,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,,argum5ts ,j4,h4 ,,g>d9] ,,=m]ly ,,assi/ant ,,pr(essor ,,( ,,engli% ,,9 ,,h>v>d ,,univ]sity #aiab ,,to ,,my ,,fri5ds ,,& ,,colleagues ,,on ,,! ,,/aff ,,( ,,engli% ,a ,,preface ,! object ( ?is book is to lay out a c\rse 9 ! writ+ ( argum5ts :i* %all be simple en\gh = classes :i* give only a "p ( ! ye> to ! "w1 & yet compreh5sive en\gh = special classes 9 ! subject4 ,x is especially aim$ at ! int]e/s & ne$s ( ! /ud5t body z a :ole1 h[ev]1 r ?an at ^? ( /ud5ts :o are do+ advanc$ "w 9 argum5tation4 ,?\gh few m5 h ei!r ! capacity or ! ne$ to become highly tra9$ speciali/s 9 ! mak+ ( argum5ts1 all m5 ne$ "s k ( ! art4 ,exp]i5ce at ,h>v>d has %[n t pretty mu* ! entire fre%man class w "w ) en?usiasm on a s+le argum5t2 & !y get f ?is "w a tra9+ 9 exact ?\ght & a discipl9e t !y get f no o!r k9d ( writ+4 ,accord+ly ,i h laid out ?is book 9 ord] to />t /ud5ts z soon z possible on ! same k9d ( argum5ts t !y are likely to make 9 practical life4 ,i h /riv5 ?r\gh\t to keep 9 m9d ! int]e/s & ne$s ( ^! av]age individuals1 :o 9 ! aggregate w tread su* a v>iety ( pa?s 9 _! passage ?r\gh ! _w4 ,n _m ( !m w get to ,congress1 !re to make great orations on ! settlem5t ( ! t>iff1 & ! l>ge majority ( !m w n g into ! law2 & ev5 ( ! lawy]s _m w h little conc]n ) ! elaborate piec+ toge!r ( circum/antial evid5ce into ! basis = a v]dict4 ,b all ( !m w soon] or lat] ne$ ! p[] ( com+ to close qu>t]s ) m or less complicat$ que/ions1 9 :i* !y mu/ br+ ov] to _! views m5 ( v>y+ prepossessions & practical int]e/s2 & all ( !m all _! lives w ne$ ! p[] ( see+ ?r\gh to ! he>t ( su* que/ions1 & ( grasp+ :at is ess5tial1 ?\gh x be sep>at$ by a hair's bread? f ! iness5tial t mu/ be ca/ to "o side4 ,x is = ?is tra9+ ( ! p[]s ( ?\ght t a c\rse 9 ! mak+ ( argum5ts is pr(itable1 ev5 :5 pursu$ = s %ort a "t z c be giv5 to x 9 mo/ s*ools & colleges4 ,9 lay+ out ! book ,i h _h ^! ?ree purposes 9 m9d3 fir/1 t ! /ud5t %all )\t wa/e ( "t be set to explor+ 8 subject & runn+ d[n ! exact issues on :i* 8 "q w t>n2 second1 t z he collects 8 mat]ial he %all be l$ on to consid] :at "p ( x is good evid5ce = 8 purpose1 & h[ to te/ 8 reason+ f ! facts2 ?ird1 t ) 8 mat]ial ga!r$ & cull$ & 8 plan settl$ he %all turn 8 att5tion to pres5t+ x 9 ! mo/ effective way possible = ! p>ticul> occasion4 ,?r\gh\t ,i h tri$ to lay /ress on ! mak+ ( argum5ts1 n z an end 9 !mselves1 & to fit c]ta9 m or loss arbitr>y =mulas1 b z ! practical k9d ( appeal t e "y man is already mak+ to 8 fell[s on matt]s t int]e/ him1 & t he w make m & m 9 e>ne/ z he gets out into ! _w4 ,! t5d5cy ( "s ( ! books to treat argum5tation1 especially 9 ! =m ( debat+1 z a new v>iety ( sport1 ) rules z elaborate & te*nical z ^? ( football1 turns away f ! subject a good _m "y m5 to :om ! tra9+ 9 itself w\ld be highly valuable4 ,! future ( ! subject w be closely dep5d5t on ! success ( tea*]s 9 keep+ x flexible & 9 intimate t\* ) real affairs4 ,i h made "s sugge/ions look+ t[>ds ?is end 9 ,app5dix ,,ii4 ,my obligations to e>li] work]s 9 ! field w be obvi\s to all :o "k ! subject4 ,9 especial1 ,i1 l all o!r writ]s on ! subject1 h built on f\ndations laid by ,pr(essor ,george ,pi]ce ,bak]1 ( ,h>v>d ,univ]sity4 ,= p]mission to use ! articles f ,! ,outlook ,i am indebt$ to ! c\rtesy ( ! editors ( t j\rnal2 = ! article on ,! ,transmission ( ,yell[ ,fev] by ,mosquitoes1 to ! k9dness ( ,g5]al ,/]nb]g1 & ( ! editor ( ,! ,popul> ,sci5ce ,mon?ly4 ,j4,h4 ,,g>d9] ,,! ,,mak+ ,,( ,,argum5ts ,,*apt] ,i ,,:at ,,we ,,argue ,,ab\t1 ,,& ,,:y #a4 ,:at ,argum5t is4 ,:5 we argue we write or speak ) an active purpose ( mak+ o!r p take our view ( a case2 t is ! only ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 argum5t & o!r modes ( writ+4 ,betwe5 exposition & argum5t !re is no c]ta9 l9e4 ,9 ,pr(essor ,lamont's excell5t little book1 ,specim5s ( ,exposition1 !re are two examples :i* might be us$ 9 ?is book z examples ( argum5t2 9 "o ( !m1 ,huxley's essay on ,! ,physical ,basis ( ,life1 ,huxley himself t[>d ! end uses ! words1 z ,i h endeavor$ to prove to y2 & ,mat!w ,arnold's essay on ,wordswor? is an elaborate ef=t to prove t ,wordswor? is ! greate/ ,engli% poet aft] ,%akespe>e & ,milton4 ,or1 to take q diff]5t examples1 9 any "q ( law :]e judges ( ! c\rt disagree1 z 9 ! ,income ,tax ,case1 or 9 ! ,insul> cases :i* decid$ ! /atus ( ,porto ,rico & ! ,philipp9es1 bo? ! majority op9ion & ! diss5t+ op9ions ( ! judges are argum5tative 9 =m2 ?\gh ! majority op9ion1 at any rate1 is 9 !ory an exposition ( ! law4 ,! real diff]5ce betwe5 argum5t & exposition lies 9 ! diff]5ce ( attitude t[>d ! subject 9 h&3 :5 we are expla9+ we tacitly assume t !re is only "o view to be tak5 ( ! subject2 :5 we argue we recognize t o!r p look on x diff]5tly4 ,& ! diff]5ces 9 =m are only ^? :i* are necess>y to ?r[ ! critical po9ts ( an argum5t into high relief & to w>m ! feel+s ( ! read]s4 #b4 ,conviction & ,p]suasion4 ,?is active purpose ( mak+ o!r p take y\r view ( ! case 9 h&1 !n1 is ! di/+ui%+ ess5ce ( argum5t4 ,to accompli% ?is purpose y h two tools or weapons1 or p]haps "o %\ld say two sides to ! same weapon1 conviction & p]suasion4 ,9 an argum5t y aim 9 ! fir/ place to make cle> to y\r audi5ce t y\r view ( ! case is ! tru] or s\nd]1 or y\r proposal ! m exp$i5t2 & 9 mo/ argum5ts y aim also s to t\* ! practical or moral feel+s ( y\r read]s z to make !m m or less w>m p>tisans ( y\r view4 ,if y are try+ to make "s "o see t ! %ape ( ! hills 9 ,new ,engl& is due to glacial action1 y nev] ?9k ( 8 feel+s2 "h any attempt at p]suad+ him1 z di/+ui%$ f conv9c+ him1 w\ld be an imp]t95ce4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x w\ld be a wa/e ( brea? to conv9ce a man t ! rascals ought to be turn$ out1 if he w n on election day take ! tr\ble to g out & vote2 unless y h effectively /irr$ 8 feel+s z well z conv9c$ 8 reason y h ga9$ no?+4 ,9 ! latt] case y\r argum5t w\ld be almo/ :olly p]suasive1 9 ! =m] almo/ :olly a matt] ( conv9c+4 ,^! two sides ( argum5t correspond to two great faculties ( ! human m9d1 ?\ght & feel+1 & to ! two ways 9 :i*1 "u ! guidance ( ?\ght & feel+1 mank9d reacts to exp]i5ce4 ,z we pass ?r\gh life our actions & our int]e/ 9 ! p & ?+s we meet are fix$ 9 ! fir/ place by ! spontane\s movem5ts ( feel+1 & 9 ! second place1 & con/antly m s z we gr[ old]1 by our reason+ p[]s4 ,ev5 ! mo/ int5tionally dry ( philosoph]s has 8 prejudices1 p]haps aga9/ competitive sports or aga9/ effici5cy z a *ief te/ ( good citiz5%ip2 & aft] *ildhood ! mo/ wayw>d ( arti/s has "s g5]al pr9ciples to guide him along 8 primrose pa?4 ,! actions ( all m5 are ! resultant ( ^! two =ces ( feel+ & reason4 ,s9ce 9 mo/ cases :]e we are argu+ we h an eye to influ5c+ action1 we mu/ keep bo? ! =ces 9 m9d z possible means to our end4 #c4 ,argum5t nei!r ,cont5ti\sness nor ,dispute4 ,argum5t is n cont5ti\sness1 nor is x ! good-natur$ & sociable disputation 9 :i* we occupy a good deal ( "t ) our fri5ds4 ,! diff]5ce is t 9 nei!r cont5ti\sness nor 9 k9dly dispute d we expect1 or int5d1 to get any:]e4 ,!re are _m political spee*es ^: only object is to make ?+s uncom=table = ! o!r side1 & "s spee*es 9 college or s*ool debates int5d$ m]ely to trip up ! o!r side2 & nei!r type helps to cle> up ! subjects x deals )4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we sp5d _m a pleasant ev5+ argu+ :e!r sci5ce is m important 9 education ?an lit]ature1 or :e!r x is bett] to sp5d ! summ] at ! sea%ore or 9 ! m\nta9s1 or simil> subjects1 :]e we "k t ev]ybody w /& at ! end j :]e he /ood at ! beg9n+4 ,"h our real purpose is n to *ange any "o's views s mu* z x is to ex*ange ?\ghts & lik+s ) "s "o we "k & c>e =4 ,! purpose ( argum5t1 z we %all und]/& ! ^w "h1 is to conv9ce or p]suade "s "o4 #d4 ,argum5ts & ! ,audi5ce4 ,9 argum5t1 !re=e1 f> m ?an 9 o!r k9ds ( writ+1 "o mu/ keep ! audi5ce def9itely 9 m9d4 ,p]suade & conv9ce = our purposes are active v]bs1 & 9 mo/ cases _! objects h an important effect on _! significance4 ,an argum5t on a giv5 subject t w h a cog5t =ce ) "o set ( p1 w n t\*1 & may ev5 repel1 ano!r4 ,to take a simple example3 an argum5t 9 def5se ( ! pres5t game ( football w\ld *ange consid]ably 9 proportions & 9 tone accord+ z x 0 address$ to und]graduates1 to a faculty1 or to a m9i/]s' conf]5ce4 ,huxley's argum5t on evolution 7p4 #bcc71 :i* 0 deliv]$ to a popul> audi5ce1 has m illu/rations & is less compress$ 9 reason+ ?an if x _h be5 deliv]$ to ! ,am]ican ,academy ( ,arts & ,sci5ces4 ,n only !oretically1 b 9 practice1 argum5ts mu/ v>y 9 bo? =m & sub/ance ) ! audi5ces to :i* !y are address$4 ,an argum5t %ot into ! void is n likely to br+ d[n mu* game4 #e4 ,pr(itable ,subjects = ,argum5ts4 ,to get ! be/ results f practice 9 writ+ argum5ts1 y mu/ *oose y\r subjects ) c>e & sagacity4 ,"s classes ( subjects are ( small value4 ,que/ions :i* re/ on diff]5ces ( ta/e or temp]am5t f _! v nature c nev] be br\ght to a decision4 ,! "q :e!r "o game is bett] ?an ano!r--football bett] ?an baseball1 = example--is n arguable1 = 9 ! end "o side settles d[n to say+1 ,b ,i l baseball be/1 & y /ick !re4 ,closely ak9 is su* a "q z1 ,0 ,alex&] ,pope a poet2 = 9 ! ^w poet "o includes _m purely emotional factors :i* t\* "o p]son & n ano!r4 ,mat!w ,arnold made a brave attempt to prove t ,wordswor? /ood ?ird 9 excell5ce 9 ! long l9e ( ,engli% poets1 & 8 essay is a notable piece ( argum5t2 b ! v /atem5t ( 8 !sis1 t ,wordswor? left a body ( poetical "w sup]ior 9 p[]1 9 int]e/1 9 ! qualities :i* give endur+ fre%ness1 to t :i* any ( ! o!rs has left1 %[s ! vanity ( ! attempt4 ,to take a s+le ^w--int]e/--f 8 proposition3 :at is ! use ( argu+ ) me1 if ,wordswor? happ5$ to bore me1 z he does n1 t ,i ought to f9d him int]e/+4 ,all ,i c\ld d w\ld be humbly to admit my defici5cy1 & g z *e]fully z might be to ,burns or ,col]idge or ,byron4 ,almo/ all que/ions ( criticism labor "u ?is difficulty1 t 9 ! end !y are que/ions ( ta/e4 ,y or ,i 7 s made 9 ! beg9n+ t ! s-call$ romantic s*ool or ! s-call$ classical s*ool seems to u to h rea*$ ! p9nacle ( art2 & all ! argum5t 9 ! _w _c make u ov] aga9 9 ?is respect4 ,e "q :i* 9 ! end involves que/ions ( ae/hetic ta/e is z futile to argue z que/ions ( ! palate4 ,o!r que/ions are impracticable because ( vagu5ess4 ,su* que/ions z1 ,%\ld a practical man read poetry1 ,are lawy]s a useful class 9 ! community1 ,are ! ,am]ican p det]iorat+1 furni% excell5t mat]ial = lively & witty talk1 b no "o expects !m to lead to any conclusion1 & !y are !re=e valueless z a basis = ! rigor\s & muscul> tra9+ :i* an argum5t ought to give4 ,!re are _m que/ions ( ?is sort :i* s]ve admirably = ! fri5dly dispute :i* makes up s mu* ( our daily life ) our fri5ds1 b :i* dissolve :5 we try to p9 !m d[n4 ,"s que/ions :i* _c be pr(itably argu$ :5 phras$ 9 g5]al t]ms become m practicable :5 !y are appli$ to a def9ite class or to a s+le p]son4 ,su* que/ions z1 ,is x bett] to g to a small college or a l>ge "o1 ,is x bett] to live 9 ! c\ntry or 9 ! city1 ,is x wise to g into f>m+1 all lead n[h]e if !y are argu$ 9 ?is g5]al =m4 ,b if !y are appli$ to a s+le p]son1 !y *ange "*3 9 ?is specific =m !y n only are arguable1 b !y con/antly are argu$ out ) direct & practical results1 & ev5 = a small & /rictly def9$ class ( p]sons !y may provide good mat]ial = a =mal argum5t4 ,= example1 ! "q1 ,is x bett] = a boy ( good intellectual ability & capacity = mak+ fri5ds1 :o lives 9 a small c\ntry t[n1 to g to a small college or a l>ge1 provides mod]ately good mat]ial = an argum5t on ei!r side2 ?\gh ev5 "h ! limit+ phrases are none too def9ite4 ,9 a debate on su* a subject x w\ld be easy = ! two sides to pass ea* o!r by )\t ev] com+ to a direct issue1 because ( diff]+ und]/&+ ( ! t]ms4 ,on ! :ole x seems wis] n to take risks ) su* que/ions1 b to *oose f ^? :i* w unque/ionably give y ! tra9+ = :i* y are seek+4 ,r\ghly speak+1 subjects = an argum5t :i* are sure to be pr(itable may be divid$ into ?ree classes3 7#a7 ^? = :i* ! mat]ial is drawn f p]sonal exp]i5ce2 7#b7 ^? = :i* ! mat]ial is provid$ by read+2 & 7#c7 ^? :i* comb9e ! fir/ two4 ,( ^! !re c be no "q t ! la/ are ! mo/ pr(itable4 ,( ! fir/ class we may take = an example su* a "q z1 ,%\ld int]s*ola/ic a?letics be ma9ta9$ 9---- s*ool8 ,"h is a "q on :i* "s p>5ts & tea*]s at any rate w disagree ) mo/ boys1 & a "q :i* mu/ be settl$ "o way or ! o!r4 ,! mat]ial = ! discussion mu/ come f ! p]sonal k ( ^? :o make ! argum5ts1 re5=c$ by :at in=mation & op9ion !y c collect f tea*]s & t[nspeople4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,ii we %all come to a consid]ation ( possible s\rces = mat]ial = ^! & o!r argum5ts4 ,!re is mu* to be said = ! practice ga9$ by hunt+ up p]t95t mat]ial = argum5ts ( ?is sort2 b !y t5d to run ov] into irreconcilable diff]5ces ( op9ion1 9 :i* an argum5t is ( no practical value4 ,! second class ( subjects1 ^? = :i* ! mat]ial is drawn :olly f read+1 is ! mo/ common 9 int]collegiate & int]s*ola/ic debates4 ,%\ld ! ,unit$ ,/ates army cante5 be re/or$1 ,%\ld ! ,*9ese be exclud$ f ! ,philipp9es1 ,%\ld ! ,unit$ ,/ates e/abli% a p>cels po/1 are all subjects ) :i* ! ord9>y /ud5t 9 high s*ool or college c h little p]sonal acqua9tance4 ,! s\rces = argum5ts on su* subjects are to be f\nd 9 books1 magaz9es1 & (ficial reports4 ,! good y w get f argum5ts on su* subjects lies l>gely 9 f9d+ out h[ to look up mat]ial4 ,! difficulty ) !m lies 9 _! size & _! complexity4 ,:5 x is rememb]$ t a column ( an ord9>y newspap] has some:]e ab\t fifte5 hundr$ words1 & t an editorial article su* z on page #bfh1 :i* is ?irty-eight hundr$ words long1 is 9 ^! days ( hurry apt to be repell5t1 because ( its l5g?1 & on ! o!r h& t a !me ( fifte5 hundr$ words seems to ! ord9>y und]graduate a weighty und]tak+1 ! nature ( ?is difficulty becomes cle>4 ,to put x ano!r way1 spee*es on public subjects ( great importance are apt to be at lea/ an h\r long1 & n infrequ5tly m1 & 9 an h\r "o easily speaks six or sev5 ?\s& words1 s t fifte5 hundr$ words w\ld n fill a fifte5-m9ute spee*4 ,?is difficulty is met 9 debates by ! long] "t all[$1 = ea* side ord9>ily has an h\r2 b ev5 !n !re c be no pret5se ( a ?or\gh treatm5t4 ,! ord9>y writt5 argum5t ( a /ud5t 9 s*ool or college c !re=e d v little ) l>ge public que/ions4 ,! dang] is t a %ort argum5t on a l>ge "q may bre$ 9 "o an easy cont5t ) a sup]ficial & p>rotlike discussion ( ! subject4 ,discussions ( l>ge & ab/ract pr9ciples are necess>y1 b !y are be/ left to ! "t ( life :5 "o has a compreh5sive & intimate k ( ! :ole mass ( facts conc]n$4 ,by f> ! be/ k9d ( subject1 z has be5 said1 is t :i* w comb9e "s p]sonal acqua9tance ) ! facts & ! possibility ( "s rese>* = mat]ial4 ,_m su* subjects may be f\nd 9 ! l>g] educational que/ions :5 appli$ to y\r own s*ool or college4 ,%\ld ! elective sy/em be ma9ta9$ at ,h>v>d ,college1 ,%\ld ! ,univ]sity ( ,ill9ois require ,lat9 = ! ,a4,b4 degree1 ,%\ld frat]nities be aboli%$ 9----,high ,s*ool1 ,%\ld manual tra9+ be introduc$ 9----,high ,s*ool1 are all que/ions ( ?is sort4 ,a %ort li/ ( simil> que/ions is pr9t$ at ! end ( ?is section1 :i* x is hop$ w prove sugge/ive4 ,= discuss+ ^! que/ions y w f9d consid]able pr9t$ mat]ial 9 educational & o!r magaz9es1 9 reports ( presid5ts ( colleges & s*ool committees1 & o!r su* places1 :i* w give y practice 9 hunt+ up facts & op9ions & 9 weigh+ _! value4 ,at ! same "t tra9+ ( y\r judgm5t w foll[ :5 y apply ! !ories & op9ions y f9d 9 ^! s\rces to local conditions4 ,moreov]1 su* que/ions w give y practice 9 gett+ mat]ial 9 ! raw1 z x 71 by mak+ up tables ( /ati/ics f catalogues1 by gett+ facts by p]sonal int]view1 & 9 o!r ways1 :i* w be consid]$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,f9ally1 su* subjects are mu* m likely to be ( a size t y c br+ to a head 9 ! space & ! "t all[$ to ! av]age /ud5t1 & !y may h "s imm$iate & practical effect 9 det]m9+ a "q 9 :i* y\r own s*ool or college has an int]e/4 ,argum5ts on su* subjects are !re=e less likely to be academic discussions1 9 ! s5se ( hav+ no be>+ on any real conditions4 ,:5 e college & s*ool has pl5ty ( su* subjects cont9ually "u debate1 !re seems to be no reason = go+ f>!r & f>+ worse4 ,! ma9 ?+ is to get a subject :i* w c>ry y back to facts1 & "o 9 :i* y w be able to te/ y\r own reason+4 #f4 ,sugge/ions ( ,subjects = ,practice4 ,_m ( ! subjects 9 ! li/ bel[ w ne$ "s adaptation to fit !m to local conditions2 & ^! w und\bt$ly sugge/ _m o!rs ( a simil> nature4 ,o!r subjects ( imm$iate & local int]e/ may be drawn f ! curr5t newspap]s2 & ! l>g]1 p]5nial ones l prohibition1 woman suffrage1 immigration laws1 are always at ! disposal ( ^? :o h ! "t & ! c\rage = ! am\nt ( read+ !y involve4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 a subject & ! proposition to be argu$ w be made 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,sugge/ions ,,= ,,subjects ,,( ,,argum5ts ,,to ,,be ,,adapt$ ,,to ,,local ,,& ,,pres5t ,,conditions #a4 ,admission to ?is college %\ld be by exam9ation only4 #b4 ,! entrance requirem5ts ( ?is college set a good /&>d = a public high-s*ool c\rse4 #c4 ,admission to ?is college %\ld be by c]tificate f ! c&idate's s*ool1 su* z is n[ accept$ at----,college4 #d4 ,! /&>ds = admission to ?is college or to ! ,/ate ,univ]sity %\ld be rais$4 #e4 ,! /&>d = graduat+ f ?is college %\ld be rais$4 #f4 ,att5dance at *apel ex]cises %\ld be made volunt>y4 #g4 ,! numb]s ( /ud5ts 9 ?is college %\ld be limit$ by rais+ ! /&>d = admission4 #h4 ,a read+ k ( ,fr5* or ( ,g]man1 to be te/$ by an oral exam9ation1 %\ld be sub/itut$ = ! pres5t requirem5ts = entrance 9 ^? languages4 #i4 ,no li/ ( books %\ld be prescrib$ = ! entrance exam9ation 9 ,engli%4 #aj4 ,fre%m5 %\ld be requir$ to be )9 b\nds by elev5 o'clock at night4 #aa4 ,fre%m5 %\ld n be elect$ to college societies4 #ab4 ,/ud5ts :o h atta9$ di/9ction 9 _! /udies %\ld be treat$ z graduate /ud5ts are1 9 respect to att5dance & leave ( abs5ce4 #ac4 ,arrangem5ts %\ld be made by :i* ! "w done on college pap]s %\ld c\nt t[>d ! degree4 #ad4 ,! honor sy/em 9 exam9ations %\ld be introduc$ into ?is college4 #ae4 ,! c\rse ( /udy 9 ?is college %\ld be made :olly elective4 #af4 ,co$ucation %\ld be ma9ta9$ 9 ?is college4 #ag4 ,secret societies %\ld be prohibit$ 9----,high ,s*ool4 #ah4 ,! bus9ess c\rse 9----,high ,s*ool %\ld be giv5 up4 #ai4 ,compulsory milit>y drill %\ld be introduc$ into----,s*ool 7or1 into ?is college74 #bj4 ,greek %\ld be giv5 up 9----,s*ool4 #ba4 ,all /ud5ts 9----,s*ool1 :e!r 9 ! bus9ess c\rse or n1 %\ld be requir$ to /udy ,lat94 #bb4 ,a?letics h _h a detrim5tal effect on ! /udies ( ^? :o h tak5 "p 9 !m4 #bc4----,s*ool %\ld engage 9 a?letic conte/s ) two o!r s*ools only4 #bd4 ,! s*ool committee 9----%\ld be r$uc$ to five memb]s4 #be4 ,! s*ool committee 9----is at pres5t too l>ge = effici5t direction ( ! s*ools4 #bf4 ,! pr9cipal ( ! high s*ool 9----%\ld report directly to ! s*ool committee & n to ! sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools4 #bg4 ,?is city %\ld assign a sum equal to----mills ( ! :ole tax rate to ! support ( ! public s*ools4 #bh4 ,! high s*ool ( ?is city %\ld h a s+le session ea* day1 in/ead ( two4 #bi4 ,?is city %\ld sub/itute a commission gov]nm5t on ! g5]al model ( t 9 ,des ,mo9es1 ,i[a1 = ! pres5t sy/em4 #cj4 ,! commission =m ( gov]nm5t has prov$ its sup]iority to gov]nm5t by a mayor & two legislative bo>ds4 #ca4 ,?is city %\ld elect its municipal (fic]s by pref]5tial vot+4 #cb4 ,?is city %\ld e/abli% playgr\nds 9 ! cr[d$ p>ts ( ! city1 notably 9 ,w>ds----&----4 #cc4 ,boys %\ld be all[$ to play ball 9 unfrequ5t$ /reets4 #cd4 ,?is city %\ld set ap>t----mills on ! tax rate ea* ye> = build+ p]man5t roads4 #ce4 ,! laws & regulations gov]n+ ! inspection & ! sale ( milk %\ld be made m /r+5t4 #cf4 ,?is city %\ld buy & run ! wat]works4 #cg4 ,?is city %\ld build future ext5sions ( ! /reet railway sy/em & lease !m to ! highe/ bidd]4 #ch4 ,?is city %\ld buy & op]ate ! /reet railway sy/em4 #ch4 ,! /reet railway company 9 ?is city %\ld be requir$ to pave & c>e = all ! /reets ?r\gh :i* x runs4 #dj4 ,a committee ( bus9ess m5 %\ld be appo9t$ by ! mayor to conduct negotiations = br++ new indu/ries to ! city4 #da4 ,?is city %\ld e/abli% municipal gymnasiums4 #db4 ,?is city w\ld be b5efit$ by ! consolidation ( ! two /reet railway sy/ems4 #dc4 ,?is /ate %\ld adopt a ballot law simil> to t ( ,massa*usetts4 #dd4 ,?is /ate %\ld adopt ! %ort ballot4 #de4 ,?is /ate %\ld tax =e/ l&s accord+ to ! product r ?an ! assess$ value ( ! l&4 #df4 ,! pres5t rules ( football are satisfactory4 #dg4 ,?is college %\ld make socc] football "o ( its major sports4 #dh4 ,unnecess>y talk+ by ! play]s %\ld be =bidd5 9 games ( baseball4 #di4 ,coa*+ f ! side l9es %\ld be =bidd5 9 baseball4 #ej4 ,summ] baseball %\ld be reg>d$ z a brea* ( amateur /&+4 #ea4 ,an int]collegiate committee ( graduates %\ld be =m$ ) p[] to absolve college a?letes f te*nical & m9or brea*es ( ! amateur rules4 #eb4 ,?is college %\ld make an ef=t to return to amateur coa*+ by propos+ agreem5ts to t effect ) its pr9cipal rivals4 #ec4 ,?is univ]sity %\ld n all[ /ud5ts ) degrees f o!r in/itutions to play on its a?letic teams4 #ed4 ,! manag]s ( ! pr9cipal a?letic teams 9 ?is college %\ld be elect$ by ! /ud5ts at l>ge4 #ee4 ,! exp5ses ( a?letic teams at ?is college %\ld be consid]ably r$uc$4 #g4 ,! ,two ,k9ds ( ,argum5ts4 ,) ! subject y are go+ to argue on *os51 x w be wise to come to clos] qu>t]s ) ! process ( argu+4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! good results y w get f practice 9 writ+ argum5ts w be ! /r5g!n+ ( y\r p[]s ( exact & ke5 ?\ght2 ,i %all !re=e 9 ! foll[+ sections try to g some:at bel[ ! surface ( ! process1 & see j :at any giv5 k9d ( argum5t aims to d1 & h[ x accompli%es its aim by its appeal to special faculties & int]e/s ( ! m9d4 ,i %all also consid] briefly ! l>g] be>+s ( a few ( ! common] & m important types ( argum5t1 z ! ord9>y citiz5 meets !m 9 daily life4 ,we may divide argum5ts r\ghly into two classes1 accord+ z ! proposition !y ma9ta9 takes ! =m1 ,?is is true1 or ! =m1 ,?is ought to be done4 ,! =m] we w call1 = ! sake ( brevity1 argum5ts ( fact1 ! latt] argum5ts ( policy4 ,( ! two classes ! =m] is address$ pr9cipally to ! reason1 ! faculty by :i* we arrange ! facts ( ! univ]se 7:e!r small or great7 z !y come to u1 & s make !m intelligible4 ,y believe t ! man :o br\ght back y\r dog = a rew>d /ole ! dog1 because t view fits be/ ) ! facts y "k ab\t him & ! disappe>ance ( ! dog2 we accept ! !ory ( evolution because1 z ,huxley po9ts out at ! beg9n+ ( 8 essay 7see pp4 #bcc1 #bce71 x provides a place = all ! facts t h be5 collect$ ab\t ! _w ( plants & animals & makes ( !m all a consi/5t & h>moni\s sy/em4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,iii we %all come to a fur!r consid]ation ( ! work+s ( ?is faculty s f> z x affects ! mak+ ( argum5ts4 ,argum5ts ( policy1 on ! o!r h&1 :i* argue :at ought to be done1 make _! appeal 9 ! ma9 to ! moral1 practical1 ,or ae/hetic int]e/s ( ! audi5ce4 ,^! int]e/s h _! ultimate roots 9 ! deep-seat$ mass ( inh]it$ temp]am5tal motives & =ces :i* may be summ$ up "h 9 ! conv5i5tly vague t]m feel+4 ,^! motives & =ces1 x w be notic$1 lie outside ! field ( reason1 & are 9 ! ma9 recalcitrant to x4 ,:5 y argue t x is "r t ri* m5 %\ld end[ ! s*ools & colleges ( ?is c\ntry1 y w\ld f9d x impossible to expla9 9 detail j :at y mean by "r2 y\r belief rises f feel+s1 p>tly inh]it$1 p>tly drawn 9 ) ! air ( ! c\ntry1 :i* make y positive ( y\r ass]tion ev5 :5 y c lea/ give reasons = x4 ,s our practical int]e/s turn 9 ! end on :at we want & d n want1 & are !re=e mold$ by our temp]am5t & ta/es1 :i* are obvi\sly matt]s ( feel+4 ,our ae/hetic int]e/s1 :i* include our pref]5ces 9 all ! fields ( art & lit]ature & ?+s beautiful or ugly 9 daily life1 ev5 m obvi\sly g back to feel+4 ,n[ 9 practical life our w to d any?+ is lat5t until "s "p ( ?is great body ( feel+ is /irr$2 !re=e argum5ts ( policy1 :i* aim to %[ t some?+ ought to be done1 _c neglect feel+4 ,y may conv9ce me nev] s ?or\ghly t ,i ought to vote ! ,republican or ! ,democratic ticket1 yet ,i %all sit /ill on election day if y d n t\* my feel+s ( moral "r or practical exp$i5cy4 ,! mov+ cause ( action is feel+1 ?\gh ! feel+ is (t5 modifi$1 or ev5 trans=m$1 by reason+4 ,we %all come back to ! nature ( feel+ 9 ,*apt] ,v1 :5 we get to ! subject ( p]suasion4 ,an important practical diff]5ce betwe5 argum5ts ( fact & argum5ts ( policy lies 9 ! diff]5t =m & degree ( c]titude to :i* !y lead4 ,at ! end ( argum5ts ( fact x is possible to say1 if en\gh evid5ce c be _h1 ,?is is und5iably true4 ,9 ^! argum5ts we c use ! ^w pro( 9 its /rict s5se4 ,9 argum5ts ( policy on ! o!r h&1 :]e ! "q is wor? argu+1 we "k 9 _m cases t 9 ! end !re w be m5 :o are z wise & z upright z ourselves :o w cont9ue to disagree4 ,9 su* cases x is obvi\s t we c use ! ^w pro( only loosely2 & we speak ( "r or ( exp$i5cy r ?an ( tru?4 ,?is di/9ction is wor? be>+ 9 m9d1 = x leads to sob]ness & a seemly mode/y 9 controv]sy4 ,x is only 9 b>b]-%op politics & sophomore debat+ clubs t a decision ( a "q ( policy takes its place among ! et]nal v]ities4 ,) ^! di/9ctions made1 let u n[ consid] a few ( ! *ief v>ieties ( ^! two classes ( argum5ts1 deal+ only ) ^? :i* e "o ( u comes to "k 9 ! practical affairs ( life4 ,x w be obvi\s t ! divisions betwe5 ^! are n fix$1 & t !y are f> f exhau/+ ! full numb] ( v>ieties4 #h4 ,argum5ts ( ,fact4 ,among ! commone/ & mo/ important v>ieties ( argum5ts ( fact are ^? made be=e juries 9 c\rts ( law4 ,x is a fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! common law "u :i* we live t que/ions ( fact %all be decid$ by twelve m5 *os5 by lot f ! community1 & t que/ions ( ! law t %all be appli$ to ^! facts %all be decid$ by ! judges4 ,accord+ly 9 crim9al trials ! facts conc]n+ ! crime & ! actions & :]eab\ts ( ! accus$ are subjects ( argum5t by ! c\nsel4 ,if ! prison] is attempt+ to e/abli% an alibi1 & ! evid5ce is meag] or conflict+1 8 c\nsel & ! prosecut+ (fic] mu/ ea* make argum5ts be=e ! jury on ! real mean+ ( ! evid5ce4 ,9 civil cases likewise1 all disput$ que/ions ( fact g ord9>ily to a jury1 & are ! subject ( argum5ts by ! oppos+ lawy]s4 ,did ! def5dant gu>antee ! goods he sold ! pla9tiff8 ,0 undue influ5ce ex]t$ on ! te/ator8 ,did ! accid5t happ5 ?r\gh ! neglig5ce ( ! railroad (ficials8 ,9 su* cases & ! c\ntless o!rs t conge/ ! li/s ( ! l[] c\rts argum5ts ( fact mu/ be made4 ,o!r common argum5ts ( fact are ^? 9 hi/orical que/ions1 :e!r 9 rec5t or 9 anci5t hi/ory4 ,macaulay's admirable skeleton argum5t 7p4 #aee7 t ,philip ,francis wrote ! ,junius ,lett]s1 :i* s griev\sly inc5s$ ! ,engli% gov]nm5t ab\t ! "t ( ! ,am]ican ,revolution1 is an example ( an argum5t ( ?is sort2 ! "p ( ,l9coln's ,coop] ,in/itute ,address :i* deals ) ! views ( ! f\nd]s ( ! nation on ! subject ( ! control ( slav]y 9 ! t]ritories is ano!r4 ,ano!r "q conc]n+ facts is t :i* a few ye>s ago /irr$ classical ar*aeologi/s1 :e!r ! ,greek !at] _h a rais$ /age or n4 ,9 all su* cases ! "q is z to facts :i* at "o "t1 at any rate1 c\ld h be5 settl$ absolutely4 ,! reason :y an argum5t ab\t !m becomes necess>y is t ! evid5ce :i* c\ld f9ally settle ! que/ions has disappe>$ ) ! p]sons :o possess$ x1 or has be5 dissipat$ by "t4 ,/ud5ts ( hi/ory & lit]ature h to deal ) _m su* que/ions ( fact4 ,a some:at diff]5t k9d ( "q ( fact1 & "o (t5 extremely difficult to settle1 is t :i* conc]ns n a s+le1 uncomplicat$ fact1 b a broad condition ( affairs4 ,examples ( su* que/ions are :e!r woman suffrage has improv$ political conditions 9 ,colorado & o!r /ates1 :e!r ! introduction ( manual tra9+ 9 a c]ta9 high s*ool has improv$ ! intellig5ce & s]viceabl5ess ( its graduates1 :e!r political corruption is decreas+ 9 ,am]ican cities4 ,! difficulty t faces an argum5t 9 su* cases z ^! is n ! loss ( ! evid5ce1 b r t x consi/s ( a multitude ( little facts1 & t ! selection ( ^! details is s+ul>ly subject to bias & p>tisan feel+4 ,^! que/ions ( a broad /ate ( affairs are l que/ions ( policy 9 t 9 ! end _! settlem5t dep5ds ?us l>gely on temp]am5tal & practical prepossessions4 ,/ill ano!r & v important v>iety ( argum5ts ( fact1 :i* are (t5 conv5i5tly describ$ z argum5ts ( !ory1 includes l>ge sci5tific que/ions1 su*1 = example1 z ! orig9 ( our pres5t species ( plants & animals1 or ! ultimate con/itution ( matt]1 or ! cause ( yell[ fev]4 ,9 su* argum5ts we />t out ) _m facts1 already ga9$ ?r\gh obs]vation & exp]im5t1 :i* ne$ ! assumption ( "s o!r fact or facts atta9$ ?r\gh reason+ f ! o!rs1 to make !m fit toge!r into a coh]5t & intelligible sy/em4 ,e important new discov]y 9 sci5ce makes necess>y argum5ts ( ?is sort4 ,:5 ! m9ute =ms ( life t ! layman lumps toge!r "u ! "n g]ms 7 discov]$ !re 0 a ho/ ( argum5ts to expla9 _! mann] ( life & ! way "s ( !m cause disease & o!rs c>ry on functions b5efic5t to mank9d4 ,a notable example ( ! argum5ts conc]n+ ?is k9d ( fact is t at page #bea conc]n+ ! cause ( yell[ fev]2 & ano!r is ,huxley's argum5t on evolution 7p4 #bcc71 :]e he po9ts out t ! "q is a "q ( hi/orical fact4 ,! elem5t ( unc]ta9ty 9 ! settlem5t ( su* que/ions is due to ! facts be+ too l>ge or too m9ute = human obs]vation1 or to _! rang+ ?r\gh great ages ( "t s t we mu/ be cont5t$ ) ov]:elm+ probability r ?an ) absolute pro(4 ,fur!rmore ! facts t are e/abli%$ 9 argum5ts ( ?is sort may h to be modifi$ by new discov]ies3 = _m g5]ations x 0 held to be a fact t mal>ia 0 caus$ by a miasma2 n[ we "k t x is caus$ by a g]m1 :i* is c>ri$ by mosquitoes4 ,argum5ts ( ?is type t5d to g ?r\gh a curi\s cycle3 !y beg9 _! life z argum5ts1 recogniz$ z su*2 !n becom+ ! accept$ explanation ( ! facts :i* are kn[n1 = a long] or %ort] "t !y fl\ri% z /atem5ts ( ! tru?2 & !n ) ! uncov]+ ( new facts !y crumble away or are trans=m$ into new & l>g] !ories4 ,d>w9's great !ory ( ! orig9 ( species has pass$ ?r\gh two ( ^! /ages4 ,he spoke ( x z an argum5t1 & = a few ye>s x 0 assail$ ) fi]ce c\nt]>gum5ts2 we n[ hold x to be a ma/]ful explanation ( an enorm\s body ( facts4 ,:5 x w pass on to ! next /age we _c =esee2 b *emi/s & physici/s d>kly h9t at ! possibility ( ! evolution ( inorganic z well z organic sub/ances4 ,9 argum5ts ( fact1 x w be notic$1 !re is little or no elem5t ( p]suasion1 = we deal ) su* matt]s almo/ :olly ?r\gh our und]/&+ & reason4 ,huxley1 9 8 argum5t on evolution1 :i* 0 address$ to a popul> audi5ce1 0 c>eful to *oose examples t w\ld be famili>2 b 8 treatm5t ( ! subject 0 /rictly expository 9 tone4 ,9 "s argum5ts ( ?is sort1 :i* t\* on ! great =ces ( ! univ]se & on ! nature ( ! _w ( life ( :i* we are an inf9itesimal "p1 ! tone ( ! disc\rse w take on w>m? & eloqu5ce2 j z ,web/] 9 ! ,:ite ,murd] ,case1 deal+ ) an issue ( life & dea?1 let ! natural eloqu5ce :i* always smold]$ 9 8 spee*1 burn up into a cle> gl[4 ,b bo? ,huxley & ,web/] w\ld h held any /udi$ appeal to emotion to be an imp]t95ce4 ,9 ord9>y life mo/ ( u make few] argum5ts ( fact ?an ( policy4 ,x is only a small m9ority ( our "y m5 :o become lawy]s1 & ( !m _m d n practice be=e juries4 ,nor d any l>ge numb] ( m5 become s*ol>s or m5 ( sci5ce or public m51 :o h to deal ) que/ions ( hi/orical fact or to make argum5ts ( fact on l>ge /ates ( affairs4 ,on ! o!r h&1 all ( u h to weigh & e/imate argum5ts ( fact pretty con/antly4 ,soon] or lat] mo/ m5 s]ve on juries2 & all /ud5ts h to read hi/orical & economical argum5ts4 ,we %all !re=e give "s space 9 ,*apt] ,,iii to consid]+ ! pr9ciples ( reason+ by :i* we arrive at & te/ conclusions z to ! exi/5ce ( facts1 & ! tru? ( ass]tions ab\t !m4 #i4 ,argum5ts ( ,policy4 ,:5 we turn f argum5ts ( fact to argum5ts ( policy x w be notic$ t !re is a *ange 9 ! phraseology t we use3 we no long] say t ! ass]tions we ma9ta9 or meet are true or n true1 b t ! proposals are "r or exp$i5t or wrong or inexp$i5t2 = n[ we are talk+ ab\t :at %\ld or %\ld n be done4 ,we say1 naturally & correctly1 t x is or is n true t woman suffrage has improv$ political conditions 9 ,colorado b x w\ld be a misuse ( words to say t x is true or n true t woman suffrage %\ld be adopt$ 9 ,ohio2 & /ill m s to use ! ^w false1 :i* has an insep>able t+e ( moral obliquity4 ,9 que/ions ( policy t turn on exp$i5cy1 & 9 "s1 z we %all see directly1 t turn on moral issues1 we "k be=eh& t 9 ! end "s m5 :o "k ! subject z well z we d & ^: judgm5t is z good & ^: /&>ds are z high1 w /ill disagree4 ,!re are c]ta9 l>ge temp]am5tal l9es :i* h always divid$ mank9d3 "s m5 are born cons]vative m9d$1 "s radical m9d$3 ! =m] mu/ ne$s f9d ?+s z !y are on ! :ole good1 ! latt] mu/ ne$s see vividly h[ !y c be improv$4 ,to ! sci5tific temp]am5t ! arti/ic temp]am5t is un/able & irrational1 z ! =m] is dry & ung5]\s to ! latt]4 ,su* broad & recogniz$ types1 ) a few o!rs l !m1 ramify into a multitude ( ephem]al p>ties & classes1--racial1 political1 social1 lit]>y1 s*ol>ly1--& mo/ ( ! argum5ts 9 ! _w c be foll[$ back to ^! ess5tial & irremovable diff]5ces ( "*4 ,individual practical que/ions1 h[ev]1 cross & recross ^! l9es1 & 9 su* cases argum5ts h mu* practical effect 9 cry/alliz+ op9ion & judgm5t2 = 9 a complicat$ case x is (t5 extremely h>d to see ! real be>+ ( a propos$ policy1 & a good argum5t comes z a guide f ! gods to ! puzzl$ & wav]+4 ,b ?\gh to be effective 9 practical affairs "o has to be positive1 yet t is n say+ t "o mu/ believe t ! o!r side are fools or knaves4 ,"s su* confusion ( ?\ght 9 ! m9ds ( "s re=m]s1 bo? em95t & obscure1 acc\nts = ! wake ( bitt]ness :i* (t5 foll[s ! progress ( re=m4 ,mode/y & tol]ation are z important z positiv5ess to ! man :o is to make a m>k 9 ! _w4 ,argum5ts ( policy are ( endless v>iety1 = we are all ( u mak+ !m all ! "t1 f ! morn+ h\r 9 :i* we argue ) ourselves1 s (t5 ineffectually1 t we really ought to get up :5 ! clock /rikes1 to ! argum5ts ab\t *oos+ a pr(ession or help+ to />t a movem5t = univ]sal peace4 ,x w\ld be a we>9ess to ! fle% to attempt a classification ( !m t %\ld pret5d to be exhau/ive2 b !re are c]ta9 major gr\ps ( human motive :i* w be a good basis = a r\gh1 b conv5i5t1 sort+ out ( ! common] k9ds ( argum5ts ( policy4 ,9 practical affairs we ask fir/ if !re is any pr9ciple ( "r or wrong involv$1 !n :at is be/ = ! practical int]e/s ( ourselves & o!r p1 & 9 a few cases1 :5 ^! o!r consid]ations are irrelevant1 :at c\rse is dictat$ by our ideas ( fitness & beauty4 ,i w briefly discuss a few ( ! ma9 types ( ! argum5t ( policy1 gr\p+ !m accord+ z !y appeal *iefly to ! s5se ( "r & wrong1 to practical int]e/s1 or to ae/hetic int]e/s4 ,!re are _m argum5ts outside ( s]mons :i* turn on que/ions ( "r & wrong4 ,que/ions ( individual p]sonal conduct we _h bett] n get into2 b e community1 :e!r l>ge or small1 has (t5 to face que/ions 9 :i* moral "r & wrong are ess5tially involv$4 ,9 ?is c\ntry ! :ole "q ( deal+ ) ! sale ( alcoholic dr9ks is recogniz$ z su*4 ,! support]s ( /ate prohibition decl>e t x is morally wrong to sanction a trade out ( :i* spr+s s mu* mis]y2 ! support]s ( local option & high lic5se1 admitt+ & fight+ aga9/ all ?is mis]y & crime1 decl>e t x is morally wrong to %ut "o's eyes to ! uncontroll$ sales & ! political corruption "u /ate-wide prohibition4 ,! /ronge/ argum5ts = limit+ by law ! h\rs ( labor = wom5 & *ildr5 h always be5 bas$ on moral pr9ciples2 & all argum5ts = political re=m h>k back to ! ,t5 ,comm&m5ts4 ,"o has ! /ronge/ ( all argum5ts if he c e/abli% a moral "r & wrong 9 ! "q4 ,! difficulty comes 9 e/abli%+ ! "r & wrong1 = !re are _m cases :]e equally good p are fight+ dead aga9/ ea* o!r4 ,! "q ( prohibition1 z we h j se51 is "o ( ^? cases2 ! slav]y "q 0 a /ill m /rik+ "o4 ,f be=e ! ,revolution ! feel+ t slav]y 0 morally wrong sl[ly b /eadily ga9$ gr\nd 9 ! ,nor?1 until f #ahej x became m & m a dom9ant & passionate conviction4#a ,yet 9 ! ,s\?1 :i*1 z we mu/ n[ admit1 br$ z _m m5 & wom5 ( high devotion to ! "r1 ?is view _h only scatt]$ foll[]s4 ,on bo? sides tradition & environm5t mold$ ! moral pr9ciple4 ,9 argu+1 !re=e1 "o mu/ n be too swift 9 call+ on heav5 to witness to ! "r2 we mu/ recognize t mortal vision is weak1 & t "s ( ! p :om we are fight+ are borne on by pr9ciples z s9c]ely held to be righte\s z our own4 ,nev]!less1 a man mu/ always hold to t :i* to him seems "r1 & fight h>d aga9/ ! wrong1 tol]antly & ) *>ity1 b ) uncl\d$ purpose4 ,9 politics !re are /ill 9 ?is c\ntry _m occasions :5 ! only argum5t possible is bas$ on moral "r4 ,! debau*+ ( public s]vants by favors or bribes1 :e!r op5 or indirect1 inju/ice ( all sorts1 putt+ m5 :o are m5tally or morally unfit into public (fice1 oppression ( ! poor or unju/ ble$+ ( ! ri*1 /irr+ up class or race hatr$1 are all evils f :i* good citiz5s mu/ help to save ! republic2 & :]ev] su* evils are f\nd ! moral argum5t is ! only argum5t wor?y ( a dec5t citiz54 ,by f> ! mo/ num]\s ( argum5ts ( policy1 h[ev]1 are ^? :i* d n rise above ! level ( practical int]e/s4 ,! l9e betwe5 ^! & argum5ts ( moral "r is n always easy to draw1 = 9 ! tangle ( life & "* "r & advantage (t5 run toge!r4 ,! t>iff "q is a case 9 po9t4 ,prim>ily x turns on ! practical mat]ial advantage ( a nation2 b inevitably 9 ! settl+ ( individual s*$ules ! way op5s = "o indu/ry or bran* ( bus9ess to fatt5 at ! exp5se ( ano!r1 & s we run into ! "q ( ! squ>e deal & ! gold5 rule4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 ! great que/ions on :i* political p>ties divide are que/ions ( practical exp$i5cy4 ,%all we1 z a nation1 be m com=table & m prosp]\s if ! p[]s ( ! f$]al gov]nm5t are /r5g!n$ & ext5d$8 ,%all we h bett] local gov]nm5t "u ! old-fa%ion$ =m ( city gov]nm5t1 or "u "s =m ( commission gov]nm5t8 ,%\ld we h m bus9ess & m pr(itable bus9ess if we _h free trade ) ! ,dom9ion ( ,canada8 ,%all we be bett] (f "u ! ,republican or ! ,democratic p>ty8 ,all ^! are que/ions 9 :i* !re is little conc]n ) "r & wrong3 !y turn on ! v practical matt] ( direct mat]ial advantage4 ,9 "s ( ^! cases mo/ m5 vote on "o side or ! o!r l>gely ?r\gh long habit2 b !re con/antly arise1 especially 9 local matt]s1 que/ions :i* cross ! usual l9es ( political division1 s t "o1 will+ly or unwill+ly1 mu/ take ! tr\ble ( ?9k+ out a decision = himself4 ,n infrequ5tly "o is a good deal puzzl$ to decide on :i* side to range himself1 = ! issues may be complex2 !n "o reads ! argum5ts or goes to meet+s until "o side or ! o!r seems to pres5t ! mo/ & ! mo/ important advantages4 ,:5 "o is ?us puzzl$1 an argum5t :i* is cle> & easy to und]/&1 & :i* makes its po9ts 9 su* a way t !y c be readily c>ri$ 9 m9d & pass$ on to ! next p]son "o meets1 has a wond]ful p[] ( w9n+ "o to its side4 ,! argum5ts ( policy :i*1 aft] political argum5ts1 are ! mo/ common1 are ^? on que/ions ( law4 ,z we h se5 a few pages back1 su* argum5ts are settl$ by ! judges1 :ile que/ions ( fact are left to ! jury4 ,9 ! ,:ite ,murd] ,case1 9 :i* ,daniel ,web/] made a fam\s argum5t1 x 0 a "q ( fact = ! jury :e!r ! def5dant ,knapp 0 9 ,br[n ,/reet at ! "t ( ! murd]1 & :e!r he 0 !re = ! purpose ( aid+ & abett+ ,cr[n9%ield1 ! actual murd]]2 ! "q :e!r 8 pres5ce outside ! h\se w\ld make him liable z a pr9cipal 9 ! crime 0 a "q ( law4 ,?is di/9ction betwe5 que/ions ( fact & que/ions ( law is "o ( ! f\ndation pr9ciples ( ! common law4 ,f ! v beg9n+ ( ! jury sy/em1 :5 ! jury consi/$ ( neighbors :o f\nd _! v]dict f _! own k ( ! case1 to ! pres5t day :5 !y are requir$ c>efully to purge _! m9ds ( any p]sonal k ( ! case1 ! common law has always held t 9 ! long run que/ions ( fact c be/ be settl$ by av]age m51 drawn by lot f ! community4 ,que/ions ( law1 on ! o!r h&1 ne$ le>n+ & special tra9+ 9 legal reason+1 = ! common law dep5ds on cont9uity & consi/5cy ( decision2 & a new case mu/ be decid$ by ! pr9ciples :i* h gov]n$ l cases 9 ! pa/4 ,nev]!less1 ^! pr9ciples1 :i* are n[ embodi$ 9 an enorm\s mass ( decisions by c\rts all ov] ! ,engli%-speak+ _w1 are 9 ess5ce a work+ out into m9ute discrim9ations ( c]ta9 l>ge pr9ciples1 :i* 9 turn are m]ely ! embodim5t ( ! practical rules "u :i* ! ,anglo-,saxon race has f\nd x safe/ & mo/ conv5i5t to live toge!r4 ,!y settle 9 ea* case :at1 9 view ( ! int]e/s ( ! community z a :ole & 9 ! long run1 & n m]ely = ! p>ties n[ at issue1 is ! mo/ conv5i5t & ! ju/e/ ?+ to d4 ,mr4 ,ju/ice ,holmes1 ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 wrote be=e 8 appo9tm5t to t b5*3 ,9 sub/ance ! gr[? ( ! law is legislative4 ,& ?is 9 a deep] s5se ?an t :at ! c\rts decl>e to h always be5 ! law is 9 fact new4 ,x is legislative 9 its gr\nds4 ,! v consid]ations :i* judges mo/ r>ely m5tion1 & always ) an apology1 are ! secret roots f :i* t9e law draws all ! juices ( life4 ,i mean ( c\rse consid]ations ( :at is exp$i5t = ! community conc]n$4 ,e important pr9ciple :i* is develop$ by litigation is 9 fact & at bottom ! result ( move or less def9itely und]/ood views ( public policy2 mo/ g5]ally1 to be sure1 "u our practices & traditions1 ! unconsci\s result ( in/9ctive pref]5ces & in>ticulate convictions1 b none ! less traceable to views ( public policy 9 ! la/ analysis4#b ,9 "s cases x is obvi\s t ! "q ( law is a "q ( policy1 z 9 ! s-call$ political decisions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,supreme ,c\rt4 ,su* 7 ! decisions =mulat$ by ,*ief ,ju/ice ,m>%all on con/itutional que/ions1 :i* made our gov]nm5t :at x is4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! /rict con/ruction ( ! ,con/itution & ! free con/ruction 0 due to a diff]5ce ( temp]am5t :i* has always t5d$ to m>k ! two great political p>ties ( ! c\ntry4 ,s ) ! ,insul> cases1 :i* det]m9$ ! /atus ( ! di/ant possessions ( ! ,unit$ ,/ales1 & :i* split ! ,supreme ,c\rt into s _m pieces3 ! "q :e!r ! ,con/itution appli$ 9 all its fullness to ,porto ,rico & ! ,philipp9es 0 ess5tially a political "q1 ?\gh ( ! l>ge/ sort1 & !re=e a "q ( policy4 ,f9ally1 !re are ! argum5ts ( policy :i* deal ) matt]s ( ta/e & ae/hetic pref]5ce4 ,! difficulty ) ^! argum5ts is t !y d deal ) que/ions ( ta/e1 & s fall "u ! anci5t & incontrov]tible maxim1 de gu/ibus non e/ disput&um4 ,arti/s ( all v>ieties & "s critics are giv5 to talk+ z if pref]5ces 9 color1 9 %ape1 9 /yles ( music1 7 absolutely "r & wrong1 & z if !y p>took 9 "s way ( ! nature ( moral que/ions2 b any "o :o has obs]v$ = ev5 tw5ty ye>s kn[s t :at ! ar*itects ( tw5ty ye>s ago decl>$ ! only true /yle ( art is n[ sc(f$ at by !m & _! successors z hopelessly false4 ,! cavelike =ms ( ! ,byzant9e or ,romanesque :i* sup]s$$ ! wood5 ,go?ic h 9 turn giv5 way to ,r5aissance classic 9 its v>i\s =ms1 :i* n[ 9 turn seem on ! po9t ( slipp+ into ! rococo classical ( ! cole des ,beaux ,arts4 ,9 pa9t+1 ! viol5t & spotty impressionism ( tw5ty ye>s ago is pal+ into ! /udy ( ! cool & quiet lights ( ! ,dut*m5 ( ! great p]iod4#c ,& at ea* /age !re are /r5u\s argum5ts t ! ideas ( t p>ticul> live ye>s are ! only hope = ! pres]vation ( ! art conc]n$4 ,! ess5tial difficulty ) all su* argum5ts is t ! ae/hetic int]e/s to :i* !y appeal are p]sonal1 & dep5d on p]sonal pref]5ces4 ,mo/ ( u 9 su* matt]s1 hav+ no special k1 & lik+ "s v>iety ( diff]+ /yles1 mode/ly give way to ! au?ority ( any "o :o makes a pr(ession ( ! art4 ,9 ! lay+ out ( a p>k a l&scape ar*itect may pref] s+le trees & op5 spaces1 :]e ! neighbors & abutt]s pref] a grove4 ,9 ! long run 8 ta/e is no bett] ?an !irs1 ?\gh he may argue z if !y 7 ignorant & uncultivat$ because !y disagree ) him4 ,9 all su* cases1 unless !re is "s consid]ation ( practical exp$i5cy1 su* z lett+ ! s\?we/ w9d bl[ ?r\gh 9 summ]1 argum5ts c d little except to make & keep ev]ybody angry4 ,_! *ief value is to make u see ?+s :i* p]haps we _h n ?\ght (4 ,9 practice ^! ?ree k9ds ( argum5ts1 :i* turn on moral1 practical1 & ae/hetic consid]ations1 t5d to be mu* m+l$4 ,! human m9d is v complex1 & our v>i\s int]e/s & pref]5ces are insep>ably tangl$4 ,! trea*]ies ( self-analysis are prov]bial1 & are only less dang]\s ?an try+ to make out ! motives ( o!r p4 ,accord+ly we mu/ expect to f9d t x is sometimes h>d to di/+ui% betwe5 moral & ae/hetic motives & practical1 = ! morality & ! ta/e ( a giv5 p always 9 "p gr[ out ( ! sl[ cry/alliz+ ( practical exp$i5cies1 & notions ( morality *ange ) ! advance ( civilization4 ,fur!rmore1 "o mu/ nev] =get t an argum5t ( policy :i* does n involve & re/ on subsidi>y que/ions ( fact is r>e2 & ! que/ions ( fact mu/ be settl$ be=e we c g on ) ! argum5t ( policy4 ,be=e ?is c\ntry c intellig5tly make up its m9d ab\t ! protective t>iff1 & :e!r a c]ta9 rate ( duty %\ld be impos$ on a giv5 article1 a v complex body ( facts deal+ ) ! co/ ( production bo? "h & abroad mu/ be settl$1 & ?is c be done only by m5 highly tra9$ 9 ! pr9ciples ( bus9ess & political economy4 ,be=e "o c\ld vote intellig5tly on ! introduction ( a commission =m ( gov]nm5t into ! t[n he lives 9 he mu/ "k ! facts ab\t ! places 9 :i* x has already be5 tri$4 ,x is n too mu* to say t !re is no disput$ "q ( policy into :i* !re does n ent] ! necessity ( look+ up & settl+ p]t95t facts4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are "s cases ( que/ions ( fact 9 :i* our practical int]e/s deeply affect ! view :i* we take ( ! facts4 ,9 all ! discussions ( ! la/ few ye>s ab\t f$]al sup]vision & control ( ! railroads x has be5 h>d to get at ! facts because ( ! conflict+ /atem5ts ab\t !m by equally hone/ & well-in=m$ m54 ,:]e !re is an hone/ diff]5ce ( int]e/1 z 9 e case ( a b>ga91 ! opposite sides _c see ! facts 9 ! same way3 :at is critically significant to ! railroad manag] seems ( no great consequ5ce to ! %ipp]2 & ! railroad manag] does n see ! fix$ laws ( trade :i* make x impossible = ! %ipp] to pay high] freight rates & add !m to ! price ( 8 goods4 ,x is n 9 human nature to see ! :ole cog5cy ( facts t make = ! o!r side4 ,9 all argum5ts1 !re=e1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t we are2 con/antly sw++ backw>d & =w>d f matt]s ( fact to matt]s ( policy4 ,9 practice no h>d-&-fa/ l9e sep>ates ! v>i\s classes & types2 9 ! argum5ts ( real life we m+le !m naturally & unconsci\sly4 ,yet ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two ma9 classes is a real "o1 & if "o has nev] ?\ght x out1 "o may g at an argum5t ) a blurr$ notion ( :at he is attempt+ to d4 ,s9ce argum5t aft] s*ool & college is an em95tly practical matt]1 vagu5ess ( aim is risky4 ,x is ! man :o sees exactly :at he is try+ to d1 & kn[s exactly :at he c accompli%1 :o is likely to make 8 po9t4 ,! *ief value ( writ+ argum5ts = practice is 9 cultivat+ a ke5 eye = ! ess5tial4 ,to write a good argum5t means1 z we %all see1 t ! /ud5t %all fir/ consci5ti\sly take ! "q1 ap>t s z to "k exactly ! issues involv$ & ! unavoidable po9ts ( diff]5ce1 & !n aft] se>*+ ! s\rces = in=mation1 he %all scrut9ize ! facts & ! reason+ bo? on 8 own side & on ! o!r4 ,if he does ?is "w )\t %irk+ ! h>d ?9k+ he w get an illum9at+ p]ception ( ! obscurities & ambiguities :i* lurk 9 words1 & w come to see t cle> reason+ is almo/ :olly a matt] ( %>p] discrim9ation = unobs]v$ di/9ctions4 ,,ex]cises #a4 ,f9d an example :i* might be ?\ght ( ei!r z an argum5t or an exposition1 & expla9 :y y ?9k x "o or ! o!r4 #b4 ,f9d examples 9 curr5t magaz9es or newspap]s ( an argum5t 9 :i* conviction is ! *ief elem5t1 & "o 9 :i* p]suasion c\nts mo/4 #c4 ,give ?ree examples f y\r talk )9 ! la/ week ( a discussion :i* 0 n argum5t z we use ! t]m "h4 #d4 ,%[ h[1 9 ! case ( "s curr5t subject ( discussion1 ! argum5ts w\ld diff] 9 sub/ance & tone = ?ree possible audi5ces4 #e4 ,f9d ?ree examples ea* ( que/ions ( fact & que/ions ( policy f curr5t newspap]s or magaz9es4 #f4 ,f9d ?ree examples ( que/ions ( fact 9 law cases1 n m ?an "o ( !m f a crim9al case4 #g4 ,f9d ?ree examples ( que/ions ( fact 9 hi/ory or lit]ature4 #h4 ,f9d ?ree que/ions ( a l>ge /ate ( affairs f curr5t political discussions4 #i4 ,f9d ?ree examples ( que/ions ( fact 9 sci5ce4 #aj4 ,f9d f ! hi/ory ( ! la/ fifty ye>s ?ree examples ( que/ions :i* turn$ on moral "r4 #aa4 ,give ?ree examples ( que/ions ( exp$i5cy :i* y h he>d argu$ )9 ! la/ week4 #ab4 ,give an example f rec5t decisions ( ! c\rts :i* seems to y to h turn$ on a "q ( policy4 #ac4 ,give two examples ( que/ions ( ae/hetic ta/e :i* y h rec5tly he>d argu$4 #ad4 ,9 an actual case :i* has be5 or :i* might be argu$1 %[ h[ bo? classes ( argum5t & m ?an "o ( ! types )9 !m ent] naturally into ! discussion4 #ae4 ,"n ?ree subjects :i* y h lately discuss$ :i* w\ld n be pr(itable subjects = a =mal argum5t4 #af4 ,"n five good subjects = an argum5t 9 :i* y w\ld draw *iefly f y\r p]sonal exp]i5ce4 #ag4 ,"n five subjects 9 :i* y w\ld get ! mat]ial f read+4 #ah4 ,"n five subjects :i* w\ld comb9e y\r own exp]i5ce ) read+4 #ai4 ,f9d h[ _m words to ! page y write on ! pap] y w\ld use = a writt5 argum5t4 ,c\nt ! numb] ( words 9 a page ( ?is book2 9 ! column ( ! editorial page ( a newspap]4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,plann+ ,,! ,,argum5t #aj4 ,prep>ations = ! ,argum5t4 ,:5 y h *os5 ! subject = y\r argum5t !re is /ill mu* to d be=e y are ready to write x out4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 y mu/ f9d out by se>* & read+ :at is to be said bo? = & aga9/ ! view y are support+2 9 ! second place1 ) ! facts 9 m9d y mu/ analyze bo? !m & ! "q to see j :at is ! po9t t y are argu+2 !n1 9 ! ?ird place1 y mu/ arrange ! mat]ial y are go+ to use s t x w be mo/ effective = y\r purpose4 ,ea* ( ^! /eps ,i %all consid] 9 turn 9 ?is *apt]4 ,z a practical conv5i5ce1 ea* /ud5t %\ld />t a notebook1 9 :i* he c keep toge!r all ! notes he makes 9 ! c\rse ( 8 prep>ations = writ+ ! argum5t4 ,numb] ! pages ( ! notebook1 & leave ! fir/ two pages blank = a table ( cont5ts4 ,a box ( c>ds1 su* z w be describ$ on page #ca1 w s]ve z well z a notebook1 & 9 "s ways is m conv5i5t4 ,f "t to "t1 9 ! c\rse ( ! *apt] ,i %all m5tion po9ts t %\ld be ent]$4 ,= ! sake ( conv5i5ce 9 exposition ,i %all use z an example ! prep>ations = an argum5t 9 favor ( introduc+ ! commission =m ( gov]nm5t into an imag9>y city1 ,wyt[n2 & ea* ( ! directions = ! use ( ! notebook ,i %all illu/rate by entries appropriate to ?is argum5t4 ,! argum5t1 let u suppose1 is address$ to ! citiz5s ( ! place1 :o "k ! g5]al facts relat+ to ! city & its gov]nm5t4 ,9 creat+ ?is imag9>y city1 let u give x ab\t eight ?\s& inhabitants1 & suppose t x is ( small area1 & t ! inhabitants are *iefly op]atives 9 a numb] ( l>ge %oe factories1 ( ,am]ican desc5t1 ?\gh =eign-born citiz5s & _! (fspr+ are beg9n+ to ga9 on ! o!rs4 ,& fur!r1 let u suppose t ?is imag9>y city ( ,wyt[n n[ has a city gov]nm5t ) a mayor ( limit$ p[]s1 a small bo>d ( ald]m51 & a l>g] city c\ncil4 ,! o!r necess>y facts w appe> 9 ! introduction to ! brief4 #aa4 ,read+ = ! ,argum5t4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 prep>+ = an argum5t is to f9d out :at has be5 already writt5 on ! g5]al subject1 & :at facts are available = y\r purpose4 ,= ?is purpose y mu/ g to ! be/ libr>y t is )9 conv5i5t rea*4 ,j h[ to look = mat]ial !re ,i %all discuss a few pages fur!r on2 "h ,i %all make "s m g5]al sugge/ions ab\t read+ & tak+ notes4 ,almo/ always x pays to give two or ?ree h\rs to "s prelim9>y read+ t w make y see ! g5]al scope ( ! subject1 & ! po9ts on :i* !re is disagreem5t4 ,an article 9 a good encyclop$ia or "o 9 a magaz9e may s]ve ! purpose2 or 9 "s cases y c g to ! op5+ *apt] or two ( a book4 ,if y h already discuss$ ! subject ) o!r p ?is prelim9>y read+ may n be necess>y2 b if y />t 9 to read on a new subject )\t "s g5]al idea ( its scope y may wa/e "t ?r\gh n kn[+ y\r way & s foll[+ false leads4 ,9 y\r read+ d n re/ satisfi$ ) consult+ au?orities on y\r own side only4 ,we %all pres5tly see h[ important x is to be prep>$ to meet argum5ts on ! o!r side2 & unless y h read some?+ on t side1 y w n "k :at po9ts y ought to deal ) 9 y\r refutation4 ,9 t ev5t y may leave undi/urb$ 9 ! m9ds ( y\r read]s po9ts :i* h all ! m significance f y\r hav+ ignor$ !m4 ,"o ( ! fir/ reasons = wide read+ 9 prep>ation = an argum5t is to assure y\rself t y h a compet5t k ( ! o!r side z well z ( y\r own4 ,9 us+ y\r s\rces keep cle>ly & con/antly 9 m9d ! diff]5ce betwe5 fact & op9ion4 ,! op9ions ( a great s*ol> & ( a f>see+ /atesman may be bas$ on fact2 b n be+ fact !y conta9 "s elem5t ( inf]5ce1 :i* is nev] z c]ta94 ,:5 we come to ! next *apt] we %all consid] ?is diff]5ce m closely4 ,9 ! meantime x is wor? :ile to urge ! importance ( cultivat+ scruples on ! subject & a ke5 eye = ! intrusion ( human1 & !re=e fallible1 op9ion into /atem5ts ( fact4 ,a tru/wor?y au?or /ates ! facts z facts1 ) ! au?orities = !m specifically cit$2 & :]e he builds 8 own op9ions on ! facts he leaves no d\bt z to :]e fact ends & op9ion beg9s4 ,! p[] to e/imate a book or an article on a cursory inspection is ( great practical value4 ,! table ( cont5ts 9 a book1 & sometimes ! index1 w give a good idea ( its scope2 & samples ( a few pages at a "t1 especially on critical po9ts1 :i* c be *os5 by means ( ! index1 w %[ its g5]al attitude & tone4 ,! index1 if prop]ly made1 w furni% a sure guide to its relevance = ! purpose 9 h&4 ,half an h\r sp5t 9 ?is way1 ) att5tion conc5trat$1 w 9 mo/ cases settle :e!r ! book is wor? read+ ?r\gh4 ,an article c be siz$ up 9 mu* ! same way3 if x is at all well writt5 ! fir/ p>agraphs w give a pretty def9ite idea ( ! subject & ! scope ( ! article2 & ! beg9n+s1 & (t5 ! ends1 ( ! p>agraphs w %[ ! c\rse :i* ! ?\ght foll[s4 ,?\gh su* skimm+ _c be reli$ on = a real k ( ! subject1 x is invaluable z a guide = ?is prelim9>y read+4 #ab4 ,tak+ ,notes4 ,9 read+ = y\r argum5t1 z = all s*ol>ly read+1 =m e>ly y\r habits ( tak+ ?or\gh & s]viceable notes4 ,no?+ is m tantaliz+ ?an to rememb] t y once ran across a highly important fact & !n n be able to recall ! place 9 :i* x is to be f\nd4 ,"o ( ! mo/ conv5i5t ways to take notes = an argum5t is to write ea* fact or quotation on a sep>ate c>d4 ,c>ds conv5i5t = ! purpose c be _h at any college /ation] or libr>y-supply bureau4 ,if y use !m1 h an ample supply ( !m1 s t y w n h to put m ?an "o fact on ea*4 ,leave space = a head+ at ! top :i* w ref] to a specific subhead+ ( y\r brief1 :5 t is ready4 ,always add an exact ref]5ce to ! s\rce--title1 "n ( au?or1 &1 9 case ( a book1 place & date ( publication1 s t if y want m mat]ial y c f9d x )\t loss ( "t1 &1 :at is m important1 s t y c =tify y\r use ( x by a ref]5ce 9 a footnote4 ,:5 y f9d a passage t y ?9k w be wor? quot+ 9 ! orig9al words1 quote ) scrupul\s & lit]al accuracy3 ap>t f ! au?ority y ga9 by s do+1 y h no "r to make any "o else say words he did n say4 ,if y leave out "p ( ! passage1 %[ ! omission by dots2 & 9 su* a case1 if y h to supply words ( y\r own1 z = example a n\n 9 place ( a pron\n1 use squ>e brackets1 ?us 4 ,on ! foll[+ page are examples ( a conv5i5t =m ( su* notes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,results ,,9 ,,des ,,mo9es ,! /reets h be5 kept clean] ?an ev] be=e = #ce1jjj4 ,! rates = electric lights h be5 r$uc$ f #ij to #fe4 ,gas rates h dropp$ aga9 f #bb to #ag4 ,wat] rates h dropp$ f #cj to #bj p] #ajjj gal4 ,! disreputable di/rict has be5 clean$ up & bond %>ks driv5 out ( bus9ess4 ,! ,des ,mo9es ,plan ( ,city ,gov]nm5t1 ,_w's ,"w1 ,vol4 ,,xviii1 ,p4 #aaecc4 ,,presid5t ,,eliot',s ,,views ,n[ city bus9ess is almo/ :olly adm9i/rative & executive & v little conc]n$ ) l>ge plans & f>-rea*+ legislation4 ,!re is no occasion = two legislative bodies1 or ev5 "o1 9 ! gov]nm5t ( a city4444 ,n[ & !n a "q arises :i* ! w ( ! :ole p prop]ly express$ may be/ settle2 b = ! prompt & conclusive expression ( t w ! initiative & ref]5dum are n[ well-recogniz$ means4 ,c4 ,w4 ,eliot1 ,city ,gov]nm5t by ,few] ,m51 ,_w's ,"w1 ,vol4 ,,xiv p4 #idai4 99 99 99 99 99 ,9 mak+ notes1 :e!r = an argum5t or = g5]al college "w1 x is conv5i5t1 unless y "k %or?&1 to h a sy/em ( signs & abbreviations & ( contractions = common words4 ,! simpl] %or?& symbols c be press$ into s]vice2 & "o c foll[ ! practice ( /5ography1 :i* 0 also t ( ! anci5t ,hebrew writ+1 ( leav+ out v[els1 = !re are few words t _c be recogniz$ at a glance f _! consonants4 ,if y use ?is sy/em at lectures y c soon come surpris+ly ne> to a v]batim report :i* w pres]ve some?+ m ?an b>e facts4 ,9 y\r read+ = mat]ial d n cultivate habits ( economy or p>simony4 ,y %\ld always h a consid]able am\nt ( good fact left ov]1 = unless y "k a good deal ( ! region on ! outskirts ( y\r argum5t y w feel cramp$ & unc]ta9 )9 x4 ,! effect ( hav+ some?+ 9 res]ve is a p[]ful1 ?\gh an intangible1 asset 9 an argum5t2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ! man :o has empti$ 8 magaz9e is 9 a risky situation4 #ac4 ,s\rces = ,facts4 ,9 ! ma91 !re are two k9ds ( s\rces = facts1 s\rces 9 :i* ! facts h already be5 collect$ & dige/$1 & s\rces :]e !y are /ill scatt]$ & mu/ be br\ght toge!r & gr\p$ by ! inve/igator4 ,obvi\sly !re is no %>p or p]man5t di/9ction betwe5 ^! two classes4 ,let u fir/ run ?r\gh "s ( ! books :i* are commonly available z s\rces ( ei!r k9d1 & !n come back to ! use ( !m4 ,to f9d mat]ial 9 books & magaz9es !re are c]ta9 well-kn[n guides4 ,to look up books g fir/ to ! catalogue ( ! ne>e/ libr>y4 ,"h 9 mo/ cases y w f9d "s sort ( subject catalogue1 9 :i* ! subjects are arrang$ alphabetically2 & if y c use ! alphabet readily1 z by no means all college /ud5ts c1 y c soon get a li/ ( ! books t are !re available on ! subject4 ,on _m subjects !re are bibliographies1 or li/s ( books1 su* z ^? publi%$ by ! ,libr>y ( ,congress2 ^! w be f\nd 9 e l>ge libr>y4 ,= articles 9 magaz9es & weekly j\rnals1 :i* on mo/ curr5t que/ions h fre% in=mation1 besides a great deal ( valuable mat]ial on old] que/ions1 g to ,poole's ,index to ,p]iodical ,lit]ature1 :i* is an index bo? by title & subject to ! articles 9 important ,engli% & ,am]ican magaz9es f #ahjb to #aijf1 & to ,! ,read]'s ,guide to ,p]iodical ,lit]ature1 :i* began 9 #aija & includes m magaz9es1 & :i* is br\ght up to date e mon?4 ,= o!r mat]ial ! works li/$ bel[ w be s]viceable2 !y are ! be/ kn[n ( ! ref]5ce books1 & "s ( !m w be f\nd 9 all libr>ies & all ( !m 9 l>ge libr>ies4 ,! books on ?is li/ by no means exhau/ ! numb] ( good books ( _! own k9d2 !y are good examples1 & o!rs w ord9>ily be f\nd on ! same %elves ) !m4 ,,diction>ies ,,! ,,new ,,engli% ,,diction>y 7,,murray',s7 ,unf9i%$3 to h t5 volumes1 ( :i* n9e h n[ be5 publi%$4 ,?is gives ! hi/ory ( ea* ^w = ! la/ sev5 hundr$ ye>s1 ) copi\s quotations1 dat$1 to %[ ! *anges 9 its use4 ,,! ,,c5tury ,,diction>y1 ,,cyclop$ia ,,( ,,names1 ,,& ,,atlas ,new edition1 #aiaa1 9 twelve volumes4 ,?is has full] in=mation ab\t ! mean+s ( ! words ?an is usually f\nd 9 a diction>y4 ,,! ,,new ,,int]national ,,diction>y 7,,web/]',s7 ,new edition1 #aiaj1 enl>g$1 ) copi\s & exact etymologies4 ,,roget',s ,,!saurus ,,( ,,engli% ,,words ,,& ,,phrases ,a /&>d book ( synonyms4 ,,f]nald1 ,,engli% ,,synonyms1 ,,antonyms1 ,,& ,,prepositions ,) illu/rations & expositions ( ! diff]5ces 9 mean+4 ,,encyclop$ias ,,encyclopa$ia ,,britannica ,v full2 highly au?oritative2 #aa? edition1 #aiaj4 ,,new ,,int]national ,,encyclop$ia ,brief]2 re$it$ 9 #aijd4 ,,la ,,gr&e ,,encyclopidie2 ,,brockhaus1 ,,konv]sations-,,lexikon ,bo? copi\s & au?oritative4 ,,allusions ,,& ,,quotations ,,crud5',s ,,concordance ,an index to e ^w 9 ! ,bible4 ,,b>tlett',s ,,concordance ,,to ,,%akespe>e ,an index to e ^w 9 ,%akespe>e4 ,,b>tlett',s ,,famili> ,,quotations ,an index to a v l>ge numb] ( ! quotations mo/ frequ5tly met )4 ,,brew]',s ,,diction>y ,,( ,,phrase ,,& ,,fable ,?is expla9s a great quantity ( common allusions 9 words & phrases4 ,,diction>ies ,,( ,,prop] ,,names ,,c5tury ,,cyclop$ia ,,( ,,names ,?is includes n only names ( real p]sons1 b also ^? ( _m fam\s *>act]s 9 fiction4 ,,lipp9cott',s ,,univ]sal ,,pron\nc+ ,,diction>y ,,( ,,biography ,,& ,,my?ology ,,diction>y ,,( ,,national ,,biography ,revis$ edition4 ,conf9$ to ,engli% biography1 & to p]sons dead at ! dale ( publication ( ,supplem5t 7#aiji74 ,! articles are full1 & ( ! highe/ au?ority4 ,9 ! index & epitome is a conv5i5t summ>y ( dates & facts4 ,,appleton',s ,,cyclop$ia ,,( ,,am]ican ,,biography ,six volumes1 #ahhg-aija2 ) supplem5t 7unf9i%$71 br++ x d[n to date4 ,,:o',s ,,:o ,an annual publication2 ,engli%1 b ) "s ,am]ican names2 liv+ p]sons only4 ,,:o',s ,,:o ,,9 ,,am]ica2 ,,w] ,,i/',s2 ,,qui ,,tes-,,v\s ,correspond+ works = ,am]ica1 ,g]many1 & ,france4 ,,debrett',s ,,pe]age ,a repository ( a great mass ( facts conc]n+ ,engli% families ( hi/orical di/9ction4 ,,= ,,curr5t ,,or ,,hi/orical ,,facts ,,! ,,/atesman',s ,,ye> ,,book ,arrang$ by c\ntries2 conta9s a great mass ( facts2 has a bibliography at ! end ( ea* c\ntry or /ate4 ,,! ,,_w ,,almanac2 ,,! ,,tribune ,,almanac ,examples ( annuals issu$ by l>ge newspap]s1 :i* conta9 an enorm\s mass ( facts1 *iefly ,am]ican4 ,,:itak]',s ,,almanac ,mu* miscellane\s in=mation ab\t ! ,briti% empire & o!r c\ntries4 ,,! ,,annual ,,regi/]2 ,,! ,,new ,,int]national ,,ye>book2 ,,! ,,am]ican ,,ye>book ,^! ?ree give in=mation ab\t ! ev5ts ( ! prec$+ ye>4 ,,index ,,to ,,! ,,london ,times ,,miscellane\s ,,works ,,lipp9cott',s ,,new ,,gazette] ,a geographical diction>y ( ! _w4 ,,! ,,c5tury ,,atlas ,) classifi$ ref]5ces to places4 ,,! ,,h&y ,,ref]5ce ,,atlas ,small size 7octavo72 a mo/ useful book = ! desk or libr>y table4 ,,ploetz',s ,,epitome ,,( ,,univ]sal ,,hi/ory ,a v compact epitome ( hi/ory1 ) all ! important dates4 ,,notes ,,& ,,qu]ies ,a p]iodical devot$ to notes & qu]ies on a multitude ( curi\s & out-(-!-way facts2 ye>ly index volumes are issu$4 ,,bibliographies ,,issu$ ,,by ,,! ,,libr>y ,,( ,,congress ,,sonn5s*e9',s ,,! ,,be/ ,,books ,a guide to ab\t fifty ?\s& ( ! be/ available books 9 a great v>iety ( fields1 classifi$ by subject4 ,make y\rself famili> ) all ( ^! books :i* are )9 y\r rea*4 ,get into ! habit1 :5 y h a few m9utes to sp>e1 ( tak+ !m d[n f ! %elves & turn+ ov] ! pages to see :at !y conta94 ,& :5ev] a "q ( fact comes up 9 g5]al talk1 make a m5tal note ( x1 or bett]1 "o 9 writ+1 & ! next "t y g to ! libr>y hunt x up 9 "o ( ^! ref]5ce books4 ,y w be surpris$ to see1 :5 once y h made ! habit1 h[ %ort a "t x takes to settle disputes ab\t mo/ facts2 & at ! same "t y w be ext5d+ y\r g5]al k4 ,9 le>n+ ! use ( ^! & o!r books1 d n =get ! mo/ important s\rce ( all1 ! libr>ian4 ,! "o guid+ pr9ciple ( mod]n libr>ian%ip is to make ! books useful2 & x gives e prop] libr>ian active pleasure to %[ y h[ to use ! books 9 8 *>ge4 ,9 us+ books & magaz9es scrut9ize ! "* ( ! s\rce4 ,is x imp>tial or p>tisan8 ,is its treatm5t ( ! subject exhau/ive & def9ite1 or cursory & sup]ficial8 ,does ! au?or "k ! subject at fir/ h&1 or does he rely on o!r m58 ,on su* po9ts ! second book or article w be easi] to e/imate ?an ! fir/1 & ! ?ird ?an ! second2 = ) ea* new s\rce y h ! e>li] ones z a basis = comp>ison4 ,9 any case d n tru/ to a s+le au?ority3 no matt] h[ au?oritative x is1 soon] or lat] ! n>r[ basis ( y\r views w betray itself1 = an argum5t :i* is m]ely a revamp+ ( "s "o else's views is n likely to h mu* spontaneity4 ,9 _m subjects1 & especially ^? ( new or local int]e/1 y w n f9d ! facts ga!r$ & assimilat$ = y2 y mu/ g out & ga!r y\r own /raw = ! mak+ ( y\r bricks4 ,su* are mo/ que/ions ( re=m or *ange 9 s*ool or college sy/ems1 9 a?letics1 9 municipal affairs1 9 %ort1 mo/ ( ! que/ions on :i* ! av]age man aft] he leaves college is likely to be mak+ argum5ts4 ,to get decisive facts on su* que/ions z ^! y mu/ g1 9 ! case ( local subjects1 to ! newspap]s1 to city & t[n reports1 or to docum5ts issu$ by int]e/$ committees2 = college que/ions y g to ! presid5ts' reports & to annual catalogues or catalogues ( graduates1 or p]haps to ,graduates' ,bullet9s or ,weeklies2 = a?letic que/ions y g to ! files ( ! daily newspap]s1 or = records to su* works z ! ,_w or ,tribune ,almanacs2 = s*ool que/ions y g to s*ool catalogues1 or to s*ool-committee reports4 ,y w be surpris$ to f9d h[ little "t y use to get toge!r bodies ( facts & figures t may make y1 9 a small way1 an orig9al au?ority on ! subject y are discuss+4 ,x does n take long to c\nt a few hundr$ names1 or to run ?r\gh ! files ( a newspap] = a week or a mon?2 & :5 y h done su* inve/igation y get a s5se ( surety 9 deal+ ) y\r subject t w /r5g!n y\r argum5t4 ,"h1 z 9 ! l>g] discussions ( lat] life1 ! read9ess to take ! initiative & ! +5uity 9 ?9k+ ( possible s\rces are :at make y c\nt4 ,su* s\rces y c (t5 piece out by p]sonal inquiry f m5 :o are conv]sant ) ! subject--t[n or city (fic]s1 memb]s ( faculties1 pr9cipals ( s*ools4 ,if y g to su* p hop+ t !y w d y\r "w = y1 y w n be likely to get mu* com=t2 b if y are ke5 ab\t y\r subject y\rself1 & ready to "w1 y w (t5 get n only valuable in=mation & advice1 b sometimes also a *ance to g ?r\gh unpubli%$ records4 ,a "y man :o is work+ h>d & intellig5tly is apt to be an object ( int]e/ to old] m5 :o h be5 do+ ! same all _! lives4 ,,ex]cises #a4 ,"n ^? ( ! s\rces on pages #cd-cf1 :i* are available to y4 ,report to ! class on ! scope & "* ( ea* ( !m4 7,! report on diff]5t s\rces c be divid$ among ! class47 #b4 ,"n "s s\rces = facts relat+ to y\r own s*ool or college2 to y\r own t[n or city2 to y\r own /ate4 #c4 ,report on ! foll[+1 9 n m ?an "o hundr$ words1 nam+ ! s\rce f :i* y got y\r in=mation3 ! situation & gov]nm5t ( ! ,fiji ,isl&s2 ,circe2 ! au?or ( ,a man's a man = a' t2 ,becky ,%>p2 ! age ( ,presid5t ,taft & ! (fices he has held2 ! e>ly c>e] ( ,james ,madison2 ! ,am]ican amateur record 9 ! half-mile run2 ! family "n ( ,"l ,salisbury1 & a brief acc\nt ( 8 c>e]2 ! sal>y ( ! mayor ( ,new ,york2 ! isl& ( ,guam3 "s ( ! important measures pass$ by ,congress 9 ! session ( #aiaj-aiaa4 7,?is ex]cise a tea*] c v>y indef9itely by turn+ ov] ! pages ( ref]5ce books :i* 8 class c rea*2 or ! /ud5ts c be set to mak+ ex]cises = ea* o!r47 #ad4 ,bibliography4 ,be=e />t+ 9 e>ne/ on ! read+ = y\r argum5t1 beg9 a bibliography1 t is1 a li/ ( ! books & articles & spee*es :i* w help y4 ,?is bibliography %\ld be ent]$ 9 y\r notebook1 & x is conv5i5t to all[ space en\gh !re to keep ! diff]5t k9ds ( s\rces sep>ate4 ,9 mak+ y\r bibliography y w use "s ( ! s\rces :i* h j be5 describ$1 especially ,poole's ,index1 & ,! ,read]'s ,guide1 & ! subject catalogue ( ! libr>y4 ,make y\r entries s full t y c g at once to ! s\rce2 x is poor economy to save a m9ute on copy+ d[n a title1 & !n wa/e t5 or fifte5 9 go+ back to ! s\rce f :i* y got x4 ,on l>ge subjects ! numb] ( books & articles is f> beyond ! possibilities ( mo/ c\rses 9 argum5tation1 & "h y mu/ ex]cise y\r judgm5t 9 *oos+ ! mo/ important4 ,! "n ( ! au?or is on ! :ole a safe guide3 if y f9d an article or a book by ,presid5t ,eliot on an educational subject1 or "o by ,presid5t ,hadley on economics1 or "o by ,presid5t ,jordan on zoology1 or "o by any ( !m on univ]sity policy1 y w "k at once t y _c af=d to neglect x4 ,z y g on ) y\r read+ y w soon f9d :o are au?orities on special subjects by not+ :o are quot$ 9 text & footnotes4 ,if ! subject happ5s to be "o ( ^? on :i* a bibliography has be5 issu$ ei!r by ! ,libr>y ( ,congress or f "s o!r s\rce1 ! mak+ ( y\r own bibliography w r$uce itself to a selection f ?is li/4 ,keep y\r bibliography z a practical aid to y 9 a v practical task4 ,d n swell x f m]e love ( accumulation1 z y might collect /amps4 ,! mak+ ( exhau/ive bibliographies is "w = advanc$ s*ol>%ip or = assi/ant libr>ians4 ,= ! practical purposes ( mak+ an argum5t a v mod]ate numb] ( titles beyond ^? y c actually use w give y suffici5t backgr\nd4 ,notebook4 ,ent] 9 y\r notebook ! titles ( books1 articles1 or spee*es :i* be> on y\r subject1 & :i* y are likely to be able to read4 ,illu/ration4 ,bibliography = an argum5t on introduc+ commission gov]nm5t ( ! ,des ,mo9es type into ,wyt[n4 ,,books ,,woodruff1 ,c4 ,r4 ,city ,gov]nm5t by ,commission4 ,new ,york1 #aiaa4 ,bibliography 9 app5dix4 ,,hamilton1 ,j4 ,j4 ,! ,de?ronem5t ( ! ,city ,boss4 ,new ,york1 #aiaj4 ,,articles ,f ,read]'s ,guide to ,p]iodical ,lit]ature1 ,vol4 ,,ii 7#aije-aiji74 7,!re are ?irty entries "h "u ! head+1 ,municipal ,gov]nm5t1 & ! subhead+1 ,gov]nm5t by ,commission4 ,( ^! ,i omit ^? deal+ ) cities 9 ,texas1 z n be>+ directly on ! ,des ,mo9es plan1 & select sev5 ( ! mo/ rec5t47 ,ano!r ,city = ,commission ,gov]nm5t1 ,_w's ,"w1 ,vol4 ,,xviii 7,june1 #aiji71 p4 #aa1fci4 ,city ,gov]nm5t4 ,outlook4 ,vol4 ,,xcii 7,augu/ #ad1 #aiji71 pp4 #hfe-hff4 ,,brad=d1 ,e4 ,s4 ,commission ,gov]nm5t 9 ,am]ican ,cities1 ,national ,conf]5ce on ,city ,gov]nm5t 7#aiji71 pp4 #bag-bbh4 ,,pe>son1 ,p4 ,m4 ,commission ,sy/em ( ,municipal ,gov]nm5t 7bibliography71 ,int]collegiate ,debates1 pp4 #dfa-dgg4 ,,all51 ,s4 ,b4 ,des ,mo9es ,plan1 ,national ,conf]5ce on ,city ,gov]nm5t 7#aijg71 pp4 #aef-afe4 ,des ,mo9es ,plan ( ,city ,gov]nm5t1 ,_w's ,"w1 ,vol4 ,,xviii 7,may1 #aiji71 p4 #aa1ecc4 ,,goodye>1 ,d4 ,! ,example ( ,hav]hill1 ,indep5d5t1 ,vol4 ,,lxvi 7,janu>y1 #aiji71 p4 #aid4 ,f ,read]'s ,guide 7#aiaj74 7,sev5 entries1 ( :i* ,i select ! foll[+47 ,,goodye>1 ,d4 ,! ,exp]i5ce ( ,hav]hill1 ,indep5d5t1 ,vol4 ,,lxviii 7,febru>y1 #aiaj71 p4 #dae4 ,rapid ,gr[? ( ,commission ,gov]nm5t1 ,outlook1 ,vol4 ,,xciv 7,april1 #aiaj71 p4 #hbb4 ,,turn]1 ,g4 ,k4 ,new ,am]ican ,city ,gov]nm5t1 ,mc,clure's1 ,vol4 ,,xxxv 7,may1 #aiaj71 pp4 #ig-ajh4 ,organization ( ,municipal ,gov]nm5t1 ,am]ican ,gov]nm5t & ,politics2 pp4 #eih-fjb4 #ae4 ,plann+ = a ,def9ite ,audi5ce4 ,be=e sett+ to "w on ! actual plann+ ( y\r argum5t !re are /ill two prelim9>y que/ions y h to consid]--! prepossessions ( y\r audi5ce1 & ! burd5 ( pro(2 ( ^! ! latt] is dep5d5t on ! =m]4 ,:5 y get out into active life & h an argum5t to make1 ?is "q ( ! audi5ce w =ce itself on y\r att5tion1 = y w n make ! argum5t unless y want to influ5ce views :i* are actually held4 ,9 a s*ool or college argum5t y h ! difficulty t y\r argum5t w 9 mo/ cases h no su* practical effect4 ,nev]!less1 ev5 "h y c get bett] practice by fix+ on "s body ( read]s :o might be influ5c$ by an argum5t on y\r subject1 & address+ y\rself specifically to !m4 ,y c h>dly consid] ! burd5 ( pro( or lay out ! space :i* y w give to diff]5t po9ts 9 y\r argum5t unless y take into acc\nt ! pres5t k & ! prepossessions ( y\r audi5ce on ! subject4 ,:]e ! "q is l>ge & ab/ract ! audi5ce may be s g5]al z to seem to h no special *>act]i/ics2 b if y w ?9k ( ! diff]5ces ( tone & attitude ( two diff]5t newspap]s 9 treat+ "s local subject y w see t read]s always segregate !mselves into types4 ,ev5 on a l>g] scale1 "o c say t ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates z a :ole are optimi/ic & self-confid5t 9 temp]1 & 9 consequ5ce c>eless z to _m m9or defici5cies & blemi%es 9 our national polity4 ,on a good _m que/ions ! ,s\?1 :i* is /ill *iefly agricultural1 has diff]5t int]e/s & prepossessions f ! ,nor?2 & ! ,we/1 be+ a new c\ntry1 is incl9$ to h less rev]5ce = ! ve/$ rights ( prop]ty z aga9/ ! rights ( m51 ?an ! ,ea/]n /ates1 :]e weal? has long be5 conc5trat$ & inh]it$4 ,z "o n>r[s d[n to ! imm$iate or local que/ions :i* make ! be/ subjects = practice ! "p play$ by ! audi5ce becomes m app>5t4 ,! re=m ( ! rules ( football is a good example3 a few ye>s ago an audi5ce ( eld]ly p w\ld h tak5 = grant$ ! brutality ( ! game1 & its t5d5cy to put a premium on unfair play2 ! rules committee1 made up ( believ]s 9 ! game1 _h to be hamm]$ at = sev]al ye>s be=e !y made ! *anges :i* h s greatly improv$ x4 ,s 9 matt]s ( local or municipal int]e/1 su* z ! location ( a new /reet c> l9e1 or ! lay+ out ( a p>k1 x w make a va/ diff]5ce to y :e!r y are writ+ = p :o h l& on ! propos$ l9e or p>k1 or = ! g5]al body ( citiz5s4 ,diff]5ces 9 ?y prepossessions ( y\r audi5ce & 9 _! k ( ! subject h1 !re=e1 a direct & practical effect on ! plann+ ( y\r argum5t4 ,suppose y are argu+ 9 favor ( rais+ ! /&>d ( admission to y\r college2 if y\r argum5t is address$ to ! faculty y w give little space to expla9+ :at ^? requirem5ts n[ are2 b if y are s5d+ out an address to ! alumni y mu/ give "s space to tell+ !m cle>ly & )\t te*nicalities :at pres5t conditions are & expla9+ ! *anges t y propose4 ,!oretically an argum5t %\ld *ange 9 =m & proportions = e audi5ce :i* y address4 ,! !ory may be pu%$ too f>2 b 9 ! practice ( real life x w be f\nd ne>ly true4 ,) diff]5t audi5ces y w unconsci\sly make diff]5t selection ( mat]ial1 & y w v>y y\r emphasis1 ! place ( y\r refutation1 & ! di/ribution ( y\r space4 ,notebook4 ,ent] ! audi5ce = :om y\r argum5t might be writt51 & note :at y ?9k w\ld be _! k ( ! subject1 & _! prepossessions t[>d x4 ,illu/ration4 ,! citiz5s ( ,wyt[n4 ,!y are conv9c$ t !re %\ld be a *ange 9 ! city gov]nm5t2 b !y are n yet famili> ) ! ,des ,mo9es plan4 ,,ex]cises #a4 ,br+ to class editorials f diff]5t newspap]s on ! same local subject1 & po9t out diff]5ces ( attitude :i* !y assume 9 ! audi5ces !y address4 #b4 ,sugge/ ?ree diff]5t possible audi5ces = y\r argum5t1 & %[ :at diff]5ces y w\ld make 9 y\r argum5t 9 address+ ea* ( !m4 #af4 ,! ,burd5 ( ,pro(4 ,! pr9ciple :i* und]lies ! responsibility = ! burd5 ( pro( may be summ$ up 9 ! adage ( ! common law1 ,he :o ass]ts mu/ prove4 ,at ! law ?is pr9ciple has be5 elaborat$ into a l>ge & ab/ruse subject2 9 ord9>y argum5ts :]e !re is no judge to make subtle discrim9ations1 y mu/ int]pret x 9 ! broade/ way4 ,! av]age man lacks bo? ! int]e/ & ! capacity = mak+ ke5 di/9ctions2 & :5 y are writ+ = him y w\ld make a mi/ake if y 7 to /ickle = f9e po9ts conc]n+ ! burd5 ( pro(4 ,9 g5]al1 ! pr9ciple z x be>s on ! argum5ts ( ev]yday life implies t any argum5t 9 favor ( a *ange %all accept ! burd5 ( pro(4 ,?is application ( ! pr9ciple is illu/rat$ 9 ! foll[+ extract f an editorial article 9 ,! ,outlook "s ye>s ago1 on a propos$ *ange 9 ! law ( ,new ,york conc]n+ ! safegu>ds ( vivisection4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! real "q is n z to ! m]its ( vivisection1 b z to ! prop] safegu>ds ) :i* ! law %\ld surr\nd x4 ,at pres5t ! law ( ,new ,york /ate applies to exp]im5ts ^u animals ! same pr9ciple t x applies to surgical op]ations ^u m51 wom51 & *ildr54 ,x does n attempt to prescribe ! conditions "u :i* ei!r exp]im5ts or op]ations %\ld be conduct$2 b x does prescribe ! /&>ds ( fitness :i* e p]son :o may lawfully engage 9 surg]y & :i* e p]son :o may lawfully engage 9 animal exp]im5tation mu/ meet4 ,x p5alizes ) f9e or imprisonm5t or bo? ! unju/ifiable injur+1 mutilat+1 or kill+ ( animals2 & x conf9es to regul>ly incorporat$ m$ical colleges & univ]sities ( ! /ate ! au?ority "u :i* animal exp]im5tation may be conduct$4 ,! burd5 ( pro( re/s ^u ^? :o w\ld h ! /ate ab&on ?is pr9ciple & sub/itute = x ! pr9ciple ( prescrib+ ! conditions ( sci5tific inve/igation4 ,x re/s ^u !m to prove1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! pres5t law is inadequate4 ,x is n suffici5t = !m to produce lawy]s :o give op9ions t ! law is n effici5t4 ,!re are lawy]s ( ! highe/ /&+ 9 ! /ate :o decl>e t x is effici5t4 ,! only adequate mode ( pro( w\ld be by ! prosecution ( an actual abuse4 ,s f> z we h be5 able to le>n1 only "o au!ntic case ( alleg$ unju/ifiable exp]im5tation has be5 br\ght =w>d by ! support]s ( ! bills4 ,?is is c]ta9ly n pro( t ! pres5t law is inadequate4 ,9 ! second place1 ! burd5 ( pro( re/s ^u !m to %[ t legal re/rictions on ! me?ods ( sci5ce w\ld n vitiate inve/igations1 & w\ld n1 !re=e1 entail ^u human be+s great] suff]+ ?an w\ld o!rwise be inflict$ ^u animals 444 ,x is because ,! ,outlook is conv9c$ by ov]:elm+ evid5ce t ! practice ( vivisection has n increas$ suff]+ b has r wid5$ immeasurably ! m]ciful m9i/rations ( m$ic9e & surg]y t x reg>ds z dang]\s un9tellig5t int]f]5ce ) vivisection1 & urges ! ma9t5ance ( ! pr9ciple und]ly+ ! pres5t ,new ,york law4 99 99 99 99 99 ,s ) o!r que/ions ( policy1 ! burd5 ( pro( w\ld be on any "o :o propos$ a *ange f a policy long e/abli%$1 su* z free trade 9 ,engl&1 & to a less ext5t protection 9 ?is c\ntry1 ! elective sy/em 9 _m ,am]ican colleges1 ! amateur rule 9 s*ool & college a?letics4 ,always1 "o mu/ rememb] t ! burd5 ( pro( dep5ds on ! prepossessions ( ! audi5ce1 & t on ! same "q x may *ange )9 a mod]ately small numb] ( ye>s4 ,t5 ye>s ago1 on ! "q ( ! popul> election ( s5ators ! burd5 0 cle>ly on ! side ( ^? :o advocat$ a *ange 9 ! ,con/itution4 ,by ?is "t 7#aiab7 ! burd5 ( pro( has = a majority ( ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates probably swung to ! o!r side4 ,9 ! /ate ( ,ma9e1 :]e prohibition _h be5 embodi$ 9 ! /ate con/itution = a g5]ation1 ! burd5 ( pro( 0 on ^? :o 9 #aiaa argu$ = its repeal2 :]eas 9 ,massa*usetts1 :i* has done well = _m ye>s ) local option & high lic5se1 ! burd5 w\ld /ill be on ^? :o %\ld argue = /ate prohibition4 ,9 ! discussions ( ! game ( football a few ye>s ago ! burd5 ( pro( be=e an audi5ce ( a?letes w\ld h be5 on ^? :o decl>$ t ! game mu/ be *ang$2 ) college faculties & m5 ( l m9d ! burd5 ( pro( w\ld h be5 on ^? :o def5d$ ! old game4 ,9 ea* case t comes up1 y _c place ! burd5 ( pro( until y "k :e!r ! p y are try+ to conv9ce h any prepossessions 9 ! matt]3 if !y h1 ! burd5 ( pro( is on him :o attempts to *ange ^? prepossessions2 if !y h n1 ! burd5 is on him :o is propos+ to *ange exi/+ views or exi/+ policies4 ,9 no case1 h[ev]1 ) a popul> audi5ce is x v safe to dep5d mu* on ! burd5 ( pro(2 almo/ always x is bett] to jump 9 & actively build up ! argum5t on y\r own side4 ,9 argum5t1 z 9 /rategy1 take ! (f5sive :5ev] y c4 99 99 99 99 99 ,notebook4 ,note :e!r ! burd5 ( pro( is ) y or aga9/ y1 tak+ into acc\nt ! probable prepossessions ( ! audi5ce y h select$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illu/ration4 ,9 ! argum5t = ! introduction ( ! commission =m ( gov]nm5t into ,wyt[n ! burd5 ( pro( is on ! affirmative to %[ t ! ,des ,mo9es plan ( city gov]nm5t w cure ! evils ( ! pres5t gov]nm5t ( ,wyt[n4 ,) ! audi5ce assum$ 7see p4 #dc71 !re is no burd5 ( pro( on ! affirmative to e/abli% ! ne$ ( a *ange4 ,,ex]cises #a4 ,9 ?ree subjects :i* y might *oose = an argum5t %[ :]e ! burd5 ( pro( w\ld lie4 #b4 ,9 ! case ( "o ( ^! argum5ts %[ h[ ! burd5 ( pro( might *ange ) ! argum5t4 #ag4 ,! ,brief4 ,:5 y h settl$ ^! prelim9>y que/ions ( ! audi5ce y wi% to w9 ov] to y\r view1 & ( ! way _! prepossessions & k ( ! subject w affect y\r responsibilities = ! burd5 ( pro(1 y are ready to beg9 "w on ! brief1 z ! plan = an argum5t is call$4 ,?is brief x is bett] to ?9k ( z a /atem5t ( ! logical framework ( ! argum5t1 :i* y are con/ruct+ = ! purpose ( cle>+ up y\r own m9d on ! subject1 & especially to help y to see h[ y c mo/ effectively arrange y\r mat]ial4 ,x diff]s f ! usual brief 9 a case at law 9 t ! latt] is ord9>ily a s]ies ( compact /atem5ts ( legal pr9ciples1 ea* support$ by a li/ ( cases already decid$ :i* be> on t pr9ciple4 ,! brief y w be mak+ n[ w consi/ ( an introduction1 :i* /ates :atev] facts & pr9ciples are necess>y to an und]/&+ ( ! brief1 & ! brief itself1 :i* consi/s ( a s]ies ( propositions1 ea* support+ y\r ma9 cont5tion1 & ea* 9 turn support$ by o!rs1 :i* aga9 may ea* be support$ by ano!r s]ies4 ,su* an analysis w ?or\ghly display ! processes ( y\r reason+1 & enable y to criticize !m /ep by /ep = s\ndness & co]civ5ess4 ,i %all fir/ expla9 ! sev]al /eps :i* g to ! mak+ ( ! introduction to ! brief2 & !n come to ! mak+ ( ! brief itself4 #ah4 ,! ,proposition4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 mak+ ! introduction to y\r brief is to =mulate ! "q or proposition 7! two t]ms are int]*angeable 9 practice74 ,until y h cry/alliz$ y\r view ( ! subject into a proposition y h no?+ to argue ab\t4 ,commission =m ( gov]nm5t is a subject1 b x is n arguable1 = x gives y no hold ei!r = affirm+ or d5y+4 ,commission gov]nm5t %\ld be adopt$ 9 ,wyt[n1 or ,commission gov]nm5t has improv$ political conditions 9 ,des ,mo9es1 are bo? propositions :i* are arguable 7?\gh n yet specific en\gh71 = x is possible to ma9ta9 ei!r ! affirmative or ! negative ( ei!r ( !m4 ,! proposition mu/ be s+le4 ,if x be d\ble1 y h :at ! lawy]s call a squ9t+ argum5t1 t is1 an argum5t :i* looks 9 two directions at ! same "t4 ,= example1 ! proposition1 ,commission gov]nm5t w\ld be a good ?+ = ,wyt[n1 b ! initiative & ref]5dum are wrong 9 pr9ciple1 involves two sep>ate & unconnect$ pr9ciples1 s9ce commission gov]nm5t z fir/ embodi$ at ,galve/on does n include ! initiative & ref]5dum4 ,_m p1 includ+ ^? ( ,galve/on & o!r places 9 ,texas1 w\ld accept ! fir/ half ( ! proposition1 & disagree ) ! second half4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,wyt[n %\ld adopt a commission gov]nm5t on ! ,des ,mo9es plan1 w\ld n be a d\ble proposition1 ?\gh ?is plan includes ! initiative & ref]5dum2 = ! proposition makes ! issue t ! plan %\ld be adopt$ or reject$ z a :ole4 ,9 "s cases a proposition may be grammatically comp\nd1 & yet c>ry a s+le ass]tion4 ,municipal gov]nm5t by commission is m economical & effici5t ?an municipal gov]nm5t ) a mayor & two *amb]s1 is really a s+le ass]tion ( ! sup]iority ( ! commission plan ( gov]nm5t4 ,9 ?is case !re is no dang] ( gett+ into a split argum5t2 b ev5 "h x is saf] to r$uce ! proposition to "o :i* is grammatically s+le1 ,municipal gov]nm5t by commission has prov$ itself sup]ior to municipal gov]nm5t ) a mayor & two *amb]s4 ,a pr$icate :olly s+le is a safegu>d aga9/ mean+ two ass]tions4 ,! proposition mu/ n be s ab/ract or vague 9 t]ms t y d n "k :e!r y agree or disagree ) x4 ,macaulay summ$ up ?is difficulty 9 "o ( 8 spee*es 9 ,p>liam5t3 99 99 99 99 99 ,surely my honorable fri5d _c b "k t no?+ is easi] ?an to write a !me = sev]ity1 = clem5cy1 = ord]1 = lib]ty1 = a contemplative life1 = an active life1 & s on4 ,x 0 a common ex]cise 9 ! anci5t s*ools ( rhetoric to make an ab/ract "q1 & to h>angue fir/ on "o side & !n on ! o!r4 ,! "q1 ,ought popul> discont5ts to be quiet$ by concession or co]cion1 w\ld h be5 a v good subject = oratory ( ?is k9d4 ,!re is no lack ( commonplaces on ei!r side4 ,b :5 we come to ! real bus9ess ( life1 ! value ( ^! commonplaces dep5ds entirely on ! p>ticul> circum/ances ( ! case :i* we are discuss+4 ,no?+ is easi] ?an to write a treatise prov+ t x is lawful to resi/ extreme tyranny4 ,no?+ is easi] ?an to write a treatise sett+ =? ! wick$ness ( wantonly br++ on a great society ! mis]ies insep>able f revolution1 ! blood%$1 ! spoliation1 ! an>*y4 ,bo? treatises may conta9 mu* t is true2 b nei!r w enable u to decide :e!r a p>ticul> insurrection is or is n ju/ifiable )\t a close exam9ation ( ! facts4#d ,9 o!r words1 ?\gh ! ^w insurrection seems to be pla9 9 mean+1 yet :5 we make x "o t]m ( a judgm5t ( :i* ! o!r t]m is ju/ifiable1 we f9d t we d n "k :e!r we agree or n4 ,! t]ms ( ! proposition are s vague t !re c be no meet+ ( m9ds4 ,if we limit ! subject to a specific case1 insurrection 9 ,v5ezuela1 or insurrection 9 ,cuba1 !n we h made a beg9n+ t[>d mak+ ! proposition arguable4 ,9 ^! p>ticul> cases1 h[ev]1 x w\ld probably be necess>y to g fur!r1 & specify :i* insurrection 9 ,v5ezuela or 9 ,cuba 0 int5d$1 be=e ! av]age ,am]ican w\ld be prep>$ ei!r to affirm or to d5y4 ,:]ev] ! t]ms ( a proposition are too vague to provoke pr(itable discussion !y mu/ be n>r[$ d[n to a specific case :i* w draw =? affirmation & d5ial4 ,a common case :]e ! vagu5ess ( ! proposition leads to difficulties 9 ! argum5t is describ$ 9 ! foll[+ passage3 99 99 99 99 99 ,an equally common =m ( argum5t1 closely alli$ to ! argum5t by analogy1 & equally vague1 is t :i* is popul>ly kn[n z ! objection to a ?9 end ( a w$ge4 ,we mu/ n d ?is or t1 x is (t5 said1 because if we did we %\ld be logically b\nd to d some?+ else :i* is pla9ly absurd or wrong4 ,if we once beg9 to take a c]ta9 c\rse !re is no kn[+ :]e we %all be able to /op ) any %[ ( consi/5cy2 !re w\ld be no reason = /opp+ any:]e 9 p>ticul>1 & we %\ld be l$ on1 /ep by /ep1 into action or op9ions t we all agree to call undesirable or untrue4444 ,= x mu/ n be =gott5 t 9 all disputes ( ?is k9d !re are two p>ties oppos$ to ea* o!r1 & t :at divides !m is precisely _! lack ( agreem5t on ! "q :at pr9ciple is really involv$4 ,^? :o see a proposal z a ?9 end ( a w$ge always see ! pr9ciple z a wid]1 m inclusive "o1 ?an ^? :o make ! proposal2 & :at gives !m fre$om s to see x is m]ely ! fact t x rema9s indef9ite4#e ,z a practical example ( ?is confusion1 consid] ! foll[+ extract f a spee* 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,s5ate oppos+ ! popul> election ( s5ators3 99 99 99 99 99 ,e intellig5t /ud5t ( ! pres5t rapid tr5d t[>d popul> gov]nm5t mu/ see :at w\ld happ5 :5 ?is s5tim5tal b> ( ! ,/ates be+ repres5t$ by two ,s5ators in/ead ( by ! p 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,s5ate is ?r[n d[n4 ,! initiative1 ! ref]5dum1 & ! recall are b symptoms ( ! times4 ,t ! p w h _! way1 because !y1 & !y alone1 are ! gov]nm5t1 is ! und]ly+ _s ( our in/itutions1 ( our newe/ ,/ate ,con/itutions1 & ( our progressive laws4 ,skillful agitation seizes ^u e pretext & eag]ly grasps & enl>ges e opportunity = appeal to ! passions 9 an advancem5t ( its purposes4 ,! next cry w necess>ily be1 ,:y n elect ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates by popul> vote8 ,:y n elect ! ,f$]al ,judici>y ev]y:]e by popul> vote8#f 99 99 99 99 99 ,"h ! proposition1 ,t ! p w h _! way1 because !y1 & !y alone1 are ! gov]nm5t1 is ! und]ly+ _s ( our in/itutions1 ( our newe/ /ate con/itutions1 & ( our progressive laws1 is n only obscure 9 t]ms1 b x is :olly vague1 = x does n def9e h[ f> ! progressive p>ty propose to c>ry popul> direct gov]nm5t4 ,until ! two sides agree on t po9t !y h no?+ def9ite en\gh = pr(itable argum5t4 ,x is surpris+ to notice h[ (t5 9 political debates ?is fallacy is committ$4 ,x is human nature to believe = ! "t be+ t ! o!r side w d ! wor/ ?+ t ! circum/ances make possible4 ,=tunately1 human nature j z con/antly refutes ! error4 ,to make cle>] ?is necessity ( hav+ a def9ite proposition to argue1 let u take "o ( ! subjects sugge/$ on page #aj :i* is n yet 9 a =m = pr(itable argum5t1 & am5d x4 ,! /&>d = graduation f ?is college %\ld be rais$1 is a subject t c be discuss$1 b z x /&s x w\ld n be a good proposition = an argum5t1 because x is vague4 ,h[ mu* %\ld ! /&>d be rais$8 ,by :at me?od %\ld x be rais$8 ,^! & o!r que/ions y w\ld h to answ] be=e y w\ld h a proposition def9ite en\gh to be argu$ ) pr(it4 ,! proposition c\ld be made def9ite en\gh by su* am5dm5ts z ! foll[+3 ,! /&>d = graduation f ?is college %\ld be rais$ by requir+ "o eigh? m h\rs ( lecture or recitation 9 ea* ( ! f\r ye>s2 or1 ,! /&>d = graduation f ?is college %\ld be rais$ by increas+ ! pass m>k 9 all c\rses f fifty p] c5t to sixty p] c5t2 or1 ,! /&>d = graduation f ?is college %\ld be rais$ by all[+ no /ud5t to h 8 degree :o has fall5 bel[ sixty p] c5t 9 "o f\r? ( 8 "w1 & has n atta9$ eighty p] c5t 9 at lea/ "o eigh? ( 8 college "w4 ,9 ea* ( ^! cases ! proposition is s def9ite t y c\ld f9d exactly h[ _m /ud5ts w\ld be affect$4 ,a proposition :i* involves a def9ite body ( facts is arguable2 "o :i* involves an indef9ite & incalculable body ( facts is n4 ,to take ano!r example f ! brief we %all be work+ out 9 ?is *apt]1 ! proposition1 ,wyt[n %\ld adopt ! commission =m ( gov]nm5t1 is n def9ite en\gh1 = !re are v>i\s =ms ( commission gov]nm5t1 su* z ! ,galve/on plan1 ! ,des ,mo9es plan1 & by ?is "t a consid]able v>iety ( o!rs2 & citiz5s :o are at all p>ticul> 9 _! vot+ w\ld want to "k j :i* ( ^! 0 propos$ = _! approval4 ,! proposition1 !re=e1 w\ld h to be limit$ to1 ,wyt[n %\ld adopt a commission gov]nm5t aft] ! ,des ,mo9es plan4 ,! exact =m ( y\r proposition w n always come to y at ! fir/ try4 ,x may easily happ5 t y w n see ! exact issue involv$ 9 ! argum5t until y h gone "s way ) ! processes ( analysis :i* we %all be consid]+ 9 ! re/ ( ?is *apt]4 ,always hold y\rself ready to am5d y\r proposition1 if y c !reby come clos] to ! "q4 ,notebook4 ,ent] ! exact proposition :i* y are to argue4 ,illu/ration4 ,wyt[n %\ld adopt ! commission =m ( gov]nm5t1 9 ! =m n[ 9 practice at ,des ,mo9es1 ,i[a4 ,,ex]cises #a4 ,make ?ree arguable propositions on ! subject1 ,entrance exam9ations = college4 #b4 ,criticize ! foll[+ propositions & am5d !m1 if necess>y1 s t !y might be argu$ ) pr(it3 a4 ,fre%m5 %\ld be requir$ to keep reasonable h\rs4 b4 ,! honor sy/em %\ld be introduc$ ev]y:]e4 c4 ,?is city %\ld d m = its boys4 d4 ,! /reet railway companies 9 ?is city %\ld be bett] regulat$4 e4 ,! amateur rules = college a?letes are too /r+5t4 f4 ,int]collegiate football is b5eficial4 #ai4 ,def9ition ( ,t]ms4 ,mak+ a proposition def9ite is *iefly a process ( def9+ t]ms :i* are f\nd 9 x2 b :5 ^! are def9$ y may /ill 9 y\r argum5t use o!rs :i* also ne$ def9ition4 ,9 g5]al ! def9ition ( t]ms1 :e!r 9 ! proposition or n1 implies f9d+ out j :at a t]m means = ! pres5t purpose4 ,almo/ e common ^w is us$ = "s v>iety ( purposes4 ,commission1 = example1 ev5 )9 ! field ( gov]nm5t1 has two v diff]5t mean+s3 ,z appli$ to /ate & national adm9i/ration1 ! t]m commission gov]nm5t is us$ 9 connection ) ! gr[+ practice ( delegat+ to appo9t$ adm9i/rative bo>ds or commissions--! ,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,commission1 /ate railroad commissions1 tax commissions1 bo>ds ( control1 etc4--! adm9i/ration ( c]ta9 special or specifi$ executive functions 444,f ! /&po9t ( organization1 !n1 commission gov]nm5t1 z appli$ to ! /ate1 connotes dec5tralization1 ! delegation & division ( au?ority & responsibility1 & ! dis9tegration ( popul> control 444,z appli$ to city adm9i/ration1 h[ev]1 commission gov]nm5t has a v diff]5t mean+4 ,9 /rik+ contra/ to its use 9 connection ) ! /ate1 x is us$ to designate ! mo/ conc5trat$ & c5traliz$ type ( organization :i* has yet appe>$ 9 ! annals ( repres5tative municipal hi/ory4 ,"u s-call$ commission gov]nm5t = cities1 ! entire adm9i/ration ( ! city's affairs is plac$ 9 ! h&s ( a small bo>d or c\ncil--commission--elect$ at l>ge & responsible directly to ! electorate = ! gov]nm5t ( ! city4#g ,fur!rmore1 ev5 ! t]m commission gov]nm5t = cities is n :olly def9ite1 = !re are already sev]al recogniz$ types ( su* gov]nm5t1 su* z ! ,galve/on type1 ! ,des ,mo9es type1 & rec5t modifications ( ^!4 ,if y are mak+ an argum5t = introduc+ a commission gov]nm5t1 !re=e1 y mu/ g /ill fur!r ) y\r def9itions1 & specify ! di/+ui%+ features ( ! p>ticul> plan :i* y are urg+ on ! vot]s1 z is done 9 ! def9ition on page #ei4 ,9 o!r words1 y mu/ make exactly cle> ! mean+ ( ! t]m = ! pres5t case4 ,y\r fir/ impulse :5 y f9d a t]m t ne$s def9+ may be to g to a diction>y4 ,a little ?\ght w %[ y t 9 mo/ cases y w get little com=t if y d4 ,! aim ( a diction>y is to give all ! mean+s :i* a ^w has _h 9 reasonable use2 :at y ne$ 9 an argum5t is to "k :i* "o ( ^! mean+s x has 9 ! pres5t case4 ,if y 7 writ+ an argum5t on ! effects or ! righte\sness ( ! *ange wr\ght 9 ! ,engli% con/itution by ! rec5t curtailm5t ( ! veto p[] ( ! ,h\se ( ,lords1 & wi%$ to use ! ^w revolution1 & to use x :]e x 0 important t y\r read]s %\ld und]/& precisely :at y int5d$ x to convey1 y w\ld n burd5 !m ) su* a def9ition z ! foll[+1 f an unabridg$ diction>y3 ,revolution3 a fundam5tal *ange 9 political organization1 or 9 a gov]nm5t or con/itution2 ! ov]?r[ or r5unciation ( "o gov]nm5t & ! sub/itution ( ano!r1 by ! gov]n$4 ,su* a def9ition w\ld m]ely fill up y\r space1 & leave y no fur!r ahead4 ,a diction>y is /udi\sly g5]al1 = x mu/ cov] all possible legitimate mean+s ( ! ^w2 9 an argum5t y mu/ be /udi\sly specific1 to c>ry y\r read]s ) y 9 ! case "u discussion4 ,moreov]1 words are con/antly be+ press$ into new uses1 z 9 ! case ( commission 7see p4 #ed72 & o!rs h entirely legitimate local mean+s4 ,only a diction>y :i* 0 on ! scale ( ! ,new ,engli% ,diction>y & :i* 0 re$it$ e five ye>s c\ld pret5d to keep up ) ^! new uses4 ,9 an unabridg$ diction>y dat$ #aijg1 = example1 ! full def9ition ( amateur is z foll[s3 ,a p]son atta*$ to a p>ticul> pursuit1 /udy or sci5ce1 z to music or pa9t+2 especially "o :o cultivates any /udy or art1 f ta/e or atta*m5t1 )\t pursu+ x pr(essionally4 ,( :at use w\ld su* a def9ition be to y if y 7 argu+ 9 favor ( /r5g!n+ or relax+ ! amateur rules 9 college a?letics1 9 :i* y _h to foll[ ?r\gh ! intricacies ( summ] baseball & ( reimbursem5ts = tra9+ table & travel+ exp5ses8 ,su* a def9ition h>dly comes 9 sight ( ! use ( ! ^w :i* is mo/ 9 ! m\?s ( college /ud5ts 9 ,am]ica4 ,words mean :atev] c>eful & accept$ writ]s h us$ !m to mean2 & ! bus9ess ( a diction>y is s f> z possible to record ^! mean+s4 ,b language1 be+ a liv+ & con/antly develop+ gr[?1 is con/antly alt]+ !m & add+ to !m4 ,:at a diction>y c d = y1 !re=e1 is m]ely to tell y :e!r 9 ! pa/ ! ^w has be5 us$ ) ! signification :i* y wi% to give to x2 b !re are v few cases 9 :i* ?is w be mu* help to y1 = 9 an argum5t y\r only int]e/ 9 ! mean+ ( a t]m is 9 ! mean+ ( t t]m = ! case "u discussion4 ,!re are two q diff]5t k9ds ( difficulty 9 putt+ ! "r int]pretation on a /atem5t1 & a diction>y c only remove "o ( ^!1 & by f> ! less important "o4 ,:5 y meet ) a /atem5t conta9+ an unfamili> ^w--say1 ! ^w p>allax1 or phan]ogam\s1 or brigant9e--& :5 y und]/& all ! re/ ( ! /atem5t except t ^w1 !n z a g5]al rule ! diction>y w help to make ! mean+ cle>4 ,b :5 ! difficulty is caus$1 n by a ^w be+ unfamili>1 b by its be+ us$ 9 a c]ta9 context1 !n ! be/ diction>y 9 ! _w is1 = y\r purpose1 ( no use at all4 ,! nature ( e diction>y is necess>ily su* t x entirely leaves out ( acc\nt all d\bts ab\t mean+ :i* are ( ?is second k9d4 ,! mo/ t a diction>y c d is to tell u ! mean+ ( a ^w 9 ^? cases :]e ! context 9 :i* x is us$ is n su* z to make ! mean+ d\btful4#h ,9 practice ! words :i* mo/ (t5 ne$ def9ition are ^? :i* are1 z x 71 %or?& symbols = p]haps a v ext5sive mean+4 ,unless ! limits ( ?is ext5d$ mean+ are cle>ly m>k$ out y _c tell :e!r ! m9ds ( y\r read]s are1 z ! lawy]s say1 runn+ on all f\rs ) y\r own or n4 ,?is ext5d$ mean+ may be ( v>i\s sorts3 = example1 x may be a l>ge g5]al pr9ciple1 z 9 ! case ( evolution or culture2 or x may be a g5]al sy/em or practice1 z 9 ! case ( commission gov]nm5t1 honor sy/em1 or high /&>ds = graduation2 or x may be a g5]al class ( ?+s1 p]sons1 or ev5ts1 z 9 ! case ( second>y s*ool1 pr(essional coa*1 or murd]4 ,:5 y use any su* t]m 9 an argum5t1 x is ess5tial t y\r read]s %all h ! same set ( details1 ramifications1 or in/ances 9 m9d z y h y\rself4 ,= ?is purpose y mu/ def9e ! t]m2 or1 9 o!r words1 y mu/ lay out or display ! ramifications & limitations ( ! pr9ciple1 ! details ( ! sy/em or practice1 or ! exact k9ds ( ?+s1 p]sons1 or ev5ts1 :i* y h 9 m9d :5 y use ! t]m4 ,a few examples w make ?is practical mean+ ( def9+ cle>4 ,sometimes ! def9ition proce$s by c>eful & specific limitation ( ! g5]al signification ( a ^w1 z 9 ! foll[+ example f ,bag*ot3 ,i %\ld say t except :]e x is expla9$ to ! contr>y1 ,i use ! ^w tol]ation to mean tol]ation by law4 ,tol]ation by society ( matt]s n subject to legal p5alty is a k9dr$ subject1 on :i* if ,i h room ,i w add a few words2 b 9 ! ma9 ,i propose to deal ) ! simpl] subject1 tol]ation by law4 ,& by tol]ation1 too1 ,i mean1 :5 x is n o!rwise said1 tol]ation 9 ! public expression ( op9ions2 tol]ation ( acts & practices is ano!r alli$ subject1 on :i* ,i c1 9 a pap] l ?is1 b b>ely hope to indicate :at seems to me to be ! tru?1 & ,i %\ld add t ,i deal only ) ! discussion ( imp]sonal doctr9es3 ! law ( libel1 :i* deals ) accusations ( liv+ p]sons1 is a topic requir+ consid]ation by itself4#i ,sometimes ! def9ition is r an unfold+ & display+ ( ! implications 7f ! ,lat91 implic>e1 to fold 97 ( ! t]m4 ,huxley1 ne> ! beg9n+ ( 8 ?ree ,lectures on ,evolution1 made sure by ! foll[+ def9ition t 8 he>]s %\ld h a precise idea ( :at he meant by ! t]m evolution3 ,! ?ird hypo!sis1 or ! hypo!sis ( evolution1 supposes t1 at any comp>atively late p]iod ( pa/ "t1 our imag9>y spectator w\ld meet ) a /ate ( ?+s v simil> to t :i* n[ obta9s2 b t ! lik5ess ( ! pa/ to ! pres5t w\ld gradually become less & less1 9 proportion to ! remot5ess ( 8 p]iod ( obs]vation f ! pres5t day2 t ! exi/+ di/ribution ( m\nta9s & pla9s1 ( riv]s & seas1 w\ld %[ itself to be ! product ( a sl[ process ( natural *ange op]at+ ^u m & m widely diff]5t antec$5t conditions ( ! m9]al framework ( ! e>?2 until1 at l5g?1 9 place ( t framework1 he w\ld behold only a va/ nebul\s mass1 repres5t+ ! con/itu5ts ( ! sun & ( ! planet>y bodies4 ,prec$+ ! =ms ( life :i* n[ exi/ our obs]v] w\ld see animals & plants n id5tical ) !m1 b l !m2 increas+ _! diff]5ces ) _! antiquity &1 at ! same "t1 becom+ simpl] & simpl]2 until1 f9ally1 ! _w ( life w\ld pres5t no?+ b t undiff]5tiat$ protoplasmic matt]1 :i*1 s f> z our pres5t k goes1 is ! common f\ndation ( all vital activity4 ,! hypo!sis ( evolution supposes t 9 all ?is va/ progression !re w\ld be no brea* ( cont9uity1 no po9t at :i* we c\ld say1 ,?is is a natural process1 & ,?is is n a natural process1 b t ! :ole might be comp>$ to t wond]ful process ( developm5t :i* may be se5 go+ on e day "u our eyes1 9 virtue ( :i* !re arises1 out ( ! semifluid1 comp>atively homog5e\s sub/ance :i* we call an egg1 ! complicat$ organization ( "o ( ! high] animals4 ,t1 9 a few words1 is :at is meant by ! hypo!sis ( evolution4#aj ,"h ,huxley has laid out1 9 compact =m ! pr9cipal ramifications ( ! great pr9ciple ( evolution1 giv+ 8 he>]s some?+ l an outl9e map ( x ) its limits & pr9cipal divisions4 ,:]e y h a practice or sy/em to def9e1 y w be m likely to d x by specify+ ! *ief & ess5tial details ( ! sy/em1 z 9 ! foll[+ def9ition ( commission gov]nm5t = cities4 ,x w be notic$ t ?is n>r[s d[n ! mean+ ( ! t]m to some?+ l ! ,des ,mo9es sy/em1 z di/+ui%$ f ! ,galve/on plan4 ,a /raight commission =m ( municipal gov]nm5t1 9 ! judgm5t ( ,dr4 ,*>les ,w4 ,eliot1 "o ( its mo/ active advocates1 requires a commission compos$ ( five memb]s elect$ at l>ge1 "o ( :om is call$ ! mayor1 act+ z *airman ( ! commission1 b ) no veto p[]1 or any o!r special p[] n %>$ by ! o!r memb]s ( ! commission4 ,! commission s elect$ is ! s\rce ( all au?ority 9 ! city1 makes all ord9ances1 appo9ts all (ficials1 collects taxes1 & makes all appropriations4 ,z set =? by its advocates1 ! significant features ( ! plan1 9 addition to ^? already m5tion$1 are3 ,assignm5t ( ! important divisions ( ! city gov]nm5t to individual memb]s ( ! commission1 or _! election !reto by ! vot]s1 ea* be+ directly responsible = ! conduct ( 8 p>ticul> dep>tm5t2 adequate comp5sation to ! commission]s = _! "t & labor1 ! city employ+ all ! commission]s at liv+ sal>ies1 ?us elevat+ ! dignity ( municipal s]vice & mak+ x a public c>e]1 & n a m]e avocation2 regul>ity1 frequ5cy1 & publicity ( ! meet+s ( ! commission]s2 all employees above ! class ( day labor]s select$ f eligible li/s bas$ on exam9ations1 oral & writt51 c>efully devis$ to develop m]it & fitness2 recomm5dations aft] exam9ation by an indep5d5t civil s]vice commission2 provision = ! ret5tion 9 (fice ( all employees s appo9t$ dur+ good behavior2 ! p[] to initiate legislation res]v$ to ! p1 ?is "r be+ kn[n z ! initiative2 ! p[] to call = a public vote on any measure adopt$ by ! commission be=e be+ giv5 effect z law res]v$ to ! p1 ?is be+ kn[n z ! ref]5dum2 ! p[] at any "t to make any memb] ( ! commission /& = reelection res]v$ to ! p1 ?is be+ kn[n z ! recall2 ! grant+ ( public fran*ise always to be submitt$ to ! approval ( ! electors4 ,!re are two o!r important features3 ! introduction ( ! pr9ciple ( ! %ort ballot & ! elim9ation ( w>d l9es4 ,9 ! matur$ judgm5t ( municipal /ud5ts ^! are consid]$1 toge!r ) ! conc5tration ( au?ority1 z ! mo/ effective features ( ! sy/em4#aa ,"h is a pretty complete display ( all ! ess5tial details ( ! sy/em :i* ! au?or ( ?is def9ition int5d$ to mean by ! t]m commission gov]nm5t = cities4 ,:]e ! t]m :i* is to be def9$ is ! "n ( a g5]al class1 :e!r ( p]sons1 ?+s1 or ev5ts1 ! def9ition mu/ %[ j :at p]sons1 ?+s1 or ev5ts are to be includ$ "u ! t]m = ! pres5t purpose4 ,l9coln gave a fam\s example ( ?is sort ( def9ition 9 ! op5+ ( 8 address at ,coop] ,in/itute1 ,febru>y #bg1 #ahfj4 ,he took = ! text ( ! fir/ "p ( 8 spee* a /atem5t ( ,s5ator ,d\glas4 ,9 8 spee* la/ autumn at ,columbus1 ,ohio1 z report$ 9 ! ,new ,york ,times1 ,s5ator ,d\glas said1 ,our fa!rs1 :5 !y fram$ ! gov]nm5t "u :i* we live1 und]/ood ?is "q j z well1 & ev5 bett]1 ?an we d n[4 ,i fully indorse ?is1 & ,i adopt x z a text = ?is disc\rse4 ,i s adopt x because x furni%es a precise & an agre$ />t+ po9t = a discussion betwe5 ,republicans & t w+ ( ! ,democracy head$ by ,s5ator ,d\glas4 ,x simply leaves ! inquiry3 ,:at 0 ! und]/&+ ^? fa!rs _h ( ! "q m5tion$8 ,:at is ! frame ( gov]nm5t "u :i* we live8 ,! answ] mu/ be1 ,! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,t ,con/itution consi/s ( ! orig9al1 fram$ 9 #aghg1 & "u :i* ! pres5t gov]nm5t fir/ w5t into op]ation1 & twelve subsequ5tly fram$ am5dm5ts1 ! fir/ t5 ( :i* 7 fram$ 9 #aghi4 ,:o 7 our fa!rs t fram$ ! ,con/itution8 ,i suppose ! ?irty-n9e :o sign$ ! orig9al in/rum5t may be fairly call$ our fa!rs :o fram$ t "p ( ! pres5t gov]nm5t4 ,x is almo/ exactly true to say !y fram$ x1 & x is altoge!r true to say !y fairly repres5t$ ! op9ion & s5tim5t ( ! :ole nation at t "t4 ,_! names be+ famili> to ne>ly all1 & accessible to q all1 ne$ n n[ be repeat$4 ,i take ^! ?irty-n9e1 = ! pres5t1 z be+ our fa!rs :o fram$ ! gov]nm5t "u :i* we live4 ,:at is ! "q :i*1 accord+ to ! text1 ^? fa!rs und]/ood j z well1 & ev5 bett]1 ?an we d n[8 ,x is ?is3 ,does ! prop] division ( local f ,f$]al au?ority1 or any?+ 9 ! ,con/itution1 =bid our ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t to control z to slav]y 9 our ,f$]al ,t]ritories8 ,^u ?is1 ,s5ator ,d\glas holds ! affirmative1 & ,republicans ! negative4 ,?is affirmation & d5ial =m an issue2 & ?is issue--?is "q--is precisely :at ! text decl>es our fa!rs und]/ood bett] ?an we4 ,let u n[ inquire :e!r ! ?irty-n9e1 or any ( !m1 ev] act$ ^u ?is "q2 & if !y did1 h[ !y act$ ^u x--h[ !y express$ t bett] und]/&+4 ,"h z w be se51 ,l9coln took e important ^w & phrase1 & %[$ exactly :at p]sons & ?+s 7 includ$ "u !m4 ,!n he w5t ahead ) 8 argum5t ) ! assurance t 8 audi5ce & he 7 tread+ ! same pa?4 ,some:at simil> are ! def9itions 9 _m cases at law1 :]e ! issue is :e!r ! agre$ facts 9 a case come "u a c]ta9 t]m or n4 ,! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates provides t direct taxes %all be apportion$ among ! /ates 9 proportion to _! population1 b makes no su* re/riction on ! levy+ ( duties1 impo/s1 & taxes4 ,:5 ,congress e/abli%es a new =m ( tax1 !re=e1 su* z ! income tax or ! corporation tax1 ! ,supreme ,c\rt is pretty sure to be call$ on to decide "u :i* ( ^! l>ge con/itutional classes x falls4 ,9 su* cases z ! ,income ,tax cases1 :i* decid$ t ! income tax laid 9 ! ,act ( #aijd 0 uncon/itutional1 & 9 ! ,corporation ,tax cases1 :i* upheld ! ,act ( #aiji1 bo? ! argum5ts ( c\nsel & ! decision ( ! c\rt deal :olly ) ! def9ition ( ! t]m direct tax4 ,"h ! def9ition takes ! =m ( an exam9ation ( previ\s cases :i* involv$ ! t]m1 to see :e!r ! pres5t case is l ^? t h be5 held to be )9 x1 or l ^? :i* h be5 held to fall outside x4 ,f ?is comp>ison ( ! two sets ( cases ! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( ! direct tax are br\ght to ! surface4 ,a good example ( ! c>eful di/9ctions :i* mu/ be made 9 def9+ a legal t]m is f\nd 9 ,daniel ,web/]'s fam\s argum5t 9 ! ,:ite ,murd] ,case1 ( :i* an extract w be f\nd bel[4 ,! "q "h is j h[ f> ! t]m murd] %all be ext5d$4 ,!re are two sorts ( murd]2 ! di/9ction betwe5 !m x is ( ess5tial importance to be> 9 m9d3 7#a7 murd] 9 an affray1 or ^u sudd5 & unexpect$ provocation2 7#b7 murd] secretly1 ) a delib]ate1 pr$et]m9$ int5tion to commit ! crime4 ,"u ! fir/ class1 ! "q usually is1 :e!r ! (f5se he murd] or manslaught]1 9 ! p]son :o commits ! de$4 ,"u ! second class1 x is (t5 a "q :e!r o!rs ?an he :o actually did ! de$ 7 pres5t1 aid+ & assi/+ !re94 ,(f5ses ( ?is k9d ord9>ily happ5 :5 !re is nobody pres5t except ^? :o g on ! same design4 ,if a riot %\ld happ5 9 ! c\rt-h\se1 & "o %\ld kill ano!r1 ?is may be murd]1 or x may n1 accord+ to ! int5tion ) :i* x 0 done2 :i* is always matt] ( fact1 to be collect$ f ! circum/ances at ! "t4 ,b 9 secret murd]s1 prem$itat$ & det]m9$ on1 !re c be no d\bt ( ! murd]\s int5tion2 !re c be no d\bt if a p]son be pres5t1 kn[+ a murd] is to be done1 ( 8 concurr+ 9 ! act4 ,8 be+ !re is a pro( ( 8 int5t to aid & abet2 else1 :y is he !re8 ,x has be5 cont5d$1 t pro( mu/ be giv5 t ! p]son accus$ did actually af=d aid1 did l5d a h& 9 ! murd] itself2 & )\t ?is pro(1 al?\gh he may be ne> by1 he may be presum$ to be !re = an innoc5t purpose2 he may h crept sil5tly !re to he> ! news1 or f m]e curiosity to see :at 0 go+ on4 ,prepo/]\s1 absurd6 ,su* an idea %ocks all common s5se4 ,a man is f\nd to be a conspirator to commit a murd]2 he has plann$ x2 he has assi/$ 9 arrang+ ! "t1 ! place1 & ! means2 & he is f\nd 9 ! place1 & at ! "t1 & yet x is sugge/$ t he might h be5 !re1 n = coop]ation & concurr5ce1 b f curiosity6 ,su* an argum5t des]ves no answ]4 ,x w\ld be difficult to give x "o1 9 decor\s t]ms4 ,is x n to be tak5 = grant$1 t a man seeks to accompli% 8 own purposes8 ,:5 he has plann$ a murd]1 & is pres5t at its execution1 is he !re to =w>d or to ?w>t 8 own design8 ,is he !re to assi/1 or !re to prev5t8 ,b curiosity6 ,he may be !re f m]e curiosity6 ,curiosity to witness ! success ( ! execution ( 8 own plan ( murd]6 ,! v walls ( a c\rt-h\se ought n to /&1 ! pl[%>e %\ld run ?r\gh ! gr\nd x /&s on1 :]e su* an argum5t c\ld f9d tol]ation4 ,x is n necess>y t ! abettor %\ld actually l5d a h&1 t he %\ld take a "p 9 ! act itself2 if he be pres5t ready to assi/1 t is assi/+4444 ,! law is1 t be+ ready to assi/ is assi/+1 if ! p>ty has ! p[] to assi/1 9 case ( ne$4 ,x is s /at$ by ,fo/]1 :o is a high au?ority4 ,if ,a happ5e? to be pres5t at a murd]1 = in/ance1 & take? no "p 9 x1 nor endeavore? to prev5t x1 nor appreh5de? ! murd]]1 nor levye? hue & cry aft] him1 ?is /range behavior ( 81 ?\gh highly crim9al1 w n ( itself r5d] him ei!r pr9cipal or accessory4 ,b if a fact am\nt+ to murd] %\ld be committ$ 9 prosecution ( "s unlawful purpose1 ?\gh x 7 b a b>e trespass1 to :i* ,a 9 ! case la/ /at$ _h cons5t$1 & he _h gone 9 ord] to give assi/ance1 if ne$ 71 = c>ry+ x into execution1 ?is w\ld h am\nt$ to murd] 9 him1 & 9 e p]son pres5t & jo9+ ) him4 ,if ! fact 0 committ$ 9 prosecution ( ! orig9al purpose :i* 0 unlawful1 ! :ole p>ty w be involv$ 9 ! guilt ( him :o gave ! bl[4 ,= 9 comb9ations ( ?is k9d1 ! mortal /roke1 ?\gh giv5 by "o ( ! p>ty1 is consid]$ 9 ! eye ( ! law1 & ( s\nd reason too1 z giv5 by e individual pres5t & abett+4 ,! p]son actually giv+ ! /roke is no m ?an ! h& or in/rum5t by :i* ! o!rs /rike4 ,! au?or1 9 speak+ ( be+ pres5t1 means actual pres5ce2 n actual 9 opposition to con/ructive1 = ! law kn[s no su* di/9ction4 ,!re is b "o pres5ce1 & ?is is ! situation f :i* aid1 or suppos$ aid1 may be r5d]$4 ,! law does n say :]e ! p]son is to g1 or h[ ne> he is to g1 b t he mu/ be :]e he may give assi/ance1 or :]e ! p]petrator may believe t he may be assi/$ by him4 ,suppose t he is acqua9t$ ) ! design ( ! murd]]1 & has a k ( ! "t :5 x is to be c>ri$ into effect1 & goes out ) a view to r5d] assi/ance1 if ne$ be2 :y1 !n1 ev5 ?\gh ! murd]] does n "k ( ?is1 ! p]son s go+ out w be an abettor 9 ! murd]4 #bj4 ,def9ition ?r\gh ! ,hi/ory ( ! ,case4 ,9 "s cases ! easie/ way to put be=e y\r read]s ! precise details or limitations impli$ 9 a t]m is ?r\gh a brief review ( ! hi/ory ( ! "q4 ,9 ! ,l9coln-,d\glas debates ,l9coln 0 con/antly %[+ t ,d\glas's use ( ! t]m popul> sov]eignty mu/ be und]/ood 9 ! light ( ! :ole hi/ory ( ! slav]y "q2 t x meant "o ?+--:at ,d\glas int5d$ x to mean--if ! hi/ory ( ! "q be=e #ahej 7 left out ( sight2 b t x meant a :olly diff]5t ?+ if ! /eady encroa*m5t ( ! slave p[] f ! ,miss\ri ,compromise ( #ahbj on 7 tak5 into acc\nt4 ,& ,l9coln %[$ t 9 reality popul> sov]eignty _h come to mean a p[] oh ! "p ( ! p ( a t]ritory to introduce slav]y1 b n to exclude x4#ab ,9 our own day progressive has a diff]5t mean+ :5 appli$ to a ,republican f ,kansas & to "o f ,massa*usetts or ,new ,york4 ,to "k j :at is involv$ by apply+ ! t]m to any giv5 public man1 "o mu/ g back to ! rec5t hi/ory ( 8 p>ty 9 8 own /ate1 & to ! spee*es he has made4 ,9 political discussions popul> phrases are con/antly ?us blurr$ 9 mean+ ?r\gh be+ us$ z p>ty cat*words2 & to use !m ) any c]ta9ty 9 an argum5t "o mu/ ?us g back to _! orig91 & !n dissect out1 z x 71 ! ambigu\s implications :i* h gr[n into !m4 ,if y 7 argu+ any "q conc]n+ ! elective sy/em or ! entrance requirem5ts = y\r own college1 y w\ld (t5 d well to sket* ! hi/ory ( ! pres5t sy/em z a means ( def9+ x1 be=e y g on to urge t x be *ang$ or kept z x is4 ,s if y 7 argu+ = a fur!r *ange 9 ! football rules1 y\r be/ def9ition ( ! pres5t game = y\r purpose w\ld be a sket* ( ! way 9 :i* ! game has be5 *ang$ 9 ! pa/ few ye>s1 at ! urg5t dem& ( public op9ion4 ,su* a sket* y c\ld easily get by runn+ ?r\gh ! back numb]s ( su* a magaz9e z ,out+1 or ! sport+ columns ( "s ( ! l>g] weeklies4 ,or aga91 if y 7 argu+ t ! /reet railway sy/ems ( y\r city %\ld be all[$ to comb9e1 y\r be/ description or def9ition ( ! pres5t situation might well be a sket* ( ! successive /eps by :i* x came to be :at x is4 ,"h y w\ld g = y\r mat]ial to ! files ( local newspap]s1 or1 if y c\ld get at !m1 to sets ( ! reports ( ! railway companies4 ,! def9ition ( t]ms ?r\gh ! hi/ory ( ! "q has ! advantage t1 besides help+ y\r read]s to see :y ! t]ms y use h ! mean+ y give !m = ! pres5t case1 x also makes !m bett] judges ( ! "q by giv+ !m a full backgr\nd4 ,ambigu\s def9itions1 :i* d n di/+ui% betwe5 two or m mean+s ( a t]m = ! case "u discussion1 are usually avoid$ by go+ back to ! hi/ory ( ! case4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,iii we %all consid] m fully ! fallacies :i* spr+ f ambigu\s use ( words4 ,"h ,i %all insi/ briefly on ! necessity ( se>*+ into ! way t]ms h come to be us$ 9 specific discussions4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is ! dang] :i* arises :5 a ^w 9 g5]al use takes on a special1 almo/ te*nical mean+ 9 connection ) a p>ticul> subject4 ,"h y mu/ take "s pa9s to see t y\r read]s und]/& x 9 ! special s5se1 & n 9 ! popul> "o4 ,a crass in/ance1 9 :i* !re is little real possibility ( confusion1 is ! use ( words l democratic or republican z ! names ( political p>ties2 ev5 ) ^! words /ump speak]s sometimes try to play on ! feel+s ( an un$ucat$ audi5ce by import+ ! association ( ! orig9al use ( ! ^w into its lat] use4 ,!re are a good _m words us$ 9 ! sci5tific /udy ( gov]nm5t :i* are also us$ loosely 9 g5]al talk4 ,f$]al has a precise mean+ :5 us$ to di/+ui% ! =m ( gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates f t :i* usually b9ds toge!r ! c\nties 9 a /ate2 b we con/antly use x 9 a s5se h>dly di/+ui%able f t ( ,national4 ,! foll[+ extract f an editorial on ! ,philipp9e "q is a good illu/ration ( ?is precise & semite*nical use ( words1 & ! loose1 n v accurate use ( ev]yday spee*3 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is said t ?is policy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates t[>d its dep5d5cies is ins9c]e2 t x is a cov]t plan ( exploitation2 t1 z x is practic$1 x is a d5ial 9 act ( a m]e promise to ! e>2 & t if x 7 g5u9e ! ,unit$ ,/ates w\ld be/[ self-gov]nm5t ^u its dep5d5cies by grant+ indep5d5ce4 ,?is criticism is obvi\sly bas$ on a confusion ( indep5d5ce ) self-gov]nm5t4 ,russia1 is indep5d5t1 b 9 only a v slight degree are its p self-gov]n+4 ,turkey has long be5 indep5d5t1 b until ! rec5t revolution ! p ( ,turkey 7 self-gov]n+ 9 no s5se at all4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,canada1 ?\gh n indep5d5t1 is self-gov]n+4#ac ,_m an argum5t goes to wreck ?r\gh c>elessness 9 ! use ( words ( ?is sort4 ,:]ev] ! subject "u discussion has gr[n into ! p>tial possession ( a special field1 b /ill uses words drawn f ev]yday life1 y mu/ be c>eful t n only y1 b y\r audi5ce also1 und]/& y\r t]ms 9 ! m precise way4 ,closely relat$ to ?is k9d ( ambiguity1 & 9 practice /ill m insidi\s1 is ! ambiguity :i* arises f ! connotation or emotional implications ( words4 ,! use ( republican & democrat cit$ above runs ov] into ?is k9d ( confusion4 ,9 collegiate a?letics pr(essional has come to h almo/ an implication ( moral inf]iority1 :5 x is (t5 dep5d5t on pretty te*nical consid]ations ( exp$i5cy4 ,9 politics1 to "o class ( temp]am5ts cons]vative1 to ano!r radical1 or at any rate lib]al or progressive1 c>ries ! implication ( ! salvation or ! ru9 ( ! c\ntry4 ,all su* words introduce a sure elem5t ( obscurity & confusion into an argum5t4 ,if a ^w /irs y\r feel+s 9 "o way & ^? ( "s ( y\r read]s 9 ano!r1 y _c use t ^w safely2 9 spite ( ! mo/ c>eful def9itions & disclaim]s ! emotional bias w creep 9 & twi/ ! effect ( y\r words 9 ! m9ds ( "s ( y\r audi5ce4 ,?is emotional ambiguity is ! mo/ insidi\s ( all ambiguities 9 ! use ( words4 ,! dang] f x is s real t ,i %all return to x at great] l5g? 7see p4 #aeh74 ,9 a good _m cases ! necessity ( def9+ ! t]ms to be us$1 :e!r 9 ! proposition itself1 or 9 ! argum5t1 *anges ) ! audi5ce4 ,if y beg9 a movem5t to introduce a commission =m ( gov]nm5t into ! t[n or ! city 9 :i* y live1 at fir/ y w h to repeat ! def9ition ( commission gov]nm5t a good _m times1 9 ord] t mo/ ( ! vot]s may "k exactly :at y want !m to d4 ,if ! t[n once wakes up1 h[ev]1 & gets int]e/$1 y & e "o else w be us+ su* te*nicalities z ,galve/on plan1 ,des ,mo9es plan1 recall1 initiative1 & ! l ) no dang] ( leav+ d>kness :]e !re %\ld be light4 ,s ev5 m obvi\sly ) s*ool & college que/ions3 if y are s5d+ memorials urg+ ! introduction ( ! honor sy/em or ( /ud5t self-gov]nm5t1 "o to ! tru/ees ( y\r college1 & ano!r to ! faculty1 & at ! same "t address+ an appeal to y\r fell[ /ud5ts ?r\gh a college pap]1 9 ea* ( ! ?ree cases y\r def9itions might diff]4 ,y c\ld probably assume t bo? /ud5ts & faculty w\ld be m or less famili> ) ! "q1 s t y\r def9itions w\ld be ( ! nature ( precise specifications ( ! plan y 7 urg+4 ,) ! tru/ees y\r def9itions w\ld probably h to be long] & y\r explanations m detail$1 = su* a body w\ld />t ) only a vague k ( ! situation4 ,z 9 all o!r /eps 9 mak+ an argum5t1 s 9 def9+1 !re is no =mula = all cases4 ,9 ea* case y\r k ( y\r audi5ce mu/ guide y1 & y\r own sagacity4 ,unnecess>y def9itions w make !m ?9k y a prig2 insuffici5t def9ition w let !m /ray away f y\r mean+4 ,notebook4 ,ent] any t]ms :i* ne$ def9ition = ! audi5ce y are address+4 ,illu/ration4 ,commission =m ( gov]nm5t aft] ! ,des ,m\ses plan4 ,! ess5tial features ( ?is plan are z foll[s3 ,! entire affairs ( ! city are conduct$ by a mayor & f\r c\ncilors1 elect$ at l>ge = two ye>s2 !y are nom9at$ at a prim>y election2 at nei!r prim>y nor f9al election are p>ty designations all[$ on ! ballot2 ^! (fic]s are subject to ! recall2 ! mayor is *airman ( ! c\ncil1 b has no p[] ( veto2 ! executive & adm9i/rative p[]s are divid$ into five dep>tm5ts1 ea* "u ! *>ge ( a memb] ( ! c\ncil--7#a7 public affairs 7"u ! *>ge ( ! mayor71 7#b7 acc\nts & f9ances1 7#c7public safety17#d7 /reets & public improvem5ts1 7#e7 p>ks & public prop]ty2 all o!r (fices are fill$ & _! duties prescrib$ by majority vote ( ! c\ncil2 recall2 grants ( fran*ises mu/ be approv$ by popul> vote2 initiative & ref]5dum2 a summ>y ( city affairs mu/ be publi%$ & di/ribut$ once a mon?4 ,recall1 ,on petition ( tw5ty-five p] c5t ( ! vot]s at ! la/ election ! mayor or any ( ! c\ncilm5 mu/ /& = reelection at a special election4 ,ref]5dum4 ,on petition ( tw5ty-five p] c5t ( ! vot]s any ord9ance mu/ be submitt$ to popul> vote at a special election2 no ord9ance goes into effect until t5 days aft] be+ pass$ by ! c\ncil4 ,initiative4 ,on petition ( tw5ty-five p] c5t ( ! vot]s a propos$ measure mu/ ei!r be pass$ by ! c\ncil or else submitt$ to popul> vote4 ,,f9d+ ,,! ,,issues ,,ex]cises #a4 ,write def9itions ( ! sy/em = *oice ( /udies by und]graduates :i* is 9 =ce at y\r college2 ( ! t]ms = admission to college2 ( ! requirem5ts = ! degree4 #b4 ,write a compact description or def9ition ( ! =m ( city gov]nm5t 9 y\r own city or t[n1 l t ( ! ,des ,mo9es plan ( commission gov]nm5t on page #gj4 #c4 ,write a def9ition ( ! requirem5ts = entrance 9 ,engli%1 accord+ to ^? set =? by ! ,conf]5ce on ,uni=m ,entrance ,requirem5ts 9 ,engli%4 #d4 ,write a def9ition ( ! pres5t sy/em ( college societies 9 y\r own college1 us+ ! hi/ory ( _! developm5t1 = y\r fell[ /ud5ts2 = an article 9 a popul> magaz9e4 #e4 ,write a def9ition ( summ] baseball = an audi5ce ( und]graduates2 = ! tru/ees ( y\r college4 #f4 ,write a def9ition ( pr(essional coa*4 #g4 ,write a def9ition ( squatt] sov]eignty1 z us$ by ,l9coln4 #h4 ,write a def9ition ( ! mutation !ory4 #i4 ,write a def9ition ( ! ,engli% sy/em ( gov]nm5t4 #aj4 ,write a def9ition ( ! romantic _s 9 lit]ature4 #ba4 ,f9d+ ! ,issues4 ,y\r prep>ation = y\r argum5t %\ld n[ h giv5 y a cle> idea ( ! int]e/s & prepossessions ( y\r read]s1 x %\ld h left y ) a def9ite proposition to support or oppose1 & x %\ld h made y sure ( ! mean+ ( all ! t]ms y are to use1 :e!r 9 ! proposition or 9 y\r argum5t4 ,! next /ep 9 work+ out ! introduction to y\r brief is to note d[n ! *ief po9ts t c be urg$ on ! two sides ( ! "q1 z direct prep>ation = ! f9al /ep1 :i* w be to f9d ! ma9 issues4 ,^! ma9 issues are ! po9ts on :i* ! decision ( ! :ole "q w turn4 ,!y w v>y 9 numb] ) ! case1 & to "s ext5t ) ! space :i* y h = y\r argum5t4 ,9 a "q ( fact1 :i* turns on circum/antial evid5ce1 !re may be a numb] ( !m4 ,9 ! ,:ite ,murd] ,case1 9 :i* z we h already se51 ,web/] 0 ! *ief c\nsel = ! prosecution1 he summ$ up ! ma9 issues 9 ! foll[+ passage4 ,! ess5tial facts ne$$ to und]/& ! case are t ! def5dant 0 ,frankl9 ,knapp1 t 8 si/]-9-law1 ,mrs4 ,joseph ,knapp1 0 ! niece ( ,capta9 ,:ite1 t by remov+ & de/roy+ ! w ( ,capta9 ,:ite ! def5dant & 8 bro!r ,joseph suppos$ t !y _h made sure t %e w\ld inh]it f him a l>ge sum ( money1 t ,ri*>d ,cr[n9%ield1 ! actual p]petrator ( ! murd]1 _h kill$ himself 9 prison4 ,to conv9ce ! jury ( ! guilt ( ! prison]1 ,web/] _h to c>ry !m ) him on ! foll[+ sev5 ma9 issues3 ,g5tlem51 ,i h gone ?r\gh ) ! evid5ce 9 ?is case1 & h endeavor$ to /ate x pla9ly & fairly be=e y4 ,i ?9k !re are conclusions to be drawn f x1 ! accuracy ( :i* y _c d\bt4 ,i ?9k y _c d\bt t !re 0 a conspiracy =m$ fur ! purpose ( committ+ ?is murd]1 & :o ! conspirators 73 ,t y _c d\bt t ! ,cr[n9%ields & ! ,knapps 7 ! p>ties 9 ?is conspiracy3 ,t y _c d\bt t ! prison] at ! b> knew t ! murd] 0 to be done on ! night ( ! #f? ( ,april3 ,t y _c d\bt t ! murd]]s ( ,capta9 ,:ite 7 ! suspici\s p]sons se5 9 & ab\t ,br[n ,/reet on t night3 ,t y _c d\bt t ,ri*>d ,cr[n9%ield 0 ! p]petrator ( t crime3 ,t y _c d\bt t ! prison] at ! b> 0 9 ,br[n ,/reet on t night4 ,if !re1 !n x mu/ be by agreem5t1 to c\nt5ance1 to aid ! p]petrator4 ,& if s1 !n he is guilty z ,pr9cipal4 ,simil>ly1 9 mo/ argum5ts ( policy !re are a numb] ( consid]ations t conv]ge 9 favor ( or aga9/ ! propos$ policy4 ,if y 7 writ+ an argum5t 9 favor ( keep+ ! /udy ( ,lat9 9 ! comm]cial c\rse ( a high s*ool1 y w\ld probably urge t ,lat9 is ess5tial = an effective k ( ,engli%1 t x is ! f\ndation ( ,spani% & ,fr5*1 languages :i* w be ( con/antly increas+ importance to ,am]ican bus9ess m5 9 ! future1 & t "y m5 & wom5 :o g into bus9ess h an ev5 /rong] "r to /udies :i* w enl>ge _! horizons & op5 _! m9ds to purely cultivat+ influ5ces ?an ^? :o g on to college4 ,inde$1 9 v few que/ions ( policy :i* are d\btful en\gh to ne$ argum5t is !re any s+le consid]ation on :i* ! :ole case w turn4 ,human affairs are mu* complicat$ by cross int]e/s1 & _m influ5ces modify ev5 "o's ev]yday decisions4 ,to f9d ! ma9 issues--:i* are really ! critical ones on :i* y\r audi5ce w make up _! m9ds--is a matt] l>gely ( native sagacity & p5etration2 b ?or\gh k ( y\r :ole subject is ess5tial if y are to /rike un]r+ly to ! he>t ( ! subject & pick out ^! pivotal po9ts4 ,a simple & v practical device = gett+ at ! ma9 issues is to put d[n on pap] ! *ief po9ts :i* might be made on ! two sides4 ,!n ) ^! be=e y1 y c soon1 by /at+ !m & re>rang+ !m1 simm] d[n y\r case into arguable =m4 ,9 ! argum5t on introduc+ a commission =m ( gov]nm5t into ,wyt[n ?is not+ d[n ( ! *ief po9ts :i* might be urg$ on ! two sides w\ld be ab\t z foll[s3 ,cont5tions on ! ,two ,sides4 ,on ! affirmative ! foll[+ po9ts might be urg$3 #a4 ,! plan w\ld make ! individuals :o hold ! p[] directly responsible at all times to ! citiz5s4 #b4 ,x w\ld make ! responsibility = all municipal action easy to trace4 #c4 ,x w\ld get abl] m5 to s]ve ! city4 #d4 ,x w\ld take municipal gov]nm5t out ( politics4 #e4 ,x w\ld hold municipal adm9i/ration up to ! same /&>ds ( hone/y & effici5cy z private bus9ess4 #f4 ,x w\ld make x difficult to elect repres5tatives ( corrupt int]e/s4 #g4 ,x w\ld make possible advantage\s deal+s ) public-s]vice corporations4 #h4 ,x w\ld make possible ! imm$iate removal ( an unfai?ful (ficial4 #i4 ,x w\ld t5d to int]e/ ! citiz5s intellig5tly 9 municipal affairs4 #aj4 ,x has work$ well :]ev] x has be5 tri$4 ,on ! negative side ! foll[+ po9ts might be urg$3 #a4 ,! plan is a complete dep>ture f ! traditional ,am]ican !ory ( gov]nm5t4 #b4 ,x ?r[s away a *ance = tra9+ 9 public affairs = a consid]able body ( "y m54 #c4 ,x might put v great p[] 9 ! h&s ( unwor?y m54 #d4 ,corrupt int]e/s1 hav+ a l>g] /ake1 w\ld "w h>d] to control ! city4 #e4 ,pa/ exp]i5ce gives no reason to expect ! con/ant int]e/ on ! "p ( citiz5s :i* is necess>y to make s great conc5tration ( p[] safe4 #f4 ,) fur!r increase 9 ! =eign population ( ! city !re w be dang] f race & religi\s clanni%ness4 #g4 ,a return to ! old-fa%ion$ t[n gov]nm5t1 or "s su* modification ( x z has be5 tri$ at ,newport1 w\ld enli/ ! active int]e/ ( m citiz5s4 #h4 ,! sy/em is /ill an exp]im5t4 #i4 ,! pres5t success ( ! plan 9 v>i\s places is l>gely to be ascrib$ to its novelty4 #aj4 ,! pres5t sy/em has 9 ! pa/ giv5 good gov]nm5t4 #aa4 ,! liability to recall w keep public (ficials f initiat+ advantage\s policies if !y w\ld be detrim5tal to "p ( ! city1 or if !y 7 unpopul> because ( novelty4 ,9 mo/ cases1 z "h1 y w get too _m po9ts to argue out 9 ! space :i* is at y\r disposal4 ,fifte5 hundr$ or two ?\s& words are v soon eat5 up :5 y beg9 to /ate evid5ce 9 any detail1 & argum5ts writt5 9 s*ool or college c r>ely be long]4 ,y mu/ look =w>d1 !re=e1 to n m ?an f\r or five ma9 issues4 ,9 go+ ov] & comp>+ ! po9ts :i* y h jott$ d[n 9 ?is prelim9>y /atem5t y mu/ consequ5tly be prep>$ to ?r[ out all t are n obvi\sly important4 ,ev5 :5 y h done ?is y w usually h m ?an en\gh po9ts left to fill y\r space1 & mu/ make "s close decisions be=e y get at ^? :i* y f9ally decide to argue out4 ,y mu/ also be prep>$ to rephrase & remold "s ( ! po9ts 9 ord] to get at ! mo/ important aspects ( ! case4 ,?is not+ d[n ( ! po9ts :i* might be urg$ y %\ld !re=e reg>d entirely z a prelim9>y /ep1 & n z fix+ ! po9ts 9 ! =m 9 :i* y w argue !m out4 ,9 ! ma9 issues = ! argum5t on introduc+ commission gov]nm5t into ,wyt[n1 z !y are work$ out bel[1 x w be se5 t ma9 issue #d = ! affirmative is d]iv$ 9 "p f ! po9ts m>k$ #a1 #b1 #f1 & #h ( ^? = ! affirmative1 & ^? m>k$ #c1 #d1 & #e = ! negative4 ,fur!rmore1 x is obvi\s t ! ma9 issues y *oose w v>y some:at ) ! side ( ! "q :i* y are argu+4 ,y w almo/ surely h to leave out "s ( ! po9ts :i* might be urg$1 & !re is no s5se 9 lett+ ! o!r side *oose y\r gr\nd = y4 ,po9ts :i* f "o side may be ( no great consequ5ce1 or n v practicable to argue1 may on ! o!r be highly effective2 & 9 argu+ y %\ld always take :at advantage c fairly be ga9$ f position4 ,! phras+ ( ! ma9 issues1 too1 w v>y ) ! side on :i* y are argu+ !m4 ,"h1 aga91 y mu/ take e fair advantage t is to be ga9$ f position4 ,9 ! ma9 issues ( ! "q ,i h be5 us+ = an example1 z !y are /at$ bel[1 x w be se5 t ma9 issue #a on ! affirmative & ma9 issue #c on ! negative cov] v ne>ly ! same gr\nd2 b if y 7 argu+ on ! affirmative y w\ld direct att5tion to ! %ortcom+s inh]5t 9 ! sy/em ( gov]nm5t1 if on ! negative1 to ! tempor>y & removable causes ( !m4 ,:i*ev] side y 7 argu+ on !re is no reason t y %\ld lose ! advantage ( s phras+ ! issue t y c g directly to y\r "w ( e/abli%+ y\r cont5tion4 ,9 ! argum5t on introduc+ commission gov]nm5t into ,wyt[n ! ma9 issues might be z foll[s3 ,! ma9 issues z *os5 by ! affirmative3 #a4 ,is ! admitt$ ineffici5cy ( ! city gov]nm5t at pres5t due to ! sy/em ( gov]nm5t8 #b4 ,w ! adoption ( ! plan result 9 m economical adm9i/ration8 #c4 ,w ! adoption ( ! plan result 9 m effici5t s]vice to ! city8 #d4 ,w ! direct responsibility ( ! mayor & c\ncilors to ! citiz5s be a suffici5t safegu>d = ! increas$ p[] giv5 to !m8 ,! ma9 issues z *os5 by ! negative3 #a4 ,is !re dang] 9 putt+ su* l>ge p[]s into ! h&s ( s few m58 #b4 ,w ! new plan1 if adopt$1 p]man5tly raise ! /&>d ( public s]vants8 #c4 ,is ! ineffici5cy ( ! city gov]nm5t at pres5t due to tempor>y & removable causes8 #d4 ,has ! plan succe$$ 9 o!r places l>gely because ( its novelty8 #e4 ,w ! liability to recall keep (ficials f initiat+ new policies = fe> ( unpopul>ity8 ,9 "s cases x w be h>d to r$uce ! numb] ( issues to a manageable numb]2 9 o!rs1 = special reasons1 x may be possible to treat a "p ( !m only at l5g?4 ,9 su* cases "o c always adopt ! device ( an imag9>y next *apt] or to be cont9u$ 9 our next4 ,9 consid]+ h[ _m issues y c deal ) satisfactorily1 h[ev]1 y mu/ n leave out ( acc\nt cont5tions on ! o!r side t mu/ be refut$2 & 9 *oos+ among ! possible ma9 issues y mu/ always ex]cise judgm5t4 ,_m po9ts :i* might be argu$ are n wor? ! space x w\ld take to deal ) !m2 b n infrequ5tly y w h to let po9ts t h "s weight give place to o!rs t h m4 ,x is n to be expect$ t ! po9ts made by ! two sides w always exactly pair (f1 = ! consid]ations :i* make = a c\rse ( action may be diff]5t 9 k9d f ^? :i* make aga9/ x4 ,sometimes "o side w contribute m to ! f9al numb] ( ma9 issues1 sometimes ! o!r4 ,ord9>ily y\r own side w give y ! l>g] numb] ( po9ts t y ?9k wor? argu+ out1 = an affirmative & con/ructive argum5t usually makes m impression ?an a negative "o4 ,notebook4 ,ent] ! *ief po9ts :i* might be made on ! two sides ( y\r "q4 ,!n1 aft] /udy+ !m & comp>+ !m1 ent] ! ma9 issues :i* y decide to argue out4 7,! cont5tions on ! two sides & ! ma9 issues = ! model argum5t w be f\nd on pages #gd-gg47 ,,ex]cise ,take "o ( ! que/ions on pages #aj-ab1 ) :i* y h "s acqua9tance1 & obta9 ! ma9 issues by not+ d[n fir/ ! po9ts :i* might be urg$ on ! two sides4 ,,note4 ,?is ex]cise is a good "o = class "w4 ,let ! class sugge/ ! po9ts1 & write !m1 z !y come1 on ! blackbo>d4 ,!n call = criticism & discussion ( !m1 9 ord] to come to ! ma9 issues4 #bb4 ,! ,agre$ ,/atem5t ( ,facts4 ,n[ t y h comp>$ ! po9ts on :i* ! two sides disagree1 y c pick out ! po9ts on :i* !y agree1 & decide :i* ( ! latt] w ent] into ! discussion4 ,y are !re=e 9 a position to draw up ! agre$ /atem5t ( facts1 9 :i* y w sum up compactly s mu* ( ! hi/ory ( ! case1 ( ! orig9 ( ! pres5t "q1 & o!r relevant facts & necess>y def9itions1 z w be ne$$ to und]/& ! brief4 ,! /yle ( ?is /atem5t %\ld be /rictly expository1 & !re %\ld be no?+ 9 x to :i* bo? sides c\ld n agree4 ,x %\ld be simil> to ! /atem5ts ( facts 9 c\rts ( law1 :i* are s5t up ) ! briefs :5 a case is appeal$ on a po9t ( legal pr9ciple4 ,s9ce ?is agre$ /atem5t ( facts is n argum5t1 x w make small use ( su* conjunctions z because1 =1 h5ce1 & !re=e4 ,if y f9d any ( !m 9 y\r agre$ /atem5t1 x is bett] to re>range x1 s t y w n seem to be giv+ reasons be=e y h begun y\r argum5t4 ,9 ! mak+ ( ?is prelim9>y /atem5t & to a c]ta9 ext5t 9 ! fram+ ( ! ma9 issues1 x is conv5i5t & advisable1 :]ev] bo? sides ( ! "q are to be pres5t$ 9 argum5ts1 :e!r 9 writ+ or 9 debate1 = ! two p>ties to "w toge!r4 ,9 ?is work+ toge!r !y %\ld aim to agree on z _m po9ts z possible4 ,if !y meet 9 a c>p+ & unyield+ temp]1 ! result w be 9 ! end t ! pati5ce ( ! audi5ce w be tri$ & its att5tion disp]s$ by l5g?y argum5ts on prelim9>y details4 ,9 mak+ an argum5t "o %\ld nev] =get1 ev5 9 s*ool & college "w1 t ! aim ( all argum5t is to produce agreem5t4 ,few p h mu* int]e/ 9 a conte/ 9 sm>tness2 & x is a bad habit to c>e too mu* ab\t ! m]e beat+ ( an oppon5t on a "q :]e !re are real & s]i\s issues4 ,any "q :i* is wor? argu+ at all w h f> m gr\nd to cov]1 ev5 :5 ev]y?+ possible has be5 grant$ by bo? sides1 ?an ! av]age /ud5t c cov] ) any ?or\ghness4 ,notebook4 ,ent] ^? ( ! ess5tial facts & def9itions 9 ! case :i* w\ld be agre$ to by bo? sides1 & :i* are ne$$ = an und]/&+ ( ! brief4 ,illu/ration4 ,agre$ ,/atem5t ( ,facts4 ,= _m ye>s ! tax rate 9 ,wyt[n has be5 high1 & 9 ! la/ t5 ye>s has n fall5 bel[ tw5ty-f\r doll>s on "o ?\s& doll>s4 ,! city wat] supply is ( d\btful purity1 & no?+ has be5 done to improve x1 *iefly because ! city debt is n[ close to ! limit all[$ by law4 ,! police s]vice has be5 inadequate1 especially 9 ! region kn[n z ,s\? ,corn]4 ,?\gh two hundr$ ?\s& doll>s h be5 sp5t on ! /reets 9 ! la/ five ye>s1 ! ma9 /reet ( ! city is /ill unpav$1 & none ( ! o!r /reets are macadamiz$4 ,?\gh "u ! local option law ! city has uni=mly vot$ = no lic5se1 yet !re is mu* liquor sell+4 ,! city (ficials h regul>ly be5 nom9at$ at ,democratic & republican conv5tions4 ,! "q has aris5 at ! pres5t "t because ( qu>rels betwe5 ! mayor & ald]m51 because ( ! petition ( ! city gov]nm5t to ! legislature to issue bonds = new wat]works above ! au?oriz$ debt limit1 because ! tax rate la/ ye> 0 high] ?an ev] be=e 9 ! hi/ory ( ! city1 & because ( ! =mation ( a citiz5s' association :i* has be5 in/rum5tal 9 secur+ f ! legislature a bill au?oriz+ ! citiz5s to vote on ! adoption ( ! propos$ plan4 ,po9ts :i* are n discuss$ "h w be tak5 up 9 succe$+ pap]s4 ,! def9itions on page #gj are to be tak5 z "p ( ?is agre$ /atem5t4 ,,ex]cises #a4 ,criticize ! foll[+ s5t5ces = _! fitness z p>ts ( introductions to briefs3 a4 ,x is agre$ t ! commission =m ( gov]nm5t has succe$$ 9 ,des ,mo9es because x is simple & easily controll$ by ! p4 b4 ,summ] baseball is to be und]/ood z play+ baseball = money1 = a man :o is giv5 8 bo>d & lodg+ by a hotel = play+ is tak+ ! equival5t ( money4 c4 7,z "o ( ! cont5tions = ! affirmative on ! "q :e!r a /reet railroad %\ld be compell$ to build a c]ta9 new l9e1 :i* w\ld n be imm$iately pr(itable47 ,! conv5i5ce ( ! public %\ld be consid]$ be=e l>ge divid5ds1 s9ce ! public grants ! fran*ise4 #b4 ,make an agre$ /atem5t ( facts = an argum5t on "o ( ! subjects 9 ! li/ on pages #aj-ab4 ,,note4 ,?is is a good ex]cise = class use3 let ! diff]5t memb]s ( ! class propose facts to be agre$ on1 & !n put !m be=e ! re/ ( ! class = criticism4 #bc4 ,arrangem5t ( ,mat]ial4 ,= ! arrangem5t ( ! mat]ial 9 a brief1 x is n possible to give mu* g5]al advice1 s9ce ?is arrangem5t w\ld *ange ) ! space allott$ to ! argum5t1 & especially ) ! audi5ce4 ,on ?is po9t k ( y\r read]s1 ( _! acqua9tance ) ! subject1 & ( _! prepossessions w c\nt z mu* z k ( ! subject :5 y come to ! argum5ts ( practical life4 ,9 g5]al1 if y\r audi5ce is likely to be lukew>m or indiff]5t1 beg9 ) a po9t :i* w /ir !m up4 ,9 ! argum5t on ! introduction ( commission gov]nm5t into ,wyt[n1 = :i* ,i h con/ruct$ a brief1 ,i assum$ t ! citiz5s 7 already ar\s$ to ! ne$ ( "s *ange1 & !re=e began by %[+ t ! evils ( ! pres5t adm9i/ration c be trac$ *iefly to ! pres5t sy/em ( gov]nm5t4 ,if ,i _h assum$ t ! p ne$$ fir/ to be ar\s$ to believ+ a *ange to be necess>y1 ,i %\ld h put at ! beg9n+ an exposure ( ! corruption & ineffici5cy ( ! pres5t city gov]nm5t1 ) specific cases to e/abli% ! po9t4 ,likewise = ! close ( y\r argum5t be sure t y h a /rong & effective po9t4 ,9 ! case ( commission gov]nm5t = ,wyt[n1 by refut+ ! objection t too mu* p[] is giv5 to ! c\ncilm5 ,i provide a *ance to %[ at ! same "t h[ completely ! commission gov]nm5t keeps ! control 9 ! h&s ( ! p2 & ! latt] po9t is ! /ronge/ t c be made = ! commission =m ( gov]nm5t4 #bd4 ,! ,place ( ! ,refutation4 ,! place ( ! refutation & its ext5t also diff] greatly ) ! audi5ce4 ,sometimes x may occupy practically ! :ole space4 ,a few ye>s ago ,! ,outlook publi%$ an editorial oppos+ a *ange 9 ! laws ( ,new ,york relat+ to vivisection 7= a "p ( x1 see p4 #dd71 9 :i* x refut$ ! two argum5ts urg$ = ! *ange1 & !n po9t$ out t ! burd5 ( pro( /ill re/$ on ! o!r side4 ,"h ! refutation occupi$ almo/ ! :ole ( ! argum5t4 ,huxley1 9 8 ?ree ,lectures on ,evolution1 ( :i* ! fir/ is pr9t$ on page #bcc1 gave ! :ole ( ?is fir/ lecture to a refutation ( ! alt]native !ories ( ! orig9 ( plants & animals2 s9ce x 0 necess>y to dispose ( accept$ !ories be=e ! new !ory c\ld get a he>+1 he put 8 refutation fir/4 ,:]e !re are no su* special reasons1 x is safe to foll[ ! pr9ciple t y %\ld n draw m att5tion ?an necess>y to ! argum5ts on ! o!r side4 ,refutation ( less important /atem5ts & cont5tions w naturally come at ! po9t ( ! argum5t :i* deals ) t "p ( ! subject4 ,/ate !m fairly always1 b d n magnify _! importance by deal+ ) !m at too great l5g?4 ,x is n (t5 wise to lump ! refutation at ! end ( y\r argum5t4 ,! la/ impression on y\r audi5ce is ! /ronge/3 x is good /rategy to keep x = y\r own be/ po9ts4 ,sometimes1 z 9 ! brief work$ out on page #ij1 x is possible to comb9e ! refutation ) positive argum5t :i* w be effective2 b d n =get t negative argum5t makes mu* less impression ?an t :i* is positive & con/ructive4 #be4 ,! ,brief ,prop]4 ,we h se5 on page #dg t ! brief is 9 ess5ce a /atem5t ( ! logical framework ( y\r argum5t4 ,its purpose is to lay out y\r reason+ 9 su* a way t y c scrut9ize ea* l9k & make sure t ea* ass]tion & ea* gr\p ( ass]tions is atta*$ to a firm support4 ,= ?is reason ! brief = a writt5 or spok5 argum5t is be/ ?r[n into ! =m ( tabulat$ /atem5ts m>k$ ) a s]ies ( numb]s & lett]s :i* w %[ at a glance ! exact place ( ea* /atem5t or ass]tion 9 ! :ole sy/em ( reason+4 ,:5 y c ?us1 z x 71 /rip y\r argum5t to its bones & t5dons1 y c g ahead ) ! confid5ce t y\r reason+ is logically coh]5t4 ,:5 y get out into ! _w y w "w out y\r own way ( mak+ briefs = any argum5ts t fate imposes on y4 ,! value ( practice n[ is 9 be+ able to get at ! "w !n )\t wa/+ "t4 ,! rules bel[ are (f]$ to y z ! result ( long exp]im5t & /udy lay ! be/ au?orities4 ,moreov]1 if y are work+ 9 a class y %\ld rememb] t y w get a great deal m out ( y\r tea*] if y save 8 "t by /ick+ closely to uni=mity 9 outw>d =m4 ,i %all fir/ %[ h[ a brief is con/ruct$1 by foll[+ ?r\gh "p ( ! process = ! argum5t on ! introduction ( commission into ,wyt[n2 !n ,i %all give ! rules1 ) "s explanation ( _! work+ & ( _! practical exp$i5cy4 ,we h j se5 t ! brief is ess5tially a display ( ! logical framework ( ! argum5t3 x %\ld consi/1 !re=e1 ( ! ma9 cont5tions 9 support ( ! proposition1 ) ! reasons urg$ 9 support ( ^! cont5tions1 & ( ! facts & reasons br\ght =w>d 9 support ( ^! reasons1 ?is successive support ( reasons be+ c>ri$ d[n to ultimate facts1 :]ev] possible4 ,:5 y come to ! work+ out ( y\r brief y />t ) y\r ma9 issues1 /at$ n[ z ass]tions4 ,!n = ea* ( !m y give "o or m reasons4 ,9 ! brief = introduc+ commission gov]nm5t into ,wyt[n1 let u />t ) ! ma9 issues = ! affirmative1 trans=m+ !m f que/ions into ass]tions4 ,! fir/ ma9 issue w\ld !n read3 ,! admitt$ ineffici5cy ( ! city gov]nm5t at pres5t is due to ! sy/em ( gov]nm5t4 ,! next /ep is to assign reasons = mak+ ?is ass]tion4 ,accord+ly we %\ld add a s9ce or a = to ! ass]tion1 & !n und]nea? arrange ^! reasons 9 ord]4 ,let u suppose t we put d[n ?ree reasons3 ,i4 ,! admitt$ ineffici5cy ( ! city gov]nm5t at pres5t is due to ! sy/em ( gov]nm5t2 = ,a4 ,p>tisan politics det]m9e nom9ations to (fice2 ,b4 ,advantage\s contracts _c be made2 ,c4 ,! responsibility = exp5ditures is scatt]$4 ,ea* ( ^! ass]tions cle>ly ne$s to be support$ be=e x w be accept$4 ,let u foll[ out ! support ( ! fir/ "o1 & set d[n "h ! reasons & facts :i* w make x inconte/able4 ,a4 ,p>tisan politics det]m9e nom9ations to (fice2 = #a4 ,! organization ( ! national p>ties is p]man5t4 #b4 ,!re has be5 b>ga9+ betwe5 p>ties to rew>d political s]vices ) city (fices4 ,( ^! po9ts ! fir/ is an obvi\s fact2 9 ! argum5t x w ne$ only slight developm5t & specification to make its be>+ on ! case effective4 ,! second1 on ! o!r h&1 mu/ be support$ by evid5ce2 & 9 ! brief1 accord+ly1 we %\ld ref] to ! facts z /at$ 9 newspap]s ( specifi$ dates f :i* full quotation w\ld be made 9 ! argum5t4 ,"h !n1 9 bo? cases1 ?\gh 9 diff]5t ways1 we get d[n to ! b$ rock ( fact on :i* ! reason+ is built up4 ,at ! same "t1 ea* jo9t 9 ! framework ( ! reason+ has be5 laid b>e1 s t no weak place c escape detection4 ,^! are always ! two ma9 objects ( mak+ a brief--to get d[n to ! facts on :i* ! reason+ is built up1 & to display e ess5tial /ep 9 ! reason+4 #bf4 ,rules = ,brief+4 ,! rules giv5 bel[ are divid$ into two gr\ps3 ^? 9 ! fir/ gr\p deal *iefly ) ! =m ( ! brief2 ^? 9 ! second g m to ! sub/ance2 b ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two gr\ps is f> f be+ absolute4 ,i #a4 ,a brief may be divid$ into ?ree p>ts3 ! ,introduction1 ! ,pro(1 ! ,conclusion4 ,( ^! ! ,introduction %\ld conta9 noncont5ti\s matt]1 & ! ,conclusion %\ld be a re/atem5t ( ! proposition1 ) a b>e summ>y ( ! ma9 issues 9 affirmative 7or negative7 =m4 ,! introduction has already be5 dealt ) at l5g? 7see pp4 #dh-ha74 ,! conclusion br+s ! ma9 po9ts ( ! argum5t toge!r1 & gives an effect ( workmanlike complet5ess to ! brief4 ,x %\ld nev] introduce new po9ts4 #b4 ,9 ! ,introduction keep ea* /ep ( ! analysis by itself1 & indicate ! sev]al p>ts by su* head+s z ,! foll[+ t]ms ne$ def9ition1 ,! foll[+ facts are agre$ on1 ,! foll[+ po9ts w be left out ( consid]ation 9 ?is argum5t ,! *ief cont5tions on ! two sides are z foll[s1 ,! ma9 issues on :i* ! argum5t w be made are z foll[s4 ,x is n to be expect$ t all ^! /eps1 ) ! appropriate head+s1 w be necess>y 9 e brief4 ,! only use ( a brief is to aid y to con/ruct a specific argum5t1 & y mu/ consid] ea* case by itself4 #c4 ,foll[ a uni=m sy/em ( numb]+ ?r\gh\t1 s t ea* numb] or lett] us$ w %[ :e!r ! /atem5t is "o ( ! ma9 supports ( y\r case1 or 9 :at degree x is subord9at$4 ,9 o!r words1 ! numb]+ %\ld %[ at a glance :e!r a giv5 ass]tion is a ma9 reason1 a reason = a reason1 or 9 /ill m subord9ate degree ( support4 ,! sy/em ( numb]+ 9 ! brief on page #ij is conv5i5t4 ,:atev] sy/em is adopt$1 x %\ld be foll[$ by ! :ole class4 #d4 ,! refutation %\ld h a di/9ct set ( symbols4 ,^! symbols may well be uni=m ) ! o!rs1 b ) ! prime m>k to di/+ui% !m 7see p4 #ic74 #e4 ,9 brief+ ! refutation always /ate fir/ ! ass]tion t is to be refut$1 ) su* connectives z1 ,al?\gh x is urg$ 4441 yet ! cont5tion is uns\nd1 = 4441 ,al?\gh ! case is cit$1 444 yet ! case is irrelevant1 = 444 ,^! connectives w v>y ) ! nature ( ! ass]tion to be refut$2 ! important ?+ is to /ate ! ass]tion s cle>ly t y\r critic c judge ! relevancy & =ce ( y\r refutation4 7,= examples1 see pp4 #ia-ic47 ,,ii #f4 ,a brief 9 all its p>ts %\ld be phras$ 9 complete s5t5ces2 m]e topics are ( no value4 ,9 ! brief on page #ij1 if ! head+s "u ,i 7 ,a4 ,p>ty politics1 ,b4 ,wa/e 9 contracts1 ,c4 ,no responsibility = exp5ditures1 nei!r ! mak] ( ! brief nor ! critic ( x c\ld "k ) any c]ta9ty ! c\rse ( ! reason+4 ,x is und\bt$ly true t _m lawy]s & o!r m5 ( affairs use only topic heads :5 !y are plann+ an argum5t2 b x is to be rememb]$ t !y are m5 :o h be5 tra9+ _! p[]s ( ?\ght 9 h>d e>ne/1 & _! ability to "w out & /ick to a tra9 ( reason+ ) s little writt5 aid has n mu* be>+ on :at is ! be/ practice = "y m5 :o are 9 ! process ( ga9+ ?is ability4 ,to make a full outl9e ( ! reason+ 9 a few argum5ts is ! be/ way to get ! s5se = logical & coh]5t /ructure4 #g4 ,ea* head+ %\ld conta9 a s+le ass]tion only4 ,! reason = ?is rule is obvi\s3 if "u ea* ass]tion y are go+ to set ! reasons = t ass]tion1 y w get into tr\ble if y\r ass]tion is d\ble-head$1 s9ce :at is a reason = "o "p ( x may n be a reason = ano!r4 ,if 9 ! brief on page #ij head+ ,i ,b %\ld read1 ,advantage\s contracts _c be made1 & ! responsibility = exp5ditures is scatt]$1 subhead+ ,i ,c #b1 ,acc\nts are submitt$ to sep>ate committees ( ! two bo>ds 9 :i* no memb]s h special responsibility1 w\ld h no?+ to d ) ! mak+ ( contracts1 & subhead+ ,i ,b #a1 ,contracts mu/ be pass$ on by bo? ald]m5 & common c\ncilm5 & ! mayor1 w\ld h no?+ to d ) exp5ditures4 #h4 ,9 ! body ( ! brief ! ass]tions %\ld be arrang$ z foll[s3 ,ea* ma9 head+ %\ld embody "o ( ! ma9 issues z /at$ 9 ! ,introduction2 & ea* ( ! subord9ate ass]tions %\ld /& z a reason = ! ass]tion to :i* x is subord9ate4 ,! connective betwe5 an ass]tion & "o subord9ate to x w !re=e be =1 s9ce1 or because1 or ! l1 n h5ce or !re=e1 or ! l4 ,a brief ?us arrang$ lays out ! reason+ 9 a complete & easily scrut9iz$ =m4 ,?us 9 ! brief on page #ij = ! ass]tion 9 ! fir/ ma9 issue1 ,! admitt$ ineffici5cy1 ( ! city gov]nm5t at pres5t is due to ! sy/em ( gov]nm5t1 ?ree *ief reasons are giv53 ,a4 ,p>tisan politics det]m9e nom9ations to (fice1 ,b4 ,advantage\s contracts _c be made1 & ,c4 ,! responsibility = exp5ditures is scatt]$4 ,!n = ea* ( ^! second>y ass]tions reasons 9 support are adduc$2 ?us = ,b4 ,advantage\s contracts _c be made1 ! reasons are ,i4 ,contracts mu/ be pass$ on sep>ately by ald]m51 common c\ncilm51 & ! mayor1 & #b4 ,b>ga9s are made betwe5 ! ald]m5 repres5t+ diff]5t w>ds4 ,9 ?is case f9al ref]5ces are giv5 = ea* ( ^! subord9ate ass]tions1 s t we get d[n to ! ultimate f\ndation ( v]ifiable fact on :i* ! argum5t is to be built up4 ,! advantage ( ?is =m is t if y h set d[n sev]al ass]tions z reasons = ano!r1 & y are d\btful :e!r !y all belong !re1 y c te/ !m sep>ately by putt+ !m "o by "o aft] ! ma9 ass]tion !y are int5d$ to support ) a = or a s9ce betwe54 ,y put ! ass]tion fir/ & ! reason = x aft]w>ds1 because :5 !re is m ?an "o reason 9 support1 if y h ! reason fir/ y mu/ !n repeat ! ass]tion ) ea* reason1 or run ! risk ( confusion4 ,if "u ,i 9 ! brief on page g1 = example1 y began ) ! reason1 ,9 ! pres5t sy/em p>tisan politics det]m9e nom9ations to (fice1 & !n add$ ! result1 ,!re=e ! city gov]nm5t is ineffici5t1 y w\ld h to repeat ! result ) ,b & ,c2 & :5 y came to ! ?ird degree ( support1 ! repetition w\ld be intol]ably clumsy & confus+4 #i4 ,head+s & subhead+s %\ld n h m ?an "o numb]+4 ,! reason = ?is rule is also obvi\s3 ea* head+ or subhead+ m>ks a /ep 9 ! argum5t1 & :at belongs on "o /ep _c be on ano!r at ! same "t4 ,9 ! brief on page #ij ! ass]tion t ,p>tisan politics det]m9e nom9ations to (fice is /at$ z a *ief reason = ! ass]tion 9 ! fir/ ma9 issue1 t ,! admitt$ ineffici5cy ( ! city gov]nm5t at pres5t is due to ! sy/em ( gov]nm5t4 ,x w\ld confuse a read] to m>k x ,a ,i1 z if x wore a support also 9 ! second degree4 #aj4 ,! brief %\ld give ref]5ces to ! evid5ce or au?orities reli$ on to support ass]tions4 ,g5]al ref]5ces to articles & books :i* w be con/antly ref]r$ to %\ld be put at ! beg9n+ ( ! brief4 ,ref]5ces to specific /atem5ts ( fact or quotations ( op9ion %\ld be add$ z !y occur 9 ! brief 7see ! brief on p4 #ij74 ,,ex]cises #a4 ,criticize ! foll[+ portion ( a brief3 ,?is college %\ld h a long] ,*ri/mas vacation1 = ,i4 ,college life t5ds to break up family life2 ,a4 ,fa!r & son2 ,b4 ,y\ng] bro!rs & si/]s2 ,c4 ,intimate fri5ds4 #b4 ,criticize ! foll[+ deta*$ portions ( a brief on ! proposition1 ,?is city %\ld d\ble its appropriation = ! public libr>y1 & am5d !m if necess>y3 a4 ,,ii4 ,! funds = ! pur*ase ( books are insuffici5t & ! /aff is inadequate4 b4 ,b4 ,! read+ room is cr[d$ to suffocation1 !re=e #a4 ,_m p avoid ! libr>y4 c4 ,,iii4 ,^? :o oppose ! increas$ appropriation decl>e t ,a4 ,! libr>y is a luxury = ! ri*2 h5ce #a4 ,! ri* %\ld support x2 b #b4 ,?is is n true1 = a4 ,mo/ ( ! borr[]s ( books are p ( mod]ate means2 !re=e b4 ,! city %\ld support ! libr>y4 d4 ,,iv4 ,a4 ,! city is able to d\ble ! appropriation2 = #a4 ,x has sp5t l>gely = p>ks1 a4 ,:i* are also = ! pleasure & improvem5t ( ! citiz5s2 b4 ,h5ce x c pay = additions to ! libr>y4 e4 ,,vi4 ,x is n true ,a4 ,t ! read]s want only rec5t fiction & t !y %\ld buy ^! books = !mselves2 = #a4 ,!y mo/ly are n able to buy books2 h5ce #b4 ,!y %\ld be enc\rag$ to read o!r books4 #c4 ,give an example ( an argum5t & an audi5ce :]e x w\ld be necess>y to put ! refutation fir/2 ( "o 9 :i* x w\ld be necess>y to /ir up ! int]e/ ( read]s at ! />t4 #d4 ,sugge/ me?ods = ga9+ ! int]e/ ( ! read]s 9 ! la/ case4 ,,specim5 ,,brief ,wyt[n %\ld adopt a commission gov]nm5t l t ( ,des ,mo9es1 ,i[a4 ,g5]al ref]5ces3 ,c4,r4 ,woodruff1 ,city ,gov]nm5t by ,commission4 ,new ,york1 #aiaa2 ,j4,j4 ,hamilton1 ,! ,de?ronem5t ( ! ,city ,boss1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj2 ,city newspap]s ( v>i\s dates2 draft ( propos$ *>t]1 publi%$ by ! ,citiz5s' ,association4 7,! successive /eps ( ! introduction w be f\nd on pp4 #dc1 #ec1 #gj1 #gd-ge1 #gf-gg1 #gi-hj47 ,i4 ,! admitt$ ineffici5cy ( ! city gov]nm5t at pres5t is due to ! sy/em ( gov]nm5t2 = ,a4 ,p>tisan politics det]m9e nom9ations to (fice2 s9ce #a4 ,! organization ( ! national p>ties is p]man5t1 & t ( any citiz5s' movem5t tempor>y4 #b4 ,!re has be5 b>ga9+ betwe5 ! p>ties to rew>d political s]vices by city (fices4 ,daily pap]s1 ,m>* #ab-bj1 #aiji2 ,m>* #c-ae1 #aiaj4 ,b4 ,advantage\s contracts _c be made2 = #a4 ,contracts mu/ be pass$ on sep>ately by ald]m51 common c\ncilm51 & ! mayor4 ,pres5t city *>t]1 sections #ai-ba4 #b4 ,b>ga9s are made betwe5 ! ald]m5 repres5t+ diff]5t w>ds4 ,daily pap]s1 ,octob] #c1 #aijh2 ,janu>y #be1 #aiaj4 ,c4 ,! responsibility = exp5ditures is scatt]$2 = #a4 ,heads ( dep>tm5ts are responsible to ! two bo>ds & n to ! mayor4 ,pres5t city *>t]1 section #ae4 #b4 ,acc\nts are submitt$ to sep>ate committees ( ! two bo>ds 9 :i* no memb]s h special responsibility4 ,pres5t city *>t]1 sections #bb-bc4 ,,ii4 ,! adoption ( ! plan w result 9 important economies2 = ,a4 ,! adm9i/ration ( city affairs w be made simpl]2 s9ce #a4 ,! c\ncilm5 w bo? lay out ! "w & be responsible = ! execution ( x4 ,draft or *>t]1 sections #e & #ac4 #b4 ,plans = "w 9 all dep>tm5ts w be consid]$ toge!r4 #c4 ,a small body ) full p[]s c make bett] b>ga9s ?an two l>g] ones act+ indep5d5tly4 ,b4 ,! plan has result$ 9 economies :]e x has be5 tri$2 = #a4 ,9 ,des ,mo9es1 ,i[a1 ! fir/ ye> "u ! new *>t] %[$ a relative sav+ ( #ahb1idi4fe z comp>$ ) ! ye> be=e4 ,c4 ,r4 ,woodruff1 z cit$1 p4 #bej4 #b4 ,9 ,hav]hill1 ,massa*usetts1 9 ! fir/ ye> ( commission gov]nm5t a deficit ( #gi1deb 0 turn$ into a surplus ( #cf1eaa1 aft] pay+ (f indebt$ness to ! ext5t ( #acc1jjj4 ,c4 ,r4 ,woodruff1 z cit$1 p4 #bgh4 #a'4,?\gh a despat* 9 a daily pap] 7,april #c1 #aiaa7 decl>es t ! city ( ,hav]hill has be5 =c$ to borr[1 yet ! report is untru/wor?y )\t fur!r evid5ce2 = a'4 ,9 itself x is contradictory & confus$2 & b'4 ,x is kn[n t pr(essional politicians & o!r enemies ( ! plan h (t5 spread false reports ab\t x4 ,mc,clure's ,magaz9e1 ,vol4 ,,xxxv1 p4 #ajg4 ,,iii4 ,! adoption ( ! plan w result 9 m effici5t s]vice to ! city2 = ,a4 ,a bett] class ( citiz5s w be drawn into (fice2 = #a4 ,city (ficials c plan & c>ry out _! policies )\t petty int]f]5ce2 #b4 ,9 ,c$> ,rapids1 ,i[a1 ! commission1 employ$ a civic-s]vice exp]t1 & c>ri$ out 8 recomm5dations4 ,j4 ,j4 ,hamilton1 z cit$1 p4 #ahj4 #c4 ,9 ,galve/on1 ,texas1 citiz5s ( a bett] grade h tak5 (fice1 & ! tone ( ! city adm9i/ration has be5 rais$4 ,w4 ,b4 ,munro1 9 ,! ,*autauquan1 ,vol4 ,,li1 p4 #aaj4 ,b4 ,commission gov]nm5t has result$ 9 bett] adm9i/ration :]e x has be5 tri$2 = #a4 ,galve/on & ,h\/on1 ,texas1 ,des ,mo9es & ,c$> ,rapids1 ,i[a1 h all report$ bett] police adm9i/ration1 improvem5ts 9 /reets & p>ks1 m advantage\s deal+s ) public-s]vice corporations4 ,c4 ,j4 ,woodruff1 z cit$1 pp4 #bdb-bhg4 #b4 ,no city :i* has tri$ ! plan has yet giv5 x up4 ,c4 ,j4 ,woodruff1 z cit$1 p4 #caj4 #a'4;,al?\gh ,*elsea1 ,massa*usetts1 is cit$ z hav+ giv5 up a commission gov]nm5t1 yet ! case is n p>allel1 s9ce a'4 ,! commission "u :i* ! city _h liv$ 0 appo9t$ by ! gov]nor aft] a disa/r\s conflagration2 & b'4 ,! =m ( gov]nm5t sub/itut$ has mo/ ( ! ess5tial features ( !3 commission gov]nm5t except ! size ( ! c\ncil1 :i* has f\r memb]s elect$ at l>ge1 & five by di/rict4 ,,iv'4 ,al?\gh x is urg$ t ! corrupt elem5t 9 politics w\ld h unlimit$ p[] if !y %\ld capture ! commission1 yet ! direct responsibility to ! citiz5s w be a safegu>d = ! enl>g$ p[]1 = ,a'4 ,e act ( ! city gov]nm5t w be kn[n2 s9ce "u ! *>t]--sections #bd1 #be1 #bi1 #cc-- #a'4 ,! meet+s ( ! c\ncil w be public4 #b'4 ,all resolutions are to be 9 writ+ & record$4 #c'4 ,all votes are to be record$4 #d'4 ,an itemiz$ /atem5t ( receipts & exp5ditures mu/ be pr9t$ & di/ribut$ e mon?4 #e'4 ,ord9ances mak+ contracts or grant+ fran*ises mu/ be publi%$ "o week be=e f9al passage1 & on petition may be ref]r$ to ! p4 #f'4 ,9 ,des ,mo9es "u ! new *>t] ! newspap]s give mu* space to ! do+s ( ! city gov]nm5t4 ,mc,clure's ,magaz9e1 ,vol4 ,,xxxv1 p4 #aja4 ,b'4 ,! provisions = a recall w be a *eck on corrupt (ficials2 = #a'4 ,9 ,des ,mo9es a *ief ( police 0 retir$ on ! sugge/ion ( a recall = ! commission] :o 0 responsible = 8 appo9tm5t4 ,mc,clure's ,magaz9e1 ,vol4 ,,xxxv1 p4 #aja4 #b'4 ,9 ,seattle a mayor :o made t]ms ) ! vici\s elem5t1 & 0 9 league ) public s]vice corporations1 0 recall$4 ,daily pap]s1 ,m>*1 #aiaa4 ,,conclusion4 ,wyt[n %\ld adopt a commission gov]nm5t l t ( ,des ,mo9es2 s9ce ,a4 ,! admitt$ ineffici5cy ( ! city gov]nm5t at pres5t is due to ! sy/em ( gov]nm5t2 ,b4 ,! adoption ( ! plan w result 9 important economies2 ,c4 ,! adoption ( ! plan w result 9 m effici5t s]vice to ! city2 & ,d4 ,! direct responsibility ( ! mayor & c\ncilm5 to ! citiz5s w be a safegu>d = ! increas$ p[] giv5 to !m4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,evid5ce ,,& ,,reason+ #bg4 ,evid5ce & ,reason+4 ,we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt] t ! *ief value ( mak+ a brief is t 9 ! fir/ place x lays out y\r reason+ s t y c scrut9ize x 9 detail2 & t 9 ! second place x displays ! f\ndations ( y\r reason+ on facts :i* _c be conte/$4 ,9 ?is *apt] we %all consid] :at gr\nds give validity to evid5ce & to reason+4 ,:]e ! facts :i* y br+ =w>d come f p]sons ) fir/-h& k ( !m1 !y are direct evid5ce2 :]e y mu/ e/abli% !m by reason+ f o!r facts !y are indirect evid5ce1 & 9 ! latt] case reason+ is an ess5tial "p ( e/abli%+ ! facts4 ,9 ?is *apt]1 !re=e1 ,i %all speak fir/ ( direct evid5ce1 !n ( indirect1 & !n pass on to consid] a few ( ! simpl] pr9ciples :i* gov]n reason+4 ,9 ord9>y usage ! ^w evid5ce is pretty vague1 & means any?+ t w help to e/abli% "o side or ano!r ( any "q1 :e!r ( fact or ( policy4 ,! ^w1 h[ev]1 comes ultimately f ! law1 :]e x is us$ = ! te/imony1 ei!r oral or writt5 or mat]ial1 :i* is br\ght 9 to e/abli% ! tru? ( ass]tions ab\t fact3 evid5ce is set be=e ! jury1 :i* "u ! common law decides que/ions ( fact4 ,9 almo/ any argum5t ( policy1 h[ev]1 we use facts z reasons = or aga9/ ! policy :i* is 9 "q1 & !re=e inmo/ cases we mu/ use evid5ce to e/abli% ^! facts2 9 _m cases1 :5 ! facts are e/abli%$ !re is no fur!r disagreem5t ab\t ! policy4 ,= example1 9 argum5ts = & aga9/ /ate prohibition ( ! liquor trade1 x is an ess5tial fact to det]m9e :e!r 9 /atus :]e prohibition has be5 tri$ x has fail$ or succe$$1 & ano!r ess5tial fact :e!r "u simil> conditions a comb9ation ( high lic5se & local option has or has n produc$ less drunk5ness4 ,bo? are extremely complicat$ & difficult facts to decide2 b if cle> evid5ce c be br\ght =w>d to e/abli% !m1 reasonable-m9d$ p w\ld g5]ally hold z settl$ ! "q ( ! policy :i* %\ld be adopt$4 ,simil>ly1 an argum5t = ! popul> election ( s5ators w\ld und\bt$ly make l>ge use ( ! alleg$ fact t1 9 elections by ! legislatures1 !re has be5 mu* undue int]f]5ce by special int]e/s & ri* corporations2 & ! ass]tion ( ?is fact w\ld h to be support$ by evid5ce4 ,if ?is fact 7 ?us cle>ly e/abli%$1 x w\ld be recogniz$ z a /rong reason = a *ange 9 our pres5t policy4 ,9 ! int]e/ ( cle>ness ( ?\ght x is wor? :ile to rememb] ?is di/9ction2 =1 z we %all see1 x is only by s do+ t we c det]m9e :5 ! ord9>y rules ( logic d & :5 !y d n apply to ! processes ( reason+ on :i* argum5t is bas$4 ,i %all speak "h1 !re=e1 ( ! evid5ce = facts1 & ( ! reasons = or aga9/ a policy4 ,x may be said 9 pass+ t ! highly complicat$ rules ( evid5ce at ! common law h practically no?+ to d ) our pres5t subject1 = !y spr+ f v special conditions1 & h be5 mold$ by v special purposes4 ,_! object is to e/abli%1 s f> z is possible1 pr9ciples :i* w apply to all cases ( a l nature2 & !y !re=e rule out _m facts & mu* evid5ce :i* outside ! c\rt we all use )\t hesitation 9 mak+ up our m9ds4 ,! jury sy/em has _h a curi\s & int]e/+ hi/ory3 & judges h built up h$ges ar\nd juries :i* seem to ! layman m]ely te*nical1 & unnecess>y = ! ends ( ju/ice4#ad ,yet ?\gh ! sweep+ away ( _m ( ^! rules f "t to "t %[s t !re has be5 & p]haps /ill is ju/ice 9 ?is view1 "o mu/ rememb] t ! :ole common law is bas$ on ! application ( pr9ciples already e/abli%$ by e>li] cases to new cases ( l "*2 & t great c>e mu/ !re=e be us$ n to e/abli% pr9ciples :i* may int]f]e ) ! ev5 di/ribution ( ju/ice 9 ! long run 7see on ?is po9t ,s4,r4 ,g>d9]1 p4 #ajc74 ,ev5 if 9 s+le cases ! rule ( evid5ce t =bids he>say evid5ce works an inju/ice1 yet 9 ! long run x is obvi\s bo? t1 if he>say 7 all[$1 litigants w\ld take less tr\ble to get orig9al evid5ce1 & t mu* he>say is ?or\ghly untru/wor?y4 ,ano!r reason :y ! rules ( evid5ce at ! common law h little be>+ on ! argum5ts ( ev]yday life is l t :i* makes x unwise to dwell mu* on ! burd5 ( pro(3 !re is no "o ei!r compet5t or int]e/$ to en=ce ! exclusion4 ,ass]tion & rumor mu/ be m ?an palpably vague be=e ! ord9>y man w ( 8 own initiative take ! tr\ble to scrut9ize x2 & ev5 9 refut+ su* mat]ial y mu/ make its untru/wor?9ess v pat5t if y expect to make ord9>y read]s di/ru/ x s]i\sly4 #bh4 ,direct & ,indirect ,evid5ce4 ,:5 we come n[ to consid] h[ we e/abli% facts1 :e!r s+le or complex1 we f9d t1 bo? to aid our own judgm5t & to conv9ce o!r p1 we rely on evid5ce4 ,we h se5 t evid5ce falls r\ghly into two classes3 ei!r x comes f p]sons :o te/ify out ( _! own obs]vation & exp]i5ce1 or x comes indirectly ?r\gh reason+ f facts & pr9ciples already e/abli%$ or grant$4 ,! two k9ds ( evid5ce run into ea* o!r1 & ! t]ms commonly us$ to describe !m v>y3 direct evid5ce is n infrequ5tly1 z 9 ,huxley's argum5t 7see p4 #bdj71 call$ te/imonial1 & indirect evid5ce1 z 9 ! same argum5t & 9 ! op9ion ( ,*ief ,ju/ice ,%aw1 quot$ bel[1 is call$ circum/antial4 ,on ! :ole1 h[ev]1 ! opposition betwe5 ! two classes1 s f> z x is ( practical importance1 may be/ be indicat$ by ! t]ms direct evid5ce & indirect evid5ce4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ! two classes is made cle> 9 ! foll[+ extract f ! op9ion ( ,*ief ,ju/ice ,%aw ( ! ,massa*usetts ,supreme ,c\rt4 ,x w be notic$ t x is ! same doctr9e z t laid d[n by ,huxley 7see p4 #bdj74 ,! di/9ction1 !n1 betwe5 direct & circum/antial evid5ce is ?is4 ,direct or positive evid5ce is :5 a witness c be call$ to te/ify to ! precise2 fact :i* is ! subject ( ! issue 9 trial2 t is1 9 a case ( homicide1 t ! p>ty accus$ did cause ! dea? ( ! deceas$4 ,:atev] may be ! k9d or =ce ( ! evid5ce1 ?is is ! fact to be prov$4 ,b suppose no p]son 0 pres5t on ! occasion ( ! dea?1--& ( c\rse no "o c be call$ to te/ify to x1--is x :olly unsusceptible ( legal pro(8 ,exp]i5ce has %[n t circum/antial evid5ce may be (f]$ 9 su* a case2 t is1 t a body ( facts may be prov$ ( s conclusive a "*1 z to w>rant a firm belief ( ! fact1 q z /rong & c]ta9 z t on :i* discreet m5 are accu/om$ to act 9 relation to _! mo/ important conc]ns4444 ,ea* ( ^! modes ( pro( has its advantages & disadvantages2 x is n easy to comp>e _! relative value4 ,! advantage ( positive evid5ce is1 t y h ! direct te/imony ( a witness to ! fact to be prov$1 :o1 if he speaks ! tru?1 saw x done2 & ! only "q is1 :e!r he is entitl$ to belief4 ,! disadvantage is1 t ! witness may be false & corrupt1 & ! case may n af=d ! means ( detect+ 8 falsehood4 ,b 9 a case ( circum/antial evid5ce :]e no witness c te/ify directly to ! fact to be prov$1 y arrive at x by a s]ies ( o!r facts1 :i* by exp]i5ce we h f\nd s associat$ ) ! fact 9 "q1 z 9 ! relation ( cause & effect1 t !y lead to a satisfactory & c]ta9 conclusion2 z :5 footpr9ts are discov]$ aft] a rec5t sn[1 x is c]ta9 t "s animat$ be+ has pass$ ov] ! sn[ s9ce x fell2 &1 f ! =m & numb] ( ! footpr9ts1 x c be det]m9$ ) equal c]ta9ty1 :e!r x 0 a man1 a bird1 or a quadrup$4 ,circum/antial evid5ce1 !re=e1 is f\nd$ on exp]i5ce & obs]v$ facts & co9cid5ces1 e/abli%+ a connection betwe5 ! kn[n & prov$ facts & ! fact s\ght to be prov$4#ae ,"u ! head ( direct evid5ce1 z ,i %all use ! t]m1 w\ld fall ! evid5ce ( mat]ial objects3 9 an accid5t case1 = example1 ! sc> ( a w\nd may be %[n to ! jury2 or :]e ! mak+ ( a p>k is urg$ on a city gov]nm5t1 ! city c\ncil may be tak5 out to see ! l& :i* x is propos$ to take4 ,?\gh su* evid5ce is n te/imony1 x is direct evid5ce1 = x is n bas$ on reason+ & inf]5ce4 #bi4 ,direct ,evid5ce4 ,direct evid5ce is ! te/imony ( p]sons :o "k ab\t ! fact f _! own obs]vation3 su* is ! te/imony ( ! witnesses to a w t !y saw ! te/ator sign x1 ! te/imony ( an explor] t !re are tribes ( pygmies 9 ,africa1 ! te/imony ( a *emi/ to ! con/itu5ts ( a giv5 alloy1 or ( a doctor to ! success ( a new treatm5t4 ,e day ( our lives we are giv+ & receiv+ direct evid5ce2 & ( ?is evid5ce !re is great v>iety 9 value4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 no "o %\ld place too mu* reliance on 8 own casual obs]vations4 ,x is notori\s t we see :at we expect to see2 & no "o :o has n delib]ately set himself to obs]ve ! fact c realize h[ mu* ( :at he ?9ks is obs]vation is really inf]5ce f a small "p ( ! facts be=e him4 ,i feel a slight tremor run ?r\gh ! h\se ) a little rattl+ ( ! w9d[s1 & assume t a tra9 has gone by on ! railroad bel[ ! hill a hundr$ y>ds away3 z a matt] ( fact x may h be5 "o ( ! slight e>?quake %ocks :i* come e few ye>s 9 mo/ p>ts ( ! _w4 ,! mi/akes t mo/ ( its make 9 recogniz+ p are ( ! same sort3 f "s s+le feature we reason to an id5tity t does n exi/4 ,( rec5t ye>s psy*ologi/s h set !mselves to gett+ "s accurate facts z to ?is inaccuracy ( human obs]vation1 & v>i\s exp]im5ts h be5 tri$4 ,"h is an acc\nt ( "o3 ,!re 01 = in/ance1 two ye>s ago 9 ,gtt+5 a meet+ ( a sci5tific association1 made up ( juri/s1 psy*ologi/s1 & physicians1 all1 !re=e1 m5 tra9$ 9 c>eful obs]vation4 ,some:]e 9 ! same /reet !re 0 t ev5+ a public fe/ivity ( ! c>nival4 ,sudd5ly1 9 ! mid/ ( ! s*ol>ly meet+1 ! doors op51 a cl[n 9 highly color$ co/ume ru%es 9 9 mad excitem5t1 & a negro ) a revolv] 9 h& foll[s him4 ,9 ! middle ( ! hall fir/ ! "o1 !n ! o!r1 %\ts wild phrases2 !n ! "o falls to ! gr\nd1 ! o!r jumps on him2 !n a %ot1 & sudd5ly bo? are out ( ! room4 ,! :ole affair took less ?an tw5ty seconds4 ,all 7 completely tak5 by surprise1 & no "o1 ) ! exception ( ! presid5t1 _h ! slighte/ idea t e ^w & action _h be5 rehe>s$ be=eh&1 or t1 photographs _h be5 tak5 ( ! sc5e4 ,x seem$ mo/ natural t ! presid5t %\ld beg ! memb]s to write d[n individually an exact report1 inasmu* z he felt sure t ! matt] w\ld come be=e ! c\rts4 ,( ! =ty reports h&$ 91 !re 0 only "o ^: omissions 7 calculat$ z am\nt+ to less ?an tw5ty p] c5t ( ! *>act]i/ic acts2 f\rte5 _h tw5ty to =ty p] c5t ( ! facts omitt$2 twelve omitt$ =ty to fifty p] c5t1 & ?irte5 /ill m ?an fifty p] c5t4 ,b besides ! omissions !re 7 only six among ! =ty :i* did n conta9 positively wrong /atem5ts2 9 tw5ty-f\r pap]s up to t5 p] c5t ( ! /atem5ts 7 free inv5tions1 & 9 t5 answ]s--t is1 9 "o f\r? ( ! pap]s--m ?an t5 p] c5t ( ! /atem5ts 7 absolutely false1 9 spite ( ! fact t !y all came f sci5tifically tra9$ obs]v]s4 ,only f\r p]sons1 = in/ance1 among =ty notic$ t ! negro _h no?+ on 8 head2 ! o!rs gave him a d]by1 or a high hat1 & s on4 ,9 addition to ?is1 a r$ suit1 a br[n "o1 a /rip$ "o1 a c(fee-color$ jacket1 %irt sleeves1 & simil> co/ume 7 inv5t$ = him4 ,he wore 9 reality :ite tr\s]s & a black jacket ) a l>ge r$ neck-tie4 ,! sci5tific commission :i* report$ ! details ( ! inquiry came to ! g5]al /atem5t t ! majority ( ! obs]v]s omitt$ or falsifi$ ab\t half ( ! processes :i* occurr$ completely 9 _! field ( vision4 ,z 0 to be expect$1 ! judgm5t z to ! "t duration ( ! act v>i$ betwe5 a few seconds & sev]al m9utes4#af ,ano!r type ( cases 9 :i* our direct te/imony w\ld be valueless is leg]dema93 we ?9k t we actually see rabbits tak5 out ( our neighbor's hat1 or 8 wat* p\nd$ 9 a mort> & pres5tly %ak5 :ole & s\nd out ( an empty silk h&k]*ief2 & x is only by reason+ t we "k our eyes h be5 deceiv$4 ,x is obvi\s1 !re=e1 t to "q a man's evid5ce is n always to call him a li>2 9 mo/ cases x is r to "q ! accuracy ( 8 inf]5ces f su* "p ( ! facts z he actually grasp$4 ,9 sci5ce no important obs]vation is accept$ until ! exp]im5ts h be5 repeat$ & *eck$ by o!r obs]v]s4 ,inde$1 mo/ ( ! progress ( sci5ce is due to ! repetition ( exp]im5ts by obs]v]s :o notice "s critical ph5om5a :i* _! pr$ecessors h miss$4 ,) ?is qualification1 t human obs]vation is always fallible1 good direct evid5ce is on ! :ole ! mo/ conv9c+ evid5ce t y c use4 ,if y c e/abli% a fact by ! m\?s ( tru/wor?y witnesses1 mak+ y\r read]s recognize t ^! witnesses _h good opportunities ( obs]vation & a compet5t k ( ! subject1 y w g5]ally e/abli% y\r po9t4 ,9 case ( an accid5t 9 a /reet c> x is ! cu/om ( _m companies to require _! conductors to take d[n imm$iately ! names ( a few ( ! mo/ respectable-look+ ( ! pass5g]s1 :o may be call$ z witnesses 9 case ( a lawsuit4 ,all ! obs]vations ( sci5ce1 & mo/ ( ! facts br\ght be=e juries 9 c\rts ( law1 z well z ! multitude ( less] & great] facts :i* we accept 9 ev]yday life1 get _! au?ority f ?is pr9ciple4 ,9 ! argum5ts ( s*ool & college y may n make mu* use ( direct evid5ce1 = !y d n (t5 turn on s+le1 simple facts4 ,ev5 "h1 h[ev]1 cases arise :]e y mu/ call 9 ! direct te/imony ( witnesses4 ,if y 7 argu+ t secret societies %\ld be aboli%$ 9 a c]ta9 s*ool1 & wi%$ to %[ t su* societies _h l$ to late h\rs1 play+ c>ds = money1 & dr9k+1 y w\ld ne$ direct evid5ce4 ,if y 7 argu+ t ! /reet railroad company ( y\r city %\ld be oblig$ to d\ble track a c]ta9 "p ( its l9e1 y w\ld ne$ direct evid5ce ( ! delays & cr[d+ ( c>s ) a s+le track4 ,:5 y are us+ direct evid5ce y %\ld make x cle> t ! p]son f :om x comes is a compet5t witness1 t he has be5 9 a position to "k ! facts at fir/ h&1 & t1 if necess>y1 he has _h ! prop] tra9+ to und]/& _! mean+4 ,9 ! case ( an automobile accid5t a man :o _h nev] run a c> w\ld n be ! be/ sort ( witness z to ! actions ( ! *auffeur1 nor a man :o _h nev] sail$ a boat z to :at happ5$ 9 a collision betwe5 two sailboats4 ,9 a sci5tific matt] ! obs]vations ( a beg9n] w\ld n c>ry weight z aga9/ ^? ( a man :o _h us$ a microscope = _m ye>s4 ,! witness1 too1 mu/ be %[n to be free f bias1 :e!r practical or !oretical4 ,x is a well-kn[n fact t m5 diff] greatly 9 ! cle>ness ( _! eyesight 9 obs]v+ ! />s1 & t m5 :o are gift$ ) exceptional eyesight may make valuable discov]ies ) inf]ior in/rum5ts2 b if su* a man has esp\s$ a !ory1 say1 z to ! nature ( ! r+s ( ,saturn1 & is kn[n to def5d x passionately1 8 evid5ce conc]n+ :at he _h se5 is b\nd to be some:at disc\nt$4 ,ev5 (ficial reports _c be tru/$ )\t scrut9y4 ,! fact is t _m ?+s conspire to make an (ficial report con/ra9$ & =mal4 ,!re is ! natural desire ( e man to put ! be/ face on ?+s = himself z he sets 8 case be=e ! gov]nm5t & ! _w2 subord9ates mu/ be let (f l5i5tly2 y mu/ live ) !m1 & x impairs com=t to h !m sull54 ,to make a /atem5t unpleasant to a sup]ior might be con/ru$ z insubord9ation4 ,! public welf>e makes x imp]ative to tell a flatt]+ tale4 ,! temptation is con/ant to tell n q ! :ole tru?1 & no?+ b ! tru?4 ,!re are important suppressions ( fact 9 ! (ficial records1 none m s1 p]haps1 ?an z reg>ds ,*ancellorsville4#ag ,if y happ5 to be deal+ ) a hi/orical matt]1 :]e ! te/imony comes f a m or less remote pa/1 & ! evid5ce is scrappy & defective1 y mu/ be /ill m c>eful4 ,! great ,engli% hi/orian1 ! late ,s4,r4 ,g>d9]1 9 8 exam9ation ( ! evid5ce on ! ,gunp[d] ,plot ( #afje1 wrote z foll[s ab\t ! difficulties ( deal+ ) hi/orical evid5ce3 ,x seems /range to f9d a writ] s reg>dless ( :at is1 9 ^! days1 consid]$ ! fir/ canon ( hi/orical inquiry1 t evid5ce wor? hav+ mu/ be almo/ entirely ! evid5ce ( contempor>ies :o are 9 a position to "k some?+ ab\t t :i* !y ass]t4 ,x is true t ?is canon mu/ n be receiv$ p$antically4 ,tradition is wor? some?+1 at all ev5ts :5 x is n too f> remov$ f its s\rce4 ,if a man ^: "* = tru?fulness /&s high1 tells me t 8 fa!r1 also believ$ to be tru?ful1 s]i\sly in=m$ him t he _h se5 a c]ta9 ?+ happ51 ,i %\ld be mu* m likely to believe t x 0 s ?an if a p]son1 :om ,i knew to be untru?ful1 in=m$ me t he _h himself witness$ some?+ at ! pres5t day4 ,! hi/orian is n b\nd1 z ! lawy] is1 to reject he>say evid5ce1 because x is 8 bus9ess to asc]ta9 ! tru? ( individual ass]tions1 :il/ ! lawy] has to ?9k ( ! be>+ ( ! evid5ce n m]ely on ! case ( ! prison] 9 ! dock1 b on an unre/rict$ numb] ( possible prison]s1 _m ( :om w\ld be unju/ly condemn$ if he>say evid5ce 7 admitt$4 ,! hi/orian is1 h[ev]1 b\nd to rememb] t evid5ce gr[s weak] ) ea* l9k ( ! *a94 ,! injunction1 ,always leave a /ory bett] ?an y f\nd x1 is 9 accordance ) ! facts ( human nature4 ,ea* report] inevitably acc5tuates ! side ( ! n>rative :i* /rikes 8 fancy1 & drops "s o!r "p :i* int]e/s him less4 ,! rule laid d[n by ! late ,mr4 ,sp$d+1 ,:5 a ?+ is ass]t$ z a fact1 always ask :o fir/ report$ x1 & :at means he _h ( kn[+ ! tru?1 is an admirable corrective ( loose traditional /ories4 ,a fur!r te/ has to be appli$ by ea* inve/igator = himself4 ,:5 we h asc]ta9$1 z f> z possible1 on :at evid5ce our k ( an alleg$ fact re/s1 we h to consid] ! inh]5t probability ( ! allegation4 ,is ! /atem5t ab\t x 9 accordance ) ! g5]al work+s ( human nature1 or ) ! p>ticul> work+ ( ! nature ( ! p]sons to :om ! action 9 "q is ascrib$8 ,fa!r ,g]>d1#ah = in/ance1 lavi%ly employs ?is te/4 ,aga9 & aga9 he tells u t su* & su* a /atem5t is incr$ible1 because1 among/ o!r reasons1 ! p ab\t :om x 0 made c\ld n possibly h act$ 9 ! way ascrib$ to !m4 ,if ,i say 9 any ( ^! cases t x appe>s to me probable t !y did s act1 x is m]ely "o individual op9ion aga9/ ano!r4 ,!re is no ma!matical c]ta9ty on ei!r side4 ,all we c respectively d is to set =? ! reasons :i* incl9e u to "o op9ion or ano!r1 & leave ! matt] to o!rs to judge z !y see fit4 ,x w be necess>y h]eaft] to deal at l5g? ) fa!r ,g]>d's attack ^u ! evid5ce1 hi!rto accept$ z conclusive1 ( ! facts ( ! plot4 ,a %ort space may be allott$ to ! reasons = reject+ 8 prelim9>y argum5t1 t x 0 ! op9ion ( "s contempor>ies1 & ( "s :o liv$ 9 a lat] g5]ation1 t ,salisbury contriv$ ! plot 9 "p1 if n altoge!r4 ,does he realize h[ difficult x is to prove su* a ?+ by any ext]nal evid5ce :atev]8 ,if he>say evid5ce c be tak5 z an argum5t ( probability1 & 9 "s cases ( /rong probability1 x is :]e "s "o mat]ial fact is conc]n$4 ,= in/ance1 ,i am ( op9ion t x is v likely t ! /ory ( ,cromwell's visit to ! body ( ,*>les ,i on ! night aft] ! k+'s execution is true1 ?\gh ! evid5ce is only t ,sp5ce he>d x f ,pope1 & ,pope he>d x1 m$iately or imm$iately1 f ,s\?ampton1 :o1 x is alleg$1 saw ! sc5e ) 8 own eyes4 ,x is v diff]5t :5 we are conc]n$ ) evid5ce z to an int5tion necess>ily kept secret1 & only exhibit$ by ov]t acts 9 su* =m z tamp]+ ) docum5ts1 sugge/+ false explanation ( evid5ce1 & s =?4 ,a rumor t ,salisbury got up ! plot is absolutely wor?less2 a rumor t he =g$ a p>ticul> in/rum5t w\ld be wor? exam9+1 because x might h proce$$ f "s "o :o _h se5 him d x4#ai ,:ile x is r>e to f9d a man ( :om x may ju/ly be said t !re is no p>tition betwe5 8 memory & 8 imag9ation1 yet !re are few ( u :o c be sure ( facts 9 pa/ matt]s :i* t\* our feel+s4 ,we _c help to "s degree recon/ruct+ ev5ts z !y fade away into ! pa/3 we =get ^? p>ts ( an ev5t :i* did n at ! "t %>ply t\* our imag9ation1 & ^? :i* did move u take on an ov]%ad[+ importance4 ,!re=e ! fur!r away ! ev5ts :i* ! evid5ce is to recon/ruct1 ! m c>e we mu/ take to scrut9ize x to see if !re are signs ( bias4 ,to te/ ! value ( direct evid5ce1 !re=e1 z to s+le & simple facts1 consid] :e!r ! evid5ce comes f a specifically nam$ s\rce1 :e!r !re is any likelihood t ! witness may h be5 hone/ly deceiv$ 9 8 obs]vation1 :e!r he _h a good opportunity to "k ! facts & a suffici5t k ( ! subject ab\t :i* he is giv+ evid5ce1 &1 f9ally1 :e!r he 0 reasonably free f bias 9 ! matt]4 ,:5ev] y use direct evid5ce1 h[ev]1 x mu/ be direct4 ,to ass]t t e "o kn[s t secret societies 9 a c]ta9 s*ool h l$ to immoral practices1 is n direct evid5ce1 nor to decl>e t ! be/ au?orities 9 ! city are agre$ t ! company %\ld lay d\ble tracks on a c]ta9 /reet4 ,su* ass]tions are apt to be ! mo/ r\ndab\t sort ( he>say4 ,try cross-exam9+ ! next man y he> make ?is k9d ( sweep+ ass]tion1 9 ord] to see :at he really kn[s ( ! facts1 & y w soon f9d h[ recklessly su* ass]tions are made4 ,y con/antly he> grave /atem5ts ( facts ^: ultimate basis is ! imag9ation ( "s ent]pris+ newspap] report]2 yet c>eful & tru?ful p pass !m on z if !y 7 indubitable4 ,! news columns ( ! pap]s are l>gely writt5 by "y fell[s j out ( high s*ool1 :o w decl>e ! :ole gospel on subjects ) :i* !y h a half h\r's acqua9tance1 yet mo/ p nev] "q _! /atem5ts4 ,! pr9t$ page1 :e!r ( a hook1 a magaz9e1 or a newspap]1 ca/s a spell on our judgm5t4 ,su* float+ ass]tions1 ) no "o to fa!r !m1 are ( no value :atev]4 ,if y h to use /atem5ts 9 a newspap] z direct evid5ce1 ei!r take !m f a newspap] :i* is recogniz$ z c>eful ab\t facts1 or else look up ! matt] 9 two or ?ree pap]s1 & %[ t _! te/imony agrees4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a specific "n1 ) a specific ref]5ce to volume & page1 w g a long way to give y\r read]s confid5ce 9 ! evid5ce y adduce4 ,& rightly s1 = "o man ) a "n & address is wor? hundr$s ( unnam$ highe/ au?orities2 & ! m specifically y ref] to him & to 8 evid5ce1 ! m likely y w be to w9 ov] y\r audi5ce to y\r view4 ,a fam\s & effective example ( ! use ( specific names to give au?ority to an argum5t1 & ! incid5tal refutation ( a vague & loose ass]tion1 is f\nd 9 ,l9coln's address at ,coop] ,in/itute1 9 ! fir/ "p ( :i* he took up ,s5ator ,d\glas's /atem5t t our fa!rs1 :5 !y fram$ ! gov]nm5t "u :i* we live1 und]/ood ?is "q j z well z1 & ev5 bett] ?an1 we d n[1 ) ! implication t !y int5d$ to =bid ! f$]al gov]nm5t to control slav]y 9 ! f$]al t]ritories4 ,l9coln %[$ t our fa!rs :o fram$ ! gov]nm5t "u :i* we live mu/ be ! mak]s ( ! ,con/itution3 & !n he proce$$ to %[ j :at action ea* "o ( !m1 s f> z record _h be5 pres]v$1 _h tak5 on ! "q4 ,"h is a passage f 8 argum5t3 ,! "q ( ,f$]al control 9 ! ,t]ritories seems n to h be5 directly be=e ! conv5tion :i* fram$ ! orig9al ,con/itution2 & h5ce x is n record$ t ! ?irty-n9e1 or any ( !m1 :ile engag$ on t in/rum5t1 express$ any op9ion on t precise "q4 ,9 #aghi1 by ! fir/ ,congress :i* sat "u ! ,con/itution1 an act 0 pass$ to en=ce ! ord9ance ( #aghg1 includ+ ! prohibition ( slav]y 9 ! ,nor?we/]n ,t]ritory4 ,! bill = ?is act 0 report$ by "o ( ! ?irty-n9e--,?omas ,fitzsimmons1 !n a memb] ( ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives f ,p5nsylvania4 ,x w5t ?r\gh all its /ages )\t a ^w ( opposition1 & f9ally pass$ bo? bran*es )\t ayes & nays1 :i* is equival5t to a unanim\s passage4 ,9 ?is ,congress !re 7 sixte5 ( ! ?irty-n9e fa!rs :o fram$ ! orig9al ,con/itution4 ,!y 7 ,john ,langdon1 ,ni*olas ,gilman1 ,william ,s4 ,johnson1 ,rog] ,%]man1 ,rob]t ,morris1 ,?omas ,fitzsimmons1 ,william ,few1 ,abraham ,baldw91 ,rufus ,k+1 ,william ,pat]son1 ,george ,clym]1 ,ri*>d ,bassett1 ,george ,read1 ,pi]ce ,butl]1 ,daniel ,c>roll1 & ,james ,madison4 ,?is %[s t1 9 _! und]/&+1 no l9e divid+ local f ,f$]al au?ority1 nor any?+ 9 ! ,con/itution1 prop]ly =bade ,congress to prohibit slav]y 9 ! ,f$]al t]ritory2 else bo? _! fidelity to correct pr9ciple1 & _! oa? to support ! ,con/itution1 w\ld h con/ra9$ !m to oppose ! prohibition4 ,aga91 ,george ,wa%+ton1 ano!r ( ! ?irty-n9e1 0 !n ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & z su* approv$ & sign$ ! bill1 ?us complet+ its validity z a law1 & ?us %[+ t1 9 8 und]/&+1 no l9e divid+ local f ,f$]al au?ority1 nor any?+ 9 ! ,con/itution1 =bade ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t to control z to slav]y 9 ,f$]al t]ritory4 ,no great :ile aft] ! adoption ( ! orig9al ,con/itution1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a c$$ to ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t ! c\ntry n[ con/itut+ ! ,/ate-( ,t5nessee2 & a few ye>s lat] ,georgia c$$ t :i* n[ con/itutes ! ,/ates ( ,mississippi & ,alabama4 ,9 bo? de$s ( cession x 0 made a condition by ! c$+ ,/ates t ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t %\ld n prohibit slav]y 9 ! c$$ c\ntry4 ,besides ?is1 slav]y 0 !n actually 9 ! c$$ c\ntry4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 ,congress1 on tak+ *>ge ( ^! c\ntries1 did n absolutely prohibit slav]y 9 !m4 ,b !y did int]f]e ) x--take control ( x----ev5 !re1 to a c]ta9 ext5t4 ,9 #agih ,congress organiz$ ! ,t]ritory ( ,mississippi4 ,9 ! act ( organization !y prohibit$ ! br++ ( slaves into ! ,t]ritory f any place )\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 by f9e1 & giv+ fre$om to slaves s br\ght4 ,?is act pass$ bo? bran*es ( ,congress )\t yeas & nays4 ,9 t ,congress 7 ?ree ( ! ?irty-n9e :o fram$ ! orig9al ,con/itution4 ,!y 7 ,john ,langdon1 ,george ,read1 & ,abraham ,baldw94 ,!y all probably vot$ = x4 ,c]ta9ly !y w\ld h plac$ _! opposition to x ^u record if1 9 _! und]/&+1 any l9e divid+ local f ,f$]al au?ority1 or any?+ 9 ! ,con/itution1 prop]ly =bade ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t to control z to slav]y 9 ,f$]al t]ritory4 ,9 ! end ?is exact /atem5t ( names1 = :i* he _h prep>$ himself ) su* labori\s c>e1 enabl$ ,l9coln to sum up ) absolute conclusiv5ess3 ,! cases ,i h m5tion$ are ! only acts ( ! ?irty-n9e1 or ( any ( !m1 ^u ! direct issue1 :i* ,i h be5 able to discov]4 ,to enum]ate ! p]sons :o ?us act$ z be+ f\r 9 #aghd1 two 9 #aghg1 sev5te5 9 #aghi1 ?ree 9 #agih1 two 9 #ghjd1 & two 9 #ahai-ahbj1 !re w\ld be ?irty ( !m4 ,b ?is w\ld be c\nt+ ,john ,langdon1 ,rog] ,%]man1 ,william ,few1 ,rufus ,k+1 & ,george ,read ea* twice1 & ,abraham ,baldw9 ?ree times4 ,! true numb] ( ^? ( ! ?irty-n9e :om ,i h %[n to h act$ ^u ! "q :i*1 by ! text1 !y und]/ood bett] ?an we1 is tw5ty-?ree1 leav+ sixte5 n %[n to h act$ ^u x 9 any way4 ,"h1 !n1 we h tw5ty-?ree out ( our ?irty-n9e fa!rs :o fram$ ! gov]nm5t "u :i* we live1 :o h1 ^u _! (ficial responsibility & _! corporal oa?s1 act$ ^u ! v "q :i* ! text affirms !y und]/ood j z well1 & ev5 bett]1 ?an we d n[2 & tw5ty-"o ( !m--a cle> majority ( ! :ole ?irty-n9e--s act+ ^u x z to make !m guilty ( gross political impropriety & willful p]jury if1 9 _! und]/&+1 any prop] division betwe5 local & ,f$]al au?ority1 or any?+ 9 ! ,con/itution !y _h made !mselves1 & sworn to support1 =bade ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t to control z to slav]y 9 ! ,f$]al t]ritories4 ,?us ! tw5ty-"o act$2 &1 z actions speak l\d] ?an words1 s actions "u su* responsibility speak /ill l\d]4 ,:5 y come to evid5ce ab\t a l>ge & complex /ate ( affairs1 :i* is ! k9d ( fact t s _m ( ! argum5ts ( practical life deal )1 ?\gh y w /ill be deal+ ) a fact1 yet ! v nature ( ! fact *anges ! value & ! "* ( y\r evid5ce4 ,x is a comp>atively simple matt] to det]m9e :e!r a c]ta9 woman fac$ =w>d or backw>d z %e 0 gett+ (f a /reet c>1 or :e!r ! eggs ( a sea ur*9 d or d n beg9 to g]m9ate "u ! influ5ce ( a c]ta9 *emical sub/ance2 b x is f> f simple to det]m9e :e!r a free elective c\rse has or has n inur$ to great] intellig5ce & cultivation 9 ! graduates ( a c]ta9 college1 or :e!r ! graduates ( ano!r college :]e ! classical c\rse is ma9ta9$ h ke5] & m flexible m9ds & m ref9$ ta/es z a result ( _! /udy ( ! classics4 ,9 su* cases z ^! ! cit+ ( direct evid5ce br+s on y difficulties ( a diff]5t k9d f ^? y face :5 y are e/abli%+ a s+le1 simple fact4 ,"h y w usually dep5d on two ma9 s\rces ( evid5ce3 /ati/ics1 & ! evid5ce ( recogniz$ au?orities on ! subject4 #cj4 ,/ati/ics4 ,/ati/ics1 :i* are collections ( figures1 are notori\sly trea*]\s4 ,on _m important subjects1 su*1 = example1 z ! practical effect ( ! elective sy/em1 x is impossible to get !m2 & on _m o!r subjects1 su* z ! effects ( a protective t>iff1 !y mu/ be _h 9 s enorm\s masses1 if !y are to be tru/$ at all1 t only pr(\nd /ud5ts c h&le !m4 ,:]e ! facts are complicat$1 & int]e/s are tangl$1 moreov]1 _m sets ( figures may ent] into ! "q1 z notably 9 ! case ( a t>iff2 s cle>ly is ?is difficulty n[ recogniz$ t ,congress has au?oriz$ a t>iff bo>d made up ( di/+ui%$ /ud5ts ( economics & m5 ( long exp]i5ce 9 deal+ ) t>iff matt]s to collect & /udy ! facts & make recomm5dations bas$ on !m4 ,simil>ly1 ) ! inve/igation into ! liquor "q made fifte5 ye>s ago by ! ,committee ( ,fifty3 ! :ole "q _h be5 s tangl$ by ass]tion & c\nt]-ass]tion t x became desirable to h an inve/igation into ! facts by m5 ( recogniz$ ability & imp>tiality4#bj ,9 g5]al1 to use /ati/ics safely y ne$ a wide acqua9tance ) a subject1 especially :]e ! "q is 9 any way mix$ up ) m5's feel+s1 :e!r ?r\gh politics or n4 ,all ! /ati/ics we h make dead aga9/ great armam5ts & prep>ation = w>2 yet :ile human nature is :at x is1 necess>y prud5ce seems to require e nation ( any size to h !m4 ,a v little human nature w upset a v great body ( /ati/ics4 ,fur!rmore1 9 mo/ human affairs results are produc$ by a multiplicity ( causes2 & ?\gh /ati/ics may ?r[ light on ?ree qu>t]s ( all ! causes t are pot5t 9 any giv5 case1 yet ! o!r qu>t] :i* are irr$ucible to def9ite /atem5t may :olly alt] ! result4 ,if y are us+ /ati/ics 9 y\r argum5t1 !re=e1 z evid5ce ( "s l>ge & complex fact1 y %\ld usually ju/ify !m to "s ext5t by %[+ t !re are no c\nt]act+ =ces :i* !y d n cov]4 ,) ?is precaution1 h[ev]1 /ati/ics are ! f\ndation ( mo/ argum5ts on l>ge que/ions4 ,if y 7 argu+ 9 favor ( ! pur*ase ( local wat]works1 y w\ld pres5t figures %[+ ! numb] ( h\ses us+ ! public wat] supply1 ! rates paid1 ! pr(its ( ! company1 ! exact po9ts at :i* public control c\ld "w economies4 ,if y 7 argu+ = a rule t no man %all play on a univ]sity team until he has be5 regi/]$ a ye> at ! univ]sity1 y w\ld ne$ /ati/ics to %[ h[ _m m5 w\ld be affect$ by ! rule4 ,if y 7 argu+ = a s+le session at a s*ool in/ead ( two1 y w\ld %[ exactly h[ _m /ud5ts 9 ! s*ool live m ?an a mile away f ! build+4 ,9 e case :]e /ati/ics c be pres5t$ 9 su* a way z to make cle> t !y fairly cov] ! gr\nd1 !y are mo/ valuable evid5ce4 ,!y give ! argum5t ! effect ( be+ f\nd$ on a rock4 ,if x be obvi\s t ! /ati/ics h be5 fre%ly ga!r$1 & are n m]ely casual & second-h& glean+s1 !y h /ill great] effect1 = !n !y h a second>y =ce 9 te/ify+ to ! p]sonal k t ! witness has ( ! subject4 ,we %all see lat] ! dang] ( ! fallacy ( g5]aliz+ on too n>r[ a basis3 a g5]alization bas$ on a good body ( /ati/ics runs no dang] ( ?is fallacy4 #ca4 ,! ,op9ion ( ,recogniz$ ,au?orities4 ,! o!r *ief s\rce ( evid5ce to e/abli% a fact :i* consi/s ( a l>ge & complex /ate ( affairs is ! op9ion ( recogniz$ au?orities on ! subject4 ,! /r5g? ( su* evid5ce dep5ds on :e!r ! audi5ce w accept ! p]son y cite z hav+ au?ority on ! matt]4 ,mo/ ( u read "s newspap] or p]iodical 9 ! op9ions ( :i* we h confid5ce1 because !y seem to be bas$ on inve/igation & compet5t k4 ,! annual report ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury is excell5t evid5ce on ! /ate ( ! national f9ances4 ,! reports ( presid5ts ( colleges are excell5t evid5ce f au?orities on su* que/ions z ! value ( ! elective sy/em or ! effect ( rais+ ! /&>d ( admission4 ,! report ( a dean or ( a s*oolma/] on ! value ( organiz$ a?letics is effective if ! audi5ce kn[s t he likes out-(-door sports & takes "t to see ! games4 ,evid5ce drawn f an au?ority :o is likely to be us$ by ! o!r side is d\bly effective1 s9ce y\r read]s recognize t 8 compet5ce is admitt$4 ,if a man has giv5 8 life to ! /udy ( a subject & has publi%$ books t are ( recogniz$ au?ority1 8 evid5ce w be ( especial weight4 ,mr4 ,bryce's op9ion on all que/ions conc]n+ a /ate ( affairs 9 ?is c\ntry w\ld be recogniz$ at once z weighty1 = he has giv5 "t & /udy to collect+ ! multitude ( small facts :i* con/itute ! l>ge fact4 ,8 op9ion t political hone/y is increas+ ) u has br\ght com=t to _m good citiz5s :o _h gr[n despond5t ov] ! acc\nts ( recurr5t rascality 9 ! newspap]s & magaz9es4 ,?is is a typical case = ! citation ( au?orities2 = ! facts are enorm\s 9 numb]1 v widely scatt]$1 & (t5 contradictory4 ,only a man :o has tak5 ! pa9s to keep himself con/antly in=m$1 ^: judgm5t has be5 tra9$ by long consid]ation & comp>ison ( ! facts1 & :o is born ) ! judicial temp]am5t c atta9 ! au?ority ( ,mr4 ,bryce4 ,!re w be cases on :i* y w h ! "r to put y\rself =w>d z an au?ority1 = on _m subjects :i* fall )9 ! range ( und]graduates _! k is fir/-h&4 ,on all que/ions ( a?letics1 especially1 an und]graduate is apt to h fre%ly 9 m9d a consid]able mass ( facts4 ,9 ! same way1 on ! results ( c]ta9 requirem5ts = admission to college1 y c speak f rec5t exp]i5ce4 ,9 matt]s conc]n+ y\r own city1 too1 y may h orig9al k4 ,if y are go+ to put y\rself =w>d z an au?ority1 h[ev]1 y mu/ r\nd out y\r k ( ! facts by ext5d+ x beyond y\r own p]sonal exp]i5ce4 ,if x is a "q ( entrance requirem5ts1 y _c /op ) y\r own exp]i5ce1 or ev5 ) t ( y\r own class at s*ool4 ,y mu/ g back to ! records ( a numb] ( classes be=e & p]haps aft] y\r own1 & talk !m ov] ) ! pr9cipal ( ! s*ool1 to see :e!r !re are any special circum/ances :i* affect any ( !m4 ,if y are argu+ = or aga9/ a *ange 9 ! pres5t rules ( football1 y w\ld h to g beyond ! games ( y\r own college team1 & beyond ^? ( ! pres5t season4 ,if1 = example1 x 7 a "q ( am5d+ ! rules conc]n+ ! =w>d pass1 y c\ld n speak ) full au?ority unless y _h look$ up ! acc\nts ( ! pr9cipal games = two or ?ree ye>s at any rate4 ,if y put y\rself =w>d1 !n1 z a witness on "o ( ^! cases ( complicat$ facts1 y mu/ make x cle> to y\r read]s t y h a "r to be consid]$ su*4 ,if y h ! "r1 x w\ld be folly to hide y\r light "u a bu%el4 ,an example ( ! c>e :i* is tak5 by m5 :o h made !mselves au?orities on _! subjects is to be f\nd 9 ! foll[+ passage f ,presid5t ,eliot's address1 ,a ,wid] ,range ( ,electives 9 ,college ,admission ,requirem5ts4#ba ,notice h[ broad a basis he lays = 8 conclusions bo? 9 facts & 9 ! op9ions ( o!r au?orities4 ,:at %\ld be ! gr\nds ( a j valuation ( all ! subjects t c be pres5t$ at admission exam9ations :i* include num]\s options8 ,t "q introduces u to a difficult inquiry4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 n an intellig5t me?od to attribute a value to ea* subject 9 accordance ) ! "t devot$ to ! exam9ation 9 t subject4 ,:at clue h we t[>d a bett] mode ( det]m9+ ! value :i* ought to be attribut$ to ea* ( ! num]\s electives1 :5 ! "y m5 _c pres5t all ! p]mitt$ subjects1 & h>dly ?ree fif?s ( !m1 inde$1 if ! range is adequately wid5$8 ,i believe t ! be/ crit]ion = det]m9+ ! value ( ea* subject is ! "t devot$ to t subject 9 s*ools :i* h an intellig5t program ( /udies4 ,! ,committee ( ,t5#bb exam9$ ! numb] ( subjects us$ 9 ab\t two hundr$ ( ! be/ second>y s*ools 9 ?is c\ntry1 & ! "t-allotm5ts = ! sev]al subjects4 ,!y f\nd a great v>iety ( practice z to bo? selection ( subjects & "t-allotm5ts4 ,y c h>dly say t !re is an accept$ "t-allotm5t 9 ^! second>y s*ools = any subject--n ev5 = ! old traditional subjects4 ,! "t-allotm5ts diff] widely 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 & ev5 9 diff]5t s*ools 9 ! same "p ( ! c\ntry4 ,if1 !n1 we are to det]m9e by s*ool "t-allotm5ts ! valuations ( ! diff]5t subjects1 prescrib$ & elective1 :i* may ent] into admission exam9ations1 we mu/ h "s sort ( /&>d programs = second>y s*ools4 ,at pres5t 7#ahif7 ,i "k no programs :i* c answ] t purpose1 except ! provisional programs ( ! ,committee ( ,t54 ,!y may fairly be said to be ! be/-/udi$ programs n[ be=e ! c\ntry1 & to repres5t ! l>ge/ am\nt ( pr(essional cons5t1 simply because !y are ! result ( ! "w1 fir/1 ( n9ety s*ool & college tea*]s1 divid$ into n9e diff]5t conf]5ces by subject1 & secondly1 ( t5 repres5tative tea*]s comb9+ & revis+ ! "w ( ! conf]5ces1 ) c>eful ref]5ce to ! pres5t condition ( ,am]ican s*ools4 #cb4 ,indirect ,evid5ce4 ,! t]m indirect evid5ce may be us$ = all evid5ce z to fact 9 :i* reason+ consci\sly plays a "p4 ,)\t x we %\ld be helpless 9 l>ge regions ( our intellectual life1 notably 9 sci5ce & hi/ory1 & con/antly 9 ev]yday life4 ,cle>ly ! l9e betwe5 direct & indirect evid5ce is vague & unc]ta92 x is "o ( ! fir/ ?+s le>n$ 9 psy*ology t our p]ceptions & judgm5ts ( ?+s ab\t u are almo/ nev] bas$ exclusively on ! te/imony ( our s5ses1 & t we are all ! "t jump+ to conclusions f v p>tial obs]vations4 ,pr(essor ,mn/]b]g gives ! foll[+ example f 8 own exp]i5ce ( ?is un9t5tional sub/itution ( indirect evid5ce = direct3 ,la/ summ] ,i _h to face a jury z witness 9 a trial4 ,:ile ,i 0 ) my family at ! sea%ore my city h\se _h be5 burgl>iz$ & ,i 0 call$ ^u to give an acc\nt ( my f9d+s aga9/ ! culprit :om !y caught ) "p ( ! booty4 ,i report$ "u oa? t ! burgl>s _h ent]$ ?r\gh a cell> w9d[1 & !n describ$ :at rooms !y _h visit$4 ,to prove1 9 answ] to a direct "q1 t !y _h be5 !re at night1 ,i told t ,i _h f\nd drops ( c&le wax on ! second floor4 ,to %[ t !y int5d$1 to return1 ,i report$ t !y _h left a l>ge mantel clock1 pack$ 9 wrapp+ pap]1 on ! d9+-room table4 ,f9ally1 z to ! am\nt ( clo!s :i* !y _h tak51 ,i ass]t$ t ! burgl>s did n get m ?an a specifi$ li/ :i* ,i _h giv5 ! police4 ,only a few days lat] ,i f\nd t e "o ( ^! /atem5ts 0 wrong4 ,!y _h n ent]$ ?r\gh ! w9d[1 b _h brok5 ! lock ( ! cell> door2 ! clock 0 n pack$ by !m 9 wrapp+ pap]1 b 9 a tableclo?2 ! c&le dropp+s 7 n on ! second floor1 b 9 ! attic2 ! li/ ( lo/ g>m5ts 0 to be increas$ by sev5 m pieces2 & :ile my /ory "u oa? spoke always ( two burgl>s1 ,i d n "k t !re 0 m ?an "o4#bc ,con/antly 9 ev]yday life we make (fh& ass]tions 9 ! full belief t we are giv+ direct evid5ce1 :5 z a matt] ( fact we are ann\nc+ inf]5ces4 ,! di/9ction is ( importance 9 _m ways1 & n lea/ z a means ( avoid+ heat 9 argum5t2 = to "q a man's inf]5ce is mu* less likely to make him angry ?an to d5y 8 /atem5t ( fact4 ,= ! practical purposes ( argum5t we may let ! di/9ction betwe5 obs]vation & inf]5ce1 & consequ5tly t betwe5 direct & indirect evid5ce1 turn on :e!r ! inf]5ce is a consci\s & readily di/+ui%able "p ( ! judgm5t or n4 ,?\gh br++ to light an unconsci\s inf]5ce is (t5 an ess5tial "p ( ! detection ( false reason+1 :]e !re is no su* practical consequ5ce1 we ne$ n be too curi\s "h ab\t ! l9e betwe5 direct obs]vation & inf]5ce f obs]vation4 ,= ! r\gh & ready purposes ( ev]yday argum5ts x is exact en\gh to say t :]e y recognize t y are bas+ y\r conclusion z to a fact on "s process ( reason+1 !n y are re/+ on indirect evid5ce2 :]e y d n recognize ! inf]5ce )\t reflection1 y are re/+ on direct evid5ce4 ,9 ! foll[+ discussion ( reason+ ,i %all sometimes be deal+ ) prov+ a fact1 sometimes ) argu+ =w>d to a policy4 ,9 _m cases ! two processes are practically id5tical1 = if ! fact is e/abli%$ ! policy foll[s z a matt] ( c\rse3 9 ^! cases1 !re=e1 = ! sake ( conv5i5ce ,i %all use ! t]ms int]*angeably1 & keep !m sep>ate only :]e !re is dang] ( confusion4 #cc4 ,reason+4 ,?\gh ! v>i\s =ms ( reason+ & ! pr9ciples :i* !y foll[ are ! conc]n r ( psy*ology & logic ?an ( a practical "w on ! writ+ ( argum5ts1 yet ^! sci5ces help u to und]/& ! processes ( ! m9d by :i* we conv9ce fir/ ourselves1 & !n o!r p1 ( ! exi/5ce ( facts1 :5 = "o reason or ano!r direct te/imony is want+4 ,psy*ology describes ! processes ( reason+ z "p ( ! activity ( ! m9d1 analyzes !m into _! p>ts1 & %[s _! work+4 ,logic is conc]n$ r ) ! =ms ( reason+3 its aim is to e/abli% pr9ciples & rules ! application ( :i* w insure correct reason+4 ,i %all fir/ briefly & v simply sket* ! und]ly+ nature ( ! reason+ process z x is describ$ by psy*ologi/s2 !n ,i %all pass on to a practical application ( ! pr9ciples !reby atta9$2 next ,i %all set =? a few ( ! simple/ & cle>e/ ( ! processes ( reason+ :i* h be5 work$ out by logic2 &1 f9ally1 ,i %all discuss ea* few ( ! be/-recogniz$ =ms ( false reason+4 ,f bo? ! psy*ological description & ! rules ( logic we %all d]ive practical sugge/ions = e/abli%+ facts :i* may be ne$$ 9 an argum5t4 ,! ess5tial feature ( ! process ( reason+ is t x proce$s f l to l1 by break+ up :ole facts & ph5om5a1 & foll[+ out ! implications or consequ5ces ( "o or m ( ! p>ts4#bd ,= example1 if ,i inf]1 :5 my dog comes out ( a b>ny>d ) an apologetic air1 & ) blood & fea!rs on 8 m\?1 t he has be5 kill+ a h51 ,i am break+ up ! :ole ph5om5on ( ! dog's appe>ance1 & pay+ att5tion only to ! blood & fea!rs on 8 head2 & ^! lead me directly to simil> appe>ances :5 ,i h caught him 9 ! act4 ,if ,i reason1 ,e /ud5t :o c conc5trate 8 att5tion c le>n quickly1 ,george ,m>/on has a notable p[] ( conc5tration1 ,!re=e ,george ,m>/on c le>n quickly1 ,i aga9 break up ! ab/raction /ud5t1 & ! concrete fact ,george ,m>/on1 & pay att5tion 9 ea* to ! s+le *>act]i/ic1 conc5tration ( att5tion4 ,?us by means ( ^! simil> p>ts ( diff]5t :oles ,i pass f ! ass]tion conc]n+ ! class z a :ole to ! ass]tion conc]n+ ! concrete case4 ,?is process fir/ ( analysis & !n ( ab/raction ( simil>s is ! ess5tial "p ( e act ( reason+4 ,9 intuitive or unreason$ judgm5t1 on ! o!r h&1 we jump to ! conclusion )\t analyz+ ! int]m$iate /eps4 ,if ,i say1 ,i h a feel+ 9 my bones t x w ra9 to-morr[1 or1 x is borne 9 on me t our team w w91 ! s5sations & ideas t ,i ?us lump toge!r are too subtle & too complex = analysis1 & ! conclusion1 ?\gh x may prove s\nd1 is n arriv$ at by reason+4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 su* intuitive & unreason$ judgm5ts1 & reason+ prop]ly s call$1 lies 9 ! abs5ce or ! pres5ce ( ! int]m$iate /ep by :i* we consci\sly recognize & *oose out "s s+le attribute or *>act]i/ic ( ! fact or facts we are consid]+1 & pass f t to o!r cases 9 :i* x occurs4 ,! skill ( ! reason] !re=e consi/s ( two p>ts3 fir/1 ! sagacity to pick out ( ! complex fact be=e him1 ! attribute or *>act]i/ic :i* is significant = 8 pres5t purpose2 & second1 ! l>ge k ( ! subject :i* w enable him to foll[ x into o!r cases 9 :i* x occurs ) diff]5t circum/ances1 or1 9 o!r words1 to foll[ a simil>ity ?r\gh div]se cases4 ,d>w9's great a*ievem5t 9 e/abli%+ ! pr9ciple ( evolution lay fir/ 9 ! sci5tific sagacity :i* fla%$ home on him1 aft] ye>s ( pati5t /udy1 t ! "o common fact 9 all ! multitude ( plants & animals is t 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce by :i* all liv+ be+s p]si/1 ^? :o are be/ fitt$ to _! circum/ances survive2 & second1 9 8 ri* k ( ! _w ( nature1 :i* made x possible = him to foll[ out ?is *>act]i/ic 9 all k9ds ( plants & animals1 & s to rea* ! g5]al law4 ,b :e!r x be s _w-sweep+ a conclusion z 81 or my conclusion t my dog has kill$ a h51 ! process is ! same3 analysis or break+ up ( ! complex fact1 & foll[+ out ! consequ5ces or implications ( "s select$ "p ( x into o!r cases4 ,all reason+ ?us r$uces itself 9 ! end to a process ( pass+ f l to l3 we notice t ! pres5t case is l o!r cases :i* we already "k3 !n1 s9ce ^! cases h always 9 ! pa/ be5 accompani$ by c]ta9 circum/ances or consequ5ces1 we believe t ! pres5t case w also %[ ^! same circum/ances or consequ5ces4 ,:5ev] my dog has kill$ :5 ! cases h be5 simil> 9 ! blood & fea!rs on 8 m\?2 9 ?is case he has blood & fea!rs on 8 m\?2 !re=e he mu/ h kill$ a h54 ,individual plants & animals survive :i* are fitt$ to _! environm5t by special *>act]i/ics1 & ^? :i* are n s fitt$ die2 species ( plants & animals1 z well z individuals1 %[ special adaptation to _! environm5t2 !re=e species h surviv$ ?r\gh ! same process ( natural selection4 ,x foll[s t reason+1 :e!r x results 9 a g5]al law or 9 concrete judgm5t1 dep5ds on ! assumption t nature--& 9 nature we mean "h ! :ole univ]se z we "k x is uni=m2 t !re are ties betwe5 facts :i* make x possible = u to be c]ta9 t if a giv5 fact occurs1 !n ano!r fact always occurs ) x z an effect1 or z a cause1 or connect$ ) x 9 "s o!r mann]4 ,)\t ?is c]ta9ty ( ! uni=mity ( ?+s !re w\ld be no reason+1 & !re=e no argum5t f indirect evid5ce4 ,huxley sets =? ?is fundam5tal tru? cle>ly & impressively at ! beg9n+ ( ! fir/ ( 8 ,lectures on ,evolution 7see p4 #bcd74 ,= practical purposes ! v>i\s types ( ?is inf]5ce f simil>ity c be conv5i5tly ?r[n into ?ree gr\ps4 ,z w be obvi\s1 !re is no fix$ & impassable l9e betwe5 !m4 ,if an inf]5ce relies ^u a resemblance t is newly se51 r>e1 or d\btful1 x is call$ an inf]5ce f analogy2 if x is made ^u ! basis ( an e/abli%$ classification1 x is call$ a g5]alization2 if x involves a v>iety ( resemblances s comb9$ z to be> ^u a s+le po9t1 x is usually or frequ5tly call$ an inf]5ce f circum/antial evid5ce4#be ,i w take up ea* ( ^! types & %[ h[ we use !m 9 ! practical "w ( argum5t4 ,x w be se5 t !y v>y greatly 9 c]ta9ty ( results4 #cd4 ,reason+ f ,analogy4 ,analogy 9 its mo/ t5u\s =m is weak z a basis = an actual inf]5ce1 ?\gh x is (t5 effective z a means ( express+ an intuitive judgm5t :]e ! reasons are too subtle & diffus$ = =mal explanation4 ,:5 ,l9coln 9 ! middle ( ! ,civil ,w> said t m5 d n swap horses :ile !y are cross+ a /ream1 ! analog1 ?\gh subtle1 0 felt to be real4 ,popul> adages & prov]bs are common modes ( express+ su* deep-ly+ analogies3 = example1 ,:]e !re is smoke !re is fire2 ,! slo?ful man sai?1 ,!re is a lion 9 ! way4 ,poetry too is full ( ^! subtle1 pregnant simil>ities :i* l9k ?+s 9 "s "o aspect1 b fail = all o!rs4 ,to die2 to sleep2 ,no m2 & by a sleep to say we end ,! he>t-a*e & ! ?\s& natural %ocks ,t fle% is heir to4 ',tis a consummation ,dev\tly to be wi%'d4 ,to die2 to sleep2-- ,to sleep8 ,p]*ance to dream6 ,ay1 !re's ! rub2 ,= 9 t sleep ( dea? :at dreams may come1 ,:5 we h %uffl'd (f ?is mortal coil1 ,mu/ give u pause4 ,b1 z 9 ?is case ( ,hamlet's1 poetical analogies w n be> mu* /ra92 ! aspect 9 :i* ! simil>ity holds is usually ! only aspect ! two cases h 9 common1 & to take poetry z a precise =mulation ( fact is to s9 aga9/ bo? humor & s\nd reason+4 ,9 daily life we are con/antly reason+ by analogy4 ,if y argue t a c]ta9 man :o has be5 successful at ! head ( a railroad w !re=e make a good presid5t = a college because t also is a complex in/itution1 or t because self-gov]nm5t has work$ well 9 a c]ta9 s*ool x w probably "w well 9 a college1 or t because a fri5d has be5 cur$ ( sleeplessness by tak+ a walk j be=e go+ to b$ !re=e ev]ybody :o sleeps badly c be cur$ 9 ! same way1--9 all ^! cases y are reason+ by analogy4 ,9 ea* case x w be notic$ y w\ld pass f a simil>ity :i* exi/s 9 a s+le case or 9 a small numb] ( cases to ! conclusion4 ,! reason+ is s\nd1 h[ev]1 only 9 s f> z ! simil>ity be>s on ! actual purpose 9 h&3 9 ! fir/ example1 if ! success ( ! railroad presid5t arises f ! p[] ( und]/&+ m5 & ( philosophic insight into l>ge problems1 ! reason+ w probably be valid2 9 ! la/ example1 if appli$ to insomnia due to ov]work1 x might be bad4 ,9 practical affairs x is easy to f9d examples ( reason+ f analogy1 especially 9 argum5ts ( policy4 ,! fir/ trial ( city gov]nm5t by commission dep5d$ on su* reason+3 :5 ,galve/on1 ,texas1 0 deva/at$ by a /orm x 0 reason$ t 9 bus9ess matt]s a small body ( pick$ m5 ) absolute p[]s are mo/ effici5t 9 an em]g5cy1 & t s9ce ! recon/ruction ( ! city 0 ess5tially a matt] ( bus9ess1 su* a body w\ld be/ meet ! em]g5cy4 ,s ! ext5sion ( commission gov]nm5t 9 o!r /ates at fir/ foll[$ reason+ by analogy3 gov]nm5t by commission work$ well 9 ,galve/on2 x w\ld probably "w well 9 ,des ,mo9es4 ,9 ! same way ) ! argum5ts = a p>cels po/3 !y proce$ f ! analogy ( ! pres5t po/al s]vice1 :i* has be5 successful s f> z x goes1 & f ! success ( ! p>cels po/ 9 almo/ all ! c\ntries ( ,europe4 ,if y 7 argu+ t ,association 7or socc]7 football %\ld be made "o ( ! major sports at y\r college1 y w\ld reason f ! analogy ( its great popul>ity ) ,engli%m5 all ov] ! _w t x w\ld also probably be popul> 9 ,am]ica4 ,:5 y use ! argum5t f analogy1 h[ev]1 y mu/ make sure t ! simil>ity betwe5 ! two cases runs to ! po9t y wi% to e/abli%4 ,9 ! foll[+ extract f an argum5t 9 favor ( commission gov]nm5t = all cities1 ! au?or explicitly limits 8 reason+ f ! analogy ( ,wa%+ton to ! po9t ( ! ext5sion ( ! sy/em to l>ge cities4 ,if we look = successful gov]nm5ts by commission 9 ?is c\ntry1 x is n difficult to f9d !m 9 our l>ge/ cities4 ,! city ( ,wa%+ton is gov]n$ by a small commission1 & is ackn[l$g$ to be "o ( our be/-gov]n$ cities4 ,:ile ?is commission orig9at$ 9 an entirely diff]5t way f t ( ! commission =m ( gov]nm5t1 successful adm9i/ration "u its rule is a valid answ] to ! argum5t t small commissions are suit$ only to ! adm9i/ration ( small cities4#bf ,:5ev] y use ?is type ( reason+1 x is wise ?us to limit its be>+4 ,if 9 an argum5t 9 favor ( all[+ secret societies 9 a high s*ool y rely on ! analogy ( college life1 take pa9s to %[ t ! resemblance cov]s ! social life ( a s*ool4 ,if y 7 argu+ t y\r city %\ld e/abli% a municipal gymnasium1 & reli$ on ! reason+ f ! analogy ( a family1 9 :i* all ! memb]s h a direct int]e/ 9 ! heal? ( ! o!rs1 %[ t ?is int]e/ has practical gr\nds ( welf>e1 & does n re/ :olly on affection4 ,9 e case1 unless ! limits ( ! analogy are obvi\s1 specify !m 9 ord] to c>ry y\r read]s safely ) y4 #ce4 ,false ,analogy4 ,a peculi> dang] ( ! argum5t f analogy is ! fallacy :i* is kn[n z false analogy1 or reason+ to a conclusion :i* ! simil>ity does n support4 ,argum5ts 9 :i* !re are _m figures ( spee*1 especially :5 ! /yle is at all florid1 are apt to slop ov] into ?is fallacy4 ,to lik5 education to ! unfold+ ( a fl[] is all v well1 if y d n g on to argue t because ! lily ( ! field nei!r toils nor sp9s1 !re=e a *ild %\ld d no "w 9 s*ool4 ,x is said t ,m4 ,/olyp91 ! late premi] ( ,russia1 once half apologiz$ ,9 ! ,duma = ! sl[ness ( 8 re=ms1 say+ t he ,0 l a man %oot+ ) a fl9tlock musket2 to :i* "o ( ! ,lib]al memb]s repli$ t x 0 n a "q ( weapons1 b ( aim1 & t if 8 ,excell5cy 0 to g on %oot+ at ! p1 x w\ld be bett] if he w5t on us+ fl9tlocks4 ,"u ! auspices ( ! ,c>negie ,in/itution an exp]t 9 bus9ess adm9i/ration made an inquiry into ! me?ods ( tea*+ & rese>* 9 physics at v>i\s ,am]ican univ]sities1 & made recomm5dations bas$ on ! conduct ( bus9ess e/abli%m5ts4 ,a pr(essor ( physics 9 answ] %[$ 9 h[ _m ways ! analogy betwe5 a bus9ess conc]n1 ^: end is pr(it1 & a physical laboratory1 ^: end is ! advancem5t ( k1 is false & mislead+4 ,! exp]t _h sugge/$ a g5]al rese>* bo>d to correlate rese>*es2 ! pr(essor cit$ ! cases ( ,airy1 ! a/ronom] royal ( ,engl&1 :o by 8 dom9at+ position held back a/ronomical rese>* 9 ,engl& = a g5]ation1 & ( ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 :o disc\rag$ ! "w ( ,f>aday1 :5 ! latt] 0 8 assi/ant4 ,! exp]t sugge/$ t app>atus c\ld be pass$ on f "o inve/igator to ano!r3 ! pr(essor repli$ t few m5 c use app>atus design$ = "s "o else's purpose1 & t ! co/ ( recon/ruction w\ld exce$ ! co/ ( new ma*9es4 ,9 %ort1 he completely riddl$ ! argum5t f analogy set up by ! exp]t4#bg ,a notable example ( conclusive refutation ( an argum5t bas$ on a false analogy is to be f\nd 9 ,william ,james's ,+]soll ,lecture on ,immortality4 ,he took up ! ord9>y argum5t aga9/ ! immortality ( ! s\l1 :i*1 />t+ f ! accept$ physiological & psy*ological =mula1 ,?\ght is a function ( ! bra91 reasons t !re=e :5 ! bra9 dies & decays1 ?\ght & consci\sness die1 too4 ,?is1 !n1 is ! objection to immortality2 & ! next ?+ 9 ord] = me is to try to make pla9 to y :y ,i believe t x has 9 /rict logic no det]r5t p[]4 ,i mu/ %[ y t ! fatal consequ5ce is n co]cive1 z is commonly imag9$2 & t1 ev5 ?\gh our s\l's life 7z "h bel[ x is reveal$ to u7 may be 9 lit]al /rictness ! function ( a bra9 t p]i%es1 yet x is n at all impossible1 b on ! contr>y q possible1 t ! life may /ill cont9ue :5 ! bra9 itself is dead4 ,! suppos$ impossibility ( its cont9u+ comes f too sup]ficial a look at ! admitt$ fact ( functional dep5d5ce4 ,! mom5t we inquire m closely into ! notion ( functional dep5d5ce1 & ask ourselves1 = example1 h[ _m k9ds ( functional dep5d5ce !re may be1 we imm$iately p]ceive t !re is "o k9d at lea/ t does n exclude a life h]eaft] at all4 ,! fatal conclusion ( ! physiologi/ fl[s f 8 assum+ (fh& ano!r k9d ( functional dep5d5ce1 & treat+ x z ! only imag9able k9d4 ,:5 ! physiologi/ :o ?9ks t 8 sci5ce cuts (f all hope ( immortality pron\nces ! phrase1 ,?\ght is a function ( ! bra91 he ?9ks ( ! matt] j z he ?9ks :5 he says1 ,/eam is a function ( ! teakettle1 ,light is a function ( ! electric circuit1 ,p[] is a function ( ! mov+ wat]fall4 ,9 ^! latt] cases ! sev]al mat]ial objects h ! function ( inw>dly creat+ or eng5d]+ _! effects1 & _! function mu/ be call$ productive function4 ,j s1 he ?9ks1 x mu/ be ) ! bra94 ,eng5d]+ consci\sness 9 its int]ior1 mu* z x eng5d]s *ole/]9 & creat9 & c>bonic acid1 its relation to our s\l's life mu/ also be call$ productive function4 ,( c\rse1 if su* production be ! function1 !n :5 ! organ p]i%es1 s9ce ! production c no long] cont9ue1 ! s\l mu/ surely die4 ,su* a conclusion z ?is is inde$ inevitable f t p>ticul> conception ( ! facts4 ,rut 9 ! _w ( physical nature productive function ( ?is sort is n ! only k9d ( function ) :i* we are famili>4 ,we h also releas+ or p]missive function2 & we h transmissive function4 ,! trigg] ( a crossb[ has a releas+ function3 x removes ! ob/acle t holds ! /r+1 & lets ! b[ fly back to its natural %ape4 ,s :5 ! hamm] falls ^u a detonat+ comp\nd4 ,by knock+ out ! inn] molecul> ob/ructions1 x lets ! con/itu5t gases resume _! normal bulk1 & s p]mits ! explosion to take place4 ,9 ! case ( a color$ glass1 a prism1 or a refract+ l5s1 we h transmissive function4 ,! en]gy ( ! light1 no matt] h[ produc$1 is by ! glass sift$ & limit$ 9 color1 & by ! l5s or prism det]m9$ to a c]ta9 pa? & %ape4 ,simil>ly1 ! keys ( an organ h only a transmissive function4 ,!y op5 successively ! v>i\s pipes & let ! w9d 9 ! air *e/ escape 9 v>i\s ways4 ,! voices ( ! v>i\s pipes are con/itut$ by ! columns ( air trembl+ z !y em]ge4 ,b ! air is n eng5d]$ 9 ! organ4 ,! organ prop]1 z di/+ui%$ f its air *e/1 is only an app>atus = lett+ portions ( ,x loose ^u ! _w 9 ^! peculi>ly limit$ %apes4 ,my !sis n[ is ?is3 t1 :5 we ?9k ( ! law t ?\ght is a function ( ! bra91 we are n requir$ to ?9k ( productive function only2 we are entitl$ also to consid] p]missive or transmissive function4 ,& ?is ! ord9>y psy*ophysiologi/ leaves out ( acc\nt4#bh ,! "q ( ! validity ( an analogy 9 reason+ is always1 z "h1 :e!r ! simil>ity on :i* ! reason+ re/s really runs betwe5 ! two cases 9 h&1 or is n m]ely a g5]al resemblance express$ by "s phrase or ^w :i* seems to mean m ?an x does4 ,9 o!r words1 :5 y are te/+ an analogy1 :e!r y\r own or an oppon5t's1 make sure t ! simil>ity is real = ! pres5t case4 ,a picturesque figure ( spee* may add life to an argum5t1 b x may also cov] a gap 9 ! reason+4 #cf4 ,reason+ by ,classification or ,g5]alization4 ,obvi\sly ! /r5g? ( reason+ f analogy increases ) ! numb] ( cases :i* y c po9t to z %[+ ! simil>ity on :i* y rely1 = y c !n beg9 to g5]alize & classify4 ,analogy expresses our natural t5d5cy to assimilate ! new to ! old1 to int]pret :at is /range & unfamili> 9 ! light ( :at we already "k4 ,x may !re=e be describ$ z classification 9 ! mak+4 ,! resemblances :i* guide u are call$ analogies s long z !y are newly se51 r>e1 or d\btful2 b z ! numb] ( cases increases1 analogy passes by ins5sible /ages into e/abli%$ classification4#bi ,an excell5t example ( ?is transition may be se5 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! argum5t 9 favor ( commission gov]nm5t3 at fir/1 z we h se51 x dep5d$ *iefly on reason+ f analogy2 by ?is "t en\gh cities h adopt$ ! plan to make x possible to classify !m1 & s reason by g5]alization4 ,g5]alization & classification1 x may be not$ 9 pass+1 are two aspects ( ! same process ( ?\ght4 ,:5 "o passes f ! individual facts to ! l>g] fact :i* br+s !m toge!r1 z 9 ! ass]tion1 ,memb]s ( ! ,phi ,beta ,kappa are good s*ol>s1 "o makes a g5]alization2 :5 "o ass]ts ( an individual ! l>g] fact1 z 9 ! ass]tion1 ,my bro!r is a good s*ol> 7,my bro!r belongs to ! class ,good ,s*ol>s71 "o makes a classification4 ,:5 a classification or g5]alization is con/ant & famili>1 x br+s =?1 by ! natural economy ( language1 a "n = ! class or ! pr9ciple2 f$]ation1 decidu\s trees1 emotion1 t]m9al mora9e1 are all names ( classes2 attraction ( gravity1 erosion1 deg5]ation1 natural selection1 are names ( pr9ciples :i* sum up acts ( g5]alization4 ,almo/ always ^! names beg9 z figures ( spee*1 b :]e !y are us$ accurately !y h a p]fectly exact mean+4 ,d>w9 has giv5 "s acc\nt ( ?is process ( language3 ,x has be5 said t ,i speak ( natural selection z an active p[] or deity1 b :o objects to an au?or speak+ ( ! attraction ( gravity z rul+ ! movem5ts ( planets8 ,e "o kn[s :at is meant by su* metaphorical expressions1 & !y are almo/ necess>y = brevity3 s1 aga91 x is difficult to avoid p]sonify+ ! ^w ',nature4' ,b ,i mean by ,nature ! aggregate action & product ( _m laws1 & by laws ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts z asc]ta9$ by u4#cj ,:5 ! facts int5d$ to be meant by a phrase are ?us c>efully specifi$ & delimit$1 ! phrase ceases to be a figure ( spee*1 & becomes ! "n ( a class or ( a pr9ciple4 ,g5]alization & classification always take place = purposes ( reason+2#ca & reason+ :i* is dep5d5t on !m re/s on ! assumption t ?+s are uni=mly correlat$ 9 nature2 :5 we ?r[ ?+s toge!r into classes we assume t :at is true = "o memb] ( a class1 s f> z x is a memb] ( t class1 is true to ! same ext5t & = ! purpose = :i* ! class is made = all o!r memb]s ( t class4 ,9 practice a l>ge "p ( our reason+ is ?r\gh g5]alization & classification2 & z we h se51 x has a m sub/antial basis ?an :5 we re/ on an analogy4 ,if y he> t y\r bro!r has be5 elect$ to ! ,phi ,beta ,kappa1 y reason f ! g5]alization t all memb]s ( ! ,phi ,beta ,kappa are high s*ol>s to ! inf]5ce t y\r bro!r mu/ h tak5 high rank4 ,:5 ,i see a gang ( c>p5t]s knock+ (f "w at f\r o'clock 9 ! aft]noon1 ,i inf] t !y mu/ belong to ! union1 because ,i "k t unions z a class h e/abli%$ an eight-h\r day4 ,if y 7 argu+ t ! /&>ds = graduation f y\r college %\ld be rais$1 y w\ld try to %[ t ea* ye> en\gh m5 are graduat$ ) l[ intellectual atta9m5ts to make a class l>ge en\gh to g5]alize f4 ,if y 7 argu+ t y\r city %\ld e/abli% a municipal gymnasium1 y w\ld try to %[ t ( ! boys & "y m5 br\ght be=e ! police c\rts = petty mis*ief & m s]i\s (f5ses almo/ all h lack$ ! *ance to "w (f _! animal spirits 9 a heal?y way4 ,:]ev] y c ?us e/abli% y\r special case 9 a class :i* has kn[n *>act]i/ics or consequ5ces1 y c !n apply ! *>act]i/ics & consequ5ces ( ! class to y\r special case4 ,:]e ! class is recogniz$ z hav+ def9ite *>act]i/ics or consequ5ces1 y c make y\r inf]5ce by %[+ t y\r case falls )9 ! class4 ,sometimes ! /ress ( y\r reason+ w come on mak+ x cle> t ! consequ5ce or *>act]i/ic on :i* y\r reason+ dep5ds really belongs to ! class4 ,if1 = example1 y 7 argu+1 z did ! ,class ( '#he at ,amh]/ ,college1 t y\r college %\ld return to some?+ l ! old-fa%ion$ classical education1 y w\ld try to e/abli% ! fact t m5 :o h _h ! old-fa%ion$ classical education are z a rule *>act]iz$ by intellig5ce1 lib]al culture1 & op5-m9d$ness4 ,9 su* cases x is ! g5]alization on :i* ! class is bas$ :i* is ! difficult "p ( y\r task4 ,9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 if y c %[ y\r read]s t ! pres5t case belongs 9 a class ( cases :i* c be recogniz$ z belong+ toge!r by virtue ( def9able *>act]i/ics1 y h e/abli%$ an excell5t f\ndation = an inf]5ce bas$ on ^? *>act]i/ics4 #cg4 ,reason+ by ,causal ,relation4 ,reason+ by g5]alization rises greatly 9 c]ta9ty1 h[ev]1 :5ev] y c %[ ! work+s ( cause & effect4 ,if a college receives e ye> f a c]ta9 s*ool a numb] ( boys :o are slack & lazy /ud5ts1 ! dean ( t college may come to g5]alize & expect mo/ ( ! boys f t s*ool to be poor timb]4 ,if1 h[ev]1 he f9ds t ! ma/] ( ! s*ool w take & keep any boy :o lives 9 ! t[n1 he is able to argue f ?is z a cause to ! conclusion t ! /&>ds ( ! s*ool are l[1 & !n f ^! l[ /&>ds z a cause to ! poor quality ( ! graduates ( ! s*ool4 ,"h is ano!r example1 f ,pr(essor ,james3 ,i am sitt+ 9 a railroad c>1 wait+ = ! tra9 to />t4 ,x is w9t]1 & ! /ove fills ! c> ) pung5t smoke4 ,! brakeman ent]s1 & my neighbor asks him to /op t /ove smok+4 ,he replies t x w /op entirely z soon z ! c> beg9s to move4 ,:y s8 asks ! pass5g]4 ,x always does1 replies ! brakeman4 ,x is evid5t f ?is always t ! connection betwe5 c> mov+ & smoke /opp+ 0 a purely empirical "o 9 ! brakeman's m9d1 br$ ( habit4 ,b if ! pass5g] _h be5 an acute reason] 444 & _h s+l$ out ( all ! num]\s po9ts involv$ 9 a /ove's n smok+ ! "o special po9t ( smoke p\r+ freely out ( ! /ove-pipe's m\?1 he w\ld probably 444 h be5 imm$iately rem9d$ ( ! law t a fluid passes m rapidly out ( a pipe's m\? if ano!r fluid be at ! same "t /ream+ ov] t m\?4#cb ,"h ! pass5g]'s c]ta9ty t ! smok+ w\ld /op w\ld h be5 mu* increas$ if he _h1 z ,pr(essor ,james sugge/s1 reason$ to ! cause1 in/ead ( tru/+ to ! brakeman's g5]alization f exp]i5ce4 ,9 sci5tific matt]s se>* = cause & effect ! *ief mode ( progress4 ,g5]al ,/]nb]g's article ,yell[ ,fev] & ,mosquitoes 7p4 #bea7 is an admirable acc\nt ( ?is advance f probability to c]ta9ty1 :i* comes f demon/rat+ ! necess>y sequ5ce :i* we call cause & effect4 ,:5 ,major ,re$ & 8 associates _h %[n t 9 cases :]e mosquitoes 7 kept away !re 0 no yell[ fev]1 b t 9 cases :]e infect$ mosquitoes 7 all[$ to bite pati5ts yell[ fev] foll[$1 !y turn$ ! probability t mosquitoes 7 ! transmitt+ ag5t ( ! fev] into a c]ta9ty4 ,likewise ) ! glacial !ory3 x _h already 9 ! "t ( ! eld] ,pr(essor ,agassiz be5 e/abli%$ t c]ta9 regions ( nor!rn ,europe & ,am]ica c\ld be class$ toge!r by ! occurr5ce ( c]ta9 ph5om5a--r\nd$ hills1 l$ges ( rock smoo!d (f & m>k$ ) scrat*es runn+ m or less nor? & s\?1 deposits ( clean gravel & s&1 b\ld]s ( v>i\s =eign k9ds ( rock scatt]$ ov] ! surface ( ! c\ntry2 :5 he %[$ t glaci]s 9 _! movem5ts produce all ^! ph5om5a1 he laid b>e ! cause ( ! ph5om5a1 & s demon/rat$ ) practical c]ta9ty ! !ory ( ! =m] exi/5ce ( a huge glacial %eet 9 ! nor!rn hemisph]e4 ,:]ev] y c %[ t y\r case n only belongs to a recogniz$ class ( cases1 ) recogniz$ *>act]i/ics1 b also t 9 ^? *>act]i/ics !re is a necess>y sequ5ce ( cause & effect1 y h prov$ y\r po9t4 ,9 ! example above1 ( an argum5t = ! e/abli%m5t ( a municipal gymnasium1 if aft] %[+ t all ! boys & "y m5 :o get into ! c\rts h no normal & heal?y way ( work+ (f _! natural animal spirits1 y c %[ t 9 places :]e ?r\gh settlem5ts or municipal action gymnasiums h be5 provid$1 ! numb] ( arre/s ( boys & "y m5 has greatly fall5 (f1 y h e/abli%$ ! gr\nds = an inf]5ce ( cause & effect :i* gives y\r argum5t a :olly new /r5g?4 ,9 ! case ( ! argum5t = a return to a classical c\rse 9 a college1 ?is sequ5ce ( cause & effect w\ld be v difficult to e/abli%1 = "h y w\ld be deep d[n 9 ! mo/ complex & subtle region ( human nature4 ,:]ev] x is possible1 h[ev]1 lead ! inf]5ce f a classification or g5]alization on to an inf]5ce ( cause & effect4 #ch4 ,induction & ,d$uction4 ,our next /ep is to consid] h[ we get ! g5]alizations on :i* we base s mu* ( our reason+4 ,z we h se51 ! sci5ce :i* deals ) ! mak+ ( !m1 ) _! basis1 & ) ! rules :i* gov]n inf]5ces made f !m is logic4 ,logicians g5]ally di/+ui% betwe5 two bran*es ( _! sci5ce1 inductive & d$uctive reason+4 ,9 inductive reason+ we pass f individual facts to g5]al pr9ciples2 9 d$uctive reason+ we pass f g5]al pr9ciples to conclusions ab\t individual facts4 ,! di/9ction1 h[ev]1 draws less int]e/ 9 rec5t times ?an =m]ly1 & logicians ( ! pres5t g5]ation t5d to d\bt :e!r x has any vital significance4#cc ,!y po9t out t 9 practice we int]m+le ! two k9ds almo/ inextricably1 t ! di/9ction betwe5 facts & pr9ciples is tempor>y & %ift+1 & t we _c fit "s ( ! common =ms ( inf]5ce into ^! categories )\t difficult & complicat$ re/atem5t4 ,nev]!less1 z d$uctive logic & inductive logic are anci5t & "t-honor$ t]ms :i* h become a "p ( ! vocabul>y ( educat$ m51 x is wor? :ile to take "s note ( ! di/9ction betwe5 !m1 ,i %all n attempt "h to d m ?an to expla9 a few ( ! m important pr9ciples4 ,i %all beg9 ) inductive logic1 s9ce t is ! bran* :i* deals ) ! mak+ ( g5]alizations f individual fact1 & !re=e t :i* has mo/ conc]n 9 ! argum5ts ( ! av]age man 9 8 passage ?r\gh life4 #ci4 ,inductive ,reason+4 ,9 inductive reason+ we put individual facts & cases toge!r into a class on ! basis ( "s def9able simil>ity1 & !n inf] f !m a g5]al pr9ciple4 ,! types ( inductive reason+ h be5 r$uc$ by logicians to c]ta9 canons1 b ^! r$uce !mselves to two ma9 me?ods1 :i* dep5d on :e!r 9 a giv5 piece ( reason+ we />t f ! lik5ess betwe5 ! in/ances or ! diff]5ces betwe5 !m4 ,on ^! two me?ods1 ! me?od ( agreem5t & ! me?od ( diff]5ce1 hang all ! processes ( mod]n sci5ce1 & mo/ ( our ev]yday argum5ts4 ,! me?od ( agreem5t has be5 def9$ z foll[s3 ,if two or m in/ances ( ! ph5om5on "u inve/igation h only "o circum/ance 9 common1 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone all ! in/ances agree is ! cause 7or effect7 ( ! giv5 ph5om5on4#cd ,a few examples1 :i* might easily be multipli$1 w %[ h[ con/antly we use ?is me?od 9 ev]yday life4 ,suppose t a tea*] is annoy$ at some:at irregul> int]vals by :isp]+ & laugh+ 9 ! back ( ! s*oolroom1 = :i* he c f9d no cause1 b t pres5tly he notices t :5ev] a c]ta9 pair ( boys sit toge!r !re ! tr\ble beg9s2 he inf]s t ^! two boys are ! cause ( ! tr\ble4 ,9 ! old days be=e x _h be5 discov]$ t ! g]ms ( mal>ia are c>ri$ by mosquitoes1 ! disease 0 ascrib$ to a miasma :i* float$ ov] l[ gr\nd at night2 & ! innkeep]s ( ! ,roman ,campagna1 :]e mal>ia _h almo/ driv5 out ! population1 urg$ _! gue/s nev] to leave _! w9d[s op5 at night1 = fe> ( lett+ 9 ! miasma4 ,9 ! lights ( ^? days ?is 0 good reason+ by ! me?od ( agreem5t1 = x 0 common obs]vation t ( all ! _m k9ds ( p :o slept ) _! w9d[s op5 mo/ _h mal>ia4 ,we are con/antly us+ ?is me?od 9 cases ( ?is sort1 :]e f obs]vation we are sure t a s+le cause is at "w "u div]se circum/ances4 ,if ! cases are num]\s en\gh & div]se en\gh1 we arrive at a safe degree ( c]ta9ty = practical purposes4 ,z ! case j cit$ %[s1 h[ev]1 ! me?od does n e/abli% a cause ) great c]ta9ty4 ,no matt] h[ _m cases we ga!r1 if a :ole new field relat$ to ! subject happ5s to be op5$ up1 ! agreem5t may be %att]$4 ,! me?od ( diff]5ce1 :i* 9 "s cases does e/abli% causes ) z great c]ta9ty z is possible = human fallibility1 works 9 ! opposite way3 in/ead ( collect+ a l>ge numb] ( cases & not+ ! s+le po9t ( agreem5t1 x takes a s+le case & v>ies a s+le "o ( its elem5ts4 ,! me?od has be5 /at$ z foll[s3 ,if an in/ance 9 :i* ! ph5om5on occurs1 & an in/ance 9 :i* x does n occur1 h e circum/ance 9 common save "o1 t "o occurr+ only 9 ! =m]2 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone ! two in/ances diff]1 is ! effect1 or ! cause1 or an indisp5sable "p ( ! cause1 ( ! ph5om5on4#ce ,! pr9ciple is cle>] & m appreh5sible 9 ! concrete example ?an 9 ! ab/ract /atem5t2 z a matt] ( fact x is appli$ 9 e exp]im5tal se>* = a cause4 ,! ,agricultural ,college ( ,new ,york1 = example1 9 ! c\rse ( c]ta9 exp]im5ts on apple or*>ds1 b\ght an or*>d :i* _h n be5 yield+ well1 & divid$ x into halves2 "o half 0 !n kept pl[$ & cultivat$1 ! o!r half 0 left 9 grass2 o!rwise ! treatm5t 0 ! same4 ,:5 ! half :i* 0 kept cultivat$ gave a mu* l>g] yield ?an ! o!r1 x 0 safe to inf] t ! cultivation 0 ! cause ( ! heavi] yield4 ,dr4 ,ehrli*1 ! great ,g]man pa?ologi/1 is said to h tri$ six hundr$ & five diff]5t sub/ances be=e he f\nd "o :i* w\ld kill ! g]m ( a c]ta9 disease2 9 ea* exp]im5t he 0 us+ ! me?od ( diff]5ce1 keep+ ! conditions ! same 9 all except a s+le po9t1 :i* 0 ! addition ( ! sub/ance us$ 9 t p>ticul> exp]im5t4 ,:]ev] ! conditions ( an exp]im5t c be ?us controll$1 ! me?od ( diff]5ce gives a v accurate way ( discov]+ causes4 ,) advanc+ k a suppos$ cause may be 9 turn analyz$ 9 su* a way t ea* ( its p>ts c be sep>ately v>i$1 9 ord] to come m closely to ! actual sequ5ce involv$4 ,x has be5 po9t$ out#cf t ! two me?ods are really /atem5ts ( :at is requir$ = ! v]ification ( a !ory at two /ages ( its gr[?3 :5 we are fir/ gett+ a glimpse ( a causal connection betwe5 two facts we collect all ! cases 9 :i* !y occur 9 z mu* v>iety z possible1 to see if ! connection is really univ]sal2 !n1 hav+ e/abli%$ ! univ]sal sequ5ce1 we come to close qu>t]s ) x 9 a s+le critical in/ance1 v>y+ ! conditions s+ly until we run d[n ! "o )\t :i* ! effect _c take place4 ,no neat] & m illum9at+ example ( ?is relation betwe5 ! two me?ods & ! successful work+ ( !m c be f\nd ?an t 9 ! article by ,g5]al ,/e9b]g1 ,yell[ ,fev] & ,mosquitoes 7p4 #bea74 ,9 t case fir/ ,dr4 ,c>los ,f9lay ( ,havana1 & !n ,dr4 ,/]nb]g himself1 _h become conv9c$ by comp>+ _m cases ( yell[ fev] t !re 0 "s int]m$iate ho/ = ! bacillus t caus$ ! disease4 ,?is conclusion !y rea*$ ?r\gh ! me?od ( agreem5t4 ,dr4 ,f9lay's exp]im5ts by ! me?od ( diff]5ce _h fail$1 h[ev]1 indisputably to e/abli% ! cause1 s9ce he did n see t x 0 necess>y to all[ ! bacillus at lea/ twelve days = incubation 9 ! body ( ! mosquito4 ,! f9al & def9itive pro(1 :i* came ?r\gh ! spl5did self-devotion ( ! surgeons 9 *>ge ( ! exp]im5t & ( c]ta9 enli/$ m5 :o volunte]$ to be made ! subject ( ! exp]im5t1 0 by ! me?od ( diff]5ce4 ,^! brave m5 all[$ !mselves to be expos$ to mosquitoes :i* _h already bitt5 pati5ts suff]+ f ! fev]1 & !y promptly came d[n ) ! disease2 "o ( !m1 ,dr4 ,laze>1 gave 8 life = 8 devotion to ! cause ( 8 fell[ m54 ,!n o!r m5 7 expos$ 9 a mosquito-pro( room to clo!s & o!r articles br\ght directly f yell[-fev] pati5ts1 & %[$ no ill effects4 ,?us x 0 absolutely prov$1 ?\gh ! bacillus itself _h n be5 f\nd1 t yell[ fev] is c>ri$ by mosquitoes1 & is n c>ri$ by ord9>y contagion4 ,! unsuccessful exp]im5ts ( ,dr4 ,f9lay & ! lat] success ( ,major ,re$ %[ h[ sci5ce advances by ref9em5t ( analysis 9 ! use ( ! me?od4 ,! hypo!sis on :i* ! =m] work$ 0 t all mosquitoes :o _h bitt5 a yell[-fev] pati5t c c>ry ! disease4 ,dr4 ,re$ & 8 associates analyz$ ! ph5om5on m closely & tri$ _! exp]im5ts on ! hypo!sis t only mosquitoes :o h liv$ twelve days aft] bit+ ! pati5t are capable ( pass+ on ! disease4 ,?is ref9em5t ( analysis & obs]vation is ! *ief mode ( advance 9 ! sci5ces :i* dep5d on exp]im5t4 ,sci5tific argum5ts1 !re=e1 make con/ant use ( bo? me?ods4 ,m$ical rese>* frequ5tly beg9s ) ! ga!r+ ( /ati/ics f report$ cases1 & ! !ory or !ories sugge/$ by ! me?od ( agreem5t work+ on ^! facts leads to ! application ( ! me?od ( diff]5ce ?r\gh "s s]ies ( critical exp]im5ts4 ,9 g5]al ! conclusions ( sci5ce :]e exp]im5t _c be us$ dep5d on ! me?od ( agreem5t1 especially 9 ! l>g] !ories 9 biology & geology1 :]e ! lapse ( unnumb]$ c5turies is necess>y to br+ ab\t *anges4 ,9 physics1 9 *emi/ry1 9 m$ic9e1 on ! o!r h&1 critical exp]im5ts are g5]ally possible1 & s progress is by ! me?od ( diff]5ce4 ,9 su* subjects z political sci5ce & gov]nm5t1 :]e exp]im5t is out ( ! "q1 "o mu/ dep5d *iefly on ! me?od ( agreem5t1 except 9 su* cases z w be m5tion$ bel[ :]e a *ange 9 policy has ! same effect z an exp]im5t4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 "o mu/ n =get t 9 all matt]s human ! incalculable clem5t ( human nature ent]s to complicate all results1 & t emotion & feel+ are always irrational4 ,x is by ! same processes t we get mo/ ( our explanations ( ! _w z we g ?r\gh x1 & mo/ ( ! facts on :i* we base judgm5t & action4 ,:5 ! same sort ( ?+ happ5s 9 a numb] ( fairly diff]5t cases1 we beg9 to suspect t !re is a reason2 & if we are go+ to make an argum5t on ! subject1 we take note ( ! cases & try 9 "s way to arrange & tabulate !m4 ,! support]s ( a protective t>iff collect in/ances ( prosp]ity "u su* a t>iff1 ! support]s ( free trade cases ( prosp]ity "u free trade1 ! believ]s 9 ! classical education cases ( m5 tra9$ 9 t way :o h atta9$ to em95ce1 believ]s 9 ! elective sy/em cases ( m5 :o are ! products ( t sy/em :o h atta9$ equal em95ce4 ,9 mo/ cases su* collection ( in/ances does n c>ry y f> t[>d a co]cive argum5t2 ! cases are too complex = y to ass]t t any "o factor is ! cause ( ! result4 ,9 ano!r k9d ( case y c come a little ne>]4 ,9 an argum5t = ! e/abli%m5t ( a commission =m ( gov]nm5t 9 a giv5 city or t[n !re are n[ en\gh cases ( ?is type ( gov]nm5t 9 practice to make possible a good argum5t by ! me?od ( agreem5t2 ! places are scatt]$ ov] ! c\ntry1 nor? & s\?1 ea/ & we/1 & range greatly 9 size & environm5ts2 & all ( !m s f> 7#aiaa7 report improvem5t 9 effici5cy & hone/y ( gov]nm5t4 ,accord+ly x is a fair presumption t ! improvem5t is due to ! introduction ( ! new =m ( gov]nm5t1 s9ce 9 all o!r respects ! places :i* h tri$ x h little 9 common4 ,a m important result ( ! inquiry is to lead u on to an application ( ! me?od ( diff]5ce4 ,/>t+ ) ?is /rong probability t ! improvem5t is due to ! new =m ( gov]nm5t1 we c g a /ep fur!r & exam9e a s+le case1 9 ord] to e/abli% m cle>ly ! sequ5ce ( ev5ts :i* we call a cause4 ,9 ! case ( any giv5 t[n :i* has adopt$ ! commission gov]nm5t ! mat]ial = ! application ( ! me?od ( diff]5ce is ready to our h&s1 if no?+ else has be5 *ang$ 9 ! t[n b ! =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,! inhabitants & ! vot]s are ! same1 ! physical conditions are ! same4 ,if n[ we seek = ! cause ( an admitt$ improvem5t 9 ! adm9i/ration ( ! city affairs1 we are driv5 to ascribe x to ! only factor 9 ! case :i* has be5 *ang$1 & ?is is ! =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,su* an argum5t1 if support$ by figures & specific facts1 is obvi\sly /rong4 ,! same k9d ( argum5t is con/antly us$ 9 ! discussion ( prohibition & local option z a means ( r$uc+ ! am\nt ( liquor consum$ 9 a community1 = ! frequ5t *anges bo? 9 /ates & 9 small] communities provide mat]ial = ! application ( ! same me?od ( diff]5ce4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 ! factors are m complex1 on acc\nt ( diff]5ces 9 ! "* ( ! population 9 diff]5t places1 & _! inh]it$ habits z conc]ns ! use ( w9e1 be]1 & o!r liquors4 #dj4 ,faulty ,g5]alization4 ,bo? g5]alization ?r\gh ! me?od ( agreem5t1 & ! assignm5t ( causes ?r\gh ! me?od ( diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 h _! dang]s1 l all =ms ( reason+4 ,a discussion ( ^! dang]s w ?r[ light on ! processes !mselves4 ,! *ief dang] :5 y reason ?r\gh ! me?od ( agreem5t is ( jump+ to a conclusion too soon1 & be=e y h collect$ en\gh cases = a safe conclusion4 ,?is is to commit ! fallacy kn[n z ha/y g5]alization4 ,x is ! error committ$ by ! dogmatic sort ( globetrott]1 :o aft] six weeks sp5t 9 ,swiss-manag$ hotels 9 ,italy w supply y ) a full set ( op9ions on ! gov]nm5t1 morals1 & cu/oms ( ! c\ntry4 ,9 a less crass =m x affects ! judgm5t ( mo/ ,engli%m5 :o write books ab\t ?is c\ntry1 = !y come ov] ) lett]s ( introduction to ,new ,york1 ,bo/on1 ,*icago1 & ,san ,francisco1 & !n g5]alize ab\t ! re/ ( ! c\ntry & its population4 ,we are all 9 dang] f ! fallacy1 h[ev]1 = x is a necess>y law ( ! m9d t we %all beg9 to make op9ions & judgm5ts on a subject z soon z we become acqua9t$ ) x4 ,! only safegu>ds are1 9 ! fir/ place1 to keep ^! prelim9>y judgm5ts t5tative & fluid1 & 9 ! second1 to keep !m to "o's self until !re is "s ne$ ( express+ !m4 ,! pa? to wisdom 9 action is ?r\gh op5-m9d$ness & caution4 ,:5 "o has to refute an argum5t 9 :i* !re is faulty g5]alization1 x is (t5 easy to po9t out t its au?or _h no suffici5t "t or *ance to make obs]vations1 or to po9t out t ! in/ances on :i* he reli$ are n fair examples ( _! class4 ,9 practice ! /r5g? ( an argum5t 9 :i* ?is error is to be f\nd lies l>gely 9 ! positiv5ess ) :i* x is pron\nc$2 = x is human nature to accept op9ions :i* h an outw>d appe>ance ( c]ta9ty4 ,a n uncommon =m ( faulty g5]alization is to base an argum5t on a m]e enum]ation ( simil> cases4 ,?is is a poor f\ndation = an argum5t1 especially = a probability 9 ! future1 unless ! enum]ation approa*es an exhau/ive li/ ( all possible cases4 ,to h reason$ a few ye>s ago t because ,yale _h beat5 ,h>v>d at r[+ almo/ e ye> = fifte5 ye>s x _h a p]man5t sup]iority 9 ! /r5g? & skill ( its o>sm5 w\ld h be5 dang]\s1 = :5 ! ye>s be=e ! giv5 p]iod 7 look$ up !y w\ld h %[n results ! o!r way4 ,& an enum]ation may run ?r\gh a v long p]iod ( "t1 & /ill 9 ! end be upset4 ,to an inhabitant ( ,c5tral ,africa fifty ye>s ago1 no fact probably appe>$ to re/ on m uni=m exp]i5ce ?an ?is1 t all human be+s are black4 ,to ,europeans n _m ye>s ago1 ! proposition1 ',all swans are :ite1' appe>$ an equally unequivocal in/ance ( uni=mity 9 ! c\rse ( nature4 ,fur!r exp]i5ce has prov$ to bo? t !y 7 mi/ak52 b !y _h to wait fifty c5turies = ?is exp]i5ce4 ,dur+ t long "t1 mank9d believ$ 9 an uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature :]e no su* uni=mity really exi/$4#cg ,unless y h s wide & complete a view ( y\r subject t y c practically insure y\r enum]ation z exhau/ive1 x is n safe to reason t because a ?+ has always happ5$ s 9 ! pa/1 x w always happ5 s 9 ! future4 ,! notori\s difficulty ( prov+ a negative goes back to ?is pr9ciple4 ,s closely l ha/y g5]alization t x _c be cle>ly sep>at$ f x is faulty reason+ t arises f neglect+ exceptions to a g5]al pr9ciple4 ,all our g5]alizations1 except ^? t are s ne> truisms z to be b>r5 ( int]e/1 are m or less r\gh & ready1 & ! process ( ref9+ !m is a process ( f9d+ exceptions & re/at+ ! pr9ciple s t x w meet ! case ( ! exceptions4 ,d>w9 is said to h _h ! p[] ( nev] lett+ exceptions pass unnotic$4 ,e "o notices a fact z an exception :5 x is /rik+ or frequ5t1 b he _h a special in/9ct = arre/+ an exception4#ch ,x 0 ?is in/9ct :i* made him s cauti\s & !re=e s sure 9 ! /atem5t ( 8 hypo!ses3 aft] ! idea ( natural selection z an explanation ( ! orig9 ( ! species ( ! natural _w _h occurr$ to him1 he sp5t tw5ty ye>s collect+ fur!r facts & v]ify+ obs]vations to te/ ! !ory be=e he gave x to ! _w4 ,a g5]alization t ! republican =m ( gov]nm5t produces great] peace & prosp]ity ?an ! mon>*ical w\ld neglect ! obvi\s exceptions 9 ! ,c5tral ,am]ican republics2 & to make x at all t5able ! g5]alization w\ld h to h "s su* proviso z1 among peoples ( ,g]manic race4 ,ev5 !n ! exceptions w\ld be m num]\s ?an ! cases :i* w\ld fall )9 ! rule4#ci ,"o mu/ cultivate respect = facts 9 mak+ !ories3 a !ory %\ld always be held s t5tatively t any new or unnotic$ facts c h _! due influ5ce 9 alt]+ x4 ,( ! errors 9 reason+ ab\t a cause none is m common ?an t kn[n by ! old] logic z po/ hoc1 ergo propt] hoc 7aft] ?is1 !re=e on acc\nt ( x71 or m briefly1 ! po/ hoc fallacy4 ,all ( u :o h a pet rem$y = a cold probably commit ?is fallacy two times out ( ?ree :5 we decl>e t our qu99e or rh9itis or camphor pill has cur$ u2 = z a wise old doctor ( two g5]ations ago decl>$1 & z ! new doctr9es ( m$ical rese>* are mak+ cle>1 9 n9e cases out ( t5 nature cures4 ,( ! same "* are ! common sup]/itions ( daily life1 = example1 t if ?irte5 sit at table toge!r "o w die )9 ! ye>1 or t cross+ a fun]al procession br+s mis=tune4 ,:]e su* sup]/itions are m ?an playfully held1 !y are gross cases ( call+ t a cause :i* has no relation to ! ev5t4 ,"h is ano!r example1 f a lett] to ,! ,nation3#dj ,9 ! la/ volume ( ! ,%akespe>e controv]sy1 ! argum5t pres5t$ ,to ! ,read] seems fairly to be summ>iz$ z foll[s3 ,! plays are recogniz$ z wond]ful2 s*ol>s are amaz$ at ! k ( ! classes 9 !m1 lawy]s at ! law1 travel]s at ! m9ute accuracy ( ! descriptions ( =eign cities2 !y %[ a ke5 critic ( c\rt etiquette & ,fr5* soldi]y2 ! only possible man ( ! "t ) ?is encyclop$ic outlook 0 ,francis ,bacon4 ,bo? 9 ! orig9al & 9 ! summ>y !re seems a casual connection impli$1 namely1 t ! plays are wond]ful because ( ! k1 & because ( ! k ,bacon is ! au?or4 ,b1 /at$ ?us baldly1 ! fallacy is obvi\s4 ,x is n because ! au?or _h by /udy obta9$ ne>ly all ! le>n+ t c\ld be ga9$ f books t ! ,elizabe?ans w5t to see ! plays1 or t we to-day read !m2 b x is because !re is to be f\nd 9 !m wond]ful *>act]ization express$ dramatically1 namely1 be=e an audi5ce4 ,& ?is audi5ce is :at ! s*ol>s seem to =get4 ,= by x is ! dramati/ limit$1 s9ce pr(undity ( ?\ght or skill 9 allusion is good or bad1 arti/ically1 exactly 9 proportion z ! ?\ght is compreh5d$ or ! allusion und]/ood4 ,sometimes ?is fallacy is caus$ by assum+ t because a c]ta9 result foll[$ an ev5t 9 ! only case kn[n1 !re=e !re 0 a causal connection4 ,9 a he>+ be=e a committee ( ! ,massa*usetts legislature on a bill to e/abli% clos] relations betwe5 ,bo/on & its suburbs1 ! "q 0 ask$ ( a witness :e!r he believ$ t 9 ! case ( ,london ! ,london police w\ld h be5 z effici5t z !y are n[ if !re _h be5 no annexation ( ! surr\nd+ t[ns2 he v prop]ly repli$3 ,t's a h>d "q to answ]1 because we h only ! exi/+ side to look at4 ,we don't "k :at x w\ld h be5 z sep>ate communities4 ,:]ev] multiple causes are possible = a ph5om5on x is unsafe to argue f a s+le case4 ,ano!r =m ( error 9 reason+ to a cause is to assume t a fact is simple1 :5 x is really complex1 z 9 ! foll[+ example3 ,i d n ?9k ,i am ov]/epp+ ! b\nds :5 ,i say t ! head%ip ( no corporation1 or /ate1 or ev5 ! head%ip ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 requires great] g5]al ability1 =ce ( "*1 or k ( adm9i/ration ?an ! head ( adm9i/ration ( a great city l ,new ,york or ,b]l94 ,! latt] we "k to be well adm9i/]$1 ! =m]--well1 let u say1 less s4 ,! :ole diff]5ce is 9 ! sy/ems4 ,apply ! ,b]l9 sy/em to ,new ,york1 & y w get ,b]l9 results4 ,"h ! writ] :olly ignores all sorts ( active causes = ?is diff]5ce3 ,b]l9 has a tol]ably homog5e\s population1 ,new ,york ! mo/ het]og5e\s 9 ! _w2 ,g]mans by nature respect law & au?ority1 & hank] = c5tralization2 ,am]icans make & break laws light-he>t$ly1 & are re/ive "u au?ority2 & "o might easily g fur!r4 ,argum5ts t national prosp]ity has foll[$ a high] or a l[] t>iff are especially apt to be vitiat$ by ?is error4 ,x is n t ! t>iff has no relation to ! prosp]ity1 b t !re are o!r causes int]m+l$ ) x :i* may h _h m imm$iate effect4 ,a bad gra9 crop or a season ( reckless speculation may oblit]ate all ! traceable causes ( a *ange 9 ! t>iff4 ,argum5ts f motive1 too1 are apt to fall into ?is error4 ,x is notori\s t human motives are mix$4 ,if y argue t a :ole class ( bus9ess organizations are evil because !y h be5 =m$ solely = ! purpose ( mak+ inord9ate & oppressive pr(its1 y leave out ( sight a motive :i* is /rong among ,am]ican bus9ess m5--! int]e/ 9 see+ a great bus9ess m effici5tly manag$1 & ! desire to ex]cise p[] b5efic5tly2 & y\r argum5t suff]s f its illegitimate assumption ( a simple cause4 ,s 9 ! same way if y are argu+ = or aga9/ ! advantages ( ! elective sy/em 9 a s*ool or a college1 or ( a classical education1 or ( a?letics1 x w\ld be folly to assume t any "o cause or effect cov]$ ! :ole case4 ,:5ev] 9 an argum5t y are try+ to e/abli% any su* l>ge & complex fact1 y mu/ be w>y le/ y ?us assume a s+le cause :]e 9 reality !re are a legion ( causes4 #da4 ,d$uctive ,logic--! ,syllogism4 ,d$uctive logic1 z we h se51 deals ) reason+ :i* passes f g5]al pr9ciples to individual cases4 ,its typical =m is ! syllogism1 9 :i* we pass f two propositions :i* are giv5 to a ?ird1 ! conclusion4 ,( ! two =m] "o is a g5]al pr9ciple1 ! o!r an ass]tion ( a p>ticul> case4 ,! classic example ( ! syllogism1 :i* />t$ ) ,ari/otle & has gr[n ho>y ) repetition1 & s v5]able t x is "o ( ! commonplaces ( educat$ spee*1 runs z foll[s3 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,socrates is a man1 ,!re=e ,socrates is mortal4 ,"h !re is ! g5]al pr9ciple1 ,all m5 are mortal1 & ! ass]tion ab\t ! p>ticul> case1 ,socrates is a man4 ,! two h "o t]m 9 common1 m5 7or m /rictly1 ! class ,man71 :i* is kn[n z ! middle t]m1 ?r\gh :i* we rea* ! conclusion t ! *>act]i/ic ( mortality 9 :i* all m5 are simil> is true also ( ,socrates1 by virtue ( 8 be+ a man4 ,( ! o!r t]ms1 mortal1 :i* is ! m inclusive1 is kn[n z ! major t]m1 & ,socrates1 ! less inclusive1 z ! m9or t]m4 ,! fir/ two propositions are ! premises1 t :i* conta9s ! major t]m be+ kn[n z ! major premise1 & ! o!r z ! m9or premise4 ,! validity ( ! syllogism lies1 z ,i h said1 9 ! ass]tion ( a g5]al pr9ciple1 & ! br++ ( ! p>ticul> case 9 h& "u t pr9ciple3 if ! pr9ciple is grant$ z incontrov]tible1 & ! special case z really com+ "u x1 ! conclusion is inevitable4 ,on ! syllogism 9 its v>i\s =ms d$uctive logic has built up an impos+ /ructure ( rules & conclusions4 ,9 practice ! value ( ! syllogism is l>gely indirect4 ,! tr\ble ) x 9 itself z a mode ( progress 9 reason+ is tw(old3 9 ! fir/ place !re are v few g5]al pr9ciples :i*1 if y are cauti\s1 y w accept )\t res]vations2 & 9 ! second place ! crucial "q 9 ano!r set ( cases is :e!r ! giv5 case really falls "u ! g5]al pr9ciple4 ,! syllogism1 ,all great /atesm5 are f>sight$1 ,daniel ,web/] 0 a great /atesman1 ,!re=e ,daniel ,web/] 0 f>sight$1 s\nds simple2 b two g5]ations h disagre$ on ! "q :e!r ,web/] 0 a great /atesman2 & bo? great /atesman & f>sight$ are su* vague & inclusive t]ms t "o w\ld ei!r accept a g5]al pr9ciple ( :i* !y are t]ms z a h>mless truism1 or else balk at be+ ask$ to grant a proposition :i* might h unexpect$ mean+s ?ru/ into x4 ,?is d\ble difficulty pursues ! syllogism z a device = =w>d+ k3 ei!r x sets =? a tru? s l>ge & vague t y _c say :e!r y accept x = all cases or n1 or else ! disagreem5t comes on "o ( ! premises1 & unless bo? ! premises are grant$1 /rictly syllogi/ic reason+ does n get "u way4 ,nev]!less1 ! syllogism has great practical value = ! reason+ & argum5ts ( ev]yday life3 9 ! fir/ place x af=ds a means ( exp&+ & scrut9iz+ ! cond5s$ =ms ( reason+ :i* are s common & s useful2 & 9 ! second place x c be us$ to sum up & /ate ! results ( a c\rse ( reason+ 9 incontrov]tible =m4 ,i %all exam9e & illu/rate bo? ^! uses ( ! syllogism2 b fir/ ,i %all give c]ta9 rules :i* gov]n all s\nd reason+ ?r\gh syllogisms4 ,!y 7 inv5t$ by ,ari/otle1 ! great ,greek philosoph]4 #db4 ,! ,rules ( ! ,syllogism4 7,a t]m is said to be di/ribut$1 or tak5 univ]sally1 :5 ! proposition ( :i* x is a "p makes a /atem5t ab\t all ! objects includ$ 9 ! t]m4 ,9 ! proposition ,all m5 are mortal1 ! t]m m5 is obvi\sly di/ribut$1 b mortals is n2 = no ass]tion is made ab\t all mortals b only ab\t ^? t are includ$ "u all m54 ,9 ! proposition ,no h5s are intellig5t1 bo? t]ms are di/ribut$2 = ! ass]tion cov]s all h5s1 & also ! :ole class ( intellig5t be+s1 s9ce x is ass]t$ ( ! class z a :ole t x conta9s no h5s47 ,i4 ,a syllogism mu/ conta9 ?ree t]ms1 & n m ?an ?ree t]ms4 ,?is rule is to be und]/ood z gu>d+ aga9/ ambiguity1 especially 9 ! middle t]m2 if ! middle t]m1 or ei!r ( ! o!rs1 c be und]/ood 9 two ways1 ! syllogism w n hold wat]4 ,,ii4 ,a syllogism mu/ consi/ ( ?ree & only ?ree propositions4 ,! reasons = ?is rule are suffici5tly obvi\s4 ,,iii4 ,! middle t]m ( ! syllogism mu/ be di/ribut$ at lea/ once 9 ! premises4 ,if x 7 n ?us di/ribut$ or tak5 univ]sally1 ! two premises might ref] to sep>ate p>ts ( ! middle t]m1 & s !re w\ld be no meet+ gr\nd on :i* to =m ! conclusion4 ,9 ! syllogism1 ,all good a?letes l5d a clean life1 ,^! m5 lead a clean life1 ,!re=e ^! m5 are good a?letes1 ! fallacy lies 9 ! fact t 9 nei!r premise is any ass]tion made ab\t all m5 :o lead a clean life4 ,?is fallacy1 :i* is n uncommon 9 practice :]e ! t]ms are complicat$1 is kn[n z ! fallacy ( ! undi/ribut$ middle4 ,,iv4 ,no t]m mu/ be di/ribut$ 9 ! conclusion unless x 0 di/ribut$ 9 at lea/ "o ( ! premises4 ,9 o!r words1 if y h premises :i* deal ) "p ( a class only1 y _c rea* a conclusion ab\t ! :ole class4 ,9 ! syllogism1 ,all newspap] editors "k h[ to write1 ,all newspap] editors are paid1 ,!re=e all m5 :o "k h[ to write are paid1 ! fallacy is obvi\s4 ,b 9 ! foll[+1 ,all bitt] p>tisans are dang]\s citiz5s1 ,?is man is n a bitt] p>tisan1 ,!re=e ?is man is n a dang]\s citiz51 "o may h to scrut9ize ! reason+ a little to see t ! fallacy lies 9 ! fact t dang]\s citiz5 is tak5 univ]sally 9 ! conclusion1 s9ce a proposition ) a negative pr$icate makes an ass]tion ab\t ! :ole ( its pr$icate1 b t x is n tak5 univ]sally 9 ! premise 9 :i* x occurs4 ,a fallacy :i* ?us arises f n notic+ t a negative pr$icate di/ributes its t]m is apt to be insidi\s4 ,v4 ,no conclusion c be drawn f two negative premises4 ,9 o!r words1 if bo? ! major t]m & ! m9or t]m lie outside ! middle t]m1 ! syllogism gives u no means ( kn[+ :at _! relation is to ea* o!r4 ,! foll[+ example w make ! reason cle>3 ,no amateur a?lete has a sal>y = play+1 ,john ,gorman is n an amateur a?lete1 ,!re=e ,john ,gorman has a sal>y = play+4 ,,vi4 ,if "o ( ! premises is negative1 ! conclusion mu/ be negative4 ,if ( ! major & m9or premise "o is negative1 !n ei!r ! major or ! m9or t]m does n agree ) ! middle t]m1 & ! o!r does2 !re=e ! major & m9or t]m _c agree ) ea* o!r4 #dc4 ,! ,syllogism 9 ,practical ,use4 ,! practical value ( ! syllogism & its rules comes 9 ! fir/ place1 z ,i h said1 :5 we exp& a cond5s$ =m ( reason+ into its full gr\nds 9 ! =m ( a syllogism4 ,our reason$ judgm5ts ord9>ily take ! %ort5$ =m1 ,socrates is mortal1 because he is a man2 ,! ,corporation ,tax ,bill is con/itutional1 because x is a tax on a way ( do+ bus9ess4 ,9 ea* ( ^! cases we are reason+ f a g5]al pr9ciple1 :i* is previ\sly e/abli%$1 & f a p>ticul> way ( conceiv+ ! special fact be=e u1 b we assume ! g5]al pr9ciple z und]/ood4 ,9 ! cases above ! mean+ is cle> )\t decl>+ at l5g?1 ,all m5 are mortal1 or ,all taxes on a way ( do+ bus9ess are con/itutional4 ,at any "t1 h[ev]1 :5 y f9d a piece ( reason+ 9 ?is cond5s$ =m1 :e!r y\r own or "s "o else's1 :i* seems to y suspici\s1 if y exp& x into a full syllogism y w h all its p>ts laid b>e = scrut9y4 ,take1 = example1 ! ass]tion1 ,rob9son ,crusoe mu/ be a true /ory1 = ev]y?+ 9 x is s m9utely describ$3 if y exp& x into ! full syllogism1 ,all books 9 :i* ! description is m9ute are true1 ,rob9son ,crusoe is a book 9 :i* ! description is m9ute1 ,!re=e ,rob9son ,crusoe is true1 y w\ld at once /ick at ! major premise4 ,s :]e y suspect an ambiguity 9 ! use ( t]ms1 y c br+ x to ! surface1 if x is !re1 by ! same sort ( expansion4 ,9 ! argum5t1 ,ba*elors %\ld be puni%$1 because !y break a law ( nature1 ! ambiguity becomes obvi\s :5 y exp&3 ,all law break]s %\ld be puni%$1 ,ba*elors break a law ( nature1 ,!re=e ba*elors %\ld be puni%$2 at once y see t law is us$ 9 two s5ses1 "o ! law ( ! l&1 ! o!r ! /atem5t ( a uni=mity 9 nature4 ,9 ! argum5t1 ,^! m5 are good citiz5s1 = !y take an int]e/ 9 politics1 ! expansion to ,all good citiz5s are int]e/$ 9 politics1 ,^! m5 are int]e/$ 9 politics1 ,!re=e ^! m5 are good citiz5s1#da %[s t ! reason+ conta9s a brea* ( ! ?ird rule ( ! syllogism 7see p4 #adh7 & is !re=e a case ( ! fallacy ( ! undi/ribut$ middle4 ,:5ev] y make or f9d an ass]tion ) a reason atta*$ by su* a ^w z s9ce1 =1 or because1 or an ass]tion ) a consequ5ce atta*$ by a ^w l !re=e1 h5ce1 or accord+ly1 y h a case ( ?is cond5s$ reason+1 :i*1 !oretically at any rate1 y c exp& into a full syllogism1 & s g ov] ! reason+ l9k by l9k4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 ! expansion is f> f easy1 = 9 _m ( ! practical exig5cies ( ev]yday life our judgm5ts are intuitive1 & n reason$4 ,9 su* judgm5ts we jump to a conclusion by an in>ticulate1 unreason$ feel+ ( :at is true or exp$i5t1 & ! gr\nds ( ! feel+ may be s %ad[y & complex t !y c nev] be adequately display$4 ,ov] imm5se dep>tm5ts ( our ?\ght we are /ill1 all ( u1 9 ! savage /ate4 ,simil>ity op]ates 9 u1 b ab/raction has n tak5 place4 ,we "k :at ! pres5t case is l1 we "k :at x rem9ds u (1 we h an intuition ( ! "r c\rse to take1 if x be a practical matt]4 ,b analytic ?\ght has made no tracks1 & we _c ju/ify ourselves to o!rs4 ,9 e?ical1 psy*ological1 & ae/hetic matt]s1 to give a cle> reason = "o's judgm5t is univ]sally recogniz$ z a m>k ( r>e g5ius4 ,! helplessness ( un$ucat$ p to acc\nt = _! likes & dislikes is (t5 ludicr\s4 ,ask ! fir/ ,iri% girl :y %e likes ?is c\ntry bett] or worse ?an h] home1 & see h[ mu* %e c tell y4 ,b if y ask y\r mo/ educat$ fri5d :y he pref]s ,titian to ,paul ,v]onese1 y w h>dly get m ( a reply2 & y w probably get absolutely none if y inquire :y ,bee?ov5 rem9ds him ( ,mi*ael ,angelo1 or h[ x comes t a b>e figure ) unduly flex$ jo9ts1 by ! latt]1 c s sugge/ ! moral trag$y ( life4444 ,! well-kn[n /ory ( ! old judge advis+ ! new "o nev] to give reasons = 8 decisions1 '! decisions w probably be "r1 ! reasons w surely be wrong1' illu/rates ?is4 ,! doctor w feel t ! pati5t is doom$1 ! d5ti/ w h a premonition t ! too? w break1 ?\gh nei!r c articulate a reason = 8 =ebod+4 ,! reason lies emb$d$1 b n yet laid b>e1 9 all ! previ\s cases dimly sugge/$ by ! actual "o1 all call+ up ! same conclusion1 :i* ! adept ?us f9ds himself swept on to1 he kn[s n h[ or :y4#db ,! small boy :o said t he c\ld n keep /ep because he _h a cold 9 8 head 0 rely+ on a s\nd g5]al tru?1 ,colds 9 ! head make "o /upid1 = 8 major premise1 b 8 condition prev5t$ 8 dis5tangl+ x2 & all ( u e day use m9or premises = :i* we %\ld be incapable ( /at+ ! major4 ,a second practical use ( ! syllogism is to set =? a *a9 ( reason+ 9 incontrov]tible =m4 ,if y h a g5]al pr9ciple :i* is grant$1 & h e/abli%$ ! fact t y\r case c]ta9ly falls "u x1 y c make an effective summ+ up by ?r[+ ! reason+ into ! =m ( a syllogism4 ,conv]sely1 y c use a syllogism to br+ out "s ess5tial "p ( ! reason+ ( an oppon5t :i* y "k w n comm5d itself to ! audi5ce1 z did ,l9coln 9 8 debate ) ,d\glas at ,galesburg4 ,d\glas _h def5d$ ! ,dr$ ,scott decision ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,supreme ,c\rt1 :i* decid$ t ! "r ( prop]ty 9 a slave is affirm$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,con/itution4 ,l9coln wi%$ to make ! consequ5ces ( ?is doctr9e z gl>+ly evid5t z possible4 ,he did s z foll[s3 ,i ?9k x foll[s1 & ,i submit to ! consid]ation ( m5 capable ( argu+1 :e!r z ,i /ate x1 9 syllogi/ic =m1 ! argum5t has any fault 9 x4 ,no?+ 9 ! ,con/itution or laws ( any ,/ate c de/roy a "r di/9ctly & expressly affirm$ 9 ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! "r ( prop]ty 9 a slave is di/9ctly & expressly affirm$ 9 ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!re=e1 no?+ 9 ! ,con/itution or laws ( any ,/ate c de/roy ! "r ( prop]ty 9 a slave4 ,i believe t no fault c be po9t$ out 9 t argum5t2 assum+ ! tru? ( ! premises1 ! conclusion1 s f> z ,i h capacity at all to und]/& x1 foll[s inevitably4#dc ,l9coln knew t ?is doctr9e t no /ate c\ld int]f]e ) slav]y w\ld be intol]able to ! p ( ,ill9ois1 be=e :om he 0 c>ry+ on 8 campaign2 & ?is syllogism made cle> to !m ! consequ5ces ( ! decision ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt4 ,or y c use a syllogism to make obvi\s a flaw 9 ! reason+ ( y\r oppon5t1 z 9 ! foll[+ example3 ,9 view ( ! hi/ory ( commission gov]nm5t 9 ?is c\ntry s f> z x has be5 made1 ! burd5 ( pro( re/s ) ^? :o attempt to %[ t a gov]nm5t :i* has be5 s successful 9 cities ( mod]ate size w n be successful 9 our l>ge/ cities4 ,! syllogism !y are requir$ to prove runs briefly ?us3 ,commission gov]nm5t is ackn[l$g$ to h be5 successful 9 cities z l>ge z "o hundr$ & ?irty ?\s& inhabitants1 b ,x has n be5 tri$ 9 cities conta9+ m ?an "o hundr$ & ?irty ?\s& inhabitants2 ,!re=e1 x w n be successful 9 cities ( f\r hundr$ ?\s& or l>g]1 :i* is a r$uctio ad absurdum4 ,! folly ( ! attempt is %[n by ! v /atem5t ( ! conclusion4#dd #dd4 ,! ,dilemma4 ,"o special =m ( ! syllogism is at times s /rong an argum5t t x des]ves special m5tion "h1 namely1 ! dilemma4 ,?is is a syllogism 9 :i* ! major premise consi/s ( two or m hypo!tical propositions 7t is1 propositions ) an if clause7 & ! m9or ( a disjunctive proposition 7a proposition ) two or m clauses connect$ by or74 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! ,l9coln-,d\glas debate a "q 0 put by ,l9coln to ,d\glas1 z foll[s3 ,c ! p ( a ,unit$ ,/ates t]ritory 9 any lawful way1 aga9/ ! wi% ( any citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 exclude slav]y f its limits1 prior to ! =mation ( a /ate con/itution8 ,! "q may be view$ z ! s\rce ( a dilemma1 bo? 9 ! practical & 9 ! syllogi/ic s5se ( ! t]m4 ,9 fact x involv$ a situation :i*1 syllogi/ically1 compris$ m ?an "o dilemma4 ,!y may be /at$ z foll[s3 ,i4 ,if ,d\glas answ]s yes1 he (f5ds ! ,s\?1 & if he answ]s no1 he (f5ds ! ,nor?2 ,b he mu/ answ] ei!r yes or no2 ,!re=e he w (f5d ei!r ! ,s\? or ! ,nor?4 ,,ii4 ,if ,d\glas (f5ds ! ,s\?1 he loses ! nom9ation = ! ,presid5cy 9 ! next conv5tion2 & if he (f5ds ! ,nor?1 he loses ! election to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,s5ator%ip 7& 8 *ances = ! ,presid5cy72 ,b he mu/ (f5d ei!r ! ,s\? or ! ,nor?2 ,!re=e he loses ei!r ! ,presid5cy or ! ,s5ator%ip4 ,or1 ,,iii4 ,if ,d\glas (f5ds ! ,s\?1 he _c become ,presid5t2 & if he (f5ds ! ,nor?1 he _c become ,presid5t2 ,b he mu/ (f5d ei!r ! ,s\? or ! ,nor?2 ,!re=e he _c become ,presid5t4#de ,! dilemma1 if x leaves no hole = ! o!r side to creep ?r\gh1 is an extremely effective argum5t 9 politics & 9 competitive debate4 ,if y c ?us get y\r adv]s>y betwe5 ! devil & ! deep sea on a po9t t 9 ! eyes ( y\r audi5ce is int]e/+ & critical1 y h crippl$ 8 case4 ,b if ! po9t is n mom5t\s1 ?\gh y\r audi5ce may f9d ! dilemma amus+1 y run ! risk ( ! reproa* ( sm>tness if y cr[ v l\dly ov] x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a dilemma t is n exhau/ive w hold no "o4 ,_m ( ! argum5ts aga9/ ! imposition ( a f$]al tax on corporations assum$ t if ! tax 7 impos$ x w\ld soon be made unreasonable 9 am\nt4 ,mo/ argum5ts t ! o!r side w abuse any p[] t is giv5 to !m may be reg>d$ z fall+ into ! class ( incomplete dilemma4 ,a speak] :o uses a leaky dilemma mu/ h great confid5ce 9 ! un9tellig5ce ( 8 audi5ce1 b x is surpris+ to see h[ (t5 su* dilemmas occur 9 political debates4 #de4 ,reason+ f ,circum/antial ,evid5ce4 ,! ?ird type ( reason+ f simil>ity nam$ on page #abj is reason+ f circum/antial evid5ce4 ,! t]m is famili> to e "o f murd] trials & detective /ories4 ,web/]'s argum5t 9 ! ,:ite ,murd] ,case1 f :i* ,i pr9t a %ort extract on page #aeg1 is a fam\s example ( an argum5t on circum/antial evid5ce2 & 9 fiction ,sir ,conan ,doyle has creat$ = our delectation _m notable & +5i\s cases ( x4 ,b reason+ f circum/antial evid5ce is f> f be+ conf9$ to crim9al cases & fiction2 z ,huxley po9ts out 7see p4 #bda71 x is also ! basis ( "s ( ! broade/ & mo/ illum9at+ g5]alizations ( sci5ce2 & ! example bel[ f ,macaulay is only "o ( innum]able cases ( its use 9 hi/ory4 ,reason+ f circum/antial evid5ce diff]s f reason+ f analogy or g5]alization 9 t x re/s on simil>ities rea*+ out 9 a numb] ( sep>ate directions1 all ( :i*1 h[ev]1 conv]ge on ! case 9 h&4 ,?is conv]g5ce is po9t$ out by ,macaulay 9 ! foll[+ admirable little argum5t on ! au?or%ip ( ! ,junius ,lett]s1 :i* 7 a s]ies ( pseudonym\s & malignant attacks on ! ,briti% gov]nm5t ab\t #aggj3 ,0 he ,francis ! au?or ( ! ,lett]s ( ,junius8 ,our own firm belief is t he 04 ,! evid5ce is1 we ?9k1 su* z w\ld support a v]dict 9 a civil1 nay1 9 a crim9al proce$+4 ,! h&writ+ ( ,junius is ! v peculi> h&writ+ ( ,francis1 slightly disguis$4 ,z to ! position1 pursuits1 & connections ( ,junius1 ! foll[+ are ! mo/ important facts :i* c be consid]$ z cle>ly prov$3 fir/1 t he 0 acqua9t$ ) ! te*nical =ms ( ! secret>y ( /ate's (fice2 secondly1 t he 0 intimately acqua9t$ ) ! bus9ess ( ! w> (fice2 ?irdly1 t he1 dur+ ! ye> #aggj1 att5d$ debates 9 ! ,h\se ( ,lords1 & look notes ( spee*es1 p>ticul>ly ( ! spee*es ( ,"l ,*a?am2 f\r?ly1 t he bitt]ly res5t$ ! appo9tm5t ( ,mr4 ,*ami] to ! place ( deputy secret>y-at-w>2 fif?ly1 t he 0 b\nd by "s /rong tie to ! fir/ ,"l ,holl&4 ,n[1 ,francis pass$ "s ye>s 9 ! secret>y ( /ate's (fice4 ,he 0 subsequ5tly *ief cl]k ( ! w> (fice4 ,he repeat$ly m5tion$ t he _h himself1 9 #aggj1 he>d spee*es ( ,"l ,*a?am2 & "s ( ^! spee*es 7 actually pr9t$ f 8 notes4 ,he resign$ 8 cl]k%ip at ! w> (fice f res5tm5t at ! appo9tm5t ( ,mr4 ,*ami]4 ,x 0 by ,"l ,holl& t he 0 fir/ introduc$ into ! public s]vice4 ,n[1 "h are five m>ks all ( :i* ought to be f\nd 9 ,junius4 ,!y are all five f\nd 9 ,francis4 ,we d n believe t m ?an two ( !m c be f\nd 9 any o!r p]son :atev]4 ,if ?is agreem5t does n settle ! "q1 !re is an end ( all reason+ on circum/antial evid5ce4#df ,"h ! five po9ts or m>ks ( simil>ity betwe5 ! writ] ( ! lett]s & ,philip ,francis are ( su* div]sity t x w\ld be an extraord9>y co9cid5ce if !re _h happ5$ to be two m5 :om !y w\ld fit3 :]e s _m l9es conv]ge s closely at a s+le po9t x w\ld h>dly be possible = !m to meet on m ?an "o p]son4 ,! foll[+ brief extract f ,web/]'s argum5t 9 ! ,:ite ,murd] ,case %[s ! same sort ( conv]g5ce ( simil>ities3 ea* circum/ance 9 itself is h>dly /rong en\gh to furni% gr\nd = an argum5t on analogy1 b tak5 all toge!r !y po9t irresi/ibly 9 "o direction1 namely1 to ! fact ( a conspiracy4 ,let me ask y\r att5tion1 !n1 9 ! fir/ place1 to ^? appe>ances1 on ! morn+ aft] ! murd]1 :i* h a t5d5cy to %[ t x 0 done 9 pursuance ( a preconc]t$ plan ( op]ation4 ,:at are !y8 ,a man 0 f\nd murd]$ 9 8 b$4 ,no /rang] _h done ! de$1 no "o unacqua9t$ ) ! h\se _h done x4 ,x 0 app>5t t somebody )9 _h op5$1 & t somebody )\t _h ent]$4 ,!re _h obvi\sly & c]ta9ly be5 conc]t & coop]ation4 ,! inmates ( ! h\se 7 n al>m$ :5 ! murd] 0 p]petrat$4 ,! assass9 _h ent]$ )\t any riot or any viol5ce4 ,he _h f\nd ! way prep>$ be=e him4 ,! h\se _h be5 previ\sly op5$4 ,! w9d[ 0 unb>r$ f )91 & its fa/5+ unscrew$4 ,!re 0 a lock on ! door ( ! *amb] 9 :i* ,mr4 ,:ite slept1 b ! key 0 gone4 ,x _h be5 tak5 away & secret$4 ,! foot/eps ( ! murd]] 7 visible1 outdoors1 t5d+ t[>d ! w9d[4 ,! plank by :i* he ent]$ ! w9d[ /ill rema9$4 ,! road he pursu$ _h ?us be5 prep>$ = him4 ,! victim 0 sla91 & ! murd]] _h escap$4 ,ev]y?+ indicat$ t somebody )9 _h coop]at$ ) somebody )\t4 ,ev]y?+ proclaim$ t "s ( ! inmates1 or somebody hav+ access to ! h\se1 _h _h a h& 9 ! murd]4 ,on ! face ( ! circum/ances1 x 0 app>5t1 !re=e1 t ?is 0 a prem$itat$1 conc]t$ murd]2 t !re _h be5 a conspiracy to commit x4#dg ,! /r5g? ( reason+ f circum/antial evid5ce lies 9 ! numb] & ! div]sity ( ! po9ts ( simil>ity to ! po9t 9 h&4 ,if !re are few ( !m1 ! possibility ( co9cid5ce increases1 z x also does :5 ! po9ts ( simil>ity come f ! same s\rce or are ( ! same nature4 ,?is possibility ( co9cid5ce is a good r\gh te/ ( ! value ( reason+ f circum/antial evid5ce3 :]e ! !ory ( a co9cid5ce w\ld /ret* all probabilities "o may safely leave x out ( acc\nt4 ,9 practice ! argum5t f circum/antial evid5ce is m frequ5t 9 ! exp]i5ce ( lawy]s ?an 9 t ( o!r m52 b soon] or lat] ev]ybody has to pass on su* reason+1 = :]ev] direct evid5ce is out ( ! "q x may be necess>y to piece ! situation toge!r by circum/antial evid5ce4 ,!re is "s prejudice aga9/ su* evid5ce1 spr++ f report$ cases ( misc>riage ( ju/ice 9 convictions bas$ on x4 ,su* cases1 h[ev]1 are v r>e 9 reality1 & probably d n equal 9 numb] ! cases 9 :i* mi/ak5 or false direct te/imony has caus$ inju/ice4 #df4 ,"s ,pitfalls ( ,reason+--,ambiguity4 ,i h already spok5 ( "s ( ! dang]s to :i* reason+ is subject--false analogy1 faulty g5]alization ( v>i\s k9ds1 & v>i\s s9s aga9/ ! rules ( ! syllogism4 ,!re are /ill a few g5]al dang]s to speak ab\t4 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! v>i\s k9ds ( fallacies run into ea* o!r1 & n infrequ5tly a giv5 piece ( bad reason+ c be describ$ "u m ?an "o ( !m4 ,( all ! s\rces ( faulty & mislead+ reason+1 ambiguity is ! mo/ fruitful & ! mo/ inclusive4 ,x spr+s f ! facts t words1 except ^? :i* are almo/ te*nically specific1 are con/antly us$ 9 m ?an "o s5se1 & t a great _m ( ! words :i* we use 9 ev]yday life are ess5tially vague 9 mean+4 ,su* common words z lib]ty1 "r1 g5tleman1 bett]1 classic1 honor1 & innum]able o!rs ea* ne$ a treatise = any ?or\gh def9ition2 & !n ! def9ition1 if complete1 w\ld be l>gely a tabulation ( p]fectly prop] s5ses 9 :i* ! words c be us$1 or a li/ ( ! ways 9 :i* diff]5t p h us$ !m4 ,besides ?is notori\s vagu5ess ( _m common words1 a good _m words1 z ,i h already %[n 7p4 #ed71 h two or m di/9ct & def9able mean+s4 ,/rictly speak+1 ! ambiguity does n inh]e 9 ! ^w itself1 b r 9 its use 9 an ass]tion1 s9ce ambiguity c arise only :5 we are mak+ an ass]tion4 ,x has be5 def9$ z ! neglect ( di/9ctions 9 ! mean+ ( t]ms1 :5 ^! di/9ctions are important = ! giv5 occasion4#dh ,suppose1 = example1 y are argu+ aga9/ a c]ta9 improvem5t 9 a college dormitory1 on ! gr\nd t x makes = luxury3 cle>ly luxury is a ^w t may mean "o ?+ to y1 & ano!r to half ( y\r audi5ce4 ,by itself x is an indef9ite ^w1 except 9 its emotional implication2 & its mean+ v>ies ) ! p conc]n+ :om x is us$1 s9ce :at w\ld be luxury = a boy br\ght up on a f>m w\ld be b>e com=t to ! son ( weal?y p>5ts 9 ! city4 ,inde$ ! advances ( plumb+ 9 ! la/ g5]ation h completely *ang$ ! relative mean+s ( ! words com=t & luxury s f> z !y conc]n ba?rooms & ba?tubs4 ,9 ! case ( su* a ^w1 !n1 ! weight ( ! def9ition above falls on ! la/ clause1 :5 ^! di/9ctions are important = ! giv5 occasion2 "h is a case :]e ! occasion on :i* ! ^w luxury is us$ det]m9es ne>ly ! :ole ( its mean+4 ,9 practice1 if y h a suspicion t a ^w may be tak5 9 ano!r s5se ?an t y int5d1 ! fir/ ?+ to d is to def9e x--to lay d[n z exactly z possible ! cases :i* x is int5d$ to cov] on ! pres5t occasion1 & ! mean+ x is to h 9 ^? cases4 ,= good examples ( ?is enlight5$ caution1 see ! def9itions on pages #ed-fe1 especially t f ,bag*ot4 ,a simil> difficulty arises ) ! words :i*1 9 ! some:at slip%od use ( ev]yday life1 h come to h z x 7 a slid+ value4 ,we may raise no difficulty ab\t und]/&+ ! ass]tions t ,br[n1 & ,jones1 & ,rob9son are hone/1 b :5 we come to ! case ( ,smi? we discov] a difficulty 9 plac+ him cle>ly on ei!r side ( ! l9e4 ,t difficulty is no?+ less ?an ! difficulty ( kn[+ ! mean+ giv5 to ! ^w 9 ?is p>ticul> ass]tion4 ,we might1 = in/ance1 agree to mean by ,smi?'s hone/y t no %ady transactions c\ld be legally prov$ aga9/ him1 or t he is hone/ accord+ to 8 lights1 or aga9 t he is ab\t z hone/ z ! majority ( 8 neighbors or ! av]age ( 8 trade or pr(ession4#di ,t ?is is n a fanciful case c be %[n by notic+ h[ (t5 we speak ( transp>5t hone/y1 or ( absolute hone/y3 ?is is notably "o ( ! words = :i* we h a slid+ scale ( values1 :i* v>y consid]ably ) ! age & ! community4 ,political hone/y has a v diff]5t mean+ 9 ! ,engl& ( to-day f t :i* x _h 9 ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,to get at ! exact mean+ ( hone/y1 !n1 ei!r = ,mr4 ,sidgwick's ,br[n1 ,jones1 ,rob9son1 & ,smi?1 or = ,mr4 ,asqui? & ,mr4 ,balf\r z comp>$ ) ,walpole or ,pitt1 we ne$ a good deal m ?an a diction>y def9ition4 ,:at has already be5 said 7p4 #fe7 on ! use ( ! hi/ory ( ! case to get a prelim9>y und]/&+ ( ! "q :i* is to be argu$1 & ! t]ms to be us$ 9 x1 applies all ?r\gh ! reason+ involv$ 9 ! argum5t4 ,scrut9ize all ! t]ms y use y\rself1 z well z ^? us$ 9 argum5ts on ! o!r side4 ,i h already po9t$ out ! ambiguity !re is 9 ! emotional implications ( words2 b ! dang] f x is s subtle & s besett+ t x w be wor? :ile to dwell on x aga94 ,!re are _m cases 9 :i* !re is no d\bt z to ! d5otation ( ! ^w1--! cases :i* x is int5d$ to "n1--b 9 :i* ! two sides to a controv]sy use ! ^w ) a totally diff]5t effect on _! own & o!r p's feel+s4 ,be=e ! ,civil ,w> pretty mu* ! :ole ,s\? _h come to use ! ^w slav]y z imply+ "o ( ! settl$ in/itutions ( ! c\ntry1 m or less sanctifi$ by div9e ord9ance2 at ! same "t a l>ge portion ( ! ,nor? _h come to look on x z an abom9ation to ! ,"l4 ,"h !re 0 no d\bt z to ! d5otation ( ! ^w2 b 9 a highly important respect x 0 ambigu\s1 because x impli$ a totally diff]5t reaction among ! p :o us$ x4 ,9 a case :]e ! contra/ is s gl>+ !re is little dang] ( confusion2 b !re are a good _m cases :]e a ^w may h v diff]5t effects on ! feel+s ( an audi5ce )\t ! fact com+ v cle>ly to ! surface4 ,lib]al is to mo/ ,am]icans a t]m imply+ praise1 s f> z x goes2 to ,c>d9al ,newman x impli$ :at 7 to him ! irrev]5t & dang]\s h]esies ( free ?\ght1 & !re=e 9 8 m\? x 0 a ^w ( condemnation4#ej ,ae/hetic to _m good p has an implication ( effem9acy & ( trifl+ :i* is f> f praisewor?y2 to arti/s & critics x may sum up :at is mo/ admirable 9 civilization4 ,if 9 an argum5t on aboli%+ football z an int]collegiate sport y describe a c]ta9 game z play$ ) _s & fi]c5ess1 football play]s w\ld ?9k ( x z a good game1 b oppon5ts ( football w\ld hold t su* a description ju/ifi$ !m 9 class+ ! game ) prize fight+4 ,:5 "o ( ! t]ms y use may ?us /ir "o "p ( y\r audi5ce 9 "o way1 & ! o!r "p 9 j ! opposite way1 y are deal+ ) an uncom=table k9d ( ambiguity4 ,x is easy to get into ! way ( ?9k+ t ! d5otation ( a ^w--! ?+s :i* x names--is ! only "p ( its mean+ t c\nts2 b ) _m words ! connotation--,i use ! ^w 9 ! rhetorical r ?an 9 ! logical s5se1 to include its implications1 associations1 & g5]al emotional color+--has m effect on human nature4 ,!re is a good deal ( diff]5ce betwe5 tell+ a man t 8 ass]tion is incorrect1 untrue1 or false2 if y use ! la/ & he is at all *ol]ic y may br+ on an explosion4 ,9 argum5t1 :]e y are aim+ to p]suade z well z to conv9ce1 ! "q ( ! feel+s ( y\r audi5ce & h[ !y w be affect$ by ! t]ms y use is obvi\sly ( great importance4 ,& if y are us+ su* t]ms z g5tleman1 political hone/y1 sociali/1 co$ucation1 y mu/ n =get t su* words h a def9ite emotional connotation1 :i* w v>y l>gely ) ! read]4 #dg4 ,begg+ ! ,"q4 ,! fallacy ( begg+ ! "q consi/s ( assum+ z true some?+ t ! o!r side w\ld n admit4 ,x is especially insidi\s 9 ! cond5s$ argum5ts ( :i* ,i spoke a few pages back4 ,a common =m ( ! fallacy consi/s ( slipp+ 9 an epi!t :i* quietly takes = grant$ "o's own view ( ! "q1 or ( us+ "s expression t assumes "o's own view z correct4 ,= example1 9 an argum5t = a *ange 9 a city gov]nm5t1 to decl>e t all intellig5t citiz5s favor x w\ld be begg+ ! "q4 ,9 an argum5t = ! protection ( cr[s1 to beg91 ,few p "k h[ _m ( ^! useful birds are kill$ ea* ye>1 w\ld be to beg ! "q1 s9ce ! argum5t turns on :e!r cr[s are useful or n4 ,a gross & uncivil =m ( ?is fallacy is to use opprobri\s epi!ts 9 describ+ p]sons :o take ! o!r view1 z 9 ! foll[+ s5t5ce f an article 9 a magaz9e on ! "q ( exam9ations = entrance to college3 ,z = int]e/ & v>iety1 :at c\ld de/roy & taboo bo? m effectually ?an ! rigid & rigor\s dem&s ( a =mal set ( exam9ations prep>$1 z a rule1 by p$antic speciali/s :o "k practically no?+ ( ! fundam5tal problems & ne$s ( ! high s*ool4 ,begg+ ! "q is (t5 committ$ 9 ! c\rse ( def9+ t]ms1 z 9 ! foll[+ passage f ,c>d9al ,newman's ,idea ( a ,univ]sity3 ,x is ! fa%ion j n[1 z y v well "k1 to erect s-call$ ,univ]sities1 )\t mak+ any provision 9 !m at all = ,!ological *airs4 ,in/itutions ( ?is k9d exi/ bo? "h ,irel& & 9 ,engl&4 ,su* a proc$ure1 ?\gh def5d$ by writ]s ( ! g5]ation j pass$ ) mu* plausible argum5t & n a little wit1 seems to me an intellectual absurdity2 & my reason ,= say+ s runs1 ) :atev] abruptness1 into ! =m ( a syllogism3--,a ,univ]sity1 ,i %\ld lay d[n1 by its v "n pr(esses to tea* univ]sal k2 ,!ology is surely a bran* ( k2 h[ !n is x possible = x to pr(ess all bran*es ( k1 & yet to exclude f ! subjects ( its tea*+ "o :i*1 to say ! lea/1 is z important & z l>ge z any ( !m8 ,i d n see t ei!r premise ( ?is argum5t is op5 to exception4#ea ,! obvi\s answ] is t univ]sity is a vague t]m & t !re may be _m k9ds ( univ]sities1 z inde$ !re are 9 ?is c\ntry2 moreov]1 ! importance ( !ology is an arguable matt] ev5 among *ur* memb]s4 ,a well-recogniz$1 b (t5 subtle1 =m ( begg+ ! "q is :at is kn[n z argu+ 9 a circle4 ,usually ! fallacy is s wrapp$ up 9 v]biage t x is h>d to pick out4 ,"h is a cle> & well-put detection ( a case ( x3 ,!re is an argum5t 9 favor ( *ild labor s un-,am]ican & s inhuman t ,i am almo/ a%am$ to quote x1 & yet x has be5 us$1 & ,i fe> x is secretly 9 ! m9ds ( "s :o w\ld n op5ly /& = x4 ,a manufactur] /&+ ne> ! furnace ( a glas%\se & po9t+ to a procession ( "y ,slav boys :o 7 c>ry+ ! glass on trays1 rem>k$1 ,look at _! faces1 & y w see t x is idle to take !m f ! glas%\se 9 ord] to give !m an education3 !y are :at !y are1 & w always rema9 :at !y are4 ,he meant t !re are "s human be+s--& ^! ,slavs ( ! numb]--:o are m5tally irr$eemable1 s fa/ asleep intellectually t !y _c be awak5$2 design$ by nature1 !re=e1 to be hew]s ( wood & draw]s ( wat]4 ,?is cruel & wick$ ?+ 0 said ( ,slavs2 x is ! same ?+ :i* has be5 said f "t immemorial by ! slave own]s ( _! slaves4 ,fir/ !y degrade human be+s by d5y+ !m ! opportunity to develop _! bett] nature3 no s*ools1 no tea*+1 no fre$om1 no outlook2 & !n1 z if 9 mock]y1 !y po9t to ! degrad$ condition ( _! victims z a reason :y !y %\ld nev] be all[$ to escape f x4#eb ,9 a diffuse & disord]ly argum5t !re is always a *ance to f9d "s begg+ ( ! "q :i* may consi/ ei!r ( gett+ back to an assumption ( ! orig9al proposition & s argu+ 9 a circle1 or ( simply assum+ t :at has be5 ass]t$ has be5 prov$4 ,! fallacy ( ! inv5t$ example1 9 :i* a fictiti\s case is describ$ z an illu/ration1 & pres5tly assum$ z a real case1 is a n uncommon =m ( begg+ ! "q4 #dh4 ,ignor+ ! ,"q4 ,?is is a closely alli$ error 9 reason+ t is apt to be due to ! same k9d ( confus$ & woolly ?9k+4 ,x consi/s 9 slipp+ away f ! "q 9 debate & argu+ vigor\sly at some?+ else4 ,a fam\s exposure ( ! fallacy is ,macaulay's d5unciation ( ! argum5ts 9 favor ( ,*>les ,i3 ,! advocates ( ,*>les1 l ! advocates ( o!r malefactors aga9/ :om ov]:elm+ evid5ce is produc$1 g5]ally decl9e all controv]sy ab\t ! facts1 & cont5t !mselves ) call+ te/imony z to "*4 ,he _h s _m private virtues6 ,& _h ,james ! ,second no private virtues8 ,0 ,oliv] ,cromwell1 8 bitt]e/ enemies !mselves be+ judges1 de/itute ( private virtues8 ,& :at1 aft] all1 are ! virtues ascrib$ to ,*>les8 ,a religi\s zeal1 n m s9c]e ?an t ( 8 son1 & fully z weak & n>r[-m9d$1 & a few ( ! ord9>y h\sehold dec5cies :i* half ! tomb/ones 9 ,engl& claim = ^? :o lie b5ea? !m4 ,a good fa!r6 ,a good husb&6 ,ample apologies inde$ = fifte5 ye>s ( p]secution1 tyranny1 & falsehood6 ,we *>ge him ) hav+ brok5 8 coronation oa?2 & we are told t he kept 8 m>riage v[6 ,we accuse him ( hav+ giv5 up 8 p to ! m]ciless inflictions ( ! mo/ hot-head$ & h>d-he>t$ ( prelates2 & ! def5se is1 t he took 8 little son on 8 knee & kiss$ him6 ,we c5sure him = hav+ violat$ ! articles ( ! ,petition ( ,"r1 aft] hav+1 = good & valuable consid]ation1 promis$ to obs]ve !m2 & we are in=m$ t he 0 accu/om$ to he> pray]s at six o'clock 9 ! morn+6 ,x is to su* consid]ations z ^!1 toge!r ) 8 ,v&yke dress1 8 h&some face1 & 8 peak$ be>d1 t he owes1 we v]ily believe1 mo/ ( 8 popul>ity ) ! pres5t g5]ation4#ec ,9 an argum5t = woman suffrage on ! gr\nd t suffrage is a "r :i* ought n to be d5i$1 x w\ld be ignor+ ! "q m]ely to enum]ate ! v>i\s ways 9 :i* ! responsibility ( a vote might help to bett] ! condition ( wom54 ,to ignore ! "q by try+ to lead ! public (f on a false sc5t is a con/ant device ( (ficials :o are accus$ ( misconduct4 ,a ,unit$ ,/ates s5ator ^: election _h be5 que/ion$ gave 9 8 def5se a full & h>r[+ acc\nt ( ! /ruggles ( 8 boyhood4 ,a bo>d ( assessors :o _h be5 *>g$ ) incompet5ce end$ _! def5se1 9 :i* !y _h tak5 no notice ( ! *>ges1 z foll[s3 ,criticism ( ! ,bo>d ( ,assessors comes ) poor grace f ^? ^: endeavors = ! common good are conf9$ to academic essays on good gov]nm5t4 ,x savors too mu* ( ! adroit pickpocket1 :o1 f9d+ himself h>d press$1 jo9s 9 ! *ase1 %\t+ z lu/ily z any ( ! un?9k+ rabble1 ,/op1 ?ief6 ,! curi\s ?+ is t ?is trick ( cross+ ! sc5t does lead s _m p (f ! trail4 ,! s-call$ argum5tum ad hom9em & ! argum5tum ad populum are special cases ( ignor+ ! "q3 !y consi/ ( appeals to ! feel+s or special int]e/s ( ! read] or ! audi5ce :i* run away f ! "q at issue4 ,!y are n uncommon 9 /ump spee*es1 & 9 o!r argum5ts ^: *ief purpose is to ar\se en?usiasm4 ,an argum5t on ! t>iff1 = example1 sometimes runs (f into appeals to save ?is gr& c\ntry f ru9 or f ! tru/s or f "s o!r fate :i* ! speak] pictures z hang+ ov] an innoc5t & pla9 p4 ,an argum5t = ! re/oration ( ! classical sy/em ( education :i* %\ld run (f into eulogies ( ! good old times might easily become an argum5tum ad populum2 an argum5t 9 favor ( a new p>k :i* %\ld dwell on selfi% advantages :i* might be ga9$ by ! abutt]s )\t reg>d to l>g] municipal policy w\ld probably be an argum5tum ad hom9em4 ,obvi\sly ^! two =ms ( %ift+ ! issue tr5* closely on ! elem5t ( p]suasion 9 an argum5t1 & 9 mak+ ! di/9ction y mu/ apply common s5se4 ,y\r adv]s>y may reprove y = an argum5tum ad hom9em or ad populum1 :5 y believe t y are keep+ well )9 ! b\nds ( legitimate p]suasion2 b 9 g5]al x is safe to gu>d y\r self-respect by draw+ a broad l9e betwe5 dodg+ & unwor?y appeals to prejudice & ju/ifiable appeals to feel+ & p]sonal int]e/4 ,,ex]cises #a4 ,"n a "q ( policy :i* w\ld be settl$ by ! e/abli%m5t ( "s controv]t$ fact4 #b4 ,f9d 9 ! daily pap]s an acc\nt ( a trial 9 :i* evid5ce 0 decl>$ inadmissible "u ! rules ( law :i* w\ld h be5 tak5 into acc\nt by ! av]age man outside ! c\rt 9 mak+ up 8 own m9d4 #c4 ,"n ?ree que/ions 9 :i* ! evid5ce w\ld be affect$ by temp]am5tal & o!r prepossessions ( ! witness4 #d4 ,"n a sci5tific "q 9 :i* "s important fact is e/abli%$ by reason+ f o!r facts4 #e4 ,cite a case1 ei!r f real life or f fiction1 9 :i* a fact 0 e/abli%$ by circum/antial evid5ce2 analyze ! evid5ce & %[ h[ x re/s on reason+ f simil>ity4 #f4 ,give a case 9 :i* :at y believ$ to be direct obs]vation ( a fact deceiv$ y4 #g4 ,give an example f y\r own exp]i5ce )9 a week :]e vague au?orities h be5 cit$ z direct evid5ce4 #h4 ,:at w\ld y ?9k ( ! writ] ( ! foll[+ s5t5ces z a witness to ! numb]s & importance ( ! p>ticipants 9 ! woman suffrage procession he is report+8 ,fif? ,av5ue has seldom1 if ev]1 be5 m cr[d$ ?an on ,saturday aft]noon1 & nev] any:]e h ,i se5 s _m wom5 among ! spectators ( a pass+ pageant4 ,?rongs1 _m ti]s deep1 flank$ ! l9e ( m>*1 & ^! ?rongs 7 ov]:elm+ly compos$ ( wom54 ,z ,i pass$ f block to block ,i c\ld n get away f ! ?\ght t ! va/e/ numb] ( ^! 7 sick ( he>t & a%am$ t !y1 too1 7 n 9 l9e beh9d ! kilt$ b& t head$ ! procession1 ! hi/oric symbolic floats1 & ! inscrib$ bann]s1 along ) _! ?ree ?\s& or m si/]s4 ,"h 7 wom51 fight+ a good fight = ! cause ( wom5--= ! und]paid factory work]s & ! ov]f$ lady ( =tune :o is depriv$ ! "r ( voice 9 ! gov]nm5t ov] h] inh]it$ prop]ty4 7,report 9 a daily pap]1 ,may #h1 #aiaa7 #i4 ,f9d an example ( hi/orical evid5ce 9 a case :]e !re are no direct witnesses to ! fact2 discuss x accord+ to ,s4 ,r4 ,g>d9]'s te/s 7p4 #ajc74 #aj4 ,f9d two examples f ! daily pap]s :]e /ati/ics are us$ to e/abli% a complex fact4 #aa4 ,"n two subjects on :i* y c\ld ga!r /ati/ics1 & ! s\rces f :i* y w\ld draw !m4 #ab4 ,br+ to class ! te/imony ( a recogniz$ au?ority on "s complex fact1 & expla9 :y 8 te/imony c>ries weight4 #ac4 ,"n a subject on :i* y c speak ) au?ority1 & expla9 :y y\r te/imony on t subject %\ld c>ry weight4 #ad4 ,give an example f y\r own exp]i5ce ( a case 9 :i* x is h>d to di/+ui% betwe5 direct & indirect evid5ce4 #ae4 ,f9d 9 ! daily pap]s or curr5t magaz9es an argum5t bas$ on reason+ by analogy2 "o bas$ on reason+ by g5]alization2 "o bas$ on circum/antial evid5ce2 expla9 ! "* ( ea*4 #af4 ,f9d an example ( an argum5t bas$ on reason+ f a causal relation4 #ag4 ,f9d an example ( an argum5t f enum]ation ( l cases :i* might be easily upset4 #ah4 ,9 ! proposition1 ,a g5tleman ought n to become a pr(essional baseball play]1 :at mean+ c\ld be giv5 to ! ^w g5tleman8 #ai4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 ! mean+s ( law 9 ! phrases moral law1 natural law1 & law ( ! l&4 #bj4 ,:at diff]5t mean+s w\ld ! ^w com=t h _h 9 ! days ( y\r gr&fa!r1 z comp>$ ) ! pres5t day8 #ba4 ,give1 two examples ( words ) slid+ mean+s4 #bb4 ,give two examples ( words ^: d5otation is fix$1 b ^: connotation or emotional implications w\ld be diff]5t ) diff]5t p4 #bc4 ,f9d an example ( false analogy4 #bd4 ,criticize ! reason+ 9 ! foll[+ extract f a lett] to a newspap] urg+ ,republican & ,democratic tickets at ! municipal election 9 a small city 9 ! c\ntry4 ,x is an ackn[l$g$ fact t competition 9 ! bus9ess life ( our city is b5eficial to ! consum]4 ,if t be s1 :y w n competition 9 city affairs br+ equally good results to ! taxpay]8 #be4 ,give an example y h rec5tly he>d ( ha/y g5]alization2 expla9 its weakness4 #bf4 ,give an example ( y\r own ( ! po/ hoc fallacy4 #bg4 ,give an example ( false reason+ bas$ on assum+ a complex fact to be simple4 #bh4 ,criticize ! reason+ 9 ! foll[+ extracts3 a4 ,dispat* to a daily pap]4 ,hav]hill1 ,m>* #cj1 #aiaa4 ,oppon5ts ( commission =m ( gov]nm5t are d]iv+ no little satisfaction f ! developm5t ( te/imony borne out by figures tak5 f ! audit+ dep>tm5t ( ! city ( ,hav]hill t ?is me?od ( adm9i/]+ municipal affairs has prov$ ?us f> to be a co/ly exp]im5t !re4444 ,! total am\nt ( bonds issu$ dur+ ! pa/ tw5ty-sev5 mon?s1 cov]+ ! p]iod ( op]ation ( commission =m ( gov]nm5t1 0 #egf1jjj2 ! pres5t borr[+ capacity ( ! city is only approximately #ce1jjj2 t ! city's bond$ debt has increas$ f #dda1bfd to #a1aha1cad 9 ! pa/ five ye>s2 ! net bond$ debt has m ?an d\bl$ )9 ?ree ye>s2 t ! assess$ valuation has increas$ #e1jjj1jjj2 & ! tax rate has be5 rais$ f #ag4dj to #ai 9 five ye>s4 ,! borr[+ capacity ( #cda1fif on ,janu>y #a1 #aijf1 has decreas$ to #ie1jjj on ,janu>y #a1 #aiaa4444 ,commission =m ( gov]nm5t w5t into effect 9 ,hav]hill on ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,janu>y1 #aiji4 b4 ,f an article 9 a magaz9e1 oppos+ ! plan ( ! po/ma/]-g5]al to increase ! po/age on ! adv]tis+ sections ( magaz9es3 consid] especially ! ^w c5sor%ip3 ,we see two grave objections to ! po/ma/]-g5]al's plan4 ,fir/1 x requires a c5sor%ip to det]m9e :at p]iodicals are magaz9es ^: adv]tis+ pages are to be tax$1 & :at are ! educational & religi\s p]iodicals :i* are to cont9ue to enjoy :at ! ,presid5t calls a subsidy4 ,su* a c5sor%ip w\ld be a new feature 9 po/al adm9i/ration1 & x w\ld seem to be a ?+ v difficult to "w out on any fair basis4 #bi4 ,9 a newspap] report ( an inquiry made by ! director ( ! ,columbia ,univ]sity gymnasium into ! effects ( smok+1 ! foll[+ s5t5ces occur3 ,9 s*ol>%ip ! nonsmok]s _h ! di/9ct advantage4 ,! smok]s av]ag$ eighty p] c5t 9 _! /udies at entrance1 sixty-two p] c5t dur+ ! fir/ two ye>s1 & sev5 p] c5t ( failure4 ,! nonsmok]s got n9ety-"o p] c5t 9 _! entrance exam9ations & sixty-n9e p] c5t 9 _! fir/ two ye>s 9 college1 :ile only f\r p] c5t 7 failures4 ,9 ?is respect ,dr4 ,meylan ?9ks !re is a di/9ct relation betwe5 smok+ & s*ol>%ip4 ,( ! same set ( /ud5ts =ty-sev5 p] c5t ( ! smok]s won places on v>sity a?letic teams1 :ile only ?irty-sev5 p] c5t ( ! nonsmok]s c\ld get places4 ,if ! next to ! la/ s5t5ce _h read1 ,smok+ !re=e seems to be a cause ( l[ s*ol>%ip1 :at %\ld y ?9k ( ! reason+8 #cj4 ,criticize ! reason+ 9 ! foll[+ portion ( an argum5t = prohibition3 ,dr4 ,williams says1 ,we f9d no evid5ce t ! prohibition laws h 9 ! pa/ be5 effective 9 dim9i%+ ! consumption ( alcoholic bev]ages4 444 ,! abs5ce ( logic 9 ,dr4 ,williams's conclusion w be readily se5 by sub/itut+ ! homicide evil & ! gre$ evil = ! liquor evil 9 8 argum5t4 ,s9ce its e/abli%m5t ! ,unit$ ,/ates has s\ght to rem$y ) prohibition ! homicide evil4 ,e /ate has laws ) sev]e p5alties prohibit+ murd]4 ,& yet ! numb] ( homicides 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates has /eadily increas$ until ! numb] 9 #aiaj 0 eight ?\s& n9e hundr$ & sev5ty-five4 ,s9ce1 !n1 homicides h /eadily increas$ dur+ ! pa/ hundr$ ye>s "u a law ) sev]e p5alties prohibit+ !m1 a prohibitory law has n be5 & _c be a rem$y = homicide4 #ca4 ,criticize ! reason+ 9 ! foll[+ extract f an argum5t = ! electrification ( ! t]m9al "p ( a railroad3 ,x is true t locomotive smoke & gas d n kill p outright2 b t _! influ5ce ?\gh n imm$iately measurable is to %ort5 life _c1 ,i submit1 be successfully combat$4444 ,a few ye>s ago ,i made "s calculations bas$ on ! records ( t5 ye>s' op]ation ( ! railroads 9 ?is /ate1 & f\nd t if a man %\ld sp5d 8 :ole "t day & night rid+ 9 railroad tra9s at an av]age rate ( ?irty miles an h\r1 & if he _h av]age good luck1 he w\ld n be kill$ by accid5t1 )\t 8 fault1 (t5] ?an once 9 fifte5 hundr$ ye>s1 & t he w\ld n receive any injury ( suffici5t importance to be report$ (t5] ?an once 9 five hundr$ ye>s4 ,i ask y to e/imate h[ long a man w\ld1 9 y\r op9ion1 live if he 7 oblig$ cont9u\sly day & night to brea! ! air ( our /ations )\t any opportunity to relieve 8 lungs by a brea? ( pur] & bett] air4 #cb4 ,give an example 9 :i* y y\rself h us$ ! me?od ( agreem5t 9 arriv+ at a conclusion 9 ! la/ week4 #cc4 ,give an example1 f "o ( y\r /udies1 ( ! use ( ! me?od ( agreem5t4 #cd4 ,give an example1 :i* has rec5tly come to y\r notice1 ( ! use ( ! me?od ( diff]5ce4 #cf4 ,criticize ! foll[+ syllogisms1 giv+ y\r reasons = ?9k+ !m s\nd or n3 a4 ,all ri* m5 %\ld be *>itable ) _! weal?2 ,*>itable m5 =give _! enemies2 ,!re=e all ri* m5 %\ld =give _! enemies4 b4 ,e man :o plays baseball well has a good eye & quick judgm5t2 ,e good t5nis play] has a good eye & a quick judgm5t2 ,!re=e e good t5nis play] is a good baseball play]4 c4 ,:5ev] y f9d a man :o dr9ks h>d y f9d1 a man :o is unreliable2 ,our coa*man does n dr9k h>d2 ,!re=e he is reliable4 d4 ,all ! /eam%ips :i* cross ! ocean 9 ! quicke/ "t are com=table2 ,?is /eam%ip is sl[2 ,!re=e %e is n com=table4 e4 ,all dogs :o b>k con/antly are n bad-temp]$2 ,?is dog does n b>k con/antly2 ,!re=e he is n bad-temp]$4 f4 ,all cold c be expell$ by heat2 ,john's illness is a cold2 ,!re=e x c be expell$ by heat4 7,f ,m9to7 g4 ,! use ( ard5t spirits %\ld be prohibit$ by law1 see+ t x causes mis]y & crime1 :i* x is "o ( ! *ief ends ( law to prev5t4 7,f ,bode7 h4 ,rational be+s are acc\ntable = _! actions2 brutes n be+ rational1 are !re=e exempt f responsibility4 7,f ,jevons7 #cf4 ,exp& ! foll[+ argum5ts into syllogisms & criticize _! s\ndness3 a4 ,! sn[ w turn to ra91 because x is gett+ w>m]4 b4 ,! boy has done well 9 8 exam9ation1 = he came out look+ *e]ful4 c4 ,we _h an economical gov]nm5t la/ ye>1 !re=e ! tax rate w be r$uc$4 d4 ,lee w be a good mayor1 = m5 :o h en]gy & good judgm5t c d incalculable good to _! fell[ citiz5s4 e4 ,!re is un%ak5 evid5ce t e memb] ( ! bo>d ( ald]m5 receiv$ a bribe1 & ,george ,o4 ,c>t] 0 a memb] ( t bo>d4 f4 ,! c&idate = /roke on ! fre%man crew came f ,santos ,s*ool1 !re=e he mu/ be a good o>sman4 #cg4 ,criticize ! reason+ 9 ! foll[+ argum5ts1 po9t+ out :e!r !y are s\nd or uns\nd1 & :y3 a4 ,x co/s a ,nebraska f>m] tw5ty c5ts to raise a bu%el ( corn4 ,:5 corn gets d[n to tw5ty c5ts he _c buy any?+1 & he _c pay m ?an twelve or fifte5 doll>s a mon? = help4 ,:5 x gets up to ?irty-five c5ts ! f>m] gives 8 *ildr5 ! be/ education possible1 & buys an automobile4 ,!re=e ! f>m] w be ru9$ if ! t>iff on corn is n rais$4 b4 ,= _m ye>s ! ,democratic plat=ms h decl>$ explicitly or implicitly aga9/ ! duties on sug>2 if ! ,democrats %\ld come into p[] & r$uce ! duties1 !y w\ld lose _! /r5g? 9 ! /ates produc+ cane sug> & beet sug>2 if !y d n r$uce ! duty1 !y admit t _! plat=ms h be5 ins9c]e4 7,cond5s$ f an editorial 9 a newspap]4 ,m>*1 #aiaa7 c4 ,i h>dly ne$ say t ,i am oppos$ to any su* sy/em z t ( ,galve/on1 or to call x by its broad] "n1 ! commission sy/em4 ,x is b ano!r "n = despotism4 ,l\is ,,xiv 0 a commission] = execut+ ! duties ( gov]n+ ,france4 ,philip ,,ii 0 ! same 9 ,spa94 ,! ,decemvirs & ,triumvirs ( ,rome 7 b ! same sort ( ?+1 z 0 also ! ,directory 9 ,france4 ,!y all came to ! same end4 ,says ,madison1 9 ,no4 ,,xlvii ( ,! ,f$]ali/3 ,! accumulation ( all p[]s1 legislative & judici>y1 9 ! same h&s1 :e!r ( "o1 a few1 or _m1 & :e!r h]$it>y1 self-appo9t$1 or elective1 may ju/ly be pron\nc$ ! v def9ition ( tyranny4 ,mr4 ju/ice ,/ory said1 ,:5ev] ^! dep>tm5ts are all ve/$ 9 "o p]son or body ( m51 ! gov]nm5t is 9 fact a despotism1 by :atev] "n x be call$1 :e!r a mon>*y1 an ari/ocracy1 or a democracy4 d4 ,! proc$ure ( ,b]l9 has 9 x an elem5t ( fairness wor?y ( our consid]ation2 ^? repres5t+ l>ge prop]ty int]e/s h a surety ( be+ at lea/ repres5t$4 ,"s su* sy/em mu/ be devis$ if ! hold+ ( prop]ly at all be reg>d$ z moral & necess>y to our civilization4 ,rememb] t y are1 9 a l>ge s5se1 b a *>t]$ jo9t-/ock corporation4 ,c y imag9e ! control ( any o!r jo9t-/ock corporation deliv]$ ov] to ^? :o h no /ock or ! lea/ /ock 9 x8 ,c y imag9e ! ,new ,york ,new ,hav5 ,railroad1 = example1 controll$ by ! pass5g]s1 to ! exclusion ( ! /ock hold]s8 ,n[ ?is1 to a v great degree1 is :at has happ5$ 9 _m ( our cities4 ,we h depriv$ ! true /ockhold]s1 9 "s cases1 ( any repres5tation :atev]4 ,i ?us hold t to give prop]ty "s voice 9 ! control ( a municipal corporation is b s5se & ju/ice4 e4 ,we h tri$ commissions 9 ,buffalo 9 bran*es ( our city gov]nm5t4 ,!y h tri$ !m 9 ne>ly e city 9 ?is c\ntry4 ,we h gov]n$ our police by commissions1 our p>ks by commissions1 our public works by commissions4 ,commission gov]nm5t 0 = _m ye>s a fad 9 ?is c\ntry1 & x has become discr$it$1 s t ( late we h be5 do+ away ) commissions & com+ to s+le heads = dep>tm5ts hav+ executive functions & "s m9or legislative functions1 su* z p>k bo>ds1 & police bo>ds1 & h be5 try+ to conc5trate responsibility 9 t way4 ,9 ,erie ,c\nty & ?r\gh\t ,new ,york a commission elect$ by ! p gov]ns our c\nties4 ,! bo>d ( sup]visors is a commission gov]nm5t4 ,x has nev] be5 cr$itable--always bad1 ev5 z comp>$ ) our city gov]nm5ts4 ,to be sure1 x is n j t k9d ( commission gov]nm5t4 ,x is a l>g] commission2 x is n elect$ at l>ge1 b by di/ricts1 b x is an attempt at ! same ?+4 ,s ,i say !re is no?+ new ab\t ?is idea ( gov]nm5t by a commission4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,argum5t ,,writt5 ,,out #di4 ,! ,brief & ! ,argum5t4 ,if y\r brief is ?or\ghly work$ out1 & bas$ on a c>eful canvass ( ! evid5ce1 ! "w on y\r argum5t ought to be at lea/ two ?irds ov]4 ,! la/ ?ird1 h[ev]1 is n to be slight$1 = on x w l>gely dep5d y\r practical results 9 mov+ y\r read]s4 ,ev5 a legal argum5t r>ely goes to ! c\rt on a writt5 brief alone2 & ! av]age read] w nev] put himself to ! ef=t ( read+ ?r\gh & grasp+ su* a brief z we h be5 plann+ "h4 ,fur!rmore1 if y\r complete argum5t is m]ely a copy+ out ( ! brief into consecutive s5t5ces & p>agraphs1 y w get few read]s4 ,! mak+ ( ! brief m]ely completes :at may be call$ ! ar*itectural "p ( y\r labors2 ! writ+ ( an argum5t w use all ! skill y h 9 ! *oice ( words & putt+ !m toge!r4 ,we saw 9 ,*apt] ,i t argum5t has two k9ds ( appeal to its read]3 on ! "o h&1 ?r\gh its p[] ( conv9c+ x appeals to 8 reason2 on ! o!r1 ?r\gh its p]suasive p[] x appeals to 8 feel+s & 8 moral & practical int]e/s4 ,( ^! two k9ds ( appeal ! conv9c+ p[] is l>gely det]m9$ by ! ?or\ghness ( ! analysis & ! effici5cy ( ! arrangem5t1 & !re=e 9 l>ge "p hangs on ! "w done 9 mak+ ! brief2 ! p]suasive p[]1 on ! o!r h&1 ?\gh 9 "p dep5d5t on ! l9e ( attack laid out 9 ! brief & ! *oice ( po9ts to argue1 is f> m dep5d5t on ! fill+ 9 ( ! argum5t 9 ! f9i%$ =m4 ,ev5 ! sev]e/ sci5tific argum5t1 h[ev]1 is mu* m ?an ! b>e summ>y ( ! l9e ( ?\ght :i* w\ld be f\nd 9 a brief2 & 9 an argum5t l ! spee*es 9 mo/ political campaigns a brief ( ! ?\ght w\ld leave out mo/ ( ! argum5t4 ,:]ev] y h to /ir m5 up to d ?+s y h only begun :5 y h conv9c$ _! reason4 #ej4 ,! ,introduction ( ! ,argum5t4 ,mu* dep5ds on ! fir/ "p ( y\r argum5t1 ! introduction4 ,its l5g? v>ies greatly1 & x may diff] l>gely 9 o!r ways f ! introduction to y\r brief4 ,if ! p y are try+ to conv9ce are famili> ) ! subject1 y w ne$ little introduction2 a brief b cle> /atem5t ( fundam5tals w s]ve ! purpose4 ,= su* an audi5ce x is *iefly important to make ! issues /& out1 s t !y %all see p]fectly di/9ctly ! exact po9ts on :i* ! "q turns4 ,!n ! soon] y are at "w on ! bus9ess ( conv9c+ !m1 ! bett]4 ,9 su* argum5ts ! introduction w p]haps n diff] greatly 9 sub/ance f ! introduction to ! brief1 ?\gh x mu/ be r$uc$ to consecutive & agreeable =m4 ,at ! o!r extreme is su* an argum5t z t ( ,huxley's 7p4 #bcc71 :]e he _h to prep>e ! way v c>efully le/ ! prejudice aga9/ a revolution>y & unfamili> view ( ! animate _w %\ld close ! m9ds ( 8 he>]s aga9/ him be=e he 0 really />t$4 ,accord+ly1 be=e gett+ ?r\gh ) 8 introduction he exp\nd$ n only ! ?ree hypo!ses betwe5 :i* ! *oice mu/ be made1 b also ! law ( ! uni=mity ( nature & ! pr9ciples & nature ( circum/antial evid5ce4 ,:]e "o %all /op betwe5 ^! two extremes is a "q to be decid$ 9 ! individual argum5t4 ,"o ?+1 h[ev]1 x is almo/ always wise to d2 inde$1 "o w\ld n g f> wrong 9 prescrib+ x z a g5]al rule3 t is1 to /ate ) almo/ bald explicitness j h[ _m ma9 issues !re are1 & :at !y are4 ,9 writ+ an argum5t x is always safe to assume t mo/ ( y\r read]s w be c>eless read]s4 ,few p h ! gift ( read+ closely & accurately1 & ( c>ry+ :at !y h read ) any di/9ctness4 ,!re=e make x easy = y\r read]s to pick up & to c>ry y\r po9ts4 ,if y tell !m t y are go+ to make ?ree po9ts or five1 !y are mu* m likely to rememb] ^? ?ree or five po9ts ?an if !y h to pick !m out = !mselves z !y g along4 ,huxley1 p]haps ! able/ writ] ( sci5tific argum5t 9 ! language1 con/antly practic$ ?is device4 ,9 8 great argum5t on evolution1 he says 7see p4 #bce73 ,s f> z ,i "k1 !re are only ?ree hypo!ses :i* ev] h be5 ent]ta9$1 or :i* well c be ent]ta9$1 respect+ ! pa/ hi/ory ( nature2 & !n1 z w be se51 he takes up ea* 9 turn1 ) ! numb]+ fir/1 second1 & ?ird4 ,9 ! same way 9 8 essay ,! ,physical ,basis ( ,life he says1 n f> f ! beg9n+1 ,i propose to demon/rate to y t1 not)/&+ ^! app>5t difficulties1 a ?reefold unity--namely1 a unity ( p[] or faculty1 a unity ( =m1 & a unity ( sub/antial composition--does p]vade ! :ole liv+ _w4 ,burke1 9 8 great spee* ,on ,conciliation ) ,am]ica1 said1 ,! capital lead+ que/ions on :i* y mu/ ?is day decide are two3 fir/1 :e!r y ought to conc$e2 & secondly1 :at y\r concession ought to be4 ,x is h>dly too mu* to say t ^? writ]s ^: s5se ( /yle is mo/ develop$ are mo/ likely to /ate ! issues ) ! balde/ & mo/ direct precision4 ,! /atem5t ( ! issues w br+ out ! importance ( closely limit+ ! numb] ( ma9 issues4 ,!re are few subjects ( argum5t :i* d n conceivably t\* ! int]e/s & beliefs ( _! audi5ces 9 _m directions2 b out ( ^! aspects "s obvi\sly c\nt f> m ?an o!rs4 ,if 9 y\r introduction y try to /ate all ^! issues1 small & great1 y w surely leave confusion beh9d y4 ,v few p are capable ( c>ry+ m ?an ?ree or f\r issues di/9ctly en\gh to affect _! judgm5t ( ! :ole case2 & ev5 ( ^! "s w n take ! tr\ble to d s4 ,if y c simm] d[n ! case to "o or two or ?ree critical po9ts1 y are mak+ a good />t t[>d w9n+ ov] ! m9ds ( y\r read]s4 ,a good /atem5t ( ! hi/ory ( ! case is apt to be a useful & valuable "p ( an introduction1 especially = argum5ts deal+ ) public policies4 ,if y rem9d read]s ( :at ! facts h be51 y c m easily make cle> to !m ! pres5t situation f :i* y make y\r />t4 ,an argum5t = rais+ or l[]+ ! t>iff on "s article w\ld be apt to rec\nt ! hi/ory ( ! t>iff s f> z x conc]n$ t article1 & ! progress 9 import+ x & manufactur+ x )9 ! c\ntry4 ,9 writ+ out ! argum5t f ! brief on page #ij "o w\ld almo/ inevitably include ! rec5t hi/ory ( ! city gov]nm5t4 ,9 g5]al x is be/ to make ?is prelim9>y /atem5t ( ! hi/ory ( ! case scrupul\sly & explicitly imp>tial4 ,an audi5ce is likely to res5t any appe>ance ( twi/+ ! facts to suit ! case2 & if on _! face !y be> aga9/ y\r cont5tions1 x is wis] to prep>e = y\r argum5t 9 "s o!r way4 ,!re are m ways ( beg9n+ an argum5t ?an by a /atem5t ( facts2 & res\rce 9 ! pres5tation ( a case goes a long way t[>d w9n+ x4 ,x is (t5 wise to /ate y\r def9itions ) c>e1 especially ( t]ms :i* are at ! bottom ( y\r :ole case4 ,! def9ition f ,bag*ot on page #eh is a good example4 ,"h is ! beg9n+ ( an address by ,presid5t ,eliot1 9 #ahif1 on ,a ,wid] ,range ( ,electives 9 ,college ,admission ,requirem5ts3 ,z usual1 x is necess>y to def9e ! subject a little4 ,a wid] range ( electives 9 college admission requirem5ts4 ,:at field are we ?9k+ ( :5 we /ate ?is subject8 ,if we mean ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! range ( electives is already v l>ge4 ,take1 = example1 ! requirem5ts = admission to ! ,lel& ,/an=d ,univ]sity4 ,tw5ty subjects are nam$1 ( v diff]5t "* & ext5t1 & ! c&idate may pres5t any t5 out ( ! tw5ty4 ,botany c\nts j z mu* z ,lat94 ,!re is a wide range ( options at admission to ! ,univ]sity ( ,mi*igan1 ) its num]\s c\rses lead+ to num]\s degrees2 t is1 !re is a wide range ( subjects p]missible to a c&idate :o is ?9k+ ( pres5t+ himself = "s "o ( its _m degrees4 ,if we look ne>] home1 we f9d 9 s cons]vative an in/itution z ,d>tm\? ,college t !re are ?ree diff]5t degrees (f]$1 ) ?ree diff]5t assortm5ts ( admission requirem5ts1 & ?ree diff]5t c\rses )9 ! college4 ,i notic$ t at ! la/ comm5cem5t !re 7 =ty-"o degrees ( ! old-fa%ion$ sort & tw5ty-sev5 degrees ( ! new] sorts giv5 by ,d>tm\? ,college4 ,"h 9 ,h>v>d we h _h = _m ye>s a consid]able range ( electives 9 ! admission exam9ations1 p>ticul>ly 9 :at we call ! advanc$ requirem5ts4 ,we !re=e ne$ to limit our subject a little by say+ t we are ?9k+ ( a wid] range ( admission electives 9 ! ,ea/]n & ,middle ,/ate colleges1 ! range ( electives f>!r we/ be+ already l>ge 9 _m cases4#ed ,pr(essor ,william ,james1 9 8 essay ,! ,w to ,believe1 9 :i* he argues t x is bo? "r & unavoidable t our feel+s %all take "p 9 ! mak+ ( our fai?s1 beg9s ) a c>eful def9ition & illu/ration ( c]ta9 t]ms he is go+ to use con/antly4 ,next1 let u call ! decision betwe5 two hypo!ses an option4 ,options may be ( sev]al k9ds4 ,!y may be 7#a7 liv+ or dead2 7#b7 =c$ or avoidable2 7#c7 mom5t\s or trivial2 & = our purposes we may call an option a g5u9e option :5 x is ( ! =c$1 liv+1 & mom5t\s k9d4 #a4 ,a liv+ option is "o 9 :i* bo? hypo!ses are live ones4 ,if ,i say to y1 ,be a !osophi/ or be a ,mohamm$an1 x is probably a dead option1 because = y nei!r hypo!sis is likely to be alive4 ,b if ,i say1 ,be an agno/ic or be a ,*ri/ian1 x is o!rwise3 tra9$ z y are1 ea* hypo!sis makes "s appeal1 h[ev] small1 to y\r belief4 #b4 ,next1 if ,i say to y1 ,*oose betwe5 go+ out ) y\r umbrella or )\t x1 ,i d n (f] y a g5u9e option1 = x is n =c$4 ,y c easily avoid x by n go+ out at all4 ,simil>ly1 if ,i say3 ,ei!r love me or hate me1 ,ei!r call my !ory true or call x false1 y\r option is avoidable4 ,y may rema9 indiff]5t to me1 nei!r lov+ nor hat+1 & y may decl9e to (f] any judgm5t z to my !ory4 ,b if ,i say1 ,ei!r accept ?is tru? or g )\t x1 ,i put y on a =c$ option1 = !re is no /&+ place outside ( ! alt]native4 ,e dilemma bas$ on a complete logical disjunction1 ) no possibility ( n *oos+1 is an option ( ?is =c$ k9d4 #c4 ,f9ally1 if ,i 7 ,dr4 ,nans5 & propos$ to y to jo9 my ,nor? ,pole exp$ition1 y\r option w\ld be mom5t\s2 = ?is w\ld probably be y\r only simil> opportunity1 & y\r *oice n[ w\ld ei!r exclude y f ! ,nor? ,pole sort ( immortality altoge!r or put at lea/ ! *ance ( x into y\r h&s4 ,he :o refuses to embrace a unique opportunity loses ! prize z surely z if he tri$ & fail$4 ,p] contra ! option is trivial :5 ! opportunity is n unique1 :5 ! /ake is insignificant1 or :5 ! decision is rev]sible if x lat] prove unwise4 ,su* trivial options ab\nd 9 ! sci5tific life4 ,a *emi/ f9ds an hypo!sis live en\gh to sp5d a ye> 9 its v]ification3 he believes 9 x to t ext5t4 ,b if 8 exp]im5ts prove inconclusive ei!r way1 he is quit = 8 loss ( "t1 no vital h>m be+ done4 ,x w facilitate our discussion if we keep all ^! di/9ctions well 9 m9d4#ee ,9 "s argum5ts ! work+ out ( ! def9itions ( a few pr9cipal t]ms may occupy mu* space4 ,mat!w ,arnold1 a fam\s critic ( ! la/ g5]ation1 wrote z an introduction to a volume ( selections f ,wordswor?'s poems an essay ) ! !sis t ,wordswor? is1 aft] ,%akespe>e & ,milton1 ! greate/ poet :o has writt5 9 ,engli%2 & to e/abli% 8 po9t he laid d[n ! def9ition t poetry is at bottom a criticism ( life2 t ! greatness ( a poet lies 9 8 p[]ful & beautiful application ( ideas to life--to ! "q1 ,h[ to live4 ,to ! developm5t ( ?is def9ition he gave sev]al pages1 = ! success ( 8 ma9 argum5t lay 9 induc+ 8 read]s to accept x4 ,_m legal argum5ts are :olly conc]n$ ) e/abli%+ def9itions1 especially 9 ^? cases :i* deal ) /atute law4 ,! rec5t decisions ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ! ,corporation ,tax cases & ! ,/&>d ,oil ,case are examples3 9 ea* ( ^! :at 0 at issue 0 ! exact mean+ ( ! words us$ 9 c]ta9 /atutes pass$ by ,congress4 ,9 ! common law1 too1 !re are _m phrases :i* h come d[n f pa/ c5turies1 ! mean+s ( :i* h be5 def9$ aga9 & aga9 z new cases came up4 ,we h se5 7p4 #fc7 h[ c>eful def9ition ! ^w murd] may ne$4 ,malice a=e?\ght is ano!r famili> in/ance3 x s\nds simple1 b :5 "o beg9s to fix ! limits at :i* sudd5 ang] passes ov] into cool & delib]ate enmity1 or h[ f> gone a man mu/ be 9 dr9k be=e he loses ! consci\sness ( 8 purposes1 ev5 a layman c see t x has difficulties4 ,9 su* cases z ^! a diction>y def9ition w\ld be m]ely a />t+ po9t4 ,x may be a v useful />t+ po9t1 h[ev]1 z 9 ! foll[+ extract f an article by ,mr4 ,e4,p4 ,ripley1 presid5t ( ! ,at*ison1 ,topeka1 & ,santa ,fe ,railway ,company1 on ,! ,railroads & ! ,p3 ,!re is "o po9t reg>d+ ?is matt] t _m =get3 ?is is t 9 all affairs !re are two k9ds ( discrim9ation4 ,!re is ! k9d1 :i*1 z ! diction>y expresses x1 sets ap>t z be+ diff]5t1 :i* di/+ui%es accurately1 & !re is ! widely diff]5t k9d :i* treats unequally4 9 all ord9>y affairs ( life we condemn z undiscrim9at+ ^? :o h s little judgm5t or fairness z n to di/+ui% accurately or set ap>t ?+s t are diff]5t--:o ei!r treat equally ?+s t are unequal1 or treat unequally ?+s t are equal4 ,n[1 :5 ! railway traffic manag] sets ap>t ?+s t are diff]5t1 & treats !m diff]5tly1 he simply does :at x is ! duty ( e "o to d4#ef ,!n he goes on to develop ?is def9ition by %[+ ! facts on :i* x has to be>4 ,on ! o!r h& d n bore y\r read]s ) diction>y def9itions ( words ^: mean+ no "o d\bts2 t is a wa/e ( good pap] = y1 & ( good "t = !m2 & we h se5 9 ,*apt] ,,ii ! futility ( ! diction>y = cases 9 :i* !re is real disagreem5t ov] ! mean+ ( a ^w4 ,x w be se51 !n1 t ! analysis y h made 9 prep>ation = ! brief may spread out l>ge or small 9 ! argum5t itself4 ,x is wise1 !re=e1 to look on ! "w done = ! introduction to ! brief z "w done l>gely to cle> up y\r own ?\ght on ! subject2 :5 y come to writ+ out ! argum5t itself1 y c g back to ! introduction to ! brief1 & see h[ mu* space y are n[ go+ to give x4 ,9 a college or s*ool argum5t y w usually foll[ x r closely2 & y d well to d s1 = y w ?us fix 9 y\r m9d a useful model4 ,b :5 y get out into ! _w1 y w h to consid] 9 ea* case ! ne$s & prepossessions ( ! p>ticul> audi5ce4 ,"h z ev]y:]e 9 ! argum5t y mu/ ex]cise judgm5t2 !re is no =mula :i* w fit all cases4 ,! s*eme ( analysis ( ! case :i* has be5 exp\nd$ 9 ,*apt] ,,ii has /ood ! te/ z ! be/ means yet f\nd ( explor+ a subject & insur+ cl>ity ( ?\ght & c]ta9ty ( attack2#eg b ,i "k ( no s+le fix$ s*eme = ! argum5t itself :i* w n be rack$ ap>t by ! fir/ half doz5 practical argum5ts y apply x to4 #ea4 ,! ,body ( ! ,argum5t4 ,9 ! ma9 body ( ! argum5t ! diff]5ce f ! brief w be l>gely a matt] ( expansion3 ! brief indicates ! evid5ce1 ! argum5t /ates x at l5g?4 ,"h aga9 y cut y\r argum5t to fit y\r audi5ce & ! space at y\r comm&4 ,9 an argum5t 9 ! editorial ( a newspap]1 :i* is r>ely long] ?an a long college !me1 !re is little space = ! /atem5t ( evid5ce4 ,9 ,web/]'s argum5t 9 ! ,:ite ,murd] ,case1 :i* has "s ?irte5 ?\s& words & :i* mu/ h tak5 two h\rs or m to deliv]1 ! facts are /udi$ 9 m9ute detail4 ,mo/ p are surpris$ to see ! way 9 :i* a full /atem5t ( evid5ce eats up space2 if ! facts are at all complicat$1 !y mu/ be analyz$ & exp\nd$ "o by "o & _! be>+ on ! case laid out 9 full4 ,?is necessity ( us+ space 9 ord] to make facts cle> is ! reason :y x is s h>d to f9d adequate & conv9c+ argum5ts :i* w pr9t 9 less ?an fifte5 or tw5ty pages4 ,! tr\ble ) a swift & compact argum5t l t ( ,macaulay's on ! au?or%ip ( ! ,junius ,lett]s 7see p4 #aee7 is t unless y h gone into ! "q = y\rself1 y d n "k :e!r to accept ! /at$ facts or n4 ,if y d accept !m1 ! conclusion is inevitable2 b if y happ5 to "k t s*ol>s h long held ! decision d\btful1 y want to "k m ab\t ! facts 9 detail be=e surr5d]+ to ,macaulay's conclusion4 ,= an av]age read] to-day1 :o kn[s little ( ! facts1 ?is argum5t w\ld h to be greatly exp&$4 ,9 ?is expansion comes ! *ance = all ! skill 9 exposition t y c mu/]1 & = t subtle appeal to y\r read]s' feel+s :i* lies 9 vividness & precision ( phras+1 consid]ations ) :i* ,i w deal sep>ately fur!r on4 ,que/ions ( proportion ( space we may consid] "h4 ,! only rule t c be laid d[n = ! di/ribution ( y\r space is to use y\r sagacity1 & all y\r k ( y\r subject & ( y\r audi5ce4 ,9 a writt5 argum5t y h ! advantage t y c let y\r p5 run on y\r fir/ draft1 & !n g back & weigh ! comp>ative =ce ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! argum5t1 & cut out & cut d[n until y\r be/ po9ts = ! purpose h ! mo/ space4 ,9 a debate ! same end is ga9$ by rehe>sals ( ! ma9 spee*es2 9 ! rebuttal1 :i* is be/ :5 x is spontane\s1 y h to tru/ to ! judgm5t ga9$ by practice4 ,o!r ?+s be+ equal1 h[ev]1 brevity c>ries an audi5ce4 ,if y c sum up y\r case 9 half ! "t t x takes ! o!r side to /ate !irs1 ! *ances are t y\r audi5ce w ?9k y h ! "r ( x4 ,above all1 bew>e ( bor+ y\r read]s by too exhau/ive explanation ( details or ( aspects ( ! case :i* !y c>e no?+ ab\t4 ,i suppose !re is no "o ( u :o has n a wor?y fri5d or two :o w talk ?r\gh a :ole ev5+ on :e!r a lawn %\ld be wat]$ 9 ! ev5+ or ! e>ly morn+1 or :e!r ! eigh? hole on ! golf c\rse %\ld n be fifty y>ds long]4 ,"o mu/ n be l ! man :o 9 ! discussion ( bimetallism a few ye>s ago us$ to keep 8 wife awake at night exp\nd+ to h] ! iniquities & inequalities ( a s+le /&>d4 ,x is saf] to und]e/imate ?an to ov]e/imate ! endurance & pati5ce ( y\r audi5ce4 #eb4 ,! ,refutation4 ,! place ( ! refutation w1 z we h se5 9 ! *apt] on plann+ 7see p4 #hb71 v>y greatly ) ! argum5t & ) ! audi5ce4 ,its purpose is to put out ( ! way z effectively z possible ! ma9 po9ts urg$ by ! o!r side4 ,9 an argum5t ( fact ?is is done bo? by expos+ weak places 9 ! reason+ & by ?r[+ d\bt on ! facts cit$1 ei!r ?r\gh pro( t !y are contradict$ by bett] evid5ce1 or t ! evid5ce br\ght =w>d to e/abli% !m is %aky or inconclusive4 ,9 an argum5t ( policy ! po9ts on ! o!r side are met ei!r by ?r[+ d\bt on ! facts on :i* !y re/1 or by %[+ t ! po9ts !mselves h n co]cive =ce4 ,:]e !re are really /rong po9ts on ! o!r side1 9 ei!r k9d ( argum5t1 x is (t5 s\nd policy to admit _! /r5g?4 ,?is is especially true 9 argum5ts ( policy :]e ! advantages are closely balanc$4 ,if y are try+ to conv9ce a boy t he %\ld g to y\r college r ?an to ano!r1 y d n ga9 any?+ by tell+ him t ! o!r college is no good2 if he is wor? ga9+ ov] he w "k bett] ?an t4 ,& 9 g5]al if y h giv5 a man to und]/& t !re is no?+ to be said = ! o!r side1 & he aft]w>ds f9ds t !re are /rong gr\nds = x1 y\r argum5t w h a fall 9 8 e/imation4 ,9 ! mann] ( y\r refutation lean t[>ds ! side ( sob]ness & c\rtesy4 ,x has be5 said t ! poore/ use y c put a man to is to refute him2 & x is c]ta9 t 9 ! give & take ( argum5t 9 active life ! p]sonal victories & defeats are :at are soone/ =gott54 ,if aft] a :ile y h to e/abli% a fact 9 hi/ory or 9 biology1 or to get a v]dict f a jury or a favorable report f ! committee ( a legislature1 y w ?9k a good deal m ab\t ! argum5ts ( y\r oppon5ts ?an ab\t !m p]sonally4 ,!re are few argum5ts 9 :i* y c af=d to take no notice ( ! /rong po9ts ( ! o!r side2 & :]e ! burd5 ( pro( is /rongly ) y1 y\r own argum5t may be almo/ :olly refutation2 b x is always wor? be>+ 9 m9d t if x is wor? :ile = y to be argu+ at all1 !re is some?+1 & some?+ ( s]i\s weight1 to be said on ! o!r side4 #ec4 ,! ,conclusion4 ,! conclusion ( y\r argum5t %\ld be %ort & po9t$4 ,ga!r ! ma9 issues toge!r1 & re/ate !m 9 t]ms t w be easy to rememb]4 ,m]e repetition ( ! po9ts z y made !m 9 y\r introduction may s\nd too mu* l lack ( res\rce2 on ! o!r h&1 x helps to make y\r po9ts famili>1 & to drive !m home4 ,9 any ev5t make y\r cont5tions easy to rememb]4 ,mo/ ( u g a long way t[>ds settl+ our own m9ds on a puzzl+ "q :5 we repeat to "s "o else argum5ts t we h read or he>d4 ,if y c s sum up y\r argum5t t y\r read]s w g (f & unconsci\sly retail y\r po9ts to _! neighbors1 y probably h !m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :5 y h f9i%$ y\r argum5t1 if y />t 9 to h$ge & modify & g back to po9ts t h n _h en\gh emphasis be=e1 y ?r[ away all y h ga9$4 ,9 argu+ no?+ succe$s l decision & c]ta9ty ( utt]ance4 ,ev5 dogmatism is bett] ?an an appe>ance ( wabbl+4 ,x is ! m5 l ,macaulay1 :o see ev]y?+ black & :ite ) no %ades betwe51 :o are ! lead]s ( ! _w's op9ion4 ,sum up1 !n1 :]ev] x is dec5t to d s1 z if !re 7 only "o side ( ! case1 & t c\ld be /at$ 9 ?ree l9es4 #ed4 ,! ,p[] ( ,conv9c+4 ,! conv9c+ p[] ( an argum5t dep5ds on its appeal to ! reason ( its read]s4 ,to put ! same fact 9 ano!r way1 an argum5t has conv9c+ p[] :5 x c fit ! facts :i* x deals ) smoo?ly & intellig5tly into ! re/ ( ! read]'s exp]i5ce4 ,if an argum5t on a complicat$ mass ( facts1 su* z ! evid5ce 9 a long murd] case1 makes ! read] say1 ,yes1 n[ ,i see h[ x all happ5$1 or an argum5t = ! direct election ( ,unit$ ,/ates s5ators makes him say1 ,yes1 t is a pla9 work+ out ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( popul> gov]nm5t1 !n he is conv9c$4 ,9 ?is aspect argum5t m]ges into exposition4 ,x is significant t1 z has already be5 not$1 ,mat!w ,arnold's argum5t t ,wordswor? is ! greate/ ,engli% poet aft] ,%akespe>e & ,milton1 & ,huxley's argum5t t ! physical basis ( animal & plant life is ! same1 are bo? us$ 9 a book ( examples ( exposition4#eh ,! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 argum5t & exposition f ?is po9t ( view lies 9 ! emphasis3 normally an explanation cov]s ! :ole case ev5ly2 an argum5t ?r[s c]ta9 p>ts & aspects ( ! case into relief4 ,if1 !re=e1 to be conv9c+1 y\r argum5t mu/ provide a reasonable explanation ( ! :ole /ate ( affairs to :i* ! case belongs1 y c use all ! devices !re are = cle> & effective explanation4 ,i w !re=e briefly review a few ( ^!4 ,( ! value ( an introduction :i* lays out ! gr\nd to be cov]$ ,i h already spok54 ,! m di/9ct an idea y c implant 9 y\r read]s' m9ds ( ! c\rse y are go+ to foll[ 9 y\r argum5t1 ! m likely !y w be to foll[ x4 ,s9ce ! success ( y\r argum5t hangs on c>ry+ !m ) y on ! ma9 issues1 let !m "k be=eh& j :at ^? issues are1 & 9 su* a way t !y c hold !m ) a m9imum ( ef=t4 ,! value ( a cle> &1 z x 71 maplike introduction is ev5 great] 9 an argum5t ?an 9 an exposition4 ,9 ! second place1 use y\r p>agraph+ = all t x is wor?1 & t is a great deal4 ,! success ( any explanation or argum5t spr+s f ! way 9 :i* x takes a mass ( facts ap>t1 & re>ranges !m simply & p]spicu\sly2 & !re is no device ( composition :i* helps s mu* t[>ds cle>ness z good p>agraph+4 ,accord+ly :5 y come to make y\r f9al draft1 make c]ta9 t ea* p>agraph has unity4 ,if y h any d\bts see if y c sum up ! p>agraph into a s+le simple s5t5ce4 ,!n look at ! beg9n+s ( ! p>agraphs to see :e!r y h made x easy = y\r read]s to "k :at ea* "o is ab\t4 ,macaulay's /yle is on ! :ole cle>] & m effective = a g5]al audi5ce ?an t ( any o!r writ] 9 ,engli%2 & 8 habit ( beg9n+ ea* p>agraph ) a v def9ite ann\ncem5t ( its subject is almo/ a mann]ism4 ,incid5tally !re is no bett] r\gh te/ ( ! unity ( y\r p>agraphs ?an ?us to give !m some?+ ( ! nature ( a title 9 ! fir/ s5t5ce4 ,(t51 too1 at ! end ( an important p>agraph x is wor? :ile to sum up its ess5ce 9 pi?y =m4 ,mank9d 9 g5]al is lazy ab\t ?9k+1 & m ?an ready to accept an argum5t :i* is easy to rememb] & repeat4 ,! end ( a p>agraph is ! place = a cat*word4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 b9d ! s5t5ces 9 y\r p>agraphs toge!r4 ,:5 "o is build+ up a fir/ draft1 & pick+ facts f a v>iety ( s\rces1 x is inevitable t ! result %all be some:at disjo9t$4 ,9 work+ ov] ! fir/ draft1 really "w x ov]1 & "w x toge!r4 ,make all ! s5t5ces po9t ! same way4 ,pron\ns are ! mo/ effective connectives t we h2 !re=e reca/ y\r s5t5ces s t !re w be z little *ange ( subject z possible4 ,!n use ! explicit connectives 9 z mu* v>iety z y c4 ,x is n likely t y w make y\r p>agraphs too closely knit = ! av]age read]4 ,9 ! f\r? place1 b9d y\r argum5t toge!r z a :ole by connectives at ! beg9n+s ( ! p>agraphs & by brief summ>iz+ p>agraphs4 ,9 ! pres5t g5]ation ( s*oolboys a good _m h groan$ ov] ,burke's spee* ,on ,conciliation ) ,am]ica2 b if ! fir/ "t t "o ( ^! suff]]s mu/ make an argum5t 9 real e>ne/1 he w g back to ,burke = "s ( ! devices us$ to b9d t argum5t toge!r1 he w be surpris$ to see h[ practically e effici5t ^? devices are4 ,& none ( !m c\nts m = cl>ity & ?or\ghness ?an ! consci5ti\s way 9 :i* ,burke took 8 he>]s by ! h& at ! beg9n+ ( ea* p>agraph1 & at ea* turn 9 8 argum5t1 to make sure t !y knew j h[ !y 7 pass+ f "o po9t to ano!r4 ,f ! doctr9e ( cle> explanation1 !n1 we may c>ry ov] to ! mak+ ( cle> argum5ts ! habit ( lay+ out ! gr\nd at ! beg9n+1 ( mak+ ! p>agraphs d _! full "w by att5d+ to unity1 to emphasis1 & to coh]5ce1 & ( b9d+ ! p>agraphs toge!r into a closely knit :ole4 #ee4 ,! ,p[] ( ,p]suad+4 ,f9ally1 we h to consid] ! "q ( h[ an argum5t c be made p]suasive--probably ! mo/ difficult subject 9 ! range ( rhetoric on :i* to give practical advice4 ,! key to ! :ole matt] lies 9 rememb]+ t we are "h deal+ ) feel+s1 & t feel+s are irrational & are ! product ( p]sonal exp]i5ce4 ,! exp]i5ce may be bitt] or sweet1 & to "s degree its effects are modifi$ by education2 b 9 sub/ance y\r feel+s & emotions make y :at y are1 & y\r capacities 9 ^! directions 7 born ) y4 ,if ! citiz5s ( a t[n h no feel+ ab\t political di%one/y1 re=m]s may talk _! ?roats out )\t produc+ any result2 x is only :5 taxes get intol]able or ! sew]s smell to heav5 t any?+ w be done4 ,_m p die = ^: dea?s ea* ( u ought to feel grief1 b if ^! p h nev] happ5$ to t\* our feel+s1 we c reason ) ourselves 9 va9 t we %\ld feel deeply griev$4 ,feel+ & emotion are ! deepe/1 mo/ primitive "p ( human nature2 & v little ( its field has be5 r$uc$ to ! g5]alizations ( reason4#ei ,:5 y come1 !re=e1 9 ! mak+ ( y\r argum5t to ! po9t ( /irr+ up ! feel+s ( y\r read]s on ! subject1 d n wa/e any "t 9 consid]+ :at !y ought to feel3 ! only p]t95t "q is :at !y d feel4 ,on y\r %rewdness 9 e/imat+ :at ^! feel+s are1 & h[ /rong !y are1 w hang y\r success z an advocate4 ,tact is ! faculty y ne$ n[--! faculty ( judg+ m51 ( kn[+ :5 !y w rise to an appeal1 & :5 !y w lie back in]t & un9t]e/$4 ,?is is a matt] y _c reason ab\t2 if y h ! faculty x w be borne 9 on y h[ o!r m5 w feel on y\r subject4 ,! skill ( politicians1 :]e x does n conf9e itself to e/imat+ h[ mu* ! p w /& be=e rebell+1 consi/s 9 ?is intuition ( ! movem5t ( public op9ion2 & ! great lead]s are ! m5 :o h s sure a s5se ( ^! l>ge waves ( popul> feel+ t !y c utt] at ! "r mom5t ! ^w t w ga!r toge!r ?is diffus$ & uncry/alliz$ feel+ into a liv+ =ce4 ,l9coln's decl>ation1 ,a h\se divid$ aga9/ itself _c /&1 ,i believe t ?is gov]nm5t _c endure p]man5tly half slave & half free1 br\ght to a head a conflict t _h be5 smold]+ ev] s9ce ! adoption ( ! ,con/itution1 & made him ! inevitable lead] :o 0 to br+ x to a close4 ,x w be notic$1 h[ev]1 t ! "t _h to come be=e ! inspir$ ^w c\ld make its appeal4 ,! abolitioni/s & antislav]y m5 _h long be5 prea*+ ! same doctr9e t ,l9coln utt]$1 & ! folly & wick$ness ( slav]y _h be5 prov$ by philosoph]s & prea*]s = g5]ations4 ,until ! "t gr[s ripe ! mo/ reasonable doctr9e does n t\* ! he>ts ( m52 :5 ! "t has rip5$1 ! lead] kn[s x & speaks ! ^w t sets ! _w on fire = righte\sness4 ,! same faculty1 on a small] scale1 is ne$$ by e "o ( u :o is try+ to make o!r p d any?+4 ,! actual use ( ! faculty w v>y greatly1 h[ev]1 ) diff]5t k9ds ( argum5ts4 ,9 c]ta9 k9ds ( sci5tific argum5t any attempt at p]suasion z su* w\ld be an imp]t95ce3 :e!r heat is a mode ( motion1 :e!r !re are su* inf9itesimal bodies z ! ions :i* physici/s ( to-day assume to expla9 c]ta9 new ph5om5a1 :e!r matt] consi/s ( inf9itesimal :irls ( =ce--9 all su* que/ions an argum5t appeals solely to ! reason2 & 9 su* ,bacon's favorite apoph!gm has full sway1 ,dry light is ev] ! be/4 ,9 ,huxley's argum5ts = ! !ory ( evolution feel+ _h "s %>e1 = :5 ! !ory 0 fir/ ann\nc$ by ,d>w9 "s religi\s p ?\ght t x cut at ! f\ndations ( _! fai?1 & ,huxley _h to %[ t loyalty to tru? is a feel+ ( equal sanctity to sci5tific m53 h5ce !re is "s t+e ( feel+1 ?\gh repress$1 9 8 argum5t1 & a def9ite consci\sness ( ! feel+s ( 8 audi5ce4 ,at ! o!r extreme are ! argum5ts :]e ! appeal to feel+s is ev]y?+1 s9ce x is cle> t ! audi5ce is already ( ! speak]'s way ( ?9k+4 ,examples ( su* argum5ts are mo/ apt to be f\nd 9 spee*es 9 political campaigns & 9 appeals = money to help =w>d *>ities ( all k9ds4 ,x is probable t mo/ ( ! conv]sions 9 political matt]s are ?r\gh read+2 consequ5tly ! purpose ( ! spee*es is to /ir up excitem5t & feel+ to su* a heat t ! maximum ( ! p>ty vot]s w take ! tr\ble to g out to ! polls4 ,argum5ts direct$ to ?is class1 accord+ly1 are almo/ :olly appeals to feel+4 ,! fam\s debate betwe5 ,l9coln & ,d\glas 9 #aheh 0 ( ?is "*2 ( ! ?\s&s ( p :o he>d !m 9 "o or ano!r ( ! sev5 debates mo/ _h tak5 sides already4 ,9 su* a case z ?is1 h[ev]1 :]e a *ange 9 g5]al political op9ion 0 imp5d+1 ! reason+ ( ! debates _h m =ce ?an 9 ord9>y times1 & probably help$ _m vot]s to a cle>] view ( a v di/ress+ & h>ass+ situation4 ,betwe5 times1 h[ev]1 9 politics1 :]e !re are no great moral or practical diff]5ces betwe5 p>ties1 ! purpose ( spee*es is almo/ :olly p]suasive4 ,success "o way or ano!r is a "q ( gett+ out ! vot]s :o m or less passively & z a matt] ( habit hold to ! p>ty4 ,p>ty speak]s1 accord+ly1 use e device to wake up _! vot]s1 & to make !m believe t !re is a real crisis at h&4 ,e attempt is made to atta* moral issues to ! p>ty plat=ms1 & to %[ h[ ! mat]ial prosp]ity ( ! vot]s w fail if ! o!r p>ty w9s4 ,r\ghly1 !re=e1 we may say t p]suasion t5ds to play a small "p 9 argum5ts ( facts1 & a l>g] "p 9 que/ions ( policy4 ,?is is a r\gh g5]alization only1 = e "o kn[s :at eloqu5ce & ef=ts at eloqu5ce g into ! argum5ts be=e juries 9 capital cases1 & h[ dry & ab/ract are ! argum5ts be=e ! judges on po9ts ( law1 or on que/ions ( public policy 9 books ( political economy4 ,b 9 ! long run1 ! less feel+ ent]s into decisions ( que/ions ( fact1 ! bett]4 ,( ! factors :i* make = ! p]suasiv5ess ( an argum5t ,i w speak "h ( ?ree--cle>ness ( /atem5t1 appeal to ! practical int]e/s ( ! audi5ce1 & direct appeal to _! feel+s4 ,!re c be no d\bt t cle>ness ( /atem5t is a p[]ful elem5t 9 mak+ an argum5t p]suasive1 ?\gh ! appeal t x makes to ! feel+s ( ! read]s is slight & subtle4 ,9 practice we mo/ly read argum5ts ei!r to help make up our m9ds on a subject or to get aid 9 def5d+ views = :i* we h no ready support4 ,9 ! latt] case we d n ne$ to be p]suad$2 b 9 ! =m] !re c be no "q t an argum5t :i* cle>s up ! subject1 & makes x intelligible :]e be=e x 0 confus+1 does h an effect on u ov] & above its aid to our ?\ght4 #ef4 ,! ,practical ,int]e/s ( ! ,audi5ce4 ,( directly p]suasive p[]1 h[ev]1 are ! o!r two factors--! appeal to ! practical int]e/s ( read]s1 & ! appeal to _! emotions4 ,( ^! ! appeal to practical int]e/s has no prop] place 9 argum5ts on que/ions ( fact1 b a l>ge & entirely prop] %>e 9 mo/ argum5ts ( policy4 ,h5ry ,w>d ,bee*]'s spee* on ! slav]y issue 9 ! ,civil ,w>1 be=e ! cotton op]atives ( ,liv]pool1#fj is a classic example ( ! direct appeal to ! practical int]e/s ( an audi5ce4 ,!y 7 bitt]ly ho/ile to ! ,nor?1 because ! supplies ( cotton _h be5 cut (f by ! blockade2 & aft] he _h got a he>+ f !m by appeal+ to ! ,engli% s5se ( fair play1 he drove home ! doctr9e t a slave population made few cu/om]s = ! products ( ,engli% mills4 ,!n he pass$ on to ! moral side ( ! "q4 ,argum5ts on almo/ all public que/ions--direct election ( s5ators1 direct prim>ies1 commission =m ( gov]nm5t1 t>iff1 curr5cy1 control ( corporations1 or1 9 local matt]s1 ! size ( a s*ool committee1 ! grant+ ( fran*ises to /reet railroads or wat] companies1 ! lay+ out ( /reets1 ! rules gov]n+ p>ks--are all que/ions ( policy 9 :i* ! greate/ practical advantage to ! greate/ proportion ( ^? :o are int]e/$ is ! controll+ =ce 9 ! decision4 ,at p>ticul> times & places moral que/ions may ent] into "s ( ^! que/ions1 b ord9>ily we come to !m to settle que/ions ( practical advantage4 ,9 argum5ts on all su* que/ions1 !re=e1 ! direct appeal to ! practical int]e/s ( ! p y are address+ is ! *ief factor t makes = p]suasiv5ess4 ,w a *ange to a commission =m ( gov]nm5t make t[>ds a r$uction ( taxes & t[>ds giv+ great] & m equitably di/ribut$ returns = ^? t are levi$8 ,w ! direct prim>y = /ate (fic]s make x easi] & sur] = ! av]age citiz5 ( ! /ate to elect to (fice ! k9d ( m5 he wants to h 9 (fice8 ,w a c5tral bank ( issue1 or "s in/itution l x1 e/abli% ! bus9ess ( ! c\ntry on a basis less likely to be di/urb$ by panics8 ,w a compet+ /reet-c> l9e make = bett] & *eap] transportation 9 ! city8 ,9 all su* que/ions ! only gr\nds = decision are practical1 & f\nd$ 9 ! prosp]ity & ! conv5i5ce ( ! p :o h ! decision4 ,to make argum5ts 9 su* cases p]suasive y mu/ %[ h[ ! "q affects ! practical int]e/s ( y\r read]s1 & !n t ! plan :i* y support w br+ !m ! greate/ advantage4 ,g5]alities & l>ge political tru?s may help y to conv9ce !m2 b to p]suade !m to active int]e/ & action y mu/ get d[n to ! realities :i* t\* !m p]sonally4 ,if y are argu+ = a commission gov]nm5t 9 y\r city on ! gr\nd ( economy1 %[ 9 doll>s & c5ts :at portion ( 8 income ! own] ( a h\se & lot wor? five or t5 ?\s& doll>s pays ea* ye> because ( ! pres5t extravagance & wa/efulness4 ,if y c make a vot] see t ! *ange is likely to save him t5 or tw5ty-five or a hundr$ doll>s a ye>1 y h made an argum5t t is p]suasive4 ,! argum5ts = ! re=mation ( our curr5cy sy/em are aim$ directly at ! mat]ial int]e/s ( ! bus9ess m5 ( ! c\ntry & _! employees2 & ! pleas = "o or ano!r sy/em attempt to %[ h[ ea* w conduce to ! great] security & pr(it ( ! greate/ numb] ( p4 ,to make su* argum5ts c\nt1 h[ev]1 y mu/ deal 9 concrete t]ms4 ,a rec5t argum5t#fa = ! e/abli%m5t ( a g5]al p>cels po/ 9 ?is c\ntry pres5ts figures to %[ t = ! transportation ( a p>cel by express at a rate ( =ty-five c5ts1 ! railroad gets tw5ty-two & "o-half c5ts = s]vice :i* x c\ld d at a h&some pr(it = five c5ts4 ,( ! validity ( ^! figures ,i h no means ( judg+2 b ! effectiv5ess ( ! argum5t lies 9 its mak+ pla9 to ea* ( its read]s a fact :i* t\*es 8 pocket e "t he s5ds a p>cel by express4 ,x is ?is k9d ( argum5t t has p]suasiv5ess1 = ! way we sp5d our money & :at we get = x come close home to mo/ ( u4 ,( all practical int]e/s ^? ( ! purse are ( necessity ! mo/ mov+ = all b ! v ri*4 ,money int]e/s1 h[ev]1 are f> f be+ ! only practical int]e/s :i* conc]n u3 !re are _m matt]s ( conv5i5ce & com=t :]e an individual or a community is n ?9k+ ( ! co/4 ,su* que/ions z :at k9d ( furnace to set up1 :e!r to build a h\se ( brick or ( cem5t1 :i* railroad to take betwe51 two cities1 are que/ions t draw argum5ts f o!r p ?an adv]tis+ ag5ts4 ,( ano!r sort are que/ions t conc]n education4 ,:at college %all a boy g to2 %all he be prep>$ 9 a public s*ool1 or a private day s*ool1 or a bo>d+ s*ool8 ,%all a giv5 college admit on c]tificate1 or dem& an exam9ation ( its own8 ,%all a c]ta9 public s*ool drop ,greek f its li/ ( /udies2 %all x set up a c\rse 9 manual tra9+8 ,all ^! are examples ( ano!r set ( que/ions t t\* practical int]e/s v closely4 ,9 argum5ts on su* que/ions1 !re=e1 if y are to h ! p[] ( p]suad+ & s ( influ5c+ action1 y mu/ get home to ! int]e/s ( ! p y are try+ to move4 ,! "q ( s*ools is v diff]5t = a boy 9 a small c\ntry village & = "o 9 ,new ,york ,city2 ! "q ( admission is diff]5t = a /ate univ]sity & = an end[$ college2 ! "q ( ,greek is diff]5t = a s*ool :i* s5ds few pupils on to college & = "o :i* s5ds _m3 & 9 ea* case if y want to influ5ce action1 y mu/ set =? facts :i* be> on ! problem z x faces t p>ticul> audi5ce4 ,except p]haps = ! highe/ eloqu5ce1 !re is no su* ?+ z univ]sal p]suasiv5ess4 ,! que/ions :i* actively affect ! av]age man usually conc]n small gr\ps ( p1 & ea* gr\p mu/ be /irr$ to action by inc5tives adapt$ to its special int]e/s4 #eg4 ,! ,appeal to ,moral ,int]e/s4 ,/ill fur!r f ! int]e/s t t\* ! pocket1 & con/antly 9 heal?y & elevat+ action aga9/ !m1 are ! moral int]e/s4 ,! appeal to moral motives is sometimes laugh$ at by m5 :o call !mselves practical1 b 9 ,am]ica x is 9 ! long run ! /ronge/ appeal t c be made4 ,we are /ill ne> en\gh to ! m5 :o f\ght ?r\gh ! ,civil ,w>1 9 :i* ea*1 side held passionately to :at x believ$ to be ! moral "r1 = u to believe )\t too mu* complac5cy t moral =ces are ! =ces t rule u z a nation4 ,mr4 ,bryan & ,mr4 ,roosevelt h bo? be5 call$ prea*]s1 & ! hold !y h _h on great1 ?\gh diff]+1 p>ts ( ! ,am]ican p is inconte/able4 ,if any "q on :i* y h to argue has a moral side1 x is n only y\r duty1 b x is also ! pa? ( exp$i5cy1 to make appeal ?r\gh ! moral pr9ciple involv$4 ,! *ief difficulty ) mak+ an appeal to moral pr9ciples is to set !m =? 9 o!r ?an ab/ract t]ms1 s9ce !y are ! product ( a set ( feel+s :i* lie too deep = easy phras+ 9 def9ite words4 ,9 mo/ cases we "k :at is "r long be=e we c expla9 :y x is "r2 & a man :o c put into cle> words ! moral =ces t move 8 fell[s is a prophet & lead] ( m54 ,moreov]1 x mu/ be rememb]$ :5 "o is appeal+ to moral pr9ciples t upright m5 are n agre$ ab\t all ( !m1 & !re is ev5 m d\bt & disagreem5t :5 "o comes to ! practical application ( ! pr9ciples4 ,we h se5 9 ,*apt] ,i :at bitt] division arose 9 our fa!rs' "t ov] ! "r & ! righte\sness ( slav]y2 & h[ 9 _m /ates to-day good & ,god-fe>+ p are divid$ on ! "q ( prohibition4 ,b ev5 :]e ! two sides to a "q agree on ! moral pr9ciple :i* is involv$1 x by no means foll[s t !y w agree on its application 9 a p>ticul> case4 ,*ur* memb]s accept ! pr9ciple t "o mu/ =give s9n]s & help !m to re=m2 b x is ano!r ?+ :5 x comes to gett+ "w = a man :o has be5 9 prison1 or help = a woman :o has left h] husb&4 ,h[ f> is ! condon+ ( (f5ses consi/5t ) ma9ta9+ ! /&>ds ( society8 ,& 9 :at cases %all we apply ! pr9ciple ( =giv5ess8 ,9 a bus9ess transaction h[ f> c "o pu% ! ,gold5 ,rule8 ,life w\ld be a simpl] matt] if moral pr9ciples 7 always easy to apply to concrete cases4 ,"o mu/ use ! appeal to moral pr9ciples1 !re=e1 sob]ly & ) discretion4 ,! good s5se ( read]s w rebel if _! moral s5se is call$ on unnecess>ily2 & ev5 :5 !y _c expla9 :y !y believe su* an appeal uns\nd1 yet _! in/9cts w tell !m t x is s4 ,! creator ^: "r h& is always ris+ to heav5 to call ,god to witness disgu/s ! "r feel+ ( 8 audi5ce4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :]e moral pr9ciples are really conc]n$ !re %\ld be no compromise4 ,if 9 a political campaign ! issue is betwe5 hone/y & graft 9 ! public s]vice1 or betwe5 an op5 discussion ( all deal+s :i* t\* ! public good1 & private b>ga9+ ) p>ty manag]s1 ! moral pr9ciples _c be kept hidd54 ,if a real moral pr9ciple is s]i\sly involv$ 9 any "q1 ! debate mu/ rise to ! level ( t pr9ciple & let practical consid]ations g4 ,& e citiz5 :o has ! advantage ( hav+ _h m education ?an 8 fell[s is !reby plac$ "u obligation to hold ! debate to ?is high] level4 #eh4 ,! ,appeal ( ,/yle4 ,f9ally1 we h to consid] ! appeal to ! emotions1 :i* is ! di/+ui%+ ess5ce ( eloqu5ce1 & ! attempts at x4 ,9 "p ?is appeal is ?r\gh ! appeal to pr9ciples & associations :i* are close to ! he>t ( ! audi5ce1 9 "p ?r\gh concrete & figurative language1 9 "p ?r\gh ! indef9able ?rill & music ( /yle :i* lies beyond def9ition & in/ruction4 ,! appeal to v5]at$ pr9ciple we h consid]$ already1 look$ at f ! side ( morals r ?an ( emotions4 ,b morality1 s f> z x is a co]cive =ce 9 human conduct1 is emotional2 our moral /&>ds lie beyond & above reason 9 t l>g] "p ( our nature t kn[s ?r\gh feel+ & intuition4 ,all m5 h c]ta9 /&>ds & pr9ciples ^: names ar\se /rong & rev]5t emotions4 ,su* /&>ds are n all religi\s or moral 9 ! /rict] s5se2 "s ( !m h _! roots 9 sy/ems ( gov]nm5t4 ,9 a case at law1 argu$ purely on a "q ( law1 !re does n seem mu* *ance = ! appeal to feel+2 b ,mr4 ,joseph ,h4 ,*oate1 9 8 argum5t on ! con/itutionality ( ! ,income ,tax ( #ahid1 be=e ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 made ! foll[+ appeal to ! pr9ciple ( ! sanctity ( private prop]ty1 & ! words he us$ c\ld n h fail$ to /ir deep & /rong feel+s 9 ! c\rt4 ,no long] ago1 if ! ,c\rt please1 ?an ! day ( ! fun]al procession ( ,g5]al ,%]man 9 ,new ,york1 x 0 my =tune to sp5d _m h\rs ) "o ( ! ex-,presid5ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :o has s9ce foll[$ t great w>rior to ! b\rne to :i* we 7 !n be>+ him4 ,presid5t ,hayes express$ great solicitude z to ! future =tunes ( ?is p4 ,9 8 retirem5t he _h be5 wat*+ ! t5d5cy ( political & social purposes & ev5ts4 ,he _h obs]v$ h[ 9 rec5t ye>s ! possessors ( political p[] _h be5 le>n+ to use x = ! fir/ "t = ! promotion ( social & p]sonal ends4 ,he said to me1 ,y w probably live to see ! day :5 9 ! case ( ! dea? ( any man ( l>ge weal? ! ,/ate w take = itself all above a c]ta9 prescrib$ limit ( 8 =tune & divide x1 or apply x to ! equal use ( all ! p1 s z to puni% ! ri* man = 8 weal?1 & to divide x among ^? :o1 :atev] may h be5 _! s9s1 at lea/ h n committ$ t4 ,i look$ ^u x z ! w&]+s ( a dream+ man2 & yet if ,i _h kn[n t )9 less ?an five %ort ye>s aft]w>ds ,i %\ld be /&+ be=e ?is tribunal to conte/ ! validity ( an alleg$ act ( ,congress1 ( a s-call$ law1 :i* 0 def5d$ "h by ! au?oriz$ legal repres5tatives ( ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t ^u ! plea t x 0 a tax levi$ only ^u classes & extremely ri* m51 ,i %\ld h giv5 altoge!r a diff]5t he$ & e> to ! w>n+s ( t di/+ui%$ /atesman4#fb ,our emotions d n rise1 h[ev]1 anymore surely 9 ! case ( our v5]ation = ! basal pr9ciples ( religion & gov]nm5t ?an 9 t ( m p]sonal emotions4 ,! appeal to ! ,con/itution is worn some:at ?readb>e by ! politicians :o call on x at e election1 small or great1 z is ! appeal to ! pr9ciples ( ! ,pilgrim ,fa!rs4 ,x takes eloqu5ce n[ to r\se our feel+s ab\t ^! pr9ciples4 ,if y h a case important en\gh to ju/ify appeal to su* great pr9ciples & ! skill 9 language to give y\r appeal vitality1 y may really ar\se y\r read]s4 ,b1 on ! :ole1 x is s\nd advice to say1 ,wait a few ye>s be=e y call on !m4 ,! second mode ( appeal to ! feel+s ( y\r audi5ce1 t ?r\gh concrete & figurative language1 is m )9 ! rea* ( advocates :o are /ill ( college age4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true ( ! use ( concrete language4 ,x is a matt] ( common k t m5 d n r\se !mselves ov] ab/ract pr9ciples2 !y w grant _! ass5t1 (t5 )\t really kn[+ :at is impli$ by ! g5]al pr9ciple1 & g away yawn+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! man :o talks ab\t ! real & actual ?+s :i* y "k is likely to keep y\r att5tion4 ,?is goes back to ! tru? t our emotions & feel+s are prim>ily ! reaction to ! concrete ?+s t happ5 to u4 ,! spontane\s :i/l+ & humm+ ( tunes t indicate a *e]ful he>t rise naturally z a response to ! sunlight 9 spr+2 ! fe> at ! t]ror t flies 9 a nightm>e is ! in/9ctive & physical reaction to indige/ion2 we sorr[ ov] ! loss ( our own fri5ds1 b n ov] ! loss ( "s "o else's4 ,! /ories t /ir u are ! /ories t deal ) actual1 tangible realities 9 su* t]ms t !y make u feel t we are liv+ ! /ory ourselves4 ,/ev5son has "s wise words on ?is subject 9 8 essay1 ,a ,gossip on ,romance4 ,! doctr9e holds true = ! mak+ ( argum5ts4 ,ev5 :]e z 9 ,burke's spee* ,on ,conciliation ) ,am]ica1 ab/ractness is n vagu5ess1 ! /yle w\ld be m effective = ! ri*] feel+ t hangs ov] & ar\nd a concrete vocabul>y4 ,! great vividness ( ,macaulay's /yle1 & its bold ov] s _m read]s1 is l>gely due to 8 unfail+ use ( ! specific ^w4 ,if y w take ! tr\ble to notice :at argum5ts 9 ! la/ few mon?s h seem$ to y especially p]suasive1 y w be surpris$ to f9d h[ def9ite & concrete ! t]ms are t !y use4 ,accord+ly1 if y wi% to keep ! read]s ( y\r argum5t awake & att5tive1 use t]ms t t\* _! ev]yday exp]i5ce4 ,if y are argu+ = ! e/abli%m5t ( a commission =m ( gov]nm5t1 give 9 doll>s & c5ts ! sum t x co/ "u ! old sy/em to pave ! ?ree hundr$ y>ds ( ,a ,/reet1 betwe5 #ab? & #ac? /reets4 ,! late ,mr4 ,godk9 ( ! ,new ,york ,ev5+ ,po/1 9 8 lifelong campaign aga9/ corrupt gov]nm5t1 to br+ home to 8 read]s ! actual /ate ( _! city gov]nm5t & ! "* ( ! m5 :o ran x1 us$ _! nicknames2 ,long ,john ,corrigan1 = example 7if !re _h be5 su* a p]sonage72 & ,ba?-h\se ,john ,somebody has be5 a feature ( campaigns 9 ,*icago4 ,! value ( su* names :5 skillfully us$ is t by _! associations & connotation !y d /ir feel+4 ,likewise if y are argu+ be=e an audi5ce ( graduates = a *ange f a gr\p sy/em to a free elective sy/em 9 y\r college1 y w\ld use ! names ( c\rses ) :i* !y w\ld be famili> & ! names ( pr(essors "u :om !y _h /udi$4 ,if y 7 argu+ = ! introduction ( manual tra9+ into a s*ool1 y w\ld make taxpay]s take an int]e/ 9 ! matt] if y gave !m ! exact numb]s ( pupils f t s*ool :o h gone directly into mills or o!r "w ( ! k9d1 & if y describe vividly j :at is meant by manual tra9+4 ,if y\r description is 9 g5]al t]ms !y may grant y y\r pr9ciple1 & !n out ( m]e in]tia & a vague feel+ aga9/ *ange vote ! o!r way4 ,a r\gh te/ = concret5ess is y\r vocabul>y3 if y\r words are mo/ly ,anglo-,saxon y w usually be talk+ ab\t concrete ?+s2 if x is ,lat9ate & polysyllabic x is probably ab/ract & g5]al4 ,mo/ ( ! ?+s & actions ( ev]yday life1 ! individual ?+s l walls & puppies1 summ] & boys1 buy+ & sell+1 pray+ & s++1 h names belong+ to ! ,anglo-,saxon "p ( ! language2 & ?\gh !re are _m exceptions1 l tables1 & telephones1 & pr(essors1 yet ! m y\r vocabul>y consi/s ( ! non-,lat9ate words1 ! m likely x is to be concrete1 & !re=e to keep y\r read]s' att5tion & feel+s alive4 ,use ! simple t]ms ( ev]yday life1 !re=e1 r ?an ! le>n$ words :i* w\ld s]ve y if y 7 g5]aliz+ f _m cases4 ,/ick to ! s+le case be=e y & to ! int]e/s ( ! p>ticul> p y are try+ to w9 ov]4 ,to t\* _! feel+s rememb] t y mu/ talk ab\t ! ?+s !y h feel+s ab\t4 ,! use ( similes & metaphors & o!r figurative language raises a difficult "q4 ,on ! :ole1 p]haps ! be/ advice ab\t us+ !m is1 ,don't unless y h to4 ,9 o!r words1 :]e a figure ( spee* is a necessity ( expression1 :]e y _c make y\r ?\ght cle> & imp>t to x ! w>m? ( feel+ ) :i* x is clo!d 9 y\r own m9d except by a t\* ( imag9ative color1 !n use a figure ( spee*1 if "o fla%es itself on y\r m9d4 ,if y add x delib]ately z adornm5t ( y\r spee*1 x w /rike a false note2 if y labori\sly inv5t x ! ef=t w %[4 ,unless y\r ?\ght & y\r eag]ness = y\r subject fl[ naturally & inevitably into an image1 x is bett] to /ick to pla9 spee*1 = any sugge/ion ( ins9c]ity is fatal to ! p]suasiv5ess ( an argum5t4 ,! value ( ! figure ( spee* is *iefly 9 giv+ expression to feel+s :i* _c be set =? 9 ab/ract words1 ! :ole ( ^: mean+ c be def9$3 9 ! connotation ( words--t indef9able "p ( _! mean+ :i* consi/s 9 _! associations1 implications1 & g5]al emotional color+--lies _! p[] to clo! ?\ght ) ! ri* color ( feel+ :i* is ! life4 ,at ! same "t1 !y s]ve z a fillip to ! att5tion4 ,!re are n v _m p :o c long keep ! m9d fix$ on a purely ab/ract l9e ( ?\ght1 & none c d x )\t "s ef=t4 ,pr(essor ,william ,james is a notable example ( a writ] ^: ?\ght fl[$ spontane\sly into necess>y figures ( spee*3 ,:5 "o turns to ! magnific5t edifice ( ! physical sci5ces1 & sees h[ x 0 re>$2 :at ?\s&s ( dis9t]e/$ moral lives ( m5 lie buri$ 9 its m]e f\ndations2 :at pati5ce & po/ponem5t1 :at *ok+ d[n ( pref]5ce1 :at submission to ! icy laws ( out] fact are wr\ght into its v /ones & mort>2 h[ absolutely imp]sonal x /&s 9 its va/ augu/ness1--!n h[ besott$ & contemptible seems e little s5tim5tali/ :o comes bl[+ 8 volunt>y smoke wrea?s1 & pret5d+ to decide ?+s out ( 8 private dream4#fc ,"o _c g to sleep ov] a /yle l t1 = besides ! obvi\s s9c]ity & ru% ( w>m feel+1 ! vividness ( ! figures is l t ( poetry4 ,on ! ei!r h&1 "o mu/ rememb] t x is giv5 to few m5 to atta9 ! un/udi$ eloqu5ce ( ,pr(essor ,james4 ,fables & anecdotes s]ve mu* ! same purpose1 b m especially ?r[ into memorable =m ! pr9ciple :i* !y are int5d$ to set =?4 ,!re are a good _m tru?s :i* are ei!r s complex or s subtle t !y defy phras+ 9 compact =m1 yet _! tru? we all "k by intuition4 ,if = su* a tru? y c f9d a compact illu/ration1 y c leave x mu* m firmly fix$ 9 y\r read]s' m9ds ?an by any am\nt ( sy/ematic exposition4 ,l9coln 9 8 ,spr+field spee*1 = example1 ?rew into /rik+ =m ! feel+ :i* 0 s common 9 ! ,nor?1 t ea* /ep =w>d 9 ! advance ( slav]y s fitt$ into all e>li] ones t some?+ l a conc]t$ plan mu/ be assum$3 ,we _c absolutely "k t all ^! exact adaptations are1 ! result ( preconc]t4 ,b :5 we see a lot ( fram$ timb]s1 diff]5t portions ( :i* we "k h be5 gott5 cut at diff]5t times & places & by diff]5t workm51--,/eph51 ,frankl91 ,rog]1 & ,james1 = in/ance1--& we see ^! timb]s jo9$ toge!r1 & see !y exactly make ! frame ( a h\se or a mill1 all ! t5ons & mortises exactly fitt+1 & all ! l5g?s & proportions ( ! diff]5t pieces exactly adapt$ to _! respective places1 & n a piece too _m or too few1 n omitt+ ev5 scaffold+1--or1 if a s+le piece be lack+1 we see ! place 9 ! frame exactly fitt$ & prep>$ yet to br+ su* piece 91--9 su* a case we f9d x impossible n to believe t ,/eph5 & ,frankl9 & ,rog] & ,james all und]/ood "o ano!r f ! beg9n+1 & all work$ ^u a common plan or draft drawn up be=e ! fir/ bl[ 0 /ruck4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re is ! dang] ( be+ florid or ( play+ ! cl[n if y tell too _m /ories4 ,:e!r y\r /yle w seem florid or n dep5ds a good deal on ! "p ( ! c\ntry y are writ+ =4 ,!re is no d\bt t ! ta/e ( ! ,s\? & ( a good deal ( ! ,we/ is = a /yle m v>i$ & highly color$ ?an suits ! sob]] ta/e ( ! ,ea/4 ,b :atev] "p ( ! c\ntry y are writ+ =1 j s soon z y\r /yle seems to ^? special read]s ov]load$ ) ornam5t x w seem ins9c]e4 ,9 ! same way1 if y /op too (t5 to tell a /ory or to make y\r read]s laugh1 y w produce ! impression ( trifl+ ) y\r subject4 ,9 bo? ^! respects be c>eful n to draw ! att5tion ( y\r read]s away f ! subject to y\r /yle4 ,! ultimate & lea/ analyzable appeal ( /yle is ?r\gh t ?rill ( ! voice :i* 9 writt5 /yle appe>s z rhy?m & h>mony4 ,c]ta9 m5 are gift$ ) ! capacity ( s modulat+ _! voices & ?r[+ virtue into _! tones t :oev] he>s !m feels an indef9able ?rill4 ,s 9 writ+3 :]e s\nds foll[ s\nds 9 h>moni\s sequ5ce1 & ! beat ( ! acc5t approa*es regul>ity )\t fall+ into x1 language takes on ! expressiv5ess ( music4 ,x is well kn[n t music expresses a range ( feel+ t lies beyond ! p[]s ( words3 :o c expla91 = example1 ! ?rill r\s$ 9 him by a good brass b&1 or ! indef9able melan*oly & gloom creat$ by ! m9or h>monies ( "o ( ! great fun]al m>*es1 or1 9 ano!r direction1 ! impulse t sets him to :i/l+ or s++ on a bright morn+ 9 summ]8 ,!re are _m su* k9ds ( feel+1 real & pot5t p>ts ( our consci\sness2 & if we c br+ !m to expression at all1 we mu/ d s ?r\gh ! rhy?m & o!r s5su\s qualities ( ! /yle :i* are pure s5sation4 ,h[ is t to be done8 ,! answ] is difficult1 & l t conc]n+ ! use ( figurative language3 d n try = x too delib]ately4 ,if )\t y\r ?9k+ ( x y f9d y\rself becom+ m e>ne/ 9 spee*1 & m impress$ ) ! s]i\sness ( ! issue y are argu+1 y\r voice w %[ x naturally4 ,s :5 y are writ+3 y\r e>ne/ness w %[1 if y h _h ! tra9+ & h ! natural gift = expression 9 words1 9 a l5g!n+ & m /rongly m>k$ rhy?m1 9 an intangibly ri*] color+ ( s\nd4 ,9 spee* ! rhy?m is apt to be %[n 9 :at is call$ p>allel /ructure1 ! repetition ( ! same =m ( s5t5ce1 & 9 rhetorical que/ions4 ,9 writ+1 ^! =ms m easily t5d to seem ei!r excit$ or artificial4 ,su/a9$ p]iodic /ructure1 too1 c be c>ri$ by ! speak+ voice1 :5 x w\ld lag if writt54 ,e "o recognizes ?is incommunicable ?rill ( eloqu5ce 9 great speak]s & writ]s1 b x is s mu* a gift ( nature t x is n wise consci\sly to cultivate x4 #ei4 ,fairness & ,s9c]ity4 ,9 ! long run1 h[ev]1 no?+ makes an argum5t appeal m to read]s ?an an air ( fairness & s9c]ity4 ,if x is evid5t 9 an argum5t ( fact t y are seek+ to e/abli% ! tru?1 or 9 an argum5t ( policy t y\r s+le aim is ! greate/ good ( all conc]n$1 y\r audi5ce w li/5 to y ) favorable e>s4 ,if on ! o!r h& y seem to be *iefly conc]n$ ) ! vanity ( a p]sonal victory1 or to be ?9k+ ( selfi% advantages1 !y w li/5 to y coolly & ) jeal\s scrut9y ( y\r po9ts4 ,accord+ly1 9 mak+ y\r prelim9>y survey to prep>e ! /atem5t ( ! facts t are agre$ on by bo? sides1 g z f> z y c 9 yield+ po9ts4 ,if ! "q is wor? argu+ at all y w /ill h y\r h&s full to get ?r\gh x )9 y\r space4 ,9 p>ticul> waive all trivial po9ts3 no?+ is m we>isome to read]s ?an to pl[ ?r\gh detail$ argum5ts ov] po9ts t no "o c>es ab\t 9 ! end4 ,& meet ! o!r side at lea/ halfway 9 agree+ on ! facts t d n ne$ to be argu$ out4 ,y w prejudice y\r audi5ce if y make concessions 9 a grudg+ _s4 ,likewise1 :]ev] y h1 to meet argum5ts put =w>d by ! o!r side1 /ate !m ) scrupul\s fairness2 if y\r audi5ce has any reason to suppose t y are twi/+ ! ass]tions ( ! o!r side to y\r own advantage1 y h %ak5 _! confid5ce 9 y1 & !reby weak5$ ! p]suasive =ce ( y\r argum5t4 ,use s>casm ) caution1 & bew>e ( any seem+ ( triumph4 ,s>casm easily becomes *eap1 & an air ( triumph may look l petty sm>tness4 ,9 %ort1 9 writ+ y\r argum5t1 assume ?r\gh\t ! attitude ( "o :o is seek+ e>ne/ly to br+ ! disagreem5t betwe5 ! two sides to an end4 ,if y are deal+ ) a "q ( fact1 y\r sole duty is to e/abli% ! tru?4 ,if y are deal+ ) a "q ( policy1 y "k :5 y beg9 t :i*ev] way ! decision goes1 "o side w suff] "s disadvantage2 b aim to less5 t disadvantage1 & to discov] a way t w br+ ! greate/ ga9 to ! greate/ numb]4 ,an obvi\s _s ( conciliation is a l>ge asset 9 p]suasion4 ,) ! conciliation make cle> y\r s9c]ity4 ,a *ief difficulty ) mak+ argum5ts writt5 9 s*ool & college p]suasive is t !y s (t5 deal ) subjects 9 :i* x is obvi\s t ! writ]'s own feel+s are n greatly conc]n$4 ,?is difficulty w disappe> :5 y get out into ! _w1 & make argum5ts 9 e>ne/4 ,a great "p ( ,l9coln's success z an advocate is said to h be5 due to ! fact t he always tri$ to compose 8 cases & to make peace betwe5 ! litigants1 & t he nev] took a case 9 :i* he did n believe4 ,if y leave on y\r audi5ce ! impression t y are s9c]e & 9 e>ne/1 y h tak5 a long /ep t[>ds w9n+ ov] _! feel+s4 ,on ! :ole1 !n1 :5 "o is consid]+ ! "q ( p]suasion1 ! figure ( spee* ( a battle is n v apt4 ,x is all v well :5 y are lay+ out y\r brief to speak1 ( deploy+ y\r v>i\s po9ts1 ( direct+ an attack on y\r oppon5t's weake/ po9t1 ( br++ up res]ve mat]ial 9 rebuttal2 b if ! figure gets y into ! way ( ?9k+ t y mu/ always demoli% y\r oppon5t1 & treat him z an enemy1 x is do+ h>m4 ,if y w take ! tr\ble to foll[ ! controv]sies :i* are go+ on 9 y\r own city & /ate ov] public affairs1 y w soon see t 9 mo/ ( !m ! two sides break ev51 s f> z intellig5ce & public-spirit$ness g4 ,9 e transaction !re are two sides2 & ! presid5t ( a /reet railroad may be z hone/ & z dis9t]e/$ 9 seek+ to get ! be/ ( ! b>ga9 = 8 road z ! repres5tatives ( ! city are 9 try+ to get ! be/ ( x = ! public4 ,!re is no use go+ into a "q ( ?is sort ) ! assumption t y are on a high] moral plane ?an ! o!r side4 ,9 "s cases :]e a moral issue is involv$ !re is only "o view ( :at is "r2 if hone/y is 9 ! balance1 !re c be no o!r side4 ,b1 z we h se51 !re are moral que/ions 9 :i* "o mu/ use 8 utmo/ /r5g? = ! "r z he sees ! "r1 & yet "k all ! "t t equally hone/ m5 are fight+ j z h>d on ! o!r side4 ,no ,am]ican :o rememb]s ! case ( ,g5]al ,rob]t ,e4 ,lee c =get ?is puzzl+ tru?4 ,!re=e1 unless !re c be no d\bt ( ! di%one/y ( y\r oppon5t1 turn y\r en]gies aga9/ 8 cause & n aga9/ him2 & hold t ! prop] end ( argum5t is n s mu* to w9 victories z to br+ z _m p z possible to agreem5t4 ,,ex]cises #a4 ,comp>e ! l5g? ( ! introductory "p ( ! argum5t ( ! specim5s at ! end ( ?is book2 po9t out reasons = ! diff]5ce 9 l5g?1 if y f9d any4 #b4 ,f9d two argum5ts1 n 9 ?is book1 9 :i* ! ma9 po9ts at issue are numb]$4 #c4 ,f9d an argum5t1 n 9 ?is book1 9 :i* a hi/ory ( ! case is "p ( ! introduction4 #d4 ,f9d an argum5t1 n 9 ?is book1 9 :i* ! def9itions ( t]ms occupy "s space4 #e4 ,9 ! argum5t on :i* y are work+1 :at t]ms ne$ def9ition8 ,h[ mu* space %\ld ! def9itions occupy 9 ! complet$ argum5t8 ,:y8 #f4 ,9 ! argum5t on :i* y are work+1 h[ mu* ( ! mat]ial 9 ! introduction to ! brief %all y use 9 ! argum5t itself8 ,does ! audi5ce y h 9 m9d affect ! decision8 #g4 ,h[ d y int5d to di/ribute y\r space betwe5 ! ma9 issues y w argue out8 #h4 ,h[ mu* w explanation ent] into y\r argum5t8 #i4 ,f9d an argum5t1 n 9 ?is book1 9 :i* ! explanation *iefly makes ! conv9c+ p[]4 #aj4 ,9 :i* ( ! argum5ts 9 ?is book does explanation play ! smalle/ "p8 #aa4 ,exam9e five consecutive p>agraphs 9 ,huxley's argum5t on evolution1 or ,! ,outlook argum5t on ! ,workman's ,comp5sation ,act1 f ! po9t ( view ( good explanation4 #ab4 ,f9d two examples ( argum5ts1 n 9 ?is book1 ^: *ief appeal is to ! feel+s4 #ac4 ,f9d an argum5t1 n 9 ?is book1 :i* is a good illu/ration ( ! p[] ( tact4 #ad4 ,"n an argum5t :i* y h read )9 a few mon?s :i* made a special impression on y by its cle>ness4 #ae4 ,f9d an argum5t 9 ! daily pap]s1 on local or academic affairs1 :i* makes effective appeal to ! practical int]e/s ( its audi5ce4 ,analyze ?is appeal4 #af4 ,"n ?ree subjects ( local & imm$iate int]e/ on :i* y c\ld write an argum5t 9 :i* y w\ld appeal *iefly to ! practical int]e/s ( y\r read]s4 #ag4 ,"n two curr5t political que/ions :i* turn on ! practical int]e/s ( ! c\ntry at l>ge4 #ah4 ,"n two public que/ions n[ "u discussion into :i* moral issues ent]4 ,d bo? sides on ^! que/ions accept ! same view ( ! be>+ ( ! moral issues8 #ai4 ,f9d an argum5t1 n 9 ?is book1 9 :i* ! eloqu5ce ( ! /yle is a di/9ct "p ( ! p]suasive p[]4 #bj4 ,:at d y ?9k ( ! p]suasive p[] ( ,burke's spee* ,on ,conciliation ) ,am]ica8 ( its conv9c+ p[]8 #ba4 ,f9d an argum5t1 n 9 ?is book1 9 :i* ! concret5ess ( ! language adds to ! p]suasive p[]4 #bb4 ,f9d two examples1 n 9 ?is book1 ( apt & effective figures ( spee* 9 an argum5t4 #bc4 ,f9d an example ( an apt anecdote or fable us$ 9 an argum5t4 #bd4 ,9 ,l9coln's address at ,coop] ,in/itute1 :at d y ?9k ( 8 attitude t[>ds ! ,s\? z respects fairness8 #be4 ,9 ! argum5t on :i* y are at "w1 :at *ance w\ld !re be ( induc+ agreem5t betwe5 ! two sides8 ,,*apt] ,v ,,debat+ #fj4 ,! ,nature ( ,debate4 ,! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 debate & writt5 argum5t lies n s mu* 9 ! natural diff]5ce betwe5 all spok5 & writt5 disc\rse z 9 ! fact t 9 a debate ( any k9d !re is ! *ance = an imm$iate answ] to an oppon5t4 ,quickness ( wit to see ! weak po9ts on ! o!r side1 read9ess 9 attack+ !m1 & res\rce 9 def5d+ "o's own po9ts make ! debat]1 z di/+ui%$ f ! man :o1 if he be giv5 pl5ty ( "t1 c make a =midable & weighty argum5t 9 writ+4 ,! be/ debat+ is he>d 9 delib]ative bodies :i* are n too l>ge1 & :]e ! rules are n too elaborate4 ,p]haps ! be/ 9 ! _w is 9 ! ,briti% ,h\se ( ,commons1 = !re ! room is n s l>ge t he>+ is difficult1 & skill 9 ?ru/ & p>ry has be5 valu$ & practic$ = g5]ations4 ,! milit>y figure = argum5t is m apposite 9 debate ?an any:]e else1 = 9 ! tak+ ( ! vote !re is an actual victory & defeat1 v diff]5t 9 nature f ! b>r5 decision ( judges 9 int]collegiate & int]s*ola/ic conte/s4 ,x is und\bt$ly r>e t a p>ticul> debate 9 any legislative body actually *anges ! result2 b 9 ! long run ! debates 9 su* bodies d mold public op9ion1 & )9 ! body amalgamate or break up p>ty ties4 ,! res\rce & ! ready k ( ! subject "u debate necess>y to hold "o's own 9 su* runn+ conte/s ( wit ,is an almo/ ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( a p>ty lead]4 ,x is on ^! two qualities t ,i %all *iefly dwell 9 ?is *apt]4 #fa4 ,subjects = ,debate4 ,debate almo/ always deals ) que/ions ( policy4 ,9 trials be=e a jury !re is some?+ approa*+ a debate ov] que/ions ( fact2 b ! rules ( evid5ce are s special1 & )9 _! range s /rict1 t ev5 ?\gh ! argum5ts are spok51 !y c h little ( ! free give & take :i* makes ! life & ! int]e/ ( a real debate4 ,accord+ly ,i %all draw my illu/rations "h f que/ions ( policy1 & s f> z is possible f ! sort ( "q t /ud5ts are likely to turn _! att5tion to4 ,! lat] ye>s ( s*ool & ! :ole ( ! college c\rse are (t5 ! mold+ ye>s = a man's views on all sorts ( public que/ions4 ,x has be5 said t a man's views r>ely *ange aft] he is tw5ty-five ye>s old2 & ?\gh "o mu/ n take su* a dictum too lit]ally1 yet unque/ionably x has tru?4 ,at any rate x is c]ta9 t a /ud5t1 :e!r 9 high s*ool or college1 if he is to d 8 duty z a citiz51 mu/ beg9 to ?9k out _m ( ! que/ions :i* are be+ decid$ 9 ,congress1 9 /ate legislatures1 & 9 small]1 m local bodies4 ,at ! same "t1 9 e s*ool & college que/ions are con/antly "u discussion ( a nature to provide good practice 9 debate4 ,"s ( ^! que/ions mu/ be decid$ by s*ool committee1 pr9cipal1 faculty1 or tru/ees1 & mo/ ( !m call = "s look+ up ( facts4 ,!y w\ld provide admirable mat]ial = ! developm5t ( judgm5t & res\rce 9 debat+1 & 9 "s cases a debate on !m might h effect on ! actual decision4 ,! *oice ( subject is ev5 m important = debat+ ?an = writt5 argum5t4 ,9 a writt5 argum5t if y h a "q :i* has two def5sible sides1 x does n make mu* diff]5ce :e!r "o is easi] to def5d ?an ! o!r3 9 a debate su* a diff]5ce might de/roy ! usefulness ( ! subject4 ,?\gh to "s old] m9ds ! abolition ( football is a debatable "q1 be=e an audi5ce ( und]graduates :o _h to vote on ! m]its ( ! "q ! subject w\ld be useless1 s9ce ! side :i* _h to urge ! abolition w\ld "h h an almo/ impossible task4 ,s 9 a debate on ! clos$ %op1 9 mo/ work+m5's clubs ! negative w\ld be able to accompli% little1 = ! o!r side w\ld be intr5*$ 9 ! prejudices & prepossessions ( ! audi5ce4 ,9 political bodies unev5ness ( sides is ( common occurr5ce1 = a m9ority mu/ always def5d its doctr9es1 no matt] h[ ov]:elm+ ! vote is c]ta9 to be4 ,9 ! =mal debates ( s*ool & college1 on ! o!r h&1 :]e ! conditions mu/ be m or less artificial1 ! fir/ condition is to *oose a "q :i* w give ! two sides an ev5 *ance4 ,a fair te/ ( ?is ev5ness ( sides is to see :e!r ! public :i* is conc]n$ ) ! "q is ev5ly divid$3 if ab\t ! same numb] ( m5 :o are acqua9t$ ) ! subject & are recogniz$ z fair-m9d$ take opposite sides1 ! "q is probably a good subject = debate4 ,ev5 ?is te/1 h[ev]1 may be deceptive1 s9ce believ+ a policy to be s\nd & be+ able to %[ t x is s are v diff]5t matt]s4 ,! reasons = introduc+ ! honor sy/em into a c]ta9 s*ool or college are probably easi] to /ate & to support ?an ! reasons aga9/ introduc+ x2 yet ! latt] may be unque/ionably weighty4 ,9 g5]al1 argum5ts :i* re/ on l>ge & m or less ab/ract pr9ciples are at a disadvantage z aga9/ argum5ts bas$ on "s imm$iate & press+ evil or on "s obvi\s exp$i5cy4 ,argum5ts = or aga9/ a protective t>iff on g5]al pr9ciples ( political economy are h>d] to make int]e/+ &1 !re=e1 cog5t to ! av]age audi5ce ?an are ^? bas$ on direct practical ga9s or losses4 ,?is diff]5ce 9 ! ease ) :i* ! two sides ( a "q c be argu$ mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt 9 ! *oice ( a subject4 ,9 ! second place1 ! subject %\ld be s phras$ t x w inevitably produce a head-on collision betwe5 ! two sides4 ,if su* a proposition z ,! pres5t city gov]nm5t %\ld be *ang$ 7 *os5 = a debate1 "o side might argue x z a "q ( ! p>ty or ( ! m5 :o happ5$ to be 9 control at ! "t1 & ! o!r z a "q ( ! =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,s on ! "q ( self-gov]nm5t = a college or s*ool1 unless ! type ( self-gov]nm5t 7 c>efully def9$1 ! two sides might argue ?r\gh ! debate & n come 9 sight ( ea* o!r4 ,:at 0 said 9 ,*apt] ,,ii ab\t fram+ ! proposition = an argum5t applies ) ev5 m =ce to f9d+ ! proposition = a debate2 = "h if !y d n meet on an irreconcilable diff]5ce1 !re is little use 9 _! com+ toge!r4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 x is desirable t ! proposition %\ld be s fram$ z to ?r[ ! burd5 ( pro( on ! affirmative4 ,unless ! side :i* op5s ! debate has some?+ def9ite to propose1 ! debate mu/ op5 m or less lamely1 = x is h>d to attack or oppose some?+ :i* is go+ to be set =? aft] y h f9i%$ talk+4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 z 9 ! case ( writt5 argum5ts1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t burd5 ( pro( is a vague & slipp]y t]m2 he :o ass]ts mu/ prove is a maxim t 9 debate applies to ! l>g] issues only1 & ! av]age audi5ce w give !mselves little tr\ble ab\t ! f9] applications ( x4 ,if y are propos+ a *ange 9 pres5t conditions1 & ! pres5t conditions are n v bad1 !y w expect y to %[ :y !re %\ld be a *ange1 & to make cle> t ! *ange y propose w "w an improvem5t4 ,x is only :5 conditions h become intol]able t an audi5ce ?9ks fir/ ( ! rem$y4 ,9 ! ord9>y s*ool or college1 = example1 !re is little reason 9 curr5t conditions = introduc+ ! honor sy/em 9 exam9ations3 9 su* a case ! burd5 ( pro( on ! affirmative w\ld be obvi\s1 ,if1 h[ev]1 z occasionally happ5s1 !re has be5 an epidemic ( di%one/y 9 writt5 "w1 !n ! au?orities ( ! s*ool & ! p>5ts w\ld want to "k :y !re %\ld n be a *ange4 ,b x w\ld bo? bore & confuse an audi5ce to expla9 to !m at l5g? ! !ory ( ! %ift+ ( ! burd5 ( pro(2 & ! *ances are t !y w\ld say1 ,:y doesn't he prove 8 po9t1 & n sp5d 8 "t beat+ ab\t ! bu%8 ,f9ally1 ! proposition %\ld1 if possible1 give to ! negative z well z to ! affirmative "s con/ructive argum5t4 ,if "o side occupies itself :olly ) %[+ ! weakness ( ! argum5ts on ! o!r side1 y get n[h]e on ! m]its ( ! "q2 = all t has be5 %[n 9 ! debate1 ! proposition put =w>d by ! affirmative may be s\nd1 & ! only weakness lie 9 its def5d]s4 ,moreov]1 :]e ! negative side f9ds no con/ructive argum5t on ! m]its ( ! "q1 or elects to conf9e itself to de/ructive1 argum5ts1 x mu/ bew>e ( ! fallacy ( objections2 t is1 ( assum+ t :5 x has br\ght =w>d "s objections to ! proposition x has settl$ ! matt]4 ,z ,i h s (t5 po9t$ out 9 ?is treatise1 no "q is wor? argu+ unless x has two sides2 & t is m]ely say+1 9 ano!r way1 t to bo? sides !re are reasonable objections4 ,:]e a negative side conf9es itself to de/ructive argum5ts x mu/ make cle> t ! objections x pres5ts are really de/ructive1 or at any rate are cle>ly m grave ?an ^? :i* c be br\ght aga9/ leav+ ?+s z !y are4 ,& if !y conf9e !mselves to de/roy+ ! argum5ts br\ght =w>d by ! affirmative 9 ?is p>ticul> debate1 !y mu/ make cle> t ^! argum5ts are ! /ronge/ t c be br\ght =w>d on t side4 ,on all que/ions z to con/ruction ( t]ms & burd5 ( pro(1 x %\ld be und]/ood be=eh& t ! judges ( a =mal debate w heavily p5alize any?+ l pettifogg+ or quibbl+4 ,! two sides %\ld d _! be/ to come to a head-on issue2 & any attempt at /&+ on precise def9ition1 or %>p practice 9 lead+ ! o!r side away f ! ma9 "q1 %\ld be held to be n play+ ! game4 ,:]e ! judges are drawn f m5 ( exp]i5ce 9 affairs1 z is usually ! case1 !y w e/imate su* boyi% sm>tnesses at _! true value4 #fb4 ,te*nical ,=ms4 ,! =mal debates ( s*ool & college h c]ta9 =ms & conv5tions :i* are p>tly bas$ on p>liam5t>y proc$ure1 p>tly h be5 work$ out to make ^! debates m int]e/+ & bett] z practice2 & !re are c]ta9 prelim9>y arrangem5ts t improve debat+ bo? z intellectual tra9+ & z fun4 ,i %all speak fir/ ( ! =ms & conv5tions4 ,9 debates 9 s*ool & college x is usual to h two or ?ree on a side1 & = good reasons4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! labor ( work+ up ! subject is %>$1 & x is bett] fun work+ ) "s "o else4 ,!n1 9 ! debate itself !re is m v>iety4 ,9 class debates !re are usually two speak]s on ea* side1 ) provision ( "t = sev]al f\r- or five-m9ute spee*es f ! floor be=e ! clos+ spee*es 9 rebuttal4#fd ,if !re are z _m speak]s z ?is a two-h\r p]iod mu/ be all[$4 ,?is allotm5t ( "t w naturally be adapt$ to special conditions2 z1 = example1 :]e x is desirable t !re %all be m speak]s f ! floor1 or :]e x is desir$ to give ! :ole "t to ! regul> debat]s4 ,9 important int]collegiate debates !re are usually ?ree speak]s1 ea* ( :om has t5 m9utes = 8 ma9 spee* & five m9utes = rebuttal4 ,?is arrangem5t v>ies greatly1 h[ev]1 9 diff]5t places1 & n infrequ5tly !re is only "o spee* 9 rebuttal4 ,! affirmative is usually giv5 ! la/ spee*1 on ! !ory t x is a disadvantage to h to op5 ! debate4 ,obvi\sly1 h[ev]1 9 practice ! rev]se may (t5 be true1 s9ce a skillful spee* 9 op5+ may l>gely det]m9e ! c\rse ( ! debate2 & = ?is reason _m debat+ societies & colleges all[ ! clos+ spee* to ! negative4 ,x is wise n to look on any ( ^! rules z inviolable4#fe ,! di/ribution ( ! po9ts betwe5 ! speak]s on a side %\ld be made be=eh&1 b always ) ! und]/&+ t ! exig5cies ( ! debate may upset ! arrangem5t4 ,we %all see pres5tly ! advantage !re is 9 hav+ ea* memb] ( a team prep>$ to def5d all ! po9ts on 8 side4 ,! only spee* = :i* a fix$ program c be made be=eh& is ! fir/ spee* on ! affirmative3 obvi\sly ?is mu/ at any rate exp\nd ! ma9 facts :i* ! audi5ce mu/ "k 9 ord] to und]/& ! spee*es t foll[4 ,aft] t ea* speak] %\ld be prep>$ ei!r to answ] directly :at has j be5 said or to expla9 :y he po/pones ! answ]4 ,at ! same "t1 unless 8 h& has be5 =c$1 he mu/ make ! po9t or po9ts :i* h be5 committ$ to him 9 ! prelim9>y plan ( campaign4 ,ea* speak] aft] ! fir/ g5]ally takes a m9ute or two to sum up ! position z 8 side sees x2 & ! f9al speak] on ea* side ought to save "t to recapitulate & drive home ! ma9 po9ts t 8 side has made & ! *ief objections to ! argum5ts on ! o!r side4 ,beyond ^! sugge/ions1 :i* %\ld n be all[$ to h>d5 into inv>iable rules1 mu* mu/ be left to ! swift judgm5t ( ! debat]s4 ,x is a good te/ ( skill 9 debat+ to "k j :5 to /ick to su* rules1 & :5 to break away f !m4 ,a debat] uses c]ta9 =ms :i* h long be5 e/abli%$ 9 p>liam5t>y law4 ,to beg9 )1 he nev] uses ! "n ( 8 oppon5t3 if he has to ref] to him he ref]s indirectly 9 "s su* =m z ! la/ speak]1 ! fir/ speak] = ! affirmative1 ! g5tlem5 f ,wiscons91 our oppon5ts1 my colleague :o has j spok54 ,?is is an inviolable rule ( all debat+ bodies1 :e!r a class 9 s*ool or college or "o ( ! ,h\ses ( ,congress4 ,9 a =mal debate ! subject is /at$ by ! presid+ (fic]1 :o is usually n "o ( ! judges1 & he also introduces ea* ( ! speak]s 9 ! ord] agre$ on be=eh&4 ,9 class debates ! subject is usually giv5 out by ! in/ructor1 :o may assign ! speak]s1 or may call = volunte]s1 or may let ea* memb] ( ! class take 8 turn 9 regul> rotation4 ,?is di/ribution w usually "w itself out to suit ! class & ! circum/ances4 ,9 int]s*ola/ic & int]collegiate debates ! subject is g5]ally *os5 by lett+ "o side (f] a numb] ( subjects f :i* ! o!r selects "o4 ,sometimes ! team :i* does n h ! *oice ( subject has ! *oice ( sides aft] ! o!r team has pick$ ! subject4 ,9 a triangul> debate two or ?ree subjects are propos$ by ea* team1 & !n "o is select$ by pref]5tial vot+ ( all ! conte/ants1 fir/ *oice c\nt+ ?ree po9ts1 second two1 & ?ird "o4 ,9 su* a conte/ ea* in/itution has two teams1 "o ( :i* supports ! affirmative1 & ! o!r ! negative2 & ! ?ree debates take place on ! same day or ev5+4 ,9 class debates ! two sides %\ld unite 9 prep>+ an agre$ /atem5t ( facts1 :i* %all conta9 s mu* ( ! hi/ory ( ! case z is p]t95t1 facts & issues :i* x is agre$ %all be waiv$1 & a /atem5t ( ! ma9 issues4 ,fur!rmore1 x is highly desirable t ! sides %\ld submit to ea* o!r outl9e briefs cov]+ ! ma9 po9ts ( _! case4 ,) su* prep>ations !re is little probability t !re c be any failure to meet4 ,! same prep>ations w\ld be useful 9 int]s*ola/ic & int]collegiate debates1 :]ev] !y are practicable4 ,any?+ :i* leads to a ?or\gh discussion ( id5tical po9ts & to ! consequ5t illum9ation ( ! "q makes ^! ent]ta9m5ts m valuable4 ,= int]collegiate & int]s*ola/ic debates x is wise to h "s sort ( in/ructions = ! judges1 :i* %\ld be agre$ on be=eh&4 ,^! in/ructions mu/ make cle> t ! decision is to turn n on ! m]its ( ! "q1 z 9 real life1 b on ! m]its ( ! debat]s4 ,among ^? m]its ! sub/ance %\ld c\nt mu* m ?an ! =m4 ,( ! po9ts t c\nt 9 judg+ ! sub/ance ( ! debate ! in/ructions may note ke5ness ( analysis1 p[] ( exposition1 ?or\ghness ( prep>ation1 judgm5t 9 ! selection ( evid5ce1 read9ess & effectiv5ess 9 rebuttal1 & grasp ( ! subject z a :ole4 ,= =m ! in/ructions may m5tion be>+1 ease & appropriat5ess ( ge/ure1 quality & expressiv5ess ( voice1 enunciation & pronunciation1 & g5]al effectiv5ess ( deliv]y4 ,sometimes ^! po9ts are drawn up ) p]c5tages to sugge/ _! proportionate weight2 b x is d\btful :e!r s exact a calculation c ev] be ( practical value4 ,9 mo/ cases ! judges w decide f a mu* less articulate s5se ( :i* side has ! advantage4#ff #fc4 ,prep>ations = ,debat+4 ,s9ce ! *ief value ( debat+1 z di/+ui%$ f writt5 argum5ts1 is 9 cultivat+ read9ess & flexibility ( wit1 ! speak+ %\ld be z f> z possible extemporane\s4 ,?is does n imply t ! speak+ %\ld be )\t prep>ation3 on ! contr>y1 ! prep>ation = good debat+ is m ardu\s ?an = a writt5 argum5t1 = :5 y are on y\r feet on ! plat=m y _c run to y\r books or to y\r notes to refre% y\r memory or to f9d new mat]ial4 ,! ideal debat] is ! man :o s c>ries ! :ole subject 9 8 m9d t ! facts fl[ to 8 m9d z he talks1 & fit into ! plan ( 8 argum5t )\t a break4 ,to ! r>e m5 :o rememb] ev]y?+ !y read1 su* read9ess is natural1 b to f> ! l>ge/ numb] ( speak]s x comes only ?r\gh h>d /udy ( ! mat]ial4 ,daniel ,web/] decl>$ t ! mat]ial = 8 fam\s ,reply to ,hayne _h be5 9 8 desk = mon?s4 ,9 s f> z debat+ consi/s 9 ! recitation ( set spee*es writt5 out & committ$ to memory be=eh&1 x ?r[s away mo/ ( :at makes debat+ valuable1 & t5ds to become elocution4 ,we %all consid] "h1 !re=e1 ways 9 :i* speak]s c make !mselves s famili> ) ! subject to be debat$ t !y c confid5tly cut loose f _! notes4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ea* debat] on a team %\ld prep>e himself on ! :ole subject1 n only on ! :ole ( 8 own side1 b also on ! :ole ( ! o!r side4 ,x is usual to divide up ! *ief po9ts t a team is to make among its diff]5t memb]s2 b 9 ! sudd5 turns to :i* e debate is liable su* assignm5t may easily become impossible4 ,if ! o!r side pres5ts new mat]ial or makes a po9t 9 su* a way z manife/ly to impress ! audi5ce1 ! next speak] may h to ?r[ ov] ! po9t assign$ to him & give himself imm$iately to refut+ ! argum5ts j made4 ,!n 8 po9ts mu/ be left to 8 colleagues1 & !y mu/ be able to use !m to effect4 ,likewise a team %\ld "k ! /rong po9ts on ! o!r side z well z on its own1 & come to ! plat=m prim$ ) argum5ts to meet !m4 ,9 int]collegiate conte/s1 to insure ?is =e-k ( ! o!r side ! speak]s z "p ( _! prep>ation meet m5 f _! own college :o argue out ! o!r side 9 detail & at l5g?4 ,9 a triangul> conte/ ea* team f a college has ! advantage ( hav+ work$ up ! subject 9 actual debate aga9/ ! o!r4 ,! m ?or\ghly y h work$ up bo? sides ( ! "q1 ! less likely are y to be tak5 by surprise by "s argum5t :i* y d n "k h[ to meet4 #fd4 ,on ! ,plat=m4 ,:5 x comes to ! actual debate exp]i5ce %[s t spee*es committ$ to memory are almo/ always ineffective z comp>$ ) extemporane\s speak+4 ,ev5 :5 y\r confid5ce is n di/urb$ by a slipp]y memory !re is an impalpable t\* ( ! artificial ab\t ! prep>$ spee* :i* impairs its vitality4 ,on ! o!r h&1 especially ) ! fir/ spee*es on ea* side1 y _c get to y\r feet & tru/ entirely to ! inspiration ( ! mom5t2 y mu/ h some?+ ?\ght out4 ,"o ( ! mo/ notable lectur]s 9 ,h>v>d ,univ]sity prep>es 8 lectures 9 a way :i* is an excell5t model = debat]s4 ,he writes out be=eh& a complete analytical & tabulat$ plan ( 8 lecture1 simil> to ! briefs :i* h be5 recomm5d$ "h 9 ,*apt] ,,ii1 ) ea* ( ! ma9 pr9ciples ( 8 lecture1 & ) ! subdivisions & illu/rations ins]t$4 ,!n he leaves ?is outl9e at home & talks f a full & well-ord]$ m9d4 ,"s su* plan is ! be/ possible "o = ! ma9 spee*es 9 a debate4 ,(t5 ! plan c be mo/ easily prep>$ by writ+ out ! argum5t 9 full2 & ?is expansion ( ! argum5t has ! add$ advantage ( provid+ y ) mu* ( y\r phras+4 ,b x is bett] n to commit ! complete argum5t to memory3 ! brief ( x1 if ?or\ghly dige/$ & s /udi$ z to come readily to m9d1 is en\gh4 ,!n practice1 practice1 practice1 w give ! ease & flu5cy t y ne$4 ,! rebuttal %\ld always be extemporane\s4 ,ev5 if y h =ese5 ! /ronge/ po9ts made by y\r oppon5t & prep>$ y\rself to meet !m1 y _c =esee j ! way he w make ! po9ts4 ,no?+ is m awkw>d 9 a debate ?an to beg9 ) a few obvi\sly extemporane\s rem>ks1 & !n to let loose a little spee* :i* has be5 kept1 z x 71 9 cold /orage1 & :i* j misses fitt+ ! spee* to :i* x %\ld be an answ]4 ,x is bett] to make ! rebuttal a little less sweep+ ?an x might be & h x fall pat on ! spee* :i* x is attack+4 ,ready & spontane\s skill 9 rebuttal is ! f9al excell5ce ( debat+4 ,at ! same "t ! skill %\ld be s natural t wit & good humor may h _! *ance4 ,if f ! beg9n+ y practice mak+ y\r spee*es 9 rebuttal (fh&1 y w con/antly ga9 9 confid5ce :5 y are call$ on to speak4 ,:e!r to take notes on to ! plat=m or n is a some:at disput$ "q4 ,if y c speak )\t !m & hold )\t /umbl+ to ! ma9 c\rse ( y\r argum5t1 s mu* ! bett]4 ,on ! o!r h&1 mo/ lawy]s h _! briefs :5 !y are argu+ on po9ts ( law1 & "s sort ( r\gh notes :5 !y are argu+ be=e a jury2 & :5 unassum+ly & naturally us$1 notes are h>dly obs]v$ by an audi5ce4 ,only1 if y d h notes1 d n try to conceal !m3 hold !m s t ! audi5ce w "k :at !y are1 & w n wond] :at y are do+ :5 y pe] into ! palm ( y\r h&4 ,if y h passages to quote f a book or o!r docum5t1 h ! book on ! table beside y2 its appe>ance w add sub/ance to y\r po9t1 & ! audi5ce w h ocul> pro( t y are quot+ exactly4 ,= purposes ( rebuttal x is usual to h mat]ial on c>ds arrang$ "u ! pr9cipal subdivisions ( ! subject1 s t !y c readily be f\nd4 ,^! c>ds c be kept 9 ! small wood5 or pa/ebo>d boxes t are sold = ! purpose at college /ation]s4 ,if ! c>ds h ! prop] k9d ( head+s1 y c easily look !m ov] :ile y\r oppon5t is speak+ & pull out ! few t be> on ! po9t y are to meet4 ,examples ( ^! c>ds h be5 giv5 9 ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,! important ?+ = _! use 9 a debate is to h ! head+s s cle> & p]t95t t y c in/antly f9d ! p>ticul> c>d y want4 ,naturally y w h made y\rself ?or\ghly famili> ) !m be=eh&4 ,:5 y h to use /ati/ics1 simplify !m s t y\r he>]s c take !m 9 )\t ef=t4 ,l>ge numb]s %\ld be giv5 9 r\nd figures1 except :]e "s special emphasis or p]haps "s semihumor\s effect is to be ga9$ by giv+ !m 9 full4 ,quotations f books or spee*es mu/ ( necessity be %ort3 :]e y h only t5 m9utes y\rself y _c give five m9utes to ! words ( ano!r man4 ,keep y\r audi5ce 9 good humor2 if y c occasion ally relieve ! solemnity ( ! occasion by mak+ !m laugh1 !y w l y ! bett] = x1 & ?9k none ! worse ( y\r argum5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 rememb] t su* div]sion is incid5tal1 & t y\r ma9 bus9ess is to deal s]i\sly ) a s]i\s "q4 ,! uneasy self-consci\sness t keeps a man always try+ to be funny is n[h]e m out ( place ?an 9 a debate4 #fe4 ,voice & ,position4 ,! matt] ( deliv]y is highly important1 & "h no man c tru/ to ! light ( nature4 ,any voice c be made to c>ry fur!r & to be m expressive1 & ! poore/ & ?9ne/ voice c be improv$4 ,e /ud5t :o has a dream ( be+ a public speak] %\ld take lessons 9 elocution or 9 s++ or 9 bo?4 ,! expressiv5ess z well z ! c>ry+ p[] & ! endurance ( a voice dep5d on a k ( h[ to use ! muscles ( ! *e/1 ?roat1 & face2 & tra9]s ( ! voice h work$ out me?ods = ! prop] use ( all ^! sets ( muscles4 ,a man :o ?r[s 8 brea? f ! top ( 8 *e/ & does n use ! great bell[s t rea* d[n to 8 diaphragm c get little c>ry+ p[]4 ,s ) ! ?roat3 if x is /iff & p9*$ ! tones w be high & =c$1 & li/5+ to !m w tire ! audi5ce ne>ly z mu* z mak+ !m w tire ! speak]4 ,f9ally1 ! expressiv5ess ( a voice1 ! ?rill t unconsci\sly b p[]fully /irs he>]s1 is l>gely a matt] ( ! resonance t comes f ! spaces above ! m\? & beh9d ! nose4 ,a humor\s s++ tea*] once decl>$ t ! s\l resides 9 ! bridge ( ! nose2 & ! say+ is n s p>adoxical z x s\nds4 ,lessons 9 ! use ( all ^! p>ts1 & fai?ful practice 9 ! ex]cises :i* g ) !m1 are ess5tial = any man :o wi%es to make a m>k 9 public speak+4 ,) ! use ( ! voice1 ?\gh less ess5tial1 goes ! position & be>+ on ! plat=m4 ,x is n necess>y to insi/ t ! m natural ?is is1 ! bett]4 ,if y c :olly =get y\rself & ?9k only ( y\r po9ts1 ! *ances are t y\r attitudes & position w take c>e ( !mselves4 ,only1 be=e ?us =gett+ y\rself1 =m ! habit ( talk+ )\t putt+ y\r h&s 9 y\r pockets4 ,y ought to ne$ y\r h&s to talk )1 if n z mu* z a ,fr5*man or an ,italian1 yet en\gh to emphasize y\r po9ts naturally4 ,! m]e physical /imulus to ! eye ( an audi5ce 9 foll[+ y\r movem5ts w help to keep _! att5tion awake4 ,e "o :o has tri$ lectur+ to a l>ge class kn[s h[ mu* easi] x is to hold !m if he /&s up & moves a little f "t to "t4 ,le>n to /& easily & naturally1 ) y\r *e/ well exp&$1 & y\r weight com=tably balanc$ on y\r feet4 ,if x comes natural to y1 move ab\t ! /age slightly f "t to "t2 b be c>eful n to look ea* "t y move z if a /r+ _h be5 pull$4 ,9 attitude & ge/ure ! only pr(itable c\ncil is1 ,be natural4 ,= all ^! matt]s ( prep>ation1 bo? ( :at y are go+ to say1 ! use ( y\r voice1 & y\r attitude & action on ! plat=m1 be prep>$ = h>d practice ) compet5t criticism4 ,x is a good plan to practice talk+ f y\r outl9es ) y\r wat* op51 until y c br+ y\r spee* to an end 9 exactly ! "t all[$ y4 ,! ga9 9 confid5ce :5 y g to ! debate w 9 itself be wor? ! "t4 ,aga91 practice speak+ be=e a glass to make sure t y h no tricks ( sc[l+ or ( mak+ faces :5 y talk1 & to get us$ to /&+ up /raight & hold+ y\rself well4 ,:at y see = y\rself ( y\r own ways w help y m ?an ! advice ( a critic4 ,b 9 all y\r prep>ation ?9k beyond ! special debate y are prep>+ =4 ,:at y are or %\ld be aim+ at is habit--! in/9ctive1 spontane\s execution ( rules :i* y h =gott54 ,:5 ! habit is e/abli%$ y c let all ^! que/ions ( voice1 ( attitude1 ( ge/ure1 drop f y\r m9d1 & give y\r :ole att5tion to ! ideas y are develop+1 & ! language 9 :i* y %all clo! !m4 ,!n ! tones ( y\r voice w respond to ! e>ne/ness ( y\r feel+1 & y\r ge/ures w be ! spontane\s response to ! emphasis ( y\r ?\ght4 ,y w n be a p]fect debat] until all ^! matt]s are regulat$ f ! unconsci\s dep?s ( y\r m9d4 ,9 y\r attitude t[>ds ! debat]s on ! o!r side be scrupul\sly fair & fri5dly4 ,9 class debates ! matt] is f9i%$ :5 ! debate is ov]2 & :at y are aft] is skill1 & n beat+ "s "o4 ,9 int]s*ola/ic & int]collegiate debates victory is ! end2 b ev5 !re1 aft] ! debate y w (t5 g out to supp] ) y\r oppon5ts4 ,!re=e demoli% _! argum5ts1 b d n sma% _! mak]s4 ,if ! fir/ spee* falls to y1 set =? ! facts 9 su* a way t n only y\r oppon5ts w h no corrections or prote/s to make1 b t !y w be :olly will+ to make a />t f y\r f\ndation4 ,yield all trivial po9ts3 x is a wa/e ( y\r "t & pro( ( an undevelop$ s5se ( proportion to haggle ov] po9ts t 9 ! end nobody c>es ab\t4 ,y h won a po9t if y c make ! audi5ce & ! judges feel t y are anxi\s to all[ ev]y?+ possible to ! o!r side4 ,if y\r oppon5t trips on "s small po9t ( fact or reason+1 don't heckle him2 let x pass1 or1 at ! mo/1 po9t x out ) "s k9dly t\* ( humor4 ,if 8 facts or 8 reason+ are wrong on important po9ts1 t is y\r opportunity1 & y mu/ make ! mo/ ( x4 ,ev5 !n1 h[ev]1 /ick to ! argum5t1 & keep away f any appe>ance ( be+ p]sonal4 #ff4 ,! ,morals ( ,debat+4 ,!re is a moral or e?ical side to practice 9 debat+ :i* "o _c ignore4 ,x is dang]\s to get into ! habit ( argu+ lightly = ?+s 9 :i* "o does n believe2 & /ud5ts may be =c$ into do+ ?is if great c>e is n tak5 9 ! *oice ( subjects & sides4 ,! rem$y lies 9 us+1 s f> z !y c be kept int]e/+1 que/ions 9 :i* !re is no moral elem5t2 b /ill bett] 9 assign+ sides to correspond ) ! actual views & pref]5ces ( ! debat]s4 ,:]e a "q ( pr9ciple is involv$ no "o %\ld ev] argue aga9/ 8 beliefs4 ,! bett] class ( lawy]s are scrupul\s ab\t ?is3 !y w n accept a brief :i* !y believe to be 9 a cause :i* ought n to w94 ,if y h cle>ly made up y\r m9d on a "q ( public policy1 y are 9 a false position if y argue1 ev5 = practice1 aga9/ :at y believe to be ! "r4 ,! =mal debates ( s*ool & college are ( necessity b>r5 ( practical result2 yet ev5 "h y\r discussions h a pot5t effect 9 mold+ y\r op9ions4 ,x is a habit ( mank9d to />t idly talk+ on a subject1 & z idly tak+ sides2 !n1 :5 ! talk gr[s w>m]1 9 ! natural desire to c>ry a po9t to talk !mselves into belief4 ,?is is a human1 ?\gh n a v reasonable way ( fram+ y\r views on public que/ions2 & x does n make ei!r = consi/5cy or = usefulness z a vot]4 ,x is n good to back "o's self into op9ions ( :at makes = ! common weal4 ,fur!rmore1 debate is some?+ v diff]5t f dispute3 to talk r\nd & r\nd a subject1 contradict+ bl9dly & ass]t+ )\t br++ =w>d facts1 has its place 9 our life ) our fri5ds1 s long z x is good-natur$2 b x does n br+ illum9ation4 ,! ess5ce ( debate1 :e!r 9 a classroom1 9 a city c\ncil1 or 9 ,congress1 %\ld be to ?r[ light into d>k corn]s1 & to dis5tangle ! view t mo/ makes = ! g5]al good4 ,= u 9 ,am]ica noblesse oblige applies to e educat$ man4 ,! graduate ( a high s*ool1 &1 ev5 m1 ! graduate ( a college1 has tak5 exceptional b5efits f ! community4 ,?is obligation he c 9 "p repay by help+ all citiz5s to a bett] und]/&+ ( ! issues on :i* ! progress ( ! nation turns4 ,f9ally1 debat+ %\ld %>e ! ze/ t comes ( any good game t means h>d "w & an honorable /ruggle ) oppon5ts "o respects & likes4 ,x is preem95tly a social occupation4 ,! ,h\se ( ,commons has long be5 not$ z ! be/ club 9 ,engl&2 & ?is s5se ( fell[%ip1 ( cont9u+ fri5d%ip & intimacy1 gives a *>m to ,engli% p>liam5t>y life :i* is h>dly possible ) ! unwieldy numb]s & huge hall ( our own ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 b does spr+ out ( ! small] & cont9u+ memb]%ip ( ! ,s5ate4 ,a class 9 debat+ %\ld h ! s5se ( comrade%ip :i* comes ( h>d "w toge!r & ! try+ out ( "o's own p[]s aga9/ "o's equals & bett]s1 & f ! memory ( h>d-f\ght conte/s2 & int]collegiate & int]s*ola/ic conte/s %\ld be c>ri$ on 9 ! same _s ( ze/ 9 ! h>d "w1 ( a sane desire to w91 & ( comrade%ip ) wor?y oppon5ts4 ,,ex]cises #a4 ,"n ?ree que/ions 9 national affairs :i* h be5 debat$ )9 a mon?1 on :i* y c\ld pr(itably debate2 ?ree 9 /ate affairs2 ?ree 9 local affairs4 #b4 ,"n two subjects affect+ y\r s*ool or college :i* are "u debate at ! pres5t "t4 #c4 ,"n two subjects on :i* y c\ld write an argum5t1 b :i* w\ld n be pr(itable = debate4 ,expla9 ! reason4 #d4 ,"n two good subjects = a debate drawn f a?letics2 two f "s curr5t academic "q2 two f local or municipal affairs4 #e4 ,f9d a proposition 9 :i* ! two sides to a debate might 9 good fai? pass ea* o!r )\t meet+4 ,make x ov] s t ! issue w\ld be unavoidable4 #f4 ,frame a proposition 9 :i* ! burd5 ( pro( w\ld n be on ! affirmative4 ,make x ov] s t ! burd5 ( pro( w\ld fall on ! affirmative4 #g4 ,draw up a s*eme = a debate on "o ( ! propositions 9 ,ex]cise #d1 ) a t5tative assignm5t ( po9ts to ?ree debat]s on a side4 #h4 ,draw up a set ( in/ructions to judges = an int]collegiate or int]s*ola/ic debate1 s fram$ z to produce a decision on ! po9ts :i* seem to y ! mo/ important4 #i4 ,prep>e y\rself = a five-m9ute extemporane\s spee* on a subject on :i* y h writt5 an argum5t4 #aj4 ,"n ?ree que/ions on :i* y c\ld n1 )\t viol5ce to y\r convictions1 argue on m ?an "o side4 ,,app5dix ,i ,,examples ,,( ,,argum5t ,,! ,,?ree ,,hypo!ses ,,respect+ ,,! ,,hi/ory ,,( ,,nature#fg ,,?omas ,h4 ,,huxley ,?is is ! fir/ ( ?ree lectures :i* make a cont9u\s argum5t1 :i* 7 deliv]$ 9 ,new ,york4 ,septemb] #ah1 #bj1 & #bb1 #ahgf4 ,x %\ld !re=e be reg>d$ z ! introductory "p ( ! argum5t2 & z a matt] ( fact x does n get to ,huxley's positive pro(1 b is occupi$ ) dispos+ ( ! o!r !ories4 ,?is refutation f9i%$1 ,huxley 0 !n at lib]ty to g ahead ) ! affirmative argum5t1 z he indicates 9 ! la/ p>agraph ( ! lecture4 ,! argum5t is a notable piece ( reason+ on a sci5tific subject1 9 t]ms :i* make x intelligible to all educat$ m54 ,:5 ,huxley spoke1 ! heat :i* _h be5 k9dl$ by ! fir/ ann\ncem5t ( ! !ory ( evolution 9 ,d>w9's ,orig9 ( ,species 0 /ill blaz+2 & !re 7 _m *ur* p :o held t ! !ory 0 subv]sive ( religion1 )\t giv+ !mselves ! tr\ble to und]/& x4 ,?is timid frame ( m9d expla9s ,hurley's mode ( approa* to ! subject4 ,we live 9 & =m "p ( a sy/em ( ?+s ( imm5se div]sity & p]plexity1 :i* we call ,nature2 & x is a matt] ( ! deepe/ int]e/ to all ( u t we %\ld =m j conceptions ( ! con/itution ( t sy/em & ( its pa/ hi/ory4 ,) relation to ?is univ]se1 man is1 9 ext5t1 little m ?an a ma!matical po9t3 9 duration b a fleet+ %ad[3 he is a m]e re$ %ak5 9 ! w9ds ( =ce4 ,b1 z ,pascal long ago rem>k$1 al?\gh a m]e re$1 he is a ?9k+ re$2 & 9 virtue ( t wond]ful capacity ( ?\ght1 he has ! p[] ( fram+ = himself a symbolic conception ( ! univ]se1 :i*1 al?\gh d\btless highly imp]fect & inadequate z a picture ( ! great :ole1 is yet suffici5t to s]ve him z a *>t = ! guidance ( 8 practical affairs4 ,x has tak5 long ages ( toilsome & (t5 fruitless labor to enable man to look /eadily at ! %ift+ sc5es ( ! phantasmagoria ( ,nature1 to notice :at is fix$ among h] fluctuations1 & :at is regul> among h] app>5t irregul>ities2 & x is only comp>atively lately1 )9 ! la/ few c5turies1 t ! conception ( a univ]sal ord] & ( a def9ite c\rse ( ?+s1 :i* we t]m ! c\rse ( ,nature1 has em]g$4 ,b1 once orig9at$1 ! conception ( ! con/ancy ( ! ord] ( ,nature has become ! dom9ant idea ( mod]n ?\ght4 ,to any p]son :o is famili> ) ! facts ^u :i* t conception is bas$1 & is compet5t to e/imate _! significance1 x has ceas$ to be conceivable t *ance %\ld h any place 9 ! univ]se1 or t ev5ts %\ld dep5d ^u any b ! natural sequ5ce ( cause & effect4 ,we h come to look ^u ! pres5t z ! *ild ( ! pa/ & z ! p>5t ( ! future2 &1 z we h exclud$ *ance f a place 9 ! univ]se1 s we ignore1 ev5 z a possibility1 ! notion ( any int]f]5ce ) ! ord] ( ,nature4 ,:atev] may be m5's speculative doctr9es1 x is q c]ta9 t e intellig5t p]son guides 8 life & risks 8 =tune ^u ! belief t ! ord] ( ,nature is con/ant1 & t ! *a9 ( natural causation is nev] brok54 ,9 fact1 no belief :i* we ent]ta9 has s complete a logical basis z t to :i* ,i h j ref]r$4 ,x tacitly und]lies e process ( reason+2 x is ! f\ndation ( e act ( ! w4 ,x is bas$ ^u ! broade/ induction1 & x is v]ifi$ by ! mo/ con/ant1 regul>1 & univ]sal ( d$uctive processes4 ,b we mu/ recollect t any human belief1 h[ev] broad its basis1 h[ev] def5sible x may seem1 is1 aft] all1 only a probable belief1 & t our wide/ & safe/ g5]alizations are simply /atem5ts ( ! highe/1 degree ( probability4 ,?\gh we are q cle> ab\t ! con/ancy ( ! ord] ( ,nature1 at ! pres5t "t1 & 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s1 x by no means necess>ily foll[s t we are ju/ifi$ 9 exp&+ ?is g5]alization into ! inf9ite pa/1 & 9 d5y+1 absolutely1 t !re may h be5 a "t :5 ,nature did n foll[ a fix$ ord]1 :5 ! relations ( cause & effect 7 n def9ite1 & :5 extranatural ag5cies int]f]$ ) ! g5]al c\rse ( ,nature4 ,cauti\s m5 w all[ t a univ]se s diff]5t f t :i* we "k may h exi/$2 j z a v c&id ?9k] may admit t a _w 9 :i* two & two d n make f\r1 & 9 :i* two /raight l9es d inclose a space1 may exi/4 ,b ! same caution :i* =ces ! admission ( su* possibilities dem&s a great deal ( evid5ce be=e x recognizes !m to be any?+ m sub/antial4 ,& :5 x is ass]t$ t1 s _m ?\s& ye>s ago1 ev5ts occurr$ 9 a mann] utt]ly =eign to & inconsi/5t ) ! exi/+ laws ( ,nature1 m51 :o )\t be+ p>ticul>ly cauti\s1 are simply hone/ ?9k]s1 unwill+ to deceive !mselves or delude o!rs1 ask = tru/wor?y evid5ce ( ! fact4 ,did ?+s s happ5 or did !y n8 ,?is is a hi/orical "q1 & "o ! answ] to :i* mu/ be s\ght 9 ! same way z ! solution ( any o!r hi/orical problem4 99 99 99 99 99 ,s f> z ,i "k1 !re are only ?ree hypo!ses :i* ev] h be5 ent]ta9$1 or :i* well c be ent]ta9$1 respect+ ! pa/ hi/ory ( ,nature4 ,i w1 9 ! fir/ place1 /ate ! hypo!ses1 & !n ,i w consid] :at evid5ce be>+ ^u !m is 9 our possession1 & by :at light ( criticism t evid5ce is to be int]pret$4 ,^u ! fir/ hypo!sis1 ! assumption is1 t ph5om5a ( ,nature simil> to ^? exhibit$ by ! pres5t _w h always exi/$2 9 o!r words1 t ! univ]se has exi/$ f all et]nity 9 :at may be broadly t]m$ its pres5t condition4 ,! second hypo!sis is1 t ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s has _h only a limit$ duration2 & t1 at "s p]iod 9 ! pa/1 a condition ( ! _w1 ess5tially simil> to t w9* we n[ "k1 came into exi/5ce1 )\t any prec$5t condition f :i* x c\ld h naturally proce$$4 ,! assumption t successive /ales ( ,nature h aris51 ea* )\t any relation ( natural causation to an antec$5t /ate1 is a m]e modification ( ?is second hypo!sis4 ,! ?ird hypo!sis also assumes t ! pres5t /ate ( ?+s has _h b a limit$ duration2 b x ,supposes t ?is /ate has be5 evolv$ by a natural process f an antec$5t /ate1 & t f ano!r1 & s on2 &1 on ?is hypo!sis1 ! attempt to assign any limit to ! s]ies ( pa/ *anges is1 usually1 giv5 up4 ,x is s ne$ful to =m cle> & di/9ct notions ( :at is really meant by ea* ( ^! hypo!ses t ,i w ask y to imag9e :at1 accord+ to ea*1 w\ld h be5 visible to a spectator ( ! ev5ts :i* con/itute ! hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,on ! fir/ hypo!sis1 h[ev] f> back 9 "t t spectator might be plac$1 he w\ld see a _w ess5tially1 ?\gh p]haps n 9 all its details1 simil> to t :i* n[ exi/s4 ,! animals :i* exi/$ w\ld be ! ance/ors ( ^? :i* n[ live1 & simil> to !m2 ! plants1 9 l mann]1 w\ld be su* z we "k2 & ! m\nta9s1 pla9s1 & wat]s w\ld =e%ad[ ! sali5t features ( our pres5t l& & wat]4 ,?is view 0 held m or less di/9ctly1 sometimes comb9$ ) ! notion ( recurr5t cycles ( *ange1 9 anci5t times2 & its influ5ce has be5 felt d[n to ! pres5t day4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k t x is a hypo!sis :i* is n inconsi/5t ) ! doctr9e ( ,uni=mit>ianism1 ) :i* geologi/s are famili>4 ,t doctr9e 0 held by ,hutton1 & 9 8 e>li] days by ,lyell4 ,hutton 0 /ruck by ! demon/ration ( a/ronom]s t ! p]turbations ( ! planet>y bodies1 h[ev] great !y may be1 yet soon] or lat] "r !mselves2 & t ! sol> sy/em possesses a self-adju/+ p[] by :i* ^! ab]rations are all br\ght back to a mean condition4 ,hutton imag9$ t ! l might be true ( t]re/rial *anges2 al?\gh no "o recogniz$ m cle>ly ?an he ! fact t ! dry l& is be+ con/antly wa%$ d[n by ra9 & riv]s & deposit$ 9 ! sea2 & t ?us1 9 a long] or %ort] "t1 ! inequalities ( ! e>?'s surface mu/ be level$1 & its high l>ds br\ght d[n to ! ocean4 ,b1 tak+ into acc\nt ! int]nal =ces ( ! e>?1 :i*1 upheav+ ! sea bottom1 give rise to new l&1 he ?\ght t ^! op]ations ( degradation & elevation might comp5sate ea* o!r3 & t ?us1 = any assignable "t1 ! g5]al features ( our planet might rema9 :at !y are4 ,& inasmu* z1 "u ^! circum/ances1 !re ne$ be no limit to ! propagation ( animals & plants1 x is cle> t ! consi/5t work+ out ( ! uni=mit>ian idea might load to ! conception ( ! et]nity ( ! _w4 ,n t ,i mean to say t ei!r ,hutton or ,lyell held ?is conception--assur$ly n2 !y w\ld h be5 ! fir/ to repudiate x4 ,nev]!less1 ! logical developm5t ( _! argum5ts l5ds directly t[>ds ?is hypo!sis4 ,! second hypo!sis supposes t ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s1 at "s no v remote "t1 _h a sudd5 orig91 & t ! _w1 su* z x n[ is1 _h *aos = its ph5om5al antec$5t4 ,t is ! doctr9e :i* y w f9d /at$ mo/ fully & cle>ly 9 ! immortal poem ( ,john ,milton1--! ,engli% ,div9a ,comm$ia1--,p>adise ,lo/4 ,i believe x is l>gely to ! influ5ce ( t rem>kable "w1 comb9$ ) ! daily tea*+s to :i* we h all li/5$ 9 our *ildhood1 t ?is hypo!sis owes its g5]al wide diffusion z "o ( ! curr5t beliefs ( ,engli%-speak+ p4 ,if y turn to ! sev5? book ( ,p>adise ,lo/1 y w f9d !re /at$ ! hypo!sis to :i* ,i ref]1 :i* is briefly ?is3 ,t ?is visible univ]se ( ours came into exi/5ce at no great di/ance ( "t f ! pres5t2 & t ! p>ts ( :i* x is compos$ made _! appe>ance1 9 a c]ta91 def9ite ord]1 9 ! space ( six natural days1 9 su* a mann] t1 on ! fir/ ( ^! days1 light appe>$2 t1 on ! second1 ! firmam5t1 or sky1 sep>at$ ! wat]s above1 f ! wat]s b5ea? ! firmam5t2 t1 on ! ?ird day1 ! wat]s drew away f ! dry l&1 & ^u x a v>i$ vegetable life1 simil> to t :i* n[ exi/s1 made its appe>ance2 t ! f\r? day 0 signaliz$ by ! app>ition ( ! sun1 ! />s1 ! moon1 & ! planets2 t1 on ! fif? day1 aquatic animals orig9at$ )9 ! wat]s2 t1 on ! six? day1 ! e>? gave rise to our f\r-foot$ t]re/rial creatures1 & to all v>ieties ( t]re/rial animals except birds1 :i* _h appe>$ on ! prec$+ day2 &1 f9ally1 t man appe>$ ^u ! e>?1 & ! em]g5ce ( ! univ]se f *aos 0 f9i%$4 ,milton tells u1 )\t ! lea/ ambiguity1 :at a spectator ( ^! m>vel\s occurr5ces w\ld h witness$4 ,i d\bt n t 8 poem is famili> to all ( y1 b ,i %\ld l to recall "o passage to y\r m9ds1 9 ord] t ,i may be ju/ifi$ 9 :at ,i h said reg>d+ ! p]fectly concrete1 def9ite picture ( ! orig9 ( ! animal _w :i* ,milton draws4 ,he says3 ,! six?1 & ( creation la/1 arose ,) ev5+ h>ps & mat91 :5 ,god said1 ',let t9e e>? br+ =? s\l liv+ 9 h] k9d1 ,cattle & creep+ ?+s1 & bea/ ( ! e>?1 ,ea* 9 _! k9d6' ,! e>? obey$1 &1 /raight ,op5+ h] f]tile womb1 teem$ at a bir?4 ,innum]\s liv+ creatures1 p]fect =ms1 ,limb$ & full-gr[n4 ,out ( ! gr\nd uprose1 ,z f 8 lair1 ! wild bea/1 :]e he wons ,9 =e/ wild1 9 ?icket1 brake1 or d53 ,among ! trees 9 pairs !y rose1 !y walk$2 ,! cattle 9 ! fields & mead[s gre52 ,^? r>e & solit>y2 ^! 9 flocks ,pa/ur+ at once1 & 9 broad h]ds upsprung4 ,! grassy clods n[ calv$2 n[ half appe>s ,! tawny lion1 paw+ to get free ,8 h9d] p>ts--!n spr+s1 z broke f bonds1 ,& rampant %akes 8 br9d$ mane2 ! ounce1 ,! libb>d1 & ! tig]1 z ! mole ,ris+1 ! crumbl$ e>? above !m ?rew ,9 hillocks2 ! swift /ag f und]gr\nd ,bore up 8 bran*+ head2 sc>ce f 8 m\ld ,behemo?1 bigge/ born ( e>?1 upheav$ ,8 va/ness2 fleec$ ! flocks & bleat+ rose ,z plants2 ambigu\s betwe5 sea & l&1 ,! riv]-horse & scaly crocodile4 ,at once came =? :atev] creeps ! gr\nd1 ,insect or worm4 ,!re is no d\bt z to ! mean+ ( ?is /atem5t1 nor z to :at a man ( ,milton's g5ius expect$ w\ld h be5 actually visible to an eyewitness ( ?is mode ( orig9ation ( liv+ ?+s4 ,! ?ird hypo!sis1 or ! hypo!sis ( evolution1 supposes t1 at any comp>atively late p]iod ( pa/ "t1 our imag9>y spectator w\ld meet ) a /ate ( ?+s v simil> to t :i* n[ obta9s2 b t ! lik5ess ( ! pa/ to ! pres5t w\ld gradually become less & less1 9 proportion to ! remot5ess ( 8 p]iod ( obs]vation f ! pres5t day3 t ! exi/+ di/ribution ( m\nta9s & pla9s1 ( riv]s & seas1 w\ld %[ itself to be ! product ( a sl[ process ( natural *ange op]at+ ^u m & m widely diff]5t antec$5t conditions ( ! m9]al framework ( ! e>?2 until1 at l5g?1 9 place ( t framework1 he w\ld behold only a va/ nebul\s mass1 repres5t+ ! con/itu5ts ( ! sun & ( ! planet>y bodies4 ,prec$+ ! =ms ( life :i* n[ exi/1 our obs]v] w\ld see animals & plants n id5tical ) !m1 b l !m3 increas+ _! diff]5ces ) _! antiquity1 & at ! same "t becom+ simpl] & simpl]2 until1 f9ally1 ! _w ( life w\ld pres5t no?+ b t undiff]5tiat$ protoplasmic matt] :i*1 s f> z our pres5t k goes1 is ! common f\ndation ( all vital activity4 ,! hypo!sis ( evolution supposes t 9 all ?is va/ progression !re w\ld be no brea* ( cont9uity1 no po9t at :i* we c\ld say ,?is is a natural process1 & ,?is is n a natural process2 b t ! :ole might be comp>$ to t wond]ful process ( developm5t :i* may be se5 go+ on e day "u our eyes1 9 virtue ( :i* !re arises1 out ( ! semifluid1 comp>atively homog5e\s sub/ance :i* we call an egg1 ! complicat$ organization ( "o ( ! high] animals4 ,t1 9 a few words1 is :at is meant by ! hypo!sis ( evolution4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i h already sugge/$ t 9 deal+ ) ^! ?ree hypo!ses1 9 endeavor+ to =m a judgm5t z to :i* ( !m is ! m wor?y ( belief1 or :e!r none is wor?y ( belief--9 :i* case our condition ( m9d %\ld be t susp5sion ( judgm5t :i* is s difficult to all b tra9$ intellects1--we %\ld be indiff]5t to all a priori consid]ations4 ,! "q is a "q ( hi/orical fact4 ,! univ]se has come into exi/5ce someh[ or o!r1 & ! problem is1 :e!r x came into exi/5ce 9 "o fa%ion1 or :e!r x came into exi/5ce 9 ano!r2 &1 z an ess5tial prelim9>y to fur!r discussion1 p]mit me to say two or ?ree words z to ! nature & ! k9ds ( hi/orical evid5ce4 ,! evid5ce z to ! occurr5ce ( any ev5t 9 pa/ "t may be rang$ "u two heads1 :i*1 = conv5i5ce' sake1 ,i w speak ( z te/imonial evid5ce & z circum/antial evid5ce4 ,by te/imonial evid5ce ,i mean human te/imony2 & by circum/antial evid5ce ,i mean evid5ce :i* is n human te/imony4 ,let me illu/rate by a famili> example :at ,i und]/& by ^! two k9ds ( evid5ce1 & :at is to be said respect+ _! value4 ,suppose t a man tells y t he saw a p]son /rike ano!r & kill him2 t is te/imonial evid5ce ( ! fact ( murd]4 ,b x is possible to h circum/antial evid5ce ( ! fact ( murd]2 t is to say1 y may f9d a man dy+ ) a w\nd ^u 8 head hav+ exactly ! =m & "* ( ! w\nd :i* is made by an ax1 &1 ) due c>e 9 tak+ surr\nd+ circum/ances into acc\nt1 y may conclude ) ! utmo/ c]ta9ty t ! man has be5 murd]$2 t 8 dea? is ! consequ5ce ( a bl[ inflict$ by ano!r man ) t implem5t4 ,we are v mu* 9 ! habit ( consid]+ circum/antial evid5ce z ( less value ?an te/imonial evid5ce1 & x may be t1 :]e ! circum/ances are n p]fectly cle> & intelligible1 x is a dang]\s & unsafe k9d ( evid5ce2 b x mu/ n be =gott5 t1 9 _m cases1 circum/antial evid5ce is q z conclusive z te/imonial evid5ce1 & t1 n unfrequ5tly1 x is a great deal weighti] ?an te/imonial evid5ce4 ,= example1 take ! case to :i* ,i ref]r$ j n[4 ,! circum/antial evid5ce may be bett] & m conv9c+ ?an ! te/imonial evid5ce2 = x may be impossible1 "u ! conditions t ,i h def9$1 to suppose t ! man met 8 dea? f any cause b ! viol5t bl[ ( an ax wield$ by ano!r man4 ,! circum/antial evid5ce 9 favor ( a murd] hav+ be5 committ$1 9 t case1 is z complete & z conv9c+ z evid5ce c be4 ,x is evid5ce :i* is op5 to no d\bt & to no falsification4 ,b ! te/imony ( a witness is op5 to multitud9\s d\bts4 ,he may h be5 mi/ak54 ,he may h be5 actuat$ by malice4 ,x has con/antly happ5$ t ev5 an accurate man has decl>$ t a ?+ has happ5$ 9 ?is1 t1 or ! o!r way1 :5 a c>eful analysis ( ! circum/antial evid5ce has %[n t x did n happ5 9 t way1 b 9 "s o!r way4 ,we may n[ consid] ! evid5ce 9 favor ( or aga9/ ! ?ree hypo!ses4 ,let me fir/ direct y\r att5tion to :at is to be said ab\t ! hypo!sis ( ! et]nity ( ! /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* we n[ live4 ,:at w fir/ /rike y is1 t x is a hypo!sis :i*1 :e!r true or false1 is n capable ( v]ification by any evid5ce4 ,=1 9 ord] to obta9 ei!r circum/antial or te/imonial evid5ce suffici5t to prove ! et]nity ( duration ( ! pres5t /ate ( nature1 y mu/ h an et]nity ( witnesses or an inf9ity ( circum/ances1 & nei!r ( ^! is atta9able4 ,x is utt]ly impossible t su* evid5ce %\ld be c>ri$ beyond a c]ta9 po9t ( "t2 & all t c\ld be said1 at mo/1 w\ld be1 t s f> z ! evid5ce c\ld be trac$1 !re 0 no?+ to contradict ! hypo!sis4 ,b :5 y look1 n to ! te/imonial evid5ce--:i*1 consid]+ ! relative insignificance ( ! antiquity ( human records1 might n be good = mu* 9 ?is case--b to ! circum/antial evid5ce1 !n y w f9d t ?is hypo!sis is absolutely incompatible ) su* evid5ce z we h2 :i* is ( s pla9 & s simple a "* t x is impossible 9 any way to escape f ! conclusions :i* x =ces ^u u4 ,y are1 d\btless1 all aw>e t ! out] sub/ance ( ! e>?1 :i* alone is accessible to direct obs]vation1 is n ( a homog5e\s "*1 b t x is made up ( a numb] ( lay]s or /rata1 ! titles ( ! pr9cipal gr\ps ( :i* are plac$ ^u ! accompany+ diagram4#fh ,ea* ( ^! gr\ps repres5ts a numb] ( b$s ( s&1 ( /one1 ( clay1 ( slate1 & ( v>i\s o!r mat]ials4 ,on c>eful exam9ation1 x is f\nd t ! mat]ials ( :i* ea* ( ^! lay]s ( m or less h>d rock are compos$ are1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( ! same nature z ^? :i* are at pres5t be+ =m$ "u kn[n conditions on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,= example1 ! *alk1 :i* con/itutes a great "p ( ! ,cretace\s =mation 9 "s p>ts ( ! _w1 is practically id5tical 9 its physical & *emical *>act]s ) a sub/ance :i* is n[ be+ =m$ at ! bottom ( ! ,atlantic ,ocean1 & cov]s an enorm\s area2 o!r b$s ( rock are comp>able ) ! s&s :i* art2 be+ =m$ ^u sea%ores1 pack$ toge!r1 & s on4 ,?us1 omitt+ rocks ( igne\s orig91 x is demon/rable t all ^! b$s ( /one1 ( :i* a total ( n less ?an sev5ty ?\s& feet is kn[n1 h be5 =m$ by natural ag5cies1 ei!r out ( ! wa/e & wa%+ ( ! dry l&1 or else by ! accumulation ( ! exuviae ( plants & animals4 ,_m ( ^! /rata are full ( su* exuviae--! s-call$ fossils4 ,rema9s ( ?\s&s ( species ( animals & plants1 z p]fectly recognizable z ^? ( exi/+ =ms ( life :i* y meet ) 9 museums1 or z ! %ells :i* y pick up ^u ! seabea*1 h be5 emb$d$ 9 ! anci5t s&s1 or muds1 or lime/ones1 j z !y are be+ emb$d$ n[1 9 s&y1 or clayey1 or calc>e\s subaque\s deposits4 ,!y furni% u ) a record1 ! g5]al nature ( :i* _c be mis9t]pret$1 ( ! k9ds ( ?+s t h liv$ ^u ?y surface ( ! e>? dur+ ! "t t is regi/]$ by ?is great ?ickness ( /ratifi$ rocks4 ,b ev5 a sup]ficial /udy ( ^! fossils %[s u t ! animals & plants :i* live at ! pres5t "t h _h only a tempor>y duration2 = ! rema9s ( su* mod]n =ms ( life are met )1 = ! mo/ "p1 only 9 ! upp]mo/ or late/ t]ti>ies1 & _! numb] rapidly dim9i%es 9 ! l[] deposits ( t epo*4 ,9 ! old] t]ti>ies1 ! places ( exi/+ animals & plants are tak5 by o!r =ms1 z num]\s & div]sifi$ z ^? :i* live n[ 9 ! same localities1 b m or less diff]5t f !m2 9 ! ,mesozoic rocks1 ^! are replac$ by o!rs yet m div]g5t f mod]n types2 & 9 ! ,paleozoic =mations ! contra/ is /ill m m>k$4 ,?us ! circum/antial evid5ce absolutely negatives ! conception ( ! et]nity ( ! pres5t condition ( ?+s4 ,we c say ) c]ta9ly t ! pres5t condition ( ?+s has exi/$ = a comp>atively %ort p]iod2 & t1 s f> z animal & vegetable nature are conc]n$1 x has be5 prec$$ by a diff]5t condition4 ,we c pursue ?is evid5ce until we rea* ! l[e/ ( ! /ratifi$ rocks1 9 :i* we lose ! indications ( life altoge!r4 ,! hypo!sis ( ! et]nity ( ! pres5t /ate ( nature may !re=e be put out ( c\rt4 ,we n[ come to :at ,i w t]m ,milton's hypo!sis--! hypo!sis t ! pres5t condition ( ?+s has endur$ = a comp>atively %ort "t2 &1 at ! comm5cem5t ( t "t1 came into exi/5ce )9 ! c\rse ( six days4 ,i d\bt n t x may h excit$ "s surprise 9 y\r m9ds t ,i %\ld h spok5 ( ?is z ,milton's hypo!sis1 r ?an t ,i %\ld h *os5 ! t]ms :i* are m cu/om>y1 su* z ! doctr9e ( creation1 or ! ,biblical doctr9e1 or ! doctr9e ( ,moses1 all ( :i* d5om9ations1 z appli$ to ! hypo!sis to :i* ,i h j ref]r$1 are c]ta9ly mu* m famili> to y ?an ! title ( ! ,miltonic hypo!sis4 ,b ,i h _h :at ,i _c b ?9k are v weighty reasons = tak+ ! c\rse :i* ,t h pursu$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ,i h disc>d$ ! title ( ! doctr9e ( creation1 because my pres5t bus9ess is n ) ! "q :y ! objects :i* con/itute ,nature came into exi/5ce1 b :5 !y came into exi/5ce1 & 9 :at ord]4 ,?is is z /rictly a hi/orical "q z ! "q :5 ! ,angles & ! ,jutes invad$ ,engl&1 & :e!r !y prec$$ or foll[$ ! ,romans4 ,b ! "q ab\t creation is a philosophical problem1 & "o :i* _c be solv$1 or ev5 approa*$1 by ! hi/orical me?od4 ,:at we want to le>n is1 :e!r ! facts1 s f> z !y are kn[n1 af=d evid5ce t ?+s arose 9 ! way describ$-by ,milton1 or :e!r !y d n2 &1 :5 t "q is settl$1 x w be "t en\gh to inquire into ! causes ( _! orig9ation4 ,9 ! second place1 ,i h n spok5 ( ?is doctr9e z ! ,biblical doctr9e1 ,x is q true t p]sons z div]se 9 _! g5]al views z ,milton ! ,prote/ant & ! celebrat$ ,jesuit ,fa!r ,su>ez1 ea* put ^u ! fir/ *apt] ( ,g5esis ! int]pretation embodi$ 9 ,milton's poem4 ,x is q true t ?is int]pretation is t :i* has be5 in/ill$ into e "o ( u 9 our *ildhood2 b ,i d n = "o mom5t v5ture to say t x c prop]ly be call$ ! ,biblical doctr9e4 ,x is n my bus9ess1 & does n lie )9 my compet5cy1 to say :at ! ,hebrew text does1 & :at x does n signify2 moreov]1 7 ,i to affirm t ?is is ! ,biblical doctr9e1 ,i %\ld be met by ! au?ority ( _m em95t s*ol>s1 to say no?+ ( m5 ( sci5ce1 :o1 at v>i\s times1 h absolutely d5i$ t any su* doctr9e is to be f\nd 9 ,g5esis4 ,if we are to li/5 to _m expositors ( no mean au?ority1 we mu/ believe t :at seems s cle>ly def9$ 9 ,g5esis--z if v great pa9s _h be5 tak5 t !re %\ld be no possibility ( mi/ake--is n ! mean+ ( ! text at all4 ,! acc\nt is divid$ into p]iods t we may make j z long or %ort z conv5i5ce requires4 ,we are also to und]/& t x is consi/5t ) ! orig9al text to believe t ! mo/ complex plants & animals may h be5 evolv$ by natural processes1 la/+ = millions ( ye>s1 out ( /ructureless rudim5ts4 ,a p]son :o is n a ,hebrew s*ol> c only /& aside & admire ! m>vel\s flexibility ( a language :i* admits ( su* div]se int]pretations4 ,b assur$ly1 9 ! face ( su* contradictions ( au?ority ^u matt]s respect+ :i* he is incompet5t to =m any judgm5t1 he w ab/a91 z ,i d1 f giv+ any op9ion4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 ,i h c>efully ab/a9$ f speak+ ( ?is z ! ,mosaic doctr9e1 because we are n[ assur$ ^u ! au?ority ( ! highe/ critics1 & ev5 ( dignit>ies ( ! ,*ur*1 t !re is no evid5ce t ,moses wrote ! ,book ( ,g5esis1 or knew any?+ ab\t x4 ,y w und]/& t ,i give no judgm5t--x w\ld be an imp]t95ce ^u my "p to volunte] ev5 a sugge/ion--^u su* a subject4 ,b1 t be+ ! /ate ( op9ion among ! s*ol>s & ! cl]gy1 x is well = ! unle>n$ 9 ,hebrew lore1 & = ! laity1 to avoid entangl+ !mselves 9 su* a vex$ "q4 ,happily1 ,milton leaves u no excuse = d\bt+ :at he means1 & ,i %all !re=e be safe 9 speak+ ( ! op9ion 9 "q z ! ,miltonic hypo!sis4 ,n[ we h to te/ t hypo!sis4 ,= my "p1 ,i h no prejudice "o way or ! o!r4 ,if !re is evid5ce 9 favor ( ?is view1 ,i am burd5$ by no !oretical difficulties 9 ! way ( accept+ x3 b !re mu/ be evid5ce4 ,sci5tific m5 get an awkw>d habit--no1 ,i won't call x t1 = x is a valuable habit--( believ+ no?+ unless !re is evid5ce = x2 & !y h a way ( look+ ^u belief :i* is n bas$ ^u evid5ce1 n only z illogical1 b z immoral4 ,we w1 if y please1 te/ ?is view by ! circum/antial evid5ce alone2 =1 f :at ,i h said1 y w und]/& t ,i d n propose to discuss ! "q ( :at te/imonial evid5ce is to be adduc$ 9 favor ( x4 ,if ^? ^: bus9ess x is to judge are n at "o z to ! au!nticity ( ! only evid5ce ( t k9d :i* is (f]$1 nor z to ! facts to :i* x be>s witness1 ! discussion ( su* evid5ce is sup]flu\s4 ,b ,i may be p]mitt$ to regret ?is necessity ( reject+ ! te/imonial evid5ce ! less1 because ! exam9ation ( ! circum/antial evid5ce leads to ! conclusion1 n only t x is incompet5t to ju/ify ! hypo!sis1 b t1 s f> z x goes1 x is contr>y to ! hypo!sis4 ,! consid]ations ^u :i* ,i base ?is conclusion are ( ! simple/ possible "*4 ,! ,miltonic hypo!sis conta9s ass]tions ( a v def9ite "* relat+ to ! succession ( liv+ =ms4 ,x is /at$ t plants1 = example1 made _! appe>ance ^u ! ?ird day1 & n be=e4 ,& y w und]/& t :at ! poet means by plants are su* plants z n[ live1 ! ance/ors1 9 ! ord9>y way ( propagation ( l by l1 ( ! trees & %rubs :i* fl\ri% 9 ! pres5t _w4 ,x mu/ ne$s be s2 =1 if !y 7 diff]5t1 ei!r ! exi/+ plants h be5 ! result ( a sep>ate orig9ation s9ce t describ$ by ,milton1 ( :i* we h no record1 nor any gr\nd = supposition t su* an occurr5ce has tak5 place2 or else !y h aris5 by a process ( evolution f ! orig9al /ocks4 ,9 ! second place1 x is cle> t !re 0 no animal life be=e ! fif? day1 & t1 on ! fif? day1 aquatic animals & birds appe>$4 ,&4 x is fur!r cle> t t]re/rial liv+ ?+s1 o!r ?an birds1 made _! appe>ance ^u ! six? day1 & n be=e4 ,h5ce1 x foll[s t1 if1 9 ! l>ge mass ( circum/antial evid5ce z to :at really has happ5$ 9 ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! globe1 we f9d indications ( ! exi/5ce ( t]re/rial animals1 o!r ?an birds1 at a c]ta9 p]iod1 x is p]fectly c]ta9 t all t has tak5 place s9ce t "t mu/ be ref]r$ to ! six? day4 ,9 ! great ,c>bonif]\s =mation1#fi :5ce ,am]ica d]ives s va/ a proportion ( h] actual & pot5tial weal?1 9 ! b$s ( coal :i* h be5 =m$ f ! vegetation ( t p]iod1 we f9d abundant evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( t]re/rial animals4 ,!y h be5 describ$1 n only by ,european b by y\r own naturali/s4 ,!re are to be f\nd num]\s insects alli$ to our cockroa*es4 ,!re are to be f\nd spid]s & scorpions ( l>ge size1 ! latt] s simil> to exi/+ scorpions t x requires ! practic$ eye ( ! naturali/ to di/+ui% !m4 ,inasmu* z ^! animals c be prov$ to h be5 alive 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s epo*1 x is p]fectly cle> t1 if ! ,miltonic acc\nt is to be accept$1 ! huge mass ( rocks ext5d+ f ! middle ( ! ,paleozoic =mations to ! upp]mo/ memb]s ( ! s]ies1 mu/ belong to ! day :i* is t]m$ by ,milton ! six?4 ,b1 fur!r1 x is expressly /at$ t aquatic animals took _! orig9 ^u ! fif? day1 & n be=e2 h5ce1 all =mations 9 :i* rema9s ( aquatic animals c be prov$ to exi/1 & :i* !re=e te/ify t su* animals liv$ at ! "t :5 ^! =mations 7 9 c\rse ( deposition1 mu/ h be5 deposit$ dur+ or s9ce ! p]iod :i* ,milton speaks ( z ! fif?4 ,b !re is absolutely no fossilif]\s =mation 9 :i* ! rema9s ( aquatic animals are abs5t4 ,! olde/ fossils 9 ! ,silurian rocks#gj are exuviae ( m>9e animals2 & if ! view :i* is ent]ta9$ by ,pr9cipal ,dawson & ,dr4 ,c>p5t] respect+ ! nature ( ! eozon be well f\nd$1 aquatic animals exi/$ at a p]iod z f> antec$5t to ! deposition ( ! coal z ! coal is f u2 inasmu* z ! eozon is met ) 9 ^? ,laur5tian /rata :i* lie at ! bottom ( ! s]ies ( /ratifi$ rocks4 ,h5ce x foll[s1 pla9ly en\gh1 t ! :ole s]ies ( /ratifi$ rocks1 if !y are to be br\ght into h>mony ) ,milton1 mu/ be ref]r$ to ! fif? & six? days1 & t we _c hope to f9d ! slighte/ trace ( ! products ( ! e>li] days 9 ! geological record4 ,:5 we consid] ^! simple facts1 we see h[ absolutely futile are ! attempts t h be5 made to draw a p>allel betwe5 ! /ory told by s mu* ( ! cru/ ( ! e>? z is kn[n to u & ! /ory :i* ,milton tells4 ,! :ole s]ies ( fossilif]\s /ratifi$ rocks mu/ be ref]r$ to ! la/ two days2 & nei!r ! ,c>bonif]\s1 nor any o!r1 =mation c af=d evid5ce ( ! "w ( ! ?ird day4 ,n only is !re ?is objection to any attempt to e/abli% a h>mony betwe5 ! ,miltonic acc\nt & ! facts record$ 9 ! fossilif]\s rocks1 b !re is a fur!r difficulty4 ,accord+ to ! ,miltonic acc\nt1 ! ord] 9 :i* animals %\ld h made _! appe>ance 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks w\ld be ?is3 ,fi%es1 includ+ ! great :ales1 & birds2 aft] !m1 all v>ieties ( t]re/rial animals except birds4 ,no?+ c\ld be fur!r f ! facts z we f9d !m2 we "k ( n ! slighte/ evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( birds be=e ! ,jurassic1 or p]haps ! ,triassic1 =mation2#ga :ile t]re/rial animals1 z we h j se51 occur 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s rocks4 ,if !re 7 any h>mony betwe5 ! ,miltonic acc\nt & ! circum/antial evid5ce1 we ought to h abundant evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( birds 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s1 ! ,devonian1 & ! ,silurian rocks4 ,i ne$ h>dly say t ?is is n ! case1 & t n a trace ( birds makes its appe>ance until ! ,t> lat] p]iod :i* ,i h m5tion$4 ,& aga91 if x be true t all v>ieties ( fi%es & ! great :ales1 & ! l1 made _! appe>ance on ! fif? day1 we ought to f9d ! rema9s ( ^! animals 9 ! old] rocks--9 ^? :i* 7 deposit$ be=e ! ,c>bonif]\s epo*4 ,fi%es we d f9d1 9 consid]able numb] & v>iety2 b ! great :ales are abs5t1 & ! fi%es are n su* z n[ live4 ,n "o solit>y species ( fi% n[ 9 exi/5ce is to be f\nd 9 ! ,devonian or ,silurian =mations4 ,h5ce we are introduc$ afre% to ! dilemma :i* ,i h already plac$ be=e y3 ei!r ! animals :i* came into exi/5ce on ! fif? day 7 n su* z ^? :i* are f\nd at pres5t1 are n ! direct & imm$iate ance/ors ( ^? :i* n[ exi/2 9 :i* case ei!r fre% creations ( :i* no?+ is said1 or a process ( evolution mu/ h occurr$2 or else ! :ole /ory mu/ be giv5 up z n only devoid ( any circum/antial evid5ce1 b contr>y to su* evid5ce z exi/s4 ,i plac$ be=e y 9 a few words1 "s little "t ago1 a /atem5t ( ! sum & sub/ance ( ,milton's hypo!sis4 ,let me n[ try to /ate z briefly1 ! effect ( ! circum/antial evid5ce be>+ ^u ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! e>? :i* is furni%$1 )\t ! possibility ( mi/ake1 ) no *ance ( error z to its *ief features1 by ! /ratifi$ rocks4 ,:at we f9d is1 t ! great s]ies ( =mations repres5ts a p]iod ( "t ( :i* our human *ronologies h>dly af=d u a unit ( measure4 ,i w n pret5d to say h[ we ought to e/imate ?is "t1 9 millions or 9 billions ( ye>s4 ,= my purpose1 ! det]m9ation ( its absolute duration is :olly uness5tial4 ,b t ! "t 0 enorm\s !re c be no "q4 ,x results f ! simple/ me?ods ( int]pretation1 t leav+ out ( view c]ta9 pat*es ( metamorphos$ rocks1 & c]ta9 volcanic products1 all t is n[ dry l& has once be5 at ! bottom ( ! wat]s4 ,x is p]fectly c]ta9 t1 at a comp>atively rec5t p]iod ( ! _w's hi/ory--! ,cretace\s epo*--none ( ! great physical features :i* at pres5t m>k ! surface ( ! globe exi/$4 ,x is c]ta9 t ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s 7 n4 ,x is c]ta9 t ! ,himalaya ,m\nta9s 7 n4 ,x is c]ta9 t ! ,alps & ! ,pyr5ees _h no exi/5ce4 ,! evid5ce is ( ! pla9e/ possible "*1 & is simply ?is3--,we f9d rais$ up on ! flanks ( ^! m\nta9s1 elevat$ by ! =ces ( upheaval :i* h giv5 rise to !m1 masses ( ,cretace\s rock :i* =m$ ! bottom ( ! sea be=e ^? m\nta9s exi/$4 ,x is !re=e cle> t ! elevatory =ces :i* gave rise to ! m\nta9s op]at$ subsequ5tly to ! ,cretace\s epo*2 & t ! m\nta9s !mselves are l>gely made up ( ! mat]ials deposit$ 9 ! sea :i* once occupi$ _! place4 ,z we g back 9 "t1 we meet ) con/ant alt]nations ( sea & l&1 ( e/u>y & op5 ocean2 &1 9 correspond5ce ) ^! alt]nations1 we obs]ve ! *anges 9 ! fauna & flora to :i* ,i h ref]r$4 ,b ! inspection ( ^! *anges gives u no "r to believe t !re has be5 any discont9uity 9 natural processes4 ,!re is no trace ( g5]al cataclysms1 ( univ]sal deluges1 or sudd5 de/ructions ( a :ole fauna or flora4 ,! appe>ances :i* 7 =m]ly int]pret$ 9 t way h all be5 %[n to be delusive1 z our k has increas$ & z ! blanks :i* =m]ly appe>$ to exi/ betwe5 ! diff]5t =mations h be5 fill$ up4 ,t !re is no absolute break betwe5 =mation & =mation1 t !re has be5 no sudd5 disappe>ance ( all ! =ms ( life & replacem5t ( !m by o!rs1 b t *anges h gone on sl[ly & gradually1 t "o type has di$ out & ano!r has tak5 its place1 & t ?us1 by ins5sible degrees1 "o fauna has be5 replac$ by ano!r1 are conclusions /r5g!n$ by con/antly increas+ evid5ce4 ,s t )9 ! :ole ( ! imm5se p]iod indicat$ by ! fossilif]\s /ratifi$ rocks1 !re is assur$ly n ! slighte/ pro( ( any break 9 ! uni=mity ( ,nature's op]ations1 no indication t ev5ts h foll[$ o!r ?an a cle> & ord]ly sequ5ce4 ,t1 ,i say1 is ! natural & obvi\s tea*+ ( ! circum/antial evid5ce conta9$ 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks4 ,i leave y to consid] h[ f>1 by any +5uity ( int]pretation1 by any /ret*+ ( ! mean+ ( language1 x c be br\ght into h>mony ) ! ,miltonic hypo!sis4 ,!re rema9s ! ?ird hypo!sis1 t ( :i* ,i h spok5 z ! hypo!sis ( evolution2 & ,i purpose t1 9 lectures to come1 we %\ld discuss x z c>efully z we h consid]$ ! o!r two hypo!ses4 ,i ne$ n say t x is q hopeless to look = te/imonial evid5ce ( evolution4 ,! v nature ( ! case precludes ! possibility ( su* evid5ce1 = ! human race c no m be expect$ to te/ify to its own orig91 ?an a *ild c be t5d]$ z a witness ( its own bir?4 ,our sole inquiry is1 :at f\ndation circum/antial evid5ce l5ds to ! hypo!sis1 or :e!r x l5ds none1 or :e!r x controv]ts ! hypo!sis4 ,i %all deal ) ! matt] entirely z a "q ( hi/ory4 ,i %all n indulge 9 ! discussion ( any speculative probabilities4 ,i %all n attempt to %[ t ,nature is un9telligible unless we adopt "s su* hypo!sis4 ,= any?+ ,i "k ab\t ! matt]1 x may be ! way ( ,nature to be un9telligible2 %e is (t5 puzzl+1 & ,i h no reason to suppose t %e is b\nd to fit h]self to our notions4 ,i %all place be=e y ?ree k9ds ( evid5ce entirely bas$ ^u :at is kn[n ( ! =ms ( animal life :i* are conta9$ 9 ! s]ies ( /ratifi$ rocks4 ,i %all endeavor to %[ y t !re is "o k9d ( evid5ce :i* is neutral1 :i* nei!r helps evolution nor is inconsi/5t ) x4 ,i %all !n br+ =w>d a second k9d ( evid5ce :i* indicates a /rong probability 9 favor ( evolution1 b does n prove x2 &1 la/ly1 ,i %all adduce a ?ird k9d ( evid5ce :i*1 be+ z complete z any evid5ce :i* we c hope to obta9 ^u su* a subject1 & be+ :olly & /rik+ly 9 favor ( evolution1 may fairly be call$ demon/rative evid5ce ( its occurr5ce4 ,,! ,,transmission ,,( ,,yell[ ,,fev] ,,by ,,mosquitoes ,,george ,m4 ,,/]nb]g1 ,m4,d41 ,l4,l4,d1 ,,surgeon-,,g5]al ,u4,s4 ,,army#gb ,?is article is a sci5tific demon/ration ( a new fact4 ,x %[s cle>ly ! processes ( sci5tific reason+ bas$ on ! me?ods kn[n to ,logic z ! ,me?ods ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce4 ,! !ory t ! g]ms ( ! disease are c>ri$ by mosquitoes seems fir/ to h sugge/$ itself to ,dr4 ,/]nb]g & to ,dr4 ,f9lay ?r\gh notic+ a simil>ity ( ph5om5a 9 _m cases "u diff]5t conditions4 ,yet1 h[ev] plausible1 ! !ory1 nei!r ( !m c\ld decl>e t he _h discov]$ ! fact until ! exp]im5ts c>ri$ on "u rigor\s precautions _h be5 tri$4 ,by ^! exp]im5ts all o!r causes 7 rul$ out ( consid]ation4 ,! discov]ies :i* h be5 made 9 ! pa/ tw5ty-five ye>s ) ref]5ce to ! etiology#gc ( infecti\s diseases con/itute ! greate/ a*ievem5t ( sci5tific m$ic9e & af=d a sub/antial basis = ! application ( intellig5t measures ( prophylaxis4#gd ,we "k ! specific cause 7g]m7 ( typhoid fev]1 ( pulmon>y consumption1 ( *ol]a1 ( diph!ria1 ( erysipelas1 ( cr\p\s pneumonia1 ( ! mal>ial fev]s1 & ( v>i\s o!r infecti\s diseases ( man & ( ! dome/ic animals1 b1 up to ! pres5t "t1 all ef=ts to discov] ! g]m ( yell[ fev] h be5 )\t success4 ,! pres5t writ]1 z a memb] ( ! ,havana ,yell[ ,fev] ,commission1 9 #ahgi1 made ! fir/ sy/ematic attempt to solve ! unsettl$ que/ions relat+ to yell[ fev] etiology by mod]n me?ods ( rese>*4 ,naturally ! fir/ & mo/ important "q to engage my att5tion 0 t relat+ to ! specific infecti\s ag5t1 or g]m1 :i* !re 0 e reason to believe mu/ be f\nd 9 ! bodies ( infect$ individuals4 ,0 ?is g]m pres5t 9 ! blood1 z 9 ! case ( relaps+ fev]2 or 0 x to be f\nd 9 ! organs & tissues :i* ^u po/-mortem exam9ation give evid5ce ( pa?ological *anges1 z 9 typhoid fev]1 pneumonia1 & diph!ria2 or 0 x to be f\nd 9 ! alim5t>y canal1 z 9 *ol]a & dys5t]y8 ,! cl9ical hi/ory ( ! disease indicat$ a g5]al blood infection4 ,z my equipm5t includ$ ! be/ microscopical app>atus made1 ,i _h /rong hopes t 9 prop]ly /a9$ prep>ations ( blood tak5 f ! circulation ( yell[ fev] pati5ts my ,zeiss #a-ah oil imm]sion objective w\ld reveal to me ! g]m ,i 0 9 se>* (4 ,b ,i 0 doom$ to disappo9tm5t4 ,repeat$ exam9ations ( blood f pati5ts 9 e /age ( ! disease fail$ to demon/rate ! pres5ce ( microorganisms ( any k9d4 ,my subsequ5t inve/igations 9 ,havana1 ,v]a ,cruz1 & ,rio de ,janeiro1 made 9 #ahhg1 #ahhh1 & #ahhi1 7 equally unsuccessful4 ,& num]\s compet5t microscopi/s ( v>i\s nations h s9ce se>*$ 9 va9 = ?is elusive g]m4 ,ano!r me?od ( attack+ ?is problem consi/s 9 introduc+ blood f yell[ fev] pati5ts or rec5t cadav]s into v>i\s culture m$ia = ! purpose ( cultivat+ any g]m t might be pres5t4 ,ext5d$ rese>*es ( ?is k9d also gave a negative result1 :i* 9 my f9al report ,i /at$ z foll[s3 ,! specific cause ( yell[ fev] has n yet be5 demon/rat$4 ,x is demon/rat$ t microorganisms1 capable ( developm5t 9 ! culture m$ia usually employ$ by ! bact]iologi/s1 are only f\nd 9 ! blood & tissues ( yell[ fev] cadav]s 9 exceptional cases1 :5 cultures are made v soon aft] dea?4 ,s9ce ?is report 0 made1 v>i\s inve/igators h attack$ ! "q ( yell[ fev] etiology1 & "o ( !m has made v positive claims to ! discov]y ( ! specific g]m4 ,i ref] to ! ,italian bact]iologi/1 ,san>elli4 ,8 rese>*es 7 made 9 ,brazil1 &1 s+ul>ly en\gh1 he f\nd 9 ! blood ( ! fir/ case exam9$ by him a bacillus4 ,x 0 pres5t 9 l>ge numb]s1 b ?is case prov$ to be unique1 = nei!r ,san>elli nor any "o else has s9ce2 f\nd x 9 su* abundance4 ,x has be5 f\nd 9 small numb]s 9 ! blood & tissues ( yell[ fev] cadav]s 9 a c]ta9 numb] ( ! cases exam9$4 ,b c>efully conduct$ rese>*es by compet5t bact]iologi/s h fail$ to demon/rate its pres5ce 9 a consid]able proportion ( ! cases1 & ! rec5t rese>*es ( ,re$1 ,c>roll1 & ,agramonte1 to :i* ,i %all %ortly ref]1 demon/rate conclusively t ! bacillus ( ,san>elli has no?+ to d ) ! etiology ( yell[ fev]4 ,s f> z ,i am aw>e1 ,dr4 ,c>los ,f9lay1 ( ,havana1 ,cuba1 0 ! fir/ to sugge/ ! transmission ( yell[ fev] by mosquitoes4 ,9 a communication made to ! ,academy ( ,sci5ces ( ,havana1 9 ,octob]1 #ahha1 he gave an acc\nt ( 8 fir/ attempts to demon/rate ! tru? ( 8 !ory4 ,9 a pap] contribut$ to ,! ,ed9burgh ,m$ical ,j\rnal 9 #ahid1 ,dr4 ,f9lay gives a summ>y ( 8 exp]im5tal inoculations up to t date z foll[s3 ,a summ>y acc\nt ( ! exp]im5ts p]=m$ by myself 7& "s also by my fri5d1 ,dr4 ,delgado71 dur+ ! la/ twelve ye>s1 w enable ! read] to judge = himself4 ,! exp]im5t has consi/$ 9 fir/ apply+ a captive mosquito to a yell[ fev] pati5t1 all[+ x to introduce its lance & to fill itself ) blood2 next1 aft] ! lapse ( two or m days1 apply+ ! same mosquito to ! sk9 ( a p]son :o is consid]$ susceptible to yell[ fev]3 &1 f9ally1 obs]v+ ! effects1 n only dur+ ! fir/ two weeks1 b dur+ p]iods ( sev]al ye>s1 s z to appreciate ! am\nt ( immunity t %\ld foll[4 ,betwe5 ! #cj? ( ,june1 #ahha1 & ! #b;d ( ,decemb]1 #ahic1 eighty-eight p]sons h be5 s inoculat$4 ,all 7 :ite adults1 unit+ ! conditions :i* ju/ify ! assumption t !y 7 susceptible to yell[ fev]4 ,only ?ree 7 wom54 ,! *ronological di/ribution ( ! inoculations 0 z foll[s3 sev5 9 #ahha1 t5 9 #ahhc1 n9e 9 #ahhe1 ?ree 9 #ahhf1 twelve 9 #ahhg1 n9e 9 #ahhh1 sev5 9 #ahhi1 t5 9 #ahij1 eight 9 #ahia1 ?ree 9 #ahib1 & t5 9 #ahic4 ,! yell[ fev] pati5ts ^u :om ! mosquitoes 7 contam9at$ 71 almo/ 9 e in/ance1 well-m>k$ cases ( ! album9uric or melanoalbum9uric =ms1 9 ! second1 ?ird1 f\r?1 fif?1 or six? day ( ! disease4 ,9 "s ( ! susceptible subjects1 ! inoculation 0 repeat$ :5 ! s\rce ( ! contam9ation appe>$ unc]ta94 ,among ! eighty-sev5 :o h be5 "u obs]vation1 ! foll[+ results h be5 record$3 ,)9 a t]m ( days1 v>y+ betwe5 five & tw5ty-five aft] ! inoculation1 "o pres5t$ a mild album9uric attack1 & ?irte51 only acclimation fev]s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,:ile ,f9lay's !ory appe>$ to be plausible & to expla9 _m ( ! facts relat+ to ! etiology ( yell[ fev]1 8 exp]im5tal inoculations n only fail$ to give x sub/antial support1 b ! negative results1 z report$1 by himself1 seem$ to be oppos$ to ! view t yell[ fev] is transmitt$ by ! mosquito4 ,x is true t he reports "o case :i* pres5t$ a mild album9uric attack :i* we may accept z an attack ( yell[ fev]4 ,b 9 view ( ! fact t ?is case occurr$ 9 ! city ( ,havana1 :]e yell[ fev] is endemic1 & ( ! eighty-six negative results f simil> inoculations1 ! inf]5ce seem$ ju/ifi$ t 9 ?is case ! disease 0 contract$ 9 "s o!r way ?an z a result ( ! s-call$ mosquito inoculation4 ,! ?irte5 cases 9 :i* only acclimation fev]s occurr$ )9 a t]m ( days v>y+ betwe5 five & tw5ty-five aft] ! inoculation appe>$ to me to h no value z giv+ support to ,f9lay's !ory2 fir/1 because ^! acclimation fev]s c\ld n be id5tifi$ z mild cases ( yell[ fev]2 second1 because ! ord9>y me?od ( incubation 9 yell[ fev]1 is less ?an five days2 &1 ?ird1 because ^! individuals1 hav+ rec5tly arriv$ 9 ,havana1 7 liable to attacks ( yell[ fev]1 or ( acclimation fev] z a result ( _! resid5ce 9 ?is city & q indep5d5tly ( ,dr4 ,f9lay's mosquito inoculations4 ,= ^! reasons ,dr4 ,f9lay's exp]im5ts fail$ to conv9ce ! m$ical pr(ession g5]ally ( ! tru? ( 8 !ory relat+ to ! transmission ( yell[ fev]1 & ?is important "q rema9$ 9 d\bt & a subject ( controv]sy4 ,"o p>ty reg>d$ ! disease z p]sonally contagi\s & suppos$ x to be communicat$ directly f ! sick to ! well1 z 9 ! case ( o!r contagi\s diseases1 su* z smallpox1 sc>let fev]1 etc4 ,oppos$ to ?is !ory 0 ! fact t 9 innum]able in/ances nonimmune p]sons _h be5 kn[n to c>e = yell[-fev] pati5ts z nurses1 or physicians1 )\t contract+ ! disease2 also ! fact t ! epidemic ext5sion ( ! disease dep5ds ^u ext]nal conditions relat+ to temp]ature1 altitude1 ra9fall1 etc4 ,x 0 a well-e/abli%$ fact t ! disease is arre/$ by cold wea!r & does n prevail 9 nor!rn latitudes or at consid]able altitudes4 ,b diseases :i* are directly transmitt$ f man to man by p]sonal contact h no su* limitations4 ,! alt]nate !ory took acc\nt ( ! above-m5tion$ facts & assum$ t ! disease 0 indirectly transmitt$ f sick to well1 z is ! case 9 typhoid fev] & *ol]a1 & t its g]m 0 capable ( developm5t ext]nal to ! human body :5 conditions 7 favorable4 ,^! conditions 7 believ$ to be a c]ta9 elevation ( ! temp]ature1 ! pres5ce ( moi/ure & suitable2 organic pabulum 7fil?7 = ! developm5t ( ! g]m4 ,! two fir/-m5tion$ conditions 7 kn[n to be ess5tial1 ! ?ird 0 a subject ( controv]sy4 ,yell[ fev] epidemics d n occur 9 ! w9t] mon?s 9 ! temp]ate zone & !y d n occur 9 arid regions4 ,z epidemics h frequ5tly prevail$ 9 seacoa/ cities kn[n to be 9 an insanit>y condition1 x has be5 g5]ally assum$ t ! pres5ce ( decompos+ organic mat]ial is favorable = ! developm5t ( an epidemic & t1 l typhoid fev] & *ol]a1 yell[ fev] is a fil? disease4 ,oppos$ to ?is view1 h[ev]1 is ! fact t epidemics h frequ5tly occurr$ 9 localities 7e4g4 at milit>y po/s7 :]e no local insanit>y conditions 7 to be f\nd4 ,moreov]1 !re are m>k$ diff]5ces 9 reg>d to ! transmission ( ! recogniz$ fil? diseases--typhoid fev] & *ol]a--& yell[ fev]4 ,! fir/-m5tion$ diseases are l>gely propagat$ by means ( a contam9at$ wat] supply1 :]eas !re is no evid5ce t yell[ fev] is ev] communicat$ 9 ?is way4 ,typhoid fev] & *ol]a prevail 9 all p>ts ( ! _w & may prevail at any season ( ! ye>1 al?\gh *ol]a1 z a rule1 is a disease ( ! summ] mon?s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 yell[ fev] has a v re/rict$ area ( preval5ce & is ess5tially a disease ( seabo>d cities & ( w>m climates4 ,evid5tly nei!r ( ! !ories ref]r$ to acc\nts = all ( ! obs]v$ facts ) ref]5ce to ! endemic preval5ce & epidemic ext5sion ( ! disease "u consid]ation4 ,hav+ = ye>s giv5 mu* ?\ght to ?is subject1 ,i became "s "t s9ce impress$ ) ! view t probably 9 yell[ fev]1 z 9 ! mal>ial fev]s1 !re is an int]m$iate ho/4 ,i !re=e sugge/$ to ,dr4 ,re$1 presid5t ( ! bo>d appo9t$ ^u my recomm5dation = ! /udy ( ?is disease 9 ! isl& ( ,cuba1 t he %\ld give special att5tion to ! possibility ( transmission by "s insect1 al?\gh ! exp]im5ts ( ,f9lay seem$ to %[ t ?is insect 0 n a mosquito ( ! g5us ,culex1 su* z he _h us$ 9 8 inoculation exp]im5ts4 ,i also urg$ t ef=ts %\ld be made to asc]ta9 def9itely :e!r ! disease c be communicat$ f man to man by blood inoculations4 ,evid5tly if ?is is ! case ! blood mu/ conta9 ! liv+ infecti\s ag5t ^u :i* ! propagation ( ! disease dep5ds1 not)/&+ ! fact t all attempts to demon/rate ! pres5ce ( su* a g]m 9 ! blood1 by means ( microscope & culture me?ods1 h prov$ unavail+4 ,i _h previ\sly demon/rat$ by repeat$ exp]im5ts t inoculations ( yell[ fev] blood into l[] animals--dogs1 rabbits1 gu9ea pigs--give a negative result1 b ?is negative result might well be because ^! animals 7 n susceptible to ! disease & c\ld n be accept$ z %[+ t ! g]m ( yell[ fev] 0 n pres5t 9 ! blood4 ,a s+le inoculation exp]im5t on man _h be5 made 9 my pres5ce 9 ! city ( ,v]a ,cruz1 9 #ahhg1 by ,dr4 ,daniel ,ruiz1 :o 0 9 *>ge ( ! civil hospital 9 t city4 ,b ?is exp]im5t 0 inconclusive = ! reason t ! pati5t f :om ! blood 0 obta9$ 0 9 ! eigh? day ( ! disease1 & x 0 q possible t ! specific g]m might h be5 pres5t at an e>li] p]iod & t aft] a c]ta9 numb] ( days ! natural res\rces ( ! body are suffici5t to effect its de/ruction1 or 9 "s way to cause its disappe>ance f ! circulation4 ,?is 0 ! /atus ( ! "q ( yell[ fev] etiology :5 ,dr4 ,re$ & 8 associates comm5c$ _! inve/igations 9 ,cuba dur+ ! summ] ( #aijj4 ,9 a ,prelim9>y ,note1 read at ! meet+ ( ! ,am]ican ,public ,heal? ,association1 ,octob] #bb1 #aijj1 ! bo>d gave a report ( ?ree cases ( yell[ fev] :i* !y believ$ to be direct results ( mosquito inoculations4 ,two ( ^! 7 memb]s ( ! bo>d1 viz41 ,dr4 ,jesse ,w4 ,laze> & ,dr4 ,james ,c>roll1 :o volunt>ily submitt$ !mselves to ! exp]im5t4 ,dr4 ,c>roll suff]$ a sev]e attack ( ! disease & recov]$1 b ,dr4 ,laze> fell a victim to 8 en?usiasm & di$ 9 ! cause ( sci5ce & humanity4 ,8 dea? occurr$ on ,septemb] #be1 aft] an illness ( six days' duration4 ,ab\t ! same "t n9e o!r individuals :o volunte]$ = ! exp]im5t 7 bitt5 by infect$ mosquitoes--i4e4 by mosquitoes :i* _h previ\sly be5 all[$ to fill !mselves ) blood f yell[ fev] cases--& 9 ^! cases ! result 0 negative4 ,9 consid]+ ! exp]im5tal evid5ce ?us f> obta9$1 ! att5tion ( ! memb]s ( ! bo>d 0 attract$ by ! fact t 9 ! n9e inoculations ) a negative result ! "t elaps+ betwe5 ! bit+ ( ! mosquito & ! inoculation ( ! heal?y subject v>i$ 9 sev5 cases f two to eight days1 & 9 ! rema9+ two f t5 to ?irte5 days1 :]eas 9 two ( ! ?ree successful cases ! mosquito _h be5 kept = twelve days or long]4 ,9 ! ?ird case1 t ( ,dr4 ,laze>1 ! facts are /at$ 9 ! report ( ! bo>d z foll[s3 ,case #c4 ,dr4 ,jesse ,w4 ,laze>1 ,act+ ,assi/ant ,surgeon ,u4,s4 ,army1 a memb] ( ?is bo>d1 0 bitt5 on ,augu/ #af1 #aijj 7,case #c1 ,table ,,iii7 by a mosquito 7,culex fasciatus71 :i* t5 days previ\sly _h be5 contam9at$ by bit+ a v mild case ( yell[ fev] 7fif? day74 ,no appreciable di/urbance ( heal? foll[$ ?is inoculation4 ,on ,septemb] #ac1 #aijj 7=5oon71 ,dr4 ,laze>1 :ile on a visit to ,las ,animas ,hospital1 & :ile collect+ blood f yell[ fev] pati5ts = /udy1 0 bitt5 by a ,culex mosquito 7v>iety undet]m9$74 ,z ,dr4 ,laze> _h be5 previ\sly bitt5 by a contam9at$ insect )\t aft] effects1 he delib]ately all[$ ?is p>ticul> mosquito1 :i* _h settl$ on ! back ( 8 h&1 to rema9 until x _h satisfi$ its hung]4 ,on ! ev5+ ( ,septemb] #ah1 five days aft] ! bite1 ,dr4 ,laze> compla9$ ( feel+ out ( sorts1 & _h a *ill at #h ,p4,m4 ,on ,septemb] #ai1 twelve o'clock noon1 8 temp]ature 0 #ajb4d1 pulse #aab2 8 eyes 7 inject$ & 8 face suffus$2 at #c ,p4,m4 temp]ature 0 #ajc4d1 pulse #ajd2 #f ,p4,m41 temp]ature #ajc4h & pulse #ajf2 album9 appe>$ 9 ! ur9e4 ,jaundice appe>$ on ! ?ird day4 ,! subsequ5t hi/ory ( ?is case 0 "o ( progressive & fatal yell[ fev]1 ! dea? ( our mu*-lam5t$ colleague hav+ occurr$ on ! ev5+ ( ,septemb] #be1 #aijj4 ,evid5tly 9 ?is case ! evid5ce is n satisfactory z to ! fatal attack be+ ! result ( ! bite by a mosquito :ile on a visit to ,las ,animas ,hospital1 al?\gh ,dr4 ,laze> himself 0 ?or\ghly conv9c$ t ?is 0 ! direct cause ( 8 attack4 ,! inf]5ce by ,dr4 ,re$ & 8 associates1 f ! exp]im5ts ?us f> made1 0 t yell[ fev] may be2 transmitt$ by mosquitoes ( ! g5us ,culex1 b t 9 ord] to convey ! infection to a nonimmune individual ! insect mu/ be kept = twelve days or long] aft] x has fill$ itself ) blood f a yell[ fev] pati5t 9 ! e>li] /ages ( ! disease4 ,9 o!r words1 t a c]ta9 p]iod ( incubation is requir$ 9 ! body ( ! insect be=e ! g]m rea*es its saliv>y gl&s1 & consequ5tly be=e x is able to inoculate any individual ) ! g]ms ( yell[ fev]4 ,?is inf]5ce1 bas$ ^u exp]im5tal data1 receiv$ support f o!r obs]vations1 :i* h be5 repeat$ly made1 ) ref]5ce to ! introduction & spread ( yell[ fev] 9 localities favorable to its propagation4 ,:5 a case is import$ to "o ( our s\!rn seaport cities1 f ,havana1 ,v]a ,cruz1 or "s o!r endemic focus ( ! disease1 an int]val ( two weeks or m occurs be=e second>y cases are develop$ z a result ( su* importation4 ,9 ! light ( our pres5t k ?is is readily und]/ood4 ,a c]ta9 numb] ( mosquitoes hav+ fill$ !mselves ) blood f ?is fir/ case aft] an int]val ( twelve days or m bite nonimmune individuals liv+ 9 ! vic9ity1 & ^! individuals aft] a brief p]iod ( incubation fall sick ) ! disease2 be+ bitt5 by o!r mosquitoes !y s]ve to transmit ! disease ?r\gh ! int]m$iate ho/ to /ill o!rs4 ,?us ! epidemic ext5ds1 at fir/ sl[ly f h\se to h\se1 !n m rapidly1 z by geometrical progression4 ,x w be se5 t ! ess5tial diff]5ce betwe5 ! successful exp]im5ts ( ! bo>d ( :i* ,dr4 ,re$ is presid5t & ! unsuccessful exp]im5ts ( ,f9lay consi/s ( ! l5g? ( "t dur+ :i* ! mosquitoes 7 kept aft] fill+ !mselves ) blood f a yell[ fev] pati5t4 ,9 ,f9lay's exp]im5ts ! int]val 0 usually %ort1--f two to five or six days1--& x w be not$ t 9 ! exp]im5ts ( ,re$ & 8 associates ! result 0 inv>iably negative :5 ! insect _h be5 kept less ?an eight days 7#g cases74 ,hav+ obta9$ :at !y consid]$ satisfactory evid5ce t yell[ fev] is transmitt$ by mosquitoes1 ,dr4 ,re$ & 8 associates proce$$ to ext5d _! exp]im5ts = ! purpose ( e/abli%+ ! fact 9 su* a positive mann] t ! m$ical pr(ession & ! sci5tific _w g5]ally might be conv9c$ ( ! reliability ( ! exp]im5tal evid5ce ^u :i* _! conclusions 7 bas$4 ,^! conclusions1 :i* h be5 fully ju/ifi$ by _! subsequ5t exp]im5ts1 7 /at$ 9 _! ,prelim9>y ,note z foll[s3 #a4 ,bacillus ict]oides 7,san>elli7 /&s 9 no causative relation to yell[ fev]1 b1 :5 pres5t1 %\ld be consid]$ z a second>y invad] 9 ?is disease4 #b4 ,! mosquito s]ves z ! int]m$iate ho/ = ! p>asite ( yell[ fev]4 ,9 ,an ,additional ,note read at ! ,pan-,am]ican ,m$ical ,congress held 9 ,havana1 ,cuba1 ,febru>y #d1-g1 #aija1 a report is made ( ! fur!r exp]im5ts made up to t date4 ,9 ord] t ! absolute sci5tific value ( ^! exp]im5ts may be fully appreciat$ ,i %all quote q freely f ?is report ) ref]5ce to ! me?ods adopt$ = ! purpose ( exclud+ all s\rces ( infection o!r ?an ! mosquito inoculation3 ,9 ord] to ex]cise p]fect control ov] ! movem5ts ( ^? individuals :o 7 to be subject$ to exp]im5tation1 & to avoid any o!r possible s\rce ( infection1 a location 0 select$ 9 an op5 & uncultivat$ field1 ab\t "o mile f ! t[n ( ,quemados1 ,cuba4 ,"h an exp]im5tal sanit>y /ation 0 e/abli%$ "u ! complete control ( ! s5ior memb] ( ?is bo>d4 ,?is /ation 0 nam$ ,camp ,laze>1 9 honor ( our late colleague1 ,dr4 ,jesse ,w4 ,laze>1 ,act+ ,assi/ant ,surgeon ,u4,s4,a41 :o di$ ( yell[ fev]1 :ile c\rage\sly inve/igat+ ! causation ( ?is disease4 ,! site select$ 0 well dra9$1 freely expos$ to sunlight & w9ds1 & f e po9t ( view satisfactory = ! purposes int5d$4 ,! p]sonnel ( ?is camp consi/$ ( two m$ical (fic]s1 ,dr4 ,rog] ,p4 ,ames1 ,act+ ,assi/ant ,surgeon ,u4,s4,a41 an immune1 9 imm$iate *>ge2 ,dr4 ,r4 ,p4 ,cooke1 ,act+ ,assi/ant ,surgeon ,u4,s4,a41 nonimmune2 "o act+ hospital /ew>d1 an immune2 n9e privates ( ! hospital corps1 "o ( :om 0 immune1 & "o immune ambulance driv]4 ,= ! qu>t]+ ( ?is deta*m5t1 & ( su* nonimmune individuals z %\ld be receiv$ = exp]im5tation1 hospital t5ts1 prop]ly floor$1 7 provid$4 ,^! 7 plac$ at a di/ance ( ab\t tw5ty feet f ea* o!r1 & numb]$ #a to #g respectively4 ,camp ,laze> 0 e/abli%$ ,novemb] #bj1 #aijj1 & f ?is date 0 /rictly qu>ant9$1 no "o be+ p]mitt$ to leave or ent] camp except ! ?ree immune memb]s ( ! deta*m5t & ! memb]s ( ! bo>d4 ,supplies 7 drawn *iefly f ,columbia ,b>racks1 & = ?is purpose a conveyance "u ! control ( an immune act+ hospital /ew>d1 & hav+ an immune driv]1 0 us$4 ,a few ,spani% immigrants rec5tly arriv$ at ! port ( ,havana 7 receiv$ at ,camp ,laze>1 f "t to "t1 :ile ^! obs]vations 7 be+ c>ri$ out4 ,a nonimmune p]son1 hav+ once left ! camp1 0 n p]mitt$ to return to x "u any circum/ances :atsoev]4 ,! temp]ature & pulse ( all nonimmune resid5ts 7 c>efully record$ ?ree times a day4 ,"u ^! circum/ances any infect$ individual ent]+ ! camp c\ld be promptly detect$ & remov$4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 only two p]sons1 n ! subject ( exp]im5tation1 develop$ any rise ( temp]ature2 "o1 a ,spani% immigrant1 ) probable comm5c+ pulmon>y tub]culosis1 :o 0 dis*>g$ at ! end ( ?ree days3 & ! o!r1 a ,spani% immigrant1 :o develop$ a temp]ature ( #ajb4f ,f4 on ! aft]noon ( 8 f\r? day 9 camp4 ,he 0 at once remov$ ) 8 entire b$d+ & baggage & plac$ 9 ! receiv+ w>d at ,columbia ,b>racks4 ,8 fev]1 :i* 0 m>k$ by daily int]missions = ?ree days1 subsid$ ^u ! adm9i/ration ( ca?>tics & enemata4 ,8 attack 0 consid]$ to be due to inte/9al irritation4 ,he 0 n p]mitt$1 h[ev]1 to return to ! camp4 ,no nonimmune resid5t 0 subject$ to inoculation :o _h n pass$ 9 ?is camp ! full p]iod ( incubation ( yell[ fev]1 ) "o exception1 to be h]e9aft] m5tion$4 ,= ! purpose ( exp]im5tation subjects 7 select$ z foll[s3 ,f ,t5t ,no4 #b1 #b nonimmunes1 & f ,t5t ,no4 #e1 #c nonimmunes4 ,lat]1 #a nonimmune 9 ,t5t ,no4 #f 0 also designat$ = inoculation4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t at ! "t :5 ^! inoculations 7 begun1 !re 7 only #ab nonimmune resid5ts at ,camp ,laze>1 & t #e ( ^? 7 select$ = exp]im5t1 viz41 #b 9 ,t5t ,no4 #b1 & #c 9 ,t5t ,no4 #e4 ,( ^! we succe$$ 9 infect+ #d1 viz41 #a 9 ,t5t ,no4 #b4 & #c 9 ,t5t ,no4 #e1 ea* ( :om develop$ an attack ( yell[ fev] )9 ! p]iod ( incubation ( ?is disease4 ,! "o negative result1 !re=e1 0 9 ,case #b--,moran--inoculat$ ) a mosquito on ! fifte5? day aft] ! insect _h bitt5 a case ( yell[-fev] on ! ?ird day4 ,s9ce ?is mosquito fail$ to infect ,case #d1 ?ree days aft] x _h bitt5 ,moran1 x foll[s t ! result c\ld n h be5 o!rwise ?an negative 9 ! latt] case4 ,we n[ "k1 z ! result ( our obs]vations1 t 9 ! case ( an insect kept at room temp]ature dur+ ! cool wea!r ( ,novemb]1 fifte5 or ev5 eighte5 days w\ld1 9 all probability1 be too %ort a "t to r5d] x capable ( produc+ ! disease4 ,z be>+ ^u ! s\rce ( infection1 we invite att5tion to ! p]iod ( "t dur+ :i* ! subjects _h be5 kept "u rigid qu>ant9e1 prior to successful inoculation1 :i* 0 z foll[s3 ,case #a1 fifte5 days2 ,case #c1 n9e days2 ,case #d1 n9ete5 days2 ,case #e1 tw5ty-"o days4 ,we fur!r desire to emphasize ! fact t ?is epidemic ( yell[ fev]1 :i* affect$ #cc4cc p] c5t ( ! nonimmune resid5ts ( ,camp ,laze>1 did n conc]n ! sev5 nonimmunes occupy+ ,t5ts ,nos1 #a1 #d1 #f & #g1 b 0 /rictly limit$ to ^? individuals :o _h be5 bitt5 by contam9at$ mosquitoes4 ,no?+ c\ld po9t m =cibly to ! s\rce ( ?is infection ?an ! ord] ( ! occurr5ce ( ev5ts at ?is camp4 ,! precision ) :i* ! infection ( ! individual foll[$ ! bite ( ! mosquito left no?+ to be desir$ 9 ord] to fulfill ! requirem5ts ( a sci5tific exp]im5t4 ,9 summ+ up _! results at ! conclusion ( ?is report ! foll[+ /atem5t is made3 ,out ( a total or eighte5 nonimmunes :om we h inoculat$ ) contam9at$ mosquitoes1 s9ce we began ?is l9e ( inve/igation1 eight1 or #dd4d p] c5t1 h contract$ yell[ fev]4 ,if we exclude ^? individuals bitt5 by mosquitoes t _h be5 kept less ?an twelve days aft] contam9ation1 & :i* 7 !re=e probably incapable ( convey+ ! disease1 we h to record eight positive & two negative results--#hj p] c5t4 ,9 a /ill lat] report 7,may1 #aija7 ,dr4 ,re$ says1 ,we h ?us f> succe$$ 9 convey+ yell[ fev] to twelve individuals by means ( ! bites ( contam9at$ mosquitoes4 ,! nonimmune individuals exp]im5t$ ^u 7 all fully in=m$ z to ! nature ( ! exp]im5t & its probable results & all gave _! full cons5t4 ,=tunately no "o ( ^! brave volunte]s 9 ! cause ( sci5ce & humanity suff]$ a fatal attack ( ! disease1 al?\gh sev]al 7 v ill & gave great anxiety to ! memb]s ( ! bo>d1 :o fully appreciat$ ! grave responsibility :i* re/$ ^u !m4 ,t ^! exp]im5ts 7 ju/ifiable "u ! circum/ances m5tion$ is1 ,i believe1 beyond "q4 ,9 no o!r way c\ld ! fact e/abli%$ h be5 demon/rat$1 & ! k ga9$ is ( ine/imable value z a guide to reliable measures ( prev5tion4 ,already x is be+ appli$ 9 ,cuba1 & )\t d\bt innum]able lives w be sav$ z a result ( ^! exp]im5ts %[+ ! precise me?od by :i* yell[ fev] is contract$ by ^? expos$ 9 an infect$ locality4 ,"s ( ^! volunte]s 7 enli/$ m5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,army & "s 7 ,spani% immigrants :o _h rec5tly arriv$ 9 ,cuba4 ,:5 tak5 sick !y receiv$ ! be/ possible c>e1 & aft] _! recov]y !y _h ! advantage ( be+ immunes :o _h no?+ fur!r to fe> f ! disease :i* has caus$ ! dea? ( ?\s&s & t5s ( ?\s&s ( ,spani% soldi]s & immigrants :o h come to ,cuba "u ! ord]s ( _! gov]nm5t or to seek _! =tunes4 ,! exp]im5ts already ref]r$ to %[ 9 ! mo/ conclusive mann] t ! blood ( yell[ fev] pati5ts conta9s ! infecti\s ag5t1 or g]m1 to :i* ! disease is due1 & ?is has be5 fur!r demon/rat$ by direct inoculations f man to man4 ,?is exp]im5t 0 made by ,dr4 ,re$ at ,camp ,laze> ^u f\r individuals1 :o freely cons5t$ to x2 & 9 ?ree ( ! f\r a typical attack ( yell[ fev] result$ f ! blood injection4 ,! blood 0 tak5 f a ve9 at ! b5d ( ! elb[ on ! fir/ or second day ( sickness & 0 inject$ subcutane\sly into ! f\r nonimmune individuals1 ! am\nt be+ 9 "o positive case #b cc1 9 "o #a4e cc1 & 9 "o ,o4#e cc4 ,9 ! case att5d$ ) a negative result1 a ,spani% immigrant1 a mosquito inoculation also prov$ to be )\t effect1 & ,dr4 ,re$ supposes t ?is individual probably possesses a natural immunity to yell[ fev]4 ,dr4 ,re$ says ) ref]5ce to ^! exp]im5ts3 ,x is important to note t 9 ! ?ree cases 9 :i* ! injection ( ! blood br\ght ab\t an attack ( yell[ fev]1 c>eful culture f ! same blood1 tak5 imm$iately aft] injection1 fail$ to %[ ! pres5ce ( ,san>elli's bacillus4 ,hav+ demon/rat$ ! fact t yell[ fev] is propagat$ by mosquitoes1 ,dr4 ,re$ & 8 associates h endeavor$ to asc]ta9 :e!r x may also be propagat$1 z has be5 commonly suppos$1 by clo?+1 b$d+1 & o!r articles :i* h be5 9 use by ^? sick ) ?is disease4 ,) ref]5ce to ! exp]im5ts made = ! solution ( ?is "q ,i _c d bett] ?an to quote 9 ext5sa f ,dr4 ,re$'s pap] read at ! ,pan-,am]ican ,m$ical ,congress 9 ,havana4 ,?is extract f ,dr4 ,re$'s pap] describes 9 c>eful sci5tific detail ! exp]im5ts :i* f9ally e/abli%$ ! fact t ! contagion came ?r\gh mosquitoes1 & 9 no o!r way4 ,into a small h\se1 ?or\ghly air-pro(1 7 br\ght b$clo!s1 clo?+1 & o!r articles :i* _h be5 contam9at$ by yell[ fev] pati5ts4 ,!n = tw5ty days m5 :o 7 nonimmune to ! fev] slept 9 ?is build+1 ) no evil effects4 ,?is exp]im5t 0 repeat$ sev]al times4 ,!n 9 ano!r build+ simil>1 except t x 0 v5tilat$ by mosquito-pro( w9d[s1 & _h be5 ?or\ghly dis9fect$1 ano!r volunte] 0 bitt5 by mosquitoes :i* _h fir/ bitt5 pati5ts suff]+ ) yell[ fev]2 & he develop$ ! disease4 ,! la/ p>agraph ( ! extract is z foll[s3 ,?us at ,camp ,laze>1 ( sev5 nonimmunes :om we attempt$ to infect by means ( ! bites ( contam9at$ mosquitoes1 we h succe$$ 9 convey+ ! disease to six1 or #he4ga p] c5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ( sev5 nonimmunes :om we tri$ to infect by means ( fomites clo? & o!r mat]ial g5]ally capable ( c>ry+ g]ms "u p>ticul>ly favorable circum/ances1 we did n succe$ 9 a s+le in/ance4 ,x is evid5t t 9 view ( our pres5t k relat+ to ! mode ( transmission ( yell[ fev]1 ! prev5tive measures :i* h h]et(ore be5 consid]$ mo/ important1 t is1 isolation ( ! sick1 dis9fection ( clo?+ & b$d+1 & municipal sanitation1 are ei!r ( no avail or ( comp>atively little value4 ,x is true t yell[ fev] epidemics h result$1 z a rule1 f ! introduction to a previ\sly heal?y locality ( "o or m p]sons suff]+ f ! disease4 ,b we n[ "k t its ext5sion did n dep5d ^u ! direct contact ( ! sick ) ! nonimmune individuals & t isolation ( ! sick f su* contact is unnecess>y & )\t avail4 ,on ! o!r h&1 complete isolation f ! ag5t :i* is responsible = ! propagation ( ! disease is all-important4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( a yell[ fev] pati5t f :i* to draw blood ! mosquito is h>mless1 & 9 ! abs5ce ( ! mosquito ! yell[ fev] pati5t is h>mless--z ! exp]im5tal evid5ce n[ /&s4 ,yell[ fev] epidemics are t]m9at$ by cold wea!r because ! mosquitoes die or become torpid4 ,! sanit>y condition ( our s\!rn seaport cities is no bett] 9 w9t] ?an 9 summ]1 & if ! infection atta*$ to clo?+ & b$d+ x is difficult to und]/& :y ! fir/ fro/s ( autumn %\ld arre/ ! progress ( an epidemic4 ,b all ?is is expla9$ n[ t ! mode ( transmission has be5 demon/rat$4 ,insanit>y local conditions may1 h[ev]1 h a c]ta9 influ5ce 9 ! propagation ( ! disease1 = x has be5 asc]ta9$ t ! species ( mosquito :i* s]ves z an int]m$iate ho/ = ! yell[ fev] g]m may bre$ 9 cesspools & sew]s1 z well z 9 /agnant pools ( wat]4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! /reets ( a city are unpav$ & ungrad$ & !re are op5 spaces :]e wat] may accumulate 9 pools1 z well z op5 cesspools to s]ve z bre$+ places = ,culex fasciatus1 ! city w pres5t conditions m favorable = ! propagation ( yell[ fev] ?an x w\ld if well pav$ & dra9$ & sew]$4 ,! "q :e!r yell[ fev] may be transmitt$ by any o!r species ( mosquito ?an ,culex fasciatus has n be5 det]m9$4 ,facts relat+ to ! propagation ( ! disease indicate t ! mosquito :i* s]ves z an int]m$iate ho/ = ! yell[ fev] g]m has a some:at re/rict$ geographical range & is to be f\nd especially ^u ! seacoa/ & ! m>g9s ( riv]s 9 ! s-call$ yell[ fev] zone4 ,:ile occasional epidemics h occurr$ ^u ! s\?we/ coa/ ( ! ,ib]ian ,p59sula1 ! disease1 z an epidemic1 is unkn[n else:]e 9 ,europe1 & !re is no evid5ce t x has ev] invad$ ! great & popul\s cont95t ( ,asia4 ,9 ,africa x is limit$ to ! we/ coa/4 ,9 ,nor? ,am]ica1 al?\gh x has occasionally prevail$ z an epidemic 9 e "o ( our seaport cities z f> nor? z ,bo/on1 & 9 ! ,mississippi ,valley z f> nor? z ,/4 ,l\is1 x has nev] e/abli%$ itself z an epidemic disease )9 ! limits ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,v]a ,cruz1 & probably o!r po9ts on ! ,gulf coa/ ( ,mexico1 are1 h[ev]1 at ! pres5t "t1 endemic foci ( ! disease4 ,9 ,s\? ,am]ica x has prevail$ z an epidemic at all ( ! seaports on ! ,gulf & ,atlantic coa/s1 z f> s\? z ,montevideo & ,bu5os ,aires1 & on ! ,pacific along ! coa/ ( ,p]u4 ,! region 9 :i* ! disease has _h ! greate/ & mo/ frequ5t preval5ce is b\nd$ by ! %ores ( ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 & includes ! ,we/ ,india isl&s4 ,)9 ! pa/ few ye>s yell[ fev] has be5 c>ri$ to ! we/ coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 & has prevail$ z an epidemic z f> nor? z ! ,mexican port ( ,guaymas1 on ! ,gulf ( ,cali=nia4 ,x mu/ be suppos$ t ,culex fasciatus is only f\nd :]e yell[ fev] prevails4 ,! propagation ( ! disease dep5ds ^u ! introduction ( an infect$ individual to a locality :]e ?is mosquito is f\nd1 at a season ( ! ye> :5 x is active4 ,ow+ to ! %ort p]iod ( incubation 7five days or less71 ! brief duration ( ! disease & especially ( ! p]iod dur+ :i* ! infecti\s ag5t 7g]m7 is f\nd 9 ! blood1 x is evid5t t %ips sail+ f infect$ ports1 ^u :i* cases ( yell[ fev] develop1 are n likely to introduce ! disease to di/ant seaports4 ,! cont9uance ( an epidemic on %ipbo>d1 z on ! l&1 mu/ dep5d ^u ! pres5ce ( infect$ mosquitoes & ( nonimmune individuals4 ,"u ^! conditions we c readily und]/& :y ! disease %\ld n be c>ri$ f ! ,we/ ,indies or f ,s\? ,am]ica to ! ,m$it]ranean1 to ! ea/ coa/ ( ,africa1 or to ,asiatic seaport cities4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! disease c\ld be transmitt$ by infect$ clo?+1 b$d+1 etc41 !re seems no good reason :y x %\ld n h be5 c>ri$ to ^! di/ant localities long ago4 ,! re/riction z reg>ds altitude1 h[ev]1 probably dep5ds ^u ! fact t ! mosquito :i* s]ves z an int]m$iate ho/ is a coa/ species1 :i* does n live 9 elevat$ regions4 ,x is a well-e/abli%$ fact t yell[ fev] has nev] prevail$ 9 ! ,city ( ,mexico1 al?\gh ! city has con/ant & unre/rict$ int]c\rse ) ! infect$ seaport1 ,v]a ,cruz4 ,p]sons :o h be5 expos$ 9 ,v]a ,cruz dur+ ! epidemic season frequ5tly fall sick aft] _! arrival 9 ! ,city ( ,mexico1 b !y d n communicate ! disease to ^? 9 att5dance ^u !m or to o!rs 9 ! vic9ity4 ,evid5tly "s factor ess5tial = ! propagation ( ! disease is abs5t1 al?\gh we h ! sick man1 8 clo?+ & b$d+1 & ! insanit>y local conditions :i* h be5 suppos$ to con/itute an ess5tial factor4 ,i am n aw>e t any obs]vations h be5 made ) ref]5ce to ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ,culex fasciatus 9 high altitudes1 b ! inf]5ce t x is n to be f\nd 9 su* localities z ! ,city ( ,mexico seems ju/ifi$ by ! e/abli%$ facts already ref]r$ to4 ,z po9t$ out by ,hirs*1 ! disease /ops %ort at _m po9ts 9 ! ,we/ ,indies :]e ! climate is /ill 9 ! highe/ degree tropical4 ,9 ! ,antilles x has r>ely appe>$ at a height ( m ?an sev5 hundr$ feet4 ,9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! mo/ elevat$ locality 9 :i* ! disease has prevail$ z an epidemic is ,*attanooga1 ,t5nessee1 :i* is sev5 hundr$ & =ty-five feet above sea level4 ,x w be rememb]$ t ! mal>ial fev]s are contract$ z a result ( inoculation by mosquitoes ( ! g5us ,anopheles1 & t ! mal>ial p>asite has be5 demon/rat$ n only 9 ! blood ( ^? suff]+ f mal>ial infection1 b also 9 ! /oma* & saliv>y gl&s ( ! mosquito4 ,if ! yell[ fev] p>asite resembl$ t ( ! mal>ial fev]s1 x w\ld no d\bt h be5 discov]$ long ago4 ,b1 z a matt] ( fact1 ?is p>asite1 :i* we n[ "k is pres5t 9 ! blood ( ^? sick ) ! disease1 has ?us f> elud$ all rese>*es4 ,possibly x is ultramicroscopic4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 x is n ! only infecti\s disease g]m :i* rema9s to be discov]$4 ,!re is no d\bt a liv+ g]m 9 vacc9e lymph & 9 ! virus f smallpox pu/ules1 b x has n be5 demon/rat$ by ! microscope4 ,! same is true ( foot & m\? disease & ( infecti\s pleuropneumonia ( cattle1 al?\gh we "k t a liv+ elem5t ( "s k9d is pres5t 9 ! infecti\s mat]ial by :i* ^! diseases are propagat$4 ,9 ,texas fev]1 ( cattle1 :i* is transmitt$ by infect$ ticks1 ! p>asite is v m9ute1 b by prop] /a9+ me?ods & a good microscope x may be detect$ 9 ! int]ior ( ! r$ blood corpuscles4 ,drs4 ,re$ & ,c>roll are at pres5t engag$ 9 a se>* = ! yell[ fev] g]m 9 ! blood & 9 ! bodies ( infect$ mosquitoes4 ,:at success may att5d _! ef=ts rema9s to be se51 b at all ev5ts ! fundam5tal facts h be5 demon/rat$ t ?is g]m is pres5t 9 ! blood & t ! disease is transmitt$ by a c]ta9 species ( mosquito--,culex fasciatus4 ,at ! end ( ! article ,g5]al ,/]nb]g reproduces ! g5]al ord]s issu$ to ! army 9 ,cuba ) directions = ! precautions to be tak5 aga9/ ! disease4 ,,! ,,workman',s ,,comp5sation ,,act#ge ,?is is a good example ( ! high quality ( argum5tative writ+ :i* is be+ turn$ out by daily & weekly j\rnals 9 great quantities ?r\gh\t ! ye>4 ,?is article1 be+ f a weekly j\rnal1 is long] & m se>*+ ?an ! editorial 9 a daily pap]1 & to "s ext5t p>takes ( ! nature ( an essay4 ,x is notable = ! ?or\ghness ( ! analysis ( ! "q1 = ! c>eful review ( ! hi/ory ( ! case1 & = ! precise /atem5t ( ! po9ts at issue4 ,!re is little space = ! pres5tation ( evid5ce1 ?\gh ! specific /atem5t ( facts & ! quotations f au?orities1 s f> z !y g1 s]ve z evid5ce4 ,we purpose 9 ?is article to give to our read]s an int]pretation ( ! rec5t decision ( ! ,new ,york ,c\rt ( ,appeals decl>+ t ! ,workman's ,comp5sation ,act is uncon/itutional4 ,we reg>d ?is decision z ( v great importance1 because1 if ! ,c\rt has correctly int]pret$ ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 t docum5t prev5ts ,am]ica f adopt+ an indu/rial re=m :i* has be5 adopt$ z j & necess>y by practically ! entire civiliz$ _w4 ,we d n believe t ! int]pretation ( ! ,c\rt is correct4 ,x is1 9 our op9ion1 9 conflict alike ) ! progress ( civilization1 ! _s ( democracy1 ! pr9ciples ( social ju/ice1 & ! analogies & t5d5cies ( law4 ,& we believe t ?is unconsci\s attempt to fa/5 ^u ! work+man an unju/ & intol]able burd5 f :i* all o!r civiliz$ nations1 ) "o exception1 h reliev$ him1 w ultimately prove z futile z 0 ! consci\s & delib]ate attempt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,supreme ,c\rt1 "u ! lead ( ,*ief ,ju/ice ,taney1 to halt ! movem5t = ! emancipation ( ! slaves4 ,9 ! e>li] /ages ( indu/rial developm5t1 :5 indu/ry 0 unorganiz$1 ma*9]y h>dly exi/$1 & labor 0 an individual h&icraft1 ! c\rts naturally assum$ t accid5ts occurr+ to a workman 7 probably due to 8 own neglig5ce4 ,if he 7 m[+ 9 a field & cut himself ) 8 scy!1 if he 7 digg+ a dit* & spra9$ 8 ankle1 if he 7 cutt+ d[n a tree & x fell ^u him & broke 8 leg1 he c\ld recov] f 8 employ] only on pro( t 8 employ] 0 at fault4 ,nor c\ld he recov] if ! accid5t 7 due to ! c>elessness ( a fell[ workman4 ,!re 0 always a natural presumption t he c\ld bett] gu>d aga9/ su* c>elessness ?an c\ld ! probably abs5t employ]4 ,if he 7 turn+ a gr9d/one & 8 awkw>d fell[ workman s held ! scy! z to cut him1 if he 7 9 ! =e/ & 8 fell[ workman gave no notice ( ! fall+ tree1 x 0 natural to presume t ! c>elessness 0 %>$ betwe5 ! two1 & ! law w\ld nei!r attribute blame to ! employ] nor levy ! damage ^u him :5 he 0 n blamewor?y4 ,b ! organization ( labor & ! creation ( elaborate ma*9]y has de/roy$ ?is presumption ( ! common s5se1 & !re=e 9 all civiliz$ c\ntries has de/roy$ ?is presumption ( law4 ,:5 a railway tra9 runs (f ! track because ( a misplac$ swit* or a defective rail1 !re is no presumption t ! eng9e] 0 c>eless or c\ld h gu>d$ aga9/ ! c>elessness ( ! swit* t5d] or ( ! manufactur] ( ! rail4 ,:5 a fire breaks out 9 a room :]e scores ( %irt-wai/ mak]s are conf9$ at _! "w & a hundr$ & =ty ( !m are burn$ to dea?1 !re is no presumption t ! impossibility ( _! escape ?r\gh n>r[ passageways & a lock$ door 0 due to _! c>elessness1 or t !y 7 to blame because ! tables at :i* !y 7 work+ 7 wood1 n metal1 or t !y c\ld h prev5t$ ! c>eless fell[ workman f ?r[+ 8 cig>ette d[n 9 ! inflammable mat]ial :i* surr\nd$ !m4 ,9 fact1 only a v limit$ numb] ( mod]n accid5ts are due to ! c>elessness ( ! injur$ p>ty2 probably a some:at l>g] numb] are due to ! c>elessness ( "s o!r employee2 :ile a v consid]able proportion are incid5ts ( ! trade & due to no def9ite culpability :i* x is possible to trace home ei!r to ! employ] or ! employ$4 ,! ,*ri/ian nations ( ! _w h1 ) s+ul> unanimity1 recogniz$ ?is *ange1 & h *ang$ _! laws to meet ! new conditions4 ,! *ange :i* !y h made 0 indicat$ to !m by _! m>itime laws1 :i* 9 ?is respect h be5 alike 9 all civiliz$ nations & f a v e>ly p]iod4 ,an accid5t occurr+ to a sailor on %ipbo>d has always be5 reg>d$ z an accid5t to ! %ip2 & ! %ip has always be5 requir$ to be> ! burd5 ( 8 c>e & keep & cure4 ,?is "r to be c>$ = does n re/ on any assumption t ! ma/] ( ! %ip has be5 neglig5t1 nor is ! seaman depriv$ ( 8 "r to c>e & keep & cure by pro( t ! accid5t 0 due 9 "p1 or ev5 altoge!r1 to 8 neglig5ce4 ,he is n deb>r$ f recov]y by pro( ( 8 c>elessness2 he is n giv5 l>g] damages ^u pro( ( ! neglig5ce ( ! ma/]4 ,8 "r to be c>$ = re/s1 says ,mr4 ,ju/ice ,/ory1 ^u ! fact t seam5 are 9 "s sort co-adv5tur]s ^u ! voyage4 ,mod]n jurisprud5ce ?r\gh\t ,*ri/5dom recognizes t "u mod]n indu/rial conditions ! workman 9 ! railway1 ! m9e1 & ! factory is a co-adv5tur] 9 ! ent]prise1 & t ! haz>ds incid5t to 8 employm5t %\ld be borne1 n by ! individual1 b by ! indu/ry4 ,?is pr9ciple is n[ recogniz$ & incorporat$ 9 _! legal1 sy/ems by e c\ntry 9 ,europe 7includ+ ,russia b n ,turkey7 ) ! s+le exception ( ,switz]l&4#gf ,! ju/ice & importance ( ?is re=m h be5 recogniz$ by su* /atesm5 z ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & 8 pr$ecessor 9 (fice1 by su* lawy]s z ,elihu ,root1 by workm5 :o desire "s bett] insurance aga9/ accid5t ?an is furni%$ !m by a "r to sue _! employ]s1 by employ]s :o desire to be protect$ f vexati\s lawsuits & ! p]il ( v]dicts = great sums1 & by ab\t half a doz5 /ates1 includ+ ,kansas1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,massa*usetts1 & ,new ,york1 all ( :i* h pass$ ,workm5's ,comp5sation ,acts4 ,su* an act1 %ift+ ! responsibility = ! risks :i* are incid5t to ! trade 9 organiz$ indu/ry f ! individual to ! organization1 ! ,new ,york ,c\rt ( ,appeals decl>es no /ate 9 ! ,union has au?ority to enact1 because ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates =bids its enactm5t4 ,! ,c\rt recognizes ! ne$ = a *ange 9 ! ,law4 ,we desire1 says ! ,c\rt1 to pres5t no purely te*nical or hyp]critical ob/acles to any plan = ! b5efic5t re=mation ( a bran* ( our jurisprud5ce 9 :i*1 x may be conc$$1 re=m is a consummation dev\tly to be wi%$4 ,x pres5ts =cibly1 appreciatively1 & app>5tly ) entire approbation1 ! argum5ts :i* h br\ght ab\t ?is re=m 9 o!r l&s3 ,!re c be no d\bt z to ! !ory ( ?is law4 ,x is bas$ ^u ! proposition t ! inh]5t risks ( an employm5t %\ld1 9 ju/ice1 be plac$ ^u ! %\ld]s ( ! employ]1 :o c protect himself aga9/ loss by insurance1 & by su* an addition to ! price ( 8 w>es z to ca/ ! burd5 ultimately ^u ! consum]2 t indemnity to an injur$ employee %\ld be z mu* a *>ge ^u ! bus9ess z ! co/ ( replac+ or repair+ disabl$ or defective ma*9]y1 appliances1 or tools2 t "u our pres5t sy/em ! loss falls imm$iately ^u ! employee1 :o is almo/ inv>iably unable to be> x1 & ultimately ^u ! community1 :i* is tax$ = ! support ( ! indig5t2 & t our pres5t sy/em is unc]ta91 unsci5tific1 & wa/eful1 & fo/]s a _s ( antagonism betwe5 employ] & employee :i* x is = ! int]e/ ( ! /ate to rem$y4 ,to ^! consid]ations ! ,c\rt sugge/s no reply1 & ^u !m x (f]s no criticism4 ,on ! contr>y1 x 9 t]ms conc$es ! /r5g? ( ?is appeal to recogniz$ & widely preval5t s5tim5t4 ,x decl>es t no ^w ( praise c\ld ov]/ate ! indu/ry & ,intellig5ce ( ! ,commission :i* prep>$ ! ,new ,york law1 & x app>5tly agrees ) ! conclusion ( ! ,commission1 bas$ on a mo/ volum9\s array ( /ati/ical tables1 extracts f ! works ( philosophical writ]s1 & ! indu/rial laws ( _m c\ntries--! conclusion t our own sy/em ( deal+ ) indu/rial accid5ts is economically1 morally1 & legally uns\nd4 ,b all ^! consid]ations ( public policy1 social ju/ice1 & _w-wide conviction are set aside z subord9ate to ! prim>y "q :e!r !y c be mold$ into /atutes )\t infr++ ^u ! lett] or _s ( our own writt5 ,con/itution4 ,! c\ntries :i* h adopt$ ?is desirable re=m1 x is said1 are s-call$ con/itutional mon>*ies 9 :i*1 z 9 ,engl&1 !re is no writt5 con/itution1 & ! ,p>liam5t or lawmak+ body is supreme4 ,9 our c\ntry ! ,f$]al & ,/ate ,con/itutions are ! *>t]s :i* dem>k ! ext5t & ! limitation ( legislative p[]4 ,9 brief3 ,! *ange 9 ! law is j3 x is dem&$ by ! *ange :i* has tak5 place 9 our indu/rial sy/em2 x is all b univ]sally desir$2 ! exp]i5ce & ! consci5ce ( ! civiliz$ _w call = x2 b ,am]ica is p[]less to make x "u h] pres5t ,con/itution4 ,o!r c\ntries c make x because !y are mon>*ies3 ,am]ica _c make x because %e is free4 ,! clause 9 ! ,con/itution :i*1 9 ! op9ion ( ! ,c\rt ( ,appeals1 prohibits ! legislature f mak+ ?is wise & j re=m 9 our law is ! clause :i* provides t no p]son %all be 444 depriv$ ( life1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty )\t due process ( law--a prohibition :i* occurs twice 9 our ,f$]al ,con/itution 7,am5dm5ts ,v & ,,xiv71 & is to be f\nd 9 _m1 v probably 9 mo/1 ,/ate ,con/itutions4 ,we believe t ! ,c\rt ( ,appeals1 9 its cont5tion t ?is clause 9 our ,con/itution prohibits ?is j & necess>y re=m 9 our indu/rial laws1 is su/a9$ nei!r by ! _s nor by ! lett] ( ?is clause 9 ! ,con/itution1 nei!r by ! hi/ory ( its orig9 & significance nor by ! c\rse ( judicial int]pretation :i* has be5 giv5 to x by ! ,unit$ ,slates ,supreme ,c\rt4 ,let ! read] /op a mom5t "h & reflect ^u ! pr9ciple involv$ 9 ! law enact$ 9 o!r civiliz$ c\ntries & propos$ 9 ours4 ,x is n t an employ] %\ld be mulct$ 9 damages :5 he has be5 guilty ( no fault4 ,x is n t he %\ld be compell$ to pay = 8 c>elessness )\t an opportunity to prove to ! c\rt t he has n be5 c>eless4 ,x is t accid5ts occurr+ 9 ! c\rse ( organiz$ indu/ry %\ld be held to h occurr$1 n to ! individual1 b to ! indu/ry4 ,9 ev]y?+ )9 ! sph]e ( human activity1 says ! ,c\rt ( ,appeals1 ! risks :i* are inh]5t & unavoidable mu/ fall ^u ^? :o are expos$ to !m4 ,! juri/s ( all ! civiliz$ c\ntries ( ,europe agree t 9 mod]n organiz$ indu/ries x is ! indu/ry1 n ! individual1 t is expos$ to ! accid5ts4 ,! law applies to ! factory h& = ! future ! pr9ciple h]et(ore appli$ to ! seaman 9 m>itime law4 ,! factory h& is h5ce=? to be reg>d$ z a co-adv5tur] ) ! employ] 9 ! indu/ry4 ,nor is due process ( law d5i$ by ! ,workman's ,comp5sation ,act4 ,no damages c be recov]$ f ! employ] aga9/ 8 cons5t )\t a suit at law4 ,! /atute 9 t]ms provides t any "q :i* %all arise "u ?is act %all be det]m9$ ei!r by agreem5t or by arbitration z provid$ 9 ! ,code ( ,civil ,proc$ure1 or by an action at law z h]e9 provid$4 ,& :at is provid$ is t1 if ! employ] fail to make comp5sation z provid$ by ! ,act1 ! injur$ p>ty or 8 gu>dian or executor may sue = ! am\nt4 ,! law does n d5y ! employ] 8 day 9 c\rt4 ,b x r$ef9es ! "q = ! c\rt to decide4 ,x has n to decide :e!r ! employ] is guilty ( fault4 ,8 liability does n dep5d on 8 fault4 ,! c\rt has simply to decide :e!r ! accid5t occurr$ 9 ! due c\rse ( ! bus9ess1 &1 if ! employ] *ooses to raise ! "q1 :e!r x 0 caus$ 9 :ole or 9 "p by ! s]i\s & willful misconduct ( ! workman4 ,if n1 ! workman is entitl$ to recov]1 & ! am\nt :i* he is entitl$ to recov] is fix$ by ! /atute4 ,! "q1 !n1 is ?is3 ,does a law :i*1 = accid5ts 9 c]ta9 c>efully def9$ & especially dang]\s employm5ts1 transf]s ! liability f ! individual to ! organization1 & :i* c>efully pres]ves ! "r ( ! employ] to submit any que/ions :i* arise "u ! law to ! c\rts = adjudication1 deprive ! employ] ( 8 prop]ty )\t due process ( law8 ,! ,c\rt ( ,appeals ( ,new ,york ,/ate affirms t x does4 ,! ,outlook affirms t x does n4 ,to /ate ?is "q appe>s to u to answ] x4 ,c]ta9ly !re is no?+ 9 ! ,workman's ,comp5sation ,act :i* violates ! lett] ( ! ,con/itution4 ,x does n 9 t]ms take ! prop]ty ( ! employ] )\t due process ( law4 ,h[ any "o c f9d 9 ! act a violation ( ! _s ( ! ,con/itution we f9d x difficult to conceive4 ,& t difficulty is enhanc$1 n reliev$1 by a c>eful /udy ( ! op9ions ( ! ,c\rt4 ,= 9 ^? op9ions x is assum$ t on its face ! law is uncon/itutional1 & ! ,c\rt devotes all its intellectual en]gies to an attempt to %[ t ! au?orities cit$ 9 opposition are exceptional4 ,t ! law & ! ,con/itution are n inconsi/5t is1 h[ev]1 e/abli%$ bo? by a consid]ation ( ! object & int5t ( ! ,con/itutional provision & by judicial decisions int]pret+ x4 ,to ^! two consid]ations we n[ direct ! att5tion ( ! read]4 ,! provision 9 ! f$]al ,con/itution t no p]son %all be 444 depriv$ ( life1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty1 except by due process ( law 7,fif? ,am5dm5t71 & ! provision1 nor %all any /ate deprive any p]son ( life1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty )\t due process ( law 7,f\rte5? ,am5dm5t71 are d]iv$ f ! ,great ,*>t] wre/$ f ,k+ ,john by ! ,b>ons 9 #abae4 ,no freeman %all be tak5 or imprison$1 or disseiz$1 or outlaw$1 or bani%$1 or any ways de/roy$1 nor w we pass ^u him1 nor w we s5d ^u him1 unless by ! lawful judgm5t ( 8 pe]s1 or by ! law ( ! l&4 ,?is is p]haps ! mo/ important ( ^? g5]al clauses 9 ! ,great ,*>t] :i*1 says ,hallam 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ! ,middle ,ages1 protect ! p]sonal lib]ty & prop]ty ( all freem5 by giv+ security f arbitr>y imprisonm5t & arbitr>y spoliation4 ,hume gives "s intimation ( ! abuses t l$ to ?is provision3 m]*ants _h be5 subject$ to arbitr>y tolls & impositions2 ! prop]ty ( ! dy+ _h be5 seiz$ & _! lawful heirs dispossess$2 (fic]s ( ! ,cr[n _h levi$ on horses & c>ts 9 "t ( peace = _! own or ! public s]vice4 ,gre51 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,p1 gives ! picture ( ,john's despotism & ( ! gr[+ _s ( lib]ty 9 ! ,engli% common p ) great] detail ,! ,k+'s exactions drove ! ,b>ons into alliance ) ! p4 ,illegal exactions1 ! seizure ( _! ca/les1 ! pref]5ce %[n to =eign]s1 7 small provocations comp>$ ) 8 attacks on ! honor ( _! wives & daught]s4 ,! dem& ( ! common p to sub/itute due process ( law = wag] by battle1 & to be secure 9 _! lives1 _! lib]ties1 & _! prop]ty f acts ( lawless & irresponsible p[]1 ! ,b>ons made _! own1 & by ! same act claim$ = o!rs :at !y claim$ = !mselves4 ,! "u t5ants 7 protect$ aga9/ all exactions ( _! lords 9 precisely ! same t]ms z !y 7 protect$ aga9/ ! lawless exactions ( ! ,cr[n4 ,f su* a provision = ! protection ( ! fundam5tal rights ( p]son & prop]ty x is a f> cry to ! conclusion t ! p _c rem$y ! inju/ice :i* inflicts all ! consequ5ces ( accid5ts :i* occur 9 extrahaz>d\s trades ^u ! individual :o1 9 practic+ t trade1 happ5s to be subject$ to ! p]il4 ,common s5se1 z well z frequ5t decisions ( ! c\rts1 su/a9 ,daniel ,web/]'s def9ition ( ! scope ( ! ,con/itutional provision embody+ 9 our law ?is provision ( ! ,great ,*>t]3 ,! mean+ is t e citiz5 %all hold 8 life1 lib]ty1 & prop]ty & immunities "u ! protection ( g5]al rules :i* gov]n society4 ,t society c nev] make new rules = ! bett] protection ( life1 lib]ty1 & prop]ty & immunities1 is a doctr9e z repugnant to reason z x is to social progress4 ,x is equally repugnant to ! pr9ciple ( int]pretation laid d[n by ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 ,! law is p]fectly well settl$ t ! fir/ t5 am5dm5ts to ! ,con/itution1 commonly kn[n z ! ,bill ( ,rights1 7 n int5d$ to lay d[n any novel pr9ciples ( gov]nm5t1 b simply to embody c]ta9 gu>antees & immunities :i* we _h inh]it$ f our ,engli% ance/ors4#gg ,& x seems nev] ev5 to h occurr$ to ,engli% law mak]s t ! ,workman's ,comp5sation ,act is inconsi/5t ) ?is provision ( _! ,great ,*>t]--a *>t] :i* is z mu* a "p ( ! ,briti% con/itution z ! ,fif? & ,t5? ,am5dm5ts are ( ours4 ,9 ! ,engli% ,con/itution1 z 9 ! ,am]ican1 ! pr9ciple is c>efully def9$ 9 writ+4 ,! only diff]5ce is t 9 ,engl& ! ,p>liam5t is ! f9al judge ( its mean+2 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates t f9al judge is ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,at lea/ x ought to be4 ,b ! ,new ,york ,c\rt ( ,appeals does n all[ t x is ! f9al au?ority4 ,9 ?is p>ticul> case x is n1 = no appeal lies by ! pla9tiff 9 ?is case f ! /ate to ! national c\rt4 ,b an appeal does lie by ! public4 ,! ,outlook takes su* an appeal4 ,& x decl>es )\t hesitation t ! decision ( ! ,new ,york ,c\rt ( ,appeals is 9 conflict1 n only ) ! tr5d ( judicial decisions 9 t ,c\rt1 b also ) its v explicit /atem5t ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples to be appli$ 9 int]pret+ ! ,con/itution4 ,we h already not$ ! fact t m>itime law reg>ds a seaman z a co-adv5tur] ) ! %ip[n]1 & !re=e makes ! %ip liable = 8 c>e1 keep1 & cure 9 case any accid5t occurs to him1 ev5 ?\gh x be produc$ by 8 own fault4 ,we n[ add t ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has decid$ t su* a law does n take ! %ip[n]'s prop]ty )\t due process ( law4 ,t1 says ! ,c\rt ( ,appeals1 is diff]5t1 = ! contract & s]vices ( seam5 are exceptional 9 "* 444 ,:5 he is sick or injur$ he is entitl$ to be c>$ = at ! exp5se ( ! %ip1 & = ! failure ( ! ma/] to p]=m 8 duty 9 ?is reg>d ! %ip or ! own] is liable4 ,no d\bt !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 a seaman on a %ip & a factory h& 9 a factory4 ,v probably t diff]5ce ought to weigh ) ! repres5tatives ( ! p 9 det]m9+ :at diff]5ce !re %\ld be 9 _! respective treatm5t4 ,b if mak+ a %ip liable = accid5ts happ5+ to a seaman does n take ! %ip[n]'s prop]ty )\t due process ( law1 !n r5d]+ a factory liable = accid5ts happ5+ to a factory h& does n lake ! factory own]'s prop]ty )\t due process ( law4 ,! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is precisely ! same on sea z on l&2 b to ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,slates ! ,c\rt ( ,appeals gives "o mean+ on %ipbo>d & ano!r mean+ 9 ! t[n4 ,! "r ( ! legislature to impose new responsibilities ^u prop]ty is n conf9$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,supreme ,c\rt to ! sea4 ,x is equally su/a9$ ^u ! l&4 ,! ,/ate ( ,oklahoma provid$ = an assessm5t on all banks 9 ! ,/ate 9 ord] to create a fund = ! purpose ( gu>antee+ ! depositors 9 all banks 9 ! ,/ate4 ,! ,noble ,/ate ,bank br\ght suit aga9/ ! ,/ate to prev5t x f collect+ ?is assessm5t1 on ! gr\nd t x 0 tak+ prop]ty )\t due process ( law4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt1 )\t a diss5t+ op9ion1 held t ! act 0 con/itutional1 on two gr\nds3 fir/1 because x is e/abli%$ by a s]ies ( cases t an ult]ior public advantage may ju/ify a comp>atively insignificant tak+ ( private prop]ty = :at 9 its imm$iate purpose is a private use2 &1 second1 because x may be said 9 a g5]al way t ! police p[] ext5ds to all ! great public ne$s4 ,x may be put =? 9 aid ( :at is sanction$ by usage or held by ! prevail+ morality or /rong & prepond]ant op9ion to be greatly & imm$iately necess>y to ! public welf>e4 ,a simil> case com+ be=e ! ,c\rt f ! ,/ate ( ,kansas 0 decid$ ) ! same unanimity by ! ,c\rt at ! same "t4#gh ,?is def9ition ( ,con/itutional law by ! unanim\s op9ion ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,slates1 if accept$1 cle>ly det]m9es ! con/itutionality ( ! ,workman's ,comp5sation ,act4 ,t ?is ,act is sanction$ by usage & held by ! prevail+ morality & /rong & prepond]ant op9ion to be greatly & imm$iately necess>y to ! public welf>e is prov$ by ! fact t x is dem&$ alike by employ] & employee1 t x has be5 approv$ by ! g5]al public1 t x is app>5tly reg>d$ by ! ,c\rt ( ,appeals itself z a re=m mu* to be desir$1 & t x has be5 adopt$ by e civiliz$ c\ntry 9 ,europe except ,switz]l&4 ,! ,new ,york ,c\rt ( ,appeals c f9d only "o escape f ?is decl>ation ( pr9ciple by ! highe/ tribunal 9 ! l&1 9 ^! two cases1 namely1 a repudiation ( ! au?ority ( t tribunal 9 ^! cases3 ,we _c recognize !m z controll+ our con/ruction ( our ,con/itution4 ,9 ?is review ( ! decision ( ! ,new ,york ,c\rt ( ,appeals we h pass$ by )\t comm5t "s extraord9>y /atem5ts :i* %\ld n be pass$ by 9 any complete review--! /atem5t t practically all ( ^! ,european c\ntries are s-call$ con/itutional mon>*ies 9 :i*1 z 9 ,engl&1 !re is no writt5 con/itution1 :]eas1 9 fact1 practically all ( ! ,european nations h writt5 con/itutions2 & ! /atem5t t ! ,workman's ,comp5sation ,act does no?+ to cons]ve ! heal?1 safety1 or morals ( ! employee1 :]eas1 9 fact1 x is aim$ & purpos$ to accompli% all ?ree results1 & 0 urg$ 9 ! ,engli% ,h\se ( ,lords by ,"l ,salisbury specifically on ! gr\nd t to my m9d ! great attraction ( ?is bill is t ,i believe x w turn out a great ma*9]y = ! sav+ ( human life4 ,b we h delib]ately neglect$ all m9or details 9 an endeavor to put be=e our lay read]s a true int]pretation1 & :at we hope !y w g5]ally believe to be a j criticism1 ( ?is decision ( ! highe/ c\rt ( ! ,empire ,/ate4 ,9 t decision1 9 our op9ion1 ! ,c\rt has disreg>d$ all consid]ations ( social ju/ice & public policy1 has set itself aga9/ ! consci5ce & judgm5t ( ! civiliz$ _w1 & 9 its =c$ int]pretation ( ! ,con/itution has disreg>d$ alike ! hi/ory ( ! ,con/itution's orig9 & ( its judicial int]pretation by ! highe/ c\rt 9 ! l&4 ,,app5dix ,,ii ,,"s ,,sugge/ions ,,to ,,in/ructors ,:at is ! purpose ( a c\rse 9 ! writ+ ( argum5ts8 ,! argum5ts :i* x turns out _c conv9ce any "o1 s9ce !re is no "o = !m to conv9ce2 s t ! imm$iate & tangible product ( ! c\rse mu/ be look$ on z a by-product1 & a by-product f :i* !re c be no salvage4 ,:at products1 !n1 c tea*]s aim to produce8 ,fir/1 a vital respect = facts & = s\nd reason+ !refrom2 second1 ! p[] s to analyze & m>%al ! facts 9 an obscure & complicat$ case z to br+ ord] & light out ( confusion2 & ?ird1 ! appreciation ( o!r m5's po9t ( view & tra9+ 9 ! tact :i* w influ5ce !m4 ,incid5tally a good c\rse 9 argum5tation %\ld leave ) its /ud5ts an acqua9tance ) c]ta9 effective & economical devices = go+ to "w t %\ld s]ve !m well 9 lat] life4 ,i w take up ea* ( ^! po9ts 9 ord]1 & speak ( a few me?ods :i* ,i h f\nd useful 9 practice4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 h[ c a tea*] e/abli% & /r5g!n ! v5]ation = fact & ! suspicion ( all unsupport$ ass]tion & a priori reason+8 ,p>tly by judici\s ex]cises1 p>tly by quiet guidance 9 ! *oice ( subjects4 ,let a class cross-exam9e ea* o!r on _! exact k ( ! ultimate facts on "s famili> subject4 ,on ! "q ( ! value ( ,lat91 = example1 j h[ _m ( ! class "k no ,lat98 ,9 a piece ( _! own writ+1 h[ _m ( ! words are d]iv$ f ! ,lat98 & :at k9d ( words are !y8 ,( ! lead]s 9 s*ol>%ip 9 ! class h[ _m "k ,lat98 ,( ! be/ writ]s8 ,( ! au?ors ^: works !y are /udy+ 9 ,engli% lit]ature1 h[ _m 7 tra9$ 9 ,lat98 ,( ! au?ors ( ! textbooks 9 sci5ce h[ _m8 ,a few su* que/ions z ^! w sugge/ o!rs2 & ! memb]s ( ! class %\ld keep a record ( h[ _m su* que/ions !y c answ] ) precision4 ,v few p h any exact comm& ( facts on subjects ab\t :i* !y talk freely & ) au?ority2 & a "y man :o has _h ?is tru? borne 9 on him by p]sonal exam9ation w come to writ+ an argum5t ) m mode/y & scrupul\sness4 ,!n a class c be guid$ away f ! l>ge subjects :]e ( necessity _! k ( facts is second-h&1 & 9 :i* _! argum5ts1 be+ ( necessity %ort1 c t\* only ! surface ( ! subject4 ,"h1 ,i ?9k1 is :]e mu* ( ! ineffectiv5ess ( c\rses 9 argum5t is to be f\nd4 ,judges %\ld be elect$ by direct vote ( ! p1 ,! "r ( suffrage %\ld be limit$ by an educational te/1 ,corporations engag$ 9 int]/ate comm]ce %\ld be requir$ to take out a f$]al lic5se1 are samples ( propositions recomm5d$ z subjects = argum5ts ( two ?\s& words or less4 ,no und]graduate has ! practical k ( affairs to judge ! value ( facts adduc$ 9 support ( su* propositions1 & except = ! memb]s ( debat+ teams1 :o sp5d "t on _! conte/s comp>able to t giv5 by a?letes to _! sports1 no und]graduate c make himself acqua9t$ ) ! va/ fields ( economics & gov]nm5tal !ory cov]$ by su* subjects4 ,to write an argum5t ( twelve hundr$ words on su* a subject w weak5 r ?an /r5g!n ! respect = facts4 ,:at sort ( subjects1 !n1 c be us$8 ,?is is1 ,i confess1 a "q n altoge!r easy to answ]2 b ,i h _h a try at an answ] 9 ! li/ ( ,subjects :i* is giv5 9 ,*apt] ,i1 :i* c be adapt$ to special conditions ( "t or place4 ,9 g5]al a "q :i* a /ud5t w\ld discuss ( 8 own accord & ) "s w>m? is ! be/ subject = him4 ,!re are _m su* subjects 9 a?letics3 at ?is date ! rules ( football seem n yet settl$ beyond am5dm5t1 & ! mat]ial = hunt+ facts 9 ! records ( pa/ games is l>ge2 ,dean ,briggs ( ,h>v>d is mak+ an appeal to play]s to raise ! level ( mann]s & ( e?ics 9 baseball2 d all y\r /ud5ts agree ) him8 ,%\ld ! univ]sities be all[$ to use m5 9 _! graduate s*ools z memb]s ( _! teams8 ,& :at are ! facts ab\t ! play+ ( su* m5 9 ! univ]sities 9 :i* y\r /ud5ts w\ld be int]e/$8 ,!n !re are v>i\s educational que/ions1 on :i* ! views ( /ud5ts h real value1 especially if !y are bas$ on "s exam9ation ( facts 9 ! c\rse ( writ+ an argum5t4 ,presid5t ,l[ell ( ,h>v>d told a body ( /ud5ts :om he 0 consult+ t x did n make mu* diff]5ce :at !y want$1 b t _! views :5 set =? = ! purpose ( help+ ! au?orities ( ! college 7 ( great value4 ,! views ( y\r class on exam9ations = entrance w\ld be bas$ on k :i* a memb] ( ! faculty _c h at fir/-h&4 ,:at is ! e/imate ( ! relative difficulty ( gett+ into v>i\s colleges1 & on :at figures f s*ools is ! e/imate bas$8 ,= h[ _m boys are languages easi] or h>d] ?an hi/ory or ma!matics or sci5ce8 ,does admission by c]tificate provide suffici5t safegu>d = ! /&>ds ( ! college8 ,does a rigid prescription ( subjects = exam9ation di/ort ! c\rse = ! high s*ool8 ,h[ _m boys1 :o c be nam$1 _h _! education injur$ by su* prescription8 ,%\ld ! /&>d = entrance or = graduation be rais$1 or l[]$1 at y\r college8 ,%\ld honor /ud5ts be excus$ f f9al exam9ations8 ,%\ld !y h special privileges8 ,%\ld fre%m5 be requir$ to be )9 college b\nds at a fix$ h\r e night8 ,%\ld class ru%es be aboli%$8 ,"h are only a few sugge/ions ( subjects :i* c be adapt$ to ! ne$s & ! k ( special classes4 ,!y are ( no value1 h[ev]1 unless ! /ud5ts are driv5 to ga!r facts1 & to reason f ^! facts1 n f g5]al impressions4 ,s*ool catalogues1 college catalogues1 in=mal c5suses1 reports ( presid5ts & ( committees1 & o!r pr9t$ or oral s\rces w help 9 ! ga!r+ ( facts4 ,!n !re are ! innum]able local & /ate que/ions t t\* ! fa!rs ( at lea/ half ( any class1 & t ! sons may be 9 ! way ( he>+ discuss$ at home1 or may be s5t to he> discuss$ 9 legislatures & city c\ncils4 ,e in/ructor :o takes a daily newspap] w be provid$ ) m ( ^! subjects ?an 8 class c use4 ,= _! facts ! /ud5ts c g to ! newspap]s1 to pr9t$ reports1 to ! p]sons :o are conc]n$ ) ! que/ions :i* !y are go+ to argue4 ,9 "s cases ! /ud5ts w get valuable int]e/ & advice f ! old] m5 :o h ! active *>ge ( ! que/ions "u discussion2 & x is n inconceivable1 t if "s ( ! latt] happ5 to be graduates ( ! college or s*ool1 !y w ev5 read ! argum5ts & make helpful criticisms on !m4 ,! grateful int]e/ ( graduates is a s\rce :i* has n be5 ov]drawn = aid 9 ! processes ( in/ruction4 ,_m ( ! subjects :i* ,i h "h (f]$ z sugge/ions c be discuss$ 9 "p1 at any rate1 )9 ! space ( an editorial article2 & t ,i conceive to be ab\t ! l5g? :i* mo/ argum5ts writt5 by /ud5ts1 except ^? 9 special c\rses1 w run to4 ,9 s %ort a space1 x is h>dly necess>y to po9t out1 evid5ce _c be pres5t$ & discuss$ ) ! detail1 say1 ( ,web/]'s ,spee* 9 ! ,:ite ,murd] ,case4 ,x w\ld be a good sep>ate ex]cise to call = su* detail$ pres5tation ( evid5ce on "s s+le po9t 9 ! argum5t4 ,) mo/ classes1 h[ev]1 ! in/ructor _c d mu* m ?an rule out :olly unsupport$ ass]tion1 & insi/ t ! di/9ction betwe5 fact & inf]5ce f fact %all be kept 9 sight4 ,! second ( ! results :i* an in/ructor 9 a c\rse 9 argum5tation %\ld aim = is ! p[] to analyze complicat$ masses ( facts & s arrange !m & pres5t !m z to br+ ord] out ( confusion4 ,presid5t ,taft has said t ,ju/ice ,hughes won 8 reputation at ! b> by 8 gift ( bor+ to ! inn]mo/ core ( a subject2 & t is :at ! drill on ! introduction to ! brief %\ld to "s degree imp>t to /ud5ts4 ,! ord]ly analysis ( ! "q1 /ep by /ep1 accord+ to ! admirable s*eme devis$ by ,pr(essor ,bak]1 _c help implant+ "s und]/&+ ( :at x means to g to ! he>t ( a "q4 ,e man soon] or lat]1 mu/ face complicat$ & puzzl+ que/ions2 & ! ord9>y man w give himself a long />t if he w ?us put d[n on pap] ! po9ts t c be urg$ on ! two sides ( a "q1 & !n /udy !m until ! real po9ts at issue em]ge4 ,!n ! drill 9 lay+ out ! logical skeleton ( an argum5t1 s pla9ly t no false or brok5 connection c escape detection1 w /r5g!n ! consci5ce = cle>ness & coh]5ce ( ?\ght2 & ! necessity = gett+ back to ultimate facts = e ass]tion1 & putt+ d[n ! s\rce f :i* ! facts are d]iv$1 w help to implant a :olesome respect = facts z some?+ diff]5t f ass]tion4 ,s9ce ! argum5t writt5 out is ! f9al te/ ( ! ?9k+1 "s c>e mu/ be tak5 t /ud5ts d n obscure by c>eless p>agraph+ & slov5ly s5t5ces su* cle>ness ( ?\ght z !y h atta9$ 9 _! brief4 ,i h f\nd x useful to prescribe m>g9al titles to ! p>agraphs3 a /ud5t :o has /ruggl$ to f9d a s+le phrase t w cov] all ( a sprawl+ p>agraph w h le>n$ "s respect = firmness ( p>agraph+4 ,9 g5]al1 an in/ructor has a "r to insi/ t 8 class %all apply 9 practice all t !y h le>n$ ab\t ! ord9>y devices = gett+ cle>ness & emphasis4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 ?is practice 9 writ+ argum5ts ought to leave ) /ud5ts a m develop$ idea ( h[ to make read]s look favorably on a proposition :i* !y are urg+4 ,i h insi/$1 at ! risk ( seem+ repetiti\s1 on ! ne$ ( consid]+ ! audi5ce ^: m9ds are to be won ov]2 = :at p]suasiv5ess c mean ap>t f specific p]sons to p]suade ,i _c conceive4 ,mu* ( ! p]functory empt9ess ( ! textbooks :5 !y get to ?is "p ( ! subject comes f neglect+ ?is v practical & obvi\s side ( mak+ an argum5t4 ,! difficulty x raises = argum5ts writt5 9 class "w is j z obvi\s2 m ?an mo/ k9ds ( composition writt5 = practice1 argum5ts run ! risk ( hav+ no t\* ) reality4 ,some?+ may be done1 h[ev]1 if an in/ructor guides 8 class t[>d ! k9d ( que/ions ,i h sugge/$ above3 an argum5t on ! rules ( football w\ld be address$ to ! ,rules ,committee1 & mo/ y\?s w\ld "k some?+ ( ! prepossessions ( s fam\s a man z ,mr4 ,camp2 an argum5t on a college "q w\ld be address$ to ! faculty or ! presid5t1 & x may be assum$ t /ud5ts h "s idea ( _! g5]al attitude on su* matt]s4 ,i h foll[$ ! practice 9 my own sections ( fre%m5 ( requir+ !m to put at ! head ( _! brief & ( _! argum5t ! audi5ce :i* !y _h 9 m9d4 ,!n :5 "o comes to criticism & conf]5ce "o c by a little cross-exam9ation br+ home to !m ! v practical nature ( ?is matt] ( p]suasion4 ,"o mu/ be c>eful n to insi/ too /rictly on ! model & ! s*eme ( "w laid d[n "h1 & 9 practically ! same =m 9 o!r books4 ,x is ! be/ t has yet be5 devis$1 b any /ud5t :o is set to mak+ a brief ( "o ( ! examples ( argum5t at ! end ( ?is book w see = himself t !re is no "o infallible way ( mak+ an argum5t4 ,ea* argum5t mu/ adapt itself to its occasion & its audi5ce2 & an in/ructor w be wise to keep himself awake to ?is tru? by not+ div]g5cies f ! model4 ,! rules :i* are "h set =? & ! model :i* is built on !m are s]viceable j s long z !y are s]viceable1 & no long]4 ,_! *ief s]vice is done :5 !y h set up 9 ! m9ds ( /ud5ts a /&>d ( effectiv5ess 9 s+l+ out & emphasiz+ ! critical issues ( a "q4 ,z to ! ex]cises :i* %\ld accompany ! "w 9 argum5t my exp]i5ce ) classes ( five to six hundr$ fre%m5 leads me to ?9k t _! value to ! /ud5t c h>dly be ov]e/imat$4 ,i w speak "h ( a few ( !m4 ,! ex]cises 9 ! use ( ref]5ce books is some?+ t e /ud5t ought to be put ?r\gh4 ,i f\nd x simple & n too extravagant ( "t to take my sections to ! libr>y 9 squads ( t5 or a doz51 & %[ !m & let !m h&le ! pr9cipal books on ! li/4 ,!n on ! spot ,i gave ea* ( !m a %eet ( !me pap] on :i* ,i _h writt5 "s sort ( fact drawn f "o ( ^! books1 & told !m to look up t fact & report on x4 ,my object 0 to conv9ce !m t mo/ ord9>y facts c be look$ up 9 less ?an five m9utes4 ,! mat]ial = ?is ex]cise ,i got by turn+ ov] ! ref]5ce books & jott+ d[n almo/ any?+ t caught my eye4 ,"o c 9 ?is way get a great v>iety ( facts 9 a v %ort "t4 ,9 "s libr>ies x might be possible to get memb]s ( ! libr>y /aff to %>e 9 ?is in/ruction2 9 all libr>ies "o w f9d active coop]ation4 ,= ! prelim9>y "w on ! argum5t we f\nd t x 0 (t5 practicable & advisable to let ! /ud5ts pair (f on ! two sides ( ! "q1 & "w toge!r ?r\gh all ! prelim9>ies4 ,two m5 ?us work+ toge!r (t5 discuss !mselves into ! livelie/ k9d ( int]e/ 9 _! "q2 & almo/ always !y come clos] to ! important issues involv$ by %>p5+ _! wits aga9/ ea* o!r4 ,_! argum5ts1 too1 are bett]1 especially 9 ! refutation1 f _! kn[+ j :at po9ts c be made on ! o!r side4 ,x is excell5t practice1 n only = ! brief & ! argum5t1 b also = all o!r college "w1 to set ! /ud5ts to mak+ briefs ( p>ts or :oles ( ! argum5ts pr9t$ "h z examples1 or ( o!r argum5ts f\nd outside4 ,n only lawy]s1 b o!r m5 ( affairs1 con/antly h to dige/ & summ>ize pap]s2 & skill 9 pick+ out ess5tial facts & ! ?read ( ?\ght f a docum5t is a highly valuable asset = practical life4 ,! ex]cise is sometimes irksome to /ud5ts1 = x is h>d "w at fir/ & calls = conc5tration ( m9d3 b x c be sweet5$ & made liveli] by ! competition ( classroom discussion4 ,all ?r\gh ! "w on ! argum5t /ud5ts may well be set to wat*+ ! daily pap]s & ! magaz9es = examples ( argum5ts1 & ( good & bad reason+4 ,v (t5 an in/ructor c get1 at ! co/ ( a c5t or two apiece1 a set ( argum5ts pr9t$ 9 a newspap] = 8 class to analyze4 ,s5ators & repres5tatives 9 ,congress are notably will+ to s5d copies ( spee*es1 & ^! sometimes furni% good examples ( bo? s\nd & uns\nd reason+4 ,if "t s]ves1 in/ructors w d well to give a gr\nd+ 9 logic4 ,i h ins]t$ a brief discussion ( ! subject ) ! hope t x w furni% a basis = a %ort /udy2 x c be re5=c$ by a few weeks on su* a manual z ,jevons's ,prim] ( ,logic1 or ,bode's ,outl9e ( ,logic if !re is "t4 ,:atev] be "o's view ( ! positive value ( d$uctive logic1 !re c be no d\bt t e /ud5t %\ld h "s k ( ! canons ( inductive logic1 & t a /udy ( propositions & syllogisms is a mighty %>p5] ( ! discrim9ation = ! real mean+ ( words & s5t5ces4 ,! %ort *apt] on debat+ ,i h add$ = ! use ( classes :]e a mod]ate am\nt ( tra9+ 9 ?is mo/ useful ( ex]cises is practicable4 ,debat+ may be look$ at 9 two ways1 ei!r z tra9+ 9 al]tness & effectiv5ess 9 discussion1 or z a =m ( int]collegiate or int]s*ola/ic sport4 ,on ! latt] aspect a recogniz$ au?ority has said3 ,=mal debate is a k9d ( game4 ,9 ! "t limit1 ! ord] ( speak]s1 ! alt]nation ( sides1 ! give & take ( rebuttal1 ! fix$ rules ( conduct1 ! e?ics ( ! conte/1 ! qualifications = success1 & ! f9al aw>d+ ( victory1 debate has mu* 9 common ) t5nis2#gi & he develops ! lik5ess ?r\gh a page ( r f9e pr9t4 ,f ?is po9t ( view debat+ has ke5ly int]e/$ a small body ( /ud5ts2 9 "s colleges x has be5 recogniz$ by hatb&s or o!r emblems ( di/9ction = ! successful teams2 & x has develop$ an elaborate app>atus ( rules & ( coa*es4 ,) ! game 9 ?is full bloom ,i h n space to deal 9 ?is small book2 = su* elaborate "w ( analysis & prep>ation "o mu/ g to special manuals :i* deal ) x at l5g?4 ,i h conf9$ myself to an application ( ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ! subject to ! spok5 argum5t1 & to a few sugge/ions = prep>+ = & c>ry+ on ! n v =mal discussions :i* ! av]age man gets into 9 ! ord9>y run ( life4 ,ev5 :]e !re is n "t = sy/ematic practice 9 debat+1 mu* may be done by extemporane\s five-m9ute spee*es4 ,!re is unque/ionably an active movem5t among ! be/ tea*]s ( ,engli% = m /ress on oral composition2 !y recognize t ! p[] to /& quietly & at "o's ease on "o's feet & expla9 "o's views cle>ly & cog5tly w help any man 9 8 life "w4 ,9 "s cases !re may be local or academic subjects "u discussion at ! "t ! class is work+ on argum5t on :i* !y c prep>e !mselves to speak4 ,x may be possible to int]e/ graduates ( ! s*ool & college1 s t !y w give help 9 gett+ mat]ial1 & p]haps 9 judg+ & criticiz+4 ,occasionally1 p]haps1 a man :o has ! actual settlem5t ( a local "q or a %>e 9 ! settlem5t may be will+ to he> ! discussion4 ,any aid ( ?is sort t w br+ ! debate )9 ! b\nds ( reality w add ze/ to x4 ,= ! use ( ?is book :5 a comp>atively %ort "t1 p]haps six weeks1 is at ! disposal ( ! in/ructor1 my advice1 bas$ on ! practice work$ out ) my colleagues 9 ! fre%man c\rse at ,h>v>d1 w\ld be to beg9 ) ,*apt] ,i1 & at ! same "t ask ! class to h& 9 subjects = approval4 ,?is %\ld be done a =tnight ahead ( ! ma9 "w1 9 ord] to all[ *anges ( subject1 aft] consultation if necess>y4 ,9 connection ) ,*apt] ,,ii w\ld come ex]cises 9 mak+ briefs ( "o or m ( ! argum5ts 9 ! back ( ! book or ( o!rs provid$ = ! purpose4 ,!n w\ld come ! prelim9>y "w on ! brief1 ! introduction to ! brief4 ,?is x is pr(itable to treat z a sep>ate piece ( "w1 ) a grade ( its own4 ,at ?is /age w\ld be ! place = ! ex]cises 9 ! use ( ref]5ce books1 :i* w lead naturally to look+ up ! mat]ial = ! brief4 ,if possible a conf]5ce %\ld be giv5 on ! introduction to ! brief4 ,!n comes ! next ma9 /ep 9 ! "w1 ! brief4 ,! "w = ?is w\ld naturally be accompani$ by /udy ( ,*apt] ,,iii1 & by su* ex]cises 9 ! correction ( bad brief+ & 9 correction ( fallacies z ! in/ructor f9ds "t =4 ,!re %\ld be ano!r conf]5ce on ! brief1 & x %\ld be rewritt5 if necess>y4 ,in/ructors :o h be5 ?r\gh ! subject w "k f sad exp]i5ce t "o rewrit+ & "o conf]5ce may be only />t]s4 ,!n comes ! argum5t itself3 ?is %\ld be ! climax1 & n m]ely a p]functory fill+ out ( ! brief4 ,if x be at all possible1 ! argum5t %\ld be rewritt5 aft] a conf]5ce1 & ! conf]5ce c h>dly be too long4 ,if ! argum5t is fifte5 hundr$ or two ?\s& words long1 a half an h\r w be f\nd a %ort "t to g ov] ! :ole ) any ?or\ghness4 ,no in/ructor 9 ,engli% ne$s to h x po9t$ out t conf]5ces are 8 mo/ effici5t means ( education4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote #a3 ,see ,l9coln's spee* at ,galesburg & at ,qu9cy1 9 ! ,l9coln-,d\glas debates4 ,footnote #b3 ,o4 ,w4 ,holmes1 ,jr41 ,! ,common ,law1 ,bo/on1 #ahha1 p4 #ce4 ,footnote #c3 ,= su* *anges ( fa%ion 9 lit]ature see ,/ev5son's ,gossip on ,romance & ,a ,humble ,remon/rance 9 ,memories & ,portraits1 & ,! ,lant]n ,be>]s 9 ,across ! ,pla9s4 ,footnote #d3 ,f ! spee* on ! ,repeal ( ! ,union ) ,irel&2 quot$ by ,w4 ,t4 ,fo/]1 ,argum5tation & ,debat+1 ,bo/on1 #aijh1 p1 #ij4 ,footnote #e3 ,a4 ,sidgwick1 ,! ,application ( ,logic1 ,london1 #aiaj1 pp4 #dj1 #dd4 ,footnote #f3 ,f ! spee* ( ,s5ator ,depew1 ,janu>y #bd1 #aiaa4 ,footnote #g3 ,c4 ,r4 ,woodruff1 ,city ,gov]nm5t by ,commission1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #h3 ,a4 ,sidgwick1 ,! ,application ( ,logic1 ,london1 #aiaj1 p4 #bdh4 ,footnote #i3 ,w4 ,bag*ot1 ,! ,metaphysical ,basis ( ,tol]ation1 ,works1 ,h>t=d1 ,connecticut1 #ahhi1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cci4 ,footnote #aj3 ,f ,huxley's fir/ ,lecture on ,evolution 7see p4 #bcc74 ,footnote #aa3 ,c4,r4 ,woodruff1 ,city ,gov]nm5t by ,commission1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa1 p4 #f ,footnote #ab3 ,see ,l9coln's spee* at ,ottawa4 ,footnote #ac3 ,! ,outlook1 ,novemb] #bj1 #aiji4 ,see also ! example quot$ on page #ahj1 f ,william ,james's ,w to ,believe4 ,footnote #ad3 ,a full & v readable acc\nt ( ! gr[? ( ! law ( evid5ce & ! *anges 9 ! sy/em ( trial by jury w be f\nd 9 ,j4 ,b4 ,?ay]'s ,prelim9>y ,treatise on ! ,law ( ,evid5ce1 ,bo/on1 #ahif4 ,footnote #ae3 ,george ,bemis1 ,report ( ! ,case ( ,john ,w4 ,web/]1 ,bo/on1 #ahej1 p4 #dfb4 ,quot$ 9 "p by ,a4,s4 ,hill1 ,pr9ciples ( ,rhetoric1 p4 #cdj4 ,footnote #af3 ,h4 ,mn/]b]g4 ,on ! ,witness ,/&1 ,new ,york1 #aijh1 p4 #ea4 ,footnote #ag3 ,! ,nation1 ,new ,york1 ,vol4 ,,xci1 p4 #fjc1 ,9 a review ( ,j4 ,bigel[1 ,jr4's ,campaign ( ,*ancellorsville4 ,footnote #ah3 ,mr4 ,g>d9] 0 answ]+ ,fa!r ,g]>d's book on ! ,gunp[d] ,plot4 ,footnote #ai3 ,s4 ,r4 ,g>d9]1 ,:at ,gunp[d] ,plot ,01 ,london1 #ahig1 pp4 #d-aa4 ,footnote #bj3 ,w9es & ,kor51 ,! ,liquor ,problem4 ,publi%$ by ! ,committee ( ,fifty1 ,bo/on1 #ahig4 ,footnote #ba3 ,repr9t$ 9 ,educational ,re=m1 ,new ,york1 #ahih4 ,see p4 #cha4 ,footnote #bb3 ,a committee appo9t$ by ! ,national ,educational ,association to recomm5d a c\rse ( /udy = second>y s*ools4 ,footnote #bc3 ,h4 ,mn/]b]g1 ,on ! ,witness ,/&1 ,new ,york1 #aijh1 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #bd3 ,w4 ,james1 ,psy*ology1 ,new ,york1 #ahij1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #ccj2 ,b4,h4 ,bode1 ,an ,outl9e ( ,logic1 ,new ,york4 #aiaj1 p4 #baf4 ,footnote #be3 ,b4 ,h4 ,bode1 ,an ,outl9e ( ,logic1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj1 p4 #agj4 ,footnote #bf3 ,c4 ,r4 ,woodruff1 ,city ,gov]nm5t by ,commission1 p4 #ahd4 ,footnote #bg3 ,pr(essor ,john ,tr[bridge1 9 ! ,h>v>d ,graduates ,magaz9e1 = ,m>*1 #aiaa4 ,footnote #bh3 ,w4 ,james1 ,human ,immortality1 ,bo/on1 #ahih1 p4 #aa4 ,footnote #bi3 ,b4 ,h4 ,bode1 ,an ,outl9e ( ,logic1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj1 p4 #afb4 ,footnote #cj3 ,! ,orig9 ( ,species1 ,london1 #ahge1 p4 #fc4 ,footnote #ca3 ,!re is only "o aim 9 all g5]alization--! f9d+ ( signs t are fit to be tru/$1 s t1 giv5 "o fact1 ano!r may be inf]r$4--,a4 ,sidgwick1 ,! ,process ( ,argum5t1 ,london1 #ahic1 p4 #ajh4 ,! :ole object ( any class "n is to gr\p toge!r 7= ! purpose ( mak+ g5]al ass]tions7 individual memb]s :i* are n only alike b diff]5t2 & s to give unity 9 spite ( diff]5ce4--,a4 ,sidgwick1 ,! ,use ( ,words 9 ,reason+1 ,london1 #aija1 p4 #afe4 ,footnote #cb3 ,w4 ,james1 ,psy*ology1 ,new ,york1 #ahij1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cdb4 ,footnote #cc3 ,see ,b4 ,bosanquet1 ,! ,ess5tials ( ,logic1 ,london1 #ahie1 p4 #afb2 ,a4 ,sidgwick1 ,! ,process ( ,argum5t1 ,london1 #ahic1 *ap4 vi2 ,b4,h4 ,bode1 ,an ,outl9e ( ,logic1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj1 p4 #bcd4 ,footnote #cd3 ,a4 ,sidgwick1 ,fallacies1 ,new ,york1 #ahhd1 p4 #cdb4 ,footnote #ce3 ,a4 ,sidgwick1 ,fallacies1 ,new ,york1 #ahhd1 ,p4 #cde4 ,footnote #cf3 ,a4 ,sidgwick1 ,! ,use ( ,words 9 ,reason+1 ,london1 #aija1 p4 #ia4 ,footnote #cg3 ,j4,s4 ,mill1 ,a ,sy/em ( ,logic1 ,book ,,iii1 *ap4 iii1 sect4 #b2 quot$ by ,e4,h4 ,bode1 ,an ,outl9e ( ,logic1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj1 p4 #aji4 ,footnote #ch3 ,quot$ by ,a4 ,sidgwick1 ,! ,use ( ,words 9 ,reason+1 ,london1 #aija1 p4 #bh1 note4 ,footnote #ci3 ,see also ! next to la/ p>agraph ( ! argum5t on ,! ,workman's ,comp5sation ,act1 p4 #bfh4 ,footnote #dj3 ,new ,york1 ,m>* #i1 #aiaa1 p4 #bda4 ,footnote #da3 ,b4 ,h4 ,bode1 ,an ,outl9e ( ,logic1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj1 p4 #ga4 ,footnote #db3 ,w4 ,james1 ,psy*ology1 ,new ,york1 #ahij1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cfe4 ,footnote #dc3 ,abraham ,l9coln1 ,complete ,works1 edit$ by ,nicolay & ,hay1 ,new ,york1 #ahid1 p4 #dde4 ,footnote #dd3 ,c4 ,r4 ,woodruff1 ,city ,gov]nm5t by ,commission1 ,new ,york1 #aiaa1 p4 #ahf4 ,footnote #de3 ,b4 ,h4 ,bode1 ,an ,outl9e ( ,logic1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj1 p4 #hf4 ,= ano!r example see ,luke ,,xx1 ,i #h4 ,footnote #df3 ,f ! ,essay on ,w>r5 ,ha/+s1 ,! ,works ( ,"l ,macaulay1 ,london1 #ahgi1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #efg4 ,footnote #dg3 ,! ,works ( ,daniel ,web/]1 ,bo/on1 #ahea1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 p4 #fb4 ,footnote #dh3 ,b4,h4 ,bode1 ,an ,outl9e ( ,logic1 ,new ,york1 #aiaj1 p4 #cj4 ,footnote #di3 ,sidgwick1 ,! ,use ( ,words 9 ,reason+1 ,london1 #aija1 p4 #aib4 ,footnote #ej3 ,see1 = example1 8 ,apologia pro ,vita ,sua1 ,london1 #ahfd1 pp4 #aib1 #cbi4 ,footnote #ea3 ,newman1 ,! ,idea ( a ,univ]sity1 ,london1 #ahge1 p4 #bj4 ,footnote #eb3 ,felix ,adl]2 quot$ by ,fo/]4 ,argum5tation & ,debat+1 ,bo/on1 #aijh1 p4 #afh4 ,footnote #ec3 ,f ! ,essay on ,milton1 ,! ,works ( ,"l ,macaulay1 ,london1 #ahgi1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #bh4 ,footnote #ed3 ,c4,w4 ,eliot1 ,educational ,re=m1 ,new ,york1 #ahih1 p4 #cge4 ,footnote #ee3 ,w4 ,james1 ,! ,w to ,believe1 ,new ,york1 #ahig1 p4 #c4 ,footnote #ef3 ,! ,atlantic ,mon?ly1 ,vol4 ,,cvii1 p1 #ad4 ,footnote #eg3 ,x 0 inv5t$ & develop$ by ,pr(essor ,george ,p4 ,bak] 9 ! fir/ edition ( 8 ,pr9ciples ( ,argum5tation1 ,bo/on1 #ahie4 ,footnote #eh3 ,lamont1 ,specim5s ( ,exposition4 ,footnote #ei3 ,see ! passage f ,james's ,psy*ology1 p4 #aej4 ,footnote #fj3 ,repr9t$ 9 ,bak]'s ,specim5s ( ,argum5tation1 ,new ,york1 #ahig4 ,footnote #fa3 ,_w's ,"w1 ,vol4 ,,xxi1 p4 #adbdb ,footnote #fb3 ,f ! /5ographic report ( ! argum5t2 repr9t$ 9 ! au?or's ,=ms ( ,prose ,lit]ature1 ,new ,york1 #aijj1 p4 #caf4 ,footnote #fc3 ,w4 ,james1 ,! ,w to ,believe1 ,new ,york1 #ahig1 p4 #g4 ,footnote #fd3 ,see ,bak] & ,hunt+ton1 ,pr9ciples ( ,argum5tation1 ,bo/on1 #acje1 p4 #dae4 ,footnote #fe3 ,full] discussion ( ! rules = ! di/ribution ( ! speak]s & ! "t w be f\nd 9 ,bak] & ,hunt+ton1 ,pr9ciples ( ,argum5tation1 p4 #dae2 & an elaborate1 almo/ legal1 set ( in/ructions to judges1 & ! agreem5t ( a tricollegiate league1 9 ,fo/]1 ,argum5tation & ,debat+1 ,bo/on1 #aijh1 pp4 #dff1 #dfh4 ,footnote #ff3 ,sugge/ions ( po9ts = ! judges to consid] w be f\nd 9 ,pattee1 ,practical ,argum5tation1 p4 #cjj2 & =mat in/ructions 9 ,fo/]1 ,argum5tation & ,debat+1 ,bo/on1 #aijh1 p4 #dff4 ,footnote #fg3 ,lecture ,i ( ?ree ,lectures on ,evolution4 ,f ,am]ican ,addresses1 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,footnote #fh3 ,! diagram1 :i* is n reproduc$ "h1 gives an ideal section ( ! cru/ ( ! e>?1 %[+ ! v>i\s /rata ly+ "o "u ! o!r4 ,! /rata are divid$ by geologi/s into ?ree gr\ps3 ! ,prim>y1 :i* is ! olde/ & deepe/2 ! ,second>y1 above t2 & ! ,t]ti>y & ,quat]n>y on top4 ,! ,cretace\s is ! l[e/ /ratum ( ! ,t]ti>y4 ,footnote #fi3 ,"o ( ! upp] /rata ( ! ,prim>y rocks4 ,footnote #gj3 ,! ,silurian rocks occur ab\t ! middle ( ! ,prim>y =mations4 ,! eozon 0 =m]ly suppos$ by "s geologi/s to be a =m ( fossil4 ,! ,laur5tian rocks are ! l[e/ /rata ( ! ,prim>y =mations4 ,footnote #ga3 ,! ,jurassic =mation occurs ab\t ! middle1 ! ,triassic1 j bel[ x1 9 ! l[] half ( ! ,second>y rocks4 ,! ,devonian occurs j above ! middle ( ! ,second>y1 betwe5 ! ,c>bonif]\s above & ! ,silurian bel[4 ,footnote #gb3 ,f ,! ,popul> ,sci5ce ,mon?ly1 ,july1 #aija4 ,footnote #gc3 ,k ( ! cause4 ,footnote #gd3 ,prev5tion4 ,footnote #ge3 ,! ,outlook1 ,april #bi1 #aiaa4 ,footnote #gf3 ,probably ! reason :y x has n yet be5 adopt$ by ,switz]l& is because h] organiz$ manufactur+ ,indu/ries are s few t no pressure has be5 br\ght ^u ! /ate to *ange ! law4 ,footnote #gg3 ,rob]tson vs4 ,baldw91 ,unit$ ,/ates1 #bha4 ,footnote #gh3 ,noble ,/ate ,bank vs4 ,haskell2 ,%all5b]g] vs4 ,bank ( ,hol/e91 ,janu>y #c1 #aiaa4 ,lawy]s' ,coop]ative ,publi%+ ,company1 ,ro*e/]1 ,new ,york4 ,footnote #gi3 ,fo/]1 ,argum5tation & ,debat+1 p4 #bha4