,,our ,,gov]nm5t ,,local1 ,,/ate1 ,,& ,,national ,,by ,j4,a4 ,james1 ,ph4,d4 ,pr(essor ( ,hi/ory 9 ,nor?we/]n ,univ]sity ,,& ,a4,h4 ,san=d1 ,m4,a4 ,pr(essor ( ,hi/ory1 ,/ate ,normal ,s*ool1 ,la ,crosse1 ,wiscons9 #aijc1 #aiac ,*>les ,scribn]'s ,sons ,,preface ,! subject matt] h]e) pres5t$ p>tially repres5ts ! plan pursu$ by ! au?ors z tea*]s ( civil gov]nm5t = a numb] ( ye>s 9 high s*ool1 academy1 & normal s*ool4 ,x has be5 f\nd t a /udy ( ! me?ods by :i* ! affairs ( gov]nm5t are conduct$ gives con/ant int]e/ to ! "w1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! practical side ( gov]nm5t has be5 emphasiz$4 ,b :ile our desire has be5 to br+ ! actual work+ ( ! in/itutions "u :i* ! /ud5t lives into prom95ce1 we h also attempt$ to give su* acc\nts ( ! orig9 & e>ly developm5t ( =ms ( gov]nm5t z w assi/ 9 expla9+ _! process ( gr[?4 ,! plan ( discussion is simil> to t foll[$ 9 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation4 ,! g5]al favor ) :i* t text has be5 receiv$ leads to ! belief t x fully meets ! requirem5t ( ! ,committee ( ,five = su* s*ools z pres5t civil gov]nm5t 9 ! ?ird or f\r? ye> ( ! c\rse4 ,9 _m cases1 h[ev]1 ! subject is taught e>li] 9 ! c\rse1 & ! pres5t "w has be5 prep>$ 9 answ] to ! reque/s ( tea*]s = a text suitable to ?is class ( /ud5ts4 ,! arrangem5t is su* t ei!r ,local 7,"p ,i71 ,national 7,"p ,,ii71 or ,/ate ,gov]nm5t 7,"p ,,iii7 may be /udi$ fir/4 ,9 ! "w on local & ,/ate gov]nm5t x is n expect$ t ! /ud5t w le>n all ( ! diff]5t practices f\nd 9 ! v>i\s ,/ates1 b t he w comp>e !m ) ^? ( 8 own ,/ate4 ,:ile "s ( ! discussions & _m ( ! sugge/ive que/ions are int5d$ to make /ud5ts realize m completely _! duties z citiz5s1 _m m hav+ a local be>+ w occur to tea*]s4 ,x is sc>cely to be hop$ t all ( ! books & magaz9es m5tion$ w be f\nd 9 any high s*ool libr>y1 b ! ne$ = supplem5t>y read+ is be+ met ?r\gh ! rapid increase ( public libr>ies4 ,a work+-libr>y on ! subject ( civics may be accumulat$ 9 a %ort "t if only a few ( ! books giv5 9 ,app5dix ,d are procur$ ea* ye>4 ,no attempt has be5 made to give ref]5ces to all ( ! mat]ial :i* has appe>$ )9 ! pa/ few ye>s4 ,! ability ( ! read] & ! "t to be devot$ to ! subject h be5 kept con/antly 9 m9d4 ,!re may be m supplem5t>y que/ions & ref]5ces ?an c be us$ by any "o class4 ,%\ld x happ51 on ! o!r h&1 t m "w ( ?is "* is desir$1 ! ne$ may be met by ref]5ce to simil> que/ions 9 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation4 ,9 prep>+ ?is new edition1 we take ! opportunity ( ackn[l$g+ ! assi/ance giv5 by _m tea*]s ( civics1 /rang]s to u1 :o are us+ ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 & o!rs :o are us+ ,our ,gov]nm5t1 = _! helpful sugge/ions4 ,,evan/on1 ,,ill9ois1 ,july #a1 #aiac4 ,,cont5ts ,,"p ,i4 ,i4 ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,local ,,gov]nm5t ,,ii4 ,,c\nty ,,gov]nm5t ,,iii4 ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,local ,,gov]nm5ts4 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,gov]nm5t ,,( ,,cities ,,"p ,,ii4 ,v4 ,,ev5ts ,,lead+ ,,to ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,! ,,union ,,vi4 ,,! ,,con/itutional ,,conv5tion ,,vii4 ,,organization ,,( ,,! ,,legislative ,,dep>tm5t ,,viii4 ,,p[]s ,,& ,,duties ,,( ,,! ,,sep>ate ,,h\ses ,,ix4 ,,h[ ,,laws ,,are ,,made ,,by ,,congress ,x4 ,,"s ,,important ,,p[]s ,,( ,,congress ,,xi4 ,,o!r ,,g5]al ,,p[]s ,,( ,,congress ,,xii4 ,,p[]s ,,d5i$ ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,& ,,! ,,sev]al ,,/ates ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,executive ,,dep>tm5t ,,xiv4 ,,p[]s ,,& ,,duties ,,( ,,! ,,presid5t ,,xv4 ,,! ,,cab9et ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,national ,,judici>y ,,xvii4 ,,t]ritories ,,& ,,public ,,l&s ,,xviii4 ,,am5dm5ts ,,to ,,! ,,con/itution ,,xix4 ,,! ,,gov]nm5ts ,,( ,,! ,,_w ,,app5dix4 ,a4 ,,con/itution ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,b4 ,,! ,,articles ,,( ,,conf$]ation ,c4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books ,,index ,,"p ,i4 ,,local ,,gov]nm5ts4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,local ,,gov]nm5t4 ,! ,pres]vation ( ,ord]4--,! fir/ & mo/ important "w ( any gov]nm5t is ! pres]vation ( ord]4 ,we ?9k ( ?is function mo/ frequ5tly z ex]cis$ 9 ! arre/ ( (f5d]s :o violate ! law4 ,9 fact1 mo/ "y p]sons receive _! e>lie/ ideas ( gov]nm5t by see+ ! policeman1 or con/able1 :o /&s = ! au?ority ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,b he is n ! only (fic] :o is conc]n$ 9 pres]v+ ord]4 ,! police (fic] :o makes an arre/ _c puni% 8 prison]1 b mu/ m]ely hold him until x is decid$ t he des]ves puni%m5t4 ,?is is ! "w ( a c\rt1 ) its ju/ice1 or judge1 & ! jury4 ,if ! prison] is decl>$ guilty1 !n ! police (fic] executes ! ord]s ( ! c\rt by collect+ a f9e or by imprison+ him4 ,we h "h illu/rat$ two divisions ( gov]nm5tal au?ority3 7#a7 ! judicial1 :i* decides :e!r ! law applies 9 p>ticul> cases2 & 7#b7 ! executive1 :i* c>ries out ! requirem5ts ( ! law & ! ord]s ( ! c\rt4 ,law-,mak+4--,! executive & ! judicial (fic]s are bo? subject to high] au?ority3 ! "o applies & ! o!r executes ! law4 ,! fram+ ( ! law is ! ?ird function ( gov]nm5t4 ,?is "w is call$ legislation1 & is c>ri$ on by su* bodies z ! t[n bo>d1 ! village bo>d1 & ! city c\ncil4 ,b ^! law-mak+ bodies d n h indep5d5t au?ority2 !y are b\nd m or less /rictly by ! op9ions ( ^? :o elect$ !m to (fice2 i4e41 ! body ( vot]s4 ,! ,?ree ,divisions ( ,gov]nm5t4--,we say1 !n1 t 9 our c\ntry gov]nm5t is bas$ f9ally ^u ! w ( ! p4 ,= ! expression ( _! w !y *oose num]\s (fic]s1 :o may be gr\p$ "u ?ree heads1 correspond+ to ! g5]al divisions ( gov]nm5t3 legislative1 executive1 & judicial4 ,j z x w\ld be impossible = all ! vot]s to take "p 9 apply+ or int]pret+ ! law1 s x is 9 mo/ cases impossible = !m to assemble 9 a body & make ! laws4 ,!y g5]ally delegate ?is "w to legislators2 b 9 "s ,/ates ! vot]s ( a t[n 7or t[n%ip7 assemble ye>ly 9 t[n meet+1 :]e all may take "p 9 discussion & 9 vot+4 ,roads & ,/reets4--,! pres]vation ( ord] is b "o ( ! functions ( gov]nm5t4 ,9 t[ns :]e ! population is scatt]$1 roads mu/ be built1 & x is /ill m necess>y t 9 villages & cities1 :]e _m p live )9 a small area1 /reets %\ld be grad$ & pav$ & sidewalks ma9ta9$4 ,?is is an illu/ration ( ! way 9 :i*1 ?r\gh ! ma*9]y ( gov]nm5t1 p provide !mselves ) _m conv5i5ces t x w\ld be impossible = ea* citiz5 to provide = himself4 ,! legislative bodies already m5tion$ det]m9e ! ext5t to :i* ^! ?+s %all be done3 ! t[n bo>d ord]s ! lay+ out ( a new road2 ! village bo>d or ! city c\ncil passes ord9ances say+ :at /reets %all be pav$ & :at mat]ials %all be us$ 9 ! "w4 ,executive ,(fic]s1 ,g5]al & ,special4--,! actual execution ( ! "w involv$ 9 public improvem5ts is g5]ally 9 *>ge ( a special (fic]1 su* z ! road or /reet commission]4 ,b s9ce !re are _m o!r matt]s ( public conc]n t require att5tion1 ea* "u ! control ( an executive (fic]1 x is necess>y t a g5]al (fic] %\ld be 9 au?ority ov] all ( ^! z ! *ief executive ( ! local gov]nm5t4 ,?is (fic] is kn[n by v>i\s titles1 z1 9 ! t[n1 ! *airman1 9 ! village1 ! presid5t1 & 9 ! city1 ! mayor4 ,9 any case1 he has all or mo/ ( ! important executive "w ( gov]nm5t "u 8 control4 ,x is 8 duty to see t ! laws are obey$1 s ! police (fic]s are subject to 8 ord]s4 ,! *ief executive is gu>dian ( ! p's int]e/s2 = he mu/ see t ! m9or (fic]s d n injure ! public welf>e by neglect ( duty1 & he mu/ def5d ! public f all p]sons :o w\ld encroa* ^u its rights4 ,let u n[ consid] "s ( ! o!r ord9>y functions ( local gov]nm5t4 ,! ,poor4--,poor relief may be m5tion$ fir/4 ,h[ mu* aid %all be grant$ to paup]s1 & h[ %all x be di/ribut$1 are que/ions t ev]y:]e require att5tion4 ,public ,heal?4--,public heal? is also an important subject ^u :i* local laws mu/ be5 enact$4 ,9 cities1 p>ticul>ly1 ! c\ncil passes /rict regulations = prev5t+ diseases & = *eck+ ! spread ( su* z are contagi\s4 ,city ord9ances are also enact$ regulat+ ! con/ruction ( sew]s & dra9s4 ,! heal? commission] & ! city physicians are ! p>ticul> (fic]s :o direct ! execution ( laws ^u ^! subjects4 ,education4--,public education is among ! mo/ important ( ! local gov]nm5t's functions4 ,! free s*ools :i* exi/ ev]y:]e 9 our c\ntry are support$ & controll$ *iefly by ! t[ns1 villages1 & cities4 ,9 _m ,/ates1 h[ev]1 !re are o!r divisions1 call$ s*ool di/ricts1 :i* h bo>ds & (fic]s = ?is purpose4 ,o!r ,necess>y ,functions4--,protection f fire is s important 9 communities :]e population is d5se t special (fic]s & app>atus mu/ be provid$4 ,s1 too1 /reets mu/ be light$1 & a pure wat]-supply provid$4 ,p>ks1 ,museums1 & ,libr>ies4--,besides ! functions ( gov]nm5t t are readily se5 to be necess>y1 !re are o!rs :i* may n at fir/ appe> to be s4 ,we h cities provid+ p>ks1 ) beautiful lawns & fl[]-g>d5s2 museums1 :]e articles ( hi/orical & sci5tific int]e/ are kept2 aqu>iums & zoological g>d5s2 libr>ies1 ) books1 magaz9es1 & pap]s = ! free use ( all citiz5s4 ,if "o looks closely1 he w see a reason 9 ea* case :y ! gov]nm5t und]takes ^! v>i\s ent]prises4 ,:y ,taxes ,are ,levi$4--,we h n[ to consid] a p[] ( gov]nm5t1 )\t :i* none ( ! o!rs s f> nam$ c\ld be ex]cis$4 ,?is is ! tax+ p[]4 ,9 e case money mu/ be us$ by local gov]nm5ts 9 ex]cis+ _! functions4 ,(fic]s1 :o are ag5ts ( ! p1 dep5d l>gely ^u taxes = _! sal>ies4 ,taxes are levi$ by ! legislative bodies t we h f\nd 9 t[ns1 villages1 & cities4 ,o!r (fic]s1 assessors & treasur]s1 det]m9e ! am\nt to be paid by ea* citiz5 & collect ! taxes4 ,! treasur] also has *>ge ( public money1 & pays x out :5 ord]$ to d s by ! prop] au?orities4 ,all ( ! op]ations ( gov]nm5t are matt]s ( record4 ,:ile ea* (fic] is expect$ to keep /rict acc\nt ( ! op]ations ( 8 own dep>tm5t1 ! g5]al records ( t[ns1 villages1 & cities are kept by ! cl]ks4 ,?is g5]al view ( local gov]nm5ts may n[ be summ>iz$ 9 two =ms3-- ,i4 ,,! ,,functions ,,( ,,local ,,gov]nm5t4 #a4 ,protection3-- ,! pres]vation ( ord]4 ,protection aga9/ fire4 ,protection ( public heal?4 #b4 ,provid+ ,necessities & ,conv5i5ces3-- ,roads--,/reets--,sidewalks4 ,wat]--,lights--,sew]s4 ,poor relief--,education4 ,p>ks--,libr>ies--,museums4 ,,ii4 ,,(fic]s ,,( ,,local ,,gov]nm5t4#a ,,t[n4 ,,village4 ,,city4 ,bo>d ,bo>d ,c\ncil ,*airman ,presid5t ,mayor ,cl]k ,cl]k ,cl]k ,treasur] ,treasur] ,treasur] ,assessors ,assessors ,assessors ,con/ables ,con/ables ,police ,road ,commission] ,/reet ,commission] ,/reet ,commission] ,ju/ices ,ju/ices ,ju/ices ,footnote #a3 ,! li/ "h giv5 is n complete1 & ! (ficial titles are n ! same 9 all ,/ates4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions4 ,make a /udy ( y\r local 7t[n1 village1 or city7 gov]nm5t4 #a4 ,gr\p ! (fic]s z legislative1 executive1 & judicial1 respectively4 #b4 ,h[ _m diff]5t me?ods are us$ 9 pay+ ^! (fic]s8 #c4 ,d all ! vot]s ev] assemble to make laws8 ,if n1 h[ is ! w ( ! majority express$8 #d4 ,:at are "s ( ! local regulations reg>d+ ! poor8#b public heal?8 protection f fire8 ,footnote #b3 ,= a g5]al acc\nt "u ?is topic1 see ,james & ,san=d1 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,heal? regulations are discuss$ 9 ! same "w1 pp4 #gj-gb4 #e4 ,:o pays = ! education t "y p receive 9 ! public s*ools8 #f4 ,h[ mu* has y\r local gov]nm5t done t[>d furni%+ ?+s t are n m]ely conv5i5ces8 ,h[ d y ju/ify exp5ditures = ^! purposes8 #g4 ,does ! managem5t ( local gov]nm5t excite z mu* int]e/ among ! citiz5s z x %\ld8 #h4 ,9 :at ways are /ud5ts directly int]e/$ 9 hav+ effici5t local gov]nm5ts8 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,c\nty ,,gov]nm5t4 ,:y ,!re ,are ,c\nties4--,if ! local organizations discuss$ 9 ,*apt] ,i c\ld att5d to all ! int]e/s t citiz5s h 9 common1 !n gov]nm5t w\ld be a mu* simpl] matt] ?an x is4 ,b j z almo/ e citiz5 has bus9ess & social relations outside ( ! neighborhood 9 :i* he lives1 s diff]5t communities mu/ h political relations ) ea* o!r if !y are to live 9 h>mony4 7,= ?is & o!r reasons1 :i* we %all le>n pres5tly1 c\nty gov]nm5ts are e/abli%$4 ,_! organization & functions correspond q closely to ^? ( ! t[ns1 villages1 & small] cities47 ,important ,c\nty ,(fic]s4--,! local gov]nm5ts _c und]take alone ! pres]vation ( ord] or ! protection ( citiz5s aga9/ crim9als4 ,we h1 consequ5tly1 an important (fic]1 ! %]iff1 :o ) 8 deputies has p[] to make arre/s4 ,!re is also ! judicial side ( c\nty gov]nm5ts1 se5 9 ! c\rt1 ) its judge4 ,9 ?is c\rt ano!r c\nty (fic]1 call$ ! di/rict or ,/ate's attorney1 prosecutes p]sons :o are accus$ ( crime2 i4e41 he f9ds evid5ce ( ! prison]'s guilt & causes ?is evid5ce to be giv5 by witnesses at ! trial4 ,functions ( ,c\nty ,gov]nm5t4--,public highways are also matt]s ( m ?an local int]e/4 ,:5 an exp5sive bridge is to be built1 or an important road 9 :i* sev]al communities are int]e/$ is to be con/ruct$1 ! c\nty gov]nm5t c be/ raise ! money & manage ! "w4 ,s1 too1 9 c>+ = ! poor1 ! c\nty may aid ! local gov]nm5ts1 or x may take entire *>ge ( ! paup]s1 & ma9ta9 a poorh\se4 ,! ,c\nty ,bo>d4--,x is evid5t t !re mu/ be a legislative body :i* %all det]m9e ! policy ( ! c\nty 9 ^! matt]s4 ,?is is ! c\nty bo>d1 or z x is call$ 9 "s ,/ates1 ! c\nty c\rt4 ,9 mo/ ,/ates ?is body is compos$ ( commission]s4 ,^! are elect$ by ei!r ( two me?ods3 7#a7 at l>ge1 :5 e vot] may vote = ! entire numb] ( commission]s2 7#b7 !y may be elect$ f di/ricts into :i* ! c\nty has be5 divid$4 ,9 "s ,/ates ! memb]s ( ! c\nty bo>d are call$ sup]visors1 & !y repres5t ! t[ns1 villages1 & w>ds ( cities4 ,"u ?is sy/em ! c\nty bo>d is g5]ally l>g] ?an "u ! commission] sy/em4 ,!re is ano!r diff]5ce betwe5 ! two sy/ems3 9 ! ,/ates t h c\nty commission]s1 ! c\nty gov]nm5t has a l>g] numb] ( functions ?an 9 ! o!r ,/ates4 ,t is1 ! c\nty gov]nm5t has almo/ entire control ( su* matt]s z roads & poor relief1 leav+ ! local gov]nm5ts ) little au?ority 9 ^! directions4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :]e ! sup]visor sy/em exi/s1 ! t[ns & villages h *ief au?ority 9 legislat+ ^u ^! matt]s1 & ! c\nty assi/s or takes only su* "p z x f9ds necess>y = ! g5]al good4 ,p[] ( ! ,bo>d4--,! c\nty bo>d holds annual meet+s & makes laws = ! c\nty z a :ole4 ,x has *>ge ( ! c\nty prop]ty1 includ+ ! c\rt-h\se1 jail1 & poorh\se4 ,s9ce x mu/ provide = ! exp5se ( ma9ta9+ ^! build+s1 = ! sal>ies ( c\nty (fic]s1 & = o!r exp5ses connect$ ) roads1 poor1 & o!r c\nty bus9ess1 ! bo>d mu/ also h ! p[] ( levy+ taxes4 ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,s*ools4--,education is ano!r function ( gov]nm5t :i* is n manag$ solely by ! local units4 ,!re is a c\nty (fic]1 call$ ! sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools1 :o has sup]visory p[]s1 & he usually exam9es tea*]s & c]tifies to _! qualifications4 ,regi/] ( ,de$s4--,! regi/] ( de$s1 or record]1 is a c\nty (fic] :o keeps records ( c]ta9 k9ds4 ,among o!r ?+s1 copies ( de$s are regi/]$ or kept 9 8 (fice4 ,a p]son wi%+ to buy real e/ate 7i4e41 h\ses or l&s7 may1 by consult+ ! records 9 ?is (fice1 le>n :e!r ! own] has a cle> title to ! prop]ty4 ,coron]4--,! coron] has ! duty ( hold+ inque/s :5 p]sons meet dea? by viol5ce or 9 "s unexpla9$ way4 ,he may also p]=m ! duties ( ! %]iff :5 ! latt] _c p]=m !m4 ,surveyor4--,! c\nty surveyor makes surveys at ! reque/ ( public au?orities1 z well z = individuals4 ,he keeps ! (ficial records ( ! b\nd>ies ( f>ms & lots4 ,cl]k & ,treasur]4--,( c\rse ! c\nty mu/ h its cl]k & treasur]1 ! (fic]s ^: duties are to keep ! records & to h&le c\nty moneys4 ,we may n[ pass 9 review ! pr9cipal features ( c\nty gov]nm5t3-- ,i4 ,,legislative4 #a4 ,c\nty ,bo>ds3-- ,commission] type ,sup]visor type #b4 ,functions3-- ,c\nty build+s ,poor--,education ,roads & bridges ,taxation ,,ii4 ,,executive ,,& ,,adm9i/rative ,,(fic]s4 ,%]iff & ,deputies ,cl]k ,treasur] ,regi/] ( ,de$s1 or ,record] ,attorney ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,s*ools ,coron] ,surveyor 7,9 "s ,/ates1 ,assessors & ,collectors ( ,taxes1 & ,auditors47 ,,iii4 ,,judici>y4 ,c\nty ,c\rt ,di/rict ,c\rt ,relations ( ,local ,(fic]s to ,/ate ,law4--,!re are o!r reasons ?an ^? already giv5 :y ,/ates are divid$ into c\nties4 ,"o is because1 9 ! p]=mance ( _! duties1 ! c\nty (fic]s act z ag5ts = ! ,/ate2 t is1 !y c>ry out ! ,/ate law 9 _! own localities4 ,= in/ance1 crim9als are br\ght to trial & puni%$ "u ,/ate law1 b x is adm9i/]$ by local or c\nty (ficials4 ,s ! surveyor1 sup]9t5d5t ( s*ools1 regi/] ( de$s1 & o!r (fic]s act "u ,/ate laws4 ,:ile x seems be/ to h "o g5]al law = ! ,/ate ^u important subjects1 x is also ! policy ( our gov]nm5t to intru/ ! execution ( ! law1 9 mo/ cases1 to local r ?an to ,/ate (ficials4 ,^! (fic]s1 be+ elect$ by ! p ( ! v>i\s localities1 feel _! responsibility m ke5ly ?an if !y obta9$ (fice by appo9tm5t f ,/ate au?orities4 ,:at has be5 said conc]n+ ! relation ( ! c\nty to ! ,/ate gov]nm5t is true to a consid]able ext5t conc]n+ ! t[n1 village1 & city gov]nm5ts4 ,"h1 too1 elections are held1 taxes are collect$1 & trials are conduct$ by local (fic]s 9 accordance ) ,/ate law4 ,inde$1 x is true t ^! local divisions owe _! exi/5ce to ,/ate law4 ,t[ns are laid out1 villages & cities are incorporat$1 9 accordance ) ! provisions ( laws enact$ by ,/ate legislatures4 ,! ,/ate is ! s\rce ( all ! au?ority ex]cis$ by ! (fic]s & gov]n+ bodies ( ^! local gov]nm5ts4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions4 ,make a /udy ( y\r c\nty gov]nm5t4 #a4 ,outl9e ! (fic]s 9 gr\ps1 z on p4 #f4 #b4 ,le>n ! important duties ( ea* (fic]4 #c4 ,are (fic]s paid by fees or by sal>ies8 ,:i* is ! bett] me?od8 #d4 ,:at is ! l5g? ( ! t]m = :i* ea* c\nty (fic] holds 8 position8 #e4 ,h[ _m memb]s con/itute ! c\nty bo>d8 ,are !y commission]s or sup]visors8 ,:5 d ! meet+s ( ! bo>d occur8 #f4 ,obta9 a copy ( ! c\nty bo>d's report & asc]ta9 :at important bus9ess has be5 transact$4 #g4 ,:at build+s has ! c\nty at ! c\nty seat8 ,does x own prop]ty else:]e8 #h4 ,:at process is foll[$ 9 lay+ out a new t[n8 9 ! incorporation ( a village8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,! functions ( gov]nm5t4 ,hoxie1 ,h[ ! ,p ,rule1 #aa-af4 ,re9s*1 ,"y ,citiz5's ,read]1 #ca-df4 ,dole1 ,"y ,citiz51 #gc-ib4 #b4 ,t[ns & villages4 ,re9s*1 #ade-aeb4 ,hoxie1 #db-fc4 ,hill1 ,lessons = ,junior ,citiz5s1 #adb-afh4 #c4 ,c\nty gov]nm5t4 ,re9s*1 #afc-aff4 ,hoxie1 #ij-ajc4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,orig9 ,,( ,,local ,,gov]nm5ts4 ,! ,s\rce ( ,our ,local ,gov]nm5ts4--,if we look fur!r into ! sy/ems ( local gov]nm5t :i* h be5 describ$1 we %all f9d facts 9 ! hi/ory ( _! orig9s :i* expla9 _m ( _! details4 ,we %all n[ see h[ local gov]nm5t grew 9 ! colonies1 = "h we h ! beg9n+s ( ! sy/ems t are 9 op]ation to-day4 ,ev]y:]e 9 ! colonies ! ,engli% settl]s br\ght to _! new homes ! anci5t cu/oms ( ! "m-c\ntry4 ,diff]5ces 9 physical geography1 & 9 ! "* & motives ( ! coloni/s1 caus$ diff]5ces 9 ! result+ local gov]nm5ts4 ,?is fact is be/ illu/rat$ by an acc\nt ( :at took place 9 ,new ,engl& & 9 ,virg9ia4 ,! ,me?od ( ,settlem5t 9 ,new ,engl&4--,^! colonies 7 settl$ by emigrants :o came1 9 ! ma91 f ! same classes ( ,engli%m54 ,! ,new ,engl&]s1 h[ev]1 7 ,puritans4 ,! *ur* & its s]vices 7 a v important "p ( _! daily lives4 ,! requirem5t ( *ur* att5dance 0 "o reason = gr\p+ _! homes ne> ! meet+-h\se4 ,moreov]1 ! region 9 :i* !y settl$ _h a /ony soil1 difficult to cultivate4 ,_! f>ms requir$ c>eful cultivation1 & !re=e c\ld n be v l>ge4 ,! ,new ,engl&] 0 cont5t to live ne> ! coa/4 ,means ( travel+ to ! int]ior 7 n easy1 = ! riv]s1 ) few exceptions1 7 %ort & rapid4 ,! sea fi%]ies tempt$ ! settl]s to rema9 ne> ! coa/1 & fi%+1 ) %ip-build+ & comm]ce1 became _! important indu/ries4 ,t[n ,meet+s & ,(fic]s4--,= ^! reasons ,new ,engl& 0 a region ( small f>ms & t[ns1 & ! local gov]nm5t :i* grew up 0 adapt$ to ^! conditions4 ,! vot]s ( ea* t[n 7or t[n%ip7 met annually1 or (t5]1 9 t[n meet+4 ,"h _! common local affairs 7 discuss$ & regulat$4 ,! *ur*1 ! s*ools1 roads1 ! poor1 & _m o!r matt]s 7 "u ! complete control ( ?is meet+1 & ( ! (fic]s elect$ by ! assembl$ vot]s4 ,^! (fic]s 7 ! selectm51--:i* 0 a bo>d hav+ g5]al sup]vision ( ! t[n affairs1--! cl]k1 treasur]1 assessors1 f5ce view]s1 con/ables1 & num]\s o!rs4 ,! ,c\nty 9 ,new ,engl&4--,because ! p liv$ 9 t[ns & c\ld mo/ easily regulate _! affairs ?r\gh ! ma*9]y ( t[n gov]nm5t1 !y _h no c\nties :atev] at fir/2 b ^! 7 soon e/abli%$1 ?\gh m]ely = judicial purposes4 ,! gov]nor appo9t$ ju/ices :o held c\rt 9 ea* c\nty4 ,! lead+ features ( ,new ,engl& local gov]nm5t1 !n1 7 7#a7 its democratic "*1 se5 p>ticul>ly 9 ! t[n meet+2 & 7#b7 ! fact t ne>ly all local affairs 7 manag$ by ! t[n gov]nm5t1 leav+ b "o important function1 & t judicial 9 its nature1 = ! c\nty4 ,! ,settlem5t ( ,virg9ia4--,9 ! colony ( ,virg9ia we f9d conditions t br+ ab\t entirely diff]5t results 9 ! organization & work+s ( local gov]nm5t4 ,"h ! settl]s 7 n b\nd by religi\s or o!r ties into compact social bodies z ! ,puritans 74 ,natural conditions 9 ,virg9ia made x bett] = ! settl]s to live ap>t1 s t ne>ly all _! attempts to =m cities & t[ns fail$4 ,! cultivation ( tobacco1 ( c\rse1 expla9s ?is to a l>ge ext5t4 ,! f]tile soil & ! ease ( rais+ ?is product l$ to ! =mation ( l>ge plantations4 ,! broad riv]s made progress into ! int]ior rem>kably easy2 & !re seem$ little necessity = t[ns z %ipp+ ports1 because ocean vessels c\ld /op at ! private :>ves ( ! v>i\s plantations4 ,! ri* plant]s 7 mo/ prom95t 9 ! social & political life ( ! colony1 & local gov]nm5t fell "u _! control4 ,! ,importance ( ! ,c\nty4--,n[1 ( ! v>i\s local organizations to :i* ! ,virg9ians _h be5 accu/om$ 9 ,engl&1 ! "o be/ suit$ to _! condition 9 ! colony 0 ! c\nty4 ,s !y copi$ ! ,engli% c\nty & made x _! *ief organ ( local gov]nm5t4 ,! pr9cipal gov]n+ body 0 ! c\nty c\rt1 compos$ ( ju/ices appo9t$ at fir/ by ! gov]nor ( ! colony4 ,! c\rt _h bo? legislative & judicial functions4 ,x manag$ su* matt]s z roads1 lic5ses1 & taxation2 x also tri$ civil & crim9al cases4 ,o!r c\nty (fic]s 7 ! %]iff & ! lieut5ant1 ! latt] be+ comm&] ( ! militia4 ,! ,p>i% & ! ,ve/ry4--,t "p ( ! ,virg9ia local gov]nm5t :i* correspond$ to ! ,new ,engl& t[n 0 ! p>i%2 b x is app>5t t few functions rema9$ to be ex]cis$ 9 ?is1 _! smalle/ political organization4 ,! c\nties 7 g5]ally compos$ ( sev]al p>i%es4 ,! gov]n+ body ( ea* 0 ! ve/ry2 x _h *>ge ( *ur* affairs & ( poor relief4 ,! memb]s ( ! ve/ry & also ! ju/ices ( ! c\nty c\rt 7 n elect$ by ! p1 z ! t[n (fic]s 7 9 ,new ,engl&4 ,on ! contr>y1 bo? ! ve/ry & ! c\nty c\rt fill$ vacancies 9 _! own numb]1 )\t popul> election4 ,?is fact s]ves to illu/rate ! g5]al tru? t local gov]nm5t 0 democratic 9 ,new ,engl& & ari/ocratic 9 ,virg9ia2 9 ! =m] colony ! mass ( vot]s took "p mo/ actively 9 local gov]nm5t1 :ile 9 ! latt] a few m5 con/itut$ ! rul+ class4 ,?is does n mean t local affairs 9 ,virg9ia 7 badly manag$1 = ! lead+ m5 7 on ! :ole intellig5t & public-spirit$2 & 9 ! ye>s ( ! ,revolution !y 7 among ! =emo/ 9 ! def5se ( ,am]ican lib]ties4 ,9 ,new ,engl&1 h[ev]1 x 0 noticeable t ! mass ( vot]s 7 intellig5t & und]/ood ! practical managem5t ( political affairs--a result :i* d\btless came l>gely f _! tra9+ 9 ! t[n meet+4 ,! ,?ree ,types ( ,local ,organization4--,we h n[ se5 t 9 ,new ,engl& ! t[n _h ! mo/ important functions ( local gov]nm5t1 & ?is is call$1 !re=e1 ! t[n type2 :ile 9 ,virg9ia ! c\nty _h ! great] %>e ( gov]n+ p[]s1 & !re we f9d ! c\nty type4 ,virg9ia influ5c$ ! colonies t lay s\? ( h]1 s t ! c\nty type 0 f\nd also 9 ! ,c>ol9as & ,georgia4 ,9 ! middle colonies !re exi/$ bo? c\nties & t[ns1 & "h !re 0 a mu* m equal division ( p[]s betwe5 ^! organizations4 ,h5ce we call !irs ! mix$ or t[n%ip-c\nty type ( local gov]nm5t4 ,local ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,we/4--,! p :o migrat$ to ! new ,/ates we/ ( ! ,allegh5ies c>ri$ ) !m ! =ms ( local gov]nm5t :i* h j be5 describ$ z gr[+ up 9 ! colonies4 ,?is /atem5t ne$s "s modification1 = n[h]e 9 ! ,we/ 0 ! pure t[n type adopt$4 ,ev]y:]e 9 ! ,nor? we f9d ! mix$ type1 :ile ! ,s\!rn ,/ates h1 9 g5]al1 ! c\nty type4 ,9 ! latt] ! c\nty commission]s1 elect$ at l>ge or f prec9cts1 toge!r ) o!r c\nty (fic]s1 ex]cise mo/ ( ! local p[]s ( gov]nm5t4 ,two ,=ms 9 ! ,nor?4--,9 ! great] numb] ( ! ,/ates t h ! mix$ type1 ! c\nty is gov]n$ by a bo>d ( commission]s elect$ by ei!r ( ! me?ods j m5tion$ z prevail+ 9 ! ,s\?4 ,9 a few ,/ates 7su* z ,mi*igan1 ,ill9ois1 & ,wiscons971 ! c\nty bo>d is compos$ ( sup]visors1 :o repres5t ! t[ns1 villages1 & w>ds ( ! c\nty4 ,"h we f9d ! t[n meet+1 copi$ aft] t ( ,new ,engl& or ,new ,york1 & ! t[n gov]nm5t has m functions ?an 9 ^? ,/ates :]e commission]s compose ! t[n bo>d4 ,local ,self-,gov]nm5t4--,su* is ! way 9 :i* local gov]nm5t has come ab\t 9 ! v>i\s ,/ates ( ! ,union4 ,root$ 9 ! sy/ems t ,engli%m5 h develop$ ?r\gh ! c5turies1 adapt$ to ! new life & ! peculi> conditions ( ! colonial p]iod1 x has spread ) ! population ?r\gh\t ! l&4 ,! managem5t ( local affairs by ! p & _! *os5 repres5tatives is a s\nd pr9ciple ( gov]nm5t :i* holds a firm place 9 e "p ( our c\ntry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,:i* type ( local gov]nm5t exi/s 9 y\r ,/ate8 ,c y acc\nt = its orig98 #b4 ,is ! sy/em ( local gov]nm5t uni=m ?r\gh\t y\r ,/ate8 ,if s1 :y is ?is true8 ,if n1 c y acc\nt = ! lack ( uni=mity8 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,! ,,gov]nm5t ,,( ,,cities4 ,! ,g5]al ,plan ( ,city ,gov]nm5t4--,! g5]al framework ( city gov]nm5t is n v diff]5t f t ( ! o!r gov]nm5tal divisions4 ,!re are ! legislative1 executive1 & judicial dep>tm5ts1 ^: organization & functions are /at$ 9 ! *>t]1 or fundam5tal law ( ! city4 ,! city legislature is ! c\ncil or bo>d ( ald]m54 ,9 mo/ cases ?is body is a s+le h\se1 ?\gh 9 "s cities !re are two h\ses4 ,! memb]s are elect$ f ! w>ds into :i* ! city is divid$4 ,! c\ncil may pass ord9ances = ! gov]nm5t ( ! city1 b x is limit$ 9 ! ext5t ( its p[]s by ! t]ms ( ! city *>t]4 ,city ,*>t]s ,grant$ by ,legislatures4--,! s\rce ( ! *>t] is ! ,/ate legislature4 ,9 mo/ ,/ates ! con/itution provides t ! legislature %all pass g5]al laws prescrib+ ! framework ( all cities1 or ( ! classes into :i* ! cities ( a ,/ate may be divid$1 accord+ to _! population4 ,^! laws also conta9 regulations t are safegu>ds aga9/ ! abuses ( municipal gov]nm5t1 su* z heavy taxation & ! accumulation ( debts4 ,! requirem5t ( g5]al laws secures uni=mity 9 ! mo/ important features ( city gov]nm5t1 & x prev5ts ! practice1 :i* is o!rwise liable to prevail1 ( con/ant int]f]5ce by ,/ate legislatures 9 ! affairs ( c]ta9 cities4 ,su* special laws %\ld be enact$ ) great caution1 if at all2 = :5 a legislature regulates ! affairs ( a p>ticul> city1 x too (t5 does s at ! reque/ ( p]sons or corporations hav+ advantages to ga9 at ! exp5se ( ! public4#c ,footnote #c3 ,9 "s ,/ates :]e ! con/itutions require g5]al laws apply+ to classes ( cities1 s+le cities h be5 put 9 classes by !mselves2 s ! legislature has virtually gov]n$ !m by special laws4 ,! ,mayor4--,! *ief executive ( ! city is ! mayor4 ,he is ! head ( ! police dep>tm5t & has m or less au?ority ov] ! o!r adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts to be discuss$ lat] 9 ?is *apt]4 ,9 ! cases ( bo? mayor & ald]m51 ! facts conc]n+ _! t]ms1 sal>ies1 & o!r details v>y s greatly 9 diff]5t cities t no g5]al description is possible4 ,! city judici>y includes ! ord9>y ,/ate c\rts & also special or municipal c\rts ( v>i\s degrees4 ,o!r ,city ,(ficials4--,besides ! (fic]s enum]at$1 e city has its cl]k1 treasur]1 attorney1 & assessors4 ,! auditor1 or comptroll]1 is an important (ficial :o controls city f9ances4 ,adm9i/rative ,dep>tm5ts4--,! greate/ difficulties ( city gov]nm5t arise 9 connection ) ! num]\s adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts2 ^! are q complex 9 _! op]ation4 ,9 l>ge cities ! numb] ( (ficials & ! v>iety ( _! duties r5d] x almo/ impossible = ! av]age citiz5 to become in=m$ conc]n+ ^! affairs2 consequ5tly1 opportunities = fraud & mismanagem5t occur frequ5tly4 ,:y1 x may be ask$1 is su* complex ma*9]y necess>y 9 municipal gov]nm5t8 ,x is because social & indu/rial conditions 7t is1 ! circum/ances "u :i* m5 live & "w7 are q diff]5t f ^? t we f9d 9 t[ns & villages2 & city gov]nm5t mu/ be adapt$ to ^! conditions4 ,conditions ,peculi> to ,city ,life4--,let u notice "s ( ! ways 9 :i* ?is is true4 7#a7 ,! m]e fact t population is d5se increases ! possibility t a citiz5 may int]f]e ) ! rights ( 8 neighbors ev5 9 ! conduct ( ord9>y bus9ess4 7#b7 ,!re is great] liability t public heal? & safety may be endang]$1 bo? 9 ! homes & 9 ! %ops & factories ( cities1 ?an 9 less d5sely settl$ communities4 7#c7 ,! opportunities = evil-do+ & = concealm5t t exi/ 9 cities draw to !m a l>g] proportion ( ! vici\s classes :o ne$ control & suppression4 7#d7 ,f9ally1 9 cities x is less easy ?an 9 ! c\ntry = ea* family to supply itself ) c]ta9 conv5i5ces1 su* z wat]1 light1 & transportation2 consequ5tly1 ! gov]nm5t mu/ regulate to "s ext5t ! supply ( ^! necessities4 ,^! are "s ( ! conditions t are peculi> to city life2 & we f9d "h ! reasons :y ! gov]nm5t 9 a city mu/ und]take a l>ge numb] ( functions4 ,at e po9t ! safety ( ! citiz5 & 8 prop]ty mu/ be gu>d$2 & 9 a great _m ways ! conv5i5ces ( life mu/ be suppli$ by ! city or "u ! control ( city (ficials4 ,?us we acc\nt = ! fact t city gov]nm5t is complex--! pr9cipal s\rce ( ! difficulties & ! evils t we f9d 9 connection ) adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts4 ,fire & ,police ,dep>tm5ts4--,! numb] & ! organization ( adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts v>y consid]ably 9 diff]5t cities4 ,ev]y:]e we f9d ! police1 fire1 & heal? dep>tm5ts4 ,fire dep>tm5ts are1 z a rule1 v effici5t2 = ! citiz5s w n all[ laxness 9 ! protection ( _! prop]ty4 ,! effici5cy ( police dep>tm5ts v>ies greatly 9 diff]5t cities4 ,:5 ! selection ( police (fic]s is on a political basis1 ! /&>ds are apt to be l[1 & ! police may !n protect or ev5 assi/ violators ( ! law4 ,in/ances h be5 kn[n :]e policem5 receiv$1 regul>ly1 money paym5ts f law-break]s :om !y did n arre/4 ,! detection ( ?is =m ( corruption is difficult2 nev]!less1 if x cont9ues1 ! p are evid5tly n awake to _! own be/ int]e/s4 ,9 o!r cities1 on ! o!r h&1 ! police =ce is ma9ta9$ ^u a high /&>d4 ,sometimes civil-s]vice-re=m me?ods are us$ 9 ! selection ( policem52 ! pass+ ( an exam9ation is necess>y = appo9tm5t4 ,?is1 ) a fair sy/em ( promotions1 %\ld r5d] a police =ce m l a milit>y organization 9 its relation to ! en=cem5t ( law4 ,! ,heal? ,dep>tm5t4--,! dep>tm5t ( public heal? has duties t are ( vital importance4 ,sew]age sy/ems1 sanitation1 & ! wat]-supply are ! *ief objects ( its inspection4 ,heal? (fic]s also h p[]s :i* enable !m to detect & prohibit ! sale ( impure foods4 ,! milk-supply %\ld receive its p>ticul> att5tion1 = ! purity ( ?is product is an important matt]4 ,! en=cem5t ( /rict heal? regulations 9 ! cr[d$ t5em5t di/ricts ( l>ge cities is v difficult2 b ! neglect ( ^! matt]s by city (ficials is no?+ less ?an crim9al4 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,/reets4--,?is dep>tm5t1 :i* has 9 *>ge ! con/ruction ( /reets & pavem5ts1 affects ! conv5i5ce ( e citiz54 ,"h va/ sums ( money are exp5d$1 sometimes wisely1 & sometimes "u ! sup]vision ( (ficials :o are lack+ 9 ! te*nical k requir$ by ?is k9d ( "w4 ,opportunity = di%one/ h&l+ ( public money may be f\nd 9 ! lett+ ( contracts & 9 ! pur*ase ( supplies4 ,/reet-clean+ has receiv$ comp>atively little att5tion 9 ,am]ican cities4 ,9 ?is respect we are f> beh9d _m ,european cities4 ,?is is because ! relation ( clean /reets to public heal?1 & to civic beauty1 is n fully appreciat$ by ! av]age citiz5 ( our c\ntry4 ,public ,*>ities4--,! adm9i/ration ( public *>ities is ev]y:]e a difficult matt]1 &1 naturally1 its difficulty is greate/ 9 l>ge cities1 :]e we f9d ! greate/ numb] ( ^? :o seek relief4 ,two problems confront ! dep>tm5t ( public *>ities3 7#a7 ,h[ c x di/+ui% betwe5 ^? :o actually ne$ assi/ance & ^? :o d n8 7#b7;,h[ c x help ^? :o ne$ assi/ance tempor>ily1 )\t weak5+ _! desire to become self-support+8 ,! same problems mu/ be solv$ by ! citiz5 9 connection ) 8 private *>ities4 ,9 g5]al1 x may be said t *>itable "w is be/ manag$ by private organizations1 9 *>ge ( tra9$ work]s1 :o c inve/igate all cases ( application = aid4 ,! ,public ,s*ools4--,public education is ano!r dep>tm5t ( municipal activity4#d ,city gov]nm5ts sp5d great am\nts ( public money = ?is purpose4 ,! "w ( our educational in/itutions is con/antly be+ enl>g$2 c\rses 9 comm]ce1 manual tra9+1 & dome/ic sci5ce are int5d$ to /r5g!n ! practical side ( education4 ,9 "s cities special s*ools are ma9ta9$ = ! defective classes & = truants4 ,footnote #d3 ,?is subject is also treat$ 9 ! *apt] on ,public ,s*ool ,sy/ems4 ,libr>ies1 ,p>ks1 & ,playgr\nds4--,! educational advantages furni%$ by ! city are n = ! *ildr5 alone4 ,public libr>ies & museums s]ve adults z well4 ,recreation is provid$ by means ( p>ks1 public playgr\nds1 & op5-air gymnasiums4 ,^! w become m common :5 _! educational influ5ce is m fully und]/ood4 ,committees or ,bo>ds4--,! important que/ions t arise 9 connection ) adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts are1 h[ %all !y be organiz$8 & h[ %all ! (fic]s :o control !m be appo9t$8 ,two g5]al me?ods prevail3 7#a7;,9 ! small] cities ! memb]s ( ! c\ncil are gr\p$ into committees1 :i* h *>ge ( ! v>i\s adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts4 ,9 l>ge cities !re are bo>ds or commission]s1 di/9ct f ! c\ncil1 & ^! may be compos$ ( sal>i$ (fic]s4 ,9 ei!r case ! bo>d may employ a sup]9t5d5t to take *>ge ( ! "w "u its jurisdiction4 ,! pr9cipal criticism :i* c be (f]$ aga9/ ?is me?od ( manag+ adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts is t responsibility _c be def9itely locat$4 ,no s+le memb] ( a bo>d or commission w assume responsibility = mismanagem5t2 & :5 responsibility is divid$ among sev]al p]sons1 none ( !m feels x v /rongly4 7#b7,s+le ,heads ( ,dep>tm5ts4--,z a rem$y = ?is defect1 adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts 9 "s cities are plac$ "u ! control ( s+le (fic]s4 ,^! are giv5 au?ority to appo9t _! subord9ates1 & !y are held /rictly acc\ntable = ! managem5t ( ! dep>tm5t4 ,responsibility is fur!r conc5trat$ 9 "s cities by giv+ ! mayor p[] to appo9t ^! heads ( dep>tm5ts4 ,! ,commission ,=m ( ,city ,gov]nm5t4--,?is =m is f\nd 9 a numb] ( cities ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,9 place ( ! mayor & c\ncil ^! cities h a small body ( m5 7g5]ally ?ree or five7 :o bo? make & execute city ord9ances4 ,!y are elect$ at l>ge f ! city4 ,ea* ( ! commission]s is 9 *>ge ( "o or m ( ! city dep>tm5ts1 & all subord9ate (fic]s are appo9t$ by !m4 ,! commission]s are expect$ to devote _! entire "t to _! duties & !y are paid lib]al sal>ies4 ,?us1 x is hop$1 city gov]nm5t w become m bus9ess-l & effici5t4 ,9 mo/ cities t h ! commission =m provision is made = ! initiative1 ref]5dum1 & recall4 ,! initiative enables a body ( citiz5s :o sign a petition to obta9 a c]ta9 law by popul> vote1 if ! commission refuses to pass x4 ,! ref]5dum enables citiz5s to vote = or aga9/ a law t ! commission has pass$1 & ?us to repeal x if !y desire4 ,"u ! recall a memb] ( ! commission c be made to /& = re-election1 or else to resign1 at any "t dur+ 8 t]m ( (fice1 if a c]ta9 numb] ( citiz5s petition = ?is action4 ,qualifications ( ,city ,(fic]s4--,grave que/ions are involv$ 9 ^! matt]s ( organization1 b ! effici5cy ( city gov]nm5t dep5ds 9 ! greate/ measure ^u ! "* ( ! (fic]s :o are plac$ 9 p[]4 ,we ne$ to recognize ! importance1 9 city affairs z 9 private bus9ess1 ( secur+ (ficials :o are qualifi$ by tra9+ & by successful exp]i5ce to s]ve ! public4 ,economy & hone/y 9 municipal gov]nm5t _c be expect$ :5 politics alone det]m9es appo9tm5ts to (fice4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( civil-s]vice-exam9ation sy/ems 9 c]ta9 cities is a /ep 9 ! "r direction4 ,public ,utilities4--,besides ! adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts already m5tion$1 we h 9 l>ge cities ^? :i* control ! supply ( wat]1 light1 & transportation facilities4 ,! indu/ries furni%+ ^! necessities may belong to ! city1 b 9 mo/ cases !y are own$ by individuals & corporations4#e ,ev5 !n !y %\ld be subject to /rict regulation by ! city1 = sev]al reasons3 7#a7 ,^! indu/ries make use ( public /reets4 ,! "r to d ?is is grant$ by ! c\ncil 9 a fran*ise4 7#b7 ,! product t is suppli$ be+ 9 ea* case a necessity1 x is ! duty ( ! city gov]nm5t to protect ! citiz5s f any abuse or inconv5i5ce t may arise 9 connection ) x4 7#c7 ,9 ne>ly e case ! indu/ries 9 "q are monopolies2 i4e41 competition betwe5 rival plants is n possible4 ,= ?is reason ! public may suff] ei!r f high rates or f imp]fect s]vice4 ,footnote #e3 ,on ?is topic see ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 pp4 #cc-cf4 ,! ,"q ( ,municipal ,own]%ip4--,! op9ion is ga9+ gr\nd t no am\nt ( municipal control w cure ! evils ( private own]%ip 9 ^! indu/ries4 ,s9ce !y are natural monopolies1 x is argu$ !y %\ld be op]at$ by ! city gov]nm5t4 ,?is op9ion is se5 to h great weight :5 we consid] ! corruption & ! lack ( att5tion to ! public welf>e t accompany ! grant+ ( fran*ises to corporations4 ,! brib]y ( ald]m5 & ! grant+ ( valuable privileges )\t comp5sation are frequ5t occurr5ces4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! facts t bad (fic]s are sometimes elect$ 9 our cities1 & t !y ignore public int]e/s1 raise a v s]i\s "q :e!r !y %\ld be intru/$ ) ! managem5t ( great indu/ries1 su* z wat] & light+ plants & /reet-c> sy/ems4 ,reasons = ,poor ,city ,gov]nm5t4--,o!r argum5ts may be made on bo? sides ( ?is "q ( municipal own]%ip2 b !re are fundam5tal reasons :y ! cities ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are1 on ! :ole1 poorly gov]n$1 :i* mu/ receive consid]ation be=e ?is "q c be settl$4 ,! conditions acc\nt+ = ! evils ( municipal gov]nm5t may be briefly /at$ z foll[s3 7#a7 ,city gov]nm5ts are necess>ily complex1 &1 9 _! adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts especially1 a multitude ( details mu/ receive att5tion4 ,citiz5s f9d x difficult to und]/& ^! transactions & ev5 m difficult to foll[ !m closely4 7#b7 ,city gov]nm5ts mu/ sp5d va/ sums ( money1 & ?is fact is a /&+ temptation to di%one/ m5 bo? 9 & out ( (fice4 7#c7 ,! rapidity ) :i* cities h gr[n has increas$ ! difficulty ( _! problems4 7#d7 ,individuals & corporations h f\nd x necess>y to secure fran*ises f cities = ! op]ation ( important indu/ries2 ?is has op5$ _m opportunities = corruption 9 city affairs4 7#e7 ,! pres5ce ( l>ge numb]s ( =eign]s :o are ignorant ( gov]nm5tal affairs has enabl$ corrupt politicians to ex]t great influ5ce ^u ! vot]s 9 city elections4 ,! ,re=m ( ,municipal ,gov]nm5ts4--,hav+ review$ ! pr9cipal causes = ! evils ( municipal gov]nm5t1 let u n[ consid] "s ( ! conditions t are necess>y = br++ ab\t re=ms4 7#a7 ,national politics %\ld be entirely sep>at$ f city affairs4 ,x may be impossible to prev5t ! nom9ation ( c&idates by ! regul> political p>ties2 b )9 ea* p>ty local issues1 n national1 %\ld det]m9e ! selection ( c&idates4 ,at ! polls ! vot] %\ld ca/ 8 ballot indep5d5tly ( p>ty consid]ations4 7#b7 ,public int]e/ 9 municipal affairs & ! exi/5ce ( a /rong civic pride are conditions t are ess5tial to ! election ( good (fic]s & to ! purity ( city gov]nm5t4 7#c7 ,be=e we c h bett] city gov]nm5ts e citiz5 mu/ recognize 8 responsibility1 n only on election day1 b on e occasion :5 he c help 9 ! "w ( detect+ wrong1 puni%+ corrupt (ficials1 & enc\rag+ bett] ?+s 9 all dep>tm5ts ( city life4 ,?is means unselfi%ness 9 "o's attitude t[>d ! public welf>e2 x means will+ness to sacrifice "t & ef=t 9 ! public s]vice4 ,! example set by _m em95t p]sons :o h devot$ !mselves unselfi%ly to ! accompli%m5t ( re=ms 9 our great cities may well be imitat$ by e citiz5 9 ! small] affairs ( 8 city or 8 w>d4 ,& ! y\ng] g5]ation ( citiz5s1 :o are yet /ud5ts 9 ! public s*ools1 may ex]t no little influ5ce t[>d ! bett]m5t ( ! city2 & !y may aid 9 ! =mation ( t bett] public s5tim5t )\t :i* no improvem5t 9 our /&>ds ( municipal gov]nm5t is possible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions4 ,outl9e = ! /udy ( y\r city gov]nm5t4 #a4 ,0 ! city organiz$ "u a g5]al law ( ! ,/ate1 or 0 x grant$ a special *>t]8 ,does ! legislature enact special laws = ! city8 #b4 ,! mayor3 t]m1 sal>y4 ,:at are 8 pr9cipal p[]s8 ,%\ld 8 responsibility be increas$8 #c4 ,! c\ncil or bo>d ( ald]m53 numb] ( memb]s1 t]m ( (fice1 mann] ( election1 comp5sation8 #d4 ,! municipal c\rts & judges4 #e4 ,adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts3 make a complete li/ ( ^!4 ,are !y controll$ by bo>ds or by s+le (fic]s8 ,h[ d ! (fic]s obta9 _! positions8 ,are !y paid sal>ies8 ,( :at bus9ess does ea* h *>ge8 #f4 ,h[ are ! wat]1 light+1 & /reet-c> plants manag$8 ,d y believe 9 ! municipal own]%ip ( any ( !m8 ,give reasons = y\r op9ion4 #g4 ,h[ d police (fic]s receive appo9tm5t8 ,if an (fic] fails to en=ce an ord9ance1 :at c\rse w\ld y take to secure its en=cem5t8 #h4 ,are p>ty l9es closely adh]$ to by vot]s 9 city elections8 ,are indep5d5t p>ty organizations =m$8 ,are !y successful8 #i4 ,:at c y le>n ( re=m movem5ts t h tak5 place 9 y\r city's hi/ory8 ,give ! causes = ! success or failure ( ^!4 #aj4 ,:at is ! co/ ( y\r city gov]nm5t p] annum8 ,is x economically adm9i/]$8 ,:at are ! pr9cipal items ( exp5se8 ,has ! city o!r s\rces ( rev5ue besides taxation8 #aa4 ,:at are ! excell5t features ( y\r city's gov]nm5t8 ,:at are its faults8 ,h[ may ! latt] be correct$8 #ab4 ,m5tion "s ways 9 :i* /ud5ts c assi/ 9 br++ ab\t bett] conditions 9 y\r city4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,re9s*1 ,"y ,citiz5's ,read]1 #hj-hc4 ,hoxie1 ,h[ ! ,p ,rule1 #fc-hc4 ,dole1 ,"y ,citiz51 #ic-ajh2 #acb-aci4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,! ,,national ,,gov]nm5t4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,ev5ts ,,lead+ ,,to ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,! ,,union4 ,colonial ,relations4--,:y 0 union s long delay$8 ,h[ 0 x f9ally accompli%$8 ,^! are always que/ions ( great int]e/ to ! /ud5t ( ,am]ican gov]nm5t4 ,we note ! g5]al indiff]5ce t[>d union among ! colonies be=e ! ,revolution>y ,w>4 ,?is may be p>tially acc\nt$ = by ! fact t ea* colony _h its own sep>ate gov]nm5t1 & 0 jeal\s ( all outside int]f]5ce4 ,lack ( good roads & me?ods ( travel made ext5sive communication betwe5 ! scatt]$ settlem5ts difficult4 ,prejudice aga9/ /rang]s1 & especially ^? ( a diff]5t religi\s belief1 0 common4 ,bonds ( sympa?y1 h[ev]1 betwe5 ! citiz5s ( diff]5t colonies 7 n :olly lack+4 ,_! language & cu/oms 7 ma9ly ,engli%4 ,_! *ief desire 0 to develop a gov]nm5t accord+ to _! own plans4 ,common int]e/s 7 at times creat$ because ( ! necessity = provid+ protection aga9/ _! ,indian1 ,fr5*1 & ,dut* foes4 ,9 g5]al1 we may say1 conf$]ation 0 e>ly br\ght ab\t ?r\gh ne$ = def5se1 b union has be5 ! result ( two c5turies & a half ( gr[?4 ,union ( ! ,new ,engl& ,colonies1 #afdc4--;,a notable attempt 0 made to =m a conf$]ation among ! colonies 9 #afdc4 ,x is kn[n z ! ,new ,engl& ,conf$]ation1 & includ$ ,massa*usetts ,bay1 ,new ,plym\?1 ,connecticut1 & ,new ,hav5 colonies4 ,_! unit$ en]gies 7 necess>y to furni% protection aga9/ dang]s f ! ,indians4 ,! ,dut* & ,fr5* also t5d$ con/antly to encroa* ^u _! rights4 ,! gov]n+ body ( ?is conf$]ation 0 a bo>d ( commission]s4 ,9 ! annual meet+s ( ! commission]s1 two be+ s5t f ea* colony1 que/ions ( w>1 relations ) ! ,indians1 & o!r matt]s ( mutual int]e/ 7 discuss$4 ,b ?is c5tral gov]nm5t possess$ advisory p[]s only4 ,! colonies 7 to provide = _! own local gov]nm5t4 ,! conf$]ation became con/antly weak]1 & 0 f9ally dissolv$ 9 #afhd4 ,sev5ty ye>s 7 to elapse be=e ! call 0 s5t out = a meet+ ( delegates f all ! colonies at ,albany1 b ! influ5ce ( ! ,new ,engl& ,conf$]acy 0 felt1 no d\bt1 dur+ t p]iod4 ,! ,albany ,congress1 #aged4--,op5 ho/ilities ) _! enemies became m & m frequ5t4 ,f ! outbreak ( ,k+ ,william's ,w>1 9 #afhi1 to #aged1 ! date ( ! ,albany ,congress1 !re 7 at lea/ a doz5 int]colonial conf]5ces call$ to consid] means = ! common def5se4 ,plans = union 7 also prep>$4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ is t ( ,william ,p5n4 ,9 x ! ^w ,congress is us$ = ! fir/ "t 9 connection ) ,am]ican affairs4 ,z ! f9al /ruggle ) ,france = ! possession ( ,am]ica 0 ab\t to beg91 a ,congress ( tw5ty-five ( ! lead+ m5 f sev5 diff]5t colonies met at ,albany4 ,!y 7 call$1 prim>ily1 = ! purpose ( mak+ a treaty ) ! ,iroquois ,indians4 ,?is object secur$1 ! resolution 0 !n unanim\sly adopt$ t ,a union ( all ! colonies is at pres5t absolutely necess>y = security & def5se4 ,frankl9's fam\s plan provid+ = a p]man5t f$]ation ( all ! colonies 0 also adopt$4 ,:5 submitt$ to ! colonies1 x fail$ to receive ! ratification ( a s+le "o4 ,nor 0 x acceptable to ! ,engli% gov]nm5t4 ,said ,frankl91 ,! assemblies all ?\ght !re 0 too mu* pr]ogative1 & 9 ,engl& x 0 ?\ght to h too mu* ( ! democratic4 ,! ,/amp ,act ,congress1 #agfe4--;,aft] ! pass+ ( ! /amp act by ! ,engli% gov]nm5t1 ! ,massa*usetts h\se ( repres5tatives invit$ ! o!r colonial assemblies to s5d delegations to a g5]al congress4 ,n9e colonies respond$ by s5d+ tw5ty-eight m5 to ! congress 9 ,new ,york ,city1 ,octob] #g1 #agfe4f ,dur+ ! session ( two weeks1 ^! delegates draft$ petitions to ! ,engli% gov]nm5t & decl>$ t ! rights ( ! coloni/s 7 ! same z ^? ( ! natural-born subjects ( ,engl&4 ,x is notewor?y t repres5tatives _h aga9 assembl$ on ! motion ( ! coloni/s !mselves4 ,! gr[? ( common int]e/s 0 well express$ by ,*ri/oph] ,gadsd5 ( ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 :5 he said3 ,!re ought to be no ,new ,engl& man1 no ,new ,york]1 kn[n on ! cont95t2 b all ( u ,am]icans4 ,footnote #f3 ,virg9ia1 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,georgia1 & ,nor? ,c>ol9a sympa?iz$ ) ! movem5t1 b did n s5d delegates4 ,committees ( ,correspond5ce4--,n9e ye>s 7 to g by be=e ! meet+ ( ano!r congress1 b ! coloni/s 7 prep>$ = a unit$ ef=t at ! end ( ?is p]iod4 ,no soon] 7 ! cont5ts ( ! ,t[n%5d acts ( #agfg kn[n ?an ,massa*usetts issu$ a circul> lett] to ! o!r colonies1 ask+ = comb9$ action aga9/ all su* uncon/itutional measures4 ,! o!r colonial assemblies agre$ ) ,massa*usetts4 ,ano!r movem5t :i* made ! ,revolution possible 0 begun by ,samuel ,adams4 ,9 ,novemb]1 #aggb1 he prevail$ ^u ! ,bo/on t[n meet+ to appo9t a committee :i* %\ld c>ry on a correspond5ce ) committees organiz$ 9 o!r t[ns ( t colony4 ,rights & grievances 7 ! *ief subjects = consid]ation4 ,o!r colonies adopt$ ?is plan4 ,l$ by ,virg9ia1 ! idea 0 c>ri$ "o /ep fur!r1 & 9 #aggc 7 =m$ committees ( correspond5ce betwe5 ! diff]5t colonies4 ,?us !y 7 prep>$ = unit$ action 9 ! ,fir/ & ,second ,cont95tal ,congresses4 ,! ,fir/ ,cont95tal ,congress1 #aggd4--,:5 ! co]cive acts ( #aggd _h be5 pass$1 ,massa*usetts1 n[ 9 greate/ ne$1 call$ = a congress ( all ! colonies4 ,delegates f all1 ,georgia#g except$1 assembl$ at ,philadelphia1 ,septemb] #e1 #aggd4 ,9 ! ,decl>ation ( ,rights1 & 9 ! adoption ( ! ,articles ( ,association1 !y gave full expression to colonial s5tim5t4 ,!y comm5d$ ! resi/ance ( ! p ( ,massa*usetts4 ,!y decl>$ t all ,am]ica ought to support !m 9 _! opposition1 if =ce %\ld be us$ 9 c>ry+ out ! measures ( ,p>liam5t4 ,footnote #g3 ,georgia 0 9 sympa?y ) ?is movem5t4 ,! ,second ,cont95tal ,congress1 #agge4--;,be=e adj\rn+1 ! ,fir/ ,cont95tal ,congress provid$ = ! meet+ ( ano!r congress1 9 ,may1 #agge1 unless ! causes = colonial grievances %\ld be e>li] remov$ by ! ,engli% gov]nm5t4 ,b o!r measures ( repression 7 quickly pass$1 & be=e ! ,second ,cont95tal ,congress met1 ! battle ( ,lex+ton _h be5 f\ght & ! ,am]ican =ces 7 blockad+ ,bo/on4 ,?is congress conv5$ 9 ,philadelphia ,may #aj1 #agge1 & cont9u$ 9 session1 ) adj\rnm5ts f "t to "t1 until ,may #a1 #agha4 ,all ( ! colonies 7 repres5t$4 ,l previ\s congresses1 ?is 01 at fir/1 m]ely an advisory body1 b necessity compell$ x to act z a real gov]nm5t4 ,x took control ( milit>y affairs1 provid$ = a curr5cy1 ?rew op5 ,am]ican ports to ! %ips ( all nations1 & did :atev] else ! necessities ( ! "t seem$ to dem&4 ,hav+ be5 appeal$ to = advice1 ?is congress took a mo/ notable position 9 recomm5d+ t new =ms ( gov]nm5t %\ld be e/abli%$ 9 ! sev]al ,/ates4 ,by ! ye> #aggg t5 ,/ates _h fram$ new con/itutions4 ,x fur!r$ indep5d5ce by appo9t+ a committee to draft resolutions bas$ on ! ideas ( indep5d5ce !n ev]y:]e pres5t4 ,! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce 0 ! result4 ,! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4--,frankl9 e>ly saw ! ne$ = a m effective gov]nm5t ?an t ( a revolution>y assembly4 ,on ,july #ba1 #agge1 he pres5t$ to ,congress a plan = p]petual union4 ,ne>ly a ye> elaps$ be=e a committee 0 appo9t$ to prep>e "s =m = conf$]ation to be ent]$ into betwe5 ! colonies4 ,ano!r p]iod ( a ye> & five mon?s 0 to g by be=e ! report ( ?is committee 0 adopt$ by ! ,cont95tal ,congress4 ,x 0 !n submitt$ to ! ,/ate legislatures = approval4 ,aft] ?ree ye>s & a half1 on ,m>* #a1 #agha1 ,m>yl&1 ! la/ ,/ate1 0 induc$ to ratify ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4 ,! adoption ( ^! articles is "o ( ! mo/ important ev5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( our nation4 ,:ile ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation mu/ always be reg>d$ z a weak in/rum5t ( gov]nm5t1 we mu/ n =get t ! ,cont95tal ,congress 0 !n work+ out problems 9 ! prov9ce ( gov]nm5t t 7 almo/ :olly new4 ,! solution1 faulty z x 01 w5t f> to e/abli% ! place ( ! writt5 ,con/itution z a basis = gov]nm5t4 ,said ,john ,fiske3 ,almo/ ev]y?+ else 9 our fundam5tal in/itutions 0 br\ght by our =efa!rs 9 a m or less highly develop$ condition f ,engl&2 b ! developm5t ( ! writt5 ,con/itution1 ) ! consequ5t relation ( ! c\rts to ! law-mak+ p[]1 has gone on entirely ^u ,am]ican soil4 ,practical ,work+ ( ! ,gov]nm5t4--,conditions soon prov$ ! articles unsatisfactory4 ,! ,/ates 7 almo/ indep5d5t ( ! c5tral gov]nm5t4 ,!re 0 no sep>ate executive p[] to en=ce1 & no judici>y to int]pret ! laws4 ,! nation 0 deep 9 debt1 & )\t means = paym5t4 ,pap] money ( ! p]iod 0 wor?less1 & debtors 7 rebelli\s4 ,disputes betwe5 ! v>i\s ,/ates br\ght !m to ! v]ge ( civil w>4 ,ea* ,/ate _h its own sy/em ( duties & impo/s1 :i* l$ to great confusion 9 comm]ce4 ,no important resolution c\ld be pass$ 9 ,congress )\t ! votes ( n9e ,/ates4 ,no am5dm5t 0 possible1 except by ! votes ( all ! ,/ates4 ,congress became con/antly weak] z v>i\s memb]s resign$ to accept positions "u ,/ate au?ority4 ,9 t mo/ dang]\s p]iod ( our hi/ory1 ext5d+ f #aghc to #aghh1 aptly call$ ! critical p]iod1 x became con/antly m app>5t t gov]nm5t "u ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation 0 a failure4 ,=tunately1 9 ?is h\r ( gloom1 !re came =w>d ,wa%+ton1 ,hamilton1 ,madison1 & o!r lead]s1 :o 7 prep>$1 if ne$ be1 to make compromises1 b :o 7 det]m9$ to pres]ve ! elem5ts ( ! union already secur$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,h[ 0 ! /amp act reg>d$ 9 ! diff]5t colonies z %[n by ! addresses made & resolutions (f]$8 ,h>t1 ,contempor>ies1 ,,ii1 #cie-daa2 ,tyl]1 ,patrick ,h5ry 7,am]ican ,/atesm571 ,*apt]s #e & #f4 #b4 ,d y "k ( o!r in/ances 9 our hi/ory :]e a /amp act has be5 pass$8 ,h[ 0 x reg>d$8 ,9 :at ways 0 x diff]5t f t ( #agfe8 #c4 ,:at 0 ! orig9 ( ! committees ( correspond5ce & h[ did !y aid 9 unification8 ,sloane1 ,! ,fr5* ,w> & ! ,revolution1 #afa1 #afb2 ,h>t1 ,=mation ( ! ,union1 #eg4 #d4 ,analyze ! ,decl>ation ( ,indep5d5ce1 & select f x ! causes = ! ,revolution4 #e4 ,:y 0 ! adoption ( ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation s long delay$8 ,h>t1 ,contempor>ies1 ,,ii1 #eci-edc2 ,fiske1 ,! ,critical ,p]iod1 #ic1 #ie2 ,walk]1 ,! ,mak+ ( ! ,nation1 #f2 ,h>t1 ,=mation ( ! ,union1 #ic-ie4 #f4 ,read ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation 7,app5dix ,b74 7a7 ,h[ 0 ! ,congress compos$8 7,art4 ,v47 7b7 ,! numb] necess>y = a quorum8 7,art4 ,x47 7c7 ,! p[]s ( ,congress8 7,art4 ,,ix47 7d7 ,p[]s ( ! sep>ate ,/ates 7,art4 ,,viii47 #g4 ,defects ( ! ,conf$]ation4 ,h>t1 ,contempor>ies1 ,,ii1 #eia-fjc4 #h4 ,:at 0 ! attitude t[>d union dur+ ! p]iod #aghc-aghh8 ,7 !re notable bonds ( union ev5 at ?is "t8 ,:at o!r influ5ces h increas$ ?is s5tim5t8 ,fiske1 ,critical ,p]iod1 #ee-fc2 ,walk]1 ,! ,mak+ ( ! ,nation1 #g1 #h4 #i4 ,presid5t ,roosevelt said1 9 an address deliv]$ ,april #i1 #aijb1 at ,*>le/on1 ,s4,c41 ,:5 f\r ye>s ago ?is nation 0 compell$ to face a =eign foe1 ! complet5ess ( ! reunion became in/antly & /rik+ly evid5t4 ,:at is 8 mean+8 ,h[ does ! /atem5t illu/rate ! po9t emphasiz$ 9 ?is *apt]1 t a common dang] produces union8 #aj4 ,describe ! "* ( ! money us$ 9 #aghc & succe$+ ye>s4 ,:at 0 its influ5ce8 ,fiske1 ,critical ,p]iod1 #afb-ahf4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,con/itutional ,,conv5tion4 ,ev5ts ,lead+ to ! ,con/itutional ,conv5tion4--,among ! _m difficulties t arose dur+ ! p]iod ( ! conf$]ation 7 con/ant disputes betwe5 ,virg9ia & ,m>yl& ov] ! navigation ( ! ,potomac ,riv] & ,*esapeake ,bay4 ,f9ally1 9 ,m>*1 #aghe1 commission]s f ^! ,/ates met at ,alex&ria to consid] ^! difficulties4 ,! outcome ( ! meet+ 0 t ,virg9ia propos$ a conv5tion & call$ = delegates f all ( ! ,/ates to meet to consid] h[ comm]ce %\ld be controll$4 ,delegates f five ,/ates only 7 pres5t at ,annapolis on ! day appo9t$1 ,septemb] #aa1 #aghf4 ,no?+ p]man5t c\ld be accompli%$ ) s few ,/ates repres5t$4 ,be=e adj\rn+1 h[ev]1 !y agre$ to a resolution1 fram$ by ,alex&] ,hamilton1 :i* propos$ ! call+ ( a conv5tion at ,philadelphia to am5d ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4 ,! ,f$]al ,conv5tion1 #aghg2 ,delegates4--,all ( ! ,/ates1 ,rhode ,isl& except$1 7 f9ally repres5t$ 9 ?is1 "o ( ! mo/ notable conv5tions 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w4 ,among ! fifty-five delegates assembl$ 7 _m :o _h already be5 conspicu\s 9 public affairs4 ,!y 7 ! *oice m5 ( ! ,/ates f :i* !y came4 ,tw5ty-n9e ( ! numb] 7 univ]sity m54 ,wa%+ton & ,frankl9 7 pres5t1 & ,wa%+ton 0 unanim\sly *os5 presid5t ( ! conv5tion4 ,nei!r ( ^! m5 took an active "p 9 ! debates2 b _! pres5ce gave inspiration to ! o!r memb]s1 & !y _h untold influ5ce at critical times4 ,among ! able/ memb]s 7 ,alex&] ,hamilton ( ,new ,york2 ,james ,madison ( ,virg9ia2 ,oliv] ,ellswor? & ,william ,s4 ,johnson ( ,connecticut2 ,james ,wilson & ,g\v]neur ,morris ( ,p5nsylvania2 ,rufus ,k+ ( ,massa*usetts2 & ,*>les ,c4 ,p9ckney ( ,s\? ,c>ol9a4 ,our ,k ( ! ,conv5tion4--,! ,conv5tion la/$ f ,may #be to ,septemb] #ag1 #aghg4 ,! sessions 7 secret4 ,=tunately we are n dep5d5t on ! secret>y's report alone = our k ( ! meet+s4#h ,mr4 ,madison seem$ to und]/& ! full mean+ ( ! conv5tion f ! fir/1 & decid$ to give an accurate acc\nt ( ! proce$+s4 ,he wrote3 ,nor 0 ,i unaw>e ( ! value ( su* a contribution to ! fund ( mat]ials = ! hi/ory ( a ,con/itution on :i* %\ld be /ak$ ! happ9ess ( a p great ev5 9 its infancy1 & possibly ! cause ( lib]ty ?r\gh\t ! _w4 ,8 notes 7 pur*as$ by ! gov]nm5t f ,mrs4 ,madison1 9 #ahcg1 = ! sum ( ?irty ?\s& doll>s4 ,!y 7 publi%$ z ,madison's ,j\rnal ( ! ,con/itutional ,conv5tion4 ,footnote #h3 ,x 0 publi%$ 9 #ahai z a "p ( ,volume ,i ( ,elliot's ,debates4 ,plans = a ,gov]nm5t2 ,virg9ia ,plan4--,! magnitude ( ! labors ( ?is conv5tion c be und]/ood only :5 we read ! report ( ! discussions z giv5 by ,madison4 ,x 0 at once det]m9$ t no "t %\ld be lo/ 9 pat*+ up ! articles1 b t a new ,con/itution %\ld be =m$4 ,two sets ( resolutions 7 e>ly submitt$1 ea* sett+ =? a plan ( gov]nm5t4 ,! ,virg9ia plan 0 l>gely ! "w ( ,mr4 ,madison4 ,x provid$ = ! e/abli%m5t ( a national gov]nm5t ) supreme legislative1 executive1 & judicial p[]s4 ,! legislative p[] 0 to be ve/$ 9 a ,congress ( two sep>ate h\ses4 ,! executive 0 to be *os5 by bo? h\ses ( ,congress & ! judici>y by ! ,s5ate4 ,repres5tation 9 bo? h\ses ( ,congress 0 to be bas$ on population or ! contributions to ! support ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,?is s*eme 0 fi]cely attack$ by ! delegates f ! small ,/ates1 = x w\ld cle>ly give control into ! h&s ( ! m p[]ful ,/ates4 ,! ,new ,j]sey ,plan4--,! ,new ,j]sey plan1 pres5t$ by ,mr4 ,patt]son ( t ,/ate1 0 agre$ ^u by ! memb]s f ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,delaw>e1 & ,m>yl&4 ,?is ,small-,/ate plan1 s call$1 provid$ = a cont9uance ( ! gov]nm5t "u ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4 ,!y 7 to be revis$ 9 su* a mann] z to give ,congress ! p[] to regulate comm]ce1 to raise rev5ue1 & to co]ce ! ,/ates4 ,! ,small-,/ate p>ty insi/$ t ! ,virg9ia plan1 if adopt$1 w\ld de/roy ! sov]eignty ( ! ,/ates4 ,!y w\ld r1 !y said1 submit to a =eign p[] ?an be depriv$ ( equality ( suffrage 9 bo? bran*es ( ! legislature4 ,madison1 ,wilson1 ,k+1 & o!r lead]s ( ! ,l>ge-,/ate p>ty decl>$ t ! basis = ! new gov]nm5t 0 to be ! p & n ! ,/ates2 t x w\ld be unfair to give ,delaw>e z _m repres5tatives z ,virg9ia or ,p5nsylvania4 ,aft] _m days ( fruitless debate1 a compromise1 sometimes call$ ! ,fir/ ,great ,compromise1 0 pres5t$ & f9ally adopt$4 ,?is provid$ t ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %\ld be compos$ ( memb]s elect$ on ! basis ( population4 ,9 ! ,s5ate1 l>ge & small ,/ates 7 to be equally repres5t$4 ,! ,slav]y ,problem2 ,second ,compromise4--,h[ 0 ! numb] ( ! repres5tatives to be f\nd8 ,7 slaves to be c\nt$ a "p ( ! population8 ,a heat$ debate arose ov] ^! que/ions4 ,! delegates f ,s\? ,c>ol9a ma9ta9$ t slaves 7 a "p ( ! population & z su* %\ld be c\nt$4 ,! answ] 0 made t slaves 7 n repres5t$ 9 ! legislatures ( t & o!r ,/ates2 t slaves 7 reg>d$ 9 ^? ,/ates m]ely z s mu* prop]ty1 & z su* ought nev] to be repres5t$4 ,f9ally1 :5 x seem$ t ! "w ( ! conv5tion mu/ fail1 a compromise1 kn[n z ! ?ree-fif?s compromise1 0 accept$4 ,?is provid$ t all free p %\ld be c\nt$ & ?ree-fif?s ( ! slaves4 ,! ,?ird ,compromise4--,slave-trade & comm]ce 7 ! causes = a ?ird compromise4 ,s\? ,c>ol9a & ,georgia desir$ to h ! importation ( slaves cont9u$4 ,"s ( ! o!r ,s\!rn ,/ates & ! ,nor!rn ,/ates g5]ally 7 oppos$4 ,! ,new ,engl& memb]s 7 anxi\s t ! ,national gov]nm5t %\ld h complete control ( =eign comm]ce4 ,?is 0 resi/$ by "s ( ! ,s\!rn delegates1 :o fe>$ t ! importation ( slaves might !reby be prohibit$4 ,f9ally1 a compromise 0 agre$ ^u :i* gave ,congress p[] ov] =eign & int]/ate comm]ce1 b =bade any act :i* might prohibit ! importation ( slaves be=e #ahjh4 ,x 0 also agre$ t a tax ( t5 doll>s ea* might be laid on all slaves import$4 ,:ile ! entire ,con/itution may be said to be made up ( compromises1 ! agreem5t ^u ^! ?ree r5d]$ ! fur!r "w ( ! conv5tion possible4 ,sign+ ! ,con/itution4--,g\v]neur ,morris 0 select$ to give ! docum5t its f9al =m4 ,! cle>1 simple ,engli% us$ is due l>gely to him4 ,aft] ?irty-n9e memb]s1 repres5t+ twelve diff]5t ,/ates1 _h sign$ ! ,con/itution1 ! conv5tion adj\rn$4 ,:ile ! la/ signatures 7 be+ writt51 ,frankl9 said to ^? /&+ ne> him1 z he call$ att5tion to a sun blazon$ on ! back ( ! ,presid5t's *air3 ,i h1 (t5 & (t51 9 ! c\rse ( ! session1 & ! vicissitudes ( my hopes & fe>s z to its issue1 look$ at t beh9d ! ,presid5t1 )\t be+ able to tell :e!r x 0 ris+ or sett+2 b n[1 at l5g?1 ,i h ! happ9ess to "k t x is a ris+ & n a sett+ sun4 ,difficulties ( ,ratification4--,! conv5tion submitt$ ! ,con/itution to ,congress4 ,"h1 = eight days1 x 0 attack$ by its oppon5ts4 ,f9ally1 ,congress pass$ x on to ! ,/ate legislatures4 ,x 0 s5t by !m to ,/ate conv5tions elect$ by ! p4 ,?is ratification 0 provid$ = by ,article ,,vii ( ! ,con/itution1 z foll[s3 ,! ratification ( ! conv5tions ( n9e ,/ates %all be suffici5t = ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is ,con/itution betwe5 ! ,/ates s ratify+ ! same4 ,! p]iod includ$ betwe5 ,septemb] #bh1 #aghg1 :5 ,congress transmitt$ ! ,con/itution to ! ,/ate legislatures1 & ,june #ba1 #aghh1 :5 ,new ,hamp%ire1 ! la/ ( ! necess>y n9e ,/ates1 ratifi$1 0 "o ( ! mo/ critical 9 our hi/ory4 ,political p>ties1 9 a truly ,national s5se1 7 =m$ = ! fir/ "t4 ,among ! lead]s :o def5d$ ably ! views ( ^? :o oppos$ ! ratification ( ! ,con/itution 7 ,patrick ,h5ry1 ,ri*>d ,h5ry ,lee1 ,elbridge ,g]ry1 & ,george ,cl9ton4 ,x 0 urg$ t !re 0 no bill ( rights1#i t ! ,presid5t w\ld become a despot1 & t equality ( repres5tation 9 ! ,s5ate 0 an inju/ice to ! l>g] ,/ates4 ,lett]s f ! ,f$]al ,f>m]1 prep>$ = ! press ( ! c\ntry by ,ri*>d ,h5ry ,lee1 set =? cle>ly ! views ( ! ,anti-,con/itutional p>ty4 ,footnote #i3 ,a bill ( rights1 9 :i* ! idea ( ! rights ( man 7 set =?1 0 a significant "p ( ne>ly all ! ,/ate con/itutions4 ,engli%m51 g5]ally1 _h be5 famili> ) ! =mal /atem5t ( ^! pr9ciples s9ce #afhi1 :5 ,william & ,m>y accept$ ! ,decl>ation ( ,rights z a condition ( _! receiv+ ! cr[n ( ,engl&4 ,dur+ ! same ye> ,p>liam5t gave ! ,decl>ation ( ,rights ! =m ( a /atute1 "u ! "n ( ! ,bill ( ,rights4 ,among o!r rights x dem&$ t ! k+1 )\t ! sanction ( ,p>liam5t1 %\ld n raise an army1 secure money1 or susp5d ! laws2 also1 t ! "r ( petition1 fre$om 9 ! ex]cise ( religion1 & equality "u ! laws 7 to be grant$ all subjects4 ,! ,f$]ali/4--,no influ5ce 0 m notewor?y 9 br++ ab\t ratification ?an a s]ies ( political essays aft]w>d collect$ "u ! "n ( ,! ,f$]ali/4 ,x is consid]$ to-day ! be/ comm5t>y on ! ,con/itution ev] writt54 ,alex&] ,hamilton orig9at$ ! plan1 & wrote #ea ( ! #he numb]s4 ,james ,madison wrote #bi1 & ,john ,jay #e4 ,! ,influ5ce ( ,wa%+ton4--,wa%+ton 0 aga9 a giant 9 8 support ( ! ,con/itution4 ,9 a lett] to ,patrick ,h5ry he e>ly s\nd$ an effective note ( w>n+ aga9/ an>*y1 express+ ! v fe> t f9ally l$ _m 9 ! conv5tions to vote = ! ,con/itution4 ,he wrote3 ,i wi% ! ,con/itution :i* is (f]$ _h be5 m p]fect2 b x is ! be/ t c\ld be obta9$ at ?is "t1 & a door is op5 = am5dm5ts h]eaft]4 ,! political conc]ns ( ?is c\ntry are susp5d$ by a ?read4 ,! conv5tion has be5 look$ up to by ! reflect+ "p ( ! community ) a solicitude :i* is h>dly to be conceiv$1 & if no?+ _h be5 agre$ ^u by t body1 an>*y w\ld soon h ensu$1 ! se$s be+ deeply s[n 9 e soil4 ,ratification ,secur$4--,delaw>e1 ! fir/ ,/ate1 ratifi$ ,decemb] #f1 #aghg1 )\t a diss5t+ vote4 ,p5nsylvania1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,georgia1 & ,connecticut foll[$ quickly4 ,mu* dep5d$ on ! action ( ! ,massa*usetts conv5tion4 ,aft] prolong$ debate1 ! delegates 7 f9ally influ5c$ by ! /atem5t t am5dm5ts might be made1 & !y ratifi$ ! ,con/itution by a vote ( #ahg to #afh4 ,! n9? ,/ate 0 secur$ 9 ! ratification by ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,june #ba1 #aghh4 ,x 0 n until ,novemb] #ba1 #aghi1 h[ev]1 t ,nor? ,c>ol9a vot$ to accept ! ,con/itution4 ,rhode ,isl& held out until ,may #bi1 #agij4 ,! ,new ,gov]nm5t ,put into ,op]ation4--,:5 ! ratification ( ! n9? ,/ate _h be5 secur$1 ,congress appo9t$ a special committee to frame an act = putt+ ! ,con/itution into op]ation4 ,x 0 enact$ t ! fir/ ,w$nesday 9 ,janu>y %\ld be ! day = appo9t+ electors2 t ! electors %\ld ca/ _! votes = ,presid5t on ! fir/ ,w$nesday 9 ,febru>y1 & t on ! fir/ ,w$nesday ( ,m>* ! new gov]nm5t %\ld g into op]ation4 ,x 0 n until ,april #a t a quorum 0 secur$ 9 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 & 9 ! ,s5ate n until ,april #f4 ,! electoral votes 7 c\nt$ 9 ! pres5ce ( ! two h\ses on ,april #f4aj ,! inauguration ( ,presid5t ,wa%+ton did n take place1 h[ev]1 until ,april #cj4 ,footnote #aj3 ,new ,york did n *oose electors4 ,nor? ,c>ol9a & ,rhode ,isl&1 z we h se51 _h n ratifi$ ! ,con/itution4 ,orig9 ( ! ,con/itution4--,be=e mak+ a /udy ( ?is epo*-mak+ docum5t1 let u inquire briefly z to its orig94 ,an analysis ( ! ,con/itution %[s t !re are "s provisions :i* are new & t ,engli% prec$5t _h an influ5ce4 ,! ma9 features1 h[ev]1 7 d]iv$ f ! con/itutions ( ! ,/ates ) ^: practical work+s ! delegates 7 famili>4 ,! foll[+ well-kn[n /atem5t is an excell5t summ>y3 ,ne>ly e provision ( ! ,f$]al ,con/itution t has work$ well is "o borr[$ f or sugge/$ by "s ,/ate con/itution2 ne>ly e provision t has work$ badly is "o :i* ! conv5tion1 = want ( a prec$5t1 0 oblig$ to devise = itself4 ,au?ority & ,objects ( ! ,con/itution4--,x 0 evid5tly ! int5tion ( ! fram]s ( ! ,con/itution to f\nd a gov]nm5t d]iv+ its au?ority f ! p r ?an f ! ,/ates4 ,! purposes = :i* ?is 0 done are set =? 9 ! foll[+ enact+ clause1 commonly call$ ! preamble3-- ,we1 ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ord] to =m a m p]fect union1 e/abli% ju/ice1 insure dome/ic tranquility1 provide = ! common def5se1 promote ! g5]al welf>e1 & secure ! bless+s ( lib]ty to ourselves & our po/]ity1 d orda9 & e/abli% ?is ,con/itution = ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,?is clause 0 attack$ vigor\sly by ! oppon5ts ( ! ,con/itution1 & especially 9 ! ,virg9ia & ! ,nor? ,c>ol9a conv5tions4 ,said ,patrick ,h5ry3 ,& "h ,i w\ld make ?is inquiry ( ^? wor?y *>act]s :o compos$ a "p ( ! late ,f$]al ,conv5tion4444 ,i h ! highe/ v5]ation = ^? g5tlem52 b1 sir1 give me leave to dem& :at "r _h !y to say1 ',we1 ! p'8444 ,:o au?oriz$ !m to speak ! language (1 ,we1 ! p1 in/ead (1 ,we1 ! ,/ates8 ,if ! ,/ates be n ! ag5ts ( ?is compact1 x mu/ be "o great1 consolidat$1 national gov]nm5t ( ! p ( all ! ,/ates4 ,x 0 argu$1 on ! o!r h&1 by ,r&olph1 ,madison1 & o!rs1 t ! gov]nm5t1 "u ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation1 0 a failure1 & t ! only safe c\rse to pursue 0 to h a gov]nm5t emanat+ f ! p in/ead ( f ! ,/ates1 if ! union ( ! ,/ates & ! pres]vation ( ! lib]ties ( ! p 7 to be pres]v$4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,read+s4 #a4 ,= an acc\nt ( ! memb]s ( ! conv5tion1 see ,h>t1 ,contempor>ies1 ,,iii1 #bje-baa4 #b4 ,= ! contributions ( ! individuals & ! classes ( delegates1 see ,walk]1 ,! ,mak+ ( ! ,nation1 #bc-bg2 ,fiske1 ,critical ,p]iod1 #bbd-bbi4 #c4 ,discuss ! peculi> conditions 9 ,massa*usetts4 ,give ! argum5ts pres5t$4 ,walk]1 #ef-eg2 ,fiske1 ,critical ,p]iod1 #caf-cca4 #d4 ,h[ 0 ! ,con/itution reg>d$ 9 ,virg9ia8 ,walk]1 #eh1 #fj2 ,fiske1 ,critical ,p]iod1 #ccd-cch4 #e4 ,:at 0 ! attitude ( ! ,new ,york ,conv5tion t[>d ! ,con/itution8 ,fiske1 ,critical ,p]iod1 #cdj-cde4 #f4 ,:at objections 7 made aga9/ ! ,con/itution 9 ,nor? ,c>ol9a8 ,h>t1 ,contempor>ies1 ,,iii1 #bea-bed4 #g4 ,:at w\ld h be5 ! /atus ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a & ,rhode ,isl& if !y _h n ratifi$8 ,walk]1 #gc1 #gd2 ,h>t1 ,=mation ( ! ,union1 #acb1 #acc4 #h4 ,%[ ! influ5ce ( ! ,/ate con/itutions on ! ,f$]al ,con/itution4 ,james & ,san=d1 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 #aag4 #i4 ,= o!r que/ions on ! mat]ial 9 ?is *apt]1 see ,fiske1 ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 #baa1 #bab2 ,james & ,san=d1 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 #ace1 #acf1 #acg4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,organization ,,( ,,! ,,legislative ,,dep>tm5t4 ,,article ,i4 ,a ,congress ( ,two ,h\ses4--,section i4 ,all legislative p[]s1 h]e9 grant$1 %all be ve/$ 9 a ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* %all consi/ ( a ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,9 ! ,con/itutional ,conv5tion1 ! ,p5nsylvania delegates 7 ! only ones :o object$ to ! =mation ( a legislative body hav+ two h\ses4 ,x 0 believ$ t ) two h\ses "o w\ld be a *eck ^u ! o!r1 & t !re w\ld be less dang] ( ha/y & oppressive legislation4 ,ano!r reason = ! =mation ( a congress hav+ two h\ses 0 t ! coloni/s 7 famili> ) ?is k9d ( legislature4 ,x exi/$ 9 all ( ! ,/ates1 ,p5nsylvania & ,georgia except$4 ,t]m ( ,memb]s & ,qualifications ( ,electors4--,section #b1 ,clause #a4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all be compos$ ( memb]s *os5 e second ye> by ! p ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 & ! electors 9 ea* ,/ate %all h ! qualifications requisite = electors ( ! mo/ num]\s bran* ( ! ,/ate legislature4 ,a %ort t]m = repres5tatives 0 agre$ ^u1 = x 0 ! design to make !m dep5d5t on ! w ( ! p4 ,! "q frequ5tly arises1 !re=e1 ought repres5tatives to be compell$ to receive in/ructions f ^? :o elect !m8 ,may we n agree t our legislation w\ld (t5 be m effici5t if ! welf>e ( ! nation 7 consid]$1 r ?an :at seems1 = ! mom5t1 to be only ! conc]n ( a di/rict or ev51 a ,/ate8 ,secur+ ! be/ int]e/s ( all may mean at times1 also1 ! sacrifice ( m]e p>ty pr9ciples4 ,:o ,may ,vote = ,repres5tatives4--,by ! words p & electors is meant vot]s4 ,) ! desire to make ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives ! m popul> bran*1 x 0 decid$ to grant ! "r ( vot+ = a repres5tative to any p]son :o might be privileg$ to vote = a memb] ( ! l[] h\se ( ! legislature ( 8 ,/ate4 ,! fre$om ( a ,/ate to det]m9e :at ^! qualifications are is limit$ only by ! provisions ( ! ,fifte5? ,am5dm5t3-- ,am5dm5t ,,xv4 ,! "r ( citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to vote %all n be d5i$ or abridg$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or by any ,/ate1 on acc\nt ( race1 color1 or previ\s condition ( s]vitude4 ,?is am5dm5t 0 propos$ by ,congress 9 ,febru>y1 #ahfi1 & 0 decl>$ 9 =ce1 ,m>* #cj1 #ahgj4 ,x 0 = ! purpose ( grant+ m complete political rights to ! negroes1 rec5tly decl>$1 by ,am5dm5t ,,xiv1 to be citiz5s4 ,me?od & ,"t ( ,*oos+ ,repres5tatives4--,! ,con/itution prescribes t repres5tatives %all be elect$ by ! p4 ,congress has provid$ t repres5tatives %all be *os5 on ! ,tuesday next aft] ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,novemb] ( ! ev5-numb]$ ye>s4#aa ,congress has also decre$ t repres5tatives %all be *os5 by di/ricts2 b ! ,/ate legislature has complete control ( ! di/rict+ ( its ,/ate4 ,h[ev]1 ,congress has decl>$ t ^! di/ricts %all be compos$ ( contigu\s t]ritory1 & conta91 z ne>ly z practicable1 an equal numb] ( inhabitants4 ,n[1 usage has def9$ t]ritory to be contigu\s :5 x t\*es ano!r portion ( ! di/rict at any "o po9t4 ,z a result ( ?is que/ionable int]pretation1 "s ,/ates h be5 divid$ into di/ricts ( fanta/ic %apes1 to promote ! int]e/s ( ! p>ty hav+ ! majority 9 ! ,/ate legislature4#ab ,footnote #aa3 ,! only exceptions to ?is rule are3 ,ma9e holds its election on ! second ,monday 9 ,septemb]1 & ,v]mont on ! fir/ ,tuesday 9 ,novemb]4 ,footnote #ab3 ,?is process is call$ g]rym&]+4 ,see1 also1 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 pp4 #ace1 #acf4 ,proportional ,repres5tation4--,proportional repres5tation1 :i* is com+ into favor 9 ^! days1 w\ld d\btless d mu* t[>d rem$y+ ?is abuse4 ,accord+ to ! pres5t sy/em ( elect+ repres5tatives by di/ricts1 l>ge m9orities ( vot]s are n repres5t$4 ,num]\s plans ( ,proportional ,repres5tation h be5 advocat$4 ,"o su* plan is 9 op]ation 9 ,ill9ois#ac = ! election ( memb]s to ! ,/ate h\se ( repres5tatives4 ,ea* di/rict elects ?ree memb]s on a g5]al ticket4 ,! vot] may give "o vote to ea* c&idate1 or "o & a half votes to ea* ( two c&idates1 or ?ree votes to a s+le c&idate4 ,!re=e1 ! m9ority1 by conc5trat+ _! votes on "o c&idate1 may elect a repres5tative to ! legislature1 :5 "u ! di/rict sy/em !y w\ld n be repres5t$4 ,footnote #ac3 ,on proportional repres5tation1 read ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 pp4 #ad1 #ae4 ,qualifications ( ,repres5tatives4--,section #b1 ,clause #b4 ,no p]son %all be a repres5tative :o %all n h atta9$ to ! age ( tw5ty-five ye>s1 & be5 sev5 ye>s a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :o %all n1 :5 elect$1 be an inhabitant ( t ,/ate 9 :i* he %all be *os54 ,9 ! orig9al ,/ates !re 0 great div]sity ( qualifications = memb]s ( ! l[] h\ses ( _! legislatures4 ,b "s uni=m sy/em 0 necess>y = ! ,national organization1 & s ! few simple requirem5ts ( ?is clause 7 introduc$4 ,x is und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t ! ,/ates may n add o!r qualifications4 ,:ile a repres5tative mu/ be an inhabitant ( ! ,/ate 9 :i* he is *os51 he ne$ n1 s f> z ! ,con/itution requires1 be an inhabitant ( ! di/rict4 ,b ! in/ances h be5 few 9 :i* a memb] ( ! ,h\se has n be5 also an inhabitant ( ! di/rict :i* he repres5ts4 ,accord+ to ! ,engli% sy/em ( repres5tation1 a memb] ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons frequ5tly repres5ts a bor\gh or c\nty 9 an entirely diff]5t "p ( ! k+dom f t ( :i* he is an inhabitant4 ,may ! ,h\se refuse to admit a p]son duly elect$ & possess+ ! necess>y qualifications8 ,?is "q arose 9 ! #ef? ,congress1 9 ! case ( ,brigham ,rob]ts ( ,utah4 ,he 0 f9ally exclud$4 ,pres5t ,sy/em ( ,apportion+ ,repres5tatives4--,section #b ( ,am5dm5t ,,xiv conta9s ! rule ( apportionm5t t is n[ 9 op]ation4 ,?is became a "p ( ! ,con/itution1 ,july #bh1 #ahfh4 ,repres5tatives %all be apportion$ among ! sev]al ,/ates accord+ to _! respective numb]s1 c\nt+ ! :ole numb] ( p]sons 9 ea* ,/ate1 exclud+ ,indians n tax$4 ,b :5 ! "r to vote at any election = ! *oice ( electors = ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 repres5tatives 9 ,congress1 ! executive & judicial (fic]s ( a ,/ate1 or ! memb]s ( ! legislature !re(1 is d5i$ to any ( ! male inhabitants ( su* ,/ate1 be+ tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age1 & citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or 9 any way abridg$1 except = p>ticipation 9 rebellion or o!r crime1 ! basis ( repres5tation !re9 %all be r$uc$ 9 ! proportion :i* ! numb] ( su* male citiz5s %all be> to ! :ole numb] ( male citiz5s tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age 9 su* ,/ate4 ,! second s5t5ce ( ?is section 0 fram$ 9 ! belief t ! ,/ates1 r ?an lose a portion ( _! repres5tatives 9 ,congress1 w\ld grant ! "r ( suffrage to negroes already decl>$ to be citiz5s4 ,b proportional r$uction ( repres5tatives 0 nev] put into practical op]ation1 = be=e ! next apportionm5t ( repres5tatives1 ,am5dm5t ,,xv became a "p ( ! ,con/itution1 & negro suffrage 0 put on ! same basis z :ite4 ,h[ev]1 ! en=cem5t ( ,section #b ( ,am5dm5t ,,xiv has be5 /rongly urg$ 9 our own "t4 ,?is is because x is e/imat$ t _m ?\s&s h be5 disfran*is$ ?r\gh ! re/rictions on ! "r ( suffrage f\nd 9 sev]al ( our ,/ate con/itutions4 ,"s require an educational te/ & o!rs a prop]ty qualification = vot+4 ,! ,indians n tax$ d\btless ref]s to ^? ,indians :o /ill ma9ta9 _! tribal relations or :o live on res]vations 9 ! sev]al ,/ates4 ,_! memb]1 accord+ to ! c5sus ( #aiaj1 0 #abi1eah4 ,e>ly ,apportionm5t4--,! numb] ( repres5tatives to :i* ea* ( ! ,/ates 0 orig9ally entitl$ is giv5 9 ,section #b1 ,clause #c1 ( ! article we are n[ consid]+ z foll[s3-- ,repres5tatives & direct taxes %all be apportion$ among ! sev]al ,/ates :i* may be includ$ )9 ?is ,union1 accord+ to _! respective numb]s1 :i* %all be det]m9$ by add+ to ! :ole numb] ( free p]sons1 includ+ ^? b\nd to s]vice = a t]m ( ye>s1 & exclud+ ,indians n tax$1 ?ree-fif?s ( all o!r p]sons4 ,! actual enum]ation %all be made )9 ?ree ye>s aft] ! fir/ meet+ ( ! ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & )9 e subsequ5t t]m ( t5 ye>s1 9 su* mann] z !y %all by law direct4 ,! numb] ( repres5tatives %all n exce$ "o = e ?irty ?\s&1 b ea* ,/ate %all h at lea/ "o repres5tative2 & until su* enum]ation %all be made1 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,hamp%ire %all be entitl$ to *oose ?ree1 ,massa*usetts eight1 ,rhode ,isl& & ,provid5ce ,plantations "o1 ,connecticut five1 ,new ,york six1 ,new ,j]sey f\r1 ,p5nsylvania eight1 ,delaw>e "o1 ,m>yl& six1 ,virg9ia t51 ,nor? ,c>ol9a five1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a five1 & ,georgia ?ree4 ,! ?ree-fif?s rule 0 r5d]$ void by ! adoption ( ,am5dm5t ,,xiii1 :i* aboli%$ slav]y1 s9ce !re 7 no long] ! o!r p]sons4 ,t "p ( ! clause :i* provides = ! lay+ ( direct taxes is /ill 9 =ce4 ,! ,c5sus4--,9 ord] to c>ry out ! provision ( ! ,con/itution1 an actual enum]ation 0 made 9 #agij4 ,s9ce t date !re has be5 a c5sus e t5 ye>s4 ,! tak+ ( ! c5sus & ! compilation & publication ( ! /ati/ics connect$ ) x are "u ! sup]vision ( ! director ( ! c5sus4 ,"w on ! ?irte5? c5sus 0 begun ,april #ae1 #aiaj1 & requir$ "s #fe1jjj enum]ators1 #cejj cl]ks1 & #ahjj special ag5ts4 ,! co/ 0 "s #ab1jjj1jjj4 ,! mo/ important volumes f\nd 9 ! report are ^? on population1#ad manufactures1 & agriculture4 ,! tak+ ( ! c5sus w1 9 ! future1 be m economical & effici5t because ( ! e/abli%m5t ( ! p]man5t c5sus bureau by an act ( ,congress 9 #aijb4 ,footnote #ad3 ,! population ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 accord+ to ! fir/ c5sus1 0 #c1ibi1bad4 ,! population 9 #aiaj 0 #ia1igb1bff2 includ+ ! possessions & dep5d5cies1 #aja1jjj1jjj4 ,ratio ( ,repres5tation4--,! ,con/itution provid$ t !re %\ld be #fe memb]s 9 ! fir/ ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,aft] ! fir/ c5sus1 ,congress agre$ t !re %\ld be "o repres5tative = ea* #cc1jjj ( ! population4 ,?is gave a h\se ) #aje repres5tatives4 ,f t "t ! ratio ( repres5tation has be5 *ang$ e t5 ye>s4 ,o!rwise1 ) ! rapid increase 9 population1 ! ,h\se w\ld soon become too l>ge4 ,! ratio adopt$ by ! act ( #aiaa 0 "o repres5tative to #baa1hgg p4#ae ,aft] ,m>* #d1 #aiac1 !re=e1 !re w be at lea/ #dcc memb]s1 an increase ( #db4af ,footnote #ae3 ,= ! me?od ( apportionm5t1 see ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 p4 #abh4 ,footnote #af3 ,! numb] ( memb]s 9 ! ,engli% ,h\se ( ,commons is #fgj2 9 ! ,fr5* ,*amb] ( ,deputies1 #ehd2 & 9 ! ,g]man ,rei*/ag1 #cif4 ,memb]s f ,new ,/ates4--,%\ld a new ,/ate be admitt$ aft] ! apportionm5t is made1 its repres5tatives are always additional to ! numb] provid$ = by law4 ,! ,con/itution provides t ea* ,/ate %all h at lea/ "o repres5tative4 ,if ?is provision _h n be5 made1 ! ,/ates ( ,arizona1 ,delaw>e1 ,nevada1 & ,wyom+1 ea* hav+ a small] population ?an ! ratio adopt$ 9 #aiaj1 w\ld n be repres5t$4 ,t]ritorial ,delegates4--,! organiz$ ,t]ritories are ea* entitl$ to s5d a delegate to ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,he is all[$ to speak on any "q t has to d ) 8 ,t]ritory1 b may n vote4 ,vacancies4--,section #b1 ,clause #d4 ,:5 vacancies happ5 9 ! repres5tation f any ,/ate1 ! executive au?ority !re( %all issue writs ( election to fill su* vacancies4 ,:5 a vacancy occurs 9 ! repres5tation f any ,/ate on acc\nt ( dea?1 expulsion1 or = o!r cause1 x is made ! duty ( ! gov]nor ( ! ,/ate 9 :i* ! vacancy exi/s to call = a special election 9 t di/rict to *oose a repres5tative = ! rema9d] ( ! t]m4 ,(fic]s4--,section #b1 ,clause #e4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all *oose _! ,speak] & o!r (fic]s1 & %all h ! sole p[] ( impea*m5t4 ,! speak]1 :o is ! presid+ (fic]1 has always be5 a memb] ( ! ,h\se1 b ! ,con/itution does n say t he %all be4 ,! o!r (fic]s are ! cl]k1 s]geant-at-arms1 doorkeep]1 po/ma/]1 & *apla91 none ( :om is a memb] ( ! ,h\se4 ,numb] & ,t]m ( ,(fice ( ,s5ators4--,section #c1 ,clause #a4 ,! ,s5ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be compos$ ( two s5ators f ea* ,/ate1 elect$ by ! p !re(1 = six ye>s2 & ea* s5ator %all h "o vote4 ,! electors 9 ea* ,/ate %all h ! qualifications requisite = electors ( ! mo/ num]\s bran* ( ! ,/ate legislature4 ,z we h se51 ! provision t !re %\ld be two s5ators f ea* ,/ate 0 ! result ( a compromise4 ,consequ5tly1 ,new ,york & ,p5nsylvania h ! same numb] z ,delaw>e & ,nevada4#ag ,! t]m ( six ye>s = s5ators 0 likewise a compromise measure4 ,!re 7 memb]s ( ! conv5tion :o favor$ ?ree ye>s2 o!rs want$ n9e ye>s1 & ,hamilton desir$ t ! t]m %\ld be dur+ good behavior4 ,_m ,/ates h practically l5g!n$ ! prescrib$ t]m by ! wise policy ( return+ acceptable s5ators = m ?an "o t]m4 ,footnote #ag3 ,! ,s5ate n[ conta9s #if memb]s2 ! ,engli% ,h\se ( ,lords1 #efj2 & ! ,fr5* ,s5ate1 #cjj4 ,prior to ,april #h1 #aiac1 :5 ! ,sev5te5? ,am5dm5t became a "p ( ! ,con/itution1 ?r\gh ratification by ! requisite votes ( ?ree-f\r?s ( ! ,/ate legislatures1 s5ators 7 *os5 by ! ,/ate legislatures4 ,= ye>s ! dem& = su* an am5dm5t 0 insi/5t4 ,m ?an two-?irds ( ! ,/ate legislatures _h gone on record 9 favor ( su* a re=m4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives _h pass$ su* a resolution a numb] ( times1 b ! requisite two-?irds vote c\ld n be secur$ 9 ! ,s5ate4 ,! lead+ reasons = ! am5dm5t 73 ! frequ5t deadlocks 9 ! legislatures1 ?us int]rupt+ ! c\rse ( regul> legislation1 & ! use ( brib]y4 ,classes ( ,s5ators & ,vacancies4--,section #c1 ,clause #b4 ,imm$iately aft] !y %all be assembl$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! fir/ election1 !y %all be divid$1 z equally z may be1 into ?ree classes4 ,! seats ( ! s5ators ( ! fir/ class %all be vacat$ at ! expiration ( ! second ye>2 ( ! second class1 at ! expiration ( ! f\r? ye>2 & ( ! ?ird class1 at ! expiration ( ! six? ye>2 s t "o-?ird may be *os5 e second ye>4 ,:5 vacancies happ5 9 ! repres5tation ( any ,/ate 9 ! ,s5ate1 ! executive au?ority ( su* ,/ate %all issue writs ( election to fill su* vacancies4 ,provid$1 t ! legislature ( any ,/ate may emp[] ! executive !re( to make tempor>y appo9tm5ts until ! p fill ! vacancies by election z ! legislature may direct4 ,?is am5dm5t %all n be s con/ru$ z to affect ! election or t]m ( any s5ator *os5 be=e x becomes valid z "p ( ! ,con/itution4 ,?is provision makes ! ,s5ate a p]man5t body1 s9ce only "o-?ird ( ! memb]s g out ( (fice e two ye>s4 ,9 ! fir/ session ( ! fir/ ,congress1 ! s5ators 7 divid$ into ?ree classes4 ,x has be5 ! cu/om to place ! s5ators f new ,/ates 9 diff]5t classes4 ,?is is done 9 ord] to pres]ve1 s f> z possible1 ! equality ( numb]s 9 ea* class4 ,besides1 a ,/ate is ?us enabl$ to keep "o man ( exp]i5ce 9 ! ,s5ate4 ,:5 a new ,/ate is admitt$1 ! s5ators f t ,/ate det]m9e by lot1 drawn 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,s5ate1 :i* classes !y are to ent]4 ,qualifications ( ,s5ators4--,section #c1 ,clause #c4 ,no p]son %all be a s5ator :o %all n hove atta9$ to ! age ( ?irty ye>s1 & be5 n9e ye>s a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :o %all n1 :5 elect$1 be an inhabitant ( t ,/ate f :i* he %all be *os54 ,! reasons = requir+ diff]5t qualifications 9 s5ators f ^? ( repres5tatives is express$ 9 ,! ,f$]ali/ z foll[s3 ,! propriety ( ^! di/9ctions is expla9$ by ! nature ( ! s5atorial tru/1 :i*1 requir+ great] ext5t ( in=mation & /ability ( "*1 requires at ! same "t t ! s5ator %\ld h rea*$ a p]iod ( life mo/ likely to supply ^! advantages4 ,! attitude ( ,am]icans t[>d ! ,s5ate to-day diff]s f t manife/ dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] c5tury ( our hi/ory4 ,has ! ,s5ate deg5]at$ is a "q frequ5tly ask$4 ,! pres5ce 9 t body ( num]\s millionaires has also excit$ unfavorable comm5t4 ,!re h be5 two in/ances only 9 :i* s5ators h be5 disqualifi$ because ( inadequate citiz5%ip4 ,times & ,places = ,elect+ ,s5ators & ,repres5tatives4--,section #d1 ,clause #a4 ,! times1 places1 & mann] ( hold+ elections = s5ators & repres5tatives %all be prescrib$ 9 ea* ,/ate by ! legislature !re(2 b ! ,congress may at any "t1 by law1 make or alt] su* regulations1 except z to ! place ( *oos+ s5ators4 ,x is desirable t ,congress %\ld h ! f9al au?ority 9 provid+ = ! election ( its own memb]s1 because ! v exi/5ce ( ! ,union might o!rwise be left1 at times1 to ! :ims ( ! ,/ate legislatures4 ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate4--,section #c1 ,clause #d4 ,! ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate1 b %all h no vote unless !y be equally divid$4 ,o!r ,(fic]s4--,section #c1 ,clause #e4 ,! ,s5ate %all *oose _! o!r (fic]s1 & also a ,presid5t pro tempore1 9 ! abs5ce ( ! ,vice-,presid5t1 or :5 he %all ex]cise ! (fice ( ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is ! presid+ (fic] ( ! ,s5ate4 ,he _c take "p 9 debates1 & has no vote unless !re be a tie4 ,9 m>k$ contra/ ) ! p[] ( ! speak]1 he _c "n ! committees1 & has no direct au?ority 9 legislation4 ,inde$1 ! (fice is reg>d$ z "o ( s little influ5ce t x is sometimes difficult to secure1 z c&idates = x1 m5 ( recogniz$ prom95ce4 ,! o!r (fic]s ( ! ,s5ate are secret>y1 *ief cl]k1 s]geant-at-arms1 *apla91 po/ma/]1 libr>ian1 & doorkeep]1 none ( :om is a memb] ( ! ,s5ate4 ,x is desirable1 9 ! abs5ce ( ! ,vice-,presid5t1 t ! ,s5ate %\ld h a presid+ (fic]4 ,at ! op5+ ( ! session1 !re=e1 t body *ooses f its own memb]s a presid5t pro tempore4 ,he may vote on any "q1 b _c ca/ ! decid+ vote 9 case ( a tie4 ,:5 ,congress ,meets4--,section #d1 ,clause #b4 ,! ,congress %all assemble at lea/ once 9 e ye>1 & su* meet+ %all be on ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,decemb]1 unless !y %all by law appo9t a diff]5t day4 ,z we h already se51 repres5tatives are elect$ = a t]m ( two ye>s4 ,?is p]iod def9es ! l5g? ( a ,congress4 ,repres5tatives1 z we "k1 are *os5 on ! fir/ ,tuesday aft] ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,novemb]4 ,n[ ! t]m ( (fice ( a repres5tative beg9s legally on ! f\r? ( ,m>* succe$+ ! "t ( 8 election4#ah ,! fir/ regul> session ( ! ,congress to :i* he 0 elect$ does n beg9 until ! fir/ ,monday ( ! foll[+ ,decemb]1 or ?irte5 mon?s aft] ! election4 ,x w\ld seem desirable t ! memb]s %\ld be giv5 an e>li] opportunity to express !mselves on ! issues ^u :i* !y h be5 *os54 ,footnote #ah3 ,! limits ( ! #fc;d ,congress w be ,m>* #d1 #aiac1 to ,m>* #d1 #aiae4 ,sessions ( ,congress4--,ea* ,congress has two regul> sessions4 ,! fir/ is call$ ! long session1 = its l5g? is n det]m9$ by a def9ite date ( adj\rnm5t4 ,x usually la/s until midsumm] & may n ext5d beyond ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,decemb]1 ! "t fix$ = ! beg9n+ ( ! next session4 ,! second1 or %ort session1 _c ext5d beyond #ab ,m4 ( ,m>* #d1 ! "t set = a new ,congress to beg94 ,! ,presid5t may conv5e ,congress 9 special session4 ,organization ( ,congress4--,! fir/ ,monday 9 ,decemb] ( ea* second ye> is a notable day 9 ,wa%+ton1 = ! =mal op5+ ( a new ,congress is reg>d$ z an important ev5t4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives mu/ g ?r\gh ! entire process ( organization4 ,to ! cl]k ( ! prec$+ ,h\se are intru/$ ! cr$5tials ( ! memb]s1 & f ^! he makes out a li/ ( ^? :o are %[n to be regul>ly elect$4 ,at ! h\r ( assembly he calls ! roll f ?is li/1 ann\nces :e!r or n a quorum is pres5t1 & /ates t ! fir/ bus9ess is to elect a speak]4 ,aft] 8 election ! speak] takes ! oa? ( (fice1 :i* is adm9i/]$ by ! memb] :o has _h ! longe/ s]vice 9 ! ,h\se4 ,! speak] !n adm9i/]s ! oa? to ! memb]s by ,/ates4 ,! election ( ! *ief cl]k & ! o!r (fic]s foll[s1 aft] :i* ! ,h\se is said to be organiz$4 ,! ,s5ate is a cont9u+ body1 & no =mal organization is necess>y4 ,at ! op5+ ( a new ,congress ! ,vice-,presid5t calls ! ,s5ate to ord] & ! o!r (fic]s resume _! duties4 ,aft] ! presid5t pro tempore has be5 *os51 ! newly elect$ memb]s are escort$ to ! desk 9 gr\ps ( f\r1 & ! oa? is adm9i/]$ by ! presid5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,ea* h\se1 :5 organiz$1 notifies ! o!r ( ! fact1 & a jo9t committee ( ! h\ses is appo9t$ to wait ^u ! ,presid5t & in=m him t quorums are pres5t & are ready to receive any communication he may desire to s5d4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives occupies a l>ge hall 9 ! s\? w+ ( ! capitol4 ,! desks ( ! memb]s are arrang$ 9 a semicircle ab\t t ( ! speak]1 ) ! ,republicans on 8 left & ! ,democrats on 8 "r4 ,:5 a memb] ga9s ! floor1 he speaks f 8 own desk or f ! space 9 front ( ! speak]'s desk4 ,unless ! "q is "o ( importance1 b little att5tion is paid to ! c\rse ( debate4 ,consequ5tly a visitor c he> only ) great ef=t because ( ! con/ant d9 produc$ by ! %uffl+ ( pap]s1 clapp+ ( h&s = pages1 etc4 ,! real "w ( ,congress1 z we %all see1 is done 9 committees4 ,! ,s5ate occupies a hall at ! opposite end ( ! capitol4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 mu* small] ?an t occupi$ by ! ,h\se1 b is simil>ly arrang$4 ,9 g5]al1 ! proce$+s on ! floor ( ! ,s5ate are conduct$ 9 a mu* m ord]ly mann] ?an is usual 9 ! ,h\se4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,:at is ! numb] ( ! pres5t ,congress8 ,give ! dates = ! beg9n+ & end ( ea* session4 #b4 ,9 ! ,/ates :i* h woman suffrage1 may wom5 vote = repres5tatives8 #c4 ,x is n requir$ by law t a repres5tative %all reside 9 ! di/rict t he repres5ts1 b x is an e/abli%$ cu/om4 ,:at are its advantages & disadvantages8 ,comp>e ) ! ,engli% practice4 ,bryce1 ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,i1 ,*apt] #ai4 #d4 ,are ! ,/ates :i* all[ wom5 ! "r to vote ju/ifi$ 9 ! enactm5t ( _! suffrage laws8 #e4 ,ought ,section #b1 ,am5dm5t ,,xiv1 to be en=c$8 ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #bb3bgc-bge1 #fec1 #fed2 #bd3fdi-fea2 ,=um1 #ca3bbe-bcj2 #cb3dfj-dfe2 ,n4 ,am4 ,rev41 #afh3bhe-bif2 #agj3ghe-hja2 #age3ecd-edc2 ,outlook1 #fi3gea4 #f4 ,/ate ! po9ts ( lik5ess & ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives & ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 ,n4 ,am4 ,rev41 #agj3gh-hf4 #g4 ,give ! numb] ( repres5tatives to :i* y\r ,/ate is entitl$4 ,0 ! numb] increas$ 9 ! la/ apportionm5t8 ,h[ l>ge is y\r ,congressional di/rict8 ,population8 #h4 ,comp>e ! area ( y\r di/rict ) t ( o!r di/ricts 9 y\r ,/ate2 also ) ! population ( o!r di/ricts4 ,comp>e ! numb] ( votes ca/ = repres5tative 9 y\r di/rict ) ! numb] ca/ 9 di/ricts ( o!r ,/ates 9 diff]5t sections ( ! c\ntry4 ,h[ d y acc\nt = ! v>iation8 ,see ,new ,york ,_w ,almanac4 #i4 ,"s int]e/+ facts connect$ ) ! apportionm5t ( #aija are giv5 9 ! ,=um1 #cj3efh-egg4 #aj4 ,= ! ,reapportionm5t ,law ( #aija1 see ,outlook1 #fg3acf4 #aa4 ,= acc\nts ( ! me?ods by :i* a c5sus is tak51 see ,am]ican ,c5sus ,me?ods1 ,=um1 #cj3aji-aai4 ,c5sus ( #aiaj1 ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #da3ehi-eif2 #djd1 #dje4 #ab4 ,:o are "s ( ! be/-kn[n repres5tatives & s5ators8 ,= :at reasons are !y not$8 #ac4 ,:o are ! s5ators f y\r ,/ate8 ,:5 0 ea* elect$8 #ad4 ,give ! names ( ! speak] & ( ! presid5t pro tempore4 #ae4 ,w\ld y h vot$ = ! ,sev5te5? ,am5dm5t8 ,see ,outlook1 #fg3eei-fjd2 #gc3bgg-bhe2 #chf-cib4 ,= o!r ref]5ces1 see ,james & ,san=d1 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 p4 #acg4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,p[]s ,,& ,,duties ,,( ,,! ,,sep>ate ,,h\ses4 ,i4 ,,impea*m5t4 ,article ,,ii1 ,section #d4 ,! ,presid5t1 ,vice-,presid5t & all civil (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be remov$ f (fice on impea*m5t =1 & conviction (1 treason1 brib]y1 or o!r high crimes & misdemeanors4 ,article ,i1 ,section #b1 ,clause #e4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all 444 h ! sole p[] ( impea*m5t4 ,section #c1 ,clause #f4 ,! ,s5ate %all h ! sole p[] to try all impea*m5ts4 ,:5 sitt+ = t purpose1 !y %all be on oa? or affirmation4 ,:5 ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is tri$1 ! ,*ief ,ju/ice %all preside2 & no p]son %all be convict$ )\t ! concurr5ce ( two-?irds ( ! memb]s pres5t4 ,section #c1 ,clause #g4 ,judgm5t 9 cases ( impea*m5t %all n ext5d fur!r ?an to removal f (fice & disqualification to hold & enjoy any (fice ( honor1 tru/1 or pr(it "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 b ! p>ty convict$ %all nev]!less be liable & subject to indictm5t1 trial1 judgm5t1 & puni%m5t accord+ to law4 ,!re h be5 b sev5 impea*m5t trials 9 ! hi/ory ( our gov]nm5t4 ,section #d ( ,article ,,ii decl>es :o may be impea*$4 ,! expression civil (fic] does n include milit>y & naval (fic]s4 ,!y are subject to trial by c\rt-m>tial4 ,memb]s ( ,congress may n be impea*$1 s9ce ! ,con/itution au?orizes ea* h\se to br+ to trial & puni% its own memb]s4 ,clause #e ( ,section #b1 & ,clauses #f & #g ( ,section #c1 ,article ,i1 give ! me?od ( proc$ure aga9/ an (fic] :o may be *>g$ ) treason1 brib]y1 or o!r high crimes & misdemeanors4 ,! articles ( impea*m5t pref]r$ by ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives correspond to ! indictm5t 9 a crim9al trial4 ,! mann] ( conduct+ an impea*m5t trial1 9 ! ,s5ate1 resembles also a trial by jury4#ai ,t ! ,*ief ,ju/ice %all preside dur+ ! trial ( ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is a wise provision1 because x is easy to presume t a ,vice-,presid5t might be p]sonally int]e/$ 9 ! conviction ( a ,presid5t4 ,footnote #ai3 ,see ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 p4 #aei4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,quorum1 ,,j\rnal1 ,,& ,,fre$om ,,( ,,spee*4 ,det]m9ation ( ,memb]%ip & ,quorums4--,section #e1 ,clause #a4 ,ea* h\se %all be ! judge ( ! elections1 returns1 & qualifications ( its own memb]s1 & a majority ( ea* %all con/itute a quorum to d bus9ess2 b a small] numb] may adj\rn f day to day1 & may be au?oriz$ to compel ! att5dance ( abs5t memb]s1 9 su* mann] & "u su* p5alties z ea* h\se may provide4 ,9 #aijj ! "r ( a s5ator to a seat 9 ! ,s5ate 0 *all5g$ by ! citiz5s ( 8 ,/ate on ! gr\nd t 8 election 0 secur$ ?r\gh brib]y & corruption4 ,9 a memorial ( ! citiz5s =w>d$ by ! gov]nor1 ! matt] =mally came be=e ! ,s5ate4 ,! case 0 ref]r$ to ! ,committee on ,privileges & ,elections1 :i* unanim\sly report$1 aft] c>eful delib]ation1 t ! s5ator 0 n duly & legally elect$ by ! legislature ( 8 ,/ate4 ,! committee f\nd t he _h obta9$ ?r\gh illegal & corrupt practices m ?an eight votes :i* w\ld o!rwise h be5 ca/ aga9/ him & *ang$ ! result4 ,be=e a vote 0 tak5 9 ! ,s5ate on ?is resolution ! s5ator resign$ 8 seat4 ,9 ! ,h\se ! "n ( ! p]son possess+ ! c]tificate ( election sign$ by ! gov]nor ( 8 ,/ate is ent]$ on ! roll ( ! ,h\se1 b ! seat may /ill be conte/$4 ,_m cases ( conte/$ elections are consid]$ by ea* new ,h\se4 ,!re 7 ?irty-two seats conte/$ 9 ! #ed? ,congress4 ,su* cases are ref]r$ to ! ,committee on ,elections1 :i* he>s ! te/imony1 & pres5ts x to ! ,h\se = f9al decision4 ,ea* ( ! cases :5 pres5t$ to ! ,h\se consumes f two to five days :i* might o!rwise be us$ = ! purposes ( legislation4 ,! law provides t no m ?an #bjjj %all be paid ei!r ( ! conte/ants = exp5ses1 b ev5 !n1 x is e/imat$1 ^! conte/s co/ ! gov]nm5t1 all told1 #dj1jjj annually4 ,:5 ! decision is r5d]$ by ! ,h\se1 ! vote is1 9 mo/ cases1 /rictly on p>ty l9es1 reg>dless ( ! te/imony4 ,9 view ( ^! facts1 x has be5 sugge/$ t ! ,supreme ,c\rt decide all conte/$ elections4 ,h[ a ,quorum is ,secur$4--,if x appe>s1 ^u ! c\nt ( ! speak]1 or ^u ! roll-call ( ! ,h\se1 t a majority is n pres5t1 bus9ess mu/ be susp5d$ until a quorum is secur$4 ,fifte5 memb]s1 includ+ ! speak]1 may be au?oriz$ to compel ! att5dance ( abs5t memb]s4 ,?is is accompli%$ z foll[s3 ! doors ( ! ,h\se are clos$1 ! roll is call$1 & abs5tees not$4 ,! s]geant-at-arms1 :5 direct$ by ! majority ( ^? pres5t1 s5ds =1 arre/s1 & br+s into ! ,h\se ^? memb]s :o h n suffici5t excuse = abs5ce4 ,:5 a quorum is secur$1 bus9ess is resum$4 ,rules & ,discipl9e4--,section #e1 ,clause #b4 ,ea* h\se may det]m9e ! rules ( its proce$+s1 puni% its memb]s = disord]ly behavior1 &1 ) ! concurr5ce ( two-?irds1 expel a memb]4 ,! ,j\rnal4--,section #e1 ,clause #c4 ,ea* h\se %all keep a j\rnal ( its proce$+s & f "t to "t publi% ! same1 except+ su* p>ts z may 9 _! judgm5t require secrecy2 & ! yeas & nays ( ! memb]s ( ei!r h\se on any "q %all1 at ! desire ( "o-fif? ( ^? pres5t1 be ent]$ on ! j\rnal4 ,our ,k ( ,congressional ,proce$+s4--,z citiz5s 9 a republican gov]nm5t1 x is our duty to keep in=m$ on ! problems :i* our repres5tatives are call$ ^u to solve4 ,means ( ga9+ in=mation are n want+4 ,! public gall]ies ( bo? h\ses are usually op5 to visitors4 ,! (ficial record ( ! proce$+s ( ,congress is made kn[n to ! public ?r\gh ! ,j\rnal1 :i* is read at ! op5+ ( ea* day's session4 ,reports ( ! debates d n appe> 9 ! ,j\rnal1 b are publi%$ ea* day 9 ! ,congressional ,record4 ,ano!r means ( keep+ con/itu5ts in=m$ on ! position ( _! repres5tatives is ?r\gh ! record+ 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ! vote ( ea* memb] :5 dem&$ by "o-fif? ( ^? pres5t4 ,9 vot+ by ! yeas & nays1 ! cl]k calls ! roll ( memb]s & places aft] ea* "n1 yea1 nay1 n vot+1 or abs5t4 ,! ,s5ate rules specify ?is z ! only me?od ( vot+4 7,o!r me?ods ( vot+ 9 ! ,h\se are indicat$ on page #gg47 ,p[] to ,adj\rn4--,section #e1 ,clause #d4 ,nei!r h\se1 dur+ ! session ( ,congress1 %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! o!r1 adj\rn = m ?an ?ree days1 nor to any o!r place ?an t 9 :i* ! two h\ses %all be sitt+4 ,if !re is a disagreem5t betwe5 ! two h\ses ) respect to ! "t ( adj\rnm5t1 ! ,presid5t may adj\rn !m to su* a "t z he ?9ks prop]4 ,?is "r has nev] yet be5 ex]cis$4 ,comp5sation & ,fre$om f ,arre/4--,section #f1 ,clause #a4 ,! s5ators & repres5tatives %all receive a comp5sation = _! s]vices1 to be asc]ta9$ by law1 & paid out ( ! treasury ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y %all 9 all cases1 except treason1 felony1 & brea* ( ! peace1 be privileg$ f arre/ dur+ _! att5dance at ! sessions ( _! respective h\ses1 & go+ to & return+ f ! same2 & = any spee* or debate 9 ei!r h\se1 !y %all n be que/ion$ 9 any o!r place4 ,%\ld ! memb]s ( ,congress be paid a sal>y1 or %\ld ! (fice be reg>d$ z exclusively "o ( honor8 ,^! que/ions 7 discuss$ at l5g? 9 ! ,con/itutional ,conv5tion4 ,"s ( ! delegates favor$ ! ,engli% cu/om1 by :i* memb]s ( ,p>liam5t receive no sal>y4 ,x 0 f9ally conclud$ to adopt ! provisions z giv51 9 ord] t m5 ( ability1 ?\gh poor1 might become memb]s ( ! ,national ,legislature4 ,by a law ( #aghi ! comp5sation ( s5ators & repres5tatives 0 fix$ at six doll>s p] day & ?irty c5ts = e mile travel$1 by ! mo/ direct r\te1 9 go+ to & return+ f ! seat ( gov]nm5t4 ,prior to #ahgc ?is am\nt 0 *ang$ sev]al times by act ( ,congress4 ,! comp5sation !n agre$ ^u & until #aijg 0 #ejjj p] ye>1 ) mileage ( tw5ty c5ts1 & #abe p] annum = /ation]y4 ,! speak] receiv$ #hjjj a ye> & mileage4 ,! presid5t pro tempore receiv$ ! same am\nt :ile act+ z presid5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,to _m p #ejjj seem$ a l>ge sal>y1 b ! great exp5se ( liv+ 9 ,wa%+ton r5d]s ! sal>y q inadequate4 ,memb]s h be5 kn[n to pay m ?an _! sal>ies = h\se-r5t alone4 ,accord+ly1 9 #aijg1 ! sal>y ( s5ators & repres5tatives 0 increas$ to #gejj & t ( ! speak] & presid5t pro tempore ( ! ,s5ate to #ab1jjj4 ,to ,hold ,o!r ,(fices4 ,disqualification4--,section #f1 ,clause #b4 ,no s5ator or repres5tative %all1 dur+ ! "t = :i* he is elect$1 be appo9t$ to any civil (fice "u ! au?ority ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates :i* %all h be5 creat$1 or ! emolum5ts :]e( %all h be5 increas$1 dur+ su* "t2 & no p]son hold+ any (fice "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be a memb] ( ei!r h\se dur+ 8 cont9uance 9 (fice4 ,! purpose ( ?is provision seems to h be5 to remove ! temptation on ! "p ( ,congressm5 to create (fices1 or to increase ! emolum5ts ( ^? already exi/+1 9 ord] to pr(it by su* legislation4 ,! exclusion ( ,unit$ ,/ates (ficials f seats 9 ,congress 0 due to ! desire ( appeas+ ,/ate jeal\sy1 :i* ass]t$ t ! ,national gov]nm5t w\ld 9 ?is way secure an undue influ5ce ov] ! ,/ate gov]nm5ts4 ,x is advocat$1 ) good reason1 t memb]s ( ! ,cab9et %\ld be privileg$ to take "p 9 ! discussion ( measures 9 ,congress :i* p]ta9 to _! own dep>tm5ts4 ,alex&] ,hamilton ask$ = ?is privilege4 ,x 0 refus$ because ( ! belief t he w\ld ex]t too great influ5ce ov] ! memb]s4 ,! prec$5t ?us e/abli%$ has always be5 reta9$4 ,b s9ce executive (fic]s are (t5 invit$ to pres5t _! views be=e committees ( ,congress1 !y may1 9 ?is way1 ex]t great influ5ce ^u legislation4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,h[ ,,laws ,,are ,,made ,,by ,,congress4 ,me?ods ( ,proc$ure ,develop$ by ,cu/om4--,v little c be le>n$ directly f ! ,con/itution conc]n+ ! actual me?ods employ$ 9 ! enactm5t ( laws by ,congress4 ,9 bo? h\ses ! ways 9 :i* bus9ess is conduct$ h be5 develop$ by cu/om2 & !y h *ang$ f "t to "t accord+ to circum/ances4 ,^! me?ods ( proc$ure are diff]5t f ^? 9 use :5 ! gov]nm5t 0 new4 ,! pr9cipal reason = ?is is f\nd 9 ! gr[? ( ! am\nt ( bus9ess t ,congress mu/ consid]2 ?is1 9 turn1 has be5 caus$ by ! gr[? ( population & weal?1 & by ! expansion ( bus9ess relations ?r\gh\t ?is c\ntry & ) o!r nations4 ,i4 ,! ,committee ,sy/em4--,an und]/&+ ( ?is sy/em is necess>y 9 ord] t we may foll[ ! /eps tak5 9 ! mak+ ( laws4 ,two facts made ! committee sy/em necess>y 9 ! h\ses ( ,congress4 7#a7 ,! numb] ( memb]s1 especially 9 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 is s l>ge t bus9ess _c be transact$ quickly by ! entire body4 7#b7 ,! numb] ( bills introduc$ is s v great t x is impossible = ei!r h\se to consid] all ( !m2 h5ce x is necess>y t committees %all exam9e ! bills & decide :i* are wor?y ( consid]ation4 ,9 ! long session ( ! #fa/ ,congress m ?an #cc1jjj bills 7 introduc$ into ! ,h\se4 ,! numb] ( committees 9 ! ,h\se 0 #fa1 ! memb]%ip v>y+ f #e to #ai4 ,! mo/ important ,h\se committees are ^? on ,ways & ,means 7:i* has *>ge ( all bills = rais+ rev5ue71 ,appropriations1 ,bank+ & ,curr5cy1 ,=eign ,affairs1 & ,milit>y ,affairs4 ,9 ! ,s5ate ( ! #fa/ ,congress !re 7 #gb /&+ committees4 ,! numb] ( memb]s on a committee 0 9 mo/ cases #i or #aa4 ,a few ( ! ,s5ate committees are ^? on ,f9ance 7correspond+ to ! ,committee on ,ways & ,means 9 ! ,h\se71 ,agriculture1 ,comm]ce1 & ,=eign ,relations4 ,bo? 9 ! ,h\se & 9 ! ,s5ate e memb] is on "s committee1 & "s memb]s h places on sev]al committees4 ,9 bo? h\ses ! committees are elect$4 ,! *airman & a majority ( ! memb]s ( ea* committee are f ! memb]s ( ! p>ty t has a majority 9 ! h\se4 ,/eps 9 ! ,progress ( a ,bill4--7#a7 ,! fir/ /ep 9 ! progress ( a bill is its introduction4 ,?is is done 9 ! ,h\se by m]ely plac+ ! bill 9 a basket on ! cl]k's desk4 ,9 ! ,s5ate ! memb] introduc+ a bill rises & asks leave to introduce x4 7#b7 ,! bill is next ref]r$ to a committee4 7#c7 ,if ! committee decides t ! bill %\ld g fur!r !y report x back to ! h\se4 ,! h\se w 9 a great majority ( cases pass or reject x accord+ to ! committee's recomm5dation4 ,few bills are debat$ 9 ei!r h\se1 & 9 ! mo/ ( ^! cases ! discussion has no influ5ce ^u ! fate ( ! bill--x is meant m]ely to be he>d or to be pr9t$4 ,h5ce1 x is 9 t int]m$iate /age betwe5 ! ref]5ce ( ! bill to a committee & ! report on x t ! real "w ( legislation is accompli%$4 ,! ,p[] ( ,committees ov] ,bills4--,a committee may ex]cise ! utmo/ fre$om ) respect to ! bills ref]r$ to x4 ,! great] numb] ( bills receive no consid]ation :atev] f ! committees2 ^! may nev] be report$ if ! committees see fit to ignore !m4 ,o!r bills are am5d$ by ! committees1 or new bills are sub/itut$ = !m4 ,su* is ! p[] intru/$ to ,congressional committees4 ,h[ev]1 if a majority ( ! h\se wi%es1 x may take up = discussion a bill :i* "o ( its committees has decid$ n to report back4 ,_m ( ! important committees h sep>ate rooms :]e _! meet+s are held4 ,"h ! memb]s may conf] 9 secret1 or !y may hold public he>+s2 i4e41 p]sons are invit$ to give te/imony or to make argum5ts4 ,frequ5tly ! majority memb]s ( a committee hold sep>ate meet+s1 det]m9e _! policy1 & !n adh]e to x reg>dless ( ! wi%es ( ! m9ority memb]s4 ,! latt] may pres5t a sep>ate report call$ ! m9ority report ( ! committee4 ,consid]ation ( ,bills4--7#d7 ,9 ! next /ep1 ! bill is br\ght be=e ! h\se = consid]ation4 ,h[ is x det]m9$ :i* bills %all be ?us favor$8 ,9 "s measure ?is dep5ds ^u ! importance & ! m]its ( ! bill2 b x dep5ds m ^u ! skill & influ5ce ( ! memb] 7g5]ally ! *airman ( ! committee report+ ! bill7 :o is p>ticul>ly int]e/$ 9 see+ x enact$ into law4 ,9 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives ?is important matt] is mo/ (t5 decid$ by ! ,committee on ,rules1 :i* is compos$ ( t5 memb]s1 six be+ ( ! p>ty t has a majority 9 ! ,h\se4 ,9 mo/ cases ?is committee decides :i* bills %all be consid]$1 & h[ mu* "t %all be giv5 to ! discussion ( ea* "o4 ,s x is necess>y = ! *airman ( a committee to make a previ\s arrangem5t ) ! speak] to be recogniz$ be=e he c br+ up 8 bill4 ,b on ,w$nesday ( ea* week ! *airm5 ( committees may call up _! bills 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y secure recognition4 ,& ! ,committee on ,rules does n control ! bills :i* ! ,h\se takes out ( ! h&s ( committees4 ,,ii4 ,! ,p[] ( ! ,speak]4--,! speak] is ! executive (fic] :o sees t ! decisions ( ! ,committee on ,rules are c>ri$ out4 ,9 mo/ important matt]s x is necess>y = a memb] to make an arrangem5t ) ! speak] 9 ord] to secure recognition :5 he wi%es to address ! ,h\se4 ,9 ex]cis+ ! p[] ( recognition1 ! speak] w1 ( c\rse1 give bo? ! sides a fair opportunity to debate ^u important measures4 ,he w n p]mit memb]s to make motions or l5g?y spee*es m]ely = ! sake ( delay+ "s action to :i* !y are oppos$4 ,su* actions are call$ ob/ructive tactics1 or filibu/]+4 ,! ,lobby1 ,log-roll+1 & ,patronage4--,n all ! bills t come be=e ,congress are pass$ or reject$ because !y are wise or unwise4 ,! influ5ces t det]m9e ! c\rse ( legislation at ,wa%+ton are v num]\s & complicat$4 ,"s ( ^! influ5ces are to a great] or less ext5t legitimate1 & o!rs are totally bad4 ,! lobby1 9 its broade/ s5se1 is compos$ ( all ^? p]sons :o g to ,wa%+ton 9 ord] to ex]t pressure ^u ,congressm5 9 favor ( or aga9/ c]ta9 measures4 ,"s ( ! be/ laws & "s ( ! wor/ are enact$ ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( ! lobbyi/4 ,log-roll+ is an important influ5ce 9 det]m9+ legislation2 a memb] votes = ! pet measure ( 8 fell[ ,congressman on condition t ! latt] w vote = ! bill 9 :i* he is p>ticul>ly int]e/$4 ,political patronage is a great factor 9 det]m9+ votes 9 ,congress2 ! p[] ( memb]s to recomm5d appo9tm5ts1 & ! influ5ces ex]t$ 9 _! favor by ! appo9tees1 (t5 det]m9e ! "q ( _! cont9uance 9 (fice4 ,consequ5tly1 !re is a great temptation to use patronage 9 ex*ange = votes4 ,! use ( money directly 9 brib]y is difficult ( detection1 b o!r favors & privileges ( money value are no less effective 9 ! pur*ase ( ! votes ( ^? memb]s :o are s unscrupul\s z to be op5 to su* influ5ces4 ,debate 9 ,congress4--,x is n[ app>5t t _m o!r ?+s besides ! argum5ts us$ 9 debate det]m9e :i* bills %all pass & :i* %all fail4 ,9 ! ,h\se ! "t = debate is /rictly limit$1 on acc\nt ( ! am\nt ( bus9ess4 ,! *airman ( ! committee report+ a bill g5]ally has "o h\r 9 :i* to urge ! passage ( 8 measure2 = a portion ( ! "t he may yield ! floor to o!r memb]s1 bo? fri5ds & oppon5ts ( ! bill4 ,( c\rse1 mu* m ?an "o h\r is giv5 to debate on important bills4 ,_m ( ! spee*es :i* are pr9t$ 9 ! ,congressional ,record h n be5 deliv]$2 b !y are int5d$ = circulation among ! con/itu5ts ( repres5tatives1 & = use z campaign docum5ts4 ,_m ( ! spee*es t are actually deliv]$ receive scant att5tion2 ! lack ( int]e/ 9 !m is made evid5t by ! noise & confusion t v (t5 prevail dur+ sessions ( ! ,h\se4 ,s5ate ,proc$ure4--,9 ! ,s5ate debate is n limit$4 ,s5ators are expect$ to reg>d ea* o!r's rights ) respect to ! am\nt ( "t & att5tion !y may dem&2 yet a bill may be talk$ to dea? 9 ! ,s5ate4 ,z a result1 ! ,s5ate is less bus9ess-l 9 its proc$ure ?an ! ,h\se1 & "s means ( *eck+ unlimit$ discussion h (t5 be5 propos$ = x4 ,conf]5ce ,committees4--,a bill :i* has pass$ "o h\se mu/ be s5t to ! o!r4 ,"h x is introduc$ & goes ?r\gh ! /ages above describ$4 ,if "o h\se am5ds a bill :i* has already pass$ ! o!r1 x mu/ be return$ = re-passage to ! h\se :]e x orig9at$4 ,?is is a frequ5t cause ( conflict betwe5 ! two h\ses1 & ea* tries to insi/ on its rights4 ,:5 su* a dispute _c be easily adju/$1 a conf]5ce committee mu/ be appo9t$4 ,?is is compos$ ( memb]s f ea* h\se1 & !y endeavor to arrange a compromise :i* w be acceptable to bo? h\ses4 ,g5]ally _! decision is ratifi$ )\t "q1 b sometimes ev5 ?is me?od ( settlem5t fails4 ,me?ods ( ,vot+4--,!re are ?ree me?ods ( vot+ 9 ,congress4 7#a7 ,memb]s respond aye or no by acclamation4 7#b7 ,if a division is call$ =1 a ris+ vote is tak5 & ! memb]s are c\nt$4 ,9 ! ,h\se ! c\nt+ is done by two tell]s1 :o /& ne> ! speak]'s desk1 :ile ! memb]s pass betwe5 !m 9 s+le file1 fir/ ^? vot+ 9 ! affirmative1 & aft]w>d ^? oppos+ ! motion4 7#c7 ,:5 ! yeas & nays are call$ =1 or :5ev] ! rules ( ei!r h\se require !m1 ! roll is call$ & ea* memb] votes z he responds to 8 "n4 ,?is vote is ent]$ on ! ,j\rnal4 ,aft] ! roll-call is complet$1 ! presid+ (fic] ann\nces ! pairs4 ,memb]s :o belong to diff]5t political p>ties may agree t !y %all be record$ on opposite sides ( p>ty que/ions1 :e!r !y are pres5t or n4 ,or pairs may be arrang$ = p>ticul> votes only4 ,?is device enables a memb] to be abs5t f 8 seat )\t feel+ t 8 vote is ne$$4 ,! ,presid5t's ,p[] 9 ,law-,mak+4--,a bill :i* has receiv$ a majority vote 9 bo? h\ses is next s5t to ! ,presid5t4 ,article #a1 ,section #g1 ,clause #b4 ,e bill :i* %all h pass$ ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives & ! ,s5ate %all1 be=e x become a law1 be pres5t$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 if he approve he %all sign x1 b if n he %all return x1 ) 8 objections1 to t h\se 9 :i* x %all h orig9at$1 :o %all ent] ! objections at l>ge on _! j\rnal & proce$ to reconsid] x4 ,if aft] su* reconsid]ation two-?irds ( t h\se %all agree to pass ! bill1 x %all be s5t1 toge!r ) ! objections1 to ! o!r h\se1 by :i* x %all likewise be reconsid]$1 & if approv$ by two-?irds ( t h\se x %all become a law4 ,b 9 all su* cases ! votes ( bo? h\ses %all be det]m9$ by yeas & nays1 & ! names ( ! p]sons vot+ = & aga9/ ! bill %all be ent]$ on ! j\rnal ( ea* h\se respectively4 ,if any bill %all n be return$ by ! ,presid5t )9 t5 days 7,sundays except$7 aft] x %all h be5 pres5t$ to him1 ! same %all be a law1 9 l mann] z if he _h sign$ x1 unless ! ,congress by _! adj\rnm5t prev5t its return1 9 :i* case x %all n be a law4 ,!re are !n ?ree ways 9 :i* a bill may become a law4 7#a7 ,x may pass by majority vote 9 bo? h\ses & be sign$ by ! ,presid5t4 7#b7 ,x may1 aft] be+ veto$ by ! ,presid5t1 be pass$ by two-?irds vote 9 bo? h\ses4 7#c7 ,x w become a law if ! ,presid5t nei!r signs nor vetoes x )9 t5 days1 unless ^! are at ! end ( ! session4 ,! fram]s ( ! ,con/itution int5d$ t ! veto p[] %\ld be a *eck1 ?\gh n an absolute "o1 ^u ha/y or unwise legislation4 ,! ,presid5t may cause a bill to fail by nei!r sign+ nor veto+ x dur+ ! la/ t5 days ( a session4 ,! t]m pocket veto has be5 appli$ to ?is me?od ( defeat+ bills4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,copies ( ! ,congressional ,record & ! ,congressional ,directory furni% int]e/+ illu/rations ( ! topics treat$ 9 ?is *apt]4 #b4 ,:at diff]5ce is !re 9 ! grant+ ( recognition 9 ! ,s5ate & ,h\se8 ,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry ( ,ours1 #de-dh4 #c4 ,h[ are ob/ructive tactics c>ri$ on8 ,alton1 ,among ! ,law-mak]s1 ,*apt] #bj4 #d4 ,re9s*1 ,"y ,citiz5's ,read]1 #aih-bac4 ,m>riott1 ,uncle ,sam's ,bus9ess1 #h-af4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,"s ,,important ,,p[]s ,,( ,,congress4 ,i4 ,,national ,,f9ances4 ,! ,p[] ( ,taxation4--,:5 we speak ( ! f9ances ( a c\ntry1 we mean its rev5ues & exp5ditures4 ,rev5ues h _! orig9 *iefly#bj 9 taxation1 & ! p[] ve/$ 9 ,congress by virtue ( :i* taxes are impos$ & collect$ is f\nd 9 ! foll[+ clause3 ,article ,i1 ,section #h1 ,clause #a4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to lay & collect taxes1 duties1 impo/s & excises1 to pay ! debts & provide = ! common def5se & g5]al welf>e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 b all duties1 impo/s & excises %all be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,footnote #bj3 ,consid]able sums are d]iv$ by our ,national gov]nm5t f ! sale ( public l&s4 ,see ,*apt] on ,t]ritories & ,public ,l&s4 ,duties on ,imports4--,! two =ms ( taxes reli$ ^u by ! ,unit$ ,/ates = its rev5ues are 7#a7 duties & 7#b7 excises4#ba ,a duty is a tax levi$ ^u goods t are import$ into ! ,unit$ ,/ates4#bb ,! m]*ant do+ bus9ess 9 ,new ,york1 = example1 _c obta9 possession ( ! goods he has import$ until ! (fic]s ( ! cu/om-h\se at t port h exam9$ ! invoice1 or ! li/ ( articles 9 ea* package1 ) _! prices2 & ! (fic]s may exam9e ! goods1 also1 to see if !y correspond 9 am\nt & quality to ! /atem5ts ( ! invoice4 ,! import] !n pays to ! collector ( ! port ( ,new ,york ! am\nt ( ! duty levi$ on 8 importation4 ,footnote #ba3 ,! t]ms duties & impo/s h ne>ly ! same mean+4 ,footnote #bb3 ,duties on exports are prohibit$ 9 ,section #i1 ,clause #e1 ( ,article ,i3 ,no tax or duty %all be laid on articles export$ f any ,/ate4 ,k9ds ( ,duties4--,^! are ( two k9ds4 7#a7 ,specific duties are fix$ am\nts levi$ on c]ta9 units ( measurem5t ( commodities1 z ! p\nd1 y>d1 or gallon4 ,"u ! t>iff law ( #aiji ! duty on t9-plate 0 "o & two-t5?s c5ts = ea* p\nd4 7#b7 ,ad valorem duties are levi$ at a c]ta9 rate p] c5t on ! value ( ! articles tax$4 ,! law ( #aiji laid a duty ( #fj p] c5t on lace manufactures4 ,on "s articles bo? k9ds ( duties are levi$4 ,"u ! law j m5tion$1 ! duties on c>pets & rugs 7 #aj c5ts p] squ>e foot & #dj p] c5t ad valorem 9 addition4 ,pass5g]s on /eam%ips com+ f =eign c\ntries are requir$ to decl>e :at dutiable goods !y h among _! baggage1 ea* p]son be+ all[$ to ent] #ajj wor? ( goods free ( duty4 ,^u l&+1 _! baggage is exam9$2 trunks & valises are op5$1 & 9 suspect$ cases ! p]sons ( travel]s are se>*$ = conceal$ dutiable goods4 ,! temptation to und]valuation & to smuggl+1 9 ord] to escape ?is =m ( taxation1 is s great t con/ant vigilance is necess>y at cu/om-h\ses & along ! bord]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to prev5t ^! frauds4 ,special ag5ts & rev5ue cutt]s are employ$ to detect violations ( ! law4 ,t>iff ,laws4--,a t>iff is ! li/ ( ! rates ( duties fix$ by law4 ,an import] ( =eign goods mu/ consid] ! am\nt ( ! duties he has paid z "p ( ! co/ ( ! goods :5 he sells !m4 ,if a high] price is caus$ 9 ?is way1 less ( su* goods w be import$ & ! production ( ! goods 9 ?is c\ntry w be enc\rag$4 ,consequ5tly1 high rates ( duties may h a decid$ influ5ce ^u ! indu/ries ( a c\ntry4 ,:5 ! rates ( duties are s fix$ z to br+ ab\t ?is result1 we h a protective t>iff2 i4e41 "o "u :i* p]sons c produce 9 ?is c\ntry c]ta9 articles :i* o!rwise !y c\ld n produce1 because ( _! *eapness :5 import$ f a =eign c\ntry4 ,! duties are made s high t x is n pr(itable to import ! articles4 ,:5 rates ( duties are fix$ prim>ily ) ! object ( rais+ rev5ue1 & )\t reg>d to _! effect ^u ! indu/ries ( ! c\ntry1 we h a t>iff = rev5ue4 ,?is k9d ( t>iff is g5]ally meant :5 ! t]m free trade is us$4 ,articles on :i* no duties are impos$ are said to be on ! free li/4 ,!re is no c\ntry :i* fails to collect duties on "s ( its importations4 ,reciprocity ,agreem5ts4--,! ,unit$ ,/ates has ent]$ into reciprocity treaties ) v>i\s c\ntries = secur+ ! r$uction ( t>iff rates4 ,ea* c\ntry agrees to admit c]ta9 products ( ! o!r c\ntry at r$uc$ rates1 or free ( duty4 ,^! are g5]ally commodities 9 ! production ( :i* !re is little or no competition betwe5 ! p>ties to ! treaty4 ,int]nal ,rev5ue ,taxes4--,excises are taxes laid ^u ! manufacture & sale ( c]ta9 products )9 ! c\ntry4 ,at ! pres5t "t ^! int]nal rev5ue taxes are levi$ by ! ,national gov]nm5t ^u liquors1#bc tobacco1 snuff1 opium1 oleom>g>9e1 fill$ *eese1 mix$ fl\r1 & play+ c>ds4 ,! great] numb] ( ^! taxes are paid by ! pur*ase ( /amps1 :i* mu/ be affix$1 9 ! prop] d5om9ations1 to ! articles tax$4 ,:5 ! packages are brok51 ! /amps mu/ be de/roy$ s t !y _c be us$ aga94 ,footnote #bc3 ,taxes are levi$1 n only ^u ! liquors !mselves1 b ^u ! bus9ess ( brew+ & rectify+2 ( sell+ by :olesale & by retail2 ( manufactur+ /ills2 & ^u ! /ills !mselves4 ,a li/ ( ^! taxes may be obta9$ f ! collector ( any int]nal rev5ue di/rict4 ,w> ,taxes4--,because taxes ( ?is k9d are s easily collect$1 ! gov]nm5t has ext5d$ !m to a great numb] ( articles :5 x sudd5ly ne$$ a l>ge rev5ue1 z 9 ! ,w> ( #ahab1 ! ,civil ,w>1 & ! ,spani% ,w> ( #ahih4 ,! law ( #ahih increas$ ! taxes on liquors & tobacco1 & impos$ new taxes on 7#a7 propriet>y articles1 & 7#b7 docum5ts4 ,"u ! fir/ head+ fall pat5t m$ic9es & comp\nds ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,docum5t>y taxes#bd 7 impos$ ^u legal pap]s1 su* z de$s1 mortgages1 etc41 & also ^u bank *ecks & drafts1 telegraph & telephone messages1 & express receipts4 ,"u ?is law ! int]nal rev5ue receipts rose f #agj1jjj1jjj 9 #ahih1 to #bgc1jjj1jjj 9 #ahii4 ,congress has repeal$ ^! special w> taxes4 ,footnote #bd3 ,^! 7 exactly l ^? impos$ by ,p>liam5t 9 ! ,/amp ,act ( #agfe4 ,corporation ,tax4--,9 #aiji ,congress levi$ a tax ^u corporations4 ,e corporation do+ int]/ate bus9ess is requir$ to report its e>n+s & its exp5ses4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! am\nts is its net e>n+s4 ,! law requires ! paym5t ( "o p] c5t ( ! net e>n+s t are 9 excess ( #ejjj4 ,rules = ,levy+ ,taxes4--,! ,con/itution conta9s ?ree rules by :i* ,congress mu/ be guid$ 9 ! levy+ ( taxes4 ,we h se51 ,article ,i1 ,section #h1 ,clause #a1 t duties1 impo/s & excises mu/ be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 t is1 ! same rates mu/ prevail ev]y:]e4 ,ano!r provision1 ,article ,i1 ,section #b1 ,clause #c1 is t repres5tatives & direct taxes %all be apportion$ among ! sev]al ,/ates 444 accord+ to _! respective numb]s4#be ,footnote #be3 ,see also ,article #a1 ,section #i1 ,clause #d3 ,no capitation1 or o!r direct1 tax %all be laid unless 9 proportion to ! c5sus or enum]ation h]e9be=e direct$ to be tak54 ,! ?ird provision is ! ,sixte5? ,am5dm5t1 :i* became a "p ( ! ,con/itution 9 ,febru>y1 #aiac3 ,article #af4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to lay & collect taxes on incomes1 f :atev] s\rce d]iv$1 )\t apportionm5t among ! sev]al ,/ates1 & )\t reg>d to any c5sus or enum]ation4 ,we h1 !re=e1 ! foll[+ classification3-- ,i4 ,direct p]sons1#bf ,mu/ be apportion$ among taxes1 l&s1 ! ,/ates accord+ to levi$ on population4 ,,ii4 ,indirect duties1 ,mu/ be uni=m ?r\gh\t taxes impo/s1 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 excises1 income taxes4 ,footnote #bf3 ,^! are poll taxes4 ,su* a tax 0 levi$ on slaves 9 #agih & #ahac4 ,s f>1 we h discuss$ ! indirect taxes only1 = at pres5t ! ,unit$ ,/ates levies no direct taxes4 ,9 our previ\s hi/ory1 h[ev]1 ! gov]nm5t has impos$ all ! k9ds ( taxes m5tion$ 9 ! outl9e above4 ,9 levy+ a direct tax1 ,congress mu/ det]m9e ! total am\nt to be rais$ 7z #b1jjj1jjj 9 #agih1 & #bj1jjj1jjj 9 #ahfa71 & !n apportion ?is am\nt among ! ,/ates1 accord+ to _! population4 ,! bills introduc$ into ,congress :i* provide = taxation are call$ bills = rais+ rev5ue4 ,!y mu/ orig9ate 9 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives 7,article ,i1 ,section #g1 ,clause #a74 ,! ,committee on ,ways & ,means frames ^! bills4 ,9 ! ,s5ate su* bills are ref]r$ to ! ,committee on ,f9ance1 & "h ! bills may be am5d$4 ,! ,appropriation ( ,money4--,appropriation bills are ^? :i* provide = ! exp5diture ( ! gov]nm5t's funds1 & ^! bills are 9 *>ge ( ! committee on appropriations 9 ea* h\se4 ,bel[ is a li/ ( ! pr9cipal items 9 ! rev5ues & appropriations = ! ye> end+ ,june #cj1 #aiaj4 ,,rev5ues4 ,duties #ccc1jjj1jjj ,int]nal rev5ue #bij1jjj1jjj ,miscellane\s #eb1jjj1jjj ----------- ,total #fge1jjj1jjj ,,exp5ditures4 ,w> ,dep>tm5t #aef1jjj1jjj ,navy ,dep>tm5t #abc1jjj1jjj ,indian ,bureau #ah1jjj1jjj ,p5sions #afj1jjj1jjj ,int]e/ on public debt #ba1jjj1jjj ,civil li/ & miscellane\s #ahj1jjj1jjj ----------- ,total #fei1jjj1jjj ,! ,p[] to ,borr[ ,money4--,we h n[ se5 h[ money is provid$ = ! gov]nm5t "u ord9>y circum/ances4 ,9 extraord9>y cases ?is rev5ue is n suffici5t2 accord+ly1 ,congress has be5 giv5 p[] by ,article #a1 ,section #h1 ,clause #b1 ,to borr[ money on ! cr$it ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,money is borr[$ 9 mo/ cases by ! sale ( bonds4 ,^! are ( ! same nature z ! promissory notes by :i* individuals obta9 loans4 ,national bonds /ate ! promise ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to pay a c]ta9 am\nt1 at a /at$ "t1 ) int]e/4 ,a regi/]$ bond conta9s ! "n ( ! own]1 & ?is is a matt] ( record at ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t4 ,:5 ?is bond is sold1 ! record mu/ be *ang$4 ,c\pon bonds are usually payable to be>]2 !y h atta*$ to !m a numb] ( c\pons equal to ! numb] ( int]e/ paym5ts due dur+ ! t]m ( ! bond4 ,ea* ( ^! is cut (f z ! paym5t becomes due1 & c be ca%$ at any bank4 ,bonds are b\ght & sold on ! m>ket1 & _! prices are quot$ 9 ! daily pap]s4 ,:5 ! bonds fall due1 !y are r$eem$ by ! gov]nm5t at _! face value1 or at p>4 ,on ! m>ket all ,unit$ ,/ates bonds are n[ sell+ at a premium4 ,issues ( bonds 7 made 9 #ahih1 ! rate ( int]e/ be+ #c p] c5t1 & 9 #aijj1 ! rate be+ #b p] c5t4 ,! ,public ,debt ,/atem5t issu$ mon?ly by ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t gives ! divisions ( ! bond$ debt & ! am\nt out/&+4 ,on ,decemb] #a1 #aiaj1 ! am\nt ( ! int]e/-be>+ debt 0 #iac1jjj1jjj4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,p[] ,,( ,,congress ,,ov] ,,comm]ce4 ,! ,control ( ,comm]ce4--,! p[] ov] comm]ce1 :i* we are next to discuss1 0 giv5 to ,congress because ! hi/ory ( ! c\ntry "u ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation %[$ cle>ly t ,/ate control ( comm]ce result$ 9 confusion & con/ant disputes4 ,x is necess>y t m]*ants & %ip-own]s %\ld conduct _! bus9ess "u laws t are z uni=m z possible4 ,x is also necess>y t !y %\ld be c]ta9 z to ! t]ms ( ! law4 ,^! conditions c\ld n exi/ if ea* ,/ate 7 to make laws controll+ ! comm]ce go+ to o!r ,/ates & to =eign c\ntries4 ,! ,con/itution gives ,congress ! p[]1 9 ,article ,i1 ,section #h1 ,clause #c1 ,to regulate comm]ce ) =eign nations1 & among ! sev]al ,/ates1 & ) ! ,indian tribes4 ,n all comm]ce t is c>ri$ on by ! citiz5s ( ?is c\ntry is subject to control by ,congress4 ,!re is a va/ am\nt ( comm]ce t is c>ri$ on entirely )9 ! limits ( ! diff]5t ,/ates4 ,ov] ?is comm]ce ,congress has no p[]2 x is regulat$ by ,/ate laws relat+ to trade & transportation4 ,int]/ate ,comm]ce4--,! di/9ction betwe5 ,/ate & int]/ate comm]ce is n readily se5 9 _m cases2 b 9 g5]al x may be said t if a commodity />ts 9 "o ,/ate de/9$ = ano!r1 its control ?r\gh\t its c\rse lies )9 ! p[] ( ,congress4 ,?is pr9ciple applies to bo? l& & wat] transportation4 ,s ! coa/ trade among ! ,/ates lies )9 ! jurisdiction ( ,congress2 also1 comm]ce ^u ^? riv]s t =m highways betwe5 diff]5t ,/ates4 ,! h>bors & wat]ways ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates h be5 improv$ by ! exp5diture ( _m millions ( doll>s4 ,?is money has be5 appropriat$ 9 ! ,riv] & ,h>bor ,bills t are pass$ by almo/ e ,congress4 ,! ,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,law4--,! importance ( railroad transportation l$ to ! enactm5t1 9 #ahhg1 ( ! ,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,law1 controll+ ?is =m ( comm]ce4 ,! law became necess>y because ( c]ta9 abuses :i* _h aris54 ,9 _m in/ances ! railroads gave l[] freight rates to c]ta9 p]sons ?an to o!rs do+ ! same k9d ( bus9ess2 aga91 ! m]*ants or manufactur]s ( c]ta9 cities 7 favor$ by m lib]al rates ?an c\ld be obta9$ by ^? :o 7 engag$ 9 ! same indu/ries 9 o!r cities4 ,z a result1 ! bus9ess ( _m p]sons & places suff]$ injury1 :ile ! bus9ess ( _! rivals prosp]$ ?r\gh ! advantages giv5 to !m by ! railroads4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ^! & o!r evils1 v>i\s laws1 beg9n+ ) t ( #ahhg1 h be5 pass$ to control n only railroad & /eamboat l9es1 b also telegraph1 telephone1 express1 & sleep+-c> companies 9 s f> z !y are engag$ 9 int]/ate & =eign comm]ce4 ,"s provisions ( ^! laws w n[ be /at$1 7#a7 ,*>ges mu/ be j & reasonable4 ,! ,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,commission has p[] to decide :at is reasonable1 & to fix rates1 aft] an inve/igation4 7#b7 ,x is unlawful to give "o p]son or corporation a bett] rate ?an ano!r = ! same s]vice4 ,?is is call$ discrim9ation4 ,passes _c be grant$1 except to employees4 7#c7 ,all rates mu/ be po/$ :]e !y c be consult$ by any p]son4 7#d7 ,all companies engag$ 9 int]/ate comm]ce mu/ op5 _! books to inspection by ! commission & mu/ make reports t !y require4 7#e7 ,if any p]son objects to a decision ( ! commission1 he may appeal to ! ,comm]ce ,c\rt1 :i* has be5 creat$ to consid] su* cases4 ,! ,control ( ,tru/s4--,among ! abuses aris+ 9 connection ) int]/ate comm]ce are ^? :i* result :5 p]sons ent] into agreem5ts or comb9ations to prev5t free competition2 = "u ^! circum/ances prices are rais$1 or c]ta9 p]sons are favor$ 9 trade4 ,9 #ahij1 ,congress pass$ a law prohibit+ su* comb9ations 9 re/ra9t ( trade or comm]ce among ! sev]al ,/ates or ) =eign nations4 ,?is is kn[n z ! ,%]man ,anti-tru/ ,law4-,n[1 a tru/ is simply a l>ge corporation :i* has absorb$ or kill$ (f1 m or less completely1 o!r e/abli%m5ts engag$ 9 ! same indu/ry4 ,! tru/ may or may n h a monopoly1 t is1 complete control 9 t l9e ( bus9ess2 & x may or may n be engag$ 9 int]/ate comm]ce4 ,an agreem5t among c]ta91 railroad companies to e/abli% & ma9ta9 freight rates 0 decl>$ to be 9 violation ( ! law ( #ahij4 ,also1 a comb9ation1 or conspiracy1 among railroad employees to /op ! runn+ ( tra9s 0 decl>$ illegal4 ,! tru/ problem1 :i* is s prom95t 9 curr5t political discussion1 is ! "q ( prev5t+ ! evils ( comb9ation 9 indu/ry4 ,^! evils become evid5t :5 excessive prices are *>g$ by p]sons :o control c]ta9 l9es ( bus9ess2 t is1 :5 free competition is prev5t$ 9 ! production1 transportation1 or sale ( commodities4 ,if ! bus9ess conduct$ by a tru/ lies entirely )9 ! limits ( a s+le ,/ate's b\nd>ies1 !n x mu/ be regulat$ by ,/ate law4 ,,iii4 ,,! ,,money ( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4 ,our ,national ,curr5cy4--,ano!r ( ! mo/ important p[]s ( ,congress is t grant$ 9 ! foll[+ clause3-- ,article ,i1 ,section #h1 ,clause #e4 ,to co9 money1 regulate ! value !re(1 & ( =eign co91 & fix ! /&>d ( weights & measures4 ,9 civiliz$ c\ntries x is ! practice ( ! gov]nm5t to furni% ! p a circulat+ m$ium = use 9 trade & comm]ce4 ,two k9ds ( money are 9 use 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 7#a7 co9 or specie2 & 7#b7 pap] money4 ,! total am\nt ( money 9 circulation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates on ,novemb] #a1 #aiaj1 0 #c1abd1fgi1jeg or #ce4ja p] capita = ! :ole population4 ,we %all fir/ consid] ! co9s ( ! nation4 ,h[ ,co9s ,are ,made4--,! co9age ( money takes place at ! m9ts1 :i* are locat$ at ,philadelphia1 ,d5v]1 ,new ,orleans1 & ,san ,francisco4 ,gold & silv] come to ! m9ts 9 ! =m ( bricks1 or r\gh b>s1 to :i* ! t]m bullion is appli$4 ,alloy mu/ be add$ to ! pure metal = ! purpose ( r5d]+ x ( suffici5t h>dness to )/& we>4 ,9 our gold & silv] co9s "o-t5? ( ! weight is an alloy compos$ ( copp] & nickel4 ,a quantity ( ! bullion ( ! requir$ purity is fir/ melt$ & !n ca/ into +ots1 or long b>s4 ,ea* b> is next run betwe5 heavy roll]s until x takes ! =m ( a ?9 /rip4 ,f ! /rip are pun*$ r\nd pieces1 call$ blanks1 ( ! size & ?ickness ( ! co9 t is be+ made4 ,9 ! next process ! blank is weigh$ on a delicate balance2 :5 f\nd to be ( ! correct weight1 ! co9 is plac$ 9 a p[]ful press1 & f ?is x comes ) its edge rais$ above ! face & its edge mill$4 ,9 a simil> press ! designs are /amp$ ^u ! faces ( ! co94 ,bel[ is a li/ ( ! co9s n[ be+ m9t$4 ,,gold ,co9s4#bg ,d\ble eagle ,half-eagle ,eagle ,qu>t]-eagle ,,silv] ,,co9s4 ,/&>d doll> ,qu>t]-doll> ,half-doll> ,dime ,,m9or ,,co9s4 ,five-c5t 7nickel7 ,"o-c5t 7bronze7 ,! silv] co9s less 9 value ?an "o doll> are call$ subsidi>y co9s4 ,footnote #bg3 ,no gold "o-doll> pieces h be5 co9$ s9ce #ahij4 ,! ,ratio ( ,gold & ,silv] ,co9s4--,! law fixes ! weight ( pure metal 9 a silv] doll> at #cga4be gra9s1 troy weight1 & t ( ! pure metal 9 a gold doll> at #bc4bb gra9s4 ,! ratio ( ^! weights is #ae4ihh3 #a1 or ne>ly #af3a4 ,?is indicates ! orig9 ( ! fam\s expression1 sixte5 to "o4 ,free ,co9age4--,by free co9age is meant a policy e/abli%$ by law1 "u :i* any p]son may br+ bullion to ! m9t 9 any am\nt & h x co9$2 t is1 ! am\nt :i* ! gov]nm5t w co9 is unlimit$ by law4 ,our c\ntry has always _h ! policy ( free co9age ) respect to gold4 ,?is 0 also ! policy 9 ! co9age ( our silv] doll>s until #ahgc4 ,at t "t ! co9age ( ! silv] doll> 0 discont9u$ until a law 0 pass$ 9 #ahgh 7! ,bl& ,act7 r5ew+ its co9age1 b 9 limit$ quantities4 ,! gov]nm5t pur*as$ silv] bullion "u ?is law1 & "u ! ,%]man ,act 7#ahij71 b s9ce #ahic no silv] bullion has be5 pur*as$ = ! co9age ( silv] doll>s1 b ! bullion already on h& has be5 us$ = ?is purpose4 ,pap] ,money4--,we h 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates five k9ds ( pap] money 9 g5]al circulation3-- ,k9ds4 ,am\nts 9 circulation1 ,nov4 #a1 #aiaj4 #a4 ,unit$ ,/ates notes #cda1jjj1jjj #b4 ,gold c]tificates #hcf1jjj1jjj #c4 ,silv] c]tificates #dhc1jjj1jjj #d4 ,national bank notes #gjf1jjj1jjj #e4 ,treasury notes ( #ahij #c1ejj1jjj ,! ,hi/ory ( ,unit$ ,/ates ,notes4--,unit$ ,/ates notes1 or gre5backs1 z !y are commonly call$1 orig9at$ dur+ ! ,civil ,w>4 ,:5 ! gov]nm5t 0 )\t specie 7i4e41 gold & silv] money7 ) :i* to pur*ase supplies = ! army & pay o!r exp5ses1 x issu$ ^! notes4 ,ea* note says on its face1 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates w pay to be>] ----4 ,s9ce no "t 0 set = ! fulfillm5t ( ?is promise1 & s9ce !re 0 nei!r gold nor silv] 9 ! ,treasury ) :i* to r$eem ! notes1 p w\ld naturally hesitate to accept !m 9 paym5t = goods or sal>ies4 ,consequ5tly1 ,congress made ! notes legal t5d]2#bh t is1 ! law compell$ cr$itors to receive ?is k9d ( money 9 paym5t = debts4 ,! notes pass$ into circulation1 !re=e1 because p 7 =c$ to take !m2 b _! value depreciat$ greatly dur+ ! w>4 ,9 #ahgi ! gov]nm5t began ! r$emption ( ! notes 9 specie1 & s9ce t "t !y h be5 wor? _! face value4 ,footnote #bh3 ,our full legal-t5d] co9s at pres5t are ! gold co9s1 silv] doll>s1 ,unit$ ,/ates notes1 & ,treasury notes ( #ahij4 ,subsidi>y silv] co9s are legal t5d] 9 am\nts n great] ?an #aj4jj1 & ! m9or co9s are legal t5d] to ! am\nt ( tw5ty-five c5ts4 ,gold & ,silv] ,c]tificates4--,x is mu* m conv5i5t to h&le pap] money ?an co9s4 ,:5 a p]son deposits gold or silv] co9 9 ! ,treasury1 he may receive ^! c]tificates 9 ex*ange4 ,consequ5tly1 ! value ( ^! c]tificates 9 circulation repres5ts an equal am\nt ( gold co9 & silv] doll>s /or$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,treasury & ready = ex*ange = ! c]tificates at any "t4 ,national ,bank ,notes4--,! f\r? k9d ( pap] money is issu$ by ,national banks4 ,^! are organiz$ "u ,unit$ ,/ates law & subject to control by an (fic] ( ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t4 ,l banks t are organiz$ "u ,/ate law1 ,national banks conduct ! ord9>y bank+ op]ations4 ,t is1 !y receive deposits1 loan money1 & buy & sell drafts 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( bus9ess4 ,9 addition1 ^! banks are giv5 ! "r to issue notes4 ,9 do+ ?is1 ! bank fir/ buys on ! m>ket a c]ta9 am\nt ( ,unit$ ,/ates bonds2 ^! x s5ds to ! ,treasury at ,wa%+ton & leaves !re on deposit4 ,! bank w !n receive f ! ,treasury ,national bank notes equal 9 am\nt to ! face value ( ! bonds deposit$4 ,^! notes say t ,! ,national ,bank ( ---- w pay ! be>] ----1 on dem&4 ,n[1 ! bank may fail1 i4e41 x may n be able to pay :at x owes to its depositors & o!r cr$itors4 ,b ! hold]s ( ,national bank notes w n suff] loss4 ,= ! ,treasury w sell ! bonds & ?us obta9 ca% ) :i* x c r$eem ! notes held by individuals4 ,! am\nt ( ,treasury notes ( #ahij is comp>atively small1 & ?is k9d ( money is de/9$ to disappe> )9 a few ye>s4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,! t>iff s*$ule 9 =ce at ! pres5t "t may be f\nd 9 newspap] almanacs4 ,is ?is t>iff high1 l[1 or mod]ate 9 its rate8 #b4 ,! ,/ati/ical ,ab/ract1 publi%$ by ! ,bureau ( ,/ati/ics ( ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t1 gives ! li/ ( items ^u :i* duties & int]nal rev5ue taxes are collect$1 & ! am\nts yield$ by ea* = a s]ies ( ye>s2 ! exp5ditures ( ! gov]nm5t1 ) ! *ief items2 a /atem5t ( ! ,national debt2 & /ati/ics conc]n+ ! money ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,see also any newspap] almanac4 #c4 ,:y d liquors & tobaccos be> ! heavie/ excise taxes8 ,:at reasons c y give = tax+ ! o!r articles m5tion$ on pp4 #hb-hc8 #d4 ,because our co9s conta9 "o-t5? alloy1 !y are said to be n9e-t5?s f9e4 ,calculate f ! weights ( pure metal1 giv5 on p4 #ia1 ! total weights ( ! gold & silv] doll>s4 #e4 ,= in=mation conc]n+ ! ,act ( ,congress fix+ a /&>d ( weights & measures1 see ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 #ahh-ahi4 #f4 ,! depreciation ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates notes1 ref]r$ to on p4 #ib1 is %[n graphically 9 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 #ahe4 #g4 ,= our money1 see ,re9s*1 ,"y ,citiz5's ,read]1 #aja-ajc2 ,m>riott1 ,uncle ,sam's ,bus9ess1 #ig-aai2 #afe-agb2 ,c5tury ,book = ,"y ,am]icans1 #aba-acd4 #h4 ,on comm]ce1 read ,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry ( ,ours1 #fe-fg4 #i4 ,f9ances4 ,h>rison1 #ei-fe1 & ,*apt] #ab2 ,m>riott1 #aji-abg4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,o!r ,,g5]al ,,p[]s ,,( ,,congress4 ,i4 ,,p[] ,,( ,,naturalization4 ,:o ,are ,citiz5s4--,:o are citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is always a "q ( int]e/4 ,we f9d x cle>ly answ]$ 9 ! fir/ clause ( ! ,f\rte5? ,am5dm5t z foll[s3 ,all p]sons born or naturaliz$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates & subject to ! jurisdiction !re( are citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( ! ,/ates :]e9 !y reside4 ,?us !re are two classes ( citiz5s3 7#a7 ^? :o are citiz5s by bir?2 7#b7 ^? :o h be5 naturaliz$4 ,*ildr5 born 9 ?is c\ntry1 ?\gh ( =eign p>5tage1 & resid+ "h1 may be consid]$ ,am]ican citiz5s if !y *oose4 ,accord+ to an ,act ( ,congress1 pass$ 9 #ahhb1 ,*9ese ali5s may n be naturaliz$2 b our ,supreme ,c\rt has decid$ t a *ild born 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,*9ese p>5ts is a citiz51 if he desires to be4 ,?\gh born 9 a =eign c\ntry1 a *ild ^: fa!r is an ,am]ican citiz5 may claim ! privilege ( ,am]ican citiz5%ip4 ,indians :o keep _! tribal relations are n includ$ "u ! provisions ( ?is section4 ,naturaliz$ ,citiz5s4--,! second class ( citiz5s are ^? :o are naturaliz$4 ,t ! rules %\ld be uni=m by :i* ali5s become citiz5s1 is self-evid5t4 ,aft] a brief discussion1 ! ,con/itutional ,conv5tion provid$ 9 ,section #h1 ,clause #d1 t ,congress %all h ! p[] to e/abli% a uni=m rule ( naturalization1 & uni=m laws on ! subject ( bankruptcies ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,process ( ,naturalization4--7#a7 ,! =eign] desir+ to become a citiz5 goes be=e ! cl]k ( any c\rt ( record & decl>es1 ^u oa?1 t x is 8 int5tion to become a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & to r5\nce all allegiance to ! gov]nm5t :i* has jurisdiction ov] him4 ,he !n receives 8 fir/ pap]s4 7#b7 ,aft] he has resid$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates = five ye>s1 provid+ two ye>s h elaps$ s9ce 8 decl>ation ( int5tion1 he may secure 8 c]tificate ( naturalization4 ,he mu/ appe> 9 op5 c\rt & swe> t he w support ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & r5\nce all allegiance to any =eign p[]4 ,two witnesses mu/ te/ify to 8 t]m ( resid5ce1 & decl>e t he is a man ( good moral "*4 ,! applicant mu/ be able to speak ! ,engli% language4 ,8 wife1 & ^? ( 8 *ildr5 :o are "u tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age1 become citiz5s at ! same "t4 ,9 c]ta9 cases ,congress has1 by a s+le act1 admitt$ l>ge numb]s ( ali5s to ,am]ican citiz5%ip1 z x did at ! "t ( ! pur*ase ( ,l\isiana1 ! annexation ( ,texas1 & ( ,hawaii4 ,bankrupt ,laws4--,x sometimes happ5s1 because ( g5]al depression 9 trade ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry1 on acc\nt ( losses1 or = o!r reasons1 t bus9ess m5 become heavily involv$ 9 debt4 ,!y are said to be insolv5t4 ,n[1 x is b j t su* prop]ty z !y h %\ld be divid$ 9 "s equitable way among ! cr$itors4 ,a bankrupt law secures su* a division1 & ! debtor is1 at ! same "t1 fre$ f all legal obligation to pay ! debts :i* _c be met 9 ?is way4 ,! fir/ law ( ,congress on ?is subject 0 pass$ 9 #ahjb1 & repeal$ 9 #ahjc4 ,s9ce t "t !re h be5 ?ree o!r bankrupt laws1 b ! total "t dur+ :i* !y h be5 9 =ce am\nts only to "s tw5ty ye>s4 ,! la/ law1 t ( #ahih1 is /ill 9 op]ation4#bi ,footnote #bi3 ,see ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 p4 #aic1 = a fur!r discussion ( bankrupt laws--especially t ( #ahih4 ,"s ,/ates h also pass$ insolv5cy laws4 ,h[ev]1 ^! mu/ n 9 any way conflict ) ! provisions ( ! ,national bankrupt laws4 ,,ii4 ,,! ,,po/al ,,sy/em4 ,organization ( ! ,po/-(fice ,dep>tm5t4--,we c appreciate some:at ! advancem5t made 9 ! po/al s]vice r5d]$ by ! gov]nm5t :5 we read t an ,act ( ,congress 9 #aghb direct$ t mail %\ld be c>ri$ at lea/ once 9 ea* week f "o (fice to ano!r4 ,our well-organiz$ po/al sy/em1 decl>$ rec5tly by ! ,po/ma/]-,g5]al to be ! greate/ bus9ess conc]n 9 ! _w1#cj has be5 evolv$ ?r\gh laws made 9 c>ry+ out ! provision ( ! ,con/itution t ,congress %all h p[] to e/abli% po/-(fices & po/-roads4 ,footnote #cj3 ,! total receipts ( ! ,po/-(fice ,dep>tm5t = #aiaj 7 #bbd1abh1feg4 ,z is well kn[n1 ! ,po/ma/]-,g5]al1 a memb] ( ! ,presid5t's ,cab9et1 is at ! head ( ?is dep>tm5t ( gov]nm5t4 ,"o ( ! *ief burd5s ( ! ,po/-(fice ,dep>tm5t 0 =m]ly ! appo9tm5t ( ! s-call$ f\r?-class po/ma/]s1 intru/$ to ! ,f\r? ,assi/ant ,po/ma/]-,g5]al4 ,executive ord]s ( ,presid5ts ,roosevelt & ,taft plac$ #ej1jjj1 or ab\t five-sev5?s1 ( ^! po/ma/]s 9 ! classifi$ s]vice4 ,an ord] ( ,presid5t ,wilson1 9 #aiac1 appli$ ! m]it sy/em to ^! (fices1 by :i* ^! po/ma/]s 7 compell$ to demon/rate _! fitness = ^! appo9tm5ts4 ,?is ord] includ$ all f\r?-class po/ma/]s except ^? pay+ less ?an #ahj a ye>4 ,! o!r ?ree classes1 9 :i* are includ$ ^? po/ma/]s ^: sal>ies are n less ?an #ajjj1 are appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t1 ) ! cons5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,classes ( ,mail4--,mail matt] belongs to "o ( f\r classes4 ,9 g5]al1 ! classes & rates are z foll[s3 ,fir/ class--lett]s1 two c5ts an ounce2 second class--newspap]s & p]iodicals1 "o c5t a p\nd2 ?ird class--books1 "o c5t = two ounces2 & f\r? class--m]*&ise1 limit$ to f\r-p\nd packages1 "o c5t an ounce4 ,free ,deliv]y4--,among ! notable advances 9 ! mail s]vice 0 ! provision = ! free di/ribution ( mail 9 ! cities ( #aj1jjj inhabitants1 or :]e ! annual po/al receipts are #aj1jjj & above4 ,rural ,free ,deliv]y4--,no innovation 9 po/al me?ods has be5 m successful ?an ! free deliv]y ( mails 9 ! c\ntry di/ricts4 ,! developm5t ( ! sy/em1 s9ce its e/abli%m5t 9 #ahig1 has be5 rem>kable4#ca ,footnote #ca3 ,accord+ to ! report ( ! sup]9t5d5t = ! ye> end+ ,june #cj1 #aiaj1 #da1jgi r\tes _h be5 e/abli%$4 ,! rural population receiv+ daily mail s]vice am\nt$ to m ?an #ah1jjj1jjj4 ,two ?\s& "o hundr$ & tw5ty-f\r new rural r\tes 7 au?oriz$ 9 #aiaa1 aggregat+ #ea1bcj miles 9 l5g?4 ,presid5t ,taft urg$ a fur!r ext5sion ( ! sy/em4 ,among ! good effects result+ f its ext5sive introduction may be m5tion$ ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,correspond5ce 9 ! communities affect$ has increas$4 7#b7 ,! circulation ( ! daily newspap] & ( p]iodical lit]ature has be5 greatly enl>g$1 & int]e/ has gr[n 9 public affairs4 7#c7 ,good roads h be5 multipli$1 = !y are made "o ( ! conditions = ! introduction ( ! s]vice4 7#d7 ,because ! c\ntry di/ricts are br\ght into daily communication ) ! c5tres ( population1 ! t5d5cy to quit ! f>m = ! t[n has be5 less5$ & ?us rural free deliv]y is help+1 9 "s degree1 to solve "o ( ! problems ( our social & indu/rial life4 ,po/al ,sav+s-,banks4--,at v>i\s times bills h be5 be=e ,congress provid+ = ! e/abli%m5t ( po/al sav+s-banks 9 connection ) po/-(fices4 ,x is propos$ t !y %all receive small am\nts on deposit1 pay+ a l[ rate ( int]e/1 & t ! funds secur$ be inve/$ 9 gov]nm5t bonds4 ,a law 0 pass$ 9 #aiaj :i* provid$ = ! e/abli%m5t ( po/al sav+s-banks4 ,! plan has prov$ a success4 ,"s ( ! ,defects 9 ,our ,po/al ,sy/em4--7#a7 ,= ?irty ye>s prior to #aiaa !re has be5 an annual deficit ( sev]al million doll>s4 ,?is 0 caus$ l>gely ?r\gh ! transportation ( second-class matt]1 s-call$ p]iodical publications4 ,b 9 #aiaa !re 0 a po/al surplus ( ne>ly #bbj1jjj1 :i* 0 due l>gely to m bus9ess-l me?ods 9 managem5t4 ,t ?is is an unju/ dra9 ^u ! public funds is cle>1 :5 we consid] t1 9 a rec5t ye>1 ! gov]nm5t exp5d$ #ag1bgg1ghc m ?an x receiv$ = c>ry+ second-class mail4 7#b7 ,ano!r s]i\s defect has exi/$ 9 ! paym5t ( exorbitant rates to railroad companies = c>ry+ ! mails4 7#c7 ,"s ,congressm5 abuse ! privilege grant$ !m ( s5d+ gov]nm5t publications free4 7#d7 ,! po/al sy/em has (f]$ "o ( ! be/ fields = ! manipulation ( ! spoilsman4 ,po/ma/]s h be5 usually appo9t$ on ! recomm5dation ( repres5tatives1 &1 too frequ5tly1 ! "o ess5tial to secur+ an (fice is t ! applicant mu/ be influ5tial 9 politics4 ,p>cels ,po/4--,on ,janu>y #a1 #aiac1 a f>-rea*+ innovation 0 put into op]ation by ! ,po/-(fice ,dep>tm5t4 ,! p>cels-po/ sy/em 0 us$ = ! fir/ "t4 ,bills provid+ = su* a sy/em _h be5 introduc$ into ,congress1 b fail$ to pass ow+ l>gely to ! opposition ( express companies & o!r common c>ri]s4 ,,iii4 ,,copyrights ,,& ,,pat5ts4 ,copyrights & ,pat5ts4--,section #h1 ,clause #h4 ,to promote ! progress ( sci5ce & useful arts1 by secur+1 = limit$ times1 to au?ors & inv5tors1 ! exclusive "r to _! respective writ+s & discov]ies4 ,! developm5t ( ,am]ican lit]ature has be5 greatly aid$ ?r\gh ! op]ation ( laws bas$ on ?is clause4 ,copyrights are secur$ f ! ,libr>ian ( ,congress4 ,any p]son obta9+ a copyright has ! sole "r to pr9t1 copy1 or sell ! book1 *>t1 engrav+1 music1 etc41 = a p]iod ( tw5ty-eight ye>s4 ,a copyright may be r5ew$ = f\rte5 ye>s long]4 ,x may be sold or transf]r$ provid+ a record ( ! transf] be made 9 ! (fice ( ! ,libr>ian ( ,congress )9 sixty days4 ,pat5ts4--,am]icans h be5 rightly nam$ ! great inv5tors ( ! _w4 ,n a little ( our m>vel\s indu/rial progress has be5 due to ?is inv5tive ability4 ,! gov]nm5t has contribut$ to ! same end1 ?r\gh ! enactm5t ( laws protect+ ^? inv5tors :o secure pat5ts4 ,a p]son desir+ a pat5t mu/ decl>e ^u oa?1 9 8 petition address$ to ! ,commission] ( ,pat5ts1 t he believes himself to be ! fir/ inv5tor ( ! article = :i* he solicits a pat5t4 ,! sum ( fifte5 doll>s is *>g$ = fil+ ! application1 & tw5ty doll>s = issu+ ! pat5t4 ,a pat5t is grant$ = sev5te5 ye>s1 b may be ext5d$ = sev5 ye>s m4 ,dur+ ?is p]iod1 ! pat5tee has ! exclusive "r to manufacture1 sell1 or transf] 8 inv5tion4#cb ,footnote #cb3 ,9 ! ye> #aiaj1 #cg1dba pat5ts 7 grant$ by our gov]nm5t4 ,,iv4 ,,milit>y ,,p[]s ,,9 ,,congress4 ,section #h1 ,clauses #aa1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad4 ,to decl>e w>1 grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal1 & make rules conc]n+ captures on l& & wat]4 ,to raise & support armies1 b no appropriation ( money to t use %all be = a long] t]m ?an two ye>s4 ,to provide & ma9ta9 a navy4 ,to make rules = ! gov]nm5t & regulation ( ! l& & naval =ces4 ,! ,army4--,am]icans are always impress$ by ! milit>y _s s preval5t 9 ,european nations4 ,comp>$ ) ! /&+ army ( ,g]many1 :i* has "s #gjj1jjj m51 & ) t ( ,russia1 conta9+ #a1jjj1jjj m51 or ) t ( mo/ ,european nations1 our army is insignificant 9 size4 ,accord+ to a law ( #aija1 ! army ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates _c conta9 m ?an #ajj1jjj m54#cc ,footnote #cc3 ,! m9imum numb] ( m5 0 fix$ at #eg1jjj4 ,9 #aijh1 ! numb] ( (fic]s & m5 9 ! army 0 #gb1fbh4 ,=tunately1 !re has always exi/$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! desire to keep ! /&+ army f becom+ unduly l>ge4 ,! ,con/itution itself indicates t appropriations = ! army %all n be = a long] "t ?an two ye>s4 ,at ! end ( ?is p]iod1 ! p may *eck ! gr[? ( ! army ?r\gh ! election ( repres5tatives oppos$ !reto4 ,(fic]s & ,classification ( ! ,army4--,! ,presid5t is1 ex (ficio1 comm&]-9-*ief ( ! army & navy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! (fice ( g5]al 0 creat$1 by ,congress1 ,m>* #c1 #agii1 b 0 n fill$4 ,x 0 reviv$ 9 #ahff = ,g5]al ,grant1 ,g5]al ,%]man succe$+ to ! title 9 #ahfi4 ,! same rank 0 be/[$ on ,g5]al ,%]idan 9 #ahhh4 ,! lieut5ant-g5]al is next 9 rank to ! g5]al4 ,! army is di/ribut$ geographically z foll[s3 ,division ( ! ,philipp9es & ! ,dep>tm5ts ( ,cali=nia1 ( ! ,colorado1 ( ! ,columbia1 ( ,dakota1 ( ! ,ea/1 ( ! ,lakes1 ( ! ,miss\ri1 & ( ,texas4 ,! division is 9 *>ge ( a major-g5]al1 & ! dep>tm5ts are ea* 9 *>ge ( a major-g5]al or ( a brigadi]-g5]al4 ,! comm&s :i* correspond to ea* grade are3 major-g5]al1 f\r regim5ts2 brigadi]-g5]al1 two regim5ts2 colonel1 "o regim5t2 lieut5ant-colonel or major1 a battalion or squadron2 capta91 a company4 ,z n[ organiz$1 infantry regim5ts consi/ ( #ab companies1 ( #fe m5 ea*4 ,cavalry regim5ts conta9 #ab troops1 ea* hav+ #fe enli/$ m54 ,! ,navy4--,we are told by compet5t au?orities t "o ( our be/ means ( pres]v+ peace ) =eign p[]s is to ma9ta9 a /rong navy4 ,?is has become mu* m necess>y s9ce ! ,unit$ ,/ates has begun to acquire insul> possessions4 ,al?\gh ! con/ruction ( ! mod]n ,am]ican navy 0 n begun until #ahhc1 !re has be5 a notable advance )9 ! pa/ few ye>s4 ,9 #aiaj x 0 e/imat$ t our navy is excell$ 9 /r5g? only by t ( ,great ,brita94 ,congress1 9 #aiaj1 cont9u$ ! policy ( adequate prep>ation by au?oriz+ ! con/ruction ( two battle-%ips a ye>4 ,names ( ,vessels4--,a %ip ( ! fir/ class is giv5 ! "n ( a ,/ate2 "o ( ! second class t ( a pr9cipal city or riv]1 & ! names = %ips ( ! ?ird class are select$ by ! ,presid5t4 ,! navy n[ conta9s #cab vessels4 ,(fic]s 9 ! ,navy4--,! titles admiral & vice-admiral1 correspond+ to ! grades ( g5]al & lieut5ant-g5]al 9 ! army1 7 creat$ by act ( ,congress to be be/[$ on ! foll[+ m5 z recognition = di/+ui%$ s]vices dur+ ! ,civil ,w>3 ,admirals ,f>ragut & ,port]2 & ,vice-,admirals ,f>ragut1 ,port]1 & ,r[an4 ,admiral ,dewey 0 grant$ 8 title by a special ,act ( ,congress aft] ! ,battle ( ,manila4 ,! (fic]s ( ! navy rank+ ) major-g5]als1 brigadi]-g5]als1 colonels1 & s on1 9 ! army1 are re>-admirals1 commodores1 capta9s1 comm&]s1 lieut5ant-comm&]s1 lieut5ants1 ma/]s1 ensigns4 ,! ,militia4--,) b little opposition 9 ! ,con/itutional ,conv5tion1 ,congress 0 giv5 ! p[] to make provision = citiz5-soldi]s z foll[s3-- ,section #h1 ,clause #ae4 ,to provide = call+ =? ! militia to execute ! laws ( ! ,union1 suppress insurrections & repel invasions4 ,clause #af4 ,to provide = organiz+1 arm+ & discipl9+ ! militia1 & = gov]n+ su* "p ( !m z may be employ$ 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 res]v+ to ! ,/ates respectively ! appo9tm5t ( ! (fic]s1 & ! au?ority ( tra9+ ! militia accord+ to ! discipl9e prescrib$ by ,congress4 ,numb] ( ! ,militia4--,all able-bodi$ male citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & males betwe5 eighte5 & =ty-five ye>s ( age :o h decl>$ _! int5tion to become citiz5s are reg>d$ z ! militia =ce ( ! c\ntry4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 !re are at pres5t only ab\t #ajj1jjj m5 enroll$ 9 ?is s]vice4 ,b 9 ! case ( an em]g5cy ! ,presid5t may compel ! gov]nors ( ! v>i\s ,/ates to furni% ! troops ne$$4 ,! militia may ?us be call$ into s]vice1 "u _! own ,/ate (fic]s1 = a p]iod ( n9e mon?s4 ,! ,w> ( #ahab & ! ,civil ,w> furni% ! be/ illu/rations ( ! en=cem5t ( ?is provision4 ,volunte]s ( #ahih4--,we %\ld note "h ! mann] 9 :i* m5 7 secur$ = ! w> aga9/ ,spa94 ,we see1 accord+ to ,clause #ae1 t ! militia may be call$ out only = ! purposes ( execut+ ! laws ( ! ,union1 suppress+ insurrections1 & repell+ invasions4 ,n[1 9 ! case giv51 ! w> 0 to be conduct$ 9 =eign t]ritory1 & ,presid5t ,mc,kinley call$ = #bjj1jjj volunte]s4 ,x 0 und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t pref]5ce w\ld be giv5 to ^? volunte]s :o 7 already memb]s ( ! organiz$ militia4 ,v4 ,,location ,,( ,,! ,,capital4 ,section #h1 ,clause #ag4 ,congress %all h ! p[] to ex]cise exclusive legislation 9 all cases :atsoev] ov] su* di/rict 7n exce$+ t5 miles squ>e7 z may1 by cession ( p>ticul> ,/ates & ! acceptance ( ,congress1 become ! seat ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & to ex]cise l au?ority ov] all places pur*as$ by ! cons5t ( ! legislature ( ! ,/ate 9 :i* ! same %all be1 = ! erection ( =ts1 magaz9es1 ars5als1 dock-y>ds & o!r ne$ful build+s4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ conte/s 9 ,am]ican hi/ory arose 9 ! selection ( a site = ! capital city4 ,congress f9ally accept$1 = ?is purpose1 "o hundr$ squ>e miles ( l& on ! ,potomac ,riv]1 :i* 0 c$$ by ,m>yl& & ,virg9ia4 ,! ?irty squ>e miles giv5 by ,virg9ia 7 aft]w>d return$ to t ,/ate4 ,! capital 0 to be 9 ,new ,york until #agij1 !n 9 ,philadelphia until #ahjj4 ,9 #ahjj x 0 transf]r$ to ! new di/rict1 call$ ! ,di/rict ( ,columbia4#cd ,footnote #cd3 ,= ! gov]nm5t ( ?is di/rict1 see ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 p4 #bjd4 ,,vi4 ,,impli$ ,,p[]s4 ,/rict & ,loose ,con/ruction4--,our national developm5t has be51 9 l>ge measure1 dep5d5t on ! int]pretation ( ! next clause ( ! ,con/itution4 ,x is (t5 call$ ! ela/ic clause4 ,section #h1 ,clause #ah4 ,to make all laws :i* %all be necess>y & prop] = c>ry+ into execution ! =ego+ p[]s & all o!r p[]s ve/$ by ?is ,con/itution 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or 9 any dep>tm5t or (fic] !re(4 ,briefly /at$1 ! problem has always be51 ,has ,congress ! "r to ex]cise p[]s n def9itely grant$ by ! ,con/itution8 ,alex&] ,hamilton fir/ set =? ! doctr9e ( impli$ p[]s4 ,he urg$ t ,congress might1 9 c>ry+ out specific p[]s1 use me?ods n expressly provid$ = 9 ! ,con/itution1 z 9 ! creation ( a bank or m9t4 ,s9ce ! "t ( ?is int]pretation1 :i*1 =tunately = ,am]ican int]e/s1 0 sanction$ by ,wa%+ton & lat] by ! ,supreme ,c\rt ?r\gh its great ,*ief-,ju/ice ,john ,m>%all1 ! advocates ( ! doctr9es ( /rict & loose con/ruction h cont5d$ = _! pr9ciples4 ,does ! ,con/itution p]mit ! acquisition ( t]ritory8 ,may ,congress e/abli% a protective t>iff1 or a sy/em ( int]nal improvem5ts8 ,we h "h b ?ree ( ! great que/ions :i* h l$ to a def9ition ( ^! oppos+ views4 ,speak+ 9 g5]al t]ms1 ! p>ty 9 p[] has favor$ loose con/ruction1 :ile ! p>ty out ( p[] has advocat$ /rict con/ruction4 ,said ,mr4 ,bryce1 ,! ,am]icans h m ?an once b5t _! ,con/itution 9 ord] t !y might n be =c$ to break x4#ce ,footnote #ce3 ,bryce1 ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,i1 #cij4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,:at are "s ( ! difficulties enc\nt]$ 9 becom+ a citiz58 ,indep5d5t1 #fe3iid-ajjj4 #b4 ,is !re a po/al sav+s-bank 9 y\r t[n8 ,is x successful8 #c4 ,%\ld !re be a sy/em ( po/al telegraphy8 ,c5t4 ,mag41 #ei3ieb-ief2 ,n4 ,am4 ,rev41 #agb3eed-eef4 #d4 ,ext5t & advantages ( rural free deliv]y1 ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #bg3ee-fj4 #e4 ,p]ils ( ! po/al s]vice1 ,n4 ,am4 ,rev41 #agb3dbj-dcj2 #eea-eei4 #f4 ,defects 9 ! po/al sy/em1 ,n4 ,am4 ,rev41 #agd3hjg-hai2 #age3aae-abg4 #g4 ,private]s & private]+1 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 #bjd2 ,walk]1 ,! ,mak+ ( ! ,nation1 #bjj4 #h4 ,= ! me?ods employ$ 9 ! pat5t (fice & a comp>ison betwe5 our sy/em & t ( ,european nations1 see ,c5t4 ,mag41 #fa3cdf-cef4 #i4 ,a good acc\nt ( ! reorganization ( ! army ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is giv5 9 ! ,atl4 ,mo41 #hi3dcg-dea4 #aj4 ,! developm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates army1 ,scribn]'s ,mag41 #cj3bhf-caa1 #ddf-dfb1 #eic-fac4 #aa4 ,we/ ,po9t aft] a c5tury1 ,_w's ,"w1 ,augu/1 #aijb1 #bdcc-bdea4 #ab4 ,a hundr$ ye>s ( ,we/ ,po9t1 ,outlook1 #ga3eia-fja4 #ac4 ,life at ,we/ ,po9t1 ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #bf3de-ec4 #ad4 ,:at 0 ! "* ( our navy prior to #ahhc8 ,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry ( ,ours1 #bea-bee4 #ae4 ,! new ,am]ican navy1 ,outlook1 #gc3cbc-ccg4 #af4 ,comp>ison ( ! /r5g? ( our navy ) t ( o!r nations1 ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #be3efa-egj2 #ci3cdg4 #ag4 ,:at special problem 0 connect$ ) ! location ( ! capital8 ,h[ 0 x f9ally settl$8 ,h>t1 ,contempor>ies1 ,,iii1 #bfi-bgb2 ,s*\l]1 ,i1 #aeb-aef2 ,mc,master1 ,i1 #eee-efb2 ,_w's ,"w1 #a3aia-aie4 #ah4 ,! developm5t ( ,wa%+ton dur+ ! pa/ "o hundr$ ye>s is discuss$ 9 ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #bb3fge-fhf2 ,=um1 #cj3ede-eed2 ,outlook1 #gj3caj1 #caa1 #hag-hbi2 ,c5t4 ,mag41 #fc3fba-fbh1 #gbd-gef2 ,cosmop41 #cj3aji-abj4 #ai4 ,propos$ improvem5ts 9 ,wa%+ton1 ,c5t4 ,mag41 #fc3fba-fbh1 #gdg-gei4 #bj4 ,= ! influ5ce ( ! doctr9e ( impli$ p[]s1 see3-- 7a7 ,int]nal improvem5ts1 ,h>t1 ,contempor>ies1 ,,iii1 #dcf-ddj2 ,walk]1 ,! ,mak+ ( ! ,nation1 #bjd1 #bje1 #bfb1 #cfc2 ,h>t1 ,=mation ( ! ,union1 #bbg-bbi1 #cec-cee4 7b7 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,bank1 ,h>t1 ,contempor>ies1 ,,iii1 #ddf-dej2 ,h>t1 ,=mation ( ! ,union1 #aej-aea1 #bbf-bbg2 ,walk]1 ,! ,mak+ ( ! ,nation1 #hb-hc4 7c7 ,! annexation ( t]ritory1 ,h>t1 ,contempor>ies1 ,,iii1 #cgc-cgf2 ,walk]1 ,! ,mak+ ( ! ,nation1 #agg-ahd2 ,h>t1 ,! ,=mation ( ! ,union1 #ahh4 7d7 ,legal-t5d] cases1 ,wilson1 ,division & ,reunion1 #bhj-bha4 #ba4 ,= fur!r que/ions on ?is *apt]1 consult ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 #bjf1 #bjg4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,p[]s ,,d5i$ ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,& ,,! ,,sev]al ,,/ates4 ,:ile re/rictions on ,congressional p[]s are f\nd else:]e 9 ! ,con/itution1 ,section #i ( ,article ,i seems to h be5 fram$ especially = ?is purpose4#cf ,footnote #cf3 ,clause #a ( ?is article =m$ an important "p ( ! ?ird great compromise1 :i* 0 discuss$ on p4 #dc4 ,writ ( ,habeas ,corpus4--,clause #b provides3 ,! privilege ( ! writ ( habeas corpus %all n be susp5d$1 unless :5 9 cases ( rebellion or invasion1 ! public safety may require x4 ,a writ ( habeas corpus is a writ grant$ by a c\rt1 comm&+ an (fic] to produce be=e x a prison]1 9 ord] t ! c\rt may inquire into ! cause ( 8 imprisonm5t or det5tion4 ,if1 aft] su* inquiry1 x is f\nd t ! p]son is deta9$ = insuffici5t cause1 he is grant$ 8 fre$om4 ,presid5t ,l9coln & ! ,writ ( ,habeas ,corpus4--,presid5t ,l9coln1 z a milit>y necessity1 9 #ahfa1 susp5d$ ! privilege ( ! writ ov] a limit$ area1 con/itut+ a l>ge "p ( ! ,/ate ( ,m>yl&4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt1 h[ev]1 decl>$ 8 ord] non-effective1 ma9ta9+ t ! "r ( susp5d+ ! writ ( habeas corpus lay ) ,congress1 ?\gh x might be grant$ to ! ,presid5t4 ,?is attempt on ! "p ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt to re/ra9 ,mr4 ,l9coln 0 a failure1 & %[s t ev5 ! highe/ ( our tribunals may n h its usual p[] 9 "t ( w>4 ,x 0 n until ,m>* #c1 #ahfc1 t ,congress made ! decree ( ,presid5t ,l9coln legal by au?oriz+ him to susp5d ! writ :5ev] he believ$ ! public safety dem&$ x4 ,9 ,septemb] ( t ye> he decl>$ ! susp5sion g5]al ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,ex ,po/ ,facto ,laws4--,clause #c4 ,no bill ( atta9d] or ex po/ facto laws %all be pass$4 ,an ex po/ facto law1 z def9$ by ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 is a law :i* r5d]s an act puni%able 9 a mann] 9 :i* x 0 n puni%able :5 x 0 committ$4 ,x applies to acts ( a crim9al nature only4#cg ,footnote #cg3 ,clause #d is discuss$ "u ,national ,f9ances1 p4 #hd4 ,c>e ( ,public ,money4--,clause #g4 ,no money %all be drawn f ! ,treasury1 b 9 consequ5ce ( appropriations made by law2 & a regul> /atem5t & acc\nt ( ! receipts & exp5ditures ( all public money %all be publi%$ f "t to "t4 ,x is prop] 9 a gov]nm5t su* z ours t ! control ( ! public money %\ld be lodg$ ) ! repres5tatives ( ! p4 ,?r\gh ! annual report ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury1 ! p may "k f :at s\rces our rev5ues are d]iv$ & = :at purposes ! money is exp5d$4 ,titles ( ,nobility & ,gifts4--,clause #h4 ,no title ( nobility %all be grant$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & no p]son hold+ any (fice ( pr(it or tru/ "u !m %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! ,congress1 accept ( any pres5t1 emolum5t1 (fice1 or title ( any k9d :atev] f any k+1 pr9ce1 or =eign /ate4 ,accord+ to ! word+ ( ! clause1 ,congress may all[ gifts1 ( ! k9d m5tion$1 to be accept$ by our ,national (ficials4 ,usually1 h[ev]1 su* gifts pass into ! keep+ ( gov]nm5t4 ,p[]s ,d5i$ ! ,/ates4--,we recall ! p[] ( ! ,/ates & weakness ( ! g5]al gov]nm5t "u ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4 ,x 0 pla9 to ! memb]s ( ! ,con/itutional ,conv5tion t hopeless confusion w\ld arise if ! ,/ates %\ld also be giv5 ! "r to co9 money1 pass ex po/ facto laws1 etc4 ,!re=e1 c]ta9 prohibitions 7 made on ! p[]s ( ! ,/ates4 ,9 ,section #aj1 ,clause #a1 we note t ^! prohibitions are absolute1 z3-- ,no ,/ate %all ent] into any treaty1 alliance or conf$]ation2 grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal1 co9 money1 emit bills ( cr$it2 make any?+ b gold & silv] co9 a t5d] 9 paym5t ( debts2 pass any bill ( atta9d]1 ex po/ facto law1 or law impair+ ! obligation ( contracts1 or grant any title ( nobility4#ch ,footnote #ch3 ,9 ! celebrat$ ,d>tm\? ,college case1 x 0 f9ally det]m9$ t a ,/ate legislature may n modify ! t]ms ( a contract4 ,see ,life ( ,john ,m>%all1 by ,magrud]1 ,am]ican ,/atesm51 new ed41 #ahh-aij4 ,9 ,section #aj1 ,clauses #b & #c1 ! prohibitions are only conditional2 ?us3-- ,no ,/ate %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! ,congress1 lay any impo/ or duties on imports or exports except :at may be absolutely necess>y = execut+ its inspection laws2 & ! net produce ( all duties & impo/s laid by any ,/ate on imports or exports1 %all be = ! use ( ! ,treasury ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & all su* laws %all be subject to ! revision & control ( ! ,congress4 ,no ,/ate %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ,congress1 lay any duty ( tonnage1 keep troops or %ips ( w> 9 "t ( peace1 ent] into any agreem5t or compact ) ano!r ,/ate or ) a =eign p[]1 or engage 9 w>1 unless actually invad$ or 9 su* imm95t dang] z w n admit ( delay4 ,m ,complete ,protection ( ,p]sonal ,rights4--,by a c>eful read+ ( ,sections #i & #aj1 x is se5 t "s ( ! rights ( ! individual are gu>d$ aga9/ encroa*m5t on ! "p ( gov]nm5t1 ei!r ,national or ,/ate4 ,b ! p felt t !re 7 o!r p]sonal rights :i* ne$$ protection4 ,!y 7 famili> ) ! bills ( rights 9 _! own ,/ate con/itutions4 ,t ! ,national ,con/itution did n also conta9 a bill ( rights 01 z we h se51 "o ( ! *ief argum5ts made aga9/ its adoption 9 ! ,/ate conv5tions4 ,! ,fir/ ,t5 ,am5dm5ts4--,a l>ge numb] ( propositions1 !re=e1 7 submitt$ to ! fir/ ,congress by ! ,/ates4 ,sev5te5 ( ^! 7 select$ by ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 & propos$ z am5dm5ts to ! ,con/itution4 ,twelve ( ^! 7 acceptable to ! ,s5ate also1 & t5 7 ratifi$ by ! requir$ ?ree-f\r?s ( ! ,/ate legislatures4 ,we call !m ! fir/ t5 am5dm5ts to ! ,con/itution4 ,if we read ^! am5dm5ts1 we %all f9d t really !y are a bill ( rights1 = ! pres]vation or protection ( rights ( ! p is express$ 9 all4#ci ,footnote #ci3 ,see ,app5dix ,a4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,! ,,executive ,,dep>tm5t4 ,! ,presid5t & ,8 ,election4--,we h se5 t ! "o great weakness ( ! gov]nm5t "u ! conf$]ation 0 t !re exi/$ no adequate executive4 ,aft] mu* discussion 9 ! conv5tion1 ! fe> ( a despot at ! head ( affairs gave place to ! desire to secure executive en]gy & responsibility4 ,to-day ! ,presid5t is ! mo/ notable p]sonage among all our (ficials4 ,mr4 ,bryce calls ! ,presid5tial (fice ! greate/ (fice 9 ! _w unless we except ! papacy4 ,9 ! ,executive ,dep>tm5t ! ,presid5t's p[] is practically absolute4 ,he may appo9t & remove1 ei!r directly or indirectly1 all (ficials ( ! dep>tm5t1 & !y are f9ally responsible to him 9 ! p]=mance ( _! duties4 ,8 control ( int]national relations & 8 influ5ce on legislation are1 z we %all see1 ext5sive4 ,l5g? ( ,t]m4--,article ,,ii1 ,section #a1 ,clause #a4 ,! executive p[] %all be ve/$ 9 a ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,he %all hold 8 (fice dur+ ! t]m ( f\r ye>s1 &1 toge!r ) ! ,vice-,presid5t1 *os5 = ! same t]m1 be elect$ z foll[s3-- ,me?od ( ,election4--,h[ %all ! ,presid5t be *os58 ,?is problem is said to h tak5 "o-sev5? ( ! entire "t ( ! conv5tion4 ,:ile !re 7 ^? :o believ$ t election by ! p w\ld be wise1 /ill ?is s5tim5t 0 n g5]al4 ,x 0 ?\ght t a *oice 9 ?is way w\ld cause great tumult & disord]4 ,besides1 x 0 urg$ t ! p w\ld n be suffici5tly acqua9t$ ) ! m5 :o h ! necess>y qualifications = su* high (fice4 ,= a special inve/igation ( ?is sort1 !y agre$ t x w\ld be be/ to select a small numb] ( p]sons :o w\ld be mo/ likely to possess ! requir$ in=mation & disc]nm5t4 ,! appo9tm5t ( ^! indep5d5t electors 0 provid$ = z foll[s3-- ,appo9tm5t ( ,electors4--,section #a1 ,clause #b4 ,ea* ,/ate %all appo9t1 9 su* mann] z ! legislature !re( may direct1 a numb] ( electors equal to ! :ole numb] ( s5ators & repres5tatives to :i* ! ,/ate may be entitl$ 9 ! ,congress2 b no s5ator or repres5tative or p]son hold+ an (fice ( tru/ or pr(it "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be appo9t$ an elector4 ,article ,,ii1 ,section #a1 ,clause #c4 ,! ,congress may det]m9e ! "t ( *oos+ ! electors1 & ! day on :i* !y %all give _! votes1 :i* day %all be ! same ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,at pres5t1 ! appo9tm5t ( electors is a necess>y b a comp>atively unimportant /ep 9 ! election ( a ,presid5t4 ,! real p[] exi/s 9 ! ,national conv5tions ( ! great political p>ties4 ,in/ead ( ex]cis+ ! "r ( free *oice1 z !y 7 orig9ally expect$ to d1 ! electors are really b\nd to vote = c&idates nom9at$ 9 ^! conv5tions4 ,let u consid]1 !n1 "s ( ! *ief po9ts 9 ! hi/ory & practical work+ ( ,national conv5tions4 ,e>ly ,me?ods ( ,nom9at+4--,l ! developm5t ( o!r political usages1 ! me?od ( nom9at+ a ,presid5t pass$ ?r\gh sev]al /ages be=e ! pres5t plan ( nom9at+ conv5tions 0 rea*$4 ,no nom9ations 7 made 9 ! fir/ two ,presid5tial elections4 ,9 #agif1 ,wa%+ton hav+ refus$ to be a c&idate = a ?ird t]m1 p>ty manag]s 9 ,congress agre$ in=mally on ,adams & ,jeff]son z ! c&idates ( ! ,f$]ali/ & ! ,republican p>ties respectively4 ,a caucus ( ,f$]ali/ ,congressm51 9 #ahjj1 nom9at$ ,adams & ,p9ckney1 & a caucus ( ,republican ,congressm5 nom9at$ ,jeff]son & ,burr1 = ! (fices ( ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t4 ,! ,republican memb]s ( ,congress cont9u$ to hold a regul> caucus & ?us to direct ! votes ( ! p>ty electors until #ahbd4 ,9 t ye> ,william ,h4 ,craw=d1 ! la/ ,congressional nom9ee1 0 defeat$4 ,!re 0 opposition to ! ,congressional caucus f ! beg9n+1 = su* a me?od 0 reg>d$ z undemocratic4 ,9 #ahbd & #ahbh ! sev]al ,/ate legislatures put =w>d _! favorites = ! (fice ( ,presid5t4 ,developm5t ( ,national ,conv5tions4--,z e>ly z #ahab1 ,de ,witt ,cl9ton 0 nom9at$ z ! c&idate ( ! ,f$]ali/s 9 a conv5tion held 9 ,new ,york ,city1 made up ( sev5ty delegates1 :o repres5t$ elev5 ,/ates4 ,b ! ,national nom9at+ conv5tion1 z we "k x1 0 us$ = ! fir/ "t by ! ,anti-,masonic p>ty1 :i* select$ ,william ,wirt = its c&idate 9 #ahca4 ,?is me?od 0 foll[$ 9 ! same ye> by ! ,national ,republican p>ty1 :i* nom9at$ ,h5ry ,clay4 ,! ,national conv5tion ( ! ,democratic p>ty 9 #ahcb nom9at$ ,&rew ,jackson1 :o _h already be5 nom9at$ by _m local conv5tions & ,/ate legislatures4 ,_m ye>s elaps$ be=e ! pres5t complex organization 0 rea*$1 b s9ce #ahcf1 ) ! s+le exception ( ! ,:ig p>ty 9 t ye>1 p>ties h reg>d$ ! ,national conv5tion z an ess5tial factor 9 elect+ ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t4 ,prior to ! nom9ations = ! ,presid5cy 9 #aiab1 ! usual plan 0 to select two delegates to ! ,national conv5tion f ea* ( ! ,congressional di/ricts1 & also f\r delegates at l>ge4 ,! di/rict delegates 7 *os5 9 ! di/rict conv5tions ( ! diff]5t p>ties1 & ! delegates at l>ge 9 ,/ate conv5tions4 ,9 "s ( ! ,/ates all ( ! delegates 7 select$ 9 ! ,/ate conv5tions4 ,x n[ seems probable be=e ano!r ,presid5tial election t "s =m ( ! direct prim>y w be 9 use 9 all ( ! ,/ates4 ,! gr[? ( s5tim5t 9 favor ( ! selection ( delegates to ! ,national conv5tion by ! direct prim>y has be5 mo/ rem>kable4 ,oregon1 ,cali=nia1 ,nebraska1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,nor? ,dakota1 ,wiscons91 ,ill9ois1 ,ma9e1 ,m>yl&1 ,massa*usetts1 & ,mi*igan pass$ su* prim>y laws prior to ! election ( #aiab4 ,p5nsylvania _h a modifi$ prim>y law1 & 9 a numb] ( o!r ,/ates !re 7 volunt>y prim>ies4 ,election ( ,delegates to ! ,national ,conv5tions4--,! ,national conv5tions ( ! ,republican & ! ,democratic p>ties are made up ( twice z _m delegates f ! diff]5t ,/ates z ^! ,/ates h repres5tatives & s5ators 9 ,congress4 ,! ,national ,conv5tion4--,! ,national conv5tion is held 9 "s lead+ city dur+ ! mon? ( ,june or ,july ( ! ye> 9 :i* a ,presid5t is to be elect$4 ,a few days be=e ! "t set = ! conv5tion1 ! delegates1 toge!r ) _m ?\s&s ( politicians & sight-se]s1 flock to t city4 ,headqu>t]s are e/abli%$ & delegates are int]view$ on behalf ( ! diff]5t c&idates4 ,on ! day appo9t$1 ! conv5tion is call$ to ord] by ! *airman ( ! ,national committee1 "u ^: auspices ! conv5tion is to be held4 ,a tempor>y *airman is elect$1 & cl]ks & secret>ies are appo9t$4 ,committees are also appo9t$1 ! mo/ important be+ ^? on cr$5tials & on resolutions4 ,ea* ,/ate delegation selects "o ( its memb]s = ea* ( ! committees4 ,9 ! next session1 a p]man5t *airman is usually select$1 & ! committee on resolutions pres5ts its report1 :i* sets =? ! plat=m embody+ p>ty doctr9es & pr9ciples4 ,nom9ations are !n 9 ord]4 ,! roll ( ,/ates is call$1 & ! v>i\s delegations place be=e ! conv5tion ! favorite ( _! ,/ate4 ,a ,/ate (t5 waives its privilege 9 behalf ( "s o!r ,/ate :i* has a c&idate to pres5t4 ,aga9 ! cl]k calls ! roll ( ! ,/ates1 & ea* *airman ( a delegation ann\nces ! votes f 8 ,/ate4 ,9 ! ,republican conv5tion a majority ( ! numb] ( delegates vot+ is suffici5t to nom9ate2 b no nom9ation is possible 9 ! ,democratic conv5tion except by a vote ( two-?irds ( ! delegates4 ,!n foll[s ! selection ( a c&idate = ,vice-,presid5t4 ,9 ?is *oice ! attempt is made to secure "s man :o w add /r5g? to ! p>ty1 & :o comes f a diff]5t section ( ! c\ntry f t repres5t$ by ! c&idate = ! ,presid5cy4 ,he may1 z 9 ! cases ( ,tyl] & ,johnson1 repres5t a faction ( ! p>ty t is n 9 entire agreem5t ) ! majority4 ,! ,national ,committee4--,a ,national committee is also appo9t$1 made up ( "o memb] f ea* ,/ate1 :o is nom9at$ by ! ,/ate delegation4 ,! wi%es ( ! ,presid5tial c&idate are ( influ5ce 9 ! *oice ( ! *airman1 :o ne$ n be a memb] ( ! conv5tion4 ,! committee occupies a position ( great importance1 = by x ! plat=m ( ! p>ty is l>gely det]m9$4 ,we h "h a body ( m5 n m5tion$ by ! ,con/itution1 b ex]t+ va/ly great] influ5ce ^u ! election ( ,presid5t ?an does ! electoral college itself4 ,x organizes ! campaign1 secures money1 selects speak]s1 & s5ds out p>ty lit]ature4 ,! committee looks aft] ! int]e/s ( ! p>ty dur+ ! ensu+ f\r ye>s & issues ! call = ! next ,national conv5tion4 ,election ( ,electors4--,we are n[ ready to consid] ! place ( ! electors 9 ! *oice ( a ,presid5t4 ,! nom9ations ( c&idates = ! (fice ( elector are usually made at ! ,/ate conv5tions ( ! diff]5t p>ties :5 ,/ate tickets are nom9at$4 ,^! occur1 ord9>ily1 9 ,augu/ or ,septemb] prec$+ ! ,novemb] election4 ,ea* political p>ty nom9ates z _m electors z ! ,/ate has s5ators & repres5tatives 9 ,congress4 ,! names ( ! electors are !n plac$ on ! g5]al p>ty ticket1 on :i* appe> also ! names ( ! c&idates = ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t2 ea* p]son !n votes = ! entire numb] ( electors to :i* 8 ,/ate is entitl$1 & w naturally vote = all ! electors on 8 p>ty ticket4 ,! political p>ty1 !re=e1 :i* receives ! majority ( votes 9 a ,/ate secures all ! electoral votes ( t ,/ate4#dj ,footnote #dj3 ,x has sometimes happ5$1 h[ev]1 :5 ! election 9 a ,/ate has be5 close1 t "o or m ( ! electors on a m9ority ticket h run ahead ( ! o!r c&idates on t ticket1 & h secur$ a l>g] numb] ( votes ?an c&idates on ! majority ticket1 ?us obta9+ an election4 ,cali=nia1 9 #ahib1 gave "o electoral vote to ,mr4 ,h>rison & eight to ,mr4 ,clevel&1 & aga91 9 #ahif1 gave eight votes to ,mr4 ,mc,kinley & "o to ,mr4 ,bryan4 ,k5tucky1 9 #ahif1 ca/ twelve votes = ,mr4 ,mc,kinley & "o = ,mr4 ,bryan4 ,vacancies 9 ! ,(fices ( ,electors4--,congress enact$ 9 #ahde t ea* ,/ate might provide1 by law1 = ! fill+ ( vacancies 9 ! electoral college1 & t if any ,/ate fail$ to *oose electors on ! regul> day1 t !y might be appo9t$ on a lat] day 9 su* mann] z ! ,/ate might1 by law1 direct4 ,ne>ly all ( ! ,/ate legislatures h conf]r$ on ! college itself ! p[] ( fill+ vacancies4 ,function ( ,electors4--,! /eps prescrib$ by ! ,con/itution mu/ /ill be foll[$1 al?\gh we "k1 long be=e ! electors ca/ _! votes1 :o ! next ,presid5t w be4 ,! actual function ( ! electors is giv5 9 ,am5dm5t ,,xii1 z foll[s3-- ,! electors %all meet 9 _! respective ,/ates & vote by ballot = ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 "o ( :om1 at lea/1 %all n be an inhabitant ( ! same ,/ate ) !mselves2 !y %all "n 9 _! ballots ! p]son vot$ = z ,presid5t1 & 9 di/9ct ballots ! p]son vot$ = z ,vice-,presid5t2 & !y %all make di/9ct li/s ( all p]sons vot$ = z ,presid5t1 & ( all p]sons vot$ = z ,vice-,presid5t1 & ( ! numb] ( votes = ea*1 :i* li/s !y %all sign1 & c]tify1 & transmit1 seal$1 to ! seat ( gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 direct$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate2--! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate %all1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 op5 all ! c]tificates1 & ! votes %all !n be c\nt$2--! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes = ,presid5t %all be ! ,presid5t1 if su* numb] be a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( electors appo9t$2 & if no p]son h su* majority1 !n1 f ! p]sons hav+ ! highe/ numb]s1 n exce$+ ?ree1 on ! li/ ( ^? vot$ = z ,presid5t1 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all *oose imm$iately1 by ballot1 ! ,presid5t4 ,b 9 *oos+ ! ,presid5t1 ! votes %all be tak5 by ,/ates1 ! repres5tation f ea* ,/ate hav+ "o vote2 a quorum = ?is purpose %all consi/ ( a memb] or memb]s f two-?irds ( ! ,/ates1 & a majority ( ! ,/ates %all be necess>y to a *oice4 ,& if ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all n *oose a ,presid5t1 :5ev] ! "r to *oose %all devolve ^u !m1 be=e ! f\r? day ( ,m>* next foll[+1 !n ! ,vice-,presid5t %all act z ,presid5t1 z 9 ! case ( ! dea? or o!r con/itutional disability ( ! ,presid5t4--,! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes z ,vice-,presid5t %all be ! ,vice-,presid5t1 if su* numb] be a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( electors appo9t$2 & if no p]son h a majority1 !n1 f ! two highe/ numb]s on ! li/1 ! ,s5ate %all *oose ! ,vice-,presid5t2 a quorum = ! purpose %all consi/ ( two-?irds ( ! :ole numb] ( s5ators1 & a majority ( ! :ole numb] %all be necess>y to a *oice4 ,b no p]son con/itutionally ineligible to ! (fice ( ,presid5t %all be eligible to t ( ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,vot+ ( ! ,electors4--,! =mal election ( ,presid5t takes place on ! second ,monday 9 ,janu>y1 :5 ! electors meet at _! v>i\s ,/ate capitals & ca/ _! votes4 ,sep>ate ballots are giv5 = ,vice-,presid5t4 ,?ree sep>ate seal$ li/s ( ! results are !n prep>$4 ,two ( ^! are s5t to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate1 "o by mail & ! o!r by special mess5g]4 ,! ?ird is deposit$ ) ! ,unit$ ,/ates di/rict judge ( ! di/rict 9 :i* ! electors meet4 ,on ! second ,w$nesday 9 ,febru>y ! votes are op5$ by ! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 & c\nt$4 ,t p]son hav+ a majority ( ! electoral votes case = ,presid5t is decl>$ to be duly elect$4 ,! "o :o has a majority ( ! electoral votes ca/ = ,vice-,presid5t is also elect$ to t (fice4 ,election ( ,presid5t by ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4--,9 case no ,presid5tial c&idate receives a majority ( ! electoral votes1 ! election goes to ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 z is provid$ 9 ! am5dm5t we are consid]+4 ,"h ! ?ree c&idates hav+ ! highe/ numb] ( votes are alone consid]$4 ,! vot+ is by ,/ates4 ,9 #ahbe ,john ,qu9cy ,adams 0 elect$ ,presid5t 9 ?is way4 ,he _h few] popul> & few] electoral votes ?an ,&rew ,jackson1 b he receiv$ ! votes ( ?irte5 out ( tw5ty-f\r ,/ates 9 ! ,h\se4 ,*oice ( ,vice-,presid5t by ! ,s5ate4--,! ,s5ate is call$ on to select ! ,vice-,presid5t 9 case no c&idate has receiv$ a majority ( ! electoral votes4 ,! two c&idates hav+ ! highe/ numb] ( votes are consid]$4 ,! only in/ance ( ! election ( a ,vice-,presid5t 9 ?is way occurr$ 9 #ahcg4 ,disput$ ,returns1 ,election ( #ahgf4--;,disputes h aris51 f "t to "t1 ov] "s ( ! returns ( ! electoral votes4 ,! mo/ notable conte/ 0 t ov] ! returns f ,florida1 ,l\isiana1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 & ,oregon1 9 #ahgg4 ,if ! tw5ty-"o electoral votes f ^! ,/ates %\ld be c\nt$ = ! ,republican c&idates1 !y w\ld be elect$4 ,%\ld j "o ( ^? votes be giv5 to ! ,democratic nom9ees1 ! ,republicans w\ld lose ! election4 ,n[ ! ,s5ate at ?is "t 0 ,republican1 & ! ,h\se ,democratic1 & !re=e no satisfactory adju/m5t c\ld be rea*$1 because ( p>ty prejudices4 ,! excitem5t ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry 0 f9ally reliev$ by ! agreem5t on ! "p ( bo? h\ses to ref] ! decision to an ,electoral ,commission4 ,?is commission consi/$ ( five judges ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 five repres5tatives1 & five s5ators4 ,aft] exam9+ ! returns1 ! commission decid$1 ,m>* #b1 #ahgg1 by a vote ( eight to sev51 t ,hayes & ,:eel]1 ! ,republican c&idates1 _h receiv$ ! tw5ty-"o votes 9 dispute1 ?us giv+ !m "o hundr$ & eighty-five electoral votes1 & t ,tild5 & ,h5dricks1 ! ,democratic c&idates1 _h receiv$ "o hundr$ & eighty-f\r electoral votes4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! grave problem :i* arose 9 #ahgg1 ,congress pass$ an act ,febru>y #c1 #ahhg1 :i* provides t any conte/ 9 ! *oice ( electors 9 a ,/ate mu/ be decid$ by ! ,/ate au?orities "u ! laws ( ! ,/ate4 ,! ,orig9al ,me?od ( ,*oos+ ! ,presid5t4--,because ,presid5ts ,wa%+ton1 ,adams1 & ,jeff]son = 8 fir/ t]m1 7 *os5 by ! plan giv5 9 ! orig9al clause1 let u notice1 briefly1 ! me?od us$ at t "t1 & especially ! reasons = ! *ange to ! pres5t plan4 ,section #a1 ,clause #b4 ,! electors %all meet 9 _! respective ,/ates1 & vote by ballot = two p]sons1 "o ( :om1 at lea/1 %all n be an inhabitant ( ! same ,/ate ) !mselves4 ,& !y %all make a li/ ( all ! p]sons vot$ =1 & ( ! numb] ( votes = ea*2 :i* li/ !y sign & c]tify1 & transmit1 seal$1 to ! seat ( ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 direct$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate %all1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 op5 all ! c]tificates1 & ! votes %all !n be c\nt$4 ,! p]son !n hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes %all be ,presid5t1 if su* numb] be a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( electors appo9t$2 & if !re be m ?an "o :o h su* a majority1 & h an equal numb] ( votes1 !n ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all imm$iately *oose1 by ballot1 "o ( !m = ,presid5t2 & if no p]son h a majority1 !n1 f ! five highe/ on ! li/1 ! said ,h\se %all1 9 l mann]1 *oose ! ,presid5t4 ,b 9 *oos+ ! ,presid5t1 ! votes %all be tak5 by ,/ates1 ! repres5tation f ea* ,/ate hav+ "o vote2 a quorum = ?is purpose %all consi/ ( a memb] or memb]s f two-?irds ( ! ,/ates1 & a majority ( all ! ,/ates be necess>y to a *oice4 ,9 e case1 aft] ! *oice ( ! ,presid5t1 ! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes ( ! electors %all be ! ,vice-,presid5t4 ,b if !re %\ld rema9 two or m :o h equal votes1 ! ,s5ate %all *oose f !m1 by ballot1 ! ,vice-,presid5t4 ,accord+ to ?is clause1 we note t ! electors vot$ = two p]sons )\t /at+ :i* 0 to be ,presid5t & :i* ,vice-,presid5t4 ,9 ! (ficial c\nt1 ! c&idate receiv+ ! highe/ numb] ( votes1 provid$ x 0 a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( ! electoral votes1 became ,presid5t1 & ! "o receiv+ ! next highe/ became ,vice-,presid5t4 ,election ( #agif4--;,9 ! election ( #agif1 ,john ,adams1 :o receiv$ ! highe/ numb]1 sev5ty-"o1 out ( "o hundr$ & ?irty-two electoral votes1 0 elect$ ,presid5t4 ,?omas ,jeff]son1 8 oppon5t1 became ,vice-,presid5t1 hav+ receiv$ sixty-eight votes1 or ! next highe/ numb]4 ,?us !re 7 elect$ a ,presid5t ( "o p>ty & a ,vice-,presid5t ( ! oppos+ p>ty4 ,election ( #ahjj4--,! election ( #ahjj also %[$ ! plan to be impracticable4 ,at ?is "t1 ! ,democratic-,republican p>ty 0 det]m9$ to h ,mr4 ,jeff]son = ,presid5t & ,a>on ,burr = ,vice-,presid5t4 ,!y bo? receiv$ sev5ty-?ree votes1 a majority ( all ! votes4 ,b s9ce ! numb] 0 equal1 x devolv$ ^u ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives to det]m9e :e!r ,jeff]son or ,burr %\ld be ,presid5t4 ,= sev5 days ! ,h\se 0 9 cont9u\s session1 & civil w> ?reat5$4 ,on ! ?irty-six? ballot1 h[ev]1 ,jeff]son receiv$ ! votes ( t5 ,/ates out ( sixte51 & 0 elect$4 ,9 ord] to prev5t a recurr5ce ( ! conditions :i* obta9$ 9 #agif1 or ( ! dang]s incid5t to a conte/ l t ( #ahjj1 ! ,twelf? ,am5dm5t 0 propos$ by ,congress1 &1 aft] ratification1 0 decl>$ 9 =ce ,septemb] #be1 #ahjd4 ,?is provides1 z we h se51 t ! electoral votes mu/ be ca/ sep>ately = ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t4 ,! ,presid5tial ,t]m4--,%all ! ,presid5t hold (fice = a t]m ( ?ree ye>s1 ( sev5 ye>s1 or dur+ good behavior8 ,^! 7 que/ions ( great int]e/ 9 ! ,con/itutional ,conv5tion4 ,a t]m ( sev5 ye>s ) no re-election 0 agre$ ^u1 b t[>d ! end ( ! conv5tion ! clause z giv5 0 adopt$4 ,re-election ( a ,presid5t4--,! ,con/itution does n limit ! numb] ( t]ms = :i* a ,presid5t may be *os51 b ! ?ird-t]m tradition has n[ made x practically impossible = ! same man to be elect$ = m ?an two t]ms4 ,?is cu/om 0 inaugurat$ by ! refusal ( ,presid5t ,wa%+ton to accept a ?ird t]m4 ,presid5t ,jeff]son 0 also urg$ to /& = a ?ird t]m1 b he1 too1 pref]r$ to retire to private life z ,wa%+ton _h done4 ,! adh]5ts ( ,g5]al ,grant /rove to break d[n ?is prec$5t 9 #ahhj b 7 defeat$4 ,al?\gh ,presid5t ,roosevelt _h s]v$ a "p ( a t]m & "o full t]m ! argum5t ( a ?ird t]m 0 br\ght aga9/ him4 ,a ,long] ,t]m4--,x is frequ5tly urg$ t ! ,con/itution %\ld be am5d$ 9 su* a mann] z to provide = a t]m ( six or sev5 ye>s = ! ,presid5t1 ) no re-election4 ,among ! reasons = ?is *ange are ! foll[+3 7#a7 a new ,presid5t has mo/ ( 8 "t1 = mon?s1 at ! beg9n+ ( 8 t]m1 consum$ 9 he>+ ! claims ( applicants = (fice1 & 9 mak+ appo9tm5ts2 7#b7 !re is dang] t he may be influ5c$ 9 8 (ficial actions ?r\gh desire to secure a second t]m2 7#c7 ! comm]cial depression t usually exi/s dur+ a campaign w\ld ?us come less frequ5tly4 ,^! argum5ts may be us$ 9 opposition to su* a *ange3 7#a7 9 ! case ( an ineffici5t ,presid5t1 ! %ort t]m is to be pref]r$2 7#b7 ! ,presid5tial campaign is ( value1 9 t ! att5tion ( ,am]icans g5]ally is = a "t fix$ on ! problems connect$ ) ! conduct ( our gov]nm5t4 ,x furni%es ! opportunity = imp>t+ to our citiz5s _m lessons 9 _! political education4 ,qualifications = ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t4--,! qualifications = ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t are naturally ! same1 & are z foll[s3-- ,section #a1 ,clause #d4 ,no p]son1 except a natural-born citiz51 or a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates at ! "t ( ! adoption ( ?is ,con/itution1 %all be eligible to ! (fice ( ,presid5t2 nei!r %all any p]son be eligible to t (fice :o %all n h atta9$ to ! age ( ?irty-five ye>s1 & be5 f\rte5 ye>s a resid5t )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,vacancies4--,! *ief reason = creat+ ! (fice ( ,vice-,presid5t seems to h be5 to provide = ! em]g5cy ( a vacancy 9 ! ,presid5cy4 ,section #a1 ,clause #e4 ,9 case ( ! removal ( ! ,presid5t f (fice or ( 8 dea?1 resignation1 or inability to dis*>ge ! p[]s & duties ( ! said (fice1 ! same %all devolve on ! ,vice-,presid5t1 & ! ,congress may1 by law1 provide = ! case ( removal1 dea?1 resignation1 or inability bo? ( ! ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 decl>+ :at (fic] %all !n act z ,presid5t1 & su* (fic] %all act accord+ly1 until ! disability be remov$1 or a ,presid5t %all be elect$4 ,presid5tial ,succession4--,9 #ahhf ,congress provid$ t 9 case ( ! dea?1 resignation1 or disability#da ( bo? ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 ! succession %\ld be 9 ! foll[+ ord]3 ,secret>y ( ,/ate1 ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury1 ,secret>y ( ,w>1 ,attorney-,g5]al1 ,po/ma/]-,g5]al1 ,secret>y ( ! ,navy1 ,secret>y ( ! ,int]ior4 ,! ,secret>y ( ,agriculture 0 add$ 9 #ahhi4 ,footnote #da3 ,:at con/itutes disability has n be5 settl$4 ,presid5t ,g>field p]=m$ only ! s+le executive act ( sign+ an extradition pap] f ,july #b to ,septemb] #ai1 #ahha4 ,! fact ( 8 inability to dis*>ge ! duties ( ,presid5t 0 n =mally e/abli%$4 ,nor 0 !re decl>$ disability 9 ! case ( ,presid5t ,mc,kinley1 betwe5 ,septemb] #f & ! day ( 8 dea?1 ,septemb] #ad1 #aija4 ,sal>y ( ! ,presid5t4--,section ,i1 ,clause #f4 ,! ,presid5t %all1 at /at$ times1 receive = 8 s]vices a comp5sation1 :i* %all nei!r be increas$ nor dim9i%$ dur+ ! p]iod = :i* he may h be5 elect$1 & he %all n receive )9 t p]iod any o!r emolum5t f ! ,unit$ ,/ates or any ( !m4 ,9 #aiji ! sal>y ( ! ,presid5t 0 *ang$ f #ej1jjj to #ge1jjj a ye>4 ,! cu/om has be5 e/abli%$ t no ,presid5t %all receive a gift f any civil body1 su* z a city c\ncil1 a ,/ate legislature1 or a =eign /ate4 ,9 addition to 8 sal>y1 ! ,presid5t is provid$ ) an executive mansion1 ! ,:ite ,h\se1 :i* is furni%$ at ! exp5se ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,! ,vice-,presid5t receives #ab1jjj annually4 ,sal>ies ( ,=eign ,rul]s4--,! sal>y paid our ,presid5t is small :5 we comp>e x ) ! grants made to ,european rul]s4 ,9 #aija ! ,engli% gov]nm5t vot$ "s #d1jjj1jjj = ! annual use ( ! royal h\sehold4 ,! ,cz> ( ,russia receives #f1ejj1jjj annually1 9 addition to rev5ues d]iv$ f #a1jjj1jjj squ>e miles ( cr[n doma9s4 ,! ,presid5t ( ,france receives #bca1fjj annually4 ,inauguration ,day4--,"o ( ! mo/ notable ( our civic fe/ivals occurs on ! f\r? ( ,m>*#db aft] ! ,presid5tial election4 ,!n ?\s&s ( p g to ,wa%+ton to witness ! inaugural ex]cises1 by :i* ! ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t are =mally inve/$ ) _! (fices4 ,! ,con/itution provides t ! ,presid5t %all take ! foll[+ oa? ( (fice be=e ent]+ on 8 duties3-- ,section ,i1 ,clause #g4 ,i d solemnly swe> 7or affirm7 t ,i w fai?fully execute ! (fice ( ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & w to ! be/ ( my ability pres]ve1 protect1 & def5d ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,footnote #db3 ,x is frequ5tly urg$1 ) good reason1 t ?is date %\ld be *ang$ to a "t ( ye> :5 ! wea!r 9 ,wa%+ton w\ld be m favorable4 ,an am5dm5t1 rec5tly sanction$ by ! ,s5ate1 provides t ! date = ! inauguration %all be ! la/ ,?ursday ( ,april4 ,! *ief objection to ?is *ange seems to be ! fur!r ext5sion ( "t betwe5 ! election & ! assum+ ( duties4 ,x has be5 e/abli%$1 by cu/om1 t ! oa? %all be adm9i/]$ by ! ,*ief ,ju/ice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 at ! ea/ front ( ! ,capitol4 ,aft] tak+ ! oa? ! ,presid5t gives 8 inaugural address1 :i* outl9es ! policy he purposes to c>ry out4 ,imm$iately aft] 8 inauguration1 unless x be 8 second t]m1 he calls ! ,s5ate toge!r1 & places be=e x 8 nom9ations = memb]s ( ! cab9et1 & = su* o!r important (fices z he may desire to make4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,:i* ( ! ,presid5ts h s]v$ two t]ms8 ,h[ 0 _! election = a second t]m to be acc\nt$ =8 #b4 ,! me?od ( call+ ,national political conv5tions4 ,:5 held8 ,que/ions consid]$4 ,make a /udy ( ! la/ conv5tion4 ,cosmop41 #bi3 #aid-bjj2 ,scribn]'s ,mag41 #bg3 #fdc-fef4 #c4 ,"u :at conditions 0 ! fir/ plat=m ( a ,national conv5tion agre$ ^u8 ,wilson1 ,division & ,reunion1 #fc4 #d4 ,= ! "w ( ! ,national committee1 see ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #bb3 #edi-eef2 #eef-efc4 #e4 ,! p[] ( ! *airman ( ! ,national committee is discuss$ 9 ,atl4 ,mo41 #hi3 #gf-ha4 #f4 ,:at 0 ! probable orig9 ( ! sy/em ( elect+ ! ,presid5t by electors8 ,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry ( ,ours1 #gh2 ,fiske1 ,critical ,p]iod ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 #ff1 #bhj-bhi4 #g4 ,= ! me?ods :i* h be5 us$ 9 elect+ a ,presid5t1 see ,n4 ,am4 ,rev41 #aga3 #bgc-bhj4 #h4 ,%\ld ! ,presid5t be elect$ by direct popul> vote8 ,n4 ,am4 ,rev41 #aga3 #bgc-bhj2 #bha-bhh2 ,scribn]'s ,mag41 #bg3 #fdc-fef4 #i4 ,= "s ( ! problems connect$ ) ! electoral colleges 9 ! hi/ory ( elections1 see ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #bc3 #ff-fi4 #aj4 ,:at is ! me?od us$ 9 c\nt+ ! electoral votes8 ,edmund ,alton1 ,among ! ,lawmak]s1 #hh-hi4 #aa4 ,d y agree ) ,mr4 ,bryce t ! t5d5cy is to select = ,presid5t m5 :o h n be5 prom95t8 ,bryce1 ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,i1 *ap4 #h4 #ab4 ,0 ! pres5t ,presid5t notable be=e 8 election8 ,9 :at ways8 #ac4 ,:at 7 ! *ief causes = ! success ( 8 p>ty8 #ad4 ,h[ _m electoral votes 7 requir$ = election8 ,he receiv$ h[ _m8 ,did he receive a majority ( ! popul> votes8 ,election ( #aijj1 ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #bb3 #fgc-fgd2 #fee-feh4 #ae4 ,h[ _m electors 7 !re f y\r ,/ate8 ,= :om did !y vote8 ,h[ is ?is majority 9 y\r ,/ate to be acc\nt$ =8 ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #bb3 #fgc-fgd1 #fee-feh1 #ffd4 #af4 ,w\ld successful gov]nors make good c&idates = ,presid5t8 ,9 :at p>ticul>s d ! (fices resemble ea* o!r8 ,w\ld y favor mak+ ! gov]nor ( y\r ,/ate ,presid5t8 ,wilson1 ,congressional ,gov]nm5t1 #bec1 #bed4 #ag4 ,:y 0 ! election ( ,john ,qu9cy ,adams ( especial int]e/8 ,:at results foll[$8 ,burgess1 ,! ,middle ,p]iod1 #adj1 #ada2 ,wilson1 ,division & ,reunion1 #ah4 #ah4 ,/ate ! *ief po9ts connect$ ) ! disput$ election ( #ahgf4 ,wilson1 ,division & ,reunion1 #bhc-bhf2 ,john/on1 ,am]ican ,politics1 #bcc-bcg2 ,c5t4 ,mag41 #fb3 #ibc-icd4 #ai4 ,give ! names ( ! ,presid5ts :o h di$ 9 (fice4 ,by :om 7 !y succe$$8 #bj4 ,= a good discussion ( ! unit rule & two-?irds rule ( ! ,democratic conv5tions1 see ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #de3 #gje-gaj4 #ba4 ,:at is a m9ority ,presid5t8 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 #bfd4 #bb4 ,an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ! ,:ite ,h\se4 ,outlook1 #gj3 #bhg-bii4 #bc4 ,inauguration ev5ts ( #aija4 ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #bc3 #dje1djf2 ,outlook1 #fg3 #eee1 #eef4 #bd4 ,incid5ts ( ,presid5tial inaugurations4 ,_w's ,"w1 #a3 #dgg-dgi4 #be4 ,= o!r que/ions & ref]5ces on ! *apt]1 see ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 #bca1 #bcb4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv4 ,,p[]s ,,& ,,duties ,,( ,,! ,,presid5t ,milit>y ,p[]s ( ! ,presid5t4--,an em95t ,am]ican hi/orian1#dc writ+ ( ! p[] ex]cis$ by ,presid5t ,l9coln 9 "t ( w>1 said1 ,x is an int]e/+ fact1 t ! rul] ( a republic :i* sprang f a resi/ance to ! ,engli% k+ & ,p>liam5t %\ld ex]cise m arbitr>y p[] ?an any ,engli%man s9ce ,oliv] ,cromwell1 & t _m ( 8 acts %\ld be wor?y ( a ,tudor4 ,footnote #dc3 ,james ,=d ,rhodes1 ,scribn]'s ,magaz9e1 ,febru>y1 #aijc4 ,presid5t ,l9coln1 x is true1 ex]cis$ p[]s :i*1 if attempt$ by a weak] man1 or at ano!r "t1 might h prov$ dang]\s to ! lib]ties ( ! p4#dd ,footnote #dd3 ,= ! susp5sion ( ! privilege ( ! writ ( habeas corpus1 see p4 #aji4 ,?is he did ?r\gh 8 int]pretation ( ,clause #a1 ,section #b4 ,! ,presid5t %all be comm&]-9-*ief ( ! army & navy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( ! militia ( ! sev]al ,/ates :5 call$ into ! actual s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 he may require ! op9ion1 9 writ+1 ( ! pr9cipal (fic] 9 ea* ( ! executive dep>tm5ts1 ^u any subject relat+ to ! duties ( _! respective (fices1 & he %all h p[] to grant reprieves & p>dons = (f5ses aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 except 9 cases ( impea*m5t4 ,reprieves & ,p>dons4--,! ord9>y p[]s ( ! ,presid5t are also important4#de ,"o ( ! greate/ is ! p[] to grant reprieves & p>dons4 ,a reprieve is ! tempor>y susp5sion ( ! execution ( a s5t5ce4 ,by means ( a reprieve ! ,presid5t may ga9 "t to look into ! evid5ce m c>efully4 ,complete release f a s5t5ce is secur$ by a p>don4#df ,footnote #de3 ,= ! p[] ( ! ,presid5t ov] legislation by means ( ! veto1 see pp4 #gh1 #gi4 ,footnote #df3 ,presid5t ,h>rison 0 call$ ^u to consid] #ggi reque/s = p>don4 ,( ^! #ebg 7 grant$1 :olly or p>tially4 ,presid5t ,clevel& act$ on #ijg su* cases1 & grant$ #ejf1 9 :ole or 9 "p4 ,treaty-,mak+ ,p[]4--,section #b1 ,clause #b4 ,he %all h p[]1 by & ) ! advice & cons5t ( ! ,s5ate1 to make treaties1 provid$ two-?irds ( ! s5ators pres5t concur4 ,:ile ! p[] to conclude treaties seems to be )\t re/riction1 x is impli$ t no treaty %all 9 any way int]f]e ) ! au?ority ( ! ,con/itution4 ,! usual /eps 9 ! negotiation ( treaties are z foll[s3 7#a7 ,9 "t ( peace !y are conduct$ at ! capital ( ! nation t beg9s ! negotiation4 ,if ?is is 9 ,wa%+ton1 ! t]ms are consid]$ by ! ,secret>y ( ,/ate & ! m9i/] ( ! o!r nation2 if 9 a =eign capital1 our m9i/] acts "u in/ructions s5t him by ! ,secret>y ( ,/ate4 ,at times1 "o or m special m9i/]s are s5t abroad = ! purpose ( negotiat+ a treaty4 7#b7 ,9 "t ( w>1 ! m9i/] ( ! nation ) :i* we are at w> leaves ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! int]e/s ( 8 nation are !n intru/$ to ! m9i/] ( "s neutral p[]1 & ?r\gh ?is m9i/] negotiations = peace are usually begun4 7#c7 ,! treaty ( peace at ! close ( a w> is g5]ally negotiat$ 9 "s neutral c\ntry by special commission]s appo9t$ by ! nations at w>4 ,9 all cases1 ! ,presid5t ex]cises g5]al control ov] ! negotiation & fram+ ( treaties4 ,aft] an agreem5t has be5 rea*$1 ! treaty is s5t to ! ,s5ate4 ,x is discuss$ 9 executive or secret session4 ,?is means t ! treaty & all matt]s p]ta9+ to x are kept secret until1 by a resolution1 ! ,s5ate all[s ! discussion to be made public4 ,! ,s5ate may approve1 reject1 or modify ! t]ms4 ,if am5dm5ts are made1 !y mu/ be agre$ to by ! ,presid5t & by ! o!r nation int]e/$4 ,:5 a treaty has be5 f9ally approv$ by ! (ficials ( bo? c\ntries1 duplicate copies ( x are made on p>*m5t4 ,bo? ( ^! copies are sign$ by ! *ief (fic]s ( ea* c\ntry1 & ! copies are !n ex*ang$4 ,?is is call$ ! ex*ange ( ratification4 ,an (ficial copy ( ! treaty is ?us secur$ by ea* nation4 ,! ,presid5t !n publi%es ! treaty accompani$ by a proclamation1 9 :i* x is decl>$ to be a "p ( ! law ( ! l&4 ,if ! t]ms ( a treaty call = ! paym5t ( money by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ! necess>y am\nt c be appropriat$ only by an ,act ( ,congress4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives may refuse to give its sanction to su* an appropriation1 & may ?us prev5t ! treaty go+ into effect4 ,p[] ( ,appo9tm5t4--,:5 x is consid]$ t ! ,presid5t has ! nom9al p[] ( appo9t+ ov] #aej1jjj p]sons to (fice1 we c readily see t ?is comprises "o ( 8 *ief p[]s4 ,8 "r to select (fice-hold]s is grant$ 9 ,section #b1 ,clause #b4 ,he %all nom9ate1 & by & ) ! advice & cons5t ( ! ,s5ate1 %all appo9t ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s & consuls1 judges ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 & all o!r (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ^: appo9tm5ts are n h]e9 o!rwise provid$ =1 & :i* %all be e/abli%$ by law2 b ! ,congress may by law ve/ ! appo9tm5t ( su* inf]ior (fic]s z !y ?9k prop]1 9 ! ,presid5t alone1 9 ! c\rts ( law1 or 9 ! heads ( dep>tm5ts4 ,vacancies4--,section #b1 ,clause #c4 ,! ,presid5t %all h p[] to fill up all vacancies t may happ5 dur+ ! recess ( ! ,s5ate1 by grant+ commissions :i* %all expire at ! end ( _! next session4 ,presid5tial ,appo9tm5ts4--,x w\ld be q impossible = ! ,presid5t1 p]sonally1 to ov]see all ( ^! appo9tm5ts1 & s a l>ge p]c5tage ( !m is made by (ficials 9 ! diff]5t dep>tm5ts4 ,!re are1 besides ! ambassadors1 consuls1 & judges ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 "s #gjjj s-call$ ,presid5tial (fic]s1 ^: appo9tm5ts mu/ receive ! sanction ( ! ,s5ate4 ,m ?an "o-half ( ^! are po/ma/]s ( ! fir/ class#dg4 ,among ! mo/ important ( ^! (fic]s are ! ,cab9et1 int]/ate comm]ce commission]s1 di/rict attorneys1 & all milit>y & naval (fic]s ^: appo9tm5t is n o!rwise ord]$ by law4 ,footnote #dg3 ,^? :o receive an annual sal>y ( #ajjj & above4 ,(ficial ,patronage4--,9 mak+ 8 appo9tm5ts ! ,presid5t is l>gely dep5d5t ^u ! advice ( ! head ( t dep>tm5t "u ^: direction ! (fic] w come1 or ^u ! recomm5dation ( ! repres5tatives & s5ators ( 8 p>ty f ! ,/ate 9 :i* ! (fice is locat$4 ,?is (ficial patronage1 ?r\gh :i* political assi/ants 9 a ,/ate may be rew>d$ ) a ,f$]al (fice1 has become s burd5some t _m ,congressm5 compla9 ( x & desire to be fre$ f its exactions4 ,s5atorial ,c\rtesy4--,!re has gr[n up an almo/ inv>iable cu/om1 kn[n z s5atorial c\rtesy4 ,?is dem&s t if ! (fice to be fill$ is locat$ 9 a ,/ate1 ! appo9tm5t be n confirm$ unless x receives ! sanction ( "o or bo? ( ! s5ators ( ! ,/ate conc]n$1 provid$ !y are memb]s ( ! same political p>ty z ! ,presid5t4 ,action ( ! ,s5ate on ,nom9ations4--,all ( ! nom9ations s5t by ! ,presid5t to ! ,s5ate are submitt$ to appropriate committees1 z1 po/ma/]s to ! ,po/ ,(fice ,committee1 ambassadors to ! ,committee on ,=eign ,affairs4 ,! report ( ! committee is consid]$ 9 secret session1 & ! nom9ation is !n vot$ on4 ,if ! vote is adv]se1 ! ,presid5t mu/ make ano!r nom9ation4 ,! ,spoils ,sy/em4--,dur+ ! fir/ =ty ye>s ( our gov]nm5t !re 7 only sev5ty-f\r removals f (fice4 ,! op9ion 0 g5]al t !re 7 a l>ge numb] ( /rictly non-political (fices 9 ! dep>tm5ts & else:]e1 ! hold]s ( :i* %\ld be reg>d$ z ag5ts or cl]ks ^: duty x 0 to assi/ 9 c>ry+ on ! bus9ess ( gov]nm5t4 ,!re=e ! be/ results c\ld be secur$1 x 0 believ$1 only z ^! positions %\ld be fill$ by p]sons ! mo/ compet5t1 :o might hope to reta9 ! (fice s long z !y gave effici5t s]vice4 ,b ) ! com+ 9 ( ,presid5t ,jackson ! spoils sy/em 0 introduc$4 ,?is sy/em1 9 practice1 provides t political work]s belong+ to a victori\s p>ty may1 z f> z possible1 receive rew>d = _! s]vices 9 ! %ape ( "s (fice4 ,to ! victors belong ! spoils ( ! enemy is ! famili> motto ( ^? :o h advocat$ ?is sy/em4 ,dur+ ! fir/ ye> ( ,presid5t ,jackson's adm9i/ration #bjjj (ficials 7 depriv$ ( _! (fices1 & fri5ds ( ! adm9i/ration 7 put 9 _! positions4 ,f t "t !re has be5 great pressure on e new ,presid5t simil>ly to rew>d 8 foll[]s4 ,civil ,s]vice ,re=m4--,:ile ! evils _h be5 po9t$ out at v>i\s times1 little 0 done to rem$y ! spoils sy/em until ,congress1 9 #ahhc1 pass$ ! ,civil ,s]vice ,law1 kn[n z ! ,p5dleton ,bill4 ,x provides = a ,civil ,s]vice ,commission ( ?ree memb]s1 n m ?an two ( :om may belong to ! same political p>ty4 ,?is commission gives competitive exam9ations1 :i* are requir$ = te/+ ! fitness ( applicants = c]ta9 positions 9 ! public s]vice4 ,! numb] ( (fices orig9ally includ$ "u ! act 0 ab\t #ad1jjj4 ,! ,presid5t is giv5 ! p[] to direct ! fur!r ext5sion ( ! classifi$ s]vice1 t is1 ^? positions t are to be fill$ by p]sons :o h pass$ ! be/ exam9ations4 ,9 #aiac !re 7 "s #bhd1jjj classifi$ (fices4 ,:ile mu* has be5 accompli%$1 dur+ ! pa/ tw5ty ye>s1 t[>d re=m+ civil s]vice appo9tm5ts1 x is to be hop$ t a l>ge numb] ( ! unclassifi$ (fices w1 at an e>ly date1 be plac$ on ! li/ to be fill$ only aft] exam9ation4#dh ,! ,national gov]nm5t may ?us fur!r assi/ 9 ! movem5t = l re=ms already s well begun 9 "s ( our ,/ates & cities4 ,footnote #dh3 ,9 #aiac !re 7 #ajj1jjj unclassifi$ or except$ (fices4 ,dur+ ! ye> #aija-aijb1 ! civil s]vice rules provid+ = competitive exam9ations 7 ext5d$ by ord] ( ! ,presid5t or by act ( ,congress s z to include ! rural free deliv]y s]vice1 employees ( ! p]man5t c5sus bureau1 & additional employees made necess>y because ( ! w> ) ,spa94 ,five ?\s& eight hundr$ (fices 7 plac$ on ! competition basis 9 #aiaa1 & #ej1jjj 9 #aiac4 ,duties ( ! ,presid5t4--,section #c4 ,he %all1 f "t to "t1 give to ! ,congress in=mation ( ! /ate ( ! ,union1 & recomm5d to _! consid]ation su* measures z he %all judge necess>y & exp$i5t2 he may1 on extraord9>y occasions1 conv5e bo? h\ses1 or ei!r ( !m1 & 9 case ( disagreem5t betwe5 !m1 ) respect to ! "t ( adj\rnm5t1 he may adj\rn !m to su* "t z he %all ?9k prop]2 he %all receive ambassadors & o!r public m9i/]s2 he %all take c>e t ! laws be fai?fully execut$1 & %all commission all ! (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,presid5tial ,messages4--,by means ( ! annual message s5t to ,congress at ! op5+ ( ! session1 & special messages on p>ticul> occasions1 ! ,presid5t is enabl$ to call att5tion to ! legislative ne$s ( ! c\ntry4 ,! plan ( hav+ a message read 9 ea* h\se by ! cl]k or secret>y 0 introduc$ by ,presid5t ,jeff]son4 ,presid5ts ,wa%+ton & ,adams address$1 9 p]son1 ,congress assembl$ 9 jo9t session4 ,v>i\s reasons h be5 alleg$ = ?is *ange4 ,presid5t ,jeff]son 0 a poor speak]1 & x is said t he reg>d$ ! =mal address z mon>*ical4 ,presid5t ,wilson read 8 message be=e ,congress 9 ! special session ( ,april1 #aiac4 ,en=cem5t ( ! ,laws4--,! mo/ important duty ( ! ,presid5t is to see t all laws pass$ by ,congress are fai?fully execut$4 ,laws are useless unless !y are en=c$1 & x is *iefly = ! p]=mance ( ?is task t ! ,executive 0 orig9ally creat$4 ,x is n contemplat$ t ?is duty %all be p]=m$ by him 9 p]son1 b ?r\gh (ficials :o are directly responsible to him4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates m>%als & _! deputies ex]cise a wide influ5ce 9 see+ t ! laws are en=c$4 ,!y usually act "u an ord] f a ,unit$ ,/ates c\rt1 b may1 at times1 act )\t su* a writ4 ,if necess>y1 ! ,presid5t may s5d ! army & navy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or call out ! militia ( ! ,/ates to ov]come any resi/ance to ,f$]al law4 ,ea* ,/ate possesses ! p[] ( en=c+ its own laws & is ( "r protect$ 9 ! ex]cise ( ?is pr]ogative4 ,9 case ( an insurrection1 h[ev]1 ! ,/ate militia is s5t by ord] ( ! gov]nor to suppress x4 ,%\ld !y fail to re/ore ord]1 ! legislature1 or ! executive 7:5 ! legislature _c be conv5$71 applies to ! ,presid5t = milit>y aid4#di ,if ! upris+ has int]f]$ 9 any way ) ! c>ry+ out ( ! laws ( ! nation1 ! ,presid5t may1 at 8 discretion1 s5d troops to suppress x )\t hav+ be5 ask$ to d s by ! legislature or ! gov]nor4 ,!re 0 a notable illu/ration ( ?is po9t dur+ ! "t ( ! ,*icago riots1 9 ,july1 #ahid4 ,footnote #di3 ,article ,,iv1 ,section #d4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates %all gu>antee to e ,/ate 9 ?is ,union a republican =m ( gov]nm5t1 & %all protect ea* ( !m aga9/ invasion2 & on application ( ! legislature1 or ! executive 7:5 ! legislature _c be conv5$71 aga9/ dome/ic viol5ce4 ,presid5t ,clevel& vs4 ,! ,gov]nor ( ,ill9ois4--,9 addition to de/roy+ prop]ty belong+ to ! railways c5t]+ 9 ,*icago1 ! /rik+ employees prev5t$ ! free movem5t ( ! tra9s4 ,mr4 ,altgeld1 !n gov]nor ( ,ill9ois1 did n provide aga9/ ^! abuses1 & ,presid5t ,clevel& ord]$ ! ,unit$ ,/ates troops "u ,g5]al ,miles to suppress ! riot+4 ,! ,presid5t1 :o 0 sev]ely criticiz$ by ,mr4 ,altgeld1 ju/ifi$ 8 s5d+ ! troops on ! foll[+ gr\nds3 7#a7 t ! processes ( ! ,f$]al c\rts c\ld n be execut$2 7#b7 t ! transportation ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates mails 0 ob/ruct$2 & 7#c7 t ! laws on int]/ate comm]ce 7 n en=c$4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,supreme ,c\rt took ! same position z ,presid5t ,clevel& 9 a case :i* grew out ( ^! riots4 ,mr4 ,ju/ice ,brew]1 9 deliv]+ ! op9ion ( ! c\rt1 said3 ,we hold t ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is "o hav+ jurisdiction ov] e foot ( soil )9 its t]ritory & act+ directly ^u ea* citiz52 t1 :ile x is a gov]nm5t ( enum]at$ p[]s1 x has )9 ! limits ( ^? p[]s all ! attributes ( sov]eignty2 t to x is committ$ p[] ov] int]/ate comm]ce & ! transmission ( ! mails1 & t ^! p[]s h be5 assum$ & put into practical ex]cise by ! legislation ( ,congress4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,:at h be5 "s ( ! mo/ important treaties ent]$ into on ! "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 #b4 ,= ! treaty made at ! close ( ! ,spani%-,am]ican ,w>1 see ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #ah3 #beh1 #cga1 #eae1 #fca2 #ai3 #aa1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bff1 #bfg4 #c4 ,9 :at ways may a treaty be abrogat$8 ,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry ( ,ours1 #adj1 #ada4 #d4 ,may a ,presid5t h _m ( ! privileges ( private life8 ,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry ( ,ours1 #agg-ahj4 #e4 ,:at are "s ( ! (ficial c>es ( ! ,presid5t8 ,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry ( ,ours1 #afb-agg4 #f4 ,! ov]work$ ,presid5t4 ,mc,clure's ,mag41 #bh3 #dhc-dib2 ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #be3 #dfd-dff4 #g4 ,secure a copy ( ! la/ report ( ! ,civil ,s]vice ,commission1 & also ,manual ( ,exam9ations = ! ,classifi$ ,s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & look up ! foll[+3-- a4 ,h[ _m p]sons are includ$ 9 ! civil s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates8 b4 ,:at proportion ( !m is includ$ 9 ! classifi$ s]vice8 c4 ,does ! law ( #ahhc seem to h br\ght ab\t satisfactory results8 d4 ,:at (fices h be5 includ$ 9 ! ext5sion ( ! ,civil ,s]vice ,law8 e4 ,:at is ! nature ( ! que/ions ask$ 9 ! exam9ations8 i #h4 ,! ,fifte5? ,annual ,report ( ! commission 7pp4 #ddc-dhe7 conta9s an acc\nt ( ! appo9tm5ts & removals by ! v>i\s ,presid5ts f #aghi to #ahhc4 ,also an acc\nt ( ! gr[? ( civil s]vice re=m 9 ! ,/ates & cities ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 pp4 #dhi-ejb4 #i4 ,may a man be fitt$ = political pref]m5t & n be compet5t to pass an adequate exam9ation8 #aj4 ,= o!r articles on civil s]vice re=m1 see 7a7 ,! ,civil ,s]vice & ! ,m]it ,sy/em1 ,=um1 #bg3 #gje-gab4 7b7 ,"s ,popul> ,objections to ,civil ,s]vice ,re=m1 ,atl4 ,mo41 #fe3 #dcc-ddd2 #fga-fgh4 7c7 ,roosevelt1 ,an ,object ,lesson 9 ,civil ,s]vice ,re=m1 ,atl4 ,mo41 #fg3 #beb-beg4 7d7 ,george ,william ,curtis & ,civil ,s]vice ,re=m1 ,atl4 ,mo41 #ge3 #ae-bd4 7e7 ,rice1 ,improvem5t ( ! ,civil ,s]vice1 ,n4 ,am4 ,rev41 #afa3 #fja-faa4 7f7 ,roosevelt1 ,pres5t ,/atus ( ,civil ,s]vice ,re=m1 ,atl4 ,mo41 #ge3 #bci-bdf4 7g7 ,roosevelt1 ,six ,ye>s ( ,civil ,s]vice ,re=m1 ,scribn]'s ,mag41 #ah3 #bch-bdg4 7h7 ,! ,purpose ( ,civil ,s]vice ,re=m1 ,=um1 #cj3 #fjh-fai4 #aa4 ,:at 0 ! ,t5ure ( ,(fice ,act ( #ahfg8 ,:y did x become ( great importance8 ,is x /ill 9 =ce8 ,wilson1 ,division & ,reunion1 #bfg1 #bgj-bga1 #big2 ,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry ( ,ours1 #aja-ajc4 #ab4 ,:at 7 ! *ief po9ts discuss$ 9 ! ,presid5t's la/ annual message8 ,,*apt] ,,xv4 ,,! ,,cab9et4 ,=mation ( ,dep>tm5ts4--,! ,con/itution n[h]e m5tions ! ,presid5t's ,cab9et4 ,x 0 tak5 = grant$1 h[ev]1 t dep>tm5ts simil> to ^? f\nd 9 ! ,cab9et w\ld be =m$4 ,! ,con/itution decl>es t ! ,presid5t may require ! op9ions 9 writ+ ( ! heads ( ! executive dep>tm5ts1 & aga91 t ,congress may ve/ ! appo9tm5t ( c]ta9 inf]ior (fic]s 9 ! heads ( ^! dep>tm5ts4 ,9 #aghi ! fir/ ,congress creat$ ! ,dep>tm5ts ( ,/ate1 ,w>1 & ,treasury1 also ! (fice ( ,attorney-,g5]al4 ,presid5t ,wa%+ton's ,cab9et consi/$ ( ! (ficials :om he appo9t$ to fill ^! f\r positions4 ,! ,navy ,dep>tm5t 0 add$ 9 #agih4 ,:ile a ,po/-,(fice ,dep>tm5t 0 e/abli%$ 9 #agid1 ! ,po/ma/]-,g5]al 0 n made a memb] ( ! ,cab9et until #ahbi4 ,9 #ahdi1 ! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t 0 creat$ by gr\p+ "u x c]ta9 duties :i* _h belong$ to o!r dep>tm5ts4 ,! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture 0 made a ,cab9et position 9 #ahhi4 ,9 #aijc ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,comm]ce & ,labor 0 au?oriz$ by an ,act ( ,congress1 & 9 #aiac ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,labor 0 creat$4 ,memb]s ( ! ,cab9et receive an annual sal>y ( #ab1jjj4 ,! ,presid5t & ,8 ,cab9et4--,"o ( ! fir/ (ficial acts ( a ,presid5t is to s5d to ! ,s5ate1 = its approval1 ! names ( ! m5 :om he desires %all con/itute 8 ,cab9et4 ,?is is n[ a m]e =mality4 ,! ,presid5t is himself ! "o mo/ int]e/$ 9 ! success ( 8 adm9i/ration & is ( "r giv5 complete fre$om 9 select+ 8 imm$iate advis]s4 ,:ile ! views ( ! memb]s ( ! ,cab9et usually h weight ) ! ,presid5t1 he is n oblig$ to take _! advice4 ,inde$1 9 "s in/ances ! ,presid5t has c>ri$ out a l9e ( action :i* 0 aga9/ ! wi%es ( ! secret>y ( ! dep>tm5t affect$4 ,,! ,,dep>tm5t ,,( ,,/ate4 ,! ,secret>y ( ,/ate4--,! ,secret>y ( ,/ate is commonly call$ ! head ( ! ,cab9et4 ,he is fir/ 9 rank at ! ,cab9et table1 & occupies ! seat ( dignity at ! "r ( ! ,presid5t4 ,"u ! direction ( ! ,presid5t he conducts all negotiations relat+ to ! =eign affairs ( ! nation2 c>ries on ! correspond5ce ) our repres5tatives 9 o!r c\ntries2 receives ! repres5tatives ( =eign p[]s accr$it$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & pres5ts !m to ! ,presid5t4 ,?r\gh him ! ,presid5t communicates ) ! executives ( ! diff]5t ,/ates4 ,he has *>ge ( ! treaties made ) =eign p[]s1 & negotiates new ones4 ,he has also 9 8 keep+ ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ! great seal :i* he affixes to all executive proclamations1 commissions1 & o!r (ficial pap]s4 ,dur+ ! ye> #aiji ! dep>tm5t 0 reorganiz$ 9 su* a mann] z to create a division ( ,lat9-,am]ican affairs & divisions = ,f> ,ea/]n1 ,ne> ,ea/]n1 & ,we/]n ,european affairs4 ,! ,diplomatic ,bureau4--,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 common ) o!r nations1 s5ds repres5tatives to ! =eign capitals4 ,!y are ! ag5ts ?r\gh :om ! ,secret>y ( ,/ate communicates & negotiates ) o!r p[]s4 ,su* affairs are conduct$ ?r\gh ! ,diplomatic ,bureau4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates has n[ ab\t ?irty-five ambassadors & m9i/]s4 ,our repres5tatives at ! c\rts ( ,engl&1 ,france1 ,g]many1 ,russia1 ,italy1 ,au/ria1 ,mexico1 ,brazil1 ,japan1 & ,turkey are kn[n z ambassadors4 ,! ambassadors to ^! c\ntries receive a sal>y ( #ag1ejj ea*4 ,! social dem&s made ^u our ambassadors are great1 & !y are also oblig$ to provide = _! places ( resid5ce4 ,! sal>ies paid are n suffici5t to meet ^! necess>y exp5ses1 & are small 9 comp>ison ) ^? paid by ! ,european nations to (fic]s ( ! same rank4 ,?us1 ! ,engli% ambassador at ,wa%+ton receives a sal>y ( #cb1ejj4 ,besides ! ,engli%1 ! ,g]man1 ! ,japanese1 & "s o!r nations h provid$ h\ses = _! legations4 ,! ,consul> ,bureau4--,a consul is s5t by ! ,unit$ ,/ates to ea* ( ! *ief cities 9 ! consul> di/ricts into :i* =eign c\ntries are divid$ by our ,/ate ,dep>tm5t4 ,^! consuls1 ( :om !re are ?ree grades1 consuls-g5]als1 consuls1 & consul> ag5ts1 look aft] ! comm]cial int]e/s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ^? di/ricts4 ,!y make mon?ly reports on improvem5ts 9 agricultural & manufactur+ processes4 ,^! reports also give in=mation reg>d+ good m>kets = our products & ( ! be/ m>kets 9 :i* to pur*ase =eign products4#ej ,footnote #ej3 ,among scores ( simil> subjects1 our consuls report$1 )9 rec5t ye>s1 on ! foll[+3 ,am]ican goods 9 ,syria2 ,am]ican comm]ce ) ,asia ,m9or & ,ea/]n ,europe2 ,g]man op9ion ( ,am]ican locomotives2 ,am]ican coal 9 ,g]many2 ,european & ,am]ican competition4 ,consuls c>e = de/itute ,am]ican sailors & protect ! int]e/s ( our citiz5s 9 =eign c\ntries4 ,9 "s ( ! non-,*ri/ian nations1 su* z ,*9a & ,turkey1 !y also h jurisdiction ov] all crim9al cases 9 :i* any ,am]ican citiz5 may be a p>ty4 ,! importance ( su* s]vices to our c\ntry is self-evid5t4 ,! appo9tm5t ( ^! (ficials 0 =m]ly secur$ "u p>ty pressure4 ,accord+ to ! rule adopt$ 9 #aijf1 all vacancies 9 ! consul> s]vice are h]eaft] to be fill$ by promotion = ability & effici5cy 9 ! s]vice or by appo9tm5t ( ^? :o h pass$ ! civil s]vice exam9ation4 ,,! ,,dep>tm5t ,,( ,,! ,,treasury4 ,! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury4--,! ,dep>tm5t ( ! ,treasury is ! mo/ ext5sive & complex ( ! executive dep>tm5ts4 ,9 g5]al1 ! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury has *>ge ( ! f9ances ( ! nation4 ,he is requir$ to prep>e plans = ! creation & improvem5t ( ! rev5ues & ! public cr$it & to sup]9t5d ! collection ( ! rev5ue4 ,he gives ord]s = all moneys drawn f ! ,treasury 9 accordance ) appropriations made by ,congress1 & submits an annual report to ,congress :i* conta9s an e/imate ( ! probable receipts & exp5ditures ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,! ,auditors4--,x is v important t ! acc\nts ( ! gov]nm5t %\ld be c>efully scrut9iz$1 & "o ( ! six auditors connect$ ) ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t mu/ pass ^u ! acc\nts ( e public (fic] :o pays out money4 ,?us1 ! ,auditor = ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t exam9es all acc\nts ( sal>ies & incid5tal exp5ses ( ! (fice ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury & all o!r (fices "u 8 imm$iate direction1 su* z ! ,treasur] & ,directors ( ! ,m9ts4 ,! ,treasur]4--,all ! money ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is "u ! c>e ( ! ,treasur]4 ,he receives & pays x out ^u ! w>rant ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,treasury or a designat$ assi/ant1 r$eems ! notes ( ! ,national banks1 & manages ! ,indep5d5t ,treasury ,sy/em4 ,?is sy/em r5d]s ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t practically indep5d5t ( ! banks ( ! c\ntry4 ,x includes ! ,treasury at ,wa%+ton & sub-treasuries1 ea* 9 *>ge ( an assi/ant treasur] at ,bo/on1 ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,baltimore1 ,c9c9nati1 ,*icago1 ,/4 ,l\is1 ,new ,orleans1 & ,san ,francisco4 ,:ile ! great] "p ( ! money belong+ to ! gov]nm5t is f\nd 9 ^! places1 ab\t two hundr$ ,national banks h also be5 designat$ z public depositories4 ,! ,*ief ( ! ,bureau ( ,engrav+ & ,pr9t+4--,! ,bureau#ea ( ,engrav+ & ,pr9t+ is "o ( ! l>ge/ 9 ! dep>tm5t & employs ab\t #afjj p4 ,x has be5 said t ! products ( ?is bureau1 9 ! c\rse ( a s+le ye>1 repres5t a sum equal 9 value to all ! money 9 circulation 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 = "h ! engrav+ ( ! plates & ! pr9t+ ( all ! ,unit$ ,/ates circulat+ notes1 bonds1 rev5ue /amps1 & po/age /amps are done4 ,footnote #ea3 ,! "w ( ea* dep>tm5t is usually di/ribut$ among ! bureaus4 ,bureaus are aga9 divid$ into divisions4 ,at ! head ( ea* bureau is a commission]1 & ( ea* division a *ief4 ,o!r ,(fic]s ( ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t4--,among ! o!r lead+ (ficials ( ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t are3 ,comptroll] ( ! ,curr5cy1 ,commission] ( ,int]nal ,rev5ue1 ,g5]al ,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,life-sav+ ,s]vice1 ,solicitor ( ! ,treasury1 ,sup]vis+ ,surgeon-,g5]al1 & ,sup]vis+ ,ar*itect4 ,! ,life-,sav+ ,s]vice4--,?is is "o ( ! mo/ important (fices 9 ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t4 ,m ?an #bjjj m5 are employ$ 9 ! #bgc /ations1 locat$ g5]ally at dang] po9ts on ! oceans & ! ,great ,lakes4 ,out ( ! #fjjj lives imp]il$ 9 ! ye> #aiaj 9 ! disa/]s on wat]1 only #ec 7 lo/4 ,( ! #adfc vessels ( all k9ds 9 di/ress1 #adjg 7 r5d]$ assi/ance by life-sav]s4 ,x has be5 e/imat$ t ov] #bcj1jjj lives h be5 sav$ ?r\gh ?is s]vice s9ce x 0 f\nd$ 9 #ahdh4 ,! ,solicitor ( ! ,treasury4--,! ,solicitor ( ! ,treasury is ! law (fic] ( ! dep>tm5t1 & has *>ge ( all prosecutions by ! gov]nm5t aris+ out ( ! c\nt]feit+ ( ! gov]nm5t securities1 or ( ! infr+em5t ( cu/oms rev5ue1 & ( all suits = ! collection ( moneys due ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 except ^? due "u ! int]nal rev5ue laws4 ,! ,sup]vis+ ,surgeon-,g5]al4--,! ,sup]vis+ ,surgeon-,g5]al sup]9t5ds ! tw5ty-two m>9e hospitals :]e our sick sailors are c>$ =2 conducts ! qu>ant9e s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & directs ! laboratories = ! inve/igation ( ! causes ( contagi\s diseases4 ,,! ,,w> ,,dep>tm5t4 ,! ,secret>y ( ,w>4--,! ,secret>y ( ,w>1 "u ! direction ( ! ,presid5t1 has *>ge ( ! milit>y affairs ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,he sup]vises all e/imates ( appropriations = ! exp5ses ( ! dep>tm5t4#eb ,he has "u 8 sup]vision also ! milit>y academy at ,we/ ,po9t1 all ,national cemet]ies1 & riv] & h>bor improvem5t4 ,! *iefs ( ! elev5 bureaus are regul> army (fic]s4 ,footnote #eb3 ,! annual appropriation by ,congress = ! army alone 9 #aiab am\nt$ to #ij1dhc1djc4 ,! ,adjutant-,g5]al4--,! ,adjutant-,g5]al issues ord]s = ! mu/] ( troops & = _! movem5t1 conducts ! correspond5ce ( ! dep>tm5t1 & keeps ! records4 ,! ,inspector-,g5]al4--,! ,inspector-,g5]al exam9es & reports on all places :]e ,unit$ ,/ates troops are /ation$2 on public works c>ri$ on by army (fic]s2 & on ! milit>y academy & prisons4 ,! ,qu>t]ma/]-,g5]al4--,"u direction ( ! ,qu>t]ma/]-,g5]al ! army is transport$1 clo!d1 & equipp$4 ,! ,*ief ( ,ordnance4--,arms are suppli$ by ! ,*ief ( ,ordnance4 ,! arms us$ are manufactur$ *iefly 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ars5als4 ,! ars5als at ,spr+field1 ,mass41 & ,rock ,isl&1 ,ill41 manufacture rifles & c>b9es2 & t at ,we/ ,troy1 ,n4,y41 cannon & mort>s4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,milit>y ,academy4--,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,milit>y ,academy at ,we/ ,po9t 0 f\nd$ 9 #ahjb4 ,! corps ( cadets is made up ( "o cadet f ea* ( ! ,congressional di/ricts1 "o f ea* ( ! ,t]ritories & ! ,di/rict ( ,columbia1 & "o hundr$ f ! ,unit$ ,/ates at l>ge4 ,prior to ! ye> #aijj !re 7 only t5 cadets at l>ge4 ,! act ( t ye> also provid$ t ?irty cadets 7 to be nam$ by ! ,presid5t directly & ! rema9d] apportion$ among ! ,/ates4 ,!y all receive _! appo9tm5ts f ! ,presid5t1 b x has become ! cu/om = ! repres5tatives & delegates to select 7usually aft] a competitive exam9ation7 ^? f ! ,congressional di/ricts & ! ,t]ritories4 ,! cadet mu/ be betwe5 sev5te5 & tw5ty-two ye>s ( age4 ,ea* receives #edj a ye> dur+ ! f\r ye>s ( 8 c\rse4 ,^u graduation1 ! cadets are commission$ z second lieut5ants 9 ! unit$ ,/ates army4 ,9 case !re are m graduates ?an vacancies1 ^? 9 excess are honorably dis*>g$ ) ! paym5t ( "o ye>'s sal>y4 ,,! ,,navy ,,dep>tm5t4 ,! ,secret>y ( ! ,navy--,! duties ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,navy p]ta9 to ! con/ruction1 mann+1 arm+1 quipp+1 & employm5t ( w>-vessels4#ec ,footnote #ec3 ,! appropriation = ?is dep>tm5t 9 #aiac 0 #adj1jjj1jjj4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ,naval ,academy4--,! naval academy at ,annapolis 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahdf4 ,"o cadet is all[$ 9 ! naval academy = ea* memb] or delegate ( ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 "o = ! ,di/rict ( ,columbia1 & t5 at l>ge4 ,c&idates = admission1 at ! "t ( _! exam9ation1 mu/ be betwe5 ! ages ( fifte5 & tw5ty ye>s4 ,! nom9ation ( a c&idate to fill a vacancy is made ^u recomm5dation ( a repres5tative or delegate if made be=e ,july #a2 b if no recomm5dation be made by t "t1 ! ,secret>y ( ! ,navy fills ! vacancy by appo9t+ an actual resid5t ( ! di/rict 9 :i* ! vacancy exi/s4 ,! ,presid5t selects ! c&idates at l>ge & ! cadet = ! ,di/rict ( ,columbia4 ,at ! conclusion ( ! six ye>s' c\rse1 two ( :i* are sp5t at sea1 ! graduates are assign$ 9 ord] ( m]it to ! vacancies t may h occurr$ 9 ! l[] grades ( ! l9e ( ! navy & ( ! m>9e corps4 ,cadets :o are n assign$ to s]vice aft] graduation are honorably dis*>g$ & are giv5 #ejj1 ! am\nt !y h receiv$ ea* ye> ( _! c\rse at ! academy4 ,,! ,,dep>tm5t ,,( ,,ju/ice4 ,! ,attorney-,g5]al4--,! ,attorney-,g5]al is ! legal advis] ( ! ,presid5t & ( ! heads ( ! dep>tm5ts4 ,he sup]vises ! "w ( all ! ,unit$ ,/ates di/rict attorneys & m>%als1 & is assi/$ by ! ,solicitor-,g5]al4 ,unless o!rwise direct$1 all cases be=e ! ,supreme ,c\rt & ! ,c\rt ( ,claims 9 :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates is a p>ty are argu$ by ! ,attorney-,g5]al & ! ,solicitor-,g5]al4 ,,! ,,po/-,,(fice ,,dep>tm5t4 ,! ,po/ma/]-,g5]al4--,! ,po/ma/]-,g5]al is at ! head ( ?is dep>tm5t4 ,he appo9ts all ( ! (fic]s ( ! dep>tm5t ) ! exception ( ! f\r assi/ant po/ma/]s-g5]al & po/ma/]s ( ! fir/ class1 ^: appo9tm5ts are made by ! ,presid5t ) ! cons5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,! ,po/ma/]-,g5]al may1 ) ! cons5t ( ! ,presid5t1 let contracts & make po/al treaties ) =eign gov]nm5ts4 ,! ,po/al ,union4--,s9ce #ahia ! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 a memb] ( ! ,univ]sal ,po/al ,union4 ,by ?is union ov] fifty di/9ct p[]s became p>ties to an agreem5t by :i* uni=m rates ( po/age 7 agre$ ^u & e facility = c>ry+ mails 9 ea* c\ntry 0 ext5d$ to all ! o!rs4 ,,! ,,dep>tm5t ,,( ,,! ,,int]ior4 ,! ,secret>y ( ! ,int]ior4--,! ,int]ior ,dep>tm5t1 "u ! sup]vision ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,int]ior1 is "o ( ! mo/ complex & important ( ! dep>tm5ts4 ,!re are two assi/ant secret>ies 9 ! dep>tm5t1 :ile at ! head ( ! o!r (fices are six commission]s & two directors4 ,! ,commission] ( ! ,g5]al ,l& ,(fice4--,! ,commission] ( ! ,g5]al ,l& ,(fice has *>ge ( all ! public l&s ( ! gov]nm5t1 & sup]vises ! surveys1 sales1 & issu+ ( titles to ?is prop]ty4 ,! ,commission] ( ,education4--,! ,commission] ( ,education is ! *ief ( ! ,bureau ( ,education4 ,?is bureau has *>ge ( ! collection ( facts & /ati/ics relat+ to ! educational sy/ems & to progress along educational l9es 9 ! sev]al ,/ates & ,t]ritories1 & also 9 =eign c\ntries4 ,! reports issu$ by ! bureau are ( great value to ^? int]e/$ 9 education4 ,! commission] has advisory p[] only1 except 9 ,alaska4 ,"h he directs ! managem5t ( ! s*ools4 ,! ,commission] ( ,p5sions4--,! ,commission] ( ,p5sions sup]vises ! exam9ation & adju/m5t ( all claims aris+ "u ! laws ( ,congress grant+ b\nty l& or p5sions on acc\nt ( s]vices 9 ! army or navy dur+ ! "t ( w>4 ,t our gov]nm5t has n be5 ungrateful may be ga!r$ f ! report ( ! commission] = #aiac4 ,!re 7 9 t ye> #iba1jjj p5sion]s1 to :om 7 paid approximately #ahj1jjj1jjj1 or an am\nt equal to ab\t "o-fif? ( ! total rev5ues ( ! c\ntry4 ,! ,commission] ( ,indian ,affairs4--,prior to #ahga ! ,indian tribes 7 treat$ z indep5d5t nations by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 b by a law ( t ye> ! g5]al gov]nm5t 0 made ! gu>dian ( _! int]e/s4 ,! ,commission] ( ,indian ,affairs ex]cises a protect+ c>e ov] ^! w>ds by direct+ ! "w ( ! ,indian ag5ts & ( ! sup]9t5d5ts ( ,indian s*ools4 ,!re are "s #cjj1jjj ,indians on ! #aej res]vations :i* are 9 ! v>i\s ,/ates & ,t]ritories4#ed ,! l&s ( ^! res]vations are held 9 common2 t is1 ! own]%ip is tribal r ?an individual4 ,x is ! policy ( ! gov]nm5t1 h[ev]1 to br+ ab\t ! allotm5t ( l&s 9 sev]ally1 & ?us to enc\rage ! ,indians to adopt an agricultural life4 ,! ,indians are only p>tially self-support+4 ,"s tribes d]ive an income f funds :i* are ! proce$s d]iv$ f ! sales & cessions ( _! l&s4 ,! ,national gov]nm5t holds ?is money 9 tru/ = !m1 &1 by direct appropriation1 supplies ! money1 food1 & clo?+ necess>y to complete _! support4 ,! appropriation = ! ,indians 9 #aiab 0 #i1hed1jjj4 ,ov] "o-f\r? ( ?is sum 0 sp5t = _! education 9 ,indian s*ools1 numb]+ ab\t #cjj1 :i* are "u ! direct control ( ! dep>tm5t4 ,footnote #ed3 ,report ( ! ,secret>y ( ! ,int]ior1 #aiaj4 ,)9 twelve ye>s #hi1jjj ,indians 7 grant$ full rights z citiz5s4 ,! ,director ( ! ,geological ,survey4--,! ,director ( ! ,geological ,survey collects mu* valuable in=mation ?r\gh ! exam9ation ( ! geological /ructure1 m9]al res\rces1 & m9]al products ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,he has *>ge1 also1 ( ! survey ( ! =e/ res]ves4 ,,! ,,dep>tm5t ,,( ,,agriculture4 ,! ,secret>y ( ,agriculture4--,! duties ( ! ,secret>y ( ,agriculture are1 ,to acquire & diffuse among ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates useful in=mation on subjects connect$ ) agriculture 9 ! mo/ compreh5sive s5se ( t ^w4 ,! activities ( ! dep>tm5t are along _m l9es1 z indicat$ by ! names ( ! bureaus & divisions4 ,bureau ( ,animal ,indu/ry4--,cont9u\s advancem5t is be+ made by ! gov]nm5t t[>d plac+ ! agricultural pursuits ^u a m sci5tific basis4 ,"o ( its mo/ important s]vices is p]=m$ 9 ! ,bureau ( ,animal ,indu/ry1 :i* inspects ! great] "p ( ! meat products export$ to ,european c\ntries4 ,! law provid+ = ?is inspection 0 necess>y because ( ! claim 9 ,european m>kets t diseas$ meats 7 %ipp$ f ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,an inspection is also provid$ = live animals int5d$ = exportation & = animals import$4 ,mu* sci5tific "w is also devot$ to a /udy ( ! v>i\s diseases ( animals4 ,! ,division ( ,se$s4--,ov] #ajj1jjj are exp5d$ ea* ye> by ! ,division ( ,se$s 9 ! pur*ase ( r>e & valuable se$s1 bulbs1 & plants4 ,^! are di/ribut$ free ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry = ! purpose ( fo/]+ ! introduction ( new & m valuable crops4 ,public ,road ,inquiries4--,ano!r important int]e/ is c>ri$ on by ! ,(fice ( ,public ,road ,inquiries4 ,"h exp]im5ts are made ) reg>d to ! be/ sy/em ( road-mak+ & ! be/ mat]ials to be us$ = t purpose4 ,wea!r ,bureau4--,?r\gh ! ,wea!r ,bureau daily =eca/s & w>n+ ( /orms are s5t to ov] #ej1jjj diff]5t po9ts1 & /orm signals are display$ at #cjj places on our coa/s4 ,by its op]ation1 millions ( doll>s are sav$ ea* ye> to ! agricultural & m>itime int]e/s ( ! c\ntry4 ,a rec5t decree ( ! ,po/-(fice ,dep>tm5t r5d]s ! reports ( ! bureau ( /ill great] s]vice4 ,slips ( pap] hav+ ! /orm1 fro/1 or o!r w>n+s pr9t$ on !m are di/ribut$ by ! rural mail c>ri]s at ! v>i\s h\ses 9 ! di/ricts affect$4 ,,! ,,dep>tm5t ,,( ,,comm]ce4 ,nature ( ! ,dep>tm5t4--,because ( ! nature ( ! subjects assign$ to ?is new dep>tm5t1 x has rapidly become "o ( ! mo/ important ( ! dep>tm5ts4 ,among ! duties ( ! ,secret>y ( ,comm]ce are ^!3 to promote ! comm]ce & ! m9+1 manufactur+1 %ipp+1 fi%]y1 & transportation int]e/s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,presid5t is giv5 ! p[] to transf] to ! dep>tm5t ^? bureaus 9 o!r dep>tm5ts :i* are engag$ 9 sci5tific or /ati/ical "w1 ! ,int]/ate ,comm]ce ,commission & ! sci5tific divisions ( ! ,agricultural ,dep>tm5t be+ except$4 ,! (fices :i* h be5 transf]r$ are z foll[s3 ! ,bureau ( ,/ati/ics2 ,c5sus ,bureau2 ,bureau ( ,/&>ds ( ,weights & ,measures2 ,bureau ( ,navigation2 ! ,/eamboat ,inspection ,s]vice2 ,bureau ( ,fi%]ies2 ,coa/ & ,geodetic ,survey & ,light-h\se ,bo>d4 ,! ,bureau ( ,corporations 0 creat$ = ! dep>tm5t4 ,! ,commission] ( ,corporations is expect$ to inve/igate ! organization1 conduct1 & managem5t ( ! bus9ess ( corporations & o!r comb9ations engag$ 9 int]/ate or =eign comm]ce1 except su* c>ri]s z may be subject to ! int]/ate comm]ce act4 ,! ,*ief ( ! ,bureau ( ,/ati/ics4--,! ,*ief ( ! ,bureau ( ,/ati/ics collects & publi%es ! annual /ati/ics on comm]ce4 ,^! reports are ( su* a "* t !y are invaluable to ! ,presid5t 9 ! prep>ation ( 8 messages2 & !y are us$ ext5sively by ! heads ( dep>tm5ts1 memb]s ( ,congress1 & ! public4 ,t>iff laws1 special legislation = p>ticul> indu/ries1 & all int]national trade treaties are also bas$ on ^! compilations4 ,! greate/ dem& is = ! ,annual ,/ati/ical ,ab/ract1 :i* pres5ts 9 a cond5s$ =m ! hi/ory ( ! comm]ce ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates = a numb] ( prec$+ ye>s4 ,! ,sup]9t5d5t ( ! ,coa/ & ,geodetic ,survey4--,?is (fic] sup]9t5ds ! survey ( ! coa/s & riv]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,he has *>ge ( ! publication ( *>ts & sail+ directions :i* are ( ine/imable value to m>9]s4 ,! ,light-,h\se ,bo>d4--,! ,light-h\se ,bo>d has *>ge ( ! light-h\ses1 ( :i* #aaii _h be5 e/abli%$ previ\s to ! ye> #ahii1 besides ! light vessels & beacons us$ = ! protection ( navigation4 ,,! ,,dep>tm5t ,,( ,,labor4 ,on ,m>* #d1 #aiac1 ! bill 0 sign$ by ! ,presid5t :i* creat$ ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,labor4 ,x is evid5ce ( ! _s manife/$ by ! ,am]icans to make _! gov]nm5t s]ve ! cause ( human cons]vation4 ,besides ! ,bureau ( ,in=mation1 :i* 0 creat$ = ! dep>tm5t1 !re 7 transf]r$ f o!r dep>tm5ts ! ,bureau ( ,immigration#ee & ! ,*ildr5's ,bureau4 ,! ,division ( ,naturalization 0 made a bureau1 & ! ,bureau ( ,labor 0 con/itut$ ! ,bureau ( ,labor ,/ati/ics4 ,footnote #ee3 ,9 #aiab !re 7 #hch1agb immigrants to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & #bhec 7 refus$ admission4 ,( ^! !re 7 #gfg paup]s1 #ca contract labor]s1 #gdi diseas$ p]sons4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,does ! ,presid5t select ! memb]s ( 8 ,cab9et f among =m] memb]s ( ,congress8 ,w\ld ?is be desirable8 #b4 ,h ! memb]s ( ! ,cab9et ev] be5 all[$ to appe> be=e ,congress 9 ! int]e/s ( _! own dep>tm5ts8 ,w\ld ?is be desirable8 ,walk]1 ,! ,mak+ ( ! ,nation1 #ib2 ,bryce1 ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,i1 ,*apt] #i2 ,atl4 ,mo41 #fe3gga-ggb4 #c4 ,:o are n[ ! heads ( ! executive dep>tm5ts8 ,7 !y prom95t 9 ,national affairs be=e !y 7 select$ = ^! positions8 #d4 ,9 #aija a bill 0 introduc$ 9 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives :i* provid$ = an increase ( ! annual sal>y ( ! ,vice-,presid5t to #be1jjj1 & t ( ea* memb] ( ! ,cab9et to #ae1jjj4 ,:at reasons c y give = or aga9/ su* a *ange8 #e4 ,:at 0 ! hi/ory ( ! ,/ate ,dep>tm5t prior to #aghi8 ,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry ( ,ours1 #ahb-ahg4 #f4 ,give a li/ ( ! ,presid5ts :o h be5 ,secret>ies ( ,/ate4 ,h[ d y acc\nt = ?is policy 9 ! fir/ ye>s ( our gov]nm5t1 & n at a lat] "t8 ,"n "s ( ! o!r prom95t ,secret>ies ( ,/ate4 #g4 ,:o are our ambassadors8 ,c y give ! "n ( any =eign ambassadors 9 ,wa%+ton8 ,see ,congressional ,directory4 #h4 ,! me?ods by :i* our m9i/]s are select$1 take possession ( _! (fices1 & are pres5t$ at =eign c\rts1 are describ$ 9 ,curtis1 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,=eign ,p[]s1 #ae-ba4 #i4 ,! duties ( m9i/]s4 ,curtis1 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,=eign ,p[]s1 #bb-bf4 #aj4 ,are our ambassadors giv5 adequate sal>ies8 ,curtis1 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,=eign ,p[]s1 #ac1 #ad4 #aa4 ,f a consul> report le>n :at ! duties ( a consul are8 ,curtis1 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,=eign ,p[]s1 #cj-cc4 #ab4 ,= an acc\nt ( our consul> s]vice1 a comp>ison ) t ( o!r nations1 & a consid]ation ( "s ( ! weaknesses 9 our sy/em1 see ,curtis1 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,=eign ,p[]s1 #bh-cj4 #ac4 ,a bus9ess man & ! consul> s]vice4 ,c5tury ,mag41 #fj3 #bfh-bga4 #ad4 ,abuses 9 our consul> sy/em aris+ ?r\gh appo9tm5t4 ,atl ,mo41 #he3dee-dff1 & #ffi-fhc4 #ae4 ,a plea = consul> inspection4 ,=um1 #cj3bh-cd4 #af4 ,:at is ! great seal ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :at is its use8 ,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry ( ,ours1 #aii-bjj4 #ag4 ,:at is ! p>ticul> "w ( ! ,m>9e ,dep>tm5t8 ( ! ,/eamboat ,inspection ,s]vice8 ( ! ,m>9e ,hospital8 ,lyman ,j4 ,gage1 ,organization ( ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t1 ,cosmopolitan1 #be3cee-cfe4 #ah4 ,:at is ! "w ( ! ,bureau ( ,engrav+ & ,pr9t+8 ,sp(=d1 ,! ,gov]nm5t z a ,great ,publi%]1 ,=um1 #ai3cch-cdi4 #ai4 ,:at is ! ext5t ( our m]*ant m>9e8 ,%\ld x be increas$8 ,/ati/ical ,ab/ract ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 #aijj1 #dcg-dej4 #bj4 ,f ! app5dix to ! la/ ,f9ance ,report get ! *ief po9ts connect$ ) ! "w ( ! foll[+ (ficials3 ,treasur]1 ,*ief ( ! ,secret ,s]vice ,division4 ,a good description ( ! ,treasury ,dep>tm5t is giv5 9 ,scribn]'s ,mag41 #cc3djj-daa4 #ba4 ,f ! la/ report ( ! ,bureau ( ,/ati/ics f9d answ]s = ! foll[+3 ,! exp5ditures ( ! gov]nm5t 9 ! diff]5t dep>tm5ts2 value ( m]*&ise import$ & export$2 am\nts ( corn1 :eat1 cotton1 wool1 & iron produc$1 import$1 & export$2 ! *ief nationalities ( immigrants1 & comp>ison ( ! total numb] ) previ\s ye>s4 #bb4 ,are our coa/s well def5d$8 ,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry ( ,ours1 #bbe4 #bc4 ,describe ! "w ( ! ,presid5t1 ,secret>y ( ,w>1 ,secret>y ( ! ,navy1 & ( ! o!r ,cab9et (fic]s at ! outbreak ( w>4 ,cosmop41 #be3bee-bfd4 #bd4 ,= illu/rat$ articles on education at ,we/ ,po9t & ,annapolis1 see ,outlook1 #ei3hbe-hcg1 #hci-hdi4 #be4 ,comp>ison ( our p5sion sy/em ) t ( o!r nations4 ,=um1 #cc3cdf-cdh4 #bf4 ,defects 9 our p5sion sy/em4 ,=um1 #ca3fgj-fhj4 #bg4 ,*ang+ "* ( ! immigration to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,rev4 ( ,r's1 #bd3gbc1 #gbd4 #bh4 ,:y ! ,*9ese %\ld be exclud$4 ,=um1 #cc3ec-ei4 #bi4 ,:y ! ,*9ese %\ld be admitt$4 ,=um1 #cc3ej-fh4 #cj4 ,influ5ce ( ! allotm5t ( l& on ! ,indian4 ,=um1 #cd3dff-dhj4 #ca4 ,results ( ! "w ( exp]im5t /ations4 ,scribn]'s ,mag41 #ca3fdc-ffj4 #cb4 ,= acc\nts ( ! new ,congressional ,libr>y1 see ,c5tury ,mag41 #ec3fhb-fid2 #fid-gaa2 ,atl4 ,mo41 #he3ade-aeh2 ,cosmop41 #bc3aj-bj4 #cc4 ,:at is ! special value ( ! "w ( ! ,bureau ( ,am]ican ,republics8 ,=um1 #cj3ba-bg4 ,= o!r que/ions & ref]5ces on ! topics 9 ?is *apt]1 consult ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 #bei1 #bfj4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,,! ,,national ,,judici>y4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,e/abli%m5t ( an ,indep5d5t ,tribunal4--,alex&] ,hamilton *>act]iz$ ! lack ( a judici>y z ! cr[n+ defect ( gov]nm5t "u ! ,conf$]ation4 ,if we consid] ! nature ( our pres5t gov]nm5t1 x is easily se5 t "s =m ( indep5d5t tribunal is necess>y4 ,we h a c5tral gov]nm5t ex]cis+ complete control ov] ,national affairs & =eign relations &1 at ! same "t1 ! ,/ate gov]nm5ts ) equally complete control ov] que/ions aris+ )9 _! limits4 ,if diff]5ces arise1 !n1 z to ! au?ority ( ,national or ,/ate gov]nm5t ov] a giv5 "q1 h[ are ^! disputes to be settl$ peaceably8 ,aft] a brief discussion1 ! problem 0 answ]$ 9 ! ,con/itutional ,conv5tion by ! =mation ( a ,f$]al judici>y4 ,organization ( ! ,judici>y4--,! organization ( ! judici>y is provid$ = z foll[s3 ,section #a4 ,! judicial p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be ve/$ 9 "o ,supreme ,c\rt1 & 9 su* inf]ior c\rts z ! ,congress may f "t to "t orda9 & e/abli%4 ,! judges1 bo? ( ! ,supreme & inf]ior c\rts1 %all hold _! (fices dur+ good behavior1 & %all1 at /at$ times1 receive = _! s]vices a comp5sation :i* %all n be dim9i%$ dur+ _! cont9uance 9 (fice4 ,9 #aghi ,congress provid$ t ! ,supreme ,c\rt %\ld consi/ ( a *ief ju/ice & five associates4 ,circuit & di/rict c\rts 7 also e/abli%$4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt at pres5t consi/s ( ! *ief ju/ice & eight associate ju/ices4 ,x holds "o session annually1 at ,wa%+ton1 beg9n+ on ! second ,monday 9 ,octob] & cont9u+ until ab\t ,may #a4 ,di/rict ,c\rts4--,! t]ritory ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates has be5 divid$ into judicial di/ricts1 none ( !m cross+ ,/ate l9es & ea* hav+ a di/rict c\rt4 ,new ,york & ,texas h ea* f\r di/ricts2 ,alabama1 ,p5nsylvania1 & ,t5nessee ?ree ea*2 ,arkansas1 ,cali=nia1 ,florida1 ,georgia1 ,ill9ois1 ,i[a1 ,k5tucky1 ,l\isiana1 ,mississippi1 ,mi*igan1 ,miss\ri1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,ohio1 ,oklahoma1 ,virg9ia1 ,wa%+ton1 ,wiscons91 & ,we/ ,virg9ia two ea*2 & ! rema9+ ,/ates h ea* a s+le di/rict4 ,alaska & ,hawaii con/itute a di/rict4 ,g5]ally !re is a judge = ea* di/rict1 b a s+le judge is at times assign$ to two di/ricts4 ,unit$ ,/ates ,di/rict ,attorneys & ,m>%als4--,a di/rict attorney & m>%al are appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t = ea* di/rict c\rt4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates di/rict attorney is requir$ to prosecute all p]sons accus$ ( ! violation ( ,f$]al law & to appe> z def5dant 9 cases br\ght aga9/ ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 8 di/rict4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates m>%al executes ! w>rants or o!r ord]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates di/rict c\rt1 &1 9 g5]al1 p]=ms duties connect$ ) ! en=cem5t ( ! ,f$]al laws :i* resemble ! duties ( %]iffs "u ,/ate laws4 ,circuit ,c\rts & ,c\rts ( ,appeals4--,e/abli%$ by ! act ( #aghi1 ea* circuit c\rt 0 at fir/ presid$ ov] by a ju/ice ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt & a di/rict judge4 ,! policy 0 to h z _m circuit c\rts z !re 7 ju/ices ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt4 ,x 0 n until #ahfi t a circuit judge 0 provid$ = ea* ( ! n9e circuits4 ,by an ,act ( ,congress dur+ ! ye> #aiaa1 9 response to ! agitation = a simplifi$ ,f$]al judicial sy/em & great] exp$ition 9 ! he>+ ( cases1 ! circuit c\rts 7 ab&on$4 ,judges ( ^! c\rts 7 transf]r$ to ! circuit c\rts ( appeals4 ,! circuit c\rts ( appeals consi/ ( ?ree judges ea*1 any two con/itut+ a quorum4 ,supreme ,c\rt judges & di/rict judges may sit 9 ^! c\rts4 ,! ,c\rt ( ,claims 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahee & consi/s ( a *ief ju/ice & f\r associates4 ,x holds an annual session 9 ,wa%+ton4 ,t]ms & ,sal>ies ( ! ,judges4--,t ! judici>y %\ld be indep5d5t ( p>ties & ( o!r influ5ces _c be que/ion$4 ,h5ce ! wisdom ( ! provision t ,unit$ ,/ates judges %all hold _! (fices dur+ good behavior & %all receive a comp5sation = _! s]vices :i* %all n be dim9i%$ dur+ _! cont9uance 9 (fice4 ,judges ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates c\rts are appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t ) ! cons5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,by an ,act ( ,congress ( #aiaa ! sal>y ( ! ,*ief ,ju/ice 0 fix$ at #ae1jjj p] annum2 t ( associate ju/ices1 #ad1ejj2 & di/rict judges1 #fjjj4 ,jurisdiction ( ! ,national ,c\rts4--,we are next to consid] ! jurisdiction ( ! sev]al c\rts t h be5 describ$4 ,section #b1 ,clause #a4 ,! judicial p[] %all ext5d to all cases1 9 law & equity1 aris+ "u ?is ,con/itution1 ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & treaties made1 or :i* %all be made1 "u _! au?ority2--to all cases affect+ ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s & consuls2--to all cases ( admiralty & m>itime jurisdiction2--to controv]sies to :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be a p>ty2--to controv]sies betwe5 two or m ,/ates2--betwe5 a ,/ate & citiz5s ( ano!r ,/ate2--betwe5 citiz5s ( diff]5t ,/ates2--betwe5 citiz5s ( ! same ,/ate claim+ l&s "u grants ( diff]5t ,/ates1 & betwe5 a ,/ate1 or ! citiz5s !re(1 & =eign /ates1 citiz5s or subjects4 ,a c>eful consid]ation ( ?is clause %[s ! wide ext5t ( ! p[]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates c\rts4 ,x %[s also ! desirability ( hav+ all su* cases "u _! jurisdiction r ?an "u ! au?ority ( ! ,/ate c\rts4 ,associate ,ju/ice ,brew] wrote1 ) ref]5ce to ! influ5ce ( ! decisions ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt on ! hi/ory ( ! c\ntry3#ef ,its decisions h always be5 9 h>mony ) & su/a9+ ! proposition t ?is republic is a nation act+ directly ^u all its citiz5s1 ) ! attributes & au?ority ( a nation1 & n a m]e league or conf$]acy ( ,/ates4 ,! importance ( ?is _c be ov]e/imat$1 & w be appreciat$ by all :o comp>e ! weakness ( ! old conf$]acy ) ! /r5g? & vigor ( ! republic "u ! pres5t ,con/itution4 ,footnote #ef3 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,scribn]'s ,mag41 #cc3bge1bgf4 ,suit aga9/ a ,/ate by a ,citiz5 ( ,ano!r ,/ate4--,9 ! notable case ( ,*i%olm vs4 ,georgia 9 #agic1 ,*i%olm1 a citiz5 ( ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 began action aga9/ ! ,/ate ( ,georgia 9 ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,t c\rt int]pret$ ! clause z apply+ to cases 9 :i* a ,/ate is def5dant1 z well z to ^? 9 :i* x is pla9tiff4 ,! decision 0 receiv$ ) disfavor by ! ,/ates1 & ,congress propos$ ! ,elev5? ,am5dm5t to ! ,con/itution1 :i* 0 ratifi$ 9 #agih & is z foll[s3-- ,! judicial p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all n be con/ru$ to ext5d to any suit 9 law or equity1 comm5c$ or prosecut$ aga9/ "o ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 by citiz5s ( ano!r ,/ate1 or by citiz5s or subjects ( any =eign /ate4 ,orig9al & ,appellate ,jurisdiction4--,clause #b4 ,9 all cases affect+ ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s & consuls1 & ^? 9 :i* a ,/ate %all be a p>ty1 ! ,supreme ,c\rt %all h orig9al jurisdiction4 ,9 all ! o!r cases be=e m5tion$1 ! ,supreme ,c\rt %all h appellate jurisdiction1 bo? z to law & fact1 ) su* exceptions1 & "u su* regulations z ! ,congress %all make4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt has orig9al jurisdiction 9 all cases affect+ ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s & consuls1 & ^? 9 :i* a ,/ate %all be a p>ty4 ,orig9al jurisdiction means t ^! cases may be begun 9 ! ,supreme ,c\rt4 ,o!r cases are br\ght to ! ,supreme ,c\rt f ! inf]ior ,unit$ ,/ates c\rts or f ! supreme c\rts ( ! ,/ates & ,t]ritories by appeal4 ,9 su* cases ! ,supreme ,c\rt is said to h appellate jurisdiction4 ,jurisdiction ( ! ,inf]ior ,c\rts4--,x is difficult 9 brief space to def9e m9utely ! prov9ce ( ea* c\rt ,! foll[+ acc\nts1 !re=e1 give only a g5]al description3-- ,! circuit c\rts ( appeals are giv5 f9al jurisdiction 9 c]ta9 cases appeal$ to !m f ! di/rict c\rts1 su* z ^? aris+ "u ! pat5t1 rev5ue1 & crim9al laws1 z well z admiralty & o!r cases 9 :i* ! oppos+ p>ties to a suit are an ali5 & a citiz51 or are citiz5s ( diff]5t ,/ates4 ,!re is res]v$ to ! ,supreme ,c\rt ! decision ( cases involv+ con/itutionality4 ,! circuit c\rts ( appeals h ! f9al decision 9 ne>ly all o!r cases involv+ m]ely ! application ( ord9>y law4 ,! jurisdiction ( ! di/rict c\rts embraces crim9al cases1 admiralty cases1 bankruptcy proce$+s1 suits = p5alties1 & ! l4 ,9 g5]al1 ! jurisdiction ( cases =m]ly 9 ! circuit c\rts 0 transf]r$ to ! di/rict c\rts :5 ! circuit c\rts 7 discont9u$4 ,! ,c\rt ( ,claims %all he> & det]m9e all claims f\nd$ ^u any law ( ,congress1 or ^u any regulation ( an executive dep>tm5t1 or ^u any contract1 express or impli$1 ) ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* may be sugge/$ to x by a petition fil$ !re92 & also all claims :i* may be ref]r$ to said c\rt by ei!r h\se ( ,congress4#eg ,footnote #eg3 ,/atutes at ,l>ge1 #fab4 ,trial by ,jury4--,! "r ( trial by jury 9 all crim9al cases _h be5 insi/$ ^u by ,engli%m5 = c5turies prior to ! =mation ( our ,con/itution4 ,!re 7 two bran*es to ! sy/em1 ! gr& & ! petit juries4 ,ea* p]=m$ ! same duties z !y d n[4 ,! ,con/itution provides 9 ,section #b1 ,clause #a1 t ,! trial ( all crimes1 except 9 cases ( impea*m5t1 %all be by jury1 & su* trial %all be held 9 ! ,/ate :]e ! said crime %all h be5 committ$2 b :5 n committ$ )9 any ,/ate1 ! trial %all be at su* place or places z ! ,congress may by law h direct$4 ,?is clause 0 attack$ by ! oppon5ts ( ! ,con/itution 9 ! ,/ate conv5tions4 ,x 0 believ$ t ! ,con/itution did n furni% adequate safegu>ds aga9/ unju/ prosecutions4 ,because ( ?is agitation1 ,congress1 9 its fir/ session1 propos$ ,am5dm5ts ,v1 ,,vi1 ,,vii1 & ,,viii1 :i* 7 duly ratifi$ by ! sev]al ,/ates4 ,am5dm5t ,v4 ,no p]son %all be held to answ] = a capital1 or o!rwise infam\s crime1 unless on a pres5tm5t or indictm5t ( a gr& jury1 etc4#eh ,footnote #eh3 ,see ,app5dix ,a4 ,au?orities h _h difficulty 9 giv+ an exact def9ition ( an infam\s crime4 ,t giv5 by ,judge ,cooley is ! mo/ satisfactory4 ,he says3 ,b ! puni%m5t ( ! p5it5ti>y mu/ always be deem$ infam\s1 & s mu/ any puni%m5t t involves ! loss ( civil or political privileges4 ,! ,gr& ,jury4--,a gr& jury consi/s ( f twelve to tw5ty-?ree m54 ,!y sit 9 secret1 & no accusation c be made by !m )\t ! concurr5ce ( at lea/ twelve4 ,an indictm5t is a writt5 accusation ( an (f5se drawn up by a prosecut+ (fic] on behalf ( ! gov]nm5t & laid be=e ! gr& jury4 ,a pres5tm5t is an accusation by a gr& jury ( an (f5se ^u _! own obs]vation & k1 or ^u evid5ce be=e !m1 & )\t any bill ( indictm5t laid be=e !m at ! suit ( gov]nm5t4#ei ,9 ! case ( a pres5tm5t1 ! p>ty accus$ _c be held to trial until he has be5 indict$4 ,aft] he>+ ! evid5ce1 if ! gr& jury concludes t ! accusation is n true1 !y write on ! back ( ! bill1 ,n a true bill or ,n f\nd4 ,! accus$1 if held 9 cu/ody1 is !n giv5 8 fre$om1 b he may be aga9 indict$ by ano!r gr& jury4 ,if ! gr& jury decides t ! accusation is true1 !y !n write on ! back ( ! bill1 ,a true bill or ,f\nd4 ,! indict$ p]son mu/ be held to answ] ! *>ges made aga9/ him4 ,footnote #ei3 ,/ory1 ,comm5t>ies on ! ,con/itution1 #aghd4 ,rights ( ! ,accus$4--,am5dm5t ,,vi4 ,9 all crim9al prosecutions1 ! accus$ %all enjoy ! "r to a spe$y & public trial1 by an imp>tial jury ( ! ,/ate & di/rict :]e9 ! crime %all h be5 committ$1 etc4 7,see ,app5dix ,a74 ,am5dm5t ,,vii4 ,9 suits at common law1 :]e ! value 9 controv]sy %all exce$ tw5ty doll>s1 ! "r ( trial by jury %all be pres]v$1 & no fact tri$ by a jury %all be o!rwise reexam9$ 9 any c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?an accord+ to ! rules ( ! common law4 ,! accus$ mu/ be giv5 a public & spe$y trial be=e an imp>tial jury1 kn[n z ! petit jury1 consi/+ ( twelve m5 f ! di/rict :]e9 ! crime 0 committ$4 ,! decision mu/ be unanim\s be=e a v]dict c be r5d]$4 ,! accus$ is giv5 a copy ( ! indictm5t 9 :i* ! nature ( ! accusation is cle>ly set =? & is grant$ "t 9 :i* to prep>e = 8 def5se4 ,equally j & significant are ! provisions t he %all be confront$ by ! witnesses aga9/ him1 may compel ! att5dance ( witnesses 9 8 favor1 & may employ c\nsel = 8 def5se4 ,9 case he is n able to pay = 8 own c\nsel1 ! judge appo9ts "o ^: s]vices are paid = out ( ! public treasury4 ,if ! v]dict has be5 r5d]$ by a jury & ! judgm5t pron\nc$1 ! accus$ _c be aga9 br\ght to trial on ! same *>ge4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,:at are ! names ( ! memb]s ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt at pres5t8 ,congressional ,directory4 #b4 ,h[ l>ge is ! di/rict 9 :i* y\r home is locat$8 ,:o are ! judges8 ,congressional ,directory4 #c4 ,"u :at conditions may a case be appeal$ f ! supreme c\rt ( ! ,/ate to ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,supreme ,c\rt8 ,bryce1 ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,i1 #bbh-bcj 7#bcb-bcd74 #d4 ,h[ is ! fact t conflicts betwe5 ! au?ority ( ! ,f$]al & ! ,/ate c\rts d n arise1 acc\nt$ =8 ,bryce1 ,i1 #bcd-bce 7#bch74 #e4 ,are ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,c\rts influ5c$ 9 _! decisions by politics8 ,bryce1 ,i1 #bei-bfa 7#bfe-bfg74 #f4 ,def9e treason & ! puni%m5t !re=e4 ,con/itution1 ,art4 ,,iii1 ,sec4 #c1 ,clauses #a & #b4 ,see ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 #bfh1 #bfi4 #g4 ,describe ! influ5ce ( ,john ,m>%all z ,*ief ,ju/ice4 7a47 ,john ,m>%all1 ,am]ican ,/atesm5 ,s]ies1 ,*apt]s ,x & ,,xi4 7b47 ,bryce1 ,i1 #bfa 7#bfg74 7c47 ,lodge1 ,john ,m>%all1 ,/atesman1 ,n4 ,am4 ,rev41 #agb3aia-bjd4 7d47 ,john ,m>%all1 ,atl4 ,mo41 #hg3cbh-cda4 #h4 ,%[ h[ ! developm5t ( our ,con/itution by int]pretation has be5 br\ght ab\t4 ,bryce1 ,i1 #cff-cge 7#cgf-che74 #i4 ,:at has be5 ! influ5ce ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt 9 ! hi/ory ( our nation8 ,scribn]'s ,mag41 #cc3bgc-bhd4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii4 ,,t]ritories ,,& ,,public ,,l&s4 ,! ,hi/ory ( ,t]ritories4--,! fir/ ,t]ritories ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates 7 =m$ 9 ! region ly+ nor? ( ! ,ohio ,riv] & ea/ ( ! ,mississippi ,riv]4 ,"h sev]al ( ! orig9al ,/ates 7viz41 ,massa*usetts1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 & ,virg9ia7 _h _h claims1 :i* !y c$$ to ! g5]al gov]nm5t dur+ ! p]iod ( ! ,conf$]ation4 ,?is region 0 giv5 ! "n ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory4 ,x 0 gov]n$ "u ! ,ord9ance ( #aghg enact$ by ,congress = ?is purpose4 ,z settl]s came into ?is region1 ,congress pass$ special acts = ! gov]nm5t ( ! diff]5t ,t]ritories t 7 erect$ :]e n[ we f9d ! ,/ates ( ,ohio1 ,indiana1 ,ill9ois1 ,mi*igan1 & ,wiscons94 ,9 l mann]1 ! region ly+ s\? ( ,k5tucky 0 c$$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ! ,c>ol9as & ,georgia1 & 0 !n =m$ into ,t]ritories & gov]n$ by ,congress4 ,next1 ! ,l\isiana ,pur*ase1 ,florida1 ! ,mexican ,cession1 & ! ,oregon ,t]ritory came "u ! control ( ,congress2 a succession ( ,t]ritories 0 ?us creat$1 all ( :i* h n[ be5 admitt$ into ! ,union z ,/ates4 ,9 ! gov]nm5t ( ^! ,t]ritories1 ,congress has act$ 9 accordance ) an important p[] grant$ to x by ! ,con/itution4 ,article ,,iv1 ,section #c1 ,clause #c4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to dispose ( & make all ne$ful rules & regulations respect+ ! t]ritory or o!r prop]ty belong+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,gov]nm5t ( ,t]ritories4--,our ,t]ritories at pres5t are ,alaska1 ,porto ,rico1 & ,hawaii4 ,! gov]n+ au?orities 9 ea* are3 7#a7 a gov]nor1 appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t1 ) ! cons5t ( ! ,s5ate2 7#b7 adm9i/rative (fic]s--secret>y1 treasur]1 auditor1 attorney-g5]al1 adjutant-g5]al1 & sup]9t5d5t ( education1 all appo9t$ 9 ! same way2 7#c7 a legislature consi/+ ( two h\ses1 ! memb]s ( ! l[] h\se1 at lea/1 be+ elect$ by popul> vote2 7#d7 a sy/em ( c\rts 9 :i* ! judges are appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t & ,s5ate4 ,relations betwe5 ,t]ritories & ,congress4--,a ,t]ritory is organiz$ by an ,act ( ,congress :i* provides = ^! (fic]s & prescribes _! p[]s4 ,! ,t]ritorial legislature controls ! int]nal affairs ( ! ,t]ritory2 b its acts may be *ang$ or veto$ by ,congress4 ,! p ( a ,t]ritory h no voice 9 ,national affairs1 b !y elect a delegate to ,congress1 :o may debate b n vote4 ,porto ,rico4--,! gov]nm5t ( ,porto ,rico is diff]5t at "s po9ts f t ( ! o!r organiz$ ,t]ritories4 ,! upp] h\se ( its legislature is ! ,executive ,c\ncil & consi/s ( ! adm9i/rative (fic]s ( ! ,t]ritory 7secret>y1 treasur]1 auditor1 commission] ( ! int]ior1 attorney-g5]al1 & commission] ( education7 & five o!r p]sons appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t4 ,five ( ! elev5 memb]s ( ?is c\ncil mu/ be natives ( ,porto ,rico4 ,! ,h\se ( ,delegates has ?irty-five memb]s1 elect$ tri5nially by ! vot]s4 ,!re is elect$ by ! p a resid5t commission] to ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :o1 unlike ! delegates f o!r ,t]ritories1 has no seat 9 ,congress1 b r has (ficial relations ) ! ,presid5t4 ,! ,t]ritory ( ,hawaii4--,hawaii 0 annex$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 #ahih1 & its gov]nm5t 0 e/abli%$ by ,congress 9 #aijj4 ,! adm9i/rative (fic]s 9 ?is ,t]ritory are appo9t$ by ! gov]nor1 in/ead ( by ! ,presid5t4 ,vot]s 9 ,hawaii mu/ be able to read & write ei!r ! ,engli% or ,hawaiian language4 ,alaska4--,by a law ( #aiab1 ,alaska 0 giv5 = ! fir/ "t a ,t]ritorial legislature1 consi/+ ( two h\ses1 elect$ by ! p4 ,our ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s4--,! ,philipp9es con/itute ! l>ge/ "p ( our insul> possessions1 & are n class$ z ,t]ritories4 ,! ^w colonies bett] expresses _! relations to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y are gov]n$ by a commission ( n9e memb]s3 ! gov]nor1 f\r heads ( dep>tm5ts 7,am]icans71 & f\r ,filip9os4 ,all are appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t ) ! cons5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,?is commission con/itutes ! upp] h\se ( ! legislative body2 ! l[] h\se or assembly is elect$ f c]ta9 di/ricts ( ! isl&s :]e ! p are consid]$ civiliz$ & are at peace4 ,vot]s mu/ be prop]ty-own]s & be able to read & write ,engli% or ,spani%4 ,! entire gr\p ( isl&s is divid$ into prov9ces4 ,9 "s ( ^! ! p h local self-gov]nm5t2 9 o!rs !re is milit>y gov]nm5t "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates army4 ,9 _m cities ! gov]nm5t is simil> to t ( ,am]ican cities4 ,besides num]\s o!r small isl&s ! ,unit$ ,/ates possesses ,tutuila 9 ! ,samoan gr\p1 ,guam1 & ,wake ,isl&4 ,^! are gov]n$ directly by ! naval au?orities ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,! ,panama ,canal ,zone is gov]n$ by ! ,i/hmian ,canal ,commission1 consi/+ ( sev5 m5 appo9t$ by ! ,presid5t4 ,! commission is subord9ate to ! ,w> ,dep>tm5t at ,wa%+ton4 ,political ,relations ) ,cuba4--,cuba 0 "u ! control ( our milit>y au?ority betwe5 ! "t :5 our troops occupi$ ! isl&1 dur+ ! ,spani%-,am]ican ,w>1 & ! ann\ncem5t ( its indep5d5ce 9 ,may1 #aijb4 ,al?\gh ,cuba is n[ an indep5d5t republic1 x is consid]$ z a protectorate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & is subject to ! influ5ce ( ?is nation 9 its deal+s ) o!r nations4 ,! ,admission ( ,t]ritories to ,/atehood4--,:ile ,t]ritories dep5d to a great] or less ext5t ^u ! nation = _! gov]nm5t1 x has always be5 ! policy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to admit !m into ! ,union z ,/ates :5 conditions became "r = ?is action4 ,t ! p[] to admit ,/ates into ! ,union belongs exclusively to ,congress is evid5t f ! language ( ! ,con/itution3 ,article ,,iv1 ,section #c1 ,clause #a4 ,new ,/ates may be admitt$ by ! ,congress into ?is ,union2 b no new ,/ate %all be =m$ or erect$ )9 ! jurisdiction ( any o!r ,/ate2 nor any ,/ate be =m$ by ! junction ( two or m ,/ates or p>ts ( ,/ates1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! legislatures ( ! ,/ates conc]n$ z well z ( ! ,congress4 ,t]ritories fir/ apply = admission to ! ,union1 & !n ei!r ( two processes may foll[3 7#a7 ,congress passes an enabl+ act au?oriz+ ! ,t]ritory to frame a con/itution1 :i* is submitt$ to ,congress = approval4 7#b7 ,or1 ! ,t]ritory frames its con/itution )\t wait+ = ! enabl+ act2 ) ?is 9 its h& ! ,t]ritory !n applies to ,congress = admission4 ,9 ei!r case1 be=e giv+ its approval to ! admission ( a ,/ate1 ,congress mu/ see t ! con/itution submitt$ conta9s no?+ t is inconsi/5t ) a republican =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,our ,public ,l& ,policy4--,9 ! ,t]ritories :i* lay betwe5 ! ,allegh5y ,m\nta9s & ! ,mississippi ,riv]1 & 9 all ! acquisitions t h s9ce be5 made1 ! unoccupi$#fj l&s became ! prop]ty ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,s ! ,national gov]nm5t became ! possessor ( _m millions ( acres ( l&1 & x /ill holds imm5se tracts 9 ! ,we/]n ,/ates & 9 its di/ant possessions4 ,^u ! admission ( a ,t]ritory z a ,/ate1 ! own]%ip ( its public l&s does n pass to ! new ,/ate1 b rema9s ) ! ,national gov]nm5t4 ,! latt] has foll[$ a mo/ lib]al policy 9 deal+ ) its l&s1 7#a7 ,x has grant$ great am\nts to ! ,/ates4 ,! s*ool l&s :i* are ! basis ( ! common s*ool funds 9 ! ,we/]n ,/ates 7 acquir$ 9 ?is way4 7#b7 ,_m ?\s&s ( squ>e miles h be5 grant$ to railroad companies z aid 9 ! con/ruction ( _! l9es4 ,^! l&s are /ill be+ pur*as$ at l[ rates by settl]s 9 ! ,we/4 7#c7 ,! home/ead law provides t citiz5s may acquire #afj acres ( l&1 or less1 free ( co/1 on condition ( liv+ ^u x = five ye>s & improv+ x4 7#d7 ,millions ( acres are /ill held by ! gov]nm5t1 subject to sale at l[ prices4 ,footnote #fj3 ,exceptions to ?is /atem5t mu/ be made to cov] c]ta9 l&s res]v$ by "s ( ! orig9al ,/ates t c$$ _! claims to ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 z1 = in/ance1 ! ,we/]n ,res]ve 9 ,ohio reta9$ by ,connecticut1 & o!r l&s 9 ! same ,/ate reta9$ by ,virg9ia4 ,at pres5t ! l>g] "p ( ! public l&s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates are arid2 t is1 !y _c be cultivat$ )\t irrigation4 ,by a law ( #aijb1 ! proce$s receiv$ f ! sale ( public l&s 9 c]ta9 ,we/]n ,/ates & ,t]ritories w be exp5d$ by ! ,national gov]nm5t 9 ! con/ruction ( irrigation works4 ,?is law is de/9$ to h a great influ5ce ^u ! future ( our ,we/]n ,/ates4 ,illu/ration ,! ,national ,sy/em ( ,survey4--,9 ! ?irte5 orig9al ,/ates !re 0 no uni=m sy/em ( l& survey1 b ea* tract ( l& 0 survey$ z necessity requir$1 g5]ally aft] settlem5t _h be5 made ^u x4 ,! tracts 7 ( v irregul> %apes4 ,! b\nd>y l9es1 usually />t+ f "s natural object1 7 measur$ by rods or *a9s1 runn+ 9 c]ta9 directions z asc]ta9$ by ! use ( ! compass4 ,?is me?od ( survey is /ill 9 use 9 ! ,ea/]n ,/ates4 ,accord+ to a law ( #aghe1 a uni=m sy/em ( rectangul> survey 0 appli$ to all l&s belong+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,?is survey has prec$$ settl]s1 & has to "s ext5t influ5c$ ! me?od ( settlem5t & ! nature ( local gov]nm5t ?r\gh\t ! ,we/4 ,! l&s survey$ h be5 divid$ into t[n%ips six miles squ>e4 ,= ! b\nd>ies ( t[n%ips ! law requires ! use ( nor?-&-s\? & ea/-&-we/ l9es4 ,to secure />t+ po9ts f :i* to run ^! l9es1 x 0 necess>y to designate c]ta9 m]idians z ,pr9cipal ,m]idians & c]ta9 p>allels z ,base ,l9es4 ,me?od ( ,l& ,description4--,! map indicates ! location ( ,pr9cipal ,m]idians & ,base ,l9es 9 ! ,/ates nor? ( ! ,ohio ,riv]4 ,/>t+1 !n1 f any ,pr9cipal ,m]idian1 ! ti] ( t[n%ips directly ea/ is call$ ,range ,i2 ! o!r ranges are numb]$ ea/ & we/ ( t m]idian4 ,c\nt+ also f ! ,base ,l9e1 ! t[n%ips are numb]$ #a1 #b1 #c1 etc41 bo? nor? & s\?4 ,x ?us becomes possible to locate precisely any p>ticul> t[n%ip by a simple description3 e4g41 t[n%ip #e nor?1 ,range ,,viii ea/ ( ! fir/ ,pr9cipal ,m]idian4 ,s9ce ! ea/]n & we/]n b\nd>ies ( t[n%ips are m]idians1 !y approa* ne>] to ea* o!r z !y g f>!r nor?4 ,h5ce ! t[n%ips become less ?an six miles f ea/ to we/ z ! survey proce$s nor?w>d f any base l9e4 ,?is necessitates ! runn+ ( /&>d p>allel l9es1 or correction l9es1 at frequ5t int]vals1 to be us$ z new base l9es 7,figure #a74 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #a ,to /ill fur!r facilitate ! sale & description ( l&s1 ! law provides = exact me?ods ( subdivid+ ! t[n%ip into sections1 "o mile squ>e1 numb]$ z 9 ,figure #b4 ,ea* section is subdivid$ into rectangul> tracts kn[n z halves1 qu>t]s1 half-qu>t]s1 & qu>t]-qu>t]s4 ,! designations ( ^! divisions are by abbreviations & fractions4 7,see ,figure #c47 ,! numb] ( acres 9 ea* tract is easily comput$4 ,! rectangul> sy/em ( survey has be5 a great aid 9 ! subdivision & location ( f>m l&s2 x greatly r$uces ! numb] ( b\nd>y disputes1 x det]m9es v l>gely ! location ( c\ntry roads4 ,moreov]1 ! ,congressional t[n%ip has become1 9 a great _m in/ances1 ! area )9 :i* ! political t[n%ip or t[n has be5 organiz$4 ,?is t[n1 h[ev]1 ne$ n co9cide ) ! ,congressional t[n%ip2 x may be great] or small] 9 area4 ,illu/ration3 ,figure #b4--,six ,,miles ,,squ>e4 ---------------------------- #f #e #d #c #b #a ---------------------------- #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab ---------------------------- #ah #ag #af #ae #ad #ac ---------------------------- #ai #bj #ba #bb #bc #bd ---------------------------- #cj #bi #bh #bg #bf #be ---------------------------- #ca #cb #cc #cd #ce #cf ---------------------------- ,illu/ration3 ,figure #c4--,"o mile squ>e ------------------------------ ,n #a_/b ,,ne #a_/d ,,nw #a_/d ---------------- ,,se #a_/d ,,ne #a_/d ------------------------------ ,s #a_/b ------------------------------ ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,= ! hi/ory ( l& cessions1 ref]5ces are giv5 9 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 p4 #ccd1 "q #a4 #b4 ,! topics treat$ 9 ?is *apt] are discuss$ 9 ,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry ( ,ours1 pp4 #bgj-bgi4 #c4 ,on public l&s1 see ,re9s*1 ,"y ,citiz5's ,read]1 #ij-aja4 ,m>riott1 ,uncle ,sam's ,bus9ess1 #age-ahd2 #bed-bfi4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,,am5dm5ts ,,to ,,! ,,con/itution4 ,me?ods ( ,am5d+ ! ,con/itution4--,we h already consid]$ ! effect ( am5dm5ts on "s ( ! orig9al clauses#fa4 ,x n[ rema9s to consid]1 briefly1 ! me?ods ( am5d+ ! ,con/itution & a few o!r provisions f\nd 9 ! am5dm5ts4 ,article ,v provides = am5dm5ts z foll[s3-- ,! ,congress1 :5ev] two-?irds ( bo? h\ses %all deem x necess>y1 %all propose am5dm5ts to ?is ,con/itution1 or1 on ! application ( ! legislatures ( two-?irds ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 %all call a conv5tion = propos+ am5dm5ts1 :i*1 9 ei!r case1 %all be valid to all int5ts & purposes1 z "p ( ?is ,con/itution1 :5 ratifi$ by ! legislatures ( ?ree-f\r?s ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 or by conv5tions 9 ?ree-f\r?s !re(1 z ! "o or ! o!r mode ( ratification may be propos$ by ! ,congress2 provid$ t no am5dm5t :i* may be made prior to ! ye> "o ?\s& eight hundr$ & eight %all 9 any mann] affect ! fir/ & f\r? clauses 9 ! n9? section ( ! fir/ article2 & t no ,/ate1 )\t its cons5t1 %all be depriv$ ( its equal suffrage 9 ! ,s5ate4 ,footnote #fa3 ,= ,am5dm5t ,,xi1 see p4 #afj2 = ,am5dm5t ,,xii1 see p4 #aai4 ,?us1 am5dm5ts may be propos$ 9 ei!r ( two ways3 by a vote ( two-?irds ( bo? h\ses ( ,congress2 or by a ,national conv5tion call$ by ,congress = t purpose on ! application ( two-?irds ( ! ,/ate legislatures4 ,! conv5tion me?od has nev] be5 us$ 9 propos+ am5dm5ts to ?is ,con/itution4 ,am5dm5ts may also be ratifi$ 9 two ways3 by ! legislatures 9 ?ree-f\r?s ( ! sev]al ,/ates2 or by conv5tions 9 ?ree-f\r?s !re(4 ,congress has always select$ ! fir/ ( ^! me?ods4 ,am5d+ ! ,con/itution ,difficult4--,t x is difficult to am5d ! ,con/itution may be se5 :5 we consid] t "s two ?\s& am5dm5ts h be5 propos$ 9 an (ficial way4 ,dur+ a s+le session ( ! ,fifty-sev5? ,congress1 fifty am5dm5ts1 on tw5ty diff]5t phases ( gov]nm5t1 7 propos$ 9 "o or o!r ( ! h\ses ( ,congress4 ,am5dm5t ,,xiii4--,! purpose ( ! fir/ t5 am5dm5ts has already be5 not$ on p4 #aab4 ,! ,?irte5?1 ,f\rte5?1 & ,fifte5? ,am5dm5ts 7 ! results ( negro slav]y4 ,! ,emancipation ,proclamation grant$ fre$om to all ( ! slaves 9 ! ,/ates !n 9 rebellion4 ,!re 7 "s ,/ates1 h[ev]1 z ,k5tucky1 ,t5nessee1 & ,miss\ri1 :]e slav]y might /ill exi/ legally4 ,9 ord] to be rid ( ?is in/itution altoge!r1 ,congress propos$ ! ,?irte5? ,am5dm5t to ! ,con/itution1 :i* is z foll[s3-- ,nei!r slav]y nor involunt>y s]vitude1 except z a puni%m5t = crime :]e( ! p>ty %all h be5 duly convict$1 %all exi/ )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any place subject to _! jurisdiction4 ,congress %all h p[] to en=ce ?is article by appropriate legislation4 ,x 0 decl>$ a "p ( ! ,con/itution1 ,decemb] #ah1 #ahfe4 ,am5dm5t ,,xiv4--,?is am5dm5t 0 propos$ by ,congress1 ,june #af1 #ahff1 z a "p ( ! g5]al plan = recon/ruction4 ,! ,s\!rn ,/ates 7 n to be reg>d$ z a "p ( ! ,union until !y %\ld ratify x4 ,! entire am5dm5t1 giv5 9 ,app5dix ,a1 %\ld be read4 ,sections #a & #b1 h[ev]1 conta9 ! mo/ important provisions4 ,section #a has already be5 p>tially discuss$ on p4 #ie1 "u ! "q1 ,:o are citiz5s8 ,section #b has also be5 consid]$ on p4 #ed1 9 connection ) ! apportionm5t ( repres5tatives4 ,congress has at diff]5t times remov$ ! disabilities f c]ta9 ( ! classes m5tion$ 9 ,section #c4 ,f9ally1 an act ( ,june #f1 #ahih1 remov$ ! la/ disability impos$ by ?is section4 ,am5dm5t ,,xv4--,9 ord] to secure full political rights = ! negroes1 ! ,fifte5? ,am5dm5t 0 pass$1 z indicat$ on p4 #ea4 ,! "r ( citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to vote %all n be d5i$ or abridg$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or by any ,/ate1 on acc\nt ( race1 color1 or previ\s condition ( s]vitude4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to en=ce ?is article by appropriate legislation4 ,am5dm5t ,,xvi4--,! ,congress %all h p[] to lay or collect taxes on incomes1 f :atev] s\rce d]iv$1 )\t apportionm5t among ! sev]al ,/ates1 & )\t reg>d to any c5sus or enum]ation4 ,?is am5dm5t1 :i* provides = ! lay+ ( an income tax1 0 adopt$ by ! ?irty-six? legislature1 ! requisite ?ree-f\r?s1 on ,febru>y #c1 #aiac4 ,x 0 hop$ t ! money suppli$ f ?is tax w\ld make up = any loss ( rev5ue due to ! r$uction ( t>iff duties4 ,! new tax w affect ^? ^: ye>ly incomes are 9 excess ( a c]ta9 l9e ( exemption4 ,am5dm5t ,,xvii4--,! ,s5ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be compos$ ( two s5ators f ea* ,/ate1 elect$ by ! p !re(1 = six ye>s2 & ea* s5ator %all h "o vote4 ,! electors 9 ea* ,/ate %all h ! qualifications requisite = electors ( ! mo/ num]\s bran* ( ! ,/ate legislature4 ,:5 vacancies happ5 9 ! repres5tation ( any ,/ate 9 ! ,s5ate ! executive au?ority ( su* ,/ate %all issue writs ( election to fill su* vacancies4 ,provid$1 t ! legislature ( any ,/ate may emp[] ! executive !re( to make tempor>y appo9tm5ts until ! p fill ! vacancies by election z ! legislature may direct4 ,?is am5dm5t %all n be s con/ru$ z to affect ! election or t]m ( any s5ator *os5 be=e x becomes valid z "p ( ! ,con/itution4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,:at facts c be giv5 %[+ ! difficulty ( am5d+ ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation8 ,fiske1 ,critical ,p]iod1 #bah-bbj4 #b4 ,is x n[ consid]$ difficult to am5d ! ,con/itution8 ,bryce1 ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,i1 #cei-cfb 7#cfh-cga74 #c4 ,:at 7 ! conditions "u :i* ! ,emancipation ,proclamation 0 issu$8 ,wilson1 ,division & ,reunion1 #bbf-bbh4 #d4 ,0 ! adoption ( ! ,fifte5? ,am5dm5t a wise policy8 #e4 ,give ! argum5ts 9 favor ( ! ,sixte5? ,am5dm5t4 #f4 ,:at reasons c y give 9 favor ( ! ,sev5te5? ,am5dm5t8 ,,*apt] ,,xix4 ,,! ,,gov]nm5ts ,,( ,,! ,,_w4 ,k9ds ( ,gov]nm5ts4--,x is cu/om>y to classify ! gov]nm5ts ( ! _w "u two heads3 7#a7 republics1 7#b7 mon>*ies4 ,! real nature ( our republic may be made m app>5t by a comp>ison ( our sy/em ) t ( o!r republics1 & ) ! gov]nm5ts ( c]ta9 great mon>*ies4 ,our ,f$]al ,republic4--,x has be5 emphasiz$ 9 ! c\rse ( our /udy t ! ,/ates are important p>ts 9 ! political sy/em :i* we call ! ,republic ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! ,/ates are n m]e adm9i/rative divisions ( ! nation2 !y d n /& 9 ! same relation to ! ,national gov]nm5t t c\nties be> to ! ,/ate4 ,!y d n d]ive _! p[]s f ! ,national gov]nm5t2 nor1 on ! o!r h&1 does ! latt] d]ive its p[]s f ! ,/ates4 ,! s\rce ( p[] = bo? is ! same--! p !mselves1 z an organiz$ body politic4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates is1 !n1 a ,f$]al ,republic4 ,x is ess5tial to und]/& t1 9 ! division ( p[]s betwe5 ,/ates & nation1 ! latt] is sov]eign ov] ! matt]s t are plac$ )9 its jurisdiction2 b x is a feature ( our sy/em no less ess5tial 7?\gh less cle>ly und]/ood by ! p7 t ! ,/ates are z completely sov]eign ov] matt]s t lie )9 _! control4 ,france a ,c5traliz$ ,republic4--,9 ,france we f9d an entirely diff]5t type ( republic--n f$]al1 b c5traliz$4 ,france is divid$ into eighty-six dep>tm5ts1 :i* correspond 9 "s respects to our ,/ates4 ,b 9 _! relation to ! c5tral gov]nm5t ! diff]5ce is v /rik+2 = ! dep>tm5ts are m]ely adm9i/rative divisions ( ! c5tral gov]nm5t4 ,!y are completely subject to ! national gov]nm5t4 ,! *ief au?ority 9 ea* dep>tm5t is a prefect1 :o is appo9t$ by ! m9i/ry ( ,france 7! c5tral executive body7 & is responsible to x4 ,!re is a legislative body 9 ea* dep>tm5t1 call$ ! g5]al c\ncil1 b ! p[]s ( ?is body are v mu* re/rict$4 ,! national gov]nm5t ( ,france ex]cises legislative au?ority ^u _m subjects 9 ! dep>tm5ts1 & x adm9i/]s ! laws directly4 ,consequ5tly1 ! p's p[]s ( local self-gov]nm5t are v mu* less ext5sive ?an ^? enjoy$ by ! p 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!re result 9 ,france mu* great] uni=mity ( legislation & m effective adm9i/ration2 :ile 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates local self-gov]nm5t results 9 corrupt laws & wa/eful adm9i/ration4 ,b we believe t ! p w become educat$ 9 ! use ( political p[] if ! responsibility = its use re/s ^u !m1 r ?an ^u "s c5tral au?ority4 ,! ,swiss ,republic4--,an example ( a f$]al republic is ! gov]nm5t ( ,switz]l&4 ,"h ! cantons correspond to our ,/ates1 & ea* canton has control ov] its own local affairs1 )\t int]f]5ce f ! f$]al gov]nm5t4 ,! *ief features ( ! ,fr5* & ! ,swiss gov]nm5ts are indicat$ 9 ! accompany+ outl9e3#fb ,footnote #fb3 ,among ! ,s\? ,am]ican republics1 ,brazil1 ,mexico1 & ,arg5t9e ,republic are f$]al 9 nature1 l ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,switz]l&4 ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,switz]l& ,,france ,congress ,f$]al ,assembly ,! ,*amb]s ,s5ate ,/ate ,c\ncil ,s5ate ,two memb]s f ,two memb]s f #cjj memb]s elect$ ea* /ate ea* canton by an electoral college ,six ye>s 9 ea* dep>tm5t ,h\se ( ,national ,c\ncil ,*amb] ( ,deputies ,repres5tatives #dcc memb]s elect$ #adg memb]s elect$ #eia deputies elect$ by p by p by p ,two ye>s ,?ree ye>s ,f\r ye>s ,presid5t ,presid5t ,presid5t ,elect$ by electors1 ,elect$ by ,f$]al ,elect$ by ,national i4e41 by ! ,assembly ,assembly2 i4e4 p ( ! ,/ates ,"o ye> ,s5ate & ,*amb] ,f\r ye>s ( ,deputies 9 jo9t session ,sev5 ye>s ,cab9et ,f$]al ,c\ncil ,m9i/ry ,n9e memb]s appo9t$ ,sev5 memb]s ,twelve memb]s appo9t$ by ,presid5t elect$ by ,f$]al by ,presid5t & ,s5ate ,assembly ,con/itutional ,mon>*ies--,mon>*ies are classifi$ z 7#a7 con/itutional & 7#b7 absolute4 ,9 con/itutional mon>*ies ! rul] holds 8 position by h]$ity1 b !re exi/s also a con/itution1 :i* def9es ! di/ribution ( p[]s among ! bran*es t compose ! gov]nm5t & fixes ! limits ( au?ority ve/$ 9 ea*4 ,! ,briti% con/itution is p>tly writt51 z f\nd 9 ! great hi/orical docum5ts ( ,engli% hi/ory1 su* z ,magna ,*>ta 7#abae71 ! ,petition ( ,"r 7#afbh71 & ! ,bill ( ,rights 7#afhi72fc & p>tly unwritt51 consi/+ ( prec$5ts & cu/oms :i* are recogniz$ z au?oritative4 ,! con/itutions ( ! o!r mon>*ies ( ,europe 7 made dur+ ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & consequ5tly !y are y\ng] ?an t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,footnote #fc3 ,comp>e ! ,bill ( ,rights 9 our ,con/itution2 see pp4 #bef-bfj4 ,9 all ! con/itutional mon>*ies we f9d legislative bodies simil> to our ,congress4 ,9 e case ! l[] h\se is elect$ by ! vot]s2#fd 9 ,engl&1 ! ,au/rian ,empire1 ,italy1 & ,spa9 a numb] ( ! memb]s ( ! upp] h\se hold _! position by h]$it>y "r4 ,9 respect to legislation1 !re=e1 ! con/itutional mon>*ies are all m or less republican 9 pr9ciple2 t is1 !y all recognize ! supreme au?ority ( ! p act+ ?r\gh _! repres5tatives4 ,footnote #fd3 ,prop]ty qualifications = suffrage are common 9 ,european c\ntries4 ,an absolute mon>*y is "o 9 :i* ! au?ority ( ! rul] is n held 9 *eck by a con/itution or by a body ( m5 elect$ by ! p4 ,no civiliz$ c\ntry n[ has ?is =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,until rec5tly !re exi/$ 9 ,europe two absolute mon>*ies--,russia & ,turkey4 ,! ,cab9et ,sy/em ( ,gov]nm5t4--,9 ! relations exi/+ betwe5 _! legislative & executive dep>tm5ts1 ! ,european gov]nm5ts diff] consid]ably f t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,9 our gov]nm5t we f9d1 9 !ory at lea/1 t ^! dep>tm5ts are sep>at$2 9 ! ,european gov]nm5ts !re is a close relation ( ! legislative & executive bran*es1 ?r\gh "s =m ( cab9et responsibility4 ,?is cab9et sy/em ( gov]nm5t is f\nd 9 ! republics z well z 9 ! con/itutional mon>*ies ( ,europe1 & 9 ! self-gov]n+ ,briti% possessions1 su* z ,canada & ! ,au/ralian colonies4#fg ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! congressional & ! cab9et sy/ems is great] 9 appe>ance ?an 9 reality2 = 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ! ,presid5t & 8 ,cab9et ex]t consid]able influ5ce ^u legislation4 ,,engl& ,,g]many ,mon>*--h]$it>y 9 ! ,emp]or--h]$it>y l9e fix$ by ,p>liam5t ,k+ ( ,prussia ,cab9et ,m9i/ry ,n9ete5 memb]s#fe *os5 by ,eight m9i/]s1 ,*ancellor at ! ,prime m9i/] ! head1 appo9t$ by ! ,emp]or ,p>liam5t ,p>liam5t ,limit ( t]m1 sev5 ye>s ,t]m1 five ye>s ,h\se ( ,lords ,bundesra? or ,g5]al ,c\ncil #ehf memb]s1 hold+ seats #eh memb]s appo9t$ by ! 7#a7 by h]$ity1 7#b7 by ,g]man ,/ates appo9tm5t by cr[n1 7#c7 by election#ff ,h\se ( ,commons ,rei*/ag or ,diet ( ! ,realm #fgj memb]s elect$ by ! #cig memb]s elect$ by ! p ( ,engl&1 ,scotl&1 p & ,irel& ,footnote #fe3 ,! numb] ( memb]s 9 ! m9i/ries ( ,engl& & ,g]many v>ies4 ,footnote #ff3 ,iri% pe]s are elect$ = life1 & ,scotti% pe]s are elect$ = ! duration ( a ,p>liam5t4 ,footnote #fg3 ,?is sy/em f9ds its be/ illu/ration 9 ! ,engli% gov]nm5t1 ( :i* a brief description w be f\nd 9 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 pp4 #aeg-afj4 ,= ref]5ces1 see que/ions #ad & #ae1 p4 #afa4 ,! ,=m & ! ,_s ( ,gov]nm5t4--,! /udy ( o!r gov]nm5ts & ! comp>ison ( !m ) our own w tea* u t ! virtue ( a gov]nm5t resides1 n 9 its framework1 b 9 its _s4 ,a gov]nm5t may be mon>*ical 9 =m & republican 9 its practical work+s4 ,9 ,engl&1 & 9 o!rs ( ! ,european mon>*ies1 ! w ( ! p is ! law ( ! l&4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a gov]nm5t may be republican 9 =m1 & v unrepublican 9 its me?ods ( op]ation4 ,!re are cities & ,/ates 9 our c\ntry :]e "o man1 ! political boss1 or a gr\p ( m51 ! political ma*9e1 dictates ! c\rse ( legislation & controls ! adm9i/ration ( ! law4 ,"h we f9d1 9 reality1 n republican gov]nm5ts1 b despotisms or olig>*ies4 ,! f9al te/ ( a gov]nm5t is f\nd 9 ! responsiv5ess ( ! gov]n+ au?orities to ! w ( ! majority ( ! p4 ,:]ev] republican in/itutions are f\nd1 :e!r 9 republics or 9 mon>*ies1 ! p may rule if !y w4 ,mon>*ical & ari/ocratic in/itutions d n 9 our "t /& long 9 opposition to a det]m9$ public op9ion2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 a framework ( republican in/itutions w n insure ! execution ( ! popul> w4 ,?is c only be secur$ :]e high-m9d$ citiz5s are vigilant 9 ! p]=mance ( _! political duties4 ,,supplem5t>y ,,que/ions ,,& ,,ref]5ces4 #a4 ,! relations ( nations are gov]n$ by ! rules ( int]national law4 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 #cja-cjc4 #b4 ,:at progress has be5 made 9 ! direction ( settl+ disputes betwe5 nations by arbitration in/ead ( by w>8 ,gov]nm5t 9 ,/ate & ,nation1 #cjd-cjf4 ,,app5dix ,a4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,con/itution ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,( ,,am]ica4 ,we ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ord] to =m a m p]fect union1 e/abli% ju/ice1 insure dome/ic tranquility1 provide = ! common def5se1 promote ! g5]al welf>e1 & secure ! bless+s ( lib]ty to ourselves & our po/]ity1 d orda9 & e/abli% ?is ,,con/itution = ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,,article ,i4 ,,section ,i4 ,all legislative p[]s h]e9 grant$ %all be ve/$ 9 a ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* %all consi/ ( a ,s5ate & a ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all be compos$ ( memb]s *os5 e second ye> by ! p ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 & ! electors 9 ea* ,/ate %all h ! qualifications requisite = electors ( ! mo/ num]\s bran* ( ! ,/ate ,legislature4 #b4 ,no p]son %all be a ,repres5tative :o %all n h atta9$ to ! age ( tw5ty-five ye>s1 & be5 sev5 ye>s a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :o %all n1 :5 elect$1 be an inhabitant ( t ,/ate 9 :i* he %all be *os54 #c4 ,repres5tatives & direct taxes %all be apportion$ among ! sev]al ,/ates :i* may be includ$ )9 ?is ,union1 accord+ to _! respective numb]s1 :i* %all be det]m9$ by add+ to ! :ole numb] ( free p]sons1 includ+ ^? b\nd to s]vice = a t]m ( ye>s1 & exclud+ ,indians n tax$1 ?ree fif?s ( all o!r p]sons4 ,! actual enum]ation %all be made )9 ?ree ye>s aft] ! fir/ meet+ ( ! ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & )9 e subsequ5t t]m ( t5 ye>s1 9 su* mann] z !y %all by law direct4 ,! numb] ( ,repres5tatives %all n exce$ "o = e ?irty ?\s&1 b ea* ,/ate %all h at lea/ "o repres5tative2 & until su* enum]ation %all be made1 ! ,/ate ( ,new ,hamp%ire %all be entitl$ to *oose ?ree1 ,massa*usetts eight1 ,rhode ,isl& & ,provid5ce ,plantations "o1 ,connecticut five1 ,new ,york six1 ,new ,j]sey f\r1 ,p5nsylvania eight1 ,delaw>e "o1 ,m>yl& six1 ,virg9ia t51 ,nor? ,c>ol9a five1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a five1 & ,georgia ?ree4 #d4 ,:5 vacancies happ5 9 ! repres5tation f any ,/ate1 ! ,executive au?ority !re( %all issue writs ( election to fill su* vacancies4 #e4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all *oose _! ,speak] & o!r (fic]s2 & %all h ! sole p[] ( impea*m5t4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 #a4 ,! ,s5ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be compos$ ( two ,s5ators f ea* ,/ate1 *os5 by ! legislature !re(1 = six ye>s2 & ea* ,s5ator %all h "o vote4 7,see ,am5dm5t ,,xvii47 #b4 ,imm$iately aft] !y %all be assembl$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! fir/ election1 !y %all be divid$ z equally z may be into ?ree classes4 ,! seats ( ! ,s5ators ( ! fir/ class %all be vacat$ at ! expiration ( ! second ye>1 ( ! second class at ! expiration ( ! f\r? ye>1 & ( ! ?ird class at ! expiration ( ! six? ye>1 s t "o ?ird may be *os5 e second ye>2 & if vacancies happ5 by resignation or o!rwise1 dur+ ! recess ( ! legislature ( any ,/ate1 ! ,executive !re( may make tempor>y appo9tm5ts until ! next meet+ ( ! legislature1 :i* %all !n fill su* vacancies4 7,see ,am5dm5t ,,xvii47 #c4 ,no p]son %all be a ,s5ator :o %all n h atta9$ to ! age ( ?irty ye>s1 & be5 n9e ye>s a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & :o %all n1 :5 elect$1 be an inhabitant ( t ,/ate = :i* he %all be *os54 #d4 ,! ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate1 b %all h no vote1 unless !y be equally divid$4 #e4 ,! ,s5ate %all *oose _! o!r (fic]s1 & also a ,presid5t pro tempore1 9 ! abs5ce ( ! ,vice-,presid5t1 or :5 he %all ex]cise ! (fice ( ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #f4 ,! ,s5ate %all h ! sole p[] to try all impea*m5ts4 ,:5 sitt+ = t purpose1 !y %all be on oa? or affirmation4 ,:5 ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates is tri$1 ! ,*ief ,ju/ice %all preside3 & no p]son %all be convict$ )\t ! concurr5ce ( two ?irds ( ! memb]s pres5t4 #g4 ,judgm5t 9 cases ( impea*m5t %all n ext5d fur!r ?an to removal f (fice1 & disqualification to hold & enjoy any (fice ( honor1 tru/ or pr(it "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 b ! p>ty convict$ %all nev]!less be liable & subject to indictm5t1 trial1 judgm5t & puni%m5t1 accord+ to law4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4 #a4 ,! times1 places & mann] ( hold+ elections = ,s5ators & ,repres5tatives %all be prescrib$ 9 ea* ,/ate by ! legislature !re(2 b ! ,congress may at any "t by law make or alt] su* regulations1 except z to ! places ( *oos+ ,s5ators4 7,see ,am5dm5t ,,xvii47 #b4 ,! ,congress %all assemble at lea/ once 9 e ye>1 & su* meet+ %all be on ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,decemb]1 unless !y %all by law appo9t a diff]5t day4 ,,sect4 ,v4 #a4 ,ea* h\se %all be ! judge ( ! elections1 returns & qualifications ( its own memb]s1 & a majority ( ea* %all con/itute a quorum to d bus9ess2 b a small] numb] may adj\rn f day to day1 & may be au?oriz$ to compel ! att5dance ( abs5t memb]s1 9 su* mann]1 & "u su* p5alties1 z ea* h\se may provide4 #b4 ,ea* h\se may det]m9e ! rules ( its proce$+s1 puni% its memb]s = disord]ly behavior1 & ) ! concurr5ce ( two ?irds1 expel a memb]4 #c4 ,ea* h\se %all keep a j\rnal ( its proce$+s1 & f "t to "t publi% ! same1 except+ su* p>ts z may 9 _! judgm5t require secrecy2 & ! yeas & nays ( ! memb]s ( ei!r h\se on any "q %all1 at ! desire ( "o fif? ( ^? pres5t1 be ent]$ on ! j\rnal4 #d4 ,nei!r h\se1 dur+ ! session ( ,congress1 %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! o!r1 adj\rn = m ?an ?ree days1 nor to any o!r place ?an t 9 :i* ! two h\ses %all be sitt+4 ,,sect4 ,,vi4 #a4 ,! ,s5ators & ,repres5tatives %all receive a comp5sation = _! s]vices1 to be asc]ta9$ by law & paid out ( ! treasury ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,!y %all 9 all cases except treason1 felony & brea* ( ! peace1 be privileg$ f arre/ dur+ _! att5dance at ! session ( _! respective h\ses1 & 9 go+ to & return+ f ! same2 & = any spee* or debate 9 ei!r h\se1 !y %all n be que/ion$ 9 any o!r place4 #b4 ,no ,s5ator or ,repres5tative %all1 dur+ ! "t = :i* he 0 elect$1 be appo9t$ to any civil (fice "u ! au?ority ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* %all h be5 creat$1 or ! emolum5ts :]e( %all h be5 increas$1 dur+ su* "t2 & no p]son hold+ any (fice "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be a memb] ( ei!r h\se dur+ 8 cont9uance 9 (fice4 ,,sect4 ,,vii4 #a4 ,all bills = rais+ rev5ue %all orig9ate 9 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives2 b ! ,s5ate may propose or concur ) am5dm5ts z on o!r bills4 #b4 ,e bill :i* %all h pass$ ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives & ! ,s5ate1 %all1 be=e x become a law1 be pres5t$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 if he approve he %all sign x1 b if n he %all return x ) 8 objections to t h\se 9 :i* x %all h orig9at$1 :o %all ent] ! objections at l>ge on _! j\rnal1 & proce$ to reconsid] x4 ,if aft] su* reconsid]ation two ?irds ( t h\se %all agree to pass ! bill1 x %all be s5t1 toge!r ) ! objections1 to ! o!r h\se1 by :i* x %all likewise be reconsid]$1 &1 if approv$ by two ?irds ( t h\se1 x %all become a law4 ,b 9 all su* cases ! votes ( bo? h\ses %all be det]m9$ by yeas & nays1 & ! names ( ! p]sons vot+ = & aga9/ ! bill %all be ent]$ on ! j\rnal ( ea* h\se respectively4 ,if any bill %all n be return$ by ! ,presid5t )9 t5 days 7,sundays except$7 aft] x %all h be5 pres5t$ to him1 ! same %all be a law1 9 l mann] z if he _h sign$ x1 unless ! ,congress by _! adj\rnm5t prev5t its return1 9 :i* case x %all n be a law4 #c4 ,e ord]1 resolution1 or vote to :i* ! concurr5ce ( ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives may be necess>y 7except on a "q ( adj\rnm5t7 %all be pres5t$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & be=e ! same %all take effect1 %all be approv$ by him1 or be+ disapprov$ by him1 %all be repass$ by two ?irds ( ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 accord+ to ! rules & limitations prescrib$ 9 ! case ( a bill4 ,,sect4 ,,viii4 ,! ,congress %all h p[]3 #a4 ,to lay & collect taxes1 duties1 impo/s1 & excises1 to pay ! debts & provide = ! common def5se & g5]al welf>e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 b all duties1 impo/s & excises %all be uni=m ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 #b4 ,to borr[ money on ! cr$it ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 #c4 ,to regulate comm]ce ) =eign nations1 & among ! sev]al ,/ates1 & ) ! ,indian tribes2 #d4 ,to e/abli% an uni=m rule ( naturalization1 & uni=m laws on ! subject ( bankruptcies ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 #e4 ,to co9 money1 regulate ! value !re(1 & ( =eign co91 & fix ! /&>d ( weights & measures2 #f4 ,to provide = ! puni%m5t ( c\nt]feit+ ! securities & curr5t co9 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 #g4 ,to e/abli% po/ (fices & po/ roads2 #h4 ,to promote ! progress ( sci5ce & useful arts by secur+ = limit$ times to au?ors & inv5tors ! exclusive "r to _! respective writ+s & discov]ies2 #i4 ,to con/itute tribunals inf]ior to ! ,supreme ,c\rt2 #aj4 ,to def9e & puni% piracies & felonies committ$ on ! high seas & (f5ces aga9/ ! law ( nations2 #aa4 ,to decl>e w>1 grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal1 & make rules conc]n+ captures on l& & wat]2 #ab4 ,to raise & support armies1 b no appropriation ( money to t use %all be = a long] t]m ?an two ye>s2 #ac4 ,to provide & ma9ta9 a navy2 #ad4 ,to make rules = ! gov]nm5t & regulation ( ! l& & naval =ces2 #ae4 ,to provide = call+ =? ! militia to execute ! laws ( ! ,union1 suppress insurrections1 & repel invasions2 #af4 ,to provide = organiz+1 arm+ & discipl9+ ! militia1 & = gov]n+ su* "p ( !m z may be employ$ 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 res]v+ to ! ,/ates respectively ! appo9tm5t ( ! (fic]s1 & ! au?ority ( tra9+ ! militia accord+ to ! discipl9e prescrib$ by ,congress2 #ag4 ,to ex]cise exclusive legislation 9 all cases :atsoev]1 ov] su* di/rict 7n exce$+ t5 miles squ>e7 z may1 by cession ( p>ticul> ,/ates1 & ! acceptance ( ,congress1 become ! seat ( gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & to ex]cise l au?ority ov] all places pur*as$ by ! cons5t ( ! legislature ( ! ,/ate1 9 :i* ! same %all be1 = ! erection ( =ts1 magaz9es1 ars5als1 docky>ds1 & o!r ne$ful build+s2--& #ah4 ,to make all laws :i* %all be necess>y & prop] = c>ry+ into execution ! =ego+ p[]s1 & all o!r p[]s ve/$ by ?is ,con/itution 9 ! gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or 9 any dep>tm5t or (fice !re(4 ,,sect4 ,,ix4 #a4 ,! migration or importation ( su* p]sons z any ( ! ,/ates n[ exi/+ %all ?9k prop] to admit %all n be prohibit$ by ! ,congress prior to ! ye> "o ?\s& eight hundr$ & eight2 b a tax or duty may be impos$ on su* importation1 n exce$+ t5 doll>s = ea* p]son4 #b4 ,! privilege ( ! writ ( habeas corpus %all n be susp5d$1 unless :5 9 cases ( rebellion or invasion ! public safety may require x4 #c4 ,no bill ( atta9d] or ex po/ facto law %all be pass$4 #d4 ,no capitation1 or o!r direct1 tax %all be laid1 unless 9 proportion to ! c5sus or enum]ation h]e9be=e direct$ to be tak54 #e4 ,no tax or duty %all be laid on articles export$ f any ,/ate4 #f4 ,no pref]5ce %all be giv5 by any regulation ( comm]ce or rev5ue to ! ports ( "o ,/ate ov] ^? ( ano!r3 nor %all vessels b\nd to1 or f1 "o ,/ate1 be oblig$ to ent]1 cle>1 or pay duties 9 ano!r4 #g4 ,no money %all be drawn f ! treasury1 b 9 consequ5ce ( appropriations made by law2 & a regul> /atem5t & acc\nt ( ! receipts & exp5ditures ( all public money %all be publi%$ f "t to "t4 #h4 ,no title ( nobility %all be grant$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates3 & no p]son hold+ any (fice ( pr(it or tru/ "u !m1 %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! ,congress1 accept ( any pres5t1 emolum5t1 (fice1 or title1 ( any k9d :atev]1 f any k+1 pr9ce1 or =eign /ate4 ,,sect4 ,x4 #a4 ,no ,/ate %all ent] into any treaty1 alliance1 or conf$]ation2 grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal2 co9 money2 emit bills ( cr$it2 make any?+ b gold & silv] co9 a t5d] 9 paym5t ( debts2 pass any bill ( atta9d]1 ex po/ facto law1 or law impair+ ! obligation ( contracts1 or grant any title ( nobility4 #b4 ,no ,/ate %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! ,congress1 lay any impo/s or duties on imports or exports1 except :at may be absolutely necess>y = execut+ its inspection laws3 & ! net produce ( all duties & impo/s1 laid by any ,/ate on imports or exports1 %all be = ! use ( ! treasury ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & all su* laws %all be subject to ! revision & control ( ! ,congress4 #d ,no ,/ate %all1 )\t ! cons5t ( ,congress1 lay any duty ( tonnage1 keep troops1 or %ips ( w> 9 "t ( peace1 ent] into any agreem5t or compact ) ano!r ,/ate1 or ) a =eign p[]1 or engage 9 w>1 unless actually invad$1 or 9 su* imm95t dang] z w n admit ( delay4 ,,article ,,ii4 ,,section ,i4 #a4 ,! executive p[] %all be ve/$ 9 a ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,he %all hold 8 (fice dur+ ! t]m ( f\r ye>s1 & toge!r ) ! ,vice-,presid5t1 *os5 = ! same t]m1 be elect$ z foll[s3 #b4 ,ea* ,/ate %all appo9t1 9 su* mann] z ! legislature !re( may direct1 a numb] ( electors1 equal to ! :ole numb] ( ,s5ators & ,repres5tatives to :i* ! ,/ate may be entitl$ 9 ! ,congress2 b no ,s5ator or ,repres5tative1 or p]son hold+ an (fice ( tru/ or pr(it "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be appo9t$ an elector4 ,! electors %all meet 9 _! respective ,/ates1 & vote by ballot = two p]sons1 ( :om "o at lea/ %all n be an inhabitant ( ! same ,/ate ) !mselves4 ,& !y %all make a li/ ( all ! p]sons vot$ =1 & ( ! numb] ( votes = ea*2 :i* li/ !y %all sign & c]tify1 & transmit seal$ to ! seat ( gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 direct$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate4 ,! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate %all1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 op5 all ! c]tificates1 & ! votes %all !n be c\nt$4 ,! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes %all be ! ,presid5t1 if su* numb] be a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( electors appo9t$2 & if !re be m ?an "o :o h su* majority1 & h an equal numb] ( votes1 !n ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all imm$iately *oose by ballot "o ( !m = ,presid5t2 & if no p]son h a majority1 !n f ! five highe/ on ! li/ ! said h\se %all 9 l mann] *oose ! ,presid5t4 ,b 9 *oos+ ! ,presid5t ! votes %all be tak5 by ,/ates1 ! repres5tation f ea* ,/ate hav+ "o vote2 a quorum = ?is purpose %all consi/ ( a memb] or memb]s f two ?irds ( ! ,/ates1 & a majority ( all ! ,/ates %all be necess>y to a *oice4 ,9 e case1 aft] ! *oice ( ! ,presid5t1 ! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes ( ! electors %all be ! ,vice-,presid5t4 ,b if !re %\ld rema9 two or m :o h equal votes1 ! ,s5ate %all *oose f !m by ballot ! ,vice-,presid5t4 #c4 ,! ,congress may det]m9e ! "t ( *oos+ ! electors1 & ! day on :i* !y %all give _! votes2 :i* day %all be ! same ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #d4 ,no p]son except a natural born citiz51 or a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 at ! "t ( ! adoption ( ?is ,con/itution1 %all be eligible to ! (fice ( ,presid5t2 nei!r %all any p]son be eligible to t (fice :o %all n h atta9$ to ! age ( ?irty-five ye>s1 & be5 f\rte5 ye>s a resid5t )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 #e4 ,9 case ( ! removal ( ! ,presid5t f (fice or ( 8 dea?1 resignation1 or inability to dis*>ge ! p[]s & duties ( ! said (fice1 ! same %all devolve on ! ,vice-,presid5t1 & ! ,congress may by law provide = ! case ( removal1 dea?1 resignation1 or inability1 bo? ( ! ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 decl>+ :at (fic] %all !n act z ,presid5t1 & su* (fic] %all act accord+ly1 until ! disability be remov$1 or a ,presid5t %all be elect$4 #f4 ,! ,presid5t %all1 at /at$ times1 receive = 8 s]vices1 a comp5sation1 :i* %all nei!r be increas$ nor dim9i%$ dur+ ! p]iod = :i* he %all h be5 elect$1 & he %all n receive )9 t p]iod any o!r emolum5t f ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any ( !m4 #g4 ,be=e he ent] on ! execution ( 8 (fice1 he %all take ! foll[+ oa? or affirmation3--,i d solemnly swe> 7or affirm7 t ,i w fai?fully execute ! (fice ( ,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & w to ! be/ ( my ability1 pres]ve1 protect & def5d ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,! ,presid5t %all be comm&] 9 *ief ( ! army & navy ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & ( ! militia ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 :5 call$ into ! actual s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 he may require ! op9ion1 9 writ+1 ( ! pr9cipal (fic] 9 ea* ( ! executive dep>tm5ts1 ^u any subject relat+ to ! duties ( _! respective (fices1 & he %all h p[] to grant reprieves & p>dons = (f5ses aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 except 9 cases ( impea*m5t4 #b4 ,he %all h p[]1 by & ) ! advice & cons5t ( ! ,s5ate1 to make treaties1 provid$ two ?irds ( ! ,s5ators pres5t concur2 & he %all nom9ate1 & by & ) ! advice & cons5t ( ! ,s5ate1 %all appo9t ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s & consuls1 judges ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt1 & all o!r (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ^: appo9tm5ts are n h]e9 o!rwise provid$ =1 & :i* %all be e/abli%$ by law3 b ! ,congress may by law ve/ ! appo9tm5t ( su* inf]ior (fic]s1 z !y ?9k prop]1 9 ! ,presid5t alone1 9 ! c\rts ( law1 or 9 ! heads ( dep>tm5ts4 #c4 ,! ,presid5t %all h p[] to fill up all vacancies t may happ5 dur+ ! recess ( ! ,s5ate1 by grant+ commissions :i* %all expire at ! end ( _! next session4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 ,he %all f "t to "t give to ! ,congress in=mation ( ! /ate ( ! ,union1 & recomm5d to _! consid]ation su* measures z he %all judge necess>y & exp$i5t2 he may1 on extraord9>y occasions1 conv5e bo? h\ses1 or ei!r ( !m1 & 9 case ( disagreem5t betwe5 !m1 ) respect to ! "t ( adj\rnm5t1 he may adj\rn !m to su* "t z he %all ?9k prop]2 he %all receive ambassadors & o!r public m9i/]s2 he %all take c>e t ! laws be fai?fully execut$1 & %all commission all ! (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4 ,! ,presid5t1 ,vice-,presid5t & all civil (fic]s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be remov$ f (fice on impea*m5t =1 & conviction (1 treason1 brib]y1 or o!r high crimes & misdemeanors4 ,,article ,,iii4 ,,section ,i4 ,! judicial p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be ve/$ 9 "o ,supreme ,c\rt1 & 9 su* inf]ior c\rts z ,congress may f "t to "t orda9 & e/abli%4 ,! judges1 bo? ( ! ,supreme & inf]ior c\rts1 %all hold _! (fices dur+ good behavior1 & %all1 at /at$ times1 receive = _! s]vices1 a comp5sation1 :i* %all n be dim9i%$ dur+ _! cont9uance 9 (fice4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,! judicial p[] %all ext5d to all cases1 9 law & equity1 aris+ "u ?is ,con/itution1 ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & treaties made or :i* %all be made1 "u _! au?ority2--to all cases affect+ ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s & consuls2--to all cases ( admiralty jurisdiction2--to controv]sies to :i* ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be a p>ty2--to controv]sies betwe5 two or m ,/ates2--betwe5 a ,/ate & citiz5s ( ano!r ,/ate2--betwe5 citiz5s ( diff]5t ,/ates2--betwe5 citiz5s ( ! same ,/ate claim+ l&s "u grants ( diff]5t ,/ates1 & betwe5 a ,/ate1 or ! citiz5s !re(1 & =eign /ates1 citiz5s or subjects4 #b4 ,9 all cases affect+ ambassadors1 o!r public m9i/]s & consuls1 & ^? 9 :i* a ,/ate %all be a p>ty1 ! ,supreme ,c\rt %all h orig9al jurisdiction4 ,9 all ! o!r cases be=e m5tion$1 ! ,supreme ,c\rt %all h appellate jurisdiction1 bo? z to law & fact1 ) su* exceptions1 & "u su* regulations z ! ,congress %all make4 #c4 ,! trial ( all crimes1 except 9 cases ( impea*m5t1 %all be by jury2 & su* trial %all be held 9 ! ,/ate :]e ! said crimes %all h be5 committ$2 b :5 n committ$ )9 any ,/ate1 ! trial %all be at su* place or places z ! ,congress may by law h direct$4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 #a4 ,treason aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all consi/ only 9 levy+ w> aga9/ !m1 or 9 adh]+ to _! enemies1 giv+ !m aid & com=t4 ,no p]son %all be convict$ ( treason unless on ! te/imony ( two witnesses to ! same ov]t act1 or on confession 9 op5 c\rt4 #b4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to decl>e ! puni%m5t ( treason1 b no atta9d] ( treason %all "w corruption ( blood1 or =feiture except dur+ ! life ( ! p]son atta9t$4 ,,article ,,iv4 ,,section ,i4 ,full fai? & cr$it %all be giv5 9 ea* ,/ate to ! public acts1 records1 & judicial proce$+s ( e o!r ,/ate4 ,& ! ,congress may by g5]al laws prescribe ! mann] 9 :i* su* acts1 records1 & proce$+s %all be prov$1 & ! effect !re(4 ,,sect4 ,,ii4 #a4 ,! citiz5s ( ea* ,/ate %all be entitl$ to all privileges & immunities ( citiz5s 9 ! sev]al ,/ates4 #b4 ,a p]son *>g$ 9 any ,/ate ) treason1 felony1 or o!r crime1 :o %all flee f ju/ice1 & be f\nd 9 ano!r ,/ate1 %all on dem& ( ! executive au?ority ( ! ,/ate f :i* he fl$1 be deliv]$ up1 to be remov$ to ! ,/ate hav+ jurisdiction ( ! crime4 #c4 ,no p]son held to s]vice or labor 9 "o ,/ate1 "u ! laws !re(1 escap+ into ano!r1 %all1 9 consequ5ce ( any law or regulation !re91 be dis*>g$ f su* s]vice or labor1 b %all be deliv]$ up on claim ( ! p>ty to :om su* s]vice or labor may be due4 ,,sect4 ,,iii4 #a4 ,new ,/ates may be admitt$ by ! ,congress into ?is ,union2 b no new ,/ate %all be =m$ or erect$ )9 ! jurisdiction ( any o!r ,/ate2 nor any ,/ate be =m$ by ! junction ( two or m ,/ates1 or p>ts ( ,/ates1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! legislatures ( ! ,/ates conc]n$ z well z ( ! ,congress4 #b4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to dispose ( & make all ne$ful rules & regulations respect+ ! t]ritory or o!r prop]ty belong+ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & no?+ 9 ?is ,con/itution %all be s con/ru$ z to prejudice any claims ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or ( any p>ticul> ,/ate4 ,,sect4 ,,iv4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates %all gu>antee to e ,/ate 9 ?is ,union a republican =m ( gov]nm5t1 & %all protect ea* ( !m aga9/ invasion2 & on application ( ! legislature1 or ( ! executive 7:5 ! legislature _c be conv5$7 aga9/ dome/ic viol5ce4 ,,article ,v4 ,! ,congress1 :5ev] two ?irds ( bo? h\ses %all deem x necess>y1 %all propose am5dm5ts to ?is ,con/itution1 or1 on ! application ( ! legislatures ( two ?irds ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 %all call a conv5tion = propos+ am5dm5ts1 :i* 9 ei!r case %all be valid to all int5ts & purposes1 z "p ( ?is ,con/itution1 :5 ratifi$ by ! legislatures ( ?ree f\r?s ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 or by conv5tions 9 ?ree f\r?s !re(1 z ! "o or ! o!r mode ( ratification may be propos$ by ! ,congress2 provid$ t no am5dm5ts :i* may be made prior to ! ye> "o ?\s& eight hundr$ & eight %all 9 any mann] affect ! fir/ & f\r? clauses 9 ! n9? section ( ! fir/ article2 & t no ,/ate1 )\t its cons5t1 %all be depriv$ ( its equal suffrage 9 ! ,s5ate4 ,,article ,,vi4 #a4 ,all debts contract$ & engagem5ts ent]$ into1 be=e ! adoption ( ?is ,con/itution1 %all be z valid aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates "u ?is ,con/itution1 z "u ! ,conf$]ation4 #b4 ,?is ,con/itution1 & ! laws ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates :i* %all be made 9 pursuance !re(2 & all treaties made1 or :i* %all be made1 "u ! au?ority ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all be ! supreme law ( ! l&2 & ! judges 9 e ,/ate %all be b\nd !reby1 any?+ 9 ! ,con/itution or laws ( any ,/ate to ! contr>y not)/&+4 #c4 ,! ,s5ators & ,repres5tatives be=e m5tion$1 & ! memb]s ( ! sev]al ,/ate legislatures1 & all executive & judicial (fic]s1 bo? ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 %all be b\nd by oa? or affirmation1 to support ?is ,con/itution2 b no religi\s te/ %all ev] be requir$ z a qualification to any (fice or public tru/ "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,article ,,vii4 ,! ratification ( ! conv5tions ( n9e ,/ates1 %all be suffici5t = ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is ,con/itution betwe5 ! ,/ates s ratify+ ! same4 ,done 9 ,conv5tion by ! unanim\s cons5t ( ! ,/ates pres5t1 ! sev5te5? day ( ,septemb] 9 ! ye> ( our ,"l "o ?\s& sev5 hundr$ & eighty-sev5 & ( ! ,indep5d5ce ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica ! twelf?4 ,9 witness :]e( we h h]eunto subscrib$ our names4 ,sign$ by ,george ,,wa%+ton1 ,presidt & ,deputy f ,virg9ia4 ,,new ,,hamp%ire4 ,john ,langdon1 ,ni*olas ,gilman4 ,,massa*usetts4 ,na?aniel ,gorham1 ,rufus ,k+4 ,,connecticut4 ,wm4 ,saml4 ,johnson1 ,rog] ,%]man4 ,,new ,,york4 ,alex&] ,hamilton4 ,,new ,,j]sey4 ,wil3 ,liv+/on1 ,david ,bre>ley1 ,wm3 ,pat]son1 ,jona3 ,dayton4 ,,p5nsylvania ,b ,frankl91 ,?omas ,miffl91 ,robt4 ,morris1 ,geo4 ,clym]1 ,?o4 ,fitz ,simons1 ,j>$ ,+]soll1 ,james ,wilson1 ,g\v ,morris4 ,,delaw>e4 ,geo3 ,read1 ,gunn+ ,b$=d1 ,jun1 ,john ,dick9son1 ,ri*>d ,bassett1 ,jaco3 ,broom4 ,,m>yl&4 ,james ,mc,henry1 ,dan ( ,/4 ,?os ,j5if]1 ,danl ,c>roll4 ,,virg9ia4 ,john ,blair1 ,james ,madison1 ,jr4 ,,nor? ,,c>ol9a4 ,wm4 ,bl\nt1 ,ri*d4 ,dobbs ,spaight1 ,hu ,williamson4 ,,s\? ,,c>ol9a4 ,j4 ,rutl$ge1 ,*>les ,coteswor? ,p9ckney1 ,*>les ,p9ckney1 ,pi]ce ,butl]4 ,,georgia4 ,william ,few1 ,abr4 ,baldw94 ,atte/3 ,william ,jackson1 ,secret>y4 ,,articles ,,9 ,,addition ,,to ,,& ,,am5dm5t ,,( ,,! ,,con/itution ,,( ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates ,,( ,,am]ica1 ,,propos$ ,,by ,,congress1 ,,& ,,ratifi$ ,,by ,,! ,,legislatures ,,( ,,! ,,sev]al ,,/ates1 ,,pursuant ,,to ,,! ,,fif? ,,article ,,( ,,! ,,orig9al ,,con/itution4 ,,article ,i4--,congress %all make no law respect+ an e/abli%m5t ( religion1 or prohibit+ ! free ex]cise !re(2 or abridg+ ! fre$om ( spee*1 or ( ! press2 or ! "r ( ! p peaceably to assemble & to petition ! gov]nm5t = a r$ress ( grievances4 ,,article ,,ii4--,a well-regulat$ militia1 be+ necess>y to ! security ( a free ,/ate1 ! "r ( ! p to keep & be> arms1 %all n be infr+$4 ,,article ,,iii4--,no soldi] %all1 9 "t ( peace be qu>t]$ 9 any h\se )\t ! cons5t ( ! own]1 nor 9 "t ( w>1 b 9 a mann] to be prescrib$ by law4 ,,article ,,iv4--,! "r ( ! p to be secure 9 _! p]sons1 h\ses1 pap]s1 & effects1 aga9/ unreasonable se>*es & seizures1 %all n be violat$1 & no w>rants %all issue b ^u probable cause1 support$ by oa? or affirmation1 & p>ticul>ly describ+ ! place to be se>*$1 & ! p]sons or ?+s to be seiz$4 ,,article ,v4--,no p]son %all be held to answ] = a capital1 or o!rwise infam\s crime1 unless on a pres5tm5t or indictm5t ( a gr& jury except 9 cases aris+ 9 ! l& or naval =ces1 or 9 ! militia1 :5 9 actual s]vice 9 "t ( w> or public dang]2 nor %all any p]son be subject = ! same (f5se to be twice put 9 jeop>dy ( life or limb2 nor %all be compell$ 9 any crim9al case to be a witness aga9/ himself1 nor be depriv$ ( life1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty1 )\t due process ( law2 nor %all private prop]ty be tak5 = public use )\t j comp5sation4 ,,article ,,vi4--,9 all crim9al prosecutions ! accus$ %all enjoy ! "r to a spe$y & public trial1 by an imp>tial jury ( ! ,/ate & di/rict :]e9 ! crime %all h be5 committ$1 :i* di/rict %all h be5 previ\sly asc]ta9$ by law1 & to be in=m$ ( ! nature & cause ( ! accusation2 to be confront$ ) ! witnesses aga9/ him2 to h compulsory process = obta9+ witnesses 9 8 favor1 & to h ! assi/ance ( c\nsel = 8 def5se4 ,,article ,,vii4--,9 suits at common law1 :]e ! value 9 controv]sy %all exce$ tw5ty doll>s1 ! "r ( trial by jury %all be pres]v$1 & no fact tri$ by a jury %all be o!rwise reexam9$ 9 any c\rt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ?an accord+ to ! rules ( ! common law4 ,,article ,,viii4--,excessive bail %all n be requir$1 nor excessive f9es impos$1 nor cruel & unusual puni%m5ts inflict$4 ,,article ,,ix4--,! enum]ation 9 ! ,con/itution1 ( c]ta9 rights1 %all n be con/ru$ to d5y or disp>age o!rs reta9$ by ! p4 ,,article ,x4--,! p[]s n delegat$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates by ! ,con/itution1 nor prohibit$ by x to ! ,/ates1 are res]v$ to ! ,/ates respectively1 or to ! p4 ,,article ,,xi4--,! judicial p[] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all n be con/ru$ to ext5d to any suit 9 law or equity1 comm5c$ or prosecut$ aga9/ "o ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates by citiz5s ( ano!r ,/ate1 or by citiz5s or subjects ( any =eign /ate4 ,,article ,,xii4--#a4 ,! electors %all meet 9 _! respective ,/ates1 & vote by ballot = ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 "o ( :om1 at lea/1 %all n be an inhabitant ( ! same ,/ate ) !mselves2 !y %all "n 9 _! ballots ! p]son vot$ = z ,presid5t1 & 9 di/9ct ballots ! p]son vot$ = z ,vice-,presid5t1 & !y %all make di/9ct li/s ( all p]sons vot$ = z ,presid5t1 & ( all p]sons vot$ = z ,vice-,presid5t1 & ( ! numb] ( votes = ea*1 :i* li/s !y %all sign & c]tify1 & transmit seal$ to ! seat ( gov]nm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 direct$ to ! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate2--! ,presid5t ( ! ,s5ate %all1 9 ! pres5ce ( ! ,s5ate & ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 op5 all ! c]tificates & ! votes %all !n be c\nt$2--! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes = ,presid5t %all be ! ,presid5t1 if su* numb] be a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( electors appo9t$2 & if no p]son h su* majority1 !n f ! p]sons hav+ ! highe/ numb]s n exce$+ ?ree on ! li/ ( ^? vot$ = z ,presid5t1 ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all *oose imm$iately1 by ballot1 ! ,presid5t4 ,b 9 *oos+ ! ,presid5t1 ! votes %all be tak5 by ,/ates1 ! repres5tation f ea* ,/ate hav+ "o vote2 a quorum = ?is purpose %all consi/ ( a memb] or memb]s f two ?irds ( ! ,/ates1 & a majority ( all ! ,/ates %all be necess>y to a *oice4 ,& if ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives %all n *oose a ,presid5t :5ev] ! "r ( *oice %all devolve ^u !m1 be=e ! f\r? day ( ,m>* next foll[+1 !n ! ,vice-,presid5t %all act z ,presid5t1 z 9 ! case ( ! dea? or o!r con/itutional disability ( ! ,presid5t4--,! p]son hav+ ! greate/ numb] ( votes z ,vice-,presid5t1 %all be ! ,vice-,presid5t1 if su* numb] be a majority ( ! :ole numb] ( electors appo9t$1 & if no p]son h a majority1 !n f ! two highe/ numb]s on ! li/1 ! ,s5ate %all *oose ! ,vice-,presid5t2 a quorum = ! purpose %all consi/ ( two ?irds ( ! :ole numb] ( ,s5ators1 & a majority ( ! :ole numb] %all be necess>y to a *oice4 ,b no p]son con/itutionally ineligible to ! (fice ( ,presid5t %all be eligible to t ( ,vice-presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,,article ,,xiii4--,section #a4 ,nei!r slav]y nor involunt>y s]vitude1 except z a puni%m5t = crime :]e( ! p>ty %all h be5 duly convict$1 %all exi/ )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any place subject to _! jurisdiction4 ,section #b4 ,congress %all h p[] to en=ce ?is article by appropriate legislation4 ,,article ,,xiv4--,section #a4 ,all p]sons born or naturaliz$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & subject to ! jurisdiction !re(1 are citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ( ! ,/ate :]e9 !y reside4 ,no ,/ate %all make or en=ce any law :i* %all abridge ! privileges or immunities ( citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 nor %all any ,/ate deprive any p]son ( life1 lib]ty1 or prop]ty1 )\t due process ( law2 nor d5y to any p]son )9 its jurisdiction ! equal protection ( ! laws4 ,section #b4 ,repres5tatives %all be apportion$ among ! sev]al ,/ates accord+ to _! respective numb]s1 c\nt+ ! :ole numb] ( p]sons 9 ea* ,/ate1 exclud+ ,indians n tax$4 ,b :5 ! "r to vote at any election = ! *oice ( ,electors = ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,repres5tatives 9 ,congress1 ! executive & judicial (fic]s ( a ,/ate1 or ! memb]s ( ! legislature !re(1 is d5i$ to any ( ! male inhabitants ( su* ,/ate1 be+ tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age & citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or 9 any way abridg$1 except = p>ticipation 9 rebellion1 or o!r crime1 ! basis ( repres5tation !re9 %all be r$uc$ 9 ! proportion :i* ! numb] ( su* male citiz5s %all be> to ! :ole numb] ( male citiz5s tw5ty-"o ye>s ( age 9 su* ,/ate4 ,section #c4 ,no p]son %all be a ,s5ator or ,repres5tative 9 ,congress1 or ,elector ( ,presid5t & ,vice-,presid5t1 or hold any (fice1 civil or milit>y1 "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or "u any ,/ate1 :o1 hav+ previ\sly tak5 an oa?1 z a memb] ( ,congress1 or z an (fic] ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or z a memb] ( any ,/ate legislature1 or z an executive or judicial (fic] ( any ,/ate1 to support ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 %all h engag$ 9 insurrection or rebellion aga9/ ! same1 or giv5 aid or com=t to ! enemies !re(4 ,b ,congress may by a vote ( two ?irds ( ea* h\se1 remove su* disability4 ,section #d4 ,! validity ( ! public debt ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 au?oriz$ by law1 includ+ debts incurr$ = paym5t ( p5sions & b\nties = s]vices 9 suppress+ insurrection or rebellion1 %all n be que/ion$4 ,b nei!r ! ,unit$ ,/ates nor any ,/ate %all assume or pay any debt or obligation incurr$ 9 aid ( insurrection or rebellion aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any claim = ! loss or emancipation ( any slave2 b all su* debts1 obligations1 & claims %all be held illegal & void4 ,section #e4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to en=ce by appropriate legislation ! provisions ( ?is article4 ,,article ,,xv4--,section #a4 ,! "r ( citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates to vote %all n be d5i$ or abridg$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates or any ,/ate on acc\nt ( race1 color1 or previ\s condition ( s]vitude4 ,section #b4 ,! ,congress %all h p[] to en=ce ?is article by appropriate legislation4 ,,article ,,xvi4--,! ,congress %all h p[] to lay & collect taxes on incomes f :atev] s\rce d]iv$1 )\t apportionm5t among ! sev]al ,/ates & )\t reg>d to any c5sus or enum]ation4 ,,article ,,xvii4--,section #a4 ,! ,s5ate ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be compos$ ( two s5ators f ea* ,/ate1 elect$ by ! p !re(1 = six ye>s2 & ea* s5ator %all h "o vote4 ,! electors 9 ea* ,/ate %all h ! qualifications requisite = electors ( ! mo/ num]\s bran* ( ! ,/ate legislature4 ,section #b4 ,:5 vacancies happ5 9 ! repres5tation ( any ,/ate 9 ! ,s5ate ! executive au?ority ( su* ,/ate %all issue writs ( election to fill su* vacancies1 ,provid$1 t ! legislature ( any ,/ate may emp[] ! executive !re( to make tempor>y appo9tm5ts until ! p fill ! vacancies by election z ! legislature may direct4 ,section #c4 ,?is am5dm5t %all n be s con/ru$ z to affect ! election or t]m ( any s5ator *os5 be=e x becomes valid z "p ( ! ,con/itution4 ,,app5dix ,b4 ,,articles ,,( ,,conf$]ation4 ,articles ( ,conf$]ation & ,p]petual ,union betwe5 ! ,/ates ( ,new ,hamp%ire1 ,massa*usetts ,bay1 ,rhode ,isl& & ,provid5ce ,plantations1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,j]sey1 ,p5nsylvania1 ,delaw>e1 ,m>yl&1 ,virg9ia1 ,nor? ,c>ol9a1 ,s\? ,c>ol9a1 & ,georgia4 ,,article ,i4--,! /yle ( ?is ,conf$]acy %all be1 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica4 ,,art4 ,,ii4--,ea* ,/ate reta9s its sov]eignty1 fre$om1 & indep5d5ce1 & e p[]1 jurisdiction1 & "r1 :i* is n by ?is ,conf$]ation expressly delegat$ to ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ,congress assembl$4 ,,art4 ,,iii4--,! said ,/ates h]eby sev]ally ent] into a firm league ( fri5d%ip ) ea* o!r1 = _! common def5se1 ! security ( _! lib]ties1 & _! mutual & g5]al welf>e1 b9d+ !mselves to assi/ ea* o!r aga9/ all =ce (f]$ to1 or attacks made ^u !m1 or any ( !m1 on acc\nt ( religion1 sov]eignty1 trade1 or any o!r pret5se :atev]4 ,,art4 ,,iv4--,! bett] to secure & p]petuate mutual fri5d%ip & int]c\rse among ! p ( ! diff]5t ,/ates 9 ?is ,union1 ! free inhabitants ( ea* ( ^! ,/ates1 paup]s1 vagabonds1 & fugitives f ju/ice except$1 %all be entitl$ to all privileges & immunities ( free citiz5s 9 ! sev]al ,/ates2 & ! p ( ea* ,/ate %all h free +ress & egress to & f any o!r ,/ate1 & %all enjoy !re9 all ! privileges ( trade & comm]ce subject to ! same duties1 impositions1 & re/rictions z ! inhabitants !re( respectively2 provid$ t su* re/rictions %all n ext5d s f> z to prev5t ! removal ( prop]ty import$ into any ,/ate to any o!r ,/ate ( :i* ! own] is an inhabitant2 provid$ also1 t no imposition1 duties1 or re/riction %all be laid by any ,/ate on ! prop]ty ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or ei!r ( !m4 ,if any p]son guilty (1 or *>g$ )1 treason1 felony1 or o!r high misdemeanor 9 any ,/ate %all flee f ju/ice & be f\nd 9 any ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 he %all1 ^u dem& ( ! gov]nor or executive p[] ( ! ,/ates f :i* he fl$1 be deliv]$ up & remov$ to ! ,/ate hav+ jurisdiction ( 8 (f5se4 ,full fai? & cr$it %all be giv5 9 ea* ( ^! ,/ates to ! records1 acts1 & judicial proce$+s ( ! c\rts & magi/rates ( e o!r ,/ate4 ,,art4 ,v4--,= ! m conv5i5t managem5t ( ! g5]al int]e/s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 delegates %all be annually appo9t$ 9 su* mann] z ! ,legislature ( ea* ,/ate %all direct1 to meet 9 ,congress on ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,novemb] 9 e ye> ) a p[] res]v$ to ea* ,/ate to recall its delegates1 or any ( !m1 at any "t )9 ! ye>1 & to s5d o!rs 9 _! /ead = ! rema9d] ( ! ye>4 ,no ,/ate %all be repres5t$ 9 ,congress by less ?an two1 nor by m ?an sev5 memb]s2 & no p]son %all be capable ( be+ a delegate = m ?an ?ree ye>s 9 any t]m ( six ye>s2 nor %all any p]son1 be+ a delegate1 be capable ( hold+ any (fice "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates = :i* he1 or ano!r = 8 b5efit1 receives any sal>y1 fees1 or emolum5t ( any k9d4 ,ea* ,/ate %all ma9ta9 its own delegates 9 any meet+ ( ! ,/ates & :ile !y act z memb]s ( ! ,committee ( ! ,/ates4 ,9 det]m9+ que/ions 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ,congress assembl$1 ea* ,/ate %all h "o vote4 ,fre$om ( spee* & debate 9 ,congress %all n be impea*$ or que/ion$ 9 any c\rt or place out ( ,congress2 & ! memb]s ( ,congress %all be protect$ 9 _! p]sons f arre/ & imprisonm5t dur+ ! "t ( _! go+ to & f1 & att5dance on1 ,congress1 except = treason1 felony1 or brea* ( ! peace4 ,,art4 ,,vi4--,no ,/ate1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all s5d any embassy to1 or receive any embassy f1 or ent] into any conf]5ce1 agreem5t1 alliance1 or treaty ) any k+1 pr9ce1 or /ate2 nor %all any p]son hold+ any (fice ( pr(it or tru/ "u ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any ( !m1 accept ( any pres5t1 emolum5t1 (fice1 or title ( any k9d :atev] f any k+1 pr9ce1 or =eign /ate2 nor %all ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 or any ( !m1 grant any title ( nobility4 ,no two or m ,/ates %all ent] into any treaty1 conf$]ation1 or alliance :atev] betwe5 !m1 )\t ! cons5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 specify+ accurately ! purposes = :i* ! same is to be ent]$ into1 & h[ long x %all cont9ue4 ,no ,/ate %all lay any impo/s or duties :i* may int]f]e ) any /ipulations 9 treaties ent]$ into by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 ) any k+1 pr9ce1 or /ate1 9 pursuance ( any treaties already propos$ by ,congress to ! c\rts ( ,france & ,spa94 ,no vessels ( w> %all be kept up 9 "t ( peace by any ,/ate1 except su* numb] only z %all be deem$ necess>y by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 = ! def5se ( su* ,/ate or its trade1 nor %all any body ( =ces be kept up by any ,/ate 9 "t ( peace1 except su* numb] only z1 9 ! judgm5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all be deem$ requisite to g>rison ! =ts necess>y = ! def5se ( su* ,/ate2 b e ,/ate %all always keep up a well-regulat$ & discipl9$ militia1 suffici5tly arm$ & acc\t]$1 & %all provide & con/antly h ready = use 9 public /ores a due numb] ( field-pieces & t5ts1 & a prop] quantity ( arms1 ammunition1 & camp equipage4 ,no ,/ate %all engage 9 any w> )\t ! cons5t ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 unless su* ,/ate be actually invad$ by enemies1 or %all h receiv$ c]ta9 advice ( a resolution be+ =m$ by "s nation ( ,indians to invade su* ,/ate1 & ! dang] is s imm95t z n to admit ( a delay till ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 c be consult$2 nor %all any ,/ate grant commissions to any %ips or vessels ( w>1 nor lett]s ( m>que or reprisal1 except x be aft] a decl>ation ( w> by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 & !n only aga9/ ! k+dom or /ate1 & ! subjects !re(1 aga9/ :i* w> has be5 s decl>$1 & "u su* regulations z %all be e/abli%$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 unless su* ,/ate be infe/$ by pirates1 9 :i* case vessels ( w> may be fitt$ out = t occasion1 & kept s long z ! dang] %all cont9ue1 or until ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all det]m9e o!rwise4 ,,art4 ,,vii4--,:5 l& =ces are rais$ by any ,/ate = ! common def5se1 all (fic]s ( or "u ! rank ( ,colonel %all be appo9t$ by ! ,legislature ( ea* ,/ate respectively by :om su* =ces %all be rais$1 or 9 su* mann] z su* ,/ate %all direct1 & all vacancies %all be fill$ up by ! ,/ate :i* fir/ made ! appo9tm5t4 ,,art4 ,,viii4--,all *>ges ( w>1 & all o!r exp5ses t %all be incurr$ = ! common def5se1 or g5]al welf>e1 & all[$ by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all be defray$ out ( a common treasury1 :i* %all be suppli$ by ! sev]al ,/ates 9 proportion to ! value ( all l& )9 ea* ,/ate1 grant$ to1 or survey$ =1 any p]son1 z su* l& & ! build+s & improvem5ts !reon %all be e/imat$1 accord+ to su* mode z ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all1 f "t to "t1 direct & appo9t4 ,! taxes = pay+ t proportion %all be laid & levi$ by ! au?ority & direction ( ! ,legislatures ( ! sev]al ,/ates1 )9 ! "t agre$ ^u by ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 ,congress assembl$4 ,,art4 ,,ix4--,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all h ! sole & exclusive "r & p[] ( det]m9+ on peace & w>1 except 9 ! cases m5tion$ 9 ! six? ,article2 ( s5d+ & receiv+ ambassadors2 ent]+ into treaties & alliances1 provid$ t no treaty ( comm]ce %all be made1 :]eby ! legislative p[] ( ! respective ,/ates %all be re/ra9$ f impos+ su* impo/s & duties on =eign]s z _! own p are subject$ to1 or f prohibit+ ! exportation or importation ( any species ( goods or commodities :atev]2 ( e/abli%+ rules = decid+1 9 all cases1 :at captures on l& & wat] %all be legal1 & 9 :at mann] prizes tak5 by l& or naval =ces 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be divid$ or appropriat$2 ( grant+ lett]s ( m>que & reprisal 9 times ( peace2 appo9t+ c\rts = ! trial ( piracies & felonies committ$ on ! high seas2 & e/abli%+ c\rts = receiv+ & det]m9+ f9ally appeals 9 all cases ( captures2 provid$ t no memb] ( ,congress %all be appo9t$ a judge ( any ( ! said c\rts4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all also be ! la/ resort on appeal 9 all disputes & diff]5ces n[ subsi/+1 or t h]eaft] may arise betwe5 two or m ,/ates conc]n+ b\nd>y1 jurisdiction1 or any o!r cause :atev]2 :i* au?ority %all always be ex]cis$ 9 ! mann] foll[+3 ,:5ev] ! legislative or executive au?ority1 or lawful ag5t ( any ,/ate 9 controv]sy ) ano!r1 %all pres5t a petition to ,congress1 /at+ ! matt] 9 "q1 & pray+ = a he>+1 notice !re( %all be giv5 by ord] ( ,congress to ! legislative or executive au?ority ( ! o!r ,/ate 9 controv]sy1 & a day assign$ = ! appe>ance ( ! p>ties by _! lawful ag5ts1 :o %all !n be direct$ to appo9t1 by jo9t cons5t1 commission]s or judges to con/itute a c\rt = he>+ & det]m9+ ! matt] 9 "q2 b if !y _c agree1 ,congress %all "n ?ree p]sons out ( ea* ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & f ! li/ ( su* p]sons ea* p>ty %all alt]nately /rike out "o1 ! petition]s beg9n+1 until ! numb] %all be r$uc$ to ?irte52 & f t numb] n less ?an sev5 nor m ?an n9e names1 z ,congress %all direct1 %all1 9 ! pres5ce ( ,congress1 be drawn out by lot2 & ! p]sons ^: names %all be s drawn1 or any five ( !m1 %all be commission]s or judges1 to he> & f9ally det]m9e ! controv]sy1 s always z a major "p ( ! judges :o %all he> ! cause %all agree 9 ! det]m9ation2 & if ei!r p>ty %all neglect to att5d at ! day appo9t$1 )\t %[+ reasons :i* ,congress %all judge suffici5t1 or be+ pres5t1 %all refuse to /rike1 ! ,congress %all proce$ to nom9ate ?ree p]sons out ( ea* ,/ate1 & ! secret>y ( ,congress %all /rike 9 behalf ( su* p>ty abs5t or refus+2 & ! judgm5t & s5t5ce ( ! c\rt1 to be appo9t$ 9 ! mann] be=e prescrib$1 %all be f9al & conclusive2 & if any ( ! p>ties %all refuse to submit to ! au?ority ( su* c\rt1 or to appe> or def5d _! claim or cause1 ! c\rt %all nev]!less proce$ to pron\nce s5t5ce or judgm5t1 :i* %all 9 l mann] be f9al & decisive2 ! judgm5t or s5t5ce & o!r proce$+s be+ 9 ei!r case transmitt$ to ,congress1 & lodg$ among ! acts ( ,congress = ! security ( ! p>ties conc]n$2 provid$1 t e commission]1 be=e he sits 9 judgm5t1 %all take an oa?1 to be adm9i/]$ by "o ( ! judges ( ! supreme or sup]ior c\rt ( ! ,/ate :]e ! cause %all be tri$1 well & truly to he> & det]m9e ! matt] 9 "q1 accord+ to ! be/ ( 8 judgm5t1 )\t favor1 affection1 or hope ( rew>d4 ,provid$1 also1 t no ,/ate %all be depriv$ ( t]ritory = ! b5efit ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,all controv]sies conc]n+ ! private "r ( soil claim$ "u diff]5t grants ( two or m ,/ates1 ^: jurisdictions1 z !y may respect su* l&s1 & ! ,/ates :i* pass$ su* grants are adju/$1 ! said grants or ei!r ( !m be+ at ! same "t claim$ to h orig9at$ antec$5t to su* settlem5t ( jurisdiction1 %all1 on ! petition ( ei!r p>ty to ! ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 be f9ally det]m9$1 z ne> z may be1 9 ! same mann] z is be=e prescrib$ = decid+ disputes respect+ t]ritorial jurisdiction betwe5 diff]5t ,/ates4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all also h ! sole & exclusive "r & p[] ( regulat+ ! alloy & value ( co9 /ruck by _! own au?ority1 or by t ( ! respective ,/ates2 fix+ ! /&>d ( weights & measures ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 regulat+ ! trade & manag+ all affairs ) ! ,indians1 n memb]s ( any ( ! ,/ates2 provid$ t ! legislative "r ( any ,/ate1 )9 its own limits1 be n infr+$ or violat$2 e/abli%+ & regulat+ po/ (fices f "o ,/ate to ano!r1 ?r\gh\t all ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & exact+ su* po/age on ! pap]s pass+ ?r\gh ! same z may be requisite to defray ! exp5ses ( ! said (fice2 appo9t+ all (fic]s ( ! l& =ces 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 except+ regim5tal (fic]s2 appo9t+ all ! (fic]s ( ! naval =ces1 & commission+ all (fic]s :atev] 9 ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 mak+ rules = ! gov]nm5t & regulation ( ! said l& & naval =ces1 & direct+ _! op]ations4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all h au?ority to appo9t a committee1 to sit 9 ! recess ( ,congress1 to be d5om9at$ ,a ,committee ( ! ,/ates1 & to consi/ ( "o delegate f ea* ,/ate1 & to appo9t su* o!r committees & civil (fic]s z may be necess>y = manag+ ! g5]al affairs ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates "u _! direction2 to appo9t "o ( _! numb] to preside2 provid$ t no p]son be all[$ to s]ve 9 ! (fice ( presid5t m ?an "o ye> 9 any t]m ( ?ree ye>s2 to asc]ta9 ! necess>y sums ( money to be rais$ = ! s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & to appropriate & apply ! same = defray+ ! public exp5ses2 to borr[ money or emit bills on ! cr$it ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 transmitt+ e half ye> to ! respective ,/ates an acc\nt ( ! sums ( money s borr[$ or emitt$2 to build & equip a navy2 to agree ^u ! numb] ( l& =ces1 & to make requisitions f ea* ,/ate = its quota1 9 proportion to ! numb] ( :ite inhabitants 9 su* ,/ate1 :i* requisition %all be b9d+2 & !reupon ! ,legislature ( ea* ,/ate %all appo9t ! regim5tal (fic]s1 raise ! m51 & clo!1 arm1 & equip !m 9 a soldi]-l mann]1 at ! exp5se ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates2 & ! (fic]s & m5 s clo!d1 arm$1 & equipp$ %all m>* to ! place appo9t$1 & )9 ! "t agre$ on by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$2 b if ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all1 on consid]ation ( circum/ances1 judge prop] t any ,/ate %\ld n raise m51 or %\ld raise a small] numb] ?an its quota1 & t any o!r ,/ate %\ld raise a great] numb] ( m5 ?an ! quota !re(1 su* extra numb] %all be rais$1 (fic]$1 clo!d1 arm$1 & equipp$ 9 ! same mann] z ! quota ( su* ,/ate1 unless ! ,legislature ( su* ,/ate %all judge t su* extra numb] _c be safely sp>$ out ( ! same1 9 :i* case !y %all raise1 (fic]1 clo!1 arm1 & equip z _m ( su* extra numb] z !y judge c be safely sp>$1 & ! (fic]s & m5 s clo!d1 arm$1 & equipp$ %all m>* to ! place appo9t$1 & )9 ! "t agre$ on by ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 %all nev] engage 9 a w>1 nor grant lett]s ( m>que & reprisal 9 "t ( peace1 nor ent] into any treaties or alliances1 nor co9 money1 nor regulate ! value !re(1 nor asc]ta9 ! sums & exp5ses necess>y = ! def5se & welf>e ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 or any ( !m1 nor emit bills1 nor borr[ money on ! cr$it ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 nor appropriate money1 nor agree ^u ! numb] ( vessels ( w> to be built or pur*as$1 or ! numb] ( l& or sea =ces to be rais$1 nor appo9t a comm&] 9 *ief ( ! army or navy1 unless n9e ,/ates ass5t to ! same1 nor %all a "q on any o!r po9t1 except = adj\rn+ f day to day1 be det]m9$1 unless by ! votes ( a majority ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$4 ,! ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all h p[] to adj\rn to any "t )9 ! ye>1 & to any place )9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 s t no p]iod ( adj\rnm5t be = a long] duration ?an ! space ( six mon?s1 & %all publi% ! j\rnal ( _! proce$+s mon?ly1 except su* p>ts !re( relat+ to treaties1 alliances1 or milit>y op]ations z 9 _! judgm5t require secrecy2 & ! yeas & nays ( ! delegates ( ea* ,/ate1 on any "q1 %all be ent]$ on ! j\rnal :5 x is desir$ by any delegate2 & ! delegates ( a ,/ate1 or any ( !m1 at 8 or _! reque/1 %all be furni%$ ) a transcript ( ! said j\rnal except su* p>ts z are above except$1 to lay be=e ! ,legislatures ( ! sev]al ,/ates4 ,,art4 ,x4--,! ,committee ( ! ,/ates1 or any n9e ( !m1 %all be au?oriz$ to execute1 9 ! recess ( ,congress1 su* ( ! p[]s ( ,congress z ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 by ! cons5t ( n9e ,/ates1 %all1 f "t to "t1 ?9k exp$i5t to ve/ !m )2 provid$ t no p[] be delegat$ to ! said ,committee1 = ! ex]cise ( :i*1 by ! ,articles ( ,conf$]ation1 ! voice ( n9e ,/ates 9 ! ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates assembl$ is requisite4 ,,art4 ,,xi4--,canada1 acc$+ to ?is ,conf$]ation1 & jo9+ 9 ! measures ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates %all be admitt$ into1 & entitl$ to all ! advantages ( ?is ,union2 b no o!r colony %all be admitt$ into ! same1 unless su* admission be agre$ to by n9e ,/ates4 ,,art4 ,,xii4--,all bills ( cr$it emitt$1 moneys borr[$1 & debts contract$ by or "u ! au?ority ( ,congress1 be=e ! assembl+ ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 pursuance ( ! pres5t ,conf$]ation1 %all be deem$ & consid]$ z a *>ge aga9/ ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 = paym5t & satisfaction :]e( ! said ,unit$ ,/ates & ! public fai? are h]eby solemnly pl$g$4 ,,art4 ,,xiii4--,e ,/ate %all abide by ! det]m9ations ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 on all que/ions :i* by ?is ,conf$]ation are submitt$ to !m4 ,& ! ,articles ( ?is ,conf$]ation %all be inviolably obs]v$ by e ,/ate1 & ! ,union %all be p]petual2 nor %all any alt]ation at any "t h]eaft] be made 9 any ( !m1 unless su* alt]ation be agre$ to 9 a ,congress ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 & be aft]w>ds confirm$ by ! ,legislatures ( e ,/ate4 ,,& ,,:]eas x ha? pleas$ ! great ,gov]nor ( ! _w to incl9e ! he>ts ( ! ,legislatures we respectively repres5t 9 ,congress to approve (1 & to au?orize u to ratify1 ! said ,articles ( ,conf$]ation & p]petual ,union1 "k ye1 t we1 ! und]sign$ delegates1 by virtue ( ! p[] & au?ority to u giv5 = t purpose1 d1 by ^! pres5ts1 9 ! "n & 9 behalf ( our respective con/itu5ts1 fully & entirely ratify & confirm ea* & e ( ! said ,articles ( ,conf$]ation & p]petual ,union1 & all & s+ul> ! matt]s & ?+s !re9 conta9$4 ,& we d fur!r solemnly plight & engage ! fai? ( our respective con/itu5ts1 t !y %all abide by ! det]m9ations ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 9 ,congress assembl$1 on all que/ions :i* by ! said ,conf$]ation are submitt$ to !m2 & t ! ,articles !re( %all be inviolably obs]v$ by ! ,/ates we respectively repres5t1 & t ! ,union %all be p]petual4 ,9 witness :]e(1 we h h]eunto set our h&s 9 ,congress4 ,done at ,philadelphia1 9 ! ,/ate ( ,p5nsylvania1 ! n9? day ( ,july1 9 ! ye> ( our ,"l #aggh1 & 9 ! ?ird ye> ( ! ,indep5d5ce ( ,am]ica4 ,,app5dix ,c4 ,,ref]5ce ,,books4 ,,alton1 ,among ! ,lawmak]s1 ,scribn]4 ,,a%ley1 ,! ,am]ican ,f$]al ,/ates1 ,macmillan4 ,,brew]1 ,am]ican ,citiz5%ip1 ,scribn]4 ,,brooks1 ,h[ ! ,republic is ,gov]n$1 ,scribn]4 ,,bryce1 ,! ,am]ican ,commonweal?1 ,macmillan4 ,,burgess1 ,! ,middle ,p]iod1 ,scribn]4 ,c5tury ,book = ,"y ,am]icans1 ,c5tury ,co4 ,,conkl+1 ,city ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,appleton4 ,,curtis1 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,=eign ,p[]s1 ,scribn]4 ,,devl91 ,municipal ,re=m 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,putnam4 ,,dole1 ,talks ,ab\t ,law1 ,h\ghton ,miffl9 ,co4 ,,dole1 ,"y ,citiz51 ,g9n4 ,,fiske1 ,civil ,gov]nm5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,h\ghton ,miffl9 ,co4 ,,fiske1 ,critical ,p]iod ( ,am]ican ,hi/ory1 ,h\ghton ,miffl9 ,co4 ,,h>rison1 ,?is ,c\ntry ( ,ours1 ,scribn]4 ,,h>t1 ,=mation ( ! ,union1 ,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co4 ,,hill1 ,lessons = ,junior ,citiz5s1 ,g9n ,co4 ,,holt1 ,talks on ,civics1 ,macmillan4 ,,hoxie1 ,h[ ! ,p ,rule1 ,silv]1 ,burdett ,co4 ,,macy1 ,our ,gov]nm5t1 ,g9n4 ,,m>riott1 ,uncle ,sam's ,bus9ess1 ,h>p]s4 ,newspap] ,almanacs4 ,,re9s*1 ,"y ,citiz5's ,read]1 ,sanborn4 ,,rob9son1 ,elem5t>y ,law1 ,little1 ,br[n ,co4 ,,sloane1 ,! ,fr5* ,w> & ! ,revolution1 ,scribn]4 ,,?waites1 ,! ,colonies1 ,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co4 ,,wilson1 ,division & ,reunion1 ,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co4 ,,index ,adm9i/rative dep>tm5ts1 city1 ,agriculture1 dep>tm5t (1 ,alaska1 ,albany ,congress1 ,am5dm5ts to ! ,con/itution1 ,annapolis ,conv5tion1 ,annapolis ,naval ,academy1 ,appo9tm5t1 ,presid5t's p[] (1 ,apportionm5t ( repres5tatives1 ,appropriations by ,congress1 ,army ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,articles ( ,conf$]ation1 ,bank1 see ,national ,banks4 ,bankruptcy laws1 ,bills 9 ,congress1 ,bonds1 ,national1 ,cab9et1 ,cab9et sy/em ( gov]nm5t1 ,capital1 location (1 ,c5sus ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,*>ities1 ,circuit ,c\rts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 ,citiz5%ip1 ,city gov]nm5t1 ,civil ,s]vice ,re=m1 ,co9s & co9age1 ,colonial gov]nm5ts1 ,colonies made ,/ates1 ,comm]ce1 dep>tm5t (1 ,comm]ce1 p[] ( ,congress ov]1 ,committee on ,rules1 ,committees ( ,correspond5ce1 ,committee sy/em '9 ,congress1 ,conf$]ation1 ,articles (1 see ,articles ( ,conf$]ation4 ,conf]5ce committees1 ,congress1 ,cont95tal1 "u ! ,con/itution1 proc$ure 91 sessions (1 ,con/itutional ,conv5tion 7#aghg71 delegates to1 compromises ,con/itution ( ,u4,s41 am5dm5ts (1 orig9 (1 ratification1 ,consuls1 ,conv5tions1 ,national1 ,copyright1 ,c\nty gov]nm5t1 *ap4 ,c\nty type ( local gov]nm5t1 ,cuba1 ,debts ( ,u4,s41 ,diplomatic bureaus1 ,di/rict c\rts ( ! ,u4,s41 ,di/rict ( ,columbia1 ,duties1 cu/oms1 ,electoral ,commission1 ,electors1 ,presid5tial1 ,engl&1 ,executive dep>tm5ts1 ,ex po/ facto laws1 ,f$]al republics1 ,f9ances1 ,national1 ,france1 ,fran*ises1 ,free co9age1 ,g]rym&]1 ,gold c]tificates1 ,gr& jury1 ,habeas corpus1 ,hawaii1 ,heal?1 public1 ,home/ead law1 ,immigration1 ,impea*m5t1 ,impli$ p[]s ( ,congress1 ,inauguration ( ,presid5t1 ,income taxes1 ,indians1 ,int]ior1 dep>tm5t (1 ,int]nal rev5ue sy/em1 ,int]/ate comm]ce law1 ,judici>y1 ,national1 ,jurisdiction ( ,u4,s4 c\rts1 ,jury sy/em1 ,ju/ice1 dep>tm5t (1 ,l&s1 public1 ,legal t5d]1 def9ition1 ,lobby1 ,local gov]nm5t1 ,local gov]nm5t1 orig91 ,mail matt]1 ,mayor1 ,message1 ,presid5t's1 ,milit>y p[]s ( ,congress1 ,militia1 ,mon>*ies1 ,money ( ! ,u4,s41 ,municipal gov]nm5t1 own]%ip1 ,national banks1 ,naturalization1 ,navy1 dep>tm5t (1 ( ! ,u4,s41 ,new ,engl& colonies1 ,conf$]ation1 ,new ,j]sey plan1 ,nobility1 titles (1 ,nor?we/ ,t]ritory1 ,ord9ance ( #aghg1 ,pairs1 9 vot+1 ,p>dons1 ,p>i%1 ,p>liam5t ( ,engl&1 ,pat5ts1 ,philipp9es1 gov]nm5t (1 ,poor1 ,porto ,rico1 gov]nm5t (1 ,po/ ,(fice1 dep>tm5t (1 sy/em1 ,presid5tial succession1 ,presid5t ( ,u4,s41 election (1 ,proportional repres5tation1 ,public l&s1 ,quorum 9 ,congress1 ,railroads & int]/ate comm]ce1 ,re=m movem5ts1 ,repres5tatives1 apportionm5t (1 election (1 qualifications (1 ,reprieve1 ,rev5ue bills 9 ,congress1 ,roads1 ,rural deliv]y ( mail1 ,russia1 ,sal>ies ( ,congressm51 ,s5ate ( ,u4,s41 ,s5ators1 qualifications (1 election (1 ,silv] c]tificates1 ,smuggl+1 ,speak] ( ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 ,spoils sy/em1 ,/amp ,act ,congress1 ,/ate1 dep>tm5t (1 ,/reets1 ,subsidi>y silv]1 ,sup]visor sy/em ( local gov]nm5t1 ,supreme ,c\rt ( ,u4,s41 ,survey1 ,u4,s4 ,gov]nm5t1 ,switz]l&1 ,t>iff1 ,taxation1 ,national1 ,taxes1 direct & indirect1 ,t]ritorial delegates1 ,t]ritories1 ,t]ritory1 admission (1 ,t[n type ( local gov]nm5t1 t[n%ip-c\nty type1 ,treasury1 dep>tm5t (1 ,treasury notes1 ,treaties1 ,tru/s1 ,union1 /eps lead+ to1 ,unit$ ,/ates notes1 ,vacancies1 9 ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives1 9 ,s5ate1 ,ve/ry1 ,veto1 ,vice-presid5t ( ,u4,s41 ,virg9ia local gov]nm5t1 ,virg9ia plan1 ,vot+1 me?ods 9 ,congress1 ,w>1 decl>ation (1 dep>tm5t (1 ,yeas & nays1 ,,! ,,gov]nm5t ,,( ,,idaho ,by ,j4,t4 ,worlton ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,s*ools1 ,sug> ,city ,copyright1 #aijg1 ,by ,*>les ,scribn]'s ,sons ,,cont5ts4 ,,hi/orical ,,=m ,,( ,,gov]nm5t ,,dep>tm5ts ,,( ,,gov]nm5t ,,s*ools ,,! ,,gov]nm5t ,,( ,,idaho4 ,,hi/orical4 ,! c\ntry out ( :i* ,idaho 0 creat$1 kn[n z a "p ( ! ,oregon ,c\ntry1 0 acquir$ by treaty ) ,engl& 9 #ahdf4 ,long be=e ?is date1 h[ev]1 trapp]s1 hunt]s1 explor]s1 & /urdy pione]s _h f\nd _! way across ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s into ! f]tile valleys dra9$ by ! tribut>ies ( ! ,columbia4 ,! e>lie/ :ite m5 9 ?is region 7 und\bt$ly ! half-bre$ ,fr5*-,canadian voyageurs & ! trapp]s ( ! ,hudson ,bay ,company1 :o op5$ ! trails ?r\gh all ! great wild]ness ( ! ,pacific ,nor?we/2 b ! honor ( reveal+ to ! _w ! fir/ impressions ( ! natural beauty & b\ndless res\rces ( ?is new c\ntry we/ ( ! ,rockies re/s ) ,lewis & ,cl>k1 :o cross$ ! ,/ate on _! voyage ( exploration & discov]y 9 ,augu/1 #ahje4 ,!y f\nd ! ,indians 9 possession ( articles ( ,european manufacture :i* _h be5 obta9$ f ! trapp]s ( ! ,hudson ,bay ,company4 ,! fir/ :ite settlem5t 9 ,idaho ( :i* we h record 0 e/abli%$ 9 #ahcd at ,=t ,hall1 ,bannock ,c\nty4 ,?is =t 0 important 9 e>ly ,idaho hi/ory1 be+ at ! cross+ ( ! ,miss\ri-,oregon & ! ,utah-,canadian trails4 ,=t ,boise1 e/abli%$ 9 #ahcf ne> ! junction ( ! ,snake & ,boise riv]s1 0 a r5dezv\s = ?\s&s ( ,indians1 :o ga!r$ f all ! c\ntry betwe5 ! ,pacific coa/ & ! head wat]s ( ! ,miss\ri ,riv] to trade & b>t] 9 horses1 furs1 & articles ( adornm5t4 ,! discov]y ( gold 9 #ahfj at a po9t on ! ,cle> ,wat] ,riv] 9 nor!rn ,idaho 0 foll[$ by a va/ immigration to t section2 ?is l$ to ! discov]y ( gold 9 o!r p>ts ( ! t]ritory1 & soon ! plac] m9es 9 ! vic9ity ( ,boise & o!r places 7 develop$4 ,! t]ritory ( ,idaho1 compris+ :at is n[ ,montana1 ,wyom+1 & ,idaho1 0 organiz$ by ! ,f$]al ,gov]nm5t1 ,m>* #c1 #ahfc1 & ,lewi/on 0 made ! tempor>y capital ( ! t]ritory4 ,! plac] m9es ( ! ,boise ,bas9 prov$ ri*] ?an ^? ( ! nor?1 & ! bulk ( ! population rapidly drift$ s\?w>d4 ,?is %ift+ ( population caus$ ! removal ( ! ,/ate capital to its pres5t location at ,boise 9 #ahfd4 ,by an act ( ,congress creat+ ! t]ritories ( ,montana & ,wyom+1 ,idaho 0 r$uc$ to its pres5t b\nd>ies 9 #ahfh4 ,on ,july #c1 #ahij1 ,idaho pass$ f a t]ritorial =m ( gov]nm5t to t ( a /ate1 be+ ! =ty-?ird ,/ate to jo9 ! great ,f$]al ,union4 ,s9ce t "t h] gr[? & developm5t h be5 cont9u\s & rapid4 ,m9+1 lumb]+1 manufactur+1 & agricultural pursuits are ! pr9cipal res\rces ( ! ,/ate4 ,,=m ,,( ,,gov]nm5t4 ,! ,con/itution ( ! ,/ate ( ,idaho1 l ^? ( ! o!r /ates 9 ! ,union1 is model$ aft] ! ,con/itution ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,x conta9s3 ,a ,preamble1 sett+ =? ! purposes ( ! ,con/itution4 ,a ,decl>ation1 call$ ! ,bill ( ,rights1 conta9+ tw5ty-"o sections4 ,provision = divid+ ! p[]s ( gov]nm5t into ?ree dep>tm5ts4 ,articles relat+ to taxation1 suffrage1 public s*ools1 corporations1 militia1 immigration1 labor1 am5dm5ts1 & o!r public affairs4 ,preamble4--,we1 ! p ( ! ,/ate ( ,idaho1 grateful to ,almighty ,god = our fre$om1 to secure its bless+s & promote our common welf>e1 d e/abli% ?is con/itution4 ,decl>ation ( ,rights4--,! ,bill ( ,rights is a decl>ation ( privileges reta9$ by ! p1 :i* ! dep>tm5ts ( gov]nm5t are expressly prohibit$ f invad+4 ,! mo/ important provisions 9 ! ,bill ( ,rights may be class$ "u ! foll[+ head+s3 democratic pr9ciples2 p]sonal security2 private prop]ty2 fre$om ( religion1 spee*1 & ( ! press2 & security aga9/ milit>y tyranny4 ,democratic ,pr9ciples4--,all m5 are equal be=e ! law1 & are protect$ 9 ! enjoym5t ( life1 prop]ty1 & ! pursuit ( happ9ess4 ,all p[] is inh]5t 9 ! p4 ,p]sonal ,security4--,! p h ! "r to be> arms = _! safety & def5se1 b ?is privilege is regulat$ by appropriate legislation4 ,! p %all be secure 9 _! p]sons1 h\ses1 pap]s1 & o!r possessions aga9/ unreasonable se>*es & seizures4 ,!re %all be no imprisonm5t = debt except 9 cases ( fraud4 ,private ,prop]ty4--,private prop]ty %all n be tak5 = public use except a necessity !re=e exi/s1 & !n only aft] j comp5sation has be5 paid4 ,religion4--,! free ex]cise & enjoym5t ( religi\s fai? & wor%ip %all =ev] be gu>ante$4 ,no religi\s te/ %all be requir$ = hold+ public (fice4 ,fre$om ( ,spee* & ( ! ,press4--,e p]son may freely speak1 write1 & publi% on any subject1 b he is held responsible = ! abuse ( t lib]ty1 ,fre$om ( ,meet+4--,! p %all h ! "r to assemble & consult = _! common good1 & may petition ! ,legislature = r$ress ( grievances4 ,security ,aga9/ ,milit>y ,tyranny4--,soldi]s %all n be qu>t]$ 9 private h\ses 9 times ( peace )\t ! cons5t ( ! own]1 nor 9 times ( w> except z ! law may provide4 ,x w be se5 f ! above t ! ,/ate gov]nm5t z well z ! ,national is plann$ on ! accept$ fact t all p[] orig9ates ) ! p4 ,9 ,am]ica ! p h ! div9e "r to rule4 ,! p possess all rights :i* !y h n expressly giv5 to ! gov]nm5t4 ,! ,bill ( ,rights :i* we h discuss$ is !re=e a d\ble safegu>d :i* ! p h ?r[n ab\t _! sacr$ inali5able rights4 ,,dep>tm5ts ,,( ,,gov]nm5t4 ,gov]nm5t consi/s ess5tially 9 mak+1 judg+1 & en=c+ ! laws4 ,9 absolute mon>*ical =ms ( gov]nm5t1 ( :i* ,russia & ,turkey are examples1 ^! ?ree dep>tm5ts are ve/$ 9 ! same head2 b 9 republics & limit$ mon>*ies ! law-mak+1 law-judg+1 & law-en=c+ p[]s are sep>at$4 ,hi/ory has prov$ t ! sep>ation ( ^! ?ree p[]s ( gov]nm5t is mo/ satisfactory = an enlight5$ p4 ,legislative ,dep>tm5t4--,! legislative or law-mak+ p[] ( ! ,/ate is ve/$ 9 a ,legislature :i* is compos$ ( a ,s5ate & a ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4 ,! sessions ( ! two h\ses are op5 to ! public & ea* h\se keeps a j\rnal ( its proce$+s 9 :i* is record$ ! yea & nay votes on any "q at ! reque/ ( any ?ree memb]s4 ,qualifications ( ,memb]s4--,! qualifications ( a s5ator or repres5tative 9 ! ,/ate ( ,idaho are ! same4 ,he mu/ be a citiz5 ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 an elector ( ! ,/ate1 & he mu/ h be5 an elector = at lea/ "o ye> next prec$+ 8 election 9 ! c\nty f :i* he is *os54 ,sessions4--,! ,legislature meets bi5nially at ! ,/ate ,capital1 comm5c+ on ! fir/ ,monday aft] ! fir/ day ( ,janu>y 9 ! odd ye>s4 ,special sessions ( ! ,legislature may be call$ by ! ,gov]nor :5 he deems x necess>y4 ,no special session %all cont9ue = m ?an tw5ty days4 ,! comp5sation ( our legislators is five doll>s p] day1 ) an all[ance ( t5 c5ts p] mile go+ to & return+ f ! place ( meet+4 ,privileges4--,memb]s ( ! ,/ate ,legislature are n liable to any civil process dur+ ! session ( ! ,legislature nor dur+ ! t5 days next prec$+ ! same4 ,!y are privileg$ f arre/ dur+ ! same "t 9 all cases except treason1 felony1 or brea* ( ! peace4 ,!y _c be legally call$ to acc\nt = any?+ said 9 debate dur+ ! session ( ! ,legislature4 ,s5ate4--,accord+ to ! ,/ate ,con/itution ! memb]%ip ( ! ,s5ate is limit$ to tw5ty-f\r memb]s4 ,ea* c\nty is a s5atorial di/rict4 ,! t]m ( (fice is two ye>s & beg9s on ! fir/ day ( ,decemb] foll[+ ! election4 ,! ,s5ate adopts its own rules ( gov]nm5t & elects its own (fic]s1 ) ! exception ( its presid5t1 :o is ! ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor ex-(ficio4 ,9 case ! ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor assumes ! duties ( ,gov]nor1 ! ,s5ate elects its presid+ (fic]4 ,all ,/ate (fic]s appo9t$ by ! ,gov]nor are subject to ! approval ( ! ,s5ate4 ,if ! ,s5ate is n 9 session :5 ! appo9tm5t is made1 su* p]son %all dis*>ge ! duties ( ! (fice until ! next session ( ! ,s5ate4 ,9 ! case ( impea*m5t ( ,/ate (fic]s ! ,s5ate is ! c\rt4 ,a majority ( ! s5ators is a quorum = ! trial ( impea*m5t1 & a two-?irds vote is necess>y = conviction4 ,9 case ( conviction ! p5alty does n ext5d fur!r ?an removal f (fice1 b su* p]son may be tri$ 9 ! civil c\rts z o!r lawbreak]s4 ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives4--,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives is a m num]\s body ?an ! ,s5ate4 ,! memb]s are elect$ = ! same "t & = ! same t]m z ! s5ators4 ,! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives has p[] to *oose all its (fic]s4 ,! special p[]s ex]cis$ by ! ,h\se ( ,repres5tatives are3 orig9at+ bills = rais+ rev5ue & mak+ appropriations1 & 9 impea*+ ,/ate (fic]s4 ,executive ,dep>tm5t4--,aft] ! laws are made x becomes necess>y to designate "s "o to see t !y are en=c$4 ,! legislators make ! laws1 & x rema9s = ! (fic]s 9 ! ,executive ,dep>tm5t to see t ! laws are en=c$4 ,! ,executive ,dep>tm5t consi/s ( a ,gov]nor1 ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor1 ,secret>y ( ,/ate1 ,/ate ,auditor1 ,/ate ,treasur]1 ,attorney ,g5]al1 & ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,public ,in/ruction1 all ( :om hold _! (fices = two ye>s1 beg9n+ on ! fir/ ,monday 9 ,janu>y next aft] _! election4 ,qualifications4--,no p]son is eligible to ! (fice ( ,gov]nor1 ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor1 or ,attorney ,g5]al unless he has atta9$ ! age ( ?irty ye>s1 nor to ! o!r executive (fices unless he is tw5ty-five ye>s ( age4 ,! ,con/itution provides t all ! executive (fic]s %all be citiz5s ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates & %all h resid$ 9 ! ,/ate two ye>s next prec$+ _! election1 & t ! ,attorney ,g5]al mu/ h be5 admitt$ to practice 9 ! ,supreme ,c\rt ( ! ,/ate4 ,gov]nor4--,! ,gov]nor is comm&]-9-*ief ( ! milit>y =ces ( ! ,/ate & may call out ! entire ,/ate militia to aid 9 ! en=cem5t ( ! law4 ,he may require 9 writ+ f ! (fic]s ( ! ,executive ,dep>tm5t in=mation ^u any subject relat+ to _! respective dep>tm5ts4 ,all acts pass$ by ! ,/ate ,legislature are pres5t$ to ! ,gov]nor = 8 approval & signature4 ,if he signs a bill x becomes law2 if he disapproves x1 he returns x to ! h\se 9 :i* x orig9at$1 ) 8 objections1 :i* are ent]$ on ! j\rnal ( t h\se4 ,! bill is !n reconsid]$1 & if approv$ by a two-?irds majority is s5t ) ! ,gov]nor's objections to ! o!r h\se1 :i* also reconsid]s x1 & if approv$ by a two-?irds vote 9 t h\se x becomes a law ov] ! ,gov]nor's objections4 ,if ! ,gov]nor fails to return a bill to ! ,legislature )9 five days 7,sunday or adj\rnm5t except$7 x becomes a law )\t 8 signature4 ,if ! ,gov]nor disapproves a bill & ! adj\rnm5t ( ! ,legislature prev5ts its return1 he mu/ file x ) 8 objections 9 ! (fice ( ! ,secret>y ( ,/ate )9 t5 days aft] su* adj\rnm5t2 o!rwise x becomes a law4 ,! ,gov]nor1 by & ) ! cons5t ( ! ,s5ate1 appo9ts memb]s to fill vacancies :i* may occur by dea?1 resignation1 or o!rwise 9 ! ,/ate (fices4 ,he also has ! p[] to make appo9tm5ts to all (fices ^: appo9tm5t or election is n o!rwise provid$ =4 ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor4--,! ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor is ! only executive (fic] ^: resid5ce at ! ,/ate ,capital is n requir$ by law4 ,9 case ( a vacancy 9 ! (fice ( ,gov]nor by dea?1 resignation1 or o!rwise1 ! ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor becomes ,gov]nor & takes up 8 resid5ce at ! ,/ate ,capital4 ,! only duty ( ! ,lieut5ant-,gov]nor1 :5 n call$ ^u to act z ,gov]nor1 is t ( presid+ (fic] ( ! ,s5ate4 ,secret>y ( ,/ate4--,! ,secret>y ( ,/ate is ! cu/odian ( ,! ,great ,seal ( ! ,/ate ( ,idaho1 & all ,/ate pap]s4 ,he records ! proce$+s & acts ( ! ,legislature & also ( ! executive dep>tm5ts ( ! ,/ate gov]nm5t4 ,he is a memb] ( ! ,bo>d ( ,p>dons1 ( ! ,bo>d ( ,/ate ,prison ,commission]s1 & ( ! ,/ate ,l& ,bo>d4 ,auditor4--,! ,auditor is ! f9ancial gu>dian ( ! ,/ate4 ,he is a memb] ( ! audit+ committee :i* passes on all claims aga9/ ! ,/ate4 ,! ,auditor receives all moneys paid ! ,/ate1 & deposits ! same ) ! ,/ate ,treasur]1 tak+ receipt !re=e4 ,money is paid out ( ! treasury only by w>rant issu$ by ! ,auditor4 ,! ,auditor makes a regul> report ( ! f9ancial condition ( ! ,/ate4 ,treasur]4--,! ,treasur]1 :o is "u heavy bonds = ! p]=mance ( 8 duties1 is ! cu/odian ( ! funds ( ! ,/ate4 ,he receives ! ,/ate's rev5ues f ! ,auditor & pays out money only by w>rant issu$ by ! ,auditor4 ,attorney ,g5]al4--,! ,attorney ,g5]al is ! legal advis] ( ! ,/ate (fic]s & acts z attorney = ! ,/ate 9 all cases 9 :i* ! ,/ate is a p>ty4 ,he repres5ts ! ,/ate 9 all its legal bus9ess4 ,8 (fice is "o ( dignity & responsibility4 ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,public ,in/ruction4--,! ,sup]9t5d5t ( ,public ,in/ruction has *>ge ( ! public-s*ool sy/em ( ! ,/ate4 ,he prep>es all exam9ation que/ions us$ by ! ,c\nty ,sup]9t5d5ts ( ! ,/ate & prescribes rules & regulations = conduct+ su* exam9ations4 ,x is 8 duty to meet ) ! ,c\nty ,sup]9t5d5ts f "t to "t to discuss que/ions = ! g5]al welf>e ( ! public s*ools ( ! ,/ate4 ,he is an ex-(ficio memb] ( ! ,bo>d ( ,tru/ees ( ! ,lewi/on & ,albion ,normal ,s*ools1 ! ,academy ( ,idaho1 ! ,/ate ,indu/rial ,s*ool1 & ! ,/ate ,l& ,bo>d4 ,judicial ,dep>tm5t4--,x is ! special function ( ! ,judicial ,dep>tm5t to int]pret & expla9 ! laws4 ,! judicial p[] is ve/$ 9 a c\rt = trial ( impea*m5ts1 a supreme c\rt1 di/rict c\rts1 probate c\rts1 c\rts ( ju/ices ( ! peace1 & municipal c\rts4 ,! c\rt = ! trial ( impea*m5ts is ! ,/ate ,s5ate1 ^: functions z a c\rt ( ju/ice are outl9$ "u ! head ( ,legislative ,dep>tm5t4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt4--,! ,supreme ,c\rt is compos$ ( ?ree judges elect$ f ! ,/ate at l>ge = a t]m ( six ye>s4 ,x is s arrang$ t "o judge goes out ( (fice ea* two ye>s1 ?us leav+ a majority ( memb]s at all times ) ov] two ye>s' exp]i5ce 9 (fice4 ,! ,supreme ,c\rt has jurisdiction bo? orig9al & appellate4 ,its orig9al jurisdiction consi/s 9 issu+ writs ( m&amus1 c]tior>i1 prohibition1 & habeas corpus4 ,its appellate jurisdiction ext5ds to practically all cases tri$ 9 ! l[] c\rts4 ,! ,con/itution requires ! ,supreme ,c\rt to hold annually at lea/ f\r t]ms ( c\rt3 two at ,boise1 ! capital1 & two at ,lewi/on4 ,! comp5sation all[$ ju/ices ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt is f\r ?\s& doll>s p] ye>1 b !y are n p]mitt$ to hold any o!r public (fice dur+ ! t]m = :i* !y are elect$4 ,! ,di/rict ,c\rt4--,x is 9 ! ,di/rict ,c\rt t ! great body ( crim9al cases are dispos$ (4 ,?is c\rt has orig9al jurisdiction 9 all cases aris+ 9 ! di/rict1 & its appellate jurisdiction includes all cases :i* may be appeal$ to x f ! probate or ju/ice c\rts4 ,! ,/ate ( ,idaho is divid$ into six judicial di/ricts4 ,! ,di/rict ,c\rt is presid$ ov] by a judge ^: legal qualifications d n diff] mat]ially f ^? ( ! ju/ices ( ! ,supreme ,c\rt4 ,two t]ms ( c\rt mu/ be held 9 ea* c\nty ( ! di/rict annually1 & special sessions may be held at ! option ( ! judge4 ,! judge mu/ live 9 ! di/rict = :i* he is elect$1 b may try cases 9 any c\nty ( ! ,/ate at ! reque/ ( ! judge ( ! ,di/rict ,c\rt !re( :o may be disqualifi$ because ( 8 p]sonal or pecuni>y int]e/ 9 ! case4 ,! sal>y paid ! judge ( ! ,di/rict ,c\rt is ?ree ?\s& doll>s p] ye>4 ,probate ,c\rts4--,! ,probate ,c\rt is ess5tially a c\rt ( record & has orig9al jurisdiction 9 all matt]s ( probate4 ,x is 9 ?is c\rt t settlem5t is made ( ! e/ate ( deceas$ p]sons & t gu>dians are appo9t$4 ,! ,probate ,c\rt may try all civil cases :]e9 ! debt or damage claim$ does n exce$ five hundr$ doll>s2 its jurisdiction 9 crim9al cases is concurr5t ) t ( ju/ices ( ! peace4 ,c\rt ( ,ju/ice ( ! ,peace4--,e c\nty is divid$ into prec9cts1 9 ea* "o ( :i* !re is a ,ju/ice ( ! ,peace4 ,he has jurisdiction 9 all civil cases aris+ 9 8 di/rict :]e9 ! am\nt 9 consid]ation is n m ?an ?ree hundr$ doll>s & 9 cases class$ z misdemeanors4 ,!re are also police c\rts 9 cities = ! trial ( ! violators ( ! city ord9ances4 ,! presid+ (fic]s ( su* c\rts are call$ police judges4 ,am5dm5ts4--,am5dm5ts to ! ,con/itution may be submitt$ 9 two ways3 fir/1 by be+ propos$ by two-?irds ( bo? h\ses ( ! ,legislature2 second1 by be+ propos$ by a conv5tion call$ = t purpose4 ,! am5dm5t ?us submitt$ mu/ be approv$ by ! p at a popul> election4 ,,s*ools4 ,! ,/ate ( ,idaho supports ! foll[+ educational in/itutions3 ,/ate ,univ]sity1 ,/ate ,normal ,s*ools at ,lewi/on & ,albion1 ,academy ( ,idaho at ,pocatello1 & ! ,indu/rial ,s*ool at ,/4 ,an?ony4 ,ea* ( ^! in/itutions is gov]n$ by a bo>d ( tru/ees appo9t$ by ! ,gov]nor = a t]m ( ye>s4 ,! bo>ds h ! g5]al managem5t ( ! s*ools4 ,!y build & furni% s*ool build+s1 employ & dismiss tea*]s & employees1 prescribe ! c\rse ( /udy & ! conditions "u :i* /ud5ts are admitt$ to ! respective in/itutions4 ,! ,gov]nor is kept well in=m$ on ! conditions ( ! v>i\s in/itutions by regul> reports :i* he requires ( ! sev]al bo>ds ( tru/ees4 ,! reports set =? a detail$ acc\nt ( all exp5ditures = ! two ye>s j clos+ & make an e/imate ( ! am\nt ( funds ne$$ = ! ma9t5ance ( ! in/itution = two ye>s h5ce4 ,ea* s*ool is support$ by bi5nial appropriations made by ! ,/ate ,legislature & by funds receiv$ z int]e/ on money d]iv$ f ! sale ( public l&s set aside by ! ,/ate or ,national ,gov]nm5t = _! use4 ,! am\nt ( l& set aside = ! use ( ! ,/ate educational in/itutions is z foll[s3 ,/ate ,univ]sity1 includ+ ,s*ool ( ,sci5ce & ,agricultural ,college1 #bhf1jjj acres2 ,lewi/on ,normal1 #ej1jjj acres2 ,albion ,normal1 #ej1jjj acres2 ,academy ( ,idaho1 #dj1jjj acres2 ,indu/rial ,re=m ,s*ool1 #dj1jjj acres4 ,! ,/ate ,univ]sity at ,mosc[ /&s at ! head ( ! educational in/itutions ( ! ,/ate4 ,!re are ?ree pr9cipal dep>tm5ts 9 ! univ]sity4 ,9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,lett]s & ,sci5ces ! c\rses lead to degrees ( ,ba*elor ( ,arts1 ,ba*elor ( ,sci5ce1 & ,ba*elor ( ,music4 ,9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,agriculture ! c\rse leads to a degree ( ,ba*elor ( ,sci5ce 9 ,agriculture4 ,9 connection ) ! ,agricultural ,c\rse is kept a model f>m ( "o hundr$ acres & an exp]im5t /ation 9 :i* laboratories are provid$ = soil physics1 *emi/ry1 entomology1 & botany4 ,9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,appli$ ,sci5ce c\rses are giv5 9 civil eng9e]+1 m9+ eng9e]+1 & 9 electrical & me*anical eng9e]+4 ,! ,univ]sity 0 e/abli%$ at ,mosc[ by special act ( ! ,t]ritorial ,legislature 9 #ahhi1 & s9ce t date x has _h a spl5did gr[?4 ,x is well equipp$ 9 app>atus necess>y = ! pursuit ( ! c\rses giv54 ,! ,/ate ,normal ,s*ools4--,z an evid5ce ( ! fact t ! fram]s ( our ,/ate gov]nm5t _h 9 m9d a lib]al education = ! y\? ( our ,/ate #ajj1jjj acres ( public l& 0 set ap>t = ! ma9t5ance ( normal s*ools1 ) ! provision t none ( ?is l& mu/ be sold = less ?an t5 doll>s p] acre4 ,! second ,/ate ,legislature e/abli%$ 9 #ahic two ,/ate ,normal ,s*ools1 "o at ,lewi/on & "o at ,albion4 ,! purpose ( ^! s*ools1 z set =? 9 ! acts :i* creat$ !m1 is to educate & tra9 tea*]s 9 ! art ( tea*+ & gov]n+ 9 ! public s*ools ( ! ,/ate4 ,idaho1 al?\gh "o ( ! y\nge/ /ates 9 ! ,union1 ranks high 9 h] educational facilities1 & ! ,normal ,tra9+ ,s*ools h be5 v influ5tial 9 br++ ab\t ^! results4 ,! ,lewi/on ,/ate ,normal is emp[]$ to grant c]tificates to its /ud5ts to tea* 9 ,idaho4 ,^! c]tificates are3 ,a4 ,elem5t>y ,c]tificates1 good = "o ye>4 ,b4 ,second>y ,c]tificates1 good = five ye>s4 ,c4 ,diplomas1 good = life4 ,until rec5tly ! ,albion ,/ate ,normal ,s*ool has issu$ only ?ree-ye> c]tificates on graduation1 & life diplomas only aft] twelve mon?s' successful tea*+4 ,on ,april #bd1 #aijg1 ! ,bo>d ( ,tru/ees ( ! ,albion ,/ate ,normal pass$ a resolution1 provid+ t ! regul> c\rse be l5g!n$ to five ye>s1 & t life diplomas may be grant$ to graduates :o h taught successfully = five mon?s4 ,academy ( ,idaho4--,! ,academy ( ,idaho is locat$ at ,pocatello4 ,! purpose ( ?is s*ool1 z set =? 9 ,section #ihj ( ! ,s*ool ,laws ( ,idaho1 is to tea* ^? subjects usually taught 9 academic & bus9ess c\rses & to give in/ructions p]ta9+ to a good common s*ool education4 ,ea* dep>tm5t is well equipp$ ) ! late/ devices = fur!r+ ! "w ( ! pupils4 ,! /ud5ts h free access to ! l>ge libr>y & read+ room ( ! in/itution4 ,! requirem5ts = admission to ! ,academy ( ,idaho are mu* ! same z ^? ( ! normal s*ools2 ! applicant mu/ %[ ei!r by c]tificate or exam9ation t he is able to foll[ successfully ! c\rse :i* he elects4 ,no tuition is *>g$ resid5ts ( ,idaho1 & pupils f o!r /ates are admitt$ to all ! privileges ( ! ,academy by paym5t ( a reasonable tuition4 ,! ,indu/rial ,re=m ,s*ool--,! ,indu/rial ,re=m ,s*ool 0 e/abli%$ 9 #aijc at ,/4 ,an?ony1 ,fremont ,c\nty4 ,! purpose ( ?is s*ool1 z set =? 9 ! act :i* creat$ x1 is = ! c>e1 protection1 tra9+1 & education ( del9qu5t1 dep5d5t1 & neglect$ *ildr51 &1 to provide = ! c>e1 control1 & dis*>ge ( juv5ile (f5d]s4 ,9 addition to ! income receiv$ f ! #dj1jjj acres ( l& set aside = its ma9t5ance1 ! in/itution is support$ by regul> appropriations by ! ,/ate ,legislature4 ,a f>m ( two hundr$ acres1 ma9ta9$ 9 connection ) ! s*ool1 is equipp$ ) necess>y agricultural implem5ts1 vehicles1 horses1 cattle1 hogs1 p\ltry1 etc4 ,! ,idaho ,indu/rial ,tra9+ ,s*ool is n a place ( puni%m5t1 b a s*ool 9 :i* ! physical1 m5tal1 & moral education ( ! *ild is sy/ematically look$ aft]4 ,x is ! plan to h ! *ildr5 leave ! in/itution ) a good common s*ool education1 ) good habits1 & 9 fact ) e requisite = good citiz5%ip4 ,idaho ,insane ,asylum4--,! ,idaho ,insane ,asylum is locat$ at ! city ( ,blackfoot on a tract ( l& compris+ tw5ty-"o hundr$ acres4 ,a l>ge "p ( ?is f>m is "u cultivation & =ms an important s\rce ( supplies = ! in/itution4 ,9 connection ) ! f>m is ma9ta9$ a l>ge dairy h]d1 horses1 %eep1 hogs1 & p\ltry4 ,a well-kept g>d5 ( ?irty acres furni%es all ! vegetables ne$$ by ! inmates & employees ( ! in/itution4 ,mo/ ( ! "w done 9 connection ) ! f>m1 g>d51 dairy1 etc41 is done by ! inmates4 ,! climate1 ! wat] supply1 & ! g5]al surr\nd+s are especially heal?ful1 z is %[n by ! m$ical sup]9t5d5t1 :o says1 9 8 report ( #aijf3 ,!re is n a s+le case ( t bane ( asylum exi/5ce--tub]culosis--among !m4 ,?is is und\bt$ly due to ! climatic conditions "h r ?an any?+ else4 ,a bran* asylum 0 locat$ at ,orif9o 9 #aije4 ,idaho ,/ate ,p5it5ti>y4--,! ,idaho ,/ate ,p5it5ti>y is locat$ at ,boise & is ! only p5al in/itution 9 ! ,/ate4 ,!re are tw5ty-five build+s 9 all t are us$ by & belong to ! in/itution1 ne>ly all ( :i* h be5 erect$ s9ce ,idaho became a /ate4 ,^! build+s are locat$ on a tract ( five hundr$ & tw5ty acres ( l& j ea/ ( ! city4 ,ab\t eighty acres ( l& "u cultivation are "u ! managem5t ( ! in/itution & all ! labor is done by ! convicts4 ,! p5it5ti>y ma9ta9s a mo/ excell5t libr>y :i* is free to all ! prison]s4 ,! prison]s are gov]n$ l>gely on ! !ory t ,no?+ s begets vice z idl5ess4 ,dur+ ! la/ few ye>s ! convict labor has be5 engag$ on ! f>m1 9 qu>ry+ rock = ! build+s ( ! in/itution1 9 erect+ a new cell h\se & a woman's w>d1 & 9 digg+ & wall+ up a l>ge well :i* has giv5 an abundant supply ( pure wat]4 ,?us ! in/itution is put z f> z possible on a self-su/a9+ basis4 ,soldi]s' ,home4--,! ,soldi]s' ,home 0 e/abli%$ by ! ,/ate ,legislature 9 #ahic & locat$ on a tract ( =ty acres ( l& ab\t ?ree miles we/ ( ,boise 9 ,ada ,c\nty4 ,! purpose ( ! in/itution1 z sugge/$ by its "n1 is to provide a com=table home = ! honorably dis*>g$ soldi]s1 sailors1 & m>9es :o s]v$ 9 ! ,mexican1 ! ,civil1 or ! ,spani%-,am]ican w>s2 or = any memb] ( ! ,/ate ,national ,gu>d disabl$ :ile on duty4 ,! home "h provid$ = ! old vet]ans is surr\nd$ by all conv5i5ces necess>y to make _! decl9+ ye>s pleasant & com=table4 ,! rooms are heat$ by /eam & light$ ) electricity1 & !y h a b\ntiful supply ( :olesome food4 ,a hospital is ma9ta9$ 9 connection ) ! in/itution1 & ! inmates h ! con/ant c>e ( a skill$ physician if necess>y4 ,x is ! aim ( ! in/itution to be z ne>ly self-support+ z possible2 regul> appropriations = its ma9t5ance are receiv$ f ! ,/ate & ,national ,gov]nm5ts 9 ab\t equal proportions4