their cause by the force of arms1 and overrunning all ,africa1 filled that province with slaughter and rapine1 and committed the most enormous acts of perfidy and cruelty against the followers of ,caecilianus 7p4 #aji74 ,to complete the darkly terrible picture of the ,church in the fourth century1 we need only note the various orders of fanatical monks1 filthy in their habits1 densely ignorant1 hopelessly superstitious1 amongst whom may be numbered the travelling mendicants called ,sarabaites4 ,many of the ,coenobites were chargeable with vicious and scandalous practices4 ,this order1 however1 was not so universally corrupt as that of the ,sarabaites1 who were1 for the most part1 profligates of the most abandoned kind 7p4 #ajb74 ,the pen wearies over the list of scandals of these early ,christian ages2 we can but sketch the outline here2 let the student fill the picture in1 and he will find even blacker shades needed to darken it enough4 ,,century ,v4 ,this century sees the destruction of the ,roman ,empire of the ,west1 and the rise into importance of the great ,gothic monarchies4 ,the ,christian emperors of the ,east put down paganism with a strong hand1 conferring state offices on ,christians only1 and forbidding pagan ceremonies unless under ,christian names4 ,the sons of ,constantine had pronounced the penalty of death and confiscation against any who sacrificed to the old gods2 and ,theodosius1 in ,a4,d4 #cij1 had forbidden1 under heavy penalties1 all pagan rites4 ,this work of repression was rigorously carried on4 ,clovis1 king of the ,franks1 embraced ,christianity1 finding its profession of great use to him1 both in confirming and enlarging his empire 7p4 #aag72 and many of the barbarous tribes were converted to the faith by means of pretended miracles1 pious frauds 444 very commonly practised in ,gaul and in ,spain at this time1 in order to captivate1 with more facility1 the minds of a rude and barbarous people1 who were scarcely susceptible of a rational conviction 7pp4 #aag1 #aah74 ,the supremacy of the see of ,rome advanced with rapid strides during this century4 ,the people depending1 in their superstitious ignorance1 on the clergy1 and the clergy on the bishops1 it became the interest of the savage kings to be on friendly terms with the latter1 and to increase their influence2 and as the bishops1 in their turn1 leant upon the central authority of ,rome1 the power of the pontiff rapidly increased4 ,this power was still further augmented by the struggles for supremacy among the ,eastern bishops1 for by favouring sometimes one and sometimes another1 he fostered the habit of looking to ,rome for aid4 ,in the ,east1 five patriarchs were raised over the rest of the bishops1 the ,patriarch of ,constantinople standing at their head4 ,thus1 ,east and ,west drifted ever more apart4 ,mosheim speaks of the ambitious quarrels and the bitter animosities that rose among the patriarchs themselves1 and which produced the most bloody wars1 and the most detestable and horrid crimes4 ,the ,patriarch of ,constantinople distinguished himself in these odious contests4 ,elated with the favour and proximity of the ,imperial ,court1 he cast a haughty eye on all sides1 where any objects were to be found on which he might exercise his lordly ambition4 ,on the one hand1 he reduced under his jurisdiction the ,patriarchs of ,alexandria and ,antioch1 as prelates only of the second order2 and on the other1 he invaded the diocese of the ,roman ,pontiff1 and spoiled him of several provinces4 ,the two former prelates1 though they struggled with vehemence and raised considerable tumults by their opposition1 yet they struggled ineffectually1 both for want of strength1 and likewise on account of a variety of unfavourable circumstances4 ,but the ,roman ,pontiff1 far superior to them in wealth and power1 contended also with more vigour and obstinacy2 and1 in his turn1 gave a deadly wound to the usurped supremacy of the ,byzantine ,patriarch4 ,the attentive inquirer into the affairs of the ,church1 from this period1 will find1 in the events now mentioned1 the principal source of those most scandalous and deplorable dissensions which divided first the ,eastern ,church into various sects1 and afterwards separated it entirely from that of the ,west4 ,he will find that these ignominious schisms flowed chiefly from the unchristian contentions for dominion and supremacy which reigned among those who set themselves up for the fathers and defenders of the ,church 7p4 #abc74 ,learning during this century fell lower and lower1 in spite of the schools established and fostered by the emperors1 and while knowledge diminished1 vice increased4 ,the vices of the clergy were now carried to the most enormous lengths2 and all the writers of this century1 whose probity and virtue render them worthy of credit1 are unanimous in their accounts of the luxury1 arrogance1 avarice1 and voluptuousness of the sacerdotal orders4 ,the bishops1 particularly those of the first rank1 created various delegates or ministers1 who managed for them the affairs of their dioceses1 and a sort of courts were gradually formed1 where these pompous ecclesiastics gave audience1 and received the homage of a cringing multitude 7p4 #abc74 ,superstition performed its maddest freak in the ,stylites1 men who stood motionless on the tops of pillars2 the original maniac being one ,simon1 a ,syrian1 who actually spent thirty-seven years of his life on pillars1 the last of which was forty cubits high4 ,another of the same class spent sixty-eight years in this useful manner 7see pp4 #abh1 #abi1 and note74 ,the ,agapae were abolished1 and auricular confession was established1 during this century4 ,among the bishops of this century1 one name deserves an immortality of infamy4 ,it is that of ,cyril1 ,bishop of ,alexandria4 ,under his rule took place the terrible murder of ,hypatia1 that pure and beautiful ,platonic teacher1 who was dragged by a fanatic mob1 headed by ,peter the ,reader1 into the great church of ,alexandria1 and tortured to death on the steps of the high altar4 ,cyril's hold upon the audiences of the giddy city ,alexandria was1 however1 much weakened by ,hypatia1 the daughter of ,theon1 the mathematician1 who not only distinguished herself by her expositions of the doctrines of ,plato and ,aristotle1 but also by her comments on the writings of ,apollonius and other geometers4 ,each day1 before her academy1 stood a long train of chariots2 her lecture-room was crowded with the wealth and fashion of ,alexandria4444 ,hypatia and ,cyril6 ,philosophy and bigotry4 ,they cannot exist together4 ,so ,cyril felt1 and on that feeling he acted4 ,as ,hypatia repaired to her academy1 she was assaulted by ,cyril's mob--a mob of many monks4 ,stripped naked in the street1 she was dragged into a church1 and there killed by the club of ,peter the ,reader ,a4,d4 #dae4 ,the corpse was cut to pieces1 the flesh was scraped from the bones with shells1 and the remnants cast into a fire4 ,for this frightful crime ,cyril was never called to account4 ,it seemed to be admitted that the end sanctified the means 7,draper's ,conflict between ,religion and ,science1 p4 #ee74 ,the heresies of the last century were continued in this1 and various new ones arose4 ,chief among these was the heresy of ,nestorius1 a ,bishop of ,constantinople1 who distinguished so strongly between the two natures in ,christ as to make a double personality1 and he regarded the ,virgin ,mary as mother of ,christ1 but not mother of ,god4 ,the ,council of ,ephesus 7,a4,d4 #dca7 was called to decide the point1 and was presided over by the great antagonist of ,nestorius1 ,cyril1 ,bishop of ,alexandria4 ,the matter was settled very quickly4 ,church ,councils vote on disputed points1 and the vote of the majority constitutes orthodoxy4 ,the ,council was held before the arrival of the bishops who sympathised with ,nestorius1 and thus1 by the simple expedient of getting everything over before the opponents arrived1 it was settled for evermore that ,christ is one person with two natures4 ,a heresy of the very opposite character was that of ,eutyches1 abbot of the monastery in ,constantinople4 ,he maintained that in ,christ there was only one nature1 that of the incarnate word1 and his opinion was endorsed by a council called at ,ephesus1 ,a4,d4 #ddi2 but this decree was annulled by the ,council of ,chalcedon 7reckoned the fourth ,o,ecumenical71 ,a4,d4 #dea1 wherein it was again declared that ,christ had two natures in one person4 ,it was at the ,council of ,ephesus1 in ,a4,d4 #ddi1 that ,flavianus1 ,bishop of ,constantinople1 was so beaten by the other bishops that he died of his wounds1 and the bishops who held with him hid themselves under benches to get out of the way of their infuriate brothers in ,christ 7see notes on pp4 #acf1 #acg74 ,the ,theopaschites were a branch of the ,eutychian heresy1 and the ,monophysites were a cognate sect2 from these arose the ,acephali1 ,anthropomorphites1 ,barsanuphites1 and ,esaianists4 ,not less important than the heresy of ,eutyches was that of ,pelagius1 a ,british monk1 who taught that man did not inherit original sin on account of ,adam's fall1 but that each was born unspotted into the world1 and was capable of rising to the height of virtue by the exercise of his natural faculties4 ,the semi-,pelagians held that man could turn to ,god by his own strength1 but that divine grace was necessary to enable him to persevere4 ,one heretic of this period deserves a special word of record4 ,vigilantius was a ,gallic priest1 remarkable for his eloquence and learning1 and he devoted himself to an effort to reform the ,church in ,spain4 ,among other things1 he denied that the tombs and the bones of the martyrs were to be honoured with any sort of homage or worship2 and therefore censured pilgrimages that were made to places that were reputed holy4 ,he turned into derision the prodigies which were said to be wrought in the temples consecrated to martyrs1 and condemned the custom of performing vigils in them4 ,he asserted1 and indeed with reason1 that the custom of burning tapers at the tombs of the martyrs in broad day1 was imprudently borrowed from the ancient superstition of the ,pagans4 ,he maintained1 moreover1 that prayers addressed to departed saints were void of all efficacy2 and treated with contempt fastings and mortifications1 the celibacy of the clergy1 and the various austerities of the monastic life4 ,and finally he affirmed that the conduct of those who1 distributing their substance among the indigent1 submitted to the hardships of a voluntary poverty1 or sent a part of their treasures to ,jerusalem for devout purposes1 had nothing in it acceptable to the ,deity 7p4 #abi74 ,under these circumstances we can scarcely wonder that ,vigilantius was scouted as a heretic by all orthodox1 lucre-loving clerics4 ,he is the forerunner of a long line of protesters against the ever-growing strength and superstition of the ,church4 ,,century ,,vi4 ,the darkness deepens as we proceed4 ,christianity spread among the barbarous tribes of the ,east and ,west1 but it must1 however1 be acknowledged1 that of these conversions1 the greatest part were owing to the liberality of the ,christian princes1 or to the fear of punishment1 rather than to the force of argument or to the love of truth4 ,in ,gaul1 the ,jews were compelled by ,childeric to receive the ordinance of baptism2 and the same despotic method of converting was practised in ,spain 7p4 #ada74 ,they required nothing of these barbarous people that was difficult to be performed1 or that laid any remarkable restraint upon their appetites and passions4 ,the principal injunctions they imposed upon these rude proselytes were that they should get by heart certain summaries of doctrine1 and to pay the images of ,christ and the saints the same religious services which they had formerly offered to the statues of the gods 7p4 #adb74 ,libraries were formed in many of the monasteries1 and schools were opened1 but apparently only for those who intended to enter the monastic life2 these1 however1 did not flourish1 for many bishops showed bitter aversion towards every sort of learning and erudition1 which they considered as pernicious to the progress of piety 7p4 #add74 ,greek literature was almost everywhere neglected4444 ,philosophy fared still worse than literature2 for it was entirely banished from all the seminaries which were under the inspection and government of the ecclesiastical order 7,ibid74 ,the wealth of the ,church grew apace4 ,the arts of a rapacious priesthood were practised upon the ignorant devotion of the simple2 and even the remorse of the wicked was made an instrument of increasing the ecclesiastical treasure4 ,for an opinion was propagated with industry among the people1 that the remission of their sins was to be purchased by their liberalities to the churches and monks 7p4 #adf74 ,the monastic orders1 in general1 abounded with fanatics and profligates2 the latter were more numerous than the former in the ,western convents1 while in those of the ,east the fanatics were predominant 7ibid74 ,it was in this century 7,a4,d4 #ebi7 that the great ,benedictine rule was composed by ,benedict of ,nursia4 ,the ,council of ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #eec1 is reckoned as the fifth general ,council4 ,it is said to have condemned the doctrines of ,origen1 thus summarised by ,mosheim3--#a4 ,that in the ,trinity the ,father is greater than the ,son1 and the ,son than the ,holy ,ghost4 #b4 ,the pre-existence of souls1 which ,origen considered as sent into mortal bodies for the punishment of sins committed in a former state of being4 #c4 ,that the soul of ,christ was united to the word before the incarnation4 #d4 ,that the sun1 moon1 and stars1 etc41 were animated and endowed with rational souls4 #e4 ,that after the resurrection all bodies will be of a round figure4 #f4 ,that the torments of the damned will have an end2 and that as ,christ had been crucified in this world to save mankind1 he is to be crucified in the next to save the devils 7p4 #aea1 note74 ,among the various notabilities of this age none are specially worthy attention1 save ,brethius1 ,cassiodorus1 ,gregory the ,great1 ,benedict of ,nursia1 ,gregory of ,tours1 and ,isidore of ,seville4 ,the heresies of former centuries continued during this1 and several unimportant additional sects sprang up4 ,the ,monophysites gained in strength under ,jacob1 ,bishop of ,edessa1 and became known as ,jacobites1 and exist to this day in ,abyssinia and ,america4 ,six small sects grew up among the ,monophysites and died away again1 which held varying opinions about the nature of the body of ,christ ,we find also the ,corrupticol1 ,agnoet1 ,tritheists1 ,philoponists1 ,cononites1 and ,damianists1 the four last of which differed as to the nature of the ,trinity4 ,thus was rent into innumerable factions the supposed-to-be-indivisible ,christianity1 and the most bloody persecutions disgraced the uppermost party of the moment4 ,,century ,,vii4 ,many are the missionary enterprises of this century1 and we find the missionaries grasping at temporal power1 and exercising a princely authority over the countries where their ministry had been successful 7p4 #aeg74 ,learning had almost vanished2 they1 who distinguished themselves most by their taste and genius1 carried their studies little farther than the works of ,augustine and ,gregory the ,great2 and it is of scraps collected out of these two writers1 and patched together without much uniformity1 that the best productions of this century are entirely composed4444 ,the schools which had been committed to the care and inspection of the bishops1 whose ignorance and indolence were now become enormous1 began to decline apace1 and were in many places1 fallen into ruin4 ,the bishops in general were so illiterate1 that few of that body were capable of composing the discourses which they delivered to the people4 ,such of them as were not totally destitute of genius1 composed out of the writings of ,augustine and ,gregory a certain number of insipid homilies1 which they divided between themselves1 and their stupid colleagues1 that they might not be obliged through incapacity to discontinue preaching the doctrines of ,christianity to their people 7p4 #aei74 ,the progress of vice among the subordinate rulers and ministers of the ,church was1 at this time1 truly deplorable4444 ,in those very places1 that were consecrated to the advancement of piety and the service of ,god1 there was little else to be seen than ghostly ambition1 insatiable avarice1 pious frauds1 intolerable pride1 and a supercilious contempt of the natural rights of the people1 with many other vices still more enormous 7p4 #afa74 ,the wealth of the ,church increased rapidly2 it grew fat on the wages of sin4 ,abandoned profligates1 who had passed their days in the most enormous pursuits1 and whose guilty consciences filled them with terror and remorse1 were comforted with the delusive hopes of obtaining pardon1 and making atonement for their crimes by leaving the greatest part of their fortune to some monastic society4 ,multitudes1 impelled by the unnatural dictates of a gloomy superstition1 deprived their children of fertile lands and rich patrimonies in favour of the monks1 by whose prayers they hoped to render the ,deity propitious 7p4 #afa74 ,the only new sect of any importance in this century is that of the ,monothelites1 later known as ,maronites2 they taught that ,christ had but one will1 but the doctrine is wrapped up in so many subtleties as to be almost incomprehensible4 ,they were condemned1 in the sixth ,general ,council1 held at ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #fhj4 ,it was during this century that ,boniface ,v4 enacted that infamous law1 by which the churches became places of refuge to all who fled thither for protection2 a law which procured a sort of impunity to the most enormous crimes1 and gave a loose rein to the licentiousness of the most abandoned profligates 7p4 #afd74 ,the effect of this law was that the monasteries became the refuge of bandits and murderers1 who issued from them to plunder and to destroy1 and paid for the security of their persons by bestowing on their hosts a portion of the spoil they had collected during their raids4 ,such were the civilizing and purifying effects of ,christianity4 ,,century ,,viii4 ,winfred1 better known as ,boniface1 the ,apostle of ,germany1 is1 perhaps1 the chief ecclesiastical figure of this century4 ,he taught ,christianity right through ,germany2 was consecrated bishop in ,a4,d4 #gbc1 created archbishop in ,a4,d4 #gch1 and ,primate of ,germany and ,belgium in ,a4,d4 #gdf2 in ,a4,d4 #gee he was murdered in ,friesland1 with fifty other ecclesiastics4 ,much stress is laid upon his martyrdom by ,christian writers1 but ,boniface1 after all1 only received from the ,frieslanders the measure he had meted out to their brethren1 and there seems no good reason why ,christian missionaries should claim a monopoly of the right to kill4 ,mosheim allows that he often employed violence and terror1 and sometimes artifice and fraud 7p4 #afi7 in order to gain converts1 and he was supported by ,charles ,martel1 the enemy of ,friesland1 and appeared among the ,germans as the friend and agent of their foes4 ,a few years later1 ,charlemagne spread ,christianity among the ,saxons with great vigour4 ,for a war broke out1 at this time1 between ,charlemagne and the ,saxons1 which contributed much to the propagation of ,christianity1 though not by the force of a rational persuasion4 ,the ,saxons were1 at this time1 a numerous and formidable people1 who inhabited a considerable part of ,germany1 and were engaged in perpetual quarrels with the ,franks concerning their boundaries1 and other matters of complaint4 ,hence ,charlemagne turned his armies against this powerful nation1 ,a4,d4 #ggb1 with a design not only to subdue that spirit of revolt with which they had so often troubled the empire1 but also to abolish their idolatrous worship1 and engage them to embrace the ,christian religion4 ,he hoped1 by their conversion1 to vanquish their obstinacy1 imagining that the divine precepts of the ,gospel would assuage their impetuous and restless passions1 mitigate their ferocity1 and induce them to submit more tamely to the government of the ,franks4 ,these projects were great in idea1 but difficult in execution2 accordingly1 the first attempt to convert the ,saxons1 after having subdued them1 was unsuccessful1 because it was made without the aid of violence1 or threats1 by the bishops and monks1 whom the victor had left among that conquered people1 whose obstinate attachment to idolatry no arguments nor exhortations could overcome4 ,mark the navet of this confession4 ,more forcible means were afterwards used to draw them into the pale of the ,church1 in the wars which ,charlemagne carried on in the years #gge1 #ggf1 and #ghj1 against that valiant people1 whose love of liberty was excessive1 and whose aversion to the restraints of sacerdotal authority was inexpressible4 ,during these wars their attachment to the superstition of their ancestors was so warmly combated by the allurements of reward1 by the terror of punishment1 and by the imperious language of victory1 that they suffered themselves to be baptised1 though with inward reluctance1 by the missionaries1 which the emperor sent among them for that purpose 7p4 #agj74 ,rebellion broke out once more1 headed by the two most powerful ,saxon chiefs1 but they were won over by ,charlemagne1 who persuaded them to make a public and solemn profession of ,christianity1 in the year #ghe1 and to promise an adherence to that divine religion for the rest of their days4 ,to prevent1 however1 the ,saxons from renouncing a religion which they had embraced with reluctance1 several bishops were appointed to reside among them1 schools also were erected1 and monasteries founded1 that the means of instruction might not be wanting4 ,the same precautions were employed among the ,huns in ,pannonia1 to maintain in the profession of ,christianity that fierce people whom ,charlemagne had converted to the faith1 when1 exhausted and dejected by various defeats1 they were no longer able to make head against his victorious arms1 and chose rather to be ,christians than slaves 7p4 #agj74 ,the grateful ,church canonized ,charlemagne1 the brutal soldier who had so enlarged her borders2 not to enter into a particular detail of his vices1 whose number counter-balanced that of his virtues1 it is undeniably evident that his ardent and ill-conducted zeal for the conversion of the ,huns1 ,frieslanders1 and ,saxons1 was more animated by the suggestions of ambition1 than by a principle of true piety2 and that his main view in these religious exploits was to subdue the converted nations under his dominion1 and to tame them to his yoke1 which they supported with impatience1 and shook off by frequent revolts4 ,it is1 moreover1 well known1 that this boasted saint made no scruple of seeking the alliance of the infidel ,saracens1 that he might be more effectually enabled to crush the ,greeks1 notwithstanding their profession of the ,christian religion 7p4 #aga74 ,thus was ,christianity spread by fire and sword1 and where-ever the cross passed it left its track in blood4 ,while the soldiers thus converted the heathen1 the clergy abandoned themselves to their passions without moderation or restraint2 they were distinguished by their luxury1 their gluttony1 and their lust 7p4 #agc74 ,to these evils was added that of gross deception1 for a bad clergy used bad weapons2 false miracles abounded in every direction2 the corrupt discipline that then prevailed admitted of those fallacious stratagems1 which are very improperly called pious frauds2 nor did the heralds of the gospel think it at all unlawful to terrify or to allure to the profession of ,christianity1 by fictitious prodigies1 those obdurate hearts which they could not subdue by reason and argument 7p4 #aga74 ,the wealth of the ,church increased year by year4 ,an opinion prevailed universally at this time1 though its authors are not known1 that the punishment which the righteous judge of the world has reserved for the transgressions of the wicked1 was to be prevented and annulled by liberal donations to ,god1 to the saints1 to the churches and clergy4 ,in consequence of this notion1 the great and opulent--who were1 generally speaking1 the most remarkable for their flagitious and abominable lives--offered1 out of the abundance which they had received by inheritance or acquired by rapine1 rich donations to departed saints1 their ministers upon earth1 and the keepers of the temples that were erected in their honour1 in order to avoid the sufferings and penalties annexed by the priests to transgression in this life1 and to escape the misery denounced against the wicked in a future state4 ,this new and commodious method of making atonement for iniquity was the principal source of those immense treasures which1 from this period1 began to flow in upon the clergy1 the churches1 and monasteries1 and continued to enrich them through succeeding ages down to the present time 7p4 #agd74 ,another source of wealth is to be found in the desire of the kings of the various warring tribes to attach to themselves the bishop and clergy in their dominions2 by bestowing on these lands and dignities they secured to themselves the aid which the ,church officials had it in their power to render1 for not only could bishops bring to the support of their suzerain the physical succour of armies1 but they could also launch against his enemies that terrible bolt of mediaeval times1 excommunication1 which1 rendered formidable by ignorance1 struck terror into the boldest and most resolute hearts 7p4 #agd74 ,in these latter gifts we see the origin of the temporalities and titles attached to episcopal sees and to cathedral chapters4 ,during this century the power of the ,roman ,pontiff swelled to an enormous degree1 and his sway extended into civil and political affairs3 so supreme an authority had he become that1 in ,a4,d4 #gea1 the ,frankish states of the realm--convoked by ,pepin to sanction his design of seizing on the ,french throne1 then occupied by ,childeric ,,iii4--directed that an embassy should be sent to the ,pope ,zachary1 to ask whether it was not right that a weak monarch should be dethroned2 and on the answer of the ,pope in the affirmative being received1 ,childeric was dethroned without opposition1 and ,pepin was crowned in his stead4 ,in the ,east1 the ,church was torn with dissensions1 while the imperial throne was rocking under the repeated attacks of the ,turks--a tribe descended from the ,tartars--who entered ,armenia1 struggled with the ,saracens for dominion1 subdued them partially1 and then turned their arms against the ,greek empire4 ,the great controversy of this century is that on the worship of images1 between the ,iconoduli or ,iconolatrae 7image worshippers71 and the ,iconomachi or ,iconoclastae 7image breakers74 ,the ,emperor ,bardanes1 a supporter of the ,monothelite heresy1 ordered that a picture representing the sixth general council should be removed from the ,church of ,st4 ,sophia1 because that council had condemned the ,monothelites4 ,not content with doing this 7,a4,d4 #gab71 ,bardanes sent an order to ,rome that all pictures and images of the same nature should be removed from places of worship4 ,constantine1 the ,pope1 immediately set up six pictures1 representing the six general councils1 in the porch of ,st4 ,peter's1 and called a council at ,rome1 which denounced the ,emperor as an apostate4 ,bardanes was dethroned by a revolution1 but his successor1 ,leo1 soon took up the quarrel4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gbf1 he issued an imperial edict commanding the removal of all images from the churches and forbidding all image worship1 save only those representing the crucifixion of ,christ4 ,pope ,gregory ,i4 excommunicated the ,emperor1 and insurrections broke out all over the empire in consequence2 the ,emperor retorted by calling a council at ,constantinople1 which deposed the bishop of that city for his leanings towards image worship1 and put a supporter of the ,emperor in his place4 ,the contest was carried on by ,constantine1 who succeeded his father1 ,leo1 in ,a4,d4 #gda1 and who1 in ,a4,d4 #ged1 called a council1 at ,constantinople--recognised by the ,greek ,church as the seventh general council--which condemned the use and worship of images4 ,leo ,,iv4 7,a4,d4 #gge7 issued penal laws against image worshippers1 but he was poisoned by ,irene1 his wife1 in ,a4,d4 #ghj1 and she entered into an alliance with ,pope ,adrian1 so that the ,iconoduli became triumphant in their turn4 ,while this controversy raged1 a second arose as to the procession of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,the creed of ,constantinople 7see ante1 p4 #dcd7 ran--,i believe in the ,holy ,ghost1 the ,lord and ,giver of ,life1 who proceedeth from the ,father2 to this phrase the words1 and the ,son1 had been added in the ,west1 originally by some ,spanish bishops2 the ,greeks protested against an unauthorised addition being inserted into a creed promulgated by a general council1 and received by the universal ,church as the symbol of faith4 ,thus arose the celebrated controversy on the ,filioque1 which was one of the chief causes of the great schism between the ,eastern and ,western ,churches in the ninth century4 ,the ,arian1 ,manichan1 ,marcionite1 and ,monothelite heresies spread1 during this century1 through the ,greek ,church1 and1 where the ,arabians ruled1 the ,nestorians and ,monophysites also flourished4 ,in the ,latin ,church a phase of the ,nestorian heresy made its way1 under the name of ,adoptianism1 a name given because its adherents regarded ,christ1 so far as his manhood was concerned1 as the ,son of ,god by adoption only4 ,,century ,,ix4 ,christendom1 during this century1 as during the preceding one1 was threatened and harassed by the inroads of ,mahommedan powers1 and the first gleams of returning light began to penetrate its thick darkness--light proceeding from the ,arabians and the ,saracens1 the restorers of knowledge and of science4 ,it is not here our duty to trace that marvellous work of the revival of thought--thought which ,christianity had slain1 but which1 revived by ,mahommedanism1 was destined to issue in the new birth of heretic philosophy4 ,while this work was proceeding among the ,saracens1 the ,arabians1 and the ,moors1 ,christendom went on its way1 degraded1 vicious1 and superstitious2 only here and there an effort at learning was made1 and some few went to the ,arabian schools1 and returned with some tincture of knowledge4 ,john ,scotus ,erigena1 a subtle and acute thinker1 left behind him works which have made some regard him as the founder of the ,realist school of the middle ages1 the school which followed ,aristotle1 in opposition to the ,nominalists1 who held with ,zeno and the ,stoics4 ,erigena taught that the soul would be re-absorbed into the divine spirit1 from which it had originally emanated2 from ,god all things had come--to ,him would they ultimately return2 ,god alone was eternal1 and in the end nothing but ,god would exist4 ,some of ,erigena's works naturally fell under the displeasure of the ,church1 and were duly burned3 he was a philosopher1 and therefore dangerous4 ,while this slight effort at thought was thus frowned upon1 vice made its way unchecked and unrebuked by the authorities4 ,the impiety and licentiousness of the greater part of the clergy arose1 at this time1 to an enormous height1 and stand upon record in the unanimous complaints of the most candid and impartial writers of this century4 ,in the ,east1 tumult1 discord1 conspiracies1 and treason reigned uncontrolled1 and all things were carried by violence and force4 ,these abuses appeared in many things1 but particularly in the election of the ,patriarchs of ,constantinople4444 ,in the western provinces1 the bishops were become voluptuous and effeminate to a very high degree4 ,they passed their lives amidst the splendour of courts1 and the pleasures of a luxurious indolence1 which corrupted their taste1 extinguished their zeal1 and rendered them incapable of performing the solemn duties of their function2 while the inferior clergy were sunk in licentiousness1 minded nothing but sensual gratifications1 and infected with the most heinous vices the flock whom it was the very business of their ministry to preserve1 or to deliver from the contagion of iniquity4 ,besides1 the ignorance of the sacred order was1 in many places1 so deplorable that few of them could either read or write1 and still fewer were capable of expressing their wretched notions with any degree of method or perspicuity 7p4 #aic74 ,many other causes also contributed to dishonour the ,church1 by introducing into it a corrupt ministry4 ,a nobleman who1 through want of talents1 activity1 or courage1 was rendered incapable of appearing with dignity in the cabinet1 or with honour in the field1 immediately turned his views towards the ,church1 aimed at a distinguished place among its chiefs and rulers1 and became1 in consequence1 a contagious example of stupidity and vice to the inferior clergy4 ,the patrons of churches1 in whom resided the right of election1 unwilling to submit their disorderly conduct to the keen censure of zealous and upright pastors1 industriously looked for the most abject1 ignorant1 and worthless ecclesiastics1 to whom they committed the cure of souls 7p4 #aic74 ,of the ,roman pontiffs1 ,mosheim says3 ,the greatest part of them are only known by the flagitious actions that have transmitted their names with infamy to our times 7p4 #aid74 ,and the enormous vices that must have covered so many pontiffs with infamy in the judgment of the wise1 formed not the least obstacle to their ambition in these memorable times1 nor hindered them from extending their influence and augmenting their authority both in church and state 7p4 #aie74 ,among the vast mass of forgeries which gradually built up the supremacy of the ,roman see1 the famous ,isidorian ,decretals deserve a word of notice4 ,they were issued about ,a4,d4 #hde1 and consisted of about one hundred pretended decrees of the early ,popes1 together with certain spurious writings of other church dignitaries and acts of synods4 ,this forgery produced an immense extension of the papal power4 ,it displaced the old system of church government1 divesting it of the republican attributes it had possessed1 and transforming it into an absolute monarchy4 ,it brought the bishops into subjection to ,rome1 and made the pontiff the supreme judge of the clergy of the whole ,christian world4 ,it prepared the way for the great attempt1 subsequently made by ,hildebrand1 to convert the states of ,europe into a theocratic priest kingdom1 with the ,pope at its head 7,draper's ,conflict of ,religion and ,science1 p4 #bga74 ,we note during this century a remarkable growth of saints4 ,everyone wanted a saint through whom to approach ,god1 and the supply kept pace with the demand4 ,this preposterous multiplication of saints was a new source of abuses and frauds4 ,it was thought necessary to write the lives of these celestial patrons1 in order to procure for them the veneration and confidence of a deluded multitude2 and here lying wonders were invented1 and all the resources of forgery and fable exhausted to celebrate exploits which had never been performed1 and to perpetuate the memory of holy persons who had never existed 7p4 #bjj74 ,the contest on images still raged furiously1 success being now on the one side1 now on the other2 various councils were called by either party1 until1 in ,a4,d4 #hgi1 a council at ,constantinople1 reckoned by the ,greeks as the eighth general council1 sanctioned the worship of images1 which thereafter triumphed in the ,east4 ,in the ,west1 the opposition to image-worship gradually died away4 ,the ,filioque contest also continued hotly and widened the breach between ,east and ,west yet more4 ,the final separation was not long delayed4 ,the ever-increasing jealousy between ,rome and ,constantinople had at last reached a height which made even nominal union impossible1 and the smouldering fire burst into sudden flame4 ,in ,a4,d4 #heh ,photius was made ,patriarch of ,constantinople1 by the ,emperor ,michael1 in the room of ,ignatius1 deprived and banished by that prince4 ,a council1 held at ,constantinople in ,a4,d4 #hfa1 endorsed the appointment of the emperor2 but ,ignatius appealed to ,rome1 and ,pope ,nicholas ,i4 readily took up his quarrel4 ,a council was held at ,rome1 in ,a4,d4 #hfb1 in which the pontiff excommunicated ,photius and his adherents4 ,it was answered by one at ,constantinople1 in ,a4,d4 #hff1 wherein ,nicholas was pronounced unworthy of his office and outside the pale of ,christian communion4 ,yet another council of ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #hfi1 approved the action of ,basilius1 the new emperor1 who recalled ,ignatius1 and imprisoned ,photius4 ,when ,ignatius died1 ,photius was reinstated 7,a4,d4 #hgh71 and he was acknowledged by the ,roman pontiff1 ,john ,,viii41 at another council of ,constantinople1 ,a4,d4 #hgi1 on the understanding that the jurisdiction over ,bulgaria1 claimed both by ,pope and ,patriarch1 should be definitely yielded to ,rome4 ,this1 however1 was not done2 and the ,pope sent a legate to ,constantinople1 recalling his declaration in favour of ,photius4 ,the legate1 ,marinus1 was cast into prison2 and when he was later raised to the pontificate1 he remembered the outrage1 and anew excommunicated ,photius4 ,a4,d4 #hhf saw the fall and imprisonment of ,photius1 and union might have been maintained but for the extravagant demands of the ,roman pontiff1 who required the degradation of all priests and bishops ordained by ,photius4 ,the ,greeks indignantly refused1 and at last the great schism took place1 which severed from each other entirely the ,eastern and the ,western ,churches4 ,the ancient heresy of the ,paulicians had not yet died out1 spite of having suffered much persecution at ,catholic hands1 and under the ,emperors ,michael and ,leo1 a fierce attack upon these unfortunate beings took place4 ,they were hunted down and executed without mercy1 and at last they turned upon their persecutors1 and revenged themselves by murdering the bishop1 magistrates1 and judges in ,armenia1 after which they fled to the countries under ,saracen rule4 ,after a while1 they gradually returned to the ,greek empire2 but when the ,empress ,theodora was regent1 during her son's minority1 she issued a stern decree against them4 ,the decree was severe1 but the cruelty with which it was put in execution1 by those who were sent into ,armenia for that purpose1 was horrible beyond expression2 for these ministers of wrath1 after confiscating the goods of above a hundred thousand of that miserable people1 put their possessors to death in the most barbarous manner1 and made them expire slowly in a variety of the most exquisite tortures 7p4 #bab74 ,in addition to the heresies inherited from the previous centuries1 three new ones1 important in their issues1 arose to divide yet more the divided indivisible ,church4 ,a monk1 named ,pascasius ,radbert1 wrote a treatise 7,a4,d4 #hca and #hde71 in which he maintained that1 at the ,eucharist1 the substance of the bread and wine became changed1 by consecration1 into the body and blood of ,christ1 and that this body was the same body that was born of the ,virgin1 that suffered upon the cross1 and was raised from the dead 7p4 #bje74 ,charles the ,bald bade ,erigena and ,ratramn 7or ,bertramn7 draw up the true doctrine of the ,church1 and the long controversy began which is continued even in the present day4 ,the second great dispute arose on the question of predestination and divine grace4 ,godeschalcus1 an eminent ,saxon monk1 returning from ,rome in ,a4,d4 #hdg1 resided for a space in ,verona1 where he spoke much on predestination1 affirming that ,god had1 from all eternity1 predestined some to heaven and others to hell4 ,he was condemned at a council held in ,mayence1 ,a4,d4 #hdh1 and in the following year1 at another council1 he was again condemned1 and was flogged until he burned1 with his own hand1 the apology for his opinions he had presented at ,mayence4 ,the third great controversy regarded the manner of ,christ's birth1 and monks furiously disputed whether or no ,christ was born after the fashion of other infants4 ,the details of this dispute need not here be entered into4 ,,century ,x4 ,the deplorable state of ,christianity in this century1 arising partly from that astonishing ignorance that gave a loose rein both to superstition and immorality1 and partly from an unhappy concurrence of causes of another kind1 is unanimously lamented by the various writers who have transmitted to us the history of these miserable times 7p4 #bac74 ,yet the gospel spread4 ,the ,normans embraced a religion of which they were totally ignorant 7p4 #bad71 ,a4,d4 #iab1 because ,charles the ,simple of ,france offered ,count ,rollo a large territory on condition that he would marry his daughter and embrace ,christianity3 ,rollo gladly accepted the territory and its encumbrances4 ,poland came next into the fold of the ,church1 for the ,duke of ,poland1 ,micislaus1 was persuaded by his wife to profess ,christianity1 ,a4,d4 #ife1 and ,pope ,john ,,iii4 promptly sent a bishop and a train of priests to convert the duke's subjects4 ,but the exhortations and endeavours of these devout missionaries1 who were unacquainted with the language of the people they came to instruct how effective must have been their arguments6 would have been entirely without effect1 had they not been accompanied with the edicts and penal laws1 the promises and threats of ,micislaus1 which dejected the courage and conquered the obstinacy of the reluctant ,poles 7p4 #bad74 ,the ,christian religion was established in ,russia by means every way similar to those that had occasioned its propagation in ,poland 7p4 #bae72 the ,greek wife of the ,russian duke persuaded him to adopt her creed1 and he was baptized ,a4,d4 #ihg4 ,mosheim assumes that the ,russian people followed their princes of their own accord1 since we have1 at least1 no account of any compulsion or violence being employed in their conversion 7p4 #bae72 if the ,russians adopted ,christianity without compulsion or violence1 all we can say is1 that their conversion is unique4 ,the ,danes were converted in ,a4,d4 #idi1 ,otto the ,great having defeated them1 and having made it an imperative condition of peace1 that they should profess ,christianity4 ,the ,norwegians accepted the religion of ,jesus on the same terms4 ,thus the greater part of ,europe became ,christian1 and we even hear a cry raised by ,pope ,sylvester ,,ii4 for the deliverance of ,palestine from the ,mahommedans--for a holy war4 ,christianity having now become so strong1 learning had become proportionately weak2 it had been sinking lower and lower during each succeeding epoch1 and in this tenth century it reached its deepest stage of degradation4 ,the deplorable ignorance of this barbarous age1 in which the drooping arts were entirely neglected1 and the sciences seemed to be upon the point of expiring for want of encouragement1 is unanimously confessed and lamented by all the writers who have transmitted to us any accounts of this period of time 7p4 #bah74 ,in vain a more enlightened emperor in the ,east strove to revive learning and encourage study3 many of the most celebrated authors of antiquity were lost1 at this time1 through the sloth and negligence of the ,greeks 7p4 #bai74 ,nor did the cause of philosophy fare better than that of literature4 ,philosophers1 indeed1 there were2 and1 among them1 some that were not destitute of genius and abilities2 but none who rendered their names immortal by productions that were worthy of being transmitted to posterity 7p4 #bai74 ,so low1 under the influence of ,christianity1 had sunk the literature of ,greece--,greece ,pagan1 which once brought forth ,pythagoras1 ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,euclid1 ,zenophon1 and many another mighty one1 whose fame rolls down the ages--that ,greece had become ,greece ,christian1 and the vitality of her motherhood had been drained from her1 and left her without strength to conceive men4 ,in the ,west things were yet worse--instead of ,rome ,pagan1 that had spread light and civilization--the ,rome of ,cicero1 of ,virgil1 of ,lucretius--we have ,rome ,christian1 spreader of darkness and of degradation1 the ,rome of the ,popes and the monks4 ,the ,latins were1 almost without exception1 sunk in the most brutish and barbarous ignorance1 so that1 according to the unanimous accounts of the most credible writers1 nothing could be more melancholy and deplorable than the darkness that reigned in the western world during this century4444 ,in the seminaries of learning1 such as they were1 the seven liberal sciences were taught in the most unskilful and miserable manner1 and that by the monks1 who esteemed the arts and sciences no further than as they were subservient to the interests of religion1 or1 to speak more properly1 to the views of superstition 7p4 #bai74 ,but the light from ,arabia was struggling to penetrate ,christendom4 ,gerbert1 a native of ,france1 travelled into ,spain1 and studied in the ,arabian schools of ,cordova and ,seville1 under ,arabian doctors2 he developed mathematical ability1 and returned into ,christendom with some amount of learning3 raised to the papal throne1 under the name of ,sylvester ,,ii41 he tried to restore the study of science and philosophy1 and found that his geometrical figures were regarded by the monks as magical operations1 and he himself as a magician and a disciple of ,satan 7p4 #bbj74 ,the vice of the clergy was something terrible4 ,these corruptions were mounted to the most enormous height in that dismal period of the ,church which we have now before us4 ,both in the eastern and western provinces1 the clergy were1 for the most part1 composed of a most worthless set of men1 shamefully illiterate and stupid1 ignorant1 more especially in religious matters1 equally enslaved to sensuality and superstition1 and capable of the most abominable and flagitious deeds4 ,this dismal degeneracy of the sacred order was1 according to the most credible accounts1 principally owing to the pretended chiefs and rulers of the universal ,church1 who indulged themselves in the commission of the most odious crimes1 and abandoned themselves to the lawless impulse of the most licentious passions without reluctance or remorse--who confounded1 in short1 all difference between just and unjust1 to satisfy their impious ambition1 and whose spiritual empire was such a diversified scene of iniquity and violence as never was exhibited under any of those temporal tyrants who have been the scourges of mankind 7p4 #bba74 ,such is the verdict passed on ,christian rule by a ,christian historian4 ,in the ,east we see such men as ,theophylact2 this exemplary prelate1 who sold every ecclesiastical benefice as soon as it became vacant1 had in his stable above #bjjj hunting horses1 which he fed with pignuts1 pistachios1 dates1 dried grapes1 figs steeped in the most exquisite wines1 to all which he added the richest perfumes4 ,one ,holy ,thursday1 as he was celebrating high-mass1 his groom brought him the joyful news that one of his favourite mares had foaled2 upon which he threw down the ,liturgy1 left the church1 and ran in raptures to the stable1 where1 having expressed his joy at that grand event1 he returned to the altar to finish the divine service1 which he had left interrupted during his absence 7p4 #bba1 note74 ,we shall see1 in a moment1 how the masses of the people were housed and fed while such insane luxury surrounded horses4 ,in the west1 the weary tale of the ,roman pontiffs cannot all be narrated here4 ,take the picture as drawn by ,hallam3 ,this dreary interval is filled up1 in the annals of the papacy1 by a series of revolutions and crimes4 ,six popes were deposed1 two murdered1 one mutilated4 ,frequently two1 or even three1 competitors1 among whom it is not always possible by any genuine criticism to distinguish the true shepherd1 drove each other alternately from the city4 ,a few respectable names appear thinly scattered through this darkness2 and sometimes1 perhaps1 a pope who had acquired estimation by his private virtues may be distinguished by some encroachment on the rights of princes1 or the privileges of national churches4 ,but1 in general1 the pontiffs of that age had neither leisure nor capacity to perfect the great system of temporal supremacy1 and looked rather to a vile profit from the sale of episcopal confirmations1 or of exemptions to monasteries4 ,the corruption of the head extended naturally to all other members of the ,church4 ,all writers concur in stigmatizing the dissoluteness and neglect of decency that prevailed among the clergy4 ,though several codes of ecclesiastical discipline had been compiled by particular prelates1 yet neither these nor the ancient canons were much regarded4 ,the bishops1 indeed1 who were to enforce them1 had most occasion to dread their severity4 ,they were obtruded upon their sees1 as the supreme pontiffs were upon that of ,rome1 by force or corruption4 ,a child of five years old was made ,archbishop of ,rheims4 ,the see of ,narbonne was purchased for another at the age of ten 7,europe during the ,middle ,ages1 p4 #cec1 ed4 #ahfi74 ,john ,x4 made pope at the solicitation of his mistress ,theodora1 the mother-in-law of the sovereign1 and murdered at the instance of ,theodora's daughter1 ,marozia2 ,john ,,xi41 illegitimate son of the same ,marozia1 and of the celibate pontiff1 ,sergius ,,iii42 ,boniface ,,vii4 expelled1 banished1 returning and murdering the reigning pope3 what avails it to chronicle these monsters8 ,below the popes1 a clergy as vicious as their rulers1 squandering money1 plundered from the people in dissoluteness and luxury4 ,and the people1 what of them8 ,as late as ,a4,d4 #adcj the houses of the peasantry were constructed of stones put together without mortar2 the roofs were of turf--a stiffened bull's-hide served for a door4 ,the food consisted of coarse vegetable products1 such as peas1 and even the bark of trees4 ,in some places they were unacquainted with bread4 ,cabins of reeds plastered with mud1 houses of wattled stakes1 chimneyless peat fires1 from which there was scarcely an escape for the smoke1 dens of physical and moral pollution swarming with vermin1 wisps of straw twisted round the limbs to keep off the cold1 the ague-stricken peasant with no help except shrine-cure1 i4e41 cure by the touching bone of saint1 or image of virgin 7,draper's ,conflict between ,religion and ,science1 p4 #bfe74 ,even among the wealthy1 the life was coarse and rough2 carpets were unknown2 drainage never thought of4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon 'nobles1 devoted to gluttony and voluptuousness1 never visited the church1 but the matins and the mass were read over to them by a hurrying priest in their bed-chambers1 before they rose1 themselves not listening4 ,the common people were a prey to the more powerful2 their property was seized1 their bodies dragged away to distant countries2 their maidens were either thrown into a brothel or sold for slaves4 ,drinking1 day and night1 was the general pursuit3 vices1 the companions of inebriety1 followed1 effeminating the manly mind4' ,the baronial castles were dens of robbers4 ,the ,saxon chronicler ,william of ,malmesbury1 from whom the quotation above records how men and women were caught and dragged into those strongholds1 hung up by their thumbs or feet1 fire applied to them1 knotted strings twisted round their heads1 and many other torments inflicted to extort ransom 7,ibid1 p4 #bff74 ,when the barons had nearly finished their evil lives1 the church stepped in1 claiming her share of the plunder and the wealth thus amassed1 and opening the gates of paradise to the dying thief4 ,the cities were as wretched as their inhabitants3 no paving1 no cleaning1 no lighting4 ,in the country the old ,roman roads were unmended1 unkept2 ,europe was slipping backwards into uttermost barbarism4 ,meanwhile things were very different where the blighting power of ,christianity was not in the ascendant4 ,europe at the present day does not offer more taste1 more refinement1 more elegance1 than might have been seen1 at the epoch of which we are speaking1 in the capitals of the ,spanish ,arabs4 ,their streets were lighted and solidly paved4 ,the houses were frescoed and carpeted2 they were warmed in winter by furnaces1 and cooled in summer with perfumed air brought by underground pipes from flower-beds4 ,they had baths1 and libraries1 and dining-halls1 fountains of quicksilver and water4 ,city and country were full of conviviality1 and of dancing to the lute and mandolin4 ,instead of the drunken and gluttonous wassail orgies of their northern neighbours1 the feasts of the ,saracens were marked by sobriety4 ,wine was prohibited4444 ,in the tenth century1 the ,khalif ,hakem ,,ii4 had made beautiful ,andalusia the paradise of the world4 ,christians1 ,mussulmans1 ,jews1 mixed together without restraint4444 ,all learned men1 no matter from what country they came1 or what their religious views1 were welcomed4 ,the khalif had in his palace a manufactory of books1 and copyists1 binders1 illuminators4 ,he kept book-buyers in all the great cities of ,asia and ,africa4 ,his library contained #djj1jjj volumes1 superbly bound and illuminated 7,ibid1 pp4 #ada1 #adb74 ,when the ,christians in the fifteenth century seized beautiful ,andalusia1 they erected the ,inquisition1 burned the books1 burned the people1 banished the ,jews and the ,moors1 and founded the miserable land known as modern ,spain4 ,there was but little heresy during this melancholy century2 people did not think enough even to think badly4 ,the ,paulicians spread through ,bulgaria1 and established themselves there under a patriarch of their own4 ,some ,arians still existed4 ,some ,anthropomorphites gave some trouble1 maintaining that ,god sat on a golden throne1 and was served by angels with wings3 their heresy is1 however1 directly supported by the ,scriptures4 ,a4,d4 #iii1 a man named ,lentard began to speak against the worship of images1 and the payment of tithes to priests1 and asserted that in the ,old ,testament prophecies truth and falsehood are mingled4 ,his disciples seem to have merged into the ,albigenses in the next century4 ,the year ,a4,d4 #ajjj deserves a special word of notice4 ,christians fancied that the world was to last for but one thousand years after the birth of ,christ1 and that it would therefore come to an end in ,a4,d4 #ajjj4 ,many charters begin with these words3 ',as the world is now drawing to its close4' ,an army marching under the emperor ,otho ,i4 was so terrified by an eclipse of the sun1 which it conceived to announce this consummation1 as to disperse hastily on all sides 7,europe during the ,middle ,ages1 ,hallam1 ,p4 #eii7 ,prodigious numbers of people abandoned all their civil connections1 and their parental relations1 and giving over to the churches or monasteries all their lands1 treasures1 and worldly effects1 repaired with the utmost precipitation to ,palestine1 where they imagined that ,christ would descend to judge the world4 ,others devoted themselves by a solemn and voluntary oath to the service of the churches1 convents1 and priesthood1 whose slaves1 they became in the most rigorous sense of that word1 performing daily their heavy tasks2 and all this from a notion that the ,supreme ,judge would diminish the severity of their sentence1 and look upon them with a more favourable and propitious eye1 on account of their having made themselves the slaves of his ministers4 ,when an eclipse of the sun or moon happened to be visible1 the cities were deserted1 and their miserable inhabitants fled for refuge to hollow caverns1 and hid themselves among the craggy rocks1 and under the bending summits of steep mountains4 ,the opulent attempted to bribe the ,deity and the saintly tribe1 by rich donations conferred upon the sacerdotal and monastic orders1 who were looked upon as the immediate vicegerents of heaven 7p4 #bbf74 ,thus the ,church still reaped wealth out of the fear of the people she deluded1 and while fields lay unsown1 and houses stood unrepaired1 and the foundations of famine were laid1 ,mother ,church gathered lands and money into her capacious lap1 and troubled little about the starving children1 provided she herself could wax fat on the good things of the world which she professed to have renounced4 ,,century ,,xi4 ,the ,prussians1 during this century1 were driven into the fold of the ,church4 ,a ,christian missionary1 ,adalbert1 bishop of ,prague1 had been murdered by the fierce and savage ,prussians1 and in order to show the civilising results of the gentle ,christian creed1 ,boleslaus1 king of ,poland1 entered into a bloody war with the ,prussians1 and he obtained1 by the force of penal laws and of a victorious1 army1 what ,adalbert could not effect by exhortation and argument4 ,he dragooned this savage people into the ,christian ,church 7p4 #bcj74 ,some of his followers tried a gentler method of conversion1 and were murdered by the ,prussians1 who clearly saw no reason why ,christians should do all the killing4 ,we have already seen that ,sylvester ,,ii4 called upon the ,christian princes to commence a holy war against the infidels who held the holy places of ,christianity4 ,gregory ,,vii4 strove to stir them up in like fashion1 and had gathered together an army of upwards of #ej1jjj men1 whom he proposed to lead in person into ,palestine4 ,the ,pope1 however1 quarrelled with ,henry ,,iv41 emperor of ,germany1 and his project fell through4 ,at the close of this century1 the long-talked of effort was made4 ,peter the ,hermit1 who had travelled through ,palestine1 came into ,europe and related in all directions tales of the sufferings of the ,christians under the rule of the barbarous ,saracens4 ,he appealed to ,urban ,,ii41 the then ,pope1 and ,urban1 who at first discouraged him1 seeing that ,peter had succeeded in rousing the most warlike nations of ,christian ,europe into enthusiasm1 called a council at ,placentia1 ,a4,d4 #ajie1 and appealed to the ,christian princes to take up the cause of the ,cross4 ,the council was not successful1 and ,urban summoned another at ,clermont1 and himself addressed the assembly4 ,it is the will of ,god was the shout that answered him1 and the people flew to arms4 ,every means was used to excite an epidemical frenzy1 the remission of penance1 the dispensation from those practices of self-denial which superstition imposed or suspended at pleasure1 the absolution of all sins1 and the assurance of eternal felicity4 ,none doubted that such as persisted in the war received immediately the reward of martyrdom4 ,false miracles and fanatical prophecies1 which were never so frequent1 wrought up the enthusiasm to a still higher pitch4 ,mosheim states1 p4 #bca1 that ,peter the ,hermit carried about with him a letter from heaven1 calling on all true ,christians to deliver their brethren from the infidel yoke4 ,and these devotional feelings1 which are usually thwarted and balanced by other passions1 fell in with every motive that could influence the men of that time1 with curiosity1 restlessness1 the love of licence1 thirst for war1 emulation1 ambition4 ,of the princes who assumed the cross1 some1 probably from the beginning1 speculated upon forming independent establishments in the ,east4 ,in later periods1 the temporal benefits of undertaking a crusade undoubtedly blended themselves with less selfish considerations4 ,men resorted to ,palestine1 as in modern times they have done to the colonies1 in order to redeem their time1 or repair their fortune4 ,thus ,gui de ,lusignan1 after flying from ,france for murder1 was ultimately raised to the throne of ,jerusalem4 ,to the more vulgar class were held out inducements which1 though absorbed in the more overruling fanaticism of the first crusade1 might be exceedingly efficacious when it began rather to flag4 ,during the time that a crusader bore the cross1 he was free from suit for his debts1 and the interest of them was entirely abolished2 he was exempted1 in some instances1 at least1 from taxes1 and placed under the protection of the ,church1 so that he could not be impleaded in any civil court1 except on criminal charges1 or disputes relating to land 7,europe during the ,middle ,ages1 ,hallam1 pp4 #bi1 #cj74 ,thus fanaticism and earthly pleasures and benefits all pushed men in the same direction1 and ,europe flung itself upon ,palestine4 ,men1 women1 and children1 poured eastwards in that first crusade1 and this mixed vanguard of the coming army of warriors was led by ,peter the ,hermit and ,gaultier ,sans-,avoir4 ,this vanguard was a motley assemblage of monks1 prostitutes1 artists1 labourers1 lazy tradesmen1 merchants1 boys1 girls1 slaves1 malefactors1 and profligate debauchees2 it was principally composed of the lowest dregs of the multitude1 who were animated solely by the prospect of spoil and plunder1 and hoped to make their fortunes by this holy campaign 7p4 #bcb74 ,this first division1 in their march through ,hungary and ,thrace1 committed the most flagitious crimes1 which so incensed the inhabitants of the countries through which they passed1 particularly those of ,hungary and ,turcomania1 that they rose up in arms and massacred the greatest part of them 7,ibid74 ,father ,maimbourg1 notwithstanding his immoderate zeal for the holy war1 and that fabulous turn which enables him to represent it in the most favourable points of view1 acknowledges frankly that the first division of this prodigious army committed the most abominable enormities in the countries through which they passed1 and that there was no kind of insolence1 in justice1 impurity1 barbarity1 and violence1 of which they were not guilty4 ,nothing1 perhaps1 in the annals of history can equal the flagitious deeds of this infernal rabble 7,ibid1 note74 ,few of these unhappy wretches reached the ,holy ,land4 ,to engage in the crusade and to perish in it1 were almost synonymous 7,hallam1 p4 #cj71 even for those who entered ,palestine4 ,the loss of life was something terrible4 ,we should be warranted by contemporary writers in stating the loss of the ,christians alone during this period at nearly a million2 but at the least computation1 it must have exceeded half that number 7,ibid74 ,the real army1 under ,godfrey de ,bouillon1 consisted of some #hj1jjj well-appointed horse and foot4 ,but at ,nice the crowd of crusaders numbered #gjj1jjj1 after the great slaughter in ,hungary4 ,jerusalem was taken1 ,a4,d4 #ajii1 and it was there where their triumph was consummated1 that it was stained with the most atrocious massacre2 not limited to the hour of resistance1 but renewed deliberately even after that famous penitential procession to the holy sepulchre1 which might have calmed their ferocious dispositions if1 through the misguided enthusiasm of the enterprise1 it had not been rather calculated to excite them 7,ibid1 p4 #ca74 ,the last crusade occurred ,a4,d4 #abgj1 and between the first in #ajif and the last in #abgj1 human lives were extinguished in numbers it is impossible to reckon1 increasing ever the awful sum total of the misery lying at the foot of the blood-red cross of ,christendom4 ,a collateral advantage accrued to the clergy through the crusades2 their wealth1 continually accumulated1 enabled them to become the regular purchasers of landed estates1 especially in the time of the crusades1 when the fiefs of the nobility were constantly in the market for sale or mortgage 7,ibid1 p4 #ccc74 ,the last vestiges of nominal paganism were erased in this century1 and it remained only under ,christian names4 ,capital punishment was proclaimed against all who worshipped the old deities under their old titles1 and this dreadful severity contributed much more towards the extirpation of paganism1 than the exhortations and instructions of ignorant missionaries1 who were unacquainted with the true nature of the gospel1 and dishonoured its pure and holy doctrines by their licentious lives and their superstitious practices 7p4 #bcf74 ,learning began to revive1 as men1 educated in the ,arabian schools1 gradually spread over ,europe2 thus3 the school of ,salernum1 in the kingdom of ,naples1 was renowned above all others for the study of physic in this century1 and vast numbers crowded thither from all the provinces of ,europe to receive instruction in the art of healing2 but the medical precepts which rendered the doctors of ,salernum so famous were all derived from the writings of the ,arabians1 or from the schools of the ,saracens in ,spain and ,africa 7p4 #bcg74 ,about the year #ajej1 the face of philosophy began to change1 and the science of logic assumed a new aspect4 ,this revolution began in ,france1 where several of the books of ,aristotle had been brought from the schools of the ,saracens in ,spain1 and it was effected by a set of men highly renowned for their abilities and genius1 such as ,berenger1 ,roscellinus1 ,hildebert1 and after them by ,gilbert de la ,porre1 the famous ,abelard and others 7p4 #bch74 ,thus we see that in science1 in philosophy1 in logic1 we alike owe to ,arabia the revival of thought in ,christendom4 ,progress1 however1 was very slow1 and the thought was not yet strong enough to arouse the fears of the ,church1 so it spread for a while in peace4 ,hallam sums up for us the state of learning1 or rather of ignorance1 during the eighth1 ninth1 tenth and eleventh centuries1 and his account may well find its place here4 ,when ,latin had thus ceased to be a living language1 the whole treasury of knowledge was locked up from the eyes of the people4 ,the few who might have imbibed a taste for literature1 if books had been accessible to them1 were reduced to abandon pursuits that could only be cultivated through a kind of education not easily within their reach4 ,schools confined to cathedrals and monasteries1 and exclusively designed for the purposes of religion1 afforded no encouragement or opportunities to the laity4 ,the worst effect was that1 as the newly-formed languages were hardly made use of in writing1 ,latin being still preserved in all legal instruments and public correspondence1 the very use of letters1 as well as of books1 was forgotten4 ,for many centuries1 to sum up the account of ignorance in a word1 it was rare for a layman1 of whatever rank1 to know how to sign his name4 ,their charters1 till the use of seals became general1 were subscribed with the mark of the cross4 ,still more extraordinary it was to find one who had any tincture of learning4 ,even admitting every indistinct commendation of a monkish biographer 7with whom a knowledge of church music would pass for literature71 we could make out a very short list of scholars4 ,none certainly were more distinguished as such than ,charlemagne and ,alfred4 ,but the former1 unless we reject a very plain testimony1 was incapable of writing2 and ,alfred found difficulty in making a translation from the pastoral instruction of ,st4 ,gregory1 on account of his imperfect knowledge of ,latin4 ,whatever mention1 therefore1 we find of learning and the learned1 during these dark ages1 must be understood to relate only to such as were within the pale of clergy1 which indeed was pretty extensive1 and comprehended many who did not exercise the offices of religious ministry4 ,but even the clergy were1 for a long period1 not very materially superior1 as a body1 to the uninstructed laity4 ,an inconceivable cloud of ignorance overspread the whole face of the ,church1 hardly broken by a few glimmering lights1 who owe almost the whole of their distinction to the surrounding darkness4444 ,of this prevailing ignorance it is easy to produce abundant testimony4 ,contracts were made verbally1 for want of notaries capable of drawing up charters2 and these1 when written1 were frequently barbarous and ungrammatical to an incredible degree4 ,for some considerable intervals1 scarcely any monument of literature has been preserved1 except a few jejune chronicles1 the vilest legends of saints1 or verses equally destitute of spirit and metre4 ,in almost every council the ignorance of the clergy forms a subject for reproach4 ,it is asserted by one held in #iib1 that scarcely a single person was to be found in ,rome itself who knew the first element of letters4 ,not one priest of a thousand in ,spain1 about the age of ,charlemagne1 could address a common letter of salutation to another4 ,in ,england1 ,alfred declares that he could not recollect a single priest south of the ,thames 7the most civilised part of ,england7 at the time of his accession who understood the ordinary prayers1 or could translate ,latin into his mother-tongue4 ,nor was this better in the time of ,dunstan1 when it is said1 none of the clergy knew how to write or translate a ,latin letter4 ,the homilies which they preached were compiled for their use by some bishops1 from former works of the same kind1 or the writings of the ,christian fathers4444 ,if we would listen to some literary historians1 we should believe that the darkest ages contained many individuals1 not only distinguished among their contemporaries1 but positively eminent for abilities and knowledge4 ,a proneness to extol every monk of whose productions a few letters or a devotional treatise survives1 every bishop of whom it is related that he composed homilies1 runs through the laborious work of the ,benedictines of ,st4 ,maur1 the ',literary ,history of ,france1' and1 in a less degree1 is observable even in ,tiraboschi1 and in most books of this class4 ,bede1 ,alcuin1 ,hincmar1 ,raban1 and a number of inferior names1 become real giants of learning in their uncritical panegyrics4 ,but one might justly say1 that ignorance is the smallest defect of the writers of these dark ages4 ,several of these were tolerably acquainted with books2 but that wherein they are uniformly deficient is original argument or expression4 ,almost every one is a compiler of scraps from the fathers1 or from such semi-classical authors as ,boethius1 ,cassiodorus1 or ,martinus ,capella4 ,indeed1 ,i am not aware that there appeared more than two really considerable men in the republic of letters from the sixth to the middle of the eleventh century--,john1 surnamed ,scotus1 or ,erigena1 a native of ,ireland1 and ,gerbert1 who became pope by the name of ,sylvester ,,ii43 the first endowed with a bold and acute metaphysical genius1 the second excellent1 for the time when he lived1 in mathematical science and useful mechanical invention 7,europe during the ,middle ,ages1 ,hallam1 pp4 #eie-eih74 ,if we look at the ministers of the ,church1 the old story of tyranny and vice is told over again during this century4 ,among its popes is numbered ,benedict ,,ix41 deposed for his profligacy1 restored and again deposed1 restored by force of arms1 and selling the pontificate1 so that three popes at once claimed the tiara1 and were all three declared unworthy1 and a fourth placed on the throne4 ,fresh disturbances followed1 and new usurpers1 until in ,a4,d4 #ajei the election of the pope was taken out of the hands of the people and transferred to the college of cardinals1 a change which was much struggled against1 but which was ultimately adopted4 ,in ,a4,d4 #ajgc ,hildebrand was elected pope under the title of ,gregory ,,vii42 this man1 perhaps1 more than any other1 augmented the temporal power of the papacy4 ,it was he who moulded the church into the form of an absolute monarchy1 and fought against all local privileges and national freedom of the churches in each land2 it was he who claimed rule over all kings and princes1 and treated them as vassals of the ,roman see2 it was he who1 in #ajgd1 calling a council at ,rome1 caused it to decree the celibacy of the clergy1 so that priests having no home1 and no family ties1 might feel their only home in the ,church1 and their only tie to ,rome2 it was he who struggled against ,germany1 and who kept the excommunicated emperor standing barefoot and almost naked in the snow for three days1 in the courtyard of his castle4 ,a bold bad man was this ,hildebrand1 but a man of genius and a master-mind1 who conceived the mighty idea of a universal ,church1 wherein all princes should be vassals1 and the head of the ,church absolute monarch of the world4 ,it was at the annual council of ,rome1 ,a4,d4 #ajgf1 that ,pope ,gregory ,,vii4 recited and proclaimed all the ancient maxims1 all the doubtful traditions1 all the excessive pretensions1 by which he could support his supremacy4 ,it was1 in a manner1 the abridged code of his domination--the laws of servitude that he proposed to the world at large4 ,here are the terms of this charter of theocracy3 ',the ,roman ,church is founded by ,god alone4 ,the ,roman pontiff alone can legitimately take the title of universal 444 ,there shall be no intercourse whatever held with persons excommunicated by the ,pope1 and none may dwell in the same house with them4444 ,he alone may wear the imperial insignia4 ,all the princes of the earth shall kiss the feet of the ,pope1 but of none other4444 ,he has the right of deposing emperors4444 ,the sentence of the ,pope can be revoked by none1 and he alone can revoke the sentences passed by others4 ,he can be judged by none4 ,none may dare to pronounce sentence on one who appeals to the ,see ,apostolic4 ,to it shall be referred all major causes by the whole ,church4 ,the ,church of ,rome never has erred1 and never can err1 as ,scripture warrants4 ,a ,roman pontiff1 canonically ordained1 at once becomes1 by the merit of ,saint ,peter1 indubitably holy4 ,by his order and with his permission it is lawful for subjects to accuse princes4444 ,the ,pope can loose subjects from the oath of fealty4' ,such are the fundamental articles promulgated by ,gregory ,,vii4 in the ,council of ,rome1 which the official historian of the ,church reproduced in the commencement of the seventeenth century as being authentic and legitimate1 and ,rome has never disavowed it4 ,borrowed in part from the false ,decretals1 resting1 most of them1 on the fabulous donation of ,constantine1 and on the successive impostures and usurpations of the first barbarous ages1 they received from the hand of ,gregory ,,vii4 a new character of force and unity4 ,that pontiff stamped them with the sanction of his own genius4 ,such authority had never before been created3 it made every other power useless and subaltern 7,life of ,gregory ,,vii41 by ,villemain1 trans4 by ,brockley1 vol4 ii41 pp4 #ec-ee74 ,thus the struggle became inevitable between the temporal and the spiritual powers4 ,in every country there was a dual government3--#a4 ,that of a local kind1 represented by a temporal sovereign4 #b4 ,that of a foreign kind1 acknowledging the authority of the ,pope4 ,this ,roman influence was1 in the nature of things1 superior to the local2 it expressed the sovereign will of one man over all the nations of the continent conjointly1 and gathered overwhelming power from its compactness and unity4 ,the local influence was necessarily of a feeble nature1 since it was commonly weakened by the rivalries of conterminous states and the dissensions dexterously provoked by its competitor4 ,on not a single occasion could the various ,european states form a coalition against their common antagonist4 ,whenever a question arose1 they were skilfully taken in detail1 and commonly mastered4 ,the ostensible object of papal intrusion was to secure for the different peoples1 moral well-being2 the real object was to obtain large revenues and give support to large bodies of ecclesiastics4 ,the revenues thus abstracted were not unfrequently many times greater than those passing into the treasury of the local power4 ,thus1 on the occasion of ,innocent ,,iv4 demanding provision to be made for three hundred additional ,italian clergy by the ,church of ,england1 and that one of his nephews1 a mere boy1 should have a stall in ,lincoln ,cathedral1 it was found that the sum already annually abstracted by foreign ecclesiastics from ,england was thrice that which went into the coffers of the king4 ,while thus the higher clergy secured every political appointment worth having1 and abbots vied with counts in the herds of slaves they possessed--some1 it is said1 owned not fewer than twenty thousand--begging friars pervaded society in all directions1 picking up a share of what still remained to the poor4 ,there was a vast body of non-producers1 living in idleness and owning a foreign allegiance1 who were subsisting on the fruits of the toil of the labourers 7,conflict between ,religion and ,science1 ,draper1 pp4 #bff1 #bfg74 ,the struggle between the ,greek and ,latin ,churches1 hushed for awhile1 broke out again fiercely ,a4,d4 #ajec1 and in #ajed ,rome excommunicated ,constantinople1 and ,constantinople excommunicated ,rome4 ,the disputes as to transubstantiation continued1 and shook the ,roman ,church with their violence4 ,outside orthodoxy1 some of the old heresies lingered on4 ,the ,paulicians wandered throughout ,europe1 and became known in ,italy as the ,paterini and the ,cathari1 in ,france as the ,albigenses1 ,bulgarians1 or ,publicans4 ,the ,council of ,orleans condemned them to be burned alive1 and many perished4 ,,century ,,xii4 ,the wars which spread ,christianity were not yet entirely over1 but we only hear of them now on the outskirts1 so to speak1 of ,europe1 except where some tribes apostatized now and then1 and were brought back to the true faith by the sword4 ,the struggles between the popes and the more stiff-necked princes as to their relative rights and privileges continued1 and we sometimes see the curious spectacle of a pontiff on the side of the people1 or rather of the barons1 against the king3 whenever this is so1 we find that the king is struggling against ,roman supremacy1 and that the pope uses the power of the nation to subdue the rebellious monarch4 ,we do not find ,rome interfering to save the people from oppression when the oppressor is a faithful and obedient son of ,holy ,church4 ,fresh heresies spread during this century1 and we everywhere met with one corrective--death4 ,most of them appear to have grown out of the old ,manichan heresy1 and taught much of the old asceticism4 ,the ,cathari were hunted down and put to death throughout ,italy4 ,arnold of ,brescia1 who loudly protested against the possessions of the ,church1 and maintained that church revenues should be handed over to the ,state1 proved himself so extremely distasteful to the clergy that they arrested him1 crucified him and burned his dead body 7,a4,d4 #aaee74 ,peter de ,bruys1 who objected to infant baptism1 and may be called the ancestor of the ,baptists1 was burnt ,a4,d4 #aacj4 ,many other reformers shared the same fate1 and one large sect must here be noted4 ,peter ,waldus1 its founder1 was a merchant of ,lyons1 who 7,a4,d4 #aafj7 employed a priest to translate the ,gospels for him1 together with other portions of the ,bible4 ,studying these1 he resolved to abandon his business and distribute his wealth among the poor1 and1 in ,a4,d4 #aahj1 he became a public preacher1 and formed an association to teach the doctrines of the ,gospel1 as he conceived them1 against the doctrines of the ,church4 ,the sect first assumed only the simple name of the poor men of ,lyons1 but soon became known as the ,waldenses1 one of the most powerful and most widely spread sects of the ,middle ,ages4 ,they were1 in fact1 the precursors of the ,reformation1 and are notable as heretics protesting against the authorty of ,rome because that authority did not commend itself to their reason2 thus they asserted the right of private judgment1 and for that assertion they deserve a niche in the great temple of heretic thought4 ,,century ,,xiii4 ,in the far west of ,europe paganism still struggled against ,christianity1 and from ,a4,d4 #abcj to #abhj a long1 fierce war was waged against the ,prussians1 to confirm them in the ,christian faith2 the ,teutonic knights of ,st4 ,mary succeeded finally in their apostolic efforts1 and at last established ,christianity and fixed their own dominion in ,prussia 7p4 #cji71 whence they made forays into the neighbouring countries1 and pillaged1 burned1 massacred1 and ruined all before them4 ,in ,spain1 ,christianity had a yet sadder triumph1 for there the civilized ,moors were falling under the brutal ,christians1 and the garden of the world was being invaded by the hordes of the ,roman ,church4 ,the end1 however1 had not yet come4 ,in ,france1 we see the erection of ,,the ,,inquisition1 the most hateful and fiendish tribunal ever set up by religion4 ,the heretical sects were spreading rapidly in southern provinces of ,france1 and ,innocent ,,iii41 about the commencement of this century1 sent legates extraordinary into the southern provinces of ,france to do what the bishops had left undone1 and to extirpate heresy1 in all its various forms and modifications1 without being at all scrupulous in using such methods as might be necessary to effect this salutary purpose4 ,the persons charged with this ghostly commission were ,rainier1 a ,cistercian monk1 ,pierre de ,castelnau1 archdeacon of ,maguelonne1 who became also afterwards a ,cistercian friar4 ,these eminent missionaries were followed by several others1 among whom was the famous ,spaniard1 ,dominic1 founder of the order of preachers1 who1 returning from ,rome in the year #abjf1 fell in with these delegates1 embarked in their cause1 and laboured both by his exhortations and actions in the extirpation of heresy4 ,these spiritual champions1 who engaged in this expedition upon the sole authority of the pope1 without either asking the advice1 or demanding the succours of the bishops1 and who inflicted capital punishment upon such of the heretics as they could not convert by reason and argument1 were distinguished in common discourse by the title of inquisitors1 and from them the formidable and odious tribunal called the ,inquisition derived its origin 7pp4 #cdc1 #cdd74 ,in ,a4,d4 #abbi1 a council of ,toulouse erected in every city a council of inquisitors consisting of one priest and two laymen 7,ibid74 ,in ,a4,d4 #abcc1 ,gregory ,,ix4 superseded this tribunal by appointing the ,dominican monks as inquisitors1 and the pope's legate in ,france thereupon went from city to city1 wherever these monks had a monastery1 and there appointed some of their number inquisitors of heretical pravity4 ,the princes of ,europe were then persuaded to lend the aid of the ,state to the work of blood1 and to commit to the flames those who were handed over as heretics to the civil power by the inquisitors4 ,the plan of working was most methodical4 ,the rules of torture were carefully drawn out3 the prisoner was stripped naked1 the hair cut off1 and the body then laid on the rack and bound down2 the right1 then the left1 foot tightly bound and strained by cords2 the right and left arm stretched2 the fleshy part of the arm compressed with fine cords2 all the cords tightened together by one turn2 a second and third turn of the same kind3 beyond this1 with the rack1 women were not to be tortured2 with men a fourth turn was employed4 ,these directions were written in a ,manual1 used by the ,grand ,inquisitor of ,seville as late as ,a4,d4 #ahbj4 ,an analysis is given by ,dr4 ,rule1 in his ,history of the ,inquisition1 ,appendix to vol4 i41 pp4 #cci-cei1 ed4 #ahgd4 ,then we hear1 elsewhere1 of torture by roasting the feet1 by pulleys1 by red-hot pincers--in short1 by every abominable instrument of cruelty which men1 inspired by religion1 could conceive4 ,let the student take ,llorente and ,dr4 ,rule alone1 and he will learn enough of the ,inquisition horrors to make him shudder at the sight of a cross--at the name of ,christianity4 ,llorente gives the most revolting details of the torture of ,jean de ,salas1 at ,valladolid1 ,a4,d4 #aebg1 and this one case may serve as a specimen of ,inquisition work during these bloodstained centuries4 ,stripped to his shirt1 he was placed on the chevalet 7a narrow frame1 wherein the body was laid1 with no support save a pole across the middle71 and his feet were raised higher than his head2 tightly twisted cords cut through his flesh1 and were twisted yet tighter and tighter as the torture proceeded2 fine linen1 thrust into his mouth and throat1 added to the unnatural position1 made breathing well nigh impossible1 and on the linen water slowly fell1 drop by drop1 from a suspended vessel over his head1 till every struggling breath stained the cloth with blood 7see ,histoire critique de l',inquisition d',espagne1 t4 ,,ii41 pp4 #bj-bc1 ed4 #ahah74 ,this ,spanish ,inquisition1 during its existence1 punished heretics as follows3-- ,burnt alive 44444444444444444444444 #ca1iab ,burnt in effigy44444444444444444444 #ag1fei ,heavily punished4444444444444444444 #bia1dej ------- ,total #cda1jba 7,ibid1 t4 ,,iv4 p4 #bga74 ,add to this list the ruined families1 some of whose members fell victims to the ,inquisition1 and then--remembering that ,spain was but one of the countries which it desolated--let the student judge of the huge total of human agony caused by this awful institution4 ,nor must it be forgotten that its dungeons did not gape only for those who opposed the pretensions of ,rome2 men of science1 philosophers1 thinkers1 all these were its foes2 ,llorente gives a list of no less than #aai learned and eminent scientific men who1 in ,spain alone1 fell under the scourge of the ,inquisition 7see t4 ,,ii4 pp4 #dag-dhc74 ,one special crime of the ,church in this age must not be forgotten3 her treatment of ,roger ,bacon4 ,roger ,bacon was a ,franciscan monk1 who not only studied ,greek1 ,hebrew1 and ,oriental languages1 but who devoted himself to natural science1 and made many discoveries in astronomy1 chemistry1 optics1 and mathematics4 ,he is said to have discovered gunpowder1 and he proposed a reform of the calendar similar to that introduced by ,gregory ,,xiii41 #cjj years later4 ,his reward was to be hooted at as a magician1 and to be confined in a dungeon for many years4 ,the heretics spread and increased in this century1 spite of the terrible weapon brought to bear against them4 ,the ,brethren and ,sisters of the ,free ,spirit1 known also as ,beghards1 ,beguttes1 ,bicorni1 ,beghins1 and ,turlupins1 were the chief additional body4 ,they believed that all things had emanated from ,god1 and that to ,him they would return2 and to this ,eastern philosophy they added practical fanaticism1 rushing wildly about1 shouting1 yelling1 begging4 ,the ,waldenses and ,albigenses multiplied1 and diversity of opinion spread in every direction4 ,,century ,,xiv4 ,this fourteenth century is one of the epochs that sorely test the ingenuity of believers in papal infallibility2 for the cardinals1 having elected one pope in ,a4,d4 #acgh1 rapidly took a dislike to him1 and elected a second4 ,the first choice1 ,urban ,,vi41 remained at ,rome2 the second1 ,clement ,,vii41 betook himself to ,avignon4 ,they duly excommunicated each other1 and the ,latin ,church was rent in twain4 ,the distress and calamity of these times is beyond all power of description2 for not to insist upon the perpetual contentions and wars between the factions of the several popes1 by which multitudes lost their fortunes and lives1 all sense of religion was extinguished in most places1 and profligacy arose to a most scandalous excess4 ,the clergy1 while they vehemently contended which of the reigning popes was the true successor of ,christ1 were so excessively corrupt as to be no longer studious to keep up even an appearance of religion or decency 7,europe ,during the ,middle ,ages1 ,hallam1 p4 #cei74 ,meanwhile1 the struggle between ,rome and the heretics went on with ever-increasing fury4 ,in ,england1 ,dr4 ,john ,wickcliff1 rector of ,lutterworth1 became famous by his attack on the mendicant orders in ,a4,d4 #acfj1 and from that time he raised his voice louder and louder1 till he spoke against the pope himself4 ,he translated the ,bible into ,english1 attacked many of the prevailing superstitions1 and although condemned as holding heretical opinions1 he yet died in peace1 ,a4,d4 #achg4 ,rome revenged itself by digging up his bones and burning them1 about thirteen years later4 ,rebellion spread even among the monks of the ,church1 and a vast number of some nonconformist ,franciscan monks1 termed ,spirituals1 were burned for their refusal to obey the pope on matters of discipline4 ,the intense hatred between the ,franciscan and ,dominican orders made the latter the willing instrument of the papacy2 and1 in their character as inquisitors1 they hunted down their unfortunate rivals as heretics4 ,the ,flagellants1 a sect who wandered about flogging themselves to the glory of ,god1 fell also under the merciless hands of the inquisitors1 as did also the ,knights ,templars in ,france4 ,a new body1 known as the ,dancers1 started up in ,a4,d4 #acgc1 and spread through ,flanders2 but the priests prayed them away by exorcising the dancing devils that1 they said1 inhabited the members of this curious sect4 ,among the sufferers of this century one name must not be forgotten3 it is that of ,ceccus ,asculanus4 ,this man was an ,aristotelian philosopher1 an astrologer1 a mathematician1 and a physician4 ,this unhappy man1 having performed some experiments in mechanics that seemed miraculous to the vulgar1 and having also offended many1 and among the rest his master the ,duke of ,calabria1 by giving out some predictions which were said to have been fulfilled1 was universally supposed to deal with infernal spirits1 and burned for it by the inquisitors1 at ,florence1 in the year #accg 7p4 #cee74 ,there seems no green spot on which to rest the eye in this weary stretch of blood and fire4 ,,century ,,xv4 ,in this fifteenth century the knell of the ,church rang out2 it is memorable evermore in history for the discovery of the ,new ,world1 and the consequent practical demonstration of the falsehood of the whole theory of the patristic and ecclesiastical theology4 ,in the flood only ,noah and his three sons1 with their wives1 were saved in an ark4 ,of these sons1 ,sham remained in ,asia and repeopled it4 ,ham peopled ,africa2 ,japhet1 ,europe4 ,as the fathers were not acquainted with the existence of ,america1 they did not provide an ancestor for its people 7,conflict between ,religion and ,science1 ,dr4 ,draper1 p4 #fc74 ,lactantius1 indeed1 inveighed against the folly of those who believed in the existence of the antipodes1 and ,augustine maintained that it was impossible there should be people living on the other side of the earth4 ,besides1 in the day of judgment1 men on the other side of a globe could not see the ,lord descending through the air 7,ibid1 p4 #fd74 ,clearly there was no other side1 theologically2 only ,columbus sailed there4 ,another fatal blow was struck at the ,church by the invention of the printing press1 about ,a4,d4 #addj1 an invention which made knowledge possible for the many1 and by diffusion of knowledge made heresy likewise certain4 ,it is not for me1 however1 to trace here the progress of heretic thought2 that brighter task is for another pen2 mine only to turn over the bloodstained and black pages of the ,church4 ,one name stands out in the list of the pontiffs of this century1 which is almost unparalleled in its infamy2 it is that of ,roderic ,borgia1 ,pope ,alexander ,,vi4 ,foully vicious1 cruel1 and bloodthirsty1 he is startlingly bad1 even for a pope4 ,among his children are found the names of ,csar and ,lucretia ,borgia1 names whose very mention recalls a list of horrible crimes4 ,alexander died ,a4,d4 #aejc1 from swallowing1 by mistake1 a poison which he and his son ,csar had prepared for others4 ,turning to the heretics1 we see great lives cut short by the terrible blows of the inquisition3--,savanarola1 the brave ,italian preacher1 the reformer monk1 tortured and burned ,a4,d4 #adih2 ,john ,huss1 the enemy of the papacy1 burned ,a4,d4 #adae1 in direct violation of the safe conduct granted him2 ,jerome1 of ,prague1 the friend and companion of ,huss1 burned ,a4,d4 #adaf4 ,myriads of their unhappy followers shared their fate in every ,european land4 ,but to ,spain belongs the terrible pre-eminence of cruelty in this last century before the ,reformation4 ,in the year #adgh a bull of ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv4 established the ,inquisition in ,spain4 ,in the first year of the operation of the ,inquisition1 #adha1 two thousand victims were burnt in ,andalusia2 besides these1 many thousands were dug up from their graves and burnt2 seventeen thousand were fined or imprisoned for life4 ,whoever of the persecuted race could flee1 escaped for his life4 ,torquemada1 now appointed ,inquisitor-,general for ,castile and ,leon1 illustrated his office by his ferocity4 ,anonymous accusations were received1 the accused was not confronted by witnesses1 torture was relied upon for conviction2 it was inflicted in vaults where no one could hear the cries of the tormented4 ,as1 in pretended mercy1 it was forbidden to inflict torture a second time1 with horrible duplicity it was affirmed that the torment had not been completed at first1 but had only been suspended out of charity until the following day6 ,the families of the convicted were plunged into irretrievable ruin4444 ,this frantic priest destroyed ,hebrew ,bibles wherever he could find them1 and burnt six thousand volumes of ,oriental literature at ,salamanca1 under an imputation that they inculcated ,judaism 7,draper's ,conflict of ,science and ,religion1 p4 #adf74 ,torquemada was1 indeed1 a worthy successor of ,moses4 ,during his eighteen years of power1 his list of victims is as follows3-- ,burnt at the stake alive4444444444444444444 #aj1bbj ,burnt in effigy1 the persons having died in prison or fled the country444444444444 #f1hfj ,punished with infamy1 confiscation1 perpetual imprisonment1 or loss of civil rights 4444444444444444444444444444444444 #ig1cba ------- ,total 4444444444444444444444444444444444444#aa d1dja --7,history of the ,inquisition1 by ,dr4 ,w4,h4 ,rule1 vol4 i41 p4 #aej4 ,full details of numbers are given in the ,histoire critique de l',inquisition d',espagne1 ,llorente1 t4 ,i41 pp4 #bgb-bha74 ,cardinal ,ximenes was not quite so successful as ,torquemada1 but still his roll is long3 ,burnt at the stake alive 4444444444444444444 #c1efd ,burnt in effigy 4444444444444444444444444444 #a1bcb ,punished heavily 44444444444444444444444444 #dh1jei ------ --7,ibid1 p4 #ahf74 ,total 4444444444444444444 #eb1hee ,in ,a4,d4 #adha1 in the bishoprics of ,seville and ,cadiz1 two thousand ,judaizers were burnt in person1 and very many in effigy1 of whom the number is not known1 besides seventeen thousand subject to cruel penance 7,ibid1 p4 #acc74 ,in ,a4,d4 #adhe1 no less than #iej persons were burned at ,villa ,real1 now ,ciudad ,real4 ,spite of all this awful suffering1 heretics and ,jews remained antagonistic to the church1 and in ,march1 ,a4,d4 #adib1 the edict of the expulsion of the ,jews was signed4 ,all unbaptized ,jews1 of whatever age1 sex1 or condition1 were ordered to leave the realm by the end of the following ,july4 ,if they revisited it1 they should suffer death4 ,they might sell their effects1 and take the proceeds in merchandise or bills of exchange1 but not in gold or silver4 ,exiled thus1 suddenly from the land of their birth1 the land of their ancestors for hundreds of years1 they could not in the glutted market that arose sell what they possessed4 ,nobody would purchase what could be got for nothing after ,july4 ,the ,spanish clergy occupied themselves by preaching in the public squares sermons filled with denunciations against their victims1 who1 when the time for expatriation came1 swarmed in the roads1 and filled the air with their cries of despair4 ,even the ,spanish onlookers wept at the scene of agony4 ,torquemada1 however1 enforced the ordinance that no one should afford them any help4444 ,thousands1 especially mothers with nursing children1 infants1 and old people1 died by the way--many of them in the agonies of thirst 7,ibid1 p4 #adg74 ,thus was a peaceable1 industrious1 thoughtful population1 driven out of ,spain by the ,church4 ,nor did her hand stay even here4 ,ferdinand1 alas6 had completed the conquest of the ,moors2 true1 ,granada had only yielded under pledge of liberty of worship1 but of what value is the pledge of the ,christian to the heretic8 ,the ,inquisition harried the land1 until1 in ,february #aejb1 word went out that all unbaptized ,moors must leave ,spain by the end of ,april4 ,they might sell their property1 but not take away any gold or silver2 they were forbidden to emigrate to the ,mahommedan dominions2 the penalty of disobedience was death4 ,their condition was thus worse than that of the ,jews1 who had been permitted to go where they chose 7,ibid1 p4 #adh74 ,and so the ,moors were driven out1 and ,spain was left to ,christianity1 to sink down to what she is to-day4 #c1jjj1jjj persons are said to have been expelled as ,jews1 ,moors and ,moriscoes4 ,the ,moors departed1--they who had made the name of ,spain glorious1 and had spread science and thought through ,europe from that focus of light1--they who had welcomed to their cities all who thought1 no matter what their creed1 and had covered with an equal protection ,mahommedan1 ,christian1 and ,jew4 ,nor let the ,protestant ,christian imagine that these deeds of blood are ,roman1 not ,christian4 ,the same crimes attach to every ,church1 and ,rome's black list is only longer because her power is greater4 ,let us glance at ,protestant communions4 ,in ,hungary1 ,giska1 the ,hussite1 massacred and bruised the ,beghards4 ,in ,germany1 ,luther cried1 ,why1 if men hang the thief upon the gallows1 or if they put the rogue to death1 why should not we1 with all our strength1 attack these popes and cardinals1 these dregs of the ,roman ,sodom8 ,why not wash our hands in their blood8 7,the ,spanish ,inquisition1 ,le ,maistre1 p4 #fg1 ed4 #ahch74 ,sandys1 ,bishop of ,london1 wrote in defence of persecution4 ,archbishop ,usher1 in an address signed by eleven other bishops1 said3 ,any toleration to the papists is a grievous sin4 ,knox said1 ,the people are bound in conscience to put to death the queen1 along with all her priests4 ,the ,english ,parliament said1 ,persecution was necessary to advance the glory of ,god4 ,the ,scotch ,parliament decreed death against ,catholics as idolaters1 saying it was a religious obligation to execute them 7,ibid1 pp4 #fg1 #fh74 ,cranmer1 ,a4,d4 #aeej1 condemned six anabaptists to death1 one of whom1 a woman1 was burned alive1 and in the following year another was committed to the flames2 this primate held a commission with some others1 to examine and search after all anabaptists1 heretics1 or contemners of the book of ,common ,prayer 7,students' ,history of ,england1 ,d4 ,hume1 p4 #bia1 ed4 #ahfh74 ,in ,switzerland1 ,calvin burned ,servetus4 ,in ,america1 the ,puritans carried on the same hateful tradition1 and whipped the harmless ,quakers from town to town4 ,wherever the cross has gone1 whether held by ,roman ,catholic1 by ,lutheran1 by ,calvinist1 by ,episcopalian1 by ,presbyterian1 by ,protestant dissenter1 it has been dipped in human blood1 and has broken human hearts4 ,its effect on ,europe was destructive1 barbarising1 deadly1 until the dawning light of science scattered the thick black clouds which issued from the cross4 ,one indisputable fact1 pregnant with instruction1 is the extremely low rate of increase of the population of ,europe during the centuries when ,christianity was supreme4 ,what1 then1 does this stationary condition of the population mean8 ,it means1 food obtained with hardship1 insufficient clothing1 personal uncleanness1 cabins that could not keep out the weather1 the destructive effects of cold and heat1 miasm1 want of sanitary provisions1 absence of physicians1 uselessness of shrine cure1 the deceptiveness of miracles1 in which society was putting its trust2 or1 to sum up a long catalogue of sorrows1 wants and sufferings in one term--it means a high death-rate4 ,but1 more1 it means deficient births4 ,and what does that point out8 ,marriage postponed1 licentious life1 private wickedness1 demoralized society 7,draper's ,conflict of ,religion and ,science1 p4 #bfc74 ,the surface of the ,continent was for the most part covered with pathless forests2 here and there it was dotted with monasteries and towns4 ,in the lowlands and along the river courses were fens1 sometimes hundreds of miles in extent1 exhaling their pestiferous miasms1 and spreading agues far and wide4 ,in towns there was no attempt made at drainage1 but the putrefying garbage and rubbish were simply thrown out of the door4 ,men1 women1 and children slept in the same apartment2 not unfrequently domestic animals were their companions2 in such a confusion of the family it was impossible that modesty and morality could be maintained4 ,the bed was usually a bag of straw2 a wooden log served as a pillow4 ,personal cleanliness was utterly unknown2 great officers of state1 even dignitaries so high as the ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 swarmed with vermin2 such1 it is related1 was the condition of ,thomas ,becket1 the antagonist of an ,english king4 ,to conceal personal impurity1 perfumes were necessarily and profusely used4 ,the citizen clothed himself in leather1 a garment which1 with its ever-accumulating impurity1 might last for many years4 ,he was considered to be in circumstances of ease1 if he could procure fresh meat once a week for his dinner4 ,the streets had no sewers2 they were without pavement or lamps4 ,after night-fall1 the chamber-shutters were thrown open1 and slops unceremoniously emptied down1 to the discomforture of the wayfarer tracking his path through the narrow streets1 with his dismal lantern in his hand 7,ibid1 p4 #bfe74 ,little wonder indeed1 that plagues swept through the cities1 destroying their inhabitants wholesale4 ,the ,church could only pray against them1 or offer shrines where votive offerings might win deliverance2 not without a bitter resistance on the part of the clergy1 men began to think that pestilences are not punishments inflicted by ,god on society for its religious shortcomings1 but the physical consequences of filth and wretchedness2 that the proper mode of avoiding them is not by praying to the saints1 but by ensuring personal and municipal cleanliness4 ,in the twelfth century it was found necessary to pave the streets of ,paris1 the stench in them was so dreadful4 ,at once dysenteries and spotted fever diminished2 a sanitary condition1 approaching that of the ,moorish cities of ,spain1 which had been paved for centuries1 was attained 7,ibid1 p4 #cad74 ,the death-rate was still further diminished by the importation of the physician's skill from the ,arabs and the ,moors2 the ,christians had depended on the shrine of the saint1 and the bone of the martyr1 and the priest was the doctor of body as well as of soul4 ,on all the roads pilgrims were wending their way to the shrines of saints1 renowned for the cures they had wrought4 ,it had always been the policy of the ,church to discourage the physician and his art2 he interfered too much with the gifts and profits of the shrines4444 ,for patients too sick to move or be moved1 there were no remedies except those of a ghostly kind--the ,paternoster and the ,ave 7,ibid1 p4 #bfi74 ,thus ,christianity set itself against all popular advancement1 against all civil and social progress1 against all improvement in the condition of the masses4 ,it viewed every change with distrust1 it met every innovation with opposition4 ,while it reigned supreme1 ,europe lay in chains1 and even into the new world it carried the fetters of the old4 ,only as ,christianity has grown feebler has civilization strengthened1 and progress has been made more and more rapidly as a failing creed has lost the power to oppose4 ,and now1 day by day1 that progress becomes swifter2 now1 day by day1 the opposition becomes fainter1 and soon1 passing over the ruins of a shattered religion1 ,free ,thought shall plant the white banner of ,liberty in the midst of the temple of ,humanity2 that temple which1 long desecrated by priests and overshadowed by gods1 shall then be consecrated for evermore to the service of its rightful owner1 and shall be filled with the glory of man1 the only god1 and shall have its air melodious with the voice of the prayer which is work4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,to ,,section ,,iv4 ,,of ,,part ,,ii4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,of ,,books ,,used4 ,draper1 ,conflict of ,religion and ,science444#dbe1 #dcc1 #dcg1 #ddi1 #dee1 #def1 #dfd1 #dfe1 #dga1 #dgb1 #dge1 #dgf ,eusebius1 ,ecclesiastical ,history444#dbd ,gibbon1 ,decline and ,fall444#dbe1 #dbi1 #dcb1 #dcc1 #dce ,hallam1 ,europe during the ,middle ,ages444#ded1 #deg1 #deh1 #dei1 #dfj1 #dfa1 #dfb1 #dfc1 #dgj1 #dga ,hume1 ,student's ,history of ,england444#dgd ,le ,maistre1 ,spanish ,inquisition444#dgd ,llorente1 ,histoire critique de l',inquisition d',espagne444#dfh1 #dfi1 #dgb1 #dgc ,mosheim1 ,ecclesiastical ,history444,used throughout ,rule1 ,history of the ,inquisition444#dfh1 #dgb ,villemain1 ,life of ,gregory ,,vii444#dfd 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,,of ,,subjects4 ,advent of ,christ expected444#def1 #deg ,alexandrine ,library1 destruction of444#dcb ,arius444#dcc1 #dcd ,boniface1 ,apostle of ,germany444#ddb ,century #bnd and #crd444#dbc1 #dbi ,century #dth444#dbi1 #dce ,century #eth444#dce1 #dci ,century #fth444#dci1 #dda 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