,transcriber's note3 ,superscripted letters and numbers have been marked with a preceding caret 774 ,the ,life of ,jesus of ,nazareth ,a ,study ,by ,rush ,rhees #aijb ,copyright1 #aijj1 ,by ,charles ,scribner's ,sons ,to ,c4 ,w4 ,mc,c4 ,in ,recognition of ,wise ,counsel1 ,generous ,help and ,loving ,appreciation ,i would preach 444 the need to the world of the faith in a ,christ1 the claim that ,jesus is the ,christ1 and the demand for an intelligent faith1 which indeed shall transcend but shall not despise knowledge1 or neglect to have a knowledge to transcend4--,john ,patterson ,coyle ,preface ,the aim of this book is to help thoughtful readers of the gospels to discern more clearly the features of him whom those writings inimitably portray4 ,it is avowedly a study rather than a story1 and as a companion to the reading of the gospels it seeks to answer some of the questions which are raised by a sympathetic consideration of those narratives4 ,these answers are offered in an unargumentative way1 even where the questions are still in debate among scholars4 ,this method has been adopted because technical discussion would be of interest to but few of those whom the book hopes to serve4 ,on some of the questions a non-committal attitude is taken in the belief that for the understanding of the life of ,jesus it is of little importance which way the decision finally goes4 ,less attention has been given to questions of geography and archology than to those which have a more vital biographical significance4 ,a word concerning the point of view adopted4 ,the church has inherited a rich treasure of doctrine concerning its ,lord1 the result of patient study and1 frequently1 of heated controversy4 ,it is customary to approach the gospels with this interpretation of ,christ as a premise1 and such a study has some unquestionable advantages4 ,with the apostles and evangelists1 however1 the recognition of the divine nature of ,jesus was a conclusion from their acquaintance with him4 ,the ,man of ,nazareth was for them primarily a man1 and they so regarded him until he showed them that he was more4 ,their knowledge of him progressed in the natural way from the human to the divine4 ,the gospels1 particularly the first three1 are marvels of simplicity and objectivity4 ,their authors clearly regarded ,jesus as the ,man from heaven2 yet in their thinking they were dominated by the influence of a personal ,lord rather than by the force of an accepted doctrine4 ,it is with no lack of reverence for the importance and truth of the divinity of ,christ that this book essays to bring the ,man ,jesus before the mind in the reading of the gospels4 ,the incarnation means that ,god chose to reveal the divine through a human life1 rather than through a series of propositions which formulate truth 7,heb4 i4 #a-d74 ,the most perennially refreshing influence for ,christian life and thought is personal discipleship to that ,revealer who is able to-day as of old to exhibit in his humanity those qualities which compel the recognition of ,god manifest in the flesh4 ,an ,appendix is added to furnish references to the wide literature of the subject for the aid of those who wish to study it more extensively and technically2 also to discuss some questions of detail which could not be considered in the text4 ,this appendix will indicate the extent of my indebtedness to others4 ,i would acknowledge special obligation to ,professor ,ernest ,d4 ,burton1 of the ,university of ,chicago1 for generous help and permission to use material found in his ,notes on the ,life of ,jesus2 to ,professor ,shailer ,mathews1 also of ,chicago1 for very valuable criticisms2 to my colleague1 ,professor ,charles ,rufus ,brown1 for most serviceable assistance2 and to the editors of this series for helpful suggestions and criticism during the making of the book4 ,an unmeasured debt is due to another who has sat at my side during the writing of these pages1 and has given constant inspiration1 most discerning criticism1 and practical aid4 ,the ,newton ,theological ,institution1 ,april1 #aijj4 ,contents ,part ,i ,preparatory ,i ,the ,historical ,situation ,sections #a-ai4 ,pages #a-bj ,section #a4 ,the ,roman estimate of ,judea4 #b1 #c4 ,herod the ,great and his sons4 #d4 ,roman procurators in ,palestine4 #e4 ,taxes4 #f4 ,the army4 #g4 ,administration of justice4 #h4 ,the ,sadducees4 #i1aj4 ,the ,pharisees4 #aa4 ,the ,zealots4 #ab4 ,the ,essenes4 #ac4 ,the ,devout4 #ad4 ,herodians and ,samaritans4 #ae4 ,the synagogue4 #af4 ,life under the law4 #ag4 ,the ,messianic hope4 #ah4 ,contemporary literature4 #ai4 ,language of ,palestine4 ,,ii ,sources of ,our ,knowledge of ,jesus ,sections #bj-ce4 ,pages #ba-cg ,section #bj4 ,the testimony of ,paul4 #ba4 ,secular history4 #bb4 ,the written gospels4 #bc4 ,characteristics of the first gospel4 #bd4 ,of the second4 #be4 ,of the third4 #bf-cj4 ,the synoptic problem4 #ca-cb4 ,the ,johannine problem4 #cd4 ,the two narrative sources4 #ce4 ,agrapha and ,apocrypha4 ,,iii ,the ,harmony of the ,gospels ,sections #cf-dd4 ,pages #ch-ad ,section #cf4 ,the value of four gospels4 #cg4 ,tatian's ,diatessaron4 #ch4 ,agreement of the gospels concerning the chief events4 #ci4 ,the principal problems4 #dj4 ,relation of ,mark and ,john4 #da1 #db4 ,matthew and ,luke4 #dc4 ,doublets4 #dd4 ,the degree of certainty attainable4 ,,iv ,the ,chronology ,sections #de-eg4 ,pages #de-ef ,sections #de-dh4 ,the length of ,jesus' public ministry4 #di4 ,date of the first ,passover4 #ej4 ,date of the crucifixion4 #ea-ef4 ,date of the nativity4 #eg4 ,summary4 ,v ,the ,early ,years of ,jesus ,sections #eh-ga4 ,pages #eg-fi ,section #eh4 ,apocryphal stories4 #ei4 ,silence of the ,new ,testament outside the gospels4 #fj-fb4 ,the miraculous birth4 #fc4 ,the childhood of ,jesus4 #fd4 ,home4 #fe4 ,religion1 ,education4 #ff4 ,growth4 #fg4 ,religious development4 #fh4 ,the view from ,nazareth4 #fi ,the first visit to ,jerusalem4 #gj-ga4 ,the carpenter of ,nazareth4 ,,vi ,john the ,baptist ,sections #gb-hd4 ,pages #gj-ha ,section #gb4 ,the gospel picture4 #gc4 ,notice by ,josephus4 #gd4 ,characteristics of the prophet #ge-gh4 ,john's relation to the ,essenes2 the ,pharisees2 the ,zealots2 the ,apocalyptists4 #gi4 ,john and the ,prophets4 #hj-hb4 ,origin of his baptism4 #hc4 ,his greatness4 #hd4 ,his limitations and self-effacement4 ,,vii ,the ,messianic ,call ,sections #he-if4 ,pages #hb-ia ,sections #he1 #hf4 ,john and ,jesus4 #hg4 ,the baptism of ,jesus4 #hh1 #hi4 ,the ,messianic call4 #ij4 ,the gift of the ,spirit4 #ia-id4 ,the temptation4 #ie4 ,source of the narrative4 #if4 ,the issue4 ,,viii ,the ,first ,disciples ,sections #ig-aje4 ,pages #ib-ig ,section #ig4 ,john at ,bethany beyond ,jordan4 #ih4 ,the deputation from the priests4 #ii4 ,john's first testimony4 #ajj4 ,the first disciples4 #aja4 ,the early ,messianic confessions4 #ajb4 ,the visit to ,cana4 #ajc4 ,the miracles as disclosures of the character of ,jesus4 #ajd4 ,jesus and his mother4 #aje4 ,removal to ,capernaum4 ,part ,,ii ,the ,ministry ,i ,general ,survey of the ,ministry ,sections #ajf-aab4 ,pages #aja-aje ,section #ajf4 ,the early ,judean ministry4 #ajg4 ,withdrawal to ,galilee2 a new beginning4 #ajh4 ,the ministry in ,galilee a unit4 #aji4 ,best studied topically4 #aaj4 ,the last journey to ,jerusalem4 #aaa4 ,the last week4 #aab4 ,the resurrection and ascension4 ,,ii ,the ,early ,judean ,ministry ,sections #aac-abd4 ,pages #ajf-aad ,outline of events in the ,early ,judean ministry4 ,section #aac4 ,the opening ministry at ,jerusalem4 #aad4 ,the record incomplete4 #aae4 ,the cleansing of the temple4 #aaf4 ,relation to synoptic account4 #aag4 ,jesus' reply to the challenge of his authority4 #aah4 ,the reserve of ,jesus4 #aai4 ,discourse with ,nicodemus4 #abj4 ,measure of success in ,jerusalem4 #aba4 ,the ,baptist's last testimony4 #abb4 ,the arrest of ,john4 #abc4 ,the second sign at ,cana4 #abd4 ,summary4 ,,iii ,the ,ministry in ,galilee--,its ,aim and ,method ,sections #abe-adi4 ,pages #aae-acg ,outline of events in the ,galilean ministry4 ,section #abe4 ,general view4 #abf1 #abg4 ,development of popular enthusiasm4 #abh4 ,pharisaic opposition4 #abi1 #acj4 ,jesus and the ,messianic hope4 #aca4 ,injunctions of silence4 #acb-ace4 ,jesus' twofold aim in ,galilee4 #acf1 #acg4 ,character of the teaching of this period3 the sermon on the mount4 #ach4 ,the parables4 #aci4 ,the instructions for the mission of the twelve4 #adj4 ,jesus' tone of authority4 #ada4 ,his mighty works4 #adb-add4 ,demoniac possession4 #ade4 ,jesus' personal influence4 #adf4 ,the feeding of the five thousand4 #adg1 #adh4 ,revulsion of popular feeling4 #adi4 ,results of the work in ,galilee4 ,,iv ,the ,ministry in ,galilee--,the ,new ,lesson ,sections #aej-afe4 ,pages #ach-aeb ,section #aej4 ,the changed ministry4 #aea4 ,the question of tradition4 #aeb4 ,further pharisaic opposition4 #aec4 ,jesus in ,phnicia4 #aed4 ,confirmation of the disciples' faith4 #aee4 ,the question at ,csarea ,philippi4 #aef4 ,the corner-stone of the ,church4 #aeg-aei4 ,the new lesson4 #afj4 ,the transfiguration4 #afa4 ,cure of the epileptic boy4 #afb4 ,the feast of ,tabernacles4 #afc4 ,story of ,jesus and the adulteress4 #afd4 ,the new note in ,jesus' teaching4 #afe4 ,summary of the ,galilean ministry4 ,v ,the ,journey through ,perea to ,jerusalem ,sections #aff-agf4 ,pages #aec-afe ,outline of events4 ,section #aff4 ,the ,perean ministry4 #afg4 ,account in ,john4 #afh1 #afi4 ,account in ,luke4 #agj4 ,the mission of the seventy4 #aga4 ,the feast of ,dedication4 #agb4 ,withdrawal beyond ,jordan4 #agc4 ,the raising of ,lazarus4 #agd4 ,ephraim and ,jericho4 #age1agf4 ,summary4 ,,vi ,the ,final ,controversies in ,jerusalem ,sections #agg-ahh4 ,pages #aff-ahj ,outline of events in the last week of ,jesus' life4 ,section #agg4 ,the cross in apostolic preaching4 #agh4 ,the anointing in ,bethany4 #agi4 ,the ,messianic entry4 #ahj4 ,the barren fig-tree4 #aha4 ,the ,monday of ,passion week4 #ahb-ahf4 ,the controversies of ,tuesday4 #ahg4 ,judas4 #ahh4 ,wednesday1 the day of seclusion4 ,,vii ,the ,last ,supper ,sections #ahi-aie4 ,pages #aha-ahg ,section #ahi4 ,preparations4 #aij1aia4 ,date of the supper4 #aib4 ,the lesson of humility4 #aic4 ,the new covenant4 #aid4 ,the supper and the ,passover4 #aie4 ,farewell words of admonition and comfort2 the intercessory prayer4 ,,viii ,the ,shadow of ,death ,sections #aif-bjh4 ,pages #ahh-bjj ,sections #aif1 #aig4 ,gethsemane4 #aih4 ,the betrayal4 #aii4 ,the trial4 #bjj4 ,peter's denials4 #bja4 ,the rejection of ,jesus4 #bjb4 ,the greatness of ,jesus4 #bjc1 #bjd4 ,the crucifixion4 #bje4 ,the words from the cross4 #bjf4 ,the death of ,jesus4 #bjg4 ,the burial4 #bjh4 ,the ,sabbath rest4 ,,ix ,the ,resurrection ,sections #bji-bbb4 ,pages #bja-baf ,section #bji4 ,the primary ,christian fact4 #baj4 ,the incredulity of the disciples4 #baa-baf4 ,the appearances of the risen ,lord4 #bag-bbj4 ,efforts to explain the belief in the resurrection4 #bba4 ,the ascension4 #bbb4 ,the new faith of the disciples4 ,part ,,iii ,the ,minister ,i ,the ,friend of ,men ,sections #bbc-bbi4 ,pages #bai-bbe ,section #bbc4 ,the contrast between ,jesus' attitude and ,john's towards common social life4 #bbd4 ,contrast with the scribes4 #bbe1 #bbf4 ,his interest in simple manhood4 #bbg4 ,regard for human need4 #bbh1 #bbi4 ,sensitiveness to human sympathy4 ,,ii ,the ,teacher with ,authority ,sections #bcj-bda4 ,pages #bbf-bcg ,section #bcj4 ,contrast between ,jesus and the scribes4 #bca4 ,his appeal to the conscience4 ,his attitude to the ,old ,testament4 #bcd4 ,his teaching occasional4 #bce4 ,the patience of his method4 #bcf4 ,his use of illustration4 #bcg4 ,parable4 #bch4 ,irony and hyperbole4 #bci4 ,object lessons4 #bdj4 ,jesus' intellectual superiority4 #bda4 ,his chief theme1 the kingdom of ,god4 ,,iii ,jesus' ,knowledge of ,truth ,sections #bdb-bea4 ,pages #bch-bdh ,sections #bdb1 #bdc4 ,jesus' supernatural knowledge4 #bdd4 ,his predictions of his death4 #bde4 ,of his resurrection4 #bdf4 ,his apocalyptic predictions4 #bdg1 #bdh4 ,limitation of his knowledge4 #bdi1 #bej4 ,jesus and demoniac possession4 #bea4 ,his certainty of his own mission4 ,,iv ,jesus' ,conception of ,himself ,sections #beb-bge4 ,pages #bdi-bfi4 ,section #beb4 ,jesus' confidence in his calling4 #bec4 ,his independence in teaching4 #bed4 ,his self-assertions in response to pharisaic criticism4 #bee4 ,his desire to beget faith in himself4 #bef1beg4 ,his extraordinary personal claim4 #beh4 ,his acceptance of ,messianic titles4 #bei-bff4 ,the ,son of ,man4 #bfg-bfi4 ,the ,son of ,god4 #bgj1 #bga4 ,his consciousness of oneness with ,god4 #bgb4 ,his confession of dependence2 his habit of prayer4 #bgc4 ,no confession of sin4 #bgd1 #bge4 ,the ,word made flesh4 ,appendix ,index of ,names and ,subjects ,index of ,biblical ,references ,map of ,palestine ,part ,i ,preparatory ,i ,the ,historical ,situation #a4 ,when ,tacitus1 the ,roman historian1 records the attempt of ,nero to charge the ,christians with the burning of ,rome1 he has patience for no more than the cursory remark that the sect originated with a ,jew who had been put to death in ,judea during the reign of ,tiberius4 ,this province was small and despised1 and ,tacitus could account for the influence of the sect which sprang thence only by the fact that all that was infamous and abominable flowed into ,rome4 ,the ,roman's scornful judgment failed to grasp the nature and power of the movement whose unpopularity invited ,nero's lying accusation1 yet it emphasizes the significance of him who did not strive1 nor cry1 nor cause his voice to be heard in the street1 whose influence1 nevertheless1 was working as leaven throughout the empire4 #b4 ,palestine was not under immediate ,roman rule when ,jesus was born4 ,herod the ,great was drawing near the close of the long reign during which1 owing to his skill in securing ,roman favor1 he had tyrannized over his unwilling people4 ,his claim was that of an adventurer who had power to succeed1 even as his method had been that of a suspicious tyrant1 who murdered right and left1 lest one of the many with better right than he should rise to dispute with him his throne4 ,when ,herod died1 his kingdom was divided into three parts1 and ,rome asserted a fuller sovereignty1 allowing none of his sons to take his royal title4 ,herod's successors ruled with a measure of independence1 however1 and followed many of their father's ways1 though none of them had his ability4 ,the best of them was ,philip1 who had the territory farthest from ,jerusalem1 and least related to ,jewish life4 ,he ruled over ,iturea and ,trachonitis1 the country to the north and east of the ,sea of ,galilee1 having his capital at ,csarea ,philippi1 a city built and named by him on the site of an older town near the sources of the ,jordan4 ,he also rebuilt the city of ,bethsaida1 at the point where the ,jordan flows into the ,sea of ,galilee1 calling it ,julias1 after the daughter of ,augustus4 ,philip enters the story of the life of ,jesus only as the ruler of these towns and the intervening region1 and as husband of ,salome1 the daughter of ,herodias4 ,living far from ,jerusalem and the ,jewish people1 he abandoned even the show of ,judaism which characterized his father1 and lived as a frank heathen in his heathen capital4 #c4 ,the other two who inherited ,herod's dominion were brothers1 ,archelaus and ,antipas1 sons of ,malthace1 one of ,herod's many wives4 ,archelaus had been designated king by ,herod1 with ,judea1 ,samaria1 and ,idumea as his kingdom2 but the emperor allowed him only the territory1 with the title ethnarch4 ,antipas was named a tetrarch by ,herod1 and his territory was ,galilee and the land east of the ,jordan to the southward of the ,sea of ,galilee1 called ,perea4 ,antipas was the ,herod under whose sway ,jesus lived in ,galilee1 and who executed ,john the ,baptist4 ,he was a man of passionate temper1 with the pride and love of luxury of his father4 ,having ,jews to govern1 he held1 as his father had done1 to a show of ,judaism1 though at heart he was as much of a pagan as ,philip4 ,he1 too1 loved building1 and ,tiberias on the ,sea of ,galilee was built by him for his capital4 ,his unscrupulous tyranny and his gross disregard of common righteousness appear in his relations with ,john the ,baptist and with ,herodias1 his paramour4 ,jesus described him well as that fox 7,luke xiii4 #cb71 for he was sly1 and worked often by indirection4 ,while his father had energy and ability which command a sort of admiration1 ,antipas was not only bad but weak4 #d4 ,both ,philip and ,antipas reigned until after the death of ,jesus1 ,philip dying in ,a4,d4 #cd1 and ,antipas being deposed several years later1 probably in #ci4 ,archelaus had a much shorter rule1 for he was deposed in ,a4,d4 #f1 having been accused by the ,jews of unbearable barbarity and tyranny1--a charge in which ,antipas and ,philip joined4 ,the territory of ,archelaus was then made an imperial province of the second grade1 ruled by a procurator appointed from among the ,roman knights4 ,in provinces under an imperial legate 7propraetor7 the procurator was an officer for the administration of the revenues2 in provinces of the rank of ,judea he was1 however1 the representative of the emperor in all the prerogatives of government1 having command of the army1 and being the final resort in legal procedure1 as well as supervising the collection of the customs and taxes4 ,very little is known of the procurators appointed after the deposition of ,archelaus1 until ,tiberius sent ,pontius ,pilate in ,a4,d4 #bf4 ,he held office until he was deposed in #cf4 ,josephus gives several examples of his wanton disregard of ,jewish prejudice1 and of his extreme cruelty4 ,his conduct at the trial of ,jesus was remarkably gentle and judicial in comparison with other acts recorded of his government2 yet the fear of trial at ,rome1 which finally induced him to give ,jesus over to be crucified1 was thoroughly characteristic2 in fact1 his downfall resulted from a complaint lodged against him by certain ,samaritans whom he had cruelly punished for a ,messianic uprising4 #e4 ,there were two sorts of ,roman taxes in ,judea3 direct1 which were collected by salaried officials2 and customs1 which were farmed out to the highest bidder4 ,the direct taxes consisted of a land tax and a poll tax1 in the collection of which the procurator made use of the local ,jewish courts2 the customs consisted of various duties assessed on exports1 and they were gathered by representatives of men who had bought the right to collect these dues4 ,the chiefs as well as their underlings are called publicans in our ,new ,testament1 although the name strictly applies only to the chiefs4 ,these tax-gatherers1 small and great1 were everywhere despised and execrated1 because1 in addition to their subserviency to a hated government1 they had a reputation1 usually deserved1 for all sorts of extortion4 ,because of this evil repute they were commonly drawn from the unscrupulous among the people1 so that the frequent coupling of publicans and sinners in the gospels probably rested on fact as much as on prejudice4 #f4 ,in ,samaria and ,judea soldiers were under the command of the procurator2 they took orders from the tetrarch1 in ,galilee and ,perea4 ,the garrison of ,jerusalem consisted of one ,roman cohort--from five to six hundred men--which was reinforced at the time of the principal feasts4 ,these and the other forces at the disposal of the procurator were probably recruited from the country itself1 largely from among the ,samaritans4 ,the centurion of ,capernaum 7,matt4 viii4 #e2 ,luke vii4 #b-e7 was an officer in the army of ,antipas1 who1 however1 doubtless organized his army on the ,roman pattern1 with officers who had had their training with the imperial forces4 #g4 ,the administration of justice in ,samaria and ,judea was theoretically in the hands of the procurator2 practically1 however1 it was left with the ,jewish courts1 either the local councils or the great sanhedrin at ,jerusalem4 ,this last body consisted of seventy-one elders4 ,its president was the high-priest1 and its members were drawn in large degree from the most prominent representatives of the priestly aristocracy4 ,the scribes1 however1 had a controlling influence because of the reverence in which the multitude held them4 ,the sanhedrin of ,jerusalem had jurisdiction only within the province of ,judea1 where it tried all kinds of offences2 its judgment was final1 except in capital cases1 when it had to yield to the procurator1 who alone could sentence to death4 ,it had great influence also in ,galilee1 and among ,jews everywhere1 but this was due to the regard all ,jews had for the holy city4 ,it was1 in fact1 a sort of ,jewish senate1 which took cognizance of everything that seemed to affect the ,jewish interests4 ,in ,galilee and ,perea1 ,antipas held in his hands the judicial as well as the military and financial administration4 #h4 ,to the majority of the priests religion had become chiefly a form4 ,they represented the worldly party among the ,jews4 ,since the days of the priest-princes who ruled in ,jerusalem after the return from the exile1 they had constituted the ,jewish aristocracy1 and held most of the wealth of the people4 ,it was to their interest to maintain the ritual and the traditional customs1 and they were proud of their ,jewish heritage2 of genuine interest in religion1 however1 they had little4 ,this secular priestly party was called the ,sadducees1 probably from ,zadok1 the high-priest in ,solomon's time4 ,what theology the ,sadducees had was for the most part reactionary and negative4 ,they were opposed to the more earnest spirit and new thought of the scribes1 and naturally produced some champions who argued for their theological position2 but the mass of them cared for other things4 #i4 ,the leaders of the popular thought1 on the other hand1 were chiefly noted for their religious zeal and theological acumen4 ,they represented the outgrowth of that spirit which in the ,maccabean time had risked all to defend the sanctity of the temple and the right of ,god's people to worship him according to his law4 ,they were known as ,pharisees1 because1 as the name 7separated7 indicates1 they insisted on the separation of the people of ,god from all the defilements and snares of the heathen life round about them4 ,the ,pharisees constituted a fraternity devoted to the scrupulous observance of law and tradition in all the concerns of daily life4 ,they were specialists in religion1 and were the ideal representatives of ,judaism4 ,their distinguishing characteristic was reverence for the law2 their religion was the religion of a book4 ,by punctilious obedience of the law man might hope to gain a record of merit which should stand to his credit and secure his reward when ,god should finally judge the world4 ,because life furnished many situations not dealt with in the written law1 there was need of its authoritative interpretation1 in order that ignorance might not cause a man to transgress4 ,these interpretations constituted an oral law which practically superseded the written code1 and they were handed down from generation to generation as the traditions of the fathers4 ,the existence of this oral law made necessary a company of scribes and lawyers whose business it was to know the traditions and transmit them to their pupils4 ,these scribes were the teachers of ,israel1 the leaders of the ,pharisees1 and the most highly revered class in the community4 ,pharisaism at its beginning was intensely earnest1 but in the time of ,jesus the earnest spirit had died out in zealous formalism4 ,this was the inevitable result of their virtual substitution of the written law for the living ,god4 ,their excessive reverence had banished ,god from practical relation to the daily life4 ,they held that he had declared his will once for all in the law4 ,his name was scrupulously revered1 his worship was cultivated with minutest care1 his judgment was anticipated with dread2 but he himself1 like an ,oriental monarch1 was kept far from common life in an isolation suitable to his awful holiness4 ,by a natural consequence conscience gave place to scrupulous regard for tradition in the religion of the scribes4 ,the chief question with them was not1 ,is this right8 but1 ,what say the elders8 ,the soul's sensitiveness of response to ,god's will and ,god's truth was lost in a maze of traditions which awoke no spontaneous ,amen in the moral nature1 consequently there was frequent substitution of reputation for character4 ,the ,pharisees could make void the command1 ,honor thy father1 by an ingenious application of the principle of dedication of property to ,god 7,mark vii4 #h-ac71 and thus under the guise of scrupulous regard for law discovered ways for legal disregard of law4 ,their theory of religion gave abundant room for a piety which made broad its phylacteries and lengthened its prayers1 while neglecting judgment1 mercy1 and the love of ,god4 #aj4 ,yet the earnest and true development in ,jewish thinking was found among the ,pharisees4 ,the early hope of ,israel was almost exclusively national4 ,in the later books of the ,old ,testament1 in connection with an enlarged sense of the importance of the individual1 the doctrine of a personal resurrection to share the blessings of the ,messiah's kingdom began to appear4 ,it had its clear development and definite adoption as part of the faith of ,judaism1 however1 under the influence of the ,pharisees4 ,along with this increased emphasis on the worth of the individual came a large development of the doctrine of angels and spirits4 ,towards both of these doctrines the ,sadducees took a reactionary position4 ,politically the ,pharisees were theocratic in theory1 but opportunists in practice1 accommodating themselves to the existing state of things so long as the de facto government did not interfere with the religious life of the people4 ,they looked for a kingdom in which ,god should be evidently the king of his people2 but they believed that his sovereignty was to be realized through the law1 hence their sole interest was in the obedience of ,god's people to that law as interpreted by the traditions4 #aa4 ,the theocratic spirit was more aggressive in a party which originated in the later years of ,herod the ,great1 and found a reckless leader in ,judas of ,galilee1 who started a revolt when the governor of ,syria undertook to make a census of the ,jews after the deposition of ,archelaus4 ,this party bore the name ,cananeans or ,zealots4 ,they regarded with passionate resentment the subjection of ,god's people to a foreign power1 and waited eagerly for an opportune time to take the sword and set up the kingdom of ,god2 it was with them that the final war against ,rome began4 ,they were found in largest numbers in ,galilee1 where the scholasticism of the scribes was not so dominating an influence as in ,judea4 ,dr4 ,edersheim has called them the nationalist party4 ,in matters belonging strictly to the religious life they followed the ,pharisees1 only holding a more material conception of the hope of ,israel4 #ab4 ,another development in ,jewish religious life carried separatist doctrines to the extreme4 ,its representatives were called ,essenes1 though what the significance of the name was is no longer clear4 ,although they were allied with the ,pharisees in doctrine1 they show in some particulars the influence of ,hellenistic ,judaism4 ,this is suggested not only by the attention which ,philo and ,josephus give to them1 but also by certain of their views1 which were very like the doctrines of the ,pythagoreans4 ,they carried the pharisaic demand for separateness to the extreme of asceticism4 ,while they were found in nearly every town in ,palestine1 some of them even practising marriage1 the largest group of them lived a celibate1 monastic life near the shores of the ,dead ,sea4 ,this community was recruited by the initiation of converts1 who only after a novitiate of three years were admitted to full membership in the order4 ,they were characterized by an extreme scrupulousness concerning ceremonial purity1 their meals were regarded as sacrifices1 and were prepared by members of the order1 who were looked upon as priests1 nor were any allowed to partake of the food until they had first bathed themselves4 ,their regular garments were all white1 and were regarded as vestments for use at the sacrificial meals1--other clothing being assumed as they went out to their work4 ,they were industrious agriculturists1 their life was communistic1 and they were renowned for their uprightness4 ,they revered ,moses as highly as did the scribes2 yet they were opposed to animal sacrifices1 and1 although they sent gifts to the temple1 were apparently excluded from its worship4 ,their kinship with the ,pythagoreans appears in that they addressed an invocation to the sun at its rising1 and conducted all their natural functions with scrupulous modesty1 that they might not offend the brightness of ,god 7,jos4 ,wars1 ii4 #h1 #i74 ,their rejection of bloody sacrifices1 and their view that the soul is imprisoned in the body and at death is freed for a better life1 besides many features of their life that are genuinely ,jewish1 such as their regard for ceremonial purity1 also show similarity to the ,pythagoreans4 ,it has always been a matter of perplexity that these ascetics find no mention in the ,new ,testament4 ,they seem to have lived a life too much apart1 and to have had little sympathy with the ideals of ,jesus1 or even of ,john the ,baptist4 #ac4 ,the common people followed the lead of the ,pharisees1 though afar off4 ,they accepted the teaching concerning tradition1 as well as that concerning the resurrection1 conforming their lives to the prescriptions of the scribes more or less strictly1 according as they were more or loss ruled by religious considerations4 ,it was in consequence of their hold on the people that the scribes in the sanhedrin were able often to dictate a policy to the ,sadducean majority4 ,jesus voiced the popular opinion when he said that the scribes sit in ,moses' seat 7,matt1 xxiii4 #b74 ,their leaders despised this multitude which knoweth not the law 7,john vii4 #di71 yet delighted to legislate for them1 binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne4 ,many of the people were doubtless too intent on work and gain to be very regardful of the minuti of conduct as ordained by the scribes2 many more were too simple-minded to follow the theories of the rabbis concerning the aloofness of ,god from the life of men4 ,these last reverenced the scribes1 followed their directions1 in the main1 for the conduct of life1 yet lived in fellowship with ,god as their fathers had1 trusting in his faithfulness1 and hoping in his mercy4 ,they are represented in the ,new ,testament by such as ,simeon and ,anna1 ,zachariah and ,elizabeth1 ,joseph and ,mary1 and the majority of those who heard and heeded ,john's call to repentance4 ,they were ,israel's remnant of pure and undefiled religion1 and constituted what there was of good soil among the people for the reception of the seed sown by ,john's successor4 ,they had no name1 for they did not constitute a party2 for convenience they may be called the ,devout4 #ad4 ,two other classes among the people are mentioned in the gospels1--the ,herodians and the ,samaritans4 ,the ,herodians do not appear outside the ,new ,testament1 and seem to have been hardly more than a group of men in whom the secular spirit was dominant1 who thought it best for their interests and for the people's to champion the claims of the ,herodian family4 ,they were probably more akin to the ,pharisees than to the ,sadducees1 for the latter were hostile to the ,herodian claims1 from the first2 yet in spirit they seem more like to the worldly aristocracy than to the pious scribes4 ,the ,samaritans lived in the land1 a people despising and despised4 ,their territory separated ,galilee from ,judea1 and they were a constant source of irritation to the ,jews4 ,the hatred was inherited from the days of ,ezra1 when the zealous ,jews refused to allow any intercourse with the inhabitants of ,samaria4 ,these ,samaritans were spurned as of impure blood and mixed religion 7,,ii4 ,kings xvii4 #bd-da74 ,the severe attitude adopted towards them by ,ezra and ,nehemiah led to the building of a temple on ,mount ,gerizim1 and the establishment of a worship which sought to rival that of ,jerusalem in all particulars4 ,very little is known of the tenets of the ,samaritans in the time of ,jesus beyond their belief that ,gerizim was the place which1 according to the law1 ,god chose for his temple1 and that a ,messiah should come to settle all questions of dispute 7,john iv4 #be74 #ae4 ,although the religious life of the ,jews centred ideally in the temple1 it found its practical expression in the synagogue4 ,this in itself is evidence of the relative influence of priests and scribes4 ,there was no confessed rivalry4 ,the ,pharisee was most insistent on the sanctity of the temple and the importance of its ritual4 ,yet with the growing sense of the religious significance of the individual as distinct from the nation1 there arose of necessity a practical need for a system of worship possible for the great majority of the people1 who could at best visit ,jerusalem but once or twice a year4 ,the synagogue seems to have been a development of the exile1 when there was no temple and no sacrifice4 ,it was the characteristic institution of ,judaism as a religion of the law1 furnishing in every place opportunity for prayer and study4 ,the elders of each community seem ordinarily to have been in control of its synagogue1 and to have had authority to exclude from its fellowship persons who had come under the ban4 ,in addition to these officials there was a ruler of the synagogue1 who had the direction of all that concerned the worship2 a chazzan1 or minister1 who had the care of the sacred books1 administered discipline1 and instructed the children in reading the scripture2 and two or more receivers of alms4 ,the ,sabbath services consisted of prayers1 and reading of the scriptures--both law and prophets1--and an address or sermon4 ,it was in the sermon that the people learned to know the traditions of the elders1 whether as applications of the law to the daily life1 or as legendary embellishments of ,hebrew history and prophecy4 ,the preacher might be any one whom the ruler of the synagague recognized as worthy to address the congregation4 #af4 ,the religious life which centred in the synagogue found daily expression in the observance of the law and the traditions4 ,in the measure of its control by the scribes it was concerned chiefly with the ,sabbath1 with the various ablutions needful to the maintenance of ceremonial purity1 with the distinctions between clean and unclean food1 with the times and ways of fasting1 and with the wearing of fringes and phylacteries4 ,these lifeless ceremonies seem to our day wearisome and petty in the extreme4 ,it is probable1 however1 that the growth of the various traditions had been so gradual that1 as has been aptly said1 the whole usage seemed no more unreasonable to the ,jews than the etiquette of polite society does to its devotees4 ,the evil was not so much in the minuteness of the regulations as in the external and superficial notion of religion which they induced4 #ag4 ,optimism was the mood of ,israel's prophets from the earliest times4 ,every generation looked for the dawning of a day which should banish all ill and realize the dreams inspired by the covenant in which ,god had chosen ,israel for his own4 ,in proportion as the rabbinic formalism held control of the hearts of the people1 the ,messianic hope lost its warmth and vigor4 ,yet the scribes did not abandon the prophetic optimism2 they held to the letter of the hope1 but as its fulfilment was for them dependent on perfect obedience to the law1 oral and written1 their interest was diverted to the traditions1 and their strength was given to legal disputations4 ,of the rest of the people1 the ,sadducees naturally gave little thought to the promise of future deliverance1 they were too absorbed with regard for present concerns4 ,nor is there any evidence that the ,essenes1 with all their reputed knowledge of the future1 cherished the hope of a ,messiah4 ,the other elements among the people who owned the general leadership of the scribes looked eagerly for the coming time when ,god should bring to pass what he had promised through the prophets4 ,while some expected ,god himself to come in judgment1 and gave no thought to an ,anointed one who should represent the ,most ,high to the people1 the majority looked for a ,son of ,david to sit upon his father's throne4 ,even so1 however1 there were wide differences in the nature of the hope which was set on the coming of this ,son of ,david4 ,the ,zealots were looking for a victory1 which should set ,israel on high over all his foes4 ,to the rest of the people1 however1 the method of the consummation was not so clear1 and they were ready to leave ,god to work out his purpose in his own way1 longing meanwhile for the fulfilment of his promise4 ,one class in particular gave themselves to visionary representations of the promised redemption4 ,they differed from the ,zealots in that they saw with unwelcome clearness the futility of physical attack upon their enemies2 but their faith was strong1 and at the moment when outward conditions seemed most disheartening they looked for a revelation of ,god's power from heaven1 destroying all sinners in his wrath1 and delivering and comforting his people1 giving them their lot in a veritable ,canaan situated in a renewed earth4 ,such visions are recorded in the ,book of ,daniel and the ,revelation of ,john4 ,they are found in many other apocalypses not included in our ,bible1 and indicate how persistently the minds of the people turned towards the promises spoken by the prophets1 and meditated on their fulfilment4 ,the ,devout were midway between the ,zealots and the ,apocalyptists4 ,the songs of ,zachariah and ,mary and the thanksgiving of ,simeon express their faith4 ,they hoped for a kingdom as tangible as the ,zealots sought1 yet they preferred to wait for the consolation of ,israel4 ,they believed that ,god was still in his heaven1 that he was not disregardful of his people1 and that in his own time he would raise up unto them their king4 ,they looked for a ,son of ,david1 yet his reign was to be as remarkable for its purification of his own people as for its victories over their foes4 ,these victories indeed were to be largely spiritual1 for their ,messiah was to conquer in the strength of the ,spirit of ,god and by the word of his mouth4 ,such as these were ready for a ministry like ,john's1 and not unready for the new ideal which ,jesus was about to offer them1 though their highest spiritualization of the ,messianic hope was but a shadow of the reality which ,jesus asked them to accept4 #ah4 ,this last conception of the ,messiah is found in a group of psalms written in the first century before ,christ1 during the early days of the ,roman interference in ,judea4 ,these ,psalms of ,solomon1 as they are called1 are pharisaic in point of view1 yet they are not rabbinic in their ideas4 ,their feeling is too deep1 and their reliance on ,god too immediate2 they fitly follow the psalms of the ,old ,testament1 though afar off4 ,of another type of contemporary literature1 ,apocalypse1 at least two representatives besides the ,book of ,daniel have come down to us from the time of ,jesus or earlier1--the so-called ,book of ,enoch1 and the fragment known as the ,assumption of ,moses4 ,these writings have peculiar interest1 because they are probably the source of quotations found in the ,epistle of ,jude2 moreover1 some sayings of ,jesus reported in the gospels1 and in particular his chosen title1 ,the ,son of ,man1 are strikingly similar to expressions found in ,enoch4 ,can ,jesus have read these books8 ,the psalms of the ,devout were the kind of literature to pass rapidly from heart to heart1 until all who sympathized with their hope and faith had heard or seen them4 ,the case was different with the apocalypses4 ,they are more elaborate and enigmatical1 and may have been only slightly known4 ,yet1 as ,jesus was familiar with the canonical ,book of ,daniel1 although it was not read in the synagogue service in his time1 it is possible that he may also have read or heard other books which had not won recognition as canonical4 ,if1 however1 he knew nothing of them1 the similarity between the apocalypses and some of ,jesus' ideas and expressions becomes all the more significant2 for it shows that these writings gave utterance to thoughts and feelings shared by men who never read them1 which were1 therefore1 no isolated fancies1 but characteristic of the religion of many of the people4 ,with these ideas ,jesus was familiar2 whether he ever read the books must remain a question4 #ai4 ,this literature exists for us only in translations made in the days of the early church4 ,most of these books were originally written in ,hebrew1 the language of the ,old ,testament1 or in ,aramaic1 the language of ,palestine in the time of ,jesus4 ,traces of this language as spoken by ,jesus have been preserved in the gospels1--the name ,rabbi2 ,abba1 translated ,father2 ,talitha cumi1 addressed to the daughter of ,jairus2 ,ephphatha1 to the deaf man of ,bethsaida2 and the cry from the cross1 ,eloi1 ,eloi1 lama sabachthani 7,john i4 #ch2 ,mark xiv4 #cf2 v4 #da2 vii4 #cd2 xv4 #cd74 ,it is altogether probable that in his common dealings with men and in his teachings ,jesus used this language4 ,greek was the language of the government and of trade1 and in a measure the ,jews were a bilingual people4 ,jesus may thus have had some knowledge of ,greek1 but it is unlikely that he ever used it to any extent either in ,galilee1 or ,judea1 or in the regions of ,tyre and ,sidon4 ,,ii ,sources of ,our ,knowledge ,of ,jesus #bj4 ,the earliest existing record of events in the life of ,jesus is given to us in the epistles of ,paul4 ,his account of the appearances of the ,lord after his death and resurrection 7,i4 ,cor4 xv4 #c-h7 was written within thirty years of these events4 ,the date of the testimony1 however1 is much earlier1 since ,paul refers to the experience which transformed his own life1 and so carries us back to within a few years of the crucifixion4 ,other facts from ,jesus' life may be gathered from ,paul1 as his descent from ,abraham and ,david 7,rom4 i4 #c2 ix4 #e72 his life of obedience 7,rom4 v4 #ai2 xv4 #c2 ,phil4 ii4 #e-aa72 his poverty 7,,ii4 ,cor4 viii4 #i72 his meekness and gentleness 7,,ii4 ,cor4 x4 #a72 other ,new ,testament writings outside of our gospels add somewhat to this restricted but very clear testimony4 #ba4 ,secular history knows little of the obscure ,galilean4 ,the testimony of ,tacitus is that the ,christians derived their name and origin from one ,christ1 who in the reign of ,tiberius had suffered death by the sentence of the procurator1 ,pontius ,pilate 7,annals1 xv4 #dd74 ,suetonius makes an obscure and seemingly ill-informed allusion to ,christ in the reason he assigns for the edict of ,claudius expelling the ,jews from ,rome 7,vit4 ,claud4 #be74 ,the younger ,pliny in the second century had learned that the numerous ,christian community in ,bithynia was accustomed to honor ,christ as ,god2 but he shows no knowledge of the life of ,jesus beyond what must be inferred concerning one who caused men to bind themselves with an oath not to enter into any wickedness1 or commit thefts1 robberies1 or adulteries1 or falsify their word1 or repudiate trusts committed to them 7,epistles ,x4 #if74 ,this secular ignorance is not surprising2 but the silence of ,josephus is4 ,he mentions ,jesus in but one clearly genuine passage1 when telling of the martyrdom of ,james1 the brother of ,jesus1 who is called the ,christ 7,ant4 xx4 #i4 #a74 ,of ,john the ,baptist1 however1 he has a very appreciative notice 7,ant1 xviii4 #e4 #b71 and it cannot be that he was ignorant of ,jesus4 ,his appreciation of ,john suggests that he could not have mentioned ,jesus more fully without some approval of his life and teaching4 ,this would be a condemnation of his own people1 whom he desired to commend to ,gentile regard2 and he seems to have taken the cowardly course of silence concerning a matter more noteworthy1 even for that generation1 than much else of which he writes very fully4 #bb4 ,the reason for the lack of written ,christian records of ,jesus' life from the earliest time seems to be1 not that the apostles had a small sense of the importance of his earthly ministry1 but that the early generation preferred what at a later time was called the living voice 7,papias in ,euseb4 ,ch4 ,hist4 iii4 #ci74 ,the impression made by ,jesus was supremely personal2 he wrote nothing1 did not command his disciples to write anything1 preferring to influence men's minds by personal power1 appointing them1 in turn1 to represent him to men as he had represented the ,father to them 7,john xx4 #ba74 ,but the time came when the first witnesses were passing away1 and they were not many who could say1 ,i saw him4 ,our gospels are the result of the natural desire to preserve the apostolic testimony for a generation that could no longer hear the apostolic voice2 and they are precisely what such a sense of need would produce1--vivid pictures of ,jesus1 agreeing in general features1 differing more or less in details1 reflecting individual feeling for the ,master1 and written not simply to inform men but to convince them of that ,master's claims4 ,one evidence of the reality of the gospel pictures is the fact that we so seldom feel the individual characteristics of each gospel4 ,this is especially true of the first three1 which1 to the vividness of their picture1 add a remarkable similarity of detail4 ,tatian1 in the second century1 felt it necessary to make a continuous narrative for the use of the church by interweaving the four gospels into one1 and he has had many successors down to our day2 but the fact that unity of impression has practically resulted from the four pictures without recourse to such an interweaving1 invites consideration of the characteristics of these remarkable documents4 #bc4 ,the first gospel impresses the careful reader with three things3 7#a7 ,a clear sense of the development of ,jesus' ministry4 ,the author introduces his narrative by an account of the birth of ,jesus1 of the ministry of ,john the ,baptist1 and of ,jesus' baptism and temptation and withdrawal into ,galilee 7i4 #a to iv4 #ag74 ,he then depicts the public ministry by grouping together1 first1 teachings of ,jesus concerning the law of the kingdom of heaven1 then a series of great miracles confirming the new doctrine1 then the expansion of the ministry and deepening hostility of the ,pharisees1 leading to the teaching by parables1 and the final withdrawal from ,galilee to the north4 ,this ministry resulted in the chilling of popular enthusiasm which had been strong at the beginning1 but in the winning of a few hearts to ,jesus' own ideals of the kingdom of ,god 7iv4 #ah to xvi4 #bj74 ,from this point the evangelist leads us to ,jerusalem1 where rejection culminates1 the sterner teachings of ,jesus are massed1 and his victory in seeming defeat is exhibited 7xvi4 #ba to xxviii4 #bj74 7#b7 ,the evangelist's interest is not satisfied by this clear1 strong1 picture2 he wishes to convince men that ,jesus is ,israel's ,messiah1 hence1 throughout1 he indicates the fulfilment of prophecy4 ,the things in which he sees the fulfilment are striking1 for1 with but one or two exceptions1 they are features of the life of ,jesus objectionable to ,jewish feeling4 ,this fact1 taken in connection with the emphasis which the gospel gives to the death of ,jesus at the hands of the ,jews1 and to the resurrection as ,god's seal of approval of him whom his people rejected1 forms a forcible argument to prove the ,messiahship of ,jesus1 not simply in spite of his rejection by the ,jews1 but by appeal to that rejection as leading to ,god's signal vindication of the crucified one4 7#c7 ,this evangelist1 while proving that ,jesus is the ,messiah promised to ,israel1 recognizes clearly the freedom of the new faith from the exclusiveness of ,jewish feeling4 ,the choice of ,galilee for the ,messianic ministry 7iv4 #ab-ag71 the comment of ,jesus on the faith of the centurion 7viii4 #aj-ab71 the rebuke of ,israel in the parable of the ,wicked ,husbandmen 7xxi4 #cc-df71 and especially the last commission of the risen ,lord 7xxviii4 #ah-bj71 show that this gospel sought to convince men of ,jewish feeling not only that ,jesus is ,messiah1 but also that as ,messiah he came to bring salvation to all the world4 #bd4 ,the second gospel is much simpler in construction than the first1 while presenting essentially the same picture of the ministry as is found in ,matthew4 ,to its simplicity it adds a vividness of narration which commends ,mark's account as probably representing most nearly the actual course of the life of ,jesus4 ,while it reports fewer incidents and teachings than either of the others1 a comparison with ,matthew and ,luke shows a preference in ,mark for ,jesus' deeds1 though addresses are not wanting2 and1 while shorter as a whole1 for matters which he reports ,mark's record is most rich in detail1 most dramatic in presentation1 and actually longer than the parallel accounts in the other gospels4 ,the whole narrative is animated in style 7note the oft-repeated immediately7 and full of graphic traits4 ,the story of ,jesus seems to be reproduced from a memory which retains fresh personal impressions of events as they occurred4 ,hence the frequent comments on the effect of ,jesus' ministry1 such as ,we never saw it on this fashion 7ii4 #ab71 or ,he hath done all things well 7vii4 #cg71 and the introduction into the narrative of ,aramaic words1--,boanerges 7iii4 #ag71 ,talitha1 cumi 7v4 #da71 and the like1 which immediately have to be translated4 ,the gospel discloses no artificial plan1 the chief word of transition is and4 ,while some of the incidents recorded1 such as the second ,sabbath controversy 7iii4 #a-f7 and the question about fasting 7ii4 #ah-bb71 may owe their place to association in memory with an event of like character1 the book impresses us as a collection of annals fresh from the living memory1 which present the actual ,jesus teaching and healing1 and going on his way to the cross and resurrection4 ,after the briefest possible reference to the ministry of ,john the ,baptist and the baptism and temptation of ,jesus 7i4 #a-ac71 this gospel proceeds to set forth the ministry in ,galilee 7i4 #ad to ix4 #ej74 ,the narrative then follows ,jesus to ,jerusalem1 by way of ,perea1 and closes with his victory through death and resurrection 7x4 #a to xvi4 #h74 #be4 ,the third gospel is more nearly a biography than any of its companions4 ,it opens with a preface stating that after a study of many earlier attempts to record the life of ,jesus the author has undertaken to present as complete an account as possible of that life from the beginning4 ,the book is addressed to one ,theophilus1 doubtless a ,greek ,christian1 and its chief aim is practical1--to confirm conviction concerning matters of faith 7i4 #a-d74 ,the author's interest in the completeness of his account appears in the fact that it begins with incidents antecedent to the birth of ,john the ,baptist and ,jesus4 ,moreover1 to his desire for completeness we owe much of the story of ,jesus1 otherwise unrecorded for us4 ,like the first two gospels1 ,luke represents the ministry of ,jesus as inaugurated in ,galilee1 and carried on there until the approach of the tragedy at ,jerusalem 7iv4 #ad to ix4 #ej74 ,it is in connection with the journey to ,jerusalem 7ix4 #ea to xix4 #bg7 that he inserts most of that which is peculiar to his gospel4 ,his account of the rejection at ,jerusalem1 the crucifixion1 and resurrection1 follows in the main the same lines as ,matthew and ,mark2 but he gained his knowledge of many particulars from different sources 7xix4 #bh to xxiv4 #ec74 ,it is characteristic of ,luke to name ,jesus ,lord more often than either of his predecessors4 ,with this exalted conception is coupled a noticeable emphasis on ,jesus' ministry of compassion2 here more than in any other gospel he is pictured as the friend of sinners4 ,moreover1 we owe chiefly to ,luke our knowledge of him as a man of prayer and as subject to repeated temptation4 ,an artificial exaltation of ,christ1 such as is often attributed to the later apostolic thought1 would tend to reduce1 not multiply1 such evidences of human dependence on ,god4 ,this fact increases our confidence in the accuracy of ,luke's picture4 ,the gospel is very full of comfort to those under the pressure of poverty1 and of rebuke to unbelieving wealth1 though the parable of the ,unjust ,steward and story of ,zacchus show that it does not exalt poverty for its own sake4 ,if our first gospel pictures ,jesus as the fulfilment of ,god's promises to his people1 and ,mark1 as the man of power at work before our very eyes1 astonishing the multitude while winning the few1 ,luke sets before us the ,lord ministering with divine compassion to men subject to like temptations with himself1 though1 unlike them1 he knew no sin4 #bf4 ,the first three gospels1 differing as they do in point of view and aim1 present essentially one picture of the ministry of ,jesus2 for they agree concerning the locality and progress of his ,messianic work1 and the form and contents of his teaching1 showing1 in fact1 verbal identity in many parts of their narrative4 ,for this reason they are commonly known as the ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,yet these gospels exhibit differences as remarkable as their likenesses4 ,they differ perplexingly in the order in which they arrange some of the events in ,jesus' life4 ,which of them should be given preference in constructing a harmonious picture of his ministry8 ,they often agree to the letter in their report of deeds or words of ,jesus1 yet from beginning to end remarkable verbal differences stand side by side with remarkable verbal identities4 ,some of the identities of language suggest irresistibly that the evangelists have used1 at least in part1 the same previously existing written record4 ,one of the clearest evidences of this is found in the introduction1 at the same place in the parallel accounts1 of the parenthesis then saith he to the sick of the palsy which interrupts the words of ,jesus in the cure of the paralytic 7,mark ii4 #aj2 ,matt4 ix4 #f2 ,luke v4 #bd74 ,when the three gospels are carefully compared it appears that ,mark contains very little that is not found in ,matthew and ,luke1 and that1 with one or two exceptions1 ,luke presents in ,mark's order the matter that he has in common with the second gospel4 ,the same is also true of the relation between the latter part of the ,gospel of ,matthew 7,matt4 xiv4 #a to the end7 and the parallel portion of ,mark2 while the comparison of ,matthew's arrangement of his earlier half with ,mark suggests that the order in the first gospel has been determined by other than chronological considerations4 ,in a sense1 therefore1 we may say that the ,gospel of ,mark reveals the chronological framework on which all three of these gospels are constructed4 ,comparison discloses further the interesting fact that the matter which ,matthew and ,luke have in common1 after subtracting their parallels to ,mark1 consists almost entirely of teachings and addresses4 ,each gospel1 however1 has some matter peculiar to itself4 #bg4 ,in considering the problem presented by these facts1 it is well to remember that no one of these gospels contains within itself any statement concerning the identity of its author4 ,we are indebted to tradition for the names by which we know them1 and no one of them makes any claim to apostolic origin4 ,the earliest reference in ,christian literature which may be applied to our gospels comes from ,papias1 a ,christian of ,asia ,minor in the second century4 ,he reports that an earlier teacher had said1 ,mark1 having become the interpreter of ,peter1 wrote down accurately1 though not1 indeed1 in order1 whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by ,christ1 for he neither heard the ,lord nor followed him1 but afterward1 as ,i said1 he followed ,peter1 who adapted his teachings to the needs of his hearers1 but with no intention of giving a connected account of the ,lord's discourses4 ,so that ,mark committed no error when he thus wrote some things as he remembered them1 for he was careful of one thing1 not to omit any of the things which he had heard and not to state any of them falsely4444 ,matthew wrote the oracles of the ,lord in the ,hebrew language ,aramaic1 and every one interpreted them as he was able 7,euseb4 ,ch4 ,hist4 iii4 #ci74 ,the result of many years' study by scholars of all shades of opinion is the very general conclusion that the writing which ,papias attributed to ,mark was essentially what we have in our second gospel4 #bh4 ,it is almost as universally acknowledged that the work ascribed by the second century elder to the apostle ,matthew cannot be our first gospel2 for its language has not the characteristics which other translations from ,hebrew or ,aramaic lead us to expect1 while the completeness of its narrative exceeds what is suggested by the words of ,papias4 ,if1 however1 the matter which ,matthew and ,luke have in such rich measure in addition to ,mark's narrative be considered1 the likeness between this and the writing attributed by ,papias to the apostle ,matthew is noteworthy4 ,the conclusion is now very general1 that that apostolic writing is in large measure preserved in the discourses in our first and third gospels4 ,the relation of our gospels to the two books mentioned by ,papias may be conceived1 then1 somewhat as follows3 ,the earliest gospel writing of which we know anything was a collection of the teachings of ,jesus made by the apostle ,matthew1 in which he collected with simple narrative introductions1 those sayings of the ,lord which from the beginning had passed from mouth to mouth in the circle of the disciples4 ,at a later time ,mark wrote down the account of the ministry of ,jesus which ,peter had been accustomed to relate in his apostolic preaching4 ,the work of the apostle ,matthew1 while much richer in the sayings of ,jesus1 lacked the completeness that characterizes a narrative2 hence it occurred to some early disciple to blend together these two primitive gospel records1 adding such other items of knowledge as came to his hand from oral tradition or written memoranda4 ,as his aim was practical rather than historical1 he added such editorial comments as would make of the new gospel an argument for the ,messiahship of ,jesus1 as we have seen4 ,since the most precious element in this new gospel was the apostolic record of the teachings of the ,lord1 the name of ,matthew and not of his literary successor1 was given to the book4 #bi4 ,the third gospel is ascribed1 by a probably trustworthy tradition1 to ,luke1 the companion of ,paul4 ,the author himself says that he made use of such earlier records as were accessible1 among which the chief seem to have been the writings of ,mark and the apostle ,matthew4 ,to ,luke's industry1 however1 we owe our knowledge of many incidents and teachings from the life of ,jesus which were not contained in these two records1 and with which we could ill afford to part4 ,some of these he doubtless found in written form1 and some he gathered from oral testimony4 ,his close agreement with ,mark in the arrangement of his narrative suggests that he found no clear evidence of a ministry of wider extent in time and place4 ,he therefore used ,mark as his narrative framework1 and of the rich materials which he had gathered made a gospel1 the completest of any written up to his time4 #cj4 ,such in the main is the conclusion of modern study of our first three gospels2 it explains the general identity of their picture of ,jesus and of their report of his teaching2 it leaves room for those individual characteristics which give them so much of their charm2 and it traces the materials of the gospels far back of the writings as we have them1 bringing us nearer to the events which they describe4 ,the dates of these documents can be only approximately known4 ,it is probable that the logia collected by the apostle ,matthew were written not later than #fj to #fe ,a4,d41 while the ,gospel of ,mark dates from before the fall of ,jerusalem in #gj4 ,our first gospel must have been made between #gj and #ajj1 and the ,gospel of ,luke may be dated about the year #hj1--;all within sixty or seventy years after the death of ,jesus4 #ca4 ,the fourth gospel gives us a picture of ,jesus in striking contrast to that of the other three4 ,these present chiefly the works of the ,master and his teachings concerning the kingdom of ,god and human conduct1 leaving the truth concerning the teacher himself to be inferred4 ,john opens the heart of ,jesus and makes him disclose his thought about himself in a remarkable series of teachings of which he is the prime topic4 ,this gospel is avowedly an argument 7xx4 #cj1 #ca72 its selection of material is confessedly partial2 its aim is to confirm the faith of ,christians in the heavenly nature and saving power of their ,lord2 and its method is that of appeal to testimony1 to signs1 and to his own self-disclosures4 ,the opening verses of the gospel have a somewhat abstract theological character2 the body of the book1 however1 consists of a succession of incidents and teachings which follow each other in unstudied fashion like a collection of annals4 ,this impression is not compromised by the recognition1 at some points1 of accidental displacements1 like that which has placed xiv4 #cj1 #ca before xv4 and xvi41 or that which has left a long gap between vii4 #bc and the incident of v4 #a-i1 to which it refers4 ,the theme of the gospel is the self-disclosure of ,jesus4 ,this seems to have determined the evangelist's choice of material1 and1 as the gospel is an argument1 he does not hesitate to mingle his own comments with his report of ,jesus' words1 for example 7iii4 #af-ba1 #cj-cf2 xii4 #cg-dc74 ,the book is characterized by a vividness of detail which indicates a clear memory of personal experience4 ,while it is evident that the author has the most exalted conception of the nature of his ,lord1 this seems to have been the result of loving meditation on a friend who had early won the mastery over his heart and life1 and who through long years of contemplation had forced upon his disciple's mind the conviction of his transcendent nature4 ,the book discloses a profoundly objective attitude2 the ,christ whom ,john portrays is not the creature of his speculations1 but the ,master who has entered into his experience as a living influence and has compelled recognition of his significance4 ,the ,son of ,god is for ,john the human ,jesus who1 though named at the outset the ,word--the ,logos1--is the ,word who was made flesh1 that men through him might become the sons of ,god4 #cb4 ,the contrast which the ,gospel of ,john presents to the other three concerns not only the teaching of ,jesus1 but the scene of his ministry and its historic development as well4 ,whatever may be the final judgment concerning the fourth gospel1 it is manifestly constructed as a simple collection of incidents following each other in what was meant to appear a chronological sequence4 ,it has been seen that the biographical framework of the first three gospels is principally ,mark's report of ,peter's narrative4 ,now it is a fact that in portions of ,matthew and ,luke1 derived elsewhere than from ,mark1 there are various allusions most easily understood if it be assumed that ,jesus visited ,jerusalem before his appearance there at the end of his ministry4 ,such1 for instance1 are the parable of the ,good ,samaritan 7,luke x4 #be-cg71 the story of the visit to ,mary and ,martha 7,luke x4 #ch-db71 and the lamentation of ,jesus over ,jerusalem 7,luke xiii4 #cd1 #ce2 ,matt1 xxiii4 #cg-ci74 ,all three gospels1 moreover1 agree in attributing to emissaries from ,jerusalem much of the hostility manifested against ,jesus in his ,galilean ministry 7,luke v4 #ag2 ,mark iii4 #bb2 ,matt4 xv4 #a2 ,mark vii4 #a71 and presuppose such an acquaintance of ,jesus with households in and near ,jerusalem as is not easy to explain if he never visited ,judea before his passion 7,mark xi4 #b1 #c2 xiv4 #ad2 xv4 #dc and parallels2 compare especially ,matt1 xxvii4 #eg2 ,john xix4 #ch74 ,these all suggest that the narrative of ,mark does not tell the whole story1 a conclusion quite in accordance with the account of his work given by ,papias4 ,it has been assumed that ,peter was a ,galilean1 a man of family living in ,capernaum4 ,it is not impossible that on some of the earlier visits of ,jesus to ,jerusalem he did not accompany his ,master1 and in reporting the things which he knew he naturally confined himself to his own experiences4 ,if this can explain the predominance of ,galilean incidents in the ministry as depicted in ,mark1 it will explain the predominance of ,galilee in the first three gospels1 and the contradiction between ,john and the three is reduced to a divergence between two accounts of ,jesus' ministry written from two different points of view4 #cc4 ,the question of the trustworthiness of the fourth gospel is greatly simplified by the consideration of the one-sidedness of ,mark's representation4 ,it is further relieved by the fact that a ministry by ,jesus in ,jerusalem must have been one of constant self-assertion1 for ,jerusalem represented at its highest those aspects of thought and practice which were fundamentally opposed to all that ,jesus did and taught4 ,whenever in ,galilee1 in the ministry pictured by the first three gospels1 ,jesus came in contact with the spirit and feeling characteristic of ,jerusalem1 we find him meeting it by unqualified assertion of his own independence and exalted claim to authority1 altogether similar to that emphasis of his own significance and importance which is the chief characteristic of his teachings in the fourth gospel4 ,if it be remembered that that gospel was avowedly an argument written to commend to others the reverent conclusion concerning the ,lord reached by a disciple whose thought had dwelt for long years on the marvel of that life1 and if we recognize that for such an argument the author would select the instances and teachings most telling for his own purpose1 and would do this as naturally as the magnet draws to itself iron filings which are mingled with a pile of sand1 the exclusively personal character of the teachings of ,jesus in this gospel need cause little perplexity4 ,nor need it seem surprising that the words of ,jesus as reported in ,john share the peculiarities of style which mark the work of the evangelist in the prologue to the gospel and in his epistles4 ,his purpose was not primarily biographical but argumentative1 and he has set forth the picture of his ,lord as it rose before his own heart1 his memory of events being interwoven with contemplation on the significance of that life with which his had been so blessedly associated4 ,in a gospel written avowedly to produce in others a conviction like his own1 the evangelist would not have been sensible of any obligation to draw sharp lines between his recollection of his ,lord's words and his own contemplations upon them and upon their significance for his life4 ,if these considerations be kept in mind we may accept the uniform tradition of antiquity1 confirmed by the plain intimation of the gospel itself1 that it is essentially the work of ,john1 the son of ,zebedee1 written near the close of his life in ,ephesus1 in the last decade of the first century4 #cd4 ,we have in our gospel records1 therefore1 two authorities for the general course of the ministry of ,jesus1--,mark and ,john4 ,even if the fourth gospel should be proved not to be the work of ,john1 its picture of the ministry of ,jesus must be recognized as coming from some apostolic source4 ,a forger would hardly have invited the rejection of his work by inventing a narrative which seems to contradict at so many points the tradition of the other gospels4 ,the first and third gospels furnish us from various sources rich additions to ,mark's narrative1 and it is to these two with the fourth that we turn chiefly for the teachings of ,jesus4 ,each gospel should be read1 therefore1 remembering its incompleteness1 remembering also the particular purpose and individual enthusiasm for ,jesus which produced it4 #ce4 ,a word may be due to two other claimants to recognition as original records from the life of ,jesus4 ,one class is represented by that word of the ,lord which ,paul quoted to the ,ephesian elders at ,miletus 7,acts xx4 #ce74 ,scattered here and there in writings of the apostolic and succeeding ages are other sayings attributed to ,jesus which cannot be found in our gospels4 ,a few of these so-called ,agrapha seem worthy of him1 and are recognized as probably genuine4 ,the most important of them is the story of the woman taken in adultery 7,john vii4 #ec to viii4 #aa71 which1 though not a part of the gospel of ,john1 doubtless gives a true incident from ,jesus' life4 ,they represent the many other things which ,john and the other gospels have omitted1 but their small number proves that our gospels have preserved for us practically all that was known of ,jesus after the first witnesses fell asleep4 ,it is certainly surprising that so little exists to supplement the story of the gospels1 for they are manifestly fragmentary1 and leave much of ,jesus' public life without any record4 ,the other class of claimants is of a quite different character1--the so-called ,apocryphal ,gospels4 ,these consist chiefly of legends connected with the birth and early years of ,jesus1 and with his death and resurrection4 ,they are for the most part crude tales that have entirely mistaken the real character of him whom they seek to exalt1 and need only to be read to be rejected4 ,,iii ,the ,harmony of the ,gospels #cf4 ,the church early appreciated the value and the difficulty of having four different pictures of the life and teachings of the ,lord4 ,irenus at the close of the second century felt it to be as essential that there should be four gospels as that there should be four zones of the world1 four principal winds1 and four faces of the cherubim 7,against ,heresies ,,iii4 ii4 #h74 #cg4 ,before ,irenus1 however1 another had sought to obviate the difficulty of having four records which seem at some points to disagree1 by making a combination of the gospels1 to which he gave the title ,diatessaron4 ,tatian1 the author of this work1 was converted from paganism about #aeb ,a4,d41 and prepared his unified gospel1 probably for the use of the ,syrian churches1 sometime after #agb4 ,his work is one of the treasures of the early ,christian literature recovered for us within the last quarter-century4 ,it seems to have won great popularity in the ,syrian churches1 having practically displaced the canonical gospels for nearly three centuries1 when1 owing to its supposed heretical tendency1 it was suppressed by the determined effort of the church authorities4 ,it is a continuous record of ,jesus' ministry1 beginning with the first six verses of the ,gospel of ,john1 passing then to the early chapters of ,luke4 ,it closes with an account of the resurrection interwoven from all four gospels1 concluding with ,john xxi4 #be4 ,the arrangement follows generally the order of ,matthew1 additional matter from the other gospels being inserted at places which approved themselves to ,tatian's judgment4 ,some portions--in particular the genealogies of ,jesus--were omitted altogether1 in accordance with views held by the compiler4 #ch4 ,from ,tatian's time to the present there have been repeated attempts to construct a harmonious representation of events and teachings in the ministry of ,jesus1 generally by setting the parallel accounts side by side1 following such a succession of events as seemed most probable4 ,our evangelists cared little1 if they thought at all1 about the requirements of strict biography1 and they have left us records not easy to arrange on any one chronological scheme4 ,concerning the chief events1 however1 the gospels agree4 ,all four report1 for instance1 the beginning of the work in ,galilee 7,matt4 iv4 #ab1 #ag2 ,mark i4 #ad1 #ae2 ,luke iv4 #ad1 #ae2 ,john iv4 #dc-de72 the feeding of the five thousand when ,jesus' popularity in ,galilee passed its climax 7,matt4 xiv4 #ac-bc2 ,mark vi4 #cj-df2 ,luke ix4 #aj-ag2 ,john vi4 #a-ae72 the departure from ,galilee for the final visit to ,jerusalem 7,matt4 xix4 #a1 #b2 ,mark x4 #a2 ,luke ix4 #ea2 ,john vii4 #a-aj72 and the week of suffering and victory at the end 7,matt4 xxi4 #a to xxviii4 #bj2 ,mark xi4 #a to xvi4 #h #bj2 ,luke xix4 #bi to xxiv4 #ec2 ,john xii4 #a to xxi4 #be74 #ci4 ,these facts are enough to give us a clear and unified impression of the course of ,jesus' ministry4 ,when1 however1 we seek to fill in the details given in the different gospels1 difficulties at once arise4 ,thus1 first1 what shall be done with the long section which ,john introduces 7i4 #ai to iv4 #db7 before ,jesus' withdrawal into ,galilee8 ,the other gospels make that withdrawal the beginning of his public work4 ,a second difficulty arises from the unnamed feast of ,john v4 #a4 ,by one or another scholar this feast has been identified with almost every ,jewish festival known to us4 ,another problem is furnished by the long section in ,luke which is so nearly peculiar to his gospel 7ix4 #ea to xviii4 #ad74 ,if the section had no parallels in the other gospels we might easily conclude that it all belongs to a time subsequent to the final departure for ,jerusalem2 but it contains at least one incident from the earlier ministry in ,galilee 7,luke xi4 #ad-cf2 compare ,mark iii4 #ai-cj71 and many teachings of ,jesus given by ,matthew in an earlier connection appear here in ,luke4 ,furthermore1 the section has to be adjusted to that portion of the ,gospel of ,john which deals with the same period and yet reports none of the same details4 #dj4 ,if ,mark has furnished the narrative framework adopted in the main by the first and third gospels1 the problem of the order of events in ,jesus' life becomes a question of the chronological value of ,mark1 and of the estimate to be placed on the narrative of ,john4 ,if the fourth gospel is held to be of apostolic origin and trustworthy1 the task of the harmonist is chiefly that of combining these two records of ,mark and ,john4 ,the testimony of the ,baptist1 with which the fourth gospel opens1 must have been given some time after he had baptized ,jesus1 and the ministry which preceded ,jesus' return to ,galilee 7i4 #ai to iv4 #db7 belongs to a period ignored by the other gospels4 ,the first three gospels contain indications that ,jesus must have visited ,judea before the close of his life4 ,they give no hint1 however1 of the time or circumstances of such earlier ,judean labor4 ,in giving the emphasis they do to the work in ,galilee1 they present a one-sided picture4 ,when1 therefore1 we find in ,john a narrative of work in ,judea1 confirmed by hints in the other gospels1 we may justly assume that the arrangement which fills out the ministry of ,jesus by inserting at the proper places in ,mark's record the events found in ,john is essentially true4 #da4 ,the consideration of the one-sidedness of ,mark's narrative simplifies the problem of harmony1 but it does not solve all of the perplexities4 ,matthew and ,luke have much matter1 some of it narrative1 which ,mark has not1 and for which he suggests no place4 ,where shall we put1 for instance1 the cure of the centurion's servant 7,matt4 viii4 #e-ac2 ,luke vii4 #a-aj71 or ,john the ,baptist's last message 7,matt4 xi4 #b-ai2 ,luke vii4 #ah-ce78 ,it would simplify matters if we could take ,luke's statement that he had traced the course of all things accurately from the first 7,luke i4 #c71 as indicating that he had arrived at exact certainty concerning the order of events of ,jesus' life4 ,it is probable1 however1 that his statement was simply a claim that he had carefully gathered material for a record of the whole life of ,jesus1 from the annunciation of his birth to his ascension4 ,while we may believe that some trustworthy tradition led him to give the place he has to many of the incidents which he adds to ,mark's story1 it seems impossible to follow him in all respects2 for instance1 in severing the account of the blasphemy of the ,pharisees 7xi4 #ad-cf7 from the place which it holds in ,mark 7iii4 #ai-cj74 #db4 ,still more uncertainty exists concerning the historic connection of teachings of ,jesus to which ,matthew and ,luke give different settings2 for example1 the ,lord's ,prayer 7,matt4 vi4 #i-ae2 ,luke xi4 #a-d71 and the exhortations against anxiety 7,matt4 vi4 #be-cd2 ,luke xii4 #bb-ca74 ,we have seen that much of the teaching common to these gospels is probably derived from the collection of the oracles of the ,lord made by the apostle ,matthew4 ,everything that we can infer concerning such a collection of oracles indicates that1 while some of the teachings may have been connected with particular historic situations 7compare ,luke xi4 #a71 many would altogether lack such introductory words4 ,a later example of what such a collection may have been has come to light recently in the so-called ,sayings of ,jesus1 discovered in ,egypt and published in #ahig4 ,in these the occasion for the teaching has been quite lost2 the sole interest centres in the fact that ,jesus is supposed to have said the things recorded4 ,if ,matthew's book contained such logia or oracles1 it is probable that the original connection in which most of them were spoken was a matter of no concern to the apostle1 and consequently has been lost ,this in no way compromises the genuineness of these sayings of ,jesus4 ,the treatment of ,luke ix4 #ea to xviii4 #ad is much simplified by this consideration4 ,to ,luke's industry 7i4 #a-d7 we owe the preservation of some events and very many teachings which no other evangelist has recorded4 ,some of this new material 7for instance1 vii4 #aa-ag1 #cf-ej7 he has assigned a place in the midst of ,mark's narrative4 ,most of it1 however1 he has gathered together in what seems to be a sort of appendix1 which he has inserted between the close of the ministry in ,galilee and the final arrival in ,judea4 ,for many of the teachings it is now impossible to assign a time or place4 ,that this is so will cause no surprise or difficulty if we remember that in the earliest days the report of what ,jesus said and did circulated in the form of oral tradition only4 ,it was the knowledge that first-hand witnesses were passing away that led to the writing of the gospels4 ,during the period of oral tradition many teachings of the ,lord were doubtless kept clearly and accurately in memory after the historic situations which led to their first utterance were quite forgotten4 #dc4 ,this fact helps to explain another perplexity in our gospel narratives4 ,a comparison of the two accounts of the cure of the centurion's servant reveals differences of detail most perplexing1 if we ask for minute agreement in records of the same events4 ,when we see that of two accounts evidently reporting the same incident1 one can say that the centurion himself sought ,jesus and asked the cure of his servant 7,matt4 viii4 #e1 #h71 while the other makes him declare himself unworthy to come in person to the ,lord 7,luke vii4 #g71 the question arises whether other accounts1 similar in the main but differing in detail1 should not be identified as independent records of one event4 ,were there two cleansings of the temple 7,john ii4 #ac-bb2 ,mark xi4 #ae-ai71 two miraculous draughts of fishes 7,luke v4 #d-aa2 ,john xxi4 #e-h71 two rejections at ,nazareth 7,mark vi4 #a-f2 ,luke iv4 #af-cj71 two parables of the ,leaven1 of the ,mustard ,seed 7,matt4 xiii4 #ca-cc2 ,luke xiii4 #ah-ba71 and of the ,lost ,sheep 7,matt1 xviii4 #ab-ad2 ,luke xv4 #d-g78 ,such similar records are often called doublets1 and the question of identity or distinctness can be answered only after a special study of each case4 ,it is important to notice that a given teaching1 particularly if it took the form of an illustration1 would naturally be used by ,jesus on many different occasions4 ,when1 on the other hand1 we find two accounts of specific doings of ,jesus similar in detail it is needful to recognize that definite historic situations do not so often repeat themselves as do occasions for similar or identical teachings4 #dd4 ,all these considerations show that while the general order of events in the life of ,jesus may be determined with a good degree of probability1 we must be content to remain uncertain concerning the place to be given to many incidents and to more teachings4 ,such uncertainty is of small concern1 since our unharmonized gospels have not failed during all these centuries to produce one fair picture1 to the total impression of which each teaching and deed make definite contribution quite independently of our ability to give to each its particular place in relation to the whole4 ,the degree of certainty attainable justifies1 however1 a continued interest in the old study of harmony1 because of the more comprehensive idea it gives of the ministry depicted in the partial narratives of our several gospels4 ,,iv ,the ,chronology #de4 ,the length of the public ministry of ,jesus was one of the earliest questions which arose in the study of the four gospels4 ,in the second and third centuries it was not uncommon to find the answer in the passage from ,isaiah 7lxi4 #a1 #b71 which ,jesus declared was fulfilled in himself4 ,the acceptable year of the ,lord was taken to indicate that the ministry covered little more than a year4 ,the fact that the first three gospels mention but one ,passover 7that at the end71 and but one journey to ,jerusalem1 seems at first to be favorable to this conclusion1 and to make peculiarly significant the care taken by ,luke to give the exact date for the opening of ,jesus' ministry 7iii4 #a1 #b74 ,in fact1 the second century ,gnostics1 relying apparently on ,luke1 assigned both the ministry and death of ,jesus to the fifteenth year of ,tiberius ,csar1--an interpretation which may have given rise to the widely spread1 early tradition1 found1 for example1 in ,tertullian 7,ante-nicene ,fathers1 in4 #afj71 which placed the death of ,jesus in ,a4,d4 #bi1 during the consulship of ,l4 ,rubellius ,geminus and ,c4 ,fufius ,geminus4 #df4 ,the theory that the ministry of ,jesus extended over but little more than one year is beset1 however1 by difficulties that seem insuperable4 ,the first is presented by the three ,passovers distinctly mentioned in the ,gospel of ,john 7ii4 #ac2 vi4 #d2 xii4 #a74 ,the last of these is plainly identical with the one named in the other gospels4 ,the second gives the time of year for the feeding of the five thousand1 and agrees with the mention of the green grass in the account of ,mark and ,matthew 7,mark vi4 #ci2 ,matt4 xiv4 #ai74 ,john's first ,passover falls in a section which demands a place before ,mark i4 #ad 7compare ,john iii4 #bd74 ,hence it must be shown that this first ,passover is chronologically out of order in the ,gospel of ,john1 or the one year ministry advocated by the second century ,gnostics1 by ,clement of ,alexandria1 by ,origen1 and of late years by ,keim and others1 is seen to be impossible4 ,the fact that at this ,passover ,jesus cleansed the temple1 and that the other gospels assign such a cleansing to the close of the ministry1 suggests the possibility that ,john has set it at the opening of his narrative for reasons connected with his argument4 ,this interpretation falls1 however1 before the perfect simplicity of structure of ,john's narrative4 ,the transitions from incident to incident in this gospel are those of simple succession1 and indicate1 on the writer's part1 no suspicion that he was contradicting notions concerning the ministry of ,jesus familiar to his contemporaries4 ,whatever the conclusion reached concerning the authorship of the gospel1 the fact that it gained currency very early as apostolic would seem to prove that its conception of the length of ,jesus' ministry was not opposed to the recognized apostolic testimony4 ,it is safe to conclude1 therefore1 that time must be allowed in ,jesus' ministry for at least three ,passover seasons4 #dg4 ,with this conclusion most modern discussions of the question rest1 and it is possible that it may finally win common consent4 ,the order of ,mark's narrative1 however1 challenges it4 ,this gospel records near the beginning 7ii4 #bc7 a controversy with the ,pharisees occasioned by the fact that ,jesus' disciples plucked and ate the ripening grain as they passed on a ,sabbath day through the fields4 ,as ,mark places much later 7vi4 #cj-cd7 the feeding of the five thousand1 which occurred at a ,passover1 that is the beginning of the harvest 7,lev4 xxiii4 #e-aa71 his order suggests the necessity of including two harvest seasons in the ministry in ,galilee1 and consequently four ,passovers in the public life of ,jesus4 ,two considerations are urged against this conclusion4 7#a7 ,papias in his reference to the ,gospel of ,mark criticises the order of the gospel2 7#b7 ,mark ii4 #a to iii4 #f contains a group of five conflicts with the critics of ,jesus1 which represents a massing of opposition that seems unlikely at the outset of his ,galilean work4 ,the remark of ,papias must remain obscure until his standard of comparison is known4 ,some suggest that he knew ,john's order and preferred it1 others that he agreed with that adopted by ,tatian in his ,diatessaron4 ,mark is in accord with neither of these4 ,no one1 however1 knows what order ,papias preferred4 ,the early conflict group does appear like a collection drawn from different parts of the ministry4 ,yet the nucleus of the group--the cure of the paralytic 7ii4 #a-ab7 and the call of ,levi 7ii4 #ac-ag7--;is clearly in its right place in ,mark 7see ,holtzmann1 ,hand-commentar1 ,i4 #aj74 ,the question about fasting 7ii4 #ah-bb7 may have been asked much later1 and its present place may be due to association in tradition with the criticism of ,jesus' fellowship with publicans 7ii4 #af74 ,in like manner the cure of the withered hand 7iii4 #a-f7 may have become artificially grouped with the incident of the cornfields4 ,it is possible1 also1 that both ,sabbath controversies owe their early place in the gospel to traditional association with the early conflicts 7ii4 #a-ag74 ,if so1 the plucking of the grain actually occurred some weeks after the feeding of the five thousand1 and probably after the controversy about tradition 7vii4 #a-bc71 with which1 according to ,mark1 ,jesus' activity in ,galilee practically closed4 ,it is not clear1 however1 what principle of association drew forward to the early group the ,sabbath conflict1 and left in its place the controversy about tradition4 ,it is thus possible that the incident of the cornfields belongs also to the early nucleus of the group2 and in this case the longer ministry1 including four ,passovers1 must be accepted4 ,the decision of the question is not of vital importance1 but it affects the determination of the sequence of events in ,jesus' life4 ,whatever the explanation of the remark of ,papias1 the more the gospels are studied the more does ,mark's order of events commend itself in general as representing the probable fact4 ,many students have inferred the three year ministry from the ,gospel of ,john alone1 identifying the unnamed feast in ,john v4 #a with a ,passover4 ,but ,john's allusion to that feast is so indefinite that the length of ,jesus' ministry must be determined quite independently of it4 #dh4 ,so long a ministry as three years presents some difficulties1 for all that is told us in the four gospels would cover but a small fraction of this time4 ,john's statement 7xx4 #cj7 that he omitted many things from ,jesus' life in making his book is evidently true of all the evangelists1 and long gaps1 such as are evident in the fourth gospel1 must be assumed in the other three4 ,recalling the character of the gospels as pictures of ,jesus rather than narratives of his life1 we may easily acknowledge the incompleteness of our record of the three years of ministry1 and wonder the more at the vividness of impression produced with such economy of material4 ,this meagreness of material is not decisive for the shorter rather than the longer ministry1 for it is evident that to effect such a change in conviction and feeling as ,jesus wrought in the minds of the ardent ,galileans who were his disciples1 required time4 ,three years are better suited to effect this change than two4 #di4 ,closely related to the question of the length of ,jesus' ministry is another3 ,can definite dates be given for the chief events in his life8 ,for the year of the opening of his public activity the gospels furnish two independent testimonies3 the remark of the ,jews on the occasion of ,jesus' first visit to ,jerusalem1 ,forty and six years was this temple in building 7,john ii4 #bj71 and ,luke's careful dating of the appearance of ,john the ,baptist1 in the fifteenth year of ,tiberius ,csar 7iii4 #a1 #b74 ,john ii4 #bj leads to the conclusion that the first ,passover fell in the spring of ,a4,d4 #bf or #bg1 since we learn from ,josephus 7,ant4 xv4 #aa4 #a7 that ,herod began to rebuild the temple in the eighteenth year of his reign1 which closed in the spring of ,b4,c4 #ai4 ,luke iii4 #a gives a date contradictory to the one just found1 if the fifteenth year of ,tiberius is to be counted from the death of his predecessor1 for ,augustus died ,august #ai1 ,a4,d4 #ad4 ,reckoned from this time the opening of ,john's work falls in the year ,a4,d4 #bh1 and the first ,passover of ,jesus' ministry could not be earlier than the spring of #bi4 ,this is at least two years later than is indicated by the statement in ,john4 ,the remark in ,john is1 however1 so incidental and so lacking in significance for his argument that its definiteness can be explained only as due to a clear historic reminiscence2 but it does not follow that ,luke has erred in the date given by him4 ,although ,augustus did not die until ,a4,d4 #ad1 there is evidence that ,tiberius was associated with him in authority over the army and the provinces not later than ,january1 ,a4,d4 #ab4 ,one who lived and wrote in the reign of ,titus may possibly have applied to the reign of ,tiberius a mode of reckoning customary in the case of ,titus1 as ,professor ,ramsay has shown 7,was ,christ born at ,bethlehem1 #bjb74 ,if this is the fact1 ,luke reckoned from the co-regency of ,tiberius2 hence the fifteenth year would be ,a4,d4 #be or #bf1 according as the co-regency began before or after the first of ,january1 ,a4,d4 #ab4 ,this would place the first ,passover of ,jesus' ministry in the spring of #bf or #bg1 in agreement with the hint found in ,john4 #ej4 ,if the public ministry of ,jesus began with the spring of #bf or #bg1 the close of three years of activity would1 come at the ,passover of #bi or #cj4 ,the former of these dates agrees with the early ,christian tradition already mentioned4 ,but before accepting that traditional date another matter must be considered4 ,jesus was crucified on the ,friday at the opening of the feast of the ,passover4 ,whether it was the day of the sacrifice of the ,passover 7#ad ,nisan7 or the day following 7#ae ,nisan71 is not essential for the present question4 ,as the ,jewish month began with the first appearance of the new moon1 it is evident that1 in the year of ,jesus' death1 the month of ,nisan must have begun on a day that would make the #adth or the #aeth fall on ,friday4 ,now it can be shown that in the year #cj the #adth of ,nisan was ,thursday 7,april #f7 or ,friday 7,april #g71 for at best only approximate certainty is attainable4 ,the tradition which assigns the passion to #bi1 generally names ,march #be as the day of the month4 ,this date is impossible1 because it does not coincide with the full moon of that month4 ,the choice of ,march #be by a late tradition may be explained by the fact that it was commonly regarded as the date of the spring equinox1 the turning of the year towards its renewing4 ,mr4 ,turner has shown 7,hast,b,d4 ,i4 #dae7 that another date found in an early document cannot be so explained4 ,epiphanius was familiar with copies of the ,acts of ,pilate1 which gave ,march #ah as the date of the crucifixion2 and it is remarkable that this date coincides with the full moon1 and also falls on ,friday4 ,such a combination gives unusual weight to the tradition1 particularly as there is no ready way to account for its rise1 as in the case of ,march #be4 ,from this supplementary tradition the year #bi gains in probability as the year of the passion4 ,without attempting to arrive at a final conclusion1--a task which must be left for chronological specialists1--it is safe to assume that ,jesus died at the ,passover of ,a4,d4 #bi or #cj4 #ea4 ,concluding that ,jesus' active ministry fell within the years ,a4,d4 #bf to #cj1 is it possible to determine the date of his birth8 ,four hints are furnished by the gospels3 he was born before the death of ,herod 7,matt4 ii4 #a2 ,luke i4 #e72 he was about thirty years of age at his baptism 7,luke iii4 #bc72 he was born during a census conducted in ,judea in accordance with the decree of ,augustus at a time when ,quirinius was in authority in ,syria 7,luke ii4 #a1 #b72 after his birth wise men from the ,east were led to visit him by observing his star 7,matt4 ii4 #a1 #b74 ,from these facts it follows that the birth of ,jesus cannot be placed later than ,b4,c4 #d1 since ,herod died about the first of ,april in that year 7,jos4 ,ant4 xvii4 #f4 #d2 #h4 #a1 #d74 ,the awkwardness of having to find a date ,before ,christ for the birth of ,jesus is due to the miscalculation of the monk1 ,dionysius the ,little1 who in the sixth century introduced our modern reckoning from the year of our ,lord4 #eb4 ,but is it impossible to determine the time of ,jesus' birth more exactly8 ,luke 7ii4 #a1 #b7 offers what seems to be more definite information1 but his reference to the decree of ,augustus and the enrolment under ,quirinius are among the most seriously challenged statements in the gospels4 ,it has been said 7#a7 that history knows of no edict of ,augustus ordering a general enrolment of the world2 7#b7 that a ,roman census could not have been taken in ,palestine before the death of ,herod2 7#c7 that if such an enrolment had been taken it would have been unnecessary for ,joseph and ,mary to journey from ,nazareth to ,bethlehem2 7#d7 that the census taken when ,quirinius was governor of ,syria is definitely assigned by ,josephus to the year after the deposition of ,archelaus1 ,a4,d4 #f 7,ant4 xviii4 #a4 #a2 see also ,acts v4 #cg72 7#e7 that if ,luke's reference to this census as the first be appealed to1 it must be replied that ,quirinius was not governor of ,syria at any time during the lifetime of ,herod4 ,this array of difficulties is impressive1 and has persuaded many conservative students to concede that in his reference to the census ,luke has fallen into error4 ,some recent discoveries in ,egypt1 however1 have furnished new information concerning the imperial administration of that province4 ,inferring that a policy adopted in ,egypt may have prevailed also in ,syria1 ,professor ,ramsay has recently put forth a strong argument for ,luke's accuracy in respect of this census 7,was ,christ born at ,bethlehem1 #ie-bdh74 ,that argument may be condensed as follows3 ,we have evidence of a system of ,roman enrolments in ,egypt taken every fourteen years1 and already traced back to the time of ,augustus1 the earliest document so far recovered belonging1 apparently1 to the census of ,a4,d4 #bj4 ,it is at least possible that this system of ,egyptian enrolments may have been part of an imperial policy1 of which all other trace is lost excepting the statement of ,luke4 ,it is significant that the date of the census referred to by ,josephus 7,a4,d4 #f7 fits exactly the fourteen-year cycle which obtained in ,egypt4 ,if the census of ,a4,d4 #f was preceded by an earlier one its date would be ,b4,c4 #h2 that is1 it would be actually taken in ,b4,c4 #g1 in order to secure the full acts for ,b4,c4 #h4 #ec4 ,the statement of ,tertullian 7,against ,marcion1 iv4 #ai7 that a census had been taken in ,judea under ,augustus by ,sentius ,saturninus1 who was governor of ,syria about #i to #g ,b4,c41 certainly comes from some source independent of the gospels1 and tends to confirm ,luke's account of a census before the death of ,herod4 ,that a ,roman census might have been taken in ,palestine during ,herod's life is seen from the fact that in ,a4,d4 #cf ,vitellius1 the governor of ,syria1 had to send ,roman forces into ,cilicia ,tracha to assist ,archelaus1 the king of that country1 to quell a revolt caused by native resistance to a census taken after the ,roman fashion 7,tacitus1 ,ann4 vi4 #da74 ,herod would almost certainly resent as a mark of subjection the order to enrol his people2 and the fact that he was in disfavor with ,augustus during the governorship of ,saturninus 7,josephus1 ,ant4 xvi4 #i4 #a-c71 suggests to ,professor ,ramsay that he may have sought to avoid obedience to the imperial will in the matter of the census4 ,if after some delay ,herod was forced to obey1 the enrolment may have been taken in the year #g-f4 ,since it is probable that the ,romans would allow ,herod to give the census as distinctly ,jewish a character as possible1 it is easy to credit the order that all ,jews should be registered1 so far as possible1 in their ancestral homes4 ,hence the journey of ,joseph to ,bethlehem2 and if ,mary wished to have her child also registered as from ,david's line1 her removal with ,joseph to ,bethlehem is explained4 ,such a delay in the taking of the census would have postponed it until after the recall of ,saturninus4 ,the statement of ,tertullian may therefore indicate simply that he knew that a census was taken in ,syria by ,saturninus4 #ed4 ,the successor of ,saturninus was ,varus1 who held the governorship until after the death of ,herod4 ,how then does ,luke refer to the enrolment as taken when ,quirinius was in authority8 ,it has for a long time been known that this man was in ,syria before he was there as legate of the emperor in ,a4,d4 #f4 ,there seems to be evidence that ,quirinius was in the ,east about the year ,b4,c4 #f1 putting down a rebellion on the borders of ,cilicia1 a district joined with ,syria into one province under the early empire4 ,varus was at this time governor1 but ,quirinius might easily have been looked upon as representing for the time the power of the ,roman arms4 ,if ,herod was forced to yield to the imperial wish by the presence in ,syria of this renowned captain1 the statement of ,luke is confirmed1 and the census at which ,jesus was born was taken1 according to a ,jewish fashion1 during the life of ,herod1 but under compulsion of ,rome exacted by ,quirinius1 while he was in command of the ,roman forces in the province of ,syria-,cilicia4 ,this gives as a probable date for the birth of ,jesus ,b4,c4 #f1 which accords well with the hints previously considered1 inasmuch as it is earlier than the death of ,herod1 and1 if born in ,b4,c4 #f1 ,jesus would have been thirty-two at his baptism in ,a4,d4 #bf4 #ee4 ,the account given in ,matthew of the star which drew the wise men to ,judea gives no sure help in determining the date of the birth of ,jesus1 but it is at least suggestive that in the spring and autumn of ,b4,c4 #g there occurred a remarkable conjunction of the planets ,jupiter and ,saturn4 ,this was first noticed by ,kepler in consequence of a similar conjunction observed by him in ,a4,d4 #afjc4 ,men much influenced by astrology must have been impressed by such a celestial phenomenon1 but that it furnishes an explanation of the star of the wise men is not clear4 ,if it does1 it confirms the date otherwise probable for the nativity1 that is1 not far from ,b4,c4 #f4 #ef4 ,can we go further and determine the time of year or the month and day of the nativity8 ,it should be borne in mind that our ,christmas festival was not observed earlier than the fourth century1 and that the evidence is well-nigh conclusive that ,december #beth was finally selected for the ,nativity in order to hallow a much earlier and widely spread pagan festival coincident with the winter solstice4 ,if anything exists to suggest the time of year it is ,luke's mention of shepherds in the field keeping watch by night over their flock 7ii4 #h74 ,this seems to indicate that it must have been the summer season4 ,in winter the flocks would be folded1 not pastured1 by night4 #eg4 ,it therefore seems probable that ,jesus was born in the summer of ,b4,c4 #f2 that he was baptized in ,a4,d4 #bf2 that the first ,passover of his ministry was in the spring of #bf or #bg2 and that he was crucified in the spring of #bi or #cj4 ,v ,the ,early ,years of ,jesus ,matt4 i4 #a to ii4 #bc2 ,luke i4 #e to ii4 #eb2 iii4 #bc-ch #eh4 ,it is surprising that within a century of the life of the apostles1 ,christian imagination could have so completely mistaken the real greatness of ,jesus as to let its thirst for wonder fill his early years with scenes in which his conduct is as unlovely as it is shocking4 ,that he who in manhood was holy1 harmless1 undefiled1 separate from sinners 7,heb4 vii4 #bf71 could in youth1 in a fit of ill-temper1 strike a companion with death and then meet remonstrance by cursing his accusers with blindness 7,gospel of ,thomas1 #d1 #e72 that he could mock his teachers and spitefully resent their control 7,pseudo-,matthew1 #cj1 #ca72 that it could be thought worthy of him to exhibit his superiority to common human conditions by carrying water in his mantle when his pitcher had been broken 7same1 #cc71 or by making clay birds in play on the ,sabbath and causing them to fly when he was rebuked for naughtiness 7same1 #bg72--these and many like legends exhibit incredible blindness to the real glory of the ,lord4 ,yet such things abound in the early attempts of the pious imagination to write the story of the youth of ,jesus1 and the account of the nativity and its antecedents fares as ill1 being pitifully trivial where it is not revolting4 #ei4 ,how completely foreign all this is to the apostolic thought and feeling is clear when we notice that excepting the first two chapters of ,matthew and ,luke the ,new ,testament tells us nothing whatever of the years which preceded ,john the ,baptist's ministry in the wilderness4 ,the gospels are books of testimony to what men had seen and heard 7,john i4 #ad72 and the epistles are practical interpretations of the same in its bearing on religious life and hope4 ,the apostles found no difficulty in recognizing the divinity and sinlessness of their ,lord without inquiring how he came into the world or how he spent his early years2 it was what he showed himself to be1 not how he came to be1 that formed their conception of him4 ,yet the early chapters of ,matthew and ,luke should not be classed with the later legends4 ,notwithstanding the attempts of ,keim to associate the narratives of the infancy in the canonical and apocryphal gospels1 a great gulf separates them3 on the one side there is a reverent and beautiful reserve1 on the other indelicate1 unlovely1 and trivial audacity4 #fj4 ,the gospel narratives have1 however1 perplexities of their own1 for the two accounts agree only in the main features1--the miraculous birth in ,bethlehem in the days of ,herod1 ,mary being the mother and ,joseph the foster-father1 and ,nazareth the subsequent residence4 ,in further details they are quite different1 and at first sight seem contradictory4 ,moreover1 while ,matthew sheds a halo of glory over the birth of ,jesus1 ,luke draws a picture of humble circumstances and obscurity4 ,these differences1 taken with the silence of the rest of the ,new ,testament concerning a miraculous birth1 constitute a real difficulty4 ,to many it seems strange that the disciples and the brethren of ,jesus did not refer to these things if they knew them to be true4 ,but it must not be overlooked that any familiar reference to the circumstances of the birth of ,jesus which are narrated in the gospels would have invited from the ,jews simply a challenge of the honor of his home4 ,moreover1 as the knowledge of these wonders did not keep ,mary from misunderstanding her son 7,luke ii4 #ai1 #ea2 compare ,mark in4 #ba1 #ca-ce71 the publication of them could hardly have helped greatly the belief of others4 ,the fact that ,mary was so perplexed by the course of ,jesus in his ministry makes it probable that even until quite late in her life she kept these things and pondered them in her heart4 #fa4 ,no parts of the ,new ,testament are challenged so widely and so confidently as these narratives of the infancy4 ,but if they are not to be credited with essential truth it is necessary to show what ideas cherished in the apostolic church could have led to their invention4 ,that ,john and ,paul maintain the divinity of their ,lord1 yet give no hint that this involved a miraculous birth1 shows that these stories are no necessary outgrowth of that doctrine4 ,the early ,christians whether ,jewish or ,gentile would not naturally choose to give pictorial form to their belief in their ,lord's divinity by the story of an incarnation4 ,the heathen myths concerning sons of the gods were in all their associations revolting to ,christian feeling1 and1 while the ,jewish mind was ready to see divine influence at work in the birth of great men in ,israel 7as ,isaac1 and ,samson1 and ,samuel71 the whole tendency of later ,judaism was hostile to any such idea as actual incarnation4 ,some would explain the story of the miraculous birth as a conclusion drawn by the ,christian consciousness from the doctrine of the sinlessness of ,jesus4 ,yet neither ,paul nor ,john1 who are both clear concerning the doctrine1 give any idea that a miraculous birth was essential for a sinless being4 ,some appeal to the eagerness of the early ,christians to exalt the virginity of ,mary1 ,this is certainly the animus of many apocryphal legends4 ,but the feeling is as foreign to ,jewish sentiment and ,new ,testament teaching as it is contradictory to the evidence in the gospels that ,mary had other children born after ,jesus4 #fb4 ,moreover1 the songs of ,mary 7,luke i4 #df-ee7 and ,zachariah 7,luke i4 #fh--gi7 bear in themselves the evidence of origin before the doctrine of the cross had transformed the ,christian idea of the ,messiah4 ,that transformed idea abounds in the ,epistles and the ,acts1 and it is difficult to conceive how these songs 7if they were later inventions7 could have been left free of any trace of specifically ,christian ideas4 ,a ,jewish ,christian would almost certainly have made them more ,christian than they are2 a ,gentile ,christian could not have made them so strongly and naturally ,jewish as they are2 while a non-,christian ,jew would never have invented them4 ,taken with the evidence in ,ignatius 7,ad ,eph4 xviii41 xix47 of the very early currency of the belief in a miraculous birth1 they confirm the impression that it is easier to accept the evidence offered for the miracle than to account for the origin of the stories as legends4 ,the idea of a miraculous birth is very foreign to modern thought2 it becomes credible only as the transcendent nature of ,jesus is recognized on other grounds4 ,it may not be said that the incarnation required a miraculous conception1 yet it may be acknowledged that a miraculous conception is a most suitable method for a divine incarnation4 #fc4 ,these gospel stories are chiefly significant for us in that they show that he in whom his disciples came to recognize a divine nature began his earthly life in the utter helplessness and dependence of infancy1 and grew through boyhood and youth to manhood with such naturalness that his neighbors1 dull concerning the things of the spirit1 could not credit his exalted claims4 ,he is shown as one in all points like unto his brethren 7,heb4 ii4 #ag74 ,two statements in ,luke 7ii4 #dj1 #eb7 describe the growth of the divine child as simply as that of his forerunner 7,luke i4 #hj71 or that of the prophet of old 7,i4 ,sam4 ii4 #bf74 ,the clear impression of these statements is that ,jesus had a normal growth from infancy to manhood1 while the whole course of the later life as set before us in the gospels confirms the scripture doctrine that his normal growth was free from sin 7,heb4 iv4 #ae74 #fd4 ,the knowledge of the probable conditions of his childhood is as satisfying as the apocryphal stories are revolting4 ,the lofty ,jewish conception of home and its relations is worthy of ,jesus4 ,the circumstances of the home in ,nazareth were humble 7,matt4 xiii4 #ee2 ,luke ii4 #bd2 compare ,lev4 xii4 #h74 ,probably the house was not unlike those seen to-day1 of but one room1 or at most two or three1--the tools of trade mingling with the meagre furnishings for home-life4 ,we should not think it a home of penury2 doubtless the circumstances of ,joseph were like those of his neighbors4 ,in one respect this home was rich4 ,the wife and mother had an exalted place in the ,jewish life1 notwithstanding the trivial opinions of some supercilious rabbis2 and what the gospel tells of the chivalry of ,joseph renders it certain that love reigned in his home1 making it fit for the growth of the holy child4 #fe4 ,religion held sway in all the phases of ,jewish life4 ,with some it was a religion of ceremony1--of prayers and fastings1 tithes and boastful alms1 fringes and phylacteries4 ,but ,joseph and ,mary belonged to the simpler folk1 who1 while they reverenced the scribes as teachers1 knew not enough of their subtlety to have substituted barren rites for sincere love for the ,god of their fathers and childlike trust in his mercy4 ,jesus knew not only home life at its fairest1 but religion at its best4 ,a father's most sacred duty was the teaching of his child in the religion of his people 7,deut4 vi4 #d-i71 and then1 as ever since1 the son learned at his mother's side to know and love her ,god1 to pray to him1 and to know the scriptures4 ,no story more thrilling and full of interest1 no prospect more rich and full of glowing hope1 could be found to satisfy the child's spirit of wonder than the story of ,israel's past and ,god's promises for the future4 ,religious culture was not confined to the home1 however4 ,the temple at ,jerusalem was the ideal centre of religious life for this ,nazareth household 7,luke ii4 #da7 as for all the people1 yet practically worship and instruction were cultivated chiefly by the synagogue 7,luke iv4 #af72 there ,god was present in his ,holy ,word4 ,week after week the boy ,jesus heard the scripture in its original ,hebrew form1 followed by translation into ,aramaic1 and received instruction from it for daily conduct4 ,the synagogue probably influenced the boy's intellectual life even more directly4 ,in the time of ,jesus schools had been established in all the important towns1 and were apparently under the control of the synagogue4 ,to such a school he may have been sent from about six years of age to be taught the scriptures 7compare ,,ii4 ,tim4 iii4 #ae71 together with the reading 7,luke iv4 #af-ai71 and perhaps the writing1 of the ,hebrew language4 ,of his school experience we know nothing beyond the fact that he grew in wisdom and in stature and in favor with ,god and man 7,luke ii4 #eb71--;a sufficient contradiction of the repulsive legends of the apocryphal gospels4 #ff4 ,the physical growth incident to ,jesus' development from boyhood to manhood is a familiar thought4 ,the intellectual unfolding which belongs to this development is readily recognized4 ,not so commonly acknowledged1 but none the less clearly essential to the gospel picture1 is the gradual unfolding of the child's moral life under circumstances and stimulus similar to those with which other children meet 7,heb4 iv4 #ae74 ,the man ,jesus was known as the carpenter 7,matt4 xiii4 #ee74 ,the learning of such a trade would contribute much to the boy's mastery of his own powers4 ,far more discipline would come from his fellowship with brothers and sisters who did not understand his ways nor appreciate the deepest realities of his life4 ,without robbing boyhood days of their naturalness and reality1 we may be sure that long before ,jesus knew how and why he differed from his fellows he felt more or less clearly that they were not like him4 ,the resulting sense of isolation was a school for self-mastery1 lest isolation foster any such pride or unloveliness as that with which later legend dared to stain the picture of the ,lord's youth4 ,four brothers of ,jesus are named by ,mark 7vi4 #c71--;,james1 and ,joses1 and ,judas1 and ,simon1--the gospel adds also that he had sisters living at a later time in ,nazareth4 ,they were all subject with him to the same home influences1 and apparently were not unresponsive to them4 ,the similarity of thought and feeling between the sermon on the mount and the ,epistle of ,james is not readily explained by the influence of master over disciple1 since the days of ,james's discipleship began after the resurrection of ,jesus4 ,in any case there is no reason to think that the companions of ,jesus' home were uncommonly irritating or in any way irreligious1 only ,jesus was not altogether like them 7,john vii4 #e71 and the fact of difference was a moral discipline1 which among other things led to that moral growth by which innocence passed into positive goodness4 ,if the home was such a school of discipline1 its neighbors1 less earnest and less favored with spiritual training1 furnished more abundant occasion for self-mastery and growth4 ,the very fact that in his later years ,jesus was no desert preacher1 like ,john1 but social1 and socially sought for1 indicates that he did not win his manhood's perfection in solitude1 but in fellowship with common life and in victory over the trials and temptations incident to it 7,heb4 ii4 #ag1 #ah74 #fg4 ,yet he must have been familiar with the life which is in secret 7,matt4 vi4 #a-ah74 ,he who in his later years was a man of much prayer1 who began 7,luke iii4 #ba7 and closed 7,luke xxiii4 #df7 his public life with prayer1 as a boy was certainly familiar not only with the prayers of home and synagogue1 but also with quiet1 personal resort to the presence of ,god4 ,it would be unjust to think of any abnormal religious precocity4 ,jesus was the best example the world has seen of perfect spiritual health1 but we must believe that he came early to know ,god and to live much with him4 #fh4 ,it is instructive in connection with this inwardness of ,jesus' life to recall the rich familiarity with the whole world of nature which appears in his parables and other teachings4 ,the prospect which met his eye if he sought escape from the distractions of home and village life1 has been described by ,renan3 ,the view from the town is limited2 but if we ascend a little to the plateau swept by a perpetual breeze1 which stands above the highest houses1 the landscape is magnificent4 ,on the west stretch the fine outlines of ,carmel1 terminating in an abrupt spur which seems to run down sheer to the sea4 ,next1 one sees the double summit which towers above ,megiddo2 the mountains of the country of ,shechem1 with their holy places of the patriarchal period2 the hills of ,gilboa1 the small picturesque group to which is attached the graceful or terrible recollections of ,shunem and of ,endor2 and ,tabor1 with its beautiful rounded form1 which antiquity compared to a bosom4 ,through a gap between the mountains of ,shunem and ,tabor are visible the valley of the ,jordan and the high plains of ,perea1 which form a continuous line from the eastern side4 ,on the north1 the mountains of ,safed1 stretching towards the sea1 conceal ,st4 ,jean d',acre1 but leave the ,gulf of ,khaifa in sight4 ,such was the horizon1 of ,jesus4 ,this enchanted circle1 cradle of the kingdom of ,god1 was for years his world4 ,indeed1 during his whole life he went but little beyond the familiar bounds of his childhood4 ,for yonder1 northwards1 one can almost see1 on the flank of ,hermon1 ,csarea-,philippi1 his farthest point of advance into the ,gentile world2 and to the south the less smiling aspect of these ,samaritan hills foreshadows the dreariness of ,judea beyond1 parched as by a burning wind of desolation and death4 ,in the midst of such scenes we are to understand that1 with the physical growth1 and opening of mind1 and moral discipline which filled the early years of ,jesus1 there came also the gradual spiritual unfolding in which the boy rose step by step to the fuller knowledge of ,god and himself4 #fi4 ,that unfolding is pictured in an early stage in the story given us from the youth of ,jesus4 ,it was customary for a ,jewish boy not long after passing his twelfth year to come under full adult obligation to the law4 ,the visit to ,jerusalem was probably in preparation for such assumption of obligation by ,jesus4 ,all his earlier training had filled his mind with the sacredness of the ,holy ,city and the glory of the temple4 ,it is easy to feel with what joy he would first look upon ,zion from the shoulder of the ,mount of ,olives1 as he came over it on his journey from ,galilee2 to conceive how the temple and the ritual would fill him with awe in his readiness not to criticise1 but to idealize everything he saw1 and to think only of the significance given by it all to the scripture2 to imagine how eagerly he would talk in the temple court with the learned men of his people about the law and the promises with which in home and school his youth had been made familiar4 ,nor is it difficult to appreciate his surprise1 when ,joseph and ,mary1 only after long searching for him1 at last found him in the temple1 for he felt that it was the most natural place in which he could be found4 ,in his wondering question to ,mary1 ,did not you know that ,i must be in my ,father's house8 7,luke ii4 #di71 there is a premonition of his later consciousness of peculiarly intimate relation to ,god4 ,the question was1 however1 a sincere inquiry4 ,it was no precocious rebuke of ,mary's anxiety4 ,the knowledge of himself as ,son of ,god was only dawning within him1 and was not yet full and clear4 ,this is shown by his immediate obedience and his subjection to his parents in ,nazareth through many years4 ,it is safe1 in the interpretation of the acts and words of ,jesus1 to banish utterly as inconceivable anything that savors of the theatrical4 ,we must believe that he was always true to himself1 and that the subjection which he rendered to ,joseph and ,mary sprang from a real sense of childhood's dependence1 and was not a show of obedience for any edifying end however high4 #gj4 ,that question ,did not you know8 is the only hint we possess of ,jesus' inner life before ,john's call to repentance rang through the land4 ,meanwhile the carpenter's son became himself the carpenter4 ,joseph seems to have died before the opening of ,jesus' ministry4 ,for ,jesus as the eldest son1 this death made those years far other than a time of spiritual retreat2 responsibility for the home and the pressing duties of trade must have filled most of the hours of his days4 ,this is a welcome thought to our healthiest sentiment1 and true also to the earliest ,christian feeling 7,heb4 iv4 #ae74 ,john the ,baptist had his training in the wilderness1 but ,jesus came from familiar intercourse with men1 was welcomed in their homes 7,john ii4 #b71 knew their life in its homely ongoing1 and was the friend of all sorts and conditions of men4 ,after that visit to ,jerusalem1 a few more years may have been spent in school1 for1 whether from school instruction1 or synagogue preaching1 or simple daily experience1 the young man came to know the traditions of the elders and also to know that observance of them is a mockery of the righteousness which ,god requires4 ,yet he seems to have felt so fully in harmony with ,god as to be conscious of nothing new in the fresh and vital conceptions of righteousness which he found in the law and prophets4 ,we may be certain that much of his thought was given to ,israel's hope of redemption1 and that with the prophets of old and the singer much nearer his own day 7,ps4 of ,sol4 xvii4 #bc71 he longed that ,god1 according to his promise1 would raise up unto his people1 their ,king1 the ,son of ,david4 #ga4 ,he must also have read often from that other book open before him as he walked upon the hills of ,nazareth4 ,the beauty of the grass and of the lilies was surely not a new discovery to him after he began to preach the coming kingdom1 nor is it likely that he waited until after his baptism to form his habit of spending the night in prayer upon the mountain4 ,we may be equally sure that he did not first learn to love men and women and long for their good after he received the call1 ,thou art my beloved son 7,mark i4 #aa74 ,he who in later life read hearts clearly 7,john ii4 #be7 doubtless gained that skill1 as well as the knowledge of human sin and need1 early in his intercourse with his friends and neighbors in ,nazareth2 while a clear conviction that ,god's kingdom consists in his sovereignty over loyal hearts must have filled much of his thought about the promised good which ,god would bring to ,israel in due time4 ,thus we may think that in quietness and homely industry1 in secret life with ,god and open love for men1 in study of history and prophecy1 in longing for the actual sway of ,god in human life1 ,jesus lived his life1 did his work1 and grew in wisdom and in stature and in favor with ,god and man 7,luke ii4 #eb74 ,,vi ,john ,the ,baptist ,matt4 iii4 #a-ag2 iv4 #ab2 xiv4 #a-ab2 ,mark i4 #a-ad2 vi4 #ad-bi2 ,luke i4 #e-be1 #eg-hj2 iii4 #a-bb2 ix4 #g-i2 ,john i4 #ai-cg2 iii4 #bb-cj4 #gb4 ,the first reappearance of ,jesus in the gospel story1 after the temple scene in his twelfth year1 is on the banks of the ,jordan seeking baptism from the new prophet4 ,one of the silent evidences of the greatness of ,jesus is the fact that so great a character as ,john the ,baptist stands in our thought simply as accessory to his life4 ,for that the prophet of the wilderness was great has been the opinion of all who have been willing to seek him in his retirement4 ,one reason for the common neglect of ,john is doubtless the meagreness of information about him4 ,but though details are few1 the picture of him is drawn in clearest lines3 a rugged son of the wilderness scorning the gentler things of life1 threatening his people with coming wrath and calling to repentance while yet there was time2 a preacher of practical righteousness heeded by publicans and harlots but scorned by the elders of his people2 a bold and fearless spirit1 yet subdued in the presence of another who did not strive1 nor cry1 nor cause his voice to be heard in the streets4 ,when the people thought to find in ,john the promised ,messiah1 with unparalleled self-effacement he pointed them to his rival and rejoiced in that rival's growing success4 ,side by side they worked for a time2 then the picture fails1 but for a hint of a royal audience1 with a fearless rebuke of royal disgrace and sin2 a prison life1 with its pathetic shaking of confidence in the early certainties2 a long and forced inaction1 and the question put by a wavering faith1 with its patient and affectionate reply2 then a lewd orgy1 a king's oath1 a girl's demands1 a martyr's release1 the disciples' lamentation and their report to that other who1 though seeming a rival1 was known to appreciate best the greatness of this prophet4 ,such is the picture in the gospels4 #gc4 ,john1 unlike his greater successor1 has a highly appreciative notice from ,josephus3 ,now some of the ,jews thought that the destruction of ,herod's army came from ,god1 and that very justly1 as a punishment for what he did against ,john1 who was called the ,baptist4 ,for ,herod had had him put to death though he was a good man1 and commanded the ,jews to exercise virtue1 both as to justice towards one another1 and piety towards ,god1 and so to come to baptism2 for baptism would be acceptable to ,god1 if they made use of it not in order to expiate some sin1 but for the purification of the body1 provided that the soul was thoroughly purified beforehand by righteousness4 ,now1 as many flocked to him1 for they were greatly moved by hearing his words1 ,herod1 fearing that the great influence1 ,john had over the people might lead to some rebellion 7for the people seemed likely to do anything he should advise71 thought it far best1 by putting him to death1 to prevent any mischief he might cause1 and not bring himself into difficulties by sparing a man who might make him repent of his leniency when it should be too late4 ,accordingly he was sent a prisoner1 in consequence of ,herod's suspicious temper1 to ,machaerus1 the fortress before mentioned1 and was there put to death4 ,so the ,jews had the opinion that the destruction of this army by ,aretas was sent as a punishment upon ,herod and was the mark of ,god's displeasure at him 7,ant4 xviii4 #e4 #b74 ,this section is commonly accepted as trustworthy4 ,superficially different from the gospel record and assigning quite another cause for ,john's imprisonment and death1 it correctly describes his character and his influence with the people1 and leaves abundant room for a more intimately personal motive on the part of ,antipas for the imprisonment of ,john4 ,if the jealousy of ,herodias was the actual reason for ,john's arrest1 it is highly probable that another cause would be named to the world1 and a likelier one than that given by ,josephus could not be found4 #gd4 ,the first problem that offers itself in the study of this man is the man himself4 ,whence did he come8 ,everything about him is surprising4 ,he appears as a dweller in the desert1 an ascetic1 holding aloof from common life and content with the scanty fare the wilderness could offer2 yet he was keenly appreciative of his people's needs1 and he knew their sins1--the particular ones that beset ,pharisees1 publicans1 soldiers4 ,if a recluse in habit1 he was far from such in thought2 he was therefore no seeker for his own soul's peace in his desert life4 ,his dress was strikingly suggestive of the old prophet of judgment on national infidelity 7,i4 ,kings xvii4 #a2 ,,ii4 ,kings i1 #h71 the ,elijah whom ,john would not claim to be4 ,his message was commanding1 with its double word ,repent and ,the kingdom is near4 ,his idea of the kingdom was definite1 though not at all developed2 it signified to him ,god's dominion1 inaugurated by a divine judgment which should mean good for the penitent and utter destruction for the ungodly2 hence the prophet's call to repentance4 ,his ministry was one of grace1 but the time was drawing near when the ,greater ,one would appear to complete by a swift judgment the work which his forerunner was beginning4 ,that ,greater ,one would hew down the fruitless tree1 winnow the wheat from the chaff on the threshing floor1 baptize the penitent with divine power1 and the wicked with the fire of judgment1 since his was to be a ministry of judgment1 not of grace4 #ge4 ,whence1 then1 came this strange prophet8 ,near the desert region where he spent his youth and where he first proclaimed his message of repentance and judgment was the chief settlement of that strange company of ,jews known as ,essenes4 ,it has long been customary to think that during his early years ,john was associated with these fellow-dwellers in the desert1 if he did not actually join the order4 ,he certainly may have learned from them many things4 ,their sympathy with his ascetic life and with his thorough moral earnestness would make them attractive to him1 but he was far too original a man to get from them more than some suggestions to be worked out in his own fashion4 ,the simplicity of his teaching of repentance and the disregard of ceremonial in his preaching separate him from these monks4 ,john may have known his desert companions1 may have appreciated some things in their discipline1 but he remained independent of their guidance4 #gf4 ,the leaders of religious life and thought in his day were unquestionably the ,pharisees4 ,the controlling idea with them1 and consequently with the people1 was the sanctity of ,god's law4 ,they were conscious of the sinfulness of the people1 and their demand for repentance was constant4 ,it is a rabbinic commonplace that the delay of the ,messiah's coming is due to lack of repentance in ,israel4 ,but near as this conception is to ,john's1 we need but to recall his words to the ,pharisees 7,matt4 iii4 #g7 to realize how clearly he saw through the hollowness of their religious pretence4 ,with the quibbles of the scribes concerning small and great commandments1 ,sabbaths and hand-washings1 ,john shows no affinity4 ,he may have learned some things from these sitters in ,moses' seat1 but he was not of them4 #gg4 ,john's message announced the near approach of the kingdom of ,god4 ,it is probable that many of those who sought his baptism were ardent nationalists1--eager to take a hand in realizing that consummation4 ,josephus indicates that it was ,herod's fear lest ,john should lead these ,zealots to revolt that furnished the ostensible cause of his death4 ,but similar as were the interests of ,john and these nationalists1 the distance between them was great4 ,the prophet's replies to the publicans and to the soldiers1 which contain not a word of rebuke for the hated callings 7,luke iii4 #ac1 #ad71 show how fundamentally he differed from the ,zealots4 #gh4 ,but there was another branch of the ,pharisees than that which quibbled over ,sabbath laws1 traditions1 and tithes1 or that which itched to grasp the sword2 they were men who saw visions and dreamed dreams like those of ,daniel and the ,revelation1 and in their visions saw ,god bringing deliverance to his people by swift and sudden judgment4 ,there are some marked likenesses between this type of thought and that of ,john1--the impending judgment1 the word of warning1 the coming blessing1 were all in ,john2 but one need only compare ,john's words with such an apocalypse as the ,assumption of ,moses1 probably written in ,palestine during ,john's life in the desert1 to discover that the two messages do not move in the same circle of thought at all2 there is something practical1 something severely heart-searching1 something at home in every-day life1 about ,john's announcement of the coming kingdom that is quite absent from the visions of his contemporaries4 ,john had not1 like some of these seers1 a coddling sympathy for people steeped in sin4 ,he traced their troubles to their own doors1 and would not let ceremonies pass in place of fruits meet for repentance4 ,he came from the desert with rebuke and warning on his lips2 with no word against the hated ,romans1 but many against hypocritical claimants to the privileges of ,abraham2 no apology for his message nor artificial device of dream or ancient name to secure a hearing1 but the old-fashioned prophetic method of declaration of truth whether men will hear or whether they will forbear4 ,all was sharp and cutting1 imperious earnestness about final questions1 unsparing overthrow of all fictitious shams in individual as in national life4 ,there are no theories of the law1 no new good works1 no belief in the old1 but simply and solely a prophetic clutch at men's consciences1 a mighty accusation1 a crushing summons to contrite repentance and speedy sanctification 7,keim,j,n4 ,,ii4 #bbh74 ,we look in vain for a parallel in any of ,john's contemporaries1 except in that one before whom he bowed1 saying1 ,i have need to be baptized of thee4 #gi4 ,john had1 however1 predecessors whose work he revived4 ,in ,isaiah's words1 ,wash you1 make you clean 7,isa4 i #af71 one recognizes the type which reappeared in ,john4 ,the great prophetic conception of the ,day of the ,lord--the day of wrath and salvation 7,joel ii4 #a-ad7--;is revived in ,john1 free from all the fantastic accompaniments which his contemporaries loved4 ,the invitations to repentance and new fidelity which abound in ,isaiah1 ,ezekiel1 ,hosea1 and ,joel2 the summons to simple righteousness1 which rang from the lips of ,micah 7vi4 #h71 and of the great prophet of the exile 7,isa4 lviii471 these tell us where ,john went to school and how well he learned his lesson4 ,it is hard for us to realize how great a novelty such simplicity was in ,john's day1 or how much originality it required to attain to this discipleship of the prophets4 ,from the time when the curtain rises on the later history of ,israel in the days of the ,maccabean struggle to the coming of that voice crying in the wilderness1 ,israel had listened in vain for a prophet who could speak ,god's will with authority4 ,the last thing that people expected when ,john came was such a simple message4 ,he was not the creature of his time1 but a revival of the older type2 yet1 as in the days of ,elijah ,god had kept him seven thousand in ,israel that had not bowed the knee to ,baal1 so1 in the later time1 not all were bereft of living faith4 ,these devout souls furnished the soil which could produce a life like ,john's1 gifted and chosen by ,god to restore and advance the older and more genuine religion4 #hj4 ,if ,john was thus a revival of the older prophetic order1 a second question arises3 ,whence came his baptism1 and what did it signify8 ,the gospels describe it as a baptism of repentance for the remission of sins 7,mark i4 #d74 ,john's declaration that his greater successor should baptize with the ,holy ,spirit and fire 7,matt4 iii4 #aa7 shows that he viewed his baptism as a symbol1 rather than as a means1 of remission of sin4 ,but it was more than a sign of repentance1 it was a confession of loyalty to the kingdom which ,john's successor was to establish4 ,it had thus a twofold significance3 7a7 confession of and turning from the old life of sin1 and 7b7 consecration to the coming kingdom4 ,whence1 then1 came this ordinance8 ,not from the ,essenes1 for1 unlike ,john's baptism1 the bath required by these ,jewish ascetics was an oft-repeated act4 ,further1 ,john's rite had a far deeper religious significance than the ,essene washings4 ,these performed their ablutions to secure ritual cleanness as exemplary disciples of the ,mosaic ideal4 ,the searching of heart which preceded ,john's baptism1 and the radical change of life it demanded1 seem foreign to ,essenism4 ,the baptism of ,john1 considered as a ceremony of consecration for the coming kingdom1 was parallel rather to the initiatory oaths of the ,essene brotherhood than to their ablutions4 ,their custom may have served to suggest to ,john a different application of the familiar sacred use of the bath2 indeed ,john could hardly have been uninfluenced by the usage of his contemporaries2 yet in this1 as in his thought1 he was not a product of their school4 #ha4 ,john's baptism was equally independent of the pharisaic influence4 ,the scribes made much of divers washings1 but not with any such significance as would furnish to ,john his baptism of repentance and of radical change of life4 ,that he was not following a pharisaic leading appears in the question put to him by the ,pharisees1 ,why1 then1 baptizest thou8 7,john i4 #be74 ,they saw something unique in the ceremony as he conducted it4 #hb4 ,many have held that he derived his baptism from the method of admitting proselytes into the ,jewish fellowship4 ,it is clear1 at least1 that the later ritual prescribed a ceremonial bath as well as circumcision and sacrifice for all who came into ,judaism from the ,gentiles1 and it is difficult to conceive of a time when a ceremonial bath would not seem indispensable1 since ,jews regarded all ,gentile life as defiling4 ,while such an origin for ,john's baptism would give peculiar force to his rebuke of ,jewish confidence in the merits of ,abraham 7,matt4 iii4 #i71 it is more likely1 as ,keim has shown 7,,jn4 ,,ii4 #bdc and note71 that in this as in his other thought ,john learned of his predecessors rather than his contemporaries4 ,before the giving of the older covenant from ,sinai1 it is said that ,moses was required to sanctify the people and bid them wash their garments 7,ex4 xix4 #aj74 ,john was proclaiming the establishment of a new covenant1 as the prophets had promised4 ,that the people should prepare for this by a similar bath of sanctification seems most natural4 ,john appeared with a revival of the older and simpler religious ideas of ,israel's past1 deriving his rite as well as his thought from the springs of his people's religious life4 #hc4 ,this revival of the prophetic past had nothing scholastic or antiquarian about it4 ,john was a disciple1 not an imitator1 of the great men of ,israel2 his message was not learned from ,isaiah or any other1 though he was educated by studying them4 ,what he declared1 he declared as truth immediately seen by his own soul1 the essence of his power being a revival1 not in letter but in spirit1 of the old1 direct cry1 ,thus saith the ,lord4 ,inasmuch as ,john's day was otherwise hopelessly in bondage to tradition and the study of the letter1 by so much is his greatness enhanced in bringing again ,god's direct message to the human conscience4 ,john's greatness was that of a pioneer4 ,the ,friend of publicans and sinners also spoke a simple speech to human hearts2 he built on and advanced from the old prophets1 but it was ,john who was appointed to prepare the people for the new life1 to make ready the way of the ,lord 7,mark i4 #c74 ,the clearness of his perception of truth is not the least of his claims to greatness4 ,his knowledge of the simplicity of ,god's requirements in contrast with the hopeless maze of pharisaic traditions1 and his insight into the characters with whom he had to deal1 whether the sinless ,jesus or the hypocritical ,pharisees1 show a man marvellously gifted by ,god who made good use of his gift4 ,this greatness appears in superlative degree in the self-effacement of him who possessed these powers4 ,greatness always knows itself more or less fully4 ,it was not self-ignorance that led ,john to claim to be but a voice1 nor was it mock humility4 ,the confession of his unworthiness in comparison with the mightier one who should follow is unmistakably sincere1 as is the completed joy of this friend of the bridegroom rejoicing greatly because of the bridegroom's voice1 even when the bridegroom's presence meant the recedence of the friend into ever deepening obscurity 7,john iii4 #cj74 #hd4 ,but ,john had marked limitations4 ,he knew well the righteousness of ,god2 he knew1 and1 in effect1 proclaimed ,god's readiness to forgive them that would turn from their wicked ways2 he knew the simplicity as well as the exceeding breadth of the divine commandment2 but beyond one flash of insight 7,john i4 #bi-cf71 which did not avail to remould his thought1 he did not know the yearning love of ,god which seeks to save4 ,it is not strange that he did not4 ,some of the prophets had more knowledge of it than he1 his own favorite ,isaiah knew more of it than he1 but it was not the thought of ,john's day4 ,the wonder is that the ,baptist so far freed himself from current thought2 yet he did not belong to the new order4 ,he thundered as from ,sinai4 ,the simplest child that has learned from the heart its ,our ,father has reached a higher knowledge and entered a higher privilege 7,matt4 xi4 #aa74 ,john's self-effacement1 wonderful as it was1 fell short of discipleship to his greater successor2 in fact1 at a much later time there was still a circle of disciples of the ,baptist who kept themselves separate from the church 7,acts xix4 #a-g74 ,he was doubtless too strenuous a man readily to become a follower4 ,he could yield his place with unapproachable grace1 but he remained the prophet of the wilderness still4 ,he seemed to belong consciously to the old order1 and1 by the very circumstances ordained of ,god who sent him1 he could not be of those who1 sitting at ,jesus' feet1 learned to surrender to him their preconceptions and hopes1 and in heart1 if not in word1 to say1 ,to whom shall we go1 thou hast the words of eternal life8 7,john vi4 #fh74 ,,vii ,the ,messianic ,call ,matt4 iii4 #ac ,,to iv4 #aa2 ,mark i4 #i-ac2 ,luke iii4 #ba1 #bb2 iv4 #a-ac2 ,john i4 #cj-cd #he4 ,in the circle about ,john all classes of the people were represented3 ,pharisees and ,sadducees1 jealous of innovation and apprehensive of popular excitement2 publicans and soldiers1 interested in the new preacher or touched in conscience2 outcasts who came in penitence1 and devout souls in consecration4 ,the wonder of the new message was carried throughout the land and brought great multitudes to the ,jordan4 ,jesus in ,nazareth heard it1 and recognized in ,john a revival of the long-silent prophetic voice4 ,the summons appealed to his loyalty to ,god's truth1 and after the multitudes had been baptized 7,luke iii4 #ba7 he too sought the prophet of the wilderness4 #hf4 ,the connection which ,luke mentions 7i4 #cf7 between the families of ,jesus and ,john had not led to any intimacy between the two young men4 ,john certainly did not know of his kinsman's mission 7,john i4 #ca71 nor was his conception of the ,messiah such that he would look for its fulfilment in one like ,jesus 7,matt4 iii4 #aj-ab74 ,one thing1 however1 was clear as soon as they met1--,john recognized in ,jesus one holier than himself 7,matt4 iii4 #ad74 ,with a prophet's spiritual insight he read the character of ,jesus at a glance1 and although that character did not prove him to be the ,messiah1 it prepared ,john for the revelation which was soon to follow4 #hg4 ,the reply of ,jesus to the unwillingness of ,john to give him baptism 7,matt4 iii4 #ae7 was an expression of firm purpose to do ,god's will2 the absence of any confession of sin is therefore all the more noticeable4 ,in all generations the holiest men have been those most conscious of imperfection1 and in ,john's message and baptism confession and repentance were primary demands2 yet ,jesus felt no need for repentance1 and asked for baptism with no word of confession4 ,but for the fact that the total impression of his life begat in his disciples the conviction that he did no sin 7,i4 ,pet4 ii4 #bb2 compare ,john viii4 #df2 ,,ii4 ,cor4 v4 #ba71 this silence of ,jesus would offend the religious sense4 ,jesus1 however1 had no air of self-sufficiency1 he came to make surrender and to fulfil all-righteousness 7,matt4 iii4 #ae74 ,it was the positive aspect of ,john's baptism that drew him to the ,jordan4 ,john was preaching the coming of ,god's kingdom4 ,the place held by the doctrine of that kingdom in the later teaching of ,jesus makes it all but certain that his thought had been filled with it for many years4 ,in his reading of the prophets ,jesus undoubtedly emphasized the spiritual phases of their promises1 but it is not likely that he had done much criticising of the ideas held by his contemporaries before he came to ,john4 ,as already remarked he seems to have been quicker to discover his affinity with the older truth than to be conscious of the novelty of his own ways of apprehending it 7,matt4 v4 #ag74 ,when1 then1 ,jesus heard ,john's call for consecration to the approaching kingdom he recognized the voice of duty1 and he sought the baptism that he might do all that he could to make ready the way of the ,lord4 #hh4 ,this act of consecration on ,jesus' part was one of personal obedience4 ,there were no crowds present 7,luke iii4 #ba71 and his thoughts were full of prayer4 ,it was an experience which concerned his innermost life with ,god1 and it called him to communion with heaven like that in which he sought for wisdom before choosing his apostles 7,luke vi4 #ab71 and for strength in view of his approaching death 7,luke ix4 #bh1 #bi74 ,his outward declaration of loyalty to the coming kingdom was thus not an act of righteousness to be seen of men1 but one of personal devotion to him who is and who sees in secret 7,matt4 vi4 #a1 #f74 ,as the transfiguration followed the prayer on ,hermon1 so this initial consecration was answered from heaven4 ,a part of the answer was evident to ,john1 for he saw a visible token of the gift of the divine ,spirit which was granted to ,jesus for the conduct of the work he had to do1 and he recognized in ,jesus the greater successor for whom he was simply making preparation 7,mark i4 #aj2 ,john i4 #cb-cd74 ,to ,jesus there came also with the gift of the ,spirit a definite word from heaven1 ,thou art my beloved ,son1 in thee ,i am well pleased 7,mark i4 #aa74 ,the language in ,mark and ,luke1 and the silence of the ,baptist concerning the voice from heaven 7,john i4 #cb-cd71 indicate that the word came to ,jesus alone1 and was his summons to undertake the work of setting up that kingdom to which he had just pledged his loyalty4 ,the expression ,my beloved ,son had clear ,messianic significance for ,jesus' contemporaries 7comp4 ,mark xiv4 #fb71 and the message can have signified for him nothing less than a ,messianic call4 ,it implied more than that child-relation to ,god which was the fundamental fact in his religious life from the beginning3 it had an official meaning4 #hi4 ,for ,jesus the sense of being ,god's child was normally human1 and in his ministry he invited all men to a similar consciousness of sonship4 ,yet his early years must have brought to him a realization that he was different from his fellows4 ,that in him which made a confession at the baptism unnatural and which led to ,john's word1 ,i have need to be baptized by thee1 was ready to echo assent when ,god said1 ,thou art my ,son4 ,he accepted the call and the new office and mission which it implied1 and he must have recognized that it was for this moment that all the past of his life had been making preparation4 #ij4 ,the gift of the ,spirit to ,jesus1 which furnished to ,john the proof that the ,greater ,one had appeared1 was not an arbitrary sign4 ,the old prophetic thought 7,isa4 xi4 #b2 xlii4 #a2 lxi4 #a7 as well as a later popular expectation 7,ps4 of ,sol4 xvii4 #db7 provided for such an anointing of the ,messiah2 and in the actual conduct of his life ,jesus was constantly under the leading of this ,spirit 7see ,matt4 xii4 #bh and ,john iii4 #cd74 ,the temptation which followed the baptism1 and in which he faced the difficulties in his new task1 was the first result of the ,spirit's control4 ,its later influence is not so clearly marked in the gospels1 but they imply that as the older servants of ,god were guided and strengthened by him1 so his ,son also was aided1--with this difference1 however1 that he possessed completely the heavenly gift 7,john iii4 #cd74 ,jesus' uniform confession of dependence on ,god confirms this teaching of the gift of the divine ,spirit2 and his uniform consciousness of complete power and authority confirms the testimony that he had the ,spirit without measure4 #ia4 ,the temptation to which the ,spirit drove ,jesus after his baptism gives proof that the call to assume the ,messianic office came to him unexpectedly2 for the three temptations with which his long struggle ended were echoes of the voice which he had heard at the ,jordan1 and subtle insinuations of doubt of its meaning4 ,some withdrawal to contemplate the significance of his appointment to a ,messianic work was a mental and spiritual necessity4 ,as has often been said1 if the gospels had not recorded the temptation1 we should have had to assume one4 ,jesus being the man he was1 could not have thought that his call was a summons to an entire change in his ideals and his thoughts about ,god and duty4 ,yet he must have been conscious of the wide differences between his conceptions of ,god's kingdom and the popular expectation4 ,those differences1 by the measure of the definiteness of the popular thought and the ardor of the popular hope1 were the proof of the difficulty of his task4 ,the call meant that the ,messiah could be such as he was2 it meant that the kingdom could be and must be a dominion of ,god primarily in the hearts of men and consequently in their world2 it meant that his work must be religious rather than political1 and gracious rather than judicial4 ,these essentials of the work which he could do contradicted at nearly every point the expectations of his people4 ,how could he succeed in the face of such opposition8 ,his long meditation during forty days doubtless showed him the difficulty of his task in all its baldness1 yet it did not shake his certainty that the call had come to him from ,god1 nor his faith that what ,god had called him to do he could accomplish4 #ib4 ,the gospels show no hesitation in calling the experience of these days a temptation1 nor had the ,christian feeling of the first century any difficulty in thinking of its ,lord as actually suffering temptation 7,heb4 ii4 #ah2 iv4 #ae74 ,a temptation to be real cannot be hypothetical2 evil must actually present itself as attractive to the tempted soul4 ,a suggestion of evil that takes no hold concretely of the heart is no temptation1 nor is the resistance of it any victory4 ,the sinlessness of him who sought baptism with no confession on his lips nor sense of penitence in his heart offers no barrier to his experience of genuine temptation1 unless we think him incapable of sin1 and therefore not like unto his brethren4 ,not only do the gospels repeatedly refer to his temptations 7,luke iv4 #ac2 ,mark viii4 #ca-cc2 ,luke xxii4 #bh2 compare ,heb4 v4 #g-i71 but they also depict clearly the reality of these initial testings4 ,the account as given in ,matthew and ,luke represents the experience with which the forty days' struggle culminated4 ,the absorption of ,jesus' mind had been so complete that he had neglected the needs of his body1 and when he turned to think of earthly things he was pressed by hunger4 ,a popular notion at a later time1 and probably also in ,jesus' day1 was that the ,messiah would be able to feed his people as ,moses had given them manna in the wilderness 7,john vi4 #cj-cb2 see ,eders,l,j,m4 ,i4 #agf74 ,he had just been endowed with the divine ,spirit for the work before him2 it was therefore no fantastic idea when the suggestion came that he should use his power to supply his own needs in the desert4 ,nor was the temptation without attractiveness2 his own physical nature urged its need1 and ,jesus was no ascetic who found discomfort a way of holiness4 ,the evil in the suggestion was that it asked him to use his newly given powers for the supply of his own needs1 as if doubting that ,god would care for him as for any other of his children4 ,there was more than distrust of ,god suggested2 the temptation came with a hint of another doubt1--,if thou art ,god's ,son4 ,a miracle would prove to himself his appointment and his power4 ,the suggested doubt of his call he passed unnoticed2 distrust of ,god he repudiated instantly1 falling back on his faith in the ,god he had served these many years 7,deut4 viii4 #c74 ,his victory is remarkable because his spirit conquered unhesitatingly after a long ecstasy which would naturally have induced a reaction and a surrender for the moment to the demand of lower needs4 #ic4 ,this firmness of trust opened the way for another evil suggestion4 ,in the work before him as ,god's ,anointed many difficulties were on either side and across his path4 ,he knew his people1 their prejudices1 and their hardness of heart2 and he knew how far he was from their ideal of a ,messiah4 ,he knew also the watchful jealousy of ,rome4 ,others before him1 like ,judas of ,galilee1 had tried the ,messianic rle and had failed4 ,he1 however1 was confident of his divine call3 should he not1 therefore1 press forward with his work1 heedless of all danger and regardless of the dictates of prudence1--as heedless as if1 trusting ,god's promised care1 he should cast himself down from a pinnacle of the temple to the rocks in ,kidron below8 ,a fanatic would have yielded to such a temptation4 ,many another than ,jesus did so1--,theudas 7,acts v4 #cf71 the ,egyptian 7,acts xxi4 #ch72 and ,bar ,cochba 7,dio ,cassius1 lxix4 #ab-ad2 ,euseb4 ,ch4 ,hist4 iv4 #f74 ,jesus1 however1 showed his perfect mental health1 repudiating the temptation by declaring that while man may trust ,god's care1 he must not presumptuously put it to the test 7,matt4 iv4 #g74 ,the after life of ,jesus was a clear commentary on this reply4 ,he constantly sought to avoid situations which would compromise his mission or cut short his work 7see ,john vi4 #ae71 and when at the end he suffered the death prepared for him by his people's hatred1 it was because his hour had come and he could say1 ,i lay down my life of myself 7,john x4 #ah74 ,his marvellous control of enthusiasm and his self-mastery in all circumstances separate ,jesus from all ecstatics and fanatics4 ,yet presumption must have seemed the easier course1 and could readily wear the mask of trust4 ,he was tempted1 yet without sin4 #id4 ,as the refusal to doubt led to the temptation to presume1 so the determination to be prudent opened the way for a third assault upon his perfect loyalty to ,god4 ,the world he was to seek to save was swayed by passions2 his own people were longing for a ,messiah1 but they must have their kind of a ,messiah4 ,if he would acknowledge this actual supremacy of evil and self-will in the world1 the opposition of passion and prejudice might be avoided4 ,if he would own the evil inevitable for the time1 and accommodate his work to it1 he might then be free to lead men to higher and more spiritual views of ,god's kingdom4 ,his knowledge of his people's grossness of heart and materialism of hope made a real temptation of the suggestion that he should not openly oppose but should accommodate himself to them4 ,jesus did not underestimate the opposition of the kingdoms of the world1 but he truly estimated ,god's intolerance of any rivalry 7,matt4 iv4 #aj71 and he was true to ,god and to his own soul4 ,again1 in this as in the preceding temptations1 ,jesus conquered the evil suggestions by appropriating to himself truth spoken by ,god's servants to ,israel4 ,tempted in all points like his brethren1 he resisted as any one of them could have resisted1 and won a victory possible1 ideally considered1 to any other of the children of men4 #ie4 ,it is not idle curiosity which inquires whence the evangelists got this story of the temptation of ,jesus4 ,even if the whole transaction took place on the plane of outer sensuous life1 and ,jesus was bodily carried to ,jerusalem and to the mountain-top1 there is no probability that any witnesses were at hand who could tell the tale4 ,but the fact that in any case the vision of the kingdoms of the world in a moment of time 7,luke iv4 #e7 could have been spiritual only1 since no mountain1 however high 7,matt4 iv4 #h71 could give1 physically1 that wide sweep of view1 suggests that the whole account tells in pictorial language an intensely real1 inner experience of ,jesus4 ,this in no respect reduces the truthfulness of the narratives4 ,temptation never becomes temptation till it passes to that inner scene of action and debate4 ,since ,jesus shows in all his teaching a natural use of parabolic language to set forth spiritual truth1 the inference is almost inevitable that the gospels have in like manner adopted the language of vivid picture as alone adequate to depict the essential reality of his inner struggle4 ,in any case the narrative could have come from no other source than himself4 ,how he came to tell it we do not know4 ,on one of the days of private converse with his disciples after the confession at ,csarea ,philippi he may have given them this account of his own experience1 in order to help his loyal ,galileans to understand more fully his work and the way of it1 and to prepare them for that disappointment of their expectations which they were so slow to acknowledge as possible4 #if4 ,from this struggle in the wilderness ,jesus came forth with the clear conviction that he was ,god's ,anointed1 and in all his after life no hesitation appeared4 ,the kingdom which he undertook to establish was that dominion of simple righteousness which he had learned to know and love in the years of quiet life in ,nazareth4 ,he set out to do his work fearlessly1 but prudently1 seeking to win men in his ,father's way to acknowledge that ,father's sovereignty4 ,there is no evidence that1 beyond such firm conviction and purpose1 he had any fixed plan for the work he was to do1 nor that he saw clearly as yet how his earthly career would end4 ,the third temptation1 however1 shows that he was not unprepared for seeming defeat4 ,the struggle had been long and serious1--for the three temptations of the end are doubtless typical of the whole of the forty days1--and the victory was great and final4 ,with the light of victory as well as the marks of warfare on his face1 he took his way back towards ,galilee4 ,,viii ,the ,first ,disciples ,john i4 #ai ,,to ii4 #ab #ig4 ,after the withdrawal of ,jesus into the wilderness1 ,john the ,baptist continued his ministry of preaching and baptizing1 moving northward up the ,jordan valley to ,bethany1 on the eastern side of the river1 near one of the fords below the ,sea of ,galilee 7,john i4 #bh74 ,here ,galilee1 doubtless1 contributed more to his audience than ,judea4 ,it is certain that some from the borders of the lake were at this time among his constant attendants3 ,andrew and ,simon of ,bethsaida1 ,john the son of ,zebedee1 and perhaps his brother ,james1 probably also ,philip of ,bethsaida and ,nathanael of ,cana 7,john i4 #dj1 #da1 #dc-de2 compare xxi4 #b74 #ih4 ,the leaders in ,jerusalem1 becoming apprehensive whither this work would lead1 sent an embassy to question ,john4 ,they chose for this mission priests and ,levites of pharisaic leaning as most influential among the people4 ,the impression ,john and his message were making on the popular mind is seen in the questions put to him1 ,art thou the ,messiah8 ,elijah8 ,the prophet8 7see ,deut4 xviii4 #ae71 and in the challenge1 ,why1 then1 baptizest thou8 when ,john disclaimed the right to any of these names4 ,john's reply is the echo of his earlier proclamation of the one mightier than he who should baptize with the ,spirit 7,mark i4 #g1 #h71 only now he added that this one was present among them 7,john i4 #bf1 #bg74 #ii4 ,this interview occurred several weeks after ,jesus' baptism1 for upon the next day ,john saw ,jesus 7,john i4 #bi71 now returned from the temptation1 and pointed him out to a group of disciples4 ,something in ,jesus' face or in his bearing1 as he came from his temptation1 must have impressed ,john even more than at their first meeting2 for he was led to think of a prophetic word for the most part ignored by the ,messianic thought of his day1 ,he was brought as a lamb to the slaughter 7,isa4 liii4 #g74 ,as he looked on ,jesus the mysterious oracle was illuminated for him1 and he cried1 ,behold the lamb of ,god which taketh away the sin of the world4 ,once again on the next day the same thought rushed to his lips when1 with two disciples1 he saw ,jesus passing by 7,john i4 #ce1 #cf74 ,then as ,jesus left ,john's neighborhood and took up again the round of ordinary life1 ,john seems to have reverted to his more ordinary ,messianic thought1 his momentary insight into highest truth standing as a thing apart in his life4 ,such a moment's insight1 caused by extraordinary circumstances1 no more requires that ,john should retain the high thought constantly than does ,peter's confession of ,christ at ,csarea ,philippi exclude his later rebuke of his ,lord 7,mark viii4 #cb1 #cc71 or his denials 7,mark xiv4 #ff-gb74 #ajj4 ,the disciples who heard these testimonies from ,john understood them to be ,messianic 7,john i4 #cj-cd71 though their later consternation1 when the cross seemed to shatter their hopes 7,john xx4 #i1 #aj1 #bd1 #be71 shows that they did not comprehend their deeper meaning4 ,two of these disciples at once attached themselves to ,jesus1 and one of them1 ,andrew of ,bethsaida1 was so impressed by the new master that1 having sought out his brother ,simon1 he declared that they had found the ,messiah4 ,the other of these earliest followers was ,john the son of ,zebedee1 and it is possible that he also found his brother and introduced ,james from the very first into the circle of the disciples4 ,jesus was about to take his departure for ,galilee1 and on the next day1 as he was leaving1 added ,philip of ,bethsaida to the little company of followers4 ,philip1 impressed as ,andrew had been1 brought ,nathanael of ,cana to ,jesus4 ,the undefined something about ,jesus which drew noble hearts irresistibly to himself1 and his marvellous knowledge of this new comer1 produced the same effect in ,nathanael1 as was seen earlier in ,andrew and ,philip1 and he acknowledged the new master as ,son of ,god1 ,king of ,israel 7,john i4 #di74 #aja4 ,these early confessions in the fourth gospel present a difficulty in view of ,jesus' warm approval of ,peter's acknowledgment of him at ,csarea ,philippi 7,matt4 xvi4 #ac-bj74 ,jesus saw in that confession a distinct advance in the disciples' thought and faith4 ,yet the religious feeling which early questioned whether the ,baptist even were not the ,messiah 7,luke iii4 #ae7 would almost certainly have concluded that ,john's greater successor must be ,god's anointed4 ,the very fact that men's thoughts about the ,messiah were varied and complex made them ready for some modifications of their preconceptions4 ,one with such subtle personal power as ,jesus had exercised was almost sure to be hailed by some with enthusiasm as the looked-for representative of ,god4 ,in fact1 it is probable that at any time in the early days of his ministry ,jesus could have been proclaimed ,messiah1 provided he had accepted the people's terms4 ,such a confession would have been merely the outcome of enthusiasm4 ,the people1 even the disciples1 did not know ,jesus4 ,they all had high hopes and somewhat fixed ideas about the ,messiah1 nearly every one of which was destined to rude shock4 ,how little they knew him ,jesus realized 7,john i4 #ea71 and his self-mastery is manifest in his attitude to this early enthusiasm4 ,he was no visionary2 he had a great work to do and a long lesson to teach1 and he was patient enough to teach it little by little4 ,he did not rebuke the ill-informed faith of a ,nathanael1 but sought gradually to supplant the old thought of the ,messiah and of the kingdom by new truth1 and to bind men's affections to himself for his own sake and the truth's sake1 not simply for the idea which he impersonated to them4 #ajb4 ,the visit to ,cana seems to have found a place in the fourth gospel1 because there the new disciples discovered in their master miraculous powers which were to them a sign that he was in truth ,god's anointed4 ,it is probable that at the time of this miracle the disciples thought only of the power and the marvel1 yet the sharp contrast between ,john's ascetic habit and ,jesus' use of his divine resources to relieve embarrassment at a wedding feast must have impressed every man among them4 ,their minds1 however1 were as yet too full of ,messianic hopes to leave much room for reflection4 ,they were content to have a sign1 for in the view of ,jesus' contemporaries signs were essential marks of the ,messiah 7,john vi4 #cj2 vii4 #ca2 ,mark viii4 #aa74 ,they did their reflecting later 7,john ii4 #bb74 #ajc4 ,miracles are as great a stumbling-block to modern thought as they were a help to the contemporaries of ,jesus4 ,the study of ,jesus' life cannot ignore this fact1 nor make little of it4 ,it is fair to insist1 however1 that the question is one of evidence1 not of metaphysical possibility4 ,men are wisely slow to-day to claim that they can tell what are the limits of the possible4 ,if the question is one of evidence1 it is in an important sense true that the evidence for miracle in the life of ,jesus is appreciable only when that life is viewed in its completeness4 ,the miracles attributed to ,jesus may be studied1 however1 for the disclosure which they give of his character1 and of his relation to common human need4 ,so it is with this first sign at ,cana4 ,jesus had just heard the call to be ,messiah1 and in his lonely struggle in the wilderness had given a loyal answer to that call1 and had set out to do his ,father's business in his ,father's way4 ,he who by the ,jordan still carried the marks of struggle1 so that the ,baptist saw in him the suffering ,saviour of ,isaiah liii41 now returned to the ordinary daily life in ,galilee1 and as a guest at a wedding feast he commenced that ministry of simple human friendliness 7,matt4 xi4 #ai2 compare ,mark ii4 #ae-ag2 ,luke xv4 #a1 #b71 which set him in sharp contrast alike with ,john's asceticism and with the ritualism and pedantry of the ,pharisees4 #ajd4 ,his human friendliness is all the more worthy of note1 inasmuch as on his return to ,cana ,jesus did not take up again the old relations of life as they existed before his baptism4 ,this is clear from his reply to his mother when she reported the scarcity of wine 7,john ii4 #c-e74 ,while it is true that the title by which ,jesus addressed ,mary was neither disrespectful nor unkind 7,john xix4 #bf71 the reply itself was a warning that now he was no longer hers in the old sense4 ,a new mission had been given him1 which henceforth would determine all his conduct1 and in that mission she could not now share4 ,here is one of the many indications 7compare ,mark iii4 #ba1 #ca-ce2 ,luke ii4 #dh7 that ,mary did not understand her son nor his work until much later 7,john xix4 #be2 ,acts i4 #ad74 ,that with such a clear sense of his new and serious mission ,jesus' first official act was one of kindly relief for social embarrassment is most significant4 ,he chose to show his divine authority to his new disciples in a way that brought joy to a festal company4 ,little as the disciples were likely to appreciate it at the time1 it was beautifully indicative of the simplicity and everyday lovableness of ,jesus' idea of the earnest service of ,god4 #aje4 ,with the disciples thus strengthened in faith1 and the mother not separated from him though unable to know his deepest thoughts1 and the brethren who could not yet nor later understand their kinsman and his work1 ,jesus went down to ,capernaum 7,john ii4 #ab71 which proved thenceforth to be the centre of his greatest work and teaching4 ,there for a time1 how long cannot be known1 he continued in quiet fellowship with his new friends1 until the approach of the ,passover drew him to ,jerusalem to make formal opening of his ,messianic work in that centre of his people's religious life4 ,part ,,ii ,the ,ministry ,i ,general ,survey of the ,ministry #ajf4 ,the attempt to arrange an orderly account of the way in which ,jesus set about the work to which he was called at his baptism is met at the outset by a problem4 ,the vivid and familiar words of ,mark 7i4 #ad71 seconded by the representation in both ,matthew 7iv4 #ab7 and ,luke 7iv4 #ad71 indicate the imprisonment of ,john as the occasion1 and ,galilee as the scene of the inauguration of ,jesus' public ministry4 ,the fourth gospel1 on the other hand1 tells of a work of ,jesus and his disciples in ,judea prior to the imprisonment of ,john 7in4 #bd71 and makes this work follow at some interval after the inauguration of the ,messianic ministry in ,jerusalem4 ,the minuteness of detail of time and place in the early chapters of ,john 7i4 #ai to iv4 #dc71 together with the vividness of their narrative1 give them strong claim to credence4 ,they thus record a ministry earlier than that narrated in the other gospels1 proving that the actual inauguration of ,jesus' work occurred in ,jerusalem at a ,passover season previous to the imprisonment of ,john4 ,this is known as the ,early ,judean ,ministry4 #ajg4 ,the fact that ,peter was wont to tell the story of ,jesus' life in such a way as to lead ,mark to set the opening of the ministry after the close of ,john's activity1 indicates that that beginning of work in ,galilee seemed to the disciples to be in a way the actual inauguration of ,jesus' constructive and successful work4 ,peter cannot have been ignorant of the labors in ,judea1 though he may not himself have accompanied ,jesus to the ,passover4 ,a new stage in the life of ,jesus began1 therefore1 with his withdrawal to ,galilee4 #ajh4 ,the story of the ,galilean ministry is given chiefly by the first three gospels1 ,john contributing but two incidents to the period covered by that ministry1--a second miracle at ,cana 7iv4 #df-ed71 and a visit to ,judea 7v4 #a-dg71--;and relating more fully the story of the feeding of the multitudes 7vi4 #a-ga74 ,the journey from ,judea through ,samaria 7,john iv4 #a-de7 should be identified with the removal to ,galilee which stands at the beginning of ,mark's record 7i4 #ad2 ,matt4 iv4 #ab2 ,luke iv4 #ad74 ,mark's account of the ,galilean activity of ,jesus 7i4 #ad to ix4 #ej7 is one of such simple and steady progress that the whole period must be considered as a unit4 #aji4 ,in the use which ,matthew 7iv4 #ab to xviii4 #ce7 and ,luke 7iv4 #ad to ix4 #ej7 make of ,mark's record this unity is emphasized4 ,their treatment of the matter which they add1 however1 makes it best to study the period topically rather than attempt to follow closely a chronological sequence4 ,as it is probable that the early writing ascribed by ,papias to the apostle ,matthew failed to preserve in many cases any record of the time and place of the teachings of ,jesus1 so is it certain that the first and third evangelists have distributed quite differently the material which they seem to have derived from that apostolic document4 ,mention need only be made of the exhortation against anxiety which ,matthew places in the sermon on the mount 7vi4 #ai-cd71 and which ,luke has given after the close of the ,galilean activity 7xii4 #bb-cd74 ,it is possible to form some judgment of the general relations of such discourses from the character of their contents1 but in the absence of positive statement by the evangelists it is hopeless to seek to give them a more definite historical setting4 ,a topical study can consider them as contributions to the period to which they belong1 while a chronological study would be lost in uncertain conjectures4 ,a topical study may1 however1 disclose the fact that sequence of time was identical with development of method4 ,this is1 in general1 the case with the ,galilean ministry4 ,the new lesson which ,jesus began to teach after the confession at ,csarea ,philippi marked the supreme turning point in his whole public activity4 ,before that crisis the work of ,jesus was a constructive preparation for the question which called forth ,peter's confession4 ,subsequently his work was that of making ready for the end1 which from that time on he foretold4 ,as has been stated1 the ,galilean ministry is the story of the first three gospels1 except for two incidents and a discourse added by ,john4 ,the visit to the feast of ,tabernacles 7,john vii4 #a to viii4 #ei7 stands on the border between the work in ,galilee and that which followed4 ,it was one of ,jesus' many attempts to win ,jerusalem1 and is evidence that the author of the fourth gospel--either because of special interest in the capital1 or because of superior knowledge of the work of his ,master in ,judea--gave emphasis to a side of the life of ,jesus which the other gospels have neglected4 #aaj4 ,with the close of the constructive ministry in ,galilee1 the account of ,mark 7x4 #a2 compare ,matt xix4 #a2 ,luke ix4 #ea7 turns towards ,jerusalem and the cross4 ,the journey was not direct1 but traversed ,perea1 the domain of ,antipas beyond ,jordan1 and was accompanied by continued ministry of teaching and healing 7,mark x4 #a-eb2 ,matt4 xix4 #a to xx4 #cd74 ,it is at this point that ,luke has inserted the long section peculiar to his gospel 7ix4 #ea to xviii4 #ad71 becoming again parallel with ,mark as ,jesus drew near to ,jerusalem 7xviii4 #ae to xix4 #bh2 compare ,mark x4 #ac-eb74 ,much of that which ,luke adds gives evidence that in all probability it should be placed before the change in method at ,csarea ,philippi1 while much of it undoubtedly belongs to the last months of ,jesus' life4 ,since the last journey to ,jerusalem is reported with considerable fulness1 it is natural in a study of ,jesus' life to treat that journey by itself4 ,at this point ,john contributes important additions to the record 7ix4 #a to xi4 #eg7 showing that the journey was not continuous1 but was interrupted by several more or less hurried visits to the capital1 renewed efforts of ,jesus to win the city4 #aaa4 ,with the final arrival in ,jerusalem the four gospels come together in a record of the last days and the crucifixion 7,mark xi4 #a to xv4 #dg2 ,matt1 xxi #a to xxvii4 #ff2 ,luke xix4 #bi to xxiii4 #ef2 ,john xi4 #ee to xix4 #db74 ,the evangelists1 in their accounts of the last week1 seem to have had access to completer and more varied information than for any other part of the ministry4 ,this causes some difficulties in constructing an ordered conception of the events1 yet it greatly adds to the fulness of our knowledge4 ,it is easier1 therefore1 to consider the period in three parts1--the final controversies in ,jerusalem1 the ,last ,supper1 and the betrayal1 trial1 and crucifixion4 #aab4 ,in a sense the resurrection and ascension form the conclusion of the final visit to ,jerusalem1 and should be treated with the last week4 ,in a larger sense1 however1 they form the culmination of the whole ministry1 and therefore constitute a final stage in the study of ,jesus' life4 ,at this point the record of the gospels is supplemented by the first chapter of the ,acts and by ,paul's concise report of the appearances of the risen ,christ 7,i4 ,cor4 xv4 #c-h74 ,the various accounts exhibit perplexing independence of each other4 ,in total impression1 however1 they agree1 and show that the tragedy1 by which the enemies of ,jesus thought to end his career1 was turned into signal triumph4 ,outline of ,events in the ,early ,judean ,ministry ,the first ,passover of the public ministry3 ,cleansing of the temple--,john ii4 #ac-bb4 ,early results in ,jerusalem3 ,discourse with ,nicodemus--,john ii4 #bc to iii4 #ae4 ,withdrawal into rural parts of ,judea to preach and baptize--,john in4 #bb-cj2 iv4 #a1 #b4 ,imprisonment of ,john the ,baptist--,matt4 iv4 #ab2 ,mark i4 #ad4 ,withdrawal from ,judea through ,samaria--,john iv4 #a-db4 ,unlooked-for welcome in ,galilee--,john iv4 #dc-de4 8 ,second sign at ,cana3 ,cure of the ,nobleman's son--,john iv4 #df-ed 7see sect4 ,a #da74 ,retirement at ,nazareth1 the disciples resuming their accustomed calling4 ,inferred from ,matt4 iv4 #ac2 ,luke iv4 #ca2 ,matt4 iv4 #ah-bb and s4 ,events marked 8 should possibly be given a different place2 s stands for parallel accounts2 for sections marked ,a--as ,a #da--see ,appendix4 ,,ii ,the ,early ,ministry in ,judea #aac4 ,we owe to the fourth gospel our knowledge of the fact that ,jesus began his general ministry in ,jerusalem4 ,the silence of the other records concerning this beginning cannot discredit the testimony of ,john4 ,for these other records themselves indicate in various ways that ,jesus had repeatedly sought to win ,jerusalem before his final visit at the end of his life 7compare ,luke xiii4 #cd2 ,matt4 xxiii4 #cg74 ,moreover1 the fourth gospel is confirmed by the probability1 rising almost to necessity1 that such a mission as ,jesus conceived his to be must seek first to win the leaders of his people4 ,the temple at ,jerusalem was the centre of worship1 drawing all ,jews sooner or later to itself--even as ,jesus in early youth was accustomed to go thither at the time of feasts 7,luke ii4 #da74 ,worshippers of ,god throughout the world prayed with their faces towards ,jerusalem 7,dan4 vi4 #aj74 ,moreover1 at ,jerusalem the chief of the scribes1 as well as the chief of the priests1 were to be found4 ,compared with ,jerusalem all other places were provincial and of small influence4 ,a ,messiah1 who had not from the outset given up hope of winning the capital1 cannot have long delayed his effort to find a following there4 #aad4 ,arriving at ,jerusalem at the ,passover season1 in the early spring1 ,jesus remained in ,judea until the following ,december 7,john iv4 #ce74 ,evidently the record which ,john gives of these months is most fragmentary1 and from his own statement 7xx4 #cj1 #ca7 it seems highly probable that it is one sided1 emphasizing those events and teachings in which ,jesus disclosed more or less clearly his claim to be the ,messiah4 ,doubtless the full record would show a much closer similarity between this early work in ,judea and that later conducted in ,galilee than a comparison of ,john with the other gospels would suggest2 yet it is evident that ,jesus opened his ministry in ,jerusalem with an unrestrained frankness that is not found later in ,galilee4 #aae4 ,it is a mistake to think of the cleansing of the temple as a distinct ,messianic manifesto4 ,the market in the temple was a licensed affront to spiritual religion4 ,it found its excuse for being in the requirement that worshippers offer to the priests for sacrifice animals levitically clean and acceptable1 and that gifts for the temple treasury be made in no coin other than the sacred shekel of the sanctuary4 ,the chief priests appreciated the convenience which worshippers coming from a distance would find if they could obtain all the means of worship within the temple enclosure itself4 ,the hierarchy or its representatives seem also to have appreciated the opportunity to charge good prices for the accommodation so afforded4 ,the result was the intrusion of the spirit of the market-place1 with all its disputes and haggling1 into the place set apart for worship4 ,in fact1 the only part of the temple open to ,gentiles who might wish to worship ,israel's ,god was filled with distraction1 unseemly strife1 and extortion 7compare ,mark xi4 #ag74 ,such despite done the sanctity of ,god's house must have outraged the pious sense of many a devout ,israelite4 ,there is no doubt of what an ,isaiah or a ,micah would have said and done in such a situation4 ,this is exactly what ,jesus did4 ,his act was the assumption of a full prophetic authority4 ,in itself considered it was nothing more4 ,in his expulsion of the traders he had the conscience of the people for his ally4 ,there is no need to think of any use of miraculous power4 ,his moral earnestness1 coupled with the underlying consciousness on the part of the traders themselves that they had no business in ,god's house1 readily explains the confusion and departure of the intruders4 ,even those who challenged ,jesus' conduct did not venture to defend the presence of the market in the temple4 ,they only demanded that ,jesus show his warrant for disturbing a condition of things authorized by the priests4 #aaf4 ,the temple cleansing is recorded in the other gospels at the end of ,jesus' ministry1 just before the hostility of the ,jews culminated in his condemnation and death4 ,inasmuch as these gospels give no account of a ministry by ,jesus in ,jerusalem before the last week of his life1 it is easy to see how this event came to be associated by them with the only ,jerusalem sojourn which they record4 ,the definite place given to the event in ,john1 together with the seeming necessity that ,jesus should condemn such authorized affront to the very idea of worship1 mark this cleansing as the inaugural act of ,jesus' ministry of spiritual religion1 rather than as a final stern rebuke closing his effort to win his people4 ,against the conclusion commonly held that ,jesus cleansed the temple both at the opening and at the close of his course is the extreme improbability that the traders would have been caught twice in the same way4 ,the event fits in closely with the story of the last week1 because it actually led to the beginning of opposition in ,jerusalem to the prophet from ,galilee4 ,at the first the opposition was doubtless of a scornful sort4 ,later it grew in bitterness when it saw how ,jesus was able to arouse a popular enthusiasm that seemed to threaten the stability of existing conditions4 #aag4 ,the reply of ,jesus to the challenge of his authority for his high-handed act shows that he offered it to the people as an invitation2 he would lead them to a higher idea and practice of worship 7compare ,john iv4 #ba-bd74 ,when they demanded the warrant for his act1 he saw that they were not ready to follow him1 and could not appreciate the only warrant he needed for his course4 ,he cleansed the temple because they were destroying it as a place where men could worship ,god in spirit4 ,in reply to the challenge1 he who later taught the ,samaritan woman that the worship of ,god is not dependent on any place however sacred1 answered that they might finish their work and destroy the temple as a house of ,god1 yet he would speedily re-establish a true means of approach to the ,most ,high for the souls of men4 ,he clothed his reply in a figurative dress1 as he was often wont to do in his teaching1--,destroy this temple1 and in three days ,i will raise it up4 ,to his unsympathetic hearers it must have been completely enigmatic4 ,even the disciples did not catch its meaning until after the resurrection had taught them that in their ,master a new chapter in ,god's dealing with men had begun4 #aah4 ,the unreadiness of the ,jewish leaders to receive the only kind of message he had to offer produced in ,jesus a decided reserve4 ,he did not lack a certain kind of success in ,jerusalem4 ,his cures of the sick won him many followers who seemed ready to believe almost anything of him4 ,but the attitude taken by the leaders made it evident that ,jesus must make disciples who should understand in some measure at least his idea of ,god's kingdom1 and1 understanding1 must be ready to be loyal to it through good report and evil4 ,for the position taken by the leaders of the people had an ominous significance4 ,it could mean but one thing for ,jesus1--unrelenting conflict4 ,if they could not be won1 they who would so legalize the desecration of ,god's house would not hesitate at any extreme in opposing his messenger4 ,this possibility confronted ,jesus at the very outset2 therefore he held the popular enthusiasm in check1 knowing that as yet it had little of that kind of faith which could endure seeming defeat4 #aai4 ,one of those who were drawn to him1 however1 gave ,jesus opportunity to lay aside his reserve and speak clearly of the truth lie came to publish4 ,he was a member of the ,jewish sanhedrin1 a rabbi apparently held in high regard in ,jerusalem4 ,while his associates were dismissing the claims of ,jesus with a wave of the hand1 ,nicodemus sought out the new teacher by night1 and showed his desire to learn what ,jesus held to be truth concerning ,god's kingdom4 ,jesus first reminded the teacher of ,israel of the old doctrine of the prophets1 that ,israel must find a new heart before ,god's kingdom can come 7,jer4 xxxi4 #ca-cd2 ,ezek4 xxxvi4 #be-bg71 and then declared that the heavenly truth which ,god now would reveal to men is that all can have the needed new life as freely as the plague-stricken ,israelites found relief when ,moses lifted up the brazen serpent4 ,this conversation serves to introduce the evangelist's interpretation of ,jesus as the only begotten ,son of ,god sent in love to redeem the world 7,john iii4 #af-ba74 #abj4 ,john's record suggests that ,jesus left ,jerusalem shortly after the conversation with ,nicodemus4 ,his work there was not without success1 for ,nicodemus seems to have been henceforth his loyal advocate 7compare ,john vii4 #ej-eb2 xix4 #ci72 and it may be that at the time of this sojourn he won the hearts of his friends in ,bethany1 for the first picture the gospels give of this household seems to presuppose a somewhat intimate relation of ,jesus to the family 7,luke x4 #ch-db74 ,it would be idle to speculate whether it was at this time or later that he became acquainted with ,joseph of ,arimathea1 or the friends who during the last week of his life showed him hospitality 7,mark xi4 #b-f2 xiv4 #ab-af74 #aba4 ,for a time after his withdrawal from ,jerusalem he lingered in ,judea1 carrying on a simple ministry of preparation like that of ,john the ,baptist4 ,in this way the summer and early autumn seem to have passed1 ,jesus growing more popular as a prophet than ,john himself had been4 ,the fact that ,jesus' disciples administered baptism in connection with his work roused the jealousy of some of ,john's followers1 and attracted again the attention of ,jerusalem to the new activity of the bold disturber of the temple market4 ,john's disciples complained to him of ,jesus' rivalry1 and received his self-effacing confession1 ,he must increase1 ,i must decrease4 ,the ,pharisees1 on the other hand1 made ,jesus feel that further work in ,judea was for the time unwise1 and he withdrew into ,galilee for retirement1 since a prophet has no honor in his own country 7,john iv4 #a-c1 #dd74 ,baffled in his first effort to win his people1 this journey back from the region of the holy city must have been one of no little sadness for ,jesus4 ,some urgency for haste led him by the direct road through despised ,samaria4 ,a seemingly chance conversation with a woman at ,jacob's well1 where he was resting at noonday1 gave him an opportunity for ministry which was more ingenuously received than any which he had been able to render in ,judea2 and to this woman he declared himself even more plainly than to ,nicodemus1 and preached to her that spiritual idea of worship which he had sought to enforce by cleansing ,jerusalem's temple4 ,samaria was so isolated from all ,jewish interest that ,jesus felt no need for reserve in this strange land4 ,the few days spent there must have been peculiarly welcome to his heart1 fresh from rejection in ,judea4 #abb4 ,one reason why he wished to hasten from ,judea seems to have been his knowledge of the hostile movement which was making against ,john the ,baptist4 ,either before or soon after ,jesus started for ,galilee ,herod had arrested ,john1 ostensibly as a measure of public safety owing to ,john's undue popularity 7,jos4 ,ant4 xviii4 #e4 #b74 ,herod may have been encouraged to take this step by the hostility of the ,pharisees to the plain-spoken prophet of the desert 7see ,john iv4 #a-c74 ,the fourth gospel leaves its readers to infer that the imprisonment took place somewhere about this time 7compare iii4 #bd and v4 #ce71 while the other gospels unite in giving this arrest as the occasion for ,jesus' withdrawal into ,galilee4 #abc4 ,arrived in ,galilee1 ,jesus seems to have returned to his home at ,nazareth1 while his disciples went back to their customary occupations1 until he summoned them again to join him in a new ministry 7see sect4 #abe74 ,john assigns to this time the cure of a nobleman's son4 ,the father sought out ,jesus at ,cana1 having left his son sick at ,capernaum4 ,at first ,jesus apparently repelled his approach1 even as he had dealt with seekers after marvels at ,jerusalem2 but on hearing the father's cry of need and trust1 he at once spoke the word of healing4 ,this event is in so many ways a duplicate of the cure of a centurion's servant recorded in ,matthew and ,luke1 that to many it seems but another version of the same incident4 ,considering the variations in the story reported by ,matthew and ,luke1 it is clearly not possible to prove that ,john tells of a different case4 ,yet the simple fact of similarity of some details in two events should not exclude the possibility of their still being quite distinct4 ,the reception which ,jesus gave the two requests for help is very different1 and the case reported in ,john is in keeping with the attitude of ,jesus before he began his new ministry in ,galilee4 ,on his arrival in ,galilee he wished to avoid a mere wonder faith begotten of the enthusiasm he excited in ,jerusalem1 yet this wish yielded at once when a genuine need sought relief at his hands4 #abd4 ,the apparent result of this first activity in ,judea was disappointment and failure4 ,he had won no considerable following in the capital4 ,he had definitely excited the jealousy and opposition of the leading men of his nation4 ,even such popular enthusiasm as had followed his mighty works was of a sort that ,jesus could not encourage4 ,the situation in ,judea had at length become so nearly untenable that he decided to withdraw into seclusion in ,galilee1 where1 as a prophet1 he could be without honor4 ,he had gone to ,jerusalem eager to begin there1 where ,god should have had readiest service1 the ministry of the kingdom of ,god4 ,challenge1 cold criticism1 and superficial faith were the results4 ,a new beginning must be made on other lines in other places4 ,meanwhile ,jesus retired to his home and his followers to theirs4 ,outline of ,events in the ,galilean ,ministry 7,chapters ,,iii4 ,and ,,iv47 ,the imprisonment of ,john and the withdrawal of ,jesus into ,galilee--,matt4 iv4 #ab-ag2 ,mark i4 #ad1 #ae2 ,luke iv4 #ad1 #ae4 ,removal from ,nazareth to ,capernaum--,matt4 iv4 #ac-af2 ,luke iv4 #ca4 ,the call of ,simon and ,andrew1 ,james and ,john--,matt4 iv4 #ah-bb2 ,mark i4 #af-bj2 ,luke v4 #a-aa4 ,first work in ,capernaum--,matt4 viii4 #ad-ag2 ,mark i4 #ba-cd2 ,luke iv4 #ca-da4 ,first circuit of ,galilee--,matt4 iv4 #bc2 viii4 #b-d2 ,mark i4 #ce-de2 ,luke iv4 #db-dd2 v4 #ab-af4 ,cure of a paralytic in ,capernaum--,matt4 ix4 #b-h2 ,mark ii4 #a-ab2 ,luke v4 #ag-bf4 ,the call of ,matthew--,matt4 ix4 #i-ac2 ,mark ii4 #ac-ag2 ,luke v4 #bg-cb4 8 ,the question about fasting--,matt ix4 #ad-ag2 ,mark ii4 #ah-bb2 ,luke v4 #cc-ci 7see sects4 #dg2 ,a #ed74 8 ,sabbath cure at ,jerusalem at the unnamed feast--,john v4 #a-dg 7see sect4 ,a #ec74 8 ,the ,sabbath controversy in the ,galilean grain fields--,matt4 xii4 #a-h2 ,mark ii4 #bc-bh2 ,luke vi4 #a-e 7see sects4 #dg2 ,a #ed74 8 ,another ,sabbath controversy3 cure of a withered hand--,matt4 xii4 #i-ad2 ,mark iii4 #a-f2 ,luke vi4 #f-aa 7see sects4 #dg2 ,a #ed74 ,jesus followed by multitudes from all parts--,matt4 iv4 #bc-be2 xii4 #ae-ba2 ,mark iii4 #g-ab2 ,luke vi4 #ag-ai4 ,the choosing of the twelve--,matt4 x4 #b-d2 ,mark iii4 #ac-ai2 ,luke vi4 #ab-ai4 ,the sermon on the mount--,matt4 v4 #a to viii4 #a2 ,luke vi4 #bj to vii4 #a 7see sect4 ,a #ee74 ,the cure of a centurion's servant--,matt4 viii4 #e-ac2 ,luke vii4 #a-aj2 ,john iv4 #df-ed4 ,the restoration of the widow's son at ,nain--,luke vii4 #aa-ag4 ,the message from ,john in prison--,matt4 xi4 #b-ai2 ,luke vii4 #ah-ce4 ,the anointing of ,jesus by a sinful woman--,luke vii4 #cf-ej4 ,the companions of ,jesus on his second circuit of ,galilee--,luke viii4 #a-c4 ,cure of a demoniac in ,capernaum and blasphemy by the ,pharisees--,matt4 xii4 #bb-de2 ,mark iii4 #ai;a-#cj2 ,luke xi4 #ad-cf4 ,the true kindred of ,jesus--,matt4 xii4 #df-ej2 ,mark iii4 #ca-ce2 ,luke viii4 #ai-ba4 ,the parables by the sea--,matt4 xiii4 #a-ec2 ,mark iv4 #a-cd2 ,luke viii4 #d-ah 7see sect4 ,a #ef74 ,the tempest stilled--,matt4 viii4 #ah1 #bc-bg2 ,mark iv4 #ce-da2 ,luke viii4 #bb-be4 ,cure of the ,gadarene demoniac--,matt4 viii4 #bh-cd2 ,mark v4 #a-bj2 ,luke viii4 #bf-ci4 ,the restoration of the daughter of ,jairus and cure of an invalid woman--,matt4 ix4 #a1 #ah-bf2 ,mark v4 #ba-dc2 ,luke viii4 #dj-ef4 ,cure of blind and dumb--,matt4 ix4 #bg-cd4 ,rejection at ,nazareth--,matt4 xiii4 #ed-eh2 ,mark vi4 #a-f;a2 ,luke iv4 #af-cj 7see sect4 ,a #eb74 ,third circuit of ,galilee--,matt4 ix4 #ce2 ,mark vi4 #f;b4 ,the mission of the twelve--,matt4 ix4 #cf to xi4 #a2 ,mark vi4 #g-ac2 ,luke ix4 #a-f 7see sect4 ,a #eg74 ,the death of ,john the ,baptist--,matt4 xiv4 #a-ab2 ,mark vi4 #ad-bi2 ,luke ix4 #g-i4 ,withdrawal of ,jesus across the sea and feeding of the five thousand--,matt4 xiv4 #ac-bc2 ,mark vi4 #cj-df2 ,luke ix4 #aj-ag2 ,john vi4 #a-ae4 ,return to ,capernaum1 ,jesus walking on the water--,matt4 xiv4 #bd-cf2 ,mark vi4 #dg-ef2 ,john vi4 #af-ba4 ,teaching about the ,bread of ,life in the synagogue at ,capernaum--,john vi4 #bb-ga 7see sect4 ,a #ei74 ,controversy concerning tradition3 handwashing1 etc4--,matt4 xv4 #a-bj2 ,mark vii4 #a-bc4 ,withdrawal to regions of ,tyre and ,sidon3 the ,syrophnician woman's daughter--,matt4 xv4 #ba-bh2 ,mark vii4 #bd-cj4 ,return through ,decapolis--,matt4 xv4 #bi-ca2 ,mark vii4 #ca-cg4 8 ,the feeding of the four thousand--,matt4 xv4 #cb-ch2 ,mark viii4 #a-i 7see sect4 ,a #eh74 ,pharisaic challenge in ,galilee1 and warning against the leaven of the ,pharisees--,matt xv4 #ci to xvi4 #ab2 ,mark viii4 #aj-ba4 ,cure of blind man near ,bethsaida--,mark viii4 #bb-bf4 ,peter's confession of ,jesus as ,christ near ,csarea ,philippi--,matt4 xvi4 #ac-bj2 ,mark viii4 #bg-cj2 ,luke ix4 #ah-ba4 ,the new lesson1 that the ,christ must die--,matt4 xvi4 #ba-bh2 ,mark viii4 #ca to ix4 #a2 ,luke ix4 #bb-bg4 ,the transfiguration--,matt4 xvii4 #a-ac2 ,mark ix4 #b-ac2 ,luke ix4 #bh-cf4 ,cure of the epileptic boy--,matt4 xvii4 #ad-bj2 ,mark ix4 #ad-bi2 ,luke ix4 #cg-dc;a4 ,second prediction of approaching death and resurrection--,matt4 xvii4 #bb1 #bc2 ,mark ix4 #cj-cb2 ,luke ix4 #dc;b-#de4 ,return to ,capernaum3 the temple tax--,matt4 xvii4 #bd-bg2 ,mark ix4 #cc;a4 ,teachings concerning humility and forgiveness--,matt4 xviii4 #a-ce2 ,mark ix4 #cc-ej2 ,luke ix4 #df-ej4 ,visit of ,jesus to ,jerusalem at the feast of ,tabernacles--,john vii4 #a-eb2 viii4 #ab-ei 7see sect4 ,a #fj74 8 ,the woman taken in adultery--,john vii4 #ec to viii4 #aa 7see sect4 #afc74 ,the following probably belong to the ,galilean ministry before the confession at ,csarea ,philippi 7see sect4 #afh73-- ,the disciples taught to pray--,matt4 vi4 #i-ae2 vii4 #g-aa2 ,luke xi4 #a-ac4 ,the cure of an infirm woman on the ,sabbath--,luke xiii4 #aj-ag4 ,two parables3 mustard-seed and leaven--,matt4 xiii4 #ca-cc2 ,luke xiii4 #ah-ba 7see sect4 ,a #ef74 ,the parable of the rich fool--,luke xii4 #ac-ba4 ,cure on a ,sabbath and teaching at a ,pharisee's table--,luke xiv4 #a-bd4 ,five parables--,luke xv4 #a to xvi4 #ca4 ,certain disconnected teachings--,luke xvii4 #a-d4 ,,iii ,the ,ministry ,in ,galilee--its ,aim ,and ,method #abe4 ,the work of ,jesus in ,galilee1 which is the principal theme of the first three gospels1 began with a removal from ,nazareth to ,capernaum1 and the calling of four fishermen to be his constant followers4 ,the ready obedience which ,simon and ,andrew and ,james and ,john gave to this call is an interesting evidence that they did not first come to know ,jesus at the time of this summons4 ,the narrative presupposes some such earlier association as is reported in ,john1 followed by a temporary return to their old homes and occupations1 while ,jesus sought seclusion after his work in ,judea4 ,the first evangelist has most vividly indicated the development of the ,galilean ministry1 directing attention to two points of beginning1--the beginning of ,jesus' preaching of the kingdom 7,matt4 iv4 #ag7 and the beginning of his predictions of his own sufferings and death 7xvi4 #ba74 ,between these two beginnings lies the ministry of ,jesus to the enthusiastic multitudes1 the second of them marking his choice of a more restricted audience and a less popular message4 ,within the first of these periods two events mark epochs1--the mission of the twelve 7,matt4 ix4 #cf2 x4 ,i7 to preach the coming kingdom of ,god and to multiply ,jesus' ministry of healing1 and the feeding of the five thousand when the popular enthusiasm reached its climax 7,john vi4 #ad1 #ae74 ,these events fall not far apart1 and mark two different phases of the same stage of development in his work4 ,the first is emphasized by ,matthew1 the second by ,john2 both help to a clearer understanding of the narrative which ,mark has furnished to the other gospels for their story of the ,galilean ministry4 ,the table at the head of this chapter indicates in outline the probable succession of events in the ,galilean period4 ,the order adopted is that of ,mark1 supplemented by the other gospels4 ,luke's additions are inserted in his order where there is not some reason for believing that he himself disregarded the exact sequence of events4 ,thus the rejection at ,nazareth is placed late1 as in ,mark4 ,much of the material in the long section peculiar to ,luke is assigned in general to this ,galilean period1 since all knowledge of its precise location in time and place has been lost for us1 as it not unlikely was for ,luke4 ,although ,matthew is the gospel giving the clearest general view of the ,galilean work1 it shows the greatest disarrangement of details1 and aids but little in determining the sequence of events4 ,the material from that gospel is assigned place in accordance with such hints as are discoverable in parallel or associated parts of ,mark or ,luke4 ,of ,john's contributions one--the feeding of the multitudes--is clearly located by its identity with a narrative found in all the other gospels4 ,the visit to ,jerusalem at the unnamed feast can be only tentatively placed4 #abf4 ,viewing this gospel story as a whole1 the parallel development of popular enthusiasm and official hostility at once attracts attention4 ,jesus' first cures in the synagogue at ,capernaum roused the interest and wonder of the multitudes to such an extent that he felt constrained to withdraw to other towns4 ,on his return to ,capernaum he was so beset with crowds that the friends of the paralytic could get at him only by breaking up the roof4 ,it was when ,jesus found himself followed by multitudes from all parts of the land that he selected twelve of his disciples that they might be with him and that he might send them forth to preach1 and addressed to them in the hearing of the multitudes the exacting1 although unspeakably winsome teaching of the sermon on the mount4 ,this condition of things continued even after ,herod had killed ,john the ,baptist1 for when ,jesus1 having heard of ,john's fate1 sought retirement with his disciples across the sea of ,galilee1 he was robbed of his seclusion by throngs who flocked to him to be healed and to hear of the kingdom of ,god4 #abg4 ,the popular enthusiasm was not indifferent to the question who this new teacher might be4 ,at first ,jesus impressed the people by his authoritative teaching and cures4 ,after the raising of the widow's son at ,nain the popular feeling found a more definite declaration1--a great prophet has risen up among us4 ,the cure of a demoniac in ,capernaum raised the further incredulous query1 ,can this be the ,son of ,david8 ,the notion that he might be the ,messiah seems to have gained acceptance more and more as ,jesus' popularity grew1 for at the time of the feeding of the multitudes the enthusiasm burst into a flame of determination to force him to undertake the work for which he was so eminently fitted1 but from which for some inexplicable reason he seemed to shrink 7,john vi4 #ae74 #abh4 ,parallel with the growth of popular enthusiasm1 and in part because of it1 the religious leaders early assumed and consistently maintained an attitude of opposition4 ,the gospels connect the critics of ,jesus now and again with the ,pharisees of the capital--the ,galilean ,pharisees being represented as more or less friendly4 ,at the first appearance of ,jesus in ,capernaum even the ,sabbath cure in the synagogue passed unchallenged2 but on the return from his first excursion to other towns1 ,jesus found critics in his audience 7,luke connects them directly with ,jerusalem74 ,from time to time such censors as these objected to the forgiveness by ,jesus of the sins of the paralytic 7,mark ii4 #f1 #g71 criticised his social relations with outcasts like the publicans 7,mark ii4 #af71 took offence at his carelessness of the ,sabbath tradition in his instruction of his disciples 7,mark ii4 #bd71 and sought to turn the tide of rising popular enthusiasm by ascribing his power to cure to a league with the devil 7,mark iii4 #bb74 ,baffled in one charge1 they would turn to another1 until1 after the feeding of the multitudes1 ,jesus showed his complete disregard of all they held most dear1 replying to a criticism of his disciples for carelessness of the ritual of hand-washing by an authoritative setting aside of the whole body of their traditions1 as well as of the ,levitical ceremonial of clean and unclean meats 7,mark vii4 #a-bc74 #abi4 ,the wonder is1 not that popular enthusiasm for ,jesus was great1 but that it was so hesitating in its judgment about him4 ,the province which provided a following to ,judas of ,galilee a generation earlier than the public ministry of ,jesus1 and which under ,john of ,gischala furnished the chief support to the revolt against ,rome a generation later1 could have been excited to uncontrollable passion by the simple idea that a leader was present who could be made to head a movement for ,jewish liberty4 ,but there was something about ,jesus which made it impossible to think of him as such a ,messiah4 ,he was much more moved by sin lurking within than by wrong inflicted from without4 ,he looked for ,god's kingdom1 as did the ,zealots1 but he looked for it within the heart more than in outward circumstances4 ,even the dreamers among the people1 who were as unready as ,jesus for any uprising against ,rome1 and who waited for ,god to show his own hand in judgment1 found in ,jesus--come to seek and to save that which was lost--something so contradictory of their idea of the celestial judge that they could not easily think of him as a ,messiah4 ,jesus was a puzzle to the people4 ,they were sure that he was a prophet2 but if at any time some were tempted to query1 ,can this be the ,son of ,david8 the incredulous folk expected ever a negative reply4 #acj4 ,this was as ,jesus wished it to be4 ,an unreasoning enthusiasm could only hinder his work4 ,when his early cures in ,capernaum stirred the ardent feelings of the multitudes1 he took occasion to withdraw to other towns and allow popular feeling to cool4 ,when later he found himself pressed upon by crowds from all quarters of the land1 by the sermon on the mount he set them thinking on strange and highly spiritual things1 far removed from the thoughts of ,zealots and apocalyptic dreamers4 #aca4 ,the manifest contradiction of popular ,messianic ideas which ,jesus presented in his own person usually served to check undue ardor as long as he was present4 ,but when some demoniac proclaimed the high station of ,jesus1 and thus seemed to the people to give supernatural testimony2 or when some one in need sought him apart from the multitudes1 ,jesus frequently enjoined silence4 ,these injunctions of silence are enigmas until they are viewed as a part of ,jesus' effort to keep control of popular feeling4 ,in his absence the people might dwell on his power and easily come to imagine him to be what he was not and could not be4 ,jesus was able by these means to restrain unthinking enthusiasm until the multitudes whom he fed on the east side of the sea determined to force him to do their will as a ,messiah4 ,then he refused to follow where they called1 and that happened which would doubtless have happened at an earlier time but for ,jesus' caution1--the popular enthusiasm subsided1 and his active work with the common people was at an end4 ,but he had held off this crisis until there were a few who did not follow the popular defection1 but rather clung to him from whom they had heard the words of eternal life 7,john vi4 #fh74 #acb4 ,jesus' caution brings to light one aspect of his aim in the ,galilean ministry1--he sought to win acceptance for the truth he proclaimed4 ,his message as reported in the synoptic gospels was the near approach of the kingdom of ,god4 ,any such proclamation was sure of eager hearing4 ,at first he seems to have been content to gather and interest the multitudes by this preaching and the works which accompanied it4 ,but he early took occasion to state his ideas in the hearing of the multitudes1 and in terms so simple1 so concerned with every-day life1 so exacting as respects conduct1 and so lacking in the customary glowing picture of the future1 that the people could not mistake such a teacher for a simple fulfiller of their ideas4 ,in this early sermon in effect1 and later with increasing plainness1 he set forth his doctrine of a kingdom of heaven coming not with observation1 present actually among a people who knew it not1 like a seed growing secretly in the earth1 or leaven quietly leavening a lump of meal4 ,by word and deed1 in sermon and by parable1 he insisted on this simple and every-day conception of ,god's rule among men4 ,with ,pharisee1 ,zealot1 and dreamer1 he held that the best is yet to be1 yet all three classes found their most cherished ideals set at nought by the new champion of the soul's inner life in fellowship with the living ,god4 ,in all his teaching there was a claim of authority and a manifest independence which indicate certainty on his part concerning his own mission4 ,yet so completely is the personal question retired for the time1 that in his rebuke of the blasphemy of the ,pharisees he took pains to declare that it was not because they had spoken against the ,son of ,man1 that they were in danger1 but because they had spoken against the ,spirit of ,god1 whose presence was manifest in his works4 ,he wished1 primarily1 to win disciples to the kingdom of ,god4 #acc4 ,yet ,jesus was not indifferent in ,galilee to what the people thought about himself4 ,the question at ,csarea ,philippi shows more fully the aim of his ministry4 ,during all the period of the preaching of the kingdom he never hesitated to assert himself whenever need for such self-assertion arose4 ,this was evident in his dealing with his pharisaic critics4 ,he rarely argued with them1 and always assumed a tone of authority which was above challenge1 asserting that the ,son of ,man had authority to forgive sins1 was lord of the ,sabbath1 was greater than the temple or ,jonah or ,solomon4 ,moreover1 in his positive teaching of the new truth he assumed such an authoritative tone that any who thought upon it could but remark the extraordinary claim involved in his simple ,i say unto you4 ,he wished also to win disciples to himself4 #acd4 ,the key to the ministry in ,galilee is furnished in ,jesus' answer to the message from ,john the ,baptist4 ,john in prison had heard of the works of his successor4 ,jesus did so much that promised a fulfilment of the ,messianic hope1 yet left so much undone1 contradicting in so many ways the current idea of a ,messiah by his studied avoidance of any demonstration1 that the older prophet felt a momentary doubt of the correctness of his earlier conviction4 ,it is in no way strange that he experienced a reaction from that exalted moment of insight when he pointed out ,jesus as the ,lamb of ,god1 particularly after his restless activity had been caged within the walls of his prison4 ,jesus showed that he did not count it strange1 by his treatment of ,john's quesestion and by his words about ,john after the messengers had gone4 ,yet in his reply he gently suggested that the question already had its answer if ,john would but look rightly for it4 ,he simply referred to the things that were being done before the eyes of all1 and asked ,john to form from them a conclusion concerning him who did them4 ,one aid he offered to the imprisoned prophet1--a word from the ,book of ,isaiah 7xxxv4 #e;f41 lxi4 #a;f471--and added a blessing for such as should find nothing to stumble at in him4 ,here ,jesus emphasized his works1 and allowed his message to speak for itself2 but he frankly indicated that he expected people to pass from wonder at his ministry to an opinion about himself4 ,at ,csarea ,philippi he showed to his disciples that this opinion about himself was the significant thing in his eyes4 ,throughout the ministry in ,galilee1 therefore1 this twofold aim appears4 ,jesus would first divert attention from himself to his message1 in order that he might win disciples to the kingdom of ,god as he conceived it4 ,having so attached them to his idea of the kingdom1 he desired to be recognized as that kingdom's prince1 the ,messiah promised by ,god for his people4 ,he retired behind his message in order that men might be drawn to the truth which he held dear1 knowing that thus they would find themselves led captive to himself in a willing devotion4 #ace4 ,this aim explains his retirement when popularity pressed1 his exacting teaching about the spirituality of the kingdom of ,god1 and his injunctions of silence4 ,he wished to be known1 to be thought about1 to be accepted as ,god's anointed1 but he would have this only by a genuine surrender to his leadership4 ,his disciples must own him master and follow him1 however much he might disappoint their misconceptions4 ,this aim1 too1 explains his frank self-assertions and exalted personal claims in opposition to official criticism4 ,he would not be false to his own sense of masterhood1 nor allow people to think him bold when his critics were away1 and cowardly in their presence4 ,therefore1 when needful1 he invited attention to himself as greater than the temple or as lord of the ,sabbath4 ,this kind of self-assertion1 however1 served his purpose as well as his customary self-retirement1 for it forced people to face the contradiction which he offered to the accepted religious ideas of their leaders4 #acf4 ,the method which ,jesus chose has already been repeatedly indicated1--teaching and preaching on the one hand1 and works of helpfulness to men on the other4 ,the character of the teaching of this period is shown in three discourses1--the ,sermon on the ,mount1 the ,discourse in ,parables1 and the ,instructions to the ,twelve4 ,the sermon on the mount is given in different forms in ,matthew and ,luke1 that in ,matthew being evidently the more complete1 even after deduction has been made of those parts which ,luke has assigned with high probability to a later time4 ,this address was spoken to the disciples of ,jesus found among the multitudes who flocked to him from all quarters4 ,it opened with words of congratulation for those who1 characterized by qualities often despised1 were yet heirs of ,god's kingdom4 ,the thought then passed to the responsibility of such heirs of the kingdom for the help of a needy world4 ,next1 since much in the words and works of ,jesus hitherto might have suggested to men that he was indifferent to the older religion of his people1 he carefully explained that he came1 not to set aside the old1 but to realize the spiritual idea for which it stood1 by establishing a more exacting standard of righteousness4 ,this more exacting righteousness ,jesus illustrated by a series of restatements of the older law1 and then by a group of criticisms of current religious practice4 ,the sermon closed with warnings against complacent censoriousness in judging other men's failures1 and a solemn declaration of the vital seriousness of these sayings of mine4 ,the righteousness required by this new law is not only more exacting but unspeakably worthier than the old1 being more simply manifested in common life1 and demanding more intimate filial fellowship with the living ,god4 #acg4 ,the teachings included in the sermon by the first gospel1 but placed later by ,luke1 supplement the sermon by bidding ,god's child to lead a trustful life1 knowing that the heavenly ,father cares for him4 ,that ,luke has omitted much which from ,matthew's account clearly belonged to the original sermon may be explained by the fact that ,gentile readers did not share the interest which ,jesus' hearers had1 and which the readers of the first gospel had1 in the relation of the new gospel to the older law4 ,hence the restatement of older commands and the criticism of current practice was omitted4 ,similar to the teachings which the first gospel has included in the sermon1 are many which ,luke has preserved in the section peculiar to himself4 ,it is not unlikely that they belong also to the ,galilean ministry4 ,they urge the same sincere1 reverent life in the sight of ,god1 the same trust in the heavenly ,father1 the same certainty of his love and care2 and they do not have that peculiar note of impending judgment which entered into the teachings of ,jesus after the confession at ,csarea ,philippi4 #ach4 ,in the story of ,mark1 which is reproduced in the first and third gospels1 the use of parable was first introduced in a way to attract the attention of the disciples1 after pharisaic opposition to ,jesus had become somewhat bitter and there was need of checking a too speedy culmination of opposition4 ,he chose at that time a form of parable which was enigmatic to his disciples1 and could but further puzzle hearers who had no sympathy with him and his message4 ,mark 7iv4 #ab7 states that this perplexity was in accordance with the purpose of ,jesus4 ,but it is equally clear that ,jesus meant to teach the teachable as well as to perplex the critical by these illustrations1 for in explaining the ,sower he suggested that the disciples should have understood it without explanation 7,mark iv4 #ac74 ,many of ,jesus' parables1 however1 had no such enigmatic character1 but were intended simply to help his hearers to understand him4 ,he made use of this kind of teaching from first to last4 ,the pictures of the wise and foolish builders with which the sermon on the mount concludes show that it was not the use of illustration which surprised the disciples in the parables associated with the ,sower1 but his use of such puzzling illustrations4 ,some of the parables of ,luke's peculiar section may belong to the ,galilean ministry1 and even to the earlier stages of it4 ,these have none of the enigmatic character2 the parables of the last days of ,jesus' life also seem to have been simple and clear to his hearers4 ,the ,oriental mind prefers the concrete to the abstract1 and its teachers have ever made large use of illustration4 ,jesus stands unique1 not in that he used parables1 but in the simplicity and effective beauty of those which he used4 ,these illustrations1 whether ,jesus intended them for the moment to enlighten or to confound1 served always to set forth concretely some truth concerning the relation of men to ,god1 or concerning his kingdom and their relation to it4 ,the form of teaching was welcome to his hearers1 and served as one of the attractions to draw men to him4 #aci4 ,the first gospel assigns another extended discourse to this ,galilean period1--the ,instructions to the ,twelve4 ,the mission of the twelve formed a new departure as ,jesus saw the ,galilean crisis approaching4 ,he sought thereby to multiply his own work1 and commissioned his disciples to heal and preach as he was doing4 ,the restriction of their field to ,israel 7,matt4 x4 #e1 #f7 simply applied to them the rule he adopted for himself during the ,galilean period 7,matt4 xv4 #bd74 ,comparison with the accounts in ,mark and ,luke1 as well as the character of the instructions found in ,matthew1 show that here the first evangelist has followed his habit of gathering together teachings on the same general theme from different periods in ,jesus' life4 ,much in the tenth chapter of ,matthew indicates clearly that the ministry of ,jesus had already passed the period of popularity1 and that his disciples could now look for little but scorn and persecution4 ,this was the situation at the end of ,jesus' public life1 and parallel sayings are found in the record of the last week in ,jerusalem4 #adj4 ,when the teaching of the sermon and the parables is compared with ,jesus' self-assertion in his replies to pharisaic criticism and blasphemy1 the difference is striking4 ,ordinarily he avoided calling attention to himself1 wishing men to form their opinion of him after they had learned to know him as he was4 ,yet when one looks beneath the surface of his teaching1 the tone of authority which astonished the multitudes is identical with the calm self-confidence which replied to pharisaic censure3 ,the ,son of ,man hath authority on the earth to forgive sins4 #ada4 ,jesus drew the multitudes after him not only by his teachings1 but also by his mighty works4 ,he certainly was for his contemporaries a wonder-worker and healer of disease1 and1 in order to appreciate the impression which he made1 the miracles recorded in the gospels must be allowed to reveal what they can of his character4 ,the mighty works which enchained attention in ,galilee were chiefly cures of disease1 with occasional exhibitions of power over physical nature1--such as the stilling of the tempest and the feeding of the five thousand4 ,the significant thing about them is their uniform beneficence of purpose and simplicity of method4 ,nothing of the spectacular attached itself to them4 ,jesus repeatedly refused to the critical ,pharisees a sign from heaven4 ,this was not because he disregarded the importance of signs for his generation1--witness his appeal to his works in the reply to ,john 7,matt4 xi4 #d-f72 but he felt that in his customary ministry to the needy multitudes he had furnished signs in abundance1 for his deeds both gave evidence of heavenly power and revealed the character of the ,father who had sent him4 #adb4 ,one of the commonest of the ailments cured by ,jesus is described in the gospels as demoniac possession1 the popular idea being that evil spirits were accustomed to take up their abode in men1 speaking with their tongues and acting through their bodies1 at the same time afflicting them with various physical diseases4 ,six specific cures of such possession are recorded in the story of the ,galilean ministry1 besides general references to the cure of many that were possessed4 ,of these specific cases the ,gadarene demoniac shows symptoms of violent insanity2 the boy cured near ,csarea ,philippi1 those of epilepsy2 in other cases the disease was more local1 showing itself in deafness1 or blindness1 or both4 ,in the cures recorded ,jesus addressed the possessed with a command to the invading demon to depart4 ,he was ordinarily greeted1 either before or after such a command1 with a loud outcry1 often accompanied with a recognition of him as ,god's ,holy ,one4 #adc4 ,the record of such maladies and their cure is not confined to the ,new ,testament4 ,the evil spirit which came upon ,king ,saul is a similar case1 and ,josephus tells of ,jewish exorcists who cured possessed persons by the use of incantations handed down from ,king ,solomon4 ,the early ,christian fathers frequently argued the truth of ,christianity from the way in which demons departed at the command of ,christian exorcists1 while in the middle ages and down to modern times belief in demoniac possession has been common1 particularly among some of the more superstitious of the peasantry in ,europe4 ,moreover1 from missionaries in ,china and other eastern lands it is learned that diseases closely resembling the cases of possession recorded in the ,new ,testament are frequently met with1 and are often cured by native ,christian ministers4 #add4 ,the similarity of the symptoms of so-called possession to recognized mental and physical derangements such as insanity1 epilepsy1 and hysteria1 suggests the conclusion that possession should be classed with other ailments due to ill adjustment of the relations of the mental and physical life4 ,if this conclusion is valid1 the idea of actual possession by evil spirits becomes only an ancient effort to interpret the mysterious symptoms in accordance with wide-spread primitive beliefs4 ,this explanation would doubtless be generally adopted were it not that it seems to compromise either the integrity or the knowledge of ,jesus4 ,the gospels plainly represent him as treating the supposed demoniac influence as real1 addressing in his cures not the invalid1 but the invading demon4 ,if he did this knowing that the whole view was a superstition1 was he true to his mission to release mankind from its bondage to evil and sin8 ,if he shared the superstition of his time1 had he the complete knowledge necessary to make him the deliverer he claimed to be8 ,these questions are serious and difficult1 but they form a part of the general problem of the extent of ,jesus' knowledge1 and can be more intelligently discussed in connection with that whole problem 7sects4 #bdi-bea74 ,it is reasonable to demand1 however1 that any conclusion reached concerning the nature of possession in the time of ,jesus must be considered valid for similar manifestations of disease in our own day4 #ade4 ,what astonished people in ,jesus' cures was not so much that he healed the sick as that he did it with such evidence of personal authority4 ,his cures and his teachings alike served to attract attention to himself and to invite question as to who he could be4 ,yet a far more powerful means to the end he had in view was the subtle1 unobtrusive1 personal influence which without their knowledge knit the hearts of a few to himself4 ,in reality both his teaching and his cures were only means of self-disclosure4 ,his permanent work during this ,galilean period was the winning of personal friends4 ,his chief agency in accomplishing his work was what ,renan somewhat too romantically has called his charm4 ,it was that in him which drew to his side and kept with him the fishermen of ,galilee and the publican of ,capernaum1 during months of constant disappointment of their preconceived religious ideas and ,messianic hopes2 it was that which won the confidence of the woman who was a sinner1 and the constant devotion of ,mary ,magdalene and ,susanna and the others who followed him and ministered to him of their substance4 ,the outstanding wonder of early ,christianity is the complete transformation not only of life but of established religious ideas by the personal impress of ,jesus on a ,peter1 a ,john1 and a ,paul4 ,the secret of the new element of the ,christian religion--salvation through personal attachment to ,jesus ,christ--is simply this personal power of the man of ,nazareth4 ,the multitudes followed because they saw wonderful works or heard wonderful words2 many because they hoped at length to find in the new prophet the champion of their hopes in deliverance from ,roman bondage4 ,but these sooner or later fell away1 disappointed in their desire to use the new leader for their own ends4 ,it was only because from out the multitudes there were a few who could answer1 ,to whom shall we go8 thou hast the words of eternal life1 when ,jesus asked1 ,will ye also go away8 that the work in ,galilee did not end in complete failure4 ,these few had felt his personal power1 and they became the nucleus of a new religion of love to a personal ,saviour4 #adf4 ,the test of the personal attachment of the few came shortly after the execution of ,john the ,baptist by ,antipas4 ,word of this tragedy was brought to ,jesus by ,john's disciples about the time that he and the twelve returned to ,capernaum from their tour of preaching4 ,at the suggestion of ,jesus they withdrew to the eastern side of the lake in search of rest4 ,it is not unlikely that the little company also wished to avoid for the time the territory of the tyrant who had just put ,john to death1 for ,jesus was not yet ready for the crisis of his own life4 ,such a desire for seclusion would be intensified by the continued impetuous enthusiasm of the multitudes who flocked about him again in ,capernaum4 ,in fact1 so insistent was their interest in ,jesus that they would not allow him the quiet he sought1 but followed around the lake in great numbers when they learned that he had taken ship for the other side4 ,he who came not to be ministered unto but to minister could not repel the crowds who came to him1 and he at once welcomed them1 and spake to them of the kingdom of ,god1 and them that had need of healing he healed 7,luke ix4 #aa74 ,the day having passed in this ministry1 he multiplied the small store of bread and fish brought by his disciples in order to feed the weary people4 ,this work of power seemed to some among the multitudes to be the last thing needed to prove that ,jesus was to be their promised deliverer1 and they were about to come and take him by force and make him king 7,john vi4 #ae71 when he withdrew from them and spent the night in prayer4 #adg4 ,this sudden determination on the part of the multitudes to force the hand of ,jesus was probably due to the prevalence of an idea1 found also in the later rabbinic writers1 that the ,messiah should feed his people as ,moses had provided them manna in the desert4 ,the rebuff which ,jesus quietly gave them did not cool their ardor1 until on the following day1 in the synagogue in ,capernaum1 he plainly taught them that they had quite missed the significance of his miracle4 ,they thought of loaves and material sustenance4 ,he would have had them find in these a sign that he could also supply their spirits' need1 and he insisted that this1 and this alone1 was his actual mission4 ,from the first the popular enthusiasm had had to ignore many contradictions of its cherished notions4 ,but his power and the indescribable force of his personality had served hitherto to hold them to a hope that he would soon discard the perplexing rle which he had chosen for the time to assume1 and take up avowedly the proper work of the ,messiah4 ,this last refusal to accept what seemed to them to be his evident duty caused a revulsion in the popular feeling1 and many of his disciples turned back and walked no more with him 7,john vi4 #ff74 ,the time of sifting had come4 ,jesus had known that such a rash determination to make him king was possible to the ,galilean multitudes1 and that whenever it should come it must be followed by a disillusionment4 ,now the open ministry had run its course4 ,as the multitudes were turning back and walking no more with him1 he turned to the twelve with the question1 ,will ye also go away8 and found that with them his method had borne fruit4 ,they clung to him in spite of disillusionment1 for in him they had found what was better than their preconceptions4 #adh4 ,it is the fourth gospel that shows clearly the critical significance of this event4 ,the others tell nothing of the sudden determination of the multitude1 nor of the revulsion of feeling that followed ,jesus' refusal to yield to their will4 ,yet these other gospels indicate in their narratives that from this time on ,jesus avoided the scenes of his former labors1 and show that when from time to time he returned to the neighborhood of ,capernaum he was met by such a spirit of hostility that he withdrew again immediately to regions where he and his disciples could have time for quiet intercourse4 #adi4 ,the months of toil in ,galilee show results hardly more significant than the grain of mustard seed or the little leaven4 ,popular enthusiasm had risen1 increased1 reached its climax1 and waned4 ,official opposition had early been aroused1 and had continued with a steadily deepened intensity4 ,the wonderful teaching with authority1 and the signs wrought on them that were sick1 had been as seed sown by the wayside or in thorny or in stony ground1 except for the little handful of hearers who had felt the personal power of ,jesus and had surrendered to it1 ready henceforth to follow where he should lead1 whether or not it should be in a path of their choice4 ,these1 however1 were the proof that those months had been a time of rewarded toil4 ,,iv ,the ,ministry in ,galilee--,the ,new ,lesson #aej4 ,with the crisis in ,capernaum the ministry in ,galilee may be said in one sense to have come to an end4 ,yet ,jesus did not immediately go up to ,jerusalem4 ,once and again he was found in or near ,capernaum1 while the time between these visits was spent in regions to the north and northwest4 ,in fact1 the disciples were far from ready for the trial their loyalty was to meet before they had seen the end of the opposition to their ,lord4 ,the time intervening between the collapse of popularity and ,jesus' final departure from ,galilee may well be thought of1 then1 as a time of further discipline of the faith of his followers and of added instruction concerning the truth for which their ,master stood4 ,the length of this supplementary period in ,galilee is not definitely known4 ,it extended from the ,passover to about the feast of ,tabernacles 7,april to ,october1 see ,john vi4 #d and vii4 #b74 ,the record of what ,jesus did and said in this time is meagre1 only enough being reported to show that it was a time of repeated withdrawals from ,galilee and of private instruction for the disciples4 #aea4 ,the disciples were trained in faith by further exhibitions of the complete break between their ,master and the leaders of the people4 ,this break appeared most clearly1 soon after the feeding of the multitudes1 in his reply to a criticism of the disciples for disregard of pharisaic traditions concerning hand-washing 7,mark vii4 #a-bc74 ,the critics insisted on the sacredness of their traditions4 ,jesus in reply scored them for disregard for the plain demands of ,god's law1 and with a word freed men from bondage to the whole ritual of ceremonial cleanness and uncleanness 7,mark vii4 #ai71 thus attacking ,judaism in its citadel4 #aeb4 ,it was immediately after this that he withdrew with his disciples to the regions of ,tyre4 ,on his return a little later to the west side of the sea of ,galilee he was met by hostile ,pharisees with a demand for a sign 7,mark viii4 #aa-ac71 and after refusing to satisfy the unbelieving challenge1--signs in plenty having been before their eyes since the opening of his work among them1--he and his disciples withdrew again from ,galilee towards ,csarea ,philippi4 ,as they went on their way1 ,jesus distinctly warned them against the influence of their leaders1 religious and political 7,mark viii4 #ad;f474 ,so far as our records tell us ,jesus was but once again in ,capernaum4 ,then he was met with the demand that he pay the temple tax 7,matt4 xvii4 #bd-bg74 ,this tax was usually collected just before the ,passover4 ,as this last visit to ,capernaum was probably not far from the feast of ,tabernacles1 ,jesus seems to have been in arrears4 ,this may have been due to his absence from ,capernaum at the time of the collection4 ,the prompt answer of ,peter may indicate that he knew that in other years ,jesus had paid this tax1 as it is altogether probable that he did4 ,the question1 however1 implies official suspicion that ,jesus was seeking to evade payment1 and exhibits further the straining of the relations between him and the ,jewish leaders4 ,the conversation of ,jesus with ,peter served to show his clear consciousness of superiority1 and was a further summons to the disciples to choose between him and his opponents4 #aec4 ,within the limits of the ,holy ,land the faith of the disciples had been constantly tested by the increasing opposition between their master and their old leaders4 ,when the little company withdrew to ,gentile regions1 however1 ,jesus had regard for their ,jewish feeling4 ,the time would come when he would send them forth to make disciples of all the nations4 ,for the present he made it his business to nurture their faith in him1 and when appealed to for help by one of these foreigners1 he refused to take the children's bread and cast it to the dogs 7,mark vii4 #bg74 ,jesus had assumed a different attitude to the ,samaritans before the opening of his work in ,galilee1 and in general had shown ready sympathy for all in distress4 ,in fact it seems as if he welcomed the ,syrophnician woman's great faith with a feeling of relief from a restriction that he had felt it wise to adopt for his work in ,phnicia4 ,it appears from his later attitude in the ,gentile regions of the ,decapolis 7,mark vii4 #ca-cg2 ,matt4 xv4 #ba-ca7 that1 having once shown his regard for the limitations of his disciples' faith in the case of the ,syrophnician1 he felt no longer obliged to check his natural readiness to help the needy who sought him out4 ,although in one instance1 for reasons no longer known to us1 ,jesus charged a man whom he had cured to keep it secret 7,mark vii4 #cb-cg71 in general his work in these heathen regions seems1 after the visit to ,phnicia1 to have been quite unrestrained1 and to have produced the same enthusiasm that had earlier brought the multitudes to him in ,galilee 7,mark viii4 #a;f474 #aed4 ,this continued activity of healing must have served greatly to strengthen the determination of the disciples to cling to ,jesus1 let the leaders say what they would4 ,we can only conjecture what various teachings filled the days1 and what personal fellowship the disciples had with him who spake as never man spake4 ,there was need for advance in the faith of these loyal friends4 ,their enthusiastic declaration when the multitudes turned away could easily have been followed by reaction4 ,each new exhibition of the irrevocableness of the break between ,jesus and the leaders was a severe test of their loyalty4 ,these weeks of withdrawal were doubtless filled1 therefore1 with new proofs that ,jesus had the words of eternal life4 #aee4 ,before he put to his disciples the crucial question1 he who knew what was in man 7,john ii4 #be7 was confident that they were ready for it4 ,it was after the rebuff in ,galilee1 when the unbelieving ,pharisees had again demanded a sign of his authority1 and after he had definitely warned the disciples against the influence of their leaders1 that ,jesus led his little company far to the north towards the slopes of ,hermon4 ,there1 near the recently built ,csarea ,philippi1 ,jesus plainly asked his disciples what the people thought of him 7,mark viii4 #bg-cj74 ,we have seen how gradually sentiment in ,galilee concerning the new teacher crystallized until1 from thinking him a prophet1 the people1 first timidly1 then boldly1 concluded that such a teacher and worker of signs must be the promised king4 ,we have seen also how the popular estimate changed when ,jesus refused to be guided by the popular will4 ,now1 after the lapse of a few weeks1 in answer to his inquiry concerning the common opinion of him1 he is told that the people look on him as a prophet1 in whom the spirit of the men of old had been revived2 but not a whisper remains of the former readiness to hail him as the ,messiah4 ,it was in the face of such a definite revulsion in the popular feeling1 in the face1 too1 of the increasing hostility of all the great in the nation1 that ,peter answered for the twelve that they believed ,jesus to be the ,messiah1 ,god's appointed ,deliverer of his people 7,matt4 xvi4 #af ff474 ,in form this confession was no more than ,nathanael had rendered on his first meeting with ,jesus 7,john i4 #di71 and was practically the same as the report made by ,andrew to ,simon his brother1 and by ,philip to ,nathanael 7,john i4 #da1 #de74 ,in both idea and expression the reply to ,jesus' question1 ,will ye also go away8 7,john vi4 #fh1 #fi71 was virtually equivalent to this later confession of ,peter4 ,yet ,jesus found in ,peter's answer at ,csarea ,philippi something so significant and remarkable that he declared that the faith that could answer thus could spring only from a heavenly source 7,matt4 xvi4 #ag74 ,the early confessions were in fact no more than expressions of more or less intelligent expectation that ,jesus would fulfil the confessor's hopes4 ,the confession at ,capernaum followed one of ,jesus' mightiest exhibitions of power1 and was given before the disciples had had time to consider the extent of the defection from their ,master4 ,here at ,csarea ,philippi1 however1 the word was spoken immediately after an acknowledgment that the people had no more thought of finding in ,jesus their ,messiah4 ,it was spoken after the disciples had had repeated evidence of the determined hostility of the leaders to ,jesus4 ,all the disappointment he had given to their cherished ideas was emphasized by the isolation in which the little company now found itself4 ,one after another their ideas of how a ,messiah should act and what he should be had received contradiction in what ,jesus was and did4 ,yet after the weeks of withdrawal from ,galilee1 ,peter could only in effect assert anew what he had declared at ,capernaum1--that ,jesus had the words of eternal life4 ,it was a faith chastened by perplexity1 and taught at length to follow the ,lord let him lead where he would4 ,it was an actual surrender to his mastery over thought and life4 ,here at length ,jesus had won what he had been seeking during all his work in ,galilee1--a corner-stone on which to build up the new community of the kingdom of ,god4 ,peter was the first to confess openly to this simple surrender to the full mastery of ,jesus4 ,he was the first stone in the foundation of the new building of ,god4 #aef4 ,in his commendation of ,peter ,jesus revealed the secret of his method in the work which1 because of this confession1 he could now proceed to do more rapidly4 ,he cuts loose utterly from the method of the scribes4 ,he1 the new teacher1 commits to them no body of teaching which they are to give to others as the key to eternal life4 ,the salvation they are to preach is a salvation by personal attachment2 that is1 by faith4 ,the rock on which he will build his church is personal attachment1 faith that is ready to leave all and follow him4 ,peter1 not the substance of his confession1 was its corner-stone1 but ,peter1 as the first clear confessor of a faith that is ready to leave all1 a faith whose very nature it is to be contagious1 and associate with itself others of like precious faith4 ,his faith was as yet meagre1 as he showed at once2 but it was genuine1 the surrender of his heart to his ,lord's guidance and control4 ,this was the distinctive mark of the new religious life inaugurated by ,jesus of ,nazareth4 #aeg4 ,if anything were needed to prove that the idea that he was the ,messiah was no new thought to ,jesus1 it could be found in the new lesson which he at once began to teach his disciples4 ,the confession of ,peter indicated to him simply that the first stage in his work had been accomplished4 ,he immediately began to prepare the disciples for the end which for some time past he had seen to be inevitable4 ,he taught them more than that his death was inevitable2 he declared that it was divinely necessary that he should be put to death as a result of the hostility of the ,jews to him 7the ,son of ,man must suffer74 ,all the contradictions which he had offered to the ,messianic ideas of his disciples paled into insignificance beside this one4 ,when they saw how he failed to meet the hopes that were commonly held1 they needed only to urge themselves to patience1 expecting that in time he would cast off the strange mask and take to himself his power and reign4 ,but it was too much for the late confessed and very genuine faith of ,peter to hear that the ,messiah must die4 ,so unthinkable was the idea1 that he assumed that ,jesus had become unduly discouraged by the relentlessness of the opposition which had driven him first out of ,judea and later out of ,galilee4 ,accordingly ,peter sought to turn his ,master's mind to a brighter prospect1 asserting that his forebodings could not be true4 ,it is hard for us to conceive the chill of heart which must have followed the glow of his confession when he heard the stern rebuke of ,jesus1 who found in ,peter's later words the voice of the ,evil ,one1 as before in his confession he had recognized the ,spirit of ,god4 #aeh4 ,the sternness of ,jesus' rebuke escapes extravagance only in view of the fact that the words of ,peter had greatly affected ,jesus himself4 ,at the outset of his public life he had faced the difficulty of doing the ,messiah's work in his ,father's way1 and had withstood the temptation to accommodate himself to the ideas of his world1 declaring allegiance to ,god alone 7,matt4 iv4 #aj74 ,yet once and again in the course of his ministry he showed that this allegiance cost him much4 ,luke reports a saying in which ,jesus confessed that1 in view of this prospect of death which ,peter was opposing so eagerly1 he was greatly straitened 7xii4 #ej71 and at the near approach of the end his soul was exceeding sorrowful 7,mark xiv4 #cd74 ,it should never be forgotten that ,jesus was a ,jew1 and heir to all the ,messianic ideas of his people4 ,in these1 glory1 not rejection and death1 was to be the ,messiah's portion4 ,that he was always superior to current expectations is no sign that he did not feel their force4 ,they quite mistake who find the bitterness of ,jesus' cup simply in his physical shrinking from suffering4 ,the temptation was ever with him to find some other way to the goal of his work than that which led through death4 ,what ,peter said hid a force greater than any word of the disciple's4 ,it voiced the crucial temptation of ,jesus' life4 ,the answer addressed to ,peter showed that his words had drawn the thought of ,jesus away from the disciple to that earlier temptation which was never absent from him more than for a season 7,luke iv4 #ac74 #aei4 ,jesus was not content with a mere rebuke of his impulsive disciple4 ,in his first announcement of his death as necessary he had also declared that it would not be a tragedy1 but would be followed by a resurrection4 ,this the disciples could not appreciate1 as they found the idea of the ,messiah's death unthinkable4 ,jesus1 however1 saw in it the general law1 that life must ever win its goal by disregard of itself1 and called his disciples also to walk in the path of self-sacrifice4 ,in order that the new lesson might not quite overwhelm the yet feeble faith of these followers1 ,jesus assured them that after his death and resurrection he would come as ,messianic ,judge and fulfil the hopes which his prediction of death seemed to blot out utterly 7,mark viii4 #cd to ix4 #a74 #afj4 ,that this new lesson was a difficult one for master as well as disciple seems to be shown by the experience which came a few days later to ,jesus and his three closest friends4 ,he had withdrawn with them to a high mountain for prayer 7,luke ix4 #bh;f474 ,while he prayed the light of heaven came into his face1 and his disciples were granted a vision of him in celestial glory1 conversing with ,moses and ,elijah1 representatives of ,old ,testament law and prophecy4 ,the theme of the discourse was that death which had so troubled the disciples1 and which then and later weighed heavily on ,jesus' own spirit 7,luke ix4 #ca74 ,at the conclusion of the vision came a divine injunction to hear him who now was superseding law and prophets4 ,the effect of the transfiguration can only be inferred4 ,it doubtless brought strengthening to ,jesus for his difficult task 7compare ,heb4 v4 #g71 and at least a silencing of remonstrance when he spoke again to his disciples of his approaching death4 ,this he did while the little company was making its way back towards ,capernaum 7,mark ix4 #cj-cb71 and repeatedly later before the end came 7,mark x4 #cb-cd2 ,matt4 xxvi4 #a;f474 #afa4 ,on ,jesus' return from the mountain1 he was met by the despairing plea of a father and healed his epileptic son1 out of whom the disciples were unable to cast the demon 7,mark ix4 #ad-bi2 compare vi4 #g1 #ac74 ,it may have been the shock which the new lesson had given the disciples that accounted for the reproof of their lack of faith4 ,the new evidence of ,jesus' power1 coupled with this reproof1 seems to have restored their confidence in him4 ,perhaps1 too1 there was something contagious about the spirit of hope with which the three came from their vision of the ,master's glory4 ,for1 although they were not free to tell what they had seen 7,mark ix4 #i71 they could not have concealed the fact that their faith had received great encouragement4 ,whatever the cause1 hope revived for the disciples1 for on the way back to ,capernaum a dispute arose among them concerning personal precedence in the kingdom which their ,master should soon set up4 ,in this rapid reaction from unbelief to faith the disciples seem to have forgotten the lesson of self-denial recently given them 7,mark viii4 #cd1 #ce74 ,in ,peter's confession the corner-stone of the church was laid2 but the superstructure was yet far out of sight4 ,although his own soul1 taking its way down into the valley of shadows1 might rightly have asked for sympathy and complained of its lack1 ,jesus simply set a little child in the midst of them1 and taught them again the first lessons of faith1--gentle humility and trust4 ,thereby he rebuked the spirit of rivalry and asked of his disciples a generous1 unselfish1 and forgiving spirit 7,matt1 xviii4 #a-ce74 #afb4 ,it was possibly at this time1 certainly near the end of the ,galilean ministry1 that ,jesus was approached by his own brethren1 who urged him to try to win the capital4 ,their attitude was not one of indifference1 though clearly not one of actual faith in his claim 7,john vii4 #b-e74 ,they seem to have felt that ,jesus had not made adequate effort to secure a following in ,jerusalem1 and that he could not hope for success in his work if he continued to confine his attention to ,galilee4 ,jesus knew conditions in ,jerusalem far better than they did1 and had no idea as yet of resuming a general ministry there4 ,he therefore dismissed the suggestion1 and left his brethren to go up to the feast disappointed in their desire that he make a demonstration at that time4 ,yet ,jesus still yearned over ,jerusalem4 ,he knew in what organized opposition a general demonstration would result4 ,there were some1 however1 in the capital who had real faith in him4 ,his repeated efforts to win ,jerusalem mean nothing if we do not recognize that he hoped against hope that many of the people might yet turn and let him lead them4 ,with some such purpose1 therefore1 he went up a little later without ostentation1 and quietly appeared in the temple teaching4 ,the effect of this unannounced arrival was that the opposition was not ready for him4 ,the multitude was compelled to form an opinion of him for itself1 and he had opportunity to make his own impression for a time1 independently of official suggestion as to what ought to be thought of him4 ,this course resulted in a division of sentiment among the people1 so much so that when the leaders1 both secular and religious1 sought to compass his arrest1 the officers sent to take ,jesus were themselves entranced by his teaching4 ,in spite of the wish of the leaders ,jesus continued to teach1 and many of the people began to think of him with favor4 ,when1 however1 he tried to lead them on to become disciples indeed1 they took offence1 and showed that they were not ready yet to follow him4 ,this effort to gather the children of ,jerusalem resulted in new proof that they preferred his death to his message 7,john vii4 #b to viii4 #ei74 #afc4 ,interesting evidence of the fact that ,jesus did many other signs which are not written in our accepted gospels is found in the story of his dealing with an adulteress whom the ,pharisees brought to him for judgment 7,john vii4 #ec to viii4 #aa74 ,this narrative had no secure place in any of the gospels in the earliest days1 yet was so highly regarded that men would not let it go4 ,hence in the manuscripts which contain it1 it is found in various places4 ,some give it in ,luke after chapter xxi41 some at the end of the ,gospel of ,john1 one placing it after ,john vii4 #cf4 ,many considerations combine to prove that it was no part of the ,gospel of ,john1 but as many show that it preserves a true incident in the ministry of ,jesus4 ,in scene it belongs to the temple1 therefore in time to one of the ,jerusalem visits4 ,to which of those visits it should he assigned is not now discoverable4 ,the ancient copyists who assigned it to this feast of ,tabernacles1 chose as well as later students can4 ,if the incident belongs to this visit1 it illustrates the patience and the keen insight of ,jesus in his effort to win self-satisfied ,jerusalem4 #afd4 ,john is silent concerning the doings of ,jesus after the feast of ,tabernacles4 ,in x4 #bb he notes that ,jesus was at ,jerusalem at the feast of ,dedication1 which followed two months later4 ,it seems probable that after his hurried and private journey to the feast of ,tabernacles 7,john vii4 #aj7 he returned to ,galilee and gathered to himself again the little company of his loyal followers1 preparatory to that final journey to ,jerusalem which should bring the end foreseen1 unless1 perchance1 ,israel should yet repent and turn unto the ,lord4 ,as the shadow deepened over his own life1 and the persistency of the unbelief of his people appeared more and more clearly1 the teachings of ,jesus took on a new note of tragedy which was not characteristic of the earlier preaching in ,galilee4 ,even when his topic was similar and his treatment of it not unlike some earlier discourse1 there appeared in it here and there a warning of impending judgment4 ,this is seen as early as the reply to the criticism of the disciples for disregard of traditions 7,matt4 xv4 #ac;f474 ,many discourses in the section peculiar to ,luke show by the presence of this note of doom that they belong to this later time rather than to the ,galilean period proper4 7,see the table prefixed to ,chapter ,v47 #afe4 ,two years had nearly passed since ,jesus withdrew from ,judea to start his ministry anew in a different region and following a different method4 ,the fruit of that ministry was small1 but significant4 ,his proclamation of the coming kingdom and his call to a deeper righteousness1 coupled as they were with his works of heavenly power1 had won at first an enthusiastic following4 ,realizing that an uncontrolled enthusiasm would thwart his purpose to introduce a kingdom of the spirit1 ,jesus had kept his ,messianic claim in the background1 seeking first to win disciples to the kingdom that he was proclaiming4 ,yet emphasize his message as he would1 he could not conceal his personal significance4 ,in fact he wished by winning disciples to his doctrine of the kingdom to attach followers to himself1 the bearer of the words of eternal life4 ,the great development of popular enthusiasm did not deceive him1 nor did he hesitate1 when the multitude would force him to do its will1 to show clearly how far he was from being a fulfiller of their desires4 ,by successive disappointments of the popular ideas he sifted his followers until a few were ready to follow him whithersoever he might lead4 ,with these he allowed time for the fact of his unpopularity to appear1 giving them opportunity to consider the relentless hostility of their national leaders to the teacher from ,galilee4 ,then when the time was ripe he drew from the loyal few their declaration that they would follow him in spite of disappointments and unpopularity1 their confession that he had come to be to them more than their cherished preconceptions1 that he had won the mastery over their thought and life4 ,he began then to prepare them for the end he had long foreseen1 and at length1 after giving them time for that perplexing mystery to find place in their hearts1 he was ready to move on toward the crisis which he knew his public appearance in ,jerusalem would precipitate4 ,before setting out on this journey his desire still to seek to win ,jerusalem1 if perchance it would repent1 led him to visit the capital unannounced at the feast of ,tabernacles4 ,this taught him that1 however ready some might be superficially to believe in him1 he could as yet win in ,jerusalem only hatred and plots against his life1 and he returned to his faithful friends in ,galilee4 ,outline of ,events in the ,journey through ,perea to ,jerusalem ,the final departure from ,galilee--,matt4 xix4 #a1 #b2 viii4 #ai-bb2 ,mark x4 #a2 ,luke ix4 #ea-fb4 ,the mission of the seventy--,matt4 xi4 #bj-cj2 ,luke x4 #a-bd4 ,the visit to the feast of ,dedication--,john ix4 #a to x4 #ci4 ,possibly at this time3 ,the parable of the ,good ,samaritan--,luke x4 #be-cg4 ,the visit to ,mary and ,martha--,luke x4 #ch-db4 ,return to ,perea--,john x4 #dj-db4 ,the visit to ,bethany and the raising of ,lazarus--,john xi4 #a-df4 ,the withdrawal to ,ephraim--,john xi4 #dg-ed4 ,events connected with the last journey to ,jerusalem1 which cannot be more definitely located3 ,the question whether few are saved--,luke xiii4 #bb-cj4 ,reply to the warning against ,herod1 probably near the close--,luke xiii4 #ca-ce4 ,the cure of ten lepers--,luke xvii4 #aa-ai4 ,the question of the ,pharisees concerning divorce--,matt4 xix4 #c-ab2 ,mark x4 #b-ab4 ,the blessing of little children--,matt4 xix4 #ac-ae2 ,mark x4 #ac-af2 ,luke xviii4 #ae-ag4 ,the question of the rich young ruler--,matt4 xix4 #af to xx4 #af2 ,mark x4 #ag-ca2 ,luke xviii4 #ah-cj4 ,the third prediction of death and resurrection--,matt xx4 #ag-ai2 ,mark x4 #cb-cd2 ,luke xviii4 #ca-cd4 ,the ambitious request of the sons of ,zebedee--,matt4 xx4 #bj-bh2 ,mark x4 #ce-de4 ,the last stage1 ,jericho to ,jerusalem3 ,the blind men near ,jericho--,matt4 xx4 #bi-cd2 ,mark x4 #df-eb2 ,luke xviii4 #ce-dc4 ,the visit to ,zacchus--,luke xix4 #a-aj4 ,the parable of the pounds 7min7--,luke xix4 #aa-bh4 ,events and discourses found in ,luke ix4 #ea to xviii4 #ad1 which probably belong after the confession of ,peter1 and very likely to some stage of the journey to ,jerusalem3 ,woes against the ,pharisees1 uttered at a ,pharisee's table--,luke xi4 #cg-ed4 ,warnings against the spirit of pharisaism--,luke xii4 #a-ei4 ,comment on the slaughter of ,galileans by ,pilate--,luke xiii4 #a-i4 ,discourse on counting the cost of discipleship--,luke xiv4 #be-ce4 ,discourse on the coming of the kingdom--,luke xvii4 #bj-cg4 ,parable of the ,unjust ,judge--,luke xviii4 #a-h4 ,parable of the ,pharisee and the ,publican--,luke xviii4 #i-ad4 ,v ,the ,journey through ,perea to ,jerusalem #aff4 ,the fourth gospel says that after the visit to ,jerusalem at the feast of ,dedication ,jesus withdrew beyond ,jordan to the place where ,john at the first was baptizing 7x4 #dj74 ,matthew and ,mark also say that at the close of the ministry in ,galilee ,jesus departed and came into the borders of ,judea and beyond ,jordan1 and that in this new region the multitudes again flocked to him1 and he resumed his ministry of teaching 7,matt4 xix4 #a;f42 ,mark x4 #a74 ,what he did and taught at this time is not shown at all by ,john1 and only in scant fashion by the other two4 ,they tell of a discussion with the ,pharisees concerning divorce 7,mark x4 #b-ab72 of the welcome extended by ,jesus to certain little children 7,mark x4 #ac-af72 of the disappointment of a rich young ruler1 who wished to learn from ,jesus the way of life1 but loved better his great possessions 7,mark x4 #ag-ca72 of a further manifestation of the unlovely spirit of rivalry among the disciples in the request of ,james and ,john for the best places in the kingdom 7,mark x4 #ce-de71--;a request following in the records directly after another prediction by ,jesus of his death and resurrection 7,mark x4 #cb-cd74 ,then1 after a visit to ,jericho 7,luke xviii4 #ce to xix4 #bh71 these records come into coincidence with ,john in the account of the ,messianic entry into ,jerusalem just before the last ,passover4 #afg4 ,the fourth gospel tells in addition of a considerable activity of ,jesus in and near ,jerusalem during this period4 ,in making the journey beyond ,jordan start from ,jerusalem 7x4 #dj71 ,john shows that ,jesus must have returned to the capital after his withdrawal from the feast of ,tabernacles4 ,when and how this took place is not indicated4 ,later1 after his retirement from the feast of ,dedication ,jesus hastened at the summons of his friends from beyond ,jordan to ,bethany when ,lazarus died 7xi4 #a-g74 ,from ,bethany he went not to the other side of ,jordan again1 but to ,ephraim 7xi4 #ed71 a town on the border between ,judea and ,samaria1 and from there he started towards ,jerusalem when the ,passover drew near4 ,this record of ,john has1 as ,dr4 ,sanday has recently remarked 7,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fcj71 so many marks of verisimilitude that it must be accepted as a true tradition4 ,it demands thus that in our conception of the last journey from ,galilee room be found for several excursions to ,jerusalem or its neighborhood4 ,one of these at least--to the feast of ,dedication 7x4 #bb7--represents another effort to gather the children of ,jerusalem4 ,while not without success1 for at least the blind man restored by ,jesus gave him the full faith he sought 7ix4 #ce-ch71 it showed with fuller clearness the determined hostility to ,jesus of the influential class 7x4 #ci74 #afh4 ,it has been customary to find in the long section peculiar to ,luke 7ix4 #ea to xviii4 #ad7 a fuller account of the ,perean ministry1 as it has been called4 ,for it opens with a final departure from ,galilee1 and comes at its close into parallelism with the record of ,matthew and ,mark4 ,yet some parts of this section in ,luke belong in the earlier ,galilean ministry4 ,the blasphemy of the ,pharisees 7xi4 #ad-cf7 is clearly identical with the incident recorded in ,mark iii4 #bb-cj1 and ,matt4 xii4 #bb-de2 while several incidents and discourses 7see outline prefixed to ,chapter ,,iii47 bear so plainly the marks of the ministry before the revulsion of popular favor1 that it is easiest to think of them as actually belonging to the earlier time1 but assigned by ,luke to this peculiar section because he found no clear place offered for them in the record of ,mark4 ,not a little1 however1 of what ,luke records here manifestly belongs to the time when ,jesus referred openly to his rejection by the ,jewish people4 ,the note of tragedy characteristic of later discourses appears in the replies of ,jesus to certain would-be disciples 7ix4 #eg-fb71 and in his warning that his followers count the cost of discipleship 7xiv4 #be-ce74 ,the woes spoken at a ,pharisee's table 7xi4 #cg-eb71 the warning to the disciples against pharisaism 7xii4 #a-ab71 and the encouragement of the little flock 7xii4 #bb-cd71 with many other paragraphs from this part of the gospel 7see outline at the head of this chapter71 evidently were spoken at the time of the approaching end4 ,some narratives reflect the neighborhood of ,jerusalem1 and naturally corroborate the indications in the fourth gospel that ,jesus was repeatedly at the capital during this time4 ,the parable of the good ,samaritan1 for instance1 must have been spoken in ,judea1 else why choose the road from ,jerusalem to ,jericho for the illustration8 ,the visit to ,mary and ,martha shows ,jesus at ,bethany1 and the parable of the ,pharisee and the ,publican1 naming the temple as the place of prayer1 belongs naturally to ,judea4 #afi4 ,the effort to find the definite progress of events in this part of ,luke has not been successful4 ,there are three hints of movement towards ,jerusalem1--the introductory mention of the departure from ,galilee 7ix4 #ea72 a statement that ,jesus went on his way through cities and villages1 journeying on unto ,jerusalem 7xiii4 #bb72 and again a reference to passing through the midst of ,samaria and ,galilee on the way to ,jerusalem 7xvii4 #aa74 ,the attempt to make the third of these belong actually to the last stages of the final journey seems artificial4 ,confessedly the expression through the midst of ,samaria and ,galilee is obscure4 ,it is much easier to understand1 however1 if the journey so described is identified with the visit to ,samaria with which the departure from ,galilee opened4 ,it seems probable that ,luke found these records of events and teachings in ,jesus' life1 and was unable to learn exactly their connection in time and place1 so placed them after the close of the ,galilean story and before the account of the passion1 much as later some copyist found the story of the adulteress 7,john vii4 #ec to viii4 #aa71 and1 certain that it was a true incident1 gave it a place in connection with the visit to the feast of ,tabernacles 7perhaps influenced by ,john viii4 #ae74 ,it must always be remembered that the earliest apostolic writing--,matthew's ,logia--probably consisted of just such disconnected records 7see sects4 #bh1 #db71 and that1 as ,jlicher 7,einleitung i4 d4 ,,nt4 #bce7 has said1 the early church was not interested in when ,jesus said or did anything4 ,its interest was in what he said and did4 #agj4 ,the time of the departure from ,galilee for ,jerusalem may be set with much probability not long before the feast of the ,dedication in ,december2 for at that feast ,jesus was again in ,jerusalem1 and from it he returned to ,perea 7,john x4 #bb1 #dj-db74 ,he started southward through ,samaria 7,luke ix4 #ea ff471 and probably in connection with the early stages of the journey he sent out the seventy into every city and place whither he himself was about to come 7,luke x4 #a74 ,it is not unlikely that1 after the sending out of these heralds1 he went with a few disciples to make one more effort to turn the heart of ,jerusalem to himself 7,john ix41 x474 ,it is impossible to determine whither the seventy were sent4 ,the towns and cities whither ,jesus was about to come may have included some from all portions of the land1 not excepting ,judea4 ,the matter must be left in considerable obscurity4 ,this1 however1 may be said1 that the reasons offered for holding that the story of the sending out of the seventy is only a doublet of the mission of the twelve are not conclusive 7see sect4 ,a #fh74 ,the connection in ,luke of the woes against ,capernaum1 ,bethsaida1 and ,chorazin with the instruction of the seventy is very natural1 and marks this mission as belonging to the close of the ,galilean period1 while the mission of the twelve belongs to the height of ,jesus' popularity4 #aga4 ,our knowledge of ,jesus' visit to the feast of ,dedication is due to ,john's interest in the cure at about that time of one born blind 7,john ix41 x474 ,the prejudice of the sanhedrists who excommunicated the man for his loyalty to ,jesus led him in indignation to contrast their method of caring for ,god's sheep with his own love and sympathy and genuine ministry to their needs4 ,he saw clearly that his course must end in death1 unless a great change should come over his enemies2 yet1 as the ,good ,shepherd1 he was ready to lay down his life for the sheep1 rather than leave them to the heartlessness of leaders who cared only for themselves 7x4 #aa-ah74 ,the critics of ,jesus could not1 or would not1 understand his charge against them1 and accused him of madness for his extraordinary claims4 ,there were some1 however1 who could not credit the notion that ,jesus had a devil 7,john x4 #ba74 ,it is possible that it was at this time that the lawyer questioned him about the breadth of interpretation to be given to the word neighbor in the law of love1 and was answered by the parable of the ,good ,samaritan 7,luke x4 #be-cg74 ,possibly the parable of the ,pharisee and the ,publican 7,luke xviii4 #i-ad7 belongs also to this time4 ,in general1 however1 the visit proved anew that ,jerusalem was in no mood to accept ,jesus 7,john x4 #bd-ci74 ,his enemies sought to draw from him a declaration of his claim to be the ,messiah1 and ,jesus appealed to his works1 asserting that only their incorrigible prejudice prevented their recognizing his claims4 ,he added that his ,father1 with whom he was ever in perfect accord1 had drawn some faithful followers to him1 and thereupon1 angered by his claim to close kinship with ,god1 they appealed to the rough logic of violence 7,john x4 #ca-ci2 compare viii4 #ei74 #agb4 ,after this added attempt to win ,jerusalem ,jesus withdrew to the region beyond ,jordan1 where ,john had carried on his ministry to the eager multitudes4 ,here he anew attracted great attention1 causing people to contrast his ministry with the less remarkable work of ,john1 and to acknowledge that ,john's testimony to him was true 7,john x4 #dj-db74 ,possibly it was in this place that the seventy found ,jesus when they returned to report the success of their mission 7,luke x4 #ag-bd71 for the thanksgiving which ,jesus rendered for the faith of the common people in contrast with the unbelief of the wise and prudent might well express his feeling after the fresh evidence he had at the feast of ,dedication that ,jerusalem would none of his mission4 ,the invitation to all the heavy laden to take his yoke illustrates1 though under another figure1 his claim to be the ,good ,shepherd 7,matt4 xi4 #bh-cj74 ,we have no means of knowing how much more of what the gospels assign to the last journey to ,jerusalem should be put in connection with this sojourn across the ,jordan4 ,the multitudes that came to him there may have included the ,pharisees who questioned him about divorce 7,mark x4 #b-ab71 and the young ruler who loved his great possessions 7,mark x4 #ag-ca71 as well as the parents who eagerly sought the ,lord's blessing for their children 7,mark x4 #ac-af74 ,some parts of ,luke's narrative seem to belong still later in this journey1 yet such a section as the reply of ,jesus to the report of ,pilate's slaughter of the ,galileans 7xiii4 #a-i71 or the parable of the ,great ,supper 7xiv4 #ae-bd71 is suitable to any stage of it4 #agc4 ,this sojourn on the other side of ,jordan was brought to a close by the summons to come to the aid of his friends in ,bethany 7,john xi474 ,it is not strange that the disciples feared his return to ,judea1 nor that ,jesus did not hesitate when he recognized the call of duty as well as of friendship4 ,in no recorded miracle of ,jesus is his power more signally set forth1 yet here more clearly than anywhere else he is represented as dependent on his ,father in his exercise of that power4 ,the words of ,jesus at the grave 7,john xi4 #da1 #db7 show that he was confident of the resurrection of ,lazarus1 because he had prayed and was sure he was heard4 ,it may be that his delay after hearing of the sickness of his friend 7xi4 #f7 was a time of waiting for answer1 and that this explains his confidence of safety when the time came for him to expose himself again to the hostility of ,judea4 ,jesus indicated not only that on this occasion he had help from above in doing his miracles1 but that it was the rule in his life to seek such help and guidance 7xi4 #db74 ,in fact1 at a later time he ascribed all his works to the ,father abiding in him 7,john xiv4 #aj2 compare x4 #be74 ,the effect of the resurrection of ,lazarus was such as to intensify the determination of the leaders in ,jerusalem--both ,pharisees and ,sadducees--to get rid of ,jesus as dangerous to the quiet of the nation 7,john xi4 #dg-ed74 ,in this it simply served to fix a determination already present 7,john vii4 #be1 #cb2 viii4 #ei2 x4 #ca1 #ci74 ,the miracle does not appear in ,john as the cause of the apprehension of ,jesus1 but rather as one influence leading to it4 ,it was indeed the total contradiction between ,jesus and all current and cherished ideas that led to his condemnation2 the raising of ,lazarus only showed that he was becoming dangerously popular1 and made the priestly leaders feel the necessity of haste4 ,the silence of the first three gospels concerning this event is truly perplexing1 yet it is not any more difficult of explanation1 as ,beyschlag 7,,lj ,i4 #die7 has shown1 than the silence of all four evangelists concerning the appearance of the risen ,jesus to ,james1 or to the five hundred brethren 7,i4 ,cor4 xv4 #f1 #g74 ,room must be allowed in our conception of the life of ,jesus for many things of which no record remains1 all the more1 therefore1 for incidents to which but one of the gospels is witness4 ,moreover1 after the collapse of popularity in ,galilee1 the great enthusiasm of the multitudes over ,jesus when he entered ,jerusalem 7,luke xix4 #cg-dj2 ,mark xi4 #h-aj7 is most easily understood if he had made some such manifestation of power as the restoration of ,lazarus4 #agd4 ,after the visit to ,bethany ,jesus withdrew to a little town named ,ephraim1 on the border between ,judea and ,samaria1 and spent some time there in seclusion with his disciples 7,john xi4 #ed71 doubtless strengthening his personal hold on them preparatory to the shock their faith was about to receive4 ,of the length of this sojourn nothing is told us1 nor of the road by which ,jesus left ,ephraim for ,jerusalem 7,john xii4 #a74 ,the first three gospels show that he began his final approach to the ,holy ,city at ,jericho 7,mark x4 #df74 ,it may be that he descended from ,ephraim direct to ,jericho some days before the ,passover1 rejoining there some of the people who had been impressed by his recent ministry in the region where ,john at the first was baptizing4 ,it is natural to suppose that it was on this journey to ,jericho that he warned his disciples again of the fate which he saw before him in ,jerusalem 7,mark x4 #cb-cd71 and quite probably it was at this time that he rebuked the crude ambition of the sons of ,zebedee by reminding them that his disciples must be more ambitious to serve than to rule1 since even the ,son of ,man came not to be ministered unto but to minister1 and to give his life a ransom for many 7,mark x4 #ce-de74 ,at ,jericho he was at once crowded upon by enthusiastic multitudes4 ,the feeling they had for him may perhaps be inferred from the cry of blind ,bartimeus1 ,thou son of ,david1 have mercy on me 7,mark x4 #dh74 ,this enthusiasm received a shock when ,jesus chose to be guest in ,jericho of a chief of the publicans1 a shock which ,jesus probably intended to give1 for much the same reason that led him afterwards on his way up to ,jerusalem to teach his followers in the parable of the pounds that they must be ready for long delay in his actual assumption of his kingly right 7,luke xix4 #aa-bh74 ,finally1 six days before the ,passover1 he and his disciples left ,jericho and went up to ,bethany preparatory to his final appearance in ,jerusalem 7,john xii4 #a74 #age4 ,the interval between the final departure from ,galilee and the public entry into ,jerusalem was given to three different tasks3 the renewed proclamation of the coming of the kingdom1 further efforts to win acceptance in ,jerusalem1 if perchance she might learn to know the things that belonged to her peace2 and continued training of the disciples1 specially needed because of the ill-considered enthusiasm with which they were inclined to view the probable issue of this journey to ,jerusalem4 ,the first of these tasks was conducted as the earlier work in ,galilee had been1 both by teaching and healing1 in which ,jesus used his disciples even more extensively than before4 ,it proved that here as in ,galilee the common people were ready to hear him gladly1 until he showed too radical a disappointment of their hopes4 ,in this new ministry to the people ,jesus spoke very frankly of the seriousness of the opposition which the leaders of the people were manifesting1 and of the need that those who would be his disciples should count the cost of their allegiance 7,luke xiii4 #bb-cj2 xiv4 #be-ce2 xii4 #a-ei74 ,he did not hesitate to administer the most scathing rebuke to the ,pharisees for the superficiality and hypocrisy of their religious life and teaching 7,luke xi4 #cg-ed71--;a rebuke which is emphasized by the parable in which1 on another occasion1 he taught ,god's preference for a contrite sinner over a complacent saint 7,luke xviii4 #i-ad74 ,when reminded of ,pilate's outrage upon certain ,galilean worshippers1 he used the calamity to warn his hearers that personal godliness was the only protection which could secure them against a more serious outbreak of the hostility of the ,roman power 7,luke xiii4 #a-i72 and it was probably in reply to such an appeal as accompanied this report of ,pilate's cruelty that ,jesus spoke the parable of the ,unjust ,judge 7,luke xviii4 #a-h71 teaching that ,god's love may be trusted to be no less regardful of his people's cry than a selfish man's love of ease would be4 #agf4 ,the second of these tasks must not be held to be perfunctory1 even though each new effort for ,jerusalem proved that genuine acceptance of its saviour was increasingly improbable4 ,as the denunciations of the older prophets ever left open a way of escape if ,israel would return and seek the ,lord1 so the anticipation of rejection and death which filled the heart of ,jesus does not banish a like if from his own thought of ,jerusalem in his repeated efforts to gather her children4 ,the combination of the new popular enthusiasm and the fresh proofs of the hopelessness of winning ,jerusalem made more important the third task1--the founding of the faith of the disciples on the rock of personal certainty1 from which the rising floods of hatred and seeming ruin for the ,master's cause could not sweep it4 ,it was for them that much of his instruction of the multitudes was doubtless primarily intended2 they needed above all others to count the cost of discipleship 7,luke xiv4 #be-ce71 and the warnings against the spirit of ,pharisaism 7,luke xii47 were addressed principally to them1 even as it was to them that ,jesus confessed the straitening of his own soul in view of the fire which he had come to cast upon the earth 7,luke xii4 #di-ec71--;a confession which had another expression when he found it needful to rebuke the personal ambition of the sons of ,zebedee 7,mark x4 #ce-de74 ,as for ,jesus himself1 the popular enthusiasm had not deceived him1 nor the obdurate unbelief of ,jerusalem daunted him1 nor his disciples' misconception of his kingdom disheartened him2 he still steadfastly set his face to go to ,jerusalem4 ,outline of ,events in the ,last ,week of ,jesus' ,life ,saturday 7874 ,the anointing in ,bethany six days before the ,passover--,matt4 xxvi4 #f-ac2 ,mark xiv4 #c-i2 ,john xi4 #ee to xii4 #aa4 ,sunday 7874 ,the ,messianic entry--,matt4 xxi4 #a-aa2 ,mark xi4 #a-aa2 ,luke six4 #bi-dd2 ,john xii4 #ab-ai4 ,monday 7874 ,visit to the temple3 the cursing of the barren fig-tree--,matt4 xxi4 #ah-ai1 #ab-ag2 ,mark xi4 #ab-ad1 #ae-ah2 ,luke xix4 #de1 #dg1 #dh4 ,return to ,bethany for the night--,matt4 xxi4 #ag2 ,mark xi4 #ai2 ,luke xxi4 #cg1 #ch4 ,tuesday 7874 ,visit to the temple3 the fig-tree found withered--,matt1 xxi #bj-bc2 ,mark xi4 #bj-bg2 ,luke xx4 #a4 ,challenge of ,jesus' authority--,matt4 xxi4 #bc-bg2 ,mark xi4 #bg-cc2 ,luke xx4 #a-h4 ,three parables against the religious leaders--,matt4 xxi4 #bh to xxii4 #ad2 ,mark xii4 #a-ab2 ,luke xx4 #i-ai4 ,the question about tribute--,matt4 xxii4 #ae-bb2 ,mark xii4 #ac-ag2 ,luke xx4 #bj-bf4 ,the question of the ,sadducees about the resurrection--,matt4 xxii4 #bc-cc2 ,mark xii4 #ah-bg2 ,luke xx4 #bg-dj4 ,the question of the ,pharisees about the great commandment--,matt4 xxii4 #cd-dj2 ,mark xii4 #bh-cd4 ,jesus' counter-question about ,david's son and ,lord--,matt4 xxii4 #da-df2 ,mark xii4 #ce-cg2 ,luke xx4 #da-dd4 ,jesus' denunciation of the scribes and ,pharisees--,matt1 xxiii4 #a-ci2 ,mark xii4 #ch-dj2 ,luke xx4 #de-dg4 ,the widow's two mites--,mark xii4 #da-dd2 ,luke xxi4 #a-d4 ,the visit of the ,greeks--,john xii4 #bj-cf;a4 ,final departure from the temple--,john xii4 #cf;b 7-#ej74 ,discourse concerning the destruction of ,jerusalem and the end of the world--,matt4 xxiv4 #a to xxvi4 #b2 ,mark xiii4 #a-cg2 ,luke xxi4 #e-ch4 ,plot of ,judas to betray ,jesus--,matt4 xxvi4 #c-e1 #ad-af2 ,mark xiv4 #a1 #b1 #aj1 #aa2 ,luke xxii4 #a-f4 ,wednesday4 ,retirement at ,bethany4 787 ,thursday4 ,the ,last ,supper--,matt4 xxvi4 #ag-cj2 ,mark xiv4 #ab-bf2 ,luke xxii4 #g-cj2 ,john xiii4 #a-cj4 ,the farewell words of admonition and comfort--,john xiii4 #ca to xvi4 #cc4 ,the intercessory prayer--,john xvii4 #a-bf4 ,friday4 ,the agony in ,gethsemane--,matt4 xxvi4 #cj1 #cf-df2 ,mark xiv4 #bf1 #cb-db2 ,luke xxii4 #ci-df2 ,john xviii4 #a4 ,the betrayal and arrest--,matt xxvi4 #dg-ef2 ,mark xiv4 #dc-eb2 ,luke xxii4 #dg-ec2 ,john xviii4 #a-ab4 ,trial before the high-priests and sanhedrin--,matt4 xxvi4 #eg to xxvii4 #aj2 ,mark xiv4 #ec to xv4 #a;a2 ,luke xxii4 #ed-ga2 ,john xviii4 #ab-bg4 ,trial before ,pilate--,matt1 xxvii4 #aa-ca2 ,mark xv4 #a-bj2 ,luke xxiii4 #a-be2 ,john xviii4 #bh to xix4 #af;a4 ,the crucifixion--,matt1 xxvii4 #cb-ef2 ,mark xv4 #ba-da2 ,luke xxiii4 #bf-di2 ,john xix4 #af-cg4 ,the burial--,matt1 xxvii4 #eg-fa2 ,mark xv4 #db-dg2 ,luke xxiii4 #ej-ef2 ,john xix4 #ch-db4 ,saturday4 ,the ,sabbath rest--,luke xxiii4 #ef;b4 ,the watch at the tomb--,matt1 xxvii4 #fb-ff4 ,,vi ,the ,final ,controversies in ,jerusalem #agg4 ,the early ,christians were greatly interested in the teachings of ,jesus and in his deeds1 but they thought oftenest of the victory which by his resurrection he won out of seeming defeat4 ,this is proved by the fact that of the first two gospels over one third1 of ,luke over one fifth1 and of the fourth gospel nearly one half are devoted to the story of the passion and resurrection4 ,this preponderance is not strange in view of the shock which the death of ,jesus caused his disciples1 and the new life which the resurrection brought to their hearts4 ,the resurrection was the fundamental theme of apostolic preaching1 the supreme evidence that ,jesus was the ,messiah4 ,hence the cross early became the object of exultant ,christian joy and boasting2 and in this the church entered actually into the ,lord's own thought1 for through the cross he looked for his exaltation and glory 7,mark viii4 #ca2 ,john xii4 #bc-cf74 ,from the time of the confession at ,csarea ,philippi1 he had had his death avowedly in view1 and had repeatedly checked the ambitious and unthinking enthusiasm of his disciples by reminding them of what he must receive at the hands of the leaders of the people4 ,the few months preceding his final appearance in ,jerusalem had been devoted to the journey to the cross4 ,this explains the note of tragedy which appears in his teachings at this period4 ,the people had shown that they would none of his ministry4 ,in this they had written their national and religious death warrant1 and as he approached ,jerusalem for the final crisis he declared1 though with almost breaking heart1 ,your house is left unto you desolate 7,luke xiii4 #ca-ce74 ,each new effort of ,jesus to turn aside the impending judgment of his people by winning their acceptance of himself and his message resulted in a new certainty of his ultimate rejection1 and thus in confirmation of the early recognized necessity1 that1 if he continued the work ,god had given him to do1 he should suffer many things1 and die at the hands of his own people4 #agh4 ,the last chapter in his public ministry began with his arrival at ,bethany six days before the ,passover4 ,it is probable that the caravan with which ,jesus was travelling reached ,bethany not far from the sunset which marked the beginning of the ,sabbath preceding the feast4 ,jesus had friends there who gladly gave him entertainment1 and the ,sabbath was doubtless spent quietly in this retreat4 ,the holy day closed with the setting sun1 and then his hosts were able to show him the special attention which they desired4 ,the general cordiality of welcome expressed itself in a feast given in the house of one ,simon1 a leper who had probably experienced the power of ,jesus to heal4 ,he may have been a relative also of ,lazarus1 for ,martha assisted in the entertainment1 and ,lazarus was one of the guests of honor 7,mark xiv4 #c2 ,john xii4 #b74 ,during the feast1 ,mary1 the sister of ,lazarus1 poured forth on the head and feet of ,jesus a box of the rarest perfume4 ,this act of costly adoration seemed extravagant to some1 particularly to one of ,jesus' disciples1 who complained that the money could have been better spent4 ,this criticism of one who had not counted cost in her service was rebuked by ,jesus1 who defended and commended ,mary2 for in the act he recognized her fear that he might not be long with her 7,mark xiv4 #h2 ,john xii4 #g74 ,it is probable that this rebuke1 with the clear reference to his approaching death1 led ,judas to decide to abandon the apparently waning cause of his ,master1 and bargain with the leaders in ,jerusalem to betray him 7,mark xiv4 #c-aa74 #agi4 ,the day following the supper at ,bethany--that is1 the first day of the week--witnessed the welcome of ,jesus to ,jerusalem by the jubilant multitudes4 ,his mode of entering the city affords a marked contrast to his treatment of the determination to make him king after he had fed the multitudes in ,galilee 7,john vi4 #ae74 ,in some respects the circumstances were similar4 ,a multitude of the visitors to the feast1 hearing that ,jesus was at ,bethany on his way to ,jerusalem1 went out to meet him with a welcome that showed their enthusiastic confidence that at last he would assume ,messianic power and redeem ,israel 7,john xii4 #ab1 #ac74 ,jesus was now ready for a popular demonstration1 for the rulers were unwilling longer to tolerate his work and his teaching4 ,he had never hesitated to assert his superiority to official criticism1 and at length the hour had come to proclaim the full significance of his independence4 ,in fact it was for this that some months before he had set his face steadfastly to go to ,jerusalem4 ,when1 therefore1 the crowd from ,jerusalem appeared1 ,jesus took the initiative in a genuine ,messianic demonstration4 ,he sent two of his disciples to a place near by to borrow an ass's colt1 on which he might ride into the city1 fulfilling ,zechariah's prophecy of the king that cometh meek1 and riding upon an ass 7see ,matt4 xxi4 #d1 #e74 ,at this1 the enthusiasm of his followers1 and of those who had come to meet him1 became unbounded1 and without rebuke from ,jesus they proceeded towards ,jerusalem crying1 ,hosanna2 ,blessed is he that cometh in the name of the ,lord 7,mark xi4 #i1 #aj74 ,notwithstanding the remonstrances of certain ,pharisees among the multitude 7,luke xix4 #ci71 ,jesus accepted the hosannas1 for they served to emphasize the claim which he now wished1 without reserve or ambiguity1 to make in ,jerusalem4 ,the time for reserve had passed4 ,the mass of the people with their leaders had shown clearly that for his truth1 and himself as bearer of it1 they had no liking2 while the few had become attached to him sufficiently to warrant the supreme test of their faith4 ,he could not continue longer his efforts to win the people1 for both ,galilee and ,judea were closed to him4 ,even if he had been content1 without contradicting popular ideas1 to work wonders and proclaim promises of coming good1 he could with difficulty have continued this work1 for ,herod had already been regarding him with suspicion 7,luke xiii4 #ca74 ,he had run his course and must measure strength with the hostile forces in ,jerusalem4 ,for the last encounter he assumed the aggressive1 and entered the city as its promised deliverer1 the ,prince of ,peace4 ,the very method of his ,messianic proclamation was a challenge of current ,jewish ideas1 for they were not looking for so meek and peaceful a leader as ,zechariah had conceived2 this entrance emphasized the old contradiction between ,jesus and his people's expectations4 ,he accepted the popular welcome with full knowledge of the transitoriness of the present enthusiasm4 ,as he advanced he saw in thought the fate to which the city and people were blindly hurrying1 and his day of popular triumph was a day of tears 7,luke xix4 #da-dd74 ,the city was stirred when the prophet of ,nazareth thus entered it2 but he simply went into the temple1 looked about with heavy heart1 and1 as it was late1 returned to ,bethany with the twelve for the night4 #ahj4 ,on the following day ,jesus furnished to his disciples a parable in action illustrating the fate awaiting the nation2 for it is only as a parable that the curse of the barren fig-tree can be understood4 ,the idea that ,jesus showed resentment at disappointment of his hunger when he found no figs on the tree out of season is too petty for consideration4 ,he was drawn to it by the early foliage1 for it was not yet the season for either fruit or leaves4 ,one is tempted to believe1 as ,dr4 ,bruce has suggested1 that he had small expectation of finding fruit1 and that even before he reached the tree with its early leaves he felt a likeness between it and the nation of hypocrites whose fate was so clear in his mind4 ,the withering of the fig-tree set his disciples thinking2 and ,jesus showed that it was an object lesson1 promising that the disciples1 by the exercise of but a little faith1 could do more1 even remove mountains1--such mountains of difficulty as the opposition of the whole ,jewish nation would offer to the success of their work in their ,master's name4 #aha4 ,the curse upon the barren fig-tree was spoken as ,jesus was going from ,bethany to ,jerusalem on the morning after his ,messianic entry1 that is1 on ,monday1 and it was ,tuesday when the disciples found it withered away 7,mark xi4 #ab-ad1 #bj-be74 ,on ,monday ,jesus entered into the temple and taught and healed 7,luke xix4 #dg2 ,matt4 xxi4 #ad-af74 ,it is at this point that ,mark inserts the cleansing of the temple which ,john shows to belong rather to ,jesus' first public visit to ,jerusalem4 ,the place which this incident holds in the first three gospels has already been explained by the fact that it furnished one cause for the official hostility to ,jesus1 and that ,mark's story included no earlier visit to the holy city 7sect4 #aaf2 see ,a #ci74 #ahb4 ,tuesday1 the last day of public activity1 exhibits ,jesus in four different lights1 according as he had to do with his critics1 with the devout widow1 with the inquiring ,greeks1 and with his own disciples4 ,the opposition to him expressed itself1 after the general challenge of his authority1 in three questions put in succession by ,pharisees and ,herodians1 by ,sadducees1 and by a scribe1 more earnest than most1 whom the ,pharisees put forward after they had seen how ,jesus silenced the ,sadducees4 ,jesus met the opening challenge by a question about ,john's baptism 7,mark xi4 #bi-cc7 which completely destroyed the complacency of his critics1 putting them on the defensive4 ,this was more than a clever stroke1 they could not know what his authority was unless they had a quick sense for spiritual things4 ,his question would have served to bring this to the surface if they had possessed it4 ,their reply showed them incapable of receiving a real answer to their question4 ,it also gave him opportunity to say in three significant parables 7,matt4 xxi4 #bh to xxii4 #ad7 what their spiritual blindness signified for them and their nation1 giving thus a turn to the interview not at all to their minds4 ,as ,jesus' rebuke was spoken in the hearing of the people1 a determined effort was at once made to discredit him in the popular mind4 ,the question 7,mark xii4 #ac-ag7 with which the ,pharisees and ,herodians hoped to ensnare him was most subtle1 for the popular feeling was as sensitive to the mark of subserviency which the payment of tribute kept ever before them as the ,roman authorities were to the slightest suspicion of revolt against their sway4 ,in none of his words had ,jesus so clearly asserted the simple other-worldliness of his doctrine of the kingdom of ,god as in his answer to the question about tribute4 ,for him loyalty to the actual earthly sovereign was quite compatible with loyalty to ,god1 the lower obligation was in fact a summons to be scrupulous also to render to ,god his due1--a duty in which this nation was sadly delinquent4 ,the reply gave no ground for an accusation before the governor2 but the popular feeling against ,rome was so strong that it is not unlikely that it contributed somewhat to the readiness of the multitude a few days later to prefer ,barabbas to ,jesus4 #ahc4 ,a second assault was made by some ,sadducees who put to him a crude question about the relations of a seven-times married woman in the resurrection 7,mark xii4 #ah-bg74 ,if this question was asked with the expectation of making ,jesus ridiculous in the sight of the people it was a marked failure1 for his reply was so simple and straightforward that he won the admiration even of some of the ,pharisees4 ,the most significant feature of it was his argument from ,god's reference to himself as ,god of ,abraham1 ,isaac1 and ,jacob2 for in that he taught that the fact of fellowship with ,god implies that ,god's servants share with him a life that death cannot vanquish4 ,the skill with which ,jesus met these two questions interested some of his hearers and showed to his opponents that they must put forward their ablest champions to cope with him4 ,the next test was more purely academic in character1--as to what class of commands is greatest in the law 7,mark xii4 #bh-cd74 ,for the pharisaic scholars this was a favorite problem4 ,for ,jesus1 however1 the question contained no problem1 since all the law is summed up in the two commandments of love4 ,his contemporaries were not without power to see the truth of his generalization1 and their champion in this last attack was moved with admiration for the fineness and sufficiency of ,jesus' answer4 #ahd4 ,all of the assaults served only to show freshly the clearness and profoundness of his thought2 his critics were quite discomfited in their effort to entangle him4 ,they had done with him1 but he had still a word for them4 ,the business of these scribes was the study of the scriptures4 ,they furnished the people with authoritative statements of truth4 ,one of the common-places of the current thought was that the ,messiah should be ,david's son4 ,jesus did not deny the truth of this view1 yet he showed them how partial their ideas were by quoting a word of scripture in which the ,messiah is shown as ,david's ,lord4 ,if they had been open-minded they might have inferred from this that perhaps the man before them was not so impossible a ,messiah as they thought4 ,this last question closed the colloquy2 there awaited yet1 however1 ,jesus' calm1 scathing arraignment of the hypocrisy of these religious leaders4 ,there was no longer any need for prudence and every reason for a clear indication of the difference between himself and the scribes in motive1 in teaching1 and in character4 ,the final conflict was on1 and ,jesus freely spoke his mind concerning their whole life of piety without godliness4 ,never have sharper words of reproach fallen from human lips than these which ,jesus directed against the scribes and ,pharisees2 they are burdened with indignation for the misleading of the people1 with rebuke for the misrepresentation of ,god's truth1 and with scorn for their hollow pretence of righteousness4 ,through it all breathes a note of sorrow for the city whose house was now left to her desolate4 ,the change of scene which introduces the widow offering her gift in the temple treasury heightens the significance of the controversies through which ,jesus had just passed4 ,in his comment on the worth of her two mites we hear again the preacher of the sermon on the mount1 and are assured that it is indeed from him that the severe rebukes which have fallen on the scribes have come4 ,there is again a reference to the insight of him who sees in secret1 and who judges as he sees2 while allusion is not lacking to the others whose larger gifts attracted a wider attention4 ,the whole scene is like a commentary on ,matt4 vi4 #b-d4 #ahe4 ,still a different side of ,jesus' life appears when the ,greeks seek him in the temple4 ,they were probably proselytes from some of the ,greek cities about the ,mediterranean where the synagogue offered to the earnest-minded a welcome relief from the foolishness and corruption of what was left of religion in the heathen world4 ,having visited ,jerusalem for the feast1 they heard on every hand about the new teacher4 ,they were not so bound to rabbinic traditions as the ,jews themselves1 they had been drawn by the finer features of ,judaism1--its high morality and its noble idea of ,god4 ,what they heard of ,jesus might well attract them1 and they sought out ,philip1 a disciple with a ,greek name1 to request an interview with his ,master4 ,the evangelist who has preserved the incident 7,john xii4 #bj-cf7 evidently introduced it because of what it showed of ,jesus' inner life2 hence we have no report of the conversation between him and his visitors4 ,the effect of their seeking him was marked1 however1 for it offered sharp contrast to the rejection which he already felt in his dealings with the people who but two days before had hailed him as ,messiah4 ,this foreign interest in him did not suggest a new avenue for ,messianic work1 it only brought before his mind the influence which was to be his in the world which these inquirers represented1 and immediately with the thought of his glorification came that of the means thereto1--the cross whose shadow was already darkening his path4 ,excepting ,gethsemane1 no more solemn moment in ,jesus' life is reported for us4 ,a glimpse is given into the inner currents of his soul1 and the storm which tossed them is seen4 ,it is in marked contrast to the calmness of his controversy with the leaders1 and to the gentleness of his commendation of the widow4 ,the agitation passed almost at once1 but it left ,jesus in a mood which he had not shown before on that day2 in it his own thoughts had their way1 and the doctrine of the grain of wheat dying to appear in larger life1 of the ,son of ,man lifted up to draw all men unto him1 had utterance1 greatly to the perplexity of his hearers4 ,it seems to have been one of the few times when ,jesus spoke for his own soul's relief4 #ahf4 ,in all the earlier events of the day the disciples of ,jesus appear but little4 ,he is occupied with others1 accepting the challenge of the leaders1 and completing his testimony to the truth they refused to hear4 ,the quieter hours of the later part of the day gave time for further words with his friends4 ,the comment on the widow's gift was meant for them1 and the uncovering of his own soul when the ,greeks sought him was in their presence4 ,after he had left the temple and the city he gave himself to them more exclusively4 ,his disciples were perplexed by what they saw and felt1 for the temper of the people toward their ,master could not be mistaken4 ,yet they were sure of him4 ,the leaders among them1 therefore1 asked him privately to tell them when the catastrophe should come1 to which during the day he had made repeated reference4 ,the conversation which followed is reported for us in the discourse on the destruction of ,jerusalem and the end of the world 7,mark xiii4 and parallels71 in which ,jesus taught his disciples to expect trouble in their ministry1 as he was meeting trouble in his2 and to be ready for complete disappointment of their inherited hopes for the glory of their holy city4 ,he also taught them to expect that his work would shortly be carried to perfection1 and to live in expectancy of his coming to complete all that he was now seeming to leave undone4 ,this lesson of patience and expectancy is enforced in a group of parables preserved for us in ,matthew 7chap4 xxv471 closing with the remarkable picture of the end of all things when the ,master should return in glory as judge of all to make final announcement of the simplicity of ,god's requirement of righteousness1 as it had been exhibited in the life which by the despite of men was now drawing to its close4 #ahg4 ,the bargain made by ,judas to betray his ,lord has always been difficult to understand4 ,the man must have had fine possibilities or ,jesus would not have chosen him for an apostle1 nor would the little company have made him its treasurer 7,john xii4 #f2 xiii4 #bi74 ,the fact that ,jesus early discovered his character 7,john vi4 #fd7 does not compel us to think that his selection as an apostle was not perfectly sincere2 the man must have seemed to be still savable and worthy thus to be associated with the eleven others who were ,jesus' nearest companions4 ,it has often been noticed that he was probably the only ,judean among the twelve1 for ,kerioth1 his home1 was a town in southern ,judea4 ,the effort has frequently been made to redeem his reputation by attributing his betrayal to some high motive--such as a desire to force his ,master to use his ,messianic power1 and confound his opponents by escaping from their hands and setting up the hoped-for kingdom4 ,but the remorse of ,judas1 in which ,de ,quincey finds support for this theory of the betrayal1 must be more simply and sadly understood4 ,it is more likely that the traitor illustrates ,jesus' words3 ,no man can serve two masters2 for either he will hate the one and love the other2 or else he will hold to the one and despise the other4 ,ye cannot serve ,god and mammon 7,matt4 vi4 #bd74 ,the beginning of his fall may have been his disappointment when ,jesus showed clearly that he would not establish a kingdom conformed to the popular ideas4 ,as the enthusiasm which drew him to ,jesus cooled1 personal greed1 with something of resentment at the cause of his disappointment1 seem to have taken possession of him1 and they led him on until the stinging rebuke which ,jesus administered to the criticism of ,mary at ,bethany prompted the man to seek a bargain with the authorities which should insure him at least some profit in the general wreck of his hopes4 ,his remorse after he saw in its bald hideousness what he had done was psychologically inevitable4 ,although ,jesus was aware of ,judas' character from the beginning 7,john vi4 #fd71 he that came to seek and to save that which was lost was no fatalist2 and this knowledge was doubtless--like that which he had of the fate hanging over ,jerusalem--subject to the possibility that repentance might change what was otherwise a certain destiny4 ,as the event turned he could only say1 ,good were it for that man if he had not been born 7,mark xiv4 #ba74 #ahh4 ,with this the curtain falls on the public ministry of ,jesus4 ,the gospels suggest a day of quiet retirement following these controversies and warnings1 with their fresh demonstration of the irreconcilable hostility of people of all classes to him and his work4 ,after the seclusion of that day1 he returned to give final proof of complete obedience to his ,father's will4 ,,vii ,the ,last ,supper #ahi4 ,on ,thursday ,jesus and his disciples returned to ,jerusalem for the last time4 ,knowing the temper of the leaders1 and the danger of arrest at any time1 ,jesus was particularly eager to eat the ,passover with his disciples 7,luke xxii4 #ae71 and he sent two of them--,luke names them as ,peter and ,john--to prepare for the supper4 ,in a way which would give no information to such a one as ,judas1 he directed them carefully how to find the house where a friend would provide them the upper room that was needed for an undisturbed meeting of the little band1 and the two went on in advance to make ready4 ,when the hour was come ,jesus with the others went to the appointed place and sat down for the supper 7,mark xiv4 #ag2 ,luke xxii4 #ad2 ,matt4 xxvi4 #bj74 #aij4 ,the gospels all report the last evening which the little company spent together4 ,there is a perplexing divergence1 however1 between ,john and the others concerning the relation of this supper to the feast of the ,passover4 ,in their introduction of the story1 ,mark and his companion gospels indicate that the supper which ,jesus ate was the ,passover meal itself4 ,john1 on the other hand1 declares that it was before the feast of the ,passover 7xiii4 #a7 that ,jesus took this meal with his disciples4 ,john's account is consistent throughout1 for he states that on the next day the desire of the ,jews to eat the ,passover forbade them to enter the house of the governor lest they should incur defilement 7xviii4 #bh74 ,the other gospels1 moreover1 hint in several ways that the day of ,jesus' death could not have been the day after the ,passover2 that is1 the first day of the feast of unleavened bread4 ,dr4 ,sanday has recently enumerated these afresh1 remarking that the ,synoptists make the ,sanhedrin say beforehand that they will not arrest ,jesus 'on the feast day1' and then actually arrest him on that day2 that not only the guards1 but one of the disciples 7,mark xiv4 #dg71 carries arms1 which on the feast day was not allowed2 that the trial was also held on the feast day1 which would be unlawful2 that the feast day would not be called simply ,preparation 7see ,mark xv4 #db1 and compare ,john xix4 #ca72 that the phrase 'coming from the field' 7,mark xv4 #ba ,greek7 means properly 'coming from work2' that ,joseph of ,arimathea is represented as buying a linen cloth 7,mark xv4 #df7 and the women as preparing spices and ointments 7,luke xxiii4 #ef71 all of which would be contrary to law and custom 7,hast,b,d ii4 #fcd74 ,in these particulars the first three gospels seem to confirm the representation of the fourth that the day of the last supper was earlier than the regular ,jewish ,passover4 ,on the other hand1 a strong argument1 though one that has not commended itself to other specialists in ,jewish archology1 has been put forth by ,dr4 ,edersheim 7,,ljm ii4 #efg;f47 to prove that ,john also indicates that the last supper was eaten at the time of the regular ,passover4 ,in the present condition of our knowledge certainty is impossible4 ,if ,john does differ from the others1 his testimony has the greatest weight4 ,while not conclusive1 it has some significance that ,paul identified ,christ with the sacrifice of the passover 7,i4 ,cor4 v4 #g71 a statement which may indicate that he held that ,jesus died about the time of the killing of the paschal lamb4 ,if ,john be taken to prove that the last supper occurred a day before the regular ,passover1 ,jesus must have felt that the anticipation was necessary in order to avoid the publicity and consequent danger of a celebration at the same time with all the rest of the city4 #aia4 ,whatever the conclusion concerning the date of the last supper1 and consequently of the crucifixion1 the last meal of ,jesus with his disciples was for that little company the equivalent of the ,passover supper4 ,luke states that the desire of ,jesus had looked specially to eating this feast with his disciples 7xxii4 #ae74 ,the reason must be found in his certainty of the very near end1 and in his wish to make the meal a preparation for the bitter experiences which were overhanging him and them4 #aib4 ,it is customary to connect as occasion and consequence the dispute concerning precedence which ,luke reports 7xxii4 #bd-cj71 and the rebuke which ,jesus administered by washing the disciples' feet 7,john xiii4 #a-bj74 ,the jealousies of the disciples may have arisen over the allotment of seats at the table1 as ,dr4 ,edersheim has most fully shown 7,,ljm ii4 #dib-ejc72 such a controversy would be the natural sequel of earlier disputes concerning greatness1 and particularly of the request of ,james and ,john for the best places in the coming kingdom 7,mark x4 #ce-de71 and would lead as naturally to the distress of heart with which ,jesus declared that one of the disciples should betray him1 and that another of them should deny him4 ,the narrative in ,mark favors the withdrawal of ,judas before the new rite was appointed4 ,this must seem to be the probability in the case1 for the presence of ,judas would be most incongruous at such a memorial service4 ,john's mention of his departure before the announcement of ,peter's approaching fall confirms this interpretation of ,mark 7,mark xiv4 #ah-ba2 ,john xiii4 #ba-cj74 #aic4 ,the paschal memories furnished to ,jesus an opportunity to establish for his disciples an institution which should symbolize the new covenant which he was soon to seal with his blood4 ,jesus regarded this new covenant as that which was promised by the prophets1 especially ,jeremiah 7xxxi4 #ca-cd71 and his thought1 like that of the prophets1 goes back to the story of the covenant established at ,sinai 7,ex4 xxiv4 #a-aa74 ,in this way he gave to his disciples a conception of his death1 which later1 if not immediately1 would help them to regard it as a necessary part of his work as ,messiah4 ,they were now oppressed by the evident certainty that the near future would bring their ,master to death2 he accordingly gave them a sacred reminder of himself and of his death as an essential part of his self-giving for them2 for whatever the conclusion concerning the disputed text of ,luke 7xxii4 #ai71 the institutional character of the act and words of ,jesus is clear4 ,as ,holtzmann remarks 7,nt,th i4 #cjd73 ,the words 'this do in remembrance of me' were perhaps not spoken2 all the more certainly do they of themselves express what lay in the situation and made itself felt with incontestable conclusiveness4 #aid4 ,several hints in the records seem to connect the meal in various details with what is known of ancient custom in the celebration of the ,passover4 ,the hymn with which according to ,mark and ,matthew the supper closed is easily identified with the last part 7,psalms cxv4 to cxviii47 of the so called ,hallel1 which was sung at the close of the ,passover meal4 ,the mention of two cups in the familiar text of ,luke 7xxii4 #ag-bj7 agrees with the repeated cups of the ,passover ritual2 so also do the sop and the dipping of it with which ,jesus indicated to ,john who the traitor was 7,john xiii4 #bc-bf2 ,mark xiv4 #bj74 ,if it could be proved that the customs recorded in the ,talmud correctly represent the usage in ,jesus' time it would be of extreme interest to seek to connect what is told us of the last supper with that ,passover ritual as ,dr4 ,edersheim has done 7,,ljm ii4 #dij-eab74 ,the antiquity of the rabbinic record is so uncertain1 however1 that it is only useful as showing what possibly may have been the case4 ,all that can be asserted is that the rabbinic ritual probably originated long before it was recorded1 and that as the last supper was a meal which ,jesus and his disciples celebrated as a ,passover1 it is probable that some such ritual was more or less closely followed4 #aie4 ,luke and ,john give the fullest reports of what was said at the table4 ,all the gospels tell of ,peter's declaration of superior loyalty and the prediction of his threefold denial2 ,luke1 however1 adds that in connection with it ,jesus assured ,peter of his restoration1 and charged him to strengthen his brethren 7,luke xxii4 #ca-cd74 ,john alone gives the long and full discourse of admonition and comfort1 followed by ,jesus' prayer for his disciples 7xiii4 #ca to xvii4 #bf74 ,it is evident from the words of ,jesus as he entered the garden of ,gethsemane 7,mark xiv4 #cc1 #cd71 as from those which had escaped him when the ,greeks sought him the last day in the temple 7,john xii4 #bg71 that his own heart was greatly troubled during the supper by the apparent defeat which was now close at hand4 ,his quietness and self-possession during the supper1 particularly when tenderly reproving his disciples for petty ambition1 or when solemnly dismissing the traitor1 or warning ,peter of his denials1 must not blind us to the depth of the emotion which was stirring his own soul4 ,it is only as we remember his trouble of heart that it is possible justly to value the ministry which in varied ways he rendered to his disciples that night4 ,in the discourses reported by ,john he showed that he realized that the approaching separation would sorely try the faith of his followers1 and he sought to strengthen them by showing his own calmness in view of it1 and by promising them another who should abide with them spiritually as his representative1 and continue for them the work which he had begun4 ,he therefore urged them to maintain their devotion to him1 still to seek and find the source of their life and secret of their strength in fellowship with him--present1 though unseen among them4 ,he sought to convince them that his departure was to be for their advantage1 that fellowship with him spiritually would be far more real and efficacious than the intercourse they had already enjoyed4 ,he whose own heart was exceeding sorrowful even unto death bade his disciples not to let their hearts be troubled nor afraid4 ,how long the conversation continued1 of when the company left the upper chamber1 cannot be told4 ,at some time before the arrival at ,gethsemane ,jesus turned to ,god in prayer for the disciples whom he was about to leave to the severe trial of their faith1 asking for them that realization of eternal life which he had enjoyed and exemplified in his own intimate life with his ,father4 ,with this his ministry to them closed for the time1 and1 crossing the ,kidron1 he entered the garden of ,gethsemane weighed down by the sorrow of his own soul4 ,,viii ,the ,shadow of ,death #aif4 ,of the garden of ,gethsemane it is only known that it was across the ,kidron1 on the slope of the ,mount of ,olives4 ,tradition has long pointed to an enclosure some fifty yards beyond the bridge that crosses the ravine on the road leading eastward from ,st4 ,stephen's gate4 ,most students feel that this is too near the city and the highway for the place of retreat chosen by ,jesus4 ,archologically and sentimentally the identification of places connected with the life of ,jesus is of great interest4 ,practically1 however1 it is easy to over-emphasize the importance of such an identification4 ,granted the fact that in some olive grove on the mountain-side1 where an oil-press gave a name to the place 7,gethsemane71 ,jesus withdrew with his disciples on that last night1 and all that is important is known4 ,it is of far higher importance to see rightly the relation of what took place in that garden to the things which preceded and followed it in the life of ,jesus4 ,at that time ,jesus saw pressed to his lips the cup from the bitterness of which his whole soul shrank4 ,it was not an unlooked-for trial2 some time earlier he had sought to cool the ardor of the ambition of ,james and ,john by telling them that they should drink of his cup1 and declared that even the ,son of ,man came not to be ministered unto but to minister1 and to give his life a ransom for many4 ,the fourth gospel1 whose representation omits the agony of ,gethsemane and only reports its victory1 tells how ,jesus rebuked the violent impulse of ,peter with the word1 ,the cup which my ,father hath given me to drink shall ,i not drink it8 7,john xviii4 #aa;b72 and all the gospels exhibit the marvellous quietness of spirit and dignity of self-surrender which characterized ,jesus throughout his trial and execution4 ,in ,gethsemane1 however1 we see the struggle in which that calmness and self-mastery were won4 #aig4 ,it is unbecoming to consider that scene with any vulgar curiosity to know what it was that made ,jesus so draw back from the drinking of his cup4 ,it is not unfitting1 however1 to recognize that in his cry1 ,abba1 ,father1 all things are possible unto thee2 remove this cup from me 7,mark xiv4 #cf71 an intense longing of his own soul's life had expression4 ,there was something in the fate which he saw before him from which his whole being shrank4 ,but stronger than this was his fixed desire to do his ,father's will4 ,here was supremely illustrated the truth that he came down from heaven1 not to do his own will1 but the will of him that sent him 7,john vi4 #ch74 ,the fullest allowance for the shrinking of the most delicately constituted nature from pain and death completely fails to account for this dread of ,jesus4 ,he was no coward1 drawing back from sufferings which for simple physical pain were over and again more than matched by many of the martyrs to truth who preceded and followed him4 ,he himself declared to the sons of ,zebedee that they should share a cup in kind like unto his1 suffering for the kingdom of ,god1 for the salvation of the world4 ,yet there is a difference evident between what others have had to bear and the cup from which ,jesus shrank4 ,the death which now stood before him in the path of obedience had in it a bitterness quite unexplained by the pain and disappointment it entailed4 ,that excess of bitterness can probably never be understood by us4 ,a hint of its nature may be found in the shame of the cross which the author of ,hebrews 7xii4 #b2 xiii4 #ac7 emphasizes1 and in the curse of the cross which made it a stumbling block to ,paul and his ,jewish brethren 7,gal4 iii4 #ac2 ,i4 ,cor4 i4 #bc74 ,jesus came from the garden ready to endure the cross in obedience to his ,father's will2 but it was a costly obedience1 a complete emptying of himself 7,phil4 ii4 #g1 #h74 #aih4 ,the loneliness of ,jesus in his struggle is emphasized in the gospels of ,mark and ,matthew4 ,in search of sympathy he had confessed to the disciples his trouble of heart1 and had taken his three intimates with him when he withdrew from the others for prayer1 asking them to watch with him4 ,they were too heavy of heart and weary of body to stand by in his bitter hour1 and instead of being in readiness to warn him of the approach of the hostile band1 he had to awake them to their danger4 ,the fourth gospel reports that after the struggle ,jesus bore marks of majesty which astonished and overawed his foes when he calmly told them that he was the one they were seeking4 ,their fear was overcome1 however1 when ,judas gave the appointed sign by kissing his ,master 7,mark xiv4 #de74 ,the thought for the disciples' safety which ,john records 7xviii4 #h7 is another proof that the fight had been won1 and ,jesus had fully resumed the self-emptying ministry appointed to him by his ,father4 #aii4 ,the band that arrested ,jesus was accompanied by a ,roman cohort from the garrison of the city1 but it was not needed1 for the disciples offered no appreciable resistance2 on the contrary1 they all forsook him and fled 7,mark xiv4 #ej74 ,having arrested ,jesus1 the band took him to ,annas1 the actual leader of ,jewish affairs1 though not at the time the official high-priest4 ,he had held that office some time before1 but had been deposed by the ,roman governor of ,syria after being in power for nine years4 ,his influence continued1 however1 for although he was never reinstated1 he seems to have been able to secure the appointment for members of his own family during a period of many years4 ,caiaphas1 the legal high-priest1 was his son-in-law4 ,annas1 as the leader of aristocratic opinion in ,jerusalem1 had doubtless been foremost in the secret counsels which led to the decision to get rid of ,jesus1 hence the captive was1 as a matter of course1 taken first to his house4 ,the trial by the ,jewish authorities was irregular4 ,there seems to have been an informal examination of ,jesus and various witnesses1 first before ,annas1 and then before ,caiaphas and a group of members of the sanhedrin1 the outcome of which was complete failure to secure evidence against ,jesus from their false witnesses1 and the formulation of a charge of blasphemy in consequence of his answer to the high-priest acknowledging himself to be the ,messiah 7,mark xiv4 #fa-fd74 ,the early hours before the day were given over to mockery and ill-usage of the captive ,jesus4 ,when morning was come1 the sanhedrin was convened1 and he was condemned to death on the charge of blasphemy 7,mark xv4 #a2 ,luke xxii4 #ff-ga71 and then was led in bonds to the ,roman governor for execution1 since the ,romans had taken from the sanhedrin the authority to execute a death sentence 7,john xviii4 #ca74 ,before ,pilate the ,jews had to name an offence recognized by ,roman law2 his accusers therefore falsified his claim and made him out a political ,messiah1 hostile to ,roman rule 7,luke xxiii4 #a1 #b74 ,pilate soon saw that the charge was trumped up1 and sought in every way1 while keeping the good-will of the people1 to escape the responsibility of giving sentence against ,jesus4 ,his first effort was a simple declaration that he found no fault in the prisoner 7,luke xxiii4 #d72 then1 having heard that he was a ,galilean1 he tried to transfer the case to ,herod1 who happened to be in the city at the time 7,luke xxiii4 #e-ab72 he then sought to compromise by agreeing to chastise ,jesus and then release him 7,luke xxiii4 #ac-af72 next he offered the people their choice between the innocent ,jesus and ,barabbas1 a convicted insurrectionist 7,mark xv4 #f-ae2 ,luke xxiii4 #af-bd71 and the people1 instructed by the priests1 chose ,barabbas1 caring nothing for a ,messiah who would allow himself to be arrested without resistance2 the fourth gospel tells of ,pilate's still further effort1 by appealing to the people's sympathy1 to escape giving sentence1 even after he had delivered ,jesus to the soldiers for the preliminary scourging4 ,finding the ,jews ready to urge1 at length1 a religious charge1 ,pilate's superstitious fear was roused 7,john xix4 #g-ab71 and he sought again to release him1 but was finally cowed by the threat of an accusation against him at ,rome1 and1 mocking the people by sitting in judgment to condemn ,jesus as their king1 he gave sentence against the man whom he knew to be innocent 7,john xix4 #ab-af74 #bjj4 ,some of ,jesus' disciples and friends were witnesses of the early stages of the informal trial1 in particular1 ,john 7,john xviii4 #ae7 and ,peter4 ,it was during the progress of the early examination that ,peter was drawn into his denials by the comments made by the bystanders on his connection with the accused4 ,it has been suggested that the house of the high-priest where ,jesus was tried was built1 like other ,oriental houses1 about a court so that the room where ,jesus was examined was open to view from the court4 ,in this case it is easy to see how ,jesus could overhear his disciple's strenuous denials of any acquaintance with him1 and could turn and give him that look which sent him out to weep bitterly 7,luke xxii4 #fa1 #fb74 ,if it be further assumed that ,annas and ,caiaphas occupied different sides of the same high-priestly palace1 the double examination reported by ,john would still be within hearing from the one court in which the faithless disciple was a fascinated witness of his ,master's trial4 #bja4 ,humanly speaking1 it may be said that the fate of ,jesus was sealed when the ,sadducean leaders came to look on him seriously as a danger to the ,state 7,john xi4 #dg-ej1 note the mention of chief priests74 ,the religious opposition was serious1 and might have brought trouble1 in some such way as it seems to have done to ,john the ,baptist 7see ,matt4 xvii4 #aj-ac2 ,luke xiii4 #ca1 #cb72 but it is doubtful whether the governor would have given much attention to a charge not urged by the men of influence in ,jerusalem4 ,the notable thing in connection with the last days of ,jesus' life is the joint opposition of ,sadducean priests and ,pharisaic scribes4 ,that the populace easily changed their cry from hosanna to crucify him is not surprising4 ,their hosannas were due to a complete misconception of ,jesus' aim and purpose2 disappointed in him1 they would be the earliest to cry out against him1 especially when the choice lay between him and a genuine insurrectionist4 #bjb4 ,each fresh study of the trial of ,jesus gives a fresh impression of his greatness4 ,he who but a few hours before was pouring out his soul in prayer that his cup might pass1 stands forth as the one calm and undisturbed actor among all those who took part in the tragic doings of that day4 ,his judges and foes were all swayed by passion and self-interest and were ready to make travesty of justice1 from the leaders of the sanhedrin who condemned him on one charge and accused him to the governor on another1 to the governor himself1 who appeared determined to release him if he could do it without risk of personal popularity1 and who yet1 in order to avoid accusation at ,rome1 gave sentence according to the people's will4 ,the fickle populace crying crucify him1 the disciples who forsook him1 the rock-apostle who denied even so much as knowledge of the man1 show how all the currents of life about him were stirred and full of tumult4 ,in all this1 of which he was the occasion and centre1 he stands the supreme example of dignity1 self-mastery1 and quietness4 ,this is seen in his silence in the presence of ,annas and ,caiaphas1 and later before ,pilate2 in his frank avowal of his ,messianic claim in reply to the high-priest's challenge1 and of his kingly rank in answer to the governor's question2 and in the look of reproof which he turned upon ,peter4 ,not that he was without feeling4 ,there is strong sense of outrage in his words1 ,if ,i have spoken evil1 bear witness of the evil1 but if well1 why smitest thou me8 ,it was not the quietness of stoic indifference1 but of perfect self-devotion to the ,father's will4 ,he maintained it from the time of his arrest to the last cry of trust with which he committed his spirit to his ,father4 #bjc4 ,the scourging over1 the mock homage of the soldiers done1 he was led out beyond the city wall to be crucified4 ,the exact place of the crucifixion can be determined as little as that of ,gethsemane1 though there is a tradition from the fourth century1 and in addition there are many conjectures4 ,jesus was led1 apparently1 to the ordinary place of criminal execution1 and with two others1 probably insurrectionary robbers like those with whom ,barabbas had been associated1 he was crucified4 ,two episodes in the journey to the place of crucifixion are recorded1--the help which ,simon of ,cyrene was compelled to give to ,jesus in carrying his cross 7,mark xv4 #ba71 and the word of ,jesus to those who1 following him1 bewailed his fate 7,luke xxiii4 #bg-ca74 #bjd4 ,of the cruelty and torture of crucifixion much has been written and often4 ,it would be difficult to exaggerate it4 ,the death by the cross was a death by hunger and exhaustion in ordinary cases2 it was thus torture prolonged for many hours4 ,it is noticeable1 however1 that it is not the suffering but the disgrace and shame of the cross that occupied the thought of the apostolic days4 ,indeed1 were physical suffering chiefly to be considered1 it would have to be owned that the fact that ,jesus died within a few hours released him from the most excruciating pains incident to this barbarous form of execution4 ,the later ascetic thought loved1 and still loves1 to dwell on the physical torments of the ,lord's death4 ,they were severe enough to give us awe2 but the biblical writers show a much healthier mind1 and their thought does not invite comparison between the pains endured by the ,master and those which some of his martyred followers bore with great fortitude4 ,the disgrace of the cross was the uttermost2 for the ,romans it was the death of a slave1 for the ,jews it was patent proof of the curse of ,god 7,deut4 xxi4 #bc74 ,the obedience of ,jesus was unlimited when he submitted to death 7,phil4 ii4 #h74 ,it is on the shame of the cross1 and on the sacrifice of himself for the life of the world when in obedience to his ,father's will he despised the shame1 that the thought of the apostolic day laid emphasis4 ,in this experience ,jesus found himself in truth numbered with the transgressors2 he was the object of scorn for all them that passed by1 they mocked at him1 at his works1 and at his confident trust in ,god4 ,in this last extremity the darkness of ,gethsemane again swept over ,jesus' soul1 when he cried out ,my ,god1 my ,god1 recalling the words of one of the saints of old in his hour of distress 7,ps4 xxii474 ,yet1 like him1 ,jesus kept hold on the certainty of deliverance2 the darkness passed at length4 #bje4 ,the evangelists preserve several sayings of ,jesus from the cross1 the records of the different gospels being remarkably diverse4 ,mark and ,matthew record the exclamation1 ,my ,god1 my ,god 7,eloi1 ,eloi71 why hast thou forsaken me1 which the bystander misconstrued as a call for ,elijah1 thinking this pseudo-,messiah was reproaching ,elijah for failing to come to his help4 ,the same gospels tell of the loud cry with which ,jesus died4 ,luke omits the call ,eloi1 and gives in place of the last expiring cry the prayer of trust1 ,father1 into thy hands ,i commend my spirit 7xxiii4 #df74 ,earlier1 however1 this gospel tells of ,jesus' word to the penitent robber1 ,to-day shalt thou be with me in ,paradise 7xxiii4 #dc71 and of the prayer for his foes1 that is1 for the ,jewish people who blindly condemned him 7xxiii4 #cd74 ,the oldest manuscripts cause some doubt whether this last saying was originally a part of the ,gospel of ,luke4 ,if it was not it would belong in the same class with the story of the sinful woman which we now find in ,john1 both being authentic records of the life of ,jesus1 though from some other source than that in which we now find them4 ,the fourth gospel gives quite an independent group of sayings4 ,it interprets the dying cry as1 ,it is finished 7xix4 #cj71 and preceding this it gives the cry1 ,i thirst 7xix4 #bh71 which led to the offering of the vinegar of which the first two gospels speak4 ,earlier it tells of the committal of ,mary to the care of the beloved disciple 7xix4 #bf1 #bg74 ,of these seven sayings1 ,eloi1 ,i thirst1 ,father1 into thy hand ,i commend my spirit1 and ,it is finished belong to the last hours of the life of the crucified one1 after the darkness of which the first three gospels speak had overshadowed the land4 ,of the cause of that darkness they give no hint1 for ,luke's expression cannot mean an eclipse1 since an eclipse at ,passover time1 that is1 at full moon1 is an impossibility4 ,the conjecture that dense clouds hid the sun is common1 and is as suitable as any other4 ,whatever the cause1 the evangelists saw in it a token of nature's awe at the death of the ,son of ,god4 ,during the hours of the darkness the waves swept over his soul1 as the cry my ,god shows to our reverent thought4 ,but the last word of trust proves that the dying ,jesus was not forsaken1 and that ,calvary1 like ,gethsemane1 was a battle won4 ,the earlier sayings all express ,jesus' continued spirit of ministry1 showing even in his bitter pain his accustomed thoughtfulness for others' need4 #bjf4 ,it is futile to speculate on the cause of ,jesus' early death4 ,he certainly suffered a much shorter time than was ordinarily the case1 as appears in the fact that at sunset it was necessary to break the legs of the robbers so as to hasten death1 ,jesus having already been some time dead4 ,there is something attractive in the theory of ,dr4 ,stroud 7,the ,physical ,cause of ,christ's ,death7 that ,jesus died of rupture of the heart4 ,it may have been true1 but the evidences on which he based his argument are insufficient for proof4 ,to the ,jews the death of their victim did not give all the satisfaction they desired4 ,in the first place1 ,pilate insisted on mocking them by posting over the head of ,jesus the placard1 ,the ,king of the ,jews 7see ,john xix4 #ai-bb72 moreover1 their haste had brought the crime into close proximity to the feast which they were eager to keep from defilement2 so that they had still to beg of ,pilate that he would hasten the death of the victims1 that their bodies might not remain to desecrate the following ,sabbath sanctity 7,john xix4 #ca-cg72 while for those who witnessed it the death of ,jesus deepened the impression that a hideous crime had been committed in the slaughter of an innocent man 7,mark xv4 #ci74 #bjg4 ,among the bystanders few of the disciples of ,jesus were to be found--they were hiding in fear4 ,yet some faithful women1 and two courageous councillors of ,jerusalem1 were bold enough to make their loyalty known4 ,these two men1 ,joseph of ,arimathea and ,nicodemus1 were members of the sanhedrin1 but they had had no part in the condemnation of ,jesus2 and after knowing that he was dead1 ,joseph begged of ,pilate the body1 and he and ,nicodemus took ,jesus down from the cross and laid him in a tomb which ,joseph owned near the place of crucifixion1 rendering such tender ministries as were possible in the closing hours of the day4 ,the women who had witnessed his end meanwhile were arranging also to anoint the body4 ,they took notice where the two friends had laid him1 and then went away to rest on the ,sabbath day1 according to the commandment4 #bjh4 ,to the ,jews it was a high day1 the first ,sabbath in the eight days of their holy feast 7,john xix4 #ca74 ,they had eagerly guarded their conduct that no ceremonial defilement might prevent their sharing in the paschal feast4 ,they believed that they had rid their nation of a dangerous disturber of its peace1 and men whose conscience shrank not from making ,god's house a house of merchandise1 who would punish one who ventured to cure a mortal disease if it chanced to cross their ,sabbath traditions1 who had condemned to death the holiest man and godliest teacher the world had ever seen because he did not square with their heartless formalism1--such men hardly had conscience enough to feel repentance or remorse for the cowardly injustice and crime with which of their own choice they had reddened their hands 7,matt1 xxvii4 #be74 ,they doubtless kept their feast with satisfaction4 ,not a few hearts1 however1 were heavy with grief and disappointed hope4 ,they had believed that ,jesus was he that should redeem ,israel 7,luke xxiv4 #ba74 ,stunned1 they could not throw away the faith which he had kindled in their hearts4 ,yet he was dead1 and only faintly1 if at all1 did they recall his prediction of suffering and his certainty of triumph through it all 7,john xx4 #i74 ,what remained for them was the last tender ministry to their dead ,lord4 ,outline of ,events after the ,resurrection ,the day of the resurrection--,sunday4 ,the visit of the women to the tomb--,matt4 xxviii4 #a-h2 ,mark xvi4 #a-h2 ,luke xxiv4 #a-ab2 ,john xx4 #a-aj4 ,jesus' first appearance2 to ,mary--,matt4 xxviii4 #i #aj2 ,mark xvi4 #i-aa2 ,john xx4 #aa-ah4 ,the report of the watch--,matt4 xxviii4 #aa-ae4 ,the appearance to ,simon ,peter--,i4 ,cor4 xv4 #e4 ,the walk to ,emmaus--,mark xvi #ab1ac2 ,luke xxiv4 #ac-ce4 ,the appearance to the ten in the evening--,mark xvi4 #ad2 ,luke xxiv4 #cf-dc2 ,john xx4 #ai-be2 ,i4 ,cor4 xv4 #e4 ,one week later--,sunday4 ,the appearance to the eleven1 with ,thomas--,john xx4 #bf-bi4 ,later appearances4 ,to seven disciples by the sea of ,galilee--,john xxi4 #a-bd4 ,to a company of disciples in4 ,galilee--,matt1 xxviii4 #af-bj2 ,mark xvi4 #ae-ah2 ,i4 ,cor4 xv4 #f4 ,the appearance to ,james--,i4 ,cor4 xv4 #g4 ,to the disciples in ,jerusalem1 followed by the ascension--,mark xvi4 #ai1 #bj2 ,luke xxiv4 #dd-ec2 ,acts i4 #a-ab2 ,i4 ,cor4 xv4 #g4 ,,ix ,the ,resurrection #bji4 ,christianity as a historic religious movement starts from the resurrection of ,jesus from the dead4 ,this is very clear in the preaching and writings of ,paul4 ,the first distinctively ,christian feature in his address at ,athens is his statement that ,god had designated ,jesus to be the judge of men by having raised him from the dead 7,acts xvii4 #ca71 and for him the resurrection was the demonstration of the divinity of ,christ 7,rom4 i4 #d71 and the confirmation of the ,christian hope 7,i4 ,cor4 xv474 ,with him the prime qualification for an apostle was that he should have seen the risen ,lord 7,i4 ,cor4 ix4 #a74 ,the early preaching as recorded in ,acts shows the same feature1 for after repeated testimony to the fact that ,god had raised up ,jesus1 ,peter summed up his address with the declaration1 ,let all the house of ,israel therefore know assuredly1 that ,god hath made him both ,lord and ,christ1 this ,jesus whom ye crucified 7,acts ii4 #cf74 ,in fact the buoyancy of hope and confidence of faith which gave to the despised followers of the ,nazarene their strength resulted directly from the experiences of the days which followed the deep gloom that settled over the disciples when ,jesus died4 #baj4 ,it can but seem strange to us that after ,jesus had so often foretold his death and the resurrection which should follow it1 his disciples were thrown into despair by the cross4 ,joseph of ,arimathea and ,nicodemus when they embalmed his body may not have known of these teachings which ,jesus gave to the nearer circle of his followers1 but it is difficult to believe that the women who prepared their spices to anoint his body 7,mark xvi4 #a7 had heard nothing of these predictions1 and it is certain that the apostles who received with incredulity the first news of the resurrection were the men whom ,jesus had sought to prepare for this glorious victory4 ,the disciples do not seem to have finished questioning among themselves what the rising again from the dead should mean 7,mark ix4 #aj1 compare ,luke xviii4 #cd7 until ,jesus himself explained it by his return to them after his crucifixion4 ,it was formerly common to conclude from the scepticism of the disciples that ,jesus could not have told them1 as he is reported to have done1 that he would rise again the third day4 ,it is now widely conceded1 however1 that if he foresaw and foretold his death1 he surely coupled with it a promise of resurrection1 otherwise he must have surrendered his own conviction that he was ,messiah2 for a ,messiah taken and held captive by death was apparently as foreign to ,jesus' thought as it was unthinkable for the men of his generation4 ,the inability of the disciples to adjust their ,messianic ideas to the death of their ,master was not removed by the rebuke ,jesus administered to ,peter at ,csarea ,philippi2 their objections were only silenced4 ,it would seem that even when they saw his death to be inevitable1 they were simply dumb with hope that in some way he would come off victor2 the cross and the tomb crushed out that hope--at least from most of them4 ,if one disciple1 his closest friend1 recalled and believed his words when he saw the empty tomb 7,john xx4 #h71 others were cast into still deeper sorrow by the report1 and could only say1 ,but we hoped that it was he which should redeem ,israel 7,luke xxiv4 #ba74 #baa4 ,the light which banished the gloom from the hearts of ,jesus' followers dawned suddenly4 ,there was no time for gradual readjustment of ideas and the springing of hope from a faith which would not die4 ,the uniform early tradition is that ,jesus showed himself alive to his disciples on the third day1 that is1 a little over thirty-six hours from the time of his death4 ,not only the gospels1 but ,paul1 who wrote many years before our evangelists1 testify to this 7,i4 ,cor4 xv4 #d71 as does the very early observance of the first day of the week as the ,lord's day1 and the substitution of the third day for after three days in the gospels which made use of our ,gospel of ,mark 7compare parallels with ,mark viii4 #ha2 ix4 #ca2 x4 #cd1 and see ,holtzmann1 ,nt,th ,i4 #cji74 ,of the events which occurred on that third day and after1 our earliest account is that of ,paul4 ,he gives a simple catalogue of the appearances of the risen ,lord1 referring to them as well known1 in fact as the familiar subject matter of his earliest teaching 7,i4 ,cor4 xv4 #d-h74 ,he gives definite date to none of these appearances1 indicating only their sequence4 ,he tells of six different manifestations1 beginning with an appearance to ,cephas on the third day1 then to the twelve1 then to a large company of disciples1--above five hundred1--then to ,james1 then to all the apostles4 ,the sixth in the list is his own experience1 which he puts in the same class with the appearances of the first ,easter morning4 ,two of these instances are found only in ,paul's account1 the appearance to ,james and to the five hundred brethren1 though this last may probably be the same as is referred to in the ,gospel of ,matthew 7xxviii4 #af-bj74 #bab4 ,the gospel records are much fuller1 but they differ from each other even more than they do from ,paul4 ,mark is unhappily incomplete1 for the last twelve verses in that gospel1 as we have it1 are lacking in the oldest manuscripts1 and were probably written by a second-century ,christian named ,aristion1 as a substitute for the proper end of the gospel which seems by some accident to have been lost4 ,these twelve verses are clearly compiled from our other gospels4 ,they have value as indicating the currency of the complete tradition in the early second century1 but they contribute nothing to our knowledge of the resurrection4 ,all1 then1 that ,mark tells is that the women who came early on the first day of the week to anoint the body of ,jesus found the tomb open and empty1 and saw an angel who bade them tell the disciples that the ,lord had risen4 ,how the record originally continued no one knows1 for ,matthew and ,luke use the same general testimony up to the point where ,mark breaks off1 and then go quite different ways4 ,of the two ,matthew is closer to ,mark than is ,luke4 ,the first gospel adds to the record of the second an account of an appearance of ,jesus to the women as they went to report to the disciples1 and then tells of the meeting of ,jesus with the disciples on a mountain in ,galilee1 and his parting commission to them4 ,it gives no account of the ascension4 ,luke agrees with ,mark in general concerning the visit of the women to the tomb1 the angelic vision1 and the report to the disciples4 ,he says nothing of an appearance of ,jesus to the women on their flight from the tomb1 but1 if xxiv4 #ab is genuine 7see ,r4,v4 margin71 he1 like ,john1 tells of ,peter's visit to the sepulchre4 #bac4 ,luke further reports the appearances of ,jesus to two on their way to ,emmaus1 to ,simon1 and to the eleven in ,jerusalem1--this last being blended consciously or unconsciously with the final meeting of ,jesus with the disciples before his ascension4 ,the genuine text of the gospel 7xxiv4 #ej7 says nothing of the ascension itself1 but clearly implies it4 ,in contrast with ,matthew it is noticeable that ,luke shows no knowledge of any appearance of ,jesus to his disciples in ,galilee4 ,john is quite independent of ,mark1 as well as of ,matthew and ,luke4 ,he mentions only ,mary ,magdalene in connection with the early visit to the tomb1 though perhaps he implies the presence of others with her 7we in xx4 #b74 ,he tells of a visit of ,peter and ,john to the tomb1 of an appearance of ,jesus to ,mary ,magdalene1 of an appearance to ten of the disciples in the evening1 and a week later to the eleven1 including ,thomas4 ,so far this gospel makes no reference to appearances in ,galilee2 but in the appendix 7chapter xxi47 there is added a manifestation to seven disciples as they were fishing on the ,sea of ,galilee4 #bad4 ,criticism which seeks to discredit the gospels1 for instance most recently ,rville in his ,jsus de ,nazareth1 discovers two separate and mutually exclusive lines of tradition1--one telling of appearances in ,galilee1 represented by ,mark and the last chapter in ,john1 the other telling of appearances in or near ,jerusalem1 and found in ,luke and the twentieth chapter of ,john4 ,it is said that the gospels have sought to blend the two cycles1 as when ,matthew tells of an appearance to the women in ,jerusalem on their way from the tomb1 and when the last chapter of ,john adds to the original gospel a ,galilean appearance4 ,luke1 however1 who makes no reference at all to ,galilean manifestations1 is taken to prove that originally the one cycle knew nothing of the other4 ,this theory falls1 however1 before the uniform tradition of appearances on the third day1 which must have been in ,jerusalem1 and the very early testimony of ,paul to an appearance to above five hundred brethren at once1 which could not have been in ,judea4 ,it need not surprise us that there should have been two cycles of tradition1 not however mutually exclusive1 if ,jesus did appear both in ,jerusalem and in ,galilee4 ,the same kind of local interest which is supposed to explain the one-sidedness of the synoptic story of the public ministry would easily account for one line of tradition which reported ,galilean appearances1 and another which reported those in ,jerusalem4 ,luke may have had access to information which furnished him only the ,jerusalem story4 ,john and ,peter1 however1 must have known the wider facts4 ,the very divergences and seeming contradictions of the gospels1 troublesome as they are1 indicate how completely certainty regarding the fact of the resurrection removed from the thought of the apostolic day nice carefulness concerning the testimony to individual manifestations of the risen ,lord4 ,doubtless the first preaching rested1 as in the case of ,paul1 on a simple ,i have seen the ,lord4 ,when later the detailed testimony was wanted for written gospels1 it had suffered the lot common to orally transmitted records1 and divergences had sprung up which it is no longer possible for us to resolve4 ,they do not1 however1 challenge the fact which lies behind all the varied testimony4 #bae4 ,a general view of the events of that third day and those which followed can be constructed from our gospels and ,paul4 ,early on the first day of the week certain women1 including ,mary ,magdalene1 ,mary the mother of ,james and ,joses1 ,salome1 ,joanna1 and others1 came to anoint the body of ,jesus4 ,on their arrival they found that the stone had been rolled back from the tomb4 ,mary ,magdalene saw that the grave was empty and ran to tell ,peter and ,john4 ,the others saw also a vision of angels which said that ,jesus was alive and would see his disciples in ,galilee1 and ran to report this to the disciples4 ,meanwhile ,mary ,magdalene returned1 following ,peter and ,john who ran to see the tomb1 and found it empty as she had said4 ,she lingered after they left1 and ,jesus appeared to her1 she mistaking him at first for the gardener4 ,she then went to tell the disciples that she had seen the ,lord4 ,these events evidently occurred in the early morning4 ,the next incident reported is that of the walk of two disciples1 not of the twelve1 to ,emmaus1 and the appearance of ,jesus to them4 ,at first they did not recognize him1 not even when he taught them out of the scriptures the necessity that the ,messiah should die4 ,he was made known when at evening he sat down with them to a familiar meal4 ,either before or after this event he had shown himself to ,peter4 ,this is the first manifestation reported by ,paul4 ,if ,luke xxiv4 #ab is genuine 7see ,r4,v4 margin71 he also tells that when the two again reached ,jerusalem the apostles received them with the news that ,peter had seen the ,lord4 ,that same evening ,jesus appeared suddenly among the disciples in their well-guarded upper room4 ,his coming was such that he had to convince the disciples that he was not simply a disembodied spirit4 ,luke says that he did this by bidding them handle him1 and by eating part of a fish before them4 ,according to ,john1 ,thomas was not with the others at this first meeting with the disciples4 ,a week later1 presumably in ,jerusalem1 ,jesus again manifested himself to the little company1 ,thomas being with them1 and dispelled the doubt of that disciple who loved too deeply to indulge a hope which might only disappoint4 ,he had but to see in order to believe1 and make supreme confession of his faith4 ,the next appearance was probably that to the seven disciples by the ,sea of ,galilee1 when ,peter1 who denied thrice1 was thrice tested concerning his love for his ,lord4 ,then apparently followed the meeting on the mountain reported in ,matthew1 which was probably the same as the appearance to the five hundred brethren2 then1 probably still in ,galilee1 ,jesus appeared to his brother ,james1 who from that time on was a leader among the disciples4 ,the next manifestation of which record is preserved was the final one in ,jerusalem1 after which ,jesus led his disciples out as far as ,bethany and was separated from them1 henceforth to be thought of by them as seated at the right hand of ,god4 #baf4 ,this construction of the story as given in the ,new ,testament does violence to the accounts in one particular4 ,it holds that ,matthew's report of the meeting of ,jesus with the women on their way from the tomb on ,easter morning is to be identified with his meeting with ,mary ,magdalene4 ,this can be done only if it is supposed that in the transmission of the tradition the commission given the women by the angel 7,mark xvi4 #f;f47 became blended with the message given to ,mary by the ,lord 7,john xx4 #ag71 the result being virtually the same for the religious interest of the first ,christians1 while for the historic interest of our days it constitutes a discrepancy4 ,the difficulty is less on this supposition than on any other4 ,it is highly significant that the account of the most indubitable fact in the view of the early ,christians is the most difficult portion of the gospels for the exact harmonist to deal with4 ,this is not of serious moment for the historical student4 ,it is rather a warning against theoretical ideas of inspiration4 #bag4 ,the universal acknowledgment that the early ,christians firmly believed in the resurrection of their ,lord has made the origin of that firm conviction a question of primary importance4 ,the simple facts as set forth in the ,new ,testament serve abundantly to account for the faith of the early church1 but they not only involve a large recognition of the miraculous1 they also contain perplexities for those who do not stumble at the supernatural2 hence there have been many attempts to find other solutions of the problem4 ,some of the explanations offered may be dismissed with a word3 for instance1 those which1 in one form or other1 renew the old charge found in the first gospel1 that the disciples stole the body of ,jesus1 and then declared that he had risen2 and those which assume that the death of ,jesus was apparent only1 that he fainted on the cross1 and then the chill of the night air and of the sepulchre served to revive him1 so that in the morning he was able to leave the tomb and appear to his disciples as one risen from the dead4 ,this apparent-death theory involves ,jesus in an ugly deception1 while the theory that the disciples or any group of them removed the body of ,jesus and then gave currency to the notion that he had risen1 builds the greatest ethical and religious movement known to history on a lie4 ,a slightly different explanation which was very early suggested was that the ,jews themselves1 or perhaps the gardener1 had the body removed1 and that when ,mary found the tomb empty she let her faith conclude that his absence must be due to his resurrection4 #bah4 ,this last explanation has in recent times been revived in connection with the so-called vision-hypothesis by ,renan and ,rville4 ,mary found the tomb empty1 and being herself of a highly strung nervous nature--she had been cured by ,jesus of seven devils--by thinking about the empty tomb she soon worked herself into an ecstasy in which her eyes seemed to behold what her heart desired to see4 ,she communicated her vision to the others1 and by a sort of nervous contagion1 they1 too1 fell to seeing visions1 and it is the report of these that we have in the gospels4 ,the vision-hypothesis takes with some1 ,strauss for instance1 a different form4 ,these deny that the tomb was found empty at all1 and regard this story as a contribution of the later legend-making spirit4 ,they hold that the disciples fled from ,jerusalem as soon as the death of ,jesus was an assured fact1 and not until after they found themselves amid the familiar scenes of ,galilee1 did their faith recover from the shock it had received in ,jerusalem4 ,in ,galilee the experiences of their life with ,jesus were lived over again1 and the old confidence in him as ,messiah revived4 ,thus thinking about the ,lord1 their hearts would say1 ,he cannot have died1 and after a while their faith rose to the conviction which declared1 ,he is not dead2 then they passed into an ecstatic mood and visions followed which are the germ out of which the gospel stories have grown4 #bai4 ,these different forms of the vision-hypothesis have been subjected to most searching criticism by ,keim1 who is all the more severe because his own thought has so much that is akin to them4 ,there are two objections which refute the hypothesis4 ,the first is that the uniform tradition which connects the resurrection and the first appearances with the third day after the crucifixion leaves far too short a time for the recovery of faith and the growth of ecstatic feeling which are requisite for these visions1 even supposing that the disciples' faith had such recuperative powers4 ,the second is that once such an ecstatic mood was acquired it would be according to experience in analogous cases for the visions to continue1 if not to increase1 as the thought of the risen ,lord grew more clear and familiar2 yet the tradition is uniform that the appearances of the risen ,christ ceased after1 at most1 a few weeks4 ,the only later one was that which led to the conversion of ,paul2 and though ,paul was a man somewhat given to ecstatic experiences 7see ,,ii4 ,cor4 xii471 he carefully distinguishes in his own thought his seeing of the ,lord and his heavenly visions4 ,in a word1 the disciples of ,jesus never showed a more healthy1 normal life than that which gave them strength to found a church of believers in the resurrection in the face of persecution and scorn4 #bbj4 ,keim seeks to avoid the difficulties which his own acute criticism disclosed in the ordinary vision-theory1 by another which rejects the gospel stories as legendary1 yet frankly acknowledges that the faith of the apostles in the resurrection was based on a miracle4 ,their certainty was so unshakable1 so uniform1 so abiding1 that it can be accounted for only by acknowledging that they did actually see the ,lord4 ,this seeing1 however1 was not with the eyes of sense1 but with the spiritual vision1 which properly perceives what pertains to the spirit world into which the glorified ,lord had withdrawn when he died4 ,in his spiritual estate he manifested himself to his disciples1 by a series of divinely caused and therefore essentially objective visions1 in which he proved to them abundantly that he was alive1 was victor over death1 and had been exalted by ,god to his right hand4 ,this theory is not in itself offensive to faith4 ,it concedes that the belief of the disciples rested on actual disclosures of himself to them by the glorified ,lord4 ,the difficulty with the theory is that it relegates the empty tomb to the limbo of legend1 though it is a feature of the tradition which is found in all the gospels and clearly implied in ,paul 7,i4 ,cor4 xv4 #d2 compare ,rom4 vi4 #d72 it also fails to show how this glorified ,christ came to be thought of by the disciples as risen1 rather than simply glorified in spirit4 ,this criticism brings us back to the necessity of recognizing a resurrection which was in some real sense corporeal1 difficult as that conception is for us4 ,the gospels assert this with great simplicity and delicate reserve4 ,they represent ,jesus as returning to his disciples with a body which was superior to the limitations which hedge our lives about4 ,it may be well described by ,paul's words1 ,it is sown a natural body2 it is raised a spiritual body4 ,yet the records indicate that when he willed ,jesus could offer himself to the perception of other senses than sight and hearing--handle me and see is not an invitation that we expect from a spiritual presence4 ,if1 however1 we have to confess an unsolved mystery here1 and still more in the record of his eating in the presence of the disciples 7,luke xxiv4 #da-dc71 it is permitted us to own that our knowledge of the possible conditions of the fully perfected life are not such as to warrant great dogmatism in criticising the account4 ,the empty tomb1 the objective presence of the risen ,jesus1 the renewed faith of his followers1 and their new power are established data for our thought4 ,with these1 many of the details may be left in mystery1 because we have not yet light sufficient to reveal to us all that we should like to know4 #bba4 ,the ascension of the risen ,christ to his ,father is the presupposition of all the ,new ,testament teaching4 ,the ,acts1 the ,epistles1 and the ,apocalypse join in the representation that he is now at the right hand of ,god4 ,in fact it may be said that such a view is involved in the doctrine of the resurrection1 for the very idea of that victory was that death had no more dominion over him4 ,it is a fact1 however1 that none of our gospels in their correct text 7see ,luke xxiv4 #ea1 ,r4,v4 margin7 tell of the ascension4 ,luke clearly implies it1 and ,john says that ,jesus told ,mary to tell the disciples that he was about to ascend to his ,father and their ,father4 ,in ,luke's later book1 however 7,acts i4 #a-aa71 he gives a full account of a last meeting of ,jesus with the disciples1 and of his ascension to heaven before their eyes4 ,this withdrawal in the cloud must be understood as an acted parable2 for1 in reality1 there is no reason for thinking that the clouds which hung over ,olivet that day were any nearer ,god's presence than the ground on which the disciples stood4 ,for them1 however1 such a disappearance would signify vividly the cessation of their earthly intercourse with their ,lord1 and his return to his home with the ,father4 ,the word of ,jesus to ,mary 7,john xx4 #ag7 may fairly be interpreted to mean that ,jesus had ascended to the ,father on the day of the resurrection1 and that each of his subsequent manifestations of himself were like that which later he granted to ,paul near ,damascus4 ,in fact it is easier to view the matter in this way than to conceive of ,jesus as sojourning in some hidden place for forty days after his resurrection4 ,what the disciples witnessed ten days before ,pentecost was a withdrawal similar to those which had separated him from them frequently during the recent weeks1 only now set before their eyes in such a way as to tell them that these manifestations had reached an end2 they must henceforth wait for the other representative of ,god and ,christ1 the ,spirit1 given to them at ,pentecost4 #bbb4 ,the faith with which the disciples waited for the promised spirit was a very different faith from that which ,peter confessed for his fellows at ,csarea ,philippi4 ,it had the same supreme attachment to a personal friend who had proved to be ,god's ,anointed2 the same readiness to let him lead whithersoever he would2 the same firm expectation of a restitution of all things1 in which ,god should set up his kingdom visibly1 with ,jesus as the ,king of men4 ,now1 however1 their trust was much fuller than before1 and they looked for a still more glorious kingdom when their friend and ,lord should come from heaven to assume his reign4 ,they expected ,christ to return soon in glory1 yet his death and victory made them ready to endure any persecution for him1 certain that1 like the sufferings which he endured1 it would lead to victory4 ,these disciples had no idea that in preaching a religion of personal attachment to their ,master1 in filling all men's thoughts with his name1 in building all hope on his return1 and guiding all life by his teaching and spirit1 they were cutting their moorings from the religion of their fathers4 ,they remained loyal to the law1 they were constant in the worship2 but they had poured new wine into the bottles1 and in time it proved the inadequacy of the old forms and revolutionized the world's religious life4 ,part ,,iii ,the ,minister ,i ,the ,friend of ,men #bbc4 ,in nothing does the contrast between ,jesus and ,john the ,baptist appear more clearly than in their attitude towards common social life4 ,john had his training and did his work apart from the homes of men4 ,the wilderness was his chosen and fit scene of labor4 ,from this solitude he sent forth his summons and warning to his people4 ,they who sought him for fuller teaching went after him and found him where he was4 ,they then returned to their homes and their work1 leaving the prophet with his few disciples in their seclusion4 ,with ,jesus it was otherwise4 ,his first act1 after attaching to himself a few followers1 was to go into ,galilee to the town of ,cana1 and there with them to partake in the festivities of a wedding4 ,while it is true that most of his teaching was by the wayside1 among the hills1 or by the sea1 it is still a surprise to discover how often his ministry found its occasion as he was sitting at table in the house of some friend1 real or feigned4 ,the genuine friendships of ,jesus as they appear in the gospels are among the most characteristic features of his life--witness the home at ,bethany1 the women who followed him even to the cross1 and ministered to him of their substance1 and the beloved disciple4 ,jesus calls attention to this contrast between himself and ,john1 reminding the people how some of the scornful pointed the finger at himself as a gluttonous man and a wine-bibber1 a friend of publicans and sinners4 ,he received his training as a carpenter while ,john was in his wilderness solitude4 ,men who would probably have stood with admiration before ,john had he visited their synagogue1 found ,jesus too much one of themselves1 and would none of him as a prophet 7,mark vi4 #b1 #c74 #bbd4 ,a like contrast sets ,jesus apart from the scribes of his day4 ,these were revered by the people1 in part perhaps because they held the common folk in such contempt4 ,their attitude was frank--this multitude which knoweth not the law is accursed 7,john vii4 #di74 ,the popular enthusiasm for ,jesus filled them with scorn1 until it began to give them alarm4 ,they were glad to be reverenced by the people1 to interpret the law for them binding heavy burdens and grievous to be borne2 but showed little genuine interest in them4 ,jesus1 on the other hand1 not only had the reverence of the multitudes1 but welcomed them4 ,first his words and his works drew them1 then he himself enchained their hearts4 ,outcasts1 rich and poor1 crowded into his company1 and found him not only a teacher1 a prophet of righteousness rebuking their sins and calling to repentance1 but a friend1 who was not ashamed to be seen in their homes1 to have them among his closest attendants1 and to be known as their champion4 ,it was when such as these were pressing upon him to hear him that ,jesus replied to the criticism of the scribes in the three parables of recovered treasure which stand among the rarest gems of the ,master's teaching 7,luke xv474 #bbe4 ,one class only in the community failed of his sympathy1--the self-righteous hypocrites1 who thought that godliness consisted in scrupulous regard for pious ceremonies1 and that zeal was most laudable when directed to the removal of motes from their brothers' eyes4 ,for these ,jesus had words of rebuke and burning scorn4 ,it has been common with some to emphasize his friendship for the poor as if he chose them for their poverty1 and the unlettered for their ignorance4 ,yet ,jesus had no faster friends than the women who followed from ,galilee and ministered to him of their substance1 and the two sanhedrists1 ,joseph whose new tomb received his body1 and ,nicodemus whose liberality provided the spices which embalmed him2 for these1 and not the ,galilean fishermen1 were faithful to the last at the cross and at the grave4 ,in no home did ,jesus find a fuller or more welcome friendship than in ,bethany1 where all that is told us of its conditions suggests the opposite of poverty4 ,the rich young ruler1 who showed his too great devotion to his possessions1 would hardly have sought out ,jesus with his question1 if he was known as the champion of poverty as in itself essential to godliness4 ,the demand made of him surprised him1 and was suited to his special case4 ,jesus saw clearly the difficulties which wealth puts in the way of faith1 but he recognized the power of ,god to overcome them1 and when ,zaccheus turned disciple1 the demand for complete surrender of possessions was not repeated4 ,on the contrary ,jesus taught his disciples that even the unrighteous mammon should be used to win friends 7,luke xvi4 #i71 so ministering unto some of the least of these my brethren 7,matt4 xxv4 #dj74 ,the beatitude in ,luke's report of the sermon on the mount 7,luke vi4 #bj7 was not for the poor as poor simply1 but for those poor folk lightly esteemed who had spiritual sense enough to follow ,jesus1 while the well-to-do as a class were content with the consolation already in hand4 ,jesus' interest was in character1 wherever it was manifest1 whether in the repentance of a chief of the publicans1 or in the widow woman's gift of all her living2 whether it appeared in the hunger for truth shown by ,nicodemus1 a teacher of ,israel1 or in the woman that was a sinner who washed his feet with her tears4 ,he was the great revealer of the worth of simple humanity1 in man1 woman1 or child4 ,our world has never seen another who so surely penetrated all masks or disguising circumstances and found the man himself1 and having found him loved him4 #bbf4 ,this sympathy for simple manhood was manifested in a genuine interest in the common life of men in business1 pleasure1 or trouble4 ,it is significant that the first exercise of his miraculous power should have been to relieve the embarrassment of his host at a wedding feast4 ,doubtless we are to understand that the miracle had a deeper purpose than simply supplying the needed wine 7,john ii4 #aa72 but the significant thing is that ,jesus should choose to manifest his glory in this way4 ,it shows a genuine appreciation of social life quite impossible to an ascetic like the ,baptist4 ,the same appears in the way ,jesus allowed his publican apostle to introduce him to his former associates1 to the great scandal of the ,pharisees2 for a feast at which ,jesus and a number of publicans were the chief guests accorded not with religion as they understood it4 ,jesus1 however1 seems to have found it a welcome opportunity to seek some of his lost sheep4 ,the illustrations which he used in his teaching were often his best introduction to the common heart1 for they were drawn from the occupations of the people who came to listen2 while the aid ,jesus gave to his disciples in their fishing showed not only his power1 but also his respect for their work1 a respect further proved when he called them to be fishers of men4 #bbg4 ,beyond this interest in life's joy and its occupations was that unfailing sympathy with its troubles which drew the multitudes to him4 ,he was far more than a healer2 he studied to rid the people of the idea that he was a mere miracle-monger4 ,he healed them because he loved them1 and he asked of those who sought his help that they too should feel the personal relation into which his power had brought them4 ,this seems to be in part the significance of his uniform demand for faith4 ,doubtless ,mary1 out of whom he had cast seven devils1 and ,simon the leper1 who seems to have experienced his power to heal1 are only single instances of many who found in him far more than at first they sought4 ,no further record remains of the paralytic who carried off his bed1 but left the burden of his sins behind1 nor of the woman who loved much because she had been forgiven much1 nor of the ,samaritan whose life he uncovered that he might be able to give her the living water4 ,some who had his help for body or heart may have gone away forgetful1 after the fashion of men1 but in the company of those who were bold to bear his name after his resurrection there must have been many who could not forget4 #bbh4 ,jesus' interest in common life was genuine1 and he entered into it with his heart4 ,the incident of the anointing of his feet as he sat a guest in a ,pharisee's house shows that he was keenly sensitive to the treatment he received at the hands of men4 ,he had nothing to say of the slights his host had shown him1 until that host began mentally to criticise the woman who was ministering to him in her love and penitence4 ,then with quiet dignity ,jesus mentioned the several omissions of courtesy which he had noticed since he came in1 contrasting the woman's attention with ,simon's neglect 7,luke vii4 #cf-ej74 ,one of the saddest things about ,gethsemane was ,jesus' vain pleading with his disciples for sympathy in his awful hour4 ,they were too much dazed with awe and fear to lend him their hearts' support4 ,he recognized indeed that it was only a weakness of the flesh2 yet he craved their friendship's help1 and repeatedly asked them to watch with him1 for his soul was exceeding sorrowful4 ,in contrast with this disappointment stands the joy with which ,jesus heard from ,peter the confession which proved that the falling off of popular enthusiasm had not shaken the loyalty of his chosen companions1--,blessed art thou1 ,simon ,bar-,jonah3 for flesh and blood have not revealed it unto thee1 but my ,father which is in heaven 7,matt4 xvi4 #ag74 ,there is the sorrow of loneliness as well as rebuke in his complaint1 ,o faithless generation1 how long shall ,i be with you8 how long shall ,i bear with you8 7,mark ix4 #ai71 and the lamentation over ,jerusalem comes from a longing heart 7,luke xiii4 #cd74 #bbi4 ,the independence of human sympathy which ,jesus often showed is all the more glorious for the evidence the gospels give of his longing for it4 ,when he put the question to the twelve1 ,would ye also go away8 7,john vi4 #fg71 there is no hint in his manner that their defection with the rest would turn him at all from faithfully fulfilling the task appointed to him by his ,father4 ,in fact only now and then did he allow his own hunger to appear4 ,ordinarily he showed himself as the friend longing to help1 but not seeking ministry from others2 he rather sought to win his disciples to unselfishness by showing as well as saying that he came not to be ministered unto but to minister4 ,he washed the feet of his disciples to rebuke their petty jealousies1 but we have no hint that he showed that he felt personal neglect4 ,his own heart was full of sorrow even unto death1 but his word was1 ,let not your heart be troubled2 he asked in vain for the sympathy of his nearest friends in ,gethsemane1 yet when the band came to arrest him he pleaded1 ,let these1 the disciples1 go their way4 ,,ii ,the ,teacher with ,authority #bcj4 ,to his contemporaries ,jesus was primarily a teacher4 ,the name by which he is oftenest named in the gospels is ,teacher1--translated ,master in the ,english versions and the equivalent of ,rabbi in the language used by ,jesus 7,john i4 #ch74 ,people thought of him as a rabbi approved of ,god by his power to work miracles 7,john iii4 #b71 but it was not the miracles that most impressed them4 ,the popular comment was1 ,he taught them as one having authority1 and not as the scribes 7,matt4 vii4 #bi74 ,two leading characteristics of the scribes were their pride of learning1 and their bondage to tradition4 ,in fact the learning of which they were proud was knowledge of the body of tradition on whose sanctity they insisted2 their teaching was scholastic and pedantic1 an endless citing of precedents and discussion of trifles4 ,to all this ,jesus presented a refreshing contrast4 ,in commending truth to the people1 he was content with a simple verily1 and in defining duty he rested on his unsupported ,i say unto you1 even when his dictum stood opposed to that which had been said to them of old time4 #bca4 ,in this freedom from the bondage of tradition ,jesus was not alone4 ,john the ,baptist's message had been as simple and unsupported by appeal to the elders4 ,jesus and ,john both revived the method of the older prophets1 and it is in large measure due to this that the people distinguished them clearly from their ordinary teachers1 and held them both to be prophets4 ,one thing involved in this authoritative method was a frank appeal to the conscience of men4 ,so completely had the scribes substituted memory of tradition for appeal to the simple sense of right1 that they were utterly dazed when ,jesus undertook to settle questions of ,sabbath observance and ceremonial cleanliness by asking his hearers to use their religious common sense1 and consider whether a man is not much better than a sheep1 or whether a man is not defiled rather by what comes out of his mouth than by what enters into it 7,matt4 xii4 #ab2 ,mark vii4 #ae74 ,jesus was for his generation the great discoverer of the conscience1 and for all time the champion of its dignity against finespun theory and traditional practice4 ,all his teaching has this quality in greater or less degree4 ,it appears when by means of the parable of the ,good ,samaritan he makes the lawyer answer his own question 7,luke x4 #be-cg71 when he bids the multitude in ,jerusalem judge not according to the appearance1 but judge righteous judgment 7,john vii4 #bd71 when he asks his inquisitors in the temple whose image and superscription the coin they used in common business bears 7,mark xii4 #af74 ,his whole work in ,galilee was proof of his confidence that in earnest souls the conscience would be his ally1 and that he could impress himself on them far more indelibly than any sign from heaven could enforce his claim4 #bcb4 ,jesus was not only independent of the traditions of the scribes1 he was also very free at times with the letter of the ,old ,testament4 ,when by a word he made all meats clean 7,mark vii4 #ai71 he set himself against the permanent validity of the ,levitical ritual4 ,when the ,pharisees pleaded ,moses for their authority in the matter of divorce1 ,jesus referred them back of ,moses to the original constitution of mankind 7,matt4 xix4 #c-i74 ,his general attitude to the ,sabbath was not only opposed to the traditions of the scribes1 it also disregarded the ,old ,testament conception of the ,sabbath as an institution4 ,yet ,jesus took pains to declare that he came not to set aside the old but to fulfil it 7,matt4 v4 #ag74 ,the contrasts which he draws between things said to them of old and his new teachings 7,matt4 v4 #ba-dh7 look at first much like a doing away of the old4 ,jesus did not so conceive them4 ,he rather thought of them as fresh statements of the idea which underlay the old2 they fulfilled the old by realizing more fully that which it had set before an earlier generation4 ,he was the most radical teacher the men of his day could conceive1 but his work was clearing rubbish away from the roots of venerable truth that it might bear fruit1 rather than rooting up the old to put something else in its place4 #bcc4 ,the ,old ,testament was for ,jesus a holy book4 ,his mind was filled with its stories and its language4 ,in the teachings which have been preserved for us he has made use of writings from all parts of the ,jewish scriptures--,law1 ,prophets1 and ,psalms4 ,the ,old ,testament furnished him the weapons for his own soul's struggle with temptation 7,matt4 iv4 #d1 #g1 #aj71 it gave him arguments for use against his opponents 7,mark xii4 #bd-bg2 ii4 #be-bg71 and it was for him an inexhaustible storehouse of illustration in his teaching4 ,when inquirers sought the way of life he pointed them to the scriptures 7,mark x4 #ai2 see also ,john v4 #ci71 and declared that the rising of one from the dead would not avail for the warning of those who were unmoved by ,moses and the prophets 7,luke xvi4 #ca74 ,when ,jesus' personal attitude to the ,old ,testament is considered it is noticeable that while his quotations and allusions cover a wide range1 and show very general familiarity with the whole book1 there appears a decided predominance of ,deuteronomy1 the last part of ,isaiah1 and the ,psalms4 ,it is not difficult to see that these books are closer in spirit to his own thought than much else in the old writings2 his use of the scripture shows that some parts appealed to him more than others4 #bcd4 ,jesus as a teacher was popular and practical rather than systematic and theoretical4 ,the freshness of his ideas is proof that he was not lacking in thorough and orderly thinking1 for his complete departure from current conceptions of the kingdom of ,god indicates perfect mastery of ethical and theological truth4 ,it is all the more remarkable1 therefore1 that so much of his profoundest teaching seems to have been almost accidental4 ,the most formal discourse preserved to us is the sermon on the mount1 in which human conduct is regulated by the thought of ,god as ,father and ,searcher of hearts4 ,for the rest the great ideas of ,jesus have utterance in response to specific conditions presented to him in his ministry4 ,his most radical sayings concerning the ,sabbath followed a criticism of his disciples for plucking ears of grain as they passed through the fields on the ,sabbath day 7,mark ii4 #bc-bh72 his authority to forgive sins was announced when a paralytic was brought to him for healing 7,mark ii4 #a-ab72 so far as the gospels indicate1 we should have missed ,jesus' clearest statement of the significance of his own death but for the ambitious request of ,james and ,john 7,mark x4 #ce-de74 ,examples of the occasional character of his teaching might be greatly multiplied4 ,he did not seek to be the founder of a school2 important as his teachings were1 they take a place in his work second to his personal influence on his followers4 ,he desired to win disciples whose faith in him would withstand all shocks1 rather than to train experts who would pass on his ideas to others4 ,his disciples did become experts1 for we owe to them the vivid presentation we have of the exalted and unique teaching of their ,master2 but they were thus skilful because they surrendered themselves to his personal mastery1 and learned to know the springs of his own life and thought4 #bce4 ,nothing in the teaching of ,jesus is more remarkable than his confidence that men who believed in him would adequately represent him and his message to the world4 ,the parable of the ,leaven seems to have set forth his own method4 ,we owe our gospels to no injunction given by him to write down what he said and did4 ,he impressed himself on his followers1 filled them with a love to himself which made them sensitive to his ideas as a photographic plate is to light1 teaching them his truth in forms that did not at first show any effect on their thought1 but were developed into strength and clearness by the experiences of the passing years4 ,christian ethics and theology are far more than an orderly presentation of the teaching of ,jesus2 in so far as they are purely ,christian they are the systematic setting forth of truth involved1 though not expressed1 in what he said and did in his ministry among men4 ,his ideas were radical and thoroughly revolutionary4 ,his method1 however1 had in it all the patience of ,god's working in nature1 and the hidden noiseless power of an evolution is its characteristic4 ,hence it was that he chose to teach some things exclusively in figure4 ,so great and unfamiliar a truth as the gradual development of ,god's kingdom was unwelcome to the thought of his time4 ,he made it1 therefore1 the theme of many of his parables2 and although the disciples did not understand what he meant1 the picture remained with them1 and in after years they grew up to his idea4 #bcf4 ,jesus' use of illustration is one of the most marked features of his teaching4 ,in one sense this simply proves him to be a genuine ,oriental1 for to contemplate and present abstract truths in concrete form is characteristic of the ,semitic mind4 ,in the case of ,jesus1 however1 it proves more3 the variety and homeliness of his illustrations show how completely conversant he was alike with common life and with spiritual truth4 ,there is a freedom and ease about his use of figurative language which suggests1 as nothing else could1 his own clear certainty concerning the things of which he spoke4 ,the fact1 too1 that his mind dealt so naturally with the highest thoughts has made his illustrations unique for profound truth and simple beauty4 ,nearly the whole range of figurative speech is represented in his recorded words1 including forms like irony and hyperbole1 often held to be unnatural to such serious speech as his4 #bcg4 ,another figure has become almost identified with the name of ,jesus1--such abundant and incomparable use did he make of it4 ,parable was1 however1 no invention of his1 for the rabbis of his own and later times1 as well as the sages and prophets who went before them1 made use of it4 ,as distinguished from other forms of illustration1 the parable is a picture true to actual human life1 used to enforce a religious truth4 ,the picture may be drawn in detail1 as in the story of the ,lost ,son 7,luke xv4 #aa-cb71 or it may be the concisest narration possible1 as in the parable of the ,leaven 7,matt4 xiii4 #cc72 but it always retains its character as a narrative true to human experience4 ,it is this that gives parable the peculiar value it has for religious teaching1 since it brings unfamiliar truth close home to every-day life4 ,like all the illustrations used by ,jesus1 the parable was ordinarily chosen as a means of making clear the spiritual truth which he was presenting4 ,illustration never finds place as mere ornament in his addresses4 ,his parables1 however1 were sometimes used to baffle the unteachable and critical4 ,such was the case on the occasion in ,jesus' life when attention is first called in the gospels to this mode of teaching 7,mark iv4 #a-cd74 ,the parable of the ,sower would mean little to hearers who held the crude and material ideas of the kingdom which prevailed among ,jesus' contemporaries4 ,it was used as an invitation to consider a great truth1 and for teachable disciples was full of suggestion and meaning2 while for the critical curiosity of unfriendly hearers it was only a pointless story1--a means adopted by ,jesus to save his pearls from being trampled under foot1 and perhaps also to prevent too early a decision against him on the part of his opponents4 #bch4 ,in nothing is ,jesus' ease in handling deepest truth more apparent than in his use of irony and hyperbole in his illustrations4 ,in his reference to the ,pharisees as ninety and nine just persons which need no repentance 7,luke xv4 #g71 and in his question1 ,many good works have ,i shewed you from the ,father1 for which of these works do you stone me8 7,john x4 #cb71 the irony is plain1 but not any plainer than the rhetorical exaggeration of his accusation against the scribes1 ,you strain out a gnat and swallow a camel 7,matt1 xxiii4 #bd71 or his declaration that it is easier for a camel to go through a needle's eye than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of ,god 7,mark x4 #be71 or his charge1 ,if a man cometh unto me and hateth not his own father and mother 444 he cannot be my disciple 7,luke xiv4 #bf74 ,the force of these statements is in their hyperbole4 ,only to an interpretation which regards the letter above the spirit can they cause difficulty4 ,in so far as they remove ,jesus utterly from the pedantic carefulness for words which marked the scribes they are among the rare treasures of his teachings4 ,the simple spirit will not busy itself about finding something that may be called a needle's eye through which a camel can pass by squeezing1 nor will it seek a camel which could conceivably be swallowed1 nor will it stumble at a seeming command to hate those for whom ,god's law1 as emphasized indeed by ,jesus 7,mark vii4 #f-ac71 demands peculiar love and honor4 ,the childlike spirit which is heir of ,god's kingdom readily understands this warning against the snare of riches1 this rebuke of the hypocritical life1 and this demand for a love for the ,master which shall take the first place in the heart4 #bci4 ,jesus sometimes used object lessons as well as illustrations1 and for the same purpose1--to make his thought transparently clear to his hearers4 ,the demand for a childlike faith in order to enter the kingdom of ,god was enforced by the presence of a little child whom ,jesus set in the midst of the circle to whom he was talking 7,mark ix4 #ce-cg74 ,the unworthy ambitions of the disciples were rebuked by ,jesus' taking himself the menial place and washing their feet 7,john xiii4 #a-ae74 #bdj4 ,the simplicity and homeliness of ,jesus' teaching are not more remarkable than the alertness of mind which he showed on all occasions4 ,the comment of the fourth gospel1 he needed not that any one should bear witness concerning man1 for he himself knew what was in man 7ii4 #be71 doubtless refers to his supernatural insight1 but it also tells of his quick perception of what was involved in each situation in which he found himself4 ,whether it was ,nicodemus coming to him by night1 or the lawyer asking1 ,who is my neighbor8 or a dissatisfied heir demanding that his brother divide the inheritance with him1 or a group of ,pharisees seeking to undermine his power by attributing his cures to the devil1 or trying to entrap him by a question about tribute1 ,jesus was never caught unawares4 ,his absorption in heavenly truth was not accompanied by any blindness to earthly facts4 ,he knew what the men of his day were thinking about1 what they hoped for1 to what follies they gave their hearts1 and what sins hid ,god from them4 ,he was eminently a man of the people1 thoroughly acquainted with all that interested his fellows1 and in the most natural1 human way4 ,whatever of the supernatural there was in his knowledge did not make it unnatural4 ,as he was socially at ease with the best and most cultivated of his day1 so he was intellectually the master of every situation4 ,this appears nowhere more strikingly than in his dealing with his pharisaic critics4 ,when they were shocked by his forgiveness of sins1 or offended by his indifference to the ,sabbath tradition1 or goaded into blasphemy by his growing influence over the people1 or troubled by his disciples' disregard of the traditional washings1 or when later they conspired to entrap him in his speech1--from first to last he was so manifestly superior to his opponents that they withdrew discomfited1 until at length they in madness killed1 without reason1 him against whom they could find no adequate charge4 ,his lack of learning 7,john vii4 #ae7 was simply his innocence of rabbinic training2 he had no diploma from their schools4 ,in keenness of argument1 however1 and invincibleness of reasoning1 as well as in the clearness of his insight1 he was ever their unapproachable superior4 ,his reply to the charge of league with ,beelzebub is as merciless an exposure of feeble malice as can be found in human literature4 ,he was as worthy to be ,master of his disciples' thinking as he was to be ,lord of their hearts4 #bda4 ,in the teaching of ,jesus two topics have the leading place1--the ,kingdom of ,god1 and ,himself4 ,his thought about himself calls for separate consideration1 but it may be remarked here that as his ministry progressed he spoke with increasing frankness about his own claims4 ,it became more and more apparent that he sought to be ,lord rather than ,teacher simply1 and to impress men with himself rather than with his ideas4 ,yet his ideas were constantly urged on his disciples1 and they were summed up in his conception of the kingdom of ,god1 or the kingdom of heaven4 ,this was the topic1 directly or indirectly1 of far the greater part of his teaching4 ,the phrase was as familiar to his contemporaries as it is common in his words2 but his understanding of it was radically different from theirs4 ,he and they took it to mean the realization on earth of heavenly conditions 7kingdom of heaven71 or of ,god's actual sovereignty over the world 7kingdom of ,god72 but of the ,god whose will was thus to be realized they conceived quite differently4 ,strictly speaking there is nothing novel in the idea of ,god as ,father which abounds in the teaching of ,jesus4 ,he never offers it as novel1 but takes it for granted that his hearers are familiar with the name4 ,it appears in some earlier writers both in and out of the ,old ,testament4 ,yet no one of them uses it as constantly1 as naturally1 and as confidently as did ,jesus4 ,with him it was the simple equivalent of his idea of ,god1 and it was central for his personal religious life as well as for his teaching4 ,my ,father always lies back of references in his teaching to your ,father4 ,this is the key to what is novel in ,jesus' idea of the kingdom of ,god4 ,his contemporaries thought of ,god as the covenant king of ,israel who would in his own time make good his promises1 rid his people of their foes1 set them on high among the nations1 establish his law in their hearts1 and rule over them as their king4 ,the whole conception1 while in a real sense religious1 was concerned more with the nation than with individuals1 and looked rather for temporal blessings than for spiritual good4 ,with ,jesus the kingdom is the realization of ,god's fatherly sway over the hearts of his children4 ,it begins when men come to own ,god as their ,father1 and seek to do his will for the love they bear him4 ,it shows development towards its full manifestation when men as children of ,god look on each other as brothers1 and govern conduct by love which will no more limit itself to friends than ,god shuts off his sunlight from sinners4 ,from this love to ,god and men it will grow into a new order of things in which ,god's will shall be done as it is in heaven1 even as from the little leaven the whole lump is leavened4 ,jesus did not set aside the idea of a judgment1 but while his fellows commonly made it the inauguration1 he made it the consummation of the kingdom2 they thought of it as the day of confusion for apostates and ,gentiles1 he taught that it would be the day of condemnation of all unbrotherliness 7,matt4 xxv4 #ca-df74 ,this central idea--a new order of life in which men have come to love and obey ,god as their ,father1 and to love and live for men as their brothers--attaches to itself naturally all the various phases of the teaching of ,jesus1 including his emphasis on himself2 for he made that emphasis in order that1 as the ,way1 the ,truth1 and the ,life1 he might lead men unto the ,father4 ,,iii ,jesus' ,knowledge of ,truth #bdb4 ,the note of authority in the teaching of ,jesus is evidence of his own clear knowledge of the things of which he spoke4 ,as if by swift intuition1 his mind penetrated to the heart of things4 ,in the scriptures he saw the underlying truth which should stand till heaven and earth shall pass 7,matt4 v4 #ah72 in the ceremonies of his people's religion he saw so clearly the spiritual significance that he did not hesitate to sacrifice the passing form 7,mark vii4 #ad-bc72 such a theological development as the pharisaic doctrine of the resurrection he unhesitatingly adopted because he saw that it was based on the ultimate significance of the soul's fellowship with ,god 7,mark xiii4 #bd-bg72 he reduced religion and ethics to simplicity by summing up all commandments in one1--,thou shalt love 7,matt4 xxii4 #cg-dj72 and at the same time insisted as no other prophet had done on the finality of conduct and the necessity of obedience 7,matt4 vii4 #ba-bg74 ,his penetration to the heart of an idea was nowhere more clear than in his doctrine of the kingdom of ,god as realized in the filial soul1 and as involving a judgment which should take cognizance only of brotherliness of conduct4 ,it would not be difficult to show that all these different aspects of his teaching grew naturally out of his knowledge of ,god as his ,father and the ,father of all men2 they were the fruit1 therefore1 of personal certainty of ultimate and all-dominating truth4 #bdc4 ,if the knowledge of ,jesus had been shown only in matters of spiritual truth1 it would still have marked him as one apart from ordinary men4 ,there were other directions1 however1 in which he surpassed the common mind4 ,the fourth gospel declares that he knew what was in man 7ii4 #be71 and all the evangelists give evidence of such knowledge4 ,not only the designation of ,judas as the traitor1 and of ,peter as the one who should deny him1 before their weakness and sin had shown themselves1 but also ,jesus' quick reading of the heart of the paralytic who was brought to him for healing1 and of the woman who washed his feet with her tears 7,mark ii4 #e2 ,luke vii4 #dg71 and his knowledge of the character of ,simon and ,nathanael 7,john i4 #db1 #dg17 as well as his sure perception of the intent of the various questioners whom he met1 indicate that he had powers of insight unshared by his fellow men4 #bdd4 ,furthermore1 the gospels state explicitly that ,jesus predicted his own death from a time at least six months before the end 7,matt4 xvi4 #ba71 and they indicate that the idea was not new to him when he first communicated it to his disciples 7,matt4 xvi4 #bc2 ,mark ii4 #bj74 ,he viewed his approaching death1 moreover1 as a necessity 7,mark viii4 #ca-cc71 yet he was no fatalist concerning it4 ,he could still in ,gethsemane plead with his ,father1 to whom all things are possible1 to open to him some other way of accomplishing his work 7,mark xiv4 #cf74 ,the old ,testament picture of the suffering and dying servant of ,jehovah 7,isa4 liii47 was doubtless familiar to ,jesus4 ,although it was not interpreted ,messianically by the scribes1 ,jesus probably applied it to himself when thinking of his death2 yet the predictions of the prophets always provided for a non-fulfilment in case ,israel should turn unto the ,lord in truth 7see ,ezek4 xxxiii4 #aj-bj74 ,moreover1 the contradiction which ,jesus felt between his ideas and those cherished by the leaders of his people1 whether priests or scribes1 was so radical that his death might well seem inevitable2 yet it was possible that his people might repent1 and ,jerusalem consent to accept him as ,god's anointed4 ,neither prophecy1 nor the actual conditions of his life1 therefore1 would give ,jesus any fatalistic certainty of his coming death4 ,in ,gethsemane his heart pleaded against it1 while his will bowed still to ,god in perfect loyalty4 ,it is not for us to explain his prediction of death by appealing to the connection which the apostolic thought established between the death of ,christ and the salvation of men1 for we are not competent to say that ,god could not have effected redemption in some other way if the repentance of the ,jews had1 humanly speaking1 removed from ,jesus the necessity of death4 ,all that can be said is that he knew the prophetic picture1 knew also the hardness of heart which had taken possession of the ,jews1 and knew that he must not swerve from his course of obedience to what he saw to be ,god's will for him4 ,since that obedience brought him into fatal opposition to human prejudice and passion1 he saw that he must die1 and that such a death was one of the steps in his establishment of ,god's kingdom among men4 ,so he went on his way ready not to be ministered unto but to minister1 and to give his life a ransom for many 7,mark x4 #de74 #bde4 ,with his prediction of his death the gospels usually associate a prophecy of his speedy resurrection4 ,as has been already remarked 7sect4 #baj71 it is being generally recognized that if ,jesus believed that he was the ,messiah1 he must have associated with the thought of death that of victory over death1 which for all ,jewish minds meant a resurrection from the dead4 ,jesus certainly taught that his death was part of his ,messianic work1 it could not therefore be his end4 ,the prediction of the resurrection is the necessary corollary of his expectation of death2 and it may reverently be believed that his knowledge of it was intimately involved with his certainty that it was as ,messiah that he was to die4 #bdf4 ,from the time when he began to tell his disciples that he must die1 ,jesus began also to teach that his earthly ministry was not to finish his work1 but that he should return in glory from heaven to realize fully all that was involved in the idea of ,god's kingdom4 ,his predictions resemble in form the representations found in the ,book of ,daniel and the ,book of ,enoch2 and the understanding of them is involved in difficulties like those which beset such apocalyptic writings4 ,in general1 apocalypses were written in times of great distress for ,god's people1 and represented the deliverance which should usher in ,god's kingdom as near at hand4 ,one feature of them is a complete lack of perspective in the picture of the future4 ,it may be that this fact will in part account for one great perplexity in the apocalyptic sayings of ,jesus4 ,in the chief of these 7,mark xiii4 and parallels71 predictions of the destruction of ,jerusalem are so mingled with promises of his own second coming and the end of all things that many have sought to resolve the difficulty by separating the discourse into two different ones1--one a short ,jewish apocalypse predicting the destruction of ,jerusalem and the coming of the ,son of ,man within the life of that generation2 the other1 ,jesus' own prediction of the end of all things1 concerning which he warns his disciples that they be not deceived1 but watch diligently and patiently for ,god's full salvation4 ,the difficulties of this discourse as it stands are so great that any solution which accounts for all the facts must be welcomed4 ,so far as this analysis seeks to remove from the account of ,jesus' own words the references to a fulfilment of the predictions within the life of that generation1 it is confronted by other sayings of ,jesus 7,mark ix4 #a7 and by the problem of the uniform belief of the apostolic age that he would speedily return4 ,that belief must have had some ground4 ,what more natural than that words of ,jesus1 rightly or wrongly understood1 led to the common ,christian expectation8 ,some such analysis may yet establish itself as the true solution of the difficulties2 it may be1 however1 that in adopting the apocalyptic form of discourse1 ,jesus also adopted its lack of perspective1 and spoke coincidently of future events in the progress of the kingdom1 which1 in their complete realization at least1 were widely separated in time4 ,in such a case it would not be strange if the disciples looked for the fulfilment of all of the predictions within the limit assigned for the accomplishment of some of them4 #bdg4 ,whatever the explanation of these difficulties1 the gospels clearly represent ,jesus as predicting his own return in glory to establish his kingdom1--a crowning evidence of his claim to supernatural knowledge4 ,it is all the more significant1 therefore1 that it is in connection with his prediction of his future coming that he made the most definite declaration of his own ignorance3 ,of that day or that hour knoweth no one1 not even the angels in heaven1 neither the ,son1 but the ,father 7,mark xiii4 #cb74 ,this confession of the limitation of his knowledge is conclusive4 ,yet it is not isolated4 ,with his undoubted power to read what was in man1 he was not independent of ordinary ways of learning facts4 ,when the woman was healed who touched the hem of his garment1 ,jesus knew that his power had been exercised1 but he discovered the object of his healing by asking1 ,who touched me8 and calling the woman out from the crowd to acknowledge her blessing 7,mark v4 #cj-cd72 when the centurion urged ,jesus to heal his boy without taking the trouble to come to his house1 ,jesus marvelled at his faith 7,matt4 viii4 #aj72 when he came to ,bethany1 assured of his ,father's answer to his prayer for the raising of ,lazarus1 he asked as simply as any other one in the company1 ,where have ye laid him8 7,john xi4 #cd74 ,it should not be forgotten that his knowledge of approaching death1 resurrection1 and return in glory did not prevent the earnest pleading in ,gethsemane1 and it may be that his reply to the ambition of ,james and ,john1 it is not mine to give 7,mark x4 #dj71 is a confession of ignorance as well as subordination to his ,father4 #bdh4 ,the supernatural knowledge of ,jesus1 so far as its exercise is apparent in the gospels1 was concerned with the truths intimately related to his religious teaching or his ,messianic work4 ,there is no evidence that it occupied itself at all with facts of nature or of history discovered by others at a later day4 ,when he says of ,god that he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and the good 7,matt4 v4 #de71 there is no evidence that he thought of the earth and its relation to the sun differently from his contemporaries2 it is probable that his thought anticipated ,galileo's discovery no more than do his words4 ,much the same may be said with reference to the purely literary or historical questions of ,old ,testament criticism1 now so much discussed4 ,if it is proved by just interpretation of all the facts that the ,pentateuch is only in an ideal sense to be attributed to ,moses1 and that many of the psalms inscribed with his name cannot have been written by ,david1 the propriety of ,jesus' references to what ,moses said 7,mark vii4 #aj71 and the validity of his argument for the relative unimportance of the ,davidic descent of the ,messiah1 will not suffer4 ,had ,jesus had in mind the ultimate facts concerning the literary structure of the ,pentateuch1 he could not have hoped to hold the attention of his hearers upon the religious teaching he was seeking to enforce1 unless he referred to the early books of the ,old ,testament as written by ,moses4 ,jesus did repeatedly go back of ,moses to more primitive origins 7,mark x4 #e1 #f2 ,john vii4 #bb72 yet there is no likelihood that the literary question was ever present in his thinking4 ,this phase of his intellectual life1 like that which concerned his knowledge of the natural universe1 was in all probability one of the points in which he was made like unto his brethren1 sharing1 as matter of course1 their views on questions that were indifferent for the spiritual mission he came to fulfil4 ,if this was the case1 his argument from the one hundred and tenth ,psalm 7,mark xii4 #ce-cg7 would simply give evidence that he accepted the views of his time concerning the ,psalm1 and proceeded to use it to correct other views of his time concerning what was of most importance in the doctrine of the ,messiah4 ,the last of these was of vital importance for his teaching2 the first was for this teaching quite as indifferent a matter as the relations of the earth and the sun in the solar system4 #bdi4 ,a more perplexing difficulty arises from his handling of the cases of so-called demoniac possession4 ,he certainly treated these invalids as if they were actually under the control of demons3 he rebuked1 banished1 gave commands to the demons1 and in this way wrought his cures upon the possessed4 ,it has already been remarked that the symptoms shown in the cases cured by ,jesus can be duplicated from cases of hysteria1 epilepsy1 or insanity1 which have come under modern medical examination4 ,three questions then arise concerning his treatment of the possessed4 #a4 ,did he unquestioningly share the interpretation which his contemporaries put upon the symptoms1 and simply bring relief by his miraculous power8 #b4 ,did he know that those whom he healed were not afflicted by evil spirits1 and accommodate himself in his cures to their notions8 #c4 ,does he prove by his treatment that the unfortunates actually were being tormented by diabolical agencies1 which he banished by his word8 ,the last of these possibilities should not be held to be impossible until much more is known than we now know about the mysterious phenomena of abnormal psychical states4 ,if this is the explanation of the maladies for ,jesus' day1 however1 it should be accepted also as the explanation of similar abnormal symptoms when they appear in our modern life1 for the old hypothesis of a special activity of evil spirits at the time of the incarnation is inadequate to account for the fact that in some quarters similar maladies have been similarly explained from the earliest times until the present day4 ,if1 however1 he knew his people to be in error in ascribing these afflictions to diabolical influence1 he need have felt no call to correct it4 ,if the disease had been the direct effect of such a delusion1 ,jesus would have encouraged the error by accommodating himself to the popular notion4 ,the idea of possession1 however1 was only an attempt to explain very real distress4 ,jesus desired to cure1 not to inform his patients4 ,the notion in no way interfered with his turning the thought of those he healed towards ,god1 the centre of help and of health4 ,he is not open1 therefore1 to the charge of having failed to free men from the thraldom of superstition if he accommodated himself to their belief concerning demoniac possession4 ,his cure1 and his infusion of true thoughts of ,god into the heart1 furnished an antidote to superstition more efficacious than any amount of discussion of the truth or falseness of the current explanation of the disease4 ,on the other hand1 if we are not ready to conclude that the action of ,jesus has demonstrated the validity of the ancient explanation1 we may acknowledge that it would do no violence to his power1 or dignity1 or integrity1 if it should be held that he did not concern himself with an inquiry into the cause of the disease which presented itself to him for help1 but adopted unquestioningly the explanation held by all his contemporaries1 even as he used their language1 dress1 manner of life1 and in one particular1 at least1 their representation of the life after death 7,luke xvi4 #bb--;,abraham's bosom74 ,his own confession of ignorance of a large item of religious knowledge 7,mark xiii4 #cb7 leaves open the possibility that in so minor a matter as the explanation of a common disease he simply shared the ideas of his time4 ,in this case1 when one so afflicted came under his treatment1 he applied his supernatural power1 even as in cases of leprosy or fever1 and cured the trouble1 needing no scientific knowledge of its cause4 ,if accommodation or ignorance led ,jesus to treat these sick folk as possessed1 it does not challenge his integrity nor his trustworthiness in all the matters which belong properly to his own peculiar work4 #bej4 ,there is one incident in the gospels which favors the conclusion that ,jesus definitely adopted the current idea1--the permission granted by him to the demons to go from the ,gadarene into the herd of swine1 and the consequent drowning of the herd 7,mark v4 #aa-ac74 ,on any theory this incident is full of difficulty4 ,bernhard ,weiss 7,l,xt ,,ii4 #bbf ff47 holds that ,jesus accommodated himself to current views1 and that the man1 having received for the possessing demons permission to go into the swine1 was at once seized by a final paroxysm1 and rushed among the swine1 stampeding them so that they ran down the hillside into the sea4 #bea4 ,in recent years the view has been somewhat widely advocated that his power over demoniacs was to ,jesus himself one of the chief proofs of his ,messiahship4 ,his words are quoted3 ,if ,i1 by the ,spirit of ,god1 cast out demons1 then is the kingdom of ,god come upon you 7,matt4 xii4 #bh72 and ,i beheld ,satan falling as lightning from heaven 7,luke x4 #ah74 ,the first of these is in the midst of an ad hominem reply of ,jesus to the charge that he owed his power to a league with the devil 7,matt4 xii4 #bh72 and the second was his remark when the seventy reported with joy that the demons were subject unto them 7,luke x4 #ah74 ,the gospels1 however1 trace his certainty of his ,messiahship to quite other causes1 primarily to his knowledge of himself as ,god's child1 then to the ,voice which1 coming at the baptism1 summoned him as ,god's beloved ,son to do the work of the ,messiah4 ,throughout his ministry ,jesus exhibits a certainty of his mission quite independent of external evidences1--,even if ,i bear witness of myself1 my witness is true2 for ,i know whence ,i came and whither ,i go 7,john viii4 #ad74 ,,iv ,jesus' ,conception of ,himself #beb4 ,when ,jesus called forth the confession of ,peter at ,csarea ,philippi he brought into prominence the question which during the earlier stages of the ,galilean ministry he had studiously kept in the background4 ,this is no indication1 however1 that he was late in reaching a conclusion for himself concerning his relation to the kingdom which he was preaching4 ,from the time of his baptism and temptation every manifestation of the inner facts of his life shows unhesitating confidence in the reality of his call and in his understanding of his mission4 ,this is the case whether the fourth gospel or the first three be appealed to for evidence4 ,it is generally felt that the ,gospel of ,john presents its sharpest contrast to the synoptic gospels in respect of the development of ,jesus' self-disclosures4 ,a careful consideration of the first three gospels1 however1 shows that the difference is not in ,jesus' thought about himself4 #bec4 ,the first thing which impressed the people during the ministry in ,galilee was ,jesus' assumption of authority1 whether in teaching or in action 7,mark i4 #bg2 ,matt4 vii4 #bh1 #bi74 ,his method of teaching distinguished him sharply from the scribes1 who were constantly appealing to the opinion of the elders to establish the validity of their conclusions4 ,jesus taught with a simple ,i say unto you4 ,in this1 however1 he differed not only from the scribes1 but also from the prophets1 to whom in many ways he bore so strong a likeness4 ,they proclaimed their messages with the sanction of a ,thus saith the ,lord2 he did not hesitate to oppose the letter of scripture as well as the tradition of the elders with his unsupported word 7,matt4 v4 #ch1 #ci2 ,mark vii4 #a-bc74 ,his teaching revealed his unhesitating certainty concerning spiritual truth1 and although he reverenced deeply the ,jewish scriptures1 and knew that his work was the fulfilment of their promises1 he used them always as one whose superiority to ,god's earlier messengers was as complete as his reverence for them4 ,he was confident that what they suggested of truth he was able to declare clearly2 he used them as a master does his tools4 #bed4 ,more striking than ,jesus' independence in his teaching is the calmness of his self-assertion when he was opposed by pharisaic criticism and hostility4 ,he preferred to teach the truth of the kingdom1 working his cures in such a way that men should think about ,god's goodness rather than their healer's significance4 ,yet coincidently with this method of his choice he did not hesitate to reply to pharisaic opposition with unqualified self-assertion and exalted personal claim4 ,even if the conflicts which ,mark has gathered together at the opening of his gospel 7ii4 #a to iii4 #f7 did not all occur as early as he has placed them1 the nucleus of the group belongs to the early time4 ,since the people greatly reverenced his critics1 he felt it unnecessary to guard against arousing undue enthusiasm by this frank avowal of his claims4 ,he consequently asserted his authority to forgive sins1 his special mission to the sick in soul whom the scribes shunned as defiling1 his right to modify the conception of ,sabbath observance2 even as1 later1 he warned his critics of their fearful danger if they ascribed his good deeds to diabolical power 7,mark iii4 #bh-cj71 and as1 after the collapse of popularity1 he rebuked them for making void the word of ,god by their tradition 7,mark vii4 #ac74 ,his attitude to the scribes in ,galilee from the beginning discloses as definite ,messianic claims as any ascribed by the fourth gospel to this early period4 #bee4 ,these facts of the independence of ,jesus in his teaching and his self-assertion in response to criticism confirm the impression that his answer to ,john the ,baptist 7,matt4 xi4 #b-f7 gives the key to his method in ,galilee4 ,in ,john's inquiry the question of ,jesus' personal relation to the kingdom was definitely asked4 ,the answer1 ,blessed is he whosoever shall find none occasion of stumbling in me1 showed plainly that ,jesus was in no doubt in the matter1 although for the time he still preferred to let his ministry be the means of leading men to form their conclusions concerning him4 ,what he brought into prominence at ,csarea ,philippi1 therefore1 was that which had been the familiar subject of his own thinking from the time of his baptism4 #bef4 ,in the ministry subsequent to the confession of ,peter the self-disclosures of ,jesus became more frequent and clear4 ,his predictions of his approaching death were at the time the greatest difficulty to his disciples2 when considered in their significance for his own life1 however1 they prove that his conviction of his ,messiahship was as independent of current and inherited ideas as was his teaching concerning the kingdom4 ,when he came to see that death was the inevitable issue of his work1 he at once discovered in it a divine necessity2 it does not seem to have shaken in the least his certainty that he was the ,messiah4 ,associated with this conception of his death is the conviction which appears in all the later teachings1 that in rejecting him his people were pronouncing their own doom4 ,because she would not accept him as her deliverer1 ,jerusalem's house was left unto her desolate 7,luke xiii4 #ce74 ,his sense of his supreme significance appears most clearly in some of the later parables1 such as ,the ,marriage of the ,king's ,son 7,matt4 xxii4 #a-ad7 and ,the ,wicked ,husbandmen 7,matt4 xxi4 #cc-dd71 which definitely connect the condemnation of the chosen people with their rejection of ,god's ,son4 ,two other sayings in the first three gospels express the personal claim of ,jesus in the most exalted form1--his declaration on the return of the seventy3 ,all things have been delivered unto me of my ,father1 and no man knoweth who the ,son is save the ,father1 and who the ,father is save the ,son1 and he to whomsoever the ,son willeth to reveal him 7,luke x4 #bb2 ,matt4 xi4 #bg72 and his confession of the limits of his own knowledge3 ,but of that day and hour knoweth no one1 not even the angels in heaven1 neither the ,son1 but the ,father 7,mark xiii4 #cb74 ,the confession of ignorance1 by the position given to the ,son in the climax which denied that any save the ,father had a knowledge of the time of the end1 is quite as extraordinary as the claim to sole qualification to reveal the ,father4 #beg4 ,the similarity of these last two sayings to the discourses in the fourth gospel has often been remarked2 the likeness is particularly close between them and the claims of ,jesus recorded in the fifth chapter of ,john4 ,it is interesting to note that in the incident which introduces the discourse in that chapter ,jesus shows that he preferred1 after healing the man at the pool1 to avoid the attention of the multitudes1 precisely as in ,galilee he sought to check too great popular excitement by withdrawing from ,capernaum after his first ministry there 7,mark i4 #ce-ci71 and enjoining silence on the leper who had been healed by him 7,mark ii4 #dd74 ,when1 however1 he found himself opposed by the criticism of the ,pharisees he spoke with unhesitating self-assertion and exalted personal claim1 even as he did in like situations in ,galilee4 ,during his earlier ministry in ,judea he had not shown this reserve4 ,the cleansing of the temple1 although it was no more than any prophet sure of his divine commission would have done1 was a bold challenge to the people to consider who he was who ventured thus to criticise the priestly administration of ,god's house4 ,in his subsequent dealings with ,nicodemus and the ,samaritan woman ,jesus manifested a like readiness to draw attention to himself4 ,from the time of the feeding of the multitudes all four of the gospels represent him as asserting his claims1 with this difference1 however1 that in ,john it is the rule rather than the exception to find sayings similar to the two in which the self-assertion in the other gospels reaches its highest expression4 ,although the method of ,jesus varied at different times and in different localities1 yet it is evident that he stood before the people from the first with the consciousness that he had the right to claim their allegiance as no one of the prophets who preceded him would have been bold to do4 #beh4 ,during the course of his ministry ,jesus used of himself1 or suffered others to use with reference to him1 many of the titles by which his people were accustomed to refer to the ,messiah4 ,thus he was named the ,messiah 7,mark viii4 #bi2 xiv4 #fa2 ,john iv4 #bf72 the ,king of the ,jews 7,mark xv4 #b2 ,john i4 #di2 xviii4 #cc1 #cf1 #cg72 the ,son of ,david 7,mark x4 #dg1 #dh2 ,matt4 xv4 #bb2 xxi4 #i1 #ae72 the ,holy ,one of ,god 7,john vi4 #fi2 compare ,mark i4 #bd72 the ,prophet 7,john vi4 #ad2 vii4 #dj74 ,it is evident that none of these titles was common2 they represent1 rather1 the bold venture of more or less intelligent faith on the part of men who were impressed by him4 ,there are two names1 however1 that are more significant of ,jesus' thought about himself1--the ,son of ,god and the ,son of ,man4 #bei4 ,the latter of these titles is unique in the use ,jesus made of it4 ,excepting ,stephen's speech 7,acts vii4 #ef71 it is found in the ,new ,testament only in the sayings of ,jesus1 and its precise significance is still a subject of learned debate4 ,the expression is found in the ,old ,testament as a poetical equivalent for ,man1 usually with emphasis on human frailty 7,ps4 viii4 #d2 ,num4 xxiii4 #ai2 ,isa4 li4 #ab71 though sometimes it signifies special dignity 7,ps4 lxxx4 #ag74 ,ezekiel was regularly addressed in his visions as ,son of ,man 7,ezek4 ii4 #a and often2 see also ,dan4 viii4 #ag71 probably in contrast with the divine majesty4 #bfj4 ,in one of ,daniel's visions 7vii4 #a-ad7 the world-kingdoms which had oppressed ,god's people and were to be destroyed were symbolized by beasts that came up out of the sea1--a winged lion1 a bear1 a four-headed winged leopard1 and a terrible ten-horned beast2 in contrast with these the kingdom of the saints of the ,most ,high was represented by one like unto a son of man1 who came with the clouds of heaven 7vii4 #ac1 #ad74 ,here the language is obviously poetic1 and is used to suggest the unapproachable superiority of the kingdom of heaven to the kingdoms of the world4 ,the expression one like unto a son of man is equivalent1 therefore1 to one resembling mankind4 ,the vision in ,daniel had great influence over the author of the so-called ,similitudes of ,enoch 7,book of ,enoch1 chapters xxxvii4 to lxxi474 ,he1 however1 personified the one like unto a son of man1 and gave the title the ,son of ,man to the heavenly man who will come at the end of all things1 seated on ,god's throne1 to judge the world4 ,this author used also the titles the ,elect ,one and the ,righteous ,one 7or the ,holy ,one of ,god71 but the ,son of ,man is the prevalent name for the ,messiah in these ,similitudes4 #bfa4 ,the facts thus stated do not account for ,jesus' use of the expression4 ,many of his sayings undoubtedly suggest a development of the ,daniel vision resembling that in the ,similitudes4 ,this does not prove that ,jesus or his disciples had read these writings1 though it does suggest the possibility that they knew them4 ,it is probable1 however1 that the apocalypses gave formulated expression to thoughts that were more widely current than those writings ever came to be4 ,the likeness between the language of ,jesus and that found in the ,similitudes may therefore prove no more than that the ,daniel vision was more or less commonly interpreted of a personal ,messiah in ,jesus' day4 #bfb4 ,much of the use of the title by ,jesus1 however1 is completely foreign to the ideas suggested by ,enoch and ,daniel4 ,besides apocalyptic sayings like those in ,enoch 7,mark viii4 #ch and often71 the name occurs in predictions of his sufferings and death 7,mark viii4 #ca and often71 and in claims to extraordinary if not essentially divine authority 7,mark ii4 #aj1 #bh and parallels72 it is also used sometimes simply as an emphatic ,i 7,matt4 xi4 #ai and often74 ,whatever relation ,jesus bore to the ,enoch writings1 therefore1 the name the ,son of ,man as he used it was his own creation4 #bfc4 ,students of ,aramaic have in recent years asserted that it was not customary in the dialect which ,jesus spoke to make distinction between the son of man and man1 since the expression commonly used for man would be literally translated son of man4 ,it is asserted1 moreover1 that if our gospels be read substituting man for the ,son of ,man wherever it appears1 it will be found that many supposed ,messianic claims become general statements of ,jesus' conception of the high prerogatives of man1 while in other places the name stands simply as an emphatic substitute for the personal pronoun4 ,thus1 for instance1 ,jesus is found to assert that authority on earth to forgive sins belongs to man 7,mark ii4 #aj71 and1 toward the end of his course1 to have taught simply that he himself must meet with suffering 7,mark viii4 #ca71 and will come on the clouds to judge the world 7,mark viii4 #ch74 ,the proportion of cases in which the general reference is possible is1 however1 very small2 and even if the equivalence of man and son of man should be established1 most of the statements of ,jesus in which our gospels use the latter expression exhibit a conception of himself which challenges attention1 transcending that which would be tolerated in any other man4 ,the debate concerning the usage in the language spoken by ,jesus is not yet closed1 however1 and ,dr4 ,gustaf ,dalman 7,,wj ,i4 #aia-aig7 has recently argued that the equivalence of the two expressions holds only in poetic passages1 precisely as it does in ,hebrew1 and that our gospels represent correctly a distinction observed by ,jesus when they report him1 for instance1 as saying in one sentence1 the ,sabbath was made for man 7,mark ii4 #bg71 and in the next1 the ,son of ,man is lord even of the ,sabbath4 ,the antecedent probability is so great that the dialect of ,jesus' time would be capable of expressing a distinction found in the ,hebrew of the ,old ,testament and in the ,syriac of the second-century version of the ,new ,testament1 that ,dalman's opinion carries much weight4 #bfd4 ,many of those who look for a distinct significance in the title the ,son of ,man1 find in it a claim by ,jesus to be the ideal or typical man1 in whom humanity has found its highest expression4 ,it thus stands sharply in contrast with the ,son of ,god1 which is held to express his claim to divinity4 ,so understood1 the titles represent truth early recognized by the church in its thought about its ,lord4 ,yet it must be acknowledged that the conception the ideal man is too ,hellenic to have been at home in the thought of those to whom ,jesus addressed his teaching4 ,if the phrase suggested anything more to his hearers than the human frailty or the human dignity of him who bore it1 it probably had a ,messianic meaning like that found in the ,similitudes of ,enoch4 ,a hint of this understanding of the name appears in the perplexed question reported in ,john 7xii4 #cd73 ,we have heard out of the law that the ,messiah abideth forever2 and how sayest thou1 ,the ,son of ,man must be lifted up8 who is this ,son of ,man8 ,here the difficulty arose because the people identified the ,son of ,man with the ,messiah1 yet could not conceive how such a ,messiah could die4 ,in fact1 if the conception of the ,son of ,man which is found in ,enoch had obtained any general currency among the people1 either from that book or independently of it1 it was so foreign to the earthly condition and manner of life of the ,galilean prophet1 that it would not have occurred to his hearers to treat his use of the title as a ,messianic claim until after that claim had been published in some other and more definite form4 ,their ,son of ,man was to come with the clouds of heaven1 seated on ,god's throne1 to execute judgment on all sinners and apostates2 the ,nazarene fulfilled none of these conditions4 ,the name1 as used by ,jesus1 was probably always an enigma to the people1 at least until he openly declared its ,messianic significance in his reply to the high-priest's question at his trial 7,mark xiv4 #fb71 and gave the council the ground it desired for a charge of blasphemy against him4 #bfe4 ,what did this title signify to ,jesus8 ,his use of it alone can furnish answer1 and in this the variety is so great that it causes perplexity4 ,the ,son of ,man came eating and drinking is his description of his own life in contrast with ,john the ,baptist 7,matt4 xi4 #ah1 #ai74 ,the ,son of ,man hath not where to lay his head was his reply to one over-zealous follower 7,matt4 viii4 #bj74 ,unseemly rivalry among his disciples was rebuked by the reminder that even the ,son of ,man came not to be ministered unto but to minister 7,mark x4 #db-de74 ,when it became needful to prepare the disciples for his approaching death he taught them that the ,son of ,man must suffer many things 444 and be killed1 and after three days rise again 7,mark viii4 #ca74 ,on the other hand1 the paralytic's cure was made to demonstrate that the ,son of ,man hath authority upon the earth to forgive sins 7,mark ii4 #aj74 ,similarly it is the ,son of ,man who after his exaltation shall come in the glory of his ,father with the holy angels 7,mark viii4 #ch74 ,in these typical cases the title expresses ,jesus' consciousness of heavenly authority as well as self-sacrificing ministry1 of coming exaltation as well as present lowliness2 and the suffering and death which were the common lot of other sons of men were appointed for this ,son of ,man by a divine necessity4 ,the name is1 therefore1 more than a substitute for the personal pronoun2 it expresses ,jesus' consciousness of a mission that set him apart from the rest of men4 #bff4 ,we do not know how ,jesus came to adopt this title4 ,its association with the predictions of his coming glory shows that he knew that in him the ,daniel vision was to have fulfilment4 ,the predictions of suffering and death1 however1 are completely foreign to that apocalyptic conception1 being akin rather1 as ,professor ,charles has suggested1 to the prophecies of the suffering servant in the ,book of ,isaiah 7,book of ,enoch1 p4 #cad-cag74 ,moreover1 it may not be fanciful to find in his claims to heavenly authority a hint of the thought of the eighth ,psalm1 ,thou madest him to have dominion over the works of thy hands2 thou hast put all things under his feet 7see ,dalman ,,wj ,i4 #bah74 ,although the name expresses a consciousness of dignity1 vicarious ministry1 and authority1 similar to thoughts found in ,daniel1 ,isaiah1 and the ,psalms1 it was not deduced from these scriptures by any synthesis of diverse ideas4 ,it rather indicates that ,jesus in his own nature realized a synthesis which no amount of study of scripture would ever have suggested4 ,he drew his conception of himself from his own self-knowledge1 not from his ,messianic meditations4 ,on his lips1 then1 the ,son of ,man indicates that he knew himself to be the ,man whom ,god had chosen to be ,lord over all 7compare ,dalman as above74 ,the lowly estate which contradicted the ,daniel vision prevented ,jesus' hearers from recognizing in the title a ,messianic claim2 for him1 however1 it was the expression of the very heart of his ,messianic consciousness4 #bfg4 ,if ,jesus gave expression to his official consciousness when he used the name the ,son of ,man1 the title the ,son of ,god may be said to express his more personal thought about himself4 ,it is necessary to distinguish between the meaning of this title to the contemporaries of ,jesus and his own conception of it4 ,in the popular thought the ,son of ,god was the designation of that man whom ,god would at length raise up and crown with dignity and power for the deliverance of his people4 ,this meaning followed from the ,messianic interpretation of the second ,psalm1 in which the theocratic king is called ,god's son 7,ps4 ii4 #g74 ,in another psalm1 which ,jesus himself quotes 7,john x4 #cd71 magistrates and judges are called sons of the ,most ,high 7lxxxii4 #f74 ,another ,old ,testament use casts light on this1--the designation of ,israel as ,god's son1 his firstborn 7,ex4 iv4 #bb2 ,hos4 i4 #aj71 with which may be compared a remarkable expression in the so-called ,psalms of ,solomon 7xviii4 #d71 ,thy chastisement was upon us that is1 ,israel as upon a son1 firstborn1 only begotten4 ,in all these passages that which constitutes a man the son of ,god is ,god's choice of him for a special work1 while ,israel collectively bears the title to suggest ,god's fatherly love for the people he had taken for his own4 ,the ,messianic title1 therefore1 described not a metaphysical1 but an official or ethical1 relation to ,god4 ,it is certainly in this sense that the high-priest asked ,jesus ,art thou the ,messiah the son of the ,blessed8 7,mark xiv4 #fa71 and that the crowd about the cross flung their taunts at him 7,matt1 xxvii4 #dc71 and the demoniacs proclaimed their knowledge of him 7,mark iii4 #aa2 v4 #g74 ,the name must be interpreted in this sense also in the confession of ,nathanael 7,john i4 #di72 moreover1 it was not the coupling of the names ,messiah and son of the living ,god in ,peter's confession that gave it its great significance for ,jesus4 ,in all of these cases there is no evidence that there has been any advance over the theocratic significance which made the title the ,son of ,god fitting for the man chosen by ,god for the fulfilment of his promises4 #bfh4 ,the case is different with the name by which ,jesus was called at his baptism 7,mark i4 #aa74 ,the difference here1 however1 arises not from anything in the name as used on this occasion1 but from that in ,jesus which acknowledged and accepted the title4 ,with ,jesus the consciousness that ,god was his ,father preceded the knowledge that as his ,son he was to undertake the work of the ,messiah4 ,the force of the call at the baptism is found in the response which his own soul gave to the word ,thou art my ,son4 ,the nature of that response is seen in his habitual reference to ,god as in a peculiar sense his ,father4 ,the name ,father for ,god was used by him in all his teaching1 and there is no evidence that he or any of his hearers regarded it as a novelty4 ,psalm ciii4 #ac and ,isaiah lxiii4 #af indicate that the conception was natural to ,jewish thinking4 ,the unique feature in ,jesus' usage is his careful distinction between the general references to your ,father and his constant personal allusions to my ,father4 ,witness the reply to his mother in the temple 7,luke ii4 #di72 his word to ,peter1 ,flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee1 but my ,father which is in heaven 7,matt4 xvi4 #ag71 his solemn warning1 ,not every one that saith unto me ,lord1 ,lord1 shall enter into the kingdom of heaven1 but he that doeth the will of my ,father which is in heaven 7,matt4 vii4 #ba71 and the promise1 ,every one who shall confess me before men 444 him will ,i also confess before my ,father 7,matt4 x4 #cb74 ,in the fourth gospel the same intimate reference is common3 so1 for example1 the temple is my ,father's house 7ii4 #af71 the ,sabbath cure is defended because my ,father worketh even until now 7v4 #ag71 the cures are done in ,my ,father's name 7x4 #be71 ,i am the vine1 and my ,father is the husbandman 7xv4 #a74 ,this mode of expression discloses a consciousness of unique filial relation to ,god which is independent of1 even as it was antecedent to1 the consciousness of official relation4 #bfi4 ,the full name the ,son of ,god was seldom applied by ,jesus to himself1 the only recorded instances being found in the fourth gospel 7v4 #be2 ix4 #ce82 x4 #cf2 xi4 #d74 ,he frequently acquiesced in the use of the title by others in addressing him 7for example1 ,john i4 #di2 ,matt4 xvi4 #af2 xxvi4 #fc;f42 ,mark xiv4 #fa;f42 ,luke xxii4 #gj72 but for himself he preferred the simpler phrase the ,son4 ,this mode of expression occurs often in ,john1 and is found also in the two passages1 already noticed1 in which the other gospels give clearest expression to the extraordinary self-assertion of ,jesus 7,matt4 xi4 #bg2 ,luke x4 #bb2 and ,mark xiii4 #cb74 ,in the first of them his claim to be the only one who can adequately reveal ,god is founded on the consciousness that the relation between himself and ,god is so intimate that ,god alone adequately knows him1 whom men were so ready to set at nought1 and he alone knows ,god4 ,this relation1 in which he and ,god stand together in contrast with all other men1 is expressed by the unqualified names1 the ,father and the ,son4 ,in the second passage ,jesus confessed the limitation of his knowledge1 but again in such a way as to set himself and ,god in contrast not only with men1 but also with the angels in heaven4 ,such assertions as these indicate that he who1 knowing his full humanity1 chose the title the ,son of ,man to express his consciousness that he had been appointed by ,god to be the ,messiah1 was yet aware in his inner heart that his relation to ,god was even closer than that in which he stood to men4 #bgj4 ,there is no word in ,john which goes beyond the two self-declarations of ,jesus which crown the record of the other evangelists1 yet in the fourth gospel the same claim to unique relation to ,god is more frequently and frankly avowed4 ,the most unqualified assertion of intimacy--,i and the ,father are one 7x4 #cj7--states what is clearly implied throughout the gospel 7so xiv4 #f-aa2 xvi4 #be2 and particularly xvii4 #ba1 that they may be one1 even as we are one74 ,it has often been said1 and truly1 that this claim to unity with the ,father1 taken by itself1 signifies no more than perfect spiritual and ethical harmony with ,god4 ,yet when the words are considered in their connection1 and more particularly when the two supreme self-declarations in the synoptic gospels are associated with them1 they express a sense of relation to ,god so utterly unique1 so strongly contrasting the ,father and the ,son with all others1 that we cannot conceive of any other man1 even the saintliest1 taking like words upon his lips4 #bga4 ,these titles in which ,jesus gave expression to his official and his personal consciousness present clearly the problem which he offers to human thought4 ,jesus stands before us in the gospels as a man aware of completest kinship with his brethren1 yet conscious at the same time of standing nearer to ,god than he does to men4 #bgb4 ,it is highly significant that the gospel which records most fully the claim of ,jesus to be more closely related to ,god than he was to men1 most fully records also his definite acknowledgment of dependence on his ,father1 and of that ,father's supremacy over him and all others4 ,the ,son can do nothing of himself 7,john v4 #ai71 ,i speak not from myself 7xiv4 #aj71 my ,father is greater than all 7x4 #bi71 the ,father is greater than ,i 7xiv4 #bh71--these confessions join with the common reference to ,god as him that sent me 7v4 #cj and often7 in giving voice to his own spirit of reverence4 ,it appears as clearly in his habitual submission to his ,father's will1--,my meat is to do the will of him that sent me1 and to accomplish his work 7,john iv4 #cd72 ,i am come down from heaven1 not to do mine own will1 but the will of him that sent me 7,john vi4 #ch74 ,this submission reached its fulness in the prayer of ,gethsemane1 recorded in the earlier gospels1--,father1 all things are possible unto thee2 remove this cup from me3 howbeit not what ,i will1 but what thou wilt 7,mark xiv4 #cf74 ,jesus was a man of prayer2 not only in ,gethsemane1 but also throughout his ministry he habitually sought his ,father in that communion in which the soul of man finds its light and strength for life's duty4 ,when he was baptized 7,luke iii4 #ba71 after the first flush of success in ,capernaum 7,mark i4 #ce71 before choosing the twelve 7,luke vi4 #ab71 before the question at ,csarea ,philippi 7,luke ix4 #ah71 at the transfiguration 7,luke ix4 #bi71 on the cross 7,luke xxiii4 #df71--;at all the crises of his life he turned to ,god in prayer4 ,moreover1 prayer was his habit1 for it was after a night of prayer which has no connection with any crisis reported for us 7,luke xi4 #a71 that he taught his disciples the ,lord's prayer in response to their requests4 ,the prayer beside the grave of ,lazarus 7,john xi4 #da1 #db7 suggests that his miracles were often1 if not always 7compare ,mark ix4 #bi71 preceded by definite prayer to ,god4 ,his habit of prayer was the natural expression of his trust in ,god4 ,from the resistance to the temptations in the wilderness to the last cry1 ,father1 into thy hands ,i commend my spirit1 his life is an example of childlike faith in ,god4 #bgc4 ,yet throughout his life of obedience and trust ,jesus never gave one indication that he felt the need of penitence when he came before ,god4 ,he perceived as no one else has ever done the searching inwardness of ,god's law1 and demanded of men that they tolerate no lower ambition than to be like ,god1 yet he never breathed a sigh of conscious failure1 or gave sign that he blushed when the eternal light shone into his own soul4 ,he was baptized1 but without confession of sin4 ,he challenged his enemies to convict him of sin 7,john viii4 #df74 ,such a challenge might have rested on a man's certainty that his critics did not know his inner life2 but hypocrisy has no place in the character of ,jesus4 ,the reply to the rich young ruler1 ,why callest thou me good8 7,mark x4 #ah71 even if it was a confession that freedom from past sin was still far less than that absolute goodness that ,god alone possesses1 simply sets in stronger light his silence concerning personal failure1 and his omission in all his praying to seek forgiveness4 ,it is probable1 however1 that that reply deals not with the good as the ethically perfect1 but as the supremely beneficent1 so that ,jesus simply reminded the seeker after life that ,god alone is the one to be approached as the ,gracious and ,merciful ,one by sinful men 7see ,dalman ,,wj ,i4 #bgg74 ,thus the reply becomes a fresh expression of the reverence of ,jesus1 and still further emphasizes his failure to confess his sinfulness4 #bgd4 ,in all this thought about himself ,jesus stands before us as a man1 conscious of his close kinship with his fellows4 ,like them he hungered and thirsted and grew weary1 like them he longed for friendship and for sympathy1 like them he trusted ,god and prayed to ,god and learned still to trust when his request was denied4 ,he stands before us also as a man conscious of being anointed by ,god for the great work which all the prophets had foretold1 and of being fully equipped with authority and power and the promise of unapproachable dignity4 ,of deep religious spirit and great reverence for the scriptures of his people1 he yet used these scriptures as a master does his tools1 to serve his work rather than to instruct him in it4 ,he drew his knowledge from within and from above1 and proclaimed his own fulfilment of the scriptures when he filled them with new meaning4 ,a man always devout1 always at prayer1 he is never seen1 like ,isaiah1 prostrate before the ,most ,high1 crying1 ,i am undone 7,isa4 vi4 #e74 ,in his moments of greatest seriousness and most manifest communion with heaven he looked to ,god as his nearest of kin1 and felt himself a stranger on the earth fulfilling his ,father's will4 ,he felt heaven to be his home not simply by ,god's gracious promise1 but by the right of previous possession4 ,his kinship with men was a condescension1 his natural fellowship was with ,god4 #bge4 ,the miracles with which the gospels have filled the record of ,jesus' life have caused perplexity to many1 and they belong with other mysterious things recorded for us in the story of the past or occurring under the incredulous observation of our scientific generation4 ,they all pale1 however1 before the unaccountable exception presented to universal human experience by this ,man of ,nazareth4 ,it confronts us when we think of the unschooled ,jew who1 in his thought of ,god1 rose not only above all of his generation1 but higher than all who had gone before him1 or have come after1 one who built on the foundation of the past a superstructure of religion new1 and simple1 and clearly heavenly4 ,it confronts us when we think of this ,man who believed that it was given to him to establish the kingdom that should fill the whole earth1 and who had the boldness and the faith to ignore the opposition of all the world's wisdom and of all its enthroned power1 and to fulfil his task as the woman does who hides her leaven in the meal1 content to wait for years1 or millenniums1 until his truth shall conquer in the realization of ,god's will on earth even as it is done in heaven4 ,it confronts us when we consider that the ,man who has shown his brethren what obedience means1 who has taught them to pray1 who has been for all these centuries the ,way1 the ,truth1 the ,life1 by whom they come to ,god1 habitually claimed without shadow of abashment or slightest hint of conscious presumption1 a nature1 a relation to ,god1 a freedom from sin1 that other men according to the measure of their godliness would shun as blasphemy4 ,if the personal claim was true1 and not the blind pretence of vanity1 the ,jesus of the gospels is the exception to the uniform fact of human nature1 but he is no longer unaccountable2 and if his claim was true1 his knowledge of the absolute religion1 and his choice of the irresistible propaganda1 are no less extraordinary1 but they are not unaccountable4 ,paul1 whose life was transformed and his thinking revolutionized by his meeting with the risen ,jesus1 thought on these things and believed that the name which1 is above every name was his by right of nature as well as by the reward of obedience 7,phil4 ii4 #e-aa74 ,john1 who leaned on ,jesus' breast during his earthly life1 and who meditated on the meaning of that life through a ministry of many decades1 came to believe that he whom he had seen with his eyes1 heard with his ears1 handled with his hands1 was1 indeed1 the ,word made flesh 7,john i4 #ad71 through whom the very ,god revealed his love to men4 ,through all the perplexities of doubt1 amidst all the obscurings of irrelevant speculations1 the hearts of men to-day turn to this ,jesus of ,nazareth as their supreme revelation of ,god1 and find in him the ,master of their thinking and the ,lord of their lives4 ,lord1 to whom shall we go8 ,thou hast the words of eternal life4 ,and we have believed and know that thou art the ,holy ,one of ,god4 ,appendix ,books of ,reference on the ,life of ,jesus #a4 ,a concise account of the voluminous literature on this subject maybe found at the close of the article ,,jesus ,,christ by ,zockler in ,schaff-,herzog1 ,encyclopedia of ,religious ,knowledge4 ,of the earlier of the modern works it is well to mention ,david ,friedrich ,strauss1 ,das ,leben ,jesu 7#b vols4 #ahce71 in which he sought to reduce all the gospel miracles to myths4 ,august ,neander1 ,das ,leben ,jesu ,christi1 #ahcg1 wrote in opposition to the attitude taken by ,strauss4 ,both of these works have been translated into ,english4 ,ernst ,renan1 ,vie de ,jsus 7#ahfc1 #afth ed4 #ahgi71 translated1 ,the ,life of ,jesus 7#ahfc71 is a charming1 though often superficial and patronizing1 presentation of the subject4 ,for vivid word pictures of scenes in the life of ,jesus his book is unsurpassed4 ,renan's inability to appreciate the more serious aspects of the work of ,christ appears constantly1 while his effort to discover romance in the life of ,jesus is offensive4 ,more important than any of these is ,theodor ,keim1 ,geschichte ,jesu von ,nazara 7#ahfg-gb1 #c vols471 translated1 ,the ,history of ,jesus of ,nazara 7#ahgf-ha1 #f vols474 ,the author rejects the fourth gospel and holds that ,matthew is the most primitive of the synoptic gospels2 he does not reject the supernatural as such1 but reduces it as much as possible by recognizing a legendary element in the gospels4 ,when the work is read with these peculiarities in mind1 it is one of the most stimulating and spiritually illuminating treatments of the subject4 #b4 ,critically more trustworthy1 and exegetically very valuable1 is ,bernhard ,weiss1 ,das ,leben ,jesu 7#c;d ed4 #ahhi1 #b vols471 translated from the first ed41 ,the ,life of ,christ 7#ahhc1 #c vols474 ,it is more helpful for correct understanding of details than for a complete view of the ,life of ,jesus4 ,rivalling ,weiss in many ways1 yet neither so exact nor so trustworthy1 though more interesting1 is ,willibald ,beyschlag1 ,das ,leben ,jesu 7#c;d ed4 #ahic1 #b vols474 ,the most important discussion in ,english is ,alfred ,edersheim1 ,the ,life and ,times of ,jesus the ,messiah 7#ahhc and later editions1 #b vols474 ,this is valuable for its illustration of conditions in ,palestine in the time of ,jesus by quotations from the rabbinic literature4 ,the material used is enormous1 but is not always treated with due criticism1 and the book should be read with the fact in mind that most of the rabbinic writings date from several centuries after ,christ4 ,schrer 7see below7 should be used wherever possible as a counter-balance4 ,dr4 ,edersheim follows the gospel story in detail2 his book is1 therefore1 a commentary as well as a biography4 #c4 ,albert ,rville1 ,jesus de ,nazareth 7#ahig1 #b vols471 aims to bring the work of ,renan up to date1 and to supply some of the lacks which are felt in the earlier treatise4 ,the book is pretentious and learned4 ,in some parts1 as in the treatment of the youth of ,jesus1 and of the sermon on the mount1 it is helpfully suggestive4 ,the ,jesus whom the author admires1 however1 is the ,jesus of ,galilee4 ,the journey to ,jerusalem was a sad mistake1 and the assumption of the ,messianic rle a fall from the high ideal maintained in the teaching in ,galilee4 ,in criticism ,m4 ,rville accepts the two document synoptic theory1 and assigns the fourth gospel to about #adj ,a4,d4 ,he rejects the supernatural1 explaining many of the miracles as legendary embellishments of actual events4 #d4 ,the most important treatment of the subject is the article ,,jesus ,,christ by ,william ,sanday in the ,hastings ,bible ,dictionary 7#ahii74 ,it is of the highest value1 discussing the subject topically with great clearness and with a rare combination of learning and common sense4 ,s4 ,t4 ,andrews1 ,the ,life of ,our ,lord 7#b;d ed4 #ahib71 is a thorough and very useful study of the gospels1 considering minutely all questions of chronology1 harmony1 and geography4 ,it presents the different views with fairness1 and offers conservative conclusions4 ,g4 ,h4 ,gilbert1 ,the ,student's ,life of ,jesus 7#ahif71 is complete in plan and careful in treatment1 while being very concise4 ,dr4 ,gilbert faces the problems of the subject frankly1 and his treatment is scholarly and reverent4 ,james ,stalker1 ,the ,life of ,jesus ,christ 7#ahhj71 is a short work whose value lies in the good conception which it gives of the ministry of ,jesus viewed as a whole4 ,in simplicity1 insight1 and clearness the book is a classic1 though now somewhat out of date4 ,studies in the ,life of ,christ1 by ,a4,m4 ,fairbairn 7#ahhb71 is of great value for the topics considered4 ,the title indicates that the treatment is fragmentary4 ,the long treatises of ,farrar 7#ahge1 #b vols47 and ,geikie 7#ahgg1 #b vols47 are useful as commentaries on the words and works of ,jesus4 ,farrar often interprets most helpfully the essence of an incident1 and ,geikie furnishes a mass of illustrative material from rabbinic sources1 though with less criticism than even ,edersheim has used4 ,neither of these works1 however1 deals with the fundamental problems of the composition of the gospels1 nor are they satisfactory on other perplexing questions1 for example1 the miraculous birth4 #e4 ,the most important accessory for the study of the life of ,jesus is ,emil ,schrer1 ,geschichte des ,jdischen ,volkes im ,zeitalter ,jesu ,christi 7#b;d ed4 #ahhf1 #ahij1 #b vols4 ,a #c;d ed4 of #b;d part in #b vols41 #ahih71 translated1 ,a ,history of the ,jewish ,people in the ,time of ,jesus ,christ 7#ahhe-f1 #e vols474 ,the political history of the ,jews from #age ,b4,c4 to #ace ,a4,d41 and the intellectual and religious life of the times in which ,jesus lived1 with the ,jewish literature of ,palestine and the dispersion1 are all treated with thoroughness and masterful learning4 ,w4 ,baldensperger1 ,das ,selbstbewusstsein ,jesu im ,lichte der messianischen ,hoffnungen seiner ,zeit 7#b;d ed4 #ahib71 furnishes in the first part a survey of the ,messianic hopes of the ,jews which is in many respects the most satisfactory account that is accessible4 ,the second part discusses the problem of ,jesus' conception of himself in a reverent and learned way4 ,george ,adam ,smith1 ,the ,historical ,geography of the ,holy ,land 7#ahid71 is indispensable for the study of the physical features of the land as they bear on its history1 and on the work of ,jesus4 ,the maps are the best that have yet appeared4 #f4 ,discussions of the ,teaching of ,jesus in works on ,biblical ,theology have much that is important for the study of ,jesus' life4 ,the most significant is ,h4 ,h4 ,wendt1 ,die ,lehre ,jesu 7#ahhf1 #b vols474 ,the second volume has been translated ,the ,teaching of ,jesus 7#ahib1 #b vols472 the first volume of the original work is an elaborate discussion of the sources1 and has not been done into ,english4 ,reference may be made especially to ,h4 ,j4 ,holtzmann1 ,lehrbuch der ,neutestamentlichen ,theologie 7#ahig1 #b vols471 and also to ,g4 ,h4 ,gilbert1 ,the ,revelation of ,jesus 7#ahii74 ,gustaf ,dalman1 ,die ,worte ,jesu 7#ahih71 of which the first volume only has appeared1 is a study of the meaning of the most significant expressions used in the gospel records of the teaching of ,jesus1 made with the aid of thorough knowledge of ,aramaic usage and of the language of post-canonical ,jewish literature4 #g4 ,a good synopsis or ,harmony of the gospels is most useful4 ,the best ,harmony is that of ,stevens and ,burton 7#ahid71 which exhibits the divergencies of the parallel accounts in the gospels as faithfully as the agreements4 ,a good synopsis of the ,greek text of the first three gospels is ,huck1 ,synapse 7#ahib74 ,robinson's ,greek ,harmony of the ,gospels1 edited by ,m4 ,b4 ,biddle1 using ,tischendorf's text1 has also valuable notes discussing questions of harmony4 ,abbreviations ,and,l,o,l ,andrews1 ,the ,life of ,our ,lord1 #b;d ed41 #ahib4 ,bald,s,j ,baldensperger1 ,das ,selbstbewusstsein ,jesu1 #b;d ed41 #ahib4 ,beys,l,j ,beyschlag1 ,das ,leben ,jesu1 #c;d ed41 #b vols41 #ahic4 ,bovon,n,t,th ,bovon1 ,thologie du ,nouveau ,testament1 #ahib4 ,dalman,w,j ,dalman1 ,die ,worte ,jesu1 ,i41 #ahih4 ,eders,l,j,m ,edersheim1 ,the ,life and ,times of ,jesus the ,messiah1 #b vols41 #ahhc4 ,fairb,s,l,x ,fairbairn1 ,studies in the ,life of ,christ1 #ahhb4 ,gilbert,l,j ,gilbert1 ,the ,student's ,life of ,jesus1 #ahif4 ,gilbert,r,j ,gilbert1 ,the ,revelation of ,jesus1 #ahii4 ,holtz,nt,th ,holtzmann1 ,neutestamentliche ,theologie1 #b vols41 #ahig4 ,keim,j,n ,keim1 ,the ,history of ,jesus of ,nazara1 #f vols41 #ahgf-ha4 ,rville,j,n ,rville1 ,jsus de ,nazareth1 #b vols41 #ahig4 ,sanday,hast,b,d ,sanday1 the article ,,jesus ,,christ in the ,hastings ,bible ,dictionary1 #ahii4 ,schrer,j,p,t,x ,schrer1 ,the ,history of the ,jewish ,people in the ,time of ,jesus ,christ1 #ahhe-hf4 ,division ,i4 vols4 i4 and ii42 ,division ,,ii4 vols4 i41 ii41 and iii4 ,smith,h,g,h,l ,smith1 ,historical ,geography of the ,holy ,land1 #ahid4 ,,sb ,stevens and ,burton1 ,harmony of the ,gospels1 #ahid4 ,weiss,l,x ,weiss1 ,the ,life of ,christ1 #c vols41 #ahhc4 ,wendt,l,j ,wendt1 ,die ,lehre ,jesu1 #b vols41 #ahhf4 ,wendt,t,j ,wendt1 ,the ,teaching of ,jesus1 #b vols41 #ahib4 ,en,bib ,encyclopedia ,biblica1 #ahii4 ,hast,b,d ,hastings' ,dictionary of the ,bible1 #ahih4 ,,sbd#b ,smith's ,dictionary of the ,bible1 revision of the first volume of the original ,english edition1 #ahic4 ,references ,part ,i4--,preparatory ,i ,the ,historical ,situation #h4 ,read ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fjd-fji4 ,on the ,land1 its physical characteristics1 its political divisions1 its climate1 its roads1 and its varying civilization1 ,smith,h,g,h,l is unsurpassed4 ,its identifications of disputed localities are cautions4 ,robinson1 ,biblical ,researches in ,palestine1 and ,thomson1 ,the ,land and the ,book1 give fuller detail concerning particular localities1 but no such general view as ,smith4 #i4 ,on ,political conditions1 ,schrer,j,p,t,x ,i4 i4 and ii4 is the fullest and most trustworthy treatise4 ,more concise essays are ,oscar ,holtzmann1 ,nt4 ,zeitgeschichte 7#ahie71 #eg-aah2 ,s4 ,mathews1 ,history of ,,nt ,times in ,palestine 7#ahii71 #a-aeh2 ,riggs1 ,maccabean and ,roman ,periods of ,jewish ,history 7#aijj71 especially #bjf-bcd1 #beg-bfg1 #bgf-bhb4 ,on the ,religious ,life and ,parties in ,palestine1 ,schrer,j,p,t,x ,,ii4 i4 and ii42 ,o4 ,holtzmann1 ,nt,zeitg1 #acf-agg2 ,mathews1 ,,nt ,times1 see index2 ,riggs1 ,mac4 and ,rom4 ,periods1 #bce-bef2 ,muirhead1 ,the ,times of ,christ 7#ahih71 #fi-aej4 ,in addition ,wellhausen1 ,die ,pharisder und die ,sadducer 7#ahgd72 on the ,essenes1 ,conybeare in ,hast,b,d ,i4 #gfg-ggb1 also ,lightfoot1 ,colossians1 #hj-ih1 #cdg-dai2 ,wellhausen1 ,isr4 u4 jd4 ,geschichte#c 7#ahig71 #beh-bfb2 on the ,samaritans1 ,a4 ,cowley1 in ,expos4 ,v4 i4 #afa-agd2 ,jew4 ,quar4 ,rev4 ,,viii4 7#ahif7 #efb-ege4 #aj4 ,on the ,messianic hope1 ,schrer,j,p,t,x ,,ii4 ii4 #abf-ahg2 ,bald,s,j #c-abb2 ,muirhead1 ,times of ,xt41 #aab-aej2 ,briggs1 ,messiah of the ,gospels 7#ahid71 #a-dj2 ,wendt,t,j ,i4 #cc-hd2 ,mathews1 ,,nt ,times1 #aei-afi2 ,riggs1 ,mac4 and ,rom4 ,periods1 #bea-bef4 #aa4 ,on the language of ,palestine see ,arnold ,meyer1 ,jesu ,muttersprache 7#ahif72 ,dalman,w,j ,i4 #a-eg2 ,schrer,j,p,t,x ,,ii4 i4 #h-aj1 #dg-ea2 ,neubauer1 ,studia ,biblica1 ,i4 #ci-gd4 #ab4 ,on ,jewish literature dating near the times of ,jesus see ,schrer,j,p,t,x ,,ii4 iii42 ,bald,s,j4 #c-abb2 ,eders,l,j,m ,i4 #ca-ci2 ,deane1 ,pseudepigrapha 7#ahia72 ,thomson1 ,books which influenced our ,lord1 etc4 7#ahia72 and special editions1 such as ,alexandre1 ,sibylline ,oracles 7#ahfi72 ,deane1 ,the ,wisdom of ,solomon 7#ahha72 ,charles1 ,the ,book of ,enoch 7#ahic71 ,the ,apocalypse of ,baruch 7#ahif71 ,the ,assumption of ,moses 7#ahig71 and ,the ,book of ,jubilees 7#ahie72 ,charles and ,morfill1 ,the ,secrets of ,enoch 7#ahif72 ,ryle and ,james1 ,the ,psalms of the ,pharisees ,psalms of ,solomon 7#ahia72 ,bensly and ,james1 ,fourth ,esdras 7#ahie72 ,charles1 ,en,bib ,i4 #bac-bej2 ,hast,b,d ,i4 #aji;f42 ,porter1 ,hast,b,d ,i4 #aaj-abc2 ,james1 ,en,bib ,i4 #bdi-bfa4 ,,ii ,the ,sources #ac4 ,on the sources outside the gospels see ,anthony1 ,introduction to the ,life of ,jesus1 #ai-ajh2 ,keim,j,n ,i4 #ab-ei2 ,beys,l,j ,i4 #ei-gb2 ,gilbert,l,j #gd-gh2 ,knowling1 ,witness of the ,epistles2 ,stevens1 ,pauline ,theol4 #bjd-bjh2 ,sabatier1 ,apostle ,paul1 #gf-he4 ,on ,josephus as a source see also ,schrer,j,p,t,x ,i4 ii4 #adc-adi2 ,rville,j,n ,i4 #bgb-bhj4 ,on the individual gospels see ,burton1 ,the ,purpose and ,plan of the ,four ,gospels 7,univ4 ,chic4 ,press1 #aijj72 ,bruce1 ,with ,open ,face1 #a-fa2 ,weiss1 ,introduction to ,n4,t41 ,,ii4 #bci-chf2 ,jlicher1 ,einleitung i4 d4 ,,nt1 #ahi-bjg4 ,on ,matthew1 ,burton ,bib4 ,wld4 ,i4 #ahih1 #cg-dd1 #ia-aja2 on ,mark1 ,swete1 ,comm4 on ,mark1 ix-lxxxix2 on ,luke1 ,plummer1 ,comm4 on ,luke1 xi-lxx2 ,mathews1 ,bib4 ,wld4 #ahie1 ,i4 #ccf-cdb1 #ddh-dee2 on ,john1 ,burton1 ,bib4 ,wld4 #ahii1 ,i4 #af-da1 #ajb-aje2 ,westcott1 ,comm4 on ,john1 v-lxxvii2 ,rhees in ,abbott's ,the ,bible as ,literature1 #bha-big4 ,on the synoptic question see ,sanday ,,sbd#b1 #abag-abdc1 and ,expositor1 ,feb4-,june1 #ahia2 ,woods1 ,studia ,biblica1 ,,ii4 #ei-ajd2 ,salmon1 ,introduction#g1 #ii-aea1 #egj-eha2 ,stanton in ,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #bcd-bdc2 ,jlicher1 ,einl4 #bjg-bbg4 ,a4 ,wright1 ,composition of the ,four ,gospels 7#ahij7 and ,some ,,nt ,problems 7#ahih71 defends the oral tradition theory in a modified form4 ,on possible dislocations in ,john see ,spitta1 ,urchristentum1 ,i4 #aeg-bjd2 ,bacon1 ,jour4 ,bib4 ,lit4 #ahid1 #fd-gf2 ,burton1 ,bib4 ,wld4 #ahii1 ,i4 #bg-ce4 ,for the history of opinion see specially ,h4 ,j4 ,holtzmann1 ,einl4#c #cdj-cge4 ,on the ,johannine question see ,sanday1 ,expositor1 ,nov4 #ahia-,may #ahib2 ,schrer1 ,cont4 ,rev4 ,sept4 #ahia2 ,watkins ,,sbd#b #agci-agfd2 ,burton1 ,bib4 ,wld4 #ahii1 ,i4 #af-da2 ,reynolds in ,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fid-gbb2 ,zahn1 ,einl4 ,,ii4 #dde-efd 7defends ,johannine authorship72 ,jlicher1 ,einl4 #bch-bej 7rejects ,johannine authorship74 ,for the history of opinion see ,watkins1 ,bampton ,lecture for #ahij2 ,holtzmann1 ,einl4#c #dcc-dch4 ,p4 ,ewald1 ,hauptproblem der evang4 ,frage1 argues the authenticity of the fourth gospel from the one-sidedness of the synoptic story4 ,see also ,jour4 ,bib4 ,lit4 #ahih1 ,i4 #hg-ajb4 #ad4 ,rville proposes to reconstruct ,jos4 ,ant4 xviii4 #c4 #c thus3 ',at that time appeared ,jesus1 a wise man1 who did astonishing things4 ,that is why a good number of ,jews and also of ,greeks attached themselves to him4' ,then follows some phrase probably signifying that these adherents had committed the error of proclaiming him ,christ1 and then 'denounced by the leading men of the nation1 this ,jesus was condemned by ,pilate to die on the cross4 ,but those who had loved him before persevered in their sentiment1 and still to-day there exists a class of people who take from him their name ,christians4' #ae4 ,on the testimony of ,papias 7,euseb4 ,ch4 ,hist4 iii4 #ci4 #d7 see ,lightfoot1 ,cont4 ,rev4 #ahge1 ,,ii4 #cgi ff41 and ,mc,giffert's notes in his ,eusebius1 #agj ff4 #af4 ,for a collection of probably genuine ,agrapha see ,ropes1 ,die ,spruche ,jesu1 #aed-afa1 and ,amer4 ,jour4 ,theol4 #ahig1 #geh-ggf2 ,resch1 ,agrapha1 gives a much longer list4 ,he is criticised by ,ropes4 ,on lost and uncanonical gospels see ,salmon1 ,intr4#g #agc-aij1 #ehj-eia2 ,kruger1 ,early ,christian ,literature1 #ej-eg4 ,for the recently discovered ,gospel of ,peter see ,swete1 ,the ,gospel of ,peter2 and on the so-called ,sayings of ,jesus found in ,egypt in #ahif see ,harnack1 ,expositor1 ,v4 vi4 #cba-cdj1 #dja-daf1 and essay by ,sanday and ,lock4 ,apocryphal ,gospels are most conveniently found in ,ante-nicene ,fathers1 ,,viii4 #cfa-dgf4 ,,iii ,the ,harmony of the ,gospels #ag4 ,the ,diatessaron of ,tatian is translated with notes by ,hill1 ,the ,earliest ,life of ,christ4 ,see also ,ante-nic4 ,fathers1 ,,ix4 #ce-ach4 #ah4 ,for the extreme position concerning ,doublets see ,holtzmann1 ,hand-commentar zum ,,nt ,i4 passim4 ,e4 ,haupt1 ,studien u4 ,kritiken1 #ahhd1 #be1 remarks that ,jesus must often have repeated his teaching in essentially the same form4 ,,iv ,chronology #ai4 ,for data and discussion of the various problems see ,wieseler1 ,chronological ,synopsis2 ,lewin1 ,fasti ,sacra2 ,keim,j,n ,,ii4 #cgi-djb2 ,and,l,o,l #a-eb2 ,schrer,j,p,t,x ,i4 ii4 #cj-cb1 #aje-adc2 ,o4 ,holtzmann1 ,nt,zeitg1 #aah-abd1 #abe-abg1 #aca-acb2 ,turner ,hast,b,d ,i4 #djc-dae2 ,ramsay1 ,was ,christ born at ,bethlehem2 and von ,soden in ,en,bib4 ,i4 #gii-hab4 ,for patristic opinion concerning the length of ,jesus' ministry1 see ,hast,b,d ,i4 #daj4 ,for the argument for a one-year ministry1 see ,keim,j,n ,,ii4 #cih2 ,o4 ,holtzmann1 ,nt,zeitg1 #aca;f4 ,for two years1 see ,wieseler1 ,chron4 ,synop4 #bjd-bbj2 ,weiss,l,x ,i4 #chi-cib2 ,turner1 in ,hast,b,d4 ,for three years1 see ,and,l,o,l #ahi-aih2 note by ,robertson in ,broadus1 ,harmony of the ,gospels1 #bda-bdd4 ,compare ,rville,j,n ,,ii4 #bbg-bca2 ,zahn1 ,einl4 ,,ii4 #eaf;f4 ,v ,the ,early ,years #bj4 ,on the problem of the ,virgin birth see ,gilbert,l,j #gi-hi2 ,weiss,l,x ,i4 #baa-bcc2 ,swete1 ,apos4 ,creed1 #db-ee2 ,bruce1 ,apologetics1 #djg-dac2 ,ropes1 ,andover ,rev4 #ahic1 #fie-gab2 ,fairb,s,l,x #cj-de2 ,godet1 ,comm4 on ,luke1 ,rem4 on chaps4 ,i4 and ,,ii42 ,bovon,n,t,th ,i4 #aih-bag4 ,these maintain historicity4 ,the other side3 ,beys,l,j ,i4 #adh-agd2 ,meyer1 ,comm4 on ,matt41 ,rem4 on #a4ah2 ,keim ,,jn ,,ii4 #ch-aja2 ,rville1 ,new ,world1 #ahib1 #fie-gbc1 and ,,jn ,i4 #cfa-djh2 ,holtzmann,nt,th ,i4 #dji-dae4 ,on the early years of ,jesus see ,eders,l,j,m ,i4 #bag-bed2 ,weiss,l,x ,i4 #bge-bic2 ,hughes1 ,manliness of ,xt1 #ce-fj2 ,wendt,t,j ,i4 #ij-if2 ,stapfer1 ,jesus ,christ before his ,ministry2 ,fairb,s,l,x #df-fc2 ,beys,l,j ,,ii4 #dd-fe2 ,rville,j,n ,i4 #dji-dch4 #ba4 ,for some of the early legends concerning the birth and childhood of ,jesus1 see the so-called ,protevangelium of ,james1 the ,gospel of ,pseudo-,matthew1 and the ,gospel of ,thomas1 ,ante-nic4 ,fathers1 ,,viii4 #cfa-chc1 #cie-cih4 ,for ,jewish calumnies see ,laible1 ,j4 ,x4 im ,thalmud1 #i-ci4 #bb4 ,on the two genealogies see ,and,l,o,l #fb-fh2 ,weiss,l,x ,i4 #baa-bba2 ,godet on ,luke1 iii4 #bc-ch4 ,these refer ,luke's genealogy to ,marv4 ,hervey ,,sbd#b #aade-aadh1 ,plummer on ,luke1 iii4 #bc1 ,eders,l,j,m ,i4 #adi1 ,gilbert,l,j #ha;f41 with the early fathers 7see ,plummer71 refer both to ,joseph4 ,for the view that they are unauthentic see ,holtzmann1 ,hand-comm4 ,i4 #ci-da2 ,bacon in ,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #acg-ada4 #bc4 ,on the brethren of ,jesus see ,mayor1 ,hast,b,d ,i4 #cbj-cbf2 ,andrews,l,o,l #aaa-abc4 ,these make the brethren sons of ,joseph and ,mary4 ,lightfoot1 ,galatians#aj1 #beb-bia1 regards them as sons of ,joseph by a former marriage4 ,,vi ,john the ,baptist #bd4 ,on the character and work of ,john the ,baptist see ,keim,j,n ,,ii4 #bja-bff and references in the index under ,john the ,baptist4 ,keim's is much the most satisfactory treatment2 it is1 moreover1 ,keim at his best4 ,see also ,ewald1 ,hist1 of ,israel1 ,,vi4 #afj-bjj2 ,weiss,l,x ,i4 #cjg-caf2 ,fairb,s,l,x #fd-gi2 ,w4 ,a4 ,stevens1 ,homil4 ,rev4 #ahia1 ,,ii4 #afc ff42 ,bebb in ,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fgg-fhj2 ,wellhausen ,isr4 u4 judische ,geschichte1 #cdb;f42 ,feather1 ,last of the ,prophets4 ,reynolds1 ,john the ,baptist1 obscures its excellencies by a vast amount of irrelevant discussion4 #be4 ,on the existence of a separate company of disciples of ,john see ,mk4 ii4 #ah1 ,mt4 ix4 #ad1 ,lk4 v4 #cc2 ,mk4 vi4 #bi1 ,mt4 xiv4 #ab2 ,mt4 xi4 #b;f41 ,lk4 vii4 #ah;f42 ,lk4 xi4 #a2 ,jn4 i4 #ce;f42 iii4 #be2 ,ac4 xix4 #a-c4 ,consult ,lightfoot1 ,colossians1 #djj ff42 ,baldensperger1 ,der ,prolog des vierten ,evangeliums1 #ic-aeb4 ,,vii ,the ,messianic ,call #bf4 ,on the baptism of ,jesus see ,wendt,t,j ,i4 #if-aja2 ,eders,l,j,m ,i4 #bgh-bhg2 ,bald,s,j #bai-bbi4 ,weiss,l,x ,i4 #caf-ccf says that the baptism meant for ,jesus1 already conscious of his ,messiahship1 the close of his former life and the opening of one perfectly new 7#cbb72 ,keim,j,n ,,ii4 #bij-bii makes it an act of consecration1 but eliminates the ,voice and ,dove2 ,beys,l,j ,i4 #bae-bca thinks that ,jesus1 conscious of no sin1 yet not aware of his ,messiahship1 sought the baptism carrying the sins and guilt of his people on his heart1 as if they were his own 7#bbi74 ,against ,beyschlag see ,e4 ,haupt in ,studien u4 ,kritiken1 #ahhg1 #cha4 ,baldensperger shows clearly that the ,messianic call was a revelation to ,jesus1 not a conclusion from a course of reasoning4 #bg4 ,on the temptation see ,wendt,t,j ,i4 #aja-aje2 ,weiss,l,x ,i4 #ccg-ced2 ,eders,l,j,m ,i4 #bii-cjg2 ,fairbairn,s,l,x #hj-ih2 ,bald,s,j #bcj-bcf2 ,beys,l,j ,i4 #bca-bcg2 ,keim,j,n ,,ii4 #cag-cbi4 ,all these see in temptation the necessary result of the ,messianic call at the baptism4 #bh4 ,the locality of the baptism of ,jesus cannot be determined4 ,tradition has fixed on one of the fords of the ,jordan near ,jericho1 see ,smith,h,g,h,l #dif1 note #a4 ,on the probable location of ,bethany 7,bethabarah7 7,jn4 i4 #bh7 see discussion in ,and,l,o,l #adf-aea2 ,en,bib #edh2 and especially ,smith's note as above4 #bi4 ,on the anointing of ,jesus with the ,holy ,spirit see ,weiss,l,x ,i4 #cbc-ccf2 ,beys,l,j ,i4 #bcj;f4 ,for the influence of the ,spirit in the later life of ,jesus see ,mk4 i4 #ab2 ,mt4 iv4 #a2 ,lk4 iv4 #a2 iv4 #ad1 #ah1 #ba2 ,mk4 iii4 #bi1 #cj2 ,mt4 xii4 #bh2 ,jn4 iii4 #cd2 compare ,ac4 i4 #b2 x4 #ch4 ,clearly these refer not to the ethical and religious indwelling of the ,divine ,spirit 7comp4 ,rom4 i4 #d71 but to the special equipment for official duty4 ,this is the ,,ot sense1 see ,ex4 xxxi4 #b-e2 ,jud4 iii4 #aj2 ,i4 ,sam4 xi4 #f2 ,isa4 xi4 #a;f42 xlii4 #a2 lxi4 #a2 and consult ,schultz1 ,old ,test4 ,theol4 ,,ii4 #bjb;f4 ,jesus seems to have needed a like divine equipment1 notwithstanding his divine nature4 ,see ,gilbert,l,j #aba;f4 #cj4 ,how this ,messianic anointing is to be related to the doctrine of ,jesus' essential divine nature cannot be determined with certainty4 ,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that it is a datum for ,christology1 and that it cannot be explained away4 ,it indicates one of the particulars in which ,jesus was made like unto his brethren4 ,what was involved when the ,son of ,god emptied himself and was made in the likeness of men 7,phil4 ii4 #g7 we can only vaguely conceive4 ,two views of early heretical sects seem rightly to have been rejected4 ,the ,docetic view1 held by some ,gnostics of the #b;d cent41 dates the incarnation from the baptism1 but distinguishes ,christ from the human ,jesus1 who only served as a vehicle for the manifestation of the ,son of ,god2 the ,christ descended on ,jesus at the baptism1 ascending again to heaven from the cross1 compare ,mt4 iii4 #af and xxvii4 #ej in the ,greek2 see ,schaff ,hist4 of ,xn ,church#b1 ,,ii4 #dee;f4 ,the recently discovered ,gospel of ,peter presents this view1 ,gosp4 ,pet4 #e4 ,the ,nestorian view represents that the baptism was1 in a sense1 ,jesus' birth from above 7,jn4 iii4 #c1 #e72 thus the incarnation was first complete at the baptism though the ,logos had been associated with ,jesus from the beginning4 ,see ,schaff1 ,hist1 of ,xn ,church#b1 ,,iii4 #gag ff42 ,conybeare1 ,history of ,xmas1 ,amer4 ,jour4 ,theol4 #ahii1 #a-ba4 #ca4 ,the traditional locality of the temptation is a mountain near ,jericho called ,quarantana1 see ,and,l,o,l #aee2 the tradition seems to date no further back than the crusades4 ,it is1 however1 probable that the wilderness 7,mt4 iv4 #a1 ,mk4 i4 #ab1 ,lk4 iv4 #a7 is the same wilderness mentioned in connection with ,john's earlier life and work 7,mt4 iii4 #a1 ,mk4 i4 #d71 the region ,w and ,,nw of the ,dead ,sea1 see ,smith,h,g,h,l #cag4 ,others 7,stanley1 ,sinai and ,palestine1 #cjh2 ,eders,l,j,m ,i4 #cjj1 #cci notes7 hold that the temptation took place in the desert regions ,,se of the sea of ,galilee2 this is possibly correct1 though the record in the gospels suggests the wilderness of ,judea4 ,on the source of the temptation story see ,weiss,l,x ,i4 #cci ff42 ,beys,l,j ,i4 #bcd2 ,bacon1 ,bib4 ,wld4 #aijj1 ,i4 #ah-be4 ,,viii ,the ,first ,disciples #cb4 ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fab;f42 ,gilbert,l,j #add-aeg2 ,weiss,l,x ,i4 #cee-chg2 ,and,l,o,l #aee-afe2 ,eders,l,j,m ,i4 #ccf-cfc2 ,beys,l,j ,,ii4 #abi-adh 7assigns here a considerable part of the synoptic account of work in ,capernaum74 #cc4 ,the early confessions4 ,on the genuineness of the ,baptist's testimony to the ,lamb of ,god see ,m4 ,dods in ,expos4 ,gk4 ,test4 ,i 4#fie;f42 ,westcott1 ,comm4 on ,john1 #bj2 ,eders,l,j,m #a4 #cdb ff42 ,weiss,l,x #a4 #cfb;f4 7thinks the evangelist added who taketh away the sin of the world72 ,holtzmann1 ,hand-comm4 ,,iv4 #ch;f4 holds that the evangelist has put in the mouth of the ,baptist a conception which was first current after the death of ,jesus4 ,on the confessions of ,nathanael and the others1 see ,jour4 ,bib4 ,lit4 #ahih1 #ba-cj4 #cd4 ,cana is probably the modern ,khirbet ,kana1 eight miles ,n of ,nazareth4 ,a rival site is ,kefr ,kenna1 three and one-half miles ,,ne from ,nazareth4 ,see ,en,bib and ,hast,b,d1 also ,and,l,o,l #afb-afd4 #ce4 ,the miracles of ,jesus are challenged by modern thought4 ,it is customary in reading other documents than the ,n4,t4 instantly to relegate the miraculous to the domain of legend4 ,miracles1 however1 are integral parts of the story of ,jesus' life1 and those who attempt to write that life eliminating the supernatural are constrained to recognize that he had marvellous power as an exorcist and healer of some forms of nervous disease4 ,so ,e4 ,a4 ,abbott1 ,the ,spirit on the ,waters1 #afi-bja4 ,our knowledge of nature does not warrant a dogmatic definition of the limits of the possible2 see ,james1 ,the ,will to ,believe1 vii4-xiii41 #bii-cbg4 ,the question is confessedly one of adequate evidence4 ,the evidence for the supreme miracle--the transcendent character of ,jesus--is clear1 see ,part ,,iii4 chap4 iv42 and the miraculous element in the story of his life must be considered in view of this supreme miracle4 ,in association with him his miracles gain in credibility4 ,in estimating the evidence for them their dignity and worthiness is important4 ,what the devout imagination would do in embellishing the story of ,jesus is exhibited in the apocryphal gospels2 the miracles of the canonical gospels are of an entirely different type1 which commends them as authentic4 ,by definition a miracle is an event not explicable in terms of ordinary human experience4 ,it is therefore futile to attempt to picture the miracles of ,jesus in their occurrence1 for the imagination has no material except that furnished by ordinary experience4 ,for our day the miracles are of importance chiefly for the exhibition they give of the character of ,jesus2 they can be studied with this in view without regard to the curious question how they happened4 ,read ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fbd-fbh2 and see ,fisher1 ,grounds of ,christian and ,theistic ,belief1 chaps1 iv4--vi41 ,supernatural ,origin of ,christianity#c1 chap1 xi42 ,bruce1 ,miraculous ,element in the ,gospels2 ,apologetics1 #dji ff42 ,illingworth1 ,divine ,immanence2 ,rainy1 ,orr1 and ,dods1 ,the ,supernatural in ,christianity4 ,part ,,ii4--,the ,ministry ,i ,general ,survey #cf4 ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fji;f42 ,gilbert,l,j #acf-adc2 ,and,l,o,l #abe-acg2 ,beys,l,j ,i4 #bef-bie4 ,,ii ,the ,early ,ministry in ,judea #cg4 ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fab;b-#fac;b2 ,weiss,l,x ,,ii4 #c-ec2 ,eders,l,j,m ,i4 #cfd-dbi2 ,beys,l,j ,,ii4 #adg-afh2 ,gilbert,l,j #aeh-agi4 #ch4 ,on the chronological significance of ,john iv4 #ce see ,and,l,o,l #ahc2 ,weiss,l,x ,,ii4 #dj2 ,wieseler1 ,synop4 #bab ff1 who find indication that the journey was in ,december4 ,eders,l,j,m ,i4 #dai;f42 ,turner in ,hast,b,d ,i4 #djh1 find indication of early summer4 ,some treat iv4 #ce as a proverb with no chronological significance2 so ,alford1 ,comm4 on ,john4 #ci4 ,geographical notes4 ,aenon near ,salim has not been identified4 ,most favor a site in ,samaria1 seven miles from a place named ,salim1 which lay four miles ,e of ,shechem1 see ,conder1 ,tent ,work in ,palestine1 ,,ii4 #eg1 #eh2 ,stevens1 ,jour4 ,bib4 ,lit4 #ahhc1 #abh-ada4 ,but can ,john have been baptizing in ,samaria8 ,weiss,l,x ,,ii4 #bh says it is perfectly impossible that he ,john can have taken up his station in ,samaria4 ,other suggestions are3 some place in the ,jordan valley 7but then why remark on the abundance of water1 ,jn4 iii4 #bc872 near ,jerusalem2 and in the south of ,judea4 ,see ,and,l,o,l #agc-age4 ,sychar is the modern ',askar1 about a mile and three-quarters from ,nablus 7,shechem71 and half a mile ,n of ,jacob's well4 ,see ,smith,h,g,h,l #cfg-cge4 #dj4 ,general questions4 ,was the temple twice cleansed8 7see sect4 #aaf74 ,probably not4 ,the two reports 7,jn4 ii4 #ac-bb2 ,mk4 xi4 #ae-ah s7 are similar in respect of ,jesus' indignation1 its cause1 its expression1 its result1 and a consequent challenge of his authority4 ,they differ in the time of the event 7,john assigns to first ,passover1 synoptics to the last7 and in a possibly greater sternness in the synoptic account4 ,these differences are no greater than appear in other records of identical events 7compare ,mt4 viii4 #e-ac with ,lk4 vii4 #b-aj71 while the repetition of such an act would probably have been met by serious opposition4 ,if the temple was cleansed but once1 ,john indicates the true time4 ,at the beginning of the ministry it was a demand that the people follow the new leader in the purification of ,god's house and the establishment of a truer worship4 ,at the end it could have had only a vindictive significance1 since the people had already signified to the clear insight of ,jesus that they would not accept his leadership4 ,for two distinct cleansings see the discussion in ,and,l,o,l #afi;f41 #dcg2 ,eders,l,j,m ,i4 #cgc2 ,plummer on ,luke xix4 #de;f4 ,for one cleansing at the end see ,keim,j,n ,v4 #aac-aca4 ,for one cleansing at the beginning see ,weiss,l,x ,,ii4 #f ff42 ,beys,l,j ,,ii4 #adi ff42 ,gilbert,l,j #aei ff4 #da4 ,the journey to ,galilee4 ,do ,john 7iv4 #a-d1 #dc-de7 and ,mark 7i4 #ad ,mt4 iv4 #ab2 ,lk4 iv4 #ad7 report the same journey8 ,both are journeys from the south introducing work in ,galilee2 yet the reasons given for the journey are different 7compare ,jn4 iv4 #a-c with ,mk4 i4 #ad74 ,if the ,pharisees had a hand in ,john's delivering up 7,mk4 i4 #ad2 comp4 ,jos4 ,ant4 xviii4 #e4 #b71 the same hostile movement may have impelled ,jesus to leave ,judea4 ,he may not have heard of ,john's imprisonment until after his departure1 or some time before he opened his new ministry in ,galilee4 ,see ,gilbert,l,j #agc;f4 ,and,l,o,l #agf-ahb argues against the identification4 #db4 ,the nobleman's son 7,jn4 iv4 #df-ed74 ,is this a doublet of ,mt4 viii4 #e-ac2 ,lk4 vii4 #b-aj8 ,john differs from synoptics in the time1 the place1 the disease1 the suppliant1 his plea1 and ,jesus' attitude4 ,matthew and ,mark differ from each other concerning the bearers of the centurion's messages to ,jesus4 ,john's account is similar to synoptic superficially1 but is probably not a doublet4 ,compare ,syro-,phnician's daughter 7,mk4 vii4 #bi;f474 ,see ,gilbert,l,j #bjb2 ,meyer on ,john iv4 #ea-ed2 ,plummer on ,luke vii4 #aj4 ,weiss,l,x ,,ii4 #de-ea identifies4 ,read ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fac4 ,,iii and ,,iv ,the ,ministry in ,galilee #dc4 ,read ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fac-fcj2 ,gilbert,l,j #ahj-bhc4 ,consult ,weiss,l,x ,,ii4 #dd to ,,iii4 #aec2 ,eders,l,j,m ,i4 #dgb to ,,ii4 #abe2 ,beys,l,j ,,ii4 #adj-adg1afh-bid4 ,see ,and,l,o,l #bji-cfc for discussion of details1 and ,keim,j,n ,,iii4 #aj to ,,iv4 #cdf for an illuminating1 though not unprejudiced1 topical treatment4 #dd4 ,geographical notes4 ,capernaum4 ,the site is not clearly identified1 two ruins on the ,,nw of ,sea of ,galilee are rival claimants1--,tell ,hum and ,khan ,minyeh4 ,tell ,hum is advocated by ,thomson1 ,land and ,book1 ,central ,pal4 and ,phnicia 7#ahhb71 #daf-dbj2 ,khan ,minyeh1 by ,smith,h,g,h,l #def1 ,en,bib ,i4 #fif ff4 ,latter is probably correct4 ,see ,and,l,o,l #bbd-bcg4 ,bethsaida4 ,the full name is ,bethsaida ,julias1 located at entrance of ,jordan into the ,sea of ,galilee4 ,smith,en,bib ,i4 #efe;f41 ,smith,h,g,h,l #deg;f41 shows that there is no need of the hypothesis of a second ,bethsaida to meet the statement in ,mk4 vi4 #de1 or that in ,jn4 i4 #dd4 ,see also ,and,l,o,l #bcj-bcf4 ,ewing ,hast,b,d ,i4 #bhb;f4 renews the argument for two ,bethsaidas4 ,chorazin was probably the modern ,kerazeh1 about one mile ,n of ,tell ,hum1 and back from the lake4 ,see ,smith,en,bib ,i4 #gea2 ,smith,h,g,h,l #def2 ,and,l,o,l #bcg;f4 #de4 ,the mountain of the sermon on the mount 7,mt4 v4 #a2 ,lk4 vi4 #ab7 probably refers to the ,galilean highlands as distinct from the shore of the lake4 ,more definite location is not possible4 ,see ,and,l,o,l #bfh;f42 ,eders,l,j,m ,i4 #ebd4 ,the traditional site1 the ,horns of ,hattin1 is a hill lying about seven miles ,,sw from ,khan ,minyeh1 which has near the top a level place 7,lk4 vi4 #ag7 flanked by two low peaks or horns4 #df4 ,the country of the ,gerasenes1 ,gadarenes1 or ,gergesenes4 ,gadarenes is the best attested reading in ,mt4 viii4 #bh1 ,gerasenes in ,mk4 v4 #a and ,lk4 viii4 #bf2 ,gergesenes has only secondary attestation4 ,gadara is identified with ,um ,keis on the ,yarmuk1 some six miles ,,se of the ,sea of ,galilee4 ,this cannot have been the site of the miracle1 though it is possible that ,gadara may have controlled the country round about1 including the shores of the sea4 ,gerasa is the name of a city in the highlands of ,gilead1 twenty miles ,e of ,jordan1 and thirty-five ,,se of the ,sea of ,galilee1 and it clearly cannot have been the scene of the miracle4 ,near the ,e shore of the sea ,thomson discovered the ruins of a village which now bears the name ,khersa4 ,the formation of the land in the neighborhood closely suits the narrative of the gospels4 ,this is now accepted as the true identification4 ,see ,thomson ,land and ,book1 ,central ,palestine1 #cec-cee2 ,,sbd#b #ajig-aajj2 ,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #aei;f42 ,and,l,o,l #bif-cjj4 ,the name ,gadarenes may indicate that ,gadara had jurisdiction over the region of ,khersa2 the names ,gerasenes and ,gergesenes may be derived directly and independently from ,khersa1 or may be corruptions due to the obscurity of ,khersa4 #dg4 ,the feeding of the five thousand took place on the ,e of the sea1 in a desert region1 abundant in grass1 and mountainous1 and located in the neighborhood of a place named ,bethsaida4 ,near the ruins of ,bethsaida ,julias is a plain called now ,butaiha1 a smooth1 grassy place near the sea and the mountains1 which meets the requirements of the narrative4 ,see ,and,l,o,l #cbb;f4 #dh4 ,the return of ,jesus from the regions of ,tyre through ,sidon 7,mk4 vii4 #ca7 avoided ,galilee1 crossing ,n of ,galilee to the territory of ,philip and the ,decapolis4 ,this latter name applies to a group of free ,greek cities1 situated for the most part ,e of the ,jordan4 ,most of the cities of the group were farther ,s than the ,sea of ,galilee2 some1 however1 were ,e and ,,ne of that sea1 hence ,jesus' approach from ,csarea ,philippi or ,damascus could be described as through ,decapolis4 ,see ,smith,h,g,h,l #eic-fjh2 ,en ,bib ,i4 #ajea ff42 ,schrer,j,p,t,x ,,ii4 i4 #id-aba4 #di4 ,of ,magadan 7,mt4 xv4 #ci7 or ,dalmanutha 7,mk4 viii4 #aj7 all that is known is that they must have been on the ,w coast of the ,sea of ,galilee4 ,they have never been identified1 though there are many conjectures4 ,see ,,sbd#b1 ,hast,b,d1 and ,en ,bib4 #ej4 ,csarea ,philippi was situated at the easternmost and most important of the sources of the ,jordan1 it is called ,panias by ,jos4 ,ant4 xv4 #aj4c1 now ,banias4 ,probably a sanctuary of the god ,pan4 ,here ,herod the ,great built a temple which he dedicated to ,csar2 ,philip the ,tetrarch enlarged the town and called it ,csarea ,philippi4 ,see ,,sbd#b2 ,hast,b,d2 ,en,bib4 #ea4 ,the mountain of the transfiguration4 ,the traditional site1 since the fourth century1 is ,tabor in ,galilee4 ,most recent opinion has favored one of the shoulders of ,hermon1 owing to the supposed connection of the event with the sojourn near ,csarea ,philippi4 ,weiss,l,x ,,iii4 #ih points out that there is no evidence that ,jesus lingered for six days 7,mk4 ix4 #b7 near that town1 and that therefore the effort to locate the transfiguration is futile4 ,gilbert,l,j #bgd thinks that ,mk4 ix4 #cj is decisive in favor of a place outside ,galilee2 he therefore holds to the common view that ,hermon is the true locality4 ,see ,and,l,o,l #ceg;f4 #eb4 ,general questions4 ,was ,jesus twice rejected at ,nazareth8 7comp4 ,lk4 iv4 #af-cj with ,mk4 vi4 #a-f;a2 ,mt4 xiii4 #ed-eh74 ,here are two accounts that read like independent traditions of the same event2 they agree concerning the place1 the teaching in the synagogue on the ,sabbath1 the astonishment of the ,nazarenes1 their scornful question1 and ,jesus' rejoinder4 ,luke makes no reference to the disciples 7,mk4 vi4 #a7 nor to the working of miracles 7,mk4 vi4 #e72 ,matthew and ,mark1 on the other hand1 say nothing of an attempt at violence4 ,these differences are no more serious1 however1 than appear in the two accounts of the appeal of the centurion to ,jesus 7,mt4 viii4 #e-h2 ,lk4 vii4 #c-g74 ,moreover1 ,lk4 iv4 #bc indicates a time after the ministry in ,capernaum had won renown1 which agrees with the place given the rejection in ,mark4 ,the general statement 7,lk4 iv4 #ad;f47 suggests that the visit to ,nazareth is given at the beginning as an instance of preaching in their synagogues4 ,the three accounts probably refer to one event reported independently4 ,for identification see ,weiss,l,x ,,iii4 #cd2 ,plummer on ,luke iv4 #cj2 ,gilbert,l,j #bed;f4 ,for two rejections see ,godet's supplementary note on ,lk4 iv4 #af-cj2 ,meyer on ,mt4 xiii4 #ec-eh2 ,eders,l,j,m ,i4 #deg1 note #a2 ,wieseler1 ,synopsis1 #bgh4 ,beys,l,j ,i4 #bgj identifies but prefers ,luke's date4 #ec4 ,were there two miraculous draughts of fish8 ,lk4 v4 #a-aa is sometimes identified with ,jn4 xxi4 #c-ac4 ,so ,wendt,l,j ,i4 #baa;f41 ,weiss,l,x ,,ii4 #eg;f41 and ,meyer on ,luke v4 #a-aa4 ,against the identification see ,alford1 ,godet1 and ,plummer on the passage in ,luke4 ,the two are alike in scene1 the night of bootless toil1 the great catch at ,jesus' word4 ,they differ in personnel1 antecedent relations of the fishermen with ,jesus1 the effect of the miracle on ,peter1 and the subsequent teaching of ,jesus1 as well as in time4 ,these differences make identification difficult4 #ed4 ,where in the synoptic story should the journey to the feast in ,jerusalem 7,jn4 v47 be placed8 ,there is nothing in ,john's narrative to identify the feast1 although it is his custom to name the festivals to which he refers 7,passover1 ii4 #ac1 #bc2 vi4 #d2 xi4 #ee2 xii4 #a2 ,tabernacles1 vii4 #b2 ,dedication1 x4 #bb74 ,even if ,john wrote the feast1 rather than a feast 7the ,,mss4 vary1 ,a ,b ,d and seven other uncials omit the article71 it would be impossible to decide between ,passover and ,tabernacles4 ,the omission of the article suggests either that the feast was of minor importance1 or that its identification was of no significance for the understanding of the following discourse4 ,since a year and four months probably elapsed between the journey into ,galilee 7,jn4 iv4 #ce7 and the next ,passover mentioned in ,john 7vi4 #d71 v4 #a may refer to any one of the feasts of the ,jewish year4 ,the commonest interpretation prefers ,purim1 a festival of a secular and somewhat hilarious type1 which occurred on the #adth and #aeth of ,adar1 a month before the ,passover4 ,it is difficult to believe that this feast would have called ,jesus to ,jerusalem4 ,see ,weiss,l,x ,,ii4 #cia2 ,gilbert,l,j #acg-aci1 #adb1 #bcd-bce4 ,against this interpretation see ,eders,l,j,m ,,ii4 #gfe4 ,edersheim advocates the feast of ,wood ,gathering on the #aeth of ,ab--about our ,august4 ,on this day all the people were permitted to offer wood for the use of the altar in the temple1 while during the rest of the year the privilege was reserved for special families4 ,see ,,ljm ,,ii #gfe;f42 ,westcott1 ,comm4 on ,john1 add4 note on v4 #a1 argues for the feast of ,trumpets1 or the new moon of the month ,tisri1--about our ,september1--which was celebrated as the beginning of the civil year4 ,others have suggested ,pentecost1 fifty days after the ,passover2 the day of ,atonement--but this was a fast1 not a feast2 and ,tabernacles4 ,the majority of those who do not favor ,purim prefer the ,passover1 notwithstanding the difficulty of thinking that ,john would refer to this feast simply as a feast of the ,jews4 ,read ,and,l,o,l #aic-aih1 remembering that the question must be considered independently of the question of the length of ,jesus' ministry4 ,the impossibility of determining the feast renders the adjustment of this visit to the synoptic story very uncertain4 ,it may be that there was some connection between the ,sabbath controversy in ,galilee 7,mk4 ii4 #bc-bh7 and the criticism ,jesus aroused in ,jerusalem 7,jn4 v474 ,if so1 one of the spring feasts1 ,passover or ,pentecost1 would best suit the circumstances2 but this arrangement is quite uncertain4 #ee4 ,do the five conflicts of ,mk4 ii4 #a to iii4 #f belong at the early place in the ministry of ,jesus to which that gospel assigns them8 ,it is commonly held that they do not1 and the argument for a two-year ministry rests on this assumption 7see ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fac74 ,holtzmann1 ,hand-commentar ,i4 #i;f41 remarks that at least for the cure of the paralytic and for the call and feast of ,levi 7,mk4 ii4 #a1 #ac1 #ae7 the evangelist was confident that he was following the actual order of events2 note the call of the fifth disciple1 ,mk4 ii4 #ac1 between the call of the four1 ,mk4 i4 #af-bj1 and that of the twelve1 iii4 #af-ai4 ,the question about fasting may owe its place 7,mk4 ii4 #ah-bb7 to association with the criticism of ,jesus for eating with publicans 7,mk4 ii4 #af74 ,in like manner the second ,sabbath conflict 7,mk4 iii4 #a-f7 may be attached to the first 7ii4 #bc-bh7 as a result of the identity of subject1 for it is noteworthy that ,mark records only these two ,sabbath conflicts2 moreover1 the plot of ,herodians and ,pharisees to kill ,jesus strongly suggests a later time for the actual occurrence of this criticism4 ,the first ,sabbath question1 however1 may belong early1 as ,mark has placed it4 ,weiss1 ,markusevangelium1 #gf1 ,,lx ,,ii4 #bcb ff41 places these conflicts late4 ,edersheim1 ,,ljm ,,ii4 #ea ff41 discusses the ,sabbath controversies after the feeding of the multitudes4 ,rville,j,n ,,ii4 #bbi places the first of them early4 #ef4 ,the sermon on the mount4 ,luke 7vi4 #ab-ai ,mk4 iii4 #ac-ai;a indicates the place in the ,galilean ministry2 ,matthew has therefore anticipated in assigning it to the beginning4 ,the identity of the two sermons 7,mt4 v4 #a to vii4 #bg2 ,lk4 vi4 #bj-di7 is shown by the fact that each begins with beatitudes1 each closes with the parables of the wise and foolish builders1 each is followed by the cure of a centurian's servant in ,capernaum 7,mt4 viii4 #e-ac2 ,lk4 vii4 #a-aj71 and the teachings which are found in each account are given in the same order4 ,matthew is much fuller than ,luke1 many teachings given in the sermon in ,matthew being found in later contexts in ,luke4 ,much of the sermon in ,matthew1 however1 evidently belonged to the original discourse1 and was omitted by ,luke1 perhaps because of less interest to ,gentile than to ,jewish ,christians4 ,the following sections are found elsewhere in ,luke1 and were probably associated with the sermon by the first evangelist3 ,mt4 v4 #be1 #bf2 ,lk4 xii4 #eh1 #ei2 ,mt4 vi4 #i-ac2 ,lk4 xi4 #b-d2 ,mt4 vi4 #ai-cd2 ,lk4 xii4 #ba-cd2 xi4 #cd-cf2 xvi4 #ac2 ,mt4 vii4 #g-aa2 ,lk4 xi4 #i-ac2 ,mt4 vii4 #ac1 #ad2 ,lk4 xiii4 #bd4 ,the first evangelist's habit of grouping may explain also the presence in his sermon of teachings which he himself has duplicated later1 thus3 ,mt4 v4 #bi1 #cj xviii4 #h1i2 v4 #cb xix4 #i1 comp4 ,mk4 x4 #aa1 ix4 #dc-dg1 ,lk4 xvi4 #ah2 ,mt4 vi4 #ad1 #ae ,mk4 xi4 #be4 ,matthew vii4 #bb1 #bc has the character of the teachings which follow the confession at ,csarea ,phillipi1 and is quite unlike the other early teachings4 ,it may belong to the later time1 for it was natural for the early ,christians to associate together teachings which the ,lord uttered on widely separated occasions4 ,the sermon as originally given may be analyzed as follows3 ,the privileges of the heirs of the kingdom of ,god1 ,mt4 v4 #c-ac2 ,lk4 vi4 #bj-bf2 their responsibilities1 ,mt4 v4 #ac-af2 the relation of the new to the old1 ,mt4 v4 #ag-ai2 the text of the discourse1 ,mt4 v4 #bj2 the new conception of morality1 ,mt4 v4 #ba-dh2 ,lk4 vi4 #bg-cf2 the new practice of religion1 ,mt4 vi4 #a-h1 #af-ah2 warning against a censorious spirit1 ,mt4 vii4 #af-bj2 ,lk4 vi4 #dc-df2 the wise and foolish builders1 ,mt4 vii4 #bd-bg2 ,lk4 vi4 #dg-di4 #eg4 ,the discourse in parables4 ,matthew gives seven parables at this point 7xiii471 ,mark 7iv4 #a-cd7 has three1 one of them is not given in ,matthew1 ,luke 7viii4 #d-ah7 gives in this connection but one1--the ,sower4 ,many think that the ,tares of ,matthew 7xiii4 #bd-cj1 #cf-dc7 is a doublet of ,mark's ,seed growing secretly 7iv4 #bf-bi72 so ,weiss ,,lx ,,ii4 #bji note1 against which view see ,wendt,l,j ,i4 #agh f41 and ,bruce1 ,parabolic ,teaching of ,xt1 #aai4 ,matthew has probably made here a group of parables1 as in chapters v4 to vii4 he has made a group of other teachings4 ,the interpretation of the ,tares1 and of the ,draw-net 7xiii4 #dj-dc1 #di1 #ej71 may indicate that these parables were spoken after ,jesus began to teach plainly concerning the end of the world 7,mk4 viii4 #ca to ix4 #a71 ,luke gives the ,mustard ,seed and ,leaven in another connection 7xiii4 #ah-ba71 and it may be that ,matthew has taken them out of their true context to associate them with the other parables of his group2 yet in popular teaching it must be recognized that illustrations are most likely to be repeated in different situations4 ,on the parables see ,goebel1 ,the ,parables of ,jesus 7#ahij71 ,bruce1 ,the ,parabolic ,teaching of ,christ1 #c;d ed4 7#ahhf71 ,jlicher1 ,die ,gleichnissreden ,jesu 7#b vols4 #ahii71 and the commentaries on the gospels4 #eh4 ,the instructions to the twelve4 ,mt4 ix4 #cf to xi4 #a4 x4 #a1 #e-ad corresponds in general with ,mk4 vi4 #g-aa2 ,lk4 ix4 #a-e4 ,the similarity is closer1 however1 between x4 #g-ae and ,lk4 x4 #c-ab--the instructions to the seventy 7see sect4 ,a #fh74 ,the rest of ,mt4 x4 7#af-db7 is paralleled by teachings found in the closing discourses in the synoptic gospels1 and in teachings preserved in the section peculiar to ,luke 7ix4 #ea to xviii4 #ad4 ,see ,,sb sects4 #hh-ib1 footnotes74 ,it is probable that here the first evangelist has made a group of instructions to disciples gathered from all parts of the ,lord's teachings2 such a collection was of great practical value in the early time of persecution4 #ei4 ,did ,jesus twice feed the multitudes8 ,all the gospels record the feeding of the five thousand 7,mt4 xiv4 #ac-bc2 ,mk4 vi4 #cj-df2 ,lk4 ix4 #aj-ag2 ,jn4 vi4 #a-ae71 ,matthew 7xv4 #cb-ch7 and ,mark 7viii4 #a-i7 give also the feeding of the four thousand4 ,the similarities are so great that the two accounts would be regarded as doublets if they occurred in different gospels4 ,the difficulty with such an identification is chiefly the reference which in both ,matthew 7xvi4 #i1 #aj7 and ,mark 7viii4 #ai1 #bj7 ,jesus is said to have made to the two feedings4 ,the evangelists clearly distinguished the two4 ,in view of this fact the differences between the accounts become important4 ,these concern the occasion of the two miracles1 the number fed1 the nationality of the multitudes 7compare ,jn4 vi4 #ca and ,mk4 vii4 #ca71 the number of loaves and of baskets of broken pieces 7the name for basket is different in the two cases1 and is preserved consistently in ,mk4 viii4 #ai1 #bj2 ,mt4 xvi4 #i1 #aj74 ,see ,gilbert,l,j #bei-bfb1 ,gould1 and ,swete1 on ,mk4 viii4 #a-i2 ,meyer1 ,alford1 on ,mt4 xv4 #cb-ch4 ,weiss,l,x ,,ii4 #cgf;f41 ,beys,l,j ,i4 #bgi;f41 ,wendt,l,j ,i4 #db1 ,holtzmann ,hand-comm4 ,i4 #ahf ff41 identify the accounts4 ,see also ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fbi4 #fj4 ,did ,peter twice confess faith in ,jesus as ,messiah8 ,synoptics give his confession at ,cesarea ,philippi 7,mk4 viii4 #bg-cj2 ,mt4 xvi4 #ac-bj2 ,lk4 ix4 #ah-ba74 ,john1 however1 gives a confession earlier at ,capernaum 7vi4 #ff-ga74 ,weiss,l,x ,,iii4 #ec identifies the two1 placing that in ,john at ,csarea ,philippi1 since there is no evidence that all of the long discourse of ,jn4 vi4 was spoken in ,capernaum the day after the feeding of the five thousand4 ,this may be correct1 yet the marked recognition which ,jesus gave to the confession at ,csarea ,philippi does not demand that he first at that time received a confession of his disciples' faith4 ,the confession in ,jn4 vi4 #fh1 #fi declared that the twelve were not shaken in their faith by the recent defection of many disciples4 ,at ,csarea ,philippi the confession was made after the revulsion of popular feeling had been made fully evident1 and after the twelve had had time for reaction of enthusiasm consequent upon the growing coldness of the multitudes and active opposition of the leaders4 ,the confession of ,csarea ,philippi holds its unique significance1 whether or not ,jn4 vi4 #fh is identified with it4 #fa4 ,the journey to ,tabernacles 7,jn4 vii474 ,where in the synoptic story should it be placed8 ,lk4 ix4 #ea ff4 records the final departure from ,galilee4 ,the journey of ,jn4 vii4 is the last journey from ,galilee given in ,john4 ,yet the two are very different4 ,in ,john1 ,jesus went in haste1 unpremeditatedly1 in secret1 and unaccompanied1 and confronted the people with himself unexpectedly during the feast4 ,in ,luke 7,mk4 x4 #a and ,mt4 xix4 #a are so general that they give no aid7 he advanced deliberately1 with careful plans1 announcing his coming in advance1 accompanied by many disciples1 with whom he went from place to place1 arriving in ,jerusalem long after he had set out4 ,the two journeys cannot be identified4 ,john seems to keep ,jesus in the south after the ,tabernacles1 but his account does not forbid a return to ,galilee between ,tabernacles and ,dedication 7x4 #bb74 ,after the hurried visit to ,tabernacles1 ,jesus probably went back to ,galilee1 and gathered his disciples again for the final journey towards his cross--for the visit to ,jerusalem had given fresh evidence of the kind of treatment he must expect in the capital 7,jn4 vii4 #cb1 #de-eb2 viii4 #ei74 ,see ,and,l,o,l #cfi-cgi4 ,andrews suggests that the feast occurred before the withdrawal to ,csarea ,philippi 7#cgf72 this is possible1 but it seems more natural to place it during the sojourn in ,capernaum after the return from the north 7,mk4 ix4 #cc-ej74 ,see ,,sb1 sects4 #hb-he4 #fb4 ,on the phenomena and interpretation of ,demoniac ,possession see ,j4 ,l4 ,nevius1 ,demon ,possession and allied ,themes2 ,conybeare1 ,jew4 ,quar4 ,rev4 ,,viii4 7#ahif7 #egf-fjh1 ,,ix4 7#ahif-g7 #ei-aad1 #ddd-dgj1 #eha-fjc2 ,j4 ,weiss in ,relencyklopdie1#c ,hauck-,herzog1 ,,iv4 #djh-dai2 ,binet1 ,alterations of ,personality1 #cbe-cef2 ,james1 ,psychology1 ,i4 #cgc-djj2 and the articles on ,,demons in ,en,bib and ,hast,b,d4 ,the ,journey through ,perea to ,jerusalem #fc4 ,read ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fcj-fcb2 see ,gilbert,l,j #bih-caj3 ,weiss,l,x ,,iii4 #aeg-bbc2 ,keim,j,n ,v1 #a-fd2 ,beys,l,j ,i4 #bhg-bid4 ,,ii4 #ccc-dai2 ,and,l,o,l #cfe-dbj2 ,eders,l,j,m ,,ii4 #abf-cfj4 #fd4 ,this journey began sometime between ,tabernacles and ,dedication 7,october and ,december7 of the last year of ,jesus' life1 and continued until the arrival in ,bethany six days before the last ,passover4 #fe4 ,geographical notes4 ,perea--a part of the domain of ,antipas--was the ,jewish territory ,e of the ,jordan4 ,its northern limit seems to have been marked by ,pella 7,jos4 ,wars1 iii #c4 #c7 or ,gadara 7,wars1 iv4 #g4 #c71 and its ,e boundary was marked by ,philadelphia 7,ant4 xx4 #a4 #a72 it extended ,s to the domain of ,aretas1 king of ,arabia4 ,the population was mixed1 though predominatingly ,jewish4 ,cities of the ,decapolis1 however1 lay within the limits of ,perea1 and introduced ,greek life and ideas to the people4 ,on the highlands back from the ,jordan it was a fertile and well populated land4 ,see ,smith,h,g,h,l #eci;f42 ,schrer,j,p,t,x ,,ii4 i4 #b-d4 #ff4 ,on ,bethany and ,jericho see ,b,ds and1 for the latter1 ,smith,h,g,h,l #bff ff4 #fg4 ,ephraim1 7,john xi4 #ed7 is generally identified with the ,ephron of ,,ii4 ,chron4 xiii4 #ai 7,jos4 ,wars1 iv4 #i4 #i74 ,robinson located it at et ,taiyibeh1 #d m4 ,,ne of ,bethel1 and #ad from ,jerusalem4 ,see ,hast,b,d l4 #gbh2 ,,sbd#b #ige4 #fh4 ,general questions4 ,the mission of the seventy4 ,luke records two missions1 that of the twelve 7ix4 #a-f71 and that of the seventy 7x4 #a-bd74 ,many regard these as doublets1 similar to the two feedings in ,mark4 ,so ,weiss,l,x ,,ii4 #cjg ff41 ,beys,l,j ,i4 #bge1 ,wendt,l,j ,i4 #hd;f4 ,in favor of this conclusion emphasis is given to the fact that in ,jewish thought seventy symbolized the nations of the world as twelve symbolized ,israel4 ,it is suggested that in his search for full records ,luke came upon an account of the mission of disciples which had already been modified in the interests of ,gentile ,christianity1 and failing to recognize its identity with the account of the mission furnished by ,mark1 he added it in his peculiar section4 ,the similarity of the instructions given follows from the nature of the case4 ,a second sending out of disciples is suitable in view of the entrance into a region hitherto unvisited4 ,as ,dr4 ,sanday has remarked1 the sayings connected by ,luke with this mission bear witness to the authenticity of the account4 ,there is therefore no need to identify the two missions4 ,see particularly ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fad1 also ,gilbert,l,j #bbf-bcj1 ,plummer's ,comm4 on ,luke1 #bfi ff4 ,luke probably gives the correct place for the thanksgiving1 self-declaration1 and invitation of ,jesus1 in which the synoptists approach most nearly to the thought of ,john 7,lk4 x4 #ba1 #bb2 ,mt4 xi4 #be-cj74 ,the return of the seventy 7,lk4 x4 #ag-bj7 followed the woes addressed to the unbelieving cities 7,lk4 x4 #ac-af2 ,mt4 xi4 #bj-bd74 #fi4 ,the destination of the seventy4 ,it is customary to think of them as sent to the various cities of ,perea 7see ,and,l,o,l #cha-chc74 ,were it not for the words whither he himself was about to come 7,lk4 x4 ,i71 it would be natural to conclude that they were sent ,e to ,gerasa and ,philadelphia1 and ,s to the regions of the ,dead ,sea4 ,if ,john's account is accepted1 ,jesus spent not a little time of the interval between his departure from ,galilee and his final arrival in ,bethany in and near ,jerusalem4 ,it may be that after the withdrawal from the ,dedication he went far into the ,perean districts4 ,but ,john x4 #dj is against it4 ,the question must be left unanswered4 ,the messengers may have visited places in all parts of ,palestine4 ,,vi ,the ,controversies of the ,last ,week #gj4 ,see ,gilbert,l,j #caa-cce2 ,weiss,l,x ,,iii4 #bbd-bgj2 ,and,l,o,l #dba-dej2 ,keim,j,n ,v4 #fe-bge2 ,beys,l,j ,,ii4 #dbb-dcd2 ,eders,l,j,m ,,ii4 #cfc-dgh2 ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii #fcb;f4 #ga4 ,the supper at ,bethany4 ,john is definite1 six days before the passover 7xii4 ,i74 ,synoptists place it after the day of controversy1 on the ,wednesday preceding the ,passover 7,mk4 xiv4 ,i1 #c-i2 ,mt4 xxvi4 #b1 #f-ac74 ,john is probably correct4 ,the rebuke of ,judas 7,jn4 xii4 #d-h7 was probably associated in the thought of the disciples with his later treachery2 consequently the synoptists report the plot of ,judas and this supper in close connection4 #gb4 ,the ,messianic entry into ,jerusalem is regarded by ,rville as a surrender by ,jesus of his lofty ,messianic ideal in response to the temptation to seek a popular following4 ,keim with finer insight says1 ,even if it had certainly been his wish to bring the kingdom of heaven near in ,jerusalem quietly and gradually1 and with a healthy mental progress1 as in ,galilee1 yet 444 in the face of the irritability of his opponents1 in the face of the powerful means at their disposal of crushing him 444 there remained but one chance1--reckless publicity1 the conquest of the partially prepared nation by means1 not of force1 but of idea4444 ,he came staking his life upon the venture1 but also believing that ,god must finish his work through life or death 7,,jn ,v4 #ajj;f474 #gc4 ,the question about the resurrection was probably a familiar ,sadducean problem with which they made merry at the expense of the scribes4 ,on the resurrection in ,jewish thought see ,charles1 ,eschatology1 ,hebrew1 ,jewish1 and ,christian1 by index4 ,for the scepticism of the ,sadducees see also ,ac4 xxiii4 #h2 ,jos4 ,wars1 ii1 #h4 #ad4 #gd4 ,on the great commandment see ,eders,l,j,m ,,ii4 #djc ff4 #ge4 ,the eschatological discourse presents serious exegetical difficulties4 ,many cut the knot by assuming that ,mk4 xiii4 and s contain a little ,jewish apocalypse written shortly before the destruction of ,jerusalem1 which has been blended with genuine predictions of ,jesus concerning his second coming4 ,see ,charles1 ,eschatology1 #cbc-4 #cbi2 ,wendt,l,j ,i4 #i-ba2 ,holtzmann,nt,t,h ,i4 #cbe ff42 and ,bruce's criticism in ,expos4 ,gk4 ,test4 ,i4 #bhg;f41 also ,sanday's note in ,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fce;f4 #gf4 ,on the relation of proselytes to ,judaism see ,schrer,j,p,t,x ,,ii4 ii4 #bia-cbg4 ,the synagogue in heathen lands drew to itself by its monotheism and its pure ethics the finest spirits of paganism4 ,but few of them1 however1 submitted to circumcision1 and became thus proselytes4 ,most of them constituted the class of them that fear ,god to whom ,paul constantly appealed in his apostolic mission4 ,the ,greeks of ,jn4 xii4 #bj ff4 were probably circumcised proselytes4 #gg4 ,on ,judas see ,plummer in ,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #gif ff42 ,eders,l,j,m ,,ii4 #dga-dgh2 ,weiss,l,x ,,iii4 #bhe-bhi2 ,and,l,o,l by index4 ,de ,quincey's essay on ,judas ,iscariot is an elaborate defence4 ,,vii ,the ,last ,supper #gh4 ,gilbert,l,j #cce-ced2 ,weiss,l,x ,,iii4 #bgc-cah2 ,eders,l,j,m ,,ii4 #dgi-ecb2 ,and,l,o,l #dej-dig2 ,keim,j,n ,v4 #bge-cdc2 ,beys,l,j ,,ii4 #dcd-ddh2 ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fcc-fch4 #gi4 ,the day of the last supper4 ,john seems clearly to place it on the day before the ,passover--#ac ,nisan4 ,see xiii4 ,i1 #bi2 xviii4 #bh2 xix4 #ad1 #ca1 #db4 ,synoptists as clearly declare that the supper was prepared on the first day of unleavened bread1 when they sacrificed the ,passover 7,mk4 xiv4 #ab2 see also ,lk4 xxii4 #ae72 this is confirmed by the similarity between the ,passover ritual as tradition has preserved it1 and the course of events at the supper4 ,unless interpretation can remove the contradiction1 ,john must have the preference4 ,weiss,l,x ,,iii4 #bgc-bhb1 ,beys,l,j ,,ii4 #cij-cii1 accept ,john and correct the synoptists by him2 thus the supper anticipated the ,passover4 ,some hold that ,john can be interpreted harmoniously with synoptists1 and be shown to indicate that the supper was on the #adth ,nisan4 ,so ,eders,l,j,m ,,ii4 #ejh1 #eff;f41 #fab;f42 ,and,l,o,l #deb-dha2 ,gilbert,l,j #cce-cci4 ,others believe that a true interpretation of synoptists shows that in calling the last supper a ,passover they correctly represent the character1 but misapprehend the time1 of the meal4 ,for this argument see ,muirhead1 ,times of ,xt1 #afc-afi1 and read ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fcc-fcf and his references4 ,the debate is still on1 but the advantage seems to be with those who assign the supper to the #acth and the crucifixion to the #adth ,nisan4 #hj4 ,did ,jesus institute a memorial sacrament8 ,read ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fcf-fch1 and ,thayer1 in ,jour4 ,bib4 ,lit4 #ahii1 #aaj-aca2 see also ,mc,giffert1 ,apostolic ,age1 #fh ff4 note2 ,holtzmann,nt,th ,i4 #bif-cjd4 #ha4 ,the ,passover ritual4 ,the order according to the rabbis was the following3 the first cup of wine and water was taken by the leader1 who gave thanks over it1 and then it was shared by all 7compare ,lk4 xxii4 #ag72 then the head of the company washed his hands--,dr4 ,edersheim connects with this the washing of the disciples' feet1 which changed the ceremony from an act of distinction into one of humble service2 after this the dishes were brought on the table1 then the leader dipped some of the bitter herbs into salt water or vinegar1 spoke a blessing1 and partook of them1 then handed them to each of the company2 then one of the loaves of unleavened bread was broken2 after this a second cup was filled1 and before it was drunk the significance of the ,passover was explained by the leader in reply to a question by the youngest of the company1 after which the first part of the ,hallel 7,ps4 cxiii41 cxiv47 was sung1 and then the cup was drunk2 then followed the supper itself beginning with the sop1--a piece of the paschal lamb1 a piece of unleavened bread1 and bitter herbs1 wrapped together and dipped in the vinegar1--which was passed around the company 7compare the sop which ,jesus gave to ,judas72 after the supper came a third cup1 known as the cup of blessing 7see ,i4 ,cor4 x4 #af72 then followed grace after meat2 then a fourth cup1 in connection with which the remainder of the ,hallel was sung 7,ps4 cxv4 to cxviii471 followed by certain other songs and prayers4 ,see ,eders,l,j,m ,,ii4 #dif-eab2 ,and,l,o,l #dhh-did4 #hb4 ,the washing of the disciples' feet4 ,john 7xiii4 #a-aa7 says this occurred during supper 7v4 #b71 and before the designation of the traitor4 ,luke 7xxii4 #bc-cj7 tells of a dispute about greatness among the disciples4 ,this dispute may have arisen over the assignment of places at table 7compare ,lk4 xiv4 #g ff42 ,mk4 x4 #cc-de72 if so1 the reason for the lesson in humility is apparent4 ,see ,and,l,o,l #dhb-dhd2 ,eders,l,j,m ,,ii4 #dib-ejc4 #hc4 ,did ,jesus twice predict ,peter's denials8 ,mark 7xiv4 #bf-ca7 and ,matthew 7xxvi4 #cj-ce7 place the prediction after the departure for ,gethsemane2 ,luke 7xxii4 #ca-cd7 and ,john 7xiii4 #cf-ch71 during the supper4 ,and,l,o,l #did ff4 thinks ,peter was warned twice1 ,eders,l,j,m4 ,,ii4 #ece-ecg holds to one warning on the way to ,gethsemane4 ,antecedent probability favors this view4 #hd4 ,where in ,john should the institution of the sacrament be placed8 ,probably after the departure of ,judas 7,mark xiv4 #ba;f42 ,matt4 xxvi4 #bf71 thus not before xiii4 #cj4 ,the most likely place is between1 verses #cb and #cc4 ,there is no break at this point1 and it remains a mystery why ,john's account of the passion omitted this central feature of early ,christian belief and practice4 ,the omission argues for rather than against apostolic authorship1 as a forger would not have ventured to disregard the leading service of the church in an account of the life of its ,lord4 ,see ,westcott1 ,comm4 on ,john1 #ahh4 #he4 ,on the possible disarrangement of the last discourses 7xiii4 #ca to xvi4 #cc7 in our text of ,john see ,spitta1 ,urchristentum1 ,i4 #afh-aic2 ,bacon1 ,jour4 ,bib4 ,lit4 #ahid1 #fd-gf2 ,burton1 ,bib4 ,wld4 #ahii ,i4 #cb4 ,,viii ,the ,shadow of the ,cross #hf4 ,see ,gilbert,l,j #ced-chd2 ,and,l,o,l #dig-ehh2 ,weiss,l,x ,,iii4 #cai-cha2 ,beys,l,j ,i4 #cij-dcb1 ,,ii4 #ddh-dgc2 ,eders,l,j,m ,,ii4 #ecc-fbj2 ,keim,j,n ,,vi4 #a-bgd2 ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fcb;f4 #hg4 ,on the location of ,gethsemane and ,golgotha see ,and,l,o,l #dii;f41 #ege-ehh2 and ,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #afd1 #bbf;f4 #hh4 ,on the progress of ,jesus' trial by the ,jewish authorities1 see ,and,l,o,l #eje-eaf2 ,gilbert,l,j #cei-cfc4 ,the legality of the trial has been carefully discussed by ,a4 ,t4 ,innes1 ,the ,trial of ,jesus ,christ4 #hi4 ,on the form and sequence of ,peter's denials1 see ,westcott1 ,comm4 on ,john1 #bfc-bff2 ,and,l,o,l #eaf-eba4 #ij4 ,the ,words from the ,cross4 ,matthew 7xxvii4 #df7 and ,mark 7xv4 #cd7 report one2 ,luke 7xxiii4 #cd81 #dc1 #df7 adds three1 omitting the one found in ,matthew and ,mark2 ,john adds three more 7xix4 #bf;f41 #bh1 #cj74 ,luke xxiii4 #cd is bracketed by ,westcott and ,hort because omitted by a very important group of ,,mss4 7,hebrew3 alepha,b,d997 and some early versions4 ,the saying is almost certainly authentic1 though it may have been added to ,luke by some early copyist4 ,see ,westcott and ,hort1 ,n4,t4 in ,greek1 ,,ii4 ,appendix1 #fh2 and ,plummer1 ,comm4 on ,luke1 #edd;f4 ,,ix ,the ,resurrection and ,ascension #ia4 ,read ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fch-fdc2 see ,keim,j,k ,,vi4 #bgd-chc1 for a still valid criticism of the position of ,rville,j,n ,,ii4 #dbh-dgh2 see also ,weiss,l,x ,,iii4 #chb-dji2 ,beys,l,j ,i4 #dcc-dha1 ,,ii4 #dgd-dic2 ,bovon,n,t,th ,i4 #cej-cge2 ,gilbert,l,j #che-dje2 ,loofs1 ,die ,auferstehungsberichte und ihr ,wert2 ,eders,l,j,m ,,ii4 #fba-feb2 ,and,l,o,l #ehi-fci4 #ib4 ,the last twelve verses of ,mark 7xvi4 #i-bj7 are omitted by the oldest ,,mss 7,hebrew3 aleph,b7 and by the recently discovered ,sinaitic ,syriac1 as well as by other versions and fathers4 ,an ,armenian ,,ms4 has been found ascribing the section to one ,ariston1 or ,aristion1 a second century elder1 and this explanation of the origin of the verses is widely accepted4 ,the gospel cannot have ended with the words for they were afraid1 but no satisfactory explanation of the condition of its text has been found4 ,for a recent hypothesis see ,rohrbach1 ,der ,schluss des ,markusevangeliums2 on ,aristion as the author1 see ,conybeare in ,expos4 ,,iv4 viii4 7#ahic7 #bda1 ,,iv4 x4 #bai1 ,v4 ii4 #dja2 see also ,sanday,hast,b,d ,,ii4 #fch;f41 ,bruce1 ,expos4 ,gk4 ,test4 ,i4 #ded;f4 ,for discussion of textual evidence see ,westcott and ,hort1 ,,nt in ,greek1 ,,ii4 ,appendix1 #bh-ea1 and ,burgon1 ,the last twelve verses of ,st4 ,mark 7a passionate defence74 ,luke xxiv4 #ea is omitted by ,hebrew3 aleph99,d and several old ,latin ,,mss4 ,see ,plummer and ,bruce on the passage4 #ic4 ,after three days4 ,this formula1 which appears often in ,mark1 is altered in parallels in ,matthew and ,luke to on the third day 7see ,concordance74 ,jesus died on ,friday1 lay in the tomb over ,saturday1 and rose very early ,sunday morning4 ,thus he spent a part of ,friday1 and a part of ,sunday1 and all of ,saturday in the grave4 ,according to ,jewish reckoning this was counted three days4 #id4 ,emmaus4 ,a village about #fj furlongs from ,jerusalem4 ,cannot have been the ,emmaus in the ,shephelah1 #bj m4 from ,jerusalem4 ,may have been el ,kubeibeh1 #fc furlongs distant on the road from ,jerusalem to ,lydda4 ,see ,and,l,o,l #fag-fai2 but also ,hast,b,d ,i4 #gjj4 ,part ,,iii4--,the ,minister ,i ,the ,friend of ,men #ie4 ,head ,mathews1 ,the ,social ,teachings of ,jesus1 especially #acb-agd2 see also ,robinson1 ,the ,saviour in the ,newer ,light1 #cdc ff4 ,,ii ,the ,teacher with ,authority #if4 ,see ,wendt,t,j ,i4 #ajf-aea2 ,stevens1 ,theol4 of the ,n4,t4 #a-af2 ,beyschlag1 ,n4,t4 ,theology1 ,i4 #ca-cd4 ,in particular on the ,parables see references in sect4 ,a #ef4 ,on the content of ,jesus' teaching see ,wendt,t,j #b vols42 ,dalman1 ,die ,worte ,jesu2 ,stevens1 ,theol4 of the ,n4,t4 #ag-bdd2 ,beyschlag1 ,n4,t4 ,theol4 ,i4 #bg-bii2 ,mathews1 ,social ,teaching of ,jesus2 ,gilbert1 ,the ,revelation of ,jesus2 ,bruce1 ,the ,kingdom of ,god4 ,,iii ,jesus' ,knowledge of ,truth #ig4 ,adamson1 ,the ,mind in ,christ2 ,gilbert,r,j #afi;f41 #bdj-bdb2 ,schwartzkopf1 ,the ,prophecies of ,jesus ,christ4 ,,iv ,jesus' ,conception of ,himself #ih4 ,bald,s,j #abe-bhb2 ,stalker1 ,christology of ,jesus1 ,holtzmann,nt,th ,i4 #bcd-cjd2 ,wendt,t,j ,,ii4 #abb-ahc2 ,gilbert,r,j #afg-bbh2 ,stevens1 ,theol4 of the ,n4,t4 #da-fd1 #aii-bab4 ,on the title ,son of ,man see particularly ,dalman,w,j ,i4 #aia-bai2 ,charles1 ,eschatology1 #bad;f4 note2 against1 ,a4 ,meyer1 ,jesu ,muttersprache1 #ia-aja1 and others4 ,see also ,holtzmann,nt,th ,i4 #bdf-bfd4 ,on the name ,son of ,god1 see ,dalman ,,wj ,i4 #bai-bcg2 ,holtzmann ,nt,th ,i4 #bfe-bgh2 ,stalker1 ,christology1 #hf-abc2 ,gilbert1 as above4 ,on the personal religion of ,jesus see ,burton1 ,bib4 ,wld4 #ahii1 ,,ii4 #cid-djc4 ,for the total impression of the character of ,jesus1 read ,bushnell1 ,the ,character of ,jesus4 ,indexes ,index of ,names and ,subjects ,references are to pages4 non1 site of1 #bhh4 ,after three days1 #cjg4 ,agrapha1 #cf1 #adi1 #bha4 ,andrew1 of ,bethsaida1 #ib1 #id1 #aah4 ,angels1 doctrine of1 #aj4 ,annas1 #aia1 #aic1 #aid4 ,antipas1 #d1 #aib4 ,apocalypse1 #ag;f41 #abb1 #abd1 #bda4 ,apocryphal gospels1 #cg1 #bha1 #bhb4 ,archelaus1 #d1 #e4 ,aristion1 author of ,mark xvi4 #i-bj1 #bjd;f41 #cjf;f4 ,assumption of ,moses1 #ge ,baptism of ,john1 see ,john the ,baptist4 ,baptism of ,jesus1 #hc-hf1 #bhc;f4 ,barabbas1 #agd1 #aib4 ,bethany beyond ,jordan1 #ib1 #bhd4 ,bethany1 supper at1 #afi1 #cja4 ,bethsaida1 site of1 #bij4 ,books of reference1 #bgc-bgg4 ,brethren of ,jesus1 #fc;f41 #bhc4 ,csarea ,philippi21 #d1 #bia4 confession at1 see ,peter4 ,caiaphas1 #aia1 #aic1 #aid4 ,cana of ,galilee1 #ie1 #bbb1 #bhf4 ,cananeans or ,zealots1 party of1 #aa1 #gd4 ,capernaum1 site of1 #bij4 ,census under ,quirinius1 #aa1 #eb-ee4 ,chorazin1 site of1 #bij4 ,dalmanutha1 #bia4 ,dalmanutha1 ,books of1 #ag;f41 #bda1 #bed;f4 ,decapolis1 the1 #adj1 #bia4 ,dedication1 feast of1 #aej1 #aed4 ,demoniac possession1 #aca-acc1 #bde-bdh1 #bii4 ,devout1 the1 #ac1 #ag4 ,diatessaron of ,tatian1 #ch1 #dg1 #bha4 ,doublets1 #dd1 #bha4 ,draughts of fish1 miraculous1 #bic4 ,emmaus1 site of1 #cjg4 ,enoch1 ,book of1 #bda1 #bef-beh4 ,ephraim1 site of1 #cjj4 ,essenes1 manner of living1 #aa-ab2 their hope of ,messiah1 #af2 their settlement1 #gc2 relation to ,john the ,baptist1 #gc1 #gg4 ,five thousand1 the feeding of1 #ace;f41 #bia4 ,gadarenes1 country of1 #bdg1 #bij;f4 ,genealogies of ,jesus1 #bhb4 ,gethsemane1 #agg1 #ahf1 #ahh;f41 #bfe1 #cje4 ,golgotha1 #cje4 ,herod the ,great1 #c2 began to rebuild temple1 #di2 census during his reign1 #ed4 ,herod ,antipas1 #d1 #aib4 ,herodians1 #ad1 #agc4 ,james1 brother of ,john1 #ib1 #id1 #aah4 ,jesus1 language of1 #ai1 #fb1 #bgi2 date of birth1 #eb-ef2 the miraculous conception1 #eh-fa2 growth1 physical1 intellectual1 moral1 and spiritual1 #fa-ff2 his brothers and sisters1 #fd2 visit to ,jerusalem in his twelfth year1 #ff-fh2 life in ,nazareth1 #fh;f42 his baptism1 #hc-hf2 his temptation1 #hf-ia2 his first disciples1 #ib-ie2 at ,cana1 #ie2 his social friendliness1 #if1 #bai;f42 the cleansing of the temple1 #ajh-aaj2 talk with ,nicodemus1 #aaa2 the woman of ,samaria1 #aab2 cure of nobleman's son1 #aac2 in retirement in ,galilee1 #aac;f42 call of four disciples1 #aah2 popular enthusiasm and pharisaic opposition1 #aai-aba2 his withdrawals and injunctions of silence1 #abb ff42 blasphemy of the ,pharisees1 #abd2 the reply to ,john's message1 #abe2 his twofold aim in ,galilee1 #abf2 his method1 #abg2 the sermon on the mount1 #abg;f42 the parables1 #abh;f41 #bca;f41 #bif;f42 instruction of the twelve1 #acj1 #big2 his mighty works1 #aca;f42 his personal influence1 #acc2 the feeding of the five thousand1 #ace;f42 the revulsion in popular feeling1 #acf2 the controversy about hand washing1 #aci2 the withdrawal to the north1 #ach2 the demand for a sign1 #aci2 disciples warned against the ,pharisees1 #aci2 the question at ,csarea ,philippi1 #ada;f42 commendation of ,peter1 #adc2 announcement of approaching death1 #add2 rebuke of ,peter1 #ade2 the transfiguration1 #adf;f42 the epileptic boy1 #adg2 rebuke of worldly ambition1 #adg;f42 ,jesus and his brethren1 #adh2 at the feast of ,tabernacles1 #adh2 return to ,galilee1 #aej2 final departure from ,galilee1 #aed2 the mission of the seventy1 #aeh2 visit to the feast of ,dedication1 #aei2 in ,perea1 #afj2 the summons to ,bethany1 #afa;f42 official determination to get rid of him1 #afa2 at ,ephraim1 #afb2 question about divorce1 #aed2 blessing little children1 #aed2 the rich young ruler1 #aed2 request of ,salome1 #afc2 ,bartimeus1 #afc2 ,zacchus1 #afc2 anointing at ,bethany1 #afi2 the ,messianic entry1 #agj;f42 the barren fig-tree1 #agb2 the questions of the leaders1 #agc;f42 counter question1 #age2 denunciation of scribes1 #age2 the widow's mites1 #agf2 visit of the ,greeks4 #agf;f42 the eschatological discourse1 #agh2 bargain of ,judas1 #afi1 #agh;f42 the last supper1 #aha-ahd2 dispute and foot washing1 #ahd2 withdrawal of ,judas1 #ahd2 prediction of ,peter's denials1 #ahe2 discourse and prayer1 #ahe-ahg2 ,gethsemane1 #ahh-aij2 betrayal and arrest1 #aij;f42 trial by ,jews1 #aia;f42 trial by ,pilate1 #aib-aid2 crucifixion1 #aie-aih2 burial of ,jesus1 #aii2 the resurrection1 #bja-baj2 the ascension1 #bad;f42 ,jesus' attitude to common life1 #bai-bbc2 his hunger for sympathy1 #bbc2 ,jesus as a teacher1 #bbf;f42 his attitude to ,old ,testament1 #bbg-bbi2 his confidence in men1 #bcj;f42 his use of illustration1 #bca-bcc2 his alertness of mind1 #bcd2 his leading ideas1 #bce ff42 his supernatural knowledge1 #bci-bdd2 his confession of ignorance1 #bdc2 his kinship with men1 #bdd;f42 treatment of demoniac possession1 #bde-bdh2 his certainty of his ,messianic call1 #bdi-bed2 his adoption of ,messianic titles1 #bed-bfd2 his consciousness of dependence on ,god1 #bfd-bff2 the problem of ,jesus1 #bfg-bfi4 ,john1 ,gospel of1 #cb-cf1 #dj;f41 #aha1 #bhj1 #cje4 ,john the ,baptist1 #gj-ha2 notice by ,josephus1 #ga;f41 #bgi;f42 his idea of the kingdom of ,god1 #gc2 his relation to current thought1 #gc-gf2 his baptism1 #gg;f41 #hc2 baptism of ,jesus1 #hb-hd2 the embassy from the priests1 #ib2 testimony--the ,lamb of ,god1 #ic1 #bhf2 baptizing at non1 #aab2 his self-effacing witness to ,jesus1 #gi1 #aab2 hostility of the ,pharisees1 #aac1 #bhi2 arrest by ,antipas1 #ga;f41 #aac2 his message to ,jesus1 #abe2 death in prison1 #acd;f42 his significance1 #gi-ha1 #bbf2 the disciples of ,john1 #aab1 #bhc2 literature about ,john1 #bhc4 ,john1 son of ,zebedee1 #cf1 #ib1 #id1 #aah1 #aic1bfi4 ,john of ,gischals1 #aba4 ,joseph of ,arimathea1 #ahb1 #aii4 ,josephus1 #bb2 notice of ,john the ,baptist1 #ga1 #bgi;f4 ,judas of ,galilee1 #aa1 #aba4 ,judas the betrayer1 #afi1 #aha1 #cjb2 the bargain1 #agh2 his selection as an apostle1 #agi2 his criticism of ,mary at ,bethany1 #agi2 his kiss1 #aij2 his remorse1 #agi4 ,judea1 province of1 #f;f4 ,kingdom of ,god1 #fh1 #hf1 #ij1 #agc1 #aij1 #bca1 #bcb1 #bce ff41 #bch1 #bda4 ,language used by ,jesus1 #ai1 #fb1 #bgi4 ,last supper1 the1 #aha-ahg1 #cjc-cje4 ,lawyers1 see ,scribes4 ,length of ,jesus' ministry1 #de-di4 ,literature of the ,jews1 #ah;f41 #bgi4 ,logia1 ascribed to ,matthew1 #cb1 #db1 #aeh4 ,luke1 ,gospel of1 #bf;f41 #ca;f41 #bhj4 ,mark1 ,gospel of1 #be;f41 #bg1 #bi1 #cb1 #dj1 #db1 #bhj1 #bid;f42 last twelve verses of1 #bjd;f41 #cjf;f4 ,mary ,magdalene1 #acd1 #bjh4 ,mary1 the mother of ,jesus1 #ei2 had other children1 #fj1 #fc;f41 #bhc4 ,matthew1 ,gospel of1 #bc ff41 #bg1 #cj;f41 #cb1 #bhj4 ,messianic entry into ,jerusalem1 #agj1 #cja;f4 ,messianic hope1 the1 #af-ah1 #hg1 #age1 #bgi4 ,miracles of ,jesus1 #if1 #bfg1 #bhf;f4 ,miraculous birth1 the1 #eg-fa1 #bcb4 ,mission of the twelve1 #acj1 #big4 ,mission of the seventy1 #aeh1 #cjj;f4 ,nathanael1 of ,cana1 #ib1 #id1 #bhf4 ,nazareth1 the view from1 #fe;f4 rejection at1 #bib4 ,nicodemus1 #aaa1 #aii4 ,papias1 #bb1 #bi1 #cd1 #dg1 #ajb1 #bha4 ,parables of ,jesus1 #abh;f41 #bca;f41 #bif;f4 ,passover1 the1 #aha1 #ahg1 #cjd4 ,paul1 #ba1 #cf1 #bja1 #bjf1 #bfh4 ,pentateuch1 ,jesus' references to1 #bdd4 ,perea1 #ajd1 #aec;f41 #aeh1 #bii;f4 ,peter1 #bi1 #cd1 #ib1 #id1 #aah1 #ahe1 #aic1 #cje1 #cjf2 confession of1 #acf1 #adb ff41 #big;f4 ,pharisees1 the1 #h-aj2 attitude to ,john the ,baptist1 #hb1 #aac1 #bhi2 their blasphemy1 #abd1 #aef2 question about divorce1 #aed2 about tribute1 #agc2 about the great commandment1 #agd1 #cjb4 ,philip of ,bethsaida1 #ib1 #id1 #agf4 ,philip the tetrarch1 #d4 ,pliny the younger1 #ba4 ,pontius ,pilate1 #e1 #aib1 #aie4 ,priests1 the1 #g;f41 #ajg2 and the temple market1 #ajh4 ,proselytes1 #gh1 #agf1 #cjb4 ,psalms1 ,jesus' use of the1 #bdd4 ,psalms of ,solomon1 #ah1 #bfa4 ,publicans1 #f1 #gb1 #bbb4 ,quirinius1 census under1 #eb-ee4 ,religion of ,jesus1 #bfd ff41 #cjh4 ,resurrection1 pharisaic doctrine of1 #aj1 #bda2 ,sadducean rejection of #aj1 #agd4 ,sadducees1 the1 #h1 #af1 #hb2 the question about the resurrection1 #agd1 #cjc2 attitude towards ,jesus1 #aic4 ,samaria1 #f;f4 ,jesus' journey through1 #aab4 ,samaritans1 how regarded1 #ad4 ,sanhedrin1 the great1 at ,jerusalem1 #g1 #ac1 #aib4 ,scribes1 their business1 #i2 power in the sanhedrin1 #ac2 their influence over the religious life1 #ad2 their hope of a ,messiah1 #af2 their washings1 #gh2 chief of them at ,jerusalem1 #ajg2 their pride of learning and their bondage to tradition1 #bbh4 ,sermon on the mount1 #abg1 #bij1 #bie;f4 ,signs1 essential marks of the ,messiah1 #ie1 #aca4 ,soldiers in ,palestine1 #f1 #gb1 #aia4 ,son of ,man1 the1 #abd;f41 #acj;f41 #bed-bfj1 #cjh4 ,son of ,god1 the1 #bfj-bfd1 #cjh4 ,star of the wise men1 #ef4 ,suetonius1 #ba4 ,sychar1 site of1 #bhh4 ,synagogue1 the1 #ad4 ,synoptic gospels1 #bh4 ,synoptic problem1 #bg-cb1 #bgi;f4 ,tabernacles1 feast of1 #adh1 #aej1 #bih;f4 ,tacitus1 #c1 #ba1 #ed4 ,tatian1 #bc1 #ch1 #dg1 #bha4 ,taxes1 ,roman1 in ,judea1 #f4 ,temple at ,jerusalem1 #ajg2 market in #ajg2 cleansing of1 #ajg1 #bhh;f4 ,temptation of ,jesus1 #hf-ia1 #ade1 #bhd2 locality of1 #bhe2 source of the record1 #ij1 #bhe4 ,tertullian1 #de1 #ec4 ,thomas1 #bjh4 ,tiberius1 #a1 #ba1 #ej4 ,traditions of the elders1 #i1 #ae;f41 #fh1 #gd1 #aci4 ,transfiguration1 the1 #adf;f41 #bib4 ,trial of ,jesus1 the1 #aia-aie1 #cje4 ,words from the cross1 #aif ff41 #cjf4 ,zealots1 the1 #aa1 #gd1 #abb1 #abd4 ,index of ,scripture ,references ,ex4 iv4 #bb #bfa xix4 #aj #gh xxiv4 #a-aa #ahc ,lev4 xii4 #h #fa xxiii4 #e-aa #dg ,num4 xxiii4 #ai #bed ,deut4 vi4 #d-i #fb viii4 #c #hh xviii4 #ae #ib xxi4 #bc #aif ,i4 ,sam4 ii4 #bf #fa ,i4 ,kings4 xvii4 #a #gb ,,ii4 ,kings4 i4 #h xvii4 #bd-da #ad ,ps4 ii4 #g #bfa viii4 #d #bed xxii4 #aif lxxx4 #ag #bed lxxxii4 #f #bfa ciii4 #ac #bfb cxiii41 cxiv4 #cjd cxv4 to cxviii4 #ahe1 #cjd ,isa4 i4 #af #gf vi4 #e #bfg xi4 #b #he xxxv4 #e;f4 #abf xlii4 #a #he li4 #b #bed liii4 #if1 #bci liii4 #g #ic lviii4 #gf lxi4 #a;f4 #de1 #he1 #abf lxiii4 #af #bfb ,jer4 xxxi4 #ca-cd #aaa1 #ahc 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