nikhilam anujachitta,m jnastrair nav]yah
   sajabhiva kusumn,m kl&hhrair         
vidhatte_/   sa laghum api mamaita,m    
pr,achyavijnatantu,m  upahrtamatibhakty 
modat,m mai grhtv_/_/    ,may ,he1 :o   
l9ks ! m9ds ( all p1  ?r\gh ! ap]tures (
 "t1 ) new ?reads  ( k l a g>l& ( fl[]s1
 be pleas$  to accept ?is my ?read (    
,ea/]n ?\ght1 (f]$1  ?\gh x be small1 ) 
! greate/ devotion4        ,a ,,hi/ory  
,,( ,,indian ,,philosophy               
,,sur5drana? ,,dasgupta        ,,volume 
,i    ,fir/ ,edition3 ,cambridge1 #aibb 
,,d$ication    ,! "w & ambition ( a     
life-"t is h]e9 humbly  d$icat$ )       
supreme rev]5ce to ! great sages  (     
,india1 :o1 = ! fir/ "t 9 hi/ory1       
=mulat$  ! true pr9ciples ( fre$om &    
devot$ !mselves  to ! holy que/ ( tru? &
 ! f9al assessm5t  & discov]y ( !       
ultimate spiritual ess5ce (  man ?r\gh  
_! concrete lives1 critical ?\ght1      
dom9ant w & self-d5ial4        ,,note   
,,on ,,! ,,pronunciation ,,(            
,,translit]at$ ,,sanskrit  ,,& ,p,,li   

,,words      ,! v[els are pron\nc$ almo/
 9 ! same way  z 9 ,italian1 except t ! 
s\nd ( a approa*es  t ( o 9 bond or u 9 
b1 &  t ( a z 9 army4  ,! consonants are
 z 9 ,engli%1 except c1 * 9 *ur*2  t1 d1
 n are c]ebrals1 to :i* ,engli% t1 d1 n 
almo/  correspond2 t1 d1 n are pure     
d5tals2 kh1 gh1 *1 jh1  ?1 dh1 ?1 dh1   
ph1 bh are ! simple s\nds plus an       
aspiration2  is ! ,fr5* gn2 r is usually
 pron\nc$  z ri1 & s'1 s z %4           
,,preface    ,! old civilisation (      
,india 0 a concrete unity ( _m-sid$     
developm5ts 9 art1 ar*itecture1         
lit]ature1 religion1 morals1 &  sci5ce s
 f> z x 0 und]/ood 9 ^? days4 ,b ! mo/  
important  a*ievem5t ( ,indian ?\ght 0  
philosophy4 ,x 0 reg>d$ z ! goal  ( all 
! highe/ practical & !oretical          
activities1 & x indicat$  ! po9t ( unity
 amid/ all ! app>5t div]sities :i* !    
complex  gr[? ( culture ov] a va/ area  
inhabit$ by diff]5t peoples produc$4    
,x is n 9 ! hi/ory ( =eign invasions1 9 
! rise ( indep5d5t  k+doms at diff]5t   

times1 9 ! empires ( ?is or t great     
mon>*  t ! unity ( ,india is to be      
s\ght4 ,x is ess5tially "o (  spiritual 
aspirations & ob$i5ce to ! law ( ! _s1  
:i* 7  reg>d$ z sup]ior to ev]y?+ else1 
& x has outliv$ all !  political *anges 
?r\gh :i* ,india pass$4    ,! ,greeks1 !
 ,huns1 ! ,scy?ians1 ! ,pa?ans & !      
,moguls :o  occupi$ ! l& & controll$ !  
political ma*9]y nev] rul$  ! m9ds ( !  
p1 = ^! political ev5ts 7 l hurricanes  
or ! *anges ( season1 m]e ph5om5a ( a   
natural or physical ord]  :i* nev]      
affect$ ! spiritual integrity ( ,h9du   
culture4 ,if aft]  a passivity ( "s     
c5turies ,india is aga9 go+ to become   
creative x  is ma9ly on acc\nt ( ?is    
fundam5tal unity ( h] progress &        
civilisation & n = any?+ t %e may borr[ 
f o!r  c\ntries4 ,x is !re=e            
indisp5sably necess>y = all ^? :o  wi%  
to appreciate ! significance &          
pot5tialities ( ,indian culture  t !y   
%\ld prop]ly und]/& ! hi/ory ( ,indian  
philosophical  ?\ght :i* is ! nucleus   

r\nd :i* all t is be/ & highe/ 9  ,india
 has gr[n4 ,mu* h>m has already be5 done
 by ! circulation (  op9ions t ! culture
 & philosophy ( ,india 0 dreamy &       
ab/ract4  ,x is !re=e v necess>y t      
,indians z well z o!r peoples  %\ld     
become m & m acqua9t$ ) ! true          
*>act]i/ics  ( ! pa/ hi/ory ( ,indian   
?\ght & =m a correct e/imate ( its      
special features4    ,b x is n only = ! 
sake ( ! "r und]/&+ ( ,india    viii    
t ,indian philosophy %\ld be read1 or   
only z a record ( ! pa/  ?\ghts (       
,india4 ,= mo/ ( ! problems t are /ill  
debat$ 9  mod]n philosophical ?\ght     
occurr$ 9 m or less div]g5t =ms  to !   
philosoph]s ( ,india4 ,_! discussions1  
difficulties &  solutions :5 prop]ly    
grasp$ 9 connection ) ! problems ( our  
own times may ?r[ light on ! c\rse ( !  
process ( ! future  recon/ruction (     
mod]n ?\ght4 ,! discov]y ( ! important  
features  ( ,indian philosophical ?\ght1
 & a due appreciation ( _! full         
significance1 may turn out to be z      

important to mod]n philosophy z  !      
discov]y ( ,sanskrit has be5 to !       
inve/igation ( mod]n  philological      
rese>*es4 ,x is un=tunate t ! task (    
re-int]pretation & re-valuation (       
,indian ?\ght has n yet be5  und]tak5 on
 a compreh5sive scale4 ,sanskriti/s also
 ) v few  exceptions h neglect$ ?is     
important field ( /udy1 = mo/ (  ^!     
s*ol>s h be5 int]e/$ m 9 my?ology1      
philology1 &  hi/ory ?an 9 philosophy4  
,mu* "w h[ev] has already be5 done 9  ! 
way ( ! publication ( a l>ge numb] (    
important texts1 &  translations ( "s ( 
!m h also be5 attempt$4 ,b ow+ to !     
pres5ce ( _m te*nical t]ms 9 advanc$    
,sanskrit philosophical  lit]ature1 !   
translations 9 mo/ cases are h>dly      
intelligible to  ^? :o are n famili> ) !
 texts !mselves4    ,a "w conta9+ "s    
g5]al acc\nt ( ! mutual relations ( !   
*ief sy/ems is necess>y = ^? :o int5d to
 pursue ! /udy  ( a p>ticul> s*ool4 ,?is
 is also necess>y = lay read]s int]e/$  
9 philosophy & /ud5ts ( ,we/]n          

philosophy :o h no incl9ation  or "t to 
specialise 9 any ,indian sy/em1 b :o are
 at ! same "t  int]e/$ to "k :at !y c   
ab\t ,indian philosophy4 ,9 my two books
  ,! ,/udy ( ,patanjali & ,yoga         
,philosophy 9 relation to o!r ,indian   
,sy/ems ( ,?\ght ,i h attempt$ to       
int]pret ! ,smkhya & ,yoga  sy/ems bo? f
 _! inn] po9t ( view & f ! po9t ( view  
( _! relation to o!r ,indian sy/ems4 ,! 
pres5t attempt deals )  ! important     
features ( ^! z also ( all ! o!r sy/ems 
& seeks  to %[ "s ( _! inn]             
philosophical relations especially 9    
reg>d  to ! hi/ory ( _! developm5t4 ,i h
 tri$ to be z fai?ful to  ! orig9al     
texts z ,i c\ld & h always giv5 !       
,sanskrit or ,pli  te*nical t]ms = !    
help ( ^? :o want to make ?is book a    
guide    ix    = fur!r /udy4 ,to und]/& 
some?+ ( ^! t]ms is inde$  ess5tial =   
anyone :o wi%es to be sure t he is      
foll[+ ! actual  c\rse ( ! ?\ghts4    ,9
 ,sanskrit treatises ! /yle ( argum5t & 
me?ods ( treat+ !  diff]5t topics are   

altoge!r diff]5t f :at we f9d 9 any     
mod]n  "w ( philosophy4 ,mat]ials _h    
!re=e to be collect$ f a l>ge  numb] (  
works on ea* sy/em & ^! h be5 knit      
toge!r &  giv5 a %ape :i* is likely to  
be m intelligible to p  unacqua9t$ )    
,sanskritic ways ( ?\ght4 ,b at ! same  
"t ,i  consid]$ x q undesirable to put  
any pressure on ,indian ?\ghts  9 ord]  
to make !m appe> z ,european4 ,?is w    
expla9 mu* ( :at  might appe> qua9t to a
 ,european read]4 ,b :ile keep+ all !   
?\ghts & expressions ( ! ,indian ?9k]s  
,i h tri$ to arrange  !m 9 a sy/ematic  
:ole 9 a mann] :i* appe>$ to me /rictly 
fai?ful to _! cle> indications &        
sugge/ions4 ,x is only 9 v  few places t
 ,i h translat$ "s ( ! ,indian t]ms by  
t]ms (  ,engli% philosophy1 & ?is ,i did
 because x appe>$ to me t ^?  7         
approximately ! ne>e/ approa* to !      
,indian s5se ( ! t]m4  ,9 all o!r places
 ,i h tri$ to *oose words :i* h n be5   
made  dang]\s by ! acquirem5t ( te*nical
 s5ses4 ,?is h[ev] is  difficult1 = !   

words :i* are us$ 9 philosophy always   
acquire  "s sort ( te*nical s5se4 ,i    
w\ld !re=e reque/ my read]s to  take ^? 
words 9 an unsophi/icat$ s5se &         
associate !m )  su* mean+s z are ju/ifi$
 by ! passages & contexts 9 :i*  !y are 
us$4 ,"s ( :at w appe> z obscure 9 any  
sy/em may ,i  hope be remov$ if x is    
re-read ) c>e & att5tion1 =             
unfamili>ity sometimes /&s 9 ! way ( "r 
compreh5sion4 ,b  ,i may h also miss$   
giv+ ! prop] sugge/ive l9ks 9 _m places 
:]e cond5sation 0 inevitable & ! sy/ems 
!mselves h also  sometimes insoluble    
difficulties1 = no sy/em ( philosophy is
 )\t  its d>k & uncom=table corn]s4     
,?\gh ,i h begun my "w f ! ,v$ic &      
,brhmanic /age1 my  treatm5t ( ?is p]iod
 has be5 v slight4 ,! beg9n+s ( !       
evolution ( philosophical ?\ght1 ?\gh !y
 c be trac$ 9 !  lat] ,v$ic hymns1 are  
nei!r connect$ nor sy/ematic4    x      
,m is f\nd 9 ! ,brhmanas1 b ,i d n ?9k x
 wor? :ile to  elaborate ! brok5 %r$s ( 
?\ght ( ?is epo*4 ,i c\ld h dealt  ) !  

,upanisad p]iod m fully1 b _m works on !
 subject h  already be5 publi%$ 9       
,europe & ^? :o wi% to g into details  w
 c]ta9ly g to !m4 ,i h !re=e limit$     
myself to ! dom9ant  curr5t fl[+ ?r\gh !
 e>li] ,upanisads4 ,notices ( o!r       
curr5ts  ( ?\ght w be giv5 9 connection 
) ! treatm5t ( o!r sy/ems  9 ! second   
volume ) :i* !y are m intimately        
connect$4 ,x  w be notic$ t my treatm5t 
( e>ly ,buddhism is 9 "s places (  an   
inconclusive "*4 ,?is is l>gely due to !
 inconclusive  "* ( ! texts :i* 7 put   
into writ+ long aft] ,buddha  9 ! =m (  
dialogues & :]e ! precision & directness
 requir$  9 philosophy 7 n contemplat$4 
,?is has giv5 rise to a numb] (  !ories 
ab\t ! int]pretations ( ! philosophical 
problems ( e>ly  ,buddhism among mod]n  
,buddhi/ s*ol>s & x is n always easy to 
decide "o way or ! o!r )\t runn+ ! risk 
( be+ dogmatic2  & ! scope ( my "w 0    
also too limit$ to all[ me to indulge 9 
v elaborate discussions ( textual       
difficulties4 ,b /ill ,i also  h 9 _m   

places =m$ !ories ( my own1 :e!r !y are 
"r  or wrong x w be = s*ol>s to judge4  
,i _h no space = ent]+  into any        
polemic1 b x w be f\nd t my             
int]pretations ( !  sy/ems are diff]5t 9
 "s cases f ^? (f]$ by "s ,european     
s*ol>s :o h work$ on !m & ,i leave x to 
^? :o are  acqua9t$ ) ! lit]ature ( !   
subject to decide :i* ( u may  be 9 !   
"r4 ,i h n dealt elaborately ) ! new    
s*ool (  ,logic 7,navya-,nyya7 ( ,b5gal1
 = ! simple reason t mo/ ( !            
contributions ( ?is s*ool consi/ 9 !    
inv5tion ( te*nical  expressions & !    
emphasis put on ! necessity ( /rict     
exactitude  & absolute precis5ess (     
logical def9itions & discussions & ^!   
are almo/ untranslatable 9 intelligible 
,engli%4 ,i h h[ev]  incorporat$ :at    
important diff]5ces ( philosophical     
po9ts ( view  ,i c\ld f9d 9 x4          
,discussions ( a purely te*nical "* c\ld
 n  be v fruitful 9 a "w l ?is4 ,!      
bibliography giv5 ( !  diff]5t ,indian  
sy/ems 9 ! la/ six *apt]s is n exhau/ive

 b  consi/s mo/ly ( books :i* h be5     
actually /udi$ or consult$ 9  ! writ+ ( 
^? *apt]s4 ,exact ref]5ces to ! pages ( 
!    xi    texts h g5]ally be5 giv5 9   
footnotes 9 ^? cases :]e a  diff]5ce (  
int]pretation 0 anticipat$ or :]e x 0   
felt t  a ref]5ce to ! text w\ld make ! 
matt] cle>]1 or :]e !  op9ions ( mod]n  
writ]s h be5 incorporat$4    ,x gives me
 ! greate/ pleasure to ackn[l$ge my     
deepe/ gratefulness  to ! ,hon'ble      
,mah>aja ,sir ,man9dra*&ra ,nundy1      
,k4,c4,i4,e4 ,ka%imbaz>1  ,b5gal1 :o has
 k9dly promis$ to be> ! entire exp5se ( 
!  publication ( bo? volumes ( ! pres5t 
"w4    ,! "n ( ?is noble man is almo/ a 
h\sehold ^w 9 ,b5gal =  ! magnanim\s    
gifts t he has made to educational & o!r
 causes4  ,up till n[ he has made a     
total gift ( ab\t #cjj1jjj1 ( :i* ^?    
devot$ to education come to ab\t        
#bjj1jjj4 ,b ! man himself is f>  above 
! gifts he has made4 ,8 /]l+ "*1        
univ]sal sympa?y  & fri5d%ip1 8 k9dness 
& amiability make him a v]itable        

,bodhisattva--"o ( ! noble/ ( m5 t ,i h 
ev] se54 ,l _m  o!r s*ol>s ( ,b5gal1 ,i 
am deeply indebt$ to him = !            
enc\ragem5t t he has giv5 me 9 ! pursuit
 ( my /udies &  rese>*es1 & my feel+s ( 
atta*m5t & gratefulness = him are  too  
deep = utt]ance4    ,i am mu* indebt$ to
 my e/eem$ fri5ds ,dr ,e4,j4 ,?omas ( ! 
,cambridge  ,univ]sity ,libr>y & ,mr    
,d\glas ,a9slie = _! k9dly revis+ !     
pro(s ( ?is "w1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* !y      
improv$ my ,engli% 9  _m places4 ,to !  
=m] ,i am also indebt$ = 8 att5tion to !
  translit]ation ( a l>ge numb] (       
,sanskrit words1 & also = !  :ole-he>t$ 
sympa?y & great fri5dl9ess ) :i* he     
assi/$ me  ) 8 advice on _m po9ts (     
detail1 9 p>ticul> ! exposition  ( !    
,buddhi/ doctr9e ( ! cause ( rebir? owes
 some?+ ( its  treatm5t to repeat$      
discussions ) him4    ,i also wi% to    
express my gratefulness to my fri5d ,mr 
,n4,k4 ,siddhanta1  ,m4,a41 late ( !    
,scotti% ,*ur*es ,college1 &            
,mademoiselle ,paule ,povie  = ! k9d    

assi/ance !y h r5d]$ 9 prep>+ ! index4  
,my  obligations are also due to !      
,syndics ( ! ,cambridge ,univ]sity      
,press  = ! hon\r !y h done me 9 publi%+
 ?is "w4    ,to s*ol>s ( ,indian        
philosophy :o may d me ! hon\r ( read+  
my  book & :o may be impress$ ) its     
inevitable    xii    %ortcom+s &        
defects1 ,i c only pray 9 ! words (     
,hemac&ra3      ,pramnasiddhntaviruddham
 atra    ,yatkiciduktam matimndyadost   
,mts>yyam utsryya tadryyacitth          
,prasdam dhya vis'odhayantu4 ,footnote  
ref #a      ,s4,d4    ,,tr9ity          
,,college1  ,,cambridge4    ,febru>y1   
#aibb4        ,footnote #a3 ,may !      
noble-m9d$ s*ol>s in/ead ( *]i%+ ill    
feel+ k9dly correct :atev] errors h be5 
"h committ$ ?r\gh  ! dullness ( my      
intellect 9 ! way ( wrong int]pretations
 &  mis/atem5ts4      ,,cont5ts         
,,*apt] ,i                              
,,introductory44444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444444444444#a    ,,*apt]
 ,,ii    ,,! ,,v$as1 ,,br,,hma,,nas ,,& 

,,_! ,,philosophy     #a ,! ,v$as & _!  
antiquity4444444444444444444444444444444
44#aj   #b ,! place ( ! ,v$as 9 ! ,h9du 
m9d4444444444444444444444#aj   #c       
,classification ( ! ,v$ic               
lit]ature444444444444444444444444#aa    
#d ,!                                   
,samhits44444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444#ab   #e ,!            
,brhmanas4444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444#ac   #f ,!            
ranyakas44444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444444#ad   #g ,! ,rg-,v$a1   
its                                     
civilization4444444444444444444444444444
4444#ad   #h ,! ,v$ic                   
gods444444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444#af   #i ,poly!ism1         
,h5o!ism1 &                             
,mono!ism444444444444444444444444#ag    
#aj ,gr[? ( a ,mono!i/ic t5d5cy2        
,prajpati1 ,vis'vak>ma44444#ai  #aa     
,brahma444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444444444#bj  #ab         
,sacrifice2 ! ,fir/ ,rudim5ts ( ! ,law (

 ,k>ma444444444444#ba  #ac              
,cosmogony--,my?ological &              
,philosophical444444444444444444444#bc  
#ad ,es*atology2 ! ,doctr9e (           
tman4444444444444444444444444444#be  #ae
                                        
,conclusion44444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444444444#bf    ,,*apt]   
,,iii    ,,! ,,e>li] ,,upani,,sads 7#gjj
 ,b4,c4-#fjj ,b4,c47     #a ,! place ( !
 ,upanisads 9 ,v$ic                     
lit]ature444444444444444#bh   #b ,!     
names ( ! ,upanisads2 ,non-,brahmanic   
influ5ce4444444444#cj   #c ,brhmanas & !
 ,e>ly                                  
,upanisads444444444444444444444444444#ca
   #d ,! mean+ ( ! ^w                   
,upanisad44444444444444444444444444444#c
h   #e ,! composition & gr[? ( div]se   
,upanisads44444444444444#ch   #f        
,revival ( ,upanisad /udies 9 mod]n     
times444444444444444444#ci   #g ,!      
,upanisads & _!                         
int]pretations4444444444444444444444#da 
#h ,! que/ aft] ,brahman3 ! /ruggle & ! 

failures44444444#db   #i ,unkn[ability (
 ,brahman & ! ,negative                 
,me?od44444444444444#dd  #aj ,! tman    
doctr9e444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444#de  #aa ,place ( ,brahman 9 
!                                       
,upanisads4444444444444444444444444444#d
h  #ab ,!                               
,_w4444444444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444444#ea  #ac ,!             
,_w-,s\l44444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444444#eb  #ad ,! ,!ory (     
,causation444444444444444444444444444444
444444444#eb  #ae ,doctr9e (            
,transmigration4444444444444444444444444
44444444444#ec  #af                     
,emancipation444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444444444#eh    ,,*apt]   
,,iv    ,,g5]al ,,obs]vations ,,on ,,!  
,,sy/ems ,,( ,,indian ,,philosophy    #a
 ,9 :at s5se is a ,hi/ory ( ,indian     
,philosophy possible8444444#fb  #b ,gr[?
 ( ! ,philosophic                       
,lit]ature444444444444444444444444444#fe
  #c ,! ,indian sy/ems (                

,philosophy44444444444444444444444444444
44#fg  #d ,"s fundam5tal po9ts (        
agreem5t444444444444444444444444444#ga  
#a ,! ,k>ma                             
!ory444444444444444444444444444444444444
44444#ga   #b ,! ,doctr9e (             
,mukti4444444444444444444444444444444444
44#gd   #c ,! ,doctr9e (                
,s\l444444444444444444444444444444444444
4#ge  #e ,! ,pessimi/ic ,attitude t[>ds 
! ,_w & ! ,optimi/ic   ,fai? 9 !        
end4444444444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444#ge  #f ,unity 9 ,indian      
,sdhana 7philosophical1 religi\s &      
e?ical                                  
endeav\rs7444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444444444444#gg    xiv        
,,*apt] ,v    ,,buddhi/ ,,philosophy    
#a ,! ,/ate ( ,philosophy 9 ,india be=e 
,buddha44444444444444444#gh   #b        
,buddha3 8                              
,life44444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444#ha   #c ,e>ly ,buddhi/     
,lit]ature444444444444444444444444444444
44444444#hb   #d ,! ,doctr9e ( ,causal  

,connection ( e>ly                      
,buddhism444444444444#hd   #e ,!        
,kh&has444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444#ic   #f ,avijj &     
sava444444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444#ii   #g ,sla &              
,samdhi444444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444#ajj   #h                  
,kamma4444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444444444#ajf   #i        
,upanisads &                            
,buddhism4444444444444444444444444444444
44444444#aji  #aj ,! ,s*ools ( ,!ravda  
,buddhism44444444444444444444444444444#a
ab  #aa                                 
,mahynism4444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444444#abe  #ab ,! ,ta?at
 ,philosophy ( ,z'vaghosa 7#hj          
,a4,d47444444444444444#abi  #ac ,!      
,mdhyamika or ! ,snyavda                
s*ool--,nihilism44444444444444#ach  #ad 
,uncompromis+ ,idealism or ! ,s*ool (   
,vijnavda ,buddhism4#ade  #ae           
,sautrntika !ory (                      
,p]ception444444444444444444444444444444

#aea  #af ,sautrntika !ory (            
,inf]5ce4444444444444444444444444444444#
aee  #ag ,! ,doctr9e (                  
,mom5t>9ess44444444444444444444444444444
4444#aeh  #ah ,! ,doctr9e ( ,mom5t>9ess 
& ! ,doctr9e ( ,causal   ,effici5cy     
7,ar?akriykritva744444444444444444444444
44444444444#afc  #ai ,"s ,ontological   
,problems on :i* ! ,diff]5t ,indian     
,sy/ems                                 
div]g$4444444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444444444444#afd  #bj ,brief  
,survey ( ! ,evolution ( ,buddhi/       
,?\ght4444444444444#aff      ,,*apt]    
,,vi    ,,! ,,ja9a ,,philosophy     #a  
,! ,orig9 (                             
,ja9ism444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444#afi   #b ,two ,sects (         
,ja9ism444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444#agj   #c ,! ,canonical & o!r  
,lit]ature ( ! ,ja9s444444444444444#aga 
#d ,"s ,g5]al ,*>act]i/ics ( !          
,ja9s444444444444444444444#agb   #e     
,life (                                 
,mahvra444444444444444444444444444444444

4444444444444#agc   #f ,! ,fundam5tal   
,ideas ( ,ja9a                          
,ontology44444444444444444444444#agc    
#g ,! ,doctr9e ( ,relative ,pluralism   
7,anekntavda74444444444444#age   #h ,!  
,doctr9e (                              
,nyas44444444444444444444444444444444444
444444#agf   #i ,! ,doctr9e (           
,sydvda444444444444444444444444444444444
44444#agi  #aj ,k1 its value =          
u44444444444444444444444444444444444#aha
  #aa ,!ory (                           
,p]ception444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444#ahc  #ab ,non-,p]ceptual   
k44444444444444444444444444444444444444#
ahe  #ac ,k z                           
,revelation44444444444444444444444444444
4444444444#ahf  #ad ,!                  
,jvas44444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444#ahh  #ae ,k>ma       
,!ory44444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444#aij  #af ,k>ma1 srava & 
,nirj>4444444444444444444444444444444444
444#aib  #ag                            
,pudgala44444444444444444444444444444444

44444444444444444444444#aie  #ah ,dh>ma1
 ,adh>ma1                               
ks'a444444444444444444444444444444444444
444#aig  #ai ,kla &                     
,samaya444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444#aih  #bj ,ja9a           
,cosmography4444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444#aii  #ba ,ja9a        
,yoga44444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444#aii  #bb ,ja9a        
,a!ism4444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444#bjc  #bc ,moksa         
7emancipation744444444444444444444444444
444444444444444#bjg    xv      ,,*apt]  
,,vii    ,,! ,,kapila ,,& ,,!           
,p,,ta,,jala ,s,,mkhya 7,,yoga7     #a  
,a                                      
,review444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444444#bjh   #b ,! ,g]ms 
( ,smkhya 9 !                           
,upanisads44444444444444444444444#baa   
#c ,smkhya & ,yoga                      
,lit]ature444444444444444444444444444444
4444#bab   #d ,an ,e>ly ,s*ool (        
,smkhya444444444444444444444444444444444

44#bac   #e ,smkhya krik1 ,smkhya stra1 
,vcaspati ,mis'ra & ,vijna              
,bhiksu444444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444444444444444#bbb   #f ,yoga
 &                                      
,patajali4444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444#bbf   #g ,! ,smkhya & !   
,yoga doctr9e ( ,s\l or                 
,purusa4444444444#bch   #h ,?\ght &     
,matt]4444444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444#bda   #i ,feel+s1 ! ,ultimate
                                        
,sub/ances44444444444444444444444444444#
bdb  #aj ,!                             
,gunas4444444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444444444#bdc  #aa ,prakrti & 
its                                     
evolution4444444444444444444444444444444
4444#bde  #ab ,pralaya & ! di/urbance ( 
! ,prakrti ,equilibrium4444444#bdg  #ac 
,mahat &                                
,ahamkra44444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444#bdh  #ad ,! ,tanmtras & !  
,p>amu4444444444444444444444444444444#be
a  #ae ,pr9ciple ( ,causation &         

,cons]vation ( ,en]gy4444444444444#bed  
#af ,*ange z ! =mation ( new            
collocations4444444444444444444#bee  #ag
 ,causation z ,satkryavda 7! !ory t !   
effect   pot5tially exi/s be=e x is     
g5]at$ by ! movem5t   ( !               
cause74444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444#beg  #ah ,smkhya      
,a!ism & ,yoga                          
,!ism444444444444444444444444444444#beh 
#ai ,buddhi &                           
,purusa444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444#bei  #bj ,! ,cognitive     
,process & "s *>act]i/ics (             
,citta4444444#bfa  #ba ,sorr[ & its     
,dissolution4444444444444444444444444444
44444444#bfd  #bb                       
,citta4444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444444444444444#bfh  #bc ,yoga  
,purificatory ,practices                
7,p>ik>ma744444444444444444444444#bgj   
#bd ,! ,yoga                            
,m$itation444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444444#bga      ,,*apt] ,,viii   
,,! ,,ny,,ya-,,vaisesika ,,philosophy   

#a ,criticism ( ,buddhism & ,smkhya f ! 
,nyya /&po9t444#bgd  #b ,nyya &         
,vais'esika                             
stras44444444444444444444444444444444444
#bgf  #c ,does ,vais'esika repres5t an  
old s*ool ( ,mmms84444444444#bhj  #d    
,philosophy 9 ! ,vais'esika             
stras444444444444444444444444444#bhe  #e
 ,philosophy 9 ! ,nyya                  
stras444444444444444444444444444444444#b
id  #f ,philosophy ( ,nyya stras &      
,vais'esika stras44444444444444#cja  #g 
,! ,vais'esika & ,nyya                  
,lit]ature444444444444444444444444444#cj
e  #h ,! ma9 doctr9e ( !                
,nyya-,vais'esika                       
,philosophy4444444444#caj  #i ,! six    
,padr?as3 ,dravya1 ,guna1 ,k>ma1 ,smnya1
 ,vis'esa1                              
,samavya44444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444444444#cac  #aj ,!    
,!ory (                                 
,causation444444444444444444444444444444
444444444#cai  #aa ,dissolution         
7,pralaya7 & ,creation                  

7,srsti744444444444444444#cbc  #ab ,pro(
 ( ! ,exi/5ce (                         
,is'v>a44444444444444444444444444444#cbe
  #ac ,! ,nyya-,vais'esika              
,physics44444444444444444444444444444444
4#cbf  #ad ,! ,orig9 ( ,k               
7,pramna74444444444444444444444444444#cc
j  #ae ,! f\r ,pramnas (                
,nyya44444444444444444444444444444444444
#ccb  #af ,p]ception                    
7,pratyaksa74444444444444444444444444444
44444444444#ccc  #ag                    
,inf]5ce44444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444444#cdc  #ah ,upamna &
                                        
,s'abda444444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444#ced  #ai ,negation 9        
,nyya-,vais'esika44444444444444444444444
4444444444#cee  #bj ,! necessity ( !    
,acquirem5t ( debat+ devices =   ! seek]
 (                                      
,salvation444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444#cfj  #ba ,! ,doctr9e (      
,s\l444444444444444444444444444444444444
444444#cfb  #bb s'v>a &                 

,salvation444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444#cfc    xvi      ,,*apt] ,,ix
    ,m,m,,ms ,,philosophy      #a ,a    
,comp>ative                             
,review444444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444#cfg  #b ,! ,mmms             
,lit]ature444444444444444444444444444444
4444444444#cfi  #c ,! ,p>atah-prmnya    
doctr9e ( ,nyya & !   ,svatah-prmnya    
doctr9e (                               
,mmms44444444444444444444444444#cgb  #d 
,! place ( ,s5se-organs 9               
,p]ception444444444444444444444444#cge  
#e ,indet]m9ate & ,det]m9ate            
,p]ception44444444444444444444444#cgh   
#f ,"s ,ontological ,problems connect$ )
 ! ,doctr9e (                           
,p]ception444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444444444#cgi  #g ,!     
,nature (                               
,k44444444444444444444444444444444444444
44#chb  #h ,! ,psy*ology (              
,illusion4444444444444444444444444444444
444444#chd  #i                          
,inf]5ce44444444444444444444444444444444

4444444444444444444444#chg  #aj ,upamna1
                                        
,ar?patti4444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444#cia  #aa                   
,s'abda-pramna44444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444444#cid  #ab ,!       
,pramna ( ,non-p]ception                
7anupalabdhi7444444444444444444#cig  #ac
 ,self1 ,salvation1 &                   
,god444444444444444444444444444444444444
44#cii  #ad ,mmms z ,philosophy & ,mimms
 z ,ritualism44444444444444#djc         
,,*apt] ,x    ,,! ,s',a,,nk>a ,,s*ool   
,,( ,,v$,,nta      #a ,compreh5sion ( ! 
,philosophical ,issues m ess5tial ?an   
! ,dialectic (                          
,controv]sy44444444444444444444444444444
4444444#djf  #b ,! philosophical        
situation3 a                            
,review44444444444444444444444444#djh   
#c ,v$nta                               
,lit]ature444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444#dah  #d ,v$nta 9        
,gaudapda4444444444444444444444444444444
44444444444#dbj  #e ,v$nta & ,sank>a    

7#ghh-hbj                               
,a4,d474444444444444444444444444444#dbi 
#f ,! ma9 idea ( ! ,v$nta               
philosophy444444444444444444444444#dci  
#g ,9 :at s5se is ! _w-appe>ance        
false84444444444444444444#ddc  #h ,!    
nature ( ! _w-appe>ance1                
ph5om5a444444444444444444#dde  #i ,!    
,def9ition ( ,ajna                      
7nesci5ce7444444444444444444444444444#de
b  #aj ,ajna e/abli%$ by ,p]ception &   
,inf]5ce4444444444444444#ded  #aa ,locus
 & ,object ( ,ajna1 ,ahamkra &          
,antahk>ana4444444#deg  #ab ,anirvcyavda
 & ! ,v$nta                             
dialectic44444444444444444444444#dfa    
#ac ,! ,!ory (                          
,causation444444444444444444444444444444
444444444#dfe  #ad ,v$nta !ory (        
,p]ception &                            
,inf]5ce44444444444444444444#dgj  #ae   
tman1 ,jva1 ,is'v>a1 ,ekajvavda &       
,drstisrstivda4444#dgd  #af ,v$nta !ory 
(                                       
,illusion4444444444444444444444444444444

44444#dhe  #ag ,v$nta ,e?ics & ,v$nta   
,emancipation44444444444444444444444#dhi
  #ah ,v$nta & o!r ,indian              
sy/ems444444444444444444444444444444#dib
                                        
,,index444444444444444444444444444444444
444444444444444444444444444#die    #a   
,,*apt] ,i      ,,introductory    ,!    
a*ievem5ts ( ! anci5t ,indians 9 ! field
 ( philosophy are  b v imp]fectly kn[n  
to ! _w at l>ge1 & x is un=tunate  t !  
condition is no bett] ev5 9 ,india4 ,!re
 is a small body  ( ,h9du s*ol>s &      
ascetics liv+ a retir$ life 9 solitude1 
:o  are well acqua9t$ ) ! subject1 b !y 
d n "k ,engli% &  are n us$ to mod]n    
ways ( ?9k+1 & ! idea t !y ought  to    
write books 9 v]nacul>s 9 ord] to       
popul>ize ! subject does  n appeal to   
!m4 ,?r\gh ! activity ( v>i\s le>n$     
bodies &  private individuals bo? 9     
,europe & 9 ,india l>ge numb]s (        
philosophical works 9 ,sanskrit & ,pli h
 be5 publi%$1 z well z  translations ( a
 few ( !m1 b !re has be5 z yet little   

sy/ematic attempt on ! "p ( s*ol>s to   
/udy !m & judge _!  value4 ,!re are     
hundr$s ( ,sanskrit works on mo/ ( !    
sy/ems (  ,indian ?\ght & sc>cely a     
hundr$? "p ( !m has be5 translat$4      
,indian modes ( expression1 entail+     
difficult te*nical philosophical  t]ms  
are s diff]5t f ^? ( ,european ?\ght1 t 
!y c  h>dly ev] be accurately translat$4
 ,x is !re=e v difficult  = a p]son     
unacqua9t$ ) ,sanskrit to und]/& ,indian
 philosophical  ?\ght 9 its true be>+ f 
translations4 ,pli is a mu* easi]       
language ?an ,sanskrit1 b a k ( ,pli is 
helpful 9  und]/&+ only ! e>lie/ s*ool (
 ,buddhism1 :5 x 0 9 its                
semi-philosophical /age4 ,sanskrit is   
g5]ally reg>d$ z a difficult  language4 
,b no "o f an acqua9tance ) ,v$ic or    
ord9>y lit]>y  ,sanskrit c h any idea ( 
! difficulty ( ! logical & ab/ruse  p>ts
 ( ,sanskrit philosophical lit]ature4 ,a
 man :o c easily  und]/& ! ,v$as4 !     
,upanisads1 ! ,purnas1 ! ,law ,books &  
! lit]>y works1 & is also well acqua9t$ 

) ,european  philosophical ?\ght1 may   
f9d x lit]ally impossible to und]/&  ev5
 small portions ( a "w ( advanc$ ,indian
 logic1 or !  dialectical ,v$nta4 ,?is  
is due to two reasons1 ! use (  te*nical
 t]ms & ( great cond5sation 9           
expression1 &  ! hidd5 allusions to     
doctr9es ( o!r sy/ems4 ,!    #b         
t5d5cy to conceiv+ philosophical        
problems 9 a cle> & unambigu\s  mann] is
 an important feature ( ,sanskrit ?\ght1
 b f ! n9?  c5tury onw>ds1 ! habit ( us+
 cle>1 def9ite1 & precise  expressions1 
began to develop 9 a v /rik+ mann]1 & z 
a result  ( t a l>ge numb] ( te*nical   
t]ms began to be inv5t$4 ,^!  t]ms are  
seldom prop]ly expla9$1 & x is          
presuppos$ t ! read]  :o wants to read !
 works %\ld h a k ( !m4 ,any "o 9  old5 
times :o took to ! /udy ( any sy/em (   
philosophy1 _h to d  s ) a tea*]1 :o    
expla9$ ^? t]ms to him4 ,! tea*] himself
  _h got x f 8 tea*]1 & he f 84 ,!re 0  
no t5d5cy to  popul>ize philosophy1 = ! 
idea !n preval5t 0 t only !  *os5 few :o

 _h o!rwise %[n _! fitness1 des]v$ to   
become  fit /ud5ts 7adhikr7 (           
philosophy1 "u ! direction ( a  tea*]4  
,only ^? :o _h ! grit & high moral /r5g?
 to devote  _! :ole life to ! true      
und]/&+ ( philosophy & !  rebuild+ (    
life 9 accordance ) ! high tru?s (      
philosophy  7 all[$ to /udy x4    ,ano!r
 difficulty :i* a beg9n] w meet is ?is1 
t sometimes  ! same te*nical t]ms are   
us$ 9 extremely diff]5t s5ses 9  diff]5t
 sy/ems4 ,! /ud5t mu/ "k ! mean+ ( ea*  
te*nical  t]m ) ref]5ce to ! sy/em 9 :i*
 x occurs1 & no diction>y  w enlight5   
him mu* ab\t ! matt] ,footnote ref #a4  
,he w h  to pick !m up z he advances &  
f9ds !m us$4 ,allusions to !  doctr9es (
 o!r sy/ems & _! refutations dur+ !     
discussions  ( simil> doctr9es 9 any    
p>ticul> sy/em ( ?\ght are (t5 v  puzzl+
 ev5 to a well-equipp$ read]2 = he _c be
 expect$ to  "k all ! doctr9es ( o!r    
sy/ems )\t go+ ?r\gh !m1 &  s x (t5     
becomes difficult to foll[ ! s]ies (    
answ]s &  refutations :i* are p\r$ =? 9 

! c\rse ( ^! discussions4  ,!re are two 
important comp5diums 9 ,sanskrit giv+ a 
summ>y ( "s  ( ! pr9cipal sy/ems (      
,indian ?\ght1 viz4 !                   
,s>vad>s'anasamgraha1 & !               
,sadd>s'anasamuccaya (  ,h>ibhadra ) !  
comm5t>y ( ,gun>atna2 b ! =m] is v      
sket*y & c ?r[ v little light on !      
und]/&+  ( ! ontological or             
epi/emological doctr9es ( any ( !       
sy/ems4 ,x has be5 translat$ by ,c[ell &
 ,g\gh1 b ,i        ,footnote #a3       
,rec5tly a v able ,sanskrit diction>y ( 
te*nical  philosophical t]ms call$      
,nyyakos'a has be5 prep>$ by ,m4,m4     
,bhmcrya ,jhalkik>1 ,bombay1 ,govt4     
,press4    #c    am afraid ! translation
 may n be f\nd v intelligible4          
,gun>atna's comm5t>y is excell5t s f> z 
,ja9ism is conc]n$1  & x sometimes gives
 int]e/+ in=mation ab\t o!r sy/ems1  &  
also supplies u ) "s %ort               
bibliographical notices1 b x  seldom    
goes on to expla9 ! epi/emological or   
ontological doctr9es  or discussions :i*

 are s necess>y = ! "r und]/&+ ( any  ( 
! advanc$ sy/ems ( ,indian ?\ght4 ,?us 9
 ! abs5ce ( a book  :i* c\ld give u 9   
brief ! ma9 epi/emological1 ontological1
 &  psy*ological positions ( ! ,indian  
?9k]s1 x is difficult ev5 =  a good     
,sanskrit s*ol> to foll[ ! advanc$      
philosophical lit]ature1  ev5 ?\gh he   
may be acqua9t$ ) _m ( ! te*nical       
philosophical  t]ms4 ,i h spok5 en\gh   
ab\t ! difficulties ( /udy+ ,indian     
philosophy1 b if once a p]son c get     
himself us$ to ! te*nical  t]ms & !     
g5]al positions ( ! diff]5t ,indian     
?9k]s & _!  modes ( expression1 he c    
ma/] ! :ole by pati5t toil4 ,!  te*nical
 t]ms1 :i* are a s\rce ( difficulty at !
 beg9n+1 are  ( ine/imable value 9 help+
 u to und]/& ! precise & def9ite  mean+ 
( ! writ]s :o us$ !m1 & ! *ances (      
mis9t]pret+  or misund]/&+ !m are r$uc$ 
to a m9imum4 ,x is ,i ?9k  well-kn[n t  
avoidance ( te*nical t]ms has (t5 r5d]$ 
philosophical works unduly v]bose1 &    
liable to mis9t]pretation4  ,! art (    

cle> writ+ is inde$ a r>e virtue & e    
philosoph]  _c expect to h x4 ,b :5     
te*nical expressions are prop]ly  =m$1  
ev5 a bad writ] c make himself und]/ood4
 ,9 ! e>ly days  ( ,buddhi/ philosophy 9
 ! ,pli lit]ature1 ?is difficulty is    
greatly  felt4 ,!re are "s te*nical t]ms
 "h :i* are /ill v ela/ic &  _!         
repetition 9 diff]5t places 9 m or less 
diff]5t s5ses  height5 ! difficulty (   
und]/&+ ! real mean+ int5d$ to be       
convey$4    ,b is x necess>y t a hi/ory 
( ,indian philosophy %\ld be  writt58   
,!re are "s p :o ?9k t ! ,indians nev]  
rose  beyond ! /age ( simple fai? & t   
!re=e !y _c h  any philosophy at all 9 !
 prop] s5se ( ! t]m4 ,?us ,pr(essor     
,frank ,?illy ( ! ,cornell ,univ]sity   
says 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy          
,footnote ref #a1 ,a univ]sal hi/ory (  
philosophy w\ld include  ! philosophies 
( all peoples4 ,n all peoples1 h[ev]    
,footnote #a3 ,new ,york1 #aiad1 p4 #c4 
#d    h produc$ real sy/ems ( ?\ght1 & !
 speculations ( only a  few c be said to

 h _h a hi/ory4 ,_m d n rise beyond !   
my?ological /age4 ,ev5 ! !ories (       
,ori5tal peoples1 ! ,h9dus1  ,egyptians1
 ,*9ese1 consi/1 9 ! ma91 ( my?ological 
& e?ical  doctr9es1 & are n ?or\ghgo+   
sy/ems ( ?\ght3 !y are %ot  ?r\gh )     
poetry & fai?4 ,we %all1 !re=e1 limit   
ourselves to  ! /udy ( ! ,we/]n         
c\ntries1 & beg9 ) ! philosophy ( !     
anci5t ,greeks1 on ^: culture our own   
civilization 9 "p1 re/s4  ,!re are      
d\btless _m o!r p :o hold su* un9=m$ &  
untrue beliefs1 :i* only %[ _! ignorance
 ( ,indian matt]s4  ,x is n necess>y to 
say any?+ 9 ord] to refute ^! views1  = 
:at foll[s w ,i hope %[ ! falsity ( _!  
beliefs4 ,if  !y are n satisfi$1 & want 
to "k m def9itely & elaborately  ab\t ! 
cont5ts ( ! diff]5t sy/ems1 ,i am afraid
 !y w h  to g to ! orig9als ref]r$ to 9 
! bibliographical notices (  ! *apt]s4  
,!re is ano!r op9ion1 t ! "t has n yet  
come = an attempt  to write a hi/ory (  
,indian philosophy4 ,two diff]5t reasons
 are giv5  f two diff]5t po9ts ( view4  

,x is said t ! field ( ,indian          
philosophy is s va/1 & su* a va/        
lit]ature exi/s on ea* ( !  sy/ems1 t x 
is n possible = anyone to collect 8     
mat]ials  directly f ! orig9al s\rces1  
be=e sep>ate acc\nts are prep>$  by     
speciali/s work+ 9 ea* ( ! p>ticul>     
sy/ems4 ,!re is "s  tru? 9 ?is          
objection1 b al?\gh 9 "s ( ! important  
sy/ems  ! lit]ature t exi/s is exce$+ly 
va/1 yet _m ( !m are m  or less         
repetitions ( ! same subjects1 & a      
judici\s selection (  tw5ty or ?irty    
important works on ea* ( ! sy/ems c\ld  
c]ta9ly  be made1 :i* w\ld give a fairly
 correct exposition4 ,9 my own  und]tak+
 9 ?is direction ,i h always drawn      
directly f !  orig9al texts1 & h always 
tri$ to collect my mat]ials f ^?  s\rces
 9 :i* !y appe> at _! be/4 ,my space has
 be5 v limit$  & ,i h *os5 ! features   
:i* appe>$ to me to be ! mo/  important4
 ,i _h to leave out _m discussions (    
difficult problems  & div]se important  
be>+s ( ea* ( ! sy/ems to _m  int]e/+   

aspects ( philosophy4 ,?is ,i hope may  
be excus$  9 a hi/ory ( philosophy :i*  
does n aim at complet5ess4  ,!re are    
inde$ _m defects & %ortcom+s1 &    #e   
^! w\ld h be5 mu* less 9 ! case ( a     
writ] abl] ?an !  pres5t "o4 ,at any    
rate x may be hop$ t ! imp]fections ( ! 
pres5t attempt w be a /imulus to ^? ^:  
bett] & m  compet5t ef=ts w sup]s$e x4  
,no attempt ought to be call$           
impossible on acc\nt ( its imp]fections4
    ,9 ! second place x is said t !     
,indians _h no prop] &  accurate        
hi/orical records & biographies & x is  
!re=e impossible  to write a hi/ory (   
,indian philosophy4 ,?is objection is   
also p>tially  valid4 ,b ?is defect does
 n affect u s mu* z "o w\ld at fir/     
sight suppose2 =1 ?\gh ! dates ( ! e>li]
 beg9n+s are v  obscure1 yet1 9 lat]    
times1 we are 9 a position to affirm "s 
dates  & to po9t out priority &         
po/]iority 9 ! case ( o!r ?9k]s4  ,z mo/
 ( ! sy/ems develop$ side by side ?r\gh 
_m c5turies _!  mutual relations also   

develop$1 & ^! c\ld be well obs]v$4 ,!  
special nature ( ?is developm5t has be5 
t\*$ on 9 ! f\r?  *apt]4 ,mo/ ( ! sy/ems
 _h v e>ly beg9n+s & a cont9u\s  c\rse (
 developm5t ?r\gh ! succe$+ c5turies1 & 
x is n  possible to take ! /ate ( !     
philosophy ( a p>ticul> sy/em at  a     
p>ticul> "t & contra/ x ) ! /ate ( t    
sy/em at a  lat] "t2 = ! lat] /ate did n
 sup]s$e ! previ\s /ate1  b only %[$ a m
 coh]5t =m ( x1 :i* 0 g5]ally true to  !
 orig9al sy/em b 0 m det]m9ate4         
,evolution ?r\gh hi/ory  has 9 ,we/]n   
c\ntries (t5 br\ght =? ! developm5t ( m 
coh]5t types ( philosophic ?\ght1 b 9   
,india1 ?\gh ! types  rema9$ ! same1 _! 
developm5t ?r\gh hi/ory made !m m &  m  
coh]5t & det]m9ate4 ,mo/ ( ! p>ts 7     
probably exi/5t  9 ! e>li] /ages1 b !y 7
 9 an undiff]5tiat$ /ate2 ?r\gh  !      
criticism & conflict ( ! diff]5t s*ools 
exi/+ side by side  ! p>ts ( ea* ( !    
sy/ems ( ?\ght became m & m             
diff]5tiat$1 det]m9ate1 & coh]5t4 ,9 "s 
cases ?is developm5t  has be5 almo/     

imp]ceptible1 & 9 _m cases ! e>li] =ms h
  be5 lo/1 or s inadequately express$ t 
no?+ def9ite c\ld be  made out ( !m4    
,:]ev] su* a diff]5tiation c\ld be made 
9 ! int]e/s ( philosophy1 ,i h tri$ to d
 x4 ,b ,i  h nev] consid]$ x desirable t
 ! philosophical int]e/  %\ld be        
subord9at$ to ! *ronological4 ,x is no  
#f    d\bt true t m def9ite *ronological
 in=mation w\ld be  a v desirable ?+1   
yet ,i am ( op9ion t ! little           
*ronological data we h give u a fair    
am\nt ( help 9 =m+  a g5]al notion ab\t 
! gr[? & developm5t ( ! diff]5t  sy/ems 
by mutual association & conflict4 ,if ! 
condition ( !  developm5t ( philosophy 9
 ,india _h be5 ! same z 9 ,europe1      
def9ite *ronological k w\ld be consid]$ 
mu* m  indisp5sable4 ,=1 :5 "o sy/em    
sup]s$es ano!r1 x is  indisp5sably      
necess>y t we %\ld "k :i* prec$$ & :i*  
succe$$4 ,b :5 ! sy/ems are develop+    
side by side1 & :5  we are gett+ !m 9 _!
 ri*] & bett] =ms1 ! int]e/ )  reg>d to 
! conditions1 nature & environm5t ( _!  

e>ly orig9  has r a hi/orical ?an a     
philosophical int]e/4 ,i h tri$ z  be/  
,i c\ld to =m c]ta9 g5]al notions z     
reg>ds ! e>li]  /ages ( "s ( ! sy/ems1 b
 ?\gh ! v>i\s features (  ^! sy/ems at  
^! /ages 9 detail may n be asc]ta9able1 
yet ?is1 ,i ?9k1 c\ld nev] be consid]$ z
 invalidat+ !  :ole programme4 ,moreov]1
 ev5 if we knew def9itely ! correct     
dates  ( ! ?9k]s ( ! same sy/em we c\ld 
n treat !m sep>ately1  z is done 9      
,european philosophy1 )\t unnecess>ily  
repeat+ !  same ?+ tw5ty times ov]2 = !y
 all dealt ) ! same sy/em1  & tri$ to   
br+ out ! same type ( ?\ght 9 m & m     
det]m9ate =ms4    ,! e>lie/ lit]ature ( 
,india is ! ,v$as4 ,^! consi/ mo/ly (   
hymns 9 praise ( nature gods1 su* z     
fire1 w9d1 etc4 ,except+ 9  "s ( ! hymns
 ( ! lat] p>ts ( ! "w 7probably ab\t    
#ajjj  ,b4,c471 !re is n mu* philosophy 
9 !m 9 our s5se ( ! t]m4  ,x is "h t we 
fir/ f9d int5sely int]e/+ philosophical 
que/ions ( a m or less cosmological "*  
express$ 9 t]ms  ( poetry & imag9ation4 

,9 ! lat] ,v$ic works call$ !           
,brhmafnas & ! ranyakas writt5 mo/ly 9  
prose1 :i* foll[$  ! ,v$ic hymns1 !re   
are two t5d5cies1 viz4 "o t s\ght to    
e/abli% ! magical =ms ( rituali/ic      
wor%ip1 & ! o!r :i*  indulg$ 9          
speculative ?9k+ ?r\gh crude            
g5]alizations4 ,?is  latt] t5d5cy 0     
inde$ mu* feebl] ?an ! =m]1 & x might   
appe> t ! rituali/ic t5d5cy _h actually 
swall[$ up :at  little ( philosophy !   
lat] p>ts ( ! ,v$ic hymns 7 try+  to    
express1 b !re are unmi/akable m>ks t   
?is t5d5cy    #g    exi/$ & work$4 ,next
 to ?is come c]ta9 treatises writt5 9   
prose  & v]se call$ ! ,upanisads1 :i*   
conta9 v>i\s sorts (  philosophical     
?\ghts mo/ly moni/ic or s+ul>i/ic b also
 "s  plurali/ic & duali/ic ones4 ,^! are
 n reason$ /atem5ts1 b  utt]ances (     
tru?s intuitively p]ceiv$ or felt z     
unque/ionably real  & indubitable1 &    
c>ry+ great =ce1 vig\r1 & p]suasiv5ess )
  !m4 ,x is v probable t _m ( ! e>lie/  
p>ts ( ?is  lit]ature are z old z #ejj  

,b4,c4 to #gjj ,b4,c4 ,buddhi/          
philosophy began  ) ! ,buddha f "s "t   
ab\t #ejj ,b4,c4 ,!re is reason to      
believe  t ,buddhi/ philosophy cont9u$  
to develop 9 ,india 9 "o or o!r (  its  
vigor\s =ms till "s "t ab\t ! t5? or    
elev5? c5tury ,a4,d4  ,! e>lie/ beg9n+s 
( ! o!r ,indian sy/ems ( ?\ght are also 
to  be s\ght *iefly betwe5 ! age ( !    
,buddha to ab\t #bjj ,b4,c4 ,ja9a       
philosophy 0 probably prior to !        
,buddha4 ,b except 9 its e>li]  days1 :5
 x came 9 conflict ) ! doctr9es ( !     
,buddha1 x  does n seem to me t ! ,ja9a 
?\ght came mu* 9 contact )  o!r sy/ems (
 ,h9du ?\ght4 ,except+ 9 "s =ms (       
,vaisnava  ?\ght 9 lat] times1 ,ja9a    
?\ght is seldom allud$ to by ! ,h9du    
writ]s or lat] ,buddhi/s1 ?\gh "s ,ja9s 
l ,h>ibhadra &  ,gun>atna tri$ to refute
 ! ,h9du & ,buddhi/ sy/ems4 ,!          
non-aggressive nature ( _! religion &   
ideal may to a c]ta9  ext5t expla9 x1 b 
!re may be o!r reasons too :i* x is     
difficult = u to guess4 ,x is int]e/+ to

 note t1 ?\gh !re  h be5 "s diss5sions  
among/ ! ,ja9s ab\t dogmas & cre$s1     
,ja9a philosophy has n split into _m    
s*ools ( ?\ght m or less  diff]+ f "o   
ano!r z ,buddhi/ ?\ght did4    ,! fir/  
volume ( ?is "w w conta9 ,buddhi/ &     
,ja9a philosophy  & ! six sy/ems ( ,h9du
 ?\ght4 ,^! six sy/ems ( or?odox  ,h9du 
?\ght are ! ,smkhya1 ! ,yoga1 ! ,nyya1 !
 ,vais'esika1  ! ,mimms 7g5]ally kn[n z 
,prva ,mimms71 & ! ,v$nta 7kn[n  also z 
,utt>a ,mimms74 ,( ^! :at is diff]5tly  
kn[n z ,smkhya  & ,yoga are b diff]5t   
s*ools ( "o sy/em4 ,! ,vais'esika &  !  
,nyya 9 lat] times became s mix$ up t1  
?\gh 9 e>ly times  ! simil>ity ( ! =m] )
 ,mimms 0 great] ?an t  ) ,nyya1 !y came
 to be reg>d$ z fundam5tally almo/ !    
same sy/ems4 ,nyya & ,vais'esika h !re=e
 be5 treat$    #h    toge!r4 ,9 addition
 to ^! sy/ems "s !i/ic sy/ems began  to 
gr[ prom95t f ! n9? c5tury ,a4,d4 ,!y   
also probably  _h _! e>ly beg9n+s at !  
"t ( ! ,upanisads4 ,b at  t "t _! int]e/
 0 probably conc5trat$ on problems  (   

morality & religion4 ,x is n improbable 
t ^! 7  associat$ ) c]ta9 metaphysical  
!ories also1 b no works  treat+ !m 9 a  
sy/ematic way are n[ available4 ,"o ( _!
 mo/  important e>ly works is !         
,bhagavadgt4 ,?is book is rightly       
reg>d$ z "o ( ! greate/ ma/]pieces (    
,h9du ?\ght4 ,x is  writt5 9 v]se1 &    
deals ) moral1 religi\s1 & metaphysical 
problems1 9 a loose =m4 ,x is its lack (
 sy/em & me?od :i*  gives x its peculi> 
*>m m ak9 to ! poetry ( ! ,upanisads    
?an to ! dialectical & sy/ematic ,h9du  
?\ght4 ,f ! n9?  c5tury onw>ds attempts 
7 made to supplem5t ^! loose !i/ic      
ideas :i* 7 float+ ab\t & =m+ integral  
p>ts ( religi\s  cre$s1 by metaphysical 
!ories4 ,!ism is (t5 duali/ic &         
plurali/ic1 & s are all ^! sy/ems1 :i*  
are kn[n z diff]5t  s*ools ( ,vaisnava  
philosophy4 ,mo/ ( ! ,vaisnava ?9k]s    
wi%$  to %[ t _! sy/ems 7 taught 9 !    
,upanisads1 & ?us  wrote comm5t>ies     
!reon to prove _! int]pretations1 & also
 wrote  comm5t>ies on ! ,brahmastra1 !  

classical exposition ( !  philosophy ( !
 ,upanisads4 ,9 addition to ! works ( ^!
 ,vaisnava  ?9k]s !re sprang up ano!r   
class ( !i/ic works :i* 7 ( a  m        
eclectic nature4 ,^! also _h _! beg9n+s 
9 p]iods z old  z ! ,upanisads4 ,!y are 
kn[n z ! ,s'aiva & ,tantra ?\ght1 & are 
dealt ) 9 ! second volume ( ?is "w4     
,we ?us see t ! e>lie/ beg9n+s ( mo/    
sy/ems ( ,h9du ?\ght  c be trac$ to "s  
"t betwe5 #fjj ,b4,c4 to #ajj or #bjj   
,b4,c4 ,x is  extremely difficult to say
 any?+ ab\t ! relative priority ( !     
sy/ems ) any degree ( c]ta9ty4 ,"s      
conjectural attempts h  be5 made 9 ?is  
"w ) reg>d to "s ( ! sy/ems1 b h[ f>  !y
 are correct1 x w be = our read]s to    
judge4 ,moreov] dur+  ! e>lie/          
manife/ation ( a sy/em "s crude outl9es 
only are  traceable4 ,z "t w5t on !     
sy/ems ( ?\ght began to develop  side by
 side4 ,mo/ ( !m 7 taught f ! "t 9 :i*  
!y  7 fir/ conceiv$ to ab\t ! sev5te5?  
c5tury ,a4,d4 9 an  unbrok5 *a9 ( tea*]s
 & pupils4 ,ev5 n[ ea* sy/em (  ,h9du   

?\ght has its own adh]5ts1 ?\gh few p n[
    #i    c>e to write any new works ^u 
!m4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ! gr[? (  any sy/em ( 
,h9du ?\ght we f9d t z "t w5t on1 & z   
new  problems 7 sugge/$1 ea* sy/em tri$ 
to answ] !m consi/5tly  ) its own       
doctr9es4 ,! ord] 9 :i* we h tak5 !     
philosophical sy/ems c\ld n be /rictly a
 *ronological "o4 ,?us  ?\gh x is       
possible t ! e>lie/ speculations ( "s =m
 (  ,smkhya1 ,yoga1 & ,mmms 7 prior to  
,buddhism yet !y h be5  treat$ aft]     
,buddhism & ,ja9ism1 because ! elaborate
 works ( ^!  sy/ems :i* we n[ possess   
are lat] ?an ,buddhism4 ,9 my op9ion !  
,vais'esika sy/em is also probably      
pre-,buddhi/ic1 b x has be5  treat$     
lat]1 p>tly on acc\nt ( its association 
) ,nyya1 &  p>tly on acc\nt ( ! fact t  
all its comm5t>ies are ( a mu*  lat]    
date4 ,x seems to me almo/ c]ta9 t      
enorm\s quantities (  old philosophical 
lit]ature h be5 lo/1 :i* if f\nd c\ld h 
be5 ( use to u 9 %[+ ! /ages ( ! e>ly   
gr[? ( ! sy/ems  & _! mutual relations4 

,b z !y are n available we h to be      
satisfi$ ) :at rema9s4 ,! orig9al s\rces
 f :i* ,i h drawn  my mat]ials h all be5
 indicat$ 9 ! brief acc\nts ( !         
lit]ature ( ea* sy/em :i* ,i h put 9    
be=e beg9n+ ! /udy  ( any p>ticul> sy/em
 ( ?\ght4    ,9 my int]pretations ,i h  
always tri$ to foll[ ! orig9al s\rces  z
 accurately z ,i c\ld4 ,?is has         
sometimes l$ to old & unfamili>  modes (
 expression1 b ?is c\rse seem$ to me to 
be pref]able to  ! adoption ( ,european 
modes ( ?\ght = ! expression ( ,indian  
ideas4 ,b ev5 9 spite ( ?is /rik+       
simil>ities to _m ( !  mod]n            
philosophical doctr9es & ideas w        
d\btless be notic$4  ,?is only proves t 
! human m9d foll[s m or less ! same     
modes  ( rational ?\ght4 ,i h nev] tri$ 
to comp>e any phase ( ,indian  ?\ght )  
,european1 = ?is is beyond ! scope ( my 
pres5t  attempt1 b if ,i may be all[$ to
 express my own conviction1 ,i might    
say t _m ( ! philosophical doctr9es (   
,european philosophy are  ess5tially !  

same z ^? f\nd 9 ,indian philosophy4 ,! 
ma9  diff]5ce is (t5 ! diff]5ce ( ! po9t
 ( view f :i* !  same problems appe>$ 9 
su* a v>iety ( =ms 9 ! two c\ntries4    
,my own view ) reg>d to ! net value (   
,indian philosophical  developm5t w be  
express$ 9 ! conclud+ *apt] ( ! second  
volume ( ! pres5t "w4    #aj            
,,*apt] ,,ii      ,,! ,,v$as1           
,,br,,hmanas ,,& ,,_! ,,philosophy    ,!
 ,v$as & _! antiquity4    ,! sacr$ books
 ( ,india1 ! ,v$as1 are g5]ally believ$ 
to be !  e>lie/ lit]>y record ( !       
,indo-,european race4 ,x is inde$       
difficult to say :5 ! e>lie/ portions ( 
^! compositions came  into exi/5ce4 ,_m 
%rewd guesses h be5 (f]$1 b none ( !m  c
 be prov$ to be inconte/ably true4 ,max 
,mll] suppos$ ! date to  be #abjj       
,b4,c41 ,haug #bdjj ,b4,c4 & ,bl        
,gangdh> ,tilak #djjj ,b4,c4 ,!  anci5t 
,h9dus seldom kept any hi/orical record 
( _! lit]>y1  religi\s or political     
a*ievem5ts4 ,! ,v$as 7 h&$ d[n f  m\? to
 m\? f a p]iod ( unkn[n antiquity2 & !  

,h9dus  g5]ally believ$ t !y 7 nev]     
compos$ by m54 ,x 0  !re=e g5]ally      
suppos$ t ei!r !y 7 taught by ,god to ! 
sages1 or t !y 7 ( !mselves reveal$ to !
 sages :o 7 !  se]s 7mantradrast7 ( !   
hymns4 ,?us we f9d t :5 "s  "t _h elaps$
 aft] ! composition ( ! ,v$as1 p _h come
 to  look ^u !m n only z v old1 b s old 
t !y _h1  !oretically at lea/1 no beg9n+
 9 "t1 ?\gh !y 7 believ$  to h be5      
reveal$ at "s unkn[n remote p]iod at !  
beg9n+ (  ea* creation4      ,! place ( 
! ,v$as 9 ! ,h9du m9d4    ,:5 ! ,v$as 7 
compos$1 !re 0 probably no sy/em ( writ+
  preval5t 9 ,india4 ,b su* 0 !         
scrupul\s zeal ( ! ,brahm9s1  :o got !  
:ole ,v$ic lit]ature by he>t by he>+ x f
 _!  preceptors1 t x has be5 transmitt$ 
mo/ fai?fully to u ?r\gh  ! c\rse ( !   
la/ #cjjj ye>s or m ) little or no      
int]polations  at all4 ,! religi\s      
hi/ory ( ,india _h suff]$ consid]able   
*anges  9 ! latt] p]iods1 s9ce ! "t ( ! 
,v$ic civilization1 b su*  0 ! rev]5ce  
paid to ! ,v$as t !y _h ev] rema9$ z  ! 

highe/ religi\s au?ority = all sections 
( ! ,h9dus at  all times4 ,ev5 at ?is   
day all ! obligatory duties ( ! ,h9dus  
at bir?1 m>riage1 dea?1 etc41 are p]=m$ 
accord+ to ! old    #aa    ,v$ic ritual4
 ,! pray]s t a ,brahm9 n[ says ?ree     
times a day  are ! same selections (    
,v$ic v]ses z 7 us$ z pray] v]ses  two  
or ?ree ?\s& ye>s ago4 ,a little insight
 into ! life ( an  ord9>y ,h9du ( !     
pres5t day w %[ t ! sy/em (             
image-wor%ip is "o t has be5 graft$ ^u 8
 life1 ! regul>  obligatory duties ( :i*
 are ord]$ accord+ to ! old ,v$ic rites4
  ,?us an or?odox ,brahm9 c disp5se )   
image-wor%ip if he likes1  b n s ) 8    
daily ,v$ic pray]s or o!r obligatory    
c]emonies4  ,ev5 at ?is day !re are     
p]sons :o be/[ imm5se sums ( money  = ! 
p]=mance & tea*+ ( ,v$ic sacrifices &   
rituals4  ,mo/ ( ! ,sanskrit lit]atures 
t fl\ri%$ aft] ! ,v$as  base ^u !m _!   
own validity1 & appeal to !m z au?ority4
  ,sy/ems ( ,h9du philosophy n only own 
_! allegiance to ! ,v$as1  b ! adh]5ts (

 ea* "o ( !m w\ld (t5 qu>rel ) o!rs  &  
ma9ta9 its sup]iority by try+ to prove t
 x & x alone  0 ! fai?ful foll[] ( !    
,v$as & repres5t$ correctly _!  views4  
,! laws :i* regulate ! social1 legal1   
dome/ic & religi\s  cu/oms & rites ( !  
,h9dus ev5 to ! pres5t day are said to  
be  b m]e sy/ematiz$ memories ( old     
,v$ic tea*+s1 & are held to  be         
obligatory on _! au?ority4 ,ev5 "u      
,briti% adm9i/ration1 9  ! inh]itance ( 
prop]ty1 adoption1 & 9 su* o!r legal    
transactions1 ,h9du ,law is foll[$1 &   
?is claims to draw its au?ority  f !    
,v$as4 ,to ent] into details is         
unnecess>y4 ,b suffice x to  say t !    
,v$as1 f> f be+ reg>d$ z a dead         
lit]ature ( !  pa/1 are /ill look$ ^u z 
! orig9 & s\rce ( almo/ all  lit]atures 
except purely secul> poetry & drama4    
,?us 9 %ort we may  say t 9 spite ( ! _m
 *anges t "t has wr\ght1 ! or?odox      
,h9du life may /ill be reg>d$ 9 ! ma9 z 
an adumbration ( !  ,v$ic life1 :i* _h  
nev] ceas$ to %$ its light all ?r\gh !  

pa/4      ,classification ( ! ,v$ic     
lit]ature4    ,a beg9n] :o is introduc$ 
= ! fir/ "t to ! /udy  ( lat] ,sanskrit 
lit]ature is likely to appe> some:at    
confus$  :5 he meets ) au?oritative     
texts ( div]se purport &  subjects hav+ 
! same g5]ic "n ,v$a or ,s'ruti 7f  s'ru
 to he>72 = ,v$a 9 its wid] s5se is n ! 
"n ( any    #ab    p>ticul> book1 b ( ! 
lit]ature ( a p>ticul> epo* ext5d+  ov] 
a long p]iod1 say two ?\s& ye>s or s4 ,z
 ?is lit]ature  repres5ts ! total       
a*ievem5ts ( ! ,indian p 9 diff]5t      
directions = su* a long p]iod1 x mu/ (  
necessity be ( a  div]sifi$ "*4 ,if we  
r\ghly classify ?is huge lit]ature f  ! 
po9ts ( view ( age1 language1 & subject 
matt]1 we c po9t out  f\r diff]5t types1
 namely ! ,samhit or collection ( v]ses 
7sam  toge!r1 hita put71 ,brhmanas1     
ranyakas 7=e/ treatises7  & !           
,upanisads4 ,all ^! lit]atures1 bo?     
prose & v]se1  7 look$ ^u z s holy t 9  
e>ly times x 0 ?\ght  almo/ a sacrilege 
to write !m2 !y 7 !re=e le>nt by  he>t  

by ! ,brahm9s f ! m\? ( _! preceptors & 
7 h5ce call$ s'ruti 7lit]ally any?+     
he>d7,footnote ref #a4      ,! ,samhits4
    ,!re are f\r collections or         
,samhits1 namely ,rg-,v$a1 ,sma-,v$a1   
,yajur-,v$a & ,a?>va-,v$a4 ,( ^! !      
,rg-,v$a is probably !  e>lie/4 ,!      
,sma-,v$a has practically no indep5d5t  
value1 =  x consi/s ( /anzas tak5       
7except+ only #ge7 entirely f !         
,rg-,v$a1 :i* 7 meant to be sung to     
c]ta9 fix$ melodies1 &  may ?us be call$
 ! book ( *ants4 ,! ,yajur-,v$a h[ev]   
conta9s  9 addition to ! v]ses tak5 f ! 
,rg-,v$a _m orig9al prose  =mulas4 ,!   
arrangem5t ( ! v]ses ( ! ,sma-,v$a is   
solely )  ref]5ce to _! place & use 9 ! 
,soma sacrifice2 ! cont5ts  ( !         
,yajur-,v$a are arrang$ 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !
 v]ses 7  actually employ$ 9 ! v>i\s    
religi\s sacrifices4 ,x is !re=e  call$ 
! ,v$a ( ,yajus--sacrificial pray]s4 ,^!
 may be contra/$  ) ! arrangem5t 9 !    
,rg-,v$a 9 ?is1 t !re ! v]ses are       
g5]ally arrang$ 9 accordance ) ! gods :o

 are ador$ 9 !m4  ,?us1 = example1 fir/ 
we get all ! poems address$ to ,agni or 
!  ,fire-god1 !n all ^? to ! god ,indra 
& s on4 ,! f\r?  collection1 !          
,a?>va-,v$a1 probably atta9$ its pres5t 
=m  consid]ably lat] ?an ! ,rg-,v$a4 ,9 
_s1 h[ev]1 z ,pr(essor  ,macdonell says1
 ,x is n only entirely diff]5t f !      
,rigv$a  b repres5ts a mu* m primitive  
/age ( ?\ght4 ,:ile !  ,rigv$a deals    
almo/ exclusively ) ! high] gods z      
conceiv$ by a        ,footnote #a3      
,pn9i1 ,,iii4 iii4 #id4    #ac          
comp>atively advanc$ & ref9$ sac]dotal  
class1 ! ,a?>va-,v$a  is1 9 ! ma9 a book
 ( spells & incantations appeal+ to !   
demon  _w1 & teems ) notions ab\t       
wit*craft curr5t among ! l[]  grades ( !
 population1 & d]iv$ f an immemorial    
antiquity4 ,^!  two1 ?us complem5t>y to 
ea* o!r 9 cont5ts are obvi\sly ! mo/    
important ( ! f\r ,v$as ,footnote ref   
#a4      ,! ,brhmanas4 ,footnote ref #b 
,aft] ! ,samhits !re grew up ! !ological
 treatises call$ !  ,brhmanas1 :i* 7 ( a

 di/9ctly diff]5t lit]>y type4 ,!y  are 
writt5 9 prose1 & expla9 ! sacr$        
significance ( !  diff]5t rituals to ^? 
:o are n already famili> ) !m4  ,!y     
reflect1 says ,pr(essor ,macdonell1 ! _s
 ( an age 9  :i* all intellectual       
activity is conc5trat$ on ! sacrifice1  
describ+ its c]emonies1 discuss+ its    
value1 speculat+ on its  orig9 &        
significance4 ,^! works are full (      
dogmatic ass]tions1  fanciful symbolism 
& speculations ( an unb\nd$ imag9ation 9
 !  field ( sacrificial details4 ,!     
sacrificial c]emonials 7 probably  nev] 
s elaborate at ! "t :5 ! e>ly hymns 7   
compos$4  ,b :5 ! collections ( hymns 7 
be+ h&$ d[n f g5]ation  to g5]ation !   
c]emonials became m & m complicat$4 ,?us
  !re came ab\t ! necessity ( !         
di/ribution ( ! diff]5t  sacrificial    
functions among sev]al di/9ct classes ( 
prie/s4 ,we may  assume t ?is 0 a p]iod 
:5 ! ca/e sy/em 0 becom+  e/abli%$1 & :5
 ! only ?+ :i* c\ld engage wise &       
religi\s  m9ds 0 sacrifice & its        

elaborate rituals4 ,free speculative    
?9k+  0 ?us subord9at$ to ! s]vice ( !  
sacrifice1 & ! result  0 ! production ( 
! mo/ fanciful sacram5tal & symbolic    
,footnote #a3 ,a4,a4 ,macdonell's       
,hi/ory ( ,sanskrit ,lit]ature1 p4 #ca4 
,footnote #b3 ,web] 7,hi/4 ,ind4 ,lit41 
p4 #aa1 note7 says t ! ^w  ,brhmana     
signifies t :i* relates to pray]        
brahman4 ,max ,mull]  7,s4,b4,e41 ,i4p4 
lxvi7 says t ,brhmana meant orig9ally ! 
say+s  ( ,brahmans1 :e!r 9 ! g5]al s5se 
( prie/s1 or 9 ! m  special s5se (      
,brahman-prie/s4 ,eggel+ 7,s4,b4,e4     
,,xii4 ,introd4 p4 xxii7  says t !      
,brhmanas 7 s call$ probably ei!r       
because  !y 7 int5d$ = ! in/ruction &   
guidance ( prie/s 7brahman7  g5]ally2 or
 because !y 71 = ! mo/ "p1 !            
au?oritative  utt]ances ( su* z 7       
?or\ghly v]s$ 9 ,v$ic & sacrificial     
lore & compet5t to act z ,brahmans or   
sup]9t5d+ prie/s4 ,b  9 view ( ! fact t 
! ,brhmanas 7 also suppos$ to be z  mu* 
reveal$ z ! ,v$as1 ! pres5t writ] ?9ks t

 ,web]'s view  is ! correct "o4    #ad  
sy/em1 unp>allel$ any:]e b among !      
,gno/ics4 ,x is n[  g5]ally believ$ t ! 
close ( ! ,brhmana p]iod 0 n lat]  ?an  
#ejj ,b4,c4      ,! ranyakas4    ,z a   
fur!r developm5t ( ! ,brhmanas h[ev] we 
get ! ranyakas  or =e/ treatises4 ,^!   
works 7 probably compos$ = old m5 :o  _h
 retir$ into ! =e/ & 7 ?us unable to    
p]=m elaborate  sacrifices requir+ a    
multitude ( accessories & articles :i*  
c\ld  n be procur$ 9 =e/s4 ,9 ^!1       
m$itations on c]ta9 symbols  7 suppos$  
to be ( great m]it1 & !y gradually began
 to supplant  ! sacrifices z be+ ( a    
sup]ior ord]4 ,x is "h t we f9d  t      
among/ a c]ta9 section ( intellig5t p ! 
rituali/ic ideas  began to give way1 &  
philosophic speculations ab\t ! nature (
  tru? became gradually sub/itut$ 9 _!  
place4 ,to take an  illu/ration f !     
beg9n+ ( ! ,brhadranyaka we f9d t       
in/ead ( ! actual p]=mance ( ! horse    
sacrifice 7z'vam$ha7  !re are directions
 = m$itat+ ^u ! dawn 7,usas7 z ! head  (

 ! horse1 ! sun z ! eye ( ! horse1 ! air
 z its life1 &  s on4 ,?is is inde$ a   
di/9ct advancem5t ( ! claims (          
speculation  or m$itation ov] ! actual  
p]=mance ( ! complicat$ c]emonials  (   
sacrifice4 ,! gr[? ( ! subjective       
speculation1 z be+ capable  ( br++ !    
highe/ good1 gradually result$ 9 !      
sup]session (  ,v$ic ritualism & !      
e/abli%m5t ( ! claims ( philosophic     
m$itation & self-k z ! highe/ goal (    
life4 ,?us  we f9d t ! ranyaka age 0 a  
p]iod dur+ :i* free ?9k+  tri$ gradually
 to %ake (f ! %ackles ( ritualism :i* _h
 fett]$  x = a long "t4 ,x 0 ?us t !    
ranyakas c\ld pave ! way  = !           
,upanisads1 revive ! g]ms ( philosophic 
speculation 9 !  ,v$as1 & develop !m 9 a
 mann] :i* made ! ,upanisads ! s\rce  ( 
all philosophy t arose 9 ! _w ( ,h9du   
?\ght4      ,! ,rg-,v$a1 its            
civilization4    ,! hymns ( ! ,rg-,v$a  
are nei!r ! productions ( a  s+le h& nor
 d !y probably belong to any s+le age4  
,!y  7 compos$ probably at diff]5t      

p]iods by diff]5t sages1  & x is n      
improbable t "s ( !m 7 compos$    #ae   
be=e ! ,aryan p ent]$ ! pla9s ( ,india4 
,!y 7 h&$  d[n f m\? to m\? & gradually 
swell$ ?r\gh ! new additions  t 7 made  
by ! poets ( succe$+ g5]ations4 ,x 0 :5 
!  collection _h increas$ to a v        
consid]able ext5t t x 0  probably       
arrang$ 9 ! pres5t =m1 or 9 "s o!r      
previ\s =ms  to :i* ! pres5t arrangem5t 
owes its orig94 ,!y !re=e reflect  !    
civilization ( ! ,aryan p at diff]5t    
p]iods ( antiquity  be=e & aft] !y _h   
come to ,india4 ,?is unique monum5t ( a 
long  vani%$ age is ( great ae/hetic    
value1 & conta9s mu* t is  g5u9e poetry4
 ,x enables u to get an e/imate ( !     
primitive  society :i* produc$ x--!     
olde/ book ( ! ,aryan race4  ,! pr9cipal
 means ( su/5ance 7 cattle-keep+ & !    
cultivation ( ! soil ) pl\gh & h>r[1    
mattock & hoe1  & wat]+ ! gr\nd :5      
necess>y ) artificial canals4  ,! *ief  
food consi/s1 z ,kaegi says1 toge!r )   
bread1  ( v>i\s prep>ations ( milk1     

cakes ( fl\r & butt]1 _m  sorts (       
vegetables & fruits2 meat cook$ on !    
spits or 9 pots1  is little us$1 & 0    
probably eat5 only at ! great fea/s &   
family ga!r+s4 ,dr9k+ plays ?r\gh\t a   
mu* m important  "p ?an eat+ ,footnote  
ref #a4 ,! wood-work] built w>-*>iots  &
 wagons1 z also m delicate c>v$ works & 
arti/ic cups4  ,metal-work]s1 smi?s &   
pott]s cont9u$ _! trade4 ,!  wom5       
und]/ood ! plait+ ( mats1 weav+ & sew+2 
!y manufactur$ ! wool ( ! %eep into     
clo?+ = m5  & cov]+ = animals4 ,! gr\p (
 individuals =m+ a  tribe 0 ! highe/    
political unit2 ea* ( ! diff]5t families
  =m+ a tribe 0 "u ! sway ( ! fa!r or ! 
head (  ! family4 ,k+%ip 0 probably     
h]$it>y & 9 "s cases  electoral4 ,k+%ip 
0 n[h]e absolute1 b limit$ by !  w ( !  
p4 ,mo/ develop$ ideas ( ju/ice1 "r &   
law1 7 pres5t 9 ! c\ntry4 ,?us ,kaegi   
says1 ! hymns  /rongly prove h[ deeply !
 prom95t m9ds 9 ! p  7 p]suad$ t !      
et]nal ord9ances ( ! rul]s ( !  _w 7 z  
inviolable 9 m5tal & moral matt]s z 9 ! 

realm ( nature1 & t e wrong act1 ev5 !  
unconsci\s1  0 puni%$ & ! s9            
expiat$4,footnote ref #b ,?us x is only 
"r  & prop] to ?9k t ! ,aryans _h atta9$
 a pretty high degree        ,footnote  
#a3 ,! ,rigv$a1 by ,kaegi1 #ahhf        
edition1 p4 #ac4    ,footnote #b3 ,ibid4
 p4 #ah4    #af    ( civilization1 b    
n[h]e 0 ! s9c]e _s ( ! ,aryans  m       
manife/$ ?an 9 religion1 :i* 0 ! mo/    
ess5tial &  dom9ant feature ( almo/ all 
! hymns1 except a few secul>  ones4 ,?us
 ,kaegi says1 ,! :ole significance ( !  
,rigv$a  9 ref]5ce to ! g5]al hi/ory (  
religion1 z has repeat$ly  be5 po9t$ out
 9 mod]n times1 re/s ^u ?is1 t x pres5ts
  to u ! developm5t ( religi\s          
conceptions f ! e>lie/  beg9n+s to !    
deepe/ appreh5sion ( ! godhead & its    
relation to man ,footnote ref #a4       
,! ,v$ic ,gods4    ,! hymns ( ! ,rg-,v$a
 7 almo/ all compos$ 9  praise ( ! gods4
 ,! social & o!r mat]ials are ( second>y
  importance1 z ^! ref]5ces _h only to  
be m5tion$ incid5tally  9 giv+ v5t to _!

 feel+s ( devotion to ! god4  ,! gods "h
 are h[ev] p]sonalities presid+ ov] !   
div]se  p[]s ( nature or =m+ _! v       
ess5ce4 ,!y h  !re=e no def9ite1        
sy/ematic & sep>ate *>act]s l !  ,greek 
gods or ! gods ( ! lat] ,indian my?ical 
works1 !  ,purnas4 ,! p[]s ( nature su* 
z ! /orm1 ! ra91 !  ?und]1 are closely  
associat$ ) "o ano!r1 & ! gods          
associat$ ) !m are also simil> 9 "*4 ,! 
same  epi!ts are attribut$ to diff]5t   
gods & x is only 9 a few  specific      
qualities t !y diff] f "o ano!r4 ,9 !   
lat]  my?ological compositions ( !      
,purnas ! gods lo/ _!  "* z hypo/atic   
p[]s ( nature1 & ?us became actual      
p]sonalities & *>act]s hav+ _! tales (  
joy & sorr[  l ! mortal "h bel[4 ,!     
,v$ic gods may be contra/$  ) !m 9 ?is1 
t !y are ( an imp]sonal nature1 z !     
*>act]s !y display are mo/ly b          
expressions ( ! p[]s  ( nature4 ,to take
 an example1 ! fire or ,agni is         
describ$1 z  ,kaegi has x1 z "o t lies  
conceal$ 9 ! s(t] wood1 z  9 a *amb]1   

until1 call$ =? by ! rubb+ 9 ! e>ly     
morn+ h\r1 he sudd5ly spr+s =? 9 gleam+ 
brightness4  ,! sacrific] takes & lays  
him on ! wood4 ,:5 ! prie/s  p\r melt$  
butt] ^u him1 he leaps up crackl+ &     
neigh+  l a horse--he :om m5 love to see
 increas+ l _! own  prosp]ity4 ,!y wond]
 at him1 :51 deck+ himself )            
,footnote #a3 ,! ,rigv$a1 by ,kaegi1 p4 
#bf4    #ag    *ang+ colors l a suitor1 
equally beautiful on all sides1 he      
pres5ts to all sides 8 front4           
,all-se>*+ is 8 beam1 ! gleam+ ( 8      
light1     ,81 ! all-beautiful1 (       
beaute\s face & glance1     ,! *ang+    
%imm] l t floats ^u ! /ream1     ,s     
,agni's rays gleam ov] bright & nev]    
cease4    ,footnote ref #a ,r4,v4,i4    
#adc4 #c4    ,!y w\ld describe ! w9d    
7,vta7 & adore him & say       ,9 :at   
place 0 he born1 & f :5ce comes he8     
,! vital brea? ( gods1 ! _w's great     
(fspr+1     ,! ,god :]e'er he w moves at
 8 pleasure3     ,8 ru%+ s\nd we        
he>--:at 8 appe>ance1 no "o4            

,footnote ref #b ,r4,v4,x4 #afh4 #c1 #d4
    ,x 0 ! =ces ( nature & h]           
manife/ations1 on e>?  "h1 ! atmosph]e  
ar\nd & above u1 or 9 ! ,heav5  beyond !
 vault ( ! sky t excit$ ! devotion &    
imag9ation ( ! ,v$ic poets4 ,?us ) !    
exception ( a  few ab/ract gods ( :om we
 %all pres5tly speak & "s  dual         
div9ities1 ! gods may be r\ghly         
classifi$ z !  t]re/rial1 atmosph]ic1 & 
cele/ial4      ,poly!ism1 ,h5o!ism &    
,mono!ism4    ,! plurality ( ! ,v$ic    
gods may lead a sup]ficial enquir]  to  
?9k ! fai? ( ! ,v$ic p poly!i/ic4 ,b an 
intellig5t  read] w f9d "h nei!r        
poly!ism nor mono!ism b a simple        
primitive /age ( belief to :i* bo? ( ^! 
may be said to owe  _! orig94 ,! gods "h
 d n pres]ve _! prop] places z 9  a     
poly!i/ic fai?1 b ea* "o ( !m %r9ks into
 insignificance  or %9es z supreme      
accord+ z x is ! object ( adoration or  
n4  ,! ,v$ic poets 7 ! *ildr5 ( nature4 
,e natural ph5om5on  excit$ _! wond]1   
admiration or v5]ation4 ,! poet is /ruck

  ) wond] t ! r\gh r$ c[ gives s(t :ite 
milk4 ,! appe>ance  or ! sett+ ( ! sun  
s5ds a ?rill into ! m9ds ( ! ,v$ic  sage
 & ) wond]-gaz+ eyes he exclaims3       
,undropp$ b5ea?1 n fa/5$ firm1 h[ comes 
x     ,t d[nw>d turn$ he falls n d[nw>d8
     ,! guide ( 8 asc5d+ pa?1--:o saw x8
    ,footnote ,ref #a ,r4,v4 ,,iv4 #ac4 
#e4    ,! sages wond] h[ ! sp>kl+ wat]s 
( all riv]s fl[  into "o ocean )\t ev]  
fill+ x4 ,! m9ds ( ! ,v$ic              
,footnote #a3 ,! ,rigv$a1 by ,kaegi1 p4 
#ce4    ,footnote #b3 ,ibid1 p4 #ch4    
#ah    p z we f9d 9 ! hymns 7 highly    
impressionable &  fre%4 ,at ?is /age !  
"t 0 n ripe en\gh = !m to  accord a     
consi/5t & well-def9$ exi/5ce to !      
multitude  ( gods nor to univ]salize !m 
9 a mono!i/ic cre$4 ,!y  hypo/atiz$     
unconsci\sly any =ce ( nature t ov]aw$  
!m or fill$ !m ) gratefulness & joy by  
its b5efic5t or  ae/hetic "*1 & ador$ x4
 ,! deity :i* mov$ ! devotion  or       
admiration ( _! m9d 0 ! mo/ supreme = ! 
"t4 ,?is peculi> trait ( ! ,v$ic hymns  

,max ,mull] has call$  ,h5o!ism or      
,ka!no!ism3 a belief 9 s+le gods1 ea* 9 
turn  /&+ out z ! highe/4 ,& s9ce ! gods
 are ?\ght (  z specially rul+ 9 _! own 
sph]es1 ! s+]s1 9 _! special  conc]ns & 
desires1 call mo/ ( all on t god to :om 
!y  ascribe ! mo/ p[] 9 ! matt]1--to ^: 
dep>tm5t if ,i  may say s1 _! wi%       
belongs4 ,?is god alone is pres5t to !  
m9d  ( ! suppliant2 ) him = ! "t be+ is 
associat$ ev]y?+  t c be said ( a div9e 
be+2--he is ! highe/1 ! only  god1 be=e 
:om all o!rs disappe>1 !re be+ 9 ?is1   
h[ev]1  no (f5ce or depreciation ( any  
o!r god ,footnote ref #a4 ,aga9/  ?is   
!ory x has be5 urg$1 z ,macdonell       
rightly says 9 8 ,v$ic  ,my?ology       
,footnote ref #b1 t ,v$ic deities are n 
repres5t$ z  'indep5d5t ( all ! re/1'   
s9ce no religion br+s its gods into  m  
frequ5t & v>i$ juxtaposition &          
comb9ation1 & t ev5  ! mightie/ gods ( !
 ,v$a are made dep5d5t on o!rs4 ,?us    
,v>una & ,srya are subord9ate to ,indra 
7,i4 #aja71 ,v>una &  ! ,z'v9s submit to

 ! p[] ( ,visnu 7,i4 #aef74444;,ev5 :5 a
  god is spok5 ( z unique or *ief 7eka71
 z is natural en\gh 9  laudations1 su*  
/atem5ts lose _! tempor>ily mono!i/ic   
=ce1 ?r\gh ! modifications or           
corrections suppli$ by ! context  or ev5
 by ! same v]se ,footnote ,ref #c4      
,h5o!ism is !re=e an  appe>ance1 says   
,macdonell1 r ?an a reality1 an         
appe>ance  produc$ by ! indef9it5ess due
 to undevelop$ an?ropomorphism1  by !   
lack ( any ,v$ic god occupy+ ! position 
( a ,zeus z !  con/ant head ( ! pan!on1 
by ! natural t5d5cy ( ! prie/  or s+] 9 
extoll+ a p>ticul> god to exagg]ate 8   
greatness  & to ignore o!r gods1 & by ! 
,footnote #a3 ,! ,rigv$a1 by ,kaegi1 p4 
#bg4    ,footnote #b3 ,see ,ibid4 p4    
#cc4 ,see also ,arr[smi?'s note on x =  
o!r  ref]5ces to ,h5o!ism4    ,footnote 
#c3 ,macdonell's ,v$ic ,my?ology1 pp4   
#af1 #ag4    #ai    gr[+ belief 9 !     
unity ( ! gods 7cf4 ! refra9 ( #c1 #ce7 
ea* ( :om might be reg>d$ z a type ( !  
div9e ,footnote ref #a4  ,b :e!r we call

 x ,h5o!ism or ! m]e tempor>y           
exagg]ation  ( ! p[]s ( ! deity 9 "q1 x 
is evid5t t ?is  /age c nei!r be prop]ly
 call$ poly!i/ic nor mono!i/ic1  b "o   
:i* _h a t5d5cy t[>ds !m bo?1 al?\gh x  
0 n suffici5tly develop$ to be id5tifi$ 
) ei!r ( !m4  ,! t5d5cy t[>ds extreme   
exagg]ation c\ld be call$ a  mono!i/ic  
bias 9 g]m1 :]eas ! correlation (       
diff]5t  deities z indep5d5t ( "o ano!r 
& yet exi/+ side by side  0 a t5d5cy    
t[>ds poly!ism4    ,gr[? ( a ,mono!i/ic 
t5d5cy2 ,prajpati1 ,vis'vak>ma4    ,?is 
t5d5cy t[>ds extoll+ a god z ! greate/ &
  highe/ gradually br\ght =? !          
conception ( a supreme  ,"l ( all be+s  
7,prajpati71 n by a process ( consci\s  
g5]alization b z a necess>y /age (      
developm5t ( ! m9d1  able to imag9e a   
deity z ! repository ( ! highe/ moral & 
physical p[]1 ?\gh its direct           
manife/ation _c be p]ceiv$4  ,?us !     
epi!t ,prajpati or ! ,"l ( be+s1 :i*  0 
orig9ally an epi!t = o!r deities1 came  
to be recogniz$  z a sep>ate deity1 !   

highe/ & ! greate/4 ,?us x is said  9   
,r4,v4x4 #aba ,footnote ,ref #b3      ,9
 ! beg9n+ rose ,hiranyag>bha1    ,born z
 ! only "l ( all exi/5ce4    ,?is e>? he
 settl$ firm & heav5 e/abli%$3    ,:at  
god %all we adore ) our oblations8      
,:o gives u brea?1 :o gives u /r5g?1 ^: 
bidd+    ,all creatures mu/ obey1 !     
bright gods ev52    ,^: %ade is dea?1 ^:
 %ad[ life immortal3    ,:at god %all we
 adore ) our oblations8    ,:o by 8     
might alone became ! mon>*    ,( all t  
brea!s1 ( all t wakes or slumb]s1    ,( 
all1 bo? man & bea/1 ! "l et]nal3       
,:at god %all we adore ) our oblations8 
,^: might & maje/y ^! sn[y m\nta9s1     
,! ocean & ! di/ant /ream exhibit2      
,^: arms ext5d$ are ^! spread+ regions3 
,:at god %all we adore ) our oblations8 
,:o made ! heav5s bright1 ! e>? endur+1 
,:o fix$ ! firmam5t1 ! heav5 ( heav5s2  
,:o measur$ out ! air's ext5d$ spaces3  
,:at god %all we adore ) our oblations8 
,footnote #a3 ,macdonell's ,v$ic        
,my?ology1 p4 #ag4    ,footnote #b3 ,!  

,rigv$a1 by ,kaegi1 pp4 #hh1 #hi4    #bj
    ,simil> attributes are also ascrib$ 
to ! deity ,vis'vak>ma  7,all-creator7  
,footnote ref #a4 ,he is said to be fa!r
 & procreator (  all be+s1 ?\gh himself 
uncreat$4 ,he g5]at$ ! primitive wat]s4 
,x is to him t ! sage says1      ,:o is 
our fa!r1 our creator1 mak]1    ,:o e   
place do? "k & e creature1    ,by :om   
alone to gods _! names 7 giv51    ,to   
him all o!r creatures g to ask him      
,footnote ref #b                        
,r4,v4x4#hb4c4      ,brahma4    ,!      
conception ( ,brahman :i* has be5 !     
highe/ glory  = ! ,v$nta philosophy (   
lat] days _h h>dly em]g$ 9  ! ,rg-,v$a f
 ! associations ( ! sacrificial m9d4 ,! 
mean+s t ,syana ! celebrat$ comm5tator (
 ! ,v$as  gives ( ! ^w z collect$ by    
,haug are3 7a7 food1 food (f]+1  7b7 !  
*ant ( ! sma-s+]1 7c7 magical =mula or  
text1  7d7 duly complet$ c]emonies1 7e7 
! *ant & sacrificial gift  toge!r1 7f7 !
 recitation ( ! hotr prie/1 7g7 great4  
,ro?  says t x also means ! devotion :i*

 manife/s itself z  long+ & satisfaction
 ( ! s\l & rea*es =? to !  gods4 ,b x is
 only 9 ! ,s'atapa?a ,brhmana t !       
conception  ( ,brahman has acquir$ a    
great significance z !  supreme pr9ciple
 :i* is ! mov+ =ce beh9d ! gods4  ,?us !
 ,s'atapa?a says1 ,v]ily 9 ! beg9n+ ?is 
7univ]se7  0 ! ,brahman 7neut474 ,x     
creat$ ! gods2 &1 hav+  creat$ ! gods1 x
 made !m asc5d ^! worlds3 ,agni ?is     
7t]re/rial7 _w1 ,vyu ! air1 & ,srya !   
sky4444 ,!n !  ,brahman itself w5t up to
 ! sph]e beyond4 ,hav+ gone up  to !    
sph]e beyond1 x consid]$1 ',h[ c ,i     
desc5d aga9  into ^! worlds8' ,x !n     
desc5d$ aga9 by means ( ^!  two1 ,=m &  
,"n4 ,:atev] has a "n1 t is "n2 &  t    
aga9 :i* has no "n & :i* "o kn[s by its 
=m1  '?is is 7( a c]ta97 =m1' t is =m3 z
 f> z !re are ,=m  & ,"n s f>1 inde$1   
ext5ds ?is 7univ]se74 ,^! inde$  are !  
two great =ces ( ,brahman2 &1 v]ily1 he 
:o kn[s  ^! two great =ces ( ,brahman   
becomes himself a great =ce ,footnote   
ref #c4 ,9 ano!r place ,brahman is said 

to be ! ultimate ?+ 9 !  ,univ]se & is  
id5tifi$ ) ,prajpati1 ,purusa & ,prna   
,footnote #a3 ,see ,! ,rigv$a1 by       
,kaegi1 p4 #hi1 & also ,muir's ,sanskrit
  ,texts1 vol4 ,,iv4 pp4 #e-aa4         
,footnote #b3 ,kaegi's translation4     
,footnote #c3 ,see ,eggel+'s translation
 ( ,s'atapa?a ,brhmana ,s4,b4,e4  vol4  
,,xliv4 pp4 #bg1 #bh4    #ba    7! vital
 air ,footnote ref #a74 ,9 ano!r place  
,brahman is describ$ z  be+ ! ,svayambh 
7self-born7 p]=m+ au/]ities1 :o (f]$  8 
own self 9 ! creatures & ! creatures 9 8
 own self1  & ?us compass$ supremacy1   
sov]eignty & lord%ip ov]  all creatures 
,footnote ref #b4 ,! conception ( !     
supreme man 7,purusa7  9 ! ,rg-,v$a also
 supposes t ! supreme man p]vades !  _w 
) only a f\r? "p ( ,himself1 :]eas !    
rema9+  ?ree p>ts transc5d to a region  
beyond4 ,he is at once !  pres5t1 pa/ & 
future ,footnote ref #c4                
,sacrifice2 ! ,fir/ ,rudim5ts ( ! ,law (
 ,k>ma4    ,x w h[ev] be wrong to       
suppose t ^! mono!i/ic  t5d5cies 7      

gradually supplant+ ! poly!i/ic         
sacrifices4  ,on ! o!r h&1 !            
complications ( ritualism 7 gradually   
gr[+ 9 _! elaborate details4 ,! direct  
result ( ?is gr[?  contribut$ h[ev] to  
relegate ! gods to a relatively         
unimportant  position1 & to raise !     
dignity ( ! magical *>act]i/ics  ( !    
sacrifice z an in/itution :i* c\ld give 
!  desir$ fruits ( !mselves4 ,! (f]+s at
 a sacrifice 7 n  dictat$ by a devotion 
) :i* we are famili> "u ,*ri/ian  or    
,vaisnava influ5ce4 ,! sacrifice tak5 z 
a :ole is conceiv$  z ,haug notes to be 
a k9d ( ma*9]y 9 :i* e  piece mu/ tally 
) ! o!r1 ! slighte/ discrepancy 9 !     
p]=mance ( ev5 a m9ute rituali/ic       
detail1 say 9 ! p\r+  ( ! melt$ butt] on
 ! fire1 or ! prop] plac+ ( ut5sils     
employ$ 9 ! sacrifice1 or ev5 ! misplac+
 ( a m]e /raw  contr>y to ! injunctions 
0 suffici5t to spoil ! :ole  sacrifice )
 :atsoev] e>ne/ness x might be p]=m$4   
,ev5 if a ^w 0 mispron\nc$ ! mo/        
dreadful results  might foll[4 ,?us :5  

,tvastr p]=m$ a sacrifice = !           
production ( a demon :o w\ld be able to 
kill 8 enemy  ,indra1 ow+ to ! mi/ak5   
acc5t ( a s+le ^w ! object  0 rev]s$ & !
 demon produc$ 0 kill$ by ,indra4 ,b if 
! sacrifice c\ld be duly p]=m$ d[n to ! 
m9ute/  detail1 !re 0 no p[] :i* c\ld   
arre/ or delay ! fruition  ( ! object4  
,?us ! objects ( a sacrifice 7 fulfill$ 
n  by ! grace ( ! gods1 b z a natural   
result ( ! sacrifice4  ,! p]=mance ( !  
rituals inv>iably produc$ c]ta9  my/ic  
or magical results by virtue ( :i* !    
object desir$        ,footnote #a3 ,see 
,s4,b4,e4 ,,xliii4 pp4#ei1fj1djj &      
,,xliv4 p4#dji4    ,footnote #b3 ,see   
,ibid41 ,,xliv1 p4 #dah4    ,footnote   
#c3 ,r4,v4x4#ij1 ,purusa ,skta4    #bb  
by ! sacrific] 0 fulfill$ 9 due c\rse l 
! fulfilm5t (  a natural law 9 !        
physical _w4 ,! sacrifice 0 believ$  to 
h exi/$ f et]nity l ! ,v$as4 ,! creation
 (  ! _w itself 0 ev5 reg>d$ z ! fruit (
 a sacrifice p]=m$  by ! supreme ,be+4  
,x exi/s z ,haug says z an invisible ?+ 

at  all times & is l ! lat5t p[] (      
electricity 9 an  electrify+ ma*9e1     
requir+ only ! op]ation ( a suitable    
app>atus 9 ord] to be elicit$4 ,!       
sacrifice is n (f]$  to a god ) a view  
to propitiate him or to obta9 f him     
welf>e  on e>? or bliss 9 ,heav52 ^!    
rew>ds are directly produc$ by  !       
sacrifice itself ?r\gh ! correct        
p]=mance ( complicat$  & int]connect$   
c]emonies :i* con/itute ! sacrifice4    
,?\gh  9 ea* sacrifice c]ta9 gods 7     
invok$ & receiv$ ! (f]+s1  ! gods       
!mselves 7 b in/rum5ts 9 br++ ab\t !    
sacrifice  or 9 complet+ ! c\rse (      
my/ical c]emonies compos+ x4  ,sacrifice
 is ?us reg>d$ z possess+ a my/ical     
pot5cy sup]ior ev5  to ! gods1 :o x is  
sometimes /at$ atta9$ to _! div9e rank  
by means ( sacrifice4 ,sacrifice 0      
reg>d$ z almo/ ! only  k9d ( duty1 & x 0
 also call$ k>ma or kriy 7action7 &  !  
unalt]able law 01 t ^! my/ical c]emonies
 = good  or = bad1 moral or immoral 7=  
!re 7 _m k9ds (  sacrifices :i* 7 p]=m$ 

= injur+ "o's enemies or  ga9+ worldly  
prosp]ity or supremacy at ! co/ ( o!rs7 
7 de/9$ to produce _! effects4 ,x is    
well to note "h t  ! fir/ recognition ( 
a cosmic ord] or law prevail+ 9 nature  
"u ! gu>dian%ip ( ! highe/ gods is to be
 f\nd 9 !  use ( ! ^w ,rta 7lit]ally !  
c\rse ( ?+s74 ,?is ^w  0 also us$1 z    
,macdonell obs]ves1 to d5ote ! 'ord]'  9
 ! moral _w z tru? & '"r' & 9 ! religi\s
  _w z sacrifice or 'rite',footnote ref 
#a & its unalt]able law (  produc+      
effects4 ,x is int]e/+ to note 9 ?is    
connection t x  is "h t we f9d ! fir/   
g]ms ( ! law ( k>ma1 :i* ex]cises  su* a
 dom9at+ control ov] ,indian ?\ght up to
 ! pres5t  day4 ,?us we f9d ! simple    
fai? & devotion ( ! ,v$ic  hymns on "o  
h& be+ supplant$ by ! gr[? ( a complex  
sy/em ( sacrificial rites1 & on ! o!r   
b5d+ _! c\rse  t[>ds a mono!i/ic or     
philosophic k ( ! ultimate  reality ( ! 
univ]se4        ,footnote #a3           
,macdonell's ,v$ic ,my?ology1 p4 #aa4   
#bc      ,cosmogony--,my?ological &     

philosophical4    ,! cosmogony ( !      
,rg-,v$a may be look$ at f two  aspects1
 ! my?ological & ! philosophical4 ,!    
my?ological  aspect has 9 g5]al two     
curr5ts1 z ,pr(essor ,macdonell says1   
,! "o reg>ds ! univ]se z ! result (     
me*anical production1  ! "w ( c>p5t]'s &
 jo9]'s skill2 ! o!r  repres5ts x z !   
result ( natural g5]ation ,footnote ref4
 #a4  ,?us 9 ! ,rg-,v$a we f9d t ! poet 
9 "o place says1 :at 0  ! wood & :at 0 !
 tree out ( :i* !y built heav5  & e>?   
,footnote ref4 #b8 ,! answ] giv5 to ?is 
"q 9  ,taittirya-,brhmana is ,brahman ! 
wood & ,brahman ! tree f  :i* ! heav5 & 
e>? 7 made ,footnote ref #c4 ,heav5 &   
,e>?  are sometimes describ$ z hav+ be5 
support$ ) po/s ,footnote  ref #d4 ,!y  
are also sometimes spok5 ( z univ]sal   
p>5ts1 &  p>5tage is sometimes attribut$
 to ,aditi & ,daksa4    ,"u ?is         
philosophical aspect ! semi-pan!i/ic    
,man-hymn  ,footnote ref #e attracts our
 notice4 ,! supreme man z we h already  
notic$ above is !re said to be ! :ole   

univ]se1 :atev]  has be5 & %all be2 he  
is ! "l ( immortality :o has become     
diffus$ ev]y:]e among ?+s animate &     
inanimate1 &  all be+s came out ( him2 f
 8 navel came ! atmosph]e2  f 8 head    
arose ! sky2 f 8 feet came ! e>?2 f  8  
e> ! f\r qu>t]s4 ,aga9 !re are o!r hymns
 9 :i*  ! ,sun is call$ ! s\l 7tman7 (  
all t is movable &  all t is immovable  
,footnote ref #f4 ,!re are also /atem5ts
 to !  effect t ! ,be+ is "o1 ?\gh x is 
call$ by _m names by !  sages ,footnote 
ref #g4 ,! supreme be+ is sometimes     
extoll$ z !  supreme ,"l ( ! _w call$ ! 
gold5 egg 7,hiranyag>bha ,footnote  ref 
#h74 ,9 "s passages x is said           
,brahmanaspati blew =? ^!  bir?s l a    
blacksmi?4 ,9 ! e>lie/ age ( ! gods1 !  
exi/5t  sprang f ! non-exi/5t4 ,9 ! fir/
 age ( ! gods1 !  exi/5t sprang f !     
non-exi/5t3 !reaft] ! regions  sprang1  
!reaft]1 f ,uttnapada ,footnote ref #i4 
,! mo/ rem>kable  & sublime hymn 9 :i* !
 fir/ g]ms ( philosophic speculation    
,footnote #a3 ,macdonell's ,v$ic        

,my?ology1 p4 #aa4    ,footnote #b3     
,r4,v4x4 #ha4 #d4    ,footnote #c3      
,taitt4 ,br4 ,,ii4 #h4 #i4 #f4          
,footnote #d3 ,macdonell's ,v$ic        
,my?ology1 p4 #aa2 also ,r4,v4 ,,ii4 #ae
 & ,,iv4  #ef4    ,footnote #e3 ,r4,v4x4
 #ij4    ,footnote #f3 ,r4,v4,i4 #aae4  
,footnote #g3 ,r4,v4,i4 #afd4 #df4      
,footnote #h3 ,r4,v4,x4 #aba4           
,footnote #i3 ,muir's translation (     
,r4,v4x4 #gb2 ,muir's ,sanskrit ,texts1 
vol4  v4p4 #dh4    #bd    ) reg>d to !  
wond]ful my/]y ( ! orig9 ( ! _w  are    
f\nd is ! #abi? hymn ( ,r4,v4x4    #a4  
,!n !re 0 nei!r be+ nor n-be+4     ,!   
atmosph]e 0 n1 nor sky above x4     ,:at
 cov]$ all8 & :]e8 by :at protect$8     
,0 !re ! fa?omless abyss ( wat]s8    #b4
 ,!n nei!r dea? nor dea?less exi/$2     
,( day & night !re 0 yet no di/9ction4  
,alone t "o brea!d calmly1              
self-support$1     ,o!r ?an ,x 0 none1  
nor aught above ,x4    #c4 ,d>kness !re 
0 at fir/ 9 d>kness hidd52     ,!       
univ]se 0 undi/+ui%$ wat]4     ,t :i* 9 

void & empt9ess lay hidd5     ,alone by 
p[] ( f]vor 0 develop$4    #d4 ,!n = !  
fir/ "t !re arose desire1     ,:i* 0 !  
primal g]m ( m9d1 )9 x4     ,& sages1   
se>*+ 9 _! he>t1 discov]$     ,9 ,no?+ !
 connect+ bond ( ,be+4    #f4 ,:o is x  
kn[s8 ,:o "h c tell u surely     ,f :at 
& h[ ?is univ]se has ris58     ,& :e!r n
 till aft] x ! gods liv$8     ,:o !n c  
"k f :at x has aris58    #g4 ,! s\rce f 
:i* ?is univ]se has ris51     ,& :e!r x 
0 made1 or uncreat$1     ,he only kn[s1 
:o f ! highe/ heav5     ,rules1 !       
all-see+ "l--or does n ,he "k ,footnote 
ref #a8    ,! e>lie/ comm5t>y on ?is is 
probably a passage 9 !  ,s'atapa?a      
,brhmana 7x4 #e4 #c4;,i7 :i* says t 9 ! 
beg9n+  ?is 7univ]se7 0 z x 7 nei!r     
non-exi/5t nor exi/5t2  9 ! beg9n+ ?is  
7univ]se7 0 z x 71 exi/$ & did  n exi/3 
!re 0 !n only t ,m9d4 ,:]e=e x has be5  
decl>$ by ! ,ri%i 7,rg-,v$a ,x4 #abi4   
,i71 ',!re 0 !n nei!r  ! non-exi/5t nor 
! exi/5t' = ,m9d 01 z x 71 nei!r  exi/5t
 nor non-exi/5t4 ,?is ,m9d :5 creat$1   

wi%$ to  become manife/1--m def9$1 m    
sub/antial3 x s\ght aft]  a self 7a     
body72 x practis$ au/]ity3 x acquir$    
consi/5cy ,footnote  ref #b4 ,9 !       
,a?>va-,v$a also we f9d x /at$ t all =ms
 (  ! univ]se 7 compreh5d$ )9 ! god     
,skambha ,footnote ref #c4    ,?us we   
f9d t ev5 9 ! p]iod ( ! ,v$as !re sprang
  =? su* a philosophic ye>n+1 at lea/   
among "s :o c\ld        ,footnote #a3 ,!
 ,rigv$a1 by ,kaegi1 p4 #ij4 ,r4,v4x4   
#abi4    ,footnote #b3 ,see ,eggel+'s   
translation ( ,s'4,b41 ,s4,b4,e4 vol4   
,,xliii4 pp4  #cgd1 #cge4    ,footnote  
#c3 ,a4,v4 x4 #g4 #aj4    #be    "q :e!r
 ?is univ]se 0 at all a creation or n1  
:i*  c\ld ?9k ( ! orig9 ( ! _w z be+    
envelop$ 9 !  my/]y ( a primal          
non-diff]5tiation ( be+ & non-be+2  &   
:i* c\ld ?9k t x 0 ! primal ,"o :i* by  
its  inh]5t f]v\r gave rise to ! desire 
( a creation z ! fir/  manife/ation ( ! 
g]m ( m9d1 f :i* ! univ]se sprang  =?   
?r\gh a s]ies ( my/]i\s gradual         
processes4 ,9 !  ,brhmanas1 h[ev]1 we   

f9d t ! cosmogonic view g5]ally         
requires ! ag5cy ( a creator1 :o is n   
h[ev] always !  />t+ po9t1 & we f9d t ! 
!ory ( evolution is comb9$  ) ! !ory (  
creation1 s t ,prajpati is sometimes    
spok5 ( z ! creator :ile at o!r times ! 
creator is said  to h float$ 9 !        
primeval wat] z a cosmic gold5 egg4     
,es*atology2 ! ,doctr9e ( tman4    ,!re 
seems to be a belief 9 ! ,v$as t ! s\l  
c\ld  be sep>at$ f ! body 9 /ates (     
swoon1 & t x c\ld  exi/ aft] dea?1 ?\gh 
we d n f9d !re any trace ( !  doctr9e ( 
transmigration 9 a develop$ =m4 ,9 !    
,s'atapa?a  ,brhmana x is said t ^? :o d
 n p]=m rites )  correct k are born aga9
 aft] dea? & suff] dea?  aga94 ,9 a hymn
 ( ! ,rg-,v$a 7,x4 #eh7 ! s\l 7manas7 ( 
a man  app>5tly unconsci\s is invit$ to 
come back to him f !  trees1 h]bs1 !    
sky1 ! sun1 etc4 ,9 _m ( ! hymns !re  is
 also ! belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( ano!r _w1  
:]e !  highe/ mat]ial joys are atta9$ z 
a result ( ! p]=mance  ( ! sacrifices & 
also 9 a hell ( d>kness und]nea?  :]e ! 

evil-do]s are puni%$4 ,9 ! ,s'atapa?a   
,brhmana we f9d t ! dead pass betwe5 two
 fires :i* burn !  evil-do]s1 b let !   
good g by ,footnote ref #a2 x is also   
said  !re t ev]yone is born aga9 aft]   
dea?1 is weigh$ 9 a balance1  & receives
 rew>d or puni%m5t accord+ z 8 works are
 good or bad4  ,x is easy to see t      
scatt]$ ideas l ^! ) reg>d to  ! de/9y (
 ! s\l ( man accord+ to ! sacrifice t he
  p]=ms or o!r good or bad de$s =m !    
fir/ rudim5ts (  ! lat] doctr9e (       
metempsy*osis4 ,! idea t man enjoys  or 
suff]s1 ei!r 9 ano!r _w or by be+ born 9
 ?is _w  accord+ to 8 good or bad de$s1 
is ! fir/ beg9n+ ( !  moral idea1 ?\gh 9
 ! ,brahmanic days ! good de$s 7        
,footnote #a3 ,see ,s4,b4 ,i4 #i4c1 &   
also ,macdonell's ,v$ic ,my?ology1  pp4 
#aff1 #afg4    #bf    m (t5 ( ! nature (
 sacrificial duties ?an ord9>y good     
works4 ,^! ideas ( ! possibilities ( a  
necess>y connection  ( ! enjoym5ts &    
sorr[s ( a man ) 8 good & bad  works :5 
comb9$ ) ! notion ( an inviolable law or

  ord]1 :i* we h already se5 0 gradually
 gr[+ )  ! conception ( rta1 & !        
unalt]able law :i* produces  ! effects (
 sacrificial works1 l$ to ! ,law ( ,k>ma
 & !  doctr9e ( transmigration4 ,! words
 :i* d5ote s\l 9 !  ,rg-,v$a are manas1 
tman & asu4 ,! ^w tman h[ev]  :i* became
 fam\s 9 lat] ,indian ?\ght is g5]ally  
us$  to mean vital brea?4 ,manas is     
reg>d$ z ! seat ( ?\ght  & emotion1 & x 
seems to be reg>d$1 z ,macdonell says1 z
  dwell+ 9 ! he>t,footnote ref #a4 ,x is
 h[ev] difficult to  und]/& h[ tman z   
vital brea?1 or z a sep>able "p ( man   
go+ out ( ! dead man came to be reg>d$ z
 ! ultimate ess5ce  or reality 9 man & !
 univ]se4 ,!re is h[ev] at lea/ "o      
passage 9 ! ,rg-,v$a :]e ! poet p5etrat+
 deep] &  deep] passes f ! vital brea?  
7asu7 to ! blood1 & !nce  to tman z !   
inmo/ self ( ! _w2 ,:o has se5 h[  !    
fir/-born1 be+ ! ,bone-possess+ 7! %ap$ 
_w71 0  born f ! ,boneless 7! %apeless78
 :]e 0 ! vital  brea?1 ! blood1 ! ,self 
7tman7 ( ! _w8 ,:o w5t to  ask him t    

kn[s x ,footnote ref #b8 ,9 ,taittrya   
ranyaka ,i4 #bc1  h[ev]1 x is said t    
,prajpati aft] hav+ creat$ 8 self 7z  ! 
_w7 ) 8 own self ent]$ into x4 ,9       
,taittrya ,brhmana  ! tman is call$     
omnipres5t1 & x is said t he :o kn[s    
him is no m /a9$ by evil de$s4 ,?us we  
f9d t 9 !  pre-,upanisad ,v$ic lit]ature
 tman probably 0 fir/ us$ to  d5ote     
vital brea? 9 man1 !n ! self ( ! _w1 &  
!n  ! self 9 man4 ,x is f ?is la/ /age t
 we f9d ! traces  ( a gr[+ t5d5cy to    
look+ at ! self ( man z ! omnipres5t    
supreme pr9ciple ( ! univ]se1 ! k ( :i* 
makes a man s9less & pure4              
,conclusion4    ,look+ at ! advancem5t (
 ?\ght 9 ! ,rg-,v$a we  f9d fir/ t a    
fabric ( ?\ght 0 gradually gr[+ :i*  n  
only look$ ^u ! univ]se z a correlation 
( p>ts or a        ,footnote #a3        
,macdonell's ,v$ic ,my?ology1 p4#aff &  
,r4,v4 viii4#hi4    ,footnote #b3       
,r4,v4i4 #afd4 #d & ,deuss5's article on
 tman 9  ,encyclopa$ia ( ,religion &    
,e?ics4    #bg    con/ruction made ( !m1

 b s\ght to expla9 x z hav+  emanat$ f  
"o great be+ :o is sometimes describ$ z 
"o ) ! univ]se & surpass+ x1 & at o!r   
times z  be+ sep>ate f x2 ! agno/ic _s  
:i* is ! "m  ( philosophic ?\ght is se5 
at times to be s bold z to express      
d\bts ev5 on ! mo/ fundam5tal que/ions (
 creation--,:o  kn[s :e!r ?is _w 0 ev]  
creat$ or n8 ,secondly  ! gr[? (        
sacrifices has help$ to e/abli% !       
unalt]able  nature ( ! law by :i* !     
7sacrificial7 actions produc$ _!        
effects ( !mselves4 ,x also less5$ !    
importance ( deities  z be+ ! supreme   
ma/]s ( ! _w & our fate1 & !  t5d5cy (  
h5o!ism gradually dim9i%$ _! multiple   
"* & advanc$ ! mono!i/ic t5d5cy 9 "s    
qu>t]s4 ,?irdly1 ! s\l ( man is describ$
 z be+ sep>able  f 8 body & subject to  
suff]+ & enjoym5t 9 ano!r  _w accord+ to
 8 good or bad de$s2 ! doctr9e t !  s\l 
( man c\ld g to plants1 etc41 or t x    
c\ld aga9 be reborn  on e>?1 is also    
h9t$ at 9 c]ta9 passages1 & ?is may  be 
reg>d$ z s[+ ! fir/ se$s ( ! lat]       

doctr9e (  transmigration4 ,! self      
7tman7 is spok5 ( 9 "o place z !  ess5ce
 ( ! _w1 & :5 we trace ! idea 9 !       
,brhmanas  & ! ranyakas we see t tman   
has begun to mean !  supreme ess5ce 9   
man z well z 9 ! univ]se1 & has ?us     
approa*$ ! great tman doctr9e ( !       
,upanisads4          ,,*apt] ,,iii      
,,! ,,e>li] ,,upani,,sads ,footnote ref 
#a4 7#gjj ,b4,c4-#fjj ,b4,c47    ,!     
place ( ! ,upanisads 9 ,v$ic lit]ature4 
,?\gh x is g5]ally held t ! ,upanisads  
are usually  atta*$ z app5dices to !    
ranyakas :i* are aga9 atta*$  to !      
,brhmanas1 yet x _c be said t _!        
di/9ction z  sep>ate treatises is always
 obs]v$4 ,?us we f9d 9 "s cases  t      
subjects :i* we %\ld expect to be       
discuss$ 9 a ,brhmana  are introduc$    
into ! ranyakas & ! ranyaka mat]ials    
are sometimes fus$ into ! great bulk (  
,upanisad tea*+4  ,?is %[s t ^! ?ree    
lit]atures gradually grew up 9 "o       
,footnote #a3 ,!re are ab\t #aab        
,upanisads :i* h be5 publi%$ by  !      

,nirnaya-,sg>a ,press1 ,bombay1 #aiag4  
,^! are #a s1 #b ,k5a1  #c ,ka?a1 #d    
,pras'na1 #e ,mundaka1 #f ,mndukya1 #g  
,taittirya1 #g ,ait>eya1  #i ,*ndogya1  
#aj ,brhadranyaka1 #aa ,s'vets'vat>a1   
#ab ,kausitaki1  #ac ,maitrey1 #ad      
,kaivalya1 #ae ,jbla1 #af ,brahmab9du1  
#ag ,hamsa1  #ah runika1 #ai ,g>bha1 #bj
 ,nryana1 #ba ,nryana1 #bb ,p>amahamsa1 
#bc ,brahma1 #bd ,amrtanda1 #be         
,a?>vas'iras1 #bf ,a?>vas'ikh1  #bg     
,maitryan1 #bh ,brhajjbla1 #bi          
,nrsimhaprvatp91  #cj ,nrsimhott>atp91  
#ca ,klgnirudra1 #cb ,subla1 #cc        
,ksurik1  #cd ,yantrik1 #ce ,s>vasra1   
#cf ,nirlamba1 #cg ,s'uk>ahasya1 #ch    
,vajrascik1  #ci ,tejob9du1 #dj         
,ndab9du1 #da ,dhynab9du1 #db           
,brahmavidy1 #dc ,yogatattva1  #dd      
,atmabodha1 #de ,nradap>ivrjaka1 #df    
,tris'ikhibrhmana1 #dg ,st1  #dh        
,yogacdamani1 #di ,nirvna1 #ej          
,mandalabrhmana1 #ea ,daksinmrtti1  #eb 
,s'arabha1 #ec ,sk&a1 #ed               
,tripdvibhtimahnryana1 #ee ,advayatraka1

  #ef ,ram>ahasya1 #eg ,rmaprvatp91 #eh 
,rmott>atp91 #ei ,vsudeva1  #fj         
,mudgala1 #fa ,sndilya1 #fb ,paingala1  
#fc ,bhiksuka1 ,mah1 #fe ,s'rraka1  #ff 
,yogas'ikh1 #fg ,turiytta1 #fh ,samnysa1
 #fi ,p>amahamsap>ivrjaka1  #gj ,aksaml1
 #ga ,avyakta1 #gb ,ekks>a1 #gc         
,annaprn1 #gd ,srya1 #ge ,aksi1  #gf    
,adhytma1 #gg ,kundika1 #gh ,svitr1 #gi 
tman1 #hj ,p'supatabrahma1  #ha         
,p>abrahma1 #hb ,avadhta1 #hc           
,tripurrp9i1 #hd ,dev1 #he ,tripur1  #hf
 ,ka?>udra1 #hg ,bhvan1 #hh             
,rudrahrdaya1 #hi ,yogakundali1  #ij    
,bhasmajbla1 #ia ,rudrksajbla1 #ib      
,ganapati1 #ic ,jblad>s'ana1  #id       
,tiasra1 #ie ,mahvakya1 #if             
,paficabrahma1 #ig ,prngnihotra1  #ih   
,goplaprvatp91 #ii ,goplott>atp91 #ajj  
,krsna1 #aja ,yjavalkya1  #ajb ,v>ha1   
#ajc ,s'?yyanya1 #ajd ,hayagrva1 #aje   
,datttreya1 #ajf ,g>uda1  #ajg          
,kalisant>ana1 #ajh ,jbli1 #aji         
,saubhgyalaksm1 #aaj ,s>asvatrahasya1   
#aaa ,bahvrca1 #aab ,muktika4    ,!     

collection ( ,upanisads translat$ by    
,d>a %iko1 ,aurangzeb's bro!r1  conta9$ 
#ej ,upanisads4 ,! ,muktika ,upanisad   
gives a li/ ( #ajh  ,upanisads4 ,) !    
exception ( ! fir/ #ac ,upanisads mo/ ( 
!m are  ( m or less lat] date4 ,!       
,upanisads dealt ) 9 ?is *apt] are  !   
e>li] ones4 ,among/ ! lat] ones !re are 
"s :i* repeat !  purport ( ^!1 !re are  
o!rs :i* deal ) ! ,s'aiva1 ,s'kta1  !   
,yoga & ! ,vaisnava doctr9es4 ,^! w be  
ref]r$ to 9  connection ) ! consid]ation
 ( ^? sy/ems 9 ,volume ,,ii4 ,!  lat]   
,upanisads :i* only repeat ! purport (  
^? dealt ) 9 ?is  *apt] d n require     
fur!r m5tion4 ,"s ( ! lat] ,upanisads 7 
compos$ ev5 z late z ! f\rte5? or !     
fifte5? c5tury4    #bi    process (     
developm5t & !y 7 probably reg>d$ z p>ts
  ( "o lit]ature1 9 spite ( ! diff]5ces 
9 _! subject-matt]4  ,deuss5 supposes t 
! pr9ciple ( ?is division 0 to be  f\nd 
9 ?is1 t ! ,brhmanas 7 int5d$ = !       
h\sehold]s1  ! ranyakas = ^? :o 9 _! old
 age )drew  into ! solitude ( ! =e/s & !

 ,upanisads = ^? :o  r5\nc$ ! _w to     
atta9 ultimate salvation by m$itation4  
,:atev] might be said ab\t ^! lit]>y    
classifications !  anci5t philosoph]s ( 
,india look$ ^u ! ,upanisads z be+  ( an
 entirely diff]5t type f ! re/ ( ! ,v$ic
 lit]ature  z dictat+ ! pa? ( k         
7jna-mrga7 z oppos$  to ! pa? ( works   
7k>ma-mrga7 :i* =ms ! cont5t  ( ! latt]4
 ,x is n out ( place "h to m5tion t !   
or?odox ,h9du view holds t :atev] may be
 writt5 9 !  ,v$a is to be int]pret$ z  
comm&m5ts to p]=m c]ta9  actions 7vidhi7
 or prohibitions aga9/ committ+ c]ta9   
o!rs  7nis$ha74 ,ev5 ! /ories or        
episodes are to be s int]pret$  t ! real
 objects ( _! ins]tion might appe> z    
only to  praise ! p]=mance ( ! comm&m5ts
 & to blame !  commission ( !           
prohibitions4 ,no p]son has any "r to   
argue  :y any p>ticul> ,v$ic comm&m5t is
 to be foll[$1 = no  reason c ev]       
discov] t1 & x is only because reason   
fails  to f9d out :y a c]ta9 ,v$ic act  
leads to a c]ta9 effect t  ! ,v$as h be5

 reveal$ z comm&m5ts & prohibitions  to 
%[ ! true pa? ( happ9ess4 ,! ,v$ic tea*+
 belongs  !re=e to t ( ! ,k>ma-mrga or !
 p]=mance ( ,v$ic  duties ( sacrifice1  
etc4 ,! ,upanisads h[ev] d n require  ! 
p]=mance ( any action1 b only reveal !  
ultimate tru?  & reality1 a k ( :i* at  
once emancipates a man4  ,read]s ( ,h9du
 philosophy are aw>e t !re is a v /rong 
controv]sy on ?is po9t betwe5 ! adh]5ts 
( ! ,v$nta  7,upanisads7 & ^? ( ! ,v$a4 
,= ! latt] seek 9 analogy  to ! o!r p>ts
 ( ! ,v$ic lit]ature to e/abli% !       
pr9ciple  t ! ,upanisads %\ld n be      
reg>d$ z an exception1 b  t !y %\ld also
 be s int]pret$ t !y might also be  held
 out z comm5d+ ! p]=mance ( duties2 b ! 
=m] dissociate ! ,upanisads f ! re/ ( ! 
,v$ic lit]ature  & ass]t t !y d n make !
 slighte/ ref]5ce to  any ,v$ic duties1 
b only del9eate ! ultimate reality :i*  
reveals ! highe/ k 9 ! m9ds ( ! des]v+4 
#cj    ,s'ank>a ! mo/ em95t expon5t ( ! 
,upanisads holds t  !y are meant = su*  
sup]ior m5 :o are already above  worldly

 or heav5ly prosp]ities1 & = :om ! ,v$ic
 duties  h ceas$ to h any attraction4   
,:]esoev] !re may be  su* a des]v+      
p]son1 be he a /ud5t1 a h\sehold] or an 
ascetic1 = him ! ,upanisads h be5       
reveal$ = 8 ultimate  emancipation & !  
true k4 ,^? :o p]=m !  ,v$ic duties     
belong to a /age inf]ior to ^? :o no    
long]  c>e = ! fruits ( ! ,v$ic duties b
 are eag] = f9al  emancipation1 & x is !
 latt] :o alone are fit to he> !        
,upanisads ,footnote ref #a4    ,! names
 ( ! ,upanisads2 ,non-,brahmanic        
influ5ce4    ,! ,upanisads are also kn[n
 by ano!r "n ,v$nta1 z  !y are believ$  
to be ! la/ portions ( ! ,v$as          
7v$a-anta1  end72 x is by ?is "n t !    
philosophy ( ! ,upanisads1  ! ,v$nta    
philosophy1 is s famili> to u4 ,a mod]n 
/ud5t  kn[s t 9 language ! ,upanisads   
approa* ! classical  ,sanskrit2 ! ideas 
prea*$ also %[ t !y are ! culm9ation  ( 
! intellectual a*ievem5t ( a great epo*4
 ,z !y  ?us =m$ ! conclud+ p>ts ( !     
,v$as !y reta9$ _!  ,v$ic names :i* !y  

took f ! "n ( ! diff]5t  s*ools or      
bran*es 7s'kh7 among :i* ! ,v$as 7 /udi$
  ,footnote ref #b4 ,?us ! ,upanisads   
atta*$ to ! ,brhmanas  ( ! ,ait>eya &   
,kaustaki s*ools are call$ respectively 
,ait>eya & ,kaustaki ,upanisads4 ,^? ( !
 ,tnd9s &  ,talavakras ( ! ,sma-v$a are 
call$ ! ,*ndogya & ,talavakra  7or ,k5a7
 ,upanisads4 ,^? ( ! ,taittirya s*ool ( 
! ,yajurv$a        ,footnote #a3 ,?is is
 :at is call$ ! diff]5ce ( fitness      
7adhikribh$a74 ,^? :o p]=m ! sacrifices 
are n fit to  he> ! ,upanisads & ^? :o  
are fit to he> ! ,upanisads  h no long] 
any necessity to p]=m ! sacrificial     
duties4    ,footnote #b3 ,:5 ! ,samhit  
texts _h become sub/antially fix$1  !y 7
 committ$ to memory 9 diff]5t p>ts ( !  
c\ntry &  transmitt$ f tea*] to pupil   
along ) directions = !  practical       
p]=mance ( sacrificial duties4 ,! latt] 
=m$ !  matt] ( prose compositions1 !    
,brhmanas4 ,^! h[ev] 7  gradually liable
 to div]se k9ds ( modifications accord+ 
to !  special t5d5cies & ne$s ( ! p     

among :i* !y 7 recit$4  ,?us aft] a "t  
!re occurr$ a great div]g5ce 9 ! read+s 
(  ! texts ( ! ,brhmanas ev5 ( ! same   
,v$a among diff]5t p4  ,^! diff]5t      
s*ools 7 kn[n by ! "n ( p>ticul> ,s'khs 
7e4g4 ,ait>eya1 ,kaustaki7 ) :i* !      
,brhmanas 7 associat$  or nam$4 ,accord+
 to ! div]g5ce ( ! ,brhmanas ( ! diff]5t
  ,s'khs !re occurr$ ! div]g5ces (      
cont5t & ! l5g? ( !  ,upanisads         
associat$ ) !m4    #ca    =m !          
,taittirya & ,mahnrayana1 ( ! ,ka?a     
s*ool  ! ,k?aka1 ( ! ,maitryan s*ool !  
,maitryan4 ,!  ,brhadranyaka ,upanisad  
=ms "p ( ! ,s'atapa?a ,brhmana  ( !     
,vjasaneyi s*ools4 ,! s' ,upanisad also 
belongs to !  latt] s*ool4 ,b ! s*ool to
 :i* ! ,s'vets'vat>a belongs  _c be     
trac$1 & has probably be5 lo/4 ,!       
presumption  ) reg>d to ^! ,upanisads is
 t !y repres5t !  enlight5$ views ( !   
p>ticul> s*ools among :i* !y  fl\ri%$1 &
 "u ^: names !y pass$4 ,a l>ge numb]  ( 
,upanisads ( a comp>atively lat] age 7  
atta*$ to !  ,a?>va-,v$a1 mo/ ( :i* 7   

nam$ n accord+ to !  ,v$ic s*ools b     
accord+ to ! subject-matt] ) :i*  !y    
dealt ,footnote ref #a4    ,x may n be  
out ( place "h to m5tion t f !  frequ5t 
episodes 9 ! ,upanisads 9 :i* ! ,brahm9s
 are  describ$ z hav+ gone to !         
,ksattriyas = ! highe/ k  ( philosophy1 
z well z f ! disp>at5ess ( !  ,upanisad 
tea*+s f t ( ! g5]al doctr9es ( !       
,brhmanas & f ! allusions to ! exi/5ce (
 philosophical  speculations among/ ! p 
9 ,pli works1 x may be  inf]r$ t among !
 ,ksattriyas 9 g5]al !re exi/$ e>ne/    
philosophic enquiries :i* mu/ be reg>d$ 
z hav+ ex]t$  an important influ5ce 9 ! 
=mation ( ! ,upanisad doctr9es4  ,!re is
 ?us "s probability 9 ! supposition t   
?\gh !  ,upanisads are f\nd directly    
incorporat$ ) ! ,brhmanas  x 0 n !      
production ( ! gr[? ( ,brahmanic dogmas 
alone1 b t non-,brahmanic ?\ght z well  
mu/ h ei!r  set ! ,upanisad doctr9es    
afoot1 or h r5d]$ fruitful assi/ance  to
 _! =mulation & cultivation1 ?\gh !y    
a*iev$  _! culm9ation 9 ! h&s ( !       

,brahm9s4      ,brhmanas & ! ,e>ly      
,upanisads4    ,! passage ( ! ,indian   
m9d f ! ,brhmanic to !  ,upanisad ?\ght 
is probably ! mo/ rem>kable ev5t 9 !    
hi/ory ( philosophic ?\ght4 ,we "k t 9 !
 lat] ,v$ic  hymns "s mono!i/ic         
conceptions ( great excell5ce 7         
develop$1 b ^! diff] 9 _! nature f !    
absolutism (  ! ,upanisads z mu* z !    
,ptolemaic & ! ,cop]nican               
,footnote #a3 ,g>bha ,upanisad1 tman    
,upanisad1 ,pras'na ,upanisad1 etc4     
,!re 7 h[ev] "s exceptions su* z !      
,mndkya1 ,jbla1  ,paingala1 ,s'aunaka1  
etc4    #cb    sy/ems 9 a/ronomy4 ,!    
direct translation ( ,vis'vak>man or    
,hiranyag>bha into ! tman & ! ,brahman (
 ! ,upanisads  seems to me to be v      
improbable1 ?\gh ,i am q will+  to admit
 t ^! conceptions 7 swall[$ up by ! tman
  doctr9e :5 x _h develop$ to a prop]   
ext5t4 ,?r\gh\t  ! e>li] ,upanisads no  
m5tion is to be f\nd ( ,vis'vak>man1    
,hiranyag>bha or ,brahmanaspati & no    
ref]5ce ( su* a  nature is to be f\nd z 

c ju/ify u 9 connect+ ! ,upanisad  ideas
 ) ^? conceptions ,footnote ref l4 ,! ^w
 purusa no d\bt  occurs frequ5tly 9 !   
,upanisads1 b ! s5se & ! association  t 
come along ) x are widely diff]5t f t ( 
!  purusa ( ! ,purusaskta ( ! ,rg-,v$a4 
,:5 ! ,rg-,v$a describes ,vis'vak>man x 
describes him  z a creator f outside1 a 
controll] ( mundane ev5ts1  to :om !y   
pray = worldly b5efits4 ,:at 0 !        
position1 :i*  & :5ce 0 ! pr9ciple1 f   
:i* ! all-see+ ,vis'vak>man  produc$ !  
e>?1 & disclos$ ! sky by 8 might8 ,!  "o
 god1 :o has on e side eyes1 on e side a
 face1 on e  side arms1 on e side feet1 
:5 produc+ ! sky & e>?1  %apes !m ) 8   
arms & ) 8 w+s4444,d ?\1 ,vis'vak>man1  
grant to ?y fri5ds ^? ?y abodes :i* are 
! highe/1  & ! l[e/1 & ! middle444may a 
g5]\s son rema9 "h  to u ,footnote ref  
#b2 aga9 9 ,r4,v4,x4 #hb we f9d         
,vis'vak>man is  wise1 en]getic1 !      
creator1 ! dispos]1 & ! highe/ object ( 
intuition4444,he :o is our fa!r1 our    
creator1 dispos]1 :o kn[s  all sph]es & 

creatures1 :o alone assigns to ! gods _!
 names1  to him ! o!r creatures resort =
 in/ruction ,footnote ref #c4  ,aga9    
ab\t ,hiranyag>bha we f9d 9 ,r4,v4,i4   
#aba1 ,hiranyag>bha arose  9 ! beg9n+2  
born1 he 0 ! "o "l ( ?+s exi/+4 ,he     
e/abli%$ ! e>? & ?is sky2 to :at god    
%all we (f] our  oblation8444 ,may he n 
injure u1 he :o is ! g5]ator ( !  e>?1  
:o rul+ by fix$ ord9ances1 produc$ !    
heav5s1 :o  produc$ ! great & brilliant 
wat]s6--to :at god1 etc48 ,prajpati1  no
 o!r ?an ?\ is "l ov] all ^! creat$ ?+s3
 may we  obta9 t1 ?r\gh desire ( :i* we 
h invok$ !e2 may we  become ma/]s (     
ri*es ,footnote ref #d4 ,speak+ ( !     
purusa !  ,rg-,v$a          ,footnote   
#a3 ,! "n ,vis'vak>ma appe>s 9 ,s'vet4  
,,iv4 #ag4  ,hiranyag>bha appe>s 9      
,s'vet4 ,,iii4 #d & ,,iv4 #ab1 b only z 
!  fir/ creat$ be+4 ,! phrase ,s>vhammn 
,hiranyag>bha :i*  ,deuss5 ref]s to     
occurs only 9 ! lat] ,nrsimh4 #i4 ,! ^w 
,brahmanaspati does n occur at all 9 !  
,upanisads4    ,footnote #b3 ,muir's    

,sanskrit ,texts1 vol4 ,,iv4 pp4 #f1 #g4
    ,footnote #c3 ,ibid4 p1 #g4         
,footnote #d3 ,ibid4 pp4 #af1 #ag4      
#cc    says ,puru%a has a ?\s& heads444a
 ?\s& eyes1 & a ?\s&  feet4 ,on e side  
envelop+ ! e>? he transc5d$ x  by a     
space ( t5 f+]s4444,he =m$ ^? a]ial     
creatures1 &  ! animals1 bo? wild & tame
 ,footnote ref #a1 etc4 ,ev5 t  fam\s   
hymn 7,r4,v4x4 #abi7 :i* beg9s ) ,!re 0 
!n nei!r  be+ nor non-be+1 !re 0 no air 
nor sky above ends ) say+  ,f :5ce ?is  
creation came into be+1 :e!r x 0  creat$
 or n--he :o is 9 ! highe/ sky1 its     
rul]1 probably  kn[s or does n "k4    ,9
 ! ,upanisads h[ev]1 ! position is      
entirely *ang$1  & ! c5tre ( int]e/ !re 
is n 9 a creator f outside  b 9 ! self3 
! natural developm5t ( ! mono!i/ic      
position  ( ! ,v$as c\ld h gr[n into "s 
=m ( develop$  !ism1 b n into ! doctr9e 
t ! self 0 ! only reality  & t ev]y?+   
else 0 f> bel[ x4 ,!re is no relation   
"h ( ! wor%ipp] & ! wor%ipp$ & no pray]s
 are  (f]$ to x1 b ! :ole que/ is ( !   

highe/ tru?1 & ! true  self ( man is    
discov]$ z ! greate/ reality4 ,?is *ange
 (  philosophical position seems to me  
to be a matt] ( great int]e/4  ,?is     
*ange ( ! m9d f ! objective to !        
subjective does  n c>ry ) x 9 !         
,upanisads any elaborate philosophical  
discussions1 or subtle analysis ( m9d4  
,x comes !re z a matt]  ( direct        
p]ception1 & ! conviction ) :i* ! tru?  
has  be5 grasp$ _c fail to impress !    
read]s4 ,t out ( !  app>5tly mean+less  
speculations ( ! ,brhmanas ?is doctr9e  
c\ld h develop$1 might inde$ appe> to be
 too improbable  to be believ$4    ,on !
 /r5g? ( ! /ories ( ,blki ,ga'rgya &    
,ajtas'atru  7,brh4 ,,ii4 i71           
,s'vetaketu & ,pravhana ,jaibali 7,*4   
,v4 #c & ,brh4  ,,vi4 #b7 & runi &      
,z'vapati ,kaikeya 7,*4 ,v4 #aa7 ,g>be  
?9ks  t x c be prov5 t ! ,brahman's     
pr(\nde/ wisdom1 !  doctr9e ( ,all-"o1  
:i* has ex]cis$ an unmi/akable influ5ce 
on ! intellectual life ev5 ( our "t1 did
 n h its orig9  9 ! circle ( ,brahmans  

at all ,footnote ref #b & t x took  its 
rise 9 ! ranks ( ! w>rior ca/e ,footnote
 ref #c4 ,?is  if true w\ld ( c\rse lead
 ! developm5t ( ! ,upanisads away  f !  
influ5ce ( ! ,v$a1 ,brhmanas & !        
ranyakas4 ,b d  ! facts prove ?is8 ,let 
u briefly exam9e ! evid5ces t ,g>be     
himself        ,footnote #a3 ,muir's    
,sanskrit ,texts1 vol4 v4 pp4 #cfh1     
#cga4    ,footnote #b3 ,g>be's article1 
,h9du ,monism1 p4 #fh4    ,footnote #c3 
,ibid4 p4 #gh4    #cd    self has       
produc$4 ,9 ! /ory ( ,blki ,grgya &     
,ajtas'atru  7,brh4 ,,ii4 #a7 ref]r$ to 
by him1 ,blki ,grgya is a boa/ful man   
:o wants to tea* ! ,ksattriya           
,ajtas'atru ! true ,brahman1  b fails & 
!n wants x to be taught by him4 ,to ?is 
,ajtas'atru replies 7foll[+ ,g>be's own 
translation7 x is  contr>y to ! natural 
ord] t a ,brahman receive in/ruction  f 
a w>rior & expect ! latt] to decl>e !   
,brahman to  him ,footnote ref l4 ,does 
?is n imply t 9 ! natural ord] (  ?+s a 
,brahm9 always taught ! k ( ,brahman to 

!  ,ksattriyas1 & t x 0 unusual to f9d a
 ,brahm9 ask+ a  ,ksattriya ab\t ! true 
k ( ,brahman8 ,at ! beg9n+  ( !         
conv]sation1 ,ajtas'atru _h promis$ to  
pay ,blki "o  ?\s& co9s if he c\ld tell 
him ab\t ,brahman1 s9ce all p  us$ to   
run to ,janaka to speak ab\t ,brahman   
,footnote ref #b4 ,!  second /ory (     
,s'vetaketu & ,pravhana ,jaibali seems  
to be fairly  conclusive ) reg>d to !   
fact t ! transmigration doctr9es1  ! way
 ( ! gods 7devayna7 & ! way ( ! fa!rs   
7pitryna7 _h orig9at$ among !           
,ksattriyas1 b x is )\t  any relevancy )
 reg>d to ! orig9 ( ! sup]ior k  (      
,brahman z ! true self4    ,! ?ird /ory 
( runi & ,z'vapati ,kaikeya 7,*4 ,v4    
#aa7  is h>dly m conv9c+1 = "h five     
,brahm9s wi%+ to  "k :at ! ,brahman & ! 
self 71 w5t to ,uddlaka  runi2 b z he   
did n "k suffici5tly ab\t x he          
accompani$  !m to ! ,ksattriya k+       
,z'vapati ,kaikeya :o 0 /udy+  !        
subject4 ,b ,z'vapati ends ! conv]sation
 by giv+ !m  c]ta9 in/ructions ab\t !   

fire doctr9e 7vaisvn>a agni7 &  ! import
 ( its sacrifices4 ,he does n say any?+ 
ab\t !  true self z ,brahman4 ,we ought 
also to consid] t !re are  only ! few   
exceptional cases :]e ,ksattriya k+s 7  
in/ruct+  ! ,brahm9s4 ,b 9 all o!r cases
 ! ,brahm9s 7  discuss+ & in/ruct+ !    
tman k4 ,i am ?us l$  to ?9k t ,g>be ow+
 to 8 bitt]ness ( feel+ aga9/ !         
,brahm9s z express$ 9 ! e>li] "p ( !    
essay _h be5  too ha/y 9 8 judgm5t4 ,!  
op9ion ( ,g>be seems to h  be5 %>$ to "s
 ext5t by ,w9t]nitz also1 & ! ref]5ces  
giv5 by him to ! ,upanisad passages are 
also ! same z we        ,footnote #a3   
,g>be's article1 ,h9du ,monism1 p4 #gd4 
,footnote #b3 ,brh4 ,,ii41 comp>e also  
,brh4 ,,iv4 #c1 h[ ,yjavalkya  speaks to
 ,janaka ab\t ! brahmavidy4    #ce    j 
exam9$ ,footnote ref #a4 ,! tru? seems  
to me to be ?is1 t  ! ,ksattriyas & ev5 
"s wom5 took int]e/ 9 !                 
religio-philosophical que/ manife/$ 9 ! 
,upanisads4 ,! enquir]s  7 s eag] t ei!r
 9 receiv+ ! in/ruction ( ,brahman  or 9

 imp>t+ x to o!rs1 !y _h no             
consid]ations ( sex &  bir? ,footnote   
ref #b2 & !re seems to be no def9ite    
evid5ce =  ?9k+ t ! ,upanisad philosophy
 orig9at$ among ! ,ksattriyas  or t !   
g]ms ( its gr[? c\ld n be trac$ 9 !     
,brhmanas & ! ranyakas :i* 7 !          
productions (  ! ,brahm9s4    ,! *ange (
 ! ,brhmana into ! ranyaka ?\ght is     
signifi$ by a transf]5ce ( values f !   
actual sacrifices to  _! symbolic       
repres5tations & m$itations :i* 7 reg>d$
  z be+ productive ( v>i\s e>?ly        
b5efits4 ,?us we  f9d 9 ! ,brhadranyaka 
7,i4#a7 t in/ead ( a horse sacrifice  ! 
visible univ]se is to be conceiv$ z a   
horse & m$itat$  ^u z su*4 ,! dawn is ! 
head ( ! horse1 ! sun is !  eye1 w9d is 
its life1 fire is its m\? & ! ye> is its
 s\l1  & s on4 ,:at is ! horse t grazes 
9 ! field & to :at good  c its sacrifice
 lead8 ,?is mov+ univ]se is ! horse :i* 
is  mo/ significant to ! m9d1 & !       
m$itation ( x z su* is  ! mo/ suitable  
sub/itute ( ! sacrifice ( ! horse1 ! m]e

  animal4 ,?\ght-activity z m$itation1  
is "h tak+ ! place  ( an ext]nal wor%ip 
9 ! =m ( sacrifices4 ,! mat]ial         
sub/ances & ! mo/ elaborate & accurate  
sacrificial rituals  lo/ _! value & b>e 
m$itations took _! place4 ,side  by side
 ) ! rituali/ic sacrifices ( ! g5]ality 
( !  ,brahm9s1 0 spr++ up a sy/em :]e   
?9k+ & symbolic  m$itations 7 tak+ !    
place ( gross matt] &  action involv$ 9 
sacrifices4 ,^! symbols 7 n only  *os5 f
 ! ext]nal _w z ! sun1 ! w9d1 etc41 f  !
 body ( man1 8 v>i\s vital functions & !
 s5ses1 b  ev5 arbitr>y alphabets 7 tak5
 up & x 0 believ$ t  ! m$itation ( ^! z 
! highe/ & ! greate/ 0 productive  (    
great b5eficial results4 ,sacrifice 9   
itself 0 los+  value 9 ! eyes ( ^! m5 & 
div]se my/ical significances  & imports 
7 beg9n+ to be consid]$ z _! real tru?  
,footnote ref #c4        ,footnote #a3  
,w9t]nitz's ,ges*i*te d] indis*5        
,litt]atur1 ,i4  pp4 #aig ff4           
,footnote #b3 ,! /ory ( ,maitry &       
,yjavalikya 7,brh4 ,,ii4 #d7  & t (     

,satyakma son ( ,jabl & 8 tea*] 7,*4    
,,iv4 #d74    ,footnote #c3 ,*4 ,v4     
,,ii4    #cf    ,! ,uk?a 7v]se7 (       
,rg-,v$a 0 id5tifi$ 9 ! ,ait>eya        
ranyaka "u sev]al allegorical =ms ) !   
,prna ,footnote  ref #a1 ! ,udg?a ( !   
,smav$a 0 id5tifi$ ) ,om1 ,prna1  sun & 
eye2 9 ,*ndogya ,,ii4 ! ,sman 0 id5tifi$
 ) ,om1 ra91  wat]1 seasons1 ,prna1     
etc41 9 ,*ndogya ,,iii4 #af-ag man 0    
id5tifi$ ) sacrifice2 8 hung]1 ?ir/1    
sorr[1 ) initiation2  laugh+1 eat+1     
etc41 ) ! utt]ance ( ! ,mantras2  &     
asceticism1 gift1 s9c]ity1 re/ra9t f    
injury1 tru?1 )  sacrificial fees       
7daksin74 ,! gift$ m9d ( ^! cultur$     
,v$ic  ,indians 0 anxi\s to come to "s  
unity1 b logical precision  ( ?\ght _h n
 develop$1 & z a result ( t we f9d 9 !  
ranyakas ! mo/ grotesque & fanciful     
unifications ( ?+s  :i* to our eyes h   
little or no connection4 ,any k9d (     
in/rum5tality 9 produc+ an effect 0 (t5 
consid]$ z pure  id5tity4 ,?us 9 ,ait4  
ran4 ,,ii4 #a4 #c we f9d ,!n comes !    

orig9  ( food4 ,! se$ ( ,prajpati are ! 
gods4 ,! se$ ( ! gods  is ra94 ,! se$ ( 
ra9 is h]bs4 ,! se$ ( h]bs is food4 ,!  
se$ ( food is se$4 ,! se$ ( se$ is      
creatures4 ,! se$ (  creatures is !     
he>t4 ,! se$ ( ! he>t is ! m9d4 ,! se$  
( ! m9d is spee*4 ,! se$ ( spee* is     
action4 ,! act done  is ?is man ! abode 
( ,brahman ,footnote ref #b4    ,! ^w   
,brahman accord+ to ,syana meant mantras
  7magical v]ses71 ! c]emonies1 ! hotr  
prie/1 ! great4  ,hillebr&t po9ts out t 
x is spok5 ( 9 ,r4,v4 z be+ new1  z n   
hav+ hi!rto exi/$1 & z com+ into be+ f  
! fa!rs4 ,x orig9ates f ! seat ( ! ,rta1
 spr+s =?  at ! s\nd ( ! sacrifice1     
beg9s really to exi/ :5 ! soma  juice is
 press$ & ! hymns are recit$ at ! savana
 rite1  endures ) ! help ( ! gods ev5 9 
battle1 & soma is its  gu>dian 7,r4,v4  
,,viii4 #cg4 ,i1 ,,viii4 #fi4 #i1 ,,vi4 
#bc4 #e1 #a4 #dg4 #b1 ,,vii4 #bb4  #i1  
,,vi4 #eb4 #c1 etc474 ,on ! /r5g? ( ^!  
,hillebr&t ju/ifies !  conjecture (     
,haug t x signifies a my/]i\s p[] :i* c 

be call$ =? by v>i\s c]emonies1 & 8     
def9ition ( x1 z  ! magical =ce :i* is  
d]iv$ f ! ord]ly coop]ation (  ! hymns1 
! *ants & ! sacrificial gifts ,footnote 
ref #c4 ,i am  dispos$ to ?9k t ?is     
mean+ is closely connect$ ) !  mean+ z  
we f9d x 9 _m passages 9 ! ranyakas & ! 
,upanisads4 ,! mean+ 9 _m ( ^! seems to 
be midway betwe5        ,footnote #a3   
,ait4 ran4 ,,ii #a-c4    ,footnote #b3  
,kei?'s ,translation ( ,ait>eya ranyaka4
    ,footnote #c3 ,hillebr&t's article  
on ,brahman1 ,e4,r4,e44    #cg          
magical =ce & great1 transition betwe5  
:i* is  r easy4 ,ev5 :5 ! sacrifices    
began to be replac$ by  m$itations1 !   
old belief 9 ! p[] ( ! sacrifices /ill  
rema9$1 & z a result ( t we f9d t 9 _m  
passages  ( ! ,upanisads p are ?9k+ (   
m$itat+ ^u ?is  great =ce ,brahman z be+
 id5tifi$ ) div]se symbols1  natural    
objects1 p>ts & functions ( ! body4     
,:5 ! ma9 int]e/ ( sacrifice 0 transf]r$
 f its  actual p]=mance 9 ! ext]nal _w  
to c]ta9 =ms (  m$itation1 we f9d t !   

und]/&+ ( p>ticul> allegories  (        
sacrifice hav+ a relation to p>ticul>   
k9ds ( bodily functions  0 reg>d$ z     
,brahman1 )\t a k ( :i* no?+  c\ld be   
obta9$4 ,! fact t ^! allegorical        
int]pretations  ( ! ,pacgnividy are s   
mu* ref]r$ to 9 ! ,upanisads  z a secret
 doctr9e1 %[s t "s p came to ?9k t  !   
real efficacy ( sacrifices dep5d$ ^u su*
 m$itations4  ,:5 ! sages rose to !     
culm9at+ conception1 t he is  really    
ignorant :o ?9ks ! gods to be diff]5t f 
him1 !y  ?\ght t z ea* man 0 n\ri%$ by  
_m bea/s1 s !  gods 7 n\ri%$ by ea* man1
 & z x is unpleasant = a  man if any ( 8
 bea/s are tak5 away1 s x is unpleasant 
=  ! gods t m5 %\ld "k ?is great tru?4  
,footnote ref #a4    ,9 ! ,k5a we f9d x 
indicat$ t all ! p[]s (  ! gods su* z t 
( ,agni 7fire7 to burn1 ,vyu 7w9d7 to   
bl[1 dep5d$ ^u ,brahman1 & t x is ?r\gh 
,brahman  t all ! gods & all ! s5ses (  
man c\ld "w4 ,!  :ole process (         
,upanisad ?\ght %[s t ! magic p[]  (    
sacrifices z associat$ ) ,rta           

7unalt]able law7 0 be+  ab/ract$ f !    
sacrifices & conceiv$ z ! supreme p[]4  
,!re are _m /ories 9 ! ,upanisads ( !   
se>* aft] !  nature ( ?is great p[] !   
,brahman1 :i* 0 at fir/ only  imp]fectly
 realiz$4 ,!y id5tifi$ x ) ! dom9at+ p[]
  ( ! natural objects ( wond]1 ! sun1 ! 
moon1 etc4 )  bodily & m5tal functions &
 ) v>i\s symbolical  repres5tations1 &  
delud$ !mselves = a "t ) ! idea  t ^! 7 
satisfactory4 ,b z ^! 7 gradually f\nd  
inadequate1 !y came to ! f9al solution1 
& ! doctr9e (  ! inn] self ( man z be+ !
 highe/ tru? ! ,brahman  orig9at$4      
,footnote #a3 ,brh4 ,i4 #d4 #aj4    #ch 
,! mean+ ( ! ^w ,upanisad4    ,! ^w     
,upanisad is d]iv$ f ! root sad ) !     
prefix  ni 7to sit71 & ,max ,mull] says 
t ! ^w orig9ally meant !  act ( sitt+   
d[n ne> a tea*] & ( submissively li/5+  
to  him4 ,9 8 introduction to !         
,upanisads he says1 ,! hi/ory  & ! g5ius
 ( ! ,sanskrit language leave little    
d\bt t  ,upanisad meant orig9ally       
session1 p>ticul>ly a session consi/+  (

 pupils1 assembl$ at a respectful       
di/ance r\nd _! tea*]  ,footnote ref #a4
 ,deuss5 po9ts out t ! ^w means secret  
or  secret in/ruction1 & ?is is borne   
out by _m ( ! passages (  ! ,upanisads  
!mselves4 ,max ,mull] also agrees t ! ^w
 0 us$  9 ?is s5se 9 ! ,upanisads       
,footnote ref #b4 ,!re we f9d t  great  
injunctions ( secrecy are to be obs]v$ =
 ! communication  ( ! doctr9es1 & x is  
said t x %\ld only be giv5 to a  /ud5t  
or pupil :o by 8 supreme moral re/ra9t &
 noble desires  proves himself des]v+ to
 he> !m4 ,s'ank>a h[ev]1 !  great       
,indian expon5t ( ! ,upanisads1 d]ives !
 ^w f  ! root sad to de/roy & supposes t
 x is s call$ because x  de/roys inborn 
ignorance & leads to salvation by       
reveal+ !  "r k4 ,b if we comp>e ! _m   
texts 9 :i* !  ^w ,upanisad occurs 9 !  
,upanisads !mselves x seems t  ,deuss5's
 mean+ is fully ju/ifi$ ,footnote ref   
#c4      ,! composition & gr[? ( div]se 
,upanisads4    ,! olde/ ,upanisads are  
writt5 9 prose4 ,next to ^! we  h "s 9  

v]ses v simil> to ^? t are to be f\nd 9 
classical ,sanskrit4 ,z is easy to see1 
! old] ! ,upanisad !  m ar*aic is x 9   
its language4 ,! e>lie/ ,upanisads h  an
 almo/ my/]i\s =cefulness 9 _!          
expressions at lea/ to  ,indian e>s4 ,!y
 are simple1 pi?y & p5etrate to ! he>t4 
,we c read & read !m ov] aga9 )\t gett+ 
tir$4  ,! l9es are always z fre% z ev]4 
,z su* !y h a *>m  ap>t f ! value ( !   
ideas !y int5d to convey4 ,! ^w         
,upanisad 0 us$1 z we h se51 9 ! s5se ( 
secret  doctr9e or in/ruction2 !        
,upanisad tea*+s 7 also int5d$  to be   
convey$ 9 /ricte/ secrecy to e>ne/      
enquir]s (  high morals & sup]ior       
self-re/ra9t = ! purpose ( a*iev+       
,footnote #a3 ,max ,mull]'s ,translation
 ( ! ,upani%ads1 ,s4,b4,e4 vol4  ,i4p4  
lxxxi4    ,footnote #b3 ,s4 ,b4,e4 vol4 
,i1 p lxxxi4    ,footnote #c3 ,deuss5's 
,philosophy ( ! ,upani%ads1 pp4 #aj-ae4 
#ci    emancipation4 ,x 0 ?us t !       
,upanisad /yle ( expression1  :5 x once 
came into use1 came to possess ! greate/

 *>m &  attraction = e>ne/ religi\s p2 &
 z a result ( t we  f9d t ev5 :5 o!r =ms
 ( prose & v]se _h be5  adapt$ = !      
,sanskrit language1 ! ,upanisad =m (    
composition  _h n /opp$4 ,?us ?\gh !    
e>lie/ ,upanisads  7 compil$ by #ejj ,b 
,c41 !y cont9u$ to be writt5 ev5 s  late
 z ! spread ( ,mahomm$an influ5ce 9     
,india4 ,!  e>lie/ & mo/ important are  
probably ^? t h be5  comm5t$ ^u by      
,s'ank>a namely ,brhadranyaka1 ,*ndogya1
  ,ait>eya1 ,taittiriya1 s'a1 ,k5a1     
,ka?a1 ,pras'na1 ,mundaka &  ,mndkya    
,footnote ref #a4 ,x is important to    
note 9 ?is connection  t ! sep>ate      
,upanisads diff] mu* f "o ano!r ) reg>d 
to _! cont5t & me?ods ( exposition4 ,?us
 :ile "s (  !m are busy lay+ great /ress
 ^u ! moni/ic doctr9e (  ! self z ! only
 reality1 !re are o!rs :i* lay /ress ^u 
! practice ( ,yoga1 asceticism1 ! cult (
 ,s'iva1 ( ,visnu &  ! philosophy or    
anatomy ( ! body1 & may ?us be          
respectively call$ ! ,yoga1 ,s'aiva1    
,visnu & ,s'rra ,upanisads4  ,^! 9 all  

make up ! numb] to "o hundr$ & eight4   
,revival ( ,upanisad /udies 9 mod]n     
times4    ,h[ ! ,upanisads came to be   
introduc$ into ,europe is an  int]e/+   
/ory ,dra ,%iko ! elde/ son ( ! ,emp]or 
,%ah ,jahan he>d ( ! ,upanisads dur+ 8  
/ay 9 ,ka%mir  9 #afdj4 ,he invit$      
sev]al ,p&its f ,b5>es to ,delhi1 :o    
und]took ! "w ( translat+ !m into       
,p]sian4 ,9 #agge  ,anquetil ,dup]ron1 !
 discov]] ( ! ,z5d ,ave/a1 receiv$  a   
manuscript ( x pres5t$ to him by 8 fri5d
 ,le ,g5til1 !  ,fr5* resid5t 9         
,faizabad at ! c\rt ( ,%uj-uddaulah4    
,anquetil translat$ x into ,lat9 :i* 0  
publi%$ 9 #ahja-ahjb4  ,?is translation 
?\gh l>gely un9telligible 0 read by     
,s*op5hau] ) great en?usiasm4 ,x _h1 z  
,s*op5hau]  himself admits1 pr(\ndly    
influ5c$ 8 philosophy4 ,?us he          
,footnote #a3 ,deuss5 supposes t        
,kaustaki is also "o ( ! e>lie/4  ,max  
,mll] & ,s*ro$] ?9k t ,maitryan also    
belongs to !  e>lie/ gr\p1 :]eas ,deuss5
 c\nts x z a comp>atively lat]          

production4 ,w9t]nitz divides !         
,upanisads into f\r p]iods4 ,9  ! fir/  
p]iod he includes ,brhadranyaka1        
,*ndogya1 ,taittirya1  ,ait>eya1        
,kaustaki & ,k5a4 ,9 t second he        
includes ,k?aka1 s'1  ,s'vets'vat>a1    
,mundaka1 ,mahnryana1 & 9 ! ?ird p]iod  
he  includes ,pras'na1 ,maitryan &      
,mndkya4 ,! re/ ( ! ,upanisads  he      
includes 9 ! f\r? p]iod4    #dj         
writes 9 ! preface to 8 ,welt als ,wille
 und ,vor/ellung  ,footnote ref #a1 ,&  
if1 inde$1 9 addition to ?is he is a    
p>tak]  ( ! b5efit conf]r$ by ! ,v$as1 !
 access to :i*1 op5$ to  u ?r\gh !      
,upani%ads1 is 9 my eyes ! greate/      
advantage :i*  ?is /ill "y c5tury enjoys
 ov] previ\s ones1 because ,i believe  t
 ! influ5ce ( ! ,sanskrit lit]ature w   
p5etrate n less  deeply ?an did !       
revival ( ,greek lit]ature 9 ! fifte5?  
c5tury3 if1 ,i say1 ! read] has also    
already receiv$ &  assimilat$ ! sacr$1  
primitive ,indian wisdom1 !n is he be/  
( all prep>$ to he> :at ,i h to say to  

him4444,i might express  ! op9ion t ea* 
"o ( ! individual & disconnect$         
aphorisms :i* make up ! ,upani%ads may  
be d$uc$ z  a consequ5ce f ! ?\ght ,i am
 go+ to imp>t1 ?\gh  ! conv]se1 t my    
?\ght is to be f\nd 9 ! ,upani%ads  is  
by no means ! case4 ,aga91 ,h[ does e   
l9e display  its firm1 def9ite1 &       
?r\gh\t h>moni\s mean+6 ,f e  s5t5ce    
deep1 orig9al1 & sublime ?\ghts arise1 &
 ! :ole  is p]vad$ by a high & holy &   
e>ne/ _s4444,9 ! :ole  _w !re is no     
/udy1 except t ( ! orig9als1 s b5eficial
  & s elevat+ z t ( ! ,oupanikhat4 ,x   
has be5 ! solace  ( my life1 x w be !   
solace ( my dea?6 ,footnote ref #b      
,?r\gh  ,s*op5hau] ! /udy ( ! ,upanisads
 attract$ mu* att5tion 9  ,g]many & ) ! 
gr[? ( a g5]al int]e/ 9 ! /udy  (       
,sanskrit1 !y f\nd _! way into o!r p>ts 
( ,europe z  well4    ,! /udy ( !       
,upanisads has h[ev] ga9$ a great       
impetus by ! e>ne/ attempts ( our ,ram  
,mohan ,roy :o  n only translat$ !m into
 ,b5gali1 ,h9di & ,engli% &  publi%$ !m 

at 8 own exp5se1 b f\nd$ ! ,brahma      
,samaj 9 ,b5gal1 ! ma9 religi\s doctr9es
 ( :i* 7  d]iv$ directly f ! ,upanisads4
        ,footnote #a3 ,translation by   
,haldane & ,kemp1 vol4 ,i4 pp4 xii &    
xiii4    ,footnote #b3 ,max ,mull] says 
9 8 introduction to ! ,upani%ada        
7,s4,b4,e4 ,i p4 lxii2 see also pp4 lx1 
lxi7 t ,s*op5hau] %\ld  h spok5 ( !     
,upani%ads z 'products ( ! highe/       
wisdom'444t  he %\ld h plac$ ! pan!ism  
!re taught high above !  pan!ism (      
,bruno1 ,malebran*e1 ,sp9oza & ,scotus  
,erig5a1 z br\ght  to light aga9 at     
,ox=d 9 #afha1 may p]haps secure a m    
consid]ate  reception = ^? relics (     
anci5t wisdom ?an any?+ t ,i c\ld  say 9
 _! fav\r4    #da      ,! ,upanisads &  
_! int]pretations4    ,be=e ent]+ into !
 philosophy ( ! ,upanisads x may  be    
wor? :ile to say a few words z to !     
reason :y div]se  & ev5 contradictory   
explanations z to ! real import ( !     
,upanisads _h be5 (f]$ by ! great       
,indian s*ol>s ( pa/  times4 ,!         

,upanisads1 z we h se51 =m$ ! conclud+  
portion ( ! reveal$ ,v$ic lit]ature1 & 7
 ?us call$ !  ,v$nta4 ,x 0 almo/        
univ]sally believ$ by ! ,h9dus t  !     
highe/ tru?s c\ld only be f\nd 9 !      
revelation ( !  ,v$as4 ,reason 0 reg>d$ 
g5]ally z occupy+ a comp>atively        
subs]vi5t place1 & its prop] use 0 to be
 f\nd 9 its  judici\s employm5t 9 gett+ 
out ! real mean+ ( !  app>5tly conflict+
 ideas ( ! ,v$as4 ,! highe/ k  (        
ultimate tru? & reality 0 ?us reg>d$ z  
hav+  be5 once = all decl>$ 9 !         
,upanisads4 ,reason _h only to  unravel 
x 9 ! light ( exp]i5ce4 ,x is important 
t read]s  ( ,h9du philosophy %\ld be> 9 
m9d ! contra/ t x  pres5ts to ! rul+    
idea ( ! mod]n _w t new tru?s  are      
discov]$ by reason & exp]i5ce e day1 &  
ev5 9  ^? cases :]e ! old tru?s rema91  
!y *ange _! hue  & "* e day1 & t 9      
matt]s ( ultimate tru?s no  f9ality c   
ev] be a*iev$2 we are to be cont5t only 
) z  mu* z comes be=e ! purview ( our   
reason & exp]i5ce  at ! "t4 ,x 0 !re=e  

?\ght to be extremely audaci\s  t any   
p]son h[soev] le>n$ & brilliant he might
 be  %\ld h any "r to say any?+ reg>d+ !
 highe/  tru?s simply on ! au?ority ( 8 
own op9ion or ! reasons  t he might (f]4
 ,9 ord] to make himself he>d x 0       
necess>y  = him to %[ f ! texts ( !     
,upanisads t !y  support$ him1 & t _!   
purport 0 also ! same4 ,?us  x 0 t mo/  
s*ools ( ,h9du philosophy f\nd x "o ( _!
  pr9cipal duties to int]pret !         
,upanisads 9 ord] to %[ t  !y alone     
repres5t$ ! true ,v$nta doctr9es4 ,any  
"o  :o %\ld feel himself p]suad$ by !   
int]pretations ( any  p>ticul> s*ool    
might say t 9 foll[+ t s*ool he 0       
foll[+ ! ,v$nta4    ,! difficulty (     
assur+ oneself t any int]pretation is   
absolutely ! "r "o is enhanc$ by ! fact 
t g]ms (  div]se k9ds ( ?\ghts are f\nd 
scatt]$ ov] ! ,upanisads    #db    :i*  
are n work$ out 9 a sy/ematic mann]4    
,?us ea*  int]pret] 9 8 turn made !     
texts fav\rable to 8 own  doctr9es      
prom95t & br\ght !m to ! =efront1 & tri$

  to repress o!rs or expla9 !m away4 ,b 
comp>+ !  v>i\s sy/ems ( ,upanisad      
int]pretation we f9d t !  int]pretation 
(f]$ by ,s'ank>a v l>gely repres5ts !   
view  ( ! g5]al body ( ! e>li] ,upanisad
 doctr9es1 ?\gh  !re are "s :i* di/9ctly
 =e%ad[ ! doctr9es ( o!r  sy/ems1 b 9 a 
crude & g]m9al =m4 ,x is ?us t ,v$nta   
is g5]ally associat$ ) ! int]pretation (
 ,s'ank>a &  ,s'ank>a's sy/em ( ?\ght is
 call$ ! ,v$nta sy/em1 ?\gh  !re are _m 
o!r sy/ems :i* put =? _! claim z        
repres5t+  ! true ,v$nta doctr9es4      
,"u ^! circum/ances x is necess>y t a   
mod]n int]pret]  ( ! ,upanisads %\ld    
turn a deaf e> to ! absolute  claims (  
^! expon5ts1 & look ^u ! ,upanisads n z 
a sy/ematic treatise b z a repository ( 
div]se curr5ts (  ?\ght--! melt+ pot 9  
:i* all lat] philosophic ideas 7  /ill 9
 a /ate ( fusion1 ?\gh ! moni/ic doctr9e
 ( ,s'ank>a1  or r an approa* !reto1 may
 be reg>d$ z ! purport (  by f> ! l>ge/ 
majority ( ! texts4 ,x w be bett] t a   
mod]n int]pret] %\ld n agree to ! claims

 ( ! anci5ts  t all ! ,upanisads        
repres5t a connect$ sy/em1 b take !     
texts indep5d5tly & sep>ately & det]m9e 
_! mean+s1  ?\gh keep+ an att5tive eye  
on ! context 9 :i* !y  appe>4 ,x is 9   
?is way alone t we c detect ! g]ms (  ! 
?\ghts ( o!r ,indian sy/ems 9 !         
,upanisads1 & ?us  f9d 9 !m ! e>lie/    
records ( ^? t5d5cies ( ?\ghts4      ,! 
que/ aft] ,brahman3 ! /ruggle & !       
failures4    ,! fundam5tal idea :i* runs
 ?r\gh ! e>ly ,upanisads  is t und]ly+ !
 ext]ior _w ( *ange !re is an           
un*angeable  reality :i* is id5tical ) t
 :i* und]lies  ! ess5ce 9 man ,footnote 
ref #a4 ,if we look at ,greek philosophy
 9  ,p>m5ides or ,plato or at mod]n     
philosophy 9 ,kant1 we f9d !  same      
t5d5cy t[>ds glorify+ "o unspeakable    
entity z !  reality or ! ess5ce4 ,i h   
said above t ! ,upanisads are           
,footnote #a3 ,brh4 ,,iv4 #d4 #e4 #bb4  
#dc    no sy/ematic treatises ( a s+le  
h&1 b are r collations  or compilations 
( float+ monologues1 dialogues or       

anecdotes4  ,!re are no d\bt "h & !re   
simple discussions b !re  is no p$antry 
or gymna/ics ( logic4 ,ev5 ! mo/ casual 
read] _c b be /ruck ) ! e>ne/ness &     
en?usiasm  ( ! sages4 ,!y run f place to
 place ) great eag]ness  9 se>* ( a     
tea*] compet5t to in/ruct !m ab\t !     
nature  ( ,brahman4 ,:]e is ,brahman8   
,:at is 8 nature8    ,we h notic$ t dur+
 ! clos+ p]iod ( ! ,samhit  !re 7 p :o  
_h ris5 to ! conception ( a s+le        
creator & controll] ( ! univ]se1 v>i\sly
 call$ ,prajpati1  ,vis'vak>man1        
,purusa1 ,brahmanaspati & ,brahman4 ,b  
?is  div9e controll] 0 yet only a deity4
 ,! se>* z to !  nature ( ?is deity     
began 9 ! ,upanisads4 ,_m visible       
objects  ( nature su* z ! sun or ! w9d  
on "o h& & ! v>i\s  psy*ological        
functions 9 man 7 tri$1 b none c\ld r5d]
  satisfaction to ! great ideal t _h be5
 ar\s$4 ,! sages  9 ! ,upanisad _h      
already />t$ ) ! idea t !re 0  a supreme
 controll] or ess5ce presid+ ov] man & !
  univ]se4 ,b :at 0 its nature8 ,c\ld x 

be id5tifi$ )  any ( ! deities (        
,nature1 0 x a new deity or 0 x no deity
  at all8 ,! ,upanisads pres5t to u !   
hi/ory ( ?is que/ &  ! results t 7      
a*iev$4    ,:5 we look m]ely to ?is que/
 we f9d t we h n  yet gone out ( !      
ranyaka ideas & ( symbolic 7pratka7  =ms
 ( wor%ip4 ,prna 7vital brea?7 0 reg>d$ 
z ! mo/  ess5tial function = ! life (   
man1 & _m anecdotes are  relat$ to %[ t 
x is sup]ior to ! o!r organs1 su* z !   
eye or e>1 & t on x all o!r functions   
dep5d4 ,?is  recognition ( ! sup]iority 
( prna br+s u to ! m$itations  on prna z
 ,brahman z lead+ to ! mo/ b5eficial    
results4  ,s also we f9d t ow+ to !     
pres5ce ( ! exalt+  *>act]s (           
omnipres5ce & et]nality ks'a 7space7 is 
m$itat$ ^u z ,brahman4 ,s also manas &  
ditya 7sun7  are m$itat$ ^u z ,brahman4 
,aga9 side by side ) !  visible mat]ial 
repres5tation ( ,brahman z ! p]vad+     
,vyu1  or ! sun & ! immat]ial           
repres5tation z ks'a1 manas or  prna1 we
 f9d also ! v>i\s k9ds ( m$itations z   

sub/itutes  = actual sacrifice4 ,?us x  
is t !re 0 an e>ne/ que/  aft] !        
discov]y ( ,brahman4 ,we f9d a /ratum ( 
?\ght    #dd    :i* %[s t ! sages 7 /ill
 bl9d$ by ! old rituali/ic              
associations1 & ?\gh m$itation _h tak5 !
 place ( sacrifice  yet ?is 0 h>dly     
adequate = ! highe/ atta9m5t (          
,brahman4    ,next to ! failure ( !     
m$itations we h to notice !  hi/ory ( ! 
se>* aft] ,brahman 9 :i* ! sages s\ght  
to  id5tify ,brahman ) ! presid+ deity (
 ! sun1 moon1  lightn+1 e!r1 w9d1 fire1 
wat]1 etc41 & fail$2 = none (  ^! c\ld  
satisfy ! ideal !y *]i%$ ( ,brahman4 ,x 
is  inde$ ne$less "h to multiply ^!     
examples1 = !y are  tiresome n only 9   
?is summ>y treatm5t b 9 ! orig9al  z    
well4 ,!y are ( value only 9 ?is t !y   
indicate h[  toilsome 0 ! process by :i*
 ! old rituali/ic associations  c\ld be 
got rid (2 :at /ruggles & failures !    
sages _h to  und]go be=e !y rea*$ a k ( 
! true nature (  ,brahman4              
,unkn[ability ( ,brahman & ! ,negative  

,me?od4    ,x is inde$ true t ! magical 
elem5t involv$ 9 !  dis*>ge (           
sacrificial duties l+]$ = a :ile 9 !    
symbolic  wor%ip ( ,brahman 9 :i* ,he 0 
conceiv$ almo/ z a deity4  ,! m9ds ( !  
,v$ic poets s long accu/om$ to wor%ip   
deities ( visible manife/ation c\ld n   
easily disp5se ) !  idea ( seek+ aft] a 
positive & def9ite cont5t ( ,brahman4   
,!y tri$ "s ( ! sublime p[]s ( nature & 
also _m  symbols1 b ^! c\ld n r5d]      
ultimate satisfaction4 ,!y  did n "k :at
 ! ,brahman 0 l1 = !y _h only a  dim &  
dreamy vision ( x 9 ! deep crav+ ( _!   
s\ls  :i* c\ld n be translat$ into      
p]man5t t]ms4 ,b ?is  0 en\gh to lead !m
 on to ! goal1 = !y c\ld n be  satisfi$ 
) any?+ %ort ( ! highe/4    ,!y f\nd t  
by :atev] means !y tri$ to give a       
positive & def9ite cont5t ( ! ultimate  
reality1 ! ,brahman1  !y fail$4         
,positive def9itions 7 impossible4 ,!y  
c\ld n  po9t out :at ! ,brahman 0 l 9   
ord] to give an utt]ance  to t :i* 0    
unutt]able1 !y c\ld only say t x 0 n  l 

aught t we f9d 9 exp]i5ce4 ,yjavalkya   
said ,he  ! tman is n ?is1 nor ?is 7neti
 neti74 ,he is inconceivable1  = he _c  
be conceiv$1 un*angeable1 = he is n     
*ang$1  unt\*$1 = no?+ t\*es him2 he _c 
suff] by a /roke    #de    ( ! sword1 he
 _c suff] any injury ,footnote ref #a4  
,he is  asat1 non-be+1 = ! be+ :i*      
,brahman is1 is n to be  und]/ood z su* 
be+ z is kn[n to u by exp]i5ce2 yet he  
is  be+1 = he alone is supremely real1 =
 ! univ]se subsi/s by  him4 ,we         
ourselves are b he1 & yet we "k n :at he
 is4 ,:atev]  we c exp]i5ce1 :atev] we c
 express1 is limit$1 b he is !          
unlimit$1 ! basis ( all4 ,t :i* is      
inaudible1 intangible1  invisible1      
inde/ructible1 :i* _c be ta/$1 nor      
smelt1 et]nal1  )\t beg9n+ or end1      
great] ?an ! great 7mahat71 ! fix$4  ,he
 :o kn[s x is releas$ f ! jaws ( dea?   
,footnote ref #b4  ,space1 "t &         
causality d n app]ta9 to him1 = he at   
once =ms  _! ess5ce & transc5ds !m4 ,he 
is ! inf9ite & ! va/1 yet  ! smalle/ ( !

 small1 at once "h z !re1 !re z "h2 no  
*>act]isation ( him is possible1 o!rwise
 ?an by ! d5ial  to him ( all empirical 
attributes1 relations & def9itions4 ,he 
is indep5d5t ( all limitations ( space1 
"t1 & cause :i*  rules all t is         
objectively pres5t$1 & !re=e ! empirical
  univ]se4 ,:5 ,bhva 0 que/ion$ by      
,vaskali1 he exp\nd$  ! nature (        
,brahman to him by ma9ta9+ sil5ce--,tea*
  me1 said ,vaskali1 mo/ rev]5t sir1 !  
nature ( ,brahman4  ,bhva h[ev] rema9$  
sil5t4 ,b :5 ! "q 0 put  =? a second or 
?ird "t he answ]$1 ,i tea* y inde$ b  y 
d n und]/&2 ! tman is sil5ce ,footnote  
ref #c4 ,! way  to indicate x is ?us by 
neti neti1 x is n ?is1 x is n ?is4  ,we 
_c describe x by any positive cont5t :i*
 is always limit$  by conceptual ?\ght4 
,! tman doctr9e4    ,! sum & sub/ance ( 
! ,upanisad tea*+ is involv$  9 !       
equation tman,brahman4 ,we h already se5
 t !  ^w tman 0 us$ 9 ! ,rg-,v$a to     
d5ote on ! "o h&  ! ultimate ess5ce ( ! 
univ]se1 & on ! o!r ! vital  brea? 9    

man4 ,lat] on 9 ! ,upanisads we see t ! 
^w  ,brahman is g5]ally us$ 9 ! =m]     
s5se1 :ile ! ^w  tman is res]v$ to d5ote
 ! inmo/ ess5ce 9 man1 & !              
,footnote #a3 ,brh4 ,,iv4 #e4 #ae4      
,deuss51 ,max ,mull] & ,ro] h all       
mis9t]pret$ ?is passage2 asito has be5  
int]pret$ z an  adjective or p>ticiple1 
?\gh no evid5ce has ev] be5 adduc$2  x  
is evid5tly ! ablative ( asi1 a sword4  
,footnote #b3 ,ka?a ,,iii4 #ae4         
,footnote #c3 ,sank>a on ,brahmastra1   
,,iii4 #b4 #ag1 & also ,deuss51         
,philosophy ( ! ,upani%ads1 p4 #aef4    
#df    ,upanisads are emphatic 9 _!     
decl>ation t ! two are "o  & ! same4 ,b 
:at is ! inmo/ ess5ce ( man8 ,! self  ( 
man involves an ambiguity1 z x is us$ 9 
a v>iety ( s5ses4  ,?us s f> z man      
consi/s ( ! ess5ce ( food 7i4e4 !       
physical  p>ts ( man7 he is call$       
annamaya4 ,b beh9d ! %ea? (  ?is body   
!re is ! o!r self consi/+ ( ! vital     
brea?  :i* is call$ ! self z vital brea?
 7prnamaya tman74  ,beh9d ?is aga9 !re  

is ! o!r self consi/+ ( w call$  !      
manomaya tman4 ,?is aga9 conta9s )9 x ! 
self  consi/+ ( consci\sness call$ !    
vijnamaya tman4 ,b  beh9d x we come to !
 f9al ess5ce ! self z pure bliss 7!     
n&amaya tman74 ,! texts say3 ,truly he  
is ! rapture2  = :oev] gets ?is rapture 
becomes blissful4 ,= :o c\ld  live1 :o  
c\ld brea! if ?is space 7ks'a7 0 n      
bliss8 ,=  x is he :o behaves z bliss4  
,= :oev] 9 t ,invisible1                
,self-surpass+1 ,unspeakable1           
,supportless f9ds fe>less support1 he   
really becomes fe>less4 ,b :oev] f9ds   
ev5 a slight diff]5ce1  betwe5 himself &
 ?is tman !re is fe> = him ,footnote ref
 #a4    ,aga9 9 ano!r place we f9d t    
,prajpati said3 ,! self  7tman7 :i* is  
free f s91 free f old age1 f dea? &     
grief1 f hung] & ?ir/1 ^: desires are   
true1 ^: cogitations  are true1 t is to 
be se>*$ =1 t is to be enquir$2  he gets
 all 8 desires & all worlds :o kn[s t   
self ,footnote  ref #b4 ,! gods & !     
demons on he>+ ( ?is s5t ,indra &       

,virocana respectively z _!             
repres5tatives to enquire ( ?is self  f 
,prajpati4 ,he agre$ to tea* !m1 & ask$ 
!m to look  into a vessel ( wat] & tell 
him h[ mu* ( self !y c\ld  f9d4 ,!y     
answ]$3 ,we see1 ?is our :ole self1 ev5 
to !  hair1 & to ! nails4 ,& he said1   
,well1 t is ! self1 t  is ! dea?less & !
 fe>less1 t is ! ,brahman4 ,!y w5t  away
 pleas$1 b ,prajpati ?\ght1 ,!re !y g   
away1  )\t hav+ discov]$1 )\t hav+      
realiz$ ! self4  ,virocana came away ) !
 conviction t ! body 0 !  self2 b ,indra
 did n return back to ! gods1 he 0      
afraid &  pe/]$ ) d\bts & came back to  
,prajpati & said1 j  z ! self becomes   
decorat$ :5 ! body is decorat$1         
well-dress$  :5 ! body is well-dress$1  
well-clean$ :5 !  body is well-clean$1  
ev5 s t image self w be bl9d :5  ! body 
is bl9d1 injur$ 9 "o eye :5 ! body is   
injur$ 9  "o eye1 & mutilat$ :5 ! body  
is mutilat$1 & x p]i%es        ,footnote
 #a3 ,taitt4 ,,ii4 #g4    ,footnote #b3 
,*4 ,,viii4 #g4 #a4    #dg    :5 ! body 

p]i%es1 !re=e ,i c see no good 9 ?is    
!ory4  ,prajpati !n gave him a high]    
in/ruction ab\t ! self1 &  said1 ,he :o 
goes ab\t enjoy+ dreams1 he is ! self1  
?is  is ! dea?less1 ! fe>less1 ?is is   
,brahman4 ,indra dep>t$  b 0 aga9       
di/urb$ ) d\bts1 & 0 afraid & came  back
 & said t ?\gh ! dream self does n      
become bl9d  :5 ! body is bl9d1 or      
injur$ 9 "o eye :5 ! body is  s injur$ &
 is n affect$ by its defects1 & is n    
kill$ by  its de/ruction1 b yet x is z  
if x 0 ov]:elm$1 z if x  suff]$ & z if x
 wept--9 ?is ,i see no good4 ,prajpati  
gave a  /ill high] in/ruction3 ,:5 a    
man1 fa/ asleep1 9 total  cont5tm5t1    
does n "k any dreams1 ?is is ! self1 ?is
 is !  dea?less1 ! fe>less1 ?is is      
,brahman4 ,indra dep>t$ b 0  aga9 fill$ 
) d\bts on ! way1 & return$ aga9 & said 
!  self 9 deep sleep does n "k himself1 
t ,i am ?is1 nor does  he "k any o!r    
exi/+ objects4 ,he is de/roy$ & lo/4  ,i
 see no good 9 ?is4 ,& n[ ,prajpati aft]
 hav+ giv5 a  c\rse ( successively high]

 in/ructions z self z ! body1 z  ! self 
9 dreams & z ! self 9 deep dreamless    
sleep1 &  hav+ f\nd t ! enquir] 9 ea*   
case c\ld f9d out t ?is  0 n ! ultimate 
tru? ab\t ! self t he 0 seek+1          
ultimately gave him ! ultimate & f9al   
in/ruction ab\t !  full tru? ab\t !     
self1 & said ?is body is ! support ( !  
dea?less & ! bodiless self4 ,! self z   
embodi$ is affect$  by pleasure & pa91 !
 self :5 associat$ ) ! body _c  get rid 
( pleasure & pa91 b pleasure & pa9 d n  
t\* ! bodiless self ,footnote ref #a4   
,z ! anecdote %[s1 !y s\ght su* a       
con/ant & un*angeable  ess5ce 9 man z 0 
beyond ! limits ( any *ange4  ,?is inmo/
 ess5ce has sometimes be5 describ$ z    
pure  subject-object-less consci\sness1 
! reality1 & ! bliss4 ,he is  ! se] (   
all see+1 ! he>] ( all he>+ & ! kn[] (  
all  k4 ,he sees b is n se51 he>s b is n
 he>d1 kn[s  b is n kn[n4 ,he is ! light
 ( all lights4 ,he is l a lump  ( salt1 
) no inn] or out]1 :i* consi/s ?r\gh &  
?r\gh  entirely ( sav\r2 z 9 tru? ?is   

tman has no inn] or out]1  b consi/s    
?r\gh & ?r\gh entirely ( k4 ,bliss is  n
 an attribute ( x b x is bliss itself4  
,! /ate ( ,brahman  is ?us lik5$ unto ! 
/ate ( dreamless sleep4 ,& he :o  has   
rea*$ ?is bliss is beyond any fe>4 ,x is
 de>] to u ?an        ,footnote #a3 ,*4 
,,viii4 #g-ab4    #dh    son1 bro!r1    
wife1 or husb&1 weal? or prosp]ity4 ,x  
is = x  & by x t ?+s appe> de> to u4 ,x 
is ! de>e/ p>  excell5ce1 our inmo/     
tman4 ,all limitation is fraught ) pa92 
x is ! inf9ite alone t is ! highe/      
bliss4 ,:5 a man  receives ?is rapture1 
!n is he full ( bliss2 = :o c\ld brea!1 
:o live1 if t bliss _h n fill$ ?is void 
7ks'a78 ,x is he  :o behaves z bliss4 ,=
 :5 a man f9ds 8 peace1 8 fe>less       
support 9 t invisible1 supportless1     
inexpressible1 unspeakable  "o1 !n has  
he atta9$ peace4      ,place ( ,brahman 
9 ! ,upanisads4    ,!re is ! tman n 9   
man alone b 9 all objects ( !  univ]se1 
! sun1 ! moon1 ! _w2 & ,brahman is ?is  
tman4  ,!re is no?+ outside ! tman1 &   

!re=e !re is no  plurality at all4 ,z f 
a lump ( clay all t is made ( clay  is  
kn[n1 z f an +ot ( black iron all t is  
made (  black iron is kn[n1 s :5 ?is    
tman ! ,brahman is kn[n  ev]y?+ else is 
kn[n4 ,! ess5ce 9 man & ! ess5ce  ( !   
univ]se are "o & ! same1 & x is         
,brahman4    ,n[ a "q may arise z to :at
 may be call$ ! nature  ( ! ph5om5al _w 
( col\r1 s\nd1 ta/e1 & smell4 ,b  we mu/
 also rememb] t ! ,upanisads d n        
repres5t s  mu* a conceptional sy/em (  
philosophy z visions ( ! se]s  :o are   
possess$ by ! _s ( ?is ,brahman4 ,!y d n
  notice ev5 ! contradiction betwe5 !   
,brahman z unity &  nature 9 its        
div]sity4 ,:5 ! empirical aspect (      
div]sity  attracts _! notice1 !y affirm 
x & yet decl>e t x is all  ,brahman4 ,f 
,brahman x has come =? & to x w x       
return4 ,he has himself creat$ x out (  
himself & !n ent]$  into x z its inn]   
controll] 7ant>ym974 ,"h is ?us a gl>+  
duali/ic trait ( ! _w ( matt] & ,brahman
 z its controll]1  ?\gh 9 o!r places we 

f9d x ass]t$ mo/ emphatically t  ^! are 
b names & =ms1 & :5 ,brahman is kn[n    
ev]y?+ else is kn[n4 ,no attempts at    
reconciliation are made  = ! sake ( !   
consi/5cy ( conceptual utt]ance1 z      
,s'ank>a ! great pr(essor ( ,v$nta does 
by expla9+ away  ! duali/ic texts4 ,!   
univ]se is said to be a reality1 b !    
real 9 x is ,brahman alone4 ,x is on    
acc\nt ( ,brahman t  ! fire burns & !   
w9d bl[s4 ,he is ! active pr9ciple 9  ! 
entire univ]se1 & yet ! mo/ passive &   
unmov$4 ,!    #di    _w is 8 body1 yet  
he is ! s\l )94 ,he creates all1  wills 
all1 smells all1 ta/es all1 he has      
p]vad$ all1 sil5t &  unaffect$ ,footnote
 ref #a4 ,he is bel[1 above1 9 ! back1 9
 front1  9 ! s\? & 9 ! nor?1 he is all  
?is ,footnote ref #b4 ,^!  riv]s 9 ! ea/
 & 9 ! we/ orig9at+ f ! ocean1 return   
back into x & become ! ocean !mselves1  
?\gh !y d n "k  t !y are s4 ,s also all 
^! p com+ into be+ f !  ,be+ d n "k t !y
 h come f ! ,be+444,t :i*  is ! subtle/ 
t is ! self1 t is all ?is1 ! tru?1 t    

self  ?\ art ,o ,s'vetaketu ,footnote   
ref #c4 ,brahman1 z ,deuss5 po9ts out1  
0 reg>d$ z ! cause antec$5t 9 "t1 & !   
univ]se  z ! effect proce$+ f x2 ! inn] 
dep5d5ce ( !  univ]se on ,brahman & its 
ess5tial id5tity ) him 0  repres5t$ z a 
creation ( ! univ]se by & out (         
,brahman4  ,?us x is said 9 ,mund4      
,i4,i4 #g3      ,z a spid] ejects &     
retracts 7! ?reads71    ,z ! plants %oot
 =? on ! e>?1    ,z ! hairs on ! head & 
body ( ! liv+ man1    ,s f ! imp]i%able 
all t is "h4    ,z ! sp>ks f !          
well-k9dl$ fire1    ,9 nature ak9 to x1 
spr+ =? 9 _! ?\s&s1    ,s1 my de> sir1 f
 ! imp]i%able    ,liv+ be+s ( _m k9ds g 
=?1    ,& aga9 return into him ,footnote
 ref #d4    ,yet ?is _w pr9ciple is !   
de>e/ to u & ! highe/  tea*+ ( !        
,upanisads is ,t art ?\4    ,aga9 ! gr[?
 ( ! doctr9e t ,brahman is ! inn]       
controll] 9 all ! p>ts & =ces ( nature &
 ( mank9d z  ! tman !re(1 & t all !     
effects ( ! univ]se are !  result ( 8   
comm&s :i* no "o c out/ep1 gave rise to 

a  !i/ic curr5t ( ?\ght 9 :i* ,brahman  
is held z /&+  alo( z ,god & controll+ !
 _w4 ,x is by 8 orda9+1 x  is said1 t ! 
sun & moon are held toge!r1 & ! sky &   
e>? /& held toge!r ,footnote ref #e4    
,god & s\l are di/+ui%$  aga9 9 ! fam\s 
v]se ( ,s'vets'vat>a ,footnote ref #f3  
,two bright-fea!r$ bosom fri5ds    ,flit
 ar\nd "o & ! same tree2    ,"o ( !m    
ta/es ! sweet b]ries1    ,! o!r )\t eat+
 m]ely gazes d[n4        ,footnote #a3  
,*4 ,,iii4 #ad4 #d4    ,footnote #b3    
,ibid4 ,,vii4 #be4 i2 also ,mundaka     
,,ii4 #b4 ii4    ,footnote #c3 ,*4 ,,vi4
 #aj4    ,footnote #d3 ,deuss5's        
translation 9 ,philosophy ( !           
,upani%ads1 p4  #afd4    ,footnote #e3  
,brh4 ,,iii4 #h4 i4    ,footnote #f3    
,s'vets'vat>a ,,iv4 #f1 & ,mundaka      
,,iii4 i1 #a1 also ,deuss5's            
translation 9 ,philosophy ( !           
,upani%ads1 p4 #agg4    #ej    ,b 9     
spite ( ?is app>5t !i/ic t5d5cy & !     
occasional  use ( ! ^w s'a or s'na1 !re 
seems to be no d\bt  t !ism 9 its true  

s5se 0 nev] prom95t1 & ?is ackn[l$gem5t 
( a supreme ,"l 0 also an (f%oot ( !    
exalt$  position ( ! tman z ! supreme   
pr9ciple4 ,?us we read 9  ,kaustaki     
,upanisad #c4 #i1 ,he is n great by good
 de$s nor l[  by evil de$s1 b x is he   
makes "o d good de$s :om he  wants to   
raise1 & makes him commit bad de$s :om  
he wants  to l[] d[n4 ,he is ! protector
 ( ! univ]se1 he is !  ma/] ( ! _w & !  
"l ( all2 he is my s\l 7tman74  ,?us !  
"l 9 spite ( 8 greatness is /ill my s\l4
 ,!re are  aga9 o!r passages :i* reg>d  
,brahman z be+ at once  imman5t &       
transc5d5t4 ,?us x is said t !re is t   
et]nally exi/+ tree ^: roots gr[ upw>d &
 ^:  bran*es gr[ d[nw>d4 ,all ! univ]ses
 are support$ 9 x  & no "o c transc5d x4
 ,?is is t1 444f its fe> ! fire  burns1 
! sun %9es1 & f its fe> ,indra1 ,vyu &  
,dea?  ! fif? 7) ! o!r two7 run on      
,footnote ref #a4    ,if we ov]look !   
diff]5t %ades 9 ! developm5t ( !        
conception ( ,brahman 9 ! ,upanisads &  
look to ! ma9  curr5ts1 we f9d t !      

/ronge/ curr5t ( ?\ght :i* has  f\nd    
expression 9 ! majority ( ! texts is ?is
 t !  tman or ! ,brahman is ! only      
reality & t besides ?is  ev]y?+ else is 
unreal4 ,! o!r curr5t ( ?\ght :i* is  to
 be f\nd 9 _m ( ! texts is ! pan!i/ic   
cre$ t  id5tifies ! univ]se ) ! tman or 
,brahman4 ,! ?ird  curr5t is t ( !ism   
:i* looks ^u ,brahman z ! ,"l  controll+
 ! _w4 ,x is because ^! ideas 7 /ill 9 !
  melt+ pot1 9 :i* none ( !m 7          
sy/ematically work$  out1 t ! lat]      
expon5ts ( ,v$nta1 ,s'ank>a1 ,rmnuja1  &
 o!rs qu>rell$ ov] ! mean+s ( texts 9   
ord] to  develop a consi/5t sy/ematic   
philosophy out ( !m4 ,?us x  is t !     
doctr9e ( ,my :i* is slightly h9t$ at   
once 9  ,brhadranyaka & ?rice 9         
,s'vets'vat>a1 becomes ! f\ndation  (   
,s'ank>a's philosophy ( ! ,v$nta 9 :i*  
,brahman  alone is real & all else      
beside him is unreal ,footnote ref #b4  
,footnote #a3 ,ka?a ,,ii4 #f4 #a & #c4  
,footnote #b3 ,brh4 ,,ii4 #e4 #ai1      
,s'vet4 ,i4 #aj1 ,,iv4 #i1 #aj4    #ea  

,! ,_w4    ,we h already se5 t ! univ]se
 has come out (  ,brahman1 has its      
ess5ce 9 ,brahman1 & w also return back 
to x4 ,b 9 spite ( its exi/5ce z        
,brahman its "* z  repres5t$ to exp]i5ce
 c\ld n be d5i$4 ,s'ank>a held  t !     
,upanisads ref]r$ to ! ext]nal _w &     
accord$  a reality to x consci\sly ) !  
purpose ( treat+ x z m]ely  relatively  
real1 :i* w ev5tually appe> z unreal z  
soon  z ! ultimate tru?1 ! ,brahman1 is 
kn[n4 ,?is h[ev]  rema9s to be modifi$  
to ?is ext5t t ! sages _h n  probably   
any consci\s purpose ( accord+ a        
relative reality to  ! ph5om5al _w1 b 9 
spite ( reg>d+ ,brahman z !  highe/     
reality !y c\ld n ignore ! claims ( !   
ext]ior  _w1 & _h to accord a reality to
 x4 ,! inconsi/5cy ( ?is  reality ( !   
ph5om5al _w ) ! ultimate & only  reality
 ( ,brahman 0 attempt$ to be reconcil$  
by hold+  t ?is _w is n beside him b x  
has come out ( him1 x  is ma9ta9$ 9 him 
& x w return back to him4    ,! _w is   
sometimes spok5 ( 9 its tw(old aspect1 !

  organic & ! inorganic4 ,all organic   
?+s1 :e!r plants1  animals or m51 h s\ls
 ,footnote ref #a4 ,brahman desir+ to be
 _m  creat$ fire 7tejas71 wat] 7ap7 &   
e>? 7ksiti74 ,!n !  self-exi/5t ,brahman
 ent]$ into ^! ?ree1 & x is by _!       
comb9ation t all o!r bodies are =m$     
,footnote ref #b4 ,s all  o!r ?+s are   
produc$ z a result ( an alloy+ or       
comp\nd+  ( ! p>ts ( ^! ?ree toge!r4 ,9 
?is !ory ( ! ?reefold  division ( !     
primitive elem5ts lies ! e>lie/ g]m ( ! 
lat]  di/9ction 7especially 9 ! ,smkhya 
s*ool7 ( pure inf9itesimal  sub/ances   
7tanmtra7 & gross elem5ts1 & ! !ory t   
ea*  gross sub/ance is compos$ ( ! atoms
 ( ! prim>y elem5ts4 ,&  9 ,pras'na     
,,iv4 #h we f9d ! gross elem5ts di/+ui%$
 f _!  subtl] natures1 e4g4 e>? 7pr?iv71
 & ! subtl] /ate ( e>?  7pr?ivmtra74 ,9 
! ,taittirya1 ,,ii4 #a1 h[ev]1 e!r      
7ks'a7  is also describ$ z proce$+ f    
,brahman1 & ! o!r elem5ts1  air1 fire1  
wat]1 & e>?1 are describ$ z ea* proce$+ 
directly f ! "o :i* directly prec$$ x4  

,footnote #a3 ,*4 ,,vi4#aa4    ,footnote
 #b3 ibid4 ,,vi4#b1c1d4    #eb      ,!  
,_w-,s\l4    ,! conception ( a _w-s\l   
relat$ to ! univ]se z !  s\l ( man to 8 
body is f\nd = ! fir/ "t 9 ,r4,v4,x4    
#aba4 ,i1  :]e he is said to h sprung =?
 z ! fir/born ( creation  f ! primeval  
wat]s4 ,?is be+ has twice be5 ref]r$  to
 9 ! ,s'vets'vat>a1 9 ,,iii4 #d & ,,iv4 
#ab4 ,x is inde$ v /range  t ?is be+ is 
n ref]r$ to 9 any ( ! e>li] ,upanisads4 
,9 ! two passages 9 :i* he has be5 spok5
 (1 8 my?ical  "* is app>5t4 ,he is     
reg>d$ z "o ( ! e>li]  products 9 !     
process ( cosmic creation1 b 8          
importance  f ! po9t ( view ( !         
developm5t ( ! !ory (  ,brahman or tman 
is almo/ no?+4 ,! fact t nei!r !        
,purusa1 nor ! ,vis'vak>ma1 nor !       
,hiranyag>bha play$ an  important "p 9 !
 e>li] developm5t ( ! ,upanisads  leads 
me to ?9k t ! ,upanisad doctr9es 7 n    
directly  develop$ f ! mono!i/ic        
t5d5cies ( ! lat] ,rg-,v$a              
speculations4 ,! passages 9             

,s'vets'vat>a cle>ly %[ h[ f  ! supreme 
em95ce t he _h 9 ,r4,v4,x4 #aba1        
,hiranyag>bha  _h be5 br\ght to ! level 
( "o ( ! creat$ be+s4 ,deuss5  9 expla9+
 ! philosophical significance ( !       
,hiranyag>bha  doctr9e ( ! ,upanisads   
says t ! entire objective univ]se is    
possible only 9 s f> z x is su/a9$ by a 
kn[+ subject4 ,?is  subject z a su/a9] (
 ! objective univ]se is manife/$ 9  all 
individual objects b is by no means     
id5tical ) !m4 ,=  ! individual objects 
pass away b ! objective univ]se cont9ues
  to exi/ )\t !m2 !re exi/s !re=e !     
et]nal  kn[+ subject also 7hiranyag>bha7
 by :om x is su/a9$4  ,space & "t are   
d]iv$ f ?is subject4 ,x is itself       
accord+ly  n 9 space & does n belong to 
"t1 & !re=e  f an empirical po9t ( view 
x is 9 g5]al non-exi/5t2 x  has no      
empirical b only a metaphysical reality 
,footnote ref #a4 ,?is  h[ev] seems to  
me to be :olly irrelevant1 s9ce !       
,hiranyag>bha  doctr9e _c be suppos$ to 
h any philosophical importance  9 !     

,upanisads4        ,! ,!ory (           
,causation4    ,!re 0 practically no    
sy/ematic !ory ( causation 9 !          
,upanisads4 ,s'ank>a1 ! lat] expon5t (  
,v$nta philosophy1  always tri$ to %[ t 
! ,upanisads look$ ^u ! cause           
,footnote #a3 ,deuss5's ,philosophy ( ! 
,upani%ads1 p4 #bja4    #ec    z m]e    
gr\nd ( *ange :i* ?\gh un*ang$ 9 itself 
9  reality _h only an appe>ance ( suff]+
 *ange4 ,?is he did  on ! /r5g? ( a     
s]ies ( examples 9 ! ,*ndogya  ,upanisad
 7,,vi4 #a7 9 :i* ! mat]ial cause1 e4g4 
! clay1 is  spok5 ( z ! only reality 9  
all its trans=mations z ! pot1  ! jug or
 ! plate4 ,x is said t ?\gh !re are s _m
  div]sities ( appe>ance t "o is call$ !
 plate1 ! o!r !  pot1 & ! o!r ! jug1 yet
 ^! are only empty di/9ctions (  "n &   
=m1 = ! only ?+ real 9 !m is ! e>? :i*  
9 its ess5ce rema9s ev] ! same :e!r y   
call x ! pot1  plate1 or ,jug4 ,s x is t
 ! ultimate cause1 ! un*angeable        
,brahman1 rema9s ev] con/ant1 ?\gh x may
 appe> to suff]  *ange z ! manifold _w  

outside4 ,?is _w is ?us only  an        
unsub/antial appe>ance1 a mirage impos$ 
^u ,brahman1  ! real p> excell5ce4    ,x
 seems h[ev] t ?\gh su* a view may be   
reg>d$  z hav+ be5 exp\nd$ 9 !          
,upanisads 9 an imp]fect  mann]1 !re is 
also side by side ! o!r view :i* looks  
^u ! effect z ! product ( a real *ange  
wr\ght 9 !  cause itself ?r\gh ! action 
& comb9ation ( ! elem5ts  ( div]sity 9  
x4 ,?us :5 ! diff]5t objects ( nature h 
be5 spok5 ( 9 "o place z ! product ( !  
comb9ation  ( ! ?ree elem5ts fire1 wat] 
& e>?1 ! effect signifies a real  *ange 
produc$ by _! comp\nd+4 ,?is is 9 g]m 7z
 we  %all see h]eaft]7 ! ,p>inma !ory ( 
causation advocat$  by ! ,smkhya s*ool  
,footnote ref #a4      ,doctr9e (       
,transmigration4    ,:5 ! ,v$ic p       
witness$ ! burn+ ( a dead body  !y      
suppos$ t ! eye ( ! man w5t to ! sun1 8 
brea?  to ! w9d1 8 spee* to ! fire1 8   
limbs to ! diff]5t p>ts  ( ! univ]se4   
,!y also believ$ z we h already se5 9  !
 recomp5se ( good & bad actions 9 worlds

 o!r ?an our  own1 & ?\gh we he> ( su*  
?+s z ! passage ( !  human s\l into     
trees1 etc41 ! t5d5cy t[>ds             
transmigration  _h b little develop$ at 
! "t4    ,9 ! ,upanisads h[ev] we f9d a 
cle> developm5t 9  ! direction (        
transmigration 9 two di/9ct /ages4 ,9 ! 
"o  ! ,v$ic idea ( a recomp5se 9 ! o!r  
_w is comb9$ )        ,footnote #a3 ,*4 
,,vi4 #b-d4    #ed    ! doctr9e (       
transmigration1 :]eas 9 ! o!r ! doctr9e 
( transmigration comes to ! =efront 9   
sup]session ( !  idea ( a recomp5se 9 ! 
o!r _w4 ,?us x is said t  ^? :o p]=m$   
*>itable de$s or su* public works z !   
digg+ ( wells1 etc41 foll[ aft] dea? !  
way ( ! fa!rs  7pitryna71 9 :i* ! s\l   
aft] dea? ent]s fir/ into smoke1  !n    
into night1 ! d>k half ( ! mon?1 etc41 &
 at la/ rea*es  ! moon2 aft] a resid5ce 
!re z long z ! remnant ( 8  good de$s   
rema9s he desc5ds aga9 ?r\gh e!r1 w9d1  
smoke1  mi/1 cl\d1 ra91 h]bage1 food &  
se$1 & ?r\gh ! assimilation  ( food by  
man he ent]s ! womb ( ! "m & is  born   

aga94 ,"h we see t ! s\l _h n only a    
recomp5se  9 ! _w ( ! moon1 b 0 re-born 
aga9 9 ?is _w ,footnote  ref #a4    ,!  
o!r way is ! way ( gods 7devayna71 meant
 = ^?  :o cultivate fai? & asceticism   
7tapas74 ,^! s\ls at dea?  ent]         
successively into flame1 day1 bright    
half ( ! mon?1 bright  half ( ! ye>1    
sun1 moon1 lightn+1 & !n f9ally into    
,brahman nev] to return4 ,deuss5 says t 
! mean+ (  ! :ole is t ! s\l on ! way ( 
! gods rea*es regions  ( ev]-increas+   
light1 9 :i* is conc5trat$ all t is     
bright  & radiant z /ations on ! way to 
,brahman ! 'light (  lights' 7jyotism   
jyotih7 ,footnote ref #b4    ,! o!r l9e 
( ?\ght is a direct ref]5ce to ! doctr9e
  ( transmigration unmix$ ) ! idea (    
reap+ ! fruits (  8 de$s 7k>ma7 by pass+
 ?r\gh ! o!r worlds & )\t  ref]5ce to ! 
doctr9e ( ! ways ( ! fa!rs & gods1  !   
,ynas4 ,?us ,yjavalkya says1 :5 ! s\l   
becomes  weak 7app>5t weakness ow+ to ! 
weakness ( ! body )  :i* x is associat$7
 & falls into a swoon z x 71 ^! s5ses  g

 t[>ds x4 ,x 7,s\l7 takes ^! light      
p>ticles )9 itself &  c5tres itself only
 9 ! he>t4 ,?us :5 ! p]son 9 ! eye      
turns back1 !n ! s\l _c "k col\r2 7!    
s5ses7 become  "o 7) him72 7p ab\t him7 
say he does n see2 7! s5ses7  become "o 
7) him71 he does n smell1 7! s5ses7     
become  "o 7) him71 he does n ta/e1 7!  
s5ses7 become "o 7)  him71 he does n    
speak1 7! s5ses7 become "o 7) him71 he  
does n he>1 7! s5ses7 become "o 7) him71
 he does n  ?9k1 7! s5ses7 become "o )  
him1 he does n t\*1 7!  s5ses7 become "o
 ) him1 he does n "k1 !y say4 ,!        
,footnote #a3 ,*4 ,v4 #aj4    ,footnote 
#b3 ,deuss5's ,philosophy ( !           
,upani%ads1 p4 #cce4    #ee    tip ( 8  
he>t %9es & by t %9+ ?is s\l goes out4  
,:5 he goes out ei!r ?r\gh ! eye1 !     
head1 or by any  o!r "p ( ! body1 !     
vital function 7prna7 foll[s & all  !   
s5ses foll[ ! vital function 7prna7 9   
com+ out4 ,he  is !n ) det]m9ate        
consci\sness & z su* he comes  out4 ,k1 
! de$s z well z previ\s exp]i5ce 7praj7 

accompany him4 ,j z a cat]pill> go+ to !
 end ( a blade  ( grass1 by und]tak+ a  
sep>ate movem5t collects itself1 s  ?is 
self aft] de/roy+ ?is body1 remov+      
ignorance1 by a  sep>ate movem5t        
collects itself4 ,j z a goldsmi? tak+ a 
small bit ( gold1 gives to x a new] &   
fair] =m1 s ! s\l  aft] de/roy+ ?is body
 & remov+ ignorance fa%ions a  new] &   
fair] =m z ( ! ,pitrs1 ! ,g&h>vas1 !    
gods1  ( ,prajpati or ,brahma or ( any  
o!r be+4444,z he acts &  behaves s he   
becomes1 good by good de$s1 bad by bad  
de$s1  virtu\s by virtu\s de$s & vici\s 
by vice4 ,! man is full  ( desires4 ,z  
he desires s he wills1 z he wills s he  
works1 z  ! "w is done s x happ5s4 ,!re 
is also a v]se1 be+  atta*$ to t he     
wants to ga9 by k>ma t to :i* he  0     
atta*$4 ,hav+ reap$ ! full fruit 7lit4  
gone to !  end7 ( ! k>ma t he does "h1  
he returns back to ?is  _w = do+ k>ma   
,footnote ref #a4 ,s x is ! case ) ^? :o
  h desires4 ,he :o has no desires1 :o  
_h no desires1 :o has  fre$ himself f   

all desires1 is satisfi$ 9 8 desires & 9
  himself1 8 s5ses d n g out4 ,he be+   
,brahma atta9s  ,brahmahood4 ,?us ! v]se
 says1 :5 all ! desires t are  9 8 he>t 
are got rid (1 ! mortal becomes immortal
 &  atta9s ,brahma "h 7,brh4 ,,iv4 iv4  
#a-g74    ,a close consid]ation ( !     
above passage %[s t !  self itself      
de/roy$ ! body & built up a new] & fair]
  frame by its own activity :5 x rea*$ !
 end ( ! pres5t  life4 ,at ! "t ( dea?1 
! self collect$ )9 itself all  s5ses &  
faculties & aft] dea? all its previ\s k1
  "w & exp]i5ce accompani$ him4 ,! fall+
 (f ( !  body at ! "t ( dea? is only = !
 build+ ( a new]  body ei!r 9 ?is _w or 
9 ! o!r worlds4 ,! self :i*  ?us takes  
rebir? is reg>d$ z an aggregation (     
div]se categories4  ,?us x is said t he 
is ( ! ess5ce ( und]/&+1                
,footnote #a3 ,x is possible t !re is a 
vague & obscure ref]5ce  "h to ! doctr9e
 t ! fruits ( our de$s are reap$ 9 o!r  
worlds4    #ef    ( ! vital function1 ( 
! visual s5se1 ( ! auditory s5se1 (  !  

ess5ce ( ! five elem5ts 7:i* w\ld make  
up !  physical body 9 accordance ) its  
ne$s7 or ! ess5ce ( desires1  ( ! ess5ce
 ( re/ra9t ( desires1 ( ! ess5ce ( ang]1
 (  ! ess5ce ( turn+ (f f all ang]1 ( ! 
ess5ce ( dh>ma1  ( ! ess5ce ( adh>ma1 ( 
! ess5ce ( all t is ?is  7manife/7 & t  
is t 7unmanife/ or lat5t7 7,brh4 ,,iv4  
iv4 #e74  ,! self t und]goes rebir? is  
?us a unity n only ( moral  &           
psy*ological t5d5cies1 b also ( all !   
elem5ts :i*  compose ! physical _w4 ,!  
:ole process ( 8 *anges  foll[s f ?is   
nature ( 82 = :atev] he desires1 he     
wills  & :atev] he wills he acts1 & 9   
accordance ) 8 acts  ! fruit happ5s4 ,! 
:ole logic ( ! g5esis ( k>ma &  its     
fruits is held up )9 him1 = he is a     
unity ( ! moral  & psy*ological t5d5cies
 on ! "o h& & elem5ts (  ! physical _w  
on ! o!r4    ,! self t und]goes rebir?  
be+ a comb9ation ( div]se  psy*ological 
& moral t5d5cies & ! physical elem5ts   
holds )9 itself ! pr9ciple ( all its    
trans=mations4 ,!  root ( all ?is is !  

desire ( ! self & ! consequ5t fruition  
( x ?r\gh w & act4 ,:5 ! self cont9ues  
to desire &  act1 x reaps ! fruit &     
comes aga9 to ?is _w = p]=m+  acts4 ,?is
 _w is g5]ally reg>d$ z ! field = p]=m+ 
k>ma1 :]eas o!r worlds are reg>d$ z     
places :]e !  fruits ( k>ma are reap$ by
 ^? born z cele/ial be+s4 ,b  !re is no 
emphasis 9 ! ,upanisads on ?is po9t4 ,! 
,pitryna  !ory is n inde$ giv5 up1 b x  
seems only to =m a "p  9 ! l>g] s*eme ( 
rebir? 9 o!r worlds & sometimes 9  ?is  
_w too4 ,all ! c\rse ( ^! rebir?s is    
effect$ by !  self itself by its own    
desires1 & if x ceases to desire1 x     
suff]s no  rebir? & becomes immortal4 ,!
 mo/ di/9ctive feature (  ?is doctr9e is
 ?is1 t x ref]s to desires z ! cause (  
rebir?  & n k>ma4 ,k>ma only comes z !  
connect+ l9k betwe5  desires & rebir?--=
 x is said t :atev] a man desires he    
wills1 & :atev] he wills he acts4       
,?us x is said 9 ano!r place he :o      
kn[+ly desires is  born by 8 desires 9  
^? places 7accord+ly71 b = him ^:       

desires h be5 fulfill$ & :o has realiz$ 
himself1 all 8  desires vani% "h 7,mund 
,,iii4 #b4 #b74 ,?is de/ruction (       
desires  is effect$ by ! "r k ( ! self4 
,he :o kn[s    #eg    8 self z ',i am ! 
p]son' = :at wi% & = :at desire  w he   
tr\ble ! body1444ev5 be+ "h if we "k x1 
well if  we d n1 :at a great de/ruction 
7,brh4 ,,iv4 iv4 #ab & #ad74 ,9  =m]    
times ! wise m5 did n desire sons1 ?9k+ 
:at  %all we d ) sons s9ce ?is our self 
is ! univ]se 7,brh4 ,,iv4  iv4 #bb74    
,none ( ! complexities ( ! k>ma doctr9e 
:i*  we f9d lat] on 9 m rec5t           
developm5ts ( ,h9du ?\ght  c be f\nd 9 !
 ,upanisads4 ,! :ole s*eme is work$  out
 on ! pr9ciple ( desire 7kma7 & k>ma    
only s]ves z  ! l9k betwe5 x & ! actual 
effects desir$ & will$ by  ! p]son4     
,x is int]e/+ to note 9 ?is connection t
 consi/5tly  ) ! idea t desires 7kma7 l$
 to rebir?1 we f9d t  9 "s ,upanisads ! 
dis*>ge ( ! sem5 9 ! womb ( a  woman z a
 result ( desires is consid]$ z ! fir/  
bir? (  man1 & ! bir? ( ! son z ! second

 bir? & ! bir?  else:]e aft] dea? is    
reg>d$ z ! ?ird bir?4 ,?us x is  said1  
,x is 9 man t !re comes fir/ ! embryo1  
:i* is  b ! sem5 :i* is produc$ z !     
ess5ce ( all p>ts (  8 body & :i* holds 
itself )9 itself1 & :5 x is put  9 a    
woman1 t is 8 fir/ bir?4 ,t embryo !n   
becomes  "p ( ! woman's self l any "p ( 
h] body2 x !re=e  does n hurt h]2 %e    
protects & develops ! embryo )9  h]self4
 ,z %e protects 7! embryo7 s %e also    
%\ld be  protect$4 ,x is ! woman :o be>s
 ! embryo 7be=e bir?7  b :5 aft] bir? ! 
fa!r takes c>e ( ! son always1 he  is   
tak+ c>e only ( himself1 = x is ?r\gh   
sons alone t  ! cont9uity ( ! exi/5ce ( 
p c be ma9ta9$4 ,?is  is 8 second bir?4 
,he makes ?is self ( 8 a repres5tative  
= p]=m+ all ! virtu\s de$s4 ,! o!r self 
( 8 aft]  realiz+ himself & atta9+ age  
goes away & :5 go+  away he is born aga9
 t is 8 ?ird bir? 7,ait>eya1 ,,ii4 #a-d7
  ,footnote ref #a4 ,no special emphasis
 is giv5 9 ! ,upanisads to  ! sex-desire
 or ! desire = a son2 =1 be+ call$ kma1 

:atev]  0 ! desire = a son 0 ! same z ! 
desire = money & !  desire = money 0 !  
same z any o!r worldly desire 7,brh4    
,,iv4 iv4 #bb71 & h5ce sex-desires /& on
 ! same plane z any  o!r desire4        
,footnote #a3 ,see also ,kaustaki1 ,,ii4
 #ae4    #eh      ,emancipation4    ,!  
doctr9e :i* next attracts our att5tion 9
 ?is connection  is t ( emancipation    
7mukti74 ,already we "k t !  doctr9e (  
,devayna held t ^? :o 7 fai?ful & p]=m$ 
asceticism 7tapas7 w5t by ! way ( ! gods
 ?r\gh  successive /ages nev] to return 
to ! _w & suff] rebir?4  ,?is c\ld be   
contra/$ ) ! way ( ! fa!rs 7pitryna7    
:]e ! dead 7 = a "t recomp5s$ 9 ano!r _w
 &  !n _h to suff] rebir?4 ,?us we f9d t
 ^? :o are fai?ful  & p]=m s'raddh _h a 
di/9ctly diff]5t type ( goal f  ^? :o   
p]=m$ ord9>y virtues1 su* z ^? ( a g5]al
  altrui/ic nature4 ,?is di/9ction      
atta9s its fulle/ developm5t  9 !       
doctr9e ( emancipation4 ,emancipation or
 ,mukti means  9 ! ,upanisads ! /ate (  
inf9it5ess t a man atta9s  :5 he kn[s 8 

own self & ?us becomes ,brahman4 ,!     
ceaseless c\rse ( transmigration is only
 = ^? :o are  ignorant4 ,! wise man     
h[ev] :o has dive/$ himself ( all       
passions & kn[s himself to be ,brahman1 
at once becomes  ,brahman & no bondage (
 any k9d c ev] affect him4      ,he :o  
beholds t l(tie/ & deepe/1    ,= him !  
fett]s ( ! he>t break asund]1    ,= him 
all d\bts are solv$1    ,& 8 works      
become no?+ness ,footnote ref #a4    ,! 
k ( ! self reveals ! fact t all our     
passions  & antipa?ies1 all our         
limitations ( exp]i5ce1 all t is        
ignoble & small 9 u1 all t is transi5t &
 f9ite 9 u is  false4 ,we d n "k b are  
pure k ourselves4  ,we are n limit$ by  
any?+1 = we are ! inf9ite2 we d  n suff]
 dea?1 = we are immortal4 ,emancipation 
?us is n  a new acquisition1 product1 an
 effect1 or result ( any action1 b  x   
always exi/s z ! ,tru? ( our nature4 ,we
 are always  emancipat$ & always free4  
,we d n seem to be s &  seem to suff]   
rebir? & ?\s&s ( o!r tr\bles only       

because  we d n "k ! true nature ( our  
self4 ,?us x is t !  true k ( self does 
n lead to emancipation b is             
emancipation itself4 ,all suff]+s &     
limitations are true only  s long z we d
 n "k our self4 ,emancipation is !      
natural  & only goal ( man simply       
because x repres5ts ! true nature  &    
ess5ce ( man4 ,x is ! realization ( our 
own nature t        ,footnote #a3       
,deuss5's ,philosophy ( ! ,upani%ads1 p4
 #ceb4    #ei    is call$ emancipation4 
,s9ce we are all already & always 9  our
 own true nature & z su* emancipat$1 !  
only ?+  necess>y = u is to "k t we are 
s4 ,self-k is !re=e  ! only desid]atum  
:i* c wipe (f all false k1  all         
illusions ( dea? & rebir?4 ,! /ory is   
told 9 ! ,ka?a  ,upanisad t ,yama1 ! "l 
( dea?1 promis$ ,naciketas1  ! son (    
,gautama1 to grant him ?ree boons at 8  
*oice4  ,naciketas1 kn[+ t 8 fa!r       
,gautama 0 (f5d$ )  him1 said1 ,o dea?  
let ,gautama be pleas$ 9 m9d & =get  8  
ang] aga9/ me4 ,?is be+ grant$          

,naciketas ask$ !  second boon t ! fire 
by :i* heav5 is ga9$ %\ld be  made kn[n 
to him4 ,?is also be+ grant$ ,naciketas 
said1  ,!re is ?is enquiry1 "s say ! s\l
 exi/s aft] ! dea?  ( man2 o!rs say x   
does n exi/4 ,?is ,i %\ld l to "k       
in/ruct$ by !e4 ,?is is my ?ird boon4   
,yama said1 ,x 0  inquir$ ( old1 ev5 by 
! gods2 = x is n easy to und]/&  x4     
,subtle is its nature1 *oose ano!r boon4
 ,d n  compel me to ?is4 ,naciketas     
said1 ,ev5 by ! gods 0 x  inquir$ be=e1 
& ev5 ?\ ,o ,dea? saye/ t x is n easy   
to und]/& x1 b !re is no o!r speak] to  
be f\nd l  !e4 ,!re is no o!r boon l    
?is4 ,yama said1 ,*oose sons  & gr&sons 
:o may live a hundr$ ye>s1 *oose h]ds ( 
cattle2 *oose elephants & gold & horses2
 *oose ! wide  exp&$ e>?1 & live ?yself 
z _m ye>s z ?\ wi%e/4  ,or if ?\ kn[e/ a
 boon l ?is *oose x toge!r ) weal?  &   
f>-ext5d+ life4 ,be a k+ on ! wide e>?4 
,i w make  !e ! enjoy] ( all desires4   
,all ^? desires t are difficult  to ga9 
9 ! _w ( mortals1 all ^? ask ?\ at ?y   

pleasure2  ^? fair nymphs ) _! *>iots1 )
 _! musical in/rum5ts2  ! l ( !m are n  
to be ga9$ by m54 ,i w give  !m to !e1 b
 d n ask ! "q reg>d+ dea?4  ,naciketas  
repli$1 ,all ^? enjoym5ts are ( to-morr[
 &  !y only weak5 ! s5ses4 ,all life is 
%ort1 ) !e !  dance & song4 ,man _c be  
satisfi$ ) weal?1 we c\ld  obta9 weal?1 
z long z we did n rea* y we live only z 
long z ?\ please/4 ,! boon :i* ,i *oose 
,i h said4  ,yama said1 ,"o ?+ is good1 
ano!r is pleasant4 ,bless$ is  he :o    
takes ! good1 b he :o *ooses ! pleasant 
loses  ! object ( man4 ,b ?\ consid]+ ! 
objects ( desire1  ha/ ab&on$ !m4 ,^!   
two1 ignorance 7^: object is    #fj     
:at is pleasant7 & k 7^: object is :at  
is good71  are kn[n to be f> asund]1 &  
to lead to diff]5t goals4  ,believ+ t   
?is _w exi/s & n ! o!r1 ! c>eless  y\?  
is subject to my sway4 ,t k :i* ?\ ha/  
ask$ is n to be obta9$ by argum5t4 ,i "k
 worldly happ9ess  is transi5t = t firm 
"o is n to be obta9$ by :at  is n firm4 
,! wise by conc5trat+ on ! s\l1 kn[+ him

  :om x is h>d to behold1 leaves bo?    
grief & joy4 ,!e  ,o ,naciketas1 ,i     
believe to be l a h\se ^: door is op5 to
  ,brahman4 ,brahman is dea?less1 :oev] 
kn[s him obta9s  :atev] he wi%es4 ,!    
wise man is n born2 he does n die2  he  
is n produc$ f any:]e4 ,unborn1 et]nal1 
! s\l is  n sla91 ?\gh ! body is sla92  
subtl] ?an :at is subtle1  great] ?an   
:at is great1 sitt+ x goes f>1 ly+ x    
goes ev]y:]e4  ,?9k+ ! s\l z unbodily   
among bodies1 firm among  fleet+ ?+s1 ! 
wise man ca/s (f all grief4 ,! s\l _c   
be ga9$ by eloqu5ce1 by und]/&+1 or by  
le>n+4 ,x  c be obta9$ by him alone :om 
x *ooses4 ,to him x reveals  its own    
nature ,footnote ref #a4 ,s long z !    
,self id5tifies itself  ) its desires1  
he wills & acts accord+ to !m & reaps ! 
fruits 9 ! pres5t & 9 future lives4 ,b  
:5 he comes to "k !  highe/ tru? ab\t   
himself1 t he is ! highe/ ess5ce &      
pr9ciple  ( ! univ]se1 ! immortal & !   
inf9ite1 he ceases to h  desires1 &     
rec$+ f all desires realizes ! ultimate 

tru?  ( himself 9 8 own inf9itude4 ,man 
is z x 7 ! epitome  ( ! univ]se & he    
holds )9 himself ! f9e con/itu5ts  ( !  
gross body 7annamaya kosa71 ! vital     
functions 7prnamaya  kosa7 ( life1 ! w &
 desire 7manomaya7 & !  ?\ghts & ideas  
7vijnamaya71 & s long z he keeps himself
  9 ^! sph]es & passes ?r\gh a s]ies (  
exp]i5ces  9 ! pres5t life & 9 o!r lives
 to come1 ^! exp]i5ces  are will$ by him
 & 9 t s5se creat$ by him4 ,he suff]s   
pleasures & pa9s1 disease & dea?4 ,b if 
he retires f  ^! into 8 true un*angeable
 be+1 he is 9 a /ate :]e he  is "o ) 8  
exp]i5ce & !re is no *ange & no movem5t4
  ,:at ?is /ate is _c be expla9$ by !   
use (  concepts4 ,"o c\ld only indicate 
x by po9t+ out t x is  n any ( ^?       
concepts f\nd 9 ord9>y k2 x is n        
,footnote #a3 ,ka?a ,,ii4 ,! translation
 is n cont9u\s4 ,!re are "s  p>ts 9 !   
extract :i* may be diff]5tly int]pret$4 
#fa    :atev] "o kn[s z ?is & ?is 7neti 
neti74 ,9 ?is inf9ite  & true self !re  
is no diff]5ce1 no div]sity1 no meum &  

tuum4 ,x is l an ocean 9 :i* all our    
ph5om5al exi/5ce  w dissolve l salt 9   
wat]4 ,j z a lump ( salt :5 put  9 wat] 
w disappe> 9 x & x _c be tak5 out       
sep>ately  b 9 :atev] portion ( wat] we 
ta/e we f9d ! salt1 s1  ,maitrey1 does  
?is great reality inf9ite & limitless   
consi/+  only ( pure intellig5ce        
manife/+ itself 9 all ^! 7ph5om5al      
exi/5ces7 vani% 9 !m & !re is !n no     
ph5om5al k  7,brh4 ,,ii4 #d4 #ab74 ,!   
true self manife/s itself 9 all !       
processes ( our ph5om5al exi/5ces1 b    
ultimately :5 x  retires back to itself1
 x c no long] be f\nd 9 !m4 ,x is a     
/ate ( absolute inf9itude ( pure        
intellig5ce1 pure be+1 &  pure          
bless$ness4    #fb        ,,*apt] ,,iv  
,,g5]al ,,obs]vations ,,on ,,! ,,sy/ems 
,,( ,,indian ,,philosophy      ,9 :at   
,s5se is a ,hi/ory ( ,indian ,philosophy
 possible8    ,x is h>dly possible to   
attempt a hi/ory ( ,indian philosophy  9
 ! mann] 9 :i* ! hi/ories ( ,european   
philosophy h  be5 writt54 ,9 ,europe f !

 e>lie/ times1 ?9k]s came  "o aft] ano!r
 & (f]$ _! indep5d5t speculations  on   
philosophy4 ,! "w ( a mod]n hi/orian    
consi/s 9  *ronologically arrang+ ^!    
views & 9 comm5t+ ^u  ! influ5ce ( "o   
s*ool ^u ano!r or ^u ! g5]al  *ange f "t
 to "t 9 ! tides & curr5ts ( philosophy4
  ,"h 9 ,india1 h[ev]1 ! pr9cipal sy/ems
 ( philosophy _h  _! beg9n+ 9 times (   
:i* we h b scanty record1 &  x is h>dly 
possible to say correctly at :at "t !y  
began1  or to compute ! influ5ce t l$ to
 ! f\ndation ( s _m  div]g5t sy/ems at s
 e>ly a p]iod1 = 9 all probability ^!  7
 =mulat$ j aft] ! e>lie/ ,upanisads _h  
be5 compos$  or arrang$4    ,! sy/ematic
 treatises 7 writt5 9 %ort & pregnant   
half-s5t5ces 7stras7 :i* did n elaborate
 ! subject 9  detail1 b s]v$ only to    
hold be=e ! read] ! lo/ ?reads  ( memory
 ( elaborate disquisitions ) :i* he 0   
already  ?or\ghly acqua9t$4 ,x seems1   
!re=e1 t ^! pi?y half-s5t5ces  7 l      
lecture h9ts1 int5d$ = ^? :o _h _h      
direct elaborate oral in/ructions on !  

subject4 ,x is inde$  difficult to guess
 f ! stras ! ext5t ( _! significance1   
or h[ f> ! discussions :i* !y gave rise 
to 9 lat] days 7  orig9ally int5d$ by   
!m4 ,! stras ( ! ,v$nta sy/em1  kn[n z !
 ,s'rraka-stras or ,brahma-stras (      
,bd>yana  = example 7 ( s ambigu\s a    
nature t !y gave rise  to m ?an half a  
doz5 div]g5t int]pretations1 ea* "o  (  
:i* claim$ to be ! only fai?ful "o4 ,su*
 0 ! high  e/eem & respect 9 :i* ^!     
writ]s ( ! stras 7 held  by lat] writ]s 
t :5ev] !y _h any new speculations to   
#fc    (f]1 ^! 7 reconcil$ ) ! doctr9es 
( "o or o!r (  ! exi/+ sy/ems1 & put d[n
 z fai?ful int]pretations (  ! sy/em 9 !
 =m ( comm5t>ies4 ,su* 0 ! hold (  ^!   
sy/ems ^u s*ol>s t all ! or?odox tea*]s 
s9ce  ! f\ndation ( ! sy/ems (          
philosophy belong$ to "o or  o!r ( ^!   
s*ools4 ,_! pupils 7 ?us naturally      
br\ght  up 9 accordance ) ! views ( _!  
tea*]s4 ,all ! indep5d5ce  ( _! ?9k+ 0  
limit$ & en*a9$ by ! fai? ( ! s*ool  to 
:i* !y 7 atta*$4 ,in/ead ( produc+ a    

succession (  free-lance ?9k]s hav+ _!  
own sy/ems to prop\nd & e/abli%1  ,india
 _h br\ght =? s*ools ( pupils :o c>ri$ !
 tradition>y  views ( p>ticul> sy/ems f 
g5]ation to g5]ation1 :o expla9$  &     
exp\nd$ !m1 & def5d$ !m aga9/ ! attacks 
( o!r  rival s*ools :i* !y con/antly    
attack$ 9 ord] to e/abli%  ! sup]iority 
( ! sy/em to :i* !y adh]$4 ,to take an  
example1 ! ,nyya sy/em ( philosophy     
consi/+ ( a numb]  ( half-s5t5ces or    
stras is attribut$ to ,gautama1 also    
call$  ,aksapda4 ,! e>lie/ comm5t>y on  
^! stras1 call$ !  ,vtsyyana bhsya1 0   
writt5 by ,vtsyyana4 ,?is "w 0  %>ply   
criticiz$ by ! ,buddhi/ ,dinnga1 & to   
answ] ^!  criticisms ,udyotak>a wrote a 
comm5t>y on ?is comm5t>y  call$ !       
,bhsyavttika ,footnote ref #a4 ,z "t w5t
 on ! orig9al  =ce ( ?is "w 0 lo/1 & x  
fail$ to ma9ta9 ! old dignity (  !      
s*ool4 ,at ?is ,vcaspati ,mis'ra wrote a
 comm5t>y call$  ,vrttika-ttp>yatk on   
?is second comm5t>y1 :]e he tri$  to    
refute all objections aga9/ ! ,nyya     

sy/em made by o!r  rival s*ools &       
p>ticul>ly by ! ,buddhi/s4 ,?is         
comm5t>y1  call$ ,nyya-ttp>yatk1 _h     
ano!r comm5t>y call$                    
,nyya-ttp>yatk-p>is'uddhi writt5 by !   
great ,udayana4 ,?is  comm5t>y _h ano!r 
comm5t>y call$ ,nyya-nib&ha-praks'a     
writt5 by ,v>ddhamna ! son ( ! illu/ri\s
 ,ganges'a4 ,?is  aga9 _h ano!r comm5t>y
 call$ ,v>ddha-mn5du ^u x by  ,padmanbha
 ,mis'ra1 & ?is aga9 _h ano!r nam$      
,nyya-ttp>yamandana by ,s'ank>a ,mis'ra4
 ,! names (  ,vtsyyana1 ,vcaspati1 &    
,udayana are inde$ v great1  b ev5 !y   
cont5t$ !mselves by writ+ comm5t>ies  on
 comm5t>ies1 & did n try to =mulate any 
,footnote #a3 ,i h pref]r$ to spell     
,dinnga aft] ,vcaspati's  ,ttp>yatk 7p4 
,i7 & n ,dignnga z x is g5]ally spelt4  
#fd    orig9al sy/em4 ,ev5 ,s'ank>a1    
probably ! greate/ man (  ,india aft]   
,buddha1 sp5t 8 life 9 writ+ comm5t>ies 
on !  ,brahma-stras1 ! ,upanisads1 & !  
,bhagavadgt4    ,z a sy/em pass$ on x _h
 to meet unexpect$ oppon5ts  &          

tr\blesome criticisms = :i* x 0 n 9 !   
lea/ prep>$4  ,its adh]5ts _h !re=e to  
use all _! +5uity &  subtlety 9 support 
( _! own positions1 & to discov] !      
defects ( ! rival s*ools t attack$ !m4  
,a sy/em z x 0  orig9ally =mulat$ 9 !   
stras _h probably b few problems  to    
solve1 b z x f\ght its way 9 ! tee? (   
opposition (  o!r s*ools1 x _h to (f]   
consi/5t op9ions on o!r problems  9 :i* 
! orig9al views 7 m or less involv$ b to
  :i* no att5tion _h be5 giv5 be=e4     
,! contributions ( ! successive         
comm5tators s]v$ to  make ea* sy/em m & 
m complete 9 all its p>ts1 &  /rong] &  
/rong] to enable x to hold its own      
successfully  aga9/ ! opposition &      
attacks ( ! rival s*ools4 ,a sy/em  9 ! 
stras is weak & %apeless z a newborn    
babe1 b if  we take x along ) its       
developm5ts d[n to ! beg9n+  ( !        
sev5te5? c5tury x appe>s z a fully      
develop$ man  /rong & h>moni\s 9 all its
 limbs4 ,x is !re=e n possible  to write
 any hi/ory ( successive philosophies ( 

,india1 b x is  necessity t ea* sy/em   
%\ld be /udi$ & int]pret$ 9  all ! gr[? 
x has acquir$ ?r\gh ! successive ages ( 
hi/ory f its conflicts ) ! rival sy/ems 
z "o :ole ,footnote  ref #a4 ,9 ! hi/ory
 ( ,indian philosophy we h no place =   
sy/ems  :i* _h _! importance only s long
 z !y liv$ & 7  !n =gott5 or rememb]$   
only z t>gets ( criticism4 ,ea*  sy/em  
grew & develop$ by ! untir+ en]gy ( its 
adh]5ts  ?r\gh all ! successive ages (  
hi/ory1 & a hi/ory ( ?is  gr[? is a     
hi/ory ( its conflicts4 ,no /udy ( any  
,indian sy/em  is !re=e adequate unless 
x is tak5 ?r\gh\t all ! gr[?  x atta9$  
by ! "w ( its *ampions1 ! comm5tators ^:
  selfless toil = x _h kept x liv+ ?r\gh
 ! ages ( hi/ory4        ,footnote #a3  
,9 ! case ( "s sy/ems x is inde$        
possible to sugge/  "o or two e>li]     
phases ( ! sy/em1 b ?is pr9ciple _c be  
c>ri$ all ?r\gh1 = ! supplem5t>y        
in=mation & argum5ts  giv5 by ! lat]    
comm5tators (t5 appe> z h>moni\s        
elaborations  ( ! e>li] writ+s & are v  

seldom 9 conflict ) !m4    #fe          
,gr[? ( ! ,philosophic ,lit]ature4    ,x
 is difficult to say h[ ! sy/ems 7      
orig9ally =mulat$1  & :at 7 ! influ5ces 
t l$ to x4 ,we "k t a  _s ( philosophic 
enquiry _h already begun 9 ! days ( !   
e>lie/ ,upanisads4 ,! _s ( t enquiry 0 t
 ! f9al  ess5ce or tru? 0 ! tman1 t a   
se>* aft] x 0 our  highe/ duty1 & t     
until we are ultimately m]g$ 9 x we  c  
only feel ?is tru? & rema9 uncont5t$ )  
ev]y?+  else & say t x is n ! tru? we   
want1 x is n ! tru? we  want 7neti      
neti74 ,philosophical enquires 7 h[ev]  
cont9u+  9 circles o!r ?an ^? ( !       
,upanisads4 ,?us ! ,buddha  :o closely  
foll[$ ! e>ly ,upanisad p]iod1 spoke ( &
 enum]at$  sixty-two k9ds ( h]esies     
,footnote ref #a1 & ^! c h>dly be  trac$
 9 ! ,upanisads4 ,! ,ja9a activities 7  
also probably  go+ on contemporane\sly b
 9 ! ,upanisads no ref]5ce  to ^! c be  
f\nd4 ,we may ?us reasonably suppose t  
!re  7 diff]5t =ms ( philosophic enquiry
 9 sph]es o!r ?an  ^? ( ! ,upanisad     

sages1 ( :i* we h b scanty records4  ,x 
seems probable t ! ,h9du sy/ems ( ?\ght 
orig9at$  among ! sages :o ?\gh atta*$  
*iefly to ! ,upanisad  circles us$ to   
take note ( ! discussions & views ( !   
antagoni/ic  & h]etical philosophic     
circles4 ,9 ! assemblies ( ^!  sages &  
_! pupils1 ! views ( ! h]etical circles 
7 probably  discuss$ & refut$4 ,s x     
cont9u$ probably = "s "t  :5 "s         
illu/ri\s memb] ( ! assembly su* z      
,gautama  or ,kanada collect$ ! purport 
( ^! discussions on v>i\s  topics &     
problems1 fill$ up _m ( ! miss+ l9ks1   
classifi$  & arrang$ ^! 9 ! =m ( a sy/em
 ( philosophy &  record$ x 9 stras4 ,^! 
stras 7 int5d$ probably =  p :o _h      
att5d$ ! elaborate oral discussions &   
?us  c\ld easily foll[ ! mean+ ( !      
sugge/ive phrases conta9$  9 !          
aphorisms4 ,! stras ?us conta9 sometimes
  allusions to ! views ( ! rival s*ools 
& indicate ! way 9  :i* !y c\ld be      
refut$4 ,! comm5tators 7 possess$  ( !  
g5]al drift ( ! diff]5t discussions     

allud$ to &  convey$ f g5]ation to      
g5]ation ?r\gh an unbrok5  *a9 (        
succession ( tea*]s & pupils4 ,!y 7     
h[ev]  free to supplem5t ^! tradition>y 
explanations ) _! own        ,footnote  
#a3 ,brahmajla-sutta1 ,dgha1 #a4 p4 #ab 
ff4    #ff    views or to modify & ev5  
suppress su* ( ! tradition>y  views )   
:i* !y did n agree or :i* !y f\nd x     
difficult  to ma9ta94 ,brilliant        
oppositions f ! oppos+ s*ools  (t5 made 
x necess>y = !m to (f] solutions to new 
problems  un?\ght ( be=e1 b put =w>d by 
"s illu/ri\s adh]5t  ( a rival s*ool4 ,9
 ord] to reconcile ^! new solutions )  !
 o!r p>ts ( ! sy/em1 ! comm5tators nev] 
hesitat$ to  (f] su* slight             
modifications ( ! doctr9es z c\ld       
h>monize  !m into a complete :ole4 ,^!  
elaborations or modifications  g5]ally  
develop$ ! tradition>y sy/em1 b did n   
effect any  s]i\s *ange 9 ! sy/em z     
exp\nd$ by ! old] tea*]s1  = ! new      
expon5ts always b\nd !mselves to !      
explanations  ( ! old] tea*]s & nev]    

contradict$ !m4 ,!y  w\ld only int]pret 
!m to suit _! own ideas1 or say new ?+s 
only 9 ^? cases :]e ! old] tea*]s _h    
rema9$ sil5t4  ,x is n !re=e possible to
 describe ! gr[? ( any sy/em  by treat+ 
! contributions ( ! individual          
comm5tators sep>ately4  ,?is w\ld only  
mean unnecess>y repetition4 ,except  :5 
!re is a specially new developm5t1 !    
sy/em is to be  int]pret$ on ! basis ( !
 jo9t "w ( ! comm5tators  treat+ _!     
contributions z =m+ "o :ole4    ,! fact 
t ea* sy/em _h to cont5d ) o!r rival    
sy/ems 9 ord] to hold its own has left  
its p]man5t m>k  ^u all ! philosophic   
lit]atures ( ,india :i* are always      
writt5 9 ! =m ( disputes1 :]e ! writ] is
 suppos$ to  be always fac$ ) objections
 f rival s*ools to :atev]  he has got to
 say4 ,at ea* /ep he supposes c]ta9     
objections  put =? aga9/ him :i* he     
answ]s1 & po9ts out ! defects  ( !      
objector or %[s t ! objection itself is 
ill f\nd$4 ,x  is ?us ?r\gh int]m9able  
byways ( objections1 c\nt]-objections  &

 _! answ]s t ! writ] c w5d 8 way to 8   
de/9ation4 ,mo/ (t5 ! objections ( !    
rival s*ools are  ref]r$ to 9 s brief a 
mann] t ^? only :o "k !  views c cat*   
!m4 ,to add to ^! difficulties !        
,sanskrit  /yle ( mo/ ( ! comm5t>ies is 
s cond5s$ & diff]5t  f lit]>y ,sanskrit1
 & aims s mu* at precision & brevity1   
lead+ to ! use ( te*nical words curr5t 9
 ! div]se sy/ems1  t a /udy ( ^! becomes
 (t5 impossible )\t ! aid  ( an exp]t   
preceptor2 x is difficult !re=e = all :o
 are n  widely read 9 all ! diff]5t     
sy/ems to foll[ any advanc$    #fg    "w
 ( any p>ticul> sy/em1 z ! delib]ations 
( t p>ticul>  sy/em are express$ 9 su*  
close int]connection )  ! views ( o!r   
sy/ems t ^! c h>dly be und]/ood  )\t !m4
 ,ea* sy/em ( ,india has gr[n 7at lea/ 9
  p>ticul> epo*s7 9 relation to & 9     
opposition to ! gr[?  ( o!r sy/ems (    
?\ght1 & to be a ?or\gh /ud5t ( ,indian 
philosophy "o %\ld /udy all ! sy/ems 9  
_! mutual  opposition & relation f !    
e>lie/ times to a p]iod at  :i* !y ceas$

 to gr[ & came to a /op--a purpose =    
:i* a "w l ! pres5t "o may only be      
reg>d$ z  =m+ a prelim9>y introduction4 
,besides ! stras & _! comm5t>ies !re are
 also indep5d5t  treatises on ! sy/ems 9
 v]se call$ kriks1 :i*  try to summ>ize 
! important topics ( any sy/em 9 a      
succ9ct  mann]2 ! ,smkhya krik may be   
m5tion$ z a "w ( ?is  k9d4 ,9 addition  
to ^! !re 7 also long diss]tations1     
comm5t>ies1 or g5]al obs]vations on any 
sy/em writt5 9  v]ses call$ ! vrttikas2 
! ,s'lokavrttika1 ( ,kum>ila or !       
,vrttika ( ,sures'v>a may be m5tion$ z  
examples4 ,all ^!  ( c\rse _h _!        
comm5t>ies to expla9 !m4 ,9 addition  to
 ^! !re 7 also advanc$ treatises on !   
sy/ems 9 prose  9 :i* ! writ]s ei!r     
nom9ally foll[$ "s select$  stras or    
proce$$ indep5d5tly ( !m4 ,( ! =m] class
  ! ,nyyamaj> ( ,jayanta may be m5tion$ 
z an example  & ( ! latt] ! ,pras'a/apda
 bhsya1 ! ,advaitasiddhi (  ,madhusdana 
,s>asvat or ! ,v$nta-p>ibhs (           
,dh>m>jdhv>ndra4  ,! m rem>kable ( ^!   

treatises 7 ( a ma/]ly nature 9  :i* !  
writ]s repres5t$ ! sy/ems !y adh]$ to 9 
a highly  =cible & logical mann] by d9t 
( _! own great m5tal p[]s  & g5ius4 ,^! 
also _h _! comm5t>ies to expla9 &       
elaborate  !m4 ,! p]iod ( ! gr[? ( !    
philosophic lit]atures ( ,india  beg9s f
 ab\t #ejj ,b4,c4 7ab\t ! "t ( !        
,buddha7 & practically  ends 9 ! lat]   
half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 ?\gh ev5 n[ "s
  m9or publications are se5 to come out4
      ,! ,indian ,sy/ems ( ,philosophy4 
,! ,h9dus classify ! sy/ems ( philosophy
 into two classes1  namely1 ! n/ika & ! 
/ika4 ,! n/ika 7na a/i x is  n7 views   
are ^? :i* nei!r reg>d ! ,v$as z        
infallible    #fh    nor try to e/abli% 
_! own validity on _! au?ority4 ,^! are 
pr9cipally ?ree 9 numb]1 ! ,buddhi/1    
,ja9a & ! ,crvka4  ,! /ika-mata or      
or?odox s*ools are six 9 numb]1 ,smkhya1
  ,yoga1 ,v$nta1 ,mmms1 ,nyya &         
,vais'esika1 g5]ally kn[n  z ! six      
sy/ems 7sadd>s'ana ,footnote ref #a74   
,! ,smkhya is ascrib$ to a my?ical      

,kpila1 b !  e>lie/ works on ! subject  
are probably n[ lo/4 ,! ,yoga  sy/em is 
attribut$ to ,patajali & ! orig9al stras
 are call$  ! ,ptajala ,yoga stras4 ,!  
g5]al metaphysical position  ( ^! two   
sy/ems ) reg>d to s\l1 nature1 cosmology
 &  ! f9al goal is almo/ ! same1 & !    
diff]5ce lies 9 ?is  t ! ,yoga sy/em    
ackn[l$ges a god 7s'v>a7 z di/9ct  f    
tman & lays mu* importance on c]ta9     
my/ical  practices 7commonly kn[n z     
,yoga practices7 = ! a*ievem5t  (       
lib]ation1 :]eas ! ,smkhya d5ies !      
exi/5ce (  s'v>a & ?9ks t s9c]e         
philosophic ?\ght & culture  are        
suffici5t to produce ! true conviction (
 ! tru? &  !reby br+ ab\t lib]ation4 ,x 
is probable t ! sy/em  ( ,smkhya        
associat$ ) ,kpila & ! ,yoga sy/em      
associat$ ) ,patajali are b two div]g5t 
modifications (  an orig9al ,smkhya     
s*ool1 ( :i* we n[ get only ref]5ces  "h
 & !re4 ,^! sy/ems !re=e ?\gh g5]ally   
c\nt$  z two %\ld m prop]ly be look$ ^u 
z two diff]5t  s*ools ( ! same ,smkhya  

sy/em--"o may be call$ !  ,kpila ,smkhya
 & ! o!r ,ptajala ,smkhya4    ,! ,prva  
,mmms 7f ! root man to ?9k--rational    
conclusions7 _c prop]ly be spok5 ( z a  
sy/em ( philosophy4  ,x is a sy/ematiz$ 
code ( pr9ciples 9 accordance )  :i* !  
,v$ic texts are to be int]pret$ =       
purposes ( sacrifices4        ,footnote 
#a3 ,! ^w d>s'ana 9 ! s5se ( true       
philosophic  k has its e>lie/ use 9 !   
,vais'esika stras ( ,kanda  7,,ix4 ii4  
#ac7 :i* ,i consid] z pre-,buddhi/ic4 ,!
 ,buddhi/ pitakas  7#djj ,b4,c47 call$ !
 h]etical op9ions dit?i 7,sanskrit--dr/i
  f ! same root drs' f :i* d>s'ana is   
=m$74 ,h>ibhadra  7fif? c5tury ,a4,d47  
uses ! ^w ,d>s'ana 9 ! s5se ( sy/ems (  
philosophy 7s>vad>s'anavcyo'            
r?ah--,sadd>s'anasamuccaya ,i474        
,ratnakrtti 7end ( ! t5? c5tury ,a4,d47 
uses ! ^w also 9 !  same s5se 7,yadi nma
 d>s'ane d>s'ane nnprakram              
sattvatak-sanam  uktama/i4              
,ksanabhangasiddhi 9 ,six ,buddhi/ ,nyya
 tracts1 p4#bj74  ,mdhava 7#acca ,a4,d47

 calls 8 ,comp5dium ( all sy/ems (      
philosophy1  ,s>vad>s'anasamgrana4 ,! ^w
 mata 7op9ion or view7 0 also  freely   
us$ 9 quot+ ! views ( o!r sy/ems4 ,b !re
 is no ^w  to d5ote 'philosoph]s' 9 !   
te*nical s5se4 ,! ,buddhi/s us$ to call 
^? :o held h]etical views tair?ika4 ,!  
words siddha1  jn91 etc4 d n d5ote      
philosoph]s1 9 ! mod]n s5se1 !y are  us$
 r 9 ! s5se ( se]s or p]fects4    #fi   
,! ,v$ic texts 7 us$ z mantras          
7incantations7 = sacrifices1  & p (t5   
disput$ z to ! relation ( words 9 a     
s5t5ce or _! mutual relative importance 
) ref]5ce to !  g5]al drift ( ! s5t5ce4 
,!re 7 also diff]5ces ( view  ) reg>d to
 ! mean+ ( a s5t5ce1 ! use to :i* x may 
be appli$ z a mantra1 its relative      
importance or ! exact  nature ( its     
connection ) o!r simil> s5t5ces 9 a     
complex  ,v$ic context4 ,! ,mmms =mulat$
 "s pr9ciples accord+  to :i* "o c\ld   
arrive at rational & uni=m solutions  = 
all ^! difficulties4 ,prelim9>y to ^!   
its ma9 objects1 x  indulges 9          

speculations ) reg>d to ! ext]nal _w1   
s\l1  p]ception1 inf]5ce1 ! validity ( !
 ,v$as1 or ! l1 = 9  ord] t a man might 
p]=m sacrifices ) mantras1 a def9ite    
ord] ( ! univ]se & its relation to man  
or ! position &  nature ( ! mantras ( ! 
,v$a mu/ be demon/rat$ &  e/abli%$4     
,?\gh its int]e/ 9 su* ab/ract          
speculations is  b second>y yet x       
briefly discusses ^! 9 ord] to prep>e a 
rational gr\nd = its doctr9e ( ! mantras
 & _! practical  utility = man4 ,x is   
only s f> z !re are ^! prelim9>y        
discussions 9 ! ,mmms t x may be call$ a
 sy/em (  philosophy4 ,its pr9ciples &  
maxims = ! int]pretation (  ! import (  
words & s5t5ces h a legal value ev5 to  
?is  day4 ,! stras ( ,mmms are attribut$
 to ,jaim9i1 & ,s'ab>a  wrote a bhsya ^u
 x4 ,! two great names 9 ! hi/ory (     
,mmms lit]ature aft] ,jaim9i & ,s'ab>a  
are ,kumrila ,bhatta  & 8 pupil         
,prabhk>a1 :o criticiz$ ! op9ions ( 8   
ma/]  s mu*1 t ! ma/] us$ to call him   
guru 7ma/]7 9 s>casm1  & to ?is day 8   

op9ions pass z guru-mata1 :]eas ! views 
( ,kumrila ,bhatta pass z bhatta-mata   
,footnote ref #a4 ,x may n  be out (    
place to m5tion "h t ,h9du ,law 7smrti7 
accepts )\t  any res]vation ! maxims &  
pr9ciples settl$ & =mulat$  by ! ,mmms4 
,footnote #a3 ,!re is a /ory t ,kumrila 
c\ld n und]/& !  mean+ ( a ,sanskrit    
s5t5ce ,atra tunoktam tatrp9oktam iti   
paun>aktam 7h5ce spok5 twice74 ,tunoktam
 phonetically admits (  two comb9ations1
 tu noktam 7b n said7 & tunuktam 7said  
by  ! p>ticle tu7 & tatrpi noktam z     
tatra api na uktam 7n  said also !re7 & 
tatra ap9 uktam 7said !re by ! p>ticle  
api74 ,"u ! fir/ int]pretation ! s5t5ce 
w\ld mean1 ,n  spok5 "h1 n spok5 !re1 x 
is ?us spok5 twice4 ,?is puzzl$         
,kumrila1 :5 ,prabhk>a tak+ ! second    
mean+ po9t$ out to him  t ! mean+ 0 "h x
 is indicat$ by tu & !re by api1  & s x 
is indicat$ twice4 ,kumrila 0 s pleas$ t
 he call$  8 pupil ,guru 7ma/]7 at ?is4 
#gj      ,! ,v$nta stras1 also call$    
,utt>a ,mmms1 writt5 by  ,bd>yana1      

o!rwise kn[n z ! ,brahma-stras1 =m !    
orig9al au?oritative "w ( ,v$nta4 ,! ^w 
,v$nta means  end ( ! ,v$a1 i4e4 !      
,upanisads1 & ! ,v$nta stras are  s     
call$ z !y are b a summ>iz$ /atem5t ( ! 
g5]al  views ( ! ,upanisads4 ,?is "w is 
divid$ into f\r books or  adhyyas & ea* 
adhyya is divid$ into f\r pdas or       
*apt]s4  ,! fir/ f\r stras ( ! "w       
commonly kn[n z ,catuhstr  are 7#a7 ,h[ 
to ask ab\t ,brahman1 7#b7 ,f :om proce$
 bir?  & decay1 7#c7 ,?is is because f  
him ! ,v$as h come =?1  7#d7 ,?is is %[n
 by ! h>moni\s te/imony ( ! ,upanisads4 
,! :ole ( ! fir/ *apt] ( ! second book  
is devot$ to  ju/ify+ ! position ( !    
,v$nta aga9/ ! attacks ( !  rival       
s*ools4 ,! second *apt] ( ! second book 
is busy 9  deal+ bl[s at rival sy/ems4  
,all ! o!r p>ts ( ! book are  devot$ to 
settl+ ! disput$ int]pretations ( a     
numb] ( individual  ,upanisad texts4 ,! 
really philosophical portion ( ! "w is  
?us  limit$ to ! fir/ f\r stras & ! fir/
 & second *apt]s  ( ! second book4 ,!   

o!r portions are l comm5t>ies  to !     
,upanisads1 :i* h[ev] conta9 _m         
!ological  views ( ! sy/em4 ,! fir/     
comm5t>y ( ! ,brahma-stra  0 probably   
writt5 by ,baudhyana1 :i* h[ev] is n    
available n[4 ,! e>lie/ comm5t>y t is n[
 f\nd is t  ( ! great ,s'ank>a4 ,8      
int]pretations ( ! ,brahma-stras  toge!r
 ) all ! comm5t>ies & o!r works t foll[ 
8 views are popul>ly kn[n z ,v$nta      
philosophy1 ?\gh  ?is philosophy ought m
 prop]ly to be call$ ,vis'uddhdvaitavda 
s*ool ( ,v$nta philosophy 7i4e4 ! ,v$nta
 philosophy  ( ! s*ool ( absolute       
monism74 ,v>iant =ms ( duali/ic         
philosophy z repres5t$ by ! ,vaisnavas1 
,s'aivas1 ,rmyatas1  etc41 also claim to
 express ! orig9al purport ( ! ,brahma  
stras4 ,we ?us f9d t apo/les ( duali/ic 
cre$s su* z  ,rmnuja1 ,vallabha1        
,madhva1 ,s'rkan?a1 ,baladeva1 etc41 h  
writt5 indep5d5t comm5t>ies on !        
,brahma-stra to %[  t ! philosophy z    
elaborat$ by !mselves is ! view (  !    
,upanisads & z summ>iz$ 9 !             

,brahma-stras4 ,^!  diff]$ l>gely & (t5 
vehem5tly attack$ ,s'ank>a's            
int]pretations  ( ! same stras4 ,^!     
sy/ems z exp\nd$ by !m also pass by  !  
"n ( ,v$nta z ^! are also claim$ to be !
 real  int]pretations int5d$ by ! ,v$nta
 7,upanisads7    #ga    & ! ,v$nta      
stras4 ,( ^! ! sy/em ( ,rmnuja has      
great philosophical importance4    ,!   
,nyya stras attribut$ to ,gautama1 call$
 also ,aksapda1  & ! ,vais'esika stras  
attribut$ to ,kanda1 call$ also ,ulka1  
repres5t ! same sy/em = all practical   
purposes4 ,!y are  9 lat] times consid]$
 to diff] only 9 a few po9ts ( m9or     
importance4 ,s f> z ! stras are conc]n$ 
! ,nyya stras  lay p>ticul> /ress on !  
cultivation ( logic z an art1 :ile  !   
,vais'esika stras deal mo/ly )          
metaphysics & physics4  ,9 addition to  
^! six sy/ems1 ! ,tantras _h also       
philosophies  ( _! own1 :i* h[ev] may   
g5]ally be look$ ^u  l>gely z           
modifications ( ! ,smkhya & ,v$nta      
sy/ems1  ?\gh _! own contributions are  

also notewor?y4      ,"s fundam5tal     
,po9ts ( ,agreem5t4    ,i4 ,! ,k>ma     
,!ory4    ,x is1 h[ev]1 rem>kable t ) ! 
exception ( !  ,crvka mat]iali/s all !  
o!r sy/ems agree on "s fundam5tal  po9ts
 ( importance4 ,! sy/ems ( philosophy 9 
,india  7 n /irr$ up m]ely by !         
speculative dem&s ( !  human m9d :i* has
 a natural incl9ation = indulg+ 9       
ab/ract ?\ght1 b by a deep crav+ aft] ! 
realization (  ! religi\s purpose (     
life4 ,x is surpris+ to note t !        
po/ulates1 aims & conditions = su* a    
realization 7 f\nd  to be id5tical 9 all
 ! conflict+ sy/ems4 ,:atev] may be  _! 
diff]5ces ( op9ion 9 o!r matt]s1 s f> z 
! g5]al  po/ulates = ! realization ( !  
transc5d5t /ate1 ! summum  bonum ( life1
 7 conc]n$1 all ! sy/ems 7 practically 9
  ?or\gh agreem5t4 ,x may be wor? :ile  
to note "s ( !m  at ?is /age4    ,fir/1 
! !ory ( ,k>ma & rebir?4 ,all ! ,indian 
sy/ems  agree 9 believ+ t :atev] action 
is done by an individual  leaves beh9d x
 "s sort ( pot5cy :i* has ! p[] to      

orda9 = him joy or sorr[ 9 ! future     
accord+ z x is good  or bad4 ,:5 !      
fruits ( ! actions are su* t !y _c  be  
enjoy$ 9 ! pres5t life or 9 a human     
life1 ! individual  has to take ano!r   
bir? z a man or any o!r be+ 9 ord] to   
suff] !m4    ,! ,v$ic belief t ! mantras
 utt]$ 9 ! correct acc5t  at !          
sacrifices ) ! prop] obs]vance ( all    
rituali/ic    #gb    details1 exactly   
accord+ to ! directions )\t ! slighte/  
error ev5 9 ! smalle/ trifle1 _h some?+ 
l a magical  virtue automatically to    
produce ! desir$ object imm$iately  or  
aft] a lapse ( "t1 0 probably ! e>lie/  
=m ( !  ,k>ma doctr9e4 ,x po/ulates a   
semi-consci\s belief t c]ta9  my/ical   
actions c produce at a di/ant "t c]ta9  
effects  )\t ! ord9>y process ( !       
in/rum5tality ( visible  ag5ts ( ord9>y 
cause & effect4 ,:5 ! sacrifice is      
p]=m$1  ! action leaves su* an unse5    
magical virtue1 call$  ! adrsta 7!      
unse57 or ! aprva 7new71 t by x ! desir$
  object w be a*iev$ 9 a my/]i\s mann]1 

= ! modus  op]&i ( ! aprva is unkn[n4   
,!re is also ! notion  preval5t 9 !     
,samhits1 z we h already notic$1 t he   
:o commits wick$ de$s suff]s 9 ano!r _w1
 :]eas he  :o p]=ms good de$s enjoys !  
highe/ mat]ial pleasures4  ,^! 7        
probably associat$ ) ! conception ( rta1
 !  inviolable ord] ( ?+s4 ,?us ^! are  
probably ! elem5ts  :i* built up ! ,k>ma
 !ory :i* we f9d pretty well  e/abli%$ b
 n emphasiz$ 9 ! ,upanisads1 :]e x is   
said  t accord+ to good or bad actions  
m5 w h good or bad  bir?s4    ,to notice
 o!r relevant po9ts 9 connection ) !    
,k>ma  doctr9e z e/abli%$ 9 ! /ika      
sy/ems we f9d t x 0  believ$ t ! unse5  
7adrsta7 pot5cy ( ! action g5]ally      
requir$ "s "t be=e x c\ld be fit = giv+ 
! do] !  m]it$ puni%m5t or enjoym5t4 ,^!
 w\ld (t5 accumulate  & prep>e ! items (
 suff]+ & enjoym5t = ! do] 9  8 next    
life4 ,only ! fruits ( ^? actions :i*   
are extremely  wick$ or p>ticul>ly good 
c\ld be reap$ 9 ?is life4 ,!  nature ( !
 next bir? ( a man is det]m9$ by !      

nature (  pleasurable or pa9ful         
exp]i5ces t h be5 made ready =  him by 8
 matur+ actions ( ?is life4 ,if !       
exp]i5ces det]m9$  = him by 8 action are
 su* t !y are possible to be  realiz$ 9 
! life ( a goat1 ! man w die & be born z
 a  goat4 ,z !re is no ultimate beg9n+ 9
 "t ( ?is _w  process1 s !re is no "t at
 :i* any p]son fir/ began 8  actions or 
exp]i5ces4 ,man has _h an inf9ite numb] 
( pa/  lives ( ! mo/ v>i$ nature1 & !   
in/9cts ( ea* k9d (  life exi/ dormant 9
 ! life ( e individual1 & ?us :5ev]  he 
has any p>ticul> bir? z ?is or t animal 
or man1    #gc    ! special in/9cts ( t 
life 7te*nically call$ vsan7 come  =?4  
,9 accordance ) ^! vsans ! p]son passes 
?r\gh  ! pa9ful or pleasurable exp]i5ces
 z det]m9$ = him by  8 action4 ,! l5g? (
 life is also det]m9$ by ! numb]  &     
duration ( exp]i5ces z preorda9$ by !   
fructify+  actions ( 8 pa/ life4 ,:5    
once c]ta9 actions become fit =  giv+   
c]ta9 exp]i5ces1 ^! _c be avoid$1 b ^?  
actions :i* h n matur$ are uproot$ once 

= all if !  p]son atta9s true k z       
advocat$ by philosophy4 ,b  ev5 su* an  
emancipat$ 7mukta7 p]son has to pass    
?r\gh  ! pleasurable or pa9ful exp]i5ces
 orda9$ = him by !  actions j rip5$ =   
giv+ _! fruits4 ,!re are f\r k9ds  (    
actions1 :ite or virtu\s 7s'ukla71 black
 or wick$ 7krsna71  :ite-black or p>tly 
virtu\s & p>tly vici\s 7s'ukla-krsna7 z 
mo/ ( our actions are1 nei!r black nor  
:ite 7z'uklkrsna71  i4e4 ^? acts (      
self-r5unciation or m$itation :i* are n 
associat$ ) any desires = ! fruit4 ,x is
 only :5 a p]son  c s re/ra9 himself z  
to p]=m only ! la/ k9d ( action  t he   
ceases to accumulate any new k>ma = giv+
 fre% fruits4  ,he has ?us only to enjoy
 ! fruits ( 8 previ\s k>mas :i*  h rip5$
 = giv+ fruits4 ,if 9 ! meantime he     
atta9s true  k1 all 8 pa/ accumulat$    
actions become de/roy$1  & z 8 acts are 
only ( ! z'uklkrsna type no fre% k>ma  =
 rip5+ is accumulat$1 & ?us he becomes  
dive/$ ( all  k>ma aft] enjoy+ ! fruits 
( ! rip5$ k>mas alone4    ,! ,ja9s ?9k t

 ?r\gh ! actions ( body1 spee*  & m9d a 
k9d ( subtle matt] te*nically call$ k>ma
 is produc$4  ,! passions ( a man act l 
a visc\s sub/ance t  attracts ?is k>ma  
matt]1 :i* ?us p\rs into ! s\l &  /icks 
to x4 ,! k>ma matt] ?us accumulat$ r\nd 
! s\l  dur+ ! inf9ite numb] ( pa/ lives 
is te*nically call$  krmas'arra1 :i*    
encircles ! s\l z x passes on f bir?  to
 bir?4 ,?is k>ma matt] /ick+ to ! s\l   
gradually rip5s  & exhau/s itself 9     
orda9+ ! suff]ance ( pa9s or ! enjoym5t 
( pleasures = ! individual4 ,:ile "s    
k>ma matt] is be+  exp5d$ 9 ?is way1 o!r
 k>ma matt]s are accumulat+ by  8       
activities1 & ?us keep him 9 a cont9u\s 
process (  suff]+ & enjoym5t4 ,! k>ma   
matt] ?us accumulat$  9 ! s\l produces a
 k9d ( coloration call$ les'y1 su* z    
:ite1 black1 etc41 :i* m>ks ! "* ( !    
s\l4 ,!    #gd    idea ( ! s'ukla &     
krsna k>mas ( ! ,yoga sy/em 0 probably  
sugge/$ by ! ,ja9a view4 ,b :5 a man is 
free f  passions1 & acts 9 /rict        
compliance ) ! rules ( conduct1  8      

actions produce k>ma :i* la/s b = a     
mom5t & is  !n annihilat$4 ,e k>ma t !  
sage has previ\sly  e>n$ has its pr$e/9$
 limits )9 :i* x mu/ take effect  & be  
purg$ away4 ,b :5 by contemplation & !  
/rict  adh]5ce to ! five great v[s1 no  
new k>ma is g5]at$1 &  :5 all ! k>mas   
are exhau/$ ! worldly exi/5ce ( !  p]son
 rapidly draws t[>ds its end4 ,?us 9 !  
la/ /age (  contemplation1 all k>ma be+ 
annihilat$1 & all activities  hav+      
ceas$1 ! s\l leaves ! body & goes up to 
! top  ( ! univ]se1 :]e ! lib]at$ s\ls  
/ay = ev]4    ,buddhism also contributes
 "s new traits to ! k>ma  !ory :i* h[ev]
 be+ intimately connect$ ) _!           
metaphysics w be treat$ lat] on4        
#b4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,mukti4    ,n only d !
 ,indian sy/ems agree z to ! cause ( !  
inequalities 9 ! %>e ( suff]+s &        
enjoym5ts 9 ! case  ( diff]5t p]sons1 & 
! mann] 9 :i* ! cycle ( bir?s  & rebir?s
 has be5 kept go+ f beg9n+less "t1 on ! 
basis ( ! my/]i\s connection ( "o's     
actions ) !  happ5+s ( ! _w1 b !y also  

agree 9 believ+ t  ?is beg9n+less *a9 ( 
k>ma & its fruits1 ( bir?s & rebir?s1   
?is runn+ on f beg9n+less "t has some:]e
  its end4 ,?is end 0 n to be atta9$ at 
"s di/ant "t or  9 "s di/ant k+dom1 b 0 
to be s\ght )9 u4 ,k>ma  leads u to ?is 
endless cycle1 & if we c\ld dive/       
ourselves (  all su* emotions1 ideas or 
desires z lead u to action we %\ld  f9d 
)9 u ! actionless self :i* nei!r suff]s 
nor enjoys1  nei!r works nor und]goes   
rebir?4 ,:5 ! ,indians1 we>i$  by !     
endless bu/le & turmoil ( worldly ev5ts1
 s\ght = &  believ$ t some:]e a peaceful
 goal c\ld be f\nd1 !y  g5]ally hit ^u !
 self ( man4 ,! belief t ! s\l c\ld  be 
realiz$ 9 "s /age z be+ p]man5tly dive/$
 ( all  action1 feel+s or ideas1 l$     
logically to ! conclusion t !           
connection ( ! s\l ) ^! worldly elem5ts 
0 extrane\s1  artificial or ev5         
illusory4 ,9 its true nature ! s\l is   
unt\*$  by ! impurities ( our ord9>y    
life1 & x is ?r\gh ignorance    #ge    &
 passion z inh]it$ f ! cycle ( k>ma f   

beg9n+less  "t t we connect x ) ^!4 ,!  
realization ( ?is  transc5d5t /ate is ! 
goal & f9al a*ievem5t ( ?is endless     
cycle ( bir?s & rebir?s ?r\gh k>ma4 ,!  
,buddhi/s did  n admit ! exi/5ce ( s\l1 
b recogniz$ t ! f9al  realization ( !   
process ( k>ma is to be f\nd 9 !        
ultimate  dissolution call$ ,nirvna1 !  
nature ( :i* we %all discuss  lat] on4  
#c4 ,! ,doctr9e ( ,s\l4    ,all !       
,indian sy/ems except ,buddhism admit ! 
exi/5ce  ( a p]man5t entity v>i\sly     
call$ atman1 purusa or jva4  ,z to !    
exact nature ( ?is s\l !re are inde$    
div]g5ces  ( view4 ,?us :ile ! ,nyya    
calls x absolutely  qualityless &       
*>act]less1 indet]m9ate unconsci\s      
entity1  ,smkhya describes x z be+ ( !  
nature ( pure consci\sness1  ! ,v$nta   
says t x is t fundam5tal po9t ( unity   
impli$ 9 pure consci\sness 7cit71 pure  
bliss 7n&a71 & pure  be+ 7sat74 ,b all  
agree 9 hold+ t x is pure & unsulli$  9 
its nature & t all impurities ( action  
or passion d n  =m a real "p ( x4 ,!    

summum bonum ( life is atta9$  :5 all   
impurities are remov$ & ! pure nature ( 
! self  is ?or\ghly & p]man5tly         
appreh5d$ & all o!r extrane\s           
connections ) x are absolutely          
dissociat$4      ,! ,pessimi/ic         
,attitude t[>ds ! ,_w & !  ,optimi/ic   
,fai? 9 ! end4    ,?\gh ! belief t ! _w 
is full ( sorr[ has n be5  equally      
prom95tly emphasiz$ 9 all sy/ems1 yet x 
may be  consid]$ z be+ %>$ by all ( !m4 
,x f9ds its /ronge/  utt]ance 9 ,smkhya1
 ,yoga1 & ,buddhism4 ,?is int]m9able    
*a9 ( pleasurable & pa9ful exp]i5ces 0  
look$ ^u z  ne>+ no peaceful end b      
embroil+ & entangl+ u 9 !  me%es ( k>ma1
 rebir?1 & sorr[4 ,:at appe> z pleasures
  are b a m]e appe>ance = ! attempt to  
keep !m /eady is  pa9ful1 !re is pa9 :5 
we lose ! pleasures or :5 we are  anxi\s
 to h !m4 ,:5 ! pleasures are s mu*     
associat$  ) pa9s !y are b pa9s         
!mselves4 ,we are b dup$  :5 we seek    
pleasures1 = !y are sure to lead u to   
pa94 ,all  our exp]i5ces are ess5tially 

sorr[ful & ultimately sorr[-begett+4    
,sorr[ is ! ultimate tru? ( ?is process 
( !    #gf    _w4 ,t :i* to an ord9>y   
p]son seems pleasurable  appe>s to a    
wise p]son or to a yog9 :o has a cle>]  
vision z  pa9ful4 ,! great] ! k ! high] 
is ! s5sitiv5ess  to sorr[ &            
dissatisfaction ) _w exp]i5ces4 ,! yog9 
is l ! pupil ( ! eye to :i* ev5 !       
smalle/ gra9 (  di/urbance is unbe>able4
 ,?is sorr[ ( worldly exp]i5ces _c  be  
remov$ by br++ 9 rem$ies = ea* sorr[ z x
 comes1  = ! mom5t x is rem$i$ ano!r    
sorr[ comes 94 ,x _c  also be avoid$ by 
m]e inaction or suicide1 = we are       
cont9ually  be+ =c$ to action by our    
nature1 & suicide w b lead to  ano!r    
life ( sorr[ & rebir?4 ,! only way to   
get rid (  x is by ! culm9ation ( moral 
greatness & true k  :i* uproot sorr[    
once = all4 ,x is our ignorance t ! self
  is intimately connect$ ) ! exp]i5ces (
 life or its pleasures1  t leads u to   
action & ar\ses passion 9 u = ! enjoym5t
  ( pleasures & o!r emotions &          

activities4 ,?r\gh  ! highe/ moral      
elevation a man may atta9 absolute      
dispassion  t[>ds _w-exp]i5ces & retire 
9 body1 m9d1 & spee*  f all worldly     
conc]ns4 ,:5 ! m9d is s purifi$1 ! self 
%9es 9 its true light1 & its true nature
 is rightly conceiv$4  ,:5 ?is is once  
done ! self c nev] aga9 be associat$  ) 
passion or ignorance4 ,x becomes at ?is 
/age ultimately  dissociat$ f citta :i* 
conta9s )9 x ! root ( all  emotions1    
ideas1 & actions4 ,?us emancipat$ ! self
 = ev]  conqu]s all sorr[4 ,x is        
important1 h[ev]1 to note 9 ?is         
connection t emancipation is n bas$ on a
 g5]al av]sion  to int]c\rse ) ! _w or  
on su* feel+s z a disappo9t$  p]son may 
h1 b on ! appreciation ( ! /ate ( mukti 
z ! supremely bless$ "o4 ,! details ( ! 
pessimi/ic  cre$ ( ea* sy/em h develop$ 
f ! logical necessity  peculi> to ea*   
sy/em4 ,!re 0 nev] ! slighte/ t5d5cy  to
 %irk ! duties ( ?is life1 b to rise    
above !m ?r\gh  "r p]=mance & "r        
und]/&+4 ,x is only :5 a  man rises to !

 highe/ p9nacle ( moral glory t he is   
fit =  aspir+ to t realization (        
selfhood 9 comp>ison ) :i*  all worldly 
?+s or ev5 ! joys ( ,heav5 w\ld n only  
%r9k into insignificance1 b appe> 9 _!  
true "* z  sorr[ful & loa?some4 ,x is :5
 8 m9d has ?us turn$ f  all ord9>y joys 
t he c /rive t[>ds 8 ideal ( salvation4 
,9 fact x seems to me t a s9c]e religi\s
 crav+ aft] "s    #gg    ideal          
bless$ness & quiet ( self-realization is
 inde$ ! fundam5tal  fact f :i* n only  
h] philosophy b _m ( !  complex ph5om5a 
( ! civilization ( ,india c be logically
  d$uc$4 ,! sorr[ ar\nd u has no fe> = u
 if we rememb]  t we are naturally      
sorr[less & bless$ 9 ourselves4 ,!      
pessimi/ic view loses all t]ror z x     
closes 9 absolute optimi/ic  confid5ce 9
 "o's own self & ! ultimate de/9y & goal
 (  emancipation4      ,unity 9 ,indian 
,sdhana 7philosophical1 religi\s  &     
e?ical endeav\rs74    ,z might be       
expect$ ! ,indian sy/ems are all agre$  
^u  ! g5]al pr9ciples ( e?ical conduct  

:i* mu/ be foll[$  = ! atta9m5t (       
salvation4 ,t all passions are to be    
controll$1  no injury to life 9 any =m  
%\ld be done1 & t all  desire =         
pleasures %\ld be *eck$1 are pr9ciples  
:i* are  almo/ univ]sally ackn[l$g$4 ,:5
 a man atta9s a v  high degree ( moral  
greatness he has to /r5g!n & prep>e  8  
m9d = fur!r purify+ & /eady+ x = !      
atta9m5t  ( 8 ideal2 & mo/ ( ! ,indian  
sy/ems are unanim\s )  reg>d to ! means 
to be employ$ = ! purpose4 ,!re are     
inde$ div]g5ces 9 c]ta9 details or      
te*nical names1 b !  means to be adopt$ 
= purification are almo/ ev]y:]e        
ess5tially  ! same z ^? advocat$ by !   
,yoga sy/em4 ,x is only  9 lat] times t 
devotion 7bhakti7 is se5 to occupy a m  
prom95t place specially 9 ,vaisnava     
s*ools ( ?\ght4 ,?us  x 0 t ?\gh !re 7  
_m diff]5ces among ! v>i\s  sy/ems1 yet 
_! goal ( life1 _! attitude t[>ds ! _w &
  ! means fur ! atta9m5t ( ! goal       
7sdhana7 be+ fundam5tally  ! same1 !re 0
 a unique unity 9 ! practical sdhana  ( 

almo/ all ! ,indian sy/ems4 ,! religi\s 
crav+ has be5  univ]sal 9 ,india & ?is  
uni=mity ( sdhana has !re=e  secur$ =   
,india a unity 9 all h] aspirations &   
/riv+s4    #gh        ,,*apt] ,v        
,,buddhi/ ,,philosophy    ,_m s*ol>s are
 ( op9ion t ! ,smkhya & ! ,yoga         
repres5t ! e>lie/ sy/ematic speculations
 ( ,india4 ,x is also  sugge/$ t        
,buddhism drew mu* ( its inspiration f  
!m4  ,x may be t !re is "s tru? 9 su* a 
view1 b !  sy/ematic ,smkhya & ,yoga    
treatises z we h !m _h  decid$ly be5    
writt5 aft] ,buddhism4 ,moreov] x is    
well-kn[n  to e /ud5t ( ,h9du philosophy
 t a conflict ) !  ,buddhi/s has l>gely 
/imulat$ philosophic enquiry 9 mo/ (  ! 
sy/ems ( ,h9du ?\ght4 ,a k ( ,buddhism  
is  !re=e indisp5sable = a "r und]/&+ ( 
! diff]5t  sy/ems 9 _! mutual relation &
 opposition to ,buddhism4 ,x  seems     
desirable !re=e t ,i %\ld beg9 )        
,buddhism  fir/4      ,! ,/ate (        
,philosophy 9 ,india be=e ! ,buddha4    
,x is inde$ difficult to give a %ort    

sket* ( ! diff]5t  philosophical        
speculations t 7 preval5t 9 ,india be=e 
,buddhism4 ,! doctr9es ( ! ,upanisads   
are well kn[n1 &  ^! h already be5      
briefly describ$4 ,b ^! 7 n !  only     
ones4 ,ev5 9 ! ,upanisads we f9d        
ref]5ces to div]se  a!i/ical cre$s      
,footnote ref #a4 ,we f9d !re t ! orig9 
( !  _w & its processes 7 sometimes     
discuss$1 & "s ?\ght  t "t 0 ! ultimate 
cause ( all1 o!rs t all ^!  _h sprung =?
 by _! own nature 7svabhva71 o!rs t     
ev]y?+ _h come =? 9 accordance ) an     
inexorable  de/9y or a =tuit\s conc\rse 
( accid5tal happ5+s1 or  ?r\gh matt]    
comb9ations 9 g5]al4 ,ref]5ces to div]se
  k9ds ( h]esies are f\nd 9 ,buddhi/    
lit]ature also1 b no  detail$ acc\nts ( 
^! views are kn[n4 ,( ! ,upanisad  type 
( mat]iali/s ! two s*ools ( ,crvkas     
7,dhrtta  & ,sus'iksita7 are ref]r$ to 9
 lat] lit]ature1  ?\gh ! "t 9 :i* ^!    
fl\ri%$ _c rightly  be discov]$         
,footnote ref #b4 ,b x seems            
,footnote #a3 ,s'vets'vat>a1 ,i4 #b1    

klah svabhbo niyatiryadrc*  bhutni yonih
 purusa iti c9tyam4    ,footnote #b3    
,lokyata 7lit]ally1 t :i* is f\nd among 
p 9  g5]al7 seems to h be5 ! "n by :i*  
all c>vka doctr9es  7 g5]ally kn[n4 ,see
 ,gun>atna on ! ,lokyatas4    #gi       
probable h[ev] t ! allusion to !        
mat]iali/s conta9$  9 ! ,upanisads ref]s
 to ^! or to simil> s*ools4 ,!  ,crvkas 
did n believe 9 ! au?ority ( ! ,v$as or 
any  o!r holy scripture4 ,accord+ to !m 
!re 0 no s\l4 ,life  & consci\sness 7 ! 
products ( ! comb9ation ( matt]1  j z r$
 col\r 0 ! result ( mix+ up :ite )      
yell[ or z ! p[] ( intoxication 0 g5]at$
 9 molasses  7madas'akti74 ,!re is no   
aft]-life1 & no rew>d ( actions1 z  !re 
is nei!r virtue nor vice4 ,life is only 
= enjoym5t4 ,s  long z x la/s x is      
ne$less to ?9k ( any?+ else1 z ev]y?+  w
 end ) dea?1 = :5 at dea? ! body is     
burnt  to a%es !re _c be any rebir?4 ,!y
 d n believe 9  ! validity ( inf]5ce4   
,no?+ is tru/wor?y b :at c  be directly 
p]ceiv$1 = x is impossible to det]m9e t 

!  di/ribution ( ! middle t]m 7hetu7 has
 n dep5d$ ^u  "s extrane\s condition1 ! 
abs5ce ( :i* might de/roy  ! validity ( 
any p>ticul> piece ( inf]5ce4 ,if 9 any 
case  any inf]5ce comes to be true1 x is
 only an accid5tal fact &  !re is no    
c]titude ab\t x4 ,!y 7 call$ ,crvka     
because  !y w\ld only eat b w\ld n      
accept any o!r religi\s or  moral       
responsibility4 ,! ^w comes f c>v to    
eat4 ,!  ,dhrtta ,crvkas held t !re 0   
no?+ b ! f\r  elem5ts ( e>?1 wat]1 air &
 fire1 & t ! body 0 b !  result ( atomic
 comb9ation4 ,!re 0 no self or s\l1 no  
virtue or vice4 ,! ,sus'iksita ,crvkas  
held t !re 0  a s\l ap>t f ! body b t x 
also 0 de/roy$ )  ! de/ruction ( ! body4
 ,! orig9al "w ( ! ,crvkas  0 writt5 9  
stras probably by ,brhaspati4 ,jayanta &
 ,gun>atna  quote two stras f x4 ,%ort  
acc\nts ( ?is s*ool may be  f\nd 9      
,jayanta's ,nyyamaj>1 ,mdhava's         
,s>vad>s'anasamgraha  & ,gun>atna's     
,t>k>ahasyadpik4 ,mahbhrata gives  an   
acc\nt ( a man call$ ,crvka meet+       

,yudhis?ira4    ,side by side ) !       
doctr9e ( ! ,crvka mat]iali/s we  are   
rem9d$ ( ! jvakas ( :i* ,makkhali       
,gosla1 probably  a r5egade disciple ( !
 ,ja9 sa9t ,mahvra & a contempor>y  (   
,buddha & ,mahvra1 0 ! lead]4 ,?is 0 a  
?or\gh-go+  det]m9ism d5y+ ! free w (   
man & 8 moral  responsibility = any     
s-call$ good or evil4 ,! ess5ce (       
,makkhali's sy/em is ?is1 t !re is no   
cause1 ei!r proximate  or remote1 = !   
depravity ( be+s or = _! purity4 ,!y    
#hj    become s )\t any cause4 ,no?+    
dep5ds ei!r on "o's  own ef=ts or on !  
ef=ts ( o!rs1 9 %ort no?+ dep5ds  on any
 human ef=t1 = !re is no su* ?+ z p[] or
 en]gy1  or human ex]tion4 ,! v>y+      
conditions at any "t are due  to fate1  
to _! environm5t & _! own nature        
,footnote ref #a4    ,ano!r sophi/ical  
s*ool l$ by ,ajita ,kesakambali taught  
t !re 0 no fruit or result ( good or    
evil de$s2 !re is no  o!r _w1 nor 0 ?is 
"o real2 nor _h p>5ts nor any  =m] lives
 any efficacy ) respect to ?is life4    

,no?+ t  we c d prev5ts any ( u alike f 
be+ :olly br\ght to  an end at dea?     
,footnote ref #b4    ,!re 7 ?us at lea/ 
?ree curr5ts ( ?\ght3 fir/ly !          
sacrificial ,k>ma by ! =ce ( ! magical  
rites ( :i* any  p]son c\ld atta9 any?+ 
he desir$2 secondly ! ,upanisad  tea*+ t
 ! ,brahman1 ! self1 is ! ultimate      
reality &  be+1 & all else b "n & =m :i*
 pass away b d  n abide4 ,t :i*         
p]man5tly abides )\t *ange is !  real & 
true1 & ?is is self4 ,?irdly ! nihili/ic
 conceptions  t !re is no law1 no abid+ 
reality1 t ev]y?+ comes  into be+ by a  
=tuit\s conc\rse ( circum/ances or by "s
  unkn[n fate4 ,9 ea* ( ^! s*ools1      
philosophy _h probably  come to a       
deadlock4 ,!re 7 ! ,yoga practices      
preval5t 9  ! c\ntry & ^! 7 accept$     
p>tly on ! /r5g? (  traditional cu/om   
among c]ta9 sections1 & p>tly by virtue 
( ! great spiritual1 intellectual &     
physical p[] :i* !y  gave to ^? :o p]=m$
 !m4 ,b ^! _h no rational  basis beh9d  
!m on :i* !y c\ld lean = support4 ,^!  7

 probably !n j t5d+ t[>ds be+ affiliat$ 
to !  nebul\s ,smkhya doctr9es :i* _h   
gr[n up among c]ta9  sections4 ,x 0 at  
?is juncture t we f9d ,buddha erect+  a 
new sup]/ructure ( ?\ght on altoge!r    
orig9al l9es :i*  !nce=? op5$ up a new  
av5ue ( philosophy = all po/]ity  to    
come4 ,if ! ,be+ ( ! ,upanisads1 !      
sup]latively motionless1  0 ! only real1
 h[ c\ld x (f] scope = fur!r new        
speculations1 z x _h already disc>d$ all
 o!r matt]s (  int]e/8 ,if ev]y?+ 0 due 
to a reasonless =tuit\s conc\rse  (     
circum/ances1 reason c\ld n proce$ fur!r
 9 !  direction to create any philosophy
 ( ! unreason4 ,! magical               
,footnote #a3 ,smaaphala-sutta1 ,dgha1  
,,ii4 #bj4 ,ho]nl's article on  !       
jvakas1 ,e4,r4,e4    ,footnote #b3      
,smaaphala-sutta1 ,,ii4 #bc4    #ha     
=ce ( ! hocus-pocus ( sorc]y or         
sacrifice _h b little t  0 invit+ =     
philosophy to proce$ on4 ,if we ?us take
 into  acc\nt ! /ate ( ,indian          
philosophic culture be=e ,buddha1  we   

%all be bett] able to und]/& ! value ( !
 ,buddhi/ic  contribution to philosophy4
      ,buddha3 8 ,life4    ,gautama !   
,buddha 0 born 9 or ab\t ! ye> #efj     
,b4,c4  9 ! ,lumb9i ,grove ne> ! anci5t 
t[n ( ,kapilava/u 9  ! n[ d5se t]ai     
region ( ,nepal4 ,8 fa!r 0 ,suddhodana1 
a pr9ce ( ! ,skya clan1 & 8 "m ,que5    
,mahmy4  ,accord+ to ! leg5ds x 0 =etold
 ( him t he w\ld  ent] ^u ! ascetic life
 :5 he %\ld see ,a decrepit old  man1 a 
diseas$ man1 a dead man1 & a monk4 ,8   
fa!r tri$  8 be/ to keep him away f ^!  
by m>ry+ him &  surr\nd+ him ) luxuries4
 ,b on successive occasions1  issu+ f ! 
palace1 he 0 confront$ by ^? f\r  ?+s1  
:i* fill$ him ) amazem5t & di/ress1 &   
realiz+ ! imp]man5ce ( all e>?ly ?+s    
det]m9$ to  =sake 8 home & try if he    
c\ld to discov] "s means to  immortality
 to remove ! suff]+s ( m54 ,he made 8   
,great  ,r5unciation :5 he 0 tw5ty-n9e  
ye>s old4 ,he travell$  on foot to      
,rjagrha 7,rajgir7 & !nce to ,uruvel1   
:]e 9  company ) o!r five ascetics he   

ent]$ ^u a c\rse (  extreme             
self-discipl9e1 c>ry+ 8 au/]ities to su*
 a l5g?  t 8 body became utt]ly emaciat$
 & he fell d[n s5seless  & 0 believ$ to 
be dead4 ,aft] six ye>s ( ?is great     
/ruggle he 0 conv9c$ t ! tru? 0 n to be 
won by  ! way ( extreme asceticism1 &   
resum+ an ord9>y c\rse  ( life at la/   
atta9$ absolute & supreme enlight5m5t4  
,!reaft]  ! ,buddha sp5t a life prolong$
 ov] =ty-five ye>s 9  travell+ f place  
to place & prea*+ ! doctr9e to  all :o  
w\ld li/54 ,at ! age ( ov] eighty ye>s  
,buddha  realiz$ t ! "t drew ne> = him  
to die4 ,he !n ent]$  into ,dhyana &    
pass+ ?r\gh its successive /ages atta9$ 
nirvna ,footnote ref #a4 ,! va/         
developm5ts :i* ! sy/em ( ?is  great    
tea*] und]w5t 9 ! succe$+ c5turies 9    
,india & 9  o!r c\ntries h n be5        
?or\ghly /udi$1 & x w  probably take yet
 _m ye>s m be=e ev5 ! mat]ials =        
,footnote #a3 ,mahp>9ibbnasuttanta1     
,dgha1 ,,xvi4 #f1 #h1 #i4    #hb    su* 
a /udy c be collect$4 ,b f :at we n[    

possess  x is prov$ inconte/ably t x is 
"o ( ! mo/ wond]ful &  subtle           
productions ( human wisdom4 ,x is       
impossible to ov]e/imate  ! debt t !    
philosophy1 culture & civilization  (   
,india owe to x 9 all h] developm5ts =  
_m succe$+  c5turies4      ,e>ly        
,buddhi/ ,lit]ature4    ,! ,buddhi/ ,pli
 ,scriptures conta9 ?ree diff]5t        
collections3  ! ,sutta 7relat+ to !     
doctr9es71 ! ,v9aya 7relat+ to !        
discipl9e ( ! monks7 & ! ,abhidhamma    
7relat+ g5]ally  to ! same subjects z ! 
suttas b deal+ ) !m 9 a  s*ola/ic &     
te*nical mann]74 ,s*ol>s ( ,buddhi/ic   
religi\s  hi/ory ( mod]n times h fail$ z
 yet to fix any def9ite dates  = !      
collection or composition ( ! diff]5t   
p>ts ( !  a=esaid canonical lit]ature ( 
! ,buddhi/s4 ,! suttas 7  h[ev] compos$ 
be=e ! ,abhidhamma & x is v  probable t 
almo/ ! :ole ( ! canonical works 7      
complet$ be=e #bda ,b4,c41 ! date ( !   
?ird c\ncil dur+  ! reign ( ,k+ ,asoka4 
,! suttas ma9ly deal ) ! doctr9e        

7,dhamma7 ( ! ,buddhi/ic fai? :]eas !   
,v9aya deals  only ) ! regulations      
conc]n+ ! discipl9e ( ! monks4  ,!      
subject ( ! ,abhidhamma is mo/ly ! same 
z t  ( ! suttas1 namely1 ! int]pretation
 ( ! ,dhamma4  ,buddhaghosa 9 8         
introduction to ,at?asl91 ! comm5t>y  on
 ! ,dhammasangani1 says t ! ,abhidhamma 
is s call$  7abhi & dhamma7 because x   
describes ! same ,dhammas z are  relat$ 
9 ! suttas 9 a m int5sifi$ 7dhammtireka7
 &  specializ$ 7dhammavisesat!na7 mann]4
 ,! ,abhidhammas  d n give any new      
doctr9es t are n 9 ! suttas1 b  !y deal 
some:at elaborately ) ^? t are already  
f\nd  9 ! suttas4 ,buddhaghosa 9        
di/+ui%+ ! special features  ( ! suttas 
f ! ,abhidhammas says t ! acquirem5t  ( 
! =m] leads "o to atta9 m$itation       
7samdhi7 :]eas  ! latt] leads "o to     
atta9 wisdom 7pasampadam74 ,! =ce  ( ?is
 /atem5t probably lies 9 ?is1 t !       
dialogues ( !  suttas leave a *a/5+     
effect on ! m9d1 ! l ( :i* is  n to be  
f\nd 9 ! ,abhidhammas1 :i* busy !mselves

 9  enum]at+ ! ,buddhi/ic doctr9es &    
def9+ !m 9 a  te*nical mann]1 :i* is m  
fitt$ to produce a reason$    #he       
insight into ! doctr9es ?an directly to 
g5]ate a crav+  = foll[+ ! pa? (        
m$itation = ! ext9ction ( sorr[4  ,!    
,abhidhamma kn[n z ! ,ka?vat?u diff]s f 
!  o!r ,abhidhammas 9 ?is1 t x attempts 
to r$uce ! views  ( ! het]odox s*ools to
 absurdity4 ,! discussions proce$  9 !  
=m ( que/ions & answ]s1 & ! answ]s ( !  
oppon5ts are (t5 %[n to be bas$ on      
contradictory  assumptions4    ,! suttas
 conta9 five gr\ps ( collections call$ !
 ,nikyas4  ,^! are 7#a7 ,dgha ,nikya1   
call$ s on acc\nt ( ! l5g?  ( ! suttas  
conta9$ 9 x2 7#b7 ,majjhima ,nikya      
7middl+  ,nikya71 call$ s on acc\nt ( ! 
middl+ ext5t ( !  suttas conta9$ 9 x2   
7#c7 ,samyutta ,nikya 7,nikyas relat+   
to special meet+s71 call$ samyutta on   
acc\nt ( _! be+  deliv]$ ow+ to ! meet+s
 7samyoga7 ( special p]sons :i*  7 !    
occasions = !m2 7#d7 ,angutt>a ,nikya1 s
 call$ because  9 ea* succe$+ book ( ?is

 "w ! topics ( discussion  increase by  
"o ,footnote ref #a2 7#e7 ,khuddaka     
,nikya conta9+  ,khuddaka p?a1          
,dhammapada1 ,udna1 ,itivuttaka1 ,sutta 
,nipta1  ,vimna-vat?u1 ,petavat?u1      
,!raga?1 ,!rga?1 ,jtaka1 ,niddesa1      
,patisambhidmagga1 ,apadna1             
,buddhavamsa1 ,c>ypitaka4    ,!         
,abhidhammas are ,pat?na1               
,dhammasangani1 ,dhtuka?1               
,puggalapaatti1 ,vibhanga1 ,yamaka &    
,ka?vat?u4  ,!re exi/s also a l>ge      
comm5t>y lit]ature on div]se p>ts  ( !  
above works kn[n z at?aka?4 ,! "w kn[n z
  ,mil9da ,paha 7que/ions ( ,k+         
,mil9da71 ( unc]ta9 date1 is  (         
consid]able philosophical value4    ,!  
doctr9es & views incorporat$ 9 ! above  
lit]ature  is g5]ally n[ kn[n z         
,/haviravda or ,!ravda4 ,on !  orig9 ( !
 "n ,!ravda 7! doctr9e ( ! eld]s7       
,dpavamsa says t s9ce ! ,!ras 7eld]s7   
met 7at ! fir/ c\ncil7  & collect$ !    
doctr9es x 0 kn[n z ! ,!ra ,vda         
,footnote ref  #b4 ,x does n appe> t    

,buddhism z x appe>s 9 ?is ,pli         
lit]ature  develop$ mu* s9ce ! "t (     
,buddhaghosa 7#d,,oo ,a4,d471 !  writ] (
 ,visuddhimagga 7a comp5dium ( !ravda   
doctr9es7  & ! comm5tator ( ,dghanikya1 
,dhammasangani1 etc4    ,h9du philosophy
 9 lat] times seems to h be5 influ5c$   
by ! lat] (f%oots ( ! diff]5t s*ools (  
,buddhism1 b  x does n appe> t ,pli     
,buddhism _h any %>e 9 x4 ,i            
,footnote #a3 ,see ,buddhaghosa's       
,at?asl9i1 p4 #be4    ,footnote #b3     
,old5b]g's ,dpavamsa1 p4 #ca4    #hd    
h n be5 able to discov] any old ,h9du   
writ] :o c\ld  be consid]$ z be+        
acqua9t$ ) ,pli4      ,! ,doctr9e (     
,causal ,connection ( e>ly ,buddhism    
,footnote ref #a4    ,! ^w ,dhamma 9 !  
,buddhi/ scriptures is us$ g5]ally  9   
f\r s5ses3 7#a7 ,scriptural texts1 7#b7 
quality 7guna71 7#c7 cause  7hetu7 &    
7#d7 unsub/antial & s\lless 7nissatta   
nijjva ,footnote  ref #b74 ,( ^! x is ! 
la/ mean+ :i* is p>ticul>ly important1  
f ! po9t ( view ( ,buddhi/ philosophy4  

,! e>ly ,buddhi/  philosophy did n      
accept any fix$ entity z det]m9+ all    
reality2 ! only ?+s ) x 7 ! unsub/antial
 ph5om5a  & ^! 7 call$ dhammas4 ,! "q   
arises t  if !re is no sub/ance or      
reality h[ are we to acc\nt = !         
ph5om5a8 ,b ! ph5om5a are happ5+ & pass+
  away & ! ma9 po9t ( int]e/ ) ! ,buddha
 0 to f9d  out ,:at be+ :at else is1    
,:at happ5+ :at else  happ5s & ,:at n   
be+ :at else is n4 ,! ph5om5a  are      
happ5+ 9 a s]ies & we see t !re be+     
c]ta9 ph5om5a !re become "s o!rs2 by !  
happ5+  ( "s ev5ts o!rs also are        
produc$4 ,?is is call$                  
7paticca-samuppda7 dep5d5t orig9ation4  
,b x is difficult to  und]/& :at is !   
exact nature ( ?is dep5d5ce4 ,! "q z    
,samyutta ,nikya 7,,ii4 #e7 has x ) :i* 
! ,buddha />t$  be=e atta9+ ,buddhahood 
0 ?is3 9 :at mis]able condition  are !  
p6 !y are born1 !y decay1 !y die1 pass  
away  & are born aga92 & !y d n "k ! pa?
 ( escape  f ?is decay1 dea? & mis]y4   
,h[ to "k ! ,way to escape f ?is mis]y (

 decay  & dea?4 ,!n x occurr$ to him :at
 be+ !re1 are decay  & dea?1 dep5d+ on  
:at d !y come8 ,z he ?\ght  deeply into 
! root ( ! matt]1 x occurr$ to him t    
decay  & dea? c only occur :5 !re is    
bir? 7jti71 s !y dep5d        ,footnote 
#a3 ,!re are "s diff]5ces ( op9ion z to 
:e!r "o c\ld  take ! doctr9e ( ! twelve 
l9ks ( causes z we f9d x 9 !  ,samyutta 
,nikya z ! e>lie/ ,buddhi/ view1 z      
,samyutta does n  repres5t ! olde/ "p ( 
! suttas4 ,b z ?is doctr9e ( !  twelve  
causes became reg>d$ z a fundam5tal     
,buddhi/ doctr9e &  z x gives u a />t 9 
philosophy ,i h n ?\ght x fit to ent]   
into conjectural discussions z to !     
e>lie/ =m4 ,dr ,e4,j4 ,?omas drew  my   
att5tion to ?is fact4    ,footnote #b3  
,at?ast91 p4 #ch4 ,!re are also o!r     
s5ses 9 :i*  ! ^w is us$1 z dhamma-desan
 :]e x means religi\s tea*+4  ,!        
,lankvatra describ$ ,dh>mma z           
gunadravyaprvak dh>mm1 i4e4  ,dh>mmas   
are ^? :i* are associat$ z attributes & 
sub/ances4    #he    on bir?4 ,:at be+  

!re1 is !re bir?1 on :at does bir?      
dep5d8 ,!n x occurr$ to him t bir? c\ld 
only be if  !re 7 previ\s exi/5ce       
7bhava7 ,footnote ref #a4 ,b on :at does
  ?is exi/5ce dep5d1 or :at be+ !re is  
!re bhava4 ,!n x  occurr$ to him t !re  
c\ld n be exi/5ce unless !re  7 hold+   
fa/ 7updna7 ,footnote ref #b4 ,b on :at 
did updna  dep5d8 ,x occurr$ to him t x 
0 desire 7tanh7 on :i* updna  dep5d$4   
,!re c be updna if !re is desire 7tanh7 
,footnote ref  #c4 ,b :at be+ !re1 c !re
 be desire8 ,to ?is "q x  occurr$ to him
 t !re mu/ be feel+ 7v$an7 9 ord] t  !re
 may be desire4 ,b on :at does v$an     
dep5d1 or r  :at mu/ be !re1 t !re may  
be feel+ 7v$an78 ,to ?is  x occurr$ to  
him t !re mu/ be a s5se-contact 7phassa7
  9 ord] t !re may be feel+ ,footnote   
ref #d4 ,if !re %\ld be no  s5se-contact
 !re w\ld be no feel+4 ,b on :at does   
s5se-contact  dep5d8 ,x occurr$ to him t
 z !re are six s5se-contacts1  !re are !
 six fields ( contact 7yatana7 ,footnote
 ref #e4 ,b on  :at d ! six yatanas     

dep5d8 ,x occurr$ to him t  !re mu/ be !
 m9d & body 7nm>pa7 9 ord] t !re  may be
 ! six fields ( contact ,footnote ref   
#f2 b on :at does  nm>pa dep5d8 ,x      
occurr$ to him t )\t consci\sness       
7vina7 !re c\ld be no nm>pa ,footnote   
ref #h4  ,b :at be+ !re w\ld !re        
,footnote #a3 ,?is ^w bhava is int]pret$
 by ,c&rakrtti 9 8  ,mdhyamka vrtti1 p4 
#efe 7,la ,valle ,p\ss9's edition7 z !  
de$  :i* br\ght ab\t rebir?             
7pun>bhavajanakam k>ma samut?payali     
ky5a vc manas ca74    ,footnote #b3     
,at?asl91 p4 #che1 updnantidalhagahanam4
 ,c&rakrtti  9 expla9+ updna says t     
:atev] ?+ a man desires he holds fa/  to
 ! mat]ials necess>y = atta9+ x 7yatra  
va/uni  satrsna/asya va/uno 'rjanya     
vidhapanya updnamupdatte tatra  tatra   
prr?ayate74 ,mdhyamka vrtti1 p4 #efe4   
,footnote #c3 ,c&rakrtti describes trsn 
z                                       
svadanbh9&andhyavasna/hndtmapriy>pairviy
ogo m bht1  nityamap>ityg bhav$iti1     
yeyam prr?an--! desire t !re  may n ev] 

be any sep>ation f ^? pleasures1 etc41  
:i*  are de> to u4 ,ibid4 #efe4         
,footnote #d3 ,we read also (           
phassyatana & phassakya4 ,m4 ,n4 ,,ii4  
#bfa1  ,,iii4 #bhj1 etc4 ,c&rakrtti says
 t sadbhiryatanadvraih  krtyaprakriyh   
prav>ttante prajyante4 tannm>papratyayam
  sadyatanamucyate4 sadbhyascyatanebhyah
 satsp>sakyh  prav>ttante4 ,m4,v4 #efe4 
,footnote #e3 yatana means ! six s5ses  
toge!r ) _! objects4  yatana lit]ally is
 ,field ( op]ation4 ,salyatana means six
 s5ses  z six fields ( op]ation4        
,c&rakrtti has yatanadvraih4            
,footnote #f3 ,i h foll[$ ! translation 
( ,aung 9 r5d]+ nm>pa  z m9d & body1    
,comp5dium1 p4 #bga4 ,?is seems to me to
 be fairly  correct4 ,! f\r sk&has are  
call$ nma 9 ea* bir?4 ,^! toge!r  ) rpa 
7matt]7 give u nm>pa 7m9d & body7 :i*   
be+ develop$  r5d] ! activities ?r\gh ! 
six s5se-gates possible s t !re  may be 
k4 ,cf4 ,m4 ,v4 #efd4 ,gov9dn&a1 !      
comm5tator on  ,s'ank>a's bhsya on !    
,brahma stras 7,,ii4 ii4 #ai71 gives a  

diff]5t  int]pretation ( ,nam>pa :i* may
 probably ref] to ! ,vijanavada  view   
?\gh we h no means at h& to v]ify x4 ,he
 says--,to ?9k  ! mom5t>y z ! p]man5t is
 ,avidya2 f !re come ! samsk>as  (      
atta*m5t1 antipa?y or ang]1 &           
infatuation2 f !re ! fir/  vijana or    
?\ght ( ! foetus is produc$1 f t        
alayavijnana1  & ! f\r elem5ts 7:i* are 
objects ( "n & are h5ce call$ nama7  are
 produc$1 & f ^? are produc$ ! :ite &   
black1 sem5  & blood call$ rpa4 ,bo?    
,vacaspati & ,amalan&a agree )          
,gov9dan&a 9 hold+ t nama signifies !   
sem5 & ! ovum  :ile rpa means ! visible 
physical body built out ( !m4 ,vijaa    
ent]$ ! womb & on acc\nt ( x nam>upa 7  
produc$ ?r\gh  ! association ( previ\s  
k>ma4 ,see ,v$antakalpat>u1 pp #bgd1    
#bge4 ,on ! doctr9e ( ! entrance ( vijaa
 into ! womb comp>e  ,d ,n ,,ii4 #fc4   
#hf    be vina4 ,"h x occurr$ to him t 9
 ord] t !re  might be vina !re mu/ be ! 
con=mations 7sankhra7 ,footnote  ref #a4
 ,b :at be+ !re are !re ! sankhras8 ,"h 

x occurr$  to him t ! sankhras c only be
 if !re is ignorance  7avijj74 ,if avijj
 c\ld be /opp$ !n ! sankhras w be       
/opp$1 & if ! sankhras c\ld be /opp$    
vina c\ld be  /opp$ & s on ,footnote ref
 #b4    ,x is inde$ difficult to be     
def9ite z to :at ! ,buddha  actually    
wi%$ to mean by ?is cycle ( dep5d5ce (  
exi/5ce  sometimes call$ ,bhavacakra    
7:eel ( exi/5ce74 ,decay &  dea?        
7j>m>ana7 c\ld n h happ5$ if !re 0 no   
bir? ,footnote ref #c4 ,?is seems to be 
cle>4 ,b at ?is po9t !  difficulty      
beg9s4 ,we mu/ rememb] t ! !ory ( rebir?
 0        ,footnote #a3 ,x is difficult 
to say :at is ! exact s5se ( ! ^w  "h4  
,! ,buddha 0 "o ( ! fir/ few e>lie/     
?9k]s to introduce  prop] philosophical 
t]ms & phraseology ) a di/9ct           
philosophical  me?od & he _h (t5 to use 
! same ^w 9 m or less diff]5t  s5ses4   
,"s ( ! philosophical t]ms at lea/ are  
!re=e r  ela/ic :5 comp>$ ) ! t]ms (    
precise & def9ite mean+  :i* we f9d 9   
lat] ,sanskrit ?\ght4 ,?us 9 ,s ,n      

,,iii4 p4 #hg1  ,sankhatam              
abdisankh>onta1 sankh>a means t :i*     
syn!sises  ! complexes4 ,9 ! ,comp5dium 
x is translat$ z w1 action4  ,mr4 ,aung 
?9ks t x means ! same z k>ma2 x is "h   
us$  9 a diff]5t s5se f :at we f9d 9 !  
^w sankhta kh&ha  7viz m5tal /ates74 ,we
 get a li/ ( #ea m5tal /ates =m+ sankhta
  kh&ha 9 ,dhamma ,sangam1 p #ah1 &     
ano!r diff]5t set ( #dj m5tal  /ates 9  
,dh>masamgraha1 p4 #f4 ,9 addition to ^!
 =ty  cittasamprayuktasamskra1 x also   
c\nts ?irte5  cittaviprayuktasamsk>a4   
,c&rakirtti int]prets x z mean+         
atta*m5t1 antipa?y & infatuation1 p     
#efc4 ,gov9dan&a1 !  comm5tator on      
,s'ank>a's ,brahma sutra 7,,ii4 ii4     
#ai71 also int]prets  ! ^w 9 connection 
) ! doctr9e ( ,pratityasamutpada z      
atta*m5t1 antipa?y & infatuation4       
,footnote #b3 ,samyutta ,nikaya1 ,,ii4  
#g-h4    ,footnote #c3 ,j>a & m>ana br+ 
9 s'oka 7grief71 p>idevan  7lam5tation71
 duhkha 7suff]+71 daurmanasya 7feel+ (  
wret*$ness  & mis]abl5ess7 & upayasa    

7feel+ ( extreme de/itution7 at  !      
prospect ( "o's dea? or ! dea? ( o!r de>
 ones4 ,all  ^! make up suff]+ & are !  
results ( jti 7bir?74 ,m4 ,v4           
7,b4,t4,s4p4 #bjh74 ,s'ank>a 9 8 bhsya  
c\nt$ all ! t]ms f  j>1 sep>ately4 ,!   
:ole s]ies is to be tak5 z repres5t+  ! 
entirety ( duhkhask&ha4    #hg          
enunciat$ 9 ! ,upanisads4 ,!            
,brhadranyaka says t j  z an insect go+ 
to ! end ( a leaf ( grass by a new ef=t 
collects itself 9 ano!r s does ! s\l    
com+ to ! end (  ?is life collect itself
 9 ano!r4 ,?is life ?us presupposes     
ano!r exi/5ce4 ,s f> z ,i rememb] !re   
has seldom be5  be=e or aft] ,buddha any
 s]i\s attempt to prove or disprove  !  
doctr9e ( rebir? ,footnote ref #a4 ,all 
s*ools ( philosophy  except ! ,crvkas   
believ$ 9 x & s little is kn[n to u (  !
 ,crvka stras t x is difficult to say   
:at !y did to  refute ?is doctr9e4 ,!   
,buddha also accepts x z a fact & does  
n criticize x4 ,?is life !re=e comes    
only z "o :i* _h an  inf9ite numb] (    

lives be=e1 & :i* except 9 ! case (  a  
few emancipat$ ones w\ld h an inf9ite   
numb] ( !m  9 ! future4 ,x 0 /rongly    
believ$ by all p1 & !  ,buddha also1 :5 
he came to ?9k to :at our pres5t bir?   
might be due1 _h to fall back ^u ano!r  
exi/5ce 7bhava74  ,if bhava means k>ma  
:i* br+s rebir? z ,c&rakrtti takes  x to
 mean1 !n x w\ld mean t ! pres5t bir?   
c\ld only  take place on acc\nt ( !     
works ( a previ\s exi/5ce :i*  det]m9$  
x4 ,"h also we are rem9d$ ( ! ,upanisad 
note  z a man does s w he be born 7,yat 
k>ma kurute tadabhisampadyate1  ,brh    
,,iv4 iv4 #e74 ,c&rakrtti's             
int]pretation ( bhava  z ,k>ma          
7pun>bhavajanakam k>ma7 seems to me to  
suit  bett] ?an exi/5ce4 ,! ^w 0        
probably us$ r  loosely = kammabhava4 ,!
 ^w bhava is n f\nd 9 !  e>li]          
,upanisads & 0 us$ 9 ! ,pli scriptures =
 !  fir/ "t z a philosophical t]m4 ,b on
 :at does ?is  bhava dep5d8 ,!re c\ld n 
h be5 a previ\s exi/5ce  if p _h n      
betak5 !mselves to ?+s or works !y      

desir$4 ,?is betak+ oneself to actions  
or ?+s 9 accordance  ) desire is call$  
updna4 ,9 ! ,upanisads we read1  :atev] 
"o betakes himself to1 s does he "w     
7,yatkraturbhavati  tatk>mma kurute1    
,brh4 ,,iv4 iv4 #e74 ,z ?is betak+ to  !
 ?+ dep5ds ^u desire trsn1 x is said t 9
 ord]  t !re may be updna !re mu/ be    
tanh4 ,9 ! ,upanisads  also we read     
,:atev] "o desires s does he betake     
himself to 7sa ya?kmo bhavati           
tatkraturbhavati74 ,nei!r  ! ^w updna   
nor trsn 7! ,sanskrit ^w correspond+    
,footnote #a3 ,! attempts to prove !    
doctr9e ( rebir? 9 ! ,h9du              
philosophical works su* z ! ,nyya1 etc41
 are slight & inadequate4    #hh    to  
tanh7 is f\nd 9 ! e>li] ,upanisads1 b ! 
ideas conta9$  9 !m are simil> to !     
words kratu & kma4 ,desire  7tanh7 is !n
 said to dep5d on feel+ or s5se-contact4
  ,s5se-contact presupposes ! six s5ses 
z fields ( op]ation ,footnote  ref #a4  
,^! six s5ses or op]at+ fields w\ld aga9
 presuppose !  :ole psy*osis ( ! man 7! 

body & ! m9d toge!r7  call$ nm>pa4 ,we  
are famili> ) ?is ^w 9 ! ,upanisads  b  
!re x is us$ 9 ! s5se ( det]m9ate =ms & 
names z di/+ui%$ f ! indet]m9ate        
indef9able  reality ,footnote ref #b4   
,buddhaghosa 9 ! ,visuddhimagga says t  
by  ,"n are meant ! ?ree gr\ps beg9n+ ) 
s5sation  7i4e4 s5sation1 p]ception & ! 
pr$isposition72 by ,=m  ! f\r elem5ts & 
=m d]ivative f ! f\r elem5ts ,footnote  
ref #c4 ,he fur!r says t "n by itself c 
produce physical  *anges1 su* z eat+1   
dr9k+1 mak+ movem5ts or ! l4 ,s  =m also
 _c produce any ( ^? *anges by itself4  
,b l  ! cripple & ! bl9d !y mutually    
help "o ano!r &  effectuate ! *anges    
,footnote ref #d4 ,b !re exi/s no heap  
or  collection ( mat]ial = ! production 
( ,"n & ,=m2 b j  z :5 a lute is play$  
^u1 !re is no previ\s /ore ( s\nd2  & :5
 ! s\nd comes into exi/5ce x does n come
 f  any su* /ore2 & :5 x ceases1 x does 
n g to any ( !  c>d9al or int]m$iate    
po9ts ( ! compass24449 exactly !  same  
way all ! elem5ts ( be+ bo? ^? ) =m &   

^? )\t1 come into exi/5ce aft] hav+     
previ\sly be5  non-exi/5t & hav+ come   
into exi/5ce pass away ,footnote ref #e4
  ,nm>pa tak5 9 ?is s5se w n mean ! :ole
 ( m9d &  body1 b only ! s5se functions 
& ! body :i* are f\nd  to op]ate 9 ! six
 doors ( s5se 7salyatana74 ,if we take  
nm>pa 9 ?is s5se1 we c see t x may be   
said to dep5d  ^u ! vina 7consci\sness74
 ,consci\sness has be5 comp>$  9 !      
,mil9da ,paha ) a wat*man at ! middle ( 
,footnote #a3 ,! ^w yatana is f\nd 9 _m 
places 9 ! e>li]  ,upanisads 9 ! s5se ( 
field or place1 ,*4 ,i4 #e1 ,brh4 ,,iii4
 #i4  #aj1 b sadyatana does n occur4    
,footnote #b3 ,c&rakrtti int]prets nma z
 ,v$andayo'  rpinas'catvrah sk&h/atra   
tatra bhave nmayantli nma4 saha         
rpask&h5a ca nma rpam ceti nm>pamucyate4
 ,! f\r sk&has  9 ea* specific bir? act 
z "n4 ,^! toge!r ) rpa make  nm>pa4 ,m4 
,v4 #efd4    ,footnote #c3 ,w>r5's      
,buddhism 9 ,translations1 p4 #ahd4     
,footnote #d3 ,ibid4 p4 #ahe1           
,visuddhimagga1 ,*4 ,,xvii4    ,footnote

 #e3 ,ibid4 pp4 #ahe-ahf1               
,visuddhimagga1 ,*4 ,,xvii4    #hi    ! 
cross-roads behold+ all t come f any    
direction ,footnote ref  #a4            
,buddhaghosa 9 ! ,at?asl9 also says t   
consci\sness means  t :i* ?9ks its      
object4 ,if we are to def9e its         
*>act]i/ics  we mu/ say t x kn[s        
7vijnana71 goes 9 advance 7pubbangama71 
connects 7s&hna71 & /&s on nm>pa        
7nm>papadat?nam74  ,:5 ! consci\sness   
gets a door1 at a place ! objects ( s5se
  are disc]n$ 7rammana-vibhvanat?ne7 & x
 goes fir/ z !  precursor4 ,:5 a visual 
object is se5 by ! eye x is kn[n only   
by ! consci\sness1 & :5 ! dhammas are   
made ! objects (  7m9d7 mano1 x is kn[n 
only by ! consci\sness ,footnote ref #b4
  ,buddhaghosa also ref]s "h to !       
passage 9 ! ,mil9da ,paha  we h j ref]r$
 to4 ,he fur!r goes on to say t :5 /ates
  ( consci\sness rise "o aft] ano!r1 !y 
leave no gap betwe5  ! previ\s /ate & ! 
lat] & consci\sness !re=e appe>s  z     
connect$4 ,:5 !re are ! aggregates ( !  

five kh&has x  is lo/2 b !re are ! f\r  
aggregates z nm>pa1 x /&s on  nma &     
!re=e x is said t x /&s on nm>pa4 ,he   
fur!r  asks1 ,is ?is consci\sness ! same
 z ! previ\s consci\sness or  diff]5t f 
x8 ,he answ]s t x is ! same4 ,j s1 ! sun
 %[s  itself ) all its col\rs1 etc41 b  
he is n diff]5t f ^?  9 tru?2 & x is    
said t j :5 ! sun rises1 its collect$   
heat & yell[ col\r also rise !n1 b x    
does n mean t  ! sun is diff]5t f ^!4 ,s
 ! citta or consci\sness  takes !       
ph5om5a ( contact1 etc41 & cognizes !m4 
,s  ?\gh x is ! same z !y are yet 9 a   
s5se x is diff]5t  f !m ,footnote ref   
#c4    ,to g back to ! *a9 ( twelve     
causes1 we f9d t jti 7bir?7  is ! cause 
( decay & dea?1 j>m>ana1 etc4 ,jti is ! 
appe>ance ( ! body or ! totality ( !    
five sk&has ,footnote  ref #d4 ,com+ to 
bhava :i* det]m9es jti1 ,i _c ?9k ( any 
bett] rational explanation ( bhava1 ?an 
t ,i h already        ,footnote #a3     
,w>r5's ,buddhism 9 ,translations1 p4   
#ahb1 ,mil9da ,paha  7#fbh74            

,footnote #b3 ,at?asl91 p4 #aab444      
,footnote #c3 ,ibid4 p4 #aac1 ,ya? hi   
rpdni updya paatt  suriydayo na at?ato  
rpdhi ae honti t5' eva yasm9 samaye     
suriyo udeti tasm9 samaye tassa         
tej-sankhtam rpam pti evam  vuccamne pi 
na rpdihi ao suriyo nma at?i4 ,ta?      
cittam  phassdayo dhamme updya          
paapiyati4 ,at?ato pan' et?a tehi  aam  
eva4 ,t5a yasm9 samaye cittam uppannam  
hoti ekams5 eva  tasm9 samaye phassdihi 
at?ato aad eva hot ti4    ,footnote #d3 
,jtirdehajanma pacask&hasamudyah1       
,gov9dn&a's  ,ratnaprabh on ,s'ank>a's  
bhsya1 ,,ii4 ii4 #ai4    #ij    sugge/$1
 namely1 ! works 7k>ma7 :i* produce !   
bir? ,footnote  ref #a4 ,updna is an    
advanc$ trsn lead+ to positive cl++     
,footnote ref #b4 ,x is produc$ by trsn 
7desire7 :i* aga9 is  ! result ( v$an   
7pleasure & pa974 ,b ?is v$an is ( c\rse
  v$an ) ignorance 7avidy71 = an ,arhat 
may h also v$an  b z he has no avidy1 ! 
v$an _c produce trsn 9 turn4 ,on  its   
developm5t x imm$iately passes into     

updna4 ,v$an means  pleasurable1 pa9ful 
or indiff]5t feel+4 ,on ! "o side x     
leads  to trsn 7desire7 & on ! o!r x is 
produc$ by s5se-contact  7sp>s'a74 ,pr(4
 ,de la ,valle ,p\ss9 says t ,s'rlbha   
di/+ui%es  ?ree processes 9 ! production
 ( v$an4 ,?us fir/ !re is !  contact    
betwe5 ! s5se & ! object2 !n !re is ! k 
( ! object1 & !n !re is ! v$an4 ,dep5d+ 
on ,majjhima  ,nikya1 iii4 #bdb1 ,p\ss9 
gives ! o!r op9ion t j z 9  ! case ( two
 /icks heat takes place simultane\sly ) 
rubb+1  s "h also v$an takes place      
simultane\sly ) sp>s'a = !y  are        
produits p> un mme complexe de causes   
7smagr7 ,footnote  ref #c4    ,sp>s'a is
 produc$ by sadyatana1 sadyatana by     
nm>pa1  & nm>pa by vijna1 & is said to  
desc5d 9 ! womb  ( ! "m & produce ! five
 sk&has z nm>pa1 out  ( :i* ! six s5ses 
are specializ$4    ,vijna 9 ?is         
connection probably means ! pr9ciple or 
g]m ( consci\sness 9 ! womb ( ! "m      
uphold+ !  five elem5ts ( ! new body    
!re4 ,x is ! product ( !  pa/ k>mas     

7sankhra7 ( ! dy+ man & ( 8 pa/         
consci\sness too4    ,we sometimes f9d t
 ! ,buddhi/s believ$ t ! la/  ?\ghts ( !
 dy+ man det]m9$ ! nature ( 8 next      
,footnote #a3 ,gov9dan&a 9 8 ,ratnaprabh
 on ,s'ank>a's bhsya1 ,,ii4  ii4 #ai1   
expla9s bhava z t f :i* any?+ becomes1 z
 m]it  & dem]it 7dh>mdi74 ,see also     
,vibhanga1 p4 #acg & ,w>r5's  ,buddhism 
9 ,translations1 p4 #bja4 ,mr ,aung says
 9  ,abhidhammat?asangaha1 p4 #ahi1 t   
bhavo includes kammabhavo 7!  active    
side ( an exi/5ce7 & upapattibhavo 7!   
passive side74  ,& ! comm5tators say t  
bhava is a contraction ( kammabhava  or 
,k>ma-becom+ i4e4 k>mic activity4       
,footnote #b3 ,pr(4 ,de la ,valle ,p\ss9
 9 8 ,?oric des ,d\ze ,causes1  p4 #bf1 
says t ,s'li/ambhastra expla9s ! ^w     
updna z  trsnvaipulya or hyp]-trsn &    
,c&rakrtti also gives !  same mean+1 ,m4
 ,v4 7,b4,t4,s4p4 #baj74 ,govmdn&a      
expla9s updna  z pravrtti 7movem5t7     
g5]at$ by trsn 7desire71 i4e4 ! active  
t5d5cy 9 pursuance ( desire4 ,b if updna

 means support x w\ld  d5ote all ! five 
sk&has4 ,?us ,madhyamaka vrtti says     
updnam                                  
pacask&halaksanam444pacopdnask&hkhyam   
updnam4 ,m4,v4 ,,xxvii4 #f4    ,footnote
 #c3 ,p\ss9's ,?orie des ,d\ze ,causes1 
p4 #bc4    #ia    bir? ,footnote ref #a4
 ,! mann] 9 :i* ! vijna produc$ 9 !     
womb is det]m9$ by ! pa/ vijna ( !      
previ\s exi/5ce is  accord+ to "s       
au?orities ( ! nature ( a reflect$      
image1  l ! transmission ( le>n+ f !    
tea*] to ! disciple1  l ! light+ ( a    
lamp f ano!r lamp or l ! impress  ( a   
/amp on wax4 ,z all ! sk&has are *ang+ 9
 life1  s dea? also is b a simil> *ange2
 !re is no great break1  b ! same uni=m 
sort ( de/ruction & com+ into be+4  ,new
 sk&has are produc$ z simultane\sly z ! 
two scale  pans ( a balance rise up &   
fall1 9 ! same mann] z a lamp  is light$
 or an image is reflect$4 ,at ! dea? ( !
 man !  vijna result+ f 8 previ\s k>mas 
& vijnas ent]s  into ! womb ( t "m      
7animal1 man or ! gods7 9 :i*  ! next   

sk&has are to be matur$4 ,?is vijna ?us 
=ms  ! pr9ciple ( ! new life4 ,x is 9   
?is vijna t "n  7nma7 & =m 7rpa7 become 
associat$4    ,! vijna is inde$ a direct
 product ( ! samskras &  ! sort ( bir? 9
 :i* vijna %\ld br+ d[n 7nmayati7  ! new
 exi/5ce 7upapatti7 is det]m9$ by !     
samskras ,footnote  ref #b1 = 9 reality 
! happ5+ ( dea? 7m>anabhava7 & !        
in/illation ( ! vijna z ! beg9n+ ( ! new
 life  7upapattibhava7 _c be            
simultane\s1 b ! latt] succe$s j  at !  
next mom5t1 & x is to signify ?is close 
succession t  !y are said to be         
simultane\s4 ,if ! vijna _h n ent]$  !  
womb !n no nm>pa c\ld h appe>$ ,footnote
 ref #c4    ,?is *a9 ( twelve causes    
ext5ds ov] ?ree lives4 ,?us  avidy &    
samskra ( ! pa/ life produce ! vijna1   
nm>upa1        ,footnote #a3 ,! deities 
( ! g>d5s1 ! woods1 ! trees & !  plants1
 f9d+ ! ma/] ( ! h\se1 ,citta1 ill said 
make y\r  resolution1 ',may ,i be a     
cakrav>tt k+ 9 a next exi/5ce1'         
,samyutta1 ,,iv4 #cjc4    ,footnote #b3 

sa c$n&avijnam mtuhkuksim nvakrmeta1 na 
tat  kalalam kalalatvya sanniv>tteta1   
,m4 ,v4 #eeb4 ,comp>e ,c>aka1  ,s'rra1  
,,iii4 #e-h1 :]e he speaks ( a upapduka 
sattva :i*  connects ! s\l ) body & by !
 abs5ce ( :i* ! "*  is *ang$1 ! s5ses   
become affect$ & life ceases1 :5 x is  9
 a pure condition "o c rememb] ev5 !    
previ\s bir?s2  "*1 purity1 antipa?y1   
memory1 fe>1 en]gy1 all m5tal  qualities
 are produc$ out ( x4 ,j z a *>iot is   
made by !  comb9ation ( _m elem5ts1 s is
 ! foetus4    ,footnote #c3 ,madhyamaka 
vriti 7,b4,t4,s4 #bjb-bjc74 ,p\ss9      
quotes f  ,dgha1 ,,ii4 #fc1 si le vijna 
ne desc5dait pas dans le se9 mat]nel  la
 nam>upa s'y con/itu]ait-il8 ,gov9dn&a  
on ,s'ank>a's comm5t>y  on !            
,brahma-stras 7,,ii4 ii4 #ai7 says t !  
fir/ consci\sness  7vijna7 ( ! foetus is
 produc$ by ! samskras ( ! previ\s      
bir?1 & f t ! f\r elem5ts 7:i* he calls 
nma7 & f t  ! :ite & r$1 sem5 & ovum1 & 
! fir/ /age ( ! foetus                  
7kalala-budbudva/h is produc$4    #ib   

sadyatana1 sp>s'a1 v$an1 trsn1 updna & !
 bhava  7lead+ to ano!r life7 ( ! pres5t
 actual life4 ,?is bhava  produces ! jti
 & j>m>ana ( ! next life ,footnote ref  
l4    ,x is int]e/+ to note t ^! twelve 
l9ks 9 ! *a9  ext5d+ 9 ?ree sections ov]
 ?ree lives are all b !  manife/ations (
 sorr[ to ! br++ 9 ( :i* !y naturally   
det]m9e "o ano!r4 ,?us                  
,abhidhammat?asangaha  says ea* ( ^!    
twelve t]ms is a factor4 ,= ! composite 
t]m 'sorr[1' etc4 is only meant to %[   
incid5tal consequ5ces  ( bir?4 ,aga9 :5 
'ignorance' & '! actions ( !  m9d' h be5
 tak5 into acc\nt1 crav+ 7trsn71 grasp+ 
7updna7 & 7k>ma7 becom+ 7bhava7 are     
implicitly acc\nt$  = also4 ,9 ! same   
mann] :5 crav+1 grasp+  & 7k>ma7 becom+ 
h be5 tak5 into acc\nt1 ignorance  & !  
actions ( ! m9d are 7implicitly7 acc\nt$
 =1 also2  & :5 bir?1 decay1 & dea? are 
tak5 into acc\nt1 ev5  ! fivefold fruit1
 to wit 7rebir?71 consci\sness1 & ! re/ 
are  acc\nt$ =4 ,& ?us3    ,five causes 
9 ! ,pa/ & ,n[ a fivefold 'fruit4'      

,five causes ,n[ & yet to come a        
fivefold 'fruit' make up  ! ,tw5ty      
,modes1 ! ,?ree ,connections 7#a4       
sankhra &  vina1 #b4 v$an & tanh1 #c4   
bhava & jti7 & ! f\r  gr\ps 7"o causal  
gr\p 9 ! ,pa/1 "o resultant gr\p 9 !    
,pres5t1 "o causal gr\p 9 ! ,pres5t & "o
 resultant  gr\p 9 ! ,future1 ea* gr\p  
consi/+ ( five modes7 ,footnote ref  #b4
    ,^! twelve int]dep5d5t l9ks         
7dvdas'nga7 repres5t  ! paticcasamuppda 
7prattyasamutpda7 doctr9es 7dep5d5t     
orig9ation7 ,footnote ref #c :i* are    
!mselves b sorr[ & lead to  cycles (    
sorr[4 ,! t]m paticcasamuppda or        
prattyasamutpda has  be5 diff]5tly      
int]pret$ 9 lat] ,buddhi/ lit]ature     
,footnote ref  #d4        ,footnote #a3 
,?is explanation probably _c be f\nd 9 !
 e>ly ,pli  texts2 b ,buddhaghosa       
m5tions x 9 ,sumangalavils9 on ,mahnidna
  suttanta4 ,we f9d x also 9            
,abhidhammat?asangaha1 ,,viii4 #c4      
,ignorance  & ! actions ( ! m9d belong  
to ! pa/2 bir?1 decay & dea?  to !      

future2 ! int]m$iate eight to ! pres5t4 
,x is /yl$ z  trikndaka 7hav+ ?ree      
bran*es7 9 ,abhidk>makos'a1 ,,iii4      
#bj-bd4  ,two 9 ! pa/ bran*1 two 9 !    
future & eight 9 ! middle sa            
prattyasamutpd dvdas'nga/rikndakah      
prvp>ntayordve dve  madhyestau4         
,footnote #b3 ,aung & ,mrs ,rhys        
,davids' translation (                  
,abhidhammat?asangaha1 pp4 #ahi-aij4    
,footnote #c3 ,! twelve l9ks are n      
always con/ant4 ,?us 9 ! li/  giv5 9 !  
,dialogues ( ! ,buddha1 ,,ii4 #bc f41   
avijj & sankhra  h be5 omitt$ & ! />t   
has be5 made ) consci\sness1 & x  has   
be5 said t ,cognition turns back f "n & 
=m2 x goes  n beyond4    ,footnote #d3  
,m4 ,v4 p4 #e f4    #ic    ,samutpda    
means appe>ance or aris+ 7prdurbhdva7 & 
prattya  means aft] gett+ 7pratiiya72   
comb9+ ! two we  f9d1 aris+ aft] gett+  
7some?+74 ,! elem5ts1 dep5d+  on :i* !re
 is "s k9d ( aris+1 are call$ hetu      
7cause7 &  paccaya 7gr\nd74 ,^! two     
words h[ev] are (t5 us$ 9  ! same s5se &

 are int]*angeable4 ,b paccaya is also  
us$ 9 a specific s5se4 ,?us :5 x is said
 t avijj is !  paccaya ( sankhra x is   
meant t avijj is ! gr\nd 7?iti7  ( !    
orig9 ( ! sankhras1 is ! gr\nd ( _!     
movem5t1  ( ! in/rum5t ?r\gh :i* !y /&  
7nimittat?iti71 (  _! ayuhana           
7conglom]ation71 ( _! int]connection1 ( 
_!  intelligibility1 ( _! conjo9t aris+1
 ( _! function z cause  & ( _! function 
z ! gr\nd ) ref]5ce to ^? :i*  are      
det]m9$ by !m4 ,avijj 9 all ^! n9e ways 
is  ! gr\nd ( sankhra bo? 9 ! pa/ & also
 9 ! future1  ?\gh avijj itself is      
det]m9$ 9 its turn by o!r gr\nds        
,footnote  ref #a4 ,:5 we take ! betu   
aspect ( ! causal *a91 we _c  ?9k (     
any?+ else b succession1 b :5 we take ! 
paccaya aspect we c h a bett] vision    
into ! nature ( !  cause z gr\nd4 ,?us  
:5 avijj is said to be ! gr\nd  ( !     
sankhras 9 ! n9e ways m5tion$ above1 x  
seems  reasonable to ?9k t ! sankhras 7 
9 "s s5se  reg>d$ z special             
manife/ations ( avijj ,footnote ref #b4 

,b z ?is  po9t 0 n fur!r develop$ 9 !   
e>ly ,buddhi/ texts x w\ld  be unwise to
 proce$ fur!r ) x4      ,! ,kh&has4     
,! ^w kh&ha 7,skr4 sk&ha7 means ! trunk 
( a tree  & is g5]ally us$ to mean gr\p 
or aggregate ,footnote ref #c4 ,we  h   
se5 t ,buddha said t !re 0 no tman      
7s\l74 ,he said  t :5 p held t !y f\nd !
 mu* spok5 ( s\l1  !y really only f\nd !
 five kh&has toge!r or any "o (  !m4 ,! 
kh&has are aggregates ( bodily &        
psy*ical  /ates :i* are imm$iate ) u &  
are divid$ into five        ,footnote   
#a3 ,see ,patisambhidmagga1 vol4 ,i4p4  
#ej2 see also ,majjhima  ,nikya1 ,i4    
#fg1 sankhra444avijjnidn avijjsamuday   
avijjjtik  avijjpabhav4    ,footnote #b3
 ,9 ! ,yoga d]ivation ( asmit 7egoism71 
rga 7atta*m5t71  dvesa 7antipa?y7 &     
abh9ives'a 7self love7 f avidy we f9d   
also  t all ! five are reg>d$ z ! five  
special /ages ( ! gr[?  ( avidy 7pacap>v
 avidy74    ,footnote #c3 ,! ^w sk&ha is
 us$ 9 ,*ndogya1 ,,ii4 #bc 7trayo       
dh>mask&hh yajah adhyayanam dnam7 9 !   

s5se ( bran*es  & 9 almo/ ! same s5se 9 
,maitr1 ,,vii4 ,,ii4    #id    classes3 
7#a7 rpa 7f\r elem5ts1 ! body1 ! s5ses71
 s5se  data1 etc41 7#b7 v$an            
7feel+--pleasurable1 pa9ful &           
indiff]5t71  7#c7 sa 7conceptual k71    
7#d7 sankhra 7syn!tic  m5tal /ates & !  
syn!tic function+ ( comp\nd             
s5se-affections1 comp\nd feel+s &       
comp\nd concepts71  7#e7 vina           
7consci\sness7 ,footnote ref #a4    ,all
 ^! /ates rise dep5d+ "o ^u ! o!r       
7paticcasamuppanna7  & :5 a man says t  
he p]ceives ! self he only deludes      
himself1  = he only p]ceives "o or m (  
^!4 ,! ^w rpa 9 rpakh&ha  /&s = matt] & 
mat]ial qualities1 ! s5ses1 & ! s5se    
data ,footnote ref #b4 ,b rpa is also   
us$ 9 ! s5se ( pure  organic affections 
or /ates ( m9d z we f9d 9 ! ,kh&ha      
,yamaka1  ,i4p4 #af1 & also 9 ,samyutta 
,nikya1 ,,iii4 #hf4 ,rpask&ha accord+   
to ,dh>masamgraha means ! aggregate (   
five s5ses1 ! five  s5sations1 & !      
implicatory communications associat$ 9  

s5se  p]ceptions vijapti74    ,!        
elaborate discussion ( ,dhammasangani   
beg9s by def9+  rpa z cattro ca mahbht  
catunnaca mahbhntanam  updya rpam 7! f\r
 mahbhtas or elem5ts & t  proce$+ f !   
grasp+ ( t is call$ rpa7 ,footnote ref  
#c4  ,buddhaghosa expla9s x by say+ t   
rpa means ! f\r mahbhtas  & ^? :i* arise
 dep5d+ 7nissya7 on !m z  a modification
 ( !m4 ,9 ! rpa ! six s5ses includ+  _! 
affections are also includ$4 ,9 expla9+ 
:y ! f\r  elem5ts are call$ mahbhtas1   
,buddhaghosa says3 ,j z a  magician     
7mykra7 makes ! wat] :i* is n h>d appe> 
z h>d1 makes ! /one :i* is n gold appe> 
z gold2  j z he himself ?\gh n a gho/   
nor a bird makes himself  appe> z a gho/
 or a bird1 s ^! elem5ts ?\gh n !mselves
  blue make !mselves appe> z blue 7nlam 
upd rpam71  n yell[1 r$1 or :ite make   
!mselves appe> z yell[1 r$  or :ite     
7odtam updrpam71 s on acc\nt ( _!       
simil>ity  to ! appe>ances creat$ by !  
magician !y are call$  mahbhta ,footnote
 ref #d4    ,9 ! ,samyutta ,nikya we f9d

 t ! ,buddha says1 ,o  ,bhikkhus x is   
call$ rpam because x manife/s 7rpyati72 
h[        ,footnote #a3 ,samyutta       
,nikya1 ,,iii4 #hf1 etc4    ,footnote   
#b3 ,abhidhammat?asangaha1 ,j4,p4,t4,s4 
#ahhd1 p4 #bg ff4    ,footnote #c3      
,dhammasangani1 pp4 #abd-agi4           
,footnote #d3 ,at?asl91 p4 #bii4    #ie 
does x manife/8 ,x manife/s z cold1 & z 
heat1 z hung] &  z ?ir/1 x manife/s z ! 
t\* ( gnats1 mosquitos1 w9d1 !  sun & ! 
snake2 x manife/s1 !re=e x is call$ rpa 
,footnote ref #a4    ,if we take !      
some:at conflict+ passages ref]r$ to    
above  = our consid]ation & try to      
comb9e !m s z to und]/&  :at is meant by
 rpa1 ,i ?9k we f9d t t :i* manife/$    
itself to ! s5ses & organs 0 call$ rpa4 
,no di/9ction  seems to h be5 made      
betwe5 ! s5se-data z col\rs1 smells1    
etc41 z exi/+ 9 ! physical _w & _!      
appe>ance z  s5sations4 ,!y 7 only      
num]ically diff]5t & ! appe>ance  ( !   
s5sations 0 dep5d5t ^u ! s5se-data & !  
s5ses  b ! s5se-data & ! s5sations 7    

rpa4 ,"u c]ta9  conditions ! s5se-data 7
 foll[$ by ! s5sations4 ,buddhism  did n
 probably />t ) ! same k9d ( division ( 
matt] &  m9d z we n[ d4 ,& x may n be   
out ( place to m5tion t  su* an         
opposition & duality 7 f\nd nei!r 9 !   
,upanisads  nor 9 ! ,smkhya sy/em :i* is
 reg>d$ by "s z pre-,buddhi/ic4  ,! f\r 
elem5ts manife/$ !mselves 9 c]ta9 =ms & 
7 !re=e call$ rpa2 ! =ms ( affection t  
appe>$  7 also call$ rpa2 _m o!r m5tal  
/ates or features  :i* appe>$ ) !m 7    
also call$ rpa ,footnote ref #b4 ,!     
yatanas or ! s5ses 7 also call$ rpa     
,footnote ref #c4 ,!  mahbhtas or f\r   
elem5ts 7 !mselves b *ang+              
manife/ations1  & !y toge!r ) all t     
appe>$ 9 association ) !m 7  call$ rpa &
 =m$ ! rpa kh&ha 7! classes (           
s5se-mat]ials1  s5se-data1 s5ses &      
s5sations74    ,9 ,samyutta ,nikya      
7,,iii4 #aja7 x is said t ! f\r         
mahbhtas 7 ! hetu & ! paccaya = !       
communication  ( ! rpakkh&ha            
7rpakkh&hassa papanya74 ,contact        

7s5se-contact1 phassa7 is ! cause ( !   
communication (  feel+s 7v$an72         
s5se-contact 0 also ! hetu & paccaya  = 
! communication ( ! sakkh&ha2           
s5se-contact is  also ! hetu & paccaya =
 ! communication ( !  sankhrakkh&ha4 ,b 
nm>pa is ! hetu & ! paccaya =  !        
communication ( ! vinakkh&ha4 ,?us n    
only feel+s  arise on acc\nt ( !        
s5se-contact b sa & sankhra  also arise 
!refrom4 ,sa is t :]e specific kn[+ or  
,footnote #a3 ,samyutta ,nikya1 ,,iii4  
#hf4    ,footnote #b3 ,kh&hayamaka4     
,footnote #c3 ,dhammasangani1 p4 #abd   
ff4    #if    conceiv+ takes place4 ,?is
 is ! /age :]e ! specific di/9ctive  k z
 ! yell[ or ! r$ takes place4    ,mrs4  
,rhys ,davids writ+ on sa says3 ,9 edit+
 !  second book ( ! ,abhidhamma pitaka  
,i f\nd a classification  di/+ui%+      
betwe5 sa z cognitive assimilation on   
occasion  ( s5se1 & sa z cognitive      
assimilation ( ideas by way (  nam+4 ,! 
=m] is call$ p]ception ( resi/ance1 or  
opposition  7patigha-sa74 ,?is1 writes  

,buddhaghosa1 is p]ception on  occasion 
( sight1 he>+1 etc41 :5 consci\sness is 
aw>e ( !  impact ( impressions2 (       
ext]nal ?+s z diff]5t1 we might  say4 ,!
 latt] is call$ p]ception ( ! equival5t 
^w or  "n 7adhiva*n-sa7 & is ex]cis$ by 
! s5sus communis  7mano71 :5 e4g4 '"o is
 seat$444& asks ano!r :o  is ?\ghtful3  
,:at are y ?9k+ (8 "o p]ceives ?r\gh  8 
spee*4' ,?us !re are two /ages (        
sa-consci\sness1  #a4 contemplat+       
s5se-impressions1 #b4 ability to "k :at 
!y  are by nam+ ,footnote ref #a4       
,ab\t sankhra we read 9 ,samyutta ,nikya
 7,,iii4 #hg7 t x  is call$ sankhra     
because x syn!sises 7abhisankh>onti71 x 
is  t :i* conglom]at$ rpa z rpa1        
conglom]at$ sa  z sa1 sankhra z sankhra 
& consci\sness 7vina7  z consci\sness4  
,x is call$ sankhra because x syn!sises 
! conglom]at$ 7sankhatam                
abhisankh>onti74 ,x is ?us a  syn!tic   
function :i* syn!sises ! passive rpa1   
sa1  sankhra & vina elem5ts4 ,! fact t  
we he> ( #eb  sankhra /ates & also t !  

sankhra ex]cises its syn!tic  activity  
on ! conglom]at$ elem5ts 9 x1 goes to %[
  t probably ! ^w sankhra is us$ 9 two  
s5ses1 z m5tal  /ates & z syn!tic       
activity4    ,vina or consci\sness meant
 accord+ to ,buddhaghosa1  z we h       
already se5 9 ! previ\s section1 bo? !  
/age  at :i* ! intellectual process />t$
 & also ! f9al  result+ consci\sness4   
,buddhaghosa 9 expla9+ ! process (      
,buddhi/ psy*ology  says t              
consci\sness7citta7fir/ comes into t\*  
7phassa7 )  its object 7rammana7 &      
!reaft] feel+1 conception 7sa7  &       
volition 7cetan7 come 94 ,?is contact is
 l ! pill>s (  a palace1 & ! re/ are b !
 sup]/ructure built ^u x                
7dabbasambhrasadis74 ,b x %\ld n be     
?\ght t contact        ,footnote #a3    
,buddhi/ ,psy*ology1 pp4 #di1 #ej4      
#ig    is ! beg9n+ ( ! psy*ological     
processes1 = 9 "o :ole  consci\sness    
7ekacittasmim7 x _c be said t ?is comes 
fir/ & t comes aft]1 s we c take contact
 9 association  ) feel+ 7v$an71 conceiv+

 7sa7 or volition 7cetan72  x is itself 
an immat]ial /ate b yet s9ce x          
compreh5ds  objects x is call$ contact4 
,!re is no imp++ on "o side  ( ! object 
7z 9 physical contact71 nev]!less       
contact causes  consci\sness & object to
 be 9 collision1 z visible object &     
visual organs1 s\nd & he>+2 ?us impact  
is its function2 or  x has impact z its 
ess5tial prop]ty 9 ! s5se ( atta9m5t1   
ow+ to ! impact ( ! physical basis ) !  
m5tal object4  ,= x is said 9 !         
,comm5t>y3--contact 9 ! f\r planes (    
exi/5ce is nev] )\t ! *>act]i/ic ( t\* )
 !  object2 b ! function ( impact takes 
place 9 ! five doors4  ,= to s5se1 or   
five-door contact1 is giv5 ! "n 'hav+ ! 
*>act]i/ic ( t\*' z well z 'hav+ !      
function ( impact4'  ,b to contact 9 !  
m9d-door !re is only ! *>act]i/ic  (    
t\*1 b n ! function ( impact4 ,& !n ?is 
,sutta is  quot$ ',z if1 sire1 two rams 
7 to fight1 "o ram to repres5t  ! eye1 !
 second ! visible object1 & _! collision
 contact4  ,& z if1 sire1 two cymbals 7 

to /rike aga9/ ea* o!r1 or  two h&s 7 to
 clap aga9/ ea* o!r2 "o h& w\ld         
repres5t ! eye1 ! second ! visible      
object & _! collision  contact4 ,?us    
contact has ! *>act]i/ic ( t\* & !      
function ( impact ,footnote ref #a'4    
,contact is ! manife/ation ( !  union ( 
! ?ree 7! object1 ! consci\sness & !    
s5se7 & its  effect is feel+ 7v$an72    
?\gh x is g5]at$ by ! objects  x is felt
 9 ! consci\sness & its *ief feature is 
exp]i5c+  7anubhava7 ! ta/e ( ! object4 
,z reg>ds enjoy+ ! ta/e  ( an object1 ! 
rema9+ associat$ /ates enjoy x only     
p>tially4 ,( contact !re is 7! function 
(7 ! m]e t\*+1  ( p]ception ! m]e not+  
or p]ceiv+1 ( volition ! m]e  coord9at+1
 ( consci\sness ! m]e cogniz+4 ,b feel+ 
alone1 ?r\gh gov]nance1 pr(ici5cy1      
ma/]y1 enjoys ! ta/e  ( an object4 ,=   
feel+ is l ! k+1 ! rema9+ /ates  are l !
 cook4 ,z ! cook1 :5 he has prep>$ food 
(  div]se ta/es1 puts x 9 a basket1     
seals x1 takes x to ! k+1  breaks !     
seal1 op5s ! basket1 takes ! be/ ( all !

 s\p  & curries1 puts !m 9 a di%1       
swall[s 7a portion7 to f9d out          
,footnote #a3 ,at?asl91 p4 #ajh2        
translation1 pp4 #adc-add4    #ih       
:e!r !y are faulty or n & aft]w>ds (f]s 
! food (  v>i\s excell5t ta/es to ! k+1 
& ! k+1 be+ "l1  exp]t1 & ma/]1 eats    
:atev] he likes1 ev5 s ! m]e ta/+  ( !  
food by ! cook is l ! p>tial enjoym5t ( 
! object  by ! rema9+ /ates1 & z ! cook 
ta/es a portion ( !  food1 s ! rema9+   
/ates enjoy a portion ( ! object1 &  z !
 k+1 be+ "l1 exp]t & ma/]1 eats ! meal  
accord+  to 8 pleasure s feel+ be+ "l   
exp]t1 & ma/]1 enjoys  ! ta/e ( ! object
 & !re=e x is said t enjoym5t or        
exp]i5ce is its function ,footnote ref  
#a4    ,! special feature ( sa is said  
to be ! recogniz+  7paccabhi7 by means (
 a sign 7abhin5a74 ,accord+ to  ano!r   
explanation1 a recognition takes place  
by ! inclusion  ( ! totality 7(         
aspects7--sabbasangahikavas5a4 ,! "w (  
volition 7cetan7 is said to be          
coord9ation or b9d+ toge!r              

7abhis&ahana74 ,volition is exce$+ly    
en]getic & makes  a d\ble ef=t1 a d\ble 
ex]tion4 ,h5ce ! ,anci5ts said          
',volition is l ! nature ( a l&[n]1 a   
cultivator :o tak+  fifty-five /rong m51
 w5t d[n to ! fields to reap4 ,he 0     
exce$+ly en]getic & exce$+ly /r5u\s2 he 
d\bl$ 8  /r5g? & said ,take y\r sickles 
& s =?1 po9t$ out  ! portion to be      
reap$1 (f]$ !m dr9k1 food1 sc5t1 fl[]s1 
etc41 & took an equal %>e ( ! "w4' ,!   
simile %\ld be  ?us appli$3 volition is 
l ! cultivator1 ! fifty-five moral      
/ates :i* arise z factors ( consci\sness
 are l ! fifty-five  /rong m52 l ! "t ( 
d\bl+ /r5g?1 d\bl+ ef=t  by ! cultivator
 is ! d\bl$ /r5g?1 d\bl$ ef=t (         
volition z reg>ds activity 9 moral &    
immoral acts ,footnote ref #b4  ,x seems
 t probably ! active side op]at+ 9      
sankhra 0  sep>ately designat$ z cetan  
7volition74    ,:5 "o says ',i1' :at he 
does is t he ref]s ei!r to  all ! kh&has
 comb9$ or any "o ( !m & deludes himself
  t t 0 ',i4' ,j z "o c\ld n say t !    

fragrance ( ! lotus belong$ to ! petals1
 ! col\r or !  poll51 s "o c\ld n say t 
! rpa 0 ',i' or t !  v$an 0 ',i' or any 
( ! o!r kh&has 0 ',i4' ,!re is  n[h]e to
 be f\nd 9 ! kh&has ',i am ,footnote ref
 #c'4        ,footnote #a3 ,at?asl91 pp4
 #aji-aaj2 translation1 pp4 #ade-adf4   
,footnote #b3 ,ibid4 p4 #aaa2           
translation1 pp4 #adg-adh4    ,footnote 
#c3 ,samyutta ,nikya1 ,,iii4 #acj4      
#ii      ,avijj & sava4    ,z to ! "q h[
 ! avijj 7ignorance7 fir/ />t$  !re c be
 no answ]1 = we c\ld nev] say t ei!r    
ignorance or desire = exi/5ce ev] has   
any beg9n+ ,footnote ref #a4  ,its      
fruition is se5 9 ! cycle ( exi/5ce & ! 
sorr[ t comes  9 its tra91 & x comes &  
goes ) !m all4 ,?us z we  c nev] say t x
 has any beg9n+1 x det]m9es ! elem5ts   
:i* br+ ab\t cycles ( exi/5ce & is      
itself det]m9$ by  c]ta9 o!rs4 ,?is     
mutual det]m9ation c only take place  9 
& ?r\gh ! *ang+ s]ies ( dep5d5t ph5om5a1
 =  !re is no?+ :i* c be said to h any  
absolute priority  9 "t or /ability4 ,x 

is said t x is ?r\gh ! com+ into  be+ ( 
! savas or depravities t ! avijj came   
into  be+1 & t ?r\gh ! de/ruction ( !   
depravities 7sava7  ! avijj 0 de/roy$   
,footnote ref #b4 ,^! savas are         
classifi$ 9  ! ,dhammasangani z kmsava1 
bhavsava1 dit?sava & avijjsava4  ,kmsava
 means desire1 atta*m5t1 pleasure1 &    
?ir/  aft] ! qualities associat$ ) !    
s5ses2 bhavsava means  desire1 atta*m5t 
& w = exi/5ce or bir?2 dit?sava  means !
 hold+ ( h]etical views1 su* z1 ! _w is 
et]nal  or non-et]nal1 or t ! _w w come 
to an end or w n  come to an end1 or t !
 body & ! s\l are "o or are  diff]5t2   
avijjsava means ! ignorance ( sorr[1 its
 cause1 its  ext9ction & its means (    
ext9ction4 ,dhammasangani adds  f\r m   
supplem5t>y ones1 viz4 ignorance ab\t ! 
nature (  ant]ior m5tal kh&has1 po/]ior 
m5tal kh&has1 ant]ior  & po/]ior toge!r1
 & _! mutual dep5d5ce ,footnote ref #c4 
,kmsava & bhavsava c z ,buddhaghosa says
 be c\nt$ z "o1 =  !y are bo? b         
depravities due to atta*m5t ,footnote   

ref #d4        ,footnote #a3 ,w>r5's    
,buddhism 9 ,translations               
7,visuddhimagga1 *ap4  ,,xvii471 p4     
#age4    ,footnote #b3 ,m4 ,n4 ,i4p4    
#ed4 ,*ild]s translates sava z          
depravities  & ,mrs ,rhys ,davids z     
intoxicants4 ,! ^w sava 9 ,skr4 means   
old w9e4 ,x is d]iv$ f su to produce by 
,buddhaghosa & !  mean+ t he gives to x 
is cira privsikat!na 7on acc\nt  ( its  
be+ /or$ up = a long "t l w9e74 ,!y "w  
?r\gh !  eye & ! m9d & cont9ue to       
produce all be+s up to ,indra4  ,z ^?   
w9es :i* are kept long are call$ savas s
 ^! are also  call$ savas = rema9+ a    
long "t4 ,! o!r alt]native t            
,buddhaghosa gives is t !y are call$    
sava on acc\nt ( _!  produc+            
samsradukkha 7sorr[s ( ! _w71 ,at?asl91 
p4 #dh4  ,contra/ x ) ,ja9a srava 7fl[+ 
9 ( k>ma matt]74 ,f9d+ x  difficult to  
translate x 9 "o ^w aft] ,buddhaghosa1  
,i h  translat$ x z depravities1 aft]   
,*ild]s4    ,footnote #c3 ,see          
,dhammasangani1 p4 #aie4    ,footnote   

#d3 ,buddhaghosa's ,at?asl91 p4 #cga4   
#ajj      ,! dit?savas by cl\d+ ! m9d ) 
false metaphysical  views /& 9 ! way (  
"o's adopt+ ! true ,buddhi/ic doctr9es4 
,! kmasvas /& 9 ! way ( "o's ent]+ into 
! way ( ,nirvna 7angmimagga7 & !        
bhavsavas &  avijjsavas /& 9 ! way (    
"o's atta9+ arha or f9al  emancipation4 
,:5 ! ,majjhima ,nikya says t f !  rise 
( ! savas avijj rises1 x evid5tly c\nts 
avijj !re z  9 "s s5se sep>ate f ! o!r  
savas1 su* z ^? (  atta*m5t & desire (  
exi/5ce :i* veil ! true k  ab\t sorr[4  
,! afflictions 7kilesas7 d n diff] mu* f
 ! savas  = !y are b ! specific passions
 9 =ms ord9>ily famili>  to u1 su* z    
covet\sness 7lobha71 ang] or hatr$      
7dosa71  infatuation 7moha71 arrogance1 
pride or vanity 7mna71 h]esy  7dit?i71  
d\bt or unc]ta9ty 7vicikic*71 idl5ess   
7?na71  boa/fulness 7udhacca71          
%amelessness 7ahirika7 & h>dness ( he>t 
anottapa72 ^! kilesas proce$ directly z 
a result ( ! savas4  ,9 spite ( ^!      
v>ieties !y are (t5 c\nt$ z ?ree 7lobha1

  dosa1 moha7 & ^! toge!r are call$     
kilesa4 ,!y are  associat$ ) !          
v$ankkh&ha1 sakkh&ha1 sankhrakkh&ha  &  
vinakkh&ha4 ,f ^! arise ! ?ree k9ds  (  
actions1 ( spee*1 ( body1 & ( m9d       
,footnote ref #a4      ,sla & ,samdhi4  
,we are int]tw9$ all ?r\gh outside &    
inside by !  tangles ( desire 7tanh     
jat71 & ! only way by :i* ^!  may be    
loos5$ is by ! practice ( "r discipl9e  
7sla71  conc5tration 7samdhi7 & wisdom  
7pa74 ,sla briefly means  ! desi/+ f    
committ+ all s9ful de$s 7sabbappassa    
ak>anam74 ,) sla !re=e ! fir/ />t has to
 be made1  = by x "o ceases to d all    
actions prompt$ by bad desires  & !reby 
removes ! inru% ( dang]s & di/urbances4 
,?is s]ves to remove ! kilesas1 & !re=e 
! prop] p]=mance  ( ! sla w\ld lead "o  
to ! fir/ two successive  /ages (       
sa9?ood1 viz4 ! sotpannabhva 7! /age 9  
:i*  "o is put 9 ! "r curr5t7 & !       
sakadgmibhva 7!  /age :5 "o has only "o 
m bir? to und]go74 ,samdhi  is a m      
advanc$ ef=t1 = by x all ! old roots ( !

 old  kilesas are de/roy$ & ! tanh or   
desire is remov$ &        ,footnote #a3 
,dhammasangani1 p4 #ahj4    #aja    by x
 "o is l$ to ! m advanc$ /ates ( a sa9t4
 ,x  directly br+s 9 pa 7true wisdom7 & 
by pa ! sa9t  a*ieves f9al emancipation 
& becomes :at is call$ an  arhat        
,footnote ref #a4 ,wisdom 7pa7 is "r k  
ab\t !  f\r riya saccas1 viz4 sorr[1 its
 cause1 its de/ruction & its cause  (   
de/ruction4    ,sla means ^? p>ticul>   
volitions & m5tal /ates1 etc4  by :i* a 
man :o desi/s f committ+ s9ful actions  
ma9ta9s himself on ! "r pa?4 ,sla ?us   
means #a4 "r  volition 7cetan71 #b4 !   
associat$ m5tal /ates 7cetasika71  #c4  
m5tal control 7samv>a7 & #d4 ! actual   
non-transgression  79 body & spee*7 ( ! 
c\rse ( conduct already 9 ! m9d  by !   
prec$+ ?ree slas call$ avtikkama4       
,samv>a is  spok5 ( z be+ ( five k9ds1  
#a4 ,ptimokkhasamv>a 7!  control :i*    
saves him :o abides by x71 #b4          
,satisamv>a 7!  control ( m9dfulness71  
#c4 nasamv>a 7! control ( k71  #d4      

,khantisamv>a 7! control ( pati5ce71 #e4
 ,viriyasamv>a  7! control ( active     
self-re/ra9t74 ,ptimokkhasamv>a  means  
all self-control 9 g5]al4 ,satisamv>a   
means  ! m9dfulness by :i* "o c br+ 9 ! 
"r & good  associations :5 us+ "o's     
cognitive s5ses4 ,ev5 :5  look+ at any  
tempt+ object he w by virtue ( 8        
m9dfulness  7sati7 control himself f be+
 tempt$ by avoid+ to  ?9k ( its tempt+  
side & by ?9k+ on su* aspects ( x  z may
 lead 9 ! "r direction4 ,khantisamv>a is
 t by  :i* "o c rema9 unp]turb$ 9 heat &
 cold4 ,by !  prop] adh]5ce to sla all  
our bodily1 m5tal & vocal activities    
7kamma7 are duly sy/ematiz$1 organiz$1  
/abiliz$ 7samdhnam1  upadhranam1 patit?7
 ,footnote ref #b4    ,! sage :o adopts 
! full c\rse %\ld also foll[ a  numb] ( 
heal?y mona/ic rules ) ref]5ce to dress1
 sitt+1  d9+1 etc41 :i* are call$ !     
dhtangas or pure discipl9>y  p>ts       
,footnote ref #c4 ,! practice ( sla & ! 
dhtangas help !  sage to adopt ! c\rse (
 samdhi4 ,samdhi z we h se5 means  !    

conc5tration ( ! m9d b5t on "r endeav\rs
 7kusalacittekaggat  samdhih7 toge!r )  
its /ates ^u "o p>ticul>  object        
7ekrammana7 s t !y may completely cease 
to  %ift & *ange 7samm ca avikkhipamn7  
,footnote ref #d4        ,footnote #a3  
,visuddhimagga ,nidndika?4    ,footnote 
#b3 ,visuddhimagga-slaniddeso1 pp4 #g & 
#h4    ,footnote #c3 ,visuddhimagga1    
,,ii4    ,footnote #d3 ,visuddhimagga1  
pp4 #hd-he4    #ajb      ,! man :o has  
practis$ sla mu/ tra9 8 m9d fir/  9     
p>ticul> ways1 s t x may be possible =  
him to acquire  ! *ief conc5tration (   
m$itation call$ jhna 7fix$ &  /eady     
m$itation74 ,^! prelim9>y endeav\rs ( ! 
m9d  = ! acquirem5t ( jhnasamdhi        
ev5tually lead to x  & are call$ upacra 
samdhi 7prelim9>y samdhi7 z di/+ui%$  f 
! jhnasamdhi call$ ! appansamdhi 7a*iev$
 samdhi7  ,footnote ref #a4 ,?us z a    
prep>atory measure1 fir/ly he  has to   
tra9 8 m9d cont9ually to view ) disgu/ !
 appetitive  desires = eat+ & dr9k+ 7hre
 patikklasa7 by  emphasiz+ 9 ! m9d !    

v>i\s tr\bles t are associat$  9 seek+  
food & dr9k & _! ultimate loa?some      
trans=mations  z v>i\s nauseat+ bodily  
elem5ts4 ,:5 a man  cont9ually          
habituates himself to emphasize !       
disgu/+  associations ( food & dr9k1 he 
ceases to h any atta*m5t  to !m & simply
 takes !m z an unavoidable evil1  only  
await+ ! day :5 ! f9al dissolution ( all
 sorr[s  w come ,footnote ref #b4       
,secondly he has to habituate 8 m9d to !
  idea t all ! p>ts ( our body are made 
up ( ! f\r elem5ts1  ksiti 7e>?71 ap    
7wat]71 tejas 7fire7 & w9d 7air71 l !   
c>case  ( a c[ at ! but*]'s %op4 ,?is is
 te*nically call$  catudhtuvavat?nabhvan
 7! m$itation ( ! body z be+  made up ( 
! f\r elem5ts7 ,footnote ref #c4 ,?irdly
 he has to  habituate 8 m9d to ?9k aga9 
& aga9 7anussati7 ab\t !  virtues or    
greatness ( ! ,buddha1 ! sangha 7! monks
 foll[+  ! ,buddha71 ! gods & ! law     
7dhamma7 ( ! ,buddha1 ab\t  ! good      
effects ( sla1 & ! mak+ ( gifts         
7cgnussati71  ab\t ! nature ( dea?      

7m>annussati7 & ab\t  ! deep nature &   
qualities ( ! f9al ext9ction  ( all     
ph5om5a 7upasamnussati7 ,footnote ref   
#d4        ,footnote #a3 ,z x is n      
possible = me to ent] into details1 ,i  
foll[  :at appe>s to me to be ! ma9 l9e 
( division %[+ !  int]connection ( jhna 
7,skr4 dhyna7 ) its accessory /ages     
call$ p>ikammas 7,visuddhimagga1 pp4 #he
 f474    ,footnote #b3 ,visuddhimagga1  
pp4 #cda-cdg2 m>k ! int5se pessimi/ic   
attitude1 ,ima ca pana hre patikulasam  
anuyuttassa bhikkhuno  rasatanhya cittam
 patilyati1 patikuttati1 pativattati2 s1
  kantranit?>anat?iko viya puttamamsam  
vigatamado hram hreti  yvad eva         
dukkhassa nit?>anat?ya1 p4 #cdg4 ,! m9d 
( him :o  inspires himself ) ?is supreme
 disgu/ to all food1 becomes free f  all
 desires = palatable ta/es1 & turns its 
back to !m & flies (f  f !m4 ,z a means 
( gett+ rid ( all sorr[ he takes 8 food 
)\t any atta*m5t z "o w\ld eat ! fle% ( 
8 own son to  su/a9 himself 9 cross+ a  
=e/4    ,footnote #c3 ,visuddhimagga1   

pp4 #cdg-cgj4    ,footnote #d3          
,visuddhimagga1 pp4 #aig-bid4    #ajc   
,advanc+ fur!r f ! prelim9>y m$itations 
or prep>ations  call$ ! upacra samdhi we
 come to ^? o!r  s\rces ( conc5tration &
 m$itation call$ ! appansamdhi  :i*     
directly lead to ! a*ievem5t ( ! highe/ 
samdhi4  ,! processes ( purification &  
/r5g!n+ ( ! m9d  cont9ue 9 ?is /age     
also1 b ^! repres5t ! la/ attempts  :i* 
lead ! m9d to its f9al goal ,nibbna4 ,9 
! fir/ "p  ( ?is /age ! sage has to g to
 ! cremation gr\nds &  notice ! div]se  
horrify+ *anges ( ! human c>cases &  ?9k
 h[ nauseat+1 loa?some1 unsightly &     
impure !y are1  & f ?is he w turn 8 m9d 
to ! liv+ human bodies  & conv9ce       
himself t !y be+ 9 ess5ce ! same z !    
dead c>cases are z loa?some z !y        
,footnote ref4#a ,?is is call$          
asubhakammat?na or ! endeav\r to p]ceive
 ! impurity ( our  bodies4 ,he %\ld ?9k 
( ! anatomical p>ts & con/itu5ts ( !    
body z well z _! processes1 & ?is w help
 him to ent]  into ! fir/ jhna by lead+ 

8 m9d away f 8 body4  ,?is is call$ !   
kayagatasati or ! cont9ual m9dfulness   
ab\t ! nature ( ! body ,footnote ref #b4
 ,z an aid to conc5tration  ! sage %\ld 
sit 9 a quiet place & fix 8 m9d on !    
inhal+  7passsa7 & ! exhal+ 7sssa7 ( 8  
brea?1 s t in/ead  ( brea?+ 9 a m or    
less unconsci\s mann] he may be  aw>e   
:e!r he is brea?+ quickly or sl[ly2 he  
ought to  m>k x def9itely by c\nt+      
numb]s1 s t by fix+ 8  m9d on ! numb]s  
c\nt$ he may fix 8 m9d on ! :ole        
process ( inhalation & exhalation 9 all 
/ages ( its c\rse4  ,?is is call$ !     
anapnasati or ! m9dfulness ( inhalation 
& exhalation ,footnote ref #c    ,next  
to ?is we come to ,brahmavihra1 !       
f\rfold m$itation  ( metta 7univ]sal    
fri5d%ip71 k>un 7univ]sal pity71  mudit 
7happ9ess 9 ! prosp]ity & happ9ess (    
all7 &  upekkh 7indiff]5ce to any k9d ( 
pref]m5t ( oneself1 8  fri5d1 enemy or a
 ?ird p>ty74 ,9 ord] to habituate       
oneself to  ! m$itation on univ]sal     
fri5d%ip1 "o %\ld />t ) ?9k+  h[ he %\ld

 himself l to root out all mis]y &      
become  happy1 h[ he %\ld himself l to  
avoid dea? & live *e]fully1  & !n pass  
ov] to ! idea t o!r be+s w\ld also  h ! 
same desires4 ,he %\ld ?us habituate    
himself to ?9k  t 8 fri5ds1 8 enemies1 &
 all ^? ) :om he is n        ,footnote  
#a3 ,visuddhimagga1 ,,vi4    ,footnote  
#b3 ,ibid4 pp4 #bci-bff4    ,footnote   
#c3 ,ibid4 pp4 #bff-bib4    #ajd        
connect$ might all live & become happy4 
,he %\ld fix himself  to su* an ext5t 9 
?is m$itation t he w\ld n f9d any       
diff]5ce betwe5 ! happ9ess or safety (  
himself & ( o!rs4  ,he %\ld nev] become 
angry ) any p]son4 ,%\ld he at any  "t  
feel himself (f5d$ on acc\nt ( !        
injuries inflict$ on  him by 8 enemies1 
he %\ld ?9k ( ! futility ( d\bl+  8     
sadness by becom+ sorry or vex$ on t    
acc\nt4 ,he  %\ld ?9k t if he %\ld all[ 
himself to be affect$ by  ang]1 he w\ld 
spoil all 8 sla :i* he 0 s c>efully     
practis+4  ,if anyone has done a vile   
action by inflict+ injury1  %\ld he     

himself also d ! same by be+ angry at x8
 ,if he  7 f9d+ fault ) o!rs = be+      
angry1 c\ld he himself  indulge 9 ang]8 
,moreov] he %\ld ?9k t all ! dhammas    
are mom5t>y 7khanikatt72 t !re no long] 
exi/$ !  kh&has :i* _h inflict$ !       
injury1 & moreov] ! infliction  ( any   
injury be+ only a jo9t product1 ! man :o
 0  injur$ 0 himself an indisp5sable    
elem5t 9 ! production  ( ! infliction z 
mu* z ! man :o inflict$ ! injury1 &  !re
 c\ld n ?us be any special reason = mak+
 him responsible  & ( be+ angry ) him4  
,if ev5 aft] ?9k+  9 ?is way ! ang] does
 n subside1 he %\ld ?9k t by  indulg+ 9 
ang] he c\ld only br+ mis*ief on himself
 ?r\gh  8 bad de$s1 & he %\ld fur!r ?9k 
t ! o!r man  by be+ angry 0 only produc+
 mis*ief to himself b n  to him4 ,by    
?9k+ 9 ^! ways ! sage w\ld be able to   
free 8 m9d f ang] aga9/ 8 enemies &     
e/abli% himself  9 an attitude (        
univ]sal fri5d%ip ,footnote ref #a4 ,?is
 is call$  ! mett-bhvana4 ,9 ! m$itation
 ( univ]sal pity 7k>un7  also "o %\ld   

sympa?ize ) ! sorr[s ( 8 fri5ds &  foes 
alike4 ,! sage be+ m ke5-sight$ w feel  
pity =  ^? :o are app>5tly lead+ a happy
 life1 b are nei!r  acquir+ m]its nor   
endeav\r+ to proce$ on ! way to         
,nibbna1 = !y are to suff] innum]able   
lives ( sorr[ ,footnote  ref #b4    ,we 
next come to ! jhnas ) ! help ( mat]ial 
?+s  z objects ( conc5tration call$ !   
,kasinam4 ,^! objects (  conc5tration   
may ei!r be e>?1 wat]1 fire1 w9d1 blue  
col\r1  yell[ col\r1 r$ col\r1 :ite     
col\r1 light or limit$ space            
7p>c*9nksa74 ,?us ! sage may take a br[n
 ball ( e>?  & conc5trate 8 m9d ^u x z  
an e>? ball1 sometimes        ,footnote 
#a3 ,visuddhimagga1 pp4 #bie-cad4       
,footnote #b3 ,ibid4 pp4 #cad-cae4      
#aje    ) eyes op5 & sometimes ) eyes   
%ut4 ,:5 he f9ds  t ev5 9 %utt+ 8 eyes  
he c visualize ! object 9 8  m9d1 he may
 leave (f ! object & retire to ano!r    
place to  conc5trate ^u ! image ( ! e>? 
ball 9 8 m9d4    ,9 ! fir/ /ages ( !    
fir/ m$itation 7pa?amam jhnam7  ! m9d is

 conc5trat$ on ! object 9 ! way (       
und]/&+  x ) its =m & "n & ( compreh5d+ 
x ) its div]se  relations4 ,?is /ate (  
conc5tration is call$ vitakka           
7discursive  m$itation74 ,! next /age ( 
! fir/ m$itation is t 9  :i* ! m9d does 
n move 9 ! object 9 relational t]ms  b  
becomes fix$ & settl$ 9 x & p5etrates   
into x )\t  any quiv]+4 ,?is /ate is    
call$ vicra 7/eadily mov+74 ,!  fir/    
/age vitakka has be5 comp>$ 9           
,buddhaghosa's ,visuddhimagga  to ! fly+
 ( a kite ) its w+s flapp+1 :]eas  !    
second /age is comp>$ to its fly+ 9 a   
sweep )\t !  lea/ quiv] ( its w+s4 ,^!  
two /ages are associat$ )  a buoyant    
exaltation 7pti7 & a /eady inw>d bliss  
call$ sukha  ,footnote ref #a in/ill+ ! 
m9d4 ,! =mation ( ?is fir/  jhna roots  
out five ties ( avijj1 kamac*&o 7dally+ 
)  desires71 vypd 7hatr$71 ?9amiddham   
7slo? & torpor71  uddhaccakukkuccam     
7pride & re/lessness71 & vicikic*       
7d\bt74  ,! five elem5ts ( :i* ?is jhna 
is con/itut$ are vitakka1  vicra1 plti1 

sukham & ekaggata 7"o po9t$ness74    ,:5
 ! sage ma/]s ! fir/ jhna he f9ds x     
defective  & wants to ent] into ! second
 m$itation 7dutiyam jhnam71  :]e !re is 
nei!r any vitakka nor vicra ( ! fir/    
jhna1  b ! m9d is 9 "o unruffl$ /ate    
7ekodibhvam74 ,x is a  mu* /eadi] /ate &
 does n possess ! movem5t :i*  *>act]iz$
 ! vitakka & ! vicra /ages ( ! fir/ jhna
  & is !re=e a v placid /ate            
7vitakka-vicrakkhobha-virahena  ativiya 
acalat suppasannat ca74 ,x is h[ev]     
associat$  ) pti1 sukha & ekaggat z !   
fir/ jhna 04    ,:5 ! second jhna is    
ma/]$ ! sage becomes dis9cl9$  t[>ds !  
enjoym5t ( ! pti ( t /age & becomes     
indiff]5t to !m 7upekkhako74 ,a sage 9  
?is /age sees !  objects b is nei!r     
pleas$ nor displeas$4 ,at ?is /age all  
! savas ( ! sage become loos5$          
7khnsava74 ,!  enjoym5t ( sukha h[ev]   
/ill rema9s 9 ! /age & !                
,footnote #a3 ,:]e !re is pti !re is    
sukha1 b :]e !re is sukha  !re may n    
necess>ily be pti4 ,vsuddhimagga1 p4    

#ade4    #ajf    m9d if n prop]ly &     
c>efully wat*$ w\ld l sometimes  to turn
 back to ! enjoym5t ( pti aga94 ,! two  
*>act]i/ics  ( ?is jhna are sukha &     
ekaggat4 ,x %\ld h[ev]  be not$ t ?\gh  
!re is ! feel+ ( highe/ sukha "h1  ! m9d
 is n only n atta*$ to x b is indiff]5t 
to x  7atimadhhurasukhe sukhapramippatte
 pi tatiyajjhne upekkhako1  na tat?a    
sukhbhisang5a kaddhiyati7 ,footnote ref 
#a4 ,! e>?  ball 7pa?av7 is h[ev] /ill !
 object ( ! jhna4    ,9 ! f\r? or ! la/ 
jhna bo? ! sukha 7happ9ess7 &  ! dukkha 
7mis]y7 vani% away & all ! roots (      
atta*m5t  & antipa?ies are de/roy$4 ,?is
 /ate is *>act]iz$ by  supreme &        
absolute indiff]5ce 7upekkh7 :i* 0 sl[ly
  gr[+ 9 all ! v>i\s /ages ( ! jhnas4 ,!
 *>act]i/ics  ( ?is jhna are !re=e      
upekkh & ekaggat4 ,) !  ma/]y ( ?is jhna
 comes f9al p]fection & total ext9ction 
( ! citta call$ cetovimutti1 & ! sage   
becomes !reby an  arhat ,footnote ref   
#b4 ,!re is no fur!r production ( !     
kh&has1  no rebir?1 & !re is ! absolute 

cessation ( all sorr[s &                
suff]+s--,nibbna4      ,kamma4    ,9 !  
,ka?a 7,,ii4 #f7 ,yama says t a fool :o 
is bl9d$  ) ! infatuation ( ri*es does n
 believe 9 a future life2 he  ?9ks t    
only ?is life exi/s & n any o!r1 & ?us  
he  comes aga9 & aga9 )9 my grasp4 ,9 ! 
,digha ,nikya  also we read h[ ,pysi 0  
try+ to give 8 reasons 9 support  ( 8   
belief t ,nei!r is !re any o!r _w1 nor  
are !re  be+s1 reborn o!rwise ?an f     
p>5ts1 nor is !re fruit or  result (    
de$s well done or ill done ,footnote ref
 #c4 ,"s ( 8  argum5ts 7 t nei!r !      
vici\s nor ! virtu\s return to tell  u t
 !y suff]$ or enjoy$ happ9ess 9 ! o!r   
_w1 t  if ! virtu\s _h a bett] life 9   
/ore1 & if !y believ$  9 x1 !y w\ld     
c]ta9ly commit suicide 9 ord] to get x  
at  ! e>lie/ opportunity1 t 9 spite (   
tak+ ! be/ precautions  we d n f9d at ! 
"t ( ! dea? ( any p]son t  8 s\l goes   
out1 or t 8 body weighs less on acc\nt (
  ! dep>ture ( 8 s\l1 & s on4 ,kassapa  
refutes 8 argum5ts  ) apt illu/rations4 

,b 9 spite ( a few agno/ics (           
,footnote #a3 ,visuddhimagga1 p4 #afc4  
,footnote #b3 ,majjhima ,nikya1 ,i4p4   
#bif1 & ,visuddhimagga1 pp4  #afg-afh4  
,footnote #c3 ,dialogues ( ! ,buddha1   
,,ii4 p4 #cdi2 ,d4 ,n4 ,,ii4 pp4 #cag   
ff4    #ajg    ,pysi's type1 we h e     
reason to believe t ! doctr9e  ( rebir? 
9 o!r worlds & 9 ?is 0 (t5 spok5 ( 9 !  
,upanisads & tak5 z an accept$ fact by !
 ,buddha4 ,9  ! ,mil9da ,paha1 we f9d   
,ngas5a say+ x is ?r\gh a  diff]5ce 9 _!
 k>ma t m5 are n all alike1 b "s  long  
liv$1 "s %ort liv$1 "s heal?y & "s      
sickly1 "s  h&some & "s ugly1 "s p[]ful 
& "s weak1 "s  ri* & "s poor1 "s ( high 
degree & "s ( l[ degree1  "s wise & "s  
fooli% ,footnote ref #a4 ,we h se5 9  ! 
?ird *apt] t ! same soil ( views 0      
enunciat$ by !  ,upanisad sages4    ,b  
k>ma c\ld produce its effect 9 ?is life 
or any  o!r life only :5 !re 7          
covet\sness1 antipa?y & infatuation4  ,b
 :5 a man's de$s are p]=m$ )\t          
covet\sness1 arise  )\t covet\sness &   

are occasion$ )\t covet\sness1 !n       
inasmu* z covet\sness is gone ^! de$s   
are ab&on$1 uproot$1  pull$ out ( !     
gr\nd l a palmyra tree & become         
non-exi/5t  & n liable to spr+ up aga9 9
 ! future ,footnote ref #b4  ,k>ma by   
itself )\t crav+ 7tanh7 is incapable (  
be>+ good  or bad fruits4 ,?us we read 9
 ! ,mahsatipat?na sutta1 ev5  ?is crav+1
 pot5t = rebir?1 t is accompani$ by lu/ 
&  self-indulg5ce1 seek+ satisfaction n[
 "h1 n[ !re1 to wit1  ! crav+ = ! life (
 s5se1 ! crav+ = becom+ 7r5ew$  life7 & 
! crav+ = n becom+ 7= no new rebir?7    
,footnote  ref #c4 ,crav+ = ?+s visible1
 crav+ = ?+s audible1  crav+ = ?+s t may
 be smelt1 ta/$1 t\*$1 = ?+s 9  memory  
recall$4 ,^! are ! ?+s 9 ?is _w t are   
de>1  t are pleasant4 ,!re does crav+   
take its rise1 !re does x  dwell        
,footnote ref #d4 ,pre-occupation &     
delib]ation ( s5sual  gratification giv+
 rise to crav+ is ! reason :y sorr[     
comes4  ,& ?is is ! fir/ rya satya      
7noble tru?74    ,! cessation ( sorr[ c 

only happ5 ) ! utt]  cessation ( &      
dis5*antm5t ab\t t v crav+1 giv+  x up1 
r5\nc+ x & emancipation f x ,footnote   
ref #e4    ,:5 ! desire or crav+ 7tanh7 
has once ceas$ !  sage becomes an arhat1
 & ! de$s t he may d aft]  t w be> no   
fruit4 ,an arhat _c h any good or bad   
,footnote #a3 ,w>r5's ,buddhism 9       
,translations1 p4 #bae4    ,footnote #b3
 ,ibid4 pp4 #baf-bag4    ,footnote #c3  
,dialogues ( ! ,buddha1 ,,ii4 p4 #cdj4  
,footnote #d3 ,ibid4 p4 #cda4           
,footnote #e3 ,ibid4 p4 #cda4    #ajh   
fruits ( :atev] he does4 ,= x is ?r\gh  
desire t k>ma  f9ds its scope ( giv+    
fruit4 ,) ! cessation ( desire all      
ignorance1 antipa?y & grasp+ cease &    
consequ5tly !re  is no?+ :i* c det]m9e  
rebir?4 ,an arhat may suff] !  effects (
 ! de$s done by him 9 "s previ\s bir? j 
z  ,moggallna did1 b 9 spite ( !        
remnants ( 8 pa/ k>ma  an arhat 0 an    
emancipat$ man on acc\nt ( ! cessation (
  8 desire ,footnote ref #a4    ,kammas 
are said to be ( ?ree k9ds1 ( body1     

spee* &  m9d 7kyika1 vcika & mnasika74  
,! root ( ?is kamma  is h[ev] volition  
7cetan7 & ! /ates associat$ ) x         
,footnote ref #b4 ,if a man wi%+ to kill
 animals goes out into  ! =e/ 9 se>* (  
!m1 b _c get any ( !m !re  ev5 aft] a   
long se>*1 8 misconduct is n a bodily   
"o1 =  he c\ld n actually commit ! de$ )
 8 body4 ,s if he gives  an ord] =      
committ+ a simil> misde$1 & if x is n   
actually  c>ri$ out ) ! body1 x w\ld be 
a misde$ by spee* 7vcika7  & n by !     
body4 ,b ! m]e/ bad ?\ght or ill w alone
 :e!r  c>ri$ into effect or n w\ld be a 
kamma ( ! m9d 7mnasika7  ,footnote ref  
#c4 ,b ! m5tal kamma mu/ be pres5t z !  
root (  all bodily & vocal kammas1 = if 
?is is abs5t1 z 9 ! case  ( an arhat1   
!re _c be any kammas at all = him4      
,kammas are divid$ f ! po9t ( view (    
effects into  f\r classes1 viz4 7#a7 ^? 
:i* are bad & produce impurity1  7#b7 ^?
 :i* are good & productive ( purity1    
7#c7 ^?  :i* are p>tly good & p>tly bad 
& ?us productive (  bo? purity &        

impurity1 7#d7 ^? :i* are nei!r good nor
  bad & productive nei!r ( purity nor ( 
impurity1 b :i*  contribute to !        
de/ruction ( kammas ,footnote ref #d4   
,f9al ext9ction ( sorr[ 7nibbna7 takes  
place z ! natural  result ( ! de/ruction
 ( desires4 ,s*ol>s ( ,buddhism h  tri$ 
to discov] ! mean+ ( ?is ultimate       
happ5+1 &  v>i\s int]pretations h be5   
(f]$4 ,pr(essor ,de la ,valle  ,p\ss9   
has po9t$ out t 9 ! ,pli texts ,nibbna  
has  sometimes be5 repres5t$ z a happy  
/ate1 z pure annihilation1  z an        
inconceivable exi/5ce or z a *angeless  
/ate ,footnote ref #e4        ,footnote 
#a3 ,see ,ka?vat?u & ,w>r5's ,buddhism 9
 ,translations1 pp1  #bba ff4           
,footnote #b3 ,at?asl91 p4 #hh4         
,footnote #c3 ,see ,at?asl91 p4 #ij4    
,footnote #d3 ,see ,at?asl91 p4 #hi4    
,footnote #e3 ,pr(4 ,de la ,valle       
,p\ss9's article 9 ! ,e4 ,r4,e4 on      
,nirvna4 ,see also ,cullavagga1 ,,ix4 i4
 #d2 ,mrs ,rhys ,davids's ,psalms  ( !  
e>ly ,buddhi/s1 ,i4 & ,,ii41            

,introduction1 p4 xxxvii2 ,dgha1  ,,ii4 
#ae2 ,udna1 ,,viii42 ,samyutta1 ,,iii4  
#aji4    #aji    ,mr ,s*rad]1 9 discuss+
 ,nibbna 9 ,pali ,text ,society ,j\rnal1
  #aije1 says t ! ,buddha held t ^? :o  
s\ght to become  id5tifi$ aft] dea? ) ! 
s\l ( ! _w z inf9ite space  7ksa7 or    
consci\sness 7vina7 atta9$ to a /ate 9  
:i*  !y _h a correspond+ feel+ (        
inf9it5ess )\t hav+  really lo/ _!      
individuality4 ,?is latt] int]pretation 
(  ,nibbna seems to me to be v new & q  
aga9/ ! _s  ( ! ,buddhi/ic texts4 ,x    
seems to me to be a hopeless task  to   
expla9 ,nibbna 9 t]ms ( worldly         
exp]i5ce1 & !re  is no way 9 :i* we c   
bett] indicate x ?an by say+ t  x is a  
cessation ( all sorr[2 ! /age at :i* all
 worldly  exp]i5ces h ceas$ c h>dly be  
describ$ ei!r z positive  or negative4  
,:e!r we exi/ 9 "s =m et]nally or d n   
exi/ is n a prop] ,buddhi/ic "q1 = x is 
a h]esy to  ?9k ( a ,ta?gata z exi/+    
et]nally 7s's'vata7 or n-exi/+          
7z's'vata7 or :e!r he is exi/+ z well z 

n  exi/+ or :e!r he is nei!r exi/+ nor  
non-exi/+4 ,any  "o :o seeks to discuss 
:e!r ,nibbna is ei!r a positive  &      
et]nal /ate or a m]e /ate ( non-exi/5ce 
or annihilation1  takes a view :i* has  
be5 disc>d$ 9 ,buddhism z h]etical4  ,x 
is true t we 9 mod]n times are n        
satisfi$ ) x1 =  we want to "k :at x all
 means4 ,b x is n possible to  give any 
answ] s9ce ,buddhism reg>d$ all ^!      
que/ions z  illegitimate4    ,lat]      
,buddhi/ic writ]s l ,ngrjuna &          
,c&rakrtti  took advantage ( ?is        
attitude ( e>ly ,buddhism & int]pret$  x
 z mean+ ! non-ess5tial "* ( all        
exi/5ce4  ,no?+ exi/$1 & !re=e any "q   
reg>d+ ! exi/5ce  or non-exi/5ce ( any?+
 w\ld be mean+less4 ,!re  is no diff]5ce
 betwe5 ! worldly /age 7samsra7 &       
,nibbna1  = z all appe>ances are        
non-ess5tial1 !y nev] exi/$ dur+  !     
samsra s t !y c\ld n be annihilat$ 9    
,nibbna4      ,upanisads & ,buddhism4   
,! ,upanisads _h discov]$ t ! true self 
0 n&a  7bliss7 ,footnote ref #a4 ,we    

c\ld suppose t e>ly ,buddhism tacitly   
presupposes "s su* idea4 ,x 0 probably  
?\ght t if !re 0  ! self 7att7 x mu/ be 
bliss4 ,! ,upanisads _h ass]t$ t  !     
self7tman7 0 inde/ructible & et]nal     
,footnote ref #b4 ,if we  are all[$     
,footnote #a3 ,tait1 ,,ii4#e4           
,footnote #b3 ,brh4 ,,iv4 #e4 #ad4 ,ka?a
 ,v4 #ac4    #aaj    to make explicit   
:at 0 implicit 9 e>ly ,buddhism we c\ld 
conceive x z hold+ t if !re 0 ! self x  
mu/ be bliss1  because x 0 et]nal4 ,?is 
causal connection has n inde$  be5      
any:]e def9itely pron\nc$ 9 !           
,upanisads1 b he  :o c>efully reads !   
,upanisads _c b ?9k t !  reason :y !    
,upanisads speak ( ! self z bliss is t x
 is  et]nal4 ,b ! conv]se /atem5t t :at 
0 n et]nal  0 sorr[ does n appe> to be  
emphasiz$ cle>ly 9 !  ,upanisads4 ,!    
important po/ulate ( ! ,buddha is t t   
:i* is *ang+ is sorr[1 & :atev] is sorr[
 is n self  ,footnote ref #a4 ,! po9t at
 :i* ,buddhism p>t$ f !  ,upanisads lies
 9 ! exp]i5ces ( ! self4 ,! ,upanisads  

d\btless consid]$ t !re 7 _m exp]i5ces  
:i* we (t5  id5tify ) self1 b :i* are   
imp]man5t4 ,b ! belief is  f\nd 9 !     
,upanisads t !re 0 associat$ ) ^! a     
p]man5t "p z well1 & t x 0 ?is p]man5t  
ess5ce  :i* 0 ! true & un*angeable self1
 ! blissful4 ,!y consid]$  t ?is p]man5t
 self z pure bliss c\ld n be def9$  z   
?is1 b c\ld only be indicat$ z n ?is1 n 
?is 7neti  neti7 ,footnote ref #b4 ,b ! 
e>ly ,pali scriptures hold t we c\ld    
n[h]e f9d out su* a p]man5t ess5ce1 any 
con/ant self1 9 our  *ang+ exp]i5ces4   
,all 7 b *ang+ ph5om5a &  !re=e sorr[ & 
!re=e non-self1 & :at 0 non-self  0 n   
m9e1 nei!r ,i belong$ to x1 nor did x   
belong to me  z my self ,footnote ref   
#c4    ,! true self 0 ) ! ,upanisads a  
matt] ( transc5d5tal  exp]i5ce z x 71 = 
!y said t x c\ld n  be describ$ 9 t]ms (
 any?+1 b c\ld only be po9t$ out  z !re1
 beh9d all ! *ang+ m5tal categories4 ,! 
,buddha look$ into ! m9d & saw t x did n
 exi/4 ,b  h[ 0 x t ! exi/5ce ( ?is self
 0 s widely spok5  ( z demon/rat$ 9     

exp]i5ce8 ,to ?is ! reply ( !  ,buddha 0
 t :at p p]ceiv$ !re :5 !y said  t !y   
p]ceiv$ ! self 0 b ! m5tal exp]i5ces    
ei!r individually or toge!r4 ,! ignorant
 ord9>y man did  n "k ! noble tru?s & 0 
n tra9$ 9 ! way ( wise  m51 & consid]$  
himself to be end[$ ) =m 7rpa7  or f\nd 
! =ms 9 8 self or ! self 9 ! =ms4 ,he   
,footnote #a3 ,samyutta ,nikya1 ,,iii4  
pp4 #dd-de ff4    ,footnote #b3 ,see    
,brh4 ,,iv4 iv4 ,*ndogya1 ,,viii4 #g-ab4
    ,footnote #c3 ,samyutta ,nikaya1    
,,iii #de4    #aaa    exp]i5c$ ! ?\ght  
7( ! mom5t7 z x 7 ! self or  exp]i5c$   
himself z be+ end[$ ) ?\ght1 or ! ?\ght 
9 ! self or ! self 9 ! ?\ght4 ,x is ^!  
k9ds (  exp]i5ces t he consid]$ z !     
p]ception ( ! self  ,footnote ref #a4   
,! ,upanisads did n try to e/abli% any  
s*ool ( discipl9e  or sy/ematic ?\ght4  
,!y reveal$ ?r\gh\t ! dawn ( an         
exp]i5ce ( an immutable ,reality z !    
self ( man1 z ! only  abid+ tru? beh9d  
all *anges4 ,b ,buddhism holds t ?is    
immutable self ( man is a delusion & a  

false k4  ,! fir/ po/ulate ( ! sy/em is 
t imp]man5ce is sorr[4  ,ignorance ab\t 
sorr[1 ignorance ab\t ! way x orig9ates1
  ignorance ab\t ! nature ( ! ext9ction 
( sorr[1 & ignorance  ab\t ! means (    
br++ ab\t ?is ext9ction repres5t  !     
f\rfold ignorance 7avijj7 ,footnote ref 
#b4 ,! avidy1 :i*  is equival5t to !    
,pli ^w avijj1 occurs 9 ! ,upanisads    
also1  b !re x means ignorance ab\t !   
tman doctr9e1 & x is  sometimes contra/$
 ) vidy or true k ab\t ! self  7tman7   
,footnote ref #c4 ,) ! ,upanisads !     
highe/ tru?  0 ! p]man5t self1 ! bliss1 
b ) ! ,buddha !re 0  no?+ p]man5t2 & all
 0 *ange2 & all *ange & imp]man5ce  0   
sorr[ ,footnote ref #d4 ,?is is1 !n1 !  
c>d9al tru? (  ,buddhism1 & ignorance   
conc]n+ x 9 ! above f\rfold ways        
repres5t$ ! f\rfold ignorance :i* /ood 9
 ! way ( !  "r compreh5sion ( ! f\rfold 
c>d9al tru?s 7riya  sacca7--sorr[1 cause
 ( ! orig9ation ( sorr[1 ext9ction (    
sorr[1 & ! means !reto4    ,!re is no   
,brahman or supreme p]man5t reality & no

  self1 & ?is ignorance does n belong to
 any ego or self z we  may ord9>ily be  
l$ to suppose4    ,?us x is said 9 !    
,visuddhimagga inasmu* h[ev]  z         
ignorance is empty ( /ability f be+     
subject to a com+  into exi/5ce & a     
disappe>+ f exi/5ce444& is empty  ( a   
self-det]m9+ ,ego f be+ subject to      
dep5d5ce1--444or  9 o!r words inasmu* z 
ignorance is n an ,ego1 &  simil>ly )   
ref]5ce to ,k>ma & ! re/--!re=e is x  to
 be und]/ood ( ! :eel ( exi/5ce t x is  
empty )  a twelvefold empt9ess ,footnote
 ref #e4        ,footnote #a3 ,samyutta 
,nikya1 ,,ii4 #df4    ,footnote #b3     
,majjhima ,nikya1 ,i4p4 #ed4            
,footnote #c3 ,*4 ,i4i4 #aj4 ,brh4 ,,iv4
 #c4bj4 ,!re are "s passages :]e  vidy &
 avidy h be5 us$ 9 a diff]5t & r obscure
 s5se1  ,i's' #i-aa4    ,footnote #d3   
,ang4 ,nikya1 ,,iii4 #he4    ,footnote  
#e ,w>r5's ,buddhism 9 ,translations    
7,visuddhimagga1 *ap4  ,,xvii471 p4     
#age4    #aab      ,! ,s*ools ( ,!ravda 
,buddhism4    ,!re is reason to believe 

t ! oral in/ructions ( !  ,buddha 7 n   
collect$ until a few c5turies aft] 8    
dea?4  ,s]i\s qu>rels arose among/ 8    
disciples or r among/  ! successive     
g5]ations ( ! disciples ( 8 disciples   
ab\t  8 doctr9es & o!r mona/ic rules :i*
 he _h enjo9$  ^u 8 foll[]s4 ,?us we f9d
 t :5 ! c\ncil ( ,vesli  decid$ aga9/ ! 
,vrj9 monks1 call$ also !               
,vajjiputtakas1  !y 9 _! turn held ano!r
 great meet+ 7,mahsangha7 &  came to _! 
own decisions ab\t c]ta9 mona/ic rules &
 ?us  came to be call$ z ! ,mahsanghikas
 ,footnote ref #a4 ,accord+ to          
,vasumitra z translat$ by ,vassilief1 ! 
,mahsanghikas sec$$ 9  #djj ,b4,c4 &    
dur+ ! next "o hundr$ ye>s !y gave rise 
fir/ to ! ?ree s*ools ,ekavyavahrikas1  
,lokott>avd9s1 &  ,kukkulikas & aft] t !
 ,bahus'rutyas4 ,9 ! c\rse ( !  next "o 
hundr$ ye>s1 o!r s*ools rose out ( x    
namely !  ,prajaptivd9s1 ,caittikas1    
,ap>as'ailas & ,utt>as'ailas4 ,!        
,!ravda or ! ,/haviravda s*ool :i* _h   
conv5$ !  c\ncil ( ,vesli develop$ dur+ 

! second & fir/ c5tury ,b4,c4  into a   
numb] ( s*ools1 viz4 ! ,haimavatas1     
,dh>maguptikas1  ,mahs'sakas1           
,ks'yapyas1 ,sankrntikas 7m well kn[n z 
,sautrntikas7 & ! ,vtsiputtryas :i*     
latt] 0 aga9 split up  into !           
,dh>mott>yas1 ,bhadraynyas1 ,sammityas &
 ,*anng>ikas4  ,! ma9 bran* ( ! ,!ravda 
s*ool 0 f  ! second c5tury d[nw>ds kn[n 
z ! ,hetuvd9s or  ,s>v/ivd9s ,footnote  
ref #b4 ,! ,mahbodhivamsa id5tifies !   
,!ravda s*ool ) ! ,vibhajjavd9s4 ,!     
comm5tator ( !  ,ka?vat?u :o probably   
liv$ accord+ to ,mrs ,rhys ,davids      
sometime  9 ! fif? c5tury ,a4,d4 m5tions
 a few o!r s*ools (  ,buddhi/s4 ,b ( all
 ^! ,buddhi/ s*ools we "k v little4     
,vasumitra 7#ajj ,a4,d47 gives u "s v   
meagre acc\nts (        ,footnote #a3 ,!
 ,mahvamsa diff]s f ,dpavamsa 9 hold+ t 
! ,vajjiputtakas did n develop into !   
,mahsanghikas1 b x 0  ! ,mahsanghikas :o
 fir/ sec$$ :ile ! ,vajjiputtakas sec$$ 
indep5d5tly ( !m4 ,! ,mahbodhivamsa1 :i*
 accord+ to  ,pr(essor ,geig] 0 compos$ 

#ige ,a4,d4--#ajjj ,a4,d41 foll[s !     
,mahavamsa 9 hold+ ! ,mahsanghikas to be
 ! fir/ sec$]s  & ,vajjiputtakas to h   
sec$$ indep5d5tly4    ,vasumitra        
confuses ! c\ncil ( ,vesali ) ! ?ird    
c\ncil (  ,ptaliputra4 ,see introduction
 to translation ( ,ka?vat?u by  ,mrs    
,rhys ,davids4    ,footnote #b3 ,= o!r  
acc\nts ( ! s*ism see ,mr ,aung & ,mrs  
,rhys  ,davids's translation (          
,ka?vat?u1 pp4 xxxvi-xlv4    #aac       
c]ta9 s*ools1 ( ! ,mahsanghikas1        
,lokott>avd9s1  ,ekavyavahrikas1        
,kakkulikas1 ,prajaptivd9s & ,s>v/ivd9s1
 b  ^! acc\nts deal m ) subsidi>y matt]s
 ( little philosophical  importance4 ,"s
 ( ! po9ts ( int]e/ are 7#a7 t !        
,mahsanghikas 7 said to believe t ! body
 0 fill$ )  m9d 7citta7 :i* 0 repres5t$ 
z sitt+1 7#b7 t !  ,prajaptivd9s held t 
!re 0 no ag5t 9 man1 t !re 0  no        
untimely dea?1 = x 0 caus$ by ! previ\s 
de$s ( man1  7#c7 t ! ,s>v/ivd9s believ$
 t ev]y?+ exi/$4 ,f  ! discussions f\nd 
9 ! ,ka?vat?u also we may "k !  views ( 

"s ( ! s*ools on "s po9ts :i* are n     
always  devoid ( philosophical int]e/4  
,b !re is no?+ to be f\nd  by :i* we c  
prop]ly "k ! philosophy ( ^! s*ools4 ,x 
is q possible h[ev] t ^! s-call$ s*ools 
( ,buddhism  7 n s _m diff]5t sy/ems b  
only diff]$ f "o  ano!r on "s po9ts (   
dogma or practice :i* 7 consid]$  z be+ 
( suffici5t int]e/ to !m1 b :i* to u n[ 
appe> to be q trifl+4 ,b z we d n "k any
 ( _!  lit]atures1 x is bett] n to make 
any unw>rantable surmises4  ,^! s*ools  
are h[ev] n v important = a hi/ory (    
lat]  ,indian ,philosophy1 = none ( !m  
are ev5 ref]r$ to 9 any  ( ! sy/ems (   
,h9du ?\ght4 ,! only s*ools ( ,buddhism 
) :i* o!r s*ools ( philosophical ?\ght  
came 9 direct  contact1 are ! ,s>v/ivd9s
 includ+ ! ,sautrntikas &  !            
,vaibhsikas1 ! ,yogcra or ! ,vijnavd9s &
 !  ,mdhyamikas or ! ,s'nyavd9s4 ,we d n
 "k :i* ( !  div]se small] s*ools 7 tak5
 up into ^! f\r great s*ools1  !        
,sautrntika1 ,vaibhsika1 ,yogcra & !    
,mdhyamika  s*ools4 ,b z ^! s*ools 7 mo/

 important 9 relation  to ! developm5t (
 ! diff]5t sy/ems 9 ,h9du ?\ght1  x is  
be/ t we %\ld set ourselves to ga!r :at 
we c  ab\t ^! sy/ems ( ,buddhi/ic ?\ght4
    ,:5 ! ,h9du writ]s ref] to !        
,buddhi/ doctr9e 9  g5]al t]ms su* z !  
,buddhi/s say )\t call+ !m  ! ,vijnavd9s
 or ! ,yogcras & ! ,s'nyavd9s1  !y (t5  
ref] to ! ,s>v/ivd9s by :i* !y mean  bo?
 ! ,sautrntikas & ! ,vaibhsikas1 ignor+ 
! diff]5ce  t exi/s betwe5 ^! two       
s*ools4 ,x is well to  m5tion t !re is  
h>dly any evid5ce to prove t !  ,h9du   
writ]s 7 acqua9t$ ) ! ,!ravda doctr9es  
#aad    z express$ 9 ! ,pli works4 ,!   
,vaibhsikas & ! ,sautrntikas  h be5 m or
 less associat$ ) ea* o!r4 ,?us  !      
,abhidh>makos'z'/ra ( ,vasub&hu :o 0 a  
,vaibhsika  0 comm5t$ ^u by ,yas'omitra 
:o 0 a ,sautrntika4 ,!  diff]5ce betwe5 
! ,vaibhsikas & ! ,sautrntikas t        
attract$ ! notice ( ! ,h9du writ]s 0    
?is1 t ! =m]  believ$ t ext]nal objects 
7 directly p]ceiv$1 :]eas  ! latt]      
believ$ t ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal objects 

c\ld  only be inf]r$ f our div]sifi$ k  
,footnote ref #a4  ,gun>atna 7f\rte5?   
c5tury ,a4,d47 9 8 comm5t>y             
,t>k>ahasyadpik on ,sadd>s'anasamuccaya 
says t ! ,vaibhsika  0 b ano!r "n ( !   
ryasammitya s*ool4 ,accord+ to          
,gun>atna ! ,vaibhsikas held t ?+s exi/$
 = f\r mom5ts1  ! mom5t ( production1 ! 
mom5t ( exi/5ce1 ! mom5t (  decay & !   
mom5t ( annihilation4 ,x has be5 po9t$  
out  9 ,va/lb&hu's ,abhidh>makos'a t !  
,vaibhsikas believ$  ^! to be f\r k9ds (
 =ces :i* by com+ 9 comb9ation  ) !     
p]man5t ess5ce ( an entity produc$ its  
imp]man5t  manife/ations 9 life 7see    
,pr(4 ,/*]batsky's translation  (       
,yas'omitra on ,abhidh>makos'a krik1 ,v4
 #be74 ,! self call$  pudgala also      
possess$ ^? *>act]i/ics4 ,k 0  =mless & 
0 produc$ along ) its object by ! v     
same conditions 7ar?asahabhs            
ekasamgryadhnah74 ,! ,sautrntikas       
accord+ to ,gun>atna held t !re 0 no s\l
 b  only ! five sk&has4 ,^! sk&has      
transmigrat$4 ,! pa/1  ! future1        

annihilation1 dep5d5ce on cause1 ks'a & 
pudgala  are b names 7samjmtram71 m]e   
ass]tions 7pratijmtram71  m]e           
limitations 7samvrtamtram7 & m]e ph5om5a
 7vyavahramtram74  ,by pudgala !y meant 
t :i* o!r p call$ et]nal  & all p]vasive
 s\l4 ,ext]nal objects are nev] directly
  p]ceiv$ b are only inf]r$ z exi/+ =   
expla9+ !  div]sity ( k4 ,def9ite       
cognitions are valid2 all  comp\nd$ ?+s 
are mom5t>y 7ksanikh s>vasamskrh74      
,footnote #a3 ,mdhavcrya's              
,s>vad>s'anasamgraha1 *apt] ,,ii4       
,s'/radpik1 ! discussions on ,pratyaksa1
 ,amala&a's comm5t>y  7on ,bhmat7       
,v$ntakalpat>u1 p #bhf4 vaibhsikasya    
bhyo'r?ah  pratyaksah1 sautrntikasya    
jnagatkravaicitryen anumeyah4 ,!  nature
 ( ! inf]5ce ( ! ,sautrntikas is %[n ?us
 by  ,amaln&a 7#abdg-abfj ,a4,d47 ye    
yasm9 satyapi kdcitkh te                
tadatiriktpeksh 7^? i4e4 cognitions :i* 
9 spite ( c]ta9  unv>i$ conditions are (
 unacc\nt$ div]sity mu/ dep5d on o!r    
?+s 9 addition to ^!1 i4e4 ! ext]nal    

objects7  ,v$ntakalpat>u1 p4 #bhi4      
#aae    ,! atoms ( col\r1 ta/e1 smell & 
t\*1 & cognition are  be+ de/roy$ e     
mom5t4 ,! mean+s ( words always  imply !
 negations ( all o!r ?+s1 except+ t :i* 
is  int5d$ to be signifi$ by t ^w       
7anypohah s'abdr?ah74  ,salvation       
7moksa7 comes z ! result ( ! de/ruction 
( !  process ( k ?r\gh cont9ual         
m$itation t !re  is no s\l ,footnote ref
 #a4    ,"o ( ! ma9 diff]5ces betwe5 !  
,vibhajjavd9s1 ,sautrntikas  & !        
,vaibhsikas or ! ,s>v/ivd9s appe>s to   
ref] to ! notion ( "t :i* is a subject (
 great int]e/  ) ,buddhi/ philosophy4   
,?us ,abhidh>makos'a 7v4 #bd4447        
describes ! ,s>v/ivd9s z ^? :o ma9ta9 ! 
univ]sal  exi/5ce ( ev]y?+ pa/1 pres5t &
 future4 ,! ,vibhajjavd9s  are ^? :o    
ma9ta9 t ! pres5t elem5ts &  ^? among ! 
pa/ t h n yet produc$ _! fruition1  are 
exi/5t1 b !y d5y ! exi/5ce ( ! future   
ones &  ( ^? among ! pa/ t h already    
produc$ fruition4  ,!re 7 f\r bran*es ( 
?is s*ool repres5t$ by ,dh>matrta1      

,ghosa1 ,vasumitra & ,buddhadeva4       
,dh>matrta ma9ta9$  t :5 an elem5t ent]s
 diff]5t times1 its exi/5ce  *anges b n 
its ess5ce1 j z :5 milk is *ang$ into   
curd  or a gold5 vessel is brok51 ! =m (
 ! exi/5ce *anges  ?\gh ! ess5ce rema9s 
! same4 ,ghosa held t :5  an elem5t     
appe>s at diff]5t times1 ! pa/ "o reta9s
 its  pa/ aspects )\t be+ sev]$ f its   
future & pres5t  aspects1 ! pres5t      
likewise reta9s its pres5t aspect )\t   
completely los+ its pa/ & future        
aspects1 j z a man 9  passionate love ) 
a woman does n lose 8 capacity to love  
o!r wom5 ?\gh he is n actually 9 love ) 
!m4 ,vasumitra  held t an entity is     
call$ pres5t1 pa/ & future accord+  z x 
produces its effici5cy1 ceases to       
produce aft] hav+  once produc$ x or has
 n yet begun to produce x4 ,buddhadeva  
ma9ta9$ ! view t j z ! same woman may   
be call$ "m1 daught]1 wife1 s ! same    
entity may be  call$ pres5t1 pa/ or     
future 9 accordance ) its relation to ! 
prec$+ or ! succe$+ mom5t4    ,all ^!   

s*ools are 9 "s s5se ,s>v/ivd9s1 = !y   
ma9ta9 univ]sal exi/5ce4 ,b ! ,vaibhsika
 f9ds !m all  defective except+ ! view (
 ,vasumitra4 ,= ,dh>matrta's            
,footnote #a3 ,gun>atna's               
,t>k>ahasyadpik1 pp4 #df-dg4    #aaf    
view is only a veil$ ,smkhya doctr9e2 t 
( ,ghosa is  a confusion ( ! notion (   
"t1 s9ce x presupposes ! coexi/5ce  (   
all ! aspects ( an entity at ! same "t1 
&  t ( ,buddhadeva is also an impossible
 situation1 s9ce x w\ld  suppose t all !
 ?ree times 7 f\nd toge!r & includ$  9  
"o ( !m4 ,! ,vaibhsika f9ds himself 9   
agreem5t  ) ,vasumitra's view & holds t 
! diff]5ce 9 "t  dep5ds ^u ! diff]5ce ( 
! function ( an entity2 at !  "t :5 an  
entity does n actually produce its      
function x is  future2 :5 x produces x1 
x becomes pres5t2 :5 aft] hav+  produc$ 
x1 x /ops1 x becomes pa/2 !re is a real 
exi/5ce  ( ! pa/ & ! future z mu* z ( ! 
pres5t4 ,he ?9ks  t if ! pa/ did n exi/ 
& ass]t "s effici5cy x c\ld  n h be5 !  
object ( my k1 & de$s done 9  pa/ times 

c\ld n h produc$ its effects 9 ! pres5t 
"t4 ,! ,sautrntika h[ev] ?\ght t !      
,vaibhsika's  doctr9e w\ld imply !      
h]etical doctr9e ( et]nal exi/5ce1  =   
accord+ to !m ! /uff rema9$ ! same & !  
"t-diff]5ce  appe>$ 9 x4 ,! true view   
accord+ to him 01  t !re 0 no diff]5ce  
betwe5 ! effici5cy ( an entity1  !      
entity & ! "t ( its appe>ance4 ,entities
 appe>$  f non-exi/5ce1 exi/$ = a mom5t 
& aga9 ceas$ to  exi/4 ,he object$ to ! 
,vaibhsika view t ! pa/ is to  be reg>d$
 z exi/5t because x ex]ts effici5cy 9   
br++  ab\t ! pres5t on ! gr\nd t 9 t    
case !re %\ld  be no diff]5ce betwe5 !  
pa/ & ! pres5t1 s9ce bo?  ex]t$         
effici5cy4 ,if a di/9ction is made      
betwe5 pa/1 pres5t  & future effici5cy  
by a second grade ( effici5cies1 !n we  
%\ld h to cont9ue x & ?us h a vici\s    
inf9ite4 ,we  c "k non-exi/5t entities z
 mu* z we c "k exi/5t  ones1 & h5ce our 
k ( ! pa/ does n imply  t ! pa/ is ex]t+
 any effici5cy4 ,if a di/9ction is  made
 betwe5 an effici5cy & an entity1 !n !  

reason :y  effici5cy />t$ at any        
p>ticul> "t & ceas$ at ano!r  w\ld be   
inexplicable4 ,once y admit t !re is no 
diff]5ce  betwe5 effici5cy & ! entity1 y
 at once f9d t  !re is no "t at all & ! 
effici5cy1 ! entity & !  mom5t are all  
"o & ! same4 ,:5 we rememb] a ?+  ( !   
pa/ we d n "k x z exi/+ 9 ! pa/1 b 9 !  
same way 9 :i* we knew x :5 x 0 pres5t4 
,we are    #aag    nev] attract$ to pa/ 
passions z ! ,vaibhsika sugge/s1 b  pa/ 
passions leave residues :i* become !    
causes ( new  passions ( ! pres5t mom5t 
,footnote ref4#a4    ,aga9 we c h a     
glimpse ( ! respective positions (  !   
,vtsiputtryas & ! ,s>v/ivd9s z repres5t$
 by  ,vasub&hu if we att5d to !         
discussion on ! subject (  ! exi/5ce (  
s\l 9 ,abhidh>makos'a4 ,! argum5t (     
,vasub&hu aga9/ ! exi/5ce ( s\l is ?is1 
t ?\gh  x is true t ! s5se organs may be
 reg>d$ z a det]m9+  cause ( p]ception1 
no su* cause c be f\nd :i*  may r5d] !  
inf]5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( s\l necess>y4  ,if
 s\l actually exi/s1 x mu/ h an ess5ce (

 its own &  mu/ be some?+ diff]5t f !   
elem5ts or entities ( a  p]sonal life4  
,moreov]1 su* an et]nal1 uncaus$ &      
un*ang+  be+ w\ld be )\t any practical  
effici5cy 7ar?akriykritva7  :i* alone   
det]m9es or proves exi/5ce4 ,!  s\l c   
?us be said to h a m]e nom9al exi/5ce z 
a  m]e object ( curr5t usage4 ,!re is no
 s\l1 b !re are  only ! elem5ts ( a     
p]sonal life4 ,b ! ,vtsiputtrya  s*ool  
held t j z fire c\ld n be said to be    
ei!r !  same z ! burn+ wood or z diff]5t
 f x1 & yet x is  sep>ate f x1 s ! s\l  
is an individual 7pudgala7 :i* has  a   
sep>ate exi/5ce1 ?\gh we c\ld n say t x 
0  altoge!r diff]5t f ! elem5ts ( a     
p]sonal life or !  same z ^!4 ,x exi/s z
 be+ condition$ by ! elem5ts  ( p]sonal 
life1 b x _c fur!r be def9$4 ,b its     
exi/5ce  _c be d5i$1 = :]ev] !re is an  
activity1 !re mu/  be an ag5t 7e4g4     
,devadatta walks74 ,to be consci\s is   
likewise  an action1 h5ce ! ag5t :o is  
consci\s mu/ also exi/4  ,to ?is        
,vasub&hu replies t ,devadatta 7! "n ( a

  p]son7 does n repres5t an unity4 ,x is
 only an unbrok5  cont9uity ( mom5t>y   
=ces 7fla%+ into exi/5ce71 :i*  simple p
 believe to be a unity & to :i* !y give 
!  "n ,devadatta4 ,_! belief t          
,devadatta moves is condition$1  & is   
bas$ on an analogy ) _! own exp]i5ce1  b
 _! own cont9uity ( life consi/s 9      
con/antly mov+  f "o place to ano!r4    
,?is movem5t1 ?\gh reg>d$ z             
,footnote #a3 ,i am indebt$ = ! above   
acc\nt to ! unpubli%$  translation f    
,tibetan ( a small portion (            
,abhidh>makoia by  my e/eem$ fri5d ,pr(4
 ,?4 ,/*]batsky ( ,petrograd4 ,i am     
grateful  to him t he all[$ me to       
utilize x4    #aah    belong+ to a      
p]man5t entity1 is b a s]ies ( new      
productions  9 diff]5t places1 j z !    
expressions 'fire moves1'  's\nd        
spreads' h ! mean+ ( cont9uities 7( new 
productions  9 new places74 ,!y likewise
 use ! words ',devadatta  cognises' 9   
ord] to express ! fact t a cognition    
7takes place  9 ! pres5t mom5t7 :i* has 

a cause 79 ! =m] mom5ts1  ^! =m] mom5ts 
com+ 9 close succession be+ call$       
,devadatta74    ,! problem ( memory also
 does n br+ any difficulty1  = ! /ream (
 consci\sness be+ "o ?r\gh\t1 x produces
  its recollections :5 connect$ ) a     
previ\s k (  ! rememb]$ object "u c]ta9 
conditions ( att5tion1  etc41 & abs5ce (
 di/ractive factors1 su* z bodily pa9s  
or  viol5t emotions4 ,no ag5t is requir$
 9 ! ph5om5a (  memory4 ,! cause (      
recollection is a suitable /ate ( m9d  &
 no?+ else4 ,:5 ! ,buddha told 8 bir?   
/ories say+  t he 0 su* & su* 9 su* &   
su* a life1 he only  meant t 8 pa/ & 8  
pres5t belong$ to "o & !  same l9eage ( 
mom5t>y exi/5ces4 ,j z :5 we say  ?is   
same fire :i* _h be5 consum+ t has rea*$
 ?is  object1 we "k t ! fire is n       
id5tical at any two  mom5ts1 b yet we   
ov]look ! diff]5ce & say t x is  ! same 
fire4 ,aga91 :at we call an individual c
 only be  kn[n by descriptions su* z ?is
 v5]able man1 hav+ ?is  "n1 ( su* a     
ca/e1 ( su* a family1 ( su* an age1 eat+

  su* food1 f9d+ pleasure or displeasure
 9 su* ?+s1 ( su*  an age1 ! man :o aft]
 a life ( su* l5g?1 w pass away  hav+   
rea*$ an age4 ,only s mu* description c 
be  und]/ood1 b we h nev] a direct      
acqua9tance ) !  individual2 all t is   
p]ceiv$ are ! mom5t>y elem5ts (         
s5sations1 images1 feel+s1 etc41 & ^!   
happ5+ at !  =m] mom5ts ex]t a pressure 
on ! lat] ones4 ,! individual  is ?us   
only a fiction1 a m]e nom9al exi/5ce1 a 
m]e  ?+ ( description & n ( acqua9tance2
 x _c be  grasp$ ei!r by ! s5ses or by !
 action ( pure intellect4  ,?is becomes 
evid5t :5 we judge x by analogies f o!r 
fields4 ,?us :5ev] we use any common    
n\n1 e4g4 milk1 we  sometimes falsely   
?9k t !re is su* an entity z milk1 b    
:at really exi/s is only c]ta9 mom5t>y  
col\rs1 ta/es1 etc41  fictiti\sly unifi$
 z milk2 & j z milk & wat] are    #aai  
conv5tional names 7= a set ( indep5d5t  
elem5ts7 = "s  col\r1 smell 7ta/e & t\*7
 tak5 toge!r1 s is ! designation        
'individual' b a common "n = ! diff]5t  

elem5ts  ( :i* x is compos$4    ,!      
reason :y ! ,buddha decl9$ to decide !  
"q  :e!r ! liv+ be+ is id5tical ) ! body
 or n is  j because !re did n exi/ any  
liv+ be+ z individual1  z is g5]ally    
suppos$4 ,he did n decl>e t ! liv+  be+ 
did n exi/1 because 9 t case ! que/ion] 
w\ld  h ?\ght t ! cont9uity ( ! elem5ts 
( a life 0  also d5i$4 ,9 tru? ! liv+   
be+ is only a conv5tional  "n = a set ( 
con/antly *ang+ elem5ts ,footnote ref   
#a4    ,! only book ( ! ,sammityas kn[n 
to u & t by  "n only is ! ,sammityas'/ra
 translat$ into ,*9ese betwe5  #cej     
,a4,d4 to #dca ,a4,d42 ! orig9al        
,sanskrit works are h[ev]  probably lo/ 
,footnote ref #b4    ,! ,vaibhsikas are 
id5tifi$ ) ! ,s>v/ivd9s :o  accord+ to  
,dpavamsa ,v4 #dg1 z po9t$ out by       
,takakusu1  bran*$ (f f ! ,mahs'sakas1  
:o 9 _! turn _h  sep>at$ f ! ,!ravda    
s*ool4    ,f ! ,ka?vat?u we "k 7#a7 t ! 
,sabbat?ivd9s  believ$ t ev]y?+ exi/$1  
7#b7 t ! dawn ( "r atta9m5t  0 n a      
mom5t>y fla% ( insight b by a gradual   

process1 7#c7 t consci\sness or ev5     
samdhi 0 no?+ b        ,footnote #a3    
,?is acc\nt is bas$ on ! translation (  
,astamakos'a/hnanibaddhah               
pudgolav9is'cayah1 a special app5dix  to
 ! eigh? *apt] ( ,abhidh>makos'a1 by    
,pr( ,?4 ,/*]batsky1  ,bullet9 de l'    
,acadmie des ,sci5ces de ,russie1 #aiai4
    ,footnote #b3 ,pr(essor ,de la      
,valle ,p\ss9 has collect$ "s ( !  po9ts
 ( ?is doctr9e 9 an article on !        
,sammityas 9 ! ,e4 ,r4,e4  ,he !re says 
t 9 ! ,abhidh>makos'avykhy ! ,sammityas 
h  be5 id5tifi$ ) ! ,vtsputtryas & t _m 
( its texts 7  admitt$ by ! ,vaibhsikas 
( a lat] age4 ,"s ( _! views are z      
foll[s3 7#a7 ,an arhat 9 possession (   
nirvna c fall away2 7#b7 !re is  an     
int]m$iate /ate betwe5 dea? & rebir?    
call$ ant>bhava2 7#c7  m]it accrues n   
only by gift 7tyagnvaya7 b also by !    
fact ( !  actual use & advantage reap$  
by ! man to :om ! ?+ 0 giv5             
7p>ibhognvaya punya72 7#d7 n only       
ab/5tion f evil de$s b a  decl>ation (  

int5tion to t end produces m]it by      
itself alone2 7#e7  !y believe 9 a      
pudgala 7s\l7 z di/9ct f ! sk&has f  :i*
 x c be said to be ei!r diff]5t or      
non-diff]5t4 ,! pudgala  _c be said to  
be transitory 7anitye7 l ! sk&has s9ce x
  transmigrates lay+ d[n ! burd5        
7sk&has7 %\ld]+ a new burd52  x _c be   
said to be p]man5t1 s9ce x is made (    
transitory  con/itu5ts4 ,?is pudgala    
doctr9e ( ! ,sammityas z sket*$ by      
,pr(essor ,de la ,valle ,p\ss9 is n 9   
full agreem5t ) ! pudgala  doctr9e ( !  
,sammityas z sket*$ by ,gun>atna :i* we 
h  notic$ above4    #abj    a flux &    
7#d7 t an arhat 7sa9t7 may fall away    
,footnote ref #a4  ,! ,sabbat?ivd9s or  
,s>v/ivd9s h a va/ ,abhidh>ma lit]ature 
/ill exi/+ 9 ,*9ese translations :i* is 
diff]5t f !  ,abhidh>ma ( ! ,!ravda     
s*ool :i* we h already m5tion$          
,footnote ref #b4 ,^! are #a4           
,jnapra/hna ,s'/ra (  ,ktyyanputtra :i* 
pass$ by ! "n ( ,mah ,vibhs f :i*  !    
,sabbat?ivd9s :o foll[$ x are call$     

,vaibhsikas ,footnote ref  #c4 ,?is "w  
is said to h be5 giv5 a lit]>y =m by    
,z'vaghosa4  #b4 ,dh>mask&ha by         
,s'riputtra4 #c4 ,dhtukya by ,prna4  #d4
 ,prajaptis'/ra by ,maudgalyyana4 #e4   
,vijnakya by ,devaksema4  #f4           
,sangtip>yyya by ,sriputtra &           
,prak>anapda by ,vasumitra4  ,vasub&hu  
7#dbj ,a4,d4-#ejj ,a4,d47 wrote a "w on 
! ,vaibhsika ,footnote  ref #d sy/em 9  
v]ses 7krik7 kn[n z ! ,abhidh>makos'a1  
to :i* he app5d$ a comm5t>y ( 8 own :i* 
passes by ! "n  ,abhidh>ma ,kos'abhsya 9
 :i* he po9t$ out "s ( ! defects  ( !   
,vaibhsika s*ool f ! ,sautrntika po9t ( 
view ,footnote  ref #e4 ,?is "w 0       
comm5t$ ^u by ,vasumitra & ,gunamati &  
lat] on by ,yas'omitra :o 0 himself a   
,sautrntika & call$ 8  "w               
,abhidh>makos'a vykhy2 ,sanghabhadra a  
contempor>y ( ,vasub&hu  wrote          
,samayapradipa & ,nyynusra 7,*9ese      
translations ( :i*  are available7 on   
/rict ,vaibhsika l9es4 ,we he> also (   
o!r  ,vaibhsika writ]s su* z ,dh>matrta1

 ,ghosaka1 ,vasumitra &  ,bhadanta1 !   
writ] ( ,samyuktbhidh>mas'/ra &         
,mahvibhs4  ,dinnga7#dhj ,a4,d471 !     
celebrat$ logician1 a ,vaibhsika  or a  
,sautrntika & reput$ to be a pupil (    
,vasub&hu1  wrote 8 fam\s "w            
,pramnasamuccaya 9 :i* he  e/abli%$     
,buddhi/ logic & refut$ _m ( ! views (  
,vtsyyana  ! celebrat$ comm5tator ( !   
,nyya stras2 b we regret                
,footnote #a3 ,see ,mrs ,rhys ,davids's 
translation ,ka?vat?u1 p4 xix1  &       
,sections ,i4#f1g2 ,,ii4 #i & ,,xi4 #f4 
,footnote #b3 ,mahvyutpatti gives two   
names = ,s>v/ivda1 viz4  ,mlas>v/ivda & 
ryyas>v/ivda4 ,its+ 7#fga-fie ,a4,d47   
speaks  ( ryyamlas>v/ivda &             
,mlas>v/ivda4 ,9 8 "t he f\nd  x        
prevail+ 9 ,magadha1 ,guzrat1 ,s9d1 ,s4 
,india1 ,e4 ,india4 ,takakusu  says     
7,p4,t4,s4 #aijd-aije7 t ,p>amr?a1 9 8  
life ( ,vasub&hu1  says t x 0 propagat$ 
f ,ka%m]e to ,middle ,india by          
,vasubhadra1  :o /udi$ x !re4           
,footnote #c3 ,takakusu says 7,p4,t4,s4 

#aijd-aije7 t ,ktyyanputtra's "w  0     
probably a compilation f o!r ,vibhss :i*
 exi/$ be=e !  ,*9ese translations &    
,vibhs texts dat$ #chc ,a4,d4           
,footnote #d3 ,see ,takakusu's article  
,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aije4    ,footnote #e3 ,! 
,sautrntikas did n reg>d ! ,abhidh>mas (
 !  ,vaibhsikas z au!ntic & laid /ress  
on ! suttanta doctr9es  z giv5 9 !      
,suttapitaka4    #aba    to say t none (
 ! above works are available 9          
,sanskrit1  nor h !y be5 retranslat$ f  
,*9ese or ,tibetan into  any ( ! mod]n  
,european or ,indian languages4    ,!   
,japanese s*ol> ,mr ,yamakami ,sog51    
late lectur] at  ,calcutta ,univ]sity1  
describes ! doctr9e ( ! ,sabbat?ivd9s  f
 ! ,*9ese v]sions ( ! ,abhidh>makos'a1  
,mahvibhss'/ra1  etc41 r elaborately    
,footnote ref #a4 ,! foll[+ is a %ort   
sket*1  :i* is borr[$ ma9ly f ! acc\nts 
giv5 by ,mr ,sog54    ,! ,sabbat?ivd9s  
admitt$ ! five sk&has1 twelve  yatanas1 
eighte5 dhtus1 ! ?ree asamskrta dh>mas (
  pratisamkhynirodha apratisamkhynirodha

 & ks'a1 & !  samskrta dh>mas 7?+s      
composite & int]dep5d5t7 ( rpa  7matt]71
 citta 7m9d71 caitta 7m5tal7 &          
cittaviprayukta 7non-m5tal7  ,footnote  
ref #b4 ,all effects are produc$ by !   
com+ toge!r  7samskrta7 ( a numb] (     
causes4 ,! five sk&has1 & !  rpa1 citta1
 etc41 are ?us call$ samskrta dh>mas    
7composite  ?+s or                      
collocations--sambhyakri74 ,! rpa dh>mas
 are  elev5 9 numb]1 "o citta dh>ma1 #df
 caitta dh>mas & #ad  cittaviprayukta   
samskra dh>mas 7non-m5tal composite     
?+s72  add+ to ^! ! ?ree asamskrta      
dh>mas we h ! sev5ty-five  dh>mas4 ,rpa 
is t :i* has ! capacity to ob/ruct !    
s5se organs4 ,matt] is reg>d$ z !       
collective organism or  collocation1    
consi/+ ( ! f\rfold sub/ratum ( col\r1  
smell1  ta/e & contact4 ,! unit possess+
 ?is f\rfold sub/ratum  is kn[n z       
p>amnu1 :i* is ! m9ute/ =m ( rpa4 ,x  _c
 be pi]c$ ?r\gh or pick$ up or ?r[n     
away4 ,x is  indivisible1 unanalysable1 
invisible1 inaudible1 unta/able &       

intangible4  ,b yet x is n p]man5t1 b is
 l a mom5t>y  fla% into be+4 ,! simple  
atoms are call$ dravyap>amnu  & !       
comp\nd ones samghtap>amnu4 ,9 ! words (
  ,pr(4 ,/*]batsky ! univ]sal elem5ts ( 
matt] are manife/$  9 _! actions or     
functions4 ,!y are consequ5tly m        
en]gies ?an sub/ances4 ,! organs ( s5se 
are also reg>d$  z modifications (      
atomic matt]4 ,sev5 su* p>amnus comb9e  
toge!r to =m an anu1 & x is 9 ?is comb9$
 =m  only t !y become p]ceptible4 ,!    
comb9ation takes  place 9 ! =m ( a clu/]
 hav+ "o atom at ! c5tre &              
,footnote #a3 ,sy/ems ( ,buddhi/ic      
,?\ght1 publi%$ by ! ,calcutta          
,univ]sity4    ,footnote #b3 ,s'ank>a 9 
8 meagre sket* ( ! doctr9e ( !          
,s>v/ivd9s 9 8 bhsya on ! ,brahma-stras 
,,ii4 #b notices "s  ( ! categories     
m5tion$ by ,sog54    #abb    o!rs ar\nd 
x4 ,! po9t :i* mu/ be rememb]$ 9        
connection  ) ! conception ( matt] is   
?is1 t ! qualities  ( all ! mahbhtas are
 inh]5t 9 ! p>amnus4 ,! special         

*>act]i/ics ( r\ghness 7:i* naturally   
belongs to e>?71  visc\sness 7:i*       
naturally belongs to wat]71 heat        
7belong+  to fire71 movabl5ess 7belong+ 
to w9d71 comb9e toge!r to  =m ea* ( !   
elem5ts2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! diff]5t    
elem5ts consi/s only 9 ?is1 t 9 ea* ( !m
 its own special  *>act]i/ics 7         
pr$om9ant & active1 & o!r *>act]i/ics   
?\gh pres5t rema9$ only 9 a pot5tial =m4
 ,!  mutual resi/ance ( mat]ial ?+s is  
due to ! quality (  e>? or ! solidness  
inh]5t 9 !m2 ! mutual attraction (  ?+s 
is due to moi/ure or ! quality ( wat]1 &
 s =?4  ,! f\r elem5ts are to be obs]v$ 
f ?ree aspects1 namely1  7#a7 z ?+s1    
7#b7 f ! po9t ( view ( _! natures 7su* z
  activity1 moi/ure1 etc471 & 7#c7      
function 7su* z dhrti or  attraction1   
samgraha or cohesion1 pakti or *emical  
heat1 &  vyhana or clu/]+ & collect+74  
,^! comb9e toge!r  naturally by o!r     
conditions or causes4 ,! ma9 po9t (     
di/9ction  betwe5 ! ,vaibhsika          
,s>v/ivad9s & o!r =ms ( ,buddhism  is   

?is1 t "h ! five sk&has & matt] are     
reg>d$  z p]man5t & et]nal2 !y are said 
to be mom5t>y  only 9 ! s5se t !y are   
*ang+ _! phases con/antly1  ow+ to _!   
con/ant *ange ( comb9ation4 ,avidy is n 
reg>d$ "h z a l9k 9 ! *a9 ( ! causal    
s]ies (  prattyasamutpda2 nor is x      
ignorance ( any p>ticul> individual1  b 
is r id5tical ) moha or delusion &      
repres5ts ! ultimate /ate ( immat]ial   
dh>mas4 ,avidy1  :i* ?r\gh samskra1     
etc41 produces nm>pa 9 ! case (  a      
p>ticul> individual1 is n 8 avidy 9 !   
pres5t exi/5ce  b ! avidy ( 8 pa/       
exi/5ce be>+ fruit 9 ! pres5t  life4    
,! cause nev] p]i%es b only *anges its  
"n1 :5  x becomes an effect1 hav+ *ang$ 
its /ate4 ,= example1  clay becomes j>1 
hav+ *ang$ its /ate2 & 9 ?is case !  "n 
clay is lo/ & ! "n j> arises ,footnote  
ref #a4 ,!  ,s>v/ivd9s all[$            
simultane\sness betwe5 cause & effect   
only 9  ! case ( composite ?+s          
7samprayukta hetu7 & 9 ! case (         
,footnote #a3 ,sog5's quotation f       

,kumrajva's ,*9ese v]sion (  ryyadeva's 
comm5t>y on ! ,mdhyamika s'/ra 7*apt]   
,,xx4 ,krik #i74    #abc    ! int]action
 ( m5tal & mat]ial ?+s4 ,! sub/ratum  ( 
vijna or consci\sness is reg>d$ z       
p]man5t &  ! aggregate ( ! five s5ses   
7indriyas7 is call$ ! p]ceiv]4  ,x mu/  
be rememb]$ t ! indriyas be+ mat]ial _h 
a  p]man5t sub/ratum1 & _! aggregate _h 
!re=e also a  sub/ratum =m$ ( !m4    ,! 
s5se ( sight grasps ! f\r ma9 col\rs (  
blue1 yell[1  r$1 :ite1 & _!            
comb9ations1 z also ! visual =ms (      
appe>ance 7sam/hna7 ( long1 %ort1 r\nd1 
squ>e1 high1 l[1  /raight1 & crook$4 ,! 
s5se ( t\* 7ky5driya7 has =  its object 
! f\r elem5ts & ! qualities ( smoo?ness1
  r\ghness1 lightness1 heav9ess1 cold1  
hung] & ?ir/4 ,^!  qualities repres5t ! 
feel+s g5]at$ 9 s5ti5t be+s by  !       
objects ( t\*1 hung]1 ?ir/1 etc41 & are 
also c\nt$  "u x1 z !y are ! organic    
effects produc$ by a t\*  :i* excites ! 
physical frame at a "t :5 ! en]gy (  w9d
 becomes active 9 our body & pr$om9ates 

ov] o!r  en]gies2 s also ! feel+ ( ?ir/ 
is caus$ by a t\* :i*  excites !        
physical frame :5 ! en]gy ( ! elem5t (  
fire  becomes active & pr$om9ates ov] ! 
o!r en]gies4 ,!  indriyas 7s5ses7 c aft]
 grasp+ ! ext]nal objects ar\se  ?\ght  
7vijna72 ea* ( ! five s5ses is an ag5t  
)\t  :i* none ( ! five vijnas w\ld      
become capable ( p]ceiv+  an ext]nal    
object4 ,! ess5ce ( ! s5ses is entirely 
mat]ial4 ,ea* s5se has two subdivisions1
 namely1 ! pr9cipal  s5se & ! auxili>y  
s5se4 ,! sub/ratum ( ! pr9cipal  s5ses  
consi/s ( a comb9ation ( p>amnus1 :i*   
are extremely  pure & m9ute1 :ile !     
sub/ratum ( ! latt] is  ! fle%1 made (  
gross] mat]ials4 ,! five s5ses diff] f  
"o ano!r ) respect to ! mann] & =m ( _! 
respective  atomic comb9ations4 ,9 all  
s5se-acts1 :5ev] an act is  p]=m$ & an  
idea is impress$1 a lat5t en]gy is      
impress$  on our p]son :i* is designat$ 
z avijapti rpa4 ,x is call$  rpa because
 x is a result or effect ( rpa-contact2 
x is call$  avijapti because x is lat5t 

& unconsci\s2 ?is lat5t en]gy  is b\nd  
soon] or lat] to express itself 9 k>ma  
effects & is  ! only bridge :i* connects
 ! cause & ! effect ( k>ma  done by body
 or spee*4 ,k>ma 9 ?is s*ool is consid]$
  z tw(old1 namely1 t z ?\ght 7cetana   
k>ma7 & t z  activity 7caitasika k>ma74 
,?is la/1 aga91 is ( two k9ds1 viz4     
#abd    t due to body-motion 7kyika     
k>ma7 & spee* 7vcika  k>ma74 ,bo? ^! may
 aga9 be lat5t 7avijapti7 & pat5t       
7vijapti71 giv+ u ! kyika-vijnpti k>ma1 
kyikvijapti  k>ma1 vcika-vijapti k>ma & 
vcikvijapti k>ma4 ,avijapti  rpa &      
avijapti k>ma are :at we %\ld call 9    
mod]n  phraseology sub-consci\s ideas1  
feel+s & activity4 ,correspond+  to ea* 
consci\s s5sation1 feel+1 ?\ght or      
activity  !re is ano!r simil>           
sub-consci\s /ate :i* expresses itself  
9 future ?\ghts & actions2 z ^! are n   
directly kn[n b  are simil> to ^? :i*   
are kn[n1 !y are call$ avijapti4    ,!  
m9d1 says ,vasub&hu1 is call$ cittam1   
because x  wills 7cetati71 manas because

 x ?9ks 7manvate7 & vijna  because x    
discrim9ates 7nirdis'ati74 ,!           
discrim9ation may be  ( ?ree k9ds3 7#a7 
svabhva nirdes'a 7natural p]ceptual     
discrim9ation71  7#b7 prayoga nirdes'a  
7actual discrim9ation z pres5t1  pa/ &  
future71 & 7#c7 anusmrti nirdes'a       
7rem9isc5t discrim9ation  ref]r+ only to
 ! pa/74 ,! s5ses only possess !        
svabhva nirdes'a1 ! o!r two belong      
exclusively to manovijna4  ,ea* ( !     
vijnas z associat$ ) its specific s5se  
discrim9ates  its p>ticul> object &     
p]ceives its g5]al *>act]i/ics2  ! six  
vijnas comb9e to =m :at is kn[n z !     
,vijnask&ha1 :i* is presid$ ov] by m9d  
7mano74 ,!re  are =ty-six caitta        
samskrta dh>mas4 ,( ! ?ree asamskrta    
dh>mas ks'a 7e!r7 is 9 ess5ce ! fre$om f
 ob/ruction1  e/abli%+ x z a p]man5t    
omnipres5t immat]ial sub/ance  7nrpkhya1
 non-rpa74 ,! second asamskrta dh>ma1   
apratisamkhy  nirodha1 means !          
non-p]ception ( dh>mas caus$  by !      
abs5ce ( pratyayas or conditions4 ,?us  

:5 ,i fix my  att5tion on "o ?+1 o!r ?+s
 are n se5 !n1 n because  !y are        
non-exi/5t b because ! conditions :i*   
w\ld  h made !m visible 7 abs5t4 ,! ?ird
 asamskrta  dh>ma1 pratisamkhy nirodha1 
is ! f9al deliv]ance f  bondage4 ,its   
ess5tial *>act]i/ic is ev]la/+ness4 ,^! 
are call$ asamskrta because be+ ( !     
nature ( negation  !y are               
non-collocative & h5ce h no production  
or dissolution4  ,! eightfold noble pa? 
:i* leads to ?is /ate consi/s ( "r      
views1 "r aspirations1 "r spee*1 "r     
conduct1 "r livelihood1  "r ef=t1 "r    
m9dfulness1 "r rapture ,footnote ref #a4
        ,footnote #a3 ,mr ,sog5 m5tions 
! "n ( ano!r ,buddhi/ ,hnayna  ?9k]     
7ab\t #bej ,a4,d471 ,h>iv>man1 :o f\nd$ 
a s*ool kn[n z  ,satyasiddhi s*ool1 :i* 
prop\nd$ ! same sort ( doctr9es z  ^?   
prea*$ by ,ngrjuna4 ,none ( 8 works are 
available 9 ,sanskrit  & ,i h nev] come 
across any allusion to 8 "n by ,sanskrit
 writ]s4    #abe      ,mahynism4    ,x  
is difficult to say precisely at :at "t 

,mahynism took  its rise4 ,b !re is     
reason to ?9k t z ! ,mahsanghikas       
sep>at$ !mselves f ! ,!ravd9s probably  
"s "t 9  #djj ,b4,c4 & split !mselves up
 into eight diff]5t s*ools1 ^?  elem5ts 
( ?\ghts & ideas :i* 9 lat] days came to
 be  labell$ z ,mahyna 7 gradually on ! 
way to tak+ _!  fir/ inception4 ,we he> 
9 ab\t #ajj ,a4,d4 ( a numb] ( works    
:i* are reg>d$ z v>i\s ,mahyna stras1 "s
 ( :i*  are probably z old z at lea/    
#ajj ,b4,c4 7if n e>li]7 & o!rs  z late 
z #cjj or #djj ,a4,d4,footnote ref #a4  
,^! ,mahynastras1 also  call$ !         
,vaipulyastras1 are g5]ally all 9 ! =m (
 in/ructions  giv5 by ! ,buddha4 ,no?+  
is kn[n ab\t _! au?ors or  compil]s1 b  
!y are all writt5 9 "s =m ( ,sanskrit & 
7 probably writt5 by ^? :o sec$$ f !    
,!ravda  s*ool4    ,! ^w ,hnayna ref]s  
to ! s*ools ( ,!ravda1 &  z su* x is    
contra/$ ) ,mahyna4 ,! words are g5]ally
  translat$ z small vehicle 7hna  small1
 yna  vehicle7 & great  vehicle 7mah    
great1 yna  vehicle74 ,b ?is translation

 by  no means expresses :at is meant by 
,mahyna & ,hnayna  ,footnote ref #b4    
,asanga 7#dhj ,a4,d47 9 8               
,mahynastrlamkra gives        ,footnote 
#a3 ,quotations & ref]5ces to _m ( ^!   
stras are f\nd 9  ,c&rakrtti's comm5t>y 
on ! ,mdhyamka kriks ( ,ngrjuna2 "s (   
^! are ! foll[+3 ,astashasrikprajpramit 
7translat$ into  ,*9ese #afd ,a4,d4-#afg
 ,a4,d471 ,s'atashasrikprajpramit1      
,gaganagaja1  ,samdhistra1              
,ta?gataguhyastra1                      
,drdhdhys'ayasacodanstra1               
,dhyyitamustistra1 ,pitputrasamgamastra1
 ,mahynastra1  ,mradamanastra1          
,ratnaktastra1 ,ratnacdp>iprc*stra1     
,ratnameghastra1 ,ratn>sistra1          
,ratnk>astra1  ,rstraplap>iprc*stra1    
,lankvatrastra1 ,lalitavi/>astra1       
,vajrac*$ikstra1 ,vimalakrtt9irdes'ztra1
 ,s'li/ambhastra1  ,samdhirajasutra1    
,sukhvatvyha1 ,suv>naprabhsastra1       
,saddh>mapund>ika 7translat$ into ,*9ese
 ,a4,d4 #bee71  ,amityurdhynastra1      
,ha/ikkhyastra1 etc4    ,footnote #b3 ,!

 ^w ,yna is g5]ally translat$ z vehicle1
 b a  consid]ation ( num]\s contexts 9  
:i* ! ^w occurs seems to  sugge/ t x    
means c>e] or c\rse or way1 r ?an       
vehicle  7,lalitavi/>a1 pp4 #be1 #ch2   
,prajpramit1 pp4 #bd1 #cai2             
,samdhirjastra1 p4 #a2 ,k>unpund>ka1 p4 
#fg2 ,lankvatrastra1  pp4 #fh1 #ajh1    
#acb74 ,! ^w ,yna is z old z !          
,upanisads :]e we read  ( ,devayna &    
,pitryna4 ,!re is no reason :y ?is ^w   
%\ld be  tak5 9 a diff]5t s5se4 ,we he> 
9 ,lankvatra ( ,s'rvakayna  7c>e] ( !   
,s'rvakas or ! ,!ravd9 ,buddhi/s71      
,pratyekabuddhayna  7! c>e] ( sa9ts be=e
 ! com+ ( ! ,buddha71 ,buddha  yna 7c>e]
 ( ! ,buddhas71 ,ekayna 7"o c>e]71      
,devayna 7c>e] (  ! gods71 ,brahmayna   
7c>e] ( becom+ a ,brahm71 ,ta?gatayna   
7c>e] ( a ,ta?gata74 ,9 "o place        
,lankvatra says t ord9>ily  di/9ction is
 made betwe5 ! ?ree c>e]s & "o c>e] & no
 c>e]1  b ^! di/9ctions are only = !    
ignorant 7,lankvatra1 p4 #fh74    #abf  
u ! reason :y "o s*ool 0 call$ ,hnayna  

:]eas !  o!r1 :i* he pr(ess$1 0 call$   
,mahyna4 ,he says t1  consid]$ f ! po9t 
( view ( ! ultimate goal ( religion1  ! 
in/ructions1 attempts1 realization1 &   
"t1 ! ,hnayna  occupies a l[] & small]  
place ?an ! o!r call$ ,mah  7great7     
,yna1 & h5ce x is br&$ z ,hna 7small1 or
 l[74  ,?is br+s u to "o ( ! fundam5tal 
po9ts ( di/9ction  betwe5 ,hnayna &     
,mahyna4 ,! ultimate good ( an  adh]5t (
 ! ,hnayna is to atta9 8 own nirvna or  
salvation1  :]eas ! ultimate goal ( ^?  
:o pr(ess$ ! ,mahyna  cre$ 0 n to seek  
_! own salvation b to seek !  salvation 
( all be+s4 ,s ! ,hnayna goal 0 l[]1 & 9
  consequ5ce ( t ! in/ructions t its    
foll[]s receiv$1  ! attempts !y         
und]took1 & ! results !y a*iev$ 7  n>r[]
 ?an t ( ! ,mahyna adh]5ts4 ,a ,hnayna  
man  _h only a %ort bus9ess 9 atta9+ 8  
own salvation1 & ?is  c\ld be done 9    
?ree lives1 :]eas a ,mahyna adh]5t 0    
prep>$ to "w = inf9ite "t 9 help+ all   
be+s to atta9  salvation4 ,s ! ,hnayana 
adh]5ts requir$ only a %ort p]iod  ( "w 

& may f t po9t ( view also be call$ hna1
 or  l[]4    ,?is po9t1 ?\gh important f
 ! po9t ( view ( !  diff]5ce 9 ! cre$ ( 
! two s*ools1 is n s f ! po9t  ( view ( 
philosophy4 ,b !re is ano!r trait ( !   
,mahyni/s  :i* di/+ui%es !m f !         
,hnayni/s f !  philosophical po9t (     
view4 ,! ,mahyni/s believ$ t all  ?+s 7 
( a non-ess5tial & indef9able "* &  void
 at bottom1 :]eas ! ,hnayni/s only      
believ$ 9 !  imp]man5ce ( all ?+s1 b did
 n proce$ fur!r ?an  t4    ,x is        
sometimes errone\sly ?\ght t ,ngrjuna   
fir/  prea*$ ! doctr9e ( ,s'nyavda      
7ess5celessness or voidness  ( all      
appe>ance71 b 9 reality almo/ all !     
,mahyna stras  ei!r def9itely prea* ?is 
doctr9e or allude to x4 ,?us if we  take
 "s ( ^? stras :i* 7 9 all probability  
e>li] ?an  ,ngrjuna1 we f9d t ! doctr9e 
:i* ,ngrjuna exp\nd$    #abg    ) all ! 
rig\r ( 8 p[]ful dialectic 0 quietly    
accept$  z an indisputable tru?4 ,?us we
 f9d ,subhti say+ to  ! ,buddha t v$an  
7feel+71 samj 7concepts7 & !  samskras  

7con=mations7 are all my 7illusion7     
,footnote ref #a4 ,all  ! sk&has1 dhtus 
7elem5ts7 & yatanas are void & absolute 
cessation4 ,! highe/ k ( ev]y?+ z pure  
void  is n diff]5t f ! sk&has1 dhtus &  
yatanas1 & ?is  absolute cessation (    
dh>mas is reg>d$ z ! highe/ k           
7prajpramit7 ,footnote ref #b4 ,ev]y?+  
be+ void !re is 9  reality no process & 
no cessation4 ,! tru? is nei!r et]nal   
7s's'vata7 nor non-et]nal 7z's'vata7 b  
pure void4 ,x %\ld  be ! object ( a     
sa9t's endeav\r to put himself 9 !      
?atness  7ta?at7 & consid] all ?+s z    
void4 ,! sa9t 7bodhisattva7  has to     
e/abli% himself 9 all ! virtues         
7pramit71 b5evol5ce  7dnapramit71 !     
virtue ( "* 7s'lapramit71 ! virtue  (   
=be>ance 7ksntipramit71 ! virtue (      
t5acity & /r5g?  7vryyapramit7 & !      
virtue ( m$itation 7dhynapramit74  ,!   
sa9t 7bodhisattva7 is firmly det]m9$ t  
he w  help an inf9ite numb] ( s\ls to   
atta9 nirvna4 ,9 reality1  h[ev]1 !re   
are no be+s1 !re is no bondage1 no      

salvation2  & ! sa9t kn[s x b too well1 
yet he is n afraid  ( ?is high tru?1 b  
proce$s on 8 c>e] ( atta9+ =  all       
illusory be+s illusory emancipation f   
illusory bondage4  ,! sa9t is actuat$ ) 
t feel+ & proce$s 9 8  "w on ! /r5g? ( 8
 pramits1 ?\gh 9 reality !re  is no "o  
:o is to atta9 salvation 9 reality & no 
"o :o  is to help him to atta9 x        
,footnote ref #c4 ,! true prajapramit is
  ! absolute cessation ( all appe>ance  
7yah anupalambhah  s>vadh>mnm sa        
prajpramit ityucyate7 ,footnote ref #d4 
,! ,mahyna doctr9e has develop$ on two  
l9es1 viz4 t  ( ,s'nyavda or !          
,mdhyamika doctr9e & ,vijnavda4  ,!     
diff]5ce betwe5 ,s'nyavda & ,vijnavda 7!
 !ory  t !re is only ! appe>ance (      
ph5om5a ( consci\sness7  is n           
fundam5tal1 b is r "o ( me?od4 ,bo? ( !m
  agree 9 hold+ t !re is no tru? 9      
any?+1 ev]y?+  is only pass+ appe>ance  
ak9 to dream or magic4 ,b  :ile !       
,s'nyavd9s 7 m busy 9 %[+ ?is           
indef9abl5ess ( all ph5om5a1 !          

,vijnavd9s1 tacitly accept+             
,footnote #a3 ,asteshasiihprajpramita1  
p4 #af4    ,footnote #b3 ,ibid p4 #agg4 
,footnote #c3 ,ibid p4 #ba4    ,footnote
 #d3 ,ibid p4 #agg4    #abh    ! tru?   
prea*$ by ! ,s'nyavd9s1 int]e/$ !mselves
 9  expla9+ ! ph5om5a ( consci\sness by 
_! !ory (  beg9n+less illusory          
root-ideas or in/9cts ( ! m9d 7vsan74   
,z'vaghosa 7#ajj ,a4,d47 seems to h be5 
! greate/ tea*]  ( a new type ( idealism
 7vijnavda7 kn[n z ! ,ta?at  philosophy4
 ,tru/+ 9 ,suzuki's id5tification ( a   
quotation 9  ,z'vaghosa's               
,s'raddhotpdas'/ra z be+ made f         
,lankvatrastra1 we %\ld ?9k ( !         
,lankvatrastra z  be+ "o ( ! e>ly works 
( ! ,vijnavd9s ,footnote ref #a4  ,!    
greate/ lat] writ] ( ! ,vijnavda s*ool 0
 ,asanga  7#djj ,a4,d471 to :om are     
attribut$ ! ,saptadas'abhmi stra1       
,mahyna stra1 ,upades'a1                
,mahynasamp>igraha s'/ra1 ,yogcrabhmi   
s'/ra & ,mahynastrlamkra4 ,none ( ^!    
works except+ !  la/ "o is available to 

read]s :o h no access to !  ,*9ese &    
,tibetan manuscripts1 z ! ,sanskrit     
orig9als are  9 all probability lo/4 ,! 
,vijnavda s*ool is kn[n to  ,h9du writ]s
 by ano!r "n also1 viz4 ,yogcra1 & x    
does  n seem an improbable supposition t
 ,asanga's ,yogcrabhmi  s'/ra 0         
responsible = ! new "n4 ,vasub&hu1  a   
y\ng] bro!r ( ,asanga1 01 z ,p>amr?a    
7#dii-efi7 tells  u1 at fir/ a lib]al   
,s>v/ivd91 b 0 conv]t$ to ,vijnavda1    
late 9 8 life1 by ,asanga4 ,?us         
,vasub&hu1 :o  wrote 9 8 e>ly life !    
great /&>d "w ( ! ,s>v/ivd9s1           
,abhidh>makos'a1 devot$ himself 9 8 lat]
 life to ,vijnavda  ,footnote ref #b4   
,he is said to h comm5t$ ^u a numb] (   
,mahyna stras1 su* z ,avatamsaka1       
,nirvna1 ,saddh>mapund>ka1  ,prajpramit1
 ,vimalakrtti & ,s'rmlsimhanda1 &       
compil$ "s ,mahyna stras1 su* z         
,vijnamtrasiddhi1  ,ratnatraya1 etc4 ,! 
s*ool ( ,vijnavda cont9u$ = at  lea/ a  
c5tury or two aft] ,vasub&hu1 b we are n
 9  possession ( any "w ( great fame (  

?is s*ool aft] him4    ,we h already    
notic$ t ! ,s'nyavda =m$ ! fundam5tal   
pr9ciple ( all s*ools ( ,mahyna4 ,! mo/ 
p[]ful  expon5t ( ?is doctr9e 0 ,ngrjuna
 7#a,,oo ,a4,d471 a brief acc\nt  ( ^:  
sy/em w be giv5 9 its prop] place4      
,ngrjuna's  kriks 7v]ses7 7 comm5t$ ^u  
by ryyadeva1 a disciple  ( 81 ,kumrajva 
7#chc ,a4,d474 ,buddhaplita & ,c&rakrtti
  7#eej ,a4,d474 ryyadeva 9 addition to 
?is comm5t>y wrote at        ,footnote  
#a3 ,dr ,s4,c4 ,vidybh%ana ?9ks t       
,lankvatna belongs to  ab\t #cjj ,a4,d4 
,footnote #b3 ,takakusu's ,a /udy ( !   
,p>amr?a's life ( ,vasub&hu1            
,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aije4    #abi    lea/ ?ree
 o!r books1 viz4 ,catuhs'ataka1         
,ha/ablaprak>anavrtti  &                
,cittavisuddhiprak>ana ,footnote ref #a4
 ,9 ! small "w call$                    
,ha/ablaprak>anavrtti ryyadeva says t   
:atev] dep5ds  = its exi/5ce on any?+   
else may be prov$ to be illusory2  all  
our notions ( ext]nal objects dep5d on  
space p]ceptions  & notions ( "p & :ole 

& %\ld !re=e be reg>d$  z m]e appe>ance4
 ,kn[+ !re=e t all t is dep5d5t  on o!rs
 = e/abli%+ itself is illusory1 no wise 
man  %\ld feel atta*m5t or antipa?y     
t[>ds ^! m]e ph5om5al  appe>ances4 ,9 8 
,cittavis'uddhiprak>ana he says  t j z a
 cry/al appe>s to be col\r$1 cat*+ !    
reflection  ( a col\r$ object1 ev5 s !  
m9d ?\gh 9 itself  col\rless appe>s to  
%[ div]se col\rs by coloration (        
imag9ation  7vikalpa74 ,9 reality ! m9d 
7citta7 )\t a t\*  ( imag9ation 7kalpan7
 9 x is ! pure reality4    ,x does n    
seem h[ev] t ! ,s'nyavd9s c\ld produce  
any great writ]s aft] ,c&rakrtti4       
,ref]5ces to ,s'nyavda  %[ t x 0 a liv+ 
philosophy among/ ! ,h9du writ]s  until 
! "t ( ! great ,mmms au?ority ,kumrila  
:o  fl\ri%$ 9 ! eigh? c5tury2 b 9 lat]  
times ! ,s'nyavd9s  7 no long] occupy+ !
 position ( /rong & active disputants4  
,! ,ta?ata ,philosophy ( ,z'vaghosa 7#hj
 ,a4,d47 ,footnote ref #b4    ,z'vaghosa
 0 ! son ( a ,brahm9 nam$ ,saimhaguhya  
:o sp5t 8 e>ly days 9 travell+ ov] !    

diff]5t p>ts (  ,india & defeat+ !      
,buddhi/s 9 op5 debates4 ,he 0 probably 
conv]t$ to ,buddhism by ,prsva :o 0 an  
important  p]son 9 ! ?ird ,buddhi/      
,c\ncil promot$1  accord+ to "s         
au?orities1 by ! ,k+ ( ,ka%m]e  &       
accord+ to o!r au?orities by ,punyayas'z
 ,footnote ref #c4        ,footnote #a3 
ryyadeva's ,ha/ablaprak>anavrtti has be5
 reclaim$ by  ,dr4 ,f4,w4 ,?omas4       
,fragm5t>y portions ( 8                 
,cittavis'uddhiprak>ana  7 publi%$ by   
,mahmahopdhyya ,h>aprasda s'/r 9 !      
,b5gal  ,asiatic ,society's j\rnal1     
#ahih4    ,footnote #b3 ,! above section
 is bas$ on ! ,awak5+ ( ,fai?1 an       
,engli% translation by ,suzuki ( !      
,*9ese v]sion (  ,s'raddhotpdas/ra by   
,z'vaghosa1 ! ,sanskrit orig9al ( :i*   
appe>s to h be5 lo/4 ,suzuki has br\ght 
=w>d a mass ( evid5ce  to %[ t          
,z'vaghosa 0 a contempor>y ( ,kaniska4  
,footnote #c3 ,tran?a says t he 0       
conv]t$ by ,aryadeva1 a disciple  (     
,ngrjuna1 ,ges*i*te des ,buddhismus1    

,g]man translation by ,s*iefn]1  pp4    
#hd-he4 ,see ,suzuki's ,awak5+ ( ,fai?1 
pp4 #bd-cb4 ,z'vaghosa wrote  !         
,buddhac>itakvya1 ( great poetical      
excell5ce1 & !  ,mahlamkras'/ra4 ,he 0  
also a musician & _h inv5t$ a musical   
in/rum5t call$ ,r/av>a t he might by t  
means conv]t !  p ( ! city4 ,its melody 
0 classical1 m\rnful1 & melodi\s1       
induc+ ! audi5ce to pond] on ! mis]y1   
empt9ess1 & non-tmanness  ( life4       
,suzuki1 p4 #ce4    #acj      ,he held t
 9 ! s\l two aspects may be di/+ui%$    
--! aspect z ?atness 7bhtata?at7 & !    
aspect z ! cycle  ( bir? & dea?         
7samsra74 ,! s\l z bhtata?at means  !   
on5ess ( ! totality ( all ?+s           
7dh>madhtu74 ,its ess5tial  nature is   
uncreate & ext]nal4 ,all ?+s simply on  
acc\nt  ( ! beg9n+less traces ( !       
incipi5t & unconsci\s  memory ( our pa/ 
exp]i5ces ( _m previ\s lives 7smrti7    
appe> "u ! =ms ( individuation ,footnote
 ref #a4 ,if we c\ld  ov]come ?is smrti 
! signs ( individuation w\ld disappe> & 

!re w\ld be no trace ( a _w ( objects4  
,all ?+s 9 _!  fundam5tal nature are n  
nameable or explicable4 ,!y _c  be      
adequately express$ 9 any =m ( language4
 ,!y  possess absolute sam5ess 7samat74 
,!y are subject nei!r to  trans=mation  
nor to de/ruction4 ,!y are no?+ b "o s\l
  --?atness 7bhtata?at74 ,?is ?atness   
has no attribute &  x c only be someh[  
po9t$ out 9 spee* z ?atness4  ,z soon z 
y und]/& t :5 ! totality ( exi/5ce is   
spok5 ( or ?\ght (1 !re is nei!r t :i*  
speaks nor  t :i* is spok5 (1 !re is    
nei!r t :i* ?9ks nor  t :i* is ?\ght (1 
?is is ! /age ( ?atness4 ,?is  bhtata?at
 is nei!r t :i* is exi/5ce1 nor t :i* is
  non-exi/5ce1 nor t :i* is at once     
exi/5ce & non-exi/5ce1  nor t :i* is n  
at once exi/5ce & non-exi/5ce2  x is    
nei!r t :i* is plurality1 nor t :i* is  
at once unity & plurality1 nor t :i* is 
n at once unity  & plurality4 ,x is a   
negative concept 9 ! s5se t x is  beyond
 all t is conditional & yet x is a      
positive concept  9 ! s5se t x holds all

 )9 x4 ,x _c be compreh5d$  by any k9d (
 p>ticul>ization or di/9ction4 ,x is    
only by transc5d+ ! range ( our         
intellectual categories (  !            
compreh5sion ( ! limit$ range ( f9ite   
ph5om5a t  we c get a glimpse ( x4 ,x _c
 be compreh5d$ by !  p>ticul>iz+        
consci\sness ( all be+s1 & we ?us may   
call  x negation1 s'nyat1 9 ?is s5se4 ,!
 tru? is t :i*        ,footnote #a3 ,i h
 v5tur$ to translate smrti 9 ! s5se (   
vsan  9 pref]5ce to ,suzuki's confus$   
subjectivity because smrti 9 !  s5se (  
vsan is n unfamili> to ! read]s ( su*   
,buddhi/ works  z ,lankvatra4 ,! ^w     
subjectivity seems to be too ,european a
  t]m to be us$ z a ^w to repres5t !    
,buddhi/ s5se4    #aca    subjectively  
does n exi/ by itself1 t ! negation     
7s'nyat7 is  also void 7s'nya7 9 its    
nature1 t nei!r t :i* is negat$  nor t  
:i* negates is an indep5d5t entity4 ,x  
is ! pure  s\l t manife/s itself z      
et]nal1 p]man5t1 immutable1 &           
completely holds all ?+s )9 x4 ,on t    

acc\nt x may be  call$ affirmation4 ,b  
yet !re is no trace ( affirmation 9 x1  
because x is n ! product ( ! creative   
in/9ctive memory  7smrti7 ( conceptual  
?\ght & ! only way ( grasp+ !  tru?--!  
?atness1 is by transc5d+ all conceptual 
creations4    ,! s\l z bir? & dea?      
7samsra7 comes =? f  ! ,ta?gata womb    
7ta?gatag>bha71 ! ultimate reality4  ,b 
! immortal & ! mortal co9cide ) ea* o!r4
  ,?\gh !y are n id5tical !y are n      
duality ei!r4 ,?us  :5 ! absolute s\l   
assumes a relative aspect by its        
self-affirmation  x is call$ !          
all-cons]v+ m9d 7layavijna74  ,x        
embraces two pr9ciples1 7#a7            
enlight5m5t1 7#b7 non-enlight5m5t4      
,enlight5m5t is ! p]fection ( ! m9d :5 x
 is  free f ! corruptions ( ! creative  
in/9ctive incipi5t  memory 7smrti74 ,x  
p5etrates all & is ! unity ( all        
7dh>madhtu74 ,t is to say1 x is !       
univ]sal dh>makya ( all  ,ta?gatas      
con/itut+ ! ultimate f\ndation (        
exi/5ce4    ,:5 x is said t all         

consci\sness />ts f ?is fundam5tal      
tru?1 x %\ld n be ?\ght t consci\sness  
_h any  real orig91 = x 0 m]ely ph5om5al
 exi/5ce--a m]e imag9>y  creation ( !   
p]ceiv]s "u ! influ5ce ( !  delusive    
smrti4 ,! multitude ( p 7bahujana7 are  
said to be  lack+ 9 enlight5m5t1 because
 ignorance 7avidy7 prevails  !re f all  
et]nity1 because !re is a con/ant       
succession (  smrti 7pa/ confus$ memory 
work+ z in/9ct7 f :i*  !y h nev] be5    
emancipat$4 ,b :5 !y are dive/$  ( ?is  
smrti !y c !n recognize t no /ates (    
m5tation1  viz4 _! appe>ance1 pres5ce1  
*ange & disappe>ance1 h  any reality4   
,!y are nei!r 9 a temporal nor 9 a      
spatial relation  ) ! "o s\l1 = !y are n
 self-exi/5t4    ,?is high enlight5m5t  
%[s itself imp]fectly 9 our corrupt$    
ph5om5al exp]i5ce z praj 7wisdom7 & k>ma
  7incompreh5sible activity ( life74 ,by
 pure wisdom we und]/&  t :5 "o1 by     
virtue ( ! p]fum+ p[] ( dh>ma1          
discipl9es himself tru?fully 7i4e4      
accord+ to ! dh>ma71 &  accompli%es     

m]itori\s de$s1 ! m9d 7i4e4 ! layavijna7
    #acb    :i* implicates itself ) bir?
 & dea? w be brok5 d[n  & ! modes ( !   
evolv+ consci\sness w be annull$1 &  !  
pure & ! g5u9e wisdom ( ! ,dh>makya w   
manife/  itself4 ,?\gh all modes (      
consci\sness & m5tation are  m]e        
products ( ignorance1 ignorance 9 its   
ultimate nature is  id5tical &          
non-id5tical ) enlight5m5t2 & !re=e     
ignorance is 9 "o s5se de/ructible1 ?\gh
 9 ano!r s5se  x is inde/ructible4 ,?is 
may be illu/rat$ by ! simile ( !  wat] &
 ! waves :i* are /irr$ up 9 ! ocean4 ,"h
  ! wat] c be said to be bo? id5tical & 
non-id5tical  ) ! waves4 ,! waves are   
/irr$ up by ! w9d1 b !  wat] rema9s !   
same4 ,:5 ! w9d ceases ! motion (  !    
waves subsides1 b ! wat] rema9s ! same4 
,likewise  :5 ! m9d ( all creatures1 :i*
 9 its own nature is pure &  clean1 is  
/irr$ up by ! w9d ( ignorance 7avidy71 !
 waves  ( m5tality 7vijna7 make _!      
appe>ance4 ,^! ?ree 7i4e4  ! m9d1       
ignorance1 & m5tality7 h[ev] h no       

exi/5ce1  & !y are nei!r unity nor      
plurality4 ,:5 ! ignorance is           
annihilat$1 ! awak5$ m5tality is        
tranquilliz$1 :il/ !  ess5ce ( ! wisdom 
rema9s unmole/$4 ,! tru? or !           
enlight5m5t is absolutely unobta9able by
 any modes ( relativity  or by any      
outw>d signs ( enlight5m5t4 ,all ev5ts 9
  ! ph5om5al _w are reflect$ 9          
enlight5m5t1 s t !y  nei!r pass out ( x1
 nor ent] into x1 & !y nei!r disappe>   
nor are de/roy$4 ,x is = ev] cut (f f ! 
h9drances bo?  affectional 7kles'v>ana7 
& intellectual 7jeyv>ana71 z well  z f !
 m9d 7i4e4 layavijna7 :i* implicates    
itself )  bir? & dea?1 s9ce x is 9 its  
true nature clean1 pure1 et]nal1  calm1 
& immutable4 ,! tru? aga9 is su* t x    
trans=ms  & unfolds itself :]ev]        
conditions are fav\rable 9 ! =m  ( a    
ta?gata or 9 "s o!r =ms1 9 ord] t all   
be+s  may be induc$ !reby to br+ _!     
virtue to maturity4    ,non-elight5m5t  
has no exi/5ce ( its own aside f its    
relation ) enlight5m5t a priori4 ,b     

enlight5m5t a priori  is spok5 ( only 9 
contra/ to non-enlight5m5t1 & z         
non-enlight5m5t is a non-entity1 true   
enlight5m5t 9 turn loses  its           
significance too4 ,!y are di/+ui%$ only 
9 mutual relation  z enlight5m5t or     
non-enlight5m5t4 ,! manife/ations  (    
non-enlight5m5t are made 9 ?ree ways3   
7#a7 z a di/urbance  ( ! m9d            
7layavijna71 by ! avidyk>ma 7ignorant   
#acc    action71 produc+ mis]y 7duhkha72
 7#b7 by ! appe>ance ( an  ego or ( a   
p]ceiv]2 & 7#c7 by ! creation ( an      
ext]nal _w  :i* does n exi/ 9 itself1   
indep5d5t ( ! p]ceiv]4 ,condition$  by !
 unreal ext]nal _w six k9ds ( ph5om5a   
arise 9 succession4 ,! fir/ ph5om5on is 
intellig5ce 7s5sation72  be+ affect$ by 
! ext]nal _w ! m9d becomes  consci\s ( !
 diff]5ce betwe5 ! agreeable & !        
disagreeable4  ,! second ph5om5on is    
succession4 ,foll[+ ^u  intellig5ce1    
memory reta9s ! s5sations1 agreeable z  
well  z disagreeable1 9 a cont9u\s      
succession ( subjective /ates4  ,! ?ird 

ph5om5on is cl++4 ,?r\gh ! ret5tion &   
succession ( s5sations1 agreeable z well
 z disagreeable1 !re  arises ! desire ( 
cl++4 ,! f\r? ph5om5on is an atta*m5t   
to names or ideas 7samj71 etc4 ,by cl++ 
! m9d  hypo/atizes all names :]eby to   
give def9itions to all ?+s4  ,! fif?    
ph5om5on is ! p]=mance ( de$s 7k>ma74   
,on  acc\nt ( atta*m5t to names1 etc41  
!re arise all ! v>iations  ( de$s1      
productive ( individuality4 ,! six?     
ph5om5on  is ! suff]+ due to ! fett] (  
de$s4 ,?r\gh de$s suff]+  arises 9 :i* !
 m9d f9ds itself entangl$ & curtail$ (  
its fre$om4 ,all ^! ph5om5a h ?us sprung
 =? ?r\gh  avidy4    ,! relation betwe5 
?is tru? & avidy is 9 "o s5se  a m]e    
id5tity & may be illu/rat$ by ! simile (
 all k9ds  ( pott]y :i* ?\gh diff]5t are
 all made ( ! same clay  ,footnote ref  
#a4 ,likewise ! undefil$ 7ansrava7 &    
ignorance  7avidy7 & _! v>i\s transi5t  
=ms all come f "o & !  same entity4     
,!re=e ,buddha tea*es t all be+s are f  
all  et]nity abid+ 9 ,nirvna4    ,x is  

by ! t\* ( ignorance 7avidy7 t ?is tru? 
assumes  all ! ph5om5al =ms ( exi/5ce4  
,9 ! all-cons]v+ m9d 7layavijna7        
ignorance manife/s  itself2 & f         
non-enlight5m5t />ts t :i* sees1 t  :i* 
repres5ts1 t :i* appreh5ds an objective 
_w1 &  t :i* con/antly p>ticul>izes4    
,?is is call$ ego 7manas74  ,five       
diff]5t names are giv5 to ! ego 7accord+
 to its diff]5t  modes ( op]ation74 ,!  
fir/ "n is activity-consci\sness        
7k>mavijna7 9 ! s5se t ?r\gh ! ag5cy (  
ignorance an un5light5$ m9d beg9s to be 
di/urb$ 7or        ,footnote #a3 ,comp>e
 ,*ndogya1 ,,vi4 #a4 #d4    #acd        
awak5$74 ,! second "n is                
evolv+-consci\sness 7pravrttiivijna7  9 
! s5se t :5 ! m9d is di/urb$1 !re       
evolves t :i* sees an ext]nal _w4 ,!    
?ird "n is  repres5tation-consci\sness 9
 ! s5se t ! ego 7manas  repres5ts 7or   
reflects7 an ext]nal _w4 ,z a clean     
mirror  reflects ! images ( all         
description1 x is ev5 s ) !             
repres5tation-consci\sness4 ,:5 x is    

confront$1 = in/ance1  ) ! objects ( !  
five s5ses1 x repres5ts !m in/antane\sly
  & )\t ef=t4 ,! f\r? is                
p>ticul>ization-consci\sness1  9 ! s5se 
t x discrim9ates betwe5 diff]5t ?+s     
defil$  z well z pure4 ,! fif? "n is    
succession-consci\sness1 9 !  s5se t    
cont9u\sly direct$ by ! awak5+          
consci\sness  ( att5tion 7manaskra7 x   
7manas7 reta9s all exp]i5ces &  nev]    
loses or suff]s ! de/ruction ( any k>ma1
 good z well  z evil1 :i* _h be5 s[n 9 !
 pa/1 & ^: retribution1  pa9ful or      
agreeable1 x nev] fails to mature1 be x 
9 ! pres5t  or 9 ! future1 & also 9 !   
s5se t x unconsci\sly  recollects ?+s   
gone by & 9 imag9ation anticipates ?+s  
to come4 ,!re=e ! ?ree doma9s 7kmaloka1 
doma9 (  feel+--rpaloka1 doma9 ( bodily 
exi/5ce--arpaloka1 doma9  (             
incorporeality7 are no?+ b ! self       
manife/ation ( !  m9d 7i4e4 layavijna   
:i* is practically id5tical )           
bhtata?at74 ,s9ce all ?+s1 ow+ !        
pr9ciple ( _!  exi/5ce to ! m9d         

7layavijna71 are produc$ by smrti1  all 
! modes ( p>ticul>ization are !         
self-p>ticul>izations  ( ! m9d4 ,! m9d 9
 itself 7or ! s\l7 be+ h[ev] free f  all
 attributes is n diff]5tiat$4 ,!re=e we 
come to ! conclusion  t all ?+s &       
conditions 9 ! ph5om5al _w1 hypo/atiz$  
& e/abli%$ only ?r\gh ignorance 7avidy7 
& memory  7smrti71 h no m reality ?an ! 
images 9 a mirror4 ,!y  arise simply f !
 ideality ( a p>ticul>iz+ m9d4 ,:5  !   
m9d is di/urb$1 ! multiplicity ( ?+s is 
produc$2 b  :5 ! m9d is quiet$1 !       
multiplicity ( ?+s disappe>s4  ,by      
ego-consci\sness 7manovijna7 we mean !  
ignorant m9d  :i* by its                
succession-consci\sness cl+s to !       
conception (  ,i & ,n-,i & misappreh5ds 
! nature ( ! six objects (  s5se4 ,!    
ego-consci\sness is also call$          
sep>ation-consci\sness1  because x is   
n\ri%$ by ! p]fum+ influ5ce ( !         
prejudices 7srava71 intellectual z well 
z affectional4 ,?us believ+  9 ! ext]nal
 _w produc$ by memory1 ! m9d becomes    

#ace    oblivi\s ( ! pr9ciple ( sam5ess 
7samat7 t und]lies all  ?+s :i* are "o &
 p]fectly calm & tranquil & %[ no  sign 
( becom+4    ,non-enlight5m5t is !      
raison d'tre ( samsra4 ,:5  ?is is      
annihilat$ ! conditions--! ext]nal      
_w--are also  annihilat$ & ) !m ! /ate (
 an int]relat$ m9d is also  annihilat$4 
,b ?is annihilation does n mean !       
annihilation  ( ! m9d b ( its modes     
only4 ,x becomes calm l an unruffl$  sea
 :5 all w9ds :i* 7 di/urb+ x & produc+  
! waves h be5 annihilat$4    ,9 describ+
 ! relation ( ! int]action ( avidy      
7ignorance71  k>mavijna                 
7activity-consci\sness--! subjective    
m9d71  visaya 7ext]nal _w--repres5t$ by 
! s5ses7 & ! ta?at  7su*ness71          
,z'vaghosa says t !re is an int]p]fum+ (
  ^! elem5ts4 ,?us ,z'vaghosa says1 ,by 
p]fum+ we mean  t :ile our worldly clo!s
 7viz4 ^? :i* we we>7 h no  od\r ( _!   
own1 nei!r (f5sive nor agreeable1 !y c  
yet  acquire "o or ! o!r od\r accord+ to
 ! nature ( ! sub/ance  ) :i* !y are    

p]fum$4 ,su*ness 7ta?at7 is likewise  a 
pure dh>ma free f all defilem5ts caus$  
by ! p]fum+  p[] ( ignorance4 ,on ! o!r 
h& ignorance has no?+ to  d ) purity4   
,nev]!less we speak ( its be+ able to d 
!  "w ( purity because x 9 its turn is  
p]fum$ by su*ness4  ,det]m9$ by su*ness 
ignorance becomes ! raison d'tre (  all 
=ms ( defilem5t4 ,& ?is ignorance       
p]fumes su*ness  & produces smrti4 ,?is 
smrti 9 its turn p]fumes ignorance4  ,on
 acc\nt ( ?is 7reciprocal7 p]fum+1 !    
tru? is misund]/ood4  ,on acc\nt ( its  
be+ misund]/ood an ext]nal _w  (        
subjectivity appe>s4 ,fur!r1 on acc\nt (
 ! p]fum+  p[] ( memory1 v>i\s modes (  
individuation are produc$4  ,& by cl++  
to !m v>i\s de$s are done1 & we suff]  z
 ! result mis]ies m5tally z well z      
bodily4 ,aga9 su*ness  p]fumes          
ignorance1 & 9 consequ5ce ( ?is p]fum+  
! individual 9 subjectivity is caus$ to 
loa! ! mis]y (  bir? & dea? & to seek   
aft] ! bless+ ( ,nirvna4 ,?is  long+ &  
loa?+ on ! "p ( ! subjective m9d 9 turn 

p]fumes su*ness4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is p]fum+
 influ5ce we  are enabl$ to believe t we
 are 9 possession )9 ourselves  (       
su*ness ^: ess5tial nature is pure &    
immaculate2 &  we also recognize t all  
ph5om5a 9 ! _w are no?+    #acf    b !  
illusory manife/ations ( ! m9d          
7layavijna7 &  h no reality ( _! own4   
,s9ce we ?us rightly und]/&  ! tru?1 we 
c practise ! means ( lib]ation1 c p]=m  
^? actions :i* are 9 accordance ) !     
dh>ma4 ,we  %\ld nei!r p>ticul>ize1 nor 
cl+ to objects ( desire4 ,by  virtue (  
?is discipl9e & habituation dur+ ! lapse
 ( innum]able  sankhyeyakalpas ,footnote
 ref #a we get ignorance annihilat$4 ,z 
ignorance is ?us annihilat$1 ! m9d      
7layavijna7 is no long]  di/urb$1 s z to
 be subject to individuation4 ,z ! m9d  
is no  long] di/urb$1 ! p>ticul>ization 
( ! surr\nd+ _w  is annihilat$4 ,:5 9   
?is wise ! pr9ciple & ! condition  (    
defilem5t1 _! products1 & ! m5tal       
di/urbances are all  annihilat$1 x is   
said t we atta9 ,nirvna & t v>i\s       

spontane\s displays ( activity are      
accompli%$4 ,! ,nirvna  ( ! ta?at       
philosophy is n no?+ness1 b ta?at       
7su*ness  or ?atness7 9 its purity      
unassociat$ ) any k9d ( di/urbance  :i* 
produces all ! div]sity ( exp]i5ce4     
,to ! "q t if all be+s are uni=mly 9    
possession  ( su*ness & are !re=e       
equally p]fum$ by x1 h[ is x  t !re are 
"s :o d n believe 9 x1 :ile o!rs d1     
,z'vaghosa's reply is t ?\gh all be+s   
are uni=mly 9  possession ( su*ness1 !  
int5sity ( ignorance & ! pr9ciple  (    
individuation1 t "w f all et]nity1 v>y 9
 su*  manifold grades z to outnumb] !   
s&s ( ! ,ganges1 &  h5ce ! diff]5ce4    
,!re is an inh]5t p]fum+ pr9ciple  9    
"o's own be+ :i*1 embrac$ & protect$ by 
! love  7maitr7 & compassion 7k>un7 (   
all ,buddhas & ,bodhisattvas1  is caus$ 
to loa! ! mis]y ( bir? & dea?1 to       
believe  9 nirvna1 to cultivate ! root (
 m]it 7kus'alamla71 to habituate        
oneself to x & to br+ x to maturity4 ,9 
consequ5ce  ( ?is1 "o is enabl$ to see  

all ,buddhas & ,bodhisattvas &1 receiv+ 
in/ructions f !m1 is b5efit$1 gladd5$ & 
induc$  to practise good de$s1 etc41    
till "o c atta9 to ,buddhahood &  ent]  
into ,nirvna4 ,?is implies t all be+s h 
su* p]fum+  p[] 9 !m t !y may be affect$
 by ! good wi%es  ( ! ,buddhas &        
,bodhisattvas = lead+ !m to ! pa?  (    
virtue1 & ?us x is t sometimes he>+ !   
,bodhisattvas  & sometimes see+ !m1 all 
be+s !reby acquire 7spiritual7  b5efits 
7hitat7 & ent]+ into ! samdhi ( purity1 
!y        ,footnote #a3 ,te*nical "n = a
 v va/ p]iod ( "t4    #acg    de/roy    
h9drances :]ev] !y are met ) & obta9    
all-p5etrat+  insight t enables !m to   
become consci\s ( ! absolute on5ess     
7samat7 ( ! univ]se 7s>valoka7 & to see 
innum]able ,buddhas  & ,bodhisattvas4   
,!re is a diff]5ce betwe5 ! p]fum+ :i*  
is n 9  unison ) su*ness1 z 9 ! case (  
s'rvakas 7!ravd9  monks71               
pratyekabuddhas & ! novice bodhisattvas1
 :o only  cont9ue _! religi\s discipl9e 
b d n atta9 to ! /ate  (                

non-p>ticul>ization 9 unison ) ! ess5ce 
( su*ness4  ,b ^? bodhisattvas ^: p]fum+
 is already 9 unison )  su*ness atta9 to
 ! /ate ( non-p>ticul>ization & all[    
!mselves to be influ5c$ only by ! p[] ( 
! dh>ma4  ,! incessant p]fum+ ( ! defil$
 dh>ma 7ignorance f  all et]nity7 works 
on1 b :5 "o atta9s to ,buddhahood "o  at
 once puts an end to x4 ,! p]fum+ ( !   
pure dh>ma  7i4e4 su*ness7 h[ev] works  
on to et]nity )\t any int]ruption4  ,=  
?is su*ness or ?atness is ! effulg5ce ( 
great  wisdom1 ! univ]sal illum9ation ( 
! dh>madhtu 7univ]se71  ! true &        
adequate k1 ! m9d pure & clean 9 its    
own nature1 ! et]nal1 ! bless$1 !       
self-regulat+ & !  pure1 ! tranquil1 !  
inimitable & ! free1 & ?is is call$  !  
ta?gatag>bha or ! dh>makya4 ,x may be   
object$ t  s9ce ?atness or su*ness has  
be5 describ$ z be+ )\t  *>act]i/ics1 x  
is n[ a contradiction to speak ( x z    
embrac+  all m]its1 b x is held1 t 9    
spite ( its embrac+ all m]its1  x is    
free 9 its nature f all =ms ( di/9ction1

 because all  objects 9 ! _w are ( "o & 
! same ta/e2 & be+  ( "o reality !y h   
no?+ to d ) ! modes ( p>ticul>ization   
or ( duali/ic "*4 ,?\gh all ?+s 9 _!    
7metaphysical7 orig9 come f ! s\l alone 
& 9 tru? are  free f p>ticul>ization1   
yet on acc\nt ( non-enlight5m5t  !re    
orig9ates a subjective m9d 7layavijna7 t
 becomes  consci\s ( an ext]nal _w4 ,?is
 is call$ ignorance or  avidy4          
,nev]!less ! pure ess5ce ( ! m9d is     
p]fectly  pure & !re is no awak5+ (     
ignorance 9 x4 ,h5ce we assign  to      
su*ness ?is quality1 ! effulg5ce ( great
 wisdom4 ,x is  call$ univ]sal          
illum9ation1 because !re is no?+ = x to 
illum9e4 ,?is p]fum+ ( su*ness !re=e    
cont9ues = ev]1  ?\gh ! /age ( ! p]fum+ 
( avidy comes to an end )  ! ,buddhas :5
 !y atta9 to nirvna4 ,all ,buddhas :ile 
at    #ach    ! /age ( discipl9e feel a 
deep compassion 7mahk>un7 = all  be+s1  
practise all virtues 7pramits7 & _m o!r 
m]itori\s  de$s1 treat o!rs z _! own    
selves1 & wi% to "w out a  univ]sal     

salvation ( mank9d 9 ages to come1 ?r\gh
 limitless  numb]s ( kalpas1 recognize  
tru?fully & adequately !  pr9ciple (    
equality 7samat7among p2 & d n cl+  to !
 individual exi/5ce ( a s5ti5t be+4 ,?is
 is :at is  meant by ! activity ( ta?at4
 ,! ma9 idea ( ?is ta?at  philosophy    
seems to be ?is1 t ?is transc5d5t       
?atness is  at once ! qu9tess5ce ( all  
?\ght & activity2 z avidy veils  x or   
p]fumes x1 ! _w-appe>ance spr+s =?1 b z 
!  pure ?atness also p]fumes ! avidy !re
 is a /riv+ = !  good z well4 ,z ! /age 
( avidy is pass$ its lum9\s  "* %9es =?1
 = x is ! ultimate tru? :i* only        
illusorily appe>$ z ! _m ( ! _w4    ,?is
 doctr9e seems to be m 9 agreem5t ) !   
view  ( an absolute un*angeable reality 
z ! ultimate tru? ?an  t ( ! nihili/ic  
idealism ( ,lankvatra4 ,consid]+ !  fact
 t ,z'vaghosa 0 a le>n$ ,brahm9 s*ol> 9 
8 e>ly  life1 x is easy to guess t !re 0
 mu* ,upanisad influ5ce 9  ?is          
int]pretation ( ,buddhism1 :i* comp>es s
 fav\rably  ) ! ,v$nta z int]pret$ by   

,s'ank>a4 ,! ,lankvatra  admitt$ a      
reality only z a make-believe to attract
 ! ,tair?ikas  7h]etics7 :o _h a        
prejudice 9 fav\r ( an un*angeable self 
7tman74 ,b ,z'vaghosa pla9ly admitt$ an 
unspeakable reality  z ! ultimate tru?4 
,ngrjuna's ,mdhyamika doctr9es :i*      
eclips$ ! pr(\nd philosophy ( ,z'vaghosa
 seem to be m  fai?ful to ! traditional 
,buddhi/ cre$ & to ! ,vijnavda  cre$ (  
,buddhism z expla9$ 9 ! ,lankvatra      
,footnote ref #a4      ,! ,mdhyamika or 
! ,s'ntavda s*ool4--,nihilism4          
,c&rakrtti1 ! comm5tator ( ,ngrjuna's   
v]ses kn[n z  ,mdhyamika krik1 9 expla9+
 ! doctr9e ( dep5d5t  orig9ation        
7prattyasamutpda7 z describ$ by ,ngrjuna
 />ts  ) two int]pretations ( ! ^w4     
,accord+ to "o ! ^w  prattyasamutpda    
means ! orig9ation 7utpda7 ( ! nonexi/5t
  7abhva7 dep5d+ on 7prattya7 reasons & 
causes        ,footnote #a3 ,z ,i h no  
access to ! ,*9ese translation (        
,z'vaghosa's ,s'raddhotpda ,s'/ra1 ,i _h
 to dep5d entirely on  ,suzuki's        

expressions z !y appe> 9 8 translation4 
#aci    7hetupratyaya74 ,accord+ to !   
o!r int]pretation prattya  means ea* & e
 de/ructible individual &               
prattyasamutpda  means ! orig9ation (   
ea* & e de/ructible individual4  ,b he  
disapproves ( bo? ^! mean+s4 ,! second  
mean+ does  n suit ! context 9 :i* !    
,pli ,scriptures g5]ally speak  (       
prattyasamutpda 7e4g4 caksuh prattya    
rpni ca utpadyante  caksurvijnam7 = x   
does n mean ! orig9ation ( ea* &  e     
de/ructible individual1 b ! orig9at+ (  
specific  individual ph5om5a 7e4g4      
p]ception ( =m by ! op]ation 9          
connection ) ! eye7 dep5d+ ^u c]ta9     
specific conditions4    ,! fir/ mean+   
also is equally unsuitable4 ,?us =      
example  if we take ! case ( any        
orig9ation1 e4g4 t ( ! visual p]cept1   
we see t !re _c be any contact betwe5   
visual  k & physical s5se1 ! eye1 & s x 
w\ld n be  intelligible t ! =m] %\ld    
dep5d ^u ! latt]4 ,if we  int]pret !    
maxim ( prattyasamutpda z ?is happ5+ t  

happ5s1 t w\ld n expla9 any specific    
orig9ation4 ,all  orig9ation is false1 =
 a ?+ c nei!r orig9ate by itself nor  by
 o!rs1 nor by a co-op]ation ( bo? nor   
)\t any reason4  ,= if a ?+ exi/s       
already x _c orig9ate aga9 by itself4   
,to suppose t x is orig9at$ by o!rs w\ld
 also mean  t ! orig9ation 0 ( a ?+     
already exi/+4 ,if aga9  )\t any fur!r  
qualification x is said t dep5d+ on  "o 
! o!r comes into be+1 !n dep5d+ on any?+
 any  o!r ?+ c\ld come into be+--f light
 we c\ld h d>kness6  ,s9ce a ?+ c\ld n  
orig9ate f itself or by o!rs1  x c\ld n 
also be orig9at$ by a comb9ation ( bo? (
 !m  toge!r4 ,a ?+ also c\ld n orig9ate 
)\t any cause1  = !n all ?+s c\ld come  
into be+ at all times4 ,x is !re=e  to  
be ackn[l$g$ t :]ev] ! ,buddha spoke (  
?is  s-call$ dep5d5t orig9ation         
7prattyasamutpda7 x 0 ref]r$  to z      
illusory manife/ations appe>+ to        
intellects &  s5ses /rick5 ) ignorance4 
,?is dep5d5t orig9ation is  n ?us a real
 law1 b only an appe>ance due to        

ignorance  7avidy74 ,! only ?+ :i* is n 
lo/ 7amosadh>ma7 is  nirvna2 b all o!r  
=ms ( k & ph5om5a  7samskra7 are false &
 are lo/ ) _! appe>ances                
7s>vasamskrs'ca mrsmosadh>mnah74    ,x  
is sometimes object$ to ?is doctr9e t if
 all appe>ances    #adj    are false1 !n
 !y d n exi/ at all4 ,!re are !n no     
good or bad works & no cycle ( exi/5ce1 
& if su* is !  case1 !n x may be argu$ t
 no philosophical discussion  %\ld be   
attempt$4 ,b ! reply to su* an objection
 is t !  nihili/ic doctr9e is engag$ 9  
de/roy+ ! misplac$ confid5ce  ( ! p t   
?+s are true4 ,^? :o are really  wise d 
n f9d any?+ ei!r false or true1 = to !m 
cle>ly  !y d n exi/ at all & !y d n     
tr\ble !mselves )  ! "q ( _! tru? or    
falsehood4 ,= him :o kn[s ?us  !re are  
nei!r works nor cycles ( bir?s 7samsra7 
& also he  does n tr\ble himself ab\t ! 
exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce (  any ( !       
appe>ances4 ,?us x is said 9 !          
,ratnaktastra t  h[soev] c>efully "o may
 se>* "o _c discov] consci\sness        

7citta72 :at _c be p]ceiv$ _c be said to
 exi/1  & :at does n exi/ is nei!r pa/1 
nor future1 nor pres5t1 &  z su* x _c be
 said to h any nature at all2 & t :i*   
has no nature is subject nei!r to       
orig9ation nor to ext9ction4  ,he :o    
?r\gh 8 false k 7vip>yysa7 does n       
compreh5d  ! falsehood ( all appe>ances1
 b ?9ks !m to be  real1 works & suff]s !
 cycles ( rebir? 7samsra74 ,l all       
illusions1 ?\gh false ^! appe>ances c   
produce all ! h>m  ( rebir? & sorr[4    
,x may aga9 be object$ t if !re is no?+ 
true  accord+ to ! nihili/s 7s'nyavd9s71
 !n _! /atem5t t  !re is no orig9ation  
or ext9ction is also n true4 ,c&rakirtti
  9 reply+ to ?is says t ) s'nyavd9s !  
tru? is absolute  sil5ce4 ,:5 !         
,s'nyavd9 sages argue1 !y only accept = 
! mom5t :at o!r p reg>d z reasons1 &    
deal )  !m 9 _! own mann] to help !m to 
come to a "r  compreh5sion ( all        
appe>ances4 ,x is ( no use to say1 9    
spite  ( all argum5ts t5d+ to %[ !      
falsehood ( all appe>ances1  t !y are   

te/ifi$ by our exp]i5ce1 = ! :ole ?+ t  
we call our exp]i5ce is b false illusion
 inasmu* z ^!  ph5om5a h no true ess5ce4
    ,:5 ! doctr9e ( prattyasamutpda is  
describ$ z ?is  be+ t is1 :at is really 
meant is t ?+s c only be  indicat$ z m]e
 appe>ances "o aft] ano!r1 = !y h  no   
ess5ce or true nature4 ,nihilism        
7s'nyavda7 also means j  ?is4 ,! true   
mean+ ( prattyasamutpda or s'nyavda is  
?is1 t !re is no tru?1 no ess5ce 9 all  
ph5om5a t    #ada    appe> ,footnote ref
 #a4 ,z ! ph5om5a h no ess5ce !y are    
nei!r  produc$ nor de/roy$2 !y really   
nei!r come nor g4 ,!y  are m]ely !      
appe>ance ( maya or illusion4 ,! void   
7s'nya7  does n mean pure negation1 = t 
is relative to "s k9d (  position4 ,x   
simply means t none ( ! appe>ances h any
  intr9sic nature ( _! own              
7nihsvabhvatvam74    ,! ,madhyamaka or  
,s'nya sy/em does n hold t any?+  has   
any ess5ce or nature 7svabhva7 ( its    
own2 ev5  heat _c be said to be ! ess5ce
 ( fire2 = bo? ! heat  & ! fire are !   

result ( ! comb9ation ( _m conditions1  
& :at dep5ds on _m conditions _c be said
 to be !  nature or ess5ce ( ! ?+4 ,t   
alone may be said to be !  true ess5ce  
or nature ( any?+ :i* does n dep5d on   
any?+ else1 & s9ce no su* ess5ce or     
nature c be po9t$  out :i* /&s          
indep5d5tly by itself we _c say t x     
exi/s4 ,if a ?+ has no ess5ce or exi/5ce
 ( its own1 we _c  affirm ! ess5ce ( o!r
 ?+s to x 7p>abhva74 ,if we  _c affirm  
any?+ ( any?+ z positive1 we _c         
consequ5tly  ass]t any?+ ( any?+ z      
negative4 ,if anyone fir/  believes 9   
?+s positive & aft]w>ds discov]s t !y   
are  n s1 he no d\bt ?us takes 8 /& on a
 negation 7abhva71  b 9 reality s9ce we 
_c speak ( any?+ positive1 we _c  speak 
( any?+ negative ei!r ,footnote ref #b4 
,x is aga9 object$ t we nev]!less       
p]ceive a process  go+ on4 ,to ?is !    
,madhyamaka reply is t a process (      
*ange c\ld n be affirm$ ( ?+s t are     
p]man5t4 ,b we  c h>dly speak ( a       
process ) ref]5ce to mom5t>y ?+s2  = ^? 

:i* are mom5t>y are de/roy$ ! next mom5t
  aft] !y appe>1 & s !re is no?+ :i* c  
cont9ue to  ju/ify a process4 ,t :i*    
appe>s z be+ nei!r comes  f any:]e nor  
goes any:]e1 & t :i* appe>s z de/roy$   
also does n come f any:]e nor g any:]e1 
& s a process 7samsra7 _c be affirm$ (  
!m4 ,x _c  be t :5 ! second mom5t arose1
 ! fir/ mom5t _h  suff]$ a *ange 9 !    
process1 = x 0 n ! same z !  second1 z  
!re is no s-call$ cause-effect          
connection4 ,9 fact  !re be+ no relation
 betwe5 ! two1 ! temporal det]m9ation  z
 prior & lat] is wrong4 ,! supposition t
 !re is a  self :i* suff]s *anges is    
also n valid1 = h[soev] we              
,footnote #a3 ,see ,mdhyamikavrtti      
7,b4,t4,s471 p4 #ej4    ,footnote #b3   
,ibid4 pp4 #ic-ajj4    #adb    may se>* 
we f9d ! five sk&has b no self4 ,moreov]
 if  ! s\l is a unity x _c und]go any   
process or progression1  = t w\ld       
presuppose t ! s\l ab&ons "o "*  & takes
 up ano!r at ! same id5tical mom5t :i*  
is  inconceivable ,footnote ref #a4     

,b !n aga9 ! "q arises t if !re is no   
process1  & no cycle ( worldly exi/5ce (
 ?\s&s ( afflictions1 :at  is !n !      
nirvna :i* is describ$ z ! f9al         
ext9ction (  all afflictions 7kles'a78  
,to ?is ! ,madhyamaka reply is t x does 
n agree to su* a def9ition ( nirvna4    
,nirvna on ! ,madhyamaka  !ory is !     
abs5ce ( ! ess5ce ( all ph5om5a1 t  :i* 
_c be conceiv$ ei!r z any?+ :i* has     
ceas$  or z any?+ :i* is produc$        
7aniruddham anntpannam4 ,9  nirvna all  
ph5om5a are lo/2 we say t ! ph5om5a     
cease  to exi/ 9 nirvna1 b l ! illusory 
snake 9 ! rope !y  nev] exi/$ ,footnote 
ref #b4 ,nirvna _c be any positive ?+ or
  any sort ( /ate ( be+ 7bhva71 = all   
positive /ates or ?+s  are jo9t products
 ( comb9$ causes 7samskrta7 & are liable
 to  decay & de/ruction4 ,nei!r c x be a
 negative exi/5ce1 = s9ce  we _c speak (
 any positive exi/5ce1 we _c speak ( a  
negative exi/5ce ei!r4 ,! appe>ances or 
! ph5om5a are  communicat$ z be+ 9 a    
/ate ( *ange & process com+  "o aft]    

ano!r1 b beyond t no ess5ce1 exi/5ce1 or
 tru?  c be affirm$ ( !m4 ,ph5om5a      
sometimes appe> to be  produc$ &        
sometimes to be de/roy$1 b !y _c be     
det]m9$ z exi/5t or non-exi/5t4 ,nirvna 
is m]ely !  cessation ( ! seem+ ph5om5al
 fl[ 7prapacapravrtti74 ,x  _c !re=e be 
designat$ ei!r z positive or z negative 
=  ^! conceptions belong to ph5om5a 7na 
cpravrttimatram  bhvbhveti p>ikalpitum  
pryyate evam na bhvbhvanirvnam1  ,m4,v4 
#aig74 ,9 ?is /ate !re is no?+ :i* is   
kn[n1  & ev5 ! k t ! ph5om5a h ceas$ to 
appe> is n f\nd4 ,ev5 ! ,buddha himself 
is a ph5om5on1  a mirage or a dream1 & s
 are all 8 tea*+s ,footnote ref #c4     
,x is easy to see t 9 ?is sy/em !re _c  
exi/ any  bondage or emancipation2 all  
ph5om5a are l %ad[s1 l  ! mirage1 !     
dream1 ! my1 & ! magic )\t any real     
nature 7nihsvabhva74 ,x is m]e false k  
to suppose t        ,footnote #a3 ,see  
,madhyamikavrtti 7,b4,t4,s471 pp4       
#aja-ajb4    ,footnote #b3 ,ibid4 p4    
#aid4    ,footnote #c3 ,ibid4 pp4#afb & 

#bja4    #adc    "o is try+ to w9 a real
 nirvna ,footnote ref #a4 ,x is ?is     
false  egoism t is to be consid]$ z     
avidy4 ,:5 consid]$ deeply x is  f\nd t 
!re is n ev5 ! slighte/ trace ( any     
positive exi/5ce4  ,?us x is se5 t if   
!re 7 no ignorance 7avidy71 !re  w\ld h 
be5 no con=mations 7samskras71 & if !re 
7  no con=mations !re w\ld h be5 no     
consci\sness1 & s  on2 b x _c be said ( 
! ignorance ,i am g5]at+ !  samskras1 & 
x c be said ( ! samskras we are be+     
produc$ by ! avidy4 ,b !re be+ avidy1   
!re come !  samsk>s & s on ) o!r        
categories too4 ,?is "* (  !            
prattyasamutpda is kn[n z ! com+ ( !    
consequ5t  dep5d+ on an antec$5t reason 
7hetpanib&ha74    ,x c be view$ f ano!r 
aspect1 namely t ( dep5d5ce  on         
conglom]ation or comb9ation             
7pratyayopanib&h74  ,x is by !          
comb9ation 7samavya7 ( ! f\r elem5ts1   
space  7ks'a7 & consci\sness 7vijna7 t a
 man is made4 ,x is  due to e>? 7pr?iv7 
t ! body becomes solid1 x is due to     

wat] t !re is fat 9 ! body1 x is due to 
fire t !re is  dige/ion1 x is due to w9d
 t !re is respiration2 x is due  to ks'a
 t !re is porosity1 & x is due to vijna 
t  !re is m9d-consci\sness4 ,x is by _! 
mutual comb9ation  t we f9d a man z he  
is4 ,b none ( ^! elem5ts ?9k  t !y h    
done any ( ! functions t are consid]$ to
 be  allott$ to !m4 ,none ( ^! are real 
sub/ances or be+s or  s\ls4 ,x is by    
ignorance t ^! are ?\ght ( z exi/5ts &  
atta*m5t is g5]at$ = !m4 ,?r\gh         
ignorance ?us come  ! samskras1 consi/+ 
( atta*m5t1 antipa?y & ?\ghtlessness    
7rga1 dvesa1 moha72 f ^! proce$ ! vijna 
&  ! f\r sk&has4 ,^! ) ! f\r elem5ts br+
 ab\t "n  & =m 7nm>pa71 f ^! proce$ !   
s5ses 7sadayatana71  f ! com+ toge!r (  
^? ?ree comes contact 7sp>s'a72  f t    
feel+s1 f t comes desire 7trsn7 & s on4 
,^! fl[ on l ! /ream ( a riv]1 b !re is 
no ess5ce  or tru? beh9d !m all or z !  
gr\nd ( !m all ,footnote ref #b4  ,!    
ph5om5a !re=e _c be said to be ei!r     
exi/5t or  non-exi/5t1 & no tru? c be   

affirm$ ( ei!r et]nalism  7s's'vatavda7 
or nihilism 7uc*$avda71 & x is = ?is    
reason        ,footnote #a3 ,see        
,mdhyamikavrtti 7,b4,t4,s471 pp4        
#aja-ajh4    ,footnote3 ,ibid4 pp4      
#bji-baa1 quot$ f ,sli/ambhastra4       
,vcaspatimis'ra also quotes ?is passage 
9 8 ,bhmat on  ,s'ank>a's ,brahma-stra4 
#add    t ?is doctr9e is call$ ! middle 
doctr9e 7madhyamaka7 ,footnote  ref #a4 
,exi/5ce & non-exi/5ce h only a relative
 tru?  7samvrtisatya7 9 !m1 z 9 all     
ph5om5a1 b !re is no true  reality      
7p>amr?asatya7 9 !m or any?+ else4      
,morality  plays z high a "p 9 ?is      
nihili/ic sy/em z x does 9 any  o!r     
,indian sy/em4 ,i quote bel[ "s /anzas f
 ,ngrjuna's  ,sukrllekha z translat$ by 
,w5zel 7,p4,t4,s4 #ahhf7 f  ! ,tibetan  
translation4    #f4 ,kn[+ t ri*es are   
un/able & void 7zra7 give accord+ to  ! 
moral precepts1 to ,bhik%us1 ,brahm9s1 !
 poor & fri5ds = !re  is no bett] fri5d 
?an giv+4    #g4 ,exhibit morality      
7s'la7 faultless & sublime1 unmix$ &    

spotless1  = morality is ! support+     
gr\nd ( all em95ce1 z ! e>? is (  ! mov+
 & immovable4    #h4 ,ex]cise !         
impond]able1 transc5d5tal virtues (     
*>ity1 morality1  pati5ce1 en]gy1       
m$itation1 & likewise wisdom1 9 ord] t1 
hav+  rea*$ ! f>!r %ore ( ! sea (       
exi/5ce1 y may become a ,j9a  pr9ce4    
#i4 ,view z enemies1 av>ice 7mts>yya71  
deceit 7s'?ya71 duplicity  7my71 lu/1   
indol5ce 7kausdya71 pride 7mna71 gre$   
7rga71  hatr$ 7dvesa7 & pride 7mada7    
conc]n+ family1 figure1 glory1  y\?1 or 
p[]4    #ae4 ,s9ce no?+ is s difficult (
 atta9m5t z pati5ce1 op5 no door  =     
ang]2 ! ,buddha has pron\nc$ t he :o    
r5\nces ang] %all  atta9 ! degree ( an  
angm9 7a sa9t :o nev] suff]s rebir?74   
#ba4 ,d n look aft] ano!r's wife2 b if y
 see h]1 reg>d h]1  accord+ to age1 l   
y\r "m1 daught] or si/]4    #bd4 ,( him 
:o has conqu]$ ! un/able1 ev] mov+      
objects ( !  six s5ses & him :o has     
ov]come ! mass ( 8 enemies 9 battle1 !  
wise praise ! fir/ z ! great] h]o4      

#bi4 ,?\ :o kn[e/ ! _w1 be equanim\s    
aga9/ ! eight worldly  conditions1 ga9 &
 loss1 happ9ess & suff]+1 fame &        
di%on\r1  blame & praise1 = !y are n    
objects = y\r ?\ghts4    #cg4 ,b "o 7a  
woman7 t is g5tle z a si/]1 w9n+ z a    
fri5d1  c>eful ( y\r well be+ z a "m1   
ob$i5t z a s]vant h] 7y  mu/7 hon\r z ! 
gu>dian god7dess7 ( ! family4    #dj4   
,always p]fectly m$itate on 7turn y\r   
?\ghts to7 k9dness1 pity1  joy &        
indiff]5ce2 !n if y d n obta9 a high]   
degree y  7c]ta9ly7 w obta9 ! happ9ess (
 ,brahman's _w 7brahmavihra74    #da4   
,by ! f\r dhynas completely ab&on+      
desire 7kma71 reflection  7vicra71 joy  
7prti71 & happ9ess & pa9 7sukha1 duhkha7
 y  w obta9 z fruit ! lot ( a ,brahman4 
#di4 ,if y say ,i am n ! =m1 y !reby w  
und]/& ,i am  n end[$ ) =m1 ,i d n dwell
 9 =m1 ! =m does n dwell 9  me2 & 9 l   
mann] y w und]/& ! voidness ( ! o!r f\r 
aggregates4    #ej4 ,! aggregates d n   
arise f desire1 nor f "t1 nor f         
,footnote #a3 ,see ,mdhyamikavrtti      

7,b4,t4,s471 p4 #afj4    #ade    nature 
7prakrti71 n f !mselves 7svabhvt71 nor f
 ! ,"l  7s'v>a71 nor yet are !y )\t     
cause2 "k t !y arise f  ignorance       
7avidy7 & desire 7trsn74    #ea4 ,"k t  
atta*m5t to religi\s c]emonies          
7s'labratap>m>s'a71  wrong views        
7mi?ydrsti7 & d\bt 7vicikits7 are ! ?ree
  fett]s4    #ec4 ,/eadily in/ruct      
y\rself 7m & m7 9 ! highe/ morality1  ! 
highe/ wisdom & ! highe/ ?\ght1 = !     
hundr$ & fifty "o  rules 7( ! prtimoksa7
 are comb9$ p]fectly 9 ^! ?ree4    #eh4 
,because ?us 7z demon/rat$7 all ?is is  
un/able 7anitya7 )\t  sub/ance 7antma7  
)\t help 7z'arana7 )\t protector  7an?a7
 & )\t abode 7a/hna7 ?\ ,o ,"l ( m5 mu/ 
become  discont5t$ ) ?is wor?less 7zra7 
kadali-tree ( ! orb4    #ajd4 ,if a fire
 7 to seize y\r head or y\r dress y w\ld
 ext+ui%  & subdue x1 ev5 !n endeav\r to
 annihilate desire1 = !re is no  o!r    
high] necessity ?an ?is4    #aje4 ,by   
morality1 k & contemplation1 atta9 !    
spotless dignity  ( ! quiet+ & ! subdu+ 

nirvna n subject to age1 dea? or  decay1
 devoid ( e>?1 wat]1 fire1 w9d1 sun &   
moon4    #ajg4 ,:]e !re is no wisdom    
7praj7 !re is also no contemplation     
7dhyana71 :]e !re is no contemplation   
!re is also no wisdom2 b  "k t = him :o 
possesses ^! two ! sea ( exi/5ce is l a 
grove4      ,uncompromis+ ,idealism or !
 ,s*ool  ( ,vijnavda ,buddhism4    ,!   
s*ool ( ,buddhi/ philosophy kn[n z !    
,vijnavda  or ,yogcra has (t5 be5 ref]r$
 to by su* prom95t tea*]s  ( ,h9du ?\ght
 z ,kumrila & ,s'ank>a4 ,x agrees to a  
great  ext5t ) ! ,s'nyavd9s :om we h    
already describ$4  ,all ! dh>mas        
7qualities & sub/ances7 are b imag9>y   
con/ructions ( ignorant m9ds4 ,!re is no
 movem5t 9 !  s-call$ ext]nal _w z we   
suppose1 = x does n exi/4 ,we  con/ruct 
x ourselves & !n are ourselves delud$ t 
x exi/s  by itself 7nirmmitapratimohi7  
,footnote ref #a4 ,!re are two functions
  involv$ 9 our consci\sness1 viz4 t :i*
 holds ! p]ceptions  7khyti vijna71 & t 
:i* ord]s !m by imag9>y con/ructions    

7va/uprativikalpavijna74 ,! two         
functions h[ev] mutually  det]m9e ea*   
o!r & _c be sep>ately di/+ui%$          
7abh9nalaksane anyonyahetuke74 ,^!      
functions are set to "w  on acc\nt ( !  
beg9n+less in/9ctive t5d5cies inh]5t  9 
!m 9 relation to ! _w ( appe>ance       
7andikla-prapaca-vsanahetukaca7         
,footnote ref #b4    ,all s5se k c be   
/opp$ only :5 ! div]se        ,footnote 
#a3 ,lankvatrastra1 pp4 #ba-bb4         
,footnote #b ,ibid4 p4 #dd4    #adf     
unmanife/$ in/9cts ( imag9ation are     
/opp$                                   
7abhta-p>ikalpa-vsan-vaicitra-nirodha7  
,footnote ref #a4 ,all our ph5om5al k   
is )\t any ess5ce or tru? 7nihsvabhva7 &
 is b a  creation ( my1 a mirage or a   
dream4 ,!re is no?+ :i*  may be call$   
ext]nal1 b all is ! imag9>y creation ( !
  m9d 7svacitta71 :i* has be5 accu/om$  
to create imag9>y  appe>ances f         
beg9n+less "t4 ,?is m9d by ^: movem5t   
^! creations take place z subject &     
object has no  appe>ance 9 itself & is  

?us )\t any orig9ation1 exi/5ce  &      
ext9ction 7utpda/hitibhangav>jjam7 & is 
call$ !  layavijna4 ,! reason :y ?is    
layavijna itself is said to be  )\t     
orig9ation1 exi/5ce1 & ext9ction is     
probably ?is1  t x is always a          
hypo!tical /ate :i* m]ely expla9s all  !
 ph5om5al /ates t appe>1 & !re=e x has  
no exi/5ce  9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! t]m is us$ 
& we c\ld n  affirm any special ess5ce (
 x4    ,we d n realize t all visible    
ph5om5a are ( no?+  ext]nal b ( our own 
m9d 7svacitta71 & !re is also !         
beg9n+less t5d5cy = believ+ & creat+ a  
ph5om5al _w  ( appe>ance4 ,!re is also !
 nature ( k 7:i*  takes ?+s z ! p]ceiv] 
& ! p]ceiv$7 & !re is also  ! in/9ct 9 !
 m9d to exp]i5ce div]se =ms4 ,on acc\nt 
( ^! f\r reasons !re are produc$ 9 !    
layavijna 7m9d7  ! ripples ( our s5se   
exp]i5ces 7pravrttivijana7 z 9 a lake1  
& ^! are manife/$ z s5se exp]i5ces4 ,all
 ! five sk&has  call$ pa*avijnakya ?us  
appe> 9 a prop] syn!tic  =m4 ,none ( !  
ph5om5al k t appe>s is ei!r  id5tical or

 diff]5t f ! layavijna j z ! waves _c   
be said to be ei!r id5tical or diff]5t f
 ! ocean4 ,z  ! ocean dances on 9 waves 
s ! citta or ! layavijna  is also danc+ 
z x 7 9 its div]se op]ations 7vrtti74 ,z
  citta x collects all movem5ts 7k>ma7  
)9 x1 z manas x  syn!sizes 7vidhyate7 & 
z vijna x con/ructs ! fivefold          
p]ceptions 7vijnn vijnti drs'yam kalpate
 pacabhih7 ,footnote  ref #b4    ,x is  
only due to my 7illusion7 t ! ph5om5a   
appe> 9 _!  tw(old aspect z subject &   
object4 ,?is mu/ always be reg>d$ z  an 
appe>ance 7samvrtisatyat7 :]eas 9 ! real
 aspect we c\ld  nev] say :e!r !y exi/$ 
7bhva7 or did n exi/ ,footnote ref #c4  
,footnote #a3 ,pacvatrastra1 p4 #dd4    
,footnote #b3 ,ibid41 pp4 #ej-ee4       
,footnote #c3 ,asanga's                 
,mahynastrlamkra1 pp4 #eh-ei4    #adg   
,all ph5om5a bo? be+ & non-be+ are      
illusory 7sadasantah  myopamh74 ,:5 we  
look deeply into !m we f9d t  !re is an 
absolute negation ( all appe>ances1     
includ+ ev5  all negations1 = !y are    

also appe>ances4 ,?is w\ld make !       
ultimate tru? positive4 ,b ?is is n s1 =
 x is t 9 :i*  ! positive & negative are
 "o & ! same 7bhvbhvasamnat7  ,footnote 
ref #a4 ,su* a /ate :i* is complete 9   
itself & has no  "n & no sub/ance _h be5
 describ$ 9 ! ,lankvatrastra  z ?atness 
7ta?at7 ,footnote ref #b4 ,?is /ate is  
also describ$ 9  ano!r place 9 !        
,lankvatra z voidness 7s'nyat7 :i* is "o
  & has no orig9ation & no ess5ce       
,footnote ref #c4 ,9 ano!r place  x is  
also designat$ z ta?gatag>bha ,footnote 
ref #d4    ,x may be suppos$ t ?is      
doctr9e ( an unqualifi$  ultimate tru?  
comes ne> to ! ,v$antic tman or ,brahman
  l ! ta?at doctr9e ( ,z'vaghosa2 & we  
f9d 9 ,lankavatra  t ,rvana asks !      
,buddha ,h[ c y say t  y\r doctr9e (    
ta?gatag>bha 0 n ! same z ! tman        
doctr9e ( ! o!r s*ools ( philosoph]s1 = 
^? h]etics  also consid] ! tman z       
et]nal1 ag5t1 unqualifi$1 all p]vad+  & 
un*ang$8 ,to ?is ! ,buddha is f\nd to   
reply  ?us--,our doctr9e is n ! same z !

 doctr9e ( ^?  h]etics2 x is 9          
consid]ation ( ! fact t ! in/ruction  ( 
a philosophy :i* consid]$ t !re 0 no s\l
 or sub/ance  9 any?+ 7nairatmya7 w\ld  
fright5 ! disciples1 t  ,i say t all ?+s
 are 9 reality ! ta?gatag>bha4 ,?is     
%\ld n be reg>d$ z tman4 ,j z a lump (  
clay is made  into v>i\s %apes1 s x is !
 non-ess5tial nature  ( all ph5om5a & _!
 fre$om f all *>act]i/ics               
7s>vavikalpalaksanav9ivrttam7 t is      
v>i\sly describ$ z  ! g>bha or !        
nairtmya 7ess5celessness74 ,?is         
explanation (  ta?gatag>bha z ! ultimate
 tru? & reality is giv5 9 ord] to       
attract to our cre$ ^? h]etics :o are   
sup]/iti\sly  incl9$ to believe 9 ! tman
 doctr9e ,footnote ref #e4    ,s f> z ! 
appe>ance ( ! ph5om5a 0 conc]n$1  !     
ideali/ic ,buddhi/s 7vijnavd9s7 agre$ to
 ! doctr9e (  prattyasamutpda ) c]ta9   
modifications4 ,!re 0 )  !m an ext]nal  
prattyasamutpda j z x appe>$ 9 !        
,footnote #a3 ,asanga's                 
,mahynastrlamkra1 p4 #fe4    ,footnote  

#b3 ,lankvatrastra1 p4 #gj4    ,footnote
 #c3 ,ibid4 p4 #gh4    ,footnote #d3    
,ibid4 p4 #hj4    ,footnote #e3 ,ibid4  
pp4 #hj-ha4    #adh    objective aspect 
& an int]nal prattyasamutpda4 ,! ext]nal
  prattyasamutpda 7dep5d5t orig9ation7  
is repres5t$ 9 !  way 9 :i* mat]ial ?+s 
7e4g4 a jug7 came into be+ by !         
co-op]ation ( div]se elem5ts--! lump (  
clay1 ! pott]1  ! :eel1 etc4 ,! int]nal 
7dhytmika7 prattyasamutpda  0 repres5t$ 
by avidy1 trsn1 k>ma1 ! sk&has1 & !     
yatanas produc$ out ( !m ,footnote ref  
#a4    ,our und]/&+ is compos$ ( two    
categories call$ !  pravi*ayabuddhi & ! 
vikalpalaksanagrahbh9ives'apratis?apikbu
ddhi4 ,!  pravicayabuddhi is t :i*      
always seeks to take ?+s 9 ei!r  ( !    
foll[+ f\r ways1 t !y are ei!r ?is or ! 
o!r  7ekatvnyaiva72 ei!r bo? or n bo?   
7ubhaynubhaya71 ei!r  are or are n      
7a/9/i71 ei!r et]nal or non-et]nal      
7nitynitya74  ,b 9 reality none ( ^! c  
be affirm$ ( ! ph5om5a4 ,! second       
category consi/s ( t habit ( ! m9d by   

virtue ( :i* x  con/ructs div]sities &  
arranges !m 7creat$ 9 _! turn by  its   
own con/ructive activity--p>ikalpa7 9 a 
logical ord] ( div]se  relations (      
subject & pr$icate1 causal & o!r        
relations4 ,he :o  kn[s ! nature ( ^!   
two categories ( ! m9d kn[s t !re  is no
 ext]nal _w ( matt] & t !y are all      
exp]i5c$ only  9 ! m9d4 ,!re is no wat]1
 b x is ! s5se con/ruction (  smoo?ness 
7sneha7 t con/ructs ! wat] z an ext]nal 
sub/ance2  x is ! s5se con/ruction (    
activity or en]gy t  con/ructs ! ext]nal
 sub/ance ( fire2 x is ! s5se           
con/ruction  ( movem5t t con/ructs !    
ext]nal sub/ance ( air4  ,9 ?is way     
?r\gh ! false habit ( tak+ ! unreal z ! 
real 7mi?ysatybh9ives'a7 five sk&has    
appe>4 ,if ^! 7  to appe> all toge!r1 we
 c\ld n speak ( any k9d ( causal        
relations1 & if !y appe>$ 9 succession  
!re c\ld be  no connection betwe5 !m1 z 
!re is no?+ to b9d !m  toge!r4 ,9       
reality !re is no?+ :i* is produc$ or   
de/roy$1 x is only our con/ructive      

imag9ation t builds up  ?+s z p]ceiv$ ) 
all _! relations1 & ourselves z         
p]ceiv]s4 ,x is simply a conv5tion      
7vyavahra7 to speak ( ?+s  z kn[n       
,footnote ref #b4 ,:atev] we designate  
by spee* is m]e  spee*-con/ruction      
7vgvikalpa7 & unreal4 ,9 spee* "o c\ld n
  speak ( any?+ )\t relat+ ?+s 9 "s k9d 
( causal        ,footnote #a3           
,lankvatrastra1 p4 #he4    ,footnote #b3
 ,lankvatrastra1 p4 #hg1 comp>e ! t]m   
vyavahrika z  us$ ( ! ph5om5al & !      
conv5tional _w 9 almo/ ! same  s5se by  
,s'ank>a4    #adi    relation1 b none ( 
^! *>act]s may be said to be true2  !   
real tru? 7p>am>?a7 c nev] be ref]r$ to 
by su*  spee*-con/ruction4    ,!        
no?+ness 7s'nyata7 ( ?+s may be view$ f 
sev5 aspects--7#a7 t !y are always      
int]dep5d5t1 & h5ce  h no special       
*>act]i/ics by !mselves1 & z !y _c  be  
det]m9$ 9 !mselves !y _c be det]m9$ 9   
t]ms  ( o!rs1 =1 _! own nature be+      
undet]m9$1 a ref]5ce  to an o!r is also 
undet]m9$1 & h5ce !y are all indef9able 

7laksanas'nyata72 7#b7 t !y h no        
positive ess5ce  7bhvasvabhvas'nyat71   
s9ce !y spr+ up f a natural  non-exi/5ce
 7svabhvbhvotpatti72 7#c7 t !y are ( an 
unkn[n  type ( non-exi/5ce              
7aprac>itas'nyat71 s9ce all ! sk&has    
vani% 9 ! nirvana2 7#d7 t !y appe>      
ph5om5ally z connect$  ?\gh non-exi/5t  
7prac>itas'nyat71 = _! sk&has  h no     
reality 9 !mselves nor are !y relat$ to 
o!rs1 b  yet !y appe> to be someh[      
causally connect$2 7#e7 t none  ( ! ?+s 
c be describ$ z hav+ any def9ite nature1
  !y are all undemon/rable by language  
7nirabhilapyas'nyat72  7#f7 t !re _c be 
any k ab\t !m except t  :i* is br\ght   
ab\t by ! long-/&+ defects ( desires    
:i* pollute all our vision2 7#g7 t ?+s  
are also non-exi/5t  9 ! s5se t we      
affirm !m to be 9 a p>ticul> place &  "t
 9 :i* !y are n 7it>et>as'nyat74    ,!re
 is ?us only non-exi/5ce1 :i* aga9 is   
nei!r et]nal  nor de/ructible1 & ! _w is
 b a dream & a my2 !  two k9ds (        
negation 7nirodha7 are ks'a 7space7 &   

nirvana2  ?+s :i* are nei!r exi/5t nor  
non-exi/5t are only  imag9$ to be exi/5t
 by fools4    ,?is view app>5tly comes  
into conflict ) ! doctr9e (  ?is s*ool1 
t ! reality is call$ ! ta?gatag>bha 7!  
womb ( all t is m]g$ 9 ?atness7 & all ! 
ph5om5al  appe>ances ( ! clu/]s         
7sk&has71 elem5ts 7dhtus71 &  fields (  
s5se op]ation 7yatanas7 only s]ve to    
veil x )  impurities1 & ?is w\ld br+ x  
ne>] to ! assumption ( a  univ]sal s\l z
 ! reality4 ,b ! ,lankvatra attempts to 
expla9 away ?is conflict by sugge/+ t ! 
ref]5ce to  ! ta?gatag>bha z ! reality  
is only a sort (  false bait to attract 
^? :o are afraid ( li/5+  to ! nairtmya 
7non-s\l doctr9e7 ,footnote ref #a4     
,footnote #a3 ,lankvatrastra1 p4 #hj4   
#aej      ,! ,bodhisattvas may atta9 _! 
highe/ by ! f\rfold  k ( 7#a7           
svacittadrs'hyabhvan1 7#b7              
utpda/hitibhangaviv>jjanat1  7#c7       
bhyabhvbhvopalaksanat &  7#d7           
svapratyryyajndhigambh9nalaksanat4 ,!   
fir/ means  t all ?+s are b creations ( 

! imag9ation ( "o's m9d4  ,! second     
means t z ?+s h no ess5ce !re is no     
orig9ation1  exi/5ce or de/ruction4 ,!  
?ird means t "o %\ld  "k ! di/9ctive    
s5se 9 :i* all ext]nal ?+s are said     
ei!r to be exi/5t or non-exi/5t1 = _!   
exi/5ce is m]ely  l ! mirage :i* is     
produc$ by ! beg9n+less desire  7vsan7 (
 creat+ & p]ceiv+ ! manifold4 ,?is br+s 
u  to ! f\r? "o1 :i* means ! "r         
compreh5sion ( !  nature ( all ?+s4     
,! f\r dhynas spok5 ( 9 ! ,lankvatra    
seem to be  diff]5t f ^? :i* h be5      
describ$ 9 connection )  ! ,!ravda      
,buddhism4 ,^! dhynas are call$ 7#a7    
blopacrika1  7#b7 ar?apravi*aya1 7#c7   
ta?atlambana & 7#d7 ta?gata4  ,! fir/ "o
 is said to be t practis$ by ! s'rvakas 
& ! pratyekabuddhas4 ,x consi/s 9       
conc5trat+ ^u !  doctr9e t !re is no s\l
 7pudgalanairtmya71 & t ev]y?+  is      
transitory1 mis]able & impure4 ,:5      
consid]+ all  ?+s 9 ?is way f beg9n+ to 
end ! sage advances on  till all        
conceptual kn[+ ceases 7samjnirodht72 we

 h  :at is call$ ! vlopacrika dhyna 7!  
m$itation = beg9n]s74    ,! second is ! 
advanc$ /ate :]e n only !re is  full    
consci\sness t !re is no self1 b !re is 
also !  compreh5sion t nei!r ^! nor !   
doctr9es ( o!r h]etics  may be said to  
exi/1 & t !re is none ( ! dh>mas t      
appe>s4 ,?is is call$ !                 
ar?apravicayadhyna1 = ! sage            
conc5trates "h on ! subject ( ?or\ghly  
seek+ out  7pravi*aya7 ! nature ( all   
?+s 7ar?a74    ,! ?ird dhyna1 t 9 :i* ! 
m9d realizes t !  ?\ght t !re is no self
 nor t !re are ! appe>ances1  is itself 
! result ( imag9ation & ?us lapses into 
! ?atness  7ta?at74 ,?is dhyna is call$ 
ta?atlambana1 because x has =  its      
object ta?at or ?atness4    ,! la/ or ! 
f\r? dhyna is t 9 :i* ! lapse (  ! m9d  
into ! /ate ( ?atness is su* t !        
no?+ness  & incompreh5sibility ( all    
ph5om5a is p]fectly realiz$2    #aea    
& nirvna is t 9 :i* all root desires    
7vsan7 manife/+  !mselves 9 k are       
de/roy$ & ! m9d ) k  & p]ceptions1 mak+ 

false creations1 ceases to "w4 ,?is  _c 
be call$ dea?1 = x w n h any rebir? & x 
_c  be call$ de/ruction1 = only comp\nd$
 ?+s 7samskrta7  suff] de/ruction1 s t x
 is diff]5t f ei!r dea? or  de/ruction4 
,?is nirvna is diff]5t f t ( ! s'rvakas 
& ! pratyekabuddhas = !y are satisfi$ to
 call t /ate  nirvna1 9 :i* by ! k ( !  
g5]al *>act]i/ics  ( all ?+s            
7transitor9ess & mis]y7 !y are n atta*$ 
to  ?+s & cease to make errone\s        
judgm5ts ,footnote ref #a4    ,?us we   
see t !re is no cause 79 ! s5se ( gr\nd7
  ( all ^! ph5om5a z o!r h]etics ma9ta94
 ,:5 x is  said t ! _w is my or         
illusion1 :at is meant to be  emphasiz$ 
is ?is1 t !re is no cause1 no gr\nd4 ,! 
ph5om5a  t seem to orig9ate1 /ay1 & be  
de/roy$ are m]e  con/ructions ( ta9t$   
imag9ation1 & ! ta?at or ?atness  is    
no?+ b ! turn+ away ( ?is con/ructive   
activity or  nature ( ! imag9ation      
7vikalpa7 ta9t$ ) ! associations  (     
beg9n+less root desires 7vsan7 ,footnote
 ref #b4 ,! ta?at has  no sep>ate       

reality f illusion1 b x is illusion     
itself :5 !  c\rse ( ! con/ruction (    
illusion has ceas$4 ,x is !re=e  also   
spok5 ( z t :i* is cut (f or deta*$ f ! 
m9d  7cittavimukta71 = "h !re is no     
con/ruction ( imag9ation                
7s>vakalpanavirahitam7 ,footnote ref #c4
      ,sautrntika ,!ory ( ,p]ception4   
,dh>mott>a 7#hdg ,a4,d471 a comm5tator (
 ,dh>makrtti's ,footnote ref #d  7ab\t  
#fce ,a4,d47 ,nyyab9du1 a ,sautrantika  
logical & epi/emological  "w1 describes 
"r k 7samyagjna7 z an  inv>iable        
antec$5t to ! accompli%m5t ( all t a man
        ,footnote #a3 ,lankvat>astra1 p4
 #ajj4    ,footnote #b3 ,ibid4 p4 #aji4 
,footnote #c3 ,?is acc\nt ( !           
,vijanavada s*ool is collect$ ma9ly  f  
,lankvatrastra1 z no o!r au!ntic "w ( ! 
,vijnavda  s*ool is available4 ,h9du    
acc\nts & criticisms ( ?is s*ool may be 
_h 9 su* books z ,kum>ila's ,s'loka     
vrttika or ,s'ank>a's bhasya1  ,,ii4 ii1
 etc4 ,asaknga's ,mahynastralamkra deals
 m ) ! duties  conc]n+ ! c>e] ( a sa9t  

7,bodhisattva7 ?an ) ! metaphysics  ( ! 
sy/em4    ,footnote #d3 ,dh>makrtti     
calls himself an adh]5t ( ,vijanavda 9 8
  ,santnnt>asiddhi1 a treatise on       
solipsism1 b 8 ,nyyab9du seems  rightly 
to h be5 consid]$ by ! au?or (          
,nyyab9dutktippani  7p4 #ai7 z be+      
writt5 f ! ,sautrntika po9t ( view4     
#aeb    desires to h 7samyagjnaprvik    
s>vapurusr?asiddhi7 ,footnote  ref #a4  
,:5 on proce$+1 9 accordance ) !        
pres5tation ( any  k1 we get a ?+ z     
pres5t$ by x we call x "r  k4 ,"r k is  
?us ! k by :i* "o  c practically acquire
 ! ?+ he wants to acquire 7ar?dhigati74 
,! process ( k1 !re=e1 />ts ) !         
p]ceptual  pres5tation & ends ) !       
atta9m5t ( ! ?+  repres5t$ by x & !     
fulfilm5t ( ! practical ne$ by x        
7ar?dhigamt samptah pramnavyprah74 ,?us 
!re are  ?ree mom5ts 9 ! p]ceptual      
acquirem5t ( k3  7#a7 ! pres5tation1    
7#b7 our prompt+ 9 accordance ) x1  &   
7#c7 ! f9al realization ( ! object 9    
accordance )  our endeav\r foll[+ !     

direction ( k4 ,inf]5ce  is also to be  
call$ "r k1 z x also s]ves our practical
  ne$ by repres5t+ ! pres5ce ( objects 9
 c]ta9 connections  & help+ u to realize
 !m4 ,9 p]ception ?is pres5tation  is   
direct1 :ile 9 inf]5ce ?is is br\ght    
ab\t indirectly  ?r\gh ! linga 7reason74
 ,k is s\ght by m5 = !  realization ( _!
 ends1 & ! subject ( k is discuss$  9   
philosophical works only because k is   
s\ght  by m54 ,any k1 !re=e1 :i* w n    
lead u to  ! realization ( ! object     
repres5t$ by x c\ld n be call$  "r k4   
,all illusory p]ceptions1 !re=e1 su* z !
  p]ception ( a :ite con*-%ell z yell[  
or dream p]ceptions1  are n "r k1 s9ce  
!y d n lead to ! realization  ( su*     
objects z are pres5t$ by !m4 ,x is true 
no d\bt  t s9ce all objects are mom5t>y1
 ! object :i* 0 p]ceiv$  at ! mom5t (   
p]ception 0 n ! same z t  :i* 0 realiz$ 
at a lat] mom5t4 ,b ! s]ies ( exi/5ts   
:i* />t$ ) ! fir/ p]ception ( a blue    
object f9ds itself  realiz$ by !        
realization ( o!r exi/5ts ( ! same s]ies

  7nldau ya eva santnah p>ic*9no        
nilajn5a sa eva t5a  prpitah t5a        
nilajnam pramnam7 ,footnote ref #b4     
,:5 x is said t "r k is an inv>iable    
antec$5t  ( ! realization ( any         
desirable ?+ or ! ret>d+  ( any         
undesirable ?+1 x mu/ be not$ t x is n  
meant        ,footnote #a3 ,brief       
extracts f ! op9ions ( two o!r          
comm5tators (  ,nyyayb9du1 ,v9tadeva &  
,s'antabhadra 7sev5? c5tury71 are f\nd 9
  ,nyyab9dutktippan1 a comm5t>y (       
,nyayab9dutik ( ,dh>mmott>a1  b _! texts
 are n available to u4    ,footnote #b3 
,nyyab9dutktippan1 p4 #aa4    #aec    t 
"r k is directly ! cause ( x2 =1 ) !    
rise  ( any "r p]ception1 !re is a      
memory ( pa/ exp]i5ces1  desire is      
ar\s$1 ?r\gh desire an endeav\r 9       
accordance )  x is laun*$1 & z a result 
( t !re is realization ( !  object (    
desire4 ,?us1 look$ at f ?is po9t (     
view1 "r  k is n directly ! cause ( !   
realization ( ! object4  ,"r k ( c\rse  
directly indicates ! pres5tation1 !     

object ( desire1 b s f> z ! object is a 
m]e pres5tation x  is n a subject (     
enquiry4 ,x becomes a subject ( enquiry 
only 9  connection ) our a*iev+ ! object
 pres5t$ by p]ception4    ,p]ception    
7pratyaks'a7 has be5 def9$ by           
,dh>makrtti z  a pres5tation1 :i* is    
g5]at$ by ! objects alone1 unassociat$  
by any names or relations 7kalpan7 & :i*
 is n errone\s  7kalpanpodhamabhrntam7  
,footnote ref #a4 ,?is def9ition does n 
inde$ repres5t ! actual nature 7sv>pa7 (
 p]ception1 b only  %[s ! condition :i* 
mu/ be fulfill$ 9 ord] t any?+  may be  
valid p]ception4 ,:at is meant by say+ t
 a p]ception  is n errone\s is simply   
?is1 t x w be su* t  if "o engages      
himself 9 an endeav\r 9 accordance ) x1 
he w n be baffl$ 9 ! object :i* 0       
pres5t$ to him  by 8 p]ception          
7tasmdgrhye ar! va/urpe yadavip>ya/am   
tadabhrntamiha v$itavyam4 ,x is said t a
 "r p]ception  c\ld n be associat$ )    
names 7kalpan or abhilpa74 ,?is         
qualification is add$ only ) a view (   

leav+ out all t is n  directly g5]at$ by
 ! object4 ,a "n is giv5 to a ?+  only  
:5 x is associat$ 9 ! m9d1 ?r\gh memory1
 z be+  ! same z p]ceiv$ be=e4 ,?is _c1 
!re=e1 be reg>d$  z be+ produc$ by !    
object ( p]ception4 ,! s5ses pres5t  !  
objects by com+ 9 contact ) !m1 & !     
objects also  mu/ ( necessity all[      
!mselves to be pres5t$ z !y are  :5 !y  
are 9 contact ) ! prop] s5ses4 ,b ! "w  
( recognition or giv+ names is n :at is 
directly produc$  by ! objects !mselves1
 = ?is involves ! unification (  previ\s
 exp]i5ces1 & ?is is c]ta9ly n :at is   
pres5t$        ,footnote #a3 ,!         
def9ition fir/ giv5 9 ! ,pramnasamucaya 
7n  available 9 ,sanskrit7 ( ,dinnga    
7#ejj ,a4,d47 0 ,kalpanpodham4  ,accord+
 to ,dh>makirtti x is ! indet]m9ate k   
7nirvikalpa  jna7 consi/+ only ( ! copy 
( ! object pres5t$ to ! s5ses  t        
con/itutes ! valid elem5t pres5t$ to    
p]ception4 ,! det]m9ate  k 7savikalpa   
jna71 z =m$ by ! conceptual activity (  
! m9d id5tify+ ! object ) :at has be5   

exp]i5c$ be=e1  _c be reg>d$ z truly    
repres5t+ :at is really pres5t$ to  !   
s5ses4    #aed    to ! s5se             
7prvadrstp>adrstacr?amekkurvadvijnamasan
nihitavisayam  prvadrstasysannihitatvt74
 ,9 all illusory p]ceptions x is !  s5se
 :i* is affect$ ei!r by extrane\s or by 
inh]5t physiological  causes4 ,if !     
s5ses are n p]v]t$ !y are b\nd to pres5t
 !  object correctly4 ,p]ception ?us    
means ! correct pres5tation ?r\gh  !    
s5ses ( an object 9 its own uniqu5ess z 
conta9+ only ^?  features :i* are its & 
its alone 7svalaksanam74 ,! validity (  
k consi/s 9 ! sam5ess t x has ) !       
objects pres5t$  by x 7ar!na saha       
yatsrpyam sdrs'yamasya jnasya           
tatpramnamiha74  ,b ! objection "h is t 
if our p]cept is only  simil> to !      
ext]nal object !n ?is simil>ity is a ?+ 
:i*  is diff]5t f ! pres5tation1 & ?us  
p]ception becomes  invalid4 ,b !        
simil>ity is n diff]5t f ! p]cept :i*   
appe>s z be+ simil> to ! object4 ,x is  
by virtue ( _!  sam5ess t we ref] to !  

object by ! p]cept 7taditi srpyam  tasya
 vas't7 & our p]ception ( ! object      
becomes possible4  ,x is because we h an
 aw>5ess ( blu5ess t we speak (  hav+   
p]ceiv$ a blue object4 ,! relation1     
h[ev]1 betwe5  ! notion ( simil>ity ( ! 
p]ception ) ! blue object &  ! indef9ite
 aw>5ess ( blue 9 p]ception is n "o (   
causation b ( a det]m9ant & a det]m9ate 
7vyava/hpyavyava/hpakabhv5a74 ,?us x is 
! same cognition  :i* 9 "o =m /&s z     
signify+ ! simil>ity ) ! object  (      
p]ception & is 9 ano!r indef9ite =m !   
aw>5ess z !  p]cept 7tata ekasya va/unah
 kicidrpam pramnam kicitpramnaphalam  na
 virudhyate74 ,x is on acc\nt ( ?is     
simil>ity  ) ! object t a cognition c be
 a det]m9ant ( !  def9ite aw>5ess       
7vyava/hpanaheturhi srpyam71 s t by  !  
det]m9ate we "k ! det]m9ant & ?us by !  
simil>ity ( ! s5se-datum ) ! object     
pramna7 we come  to ?9k t our aw>5ess   
has ?is p>ticul> =m z blue              
7pramnaphala74 ,if ?is sam5ess betwe5 ! 
k & its  object 0 n felt we c\ld n h    

spok5 ( ! object f  ! aw>5ess           
7srpyamanubhtam vyava/hpanahetuh74 ,!   
object g5]ates an aw>5ess simil> to     
itself1 &  x is ?is correspond5ce t c   
lead u to ! realization  ( ! object s   
pres5t$ by "r k ,footnote ref l4        
,footnote #a3 ,see also pp4 #cdj & #dji4
 ,x is un=tunate t1 except+  !          
,nyyab9du1 ,nyyab9dutk1                 
,nyyab9dutktippan 7,/ ,pet]sburg1       
#aiji71 no o!r works deal+ ) ?is int]e/+
 doctr9e ( p]ception  are available to  
u4 ,nyyab9du is probably "o ( ! e>lie/  
works 9  :i* we he> ( ! doctr9e (       
ar?akriykritva 7practical fulfilm5t  (  
our desire z a crit]ion ( "r k74 ,lat]  
on x 0 reg>d$  z a crit]ion ( exi/5ce1 z
 ,ratnakrtti's works & ! pr(use         
ref]5ces by ,h9du writ]s to ! ,buddhi/ic
 doctr9es prove4 ,! ^w  ar?akriy is f\nd
 9 ,c&rakrtti's comm5t>y on ,ngrjuna &  
also  9 su* e>ly works z ,lalitavi/>a   
7po9t$ out to me by ,dr ,e4,j4  ,?omas (
 ! ,cambridge ,univ]sity ,libr>y7 b ! ^w
 has no  philosophical significance !re4

    #aee      ,sautrntika !ory (        
,inf]5ce ,footnote ref #a4    ,accord+  
to ! ,sautrntika doctr9e ( ,buddhism z  
describ$  by ,dh>makrtti & ,dh>mmott>a  
:i* is probably !  only acc\nt (        
sy/ematic ,buddhi/ logic t is n[        
available to  u 9 ,sanskrit1 inf]5ce    
7anumna7 is divid$ into two classes1    
call$ svr?numna 7inf]5tial k atta9$ by a
 p]son  argu+ 9 8 own m9d or judgm5ts71 
& p>r?numna 7inf]5ce  ?r\gh ! help (    
articulat$ propositions = conv9c+  o!rs 
9 a debate74 ,! validity ( inf]5ce      
dep5d$1 l !  validity ( p]ception1 on   
copy+ ! actually exi/+ facts (  !       
ext]nal _w4 ,inf]5ce copi$ ext]nal      
realities z mu*  z p]ception did2 j z ! 
validity ( ! imm$iate p]ception  ( blue 
dep5ds ^u its simil>ity to ! ext]nal    
blue ?+  p]ceiv$1 s ! validity ( !      
inf]5ce ( a blue ?+ also1  s f> z x is  
k1 dep5ds ^u its resemblance to !       
ext]nal fact ?us inf]r$ 7srpyavas'ddhi  
tannlaprattirpam  sidhyati74    ,!      
reason by :i* an inf]5ce is made %\ld be

 su*  t x may be pres5t only 9 ^? cases 
:]e ! ?+ to  be inf]r$ exi/s1 & abs5t 9 
e case :]e x does n  exi/4 ,x is only :5
 ! reason is te/$ by bo? ^! jo9t        
conditions t an unfail+ connection      
7pratib&ha7 betwe5  ! reason & ! ?+ to  
be inf]r$ c be e/abli%$4 ,x is  n en\gh 
t ! reason %\ld be pres5t 9 all cases   
:]e  ! ?+ to be inf]r$ exi/s & abs5t :]e
 x does n  exi/1 b x is necess>y t x    
%\ld be pres5t only 9 !  above case4    
,?is law 7niyama7 is ess5tial = e/abli%+
 !  unfail+ condition necess>y = inf]5ce
 ,footnote ref #b4 ,?is  unfail+ natural
 connection 7svabhvapratib&ha7 is f\nd 9
 two types        ,footnote #a3 ,z !    
,pramnasamuccaya ( ,dinga is n available
 9  ,sanskrit1 we c h>dly "k any?+ (    
develop$ ,buddhi/ logic except  :at c be
 got f ! ,nyyab9dutk ( ,dh>mmott>a4     
,footnote #b3 tasmt                     
niyamavatorevnvayavyatirekayoh prayogah 
k>ttavyah  y5a pratib&ho gamyeta        
sdhanyasa sdhy5a4 ,nyyab9dutk1 p4 #bd4  
#aef    ( cases4 ,! fir/ is t :]e !     

nature ( ! reason is conta9$  9 ! ?+ to 
be inf]r$ z a "p ( its nature1 i4e4 :]e 
! reason /&s = a species ( :i* ! ?+ to  
be inf]r$  is a g5us2 ?us a /upid p]son 
liv+ 9 a place full ( tall p9es  may    
come to ?9k t p9es are call$ trees      
because !y are  tall & x may be useful  
to po9t out to him t ev5 a small  p9e   
plant is a tree because x is p9e2 !     
quality ( p95ess  =ms a "p ( ! ess5ce ( 
tre5ess1 = ! =m] be+  a species is      
conta9$ 9 ! latt] z a g5us2 ! nature ( !
  species be+ id5tical ) ! nature ( !   
g5us1 "o c\ld  inf] ! latt] f ! =m] b n 
vice v]sa2 ?is is call$  ! unfail+      
natural connection ( id5tity ( nature   
7tdtmya74  ,! second is t :]e ! cause is
 inf]r$ f ! effect  :i* /&s z ! reason (
 ! =m]4 ,?us f ! smoke  ! fire :i* has  
produc$ x may be inf]r$4 ,! gr\nd (  ^! 
inf]5ces is t reason is naturally       
indissolubly connect$  ) ! ?+ to be     
inf]r$1 & unless ?is is ! case1 no      
inf]5ce is w>rantable4    ,?is natural  
indissoluble connection                 

7svabhvapratib&ha71  be x ( ! nature (  
id5tity ( ess5ce ( ! species 9 !  g5us  
or insep>able connection ( ! effect ) ! 
cause1 is  ! gr\nd ( all inf]5ce        
,footnote ref #a4 ,! svabhvapratib&ha   
det]m9es ! insep>ability ( connection   
7av9bhvaniyama7 &  ! inf]5ce is made n  
?r\gh a s]ies ( premisses1 b  directly  
by ! linga 7reason7 :i* has ! insep>able
 connection  ,footnote ref #b4    ,!    
second type ( inf]5ce kn[n z p>r?numna  
agrees ) svr?numna 9 all ess5tial       
*>act]i/ics2 !  ma9 diff]5ce betwe5 !   
two is ?is1 t 9 ! case (  p>r?numna1 !  
inf]5tial process has to be put v]bally 
9  premisses4    ,p&it ,ratnk>asnti1    
probably ( ! n9? or ! t5? c5tury        
,a4,d41 wrote a pap] nam$               
,ant>vyptisam>?ana 9 :i*                
,footnote #a3 na hi yo yatra svabhv5a na
 pratibaddhah sa tam                    
apratibaddhavisayamavs'yameva na        
vyabhic>atti n/i  tayoravyabhicraniyama4
 ,nyyab9dutk1 p4 #bi4    ,footnote #b3  
,! insep>able connection det]m9+ inf]5ce

 is only  possible :5 ! linga satisfies 
! ?ree foll[+ conditions1  viz4 7#a7    
paksasattva 7exi/5ce ( ! linga 9 !      
paksa--! ?+  ab\t :i* some?+ is inf]r$72
 7#b7 sapaksasattva 7exi/5ce ( !  linga 
9 ^? cases :]e ! sdhya oc prob&um       
exi/$71 &  7#c7 vipakssattva 7its       
non-exi/5ce 9 all ^? places :]e ! sdhya 
did n exi/74 ,! ,buddhi/s admitt$ ?ree  
propositions 9 a syllogism1  e4g4 ,!    
hill has fire1 because x has smoke1 l a 
kit*5 b unlike  a lake4    #aeg    he   
tri$ to %[ t ! concomitance is n betwe5 
^?  cases :i* possess ! linga or reason 
) ! cases :i*  possess ! sdhya 7prob&um7
 b betwe5 t :i* has !  *>act]i/ics ( !  
linga ) t :i* has ! *>act]i/ics  ( !    
sdhya 7prob&um72 or 9 o!r words !       
concomitance  is n betwe5 ! places      
conta9+ ! smoke su* z kit*51  etc41 & ! 
places conta9+ fire b betwe5 t :i* has !
  *>act]i/ic ( ! linga1 viz4 ! smoke1 & 
t :i* has !  *>act]i/ic ( ! sdhya1 viz4 
! fire4 ,?is view ( ! nature  (         
concomitance is kn[n z inn] concomitance

 7ant>vypti71  :]eas ! =m]1 viz4 !      
concomitance betwe5 ! ?+  possess+ linga
 & t possess+ sdhya1 is kn[n z out]     
concomitance 7bahirvypti7 & g5]ally     
accept$ by ! ,nyya  s*ool ( ?\ght4 ,?is 
ant>vypti doctr9e ( concomitance is     
inde$ a lat] ,buddhi/ doctr9e4    ,x may
 n be out ( place "h to rem>k t evid5ces
 (  "s =m ( ,buddhi/ logic probably g   
back at lea/ z e>ly  z ! ,ka?vat?u 7#bjj
 ,b4,c474 ,?us ,aung on ! evid5ce (  !  
,yamaka po9ts out t ,buddhi/ logic at ! 
"t ( ,z'oka  0 conv]sant ) ! di/ribution
 ( t]ms & ! process  ( conv]sion4 ,he   
fur!r po9ts out t ! logical premisses   
su* z ! udh>ana 7,yo yo aggim s s       
dhmav--:atev] is  fi]y is smoky71 !     
upanayana 7ayam pabbato dhmav--?is  hill
 is smoky7 & ! niggama 7tasmdayam       
aggim--!re=e  t is fi]y7 7 also kn[n4   
7,aung fur!r sums up !  me?od ( !       
argum5ts :i* are f\nd 9 ! ,ka?vat?u z   
foll[s3    ,adh]5t4 ,is ,a ,b8 7?pan74  
,oppon5t4 ,yes4    ,adh]5t4 ,is ,c ,d8  
7ppan74  ,oppon5t4 ,no4    ,adh]5t4 ,b  

if ,a be ,b !n 7y %\ld h said7 ,c is ,d4
  ,t ,b c be affirm$ ( ,a b ,d ( ,c is  
false4  ,h5ce y\r fir/ answ] is refut$47
    ,! antec$5t ( ! hypo!tical major    
premiss is t]m$ ?pan1  because !        
oppon5t's position1 ,a is ,b1 is        
conditionally  e/abli%$ = ! purpose (   
refutation4    ,! consequ5t ( !         
hypo!tical major premiss is t]m$  ppan  
because x is got f ! antec$5t4 ,& !     
conclusion    #aeh    is t]m$ ropana    
because ! regulation is plac$ on !      
oppon5t4 ,next3      ,if ,d be d]iv$ (  
,c4    ,!n ,b %\ld h be5 d]iv$ ( ,a4    
,b y affirm$ ,b ( ,a4    7!re=e7 ,t ,b c
 be affirm$ ( ,a b n ( ,d or ,c is      
wrong4    ,?is is ! patiloma1 inv]se or 
indirect me?od1 z contra/$  ) ! =m] or  
direct me?od1 anuloma4 ,9 bo? me?ods !  
consequ5t is d]iv$4 ,b if we rev]se !   
hypo!tical major  9 ! latt] me?od we get
      ,if ,a is ,b ,c is ,d4    ,b ,a is
 ,b4    ,!re=e ,c is ,d4    ,by ?is     
indirect me?od ! oppon5t's second answ] 
is ree/abli%$  ,footnote ref #a4      ,!

 ,doctr9e ( ,mom5t>9ess4    ,ratnakrtti 
7#iej ,a4,d47 s\ght to prove !          
mom5t>9ess (  all exi/5ce 7sattva71     
fir/1 by ! concomitance discov]$ by !   
me?od ( agreem5t 9 pres5ce              
7anvayavypti71 & !n by !  me?od (       
diff]5ce by prov+ t ! production (      
effects  c\ld n be ju/ifi$ on !         
assumption ( ?+s be+ p]man5t  & h5ce    
accept+ ! doctr9e ( mom5t>9ess  z ! only
 alt]native4 ,exi/5ce is def9$ z !      
capacity (  produc+ any?+               
7ar?akriykritva74 ,! =m ( ! fir/  type (
 argum5t by anvayavypti may be giv5 ?us3
 ,:atev]  exi/s is mom5t>y1 by virtue ( 
its exi/5ce1 z = example  ! jug2 all ?+s
 ab\t ! mom5t>9ess ( :i* we are discuss+
  are exi/5ts & are !re=e mom5t>y4 ,x _c
  be said t ! jug :i* has be5 *os5 z an 
example ( an  exi/5t is n mom5t>y2 = !  
jug is produc+ c]ta9  effects at !      
pres5t mom5t2 & x _c be held t ^!  are  
all id5tical 9 ! pa/ & ! future or t x  
is produc+  no effect at all 9 ! pa/ &  
future1 = ! fir/ is impossible1  = ^?   

:i* are done n[ c\ld n be done aga9 9 ! 
future2 ! second is impossible1 = if x  
has any capacity to        ,footnote3   
#a3 ,see introduction to ! translation (
 ,ka?vat?u  7,po9ts ( ,controv]sy7 by   
,mrs ,rhys ,davids4    #aei    produce  
effects x mu/ n cease do+ s1 z 9 t case 
"o  might z well expect t !re %\ld n be 
any effect ev5 at  ! pres5t mom5t4      
,:atev] has ! capacity ( produc+  any?+ 
at any "t mu/ ( necessity d x4 ,s if x  
does produce  at "o mom5t & does n      
produce at ano!r1 ?is  contradiction w  
prove ! supposition t ! ?+s 7  diff]5t  
at ! diff]5t mom5ts4 ,if x is held t !  
nature  ( production v>ies at diff]5t   
mom5ts1 !n also ! ?+ at  ^? two mom5ts  
mu/ be diff]5t1 = a ?+ c\ld n h  9 x two
 contradictory capacities4    ,s9ce !   
jug does n produce at ! pres5t mom5t !  
"w ( ! pa/ & ! future mom5ts1 x _c      
evid5tly d  s1 & h5ce is n id5tical ) ! 
jug 9 ! pa/ & 9 !  future1 = ! fact t ! 
jug has ! capacity & has n !  capacity z
 well1 proves t x is n ! same jug at !  

two  mom5ts 7s'akts'aktasvabhavatay     
pratiksanam bh$ah74 ,!  capacity (      
produc+ effects 7ar?akriys'akti71 :i* is
 b !  o!r "n ( exi/5ce1 is univ]sally   
concomitant ) mom5t>9ess                
7ksanikatvavypta74    ,! ,nyya s*ool (  
philosophy objects to ?is view & says  t
 ! capacity ( any?+ _c be kn[n until !  
effect  produc$ is kn[n1 & if capacity  
to produce effects be reg>d$  z exi/5ce 
or be+1 !n ! be+ or exi/5ce ( ! effect  
_c be kn[n1 until t has produc$ ano!r   
effect &  t ano!r ad inf9itum4 ,s9ce !re
 c be no be+ t has  n capacity ( produc+
 effects1 & z ?is capacity c  demon/rate
 itself only 9 an inf9ite *a91 x w be   
impossible  to "k any be+ or to affirm !
 capacity ( produc+ effects  z !        
def9ition ( exi/5ce4 ,moreov] if all ?+s
 7  mom5t>y !re w\ld be no p]man5t      
p]ceiv] to obs]ve  ! *ange1 & !re be+   
no?+ fix$ !re c\ld h>dly be  any means  
ev5 ( tak+ to any k9d ( inf]5ce4 ,to ?is
  ,ratnakirtti replies t capacity       
7sam>?ya7 _c be d5i$1  = x is demon/rat$

 ev5 9 mak+ ! d5ial4 ,! obs]vation  (   
any concomitance 9 agreem5t 9 pres5ce1  
or agreem5t 9  abs5ce1 does n require   
any p]man5t obs]v]1 = "u  c]ta9         
conditions ( agreem5t !re is ! k ( !    
concomitance ( agreem5t 9 pres5ce1 & 9  
o!r conditions  !re is ! k ( !          
concomitance 9 abs5ce4 ,?is  k (        
concomitance at ! succe$+ mom5t holds )9
    #afj    itself ! exp]i5ce ( !       
conditions ( ! prec$+ mom5t1  & ?is     
alone is :at we f9d & n any p]man5t     
obs]v]4    ,! ,buddhi/ def9ition ( be+  
or exi/5ce 7sattva7 is  inde$ capacity1 
& we arriv$ at ?is :5 x 0 obs]v$ t  9   
all prov$ cases capacity 0 all t c\ld be
 def9$ (  be+2--se$ 0 b ! capacity (    
produc+ %oots1 &  ev5 if ?is capacity   
%\ld require fur!r capacity to produce  
effects1 ! fact :i* has be5 p]ceiv$ /ill
 rema9s1 viz4 t  ! exi/5ce ( se$s is    
no?+ b ! capacity ( produc+  ! %oots &  
?us !re is no vici\s inf9ite ,footnote  
ref l4  ,?\gh ?+s are mom5t>y1 yet we   
c\ld h concomitance betwe5  ?+s only s  

long z _! app>5t =ms are n diff]5t      
7atadrpap>vrttayoreva sdhyasdhanayoh    
pratyaksena  vyptigrahant74 ,! vypti or 
concomitance ( any two ?+s  7e4g4 ! fire
 & ! smoke7 is bas$ on extreme simil>ity
 & n  on id5tity4    ,ano!r objection   
rais$ aga9/ ! doctr9e ( mom5t>9ess  is  
?is1 t a cause 7e4g4 se$7 mu/ wait = a  
numb] ( o!r  collocations ( e>?1 wat]1  
etc41 be=e x c produce ! effect  7e4g4 !
 %oots7 & h5ce ! doctr9e mu/ fail4 ,to  
?is ,ratnakrtti  replies t ! se$ does n 
exi/ be=e & produce !  effect :5 jo9$ by
 o!r collocations1 b su* is ! special   
effectiv5ess ( a p>ticul> se$-mom5t1 t x
 produces bo?  ! collocations or        
conditions z well z ! effect1 ! %oot4   
,h[ a special se$-mom5t became end[$ )  
su* special  effectiv5ess is to be s\ght
 9 o!r causal mom5ts :i*  prec$$ x1 & on
 :i* x 0 dep5d5t4 ,ratnakrtti wi%es to  
draw att5tion to ! fact t z "o p]ceptual
 mom5t reveals  a numb] ( objects1 s "o 
causal mom5t may produce a numb]  (     
effects4 ,?us he says t ! inf]5ce t     

:atev] has  be+ is mom5t>y is valid &   
free f any fallacy4    ,x is n important
 to enl>ge ^u ! second "p (             
,ratnakrtti's argum5ts 9 :i* he tries to
 %[ t ! production  ( effects c\ld n be 
expla9$ if we did n suppose             
,footnote #a3 ,! di/9ction betwe5 vici\s
 & h>mless inf9ites  0 kn[n to !        
,indians at lea/ z e>ly z ! six? or !   
sev5?  c5tury4 ,jayanta quotes a passage
 :i* diff]5tiates ! two cle>ly          
7,nyyamaj>1 p4 #bb73                    
mlaksatik>mhuranava/hm hi dsanam4       
mlasiddhau tv>ucypi nnava/h nivryate4   
,! inf9ite regress t has to be gone     
?r\gh 9 ord] to arrive  at ! root matt] 
await+ to be solv$ de/roys ! root & is  
h5ce  vici\s1 :]eas if ! root is sav$   
!re is no h>m 9 a regress  ?\gh "o may n
 be will+ to h x4    #afa    all ?+s to 
be mom5t>y1 = ?is is m an attempt to    
refute  ! doctr9es ( ,nyya ?an an       
elaboration ( ! ,buddhi/  pr9ciples4    
,! doctr9e ( mom5t>9ess ought to be a   
direct coroll>y  ( ! ,buddhi/           

metaphysics4 ,b x is curi\s t ?\gh all  
dh>mas 7 reg>d$ z *ang+1 ! fact t !y 7  
all  /rictly mom5t>y 7ksanika--i4e4     
exi/+ only = "o mom5t7  0 n emphasiz$ 9 
e>ly ,pli lit]ature4 ,z'vaghosa 9 8     
,s'raddhotpdas'/ra speaks ( all sk&has z
 ksanika 7,suzuki's  translation1 p4    
#aje74 ,buddhaghosa also speaks ( !     
m$itation  ( ! kh&has z khanika 9 8     
,visuddhimagga4 ,b f !  sev5? c5tury    
,a4,d4 till ! t5? c5tury ?is doctr9e    
toge!r  ) ! doctr9e ( ar?akriykritva    
receiv$ great att5tion at  ! h&s ( !    
,sautrntikas & ! ,vaibhsikas4 ,all !    
,nyya & ,v$nta lit]ature ( ?is p]iod is 
full ( refutations  & criticisms ( ^!   
doctr9es4 ,! only ,buddhi/ acc\nt       
available ( ! doctr9e ( mom5t>9ess is f 
! p5 (  ,ratnakrtti4 ,"s ( ! g5]al      
features ( 8 argum5t 9  fav\r ( ! view h
 be5 giv5 above4 ,elaborate acc\nts ( x 
may be f\nd 9 any ( ! important ,nyya   
works ( ?is p]iod  su* z ,nynyamanj>i1  
,ttp>yyatk ( ,vcaspati ,mis'ra1 etc4    
,buddhism did n at any "t believe any?+ 

to be p]man5t4  ,) ! developm5t ( ?is   
doctr9e !y gave great  emphasis to ?is  
po9t4 ,?+s came to view at "o mom5t &  !
 next mom5t !y 7 de/roy$4 ,:atev] is    
exi/5t is  mom5t>y4 ,x is said t our    
notion ( p]man5ce is d]iv$  f ! notion (
 p]man5ce ( ourselves1 b ,buddhism d5i$ 
! exi/5ce ( any su* p]man5t selves4 ,:at
 appe>s z  self is b ! bundle ( ideas1  
emotions1 & active t5d5cies  manife/+ at
 any p>ticul> mom5t4 ,! next mom5t ^!   
dissolve1 & new bundles det]m9$ by !    
prec$+ ones  appe> & s on4 ,! pres5t    
?\ght is ?us ! only ?9k]4  ,ap>t f !    
emotions1 ideas1 & active t5d5cies1 we  
_c  discov] any sep>ate self or s\l4 ,x 
is ! comb9$ product (  ^! ideas1        
emotions1 etc41 t yield ! illusory      
appe>ance (  self at any mom5t4 ,!      
consci\sness ( self is ! resultant      
product  z x 7 ( ! comb9ation ( ideas1  
emotions1 etc41 at any  p>ticul> mom5t4 
,z ^! ideas1 emotions1 etc41 *ange e    
mom5t !re is no su* ?+ z a p]man5t self4
    ,! fact t ,i rememb] t ,i h be5     

exi/+ =    #afb    a long "t pa/ does n 
prove t a p]man5t self has be5  exi/+ = 
su* a long p]iod4 ,:5 ,i say ?is is t   
book1 ,i  p]ceive ! book ) my eye at !  
pres5t mom5t1 b t  ?is book is ! same z 
t book 7i4e4 ! book aris+ 9  memory71 _c
 be p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses4 ,x is evid5t  t 
! t book ( memory ref]s to a book se5 9 
!  pa/1 :]eas ?is book ref]s to ! book  
:i* is be=e  my eyes4 ,! feel+ ( id5tity
 :i* is adduc$ to prove p]man5ce  is ?us
 due to a confusion betwe5 an object (  
memory  ref]r+ to a pa/ & diff]5t object
 ) ! object z p]ceiv$  at ! pres5t mom5t
 by ! s5ses ,footnote ref #a4 ,?is is   
true n only  ( all recognition ( id5tity
 & p]man5ce ( ext]nal objects b  also ( 
! p]ception ( ! id5tity ( self1 = !     
p]ception (  self-id5tity results f !   
confusion ( c]ta9 ideas or emotions     
aris+ 9 memory ) simil> ideas ( ! pres5t
 mom5t4 ,b  s9ce memory po9ts to an     
object ( pa/ p]ception1 & ! p]ception   
to ano!r object ( ! pres5t mom5t1       
id5tity _c  be prov$ by a confusion ( ! 

two4 ,e mom5t all objects  ( ! _w are   
suff]+ dissolution & de/ruction1 b yet  
?+s appe> to p]si/1 & de/ruction _c (t5 
be notic$4  ,our hair & nails gr[ & are 
cut1 b yet we ?9k t we  h ! same hair & 
nail t we _h be=e1 9 place ( old  hairs 
new ones simil> to !m h sprung =?1 & !y 
leave  ! impression z if ! old ones 7   
p]si/+4 ,s x is t  ?\gh ?+s are de/roy$ 
e mom5t1 o!rs simil> to  ^! (t5 rise    
into be+ & are de/roy$ ! next mom5t  & s
 on1 & ^! simil> ?+s succe$+ 9 a s]ies  
produce  ! impression t x is "o & ! same
 ?+ :i* has be5  p]si/+ ?r\gh all !     
pass+ mom5ts ,footnote ref #b4 ,j z !   
flame ( a c&le is *ang+ e mom5t & yet x 
seems to u z  if we h be5 p]ceiv+ ! same
 flame all ! :ile1 s  all our bodies1   
our ideas1 emotions1 etc41 all ext]nal  
objects  ar\nd u are be+ de/roy$ e      
mom5t1 & new ones are  be+ g5]at$ at e  
succe$+ mom5t1 b s long z !  objects ( !
 succe$+ mom5ts are simil> to ^?  ( !   
prec$+ mom5ts1 x appe>s to u t ?+s  h   
rema9$ ! same & no de/ruction has tak5  

place4        ,footnote #a3 ,see        
pratyabhijnirsa ( ! ,buddhi/s1          
,nyyamaj>1 ,v4,s4  ,s]ies1 pp4 #ddi1    
etc4    ,footnote #b3 ,see              
,t>k>ahasyadpik ( ,gun>atna1 p4 #cj1 &  
also  ,nyyamaj>1 ,v4,s4 edition1 p4     
#dej4    #afc      ,! ,doctr9e (        
,mom5t>9ess & ! ,doctr9e  ( ,causal     
,effici5cy 7,ar?akriykritva74    ,x     
appe>s t a ?+ or a ph5om5on may be def9$
 f  ! ,buddhi/ po9t ( view z be+ !      
comb9ation ( div]se  *>act]i/ics        
,footnote ref #a4 ,:at we call a ?+ is b
 a  conglom]ation ( div]se *>act]i/ics  
:i* are f\nd to affect1  det]m9e or     
influ5ce o!r conglom]ations appe>+ z    
s5ti5t or  z inanimate bodies4 ,s long z
 ! *>act]i/ics =m+ !  elem5ts ( any     
conglom]ation rema9 p]fectly ! same1 !  
conglom]ation may be said to be ! same4 
,z soon z any (  ^! *>act]i/ics is      
supplant$ by any o!r new *>act]i/ic1  ! 
conglom]ation is to be call$ a new "o   
,footnote ref #b4 ,exi/5ce or  be+ ( ?+s
 means ! "w t any conglom]ation does or 

! influ5ce t x ex]ts on o!r             
conglom]ations4 ,?is 9  ,sanskrit is    
call$ ar?akriykritva :i* lit]ally       
translat$  means--! p[] ( p]=m+ actions 
& purposes ( "s  k9d ,footnote ref #c4  
,! crit]ion ( exi/5ce or be+ is !       
p]=mance ( c]ta9 specific actions1 or r 
exi/5ce means  t a c]ta9 effect has be5 
produc$ 9 "s way 7causal effici5cy74  ,t
 :i* has produc$ su* an effect is !n    
call$ exi/5t or sat4  ,any *ange 9 !    
effect ?us produc$ means a correspond+  
*ange ( exi/5ce4 ,n[1 t selfsame def9ite
 specific effect        ,footnote #a3   
,comp>e ,mil9dapaha1 ,,ii4 ,i4 #a--,!   
,*>iot ,simile4    ,footnote #b3 ,comp>e
 ,t>k>ahasyadpik ( ,gun>atna1 ,a4,s4's  
edition1  pp4 #bd1 #bh & ,nyyamaj>1     
,v4,s4 edition1 pp4 #dde1 etc41 & also !
  pap] on ,ksanabhangasiddhi by         
,ratnakrtti 9 ,six ,buddhi/ ,nyya       
tracts4    ,footnote #c3 ,?is mean+ ( ! 
^w ar?akriykritva is diff]5t  f ! mean+ 
( ! ^w z we f\nd 9 ! section sautrntika 
!ory ( p]ception4 ,b we f9d ! developm5t

 ( ?is mean+ bo?  9 ,ratnakrtti z well z
 9 ,nyya writ]s :o ref]r$ to ?is        
doctr9e4  ,) ,v9tadeva 7sev5? c5tury    
,a4,d47 ! ^w ar?akrysiddhi  meant !     
fulfilm5t ( any ne$ su* z ! cook+ ( rice
 by fire  7ar?as'abd5a prayojanamucyate 
purusasya praycjanam drupkdi  tasya     
siddhih nispattih--! ^w ar?a means ne$2 
! ne$ (  man su* z cook+ by logs1 etc42 
siddhi ( t1 means accompli%m5t74  ,)    
,dh>mott>a :o fl\ri%$ ab\t a c5tury & a 
half lat]  ar?asiddhi means action      
7anus?iti7 ) ref]5ce to undesirable  &  
desirable objects 7heyopdeyr?avisay74 ,b
 ) ,ratnakrtti  7#iej ,a4,d47 ! ^w      
ar?akriykritva has an entirely diff]5t  
s5se4  ,x means ) him effici5cy (       
produc+ any action or ev5t1 & z  su* x  
is reg>d$ z ! *>act]i/ic def9ition (    
exi/5ce  sattva74 ,?us he says 9 8      
,ksanabhangasiddhi1 pp4 #bj1 #ba1 t     
?\gh 9 diff]5t philosophies !re are     
diff]5t def9itions (  exi/5ce or be+1 he
 w op5 8 argum5t ) ! univ]sally accept$ 
def9ition ( exi/5ce z ar?akriykritva    

7effici5cy ( caus+ any  action or ev5t74
 ,:5ev] ,h9du writ]s aft] ,ratnakrtti   
ref] to !  ,buddhi/ doctr9e (           
ar?akriykritva !y usually ref] to ?is   
doctr9e 9 ,ratnakrtti's s5se4    #afd   
:i* is produc$ n[ 0 nev] produc$ be=e1 &
 _c  be repeat$ 9 ! future1 = t id5tical
 effect :i* is once  produc$ _c be      
produc$ aga94 ,s ! effects produc$ 9  u 
by objects at diff]5t mom5ts ( "t may be
 simil> b  _c be id5tical4 ,ea* mom5t is
 associat$ ) a new effect  & ea* new    
effect ?us produc$ means 9 ea* case !   
com+  into be+ ( a correspond+ly new    
exi/5ce ( ?+s4 ,if ?+s  7 p]man5t !re   
w\ld be no reason :y !y %\ld be  p]=m+  
diff]5t effects at diff]5t po9ts ( "t4  
,any  diff]5ce 9 ! effect produc$1 :e!r 
due to ! ?+ itself  or its comb9ation ) 
o!r accessories1 ju/ifies u 9 ass]t+  t 
! ?+ has *ang$ & a new "o has come 9 its
 place4  ,! exi/5ce ( a jug = example is
 kn[n by ! p[] x  has ( =c+ itself ^u   
our m9ds2 if x _h no su* p[]  !n we c\ld
 n h said t x exi/$4 ,we c h no  notion 

( ! mean+ ( exi/5ce o!r ?an ! impression
  produc$ on u2 ?is impression is no?+  
else b ! p[]  ex]t$ by ?+s on u1 = !re  
is no reason :y "o %\ld  hold t beyond  
su* p[]s z are associat$ ) ! production 
( impressions or effects !re %\ld be "s 
o!r  p]man5t entity to :i* ! p[] adh]$1 
& :i* exi/$  ev5 :5 ! p[] 0 n ex]t$4 ,we
 p]ceive ! p[]  ( produc+ effects &     
def9e ea* unit ( su* p[] z  am\nt+ to a 
unit ( exi/5ce4 ,& z !re w\ld be        
diff]5t units ( p[] at diff]5t mom5ts1  
!re %\ld also  be z _m new exi/5ces1    
i4e4 exi/5ts mu/ be reg>d$ z  mom5t>y1  
exi/+ at ea* mom5t t ex]ts a new p[]4   
,?is def9ition ( exi/5ce naturally br+s 
9 ! doctr9e (  mom5t>9ess %[n by        
,ratnakrtti4      ,"s ,ontological      
,problems on :i* ! ,diff]5t ,indian     
,sy/ems ,div]g$4    ,we _c close our    
exam9ation ( ,buddhi/ philosophy  )\t   
briefly ref]r+ to its views on "s       
ontological problems  :i* 7 fav\rite    
subjects ( discussion 9 almo/ all       
philosophical  circles ( ,india4 ,^! are

 9 brief3 7#a7 ! relation (  cause &    
effect1 7#b7 ! relation ( ! :ole        
7avayavi7 & !  "p 7avayava71 7#c7 !     
relation ( g5]ality 7samanya7 to !      
specific individuals1 7#d7 ! relation ( 
attributes or qualities &  ! sub/ance & 
! problem ( ! relation ( inh]5ce1 7#e7 !
      #afe    relation ( p[] 7s'akti7 to
 ! p[]-possessor 7s'aktimn74 ,?us  on ! 
relation ( cause & effect1 ,s'ank>a held
 t cause alone  0 p]man5t1 real1 & all  
effects z su* 7 b imp]man5t  illusions  
due to ignorance1 ,smkhya held t !re 0  
no  diff]5ce betwe5 cause & effect1     
except t ! =m] 0  only ! e>li] /age :i* 
:5 trans=m$ ?r\gh c]ta9  *anges became !
 effect4 ,! hi/ory ( any causal activity
 is  ! hi/ory ( ! trans=mation ( ! cause
 into ! effects4  ,buddhism holds ev]y?+
 to be mom5t>y1 s nei!r cause nor       
effect c abide4 ,"o is call$ ! effect   
because its mom5t>y  exi/5ce has be5    
det]m9$ by ! de/ruction ( its mom5t>y   
antec$5t call$ ! cause4 ,!re is no      
p]man5t reality  :i* und]goes ! *ange1 b

 "o *ange is det]m9$ by  ano!r & ?is    
det]m9ation is no?+ m ?an t  happ5+1 ?is
 happ5$4 ,on ! relation ( p>ts to :ole1 
,buddhism does n believe 9 ! exi/5ce (  
:oles4 ,accord+  to x1 x is ! p>ts :i*  
illusorily appe> z ! :ole1 !  individual
 atoms rise into be+ & die ! next mom5t 
&  ?us !re is no su* ?+ z :ole ,footnote
 ref #a4 ,! ,buddhi/s  hold aga9 t !re  
are no univ]sals1 = x is ! individuals  
alone  :i* come & g4 ,!re are my five   
f+]s z individuals b !re  is no su* ?+ z
 f+]ness 7angulitva7 z ! ab/ract        
univ]sal  ( ! f+]s4 ,on ! relation (    
attributes & sub/ance we  "k t !        
,sautrntika ,buddhi/s did n believe 9 ! 
exi/5ce  ( any sub/ance ap>t f its      
attributes2 :at we call a  sub/ance is b
 a unit capable ( produc+ a unit (      
s5sation4  ,9 ! ext]nal _w !re are z _m 
individual simple units  7atoms7 z !re  
are po9ts ( s5sations4 ,correspond+ to  
ea*  unit ( s5sation !re is a sep>ate   
simple unit 9 ! objective  _w4 ,our     
p]ception ( a ?+ is ?us ! p]ception ( ! 

assemblage ( ^! s5sations4 ,9 !         
objective _w also !re  are no sub/ances 
b atoms or reals1 ea* repres5t+ a unit (
  s5sation1 =ce or attribute1 ris+ into 
be+ & dy+ ! next  mom5t4 ,buddhism ?us  
d5ies ! exi/5ce ( any su* relation  z t 
( inh]5ce 7samavya7 9 :i* relation !    
attributes  are said to exi/ 9 !        
sub/ance1 = s9ce !re are no  sep>ate    
sub/ances !re is no necessity = admitt+ 
! relation  ( inh]5ce4 ,foll[+ ! same   
logic ,buddhism also does n    #aff     
believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( a p[]-possessor   
sep>ate f !  p[]4      ,brief survey ( !
 evolution ( ,buddhi/ ,?\ght4    ,9 !   
e>lie/ p]iod ( ,buddhism m att5tion 0   
paid  to ! f\r noble tru?s ?an to       
sy/ematic metaphysics4 ,:at  0 sorr[1   
:at 0 ! cause ( sorr[1 :at 0 ! cessation
  ( sorr[ & :at c\ld lead to x8 ,!      
doctr9e ( paticcasamuppda  0 (f]$ only  
to expla9 h[ sorr[ came 9 &  n ) a view 
to ! solv+ ( a metaphysical problem4 ,! 
discussion ( ultimate metaphysical      
problems1 su* z :e!r  ! _w 0 et]nal or  

non-et]nal1 or :e!r a ,ta?gata  exi/$   
aft] dea? or n1 7 consid]$ z h]esies 9  
e>ly  ,buddhism4 ,great emphasis 0 laid 
on sla1 samdhi & pa  & ! doctr9e t !re 0
 no s\l4 ,! ,abhidhammas  h>dly give u  
any new philosophy :i* 0 n conta9$ 9  ! 
,suttas4 ,!y only elaborat$ ! mat]ials (
 ! suttas )  enum]ations & def9itions4  
,) ! evolution ( ,mahyna  scriptures f  
"s "t ab\t #bjj ,b4,c4 ! doctr9e ( !    
non-ess5tialness & voidness ( all       
dhammas began to be prea*$4  ,?is       
doctr9e1 :i* 0 tak5 up & elaborat$ by   
,nagrjuna1  ryyadeva1 ,kumrajva &       
,c&rakrtti1 is m or less a coroll>y  f !
 old] doctr9e ( ,buddhism4 ,if "o c\ld n
  say :e!r ! _w 0 et]nal or non-et]nal1 
or :e!r a  ,ta?gata exi/$ or did n exi/ 
aft] dea?1 & if !re 0  no p]man5t s\l & 
all ! dhammas 7 *ang+1 ! only           
legitimate way ( ?9k+ ab\t all ?+s      
appe>$ to be to  ?9k ( !m z m]e void &  
non-ess5tial appe>ances4 ,^!  appe>ances
 appe> z be+ mutually relat$ b ap>t f   
_! appe>ance !y h no o!r ess5ce1 no be+ 

or reality4  ,! ,ta?at doctr9e :i* 0    
prea*$ by ,z'vaghosa oscillat$  betwe5 !
 position ( ?is absolute                
non-ess5tialness ( all  dhammas & !     
,brahm9ic idea t some?+ exi/$ z !       
backgr\nd ( all ^! non-ess5tial dhammas4
 ,?is he call$  ta?at1 b he c\ld n      
consi/5tly say t any su* p]man5t  entity
 c\ld exi/4 ,! ,vijnavda doctr9e :i*    
also  took its rise at ?is "t appe>s to 
me to be a mixture ( !  ,s'nyavda       
doctr9e & ! ,ta?at doctr9e2 b :5        
c>efully  exam9$ x seems to be no?+ b   
,s'nyavda1 ) an attempt  at expla9+ all 
! obs]v$ ph5om5a4 ,if ev]y?+ 0    #afg  
non-ess5tial h[ did x orig9ate8         
,vijnavda proposes to give an  answ]1 & 
says t ^! ph5om5a are all b ideas ( !   
m9d  g5]at$ by ! beg9n+less vsan        
7desire7 ( ! m9d4 ,!  difficulty :i* is 
felt ) reg>d to ! ,ta?at doctr9e t  !re 
mu/ be "s reality :i* is g5]at+ all ^!  
ideas  appe>+ z ph5om5a1 is ! same z t 9
 ! ,vijnavda  doctr9e4 ,! ,vijnavd9s    
c\ld n admit ! exi/5ce ( su*  a reality1

 b yet _! doctr9es l$ !m to x4 ,!y c\ld 
n  prop]ly solve ! difficulty1 & admitt$
 t _! doctr9e 0  "s sort ( a compromise 
) ! ,brahm9ical doctr9es (  h]esy1 b !y 
said t ?is 0 a compromise to make !     
doctr9e intelligible to ! h]etics2 9    
tru? h[ev] ! reality  assum$ 9 ! doctr9e
 0 also non-ess5tial4 ,! ,vijnavda      
lit]ature t is available to u is v      
scanty & f t we  are n 9 a position to  
judge :at answ]s ,vijnavda c\ld give  on
 ! po9t4 ,^! ?ree doctr9es develop$     
almo/ ab\t !  same "t & ! difficulty (  
conceiv+ s'nya 7void71 ta?at1  7?atness7
 & ! layavijna ( ,vijnavda is m or less 
! same4    ,! ,ta?at doctr9e (          
,z'vaghosa practically ceas$ )  him4 ,b 
! ,s'nyavda & ! ,vijnavda doctr9es :i*  
orig9at$ probably ab\t #bjj ,b4,c4      
cont9u$ to develop probably  till !     
eigh? c5tury ,a4,d4 ,vigor\s disputes ) 
,s'nyavda  doctr9es are r>ely made 9 any
 indep5d5t "w ( ,h9du  philosophy1 aft] 
,kumrila & ,s'ank>a4 ,f ! ?ird or  !    
f\r? c5tury ,a4,d4 "s ,buddhi/s took to 

! /udy (  sy/ematic logic & began to    
criticize ! doctr9e ( ! ,h9du           
logicians4 ,dinnga ! ,buddhi/ logician  
7#ejj ,a4,d47 probably  />t$ ^! ho/ile  
criticisms by try+ to refute ! doctr9es 
( ! great ,h9du logician ,vtsyyana1 9 8 
,pramnasamuccaya4  ,9 association ) ?is 
logical activity we f9d !  activity (   
two o!r s*ools ( ,buddhism1 viz4 !      
,s>v/ivd9s  7kn[n also z ,vaibhsikas7 & 
! ,sautrntikas4 ,bo? !  ,vaibhsikas & ! 
,sautrntikas accept$ ! exi/5ce ( !      
ext]nal _w1 & !y 7 g5]ally 9 conflict ) 
!  ,h9du s*ools ( ?\ght                 
,nyya-,vais'esika & ,smkhya :i*  also   
admitt$ ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal _w4       
,vasub&hu  7#dbj-ejj ,a4,d47 0 "o ( !   
mo/ illu/ri\s names ( ?is s*ool4  ,we h 
f ?is "t =? a numb] ( great ,buddhi/    
?9k]s su* z ,yas'omitra 7comm5tator (   
,vasub&hu's "w71    #afh    ,dh>mmakrtti
 7writ] ( ,nyyab9du #fce ,a4,d471       
,v9tadeva &  ,s'ntabhadra 7comm5tators (
 ,nyyab9du71 ,dh>mmott>a  7comm5tator ( 
,nyyab9du #hdg ,a4,d471 ,ratnakrtti     

7#iej ,a4,d471  ,pandita ,z'oka1 &      
,ratnk>a ,s'nti1 "s ( ^: contributions  
h be5 publi%$ 9 ! ,six ,buddhi/ ,nyya   
,tracts1 publi%$  9 ,calcutta 9 !       
,biblio!ca ,indica s]ies4 ,^! ,buddhi/  
writ]s 7 ma9ly int]e/$ 9 discussions    
reg>d+ ! nature  ( p]ception1 inf]5ce1 !
 doctr9e ( mom5t>9ess1 &  ! doctr9e (   
causal effici5cy 7ar?akriykritva7 z     
demon/rat+  ! nature ( exi/5ce4 ,on !   
negative side !y 7  int]e/$ 9 d5y+ !    
ontological !ories ( ,nyya &  ,smkhya ) 
reg>d to ! nature ( class-concepts1     
negation1  relation ( :ole & "p1        
connotation ( t]ms1 etc4 ,^!  problems  
h>dly attract$ any notice 9 !           
non-,sautrntika &  non-,vaibhsika s*ools
 ( ,buddhism ( e>li] times4 ,!y (  c\rse
 agre$ ) ! e>li] ,buddhi/s 9 d5y+ !     
exi/5ce  ( a p]man5t s\l1 b ?is !y did )
 ! help ( _!  doctr9e ( causal          
effici5cy4 ,! po9ts ( disagreem5t betwe5
  ,h9du ?\ght up to ,s'ank>a 7#hjj      
,a4,d47 & ,buddhi/ ?\ght  till ! "t (   
,s'ank>a consi/$ ma9ly 9 ! d5ial by !   

,buddhi/s ( a p]man5t s\l & ! p]man5t   
ext]nal _w4  ,= ,h9du ?\ght 0 m or less 
reali/ic1 & ev5 !  ,v$nta ( ,s'ank>a    
admitt$ ! exi/5ce ( ! p]man5t  ext]nal  
_w 9 "s s5se4 ,) ,s'ank>a ! =ms ( !     
ext]nal _w 7 no d\bt illusory1 b !y all 
_h a p]man5t  backgr\nd 9 ! ,brahman1   
:i* 0 ! only reality  beh9d all m5tal & 
! physical ph5om5a4 ,! ,sautrntikas     
admitt$ ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal _w & s _! 
qu>rel  ) ,nyya & ,smkhya 0 ) reg>d to  
_! doctr9e  ( mom5t>9ess2 _! d5ial ( s\l
 & _! views on !  diff]5t ontological   
problems 7 9 accordance ) _!  doctr9e ( 
mom5t>9ess4 ,aft] ! twelf? c5tury we d n
  he> mu* ( any new disputes ) !        
,buddhi/s4 ,f ?is  "t ! disputes 7 ma9ly
 betwe5 ! diff]5t sy/ems (  ,h9du       
philosoph]s1 viz4 ,nyya1 ! ,v$nta ( !   
s*ool (  ,s'ank>a & ! ,!i/ic ,v$nta (   
,rmnuja1 ,madhva1 etc4    #afi          
,,*apt] ,,vi      ,,! ,,ja9a            
,,philosophy      ,! ,orig9 ( ,ja9ism4  
,not)/&+ ! radical diff]5ces 9 _!       
philosophical  notions ,ja9ism &        

,buddhism1 :i* 7 orig9ally bo? ord]s  ( 
monks outside ! pale ( ,brahmanism1     
pres5t "s resemblance  9 outw>d         
appe>ance1 & "s ,european s*ol>s  :o    
became acqua9t$ ) ,ja9ism ?r\gh         
inadequate samples  ( ,ja9a lit]ature   
easily p]suad$ !mselves t x 0 an (f%oot 
( ,buddhism1 & ev5 ,indians unacqua9t$ )
 ,ja9a  lit]ature are (t5 f\nd to commit
 ! same mi/ake4 ,b x  has n[ be5 prov$  
beyond d\bt t ?is idea is wrong  &      
,ja9ism is at lea/ z old z ,buddhism4 ,!
 olde/ ,buddhi/  works frequ5tly m5tion 
! ,ja9s z a rival sect1 "u _!  old "n   
,nigan?a & _! lead] ,ntaputta ,v>ddhamna
  ,mahvra1 ! la/ prophet ( ! ,ja9s4 ,!  
canonical books (  ! ,ja9s m5tion z     
contempor>ies ( ,mahvra ! same k+s  z   
reign$ dur+ ,buddha's c>e]4    ,?us     
,mahvra 0 a contempor>y ( ,buddha1 b    
unlike  ,buddha he 0 nei!r ! au?or ( !  
religion nor ! f\nd]  ( ! sect1 b a monk
 :o hav+ esp\s$ ! ,ja9a cre$  aft]w>ds  
became ! se] & ! la/ prophet 7,tr?ank>a7
 (  ,ja9ism,footnote ref #a4 ,8         

pr$ecessor ,prs'va1 ! la/ ,tr?ank>a b   
"o1 is said to h di$ #bej ye>s be=e     
,mahvra1 :ile ,prs'va's  pr$ecessor     
,aristanemi is said to h di$ #hd1jjj    
ye>s be=e  ,mahvra's ,nirvna4 ,! /ory 9 
,utt>dhyayanastra t a  disciple (       
,prs'va met a disciple ( ,mahvra &      
br\ght ab\t  ! union ( ! old ,ja9ism & t
 prop\nd$ by ,mahvra  seems to sugge/ t 
?is ,prs'va 0 probably a hi/orical      
p]son4    ,accord+ to ! belief ( !      
or?odox ,ja9s1 ! ,ja9a religion  is     
et]nal1 & x has be5 reveal$ aga9 & aga9 
9 e "o  ( ! endless succe$+ p]iods ( !  
_w by innum]able  ,tir?ank>as4 ,9 !     
pres5t p]iod ! fir/ ,tr?ank>a 0  ,rsabha
 & ! la/1 ! #bd?1 0 ,v>dhamna ,mahvra4  
,all        ,footnote #a3 ,see ,jacobi's
 article on ,ja9ism1 ,e4 ,r4,e4    #agj 
,tr?ank>as h rea*$ moksa at _! dea?1 &  
!y  nei!r c>e = nor h any influ5ce on   
worldly affairs1 b yet  !y are reg>d$ z 
,gods by ! ,ja9s & are wor%ipp$         
,footnote ref  #a4      ,two ,sects (   
,ja9ism ,footnote ref #b4    ,!re are   

two ma9 sects ( ,ja9s1 ,s'vetmb>as      
7we>]s (  :ite clo?s7 & ,digamb>as 7!   
nak$74 ,!y are g5]ally  agre$ on all !  
fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ,ja9ism4 ,! t5ets
  peculi> to ! ,digamb>as are fir/ly t  
p]fect sa9ts su* z  ! ,tr?ank>as live   
)\t food1 secondly t ! embryo (  ,mahvra
 0 n remov$ f ! womb ( ,devan& to t  (  
,tris'al z ! ,s'vetmb>as cont5d1 ?irdly 
t a monk  :o owns any prop]ty & we>s    
clo!s _c rea* ,moksa1  f\r?ly t no woman
 c rea* ,moksa ,footnote ref #c4 ,!     
,digamb>as  d5y ! canonical works ( !   
,s'vetmb>as & ass]t t  ^! _h be5 lo/    
imm$iately aft] ,mahvra4 ,! orig9 (  !  
,digamb>as is attribut$ to ,s'ivabhti   
7,a4,d4 #hc7 by !  ,s'vetmb>as z due to 
a s*ism 9 ! old ,s'vetmb>a *ur*1  ( :i* 
!re _h already be5 previ\s to t sev5 o!r
  s*isms4 ,! ,digamb>as 9 _! turn d5y   
?is1 & say t  !y !mselves alone h       
pres]v$ ! orig9al practices1 &  t "u    
,bhadrabhu1 ! eigh? sage aft] ,mahvra1 !
 la/  ,tr?ank>a1 !re rose ! sect (      
,ardhaphlakas ) lax]  pr9ciples1 f :i*  

develop$ ! pres5t sect ( ,s'vetmb>as    
7,a4,d4 #hj74 ,! ,digamb>as hav+ sep>at$
 9 e>ly times  f ! ,s'vetmb>as develop$ 
peculi> religi\s c]emonies (  _! own1 & 
h a diff]5t ecclesia/ical & lit]>y      
hi/ory1  ?\gh !re is practically no     
diff]5ce ab\t ! ma9 cre$4  ,x may n be  
out ( place "h to m5tion t ! ,sanskrit  
works ( ! ,digamb>as g back to a great] 
antiquity ?an  ^? ( ! ,s'vetmb>as1 if we
 except ! canonical books (  ! latt]4 ,x
 may be not$ 9 ?is connection t !re     
develop$  9 lat] times ab\t #hd diff]5t 
s*ools ( ,ja9ism diff]+ f  "o ano!r only
 9 m9ute details ( conduct4 ,^! 7 call$ 
gac*as1 & ! mo/ important ( ^! is !     
,kh>at>a ,gac*a1  :i* _h split into _m  
m9or gac*as4 ,bo? sects ( ,ja9s h       
,footnote #a3 ,see ,digumb>a ,ja9       
,iconography 7#a4 ,a1 xxxii #aijc p4    
#dei  ( ,j4 ,burgess1 & ,bhl]'s         
,specim5s ( ,j9a sculptures f ,ma?ur1  9
 ,epigraphica ,indica1 ,,ii4 pp4 #caa   
etc4 ,see also ,jacobi's article on     
,ja9ism1 ,e4,r4,e4    ,footnote #b3 ,see

 ,jacobi's article on ,ja9ism1 ,e4,r4,e4
    ,footnote #c3 ,see ,gun>atna's      
comm5t>y on ,ja9ism 9                   
,sadd>s'anasamuccaya4    #aga    pres]v$
 a li/ ( ! succession ( _! tea*]s f     
,mahvra  7/havirvali1 pattvali1         
gurvvali7 & also _m leg5ds ab\t  !m su* 
z ^? 9 ! ,kalpastra1 ! ,p>is'ista-p>van 
(  ,hemac&ra1 etc4      ,! ,canonical & 
o!r ,lit]ature ( ! ,ja9s4    ,accord+ to
 ! ,ja9s !re 7 orig9ally two k9ds (     
sacr$ books1 ! f\rte5 ,prvas & ! elev5  
,angas4 ,!  ,prvas cont9u$ to be        
transmitt$ = "s "t b 7  gradually lo/4  
,! works kn[n z ! elev5 ,angas are n[  !
 olde/ p>ts ( ! exi/+ ,ja9 canon4 ,!    
names ( ^!  are cra1 ,strakrta1 ,/hna1  
,samavya ,bhagavat1 ,jtadh>maka?s1      
,upsakadas's1 ,antakrtadas's            
,anutt>aupaptikadas's1  ,pras'navyk>ana1
 ,vipka4 ,9 addition to ^! !re are !    
twelve  ,upngas ,footnote ref #a1 ! t5  
,prakrnas ,footnote ref #b1 six         
,*$astras ,footnote ref #c1 ,nnd &      
,anuyogadvra  & f\r ,mlastras           

7,utt>dhyayana1 vas'yaka1               
,das'avaiklika1 & ,pindaniryukti74 ,!   
,digamb>as h[ev]  ass]t t ^! orig9al    
works h all be5 lo/1 & t !  pres5t works
 :i* pass by ! old names are spuri\s4 ,!
  orig9al language ( ^! accord+ to !    
,ja9s 0 ,ardhamgadh1  b ^! suff]$       
attempts at mod]nization & x is be/  to 
call ! language ( ! sacr$ texts ,ja9a   
,prkrit & t  ( ! lat] works ,ja9a       
,mahrstr4 ,a l>ge lit]ature ( glosses  &
 comm5t>ies has gr[n up r\nd ! sacr$    
texts4 ,&  besides ^!1 ! ,ja9s possess  
sep>ate works1 :i* conta9  sy/ematic    
expositions ( _! fai? 9 ,prkrit &       
,sanskrit4  ,_m comm5t>ies h also be5   
writt5 ^u ^! indep5d5t  treatises4 ,"o (
 ! olde/ ( ^! treatises is ,umsvti's    
,tattvr?dhigamastra7#a-he ,a4,d474 ,"s (
 ! mo/ important  lat] ,ja9a works on   
:i* ?is *apt] is bas$ are               
,vis'esvas'yakabhsya1 ,ja9a             
,t>kavrttika1 ) ! comm5t>y  (           
,s'ntycryya1 ,dravyasamgraha ( ,nemic&ra
 7#aaej ,a4,d471  ,sydvdamaj> (         

,mallis5a 7#abib ,a4,d471 ,nyyvatra (   
,siddhas5a ,divk>a 7#ecc ,a4,d471       
,p>ksmukhastralaghuvrtti (  ,anantavryya
 7#ajci ,a4,d471 ,prameyakamalamrtanda (
 ,prabhc&ra        ,footnote #a3        
,aupaptika1 ,rjapras'nya1 ,jvbhigama1   
,prajpan1  ,jambudvpaprajapti1          
,c&raprajapti1 ,sryaprajapti1           
,nirayvali1  ,kalpvatamsik1 ,puspik1    
,puspaclik1 ,vrsnidass4    ,footnote #b3
 ,catuhs'arana1 ,sam/ra1 turapratykhyna1
 ,bhaktp>ij1  ,tandulavaiyl1 ,candvja1  
,dev5dra/ava1 ,ganivja1 ,mahpratykhyna1 
,vra/ava4    ,footnote #c3 ,nis'?a1     
,mahnis'?a1 ,vyavahra1 ,das'z'rutask&ha1
  ,brhatkalpa1 ,pacakalpa4    #agb      
7#hbe ,a4,d471 ,yogas'/ra ( ,hemac&ra   
7#ajhh-aagb ,a4,d471 &                  
,pramnanayatattvloklamkra ( ,deva ,sri  
7#ajhf-aafi ,a4,d474  ,i am indebt$ = ^!
 dates to ,vidybhsana's ,indian ,logic4 
,x may "h be m5tion$ t ! ,ja9s also     
possess a secul>  lit]ature ( _! own 9  
poetry & prose1 bo? ,sanskrit &         
,prkrit4 ,!re are also _m moral tales   

7e4g4 ,sam>icca-kah1                    
,upamitabhavaprapaca-ka? 9 ,prkrit1 & ! 
,yas'a/ilaka (  ,somadeva & ,dhanapla's 
,tilakamaj>72 ,ja9a ,sanskrit poems  bo?
 9 ! ,purna & ,kvya /yle & hymns 9      
,prkrit &  ,sanskrit are also v num]\s4 
,!re are also _m ,ja9a  dramas4 ,! ,ja9a
 au?ors h also contribut$ _m works1     
orig9al treatises z well z comm5t>ies1  
to ! sci5tific lit]ature  ( ,india 9 its
 v>i\s bran*es3 gramm>1 biography1      
metrics1  poetics1 philosophy1 etc4 ,!  
contributions ( ! ,ja9s to logic  des]ve
 special notice ,footnote ref #a4       
,"s ,g5]al ,*>act]i/ics ( ! ,ja9s4    ,!
 ,ja9s exi/ only 9 ,india & _! numb] is 
a little less  ?an a million & a half4  
,! ,digamb>as are f\nd *iefly 9  ,s\!rn 
,india b also 9 ! ,nor?1 9 ! ,nor?-we/]n
 prov9ces1  ,ea/]n ,rjputna & ! ,punjab4
 ,! head-qu>t]s (  ! ,s'vetmb>as are 9  
,guj>at & ,we/]n ,rjputna1 b !y  are to 
be f\nd also all ov] ,nor!rn & ,c5tral  
,india4    ,! outfit ( a monk1 z ,jacobi
 describes x1 is re/rict$ to  b>e       

necess>ies1 & ^! he mu/ beg--clo!s1 a   
blanket1 an alms-b[l1  a /ick1 a broom  
to sweep ! gr\nd1 a piece ( clo? to cov]
  8 m\? :5 speak+ le/ insects %\ld ent] 
x ,footnote ref #b4 ,!  outfit ( nuns is
 ! same except t !y h additional clo!s4 
,!  ,digamb>as h a simil> outfit1 b keep
 no clo!s1 use brooms  ( peacock's      
fea!rs or hairs ( ! tail ( a c[ 7cm>a7  
,footnote  ref #c4 ,! monks %ave ! head 
or remove ! hair by pluck+ x out4  ,!   
latt] me?od ( gett+ rid ( ! hair is to  
be pref]r$1 & is  reg>d$ sometimes z an 
ess5tial rite4 ,! duties ( monks  are v 
h>d4 ,!y %\ld sleep only ?ree h\rs &    
sp5d  ! re/ ( ! "t 9 rep5t+ ( & expiat+ 
s9s1 m$itat+1  /udy+1 begg+ alms 79 !   
aft]noon71 & c>eful inspection (  _!    
clo!s & o!r ?+s = ! removal ( insects4  
,!  laym5 %\ld try to approa* ! ideal ( 
conduct ( ! monks        ,footnote #a3  
,see ,jacobi's article on ,ja9ism4      
,e4,r4,e4    ,footnote #b3 ,see ,jacobi1
 loc4 cat4    ,footnote #c3 ,see        
,sadd>s'anasamuccaya1 *apt] ,,iv4       

#agc    by tak+ ^u !mselves p>ticul>    
v[s1 & ! monks are  requir$ to deliv]   
s]mons & expla9 ! sacr$ texts 9  !      
ups'rayas 7sep>ate build+s = monks l !  
,buddhi/  vihras74 ,! pr9ciple ( extreme
 c>efulness n to de/roy any  liv+ be+   
has be5 9 mona/ic life c>ri$ out to its 
v  la/ consequ5ces1 & has %ap$ ! conduct
 ( ! laity 9 a  great measure4 ,no      
layman w int5tionally kill any liv+ be+1
  n ev5 an insect1 h[ev] tr\blesome4 ,he
 w remove x c>efully  )\t hurt+ x4 ,!   
pr9ciple ( n hurt+ any liv+  be+ ?us b>s
 !m f _m pr(essions su* z agriculture1  
etc41 & has ?ru/ !m into comm]ce        
,footnote ref #a4      ,life ( ,mahvra4 
,mahvra1 ! la/ prophet ( ! ,ja9s1 0 a   
,ksattriya (  ! ,jta clan & a native (  
,vais'li 7mod]n ,bes>h1 #bg miles  nor? 
( ,patna74 ,he 0 ! second son (         
,siddhr?a & ,trs'al4  ,! ,s'vetmb>as    
ma9ta9 t ! embryo ( ! ,tr?ank>a  :i*    
fir/ ent]$ ! womb ( ! ,brahm9 lady      
,devan&  0 !n transf]r$ to ! womb (     
,trs'al4 ,?is /ory !  ,digamb>as d n    

believe z we h already se54 ,8 p>5ts  7 
! wor%ipp]s ( ,prs'va & gave him ! "n   
,v>ddhamna  7,vra or ,mahvra74 ,he m>ri$
 ,yas'od & _h a daught]  by h]4 ,9 8    
?irtie? ye> 8 p>5ts di$ & ) ! p]mission 
( 8 bro!r ,n&iv>dhana he became a monk4 
,aft]  twelve ye>s ( self-mortification 
& m$itation he atta9$  omnisci5ce       
7kevala1 cf4 bodhi ( ! ,buddhi/s74 ,he  
liv$ to  prea* = =ty-two ye>s m1 &      
atta9$ moksa 7emancipation7  "s ye>s    
be=e ,buddha 9 ab\t #dhj ,b4,c4         
,footnote ref #b4      ,! ,fundam5tal   
,ideas ( ,ja9a ,ontology4    ,a ?+ 7su* 
z clay7 is se5 to assume v>i\s %apes &  
to und]go div]se *anges 7su* z ! =m ( a 
jug1 or  pan1 etc471 & we h se5 t !     
,*ndogya ,upanisad held  t s9ce 9 all   
*anges ! clay-matt] rema9$ p]man5t1  t  
alone 0 true1 :]eas ! *anges ( =m & /ate
  7 b appe>ances1 ! nature ( :i* _c be  
rationally        ,footnote #a3 ,see    
,jacobi's article on ,ja9ism1 ,e4 ,r4,e4
    ,footnote #b3 ,see ,ho]nl's         
translation ( ,uvsagadaso1 ,jacobi1 loc4

  cit41 & ,ho]nl's article on ! jvakas1 
,e4 ,r4,e4 ,! ,s'vetmb>as1  h[ev]1 say t
 ?is date 0 #ebg ,b4,c4 & ! ,digamb>as  
place x  eighte5 ye>s lat]4    #agd     
demon/rat$ or expla9$4 ,! un*angeable   
sub/ance 7e4g4  ! clay-matt]7 alone is  
true1 & ! *ang+ =ms are m]e  illusions (
 ! s5ses1 m]e objects ( "n 7nma-rpa7    
,footnote ref  #a4 ,:at we call         
tangibility1 visibility1 or o!r         
s5se-qualities1  h no real exi/5ce1 = !y
 are always *ang+1 & are l m]e  phantoms
 ( :i* no conception c be made by !     
light ( reason4    ,! ,buddhi/s hold t  
*ang+ qualities c alone be p]ceiv$  & t 
!re is no un*ang+ sub/ance beh9d !m4    
,:at we p]ceive z clay is b "s specific 
quality1 :at we  p]ceive z jug is also  
"s quality4 ,ap>t f ^! qualities  we d n
 p]ceive any qualitiless sub/ance1 :i* !
 ,upanisads  reg>d z p]man5t &          
un*angeable4 ,! p]man5t  & un*angeable  
sub/ance is ?us a m]e fiction (         
ignorance1  z !re are only ! pass+      
collocations ( qualities4 ,qualities  d 

n imply t !re are sub/ances to :i* !y   
adh]e1  = ! s-call$ pure sub/ance does n
 exi/1 z x c nei!r  be p]ceiv$ by !     
s5ses nor inf]r$4 ,!re are only !       
mom5t>y pass+ qualities4 ,we %\ld reg>d 
ea* *ange (  quality z a new exi/5ce4   
,! ,ja9s we "k 7 ! contempor>ies (      
,buddha &  possibly ( "s ( ! ,upanisads 
too1 & !y _h also a solution  to (f]4   
,!y held t x 0 n true t sub/ance  alone 
0 true & qualities 7 m]e false &        
illusory appe>ances4  ,fur!r x 0 n true 
z ! ,buddhi/s said t  !re 0 no p]man5t  
sub/ance b m]ely ! *ange (  pass+       
qualities1 = bo? ^! repres5t two extreme
 views  & are contr>y to exp]i5ce4 ,bo? 
( !m1 h[ev]1 conta9  "s elem5ts ( tru? b
 n ! :ole tru? z giv5 9  exp]i5ce4      
,exp]i5ce %[s t 9 all *anges !re are    
?ree elem5ts3 7#a7 t "s collocations (  
qualities appe>  to rema9 un*ang$2 7#b7 
t "s new qualities are g5]at$2  7#c7 t  
"s old qualities are de/roy$4 ,x is true
 t qualities  ( ?+s are *ang+ e m9ute1 b
 all qualities are n  *ang+4 ,?us :5 a  

jug is made1 x means t ! clay-lump  has 
be5 de/roy$1 a jug has be5 g5]at$ & !   
clay is  p]man5t1 i4e4 all production   
means t "s old qualities h  be5 lo/1 "s 
new ones br\ght 91 & !re is "s "p 9  x  
:i* is p]man5t ,! clay has become lo/ 9 
"s =m1  has g5]at$ itself 9 ano!r1 &    
rema9$ p]man5t 9 /ill        ,footnote  
#a3 ,see ,*ndogya1 ,,vi4 #a4    #age    
ano!r =m4 ,x is by virtue ( ^! un*ang$  
qualities t a  ?+ is said to be p]man5t 
?\gh und]go+ *ange4 ,?us  :5 a lump (   
gold is turn$ into a rod or a r+1 all ! 
specific  qualities :i* come "u !       
connotation ( ! ^w gold  are se5 to     
cont9ue1 ?\gh ! =ms are successively    
*ang$1  & ) ea* su* *ange "s ( its      
qualities are lo/ & "s  new ones are    
acquir$4 ,su* be+ ! case1 ! tru? comes  
to  ?is1 t !re is always a p]man5t      
entity z repres5t$ by !  p]man5ce ( su* 
qualities z lead u to call x a sub/ance 
9  spite ( all its div]se *anges4 ,!    
nature ( be+ 7sat7 !n is  nei!r !       
absolutely un*angeable1 nor ! mom5t>y   

*ang+  qualities or exi/5ces1 b involves
 !m bo?4 ,be+ !n1 z is  te/ifi$ by      
exp]i5ce1 is t :i* involves a p]man5t   
unit1  :i* is incessantly e mom5t los+  
"s qualities &  ga9+ new ones4 ,! notion
 ( be+ involves a p]man5t  7dhruva7     
accession ( "s new qualities 7utpda7 &  
loss (  "s old qualities 7vyaya7        
,footnote ref4#a4 ,! solution ( ,ja9ism 
is  ?us a reconciliation ( ! two        
extremes ( ,v$antism & ,buddhism on     
gr\nds ( common-s5se exp]i5ce4      ,!  
,doctr9e ( ,relative ,pluralism         
7anekntavda74    ,?is conception ( be+ z
 ! union ( ! p]man5t &  *ange br+s u    
naturally to ! doctr9e ( ,anekntavda or 
:at we may call relative pluralism z    
aga9/ ! extreme absolutism  ( !         
,upanisads & ! pluralism ( ! ,buddhi/s4 
,! ,ja9s reg>d$ all ?+s z aneknta       
7na-eknta71 or 9  o!r words !y held t   
no?+ c\ld be affirm$ absolutely1  z all 
affirmations 7 true only "u c]ta9       
conditions &  limitations4 ,?us speak+ (
 a gold jug1 we see t its exi/5ce  z a  

sub/ance 7dravya7 is ( ! nature ( a     
collocation  ( atoms & n z any o!r      
sub/ance su* z space 7ks'a71  i4e4 a    
gold jug is a dravya only 9 "o s5se ( ! 
t]m &  n 9 e s5se2 s x is a dravya 9 !  
s5se t x is a  collocation ( atoms & n a
 dravya 9 ! s5se ( space or  "t 7kla74  
,x is ?us bo? a dravya & n a dravya at  
"o  & ! same "t4 ,aga9 x is atomic 9 !  
s5se t x is a  composite ( e>?-atoms & n
 atomic 9 ! s5se t x is                 
,footnote3 #a3 ,see ,tattvr?dhigamastra1
 & ,gun>atna's treatm5t (  ,ja9ism 9    
,sadd>s'anasamuccaya4    #agf    n a    
composite ( wat]-atoms4 ,aga9 x is a    
composite ( e>?-atoms  only 9 ! s5se t  
gold is a metallic modification (  e>?1 
& n any o!r modification ( e>? z clay or
 /one4  ,its be+ con/itut$ ( metal-atoms
 is aga9 true 9 ! s5se  t x is made up (
 gold-atoms & n ( iron-atoms4 ,x  is    
made up aga9 ( gold-atoms 9 ! s5se (    
melt$ & unsulli$  gold & n z gold 9 !   
natural condition4 ,x is aga9  made up (
 su* unsulli$ & melt$ gold z has be5    

hamm]$  & %ap$ by ! goldsmi? ,devadatta 
& n by ,yajadatta4  ,its be+ made up (  
atoms condition$ z above is aga9 only   
true 9 ! s5se t ! collocation has be5   
%ap$ z a jug  & n z a pot & s on4 ,?us  
proce$+ 9 a simil> mann]  ! ,ja9s say t 
all affirmations are true ( a ?+ only 9 
a  c]ta9 limit$ s5se4 ,all ?+s 7va/u7   
?us possess an inf9ite  numb] (         
qualities 7anantadh>mtmakam va/u71 ea* (
 :i*  c only be affirm$ 9 a p>ticul>    
s5se4 ,su* an ord9>y ?+  z a jug w be   
f\nd to be ! object ( an inf9ite numb] (
  affirmations & ! possessor ( an       
inf9ite numb] ( qualities  f inf9ite    
po9ts ( view1 :i* are all true 9 c]ta9  
re/rict$  s5ses & n absolutely ,footnote
 ref l4 ,?us 9 ! positive relation      
ri*es _c be affirm$ ( pov]ty b 9 !      
negative relation su*  an affirmation is
 possible z :5 we say ! poor man has no 
ri*es4 ,! poor man possesses ri*es n 9 a
 positive b 9  a negative way4 ,?us 9 "s
 relation or o!r any?+ may be  affirm$ (
 any o!r ?+1 & aga9 9 o!r relations ! v 

same ?+ _c be affirm$ ( x4 ,! diff]5t   
/&po9ts  f :i* ?+s 7?\gh possess$ (     
inf9ite det]m9ations7  c be spok5 ( z   
possess+ ?is or t quality or z appe>+  9
 relation to ?is or t1 are te*nically   
call$ naya ,footnote ref  #b4      ,!   
,doctr9e ( ,nayas4    ,9 fram+ judgm5ts 
ab\t ?+s !re are two ways op5  to u1    
fir/ly we may notice ! manifold         
qualities & *>act]i/ics  ( any?+ b view 
!m z unifi$ 9 ! ?+2 ?us :5  we say ?is  
is a book we d n look at its *>act]i/ic 
qualities z be+ diff]5t f x1 b r !      
qualities or  *>act]i/ics are p]ceiv$ z 
hav+ no sep>ate exi/5ce f               
,footnote #a3 ,see ,gun>atna on         
,ja9amata 9 ,sadd>sanasamuccaya1 pp4    
#baa4 etc41 & also ,tattvr?dhigamastra4 
,footnote #b3 ,see ,tattvr?dhigamastra1 
& ,vis'esvalyaka bhsya1  pp4 #hie-ibc4  
#agg    ! ?+4 ,secondly we may notice ! 
qualities sep>ately &  reg>d ! ?+ z a   
m]e non-exi/5t fiction 7cf4 ! ,buddhi/  
view72 ?us ,i may speak ( ! diff]5t     
qualities ( ! book  sep>ately & hold t !

 qualities ( ?+s are alone p]ceptible  &
 ! book ap>t f ^! _c be f\nd4 ,^! two   
po9ts ( view are respectively call$     
dravyanaya & p>yyanaya  ,footnote ref   
#a4 ,! dravyanaya aga9 %[s itself 9 ?ree
 =ms1  & p>yayanaya 9 f\r =ms1 ( :i* !  
fir/ =m only is important  = our        
purposes1 ! o!r ?ree be+ important r f !
  po9t ( view ( gramm> & language _h    
bett] be omitt$  "h4 ,! ?ree nayas "u   
dravyanaya are call$ naigama-naya1      
samgraha-naya & vyavahra-naya4    ,:5 we
 speak ( a ?+ f a purely common s5se    
po9t  ( view1 we d n make our ideas cle>
 or precise4 ,?us ,i may  hold a book 9 
my h& & :5 ask$ :e!r my h&s are  empty1 
,i may say1 no1 ,i h some?+ 9 my h&1 or 
,i may say1  ,i h a book 9 my h&4 ,x is 
evid5t t 9 ! fir/ answ]  ,i look$ at !  
book f ! wide/ & mo/ g5]al po9t (  view 
z a ?+1 :]eas 9 ! second ,i look$ at x 9
 its  special exi/5ce z a book4 ,aga9 ,i
 may be read+ a page (  a book1 & ,i may
 say ,i am read+ a book1 b 9 reality ,i 
0  read+ only "o ( ! pages ( ! book4 ,i 

may be scribbl+  on loose %eets1 & may  
say ?is is my book on ,ja9a philosophy1 
:]eas 9 reality !re 7 no books b m]ely  
"s loose  %eets4 ,?is look+ at ?+s f !  
loose common s5se view1  9 :i* we d n   
consid] !m f ! po9t ( view ( _!  mo/    
g5]al *>act]i/ic z be+ or z any ( _!    
special  *>act]i/ics1 b simply z !y     
appe> at fir/ sight1 is te*nically      
call$ ! naigama /&po9t4 ,?is empirical  
view probably  proce$s on ! assumption t
 a ?+ possesses ! mo/  g5]al z well z ! 
mo/ special qualities1 & h5ce we may    
lay /ress on any "o ( ^! at any "t &    
ignore ! o!r  ones4 ,?is is ! po9t (    
view f :i* accord+ to !  ,ja9s ! ,nyya &
 ,vais'esika s*ools int]pret exp]i5ce4  
,samgraha-naya is ! look+ at ?+s m]ely f
 !  mo/ g5]al po9t ( view4 ,?us we may  
speak ( all individual  ?+s f _! mo/    
g5]al & fundam5tal aspect z be+4  ,?is  
accord+ to ! ,ja9s is ! ,v$nta way (    
look+ at ?+s4        ,footnote #a3      
,sydvdamanj>1 pp4 #aga-agc4    #agh     
,! vyavahra-naya /&po9t holds t ! real  

ess5ce  ( ?+s is to be reg>d$ f ! po9t (
 view ( actual practical  exp]i5ce ( !  
?+1 :i* unifies )9 x "s g5]al  z well z 
"s special traits1 :i* has be5 exi/+ f  
pa/  times & rema9 9 ! future1 b yet    
suff] trifl+ *anges  all ! :ile1 *anges 
:i* are s]viceable to u 9 a ?\s&  ways4 
,?us a book has no d\bt "s g5]al traits1
 %>$  by all books1 b x has "s special  
traits z well4 ,its atoms are           
cont9ually suff]+ "s displacem5t &      
re>rangem5t1 b  yet x has be5 exi/+ z a 
book = "s "t pa/ & w  exi/ = "s "t 9 !  
future z well4 ,all ^! *>act]i/ics1  g  
to make up ! ess5ce ( ! book ( our      
ev]yday exp]i5ce1  & none ( ^! c be     
sep>at$ & held up z be+  ! concept ( a  
book4 ,?is accord+ to ! ,ja9s is !      
,smkhya way ( look+ at ?+s4    ,! fir/  
view ( p>yya-naya call$ rjustra is !    
,buddhi/  view :i* does n believe 9 !   
exi/5ce ( ! ?+ 9 !  pa/ or 9 ! future1 b
 holds t a ?+ is a m]e conglom]ation  ( 
*>act]i/ics :i* may be said to produce  
effects at  any giv5 mom5t4 ,at ea* new 

mom5t !re are new collocations  ( new   
qualities & x is ^! :i* may be reg>d$ z 
! true ess5ce ( our notion ( ?+s        
,footnote ref #a4    ,! nayas z we h    
already said are b po9ts ( view1 or     
aspects ( look+ at ?+s1 & z su* are     
inf9ite 9 numb]4  ,! above f\r repres5t 
only a broad classification ( ^!4 ,!    
,ja9s hold t ! ,nyya-,vais'esika1 !     
,v$nta1 ! ,smkhya1  & ! ,buddhi/1 h ea* 
tri$ to int]pret & sy/ematize  exp]i5ce 
f "o ( ! above f\r po9ts ( view1 & ea*  
reg>ds  ! int]pretation f 8 po9t ( view 
z be+ absolutely  true to ! exclusion ( 
all o!r po9ts ( view4 ,?is is _! error  
7naybhsa71 = ea* /&po9t repres5ts only  
"o ( ! _m  po9ts ( view f :i* a ?+ c be 
look$ at4 ,! affirmations  f any po9t ( 
view are ?us true 9 a limit$ s5se &  "u 
limit$ conditions4 ,inf9ite numb]s (    
affirmations may  be made ( ?+s f       
inf9ite po9ts ( view4 ,affirmations or  
judgm5ts accord+ to any naya or /&po9t  
_c !re=e  be absolute1 = ev5 contr>y    
affirmations ( ! v selfsame             

,footnote #a3 ,! o!r /&po9ts (          
p>yya-naya1 :i* repres5t  grammatical & 
l+ui/ic po9ts ( view1 are s'abda-naya1  
samabhirdha-naya1 & evambhla-naya4 ,see 
,vis'esvas'yaka  bhsya1 pp4 #hie-ibc4   
#agi    ?+s may be held to be true f o!r
 po9ts ( view4 ,!  tru? ( ea*           
affirmation is ?us only conditional1 &  
inconceivable  f ! absolute po9t ( view4
 ,to gu>antee correctness  !re=e ea*    
affirmation %\ld be prec$$ by ! phrase  
syt  7may be74 ,?is w indicate t !      
affirmation is only relative1  made     
someh[1 f "s po9t ( view & "u "s        
res]vations  & n 9 any s5se absolute4   
,!re is no judgm5t  :i* is absolutely   
true1 & no judgm5t :i* is absolutely    
false4 ,all judgm5ts are true 9 "s s5se 
& false 9 ano!r4  ,?is br+s u to ! fam\s
 ,ja9a doctr9e ( ,sydvda ,footnote ref  
#a4      ,! ,doctr9e ( ,sydvda4    ,!   
doctr9e ( ,sydvda holds t s9ce ! mo/    
contr>y  *>act]i/ics ( inf9ite v>iety   
may be associat$ ) a ?+1  affirmation   
made f :atev] /&po9t 7naya7 _c be reg>d$

  z absolute4 ,all affirmations are true
 79 "s syda/i or  may be x is s5se72 all
 affirmations are false 9 "s s5se2  all 
affirmations are indef9ite or           
inconceivable 9 "s s5se  7sydavaktavya72
 all affirmations are true z well z     
false 9 "s  s5se 7syda/i synn/i72 all   
affirmations are true z well z          
indef9ite 7syda/i cvaktavyas'ca72 all   
affirmations are false z  well z        
indef9ite2 all affirmations are true &  
false & indef9ite  9 "s s5se 7syda/i    
synn/i sydavaktavyas'ca74 ,?us we may   
say ! jug is or ! jug has be+1 b x is m 
correct to  say explicitly t may be     
7syt7 t ! jug is1 o!rwise if  be+ "h is 
tak5 absolutely ( any & e k9d ( be+1  x 
might also mean t !re is a lump ( clay  
or a pill>1 or a  clo? or any o!r ?+4 ,!
 exi/5ce "h is limit$ & def9$  by ! =m (
 ! jug4 ,! jug is does n mean absolute  
exi/5ce b a limit$ k9d ( exi/5ce z      
det]m9$ by !  =m ( ! jug1 ,! jug is ?us 
means t a limit$ k9d (  exi/5ce1 namely 
! jug-exi/5ce is affirm$ & n exi/5ce  9 

g5]al 9 ! absolute or unlimit$ s5se1 =  
!n ! s5t5ce  ! jug is might z well mean 
! clay is1 ! tree is1 !  clo? is1 etc4  
,aga9 ! exi/5ce ( ! jug is det]m9$ by ! 
negation ( all o!r ?+s 9 ! _w2 ea*      
quality or *>act]i/ic  7su* z r$ col\r7 
( ! jug is appreh5d$ & def9$  by !      
negation ( all ! inf9ite v>ieties 7su* z
 black1 blue1  gold571 etc41 ( its      
class1 & x is by ! comb9$ negation ( all
        ,footnote #a3 ,see              
,vis'esvas'yaka bhsya1 pp4 #hie1 etc41 &
  ,sydvdamaj>1 pp4 #agj1 etc4    #ahj   
! inf9ite numb] ( *>act]i/ics or        
qualities o!r ?an ^?  con/itut+ ! jug t 
a jug may be appreh5d$ or def9$4  ,:at  
we call ! be+ ( ! jug is ?us ! non-be+ (
 all !  re/ except itself4 ,?us ?\gh    
look$ at f "o po9t ( view  ! judgm5t !  
jug is may mean affirmation ( be+1 look$
  at f ano!r po9t ( view x means an     
affirmation ( non-be+  7( all o!r       
objects74 ,?us ( ! judgm5t ! jug is "o  
may  say1 may be x is an affirmation (  
be+ 7syda/i71 may be x is a  negation ( 

be+ 7synn/i72 or ,i may proce$ 9 q ano!r
  way & say t ! jug is means ?is jug is 
"h1 :i*  naturally indicates t ?is jug  
is n !re & ?us ! judgm5t  ! jug is 7i4e4
 is "h7 also means t ! jug is n  !re1 & 
s we see t ! affirmation ( ! be+ ( ! jug
  is true only ( ?is place & false (    
ano!r1 & ?is ju/ifies u  9 say+ t may be
 t 9 "s s5se ! jug is1 & may  be 9 "s   
s5se t ! jug is n4 ,comb9+ ^! two       
aspects we may say t 9 "s s5se may be t 
! jug is1  & 9 "s s5se may be t ! jug is
 n4 ,we und]/ood  "h t if we put        
emphasis on ! side ( ! *>act]i/ics      
con/itut+ be+1 we may say ! jug is1 b if
 we put emphasis  on ! o!r side1 we may 
z well say ! jug is n4 ,bo? !           
affirmations hold good ( ! jug accord+ z
 ! emphasis is  put on ei!r side4 ,b if 
)\t emphasis on ei!r side we try  to    
compreh5d ! two opposite & contradictory
 judgm5ts  reg>d+ ! jug1 we see t !     
nature ( ! jug or ( ! exi/5ce  ( ! jug  
is indef9ite1 unspeakable &             
inconceivable--avaktavya1 =  h[ c we    

affirm bo? be+ & non-be+ ( ! same ?+1 & 
yet  su* is ! nature ( ?+s t we _c b d  
x4 ,?us all  affirmations are true1 are 
n true1 are bo? true & untrue1 & are    
?us unspeakable1 inconceivable1 &       
indef9ite4 ,comb9+ ^! f\r  aga9 we d]ive
 ano!r ?ree1 7#a7 t 9 "s s5se x may be t
  ! jug is1 & 7#b7 is yet unspeakable1  
or 7#c7 t ! jug is n &  is unspeakable1 
or f9ally t ! jug is1 is n1 & is        
unspeakable4  ,?us ! ,ja9s hold t no    
affirmation1 or judgm5t1 is absolute 9  
its  nature1 ea* is true 9 its own      
limit$ s5se only1 & = ea* "o (  !m any (
 ! above sev5 alt]natives 7te*nically   
call$ saptabhang  holds good ,footnote  
ref #a4 ,! ,ja9s say t o!r ,indian      
sy/ems ea*  f its own po9t ( view ass]ts
 itself to be ! absolute & ! only       
,footnote #a3 ,see ,sydvdamaj>1 )       
,hemac&ra's comm5t>y1 pp4 #aff1  etc4   
#aha    po9t ( view4 ,!y d n p]ceive t !
 nature ( reality  is su* t ! tru? ( any
 ass]tion is m]ely conditional1  & holds
 good only 9 c]ta9 conditions1          

circum/ances1 or  s5ses 7updhi74 ,x is  
?us impossible to make any affirmation  
:i* is univ]sally & absolutely valid4 ,=
 a contr>y or  contradictory affirmation
 w always be f\nd to hold good (  any   
judgm5t 9 "s s5se or o!r4 ,z all reality
 is p>tly  p]man5t & p>tly expos$ to    
*ange ( ! =m ( los+  & ga9+ old & new   
qualities1 & is ?us relatively p]man5t  
& *angeful1 s all our affirmations      
reg>d+ tru? are also  only relatively   
valid & invalid4 ,be+1 non-be+ &        
indef9ite1  ! ?ree categories ( logic1  
are all equally available 9 "s s5se  or 
o!r 9 all _! p]mutations = any & e k9d (
  judgm5t4 ,!re is no univ]sal &        
absolute position or negation1  & all   
judgm5ts are valid only conditionally4  
,! relation (  ! naya doctr9e ) ! sydvda
 doctr9e is !re=e ?is1  t = any judgm5t 
accord+ to any & e naya !re are z  _m   
alt]natives z are indicat$ by sydvda4 ,!
 validity (  su* a judgm5t is !re=e only
 conditional4 ,if ?is is borne  9 m9d :5
 mak+ any judgm5t accord+ to any naya1  

! naya is rightly us$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 !    
judgm5ts are made absolutely  accord+ to
 any p>ticul> naya )\t any ref]5ce to   
o!r nayas z requir$ by ! sydvda doctr9e 
! nayas are  wrongly us$ z 9 ! case (   
o!r sy/ems1 & !n su*  judgm5ts are false
 & %\ld !re=e be call$ false nayas      
7naybhsa7 ,footnote ref #a4      ,k1 its
 value = u4    ,! ,buddhi/ ,dh>mott>a 9 
8 comm5t>y on ,nyyab9du  says t p :o are
 anxi\s to fulfil "s purpose or end 9   
:i* !y are int]e/$1 value ! k :i* helps 
!m  to atta9 t purpose4 ,x is because k 
is ?us f\nd  to be useful & s\ght by m5 
t philosophy takes ^u x !  task ( exam9+
 ! nature ( true k 7samyagjna or        
pramna74 ,! ma9 te/ ( true k is t x     
helps u  to atta9 our purpose4 ,! ,ja9s 
also are 9 g5]al agreem5t ) !  above    
view ( k ( ! ,buddhi/s ,footnote ref #b4
 ,!y also        ,footnote #a3 ,! e>lie/
 m5tion ( ! doctr9e ( sydvda &          
saptabhang probably occurs 9            
,bhadrabhu's 7#dcc-ceg ,b4,c47 comm5t>y 
,strakrtnganiryukti4    ,footnote #b3   

,see ,pramna-naya-tattvloklamkra        
7,b5>es71 p4 #af2 also                  
,p>ks-mukha-sira-vrtti 7,asiatic        
,society71 *4 ,i4    #ahb    say t k is 
n to be valu$ = its own sake4 ,!        
validity 7prmnya7 ( any?+ consi/s 9 ?is1
 t x directly  helps u to get :at is    
good = u & to avoid :at is bad  = u4 ,k 
alone has ?is capacity1 = by x we c     
adapt ourselves to our environm5ts & try
 to acquire :at  is good = u & avoid :at
 is bad ,footnote ref #a4 ,! conditions 
t  lead to ! production ( su* k 7su* z !
 pres5ce  ( full light & proximity to ! 
eye 9 ! case ( see+ an  object by visual
 p]ception7 h b little relevancy 9 ?is  
connection4  ,= we are n conc]n$ ) h[ a 
cognition is  produc$1 z x c be ( no    
help to u 9 s]v+ our purposes4  ,x is   
en\gh = u to "k t ext]nal objects "u    
c]ta9  conditions assume su* a special  
fitness 7yogyat7 t we c  h k ( !m4 ,we h
 no gu>antee t !y  g5]ate k 9 u1 = we   
are only aw>e t "u  c]ta9 conditions we 
"k a ?+1 :]eas "u o!r conditions  we d n

 "k x ,footnote ref #b4 ,! enquiry z to 
! nature ( !  special fitness ( ?+s :i* 
makes k ( !m possible  does n conc]n u4 
,^? conditions :i* conf] su*  a special 
fitness on ?+s z to r5d] !m p]ceivable h
 b  little to d ) u2 = our purposes :i* 
consi/ only 9 !  acquirem5t ( good &    
avoidance ( evil1 c only be s]v$ by  k &
 n by ^? conditions ( ext]nal objects4  
,k reveals our own self z a kn[+ subject
 z well  z ! objects t are kn[n by u4   
,we h no reason to  suppose 7l !        
,buddhi/s7 t all k by p]ception (       
ext]nal objects is 9 ! fir/ in/ance     
indef9ite & indet]m9ate1  & t all our   
det]m9ate notions ( =m1 col\r1 size &   
o!r  *>act]i/ics ( ! ?+ are n directly  
giv5 9 our p]ceptual  exp]i5ce1 b are   
d]iv$ only by imag9ation 7utpreks71 &  t
 !re=e true p]ceptual k only c]tifies ! 
validity  ( ! indef9ite & indet]m9ate   
crude s5se data 7nirvikalpa  jna74      
,exp]i5ce %[s t true k on ! "o h&       
reveals u z subjects or kn[]s1 & on !   
o!r h& gives  a correct sket* ( !       

ext]nal objects 9 all ! div]sity (  _!  
*>act]i/ics4 ,x is = ?is reason t k is  
our  imm$iate & mo/ prom95t means ( s]v+
 our purposes4        ,footnote #a3     
,pramna-naya-tattvloklamkra1 p4 #bf4    
,footnote #b3 ,see ,p>sa-mukha-stra1    
,,ii4 #i1 & its vrtti1 & also !         
conclud+ vrtti ( *4 ,,ii4    #ahc    ,( 
c\rse k _c directly & imm$iately br+ to 
u ! good we want1 b s9ce x fai?fully    
communicates to u  ! nature ( ! objects 
ar\nd u1 x r5d]s our actions = !        
atta9m5t ( good & ! avoidance ( evil1   
possible2 = if  k did n possess ^!      
functions1 ?is w\ld h be5  impossible4  
,! validity ( k ?us consi/s 9 ?is1 t  x 
is ! mo/ direct1 imm$iate1 &            
indisp5sable means =  s]v+ our purposes4
 ,s long z any k is uncontradict$  x    
%\ld be held z true4 ,false k is t :i*  
repres5ts  ?+s 9 relations 9 :i* !y d n 
exi/4 ,:5 a rope 9 a  badly light$ place
 gives rise to ! illusion ( a snake1 !  
illusion  consi/s 9 tak+ ! rope to be a 
snake1 i4e4 p]ceiv+ a snake  :]e x does 

n exi/4 ,snakes exi/ & ropes also exi/1 
!re is  no untru? 9 t ,footnote ref #a4 
,! error ?us consi/s 9 ?is1  t ! snake  
is p]ceiv$ :]e ! rope exi/s4 ,!         
p]ception ( a  snake "u relations &     
environm5ts 9 :i* x 0 n !n exi/+  is :at
 is meant by error "h4 ,:at 0 at fir/   
p]ceiv$ z a snake  0 lat] on contradict$
 & ?us f\nd false4 ,falsehood !re=e     
consi/s 9 ! misrepres5tation ( objective
 facts 9 exp]i5ce4 ,true  k !re=e is t  
:i* gives su* a correct & fai?ful       
repres5tation ( its object z is nev]    
aft]w>ds f\nd to be  contradict$4 ,?us k
 :5 imp>t$ directly 9 association  ) !  
organs 9 s5se-p]ception is v cle>1      
vivid1 &  di/9ct1 & is call$ p]ceptional
 7pratyaksa72 :5 atta9$  o!rwise ! k is 
n s cle> & vivid & is !n  call$         
non-p]ceptional 7p>oksa ,footnote ref   
#b74      ,!ory ( ,p]ception4    ,! ma9 
diff]5ce ( ! ,ja9s f ! ,buddhi/s 9 !    
!ory ( p]ception lies1 z we h already   
se51 9 ?is1 t !  ,ja9s ?9k t p]ception  
7pratyaksa7 reveals to u ! ext]nal      

objects j z !y are ) mo/ ( _! div]se    
*>act]i/ics (  col\r1 =m1 etc41 & also 9
 ?is1 t k arises 9 ! s\l                
,footnote #a3 ,illusion consi/s 9       
attribut+ su* spatial1 temporal or  o!r 
k9ds ( relations to ! objects ( our     
judgm5t z d n actually  exi/1 b !       
objects !mselves actually exi/ 9 o!r    
relations4 ,:5  ,i mi/ake ! rope = !    
snake1 ! snake actually exi/s ?\gh its  
relation+ ) ! ?is z ?is is a snake does 
n exi/1 = !  snake is n ! rope4 ,?is    
illusion is ?us call$  satkhyti or      
misrelation+ ( exi/5ts 7sat74           
,footnote #b3 ,see ,ja9a-t>ka-vrttika ( 
,siddhas5a1 *4 ,i41 & vrtti  by         
,s'antycrya1 ,pramnanayatattvloklamkra1 
*4 ,i41  ,p>ks-mukha-stra-vrtti1 *4 ,i4 
#ahd    f )9 x z if by remov+ a veil :i*
 _h be5 cov]+ x  be=e4 ,objects are also
 n m]e =ms ( k 7z ! ,vijnavd9  ,buddhi/ 
?9ks7 b are actually exi/+4 ,k  (       
ext]nal objects by p]ception is ga9$    
?r\gh ! s5ses4  ,! ext]ior physical s5se
 su* z ! eye mu/ be di/+ui%$  f !       

invisible faculty or p[] ( vision ( !   
s\l1 :i*  alone des]ves ! "n ( s5se4 ,we
 h five su* cognitive  s5ses4 ,b ! ,ja9s
 ?9k t s9ce by our exp]i5ce we are  only
 aw>e ( five k9ds ( s5se k correspond+  
to !  five s5ses1 x is bett] to say t x 
is ! self :i* ga9s  ( itself ^? diff]5t 
k9ds ( s5se-k 9 association )  ^?       
ext]ior s5ses z if by removal ( a cov]+1
 on acc\nt  ( ! exi/5ce ( :i* ! k c\ld n
 reveal itself  be=e4 ,! process (      
ext]nal p]ception does n ?us involve  ! 
ex]cise ( any sep>ate & di/9ct s5se1    
?\gh ! rise  ( ! s5se-k 9 ! s\l takes   
place 9 association )  ! p>ticul>       
s5se-organ su* z eye1 etc4 ,! s\l is 9  
t\*  ) all p>ts ( ! body1 & visual k is 
t k  :i* is g5]at$ 9 ! s\l ?r\gh t "p ( 
x :i* is  associat$ )1 or is 9 t\* ) !  
eye4 ,to take an example1  ,i look be=e 
me & see a rose4 ,be=e look+ at x ! k  (
 rose 0 9 me1 b only 9 a cov]$          
condition1 &  h5ce c\ld n get itself    
manife/$4 ,! act ( look+ at !  rose     
means t su* a fitness has come into !   

rose & into  myself t ! rose is made    
visible1 & ! veil ov] my k  ( rose is   
remov$4 ,:5 visual k arises1 ?is  happ5s
 9 association ) ! eye2 ,i say t ,i see 
?r\gh  ! visual s5se1 :]eas 9 reality   
exp]i5ce %[s t ,i h  only a k ( ! visual
 type 7associat$ ) eye74 ,z  exp]i5ce   
does n reveal ! sep>ate s5ses1 x is     
unw>rantable  to ass]t t !y h an exi/5ce
 ap>t f ! self4 ,proce$+  9 a simil> way
 ! ,ja9s disc>d ! sep>ate exi/5ce (     
manas  7m9d-organ7 also1 = manas also is
 n giv5 9 exp]i5ce1 & !  hypo!sis ( its 
exi/5ce is unnecess>y1 z self alone c   
s]ve  its purpose ,footnote ref #a4     
,p]ception ( an object means            
,footnote #a3 ,tanna indriyam bhautikam 
kim tu tm ca                            
indriyam444anupahatacaksurdides'esu eva 
tmanah                                  
k>maksayopas'amasl5/hagitagavksatulyni  
caksurdni  upak>anni4                   
,ja9a-,vttika-,vrtti1 ,,ii4 p4 #ih4 ,9  
_m places1  h[ev]1 ! five s5ses1 su* z  
eye1 e>1 etc41 are m5tion$ z  s5ses1 &  

liv+ be+s are (t5 classifi$ accord+ to !
 numb]  ( s5ses !y possess4 7,see       
,pramnammms4 ,see also                  
,tattvr?-dhigamastra1 *4 ,,ii4 etc47 ,b 
?is is ) ref]5ce to  ! s5se organs4 ,!  
d5ial ( sep>ate s5ses is ) ref]5ce to   
admitt+ !m z entities or capacities hav+
 a di/9ct & sep>ate  category ( exi/5ce 
f ! s\l4 ,! s5se organs are l  w9d[s = !
 s\l to look out4 ,!y _c ?us modify !   
s5se-k :i* rises 9 ! s\l by inw>d       
det]m9ation2  = x is already exi/5t 9 x2
 ! p]ceptual process only means t  !    
veil :i* z obs]v+ x is remov$4    #ahe  
t ! veil ( ignorance ^u ! self reg>d+ ! 
object has  be5 remov$4 ,inw>dly ?is    
removal is det]m9$ by !  k>ma ( !       
individual1 outw>dly x is det]m9$ by !  
pres5ce  ( ! object ( p]ception1 light1 
! capacity ( ! s5se  organs1 & su* o!r  
conditions4 ,contr>y to ! ,buddhi/s  &  
_m o!r ,indian sy/ems1 ! ,ja9s d5i$ !   
exi/5ce  ( any nirvikalpa 7indet]m9ate7 
/age prec$+ ! f9al savikalpa            
7det]m9ate7 /age ( p]ception4 ,!re 0 a  

direct  revelation ( objects f )9 & no  
indet]m9ate s5se-mat]ials  7 necess>y = 
! developm5t ( det]m9ate  p]ceptions4   
,we mu/ contra/ ?is ) ! ,buddhi/s :o    
reg>d$ t ! fir/ /age consi/+ ( !        
pres5tation (  indet]m9ate s5se mat]ials
 0 ! only valid "p ( p]ception4  ,!     
det]m9ate /age ) !m is ! result ( !     
application  ( m5tal categories1 su* z  
imag9ation1 memory1 etc41 & h5ce  does n
 truly repres5t ! pres5tative "p        
,footnote ref #a4      ,non-,p]ceptual  
,k4    ,non-p]ceptual k 7p>oksa7 diff]s 
f pratyaksa  9 ?is1 t x does n give u s 
vivid a picture ( objects z !  latt]4   
,s9ce ! ,ja9s d n admit t ! s5ses _h any
 function  9 det]m9+ ! cognitions ( !   
s\l1 ! only di/9ction  !y c\ld draw     
betwe5 p]ception & o!r =ms ( k  0 t ! k 
( ! =m] k9d 7p]ception7 gave u  cle>]   
features & *>act]i/ics ( objects ?an !  
latt]4  ,p>oksa ?us includes inf]5ce1   
recognition1 implication1 memory1  etc42
 & ?is k is decid$ly less vivid ?an     
p]ception4    ,reg>d+ inf]5ce1 ! ,ja9s  

hold t x is unnecess>y to  h five       
propositions1 su* z3 7#a7 ! hill is     
fi]y1 7#b7 because  ( smoke1 7#c7 :]ev] 
!re is smoke !re is fire1 su* z !       
kit*51 7#d7 ?is hill is smoky1 7#e7     
!re=e x is fi]y1 call$  respectively    
pratij1 hetu1 drstnta1 upanaya &        
nigamana1 except  = ! purpose (         
explicitness4 ,x is only ! fir/ two     
propositions :i* actually ent] into !   
inf]5tial process                       
7,prameyakamalamrtanda1 pp4 #ajh1 #aji74
 ,:5 we make an        ,footnote #a     
,prameyakamalamrtanda1 pp4 #h-aa4       
#ahf    inf]5ce we d n proce$ ?r\gh !   
five propositions z  above4 ,!y :o "k t 
! reason is insep>ably connect$  ) !    
prob&um ei!r z coexi/5ce 7sahabhva7 or z
 inv>iable  antec$5ce 7kramabhva7 w f ! 
m]e /atem5t  ( ! exi/5ce ( ! reason     
7e4g4 smoke7 9 ! hill jump to !         
conclusion t ! hill has got fire4 ,a    
syllogism consi/+ (  five propositions  
is r = expla9+ ! matt] to a *ild  ?an = 
repres5t+ ! actual /ate ( ! m9d 9 mak+  

an  inf]5ce ,footnote ref #a4    ,z     
reg>ds pro( by te/imony ! ,ja9s d n     
admit !  au?ority ( ! ,v$as1 b believe t
 ! ,ja9a scriptures give  u "r k1 = ^!  
are ! utt]ances ( p]sons :o  h liv$ a   
worldly life b aft]w>ds by "r actions & 
"r k h conqu]$ all passions & remov$ all
  ignorance ,footnote ref #b4      ,k z 
,revelation4    ,! ,buddhi/s _h affirm$ 
t ! pro( ( ! exi/5ce (  any?+ dep5d$ ^u 
! effect t x c\ld produce on u4  ,t :i* 
c\ld produce any effect on u 0 exi/5t1 &
 t        ,footnote #a3 ,z reg>ds       
concomitance 7vypti7 "s ( ! ,ja9a       
logicians  l ! ,buddhi/s pref] ant>vypti
 7betwe5 smoke & fire7 to  bahirvypt 7! 
place conta9+ smoke ) ! place conta9+   
fire74  ,!y also divide inf]5ce into two
 classes1 svr?numna = "o's own  self &  
p>r?numna = conv9c+ o!rs4 ,x may n be   
out (  place to note t ! e>lie/ ,ja9a   
view z ma9ta9$ by ,bhadrabhu  9 8       
,das'avaiklikaniryukti 0 9 fav\r ( t5   
propositions =  mak+ an inf]5ce2 7#a7   
,pratij 7e4g4 non-injury to life is !   

greate/ virtue71 7#b7 ,pratijvibhakti   
7non-injury to life is !  greate/ virtue
 accord+ to ,ja9a scriptures71 7#c7     
,hetu 7because  ^? :o adh]e to          
non-injury are lov$ by gods & x is      
m]itori\s  to d !m hon\r71 7#d7 ,hetu   
vibhakti 7^? :o d s are ! only  p]sons  
:o c live 9 ! highe/ places ( virtue71  
7#e7 ,vipaksa  7b ev5 by do+ injury "o  
may prosp] & ev5 by revil+ ,ja9a        
scriptures "o may atta9 m]it z is ! case
 ) ,brahm9s71  7#f7 ,vipaksa pratis$ha  
7x is n s1 x is impossible t ^?  :o     
despise ,ja9a scriptures %\ld be lov$ by
 gods or %\ld des]ve  hon\r71 7#g7      
,drsnta 7! ,arhats take food f          
h\sehold]s z  !y d n l to cook !mselves 
= fe> ( kill+ insects71  7#h7 s'ank 7b !
 s9s ( ! h\sehold]s %\ld t\* ! arhats1  
= !y cook = !m71 7#i7 s'ankpratis$ha    
7?is _c be1  = ! arhats g to c]ta9 h\ses
 unexpect$ly1 s x c\ld n be  said t !   
cook+ 0 und]tak5 = !m71 7#aj7 ,naigamana
  7non-injury is !re=e ! greate/ virtue7
 7,vidybhsana's ,indian  ,logic74 ,^!   

are p]suasive /atem5ts :i* are (t5      
actually  adopt$ 9 a discussion1 b f a  
=mal po9t ( view _m ( ^!  are           
irrelevant4 ,:5 ,vtsyyana 9 8           
,nyyastrabhsya1 ,i4 #a4 #cb1  says t    
,gautama introduc$ ! doctr9e ( five     
propositions z  aga9/ ! doctr9e ( t5    
propositions z held by o!r logicians1 he
  probably _h ?is ,ja9a view 9 8 m9d4   
,footnote #b3 ,see ,ja9at>kavrttika1 &  
,p>ksmukhastravrtti1 &                  
,sadd>s'anasamuccaya ) ,gun>atna on     
,ja9ism4    #ahg    :i* c\ld n          
non-exi/5t4 ,9 fact production ( effect 
0  ) !m ! only def9ition ( exi/5ce      
7be+74 ,!oretically  ea* unit ( effect  
be+ diff]5t f any o!r unit ( effect  !y 
suppos$ t !re 0 a succession ( diff]5t  
units (  effect or1 :at is ! same ?+1   
ackn[l$g$ a succession (  new sub/ances 
e mom5t4 ,all ?+s 7 ?us mom5t>y4  ,!    
,ja9s urg$ t ! reason :y ! production ( 
effect  may be reg>d$ z ! only pro( (   
be+ is t we c ass]t  only t ?+ ! exi/5ce
 ( :i* is indicat$ by a correspond+     

exp]i5ce4 ,:5 we h a unit ( exp]i5ce we 
suppose ! exi/5ce ( ! object z its      
gr\nd4 ,?is be+ s1  ! !oretical analysis
 ( ! ,buddhi/s t ea* unit ( effect      
produc$ 9 u is n exactly ! same at ea*  
new po9t ( "t1  & t !re=e all ?+s are   
mom5t>y1 is fallaci\s2 = exp]i5ce  %[s t
 n all ( an object is f\nd to be *ang+  
e mom5t2 "s "p ( x 7e4g4 gold 9 a gold  
ornam5t7 is  f\nd to rema9 p]man5t :ile 
o!r p>ts 7e4g4 its =m z e>r+s  or       
bangles7 are se5 to und]go *ange4 ,h[ 9 
! face  ( su* an exp]i5ce c we ass]t t !
 :ole ?+ vani%es  e mom5t & t new ?+s   
are be+ r5ew$ at ea*  succe$+ mom5t8    
,h5ce leav+ aside m]e ab/ract &  unf\nd$
 speculations1 if we look to exp]i5ce we
 f9d t !  conception ( be+ or exi/5ce   
involves a notion ( p]man5ce  associat$ 
) *ange--p>yya 7acquirem5t ( new        
qualities  & ! loss ( old ones74 ,!     
,ja9s hold t ! defects ( o!r  sy/ems lie
 9 ?is1 t !y int]pret exp]i5ce only f "o
  p>ticul> /&po9t 7naya7 :]eas !y alone 
c>efully weigh  exp]i5ce f all po9ts (  

view & acquiesce 9 ! tru?s  indicat$ by 
x1 n absolutely b "u prop] res]vations &
  limitations4 ,! ,ja9s hold t 9 =mulat+
 ! doctr9e (  ar?akriykritva ! ,buddhi/s
 at fir/ %[$ signs ( />t+  on _! enquiry
 on ! evid5ce ( exp]i5ce1 b soon !y     
became "o-sid$ 9 _! analysis & indulg$ 9
 unw>rantable  ab/ract speculations :i* 
w5t directly aga9/ exp]i5ce4  ,?us if we
 g by exp]i5ce we c nei!r reject ! self 
nor  ! ext]nal _w z "s ,buddhi/s did4 ,k
 :i*  reveals to u ! cle>-cut features (
 ! ext]nal _w c]tifies  at ! same "t t  
su* k is "p & p>cel ( myself  z !       
subject4 ,k is ?us felt to be an        
expression ( my  own self4 ,we d n      
p]ceive 9 exp]i5ce t k    #ahh    9 u is
 g5]at$ by ! ext]nal _w1 b !re is 9 u ! 
rise ( k & ( c]ta9 objects made kn[n to 
u by x4  ,! rise ( k is ?us only p>allel
 to c]ta9 objective  collocations ( ?+s 
:i* someh[ h ! special fitness  t !y &  
!y alone are p]ceiv$ at t p>ticul>      
mom5t4  ,look$ at f ?is po9t ( view all 
our exp]i5ces are c5tr$  9 ourselves1 = 

det]m9$ someh[1 our exp]i5ces come to u 
z modifications ( our own self4 ,k be+ a
 "*  ( ! self1 x %[s itself z           
manife/ations ( ! self indep5d5t  ( !   
s5ses4 ,no di/9ction %\ld be made betwe5
 a consci\s  & an unconsci\s elem5t 9 k 
z ,smkhya does4 ,nor  %\ld k be reg>d$ z
 a copy ( ! objects :i* x  reveals1 z ! 
,sautrntikas ?9k1 = !n by copy+ !       
mat]iality  ( ! object1 k w\ld itself   
become mat]ial4  ,k %\ld ?us be reg>d$ z
 a =mless quality ( !  self reveal+ all 
objects by itself4 ,b ! ,mmms view t !  
validity 7prmnya7 ( all k is prov$ by k 
itself  svatahprmnya7 is wrong4 ,bo?    
logically & psy*ologically  ! validity (
 k dep5ds ^u outw>d correspond5ce       
7samvda7 ) facts4 ,b 9 ^? cases :]e by  
previ\s  k ( correspond5ce a "r belief  
has be5 produc$  !re may be a           
psy*ological asc]ta9m5t ( validity )\t  
ref]5ce to objective facts              
7prmnyamutpattau p>ata eva  japtau      
svakrye ca svatah p>atas'ca4            
abhysnabhyspeksay7 ,footnote  ref #a4 ,!

 objective _w exi/s z x is c]tifi$ by   
exp]i5ce4 ,b  t x g5]ates k 9 u is an   
unw>rantable hypo!sis1  = k appe>s z a  
revelation ( our own self4 ,?is  br+s u 
to a consid]ation ( ,ja9a metaphysics4  
,! ,jvas4    ,! ,ja9s say t exp]i5ce %[s
 t all ?+s may be  divid$ into ! liv+   
7jva7 & ! non-liv+ 7ajva74 ,!  pr9ciple 
( life is entirely di/9ct f ! body1 & x 
is mo/  errone\s to ?9k t life is ei!r !
 product or ! prop]ty  ( ! body         
,footnote ref #b ,x is on acc\nt ( ?is  
life-pr9ciple t  ! body appe>s to be    
liv+ ,?is pr9ciple is ! s\l4 ,! s\l is  
directly p]ceiv$ 7by introspection7 j z 
! ext]nal ?+s  are4 ,x is n a m]e       
symbolical object indicat$ by a phrase  
or        ,footnote #a3                 
,prameyakamalamrtanda1 pp4 #ch-dc4      
,footnote #b3 ,see ,ja9a ,vrttika1 p4   
#fj4    #ahi    a description4 ,?is is  
directly aga9/ ! view ( ! great  ,mmmsa 
au?ority ,prabhk>a ,footnote ref #a4 ,! 
s\l 9 its pure /ate  is possess$ (      
inf9ite p]ception 7ananta-d>s'ana71     

inf9ite  k 7ananta-jna71 inf9ite bliss  
7ananta-sukha7 & inf9ite  p[]           
7ananta-vrya7 ,footnote ref #b4 ,x is   
all p]fect4 ,ord9>ily  h[ev]1 ) !       
exception ( a few releas$ pure s\ls     
7mukta-jva7  all ! o!r jvas 7samsr97 h  
all _! purity & p[]  cov]$ ) a ?9 veil (
 k>ma matt] :i* has be5 accumulat+  9 !m
 f beg9n+less "t4 ,^! s\ls are inf9ite 9
 numb]4  ,!y are sub/ances & are et]nal4
 ,!y 9 reality occupy innum]able        
space-po9ts 9 our mundane _w 7lokksa71 h
 a limit$  size 7madhyama-p>imna7 & are 
nei!r all-p]vasive 7vibhu7  nor atomic  
7anu72 x is on acc\nt ( ?is t jva is    
call$  ,jiv/ikya4 ,! ^w a/ikya means    
any?+ t occupies  space or has "s       
p]vasiv5ess2 b ^! s\ls exp& &  contract 
!mselves accord+ to ! dim5sions ( ! body
  :i* !y occupy at any "t 7bigg] 9 !    
elephant &  small] 9 ! ant life74 ,x is 
well to rememb] t accord+ to  ! ,ja9s ! 
s\l occupies ! :ole ( ! body 9 :i* x    
lives1 s t f ! tip ( ! hair to ! nail ( 
! foot1  :]ev] !re may be any cause (   

s5sation1 x c at once feel  x4 ,! mann] 
9 :i* ! s\l occupies ! body is (t5      
expla9$  z be+ simil> to ! mann] 9 :i* a
 lamp illum9es  ! :ole room ?\gh rema9+ 
9 "o corn] ( ! room4 ,!  ,ja9s divide ! 
jvas accord+ to ! numb] ( s5se-organs   
!y possess4 ,! l[e/ class consi/s (     
plants1 :i* possess  only ! s5se-organ (
 t\*4 ,! next high] class is t  ( worms1
 :i* possess two s5se-organs ( t\* &    
ta/e4  ,next come ! ants1 etc41 :i*     
possess t\*1 ta/e1 & smell4  ,! next    
high] "o t ( bees1 etc41 possess+ vision
 9  addition to t\*1 ta/e1 & smell4 ,!  
v]tebrates possess all  ! five          
s5se-organs4 ,! high] animals among ^!1 
namely  m51 d5iz5s ( hell1 & ! gods     
possess 9 addition to ^!  an inn]       
s5se-organ namely manas by virtue ( :i* 
!y are        ,footnote #a3 ,see        
,prameyakamalamrtanda1 p4 #cc4          
,footnote #b3 ,! ,ja9s di/+ui% betwe5   
d>s'ana & jna4  ,d>s'ana is ! k ( ?+s   
)\t _! details1 e4g4 ,i see  a clo?4    
,jna means ! k ( details1 e4g4 ,i n only

 see !  clo?1 b "k to :om x belongs1 (  
:at quality x is1 :]e x  0 prep>$1 etc4 
,9 all cognition we h fir/ d>s'ana &  !n
 jna4 ,! pure s\ls possess inf9ite g5]al
 p]ception ( all  ?+s z well z inf9ite k
 ( all ?+s 9 all _! details4    #aij    
call$ rational 7samj97 :ile ! l[]       
animals h no reason  & are call$        
asamjn94    ,proce$+ t[>ds ! l[e/ animal
 we f9d t ! ,ja9s  reg>d all ! f\r      
elem5ts 7e>?1 wat]1 air1 fire7 z be+    
animat$  by s\ls4 ,?us p>ticles ( e>?1  
etc41 are ! bodies (  s\ls1 call$       
e>?-lives1 etc4 ,^! we may call elem5t>y
 lives2  !y live & die & are born aga9 9
 ano!r elem5t>y body4  ,^! elem5t>y     
lives are ei!r gross or subtle2 9 !     
latt] case  !y are invisible4 ,! la/    
class ( "o-organ lives are plants4  ,(  
"s plants ea* is ! body ( "o s\l only2 b
 ( o!r  plants1 ea* is an aggregation ( 
embodi$ s\ls1 :i* h all  ! functions (  
life su* z respiration & nutrition 9    
common4  ,plants 9 :i* only "o s\l is   
embodi$ are always gross2 !y  exi/ 9 !  

habitable "p ( ! _w only4 ,b ^? plants  
( :i* ea* is a colony ( plant lives may 
also be subtle &  invisible1 & 9 t case 
!y are di/ribut$ all ov] ! _w4  ,! :ole 
univ]se is full ( m9ute be+s call$      
nigodas2 !y  are gr\ps ( inf9ite numb] (
 s\ls =m+ v small clu/]s1  hav+         
respiration & nutrition 9 common &      
exp]i5c+ extreme  pa9s4 ,! :ole space ( 
! _w is closely pack$ )  !m l a box     
fill$ ) p[d]4 ,! nigodas furni% ! supply
  ( s\ls 9 place ( ^? t h rea*$ ,moksa4 
,b an  inf9itesimally small fraction (  
"o s+le nigoda has suffic$ to  replace !
 vacancy caus$ 9 ! _w by ! ,nirvana (   
all !  s\ls t h be5 lib]at$ f beg9n+less
 pa/ d[n to  ! pres5t4 ,?us x is evid5t 
! samsra w nev] be empty  ( liv+ be+s4  
,^? ( ! nigodas :o long = developm5t    
come out & cont9ue _! c\rse ( progress  
?r\gh successive  /ages ,footnote ref   
#a4      ,k>ma ,!ory4    ,x is on acc\nt
 ( _! m]its or dem]its t ! jvas are     
born z gods1 m51 animals1 or d5iz5s (   
hell4 ,we h already  notic$ 9 ,*apt]    

,,iii t ! cause ( ! embodim5t ( s\l  is 
! pres5ce 9 x ( k>ma matt]4 ,! natural  
p]fections (  ! pure s\l are sulli$ by !
 diff]5t k9ds ( k>ma matt]4  ,^? :i*    
obscure "r k ( details 7jna7 are  call$ 
jnv>anya1 ^? :i* obscure "r p]ception   
7d>s'ana7 z 9 sleep are call$           
d>s'anv>anya1 ^? :i*        ,footnote   
#a3 ,see ,jacobi's article on ,ja9ism1  
,e4 ,r4,e41 &  ,lokapraks'a1 ,,vi4 pp4  
#ca ff4    #aia    obscure !            
bliss-nature ( ! s\l & ?us produce      
pleasure &  pa9 are v$anya1 & ^? :i*    
obscure ! "r attitude ( !  s\l t[>ds    
fai? & "r conduct mohanya ,footnote ref 
#a4 ,9  addition to ^! f\r k9ds ( k>ma  
!re are o!r f\r k9ds ( k>ma  :i* det]m9e
 7#a7 ! l5g? ( life 9 any bir?1 7#b7 !  
peculi> body  ) its g5]al & special     
qualities & faculties1 7#c7 !           
nationality1  ca/e1 family1 social /&+1 
etc41 7#d7 ! inborn en]gy ( !  s\l by ! 
ob/ruction ( :i* x prev5ts ! do+ ( a    
good  action :5 !re is a desire to d x4 
,^! are respectively call$  7#a7 yuska  

k>ma1 7#b7 nma k>ma1 7#c7 gotra k>ma1   
7#d7 ant>ya  k>ma4 ,by our actions (    
m9d1 spee* & body1 we are cont9ually    
produc+ c]ta9 subtle k>ma matt] :i* 9 ! 
fir/  in/ance is call$ bhva k>ma1 :i*   
trans=ms itself into dravya  k>ma & p\rs
 itself into ! s\l & /icks !re by com+  
into contact ) ! passions 7kasya7 ( !   
s\l4 ,^! act l  visc\s sub/ances 9      
reta9+ ! inp\r+ k>ma matt]4 ,?is  matt] 
acts 9 eight diff]5t ways & x is        
accord+ly divid$  into eight classes1 z 
we h already notic$4 ,?is k>ma is !     
cause ( bondage & sorr[4 ,accord+ z good
 or bad k>ma  matt] /icks to ! s\l x    
gets itself col\r$ respectively z       
gold51 lotus-p9k1 :ite & black1 blue &  
grey & !y are  call$ ! les'ys4 ,! feel+s
 g5]at$ by ! accumulation (  !          
k>ma-matt] are call$ bhva-les'y & !     
actual coloration  ( ! s\l by x is call$
 dravya-les'y4 ,accord+ z any k>ma      
matt] has be5 g5]at$ by good1 bad1 or   
indiff]5t actions1 x  gives u pleasure1 
pa91 or feel+ ( indiff]5ce4 ,ev5 ! k  t 

we are con/antly gett+ by p]ception1    
inf]5ce1 etc41  is b ! result ( ! effect
 ( k>mas 9 accordance ) :i*  ! p>ticul> 
k9d ( veil :i* 0 obscur+ any p>ticul>   
k9d  ( k is remov$ at any "t & we h a k 
( a correspond+ nature4 ,by our own     
k>mas ! veils ov] our  k1 feel+1 etc41  
are s remov$ t we h j t  k9d ( k & feel+
 t we des]v$ to h4 ,all  k1 feel+1 etc41
 are ?us 9 "o s5se g5]at$ f  )91 !      
ext]nal objects :i* are ord9>ily said to
 be  g5]at+ !m all be+ b m]e coexi/5t   
ext]nal conditions4          ,footnote  
#a3 ,! ,ja9s ackn[l$ge five k9ds ( k3   
7#a7 matijna  7ord9>y cognition71 7#b7  
s'ruti 7te/imony71 7#c7 avadhi          
7sup]natural  cognition71 7#d7          
manahp>yya 7?\ght-read+71 7#e7          
kevala-jna  7omnisci5ce74    #aib       
,aft] ! effect ( a p>ticul> k>ma matt]  
7k>ma-v>gan7  is once produc$1 x is     
dis*>g$ & purg$ f (f ! s\l4  ,?is       
process ( purg+ (f ! k>mas is call$     
nirj>4 ,if no  new k>ma matt] %\ld      
accumulate !n1 ! gradual purg+  (f ( !  

k>mas might make ! s\l free ( k>ma      
matt]1 b z  x is1 :ile "s k>ma matt] is 
be+ purg$ (f1 o!r k>ma  matt] is        
cont9ually p\r+ 91 & ?us ! purg+ &  b9d+
 processes cont9u+ simultane\sly =ce !  
s\l to  cont9ue its mundane cycle (     
exi/5ce1 transmigration1 & rebir?4      
,aft] ! dea? ( ea* individual 8 s\l1    
toge!r )  its k>mic body 7krmanas'arra71
 goes 9 a few mom5ts to !  place ( its  
new bir? & !re assumes a new body1 exp&+
  or contract+ 9 accordance ) !         
dim5sions ( ! latt]4    ,9 ! ord9>y     
c\rse k>ma takes effect & produces its  
prop] results1 & at su* a /age ! s\l is 
said to be 9 !  audayika /ate4 ,by prop]
 ef=ts k>ma may h[ev] be prev5t$  f tak+
 effect1 ?\gh x /ill cont9ues to exi/1 &
  ?is is said to be ! aupas'amika /ate (
 ! s\l4 ,:5 k>ma  is n only prev5t$ f   
op]at+ b is annihilat$1 ! s\l  is said  
to be 9 ! ksyika /ate1 & x is f ?is /ate
 t  ,moksa is atta9$4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a 
f\r? /ate ( ord9>y  good m5 ) :om "s    
k>ma is annihilat$1 "s neutraliz$1  & "s

 active 7ksyopas'amika7 ,footnote ref   
#a4      ,k>ma1 srava & ,nirj>4    ,x is
 on acc\nt ( k>ma t ! s\ls h to suff]   
all  ! exp]i5ces ( ?is _w process1      
includ+ bir?s & rebir?s  9 div]se sph]es
 ( life z gods1 m5 or animals1 or       
insects4  ,! k>mas are c]ta9 sorts (    
infra-atomic p>ticles ( matt]           
7k>ma-v>gan4 ,! influx ( ^! k>ma        
p>ticles into !  s\l is call$ srava 9   
,ja9ism4 ,^! k>mas are produc$ by  body1
 m9d1 & spee*4 ,! sravas repres5t !     
*annels or  modes ?r\gh :i* ! k>mas ent]
 ! s\l1 j l !  *annels ?r\gh :i* wat]   
ent]s into a pond4 ,b ! ,ja9s  di/+ui%  
betwe5 ! *annels & ! k>mas :i* actually 
,footnote #a3 ,! /ages ?r\gh :i* a      
develop+ s\l passes are  te*nically     
call$ guna/hnas :i* are f\rte5 9 numb]4 
,!  fir/ ?ree /ages repres5t ! gr[? (   
fai? 9 ,ja9ism1 ! next  five /ages are  
^? 9 :i* all ! passions are controll$1 9
  ! next f\r /ages ! ascetic practises  
yoga & de/roys all 8  k>mas1 at !       
?irte5? /age he is dive/$ ( all k>mas b 

he  /ill practises yoga & at ! f\rte5?  
/age he atta9s lib]ation  7see          
,dravyasamgrahavrtti1 #ac? v]se74       
#aic    ent] ?r\gh ^? *annels4 ,?us !y  
di/+ui% two k9ds  ( sravas1 bhvsrava &  
k>msrava4 ,bhvsrava means !  ?\ght      
activities ( ! s\l ?r\gh :i* or on      
acc\nt (  :i* ! k>ma p>ticles ent] ! s\l
 ,footnote ref #a4 ,?us ,nemic&ra  says 
t bhvsrava is t k9d ( *ange 9 ! s\l 7:i*
  is ! contr>y to :at c de/roy !        
k>msrava71 by :i*  ! k>mas ent] ! s\l   
,footnote ref #b4 ,k>msrava1 h[ev]1     
means !  actual entrance ( ! k>ma matt] 
into ! s\l4 ,^!  bhvsravas are 9 g5]al (
 five k9ds1 namely delusion  7mi?ytva71 
want ( control 7avirati71 inadv]t5ce    
7pramda71  ! activities ( body1 m9d &   
spee* 7yoga7 & ! passions  7kasyas74    
,delusion aga9 is ( five k9ds1 namely   
eknta  7a false belief unkn[+ly accept$ 
& uncritically foll[$71  vip>ta         
7unc]ta9ty z to ! exact nature ( tru?71 
v9aya  7ret5tion ( a belief kn[+ x to be
 false1 due to old habit71  sams'aya    

7d\bt z to "r or wrong7 & ajna 7want (  
any  belief due to ! want ( application 
( reason+ p[]s74  ,avirati is aga9 (    
five k9ds1 injury 7hims71 falsehood     
7anrta71  /eal+ 7cauryya71 incont95ce   
7abrahma71 & desire to h  ?+s :i* "o    
does n already possess 7p>igrahknks74   
,pramda or inadv]t5ce is aga9 ( five    
k9ds1 namely bad conv]sation  7vika?71  
passions 7kasya71 bad use ( ! five s5ses
  7indriya71 sleep 7nidr71 atta*m5t     
7rga7 ,footnote ref #c4    ,com+ to     
dravysrava we f9d t x means t actual    
influx  ( k>ma :i* affects ! s\l 9 eight
 diff]5t mann]s  9 accordance ) :i* ^!  
k>mas are class$ into eight  diff]5t    
k9ds1 namely jnv>anya1 d>s'anv>anya1    
v$anya1  mohanya1 yu1 nma1 gotra &      
ant>ya4 ,^! actual  influxes take place 
only z a result ( ! bhvsrava or !       
repreh5sible  ?\ght activities1 or      
*anges 7p>inma7 ( ! s\l4  ,! /ates (    
?\ght :i* condition ! com+ 9 ( ! k>mas  
is call$ bhvab&ha & ! actual bondage ( !
 s\l by !  actual impure connections ( !

 k>mas is te*nically call$  dravyab&ha4 
,x is on acc\nt ( bhvab&ha t ! actual   
connection betwe5 ! k>mas & ! s\l c take
 place ,footnote ref #d4  ,! actual     
connections ( ! k>mas ) ! s\l are l !   
/ick+        ,footnote #a3              
,dravyasamgraha1 ,s',i4 #bi4            
,footnote #b3 ,nemic&ra's comm5t>y on   
,dravyasamgraha1 ,s',i4 #bi1 edit$  by  
,s4,c4 ,gho%al1 ,arrah1 #aiag4          
,footnote #c3 ,see ,nemic&ra's comm5t>y 
on ,s',i4 #cj4    ,footnote #d3         
,nemic&ra on #ca1 & ,v>dhamnapurna      
,,xvi4 #dd1 quot$ by  ,gho%al4    #aid  
( du/ on ! body ( a p]son :o is besme>$ 
all ov] )  oil4 ,?us ,gun>atna says ,!  
influx ( k>ma means !  contact ( !      
p>ticles ( k>ma matt]1 9 accordance ) ! 
p>ticul> k9d ( k>ma1 ) ! s\l j l ! /ick+
 (  du/ on ! body ( a p]son besme>$ )   
oil4 ,9 all p>ts (  ! s\l !re be+       
inf9ite numb] ( k>ma atoms x becomes  s 
completely cov]$ ) !m t 9 "s s5se :5    
look$  at f t po9t ( view ! s\l is      
sometimes reg>d$ z a  mat]ial body dur+ 

its samsra /age ,footnote ref #a4 ,f "o 
po9t ( view ! bondage ( k>ma is only (  
pufnya & ppa  7good & bad k>mas7        
,footnote ref #b4 ,f ano!r ?is bondage  
is (  f\r k9ds1 accord+ to ! nature (   
k>ma 7prakrti7 duration (  bondage      
7/hiti71 int5sity 7anubhga7 & ext5sion  
7prades'a74  ,! nature ( k>ma ref]s to !
 eight classes ( k>ma already  m5tion$1 
namely ! janav>aniya k>ma :i* obscures !
  inf9ite k ( ! s\l ( all ?+s 9 detail1 
d>s'anv>anya k>ma :i* obscures ! inf9ite
 g5]al k  ( ! s\l1 v$anya k>ma :i*      
produces ! feel+s (  pleasure & pa9 9 ! 
s\l1 mohanya k>ma1 :i* s infatuates     
s\ls t !y fail to di/+ui% :at is "r f   
:at is wrong1 yu k>ma1 :i* det]m9es !   
t5ure ( any  p>ticul> life1 nma k>ma :i*
 gives !m p]sonalities1 gotra  k>ma :i* 
br+s ab\t a p>ticul> k9d ( social       
surr\nd+  = ! s\l & ant>aya k>ma :i*    
t5ds to oppose ! p]=mance  ( "r actions 
by ! s\l4 ,! duration ( ! /ay  ( any    
k>ma 9 ! s\l is call$ /hiti4 ,aga9 a    
k>ma may be  int5se1 middl+ or mild1 &  

?is indicates ! ?ird pr9ciple  (        
division1 anubhga4 ,prades'a ref]s to ! 
diff]5t p>ts (  ! s\l to :i* ! k>ma     
p>ticles atta* !mselves4 ,!  duration ( 
/ay ( any k>ma & its v>y+ int5sity are  
due  to ! nature ( ! kasayas or passions
 ( ! s\l1 :]eas !  diff]5t              
classification ( k>mas z jnv>anya1 etc41
 are due to  ! nature ( specific contact
 ( ! s\l ) k>ma matt] ,footnote  ref #c4
    ,correspond+ to ! two modes ( inru% 
( k>mas 7bhvsrava &  dravysrava7 are two
 k9ds ( control oppos+ ?is inru%1  by   
actual ?\ght modification ( a contr>y   
nature & by !  actual /oppage ( ! inru% 
( k>ma p>ticles1 & ^! are  respectively 
call$ bhvasamv>a & dravyasamv>a         
,footnote ref #d4        ,footnote #a3  
,see ,gun>atna1 p4 #aha    ,footnote #b3
 ,ibid4    ,footnote #c3 ,nemic&ra1 #cc4
    ,footnote #d3 ,v>ddhamna ,,xvi      
#fg-fh1 & ,dravyasamgrahavrtti  ,s',i4  
#ce4    #aie      ,! bhvasamv>as are    
7#a7 ! v[s ( non-injury1 tru?fulness1   
ab/95ce f /eal+1 sex-control1 &         

non-acceptance ( objects  ( desire1 7#b7
 samitis consi/+ ( ! use ( trodd5 tracks
 9 ord]  to avoid injury to insects     
7ry71 g5tle & holy talk 7bhsa71  receiv+
 prop] alms 7esan71 etc1 7#c7 guptis or 
re/ra9ts (  body1 spee* & m9d1 7#d7     
dh>mas consi/+ ( habits ( =giv5ess1     
humility1 /raight=w>dness1 tru?1        
cleanl9ess1 re/ra9t1  p5ance1 ab&onm5t  
indiff]5ce to any k9d ( ga9 or loss1  & 
supreme sex-control ,footnote ref #a1   
7#e7 anupreks consi/+ (  m$itation ab\t 
! transi5t "* ( ! _w1 ab\t our          
helplessness )\t ! tru?1 ab\t ! cycles (
 _w-exi/5ce1  ab\t our own              
responsibilities = our good & bad       
actions1 ab\t !  diff]5ce betwe5 ! s\l &
 ! non-s\l1 ab\t ! uncleanl9ess  ( our  
body & all t is associat$ ) x1 ab\t !   
influx  ( k>ma & its /oppage & !        
de/ruction ( ^?  k>mas :i* h already    
ent]$ ! s\l1 ab\t s\l1 matt]  & !       
sub/ance ( ! univ]se1 ab\t ! difficulty 
( atta9+  true k1 fai? & conduct1 & ab\t
 ! ess5tial pr9ciples  ( ! _w ,footnote 

ref #b1 7#f7 ! p>sahajaya consi/+ ( !   
conqu]+ ( all k9ds ( physical tr\bles ( 
heat1 cold1 etc1 &  ( feel+s ( discom=ts
 ( v>i\s k9ds1 7#g7 critra or "r        
conduct4    ,next to ?is we come to     
nirj> or ! purg+ (f ( !  k>mas or r _!  
de/ruction4 ,?is nirj> also is ( two    
k9ds bhvanirj> & dravyanirj>4 ,bhvanirj>
 means t  *ange 9 ! s\l by virtue ( :i* 
! k>ma p>ticles are  de/roy$4           
,dravyanirj> means ! actual de/ruction (
 ^!  k>ma p>ticles ei!r by ! reap+ ( _! 
effects or by  p5ances be=e _! "t (     
fruition1 call$ savipka & avipka  nirj>s
 respectively4 ,:5 all ! k>mas are      
de/roy$ moksa  or lib]ation is effect$4 
,pudgala4    ,! ajva 7non-liv+7 is      
divid$ into pudgal/ikya1 dh>ma/ikya1    
adh>m/ikya1 ks'/ikya1 kla1 punya1 ppa4  
,! ^w pudgala  means matt] ,footnote ref
 #c1 & x is call$ a/ikya  9 ! s5se t x  
occupies space4 ,pudgala is made up (   
atoms        ,footnote #a3              
,tattvr?dhigamastra4    ,footnote #b3   
,ibid4    ,footnote #c3 ,?is is entirely

 diff]5t f ! ,buddhi/ s5se4 ,) !        
,buddhi/s pudgala means an individual or
 a p]son4    #aif    :i* are )\t size & 
et]nal4 ,matt] may exi/ 9 two  /ates1   
gross 7su* z ?+s we see ar\nd u71 &     
subtle 7su*  z ! k>ma matt] :i* sullies 
! s\l74 ,all mat]ial ?+s  are ultimately
 produc$ by ! comb9ation ( atoms4 ,!    
smalle/ indivisible p>ticle ( matt] is  
call$ an atom 7anu74  ,! atoms are all  
et]nal & !y all h t\*1 ta/e1 smell1  &  
col\r4 ,! =mation ( diff]5t sub/ances is
 due to !  diff]5t geometrical1 sph]ical
 or cubical modes ( ! comb9ation  ( !   
atoms1 to ! div]se modes ( _! inn]      
arrangem5t  & to ! exi/5ce ( diff]5t    
degrees ( int]-atomic  space            
7ghanaprat>abh$5a74 ,"s comb9ations take
 place by  simple mutual contact at two 
po9ts 7yugmaprades'a7 :]eas  9 o!rs !   
atoms are only held toge!r by ! po9ts ( 
attractive  =ce 7ojahprades'a7          
7,prajpanopngastra1 pp4 #aj-ab74  ,two  
atoms =m a comp\nd 7sk&ha71 :5 ! "o is  
visc\s  & ! o!r dry or bo? are ( diff]5t

 degrees ( viscosity or  dryness4 ,x mu/
 be not$ t :ile ! ,buddhi/s ?\ght t  !re
 0 no actual contact betwe5 ! atoms !   
,ja9s reg>d$  ! contact z ess5tial & z  
te/ifi$ by exp]i5ce4 ,^!  comp\nds      
comb9e ) o!r comp\nds & ?us produce  !  
gross ?+s ( ! _w4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1      
liable to  con/ant *ange 7p>inma7 by :i*
 !y lose "s ( _!  old qualities 7gunas7 
& acquire new ones4 ,!re are f\r        
elem5ts1 e>?1 wat]1 air1 & fire1 & !    
atoms ( all ^!  are alike 9 "*4 ,!      
p]ception ( grossness h[ev]  is n an    
error :i* is impos$ ^u ! p]ception ( !  
atoms by our m9d 7z ! ,buddhi/s ?9k7 nor
 is x due to !  p]ception ( atoms       
scatt]$ spatially l5g?wise & bread?wise 
7z ! ,smkhya-,yoga supposes71 b x is due
 to ! accession (  a simil> prop]ty (   
grossness1 blu5ess or h>dness 9 ! comb9$
  atoms1 s t su* k is g5]at$ 9 u z is   
giv5  9 ! p]ception ( a gross1 blue1 or 
a h>d ?+4 ,:5 a ?+  appe>s z blue1 :at  
happ5s is ?is1 t ! atoms !re h  all     
acquir$ ! prop]ty ( blu5ess & on !      

removal ( !  d>s'anav>anya & jnav>anya  
veil1 !re arises 9 ! s\l  ! p]ception & 
k ( t blue ?+4 ,?is sam5ess             
7samna-rpat7 ( ! accession ( a quality 9
 an aggregate (  atoms by virtue ( :i* x
 appe>s z "o object 7e4g4 a c[7  is     
te*nically call$ tiryaksmnya4 ,?is smnya
 or g5]ality  is ?us nei!r an imposition
 ( ! m9d nor an ab/ract entity    #aig  
7z ma9ta9$ by ! ,naiyyikas7 b repres5ts 
only ! accession  ( simil> qualities by 
a simil> developm5t ( qualities  ( atoms
 =m+ an aggregate4 ,s long z ?is        
simil>ity (  qualities cont9ues we      
p]ceive ! ?+ to be ! same &  to cont9ue 
= "s l5g? ( "t4 ,:5 we ?9k ( a ?+  to be
 p]man5t1 we d s by ref]r+ to ?is       
sam5ess 9 !  develop+ t5d5cies ( an     
aggregate ( atoms result+ 9 !  relative 
p]man5ce ( simil> qualities 9 !m4       
,accord+ to  ! ,ja9s ?+s are n mom5t>y &
 9 spite ( ! loss (  "s old qualities & 
! accession ( o!r ones1 ! ?+ z  a :ole  
may rema9 m or less ! same = "s "t4 ,?is
  sam5ess ( qualities 9 "t is te*nically

 call$ rdhvasmnya  ,footnote ref #a4 ,if
 ! atoms are look$ at f ! po9t (  view (
 ! *ange & accession ( new qualities1 !y
 may be  reg>d$ z liable to de/ruction1 
b if !y are look$ at f  ! po9t ( view ( 
sub/ance 7dravya7 !y are et]nal4        
,dh>ma1 ,adh>ma1 ks'a4    ,! conception 
( dh>ma & adh>ma 9 ,ja9ism is           
absolutely diff]5t f :at !y mean 9 o!r  
sy/ems (  ,indian philosophy4 ,dh>ma is 
devoid ( ta/e1 t\*1 smell1  s\nd &      
col\r2 x is cont]m9\s ) ! mundane       
univ]se  7lokks'a7 & p]vades e "p ( x4  
,! t]m a/ikya  is !re=e appli$ to x4 ,x 
is ! pr9ciple ( motion1 ! accompany+    
circum/ance or cause :i* makes motion   
possible1  l wat] to a mov+ fi%4 ,! wat]
 is a passive condition  or circum/ance 
( ! movem5t ( a fi%1 i4e4 x is indiff]5t
  or passive 7udsna7 & n an active or   
solicit\s 7pr]aka7  cause4 ,! wat] _c   
compel a fi% at re/ to move2 b if  ! fi%
 wants to move1 wat] is !n ! necess>y   
help to its  motion4 ,dh>ma _c make !   
s\l or matt] move2 b  if !y are to move1

 !y _c d s )\t ! pres5ce (  dh>ma4 ,h5ce
 at ! extremity ( ! mundane _w 7loka7  9
 ! region ( ! lib]at$ s\ls1 !re be+ no  
dh>ma1 !  lib]at$ s\ls atta9 p]fect re/4
 ,!y _c move !re  because !re is n !    
necess>y motion-elem5t1 dh>ma ,footnote 
ref #b4  ,adh>ma is also reg>d$ z a     
simil> p]vasive entity :i*              
,footnote #a3 ,see                      
,prameyakamalamrtanda1 pp4 #acf-adc2    
,ja9at>kavrttika1 p4 #ajf4    ,footnote 
#b3 ,dravyasamgrahavrtti1 #ag-bj4       
#aih    helps jvas & pudgalas to keep   
!mselves at re/4 ,no sub/ance  c\ld move
 if !re 7 no dh>ma1 or c\ld rema9 at re/
 if  !re 7 no adh>ma4 ,! necessity (    
admitt+ ^! two  categories seems        
probably to h be5 felt by ! ,ja9s on    
acc\nt ( _! notion t ! inn] activity ( !
 jva or !  atoms requir$ = its ext]ior  
realization ! help ( "s o!r  extrane\s  
entity1 )\t :i* ?is c\ld n h be5        
trans=m$  into actual ext]ior motion4   
,moreov] s9ce ! jvas  7 reg>d$ z hav+   
activity inh]5t 9 !m !y w\ld be  f\nd to

 be mov+ ev5 at ! "t ( lib]ation        
7moksa71 :i*  0 undesirable2 ?us x 0    
conceiv$ t actual motion requir$  = its 
fulfilm5t ! help ( an extrane\s entity  
:i* 0 abs5t  9 ! region ( ! lib]at$     
s\ls4    ,! category ( ks'a is t subtle 
entity :i* p]vades  ! mundane univ]se   
7loka7 & ! transc5d5t region (  lib]at$ 
s\ls 7aloka7 :i* all[s ! subsi/5ce ( all
 o!r  sub/ances su* z dh>ma1 adh>ma1    
jva1 pudgala4 ,x is n a  m]e negation & 
abs5ce ( veil or ob/ruction1 or m]e     
empt9ess1  b a positive entity :i* helps
 o!r ?+s to int]p5etrate  x4 ,on acc\nt 
( its p]vasive "* x is call$  ks'/ikya  
,footnote ref #a4      ,kla & ,samaya4  
,"t 7kla7 9 reality consi/s ( ^?        
innum]able p>ticles  :i* nev] mix ) "o  
ano!r1 b :i* help ! happ5+  ( !         
modification or accession ( new         
qualities & ! *ange  ( qualities ( !    
atoms4 ,kla does n br+ ab\t ! *anges  ( 
qualities1 9 ?+s1 b j z kas'a helps     
int]p5etration  & dh>ma motion1 s also  
kla helps ! action ( ! trans=mation  (  

new qualities 9 ?+s4 ,"t p]ceiv$ z      
mom5ts1  h\rs1 days1 etc41 is call$     
samaya4 ,?is is ! appe>ance ( !         
un*angeable kla 9 s _m =ms4 ,kla ?us n  
only aids !  modifications ( o!r ?+s1 b 
also all[s its own modifications z      
mom5ts1 h\rs1 etc4 ,x is ?us a dravya   
7sub/ance71 & ! mom5ts1  h\rs1 etc41 are
 its p>yyas4 ,! unit ( samaya is ! "t   
requir$ by an atom to trav]se a unit (  
space by a sl[ movem5t4        ,footnote
 #a3 ,dravyasamgrahavrtti1 #ai4    #aii 
,ja9a ,cosmography4    ,accord+ to !    
,ja9s1 ! _w is et]nal1 )\t beg9n+  or   
end4 ,loka is t place 9 :i* happ9ess &  
mis]y are exp]i5c$  z results ( virtue &
 vice4 ,x is compos$ ( ?ree p>ts1  rdhva
 7:]e ! gods reside71 madhya 7?is _w (  
ours71 &  adho 7:]e ! d5iz5s ( hell     
reside74 ,! mundane univ]se  7lokkas'a7 
is p]vad$ ) dh>ma :i* makes all movem5t 
possible4 ,beyond ! lokkas'a !re is no  
dh>ma & !re=e  no movem5t1 b only space 
7kas'a74 ,surr\nd+ ?is lokaks'a  are    
?ree lay]s ( air4 ,! p]fect$ s\l ris+   

/raight ov]  ! rdhvaloka goes to ! top (
 ?is lokaks'a & 7!re be+  no dh>ma7     
rema9s motionless !re4      ,ja9a ,yoga4
    ,yoga accord+ to ,ja9ism is ! cause 
( moksa 7salvation74  ,?is yoga consi/s 
( jana 7k ( reality z x is71 s'raddh    
7fai? 9 ! tea*+s ( ! ,j9as71 & c>itra   
7cessation f  do+ all t is evil74 ,?is  
c>itra consi/s ( ahims 7n  tak+ any life
 ev5 by mi/ake or unm9dfulness71 snrta  
7speak+ 9 su* a way z is true1 good &   
pleas+71 a/eya  7n tak+ any?+ :i* has n 
be5 giv571 brahmac>yya  7ab&on+ lu/ foi 
all k9ds ( objects1 9 m9d1 spee* &      
body71 & ap>igraha 7ab&on+ atta*m5t =   
all ?+s7 ,footnote  ref #a4    ,^! /rict
 rules ( conduct only apply to ascetics 
:o are b5t  on atta9+ p]fection4 ,! /&>d
 propos$ = ! ord9>y  h\sehold]s is      
fairly workable4 ,?us x is said by      
,hemac&ra1  t ord9>y h\sehold]s %\ld e>n
 money hone/ly1 %\ld  foll[ ! cu/oms (  
good p1 %\ld m>ry a good girl f  a good 
family1 %\ld foll[ ! cu/oms ( ! c\ntry &
 s  =?4 ,^! are j :at we %\ld expect f  

any good &        ,footnote #a3 ,c]ta9  
ext]nal rules ( conduct are also call$  
c>itra4  ,^! are3 ryy 7to g by ! pa?    
already trodd5 by o!rs &  illum9at$ by !
 sun's rays1 s t prop] precaution may be
 tak5  :ile walk+ to prev5t oneself f   
tread+ on insects1 etc41 :i*  may be ly+
 on ! way71 bhas 7to speak well &       
pleasantly to all  be+s71 isana 7to beg 
alms 9 ! prop] mona/ic mann]71          
dnasamiti 7to inspect c>efully ! seats  
avoid+ all transgressions  :5 tak+ or   
giv+ any?+71 uts>gasamiti 7to take c>e t
 bodily  refuse may n be ?r[n 9 su* a   
way z to injure any be+71 manogupti  7to
 remove all false ?\ghts1 to rema9      
satisfi$ )9 oneself1 & hold  all p to be
 ! same 9 m9d71 vggupti 7absolute       
sil5ce71 &  kyagupti 7absolute /ead9ess 
& fixity ( ! body74 ,five o!r k9ds  (   
c>itra are c\nt$ 9 ,dravyasamgrahavrtti 
#ce4    #bjj    hone/ h\sehold] ( !     
pres5t day4 ,great /ress is laid ^u  !  
virtues ( ahims1 snrta1 a/eya &         
brahmac>yya1 b !  root ( all ^! is      

ahims4 ,! virtues ( snrta1 a/eya &      
brahmac>yya are made to foll[ directly z
 second>y corroll>ies  ( ahims4 ,ahims  
may ?us be g5]aliz$ z ! fundam5tal      
e?ical virtue ( ,ja9ism2 judgm5t on all 
actions may be  pass$ 9 accordance ) !  
/&>d ( ahims2 snrta1 a/eya  &           
brahmac>yya are reg>d$ z virtues z _!   
transgression  leads to hims 7injury to 
be+s74 ,a mild] =m ( ! practice  ( ^!   
virtues is expect$ f ord9>y h\sehold]s &
 ?is  is call$ anubrata 7small v[s74 ,b 
^? :o are /ruggl+  = ! atta9m5t (       
emancipation mu/ practise ^! virtues    
accord+ to ! highe/ & /ricte/ /&>d1 &   
?is is call$  mahbrata 7great v[s74 ,?us
 = example brahmac>yya = a  h\sehold]   
accord+ to ! anubrata /&>d w\ld be m]e  
cessation f adult]y1 :]eas accord+ to   
mahbrata x w\ld  be absolute ab/5tion f 
sex-?\ghts1 sex-words & sex-acts4       
,ahims accord+ to a h\sehold]1 accord+  
to anubrata1  w\ld require ab/95ce f    
kill+ any animals1 b accord+  to        
mahavrata x w\ld entail all ! rig\r &   

c>efulness to  prev5t oneself f be+ !   
cause ( any k9d ( injury to  any liv+   
be+ 9 any way4    ,_m o!r m9or duties   
are impos$ ^u h\sehold]s1 all  ( :i* are
 bas$ ^u ! c>d9al virtue ( ahims4 ,^!   
are 7#a7 digvirati 7to c>ry out         
activities )9 a re/rict$ area  & !reby  
desi/ f injur+ liv+ be+s 9 diff]5t      
places71  7#b7 bhogopabhogamna 7to desi/
 f dr9k+ liquors1 tak+  fle%1 butt]1    
honey1 figs1 c]ta9 o!r k9ds ( plants1   
fruits1 &  vegetables1 to obs]ve c]ta9  
o!r k9ds ( re/rictions reg>d+  "t &     
place ( tak+ meals71 7#c7 an>?adanda    
consi/+ (  7a7 apadhyna 7cessation f    
inflict+ any bodily injuries1  kill+ (  
"o's enemies1 etc471 7b7 ppopades'a     
7desi/+ f  advis+ p to take to          
agriculture :i* leads to ! kill+  ( s _m
 insects71 7c7 himsopakridna 7desi/+ f  
giv+ implem5ts ( agriculture to p :i* w 
lead  to ! injury ( insects71 7d7       
pramdac>ana 7to desi/  f att5d+ musical 
p>ties1 !atres1 or read+  sex-lit]ature1
 gambl+1 etc471 7#d7 s'ikspadabrata     

consi/+ ( 7a7 smayikabrata 7to try to   
treat all be+s  equally71 7b7           
des'vaks'ikabrata 7gradually to practise
  ! digviratibrata m & m ext5sively71   
7c7 posadhabrata    #bjj    7c]ta9 o!r  
k9ds ( re/riction71 7d7                 
ati?isamvibhgabrata 7to  make gifts to  
gue/s74 ,all transgressions ( ^!        
virtues1 call$  aticra1 %\ld be c>efully
 avoid$4    ,all p]ception1 wisdom1 &   
morals belong to ! s\l1 & to  "k ! s\l z
 possess+ ^! is ! "r k ( !  s\l4 ,all   
sorr[s proce$+ out ( want ( self-k c  be
 remov$ only by true self-k4 ,! s\l 9   
itself is  pure intellig5ce1 & x becomes
 end[$ ) ! body only on  acc\nt ( its   
k>ma4 ,:5 by m$itation1 all ! k>mas are 
burnt 7dhyngnidagdhak>ma7 ! self becomes
 purifi$4 ,!  s\l is itself ! samsra 7! 
cycle ( rebir?s7 :5 x is  ov]p[]$ by !  
f\r kasyas 7passions7 & ! s5ses4 ,! f\r 
kasyas are krodha 7ang]71 mna 7vanity & 
pride71 my  7ins9c]ity & ! t5d5cy to    
dupe o!rs71 & lobha 7gre$74  ,^! kasyas 
_c be remov$ except by a control ( !    

s5ses2 & self-control alone leads to !  
purity ( ! m9d  7manahs'uddhi74 ,)\t !  
control ( ! m9d no "o c  proce$ 9 ! pa? 
( yoga4 ,all our acts become controll$  
:5  ! m9d is controll$1 s ^? :o seek    
emancipation %\ld  make e ef=t to       
control ! m9d4 ,no k9d ( asceticism     
7tapas7 c be ( any good until ! m9d is  
purifi$4 ,all atta*m5t  & antipa?y      
7rgadvcsa7 c be remov$ only by !        
purification ( ! m9d4 ,x is by atta*m5t 
& antipa?y t  man loses 8 indep5d5ce4 ,x
 is ?us necess>y = ! yog9  7sage7 t he  
%\ld be free f !m & become indep5d5t  9 
! real s5se ( ! t]m ,:5 a man le>ns to  
look ^u  all be+s ) equality 7samatva7  
he c effect su* a conque/  ov] rga &    
dvesa z "o c\ld nev] d ev5 by ! /ricte/ 
asceticism ?r\gh millions ( ye>s4 ,9    
ord] to effect ?is  samatva t[>ds all1  
we %\ld take to ! foll[+ k9ds (         
m$itation 7bhvan73    ,we %\ld ?9k ( !  
transitor9ess 7anityat7 ( all ?+s1  t   
:at a ?+ 0 9 ! morn+1 x is n at mid-day1
  :at x 0 at mid-day x is n at night2 = 

all ?+s are  transitory & *ang+4 ,our   
body1 all our objects ( pleasure1  weal?
 & y\? all are fleet+ l dreams1 or      
cotton p>ticles  9 a :irlw9d4    ,all1  
ev5 ! gods1 are subject to dea?4 ,all   
our relatives w  by _! works fall a prey
 to dea?4 ,?is _w is ?us full (  mis]y &
 !re is no?+ :i* c support u 9 x4 ,?us 9
    #bja    :atev] way we look = any?+1 
on :i* we c dep5d1 we  f9d t x fails u4 
,?is is call$ z'aranabhvan 7! m$itation 
( helplessness74    ,"s are born 9 ?is  
_w1 "s suff]1 "s reap ! fruits  ( ! k>ma
 done 9 ano!r life4 ,we are all diff]5t 
f "o  ano!r by our surr\nd+s1 k>ma1 by  
our sep>ate bodies &  by all o!r gifts  
:i* ea* ( u sev]ally enjoy4 ,to m$itate 
on ^! aspects is call$ ekatvabhvan &    
anyatvabhvan4    ,to ?9k t ! body is    
made up ( defil$ ?+s1 ! fle%1  blood1 & 
bones1 & is !re=e impure is call$       
z'ucibhvan  7m$itation ( ! impurity ( ! 
body74    ,to ?9k t if ! m9d is purifi$ 
by ! ?\ghts ( univ]sal  fri5d%ip &      
compassion & ! passions are remov$1  !n 

only w good s'ubha7 accrue to me1 b if  
on ! contr>y  ,i commit s9ful de$s &    
transgress ! virtues1 !n all evil  w    
befall me1 is call$ sravabhvan          
7m$itation ( ! befall+  ( evil74 ,by !  
control ( ! srava 7inru% ( k>ma7  comes 
! samv>a 7cessation ( ! influx ( k>ma7 &
 !  de/ruction ( ! k>mas already        
accumulat$ leads to nrj>  7decay &      
de/ruction ( k>ma matt]74    ,aga9 "o   
%\ld ?9k t ! practice ( ! t5 dh>mas     
7virtues7 ( self control 7samyama71     
tru?fulness 7snrta71 purity  7s'auca71  
*a/ity 7brahma71 absolute want ( gre$   
7akicanat71  asceticism 7tapas71        
=be>ance1 pati5ce 7ks'nti71 mildness    
7mrdava71 s9c]ity 7rjut71 & fre$om or   
emancipation f  all s9s 7mukti c alone  
help u 9 ! a*ievem5t ( !  highe/ goal4  
,^! are ! only supports to :i* we c     
look4 ,x is ^! :i* uphold ! _w-ord]4    
,?is is call$  dh>masvkhytatbhvan4      
,aga9 "o %\ld ?9k ( ! ,ja9a cosmology & 
also  ( ! nature ( ! influ5ce ( k>ma 9  
produc+ all !  div]se conditions ( m54  

,^! two are call$ lokabhvan  &          
bodhibhvan4    ,:5 by ! cont9ual        
practice ( ! above ?\ghts man  becomes  
unatta*$ to all ?+s & adopts equality to
 all be+s1  & becomes dis9cl9$ to all   
worldly enjoym5ts1 !n ) a  m9d full (   
peace he gets rid ( all passions1 & !n  
he %\ld  take to ! p]=mance ( dhyna or  
m$itation by deep conc5tration4  ,!     
samatva or p]fect equality ( ! m9d &    
dhyna  are int]dep5d5t1 s t )\t dhyna   
!re is no samatva    #bjc    & )\t      
samatva !re is no dhyna4 ,9 ord] to make
 !  m9d /eady by dhyna "o %\ld ?9k (    
maitr 7univ]sal  fri5d%ip71 pramoda 7!  
habit ( emphasiz+ ! good sides (  m571  
k>un 7univ]sal compassion7 & mdhya/ha   
7indiff]5ce  to ! wick$ness ( p1 i4e4 ! 
habit ( n tak+ any  note ( s9n]s74 ,!   
,ja9a dhyna consi/s 9 conc5trat+  ! m9d 
on ! syllables ( ! ,ja9a pray] phrases4 
,!  dhyna h[ev] z we h se5 is only      
practis$ z an aid to  mak+ ! m9d /eady &
 p]fectly equal & undi/urb$  t[>ds all  
?+s4 ,emancipation comes only z ! result

 ( !  f9al ext9ction ( ! k>ma mat]ials4 
,ja9a yoga is ?us a complete  c\rse (   
moral discipl9e :i* leads to !          
purification  ( ! m9d & is h5ce diff]5t 
f ! traditional ,h9du  yoga ( ,patajali 
or ev5 ( ! ,buddhi/s ,footnote ref #a4  
,ja9a ,a!ism ,footnote ref #b4    ,!    
,naiyyikas ass]t t z ! _w is ( ! nature 
(  an effect1 x mu/ h be5 creat$ by an  
intellig5t ag5t &  ?is ag5t is s'v>a    
7,god74 ,to ?is ! ,ja9 replies1 ,:at    
does  ! ,naiyyika mean :5 he says t ! _w
 is ( ! nature  ( an effect8 ,does he   
mean by effect1 7#a7 t :i* is made  up (
 p>ts 7svayava71 or1 7#b7 ! co9h]5ce ( !
 causes ( a  non-exi/5t ?+1 or1 7#c7 t  
:i* is reg>d$ by anyone z  hav+ be5     
made1 or1 7#d7 t :i* is liable to *ange 
7vikritvam74  ,aga91 :at is meant by be+
 made up ( p>ts8 ,if x  means exi/5ce 9 
p>ts1 !n ! class-concepts 7smnya7  exi/+
 9 ! p>ts %\ld also be reg>d$ z effects1
 & h5ce  de/ructible1 b ^! ! ,naiyyikas 
reg>d z be+ p>tless &  et]nal4 ,if x    
means t :i* has p>ts1 !n ev5 space      

7ks'a7 has to be reg>d$ z effect1 b !   
,naiyyika reg>ds  x z et]nal4    ,aga9  
effect _c mean co9h]5ce ( ! causes ( a  
?+ :i* 7 previ\sly non-exi/5t1 = 9 t    
case "o  c\ld n speak ( ! _w z an       
effect1 = ! atoms ( !  elem5ts ( e>?1   
etc41 are reg>d$ z et]nal4    ,aga9 if  
effect means t :i* is reg>d$ by anyone z
        ,footnote #a3,yogas'/ra1 by     
,hemac&ra1 edit$ by ,w9dis*1 9          
,zeits*rift d] ,deuts*5 ,morg4          
,gesells*aft1 ,leipsig1 #ahgd1  &       
,dravyasamgraha1 edit$ by ,gho%al1      
#aiag4    ,footnote #b3 ,see ,gun>atna's
 ,t>k>ahasyadpik4    #bjd    hav+ be5   
made1 !n x w\ld apply ev5 to space1 = :5
  a man digs ! gr\nd he ?9ks t he has   
made new space 9  ! holl[ :i* he dug4   
,if x means t :i* is liable to *ange1 !n
 "o c\ld  suppose t ,god 0 also liable  
to *ange & he w\ld require  ano!r       
creator to create him & he ano!r1 & s on
 ad  inf9itum4 ,moreov]1 if ,god creates
 he _c b be liable to  *ange ) ref]5ce  
to 8 creative activity4    ,moreov]1 we 

"k t ^? ?+s :i* happ5 at "s  "t & d n   
happ5 at o!r times are reg>d$ z effects4
  ,b ! _w z a :ole exi/s always4 ,if x  
is argu$ t ?+s  conta9$ )9 x su* z      
trees1 plants1 etc41 are effects1 !n  t 
w\ld apply ev5 to ?is hypo!tical ,god1  
=1 8 w &  ?\ght mu/ be div]sely op]at+  
at div]se times & ^!  are conta9$ 9 him4
 ,he also becomes a creat$ be+ by virtue
  ( t4 ,& ev5 atoms w\ld be effects1 =  
!y also und]go  *anges ( col\r by heat4 
,let u grant = ! sake ( argum5t t ! _w z
 a  :ole is an effect4 ,& e effect has a
 cause1 & s !  _w z a :ole has a cause4 
,b ?is does n mean t !  cause is an     
intellig5t "o1 z ,god is suppos$ to be4 
,if x is  argu$ t he is reg>d$ z        
intellig5t on ! analogy ( human         
causation !n he might also be reg>d$ z  
imp]fect z human  be+s4 ,if x is held t 
! _w z a :ole is n exactly  an effect ( 
! type ( effects produc$ by human be+s  
b is simil> to ^?1 ?is w lead to no     
inf]5ce4 ,because  wat]-vap\r is simil> 
to smoke1 nobody w be ju/ifi$ 9  inf]r+ 

fire f wat]-vap\r1 z he w\ld d f smoke4 
,if x is said t ?is is s diff]5t an     
effect t f x !  inf]5ce is possible1    
?\gh nobody has ev] be5 se5 to produce  
su* an effect1 well !n1 "o c\ld also    
inf] on see+  old h\ses ru9$ 9 c\rse (  
"t t ^! ru9s 7 produc$  by intellig5t   
ag5ts4 ,= ^! are also effects ( :i*  we 
d n "k ( any intellig5t ag5t1 = bo? are 
effects1  & ! invisibility ( ! ag5t is  
pres5t 9 bo? cases4 ,if x is  said t !  
_w is su* t we h a s5se t x has be5     
made by "s "o1 !n ! "q w be1 :e!r y inf]
  ! ag5cy ( ,god f ?is s5se or inf] !   
s5se ( its hav+  be5 made f ! fact ( its
 be+ made by ,god1 & y h  a vici\s      
circle 7anyonys'raya74    #bje          
,aga91 ev5 if we %\ld grant t ! _w 0    
creat$ by  an ag5t1 !n su* an ag5t %\ld 
h a body = we h  nev] se5 any intellig5t
 creator )\t a body4 ,if x is held  t we
 %\ld consid] ! g5]al condition ( ag5cy 
only1  namely1 t ! ag5t is intellig5t1 !
 objection w be t  ?is is impossible1 = 
ag5cy is always associat$ ) "s k9d  (   

body4 ,if y take ! in/ances ) "s k9d (  
effects su*  z ! %oots ( corn gr[+ 9 !  
fields1 x w be f\nd t  ^! _h no         
intellig5t ag5ts beh9d !m to create !m4 
,if x  is said t ^! are also made by    
,god1 !n y h an  argum5t 9 a circle     
7cakraka71 = ?is 0 ! v matt] :i*  y     
s\ght to prove4    ,let x be grant$ = ! 
sake ( argum5t t ,god exi/s4  ,does 8   
m]e ab/ract exi/5ce produce ! _w8 ,well1
 9  t case1 ! ab/ract exi/5ce ( a pott] 
may also create !  _w1 = ! ab/ract      
exi/5ce is ! same 9 bo? cases4 ,does  he
 produce ! _w by k & w8 ,well1 t is     
impossible1  = !re _c be any k & w )\t a
  body4 ,does he produce ! _w by        
physical movem5t or any  o!r k9d (      
movem5t8 ,9 any case t is impossible1 = 
!re  _c be any movem5t )\t a body4 ,if y
 suppose t  he is omnisci5t1 y may d s1 
b t does n prove t  he c be all-creator4
    ,let u aga9 grant = ! sake ( argum5t
 t a bodiless  ,god c create ! _w by 8 w
 & activity4 ,did he take  to creation  
?r\gh a p]sonal :im8 ,9 t case !re w\ld 

be no natural laws & ord] 9 ! _w4 ,did  
he take to x  9 accordance ) ! moral &  
immoral actions ( m58 ,!n  he is guid$  
by a moral ord] & is n indep5d5t4 ,is x 
?r\gh m]cy t he took to creation8 ,well 
!n1 we suppose  !re %\ld h be5 only     
happ9ess 9 ! _w & no?+  else4 ,if x is  
said t x is by ! pa/ actions ( m5 t !y  
suff] pa9s & enjoy pleasure1 & if m5 are
 l$ to d vici\s  actions by pa/ de$s :i*
 "w l bl9d de/9y1 !n su*  a bl9d de/9y  
7adrsta7 might take ! place ( ,god4 ,if 
,he took  to creation z m]e play1 !n he 
mu/ be a *ild :o did ?+s  )\t a purpose4
 ,if x 0 due to 8 desire ( puni%+ c]ta9 
p & fav\r+ o!rs1 !n he mu/ h>b\r        
fav\ritism  on behalf ( "s & hatr$ aga9/
 o!rs4 ,if ! creation took  place simply
 ?r\gh 8 own nature1 !n1 :at is ! good (
    #bjf    admitt+ him at all8 ,y may r
 say t ! _w came  into be+ out ( its own
 nature4    ,x is prepo/]\s to suppose t
 "o ,god )\t ! help  ( any in/rum5ts or 
o!r accessories ( any k9d1 c\ld create  
?is _w4 ,?is is aga9/ all exp]i5ce4     

,admitt+ = ! sake ( argum5t t su* a ,god
 exi/s1  y c\ld nev] ju/ify ! adjectives
 ) :i* y wi% to  qualify him4 ,?us y say
 t he is et]nal4 ,b s9ce he has  no     
body1 he mu/ be ( ! nature ( intellig5ce
 & w4  ,b ?is nature mu/ h *ang$ 9      
div]se =ms = ! production  ( div]se k9ds
 ( worldly ?+s1 :i* are ( s v>i$  a     
nature4 ,if !re 7 no *ange 9 8 k & w1 !n
  !re c\ld n h be5 div]se k9ds (        
creation & de/ruction4  ,de/ruction &   
creation _c be ! result ( "o            
un*angeable w & k4 ,moreov] x is ! "*  (
 k to *ange1 if ! ^w is us$ 9 ! s5se 9  
:i*  k is appli$ to human be+s1 & surely
 we are n  aw>e ( any o!r k9d ( k4 ,y   
say t ,god is  omnisci5t1 b x is        
difficult to suppose h[ he c h any  k at
 all1 = z he has no organs he _c h any  
p]ception1 & s9ce he _c h any p]ception 
he _c  h any inf]5ce ei!r4 ,if x is said
 t )\t ! supposition  ( a ,god ! v>iety 
( ! _w w\ld be inexplicable1 ?is  also  
is n true1 = ?is implication w\ld only  
be ju/ifi$ if  !re 7 no o!r hypo!sis    

left4 ,b !re are o!r suppositions  also4
 ,ev5 )\t an omnisci5t ,god y c\ld      
expla9  all ?+s m]ely by ! doctr9e (    
moral ord] or ! law (  k>ma4 ,if !re 7  
"o ,god1 !re c\ld be a society ( ,gods  
too4 ,y say t if !re 7 _m ,gods1 !n !re 
w\ld be  qu>rels & diff]5ces ( op9ion4  
,?is is l ! /ory (  a mis] :o = fe> (   
incurr+ exp5ses left all 8 sons &  wife 
& retir$ into ! =e/4 ,:5 ev5 ants & bees
 c  co-op]ate toge!r & act h>moni\sly1 !
 supposition t if  !re 7 _m ,gods !y    
w\ld h fall5 out1 w\ld indicate  t 9    
spite ( all ! virtues t y ascribe to    
,god y ?9k  8 nature to be q unreliable1
 if n vici\s4 ,?us 9 :i*ev]  way "o     
tries to ju/ify ! exi/5ce ( ,god he f9ds
 t x  is absolutely a hopeless task4 ,! 
be/ way !n is to disp5se  ) !           
supposition altoge!r ,footnote ref #a4  
,footnote #a3 ,see ,sadd>s'anasamuccaya1
 ,gun>atna on ,ja9ism1 pp4  #aae-abd4   
#bjg      ,moksa 7emancipation74    ,!  
motive :i* leads a man to /rive =       
release 7moksa7 is  ! avoidance ( pa9 & 

! atta9m5t ( happ9ess1 = !  /ate ( mukti
 is ! /ate ( ! s\l 9 pure happ9ess4 ,x  
is  also a /ate ( pure & inf9ite k      
7anantajna7 & inf9ite  p]ception        
7anantad>s'ana74 ,9 ! samsra /ate on    
acc\nt  ( ! k>ma veils ?is purity is    
sulli$1 & ! veils are only worn  out    
imp]fectly & ?us reveal ?is & t object  
at ?is &  t "t z ord9>y k 7mati71       
te/imony 7s'ruta71  sup]natural         
cognition1 z 9 trance or hypnotism      
7avadhi71 & direct  k ( ! ?\ghts ( o!rs 
or ?\ght read+ 7manahp>yya74  ,9 ! /ate 
( release h[ev] !re is omnisci5ce       
7kevala-jna7 & all ?+s are simultane\sly
 kn[n to !  p]fect 7keval97 z !y are4 ,9
 ! samsra /age ! s\l always  acquires   
new qualities1 & ?us suff]s a cont9ual  
*ange ?\gh  rema9+ ! same 9 sub/ance4 ,b
 9 ! emancipat$ /age  ! *anges t a s\l  
suff]s are all exactly ! same1 & ?us  x 
is t at ?is /age ! s\l appe>s to be !   
same 9 sub/ance  z well z 9 its         
qualities ( inf9ite k1 etc41 ! *ange    
mean+ 9 ?is /ate only ! repetition ( !  

same qualities4    ,x may n be out (    
place to m5tion "h t ?\gh !  k>mas ( man
 are con/antly det]m9+ him 9 v>i\s ways 
yet !re is 9 him inf9ite capacity or p[]
 = "r action  7anantavrya71 s t k>ma c  
nev] subdue ?is fre$om &  inf9ite       
capacity1 ?\gh ?is may be suppress$ f "t
 to "t  by ! influ5ce ( k>ma4 ,x is ?us 
t by an ex]cise ( ?is  p[] man c ov]come
 all k>ma & become f9ally lib]at$4  ,if 
man _h n ?is anantavrya 9 him he might h
 be5 et]nally  "u ! sway ( ! accumulat$ 
k>ma :i* secur$  8 bondage 7b&ha74 ,b   
s9ce man is ! repository ( ?is          
indomitable p[] ! k>mas c only ?r[      
ob/acles &  produce suff]+s1 b c nev]   
prev5t him f atta9+ 8  highe/ good4     
#bjh        ,,*apt] ,,vii    ,,!        
,,kapila ,,& ,,! ,p,,ta,,jala           
,,sa,,mkhya 7,,yoga7 ,footnote ref #a4  
,a ,review4    ,! exam9ation ( ! two    
anci5t ,n/ika s*ools (  ,buddhism &     
,ja9ism ( two diff]5t types ought to    
conv9ce  u t s]i\s philosophical        
speculations 7 indulg$ 91 9  circles o!r

 ?an ^? ( ! ,upanisad sages4 ,t c]ta9   
practices kn[n z ,yoga 7 g5]ally        
preval5t among/ !  wise seems v         
probable1 = ^! are n only allud$ to 9 "s
  ( ! ,upanisads b 7 accept$ by ! two   
n/ika s*ools  ( ,buddhism & ,ja9ism4    
,:e!r we look at !m f !  po9t ( view (  
e?ics or metaphysics1 ! two ,n/ika      
s*ools  appe> to h aris5 out ( a        
reaction aga9/ ! sacrificial  discipl9es
 ( ! ,brahmanas4 ,bo? ^! sy/ems orig9at$
 )  ! ,ksattriyas & 7 m>k$ by a /rong   
av]sion aga9/ !  tak+ ( animal life1 &  
aga9/ ! doctr9e ( (f]+ animals  at !    
sacrifices4    ,! doctr9e ( ! sacrifices
 suppos$ t a suitable comb9ation  (     
rites1 rituals1 & articles ( sacrifice  
_h ! magical  p[] ( produc+ ! desir$    
effect--a %[] ( ra91 !  bir? ( a son1 ! 
r\t+ ( a huge army1 etc4 ,! sacrifices  
7 enjo9$ g5]ally n s mu* = any moral    
elevation1 z  = ! a*ievem5t ( objects ( 
practical welf>e4 ,! ,v$as  7 ! et]nal  
revelations :i* 7 compet5t s to dictate 
a detail$ proc$ure1 t we c\ld by foll[+ 

x proce$ on a  c]ta9 c\rse ( action &   
refra9 f o!r injuri\s c\rses  9 su* a   
mann] t we might obta9 ! objects we     
desir$  by ! accurate p]=mance ( any    
sacrifice4 ,if we are to def9e  tru? 9  
accordance ) ! philosophy ( su* a       
rituali/ic  culture we might say t1 t   
alone is true1 9 accordance )  :i* we   
may realize our objects 9 ! _w ab\t u2 !
 tru?  ( ,v$ic injunctions is %[n by !  
practical atta9m5t ( our                
,footnote #a3 ,?is *apt] is bas$ on my  
,/udy ( ,patanjali1 publi%$  by !       
,calcutta ,univ]sity1 & my ,yoga        
philosophy 9 relation to o!r  ,indian   
,sy/ems ( ?\ght1 await+ publication ) ! 
same au?ority4  ,! sy/em has be5 treat$ 
9 detail 9 ^? two works4    #bji        
objects4 ,tru? _c be det]m9$ a priori b 
dep5ds ^u  ! te/ ( exp]i5ce ,footnote   
ref l4    ,x is int]e/+ to notice t     
,buddhism & ,ja9ism ?\gh  probably born 
out ( a reaction>y movem5t aga9/ ?is    
artificial  cre$1 yet c\ld n b be       
influ5c$ by "s ( its fundam5tal         

pr9ciples :i*1 :e!r di/9ctly =mulat$ or 
n1 7 at  lea/ tacitly impli$ 9 all      
sacrificial p]=mances4 ,?us we see  t   
,buddhism reg>d$ all production &       
de/ruction z be+  due to ! assemblage ( 
conditions1 & def9$ tru? z t  :i* c\ld  
produce any effect4 ,b to su* a logical 
extreme  did ! ,buddhi/s c>ry ^!        
doctr9es t !y end$ 9  =mulat+ ! doctr9e 
( absolute mom5t>9ess ,footnote ref #b4 
,turn+ to ! ,ja9s we f9d t !y also      
reg>d$ ! value (  k z consi/+ 9 ! help t
 x (f]s 9 secur+ :at  is good = u &     
avoid+ :at is evil2 tru? gives u su* an 
acc\nt ( ?+s t on proce$+ accord+ to its
 directions  we may v]ify x by actual   
exp]i5ce4 ,proce$+ on a correct  e/imate
 ( ?+s we may easily avail ourselves (  
:at is good  & avoid :at is bad4 ,!     
,ja9s also believ$ t *anges  7 produc$  
by ! assemblage ( conditions1 b !y did n
  c>ry ?is doctr9e to its logical       
extreme4 ,!re 0 *ange 9  ! _w z well z  
p]man5ce4 ,! ,buddhi/s _h gone s  f> t  
!y _h ev5 d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( any p]man5t  

s\l4 ,! ,ja9s said t no ultimate1       
"o-sid$ & absolute  view ( ?+s c\ld be  
tak51 & held t n only ! happ5+  ( ev5ts 
0 conditional1 b ev5 all our judgm5ts1  
are true  only 9 a limit$ s5se4 ,?is is 
inde$ true = common s5se1  :i* we       
ackn[l$ge z sup]ior to m]e a priori     
ab/ractions1  :i* lead to absolute &    
"o-sid$ conclusions4 ,by !  assemblage (
 conditions1 old qualities 9 ?+s        
disappe>$1 new  qualities came 91 & a "p
 rema9$ p]man5t4 ,b ?is  common-s5se    
view1 ?\gh 9 agreem5t ) our ord9>y      
exp]i5ce1 c\ld n satisfy our inn] a     
priori dem&s =  f9d+ out ultimate tru?1 
:i* 0 true n relatively b  absolutely4  
,:5 ask$ :e!r any?+ 0 true1 ,ja9ism     
,footnote #a3 ,! philosophy ( ! ,v$as z 
=mulat$ by ! ,mmms (  ,kumrila &        
,prabhk>a holds ! opposite view4 ,tru?  
accord+ to !m  is det]m9$ a priori :ile 
error is det]m9$ by exp]i5ce4           
,footnote #b3 ,hi/orically ! doctr9e (  
mom5t>9ess is probably prior  to !      
doctr9e ( ar?akriykritva4 ,b ! lat]     

,buddhi/s s\ght  to prove t mom5t>9ess 0
 ! logical result ( ! doctr9e (         
ar?akriykritva4    #baj    w\ld answ]1  
yes1 ?is is true f ?is po9t ( view1 b   
untrue f t po9t ( view1 :ile t is also  
true f su*  a po9t ( view & untrue f    
ano!r4 ,b su* an answ]  _c satisfy ! m9d
 :i* seeks to rea* a def9ite            
pron\ncem5t1  an absolute judgm5t4    ,!
 ma9 dep>ture ( ! sy/ems ( ,ja9ism &    
,buddhism  f ! sacrificial cre$ consi/$ 
9 ?is1 t !y tri$ to  =mulate a !ory ( ! 
univ]se1 ! reality & ! position (       
s5ti5t be+s & m p>ticul>ly ( man4 ,!    
sacrificial cre$ 0  busy ) individual   
rituals & sacrifices1 & c>$ = pr9ciples 
or maxims only s f> z !y 7 ( use = !    
actual p]=mances  ( sacrifices4 ,aga9   
action ) ! new sy/ems did n mean        
sacrifice b any g5]al action t we always
 p]=m4 ,actions  7 "h consid]$ bad or   
good accord+ z !y br\ght  ab\t our moral
 elevation or n4 ,! foll[]s ( !         
sacrificial  cre$ refra9$ f untru? n s  
mu* f a s5se ( p]sonal  degradation1 b  

because ! ,v$as _h dictat$ t untru?     
%\ld n be spok51 & ! ,v$as mu/ be obey$4
 ,!  sacrificial cre$ want$ m & m       
happ9ess "h or 9 !  o!r _w4 ,! sy/ems ( 
,buddhi/ & ,ja9 philosophy turn$  _!    
backs ^u ord9>y happ9ess & want$ an     
ultimate &  un*angeable /ate :]e all    
pa9s & sorr[s 7 = ev]  dissolv$         
7,buddhism7 or :]e inf9ite happ9ess1 ev]
 un%ak51  0 realiz$4 ,a c\rse ( "r      
conduct to be foll[$ m]ely =  ! moral   
elevation ( ! p]son _h no place 9 !     
sacrificial  cre$1 = ) x a c\rse ( "r   
conduct c\ld be foll[$  only if x 0 s   
dictat$ 9 ! ,v$as1 ,k>ma & ! fruit (    
k>ma 7k>maphala7 only meant ! k>ma (    
sacrifice & its  fruits-tempor>y        
happ9ess1 su* z 0 produc$ z ! fruit  (  
sacrifices2 k ) !m meant only ! k (     
sacrifice & ( ! dictates ( ! ,v$as4 ,9 !
 sy/ems h[ev]1  k>ma1 k>maphala1        
happ9ess1 k1 all ^! 7  tak5 9 _! wide/ &
 mo/ univ]sal s5se4 ,happ9ess or        
absolute ext9ction ( sorr[ 0 /ill !     
goal1 b ?is 0 no  n>r[ sacrificial      

happ9ess b inf9ite & un*angeable        
happ9ess  or de/ruction ( sorr[2 k>ma 0 
/ill ! way1 b n  sacrificial k>ma1 = x  
meant all moral & immoral actions  p]=m$
 by u2 k "h meant ! k ( tru?  or reality
 & n ! k ( sacrifice4    ,su* an advance
 _h h[ev] already begun 9 ! ,upani%ads  
#baa    :i* _h anticipat$ ! new sy/ems 9
 all ^!  directions4 ,! pione]s ( ^! new
 sy/ems probably drew  _! sugge/ions bo?
 f ! sacrificial cre$ & f !  ,upanisads1
 & built _! sy/ems indep5d5tly by _! own
  rational ?9k+4 ,b if ! sugge/ions ( ! 
,upanisads 7  ?us utiliz$ by h]etics :o 
d5i$ ! au?ority ( ! ,v$as1  x 0 natural 
to expect t we %\ld f9d 9 ! ,h9du camp  
su* g]ms ( rational ?9k+ z might        
indicate an attempt to  h>monize !      
sugge/ions ( ! ,upanisads & ( !         
sacrificial  cre$ 9 su* a mann] z might 
lead to ! con/ruction ( a consi/5t  &   
well-work$ sy/em ( ?\ght4 ,our          
expectations are  inde$ fulfill$ 9 !    
,smkhya philosophy1 g]ms ( :i* may  be  
discov]$ 9 ! ,upanisads4      ,! ,g]ms (

 ,smkhya 9 ! ,upanisads4    ,x is inde$ 
true t 9 ! ,upanisads !re is a l>ge     
numb]  ( texts t describe ! ultimate    
reality z ! ,brahman1 !  inf9ite1 k1    
bliss1 & speak ( all else z m]e *ang+   
=ms & names4 ,! ^w ,brahman orig9ally   
meant 9 !  e>lie/ ,v$ic lit]ature1      
mantra1 duly p]=m$ sacrifice1  & also ! 
p[] ( sacrifice :i* c\ld br+ ab\t !     
desir$ result  ,footnote ref l4 ,9 _m   
passages ( ! ,upanisads ?is ,brahman    
appe>s  z ! univ]sal & supreme pr9ciple 
f :i* all o!rs d]iv$  _! p[]s4 ,su* a   
,brahman is s\ght = 9 _m passages  =    
p]sonal ga9 or welf>e4 ,b ?r\gh a       
gradual process (  developm5t !         
conception ( ,brahman rea*$ a sup]ior   
level  9 :i* ! reality & tru? ( ! _w are
 tacitly ignor$1  & ! ,"o1 ! inf9ite1 k1
 ! real is reg>d$ z !  only ,tru?4 ,?is 
type ( ?\ght gradually develop$ into !  
moni/ic ,v$anta z expla9$ by ,s'ank>a4  
,b !re 0  ano!r l9e ( ?\ght :i* 0       
develop+ alongside ( x1  :i* reg>d$ ! _w
 z hav+ a reality & z be+ made  up (    

wat]1 fire1 & e>?4 ,!re are also        
passages 9 ,s'vetas'vat>a  & p>ticul>ly 
9 ,maitryan f :i* x appe>s  t ! ,smkhya 
l9e ( ?\ght _h consid]ably develop$1 &  
_m ( its te*nical t]ms 7 already 9 use  
,footnote ref #b4 ,b !  date ( ,maitryan
 has n yet be5 def9itely settl$1 & !    
details        ,footnote #a3 ,see       
,hillebr&t's article1 ,brahman 7,e4     
,r4,e474    ,footnote #b3 ,ka?a ,,iii4  
#aj1 ,v4 #g4 ,s'veta4 ,v4 #g1 #h1 #ab1  
,,iv4 #e1 ,i4 #c4 ,?is  has be5 dealt ) 
9 detail 9 my ,yoga ,philosophy 9       
relation to o!r  ,indian ,sy/ems (      
,?\ght1 9 ! fir/ *apt]4    #bab    f\nd 
!re are also n su* t we c =m a di/9ct   
notion  ( ! ,smkhya ?\ght z x develop$ 9
 ! ,upanisads4 ,x is  n improbable t at 
?is /age ( developm5t x also gave  "s   
sugge/ions to ,buddhism or ,ja9ism1 b ! 
,smkhya-,yoga  philosophy z we n[ get x 
is a sy/em 9 :i* are f\nd all  ! results
 ( ,buddhism & ,ja9ism 9 su* a mann] t x
  unites ! doctr9e ( p]man5ce ( !       
,upanisads ) !  doctr9e ( mom5t>9ess ( !

 ,buddhi/s & ! doctr9e (  relativism ( !
 ,ja9s4      ,smkhya & ,yoga ,lit]ature4
    ,! ma9 exposition ( ! sy/em (       
,smkhya & ,yoga 9  ?is section has be5  
bas$ on ! ,smkhya krik1 ! ,smkhya       
stras1 & ! ,yoga stras ( ,patajali ) _! 
comm5t>ies  & sub-comm5t>ies4 ,! ,smkhya
 krik 7ab\t  #bjj ,a4,d47 0 writt5 by   
s'v>akrsna4 ,! acc\nt ( ,smkhya  giv5 by
 ,c>aka 7#gh ,a4,d47 repres5ts probably 
an e>li] s*ool &  ?is has be5 treat$    
sep>ately4 ,vcaspati ,mis'ra 7n9? c5tury
  ,a4,d47 wrote a comm5t>y on x kn[n z  
,tattvakaumud4 ,b  be=e him ,gaudapda & 
,rj wrote comm5t>ies on !  ,smkhya krik 
,footnote ref #a4 ,nryanatr?a wrote 8   
,c&rik on  ,gaudapda's comm5t>y4 ,!     
,smkhya stras :i* h be5 comm5t$  on by  
,vijna ,bhiksu 7call$ ,pravacanabhsya7 (
 !  sixte5? c5tury seems to be a "w ( "s
 unkn[n au?or  aft] ! n9? c5tury4       
,aniruddha ( ! latt] half ( !  fifte5?  
c5tury 0 ! fir/ man to write a comm5t>y 
on !  ,smkhya stras4 ,vijna ,bhiksu     
wrote also ano!r elem5t>y  "w on ,smkhya

 kn[n z ,smkhyasra4 ,ano!r %ort "w  (   
late orig9 is ,tattvasamsa 7probably    
f\rte5? c5tury74 ,two  o!r works on     
,smkhya1 viz ,smn&a's                   
,smkhyatattvavivecana  & ,bhvganes'a's  
,smkhyatattvay?r?yadpana 7bo? lat]  ?an 
,vijnabhiksu7 ( real philosophical value
 h also be5  freely consult$4           
,patajali's ,yoga stra 7n e>li] ?an #adg
 ,b4,c47  0 comm5t$ on by ,vysa 7#djj   
,a4,d47 & ,vysa's bhsya  comm5t$ on by  
,vcaspati ,mis'ra is call$              
,tattvavais'rad1  by ,vijna ,bhiksu     
,yogavrttika1 by ,bhoja 9 ! t5? c5tury  
,bhojavrtti1 & by ,nges'a 7sev5te5?     
c5tury7 ,*yvykhy4        ,footnote #a3  
,i suppose t ,rj's comm5t>y on ! ,krik 0
 ! same  z ,rjavrttika quot$ by         
,vcaspati4 ,rj's comm5t>y on ! ,krik    
has be5 ref]r$ to by ,jayanta 9 8       
,nyyamaj>1 p4 #aji4 ,?is book  is       
probably n[ lo/4    #bac    ,among/ !   
mod]n works to :i* ,i owe an obligation 
,i may  m5tion ! two treatises          
,me*anical1 physical & *emical !ories  (

 ! ,anci5t ,h9dus & ! ,positive ,sci5ces
 ( ! ,anci5t ,h9dus  by ,dr ,b4,n4 ,seal
 & my two works on ,yoga ,/udy (        
,patanjali publi%$  by ! ,calcutta      
,univ]sity1 & ,yoga ,philosophy 9       
relation  to o!r ,indian ,sy/ems (      
,?\ght :i* is %ortly to be publi%$1  &  
my ,natural ,philosophy ( ! ,anci5t     
,h9dus1 await+ publication  ) !         
,calcutta ,univ]sity4    ,gun>atna      
m5tions two o!r au?oritative ,smkhya    
works1  viz4 ,m?>abhsya & treyatantra4  
,( ^! ! second is  probably ! same z    
,c>aka's treatm5t ( ,smkhya1 = we "k  t 
! sage ,atri is ! speak] 9 ,c>aka's "w &
 = t x  0 call$ treyasamhit or          
treyatantra4 ,no?+ is kn[n  ( !         
,m?>abhsya ,footnote ref #a4      ,an   
,e>ly ,s*ool ( ,smkhya4    ,x is        
important = ! hi/ory ( ,smkhya          
philosophy t  ,c>aka's treatm5t ( x1 :i*
 s f> z ,i "k has nev] be5  dealt ) 9   
any ( ! mod]n /udies ( ,smkhya1 %\ld  be
 br\ght be=e ! notice ( ! /ud5ts ( ?is  
philosophy4  ,accord+ to ,c>aka !re are 

six elem5ts 7dhtus71 viz4 !  five       
elem5ts su* z ks'a1 vyu etc4 & cetan1   
call$ also  purusa4 ,f o!r po9ts ( view1
 ! categories may be said to  be        
tw5ty-f\r only1 viz4 ! t5 s5ses 7five   
cognitive & five  conative71 manas1 !   
five objects ( s5ses & ! eightfold      
prakrti 7prakrti1 mahat1 ahamkra & !    
five elem5ts7,footnote ref  #b4 ,! manas
 works ?r\gh ! s5ses4 ,x is atomic & its
 exi/5ce  is prov$ by ! fact t 9 spite (
 ! exi/5ce ( ! s5ses  !re _c be any k   
unless manas is 9 t\* )  !m4 ,!re are   
two movem5ts ( manas z indet]m9ate  s5s+
 7ha7 & conceiv+ 7vicra7 be=e def9ite   
und]/&+  7buddhi7 arises4 ,ea* ( ! five 
s5ses is ! product ( !  comb9ation (    
five elem5ts b ! auditory s5se is made )
  a prepond]ance ( akasa1 ! s5se ( t\* )
 a prepond]ance        ,footnote #a3    
,read]s unacqua9t$ ) ,smkhya-,yoga may  
omit ! foll[+  ?ree sections at ! "t (  
fir/ read+4    ,footnote #b3 ,purua is  
"h exclud$ f ! li/4 ,cakrapni1 !        
comm5tator1 says t ! prakrti & purusa   

bo? be+ unmanife/$1  ! two toge!r h be5 
c\nt$ z "o4 ,prakrtivyatiriktacodsnam   
purusamavyaktatvasdh>myt avyaktym       
prakrtveva praksipya  avyaktas'avbd5aiva
 grhnti4 ,h>9?a ,vis'rada's edition (   
,c>aka1 ,s'rra1 p4 #d4    #bad    ( air1
 ! visual s5se ) a prepond]ance ( light1
 ! ta/e )  a prepond]ance ( wat] & !    
s5se ( smell ) a prepond]ance  ( e>?4   
,c>aka does n m5tion ! tanmtras at all  
,footnote ref #a4  ,! conglom]ation ( ! 
s5se-objects 7indriyr?a7 or gross matt]1
  ! t5 s5ses1 manas1 ! five subtle bhtas
 & prakrti1 mahat  & ahamkra tak+ place 
?r\gh rajas make up :at we call  man4   
,:5 ! sattva is at its height ?is       
conglom]ation ceases4  ,all k>ma1 !     
fruit ( k>ma1 cognition1 pleasure1 pa91 
ignorance1  life & dea? belongs to ?is  
conglom]ation4 ,b !re is also  ! purusa1
 = _h x n be5 s !re w\ld be no bir?1    
dea?1  bondage1 or salvation4 ,if ! tman
 7 n reg>d$ z cause1  all illum9ations (
 cognition w\ld be )\t any reason4 ,if a
  p]man5t self 7 n recogniz$1 !n = ! "w 

( "o  o!rs w\ld be responsible4 ,?is    
purusa1 call$ also p>amtman1  is        
beg9n+less & x has no cause beyond      
itself4 ,! self is 9  itself )\t        
consci\sness4 ,consci\sness c only come 
to x  ?r\gh its connection ) ! s5se     
organs & manas4 ,by  ignorance1 w1      
antipa?y1 & "w1 ?is conglom]ation (     
purusa  & ! o!r elem5ts takes place4 ,k1
 feel+1 or action1  _c be produc$ )\t   
?is comb9ation4 ,all positive effects   
are due to conglom]ations ( causes & n  
by a s+le cause1 b  all de/ruction comes
 naturally & )\t cause4 ,t :i*  is      
et]nal is nev] ! product ( any?+4 ,c>aka
 id5tifies !  avyakta "p ( prakrti )    
purusa z =m+ "o category4  ,! vikra or  
evolution>y products ( prakrti are call$
 ksetra1  :]eas ! avyakta "p ( prakrti  
is reg>d$ z ! ksetraja  7avyaktamasya   
ksetrasya ksetrajamrsayo viduh74 ,?is   
avyakta  & cetan are "o & ! same entity4
 ,f ?is unmanife/$  prakrti or cetan is 
d]iv$ ! buddhi1 & f ! buddhi is  d]iv$ !
 ego 7ahamkra7 & f ! ahamkra ! five     

elem5ts & ! s5ses are produc$1 & :5 ?is 
production  is complete1 we say t       
creation has tak5 place4 ,at ! "t  (    
pralaya 7p]iodical cosmic dissolution7  
all ! evolutes return  back to prakrti1 
& ?us become unmanife/ ) x1 :]eas at !  
"t ( a new creation f ! purusa !        
unmanife/ 7avyakta71  all ! manife/$    
=ms--! evolutes ( buddhi1 ahamkra1      
,footnote #a3 ,b "s sort ( subtle matt]1
 diff]5t f gross matt]1  is ref]r$ to z 
=m+ "p ( prakrti :i* is reg>d$ z hav+   
eight elem5ts 9 x prakrtis'castadhtuki71
 viz4 avyakta1 mahat1  ahamkra1 & five  
o!r elem5ts4 ,9 addition to ^! elem5ts  
=m+  "p ( ! prakrti we he> ( indriyr?1 !
 five s5se objects  :i* h evolv$ out ( !
 prakrti4    #bae    etc4--appe>        
,footnote ref #a4 ,?is cycle ( bir?s or 
rebir?s or (  dissolution & new creation
 acts ?r\gh ! influ5ce ( rajas &  tamas1
 & s ^? :o c get rid ( ^! two w nev]    
aga9 suff]  ?is revolution 9 a cycle4 ,!
 manas c only become active 9           
association ) ! self1 :i* is ! real     

ag5t4 ,?is self ( itself  takes rebir? 9
 all k9ds ( lives accord+ to its own    
wi%1  undet]m9$ by anyone else4 ,x works
 accord+ to its own free w  & reaps !   
fruits ( its k>ma4 ,?\gh all ! s\ls are 
p]vasive1  yet !y c only p]ceive 9      
p>ticul> bodies :]e !y are  associat$ ) 
_! own specific s5ses4 ,all pleasures & 
pa9s  are felt by ! conglom]ation       
7rs'i71 & n by ! tman presid+  ov] x4 ,f
 ! enjoym5t & suff]+ ( pleasure &  pa9  
comes desire 7trsn7 consi/+ ( wi% &     
antipa?y1 &  f desire aga9 comes        
pleasure & pa94 ,moksa means complete   
cessation ( pleasure & pa91 aris+ ?r\gh 
! association  ( ! self ) ! manas1 !    
s5se1 & s5se-objects4 ,if !  manas is   
settl$ /eadily 9 ! self1 x is ! /ate (  
yoga :5  !re is nei!r pleasure nor pa94 
,:5 true k dawns  t all are produc$ by  
causes1 are transitory1 rise ( !mselves1
  b are n produc$ by ! self & are sorr[1
 & d  n belong to me ! self1 ! self     
transc5ds all4 ,?is is ! la/            
r5unciation :5 all affections & k become

 f9ally  ext9ct4 ,!re rema9s no         
indication ( any positive exi/5ce  ( !  
self at ?is "t1 & ! self c no long] be  
p]ceiv$ ,footnote  ref #b4 ,x is ! /ate 
( ,brahman4 ,^? :o "k ,brahman call ?is 
/ate ! ,brahman1 :i* is et]nal &        
absolutely devoid ( any  *>act]i/ic4    
,?is /ate is spok5 ( by ! ,smkhyas z _! 
goal1 & also t ( ! ,yog9s4 ,:5 rajas &  
tamas are  root$ out & ! k>ma ( ! pa/ ^:
 fruits h to be  enjoy$ are exhau/$1 &  
!re is no new k>ma & new bir?1          
,footnote #a3 ,?is passage has be5      
diff]5tly expla9$ 9 a comm5t>y  previ\s 
to ,cakrapni z mean+ t at ! "t ( dea? ^!
 resolve  back into ! prakrti--!        
purusa--& at ! "t ( rebir? !y  become   
manife/ aga94 ,see ,cakrapni on s'rra1  
,i4 #df4    ,footnote #b3 ,?\gh ?is /ate
 is call$ brahmabhta1 x is n 9 any  s5se
 l ! ,brahman ( ,v$nta :i* is ( ! nature
 ( pure be+1  pure intellig5ce & pure   
bliss4 ,?is indescribable /ate is m l   
absolute annihilation )\t any sign (    
exi/5ce 7alaksanam71  resembl+          

,ngrjuna's ,nirvna4 ,?us ,c>aka         
writes3--tasmims'c>amasannyse           
samlhhs>vav$anh  asamjjnavijn nivrttim  
yntyas'esatah4 atahp>am  brahmabhto     
bhttm nopalabhyate nihsrtah             
s>vabhvebhyah cihnam  yasya na vidyate4 
gatirbrahmavidm brahma                  
taccks>amalaksanam4 ,c>aka1  ,s'rra #a4 
#ih-ajj4    #baf    ! /ate ( moksa comes
 ab\t4 ,v>i\s k9ds ( moral endeav\rs  9 
! %ape ( association ) good p1 ab&on+  (
 desires1 det]m9$ attempts at discov]+ !
 tru? ) fix$  att5tion1 are spok5 ( z   
indisp5sable means4 ,tru? 7tattva7  ?us 
discov]$ %\ld be recall$ aga9 & aga9    
,footnote ref #a &  ?is w ultimately    
effect ! disunion ( ! body ) ! self4  ,z
 ! self is avyakta 7unmanife/$7 & has no
 specific nature or  "*1 ?is /ate c only
 be describ$ z absolute cessation       
7mokse nivrttirnihs'es74    ,! ma9      
features ( ! ,smkhya doctr9e z giv5 by  
,c>aka  are ?us3 #a4 ,purusa is ! /ate (
 avyakta4 #b4 ,by a conglom]a  ( ?is    
avyakta ) its lat] products a           

conglom]ation is =m$  :i* g5]ates !     
s-call$ liv+ be+4 #c4 ,! tanmtras are  n
 m5tion$4 #d4 ,rajas & tamas repres5t ! 
bad /ates (  ! m9d & sattva ! good ones4
 #e4 ,! ultimate /ate (  emancipation is
 ei!r absolute annihilation or          
*>act]less absolute  exi/5ce & x is     
spok5 ( z ! ,brahman /ate2 !re is  no   
consci\sness 9 ?is /ate1 = consci\sness 
is due to !  conglom]ation ( ! self )   
its evolutes1 buddhi1 ahamkra etc4  #f4 
,! s5ses are =m$ ( matt] 7bhautika74    
,?is acc\nt ( ,smkhya agrees ) ! sy/em (
 ,smkhya  prop\nd$ by ,pacas'ikha 7:o is
 said to be ! direct pupil (  suri !    
pupil ( ,kapila1 ! f\nd] ( ! sy/em7 9 ! 
,mahbhrata ,,xii4 #bai4 ,pacas'ikha (   
c\rse does n describe  ! sy/em z        
elaborately z ,c>aka does4 ,b ev5 f :at 
little he says x may be suppos$ t !     
sy/em ( ,smkhya  he sket*es is ! same z 
t ( ,c>aka ,footnote ref #b4 ,pacas'ikha
  speaks ( ! ultimate tru? z be+ avyakta
 7a t]m appli$ 9 all  ,smkhya lit]ature 
to prakrti7 9 ! /ate ( purusa           

7purusva/hamavyaktam74 ,if man is !     
product ( a m]e comb9ation  ( ! diff]5t 
elem5ts1 !n "o may assume t all ceases  
) dea?4 ,c>aka 9 answ] to su* an        
objection introduces a  discussion1 9   
:i* he tries to e/abli% ! exi/5ce ( a   
self z  ! po/ulate ( all our duties &   
s5se ( moral responsibility4  ,! same   
discussion occurs 9 ,pacas'ikha also1 & 
! pro(s        ,footnote #a3 ,f\r causes
 are spok5 ( "h z be+ causes ( memory3  
7#a7 ,?9k+ ( ! cause leads to ! rememb]+
 ( ! effect1  7#b7 by simil>ity1 7#c7 by
 opposite ?+s1 & 7#d7 by acute attempt  
to  rememb]4    ,footnote #b3 ,"s       
,european s*ol>s h exp]i5c$ great       
difficulty  9 accept+ ,pacas'ikha's     
doctr9e z a g5u9e ,smkhya doctr9e4  ,?is
 may probably be due to ! fact t !      
,smkhya doctr9es sket*$  9 ,c>aka did n 
attract _! notice4    #bag    = !       
exi/5ce ( ! self are also ! same4 ,l    
,c>aka aga9  ,pacas'ikha also says t all
 consci\sness is due to ! conditions  ( 
! conglom]ation ( our physical body     

m9d1--& !  elem5t ( cetas4 ,!y are      
mutually indep5d5t1 & by su*  indep5d5ce
 c>ry on ! process ( life & "w4 ,none ( 
!  ph5om5a produc$ by su* a             
conglom]ation are self4 ,all our  suff]+
 comes 9 because we ?9k ^! to be ! self4
 ,moksa  is realiz$ :5 we c practise    
absolute r5unciation ( ^!  ph5om5a4 ,!  
gunas describ$ by ,pacas'ikha are !     
diff]5t  k9ds ( good & bad qualities ( !
 m9d z ,c>aka has x4  ,! /ate ( !       
conglom]ation is spok5 ( z ! ksetra1 z  
,c>aka says1 & !re is no annihilation or
 et]nality2 & !  la/ /ate is describ$ z 
be+ l t :5 all riv]s lose  !mselves 9 ! 
ocean & x is call$ alinga 7)\t any      
*>act]i/ic7--a t]m res]v$ = prakrti 9   
lat] ,smkhya4  ,?is /ate is atta9able by
 ! doctr9e ( ultimate r5unciation  :i*  
is also call$ ! doctr9e ( complete      
de/ruction  7samyagbadha74    ,gun>atna 
7f\rte5? c5tury ,a4,d471 a comm5tator ( 
,sadd>s'anasamuccaya1 m5tions two s*ools
 ( ,smkhya1 !  ,maulikya 7orig9al7 & !  
,utt>a or 7lat]7 ,footnote ref #a4 ,( ^!

  ! doctr9e ( ! ,maulikya ,smkhya is    
said to be t :i*  believ$ t !re 0 a     
sep>ate pradhna = ea* tman              
7maulikyasmkhy hytmnamtmnam prati pr?ak 
pradhnam  vadanti74 ,?is seems to be a  
ref]5ce to ! ,smkhya doctr9e  ,i h j    
sket*$4 ,i am !re=e dispos$ to ?9k t ?is
  repres5ts ! e>lie/ sy/ematic doctr9e (
 ,smkhya4    ,9 ,mahbhrata ,,xii4 #cah  
?ree s*ools ( ,smkhya are  m5tion$1 viz4
 ^? :o admitt$ tw5ty-f\r categories 7!  
s*ool ,i h sket*$ above71 ^? :o admitt$ 
tw5ty-five  7! well-kn[n or?odox ,smkhya
 sy/em7 & ^? :o  admitt$ tw5ty-six      
categories4 ,?is la/ s*ool admitt$ a    
supreme be+ 9 addition to purusa & ?is 0
 ! tw5ty-six?  pr9ciple4 ,?is agrees ) !
 or?odox ,yoga sy/em & !  =m ( ,smkhya  
advocat$ 9 ! ,mahbhrata4 ,! s*ools (    
,smkhya ( tw5ty-f\r & tw5ty-five        
categories are "h  d5\nc$ z             
unsatisfactory4 ,doctr9es simil> to !   
s*ool (  ,smkhya we h sket*$ above are  
ref]r$ to 9 "s ( !          ,footnote   
#a3 ,gun>atna's ,t>k>ahasyadpik1 p4 #ii4

    #bah    o!r *apt]s ( ! ,mahbhrata   
7,,xii4 #bjc1 #bjd74 ,! self  ap>t f !  
body is describ$ z ! moon ( ! new moon  
day2 x is said t z ,rhu 7! %ad[ on ! sun
 dur+ an  eclipse7 _c be se5 ap>t f !   
sun1 s ! self _c be  se5 ap>t f ! body4 
,! selfs 7s'arrinah7 are spok5 ( z      
manife/+ f prakrti4    ,we d n "k any?+ 
ab\t suri ! direct disciple  ( ,kapila  
,footnote ref #a4 ,b x seems probable t 
! sy/em (  ,smkhya we h sket*$ "h :i*   
appe>s 9 fundam5tally ! same  =m 9 !    
,mahbhrata & has be5 attribut$ !re to   
,pacas'ikha  is probably ! e>lie/ =m (  
,smkhya available to u  9 a sy/ematic   
=m4 ,n only does ,gun>atna's ref]5ce to 
!  s*ool ( ,maulikya ,smkhya ju/ify x1 b
 ! fact t ,c>aka  7#gh ,a4,u47 does n   
ref] to ! ,smkhya z describ$ by         
s'v>akrsna  & ref]r$ to 9 o!r p>ts (    
,mahbhrata is a def9ite  pro( t         
s'v>akrsna's ,smkhya is a lat]          
modification1 :i*  0 ei!r non-exi/5t 9  
,c>aka's "t or 0 n reg>d$ z  an         
au?oritative old ,smkhya view4          

,wassilief says quot+ ,tibetan s\rces t 
,v9dhyavs9 alt]$  ! ,smkhya accord+ to 8
 own views ,footnote ref #b4 ,takakusu  
?9ks  t ,v9dhyavs9 0 a title (          
s'v>akrsna ,footnote ref #c & ,g>be     
holds t ! date ( s'v>akrsna 0 ab\t #ajj 
,a4,d4 ,x seems to be a  v plausible    
view t s'v>akrsna 0 indebt$ = 8 kriks to
  ano!r "w1 :i* 0 probably writt5 9 a   
/yle diff]5t  f :at he employs4 ,! sev5?
 v]se ( 8 ,krik seems to  be 9 purport !
 same z a passage :i* is f\nd quot$ 9 ! 
,footnote #a3 ,a v]se attribut$ to suri 
is quot$ by ,gun>atna  7,t>k>ahasyadpik1
 p4 #ajd74 ,! purport ( ?is v]se is t :5
  buddhi is trans=m$ 9 a p>ticul> mann]1
 x 7purusa7 has exp]i5ce4  ,x is l !    
reflection ( ! moon 9 transp>5t wat]4   
,footnote #b3 ,vassilief's ,buddhismus1 
p4 #bdj4    ,footnote #c3 ,takakusu's ,a
 /udy ( ,p>amr?a's life ( ,vasub&hu1 ,j4
  ,r4,a4,s41 #aije4 ,?is id5tification  
by ,takakusu1 h[ev]1 appe>s to be       
extremely d\btful1 = ,gun>atna m5tions  
s'v>akrsna &  ,v9dhyavs9 z two diff]5t  

au?orities 7,t>k>ahasyadpik1  pp4 #ajb &
 #ajd74 ,! v]se quot$ f ,v9dhyavs9 7p4  
#ajd7 9  anustubh metre _c be trac$ z   
belong+ to s'v>akrsn4 ,x  appe>s t      
s'v>akrsna wrote two books2 "o is !     
,smkhya  krik & ano!r an indep5d5t "w on
 ,smkhya1 a l9e f :i*1  quot$ by        
,gun>atna1 /&s z foll[s3                
,prat9iyatdhyavasyah s'rotrdisamut?a    
adhyaksam 7p4 #ajh74    ,if ,vcaspati's 
int]pretation ( ! classification (      
anumna 9 8  ,tattvakaumud be consid]$ to
 be a correct explanation ( ,smkhya     
krik !n s'v>akrsna mu/ be a diff]5t     
p]son f ,v9dhyavs9  ^: views on anumna z
 ref]r$ to 9 ,s'lokavrttika1 p4 #cic1   
are  altoge!r diff]5t4 ,b ,vcaspati's   
own /atem5t 9 !  ,ttp>yyatk 7pp4 #aji & 
#aca7 %[s t 8 treatm5t !re 0 n  fai?ful4
    #bai    ,mahbhsya ( ,patajali !     
gramm>ian 7#adg ,b4,c47 ,footnote ref   
#a4  ,! subject ( ! two passages are !  
enum]ation ( reasons :i*  fru/rate      
visual p]ception4 ,?is h[ev] is n a     
doctr9e conc]n$  ) ! /rictly te*nical "p

 ( ,smkhya1 & x is j possible  t ! book 
f :i* ,patajali quot$ ! passage1 & :i*  
0 probably p>aphras$ 9 ! ry metre by    
s'v>akrsna  0 n a ,smkhya book at all4  
,b ?\gh ! subject ( !  v]se is n "o ( ! 
/rictly te*nical p>ts ( ,smkhya1 yet    
s9ce su* an enum]ation is n se5 9 any   
o!r sy/em (  ,indian philosophy1 & z x  
has "s special be>+ z a safegu>d  aga9/ 
c]ta9 objections aga9/ ! ,smkhya doctr9e
 (  prakrti1 ! natural & plausible      
supposition is t x 0 !  v]se ( a ,smkhya
 book :i* 0 p>aphras$ by s'v>akrsna4    
,! e>lie/ descriptions ( a ,smkhya :i*  
agrees )  s'v>akrsna's ,smkhya 7b ) an  
addition ( s'v>a7 are to be  f\nd 9     
,patajali's ,yoga stras & 9 !           
,mahbhrata2 b we  are pretty c]ta9 t !  
,smkhya ( ,c>aka we h sket*$  "h 0 kn[n 
to ,patajali1 = 9 ,yoga stra ,i4 #ai a  
ref]5ce is  made to a view ( ,smkhya    
simil> to ?is4    ,f ! po9t ( view (    
hi/ory ( philosophy ! ,smkhya  ( ,c>aka 
& ,pacas'ikha is v important2 = x %[s a 
transitional /age ( ?\ght betwe5 !      

,upanisad ideas &  ! or?odox ,smkhya    
doctr9e z repres5t$ by s'v>akrsna4  ,on 
! "o h& its doctr9e t ! s5ses are       
mat]ial1 &  t effects are produc$ only z
 a result ( collocations1 & t  ! purusa 
is unconsci\s1 br+s x 9 close relation )
 ,nyya1  & on ! o!r its connections )   
,buddhism seem to be ne>]  ?an ! or?odox
 ,smkhya4    ,we he> ( a                
,sastitantras'/ra z be+ "o ( ! olde/    
,smkhya  works4 ,?is is describ$ 9 !    
,ahirbudhnya ,samhit z  conta9+ two     
books ( ?irty-two & tw5ty-eight *apt]s  
,footnote  ref #b4 ,a quotation f       
,rjavrttika 7a "w ab\t :i* !re is no    
def9ite in=mation7 9 ,vcaspati ,mis'ra's
 comm5t>y on ! ,smkhya  krika7#gb7 says 
t x 0 call$ ! ,sastitantra because  x   
dealt ) ! exi/5ce ( prakrti1 its on5ess1
 its diff]5ce  f purusas1 its           
purposefulness = purusas1 ! multiplicity
 (  purusas1 connection & sep>ation f   
purusas1 ! evolution (        ,footnote 
#a3 ,patajali's ,mahbhsya1 ,,iv4 ,i4 #c4
  ,atisannik>sdativiprak>st             

mrttyant>avyavadhnt  tamasvrtatvt       
indriyadaurvalydatipramdt1 etc4 7,b5>es 
edition47    ,footnote #b3 ,ahirbudhnya 
,samhit1 pp4 #ajh1 #aaj4    #bbj    !   
categories1 ! inactivity ( ! purusas & !
 five vip>yyayas1  n9e tustis1 ! defects
 ( organs ( tw5ty-eight k9ds1 & !  eight
 siddhis ,footnote ref #a4    ,b !      
cont5t ( ! ,sastitantra z giv5 9        
,ahirbudhnya  ,samhit is diff]5t f x1 & 
x appe>s f x t ! ,smkhya  ( !           
,sastitantra ref]r$ to 9 ! ,ahirbudhnya 
,samhit 0 (  a !i/ic "* resembl+ !      
doctr9e ( ! ,pac>tra  ,vaisnavas & !    
,ahirbudhnya ,samhit says t ,kapila's   
!ory ( ,smkhya 0 a ,vaisnava "o4 ,vijna 
,bhiksu1 !  greate/ exp\nd] ( ,smkhya1  
says 9 _m places ( 8 "w  ,vijnmrta      
,bhsya t ,smkhya 0 orig9ally !i/ic1 & t 
! a!i/ic ,smkhya is only a praudhivda   
7an exagg]at$  attempt to %[ t no       
supposition ( s'v>a is necess>y to      
expla9 ! _w process7 ?\gh ! ,mahbhrata  
po9ts out  t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ,smkhya &
 ,yoga is ?is1 t !  =m] is a!i/ic1 :ile 

! latt] is !i/ic4 ,! discrepancy  betwe5
 ! two acc\nts ( ,sastitantra sugge/s t 
! orig9al  ,sastitantra z ref]r$ to 9 ! 
,ahirbudhnya ,samhit 0  subsequ5tly     
revis$ & consid]ably *ang$4 ,?is        
supposition is  corroborat$ by ! fact t 
,gun>atna does n m5tion among  !        
important ,smkhya works ,sastitantra b  
,sastitantroddhra        ,footnote #a3  
,! doctr9e ( ! vip>yyaya1 tu/i1 defects 
( organs1  & ! siddhi are m5tion$ 9 !   
,k>ik ( ,is'v>akrsna1 b ,i  h omitt$ !m 
9 my acc\nt ( ,smkhya z ^! h little     
philosophical importance4 ,! vip>yyaya  
7false k7 are five1  viz4 avidy         
7ignorance71 asmita 7egoism71 raga      
7atta*m5t71 dvesa  7antipa?y71          
abhimives'a 7self-love71 :i* are also   
call$ tamo1  moha1 mahmoha1 tamisr1 &   
&hatmisra4 ,^! are ( n9e k9ds  ( tu/i1  
su* z ! idea t no ex]tion is necess>y1  
s9ce prakrti  w h]self br+ our salvation
 7ambhas71 t x is n necess>y  to        
m$itate1 = x is en\gh if we r5\nce !    
h\sehold]'s  life 7salila71 t !re is no 

hurry1 salvation w come 9 "t  7megha71 t
 salvation w be work$ out by fate       
7bhgya71 &  ! cont5tm5t lead+ to        
r5unciation proce$+ f five k9ds (       
causes1 e4g4 ! tr\bles ( e>n+ 7p>a71 !  
tr\bles (  protect+ ! e>n$ money        
7sup>a71 ! natural wa/e ( ?+s  e>n$ by  
enjoym5t 7p>p>a71 increase ( desires    
lead+ to great]  disappo9tm5ts          
7anuttammbhas71 all ga9 leads to !      
injury ( o!rs  7uttammbhas74 ,?is       
r5unciation proce$s f ext]nal           
consid]ations  ) ^? :o consid] prakrti &
 its evolutes z ! self4 ,!  siddhis or  
ways ( success are eight 9 numb]1 viz4  
7#a7 read+ (  scriptures 7tra71 7#b7    
enquiry into _! mean+ 7sutra71  7#c7    
prop] reason+ 7tratra71 7#d7 corroborat+
 "o's own ideas  ) ! ideas ( ! tea*]s & 
o!r work]s ( ! same field  7ramyaka71   
7#e7 cle>ance ( ! m9d by long-cont9u$   
practice  7sadmudita74 ,! ?ree o!r      
siddhis call$ pramoda1 mudita1 &        
modamna lead directly to ! sep>ation ( !
 prakrti f ! purus'a4  ,! tw5ty-eight   

s5se defects are ! elev5 defects ( !    
elev5 s5ses  & sev5te5 k9ds ( defects ( 
! und]/&+ correspond+ to !  abs5ce (    
siddhis & ! pres5ce ( tu/is4 ,!         
vip>yyayas1 tu/is  & ! defects ( !      
organs are h9drances 9 ! way ( !        
a*ievem5t ( ! ,smkhya goal4    #bba     
7revis$ edition ( ,sastitantra7         
,footnote ref #a4 ,probably !  e>li]    
,sastitantra 0 lo/ ev5 be=e ,vcaspati's 
"t4    ,if we believe ! ,sastitantra    
ref]r$ to 9 ! ,ahirbudhnya  ,samhit to  
be 9 all ess5tial p>ts ! same "w :i* 0  
compos$ by ,kapila & bas$ fai?fully on 8
 tea*+s1 !n x  has to be assum$ t       
,kapila's ,smkhya 0 !i/ic ,footnote ref 
#b4 ,x  seems probable t 8 disciple suri
 tri$ to popul>ise x4 ,b x  seems t a   
great *ange occurr$ :5 ,pacas'ikha !    
disciple (  suri came to deal ) x4 ,= we
 "k t 8 doctr9e  diff]$ f ! traditional 
"o 9 _m important respects4 ,x  is said 
9 ,smkhya krik 7#gj7 t ! lit]ature 0    
divid$ by  him into _m p>ts 7t5a        
bahudhkrtam tantram74 ,! exact  mean+ ( 

?is ref]5ce is difficult to guess4 ,x   
might mean t  ! orig9al ,sastitantra 0  
rewritt5 by him 9 v>i\s treatises4  ,x  
is a well-kn[n fact t mo/ ( ! s*ools (  
,vaisnavas  accept$ ! =m ( cosmology :i*
 is ! same 9 mo/ ess5tial  p>ts z !     
,smkhya cosmology4 ,?is ju/ifies !      
assumption  t ,kapila's doctr9e 0       
probably !i/ic4 ,b !re are  a few o!r   
po9ts ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,kapila & !   
,ptajala ,smkhya 7,yoga74 ,! only       
supposition t may  be v5tur$ is t       
,pacas'ikha probably modifi$ ,kapila's  
"w 9 an a!i/ic way & pass$ x z ,kapila's
 "w4 ,if ?is  supposition is held       
reasonable1 !n we h ?ree /rata (        
,smkhya1 fir/ a !i/ic "o1 ! details (   
:i* are lo/1 b  :i* is kept 9 a modifi$ 
=m by ! ,ptajala s*ool ( ,smkhya1       
second an a!i/ic "o z repres5t$ by      
,pacas'ikha1 &  a ?ird a!i/ic           
modification z ! or?odox ,smkhya sy/em4 
,an important *ange 9 ! ,smkhya doctr9e 
seems to h  be5 introduc$ by ,vijna     
,bhiksu 7sixte5? c5tury ,a4,d47 by 8    

treatm5t ( gunas z types ( reals4 ,i h  
myself accept$ ?is  int]pretation (     
,smkhya z ! mo/ rational & philosophical
  "o1 & h !re=e foll[$ x 9 giv+ a       
connect$ sy/em  ( ! accept$ ,kapila & ! 
,ptajala s*ool ( ,smkhya4 ,b  x mu/ be  
po9t$ out t orig9ally ! notion ( gunas 0
  appli$ to diff]5t types ( good & bad  
m5tal /ates1 & !n  !y 7 suppos$ 9 "s    
my/]i\s way by mutual increase  &       
decrease to =m ! objective _w on ! "o h&
 & !        ,footnote #a3               
,t>k>ahasyadpik1 p4 #aji4    ,footnote  
#b3 evam sadvims'akam prhah s'arram?    
mnavh smkhyam  samkhytmakatvcca         
kapildibhirucyate4 ,matsyapurna1 ,,iv4  
#bh4    #bbb    totality ( human        
psy*osis on ! o!r4 ,a sy/ematic         
explanation  ( ! gunas 0 attempt$ 9 two 
diff]5t l9es by ,vijna ,bhiksu  & !     
,vaisnava writ] ,venkata ,footnote ref  
l4 ,z ! ,yoga  philosophy compil$ by    
,patajali & comm5t$ on by ,vysa1        
,vcaspati & ,vijana ,bhiksu1 agree ) !  
,smkhya doctr9e  z expla9$ by ,vcaspati 

& ,vijana ,bhiksu 9 mo/ po9ts ,i  h     
pref]r$ to call !m ! ,kapila & !        
,ptajala s*ools  ( ,smkhya & h treat$ !m
 toge!r--a pr9ciple :i*  0 foll[$ by    
,h>ibhadra 9 8 ,sadd>s'anasamuaccaya4   
,! o!r important ,smkhya tea*]s m5tion$ 
by ,gaudapda  are ,sanaka1 ,san&a1      
,santana & ,vodhu4 ,no?+ is  kn[n ab\t  
_! hi/oricity or doctr9es4      ,smkhya 
krik1 ,smkhya stra1 ,vcaspati ,mis'ra & 
,vijna ,bhiksu4    ,a ^w ( explanation  
is necess>y z reg>ds my int]pretation  (
 ! ,smkhya-,yoga sy/em4 ,! ,smkhya krik 
is  ! olde/ ,smkhya text on :i* we h    
comm5t>ies by  lat] writ]s4 ,! ,smkhya  
stra 0 n ref]r$ to by any  writ] until x
 0 comm5t$ ^u by ,aniruddha 7fifte5?    
c5tury ,a4,d474 ,ev5 ,gun>atna ( !      
f\rte5? c5tury ,a ,d4 :o  made allusions
 to a numb] ( ,smkhya works1 did n make 
any  ref]5ce to ! ,smkhya stra1 & no o!r
 writ] :o is kn[n  to h fl\ri%$ be=e    
,gun>atna seems to h made any  ref]5ce  
to ! ,smkhya stra4 ,! natural conclusion
 !re=e  is t ^! stras 7 probably writt5 

"s "t aft]  ! f\rte5? c5tury4 ,b !re is 
no positive evid5ce to  prove t x 0 s   
late a "w z ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,x is     
said at ! end ( ! ,smkhya krik (        
s'v>akrsna t !  kriks give an exposition
 ( ! ,smkhya doctr9e exclud+  !         
refutations ( ! doctr9es ( o!r p &      
exclud+ !  p>ables atta*$ to ! orig9al  
,smkhya works--!  ,sastitantras'/ra4 ,! 
,smkhya stras conta9 refutations  ( o!r 
doctr9es & also a numb] ( p>ables4 ,x is
 n improbable  t ^! 7 collect$ f "s     
e>li] ,smkhya "w :i* is  n[ lo/ to u4 ,x
 may be t x 0 done f "s lat] edition  ( 
! ,sastitantras'/ra 7,sastitantroddhra z
 m5tion$ by        ,footnote #a3        
,v5kata's philosophy w be dealt ) 9 !   
second volume  ( ! pres5t "w4    #bbc   
,gn>atna71 b ?is is a m]e conjecture4   
,!re is no reason to  suppose t !       
,smkhya doctr9e f\nd 9 ! stras diff]s 9 
any important way f ! ,smkhya doctr9e z 
f\nd 9 !  ,smkhya krik4 ,! only po9t (  
importance is ?is1 t !  ,smkhya stras   
hold t :5 ! ,upanisads spoke ( "o       

absolute  pure intellig5ce !y meant to  
speak ( unity z involv$  9 ! class (    
intellig5t purusas z di/9ct f ! class ( 
! gunas4 ,z all purusas 7 ( ! nature (  
pure intellig5ce1  !y 7 spok5 ( 9 !     
,upanisads z "o1 = !y all =m  ! category
 or class ( pure intellig5ce1 & h5ce may
 9 "s  s5se be reg>d$ z "o4 ,?is        
compromise _c be f\nd 9  ! ,smkhya krik4
 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 a case ( omission & n  
( diff]5ce4 ,vijna ,bhiksu1 ! comm5tator
 ( ! ,smkhya  stra1 0 m incl9$ to !i/ic 
,smkhya or ,yoga ?an  to a!i/ic ,smkhya4
 ,?is is prov$ by 8 own rem>ks 9  8     
,smkhyapravacanabhsya1 ,yogavrttika1 &  
,vijnmrtabhasya  7an indep5d5t comm5t>y 
on ! ,brahmastras (  ,bd>yana on !i/ic  
,smkhya l9es74 ,vijna ,bhiksu's own     
view c\ld n prop]ly be call$ a ?or\gh   
,yoga view1 = he  agre$ m ) ! views ( ! 
,smkhya doctr9e ( !  ,puranas1 :]e bo? !
 div]se purusas & ! prakrti are said  to
 be m]g$ 9 ! end 9 s'v>a1 by ^: w !     
creative  process aga9 began 9 ! prakrti
 at ! end ( ea* pralaya4  ,he c\ld n    

avoid ! di/9ctively a!i/ic argum5ts ( ! 
,smkhya stras1 b he rem>k$ t ^! 7 us$   
only )  a view to %[+ t ! ,smkhya sy/em 
gave su* a rational  explanation t ev5  
)\t ! int]v5tion ( an s'v>a x c\ld      
expla9 all facts4 ,vijna ,bhiksu 9 8    
int]pretation ( ,smkhya  diff]$ on _m   
po9ts f ^? ( ,vcaspati1 & x is difficult
  to say :o is "r4 ,vijna ,bhiksu has   
?is advantage t  he has boldly tri$ to  
give int]pretations on "s difficult     
po9ts  on :i* ,vcaspati rema9$ sil5t4 ,i
 ref] pr9cipally to !  nature ( !       
conception ( ! gunas1 :i* ,i believe is 
! mo/  important ?+ 9 ,smkhya4 ,vijna   
,bhiksu describ$ !  gunas z reals or    
sup]-subtle sub/ances1 b ,vcaspati &    
,gaudapda 7! o!r comm5tator ( ! ,smkhya 
krik7  rema9$ sil5t on ! po9t4 ,!re is  
no?+1 h[ev]1 9 _!  int]pretations :i*   
w\ld militate aga9/ ! int]pretation (   
,vijna ,bhiksu1 b yet :ile !y 7 sil5t z 
to any def9ite  explanations reg>d+ !   
nature ( ! gunas1 ,bhiksu def9itely     
#bbd    came =w>d ) a v satisfactory &  

rational int]pretation  ( _! nature4    
,s9ce no def9ite explanation ( ! gunas  
is f\nd 9 any  o!r "w be=e ,bhiksu1 x is
 q probable t ?is matt]  may n h be5    
def9itely work$ out be=e4 ,nei!r ,c>aka 
nor ! ,mahbhrata expla9s ! nature ( !   
gunas4 ,b  ,bhiksu's int]pretation suits
 exce$+ly well all t is kn[n  ( !       
manife/ations & ! work+s ( ! gunas 9 all
 e>ly  docum5ts4 ,i h !re=e accept$ !   
int]pretation ( ,bhiksu  9 giv+ my      
acc\nt ( ! nature ( ! gunas4 ,! ,krik   
speaks ( ! gunas z be+ ( ! nature (     
pleasure1 pa91 &  dullness 7sattva1     
rajas & tamas74 ,x also describes sattva
 z  be+ light & illum9at+1 rajas z ( !  
nature ( en]gy &  caus+ motion1 & tamas 
z heavy & ob/ruct+4 ,vcaspati  m]ely    
p>aphrases ?is /atem5t ( ! ,krik b does 
n ent]  into any fur!r explanations4    
,bhiksu's int]pretation fits 9 well  )  
all t is kn[n ( ! gunas1 ?\gh x is q    
possible  t ?is view might n h be5 kn[n 
be=e1 & :5 !  orig9al ,smkhya doctr9e 0 
=mulat$ !re 0 a real vagu5ess  z to !   

conception ( ! gunas4    ,!re are "s o!r
 po9ts 9 :i* ,bhiksu's int]pretation    
diff]s f t ( ,vcaspati4 ,! mo/ important
 ( ^! may  be m5tion$ "h4 ,! fir/ is !  
nature ( ! connection (  ! buddhi /ates 
) ! purusa4 ,vcaspati holds t !re is  no
 contact 7samyoga7 ( any buddhi /ate ) !
 purusa b t  a reflection ( ! purusa is 
caught 9 ! /ate ( buddhi by  virtue (   
:i* ! buddhi /ate becomes intelligiz$ & 
trans=m$  into consci\sness4 ,b ?is view
 is op5 to ! objection  t x does n      
expla9 h[ ! purusa c be said to be !    
exp]i5c] ( ! consci\s /ates ( ! buddhi1 
= its reflection  9 ! buddhi is m]ely an
 image1 & !re _c be an exp]i5ce  7bhoga7
 on ! basis ( t image alone )\t any     
actual connection ( ! purusa ) ! buddhi4
 ,! answ] (  ,vcaspati ,mis'ra is t !re 
is no contact ( ! two 9 space  & "t1 b t
 _! proximity 7sannidhi7 means only a   
specific  k9d ( fitness 7yogyat7 by     
virtue ( :i* ! purusa1 ?\gh x  rema9s   
alo(1 is yet felt to be unit$ & id5tifi$
 9 ! buddhi1  & z a result ( t ! /ates (

 ! buddhi appe> z ascrib$  to a p]son4  
,vijna ,bhiksu diff]s f ,vcaspati & says
 t  if su* a special k9d ( fitness be   
admitt$1 !n !re is no    #bbe    reason 
:y purusa %\ld be depriv$ ( su* a       
fitness at ! "t  ( emancipation1 & ?us  
!re w\ld be no emancipation at all1  = !
 fitness be+ 9 ! purusa1 he c\ld n be   
dive/$ ( x1  & he w\ld cont9ue to enjoy 
! exp]i5ces repres5t$ 9  ! buddhi = ev]4
 ,vijana ,bhiksu ?us holds t !re is a   
real contact ( ! purusa ) ! buddhi /ate 
9 any cognitive  /ate4 ,su* a contact ( 
! purusa & ! buddhi does n  necess>ily  
mean t ! =m] w be liable to *ange on    
acc\nt ( x1 = contact & *ange are n     
synonym\s4 ,*ange  means ! rise ( new   
qualities4 ,x is ! buddhi :i* suff]s    
*anges1 & :5 ^! *anges are reflect$ 9 ! 
purusa1 !re  is ! notion ( a p]son or   
exp]i5c] 9 ! purusa1 & :5  ! purusa is  
reflect$ back 9 ! buddhi ! buddhi /ate  
appe>s  z a consci\s /ate4 ,! second1 is
 ! diff]5ce betwe5  ,vcaspati & ,bhiksu 
z reg>ds ! nature ( ! p]ceptual         

process4 ,bhiksu ?9ks t ! s5ses c       
directly p]ceive !  det]m9ate qualities 
( ?+s )\t any int]v5tion ( manas1  :]eas
 ,vcaspati ascribes to manas ! p[] (    
arrang+ !  s5se-data 9 a def9ite ord] & 
( mak+ ! indet]m9ate  s5se-data         
det]m9ate4 ,) him ! fir/ /age (         
cognition is  ! /age :5 indet]m9ate s5se
 mat]ials are fir/ pres5t$1 at  ! next  
/age !re is assimilation1 diff]5tiation1
 & association  by :i* ! indet]m9ate    
mat]ials are ord]$ & classifi$  by !    
activity ( manas call$ samkalpa :i*     
coord9ates !  indet]m9ate s5se mat]ials 
into det]m9ate p]ceptual &  conceptual  
=ms z class notions ) p>ticul>          
*>act]i/ics4  ,bhiksu :o supposes t !   
det]m9ate "* ( ?+s is  directly p]ceiv$ 
by ! s5ses has necess>ily to assign a   
subord9ate  position to manas z be+ only
 ! faculty ( desire1  d\bt1 &           
imag9ation4    ,x may n be out ( place  
to m5tion "h t !re are  "o or two       
passages 9 ,vcaspati's comm5t>y on !    
,smkhya  krik :i* seem to sugge/ t he   

consid]$ ! ego 7ahamkra7  z produc+ !   
subjective s]ies ( ! s5ses & !          
objective s]ies ( ! ext]nal _w by a sort
 ( desire or w1  b he did n "w out ?is  
doctr9e1 & x is !re=e n  necess>y to    
enl>ge ^u x4 ,!re is also a diff]5ce (  
view  ) reg>d to ! evolution ( !        
tanmtras f ! mahat2  = contr>y to ! view
 ( ,vysabhsya & ,vijna ,bhiksu etc4     
,vcaspati holds t f ! mahat !re 0       
ahamkra &    #bbf    f ahamkra !        
tanmtras ,footnote ref #a4 ,vijna       
,bhiksu h[ev]  holds t bo? ! sep>ation (
 ahamkra & ! evolution ( !  tanmtras    
take place 9 ! mahat1 & z ?is appe>$ to 
me to be m  reasonable1 ,i h foll[$ ?is 
int]pretation4 ,!re are "s  o!r m9or    
po9ts ( diff]5ce ab\t ! ,yoga doctr9es  
betwe5  ,vcaspati & ,bhiksu :i* are n ( 
mu* philosophical  importance4          
,yoga & ,patajali4    ,! ^w yoga occurs 
9 ! ,rg-,v$a 9 v>i\s s5ses su*  z yok+  
or h>ness+1 a*iev+ ! una*iev$1          
connection1  & ! l4 ,! s5se ( yok+ is n 
s frequ5t z !  o!r s5ses2 b x is        

nev]!less true t ! ^w 0  us$ 9 ?is s5se 
9 ,rg-,v$a & 9 su* lat] ,v$ic works z  !
 ,s'atapa?a ,brhmana & ! ,brhadranyaka  
,upanisad ,footnote ref #b4  ,! ^w has  
ano!r d]ivative yugya 9 lat] ,sanskrit  
lit]ature  ,footnote ref #c4    ,) !    
gr[? ( religi\s & philosophical ideas 9 
!  ,rg-,v$a1 we f9d t ! religi\s        
au/]ities 7 g5]ally v  mu* valu$4 ,tapas
 7asceticism7 & brahmac>ya 7! holy v[  (
 celibacy & life-long /udy7 7 reg>d$ z  
greate/ virtues  & consid]$ z be+       
productive ( ! highe/ p[] ,footnote ref 
#d4    ,z ^! ideas ( asceticism &       
self-control grew ! =ce  ( ! fly+       
passions 0 felt to be z uncontrollable z
 t (  a spirit$ /e$1 & ?us ! ^w yoga :i*
 0 orig9ally  appli$ to ! control ( /e$s
 began to be appli$ to ! control  ( !   
s5ses ,footnote ref #e4    ,9 ,pn9i's "t
 ! ^w yoga _h atta9$ its te*nical       
mean+1 & he di/+ui%$ ?is root yuj       
samdhau 7yuj  9 ! s5se ( conc5tration7 f
 yujir yoge 7root yujir 9  ! s5se (     
connect+74 ,yuj 9 ! fir/ s5se is seldom 

us$ z  a v]b4 ,x is m or less an imag9>y
 root = ! etymological  d]ivation ( ! ^w
 yoga ,footnote ref #f4        ,footnote
 #a3 ,see my ,/udy ( ,patanjali1 p4 #fj 
ff4    ,footnote #b3 ,comp>e ,r4,v4,i4  
#cd4 #i_/,,vii4 #fg4 #h_/;,,iii4 #bg4   
,,ii_/,x4 #cj4 ,,ii_/,x4 #aad4          
#i_/;,,iv4 #bd4 #d_/;,i4 #e4 #c_/;,i4   
#cj4 #g2 ,s'atapa?a ,brahmana #ad4 #g4  
,i4 ,,ii4    ,footnote #c3 ,x is        
probably an old ^w ( ! ,aryan /ock2     
comp>e ,g]man  ,jo*1 ,a4,s4 geoc4 l atm 
jugum4    ,footnote #d3 ,see ,*&ogya    
,,iii4 #ag4 #d2 ,brh4 ,i4 #b4 #f2 ,brh4 
,,iii4 #h4 #aj2  ,taitt4 ,i4 #i4        
,i_/,,iii4 #b4 ,i_/,,iii4 #c4 ,i2       
,taitt1 ,brh1 ,,ii4 #b4 #c4 #c2 ,r4,v4x4
 #abi2  ,s'atap4 ,brh4 ,,xi4 #e4 #h4 #a4
    ,footnote #e3 ,ka?a ,,iii4 #d1      
indriyni haynhuh visaytesugoc>n4  ,!    
s5ses are ! horses & :atev] !y grasp are
 _! objects4  ,maitr4 #b4 #f4           
,k>m5driynyasya hayh ! conative s5ses   
are its  horses4    ,footnote #f3       
,yugyah is us$ f ! root ( yujir yoge & n

 f  yuja samdhau4 ,a consid]ation (     
,pan9i's rule ,tadasya brahmac>yam1     
,v4i4 #id %[s t n only diff]5t k9ds (   
asceticism & rig\r :i*  pass$ by ! "n ( 
brahmac>ya 7 preval5t 9 ! c\ntry at ! "t
  7,pn9i z ,gold/ck] has prov$ is       
pre-buddhi/ic71 b associat$ )  ^! _h    
gr[n up a def9ite sy/em ( m5tal         
discipl9e :i* pass$ by  ! "n ( ,yoga4   
#bbg      ,9 ! ,bhagavadgt1 we f9d t !  
^w yoga has be5  us$ n only 9 con=mity )
 ! root yuj-samdhau b  also ) yujir yoge
 ,?is has be5 ! s\rce ( "s confusion  to
 ! read]s ( ! ,bhagavadgt4 ,yog9 9 !    
s5se  ( a p]son :o has lo/ himself 9    
m$itation is !re reg>d$  ) extreme      
v5]ation4 ,"o ( ! ma9 features ( ! use (
  ?is ^w lies 9 ?is t ! ,bhagavadgt tri$
 to m>k out a  middle pa? betwe5 ! au/]e
 discipl9e ( m$itative ab/raction  on ! 
"o h& & ! c\rse ( duties ( sacrificial  
action  ( a ,v$ic wor%ipp] 9 ! life ( a 
new type ( ,yog9 7evid5tly  f yujir     
yoge7 on ! o!r1 :o %\ld comb9e 9 himself
 !  be/ p>ts ( ! two pa?s1 devote       

himself to 8 duties1 & yet  ab/ract     
himself f all selfi% motives associat$ )
 desires4    ,kautilya 9 8 ,ar?as'/ra :5
 enum]at+ ! philosophic  sci5ces ( /udy 
names ,smkhya1 ,yoga1 & ,lokyata4 ,!    
olde/ ,buddhi/ stras 7e4g4 ! ,satipat?na
 sutta7 are fully  famili> ) ! /ages (  
,yoga conc5tration4 ,we may ?us  inf] t 
self-conc5tration & ,yoga _h develop$ z 
a te*nical  me?od ( my/ic absorption "s 
"t be=e ! ,buddha4    ,z reg>ds !       
connection ( ,yoga ) ,smkhya1 z we f9d  
x 9 ! ,yoga stras ( ,patajali1 x is     
inde$ difficult to come to  any def9ite 
conclusion4 ,! sci5ce ( brea? _h        
attract$  notice 9 _m ( ! e>li]         
,upanisads1 ?\gh !re _h n  probably     
develop$ any sy/ematic =m ( prnyma 7a   
sy/em  ( brea? control7 ( ! ,yoga sy/em4
 ,x is only :5 we  come to ,maitryan t  
we f9d t ! ,yoga me?od _h atta9$  a     
sy/ematic developm5t4 ,! o!r two        
,upanisads 9  :i* ! ,yoga ideas c be    
trac$ are ! ,s'vets'vat>a &  ! ,ka?a4 ,x
 is inde$ curi\s to notice t ^! ?ree    

,upanisads ( ,krsna ,yajurv$a1 :]e we   
f9d ref]5ce to ,yoga  me?ods1 are ! only
 ones :]e we f9d cle> ref]5ces also to  
! ,smkhya t5ets1 ?\gh ! ,smkhya & ,yoga 
ideas d n  appe> !re z relat$ to ea* o!r
 or associat$ z p>ts (  ! same sy/em4 ,b
 !re is a rem>kable passage 9 !         
,maitryan 9 ! conv]sation betwe5        
,s'kyyana & ,brhad  ra?a :]e we f9d t ! 
,smkhya metaphysics 0 (f]$    #bbh    9 
"s qu>t]s to expla9 ! validity ( ! ,yoga
 processes1  & x seems !re=e t !        
association & graft+ ( !  ,smkhya       
metaphysics on ! ,yoga sy/em z its      
basis1 0 !  "w ( ! foll[]s ( ?is s*ool (
 ideas :i* 0 subsequ5tly  sy/ematiz$ by 
,patajali4 ,?us ,s'kyyana says3 ,"h "s  
say x is ! guna :i* ?r\gh ! diff]5ces ( 
nature goes  into bondage to ! w1 & t   
deliv]ance takes place :5  ! fault ( ! w
 has be5 remov$1 because he sees by !   
m9d2 & all t we call desire1 imag9ation1
 d\bt1 belief1 unbelief1  c]ta9ty1      
unc]ta9ty1 %ame1 ?\ght1 fe>1 all t is b 
m9d4 ,c>ri$ along by ! waves ( !        

qualities d>k5$ 9  8 imag9ation1        
un/able1 fickle1 crippl$1 full (        
desires1 vacillat+  he ent]s into       
belief1 believ+ ,i am he1 ?is is m9e1 & 
he b9ds 8 self by 8 self z a bird ) a   
net4 ,!re=e1 a  man be+ possess$ ( w1   
imag9ation & belief is a slave1  b he :o
 is ! opposite is free4 ,= ?is reason   
let a man  /& free f w1 imag9ation &    
belief--?is is ! sign (  lib]ty1 ?is is 
! pa? t leads to ,brahman1 ?is is ! op5+
  ( ! door1 & ?r\gh x he w g to ! o!r   
%ore ( d>kness4  ,all desires are !re   
fulfill$4 ,& = ?is1 !y quote a  v]se3   
',:5 ! five in/rum5ts ( k /& /ill toge!r
  ) ! m9d1 & :5 ! intellect does n move1
 t is call$  ! highe/ /ate ,footnote ref
 #a4'    ,an exam9ation ( su* ,yoga     
,upanisads z ,s'ndilya1 ,yogatattva1    
,dhynab9du1 ,hamsa1 ,amrtanda1 ,v>ha1   
,mandala  ,brhmana1 ,ndab9du1 &         
,yogakundal1 %[s t ! ,yoga  practices _h
 und]gone div]se *anges 9 div]se s*ools1
 b  none ( ^! %[ any pr$ilection = !    
,smkhya4 ,?us !  ,yoga practices grew 9 

accordance ) ! doctr9es ( !             
,footnote #a3 ,vtsyyana1 h[ev]1 9 8     
bhsya on ,nyya stra1 ,i4 i #bi1         
di/+ui%es ,smkhya f ,yoga 9 ! foll[+    
way3 ,! ,smkhya holds  t no?+ c come    
into be+ nor be de/roy$1 !re _c be any  
*ange 9 ! pure intellig5ce 7niratis'ayh 
cetanh74 ,all *anges  are due to *anges 
9 ! body1 ! s5ses1 ! manas & ! objects4 
,yoga holds t all creation is due to !  
k>ma ( ! purusa4  ,dsas 7passions7 & !  
pravrtti 7action7 are ! cause ( k>ma4   
,! intellig5ces or s\ls 7cetana7 are    
associat$ ) qualities4 ,non  be+ c come 
into be+ & :at is produc$ may be        
de/roy$4 ,! la/  view is inde$ q diff]5t
 f ! ,yoga ( ,vysabhsya1 ,x is  clos] to
 ,nyya 9 its doctr9es4 ,if ,vtsyyana's  
/atem5t is correct1  x w\ld appe> t !   
doctr9e ( !re be+ a moral purpose 9     
creation 0 borr[$ by ,smkhya f ,yoga4   
,udyotak>a's rem>ks on !  same stra d n 
indicate a diff]5ce b an agreem5t betwe5
 ,smkhya  & ,yoga on ! doctr9e ( !      
indriyas be+ abhautika4 ,curi\sly  en\gh

 ,vtsyyana quotes a passage f           
,vysabhsya1 ,,iii4 #ac1 9 8  bhsya1 ,i4 
ii4 #f1 & criticizes x z                
self-contradictory 7viruddha74    #bbi  
,s'aivas & ,s'aktas & assum$ a peculi>  
=m z ! ,mantrayoga2  !y grew 9 ano!r    
direction z ! ,ha?ayoga :i*  0 suppos$  
to produce my/ic & magical feats ?r\gh  
con/ant practices ( elaborate n]v\s     
ex]cises1 :i* 7 also  associat$ ) heal+ 
& o!r sup]natural p[]s4 ,!  ,yogatattva 
,upanisad says t !re are f\r k9ds (     
yoga1 !  ,mantra ,yoga1 ,laya ,yoga1    
,ha?ayoga & ,rjayoga ,footnote ref #a4  
,9 "s  cases we f9d t !re 0 a great     
attempt ev5 to associate ,v$ntism  ) ^! 
my/ic practices4 ,! influ5ce ( ^!       
practices 9  ! developm5t ( ,tantra &   
o!r modes ( wor%ip 0 also  v great1 b we
 h to leave out ^! f our pres5t         
consid]ation z !y h little philosophic  
importance & z  !y are n connect$ ) our 
pres5t endeav\r4    ,( ! ,ptajala s*ool 
( ,smkhya1 :i* =ms ! subject (  ! ,yoga 
) :i* we are n[ deal+1 ,patajali 0      

probably  ! mo/ notable p]son = he n    
only collect$ ! diff]5t  =ms ( ,yoga    
practices1 & glean$ ! div]se ideas :i*  
7 or c\ld be associat$ ) ! ,yoga1 b     
graft$ !m all  on ! ,smkhya metaphysics1
 & gave !m ! =m 9 :i*  !y h be5 h&$ d[n 
to u4 ,vcaspati & ,vijna  ,bhiksu1 ! two
 great comm5tators on ! ,vysabhsya1     
agree  ) u 9 hold+ t ,patajali 0 n !    
f\nd] ( ,yoga1  b an editor4 ,analytic  
/udy ( ! stras br+s ! conviction  t !   
stras d n %[ any orig9al attempt1 b a   
ma/]ly & sy/ematic compilation :i* 0    
also supplem5t$  by fitt+ contributions4
 ,! sy/ematic mann] also  9 :i* ! fir/  
?ree *apt]s are writt5 by way (         
def9ition  & classification %[s t !     
mat]ials 7 already 9  exi/5ce & t       
,patajali sy/ematiz$ !m4 ,!re 0  no     
missioniz+ zeal1 no attempt to ov]?r[ ! 
doctr9es (  o!r sy/ems1 except z f> z !y
 might come 9 by way (  expla9+ ! sy/em4
 ,patajal is n ev5 anxi\s to e/abli%  ! 
sy/em1 b he is only engag$ 9 sy/ematiz+ 
! facts  z he _h !m4 ,mo/ ( ! criticism 

aga9/ ! ,buddhi/s  occur 9 ! la/ *apt]4 
,! doctr9es ( ! ,yoga are  describ$ 9 ! 
fir/ ?ree *apt]s1 & ?is "p is sep>at$  f
 ! la/ *apt] :]e ! views ( ! ,buddhi/   
are        ,footnote #a3 ,! ,yoga writ] 
,jaigsavya wrote ,dhrans'/ra :i*  dealt 
) ,yoga m 9 ! fa%ion ( ,tantra !n t giv5
 by ,patajali4  ,he m5tions diff]5t     
places 9 ! body 7e4g4 he>t1 ?roat1 tip (
 !  nose1 palate1 =ehead1 c5tre ( !     
bra97 :i* are c5tres ( memory  :]e      
conc5tration is to be made4 ,see        
,vcaspati's ,ttp>yatk or  ,vtsyyana's   
bhsya on ,nyya stra1 ,,iii4 ii4 #dc4    
#bcj    criticiz$2 ! putt+ ( an iti 7!  
^w to d5ote ! conclusion  ( any "w7 at !
 end ( ! ?ird *apt] is evid5tly to      
d5ote ! conclusion ( 8 ,yoga            
compilation4 ,!re is ( c\rse  ano!r iti 
at ! end ( ! f\r? *apt] to d5ote !      
conclusion ( ! :ole "w4 ,! mo/          
legitimate hypo!sis  seems to be t ! la/
 *apt] is a subsequ5t addition by a  h& 
o!r ?an t ( ,patajali :o 0 anxi\s to    
supply  "s new l9ks ( argum5t :i* 7 felt

 to be necess>y =  ! /r5g!n+ ( ! ,yoga  
position f an int]nal po9t (  view1 z   
well z = secur+ ! /r5g? ( ! ,yoga f !   
suppos$ attacks ( ,buddhi/ metaphysics4 
,!re is also a  m>k$ *ange 7due ei!r to 
its supplem5t>y "* or  to ! manipulation
 ( a =eign h&7 9 ! /yle ( ! la/  *apt] z
 comp>$ ) ! /yle ( ! o!r ?ree4    ,!    
stras1 #cj-cd1 ( ! la/ *apt] seem to    
repeat :at  has already be5 said 9 !    
second *apt] & "s ( !  topics introduc$ 
are su* t !y c\ld well h be5  dealt ) 9 
a m relevant mann] 9 connection ) simil>
  discussions 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s4 ,!     
ext5t ( ?is *apt]  is also              
disproportionately small1 z x conta9s   
only #cd stras1  :]eas ! av]age numb] ( 
stras 9 o!r *apt]s is betwe5  #ea to    
#ee4    ,we h n[ to meet ! vex$ "q ( !  
probable date  ( ?is fam\s ,yoga au?or  
,patajali4 ,web] _h tri$ to connect  him
 ) ,kpya ,patam*ala ( ,s'atapa?a        
,brhmana ,footnote ref l2 9  ,ktyyana's 
,v>ttika we get ! "n ,patajali :i* is   
expla9$  by lat] comm5tators z patantah 

ajalayah yasmai 7=  :om ! h&s are fold$ 
z a m>k ( rev]5ce71 b x is inde$        
difficult to come to any conclusion     
m]ely f ! simil>ity (  names4 ,!re is   
h[ev] ano!r !ory :i* id5tifies !  writ] 
( ! great comm5t>y on ,pn9i call$ !     
,mahbhsya  ) ! ,patajali ( ! ,yoga stra4
 ,?is !ory has be5  accept$ by _m we/]n 
s*ol>s probably on ! /r5g? (  "s ,indian
 comm5tators :o id5tifi$ ! two          
,patajalis4  ,( ^! "o is ! writ] ( !    
,patajalic>ita 7,rmabhadra  ,dksta7 :o  
c\ld n h fl\ri%$ e>li] ?an ! eighte5?   
c5tury4 ,! o!r is t cit$ 9 ,s'iv>ma's   
comm5t>y on  ,vsavadatt :i* ,aufre*t    
assigns to ! eighte5? c5tury4  ,! o!r   
two are k+ ,bhoja ( ,dhr &              
,cakrapnidatta1        ,footnote #a3    
,web]'s ,hi/ory ( ,indian ,lit]ature1 p4
 #bbc n4    #bca    ! comm5tator (      
,c>aka1 :o belong$ to ! elev5?  c5tury  
,a4,d4 ,?us ,cakrapni says t he adores !
 ,ahipati  7my?ical s]p5t *ief7 :o      
remov$ ! defects ( m9d1 spee*  & body by
 8 ,ptajala mahbhsya & ! revision (     

,c>aka4 ,bhoja says3 ,victory be to !   
lum9\s words (  t illu/ri\s sov]eign    
,ran>anigamalla :o by compos+ 8  gramm>1
 by writ+ 8 comm5t>y on ! ,patajala & by
  produc+ a treatise on m$ic9e call$    
,rjamrgnka has l !  "l ( ! hold] (      
s]p5ts remov$ defilem5t f spee*1  m9d & 
body4 ,! adoration hymn ( ,vysa 7:i* is 
consid]$  to be an int]polation ev5 by  
or?odox s*ol>s7 is also  bas$ ^u ! same 
tradition4 ,x is n impossible !re=e t  !
 lat] ,indian comm5tators might h made  
"s confusion  betwe5 ! ?ree ,patajalis1 
! gramm>ian1 ! ,yoga editor1  & ! m$ical
 writ] to :om is ascrib$ ! book kn[n z  
,ptajalatantra1 & :o has be5 quot$ by   
,s'ivadsa 9 8  comm5t>y on ,cakradatta 9
 connection ) ! heat+ (  metals4        
,pr(essor ,j4,h4 ,woods ( ,h>v>d        
,univ]sity is !re=e  9 a way ju/ifi$ 9 8
 unwill+ness to id5tify ! gramm>ian  & !
 ,yoga editor on ! sl5d] evid5ce ( ^!   
comm5tators4 ,x is inde$ curi\s to      
notice t ! great  comm5tators ( ! gramm>
 s*ool su* z ,bh>trh>i1 ,kaiyyata1      

,vmana1 ,jayditya1 ,nges'a1 etc4 are    
sil5t on ?is po9t4  ,?is is inde$ a po9t
 aga9/ ! id5tification ( ! two          
,patajalis by "s ,yoga & m$ical         
comm5tators ( a lat]  age4 ,& if o!r    
pro(s are available :i* g aga9/ su*  an 
id5tification1 we c\ld n ?9k ! gramm>ian
 & !  ,yoga writ] to be ! same p]son4   
,let u n[ see if ,patajali's grammatical
 "w conta9s any?+  :i* may lead u to ?9k
 t he 0 n ! same  p]son z ! writ] on    
,yoga4 ,pr(essor ,woods supposes t !    
philosophic concept ( sub/ance 7dravya7 
( ! two ,patajalis  diff]s & !re=e !y _c
 be id5tifi$4 ,he holds t  dravya is    
describ$ 9 ,vysabhsya 9 "o place z be+ !
  unity ( species & qualities           
7smnyavis'estmaka71 :]eas  ! ,mahbhsya  
holds t a dravya d5otes a g5us & also   
specific qualities accord+ z ! emphasis 
or /ress is laid on  ei!r side4 ,i fail 
to see h[ ^! ideas are totally          
antagoni/ic4 ,moreov]1 we "k t ^! two   
views 7 held by    #bcb    ,vydi &      
,vjapyyana 7,vydi hold+ t words d5ot$   

qualities or dravya & ,vjapyyana hold+ t
 words d5ot$  species ,footnote ref #a74
 ,ev5 ,pn9i _h ^! two diff]5t ideas 9   
jtykhyymekasm9 bahuvacanamanyat>asym &  
s>pnamekas'esamekavibhaktau1 & ,patajali
 ! writ] (  ! ,mahbhsya only comb9$ ^!  
two views4 ,?is does n %[  t he opposes 
! view ( ,vysabhsya1 ?\gh we mu/ rememb]
  t ev5 if he did1 t w\ld n prove any?+ 
) reg>d  to ! writ] ( ! stras4 ,moreov]1
 :5 we read t dravya  is spok5 ( 9 !    
,mahbhsya z t object :i* is !  specific 
k9d ( ! conglom]ation ( its p>ts1 j z a 
c[ is  ( its tail1 ho(s1 horns1         
etc4--yat                               
ssnlngulakakudakhuravisny>?>pam1 we are 
rem9d$ (  its simil>ity )               
ayutasiddhvayavabh$nugatah samhah       
dravyam  7a conglom]ation ( int]relat$  
p>ts is call$ dravya7 9 !  ,vysabhsya4  
,s f> z ,i h exam9$ ! ,mahbhsya ,i h  n 
be5 able to discov] any?+ !re :i* c     
w>rant u  9 hold+ t ! two ,patajalis _c 
be id5tifi$4 ,!re  are no d\bt _m app>5t
 div]g5ces ( view1 b ev5  9 ^! x is only

 ! traditional views ( ! old gramm>ians 
t are expos$ & reconcil$1 & x w\ld be v 
unw>rantable  = u to judge any?+ ab\t ! 
p]sonal views  ( ! gramm>ian f !m4 ,i am
 also conv9c$ t !  writ] ( ! ,mahbhsya  
knew mo/ ( ! important po9ts (  !       
,smkhya-,yoga metaphysics2 z a few      
examples ,i may ref]  to ! guna !ory    
7#a4 #b4 #fd1 #d4 #a4 #c71 ! ,smkhya    
dictum ( ex  nihilo nihil fit 7#a4 #a4  
#ef71 ! ideas ( "t 7#b4 #b4 #e1 #c4 #b4 
#abc71 !  idea ( ! return ( simil>s into
 simil>s 7#a4 #a4 #ej71 ! idea (  *ange 
vikra z production ( new qualities      
gunnt>dhna  7#e4 #a4 #b1 #e4 #a4 #c7 & !
 di/9ction ( indriya & ,buddhi 7#c4 #c4 
#acc74  ,we may add to x t ! ,mahbhsya  
agrees ) ! ,yoga  view z reg>ds !       
,sphotavda1 :i* is n held 9 common  by  
any o!r s*ool ( ,indian philosophy4 ,!re
 is also ?is  ext]nal simil>ity1 t      
unlike any o!r "w !y bo? beg9  _! works 
9 a simil> mann] 7a?a yognus'sanam &    
a?as'bdnus'sanam7--n[ beg9s !           
compilation ( !  in/ructions on ,yoga   

7,yoga str7--& n[ beg9s ! compilation  (
 ! in/ructions ( words 7,mahbhsya74     
,x may fur!r be notic$ 9 ?is connection 
t ! argum5ts        ,footnote #a3       
,patajali's ,mahbhsya1 #a4 #b4 #fd4     
#bcc    :i* ,pr(essor ,woods has adduc$ 
to assign ! date ( !  ,yoga stra betwe5 
#cjj & #ejj ,a4,d4 are n at all         
conclusive1  z !y /& on a weak basis2 = 
fir/ly if ! two ,patajalis  _c be       
id5tifi$1 x does n foll[ t ! editor ( ! 
,yoga %\ld necess>ily be made lat]2     
secondly1 ! suppos$  ,buddhi/ ,footnote 
ref #a ref]5ce is f\nd 9 ! f\r? *apt]   
:i*1  z ,i h %[n above1 is a lat]       
int]polation2 ?irdly1 ev5 if !y  7      
writt5 by ,patajali x _c be inf]r$ t    
because  ,vcaspati describes ! opposite 
s*ool z be+ ( ! ,vijna-vdi  type1 we are
 to inf] t ! stras ref] to ,vasub&hu or 
ev5 to ,ngrjuna1 = su* ideas z h be5    
refut$ 9 ! stras  _h be5 develop+ long  
be=e ! "t ( ,ngrjuna4    ,?us we see t  
?\gh ! tradition ( lat] comm5tators  may
 n be accept$ z a suffici5t gr\nd to    

id5tify ! two  ,patajalis1 we _c discov]
 any?+ f a comp>ative  critical /udy ( !
 ,yoga stras & ! text ( ! ,mahbhsya1    
:i* c lead u to say t ! writ] ( ! ,yoga 
stras fl\ri%$ at a lat] date ?an ! o!r  
,patajali4    ,po/pon+ our views ab\t ! 
"t ( ,patajali ! ,yoga  editor1 ,i      
regret ,i h to increase ! confusion by  
introduc+  ! o!r "w ,kitb ,ptanjal1 (   
:i* ,alb]uni speaks1 =  our             
consid]ation4 ,alb]uni consid]s ?is "w z
 a v fam\s  "o & he translates x along )
 ano!r book call$ ,snka  7,smkhya7      
ascrib$ to ,kapila4 ,?is book 0 writt5 9
 !  =m ( dialogue betwe5 ma/] & pupil1 &
 x is c]ta9 t  ?is book 0 n ! pres5t    
,yoga stra ( ,patajali1 ?\gh x  _h !    
same aim z ! latt]1 namely ! se>* =     
lib]ation  & = ! union ( ! s\l ) !      
object ( its m$itation4  ,! book 0 call$
 by ,alb]uni ,kitb ,ptanjal1 :i* is to  
be translat$ z ! book ( ,ptajala1       
because 9 ano!r place1  speak+ ( its    
au?or1 he puts 9 a ,p]sian phrase :i* :5
  translat$ /&s z ! au?or ( ! book (    

,ptanjal4 ,x  _h also an elaborate      
comm5t>y f :i* ,alb]uni quotes  _m      
extracts1 ?\gh he does n tell u !       
au?or's "n4 ,x  treats ( ,god1 s\l1     
bondage1 k>ma1 salvation1 etc41 z we f9d
 9  ! ,yoga stra1 b ! mann] 9 :i* ^! are
 describ$ 7s        ,footnote #a3 ,x is 
important to notice t ! mo/ important   
,buddhi/  ref]5ce n>aika-cittatantram   
va/u tadapramnakam tad kim syt  7,,iv4  
#af7 0 probably a l9e ( ! ,vysabhsya1 z 
,bhoja1 :o _h  consult$ _m comm5t>ies z 
he says 9 ! preface1 does n c\nt  x z   
stra4    #bcd    f> z c be judg$ f !    
copi\s extracts suppli$ by  ,alb]uni7   
%[s t ^! ideas _h und]gone "s *ange  f  
:at we f9d 9 ! ,yoga stra4 ,foll[+ !    
idea ( ,god  9 ,alb]uni we f9d t he     
reta9s 8 "* z a timeless  emancipat$    
be+1 b he speaks1 h&s ov] ! ,v$as &  %[s
 ! way to ,yoga & inspires m5 9 su* a   
way t !y  c\ld obta9 by cogitation :at  
he be/[$ on !m4 ,! "n  ( ,god proves 8  
exi/5ce1 = !re _c exi/ any?+ (  :i* ! "n
 exi/$1 b n ! ?+4 ,! s\l p]ceives  him &

 ?\ght compreh5ds 8 qualities4          
,m$itation is id5tical  ) wor%ipp+ him  
exclusively1 & by practis+ x            
un9t]rupt$ly ! individual comes into    
supreme absorption  ) him & beatitude is
 obta9$ ,footnote ref #a4    ,! idea (  
s\l is ! same z we f9d 9 ! ,yoga stra4  
,! idea ( metempsy*osis is also ! same4 
,he speaks ( !  eight siddhis 7miracul\s
 p[]s7 at ! fir/ /age ( m$itation  on ! 
unity ( ,god4 ,!n foll[ ! o!r f\r /ages 
( m$itation  correspond+ to ! f\r /ages 
we h z 9 ! ,yoga  stra4 ,he gives f\r   
k9ds ( ways = ! a*ievem5t ( salvation1  
( :i* ! fir/ is ! abhysa 7habit7 (      
,patajali1 & !  object ( ?is abhysa is  
unity ) ,god ,footnote ref #b4 ,! second
  /&s = vairgya2 ! ?ird is ! wor%ip (   
,god ) a view to seek  8 fav\r 9 !      
atta9m5t ( salvation 7cf4 ,yoga stra1   
,i4 #bc &  ,i4 #bi74 ,! f\r? is a new   
introduction1 namely t ( rasyana  or    
al*emy4 ,z reg>ds lib]ation ! view is   
almo/ !  same z 9 ! ,yoga stra1 ,,ii4   
#be & ,,iv4 #cd1 b ! lib]at$  /ate is   

spok5 ( 9 "o place z absorption 9 ,god  
or be+  "o ) him4 ,! ,brahman is        
conceiv$ z an urddhvamla  avks'kha      
z'vat?a 7a tree ) roots upw>ds & bran*es
  bel[71 aft] ! ,upanisad fa%ion1 ! upp]
 root is pure  ,brahman1 ! trunk is     
,v$a1 ! bran*es are ! diff]5t  doctr9es 
& s*ools1 its leaves are ! diff]5t modes
 (  int]pretation4 ,its n\ri%m5t comes f
 ! ?ree =ces2 !        ,footnote #a3    
,cf4 ,yoga stra ,i4 #bc-bi & ,,ii4 #a1  
#de4 ,! ,yoga stras  speak ( ,is'vra    
7,god7 z an et]nally emancipat$ purusa1 
omnisci5t1  & ! tea*] ( all pa/ tea*]s4 
,by m$itat+ on him _m ( !  ob/acles su* 
z illness1 etc41 :i* /& 9 ! way ( ,yoga 
practice  are remov$4 ,he is reg>d$ z "o
 ( ! alt]native objects (  conc5tration4
 ,! comm5tator ,vysa notes t he is ! be/
 object1  = be+ drawn t[>ds ! ,yog9 by 8
 conc5tration4 ,he s wills  t he c      
easily atta9 conc5tration & ?r\gh x     
salvation4 ,no  argum5t is giv5 9 !     
,yoga stras ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god4         
,footnote #b3 ,cf4 ,yoga ,,ii4 #a4      

#bce    object ( ! wor%ipp] is to leave 
! tree & g back to !  roots4    ,!      
diff]5ce ( ?is sy/em f t ( ! ,yoga stra 
is3  7#a7 ! conception ( ,god has ris5  
"h to su* an importance  t he has become
 ! only object ( m$itation1 & absorption
  9 him is ! goal2 7#b7 ! importance ( !
 yama ,footnote ref #a &  ! niyama has  
be5 r$uc$ to ! m9imum2 7#c7 ! value ( ! 
,yoga discipl9e z a sep>ate means (     
salvation ap>t f any  connection ) ,god 
z we f9d 9 ! ,yoga stra has be5 lo/     
sight (2 7#d7 lib]ation & ,yoga are     
def9$ z absorption 9  ,god2 7#e7 !      
introduction ( ,brahman2 7#f7 ! v       
significance  ( ,yoga z control ( m5tal 
/ates 7cittartt9irodha7 is lo/  sight (1
 & 7#g7 rasyana 7al*emy7 is introduc$ z 
"o ( !  means ( salvation4    ,f ?is we 
c fairly assume t ?is 0 a new           
modification  ( ! ,yoga doctr9e on !    
basis ( ,patajali's ,yoga stra 9  !     
direction ( ,v$nta & ,tantra1 & z su* x 
probably /&s z ! transition l9k ?r\gh   
:i* ! ,yoga  doctr9e ( ! stras ent]$    

into a new *annel 9 su* a way  t x c\ld 
be easily assimilat$ f !re by lat]      
developm5ts  ( ,v$nta1 ,tantra & ,s'aiva
 doctr9es ,footnote ref #b4 ,z ! au?or  
m5tions rasyana z a means ( salvation1 x
 is v probable  t he fl\ri%$ aft]       
,ng>juna & 0 probably ! same  p]son :o  
wrote ,ptajala tantra1 :o has be5 quot$ 
by  ,s'ivadsa 9 connection ) al*emical  
matt]s & spok5 (  by ,nges'a z ,c>ake   
,patajalih4 ,we c also assume ) "s      
degree ( probability t x is ) ref]5ce to
 ?is man t  ,cakrapani & ,bhoja made !  
confusion ( id5tify+ him )  ! writ] ( ! 
,mahbhsya4 ,x is also v probable t      
,cakrapni  by 8 l9e                     
ptajalamahbhsyac>akapratisamskrtaih     
ref]s to ?is "w :i* 0 call$ ,ptajala4 ,!
 comm5tator  ( ?is "w gives "s          
description ( ! lokas1 dvpas &  ! sg>as1
 :i* runs c\nt] to ! descriptions giv5 9
 !  ,vysabhsya1 ,,iii4 #bf1 & f ?is we c
 inf] t x 0 probably  writt5 at a "t :5 
! ,vysabhsya 0 n writt5  or _h n atta9$ 
any great sanctity or au?ority4 ,alb]uni

        ,footnote #a3 ,alb]uni1 9 8     
acc\nt ( ! book ( ,smkhya1 gives  a li/ 
( comm&m5ts :i* practically is ! same z 
yama & niyama1  b x is said t ?r\gh !m  
"o _c atta9 salvation4    ,footnote #b3 
,cf4 ! acc\nt ( ,ps'upatad>s'ana 9      
,s>vadas'anasamgraha4    #bcf    also   
describ$ ! book z be+ v fam\s at ! "t1 &
  ,bhoja & ,cakrapni also probably      
confus$ him ) ,patajali  ! gramm>ian2 f 
?is we c fairly assume t ?is book  (    
,patajali 0 probably writt5 by "s o!r   
,patajali )9  ! fir/ #cjj or #djj ye>s (
 ! ,*ri/ian era2 & x may n  be          
improbable t :5 ,vysabhsya quotes 9     
,,iii4 #dd z iti  ,patajalih1 he ref]s  
to ?is ,patajali4    ,! conception (    
,yoga z we meet x 9 ! ,maitryana        
,upanisad consi/$ ( six angas or        
accessories1 namely prnyma1  pratyhra1  
dhyna1 dh>an1 t>ka & samdhi ,footnote   
ref #a4  ,comp>+ ?is li/ ) t ( ! li/ 9 !
 ,yoga stras we f9d  t two new elem5ts h
 be5 add$1 & t>ka has be5  replac$ by   
sana4 ,n[ f ! acc\nt ( ! sixty-two      

h]esies giv5 9 ! ,brahmajla sutta we "k 
t !re 7  p :o ei!r f m$itation ( ?ree   
degrees or ?r\gh  logic & reason+ _h    
come to believe t bo? ! ext]nal  _w z a 
:ole & individual s\ls 7 et]nal4 ,f !   
association ( ?is la/ m5tion$ logical   
s*ool ) ! ,samdhi  or ,dhyna s*ool z    
belong+ to "o class ( ?9k]s call$       
s's'vatavda1 & f ! inclusion ( t>ka z an
 anga 9  samdhi1 we c fairly assume t ! 
la/ ( ! angas giv5 9  ,maitryan         
,upanisad repres5ts ! olde/ li/ ( !     
,yoga doctr9e1  :5 ! ,smkhya & ! ,yoga 7
 9 a process ( be+  graft$ on ea* o!r1 &
 :5 ! ,samkhya me?od ( discussion  did n
 /& z a me?od indep5d5t ( ! ,yoga4 ,!   
sub/itution ( sana = t>ka 9 ! li/ (     
,patajali %[s t  ! ,yoga _h develop$ a  
me?od sep>ate f ! ,samkhya4  ,!         
introduction ( ahims 7non-injury71 satya
 7tru?fulness71  a/eya 7want ( /eal+71  
brahmac>yya 7sex-control71 ap>igraha    
7want ( gre$7 z yama & s'auca 7purity71 
santosa 7cont5tm5t7  z niyama1 z a sy/em
 ( morality )\t :i* ,yoga is  deem$     

impossible 7= ! fir/ "t 9 ! stras71     
probably  m>ks ! p]iod :5 ! disputes    
betwe5 ! ,h9dus & !  ,buddhi/s _h n     
become s ke54 ,! introduction ( maitr1  
k>un1 mudit1 upeks is also equally      
significant1 z we d n  f9d !m m5tion$ 9 
su* a prom95t =m 9 any o!r  lit]ature ( 
! ,h9dus deal+ ) ! subject (            
emancipation4  ,beg9n+ f ! crngastra1   
,utt>dhyayanastra1        ,footnote #a3 
prnymah pratyhrah dhynam dh>an t>kah    
samdhih  sadanga ityucyate yoga 7,maitr4
 #f #h74    #bcg    ! ,strakrtngastra1  
etc41 & pass+ ?r\gh ,umsvati's          
,tattvr?dhigamastra to ,hemac&ra's      
,yogas'/ra we f9d t  ! ,ja9s _h be5     
f\nd+ _! ,yoga discipl9e ma9ly on !     
basis ( a sy/em ( morality indicat$ by !
 yamas1 & !  op9ion express$ 9          
,alb]uni's ,ptanjal t ^! _c give        
salvation m>ks ! div]g5ce ( ! ,h9dus 9  
lat] days f  ! ,ja9s4 ,ano!r important  
*>act]i/ic ( ,yoga is its  ?or\ghly     
pessimi/ic tone4 ,its treatm5t ( sorr[ 9
 connection  ) ! /atem5t ( ! scope &    

ideal ( ,yoga is !  same z t ( ! f\r    
sacr$ tru?s ( ! ,buddhi/s1 namely       
suff]+1 orig9 ( suff]+1 ! removal (     
suff]+1 & ( !  pa? to ! removal ( suff]+
 ,footnote ref #a4 ,aga91 ! metaphysics 
( ! samsra 7rebir?7 cycle 9 connection )
 sorr[1 orig9ation1  decease1 rebir?1   
etc4 is describ$ ) a rem>kable degree ( 
simil>ity ) ! cycle ( causes z describ$ 
9 e>ly ,buddhism4  ,avidy is plac$ at ! 
head ( ! gr\p2 yet ?is avidy %\ld  n be 
confus$ ) ! ,v$nta avidy ( ,s'ank>a1 z x
 is an  avidy ( ! ,buddhi/ type2 x is n 
a cosmic p[] ( illusion  nor any?+ l a  
my/]i\s orig9al s91 b x is )9 !  range (
 e>?ly tangible reality4 ,yoga avidy is 
! ignorance  ( ! f\r sacr$ tru?s1 z we h
 9 ! stra  anitys'uciduhkhntmasu        
nityas'uciduhkhtmakhytiravidy 7,,ii4    
#e74    ,! gr\nd ( our exi/+ is our w to
 live 7abh9ives'a74  ,?is is our besett+
 s9 t we w to be1 t we w to be          
ourselves1 t we fondly w our be+ to bl5d
 ) o!r k9ds  ( exi/5ce & ext5d4 ,!      
negation ( ! w to be1 cuts  (f be+ = u  

at lea/ ,footnote ref #b4 ,?is is true z
 mu* (  ,buddhism z ( ! ,yoga           
abh9ives'a1 :i* is a t]m co9$ & us$ 9  !
 ,yoga = ! fir/ "t to suit ! ,buddhi/   
idea1 & :i* has  nev] be5 accept$1 s f> 
z ,i "k1 9 any o!r ,h9du  lit]ature 9   
?is s5se4 ,my sole aim 9 po9t+ out ^!   
?+s  9 ?is section is to %[ t ! ,yoga   
stras prop] 7fir/ ?ree  *apt]s7 7       
compos$ at a "t :5 ! lat] =ms (         
,buddhism _h n develop$1 & :5 ! qu>rels 
betwe5  ! ,h9dus & ! ,buddhi/s & ,ja9s  
_h n rea*$ su*        ,footnote #a3     
,yoga stra1 ,,ii4 #ae1 #af4 #ag4        
,ya?cikitss'/ram  caturvyham rogo       
rogahetuh rogyam bhais'ajyamiti         
evamidamapi  s'/ram caturvyhameva2      
tadya? samsrah1 samsrahetuh moksah      
moksopyah2 duhkhabahulah samsro heyah1  
pradhnapurusayoh  samyogo heyahetuh1    
samyogasytyantik nivrttirhnam hanopyah  
samyagd>sanam1 ,vysabhsya1 ,,ii4 #ae    
,footnote #b3 ,old5b]g's ,buddhism      
,footnote ref #a4    #bch    a /age t !y
 w\ld n l to borr[ f "o ano!r4  ,z ?is c

 only be held true ( e>li] ,buddhism ,i 
am dispos$  to ?9k t ! date ( ! fir/    
?ree *apt]s ( ! ,yoga  stras mu/ be     
plac$ ab\t ! second c5tury ,b4,c4 ,s9ce 
!re  is no evid5ce :i* c /& 9 ! way (   
id5tify+ !  gramm>ian ,patajali ) !     
,yoga writ]1 ,i believe we may  take !m 
z be+ id5tical ,footnote ref #a4      ,!
 ,smkhya & ! ,yoga ,doctr9e ( ,s\l or   
,purusa4    ,! ,smkhya philosophy z we h
 x n[ admits two pr9ciples1  s\ls &     
prakrti1 ! root pr9ciple ( matt]4 ,s\ls 
are  _m1 l ! ,ja9a s\ls1 b !y are )\t   
p>ts & qualities4  ,!y d n contract or  
exp& accord+ z !y occupy a  small] or a 
l>g] body1 b are always all-p]vasive1 & 
are  n conta9$ 9 ! bodies 9 :i* !y are  
manife/$4 ,b  ! relation betwe5 body or 
r ! m9d associat$ ) x  & s\l is su* t   
:atev] m5tal ph5om5a happ5 9 !  m9d are 
int]pret$ z ! exp]i5ce ( its s\l4 ,!    
s\ls are  _m1 & _h x n be5 s 7! ,smkhya 
argues7 ) !  bir? ( "o all w\ld h be5   
born & ) ! dea? ( "o  all w\ld h di$    
,footnote ref #b4    ,! exact nature (  

s\l is h[ev] v difficult ( compreh5sion1
  & yet x is exactly ?is :i* "o mu/     
?or\ghly  grasp 9 ord] to und]/& !      
,smkhya philosophy4 ,unlike  ! ,ja9a s\l
 possess+ anantajna1 anantad>s'ana1     
anantasukha1  & anantavryya1 ! ,smkhya  
s\l is describ$ z be+  devoid ( any & e 
*>act]i/ic2 b its nature is absolute    
pure consci\sness 7cit74 ,! ,smkhya view
 diff]s f  ! ,v$nta1 fir/ly 9 ?is t x   
does n consid] ! s\l to  be ( ! nature (
 pure intellig5ce & bliss 7n&a7         
,footnote ref  #c4 ,bliss ) ,smkhya is b
 ano!r "n = pleasure & z su* x  belongs 
to prakrti & does n con/itute ! nature (
 s\l2  secondly1 accord+ to ,v$nta !    
individual s\ls 7,jva7 are              
,footnote #a3 ,see ,s4,n4 ,das ,gupta1  
,yoga ,philosophy 9 relation to o!r     
,indian sy/ems ( ?\ght1 *4 ,,ii4 ,! mo/ 
important po9t 9 fav\r  ( ?is           
id5tification seems to be t bo? !       
,patajalis z aga9/  ! o!r ,indian sy/ems
 admitt$ ! doctr9e ( sphota :i* 0  d5i$ 
ev5 by ,smkhya4 ,on ! doctr9e ( ,sphota 

see my ,/udy  ( ,patanjali1 ,app5dix ,i4
    ,footnote #b3 ,krik1 #ah4           
,footnote #c3 ,see ,citsukha's          
,tattvapradpik1 ,,iv4    #bci    b      
illusory manife/ations ( "o s\l or pure 
consci\sness !  ,brahman1 b accord+ to  
,smkhya !y are all real & _m4    ,! mo/ 
int]e/+ feature ( ,smkhya z ( ,v$nta is 
! analysis ( k4 ,smkhya holds t our k  (
 ?+s are m]e ideational pictures or     
images4 ,ext]nal ?+s  are inde$ mat]ial1
 b ! s5se data & images ( ! m9d1  ! com+
 & go+ ( :i* is call$ k1 are also 9  "s 
s5se matt]-/uff1 s9ce !y are limit$ 9 _!
 nature  l ! ext]nal ?+s4 ,! s5se-data &
 images come & g1  !y are (t5 !         
prototypes1 or photographs ( ext]nal    
?+s1  & z su* ought to be consid]$ z 9  
"s s5se mat]ial1  b ! matt] ( :i* ^! are
 compos$ is ! subtle/4  ,^! images ( !  
m9d c\ld n h appe>$ z consci\s1  if !re 
7 no sep>ate pr9ciples ( consci\sness 9 
connection  ) :i* ! :ole consci\s plane 
c\ld be int]pret$  z ! exp]i5ce ( a     
p]son ,footnote ref #a4 ,we "k t !      

,upanisads consid] ! s\l or atman z pure
 & inf9ite  consci\sness1 di/9ct f ! =ms
 ( k1 ! ideas1  & ! images4 ,9 our      
ord9>y ways ( m5tal analysis we d n     
detect t b5ea? ! =ms ( k !re is "s o!r  
pr9ciple  :i* has no *ange1 no =m1 b :i*
 is l a light :i*  illum9es ! mute1     
pictorial =ms :i* ! m9d assumes4  ,!    
self is no?+ b ?is light4 ,we all speak 
( our self  b we h no m5tal picture ( ! 
self z we h ( o!r  ?+s1 yet 9 all our k 
we seem to "k our self4 ,!  ,ja9s _h    
said t ! s\l 0 veil$ by k>ma matt]1 &  e
 act ( k meant only ! p>tial removal ( !
  veil4 ,smkhya says t ! self _c be f\nd
 z an image  ( k1 b t is because x is a 
di/9ct1 transc5d5t  pr9ciple1 ^: real   
nature z su* is beh9d or beyond ! subtle
  matt] ( k4 ,our cognitions1 s f> z !y 
are m]e =ms  or images1 are m]ely       
compositions or complexes ( subtle      
m9d-sub/ance1  & ?us are l a %eet (     
pa9t$ canvas imm]s$  9 d>kness2 z !     
canvas gets pr9ts f outside & moves1  ! 
pictures appe> "o by "o be=e ! light &  

arc illum9at$4  ,s x is ) our k4 ,!     
special *>act]i/ic  ( self is t x is l a
 light1 )\t :i* all k w\ld  be bl9d4 ,=m
 & motion are ! *>act]i/ics ( matt]1 &  
,footnote #a3 ,tattakaumud #e2          
,yogavrttika1 ,,iv4 #bb2                
,vijnmrtabhsya1 p4 #gd2 ,yogavrttika &  
,tattvavais'rad1  ,i4 #d1 ,,ii4 #f1 #ah1
 #bj2 ,vysabhsya1 ,i4 #f1 #g4    #bdj   
s f> z k is m]e limit$ =m & movem5t x is
 !  same z matt]2 b !re is "s o!r       
pr9ciple :i* enliv5s  ^! k-=ms1 by      
virtue ( :i* !y become consci\s4  ,?is  
pr9ciple ( consci\sness 7cit7 _c inde$  
be  sep>ately p]ceiv$ p] se1 b ! pres5ce
 ( ?is pr9ciple 9  all our =ms ( k is   
di/9ctly indicat$ by inf]5ce4  ,?is     
pr9ciple ( consci\sness has no motion1  
no =m1 no quality1  no impurity         
,footnote ref #a4 ,! movem5t ( ! k-/uff 
takes  place 9 relation to x1 s t x is  
illum9at$ z consci\sness by x1  &       
produces ! appe>ance ( itself z und]go+ 
all *anges  ( k & exp]i5ces ( pleasure &
 pa94 ,ea* item  ( k s f> z x is an     

image or a picture ( "s sort is  b a    
subtle k-/uff :i* has be5 illum9$ by !  
pr9ciple ( consci\sness1 b s f> z ea*   
item ( k  c>ries ) x ! awak5+ or !      
enliv5+ ( consci\sness1  x is !         
manife/ation ( ! pr9ciple (             
consci\sness4  ,k-revelation is n j !   
unveil+ or revelation ( a  p>ticul> "p (
 ! self1 z ! ,ja9s suppos$1 b x is a    
revelation  ( ! self only s f> z k is   
pure awak5+1 pure enliv5+1  pure        
consci\sness4 ,s f> z ! cont5t ( k or ! 
image is  conc]n$1 x is n ! revelation (
 self b is ! bl9d  k-/uff4    ,!        
,buddhi/s _h analys$ k into its div]se  
con/itu5t  p>ts1 & _h held t ! com+     
toge!r ( ^!  br\ght ab\t ! consci\s     
/ates4 ,?is com+ toge!r 0  to !m ! po9t 
( ! illusory notion ( self1 s9ce ?is    
unity  or com+ toge!r 0 n a p]man5t ?+ b
 a mom5t>y  collocation4 ,) ,smkhya     
h[ev] ! self1 ! pure cit1 is  nei!r     
illusory nor an ab/raction2 x is        
concrete b transc5d5t4  ,com+ into t\* )
 x gives unity to all ! movem5ts  ( !   

k-composites ( subtle /uff1 :i* w\ld    
o!rwise  h rema9$ aimless & un9tellig5t4
 ,x is by com+ into  connection ) ?is   
pr9ciple ( intellig5ce t !y are         
int]pret$  z ! sy/ematic & coh]5t       
exp]i5ce ( a p]son1 &  may ?us be said  
to be intelligiz$4 ,intelligiz+ means ! 
expression & int]pretation ( ! ev5ts or 
! happ5+s (        ,footnote #a3 ,x is  
important to note t ,smkhya has two t]ms
 to d5ote  ! two aspects involv$ 9 k1   
viz4 ! relat+ elem5t (  aw>5ess z su*   
7cit7 & ! cont5t 7buddhi7 :i* is ! =m  (
 ! m9d-/uff repres5t+ ! s5se-data & !   
image4 ,cognition  takes place by !     
reflection ( ! =m] 9 ! latt]4    #bda   
k 9 connection ) a p]son1 s z to make !m
 a  sy/em ( exp]i5ce4 ,?is pr9ciple (   
intellig5ce is call$  purusa4 ,!re is a 
sep>ate purusa 9 ,smkhya = ea*          
individual1  & x is ( ! nature ( pure   
intellig5ce4 ,! ,v$nta  tman h[ev] is   
diff]5t f ! ,smkhya purusa 9 ?is t  x is
 "o & is ( ! nature ( pure intellig5ce1 
pure be+1  & pure bliss4 ,x alone is !  

reality & by illusory my x  appe>s z _m4
      ,?\ght & ,matt]4    ,a "q         
naturally arises1 t if ! k =ms are  made
 up ( "s sort ( /uff z ! objective =ms (
 matt]  are1 :y !n %\ld ! purusa        
illum9ate x & n ext]nal  mat]ial        
objects4 ,! answ] t ,smkhya gives is t !
  k-complexes are c]ta9ly diff]5t f     
ext]nal objects  9 ?is1 t !y are f>     
subtl] & h a prepond]ance  ( a special  
quality ( pla/icity & transluc5ce       
7sattva71 :i*  resembles ! light (      
purusa1 & is ?us fit = reflect+ &       
absorb+ ! light ( ! purusa4 ,! two      
pr9cipal *>act]i/ics  ( ext]nal gross   
matt] are mass & en]gy4 ,b x  has also !
 o!r *>act]i/ic ( all[+ itself to be    
photograph$  by our m9d2 ?is            
?\ght-photograph ( matt] has  aga9 !    
special privilege ( be+ s transluc5t z  
to be able  to cat* ! reflection ( !    
cit--! sup]-transluc5t transc5d5t       
pr9ciple ( intellig5ce4 ,! fundam5tal   
*>act]i/ic  ( ext]nal gross matt] is its
 mass2 en]gy is common to  bo? gross    

matt] & ! subtle ?\ght-/uff4 ,b mass is 
at its l[e/ m9imum 9 ?\ght-/uff1 :]eas !
 capacity  ( transluc5ce1 or :at may be 
o!rwise designat$ z !  intellig5ce-/uff1
 is at its highe/ 9 ?\ght-/uff4 ,b if ! 
gross matt] _h none ( ! *>act]i/ics (   
transluc5ce t  ?\ght possesses1 x c\ld n
 h made itself an object (  ?\ght2 =    
?\ght trans=ms itself into ! %ape1      
col\r1  & o!r *>act]i/ics ( ! ?+ :i* has
 be5 made its  object4 ,?\ght c\ld n h  
copi$ ! matt]1 if ! matt]  did n possess
 "s ( ! ess5tial sub/ances ( :i* !  copy
 0 made up4 ,b ?is pla/ic entity        
7sattva7 :i* is  s pr$om9ant 9 ?\ght is 
at its l[e/ limit ( subord9ation  9     
matt]4 ,simil>ly mass is n notic$ 9     
?\ght1 b "s  su* notions z are associat$
 ) mass may be disc]nible 9    #bdb     
?\ght2 ?us ! images ( ?\ght are limit$1 
sep>ate1 h  movem5t1 & h m or less cle> 
cut =ms4 ,! images  d n ext5d 9 space1 b
 !y c repres5t space4 ,! transluc5t  &  
pla/ic elem5t ( ?\ght 7sattva7 9        
association )  movem5t 7rajas7 w\ld h   

result$ 9 a simultane\s revelation  (   
all objects2 x is on acc\nt ( mass or   
t5d5cy ( ob/ruction  7tamas7 t k proce$s
 f image to image & discloses  ?+s 9 a  
successive mann]4 ,! buddhi 7?\ght-/uff7
  holds )9 x all k imm]s$ z x 7 9 utt]  
d>kness1  & actual k comes be=e our view
 z ?\gh  by ! removal ( ! d>kness or    
veil1 by ! reflection ( !  light ( !    
purusa4 ,?is *>act]i/ic ( k1 t all its  
/ores are hidd5 z if lo/ at any mom5t1 &
 only "o picture  or idea comes at a "t 
to ! ar5a ( revelation1 demon/rates  t 9
 k !re is a factor ( ob/ruction :i*     
manife/s  itself 9 its full actuality 9 
gross matt] z mass4 ,?us bo?  ?\ght &   
gross matt] are made up ( ?ree elem5ts1 
a  pla/icity ( intellig5ce-/uff         
7sattva71 en]gy-/uff 7rajas71 &         
mass-/uff 7tamas71 or ! factor (        
ob/ruction4 ,( ^! ! la/  two are        
pr$om9ant 9 gross matt] & ! fir/ two 9  
?\ght4      ,feel+s1 ! ,ultimate        
,sub/ances ,footnote ref #a4    ,ano!r  
"q t arises 9 ?is connection is !       

position  ( feel+ 9 su* an analysis (   
?\ght & matt]4 ,smkhya  holds t ! ?ree  
*>act]i/ic con/itu5ts t we h  analyz$ j 
n[ are feel+ sub/ances4 ,feel+ is ! mo/ 
int]e/+ side ( our consci\sness4 ,x is 9
 our feel+s t  we ?9k ( our ?\ghts z be+
 p>ts ( ourselves4 ,if we  %\ld analyze 
any p]cept into ! crude & undevelop$    
s5sations ( :i* x is compos$ at ! fir/  
mom5t ( its  appe>ance1 x comes m z a   
%ock ?an z an image1 &  we f9d t x is   
felt m z a feel+ mass ?an z an image4   
,ev5 9 our ord9>y life ! elem5ts :i*    
prec$e an act (  k are probably m]e     
feel+s4 ,z we g l[] d[n  ! scale (      
evolution ! automatic actions &         
relations (  matt] are concomitant )    
crude manife/ations ( feel+  :i* nev]   
rise to ! level ( k4 ,! l[] ! scale  (  
evolution ! less is ! ke5ness ( feel+1  
till at la/ !re  comes a /age :]e       
matt]-complexes d n give rise to feel+  
,footnote #a3 ,krik1 #ab1 ) ,gaudpda &  
,nryanatr?a4    #bdc    reactions b to  
m]e physical reactions4 ,feel+s ?us m>k 

! e>lie/ track ( consci\sness1 :e!r we  
look at x f !  po9t ( view ( evolution  
or ( ! g5esis ( consci\sness 9  ord9>y  
life4 ,:at we call matt] complexes      
become at a c]ta9  /age feel+-complexes 
& :at we call feel+-complexes at  a     
c]ta9 /age ( desc5t s9k into m]e        
matt]-complexes )  matt] reaction4 ,!   
feel+s are !re=e ! ?+s-9-!mselves1  !   
ultimate sub/ances ( :i* consci\sness & 
gross  matt] are made up4 ,ord9>ily a   
difficulty might be felt 9  tak+ feel+s 
to be ! ultimate sub/ances ( :i* gross  
matt] & ?\ght are made up2 = we are m   
accu/om$  to take feel+s z be+ m]ely    
subjective1 b if we rememb]  ! ,smkhya  
analysis1 we f9d t x holds t ?\ght &    
matt] are b two diff]5t modifications ( 
c]ta9 subtle sub/ances  :i* are 9 ess5ce
 b ?ree types ( feel+ entities4  ,! ?ree
 pr9cipal *>act]i/ics ( ?\ght & matt] t 
we  h notic$ 9 ! prec$+ section are b ! 
manife/ations  ( ?ree types ( feel+     
sub/ances4 ,!re is ! class ( feel+s  t  
we call ! sorr[ful1 !re is ano!r class (

 feel+s t  we call pleasurable1 & !re is
 /ill ano!r class :i* is nei!r  sorr[ful
 nor pleasurable1 b is "o ( ignorance1  
depression  7visda7 or dullness4 ,?us   
correspond+ to ^! ?ree types (          
manife/ations z pleasure1 pa91 &        
dullness1 & mat]ially z  %9+ 7praks'a71 
en]gy 7pravrtti71 ob/ruction 7niyama71  
!re  are ?ree types ( feel+-sub/ances   
:i* mu/ be reg>d$ z  ! ultimate ?+s :i* 
make up all ! div]se k9ds ( gross  matt]
 & ?\ght by _! v>y+ modifications4      
,! ,gunas ,footnote ref #a4    ,^! ?ree 
types ( ultimate subtle entities are    
te*nically  call$ guna 9 ,smkhya        
philosophy4 ,guna 9 ,sanskrit has ?ree  
mean+s1 namely 7#a7 quality1 7#b7 rope1 
7#c7 n prim>y4 ,^!  entities1 h[ev]1 are
 sub/ances & n m]e qualities4 ,b x  may 
be m5tion$ 9 ?is connection t 9 ,smkhya 
philosophy  !re is no sep>ate exi/5ce ( 
qualities2 x holds t ea*  & e unit (    
quality is b a unit ( sub/ance4 ,:at  we
 call quality is b a p>ticul>           
manife/ation or appe>ance  ( a subtle   

entity4 ,?+s d n possess quality1 b     
quality        ,footnote #a3            
,yogavrttika1 ,,ii4 #ah2 ,bhvganes'a's  
,tattvay?r?yadpana1 pp4 #a-c2           
,vijnmrtabhsya1  p4 #ajj2 ,tattvakaumud1
 #ac2 also ,gaudapda & ,nryanatr?a1 #ac4
    #bdd    signifies m]ely ! mann] 9   
:i* a sub/ance reacts2 any  object we   
see seems to possess _m qualities1 b !  
,smkhya  holds t correspond+ to ea* & e 
new unit ( quality1  h[ev] f9e & subtle 
x may be1 !re is a correspond+  subtle  
entity1 ! reaction ( :i* is int]pret$ by
 u z a  quality4 ,?is is true n only (  
qualities ( ext]nal objects  b also (   
m5tal qualities z well4 ,^! ultimate    
entities  7 ?us call$ gunas probably to 
sugge/ t !y are !  entities :i* by _!   
v>i\s modifications manife/ !mselves  z 
gunas or qualities4 ,^! subtle entities 
may also be  call$ gunas 9 ! s5se (     
ropes because !y are l ropes  by :i* !  
s\l is *a9$ d[n z if x 7 to ?\ght &     
matt]4 ,^! may also be call$ gunas z ?+s
 ( second>y  importance1 because ?\gh   

p]man5t & inde/ructible1 !y  cont9ually 
suff] modifications & *anges by _!      
mutual  gr\p+s & re-gr\p+s1 & ?us n     
prim>ily & unalt]ably  con/ant l ! s\ls 
7purusa74 ,moreov] ! object ( !  _w     
process be+ ! enjoym5t & salvation ( !  
purusas1  ! matt]-pr9ciple c\ld n       
naturally be reg>d$ z be+ (  prim>y     
importance4 ,b 9 :atev] s5ses we may be 
incl9$  to ju/ify ! "n guna z appli$ to 
^! subtle entities1 x  %\ld be borne 9  
m9d t !y are sub/antive entities or     
subtle sub/ances & n ab/ract qualities4 
,^! gunas are  inf9ite 9 numb]1 b 9     
accordance ) _! ?ree ma9 *>act]i/ics  z 
describ$ above !y h be5 arrang$ 9 ?ree  
classes or types  call$ sattva          
7intellig5ce-/uff71 rajas 7en]gy-/uff7 &
 tamas  7mass-/uff74 ,an inf9ite numb] (
 subtle sub/ances :i* agree 9  c]ta9    
*>act]i/ics ( self-%9+ or pla/icity are 
call$ !  sattva-gunas & ^? :i* behave z 
units ( activity are call$  ! rajo-gunas
 & ^? :i* behave z factors ( ob/ruction1
  mass or mat]iality are call$          

tamo-gunas4 ,^! subtle guna  sub/ances  
are unit$ 9 diff]5t proportions 7e4g4 a 
l>g] numb]  ( sattva sub/ances ) a less]
 numb] ( rajas or tamas1 or a  l>g]     
numb] ( tamas sub/ances ) a small] numb]
 ( rajas &  sattva sub/ances & s on 9   
v>y+ proportions71 & z a result  ( ?is1 
diff]5t sub/ances ) diff]5t qualities   
come into be+4  ,?\gh atta*$ to "o ano!r
 :5 unit$ 9 diff]5t proportions1  !y    
mutually act & react ^u "o ano!r1 & ?us 
by _! comb9$  resultant produce new     
*>act]s1 qualities & sub/ances4 ,!re is 
h[ev]    #bde    "o & only "o /age 9 :i*
 ! gunas are n comp\nd$  9 v>y+         
proportions4 ,9 ?is /ate ea* ( ! guna   
sub/ances is oppos$ by ea* ( ! o!r guna 
sub/ances1 &  ?us by _! equal mutual    
opposition create an equilibrium1 9  :i*
 none ( ! *>act]s ( ! gunas manife/     
!mselves4  ,?is is a /ate :i* is s      
absolutely devoid ( all *>act]i/ics  t x
 is absolutely incoh]5t1 indet]m9ate1 & 
indef9ite4 ,x  is a qualitiless simple  
homog5eity4 ,x is a /ate ( be+ :i*  is z

 x 7 non-be+4 ,?is /ate ( ! mutual      
equilibrium  ( ! gunas is call$ prakrti 
,footnote ref #a4 ,?is is a /ate :i*  _c
 be said ei!r to exi/ or to non-exi/ = x
 s]ves no purpose1  b x is hypo!tically 
! "m ( all ?+s4 ,?is is h[ev] !  e>lie/ 
/age1 by ! break+ ( :i*1 lat] on1 all   
modifications  take place4      ,prakrti
 & its ,evolution4    ,smkhya believes t
 be=e ?is _w came into be+ !re  0 su* a 
/ate ( dissolution--a /ate 9 :i* ! guna 
comp\nds  _h dis9tegrat$ into a /ate (  
disunion & _h by _!  mutual opposition  
produc$ an equilibrium ! prakrti4 ,!n   
lat] on di/urbance arose 9 ! prakrti1 & 
z a result ( t a  process ( unequal     
aggregation ( ! gunas 9 v>y+ proportions
  took place1 :i* br\ght =? ! creation (
 ! manifold4  ,prakrti1 ! /ate ( p]fect 
homog5eity & incoh]5ce ( !  gunas1 ?us  
gradually evolv$ & became m & m         
det]m9ate1  diff]5tiat$1 het]og5e\s1 &  
coh]5t4 ,! gunas are  always unit+1     
sep>at+1 & unit+ aga9 ,footnote ref #b4 
,v>y+  qualities ( ess5ce1 en]gy1 & mass

 9 v>i$ gr\p+s act on "o  ano!r & ?r\gh 
_! mutual int]action & int]dep5d5ce     
evolve  f ! indef9ite or qualitatively  
indet]m9ate ! def9ite or  qualitatively 
det]m9ate4 ,& ?\gh co-op]at+ to produce 
! _w ( effects1 ^! div]se mom5ts )      
div]se t5d5cies  nev] coalesce4 ,?us 9 !
 ph5om5al product :atev] en]gy  !re is  
is due to ! elem5t ( rajas & rajas      
alone2 all matt]1  resi/ance1 /ability1 
is due to tamas1 & all consci\s         
manife/ation  to sattva4 ,! p>ticul>    
guna :i* happ5s to be pr$om9ant  9 any  
ph5om5on becomes manife/ 9 t ph5om5on & 
o!rs become lat5t1 ?\gh _! pres5ce is   
inf]r$ by _!        ,footnote #a3       
,yogavrttika1 ,,ii4 #ai1 &              
,pravacanabhsya1 ,i4 #fa4    ,footnote  
#b3 ,kaumud #ac-af2 ,tattvavais'rad     
,,ii4 #bj1 ,,iv4 #ac1 #ad2 also         
,yogavrttika1 ,,iv4 #ac1ad4    #bdf     
effect4 ,?us1 = example1 9 a body at re/
 mass is pat5t1 en]gy  lat5t &          
pot5tiality ( consci\s manife/ation     
sublat5t4 ,9 a  mov+ body1 ! rajas is   

pr$om9ant 7k9etic7 & ! mass is  p>tially
 ov]come4 ,all ^! trans=mations ( !     
gr\p+s (  ! gunas 9 diff]5t proportions 
presuppose ! /ate ( prakrti  z ! />t+   
po9t4 ,x is at ?is /age t ! t5d5cies to 
consci\s manife/ation1 z well z ! p[]s (
 do+ "w1 are  exactly c\nt]balanc$ by ! 
resi/ance ( in]tia or mass1  & ! process
 ( cosmic evolution is at re/4 ,:5 ?is  
equilibrium  is once de/roy$1 x is      
suppos$ t out ( a natural  aff9ity ( all
 ! sattva reals = !mselves1 ( rajas     
reals = o!r  reals ( _! type1 ( tamas   
reals = o!rs ( _! type1 !re  arises an  
unequal aggregation ( sattva1 rajas1 or 
tamas at diff]5t  mom5ts4 ,:5 "o guna is
 prepond]ant 9 any p>ticul>             
collocation1 ! o!rs are co-op]ant4 ,?is 
evolution>y s]ies  beg9n+ f ! fir/      
di/urbance ( ! prakrti to ! f9al        
trans=mation z ! _w-ord]1 is subject to 
a def9ite law  :i* x _c ov]/ep4 ,9 !    
words ( ,dr ,b4,n4,seal ,footnote ref   
#a1  ! process ( evolution consi/s 9 !  
developm5t ( ! diff]5tiat$  7vaisamya7  

)9 ! undiff]5tiat$ 7smyva/h7 ( !        
det]m9ate 7vies'a7 )9 ! indet]m9ate     
7avis'esa7 ( !  coh]5t 7yutasiddha7 )9 !
 incoh]5t 7ayutasiddha74 ,!  ord] (     
succession is nei!r f p>ts to :ole nor f
 :ole to !  p>ts1 b ev] f a relatively  
less diff]5tiat$1 less det]m9ate1  less 
coh]5t :ole to a relatively m           
diff]5tiat$1  m det]m9ate1 m coh]5t     
:ole4 ,! mean+ ( su*  an evolution is   
?is1 t all ! *anges & modifications 9  !
 %ape ( ! evolv+ collocations ( guna    
reals take place  )9 ! body ( ! prakrti4
 ,prakrti consi/+ ( ! inf9ite  reals is 
inf9ite1 & t x has be5 di/urb$ does n   
mean t ! :ole ( x has be5 di/urb$ &     
upset1 or  t ! totality ( ! gunas 9 !   
prakrti has be5 unh+$  f a /ate (       
equilibrium4 ,x means r t a v va/  numb]
 ( gunas con/itut+ ! worlds ( ?\ght &   
matt]  has be5 upset4 ,^! gunas once    
?r[n out ( balance beg9 to  gr\p        
!mselves toge!r fir/ 9 "o =m1 !n 9      
ano!r1 !n  9 ano!r1 & s on4 ,b su* a    
*ange 9 ! =mation (  aggregates %\ld n  

be ?\ght to take place 9 su* a way  t ! 
lat] aggregates appe> 9 sup]session ( ! 
=m] ones1  s t :5 ! =m] comes into be+ !
 latt] ceases to exi/4        ,footnote 
#a3 ,dr ,b4,n4 ,seal's ,positive        
,sci5ces ( ! ,anci5t ,h9dus1  #aiae1    
p4#g4    #bdg    ,= ! tru? is t "o /age 
is produc$ aft] ano!r2 ?is  second /age 
is ! result ( a new aggregation ( "s ( !
  reals ( ! fir/ /age4 ,?is defici5cy ( 
! reals ( ! fir/  /age :i* _h gone =? to
 =m ! new aggregate z !  second /age is 
made good by a refill+ f ! prakrti4 ,s  
also1  z ! ?ird /age ( aggregation takes
 place f out ( ! reals  ( ! second /age1
 ! defici5cy ( ! reals ( ! second /age  
is made good by a refill+ f ! fir/ /age 
& t ( !  fir/ /age f ! prakrti4 ,?us by 
a succession ( refill+s !  process (    
evolution proce$s1 till we come to its  
la/ limit1 :]e  !re is no real evolution
 ( new sub/ance1 b m]e *emical  &       
physical *anges ( qualities 9 ?+s :i* _h
 already  evolv$4 ,evolution            
7tattvnt>ap>inma7 9 ,smkhya means !     

developm5t ( categories ( exi/5ce & n   
m]e *anges (  qualities ( sub/ances     
7physical1 *emical1 biological or       
m5tal74  ,?us ea* ( ! /ages ( evolution 
rema9s z a p]man5t  category ( be+1 &   
(f]s scope to ! m & m diff]5tiat$  &    
coh]5t gr\p+s ( ! succe$+ /ages4 ,?us  x
 is said t ! evolution>y process is     
reg>d$ z a diff]5tiation  ( new /ages z 
integrat$ 9 previ\s /ages               
7samsr/aviveka74      ,pralaya & !      
di/urbance ( ! ,prakrti ,equilibrium4   
,b h[ or r :y prakrti %\ld be di/urb$ is
 ! mo/  knotty po9t 9 ,smkhya4 ,x is    
po/ulat$ t ! prakrti or !  sum-total ( !
 gunas is s connect$ ) ! purusas1 & !re 
is su* an inh]5t teleology or bl9d      
purpose 9 ! lifeless prakrti1  t all its
 evolution & trans=mations tike place = 
! sake  ( ! div]se purusas1 to s]ve !   
enjoym5t ( pleasures &  suff]ance ( pa9 
?r\gh exp]i5ces1 & f9ally lead+ !m  to  
absolute fre$om or mukti4 ,a return (   
?is manifold _w  into ! quiesc5t /ate   
7pralaya7 ( prakrti takes place :5 !    

k>mas ( all purusas collectively require
 t !re %\ld be  su* a tempor>y cessation
 ( all exp]i5ce4 ,at su* a mom5t  ! guna
 comp\nds are gradually brok51 & !re is 
a backw>d  movem5t 7pratisac>a7 till    
ev]y?+ is r$uc$1 to ! gunas 9  _!       
elem5t>y dis9tegrat$ /ate :5 _! mutual  
opposition  br+s ab\t _! equilibrium4   
,?is equilibrium h[ev] is n a  m]e      
passive /ate1 b "o ( utmo/ t5sion2 !re  
is int5se  activity1 b ! activity "h    
does n lead to ! g5]ation (  new ?+s &  
qualities 7visadrs'a-p>inma72 ?is c\rse 
( new    #bdh    production be+ susp5d$1
 ! activity "h repeats ! same  /ate     
7sadrs'a-p>inma7 ( equilibrium1 s t !re 
is no *ange  or new production4 ,! /ate 
( pralaya ?us is n a susp5sion  ( !     
teleology or purpose ( ! gunas1 or an   
absolute break (  ! c\rse ( guna        
evolution2 = ! /ate ( pralaya1 s9ce x   
has be5 g5]at$ to fulfil ! dem&s ( !    
accumulat$  k>mas ( purusas1 & s9ce !re 
is /ill ! activity ( !  gunas 9 keep+   
!mselves 9 a /ate ( susp5d$ production1 

is also a /age ( ! samsra cycle4 ,! /ate
 ( mukti 7lib]ation7  is ( c\rse q      
diff]5t1 = 9 t /age ! movem5t  ( ! gunas
 ceases =ev] ) ref]5ce to ! lib]at$ s\l4
  ,b /ill ! "q rema9s1 :at breaks ! /ate
 ( equilibrium8  ,! ,smkhya answ] is t x
 is due to ! transc5d5tal               
7non-me*anical7 influ5ce ( ! purusa     
,footnote ref #a4 ,?is  influ5ce ( !    
purusa aga91 if x means any?+1 means t  
!re  is inh]5t 9 ! gunas a teleology t  
all _! movem5ts or  modifications %\ld  
take place 9 su* a way t ^! may s]ve !  
purposes ( ! purusas4 ,?us :5 ! k>mas ( 
! purusas _h dem&$  t !re %\ld be a     
susp5sion ( all exp]i5ce1 = a p]iod  !re
 0 a pralaya4 ,at ! end ( x1 x is ! same
 inh]5t purpose  ( ! prakrti t wakes x  
up = ! =mation ( a suitable  _w = !     
exp]i5ces ( ! purusas by :i* its        
quiesc5t  /ate is di/urb$4 ,?is is b    
ano!r way ( look+ at !  inh]5t teleology
 ( ! prakrti1 :i* dem&s t a /ate (      
pralaya %\ld cease & a /ate ( _w-fram+  
activity %\ld  beg94 ,s9ce !re is a     

purpose 9 ! gunas :i* br\ght  !m to a   
/ate ( equilibrium1 ! /ate ( equilibrium
 also presupposes  t x also may be brok5
 up aga9 :5 ! purpose  s dem&s4 ,?us !  
inh]5t purpose ( ! prakrti br\ght  ab\t 
! /ate ( pralaya & !n broke x up = !    
creative  "w aga91 & x is ?is natural   
*ange 9 ! prakrti t may  be reg>d$ f    
ano!r po9t ( view z ! transc5d5tal      
influ5ce ( ! purusas4      ,mahat &     
,ahamkra4    ,! fir/ evolute ( ! prakrti
 is g5]at$ by a prepond]ance  ( ! sattva
 7intellig5ce-/uff74 ,?is is inde$ !    
e>lie/ /ate  f :i* all ! re/ ( ! _w has 
sprung =?2 & x is a  /ate 9 :i* ! /uff (
 sattva pr$om9ates4 ,x ?us holds        
,footnote #a3 ,! ,yoga answ] is ( c\rse 
diff]5t4 ,x believes t !  di/urbance ( !
 equilibrium ( prakrti = new creation   
takes place by  ! w ( s'v>a 7,god74     
#bdi    )9 x ! m9ds 7buddhi7 ( all      
purusas :i* 7 lo/ 9 !  prakrti dur+ !   
pralaya4 ,! v fir/ "w ( ! evolution  (  
prakrti to s]ve ! purusas is ?us        
manife/$ by ! sep>at+  out ( ! old      

buddhis or m9ds 7( ! purusas7 :i* hold  
)9  !mselves ! old specific ignorance   
7avidy7 inh]5t 9 !m  ) ref]5ce to ea*   
purusa ) :i* any p>ticul> buddhi  is    
associat$ f beg9n+less "t be=e !        
pralaya4 ,?is  /ate ( evolution consi/+ 
( all ! collect$ m9ds 7buddhi7  or all !
 purusas is !re=e call$ buddhitattva4 ,x
 is a /ate  :i* holds or compreh5ds )9 x
 ! buddhis ( all individuals4  ,!       
individual buddhis ( individual purusas 
are on "o  h& integrat$ ) ! buddhitattva
 & on ! o!r associat$  ) _! specific    
purusas4 ,:5 "s buddhis once beg9 to  be
 sep>at$ f ! prakrti1 o!r buddhi        
evolutions take  place4 ,9 o!r words1 we
 are to und]/& t once ! trans=mation  ( 
buddhis is effect$ = ! s]vice ( !       
purusas1  all ! o!r direct trans=mations
 t take place f !  prakrti take ! same  
l9e1 i4e4 a prepond]ance ( sattva be+   
once creat$ by ! br++ out ( "s buddhis1 
o!r trans=mations  ( prakrti t foll[ !m 
h also ! sattva prepond]ance1  :i* ?us h
 exactly ! same composition z !  fir/   

buddhis4 ,?us ! fir/ trans=mation f     
prakrti becomes  buddhi-trans=mation4   
,?is /age ( buddhis may ?us be reg>d$  z
 ! mo/ univ]sal /age1 :i* compreh5ds )9 
x  all ! buddhis ( individuals &        
pot5tially all ! matt] (  :i* ! gross _w
 is =m$4 ,look$ at f ?is po9t (  view x 
has ! wide/ & mo/ univ]sal exi/5ce      
compris+  all creation1 & is ?us call$  
mahat 7! great "o74 ,x is call$  linga  
7sign71 z ! o!r lat] exi/5ces or        
evolutes give u !  gr\nd ( inf]r+ its   
exi/5ce1 & z su* mu/ be di/+ui%$  f !   
prakrti :i* is call$ alinga1 i4e4 ( :i* 
no  linga or *>act]ise may be affirm$4  
,?is mahat-tatva be+ once produc$1 fur!r
 modifications  beg9 to take place 9    
?ree l9es by ?ree diff]5t k9ds (        
undulations repres5t+ ! sattva          
prepond]ance1 rajas prepond]ance  & tama
 prepond]ance4 ,?is /ate :5 ! mahat  is 
di/urb$ by ! ?ree p>allel t5d5cies ( a  
prepond]ance (  tamas1 rajas & sattva's 
call$ ahamkra1 & ! above ?ree  t5d5cies 
are respectiviy call$ tmasika ahamkra or

 bhtdi1  rjasika or taijasa ahamra1 &   
vaikrika ahamkra4 ,! rjasika  ahamkra _c
 make a new prepond]ance by itself2 x   
only    #bej    helps 7sahakri7 !       
trans=mations ( ! sattva prepond]ance  &
 ! tamas prepond]ance4 ,! developm5t ( !
 =m]  prepond]ance1 z is easy to see1 is
 only ! assumption ( a m  & m det]m9ate 
"* ( ! buddhi1 = we rememb]  t buddhi   
itself has be5 ! result+ trans=mation ( 
a sattva  prepond]ance4 ,fur!r          
developm5t ) ! help ( rajas on  ! l9e ( 
sattva developm5t c\ld only take place  
:5 !  buddhi z m9d det]m9$ itself 9     
specific ways4 ,! fir/  developm5t ( !  
buddhi on ?is l9e is call$ sttvika or   
vaikrika  ahamkra4 ,?is ahamkra         
repres5ts ! developm5t  9 buddhi to     
produce a consci\sness-/uff z ,i or r   
m9e1  & mu/ ?us be di/+ui%$ f ! fir/    
/age z buddhi !  function ( :i* is a m]e
 und]/&+ & g5]al datun z  ?isness4    ,!
 ego or ahamkra 7abhimna-dravya7 is !   
specific expression  ( ! g5]al          
consci\sness :i* takes exp]i5ce z m9e4  

,! function ( ! ego is !re=e call$      
abhimna 7self-ass]tion74  ,f ?is aga9   
come ! five cognitive s5ses ( vision1   
t\*1 smell1 ta/e1 & he>+1 ! five        
cognitive s5ses ( spee*1  h&l+1         
foot-movem5t1 ! ejective s5se & !       
g5]ative  s5se2 ! prnas 7bio-motor =ce7 
:i* help bo? conation &  cognition are b
 aspects ( buddhi-movem5t z life4 ,!    
individual  ahamkras & s5ses are relat$ 
to ! individual buddhis  by ! develop+  
sattva det]m9ations f :i* !y _h come    
into be+4 ,ea* buddhi ) its own gr\p (  
akamkra 7ego7  & s5se-evolutes ?us =ms a
 microcosm sep>ate f simil>  o!r buddhis
 ) _! associat$ gr\ps4 ,s f> !re=e z  k 
is subject to s5se-influ5ce & ! ego1 x  
is diff]5t  = ea* individual1 b s f> z a
 g5]al m9d 7krana buddhi7  ap>t f s5se k
 is conc]n$1 !re is a community (  all  
buddhis 9 ! buddhitattva4 ,ev5 !re h[ev]
 ea* buddhi  is sep>at$ f o!r buddhis by
 its own peculi>ly associat$  ignorance 
7avidy74 ,! buddhi & its sattva evolutes
 ( ahamkra  & ! s5ses are s relat$ t    

?\gh !y are diff]5t  f buddhi 9 _!      
functions1 !y are all compreh5d$ 9 !    
buddhi1 & m>k only its gradual          
diff]5tiations & modes4 ,we  mu/ aga9   
rememb] 9 ?is connection ! doctr9e (    
refill+1  = z buddhi exhau/s its "p 9   
giv+ rise to ahamkra1 ! defici5cy  (    
buddhi is made good by prakrti2 aga9 z  
ahamkra  p>tially exhau/s itself 9      
g5]at+ s5se-faculties1 ! defici5cy      
#bea    is made good by a refill+ f !   
buddhi4 ,?us !  *ange & wa/age ( ea* ( !
 /adia are always made good  & kept     
con/ant by a con/ant refill+ f ea* high]
 /ate  & f9ally f prakrti4      ,!      
,tanmtras & ! ,p>amnus ,footnote ref #a4
    ,! o!r t5d5cy1 namely t ( tamas1 has
 to be help$  by ! lib]at$ rajas (      
ahamkra1 9 ord] to make itself          
prepond]ant1  & ?is /ate 9 :i* ! tamas  
succe$s 9 ov]com+  ! sattva side :i* 0 s
 prepond]ant 9 ! buddhi1  is call$      
bhtdi4 ,f ?is bhtdi ) ! help ( rajas are
  g5]at$ ! tanmtras1 ! imm$iately prec$+
 causes ( !  gross elem5ts4 ,! bhtdi ?us

 repres5ts only ! int]m$iate  /age ?r\gh
 :i* ! diff]5tiations & regr\p+s ( tamas
  reals 9 ! mahat proce$ = ! g5]ation ( 
! tanmtras4  ,!re has be5 "s controv]sy 
betwe5 ,smkhya & ,yoga  z to :e!r !     
tanmtras are g5]at$ f ! mahat or f      
ahamkra4 ,! situation becomes           
intelligible if we rememb] t  evolution 
"h does n mean com+ out or emanation1 b 
increas+  diff]5tiation 9 integration )9
 ! evolv+ :ole4  ,?us ! regr\p+s ( tamas
 reals m>ks ! diff]5tiation  :i* takes  
place )9 ! mahat b ?r\gh its /age z     
bhtdi4 ,bhtdi is absolutely homog5e\s & 
in]t1 devoid  ( all physical & *emical  
*>act]s except quantum or mass4  ,!     
second /adium tanmtra repres5ts subtle  
matt]1 vibratory1  imp+5t1 radiant1     
in/9ct ) pot5tial en]gy4 ,^! pot5tials  
arise f ! unequal aggregation ( !       
orig9al mass-units  9 diff]5t           
proportions & collocations ) an unequal 
di/ribution  ( ! orig9al en]gy 7rajas74 
,! tanmtras possess some?+  m ?an       
quantum ( mass & en]gy2 !y possess      

physical *>act]s1 "s ( !m p5etrability1 
o!rs p[]s (  impact or pressure1 o!rs   
radiant heat1 o!rs aga9 capability (    
visc\s & cohesive attraction ,footnote  
ref4 #b4    ,9 intimate relation ) ^?   
physical *>act]s !y also  possess !     
pot5tials ( ! en]gies repres5t$ by s\nd1
 t\*1  col\r1 ta/e1 & smell2 b1 be+     
subtle matt]1 !y are devoid             
,footnote #a3 ,i h accept$ 9 ?is section
 & 9 ! next _m ( !  translations (      
,sanskrit t]ms & expressions ( ,dr ,seal
 & am l>gely  indebt$ to him = 8        
illum9at+ exposition ( ?is subject z    
giv5  9 ,ray's ,h9du ,*emi/ry4 ,! cr$it 
( expla9+ ,smkhya physics1  9 ! light ( 
! text belongs entirely to him4         
,footnote #b3 ,dr ,seal's ,positive     
,sci5ces ( ! ,anci5t ,h9dus4    #beb    
( ! peculi> =ms :i* ^! pot5tials assume 
9 p>ticles  ( gross matt] l ! atoms & _!
 aggregates4 ,9 o!r  words1 ! pot5tials 
lodg$ 9 subtle matt] mu/ und]go peculi> 
trans=mations by new gr\p+s or          
collocations be=e !y c  act z s5sory    

/imuli z gross matt]1 ?\gh 9 ! m9ute/   
p>ticles !re( ! s5sory /imuli may be    
infra-s5sible 7atndriya  b n anudbhta7  
,footnote ref #a4    ,( ! tanmatras !   
s'abda or ks'a tanmtra 7! s\nd-pot5tial7
  is fir/ g5]at$ directly f ! bhtdi4    
,next  comes ! sp>s'a or ! vyu tanmtra  
7t\*-pot5tial7 :i* is  g5]at$ by ! union
 ( a unit ( tamas f bhtdi ) !  ks'a     
tanmtra4 ,! rpa tanmtra 7col\r-pot5tial7
 is g5]at$  simil>ly by ! accretion ( a 
unit ( tamas f bhtdi2 !  rasa tanmtra   
7ta/e-pot5tial7 or ! ap tunmtra is also 
simil>ly  =m$4 ,?is ap tanmtra aga9 by  
its union ) a unit ( tamas  f bhtdi     
produces ! gndha tanmtra                
7smell-pot5tial7 or  ! ksiti tanmtra    
,footnote ref #b4 ,! diff]5ce ( tanmtras
 or  infra-atomic units & atoms 7p>amnu7
 is ?is1 t ! tanmtras  h only ! pot5tial
 p[] ( affect+ our s5ses1 :i* mu/ be    
gr\p$ & regr\p$ 9 a p>ticul> =m to      
con/itute a new exi/5ce  z atoms be=e !y
 c h ! p[] ( affect+ our s5ses4  ,x is  
important 9 ?is connection to po9t out t

 ! classification  ( all gross objects z
 ksiti1 ap1 tejas1 m>ut & vyoman is  n  
bas$ ^u a *emical analysis1 b f ! po9ts 
( view  ( ! five s5ses ?r\gh :i* k ( !m 
c\ld be  br\ght home to u4 ,ea* ( our   
s5ses c only appreh5d a  p>ticul>       
quality & ?us five diff]5t ultimate     
sub/ances are  said to exi/ correspond+ 
to ! five qualities :i* may be  grasp$  
by ! five s5ses4 ,9 accordance ) !      
exi/5ce (  ^! five elem5ts1 ! exi/5ce ( 
! five pot5tial /ates or  tanmtras 0    
also conceiv$ to exi/ z ! gr\nd ( ! five
  gross =ms4    ,! five classes ( atoms 
are g5]at$ f ! tanmtras z  foll[s3 !    
s\nd-pot5tial1 ) accretion ( rudim5t    
matt]  f bhtdi g5]ates ! ksa-atom4 ,!   
t\*-pot5tials comb9e  ) ! vibratory     
p>ticles 7s\nd-pot5tial7 to g5]ate !    
,footnote #a3 ,dr ,seal's ,positive     
,sci5ces ( ! ,anci5t ,h9dus4            
,footnote #b3 ,!re 7 v>i\s ways 9 :i* ! 
g5esis ( tanmtras &  atoms 7 expla9$ 9  
lit]atures o!r ?an ,smkhya2 = "s acc\nt 
( x see ,dr ,seal's ,positive ,sci5ces (

 ! ,anci5t ,h9dus4    #bec    vyu-atom4 
,! light-&-heat pot5tials comb9e )      
t\*-pot5tials  & s\nd-pot5tials to      
produce ! tejas-atom4 ,!  ta/e-pot5tials
 comb9e ) light-&-heat pot5tials1       
t\*-pot5tials  & s\nd-pot5tials to      
g5]ate ! ap-atom & !  smell-pot5tials   
comb9e ) ! prec$+ pot5tials to g5]ate  !
 e>?-atom4 ,! ks'a-atom possesses       
p5etrability1 ! vyu-atom  impact or     
me*anical pressure1 ! tejas-atom radiant
 heat  & light1 ! ap-atom visc\s        
attraction & ! e>?-atom  cohesive       
attraction4 ,! ksa we h se5 =ms !       
transition  l9k f ! bhtdi to ! tanmtra &
 f ! tanmtra to  ! atomic production2 x 
!re=e des]ves a special notice at  ?is  
/age4 ,smkhya di/+ui%es betwe5 a        
krana-ks'a &  kryks'a4 ,! krana-ks'a    
7non-atomic & all-p]vasive7  is ! =mless
 tamas--! mass 9 prakrti or bhtdi2 x is 
inde$ all-p]vasive1 & is n a m]e        
negation1 a m]e unoccupi$ness           
7v>anbhva7 or vacuum ,footnote ref #a4  
,:5 en]gy is fir/  associat$ ) ?is tamas

 elem5t x gives rise to ! s\nd-pot5tial2
  ! atomic ks'a is ! result ( !         
integration ( !  orig9al mass-units f   
bhtdi ) ?is s\nd-pot5tial 7s'abda       
tanmtra74 ,su* an ks'a-atom is call$ !  
kryks'a2 x is  =m$ ev]y:]e & held up 9 !
 orig9al krana ks'a z  ! m$ium = !      
developm5t ( vyu atoms4 ,be+ atomic  x  
occupies limit$ space4    ,! ahamkra & !
 five tanmtras are te*nically call$     
avis'esa or indet]m9ate1 = fur!r        
det]m9ations or  diff]5tiations ( !m = !
 =mation ( new] categories (  exi/5ce   
are possible4 ,! elev5 s5ses & ! five   
atoms are call$  vis'esa1 i4e4          
det]m9ate1 = !y _c fur!r be s det]m9$  z
 to =m a new category ( exi/5ce4 ,x is  
?us t ! c\rse  ( evolution :i* />t$ 9 ! 
prakrti rea*es its fur!/ limit  9 !     
production ( ! s5ses on ! "o side & !   
atoms  on ! o!r4 ,*anges no d\bt take   
place 9 bodies hav+  atomic con/itution1
 b ^! *anges are *anges ( quality due   
to spatial *anges 9 ! position ( ! atoms
 or to ! introduction  ( new atoms & _! 

re-arrangem5t4 ,b ^! are  n su* t a new]
 category ( exi/5ce c\ld be =m$ by  !m  
:i* 0 sub/antially diff]5t f ! comb9$   
atoms4        ,footnote #a3 ,dr ,b4,n4  
,seal 9 describ+ ?is ks'a says ks'a     
corresponds 9 "s respects to ! e!r ( !  
physici/s &  9 o!rs to :at may be call$ 
proto-atom 7protyle74 ,ray's ,hi/ory  ( 
,h9du ,*emi/ry1 p4 #hh4    #bed    ,!   
*anges t take place 9 ! atomic          
con/itution ( ?+s  c]ta9ly des]ve to be 
notic$4 ,b be=e we g on to ?is1 x  w be 
bett] to enquire ab\t ! pr9ciple (      
causation accord+  to :i* !             
,smkhya-,yoga evolution %\ld be         
compreh5d$  or int]pret$4      ,pr9ciple
 ( ,causation & ,cons]vation ( ,en]gy   
,footnote ref #a4    ,! "q is rais$1 h[ 
c ! prakrti supply ! defici5cies  made 9
 its evolutes by ! =mation ( o!r        
evolutes  f !m8 ,:5 f mahat "s tanmtras 
h evolv$1 or  :5 f ! tanmtras "s atoms h
 evolv$1 h[ c !  defici5cy 9 mahat & !  
tanmtras be made good by !  prakrti8    
,or aga91 :at is ! pr9ciple t guides !  

trans=mations  t take place 9 ! atomic  
/age :5 "o gross body1 say milk1  *anges
 into curd1 & s on8 ,smkhya says t z !  
total  en]gy rema9s ! same :ile ! _w is 
con/antly evolv+1  cause & effect are   
only m or less evolv$ =ms ( ! same      
ultimate ,en]gy4 ,! sum ( effects exi/s 
9 ! sum ( causes  9 a pot5tial =m4 ,!   
gr\p+ or collocation alone *anges1  &   
?is br+s on ! manife/ation ( ! lat5t    
p[]s ( !  gunas1 b )\t creation ( any?+ 
new4 ,:at is call$ !  7mat]ial7 cause is
 only ! p[] :i* is effici5t 9 !         
production  or r ! vehicle ( ! p[]4 ,?is
 p[] is !  unmanife/$ 7or pot5tial7 =m (
 ! ,en]gy set free 7udbhta-vrtti7  9 !  
effect4 ,b ! concomitant conditions are 
necess>y  to call =? ! s-call$ mat]ial  
cause into activity ,footnote ref #b4   
,! appe>ance ( an effect 7su* z !       
manife/ation ( ! figure  ( ! /atue 9 !  
m>ble block by ! causal effici5cy ( !   
sculptor's art7 is only its passage f   
pot5tiality to actuality  & !           
concomitant conditions 7sahakri-s'akti7 

or effici5t cause  7nimitta-krana1 su* z
 ! sculptor's art7 is a sort ( me*anical
  help or in/rum5tal help to ?is passage
 or ! transition ,footnote ref  #c4 ,!  
refill+ f prakrti ?us means no?+ m ?an  
?is1 t  by ! inh]5t teleology ( !       
prakrti1 ! reals !re are s  collocat$ z 
to be trans=m$ into mahat z ^? ( ! mahat
  h be5 collocat$ to =m ! bhtdi or !    
tanmtras4        ,footnote #a3          
,vysabhsya & ,yogavrttika1 ,,iv4 #c2    
,tattvavais'rad1  ,,iv4 #c4    ,footnote
 #b3 ,ray1 ,hi/ory ( ,h9du ,*emi/ry1 p4 
#gb4    ,footnote #c3 ,ibid4 p4 #gc4    
#bee      ,yoga h[ev] expla9s ?is m     
vividly on ! basis (  trans=mation ( !  
lib]at$ pot5tial en]gy4 ,! sum (        
mat]ial causes pot5tially conta9s !     
en]gy manife/$ 9 !  sum ( effects4 ,:5 !
 effectuat+ condition is add$ to !  sum 
( mat]ial conditions 9 a giv5           
collocation1 all t happ5s  is t a       
/imulus is imp>t$ :i* removes ! arre/1  
di/urbs  ! relatively /able equilibrium1
 & br+s on a lib]ation (  en]gy toge!r )

 a fre%                                 
collocation7gunasannives'avis'esa74  ,z 
! own] ( an adjac5t field 9 transf]r+   
wat] f "o  field to ano!r ( ! same or   
l[] level has only to remove  ! ob/ruct+
 mud b>ri]s1 :]eupon ! wat] fl[s (      
itself  to ! o!r field1 s :5 ! effici5t 
or in/rum5tal causes  7su* z !          
sculptor's art7 remove ! b>ri] inh]5t 9 
any  collocation aga9/ its trans=mation 
into any o!r collocation1  ! en]gy f t  
collocation fl[s out 9 a correspond+    
mann] & det]m9es ! collocation4 ,?us =  
example !  en]gy :i* collocat$ !        
milk-atoms to =m milk 0 9 a  /ate (     
arre/ 9 ! milk /ate4 ,if by heat or o!r 
causes ?is  b>ri] is remov$1 ! en]gy    
naturally *anges direction 9 a          
correspond+ mann] & collocates ! atoms  
accord+ly =  ! =mation ( curd4 ,s also z
 soon z ! b>ri]s are remov$  f !        
prakrti1 guid$ by ! con/ant w ( s'v>a1 !
 reals  9 equilibrium 9 ! /ate ( prakrti
 leave _! /ate ( arre/  & evolve        
!mselves into mahat1 etc4      ,*ange z 

! =mation ( new collocations4    ,x is  
easy to see f :at we h already said t   
any  collocation ( atoms =m+ a ?+ c\ld n
 *ange its =m1  unless ! b>ri] inh]5t or
 caus$ by ! =mation ( !  pres5t         
collocation c\ld be remov$ by "s o!r    
extrane\s  in/rum5tal cause4 ,all gross 
?+s are =m$ by ! collocation  ( ! five  
atoms ( ksiti1 ap1 tejas1 m>ut1 &       
vyoman4 ,!  diff]5ce betwe5 "o ?+ &     
ano!r is simply ?is1 t its  collocation 
( atoms or ! arrangem5t or gr\p+ ( atoms
  is diff]5t f t 9 ano!r4 ,! =mation ( a
 collocation  has an inh]5t b>ri] aga9/ 
any *ange1 :i* keeps t  collocation 9 a 
/ate ( equilibrium1 & x is easy to see t
  ^! b>ri]s exi/ 9 inf9ite directions 9 
:i* all ! o!r  inf9ite objects ( ! _w   
exi/4 ,f :i*ev] side ! b>ri]  is remov$1
 ! en]gy fl[s 9 t direction & helps !   
#bef    =mation ( a correspond+ object4 
,provid$ ! suitable b>ri]s  c\ld be     
remov$1 any?+ c\ld be *ang$ into any o!r
 ?+4  ,& x is believ$ t ! ,yog9s c      
acquire ! p[]s by  :i* !y c remove any  

b>ri]s1 & ?us make any?+ out (  any o!r 
?+4 ,b g5]ally 9 ! normal c\rse ( ev5ts 
!  l9e ( evolution foll[s a def9ite law 
:i* _c be ov]/epp$  7p>inmakramaniyama7 
or 9 o!r words !re are  "s natural      
b>ri]s :i* _c be remov$1 & ?us !        
evolution>y c\rse has to take a pa? to !
 exclusion ( ^?  l9es :]e ! b>ri]s c\ld 
n be remov$4 ,?us saffron gr[s  9       
c\ntries l ,ka%m]e & n 9 ,b5gal1 ?is is 
limitation (  c\ntries 7des'pab&ha72    
c]ta9 k9ds ( paddy gr[ 9 ! ra9y  season 
only1 ?is is limitation ( season or "t  
7klpab&ha72  de] _c beget m51 ?is is    
limitation by =m 7krpab&ha72  curd c    
come out ( milk1 ?is is ! limitation (  
causes  7nimittpab&ha74 ,! evolution>y  
c\rse c ?us foll[ only t  pa? :i* is n  
b>ricad$ by any ( ^! limitations or     
natural  ob/ructions ,footnote ref #a4  
,*ange is tak+ place ev]y:]e1 f !       
smalle/ & lea/  to ! highe/4 ,atoms &   
reals are cont9ually vibrat+ &  *ang+   
places 9 any & e object4 ,at ea* mom5t !
  :ole univ]se is und]go+ *ange1 & !    

collocation ( atoms  at any mom5t is    
diff]5t f :at x 0 at ! previ\s  mom5t4  
,:5 ^! *anges are p]ceivable1 !y are    
p]ceiv$  z dh>map>inma or *anges ( dh>ma
 or quality2 b p]ceiv$  or unp]ceiv$ !  
*anges are cont9ually go+ on4 ,?is      
*ange ( appe>ance may be view$ f ano!r  
aspect by  virtue ( :i* we may call x   
pres5t or pa/1 & old or new1  & ^! are  
respectively call$ ! laksanap>inma &    
ava/hp>inma4 ,at e mom5t e object ( ! _w
 is  und]go+ evolution or *ange1 *ange z
 pa/1 pres5t & future1  z new1 old or   
unborn4 ,:5 any *ange is 9 a pot5tial   
/ate  we call x future1 :5 manife/$     
pres5t1 :5 x becomes sub-lat5t  aga9 x  
is said to be pa/4 ,?us x is t !        
pot5tial1  manife/1 & sub-lat5t *anges (
 a ?+ are call$ future1  pres5t & pa/   
,footnote ref #b4        ,footnote #a3  
,vysabhsya1 ,tattvavais'rad &           
,yogavrttika1 ,,iii4 #ad4    ,footnote  
#b3 ,x is well to note 9 ?is connection 
t ,smkhya-yoga does  n admit ! exi/5ce (
 "t z an indep5d5t entity l !           

,nyya-,vais'esika4 ,"t repres5ts ! ord] 
( mom5ts 9 :i* ! m9d  grasps ! ph5om5al 
*anges4 ,x is h5ce a con/ruction ( ! m9d
  7buddhi-nirmna74 ,! "t requir$ by an  
atom to move its own measure  ( space is
 call$ a mom5t 7ksana7 or "o unit ( "t4 
,vijna  ,bhiksu reg>ds "o unit movem5t (
 ! gunas or reals z a mom5t4 ,:5  by    
true wisdom ! gunas are p]ceiv$ z !y are
 bo? ! illusory  notions ( "t & space   
vani%4 ,vysabhsya1 ,tattvavais'rad1 &   
,yogavrttika1 ,,iii4 #eb & ,,iii4 #ac4  
#beg      ,causation z ,satkryavda 7!   
!ory t ! effect pot5tially  exi/s be=e x
 is g5]at$ by ! movem5t ( ! cause74     
,! above consid]ation br+s u to an      
important aspect (  ! ,smkhya view (    
causation z satkryavda4 ,smkhya holds  t
 !re c be no production ( a ?+ previ\sly
 non-exi/5t2  causation means !         
appe>ance or manife/ation ( a quality   
due  to c]ta9 *anges ( collocations 9 ! 
causes :i* 7 already  held 9 !m 9 a     
pot5tial =m4 ,production ( effect only  
means  an int]nal *ange ( ! arrangem5t (

 atoms 9 ! cause1 &  ?is exi/s 9 x 9 a  
pot5tial =m1 & j a little loos5+ (  !   
b>ri] :i* 0 /&+ 9 ! way ( ! happ5+ (    
su* a *ange ( arrangem5t w produce !    
desir$ new collocation--!  effect4 ,?is 
doctr9e is call$ satkryavda1 i4e4  t !  
krya or effect is sat or exi/5t ev5 be=e
 ! causal  op]ation to produce ! effect 
0 laun*$4 ,! oil exi/s 9  ! ses>num1 !  
/atue 9 ! /one1 ! curd 9 ! milk1 ,!     
causal op]ation 7krakaiypra7 only r5d]s 
t manife/  7virbhta7 :i* 0 =m]ly 9 an   
unmanife/$ condition  7tirohita7        
,footnote ref #a4    ,! ,buddhi/s also  
believ$ 9 *ange1 z mu* z ,smkhya  did1 b
 ) !m !re 0 no backgr\nd to ! *ange2  e 
*ange 0 ?us absolutely a new "o1 & :5 x 
0  pa/1 ! next mom5t ! *ange 0 lo/      
absolutely4 ,!re  7 only ! pass+ dh>mas 
or manife/ations ( =ms &  qualities1 b  
!re 0 no p]man5t und]ly+ dh>ma or       
sub/ance4  ,smkhya also holds 9 !       
cont9ual *ange ( dh>mas1  b x also holds
 t ^! dh>mas repres5t only ! conditions 
( ! p]man5t reals4 ,! conditions &      

collocations ( ! reals  *ange con/antly1
 b ! reals !mselves are un*angeable4  ,!
 effect accord+ to ! ,buddhi/s 0        
non-exi/5t1 x came  into be+ = a mom5t &
 0 lo/4 ,on acc\nt ( ?is !ory  (        
causation & also on acc\nt ( _! doctr9e 
( s'nya1 !y  7 call$ va9s'ikas          
7nihili/s7 by ! ,v$nt9s4 ,?is doctr9e   
is !re=e contra/$ to ,smkhya doctr9e z  
asatkryavda4        ,footnote #a3       
,tattvakaumud1 #i4    #beh    ,! ja9    
view holds t bo? ^! views are relatively
 true &  t f "o po9t ( view satkryavda  
is true & f ano!r  asatkryavda4 ,!      
,smkhya view t ! cause is cont9ually    
trans=m+ itself into its effects is     
te*nically call$ p>inmavda  z aga9/ !   
,v$nta view call$ ! viv>ttavda3 t  cause
 rema9s ev] ! same1 & :at we call       
effects are b  illusory impositions (   
m]e unreal appe>ance ( "n & =m--m]e     
,maya ,footnote ref4 #a4      ,smkhya   
,a!ism & ,yoga ,!ism4    ,grant$ t !    
int]*ange ( ! positions ( ! inf9ite     
numb] ( reals produce all ! _w & its    

trans=mations2  :5ce comes ?is fix$ ord]
 ( ! univ]se1 ! fix$ ord] (  cause &    
effect1 ! fix$ ord] ( ! s-call$ b>ri]s  
:i*  prev5t ! trans=mation ( any cause  
into any effect or !  fir/ di/urbance ( 
! equilibrium ( ! prakrti8 ,smkhya      
d5ies ! exi/5ce ( s'v>a 7,god7 or any   
o!r ext]ior influ5ce1  & holds t !re is 
an inh]5t t5d5cy 9 ^! reals :i*  guides 
all _! movem5ts4 ,?is t5d5cy or         
teleology dem&s  t ! movem5ts ( ! reals 
%\ld be 9 su* a mann] t  !y may r5d] "s 
s]vice to ! s\ls ei!r 9 ! direction  (  
enjoym5t or salvation4 ,x is by !       
natural c\rse ( su* a  t5d5cy t prakrti 
is di/urb$1 & ! gunas develop on two    
l9es--on ! m5tal plane1 citta or m9d    
compris+ ! s5se  faculties1 & on !      
objective plane z mat]ial objects2 & x  
is  9 fulfilm5t ( ! dem&s ( ?is t5d5cy t
 on ! "o  h& take place subjective      
exp]i5ces z ! *anges ( !  buddhi & on ! 
o!r ! inf9ite modes ( ! *anges (        
objective  ?+s4 ,x is ?is t5d5cy to be (
 s]vice to ! purusas  7purusr?at7 t     

guides all ! movem5ts ( ! reals1 re/ra9s
  all disord]1 r5d]s ! _w a fit object (
 exp]i5ce1 &  f9ally r\ses !m to turn   
back f ! _w & seek to atta9  lib]ation f
 ! association ( prakrti & its gratuit\s
 s]vice1  :i* causes u all ?is tr\ble ( 
samsra4    ,yoga "h asks1 h[ ! bl9d     
t5d5cy ( ! non-intellig5t               
,footnote #a3 ,bo? ! ,v$nta & ! ,smkhya 
!ories ( causation are  sometimes       
loosely call$ satkryyavda4 ,b correctly 
speak+ z "s  disc]n+ comm5tators h po9t$
 out1 ! ,v$nta !ory ( causation  %\ld be
 call$ satkranavda = accord+ to x !     
krana 7cause7  alone exi/s 7sat7 & all  
kryyas1 7effects7 are illusory          
appe>ances  ( ! krana2 b accord+ to     
,smkhya ! kryya exi/s 9  a pot5tial /ate
 9 ! krana & is h5ce always exi/+ &     
real4    #bei    prakrti c br+ =? ?is   
ord] & h>mony ( ! univ]se1  h[ c x      
det]m9e :at c\rse ( evolution w be ( !  
be/  s]vice to ! purusas1 h[ c x remove 
its own b>ri]s &  l5d itself to !       
evolution>y process f ! /ate ( prakrti  

equilibrium8 ,h[ too c ?is bl9d t5d5cy s
 regulate !  evolution>y ord] t all m5  
mu/ suff] pa9s accord+ to  _! bad k>mas1
 & happ9ess accord+ to _! good ones8    
,!re mu/ be "s intellig5t ,be+ :o %\ld  
help ! c\rse  ( evolution 9 su* a way t 
?is sy/em ( ord] & h>mony  may be       
atta9$4 ,?is ,be+ is s'v>a4 s'v>a is a  
purusa :o  _h nev] be5 subject to       
ignorance1 afflictions1 or passions4 ,8 
body is ( pure sattva quality :i* c nev]
 be t\*$ by  ignorance4 ,he is all k &  
all p[]ful4 ,he has a p]man5t  wi% t ^? 
b>ri]s 9 ! c\rse ( ! evolution (  !     
reals by :i* ! evolution ( ! gunas may  
be/ s]ve !  d\ble int]e/ ( ! purusa's   
exp]i5ce 7bhoga7 & lib]ation  7apav>ga7 
%\ld be remov$4 ,x is accord+ to ?is    
p]man5t  w ( s'v>a t ! prop] b>ri]s are 
remov$ & !  gunas foll[ naturally an    
intellig5t c\rse ( evolution = !  s]vice
 ( ! be/ int]e/s ( ! purusas4 s'v>a has 
n creat$  ! prakrti2 he only di/urbs !  
equilibrium ( ! prakrti 9 its  quiesc5t 
/ate1 & lat] on helps x to foll[ an     

intellig5t ord]  by :i* ! fruits ( k>ma 
are prop]ly di/ribut$ & ! ord]  ( ! _w  
is br\ght ab\t4 ,?is ackn[l$gem5t (     
s'v>a  9 ,yoga & its d5ial by ,smkhya   
m>ks ! ma9 !oretic  diff]5ce betwe5 !   
two accord+ to :i* ! ,yoga &  ,smkhya   
are di/+ui%$ z ,ses'v>a ,smkhya 7,smkhya
 )  s'v>a7 & ,nirs'v>a ,smkhya 7,a!i/ic 
,smkhya7 ,footnote ref #a4      ,buddhi 
& ,purusa4    ,! "q aga9 arises t ?\gh  
purusa is pure intellig5ce1  ! gunas are
 non-intellig5t subtle sub/ances1 h[  c 
! latt] come into t\* ) ! =m]8 ,moreov]1
  ! purusa is pure inactive intellig5ce 
)\t any t\* (  impurity & :at s]vice or 
ne$ c su* a purusa h (  ! gunas8 ,?is   
difficulty is anticipat$ by ,smkhya1 :i*
 has  already made room = its answ] by  
assum+ t "o class (  ! gunas call$      
sattva is su* t x resembles ! purity &  
! intellig5ce ( ! purusa to a v high    
degree1 s mu* s        ,footnote #a3    
,tattvavais'rad1 ,,iv4 #c2 ,yogavrttika1
 ,i4 #bd2 &  ,pravavanabhsya1 ,v4 #a-ab4
    #bfj    t x c reflect ! intellig5ce 

( ! purusa1 & ?us r5d]  its             
non-intellig5t trans=mations to appe> z 
if !y 7 intellig5t4  ,?us all our ?\ghts
 & o!r emotional or volitional          
op]ations are really ! non-intellig5t   
trans=mations ( !  buddhi or citta hav+ 
a l>ge sattva prepond]ance2 b by virtue 
( ! reflection ( ! purusa 9 ! buddhi1 ^!
 appe> z if  !y are intellig5t4 ,! self 
7purusa7 accord+ to ,smkhya-,yoga  is n 
directly demon/rat$ by                  
self-consci\sness4 ,its  exi/5ce is a   
matt] ( inf]5ce on teleological gr\nds &
  gr\nds ( moral responsibility4 ,! self
 _c be directly  notic$ z be+ sep>ate f 
! buddhi modifications4 ,?r\gh          
beg9n+less ignorance !re is a confusion 
& ! *ang+  /ates ( buddhi are reg>d$ z  
consci\s4 ,^! buddhi *anges  are fur!r s
 associat$ ) ! reflection ( ! purusa 9 !
  buddhi t !y are int]pret$ z !         
exp]i5ces ( ! purusa4  ,?is association 
( ! buddhi ) ! reflection ( ! purusa  9 
! buddhi has su* a special fitness      
7yogyat7 t x is int]pret$  z ! exp]i5ce 

( ! purusa4 ,?is explanation (          
,vcaspati ( ! situation is object$ to by
 ,vijna ,bhiksu4  ,vijna ,bhiksu says t 
! association ( ! buddhi ) !  image ( ! 
purusa _c give u ! notion ( a real p]son
  :o und]goes ! exp]i5ces4 ,x is to be  
suppos$ !re=e  t :5 ! buddhi is         
intelligiz$ by ! reflection ( ! purusa1 
x is !n sup]impos$ ^u ! purusa1 & we h !
 notion  ( an abid+ p]son :o exp]i5ces  
,footnote ref #a4 ,:atev] may be !      
explanation1 x seems t ! union ( !      
buddhi ) ! purusa  is some:at my/ical4  
,z a result ( ?is reflection ( cit on   
buddhi & ! sup]imposition ( ! buddhi !  
purusa _c  realize t ! trans=mations ( !
 buddhi are n its own4  ,buddhi         
resembles purusa 9 transp>5cy1 & !      
purusa fails to  diff]5tiate itself f ! 
modifications ( ! buddhi1 & z  a result 
( ?is non-di/9ction ! purusa becomes    
b\nd d[n  to ! buddhi1 always fail+ to  
recognize ! tru? t !  buddhi & its      
trans=mations are :olly ali5 to x4 ,?is 
non-di/9ction  ( purusa f buddhi :i* is 

itself a mode ( buddhi  is :at is meant 
by avidy 7non-k7 9 ,smkhya1 & is  ! root
 ( all exp]i5ce & all mis]y ,footnote   
ref #b4        ,footnote #a3            
,tattvavais'rad & ,yogavrttika1 ,i4 #d4 
,footnote #b3 ,?is indicates ! nature ( 
! analysis ( illusion )  ,smkhya4 ,x is 
! non-appreh5sion ( ! di/9ction ( two   
?+s  7e4g4 ! snake & ! rope7 t is !     
cause ( illusion2 x is  !re=e call$ !   
akhyti 7non-appreh5sion7 !ory ( illusion
  :i* mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ! anya?khyti    
7misappreh5sion7  !ory ( illusion (     
,yoga :i* consi/s 9 positively          
misappreh5d+  "o 7e4g4 ! rope7 = ! o!r  
7e4g4 snake74 ,yogavrttika1 ,i4 #h4     
#bfa      ,yoga holds a slightly diff]5t
 view & supposes t !  purusa n only     
fails to di/+ui% ! diff]5ce betwe5      
itself  & ! buddhi b positively takes ! 
trans=mations (  buddhi z its own4 ,x is
 no non-p]ception ( ! diff]5ce  b       
positively false k1 t we take ! purusa  
to be  t :i* x is n 7anya?khyti74 ,x    
takes ! *ang+1  impure1 sorr[ful1 &     

objective prakrti or buddhi to be !     
*angeless1 pure1 happ9ess-begett+       
subject4 ,x wrongly ?9ks  buddhi to be !
 self & reg>ds x z pure1 p]man5t &      
capable ( giv+ u happ9ess4 ,?is is !    
avidy ( ,yoga4  ,a buddhi associat$ ) a 
purusa is dom9at$ by su* an  avidy1 & :5
 bir? aft] bir? ! same buddhi is        
associat$  ) ! same purusa1 x _c easily 
get rid ( ?is avidy4  ,if 9 ! meantime  
pralaya takes place1 ! buddhi is subm]g$
  9 ! prakrti1 & ! avidy also sleeps )  
x4 ,:5 at !  beg9n+ ( ! next creation ! 
individual buddhis associat$  ) !       
purusas em]ge1 ! old avidys also become 
manife/  by virtue ( x & ! buddhis      
associate !mselves ) !  purusas to :i*  
!y 7 atta*$ be=e ! pralaya4 ,?us        
proce$s ! c\rse ( samsra4 ,:5 ! avidy ( 
a p]son  is root$ out by ! rise ( true  
k1 ! buddhi fails to  atta* itself to ! 
purusa & is =ev] dissociat$ f x1 &  ?is 
is ! /ate ( mukti4      ,! ,cognitive   
,process & "s *>act]i/ics ( ,citta4     
,x has be5 said t buddhi & ! int]nal    

objects h  evolv$ 9 ord] to giv+ scope  
to ! exp]i5ce ( ! purusa4  ,:at is !    
process ( ?is exp]i5ce8 ,smkhya 7z      
expla9$  by ,vcaspati7 holds t ?r\gh !  
s5ses ! buddhi comes  into t\* ) ext]nal
 objects4 ,at ! fir/ mom5t ( ?is  t\*   
!re is an indet]m9ate consci\sness 9 :i*
 ! p>ticul>s  ( ! ?+ _c be notic$4 ,?is 
is call$ nirvikalpa  pratyaksa          
7indet]m9ate p]ception74 ,at ! next     
mom5t by  ! function ( ! samkalpa       
7syn!sis7 & vikalpa 7ab/raction  or     
imag9ation7 ( manas 7m9d-organ7 ! ?+ is 
p]ceiv$ 9  all its det]m9ate "*2 ! manas
 diff]5tiates1 integrates1  & associates
 ! s5se-data receiv$ ?r\gh ! s5ses1 &   
#bfb    ?us g5]ates ! det]m9ate         
p]ception1 :i* :5 intelligiz$  by !     
purusa & associat$ ) x becomes int]pret$
 z !  exp]i5ce ( ! p]son4 ,! action ( ! 
s5ses1 ahamkra1  & buddhi1 may take     
place sometimes successively & at o!r   
times z 9 cases ( sudd5 fe>             
simultane\sly4 ,vijna ,bhiksu  diff]s f 
?is view ( ,vcaspati1 & d5ies ! syn!tic 

activity ( ! m9d-organ 7manas71 & says t
 ! buddhi  directly comes into t\* ) !  
objects ?r\gh ! s5ses4  ,at ! fir/ mom5t
 ( t\* ! p]ception is indet]m9ate1  b at
 ! second mom5t x becomes cle> &        
det]m9ate ,footnote ref #a4  ,x is      
evid5t t on ?is view ! importance (     
manas is r$uc$  to a m9imum & x is      
reg>d$ z be+ only ! faculty ( desire1   
d\bt & imag9ation4    ,buddhi1 includ+  
ahamkra & ! s5ses1 (t5 call$ citta  9   
,yoga1 is always incessantly suff]+     
*anges l ! flame  ( a lamp1 x is made up
 ( a l>ge prepond]ance ( ! pure  sattva 
sub/ances1 & is con/antly m\ld+ itself f
 "o cont5t  to ano!r4 ,^! images by !   
dual reflection ( buddhi  & purusa are  
con/antly becom+ consci\s1 & are be+    
int]pret$ z ! exp]i5ces ( a p]son4 ,!   
exi/5ce ( !  purusa is to be po/ulat$ = 
expla9+ ! illum9ation (  consci\sness & 
= expla9+ exp]i5ce & moral endeav\r4  ,!
 buddhi is spread all ov] ! body1 z x 71
 = x is by its  functions t ! life ( !  
body is kept up2 = ! ,smkhya  does n    

admit any sep>ate prana vyu 7vital      
brea?7 to keep !  body liv+4 ,:at are   
call$ vyus 7bio-motor =ce7 9 ,v$nta  are
 b ! diff]5t modes ( op]ation ( ?is     
category (  buddhi1 :i* acts all ?r\gh !
 body & by its div]se movem5ts  p]=ms ! 
life-functions & s5se-functions ( !     
body4        ,footnote #a3 ,z ! contact 
( ! buddhi ) ! ext]nal objects takes    
place ?r\gh ! s5ses1 ! s5se data (      
col\rs1 etc41 are modifi$  by ! s5ses if
 !y are defective4 ,! spatial qualities 
( ?+s are  h[ev] p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses     
directly1 b ! "t-ord] is a s*eme  ( !   
citta or ! buddhi4 ,g5]ally speak+ ,yoga
 holds t ! ext]nal  objects are         
fai?fully copi$ by ! buddhi 9 :i* !y    
are reflect$1 l trees 9 a lake          
tasmims'ca d>pane sphre sama/a          
va/udr/ayah    im/h pratibimbanti       
s>asiva tatadrumh ,yogav>ttika1 ,i4 #d4 
,! buddhi assumes ! =m ( ! object :i* is
 reflect$ on x by  ! s5ses1 or r ! m9d  
fl[s out ?r\gh ! s5ses to !  ext]nal    
objects & assumes _! =ms3 indriynyeva   

pranlik  cittasanc>anam>gah taih        
samyujya tadgola kadvr                  
bhyava/usp>aktasya                      
cittasy5dryasahity5aivr?ak>ah p>9mo     
bhavati ,yogavrttika1 ,i4  ,,vi4 #g4    
,contra/ ,tattvakaumud1 #bg & #cj4      
#bfc      ,ap>t f ! p]ceptions & !      
life-functions1 buddhi1 or  r citta z   
,yoga describes x1 conta9s )9 x ! root  
impressions  7samskras7 & ! ta/es &     
in/9cts or t5d5cies  ( all pa/ lives    
7vsan7 ,footnote ref #a4 ,^! samskras   
are reviv$  "u suitable associations4 ,e
 man _h _h inf9ite numb]s ( bir?s  9 _! 
pa/ lives z man & z "s animal4 ,9 all ^!
 lives !  same citta 0 always foll[+    
him4 ,! citta has ?us collect$  )9      
itself ! in/9cts & t5d5cies ( all ^?    
diff]5t  animal lives4 ,x is knott$ ) ^!
 vsans l a net4 ,if a man  passes into a
 dog life by rebir?1 ! vsans ( a dog    
life1 :i*  ! man mu/ h _h 9 "s ( 8      
previ\s inf9ite numb] (  bir?s1 are     
reviv$1 & ! man's t5d5cies become l ^? (
  a dog4 ,he =gets ! exp]i5ces ( 8      

previ\s life & becomes  atta*$ to       
enjoym5t 9 ! mann] ( a dog4 ,x is by !  
revival  ( ! vsan suitable to ea*       
p>ticul> bir? t !re _c be  any collision
 su* z might h occurr$ if ! in/9cts &   
t5d5cies ( a previ\s dog-life 7 active  
:5 any "o 0  born z man4    ,! samskras 
repres5t ! root impressions by :i* any  
habit ( life t man has liv$ ?r\gh1 or   
any pleasure 9  :i* he took delight = "s
 "t1 or any passions :i* 7              
,footnote #a3 ,! ^w samskra is us$ by   
,pn9i :o probably prec$$  ,buddha 9 ?ree
 diff]5t s5ses 7#a7 improv+ a ?+ z      
di/+ui%$  f g5]at+ a new quality 7,sata 
utk>sdhnam samskrah1 ,ks'ila  on ,pn9i1 
,,vi4 ii4 #af71 7#b7 conglom]ation or   
aggregation1 &  7#c7 adornm5t 7,pn9i1   
,,vi4 i4 #acg1 #ach74 ,9 ! ,pitakas ! ^w
  sankhra is us$ 9 v>i\s s5ses su* z    
con/ruct+1 prep>+1  p]fect+1 embelli%+1 
aggregation1 matt]1 k>ma1 ! sk&has      
7collect$ by ,*ild]s74 ,9 fact sankhra  
/&s = almo/ any?+  ( :i* imp]man5ce c\ld
 be pr$icat$4 ,b 9 spite ( s _m         

div]sities ( mean+ ,i v5ture to sugge/ t
 ! mean+ (  aggregation 7samavya (      
,pn9i7 is prom95t4 ,! ^w samsk>oti  is  
us$ 9 ,kaustaki1 ,,ii4 #f1 ,*ndogya     
,,iv4 xvi4 #b1 #c1 #d1 viii4 #h1 #e1 &  
,brhadranyaka1 ,,vi4 iii4 #a1 9 ! s5se (
 improv+4 ,i h n yet  come across any   
lit]>y use ( ! second mean+ 9 ,sanskrit4
 ,!  mean+ ( samskra 9 ,h9du philosophy 
is altoge!r diff]5t4 ,x means  !        
impressions 7:i* exi/ subconsci\sly 9 ! 
m9d7 ( ! objects  exp]i5c$4 ,all our    
exp]i5ces :e!r cognitive1 emotional or  
conative  exi/ 9 subconsci\s /ates & may
 "u suitable conditions be  reproduc$ z 
memory 7smrti74 ,! ^w vsan 7,yoga stra1 
,,iv4 #bd7  seems to be a lat] ^w4 ,!   
e>li] ,upanissads d n m5tion x &  s f> z
 ,i "k x is n m5tion$ 9 ! ,pli pitakas4 
,abhidhnappadpik ( ,moggallna m5tions x1
 & x occurs 9  ! ,muktika ,upanisad4 ,x 
comes f ! root vas to /ay4 ,x is  (t5   
loosely us$ 9 ! s5se ( samskra1 & 9     
,vysabhsya !y  are id5tifi$ 9 ,,iv4 #i4 
,b vsan g5]ally ref]s to ! t5d5cies (   

pa/ lives mo/ ( :i* lie dormant 9 ! m9d4
 ,only ^? appe> :i*  c f9d scope 9 ?is  
life4 ,b samskras are ! sub-consci\s    
/ates  :i* are be+ con/antly g5]at$ by  
exp]i5ce4 ,vsans are innate  samskras n 
acquir$ 9 ?is life4 ,see ,vysabhsya1    
,tattvvais'rad  & ,yogavrttika1 ,,ii4   
#ac4    #bfd    engross+ to him1 t5d to 
be reviv$1 = ?\gh ^! might  n n[ be     
exp]i5c$1 yet ! fact t !y 7 exp]i5c$    
be=e has s m\ld$ & giv5 %ape to ! citta 
t !  citta w try to reproduce !m by its 
own nature ev5 )\t  any su* ef=t on our 
"p4 ,to safegu>d aga9/ ! revival (  any 
undesirable idea or t5d5cy x is !re=e   
necess>y t its  roots z already left 9 !
 citta 9 ! =m ( samskras %\ld  be       
eradicat$ completely by ! =mation ( !   
habit ( a contr>y  t5d5cy1 :i* if made  
suffici5tly /rong w by its own  samskra 
naturally /op ! revival ( ! previ\s     
undesirable  samskras4    ,ap>t f ^! !  
citta possesses volitional activity     
7cest7  by :i* ! conative s5ses are     
br\ght into relation to _!  objects4    

,!re is also ! res]v$ pot5t p[] 7s'akti7
 ( citta1  by :i* x c re/ra9 itself &   
*ange its c\rses or cont9ue  to p]si/ 9 
any "o direction4 ,^! *>act]i/ics are   
involv$  9 ! v ess5ce ( citta1 & =m !   
gr\ndwork ( ! ,yoga  me?od ( practice1  
:i* consi/s 9 /eady+ a p>ticul> /ate  ( 
m9d to ! exclusion ( o!rs4    ,m]it or  
dem]it 7punya1 ppa7 also is imb$d$ 9 !  
citta  z its t5d5cies1 regulat+ ! mode (
 its movem5ts1 &  giv+ pleasures & pa9s 
9 accordance ) x4      ,sorr[ & its     
,dissolution ,footnote ref #a4          
,smkhya & ! ,yoga1 l ! ,buddhi/s1 hold t
 all  exp]i5ce is sorr[ful4 ,tamas1 we  
"k1 repres5ts ! pa9  sub/ance4 ,z tamas 
mu/ be pres5t 9 "s degree 9 all         
comb9ations1  all intellectual op]ations
 are fraught ) "s degree  ( pa9ful      
feel+4 ,moreov] ev5 9 /ates ( tempor>y  
pleasure1  we _h sorr[ at ! previ\s     
mom5t :5 we _h solicit$  x1 & we h sorr[
 ev5 :5 we enjoy x1 = we h !  fe> t we  
may lose x4 ,! sum total ( sorr[s is ?us
 mu*  great] ?an ! pleasures1 & !       

pleasures only /r5g!n !  ke5ness ( !    
sorr[4 ,! wis] ! man ! great] is 8      
capacity ( realiz+ t ! _w & our         
exp]i5ces are all full  ( sorr[4 ,=     
unless a man is conv9c$ ( ?is great tru?
 t  all is sorr[1 & t tempor>y          
pleasures1 :e!r g5]at$ by  ord9>y       
worldly exp]i5ce or by enjoy+ heav5ly   
exp]i5ces  ?r\gh ! p]=mance ( ,v$ic     
sacrifices1 are q unable to             
,footnote #a3 ,tattavais'rad &          
,yogavrttika1 ,,ii4 #ae1 &              
,tattvakaumud1  ,i4    #bfe    eradicate
 ! roots ( sorr[1 he w n be anxi\s =    
mukti or  ! f9al uproot+ ( pa9s4 ,a man 
mu/ feel t all pleasures  lead to sorr[1
 & t ! ord9>y ways ( remov+  sorr[s by  
seek+ enjoym5t _c remove !m ultimately2 
he mu/ turn 8 back on ! pleasures ( ! _w
 & on !  pleasures ( p>adise4 ,!        
p]=mances ( sacrifices accord+  to !    
,v$ic rites may inde$ give happ9ess1 b z
 ^! involve  ! sacrifice ( animals !y   
mu/ involve "s s9s & h5ce also  "s pa9s4
 ,?us ! p]=mance ( ^! _c be reg>d$  z   

desirable4 ,x is :5 a man ceases f seek+
 pleasures  t he ?9ks h[ be/ he c       
eradicate ! roots ( sorr[4  ,philosophy 
%[s h[ ext5sive is sorr[1 :y sorr[      
comes1  :at is ! way to uproot x1 & :at 
is ! /ate :5 x is  uproot$4 ,! man :o   
has resolv$ to uproot sorr[ turns to    
philosophy to f9d out ! means ( do+ x4  
,! way ( eradicat+ ! root ( sorr[ is ?us
 ! practical  enquiry ( ! ,smkhya       
philosophy ,footnote ref #a4 ,all       
exp]i5ces are  sorr[4 ,!re=e "s means   
mu/ be discov]$ by :i* all exp]i5ces    
may be %ut out = ev]4 ,dea? _c br+ x1 = 
aft]  dea? we %all h rebir?4 ,s long z  
citta 7m9d7 & purusa  are associat$ )   
ea* o!r1 ! suff]+s w cont9ue4  ,citta   
mu/ be dissociat$ f purusa4 ,citta or   
buddhi1 ,smkhya  says1 is associat$ )   
purusa because ( ! non-di/9ction  (     
itself f buddhi ,footnote ref #b4 ,x is 
necess>y !re=e t 9  buddhi we %\ld be   
able to g5]ate ! true conception ( !    
nature ( purusa2 :5 ?is true conception 
( purusa arises 9  ! buddhi x feels     

itself to be diff]5t1 & di/9ct1 f  & q  
unrelat$ to purusa1 & ?us ignorance is  
de/roy$4 ,z  a result ( t1 buddhi turns 
its back on purusa & c no  long] b9d x  
to its exp]i5ces1 :i* are all           
irrevocably connect$  ) sorr[1 & ?us !  
purusa rema9s 9 its true  =m4 ,?is      
accord+ to ,smkhya philosophy is alone  
adequate  to be+ ab\t ! lib]ation ( !   
purusa4 ,prakrti :i* 0  lead+ u ?r\gh   
cycles ( exp]i5ces f bir? to bir?1      
fulfils  its f9al purpose :5 ?is true k 
arises diff]5tiat+        ,footnote #a3 
,yoga puts x 9 a slightly modifi$ =m4   
,its object is !  cessation ( !         
rebir?-process :i* is s mu* associat$ ) 
sorr[  duhkhabahlah samsrah heyah74     
,footnote #b3 ,! ^w citta is a ,yoga    
t]m4 ,x is s call$ because x is  !      
repository ( all sub-consci\s /ates4    
,smkhyn g5]ally uses1 !  ^w buddhi4 ,bo?
 ! words mean ! same sub/ance1 ! m9d1 b 
!y  emphasize its two diff]5t functions4
 ,buddhi means intellection4    #bff    
purusa f prakrti4 ,?is f9al purpose be+ 

atta9$ !  prakrti c nev] aga9 b9d !     
purusa ) ref]5ce to :om  ?is "r k 0     
g5]at$2 = o!r purusas h[ev]  ! bondage  
rema9s z be=e1 & !y cont9ue _! exp]i5ces
  f "o bir? to ano!r 9 an endless cycle4
    ,yoga1 h[ev]1 ?9ks t m]e philosophy 
is n suffici5t4  ,9 ord] to br+ ab\t    
lib]ation x is n en\gh t a true  k      
diff]5tiat+ purusa & buddhi %\ld arise1 
b x  is necess>y t all ! old habits (   
exp]i5ce ( buddhi1 all  its samsk>as    
%\ld be once = all de/roy$ nev] to be   
reviv$  aga94 ,at ?is /age ! buddhi is  
trans=m$ into its pure/  /ate1 reflect+ 
/eadily ! true nature ( ! purusa4 ,?is  
is  ! kevala 7on5ess7 /ate ( exi/5ce    
aft] :i* 7all samskras1  all avidy be+  
altoge!r uproot$7 ! citta is impot5t any
  long] to hold on to ! purusa1 & l a   
/one hurl$ f a  m\nta9 top1 gravitates  
back into ! prakrti ,footnote ref #a4   
,to  de/roy ! old samskras1 k alone n   
be+ suffici5t1 a  graduat$ c\rse (      
practice is necess>y4 ,?is graduat$     
practice %\ld  be s arrang$ t by g5]at+ 

! practice ( liv+ high]  & bett] modes (
 life1 & /eady+ ! m9d on its subtl]     
/ates1 ! habits ( ord9>y life may be    
remov$4 ,z ! yog9  advances he has to   
give up :at he _h adopt$ z good &  try =
 t :i* is /ill bett]4 ,cont9u+ ?us he   
rea*es !  /ate :5 ! buddhi is 9 its     
ultimate p]fection & purity4  ,at ?is   
/age ! buddhi assumes ! =m ( ! purusa1 &
  f9al lib]ation takes place4    ,k>mas 
9 ,yoga are divid$ into f\r classes3    
7#a7 s'ukla or  :ite 7punya1 ^? t       
produce happ9ess71 7#b7 krsna or black  
7ppa1 ^? t produce sorr[71 7#c7         
s'ukla-krsna 7punya-ppa1  mo/ ( our     
ord9>y actions are p>tly virtu\s & p>tly
 vici\s  z !y involve1 if n any?+ else1 
at lea/ ! dea? ( _m  insects71 7#d7     
z'uklkrsna 7^? inn] acts (              
self-abnegation1 &  m$itation :i* are   
devoid ( any fruits z pleasures or      
pa9s74  ,all ext]nal actions involve "s 
s9s1 = x is difficult to "w 9 !  _w &   
avoid tak+ ! lives ( insects ,footnote  
ref #b4 ,all k>mas        ,footnote #a3 

,bo? ,smkhya & ,yoga speak ( ?is        
emancipat$ /ate a  ,kaivalya            
7alone-ness71 ! =m] because all sorr[s h
 be5  absolutely uproot$1 nev] to gr[ up
 aga9 & ! latt] because at  ?is /ate    
purusa rema9s = ev] alone )\t any       
association  ) buddhi1 see ,smkhya krik1
 #fh & ,yoga stras1 ,,iv4 #cd4          
,footnote #b3 ,vysabhsya &              
,tattvavais'rad1 ,,iv4 #g4    #bfg      
proce$ f ! five-fold afflictions        
7kles'z71 namely avidy1  asmit1 rga1    
dvesa & abh9ives'a4    ,we h already    
notic$ :at 0 meant by avidy4 ,x consi/s 
g5]ally 9 ascrib+ intellig5ce to buddhi1
 9 ?9k+ x  z p]man5t & lead+ to         
happ9ess4 ,?is false k  :ile rema9+ 9   
?is =m fur!r manife/s itself 9 ! o!r    
f\r =ms ( asmit1 etc4 ,asmit means !    
?9k+ ( worldly  objects & our exp]i5ces 
z really belong+ to u--!  s5se ( m9e or 
,i to ?+s t really are ! qualities or   
trans=mations ( ! gunas4 ,rga means !   
consequ5t atta*m5t  to pleasures & ?+s4 
,dvesa means av]sion or antipa?y  to    

unpleasant ?+s4 ,abh9ives'a is ! desire 
= life or love (  life--! w to be4 ,we  
proce$ to "w because we ?9k our         
exp]i5ces to be our own1 our body to be 
our own1 our family  to be our own1 our 
possessions to be our own2 because we   
are  atta*$ to ^!2 because we feel great
 antipa?y aga9/ any  mis*ief t might    
befall !m1 & also because we love our   
life & always try to pres]ve x aga9/ any
 mis*ief4 ,^! all  proce$1 z is easy to 
see1 f _! root avidy1 :i* consi/s  9 !  
false id5tification ( buddhi ) purusa4  
,^! five1  avidy1 asmit1 rga1 dvesa &   
abh9ives'a1 p]meate our buddhi1  & lead 
u to p]=m k>ma & to suff]4 ,^! toge!r  )
 ! p]=m$ k>mas :i* lie inh]5t 9 ! buddhi
 z  a p>ticul> mode ( x transmigrate ) !
 buddhi f bir?  to bir?1 & x is h>d to  
get rid ( !m ,footnote ref #a4 ,! k>ma 9
  ! aspect 9 :i* x lies 9 ! buddhi z a  
mode or modification (  x is call$      
k>ms'aya4 7! b$ ( k>ma = ! purusa to lie
 974  ,we p]=m a k>ma actuat$ by !      
vici\s t5d5cies 7kles'a7 (  ! buddhi4 ,!

 k>ma :5 ?us p]=m$ leaves its /a9 or    
modification on ! buddhi1 & x is s      
orda9$ accord+ to !  teleology ( !      
prakrti & ! removal ( ob/acles 9 ! c\rse
  ( its evolution 9 accordance ) x by ! 
p]man5t w (  s'v>a t ea* vici\s action  
br+s suff]ance & a virtu\s  "o pleasure4
    ,! k>mas p]=m$ 9 ! pres5t life w    
g5]ally accumulate1  & :5 ! "t = giv+ _!
 fruits comes1 su*  a life is orda9$ = !
 p]son1 su* a body is made ready =  him 
accord+ to ! evolution ( prakrti z %all 
make x possible  = him to suff] or enjoy
 ! fruits !re(4 ,! k>ma ( !             
,footnote #a3 ,vysabhsya &              
,tattvavais'rad1 ,,ii4 #c-i4    #bfh    
pres5t life ?us det]m9es ! p>ticul> k9d 
( future bir?  7z ?is or t animal or    
man71 ! p]iod ( life 7yus7 & !  pa9ful  
or pleasurable exp]i5ces 7bhoga7 de/9$ =
 t life4  ,exce$+ly good actions &      
extremely bad actions (t5 produce  _!   
effects 9 ?is life4 ,x may also happ5 t 
a man has  done c]ta9 bad actions1 = !  
realization ( ! fruits ( :i*  he        

requires a dog-life & good actions = !  
fruits ( :i*  he requires a man-life4 ,9
 su* cases ! good action may rema9  9   
abeyance & ! man may suff] ! pa9s ( a   
dog-life fir/  & !n be born aga9 z a man
 to enjoy ! fruits ( 8 good  actions4 ,b
 if we c remove ignorance & ! o!r       
afflictions1  all 8 previ\s unfulfill$  
k>mas are = ev] lo/ & _c  aga9 be       
reviv$4 ,he has ( c\rse to suff] !      
fruits ( ^?  k>mas :i* h already rip5$4 
,?is is ! jvanmukti /age1  :5 ! sage has
 atta9$ true k & is yet suff]+  mundane 
life 9 ord] to exp]i5ce ! k>mas t h     
already  rip5$ 7tis?ati samskravas't    
cakrabhramivaddhrtas'arrah74            
,citta4    ,! ^w ,yoga :i* 0 =m]ly us$ 9
 ,v$ic lit]ature  9 ! s5se ( ! re/ra9t (
 ! s5ses is us$ by ,patajali 9  8 ,yoga 
stra 9 ! s5se ( ! p>tial or full re/ra9t
 or  /eady+ ( ! /ates ( citta4 ,"s sort 
( conc5tration may  be br\ght ab\t by   
viol5t passions1 z :5 fight+ aga9/  a   
mortal enemy1 or ev5 by an ignorant     
atta*m5t or in/9ct4  ,! citta :i* has ! 

conc5tration ( ! =m] type is call$      
ksipta 7wild7 & ( ! latt] type pramdha  
7ignorant74 ,!re  is ano!r k9d ( citta1 
z ) all ord9>y p1 9 :i*  conc5tration is
 only possible = a "t1 ! m9d rema9+     
/eady on "o ?+ = a %ort "t leaves t (f &
 cl+s to  ano!r ?+ & s on4 ,?is is call$
 ! viksipta 7un/eady7  /age ( m9d       
7cittabhmi74 ,z di/+ui%$ f ^! !re is  an
 advanc$ /age ( citta 9 :i* x c         
conc5trate /eadily on  an object = a    
long "t4 ,?is is ! ekgra 7"o-po9t$7     
/age4  ,!re is a /ill fur!r advanc$ /age
 9 :i* ! citta processes  are absolutely
 /opp$4 ,?is happ5s imm$iately be=e     
mukti1  & is call$ ! nirodha 7cessation7
 /ate ( citta4 ,! purpose (  ,yoga is to
 a*ieve ! conditions ( ! la/ two /ages (
 citta4    ,! cittas h five processes   
7vrtti71 7#a7 pramna ,footnote ref #a   
7valid        ,footnote #a3 ,smkhya     
holds t bo? validity & invalidity ( any 
cognition dep5d ^u ! cognitive /ate     
itself & n on  correspond5ce ) ext]nal  
facts or objects 7svatah prmnyam  svatah

 aprmnyam74 ,! contribution ( ,smkhya to
 ! doctr9e  ( inf]5ce is n def9itely    
kn[n4 ,:at little ,vcaspati says on !   
subject has be5 borr[$ f ,vtsyyana su* z
 ! prvavat1 s'esavat  & smnyatodrsta    
types ( inf]5ce1 & ^! may bett] be      
consult$ 9 our *apt] on ,nyya or 9 !    
,ttp>yatk ( ,vcaspati4  ,smkhya inf]5ce 
0 probably f p>ticul> to p>ticul> on !  
gr\nd ( sev5 k9ds ( relations accord+ to
 :i* !y _h sev5 k9ds  ( inf]5ce         
mtrnimittasamyogivirodhisahacribhih4    
,svasvmibadhyaghtdyaih smkhynm          
saptadhnum 7,ttp>yatk1 p4  #aji74       
,smkhya def9ition ( inf]5ce z giv5 by   
,udyotak>a 7,i4,i4 ,v7 is  samb&hdekasmt
 pratyaksac*esasiddhiranumnam4    #bfi  
cognitive /ates su* z are g5]at$ by     
p]ception1 inf]5ce  & scriptural        
te/imony71 7#b7 vip>yaya 7false k1      
illusion1  etc471 7#c7 vikalpa          
7ab/raction1 con/ruction & diff]5t k9ds 
(  imag9ation71 7#d7 nidr 7sleep1 is a  
vacant /ate ( m9d1 9 :i*  tamas t5ds to 
pr$om9ate71 7#e7 smrti 7memory74    ,^! 

/ates ( m9d 7vrtti7 comprise our inn]   
exp]i5ce4  ,:5 !y lead u t[>ds sms>a    
into ! c\rse ( passions  & _!           
satisfactions1 !y are said to be klista 
7afflict$ or  lead+ to affliction72 :5  
!y lead u t[>ds lib]ation1 !y  are call$
 aklista 7unafflict$74 ,to :i*ev] side  
we g1 t[>ds  sams>a or t[>ds mukti1 we h
 to make use ( our /ates (  m9d2 ! /ates
 :i* are bad (t5 alt]nate ) good /ates1 
& :i*ev] /ate %\ld t5d t[>ds our f9al   
good 7lib]ation7  mu/ be reg>d$ z good4 
,?is draws att5tion to t important      
*>act]i/ic ( citta1  t x sometimes t5ds 
t[>ds good 7i4e4 lib]ation7 & sometimes 
t[>ds bad 7sms>a74 ,x is l a riv]1 z !  
,vysabhsya  says1 :i* fl[s bo? ways1    
t[>ds s9 & t[>ds !  good4 ,! teleology (
 prakrti requires t x %\ld produce  9   
man ! sms>a z well z ! lib]ation t5d5cy4
    ,?us 9 accordance ) x 9 ! mid/ ( _m 
bad ?\ghts  & bad habits !re come good  
moral w & good ?\ghts1  & 9 ! mid/ (    
good ?\ghts & habits come also bad      
?\ghts & vici\s t5d5cies4 ,! w to be    

good is !re=e  nev] lo/ 9 man1 z x is an
 innate t5d5cy 9 him :i* is  z /rong z 8
 desire to enjoy pleasures4 ,?is po9t is
 r  rem>kable1 = x gives u ! key ( ,yoga
 e?ics & %[s  t our desire ( lib]ation  
is n actuat$ by any h$oni/ic  attraction
 = happ9ess or ev5 removal ( pa91 b by  
an  innate t5d5cy ( ! m9d to foll[ ! pa?
 ( lib]ation  ,footnote ref #a4 ,removal
 ( pa9s        ,footnote #a3 ,smkhya    
h[ev] makes ! absolute & complete       
de/ruction  ( ?ree k9ds ( sorr[s1       
dhytmika 7g5]at$ int]nally by !  illness
 ( ! body or ! unsatisfi$ passions ( !  
m9d71  dhibhautika 7g5]at$ ext]nally by 
! injuries inflict$ by  o!r m51 bea/s1  
etc47 & dhidaivika 7g5]at$ by ! injuries
  inflict$ by demons & gho/s7 ! object (
 all our endeav\rs  7purusr?a74    #bgj 
is ( c\rse ! concomitant effect ( foll[+
 su* a c\rse1 b  /ill ! motive to foll[ 
?is pa? is a natural & irresi/ible      
t5d5cy ( ! m9d4 ,man has p[] 7s'akti7   
/or$ up 9 8  citta1 & he has to use x 9 
su* a way t ?is t5d5cy may  gradually   

gr[ /rong] & /rong] & ultimately uproot 
!  o!r4 ,he mu/ succe$ 9 ?is1 s9ce      
prakrti wants lib]ation =  h] f9al      
realization ,footnote ref #a4      ,yoga
 ,purificatory ,practices 7,p>ik>ma74   
,! purpose ( ,yoga m$itation is to /eady
 ! m9d on  ! gradually advanc+ /ages (  
?\ghts t[>ds lib]ation1  s t vici\s     
t5d5cies may gradually be m & m  weak5$ 
& at la/ disappe> altoge!r4 ,b be=e !   
m9d  c be fit = ?is l(ty m$itation1 x is
 necess>y t x %\ld  be purg$ ( ord9>y   
impurities4 ,?us ! int5d+ yog9  %\ld    
practise absolute non-injury to all liv+
 be+s 7ahims71  absolute & /rict        
tru?fulness 7satya71 non-/eal+ 7a/eya71 
absolute sexual re/ra9t 7brahmac>ya7 & !
 acceptance (  no?+ b t :i* is          
absolutely necess>y 7ap>igraha74  ,^!   
are collectively call$ yama4 ,aga9 side 
by side ) ^!  ab/95ces "o mu/ also      
practise ext]nal cleanl9ess by ablutions
  & inn] cleanl9ess ( ! m9d1 cont5tm5t (
 m9d1 !  habit ( be>+ all privations (  
heat & cold1 or keep+ !  body unmov$ &  

rema9+ sil5t 9 spee* 7tapas71 ! /udy  ( 
philosophy 7svdhyya7 & m$itation on     
s'v>a  7s'v>apranidhna74 ,^! are        
collectively call$ niyamas4  ,to ^! are 
also to be add$ c]ta9 o!r moral         
discipl9es su* z  pratipaksa-bhvan1     
maitr1 k>un1 mudit & upeks4             
,pratipaksa-bhvan means t :5ev] a bad   
?\ght 7e4g4 selfi%  motive7 may come "o 
%\ld practise ! opposite good ?\ght     
7self-sacrifice72 s t ! bad ?\ghts may n
 f9d any scope4  ,mo/ ( our vices are   
orig9at$ by our unfri5dly relations  )  
our fell[-be+s4 ,to remove ^! ! practice
 ( m]e  ab/95ce may n be suffici5t1 &   
!re=e "o %\ld  habituate ! m9d to keep  
itself 9 positive good relations )  our 
fell[-be+s4 ,! practice ( maitr means to
 ?9k (  all be+s z fri5ds4 ,if we       
cont9ually habituate ourselves to  ?9k  
?is1 we c nev] be displeas$ ) !m4 ,s too
 "o  %\ld practise k>un or k9dly feel+ =
 suff]]s1 mudit        ,footnote #a3    
,see my ,yoga ,psy*ology1 ,que/1        
,octob]1 #aiba4    #bga    or a feel+ ( 

happ9ess = ! good ( all be+s1 & upeks   
or a feel+ ( equanimity & indiff]5ce = !
 vices ( o!rs4  ,! la/ "o indicates t ! 
yog9 %\ld n take any note  ( ! vices (  
vici\s m54    ,:5 ! m9d becomes dis9cl9$
 to all worldly pleasures  7vairgya7 &  
to all su* z are promis$ 9 heav5 by !   
p]=mances  ( ,v$ic sacrifices1 & ! m9d  
purg$ ( its dross  & made fit = !       
practice ( ,yoga m$itation1 ! yog9 may  
atta9 lib]ation by a con/ant practice   
7abhysa7 att5d$ )  fai?1 confid5ce      
7s'raddh71 /r5g? ( purpose & execution  
7vrya7 arid wisdom 7praj7 atta9$ at ea* 
advance4      ,! ,yoga ,m$itation4      
,:5 ! m9d has become pure ! *ances ( its
 be+  ruffl$ by ext]nal di/urbances are 
greatly r$uc$4 ,at su*  a /age ! yog9   
takes a firm po/ure 7sana7 & fixes 8 m9d
  on any object he *ooses4 ,x is1 h[ev]1
 pref]able t he %\ld  fix x on s'v>a1 = 
9 t case s'v>a be+ pleas$ removes  _m ( 
! ob/acles 9 8 pa?1 & x becomes easi] = 
him to atta9 success4 ,b ( c\rse he     
makes 8 own *oice1  & c *oose any?+ he  

likes = ! unify+ conc5tration  7samdhi7 
( 8 m9d4 ,!re are f\r /ates ( ?is unify+
  conc5tration namely vit>ka1 vicra1 n&a
 & asmit4 ,(  ^! vit>ka & vicra h ea*   
two v>ieties1 savit>ka1 nirvit>ka1      
savicra1 nirvicra ,footnote ref #a4 ,:5 
! m9d conc5trates on  objects1 rememb]+ 
_! names & qualities1 x is call$ !      
savit>ka  /age2 :5 on ! five tanmtras ) 
a remembrance ( _!  qualities x is call$
 savicra1 & :5 x is "o ) ! tanmtras  )\t
 any notion ( _! qualities x is call$   
nirvicra4  ,high] ?an ^! are ! n&a & !  
asmit /ates4 ,9 !  n&a /ate ! m9d       
conc5trates on ! buddhi ) its functions 
( ! s5ses caus+ pleasure4 ,9 ! asmit    
/age buddhi  conc5trates on pure        
sub/ance z dive/$ ( all modifications4  
,9 all ^! /ages !re are objects on :i* !
 m9d  consci\sly conc5trates1 ^! are    
!re=e call$ ! samprajta  7) k ( objects7
 types ( samdhi4 ,next to ?is comes  !  
la/ /age ( samdhi call$ ! asamprajta or 
nirodha  samdhi1 9 :i* ! m9d is )\t any 
object4 ,by rema9+        ,footnote #a3 

,vcaspati1 h[ev]1 ?9ks t n&a & asmit h  
also  two o!r v>ieties1 :i* is d5i$ by  
,bhiksu4    #bgb    long 9 ?is /age !   
old pot5cies 7samskras7 or impressions  
due to ! cont9u$ exp]i5ce ( worldly     
ev5ts t5d+ t[>ds  ! objective _w or     
t[>ds any process ( exp]i5c+ inn]  ?9k+ 
are de/roy$ by ! production ( a /rong   
habit ( !  nirodha /ate4 ,at ?is /age   
dawns ! true k1 :5 !  buddhi becomes z  
pure z ! purusa1 & aft] t ! citta n  be+
 able to b9d ! purusa any long] returns 
back to prakrti4    ,9 ord] to practise 
?is conc5tration "o has to see t  !re   
may be no di/urbance1 & ! yog9 %\ld     
select a  quiet place on a hill or 9 a  
=e/4 ,"o ( ! ma9 ob/acles  is1 h[ev]1 to
 be f\nd 9 our con/ant respiratory      
action4 ,?is  has to be /opp$ by !      
practice ( prnyma4 ,prnyma  consi/s 9   
tak+ 9 brea?1 keep+ x = a :ile & !n     
giv+ x up4 ,) practice "o may reta9     
brea? /eadily =  h\rs1 days1 mon?s & ev5
 ye>s4 ,:5 !re is no ne$  ( tak+ 9 brea?
 or giv+ x out1 & x c be reta9$  /eady =

 a long "t1 "o ( ! ma9 ob/acles is      
remov$4    ,! process ( practis+        
conc5tration is begun by sitt+  9 a     
/eady po/ure1 hold+ ! brea? by prnyma1  
exclud+  all o!r ?\ghts1 & fix+ ! m9d on
 any object 7dhran74  ,at fir/ x is     
difficult to fix /eadily on any object1 
& ! same  ?\ght has to be repeat$       
con/antly 9 ! m9d1 ?is is call$  dhyna4 
,aft] suffici5t practice 9 dhyna ! m9d  
atta9s !  p[] ( mak+ itself /eady2 at   
?is /age x becomes "o  ) its object &   
!re is no *ange or repetition4 ,!re is  
no consci\sness ( subject1 object or    
?9k+1 b ! m9d  becomes /eady & "o ) !   
object ( ?\ght4 ,?is is call$  samdhi   
,footnote ref #a4 ,we h already describ$
 ! six /ages (  samdhi4 ,z ! yog9       
acquires /r5g? 9 "o /age ( samdhi1 he   
passes  on to a /ill high] /age & s on4 
,z he progresses onw>ds  he atta9s      
miracul\s p[]s 7vibhti7 & 8 fai? & hope 
9 ! practice increase4 ,miracul\s p[]s  
br+ ) !m  _m temptations1 b ! yog9 is   
firm ( purpose & ev5  ?\gh ! position ( 

,indra is (f]$ to him he does n relax4  
,8 wisdom 7praj7 also increases at ea*  
/ep4 ,praj k  is z cle> z p]ception1 b  
:ile p]ception is limit$ to             
,footnote #a3 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! ^w    
samdhi _c prop]ly be  translat$ ei!r by 
conc5tration or by m$itation4 ,x means t
  peculi> k9d ( conc5tration 9 ! ,yoga  
s5se by :i* ! m9d becomes  "o ) its     
object & !re is no movem5t ( ! m9d into 
its pass+  /ates4    #bgc    c]ta9 gross
 ?+s & c]ta9 gross qualities ,footnote  
ref #a praj  has no su* limitations1    
p5etrat+ into ! subtle/ ?+s1 !          
tanmtras1 ! gunas1 & p]ceiv+ cle>ly &   
vividly all _!  subtle conditions &     
qualities ,footnote ref #b4 ,z !        
pot5cies  7samskra7 ( ! praj wisdom gr[ 
9 /r5g? ! pot5cies (  ord9>y k are root$
 out1 & ! yog9 cont9ues to rema9  always
 9 8 praj wisdom4 ,x is a peculi>ity (  
?is praj t  x leads a man t[>ds         
lib]ation & _c b9d him to samsra4  ,!   
f9al prajs :i* lead to lib]ation are (  
sev5 k9ds1  namely1 7#a7 ,i h kn[n ! _w1

 ! object ( suff]+ &  mis]y1 ,i h no?+ m
 to "k ( x4 7#b7 ,! gr\nds &  roots (   
samsra h be5 ?or\ghly uproot$1 no?+ m  (
 x rema9s to be uproot$4 7#c7 ,removal  
has become a fact (  direct cognition by
 inhibitive trance4 7#d7 ,! means ( k  9
 ! %ape ( a discrim9ation ( purusa f    
prakrti has be5  und]/ood4 ,! o!r ?ree  
are n psy*ological b are r  metaphysical
 processes associat$ ) ! situation4 ,!y 
are  z foll[s3 7#e7 ,! d\ble purpose (  
buddhi exp]i5ce &  emancipation 7bhoga &
 apav>ga7 has be5 realiz$4 7#f7 ,!      
/rong gravitat+ t5d5cy ( ! dis9tegrat$  
gunas drives  !m into prakrti l heavy   
/ones dropp$ f high hill tops4  7#g7 ,! 
buddhi dis9tegrat$ into its con/itu5ts !
 gunas  become m]g$ 9 ! prakrti & rema9 
!re = ev]4 ,!  purusa hav+ pass$ beyond 
! bondage ( ! gunas %9es  =? 9 its pure 
intellig5ce4 ,!re is no bliss or        
happ9ess 9  ?is ,smkhya-,yoga mukti1 =  
all feel+ belongs to prakrti4 ,x  is ?us
 a /ate ( pure intellig5ce4 ,:at !      
,smkhya tries to  a*ieve ?r\gh k1 ,yoga 

a*ieves ?r\gh ! p]fect$  discipl9e ( ! w
 & psy*ological control ( ! m5tal /ates4
        ,footnote #a3 ,! limitations :i*
 baffle p]ception are c\nt$ 9 !  ,krik z
 foll[s3 ,extreme remot5ess 7e4g4 a l>k 
high up 9 ! sky71  extreme proximity    
7e4g4 collyrium inside ! eye71 loss (   
s5se-organ  7e4g4 a bl9d man71 want (   
att5tion1 extreme smallness ( ! object  
7e4g4 atoms71 ob/ruction by o!r int]v5+ 
objects 7e4g4 by  walls71 pres5ce (     
sup]ior lights 7! /> _c be se5 9        
daylight71  be+ mix$ up ) o!r ?+s ( its 
own k9d 7e4g4 wat] ?r[n  into a lake74  
,footnote #b3 ,?\gh all ?+s are b !     
modifications ( gunas yet !  real nature
 ( ! gunas is nev] reveal$ by ! s5se k4 
,:at  appe>s to ! s5ses are b illusory  
*>act]i/ics l ^? ( magic  7my73         
,gunnm p>amam rpam na drstipa?amrc*ati  
,yattu drstipa?am prptam tanmyeva       
sutuc*akam4      ,vysabhsya1 ,,iv4 #ac4 
,! real nature ( ! gunas is ?us reveal$ 
only by praj4    #bgd          ,,*apt]  
,,viii    ,,! ,,ny,,ya-,,vais',e,,sika  

,,philosophy      ,criticism ( ,buddhism
 & ,smkhya f !  ,nyya /&po9t4    ,!     
,buddhi/s _h upset all common s5se      
convictions (  sub/ance & attribute1    
cause & effect1 & p]man5ce (  ?+s1 on ! 
gr\nd t all collocations are mom5t>y2   
ea* gr\p ( collocations exhau/s itself 9
 giv+ rise to  ano!r gr\p & t to ano!r &
 s on4 ,b if a collocation  repres5t+   
milk g5]ates ! collocation ( curd  x is 
said to be due to a jo9t action ( !     
elem5ts =m+  ! cause-collocation & !    
modus op]&i is un9telligible2  ! elem5ts
 compos+ ! cause-collocation _c         
sep>ately  g5]ate ! elem5ts compos+ !   
effect-collocation1 = on  su* a         
supposition x becomes h>d to ma9ta9 !   
doctr9e  ( mom5t>9ess z ! individual &  
sep>ate ex]cise ( influ5ce  on ! "p ( ! 
cause-elem5ts & _! coord9ation  &       
manife/ation z effect _c b take m ?an "o
 mom5t4  ,! supposition t ! :ole ( !    
effect-collocation is !  result ( ! jo9t
 action ( ! elem5ts ( cause-collocation 
is  aga9/ our univ]sal uncontradict$    

exp]i5ce t specific  elem5ts con/itut+ !
 cause 7e4g4 ! :it5ess ( milk7 are  !   
cause ( o!r correspond+ elem5ts ( !     
effect 7e4g4 !  :it5ess ( ! curd72 & we 
c\ld n say t ! h>dness1  blackness1 &   
o!r prop]ties ( ! atoms ( iron 9 a lump 
/ate %\ld n be reg>d$ z ! cause ( simil>
 qualities 9  ! iron ball1 = ?is is     
aga9/ ! te/imony ( exp]i5ce4  ,moreov]  
!re w\ld be no diff]5ce betwe5 mat]ial  
7updna1  e4g4 clay ( ! jug71 in/rum5tal 
& concomitant causes 7nimitta  &        
sahakri1 su* z ! pott]1 & ! :eel1 ! /ick
 etc4 9  =m+ ! jug71 = ! causes jo9tly  
produce ! effect1 &  !re 0 no room =    
di/+ui%+ ! mat]ial & ! in/rum5tal       
causes1 z su*4    ,aga9 at ! v mom5t 9  
:i* a cause-collocation is  br\ght into 
be+1 x _c ex]t its influ5ce to produce  
its    #bge    effect-collocation4 ,?us 
aft] com+ into be+ x w\ld take !        
cause-collocation at lea/ ano!r mom5t to
 ex]cise its influ5ce  to produce !     
effect4 ,h[ c ! ?+ :i* is de/roy$ !     
mom5t aft] x is born produce any effect8

 ,! tru? is t  causal elem5ts rema9 & :5
 !y are prop]ly collocat$  ! effect is  
produc$4 ,ord9>y exp]i5ce also %[s t we 
p]ceive ?+s z exi/+ f a pa/ "t4 ,! pa/  
"t is  p]ceiv$ by u z pa/1 ! pres5t z   
pres5t & ! future z  future & ?+s are   
p]ceiv$ z exi/+ f a pa/ "t onw>ds4    ,!
 ,smkhya assumption t effects are b !   
actualiz$  /ates ( ! pot5tial cause1 & t
 ! causal entity holds  )9 x all !      
future s]ies ( effects1 & t ?us ! effect
 is  already exi/5t ev5 be=e ! causal   
movem5t = ! production  ( ! effect1 is  
also baseless4 ,smkhya says t !  oil 0  
already exi/5t 9 ! sesamum & n 9 ! /one1
 &  t x is ?us t oil c be got f sesamum 
& n f !  /one4 ,! action ( ! in/rum5tal 
cause ) !m consi/s  only 9 actualiz+ or 
manife/+ :at 0 already exi/5t 9  a      
pot5tial =m 9 ! cause4 ,?is is all      
nons5se4 ,a lump (  clay is call$ !     
cause & ! jug ! effect2 ( :at good is x 
to say t ! jug exi/s 9 ! clay s9ce )    
clay we c nev]  c>ry wat]8 ,a jug is    
made out ( clay1 b clay is n a jug4     

,:at is meant by say+ t ! jug 0         
unmanife/$ or 0  9 a pot5tial /ate be=e1
 & t x has n[ become manife/  or actual8
 ,:at does pot5tial /ate mean8 ,!       
pot5tial /ate  ( ! jug is n ! same z its
 actual /ate2 ?us ! actual /ate  ( ! jug
 mu/ be admitt$ z non-exi/5t be=e4 ,if x
 is  meant t ! jug is made up ( ! same  
p>ts 7! atoms7 (  :i* ! clay is made up1
 ( c\rse we admit x1 b ?is does  n mean 
t ! jug 0 exi/5t 9 ! atoms ( ! lump  (  
clay4 ,! pot5cy inh]5t 9 ! clay by      
virtue ( :i* x  c expose itself to !    
influ5ce ( o!r ag5ts1 su* z !  pott]1 = 
be+ trans=m$ into a jug is n ! same z ! 
effect1 ! jug4 ,_h x be5 s1 !n we %\ld r
 h said  t ! jug came out ( ! jug4 ,!   
assumption ( ,smkhya  t ! sub/ance &    
attribute h ! same reality is also      
aga9/ all exp]i5ce1 = we all p]ceive t  
movem5t &  attribute belong to sub/ance 
& n to attribute4 ,aga9  ,smkhya holds a
 prepo/]\s doctr9e t buddhi is diff]5t  
#bgf    f intellig5ce4 ,x is absolutely 
unmean+ to call buddhi  non-intellig5t4 

,aga9 :at is ! good ( all ?is fictiti\s 
fuss  t ! qualities ( buddhi are        
reflect$ on purusa & !n aga9 on  buddhi4
 ,evid5tly 9 all our exp]i5ce we f9d t !
 s\l  7tman7 kn[s1 feels & wills1 & x is
 difficult to und]/& :y  ,smkhya does n 
accept ?is pat5t fact & decl>e t k1     
feel+1 & will+1 all belong$ to buddhi4  
,!n aga9 9  ord] to expla9 exp]i5ce x   
br\ght =? a !ory ( d\ble  reflection4   
,aga9 ,smkhya prakrti is non-intellig5t1
 & :]e  is ! gu>antee t %e 7prakrti7 w n
 b9d ! wise aga9  & w emancipate him    
once = all8 ,:y did ! purusa become     
b\nd d[n8 ,prakrti is be+ utiliz$ =     
enjoym5t by  ! inf9ite numb] ( purusas1 
& %e is no delicate girl 7z  ,smkhya    
supposes7 :o w leave ! pres5ce ( !      
purusa  a%am$ z soon z h] real nature is
 discov]$4 ,aga9 pleasure  7sukha71     
sorr[ 7duhkha7 & a bl9d+ feel+ ?r\gh    
ignorance  7moha7 are b !               
feel+-exp]i5ces ( ! s\l1 & ) :at        
impud5ce c\ld ,smkhya ?9k ( ^! z mat]ial
 sub/ances8  ,aga9 _! cosmology ( a     

mahat1 ahamkra1 ! tanmtras1  is all a   
s]ies ( assumptions nev] te/ifi$ by     
exp]i5ce nor  by reason4 ,!y are all a  
s]ies ( hopeless & fooli% blund]s4  ,!  
ph5om5a ( exp]i5ce ?us call = a new     
c>eful recon/ruction  9 ! light ( reason
 & exp]i5ce su* z _c be f\nd 9 o!r      
sy/ems4 7,see ,nyyamaj>1 pp4 #deb-dff & 
#dij-dif47      ,nyya & ,vais'esika     
stras4    ,x is v probable t ! e>lie/   
beg9n+s ( ,nyya are  to be f\nd 9 !     
disputations & debates among/ s*ol>s    
try+ to f9d out ! "r mean+s ( ! ,v$ic   
texts = use  9 sacrifices & also 9 ^?   
disputations :i* took place betwe5  !   
adh]5ts ( diff]5t s*ools ( ?\ght try+ to
  defeat "o ano!r4 ,i suppose t su*     
disputations occurr$ 9  ! days ( !      
,upanisads1 & ! art ( disputation 0     
reg>d$  ev5 !n z a subject ( /udy1 & x  
probably pass$ !n by  ! "n vkovkya4 ,mr 
,bodas has po9t$ out t pa/amba  :o      
accord+ to ,bhl] liv$ be=e ! ?ird c5tury
 ,b4,c4 us$ !  ^w ,nyya 9 ! s5se ( ,mmms
 ,footnote ref #a4 ,! ^w ,nyya  d]iv$   

,footnote #a pa/amba1 trans4 by ,bhl]1  
,introduction1 p4 ,,xxvii41 &  ,bodas's 
article on ! ,hi/orical ,survey (       
,indian ,logic 9 ! ,bombay  ,bran* (    
,j4,r4,a4,s41 vol4 ,,xix4    #bgg    f !
 root n is sometimes expla9$ z t by :i* 
s5t5ces  & words c\ld be int]pret$ z    
hav+ "o p>ticul> mean+  & n ano!r1 & on 
! /r5g? ( ?is ev5 ,v$ic acc5ts (  words 
7:i* indicate ! mean+ ( comp\nd words by
 po9t+  out ! p>ticul> k9d ( comp\nd 9  
:i* ! words ent]$  into comb9ation7 7   
call$ ,nyya ,footnote ref #a4 ,pr(4     
,jacobi on !  /r5g? ( ,kautilya's       
enum]ation ( ! vidy 7sci5ces7 z nvksik  
7! sci5ce ( te/+ ! p]ceptual &          
scriptural k  by fur!r scrut9y71 tray 7!
 ?ree ,v$as71 vrtt 7! sci5ces  (        
agriculture1 cattle keep+ etc471 &      
dandanti 7polity71 & !  enum]ation ( !  
philosophies z ,smkhya1 ,yoga1 ,lokyata 
& nvksik1 supposes t ! ,nyya stra 0 n 9 
exi/5ce  9 ,kautilya's "t #cjj ,b4,c47  
,footnote ref #b4 ,kautilya's ref]5ce to
  ,nyya z nvksik only sugge/s t ! ^w    

,nyya 0 n a famili>  "n = nvksik 9      
,kautilya's "t4 ,he seems to misund]/&  
,vtsyyana 9 ?9k+ t ,vtsyyana di/+ui%es  
,nyya  f ! nvksik 9 hold+ t :ile ! latt]
 only means  ! sci5ce ( logic ! =m]     
means logic z well z metaphysics4  ,:at 
appe>s f ,vtsyyana's /atem5t 9 ,nyya    
stra ,i4i4 #a  is ?is t he po9ts out t !
 sci5ce :i* 0 kn[n 9 8  "t z ,nyya 0 !  
same z 0 ref]r$ to z nvksik by          
,kautilya4 ,he di/9ctly id5tifies       
,nyyavidy ) nvksik1  b ju/ifies !       
sep>ate enum]ation ( c]ta9 logical      
categories  su* z sams'aya 7d\bt7 etc41 
?\gh ^! 7 already conta9$  )9 ! fir/ two
 t]ms pramna 7means ( cognition7 &      
prameya 7objects ( cognition71 by hold+ 
t unless ^! its  special & sep>ate      
bran*es 7pr?akpra/hna7 7 treat$1        
,nyyavidy w\ld simply become metaphysics
 7adhytmavidy7  l ! ,upanisads4 ,! old  
mean+ ( ,nyya z ! means ( det]m9+  ! "r 
mean+ or ! "r ?+ is also agre$ ^u  by   
,vtsyyana & is sanction$ by ,vcaspati 9 
8  ,nyyavrttikattp>yatk ,i4i4 #a74 ,he  

comp>es ! mean+ ( !  ^w ,nyya           
7pramnair>?ap>ksanam--to scrut9ize an   
object by  means ( logical pro(7 ) !    
etymological mean+ ( ! ^w  nvksik 7to   
scrut9ize any?+ aft] x has be5 kn[n by  
p]ception  & scriptures74 ,vtsyyana (   
c\rse po9ts out t s f> z  ?is logical   
side ( ,nyya is conc]n$ x has ! wide/   
scope =        ,footnote #a3 ,klidsa's  
,kumrasambhava ,udghto pranavaysm       
nyyai/ribhirudranam1 also ,mall9?a's    
gloss on x4    ,footnote #b3 ,pr(4      
,jacobi's ,! e>ly hi/ory ( ,indian      
,philosophy1  ,indian ,antiqu>y1 #aiah4 
#bgh    itself z x includes all be+s1   
all _! actions1 & all ! sci5ces         
,footnote ref #a4 ,he quotes ,kautilya  
to %[ t 9 ?is capacity ,nyya  is l light
 illum9+ all sci5ces & is ! means ( all 
works4 ,9 its  capacity z deal+ ) !     
tru?s ( metaphysics x may %[ !  way to  
salvation4 ,i d n dispute ,pr(4         
,jacobi's ma9 po9t t  ! metaphysical    
portion ( ! "w 0 a lat] addition1 = ?is 
seems to me to be a v probable view4 ,9 

fact ,vtsyyana himself  designates !    
logical portion z a pr?akpra/hna        
7sep>ate  bran*74 ,b ,i d n f9d t any   
/atem5t ( ,vtsyyana or  ,kautilya c     
ju/ify u 9 conclud+ t ?is addition 0    
made  aft] ,kautilya4 ,vtsyyana has no  
d\bt put m /ress on !  importance ( !   
logical side ( ! "w1 b ! reason ( t     
seems to be q obvi\s1 = ! importance (  
metaphysics or  adhytmavidy 0 ackn[l$g$ 
by all4 ,b ! importance (  ! m]e logical
 side w\ld n appeal to mo/ p4 ,none (  !
 dh>mas'/ras 7religi\s scriptures7 or ! 
,v$as w\ld l5d  any support to x1 &     
,vtsyyana _h to seek ! support (        
,kautilya 9 ! matt] z ! la/ res\rce4 ,! 
fact t ,kautilya  0 n satisfi$ by c\nt+ 
nvksik z "o ( ! f\r  vidys b also nam$ x
 z "o ( ! philosophies side by side  )  
,smkhya seems to lead to ! presumption t
 probably  ev5 9 ,kautilya's "t ,nyya 0 
compos$ ( two bran*es1  "o z adhytmavidy
 & ano!r z a sci5ce ( logic or r  (     
debate4 ,?is comb9ation is on ! face ( x
 loose & ext]nal1  & x is n improbable t

 ! metaphysical portion 0 add$  to      
increase ! popul>ity ( ! logical "p1 :i*
 by itself might  n attract suffici5t   
att5tion4 ,mahmahopdhyya ,h>aprasda     
,s'/r 9 an article 9 ! ,j\rnal ( !      
,b5gal ,asiatic ,society  #aije says t z
 ,vcaspati made two attempts to collect 
!  ,nyya stras1 "o z ,nyyasci & ! o!r z 
,nyyastroddhra1  x seems t ev5 9        
,vcaspati's "t he 0 n c]ta9 z to  !     
au!nticity ( _m ( ! ,nyya stras4 ,he    
fur!r po9ts  out t !re are unmi/akable  
signs t _m ( ! stras  7 int]polat$1 &   
relates ! ,buddhi/ tradition f ,*9a  &  
,japan t ,mirok m+l$ ,nyya & ,yoga4 ,he 
also        ,footnote #a3 ,y5a prayuktah
 prav>ttate tat prayojanam 7t by :i*  "o
 is l$ to act is call$ prayojanam72     
yam>?am abhpsan jihsan  v k>ma rabhate  
t5n5a s>ve prn9ah s>vni k>mni s>vs'ca   
vidyh vypth tads'rays'ca nyyah          
prav>ttate 7all ^? :i*  "o tries to h or
 to fly f are call$ prayojana1 !re=e all
  be+s1 all _! actions1 & all sci5ces1  
are includ$ )9 prayojana1  & all ^!     

dep5d on ,nyya74 ,vtsyyana bhs'ya1 ,i4i4
 #a4    #bgi    ?9ks t ! stras und]w5t  
two additions1 "o at ! h&s  ( "s        
,buddhi/s & ano!r at ! h&s ( "s ,h9du :o
  put 9 ,h9du argum5ts aga9/ ! ,buddhi/ 
ones4 ,^!  sugge/ions ( ?is le>n$ s*ol> 
seem to be v probable1 b  we h no clue  
by :i* we c asc]ta9 ! "t :5 su*         
additions 7 made4 ,! fact t !re are     
unmi/akable pro(s  ( ! int]polation ( _m
 ( ! stras makes ! fix+ (  ! date ( !   
orig9al "p ( ! ,nyya stras /ill m       
difficult1  = ! ,buddhi/ ref]5ces c     
h>dly be ( any help1 &  ,pr(4 ,jacobi's 
attempt to fix ! date ( ! ,nyya stras on
 !  basis ( ref]5ces to ,s'nyavda       
naturally loses its value1 except  on ! 
supposition t all ref]5ces to ,s'nyavda 
mu/ be lat]  ?an ,ngrjuna1 :i* is n     
correct1 s9ce ! ,mahyna stras  writt5   
be=e ,ngrjuna also held ! ,s'nyavda     
doctr9e4    ,! late ,dr ,s4,c4          
,vidybhsana 9 ,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiah ?9ks  t
 ! e>li] "p ( ,nyya 0 writt5 by ,gautama
 ab\t  #eej ,b4,c4 :]eas ! ,nyya stras (

 ,aksapda 7 writt5  ab\t #aej ,a4,d4 &  
says t ! use ( ! ^w ,nyya 9 !  s5se (   
logic 9 ,mahbhrata ,i4,i4 #fg1 ,i4 #gj4 
#db-ea1 mu/ be  reg>d$ z int]polations4 
,he1 h[ev]1 does n give any  reasons 9  
support ( 8 assumption4 ,x appe>s f 8   
treatm5t  ( ! subject t ! fix+ ( ! date 
( ,aksapda 0 made  to fit 9 someh[ ) 8  
idea t ,aksapda wrote 8 ,nyya  stras "u 
! influ5ce ( ,ari/otle--a supposition   
:i* does  n require s]i\s refutation1 at
 lea/ s f> z ,dr ,vidybhsana  has prov$ 
x4 ,?us aft] all ?is discussion we h n  
advanc$  a /ep t[>ds ! asc]ta9m5t ( !   
date ( ! orig9al "p  ( ! ,nyya4         
,gold/ck] says t bo? ,patajali 7#adj    
,b4,c47  & ,ktyyana 7f\r? c5tury ,b4,c47
 knew ! ,nyya stras ,footnote ref  #a4  
,we "k t ,kautilya knew ! ,nyya 9 "s =m 
z nvksik  9 #cjj ,b4,c41 & on ! /r5g? ( 
?is we may v5ture to say  t ! ,nyya     
exi/$ 9 "s =m z e>ly z ! f\r?  c5tury   
,b4,c4 ,b !re are o!r reasons :i* lead  
me to ?9k  t at lea/ "s ( ! pres5t stras
 7 writt5 "s "t  9 ! second c5tury      

,a4,d4 ,bodas po9ts out t ,bd>yana's    
stras make allusions to ! ,vais'esika   
doctr9es & n to ,nyya4  ,on ?is gr\nd he
 ?9ks t ,vais'esika stras 7 writt5 be=e 
,bd>yana's ,brahma-stras1 :]eas ! ,nyya 
stras 7  writt5 lat]4 ,c&raknta         
,t>klamkra also cont5ds 9 8             
,footnote #a3 ,gold/ck]'s ,pn9i1 p4     
#aeg4    #bhj    edition ( ,vais'esika t
 ! ,vais'esika stras 7 e>li] ?an !      
,nyya4 ,x seems to me to be p]fectly    
c]ta9 t ! ,vais'esika  stras 7 writt5   
be=e ,c>aka 7#hj ,a4,d472 = he n only   
quotes  "o ( ! ,vais'esika stras1 b !   
:ole f\ndation ( 8 m$ical  physics is   
bas$ on ! ,vaisesika physics ,footnote  
ref #a4 ,!  ,lankvatra stra 7:i* z x 0  
quot$ by ,z'vaghosa is e>li]  ?an #hj   
,a4,d47 also makes allusions to ! atomic
 doctr9e4 ,!re are  o!r weighti] gr\nds1
 z we %all see lat] on1 = suppos+  t !  
,vais'esika stras are probably          
pre-,buddhi/ic ,footnote ref #b4    ,x  
is c]ta9 t ev5 ! logical "p ( ! pres5t  
,nyya  stras 0 prec$$ by previ\s        

speculations on ! subject by  ?9k]s (   
o!r s*ools4 ,?us 9 comm5t+ on ,i4i4 #cb 
9 :i*  ! stra /ates t a syllogism       
consi/s ( five premisses 7avayava7      
,vtsyyana says t ?is stra 0 writt5 to   
refute ! views  ( ^? :o held t !re %\ld 
be t5 premisses ,footnote ref #c4 ,!    
,vais'esika stras also give u "s ( !    
e>lie/ types ( inf]5ce1  :i* d n %[ any 
acqua9tance ) ! te*nic ( ! ,nyya        
doctr9e ( inf]5ce ,footnote ref #d4     
,does ,vais'esika repres5t an ,old      
,s*ool ( ,mmms8    ,! ,vais'esika is s  
mu* associat$ ) ,nyya by tradition  t x 
seems at fir/ sight q unlikely t x c\ld 
be suppos$  to repres5t an old s*ool (  
,mmms1 old] ?an t repres5t$  9 ! ,mmms  
stras4 ,b a clos] inspection ( !        
,vais'esika  stras seems to confirm su* 
a supposition 9 a v rem>kable  way4 ,we 
h se5 9 ! previ\s section t ,c>aka      
quotes  a ,vais'esika stra4 ,an         
exam9ation ( ,c>aka's ,stra/hna         
7,i4#ce-ch7  leaves u conv9c$ t ! writ] 
( ! v]ses _h "s  comp5dium ( ,vais'esika

 su* z t ( ! ,bhsp>ic*$a  be=e him4     
,c>aka stra or krik 7,i4i4 #cf7 says t !
 gunas  are ^? :i* h be5 enum]at$ su* z 
heav9ess1 etc41  cognition1 & ^? :i*    
beg9 ) ! guna p>a 7univ]sality7  & end )
 prayatna 7ef=t7 toge!r ) !             
s5se-qualities  7sr?74 ,x seems t ?is is
 a ref]5ce to "s well-kn[n  enum]ation4 
,b ?is enum]ation is n to be f\nd  9 !  
,vais'esika stra 7,i4i4 #f7 :i* leaves  
out ! six gunas1        ,footnote #a3   
,c>aka1 ,s'rra1 #ci4    ,footnote #b3   
,see ! next section4    ,footnote #c3   
,vtsyyana's ,bhsya on ! ,nyya stras1    
,i4i4#cb4 ,?is is  und\bt$ly a ref]5ce  
to ! ,ja9a view z f\nd 9                
,das'avaiklikaniryukti z not$ be=e4     
,footnote #d3 ,nyya stra ,i4i4 #e1 &    
,vais'esika stras ,,ix4 ii4 #a-b1  #d-e1
 & ,,iii4 i4 #h-ag4    #bha    heav9ess 
7gurutva71 liquidity 7dravatva71        
oil9ess7sneha71  ela/icity 7samskra71   
m]it 7dh>ma7 & dem]it 7adh>ma72  9 "o "p
 ( ! stra ! enum]ation beg9s ) p>a      
7univ]sality7 & ends 9 prayatna1 b      

buddhi 7cognition7  comes )9 !          
enum]ation beg9n+ f p>a & end+ 9        
prayatna1 :]eas 9 ,c>aka buddhi does n  
=m "p ( ! li/  & is sep>ately enum]at$4 
,?is leads me to suppose t ,c>aka's     
stra 0 writt5 at a "t :5 ! six gunas    
left out 9 !  ,vais'esika enum]ation _h 
come to be c\nt$ z gunas1 &  comp5diums 
_h be5 made 9 :i* ^! 7 enum]at$4        
,bhsp>ic*$a 7a lat] ,vais'esika         
comp5dium71 is a compilation  f "s v old
 kriks :i* are ref]r$ to by ,vis'van?a  
z be+ collect$ f                        
atisamksiptacirantanoktibhih--7f  v     
anci5t aphorisms ,footnote ref #a72     
,c>aka's def9ition ( smnya  & vis'esa   
%[s t !y _h n !n be5 c\nt$ z sep>ate    
categories z 9 lat] ,nyya-,vais'esika   
doctr9es2 b ?\gh  slightly diff]5t x is 
q 9 keep+ ) ! sort ( def9ition  "o f9ds 
9 ! ,vais'esika stra t smnya 7g5]ality7 
&  vi'sesa are relative to ea* o!r      
,footnote ref #b4 ,c>aka's stras 7      
!re=e probably writt5 at a "t :5 !      
,vais'esika doctr9es 7  und]go+ *anges1 

& well-kn[n comp5diums 7 beg9n+  to be  
writt5 on !m4    ,! ,vais'esika stras   
seem to be ignorant ( ! ,buddhi/        
doctr9es4 ,9 _! discussions on ! exi/5ce
 ( s\l1 !re is  no ref]5ce to any view z
 to non-exi/5ce ( s\l1 b !  argum5t     
turn$ on ! po9t z to :e!r ! self is to  
be an  object ( inf]5ce or reveal$ to u 
by our notion ( ,i4 ,!re  is also no o!r
 ref]5ce to any o!r sy/ems except to "s 
,mmms doctr9es & occasionally to        
,smkhya4 ,!re is no  reason to suppose t
 ! ,mmms doctr9es ref]r$ to allude  to !
 ,mmms stras ( ,jaim9i4 ,! mann] 9 :i* !
  nature ( inf]5ce has be5 treat$ %[s t 
! ,nyya  phraseology ( prvavat &        
s'esavat 0 n kn[n4 ,vais'esika  stras 9 
m ?an "o place ref] to "t z ! ultimate  
cause ,footnote ref #c4 ,we "k t !      
,s'vets'vat>a ,upanisad ref]s to  ^? :o 
reg>d "t z ! cause ( all ?+s1 b 9 none (
 !        ,footnote #a3 ,pr(essor       
,vanaml ,v$ntatr?a's article 9          
,j4,a4,s4,b41  #aijh4    ,footnote #b3  
,c>aka 7,i4i4 #cc7 says t smnya is t :i*

 produces  unity & vis'esa is t :i*     
sep>ates4 ,v4,s4 ,,ii4 ii4 #g4 ,smnya & 
vis'esa dep5d ^u our mode ( ?9k+ 7z     
unit$ or z sep>ate74    ,footnote #c3   
,vais'esika stra 7,,ii4 ii4 #i & ,v4 ii4
 #bf74    #bhb    sy/ems t we h c we    
trace any uphold+ ( ?is anci5t  view    
,footnote ref #a4 ,^! consid]ations z   
well z ! g5]al /yle (  ! "w & ! me?ods (
 discussion lead me to ?9k t ^!  stras  
are probably ! olde/ t we h & 9 all     
probability  are pre-,buddhi/ic4    ,!  
,vais'esika stra beg9s ) ! /atem5t t its
 object  is to expla9 virtue1 dh>ma ,?is
 is we "k ! manife/ duty  ( ,mmms & we  
"k t unlike any o!r sy/em ,jaim9i  beg9s
 8 ,mmms stras by def9+ dh>ma4 ,?is at  
fir/  seems irrelevant to ! ma9 purpose 
( ,vais'esika1 viz1 ! description  ( !  
nature ( pad>?a ,footnote ref #b4 ,he !n
 def9es dh>ma z  t :i* gives prosp]ity &
 ultimate good 7nihsreyasa7 &  says t ! 
,v$a mu/ be reg>d$ z valid1 s9ce x c    
dictate  ?is4 ,he ends 8 book ) ! rem>ks
 t ^? injunctions  7( ,v$ic de$s7 :i*   

are p]=m$ = ord9>y human motives  be/[  
prosp]ity ev5 ?\gh _! efficacy is n kn[n
 to u  ?r\gh our ord9>y exp]i5ce1 & 9   
?is matt] ! ,v$a mu/  be reg>d$ z !     
au?ority :i* dictates ^? acts ,footnote 
ref #c4  ,! fact t ! ,vais'esika beg9s )
 a promise to describe dh>ma  & aft]    
describ+ ! nature ( sub/ances1 qualities
 & actions  & also ! adrsta 7unkn[n     
virtue7 due to dh>ma 7m]it  accru+ f !  
p]=mance ( ,v$ic de$s7 by :i* _m  ( our 
unexpla9$ exp]i5ces may be expla9$1 ends
 8 book  by say+ t ^? ,v$ic works :i*   
are n se5 to produce  any direct effect1
 w produce prosp]ity ?r\gh adr/a1 %[s  t
 ,kanda's me?od ( expla9+ dh>ma has be5 
by %[+  t physical ph5om5a involv+      
sub/ances1 qualities1 &  actions c only 
be expla9$ up to a c]ta9 ext5t :ile a   
good numb] _c be expla9$ at all except  
on ! assumption  ( adrsta 7unse5 virtue7
 produc$ by dh>ma4 ,!        ,footnote  
#a3 ,s'vets'vat>a ,i4i4#b    ,footnote  
#b3 ,i rememb] a v]se quot$ 9 an old    
comm5t>y ( ! ,kalpa  ,vyk>ana1 9 :i* x  

is said t ! description ( ! six         
categories  by ,kanda 9 8 ,vais'esika   
stras1 aft] hav+ propos$ to describe  ! 
nature ( dh>ma1 is z irrelevant z to    
proce$ t[>ds ! sea :ile  int5d+ to g to 
! m\nta9 ,himavat 7,himlaya74    ,dn>mam
 vykhytukmasya satpadr?opav>nanam       
,himavadgantukmasya  sg>agamanopamam4   
,footnote #c3 ,! sutra ,tadvacand       
mnyasya prmnyam 7,i4i4#c &  ,x4ii4#i7   
has be5 expla9$ by ,upaskra z mean+ ,!  
,v$a be+ !  ^w ( s'v>a 7,god7 mu/ be    
reg>d$ z valid1 b s9ce !re is no  m5tion
 ( s'v>a any:]e 9 ! text ?is is simply  
read+ ! lat]  ,nyya ideas into !        
,vais'esika4 ,stra ,x4ii4#h is only a   
repetition (  ,,vi4ii4#a4    #bhc       
description ( ! categories ( sub/ance is
 n irrelevant1 b  is ! means ( prov+ t  
our ord9>y exp]i5ce ( ^!  _c expla9 _m  
facts :i* are only to be expla9$ on  !  
supposition ( adrsta proce$+ out ( !    
p]=mance  ( ,v$ic de$s4 ,9 ,v4i4 #ae !  
movem5t ( ne$les t[>ds  magnets1 9 ,v4  
ii4 #g ! circulation ( wat] 9 plant     

bodies1  ,v4 ii4 #ac & ,,iv4 ii4 #g !   
upw>d motion ( fire1 ! side motion  (   
air1 ! comb9+ movem5t ( atoms 7by :i*   
all comb9ations  h tak5 place71 & !     
orig9al movem5t ( !  m9d are said to be 
due to adrsta4 ,9 ,v4 ii4 #ag ! movem5t 
( ! s\l aft] dea?1 its tak+ hold ( o!r  
bodies1 !  assimilation ( food & dr9k & 
o!r k9ds ( contact 7!  movem5t &        
developm5t ( ! foetus z enum]at$ 9      
,upask>a7 are said to be due to adrsta4 
,salvation 7moksa7 is  said to be       
produc$ by ! annihilation ( adrsta lead+
 to !  annihilation ( all contacts & non
 production ( rebir?s  ,vais'esika m>ks 
! di/9ction betwe5 ! dr/a 7exp]i5c$7  & 
! adrsta4 ,all ! categories t he        
describes are f\nd$  on dr/a 7exp]i5ce7 
& ^? unexpla9$ by kn[n exp]i5ce  are due
 to adrsta ,^! are ! acts on :i* dep5d  
all  life-process ( animals & plants1 ! 
cont9uation ( atoms or  ! con/ruction ( 
! worlds1 natural motion ( fire & air1  
dea? & rebir? 7,,vi4 ii4 #ae7 & ev5 !   
physical ph5om5a  by :i* our =tunes are 

affect$ 9 "s way or o!r 7,v4 ii4 #b71  9
 fact all ) :i* we are vitally int]e/$ 9
 philosophy4  ,kanda's philosophy gives 
only "s facts ( exp]i5ce reg>d+         
sub/ances1 qualities & actions1 leav+   
all ! grav] issues (  metaphysics to    
adrsta ,b :at leads to adrsta8 ,9 answ] 
to  ?is1 ,kanda does n speak ( good or  
bad or virtu\s or  s9ful de$s1 b ( ,v$ic
 works1 su* z holy ablutions 7snana71   
fa/+1 holy /ud5t life 7brahmac>ya71     
rema9+ at ! h\se  ( ! tea*]             
7gurukulavasa71 retir$ =e/ life         
7vanapra/ha71  sacrifice 7yaja71 gifts  
7dana71 c]ta9 k9ds ( sacrificial        
spr9kl+ & rules ( p]=m+ sacrificial     
works accord+ to !  prescrib$ "t ( !    
/>s1 ! prescrib$ hymns 7mantras7  7,,vi4
 ii4 #b74    ,he describ$ :at is pure & 
:at is impure food1 pure  food be+ t :i*
 is sacrificially purifi$ 7,,vi4 ii4 #e7
 ! contr>y  be+ impure1 & he says t !   
tak+ ( pure food  leads to prosp]ity    
?r\gh adrsta4 ,he also describ$ h[      
#bhd    feel+s ( atta*m5t to ?+s are    

also g5]at$ by adrsta4  ,?r\gh\t almo/ !
 :ole ( ,,vi4 i ,kanda is busy 9 %[+  ! 
special conditions ( mak+ gifts &       
receiv+ !m4 ,a ref]5ce  to our *apt] on 
,mmms w %[ t ! lat] ,mmms  writ]s agre$ 
) ! ,nyya-,vaisesika doctr9es 9 mo/ ( _!
  views reg>d+ sub/ance1 qualities1 etc4
 ,"s ( ! ma9 po9ts  9 :i* ,mmms diff]s f
 ,nyya-,vaisesika are 7#a7 self-validity
  ( ! ,v$as1 7#b7 ! et]nality ( ! ,v$as1
 7#c7 disbelief  9 any creator or god1  
7#d7 et]nality ( s\nd 7s'abda71 7#e7    
7accord+  to ,kumrila7 direct p]ception 
( self 9 ! notion ( ! ego4  ,( ^! ! fir/
 & ! second po9ts d n =m any subject  ( 
discussion 9 ! ,vais'esika4 ,b z no     
s'v>a is m5tion$1  & z all adrsta dep5ds
 ^u ! au?ority ( ! ,v$as1 we  may assume
 t ,vais'esika _h no dispute ) ,mmms4 ,!
  fact t !re is no ref]5ce to any       
diss5sion is probably due  to ! fact t  
really none _h tak5 place at ! "t ( !   
,vaisesika stras4 ,x is probable t      
,kanda believ$ t !  ,v$as 7 writt5 by "s
 p]sons sup]ior to u 7,,ii4 i4 #ah1     

,,vi4 i4  #a-b74 ,b ! fact t !re is no  
ref]5ce to any conflict )  ,mmms sugge/s
 t ! doctr9e t ! ,v$as 7 nev]  writt5 by
 anyone 0 =mulat$ at a lat] p]iod1 :]eas
 9  ! days ( ! ,vais'esika stras1 ! view
 0 probably :at is  repres5t$ 9 !       
,vais'esika stras4 ,z !re is no ref]5ce 
to  sv>a & z adrsta proce$+ out ( !     
p]=mance ( actions  9 accordance ) ,v$ic
 injunctions is made ! cause ( all      
atomic movem5ts1 we c v well assume t   
,vais'esika 0  z a!i/ic or non-!i/ic z !
 lat] ,mmms philosoph]s4  ,z reg>ds !   
et]nality ( s\nd1 :i* 9 lat] days 0 "o  
( ! ma9 po9ts ( qu>rel betwe5 !         
,nyya-,vais'esika &  ! ,mmms1 we f9d t 9
 ,,ii4 ii4 #be-cb1 ,kanda gives reasons 
9 fav\r ( ! non-et]nality ( s\nd1 b aft]
 t f ,,ii4 ii4 #cc  till ! end ( ! *apt]
 he closes ! argum5t 9 fav\r ( !        
et]nality ( s\nd1 :i* is ! di/9ctive    
,mmms view z we "k  f ! lat] ,mmms      
writ]s ,footnote ref #a4 ,next comes !  
"q  ( ! pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( self4 ,!     
traditional ,nyya view is               

,footnote #a3 ,! la/ two conclud+ stras 
,,ii4 ii4 #cf & #cg are 9 my  op9ion    
wrongly int]pret$ by ,s'ank>a ,mis'ra 9 
8 ,upaskra 7,,ii4 ii4  #cf by add+ an   
api to ! stra & !reby *ang+ ! issue1 &  
,,ii4 ii4 #cg by misread+ ! phonetic    
comb9ation samkhyabhava z  smkhya &     
bhava in/ead ( smkhya & abhava1 :i* 9 my
 op9ion  is ! "r comb9ation "h7 9 fav\r 
( ! non-et]nality ( s\nd  z we f9d 9 !  
lat] ,nyya ,vais'esika view4    #bhe    
t ! self is suppos$ to exi/ because x   
mu/ be inf]r$ z !  seat ( ! qualities ( 
pleasure1 pa91 cognition1 etc4          
,traditionally  ?is is reg>d$ z !       
,vais'esika view z well4 ,b 9           
,vais'esika  ,,iii4 ii4 #d ! exi/5ce (  
s\l is fir/ inf]r$ by reason ( its      
activity & ! exi/5ce ( pleasure1 pa91   
etc41 9 ,,iii4 ii4 #f-g ?is  inf]5ce is 
*all5g$ by say+ t we d n p]ceive t !    
activity1 etc4 belongs to ! s\l & n to !
 body & s no  c]ta9ty c be arriv$ at by 
inf]5ce1 & 9 ,,iii4 ii4 #h x is  sugge/$
 t !re=e ! exi/5ce ( s\l is to be       

accept$  on ! au?ority ( ! scriptures   
7gama74 ,to ?is ! f9al  ,vais'esika     
conclusion is giv5 t we c directly      
p]ceive ! self  9 our feel+ z ,i 7aham71
 & we h !re=e n to dep5d  on !          
scriptures = ! pro( ( ! exi/5ce ( !     
self1 & ?us  ! inf]5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( !  
self is only an additional  pro( ( :at  
we already f9d 9 p]ception z ,i 7aham7  
7,,iii4 ii4  #aj-ah1 also ,,ix4 i4 #aa74
    ,^! consid]ations lead me to ?9k t !
 ,vais'esika  repres5t$ a s*ool ( ,mmms 
?\ght :i* supplem5t$  a metaphysics to  
/r5g!n ! gr\nds ( ! ,v$as4              
,philosophy 9 ! ,vais'esika stras4    ,!
 ,vais'esika stras beg9 ) ! o/5sible    
purpose ( expla9+  virtue 7dh>ma7 7,i4i4
 #a7 & dh>ma accord+ to x is  t by :i*  
prosp]ity 7abhyudaya7 & salvation       
7nihs'reyasa7  are atta9$4 ,!n x goes on
 to say t ! validity ( !  ,v$as dep5ds  
on ! fact t x leads u to prosp]ity &    
salvation4 ,!n x turns back to ! second 
stra & says t  salvation comes z !      
result ( real k1 produc$ by special     

excell5ce ( dh>ma1 ( ! *>act]i/ic       
features ( ! categories (  sub/ance     
7dravya71 quality 7guna71 class concept 
7smdnya71  p>ticul>ity 7vis'esa71 &     
inh]5ce 7samavyay7 ,footnote ref #a4  ,!
 dravyas are e>?1 wat]1 fire1 air1 e!r1 
"t1 space1 s\l1 &  m9d4 ,! gunas are    
col\r1 ta/e1 od\r1 t\*1 numb]1 measure1 
sep>ations1 contact1 disjo9+1 quality ( 
belong+ to high g5us or to  species     
,footnote ref #b4 ,action 7k>ma7 means  
upw>d movem5t        ,footnote #a3      
,upaskra notes t vis'esa "h ref]s to !  
ultimate  diff]5ces ( ?+s & n to        
species4 ,a special doctr9e ( ?is  sy/em
 is ?is1 t ea* ( ! indivisible atoms (  
ev5 ! same  elem5t has specific features
 ( diff]5ce4    ,footnote #b3 ,"h ! well
 kn[n qualities ( heav9ess 7gurutva71   
liquidity 7dravatva71 oil9ess 7sneha71  
ela/icity 7samskra71  m]it 7dh>ma71 &   
dem]it 7adh>ma7 h be5 altoge!r omitt$4  
,^! are all c\nt$ 9 lat] ,vais'esika    
comm5t>ies & comp5diums4  ,x mu/ be not$
 t guna 9 ,vas'esika means qualities & n

  subtle reals or sub/ances z 9 ,smkhya 
,yoga4 ,guna 9 ,vas'esika w\ld  be ak9  
to :at ,yoga w\ld call dh>ma4    #bhf   
d[nw>d movem5t1 contraction1 expansion &
 horizontal  movem5t4 ,! ?ree common    
qualities ( dravya1 guna & k>ma  are t  
!y are exi/5t1 non-et]nal1 sub/antive1  
effect1 cause1  & possess g5]ality &    
p>ticul>ity4 ,dravya produces o!r       
dravyas & ! gunas o!r gunas4 ,b k>ma is 
n necess>ily  produc$ by k>ma4 ,dravya  
does n de/roy ei!r its cause or  its    
effect b ! gunas are de/roy$ bo? by !   
cause & by  ! effect4 ,k>ma is de/roy$  
by k>ma4 ,dravya possesses  k>ma & guna 
& is reg>d$ z ! mat]ial 7samavayi7      
cause4  ,gunas inh]e 9 dravya1 _c       
possess fur!r gunas1 & are  n by        
!mselves ! cause ( contact or disjo9+4  
,k>ma is  devoid ( guna1 _c rema9 at "o 
"t 9 m ?an "o  object1 inh]es 9 dravya  
alone1 & is an indep5d5t cause (        
contact or disjo9+4 ,dravya is ! mat]ial
 cause 7samavayi7  ( 7d]ivative7        
dravyas1 guna1 & k>ma1 guna is also !   

non-mat]ial  cause 7asamavayi7 ( dravya1
 guna & k>ma4 ,k>ma  is ! g5]al cause ( 
contact1 disjo9+1 & in]tia 9 motion     
7vega74 ,k>ma is n ! cause ( dravya4 ,= 
dravya may be  produc$ ev5 )\t k>ma     
,footnote ref #a4 ,dravya is ! g5]al    
effect  ( dravya4 ,k>ma is dissimil> to 
guna 9 ?is t x does n produce  k>ma4 ,! 
numb]s two1 ?ree1 etc1 sep>at5ess1      
contact  & disjo9+ are effect$ by m ?an 
"o dravya4 ,ea* k>ma  n be+ connect$ ) m
 ?an "o ?+ is n produc$  by m ?an "o ?+ 
,footnote ref #b4 ,a dravya is ! result 
( _m  contacts 7( ! atoms74 ,"o col\r   
may be ! result ( _m  col\rs4 ,upw>d    
movem5t is ! result ( heav9ess1 ef=t &  
contact4 ,contact & disjo9+ are also !  
result ( k>ma4 ,9  d5y+ ! causality (   
k>ma x is meant t k>ma is n !  cause (  
dravya & k>ma ,footnote ref #c4    ,9 ! 
second *apt] ( ! fir/ book ,kanda fir/  
says t  if !re is no cause1 !re is no   
effect1 b !re may be ! cause  ev5 ?\gh  
!re may n be ! effect4 ,he next says t  
g5us 7samanya7 & species 7visesa7 are   

relative to ! und]/&+2        ,footnote 
#a3 ,x is only :5 ! k>ya ceases t dravya
 is produc$4 ,see  ,upask>a ,i4i4 #bb4  
,footnote #b3 ,if k>ma is relat$ to m   
?an "o ?+1 !n ) !  movem5t ( "o we %\ld 
h felt t two or m ?+s 7 mov+4           
,footnote #c3 ,x mu/ be not$ t k>ma 9   
?is s5se is q diff]5t  f ! m ext5sive   
use ( k>ma z m]itori\s or vici\s action 
:i* is ! cause ( rebir?4    #bhg    be+ 
7bhva7 indicates cont9uity only & is    
h5ce  only a g5us4 ,! univ]sals (       
sub/ance1 quality & action  maybe bo?   
g5us & species1 b visesa z con/itut+ !  
ultimate  diff]5ces 7( atoms7 exi/s     
7indep5d5t ( any p]cipi5t74  ,9         
connection ) ?is he says t ! ultimate   
g5us is be+  7satt7 9 virtue ( :i* ?+s  
appe> z exi/5t1 all o!r  g5]a may only  
relatively be reg>d$ z relative g5]a or 
species4 ,be+ mu/ be reg>d$ z a sep>ate 
category1 s9ce x  is diff]5t f dravya1  
guna & k>ma1 & yet exi/s 9 !m1  & has no
 g5us or species4 ,x gives u ! notion t 
some?+  is & mu/ be reg>d$ z a category 

exi/+ z "o  id5tical entity 9 all       
dravya1 guna1 & k>ma1 = 9 its univ]sal  
nature z be+ x has no special           
*>act]i/ics 9 !  diff]5t objects 9 :i* x
 inh]es4 ,! specific univ]sals (  ?+ness
 7dravyatva7 qualit9ess 7gunatva7 or    
actionness 7k>matva7  are also          
categories :i* are sep>ate f univ]sal   
be+  7bhva or satt7 = !y also h no      
sep>ate g5us or species  & yet may be   
di/+ui%$ f "o ano!r1 b bhva or  be+ 0 ! 
same 9 all4    ,9 ! fir/ *apt] ( !      
second book ,kanda deals )  sub/ances4  
,e>? possesses col\r1 ta/e1 smell1 &    
t\*1 wat]1  col\r1 ta/e1 t\*1 liquidity1
 & smoo?ness 7snigdha71 fire1  col\r &  
t\*1 air1 t\*1 b none ( ^! qualities c  
be  f\nd 9 e!r 7ks'a74 ,liquidity is a  
special quality ( wat]  because butt]1  
lac1 wax1 lead1 iron1 silv]1 gold1      
become liquids  only :5 !y are heat$1   
:ile wat] is naturally liquid itself    
,footnote  ref #a4 ,?\gh air _c be se51 
yet its exi/5ce c be inf]r$ by  t\*1 j z
 ! exi/5ce ( ! g5us ( c[s may be inf]r$ 

f ! *>act]i/ics ( horns1 tails1 etc4    
,s9ce ?is ?+ inf]r$  f t\* possesses    
motion & quality1 & does n  itself inh]e
 9 any o!r sub/ance1 x is a sub/ance    
7dravya7  & is et]nal ,footnote ref #b4 
,! inf]5ce ( air is ( ! type (  inf]5ce 
( imp]ceptible ?+s f c]ta9 kn[n         
*>act]i/ics  call$ smnyato drsta4 ,! "n 
( air vyu is d]iv$  f ! scriptures4 ,!  
exi/5ce ( o!rs diff]5t f u  has         
7asmadvis'istnm7 to be admitt$ = acc\nt+
 = !        ,footnote #a3 ,x %\ld be    
not$ t m]cury is n m5tion$4 ,?is is     
important = m]cury 0 kn[n at a "t lat]  
?an ,c>aka4    ,footnote #b3 ,sub/ance  
is t :i* possesses quality & motion4 ,x 
%\ld be not$ t ! ^w adravyatv5a 9 ,,ii4 
i4 #ac has be5  int]pret$ by me z       
adravyavattv5a4    #bhh    giv+ ( names 
to ?+s 7samjk>ma74 ,because we f9d  t ! 
giv+ ( names is already 9 usage 7& n    
inv5t$  by u7 ,footnote ref #a4 ,on     
acc\nt ( ! fact t movem5ts re/ only 9   
"o ?+1 ! ph5om5on t a ?+ c ent] into any
 unoccupi$  space1 w\ld n lead u to inf]

 ! exi/5ce ( ks'a  7e!r74 ks'a has to be
 admitt$ z ! hypo!tical sub/ance  9 :i* 
! quality ( s\nd inh]es1 because1 s9ce  
s\nd 7a  quality7 is n ! *>act]i/ic (   
?+s :i* c be t\*$1  !re mu/ be "s       
sub/ance ( :i* x is a quality4 ,& ?is   
sub/ance is ks'a4 ,x is a sub/ance &    
et]nal l air4 ,z  be+ is "o s ks'a is "o
 ,footnote ref #b4    ,9 ! second *apt] 
( ! second book ,kanda tries to  prove t
 smell is a special *>act]i/ic ( e>?1   
heat ( fire1  & coldness ( wat]4 ,"t is 
def9$ z t :i* gives !  notion ( y\? 9 ! 
"y1 simultaneity1 & quickness4 ,x is  "o
 l be+4 ,"t is ! cause ( all non-et]nal 
?+s1 because  ! notion ( "t is abs5t 9  
et]nal ?+s4 ,space  supplies ! notion t 
?is is s f> away f ?is or s mu*  ne>] to
 ?is4 ,l be+ x is "o4 ,"o space appe>s  
to h  div]se int]-space relations 9     
connection ) ! motion ( !  sun4 ,z a    
prelim9>y to discuss+ ! problem :e!r    
s\nd  is et]nal or n1 he discusses !    
notion ( d\bt1 :i* arises  :5 a ?+ is   
se5 9 a g5]al way1 b ! p>ticul> features

  com+ "u x are n se51 ei!r :5 ^! are   
only rememb]$1  or :5 "s su* attribute  
is se5 :i* resembles "s  o!r attribute  
se5 be=e1 or :5 a ?+ is se5 9 "o way  b 
appe>s 9 ano!r1 or :5 :at is se5 is n   
def9itely  grasp$1 :e!r rightly se5 or  
n4 ,he !n discusses ! "q  :e!r s\nd is  
et]nal or non-et]nal & gives 8 reasons  
to %[ t x is non-et]nal1 b concludes !  
discussion )  a numb] ( o!r reasons     
prov+ t x is et]nal4    ,! fir/ *apt] ( 
! ?ird book is entirely devot$ to !     
inf]5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( s\l f ! fact t !re
 mu/  be "s sub/ance 9 :i* k produc$ by 
! contact  ( ! s5ses & _! object inh]es4
    ,! k ( s5se-objects 7indriyr?a7 is !
 reason by        ,footnote #a3 ,i h    
diff]$ f ,upaskra 9 int]pret+  samjk>ma 
9 ,,ii4 i4 #ah1 #ai z a g5itive comp\nd 
:ile  ,upaskra makes x a dv&va comp\nd4 
,upaskra's int]pretation  seems to be   
f>-fet*$4 ,he wants to twi/ x into an   
argum5t =  ! exi/5ce ( ,god4            
,footnote #b3 ,?is int]pretation is     
accord+ to ,s'ank>a ,mis'ra's  ,upaskra4

    #bhi    :i* we c inf] ! exi/5ce (   
some?+ diff]5t f !  s5ses & ! objects   
:i* appe> 9 connection ) !m4 ,!  types (
 inf]5ces ref]r$ to are 7#a7 inf]5ce (  
non-exi/5ce (  "s ?+s f ! exi/5ce ( "s  
?+s1 7#b7 ( ! exi/5ce  ( "s ?+s f !     
non-exi/5ce ( "s ?+s1 7#c7 ( !  exi/5ce 
( "s ?+s f ! exi/5ce ( o!rs4 ,9 all  ^! 
cases inf]5ce is possible only :5 ! two 
are kn[n to  be connect$ ) ea* o!r      
7prasiddhiprvakatvt apades'asya7        
,footnote  ref #a4 ,:5 su* a connection 
does n exi/ or is d\btful1 we h         
anapades'a 7fallaci\s middle7 & s&igdha 
7d\btful middle72  ?us1 x is a horse    
because x has a horn1 or x is a c[      
because x  has a horn are examples (    
fallaci\s reason4 ,! inf]5ce (  s\l f ! 
cognition produc$ by ! contact ( s\l1   
s5ses  & objects is n fallaci\s 9 !     
above way4 ,! inf]5ce (  ! exi/5ce ( !  
s\l 9 o!rs may be made 9 a simil> way  9
 :i* ! exi/5ce ( "o's own s\l is inf]r$ 
,footnote ref #b1 i4e4  by virtue ( !   
exi/5ce ( movem5t & cessation ( movem5t4

 ,9  ! second *apt] x is said t ! fact t
 !re is cognition only  :5 !re is       
contact betwe5 ! self1 ! s5ses & !      
objects  proves t !re is manas 7m9d71 & 
?is manas is a sub/ance  & et]nal1 & ?is
 c be prov$ because !re is no           
simultaneity  ( production ( ef=ts &    
v>i\s k9ds ( cognition2 x  may also be  
inf]r$ t ?is manas is "o 7) ea* p]son74 
,! s\l may be inf]r$ f inhalation1      
exhalation1 tw9kl+  ( ! eye1 life1 !    
movem5t ( ! m9d1 ! s5se-affections      
pleasure1 pa91 w1 antipa?y1 & ef=t4 ,t x
 is a sub/ance  & et]nal c be prov$ aft]
 ! mann] ( vyu4 ,an objector  is suppos$
 to say t s9ce :5 ,i see a man ,i d n   
see 8  s\l1 ! inf]5ce ( ! s\l is ( !    
type ( smnyatodrsta  inf]5ce1 i4e41 f ! 
p]ceiv$ signs ( pleasure1 pa91 cognition
  to inf] an unkn[n entity to :i* !y    
belong1 b  t ?is 0 ! self c\ld n be     
affirm$4 ,s ! exi/5ce (  s\l has to be  
admitt$ on ! /r5g? ( ! scriptures4 ,b  !
 ,vais'esika reply is t s9ce !re is no?+
 else b self to  :i* ! expression ,i may

 be appli$1 !re is no ne$ (  fall+ back 
on ! scriptures = ! exi/5ce ( ! s\l4 ,b 
,footnote #a3 ,9 connection ) ?is !re is
 a %ort ref]5ce to !  me?ods ( fallacy 9
 :i* ,gautama's t]m9ology does n appe>4 
,!re is no g5]alis$ /atem5t1 b specific 
types ( inf]5ce  are only po9t$ out z ! 
basis4    ,footnote #b3 ,! =ms ( inf]5ce
 us$ %[ t ,kanda 0 probably n  aw>e (   
,gautama's t]m9ology4    #bij    !n x is
 said t if ! self is directly p]ceiv$ 9 
su* exp]i5ces  z ,i am ,yajadatta or ,i 
am ,devadatta1 :at is !  good ( turn+ to
 inf]5ce8 ,! reply to ?is is t inf]5ce  
l5d+ its aid to ! same exi/5ce only     
/r5g!ns ! conviction4  ,:5 we say t     
,devadatta goes or ,yajadatta goes1  !re
 comes ! d\bt :e!r by ,devadatta or     
,yajadatta !  body alone is meant2 b !  
d\bt is remov$ :5 we ?9k  t ! notion (  
,i ref]s to ! self & n to any?+ else4   
,z !re is no diff]5ce reg>d+ !          
production ( pleasure1  pa91 &          
cognition1 ! s\l is "o 9 all4 ,b yet x  
is _m  by special limitations z         

individuals & ?is is also prov$ on  !   
/r5g? ( ! scriptures ,footnote ref #a4  
,9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ! f\r? book x is said 
t t  :i* is exi/5t1 b yet has no cause1 
%\ld be consid]$  et]nal 7nitya74 ,x c  
be inf]r$ by its effect1 = ! effect c   
only take place because ( ! cause4 ,:5  
we speak ( any?+  z non-et]nal1 x is    
only a negation ( ! et]nal1 s t  also   
proves t !re is some?+ et]nal4 ,!       
non-et]nal  is ignorance 7avidy7        
,footnote ref #b4 ,col\r is visible 9 a 
?+  :i* is great 7mahat7 & comp\nd$4    
,air 7vyu7 is n p]ceiv$ to  h col\r1    
?\gh x is great & made up ( p>ts1       
because x has n  ! actuality ( col\r    
7rpasamskra--i4e4 9 air !re is only     
col\r 9 its unmanife/$ =m7 9 x4 ,col\r  
is ?us visible only  :5 !re is col\r )  
special qualifications & conditions     
,footnote  ref #c4 ,9 ?is way !         
cognition ( ta/e1 smell1 & t\* is also  
expla9$4 ,numb]1 measure1 sep>at5ess1   
contact1 & disjo9+1 !  quality ( belong+
 to a high] or l[] class1 action1 all ^!

 z !y  abide 9 ?+s possess+ col\r are   
visible to ! eye4 ,!  numb] etc4 ( ^?   
:i* h no col\r are n p]ceiv$ by !  eye4 
,b ! notion ( be+ & also ( g5us (       
quality 7gunatva7        ,footnote #a3  
,i h diff]$ "h f ! mean+ giv5 9         
,upaskra4 ,i  ?9k ! ?ree stras          
,sukhaduhkhajananispattyavis'esadekatmya
m1  vyava/hato nana1 & va/rasm>?yat ca  
orig9ally meant t  ! self 0 "o1 ?\gh = !
 sake ( _m limitations1 & also  because 
( ! ne$ ( ! p]=mance ( acts enjo9$ by ! 
scriptures1  !y are reg>d$ z _m4        
,footnote #b3 ,i h diff]$ "h also 9 my  
mean+ f ! ,upaskra1  :i* reg>ds ?is stra
 avidya to mean t we d n "k ( any       
reasons :i* lead to ! non-et]nality ( ! 
atoms4    ,footnote #c3 ,?is is :at is  
meant 9 ! lat] di/9ctions (             
udbht>pavattva & anudbht>pavattva4 ,! ^w
 samskra 9  ,vais'esika has _m s5ses4 ,x
 means in]tia1 ela/icity1 collection    
7samavaya71 production 7udbhava7 & n be+
 ov]come  7anabhibhava74 ,= ! la/ ?ree  
s5ses see ,upaskra ,,iv4 i4 #g4    #bia 

are p]ceiv$ by all ! s5ses 7j z col\r1  
ta/e1 smell1 t\*1  & s\nd are p]ceiv$ by
 "o s5se1 cognition1 pleasure1 pa91     
etc4 by ! manas & numb] etc4 by ! visual
 & ! tactile  s5se7 ,footnote ref #a4   
,9 ! second *apt] ( ! f\r? book x is    
said t !  e>?1 etc4 exi/ 9 ?ree =ms1    
body1 s5se1 & objects4 ,!re  _c be any  
comp\nd+ ( ! five elem5ts or ev5 ( !    
?ree1 b ! atoms ( diff]5t elem5ts may   
comb9e :5 "o  ( !m acts z ! c5tral      
radicle 7upastambhaka74 ,bodies are (   
two k9ds1 ^? produc$ f ov>ies & ^? :i*  
are o!rwise  produc$ by ! comb9ation ( !
 atoms 9 accordance  ) special k9ds (   
dh>ma4 ,all comb9ations ( atoms are due 
to special k9ds ( dh>mas4 ,su*          
sup]-mundane bodies are to  be admitt$ =
 expla9+ ! fact t ?+s mu/ h be5  giv5   
names by be+s hav+ su* sup]-mundane     
bodies1 &  also on acc\nt ( ! au?ority (
 ! ,v$as4    ,9 ! fir/ *apt] ( ! fif?   
book action 7k>ma7 is discuss$4  ,tak+ !
 example ( ?re%+ ! corn1 x is said  t ! 
movem5t ( ! h& is due to its contact ) !

  s\l 9 a /ate ( ef=t1 & ! movem5t ( !  
flail is due  to its contact ) ! h&4 ,b 
9 ! case ( ! upris+ (  ! flail 9 ! ?re%+
 pot due to impact ! movem5t is  n due  
to contact ) ! h&s1 & s ! uplift+ ( !   
h& 9 t\* ) ! flail is n due to its      
contact ) !  s\l2 = x is due to ! impact
 ( ! flail4 ,on acc\nt (  heav9ess      
7gurutva7 ! flail w fall :5 n held by ! 
h&4  ,?+s may h an upw>d or side motion 
by specially direct$  motions           
7nodanavis'esa7 :i* are g5]at$ by       
special k9ds (  ef=ts4 ,ev5 )\t ef=t !  
body may move dur+ sleep4  ,! movem5t ( 
ne$les t[>ds magnets is due to an unkn[n
  cause 7adrstakranaka74 ,! arr[ fir/   
acquires motion by  specially direct$   
movem5t1 & !n on acc\nt ( its in]tia    
7vegasamskra7 keeps on mov+ & :5 t      
ceases x falls  d[n ?r\gh heav9ess4     
,! second *apt] ab\nds ) extremely crude
 explanations        ,footnote #a3 ,?is 
portion has be5 tak5 f ! ,upaskra (     
,s'ank>a  ,mis'ra on ! ,vais'esika stras
 ( ,kanda4 ,x mu/ be not$ "h  t ! notion

 ( numb] accord+ to ,vais'esika is due  
to m5tal  relativity or oscillation     
7apeksabuddhijanya74 ,b ?is m5tal       
relativity c only />t :5 ! ?+ hav+ numb]
 is ei!r se5 or  t\*$2 & x is 9 ?is s5se
 t notion ( numb] is said to dep5d  on !
 visual or ! tactual s5se4    #bib    ( 
c]ta9 physical ph5om5a :i* h no         
philosophical  importance4 ,all !       
special ph5om5a ( nature are expla9$  z 
be+ due to unkn[n cause 7adrstakritam7 &
 no explanation  is giv5 z to ! nature (
 ?is unkn[n 7adrsta74  ,x is h[ev] said 
t ) ! abs5ce ( adrsta !re is no contact 
( body ) s\l1 & ?us !re is no rebir?1 & 
!re=e  moksa 7salvation72 pleasure & pa9
 are due to contact ( !  self1 manas1   
s5ses & objects4 ,yoga is t 9 :i* ! m9d 
is 9 contact ) ! self alone1 by :i* !   
=m] becomes  /eady & !re is no pa9 9 !  
body4 ,"t1 space1 ks'a are  reg>d$ z    
inactive4    ,! :ole ( ! six? book is   
devot$ to %[+ t gifts  are made to prop]
 p]sons n ?r\gh sympa?y b on acc\nt  ( !
 injunction ( ! scriptures1 ! enum]ation

 ( c]ta9  ,v$ic p]=mances1 :i* br+s 9   
adrsta1 purification & impurities  (    
?+s1 h[ passions are (t5 g5]at$ by      
adrsta1  h[ dh>ma & adh>ma lead to bir? 
& dea? & h[ moksa  takes place z a      
result ( ! "w ( ! s\l4    ,9 ! sev5?    
book x is said t ! qualities 9 et]nal   
?+s are et]nal & 9 non-et]nal ?+s       
non-et]nal4 ,!  *ange ( qualities       
produc$ by heat 9 e>? has its beg9n+  9 
! cause 7! atoms74 ,atomic size is      
invisible :ile great size  is visible4  
,visibility is due to a ?+'s be+ made up
 ( _m  causes ,footnote ref #a1 b ! atom
 is !re=e diff]5t f ^?  t h great size4 
,! same ?+ may be call$ great & small   
relatively at ! same "t4 ,9 accordance )
 anutva 7atomic7 &  mahattva 7great7 !re
 are also ! notions ( small & big4 ,!   
et]nal size ( p>imandala 7r\nd7 belongs 
to ! atoms4 ks'a  & tman are call$ mahn 
or p>amamahn 7! supremely  great or     
all-p]vasive72 s9ce manas is n ( ! great
 measure  x is ( atomic size4 ,space &  
"t are also consid]$ z be+  ( ! measure 

supremely great 7p>amamahat71 ,atomic   
size  7p>imandala7 belong+ to ! atoms & 
! m9d 7manas7 &  ! supremely great size 
belong+ to space1 "t1 s\l & e!r  7ks'a7 
are reg>d$ z et]nal4    ,9 ! second     
*apt] ( ! sev5? book x is said t unity  
& sep>at5ess are to be admitt$ z        
entities di/9ct f  o!r qualities4 ,!re  
is no numb] 9 movem5t & quality2  !     
appe>ance ( numb] 9 !m is false4 ,cause 
& effect are        ,footnote #a3 ,i h  
diff]$ f ! ,upaskra 9 ! int]pretation ( 
?is stra4    #bic    nei!r "o1 nor h !y 
di/9ctive sep>at5ess 7ekapr?aktva74  ,! 
notion ( unity is ! cause ( ! notion (  
duality1 etc4  ,contact may be due to ! 
action ( "o or two ?+s1 or !  effect (  
ano!r contact & s is disjo9+4 ,!re is   
nei!r  contact nor disjo9+ 9 cause &    
effect s9ce !y d n exi/  indep5d5tly    
7yutasiddhyabhvt74 ,9 ! eigh? book x is 
said  t s\l & manas are n p]ceptible1 & 
t 9 ! appreh5sion  ( qualities1 action1 
g5]ality1 & p>ticul>ity  p]ception is   
due to _! contact ) ! ?+4 ,e>? is !     

cause ( p]ception ( smell1 & wat]1 fire1
 & air are !  cause ( ta/e1 col\r &     
t\*,footnote ref #a4 ,9 ! n9? book      
negation is describ$2 non-exi/5ce 7asat7
 is def9$ z t to  :i* nei!r action nor  
quality c be attribut$4 ,ev5 exi/5t ?+s 
may become non-exi/5t & t :i* is exi/5t 
9 "o  way may be non-exi/5t 9 ano!r2 b  
!re is ano!r k9d  ( non-exi/5ce :i* is  
diff]5t f ! above k9ds (  exi/5ce &     
non-exi/5ce ,footnote ref #b4 ,all      
negation c be directly  p]ceiv$ ?r\gh ! 
help ( ! memory :i* keeps be=e !  m9d ! 
?+ to :i* ! negation applies4 ,allusion 
is also  made 9 ?is connection to !     
special p]ceptual p[]s ( !  yog9s 7sages
 atta9+ my/ical p[]s ?r\gh ,yoga        
practices74    ,9 ! second *apt] !      
nature ( hetu 7reason7 or !  middle t]m 
is describ$4 ,x is said t any?+ connect$
  ) any o!r ?+1 z effect1 cause1 z 9    
contact1 or z contr>y  or z insep>ably  
connect$1 w s]ve z linga 7reason74  ,!  
ma9 po9t is ! notion ?is is associat$ ) 
?is1 or  ^! two are relat$ z cause &    

effect1 & s9ce ?is may  also be produc$ 
?r\gh premisses1 !re may be a =mal      
syllogism  f propositions fulfill+ !    
above condition4 ,v]bal  cognition comes
 )\t inf]5ce4 ,false k 7avidy7 is  due  
to ! defect ( ! s5ses or non-obs]vation 
& mal-obs]vation  due to wrong expectant
 impressions4 ,! opposite  ( ?is is true
 k 7vidy74 ,9 ! t5? x is said t         
pleasure & pa9 are n cognitions1 s9ce !y
 are n relat$ to  d\bt & c]ta9ty4       
,footnote #a3 ,upaskra "h expla9s t x is
 int5d$ t ! s5ses  are produc$ by ^?    
specific elem5ts1 b ?is _c be f\nd 9 !  
stras4    ,footnote #b3 ,9 ! previ\s    
?ree k9ds ( non-exi/5ce1 prgabhva       
7negation be=e production71 dhvamsbhva  
7negation aft] de/ruction71  &          
anyonyabhava 7mutual negation ( ea* o!r 
9 ea* o!r71 h  be5 describ$4 ,! f\r? "o 
is smnybhva 7g5]al negation74    #bid   
,a dravya may be caus$ by ! inh]+ ( !   
effect 9 x1 =  because ( its contact )  
ano!r ?+ ! effect is produc$4  ,k>ma    
7motion7 is also a cause s9ce x inh]es 9

 ! cause4 ,contact  is also a cause s9ce
 x inh]es 9 ! cause4 ,a contact :i*     
inh]es 9 ! cause ( ! cause & !reby helps
 ! production  ( ! effect is also a     
cause4 ,! special quality ( ! heat (    
fire is also a cause4    ,works accord+ 
to ! injunctions ( ! scriptures s9ce !y 
h no visible effect are ! cause (       
prosp]ity1 & because !  ,v$as direct !m1
 !y h validity4      ,philosophy 9 !    
,nyya stras ,footnote ref #a4    ,!     
,nyya stras beg9 ) an enum]ation ( !    
sixte5  subjects1 viz4 means ( "r k     
7pramna71 object ( "r  k 7prameya71 d\bt
 7sams'aya71 purpose 7prayojana71       
illu/rative in/ances 7drstnta71 accept$ 
conclusions 7siddhnta71  premisses      
7avayava71 argum5tation 7t>ka71         
asc]ta9m5t 7nirnaya71  debates 7vda71   
disputations 7jalpa71 de/ructive        
criticisms  7vitand71 fallacy           
7hetvbhsa71 quibble 7*ala71 refutations 
7jti71 po9ts ( oppon5t's defeat         
7nigraha/hna71 & hold t  by a ?or\gh k (
 ^! ! highe/ good 7nihs'reyasa71 is     

atta9$4 ,9 ! second stra x is said t    
salvation 7apav>ga7  is atta9$ by !     
successive disappe>ance ( false k       
7mi?yjna71 defects 7dsa71 endeav\rs     
7pravrtti1 bir?  7janma71 & ultimately (
 sorr[4 ,!n ! means ( pro( are said  to 
be ( f\r k9ds1 p]ception 7pratyaksa71   
inf]5ce 7anumna71  analogy 7upamana71 & 
te/imony 7s'abda74 ,p]ception is def9$  
z uncontradict$ det]m9ate k unassociat$ 
) names  proce$+ out ( s5se contact )   
objects4 ,inf]5ce is ( ?ree  k9ds1 f    
cause to effect 7prvavat71 effect to    
cause 7s'esavat71  & inf]5ce f common   
*>act]i/ics 7smnyato drsta74  ,upamna is
 ! kn[+ ( any?+ by simil>ity ) any      
well-kn[n  ?+4    ,s'abda is def9$ z !  
te/imony ( reliable au?ority 7pta7      
,footnote ref #b4        ,footnote #a3  
,?is is a brief summ>y ( ! doctr9es f\nd
 9 ,nyya  stras1 supplem5t$ "h & !re ) !
 views ( ,vtsyyana1 !  comm5tator4 ,?is 
foll[s ! ord] ( ! stras1 & tries to     
pres5t  _! ideas ) z little additions f 
^? ( lat] day ,nyya z  possible4 ,!     

g5]al treatm5t ( ,nyya-,vais'esika      
exp\nds ! two  sy/ems 9 ! light ( lat]  
writ]s & comm5tators4    ,footnote #b3  
,x is curi\s to notice t ,vtsyyana says 
t an rya1 a  rsi or a mlec*a 7=eign]71  
may be an pta 7reliable au?ority74      
#bie    ,su* a te/imony may tell u ab\t 
?+s :i* may be exp]i5c$  & :i* are      
beyond exp]i5ce4 ,objects ( k  are said 
to be self 7tman71 body1 s5ses1         
s5se-objects1  und]/&+ 7buddhi71 m9d    
7manas1 endeav\r 7pravrtti71 rebir?s1   
enjoym5t ( pleasure & suff]+ ( pa91     
sorr[ &  salvation4 ,desire1 antipa?y1  
ef=t 7prayatna71 pleasure1 pa91 &  k    
indicate ! exi/5ce ( ! self4 ,body is t 
:i*  upholds movem5t1 ! s5ses & ! rise (
 pleasure & pa9  z aris+ out ( ! contact
 ( s5se ) s5se-objects ,footnote ref l2 
! five s5ses are d]iv$ f ! five elem5ts1
 su* z pr?ivi1 ap1  tejas1 vyu & ks'a2  
smell1 ta/e1 col\r1 t\*1 & s\nd are  !  
qualities ( ! above five elem5ts1 & ^!  
are also !  objects ( ! s5ses4 ,! fact t
 _m cognitions _c  occur at any "o mom5t

 indicates ! exi/5ce ( m9d 7manas74     
,endeav\r means :at is done by spee*1   
und]/&+1 &  body4 ,dsas 7atta*m5t1      
antipa?y1 etc7 are ^? :i* lead  m5 to   
virtue & vice4 ,pa9 is t :i* causes     
suff]+ ,footnote ref  #b4 ,ultimate     
cessation f pa9 is call$ apav>ga        
,footnote ref #c4  ,d\bt arises :5 ?r\gh
 confusion ( simil> qualities or        
conflict+  op9ions etc41 "o wants to    
settle "o ( ! two alt]natives4 ,t  =    
atta9+ :i*1 or = giv+ up :i* "o sets    
himself to "w  is call$ prayojana4      
,illu/rative example 7drstnta7 is t on  
:i* bo? !  common man & ! exp]t         
7p>ksaka7 hold ! same op9ion4  ,e/abli%$
 texts or conclusions 7siddhnta7 are (  
f\r k9ds1  viz 7#a7 ^? :i* are accept$  
by all s*ools ( ?\ght call$  !          
s>vatantrasiddhnta2 7#b7 ^? :i* are held
 by "o s*ool  or simil> s*ools b oppos$ 
by o!rs call$ ! pratitantrasiddhnta2    
7#c7 ^? :i* be+ accept$ o!r conclusions 
w also naturally  foll[ call$           
adhik>anasiddhnta2 7#d7 ^? ( ! oppon5t's

 views  :i* are uncritically grant$ by a
 debat]1 :o proce$s !n to refute  !     
consequ5ces t foll[ & !reby %[ 8 own    
special skill &  br+ ! oppon5t's        
intellect to disrepute                  
7abhyupagamasiddhnta7  ,footnote ref #d4
 ,! premisses are five3        ,footnote
 #a3 ,"h ,i h foll[$ ,vtsyyana's mean+4 
,footnote #b3 ,vtsyyana comm5ts "h t :5 
"o f9ds all ?+s full  ( mis]y1 he wi%es 
to avoid mis]y1 & f9d+ bir? to be       
associat$  ) pa9 becomes unatta*$ & ?us 
is emancipat$4    ,footnote #c3         
,vtsyyana wants to emphasise t !re is no
 bliss 9  salvation1 b only cessation f 
pa94    ,footnote #d3 ,i h foll[$       
,vtsyyana's int]pretation "h4    #bif   
7#a7 pratij 7! fir/ enunciation ( ! ?+  
to be prov$72  7#b7 hetu 7! reason :i*  
e/abli%es ! conclusion on !  /r5g? ( !  
simil>ity ( ! case 9 h& ) kn[n examples 
or negative in/ances72 7#c7 udh>ana     
7positive or negative  illu/rative      
in/ances72 7#d7 upanaya 7corroboration  
by ! in/ance72  7#e7 nigamana 7to rea* !

 conclusion :i* has be5 prov$74  ,!n    
come ! def9itions ( t>ka1 nirnaya1 vda1 
jalpa1 vitand1  ! fallacies 7hetvbhsa71 
*ala1 jti1 & nigraha/hna1 :i*  h be5    
enum]at$ 9 ! fir/ stra4    ,! second    
book deals ) ! refutations ( objections 
aga9/ ! means ( "r k 7pramna74 ,9       
refutation  ( c]ta9 objections aga9/ !  
possibility ( ! happ5+  ( d\bt1 :i* held
 t d\bt c\ld n happ51 s9ce !re  0 always
 a diff]5ce betwe5 ! two ?+s reg>d+ :i* 
d\bt arose1 x is held t d\bt arises :5 !
 special diff]5tiat+  *>act]i/ics betwe5
 ! two ?+s are n not$4  ,c]ta9          
objectors1 probably ! ,buddhi/s1 are    
suppos$ to object  to ! validity ( !    
pramna 9 g5]al & p>ticul>ly (           
p]ceptions on ! gr\nd t if !y 7 g5]at$  
be=e  ! s5se-object contact1 !y c\ld n  
be due to ! latt]1  & if !y are produc$ 
aft] ! s5se-object contact1 !y  c\ld n  
e/abli% ! nature ( ! objects1 & if ! two
  happ5$ toge!r !n !re w\ld be no notion
 ( succession  9 our cognitions4 ,to ?is
 ! ,nyya reply is t if !re 7  no means (

 "r k1 !n !re w\ld be no means (  k by  
means ( :i* ! objector w\ld refute all  
means ( "r k2 if ! objector presumes to 
h any  means ( valid k !n he _c say t   
!re are no  means ( valid k at all4 ,j z
 f ! div]se k9ds  ( s\nds ( diff]5t     
musical in/rum5ts1 "o c inf] ! previ\s  
exi/5ce ( ^? diff]5t k9ds ( musical     
in/rum5ts1  s f our k ( objects we c    
inf] ! previ\s exi/5ce  ( ^? objects ( k
 ,footnote ref #a4    ,! same ?+s 7e4g4 
! s5ses1 etc47 :i* are reg>d$ z         
in/rum5ts ( "r k ) ref]5ce to ! "r      
cognition  ( o!r ?+s may !mselves be !  
objects ( "r        ,footnote #a3       
,ya?pas'ctsiddh5a s'abd5a prvasiddham   
todyamanumyate  sdhyam ca todyam sdhanam
 ca s'abdah ant>hite hytodye svanatah   
anumnam bhavatti1 vn vdyate venuh       
pryyate iti svanavis'esena              
todyavis'esam pratipadyate ta?          
prvasiddham upalabdhivisayam            
pas'ctsiddh5a upalabdhihetun            
pratipadyate4 ,vtsyyana bhsya1 ,,ii4  i4
 #ae4    #big    k4 ,!re are no h>d &   

fa/ limits t ^? :i*  are in/rum5ts ( k  
%\ld always be treat$ z m]e  in/rum5ts1 
= !y !mselves may be objects ( "r k4  ,!
 means ( "r k 7pramna7 d n require  o!r 
sets ( means = reveal+ !m1 = !y l !     
light (  a lamp 9 reveal+ ! objects ( "r
 k reveal !mselves  z well4    ,com+ to 
! "q ( ! correctness ( ! def9ition  (   
p]ception1 x is held t ! def9ition      
includes ! contact  ( ! s\l ) ! m9d     
,footnote ref #a4 ,!n x is said t ?\gh  
we  p]ceive only p>ts ( ?+s1 yet s9ce   
!re is a :ole1 ! p]ception  ( ! "p w    
naturally ref] to ! :ole4 ,s9ce we  c   
pull & draw ?+s :oles exi/1 & ! :ole is 
n  m]ely ! p>ts collect$ toge!r1 = 7 x s
 "o c\ld  say t we p]ceiv$ ! ultimate   
p>ts or ! atoms ,footnote ref #b4  ,"s  
objectors hold t s9ce !re may be a      
plurality ( causes x is  wrong to inf]  
p>ticul> causes f p>ticul> effects4 ,to 
?is  ! ,nyya answ] is t !re is always   
su* a diff]5ce 9 !  specific nature (   
ea* effect t if prop]ly obs]v$ ea*      
p>ticul>  effect w lead u to a correct  

inf]5ce ( its own p>ticul>  cause       
,footnote ref #c4 ,9 refut+ ^? :o object
 to ! exi/5ce (  "t on ! gr\nd (        
relativity1 x is said t if ! pres5t "t  
did n exi/1 !n no p]ception ( x w\ld h  
be5 possible4  ,! pa/ & future also     
exi/1 = o!rwise we %\ld n h  p]ceiv$ ?+s
 z be+ done 9 ! pa/ or z go+ to be  done
 9 ! future4 ,! validity ( analogy      
7upamna7 z a  means ( k & ! validity ( !
 ,v$as is !n prov$4  ,! f\r pramnas (   
p]ception1 inf]5ce1 analogy1 & scripture
        ,footnote #a3 ,"h ! stras1 ,,ii4
 i4 #bj-bh1 are probably lat]           
int]polations to answ] criticisms1 n    
aga9/ ! ,nyya doctr9e  ( p]ception1 b   
aga9/ ! word+ ( ! def9ition  ( p]ception
 z giv5 9 !1,nyya stra1 ,,ii4 i4 #d4    
,footnote #b3 ,?is is a refutation ( !  
doctr9es ( ! ,buddhi/s1 :o  reject$ !   
exi/5ce ( :oles 7avayav74 ,on ?is       
subject a lat]  ,buddhi/ monograph by   
,p&ita ,z'oka 7#i? c5tury ,a4,d471      
,avayav9irk>ana 9 ,six ,buddhi/ ,nyya   
,tracts1 may be ref]r$  to4    ,footnote

 #c3 ,prvodakavis'istam khalu v>sodakan 
s'ghrat>am srotas                       
bahut>aph5aphalap>naks?divahanacopalabha
mnah prnatv5a1  nadya up>i vr/o deva    
ityanum9oti nodakabrddhimtrena4         
,vatsyyana  bhsya1 ,,ii4 i4 #ch4 ,!     
inf]5ce t !re has be5 ra9 up ! riv]  is 
n made m]ely f see+ ! rise ( wat]1 b f !
 ra9wat]  augm5t+ ! previ\s wat] ( !    
riv] & c>ry+ ) its curr5t  l>ge         
quantities ( foam1 fruits1 leaves1 wood1
 etc4 ,^! *>act]i/ics1  associat$ ) !   
rise ( wat]1 m>k x z a special k9d (    
rise (  wat]1 :i* c only be due to !    
happ5+ ( ra9 up ! riv]4    #bih    are q
 suffici5t & x is ne$less to accept     
ar?patti 7implication71  aitihya        
7tradition71 sambhava 7:5 a ?+ is       
und]/ood  9 t]ms ( high] measure ! l[]  
measure conta9$ 9 x is  also            
und]/ood--if we "k t !re is a bu%el (   
corn any:]e  we und]/& t ! same conta9s 
eight gallons (  corn z well7 & abhva   
7non-exi/5ce7 z sep>ate pramnas  = !    
tradition is includ$ 9 v]bal te/imony & 

ar?patti1  sambhava & abhva are includ$ 
)9 inf]5ce4    ,! validity ( ^! z       
pramnas is recogniz$1 b !y are  said to 
be includ$ 9 ! f\r pramnas m5tion$ be=e4
 ,!  !ory ( ! et]nity ( s\nd is !n      
refut$ & ! non-et]nity  prov$ 9 great   
detail4 ,! mean+ ( words is said to     
ref] to class-notions 7jti71 individuals
 7vyakti71 & ! specific  position ( !   
limbs 7krti71 by :i* ! class notion is  
manife/$4  ,class 7jti is def9$ z t :i* 
produces ! notion  ( sam5ess            
7samnaprasavtmik jtih74    ,! ?ird book 
beg9s ) ! pro(s = ! exi/5ce (  ! self or
 tman4 ,x is said t ea* ( ! s5ses is    
associat$  ) its own specific object1 b 
!re mu/ exi/ "s o!r entity  9 u :i*     
ga!r$ toge!r ! diff]5t s5se-cognitions &
  produc$ ! p]ception ( ! total object z
 di/+ui%$ f  ! sep>ate s5se-p]ceptions4 
,if !re 7 no self !n !re  w\ld be no s9 
9 injur+ ! bodies ( m53 aga9 if !re  7  
no p]man5t self1 no "o w\ld be able to  
recognize  ?+s z hav+ se5 !m be=e2 ! two
 images produc$ by  ! eyes 9 visual     

p]ception c\ld n also h be5 unit$       
toge!r z "o visual p]ception ( ! ?+s    
,footnote ref #a2 moreov]  if !re 7 no  
p]man5t cogniz] !n by ! sight ( a s\r   
fruit "o c\ld n be rem9d$ ( its s\r     
ta/e4 ,if consci\sness  belong$ to !    
s5ses only1 !n !re w\ld be no           
recognition1  = ! exp]i5ce ( "o c\ld n  
be recogniz$ by ano!r4  ,if x is said t 
! unity ( s5sations c\ld z well be      
effect$  by manas 7m9d71 !n ! manas w\ld
 s]ve ! same purpose  z self & x w\ld   
only be a qu>rel ov] a "n1 = ?is  entity
 ! kn[] w\ld require "s in/rum5t by :i* 
x  w\ld co-ord9ate ! s5sations &        
cognize2 unless manas is  admitt$ z a   
sep>ate in/rum5t ( ! s\l1 !n ?\gh !     
s5se p]ceptions c\ld be expla9$ z be+ ! 
"w ( !        ,footnote #a3 ,accord+ to 
,vtsyyana1 9 ! two eyes we h two diff]5t
  s5ses4 ,udyotak>a1 h[ev]1 ?9ks t !re  
is "o visual s5se :i*  works 9 bo? eyes4
    #bii    s5ses1 yet imag9+1 ?9k+1    
etc41 c\ld n be expla9$4  ,ano!r argum5t
 = ! admission ( s\l is ?is1 t infants  

%[ signs ( pleasure & pa9 9 q e>ly /ages
 ( infancy  & ?is c\ld n be due to any?+
 b simil> exp]i5ces 9  previ\s lives4   
,moreov] e creature is born ) "s        
desires1  & no "o is se5 to be born )\t 
desires4 ,all atta*m5ts  & desires are  
due to previ\s exp]i5ces1 & !re=e x is  
argu$ t desires 9 infants are due to _! 
exp]i5ce 9  previ\s exi/5ces4    ,! body
 is made up ( ! ksiti elem5t4 ,! visual 
s5se  is mat]ial & s also are all o!r   
s5ses ,footnote ref l4 ,incid5tally  !  
view held by "s t ! sk9 is ! only organ 
( s5sation  is also refut$4 ,! e>?      
possesses f\r qualities1 wat] ?ree1     
fire two1 air "o1 & e!r "o1 b ! s5se (  
smell1 ta/e1 eye1  & t\* :i* are made   
respectively by ! f\r elem5ts (  e>?1   
etc41 c only grasp ! di/9ctive features 
( ! elem5ts  ( :i* !y are made4 ,?us    
?\gh ! organ ( smell is made  by e>? :i*
 conta9s f\r qualities1 x c only grasp !
 di/9ctive  quality ( e>?1 viz4 smell4  
,aga9/ ! ,smkhya di/9ction ( buddhi     
7cognition7 &  cit 7pure intellig5ce7 x 

is said t !re is no diff]5ce betwe5  !  
buddhi & cit4 ,we d n f9d 9 our         
consci\sness two  elem5ts ( a ph5om5al &
 a non-ph5om5al consci\sness1  b only   
"o1 by :i*ev] "n x may be call$4 ,!     
,smkhya  epi/emology t ! antahk>ana     
assumes div]se =ms 9  cognitive acts is 
also d5i$1 & ^! are expla9$ on !        
supposition  ( contacts ( manas ) !     
s5ses1 tman & ext]nal  objects4 ,!      
,buddhi/ objection aga9/ ! ,smkhya      
explanation  t ! antahk>anas cat*       
reflection f ! ext]nal  _w j z a cry/al 
does f ! col\r$ objects t may  lie ne>  
x1 t !re 7 really mom5t>y productions ( 
cry/als & no p]man5t cry/al cat*+       
diff]5t reflections at  diff]5t times is
 refut$ by ,nyya2 = x says t x _c be    
said t all creations are mom5t>y1 b x c 
only be agre$ to  9 ^? cases :]e        
mom5t>9ess 0 actually exp]i5c$4  ,9 !   
case ( ! trans=mation ( milk into curd  
!re is no  com+ 9 ( new qualities &     
disappe>ance ( old ones1 b              
,footnote #a3 ,x is well to rememb] t   

,smkhya did n believe t !  s5ses 7      
con/itut$ ( ! gross elem5ts4 ,b !       
,smkhya-,yoga view  repres5t$ 9         
treya-samhit 7,c>aka7 reg>d$ ! s5ses z  
bhautika  or con/itut$ ( ! gross        
elem5ts4    #cjj    ! old milk is       
de/roy$ & ! curd orig9ates anew4 ,!     
contact ( manas ) s\l 7tman7 takes place
 )9 ! body  & n 9 t "p ( tman :i* is    
outside ! body2 k  belongs to ! self & n
 to ! s5ses or ! object =  ev5 :5 !y are
 de/roy$ k rema9s4 ,new cognitions      
de/roy ! old ones4 ,no two recollections
 c be simultane\s4  ,desire & antipa?y  
also belong to ! s\l4 ,none (  ^! c     
belong ei!r to ! body or to ! m9d       
7manas74  ,manas _c be consci\s = x is  
dep5d5t ^u self4 ,aga9  if x 0 consci\s 
!n ! actions done by x w\ld h to be     
borne by ! self & "o _c reap ! fruits ( 
! actions (  ano!r4 ,! causes (         
recollection on ! "p ( self are giv5  z 
foll[s3 7#a7 att5tion1 7#b7 context1    
7#c7 repetition1 7#d7 sign1  7#e7       
association1 7#f7 lik5ess1 7#g7         

association ( ! possessor  & ! possess$ 
or ma/] & s]vant1 or ?+s :i*  are       
g5]ally se5 to foll[ ea* o!r1 7#h7      
sep>ation 7z (  husb& & wife71 7#i7     
simpl] employm5t1 7#aj7 opposition1     
7#aa7 excess1 7#ab7 t f :i* any?+ c be  
got1 7#ac7 cov]  & cov]$1 7#ad7 pleasure
 & pa9 caus+ memory ( t  :i* caus$ !m1  
7#ae7 fe>1 7#af7 entreaty1 7#ag7 action 
su*  z t ( ! *>iot rem9d+ ! *>iote]1    
7#ah7 affection1  7#ai7 m]it & dem]it   
,footnote ref #a4 ,x is said t k does  n
 belong to body1 & !n ! "q ( !          
production ( ! body  z due to adrsta is 
describ$4 ,salvation 7apav>ga7 is       
effect$ by  ! manas be+ p]man5tly       
sep>at$ f ! s\l 7tman7  ?r\gh !         
de/ruction ( k>ma4    ,9 ! f\r? book 9  
c\rse ( ! exam9ation ( dsa  7defects71 x
 is said t moha 7ignorance71 is at !    
root ( all  o!r defects su* z rga       
7atta*m5t7 & dvesa 7antipa?y74  ,z aga9/
 ! ,buddhi/ view t a ?+ c\ld be produc$ 
by  de/ruction1 x is said t de/ruction  
is only a /age 9 !  process (           

orig9ation4 s'v>a is reg>d$ z ! cause ( 
!  production ( effects ( de$s p]=m$ by 
m5's ef=ts1 =  man is n always f\nd to  
atta9 success accord+ to 8 ef=ts4  ,a   
ref]5ce is made to ! doctr9e ( ^? :o say
 t all  ?+s h come into be+ by no-cause 
7animitta71 = !n  no-cause w\ld be !    
cause1 :i* is impossible4    ,! doctr9e 
( "s t all ?+s are et]nal is next refut$
  on ! gr\nd t we always see ?+s produc$
 & de/roy$4        ,footnote #a3 ,nyya  
stra ,,iii4 ii4 #dd4    #cja    ,!      
doctr9e ( ! nihili/ic ,buddhi/s         
7s'nyavd9 ,bauddhas7  t all ?+s are :at 
!y are by virtue ( _! relations to  o!r 
?+s1 & t ( o!r ,buddhi/s :o hold t !re  
are  m]ely ! qualities & p>ts b no      
sub/ances or :oles1 are  !n refut$4 ,!  
fruits ( k>mas are reg>d$ z be+ l  !    
fruits ( trees :i* take "s "t be=e !y c 
rip54  ,ev5 ?\gh !re may be pleasures "h
 & !re1 bir? means  sorr[ = m51 = ev5 ! 
man :o enjoys pleasure is torm5t$  by _m
 sorr[s1 & sometimes "o mi/akes pa9s =  
pleasures4 ,z !re is no sorr[ 9 ! man :o

 is 9 deep dreamless  sleep1 s !re is no
 affliction 7kles'a7 9 ! man :o atta9s  
apav>ga 7salvation7 ,footnote ref #a4   
,:5 once ?is /ate is atta9$ all  ef=ts  
7pravrtti7 cease = ev]1 = ?\gh ef=ts 7  
beg9n+less  ) u !y 7 all due to         
atta*m5t1 antipa?y1 etc4 ,!n  !re are   
%ort discussions reg>d+ ! way 9 :i*     
egoism  7ahamkra7 ceases ) ! k ( ! true 
causes ( defects  7dsa72 ab\t ! nature (
 :ole & p>ts & ab\t !  nature ( atoms   
7anus7 :i* _c fur!r be divid$4 ,a       
discussion  is !n introduc$ aga9/ !     
doctr9e ( ! ,vijnavd9s  t no?+ c be     
reg>d$ z hav+ any reality :5  sep>at$ f 
?\ghts4 ,incid5tally ,yoga is m5tion$ z 
lead+ to "r k4    ,! :ole ( ! fif? book 
:i* seems to be a lat] addition  is     
devot$ to ! enum]ation ( diff]5t k9ds ( 
refutations  7nigraha/hna7 & futilities 
7jti74        ,c>aka1 ,nyya stras &     
,vais'esika stras4    ,:5 we comp>e !   
,nyya stras ) ! ,vais'esika stras  we   
f9d t 9 ! =m] two or ?ree diff]5t/reams 
( purposes  h met1 :]eas ! latt] is mu* 

m homog5e\s4 ,! l>ge  am\nt ( mat]ials  
relat+ to debates treat$ z a practical  
art  = defeat+ an oppon5t w\ld lead "o  
to suppose t x 0  probably orig9ally    
compil$ f "s o!r exi/+ treatises  :i* 7 
us$ by ,h9dus & ,buddhi/s alike = r5d]+ 
!mselves fit to hold _! own 9 debates ) 
_!  oppon5ts ,footnote ref #b4 ,?is     
assumption is ju/ifi$ :5                
,footnote #a3 ,vtsyyana notes t ?is is !
 salvation ( him :o has  kn[n ,brahman1 
,,iv4 i4 #fc4    ,footnote #b3 ,a       
ref]5ce to ! ,suv>naprabhsa stra %[s t !
  ,buddhi/ mission>ies us$ to get c]ta9 
prep>ations = improv+  _! voice 9 ord]  
to be able to argue ) =ce1 & !y took to 
! wor%ip ( ,s>asvat 7goddess ( le>n+71  
:o !y suppos$ w\ld  help !m 9 br++      
readily be=e _! m9d all ! in=mation  &  
ideas ( :i* !y /ood s mu* 9 ne$ at ! "t 
( debates4    #cjb    we comp>e !       
futilities 7jti7 quibbles 7*ala71 etc41 
relat+ to  disputations z f\nd 9 ! ,nyya
 stra ) ^? t are  f\nd 9 ! m$ical "w (  
,c>aka 7#gh ,a4,d471 ,,iii4 viii4 ,!re  

are no o!r works 9 e>ly ,sanskrit       
lit]ature1 except+ !  ,nyya stra &      
,c>aka-samhit :i* h treat$ ( ^!  matt]s4
 ,c>aka's description ( "s ( !          
categories 7e4g4  drstnta1 prayojana1   
pratij & vitand7 foll[s v closely  !    
def9itions giv5 ( ^? 9 ! ,nyya stras4   
,!re are  o!rs su* z ! def9itions (     
jalpa1 *ala1 nigraha/hna1 etc41  :]e !  
def9itions ( two au?orities diff] m4    
,!re are  "s o!r logical categories     
m5tion$ 9 ,c>aka 7e4g4 pratis?pan1      
jijs1 vyavasya1 vkyadosa1 vkyapras'ams1 
upalambha1  p>ihra1 abhyanuj1 etc47 :i* 
are n f\nd 9 !  ,nyya stra ,footnote ref
 #a4 ,aga91 ! v>i\s types ( futilities  
7jti7 & po9ts ( oppon5t's refutation    
7nigraha/hna7 m5tion$ 9  ! ,nyya stra   
are n f\nd 9 ,c>aka4 ,!re are "s t]ms   
:i*  are f\nd 9 slightly v>iant =ms 9 ! 
two works1 e4g4 aupamya 9  ,c>aka1      
upamna 9 ,nyya stra1 ar?patti 9 ,nyya   
stra &  ar?aprpti 9 ,c>aka4 ,c>aka does 
n seem to "k any?+  ab\t ! ,nyya "w on  
?is subject1 & x is pla9 t !  treatm5t (

 ^! t]ms ( disputations 9 ! ,c>aka is   
mu*  simpl] & less te*nical ?an :at we  
f9d 9 ! ,nyya stras4  ,if we leave out !
 v>ieties ( jti & nigraha/hna ( !  fif? 
book1 !re is on ! :ole a great agreem5t 
betwe5 !  treatm5t ( ,c>aka & t ( !     
,nyya stras4 ,x seems !re=e  9 a high   
degree probable t bo? ,c>aka & ! ,nyya  
stras 7 indebt$ = _! treatm5t ( ^! t]ms 
( disputation  to "s o!r e>li] "w4 ,(   
^!1 ,c>aka's compilation  0 e>li]1 :]eas
 ! compilation ( ! ,nyya stras repres5ts
  a lat] "w :5 a hott] atmosph]e (      
disputations _h  necessitat$ ! use ( m  
te*nical t]ms :i* are embodi$  9 ?is "w1
 b :i* 7 n conta9$ 9 ! e>li] "w4  ,x    
does n seem !re=e t ?is "p ( ! "w c\ld h
  be5 e>li] ?an ! second c5tury ,a4,d4  
,ano!r /ream fl[+  ?r\gh ! ,nyya stras  
is t ( a polemic aga9/ ! doctr9es  :i*  
c\ld be attribut$ to ! ,sautrntika      
,buddhi/s1 !  ,vijnavda ,buddhi/s1 !    
nihili/s1 ! ,smkhya1 ! ,crvka1  & "s o!r
 unkn[n s*ools ( ?\ght to :i* we f9d no 
,footnote #a3 ,l ,vais'esika1 ,c>aka    

does n "k ! ?reefold division  ( inf]5ce
 7anumna7 z prvavat1 s'esavat &         
smnyatodrsta4    #cjc    fur!r allusion 
else:]e4 ,! ,vais'esika stras z we h    
already  se5 _h argu$ only aga9/ !      
,mmms1 & ultimately agre$  ) !m on mo/  
po9ts4 ,! dispute ) ,mmms 9 !  ,nyya    
stras is ! same z 9 ! ,vais'esika ov] ! 
"q  ( ! doctr9e ( ! et]nality ( s\nd4 ,!
 "q ( !  self-validity ( k 7svatah      
prmnyavda7& ! akhyti  doctr9e ( illusion
 ( ! ,mmmsi/s1 :i* =m ! two *ief  po9ts 
( discussion betwe5 lat] ,mmms & lat]   
,nyya1  are nev] allud$ to 9 ! ,nyya    
stras4 ,! advocacy ( ,yoga  me?ods      
7,nyya stras1 ,,iv4ii4#ch-db & #df7     
seems also to be  an ali5 elem5t2 ^! are
 n f\nd 9 ,vais'esika & are n 9  keep+ )
 ! g5]al t5d5cy ( ! ,nyya stras1 & !    
,japanese tradition t ,mirok add$ !m    
lat] on z ,mahmahopdhyya  ,h>aprasda    
,s'a/ri has po9t$ out ,footnote ref l is
 n improbable4    ,! ,vais'esika stras1 
,,iii4i4#ah & ,,iii4ii4#a1 describe     
p]ceptional  k z produc$ by ! close     

proximity ( !  self 7tman71 ! s5ses & ! 
objects ( s5se1 & !y  also adh]e to !   
doctr9e1 t col\r c only be p]ceiv$  "u  
special conditions ( samskra            
7conglom]ation etc474  ,! reason =      
inf]r+ ! exi/5ce ( manas f !            
non-simultaneity  7ayaugapadya7 ( k &   
ef=ts is almo/  ! same ) ,vais'esika z )
 ,nyya4 ,! ,nyya stras  give a m        
te*nical def9ition ( p]ception1 b d n   
br+  9 ! que/ions ( samskra or          
udbht>pavattva :i* ,vais'esika  does4   
,on ! "q ( inf]5ce ,nyya gives ?ree     
classifications z prvavat1 s'esavat &   
samnyatodrsta1 b no  def9ition4 ,!      
,vais'esika stras d n "k ( ^!           
classifications1  & give only p>ticul>  
types or in/ances ( inf]5ce  7,v4,s4    
,,iii4 i4 #g-ag1 ,,ix4 ii4 #a-b1 #d-e74 
,inf]5ce is said to be made  :5 a ?+ is 
9 contact ) ano!r1 or :5 x is 9 a       
relation  ( inh]5ce 9 x1 or :5 x inh]es 
9 a ?ird ?+2 "o k9d  ( effect may lead  
to ! inf]5ce ( ano!r k9d ( effect1 &  s 
on4 ,^! are b m]e collections ( specific

 in/ances ( inf]5ce  )\t rea*+ a g5]al  
!ory4 ,! doctr9e ( vypti  7concomitance 
( hetu 7reason7 & sdhya 7prob&um77 :i*  
became  s important 9 lat] ,nyya has    
nev] be5 prop]ly =mulat$  ei!r 9 ! ,nyya
 stras or 9 ! ,vais'esika4 ,vais'esika  
sutra1 ,,iii4 i4 #bd1 no d\bt assumes ! 
k ( concomitance  betwe5 hetu & sadhya  
7prasiddhiprvakatvt apades'asya71       
,footnote #a3 ,j4,a4,s4,b4 #aije4       
#cjd    b ! te*nical vypti is n kn[n1 & 
! connotation (  ! t]m                  
prasiddhiprvakatva ( ,vais'esika seems  
to be m  loose ?an ! t]m vypti z we "k x
 9 ! lat] ,nyya4 ,!  ,vais'esika stras d
 n c\nt scriptures 7s'abda7 z a sep>ate 
pramna1 b !y tacitly admit ! great      
validity ( ! ,v$as4  ,) ,nyya stras     
s'abda z a pramna applies n only to !   
,v$as1 b to ! te/imony ( any tru/wor?y  
p]son1 &  ,vtsyyana says t tru/wor?y    
p]sons may be ( ?ree  k9ds rsi1 rya &   
mlec*a 7=eign]s74 ,upamna :i* is  reg>d$
 z a means ( "r cognition 9 ,nyya is n  
ev5  ref]r$ to 9 ! ,vais'esika stras4 ,!

 ,nyya stras "k (  o!r pramnas1 su* z   
ar?patti1 sambhava & aitihya1 b  include
 !m )9 ! pramnas admitt$ by !m1 b !     
,vais'esika stras d n seem to "k !m at  
all ,footnote ref #a4 ,!  ,vais'esika   
stras believe 9 ! p]ception ( negation  
7abhva7 ?r\gh  ! p]ception ( ! locus to 
:i* su* negation ref]s 7,,ix4 i4        
#a-aj74 ,! ,nyya stras 7,,ii4 ii4 #a1   
#b1 #g-ab7 consid] t abhva z            
non-exi/5ce or negation c be p]ceiv$2 :5
 "o asks ano!r  to br+ ! clo!s :i* are n
 m>k$1 he f9ds t m>ks  are abs5t 9 "s   
clo!s & br+s !m2 s x is argu$ t  abs5ce 
or non-exi/5ce c be directly p]ceiv$    
,footnote ref #b4 ,?\gh  !re is ?us an  
agreem5t betwe5 ! ,nyya & ! ,vais'esika 
stras ab\t ! acceptance ( abhva z be+   
due to p]ception1  yet _! me?od ( h&l+ !
 matt] is diff]5t4 ,! ,nyya  stras say  
no?+ ab\t ! categories ( dravya1 guna1  
k>ma1  vis'esa & samavya :i* =m ! ma9   
subjects ( ,vais'eska  discussions      
,footnote ref #c4 ,! ,nyya stras take   
mu* pa9s to prove  ! mat]iality ( !     

s5ses4 ,b ?is "q does n seem to h  be5  
important ) ,vais'esika4 ,! slight      
ref]5ce to ?is  "q 9 ,,viii4 ii4 #e-f c 
h>dly be reg>d$ z suffici5t4  ,!        
,vais'esika stras d n m5tion ! "n (     
s'v>a1 :]eas  ! ,nyya stras try to prove
 8 exi/5ce on es*atological  gr\nds4 ,! 
reasons giv5 9 support ( ! exi/5ce (    
self  9 ! ,nyya stras are ma9ly on !    
gr\nd ( ! unity (  s5se-cognitions & !  
ph5om5on ( recognition1 :]eas !         
,footnote #a3 ,! only old au?ority :i*  
kn[s ^! pramnas is ,c>aka4  ,b he also  
gives an int]pretation ( sambhava :i* is
 diff]5t f  ,nyya & calls ar?patti      
ar?aprpti 7,c>aka ,,iii4 viii474        
,footnote #b3 ,! details ( ?is example  
are tak5 f ,vtsyyana's  comm5t>y4       
,footnote #c3 ,! ,nyya stra no d\bt     
incid5tally gives a def9ition (  jti z  
samnaprasavtmik jtih 7,,ii4 ii4 #ga74   
#cje    ,vaisesika lays its ma9 emphasis
 on self-consci\sness z a fact  ( k4    
,bo? ! ,nyya & ! ,vais'esika stras admit
  ! exi/5ce ( atoms1 b all ! details ( !

 doctr9e (  atomic /ructure 9 lat]      
,nyya-,vais'esika are abs5t !re4 ,!     
,vai'sesika calls salvation nihs'reyasa 
or moksa & ! ,nyya  apav>ga4 ,moksa )   
,vais'esika is ! p]man5t cessation (    
connection ) body2 ! apav>ga ) ,nyya is 
cessation (  pa9 ,footnote ref l4 ,9    
lat] times ! ma9 po9ts ( diff]5ce betwe5
  ! ,vais'esika & ,nyya are said to lie 
) reg>d to !ory ( !  notion ( numb]1    
*anges ( col\r 9 ! molecules by heat1   
etc4  ,?us ! =m] admitt$ a special      
proc$ure ( ! m9d by :i*  cognitions (   
numb] arose 9 ! m9d 7e4g4 at ! fir/     
mom5t  !re is ! s5se contact ) an       
object1 !n ! notion ( on5ess1  !n f a   
s5se ( relativ5ess--apeksbuddhi--notion 
( two1 !n a notion ( two-ness1 & !n !   
notion ( two  ?+s72 aga91 ! doctr9e (   
pilupka 7*anges ( qualities by  heat are
 produc$ 9 atoms & n 9 molecules z ,nyya
 held7  0 held by ,vais'esika1 :i* !    
,naiyyikas did n admit ,footnote ref    
#b4 ,b z ! ,nyya stras are sil5t on ^!  
po9ts1 x is n  possible to say t su* 7  

really ! diff]5ces betwe5 e>ly  ,nyya & 
e>ly ,vaisesika4 ,^! diff]5ces may be   
said to hold betwe5  ! lat] int]pret]s (
 ,vais'esika & ! lat] int]pret]s (      
,nyya4 ,! ,vais'esika z we f9d x 9 !    
comm5t>y (  ,pras'a/apda 7probably six? 
c5tury ,a4,d471 & ! ,nyya f  ! "t (     
,udyotak>a h come to be treat$ z almo/  
! same sy/em ) slight v>iations only4 ,i
 h !re=e  pref]r$ to treat !m toge!r4 ,!
 ma9 pres5tation ( !  ,nyya-,vais'esika 
philosophy 9 ?is *apt] is t :i* is f\nd 
f ! six? c5tury onw>ds4      ,!         
,vais'esika & ,nyya ,lit]ature4    ,x is
 difficult to asc]ta9 def9itely ! date (
 ! ,vais'esika  stras by ,kanda1 also   
call$ ,aulkya ! son ( ,ulka1 ?\gh  !re  
is e reason to suppose x to be          
pre-,buddhi/ic4 ,x        ,footnote #a3 
,pr(essor ,vanaml ,v$ntatr?a quotes a   
passage f  ,samksepas'ank>ajaya1 ,,xvi4 
#fh-fi 9 ,j4,a4,s4,b41 #aije1 & ano!r   
passage f a ,nyya writ] ,bhs>vaja1 pp4  
#ci-da1 9 ,j4,a4,s4,b41 #aiad1  to %[ t 
! old ,naiyyikas consid]$ t !re 0 an    

elem5t  ( happ9ess 7sukha7 9 ! /ate (   
mukti 7salvation7 :i* !  ,vais'esikas   
d5i$4 ,no evid5ce 9 support ( ?is op9ion
 is f\nd  9 ! ,nyya or ! ,vais'esika    
stras1 unless ! cessation ( pa9  ) ,nyya
 is int]pret$ z mean+ ! res5ce ( "s sort
 ( bliss  or happ9ess4    ,footnote #b3 
,see ,mdhava's                          
,s>vad>s'anasamgraha-,aulkyad>s'ana4    
#cjf    appe>s f ! ,vyu purna t he 0    
born 9 ,prabhsa ne>  ,dvrak1 & 0 !      
disciple ( ,somas'arm4 ,! "t (          
,pras'a/apda :o wrote a bhsya 7comm5t>y7
 ( ! ,vais'esika  stras _c also         
un=tunately be asc]ta9$4 ,! peculi>ity  
( ,pras'a/apda's bhsya is ?is t unlike  
o!r bhsyas  7:i* fir/ give brief        
explanations ( ! text ( ! stras &  !n   
cont9ue to elaborate indep5d5t          
explanations by expla9+  ! fir/ brief   
comm5ts71 x does n foll[ ! stras b  is  
an indep5d5t diss]tation bas$ on _! ma9 
cont5ts ,footnote  ref #a4 ,!re 7 two   
o!r bhsyas on ! ,vais'esika stras1      
namely ,rvana-bhsya & ,bh>dvja-vrtti1 b 

^! are n[  probably lo/4 ,ref]5ces to ! 
=m] are f\nd 9  ,kiranvalbhsk>a (       
,padmanbha ,mis'ra & also 9 ,ratnaprabh 
#b4 #b4 ,,ii4 ,f\r comm5t>ies 7 writt5  
on ?is bhsya1 namely  ,vyomavat by      
,vyomas'ekh>crya1 ,nyyak&al by          
,s'ridh>a1  ,kiranval by ,udayana 7#ihd 
,a4,d47 & ,llvat ,s'rvatscrya4  ,9      
addition to ^! ,jagads'a ,bhattcrya (   
,navadvpa & ,s'ank>a  ,mis'ra wrote two 
o!r comm5t>ies on ! ,pras'a/apda-bhsya1 
namely ,bhsyaskti & ,kanda-rahasya4     
,s'ank>a ,mis'ra 7#adbe  ,a4,d47 also   
wrote a comm5t>y on ! ,vais'esika stras 
call$ !  ,upaskra4 ,( ^! ,nyya-k&al (   
,s'rdh>a on acc\nt ( its  simplicity (  
/yle & elaborate nature ( exposition is 
probably  ! be/ = a mod]n /ud5t (       
,vais'esika4 ,its au?or 0 a  native ( ! 
village ( ,bhrisrsti 9 ,b5gal 7,rdha74  
,8 fa!r's  "n 0 ,baladeva & "m's "n 0   
,ac*ok & he  wrote 8 "w 9 #iac ,s'aka   
era 7#iij ,a4,d47 z he himself writes   
at ! end ( 8 "w4    ,! ,nyya stra 0     
writt5 by ,aksapda or ,gautama1 &  !    

e>lie/ comm5t>y on x writt5 by ,vtsyyana
 is kn[n  z ! ,vtsyyana-bhsya4 ,! date (
 ,vtsyyana has n        ,footnote #a3 ,!
 bhsya ( ,pras'a/apda c h>dly he call$ a
  bhsya 7elaborate comm5t>y74 ,he       
himself makes no su* claim &  calls 8 "w
 a comp5dium ( ! prop]ties ( !          
categories  7,padr?adh>masamgraha74 ,he 
takes ! categories ( dravya1  guna1     
k>ma1 smnya1 vis'esa & samavya 9 ord] & 
)\t  rais+ any discussions pla9ly       
n>rates :at he has got to say on  !m4   
,"s ( ! doctr9es :i* are important 9    
lat]  ,nyya-,vais'esika discussions1 su*
 z ! doctr9e ( creation &  dissolution1 
doctr9e ( numb]1 ! !ory t ! numb] (     
atoms  contributes to ! atomic measure (
 ! molecules1 ! doctr9e (  pilupka 9    
connection ) ! trans=mation ( col\rs by 
heat  occur 9 8 n>ration = ! fir/ "t z !
 ,vais'esika stras  are sil5t on ^!     
po9ts4 ,x is difficult to asc]ta9 8 date
  def9itely2 he is ! e>lie/ writ] on    
,vais'esika available to u  aft] ,kanda 
& x is n improbable t he liv$ 9 ! #e? or

 #f?  c5tury ,a4,d4    #cjg    be5      
def9itely settl$1 b !re is reason to    
believe t he  liv$ "s "t 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! 
f\r? c5tury ,a4,d4 ,jacobi  places him 9
 #cjj ,a4,d4 ,udyotak>a 7ab\t #fce      
,a4,d47 wrote a  ,vrttika on ,vtsyyana's
 bhsya to e/abli% ! ,nyya views  & to   
refute ! criticisms ( ! ,buddhi/        
logician ,dinnga  7ab\t #ejj ,a4,d47 9 8
 ,pramnasamuccaya4 ,vcaspatimis'ra      
7#hdj ,a4,d47 wrote a sub-comm5t>y on ! 
,nyyavrttika (  ,udyotak>a call$        
,nyyavrttikattp>yatk 9 ord] to make     
cle> ! "r mean+s ( ,udyotak>a's ,vrttika
 :i* 0 s9k+  9 ! mud z x 7 ?r\gh num]\s 
o!r bad writ+s                          
7du/>akunib&hapankamagnnm74 ,udayana    
7#ihd ,a4,d47 wrote  a sub-comm5t>y on !
 ,ttp>yatk call$  ,ttp>yatkp>is'uddhi4  
,v>ddhamna 7#abbe ,a4,d47 wrote a       
sub-comm5t>y on t call$ !               
,nyyanib&hapraks'a4 ,padmanbha  wrote a 
sub-comm5t>y on t call$ ,v>ddhamn5du &  
,s'ank>a  ,mis'ra 7#adbe ,a4,d47 wrote a
 sub-comm5t>y on t call$ !              

,nyyattp>yamandana4 ,9 ! sev5te5? c5tury
 ,vis'van?a  wrote an indep5d5t %ort    
comm5t>y kn[n z ,vis'van?avrtti1  on !  
,nyya stra1 & ,rdhmohana wrote a sep>ate
  comm5t>y on ! ,nyya stras kn[n z      
,nyyastraviv>ana4  ,9 addition to ^!    
works on ! ,nyya stras _m o!r  indep5d5t
 works ( great philosophical value h be5
 writt5  on ! ,nyya sy/em4 ,! mo/       
important ( ^! 9 m$ieval  times is !    
,nyyamaj>i ( ,jayanta 7#hhj ,a4,d471 :o 
fl\ri%$  %ortly aft] ,vcaspatimis'ra4   
,jayanta *ooses "s ( ! ,nyya  stras =   
int]pretation1 b he discusses ! ,nyya   
views q  indep5d5tly1 & criticizes !    
views ( o!r sy/ems ( ,indian  ?\ght ( 8 
"t4 ,x is f> m compreh5sive ?an         
,vcaspati's  ,ttp>yatk1 & its /yle is   
mo/ delightfully lucid4 ,ano!r          
important "w is ,udayana's ,kusumjali 9 
:i* he tries to  prove ! exi/5ce ( s'v>a
 7,god74 ,?is "w ought to be read  ) its
 comm5t>y ,praks'a by ,v>ddhamna 7#abbe 
,a4,d47 & its  sub-comm5t>y ,mak>&a by  
,rucidatta 7#abge ,a4,d474 ,udayana's   

tmatattvaviveka is a polemical "w aga9/ 
! ,buddhi/s1 9  :i* he tries to e/abli% 
! ,nyya doctr9e ( s\l4 ,9 addition  to  
^! we h a numb] ( useful works on ,nyya 
9 lat]  times4 ,( ^! ! foll[+ des]ve    
special m5tion 9 connection  ) ! pres5t 
"w4 ,bhsp>ic*$a by ,vis'van?a )  its    
comm5t>ies ,muktval1 ,d9ak> & ,rm>udr1  
,t>kasamgraha  ) ,nyyanirnaya1 ,t>kabks 
( ,kes'ava ,mis'ra )    #cjh    !       
comm5t>y ,nyyapradpa1 ,saptapadr? (     
,s'ivditya1  ,trkik>aks ( ,v>ad>ja ) !  
comm5t>y ,niskantaka  ( ,mall9?a1       
,nyyasra ( ,mdhava ,deva ( ! city (     
,dhra &  ,nyyasiddhntamaj> ( ,jnak9?a   
,bhattc>ya ) !  ,nyyamanj>is>a by       
,ydavcrya1 & ,nyyasiddhntadpa (         
,s'asadh>a ) ,prabh by ,s'esnantcrya4   
,! new s*ool ( ,nyya philosophy kn[n z  
,navya-,nyya  began ) ,ganges'a ,updhyya
 ( ,mi?il1 ab\t  #abjj ,a4,d4 ,ganges'a 
wrote only on ! f\r pramnas admitt$ by !
  ,nyya1 viz4 pratyaksa1 anumna1 upamna1
 & s'abda1 & n on any (  ! topics (     
,nyya metaphysics4 ,b x s happ5$ t 8    

discussions on anumna 7inf]5ce7 attract$
 unusually great att5tion  9 ,navadvpa  
7,b5gal71 & l>ge numb]s ( comm5t>ies &  
comm5t>ies ( comm5t>ies 7 writt5 on !   
anumna  portion ( 8 "w ,tattvac9tmani1 &
 _m indep5d5t  treatises on sabda &     
anumna 7 also writt5 by ! s*ol>s  (     
,b5gal1 :i* became !nce=? = "s c5turies 
! home  ( ,nyya /udies4 ,! comm5t>ies ( 
,raghun?a ,s'iromani  7#aejj ,a4,d471   
,ma?ur ,bhattcrya 7#aehj ,a4,d471       
,gaddh>a ,bhattcrya  7#afej ,a4,d47 &   
,jagadsa ,bhattcrya 7#aeij ,a4,d471     
comm5t>ies  on ,s'iromani's comm5t>y on 
,tattvac9tmani1 _h be5  v widely read 9 
,b5gal4 ,! new s*ool ( ,nyya became !   
mo/ important /udy 9 ,navadvpa & !re    
appe>$ a s]ies  ( ?9k]s :o produc$ an   
ext5sive lit]ature on ! subject         
,footnote ref l4,! contribution 0 n 9 ! 
direction (  metaphysics1 !ology1 e?ics1
 or religion1 b consi/$ ma9ly  9        
develop+ a sy/em ( l+ui/ic notations to 
specify accurately  & precisely any     
concept or its relation ) o!r concepts  

,footnote  ref #b4 ,?us = example :5 !y 
wi%$ to def9e precisely !  nature ( !   
concomitance ( "o concept ) ano!r 7e4g4 
smoke  & fire71 !y w\ld s specify !     
relation t ! exact nature  ( !          
concomitance %\ld be cle>ly express$1 & 
t !re  %\ld be no confusion or          
ambiguity4 ,close subtle analytic  ?9k+ 
& ! developm5t ( a sy/em ( highly       
te*nical        ,footnote #a3 ,f ! latt]
 half ( ! twelf? c5tury to ! ?ird  qu>t]
 ( ! sixte5? c5tury ! new s*ool ( ,nyya 
0 />t$  9 ,mi?il 7,beh>72 b f ! fifte5? 
to ! sev5te5? c5tury  ,b5gal became     
pre-em95tly ! home ( ,nyya /udies4 ,see 
,mr  ,cakrav>tt's pap]1 ,j4 ,a4,s4,b4   
#aiae4 ,i am indebt$ to x = "s  ( !     
dates m5tion$ 9 ?is section4            
,footnote #b3 s'v>numna ( ,raghuna?a z  
well z 8  ,padr?atattvanirpana are1     
h[ev]1 notable exceptions4    #cji      
expressions m>k ! developm5t ( ?is      
lit]ature4 ,! te*nical  expressions     
inv5t$ by ?is s*ool 7 ?us g5]ally       
accept$  ev5 by o!r sy/ems ( ?\ght1     

:]ev] ! ne$ ( accurate  & subtle ?9k+ 0 
felt4 ,b f ! "t t ,sanskrit  ceas$ to be
 ! vehicle ( philosophical ?9k+ 9 ,india
 !  importance ( ?is lit]ature has      
gradually lo/ gr\nd1 & x  c h>dly be    
hop$ t x w ev] rega9 its old position by
  attract+ en?usia/ic /ud5ts 9 l>ge     
numb]s4    ,i _c close ?is *apt] )\t    
m5tion+ ! fact t  s f> z ! logical      
portion ( ! ,nyya sy/em is conc]n$1     
?\gh ,aksapda 0 ! fir/ to write a       
compreh5sive acc\nt  ( x1 ! ,ja9s &     
,buddhi/s 9 m$ieval times _h indep5d5tly
  work$ at ?is subject & _h criticiz$ ! 
,nyya acc\nt  ( logic & made valuable   
contributions4 ,9 ,ja9a logic           
,das'avaiklikaniryukti ( ,bhadrabhu     
7#ceg ,b4,c471 ,umsvti's                
,tattvr?dhigama stra1 ,nyyvatra (       
,siddhas5a ,divk>a  7#ecc ,a4,d47       
,mnikya ,n&i's 7#hjj ,a4,d47 ,p>ksmukha 
stra1 &  ,pramnanayatattvloklamkra (    
,deva ,sri 7#aaei ,a4,d47 &             
,prameyakamalamrtanda ( ,prabhc&ra      
des]ve special notice4  ,pramnasamuccaya

 & ,nyyapraves'a ( ,dinnga 7#ejj        
,a4,d471  ,pramnayrttika krik &         
,nyyab9du ( ,dh>makrtti  7#fej ,a4,d47 )
 ! comm5t>y ( ,dh>mott>a are ! mo/      
int]e/+ ( ! ,buddhi/ works on sy/ematic 
logic ,footnote ref l4  ,! div]se po9ts 
( diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,h9du1 ,ja9 &       
,buddhi/ logic require to be dealt ) 9 a
 sep>ate "w on  ,indian logic & c h>dly 
be treat$ )9 ! compass ( !  pres5t      
volume4    ,x is int]e/+ to notice t    
betwe5 ! ,vtsyyana  bhsya & !           
,udyotak>a's ,vrttika no ,h9du "w on    
logic  ( importance seems to h be5      
writt53 x appe>s t !  sci5ce ( logic 9  
?is p]iod 0 9 ! h&s ( ! ,ja9s &  !      
,buddhi/s2 & x 0 ,dinnga's criticism (  
,h9du ,nyya  t r\s$ ,udyotak>a to write 
! ,vrttika4 ,! ,buddhi/ &  ! ,ja9 me?od 
( treat+ logic sep>ately f metaphysics  
z an indep5d5t /udy 0 n accept$ by !    
,h9dus till we  come to ,ganges'a1 & !re
 is probably only "o ,h9du "w (         
importance on ,nyya 9 ! ,buddhi/ /yle   
namely ,nyyasra  ( ,bhs>vaja4 ,o!r old] 

,h9du works g5]ally treat$ (            
,footnote #a3 ,see ,indian ,logic       
,m$ieval ,s*ool1 by ,dr ,s4,c4          
,vidybhsana1  = a bibliography ( ,ja9 & 
,buddhi/ ,logic4    #caj    inf]5ce only
 along ) metaphysical & o!r po9ts (     
,nyya  int]e/ ,footnote ref #a4      ,! 
ma9 doctr9e ( ! ,nyya-,vais'esika       
,philosophy ,footnote ref #b4    ,!     
,nyya-,vais'esika hav+ dismiss$ !       
doctr9e ( mom5t>9ess  took a common-s5se
 view ( ?+s1 & held t  ?+s rema9 p]man5t
 until suitable collocations s arrange  
!mselves t ! ?+ c be de/roy$4 ,?us ! jug
 cont9ues  to rema9 a jug unless or     
until x is brok5 to pieces by  ! /roke (
 a /ick4 ,?+s exi/ n because !y c       
produce  an impression on u1 or s]ve my 
purposes ei!r directly or  ?r\gh k1 z ! 
,buddhi/s suppose1 b because exi/5ce  is
 "o ( _! *>act]i/ics4 ,if ,i or y or any
 o!r p]ceiv]  did n exi/1 ! ?+s w\ld    
cont9ue to exi/ all ! same4  ,:e!r !y   
produce any effect on u or on _!        
surr\nd+  environm5ts is immat]ial4     

,exi/5ce is ! mo/ g5]al  *>act]i/ic (   
?+s1 & x is on acc\nt ( ?is t ?+s  are  
te/ifi$ by exp]i5ce to be exi/+4    ,z !
 ,nyya-,vais'esikas dep5d$ solely on    
exp]i5ce &  on valid reasons1 !y        
dismiss$ ! ,smkhya cosmology1 b  accept$
 ! atomic doctr9e ( ! f\r elem5ts       
7bhtas71 e>?  7ksiti71 wat] 7ap71 fire  
7tejas71 & air 7m>ut74 ,^! atoms  are   
et]nal2 ! fif? sub/ance 7ks'a7 is all   
p]vasive & et]nal4  ,x is reg>d$ z !    
cause ( propagat+ s\nd2 ?\gh all-p]vad+ 
& ?us 9 t\* ) ! e>s ( all p]sons1 x     
manife/s  s\nd only 9 ! e>-drum1 z x is 
only !re t x %[s  itself z a s5se-organ 
& manife/s su* s\nds z ! man des]ves  to
 he> by reason ( 8 m]it & dem]it4 ,?us a
 deaf  man ?\gh he has ! ks'a z 8 s5se (
 he>+1 _c he>  on acc\nt ( 8 dem]it :i* 
imp$es ! faculty ( t s5se  organ        
,footnote ref #c4 ,9 addition to ^! !y  
admitt$ ! exi/5ce  ( "t 7kla7 z ext5d+ f
 ! pa/ ?r\gh ! pres5t to !              
,footnote #a3 ,almo/ all ! books on     
,nyya & ,vais'esika ref]r$ to  h be5    

consult$ 9 ! writ+ ( ?is *apt]4 ,^? :o  
want to be  acqua9t$ ) a full]          
bibliography ( ! new s*ool ( logic %\ld 
ref] to ! pap] call$ ,! ,hi/ory ( ,navya
 ,nyya 9 ,b5gal1 by ,mr4  ,cakrav>tt 9  
,j4,a4,s4,b4 #aiae4    ,footnote #b3 ,i 
h treat$ ,nyya & ,vais'esika z ! same   
sy/em4  ,:atev] may h be5 _! orig9al    
diff]5ces1 !y are reg>d$  s9ce ab\t #fjj
 ,a4,d4 z be+ 9 complete agreem5t except
 9 "s  m9or po9ts4 ,! views ( "o sy/em  
are (t5 supplem5t$ by ^?  ( ! o!r4 ,!   
orig9al "* ( ! two sy/ems has already   
be5 treat$4    ,footnote #c3 ,see       
,nyyak&al1 pp4 #ei-fd4    #caa          
endless futurity be=e u4 ,_h !re be5 no 
"t we c\ld  h no k ( x & !re w\ld be    
no?+ to acc\nt  = our "t-notions        
associat$ ) all *anges4 ,! ,smkhya  did 
n admit ! exi/5ce ( any real "t2 to !m !
 unit  ( kla is reg>d$ z ! "t tak5 by an
 atom to trav]se its  own unit ( space4 
,x has no exi/5ce sep>ate f ! atoms  &  
_! movem5ts4 ,! appe>ance ( kla z a     
sep>ate entity  is a creation ( our     

buddhi 7buddh9irmna7 z x repres5ts !    
ord] or mode 9 :i* ! buddhi records its 
p]ceptions4 ,b  kla 9 ,nyya-,vais'esika 
is reg>d$ z a sub/ance exi/+ by  itself4
 ,9 accordance ) ! *anges ( ?+s x       
reveals itself  z pa/1 pres5t1 & future4
 ,smkhya reg>d$ x z pa/1 pres5t1  &     
future1 z be+ ! modes ( ! con/itution ( 
! ?+s  9 its diff]5t manife/+ /ages (   
evolution 7adhvan74 ,!  a/ronom]s reg>d$
 x z be+ clue to ! motion ( ! planets4  
,^! mu/ all be contra/$ ) !             
,nyya-,vais'esika conception  ( kala :i*
 is reg>d$ z an all-p]vad+1 p>tless     
sub/ance :i* appe>s z _m 9 association )
 ! *anges  relat$ to x ,footnote ref l4 
,! sev5? sub/ance is relative space     
7dik74 ,x is t sub/ance  by virtue ( :i*
 ?+s are p]ceiv$ z be+ on !  "r1 left1  
ea/1 we/1 upw>ds & d[nw>ds2 kla l dik is
  also "o4 ,b yet tradition has giv5 u  
v>ieties ( x 9 ! eight  directions & 9 !
 upp] & l[] ,footnote ref #b4 ,! eigh?  
sub/ance is ! s\l 7tman7 :i* is         
all-p]vad+4 ,!re are  sep>ate tmans =   

ea* p]son2 ! qualities ( k1 feel+s  (   
pleasure & pa91 desire1 etc4 belong to  
tman4 ,manas 7m9d7 is  ! n9? sub/ance4  
,x is atomic 9 size & ! vehicle (       
memory2  all affections ( ! s\l su* z   
kn[+1 feel+1 & will+1 are  g5]at$ by !  
connection ( manas ) s\l1 ! s5ses & !   
objects4 ,x is ! int]m$iate l9k :i*     
connects ! s\l )  ! s5ses1 & !reby      
produces ! affections ( k1 feel+1  or   
will+4 ,) ea* s+le connection ( s\l )   
manas we h  a sep>ate affection ( ! s\l1
 & ?us our intellectual exp]i5ce  is    
conduct$ 9 a s]ies1 "o com+ aft] ano!r &
 n  simultane\sly4 ,ov] & above all ^!  
we h ,isv>a4 ,! def9ition               
,footnote #a3 ,see ,nyyak&al1 pp4       
#fd-ff1 & ,nyyamaj>1 pp4  #acf-aci4 ,!  
,vais'esika stras reg>d$ "t z ! cause ( 
?+s  :i* suff] *ange b d5i$ x ( ?+s :i* 
are et]nal4    ,footnote #b3 ,see       
,nyyak&al1 pp4 #ff-fi1 & ,nyayamaj>1 p4 
#adj4    #cab    ( sub/ance consi/s 9   
?is1 t x is indep5d5t by itself1 :]eas  
! o!r ?+s su* z quality 7guna71 action  

7k>ma71 sam5ess  or g5]ality 7smnya71   
speciality or specific individuality    
7vis'esa7 & ! relation ( inh]5ce        
7samavya7 _c %[  !mselves )\t ! help (  
sub/ance 7dravya74 ,dravya is ?us !     
place ( re/ 7s'ray7 on :i* all ! o!rs   
dep5d 7s'rta74  ,dravya1 guna1 k>ma1    
smnya1 vis'esa1 & samavya are ! six     
orig9al  entities ( :i* all ?+s 9 ! _w  
are made up ,footnote ref #a4  ,:5 a man
 ?r\gh "s special m]it1 by ! cultivation
 ( reason &  a ?or\gh k ( ! fallacies & 
pitfalls 9 ! way  ( "r ?9k+1 comes to "k
 ! respective *>act]i/ics  & diff]5ces (
 ! above entities1 he ceases to h any   
passions & to "w 9 accordance ) _!      
prompt+s &  atta9s a conviction ( !     
nature ( self1 & is lib]at$ ,footnote   
ref  #b4 ,! ,nyya-,vais'esika is a      
plurali/ic sy/em :i* nei!r tries to     
r$uce ! div]sity ( exp]i5ce to any      
univ]sal pr9ciple1 nor  dismisses pat5t 
facts ( exp]i5ce on ! /r5g? ( ! dem&s  (
 ! logical coh]5ce ( m]e ab/ract ?\ght4 
,!  entities x admits are tak5 directly 

f exp]i5ce4 ,! und]ly+  pr9ciple is t at
 ! root ( ea* k9d ( p]ception !re  mu/  
be some?+ to :i* ! p]ception is due4 ,x 
classifi$ !  p]cepts & concepts (       
exp]i5ce into sev]al ultimate types  or 
categories 7padr?a71 & held t ! notion (
 ea* type  0 due to ! pres5ce ( t       
entity4 ,^! types are six 9             
numb]--dravya1 guna1 etc4 ,if we take a 
p]cept ,i see a r$  book1 ! book appe>s 
to be an indep5d5t entity on :i*  re/s !
 concept ( r$ness & on5ess1 & we ?us    
call !  book a sub/ance 7dravya72 dravya
 is ?us def9$ z t :i*  has ! *>act]i/ic 
( a dravya 7dravyatva74 ,s also guna &  
k>ma4 ,9 ! subdivision ( diff]5t k9ds ( 
dravya also !  same pr9ciple (          
classification is foll[$4 ,9 contra/+ x 
)  ,smkhya or ,buddhism we see t = ea*  
unit ( s5sation 7say        ,footnote   
#a3 ,abhva 7negation7 z dep5d5t on bhva 
7position7 is  m5tion$ 9 ! ,vais'esika  
stras4 ,lat] ,nyya writ]s su* z         
,udayana include abhva z a sep>ate      
category1 b ,s'rdh>a a  contempor>y (   

,udayana rightly rem>ks t abhva 0 n     
c\nt$ by ,pras'a/apda z x 0 dep5d5t on  
bhva--abhvasya  pr?aganupades'ah        
bhvapratantryt na tvabhvt4 ,nyyak&al1   
p4 #f1 & ,laksanval1 p4 #b4    ,footnote
 #b3 ,tattvato jtesu bhydhytmikesu      
visayesu  dsad>s'ant viraktasya         
samhnivrttau tmajasya tad>?ni           
k>mnyakurvatah tatp>itygasdhanni        
s'rutismrtyuditni  asankalpitaphalni    
updadnasya tmajnamabhyasyatah           
prakrstaniv>ttakadh>mopacaye sati       
p>ipakvtmajnasytyantikas'arraviyogasya  
bhvt4 ,ibid4 p4 #g4    #cac    :it5ess7 
! latt] w\ld admit a correspond+ real1 b
  ,nyya-,vais'esika w\ld collect all    
:it5ess "u ! "n  ( ! quality ( :ite     
col\r :i* ! atom possess$ ,footnote ref 
l4  ,!y only reg>d$ z a sep>ate entity  
:at repres5t$ an ultimate  mode ( ?\ght4
 ,!y did n enquire :e!r su* notions     
c\ld be reg>d$ z ! modification ( "s o!r
 notion or  n2 b :5ev] !y f\nd t !re 7  
"s exp]i5ces  :i* 7 simil> & univ]sal1  
!y class$ !m z sep>ate  entities or     

categories4      ,! six ,padr?as3       
,dravya1 ,guna1 ,k>ma1 ,smnya1          
,vis'esa1 ,samavya4    ,( ! six classes 
( entities or categories 7padr?a7 we h  
already giv5 "s acc\nt ( dravya         
,footnote ref #b4 ,let u n[ turn to  !  
o!rs4 ,( ! qualities 7guna7 ! fir/ "o   
call$ rpa  7col\r7 is t :i* c be        
appreh5d$ by ! eye alone  & n by any o!r
 s5se4 ,! col\rs are :ite1 blue1  yell[1
 r$1 gre51 br[n & v>iegat$ 7citra74     
,col\rs are  f\nd only 9 ksiti1 ap &    
tejas4 ,! col\rs ( ap & tejas are       
p]man5t 7nitya1 b ! col\r ( ksiti *anges
 :5 heat  is appli$1 & ?is1 ,s'rdh>a    
holds1 is due to ! fact t  heat *anges !
 atomic /ructure ( ksiti 7e>?7 & ?us !  
old con/itution ( ! sub/ance be+        
de/roy$1 its old col\r  is also de/roy$1
 & a new "o is g5]at$4 ,rpa is ! g5]al  
"n = ! specific individual col\rs4 ,!re 
is ! g5us rpatva  7col\rness71 & ! rpa  
guna 7quality7 is t on :i*  re/s ?is    
g5us2 rpa is n itself a g5us & c be     
appreh5d$  by ! eye4    ,! second is    

rasa 7ta/e71 t quality ( ?+s :i* c be   
appreh5d$ only by ! tongue2 ^! are      
sweet1 s\r1 pung5t  7katu71 a/r+5t      
7kasya7 & bitt] 7tikta74 ,only ksiti &  
ap  h ta/e4 ,! natural ta/e ( ap is     
sweetness4 ,rasa l  rpa also d5otes !   
g5us rasatva1 & rasa z quality mu/  be  
di/+ui%$ f rasa z g5us1 ?\gh bo? ( !m   
are  appreh5d$ by ! tongue4    ,! ?ird  
is g&ha 7od\r71 t quality :i* c be      
appreh5d$ by ! nose alone4 ,x belongs to
 ksiti alone4 ,wat]        ,footnote #a3
 ,! ref]5ce is to ,sautrntika ,buddhism1
 yo yo  vruddhdhysavn nsvekah4 ,see     
,pandits'oka's ,avayav9irk>ana1  ,six   
,buddhi/ ,nyya tracts4    ,footnote #b3 
,! ^w padr?a lit]ally means d5otations (
 words4    #cad    or air is appreh5d$ z
 hav+ od\r on acc\nt ( ! pres5ce  ( e>? 
mat]ials4    ,! f\r? is sp>s'a 7t\*71 t 
quality :i* c be appreh5d$  only by !   
sk94 ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( t\*1 cold1    
hot1 nei!r hot nor cold4 ,sp>s'a belongs
 to ksiti2 ap1 tejas1 &  vyu4 ,! fif?   
s'abda 7s\nd7 is an attribute ( ks'a4   

,_h !re  be5 no ks'a !re w\ld h be5 no  
s\nd4    ,! six? is samkhy 7numb]71 t   
entity ( quality belong+  to ?+s by     
virtue ( :i* we c c\nt !m z "o1 two1    
?ree1  etc4 ,! conception ( numb]s two1 
?ree1 etc4 is due to a relative         
oscillatory /ate ( ! m9d 7apeksbuddhi72 
?us :5 !re are  two jugs be=e my eyes1  
,i h ! notion--,?is is "o jug &  t is   
ano!r jug4 ,?is is call$ apeksbuddhi2 !n
 9 !  two jugs !re arises ! quality (   
twoness 7dvitva7 & !n an  indet]m9ate   
p]ception 7nirvikalpa-dvitva-guna7 (    
dvitva 9 u  & !n ! det]m9ate p]ceptions 
t !re are ! two jugs4  ,! conceptions ( 
o!r numb]s z well z ( _m arise 9 a      
simil> mann] ,footnote ref #a4    ,!    
sev5? is p>imiti 7measure71 t entity (  
quality 9  ?+s by virtue ( :i* we       
p]ceive !m z great or small &  speak (  
!m z su*4 ,! measure ( ! p>tless atoms  
is  call$ p>imandala p>imna2 x is       
et]nal1 & x _c g5]ate  ! measure ( any  
o!r ?+4 ,its measure is its own         
absolutely2  :5 two atoms g5]ate a dyad 

7dvyanuka7 x is n  ! measure ( ! atom t 
g5]ates ! anu 7atomic7 &  ! hrasva      
7small7 measure ( ! dyad molecule       
7dvyanuka71  = !n ! size 7p>imna7 ( x   
w\ld h be5 /ill small]  ?an ! measure ( 
! atom 7p>imandala71 :]eas !  measure ( 
! dyanuka is ( a diff]5t k9d1 namely !  
small 7hrasva7 ,footnote ref #b4 ,(     
c\rse two atoms g5]ate a dyad1 b  !n !  
numb] 7samkhy7 ( ! atom %\ld be reg>d$ z
  br++ =? a new k9d ( measure1 namely ! 
small 7hrasva7  measure 9 ! dyads4 ,s   
aga9 :5 ?ree dyads 7dyanuka7  compose a 
tryanuka ! numb] & n ! measure small    
,footnote #a3 ,?is is di/9ctively a     
,vais'esika view introduc$ by           
,pras'a/apda4 ,nyya seems to be sil5t on
 ?is matt]4 ,see ,s'ank>a  ,mis'ra's    
,upaskra1 ,,vii4 ii4 #h4    ,footnote #b
 ,x %\ld be not$ t ! atomic measure     
appe>s 9 two =ms  z et]nal z 9 p>amnus &
 non-et]nal z 9 ! dvyanuka4 ,!          
p>imandala p>imna is ?us a v>iety (     
anup>imna4 ,!  anup>imna & !            
hrasvap>imna repres5t ! two dim5sions ( 

! measure ( dvyanukas z mahat & drgha   
are ) ref]5ce  to tryanukas4 ,see       
,nyyak&al1 p4 #acc4    #cae    7hrasva7 
( ! dyad is ! cause ( ! measure great   
7mahat7  ( ! tryanuka4 ,b :5 we come to 
! region ( ^! gross  tryanukas we f9d t 
! great measure ( ! tryanukas is  !     
cause ( ! measure ( o!r gross] bodies   
compos$ by  !m4 ,= z _m tryanukas       
con/itute a gross body1 s mu*  bigg]    
does ! ?+ become4 ,?us ! cumulation ( ! 
tryanukas  ( mahat p>imna makes ?+s (   
/ill m mahat p>imna4  ,! measure (      
tryanukas is n only reg>d$ z mahat  b   
also z drgha 7long7 & ?is drgha p>imna  
has to be admitt$  z coexi/+ ) mahat    
p>imna b n id5tical1 =  ?+s n only appe>
 z great b also z long 7drgha74 ,"h  we 
f9d t ! accumulation ( tryanukas means !
 accumulation  ( great 7mahat7 & long   
7drgha7 p>imna1 & h5ce  ! ?+ g5]at$     
happ5s to possess a measure :i* is      
great]  & long] ?an ! individual atoms  
:i* compos$ !m4  ,n[ ! hrasva p>imna ( !
 dyads is n reg>d$ z hav+  a l[] degree 

( greatness or l5g? b z a sep>ate &     
di/9ct  type ( measure :i* is call$     
small 7hrasva74 ,z accumulation  (      
grossness1 greatness or l5g?1 g5]ates   
/ill m greatness1  grossness & l5g? 9   
its effect1 s an accumulation ( !       
hrasva 7small7 p>imana ought to g5]ate  
/ill m hrasva  p>imana1 & we %\ld expect
 t if ! hrasva measure (  ! dyads 0 !   
cause ( ! measure ( ! tryanukas1 !      
tryanukas %\ld be ev5 small] ?an !      
dyanukas4 ,s also if  ! atomic & circul>
 7p>imandala7 size ( ! atoms is reg>d$  
z g5]at+ by _! measure ! measure ( !    
dyanukas1  !n ! measure ( ! dyanukas    
ought to be m atomic  ?an ! atoms4 ,!   
atomic1 small1 & great measures %\ld  n 
be reg>d$ z repres5t+ successively bigg]
 measures produc$  by ! m]e cumulation (
 measures1 b ea* %\ld be  reg>d$ z a    
measure absolutely di/9ct1 diff]5t f or 
=eign  to ! o!r measure4 ,x is !re=e    
held t if grossness 9 !  cause g5]ates  
/ill m greatness 9 ! effect1 ! smallness
  & ! p>imandala measure ( ! dyads &    

atoms ought to  g5]ate /ill m smallness 
& subtl5ess 9 _! effect4  ,b s9ce !     
dyads & ! tryanuka molecules are se5 to 
be con/itut$ ( atoms & dyads            
respectively1 & yet are  n f\nd to %>e !
 measure ( _! causes1 x is to be argu$  
t ! measures ( ! atoms & dyads d n      
g5]ate !  measure ( _! effects1 b x is  
_! numb] :i* is ! cause    #caf    ( !  
measure ( ! latt]4 ,?is expla9s         
anup>imna1 hrasva  p>imna1 mahat p>imna1
 & drgha p>imna4 ,! p>imna  ( ks'a1 kla1
 dik & tman :i* are reg>d$ z            
all-p]vasive1  is said to be p>amamahat 
7absolutely l>ge74 ,! p>imnas  ( !      
atoms1 ks'a1 kla1 dik1 manas1 & tman are
 reg>d$  z et]nal 7nitya74 ,all o!r k9ds
 ( p>imnas z belong+ to  non-et]nal ?+s 
are reg>d$ z non-et]nal4    ,! eigh? is 
pr?aktva 7mutual diff]5ce or sep>at5ess 
(  ?+s71 t entity or quality 9 ?+s by   
virtue ( :i* ?+s  appe> z diff]5t 7e4g4 
?is is diff]5t f t74 ,diff]5ce is       
p]ceiv$ by u z a positive notion & n z a
 m]e negation  su* z ?is jug is n ?is   

pot4    ,! n9? is samyoga 7connection71 
t entity ( guna by  virtue ( :i* ?+s    
appe> to u z connect$4    ,! t5? is     
vibhga 7sep>ation71 t entity ( guna :i* 
de/roys ! connection or contact ( ?+s4  
,! elev5? & twelf? gunas1 p>atva &      
ap>atva1 give  rise 9 u to ! p]ceptions 
( long "t & %ort "t1 remote  & ne>4     
,! o!r gunas su* z buddhi7k71sukha      
7happ9ess71  duhkha 7sorr[71 ic* 7w71   
dvesa 7antipa?y or hatr$7 &  yatna      
7ef=t7 c occur only ) ref]5ce to s\l4   
,! *>act]i/ic ( gurutva 7heav9ess7 is t 
by virtue (  :i* ?+s fall to ! gr\nd4 ,!
 guna ( sneha 7oil9ess7  belongs to     
wat]4 ,! guna ( samskra is ( ?ree k9ds1 
7i7 vega  7velocity7 :i* keeps a ?+ mov+
 9 diff]5t directions1  7#b7            
/hiti-/hpaka 7ela/icity7 on acc\nt ( :i*
 a gross ?+  tries to get back its old  
/ate ev5 ?\gh di/urb$1 7#c7 bhvan  is t 
quality ( tman by :i* ?+s are con/antly 
practis$ or by  :i* ?+s exp]i5c$ are    
rememb]$ & recogniz$ ,footnote ref l4   
,dh>ma is ! quality ! pres5ce ( :i*     

enables ! s\l to enjoy  happ9ess or to  
atta9 salvation ,footnote ref #b4       
,adh>ma is        ,footnote #a3         
,pras'a/apda says t bhvan is a special  
*>act]i/ic  ( ! s\l1 contr>y to         
intoxication1 sorr[ & k1 by :i*  ?+s    
se51 he>d & felt are rememb]$ &         
recogniz$4 ,?r\gh  unexpect$ness 7z !   
sight ( a camel = a man ( ,s\? ,india71 
repetition 7z 9 /udies1 art etc47 &     
int5sity ( int]e/1 !  samskra becomes   
p>ticul>ly /rong4 ,see ,nyyak&al1 p4    
#afg4  ,kanda h[ev] is sil5t on ^!      
po9ts4 ,he only says t by a  special k9d
 ( contact ( ! m9d ) s\l & also by !    
samskra1  memory 7smrti7 is produc$ 7ix4
 #b4 #f74    ,footnote #b3 ,pras'a/apda 
speaks ( dh>ma 7m]it7 z be+ a quality  (
 ! s\l4 ,!reupon ,s'ridh>a po9ts out t  
?is view does n admit  t dh>ma is a p[] 
( k>ma 7nak>masm>?yam74 ,sacrifice etc4 
_c be dh>ma = ^! actions be+ mom5t>y !y 
_c g5]ate  ! effects :i* are only to be 
reap$ at a future "t4 ,if ! action  is  
de/roy$ its p[] 7sm>?ya7 _c la/4 ,s     

dh>ma is to be  admitt$ z a quality     
g5]at$ 9 ! self by c]ta9 c\rses (       
conduct  :i* produce happ9ess = him :5  
help$ by c]ta9 o!r conditions  ( "t1    
place1 etc4 ,fai? 7s'raddh71 non-injury1
 do+ good to all  be+s1 tru?fulness1    
non-/eal+1 sex-control1 s9c]ity1 control
 (  ang]1 ablutions1 tak+ ( pure food1  
devotion to p>ticul> gods1  fa/+1 /rict 
adh]5ce to scriptural duties1 & !       
p]=mance (  duties assign$ to ea* ca/e &
 /age ( life1 are enum]at$ by           
,pras'a/apda z produc+ dh>ma4 ,! p]son  
:o /rictly adh]es to  ^! duties & !     
yamas & niyamas 7cf4 ,patajali's ,yoga7 
&  atta9s ,yoga by a m$itation on ! six 
padr?as atta9s a dh>ma  :i* br+s        
lib]ation 7moksa74 ,s'rdh>a ref]s to !  
,smkhya-,yoga  acc\nt ( ! me?od ( atta9+
 salvation 7,nyyak&al1 pp4 #bgb-bhj74   
,see also ,vallabha's ,nyyalilvat1 pp4  
#gd-ge4 7,bombay1 #aiae47    #cag    !  
opposite quality1 ! pres5ce ( :i* 9 !   
s\l leads a  man to suff]4 ,adrsta or   
de/9y is t unkn[n quality (  ?+s & ( !  

s\l :i* br+s ab\t ! cosmic ord]1 &      
arranges x = ! exp]i5ce ( ! s\ls 9      
accordance )  _! m]its or dem]its4      
,k>ma means movem5t2 x is ! ?ird ?+ :i* 
mu/  be held to be z irr$ucible a       
reality z dravya or guna4 ,!re  are five
 k9ds ( movem5t1 7#a7 upw>d1 7#b7       
d[nw>d1 7#c7 contraction1  7#d7         
expansion1 7#e7 movem5t 9 g5]al4 ,all   
k9ds (  k>mas re/ on sub/ances j1 z !   
gunas d1 & cause !  ?+s to :i* !y belong
 to move4    ,smnya is ! f\r? category4 
,x means ! g5us1 or aspect  ( g5]ality  
or sam5ess t we notice 9 ?+s4 ,?us 9    
spite  ( ! diff]5ce ( col\r betwe5 "o c[
 & ano!r1 bo? (  !m are f\nd to h su* a 
sam5ess t we call !m c[s4  ,9 spite (   
all div]sity 9 all objects ar\nd u1 !y  
are all  p]ceiv$ z sat or exi/+4 ,?is   
sat or exi/5ce is ?us a sam5ess1  :i* is
 f\nd to exi/ 9 all ! ?ree ?+s1 dravya1 
guna1  & k>ma4 ,?is sam5ess is call$    
smnya or jti1 & x is  reg>d$ z a sep>ate
 ?+ :i* re/s on dravya1 guna1 or  k>ma4 
,?is highe/ g5us satt 7be+7 is call$    

p>ajti 7highe/  univ]sal71 ! o!r        
int]m$iate jtis are call$ ap>ajti 7l[]  
univ]sals71 su* z ! g5us ( dravya1 (    
k>ma1 or ( guna1 or  /ill m int]m$iate  
jtis su* z gotvjti 7! g5us c[71         
nlatvajti 7! g5us blue74 ,! int]m$iate  
jtis or g5]a  sometimes appe> to h a    
special aspect z a species1 su* z       
pas'utva 7animal jti7 & gotva 7! c[     
jti72 "h h[ev]  gotva appe>s z a        
species1 yet x is 9 reality no?+ b a    
jti4  ,! aspect z species has no sep>ate
 exi/5ce4 ,x is jti :i*  f "o aspect    
appe>s z g5us & f ano!r z species4      
#cah    ,?is jti or smnya ?us mu/ be    
reg>d$ z hav+ a sep>ate  indep5d5t      
reality ?\gh x is exi/5t 9 dravya1 guna 
&  k>ma4 ,! ,buddhi/s d5i$ ! exi/5ce (  
any indep5d5t  reality ( smnya1 b said t
 ! sam5ess z c[  0 really b ! negation (
 all non-c[s 7apoha74 ,! p]ception  ( c[
 realizes ! negation ( all non-c[s & ?is
  is repres5t$ 9 consci\sness z !       
sam5ess z c[4 ,he :o  %\ld reg>d ?is    
sam5ess to be a sep>ate & indep5d5t     

reality p]ceiv$ 9 exp]i5ce might also   
discov] two horns  on 8 own head        
,footnote ref #a4 ,! ,nyya-,vais'esika  
said t negation  ( non-c[s is a negative
 p]ception1 :]eas ! sam5ess p]ceiv$  z  
c[ is a positive p]ception1 :i* _c be   
expla9$  by ! a=esaid negation !ory ( ! 
,buddhi/s4 ,smnya has  ?us to be admitt$
 to h a sep>ate reality4 ,all p]ception 
z  sam5ess ( a ?+ is due to ! pres5ce ( 
?is ?+ 9 t  object ,footnote ref l4 ,?is
 jti is et]nal or non-de/ructible1 = ev5
  ) ! de/ruction ( individuals          
compreh5d$ )9 ! jti1 !  latt] is n      
de/roy$ ,footnote ref #b4    ,?r\gh     
vis'esa ?+s are p]ceiv$ z div]se4 ,no   
s+le  s5sation t we receive f ! ext]nal 
_w probably agrees  ) any o!r s5sation1 
& ?is diff]5ce mu/ be due to !  exi/5ce 
( "s specific diff]5ces among/ ! atoms  
!mselves4  ,!1 specific diff]5ce exi/+ 9
 ! atoms1 emancipat$  s\ls & m9ds mu/ be
 reg>d$ z et]nally exi/+1 & x           
,footnote #a3 ,! ,buddhi/ ,p&its'oka    
says t !re is no s+le ?+  runn+ ?r\gh   

diff]5t individuals 7e4g4 cooks7 by     
virtue ( :i* !  smnya c\ld be e/abli%$1 
= if x did exi/ !n we c\ld h  kn[n x    
simply by see+ any cook )\t any ref]5ce 
to 8 action  ( cook+ by virtue ( :i* !  
notion ( g5]ality is =m$4 ,if  !re is a 
simil>ity betwe5 ! action ( cooks t _c  
e/abli%  jti 9 ! cooks1 = ! simil>ity   
applies to o!r ?+s1 viz4 !  action ( !  
cooks4 ,if ! specific individualities ( 
a c[ %\ld  require "o common factor to  
hold !m toge!r1 !n ^! %\ld  require     
ano!r & t ano!r1 & we h a regressus ad  
inf9itum4  ,:atev] be+ p]ceptible is n  
p]ceiv$ is non-exi/5t                   
7yadyadupalabdhilaksanapraptam          
sannopalabhyate tattadasat74 ,smnya is  
su*1 !re=e smnya is non exi/5t4 ,no     
smnya c be admitt$ to  exi/ z an entity4
 ,b x is only z a result ( ! impressions
 ( pa/  exp]i5ces ( exi/5ce & non       
exi/5ce t ?is notion is =m$ &  transf]r$
 errone\sly to ext]nal objects4 ,ap>t f 
?is no smnya  c be po9t$ out z be+      
ext]nally p]ceptible                    

--,smnyadsanadikpras>it--9 ,six ,buddhi/
 ,nyya ,tracts4 ,! ,v$anta  also does n 
?9k t ei!r by p]ception or by inf]5ce we
 c "k  jti z a sep>ate sub/ance4 ,s x   
disc>ds jti4 ,see ,v$ntap>ibhs1         
,sikhamani & ,mamprabh1 pp4 #fi-ga4 ,see
 also ,srih>sa's  ,khandanakh&akhadya1  
pp #ajgi-ajhf4    ,footnote #b3         
,simil>ity 7sdrs'ya7 is n reg>d$ z a    
sep>ate category1  = x is def9$ z       
id5tity 9 diff]5ce 7tadbh9natve sati    
tadgatabhyodh>mavattvam74    #cai    is 
on acc\nt ( its pres5ce t atoms appe> z 
diff]5t to !  yog9s :o c p]ceive !m4    
,samavya1 ! insep>able relation (       
inh]5ce1 is a relation  by virtue ( :i* 
two diff]5t ?+s su* z sub/ance &        
attribute1 sub/ance & k>ma1 sub/ance &  
smnya1 k>ana  7cause7 & krya 7effect71  
atoms & vis'esa1 appe> s unifi$  t !y   
repres5t "o :ole1 or "o id5tical        
insep>able reality4  ,?is peculi>       
relation ( insep>able inh]5ce is ! cause
 :y  sub/ance1 action1 & attribute1     
cause & effect1 & jti 9 sub/ance  &     

attribute appe> z indissolubly connect$ 
z if !y  are "o & ! same ?+ ,samyoga or 
contact may take place  betwe5 two ?+s (
 ! same nature :i* exi/ z disconnect$  &
 may lat] on be connect$ 7yutasiddha71  
su* z :5 ,i put  my p5 on ! table4 ,! p5
 & ! table are bo? sub/ances  & 7       
disconnect$1 ! samynga relation is !    
guna by  virtue ( :i* !y appe> to be    
connect$ = a :ile4 ,samavya  h[ev] makes
 absolutely diffici5t ?+s su* z dravya &
  guna & k>ma or k>ana & k>ya 7clay &   
jug7 appe> z  "o insep>able :ole        
7ayutasiddha74 ,?is relation is ?us a   
sep>ate & indep5d5t category4 ,?is is n 
reg>d$ z  _m l samyogas 7contact7 b z "o
 & et]nal because  x has no cause4 ,?is 
or t object 7eg4 jug7 may be de/roy$  b 
! samavya relation :i* 0 nev] br\ght    
into be+  by anybody always rema9s      
,footnote ref #a4    ,^! six ?+s are    
call$ ! six padr?as or indep5d5t        
realities exp]i5c$ 9 p]ception &        
express$ 9 language4    ,! ,!ory (      
,causation4    ,! ,nyya-,vais'esika 9   

mo/ ( its speculations took t  view (   
?+s :i* f9ds expression 9 our language1 
& :i*  we tacitly assume z true 9 all   
our ord9>y exp]i5ce4 ,?us               
,footnote #a3 ,! ,v$nta does n admit !  
exi/5ce ( ! relation (  samavya z       
subsi/+ betwe5 two diff]5t entities     
7e4g4 sub/ance  & qualities74 ,?us      
,s'ank>a says 7,brahma-strabhsya ,,ii4  
ii4 #ac7  t if a samavya relation is to 
be admitt$ to connect two diff]5t  ?+s1 
!n ano!r samavya w\ld be necess>y to    
connect x )  ei!r ( ! two entities t x  
int5d$ to connect1 & t  ano!r1 & s !re w
 be a vici\s inf9ite 7anava/h74  ,nyya1 
h[ev]1 w\ld n reg>d x z vici\s at all4  
,x is well to  rememb] t ! ,indian      
sy/ems ackn[l$ge two k9ds (             
anava/h--prmnik 7valid inf9ite1 z 9 case
 ( ! "q  ( ! se$ & ! tree1 or ( ! avidy 
& ! passions71 & ano!r  aprmnik anava/h 
7vici\s inf9ite7 z :5 ! admission (     
any?+ invokes an inf9ite *a9 be=e x c be
 complet$4    #cbj    !y admitt$ dravya1
 guna1 k>ma & smnya1 ,vis'esa !y  _h to 

admit z ! ultimate peculi>ities ( atoms1
 = !y did  n admit t ?+s 7 cont9ually   
*ang+ _! qualities1  & t ev]y?+ c\ld be 
produc$ out ( ev]y?+ by a  *ange ( !    
collocation or arrangem5t ( ! con/itut+ 
atoms4  ,9 ! production ( ! effect too  
!y did n admit t !  effect 0 pot5tially 
pre-exi/5t 9 ! cause4 ,!y held t  !     
mat]ial cause 7e4g4 clay7 _h "s p[] )9  
x1 & !  accessory & o!r in/rum5tal      
causes 7su* z ! /ick1 !  :eel etc47 _h  
o!r p[]s2 ! collocation ( ^! two de/roy$
  ! cause1 & produc$ ! effect :i* 0 n   
exi/5t  be=e b 0 newly produc$4 ,?is is 
:at is call$ !  doctr9e ( asatkryavda4  
,?is is j ! opposite ( !  ,smkhya axiom1
 t :at is exi/5t _c be de/roy$ nbhvo    
vidyate satah7 & t ! non-exi/5t c\ld    
nev] be  produc$ 7nsato vidyate bhvah74 
,! objection to ?is view is  t if :at is
 non-exi/5t is produc$1 !n ev5 su*      
impossible  ?+s z ! h>e's horn c\ld also
 be produc$4 ,!  ,nyya-,vais'esika answ]
 is t ! view is n t any?+  t is         
non-exi/5t c be produc$1 b t :i* is     

produc$  0 non-exi/5t ,footnote ref #a4 
,x is held by ,mmms t an unse5 p[]      
resides 9 !  cause :i* produces !       
effect4 ,to ?is ,nyya objects t ?is  is 
nei!r a matt] ( obs]vation nor (        
legitimate hypo!sis1 =  !re is no reason
 to suppose t !re is any transc5d5tal   
op]ation 9 causal movem5t z ?is c be    
satisfactorily expla9$  by molecul>     
movem5t 7p>isp&a74 ,!re is no?+  except 
! inv>iable "t relation 7antec$5ce &    
sequ5ce7  betwe5 ! cause & ! effect1 b !
 m]e inv>iabl5ess (  an antec$5t does n 
suffice to make x ! cause ( :at         
succe$s2 x mu/ be an unconditional      
antec$5t z well  7anya?siddhis'nyasya   
niyatprvav>ttit74 ,unconditionality  &  
inv>iability are indisp5sable =         
kryakrana-bhva or  cause & effect       
relation4 ,= example1 ! non-ess5tial or 
adv5titi\s accompanim5ts ( an inv>iable 
antec$5t may also  be inv>iable         
antec$5ts2 b !y are n unconditional1    
only  collat]al or indirect4 ,9 o!r     
words _! antec$5ce is conditional  ^u   

some?+ else 7na svtantryena74 ,! pott]'s
 /ick is an  unconditional inv>iable    
antec$5t ( ! j>2 b ! col\r              
,footnote #a3 ,nyyamuj>i1 p4 #did4      
#cba    ( a /ick or its texture or size1
 or any o!r accompanim5t  or accid5t :i*
 does n contribute to ! "w done1 is  n  
an unconditional antec$5t1 & mu/ n !re=e
 be  reg>d$ z a cause4 ,simil>ly !      
co-effects ( ! inv>iable  antec$5ts or  
:at ent]s into ! production ( _!        
co-effects may !mselves be inv>iable    
antec$5ts2 b !y  are n unconditional1   
be+ !mselves condition$ by ^?  ( !      
antec$5ts ( :i* !y are effects4 ,=      
example1 !  s\nd produc$ by ! /ick or by
 ! pott]'s :eel inv>iably  prec$es ! j> 
b x is a co-effect2 & ks'a 7e!r7 z !    
sub/rate & vyu 7air7 z ! vehicle ( !    
s\nd ent] into  ! production ( ?is      
co-effect1 b ^! are no unconditional    
antec$5ts1 & mu/ !re=e be reject$ 9 an  
enum]ation  ( conditions or causes ( !  
j>4 ,! conditions ( !  conditions %\ld  
also be reject$2 ! inv>iable antec$5t  (

 ! pott] 7:o is an inv>iable antec$5t ( 
! j>71  ! pott]'s fa!r1 does n /& 9 a   
causal relation to !  pott]'s h&iwork4  
,9 fact ! antec$5ce mu/ n only be       
unconditionally inv>iable1 b mu/ also be
 imm$iate4 ,f9ally  all seem+ly         
inv>iable antec$5ts :i* may be disp5s$ )
  or left out are n unconditional & _c  
!re=e be reg>d$  z causal conditions4   
,?us ,dr4 ,seal 9 describ+ x rightly    
rem>ks1 ,9 ! end1 ! discrim9ation ( :at 
is necess>y to  complete ! sum ( causes 
f :at is dep5d5t1 collat]al1  second>y1 
sup]flu\s1 or in]t 7i4e4 ( ! relevant f 
!  irrelevant factors71 mu/ dep5d on !  
te/ ( exp5diture (  en]gy4 ,?is te/ !   
,nyya w\ld accept only 9 ! s5se (  an   
op]ation analysable into mol> or        
molecul> motion 7p>isp&a  eva bhautiko  
vyprah k>oty>?ah atndriya/u vyp>o  n/i4 
,jayanta's ,maj>i hnika ,i71 b w\ld     
emphatically  reject1 if x is advanc$ 9 
support ( ! notion ( a my/]i\s  causal  
p[] or effici5cy 7s'akti7 ,footnote ref 
#a4 ,) ,nyya all  en]gy is necess>ily   

k9etic4 ,?is is a peculi>ity (          
,nyya--its  insi/+ t ! effect is only ! 
sum or resultant ( ! op]ations  ( !     
diff]5t causal conditions--t ^!         
op]ations are (  ! nature ( motion or   
k9etic1 9 o!r words x firmly holds  to !
 view t causation is a case ( exp5diture
 ( en]gy1  i4e4 a r$i/ribution ( motion1
 b at ! same "t absolutely  repudiates !
 ,smkhya conception ( p[] or productive 
,footnote #a3 ,dr ,p4,c4 ,ray's ,h9du   
,*emi/ry1 #aiji1 pp4 #bdi-bej4    #cbb  
effici5cy z metaphysical or transc5d5tal
 7atndriya7 & f9ds  no?+ 9 ! cause o!r  
?an unconditional inv>iable complem5ts  
( op]ative conditions 7krana-smagr71 &  
no?+  9 ! effect o!r ?an ! consequ5t    
ph5om5on :i* results  f ! jo9t op]ations
 ( ! antec$5t conditions ,footnote ref  
#a4  ,c]ta9 g5]al conditions su* z      
relative space 7dik71 "t  7kla71 ! w (  
s'v>a1 de/9y 7adrsta7 are reg>d$  z !   
common cause ( all effects              
7kryatva-prayojaka74 ,^? are  call$     
sdhrana-krana 7common cause7 z di/+ui%$ 

f !  specific causes :i* det]m9e !      
specific effects :i* are call$  sdhrana 
krana4 ,x may n be out ( place "h to    
notice t  ,nyya :ile repudiat+          
transc5d5tal p[] 7s'akti7 9 ! me*anism  
( nature & natural causation1 does n d5y
 ! exi/5ce (  metaphysical conditions l 
m]it 7dh>ma71 :i* con/itutes a  sy/em ( 
moral ends t fulfil !mselves ?r\gh !    
me*anical  sy/ems & ord] ( nature4    ,!
 causal relation !n l ! relation ( g5us 
to species1  is a natural relation (    
concomitance1 :i* c be asc]ta9$  only by
 ! uni=m & un9t]rupt$ exp]i5ce (        
agreem5t 9  pres5ce & agreem5t 9 abs5ce1
 & n by a d$uction f  a c]ta9 a priori  
pr9ciple l t ( causality or id5tity (   
ess5ce ,footnote ref #b4    ,! mat]ial  
cause su* z ! clay is te*nically call$ !
  samavyi-krana ( ! jug4 ,samavya means 
z we h se5  an intimate1 insep>able     
relation ( inh]5ce4 ,a krana is call$   
samavyi :5 its mat]ials are f\nd        
insep>ably connect$  ) ! mat]ials ( !   
effect4 ,asamavyi-krana is t :i*        

produces its *>act]i/ics 9 ! effect     
?r\gh ! m$ium (  ! samavyi or mat]ial   
cause1 e4g4 ! clay is n ! cause (  !    
col\r ( ! jug b ! col\r ( ! clay is !   
cause ( !  col\r ( ! jug4 ,! col\r ( !  
clay :i* exi/s 9 ! clay  9 insep>able   
relation is ! cause ( ! col\r ( ! jug4  
,?is  col\r ( ! clay is ?us call$ !     
asamavyi cause ( ! jug4  ,any quality   
7guna7 or movem5t :i* exi/+ 9 ! samavya 
cause 9 ! samavya relation det]m9es !   
*>act]i/ics (  ! effect is call$ !      
asamavyi-krana4 ,! in/rum5tal           
,footnote #a3 ,dr ,p4,c4 ,ray's ,h9du   
,*emi/ry1 #aiji1 pp4 #bdi-bej4          
,footnote #b3 ,see = ?is portion ,dr    
,b4,n4 ,seal's ,positive ,sci5ces ( !   
,anci5t ,h9dus1 pp4 #bfc-bff4           
,s>vad>s'anasamgraha on ,buddhism4      
,nyyamaj> ,bhs-p>ic*$a1 ) ,muktval &    
,d9ak>1 &  ,t>kasmgraha4 ,! doctr9e (   
,anya?siddhi 0 sy/ematically  develop$ f
 ! "t ( ,ganges'a4    #cbc    nimitta & 
accessory 7sahakri7 causes are ^? :i*   
help !  mat]ial cause to produce !      

effect4 ,?us ! pott]1 ! :eel  & ! /ick  
may be reg>d$ z ! nimitta & ! sahakri   
causes ( ! effect4    ,we "k t !        
,nyya-,vais'esika reg>ds ! effect z     
nonexi/5t1  be=e ! op]ation ( ! cause 9 
produc+ x1 b x  holds t ! gunas 9 !     
cause are ! causes ( ! gunas 9  !       
effect1 e4g4 ! black col\r ( ! clay is !
 cause ( !  black col\r ( ! effect1     
except 9 cases :]e heat comes z an      
extrane\s cause to g5]ate o!r qualities2
 ?us :5 a clay  jug is burnt1 on acc\nt 
( ! heat we get r$ col\r1 ?\gh !  col\r 
( ! orig9al clay & ! jug 0 black4 ,ano!r
 important  exception is to be f\nd 9 ! 
case ( ! production (  ! p>imnas (      
dvyanukas & tras>enus :i* are n produc$ 
by ! p>imnas ( an anu or a dyanuka1 b by
 _!  numb] z we h already se54          
,dissolution 7,pralaya7 & ,creation     
7,srsti74    ,! doctr9e ( pralaya is    
accept$ by all ! ,h9du sy/ems  except ! 
,mmms ,footnote ref #a4 ,accord+ to !   
,nyya-,vais'esika  view s'v>a wi%+ to   
give "s respite or re/ to all liv+ be+s 

desires to br+ ab\t dissolution         
7samhrec*o bhavati74 ,simultane\sly  ) x
 ! adrsta =ce resid+ 9 all ! s\ls &  =m+
 bodies1 s5ses1 & ! gross elem5ts1      
ceases to act  7s'akti-pratib&ha74 ,z a 
result ( ?is no fur!r bodies1 s5ses1  or
 o!r products come into be+4 ,!n = !    
br++ ab\t  ( ! dissolution ( all produc$
 ?+s 7by ! desire ( s'v>a7  ! sep>ation 
( ! atoms comm5ces & ?us all comb9ations
  z bodies or s5ses are dis9tegrat$2 s  
all e>? is r$uc$ to  ! dis9tegrat$      
atomic /ate1 !n all ap1 !n all tejas &  
!n  all vyu4 ,^! dis9tegrat$ atoms & !  
s\ls associat$  ) dh>ma1 adh>ma & pa/   
impressions 7samskra7 rema9  susp5d$ 9  
_! own inanimate condition4 ,= we "k t  
s\ls 9 _! natural condition are lifeless
 & kn[l$geless1  non-intellig5t         
entities4 ,x is only :5 ^! are connect$ 
) bodies t !y possess k ?r\gh ! activity
 (  manas4 ,9 ! /ate ( pralaya ow+ to ! 
adrsta ( s\ls !        ,footnote #a3 ,! 
doctr9e ( pralaya & srsti is f\nd only 9
 lat]  ,nyya-,vais'esika works1 b !     

stras ( bo? ! sy/ems seem to be  sil5t  
on ! matt]4    #cbd    atoms d n        
conglom]ate4 ,x is n an act ( cruelty on
 !  "p ( s'v>a t he br+s ab\t           
dissolution1 = he does x to  give "s re/
 to ! suff]+s ( ! liv+ be+s4    ,at ! "t
 ( creation1 s'v>a wi%es to create & ?is
 desire  ( s'v>a works 9 all ! s\ls z   
adrsta4 ,?is "o et]nal  desire ( s'v>a  
"u c]ta9 conditions ( "t 7e4g4 (        
pralaya7  z accessory causes 7sahakri7  
helps ! dis9tegration ( atoms  & at o!r 
times 7e4g4 t ( creation7 ! con/ructive 
process  ( integration & unification (  
atoms = ! _w-creation4  ,:5 x acts 9 a  
specific capacity 9 ! div]se s\ls x is  
call$  adrsta4 ,at ! "t ( dissolution ! 
creative function ( ?is  adrsta is      
susp5d$ & at ! "t ( creation x f9ds full
 play4  ,at ! "t ( creation action fir/ 
beg9s 9 ! vyu atoms by  ! k9etic        
function ( ?is adrsta1 by ! contact ( ! 
s\ls  ) ! atoms4 ,by su* action ! air   
atoms come 9 contact  ) "o ano!r & !    
dvyanukas are =m$ & !n 9 a  simil> way !

 tryanukas are =m$1 & ?us vyu orig9ates4
  ,aft] vyu1 ! ap is =m$ by !           
conglom]ation ( wat]  atoms1 & !n !     
tejas atoms conglom]ate & !n ! e>?      
atoms4 ,:5 ! f\r elem5ts are ?us        
conglom]at$ 9 !  gross =m1 ! god ,brahm 
& all ! worlds are creat$ by  s'v>a &   
,brahm is direct$ by s'v>a to d ! re/ ( 
!  "w4 ,brahm ?us arranges = ! enjoym5t 
& suff]+ (  ! fruits ( div]se k9ds (    
k>ma1 good or bad4 s'v>a br+s  ab\t ?is 
creation n = any selfi% purpose b = !   
good  ( all be+s4 ,ev5 "h sorr[s h _!   
place t !y  may lead m5 to turn f       
worldly atta*m5t & try =  ! atta9m5t ( !
 highe/ good1 mukti4 ,moreov] s'v>a     
arranges = ! enjoym5t ( pleasures & !   
suff]+ (  pa9s accord+ to ! m]its &     
dem]its ( m51 j z 9  our ord9>y exp]i5ce
 we f9d t a ma/] aw>ds prizes  or       
puni%m5ts accord+ to good or bad de$s   
,footnote ref #a4 ,_m ,nyya  books d n  
speak ( ! appo9tm5t ( a ,brahm z deputy 
= sup]vision ( ! due disposal ( ! fruits
 ( k>ma  accord+ to m]it or dem]it4 ,x  

is also held t pralaya &  creation 7    
br\ght ab\t 9 accordance ) ! k>ma (  m51
 or t x may be due to a m]e play 7ll7 ( 
s'v>a4  s'v>a is "o1 = if !re 7 _m      
s'v>as !y might qu>rel4  ,! w ( s'v>a n 
only br+s ab\t dissolution & creation1  
,footnote #a3 ,see ,nyyak&al1 pp4       
#dh-ed4    #cbe    b also acts always   
among u 9 a g5]al way1 = )\t x  our     
k>mas c\ld n rip51 & ! consequ5t        
disposal (  pleasures & sorr[s to u & a 
correspond+ *ange 9 !  ext]ior _w 9 ! =m
 ( ord] or h>mony c\ld n happ54  ,!     
ext]ior _w is 9 p]fect h>mony ) m5's    
actions4  ,_! m]its & dem]its & all its 
*anges & modifications  take place 9    
accordance ) m]its & dem]its4 ,?is      
desire  7ic*7 ( s'v>a may ?us be comp>$ 
) ! ic* ( s'v>a  z we f9d x 9 ! ,yoga   
sy/em4      ,pro( ( ! ,exi/5ce ( s'v>a4 
,smkhya ass]ts t ! teleology ( ! prakrti
 is suffici5t  to expla9 all ord] &     
arrangem5t ( ! cosmos4 ,!  ,mmmsakas1 ! 
,crvkas1 ! ,buddhi/s & ! ,ja9s all  d5y 
! exi/5ce ( s'v>a 7,god74 ,nyya believes

 t s'v>a  has fa%ion$ ?is univ]se by 8 w
 out ( ! ev]-exi/+  atoms4 ,= e effect  
7e4g4 a jug7 mu/ h its cause4 ,if  ?is  
be s1 !n ?is _w ) all its ord] &        
arrangem5t  mu/ also be due to ! ag5cy (
 "s cause1 & ?is cause is  s'v>a4 ,?is  
_w is n mom5t>y z ! ,buddhi/s suppose1  
b is p]man5t z atoms1 is also an effect 
s f> z x is a  collocation ( atoms & is 
made up ( p>ts l all o!r individual     
objects 7e4g4 jug1 etc471 :i* we call   
effects4 ,! _w  be+ an effect l any o!r 
effect mu/ h a cause l any  o!r effect4 
,! objection made aga9/ ?is view is t   
su*  effects z we ord9>ily p]ceive may  
be said to h ag5ts  z _! causes b ?is   
manife/ _w ) m\nta9s1 riv]s1  oceans    
etc4 is s utt]ly diff]5t 9 =m f ord9>y  
effects  t we notice e day1 t ! law t e 
effect mu/ h  a cause _c be said to hold
 good 9 ! pres5t case4 ,!  answ] t ,nyya
 gives is t ! concomitance betwe5 two   
?+s mu/ be tak5 9 its g5]al aspect      
neglect+ ! specific  peculi>ities ( ea* 
case ( obs]v$ concomitance4 ,?us ,i _h  

se5 _m cases ( ! concomitance ( smoke ) 
fire1 & _h  !nce =m$ ! notion t :]ev]   
!re is smoke !re is  fire2 b if ,i _h   
only obs]v$ small puffs ( smoke & small 
fires1 c\ld ,i say t only small         
quantities ( smoke c\ld lead  u to !    
inf]5ce ( fire1 & c\ld ,i hold t !re=e  
l>ge  volumes ( smoke f ! burn+ ( a =e/ 
%\ld n be  suffici5t reason = u to inf] 
! exi/5ce ( fire 9 ! =e/8    #cbf       
,?us our conclusion %\ld n be t only    
small] effects  are prec$$ by _! causes1
 b t all effects are inv>iably  &       
unconditionally prec$$ by causes4 ,?is  
_w !re=e  be+ an effect mu/ be prec$$ by
 a cause1 & ?is cause is  s'v>a4 ,?is   
cause we _c see1 because s'v>a has no   
visible  body1 n because he does n exi/4
 ,x is sometimes said t  we see e day t 
%oots come out ( se$s & !y are  n       
produc$ by any ag5t4 ,to su* an         
objection ! ,nyya  answ] is t ev5 !y are
 creat$ by ,god1 = !y are also  effects4
 ,t we d n see any "o to fa%ion !m is n 
because !re is no mak] ( !m1 b because !

 creator _c  be se54 ,if ! objector c\ld
 di/9ctly prove t !re 0  no invisible   
mak] %ap+ ^! %oots1 !n only c\ld he po9t
  to x z a case ( contradiction4 ,b s   
long z ?is is n done  x is /ill only a  
d\btful case ( enquiry & x is !re=e     
legitimate  = u to inf] t s9ce all      
effects h a cause1 ! %oots  z well z !  
manife/ _w be+ effects mu/ h a cause4   
,?is cause is s'v>a4 ,he has inf9ite k &
 is all m]ciful4  ,at ! beg9n+ (        
creation ,he creat$ ! ,v$as4 ,he is l   
our  fa!r :o is always engag$ 9 do+ u   
good ,footnote ref #a4      ,?t         
,nyya-,vais'esika ,physics4    ,! f\r   
k9ds ( atoms are e>?1 wat]1 fire1 & air 
atoms4  ,^! h mass1 numb]1 weight1      
fluidity 7or h>dness71 viscosity  7or   
its opposite71 velocity1 *>act]i/ic     
pot5tial col\r1  ta/e1 smell1 or t\*1 n 
produc$ by ! *emical op]ation (  heat4  
ks'a 7space7 is absolutely in]t &       
/ructure-less be+  only z ! sub/ratum ( 
s\nd1 :i* is suppos$ to travel  wave-l 9
 ! manife/+ m$ium ( air4 ,atomic        

comb9ation  is only possible ) ! f\r    
elem5ts4 ,atoms _c  exi/ 9 an uncomb9$  
condition 9 ! creation /age2 atmosph]ic 
air h[ev] consi/s ( atoms 9 an uncomb9$ 
/ate4    ,two atoms comb9e to =m a b9>y 
molecule 7dvyanuka74 ,two1  ?ree1 f\r1  
or five dvyanukas =m !mselves into      
gross] molecules  ( tryanuka1           
caturanuka1 etc4 ,footnote ref #b4 ,?\gh
 ?is 0 !  g5]ally curr5t view1 !re 0    
also ano!r view z has be5 po9t$  out by 
,dr ,b4,n4 ,seal 9 8 ,positive ,sci5ces 
( ! ,anci5t ,h9dus1 t  ! atoms h also an
 inh]5t t5d5cy to unite1 & t            
,footnote #a3 ,see ,jayanta's ,nyyamaj>1
 pp4 #aij-bjd1 & ,udayana's  ,kusumjali 
) ,praks'a & s'v>numna ( ,raghun?a4     
,footnote #b3 ,kadcit tribhirrabhyate   
iti tryanukamityucyate1 kadcit          
caturbhirrabhyate kadcit pacabhiriti    
ya!stam kalpan4  ,nyyak&al1 p4 #cb4     
#cbg    !y d s 9 twos1 ?rees1 or f\rs1  
ei!r by ! atoms fall+ into  gr\ps (     
?rees1 f\rs1 etc41 directly1 or by !    
successive addition  ( "o atom to ea*   

prec$+ aggregate ,footnote ref l4 ,(    
c\rse !  atoms are reg>d$ z possess$ (  
an incessant vibratory motion4 ,x  mu/  
h[ev] be not$ 9 ?is connection t beh9d  
?is  physical explanation ( ! union (   
atoms !re is ! adrsta1 !  w ( s'v>a1 :i*
 gives ! direction ( all su* unions 9   
h>mony  ) ! pr9ciple ( a moral gov]nm5t 
( ! univ]se1  s t only su* ?+s are      
produc$ z c be arrang$ = !  due disposal
 ( ! effects ( k>ma4 ,an elem5t>y       
sub/ance  ?us produc$ by prim>y atomic  
comb9ation may h[ev] suff]  qualitative 
*anges "u ! influ5ce ( heat             
7pkajotpatti7  ,! impact ( heat         
corpuscles decomposes a dvyanuka into ! 
atoms & trans=ms ! *>act]s ( ! atoms    
det]m9+  !m all 9 ! same way4 ,! heat   
p>ticles cont9u+ to imp+e  reunite !    
atoms s trans=m$ to =m b9>y or o!r      
molecules 9 diff]5t ord]s or            
arrangem5ts1 :i* acc\nt =  ! specific   
*>act]s or qualities f9ally produc$4 ,! 
,vais'esika  holds t !re is fir/ a      
dis9tegration into simple atoms1 !n     

*ange ( atomic qualities1 & !n ! f9al   
re-comb9ation1  "u ! influ5ce ( heat4   
,?is doctr9e is call$ ! doctr9e  (      
plupka 7heat+ ( atoms74 ,nyya on ! o!r  
h& ?9ks  t no dis9tegration into atoms  
is necess>y = *ange ( qualities1  b x is
 ! molecules :i* assume new *>act]s "u !
  influ5ce ( heat4 ,heat ?us accord+ to 
,nyya directly affects  ! *>act]s ( !   
molecules & *anges _! qualities )\t     
effect+ a *ange 9 ! atoms4 ,nyya holds t
 !  heat-corpuscles p5etrate into !     
por\s body ( ! object &  !reby produce !
 *ange ( col\r4 ,! object z a :ole is  n
 dis9tegrat$ into atoms & !n recon/itut$
 aga91 =  su* a proc$ure is nev]        
exp]i5c$ by obs]vation4 ,?is is  call$ !
 doctr9e ( pi?>apka 7heat+ ( molecules74
 ,?is  is "o ( ! few po9ts ( diff]5ce   
betwe5 ! lat] ,nyya  & ,vais'esika      
sy/ems ,footnote ref #b4    ,*emical    
comp\nds ( atoms may take place betwe5 !
        ,footnote #a3 ,utpala's comm5t>y
 on ,brhatsamhx ,i4 #g4    ,footnote #b3
 ,see ,dr ,b4,n4 ,seal 9 ,p4,c4 ,ray's  

,h9du ,*emi/ry1 pp4 #aij-aia1           
,nyyamaj>1 p #dch1 & ,udyotak>a's       
,vrttika4 ,!re is v little  indication 9
 ! ,nyya & ,vais'esika stras t !y _h any
 (  ^? diff]5ces indicat$ "h4 ,?\gh !re 
are slight indications (  ^! matt]s 9 ! 
,vais'esika stras 7,,vii4 #a71 ! ,nyya  
stras are  almo/ sil5t ^u ! matt]4 ,a   
sy/ematic developm5t ( ! !ory  (        
creation & atomic comb9ations appe> to h
 tak5 place aft]  ,vtsyyana4    #cbh    
atoms ( ! same bhta or ( _m bhtas4      
,accord+ to !  ,nyya view !re are no    
diff]5ces 9 ! atoms ( ! same  bhta1 &   
all diff]5ces ( quality & *>act]i/ics ( 
!  comp\nd ( ! same bhta are due only to
 div]se collocations  ( ^? atoms4 ,?us  
,udyotak>a says 7,,iii4 i4 #d7 t !re is 
no  diff]5ce betwe5 ! atom ( a b>ley se$
 & paddy se$1  s9ce ^! are all b atoms (
 e>?4 ,"u ! cont9u$ impact  ( heat      
p>ticles ! atoms take new *>act]s4 ,x is
 heat &  heat alone t c cause !         
trans=mations ( col\rs1 ta/es  etc4 9 ! 
orig9al bhta atoms4 ,! *ange ( ^!       

physical  *>act]s dep5ds on ! col\rs    
etc4 ( ! con/itu5t sub/ances  9 contact1
 on ! int5sity or degree ( heat & also  
on !  species ( tejas corpuscles t imp+e
 on ! atoms4 ,heat breaks  bodies 9     
contact into atoms1 trans=ms _!         
qualities1 & =ms  sep>ate bodies ) !m4  
,pras'a/apda 7! comm5tator (            
,vais'esika7 holds t 9  ! high] comp\nds
 ( ! same bhta ! trans=mation takes     
place 7"u int]nal heat7 9 ! con/itu5t   
atoms ( ! comp\nd  molecules1 atoms     
specially det]m9$ z ! comp\nd  & n 9 !  
orig9al atoms ( ! bhta ent]+ into !     
composition  ( ! comp\nd4 ,?us :5 milk  
is turn$ into curd1  ! trans=mation z   
curd takes place 9 ! atoms det]m9$  z   
milk 9 ! milk molecule1 & x is n        
necess>y t !  milk molecule %\ld be     
dis9tegrat$ into ! atoms ( !  orig9al   
bhta ( :i* ! milk is a modification4 ,! 
*ange  z curd ?us takes place 9 ! milk  
atom1 & ! milk molecule  has n to be    
dis9tegrat$ into ksiti or ap atoms4 ,s  
aga9 9  ! f]tiliz$ ovum1 ! g]m & ! ovum 

sub/ances1 :i* 9  ! ,vais'esika view are
 bo? isom]ic modes ( e>? 7)             
accompanim5ts  ( o!r bhtas7 are brok5 up
 into homog5e\s e>?  atoms1 & x is ^! t 
*emically comb9e "u ! animal  heat &    
biomotor =ce vyu to =m ! g]m 7kalala74  
,b  :5 ! g]m plasm develops1 d]iv+ its  
nutrition f !  blood ( ! "m1 ! animal   
heat breaks up ! molecules (  ! g]m     
plasm into its con/itu5t atoms1 i4e4    
atoms specifically  det]m9$ :i* by _!   
gr\p+ =m$ ! g]m plasm4  ,^! g]m-plasm   
atoms *emically comb9e ) ! atoms (  !   
food con/itu5ts & ?us produce cells &   
tissues ,footnote ref #a4  ,?is atomic  
contact is call$ rambhaka-samyoga4      
,footnote #a3 ,see ,dr ,b4,n4 ,seal's   
,positive ,sci5ces1 pp4 #ajd-ajh1 &     
,nyyak&al1 pp4 #cc-cd1 ,s'arrrambhe     
p>amnava eva kranam na                  
s'ukra-s'onitasanniptah kriyvibhgd9yy5a 
tayorv9s'e sati  utpannapkajaih         
p>amnubhirrambht1 na ca                 
s'ukras'onitap>amnnm  kas'cidvis'esah   
pr?ivatvvis'est4444,pituh s'ukram mtuh  

s'onitam  tayos sanniptnant>am          
ja?>nalasamb&ht s'ukra-s'onitrambhakesu 
p>amnusu prv>pdiv9s'e                   
samnagunnt>otpattau  dvyanukdikramena   
kalalas'arirotpattih                    
tatrntahk>anapraves'o444tatra           
mturhr>aso mtray samkrmate1             
adrstavas'ttatra  pun>ja?>nalasamb&ht   
kalalrambhakap>amnusu  kriyvibhgad9yy5a 
kalalas'arre naste samutpannapkajaih    
kalalrambhakap>amnubhiradrstavas'd      
upajtakriyairhrap>amnitbhih saha sambhya
  s'arrnt>amrakkyate44    #cbi      ,9 !
 case ( poly-bhautik or bi-bhautik      
comp\nds !re is  ano!r k9d ( contact    
call$ upastambha4 ,?us 9 ! case (  su*  
comp\nds z oils1 fats1 & fruit juices1 !
 e>? atoms  _c comb9e ) "o ano!r unless 
!y are surr\nd$ by  ! wat] atoms :i*    
congregate r\nd ! =m]1 & by !           
infra-atomic =ces ?us set up ! e>? atoms
 take peculi>  qualities "u ! impact (  
heat corpuscles4 ,o!r comp\nds  are also
 possible :]e ! ap1 tejas1 or ! vyu     
atoms =m !  inn] radicle & e>? atoms    

dynamically surr\nd !m 7e4g4  gold1 :i* 
is ! tejas atom ) ! e>? atoms z !       
surr\nd+  upastambhaka74 ,solutions 7(  
e>? sub/ances 9 ap7  are reg>d$ z       
physical mixtures4    ,udayana po9ts out
 t ! sol> heat is ! s\rce ( all !  /ores
 ( heat requir$ = *emical *ange4 ,b !re 
are  diff]5ces 9 ! modes ( ! action (   
heat2 & ! k9d (  contact )              
heat-corpuscles1 or ! k9d ( heat )      
*emical  action :i* trans=ms col\rs1 is 
suppos$ to diff] f :at  trans=ms flav\r 
or ta/e4    ,heat & light rays are      
suppos$ to consi/ ( indef9itely  small  
p>ticles :i* d>t =? or radiate 9 all    
directions rectil9eally  ) inconceivable
 velocity4 ,heat may p5etrate ?r\gh  !  
int]atomic space z 9 ! case ( !         
conduction ( heat1 z  :5 wat] boils 9 a 
pot put on ! fire2 9 cases ( transp>5cy 
light rays p5etrate ?r\gh ! int]-atomic 
spaces ) p>isp&a  ( ! nature (          
deflection or refraction                
7tiryag-gamana74  ,9 o!r cases heat rays
 may imp+e on ! atoms & reb\nd          

back--:i* expla9s reflection4 ,la/ly    
heat may /rike !  atoms 9 a peculi> way1
 s z to break up _! gr\p+1 trans=m  !   
physico-*emical *>act]s ( ! atoms1 &    
aga9 recomb9e  !m1 all by means (       
cont9ual impact ) inconceivable         
velocity1 an op]ation :i* expla9s all   
cases ( *emical  comb9ation ,footnote   
ref l4 ,gov>dhana a lat] ,nyya writ]    
says t  pka means ! comb9ation ( diff]5t
 k9ds ( heat4 ,! heat t        ,footnote
 #a3 ,see ,dr ,seal's ,positive ,sci5ces
 ( ! ,h9dus4    #ccj    *anges ! col\r (
 a fruit is diff]5t f t :i* g5]ates  or 
*anges ! ta/e4 ,ev5 :5 ! col\r & ta/e   
rema9 !  same a p>ticul> k9d ( heat may 
*ange ! smell4 ,:5  grass eat5 by c[s is
 brok5 up into atoms special k9ds (     
heat-light rays *ange its old ta/e1     
col\r1 t\* & smell into  su* =ms z ^? t 
belong to milk ,footnote ref #a4    ,9 !
 ,nyya-,vaisesika sy/em all action (    
matt] on matt]  is ?us resolv$ into     
motion4 ,consci\s activity 7prayatna7 is
  di/+ui%$ f all =ms ( motion z aga9/ ! 

,smkhya  doctr9e :i* consid]$ ev]y?+ o!r
 ?an purusa 7intellig5ce7  to arise 9 ! 
c\rse ( cosmic evolution & !re=e  to be 
subject to vibratory motion4      ,!    
,orig9 ( ,k 7,pramna74    ,! mann] 9 :i*
 k orig9ates is "o ( !  mo/ fav\rite    
topics ( discussion 9 ,indian           
philosophy4 ,we  h already se5 t        
,smkhya-,yoga expla9$ x by suppos+  t ! 
buddhi 7place ( consci\sness7 assum$ !  
=m ( !  object ( p]ception1 & t ! buddhi
 s trans=m$ 0  !n intelligiz$ by !      
reflection ( ! pure intellig5ce or      
purusa4  ,! ,ja9s reg>d$ ! orig9 ( any k
 z be+ due to  a )drawal ( a veil ( k>ma
 :i* 0 cov]+ ! all-intellig5ce  ( !     
self4    ,nyya-,vaisesika reg>d$ all    
effects z be+ due to ! assemblage  (    
c]ta9 collocations :i* unconditionally1 
inv>iably1  & imm$iately prec$$ ^!      
effects4 ,t collocation 7smagr7  :i*    
produc$ k involv$ c]ta9 non-intellig5t z
 well  z intellig5t elem5ts & ?r\gh _!  
conjo9t action uncontradict$  &         
det]m9ate k 0 produc$1 & ?is collocation

 is ?us  call$ pramna or ! det]m9+ cause
 ( ! orig9 ( k  ,footnote ref #b4 ,none 
( ! sep>ate elem5ts compos+             
,footnote #a3 ,gov>dhana's ,nyyabodh9 on
 ,t>kasamgraha1 pp4 #i1 #aj4            
,footnote #b3                           
,avyabhicr9mas&igdhr?opalabdhim vidadhat
  bodhbodhasvabhv smagr pramnam4        
,nyyamaj>1 p4 #ab4  ,udyotak>a h[ev]    
def9$ pramna z upalabdhihetu 7cause (   
k74 ,?is view does n g aga9/ ,jayanta's 
view :i* ,i h  foll[$1 b x emphasizes ! 
side ( vypra or movem5t (  ! s5ses1 etc4
 by virtue ( :i* ! objects come 9       
contact )  !m & k is produc$4 ,?us      
,vcaspati says3 siddham9driydi1         
asiddhaca tatsannik>sdi                 
vyprayannutpdayan k>ana eva c>itr?ah    
k>nam tv9driydi tatsannik>sdi v nnyatra 
c>it>?amiti  sksdupalabdhveva phale     
vypryate4 ,ttp>yatk1 p4 #ae4 ,?us x  is 
! action ( ! s5ses z pramna :i* is !    
direct cause (  ! production ( k1 b z   
?is production c\ld n h tak5  place )\t 
! subject & ! object1 !y also are to be 

reg>d$ z  causes 9 "s s5se4             
,pramtrprameyayoh4 pramne               
c>it>?atvamac>it>?atvam pramanasya      
tasmat tadeva phalahetuh4               
,pramtrprameye tu phaloddes'ena pravrtte
 iti taddhet ka?acit4  ,ibid4 p4 #af4   
#cca    ! causal collocation c be call$ 
! prim>y cause2 x is only  _! jo9t      
collocation t c be said to det]m9e !    
effect1 =  sometimes ! abs5ce ( a s+le  
elem5t compos+ ! causal  collocation is 
suffici5t to /op ! production ( !       
effect4 ,(  c\rse ! collocation or      
comb9ation is n an entity sep>at$  f !  
collocat$ or comb9$ ?+s4 ,b 9 any case x
 is !  prec$+ collocations t comb9e to  
produce ! effect jo9tly4  ,^! involve n 
only intellectual elem5ts 7e4g4         
indet]m9ate  cognition z qualification  
7vis'esana7 9 det]m9ate p]ceptions1  ! k
 ( linga 9 inf]5ce1 ! see+ ( simil> ?+s 
9  upamna1 ! he>+ ( s\nd 9 s'abda7 b    
also ! assemblage  ( su* physical ?+s   
7e4g4 proximity ( ! object ( p]ception1 
capacity ( ! s5se1 light1 etc471 :i* are

 all indisp5sable =  ! orig9 ( k4 ,!    
cognitive & physical elem5ts  all       
co-op]ate 9 ! same plane1 comb9e toge!r 
& produce  fur!r det]m9ate k4 ,x is ?is 
capacity ( ! collocations  t is call$   
pramna4    ,nyya argues t 9 ! ,smkhya   
view k orig9ates  by ! transc5d5t       
influ5ce ( purusa on a p>ticul>  /ate ( 
buddhi2 ?is is q un9telligible1 = k does
  n belong to buddhi z x is             
non-intellig5t1 ?\gh x conta9s  )9 x !  
cont5t & ! =m ( ! concept or ! p]cept   
7k74 ,! purusa to :om ! k belongs1      
h[ev]1  nei!r kn[s1 nor feels1 nei!r    
conceives nor p]ceives1 z  x always     
rema9s 9 its own transc5d5tal purity4   
,if ! transc5d5tal  contact ( ! purusa )
 buddhi is b a m]e semblance  or        
appe>ance or illusion1 !n ! ,smkhya has 
to admit  t !re is no real k accord+ to 
!m4 ,all k  is false4 ,& s9ce all k is  
false1 ! ,smkhyi/s h  preci\s little    
:]e) to expla9 ! orig9 ( "r k4    ,!re  
are aga9 "s ,buddhi/s :o advocate !     
doctr9e  t simultane\sly ) ! g5]ation ( 

an object !re is !  k correspond+ to x1 
& t correspond+ to !  rise ( any k !re  
is ! rise ( ! object ( x4 ,nei!r  is ! k
 g5]at$ by ! object nor ! object by !   
k2 b !re is a sort ( simultane\s        
p>allelism4 ,x is  evid5t t ?is view    
does n expla9 :y k %\ld    #ccb         
express or manife/ its object4 ,if k & !
 object are  bo? b correspond+ po9ts 9 a
 p>allel s]ies1 :5ce comes  ?is         
correspond5ce8 ,:y %\ld k illum9ate !   
object4 ,! doctr9e ( ! ,vijna vd9s1 t x 
is k  alone t %[s itself bo? z k & z its
 object1 is also  irrational1 = h[ c k  
divide itself z subject & object  9 su* 
a mann] t k z object %\ld require  ! k z
 subject to illum9ate x8 ,if ?is be !   
case we  might aga9 expect t k z k %\ld 
also  require ano!r k to manife/ x & ?is
 ano!r1 & s on  ad inf9itum4 ,aga9 if   
pramna be def9$ z prpana 7capacity  (   
be+ realiz$7 !n also x w\ld n hold1 =   
all ?+s be+  mom5t>y accord+ to !       
,buddhi/s1 ! ?+ kn[n _c  be realiz$1 s  
!re w\ld be no?+ :i* c\ld be call$      

pramna4 ,^! views moreov] d n expla9 !  
orig9 (  k4 ,k is ?us to be reg>d$ z an 
effect l  any o!r effect1 & its orig9 or
 production occurs 9 ! same  way z any  
o!r effect1 namely by ! jo9t collocation
 ( causes  intellectual & physical      
,footnote ref #a4 ,!re is no transc5d5t 
elem5t involv$ 9 ! production ( k1 b x  
is a production  on ! same plane z t 9  
:i* _m physical ph5om5a  are produc$    
,footnote ref #b4      ,! f\r ,pramnas (
 ,nyya4    ,we "k t ! ,c>vkas admitt$   
p]ception 7pratyaksa7  alone z ! valid  
s\rce ( k4 ,! ,buddhi/s & !  ,vais'esika
 admitt$ two s\rces1 pratyaksa & inf]5ce
 7anumna72  ,smkhya add$ s'abda         
7te/imony7 z ! ?ird s\rce2              
,footnote #a3 ,see ,nyyamaj>1 pp4       
#ab-bf4    ,footnote #b3 ,discuss+ ! "q 
( ! validity ( k ,gages'a1  a lat]      
naiyyika ( great fame1 says t x is d]iv$
 z a result (  our inf]5ce f !          
correspond5ce ( ! p]ception ( a ?+ )  ! 
activity :i* prompt$ u to realize x4 ,t 
:i* leads u to  successful activity is  

valid & ! opposite invalid4 ,:5 ,i am   
sure  t if ,i "w 9 accordance ) !       
p]ception ( an object ,i %all be        
successful1 ,i call x valid k4          
,tattvac9tmani1 ,k4  ,t>kavgs'a's       
edition1 ,prmnyavda4    ,! ,vais'esika  
stras tacitly admit ! ,v$as z a pramna4 
,! view  t ,vais'esika only admitt$ two 
pramnas1 p]ception & inf]5ce1 is        
traditionally accept$1                  
pratyaksamekamcrvkh kandasugatau punah  
anumnaca taccpi1 etc4 ,pras'a/apda      
divides all cognition 7buddhi7  z vidy  
7"r k7 & avidy 7ignorance74 ,"u avidy he
  c\nts sams'aya 7d\bt or unc]ta9ty71   
vip>yaya 7illusion or  error71          
anadhyavasya 7want ( def9ite k1 ?us :5 a
 man :o  _h nev] se5 a mango1 sees x = !
 fir/ "t1 he wond]s :at x  may be7 &    
svapna 7dream74 ,"r k 7vidy7 is ( f\r   
k9ds1  p]ception1 inf]5ce1 memory & !   
sup]natural k ( ! sages  7rsa74         
,int]pret+ ! ,vais'esika stras ,i4i4 #c1
 ,,vi4 i4 #a1 & ,,vi4  i4 #c1 to mean t 
! validity ( ! ,v$as dep5ds ^u !        

tru/wor?y  "* ( _! au?or1 he does n     
consid] scriptures z valid 9  !mselves4 
,_! validity is only d]iv$ by inf]5ce f 
!  tru/wor?y "* ( _! au?or4 ,ar?patti   
7implication7 &  anupalabdhi            
7non-p]ception7 are also class$ z       
inf]5ce & upamna  7analogy7 & aitihya   
7tradition7 are reg>d$ z be+ ! same z   
fai? 9 tru/wor?y p]sons & h5ce cases (  
inf]5ce4    #ccc    ,nyya adds a f\r?1  
upamna 7analogy74 ,! pr9ciple on :i*  ! 
f\r-fold division ( pramnas dep5ds is t 
! causal  collocation :i* g5]ates ! k z 
well z ! nature  or *>act]i/ic k9d ( k 9
 ea* ( ! f\r cases is  diff]5t4 ,! same 
?+ :i* appe>s to u z ! object (  our    
p]ception1 may become ! object ( inf]5ce
 or s'abda  7te/imony71 b ! mann] or    
mode ( manife/ation ( k  be+ diff]5t 9  
ea* case1 & ! mann] or conditions       
produc+ k be+ diff]5t 9 ea* case1 x is  
to be  admitt$ t inf]5ce & s'abda are   
diff]5t pramnas1 ?\gh  !y po9t to ! same
 object indicat$ by ! p]ception4 ,nyya  
?us objects to ! incorporation ( s'abda 

7te/imony7 or upamna  )9 inf]5ce1 on !  
gr\nd t s9ce ! mode ( production  ( k is
 diff]5t1 ^! are to be held z diff]5t   
pramnas ,footnote ref #a4               
,p]ception 7,pratyaksa74    ,! naiyyikas
 admitt$ only ! five cognitive s5ses :i*
  !y believ$ to be compos$ ( "o or o!r (
 ! five elem5ts4  ,^! s5ses c\ld ea*    
come 9 contact ) ! special *>act]i/ic  (
 t elem5t ( :i* !y 7 compos$4 ,?us !  e>
 c\ld p]ceive s\nd1 because s\nd 0 !    
attribute (  ks'a1 ( :i* ! auditory     
s5se1 ! e>1 0 made up4 ,!  eye c\ld s5d 
=? rays to receive ! col\r1 etc41 ( ?+s4
  ,?us ! cognitive s5ses c only manife/ 
_! specific objects  by go+ ov] to !m & 
!reby com+ 9 contact ) !m4  ,! cognitive
 s5ses 7vk1 pni1 pda1 pyu1 & upa/ha7    
recogniz$  9 ,smkhya z sep>ate s5ses are
 n recogniz$ "h z su*  = ! functions (  
^! s-call$ s5ses are dis*>g$ by !  g5]al
 motor functions ( ! body4    ,p]ception
 is def9$ z t "r k g5]at$ by !  contact 
( ! s5ses ) ! object1 devoid ( d\bt &   
error  n associat$ ) any o!r simultane\s

 s\nd cognition 7su*        ,footnote   
#a3      ,smagrbh$i phalabh$cca         
pramnabh$ah    ,anye eva hi smagrphale  
pratyaksalingayoh    ,anye eva ca       
smagrphale s'abdopamnayoh4              
,nyyamaj>i1 p4 #cc4    #ccd    z ! "n ( 
! object z he>d f a p]son utt]+ x1 j  at
 ! "t :5 ! object is se57 or "n         
association1 & det]m9ate  ,footnote ref 
#a4 ,if :5 we see a c[1 a man says "h is
 a c[1  ! k ( ! s\nd z associat$ ) !    
p]cept _c be  c\nt$ z p]ception b z     
s\nd-k 7s'abda-pramna74  ,t "r k :i* is 
g5]at$ directly by ! contact  ( ! s5ses 
) ! object is said to be ! product (  ! 
p]ceptual process4 ,p]ception may be    
divid$ z indet]m9ate  7nirvikalpa7 &    
7savikalpa7 det]m9ate4 ,indet]m9ate     
p]ception  is t 9 :i* ! ?+ is tak5 at ! 
v fir/ mom5t (  p]ception 9 :i* x appe>s
 )\t any association ) "n4  ,det]m9ate  
p]ception takes place aft] ! indet]m9ate
 /age  is j pass$2 x reveals ?+s z be+  
end[$ ) all *>act]i/ics  & qualities &  
names j z we f9d 9 all our concrete     

exp]i5ce4 ,indet]m9ate p]ception reveals
 ! ?+s ) _!  *>act]i/ics & univ]sals1 b 
at ?is /age !re be+ no  association ( "n
 x is m or less indi/9ct4 ,:5 once !    
names are connect$ ) ! p]cept x =ms !   
det]m9ate  p]ception ( a ?+ call$       
savikalpa-pratyaksa4 ,if at ! "t  ( hav+
 ! p]ception ( a ?+ ( :i* ! "n is n kn[n
  to me anybody utt]s its "n !n ! he>+ (
 t %\ld  be reg>d$ z a sep>ate auditory 
"n p]ception4 ,only t  product is said  
to con/itute nirvikalpa p]ception :i*   
results  f ! p]ceiv+ process ( ! contact
 ( ! s5ses )  ! object4 ,( ?is          
nirvikalpa 7indet]m9ate7 p]ception x is 
held by ! lat] naiyyikas t we are n     
consci\s ( x  directly1 b yet x has to  
be admitt$ z a necess>y fir/  /age )\t  
:i* ! det]m9ate consci\sness c\ld n     
arise4 ,! indet]m9ate p]ception is      
reg>d$ z ! fir/ /age  9 ! process (     
p]ception4 ,at ! second /age x jo9s !   
o!r conditions ( p]ception 9 produc+ !  
det]m9ate p]ception4  ,! contact ( !    
s5se ) ! object is reg>d$  z be+ ( six  

k9ds3 7#a7 contact ) ! dravya 7?+7 call$
  samyoga1 7#b7 contact ) ! gunas       
7qualities7 ?r\gh ! ?+                  
7samyukta-samavya7 9 :i* !y inh]e 9     
samavya 7insep>able7  relation1 7#c7    
contact ) ! gunas 7su* z col\r etc47 9  
! g5]ic "* z univ]sals ( ^? qualities1  
e4g4 col\rness  7rpatva71 :i* inh]e 9 ! 
gunas 9 ! samavya relation4             
,footnote #a3 ,gages'a1 a lat] naiyyika 
( great reputation1 describes  p]ception
 z imm$iate aw>5ess 7pratyaksasya       
skstkritvam  laksanam74    #cce    ,?is 
species ( contact is call$              
samyukta-samaveta-samavya1  = ! eye is 9
 contact ) ! ?+1 9 ! ?+ ! col\r  is 9   
samavya relation1 & 9 ! specific col\r  
!re is !  col\r univ]sal or ! g5]ic "* (
 col\r 9 samavya  relation4 7#d7 ,!re is
 ano!r k9d ( contact call$ samavya  by  
:i* s\nds are said to be p]ceiv$ by !   
e>4 ,! auditory  s5se is ks'a & ! s\nd  
exi/s 9 ks'a 9 ! samavya  relation1 &   
?us ! auditory s5se c p]ceive s\nd 9 a  
peculi>  k9d ( contact call$            

samaveta-samavya4 7#e7 ,! g5]ic  "* (   
s\nd z ! univ]sal ( s\nd 7s'abdatva7 is 
p]ceiv$  by ! k9d ( contact kn[n z      
samaveta-samavya4 7#f7 ,!re is  ano!r   
k9d ( contact by :i* negation 7abhva7 is
 p]ceiv$1  namely samyukta vis'esana 7z 
qualify+ contact74 ,?is is s  call$     
because ! eye p]ceives only ! empty     
space :i* is  qualifi$ by ! abs5ce ( an 
object & ?r\gh x ! negation4  ,?us ,i   
see t !re is no jug "h on ! gr\nd4 ,my  
eye 9  ?is case is 9 t\* ) ! gr\nd & !  
abs5ce ( ! jug  is only a k9d ( quality 
( ! gr\nd :i* is p]ceiv$ along  ) !     
p]ception ( ! empty gr\nd4 ,x w ?us be  
se5  t ,nyya admits n only ! sub/ances &
 qualities b all  k9ds ( relations z    
real & exi/+ & z be+ directly  appreh5d$
 by p]ception 7s f> z !y are directly   
pres5t$74    ,! mo/ important ?+ ab\t ! 
,nyya-,vais'esika !ory  ( p]ception is  
?is t ! :ole process beg9n+ f !  contact
 ( ! s5se ) ! object to ! di/9ct & cle> 
p]ception  ( ! ?+1 sometimes involv+ !  
appreciation ( its  usefulness or       

h>mfulness1 is reg>d$ z ! process (     
p]ception  & its result p]ception4 ,!   
self1 ! m9d1 ! s5ses &  ! objects are ! 
ma9 factors by ! p>ticul> k9ds ( contact
  betwe5 :i* p]ceptual k is produc$4    
,all k  is inde$ ar?apraks'a1 revelation
 ( objects1 & x is call$  p]ception :5 !
 s5se factors are ! in/rum5ts ( its     
production & ! k produc$ is ( ! objects 
)  :i* ! s5ses are 9 contact4 ,! contact
 ( ! s5ses )  ! objects is n 9 any s5se 
metaphorical b actual4 ,n  only 9 ! case
 ( t\* & ta/e are ! s5ses 9 contact )  !
 objects1 b 9 ! cases ( sight1 he>+ &   
smell z well4  ,! s5ses accord+ to      
,nyya-,vaisesika are mat]ial & we h  se5
 t ! sy/em does n admit ( any o!r k9d ( 
transc5d5tal  7atndriya7 p[] 7s'akti7   
?an t ( actual vibratory    #ccf        
movem5t :i* is )9 ! purview (           
s5se-cognition ,footnote ref #a4  ,!    
production ( k is ?us no transc5d5tal   
occurr5ce1  b is "o :i* is simil> to !  
effects produc$ by  ! conglom]ation &   
movem5ts ( physical causes4 ,:5  ,i     

p]ceive an orange1 my visual or !       
tactual s5se is 9 t\*  n only ) its     
specific col\r1 or h>dness1 b also ) !  
univ]sals associat$ ) !m 9 a relation ( 
inh]5ce & also  ) ! object itself ( :i* 
! col\r etc4 are pr$icat$4 ,!  result ( 
?is s5se-contact at ! fir/ /age is call$
 locanajna  7s5se-cognition7 & z a      
result ( t !re is r\s$ !  memory ( its  
previ\s ta/e & a s5se ( pleasurable "*  
7sukhasdhanatvasmrti7 & z a result ( t  
,i p]ceive !  orange be=e me to h a     
c]ta9 pleasure-giv+ "* ,footnote ref    
#b4 ,x is urg$ t ?is appreciation ( !   
orange z a pleasurable  object %\ld also
 be reg>d$ z a direct result ( p]ception
  ?r\gh ! action ( ! memory op]at+ z a  
concomitant  cause 7sahakri74 ,i p]ceive
 ! orange ) ! eye & und]/&  ! pleasure x
 w give1 by ! m9d1 & !reupon  und]/& by 
! m9d t x is a pleasurable object4 ,s   
?\gh  ?is p]ception results imm$iately  
by ! op]ation ( ! m9d1  yet s9ce x c\ld 
only happ5 9 association ) s5se-contact1
  x mu/ be consid]$ z a subsidi>y effect

 ( s5se-contact &  h5ce reg>d$ z visual 
p]ception4 ,:atev] may be ! successive  
int]m$i>y processes1 if ! k is a result 
( s5se-contact  & if x app]ta9s to !    
object ) :i* ! s5se is  9 contact1 we   
%\ld reg>d x z a result ( ! p]ceptual   
process4  ,s5se-contact ) ! object is   
?us ! prim>y & indisp5sable  condition (
 all p]ceptions & n only c ! s5ses  be 9
 contact ) ! objects1 _! qualities1 & ! 
univ]sals  associat$ ) !m b also )      
negation4 ,a p]ception is  errone\s :5 x
 pres5ts an object 9 a "* :i* x does  n 
possess 7atasmim/aditi7 & "r k 7pram7 is
 t  :i* pres5ts an object ) a "* :i* x  
really has        ,footnote #a3      ,na
 khalvatndriy s'aktirasmbhirupagamyate  
yay saha na kryyasya                    
samb&hajnasambhavah4      ,nyyamaj>1 p4 
#fi4    ,footnote #b3      ,sukhdi manas
 buddhv kapit?di ca caksus    tasya     
k>anat tatra manasaivvagamyate444       
444,samb&hagrahanakle                   
yattatkapit?divisayamaksajam    jnam    
tadupdeydijnaphalamiti bhsyakrtas'cetasi

 /hitam    sukhasdhanatvajnamupdeyajnam4
      ,nyyamaj>1 pp4 #fi-gj2 see also   
pp4 #ff-ga4    #ccg    7tadvati         
tatprakraknubhava7 ,footnote ref #a4 ,9 
all cases (  p]ceptual illusion ! s5se  
is 9 real contact ) ! "r object1  b x is
 only on acc\nt ( ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 o!r 
conditions  t x is associat$ ) wrong    
*>act]i/ics or misappreh5d$ z  a diff]5t
 object4 ,?us :5 ! sun's rays are       
p]ceiv$ 9 a  des]t & misappreh5d$ z a   
/ream1 at ! fir/ indet]m9ate  /age !    
visual s5se is 9 real contact ) ! rays &
 ?us  f> !re is no illusion s f> z !    
contact ) a real object is  conc]n$1 b  
at ! second det]m9ate /age x is ow+ to !
  simil>ity ( c]ta9 ( its *>act]i/ics ) 
^? ( a /ream  t x is misappreh5d$ z a   
/ream ,footnote ref #b4 ,jayanta obs]ves
  t on acc\nt ( ! pres5ce ( ! defect ( !
 organs or ! r\s+  ( ! memory ( simil>  
objects1 ! object ) :i* ! s5se  is 9    
contact hides its own *>act]i/ics &     
appe>s ) !  *>act]i/ics ( o!r objects & 
?is is :at is meant by  illusion        

,footnote ref #c4 ,9 ! case ( m5tal     
delusions h[ev] !re is  no s5se-contact 
) any object & ! r\s+ ( irrelevant      
memories is suffici5t to produce        
illusory notions ,footnote ref #d4 ,?is 
doctr9e ( illusion is kn[n z vip>takhyti
 or anya?khyti4 ,:at  exi/$ 9 ! m9d     
appe>$ z ! object be=e u 7hrdaye        
p>isphurato'r?asya bahiravabhsanam7     
,footnote ref #e4 ,lat] ,vais'esika  z  
int]pret$ by ,pras'a/apda & ,s'rdh>a is 
9 full agreem5t  ) ,nyya 9 ?is doctr9e (
 illusion 7bhrama or z ,vais'esika      
calls x vip>yaya7 t ! object ( illusion 
is always ! "r  ?+ ) :i* ! s5se is 9    
contact & t ! illusion  consi/s 9 !     
imposition ( wrong *>act]i/ics ,footnote
 ref #f4    ,i h po9t$ out above t ,nyya
 divid$ p]ception into  two classes z   
nirvikalpa 7indet]m9ate7 & savikalpa    
7det]m9ate7  accord+ z x is an e>li] or 
a lat] /age4 ,vcaspati  says1 t at !    
fir/ /age p]ception reveals an object z 
a  p>ticul>2 ! p]ception ( an orange at 
?is avikalpika or  nirvikalpika /age    

gives u inde$ all its col\r1 =m1 & also 
!  univ]sal ( orang5ess associat$ ) x1 b
 x does n reveal        ,footnote #a3   
,see ,udyotak>a's ,nyyavrttika1 p4 #cg1 
& ,ganges'a's  ,tattvac9tmani1 p4 #dja1 
,biblio!ca ,indica4    ,footnote #b3    
,indriyenlocya m>cn uccvacamuccalato    
nirvikalp5a  grhtv pas'cttatropaghtadost
 vip>yyeti1 savikalpako'sya pratyayo    
bhrnto jyate tasmdvijnasya uvabhicro    
nr?asya1 ,vcaspati's  ,ttp>yatk1 p4 #hg4
    ,footnote #c3 ,nyyamaj>1 p4 #hh4    
,footnote #d3 ,ibid4 pp4 #hi & #ahd4    
,footnote #e3 ,ibid4 p4 #ahd4           
,footnote #f3 ,nyyak&al1 pp4 #agg-aha1  
,s'uktisamyukt55driyena  dsasahakr9     
rajatasamskrasaciv5a sdrs'yamanurundhat 
s'uktikvisayo rajatdhyavasyah krtah4    
#cch    x 9 a subject-pr$icate relation 
z :5 ,i say ?is is an orange4  ,!       
avikalpika /age ?us reveals ! univ]sal  
associat$ )  ! p>ticul>1 b z !re is no  
association ( "n at ?is /age1  !        
univ]sal & ! p>ticul> are tak5 9 "o     
sweep & n  z t]ms ( relation z subject &

 pr$icate or sub/ance &  attribute      
7jtydisv>pvaghi na tu jtydnm mi?o       
vis'esanavis'esyabhvvaghti yvat7        
,footnote ref #a4 ,he ?9ks  t su* a     
/age1 :5 ! object is only se5 b n       
associat$  ) "n or a subject-pr$icate   
relation1 c be di/+ui%$ 9  p]ception n  
only 9 ! case ( infants or dumb p]sons t
 d  n "k ! names ( ?+s1 b also 9 ! case 
( all ord9>y  p]sons1 = ! association ( 
! names & relations c\ld be  di/+ui%$ z 
occurr+ at a succe$+ /age ,footnote ref 
#b4  ,s'rdh>a1 9 expla9+ ! ,vais'esika  
view1 seems to be l>gely  9 agreem5t ) !
 above view ( ,vcaspati4 ,?us ,s'rdh>a  
says  t 9 ! nirvikalpa /age n only !    
univ]sals 7 p]ceiv$  b ! diff]5ces z    
well4 ,b z at ?is /age !re is no memory 
( o!r ?+s1 !re is no manife/            
diff]5tiation & unification  su* z c    
only result by comp>ison4 ,b ! diff]5ces
 & !  univ]sals z !y are 9 ! ?+ are     
p]ceiv$1 only !y are n  consci\sly ord]$
 z diff]5t f ?is or simil> to ?is1  :i* 
c only take place at ! savikalpa /age   

,footnote ref #c4  ,vcaspati did n br+ 9
 ! "q ( comp>ison ) o!rs1  b _h only    
spok5 ( ! det]m9ate notion ( ! ?+ 9     
def9ite  subject-pr$icate relation 9    
association ) names4 ,! lat] ,nyya      
writ]s h[ev]1 foll[+ ,ganges'a1 hold an 
altoge!r diff]5t  op9ion on ! subject4  
,) !m nirvikalpa k  means ! k ( m]e     
pr$ication )\t any association  ) !     
subject or ! ?+ to :i* ! pr$icate ref]s4
  ,b su* a k is nev] te/ifi$ by         
exp]i5ce4 ,! nirvikalpa  /age is ?us a  
logical /age 9 ! developm5t ( p]ceptual 
cognition & n a psy*ological /age4 ,!y  
w\ld        ,footnote #a3 ,ttp>yatik1 p4
 #ha1 also ibid4 p4 #ia1                
pra?amamlocito'r?ah smnyavis'esavn4     
,footnote #b3 ,ibid4 p4#hd1             
tasmdvyutpannasypi nmadheyasm>anya      
prvamesitavyo v9aiva                    
nmadheyam>?apratyayah4    ,footnote #c3 
,nyyak&al1p4 #ahi ff41 atah             
savikalpakamic*at                       
nirvikalpakamapyesitavyam1 tacca na     
smnyamtram grhnti bh$asypi  pratibhsant 

npi svalaksanamtram smnykrasypi samv$ant
  vyaktyant>ad>s'ane pratis&hncca1 k9tu 
smnyam  vis'esacobhayamapi grhnti yadi  
p>amidam smnyamayam vis'esah  ityevam   
vivicya na pratyeti                     
va/vant>nus&hnaviraht1                  
pindnt>nuvrttigrahanddhi smnyam         
vivicyate1  vyvrttigrahandvis'esoyamiti 
vivekah4    #cci    n l to disp5se ) x =
 !y ?9k t x is impossible  to h ! k ( a 
?+ z qualifi$ by a pr$icate or a        
quality1 )\t previ\sly kn[+ ! quality or
 ! pr$icate  7vis'istavais'i/yajnam     
prati hi vis'esanatvac*$akaprakram  jnam
 kranam7 ,footnote ref #a4 ,s1 be=e any 
det]m9ate k  su* z ,i see a c[1 ?is is a
 c[ or a c[ c arise x mu/  be prec$$ by 
an indet]m9ate /age pres5t+ only !      
indet]m9ate1 unrelat$1 pr$icative       
quality z nirvikalpa1 unconnect$  )     
univ]sality or any o!r relations        
7jtydiyojanrahitam  vais'istynavaghi    
nisprakrakam nirvikalpakam7 ,footnote   
ref #b4  ,b ?is /age is nev]            
psy*ologically exp]i5c$ 7atndriya7  & x 

is only a logical necessity aris+ out ( 
_! syn!tic  conception ( a proposition z
 be+ ! relation+ ( a pr$icate  ) a      
subject4 ,?us ,vis'van?a says 9 8       
,siddhntamuktval1  ! cognition :i* does 
n involve relation+  _c be p]ceptual = !
 p]ception is ( ! =m ',i "k  ! jug'2 "h 
! k is relat$ to ! self1 ! kn[]1  ! jug 
aga9 is relat$ to k & ! def9ite cont5t (
  jugness is relat$ to ! jug4 ,x is ?is 
cont5t :i* =ms !  pr$icative quality    
7vis'esanatvac*$aka7 ( ! pr$icate 'jug' 
:i* is relat$ to k4 ,we _c !re=e h !  k 
( ! jug )\t hav+ ! k ( ! pr$icative     
quality1 ! cont5t ,footnote ref #c4 ,b 9
 ord] t ! k  ( ! jug c\ld be r5d]$      
possible1 !re mu/ be a /age at  :i* !   
univ]sal or ! pure pr$ication %\ld be   
kn[n  & ?is is ! nirvikalpa /age1 !     
admission ( :i* ?\gh  n te/ifi$ by      
exp]i5ce is aft] all logically          
indisp5sably  necess>y4 ,9 ! proposition
 ,x is a c[1 ! c[ is an  univ]sal1 & ?is
 mu/ be intuit$ directly be=e x c\ld be 
relat$ to ! p>ticul> ) :i* x is         

associat$4    ,b bo? ! old & ! new      
s*ools ( ,nyya & ,vais'esika  admitt$ ! 
validity ( ! savikalpa p]ception :i*  ! 
,buddhi/s d5i$4 ,?+s are n ( ! nature ( 
mom5t>y  p>ticul>s1 b !y are end[$ )    
class-*>act]s or univ]sals  & ?us our k 
( univ]sals z reveal$ by !  p]ception ( 
objects is n errone\s & is directly     
produc$  by objects4 ,! ,buddhi/s hold t
 ! error ( savikalpa p]ception  consi/s 
9 ! attribution ( jti 7univ]sal71 guna  
7quality71        ,footnote #a3         
,tattvac9tmani p4 #hab4    ,footnote #b3
 ,ibid4 p4 #hji4    ,footnote #c3       
,siddhntamuktval on ,bhsp>ic*$a krik1   
#eh4    #cdj    kriy 7action71 nma 7"n71
 & dravya 7sub/ance7 to ?+s ,footnote   
ref  #a4 ,! univ]sal & t ( :i* !        
univ]sal is pr$icat$ are  n diff]5t b   
are ! same id5tical entity4 ,?us !      
pr$ication  ( an univ]sal 9 ! savikalpa 
p]ception involves !  false creation ( a
 diff]5ce :]e !re 0 none4 ,s also !     
quality is n diff]5t f ! sub/ance & to  
speak ( a  ?+ z qualifi$ is ?us an error

 simil> to ! =m]4 ,!  same rem>k applies
 to action1 = motion is n some?+ diff]5t
  f t :i* moves4 ,b "n is completely    
diff]5t  f ! ?+ & yet ! "n & ! ?+ are   
id5tifi$1  & aga9 ! p]cept man ) a /ick 
is reg>d$ z if x  0 a s+le ?+ or        
sub/ance1 ?\gh man & /ick are  altoge!r 
diff]5t & !re is no unity betwe5 !m4 ,n[
  z reg>ds ! fir/ ?ree objections x is a
 "q ( ! diff]5ce  ( ! ,nyya ontological 
position ) t ( ! ,buddhi/s1  = we "k t  
,nyya & ,vais'esika believe jti1 guna  &
 kriy to be diff]5t f sub/ance & !re=e !
 pr$icat+  ( !m ( sub/ance z diff]5t    
categories relat$ to x  at ! det]m9ate  
/age ( p]ception _c be reg>d$ z         
errone\s4 ,z to ! f\r? objection        
,vcaspati replies t !  memory ( ! "n ( !
 ?+ r\s$ by its sight _c make  !        
p]ception errone\s4 ,! fact t memory    
op]ates _c  9 any way vitiate p]ception4
 ,! fact t "n is n associat$  until !   
second /age ?r\gh ! jo9t action ( memory
  is easily expla9$1 = ! op]ation (     
memory 0 necess>y 9  ord] to br+ ab\t ! 

association4 ,b s long z x is borne 9   
m9d t ! "n is n id5tical ) ! ?+ b is    
only associat$  ) x z be+ ! same z 0    
previ\sly acquir$1 !re  _c be any       
objection to ! association ( ! "n4 ,b ! 
,buddhi/s fur!r object t !re is no      
reason :y "o %\ld  id5tify a ?+ se5 at !
 pres5t mom5t z be+ t :i*  0 se5 be=e1 =
 ?is id5tity is nev] ! object ( visual  
p]ception4 ,to ?is ,vcaspati says t     
?r\gh ! help (  memory or pa/           
impressions 7samskra7 ?is c be consid]$ 
z be+ directly ! object ( p]ception1 =  
:atev] may be  ! concomitant causes :5 !
 ma9 cause ( s5se-contact is            
,footnote #a3 ,nyyamaj>1 pp4 #ic-ajj1   
,paca caite kalpan bhavanti  jtikalpan1 
gunakalpan1 kriykalpan1 nmakalpan       
dravyakalpan ceti1  ts'ca kvacidabh$e'pi
 bh$akalpant kvacicca                   
bh$e'pyabh$akalpant  kalpan ucyante4    
,see ,dh>makrtti's !ory ( ,p]ception1   
pp4 #aea-d4  ,see also pp4 #dji-daj (   
?is book4    #cda    pres5t1 ?is        
p]ception ( id5tity %\ld be reg>d$ z an 

effect ( x4 ,b ! ,buddhi/s /ill         
emphasize ! po9t t an  object ( pa/     
exp]i5ce ref]s to a pa/ "t & place &  is
 n exp]i5c$ n[ & _c !re=e be id5tifi$ ) 
an object :i* is exp]i5c$ at ! pres5t   
mom5t4 ,x  has to be admitt$ t          
,vcaspati's answ] is n v satisfactory  =
 x leads ultimately to ! te/imony (     
direct p]ception  :i* 0 *all5g$ by !    
,buddhi/s ,footnote ref #a4 ,x is easy  
to see  t e>ly ,nyya-,vais'esika c\ld n 
dismiss ! savikalpa p]ception  z invalid
 = x 0 ! same z ! nirvikalpa &  diff]$ f
 x only 9 ?is1 t a "n 0 associat$ )  !  
?+ ( p]ception at ?is /age4 ,z x admits 
a gradual  developm5t ( p]ception z !   
progressive effects ( causal  op]ations 
cont9u$ ?r\gh ! contacts ( ! m9d ) !    
self & ! object "u ! influ5ce ( v>i\s   
intellectual  7e4g4 memory7 & physical  
7e4g4 light rays7 concomitant causes1  x
 does n1 l ,v$nta1 require t "r         
p]ception %\ld only  give k :i* 0 n     
previ\sly acquir$4 ,! v>iation  z well z
 production ( k 9 ! s\l dep5ds ^u  !    

v>iety ( causal collocations4    ,m9d   
accord+ to ,nyya is reg>d$ z a sep>ate  
s5se  & c come 9 contact ) pleasure1    
pa91 desire1 antipa?y  & w4 ,! lat]     
,nyya writ]s speak ( ?ree o!r k9ds  (   
contact ( a transc5d5tal nature call$   
smnyalaksana1  jnalaksana & yogaja      
7miracul\s74 ,! contact smnyalaksana  is
 t by virtue ( :i* by com+ 9 contact ) a
  p>ticul> we are transc5d5tally        
7alaukika7 9 contact ) all  ! p>ticul>s 
79 a g5]al way7 ( :i* ! correspond+     
univ]sal may be pr$icat$4 ,?us :5 ,i see
 smoke &  ?r\gh x my s5se is 9 contact )
 ! univ]sal associat$  ) smoke my visual
 s5se is 9 transc5d5tal contact ) all   
smoke 9 g5]al4 ,jnalaksana contact is t 
by virtue ( :i*  we c associate !       
p]ceptions ( o!r s5ses :5 p]ceiv+  by   
any "o s5se4 ,?us :5 we are look+ at a  
piece (  s&al wood our visual s5se is 9 
t\* ) its col\r only1  b /ill we p]ceive
 x to be fragrant )\t any direct contact
  ( ! object ) ! organ ( smell4 ,! sort 
( transc5d5tal  contact 7alaukika       

sannik>sa7 by virtue ( :i* ?is is r5d]$ 
,footnote #a3 ,ttp>yatk1 pp4 #hh-ie4    
#cdb    possible is call$ jnalaksana4 ,b
 ! k acquir$ by  ^! two contacts is n   
c\nt$ z p]ception ,footnote ref l4      
,pleasures & pa9s 7sukha & duhkha7 are  
held by ,nyya  to be diff]5t f k 7jna74 
,= k int]prets1  conceives or illum9es  
?+s1 b sukha etc4 are nev] f\nd to      
appe> z behav+ 9 t "*4 ,on ! o!r h& we  
feel  t we grasp !m aft] hav+ "s k4 ,!y 
_c  be self-reveal+1 = ev5 k is n s2 if 
x 7 s1 !n  t exp]i5ce :i* g5]ates sukha 
9 "o %\ld h g5]at$  ! same k9d ( feel+ 9
 o!rs1 or 9 o!r words x %\ld  h manife/$
 its nature z sukha to all2 & ?is does n
  happ51 = ! same ?+ :i* g5]ates sukha 9
 "o might  n d s 9 o!rs4 ,moreov] ev5   
admitt+ = argum5t's  sake t x is k      
itself t appe>s z pleasure & pa91  x is 
evid5t t !re mu/ be "s diff]5ces betwe5 
!  pleasurable & pa9ful exp]i5ces t make
 !m s diff]5t1  & ?is diff]5ce is due to
 ! fact t k 9 "o case  0 associat$ )    
sukha & 9 ano!r case ) duhkha1  ,?is %[s

 t sukha & duhkha are n !mselves k4     
,su* is ! c\rse ( ?+s t sukha & duhkha  
are g5]at$  by ! collocation ( c]ta9    
conditions1 & are manife/$ ?r\gh  or 9  
association ) o!r objects ei!r 9 direct 
p]ception or  9 memory4 ,!y are ?us !   
qualities :i* are g5]at$ 9  ! self z a  
result ( causal op]ation4 ,x %\ld h[ev] 
be  rememb]$ t m]it & dem]it act z      
concomitant causes  9 _! production4    
,! yog9s are believ$ to h ! pratyaksa ( 
! mo/  di/ant ?+s beyond our s5ses2 !y c
 acquire ?is p[]  by gradually increas+ 
_! p[]s ( conc5tration & p]ceive  !     
subtle/ & mo/ di/ant objects directly by
 _!  m9d4 ,ev5 we ourselves may at "s "t
 h ! notions  ( future ev5ts :i* come to
 be true1 e4g4 sometimes ,i may  h !    
intuition t ,to-morr[ my bro!r w come1  
,footnote #a3,siddhntamuktval on ,krik  
#fc & #fd4 ,we mu/ rememb]  t ,ganges'a 
disc>d$ ! def9ition ( p]ception z giv5 9
 !  ,nyya stra :i* we h discuss$ above1 
& held t p]ception  %\ld be def9$ z t   
cognition :i* has ! special class-"*  ( 

direct appreh5sion4 ,he ?9ks t ! old    
def9ition ( p]ception  z ! cognition    
g5]at$ by s5se-contact involves a vici\s
 circle  7,tattvac9tmani1 pp4 #ech-edf74
 ,s5se-contact is /ill reg>d$ by him  z 
! cause ( p]ception1 b x %\ld n be      
includ$ 9 !  def9ition4 ,he agrees to ! 
six k9ds ( contact describ$ fir/ by     
,udyotak>a z m5tion$ above4    #cdc    &
 ?is may happ5 to be true4 ,?is is call$
 pratibhnajna1  :i* is also to be reg>d$
 z a pratyaksa directly  by ! m9d4 ,?is 
is ( c\rse diff]5t f ! o!r =m  (        
p]ception call$ mnasa-pratyaksa1 by :i* 
memories (  pa/ p]ceptions by o!r s5ses 
are associat$ ) a p]cept  visualiz$ at !
 pres5t mom5t2 ?us we see a rose &      
p]ceive  t x is fragrant2 ! fragrance is
 n p]ceiv$ by !  eye1 b ! manas p]ceives
 x directly & associates ! visual       
p]cept ) x4 ,accord+ to ,v$nta ?is      
acquir$ p]ception  is only a case (     
inf]5ce4 ,! prtibha-pratyaksa h[ev] is  
t :i* is ) ref]5ce to ! happ5+ ( a      
future ev5t4  ,:5 a cognition is        

produc$1 x is produc$ only z an         
objective  cognition1 e4g4 ,?is is a    
pot1 b aft] ?is x is aga9 relat$ to  !  
self by ! m9d z ,i "k ?is pot4 ,?is is  
effect$ by  ! m9d aga9 com+ 9 contact = 
rep]ception ( ! cognition  :i* _h       
already be5 g5]at$ 9 ! s\l4 ,?is second 
rep]ception is call$ anuvyavasya1 & all 
practical "w c  proce$ z a result ( ?is 
anuvyavasya ,footnote ref4 l4           
,inf]5ce4    ,inf]5ce 7anumna7 is !     
second means ( pro( 7prmna7  & ! mo/    
valuable contribution t ,nyya has made  
has  be5 on ?is subject4 ,x consi/s 9   
mak+ an ass]tion ab\t a  ?+ on ! /r5g? (
 ! m>k or liga :i* is associat$  ) x1 z 
:5 f9d+ smoke ris+ f a hill we rememb]  
t s9ce smoke _c be )\t fire1 !re mu/    
also be fire  9 yond] hill4 ,9 an       
example l ?is smoke is te*nically  call$
 liga1 or hetu4 ,t ab\t :i* ! ass]tion  
has be5  made 7! hill 9 ?is example7 is 
call$ paksa1 & ! t]m  fire is call$     
sdhya4 ,to make a correct inf]5ce x is  
necess>y t ! hetu or liga mu/ be pres5t 

9 ! paksa1        ,footnote #a3 ,?is    
lat] ,nyya doctr9e t ! cognition ( self 
9  association ) cognition is produc$ at
 a lat] mom5t mu/ be  contra/$ ) !      
triputpratyaksa doctr9e ( ,prabhk>a1 :i*
  holds t ! object1 kn[] & k are all    
giv5 simultane\sly  9 k4 ,vyavasya      
7det]m9ate cognition71 accord+ to       
,ganges'a1  gives u only ! cognition ( !
 object1 b ! cognition t ,i am  aw>e (  
?is object or cognition is a diff]5t    
function+ succe$+  ! =m] "o & is call$  
anu 7aft]7 vyavasya 7cognition71        
idamaham  jnmti vyavasye na bhsate      
taddhak5driyasannik>sbhvt               
k9tvidamvisayakajnatvavis'istasya jnasya
 vais'i/yamtmani  bhsate2 na ca         
svapraks'e vyavasya tdrs'am svasya      
vais'istyam  bhsitum>hati1 prvam        
vis'esanasya tasyjnt1 tasmdidamaham     
jnmiti na vyavasyah k9tu anuvyavasyah4  
,tattvac9tmani1 p4 #gie4    #cdd    & 9 
all o!r kn[n objects simil> to ! paksa 9
 hav+ !  sdhya 9 x 7sapaksa-satt71 i4e41
 :i* are kn[n to possess !  sdhya       

7possess+ fire 9 ! pres5t example74 ,!  
liga mu/  n be pres5t 9 any su* object z
 does n possess !  sdhya                
7vipaksa-vyvrtti abs5t f vipaksa or t   
:i* does  n possess ! sdhya74 ,! inf]r$ 
ass]tion %\ld n be  su* t x is          
invalidat$ by direct p]ception          
pratyaksa7 or  ! te/imony ( ! s'/ra     
7abdhita-visayatva74 ,! liga  %\ld n be 
su* t by x an inf]5ce 9 ! opposite way  
c\ld also be possible 7asat-pratipaksa74
 ,! violation ( any  "o ( ^! conditions 
w\ld spoil ! c]titude ( ! hetu  z       
det]m9+ ! inf]5ce1 & ?us w\ld only make 
!  hetu fallaci\s1 or :at is te*nically 
call$ hetvbhsa or  seem+ hetu by :i* no 
correct inf]5ce c\ld be made4  ,?us !   
inf]5ce t s\nd is et]nal because x is   
visible  is fallaci\s1 = visibility is a
 quality :i* s\nd 7"h !  paksa7 does n  
possess ,footnote ref l4 ,?is hetvbhsa  
is te*nically  call$ asiddha-hetu4      
,aga91 hetvbhsa ( ! second type1        
te*nically call$ viruddha-hetu1 may be  
exemplifi$ 9 ! case  t s\nd is et]nal1  

s9ce x is creat$2 ! hetu be+  creat$ is 
pres5t 9 ! opposite ( sdhya vipaksa71   
namely  non-et]nality1 = we "k t        
non-et]nality is a quality  :i* belongs 
to all creat$ ?+s4 ,a fallacy ( ! ?ird  
type1  te*nically call$ anaikntika-hetu1
 is f\nd 9 ! case t  s\nd is et]nal1    
s9ce x is an object ( k4 ,n[ be+  an    
object ( k 7prameyatva7 is "h ! hetu1 b 
x is  pres5t 9 ?+s et]nal 7i4e4 ?+s     
possess+ sdhya71 z well  z 9 ?+s t are n
 et]nal 7i4e4 :i* d n possess !  sdhya71
 & !re=e ! concomitance ( ! hetu ) !    
sdhya is n absolute 7anaikntika74 ,a    
fallacy ( ! f\r?  type1 te*nically call$
 kltyaypadista1 may be f\nd 9 !         
example--fire is n hot1 s9ce x is creat$
 l a jug1 etc4  ,"h pratyaksa %[s t fire
 is hot1 & h5ce ! hetu is  fallaci\s4 ,!
 fif? fallacy1 call$ prak>anasama1 is to
 be  f\nd 9 cases :]e opposite hetus are
 available at ! same  "t = opposite     
conclusions1 e4g4 s\nd l a jug is       
non-et]nal1        ,footnote #a3 ,x %\ld
 be borne 9 m9d t ,nyya did n believe 9 

!  doctr9e ( ! et]nality ( s\nd1 :i* !  
,mmms did4 ,et]nality  ( s\nd meant )   
,mmms ! !ory t s\nds exi/$ z et]nal     
inde/ructible entities1 & !y 7 only     
manife/$ 9 our e>s "u  c]ta9 conditions1
 e4g4 ! /roke ( a drum or a p>ticul> k9d
 (  movem5t ( ! vocal muscles4    #cde  
s9ce no et]nal qualities are f\nd 9 x1 &
 s\nd l  ks'a is et]nal1 s9ce no        
non-et]nal qualities are f\nd 9 x4    ,!
 ,buddhi/s held 9 answ] to ! objections 
rais$ aga9/  inf]5ce by ! ,crvkas1 t    
inf]5tial argum5ts are  valid1 because  
!y are argum5ts on ! pr9ciple ( !       
uni=mity  ( nature 9 two relations1 viz4
 tdtmya 7ess5tial  id5tity7 & tadutpatti
 7succession 9 a relation ( cause &     
effect74 ,tdtmya is a relation ( g5us & 
species & n  ( causation2 ?us we "k t   
all p9es are trees1 & inf]  t ?is is a  
tree s9ce x is a p9e2 tree & p9e are    
relat$  to ea* o!r z g5us & species1 & !
 co-inh]5ce (  ! g5]ic qualities ( a    
tree ) ! specific *>act]s ( a  p9e tree 
may be view$ z a relation ( ess5tial    

id5tity  7tdtmya74 ,! relation (        
tadutpatti is t ( uni=mity (  succession
 ( cause & effect1 e4g4 ( smoke to fire4
    ,nyya holds t inf]5ce is made       
because ( ! inv>iable  association      
7niyama7 ( ! linga or hetu 7!           
concomitance (  :i* ) ! sdhya has be5   
safegu>d$ by ! five conditions  not$    
above7 ) ! sdhya1 & n because ( su*     
specific  relations z tdtmya or         
tadutpatti4 ,if x is held t !  inf]5ce t
 x is a tree because x is a p9e is due  
to !  ess5tial id5tity ( tree & p9e1 !n 
! opposite argum5t  t x is a p9e because
 x is a tree ought to be valid z well2  
= if x 7 a case ( id5tity x ought to be 
! same bo?  ways4 ,if 9 answ] to ?is x  
is said t ! *>act]i/ics ( a  p9e are    
associat$ ) ^? ( a tree & n ^? ( a tree 
)  ^? ( a p9e1 !n c]ta9ly ! argum5t is n
 due to ess5tial  id5tity1 b to !       
inv>iable association ( ! linga 7m>k7  )
 ! ling9 7! possessor ( linga71 o!rwise 
call$ niyama4  ,! argum5t f tadutpatti  
7association z cause & effect7  is also 

really due to inv>iable association1 = x
 expla9s !  case ( ! inf]5ce ( ! type ( 
cause & effect z well z (  o!r types (  
inf]5ce1 :]e ! association z cause &    
effect is n available 7e4g4 f sunset !  
rise ( />s is  inf]r$74 ,?us x is t !   
inv>iable concomitance ( !  linga ) !   
ling91 z safegu>d$ by ! conditions not$ 
above1 is :at leads u to make a valid   
inf]5ce ,footnote ref l4    ,we p]ceiv$ 
9 _m cases t a linga 7e4g4 smoke7 0     
associat$ ) a ling9 7fire71 & _h !nce   
=m$ ! notion        ,footnote #a3 ,see  
,nyyamaj>i on anumna4    #cdf    t :]ev]
 !re 0 smoke !re 0 fire4 ,n[ :5 we      
p]ceiv$ t !re 0 smoke 9 yond] hill1 we  
rememb]$  ! concomitance 7vypti7 ( smoke
 & fire :i* we _h  obs]v$ be=e1 & !n    
s9ce !re 0 smoke 9 ! hill1  :i* 0 kn[n  
to u to be insep>ably connect$ ) fire1  
we  conclud$ t !re 0 fire 9 ! hill4 ,!  
discov]y ( !  linga 7smoke7 9 ! hill z  
associat$ ) ! memory ( its  concomitance
 ) fire 7trtya-linga-p>m>s'a7 is ?us !  
cause  7anumitik>ana or anumna7 ( !     

inf]5ce 7anumiti74 ,!  concomitance (   
smoke ) fire is te*nically call$ vypti4 
,:5  ?is ref]s to ! concomitance ( cases
 conta9+ smoke )  ^? hav+ fire1 x is    
call$ bahirvypti2 & :5 x ref]s to !     
conviction ( ! concomitance ( smoke )   
fire1 )\t any  relation to !            
circum/ances "u :i* ! concomitance 0    
obs]v$1 x is call$ ant>vypti4 ,!        
,buddhi/s s9ce !y did  n admit ! notions
 ( g5]ality1 etc4 pref]r$ ant>vypti     
view ( concomitance to bahirvypti z a   
means ( inf]5ce ,footnote ref  #a4      
,n[ ! "q arises t s9ce ! validity ( an  
inf]5ce  w dep5d ma9ly on ! validity ( !
 concomitance ( sign  7hetu7 ) ! signate
 7sdhya71 h[ are we to assure ourselves 
9  ea* case t ! process ( asc]ta9+ !    
concomitance 7vyptigraha7  _h be5       
correct1 & ! obs]vation ( concomitance  
_h be5 valid4 ,! ,mmms s*ool held1 z we 
%all see 9  ! next *apt]1 t if we _h no 
k ( any su* case  9 :i* !re 0 smoke b no
 fire1 & if 9 all ! cases  ,i knew ,i _h
 p]ceiv$ t :]ev] !re 0 smoke !re  0     

fire1 ,i c\ld enunciate ! concomitance (
 smoke ) fire4  ,b ,nyya holds t x is n 
en\gh t 9 all cases :]e  !re is smoke   
!re %\ld be fire1 b x is necess>y t 9   
all ^? cases :]e !re is no fire !re %\ld
 n be any  smoke1 i4e4 n only e case ( !
 exi/5ce ( smoke %\ld  be a case ( !    
exi/5ce ( fire1 b e case ( abs5ce ( fire
  %\ld be a case ( abs5ce ( smoke4 ,!   
=m] is te*nically  call$ anvayavypti & !
 latt] vyatirekavypti4 ,b ev5 ?is  is n 
en\gh4 ,?us !re may h be5 an ass sitt+1 
9 a  hundr$ cases :]e ,i _h se5 smoke1 &
 !re might h  be5 a hundr$ cases :]e !re
 0 nei!r ass nor smoke1 b  x _c be      
ass]t$ f x t !re is any relation (      
concomitance1        ,footnote #a3 ,see 
,ant>vyptisam>?ana1 by ,ratnk>as'nti 9 !
 ,six  ,buddhi/ ,nyya ,tracts1          
,biblio!ca ,indica1 #aiaj4    #cdg    or
 ( cause & effect betwe5 ! ass & !      
smoke4 ,x  may be t "o might nev] h     
obs]v$ smoke )\t an  antec$5t ass1 or an
 ass )\t ! smoke foll[+ x1 b ev5  t is n
 en\gh4 ,if x 7 su* t we _h s exp]i5c$ 9

  a v l>ge numb] ( cases t !            
introduction ( ! ass  produc$ ! smoke1 &
 t ev5 :5 all ! antec$5ts rema9$  !     
same1 ! disappe>ance ( ! ass 0          
imm$iately  foll[$ by ! disappe>ance (  
smoke 7yasm9 sati bhavanam  yato v9 na  
bhavanam iti bhuyod>s'anam1 ,nyyamaj>1  
p4 #abb71 !n only c\ld we say t !re 0   
any relation (  concomitance 7vypti     
betwe5 ! ass & ! smoke ,footnote ref #a4
 ,b  ( c\rse x might be t :at we        
conclud$ to be ! hetu by !  above       
obs]vations ( anvaya-vyatireka might n  
be a real hetu1  & !re might be "s o!r  
condition 7updhi7 associat$  ) ! hetu   
:i* 0 ! real hetu4 ,?us we "k t fire  9 
gre5 wood 7rdr5dhana7 produc$ smoke1 b  
"o might  d\bt t x 0 n ! fire 9 ! gre5  
wood t produc$  smoke1 b !re 0 "s hidd5 
demon :o did x4  ,b !re w\ld be no end (
 su* d\bts1 & if we indulg$  9 !m1 all  
our "w endeav\r & practical activities  
w\ld  h to be disp5s$ ) 7vyghta74 ,?us  
su* d\bts z  lead u to ! susp5sion ( all
 "w %\ld n di/urb or  unsettle ! notion 

( vypti or concomitance at :i* we  _h   
arriv$ by c>eful obs]vation &           
consid]ation ,footnote ref #b4 ,!       
,buddhi/s & ! naiyyikas g5]ally agre$ z 
to ! me?od  ( =m+ ! notion (            
concomitance or vypti 7vyptigraha71  b !
 =m] tri$ to ass]t t ! validity ( su* a 
concomitance  always dep5d$ on a        
relation ( cause & effect  or ( id5tity 
( ess5ce1 :]eas ,nyya held t nei!r !    
relations ( cause & effect1 nor t (     
ess5tial id5tity (  g5us & species1     
exhau/$ ! field ( inf]5ce1 & !re 0  q a 
numb] ( o!r types ( inf]5ce :i* c\ld n  
be  br\ght "u ei!r ( !m 7e4g4 ! rise ( !
 moon & !  tide ( ! ocean74 ,a natural  
fix$ ord] t c]ta9 ?+s happ5+  o!r ?+s   
w\ld happ5 c\ld c]ta9ly exi/1 ev5  )\t !
 supposition ( an id5tity ( ess5ce4     
,b sometimes x happ5s t diff]5t k9ds (  
causes (t5  h ! same k9d ( effect1 & 9  
su* cases x is difficult to             
,footnote #a3 ,see ,ttp>yatk on anumna &
 vyptigraha4    ,footnote #b3 ,ttp>yatk 
on vyptigraha1 & ,tattvac9tmani (       

,ganges'a on vyptigraha4    #cdh    inf]
 ! p>ticul> cause f ! effect4 ,nyya     
holds h[ev]  t ?\gh diff]5t causes are  
(t5 f\nd to produce  ! same effect1 yet 
!re mu/ be "s diff]5ce betwe5 "o  effect
 & ano!r4 ,if ea* effect is tak5 by     
itself ) its  o!r att5dant circum/ances 
& peculi>ities1 x w be f\nd  t x may !n 
be possible to di/+ui% x f simil> o!r   
effects4 ,?us a flood 9 ! /reet may be  
due ei!r to a heavy  d[np\r ( ra9       
imm$iately be=e1 or to ! rise 9 ! wat]  
( ! riv] close by1 b if obs]v$ c>efully 
! flood+ (  ! /reet due to ra9 w be f\nd
 to h su* special traits  t x c\ld be   
di/+ui%$ f a simil> flood+ due to !     
rise ( wat] 9 ! riv]4 ,?us f ! flood+ ( 
! /reet  ( a special type1 z demon/rat$ 
by its o!r att5dant circum/ances1  !    
special mann] 9 :i* ! wat] fl[s by small
  rivulets or 9 %eets1 w enable u to    
inf] t ! flood 0  due to ra9s & n to !  
rise ( wat] 9 ! riv]4 ,?us we  see t    
,nyya reli$ on empirical induction bas$ 
on uni=m  & un9t]rupt$ agreem5t 9       

nature1 :]eas ! ,buddhi/s  assum$ a     
priori pr9ciples ( causality or id5tity 
( ess5ce4  ,x may n be out ( place "h to
 m5tion t 9 lat] ,nyya  works great     
emphasis is laid on ! necessity ( gett+ 
ourselves  assur$ t !re 0 no su* updhi  
7condition7 associat$ )  ! hetu on      
acc\nt ( :i* ! concomitance happ5$1 b  t
 ! hetu 0 unconditionally associat$ ) ! 
sdhya 9  a relation ( insep>able        
concomitance4 ,?us all fire does n      
produce  smoke2 fire mu/ be associat$ ) 
gre5 wood 9 ord] to  produce smoke4     
,gre5 wood is ?us ! necess>y condition  
7updhi7 )\t :i*1 no smoke c\ld be       
produc$4 ,x is on  acc\nt ( ?is         
condition t fire is associat$ ) smoke2 &
  s we _c say t !re is smoke because !re
 is fire4 ,b 9  ! concomitance ( smoke )
 fire !re is no condition1 & s  9 e case
 ( smoke !re is fire4 ,9 ord] to be     
assur$ ( !  validity ( vypti1 x is      
necess>y t we mu/ be assur$ t  !re %\ld 
be no?+ associat$ ) ! hetu :i*          
condition$  ! concomitance1 & ?is mu/ be

 settl$ by wide  exp]i5ce 7bhyod>s'ana74
    ,pras'a/apda 9 def9+ inf]5ce z ! k (
 t  7e4g4 fire7 associat$ ) ! reason    
7e4g4 smoke7 by ! sight (  ! reason     
describ$ a valid reason 7linga7 z t :i* 
is connect$  ) ! object ( inf]5ce       
7anumeya7 & :i* exi/s  :]ev] ! object ( 
inf]5ce exi/s & is abs5t 9 all cases    
#cdi    :]e x does n exi/4 ,?is is inde$
 ! same z ! ,nyya  qualifications (     
paksasattva1 sapaksasattva &            
vipakssattva (  a valid reason 7hetu74  
,pras'a/apda fur!r quotes a v]se to say 
t ?is is ! same z :at ,ks'yapa 7believ$ 
to be ! family  "n ( ,kanda7 said4      
,kanda says t we c inf] a cause  f !    
effect1 ! effect f ! cause1 or we c inf]
 "o  ?+ by ano!r :5 !y are mutually     
connect$1 or 9 opposition  or 9 a       
relation ( inh]5ce 7,,ix4 ii4 #a &      
,,iii4 i4 #i74 ,we  c inf] by a reason  
because x is duly associat$             
7prasiddhiprvakatva7 ) ! object (       
inf]5ce4 ,:at ?is  association 0 accord+
 to ,kanda c also be und]/ood =  he     

tells u 7,,iii4 i4 #ae7 t :]e !re is no 
prop] association1  ! reason 7hetu7 is  
ei!r non-exi/5t 9 ! object to be inf]r$ 
or x has no concomitance ) x            
7aprasiddha7 or x has a d\btful  exi/5ce
 s&igdha74 ,?us if ,i say ?is ass is a  
horse because x has  horns x is         
fallaci\s1 = nei!r ! horse nor ! ass has
 horns4  ,aga9 if ,i say x is a c[      
because x has horns1 x is fallaci\s1 =  
!re is no concomitance betwe5 horns & a 
c[1 & ?\gh  a c[ may h a horn1 all t h  
horns are n c[s4 ,!  fir/ fallacy is a  
comb9ation ( pakssattva & sapakssattva1 
= n only ! pres5t paksa 7! ass7 _h no   
horns1 b no  horses _h any horns1 & !   
second is a case ( vipaksasattva1  = ^? 
:i* are n c[s 7e4g4 buffaloes7 h also   
horns4 ,?us1  x seems t :5 ,pras'a/apda 
says t he is giv+ u ! view  ( ,kanda he 
is fai?ful to x4 ,pras'a/apda says t    
:]ev]  !re is smoke !re is fire1 if !re 
is no fire !re is no smoke4  ,:5 "o kn[s
 ?is concomitance & un]r+ly p]ceives !  
smoke1 he rememb]s ! concomitance &     

feels c]ta9 t  !re is fire4 ,b ) reg>d  
to ,kanda's enum]ation ( types (        
inf]5ce su* z a cause is inf]r$ f its   
effect1 or an effect  f ! cause1 etc41  
,pras'a/apda holds t ^! are n !  only   
types ( inf]5ce1 b are only "s examples 
= %[+  ! g5]al nature ( inf]5ce4        
,inf]5ce m]ely %[s a connection  su* t f
 ?is t c be inf]r$4 ,he !n divides      
inf]5ce into two classes1 drsta 7f !    
exp]i5c$ *>act]i/ics  ( "o memb] ( a    
class to ano!r memb] ( ! same  class71 &
 smnyato drsta4 ,drsta 7p]ceiv$         
resemblance7 is  t :]e ! previ\sly kn[n 
case & ! inf]r$ case is  exactly ( !    
same class4 ,?us z an example ( x we c  
po9t  out t by p]ceiv+ t only a c[ has a
 hang+ mass (  fle% on its neck 7ssn71  
,i c :5ev] ,i see ! same hang+    #cej  
mass ( fle% at ! neck ( an animal inf] t
 x is a c[4 ,b  :5 on ! /r5g? ( a common
 quality ! inf]5ce is ext5d$  to a      
diff]5t class ( objects1 x is call$     
smnyato drsta4  ,?us on p]ceiv+ t ! "w (
 ! peasants is rew>d$  ) a good h>ve/ ,i

 may inf] t ! "w ( ! prie/s1  namely !  
p]=mance ( sacrifices1 w also be rew>d$ 
)  ! objects = :i* !y are p]=m$ 7i4e4 ! 
atta9m5t (  heav574 ,:5 ! conclusion1 to
 :i* "o has arriv$ 7svanis'citr?a7  is  
express$ 9 five premisses = conv9c+ o!rs
  :o are ei!r 9 d\bt1 or 9 error or are 
simply ignorant1 !n  ! inf]5ce is call$ 
p>r?numna4 ,we "k t ! di/9ction  (      
svr?numna 7inf]5ce = oneself7 &         
p>r?numna  7inf]5ce = o!rs7 0 made by ! 
,ja9s & ,buddhi/s4  ,pras'a/apda does n 
make a %>p di/9ction ( two classes  (   
inf]5ce1 b he seems to mean t :at "o    
inf]s1 x c be  convey$ to o!rs by means 
( five premisses 9 :i* case x is  call$ 
p>r?numna4 ,b ?is ne$ n be consid]$ z an
  entirely new innovation (             
,pras'a/apda1 = 9 ,,ix4 #b1 ,kanda      
himself def9itely alludes to ?is        
di/9ction 7asy$am                       
kryyakranasamb&has'cvayavdbhavati74 ,!  
five premisses :i* are  call$ 9 ,nyya   
pratij1 hetu drstnta1 upanaya1 &        
nigamana  are call$ 9 ,vais'esika       

pratij1 apades'a1 nid>s'ana1 anus&hna1  
& pratymnya4 ,kanda h[ev] does n m5tion 
! "n  ( any ( ^! premisses except+ !    
second apades'a4 ,pratij is  ( c\rse !  
same z we h 9 ,nyya1 & ! t]m nid>s'ana  
is  v simil> to ,nyya drstnta1 b ! la/  
two are entirely  diff]5t4 ,nid>s'ana   
may be ( two k9ds1 7#a7 agreem5t 9      
pres5ce  7e4g4 t :i* has motion is a    
sub/ance z is se5 9 ! case (  an arr[71 
7#b7 agreem5t 9 abs5ce 7e4g4 :at is n a 
sub/ance has  no motion z is se5 9 !    
case ( ! univ]sal be+ ,footnote ref l74 
,he also po9ts out cases ( ! fallacy ( !
 example        ,footnote #a3 ,dr       
,vidybhsana says t ,an example be=e ! "t
 (  ,dignga s]v$ z a m]e famili> case   
:i* 0 cit$ to help !  und]/&+ ( ! li/5]1
 e4g4 ,! hill is fi]y2 because x has    
smoke2 l a kit*5 7example74 ,asanga made
 ! example m s]viceable  to reason+1 b  
,dignga conv]t$ x into a univ]sal       
proposition1 t  is a proposition        
expressive ( ! univ]sal or insep>able   
connection  betwe5 ! middle t]m & !     

major t]m1 e4g4 ,! hill is fi]y2 because
  x has smoke2 all t has smoke is fi]y z
 a kit*5 7,indian ,logic1  pp4 #ie1     
#if74 ,x is ( c\rse true t ,vtsyyana _h 
an imp]fect example  z l a kit*5        
7s'abdah utpatvidh>makatvdanuyah        
/hlydivat1  ,i4i4 #cf71 b ,pras'a/apda  
has x 9 ! prop] =m4 ,:e!r  ,pras'a/apda 
borr[$ x f ,dignnga or ,dignnga f       
,pras'a/apda  _c be easily settl$4      
#cea    7nid>s'anbhsa74 ,pras'a/apda's  
contribution ?us seems to consi/  ( !   
enum]ation ( ! five premisses & !       
fallacy (  ! nid>s'ana1 b ! names ( !   
la/ two premisses are s  diff]5t f :at  
are curr5t 9 o!r sy/ems t x is          
reasonable  to suppose t he collect$ !m 
f "s o!r traditional  ,vais'esika "w :i*
 is n[ lo/ to u4 ,x h[ev] def9itely     
indicates t ! /udy ( ! problem ( inf]5ce
 0 be+  pursu$ 9 ,vais'esika circles    
indep5d5tly ( ,nyya4 ,!re is  no reason 
h[ev] to suppose t ,pras'a/apda borr[$  
any?+  f ,dinnga z ,pr(essor ,/*]batsky 
or ,kei? supposes1  =1 z ,i h %[n above1

 mo/ ( ,pras'a/apda's app>5t innovations
  are all def9itely allud$ to by ,kanda 
himself1 &  ,pr(essor ,kei? has n       
discuss$ ?is alt]native4 ,on !  "q ( !  
fallacies ( nid>s'ana1 unless x is      
def9itely prov$  t ,dinnga prec$$       
,pras'a/apda1 !re is no reason :atev]   
to suppose t ! latt] borr[$ x f ! =m]   
,footnote ref #a4    ,! nature &        
asc]ta9m5t ( concomitance is ! mo/      
important "p ( inf]5ce4 ,vtsyyana says t
 an inf]5ce  c be made by ! sight ( !   
linga 7reason or middle7 ?r\gh  ! memory
 ( ! connection betwe5 ! middle & !     
major  previ\sly p]ceiv$4 ,udyotak>a    
raises ! "q :e!r x  is ! pres5t         
p]ception ( ! middle or ! memory ( !    
connection ( ! middle ) ! major t %\ld  
be reg>d$  z lead+ to inf]5ce4 ,8 answ] 
is t bo? ^! lead to  inf]5ce1 b t :i*   
imm$iately leads to inf]5ce is          
lingap>m>s'a1 i4e4 ! pres5t p]ception ( 
! middle 9 !  m9or associat$ ) ! memory 
( its connection ) ! major1  = inf]5ce  
does n imm$iately foll[ ! memory ( !    

connection1  b ! pres5t p]ception ( !   
middle associat$ )  ! memory ( !        
connection 7smrtyanugrhto lingap>m>s'o74
  ,b he is sil5t ) reg>d to ! nature (  
concomitance4  ,udyotak>a's criticisms (
 ,dinnga z %[n by ,vcaspati h  no       
ref]5ce to ?is po9t ,! doctr9e ( tdtmya 
& tadutpatti  0 !re=e 9 all probability 
a new contribution to  ,buddhi/ logic by
 ,dh>makrtti4 ,dh>makrtti's cont5tion 0 
t ! root pr9ciple ( ! connection betwe5 
! middle &  ! major 0 t ! =m] 0 ei!r    
id5tical 9 ess5ce  ) ! latt] or its     
effect & t unless ?is 0 grasp$ a  m]e   
collection ( positive or negative       
in/ances w n give u        ,footnote #a3
 ,pras'a/apda's bhsya ) ,nyyak&al1 pp4  
#bjj-bee4    #ceb    ! desir$ connection
 ,footnote ref #a4 ,vcaspati 9 8        
refutation (  ?is view says t !         
cause-effect relation _c be det]m9$ z a 
sep>ate relation4 ,if causality means   
inv>iable imm$iate antec$5ce  su* t !re 
be+ fire !re is smoke & !re be+  no fire
 !re is no smoke1 !n x _c be asc]ta9$ ) 

p]fect satisfaction1 = !re is no pro( t 
9 ea* case !  smoke 0 caus$ by fire & n 
by an invisible demon4 ,unless  x c be  
asc]ta9$ t !re 0 no invisible elem5t    
associat$1  x _c be said t ! smoke 0    
imm$iately  prec$$ by fire & fire alone4
 ,aga9 accept+ = ! sake (  argum5t t    
causality c be det]m9$1 !n also cause is
  kn[n to prec$e ! effect & !re=e !     
p]ception ( smoke  c only lead u to inf]
 ! pres5ce ( fire at a prec$+ "t  & n   
contemporane\sly ) x4 ,moreov] !re are  
_m  cases :]e inf]5ce is possible1 b !re
 is no relation ( cause  & effect or (  
id5tity ( ess5ce 7e4g4 ! sunrise ( ?is  
morn+ by ! sunrise ( ye/]day morn+74 ,9 
! case (  id5tity ( ess5ce 7tdtmya z 9 !
 case ( ! p9e & !  tree7 also !re _c be 
any inf]5ce1 = "o ?+ has to be  inf]r$  
by ano!r1 b if !y are id5tical !re _c be
 any  inf]5ce4 ,! nature ( concomitance 
!re=e _c be describ$  9 ei!r ( ^! ways4 
,"s ?+s 7e4g4 smoke7 are  naturally     
connect$ ) "s o!r ?+s 7e4g4 fire7 & :5  
su* is ! case1 ?\gh we may n "k any     

fur!r ab\t !  nature ( ?is connection1  
we may inf] ! latt] f ! =m]  & n vice   
v]sa1 = fire is connect$ ) smoke only "u
  c]ta9 conditions 7e4g4 gre5 wood74 ,x 
may be argu$ t !re  may always be c]ta9 
unkn[n conditions :i* may vitiate  !    
validity ( inf]5ce4 ,to ?is ,vcaspati's 
answ] is t if  ev5 aft] obs]v+ a l>ge   
numb] ( cases & c>eful se>*  su*        
conditions 7updhi7 _c be discov]$1 we h 
to take  x = grant$ t !y d n exi/ & t   
!re is a natural  connection betwe5 !   
middle & ! major4 ,! lat]  ,buddhi/s    
introduc$ ! me?od ( ,pacakran 9 ord] to 
det]m9e effectively ! causal relation4  
,^! five conditions  det]m9+ ! causal   
relation are 7#a7 nei!r ! cause nor !   
effect is p]ceiv$1 7#b7 ! cause is      
p]ceiv$1 7#c7 9 imm$iate  succession !  
effect is p]ceiv$1 7#d7 ! cause         
disappe>s1 7#e7 9        ,footnote #a3  
,kryyakranubhvdv svabhvdva niymakt      
av9bhvaniyamo'  d>s'annna na d>s'ant4   
,ttp>yatk1 p4 #aje4    #cec    imm$iate 
succession ! effect disappe>s4 ,b ?is   

me?od  _c gu>antee ! infallibility ( !  
det]m9ation ( cause  & effect relation2 
& if by ! assumption ( a cause-effect   
relation no high] degree ( c]ta9ty is   
available1 x is bett]  to accept a      
natural relation )\t limit+ x to a      
cause-effect  relation ,footnote ref #a4
    ,9 e>ly ,nyya books ?ree k9ds (     
inf]5ce are describ$1  namely prvavat1  
s'esavat1 & smnyato-drsta4 ,prvavat is !
  inf]5ce ( effects f causes1 e4g4 t (  
imp5d+ ra9 f  heavy d>k cl\ds2 s'esavat 
is ! inf]5ce ( causes f effects1  e4g4 t
 ( ra9 f ! rise ( wat] 9 ! riv]2        
smnyato-drsta  ref]s to ! inf]5ce 9 all 
cases o!r ?an ^? (  cause & effect1 e4g4
 ! inf]5ce ( ! s\r ta/e ( !  tam>9d f   
its =m & col\r4 ,nyyamaj> m5tions  ano!r
 =m ( anumna1 namely p>is'esamna        
7r$uctio ad  absurdum71 :i* consi/s 9   
ass]t+ any?+ 7e4g4 consci\sness7  ( any 
o!r ?+ 7e4g4 tman71 because x 0 already 
def9itely f\nd out t consci\sness 0 n   
produc$ 9 any  o!r "p ( man4 ,s9ce      
consci\sness c\ld n belong to  any?+    

else1 x mu/ belong to s\l ( necessity4  
,9 spite (  ^! v>iant =ms !y are all    
h[ev] ( "o k9d1 namely  t ( ! inf]5ce ( 
! prob&um 7sdhya7 by virtue ( !         
unconditional & inv>iable concomitance (
 ! hetu1 call$  ! vypti-niyama4 ,9 ! new
 s*ool ( ,nyya 7,navya-,nyya7  a =mal   
di/9ction ( ?ree k9ds ( inf]5ce occupies
 an  important place1 namely            
anvayavyatireki1 kevalnvayi1 &          
kevalavyatireki4 ,anvayavyatireki is t  
inf]5ce :]e !  vypti has be5 obs]v$ by a
 comb9ation ( a l>ge numb] (  in/ances (
 agreem5t 9 pres5ce & agreem5t 9 abs5ce1
  z 9 ! case ( ! concomitance ( smoke & 
fire 7:]ev]  !re is smoke !re is fire   
7anvaya71 & :]e !re is no fire1  !re is 
no smoke 7vyatireka774 ,an inf]5ce c\ld 
be = "o's  own self 7svr?numna7 or = !  
sake ( conv9c+ o!rs  7p>r?numna74 ,9 !  
latt] case1 :5 x 0 necess>y t  an       
inf]5ce %\ld be put explicitly 9 an     
unambigu\s mann]1  live propositions    
7avayavas7 7 reg>d$ z necess>y1 namely  
pratija 7e4g4 ! hill is fi]y71 hetu     

7s9ce x has smoke71 udh>ana  7:]e !re is
 smoke !re is fire1 z 9 ! kit*571       
upanaya 7?is hill has smoke71 nigamana  
7!re=e x has got        ,footnote #a3   
,vtsyyana's bhsya1 ,udyotak>a's ,vrttika
 &  ,ttp>yyatk1 ,i4i4 #e4    #ced       
fire74 ,kevalnvayi is t type ( inf]5ce1 
! vypti ( :i*  c\ld n be bas$ on any    
negative in/ance1 z 9 ! case  ?is object
 has a "n1 s9ce x is an object ( k      
7idam1 vcyam prameyatvt74 ,n[ no su*    
case is kn[n :i*  is n an object ( k2 we
 _c !re=e "k ( any  case :]e !re 0 no   
object ( k 7prameyatva7 &  no "n        
7vcyatva72 ! vypti "h has !re=e to be   
bas$  necess>ily on cases (             
agreem5t--:]ev] !re is prameyatva  or an
 object ( k1 !re is vcyatva or "n4  ,!  
?ird =m ( kevalavyatireki is t :]e      
positive in/ances  9 agreem5t _c be     
f\nd1 su* z 9 ! case ( !  inf]5ce t e>? 
diff]s f o!r elem5ts 9 possess+  !      
specific quality ( smell1 s9ce all t    
does n diff] f  o!r elem5ts is n e>?1   
su* z wat]2 "h x is evid5t  t !re _c be 

any positive in/ance ( agreem5t & !     
concomitance has to be tak5 f negative  
in/ances4 ,!re  is only "o in/ance1 :i* 
is exactly ! proposition ( our          
inf]5ce--e>? diff]s f o!r elem5ts1 s9ce 
x has !  special qualities ( e>?4 ,?is  
inf]5ce c\ld be ( use only 9  ^? cases  
:]e we _h to inf] any?+ by reason ( su* 
special traits ( x z 0 possess$ by x & x
 alone4      ,upamna & ,s'abda4    ,!   
?ird pramna1 :i* is admitt$ by ,nyya & n
 by  ,vais'esika1 is upamna1 & consi/s 9
 associat+ a ?+ unkn[n  be=e ) its "n by
 virtue ( its simil>ity ) "s  o!r kn[n  
?+4 ,?us a man ( ! city :o has nev]  se5
 a wild ox 7gavaya7 goes to ! =e/1 asks 
a =e/]--:at  is gavaya8 & ! =e/]        
replies--oh1 y d n  "k x1 x is j l a c[2
 aft] he>+ ?is f !  =e/] he travels on1 
& on see+ a gavaya & f9d+ x to  be      
simil> to a c[ he =ms ! op9ion t ?is is 
a gavaya4  ,?is kn[+ an hi!rto unkn[n ?+
 by virtue ( its  simil>ity to a kn[n ?+
 is call$ upamna4 ,if "s =e/]  _h po9t$ 
out a gavaya to a man ( ! city & _h told

 him  t x 0 call$ a gavaya1 !n also !   
man w\ld h  kn[n ! animal by ! "n       
gavaya1 b !n ?is w\ld  h be5 due to     
te/imony 7s'abda-pramana74 ,! k is  said
 to be g5]at$ by ! upamna process :5 !  
association  ( ! unkn[n animal ) its "n 
is made by ! obs]v]    #cee    on !     
/r5g? ( ! exp]i5ce ( ! simil>ity ( !    
unkn[n  animal to a kn[n "o4 ,!         
naiyyikas are ?or\gh  reali/s1 & z su*  
!y d n reg>d ! obs]vation (  simil>ity z
 be+ due to any subjective process ( !  
m9d4  ,simil>ity is inde$ p]ceiv$ by !  
visual s5se b yet !  association ( ! "n 
9 accordance ) ! p]ception (  simil>ity 
& ! in/ruction receiv$ is a sep>ate act 
& is  call$ upamna ,footnote ref #a4    
,s'abda-pramna or te/imony is ! "r k :i*
  we d]ive f ! utt]ances ( infallible & 
absolutely tru?ful  p]sons4 ,all k d]iv$
 f ! ,v$as is valid1 = !  ,v$as 7 utt]$ 
by s'v>a himself4 ,! ,v$as give u  "r k 
n ( itself1 b because !y came out z !   
utt]ances ( ! infallible s'v>a4 ,!      
,vais'esikas did n admit  s'abda z a    

sep>ate pramna1 b !y s\ght to e/abli% ! 
validity ( te/imony 7s'abda7 on ! /r5g? 
( inf]5ce 7anumiti7  on ! gr\nd ( its   
be+ ! utt]ance ( an infallible  p]son4  
,b z ,i h said be=e1 ?is explanation is 
h>dly  corroborat$ by ! ,vais'esika     
stras1 :i* tacitly admit !  validity ( !
 scriptures on its own au?ority4 ,b     
anyh[ ?is  0 h[ ,vais'esika 0 int]pret$ 
9 lat] times4      ,negation 9          
,nyya-,vais'esika4    ,! problem (      
negation or non-exi/5ce 7abhva7 is (    
great int]e/  9 ,indian philosophy4 ,9  
?is section we c describe its nature    
only  f ! po9t ( view ( p]ceptibility4  
,kumrila ,footnote ref #b               
,footnote #a3 ,see ,nyyamaj> on upamna4 
,! olde/ ,nyya view 0 t  ! in/ruction   
giv5 by ! =e/] by virtue ( :i* !        
association  ( ! "n wild ox to ! /range 
animal 0 possible 0 itself  upamna4 ,:5 
,pras'a/apda held t upamna %\ld be      
treat$ z a  case ( te/imony 7ptavacana71
 he _h probably ?is int]pretation  9    
view4 ,b ,udyotak>a & ,vcaspati hold t x

 0 n by !  in/ruction alone ( ! =e/] t !
 association ( ! "n  wild ox 0 made1 b  
!re 0 ! p]ception ( simil>ity1 &  !     
memory ( ! in/ruction ( ! =e/] too4 ,s x
 is !  p]ception ( simil>ity ) ! o!r two
 factors z accessories  t lead u to ?is 
association call$ upamna4 ,:at ,vtsyyana
  meant is n v cle>1 b ,dinnga supposes 
t accord+ to  him ! result ( upamna 0 ! 
k ( simil>ity or !  k ( a ?+ hav+       
simil>ity4 ,vcaspati ( c\rse holds t  he
 has correctly int]pret$ ,vtsyyana's    
int5tion4 ,x is h[ev]  def9ite t upamna 
means ! associat+ ( a "n to a new object
  7samkhysamb&hapratipattirupamnr?ah1   
,vtsyyana74 ,jayanta  po9ts out t x is !
 preception ( simil>ity :i* directly    
leads to ! association ( ! "n & h5ce !  
in/ruction (  ! =e/] _c be reg>d$ z !   
direct cause & consequ5tly  x _c be     
class$ "u te/imony 7s'abda74 ,see       
,pras'a/apda  & ,nyyak&al1 pp4 #bbj-bb1 
,vtsyyana1 ,udyotak>a1 ,vcaspati &      
,jayanta on ,upamna4    ,footnote #b3   
,see ,kumrila's treatm5t ( abhva 9 !    

,s'lokavrttika1  pp4 #dgc-dib4    #cef  
& 8 foll[]s1 ^: philosophy we %all deal 
) 9 !  next *apt]1 hold t negation      
7abhva7 appe>s z an intuition  7mnam7 ) 
ref]5ce to ! object negat$ :]e !re are  
no  means ( ord9>y cognition 7pramna7   
lead+ to prove ! exi/5ce                
7satp>ic*$akam7 ( t ?+4 ,!y held t !    
notion  x is n exi/5t _c be due to      
p]ception1 = !re is no  contact "h )    
s5se & object4 ,x is true inde$ t :5  we
 turn our eyes 7e4g4 9 ! case ( !       
p]ception ( ! non-exi/5ce  ( a jug7 to !
 gr\nd1 we see bo? ! gr\nd &  !         
non-exi/5ce ( a jug1 & :5 we %ut !m we c
 see  nei!r ! jug nor ! gr\nd1 & !re=e x
 c\ld be urg$  t if we call$ ! gr\nd    
visually p]ceptible1 we c\ld say  ! same
 ) reg>d to ! non-exi/5ce ( ! jug4 ,b   
ev5  !n s9ce 9 ! case ( ! p]ception ( ! 
jug !re is s5se-contact1  :i* is abs5t 9
 ! o!r case1 we c\ld nev] say  t bo? are
 grasp$ by p]ception4 ,we see ! gr\nd & 
rememb] ! jug 7:i* is abs5t7 & ?us 9 !  
m9d rises  ! notion ( non-exi/5ce :i*   

has no ref]5ce at all to visual         
p]ception4 ,a man may be sitt+ 9 a place
 :]e !re 7  no tig]s1 b he might n !n be
 aw>e ( _! non-exi/5ce  at ! "t1 s9ce he
 did n ?9k ( !m1 b :5 lat] on he  is    
ask$ 9 ! ev5+ if !re 7 any tig]s at !   
place :]e  he 0 sitt+ 9 ! morn+1 he !n  
?9ks & becomes aw>e  ( ! non-exi/5ce (  
tig]s !re 9 ! morn+1 ev5  )\t p]ceiv+ ! 
place & )\t any op]ation ( !  memory ( !
 non-exi/5ce ( tig]s4 ,!re is no "q (   
!re be+ any inf]5ce 9 ! rise ( our      
notion ( non-exi/5ce1  = x is n prec$$  
by any notion ( concomitance ( any k9d1 
& nei!r ! gr\nd nor ! non-p]ception ( ! 
jug c\ld  be reg>d$ z a reason 7linga71 
= ! non-p]ception ( ! jug  is relat$ to 
! jug & n to ! negation ( ! jug1 & no   
concomitance is kn[n betwe5 !           
non-p]ception ( ! jug &  its            
non-exi/5ce1 & :5 ! "q ( ! concomitance 
(  non-p]ception ) non-exi/5ce is br\ght
 91 ! same difficulty  ab\t ! notion (  
non-exi/5ce 7abhva7 :i* 0 s\ght  to be  
expla9$ w recur aga94 ,negation is !re=e

 to be  admitt$ z cogniz$ by a sep>ate &
 indep5d5t process  ( k4 ,nyya h[ev]    
says t ! p]ception (  non-exi/5ce 7e4g4 
!re is no jug "h7 is a unit>y p]ception 
( "o :ole1 j z any p]ception ( positive 
exi/5ce 7e4g4    #ceg    !re is a jug on
 ! gr\nd7 is4 ,bo? ! k ( !  gr\nd z well
 z ! k ( ! non-exi/5ce ( ! jug  arise   
!re by ! same k9d ( action ( ! visual   
organ1 &  !re is !re=e no reason :y ! k 
( ! gr\nd  %\ld be said to be due to    
p]ception1 :]eas ! k (  ! negation ( !  
jug on ! gr\nd %\ld be said to be due   
to a sep>ate process ( k4 ,! non-exi/5ce
 ( ! jug  is tak5 9 ! same act z ! gr\nd
 is p]ceiv$4 ,! pr9ciple  t 9 ord] to   
p]ceive a ?+ "o %\ld h s5se-contact  )  
x1 applies only to positive exi/5ts & n 
to negation or  non-exi/5ce4 ,negation  
or non-exi/5ce c be cogniz$ ev5  )\t any
 s5se-contact4 ,non-exi/5ce is n a      
positive sub/ance1  & h5ce !re _c be any
 "q "h ( s5se-contact4  ,x may be urg$ t
 if no s5se-contact is requir$  9       
appreh5d+ negation1 "o c\ld z well      

appreh5d negation  or non-exi/5ce ( o!r 
places :i* are f> away f him4  ,to ?is !
 reply is t to appreh5d negation x is   
necess>y  t ! place :]e x exi/s mu/ be  
p]ceiv$4 ,we "k a  ?+ & its quality to  
be diff]5t1 & yet ! quality c only  be  
tak5 9 association ) ! ?+ & x is s 9 ?is
 case z  well4 ,we c appreh5d           
non-exi/5ce only ?r\gh ! appreh5sion  ( 
its locus4 ,9 ! case :5 non-exi/5ce is  
said to  be appreh5d$ lat] on x is      
really no lat] appreh5sion ( non-exi/5ce
  b a memory ( non-exi/5ce 7e4g4 ( jug7 
p]ceiv$  be=e along ) ! p]ception ( !   
locus ( non-exi/5ce  7e4g4 gr\nd74      
,negation or non-exi/5ce 7abhva7 c ?us1 
accord+  to ,nyya1 g5]ate its cognition 
j z any positive  exi/5ce c d4 ,negation
 is n m]e negativity or m]e  vacu\s     
abs5ce1 b is :at g5]ates ! cognition is 
n1  z position 7bhva7 is :at g5]ates !  
cognition x is4    ,! ,buddhi/s d5y !   
exi/5ce ( negation4 ,!y hold  t :5 a    
negation is appreh5d$1 x is appreh5d$ ) 
specific "t & space conditions 7e4g4 ?is

 is n "h n[72  b 9 spite ( su* an       
appreh5sion1 we c\ld nev] ?9k  t        
negation c\ld ?us be associat$ ) !m 9   
any  relation4 ,!re is also no relation 
betwe5 ! negation & its  pratiyogi 7?+  
negat$--e4g4 jug 9 ! negation ( jug71 = 
:5 !re is ! pratiyogi !re is no         
negation1 & :5 !re  is ! negation !re is
 no pratiyogi4 ,!re is n ev5 !  relation
 ( opposition 7virodha71 = we c\ld h    
admitt$ x1 if    #ceh    ! negation ( ! 
jug exi/$ be=e & oppos$ ! jug1  = h[ c !
 negation ( ! jug oppose ! jug1 )\t     
effect+ any?+ at all8 ,aga91 x may be   
ask$ :e!r negation  is to be reg>d$ z a 
positive be+ or becom+ or ( !  nature ( 
n becom+ or non-be+4 ,9 ! fir/          
alt]native x  w be l any o!r positive   
exi/5ts1 & 9 ! second case x  w be      
p]man5t & et]nal1 & x _c be relat$ to   
?is or  t p>ticul> negation4 ,!re are   
h[ev] _m k9ds ( non-p]ception1  e4g4    
7#a7 svabhvnupalabdhi 7natural          
non-p]ception--!re  is no jug because   
none is p]ceiv$72 7#b7 krannupalabdhi   

7non-p]ception ( cause--!re is no smoke 
"h1 s9ce !re is  no fire72 7#c7         
vypaknupalabdhi 7non-p]ception ( !      
species--!re  is no p9e "h1 s9ce !re is 
no tree72 7#d7 krynupalabdhi            
7non-p]ception ( effects--!re are n !   
causes ( smoke "h1  s9ce !re is no      
smoke72 7#e7 svabhvaviruddhopalabdhi    
7p]ception  ( contradictory natures--!re
 is no cold t\* "h because  ( fire72    
7#f7 viruddhakryopalabdhi 7p]ception (  
contradictory  effects--!re is no cold  
t\* "h because ( smoke72 7#g7           
virudhavyptopalabdhi 7opposite          
concomitance--pa/ is n ( necessity      
de/ructible1 s9ce x dep5ds on o!r       
causes72 7#h7 kryyaviruddhopalabdhi     
7opposition ( effects--!re is n "h !    
causes  :i* c give cold s9ce !re is     
fire72 7#i7 vyapakaviruddhopalabdhi     
7opposite concomitants--!re is no t\* ( 
sn[ "h1  because ( fire72 7#aj7         
kranaviruddhopalabdhi 7opposite         
causes--!re  is no %iv]+ ?r\gh cold "h1 
s9ce he is ne> ! fire72  7#aa7          

kranaviruddhakryyopalabdhi 7effects (   
opposite causes--?is  place is n occupi$
 by m5 ( %iv]+ s5sations = x  is full ( 
smoke ,footnote ref #a74    ,!re is no  
d\bt t 9 ! above ways we speak (        
negation1  b t does n prove t !re is any
 reason = !  cognition ( negation       
7heturnbhvasamvidah74 ,all t we c  say  
is ?is t !re are c]ta9 situations :i*   
ju/ify ! use  7yogyat7 ( negative       
appellations4 ,b ?is situation or yogyat
  is positive 9 "*4 ,:at we all speak ( 
9 ord9>y usage  z non-p]ception is ( !  
nature ( p]ception ( "s sort4           
,p]ception ( negation ?us does n prove !
 exi/5ce (  negation1 b only %[s t !re  
are c]ta9 positive p]ceptions  :i* are  
only int]pret$ 9 t way4 ,x is ! positive
  p]ception ( ! gr\nd :]e ! visible jug 
is abs5t t        ,footnote #a3 ,see    
,nyyab9du1 p4 #aa1 & ,nyyamaj>1 pp4     
#ec-g4    #cei    leads u to speak (    
hav+ p]ceiv$ ! negation ( ! jug         
7anupalambhah abhvam vyavahrayati7      
,footnote ref #a4    ,! ,nyya reply     

aga9/ ?is is t ! p]ception ( positive   
exi/5ts is z mu* a fact z ! p]ception ( 
negation1 & we  h no "r to say t ! =m]  
alone is valid4 ,x is said  t !         
non-p]ception ( jug on ! gr\nd is b !   
p]ception  ( ! gr\nd )\t ! jug4 ,b is   
?is be+ )\t  ! jug id5tical ) ! gr\nd or
 diff]5t8 ,if id5tical !n  x is ! same z
 ! gr\nd1 & we %all expect to h x ev5   
:5 ! jug is !re4 ,if diff]5t !n ! qu>rel
 is only ov]  ! "n1 = :atev] y may call 
x1 x is admitt$ to be a  di/9ct         
category4 ,if "s diff]5ce is not$ betwe5
 ! gr\nd  ) ! jug1 & ! gr\nd )\t x1 !n  
call x gr\nd1  )\t ! jugness or !       
negation ( jug1 x does n matt]  mu*1 = a
 di/9ct category has anyh[ be5 admitt$4 
,negation  is appreh5d$ by p]ception z  
mu* z any positive  exi/5t is2 ! nature 
( ! objects ( p]ception only are        
diff]5t2  j z ev5 9 ! p]ception (       
positive s5se-objects  !re are su*      
div]sities z col\r1 ta/e1 etc4 ,!       
relation (  negation ) space & "t ) :i* 
x appe>s associat$ is  ! relation t     

subsi/s betwe5 ! qualifi$ & ! quality   
7vis'esya vis'esana74 ,! relation betwe5
 ! negation & its  pratiyogi is "o (    
opposition1 9 ! s5se t :]e ! "o is  !   
o!r is n4 ,! ,vais'esika stra 7,,ix4 i4 
#f7 seems to take abhva  9 a simil> way 
z ,kumrila ! ,mimamsi/ does1 ?\gh !     
comm5tators h tri$ to expla9 x away     
,footnote ref #b4 ,9 ,vais'esika  ! f\r 
k9ds ( negation are enum]at$ z 7#a7     
prgabhva 7!  negation prec$+ !          
production ( an object--e4g4 ( ! jug    
be=e x is made by ! pott]72 7#b7        
dhvamsbhva 7! negation  foll[+ !        
de/ruction ( an object--z ( ! jug aft] x
 is  de/roy$ by ! /roke ( a /ick72 7#c7 
anyonybhva 7mutual  negation--e4g4 9 !  
c[ !re is ! negation ( ! horse &        
,footnote #a3 ,see ,nyyab9dutk1 pp4 #cd 
ff41 & also ,nyyamaj>1  pp4 #dh-fc4     
,footnote #b ,pras'a/apda says t z !    
production ( an effect is !  sign ( !   
exi/5ce ( ! cause1 s ! non-production ( 
x is ! sign  ( its non-exi/5ce1 ,s'rdb>a
 9 comm5t+ ^u x says t !  non-preception

 ( a s5sible object is ! sign 7linga7 ( 
its  non-exi/5ce4 ,b evid5tly he is n   
satisfi$ ) ! view =  he says t          
non-exi/5ce is also directly p]ceiv$ by 
! s5ses  7bhvavad                       
abhvo'pndriyagrahanayogyah7 & t !re is  
an actual  s5se-contact ) non-exi/5ce   
:i* is ! collocat+ cause ( !  preception
 ( non-exi/5ce 7abhv5driyasannik>s'pi   
abhvagrahanasmagr71 ,nyyak&al1 pp4      
#bbe-cj4    #cfj    9 ! horse t ( ! c[72
 7#d7 atyantbhva 7a negation :i*  always
 exi/s--e4g4 ev5 :5 !re is a jug "h1 its
 negation 9  o!r places is n de/roy$7   
,footnote ref #a4      ,! necessity ( ! 
,acquirem5t ( debat+ devices  = ! seek] 
( ,salvation4    ,x is probable t !     
,nyya philosophy arose 9 an atmosph]e  (
 cont9u$ disputes & debates2 z a        
consequ5ce  ( ?is we f9d "h _m t]ms     
relat$ to debates :i* we d  n notice 9  
any o!r sy/em ( ,indian philosophy4 ,^! 
are  t>ka1 nirnaya1 vda1 jalpa1 vitand1 
hetvbhsa1 *ala1  jti & nigraha/hna4     
,t>ka means delib]ation on an unkn[n ?+ 

to disc]n  its real nature2 x ?us       
consi/s ( seek+ reasons 9 fav\r (  "s   
supposition to ! exclusion ( o!r        
suppositions2 x is n  inf]5ce1 b m]ely  
an oscillation ( ! m9d to come to a "r  
conclusion4 ,:5 !re is d\bt 7sams'aya7  
ab\t ! specific  nature ( any?+ we h to 
take to t>ka4 ,nirnaya means !          
conclusion to :i* we arrive z a result (
 t>ka4 ,:5 two  opposite p>ties dispute 
ov] _! respective !ses1 su* z !         
doctr9es t !re is or is n an tman1 9 :i*
 ea* ( !m  tries to prove 8 own !sis )  
reasons1 ea* ( ! !ses is  call$ a vda4  
,jalpa means a dispute 9 :i* !          
disputants  give wrangl+ rejo9d]s 9 ord]
 to defeat _! respective oppon5ts4  ,a  
jalpa is call$ a vitand :5 x is only a  
de/ructive  criticism :i* seeks to      
refute ! oppon5t's doctr9e )\t  seek+ to
 e/abli% or =mulate any new doctr9e4    
,hetvbhsas  are ^? :i* appe> z hetus b  
are really n s4 ,nyya  stras enum]ate   
five fallacies 7hetvbhsas7 ( ! middle   
7hetu73  savyabhicra 7erratic71 viruddha

 7contradictory71 prak>anasama          
7tautology71 sddhyasama 7unprov$ reason7
 & kltta 7inopportune74  ,savyabhicra is
 t :]e ! same reason may prove  opposite
 conclusions 7e4g4 s\nd is et]nal       
because x is intangible  l ! atoms :i*  
are et]nal1 & s\nd is non-et]nal because
  x is intangible l cognitions :i* are  
non-et]nal72 viruddha  is t :]e ! reason
 opposes ! premiss to be prov$ 7e4g4 a  
jug is et]nal1 because x is produc$72   
prak>anasama is t        ,footnote #a3  
,! doctr9e ( negation1 its function &   
value )  ref]5ce to div]se logical      
problems1 h _m div]se aspects1  & x is  
impossible to d !m ju/ice 9 a small     
section l ?is4    #cfa    :]e ! reason  
repeats ! !sis to be prov$ 9 ano!r =m   
7e4g4 s\nd is non-et]nal because x has n
 ! quality (  et]nality72 sdhyasama is t
 :]e ! reason itself requires  to be    
prov$ 7e4g4 %ad[ is a sub/ance because x
 has motion1  b x rema9s to be prov$    
:e!r %ad[s h motion or n72  kltta is a  
false analogy :]e ! reason fails because

 x does n  tally ) ! example 9 po9t (   
"t4 ,?us "o may argue t  s\nd is et]nal 
because x is ! result ( contact 7/ick & 
!  drum7 l col\r :i* is also a result ( 
contact ( light &  ! object & is et]nal4
 ,"h ! fallacy lies 9 ?is1 t col\r  is  
simultane\s ) ! contact ( light :i* %[s 
:at 0  already !re & only manife/$ by ! 
light1 :]eas 9 !  case ( s\nd x is      
produc$ imm$iately aft] ! contact ( !   
/ick & drum & is h5ce a product & h5ce  
non-et]nal4  ,! lat] ,nyya works divide 
savyabhicra into ?ree classes1  7#a7    
sdhrana or common 7e4g4 ! m\nta9 is fi]y
 because x is  an object ( k1 b ev5 a   
lake :i* is oppos$ to fire  is also an  
object ( k71 7#b7 zdhrana or too        
re/rict$  7e4g4 s\nd is et]nal because x
 has ! nature ( s\nd2 ?is  _c be a      
reason = ! nature ( s\nd exi/s only 9 ! 
s\nd & n[h]e else71 & 7#c7 anupasamhr9  
or unsubsum+  7e4g4 ev]y?+ is           
non-et]nal1 because !y are all objects (
  k2 "h ! fallacy lies 9 ?is1 t no      
in/ance c be  f\nd :i* is n an object ( 

k & an opposite conclusion  may also be 
drawn74 ,! fallacy satpratipaksa is t 9 
:i* !re is a contr>y reason :i* may     
prove ! opposite  conclusion 7e4g4 s\nd 
is et]nal because x is audible1 s\nd is 
non-et]nal because x is an effect74 ,!  
fallacy asiddha 7unreal7  is ( ?ree k9ds
 7i7 s'raysiddha 7! lotus ( ! sky is    
fragrant  because x is l o!r lotuses2 n[
 !re _c be any lotus 9  ! sky71 7#b7    
sv>psiddha 7s\nd is a quality because x 
is  visible2 b s\nd has no visibility71 
7#c7 vypyatvsiddha is t  :]e !          
concomitance betwe5 ! middle & !        
consequ5ce  is n inv>iable & inevitable2
 !re is smoke 9 ! hill because  !re is  
fire2 b !re may be fire )\t ! smoke z 9 
a r$  hot iron ball1 x is only gre5-wood
 fire t is inv>iably associat$  ) smoke4
 ,! fallacy bdhita is t :i* pret5ds to  
prove  a !sis :i* is aga9/ direct       
exp]i5ce1 e4g4 fire is n hot  because x 
is a sub/ance4 ,we h already enum]at$ ! 
fallacies c\nt$ by ,vais'esika4 ,contr>y
 to ,nyya practice    #cfb              

,pras'a/apda c\nts ! fallacies ( !      
example4 ,dinnga also  c\nt$ fallacies (
 example 7e4g4 s\nd is et]nal1 because x
 is  incorporeal1 t :i* is incorporeal  
is et]nal z ! atoms2  b atoms are n     
incorporeal7 & ,dh>makrtti c\nt$ also ! 
fallacies ( ! paksa 7m9or72 b ,nyya     
rightly consid]s t  ! fallacies ( !     
middle if avoid$ w completely safegu>d  
inf]5ce & t ^! are m]e repetitions4     
,*ala means !  int5tional               
mis9t]pretation ( ! oppon5t's argum5ts =
 !  purpose ( defeat+ him4 ,jti consi/s 
9 ! draw+ ( contradictory  conclusions1 
! rais+ ( false issues or ! l )  !      
delib]ate int5tion ( defeat+ an oppon5t4
 ,nigraha/hna  means ! exposure ( !     
oppon5t's argum5t z involv+             
self-contradiction1 inconsi/5cy or ! l1 
by :i* 8 defeat is  conclusively prov$  
be=e ! p to ! glory ( ! victori\s       
oppon5t4 ,z to ! utility ( ! description
 ( s _m debat+  tricks by :i* an oppon5t
 might be defeat$ 9 a metaphysical  "w1 
! aim ( :i* ought to be to direct ! ways

 t lead to  emancipation1 x is said by  
,jayanta 9 8 ,nyyamaj> t ^!  _h to be   
resort$ to z a protective measure aga9/ 
arrogant  disputants :o (t5 tri$ to     
humiliate a tea*] be=e 8 pupils4  ,if ! 
tea*] c\ld n sil5ce ! oppon5t1 ! fai? ( 
!  pupils 9 him w\ld be %ak5 & great    
disord] w\ld foll[1  & x 0 !re=e deem$  
necess>y t he :o 0 plodd+  onw>d = !    
atta9m5t ( moksa %\ld acquire ^! devices
  = ! protection ( 8 own fai? & t ( 8   
pupils4 ,a k  ( ^! has !re=e be5 enjo9$ 
9 ! ,nyya stra z  be+ necess>y = !      
atta9m5t ( salvation ,footnote ref l4   
,! doctr9e ( ,s\l4    ,dhrtta ,crvkas   
d5i$ ! exi/5ce ( s\l & reg>d$           
consci\sness & life z products ( bodily 
*anges2 !re 7  o!r ,crvkas call$        
,sus'iksita ,crvkas :o admitt$ !        
exi/5ce ( s\l b ?\ght t x 0 de/roy$ at  
dea?4  ,! ,buddhi/s also d5i$ ! exi/5ce 
( any p]man5t self4  ,! naiyyikas       
asc]ta9$ all ! categories ( metaphysics 
ma9ly by su* inf]5ce z 0 corroborat$ by 
exp]i5ce4  ,!y argu$ t s9ce             

consci\sness1 pleasures1 pa9s1 will+1   
etc4 c\ld n belong to our body or !     
s5ses1 !re mu/ be        ,footnote #a3  
,see ,nyyamaj>1 pp4 #ehf-fei1 &         
,trkik>aks (  ,v>ad>ja & ,niskantaka (  
,mall9?a1 pp4 #ahe ff4    #cfc    "s    
entity to :i* !y belong$2 ! exi/5ce ( ! 
self  is n prov$ accord+ to ,nyya m]ely 
by ! notion ( our  self-consci\sness1 z 
9 ! case ( ,mmms1 = ,nyya holds  t we _c
 dep5d ^u su* a p]ception1 = x may  be  
errone\s4 ,x (t5 happ5s t ,i say t ,i am
 :ite or  ,i am black1 b x is evid5t t  
su* a p]ception _c  be reli$ ^u1 = !    
self _c h any col\r4 ,s we  _c safely   
dep5d on our self-consci\sness z ^u !   
inf]5ce t ! self has to be admitt$ z t  
entity to  :i* consci\sness1 emotion1   
etc4 adh]e :5 !y are produc$  z a result
 ( collocations4 ,nev] has ! production 
(  tman be5 exp]i5c$1 nor has x be5 f\nd
 to suff] any  de/ruction l ! body1 s ! 
s\l mu/ be et]nal4 ,x is n  locat$ 9 any
 "p ( ! body1 b is all-p]vad+1 i4e4     
exi/s at  ! same "t 9 all places        

7vibhu71 & does n travel )  ! body b    
exi/s ev]y:]e at ! same "t4 ,b ?\gh     
tman is ?us disconnect$ f ! body1 yet   
its actions are  se5 9 ! body because x 
is ) ! help ( ! collocation  ( bodily   
limbs1 etc4 t action 9 ! self c be      
manife/$  or produc$4 ,x is unconsci\s 9
 itself & acquires consci\sness  z a    
result ( suitable collocations ,footnote
 ref l4    ,ev5 at bir? *ildr5 %[ signs 
( pleasure by _! diff]5t  facial        
features1 & ?is c\ld n be due to any?+  
else ?an  ! memory ( ! pa/ exp]i5ces 9  
pa/ lives ( pleasures &  pa9s4 ,moreov] 
! inequalities 9 ! di/ribution (        
pleasures  & pa9s & ( successes &       
failures prove t ^! mu/ be  due to !    
diff]5t k9ds ( good & bad action t m5   
p]=m$  9 _! pa/ lives4 ,s9ce !          
inequality ( ! _w  mu/ h "s reasons     
beh9d x1 x is bett] to admit k>ma z  !  
det]m9+ factor ?an to leave x to        
irresponsible *ance4      s'v>a &       
,salvation4    ,nyya seeks to e/abli% ! 
exi/5ce ( s'v>a on ! basis (  inf]5ce4  

,we "k t ! ,ja9s1 ! ,smkhya & !         
,buddhi/s did  n believe 9 ! exi/5ce (  
s'v>a & (f]$ _m anti!i/ic  argum5ts4    
,nyya want$ to refute ^! & prove !      
exi/5ce  ( ,is'v>a by an inf]5ce ( !    
smnyato-drsta type4        ,footnote    
#a3;,jnasamavyanib&hanamevtmanas'cetayit
rtvam1 c4 ,see  ,nyyamaj>1 pp4 #dcb ff4 
#cfd      ,! ,ja9s & o!r a!i/s held t   
?\gh ?+s 9 !  _w h production & decay1 !
 _w z a :ole 0 nev]  produc$1 & x 0 nev]
 !re=e an effect4 ,9 contra/ to  ?is    
view ! ,nyya holds t ! _w z a :ole is   
also an  effect l any o!r effect4 ,_m   
geological *anges & l&slips  occur1 & f 
^! de/ructive op]ations proce$+ 9       
nature x may be assum$ t ?is _w is n    
et]nal b a  result ( production4 ,b ev5 
if ?is is n admitt$ by !  a!i/s !y c 9  
no way d5y ! arrangem5t & ord] (  !     
univ]se4 ,b !y w\ld argue t !re 0       
c]ta9ly a  diff]5ce betwe5 ! ord] &     
arrangem5t ( human productions  7e4g4 a 
jug7 & ! ord] & arrangem5t ( ! univ]se2 
& !re=e f ! ord] &                      

arrangem5t7sannives'a-vis'istat7  ( !   
univ]se x c\ld n be argu$ t ! univ]se 0 
produc$ by a creator2 =1 x is f ! sort (
 ord] &  arrangem5t t is f\nd 9 human   
productions t a creator  or produc] c\ld
 be inf]r$4 ,to ?is1 ,nyya answ]s t !   
concomitance is to be tak5 betwe5 ! ord]
 & arrangem5t  9 a g5]al s5se & !       
exi/5ce ( a creator & n )  specific     
cases ( ord] & arrangem5t1 = ea*        
specific case  may h "s su* peculi>ity 9
 :i* x diff]s f simil>  o!r specific    
cases2 ?us ! fire 9 ! kit*5 is n ! same 
k9d ( fire z we f9d 9 a =e/ fire1 b yet 
we are to disreg>d  ! specific          
individual peculi>ities ( fire 9 ea*    
case & consid]  ! concomitance ( fire 9 
g5]al ) smoke 9 g5]al4  ,s "h1 we h to  
consid] ! concomitance ( ord] &         
arrangem5t 9 g5]al ) ! exi/5ce ( a      
creator1 &  ?us ?\gh ! ord] & arrangem5t
 ( ! _w may be  diff]5t f ! ord] &      
arrangem5t ( ?+s produc$ by  man1 yet an
 inf]5ce f x = ! exi/5ce ( a creator    
w\ld  n be inadmissible4 ,! objection t 

ev5 n[ we see _m  effects 7e4g4 trees7  
:i* are daily %oot+ =? f ! gr\nd  )\t   
any creator be+ f\nd to produce !m1 does
 n hold1  = x c nev] be prov$ t ! plants
 are n actually creat$  by a creator4 ,!
 inf]5ce !re=e /&s t ! _w has  a        
creator1 s9ce x is an effect & has ord] 
& arrangem5t 9  its con/ruction4 ,ev]y?+
 t is an effect & has an ord]  &        
arrangem5t has a creator1 l ! jug4 ,! _w
 is an  effect & has ord] & arrangem5t &
 has !re=e a creator4  ,j z ! pott] kn[s
 all ! purposes ( ! jug t he makes1     
#cfe    s s'v>a kn[s all ! purposes (   
?is wide univ]se & is ?us  omnisci5t4   
,he kn[s all ?+s always & !re=e does n  
require memory2 all ?+s are p]ceiv$ by  
him directly )\t  any int]v5tion ( any  
int]nal s5se su* z manas1 etc4 ,he is   
always happy4 ,8 w is et]nal1 & 9       
accordance ) !  k>ma ( m5 ! same w      
produces dissolution1 creates1 or       
protects ! _w1 9 ! ord] by :i* ea* man  
reaps !  results ( 8 own de$s4 ,z our   
self :i* is 9 itself bodiless  c by its 

w produce *anges 9 our body & ?r\gh x 9 
! ext]nal _w1 s s'v>a also c by 8 w     
create !  univ]se ?\gh he has no body4  
,"s1 h[ev]1 say t if any  association ( 
body ) s'v>a is indisp5sable = our      
conception  ( him1 ! atoms may z well be
 reg>d$ z 8 body1  s t j z by ! w ( our 
self *anges & movem5t (  our body take  
place1 s also by 8 w *anges & movem5ts  
are produc$ 9 ! atoms ,footnote ref l4  
,! naiyyikas 9 common ) mo/ o!r sy/ems (
 ,indian  philosophy believ$ t ! _w 0   
full ( sorr[ & t  ! small bits (        
pleasure only s]v$ to int5sify ! =ce (  
sorr[4 ,to a wise p]son !re=e ev]y?+ is 
sorr[ 7s>vam  duhkham vivek9ah72 ! wise 
!re=e is nev] atta*$ to !  s-call$      
pleasures ( life :i* only lead u to     
fur!r sorr[s4    ,! bondage ( ! _w is   
due to false k 7mi?yjna7  :i* consi/s 9 
?9k+ z my own self t :i*  is n my self1 
namely body1 s5ses1 manas1 feel+s & k2  
:5 once ! true k ( ! six padr?as &  z   
,nyya says1 ( ! pro(s 7pramna71 !       
objects ( k  7prameya71 & ( ! o!r       

logical categories ( inf]5ce is  atta9$1
 false k is de/roy$4 ,false k c  be     
remov$ by con/ant ?9k+ ( its opposite   
7pratipaksabhvan71  namely ! true       
e/imates ( ?+s4 ,?us :5 any  pleasure   
attracts u1 we are to ?9k t ?is is 9    
reality b  pa91 & ?us ! "r k ab\t x w   
dawn & x  w nev] attract u aga94 ,?us x 
is t ) ! de/ruction  ( false k our      
atta*m5t or antipa?y to ?+s &  ignorance
 ab\t !m 7collectively call$ dsa1 cf4 ! 
kles'a (  ,patajali7 are also de/roy$4  
,) ! de/ruction ( atta*m5t actions      
7pravrtti7 = !        ,footnote3#a3 ,see
 ,nyyamaj>1 pp4 #aij-bjd1 s'v>numna (   
,raghun?a  ,s'iromani & ,udayana's      
,kusumjal4    #cff    fulfilm5t (       
desires cease & ) x rebir? ceases & )  x
 sorr[ ceases4 ,)\t false k & atta*m5t1 
actions _c produce ! bondage ( k>ma t   
leads to !  production ( body & its     
exp]i5ces4 ,) ! cessation (  sorr[ !re  
is emancipation 9 :i* ! self is dive/$ (
 all  its qualities 7consci\sness1      
feel+1 will+1 etc47 & rema9s  9 its own 

in]t /ate4 ,! /ate ( mukti accord+ to   
,nyya-,vais'esika  is nei!r a /ate (    
pure k nor ( bliss b a  /ate ( p]fect   
qualitilessness1 9 :i* ! self rema9s 9  
itself 9  its own purity4 ,x is !       
negative /ate ( absolute pa9lessness  9 
mukti t is sometimes spok5 ( z be+ a    
/ate ( absolute  happ9ess 7n&a71 ?\gh   
really speak+ ! /ate ( mukti  c nev] be 
a /ate ( happ9ess4 ,x is a passive /ate 
( self 9  its orig9al & natural purity  
unassociat$ ) pleasure1 pa91  k1 will+1 
etc4 ,footnote ref #a4        ,footnote 
#a3 ,nyyamaj>1 pp4 #dii-ecc4            
,,*apt] ,,ix    ,m,m,,ms ,,philosophy   
,footnote ref #a      ,a ,comp>ative    
,review4    ,! ,nyya-,vais'esika        
philosophy look$ at exp]i5ce f  a purely
 common s5se po9t ( view & did n "w )   
any  su* moni/ic t5d5cy t ! ultimate    
conceptions ( our  common s5se exp]i5ce 
%\ld be consid]$ z com+ out (  an       
orig9al univ]sal 7e4g4 prakrti ( !      
,smkhya74 ,space1 "t1  ! f\r elem5ts1   
s\l1 etc4 convey ! impression t !y are  

sub/antive entities or sub/ances4 ,:at  
is p]ceiv$ ( ! mat]ial  ?+s z qualities 
su* z col\r1 ta/e1 etc4 is reg>d$ z s _m
  entities :i* h di/9ct & sep>ate       
exi/5ce b :i*  manife/ !mselves 9       
connection ) ! sub/ances4 ,s also  k>ma 
or action is suppos$ to be a sep>ate    
entity1 & ev5  ! class notions are      
p]ceiv$ z sep>ate entities inh]+ 9      
sub/ances4 ,k 7jna7 :i* illum9ates all  
?+s is  reg>d$ only z a quality belong+ 
to s\l1 j z !re are  o!r qualities (    
mat]ial objects4 ,causation is view$    
m]ely  z ! collocation ( conditions4 ,! 
g5esis ( k is  also view$ z simil> 9    
nature to ! production ( any o!r        
physical ev5t4 ,?us j z by ! collocation
 ( c]ta9 physical  circum/ances a jug & 
its qualities are produc$1 s by !       
comb9ation & respective contacts ( !    
s\l1 m9d1 s5se1 &  ! objects ( s5se1 k  
7jna7 is produc$4 ,s\l )  ,nyya is an   
in]t unconsci\s entity 9 :i* k1 etc4    
inh]e4 ,! relation betwe5 a sub/ance &  
its quality1 action1  class notion1 etc4

 has also to be admitt$ z a sep>ate     
entity1 z  )\t x ! diff]5t entities be+ 
)\t any pr9ciple (  relation w\ld       
naturally fail to give u a philosophic  
con/ruction4    ,smkhya _h conceiv$ ( a 
pr9ciple :i* consi/$ ( an  inf9ite numb]
 ( reals ( ?ree diff]5t types1 :i* by _!
  comb9ation 7 conceiv$ to be able to   
produce all sub/ances1  qualities1      
actions1 etc4 ,no diff]5ce 0 ackn[l$g$  
to exi/  betwe5 sub/ances1 qualities &  
actions1 & x 0 conceiv$        ,footnote
 #a3 ,on ! meanirg ( ! ^w ,mmms see     
,*apt] ,,iv4    #cfh    t ^! 7 b s _m   
aspects ( a comb9ation ( ! ?ree  types (
 reals 9 diff]5t proportions4 ,! reals  
conta9$ )9  !m ! rudim5ts ( all         
developm5ts ( matt]1 k1  will+1 feel+s1 
etc4 ,z comb9ations ( reals *ang$       
incessantly  & new ph5om5a ( matt] & m9d
 7 manife/$1 collocations  did n br+    
ab\t any new ?+ b br\ght ab\t a         
ph5om5on :i* 0 already !re 9 its causes 
9 ano!r  =m4 ,:at we call k or ?\ght    
ord9>ily1 is ) !m  m]ely a =m ( subtle  

illum9at+ matt] /uff4 ,smkhya holds     
h[ev] t !re is a transc5d5t entity z    
pure consci\sness  & t by "s k9d (      
transc5d5t reflection or contact  ?is   
pure consci\sness trans=ms ! b>e        
transluc5t ?\ght-matt]  into consci\s   
?\ght or exp]i5ce ( a p]son4    ,b ?is  
hypo!sis ( a pure self1 z ess5tially    
di/9ct &  sep>ate f k z ord9>ily        
und]/ood1 c h>dly  be demon/rat$ 9 our  
common s5se exp]i5ce2 & ?is has  be5    
po9t$ out by ! ,nyya s*ool 9 a v /rong &
  emphatic mann]4 ,ev5 ,smkhya did n try
 to prove t !  exi/5ce ( its transc5d5t 
purusa c\ld be demon/rat$ 9  exp]i5ce1 &
 x _h to attempt to support its hypo!sis
 ( !  exi/5ce ( a transc5d5t self on !  
gr\nd ( ! ne$ (  a p]man5t entity z a   
fix$ object1 to :i* ! pass+ /ates  ( k  
c\ld cl+1 & on gr\nds ( moral /ruggle   
t[>ds virtue & emancipation4 ,smkhya _h 
fir/ suppos$  k to be m]ely a comb9ation
 ( *ang+ reals1 &  !n _h z a matt] (    
necessity to admit a fix$ pr9ciple z    
purusa 7pure transc5d5t consci\sness74  

,! self is ?us "h  9 "s s5se an object (
 inf]5ce to fill up ! gap left by  !    
inadequate analysis ( consci\sness      
7buddhi7 z be+  non-intellig5t &        
incessantly *ang+4    ,nyya f>$ no      
bett]1 = x also _h to demon/rate self   
on ! gr\nd t s9ce k exi/$ x 0 a quality1
  & !re=e mu/ inh]e 9 "s sub/ance4 ,?is 
hypo!sis  is aga9 bas$ ^u ano!r         
uncritical assumption t sub/ances  &    
attributes 7 entirely sep>ate1 & t x 0 !
 nature  ( ! latt] to inh]e 9 ! =m]1 &  
also t k 0  a quality requir+ 7simil>ly 
) o!r attributes7 a sub/ance  9 :i* to  
inh]e4 ,none ( !m c\ld take _! /& ^u  ! 
self-consci\s nature ( our ord9>y ?\ght 
& draw _!  conclusions on ! /r5g? ( !   
direct evid5ce ( ?is self-consci\s      
#cfi    ?\ght4 ,( c\rse x is true t     
,smkhya _h approa*$  ne>] to ?is view   
?an ,nyya1 b x _h sep>at$  ! cont5t ( k 
& its ess5ce s irrevocably t x  ?reat5$ 
to break ! integrity ( ?\ght 9 a mann] q
  unw>rant$ by common s5se exp]i5ce1 :i*
 does n seem  to reveal ?is dual elem5t 

9 ?\ght4 ,anyh[ ! unification  ( !      
cont5t ( ?\ght & its ess5ce _h to be    
made1 & ?is  c\ld n be done except by   
:at may be reg>d$ z a make%ift--a       
transc5d5t illusion runn+ on f          
beg9n+less  "t4 ,^! difficulties occurr$
 because ,smkhya so>$ to a  region :i* 0
 n directly illum9at$ by ! light (      
common  s5se exp]i5ce4 ,! ,nyya position
 is ( c\rse mu* worse  z a metaphysical 
solution1 = x did n inde$ try to solve  
any?+1  b only gave u a s*$ule (        
inf]5tial results :i* c\ld  n be te/$ by
 exp]i5ce1 & :i* 7 bas$ ultimately on  a
 "o-sid$ & uncritical assumption4 ,x is 
an uncritical common  s5se exp]i5ce t   
sub/ances are diff]5t f qualities &     
actions1 & t ! latt] inh]e 9 ! =m]4 ,to 
base !  :ole ( metaphysics on su* a t5d]
 & fragile exp]i5ce is1  to say ! lea/1 
build+ on a weak f\ndation4 ,x 0        
necess>y  t ! importance ( !            
self-reveal+ ?\ght mu/ be br\ght  to !  
=efront1 its evid5ce %\ld be collect$ & 
tru/$1 &  an acc\nt ( exp]i5ce %\ld be  

giv5 accord+ to its v]dict4  ,no        
con/ruction ( metaphysics c ev] satisfy 
u :i* ignores  ! direct imm$iate        
convictions ( self-consci\s ?\ght4 ,x is
  a relief to f9d t a movem5t (         
philosophy 9 ?is direction  is u%]$ 9 by
 ! ,mmms sy/em4 ,! ,mmms stras  7 writt5
 by ,jaim9i & ! comm5t>y 7bhsya7 on x 0 
writt5 by ,s'ab>a4 ,b ! sy/ematic       
elaboration ( x 0 made  by ,kumrila1 :o 
prec$$ ! great ,s'ank>crya1 & a disciple
  ( ,kumrila1 ,prabhk>a4      ,! ,mmms  
,lit]ature4    ,x is difficult to say h[
 ! sacrificial sy/em ( wor%ip grew  9   
,india 9 ! ,brhmanas4 ,?is sy/em once   
set up gradually  began to develop into 
a net-"w ( elaborate rituals1 ! details 
( :i* 7 probably tak5 note ( by !       
prie/s4 ,z "s  g5]ations pass$ & !      
sacrifices spread ov] l>g] tracts (     
,india & grew up into m & m elaborate   
details1 ! old  rules & regulations     
began to be collect$ probably z         
tradition    #cgj    _h x1 & ?is x seems
 gave rise to ! smrti lit]ature4        

,discussions  & d\bts became m common   
ab\t ! _m  intricacies ( ! sacrificial  
rituals1 & regul> rational enquiries    
into !m 7 begun 9 diff]5t circles by    
diff]5t s*ol>s &  prie/s4 ,^! repres5t !
 beg9n+s ( ,mmms 7lit4 attempts  at     
rational enquiry71 & x is probable t !re
 7  diff]5t s*ools ( ?is ?\ght4 ,t      
,jaim9i's ,mmms stras  7:i* are ) u !   
f\ndations ( ,mmms7 are only a          
compreh5sive  & sy/ematic compilation ( 
"o s*ool is evid5t f  ! ref]5ces he     
gives to ! views 9 diff]5t matt]s ( o!r 
prec$+ writ]s :o dealt ) ! subject4 ,^! 
works are n  available n[1 & we _c say  
h[ mu* ( :at ,jaim9i has  writt5 is 8   
orig9al "w & h[ mu* ( x borr[$4 ,b x    
may be said ) "s degree ( confid5ce t x 
0 deem$ s  ma/]ly a "w at lea/ ( "o     
s*ool t x has surviv$ all o!r  attempts 
t 7 made be=e him4 ,jaim9i's ,mmms stras
  7 probably writt5 ab\t #bjj ,b4,c4 &  
are n[ ! gr\nd "w  ( ! ,mmms sy/em4     
,comm5t>ies 7 writt5 on x by  v>i\s     
p]sons su* z ,bh>trmitra 7allud$ to 9   

,nyy>atnk>a  v]se #aj ( ,s'lokavrttika71
 ,bhavadsa ,pratijztra #fc1 ,h>i &      
,upav>sa 7m5tion$ 9 ,s'/radpik74 ,x is  
probable t at lea/  "s ( ^! prec$$      
,s'ab>a1 ! writ] ( ! fam\s comm5t>y     
kn[n z ! ,s'ab>a-bhsya4 ,x is difficult 
to say any?+  ab\t ! "t 9 :i* he        
fl\ri%$4 ,dr ,gangn?a  ,jh w\ld h him   
ab\t #eg ,b4,c4 on ! evid5ce ( a curr5t 
v]se :i* speaks ( ,k+ ,vikramditya z be+
 ! son  ( ,s'ab>asvm9 by a ,ksattriya   
wife4 ,?is bhsya ( ,s'ab>a  is ! basis (
 ! lat] ,mmms works4 ,x 0 comm5t$  ^u by
 an unkn[n p]son allud$ to z ,vrttikakra
 by  ,prabhk>a & m]ely ref]r$ to z      
ya?huh 7z !y say7  by ,kumrila4 ,dr     
,gangan?a ,jh says t ,prabhk>a's        
comm5t>y  ,brhat on ! ,s'ab>a-bhsya 0   
bas$ ^u ! "w  ( ?is ,vrttikakra4 ,?is   
,brhat ( ,prabhk>a _h ano!r  comm5t>y on
 x--,rjuviml by ,s'alikan?a ,mis'ra1 :o 
also  wrote a comp5dium on ! ,prabhk>a  
int]pretation ( ,mmms  call$            
,prak>anapacik4 ,tradition says t       
,prabhk>a  7(t5 ref]r$ to z ,nib&hakra71

 ^: views are  (t5 allud$ to z gurumata1
 0 a pupil ( ,kumrila4 ,kumrila         
,bhatta1 :o is traditionally believ$ to 
be ! s5ior contempor>y  ( ,s'ank>a 7#ghh
 ,a4,d471 wrote 8 celebrat$ indep5d5t   
#cga    exposition ( ,s'ab>a's bhsya 9  
?ree p>ts kn[n z ,s'lokavrttika  7deal+ 
only ) ! philosophical portion (        
,s'ab>a's  "w z conta9$ 9 ! fir/ *apt] (
 ! fir/ book kn[n z  ,t>kapda71         
,tantravrttika 7deal+ ) ! rema9+ ?ree   
*apt]s ( ! fir/ book1 ! second & ! ?ird 
book7 &  ,tuptk 7conta9+ brief notes on 
! rema9+ n9e books7  ,footnote ref #a4  
,kumrila is ref]r$ to by 8 lat] foll[]s 
z ,bhatta1 ,bhattapda1 & ,vrttikakra4 ,!
 next great ,mmms  s*ol> & foll[] (     
,kumrila 0 ,mandana ,mis'ra1 ! au?or (  
,vidhiviveka1 ,mmmsnukraman & !         
comm5tator ( ,tantravrttika1  :o became 
lat] on conv]t$ by ,s'ank>a to          
,v$antism4 ,pr?asra?i  ,mis'ra 7ab\t n9?
 c5tury ,a4,d47 wrote 8 ,s'/radpik1     
,tantr>atna1 & ,nyy>atnaml foll[+ !     
footpr9ts  ( ,kumrila4 ,among/ ! num]\s 

o!r foll[]s ( ,kumrila1  ! names (      
,suc>ita ,mis'ra ! au?or ( ,ks'ik &     
,somes'v>a  ! au?or ( ,nyyasudh des]ve  
special notice4 ,rmakrsna  ,bhatta wrote
 an excell5t comm5t>y on ! ,t>kapda (   
,s'/radpik call$ !                      
,yuktisnehapran-siddhnta-c&rik &        
,soman?a wrote 8 ,maykhamlik on ! rema9+
 *apt]s  ( ,s'/radpik4 ,o!r important   
curr5t ,mmms works :i*  des]ve notice   
are su* z ,nyyamlvi/>a ( ,mdhava1       
,subodh91  ,mmmsblapraks'a ( ,s'ank>a   
,bhatta1 ,nyyakanik (  ,vcaspati        
,mis'ra1 ,mmmsp>ibhsa by ,krsnayajvan1  
,mmmsnyyapraks'a by ,anantadeva1 ,gg    
,bhatta's  ,bhattac9tmani1 etc4 ,mo/ ( !
 books m5tion$ "h h be5  consult$ 9 !   
writ+ ( ?is *apt]4 ,! importance ( !    
,mmms lit]ature = a ,h9du is inde$      
great4 ,= n only are all  ,v$ic duties  
to be p]=m$ accord+ to its maxims1 b ev5
 !  smrti lit]atures :i* regulate !     
daily duties1 c]emonials & rituals  (   
,h9dus ev5 at ! pres5t day are all guid$
 & expla9$  by !m4 ,! legal side ( !    

smrtis consi/+ ( inh]itance1            
proprietory rights1 adoption1 etc4 :i*  
guide ,h9du civil life ev5  "u ! ,briti%
 adm9i/ration is expla9$ accord+ to !   
,mmms maxims4 ,its relations to ! ,v$nta
 philosophy w  be briefly indicat$ 9 !  
next *apt]4 ,its relations )            
,nyya-,vais'esika h also be5 po9t$ out 9
 v>i\s places ( ?is  *apt]4 ,! views ( !
 two s*ools ( ,mmms z prop\nd$  by      
,prabhk>a & ,kumrila on all ! important 
topics h        ,footnote #a3           
,mahmahopadhyya ,h>aprasda ,s'/r says1 9
 8  introduction to ,six ,buddhi/ ,nyya 
,tracts1 t ,kumrila prec$$  ,sank>a by  
two g5]ations4    #cgb    also be5 po9t$
 out4 ,prabhk>a's views h[ev] c\ld n  w9
 _m foll[]s 9 lat] times1 b :ile liv+ x 
is said t  he 0 reg>d$ by ,kumrila z a v
 /rong rival ,footnote ref #a4 ,h>dly   
any new contribution has be5 made to !  
,mmms philosophy  aft] ,kumrila &       
,prabhk>a4 ,! ,mmms stras deal mo/ly  ) 
! pr9ciples ( ! int]pretation ( ! ,v$ic 
texts 9  connection ) sacrifices1 & v   

little ( philosophy c be  glean$ out (  
!m4 ,s'ab>a's contributions are also    
slight &  vague4 ,vrttikakra's views    
also c only be ga!r$ f !  ref]5ces to !m
 by ,kumrila & ,prabhk>a4 ,:at we "k  ( 
,mmms philosophy consi/s ( _! views &   
!irs alone4  ,x did n develop any fur!r 
aft] !m4 ,works writt5 on !  subject 9  
lat] times 7 b ( a purely expository    
nature4 ,i d  n "k ( any "w on ,mmms    
writt5 9 ,engli% except  ! excell5t "o  
by ,dr ,gangn?a ,jh on ! ,prabhk>a      
,mmms to :i* ,i h frequ5tly ref]r$4     
,! ,p>atah-prmnya doctr9e ( ,nyya & !   
,svatah-prmnya doctr9e ( ,mmms4    ,!   
doctr9e ( ! self-validity ( k           
7svatah-prmnya7 =ms ! corn]/one on :i* !
 :ole /ructure  ( ! ,mmms philosophy is 
bas$4 ,validity means ! c]titude  (     
tru?4 ,! ,mmms philosophy ass]ts t all k
  except+ ! action ( rememb]+ 7smrti7 or
 memory is  valid 9 itself1 = x itself  
c]tifies its own tru?1 & nei!r  dep5ds  
on any o!r extrane\s condition nor on   
any o!r  k = its validity4 ,b ,nyya     

holds t ?is self-validity  ( k is a "q  
:i* requires an explanation4  ,x is true
 t "u c]ta9 conditions a piece ( k  is  
produc$ 9 u1 b :at is meant by say+ t   
?is  k is a pro( ( its own tru?8 ,:5 we 
p]ceive  any?+ z blue1 x is ! direct    
result ( visual contact1 & ?is  visual  
contact _c c]tify t ! k g5]at$ is  true1
 z ! visual contact is n 9 any t\* ) ! k
        ,footnote #a3 ,!re is a /ory t  
,kumrila1 n be+ able to conv]t          
,prabhk>a1 8 own pupil1 to 8 views1     
attempt$ a trick & pret5d$  t he 0 dead4
 ,8 disciples !n ask$ ,prabhk>a :e!r 8  
burial  rites %\ld be p]=m$ accord+ to  
,kumrila's views or ,prabhk>a's4        
,prabhk>a said t 8 own views 7 errone\s1
 b ^! 7 held by  him only to r\se up    
,kumrila's po9t$ attacks1 :]eas         
,kumrila's views  7 ! "r ones4 ,kumrila 
!n rose up & said t ,prabhk>a  0        
defeat$1 b ! latt] said he 0 n defeat$ s
 long z he 0  alive4 ,b ?is has ( c\rse 
no hi/oric value4    #cgc    x has      
condition$4 ,moreov]1 k is a m5tal      

affair &  h[ c x c]tify ! objective tru?
 ( its repres5tation8 ,9  o!r words1 h[ 
c my p]ception a blue ?+ gu>antee  t :at
 is subjectively p]ceiv$ z blue is      
really s objectively  z well8 ,aft] my  
p]ception ( any?+ z blue we d n  h any  
su* p]ception t :at ,i h p]ceiv$ z blue 
is really s4 ,s ?is s-call$             
self-validity ( k _c  be te/ifi$ or     
ju/ifi$ by any p]ception4 ,we c only be 
c]ta9  t k has be5 produc$ by !         
p]ceptual act1 b  !re is no?+ 9 ?is k or
 its revelation ( its object  f :i* we c
 inf] t ! p]ception is also objectively 
valid or true4 ,if ! production ( any k 
%\ld c]tify  its validity !n !re w\ld be
 no invalidity1 no illusory k1  & foll[+
 our p]ception ( ev5 a mirage we %\ld   
nev] come to grief4 ,b we are disappo9t$
 (t5 9 our p]ceptions1  & ?is proves t  
:5 we practically foll[ !  directions ( 
our p]ception we are undecid$ z to its  
validity1  :i* c only be asc]ta9$ by !  
correspond5ce ( ! p]ception  ) :at we   
f9d lat] on 9 practical exp]i5ce4 ,aga91

  e piece ( k is ! result ( c]ta9 causal
 collocations1  & z su* dep5ds ^u !m =  
its production1 &  h5ce _c be said to   
rise )\t dep5d+ on any?+ else4  ,x is   
mean+less to speak ( ! validity ( k1 =  
validity always ref]s to objective      
realization ( our desires &  attempts   
proce$+ 9 accordance ) our k4 ,p  only  
decl>e _! k invalid :5 proce$+          
practically  9 accordance ) x !y are    
disappo9t$4 ,! p]ception (  a mirage is 
call$ invalid :5 proce$+ 9 accordance ) 
our p]ception we d n f9d any?+ t c s]ve 
! purposes  ( wat] 7e4g4 dr9k+1 ba?+74  
,! validity or tru? (  k is ?us !       
atta9m5t by practical exp]i5ce ( !      
object & ! fulfilm5t ( all our purposes 
f x 7ar?akriyjna  or phalajna7 j z      
p]ception or k repres5t$  !m to !       
p]ceiv]4 ,!re is ?us no self-validity ( 
k 7svatah-prmnya71 b validity is        
asc]ta9$ by  samvda or agreem5t ) !     
objective facts ( exp]i5ce ,footnote    
ref l4    ,x is easy to see t ?is ,nyya 
objection is bas$ on !  supposition t k 

is g5]at$ by c]ta9 objective            
collocations ( conditions1 & t k s      
produc$ c        ,footnote #a3 ,see     
,nyyamaj>1 pp4 #afj-agc4    #cgd    only
 be te/$ by its agreem5t ) objective    
facts4 ,b ?is  !ory ( k is m]ely an     
hypo!sis2 = x c nev] be  exp]i5c$ t k is
 ! product ( any collocations2  we h a  
p]ception & imm$iately we become aw>e ( 
c]ta9  objective ?+s2 k reveals to u !  
facts ( !  objective _w & ?is is        
exp]i5c$ by u always4 ,b t  ! objective 
_w g5]ates k 9 u is only an hypo!sis    
:i* c h>dly be demon/rat$ by exp]i5ce4  
,x is ! supreme  pr]ogative ( k t x     
reveals all o!r ?+s4 ,x is n a  ph5om5on
 l any o!r ph5om5on ( ! _w4 ,:5 we  say 
t k has be5 produc$ 9 u by ! ext]nal    
collocations1 we j take a p]v]se po9t ( 
view :i* is unw>rant$  by exp]i5ce2 k   
only photographs !  objective ph5om5a = 
u2 b !re is no?+ to %[ t  k has be5     
g5]at$ by ^! ph5om5a4 ,?is is  only a   
!ory :i* applies ! ord9>y conceptions ( 
causation  to k & ?is is evid5tly       

unw>rantable4 ,k is  n l any o!r ph5om5a
 = x /&s above !m &  int]prets or       
illum9es !m all4 ,!re c be no validity 9
  ?+s1 = tru? applies to k & k alone4   
,:at  we call agreem5t ) facts by       
practical exp]i5ce is b !  agreem5t (   
previ\s k ) lat] k2 = objective  facts  
nev] come to u directly1 !y are always  
tak5  on ! evid5ce ( k1 & !y h no o!r   
c]ta9ty  ?an :at is be/[$ on !m by k4   
,!re arise inde$  diff]5t k9ds ( k      
reveal+ diff]5t ?+s1 b  ^! latt] d n on 
t acc\nt g5]ate ! =m]1 = ?is  is nev]   
exp]i5c$2 we are nev] aw>e ( any        
objective fact  be=e x is reveal$ by k4 
,:y k makes  diff]5t k9ds ( revelations 
is inde$ m ?an we c say1 =  exp]i5ce    
only %[s t k reveals objective facts &  
n :y x does s4 ,! rise ( k is nev]      
p]ceiv$ by  u to be dep5d5t on any      
objective fact1 = all objective facts   
are dep5d5t on x = its revelation or    
illum9ation4 ,?is is  :at is said to be 
! self-validity 7svatah-prmya7 ( k  9   
its production 7utpatti74 ,z soon z k is

 produc$1  objects are reveal$ to u2 !re
 is no int]m$iate l9k  betwe5 ! rise ( k
 & ! revelation ( objects on  :i* k     
dep5ds = produc+ its action ( reveal+   
or illum9at+ !m4 ,?us k is n only       
indep5d5t    #cge    ( any?+ else 9 its 
own rise b 9 its own action z well      
7svakryak>ane svatah prmnyam jnasya74   
,:5ev] !re  is any k x c>ries ) x !     
impression t x is  c]ta9 & valid1 & we  
are naturally ?us prompt$ to "w         
7pravrtti accord+ to its direction4 ,!re
 is no indecision 9  our m9d at ! "t ( !
 rise ( k z to ! correctness  ( k2 b j z
 k rises1 x c>ries )  x ! c]ta9ty ( its 
revelation1 pres5ce1 or action4 ,b 9    
cases  ( illusory p]ception o!r         
p]ceptions or cognitions dawn :i*  c>ry 
) !m ! notion t our orig9al k 0 n       
valid4 ,?us ?\gh ! invalidity ( any k   
may appe>  to u by lat] exp]i5ce1 & 9   
accordance ) :i* we  reject our =m] k1  
yet :5 ! k fir/ reveal$  itself to u x  
c>ri$ ) x ! conviction ( c]ta9ty :i*    
goad$ u on to "w accord+ to its         

indication4 ,:5ev] a man  works accord+ 
to 8 k1 he does s ) ! conviction  t 8 k 
is valid1 & n 9 a passive or unc]ta9    
temp]  ( m9d4 ,?is is :at ,mmmsa means  
:5 x says t !  validity ( k appe>s      
imm$iately ) its rise1 ?\gh  its        
invalidity may be d]iv$ f lat] exp]i5ce 
or "s o!r  data 7jnasya prmnyam svatah  
aprmnyam p>atah74 ,k  atta9$ is prov$   
invalid :5 lat] on a contradictory      
exp]i5ce 7bdhakajna7 comes 9 or :5 our  
organs etc4 are  kn[n to be faulty &    
defective 7k>anadosajna74 ,x is f  ^! t 
k appe>+ z valid is invalidat$2 :5  we  
take all necess>y c>e to look = ^! & yet
 f9d !m  n1 we mu/ ?9k t !y d n exi/4   
,?us ! validity (  k c]tifi$ at ! mom5t 
( its production ne$ n  be d\bt$        
unnecess>ily :5 ev5 aft] enquiry we d n 
f9d  any defect 9 s5se or any           
contradiction 9 lat] exp]i5ce4 ,all  k  
except memory is ?us reg>d$ z valid     
indep5d5tly  by itself z a g5]al rule1  
unless x is invalidat$ lat] on4 ,memory 
is exclud$ because ! ph5om5on ( memory  

dep5ds ^u  a previ\s exp]i5ce1 & its    
exi/+ lat5t impressions1 &  _c ?us be   
reg>d$ z aris+ indep5d5tly by itself4   
,! place ( s5se organs 9 p]ception4     
,we h j said t k arises by itself & t x 
c\ld n h be5 g5]at$ by s5se-contact4 ,if
 ?is be s1  ! div]sity ( p]ceptions is  
h[ev] left unexpla9$4 ,b 9    #cgf      
face ( ! ,nyya philosophy expla9+ all   
p]ceptions on !  gr\nd ( div]se         
s5se-contact ! ,mmms probably c\ld n    
af=d to rema9 sil5t on su* an important 
po9t4 ,x !re=e  accept$ ! ,nyya view (  
s5se-contact z a condition ( k  ) slight
 modifications1 & yet held _! doctr9e ( 
svatah-prmnya4 ,x does n appe> to h be5 
consci\s (  a conflict betwe5 ^! two    
diff]5t pr9ciples ( ! production  ( k4  
,evid5tly ! po9t ( view f :i* x look$   
at x 0 t ! fact t !re 7 ! s5ses &       
contacts  ( !m ) ! objects1 or su*      
special capacities 9 !m by  virtue ( :i*
 ! ?+s c\ld be p]ceiv$1 0 ) u a  matt] (
 inf]5ce4 ,_! actions 9 produc+ ! k  are
 nev] exp]i5c$ at ! "t ( ! rise ( k1 b  

:5 ! k arises we argue t su* & su* s5ses
  mu/ h act$4 ,! only case :]e k is f\nd
 to  be dep5d5t on any?+ else seems to  
be ! case :]e "o  k is f\nd to dep5d on 
a previ\s exp]i5ce or k  z 9 ! case (   
memory4 ,9 o!r cases ! dep5d5ce  ( !    
rise ( k on any?+ else _c be felt1 = !  
physical collocations condition+ k are n
 felt to be  op]at+ be=e ! rise ( k1 &  
^! are only inf]r$  lat] on 9 accordance
 ) ! nature & *>act]i/ic  ( k4 ,we      
always h our fir/ />t 9 k  :i* is       
directly exp]i5c$ f :i* we may proce$   
lat]  on to ! op]ation & nature (       
objective facts 9 relation to x4  ,?us x
 is t ?\gh contact ( ! s5ses ) ! objects
  may lat] on be imag9$ to be !         
condition+ factor1 yet !  rise ( k z    
well z our notion ( its validity /rikes 
u  z orig9al1 und]iv$1 imm$iate1 &      
fir/-h&4    ,prabhk>a gives u a sket* z 
to h[ ! exi/5ce (  ! s5ses may be       
inf]r$4 ,?us our cognitions ( objects   
are  ph5om5a :i* are n all ! same1 & d n
 happ5 always  9 ! same mann]1 = ^! v>y 

diff]5tly at diff]5t mom5ts2  !         
cognitions ( c\rse take place 9 ! s\l   
:i* may ?us  be reg>d$ z ! mat]ial cause
 7samavyikrana72 b !re  mu/ be "s su*   
movem5ts or o!r specific associations   
7asamavyikrana7 :i* r5d] ! production ( 
?is or  t specific cognition possible4  
,! immat]ial causes subsi/  ei!r 9 !    
cause ( ! mat]ial cause 7e4g4 9 ! case (
 !  col\r+ ( a :ite piece ( clo?1 !     
col\r ( ! y>ns :i*    #cgg    is ! cause
 ( ! col\r 9 ! clo? subsi/s 9 ! y>ns :i*
  =m ! mat]ial cause ( ! clo?7 or 9 !   
mat]ial cause itself  7e4g4 9 ! case ( a
 new =m ( smell be+ produc$ 9 a         
sub/ance by fire-contact1 ?is contact1  
:i* is ! immat]ial  cause ( ! smell1    
subsi/s 9 t sub/ance itself :i* is put  
9 ! fire & 9 :i* ! smell is produc$74 ,!
 s\l is  et]nal & has no o!r cause1 & x 
has to be assum$ t  ! immat]ial cause   
requir$ = ! rise ( a cognition mu/      
inh]e 9 ! s\l1 & h5ce mu/ be a quality4 
,!n aga9  accept+ ! ,nyya conclusions we
 "k t ! rise ( qualities  9 an et]nal ?+

 c only take place by contact ) "s  o!r 
sub/ances4 ,n[ cognition be+ a quality  
:i* ! s\l  acquires w\ld naturally      
require ! contact ( su* sub/ances4      
,s9ce !re is no?+ to %[ t su* sub/ances 
inh]e 9  o!r sub/ances !y are also to be
 tak5 z et]nal4 ,!re are  ?ree et]nal   
sub/ances1 "t1 space1 & atoms4 ,b "t &  
space be+ all-p]vasive ! s\l is always 9
 contact ) !m4  ,contact ) ^! !re=e _c  
expla9 ! occasional rise  ( diff]5t     
cognitions4 ,?is contact mu/ !n be ( "s 
k9d  ( atom :i* resides 9 ! body ens\l$ 
by ! cogniz+ s\l4  ,?is atom may be     
call$ manas 7m9d74 ,?is manas alone by  
itself br+s ab\t cognitions1 pleasure1  
pa91 desire1 av]sion1  ef=t1 etc4 ,!    
manas h[ev] by itself is f\nd to be     
devoid  ( any su* qualities z col\r1    
smell1 etc41 & z su* _c  lead ! s\l to  
exp]i5ce or cognize ^! qualities2 h5ce  
x /&s 9 ne$ ( su* o!r organs z may be   
*>act]iz$  by ^! qualities2 = !         
cognition ( col\r1 ! m9d w  ne$ ! aid ( 
an organ ( :i* col\r is ! *>act]i/ic    

quality2 = ! cognition ( smell1 an organ
 hav+ ! odor\s  *>act]i/ic & s on ) t\*1
 ta/e1 vision4 ,n[ we "k  t ! organ :i* 
has col\r = its di/9ctive feature mu/   
be "o compos$ ( tejas or light1 z col\r 
is a feature ( light1  & ?is proves !   
exi/5ce ( ! organ1 ! eye--= ! cognition 
( col\r2 9 a simil> mann] ! exi/5ce ( ! 
e>?ly  organ 7organ ( smell71 ! aque\s  
organ 7organ ( ta/e71 !  ks'ic organ    
7organ ( s\nd7 & ! airy organ 7organ (  
t\*7 may be demon/rat$4 ,b )\t manas    
none ( ^!  organs is f\nd to be         
effective4 ,f\r necess>y contacts h  to 
be admitt$1 7#a7 ( ! s5se organs ) !    
object1 7#b7 ( !  s5se organs ) !       
qualities ( ! object1 7#c7 ( ! manas    
#cgh    ) ! s5se organs1 & 7#d7 ( !     
manas ) ! s\l4 ,!  objects ( p]ception  
are ( ?ree k9ds17#a7 sub/ances1 7#b7    
qualities1  7#c7 jti or class4 ,!       
mat]ial sub/ances are tangible objects (
  e>?1 fire1 wat]1 air 9 l>ge dim5sions 
7= 9 _! f9e atomic  /ates !y _c be      
p]ceiv$74 ,! qualities are col\r1 ta/e1 

smell1 t\*1 numb]1 dim5sion1 sep>at5ess1
 conjunction1 disjunction1  priority1   
po/]iority1 pleasure1 pa91 desire1      
av]sion1 &  ef=t ,footnote ref l4    ,x 
may n be out ( place "h to m5tion 9     
conclusion t  ,kumrila ,bhatta 0 r      
undecid$ z to ! nature ( !  s5ses or (  
_! contact ) ! objects4 ,?us he says t  
! s5ses may be conceiv$ ei!r z c]ta9    
functions or  activities1 or z entities 
hav+ ! capacity ( reveal+ ?+s  )\t com+ 
into actual contact ) !m1 or t !y might 
be entities :i* actually come 9 contact 
) _! objects ,footnote ref  #b1 & he    
pref]s ?is la/ view z be+ m             
satisfactory4      ,indet]m9ate &       
det]m9ate p]ception4    ,!re are two    
k9ds ( p]ception 9 two /ages1 ! fir/    
/age is call$ nirvikalpa 7indet]m9ate7 &
 ! second savikalpa  7det]m9ate74 ,!    
nirvikalpa p]ception ( a ?+ is its      
p]ception  at ! fir/ mom5t ( !          
association ( ! s5ses &  _! objects4    
,?us ,kumrila says t ! cognition t      
appe>s  fir/ is a m]e locana or simple  

p]ception1 call$ non-det]m9ate  p]ta9+  
to ! object itself pure & simple1 &     
resembl+  ! cognitions t ! new-born     
infant has ( ?+s ar\nd  himself4 ,9 ?is 
cognition nei!r ! g5us nor ! diff]5tia  
is  pres5t$ to consci\sness2 all t is   
pres5t !re is !  individual :]e9 ^! two 
subsi/4 ,?is view ( indet]m9ate         
p]ception may seem 9 "s s5se to resemble
 ! ,buddhi/  view :i* def9es x z be+    
m]ely ! specific individuality          
7svalaksana & reg>ds x z be+ ! only     
valid elem5t 9  p]ception1 :]eas all !  
re/ are conceiv$ z be+ imag9>y          
,footnote #a3 ,see ,prak>anapacik1 pp4  
#ec etc41 & ,dr ,gangn?a ,jh's          
,prabhk>amimms1 pp4 #ce etc4            
,footnote #b3 ,s'lokavrttika1 see       
,pratyaksastra1 #dj etc41 &  ,nyy>atnk>a
 on x4 ,x may be not$ 9 ?is connection t
  ,smkhya-,yoga did n ?9k l ,nyya t !   
s5ses actually w5t  out to meet !       
objects 7prpyakritva7 b held t !re 0  a 
special k9d ( function+ 7vrtti7 by      
virtue ( :i* !  s5ses c\ld grasp ev5 su*

 di/ant objects z ! sun & ! />s4  ,x is 
! function+ ( ! s5se t rea*$ ! objects4 
,! nature  ( ! vrtti is n fur!r cle>ly  
expla9$ & ,pr?asra?i objects  to x z be+
 almo/ a diff]5t category 7tattvnt>a74  
#cgi    impositions4 ,b bo? ,kumrila &  
,prabhk>a ?9k t bo?  ! g5us & !         
diff]5tia are p]ceiv$ 9 ! indet]m9ate   
/age1 b ^! d n manife/ !mselves to u    
only because  we d n rememb] ! o!r ?+s 9
 relation to :i*1 or 9  contra/ to :i*1 
! p]cept has to %[ its "* z g5us or     
diff]5tia2 a ?+ c be cogniz$ z an       
individual only 9  comp>ison ) o!r ?+s f
 :i* x diff]s 9 c]ta9 well-def9$        
*>act]s2 & x c be appreh5d$ z belong+ to
 a  class only :5 x is f\nd to possess  
c]ta9 *>act]i/ic features  9 common ) "s
 o!r ?+s2 s we see t z o!r ?+s  are n   
pres5t$ to consci\sness ?r\gh memory1 ! 
p]cept  at ! indet]m9ate /age _c be     
fully appreh5d$ z an  individual belong+
 to a class1 ?\gh ! data con/itut+ !    
*>act]i/ic ( ! ?+ z a g5us & its        
diff]5tia are p]ceiv$  at ! indet]m9ate 

/age ,footnote ref #a4 ,s long z o!r ?+s
 are  n rememb]$ ^! data _c manife/     
!mselves prop]ly1 &  h5ce ! p]ception ( 
! ?+ rema9s indet]m9ate at ! fir/  /age 
( p]ception4 ,at ! second /age ! self by
 its pa/ impressions  br+s ! pres5t     
p]ception 9 relation to pa/ ones  &     
realizes its "* z involv+ univ]sal &    
p>ticul>4 ,x  is ?us app>5t t ! diff]5ce
 betwe5 ! indet]m9ate  & ! det]m9ate    
p]ception is ?is1 t 9 ! latt] case      
memory ( o!r ?+s creeps 91 b ?is        
association ( memory  9 ! det]m9ate     
p]ception ref]s to ^? o!r objects (     
memory & n to ! p]cept4 ,x is also held 
t ?\gh !  det]m9ate p]ception is bas$ ^u
 ! indet]m9ate "o1 yet  s9ce ! =m] also 
appreh5ds c]ta9 su* factors z did n     
ent] into ! indet]m9ate p]ception1 x is 
to be reg>d$ z  a valid cognition4      
,kumrila also agrees ) ,prabhk>a 9      
hold+ bo? ! indet]m9ate & ! det]m9ate   
p]ception  valid ,footnote ref #b4      
,"s ,ontological ,problems connect$ ) ! 
,doctr9e ( ,p]ception4    ,! p]ception (

 ! class 7jti7 ( a p]cept 9 relation to 
o!r ?+s may ?us be reg>d$ 9 ! ma9 z a   
diff]5ce  betwe5 det]m9ate & indet]m9ate
 p]ceptions4 ,! problems  ( jti &       
avayavvayav 7"p & :ole notion7 7        
,footnote #a3 ,comp>e ?is ) !           
,vais'esika view z int]pret$ by         
,s'rdh>a4    ,footnote #b3 ,see         
,prak>anapacik & ,s'/radpik4    #chj    
! subjects ( hot dispute 9 ,indian      
philosophy4 ,be=e ent]+  into discussion
 ab\t jti1 ,prabhk>a fir/ introduc$ !   
problem ( avayava 7"p7 & avayav 7:ole74 
,he argues z  an expon5t (              
svatah-prmnyavda t ! pro( ( ! true      
exi/5ce ( any?+ mu/ ultimately re/ on   
our own consci\sness1  & :at is di/9ctly
 recogniz$ 9 consci\sness  mu/ be       
admitt$ to h its exi/5ce e/abli%$4      
,foll[+  ?is canon ,prabhk>a says t     
gross objects z a :ole exi/1  s9ce !y   
are s p]ceiv$4 ,! subtle atoms are !    
mat]ial  cause & _! connection 7samyoga7
 is ! immat]ial cause  7asamavyikrana71 
& x is ! latt] :i* r5d]s ! :ole         

altoge!r diff]5t f ! p>ts ( :i* x is    
compos$2 &  x is n necess>y t all ! p>ts
 %\ld be p]ceiv$ be=e !  :ole is        
p]ceiv$4 ,kumrila holds t x is due to ! 
po9t (  view f :i* we look at a ?+ t we 
call x a sep>ate  :ole or only a        
conglom]ation ( p>ts4 ,9 reality !y are 
id5tical1  b :5 we lay /ress on ! notion
 ( p>ts1 ! ?+  appe>s to be a           
conglom]ation ( !m1 & :5 we look at x  f
 ! po9t ( view ( ! unity appe>+ z a     
:ole1 ! ?+  appe>s to be a :ole ( :i*   
!re are p>ts 7see ,s'lokavrttika1       
,vanavda7 ,footnote ref #a4    ,jti1    
?\gh incorporat+ ! idea ( hav+ _m units 
)9 "o1 is  diff]5t f ! conception ( :ole
 9 ?is1 t x resides 9 its  entirety 9   
ea* individual con/itut+ t jti          
7vys'ajyavrtti71        ,footnote #a3   
,accord+ to ,smkhya-,yoga a ?+ is reg>d$
 z ! unity  ( ! univ]sal & ! p>ticul>   
7smnyavis'esasamudyo dravyam1           
,vysabhsya1 ,,iii4 #dd71 = !re is no o!r
 sep>ate entity :i* is  diff]5t f !m bo?
 9 :i* !y w\ld inh]e z ,nyaya holds4    

,conglom]ations c be ( two k9ds1 namely 
^? 9 :i* ! p>ts  exi/ at a di/ance f "o 
ano!r 7e4g4 a =e/71 & ^? 9 :i*  !y exi/ 
close toge!r 7mrant> hi tadavayavh71 & x
 is ?is  latt] comb9ation               
7ayutasiddhvayava7 :i* is call$ a       
dravya1 b  "h also !re is no sep>ate    
:ole di/9ct f ! p>ts2 x is !  p>ts      
connect$ 9 a p>ticul> way & hav+ no     
p]ceptible space  betwe5 !m t is call$ a
 ?+ or a :ole4 ,! ,buddhi/s z           
,p&its'oka has %[n did n believe 9 any  
:ole 7avayavi71 x  is ! atoms :i* 9     
connection ) "o ano!r appe>$ z a :ole   
occupy+ space 7p>amnava eva hi          
p>>pades'ap>ihr5otpannh  p>asp>asahit   
avabhsamn desavitnavanto bhavanti74 ,!  
:ole  is ?us a m]e appe>ance & n a      
reality 7see ,avayav9irk>ana1 ,six      
,buddhi/ ,nyya ,tracts74 ,nyaya h[ev]   
held t ! atoms 7 p>tless  7niravayava & 
h5ce x w\ld be wrong to say t :5 we see 
an  object we see ! atoms4 ,! exi/5ce ( 
a :ole z diff]5t f !  p>ts :i* belong to
 x is directly exp]i5c$ & !re is no     

valid  reason aga9/ x3                  
adu/ak>anodbhtamanvirbhtabdhakam        
as&igdaca vijnam ka?am mi?yeti ka?yate4 
,nyyamaj>1 pp4 #eej ff4    #cha    b !  
e/abli%m5t ( ! exi/5ce ( :oles refutes !
  argum5t t jti %\ld be d5i$1 because x 
involves ! conception  ( a :ole 7class7 
consi/+ ( _m p>ts 7individuals74 ,!     
class "* or jti exi/s because x is      
di/9ctly p]ceiv$ by  u 9 ! individuals  
includ$ 9 any p>ticul> class4 ,x is     
et]nal  9 ! s5se t x cont9ues to exi/ 9 
o!r individuals1 ev5  :5 "o ( !         
individuals ceases to exi/4 ,:5 a new   
individual  ( t class 7e g4 c[ class7   
comes into be+1 a new  relation (       
inh]5ce is g5]at$ by :i* ! individual is
  br\ght into relation ) ! class-"*     
exi/+ 9 o!r  individuals1 = inh]5ce     
7samavya7 accord+ to ,prabhk>a  is n an 
et]nal entity b an entity :i* is bo?    
produc$  & n produc$ accord+ z ! ?+ 9   
:i* x exi/s is  non-et]nal or et]nal1 & 
x is n reg>d$ z "o z ,nyya  holds1 b z  
_m1 accord+ z !re is ! inf9ite numb] (  

?+s 9 :i* x exi/s4 ,:5 any individual is
 de/roy$1 !  class-"* does n g else:]e1 
nor subsi/ 9 t individual1  nor is      
itself de/roy$1 b x is only ! inh]5ce ( 
class-"* ) t individual t ceases to     
exi/4 ,)  ! de/ruction ( an individual  
or its production x is a new  relation (
 inh]5ce t is de/roy$ or produc$4 ,b !  
class-"* or jti has no sep>ate exi/5ce  
ap>t f !  individuals z ,nyya supposes4 
,appreh5sion ( jti is ess5tially  !     
appreh5sion ( ! class-"* ( a ?+ 9       
relation to  o!r simil> ?+s ( t class by
 ! p]ception ( ! common  *>act]i/ics4 ,b
 ,prabhk>a w\ld n admit ! exi/5ce (  a  
highe/ g5us satt 7be+7 z ackn[l$g$ by   
,nyya4 ,he  argues t ! exi/5ce (        
class-"* is appreh5d$ because  we f9d t 
! individuals ( a class possess "s      
common  *>act]i/ic possess$ by all !    
het]og5e\s & disp>ate  ?+s ( ! _w z c   
give rise to ! conception ( a sep>ate   
jti z satt1 z dem&$ by ! naiyyikas4 ,t  
all ?+s are  said to be sat 7exi/+7 is m
 or less a ^w or a "n )\t  ! correspond+

 appreh5sion ( a common quality4 ,our   
exp]i5ce  always gives u concrete exi/+ 
individuals1 b we  c nev] exp]i5ce su* a
 highe/ g5us z pure exi/5ce or  be+1 z x
 has no concrete =m :i* may be p]ceiv$4 
,:5  we speak ( a ?+ z sat1 we d n mean 
t x is possess$  ( any su* class-*>act]s
 z satt 7be+72 :at we mean  is simply t 
! individual has its specific exi/5ce or
 sv>pasatt4    #chb    ,?us ! ,nyya view
 ( p]ception z tak+ only !  ?+ 9 its    
pure be+ ap>t f qualities1 etc1         
7sanmtra-visayam  pratyaksam7 is made   
unt5able by ,prabhk>a1 z accord+ to  him
 ! ?+ is p]ceiv$ direct ) all its       
qualities4 ,accord+  to ,kumrila h[ev]  
jti is n some?+ diff]5t f !  individuals
 compreh5d$ by x & x is directly        
p]ceiv$4  ,kumrila's view ( jti is ?us  
simil> to t held by ,smkhya1  namely t  
:5 we look at an individual f "o po9t ( 
view 7jti z id5tical ) ! individual71 x 
is ! individual t  lays its /ress ^u our
 consci\sness & ! notion ( jti becomes  
lat5t1 b :5 we look at x f ano!r po9t ( 

view  7! individual z id5tical ) jti7 x 
is ! jti :i* pres5ts  itself to         
consci\sness1 & ! aspect z individual   
becomes lat5t4  ,! appreh5sion z jti or 
z individual is ?us only a matt]  (     
diff]5t po9ts ( view or angles ( vision 
f :i* we look  at a ?+4 ,q 9 h>mony ) ! 
conception ( jti1 ,kumrila  holds t !   
relation ( inh]5ce is n any?+ :i* is    
di/9ct  f ! ?+s !mselves 9 :i* x is     
suppos$ to exi/1  b only a p>ticul>     
aspect or phase ( ! ?+s !mselves        
7,s'lokavrttika1 ,pratyaksastra1 #adi1  
#aej1 abh$t samavyo'/u  sv>pam          
dh>madh>minoh71 ,kumrila agrees )       
,prabhk>a  t jti is p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses  
7tatraikabuddh9irgrhy  jtir9driyagoc>74 
,x is n out ( place to m5tion t on !    
evid5ce (  ,prabhk>a we f9d t ! category
 ( vis'esa admitt$ by !  ,kanda s*ool is
 n accept$ z a sep>ate category by !    
,mmms on ! gr\nd t ! diff]5tiation (    
et]nal  ?+s f "o ano!r1 = :i* ! category
 ( vis'esa is  admitt$1 may v well be   
effect$ on ! basis ( ! ord9>y  qualities

 ( ^! ?+s4 ,! quality ( pr?aktva or     
specific  diff]5ces 9 atoms1 z inf]r$ by
 ! diff]5ce ( ?+s !y  con/itute1 c v    
well s]ve ! purposes ( vis'esa4      ,! 
nature ( k4    ,all k involves ! kn[]1 !
 kn[n object1 & !  k at ! same id5tical 
mom5t4 ,all k :e!r  p]ceptual1 inf]5tial
 or ( any o!r k9d mu/ necess>ily reveal 
! self or ! kn[] directly4 ,?us z 9 all 
k ! self  is directly & imm$iately      
p]ceiv$1 all k may be reg>d$  z         
p]ception f ! po9t ( view ( self4 ,!    
division    #chc    ( ! pramnas z       
pratyaksa 7p]ception71 anumna 7inf]5ce71
  etc4 is f ! po9t ( view ( ! objects ( 
k )  ref]5ce to ! v>y+ modes 9 :i* !y   
are br\ght )9  ! purview ( k4 ,! self   
itself h[ev] has no illum9+  or reveal+ 
p[]s1 = !n ev5 9 deep sleep we c\ld h   
k1 = ! self is pres5t ev5 !n1 z is prov$
 by !  remembrance ( dreams4 ,x is k    
7samvid7 t reveals  by its v appe>ance  
bo? ! self1 ! kn[]1 & ! objects4  ,x is 
g5]ally argu$ aga9/ ! self-illum9ative  
"* (  k t all cognitions are ( ! =ms ( !

 objects !y  are said to reveal2 & if !y
 h ! same =m we may r  say t !y h ! same
 id5tical reality too4 ,! ,mmms  answ]  
to ^! objections is ?is1 t if !         
cognition & !  cogniz$ 7 n diff]5t f "o 
ano!r1 !y c\ld n  h be5 felt z su*1 & we
 c\ld n h felt t x is  by cognition t we
 appreh5d ! cogniz$ objects4 ,!         
cognition 7samv$ana7 ( a p]son simply   
means t su* a  special k9d ( quality    
7dh>ma7 has be5 manife/$ 9 !  self by   
virtue ( :i* 8 active op]ation ) ref]5ce
 to  a c]ta9 object is fav\r$ or        
det]m9$1 & ! object ( cognition  is t ) 
ref]5ce to :i* ! active op]ation ( !    
self has be5 induc$4 ,cognitions are n  
inde$ absolutely =mless1  = !y h !      
cognitional "* by :i* ?+s are  illum9$ &
 manife/$4 ,cognition has no o!r "* ?an 
?is1 t x illum9es & reveals objects4 ,! 
?+s only are  believ$ to h =ms & only   
su* =ms z k reveal  to u ab\t !m4 ,ev5 !
 dream cognition is ) ref]5ce to        
objects t 7 p]ceiv$ previ\sly1 & ( :i* !
 impressions  7 left 9 ! m9d & 7 ar\s$  

by ! unse5 ag5cy  7adrsta74 ,dream      
cognition is ?us only a k9d (           
remembrance  ( t :i* 0 previ\sly        
exp]i5c$4 ,only su* ( ! impressions  (  
cogniz$ objects are r\s$ 9 dreams z c   
beget j t  am\nt ( pleasurable or pa9ful
 exp]i5ce1 9 accordance ) !  op]ation ( 
adrsta1 z ! p]son des]ves to h 9        
accordance  ) 8 previ\s m]it or dem]it4 
,! ,prabhk>a ,mmms1 9 refut+ ! argum5ts 
( ^?  :o hold t our cognitions ( objects
 are !mselves cogniz$  by "s o!r        
cognition1 says t ?is is n possible1    
s9ce we  d n exp]i5ce any su* d\ble     
cognition & also because x  w\ld lead u 
to a regressus ad inf9itum1 = if a      
second cognition    #chd    is necess>y 
to int]pret ! fir/1 !n t w\ld require a 
?ird  & s on4 ,if a cognition c\ld be ! 
object ( ano!r cognition1  !n x c\ld n  
be self-valid4 ,! cognition is n ( c\rse
 unkn[n  to u1 b t is ( c\rse because x 
is self-cogniz$1 &  reveals itself to u 
! mom5t x reveals its objects4 ,f !     
illum9ation ( objects also we c inf] !  

pres5ce ( ?is  self-cogniz+ k4 ,b x is  
only its pres5ce t is inf]r$  & n !     
cognition itself1 = inf]5ce c only      
indicate !  pres5ce ( an object & n 9 ! 
=m 9 :i* x c be  appreh5d$ by p]ception 
7pratyaksa74 ,prabhk>a draws a  subtle  
di/9ction betwe5 p]ceptuality           
7samv$yatva7 & be+  object ( k          
7prameyatva74 ,a ?+ c only be appreh5d$ 
7samv$yate7 by p]ception1 :]eas inf]5ce 
c only  indicate ! pres5ce ( an object  
)\t appreh5d+ !  object itself4 ,our    
cognition _c be appreh5d$ by any o!r    
cognition4 ,inf]5ce c only indicate !   
pres5ce or exi/5ce  ( k b _c appreh5d ! 
cognition itself ,footnote ref #a4      
,kumrila also agrees ) ,prabhk>a 9 hold+
 t p]ception  is nev] ! object ( ano!r  
p]ception & t x ends  9 ! direct        
appreh5sibility ( ! object ( p]ception4 
,b he  says t e p]ception involves a    
relation%ip betwe5 !  p]ceiv] & !       
p]ceiv$1 :]e9 ! p]ceiv] behaves z  !    
ag5t ^: activity 9 grasp+ ! object is   
kn[n z cognition4  ,?is is inde$ diff]5t

 f ! ,prabhk>a view1 t  9 "o            
manife/ation ( k ! kn[]1 ! kn[n1 &  ! k1
 are simultane\sly illum9at$ 7! doctr9e 
(  triputpratyaksa7 ,footnote ref #b4   
,! ,psy*ology ( ,illusion4    ,! "q     
h[ev] arises t if all appreh5sions are  
valid1 h[ are we to acc\nt = illusory   
p]ceptions :i* _c  be reg>d$ z valid8 ,!
 problem ( illusory p]ception &  its    
psy*ology is a v fav\rite topic (       
discussion 9 ,indian  philosophy4       
,omitt+ ! !ory ( illusion ( ! ,ja9s     
call$  satkhyti :i* we h describ$ be=e1 
& ( ! ,v$nti/s1  :i* we %all describe 9 
! next *apt]1 !re are ?ree  diff]5t     
!ories ( illusion1 viz4 7#a7 tmakhyti1  
7#b7 vip>takhyt  or anya?khyti1 & 7#c7  
akhyti ( ! ,mmms s*ool4 ,!              
,footnote #a3 ,see ,prabhk>ammms1 by ,dr
 ,gangan?a ,jh4    ,footnote #b3 loc4   
cit4 pp4 #bf-bh4    #che    vip>tkhyti  
or anya?khyti !ory ( illusion is accept$
 by  ! ,nyya1 ,vais'esika & ! ,yoga1 !  
khyti !ory by  ,mmms & ,smkhya & !      
tmakhyti by ! ,buddhi/s4    ,! commone/ 

example ( illusion 9 ,indian philosophy 
is  ! illusory appe>ance ( a piece (    
brok5 con*-%ell z a piece  ( silv]4 ,t  
su* an illusion occurs is a fact :i* is 
exp]i5c$  by all & agre$ to by all4 ,!  
diff]5ces ( view are ) reg>d  to its    
cause or its psy*ology4 ,! ideali/ic    
,buddhi/s :o d5y  ! exi/5ce ( ! ext]nal 
_w & ?9k t !re are only  ! =ms ( k1     
g5]at$ by ! accumulat$ k>ma (  pa/      
lives1 hold t j z 9 ! case ( a correct  
p]ception1 s  also 9 ! case ( illusory  
p]ception x is ! fl[ ( k  :i* mu/ be    
held responsible4 ,! fl[ ( k on acc\nt  
( ! peculi>ities ( its own collocat+    
conditions g5]ates  sometimes :at we    
call "r p]ception & sometimes wrong     
p]ception or illusion4 ,on ?is view no?+
 dep5ds ^u ! s-call$  ext]nal data4 ,=  
!y d n exi/1 & ev5 if !y did  exi/1 :y  
%\ld ! same data sometimes br+ ab\t ! "r
  p]ception & sometimes ! illusion8 ,!  
fl[ ( k  creates bo? ! p]cept & !       
p]ceiv] & unites !m4 ,?is  is true bo? 9
 ! case ( correct p]ception & illusory  

p]ception4  ,nyya objects to ! above    
view1 & says t1 if  k irrespective ( any
 ext]nal condition imposes ^u  itself ! 
kn[] & ! illusory p]cept1 !n ! p]ception
  ought to be ( ! =m ,i am silv] & n ?is
 is silv]4  ,moreov] ?is !ory /&s       
refut$1 z x is bas$ ^u a false  hypo!sis
 t x is ! inn] k :i* appe>s z com+  f   
outside & t ! ext]nal z su* does n exi/4
    ,! vip>takhyti or ! anya?khyti !ory 
supposes t  ! illusion takes place      
because on acc\nt ( malobs]vation we  d 
n note ! peculi> traits ( ! con*-%ell z 
di/+ui%$  f ! silv]1 & at ! same "t by !
 gl[ etc4 ( !  con*-%ell unconsci\sly ! 
silv] :i* ,i _h se5 else:]e  is rememb]$
 & ! object be=e me is tak5 z silv]4 ,9 
illusion ! object be=e u ) :i* our eye  
is associat$ is  n con*-%ell1 = ! traits
 peculi> to x n be+ grasp$1 x  is m]ely 
an object4 ,! silv] is n utt]ly         
non-exi/5t1 = x  exi/s else:]e & x is ! 
memory ( x z exp]i5c$ be=e  t creates   
confusion & leads u to ?9k ( ! con*-%ell
 z  silv]4 ,?is s*ool agrees ) ! akhyti 

s*ool t ! fact    #chf    t ,i rememb]  
silv] is n tak5 note ( at ! "t (        
illusion4 ,b x holds t ! m]e            
non-di/9ction is n en\gh  to acc\nt = ! 
ph5om5on ( illusion1 = !re is a def9ite 
positive aspect associat$ ) x1 viz4 !   
false id5tification (  silv] 7se5       
else:]e7 ) ! con*-%ell be=e u4    ,!    
khyti !ory ( ,mmms holds t s9ce !       
special  peculi>ities ( ! con*-%ell are 
n notic$1 x is errone\s  to say t we    
id5tify or cognize positively !         
con*-%ell z  ! silv] 7p]ceiv$ else:]e71 
= ! con*-%ell is n cogniz$  at all4 ,:at
 happ5s "h is simply ?is1 t only !      
features common to con*-%ell & silv] be+
 notic$1 ! p]ceiv]  fails to appreh5d ! 
diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two ?+s1  & ?is gives
 rise to ! cognition ( silv]4 ,ow+ to a 
c]ta9  weakness ( ! m9d ! remembrance ( 
silv] r\s$ by !  common features ( !    
con*-%ell & silv] is n appreh5d$1  & !  
fact t x is only a memory ( silv] se5 9 
"s pa/  "t t has appe>$ be=e him is n   
p]ceiv$2 & x is z  a result ( ?is       

non-appreh5sion ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 !   
silv] rememb]$ & ! pres5t con*-%ell t ! 
illusion  takes place4 ,?us1 ?\gh !     
illusory p]ception p>takes ( a  dual "* 
( remembrance & appreh5sion1 & z su* is 
diff]5t f ! ord9>y valid p]ception 7:i* 
is :olly a  matt] ( direct appreh5sion7 
( real silv] be=e u1 yet z !  diff]5ce  
betwe5 ! remembrance ( silv] & ! sight (
  ! pres5t object is n appreh5d$1 !     
illusory p]ception  appe>s at ! mom5t ( 
its production to be z valid z a real   
valid p]ception4 ,bo? give rise to !    
same k9d ( activity on  ! "p ( ! ag5t1 =
 9 illusory p]ception ! p]ceiv]  w\ld be
 z eag] to /oop & pick up ! ?+ z 9 !    
case  ( a real p]ception4 ,kumrila      
agrees ) ?is view z exp\nd$  by         
,prabhk>a1 & fur!r says t ! illusory    
judgm5t is z  valid to ! cognizor at !  
"t t he has ! cognition z any  real     
judgm5t c\ld be4 ,if subsequ5t exp]i5ce 
rejects x1 t  does n matt]1 = x is      
admitt$ 9 ,mmms t :5 lat]  exp]i5ce f9ds
 out ! defects ( any p]ception x c      

invalidate  ! orig9al p]ception :i* 0   
self-valid at ! "t ( its  production    
,footnote ,ref4 #a4 ,x is easy to see t 
! ,mmms _h to  adopt ?is view ( illusion
 to ma9ta9 ! doctr9e t all cognition  at
 ! mom5t ( its production is valid4 ,!  
khyti !ory        ,footnote #a3 ,see    
,prak>anapacik1 ,s'/radpik1 &           
,s'lokavrttika1  stra #b4    #chg       
tries to e/abli% ! view t ! illusion is 
n due to any  positive wrong k1 b to a  
m]e negative factor ( non-appreh5sion   
due to c]ta9 weakness ( m9d4 ,s x is t  
?\gh illusion is ! result1 yet !        
cognition s f> z x is cognition1  is    
made up ( two elem5ts1 ! pres5t         
p]ception &  memory1 bo? ( :i* are true 
s f> z !y are individually  pres5t to u1
 & ! cognition itself has all !         
*>act]i/ics (  any o!r valid k1 = ! m>k 
( ! validity ( a cognition  is its p[]  
to prompt u to action4 ,9 d\btful       
cognitions also1  z 9 ! case ,is ?is a  
po/ or a man8 :at is actually p]ceiv$   
is "s tall object & ?us f> x is valid   

too4 ,b :5 ?is  p]ception gives rise to 
two diff]5t k9ds ( remembrance 7(  !    
pill> & ! man71 d\bt comes 94 ,s !      
elem5t ( appreh5sion  involv$ 9 d\btful 
cognitions %\ld be reg>d$  z self-valid 
z any o!r cognition4      ,inf]5ce4     
,s'ab>a says t :5 a c]ta9 fix$ or       
p]man5t relation  has be5 kn[n to exi/  
betwe5 two ?+s1 we c h !  idea ( "o ?+  
:5 ! o!r "o is p]ceiv$1 & ?is k9d  ( k  
is call$ inf]5ce4 ,kumrila on ! basis ( 
?is  tries to %[ t inf]5ce is only      
possible :5 we notice  t 9 a l>ge numb] 
( cases two ?+s 7e4g4 smoke & fire7     
subsi/ toge!r 9 a ?ird ?+ 7e4g4 kit*51  
etc47 9 "s indep5d5t  relation1 i4e4 :5 
_! coexi/5ce does n dep5d  ^u any o!r   
elim9able condition or factor4 ,x is    
also necess>y  t ! two ?+s 7smoke &     
fire7 coexi/+ 9 a ?ird  ?+ %\ld be s    
exp]i5c$ t all cases ( ! exi/5ce (  "o  
?+ %\ld also be cases involv+ ! exi/5ce 
( !  o!r1 b ! cases ( ! exi/5ce ( "o ?+ 
7e4g4 fire71  ?\gh includ+ all ! cases (
 ! exi/5ce ( ! o!r  7smoke71 may h yet a

 m ext5sive sph]e :]e ! latt]  7smoke7  
may n exi/4 ,:5 once a p]man5t relation1
 :e!r  x be a case ( coexi/5ce 7z 9 !   
case ( ! contiguity (  ! con/ellation ( 
,krttik ) ,rohin1 :]e1 by ! rise ( !    
=m] ! e>ly rise ( ! latt] may be        
inf]r$71 or a case (  id5tity 7z 9 !    
relation betwe5 a g5us & its species71  
or  a case ( cause & effect or o!rwise  
betwe5 two ?+s &  a ?ird ?+ :i* _h be5  
appreh5d$ 9 a l>ge numb] (  cases1 is   
p]ceiv$1 !y fuse toge!r 9 ! m9d z =m+   
#chh    "o :ole1 & z a result ( t :5 !  
exi/5ce ( !  "o 7e4g4 smoke7 9 a ?+     
7hill7 is notic$1 we c inf] !  exi/5ce (
 ! ?+ 7hill7 ) its c\nt]p>t 7fire74 ,9  
all  su* cases ! ?+ 7e4g4 fire7 :i* has 
a sph]e ext5d+  beyond t 9 :i* ! o!r    
7e4g4 smoke7 c exi/ is call$  gamya or  
vypaka & ! o!r 7e4g4 smoke7 vypya or    
gamaka  & x is only by ! pres5ce (      
gamaka 9 a ?+ 7e4g4 hill1  ! paksa7 t ! 
o!r c\nt]p>t ! gamya 7fire7 may be      
inf]r$4 ,! g5]al proposition1 univ]sal  
coexi/5ce ( !  gamaka ) ! gamya 7e4g4   

:]ev] !re is smoke !re is  fire7 _c be !
 cause ( inf]5ce1 = x is itself a case  
( inf]5ce4 ,inf]5ce involves ! memory ( 
a p]man5t  relation subsi/+ betwe5 two  
?+s 7e4g4 smoke & fire7 9 a  ?ird ?+ 7e 
g4 kit*572 b ! ?ird ?+ is rememb]$ only 
9 a g5]al way t ! coexi/+ ?+s mu/ h a   
place  :]e !y are f\nd associat$4 ,x is 
by virtue ( su* a memory  t ! direct    
p]ception ( a basis 7e4g4 hill7 ) !     
gamaka  ?+ 7e4g4 smoke7 9 x w\ld        
naturally br+ to my m9d t  ! same basis 
7hill7 mu/ conta9 ! gamya 7i4e4 fire7   
also4  ,e case ( inf]5ce ?us proce$s    
directly f a p]ception  & n f any       
univ]sal g5]al proposition4 ,kumrila    
holds  t ! inf]5ce gives u ! m9or z     
associat$ ) ! major  & n ( ! major      
alone1 i4e4 ( ! fi]y m\nta9 & n (  fire4
 ,?us inf]5ce gives u a new k1 = ?\gh x 
0  kn[n 9 a g5]al way t ! possessor (   
smoke is ! possessor  ( fire1 yet ! case
 ( ! m\nta9 0 n anticipat$  & ! inf]5ce 
( ! fi]y m\nta9 is ?us a di/9ctly new  k
 7des'akldhikydyuktamagrhtagrhitvam     

anumnasya1  ,nyy>atnk>a1 p4 #cfc7       
,footnote ref #a4 ,x %\ld also be not$ t
 9  =m+ ! notion ( ! p]man5t relation   
betwe5 two ?+s1  a ?ird ?+ 9 :i* ^! two 
subsi/ is always rememb]$  & = !        
conception ( ?is p]man5t relation x is  
en\gh  t 9 ! l>ge numb] ( cases :]e !   
concomitance 0  not$ !re 0 no k ( any   
case :]e ! concomitance  fail$1 & x is n
 indisp5sable t ! negative in/ances  9  
:i* ! abs5ce ( ! gamya or vypaka 0 m>k$ 
by an        ,footnote #a3 ,x is        
important to note t x is n unlikely t   
,kumrila  0 indebt$ to ,dinnga = ?is2 = 
,dinnga's ma9 cont5tion is t  x is n    
fire1 nor ! connection betwe5 x & !     
hill1 b x is  ! fi]y hill t is inf]r$ = 
o!rwise inf]5ce w\ld give u  no new k   
see ,vidybhsana's ,indian ,logic1 p4 #hg
 &  ,ttp>yatik1 p4 #abj4    #chi        
abs5ce ( ! gamaka or vypya1 %\ld also be
 not$1 = a  k ( su* a negative relation 
is n indisp5sable =  ! =m+ ( ! notion ( 
! p]man5t relation ,footnote ref #a4 ,! 
exp]i5ce ( a l>ge numb] ( p>ticul> cases

 9 :i* any two  ?+s 7 f\nd to coexi/    
toge!r 9 ano!r ?+ 9 "s  relation        
associat$ ) ! non-p]ception ( any case (
 failure  creates an expectancy 9 u (   
inf]r+ ! pres5ce ( !  gamya 9 t ?+ 9 :i*
 ! gamaka is p]ceiv$ to exi/  9 exactly 
! same relation ,footnote ref #b4 ,9 ^? 
cases :]e !  circle ( ! exi/5ce ( !     
gamya co9cides ) ! circle ( !  exi/5ce (
 ! gamaka1 ea* ( !m becomes a gamaka = !
 o!r4  ,x is cle> t ?is =m ( inf]5ce n  
only includes all cases  ( cause &      
effect1 ( g5us & species b also all     
cases (  coexi/5ce z well4    ,! "q     
arises t if no inf]5ce is possible )\t  
a memory ( ! p]man5t relation1 is n !   
self-validity  ( inf]5ce de/roy$ on t   
acc\nt1 = memory is n reg>d$  z         
self-valid4 ,to ?is ,kumrila's answ] is 
t memory  is n invalid1 b x has n !     
/atus ( pramna1 z x does  n br+ to u a  
new k4 ,b inf]5ce involves !  acquirem5t
 ( a new k 9 ?is1 t ?\gh ! coexi/5ce  ( 
two ?+s 9 ano!r 0 kn[n 9 a numb] (      
cases1  yet 9 ! pres5t case a new case (

 ! exi/5ce ( ! gamya  9 a ?+ is kn[n f !
 p]ception ( ! exi/5ce ( !  gamaka & ?is
 k is ga9$ by a means :i* is n          
p]ception1 = x is only ! gamaka t is se5
 & n !  gamya4 ,if ! gamya is also se5 x
 is no inf]5ce at all4    ,z reg>ds !   
numb] ( propositions necess>y = !       
explicit  /atem5t ( ! process ( inf]5ce 
= conv9c+ o!rs  7prr?numna7 bo? ,kumrila
 & ,prabhk>a hold t ?ree  premisses are 
q suffici5t = inf]5ce4 ,?us ! fir/ ?ree 
premisses pratij1 hetu & dr/nta may q   
s]ve ! purpose  ( an anumna4    ,!re are
 two k9ds ( anumna accord+ to ,kumrila  
viz4 pratyaksatodr/asamb&ha &           
smnyatodrstasamb&ha4  ,! =m] is t k9d ( 
inf]5ce :]e ! p]man5t        ,footnote  
#a3 ,kumrila /rongly opposes a ,buddhi/ 
view t concomitance  7vypti7 is asc]ta9$
 only by ! negative in/ances & n by !   
positive ones4    ,footnote #b3         
tasmdanavagate'pi s>vatrnvaye s>vatas'ca
 vyatireke  bahus'ah shityvagamamtrdeva 
vyabhicrd>s'anasan?danumnotpattirangk>ta
vyah4  ,nyy>atnk>a1 p4 #bhh4    #cij    

relation betwe5 two concrete ?+s1 z 9 ! 
case ( smoke &  fire1 has be5 notic$4 ,!
 latt] is t k9d ( inf]5ce :]e  ! p]man5t
 relation is obs]v$ n betwe5 two        
concrete  ?+s b betwe5 two g5]al        
notions1 z 9 ! case ( movem5t  & *ange (
 place1 e4g4 ! p]ceiv$ cases :]e !re is 
*ange ( place !re is also motion involv$
 ) x2 s f !  *ange ( place ( ! sun its  
motion is inf]r$ & x is held  t ?is     
g5]al notion is directly p]ceiv$ l all  
univ]sals  ,footnote ref #a4            
,prabhk>a recognizes ! ne$ ( =m+ !      
notion ( !  p]man5t relation1 b he does 
n lay any /ress on ! fact  t ?is p]man5t
 relation betwe5 two ?+s 7fire & smoke7 
is tak5 9 connection ) a ?ird ?+ 9 :i*  
!y bo?  subsi/4 ,he says t ! notion ( ! 
p]man5t relation betwe5  two ?+s is !   
ma9 po9t1 :]eas 9 all o!r associations  
( "t & place ! ?+s 9 :i* ^! two subsi/  
toge!r are tak5 only z adjuncts to      
qualify ! two ?+s  7e4g4 fire & smoke74 
,x is also necess>y to recognize ! fact 
t  ?\gh ! concomitance ( smoke 9 fire is

 only conditional1 !  concomitance ( !  
fire 9 smoke is unconditional & absolute
 ,footnote  ref #b4 ,:5 su* a conviction
 is firmly root$ 9 ! m9d t  ! concept ( 
! pres5ce ( smoke involves ! concept ( !
  pres5ce ( fire1 ! inf]5ce ( fire is   
made z soon z any  smoke is se54        
,prabhk>a c\nts sep>ately ! fallacies ( 
!  m9or 7paksbhsa71 ( ! enunciation     
7pratijbhsa7 & (  ! example 7drstntbhsa7
 along ) ! fallacies ( ! middle  & ?is  
seems to indicate t ! ,mmms logic 0 n   
altoge!r  free f ,buddhi/ influ5ce4 ,!  
cognition ( smoke  includes )9 itself ! 
cognition ( fire also1 & ?us !re  w\ld  
be no?+ left unkn[n to be cogniz$ by !  
inf]5tial  cognition4 ,b ?is objection  
has little =ce ) ,prabhk>a1  = he does n
 admit t a pramna %\ld necess>ily br+  u
 any new k1 = pramna is simply def9$ z  
appreh5sion4  ,s ?\gh ! inf]5tial       
cognition always p]ta9s to  ?+s already 
kn[n x is yet reg>d$ by him z a pramna1 
s9ce x is 9 any case no d\bt an         
appreh5sion4        ,footnote #a3 ,see  

,s'lokavrttika1 ,nyy>atnk>a1 ,s'/radpik1
  ,yuktisnehapran1 ,siddhntac&rik on    
anumna4    ,footnote #b3 ,on ! subject (
 ! means ( assur+ oneself t !re is  no  
condition 7updhi7 :i* may vitiate !     
inf]5ce1 ,prabhk>a has  no?+ new to tell
 u4 ,he says t :]e ev5 aft] c>eful      
enquiry 9  a l>ge numb] ( cases !       
condition _c be discov]$ we mu/ say  t x
 does n exi/ 7prayatn5nvisyamne         
aupdhikatvnavagamt1  see ,prak>anapacik1
 p4 #ga74    #cia      ,upamna1         
,ar?patti4    ,analogy 7upamna7 is      
accept$ by ,mmms 9 a s5se :i*  is       
diff]5t f t 9 :i* ,nyya took x4 ,! man  
:o  has se5 a c[ 7g7 goes to ! =e/ &    
sees a wild ox  7gavaya71 & appreh5ds ! 
simil>ity ( ! gavaya )  ! g1 & !n       
cognizes ! simil>ity ( ! g 7:i* is n  )9
 ! limits ( 8 p]ception !n7 ) ! gavaya4 
,!  cognition ( ?is simil>ity ( ! gavaya
 9 ! g1 z x foll[s  directly f !        
p]ception ( ! simil>ity ( ! g 9 !       
gavaya1 is call$ upamna 7analogy74 ,x is
 reg>d$ z a sep>ate  pramna1 because by 

x we c appreh5d ! simil>ity  exi/+ 9 a  
?+ :i* is n p]ceiv$ at ! mom5t4 ,x is  n
 m]e remembrance1 = at ! "t ! g 0 se5 ! 
gavaya 0 n se51 & h5ce ! simil>ity also 
0 n se51  & :at 0 n se5 c\ld n be       
rememb]$4 ,! diff]5ce  ( ,prabhk>a &    
,kumrila on ?is po9t is t :ile !  latt] 
reg>ds simil>ity z only a quality       
consi/+ 9 ! fact  ( m ?an "o object hav+
 ! same set ( qualities1 !  =m] reg>ds x
 z a di/9ct category4    ,ar?patti      
7implication7 is a new pramna :i* is    
admitt$  by ! ,mmms4 ,?us :5 we "k t a  
p]son ,devadatta  is alive & p]ceive t  
he is n 9 ! h\se1 we _c reconcile  ^!   
two facts1 viz4 8 rema9+ alive & 8 n be+
  9 ! h\se )\t presum+ 8 exi/5ce some:]e
 outside  ! h\se1 & ?is me?od ( cogniz+ 
! exi/5ce ( ,devadatta  outside ! h\se  
is call$ ar?patti 7presumption or       
implication74    ,! exact psy*ological  
analysis ( ! m9d 9 ?is ar?patti         
cognition is a matt] on :i* ,prabhk>a & 
,kumrila  disagree4 ,prabhk>a holds t :5
 a man kn[s t ,devadatta  habitually    

resides 9 8 h\se b yet does n f9d him   
!re1 8 k t ,devadatta is liv+ 7?\gh     
acquir$  previ\sly by "s o!r means (    
pro(7 is made d\btful1 &  ! cause ( ?is 
d\bt is t he does n f9d ,devadatta at 8 
h\se4 ,! abs5ce ( ,devadatta f ! h\se is
 n ! cause  ( implication1 b x ?r[s into
 d\bt ! v exi/5ce ( ,devadatta1  & ?us  
=ces u to imag9e t ,devadatta mu/ rema9 
some:]e outside4 ,t c only be f\nd by   
implication1  )\t ! hypo!sis ( :i* !    
d\bt _c be remov$4  ,! m]e abs5ce (     
,devadatta f ! h\se is n en\gh =    #cib
    mak+ ! presumption t he is outside !
 h\se1 = he  might also be dead4 ,b ,i  
"k t ,devadatta 0 liv+ &  also t he 0 n 
at home2 ?is p]ception ( 8 abs5ce f     
home creates a d\bt z reg>ds my fir/ k t
 he is  liv+1 & x is = ! removal ( ?is  
d\bt t !re creeps 9  ! presumption t he 
mu/ be liv+ some:]e else4 ,!  p]ception 
( ! abs5ce ( ,devadatta ?r\gh !         
int]m$iate  l9k ( a d\bt passes into !  
notion ( a presumption t he  mu/ !n     
rema9 some:]e else4 ,9 inf]5ce !re is no

 elem5t  ( d\bt1 = x is only :5 ! smoke 
is p]ceiv$ to exi/  beyond ! lea/ elem5t
 ( d\bt t ! inf]5ce ( ! fire  is        
possible1 b 9 presumption ! p]ceiv$     
non-exi/5ce 9 !  h\se leads to !        
presumption ( an ext]nal exi/5ce only   
:5 x has ?r[n ! fact ( ! man's be+ alive
 into d\bt  & unc]ta9ty ,footnote ref   
#a4    ,kumrila h[ev] objects to ?is    
explanation ( ,prabhk>a1  & says t if ! 
fact t ,devadatta is liv+ is made       
d\btful  by ! abs5ce ( ,devadatta at 8  
h\se1 !n ! d\bt  may z well be remov$ by
 ! supposition t ,devadatta is  dead1 = 
x does n foll[ t ! d\bt ) reg>d to !    
life  ( ,devadatta %\ld necess>ily be   
resolv$ by ! supposition  ( 8 be+       
outside ! h\se4 ,d\bt c only be remov$  
:5 ! cause or ! root ( d\bt is remov$1 &
 x does n  foll[ t because ,devadatta is
 n 9 ! h\se !re=e he is  liv+4 ,if x 0  
already kn[n t ,devadatta 0 liv+ & 8    
abs5ce f ! h\se creates ! d\bt1 h[ !n c 
! v  fact :i* creat$ ! d\bt remove !    
d\bt8 ,! cause (  d\bt _c be ! cause (  

its removal too4 ,! real proc$ure  ( !  
presumption is q ! o!r way4 ,! d\bt ab\t
  ! life ( ,devadatta be+ remov$ by     
previ\s k or  by "s o!r means1 we may   
presume t he mu/ be outside  ! h\se :5  
he is f\nd abs5t f ! h\se4 ,s !re _c  be
 any d\bt ab\t ! life ( ,devadatta4 ,x  
is ! c]ta9ty  ( 8 life associat$ ) !    
p]ception ( 8 abs5ce f !  h\se t leads u
 to ! presumption ( 8 ext]nal exi/5ce4  
,!re is an opposition betwe5 ! life (   
,devadatta & 8  abs5ce f ! h\se1 & ! m9d
 _c come to re/ )\t  ! presumption ( 8  
ext]nal exi/5ce4 ,! m9d oscillates      
betwe5 two contradictory poles bo? ( :i*
 x accepts b        ,footnote #a3 ,see  
,prak>anapacik1 pp4 #aac-aae4    #cic   
_c reconcile1 & z a result ( t f9ds an  
outlet & a  reconciliation 9 !          
presumption t ! exi/5ce ( ,devadatta    
mu/ be f\nd outside ! h\se4    ,well !n1
 if t be s1 inf]5ce may z well be       
int]pret$  z presumption4 ,= if we say t
 we "k t :]ev] !re  is smoke !re is     
fire1 & !n p]ceive t !re is smoke  9 !  

hill1 b no fire1 !n ! exi/5ce ( ! smoke 
becomes  irreconcilable1 or ! univ]sal  
proposition ( ! concomitance  ( smoke ) 
fire becomes false1 & h5ce ! presumption
  t !re is fire 9 ! hill4 ,?is w\ld h   
be5 all "r if  ! univ]sal concomitance (
 smoke ) fire c\ld be kn[n  o!rwise ?an 
by inf]5ce4 ,b ?is is n s1 = !          
concomitance  0 se5 only 9 individual   
cases1 & f t came !  inf]5ce t :]ev] !re
 is smoke !re is fire4 ,x _c  be said t 
! concomitance p]ceiv$ 9 individual     
cases suff]$  any contradiction )\t !   
presumption ( ! univ]sal  proposition   
7:]ev] !re is smoke !re is fire72 ?us   
ar?patti  is ( no avail "h & inf]5ce has
 to be accept$4 ,n[  :5 x is prov$ t !re
 are cases :]e ! purpose ( inf]5ce  _c  
be s]v$ by ar?patti1 ! validity (       
inf]5ce  z a means ( pro( becomes       
e/abli%$4 ,t be+ done we  admit t ! k ( 
! fire 9 ! hill may come to u  ei!r by  
inf]5ce or by ar?patti4    ,s inf]5ce   
also _c s]ve ! purpose ( ar?patti1 =  9 
inf]5ce also x is ! hetu 7reason7 :i* is

 kn[n fir/1 &  lat] on f t ! sdhya 7:at 
is to be prov$72 bo? (  !m h[ev] _c be  
appreh5d$ at ! same mom5t1 &  x is      
exactly ?is t di/+ui%es ar?patti f      
anumna4  ,= ar?patti takes place :]e1   
)\t ! presumption (  ,devadatta's       
ext]nal exi/5ce1 ! abs5ce f ! h\se (    
,devadatta :o is liv+ _c be compreh5d$4 
,if ,devadatta is  liv+ he mu/ exi/     
inside or outside ! h\se4 ,! m9d _c     
swall[ a contradiction1 & h5ce )\t      
presum+ ! ext]nal  exi/5ce ( ,devadatta 
ev5 ! p]ceiv$ non-exi/5ce _c  be        
compreh5d$4 ,x is ?us t ! contradiction 
is resolv$ by  presum+ 8 exi/5ce outside
 ! h\se4 ,ar?patti is ?us  ! result (   
ar?nupapatti or ! contradiction ( !     
pres5t  p]ception ) a previ\sly acquir$ 
c]ta9 k4    ,x is by ?is ar?pattipramna 
t we h to admit t  !re is a special     
pot5cy 9 se$s by :i* !y produce !       
#cid    %oots1 & t a special pot5cy is  
believ$ to exi/ 9 sacrifices  by :i* ^! 
c lead ! sacrific] to ,heav5 or "s su*  
b5efic5t /ate ( exi/5ce4      ,s'abda   

pramna4    ,s'abda or ^w is reg>d$ z a  
sep>ate means ( pro( by  mo/ ( !        
recogniz$ ,indian sy/ems ( ?\ght except+
 !  ,ja9a1 ,buddhi/1 ,crvka &           
,vaisesika4 ,a discussion on ?is  topic 
h[ev] has b little philosophical value &
 ,i h !re=e  omitt$ to give any att5tion
 to x 9 connection ) !  ,nyya1 & !      
,smkhya-,yoga sy/ems4 ,! validity &     
au?ority  ( ! ,v$as 7 ackn[l$g$ by all  
,h9du writ]s &  !y _h wordy battles ov] 
x ) ! ,buddhi/s :o d5i$  x4 ,"s s\ght to
 e/abli% ?is au?ority on ! supposition  
t !y 7 ! ^w ( ,god1 :ile o!rs1          
p>ticul>ly !  ,mmmsi/s /rove to prove t 
!y 7 n writt5 by anyone1  & _h no beg9n+
 9 "t nor end & 7 et]nal4  ,_! au?ority 
0 n d]iv$ f ! au?ority ( any  tru/wor?y 
p]son or ,god4 ,_! words are valid 9    
!mselves4  ,evid5tly a discussion on ^! 
matt]s has b little value )  u1 ?\gh x 0
 a v fav\rite !me ( debate 9 ! old  days
 ( ,india4 ,x 0 9 fact ! mo/ important  
subject =  ,mmms1 = ! ,mmms stras 7     
writt5 = ! purpose  ( lay+ d[n canons = 

a "r int]pretation ( ! ,v$as4  ,! slight
 ext5t to :i* x has dealt ) its own     
epi/emological  doctr9es has be5 due    
solely to _! lay+ ! f\ndation  ( its    
/ructure ( int]pretative maxims1 & n to 
writ+ philosophy = its own sake4 ,x does
 n dwell s mu*  ^u salvation z o!r      
sy/ems d1 b seeks to s]ve z a  rational 
comp5dium ( maxims ) ! help ( :i* !     
,v$as may be rightly und]/ood & !       
sacrifices rightly p]=m$4  ,b a brief   
exam9ation ( ! doctr9e ( ^w 7s'abda7  z 
a means ( pro( _c be disp5s$ ) 9        
connection )  ,mmms z x is its v s\l4   
,s'abda 7^w7 z a pramna means ! k t we  
get ab\t ?+s 7n )9 ! purview ( our      
p]ception7 f  relevant s5t5ces by       
und]/&+ ! mean+ ( ! words (  :i* !y are 
made up4 ,^! s5t5ces may be ( two k9ds1 
viz4 ^? utt]$ by m5 & ^? :i* belong to !
 ,v$as4  ,! fir/ becomes a valid means (
 k :5 x is n    #cie    utt]$ by        
untru/wor?y p]sons & ! second is valid 9
  itself4 ,! mean+s ( words are ( c\rse 
kn[n to u  be=e1 & _c !re=e be c\nt$ z a

 means ( pro(2  b ! mean+s ( s5t5ces    
involv+ a k ( !  relations ( words _c be
 kn[n by any o!r ackn[l$g$  means (     
pro(1 & x is = ?is t we h to accept     
sabda  z a sep>ate means ( pro(4 ,ev5 if
 x is admitt$ t !  validity ( any s5t5ce
 may be inf]r$ on ! gr\nd ( its  be+    
utt]$ by a tru/wor?y p]son1 yet t w\ld n
  expla9 h[ we und]/& ! mean+s (        
s5t5ces1 = :5  ev5 ! "n or p]son ( a    
writ] or speak] is n kn[n1  we h no     
difficulty 9 und]/&+ ! mean+ ( any      
s5t5ce4    ,prabhk>a ?9ks t all s\nds   
are 9 ! =m ( lett]s1  or are und]/&able 
z comb9ations ( lett]s4 ,! con/itu5t    
lett]s ( a ^w h[ev] _c yield any mean+1 
& are  ?us to be reg>d$ z elem5ts (     
auditory p]ception :i*  s]ve z a means =
 und]/&+ ! mean+ ( a ^w4 ,!  reason (   
our appreh5sion ( ! mean+ ( any ^w is to
 be  f\nd 9 a sep>ate pot5cy exi/+ 9 !  
lett]s by :i* !  d5otation ( ! ^w may be
 compreh5d$4 ,! p]ception  ( ea*        
lett]-s\nd vani%es ! mom5t x is utt]$1 b
  leaves beh9d an impression :i* comb9es

 ) ! impressions  ( ! successively dy+  
p]ceptions ( lett]s1 & ?is br+s  ab\t ! 
:ole ^w :i* conta9s ! pot5cy ( br++     
ab\t ! compreh5sion ( a c]ta9 mean+4 ,if
 ev5 on he>+  a ^w ! mean+ _c be        
compreh5d$1 x has to be admitt$  t !    
he>] lacks c]ta9 auxili>ies necess>y = !
  purpose4 ,z ! pot5cy ( ! ^w orig9ates 
f ! sep>ate  pot5cies ( ! lett]s1 x has 
to be admitt$ t ! latt] is  ! direct    
cause ( v]bal cognition4 ,bo? ,prabhk>a 
&  ,kumrila agree on ?is po9t4    ,ano!r
 peculi> doctr9e exp\nd$ "h is t all    
words  h natural d5otative p[]s by :i*  
!y !mselves out (  _! own nature ref] to
 c]ta9 objects irrespective ( _!        
compreh5sion or non-compreh5sion by !   
he>]4 ,! he>] w  n und]/& ! mean+ unless
 x is kn[n to him t !  ^w 9 "q is       
expressive ( su* & su* a mean+1  b ! ^w 
0 all along compet5t to d5ote t mean+  &
 x is ! he>]'s k ( t fact t helps him to
    #cif    und]/& ! mean+ ( a ^w4 ,mmms
 does n ?9k  t ! association ( a        
p>ticul> mean+ ) a ^w is due  to        

conv5tions among p :o introduce & give  
mean+s  to ! words ,footnote ref #a4    
,words are ?us ackn[l$g$ to be d5otative
  ( !mselves4 ,x is only ab\t prop]     
names t conv5tion  is admitt$ to be !   
cause ( d5otation4 ,x is easy to see  ! 
be>+ ( ?is doctr9e on ! self-validity ( 
! ,v$ic  comm&m5ts1 by ! p]=mance ( :i* 
su* results w\ld  arise z c\ld n h be5  
pr$ict$ by any o!r p]son4  ,aga9 all    
words are believ$ to be et]nally exi/5t2
 b ?\gh  !y are ev] pres5t "s manife/ive
 ag5cy is requir$ by  :i* !y are        
manife/$ to u4 ,?is manife/ive ag5cy    
consi/s  ( ! ef=t put =? by ! man :o    
pron\nces !  ^w4 ,nyya ?9ks t ?is ef=t (
 pron\nc+ is ! cause  t produces ! ^w   
:ile ,mmms ?9ks t x only manife/s  to ! 
he>] ! ev]-exi/+ ^w4    ,! process by   
:i* accord+ to ,prabhk>a ! mean+s  (    
words are acquir$ maybe exemplifi$ ?us3 
a s5ior comm&s  a junior to br+ a c[ &  
to b9d a horse1 & !  *ild on notic+ !   
action ( ! junior 9 ob$i5ce to !        
s5ior's comm&s comes to und]/& ! mean+ (

 c[  & horse4 ,?us accord+ to him !     
mean+s ( words c  only be kn[n f words  
occurr+ 9 injunctive s5t5ces2 he  d$uces
 f ?is ! conclusion t words mu/ d5ote   
?+s  only z relat$ to ! o!r factors ( ! 
injunction 7anvitbhidhna  vda71 & no ^w 
c be compreh5d$ z hav+ any  d5otation :5
 tak5 ap>t f su* a s5t5ce4 ,?is doctr9e 
holds t ea* ^w yields its mean+ only z  
be+ g5]ally  relat$ to o!r factors or   
only z a "p ( an injunctive s5t5ce1  ?us
 ! ^w gm accusative case ( g 7c[7 means 
t x is  int5d$ t some?+ is to be done ) 
! c[ or ! bov9e  g5us1 & x appe>s only z
 connect$ ) a specific k9d (  action1   
viz4 br++ 9 ! s5t5ce gm naya--br+ ! c[4 
,kumrila h[ev] ?9ks t words indep5d5tly 
express  sep>ate mean+s :i* are         
subsequ5tly comb9$ into a s5t5ce        
express+ "o connect$ idea               
7abhihitnvayavda74 ,?us  9 gm naya1     
accord+ to ,kumrila1 gm means ! bov9e   
class 9 ! accusative "* & naya          
indep5d5tly means        ,footnote #a3  
,accord+ to ,nyya ,god creat$ all words 

& associat$ !m  ) _! mean+s4    #cig    
br+2 ^! two are !n comb9$ into ! mean+  
br+ !  c[4 ,b on ! =m] !ory ! ^w gm     
means t x is  connect$ ) "s k9d (       
action1 & ! p>ticul> s5t5ce  only %[s   
:at ! special k9d ( action is1 z 9 !    
above  s5t5ce x appe>s z associat$ )    
br++1 b x _c  h any mean+ sep>ately by  
itself4 ,?is !ory ( ,kumrila  :i* is    
also ! ,nyya !ory is call$              
abhihitnvayavda ,footnote ref  #a4      
,la/ly accord+ to ,prabhk>a x is only ! 
,v$a t c  be call$ s'abda-pramna1 & only
 ^? s5t5ces ( x :i*  conta9 injunctions 
7su* z1 p]=m ?is sacrifice 9 ?is way  ) 
^! ?+s74 ,9 all o!r cases ! validity (  
words is  only inf]r$ on ! gr\nd ( !    
tru/wor?y "* ( !  speak]4 ,b ,kumrila   
consid]s ! words ( all tru/wor?y  p]sons
 z s'abda-pramna4      ,! ,pramna (     
,non-p]ception 7anupalabdhi74    ,9     
addition to ! above pramnas ,kumrila    
admits a fif?  k9d ( pramna1 viz4       
anupalabdhi = ! p]ception ( !           
non-exi/5ce ( a ?+4 ,kumrila argues t ! 

non-exi/5ce (  a ?+ 7e4g4 !re is no jug 
9 ?is room7 _c be p]ceiv$  by ! s5ses1 =
 !re is no?+ ) :i* ! s5ses c\ld  come   
into contact 9 ord] to p]ceive !        
non-exi/5ce4 ,"s  p pref] to expla9 ?is 
non-p]ception z a case ( anumna4  ,!y   
say t :]ev] !re is ! exi/5ce ( a visible
 object  !re is ! vision ( x by a       
p]ceiv]4 ,:5 !re is no vision  ( a      
visible object1 !re is no exi/5ce ( x   
also4 ,b x is easy  to see t su* an     
inf]5ce presupposes ! p]ception ( want  
( vision & want ( exi/5ce1 b h[ ^!      
non-p]ceptions  are to be acc\nt$ = is  
exactly ! po9t to be solv$4 ,h[  c !    
p]ception ( want ( vision or want (     
exi/5ce be grasp$8  ,x is = ?is t we h  
to admit a sep>ate mode ( pramna  namely
 anupalabdhi4    ,all ?+s exi/ 9 places 
ei!r 9 a positive 7sadrpa7 or 9  a      
negative relation 7asadrpa71 & x is only
 9 ! =m] case        ,footnote #a3 ,see 
,prabhk>ammms by ,dr ,gangn?a ,jh &     
,s4,n4  ,dasgupta's ,/udy ( ,patanjali1 
app5dix4 ,x may be not$ 9 ?is           

connection t ,mmms did n fav\r ! ,sphota
 doctr9e ( s\nd  :i* consi/s 9 ! belief 
t ap>t f ! mom5t>y s\nds (  lett]s      
compos+ a ^w1 !re 0 a complete ^w =m :i*
 0  manife/$ 7sphota7 b n creat$ by !   
pass+ s\nds ( !  syllables4 ,! "w ( !   
syllable s\nds is only to project ?is   
^w manife/ation4 ,see ,vcaspati's       
,tattvab9du1 ,s'lokavrttika  &          
,prak>anapacik4 ,= ! doctr9e (          
anvitbhidhna see  ,shkan?a's            
,vkyr?amtrkvrtt4    #cih    t !y come )9
 ! purview ( ! s5ses1 :ile 9 !  latt]   
case ! p]ception ( ! negative exi/5ce c 
only be  _h by a sep>ate mode ( !       
movem5t ( ! m9d :i* we  designate z a   
sep>ate pramna z anupalabdhi4 ,prabhk>a 
holds t non-p]ception ( a visible object
 9 a place is only !  p]ception ( !     
empty place1 & t !re=e !re is no ne$  ( 
admitt+ a sep>ate pramna z anupalabdhi4 
,= :at is  meant by empty space8 ,if x  
is necess>y t = ! p]ception  ( !        
non-exi/5ce ( jug !re %\ld be absolutely
 empty  space be=e u1 !n if ! place be  

occupi$ by a /one we ought  n to p]ceive
 ! non-exi/5ce ( ! jug1 inasmu* z !     
place is n absolutely empty4 ,if empty  
space is def9$ z t  :i* is n associat$ )
 ! jug1 !n ! category ( negation  is    
practically admitt$ z a sep>ate entity4 
,if ! p]ception (  empty space is def9$ 
z ! p]ception ( space at ! mom5t  :i* we
 associat$ ) a want ( k ab\t ! jug1 !n  
also want ( k z a sep>ate entity has to 
be accept$1  :i* am\nts to ! same ?+ z !
 admission ( ! want or  negation ( !    
jug4 ,:atev] attempt may be made to     
expla9  ! notion ( negation by any      
positive conception1 x w at be/  be an  
attempt to %ift negation f ! objective  
field to k1  or 9 o!r words to sub/itute
 = ! place ( ! ext]nal  abs5ce ( a ?+ an
 associat$ want ( k ab\t !  ?+ 79 spite 
( its be+ a visible object7 & ?is       
naturally ends  9 failure1 = negation z 
a sep>ate category has to be admitt$    
ei!r 9 ! field ( k or 9 ! ext]nal _w4   
,negation  or abhva z a sep>ate category
 has anyh[ to be admitt$4  ,x is said t 

at ! fir/ mom5t only ! gr\nd is se5 )\t 
any k ( ! jug or its negation1 & !n at !
 next  mom5t comes ! compreh5sion ( !   
non-exi/5ce ( ! jug4  ,b ?is also means 
t ! mom5t ( ! p]ception ( !  gr\nd is   
associat$ ) ! want ( k ( ! jug or  its  
negation4 ,b ?is comes to ! same ?+ z ! 
admission  ( negation z a sep>ate       
category1 = :at o!r mean+ c  !re be 9 ! 
p]ception ( only ! gr\nd if x is n meant
  t x 7! p]ception ( ! gr\nd7 is        
associat$ ) or qualifi$  by ! want ( k (
 ! jug8 ,= ! p]ception (  ! gr\nd _c    
g5]ate ! notion ( ! non-exi/5ce (  !    
jug1 s9ce ev5 :]e !re is a jug ! gr\nd  
is p]ceiv$4  ,! qualify+ phrase t only !
 gr\nd is p]ceiv$ becomes    #cii       
mean+less1 if ?+s ^: pres5ce is exclud$ 
are n  specifi$ z negative conditions   
qualify+ ! p]ception ( !  gr\nd4 ,& ?is 
w\ld require t we _h already ! notion  (
 negation 9 u1 :i* appe>$ to u ( itself 
9 a special  mann] unacc\ntable by o!r  
means ( pro(4 ,x %\ld also  be not$ t   
non-p]ception ( a s5sible object g5]ates

 !  notion ( negation imm$iately & n    
?r\gh o!r negations1  & ?is is true n   
only ( ?+s ( ! pres5t mom5t b also  ( ! 
memory ( pa/ p]ceptions ( non-exi/5ce1 z
 :5 we  rememb] t !re 0 no jug "h4      
,anupalabdhi is ?us a  sep>ate pramna by
 :i* ! abs5ce or want ( a s5sible       
object--! negation ( a ?+--c be         
compreh5d$4      ,self1 ,salvation1     
,god4    ,mmms has to accept ! exi/5ce (
 s\l1 = )\t x  :o w\ld p]=m ! ,v$ic     
comm&m5ts1 & :at w\ld  be ! mean+ ( ^?  
,v$ic texts :i* speak ( m5 z p]=m+      
sacrifices & go+ to ,heav5 !reby8 ,! s\l
 is  ?us reg>d$ z some?+ entirely di/9ct
 f ! body1 !  s5se organs1 & buddhi2 x  
is et]nal1 omnipres5t1 & _m1  "o 9 ea*  
body4 ,prabhk>a ?9ks t x is manife/$ to 
u 9  all cognitions4 ,inde$ he makes ?is
 also a pro( = ! exi/5ce  ( self z a    
sep>ate entity f ! body1 = _h x n be5 s1
  :y %\ld we h ! notion ( self-p]si/5ce 
9 all our  cognitions--ev5 9 ^? :]e !re 
is no p]ception ( ! body8  ,kumrila     
h[ev] diff]s f ,prabhk>a ab\t ?is       

analysis (  ! consci\sness ( self 9 our 
cognitions1 & says t ev5  ?\gh we may n 
h any notion ( ! p>ts ( our body or  _! 
specific comb9ation1 yet ! notion (     
ourselves z embodi$  be+s always appe>s 
9 all our cognitions4 ,moreov] 9 our    
cognitions ( ext]nal objects we are n   
always consci\s ( !  self z ! kn[]2 s x 
is n correct to say t self is diff]5t  f
 ! body on ! gr\nd t ! consci\sness (   
self is  pres5t 9 all our cognitions1 & 
t ! body is n cogniz$ 9  _m ( our       
cognitions4 ,b ! true reason = admitt+ t
  ! self is diff]5t f ! body is ?is1 t  
movem5t or  will+1 k1 pleasure1 pa91    
etc41 _c be attribut$ to  ! body1 = ?\gh
 ! body exi/s at dea? ^! _c !n be  f\nd4
 ,s x has to be admitt$ t !y mu/ belong 
to "s  o!r entity ow+ to ! association )
 :i* ! body appe>s    #djj    to be     
end[$ ) movem5t etc4 ,moreov] k1  feel+1
 etc4 ?\gh app>5t to ! p]ceiv]1 are n   
yet p]ceiv$  by o!rs z o!r qualities ( !
 body1 z col\r etc41  are p]ceiv$ by o!r
 m54 ,x is a g5]al law ( causation  t ! 

qualities ( ! con/itu5t elem5ts 79 !    
cause7 imp>t  !mselves to ! effect1 b ! 
e>? atoms ( :i* ! body  is made up d n  
conta9 ! qualities ( k etc41 &  ?is also
 corroborates ! inf]5ce ( a sep>ate     
entity z !  vehicle ( k etc4 ,!         
objection is sometimes rais$ t  if ! s\l
 is omnipres5t h[ c x be call$ an ag5t  
or a  mov]8 ,b ,mmms does n admit t     
movem5t means  atomic motion1 = !       
pr9ciple ( movem5t is ! en]gy :i*  moves
 ! atoms1 & ?is is possess$ by !        
omnipres5t s\l4  ,x is by ! en]gy imp>t$
 by x to ! body t ! latt]  moves4 ,s x  
is t ?\gh ! s\l does n move x is call$  
an  ag5t on acc\nt ( ! fact t x causes !
 movem5t (  ! body4 ,! self mu/ also be 
und]/ood z be+ diff]5t  f ! s5ses1 = ev5
 :5 "o loses "s ( ! s5ses  he cont9ues  
to p]ceive 8 self all ! same z p]si/+   
all  ?r\gh4    ,! "q n[ arises1 h[ is   
self cogniz$8 ,prabhk>a  holds t ! self 
z cognizor is nev] cogniz$ ap>t f !     
cogniz$ object1 nor is ! object ev]     
cogniz$ )\t ! cognizor  ent]+ into !    

cognition z a necess>y factor4 ,bo? !   
self & ! object %9e =? 9 ! self-lum9\s k
 9  :at we h already describ$ z         
triputi-pratyksa 7p]ception  z          
?ree-toge!r74 ,x is n ! s\l :i* is      
self-illum9$ b  k2 s x is k :i* illum9es
 bo? ! self &  ! object 9 "o op]ation4  
,b j z 9 ! case ( a man  :o walks1 !    
action ( walk+ re/s ^u ! walk]1 yet he  
is  reg>d$ z ! ag5t ( ! "w & n z !      
object1 s 9 !  case ( ! op]ation ( k1   
?\gh x affects ! self1 yet  x appe>s z !
 ag5t & n z ! object4 ,cognition is n   
s\l1 b ! s\l is manife/$ 9 cognition z  
its sub/ratum1  & appe>s 9 x z !        
cognitive elem5t ,i :i* is insep>able  f
 all cognitions4 ,9 deep sleep !re=e :5 
no object is  cogniz$ ! self also is n  
cogniz$4    ,kumrila h[ev] ?9ks t ! s\l 
:i* is di/9ct f  ! body is p]ceiv$ by a 
m5tal p]ception 7mnasa-pratyaksa  z !   
sub/ratum ( ! notion ( ,i1 or 9 o!r     
words ! self  p]ceives itself by m5tal  
p]ception1 & ! p]ception ( its    #dja  
own nature %9es =? 9 consci\sness z !   

,i4 ,! objection  t ! self _c itself be 
bo? subject & object to its  own        
op]ation does n hold1 = x applies       
equally to ,prabhk>a's  !ory 9 :i* k    
reveals ! self z its object & yet       
consid]s x z ! subject ( ! op]ation4 ,! 
analogy (  l+ui/ic usage t ?\gh ! walk+ 
affects ! walk] yet  he is ! ag5t1 _c be
 reg>d$ z an escape f ?is *>ge1  = !    
usage ( language is n philosophical     
analysis4 ,?\gh  at ! "t ( ! cognition (
 objects ! self is cogniz$1 yet x  does 
n appe> z ! kn[] ( ! k ( objects1 b     
reveals itself z an object ( a sep>ate  
m5tal p]ception :i*  is di/9ct f ! k (  
objects4 ,! self is no d\bt  kn[n z !   
sub/ratum ( ,i1 b ! k ( ?is self  does n
 reveal itself necess>ily ) ! cognition 
( objects1  nor does ! self %[ itself z 
! kn[] ( all k (  objects1 b ! self is  
appreh5d$ by a sep>ate m5tal intuition  
:i* we repres5t z ! ,i4 ,! self does n  
reveal itself z  ! kn[] b z an object ( 
a sep>ate intuitive process ( !  m9d4   
,?is is inde$ diff]5t f ,prabhk>a's     

analysis1 :o  reg>d$ ! cognition ( self 
z insep>able f ! object-cognition1  bo? 
be+ ! result ( ! illum9ation ( k4       
,kumrila agrees ) ,prabhk>a h[ev] 9     
hold+ t s\l  is n self-illum9at+        
7svayampraks'a71 = !n ev5 9 deep  sleep 
! s\l %\ld h manife/$ itself2 b !re is  
no su*  manife/ation !n1 & ! /ate ( deep
 sleep appe>s z an  unconsci\s /ate4    
,!re is also no bliss 9 deep sleep1 = _h
  x be5 s p w\ld n h regrett$ t !y _h   
miss$  s5sual enjoym5ts by untimely     
sleep4 ,! expression t  ,i slept 9 bliss
 signifies only t no mis]y 0 felt4      
,moreov]  ! opposite repres5tation ( !  
deep sleep /ate is also f\nd  :5 a man  
on ris+ f sleep says ,i slept s long )\t
  kn[+ any?+ n ev5 my own self4 ,! self 
is n  atomic1 s9ce we c simultane\sly   
feel a s5sation 9 ! head  z well z 9 !  
leg4 ,! ,ja9a !ory t x is ( ! size (  ! 
body :i* contracts & exp&s accord+ to ! 
body x  occupies is unacceptable4 ,x is 
bett] !re=e t ! s\l %\ld  be reg>d$ z   
all-p]vad+ z describ$ 9 ! ,v$as4 ,?is   

self mu/ also be diff]5t 9 diff]5t      
p]sons = o!rwise _!  individual         
exp]i5ces ( objects & ( pleasure & pa9  
_c  be expla9$ ,footnote ref #a4        
,footnote #a3 ,see ,s'lokavrttika1      
tmavda ,s'/ra-dpik1 tmavda &  moksavda4 
#djb      ,kumrila consid]$ ! self to be
 m]ely ! pot5cy (  k 7jnas'akti7        
,footnote ref #a4 ,cognitions ( ?+s 7   
g5]at$ by ! activity ( ! manas & ! o!r  
s5ses4 ,?is self  itself c only be      
cogniz$ by m5tal p]ception1 ,or at !  "t
 ( salvation !re be+ none ( ! s5ses nor 
! manas  ! self rema9s 9 pure exi/5ce z 
! pot5cy ( k  )\t any actual expression 
or manife/ation4 ,s ! /ate (  salvation 
is ! /ate 9 :i* ! self rema9s devoid (  
any  ( its *>act]i/ic qualities su* z   
pleasure1 pa91 k1  will+1 etc41 = ! self
 itself is n k nor is x bliss  or n&a z 
,v$nta supposes2 b ^! are g5]at$ 9 x by 
its en]gy & ! op]ation ( ! s5ses4 ,!    
self be+ dive/$  ( all its s5ses at t   
"t1 rema9s z a m]e pot5cy ( !  en]gy (  
k1 a m]e exi/5ce4 ,?is view ( salvation 

is accept$ 9 ! ma9 by ,prabhk>a also4   
,salvation is br\ght ab\t :5 a man      
enjoys & suff]s  ! fruits ( 8 good & bad
 actions & !reby exhau/s !m  & /ops !   
fur!r g5]ation ( new effects by refra9+ 
f  ! p]=mance ( kmya-k>mas 7sacrifices  
etc4 p]=m$ =  ! atta9m5t ( c]ta9        
b5efic5t results7 & gu>antees  himself  
aga9/ ! evil effects ( s9 by assidu\sly 
p]=m+  ! nitya-k>mas 7su* z ! s&hy      
pray]s etc41 by ! p]=mance  ( :i* !re is
 no b5efit b ! non-p]=mance  ( :i*      
produces s9s74 ,?is /ate is *>act]iz$ by
 !  dissolution ( ! body & !            
non-production ( any fur!r  body or     
rebir?4    ,mmms does n admit ! exi/5ce 
( any ,god z !  creator & de/roy] ( !   
univ]se4 ,?\gh ! univ]se is  made up (  
p>ts1 yet !re is no reason to suppose t 
!  univ]se _h ev] any beg9n+ 9 "t1 or t 
any ,god creat$  x4 ,e day animals & m5 
are com+ into be+ by !  action ( ! p>5ts
 )\t ! op]ation ( any ,god4 ,nei!r  is x
 necess>y z ,nyya supposes t dh>ma &    
adh>ma  %\ld h a sup]visor1 = ^! belong 

to ! p]=m] &        ,footnote #a3 ,x may
 be m5tion$ 9 ?is connection t unlike   
,nyya  ,mmms did n consid] all activity 
z be+ only ( ! nature (  molecul>       
vibration 7p>isp&a74 ,x admitt$ !       
exi/5ce ( en]gy  7s'akti7 z a sep>ate   
category :i* manife/$ itself 9 actual   
movem5ts4 ,! self be+ consid]$ z a      
s'akti c move ! body &  yet rema9 unmov$
 itself4 ,manife/ation ( action only    
means !  relation+ ( ! en]gy ) a ?+4    
,nyya /rongly opposes ?is  doctr9e ( a  
non-s5sible 7atndriya7 en]gy & seeks to 
expla9 all  action by actual molecul>   
motion4    #djc    no "o c h any k ( !m4
 ,moreov] !re _c  be any contact        
7samyoga7 or inh]5ce 7samavya7 ( dh>ma  
& adh>ma ) ,god t he might sup]vise !m2 
he _c  h any tools or body :]e) to      
fa%ion ! _w l  ! c>p5t]4 ,moreov] he    
c\ld h no motive to create !  _w ei!r z 
a m]ciful or z a cruel act4 ,= :5 9 !   
beg9n+ !re 7 no be+s t[>ds :om %\ld he  
be  actuat$ ) a feel+ ( m]cy8 ,moreov]  
he w\ld himself  require a creator to   

create him4 ,s !re is no ,god1 no       
creator1  no creation1 no dissolution or
 pralaya4 ,! _w has ev] be5  runn+ !    
same1 )\t any new creation or           
dissolution1 srsti  or pralaya4         
,mmms z philosophy & ,mmms z ritualism4 
,f :at we h said be=e x w be easy to see
 t  ,mmms agrees 9 ! ma9 ) ,vais'esika  
ab\t ! exi/5ce  ( ! categories ( ?+s su*
 z ! five elem5ts1 ! qualities1  rpa1   
rasa1 etc4 ,kumrila's diff]5ces on !    
po9ts ( jti1  samavya1 etc4 &           
,prabhk>a's peculi>ities h also be5     
m5tion$ be=e4 ,on "s ( ^! po9ts x appe>s
 t  ,kumrila 0 influ5c$ by ,smkhya ?\ght
 r ?an by  ,nyya4 ,smkhya & ,vais'esika 
are ! only ,h9du sy/ems :i*  h tri$ to  
con/ruct a physics z a "p ( _!          
metaphysics2  o!r sy/ems h g5]ally      
foll[$ !m or h diff]$ f  !m only on m9or
 matt]s4 ,! physics ( ,prabhk>a &       
,kumrila h ?us b little importance1 z !y
 agree 9  g5]al ) ! ,vais'esika view4 ,9
 fact !y 7 ju/ifi$ 9 n  lay+ any special
 /ress on ?is "p1 because = ! p]=mance  

( sacrifices ! common-s5se view (       
,nyya-,vais'esika ab\t  ! _w 0 mo/      
suitable4    ,! ma9 diff]5ce ( ,mmms )  
,nyya consi/s ( !  !ory ( k4 ,! =m] 0   
requir$ to prove t !  ,v$a 0 self-valid 
& t x did n d]ive its validity f  ,god1 
& also t x 0 n necess>y to te/ its      
validity by any  o!r means4 ,to d ?is x 
began by try+ to e/abli% ! self-validity
  ( all k4 ,?is w\ld secure = ! ,v$a !  
advantage t z soon z its ord]s or       
injunctions 7 communicat$  to u !y w\ld 
appe> to u z valid k1 &  !re be+ no?+ to
 contradict !m lat] on !re w\ld be  no?+
 9 ! _w :i* c\ld r5d] ! ,v$ic           
injunctions    #djd    invalid4 ,! o!r  
pramnas su* z p]ception1 inf]5ce1 etc4  
7 describ$1 fir/ly to indicate t !y c\ld
 n %[ to u  h[ dh>ma c\ld be acquir$1 = 
dh>ma 0 n an exi/+  ?+ :i* c\ld be      
p]ceiv$ by ! o!r pramnas1 b  a ?+ :i*   
c\ld only be produc$ by act+ accord+ to 
! injunctions ( ! ,v$as4 ,= ! k ( dh>ma 
& adh>ma !re=e ! s'abdapramna ( ! ,v$a 0
 our  only s\rce4 ,secondly x 0 necess>y

 t we %\ld h a  k ( ! diff]5t means (   
cognition1 z )\t !m  x w\ld be difficult
 to discuss & v]ify ! mean+s ( debatable
  ,v$ic s5t5ces4 ,! doctr9e ( creation &
 dissolution  :i* is recogniz$ by all   
o!r ,h9du sy/ems c\ld n be  ackn[l$g$ by
 ! ,mmms z x w\ld h endang]$ !          
et]nality ( ! ,v$as4 ,ev5 ,god _h to be 
disp5s$ ) on  t acc\nt4    ,! ,v$a is   
def9$ z ! collection ( ,mantras &       
,brhmanas  7also call$ ! vidhis or      
injunctive s5t5ces74 ,!re are  ?ree     
classes ( injunctions 7#a7 aprva-vidhi1 
7#b7 niyama-vidhi1 &  7#c7              
p>isankhy-vidhi4 ,aprva-vidhi is an ord]
 :i* enjo9s  some?+ n o!rwise kn[n1 e4g4
 ! gra9s %\ld be wa%$  7we c\ld n "k t  
?is "p ( ! duty 0 necess>y = !          
sacrifice except by ! above injunction74
 ,niyama-vidhi is t  :]e :5 a ?+ c\ld h 
be5 done 9 a numb] ( ways1  an ord] is  
made by ! ,v$a :i* re/ricts u to foll[+ 
"s def9ite alt]native 7e4g4 ?\gh ! *aff 
f ! corn  c\ld be sep>at$ ev5 by !      
nails1 ! ord] t corn %\ld  be ?re%$     

re/ricts u to ! alt]native ( ?re%+ z !  
only c\rse acceptable = ! sacrifice74 ,9
 ! niyama-vidhi  t :i* is ord]$ is      
already kn[n z possible b only z  an    
alt]native1 & ! vidhi insi/s ^u "o ( ^! 
me?ods z  ! only "o4 ,9 aprva-vidhi ! ?+
 to be done w\ld h  rema9$ undone &     
unkn[n _h x n be5 = ! vidhi4  ,9        
p>isankhy-vidhi all t is enjo9$ is      
already kn[n b  n necess>ily z possible 
alt]natives4 ,a c]ta9 mantra ,i take  up
 ! re9 7imm agrbhnm ras'anm7 :i* c\ld be
 us$ 9  a numb] ( cases %\ld n h[ev] be 
us$ at ! "t (  hold+ ! re9s ( an ass4   
,!re are ?ree ma9 pr9ciples ( int]pret+ 
! ,v$ic  s5t5ces4 7#a7 ,:5 "s s5t5ces   
are su* t connectively  !y yield a mean+
 b n individually1 !n !y %\ld be    #dje
    tak5 toge!r connectively z a :ole4  
7#b7 ,if ! sep>ate s5t5ces  c h[ev]     
yield mean+s sep>ately by !mselves !y   
%\ld n be connect$ toge!r4 7#c7 ,9 !    
case ( c]ta9  s5t5ces :i* are incomplete
 suitable words f ! context  (          
imm$iately prec$+ s5t5ces are to be     

suppli$4    ,! vidhis prop]ly int]pret$ 
are ! ma9 s\rce ( dh>ma4  ,! mantras :i*
 are g5]ally hymns 9 praise ( "s deities
  or p[]s are to be tak5 z be+ = !      
specification ( !  deity to :om !       
libation is to be (f]$4 ,x %\ld be      
rememb]$  t z dh>ma c only be acquir$ by
 foll[+  ! injunctions ( ! ,v$as !y %\ld
 all be int]pret$ z  giv+ u injunctions4
 ,any?+ !re=e f\nd 9 ! ,v$as  :i* _c be 
connect$ ) ! injunctive ord]s z =m+  "p 
( !m is to be reg>d$ z untru/wor?y or at
 be/ inexpressive4  ,?us x is t ^?      
s5t5ces 9 ! ,v$as :i*  describe exi/+   
?+s m]ely or praise "s de$ ( injunction 
7call$ ! ar?avdas7 %\ld be int]pret$ z  
=m+ "p  ( a vidhi-vkya 7injunction7 or  
be reject$ altoge!r4 ,ev5  ^?           
expressions :i* give reasons = !        
p]=mance (  c]ta9 actions are to be     
treat$ z m]e ar?avdas & int]pret$  z    
prais+ injunctions4 ,= ,v$as h value    
only z  m&ates by ! p]=mance ( :i* dh>ma
 may be acquir$4    ,:5 a sacrifice is  
p]=m$ accord+ to ! injunctions (  !     

,v$as1 a capacity :i* did n exi/ be=e & 
^: exi/5ce  is prov$ by ! au?ority ( !  
scriptures is g5]at$  ei!r 9 ! action or
 9 ! ag5t4 ,?is capacity or positive    
=ce call$ aprva produces 9 "t ! b5efic5t
 results ( !  sacrifice 7e4g4 leads !   
p]=m] to ,heav574 ,?is aprva is l  a    
pot5cy or faculty 9 ! ag5t :i* abides 9 
him until !  desir$ results foll[       
,footnote ref #a4    ,x is ne$less to   
dilate ^u ^!1 = ! volum9\s works  (     
,s'ab>a & ,kumrila make an elaborate    
rese>* into !  nature ( sacrifices1     
rituals1 & o!r relevant matt]s 9 great  
detail1 :i* anyh[ c h b little int]e/ = 
a /ud5t  ( philosophy4        ,footnote 
#a3 ,see ,dr ,gangn?a ,jh's             
,prabhk>ammms & ,mdhava's  ,nyyamlvi/>a4
    #djf        ,,*apt] ,x    ,,!       
,s',a,,nk>a ,,s*ool ,,( ,,v$,,nta       
,compreh5sion ( ! philosophical ,issues 
m ess5tial  ?an ! ,dialectic (          
controv]sy4    ,pramna 9 ,sanskrit      
signifies ! means & ! movem5t  by :i* k 
is acquir$1 pramt means ! subject or  ! 

kn[] :o cognizes1 pram ! result (       
pramna--"r  k1 prameya ! object ( k1 &  
prmnya !  validity ( k acquir$4 ,!      
validity ( k is  sometimes us$ 9 ! s5se 
( ! fai?fulness ( k to  its object1 &   
sometimes 9 ! s5se ( an inn] notion (   
validity 9 ! m9d ( ! subject--! kn[] 7t 
8 p]ceptions  are true71 :i* moves him  
to "w 9 accordance )  8 p]ceptions to   
adapt himself to 8 environm5t = !       
atta9m5t ( pleasurable & ! avoidance (  
pa9ful ?+s4  ,! "q :]e9 consi/s ! prmnya
 ( k has  n only an epi/emological &    
psy*ological be>+ b a  metaphysical "o  
also4 ,x conta9s on "o side a !ory ( k  
bas$ on an analysis ( psy*ological      
exp]i5ce1 & on  ! o!r indicates a       
metaphysical situation consi/5t ) !     
!ory ( k4 ,all ! diff]5t s*ools tri$ to 
ju/ify  a !ory ( k by an appeal to !    
analysis & int]pretation  ( exp]i5ce :i*
 ! o!rs sometimes ignor$ or  sometimes  
reg>d$ z unimportant4 ,! ?9k]s ( diff]5t
  s*ools 7 accu/om$ (t5 to meet toge!r &
 defeat "o  ano!r 9 actual debates1 & ! 

result ( ^! debates 0 frequ5tly  v      
important 9 det]m9+ ! pre/ige ( any     
s*ool  ( ?\ght4 ,if a ,buddhi/ = example
 c\ld defeat a great ,nyya  or ,mmms    
?9k] 9 a great public debate att5d$ by  
_m  le>n$ s*ol>s f diff]5t p>ts ( !     
c\ntry1 8 fame at  once spread all ov] !
 c\ntry & he c\ld probably secure a     
l>ge numb] ( foll[]s on ! spot4         
,ext5sive t\rs ( disputation  7 (t5     
und]tak5 by great ma/]s all ov] ! c\ntry
  = ! purpose ( defeat+ ! tea*]s ( !    
opposite s*ools  & ( secur+ adh]5ts to  
_! own4 ,^! debates 7 !re=e  n g5]ally  
conduct$ m]ely 9 a passionless          
philosophical    #djg    mood ) ! object
 ( arriv+ at ! tru? b 9 ord] to  inflict
 a defeat on oppon5ts & to e/abli% !    
asc5d5cy (  "s p>ticul> s*ool ( ?\ght4  
,x 0 (t5 a s5se ( p]sonal  victory & ( !
 victory ( ! s*ool ( ?\ght to :i* !     
debat] adh]$ t l$ him to pursue !       
debate4 ,advanc$  ,sanskrit             
philosophical works give u a picture ( !
 attitude  ( m9d ( ^! debat]s & we f9d t

 mo/ ( ^!  debates attempt to criticize 
! diff]5t s*ools ( ?9k]s by  expos+ _!  
inconsi/5cies & self-contradictions by  
close  dialectical reason+1 anticipat+ !
 answ]s ( ! oppon5t1  ask+ him to def9e 
8 /atem5ts1 & ultimately prov+ t  8 !ory
 0 inconsi/5t1 l$ to contradictions1 & 0
 oppos$  to ! te/imony ( exp]i5ce4 ,9   
read+ an advanc$ "w on  ,indian         
philosophy 9 ! orig9al1 a /ud5t has to  
pass ?r\gh an  int]m9able s]ies (       
dialectic argum5ts1 & negative          
criticisms  7to ?w>t oppon5ts7 sometimes
 call$ vitand1 be=e he c  come to ! root
 ( ! qu>rel1 ! real philosophical       
div]g5ce4  ,all ! res\rces ( ! arts (   
controv]sy f9d full play  = sil5c+ !    
oppon5t be=e ! f9al philosophical answ] 
is giv54 ,b to a mod]n /ud5t (          
philosophy1 :o belongs to  no p>ty & is 
consequ5tly indiff]5t to ! respective   
victory  ( ei!r side1 ! mo/ important ?+
 is ! compreh5sion (  ! diff]5t aspects 
f :i* ! problem ( ! !ory (  k & its     
associat$ metaphysical !ory 0 look$ at  

by ! philosoph]s1 & also a cle> und]/&+ 
( ! defici5cy  ( ea* view1 ! value ( !  
mutual criticisms1 ! speculations  on ! 
exp]i5ce ( ea* s*ool1 _! analysis1 & _! 
net contribution to philosophy4 ,)      
,v$nta we come to an  end ( ! pres5t    
volume1 & x may n be out ( place "h  to 
make a brief survey ( ! ma9 conflict+   
!ories f !  po9t ( view ( ! !ory ( k1 9 
ord] to indicate !  position ( ! ,v$nta 
( ! ,s'ank>a s*ool 9 ! field (  ,indian 
philosophy s f> z we h trav]s$ x4 ,i    
%all !re=e  n[ try to lay be=e my read]s
 ! solution ( ! !ory  ( k 7pramnavda7   
rea*$ by "s ( ! ma9  s*ools ( ?\ght4 ,_!
 relations to ! solution (f]$ by  !     
,s'ank>a ,v$nta w also be dealt )1 z we 
%all attempt  to sket* ! views ( !      
,v$anta lat] on 9 ?is *apt]4    #djh    
,! philosophical situation4 ,a ,review4 
,be=e deal+ ) ! ,v$nta sy/em x seems    
advisable  to review ! g5]al attitude ( 
! s*ools already discuss$ to  ! ma9     
philosophical & epi/emological que/ions 
:i* det]m9e  ! position ( ! ,v$nta z    

taught by ,s'ank>a &  8 s*ool4    ,!    
,sautrntika ,buddhi/ says t 9 all 8     
affairs man is  conc]n$ ) ! fulfilm5t ( 
8 ends & desires 7purusdrtka74  ,?is    
h[ev] _c be done )\t "r k 7samyagjna7   
:i* rightly repres5ts ?+s to m54 ,k is  
said  to be "r :5 we c get ?+s j z we   
p]ceiv$ !m4  ,s f> z m]e repres5tation  
or illum9ation ( objects is conc]n$1  x 
is a pat5t fact t we all h k1 & !re=e   
?is does n des]ve criticism or          
exam9ation4 ,our enquiry ab\t  k is ?us 
re/rict$ to its aspect ( lat]           
v]ification or  contradiction 9         
exp]i5ce1 = we are all conc]n$ to "k h[ 
f> our p]ceptions ( ?+s :i* inv>iably   
prec$e all our  actions c be tru/$ z    
rightly indicat+ :at we want to get  9  
our practical exp]i5ce 7ar?aprdpakatva74
 ,! p]ception is  "r 7abhrnta           
non-illusory7 :5 foll[+ its             
repres5tation we  c get 9 ! ext]nal _w  
su* ?+s z 7 repres5t$ by  x             
7samvdakatva74 ,t p]ception alone c be  
"r :i* is  g5]at$ by ! object & n m]ely 

suppli$ by our imag9ation4  ,:5 ,i say  
?is is ! c[ ,i _h se51 :at ,i see is !  
object ) ! br[n col\r1 horns1 feet1     
etc41 b ! fact t  ?is is call$ c[1 or t 
?is is exi/+ f a pa/ "t1 is  n p]ceiv$  
by ! visual s5se1 z ?is is n g5]at$ by  
! visual object4 ,= all ?+s are mom5t>y1
 & t :i*  ,i see n[ nev] exi/$ be=e s z 
to be inve/$ ) ?is  or t p]man5t "n4    
,?is association ( "n & p]man5ce  to    
objects p]ceiv$ is call$ kaipan or      
abhilpa4  ,our p]ception is correct only
 s f> z x is )\t ! abhilpa  association 
7kalpanpodha71 = ?\gh ?is is tak5 z a "p
 (  our p]ceptual exp]i5ce x is n d]iv$ 
f ! object1 &  h5ce its association ) ! 
object is an evid5t error4 ,!  object z 
unassociat$ ) "n--! nirvikalpa--is ?us  
:at  is p]ceiv$4 ,z a result ( !        
pratyaksa ! manovijna or  ?\ght & m5tal 
p]ception ( pleasure & pa9 is also      
det]m9$4 ,at "o mom5t p]ception reveals 
! object z an    #dji    object ( k     
7grhya71 & by ! fact ( ! rise  ( su* a  
p]cept1 at ano!r mom5t x appe>s z a ?+  

realizable or atta9able 9 ! ext]nal _w4 
,! special  features ( ! object         
undef9able 9 !mselves z be+  :at !y are 
9 !mselves 7svalaksana7 are :at is      
actually p]ceiv$ 7pratyaksavisaya7      
,footnote ref #a4  ,! pramnaphala       
7result ( p]ception7 is !               
,footnote #a3 ,!re is a diff]5ce (      
op9ion ab\t ! mean+ ( ! ^w  svalaksana (
 ,dh>makrtti betwe5 ray e/eem$ fri5d    
,pr(essor  ,/*]batsky ( ,petrograd &    
myself4 ,he ma9ta9s t ,dh>makrtti held  
t ! cont5t ( ! pres5tative elem5t at !  
mom5t ( p]ception  0 almo/ totally      
empty4 ,?us he writes to me1 ,accord+ to
 y\r  int]pretation svalaksana mean1--! 
object 7or idea ) ,vijnavd97  f :i*     
ev]y?+ pa/ & ev]y?+ future has be5      
elim9at$1  ?is ,i d n d5y at all4 ,b ,i 
ma9ta9 t if ev]y?+ pa/ &  future has be5
 tak5 away1 :at rema9s8 ,! pres5t & !   
pres5t  is a ksana i4e4 no?+4444 ,!     
rev]se ( ksana is a ksanasamtna  or     
simply samtna & 9 e samtna !re is a     
syn!sis ekbhva  ( mom5ts pa/ & future1  

produc$ by ! intellect 7buddhi  nis'caya
   kalpana  adhyavasya7444,!re is 9 !   
p]ception ( a jug some?+  7a ksana (    
s5se k7 :i* we mu/ di/+ui% f ! idea (  a
 jug 7:i* is always a samtna1 always    
vikalpita71 & if y take  ! idea away 9 a
 /rict unconditional s5se1 no k rema9s3 
ksanasya jn5a prpayitumas'akyatvt4 ,?is 
is absolutely ! ,kantian  tea*+ ab\t    
,syn!sis ( ,appreh5sion4 ,accord+ly     
pratyaksa is a  transc5d5tal s\rce ( k1 
because practically speak+ x  gives no k
 at all4 ,?is pramna is asatkalpa4 ,kant
 says  t )\t ! elem5ts ( intuition 7    
s5se-k  pratyaksa   kalpanpodha7 our    
cognitions w\ld be empty & )\t ! elem5ts
 (  intellect 7kalpan  buddhi  syn!sis  
ekbhva7 !y w\ld be bl9d4  ,empirically  
bo? are always comb9$4 ,?is is exactly !
 !ory (  ,dh>makrtti4 ,he is a ,vijnavd 
z ,i und]/&1 because he ma9ta9s  !      
cognizability ( ideas 7vijna7 alone1 b !
 reality is an  incognizable f\ndation (
 our k2 he admits1 x is bhya1 x is      
ar?a1 x is ar?akriyksana  svalaksana2 t 

is ! reason =  :i* he sometimes is call$
 ,sautrntika & ?is s*ool is sometimes   
call$ ,sautranta-vijnavda1 z oppos$ to !
 ,vijnavda ( ,z'vaghosa  & rysanga1 :i* 
_h no elaborate !ory ( cognition4 ,if ! 
jug z  x exi/s 9 our repres5tation 7 !  
svalaksana & p>amr?asat1  :at w\ld rema9
 ( ,vijnavda8 ,b !re is ! p]ception ( ! 
jug  z oppos$ to ! pure idea ( a jug    
7s'uddh kalpan71 an elem5t (  reality1 !
 s5sational ksana1 :i* is communicat$ to
 u by s5se  k4 ,kant's '?+ 9 itself' is 
also a ksana & also an elem5t  ( s5se k 
( pure s5se z oppos$ to pure reason1    
,dh>makrtti  has also s'uddh kalpan &   
s'uddham pratyaksam4 444,& v  int]e/+ is
 ! opposition betwe5 pratyaksa & anumna1
 ! fir/  moves f ksana to samtna & !    
second f samtna to ksana1  t is ! reason
 t al?\gh bhrnta ! anumna is nev]!less  
pramna because ?r\gh x we indirectly    
also rea* ksana1 !  ar?akriyksana4 ,x is
 bhrnta directly & pramna indirectly2   
pratyaksa is pramna directly & bhrnta   
7asatkalpa7 indirectly444 4  ,s f> z !  

passages to :i* ,pr(essor ,/*]batsky    
ref]s are  conc]n$1 ,i am 9 full        
agreem5t ) him4 ,b ,i ?9k t he pu%es  ! 
int]pretation too f> on ,kantian l9es4  
,:5 ,i p]ceive ?is is  blue1 ! p]ception
 consi/s ( two p>ts1 ! actual           
pres5tative  elem5t ( s5se-k            
7svalaksana7 & ! affirmation            
7nis'caya74 ,s f> we are 9 complete     
agreem5t4 ,b ,pr(essor  ,/*]batsky says 
t ?is s5se-k is a ksana 7mom5t7  & is   
no?+4 ,i also hold t x is a ksana1 b x  
is no?+  only 9 ! s5se t x is n ! same z
 ! notion involv+  affirmation su* z ?is
 is blue4 ,! affirmative process        
occurr+ at ! succe$+ mom5ts is det]m9$  
by ! pres5tative  elem5t ( ! fir/ mom5t 
7pratyaksabalotpanna ,n4,t41 p4 #bj7 b  
?is pres5tative elem5t dive/$ f !       
product ( ! affirmative  process ( !    
succe$+ mom5ts is n *>act]less1 ?\gh we 
_c  express its "*2 z soon z we try to  
express x1 names & o!r  ideas consi/+ ( 
affirmation are associat$ & ^! did n =m 
a "p ( ! pres5tative elem5t4 ,its own "*

 is said to be its  own specific nature 
7svalaksana74 ,b :at is ?is specific    
nature8  ,dh>makrtti's answ] on ?is po9t
 is t by specific nature he means  ^?   
specific *>act]i/ics ( ! object :i*     
appe> cle> :5  ! object is ne> & hazy :5
 x is at a di/ance 7yasyr?asya          
sannidhnsannidhnbkym jnapratibhsabh$a/at
 svalaksanam ,n41  p4 #a & ,n4,t41 p4   
#af74 ,s5se-k ?us gives u ! specific    
*>act]i/ics ( ! object1 & ?is has ! same
 =m z !  object itself2 x is ! appe>ance
 ( ! blue 9 its specific  "* 9 ! m9d &  
:5 ?is is associat$ by ! affirmative  or
 ideational process1 ! result is !      
concept or idea ?is is blue  7nlas>pam  
pratyaksamanubhyamnam                   
nlabodh>pamava/hpyate 444  nlasrpyamasya
 pramnam nlavikalpan>pam tvasya         
pramnaphalam1  ,n4,t4p4 #bb74 ,at ! fir/
 mom5t !re is ! appe>ance ( ! blue      
7nlanirbhsam hi vijnam1 ,n4,t4 #ai7 &   
?is is direct acqua9tance  7yatkicit    
ar?asya skstkrijnam tatpratyaksamucyate1
 ,n4,t4 #g7 &  ?is is real 7p>amr?asat7 

& valid4 ,?is blue s5sation is  diff]5t 
f ! idea ?is is blue 7nlabodha1 ,n4,t4  
#bb7 :i* is  ! result ( ! =m]           
7pramnaphala7 ?r\gh ! association (  !  
affirmative process 7adhyavasya7 & is   
reg>d$ z invalid =  x conta9s elem5ts   
o!r ?an :at 7 pres5t$ to ! s5se & is  a 
vikalpapratyaya4 ,9 my op9ion svalaksana
 !re=e means pure  s5sation ( ! mom5t   
pres5t+ ! specific features ( ! object  
& ) ,dh>makrtti ?is is ! only ?+ :i* is 
valid 9 p]ception  & vikalpapratyaya or 
pramnaphala is ! idea or concept :i*    
foll[s  x4 ,b ?\gh ! latt] is a product 
( ! =m]1 yet1 be+ !  con/ruction (      
succe$+ mom5ts1 x _c give u ! pure /age 
( ! fir/ mom5t ( s5sation-pres5tation   
7ksanasya  prpayitumas'akyatvt1 ,n4,t4  
#af74 ,n4,t4  ,nyyab9dutk1  ,n          
,nyyab9du 7,pet]son's edition74    #daj 
ideational concept & p[] t su* k has (  
%[+  ! means :i* be+ foll[$ ! ?+ c be   
got 7y5a krt5a  ar?ah prpito bhavati74  
,pramna !n is ! simil>ity ( !  k ) !    
object by :i* x is g5]at$1 by :i* we    

assure ourselves t ?is is our k ( !     
object z x is  p]ceiv$1 & are ?us l$ to 
atta9 x by practical exp]i5ce4  ,yet ?is
 lat] /age is pramnaphala & n pramna :i*
  consi/s m]ely 9 ! vision ( ! ?+       
7devoid ( o!r associations71  & :i*     
det]m9es ! attitude ( ! p]ceiv] t[>ds  !
 p]ceiv$ object4 ,! pramna !re=e only   
ref]s  to ! newly-acquir$ k             
7anadhigatdhigantr7 z ?is is  ( use to !
 p]ceiv] 9 det]m9+ 8 relations ) !      
objective  _w4 ,?is acc\nt ( p]ception  
leaves out ! real  epi/emological "q z  
to h[ ! k is g5]at$  by ! ext]nal _w1 or
 :at x is 9 itself4 ,x only looks to  ! 
correctness or fai?fulness ( ! p]ception
 to ! object &  its value = u 9 !       
practical realization ( our ends4 ,!  "q
 ( ! relation ( ! ext]nal _w ) k z      
det]m9+ ! latt] is reg>d$ z unimportant4
    #daa      ,! ,yogcras or ideali/ic  
,buddhi/s take _! cue f  ! above-m5tion$
 ,sautrntika ,buddhi/s1 & say t s9ce  we
 c come into t\* ) k & k alone1  :at is 
! use ( admitt+ an ext]nal _w ( objects 

z !  data ( s5sation det]m9+ our k8 ,y  
say t  s5sations are copies ( ! ext]nal 
_w1 b :y %\ld y  say t !y copy1 & n t !y
 alone exi/8 ,we nev] come  into t\* )  
objects 9 !mselves2 ^! c only be grasp$ 
by u simultane\sly ) k ( !m1 !y mu/     
!re=e  be ! same z k 7sahopalambhaniyamt
 abh$o  nlataddhiyoh72 = x is 9 & ?r\gh 
k t ext]nal  objects c appe> to u1 & )\t
 k we  are n 9 t\* ) ! s-call$ ext]nal  
objects4 ,s x is  k :i* is self-app>5t 9
 itself1 t projects itself 9  su* a     
mann] z to appe> z ref]r+ to o!r ext]nal
 objects4  ,we all ackn[l$ge t 9 dreams 
!re are no ext]nal  objects1 b ev5 !re  
we h k4 ,! "q  :y !n if !re are no      
ext]nal objects1 !re %\ld be s  mu*     
div]sity 9 ! =ms ( k1 is n bett] solv$  
by ! assumption ( an ext]nal _w2 = 9 su*
 an assumption1  ! ext]nal objects h to 
be admitt$ z possess+ !  inf9itely      
div]se p[]s ( div]sely affect+ & det]m9+
  our k2 t be+ s1 x may r be said t 9  !
 beg9n+less s]ies ( fl[+ k1 prec$+      
k-mom5ts  by virtue ( _! inh]5t specific

 qualities det]m9e  ! succe$+ k-mom5ts4 
,?us k  alone exi/s2 ! projection ( an  
ext]nal ^w is an illusion (  k br\ght   
ab\t by beg9n+less pot5cies ( desire    
7vsan7 associat$ ) x4 ,! prec$+ k       
det]m9es  ! succe$+ "o & t ano!r & s on4
 ,k1  pleasure1 pa91 etc4 are n         
qualities requir+ a p]man5t entity  z   
s\l 9 :i* !y may inh]e1 b are ! v>i\s   
=ms  9 :i* k appe>s4 ,ev5 ! cognition1  
,i p]ceive a  blue ?+1 is b a =m ( k1 & 
?is is (t5 errone\sly  int]pret$ z      
ref]r+ to a p]man5t kn[]4 ,?\gh  !      
cognitions are all pass+ & mom5t>y1 yet 
s long z  ! s]ies cont9ues to be ! same1
 z 9 ! case ( "o p]son1  say ,devadatta1
 ! ph5om5a ( memory1 recognition1 etc4 c
  happ5 9 ! succe$+ mom5ts1 = ^! are    
evid5tly illusory  cognitions1 s f> z !y
 ref] to ! p]man5ce ( ! objects    #dab 
believ$ to h be5 p]ceiv$ be=e1 = ?+s or 
k-mom5ts1  :atev] !y may be1 are de/roy$
 ! next  mom5t aft] _! bir?4 ,!re is no 
p]man5t entity z p]ceiv]  or kn[]1 b !  
k-mom5ts are at once !  k1 ! kn[] & !   

kn[n4 ,?is ?or\ghgo+  idealism bru%es (f
 all ref]5ces to an objective field (   
exp]i5ce1  int]prets ! v]dict ( k z     
involv+ a kn[]  & ! kn[n z m]e illusory 
appe>ance1 & consid]s !  fl[ ( k z a    
self-det]m9+ s]ies 9 successive         
objective =ms z ! only tru?4 ,! ,h9du   
s*ools ( ?\ght1  ,nyya1 ,smkhya1 & !    
,mmms1 accept ! duality ( s\l  & matt]1 
& attempt to expla9 ! relation betwe5 ! 
two4 ,) ! ,h9du writ]s x 0 n ! practical
 utility (  k t 0 ! only important ?+1 b
 ! nature (  k & ! mann] 9 :i* x came   
into be+ 7 also  enquir$ aft] & consid]$
 important4    ,pramna is def9$ by ,nyya
 z ! collocation ( in/rum5ts  by :i*    
un]r+ & indubitable k comes into be+4   
,! collocation ( in/rum5ts :i* br+s ab\t
 def9ite k  consi/s p>tly ( consci\sness
 7bodha7 & p>tly ( mat]ial  factors     
7bodhbodhasvabhva74 ,?us 9 p]ception !  
prop] contact ( ! visual s5se ) ! object
 7e4g4 jug7 fir/  br+s ab\t a           
non-intellig5t1 non-appreh5sible        
indet]m9ate  consci\sness 7nirvikalpa7 z

 ! jugness 7ghatatva7 & ?is lat]  on    
comb9+ ) ! rema9+ o!r collocations (    
s5se-contact  etc4 produces ! det]m9ate 
consci\sness3 ?is is a jug4  ,! exi/5ce 
( ?is indet]m9ate /ate ( consci\sness z 
a  factor 9 br++ ab\t ! det]m9ate       
consci\sness1 _c (  c\rse be p]ceiv$1 b 
its exi/5ce c be inf]r$ f !  fact t if !
 p]ceiv] 7 n already 9 possession ( !   
qualify+ factor 7vis'esanajna z jugness7
 he c\ld n h  compreh5d$ ! qualifi$     
object 7vis'istabuddhi ! jug 7i4e4  !   
object :i* possesses jugness74 ,9       
inf]5ce 7anumna7  k ( ! linga takes "p1 
& 9 upamna ! sight  ( simil>ity ) o!r   
mat]ial conglom]ations4 ,9 ! case  ( !  
,buddhi/s k itself 0 reg>d$ z pramna2   
ev5 by ^? :o admitt$ ! exi/5ce ( !      
objective _w1  "r k 0 call$ pramna1     
because x 0 ( ! same  =m z ! ext]nal    
objects x repres5t$1 & x 0 by ! =m  ( ! 
k 7e4g4 blue7 t we c\ld appreh5d t !    
#dac    ext]nal object 0 also blue4 ,k  
does n det]m9e !  ext]nal _w b simply   
en=ces our convictions ab\t ! ext]nal   

_w4 ,s f> z k leads u to =m our         
convictions  ( ! ext]nal _w x is pramna1
 & s f> z x det]m9es our  attitude t[>ds
 ! ext]nal _w x is pramnaphala4 ,!  "q  
h[ k is g5]at$ _h little importance )   
!m1 b h[ ) k we c\ld =m convictions (  !
 ext]nal _w 0 ! mo/ important ?+4 ,k  0 
call$ pramna1 because x 0 ! means by :i*
 we  c\ld =m convictions 7adhyavasya7   
ab\t ! ext]nal _w4  ,nyya s\ght to answ]
 ! "q h[ k 0  g5]at$ 9 u1 b c\ld n      
und]/& t k 0 n  a m]e ph5om5on l any o!r
 objective ph5om5on1 b  ?\ght t ?\gh z a
 guna 7quality7 x 0 ext]nal l o!r       
gunas1 yet x 0 associat$ ) our self z a 
result ( collocations  l any o!r happ5+ 
9 ! mat]ial _w4 ,pramna  does n         
necess>ily br+ to u new k               
7anadhigatdhi-gantr7  z ! ,buddhi/s     
dem&$1 b :5soev] !re 7  collocations (  
pramna1 k 0 produc$1 no matt]  :e!r !   
object 0 previ\sly unkn[n or kn[n4 ,ev5 
!  k ( kn[n ?+s may be repeat$ if !re be
 suitable  collocations4 ,k l any o!r   
physical effect is produc$  :5ev] !     

cause ( x namely ! pramna collocation   
is pres5t4 ,categories :i* are m]ely    
m5tal su* z class  7smnya71 inh]5ce     
7samavya71 etc41 7 consid]$ z hav+  z   
mu* indep5d5t exi/5ce z ! atoms ( ! f\r 
elem5ts4  ,! ph5om5on ( ! rise ( k 9 !  
s\l 0 ?us  conceiv$ to be z mu* a       
ph5om5on z ! turn+ ( !  col\r ( ! jug by
 fire f black to r$4 ,! elem5t (        
indet]m9ate consci\sness 0 believ$ to be
 comb9+ )  ! s5se contact1 ! object1    
etc4 to produce ! det]m9ate             
consci\sness4 ,!re 0 no o!r subtl] =m ( 
movem5t ?an  ! molecul>4 ,su* a movem5t 
br\ght ab\t by a c]ta9  collocation (   
?+s end$ 9 a c]ta9 result 7phala74 ,jna 
7k7 0 ?us ! result ( c]ta9 unit$        
collocations  7smagr7 & _! movem5ts     
7e4g4 contact ( manas ) s\l1  ( manas ) 
! s5ses1 ( ! s5ses ) ! object1 etc474   
,?is  confusion r5d]s x impossible to   
und]/& ! real philosophical  di/9ction  
betwe5 k & an ext]nal ev5t  ( !         
objective _w4 ,nyya ?us fails to expla9 
! cause    #dad    ( ! orig9 ( k1 & its 

true relations ) ! objective  _w4       
,pleasure1 pa91 will+1 etc4 7 reg>d$ z  
qualities  :i* belong$ to ! s\l1 & ! s\l
 itself 0 reg>d$  z a qualitiless entity
 :i* c\ld n be appreh5d$ directly  b 0  
inf]r$ z t 9 :i* ! qualities ( jna1     
sukha  7pleasure71 etc4 inh]$4          
,qualities _h indep5d5t exi/5ce  z mu* z
 sub/ances1 b :5 any new sub/ances 7    
produc$1 ! qualities ru%$ =w>d & inh]$ 9
 !m4 ,x  is v probable t 9 ,nyya !      
cultivation ( ! art ( inf]5ce  0        
orig9ally pre-em95t & metaphysics 0     
d$uc$  lat] by an application ( !       
inf]5tial me?od :i* gave  !             
introspective me?od b little scope = its
 application1  s t inf]5ce came 9 to    
expla9 ev5 p]ception 7e4g4 ?is is  a jug
 s9ce x has jugness7 & ! te/imony (     
p]sonal psy*ological  exp]i5ce 0 tak5   
only z a supplem5t to corroborate  !    
results arriv$ at by inf]5ce & 0 n us$  
to criticize x  ,footnote ref #a4       
,smkhya und]/ood ! diff]5ce betwe5 k &  
mat]ial ev5ts4 ,b s f> z k consi/$ 9 be+

 !  copy ( ext]nal ?+s1 x c\ld n be     
absolutely diff]5t f  ! objects         
!mselves2 x 0 ev5 !n an invisible       
transluc5t  sort ( ?+1 devoid ( weight &
 grossness su* z ! ext]nal  objects     
possess$4 ,b ! fact t x copies ^? gross 
objects  makes x evid5t t k _h          
ess5tially ! same sub/ances  ?\gh 9 a   
subtl] =m z t ( :i* ! objects 7  made4  
,b ?\gh ! matt] ( k1 :i* assum$ !  =m ( 
! objects ) :i* x came 9 t\*1 0 probably
  ?us a subtl] comb9ation ( ! same      
elem5t>y sub/ances  ( :i* matt] 0 made  
up1 yet !re 0 9 x ano!r elem5t1  viz4   
intellig5ce1 :i* at once di/+ui%$ x z   
utt]ly  diff]5t f mat]ial comb9ations4  
,?is elem5t ( intellig5ce  is inde$     
diff]5t f ! sub/ances or cont5t (  ! k  
itself1 = ! elem5t ( intellig5ce is l a 
/ation>y light1 ! self1 :i* illum9ates !
 cr[d+1  bu/l+ k :i* is incessantly     
*ang+ its =m 9  accordance ) ! objects )
 :i* x comes 9 t\*4 ,?is  light (       
intellig5ce is ! same t f9ds its        
manife/ation 9  consci\sness z ! ,i1 !  

*angeless entity amid/ all !            
fluctuations ( ! *angeful procession (  
k4 ,h[ ?is  elem5t ( light :i* is =eign 
to ! sub/ance ( k        ,footnote #a3  
,see ,nyyamaj> on pramna4    #dae       
relates itself to k1 & h[ k itself takes
 x up  into itself & appe>s z consci\s1 
is ! mo/ difficult po9t  ( ! ,smkhya    
epi/emology & metaphysics4 ,! sub/ance  
( k copies ! ext]nal _w1 & ?is copy-%ape
 (  k is aga9 intelligiz$ by ! pure     
intellig5ce 7purusa7  :5 x appe>s z     
consci\s4 ,! =m+ ( ! buddhi-%ape  ( k is
 ?us ! pramna 7in/rum5t & process (  k7 
& ! validity or invalidity ( any ( ^!   
%apes  is criticiz$ by ! lat] %apes ( k 
& n by !  ext]nal objects 7svatah-prmnya
 & svatah-aprmnya74 ,!  pramna h[ev] c  
lead to a pram or "r k only  :5 x is    
intelligiz$ by ! purusa4 ,! purusa comes
 9 t\*  ) buddhi n by ! ord9>y means (  
physical contact b  by :at may be call$ 
an inexplicable transc5d5tal contact4   
,x is ! transc5d5tal influ5ce ( purusa t
 sets 9 motion  ! orig9al prakrti 9     

,smkhya metaphysics1 & x is ! same      
transc5d5t t\* 7call x yogyat accord+ to
 ,vcaspati or  samyoga accord+ to       
,bhiksu7 ( ! transc5d5t entity (  purusa
 t trans=ms ! non-intellig5t /ates (    
buddhi into  consci\sness4 ,! ,vijnavd9 
,buddhi/ did n make any  di/9ction      
betwe5 ! pure consci\sness & its =ms    
7kra7  & did n !re=e agree t ! kra ( k 0
  due to its copy+ ! objects4 ,smkhya 0 
h[ev] a reali/  :o admitt$ ! ext]nal _w 
& reg>d$ ! =ms z  all due to copy+1 all 
/amp$ z su* ^u a transluc5t sub/ance    
7sattva7 :i* c\ld assume ! %ape ( !     
objects4  ,b ,smkhya 0 also             
transc5d5tali/ 9 ?is1 t x did n  ?9k l  
,nyya t ! kra ( k 0 all t k  _h to %[2 x
 held t !re 0 a transc5d5t elem5t  :i*  
%one =? 9 k & made x consci\s4 ,)  ,nyya
 !re 0 no di/9ction betwe5 ! %ap$ buddhi
 &  ! intellig5ce1 & t be+ s            
consci\sness 0 almo/ l  a physical ev5t4
 ,) ,smkhya h[ev] s f> z ! cont5t  & !  
%ape manife/$ 9 consci\sness 7 conc]n$ x
 0  inde$ a physical ev5t1 b s f> z !   

pure intelligiz+ elem5t  ( consci\sness 
0 conc]n$ x 0 a :olly transc5d5t  affair
 beyond ! scope & prov9ce ( physics4 ,! 
rise (  consci\sness 0 ?us at once bo?  
transc5d5t & physical4    ,! ,mmmsi/    
,prabhk>a agre$ ) ,nyya 9 g5]al  z      
reg>ds ! way 9 :i* ! objective _w & s5se
 contact    #daf    induc$ k 9 u4 ,b x  
reg>d$ k z a  unique ph5om5on :i* at    
once reveal$ itself1 ! kn[]  & ! kn[n4  
,we are n conc]n$ ) physical            
collocations1  = :atev] ^! may be x is k
 :i* reveals  ?+s--! direct appreh5sion 
t %\ld be call$ ! pramna4  ,pramna 9 ?is
 s5se is ! same z pramiti or pram1  !   
ph5om5on ( appreh5sion4 ,pramna may also
 inde$  mean ! collocations s f> z !y   
induce ! pram4 ,=  pram or "r k is nev] 
produc$1 x always exi/s1  b x manife/s  
itself diff]5tly "u diff]5t             
circum/ances4  ,! validity ( k means !  
conviction or ! specific  attitude t is 
g5]at$ 9 u ) ref]5ce to ! objective  _w4
 ,?is validity is manife/$ ) ! rise ( k1
  & x does n await ! v]dict ( any lat]  

exp]i5ce 9 !  objective field 7samvd974 
,k z nirvikalpa 7indet]m9ate7  means !  
:ole k ( ! object & n m]ely  a          
non-s5sible hypo!tical indet]m9ate      
class-notion z ,nyya  holds4 ,!         
savikalpa 7det]m9ate7 k only            
re-e/abli%es  ! k ?us =m$ by relat+ x ) 
o!r objects z  repres5t$ by memory      
,footnote ref #a4    ,prabhk>a reject$ !
 ,smkhya conception ( a dual elem5t  9  
consci\sness z involv+ a transc5d5t     
intellig5ce 7cit7 &  a mat]ial "p1 !    
buddhi2 b x reg>d$ consci\sness z an    
unique ?+ :i* by itself 9 "o fla%       
repres5t$ bo? !  kn[] & ! kn[n4 ,!      
validity ( k did n dep5d  ^u its        
fai?fulness 9 reproduc+ or indicat+     
7prad>s'akatva7  ext]nal objects1 b ^u !
 =ce t all direct appreh5sion  7anubhti7
 has ( prompt+ u to action 9 ! ext]nal  
_w2  k is ?us a complete & indep5d5t    
unit 9 all its  self-reveal+ aspects4 ,b
 :at ! k 0 9 itself ap>t  f its         
self-reveal+ "* ,prabhk>a did n enquire4
    ,kumrila decl>$ t jna 7k7 0 a       

movem5t  br\ght ab\t by ! activity ( !  
self :i* result$ 9 produc+  consci\sness
 7jtat7 ( objective ?+s4 ,jna itself  _c
 be p]ceiv$1 b c only be inf]r$ z !     
movem5t  necess>y = produc+ ! jtat or   
consci\sness ( ?+s4  ,movem5t ) ,kumrila
 0 n a m]e atomic vibration1 b  0 a     
non-s5su\s transc5d5t op]ation ( :i*    
vibration        ,footnote #a3 ,smkhya  
consid]$ nirvikalpa z ! dim k ( !  fir/ 
mom5t ( consci\sness1 :i*1 :5 x became  
cle> at ! next  mom5t1 0 call$          
savikalpa4    #dag    0 sometimes !     
result4 ,jna 0 a movem5t & n !  result (
 causal op]ation z ,nyya suppos$4 ,nyya 
w\ld  n also admit any movem5t on ! "p (
 ! self1 b x  w\ld hold t :5 ! self is  
possess$ ( c]ta9 qualities1  su* z      
desire1 etc41 x becomes an in/rum5t = ! 
accompli%m5t  ( a physical movem5t4     
,kumrila accords ! same  self-validity  
to k t ,prabhk>a gives4 ,lat] k  by     
exp]i5ce is n end[$ ) any special       
quality  :i* %\ld decide z to ! validity
 ( ! k ( !  previ\s movem5t4 ,= :at is  

call$ samvdi or lat] te/imony  (        
exp]i5ce is b lat] k & no?+ m ,footnote 
ref #a4 ,!  self is n reveal$ 9 ! k (   
ext]nal objects1 b we  c "k x by a m5tal
 p]ception ( self-consci\sness4 ,x is  !
 movem5t ( ?is self 9 pres5ce ( c]ta9   
collocat+ circum/ances  lead+ to        
cognition ( ?+s t is call$ jna ,footnote
 ref #b4  ,"h ,kumrila di/+ui%es k z    
movem5t f k  z objective consci\sness4  
,k z movem5t 0  beyond s5se p]ception & 
c\ld only be inf]r$4    ,! ideali/ic    
t5d5cy ( ,vijnavda ,buddhism1 ,smkhya1  
& ,mmms 0 manife/ 9 its attempt at      
e/abli%+ ! unique  "* ( k z be+ t ) :i* 
alone we are 9  t\*4 ,b ,vijnavda d5i$ !
 ext]nal _w1 & !reby  did viol5ce to !  
te/imony ( k4 ,smkhya admitt$  ! ext]nal
 _w b creat$ a gulf betwe5 ! cont5t ( k 
& pure intellig5ce2 ,prabhk>a ignor$ ?is
 diff]5ce1  & 0 satisfi$ ) !            
introspective ass]tion t k  0 su* a     
unique ?+ t x reveal$ ) itself1 ! kn[] &
  ! kn[n1 ,kumrila h[ev] admitt$ a      
transc5d5t elem5t  ( movem5t z be+ !    

cause ( our objective consci\sness1  b  
reg>d$ ?is z be+ sep>ate f self4 ,b ! "q
  rema9$ unsolv$ z to :y1 9 spite ( !   
unique "* (  k1 k c\ld relate itself to 
! _w ( objects1  h[ f> ! _w ( ext]nal   
objects or ( k c\ld be  reg>d$ z        
absolutely true4 ,hi!rto judgm5ts 7 only
 relative1  ei!r ref]r+ to "o's be+     
prompt$ to ! objective  _w1 to !        
fai?fulness ( ! repres5tation ( objects1
 !  suitability ( fulfill+ our          
requirem5ts1 or to v]ification by lat]  
,footnote #a3 ,see ,nyy>atnamla1        
svatah-prmnya-nirnaya4    ,footnote #b3 
,see ,nyyamaj>i on ,pramna1             
,s'lokavrttika on  ,pratyaksa1 & ,gg    
,bhatta's ,bhattc9tamani on ,pratyaksa4 
#dah    uncontradict$ exp]i5ce4 ,b no   
enquiry 0 made :e!r  any absolute       
judgm5ts ab\t ! ultimate tru? ( k  &    
matt] c\ld be made at all4 ,t :i* appe>$
 0 reg>d$  z ! real4 ,b ! "q 0 n ask$1  
:e!r  !re 0 any?+ :i* c\ld be reg>d$ z  
absolute tru?1  ! basis ( all appe>ance1
 & ! un*angeable1 reality4 ,?is         

philosophical enquiry _h ! mo/ wond]ful 
*>m = !  ,h9du m9d4      ,v$nta         
,lit]ature4    ,x is difficult to       
asc]ta9 ! "t :5 ! ,brahma-stras  7      
writt51 b s9ce !y conta9 a refutation ( 
almo/ all !  o!r ,indian sy/ems1 ev5 ( !
 ,s'nyavda ,buddhism 7( c\rse  accord+  
to ,s'ank>a's int]pretation71 !y _c h   
be5  writt5 v e>ly4 ,i ?9k x may n be f>
 f ! tru? 9  suppos+ t !y 7 writt5 "s "t
 9 ! second c5tury  ,b4,c4 ,ab\t ! p]iod
 #ghj ,a4,d4 ,gaudapda reviv$ ! moni/ic 
tea*+ ( ! ,upanisads by 8 comm5t>y on ! 
,mndkya  ,upanisad 9 v]se call$         
,mndkyakrik4 ,8 disciple ,gov9da  0 !   
tea*] ( ,s'ank>a 7#ghh--hbj ,a4,d474    
,s'ank>a's comm5t>y  on ! ,brahma-stras 
is ! root f :i* sprang  =? a ho/ (      
comm5t>ies & /udies on ,v$ntism ( great 
orig9ality1 vig\r1 & philosophic        
insight4 ,?us n&agiri1 a  disciple (    
,s'ank>a1 wrote a comm5t>y call$        
,nyyanirnaya1  & ,gov9dn&a wrote ano!r  
comm5t>y nam$ ,ratna-prabh4  ,vcaspati  
,mis'ra1 :o fl\ri%$ ab\t #hda ,a4,d41   

wrote  ano!r comm5t>y on x call$ !      
,bhmati4 ,amaln&a  7#abdg--abfj ,a4,d47 
wrote 8 ,kalpat>u on x1 & ,apyayadiksita
  7#aeej ,a4,d47 son ( ,rang>jadhv>ndra 
( ,kc wrote 8  ,kalpat>up>imala on !    
,kalpat>u4 ,ano!r disciple ( ,s'ank>a1  
,padmapda1 also call$ ,san&ana1 wrote a 
comm5t>y on x  kn[n z ,pacapdik4 ,f !   
mann] 9 :i* ! book is  begun "o w\ld    
expect t x 0 to be a runn+ comm5t>y  on 
! :ole ( ,s'ank>a's bhsya1 b x ends     
abruptly at !  end ( ! f\r? stra4       
,mdhava 7#acej71 9 8 ,s'ank>avijaya1    
recites an int]e/+ /ory ab\t x4 ,he says
 t ,sures'v>a receiv$  ,s'ank>a's       
p]mission to write a vrttika on ! bhsya4
  ,b o!r pupils object$ to ,s'ank>a t   
s9ce ,sures'v>a 0  =m]ly a great ,mmmsi/
 7,mandana ,misra 0 call$ ,sures'v>a    
aft] 8 conv]sion to ,v$ntism7 he 0 n    
compet5t to write    #dai    a good     
vrttika on ! bhsya4 ,sures'v>a1         
disappo9t$1 wrote  a treatise call$     
,naisk>myasiddhi4 ,padmapda wrote a tk  
b ?is 0 burnt 9 8 uncle's h\se4         

,s'ank>a1 :o _h once  se5 x1 recit$ x f 
memory & ,padmapda wrote x d[n4         
,praks'tman 7#abjj7 wrote a comm5t>y on 
,padmapda's ,pacapdik  kn[n z           
,pacapdikviv>ana4 ,akhandn&a wrote  8   
,tattvadpana1 & ! fam\s ,nrsimhs'rama   
,muni 7#aejj7  wrote 8                  
,viv>anabhvapraks'ik on x4 ,amaln&a &   
,vidyasg>a also wrote comm5t>ies on     
,pacapdik1 nam$  ,pacapdikd>pana &      
,pacapdiktk respectively1 b  !          
,pacapdikviv>ana _h by f> ! greate/     
reputation4  ,vidyranya :o is g5]ally   
id5tifi$ by "s ) ,mdhava  7#acej7 wrote 
8 fam\s "w ,viv>anaprameyasamgraha      
,footnote ref #a1  elaborat+ ! ideas (  
,pacapdikviv>ana2 ,vidyranya  wrote also
 ano!r excell5t "w nam$ ,jvanmuktiviveka
 on  ! ,v$nta doctr9e ( emancipation4   
,sures'v>a's 7#hjj ,a4,d47  excell5t "w 
,naisk>myasiddhi is probably ! e>lie/   
indep5d5t  treatise on ,s'ank>a's       
philosophy z express$ 9 8  bhsya4 ,x has
 be5 comm5t$ ^u by ,jnottama ,mis'ra4   
,vidyranya also wrote ano!r "w ( great  

m]it kn[n z  ,pacadas'1 :i* is a v      
popul> & illum9at+ treatise 9  v]se on  
,v$nta4 ,ano!r important "w writt5 9    
v]se on  ! ma9 tea*+s ( ,s'ank>a's bhsya
 is ,samksepas'arraka1  writt5 by       
,s>vajtma ,muni 7#ijj ,a4,d474 ,?is has 
also be5  comm5t$ ^u by ,rmatr?a4       
,s'rh>sa 7#aaij ,a4,d47 wrote  8        
,khandanakhandakhdya1 ! mo/ celebrat$ "w
 on !  ,v$nta dialectic4 ,citsukha1 :o  
probably fl\ri%$ %ortly  aft] ,s'rh>sa1 
wrote a comm5t>y on x1 & also wrote an  
indep5d5t "w on ,v$nta dialectic kn[n z 
,tattvadpik  :i* has also a comm5t>y    
call$ ,nayanaprasd9 writt5  by          
,pratyagrpa4 ,s'ank>a ,mis'ra &         
,raghun?a also wrote  comm5t>ies on     
,khandanakhandakhdya4 ,a "w on ,v$nta   
epi/emology & ! pr9cipal topics ( ,v$nta
 (  great orig9ality & m]it kn[n z      
,v$ntap>ibhs 0  writt5 by               
,dh>m>jdhv>ndra 7ab\t #aee,,oa4,d474 ,8 
son  ,rmakrsndhv>9 wrote 8 ,s'ikhmani on
 x & ,am>adsa 8  ,maniprabh4 ,!         
,v$ntap>ibhs ) ^! two comm5t>ies  =ms an

 excell5t exposition ( "s ( ! fundam5tal
  pr9ciples ( ,v$nta4 ,ano!r "w (       
supreme importance        ,footnote #a3 
,see ,n>asimhcrya's article 9 ! ,indian 
,antiqu>y1  #aiaf4    #dbj    7?\gh     
probably ! la/ great "w on ,v$nta7 is ! 
,advaitasiddhi ( ,madhusdana ,s>asvat :o
 foll[$ ,dh>m>jdhv>ndra4  ,?is has ?ree 
comm5t>ies kn[n z ,gaudabrahmn&1        
,vit?ales'opadhyy & ,siddhivykhy4       
,sadn&a  ,vysa wrote also a summ>y ( x  
kn[n z ,advaitasiddhisiddhntasra4       
,sadn&a wrote also an excell5t elem5t>y 
"w  nam$ ,v$ntasra :i* has also two     
comm5t>ies ,subodh9  & ,vidvanmanoraj94 
,! ,advaitabrahmasiddhi ( ,sadn&a  ,yati
 ?\gh mu* inf]ior to ,advaitasiddhi is  
important1 z x  t\*es on _m po9ts (     
,v$nta int]e/ :i* are n dealt  ) 9 o!r  
,v$nta works4 ,! ,nyyamak>&a ( n&abodha 
,bhattrakcryya treats ( ! doctr9es (    
illusion v  well1 z also "s o!r         
important po9ts ( ,v$nta int]e/4        
,v$ntasiddhntamuktval ( ,praks'n&a      
discusses _m (  ! subtle po9ts reg>d+ ! 

nature ( ajna & its relations  to cit1 !
 doctr9e ( dr/isr/ivda1 etc41 ) great   
cle>ness4  ,siddhntales'a by            
,apyayadksita is v important z a summ>y 
( ! div]g5t views ( diff]5t writ]s on _m
 po9ts (  int]e/4 ,v$ntatattvadpik &    
,siddhntatattva are also good  z well z 
deep 9 _! g5]al summ>y ( ! ,v$nta sy/em4
  ,bh$adhikkra ( ,nrsimhs'rama ,muni    
also is to be reg>d$ z  an important "w 
on ! ,v$nta dialectic4    ,! above is   
only a li/ ( "s ( ! mo/ important ,v$nta
  works on :i* ! pres5t *apt] has be5   
bas$4        ,v$nta 9 ,gaudapda4    ,x  
is useless ,i ?9k to attempt to br+ out 
! mean+ (  ! ,v$nta ?\ght z conta9$ 9 ! 
,brahma-stras )\t  mak+ any ref]5ce to !
 comm5t>y ( ,s'ank>a or any  o!r        
comm5tator4 ,!re is reason to believe t 
! ,brahma-stras  7 fir/ comm5t$ ^u by "s
 ,vaisnava writ]s :o  held "s =m (      
modifi$ dualism ,footnote ref #a4 ,!re h
 be5 m  ?an a half doz5 ,vaisnava       
comm5tators ( ! ,brahma-stras  :o n only
 diff]$ f ,s'ank>a's int]pretation1 b   

also  diff]$ l>gely among/ !mselves 9   
accordance ) !  diff]5t degrees ( /ress 
!y laid on ! diff]5t aspects (  _!      
duali/ic cre$s4 ,e "o ( !m claim$ t 8   
int]pretation  0 ! only "o t 0 fai?ful  
to ! stras & to        ,footnote #a3    
,?is po9t w be dealt ) 9 ! #bnd volume1 
:5 ,i %all  deal ) ! sy/ems exp\nd$ by !
 ,vaisnava comm5tators ( !              
,brahma-stras4    #dba    ! ,upanisads4 
,%\ld ,i attempt to give an             
int]pretation  myself & claim t to be ! 
"r "o1 x w\ld be only  j "o additional  
view4 ,b h[ev] t may be1 ,i am  myself  
incl9$ to believe t ! duali/ic          
int]pretations ( !  ,brahma-stras 7     
probably m fai?ful to ! stras ?an !     
int]pretations ( ,s'ak>a4    ,!         
,s'rmadbhagavadgt1 :i* itself 0 a "w ( !
  ,eknti 7s+ul>i/ic7 ,vaisnavas1 m5tions
 ! ,brahma-stras z  hav+ ! same purport 
z its own1 giv+ cog5t reasons ,footnote 
ref #a4  ,pr(essor ,jacobi 9 discuss+ ! 
date ( ! philosophical  stras ( ! ,h9dus
 has %[n t ! ref]5ces to ,buddhism  f\nd

 9 ! ,brahma-stras are n ) reg>d to !   
,vijna-vada  ( ,vasub&hu1 b ) reg>d to !
 ,s'nyavda1 b he reg>ds  ! composition (
 ! ,brahma-stras to be lat] ?an         
,ngrjuna4  ,i agree ) ! late ,dr ,s4,c4 
,vidybh%ana 9 hold+ t  bo? ! ,yogcra    
sy/em & ! sy/em ( ,ngrjuna evolv$  f !  
,prajpramit ,footnote ref #b4 ,ngrjuna's
 m]it  consi/$ 9 ! dialectical =m ( 8   
argum5ts 9 support  ( ,s'unyavda2 b s f>
 z ! ess5tials ( ,s'unyavda are  conc]n$
 ,i believe t ! ,ta?at philosophy (     
,z'vaghosa  & ! philosophy ( !          
,prajpramit conta9$ no less4  ,!re is no
 reason to suppose t ! works ( ,ngrjuna 
7  bett] kn[n to ! ,h9du writ]s ?an !   
,mahyna stras4  ,ev5 9 su* lat] times z 
t ( ,vcaspati ,mis'ra1 we f9d  him quot+
 a passage ( ! ,s'li/ambha stra to give 
an acc\nt  ( ! ,buddhi/ doctr9e (       
prattyasamutpda ,footnote ref #c4  ,we  
c\ld int]pret any ref]5ce to ,s'nyavda z
 po9t+ to  ,ngrjuna only if 8 special   
phraseology or dialectical me?ods  7    
ref]r$ to 9 any way4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !    

ref]5ce 9  ! ,bhagavadgt to !           
,brahma-stras cle>ly po9ts out a date   
prior to t ( ,ngrjuna2 ?\gh we may be   
sl[ to believe su*  an e>ly date z has  
be5 assign$ to ! ,bhagavadgt by ,telang1
  yet ,i suppose t its date c\ld safely 
be plac$ s f> back  z ! fir/ half ( !   
fir/ c5tury ,b4,c4 or ! la/ "p  ( !     
second c5tury ,b4,c4 ,! ,brahma-stras   
c\ld ?us be  plac$ slightly e>li] ?an ! 
date ( ! ,bhagavadgt4        ,footnote  
#a3 ,brahmastrapadais'caiva             
hetumadbhirv9is'citah  ,bhagavadgt4 ,!  
pro(s 9 support ( ! view t !            
,bhagavadgt is a ,vaisnava "w w be      
discuss$ 9 ! #bnd  volume ( ! pres5t "w 
9 ! section on ,bhagavadgt &  its       
philosophy4    ,footnote #b3 ,indian    
,antiqu>y1 #aiae4    ,footnote #c3 ,see 
,vcaspati ,mis'ra's ,bhmat on ,s'ank>a's
 bhsya on  ,brahma-stra1 ,,ii4 ii4      
#dbb    ,i d n "k ( any evid5ce t w\ld  
come 9 conflict )  ?is supposition4 ,!  
fact t we d n "k ( any ,h9du  writ] :o  
held su* moni/ic views z ,gaudapda or   

,s'ank>a1  & :o int]pret$ !             
,brahma-stras 9 accordance ) ^?  moni/ic
 ideas1 :5 comb9$ ) ! fact t ! duali/s  
_h be5 writ+ comm5t>ies on !            
,brahma-stras1 goes to  %[ t !          
,brahma-stras 7 orig9ally reg>d$ z an   
au?oritative "w ( ! duali/s4 ,?is also  
expla9s ! fact t  ! ,bhagavadgt1 !      
canonical "w ( ! ,eknti ,vaisnavas1     
%\ld ref] to x4 ,i d n "k ( any ,h9du   
writ] previ\s  to ,gaudapda :o attempt$ 
to give an exposition ( !  moni/ic      
doctr9e 7ap>t f ! ,upanisads71 ei!r by  
writ+  a comm5t>y z did ,s'ank>a1 or by 
writ+ an indep5d5t  "w z did ,gaudapda4 
,i am incl9$ to ?9k !re=e t  z ! pure   
monism ( ! ,upanisads 0 n work$ out 9 a 
coh]5t mann] = ! =mation ( a moni/ic    
sy/em1 x  0 dealt ) by p :o _h sympa?ies
 ) "s =m  ( dualism :i* 0 already       
develop+ 9 ! lat] days (  ! ,upanisads1 
z evid5c$ by ! duali/ic t5d5cies ( su*  
,upanisads z ! ,s'vets'vat>a1 & ! l4 ,! 
epic ,s'amkhya  0 also ! result ( ?is   
duali/ic developm5t4    ,x seems t      

,bd>yana1 ! writ] ( ! ,brahma-stras1  0 
probably m a !i/1 ?an an absoluti/ l 8  
comm5tator  ,s'ank>a4 ,gaudapda seems to
 be ! mo/ important  man1 aft] !        
,upanisad sages1 :o reviv$ ! moni/ic    
t5d5cies  ( ! ,upanisads 9 a bold & cle>
 =m & tri$ to  =mulate !m 9 a sy/ematic 
mann]4 ,x seems v significant  t no o!r 
kriks on ! ,upanisads 7 int]pret$1      
except ! ,mndkyakrik by ,gaudapda1 :o   
did n himself  make any ref]5ce to any  
o!r writ] ( ! moni/ic  s*ool1 n ev5     
,bd>yana4 ,s'ank>a himself makes !      
confession  t ! absoluti/ 7advaita7 cre$
 0 recov]$ f  ! ,v$as by ,gaudapda4 ,?us
 at ! conclusion ( 8 comm5t>y  on       
,gaudapda's krik1 he says t he adores by
  fall+ at ! feet ( t great guru 7tea*]7
 ! ador$ ( 8  ador$1 :o on f9d+ all ! p 
s9k+ 9 ! ocean made  dreadful by !      
crocodiles ( rebir?1 out ( k9dness = all
  p1 by *urn+ ! great ocean ( ! ,v$a by 
8 great  *urn+ rod ( wisdom recov]$ :at 
lay deep 9 ! he>t  ( ! ,v$a1 & is h>dly 
atta9able ev5 by ! immortal    #dbc     

gods ,footnote ref l4 ,x seems          
p>ticul>ly significant t ,s'ank>a  %\ld 
cr$it ,gaudapda & n ,bd>yana ) recov]+ !
  ,upanisad cre$4 ,gaudapda 0 ! tea*] ( 
,gov9da1 !  tea*] ( ,s'ank>a2 b he 0    
probably liv+ :5 ,s'ank>a  0 a /ud5t1 = 
,s'ank>a says t he 0 directly influ5c$  
by  8 great wisdom1 & also speaks ( !   
le>n+1 self-control  & mode/y ( ! o!r   
pupils ( ,gaudapda ,footnote ref #b4    
,!re is  "s dispute ab\t ! date (       
,s'ank>a1 b accept+ ! date propos$  by  
,bhand>k>1 ,pa?ak & ,deuss51 we may     
consid]  x to be #ghh ,a4,d4 ,footnote  
ref #c1 & suppose t 9 ord] to be able to
  tea* ,s'ank>a1 ,gaudapda mu/ h be5    
liv+ till at lea/ #hjj ,a4,d4           
,gaudapda ?us fl\ri%$ aft] all ! great  
,buddhi/  tea*]s ,z'vaghosa1 ,ngrjuna1  
,asanga & ,vasub&hu2 &  ,i believe t !re
 is suffici5t evid5ce 9 8 kriks = ?9k+  
t he 0 possibly himself a ,buddhi/1 &   
consid]$ t  ! tea*+s ( ! ,upanisads     
talli$ ) ^? ( ,buddha4  ,?us at ! beg9n+
 ( ! f\r? *apt] ( 8 kriks he  says t he 

adores t great man 7dvipadm v>am7 :o by 
k  z wide z ! sky realiz$ 7sambuddha7 t 
all appe>ances  7dh>ma7 7 l ! vacu\s sky
 7gaganopamam ,footnote ref #d4 ,he  !n 
goes on to say t he adores him :o has   
dictat$ 7des'ita7  t ! t\* ( unt\*      
7asp>s'ayoga--probably ref]r+ to        
,nirvna7 0 ! good t produc$ happ9ess to 
all be+s1  & t he 0 nei!r 9 disagreem5t 
) ?is doctr9e nor  f\nd any             
contradiction 9 x 7avivdah              
aviruddhas'ca74  ,"s disputants hold t  
com+ into be+ is ( exi/5ts1  :]eas o!rs 
qu>rell+ ) !m hold t be+ 7jta7  is (    
non-exi/5ts 7abhtasya72 !re are o!rs :o 
qu>rel  ) !m & say t nei!r ! exi/5ts nor
 non-exi/5ts  are liable to be+ & !re is
 "o non-com+-into-be+  7advayamajtim74  
,he agrees ) ^? :o hold t !re  is no    
com+ into be+ ,footnote ref #e4 ,9 ,,iv4
 #ai ( 8  krik he aga9 says t ! ,buddhas
 h %[n t !re 0  no com+ into be+ 9 any  
way 7s>va? ,buddhairajtih p>idpitah74   
,footnote #a3 ,s'ank>a's bhsya on       
,gaudapda's krik1 ,an&s'rama  edition1  

p4 #bad4    ,footnote #b3 ,an&s'rama    
edition ( ,s'ank>a's bhsya on           
,gaudapda's  krik1 p4 #ba4    ,footnote 
#c3 ,telang wi%es to put ,s'ank>a's date
 some:]e 9 ! #h?  c5tury1 &             
,venkates'v>a w\ld h him 9 #hje         
,a4,d4-#hig ,a4,d41 z he  did n believe 
t ,s'ank>a c\ld h liv$ only = #cb ye>s4 
,j4,r4,a4,s4 #aiaf4    ,footnote #d3    
,comp>e ,lankvatra1 p4 #bi1 ,ka?am ca   
gaganopamam4    ,footnote #e3           
,gaudapda's krik1 ,,iv4 #b1 #d4    #dbd 
,aga91 9 ,,iv4 #db he says t x 0 = ^?   
reali/s 7va/uvdi71  :o s9ce !y f\nd ?+s 
& c\ld deal ) !m &  7 afraid ( non-be+1 
t ! ,buddhas _h spok5 (  orig9ation     
7jti74 ,9 ,,iv4 #ij he ref]s to agrayna 
:i* we  "k to be a "n ( ,mahyna4 ,aga91 
9 ,,iv4 #ih & #ii  he says t all        
appe>ances are pure & vacu\s by nature4 
,^! ! ,buddhas1 ! emancipat$ "o 7mukta7 
& ! lead]s  "k fir/4 ,x 0 n said by !   
,buddha t all appe>ances  7dh>ma7 7 k4  
,he !n closes ! kriks ) an  adoration   
:i* 9 all probability also ref]s to !   

,buddha ,footnote ref  #a4              
,gaudapda's "w is divid$ into f\r       
*apt]s3 7i7 gama  7scripture71 7#b7     
,vaita?ya 7unreality71 7#c7 ,advaita    
7unity71 7#d7  ,altas'nti 7! ext9ction (
 ! burn+ coal74 ,! fir/ *apt] is  m 9 ! 
way ( expla9+ ! ,mndkya ,upanisad by    
virtue ( :i* ! entire "w is kn[n z      
,mndkyakrik4  ,! second1 ?ird1 & f\r?   
*apt]s are ! con/ructive p>ts  (        
,gaudapda's "w1 n p>ticul>ly connect$ ) 
! ,mndkya  ,upanisad4    ,9 ! fir/ *apt]
 ,gaudapda beg9s ) ! ?ree app>5t        
manife/ations ( ! self3 7#a7 z !        
exp]i5c] ( !  ext]nal _w :ile we are    
awake 7vis'va or vais'vn>a tm71  7#b7 z 
! exp]i5c] 9 ! dream /ate 7taijasa tm71 
7#c7 z !  exp]i5c] 9 deep sleep         
7susupti71 call$ ! prja :5 !re  is no   
det]m9ate k1 b pure consci\sness & pure 
bliss 7n&a74 ,he :o kn[s ^! ?ree z "o is
 nev]  atta*$ to 8 exp]i5ces4 ,gaudapda 
!n enum]ates "s  !ories ( creation3 "s  
?9k t ! _w has proce$$  z a creation f !
 prna 7vital activity71 o!rs  consid]   

creation z an expansion 7vibhti7 ( t    
cause  f :i* x has proce$$2 o!rs imag9e 
t creation is  l dream 7svapna7 & magic 
7my72 o!rs1 t creation  proce$s simply  
by ! w ( ! ,"l2 o!rs t x proce$s  f "t2 
o!rs t x is = ! enjoym5t ( ! ,"l        
7bhogr?am7 or = 8 play only 7kridr?am71 
= su*  is ! nature 7svabhva7 ( ! ,"l1 t 
he creates1 b he  _c h any long+1 z all 
8 desires are 9 a /ate ( fulfilm5t4     
,footnote #a3 ,gaudapda's krik ,,iv4    
#ajj4 ,9 my translation ,i h n  foll[$  
,s'ank>a1 = he has ,i ?9k tri$ 8 level  
be/ to expla9  away ev5 ! mo/ obvi\s    
ref]5ces to ,buddha & ,buddhism 9       
,gaudapda's krik4 ,i h1 !re=e1 drawn my 
mean+ directly z  ,gaudapda's kriks     
seem$ to indicate4 ,i h foll[$ !  same  
pr9ciple 9 giv+ ! %ort exposition (     
,gaudapda's  philosophy bel[4    #dbe   
,gaudapda does n indicate 8 pref]5ce "o 
way or !  o!r1 b describes ! f\r? /ate (
 ! self z unse5 7adrsta71               
unrelationable 7avyavahryam71           
ungraspable 7agrhyam71 indef9able       

7alaksana71 un?9kable 7ac9tyam71        
unspeakable 7avyapades'ya71  ! ess5ce z 
on5ess ) ! self 7ektmapratyayasra71  z !
 ext9ction ( ! appe>ance                
7prapacopas'ama71  ! quiesc5t 7s'ntam71 
! good 7s'ivam71 ! "o 7advaita7         
,footnote ref #a4 ,! _w-appe>ance       
7prapaca7 w\ld h ceas$  if x _h exi/$1 b
 all ?is duality is m]e my 7magic or    
illusion71  ! "o is ! ultimately real   
7p>amr?atah74 ,9 ! second *apt]         
,gaudapda says t :at is meant by call+ !
 _w a  dream is t all exi/5ce is unreal4
 ,t :i* nei!r exi/s  9 ! beg9n+ nor 9 ! 
end _c be said to exi/ 9 !  pres5t4 ,be+
 l unreal x appe>s z real4 ,! appe>ance 
has a beg9n+ & an end & is !re=e false4 
,9 dreams  ?+s are imag9$ int]nally1 & 9
 ! exp]i5ce t we  h :5 we are awake ?+s 
are imag9$ z if exi/+ outside1  b bo? ( 
!m are b illusory creations ( ! self4   
,:at is p]ceiv$ 9 ! m9d is p]ceiv$ z    
exi/+ at !  mom5t ( p]ception only2     
ext]nal objects are suppos$ to  h two   
mom5ts ( exi/5ce 7namely be=e !y are    

p]ceiv$1  & :5 !y beg9 to be p]ceiv$71 b
 ?is is all m]e  imag9ation4 ,t :i* is  
unmanife/$ 9 ! m9d & t  :i* appe>s z    
di/9ct & manife/ outside are all imag9>y
  productions 9 association ) ! s5se    
faculties4 ,!re is fir/  ! imag9ation ( 
a p]ceiv] or s\l 7jva7 & !n along )  x !
 imag9>y creations ( div]se inn] /ates &
 ! ext]nal  _w4 ,j z 9 d>kness ! rope is
 imag9$ to be a snake1  s ! self is also
 imag9$ by its own illusion 9 div]se    
=ms4  ,!re is nei!r any production nor  
any de/ruction 7na nirodho1  na         
cotpattih71 !re is no "o :o is en*a9$1  
no "o :o is  /riv+1 no "o :o wants to be
 releas$ ,footnote ref #b4 ,imag9ation  
f9ds itself realiz$ 9 ! non-exi/5t      
exi/5ts & also 9 ! s5se        ,footnote
 #a3 ,comp>e 9 ,ngrjuna's fir/ krik !   
idea (  prapacopas'amam s'ivam4         
,anirodhamanutpdamanuc*$amas's'vatam    
anekr?amannr?amangamamanirgamam yah     
prattyasamutpdam  prapacopas'amam s'ivam
 des'aymva sambuddha/am v&e vadatmv>am4 
,comp>e also ,ngrjuna's ,*apt] on       

,nirvnap>ks1  ,prvopalambhopas'amah     
prapacopas'amah s'ivah na kvacit        
kasyacit  kas'cit dh>mmo                
buddh5ades'itah4 ,s f> z ,i "k !        
,buddhi/s  7 ! fir/ to use ! words      
prapacopas'aman s'ivam4    ,footnote #b3
 ,comp>e ,ngrjuna's karik1              
anirodhamanutpdam 9  ,mdhyamikavrtti1   
,b4,t4,s41 p4 #c4    #dbf    ( unity2   
all imag9ation ei!r z ! _m or ! "o      
7advaya7  is false2 x is only ! on5ess  
7advayat7 t is good4 ,!re  is no _m1 nor
 are ?+s diff]5t or non-diff]5t 7na     
nn$am  444na pr?ag npr?ak7 ,footnote ref
 #a4 ,! sages :o h transc5d$  atta*m5t1 
fe>1 & ang] & h gone beyond ! dep?s ( ! 
,v$as h p]ceiv$ x z ! imag9ationless    
cessation ( all  appe>ance 7nirvikalpah 
prapacopas'amah71 ! "o ,footnote ref #b4
    ,9 ! ?ird *apt] ,gaudapda says t    
tru? is l !  void7ks'a7 :i* is falsely  
conciev$ z tak+ "p 9 bir?  & dea?1 com+ 
& go+ & z exi/+ 9 all bodies2 b  h[soev]
 x be conceiv$1 x is all ! :ile n       
diff]5t f  ks'a4 ,all ?+s t appe> z     

comp\nd$ are b dreams  7svapna7 & my    
7magic74 ,duality is a di/9ction impos$ 
^u ! "o 7advaita7 by my4 ,! tru? is     
immortal1 x _c  !re=e by its own nature 
suff] *ange4 ,x has no bir?4 ,all  bir? 
& dea?1 all ?is manifold is b ! result (
 an imposition  ( my ^u x ,footnote ref 
#c4 ,"o m9d appe>s z _m 9 ! dream1  z   
also 9 ! wak+ /ate "o appe>s z _m1 b :5 
!  m9d activity ( ! ,tog9s 7sages7 is   
/opp$ arises ?is fe>less  /ate1 !       
ext9ction ( all sorr[1 f9al ceasation4  
,?9k+ ev]y?+  to be mis]y 7duhkham s>vam
 anusmrtya7 "o %\ld /op  all desires &  
enjoym5ts1 & ?9k+ t no?+ has any  bir?  
he %\ld n see any production at all4 ,he
 %\ld awak5  ! m9d 7citta7 into its f9al
 dissolution 7laya7 & pacify x  :5      
di/ract$2 he %\ld n move x t[>ds div]se 
objects  :5 x /ops4 ,he %\ld n ta/e any 
pleasure 7sukham7 & by  wisdom rema9    
unatta*$1 by /rong ef=t mak+ x          
motionless  & /ill4 ,:5 he nei!r passes 
into dissolution nor into di/raction2   
:5 !re is no sign1 no appe>ance t is !  

p]fect  ,brahman4 ,:5 !re is no object (
 k to come into  be+1 ! unproduc$ is !n 
call$ ! omnisc5t 7s>vaja74    ,9 ! f\r? 
*apt]1 call$ ! ,alats'nti1 ,gaudapda    
fur!r        ,footnote #a3 ,comp>e      
,mdhyamikakrik1 ,b4,t4,s41 p4#c anekr?am
  annr?am1 etc4    ,footnote #b3 ,comp>e
 ,lankvatrastra1 p4#gh1                 
,advaysamsrap>9irvnvats>vadh>mh tasmt   
t>hi mahmate                            
,s'unyatnutpddvayanihsvabhvalaksane     
yogah k>aniyah2  also #h1df1 ,yaduta    
svacittavisayavikalpadrstynavabodhant   
vijnnm  svacittadrstyamtrnavatrena      
mahmate vlapr?agjanh                    
bhvbhvasvabhvap>amr?adrstidvayvd9o      
bhavanti4    ,footnote #c3 ,comp>e      
,ngrjuna's krik1 ,b4,t4,s4 p4 #aif1     
ks'am  s'z'z'rngaca b&hyyh putra eva ca 
asantas'cbhivyajyante  ta?bhv5a kalpan1 
) ,gaudapda's krik1 ,,iii4 #bh1 ,asato  
myay janma tatvato naiva jyate b&hyputro
 na tattv5a myya  vpi jyate4    #dbg    
describes ?is f9al /ate ,footnote ref l4
 ,all ! dh>mas  7appe>ances7 are )\t    

dea? or decay ,footnote3 ref #b4        
,gaudapda !n foll[s a dialectical =m (  
argum5t :i*  rem9ds u ( ,ngrjuna4       
,gaudapda cont9ues ?us3 ,^? :o  reg>d   
krana 7cause7 z ! kryya 7effect 9 a     
pot5tial =m7  _c consid] ! cause z truly
 unproduc$ 7aja71 = x  suff]s           
production2 h[ c x be call$ et]nal & yet
 *ang+8  ,if x is said t ?+s come into  
be+ f t :i* has no  production1 !re is  
no example ) :i* su* a case may be      
illu/rat$4 ,nor c we consid] t any?+ is 
born f t  :i* has itself suff]$         
production4 ,h[ aga9 c "o come to a  "r 
conclusion ab\t ! regressus ad inf9itum 
( cause &  effect 7hetu & phala78 ,)\t  
ref]5ce to ! effect !re  is no cause1 & 
)\t ref]5ce to cause !re is no effect4  
,no?+ is born ei!r by itself or ?r\gh   
o!rs2 call x ei!r  be+1 non-be+1 or     
be+-non-be+1 no?+ suff]s any bir?1      
nei!r ! cause nor ! effect is produc$   
out ( its own nature  7svabhvatah71 &   
?us t :i* has no beg9n+ any:]e _c  be   
said to h a production4 ,all exp]i5ce   

7prajapti7 is  dep5d5t on reasons1 =    
o!rwise bo? w\ld vani%1 & !re  w\ld be  
none ( ! afflictions 7samkles'a7 t we   
suff]4 ,:5  we look at all ?+s 9 a      
connect$ mann] !y seem to be  dep5d5t1 b
 :5 we look at !m f ! po9t ( view (     
reality or tru? ! reasons cease to be   
reasons4 ,! m9d 7citta7  does n come 9  
t\* ) objects & !reby manife/  !m1 =    
s9ce ?+s d n exi/ !y are n diff]5t f  _!
 manife/ations 9 k4 ,x is n 9 any       
p>ticul>  case t ! m9d produces !       
manife/ations ( objects :ile  !y d n    
exi/ s t x c\ld be said to be an error1 
= 9  pres5t1 pa/1 & future ! m9d nev]   
comes 9 t\* )  objects :i* only appe> by
 reason ( _! div]se manife/ations4      
,!re=e nei!r ! m9d nor ! objects se5 by 
x are  ev] produc$4 ,^? :o p]ceive !m to
 suff] production are  really trav]s+ ! 
reason ( vacuity 7khe71 = all production
  is b false imposition on ! vacuity4   
,s9ce ! unborn is  p]ceiv$ z be+ born1 !
 ess5ce !n is ! abs5ce (                
,footnote #a3 ,! v "n ,altasnti is      

absolutely ,buddhi/ic4 ,comp>e          
,ngrjuna's krik1 ,b4,t4,s41 p4 #bjf1 :]e
 he quotes a v]se f !  ,s'ataka4        
,footnote #b3 ,! use ( ! ^w dh>ma 9 !   
s5se ( appe>ance or  entity is peculi>ly
 ,buddhi/ic4 ,! ,h9du s5se is t giv5 by 
,jaim9i1  ,codanlaksanah ar?ah1 dh>mah4 
,dh>ma is det]m9$ by ! injunctions  ( ! 
,v$as4    #dbh    production1 = x be+ ( 
! nature ( abs5ce ( production x  c\ld  
nev] *ange its nature4 ,ev]y?+ has a    
beg9n+ &  an end & is !re=e false4 ,!   
exi/5ce ( all ?+s is l  a magical or    
illusory elephant 7myha/7 & exi/s only z
 f>  z x m]ely appe>s or is relat$ to   
exp]i5ce4 ,!re is ?us  ! appe>ance (    
production1 movem5t & ?+s1 b ! "o  k    
7vijna7 is ! unborn1 unmov$1 ! un?+ness 
7ava/utva71 ! cessation 7s'ntam74 ,z !  
movem5t (  burn+ *>coal is p]ceiv$ z    
/raight or curv$1 s x is !  movem5t     
7sp&ita7 ( consci\sness t appe>s z !    
p]ceiv+  & ! p]ceiv$4 ,all ! attributes 
7e4g4 /raight or  curv$7 are impos$ ^u !
 *>coal fire1 ?\gh 9 reality x  does n  

possess !m2 s also all ! appe>ances are 
impos$  ^u consci\sness1 ?\gh 9 reality 
!y d n possess  !m4 ,we c\ld nev]       
indicate any k9d ( causal relation      
betwe5 ! consci\sness & its appe>ance1  
:i* are !re=e  to be demon/rat$ z       
un?9kable 7ac9tya74 ,a ?+  7dravya7 is !
 cause ( a ?+ 7dravya71 & t :i* is n  a 
?+ may be ! cause ( t :i* is n a ?+1 b  
all  ! appe>ances are nei!r ?+s nor ^?  
:i* are n  ?+s1 s nei!r are appe>ances  
produc$ f ! m9d  7citta7 nor is ! m9d   
produc$ by appe>ances4 ,s long z  "o    
?9ks ( cause & effect he has to suff] ! 
cycle (  exi/5ce 7samsra71 b :5 t notion
 ceases !re is no  samsra4 ,all ?+s are 
reg>d$ z be+ produc$ f a  relative po9t 
( view only 7samvrti71 !re is !re=e no?+
  p]man5t 7s's'vata74 ,aga91 no exi/5t  
?+s are produc$1  h5ce !re _c be any    
de/ruction 7uc*$a74 ,appe>ances  7dh>ma7
 are produc$ only app>5tly1 n 9 reality2
 _!  com+ into be+ is l my1 & t my aga9 
does n  exi/4 ,all appe>ances are l     
%oots ( magic com+ out (  se$s ( magic &

 are n !re=e nei!r et]nal nor           
de/ructible4  ,z 9 dreams1 or 9 magic1  
m5 are born & die1 s are all            
appe>ances4 ,t :i* appe>s z exi/+ f an  
imag9>y relative po9t ( view 7kalpita   
samvrti7 is n  s 9 reality 7p>a-mr?a71 =
 ! exi/5ce dep5d+ on  o!rs1 z %[n 9 all 
relative appe>ance1 is aft] all n  a    
real exi/5ce4 ,t ?+s exi/1 d n exi/1 d  
exi/  & n exi/1 & nei!r exi/ nor n exi/2
 t !y are mov+ or  /eady1 or none ( ^?1 
are b ?\ghts ) :i* fools are delud$4    
#dbi      ,x is s obvi\s t ^! doctr9es  
are borr[$ f !  ,mdhyamika doctr9es1 z  
f\nd 9 ! ,ngrjuna's kriks &  ! ,vijnavda
 doctr9es1 z f\nd 9 ,lankvatra1 t x is  
ne$less to attempt to prove x1 ,gaudapda
 assimilat$ all !  ,buddhi/ ,s'nyavda & 
,vijnavda tea*+s1 & ?\ght t  ^! held    
good ( ! ultimate tru? prea*$ by !      
,upanisads4  ,x is immat]ial :e!r he 0 a
 ,h9du or a ,buddhi/1 s long  z we are  
sure t he _h ! highe/ respect = !       
,buddha &  = ! tea*+s :i* he believ$ to 
be 84 ,gaudapda took  ! smalle/         

,upanisads to comm5t ^u1 probably       
because he  wi%$ to give 8 op9ions      
unre/rict$ by ! textual limitations  ( !
 bigg] ones4 ,8 ma9 emphasis is on !    
tru?  t he realiz$ to be p]fect4 ,he    
only incid5tally sugge/$  t ! great     
,buddhi/ tru? ( indef9able & unspeakable
  vijna or vacuity w\ld hold good ( !   
highe/ tman ( !  ,upanisads1 & ?us laid 
! f\ndation ( a revival ( !  ,upanisad  
/udies on ,buddhi/ l9es4 ,h[ f> !       
,upanisads  gu>ante$ 9 detail ! tru? (  
,gaudapda's views x 0 left  = 8         
disciple1 ! great ,s'ank>a1 to exam9e & 
expla94      ,v$nta & ,sank>a 7#ghh-hbj 
,a4,d474    ,v$nta philosophy is !      
philosophy :i* claims to be  !          
exposition ( ! philosophy taught 9 !    
,upanisads &  summ>iz$ 9 ! ,brahma-stras
 ( ,bd>yana4 ,! ,upanisads  =m ! la/ "p 
( ! ,v$a lit]ature1 & its philosophy is 
!re=e also call$ sometimes !            
,utt>a-,mmms or !  ,mmms 7decision7 ( ! 
lat] "p ( ! ,v$as z di/+ui%$  f ! ,mmms 
( ! previ\s "p ( ! ,v$as & !  ,brhmanas 

z incorporat$ 9 ! ,prvammms stras (     
,jaim9i4 ,?\gh ^! ,brahma-stras 7       
diff]5tly int]pret$  by diff]5t         
expon5ts1 ! views express$ 9 ! e>lie/   
comm5t>y  on !m n[ available1 writt5 by 
,s'ank>crya1 h  atta9$ wond]ful         
celebrity1 bo? on acc\nt ( ! subtle &   
deep ideas x conta9s1 & also on acc\nt (
 ! association ( !  illu/ri\s p]sonality
 ( ,s'ank>a4 ,s great is ! influ5ce ( ! 
philosophy prop\nd$ by ,sank>a &        
elaborat$ by 8 illu/ri\s  foll[]s1 t    
:5ev] we speak ( ! ,v$nta philosophy  we
 mean ! philosophy t 0 prop\nd$ by      
,s'ank>a4 ,if  o!r expositions are      
int5d$ ! names ( ! expon5ts h  to be    
m5tion$ 7e4g4 ,rmnuja-mata1             
,vallabha-mata1 etc471 ,9 ?is    #dcj   
*apt] we %all limit ourselves to !      
exposition ( ! ,v$nta  philosophy z     
elaborat$ by ,s'ank>a & 8 foll[]s4 ,9   
,s'ank>a's  "w 7! comm5t>ies on !       
,brahma-stra & ! t5  ,upanisads7 _m     
ideas h be5 briefly incorporat$ :i* z   
f\nd 9 ,s'ank>a d n appe> to be         

suffici5tly cle>1 b are  m intelligible 
z elaborat$ by 8 foll[]s4 ,x is !re=e   
bett] to take up ! ,v$nta sy/em1 n z we 
f9d x 9 ,s'ank>a1  b z elaborat$ by 8   
foll[]s1 all ( :om op5ly decl>e  t !y   
are true to _! ma/]'s philosophy4    ,= 
! o!r ,h9du sy/ems ( ?\ght1 ! stras     
7,jaim9i  stra1 ,nyya stra1 etc47 are ! 
only orig9al treatises1 & no  f\ndation 
o!r ?an ^! is available4 ,9 ! case ( !  
,v$nta h[ev] ! orig9al s\rce is !       
,upanisads1 &  ! stras are b an         
extremely cond5s$ summ>y 9 a  sy/ematic 
=m4 ,s'ank>a did n claim to be ! inv5tor
 or  exp\nd] ( an orig9al sy/em1 b      
int]pret$ ! stras  & ! ,upanisads 9 ord]
 to %[ t !re exi/$ a connect$  &        
sy/ematic philosophy 9 ! ,upanisads :i* 
0 also  enunciat$ 9 ! stras ( ,bd>yana4 
,! ,upanisads 7 a  "p ( ! ,v$as & 7 ?us 
reg>d$ z infallible by !  ,h9dus4 ,if   
,s'ank>a c\ld only %[ t 8 exposition (  
!m  0 ! "r "o1 !n 8 philosophy be+ f\nd$
 ^u !  highe/ au?ority w\ld be accept$  
by all ,h9dus4 ,! mo/  =midable oppon5ts

 9 ! way ( accompli%+ 8 task 7  !       
,mmamsi/s1 :o held t ! ,v$as did n prea*
 any  philosophy1 = :atev] !re 0 9 !    
,v$as 0 to be  int]pret$ z issu+ comm&s 
to u = p]=m+ ?is or  t action4 ,!y held 
t if ! ,upanisads spoke ( ,brahman  &   
demon/rat$ ! nature ( its pure ess5ce1  
^! 7 m]e  exagg]ations int5d$ to put !  
comm&m5t ( p]=m+  "s k9d ( wor%ip (     
,brahman into a m attractive =m4        
,s'ank>a c\ld n d5y t ! purport ( !     
,v$as z f\nd  9 ! ,brhmanas 0 explicitly
 ( a m&atory nature z decl>$  by !      
,mmms1 b he s\ght to prove t su* c\ld  n
 be ! purport ( ! ,upanisads1 :i* spoke 
( ! true/  & ! highe/ k ( ! ,absolute by
 :i* ! wise  c\ld atta9 salvation4 ,he  
said t 9 ! k>maknda--!  7sacrificial    
injunctions7 ,brhmanas ( ! ,v$as--!     
purport (  ! ,v$as 0 c]ta9ly ( a m&atory
 nature1 z x 0 int5d$  = ord9>y p :o 7  
anxi\s = ?is or t pleasure1    #dca    &
 7 nev] actuat$ by any desire ( kn[+ !  
absolute  tru?1 b ! ,upanisads1 :i* 7   
int5d$ = ! wise :o  _h controll$ _!     

s5ses & become dis9cl9$ to all e>?ly    
joys1 demon/rat$ ! "o ,absolute1        
,un*angeable1 ,brahman  z ! only ,tru? (
 ! univ]se4 ,! two p>ts ( ! ,v$as  7    
int5d$ = two classes ( p]sons4 ,s'ank>a 
?us did n  beg9 by =mulat+ a philosophy 
( 8 own by logical &  psy*ological      
analysis1 induction1 & d$uction4 ,he    
tri$ to %[  by textual comp>ison ( !    
diff]5t ,upanisads1 & by ref]5ce  to !  
cont5t ( passages 9 ! ,upanisads1 t !y  
7 conc]n$ 9 demon/rat+ ! nature (       
,brahman 7z he  und]/ood x7 z _!        
ultimate end4 ,he _h ?us to %[ t  !     
uncontradict$ te/imony ( all !          
,upanisads 0 9 fav\r  ( ! view :i* he   
held4 ,he _h to expla9 all d\btful &    
app>5tly conflict+ texts1 & also to %[ t
 none ( !  texts ref]r$ to ! doctr9es ( 
mahat1 prakrti1 etc4 ( !  ,smkhya4 ,he  
_h also to int]pret ! few scatt]$ ideas 
ab\t physics1 cosmology1 es*atology1    
etc4 t are f\nd 9 !  ,upanisads         
consi/5tly ) ! ,brahman philosophy4 ,9  
ord]  to %[ t ! philosophy ( !          

,upanisads z he exp\nd$ x  0 a consi/5t 
sy/em1 he _h to remove all ! objections 
t  8 oppon5ts c\ld make reg>d+ !        
,brahman philosophy1 to  criticize !    
philosophies ( all o!r s*ools1 to prove 
!m to  be self-contradictory1 & to %[ t 
any int]pretation ( !  ,upanisads1 o!r  
?an t :i* he gave1 0 inconsi/5t &       
wrong4 ,?is he did n only 9 8 bhsya on !
 ,brahma-stras  b also 9 8 comm5t>ies on
 ! ,upanisads4 ,logic ) him  _h a       
subord9ate place1 z its ma9 value = u 0 
! aid  :i* x l5t to consi/5t            
int]pretations ( ! purport ( !          
,upanisad texts1 & to p]suad+ ! m9d to  
accept ! uncontradict$  te/imony ( !    
,upanisads z ! absolute tru?4  ,8       
disciples foll[$ him 9 all1 & moreov]   
%[$ 9 great  detail t ! ,brahman        
philosophy 0 nev] contradict$  ei!r 9   
p]ceptual exp]i5ce or 9 rational ?\ght1 
& t  all ! reali/ic categories :i* ,nyya
 & o!r sy/ems  _h put =? 7              
self-contradictory & errone\s4 ,!y also 
supplem5t$ 8 philosophy by con/ruct+ a  

,v$nta epi/emology1  & by re?9k+        
elaborately ! relation ( ! my1  !       
,brahman1 & ! _w ( appe>ance & o!r      
relevant  topics4 ,_m problems ( great  
philosophical int]e/ :i*    #dcb    _h  
be5 left out or slightly t\*$ by        
,s'ank>a 7 discuss$  fully by 8 foll[]s4
 ,b x %\ld always be rememb]$ t         
philosophical reason+s & criticisms are 
always to be tak5  z b aids = conv9c+   
our intellect & /r5g!n+ our  fai? 9 !   
tru? reveal$ 9 ! ,upanisads4 ,! true "w 
(  logic is to adapt ! m9d to accept !m4
 ,logic us$ = upsett+  ! in/ructions ( !
 ,upanisads is logic gone a/ray4 ,_m    
lives ( ,s'ank>crya 7 writt5 9 ,sanskrit
 su* z !  ,s'ank>adigvijaya1            
,s'ank>a-vijaya-vilsa1 ,s'ank>a-jaya1   
etc4 ,x is reg>d$ z almo/ c]ta9 t he 0  
born betwe5 #gjj  & #hjj ,a4,d4 9 !     
,malab> c\ntry 9 ! ,deccan4 ,8 fa!r     
,s'ivaguru  0 a ,yajurv$i ,brhm9 ( !    
,taittirya bran*4 ,_m miracles  are     
relat$ ( ,s'ank>a1 & he is believ$ to h 
be5 !  inc>nation ( ,s'iva4 ,he turn$   

ascetic 9 8 eigh? ye> &  became !       
disciple ( ,gov9da1 a r5[n$ sage !n     
resid+ 9  a m\nta9 cell on ! banks ( !  
,n>buda4 ,he !n came ov]  to ,b5>es &   
!nce w5t to ,bad>iks'rama4 ,x is said t 
he wrote 8 illu/ri\s bhsya on !         
,brahma-stra 9 8 twelf?  ye>4 ,lat] on  
he also wrote 8 comm5t>ies on t5        
,upanisads4  ,he return$ to ,b5>es1 & f 
?is "t =? he decid$ to  travel all ov]  
,india 9 ord] to defeat ! adh]5ts ( o!r 
s*ools ( ?\ght 9 op5 debate4 ,x is said 
t he fir/ w5t to  meet ,kumrila1 b      
,kumrila 0 !n at ! po9t ( dea?1 &  he   
advis$ him to meet ,kumrila's disciple4 
,he defeat$ ,mandana  & conv]t$ him into
 an ascetic foll[] ( 8 own4 ,he !n      
travell$ 9 v>i\s places1 & defeat+ 8    
oppon5ts ev]y:]e  he e/abli%$ 8 ,v$nta  
philosophy1 :i* f t "t =?  acquir$ a    
dom9ant influ5ce 9 m\ld+ ! religi\s life
 (  ,india4    ,s'ank>a c>ri$ on ! "w ( 
8 tea*] ,gaudapda &  by writ+ comm5t>ies
 on ! t5 ,upanisads & ! ,brahma-stras   
tri$ to prove1 t ! absoluti/ cre$ 0 ! "o

 :i*  0 int5d$ to be prea*$ 9 !         
,upanisads & ! ,brahma-stras  ,footnote3
 #a4 ,?r\gh\t 8 comm5t>y on !           
,brahma-stras1  !re is ample evid5ce t  
he 0 cont5d+ aga9/ "s  o!r rival        
int]pretations ( a duali/ic t5d5cy :i*  
held  t ! ,upanisads p>tly fav\r$ !     
,smkhya cosmology        ,footnote #a3  
,! ma9 works ( ,s'ank>a are 8 comm5t>ies
 7bhsya7 on  ! t5 ,upanisads 7s'a1 ,k5a1
 ,ka?a1 ,pras'na1 ,mundaka1 ,mndkya1    
,ait>eya1 ,taittirya1 ,brhadranyaka1 &  
,*ndogya71 & on !  ,brahma-stra4    #dcc
    ( ! exi/5ce ( prakrti4 ,t ^! 7      
actual textual  int]pretations ( !      
,brahma-stras is prov$ by ! fact t      
,s'ank>a 9 "s places tries to %[ t ^!   
textual con/ructions  7 faulty ,footnote
 ref #a4 ,9 "o place he says t o!rs     
7ref]r+  accord+ to ,vcaspati to !      
,mmms7 & "s (  u 7ref]r+ probably to ^? 
:o int]pret$ ! stras &  ! ,upanisads f !
 ,v$nta po9t ( view7 ?9k t !  s\l is    
p]man5t4 ,x is to refute all ^? :o 7    
oppos$  to ! "r doctr9e ( p]ceiv+ ev]y?+

 z ! unity  ( ! self 7tmaikatva7 t ?is  
,s'rraka comm5t>y (  m9e is be+ attempt$
 ,footnote ref #b4 ,rmnuja1 9 !         
introductory  portion ( 8 bhsya on !    
,brahma-stra1 says t ! views (          
,bodhyana :o wrote an elaborate comm5t>y
 on ! ,brahma-stra  7 summ>iz$ by       
previ\s tea*]s1 & t he 0  foll[+ ?is    
,bodhyana bhsya 9 writ+ 8 comm5t>y4 ,9  
! ,v$r?asamgraha ( ,rmnuja m5tion is    
made ( ,bodhyana1  ,tanka1 ,guhadeva1   
,kap>d91 ,bhruci z ,v$ntic au?orities1  
& ,dravidcryya is ref]r$ to z ! bhsyakra
 comm5tator4  ,9 ,*ndogya ,,iii4 x4 #d1 
:]e ! ,upanisad cosmology  appe>$ to be 
diff]5t f ! ,visnupurana cosmology1     
,s'ank>a  ref]s to an explanation (f]$  
on ! po9t by "o :om  he calls cryya     
7atroktah p>ihrah cryyaih7 & n&agiri    
says t cryya !re ref]s to ,dravidcryya4 
,?is ,dravidcryya  is kn[n to u f       
,rmnuja's /atem5t z be+ a  comm5tator ( 
! duali/ic s*ool1 & we h evid5ce "h  t  
he _h writt5 a comm5t>y on ! ,*ndogya   
,upanisad4    ,a /udy ( ! extant        

comm5t>ies on ! ,brahma-stras (         
,bd>yana by ! adh]5ts ( diff]5t s*ools (
 ?\ght  leaves u conv9c$ t ^! stras 7   
reg>d$ by all z  cond5sations ( ! tea*+s
 ( ! ,upanisads4 ,! diff]5ces  ( op9ion 
7 ) reg>d to ! mean+ ( ^! stras &  !    
,upanisad texts to :i* ref]5ces 7 made  
by !m  9 ea* p>ticul> case4 ,!          
,brahma-stra is divid$ into f\r  adhyyas
 or books1 & ea* ( ^! is divid$ into f\r
 *apt]s  or pdas4 ,ea* ( ^! conta9s a   
numb] ( topics ( discussion  7adhik>ana7
 :i* are compos$ ( a numb] ( stras1 :i* 
raise ! po9t at issue1 ! po9ts t lead to
 d\bt &  unc]ta9ty1 & ! consid]ations t 
%\ld lead "o to fav\r        ,footnote  
#a3 ,see note on p4 #dcb4    ,footnote  
#b3 ,s'ank>a's bhsya on ! ,brahma-stras1
 ,i4 iii4 #ai4    #dcd    a p>ticul>    
conclusion4 ,z expla9$ by ,s'ank>a1 mo/ 
( ^!  stras except ! fir/ f\r & ! fir/  
two *apt]s ( !  second book are devot$  
to ! textual int]pretations ( !         
,upanisad passages4 ,s'ank>a's me?od (  
expla9+ ! absoluti/  ,v$nta cre$ does n 

consi/ 9 prov+ ! ,v$nta to  be a        
consi/5t sy/em ( metaphysics1 complete 9
 all p>ts1 b  9 s int]pret+ ! ,upanisad 
texts z to %[ t !y all agree  9 hold+ ! 
,brahman to be ! self & t alone to be ! 
only tru?4 ,9 ,*apt] ,i ( ,book ,,ii    
,s'ank>a tries to answ]  "s ( !         
objections t may be made f ! ,smkhya    
po9t ( view aga9/ 8 absoluti/ cre$ & to 
%[ t "s  app>5t difficulties ( !        
absoluti/ doctr9e did n pres5t  any real
 difficulty4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,ii ( ,book ,,ii
 he tries to refute  ! ,smkhya1 ,yoga1  
,nyya-,vais'esika1 ! ,buddhi/1 ,ja9a1   
,bhgavata  & ,s'aiva sy/ems ( ?\ght4 ,^!
 two *apt]s &  8 comm5t>ies on ! fir/   
f\r stras conta9 ! ma9 po9ts  ( 8 sy/em4
 ,! re/ ( ! "w is ma9ly occupi$ 9 %[+  t
 ! conclusion ( ! stras 0 always 9 /rict
 agreem5t  ) ! ,upanisad doctr9es4      
,reason ) ,s'ank>a nev]  occupi$ !      
premi] position2 its value 0 consid]$   
only  second>y1 only s f> z x help$ "o  
to ! "r und]/&+  ( ! reveal$ scriptures1
 ! ,upanisads4 ,! ultimate tru? _c  be  

kn[n by reason alone4 ,:at "o debat] %[s
 to be  reasonable a m exp]t debat] %[s 
to be false1 & :at he  %[s to be "r is  
aga9 prov$ to be false by ano!r debat]4 
,s !re is no f9al c]ta9ty to :i* we c   
arrive by logic  & argum5t alone4 ,!    
ultimate tru? c ?us only be f\nd  9 !   
,upanisads2 reason1 discrim9ation &     
judgm5t are all to  be us$ only ) a view
 to ! discov]y ( ! real purport  ( !    
,upanisads4 ,f 8 own position ,s'ank>a 0
 n ?us  b\nd to v9dicate ! position ( ! 
,v$nta z a ?or\ghly  rational sy/em (   
metaphysics4 ,= its tru? did n dep5d on 
its rationality b on ! au?ority ( !     
,upanisads4 ,b :at  0 true c\ld n       
contradict exp]i5ce4 ,if !re=e          
,s'ank>a's  int]pretation ( ! ,upanisads
 0 true1 !n x w\ld n contradict         
exp]i5ce4 ,s'ank>a 0 !re=e b\nd to %[ t 
8 int]pretation 0 rational & did n      
contradict exp]i5ce4  ,if he c\ld %[ t 8
 int]pretation 0 ! only int]pretation  t
 0 fai?ful to ! ,upanisads1 & t its     
app>5t  contradictions ) exp]i5ce c\ld 9

 "s way be expla9$1    #dce    he       
consid]$ t he _h no?+ m to d4 ,he 0 n   
writ+  a philosophy 9 ! mod]n s5se ( !  
t]m1 b giv+ u !  :ole tru? z taught &   
reveal$ 9 ! ,upanisads & n  simply a    
sy/em spun by a clev] ?9k]1 :i* may     
errone\sly  appe> to be q reasonable1   
,ultimate validity does n belong  to    
reason b to ! scriptures4    ,he />t$ ) 
! premise t :atev] may be ! reason  x is
 a fact t all exp]i5ce />ts & moves 9 an
 error :i*  id5tifies ! self ) ! body1 !
 s5ses1 or ! objects ( !  s5ses4 ,all   
cognitive acts presuppose ?is illusory  
id5tification1  = )\t x ! pure self c   
nev] behave z a ph5om5al  kn[] or       
p]ceiv]1 & )\t su* a p]ceiv] !re w\ld   
be no cognitive act4 ,s'ank>a does n try
 to prove philosophically  ! exi/5ce ( !
 pure self z di/9ct f all o!r  ?+s1 = he
 is satisfi$ 9 %[+ t ! ,upanisads       
describe  ! pure self unatta*$ to any   
k9d ( impurity z ! ultimate  tru?4 ,?is 
) him is a matt] to :i* no exception c  
be  tak51 = x is s reveal$ 9 !          

,upanisads4 ,?is po9t be+  grant$1 !    
next po9t is t our exp]i5ce is always   
bas$  ^u an id5tification ( ! self ) !  
body1 ! s5ses1 etc4 &  ! imposition (   
all ph5om5al qualities ( pleasure1 pa91 
etc4  ^u ! self2 & ?is ) ,s'ank>a is a  
beg9n+less illusion4  ,all ?is _h be5   
said by ,gaudapda4 ,s'ank>a accept$     
,gaudapda's  conclusions1 b did n       
develop 8 dialectic = a positive  pro( (
 8 !sis4 ,he made use ( ! dialectic only
 = !  refutation ( o!r sy/ems ( ?\ght4  
,?is be+ done he  ?\ght t he _h no?+ m  
to d ?an to %[ t 8  idea 0 9 agreem5t ) 
! tea*+s ( ! ,upanisads4 ,he  %[$ t !   
,upanisads held t ! pure self z pure    
be+1  pure intellig5ce & pure bliss 0 ! 
ultimate tru?4 ,?is  be+ accept$ ! _w z 
x appe>s c\ld n be real4 ,x mu/  be a   
m]e magic %[ ( illusion or my4 ,s'ank>a 
nev] tries  to prove t ! _w is my1 b    
accepts x z indisputable4  ,=1 if ! self
 is :at is ultimately real1 ! necess>y  
conclusion  is t all else is m]e        
illusion or my4 ,he _h ?us to  qu>rel on

 "o side ) ! ,mmms reali/s & on ! o!r  )
 ! ,smkhya reali/s1 bo? ( :om accept$ ! 
validity  ( ! scriptures1 b int]pret$ !m
 9 _! own way4 ,!  ,mmmsi/s held t      
ev]y?+ t is said 9 ! ,v$as is to be     
int]pret$ z requir+ u to p]=m p>ticul>  
k9ds ( action1    #dcf    or to desi/ f 
do+ c]ta9 o!r k9ds4 ,?is w\ld mean t  ! 
,upanisads be+ a "p ( ! ,v$a %\ld also  
be int]pret$  z conta9+ injunctions = ! 
p]=mance ( c]ta9 k9ds (  actions4 ,!    
description ( ,brahman 9 ! ,upanisads   
does n  !re=e repres5t a simple /atem5t 
( ! nature ( ,brahman1  b x implies t ! 
,brahman %\ld be m$itat$ ^u z  possess+ 
! p>ticul> nature describ$ !re1 i4e4    
,brahman  %\ld be m$itat$ ^u z be+ an   
entity :i* possesses a  nature :i* is   
id5tical ) our self2 su* a proc$ure w\ld
  !n lead to b5eficial results to ! man 
:o s m$itates4  ,s'ank>a c\ld n agree to
 su* a view4 ,= 8 ma9 po9t 0  t !       
,upanisads reveal$ ! highe/ tru? z !    
,brahman4  ,no m$itation or wor%ip or   
action ( any k9d 0 requir$2  b "o rea*$ 

absolute wisdom & emancipation :5  !    
tru? dawn$ on him t ! ,brahman or self 0
 !  ultimate reality4 ,! tea*+s ( ! o!r 
p>ts ( ! ,v$as1  ! k>maknda 7^? deal+ ) 
! injunctions relat+  to ! p]=mance (   
duties & actions71 7 int5d$ = inf]ior   
types ( aspirants1 :]eas ! tea*+s ( !   
,upanisads1  ! jnaknda 7^? :i* decl>e ! 
nature ( ultimate  tru? & reality71 7   
int5d$ only = sup]ior aspirants :o  _h  
transc5d$ ! limits ( sacrificial duties 
& actions1 &  :o _h no desire = any     
e>?ly bless+ or = any heav5ly  joy4     
,?r\gh\t 8 comm5t>y on ! ,bhagavadgt    
,s'ank>a  tri$ to demon/rate t ^? :o    
%\ld foll[ ! injunctions  ( ! ,v$a &    
p]=m ,v$ic de$s1 su* z sacrifices1      
etc41 belong$ to a l[] ord]4 ,s long z  
!y rema9$ 9  t ord] !y _h no "r to foll[
 ! high] tea*+s (  ! ,upanisads4 ,!y 7 b
 k>m9s 7p]=m]s ( scriptural  duties74   
,:5 !y succe$$ 9 purg+ _! m9ds ( all    
desires :i* l$ !m to ! p]=mance ( !     
,v$ic injunctions1  ! field ( k>mamrga  
7! pa? ( duties71 & want$  to "k ! tru? 

alone1 !y ent]$ ! jnamrga 7! way  (     
wisdom7 & _h no duties to p]=m4 ,! /udy 
( ,v$nta  0 ?us res]v$ = advanc$ p]sons 
:o 7 no long]  incl9$ to ! ord9>y joys (
 life b want$ complete  emancipation4 ,!
 qualifications necess>y = a man int5d+ 
to /udy ! ,v$nta are 7#a7 disc]n+ k ab\t
 :at is  et]nal & :at is transitory     
7nitynityava/uviveka71 7#b7             
dis9cl9ation to ! enjoym5t ( ! pleasures
 ( ?is _w or (    #dcg    ! aft] _w     
7ihmutraphalabhogavirga71 7#c7 atta9m5t 
(  peace1 self-re/ra9t1 r5unciation1    
pati5ce1 deep conc5tration  & fai?      
7s'amadamdisdhanasampat7 & desire =     
salvation  7mumuksutva74 ,! p]son :o _h 
^! qualifications %\ld  /udy !          
,upanisads1 & z soon z he became conv9c$
 ( !  tru? ab\t ! id5tity ( ! self & !  
,brahman he atta9$  emancipation4 ,:5   
once a man realiz$ t ! self alone  0 !  
reality & all else 0 my1 all injunctions
 ceas$ to  h any =ce ) him4 ,?us1 ! pa? 
( duties 7k>ma7 &  ! pa? ( wisdom 7jna7 
7 int5d$ = diff]5t classes (  p]sons or 

adhikr9s4 ,!re c\ld be no jo9t p]=mance 
(  ,v$ic duties & ! seek+ ( ! highe/    
tru? z taught 9  ! ,upanisads           
7jna-k>ma-samuccaybhvah74 ,z aga9/ !    
duali/s he tri$ to %[ t ! ,upanisads    
nev] fav\r$ any  k9d ( duali/ic         
int]pretations4 ,! ma9 diff]5ce betwe5  
! ,v$nta z exp\nd$ by ,gaudapda & z     
expla9$ by  ,s'ank>a consi/s 9 ?is1 t   
,s'ank>a tri$ z be/ he c\ld to          
dissociate ! di/9ctive ,buddhi/ traits  
f\nd 9 ! exposition  ( ! =m] & to       
=mulate ! philosophy z a direct         
int]pretation ( ! old] ,upanisad texts4 
,9 ?is he a*iev$  rem>kable success4 ,he
 0 no d\bt reg>d$ by "s z a  hidd5      
,buddhi/ 7prac*anna ,bauddha71 b 8      
influ5ce on  ,h9du ?\ght & religion     
became s great t he 0 reg>d$  9 lat]    
times z be+ almo/ a div9e p]son or an   
inc>nation4 ,8 imm$iate disciples1 !    
disciples ( 8 disciples1  & ^? :o adh]$ 
to 8 doctr9e 9 ! succe$+  g5]ations1    
tri$ to build a rational basis = 8 sy/em
 9 a  mu* /rong] way ?an ,s'ank>a did4  

,our treatm5t ( ,s'ank>a's  philosophy  
has be5 bas$ on ! int]pretations (      
,v$nta  ?\ght1 z (f]$ by ^! foll[]s (   
,s'ank>a4 ,^! int]pretations  are n[h]e 
9 conflict ) ,s'ank>a's doctr9es1 b  !  
que/ions & problems :i* ,s'ank>a did n  
raise h  be5 rais$ & discuss$ by 8      
foll[]s1 & )\t ^! "o  c\ld n treat      
,v$nta z a complete & coh]5t sy/em (    
metaphysics4 ,z ^! w be discuss$ 9 !    
lat] sections1  we may close ?is ) a    
%ort description ( "s ( ! ma9  features 
( ! ,v$nta ?\ght z expla9$ by ,s'ank>a4 
,brahman accord+ to ,s'ank>a is ! cause 
f :i*  7proce$s7 ! orig9 or subsi/5ce & 
dissolution ( ?is _w  :i* is ext5d$ 9   
names & =ms1 :i* includes _m    #dch    
ag5ts & enjoy]s1 :i* conta9s ! fruit (  
works specially  det]m9$ accord+ to     
space1 "t1 & cause1 a _w :i* is  =m$    
aft] an arrangem5t inconceivable ev5 by 
! 7imag9ation  ( !7 m9d ,footnote ref   
#a4 ,! reasons t ,s'ank>a adduces = !   
exi/5ce ( ,brahman may be consid]$ to be
 ?reefold3 7#a7 ,!  _w mu/ h be5 produc$

 z ! modification ( some?+1  b 9 !      
,upanisads all o!r ?+s h be5 spok5 (  z 
hav+ be5 orig9at$ f some?+ o!r ?an      
,brahman1  s ,brahman is ! cause f :i* !
 _w has sprung into  be+1 b we c\ld n   
?9k t ,brahman itself orig9at$ f  some?+
 else1 = !n we %\ld h a regressus ad    
inf9itum  7anava/h74 7#b7 ,! _w is s    
ord]ly t x c\ld n h  come =? f a        
non-intellig5t s\rce4 ,! intellig5t     
s\rce  !n f :i* ?is _w has come into be+
 is ,brahman4  7#c7 ,?is ,brahman is !  
imm$iate consci\sness 7sksi7 :i*  %9es z
 ! self1 z well z ?r\gh ! objects (     
cognition  :i* ! self kn[s4 ,x is ?us ! 
ess5ce ( u all1 ! self1  & h5ce x rema9s
 und5i$ ev5 :5 "o tries to d5y x1  = ev5
 9 ! d5ial x %[s itself =?4 ,x is ! self
 ( u all  & is h5ce ev] pres5t to u 9   
all our cognitions4    ,brahman accord+ 
to ,s'ank>a is ! id5tity ( pure         
intellig5ce1  pure be+1 & pure          
bless$ness4 ,brahman is ! self (  u all4
 ,s long z we are 9 our ord9>y wak+     
life1 we are  id5tify+ ! self ) ?\s&s ( 

illusory ?+s1 ) all t  we call ,i or    
m9e1 b :5 9 dreamless sleep we are      
absolutely  )\t any t\* ( ^! ph5om5al   
notions ! nature ( our  true /ate z pure
 bless$ness is p>tially realiz$4 ,!     
individual  self z x appe>s is b an     
appe>ance only1 :ile ! real tru?  is !  
true self :i* is "o = all1 z pure       
intellig5ce1 pure  bless$ness1 & pure   
be+4    ,all creation is illusory my4 ,b
 accept+ x z my1 x  may be conceiv$ t   
,god 7s'v>a7 creat$ ! _w z a m]e  sport2
 f ! true po9t ( view !re is no s'v>a :o
 creates  ! _w1 b 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! _w   
exi/s1 & we all  exi/ z sep>ate         
individuals1 we c affirm ! exi/5ce (    
s'v>a1 z engag$ 9 creat+ & ma9ta9+ ! _w4
 ,9  reality all creation is illusory & 
s ! creator also is illusory4  ,brahman1
 ! self1 is at once ! mat]ial cause     
7updna-krana7  z well z ! effici5t cause
 7nimitta-krana7 ( ! _w4                
,footnote #a3 ,s'ank>a's comm5t>y1 ,i4i4
 #b4 ,see also ,deuss5's ,sy/em (  !    
,v$nta4    #dci    ,!re is no diff]5ce  

betwe5 ! cause & ! effect1 & !  effect  
is b an illusory imposition on !        
cause--a m]e illusion  ( "n & =m4 ,we   
may m\ld clay into plates & jugs &  call
 !m by s _m diff]5t names1 b x _c be    
admitt$  t !y are by t fact any?+ m ?an 
clay2 _! trans=mations  z plates & jugs 
are only appe>ances ( "n &  =m 7nm>pa74 
,?is _w1 inasmu* z x is b an effect     
impos$ ^u ! ,brahman1 is only ph5om5ally
 exi/5t  7vyavahrika7 z m]e objects ( "n
 & =m 7nm>pa71 b  ! cause1 ! ,brahman1  
is alone ! true reality7pramr?ika7      
,footnote ref #a4      ,! ma9 idea ( !  
,v$nta philosophy4    ,! ma9 idea ( !   
advaita 7non-duali/ic7 ,v$nta philosophy
  z taught by ! ,s'ak>a s*ool is ?is1 t 
! ultimate  & absolute tru? is ! self1  
:i* is "o1 ?\gh appe>+ z  _m 9 diff]5t  
individuals4 ,! _w also z ap>t f  u !   
individuals has no reality & has no o!r 
tru?  to %[ ?an ?is self4 ,all o!r      
ev5ts1 m5tal or physical1  are b pass+  
appe>ances1 :ile ! only absolute &      
un*angeable  tru? und]ly+ !m all is !   

self4 ,:ile o!r  sy/ems inve/igat$ !    
pramanas only to exam9e h[ f>  !y c\ld  
det]m9e ! objective tru? ( ?+s or our   
attitude  9 practical life t[>ds !m1    
,v$nta s\ght to rea*  b5ea? ! surface ( 
appe>ances1 & enquir$ aft] ! f9al  &    
ultimate tru? und]ly+ ! microcosm & !   
macrocosm1  ! subject & ! object4 ,!    
fam\s in/ruction (  ,s'vetaketu1 ! mo/  
important ,v$nta text 7mahvkya7 says1   
,t art ?\1 ,o ,s'vetaketu4 ,?is         
compreh5sion ( my self  z ! ultimate    
tru? is ! highe/ k1 = :5 ?is  k is once 
produc$1 our cognition ( _w-appe>ances  
w automatically cease4 ,unless ! m9d is 
*a/5$ & purg$  ( all passions & desires1
 ! s\l _c compreh5d ?is  tru?2 b :5 ?is 
is once done1 & ! s\l is anxi\s =       
salvation by a k ( ! highe/ tru?1 !     
preceptor  in/ructs him1 ,t art ?\4 ,at 
once he becomes ! tru?  itself1 :i* is  
at once id5tical ) pure bliss & pure    
intellig5ce2  all ord9>y notions &      
cognitions ( div]sity & ( !             
,footnote #a3 ,all t is important 9     

,s'ank>a's comm5t>y ( !  ,brahma-stras  
has be5 excell5tly sy/ematiz$ by ,deuss5
 9 8  ,sy/em ( ! ,v$anta2 x is !re=e    
unnecess>y = me to give any  long acc\nt
 ( ?is "p4 ,mo/ ( :at foll[s has be5    
tak5 f  ! writ+s ( 8 foll[]s4    #ddj   
_m cease2 !re is no duality1 no notion (
 m9e & ?ane2 !  va/ illusion ( ?is _w   
process is ext9ct 9 him1 & he %9es  =? z
 ! "o1 ! tru?1 ! ,brahman4 ,all ,h9du   
sy/ems believ$  t :5 man atta9$         
salvation1 he became dive/$ ( all       
_w-consci\sness1 or ( all consci\sness (
 himself & 8 int]e/s1  & 0 ?us r$uc$ to 
8 own orig9al purity unt\*$  by all     
s5sations1 p]ceptions1 feel+s & will+1 b
 !re !  idea 0 ?is t :5 man _h no bonds 
( k>ma & no desire  & atta*m5t ) ! _w & 
_h kn[n ! nature (  8 self z absolutely 
free & unatta*$ to ! _w & 8  own        
psy*osis1 he became emancipat$ f ! _w & 
all  8 connections ) ! _w ceas$1 ?\gh ! 
_w cont9u$  z ev] ! same ) o!rs4 ,!     
ext]nal _w 0 a reality  ) !m2 !         
unreality or illusion consi/$ 9 want (  

true  k ab\t ! real nature ( ! self1 on 
acc\nt ( :i*  ! self fooli%ly id5tifi$  
itself ) _w-exp]i5ces1 worldly  joys &  
_w-ev5ts1 & p]=m$ good & bad works      
accord+ly4  ,! =ce ( accumulat$ k>mas l$
 him to und]go  ! exp]i5ces br\ght ab\t 
by !m4 ,:ile reap+ ! fruits  ( pa/ k>mas
 he1 z ignorant z ev] ( 8 own self1     
work$  aga9 "u ! delusion ( a false     
relation%ip betwe5 himself  & ! _w1 & s 
! _w process ran on4 ,mufti 7salvation7 
meant ! dissociation ( ! self f !       
subjective psy*osis  & ! _w4 ,?is       
condition ( ! pure /ate ( self 0 reg>d$ 
z an unconsci\s "o by ,nyya-,vais'esika 
& ,mmams1  & z a /ate ( pure intellig5ce
 by ,smkhya & ,yoga4 ,b  ) ,v$nta ! case
 is diff]5t1 = x held t ! _w z  su* has 
no real exi/5ce at all1 b is only an    
illusory imag9ation  :i* la/s till !    
mom5t :5 true k is acquir$4  ,z soon z  
we come to "k t ! "o tru? is ! self1 !  
,brahman1 all our illusory p]ceptions   
repres5t+ ! _w z  a field ( exp]i5ce    
cease4 ,?is happ5s n because !          

connections  ( ! self ) ! _w cease1 b   
because ! appe>ance  ( ! _w process does
 n repres5t ! ultimate &  highe/ tru?   
ab\t x4 ,all our notions ab\t ! abid+   
div]sifi$ _w 7la/+ ?\gh !y may be f     
beg9n+less  "t7 are false 9 ! s5se t !y 
d n repres5t ! real  tru? ab\t x4 ,we n 
only d n "k :at we ourselves  really    
are1 b d n also "k :at ! _w ab\t u is4  
,we take our ord9>y exp]i5ces ( ! _w z  
repres5t+    #dda    x correctly1 &     
proce$ on our c>e] ( daily activity4 ,x 
is no  d\bt true t ^! exp]i5ces %[ u an 
e/abli%$ ord]  hav+ its own laws1 b ?is 
does n repres5t ! real tru?4  ,!y are   
true only 9 a relative s5se1 s long z !y
 appe> to  be s2 = ! mom5t ! real tru?  
ab\t !m & ! self is  compreh5d$ all     
_w-appe>ances become unreal1 & t "o     
tru?1 ! ,brahman1 pure be+1 bliss1      
intellig5ce1 %9es =? z  ! absolute--!   
only tru? 9 _w & man4 ,! _w-appe>ance  z
 exp]i5c$ by u is ?us (t5 lik5$ to !    
illusory p]ception ( silv] 9 a          
con*-%ell2 = ! mom5t  ! p]ception appe>s

 to be true & ! man runs to pick  x up1 
z if ! con*-%ell 7 a real piece ( silv]2
 b  z soon z he f9ds out ! tru? t ?is is
 only a piece (  con*-%ell1 he turns 8  
back on x & is no long] delud$  by !    
appe>ance or aga9 attract$ t[>ds x4 ,!  
illusion  ( silv] is inexplicable 9     
itself1 = x 0 true = all purposes  s    
long z x p]si/$1 b :5 true k 0  acquir$1
 x =?) vani%$4 ,?is _w-appe>ance w also 
vani% :5 ! true k ( reality dawns4 ,:5  
false  k is once f\nd to be false x _c  
return aga94  ,! ,upanisads tell u t he 
:o sees ! _m "h is  doom$4 ,! "o1 !     
,brahman1 alone is true2 all else is b  
delusion ( "n & =m4 ,o!r sy/ems believ$ 
t ev5  aft] emancipation1 ! _w w\ld     
cont9ue z x is1 t  !re 0 no?+ illusory 9
 x1 b ,i c\ld n h any  k ( x because ( !
 abs5ce ( ! in/rum5ts by  ! processes ( 
:i* k 0 g5]at$4 ,! ,smkhya  purusa _c "k
 ! _w :5 ! buddhi-/uff  is dissociat$ f 
x & m]g$ 9 ! prakrti1 ! ,mmms  & ! ,nyya
 s\l is also incapable ( kn[+ ! _w  aft]
 emancipation1 z x is !n dissociat$ f   

manas4 ,b  ! ,v$nta position is q di/9ct
 "h4 ,we _c "k  ! _w1 = :5 ! "r k dawns1
 ! p]ception  ( ?is _w-appe>ance proves 
itself to be false to !  p]son :o has   
witness$ ! tru?1 ! ,brahman4 ,an        
illusion  _c la/ :5 ! tru? is kn[n2 :at 
is tru? is kn[n to  u1 b :at is illusion
 is undemon/rable1 unspeakable1 &       
indef9ite4 ,! illusion runs on f        
beg9n+less "t2 we d  n "k h[ x is relat$
 to tru?1 ! ,brahman1 b we "k  t :5 !   
tru? is once kn[n ! false k ( ?is       
#ddb    _w-appe>ance disappe>s once =   
all4 ,no int]m$iate l9k  is necess>y to 
effect x1 no me*anical dissociation (   
buddhi or  manas1 b j z by f9d+ out !   
glitt]+ piece to be a con*-%ell  !      
illusory p]ception ( silv] is de/roy$1 s
 ?is illusory  p]ception ( _w-appe>ance 
is also de/roy$ by a true  k ( !        
reality1 ! ,brahman4 ,! ,upanisads held 
t reality or tru? 0 "o1 & !re 0 no _m   
any:]e1  & ,s'ak>a expla9$ x by add+ t !
 _m 0 m]ely  an illusion1 & h5ce did n  
exi/ 9 reality & 0 b\nd  to disappe> :5 

! tru? 0 kn[n4 ,! _w-appe>ance  is my   
7illusion74 ,?is is :at ,s'ak>a         
emphasizes 9 exp\nd+  8 con/ructive     
sy/em ( ! ,upanisad doctr9e4  ,! "q is  
sometimes ask$1 h[ ! my becomes         
associat$  ) ,brahman4 ,b ,v$nta ?9ks   
?is "q illegitimate1  = ?is association 
did n beg9 9 "t ei!r )  ref]5ce to !    
cosmos or ) ref]5ce to individual       
p]sons4  ,9 fact !re is no real         
association1 = ! creation ( illusion    
does n affect ! un*angeable tru?4 ,my or
 illusion is no  real entity1 x is only 
false k 7avidy7 t makes !  appe>ance1   
:i* vani%es :5 ! reality is grasp$ &    
f\nd4  ,my or avidy has an app>5t       
exi/5ce only s long z x  la/s1 b ! mom5t
 ! tru? is kn[n x is dissolv$4 ,x is  n 
a real entity 9 association ) :i* a real
 _w-appe>ance  has be5 br\ght into      
p]man5t exi/5ce1 = x only has  exi/5ce s
 long z we are delud$ by x              
7prttika-satt74  ,my !re=e is a category
 :i* baffles ! ord9>y logical  division 
( exi/5ce & non-exi/5ce & ! pr9ciple (  

exclud$  middle4 ,= ! my c nei!r be said
 to be is nor  is n 7tattvnyatvbhym     
anirvacany74 ,x _c be said t  su* a     
logical category does n exi/1 = all our 
dream &  illusory cognitions demon/rate 
x to u4 ,!y exi/ z !y are  p]ceiv$1 b !y
 d n exi/ s9ce !y h no o!r indep5d5t    
exi/5ce ?an ! fact ( _! p]ception4 ,if x
 has  any creative function1 t function 
is z illusive z its  own nature1 = !    
creation only la/s s long z ! error     
la/s4  ,brahman1 ! tru?1 is n 9 any way 
sulli$ or affect$ by association  ) my1 
= !re c be no association ( ! real ) !  
empty1  ! my1 ! illusory4 ,x is no real 
association b a m]e appe>ance4    #ddc  
,9 :at s5se is ! _w-appe>ance false8    
,! _w is said to be false--a m]e product
 ( my4 ,!  falsehood ( ?is _w-appe>ance 
has be5 expla9$ z involv$  9 ! category 
( ! indef9ite :i* is nei!r sat is  nor  
asat is n4 ,"h ! opposition ( ! is & is 
n  is solv$ by ! category ( "t4 ,!      
_w-appe>ance is is  n1 s9ce x does n    
cont9ue to manife/ itself 9 all times1 &

  has its manife/ation up to ! mom5t t !
 "r k  dawns4 ,x is n !re=e is n 9 !    
s5se t a ca/le 9  ! air or a h>e's horn 
is is n1 = ^! are call$ tuc*a1  !       
absolutely non-exi/5t4 ,! _w-appe>ance  
is said to be  is or exi/+1 s9ce x      
appe>s to be s = ! "t ! /ate (          
ignorance p]si/s 9 u4 ,s9ce x exi/s = a 
"t x is sat 7is71  b s9ce x does n exi/ 
= all times x is asat 7is n74 ,?is  is !
 appe>ance1 ! falsehood ( ! _w-appe>ance
 7jagat-prapaca7  t x is nei!r sat nor  
asat 9 an absolute s5se4 ,or  r x may   
also be said 9 ano!r way t ! falsehood (
  ! _w-appe>ance consi/s 9 ?is1 t ?\gh x
 appe>s to  be ! reality or an          
expression or manife/ation ( ! reality1 
!  be+1 sat1 yet :5 ! reality is once   
rightly compreh5d$1 x  w be manife/ t ! 
_w nev] exi/$1 does n exi/1  & w nev]   
exi/ aga94 ,?is is j :at we f9d 9 an    
illusory  p]ception2 :5 once ! tru? is  
f\nd out t x is a con*-%ell1  we say t !
 silv]1 ?\gh x appe>$ at ! "t (         
illusory p]ception to be :at we saw be=e

 u z ?is 7?is  is silv]71 yet x nev]    
exi/$ be=e1 does n n[ exi/1 &  w nev]   
exi/ aga94 ,9 ! case ( ! illusory       
p]ception (  silv]1 ! ?is 7po9t+ to a ?+
 be=e me7 appe>$ z  silv]2 9 ! case ( ! 
_w-appe>ance1 x is ! be+ 7sat71  !      
,brahman1 t appe>s z ! _w2 b z 9 ! case 
:5  ! ?is be=e u is f\nd to be a piece (
 con*-%ell1 !  silv] is at once dismiss$
 z hav+ _h no exi/5ce 9 ! ?is  be=e u1 s
 :5 ! ,brahman1 ! be+1 ! reality1 is    
once  directly realiz$1 ! conviction    
comes t ! _w nev]  exi/$4 ,! negation ( 
! _w-appe>ance h[ev] has no  sep>ate    
exi/5ce o!r ?an ! compreh5sion ( !      
id5tity  ( ! real4 ,! fact t ! real is  
realiz$ is ! same z t  ! _w-appe>ance is
 negat$4 ,! negation "h involv$  ref]s  
bo? to ! ?+ negat$ 7! _w-appe>ance7 & ! 
#ddd    negation itself1 & h5ce x _c be 
cont5d$ t :5 !  conviction ( ! negation 
( ! _w is also reg>d$ z false  7= if !  
negation is n false !n x rema9s z an    
entity diff]5t  f ,brahman & h5ce !     
unqualifi$ monism fails71 !n ?is        

re9/ates ! reality ( ! _w-appe>ance2 =  
negation ( !  _w-appe>ance is z mu*     
false z ! _w-appe>ance itself1  & h5ce  
on ! realization ( ! tru? ! negative    
!sis1  t ! _w-appe>ance does n exi/1    
includes ! negation  also z a           
manife/ation ( _w-appe>ance1 & h5ce !   
only  ?+ left is ! realiz$ id5tity ( !  
tru?1 ! be+4 ,!  peculi>ity ( ?is       
illusion ( _w-appe>ance is ?is1 t x     
appe>s z consi/5t ) or inlaid 9 ! be+   
7sat7 ?\gh x  is n !re4 ,?is ( c\rse is 
dissolv$ :5 "r k  dawns4 ,?is inde$ br+s
 home to u ! tru? t ! _w-appe>ance  is  
an appe>ance :i* is diff]5t f :at we  "k
 z real 7sadvilaksana72 = ! real is kn[n
 to u z  t :i* is prov$ by ! pramanas1 &
 :i* w nev]  aga9 be falsifi$ by lat]   
exp]i5ce or o!r means ( pro(4  ,a ?+ is 
said to be true only s long z x is n    
contradict$2  b s9ce at ! dawn ( "r k   
?is _w-appe>ance  w be f\nd to be false 
& non-exi/+1 x _c be reg>d$  z real     
,footnote ref l4 ,?us ,brahman alone is 
true1 & !  _w-appe>ance is false2       

falsehood & tru? are n contr>y entities 
su* t ! negation or ! falsehood (       
falsehood w mean tru?4  ,! _w-appe>ance 
is a :ole & 9 ref]r+ to x !  negation   
ref]s also to itself z a "p ( !         
_w-appe>ance  & h5ce n only is !        
positive _w-appe>ance false1 b  !       
falsehood itself is also false2 :5 !    
_w-appe>ance is  contradict$ at ! dawn (
 "r k1 ! falsehood itself  is also      
contradict$4    ,brahman diff]s f all   
o!r ?+s 9 ?is t x is self-lum9\s        
7svapraks'a7 & has no =m2 x _c !re=e be 
!  object ( any o!r consci\sness t      
grasps x4 ,all o!r ?+s1  ideas1         
emotions1 etc41 9 contra/ to x are call$
 drs'ya 7objects (  consci\sness71 :ile 
x is ! drast 7! pure consci\sness       
compreh5d+ all objects74 ,z soon z any?+
 is compreh5d$ z  an expression ( a     
m5tal /ate 7vrtti71 x is said to h a =m 
&  x becomes drs'ya1 & ?is is !         
*>act]i/ic ( all objects (  consci\sness
 t !y _c reveal !mselves ap>t f be+     
manife/$ z objects ( consci\sness ?r\gh 

a m5tal /ate4        ,footnote #a3 ,see 
,advaitasiddhi1 ,mi?ytvanirukti4    #dde
    ,brahman also1 s long z x is        
und]/ood z a mean+ ( !  ,upanisad text1 
is n 9 its true nature2 x is only :5 x  
%9es  =? z ap>t f ! associations ( any  
=m t x is svapraks'a  & drast4 ,! k ( ! 
pure ,brahman is devoid ( any  =m or    
mode4 ,! notion ( drs'yatva             
7objectivity7 c>ries )  x also ! notion 
( jadatva 7mat]iality7 or its nature z  
non-consci\sness 7ajnatva7 &            
non-selfness 7antmatva7 :i*  consi/s 9 !
 want ( self-lum9osity ( objects (      
consci\sness4  ,! relation (            
consci\sness 7jna7 to its objects _c be 
reg>d$ z real b z m]e illusory          
impositions1 = z we %all  see lat]1 x is
 n possible to det]m9e ! relation betwe5
  k & its =ms4 ,j z ! silv]-appe>ance ( 
!  con*-%ell is n its own natural       
appe>ance1 s ! =ms 9  :i* consci\sness  
%[s itself are n its own natural ess5ce4
  ,9 ! /ate ( emancipation :5 supreme   
bliss 7n&a7 %9es  =?1 ! n&a is n an     

object or =m ( ! illum9at+              
consci\sness1 b x is ! illum9ation      
itself4 ,:5ev] !re  is a =m associat$ ) 
consci\sness1 x is an extrane\s illusory
  imposition on ! pure consci\sness4 ,^!
 =ms are diff]5t  f ! ess5ce (          
consci\sness1 n only 9 ?is t !y  dep5d  
on consci\sness = _! expression & are   
!mselves  b objects ( consci\sness1 b   
also 9 ?is t !y are all  f9ite          
det]m9ations 7p>ic*9na71 :]eas          
consci\sness1 !  abid+ ess5ce1 is       
ev]y:]e pres5t )\t any limit :atsoev]4  
,! =ms ( ! object su* z c[1 jug1 etc4   
are limit$  9 !mselves 9 :at !y are1 b  
?r\gh !m all ! pure  be+ runs by virtue 
( :i* we say t ! c[ is1 ! jug is1  ! pot
 is4 ,ap>t f ?is pure be+ runn+ ?r\gh   
all !  individual appe>ances1 !re is no 
o!r class 7jti7 su* z  c[ness or        
jugness1 b x is on ?is pure be+ t       
diff]5t  individual =ms are illusorily  
impos$ 7ghatdkam sad>!kalpitam1         
pratyekam tadanubiddhatv5a              
pratyamnatvt74 ,s  ?is _w-appe>ance :i* 

is ess5tially diff]5t f !  ,brahman1 !  
be+ :i* =ms ! mat]ial cause on :i* x  is
 impos$1 is false                       
7updnanis?iyanibhvapratiyogitvalaksanami
?ytvasiddhih  --z ,citsukha has x74     
,! nature ( ! _w-appe>ance1 ph5om5a4    
,! _w-appe>ance is n h[ev] s illusory z 
! p]ception  ( silv] 9 ! con*-%ell1 = ! 
latt] type ( worldly  illusions is call$
 prtibhsika1 z !y are contradict$ by o!r
    #ddf    lat] exp]i5ces1 :]eas !     
illusion ( _w-appe>ance is nev]         
contradict$ 9 ?is worldly /age & is ?us 
call$ vyavahrika  7f vyavahra1 practice1
 i4e4 t on :i* is bas$ all our          
practical movem5ts74 ,s long z ! "r k ( 
!  ,brahman z ! only reality does n     
dawn1 ! _w-appe>ance  runs on 9 an      
ord]ly mann] uncontradict$ by !         
accumulat$  exp]i5ce ( all m51 & z su* x
 mu/ be held to be true4  ,x is only    
because !re comes su* a /age 9 :i* !    
_w-appe>ance  ceases to manife/ itself t
 we h to say t f  ! ultimate & absolute 
po9t ( view ! _w-appe>ance is  false &  

unreal4 ,z aga9/ ?is doctr9e ( ! ,v$nta 
x is  sometimes ask$ h[1 z we see !     
reality 7sattva7 be=e u1  we c d5y t x  
has tru?4 ,to ?is ! ,v$nta answ]s  t !  
notion ( reality _c be d]iv$ f ! s5ses1 
nor  c x be def9$ z t :i* is ! cont5t ( 
"r k1  = we _c h any conception ( "r k  
)\t  a conception ( reality1 & no       
conception ( reality )\t a  conception (
 "r k4 ,! conception ( reality          
compreh5ds  )9 x ! notions (            
unalt]ability1 absolut5ess1 &           
indep5d5ce1 :i* _c be _h directly f     
exp]i5ce1  z ?is gives only an appe>ance
 b _c c]tify its tru?4  ,judg$ f ?is    
po9t ( view x w be evid5t t ! true      
reality 9 all our exp]i5ce is ! "o      
self-lum9\s fla% (  consci\sness :i* is 
all ?r\gh id5tical ) itself 9 all its   
manife/ations ( appe>ance4 ,our pres5t  
exp]i5ce ( !  _w-appe>ance _c 9 any way 
gu>antee t x w n  be contradict$ at "s  
lat] /age4 ,:at really p]si/s 9 all     
exp]i5ce is ! be+ 7sat7 & n its =ms4    
,?is be+ t  is associat$ ) all our      

exp]i5ce is n a univ]sal g5us nor  m]ely
 ! individual appe>ance ( ! mom5t1 b x  
is !  be+1 ! tru? :i* =ms ! sub/ratum ( 
all objective ev5ts  & appe>ances       
7ek5aiva s>vnugat5a s>vatra satprattih74
  ,?+s are n exi/5t because !y possess !
 g5us ( be+  7sat7 z ,nyya supposes1 b  
!y are s because !y are !mselves  b     
appe>ance impos$ on "o id5tical be+ z ! 
basis  & gr\nd ( all exp]i5ce4 ,be+ is  
?us said to be ! basis  7adhis?na7 on   
:i* ! illusions appe>4 ,?is be+ is n    
diff]5t ) diff]5t ?+s b "o 9 all        
appe>ances4 ,our  p]ceptions ( !        
_w-appe>ance c\ld h be5 tak5 z a        
gu>antee ( _! reality1 if ! reality :i* 
is suppos$ ( !m    #ddg    c\ld be      
p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses1 & if inf]5ce &      
s'ruti 7scriptures7  did n po9t ! o!r   
way4 ,p]ception c ( c\rse invalidate    
inf]5ce1 b x c d s only :5 its own      
validity  has be5 asc]ta9$ 9 an und\bt$ 
& unconte/$ mann]4  ,b ?is is n ! case )
 our p]ceptions ( ! _w-appe>ance1  = our
 pres5t p]ceptions _c prove t ^!  w nev]

 be contradict$ 9 future1 & inf]5ce &   
s'ruti are  also aga9/ x4 ,! m]e fact t 
,i p]ceive ! _w-appe>ance  _c prove t   
:at ,i p]ceive is true or real1 if x is 
contradict$  by inf]5ce4 ,we all p]ceive
 ! sun to be small1 b our p]ception  9  
?is case is contradict$ by inf]5ce & we 
h  h5ce to admit t our p]ceptions are   
errone\s4 ,we dep5d  7upajvya7 inde$ =  
all our transactions on p]ception1 b su*
  dep5d5ce _c prove t t on :i* we dep5d 
is absolutely  valid4 ,validity or      
reality c only be asc]ta9$ by  prop]    
exam9ation & enquiry 7p>ks71 :i* may    
conv9ce  u t !re is no error 9 x4 ,true 
x is t by ! univ]sal  te/imony ( our    
contempor>ies & by ! practical fruition 
&  realization ( our endeav\rs 9 !      
ext]nal _w1 x is prov$  beyond d\bt t ! 
_w-appe>ance be=e u is a reality4  ,b   
?is sort ( exam9ation & enquiry _c prove
 to u )  any degree ( satisfaction t !  
_w-appe>ance w nev]  be contradict$ at  
any "t or at any /age4 ,! ,v$nta also   
admits t our exam9ation & enquiry prove 

to u t !  _w-appe>ance n[ exi/s z x     
appe>s2 x only d5ies t x  _c cont9ue to 
exi/ = all times1 & a "t w come :5  to !
 emancipat$ p]son ! _w-appe>ance w cease
 to  exi/4 ,! exp]i5ce1 obs]vation1 &   
practical utility ( !  objects z p]ceiv$
 by u _c prove to u t ^! w  nev] be     
contradict$ at any future "t4 ,our      
p]ception ( !  _w-appe>ance _c !re=e    
disprove ! ,v$nta inf]5ce  t !          
_w-appe>ance is false1 & x w demon/rate 
itself  to be s at ! "t :5 ! "r k (     
,brahman z  "o dawns 9 u4 ,! te/imony ( 
! ,upanisads also contradicts  !        
p]ception :i* grasps ! _w-appe>ance 9   
its manifold  aspect4    ,moreov] we are
 l$ to ?9k t ! _w-appe>ance is  false1 =
 x is n possible = u to discov] any true
 relation  betwe5 ! consci\sness 7drk7 &
 ! objects ( consci\sness  7drs'ya74    
,consci\sness mu/ be admitt$ to h "s k9d
 (    #ddh    connection ) ! objects :i*
 x illum9es1 = _h x n be5  s !re c\ld be
 any k at any "t irrespective ( its     
connections ) ! objects4 ,b x is n      

possible to imag9e  any k9d ( connection
 betwe5 consci\sness & its objects1 =  x
 c nei!r be contact 7samyoga7 nor       
inh]5ce 7samavya72  & ap>t f ^! two k9ds
 ( connections we "k ( no  o!r4 ,we say 
t ?+s are ! objects ( our consci\sness1 
b :at is meant by x is inde$ difficult  
to def9e4 ,x _c  be t objectivity (     
consci\sness means t a special effect  l
 ! jtat ( ,mmms is produc$ ^u ! object1 
= su*  an effect is n admissible or     
p]ceivable 9 any way2 nor c  objectivity
 also mean any practical purpose 7( be+ 
useful to u7  associat$ ) ! object z    
,prabhakra ?9ks1 = !re are  _m ?+s :i*  
are ! objects ( our consci\sness b n    
consid]$ z useful 7e4g4 ! sky74         
,objectivity also _c mean  t ! ?+ is !  
object ( ! ?\ght-movem5t 7jna-krana7    
involv$ 9 k1 = ?is c only be ) ref]5ce  
to objects pres5t to ! p]ceiv]1 & _c    
apply to objects  ( pa/ "t ab\t :i* "o  
may be consci\s1 = if ! ?+ is  n pres5t 
h[ c x be made an object (              
?\ght-movem5t8  ,objectivity fur!r _c   

mean t ! ?+s project _! own  =ms on ! k 
& are h5ce call$ objects1 = ?\gh  ?is   
may apply 9 ! case ( p]ception1 x _c be 
true (  inf]5ce1 :]e ! object (         
consci\sness is f> away & does  n m\ld  
consci\sness aft] its own =m4 ,?us 9    
:atev]  way we may try to conceive      
manifold ?+s exi/+ sep>ately  & becom+  
objects ( consci\sness we fail4 ,we h   
also  se5 t x is difficult to conceive (
 any k9d ( relation subsi/+  betwe5     
objects & consci\sness1 & h5ce x has to 
be  admitt$ t ! imposition ( !          
_w-appe>ance is aft] all  no?+ b        
illusory4    ,n[ ?\gh all ?+s are b     
illusory impositions on consci\sness    
yet = ! illum9ation ( specific objects x
 is admitt$  ev5 by ,v$nta t ?is c only 
take place ?r\gh specific  s5se-contact 
& p>ticul> m5tal /ates 7vrtti7 or modes2
 b  if t be s :y n r admit t ?is c take 
place  ev5 on ! assumption ( ! absolute 
reality ( ! manifold  ext]nal _w )\t8 ,!
 answ] t ! ,v$nta gives to  su* a "q is 
?is1 t ! ph5om5on ( illum9ation has  n  

to und]go any gradual process1 = x is ! 
"w ( "o    #ddi    fla% l ! "w ( ! light
 ( a lamp 9 remov+ d>kness2  s x is n   
possible t ! ext]nal reality %\ld h to  
pass ?r\gh any process be=e consci\sness
 c\ld arise2 :at  happ5s is simply ?is1 
t ! reality 7sat7 :i* subsi/s 9 all  ?+s
 z ! same id5tical "o reveals ! object z
 soon z its  veil is remov$ by          
association ) ! vrtti 7m5tal m\ld or    
/ate74 ,x is l a light :i* directly &   
imm$iately illum9ates  ev]y?+ ) :i* x   
comes into relation4 ,su* an illum9ation
  ( objects by its und]ly+ reality w\ld 
h be5 cont9u\s  if !re 7 no veils or    
cov]s1 b t is n s z !  reality is hidd5 
by ! veil ( ajna 7nesci5ce74 ,?is veil  
is  remov$ z soon z ! light (           
consci\sness %9es ?r\gh a  m5tal m\ld or
 vrtti1 & z soon z x is remov$ ! ?+     
%9es =?4 ,ev5 be=e ! =mation ( ! vrtti !
 illusory  impositions on ! reality _h  
/ill be5 cont9u+ objectively1  b x c\ld 
n be reveal$ z x 0 hidd5 by ajna :i* is 
remov$ by ! action ( ! correspond+      

vrtti2 & z soon z  ! veil is remov$ ! ?+
 %9es =? 9 its true light4 ,!  action ( 
! s5ses1 eye1 etc4 s]ves b to modify !  
vrtti ( !  m9d1 & ! vrtti ( ! m9d once  
=m$1 ! correspond+  ajna veil :i* 0     
cov]+ ! correspond+ specific "p (  !    
_w-appe>ance is remov$1 & ! illum9ation 
( !  object :i* 0 already pres5t1 be+   
dive/$ ( ! veil1 %[s  itself =?4 ,!     
illusory creations 7 !re1 b !y c\ld n   
be manife/$ on acc\nt ( ! veil (        
nesci5ce4 ,z soon z !  veil is remov$ by
 ! action ( ! vrtti ! light ( reality   
%[s  ! correspond+ illusory creations4  
,s consci\sness 9 itself  is ! ev]-%9+  
light ( reality :i* is nev] g5]at$ b    
ev] exi/s2 errors ( p]ception 7e4g4     
silv] 9 ! con*-%ell7  take place n      
because ! dsa consi/+ ( ! defect ( !    
eye1 ! glaze ( ! object & su* o!r       
elem5ts t contribut$  to ! illusion1    
g5]at$ ! k1 b because x  g5]at$ a wrong 
vrtti4 ,x is because ( ! g5]ation ( !   
wrong vrtti t ! manife/ation is         
illusory4 ,9 ! illusion  ?is is silv] z 

:5 we mi/ake ! con*-%ell = ! silv]1  x  
is ! cit1 consci\sness or reality z     
und]ly+ ! object  repres5t$ to u by ?is 
or idam t is ! basis 7adhis?na7  ( !    
illusion ( silv]4 ,! cause ( error is   
our nesci5ce or  non-cognition 7ajna7 ( 
x 9 ! =m ( ! con*-%ell1 :]eas  ! "r k is
 ! cognition ( x z con*-%ell4 ,!    #dej
    basis is n 9 ! cont5t ( my k z      
manife/$ 9 my  m5tal /ate 7vrtti71 s t !
 illusion is n ( ! =m  t ! k is silv] b 
( ?is is silv]4 ,objective  ph5om5a z   
su* h reality z _! basis1 :]eas !       
expression  ( illum9ation ( !m z /ates (
 k is made  ?r\gh ! cit be+ manife/$    
?r\gh ! m5tal m\ld or  /ates4 ,)\t !    
vrtti !re is no illum9at+ k4  ,ph5om5al 
creations are !re 9 ! _w mov+ ab\t z    
%ad[y =ms on ! un*angeable basis ( "o   
cit or reality1  b ?is basis1 ?is light 
( reality1 c only manife/ ^! =ms  :5 !  
veil ( nesci5ce cov]+ !m is tempor>ily  
remov$  by _! com+ 9 t\* ) a m5tal m\ld 
or m9d-modification  7vrtti74 ,x is     
sometimes said t s9ce all illum9ation ( 

k mu/ be ?r\gh ! m5tal /ates !re is no  
o!r  entity ( pure consci\sness ap>t f  
:at is manife/$  ?r\gh ! /ates4 ,?is    
,v$nta does n admit1 = x holds  t x is  
necess>y t be=e ! op]ation ( ! m5tal    
/ates c beg9 to int]pret reality1       
reality mu/ already be  !re & ?is       
reality is no?+ b pure consci\sness4 ,_h
  !re be5 no reality ap>t f ! manife/+  
/ates ( k1  ! validity ( k w\ld also    
cease2 s x has to  be admitt$ t !re is !
 "o et]nal self-lum9\s reality  unt\*$  
by ! *>act]i/ics ( ! m5tal /ates1 :i*   
are  mat]ial & suff] orig9ation &       
de/ruction4 ,x is ?is self-lum9\s       
consci\sness t seems to assume div]se   
=ms  9 connection ) div]se k9ds (       
associations or limitations  7updhi74 ,x
 manife/s ajna 7nesci5ce7 & h5ce does n 
by  itself remove ! ajna1 except :5 x is
 reflect$ ?r\gh any  specific k9d (     
vrtti4 ,!re is ( c\rse no diff]5ce1 no  
inn]  & out] v>ieties betwe5 ! reality1 
! pure consci\sness  :i* is ! ess5ce1 ! 
basis & ! gr\nd ( all ph5om5al          

appe>ances ( ! objective _w1 & !        
consci\sness t  manife/s itself ?r\gh ! 
m5tal /ates4 ,!re is only "o  id5tical  
pure consci\sness or reality1 :i* is at 
once ! basis  ( ! ph5om5a z well1 is _! 
int]pret] by a reflection  ?r\gh ! m5tal
 /ates or vrttis4    ,! ph5om5a or      
objects call$ ! drs'ya c only be det]m9$
  9 _! v>i\s =ms & manife/ations b n z  
to _! ultimate reality2 !re is no       
exi/5ce z an entity (  any relation su* 
z samyoga 7contact7 or samavya 7inh]5ce7
    #dea    betwe5 !m & ! pure          
consci\sness call$ ! drk2 = !  tru? is  
?is1 t ! drk 7p]ceiv]7 & ! drs'ya       
7p]ceiv$7  h "o id5tical reality2 ! =ms 
( ph5om5a are b  illusory creations on  
x4    ,x is sometimes object$ t 9 !     
ord9>y psy*ological  illusion su* z ?is 
is silv]1 ! k ( ?is z a ?+  is only ( a 
g5]al & indef9ite nature1 = x is p]ceiv$
  z a ?+ b its special *>act]i/ics z a  
con*-%ell are n  notic$1 & ?us !        
illusion is possible4 ,b 9 ,brahman or  
pure  consci\sness !re are nei!r def9ite

 nor indef9ite *>act]i/ics  ( any k9d1 &
 h5ce x _c be ! gr\nd ( any  illusion z 
! piece ( con*-%ell p]ceiv$ indef9itely 
z a m]e  ?is c be4 ,! answ] ( ,v$nta is 
t :5 ! ,brahman  /&s z ! gr\nd          
7adhis?na7 ( ! _w-appe>ance its         
*>act]i/ic z sat or real only is        
manife/$1 :]eas its special  "* z pure &
 inf9ite bliss is nev] notic$2 or r x   
may be said t ! illusion ( _w-appe>ance 
is possible  because ! ,brahman 9 its   
true & correct nature is nev] reveal$   
to u 9 our objective consci\sness2 :5 ,i
 say ! jug is1  ! isness1 or be+1 does n
 %9e 9 its purity1 b only z  a          
*>act]i/ic ( ! jug-=m1 & ?is is ! root (
 ! illusion4  ,9 all our exp]i5ces only 
! aspect ( ,brahman z real %9es  =? 9   
association ) ! manifold objects1 &     
!re=e !  ,brahman 9 its true nature be+ 
unkn[n ! illusion is made  possible4 ,x 
is aga9 object$ t s9ce ! _w-appe>ance  c
 s]ve all practical purposes1 x mu/ be  
consid]$ z real &  n illusory4 ,b !     
,v$nta po9ts out t ev5 by illusory      

p]ceptions practical effects are se5 to 
take place2 ! illusory  p]ception ( a   
snake 9 a rope causes all ! fe> t a real
 snake  c\ld d2 ev5 9 dreams we feel    
happy & sad1 & dreams  may be s bad z to
 affect or incapacitate ! actual        
physical  functions & organs ( a man4 ,s
 x is t ! pa/ impressions  imb$d$ 9 u   
cont9u+ f beg9n+less "t are suffici5t   
to acc\nt = our illusory notions1 j z ! 
impressions produc$  9 actual wak+ life 
acc\nt = ! dream creations4  ,accord+ to
 ! good or bad de$s t a man has done 9  
previ\s lives & accord+ to ! impressions
 or pot5cies  7samskra7 ( 8 pa/ lives   
ea* man has a p>ticul> k9d (            
_w-exp]i5ce = himself & ! impressions ( 
"o _c  affect ! =mation ( ! illusory    
exp]i5ce ( ! o!r4 ,b    #deb    !       
exp]i5ce ( ! _w-appe>ance is n :olly a  
subjective  creation = ea* individual1 =
 ev5 be=e 8 cognition !  ph5om5a (      
_w-appe>ance 7 runn+ 9 "s unkn[able     
/ate ( exi/5ce 7sv5a adhya/asya         
samskrasya                              

viyaddyadhysajanakatvopapatteh          
tatprattyabhvepi tadadhysasya  prvam    
sattvt krtsnasypi vyavahrikapadr?asya   
ajtasattvbhyupagamt74 ,x is aga9        
sometimes object$ t illusion  is produc$
 by malobs]v$ simil>ity betwe5 ! gr\nd  
7adhis?na7  & ! illusory notion z silv] 
9 ?is is silv]1 b  no su* simil>ity is  
f\nd betwe5 ! ,brahman & ! _w-appe>ance4
  ,to ?is ,v$nta says t simil>ity is n  
an indisp5sable  factor 9 ! production (
 an illusion 7e4g4 :5 a  :ite con* is   
p]ceiv$ z yell[ ow+ to ! defect ( ! eye 
?r\gh ! influ5ce ( bile or pitta74      
,simil>ity helps ! production  (        
illusion by r\s+ up ! pot5cies ( pa/    
impressions  or memories2 b ?is r\s+ (  
pa/ memories may z well be  done by     
adrsta--! unse5 p[] ( our pa/ good or   
bad de$s4  ,9 ord9>y illusion "s defect 
is necess>y b ! illusion (  ?is         
_w-appe>ance is beg9n+less1 & h5ce x    
awaits no  o!r dsa 7defect7 ?an ! avidy 
7nesci5ce7 :i* con/itutes  ! appe>ance4 
,"h avidy is ! only dsa & ,brahman is ! 

only adhis?na or gr\nd4 ,_h !re n be5 ! 
,brahman1 !  self-lum9\s z ! adhis?na1 !
 illusory creations c\ld n  h be5       
manife/$ at all ,! cause ( ! direct     
p]ception  ( illusion is ! direct b     
indef9ite p]ception ( ! adhis?na4  ,h5ce
 :]e ! adhis?na is hidd5 by ! veil (    
avidy1 !  association ) m5tal /ates     
becomes necess>y = remov+  ! veil &     
manife/+ !reby ! self-lum9\s adhis?na4  
,z soon z ! adhis?na1 ! gr\nd1 !        
reality1 ! blissful  self-lum9\s        
,brahman is completely realiz$ !        
illusions disappe>4  ,! disappe>ance ( !
 ph5om5a means no?+  m ?an ! realization
 ( ! self-lum9\s ,brahman4      ,!      
,def9ition ( ,ajna 7nesci5ce74    ,ajna 
! cause ( all illusions is def9$ z t :i*
 is  beg9n+less1 yet positive &         
removable by k 7andibhv>upatve  sati    
jnaniv>tyatvam74 ,?\gh x manife/s itself
  9 all ord9>y ?+s 7veil$ by x be=e !y  
become objects (  p]ception7 :i* h a    
beg9n+ 9 "t1 yet x itself has no        
beg9n+1 = x is associat$ ) ! pure       

consci\sness :i*    #dec    is          
beg9n+less4 ,aga9 ?\gh x has be5        
describ$ z positive  7bhv>pa7 x c v well
 con/itute ! ess5ce ( negation  7abhva7 
too1 = ! positivity 7bhvatva7 does n    
mean "h !  opposite ( abhva 7negation7 b
 notes m]ely its diff]5ce f  abhva      
7abhva-vilaksanatvamtram vivaksitam74   
,ajna is n  a positive entity 7bhva7 l  
any o!r positive entity1 b x is  call$  
positive simply because x is n a m]e    
negation 7abhva74  ,x is a category :i* 
is believ$ nei!r to be positive 9 !     
ord9>y s5se nor negative1 b a ?ird "o   
:i* is diff]5t  bo? f position z well z 
f negation4 ,x is sometimes  object$ t  
ajna is a m]e illusory imag9ation ( !   
mom5t  caus$ by defect 7dsa7 & h5ce x _c
 be beg9n+less  7andi72 b ,v$nta holds t
 ! fact t x is an imag9ation  or r      
imposition1 does n necess>ily mean t x  
is m]ely  a tempor>y notion produc$ by !
 defects2 = x c\ld h  be5 said to be a  
tempor>y product ( ! mom5t if ! gr\nd  z
 well z ! illusory creation associat$ ) 

x came into be+  = ! mom5t1 b ?is is n !
 case "h1 z ! cit1 !  gr\nd ( illusion1 
is ev]-pres5t & ! ajna !re=e be+  ev]   
associat$ ) x is also beg9n+less4 ,!    
ajna is !  indef9ite :i* is veil+       
ev]y?+1 & z su* is diff]5t  f ! def9ite 
or ! positive & ! negative4 ,?\gh x is  
beg9n+less yet x c be remov$ by k1 = to 
h  a beg9n+ or n to h x does n 9 any way
 det]m9e  :e!r ! ?+ is subject to       
dissolution or n = ! dissolution  ( a ?+
 dep5ds ^u ! pres5ce ( ! ?+ :i*  c cause
 x2 & x is a fact t :5 k comes !        
illusion is de/roy$2 x does n matt] :e!r
 ! cause :i*  produc$ ! illusion 0      
beg9n+less or n4 ,"s ,v$nti/s  h[ev]    
def9e ajna z ! sub/ance con/itut+       
illusion1 &  say t ?\gh x is n a        
positive entity yet x may be reg>d$  z  
=m+ ! sub/ance ( ! illusion2 x is n     
necess>y t  only a positive entity %\ld 
be ! matt] ( any ?+1 = :at  is necess>y 
= ! notion ( a mat]ial cause 7updna7 is 
?is1  t x %\ld cont9ue or p]si/ z ! same
 9 all *anges (  effects4 ,x is n true t

 only :at is positive c p]si/ 9  & ?r\gh
 ! effects :i* are produc$ 9 ! "t       
process4  ,illusion is unreal & x is n  
unnatural t ! ajna :i*  also is unreal  
%\ld be ! cause ( x4    #ded      ,ajna 
e/abli%$ by ,p]ception & ,inf]5ce4      
,ajna def9$ z ! indef9ite :i* is nei!r  
positive nor  negative is also directly 
exp]i5c$ by u 9 su* p]ceptions  z ,i d n
 "k1 or ,i d n "k myself or anybody     
else1  or ,i d n "k :at y say1 or m     
p>ticul>ly ,i _h  be5 sleep+ s long     
happily & did n "k any?+4 ,su*          
p]ceptions po9t to an object :i* has no 
def9ite *>act]i/ics1  & :i* _c prop]ly  
be said to be ei!r positive or negative4
  ,x may be object$ t ! p]ception ,i d n
 "k is n  ! p]ception ( ! indef9ite1 !  
ajna1 b m]ely ! negation  ( k4 ,to ?is  
,v$nta says t _h x be5 !  p]ception ( a 
negation m]ely1 !n ! negation mu/ h  be5
 associat$ ) ! specific object to :i* x 
appli$4  ,a negation mu/ imply ! ?+     
negativ$2 9 fact negation  g5]ally      
appe>s z a sub/antive ) ! object (      

negation  z a qualify+ "* specify+ !    
nature ( ! negation4  ,b ! p]ception ,i 
d n "k or ,i _h no k does  n involve !  
negation ( any p>ticul> k ( any         
specific object1 b ! k ( an indef9ite   
objectless  ignorance4 ,su* an indef9ite
 ajna is positive 9 ! s5se t  x is      
c]ta9ly n negative1 b ?is positive      
indef9ite is n positive  9 ! same s5se 9
 :i* o!r def9ite entities are call$     
positive1  = x is m]ely ! *>act]less1   
passive indef9ite %[+ itself  9 our     
exp]i5ce4 ,if negation meant only a     
g5]al negation1  & if ! p]ception (     
negation meant 9 ea* case ! p]ception  (
 a g5]al negation1 !n ev5 :]e !re is a  
jug on  ! gr\nd1 "o %\ld p]ceive !      
negation ( ! jug on !  gr\nd1 = ! g5]al 
negation 9 relation to o!r ?+s is !re4  
,?us negation ( a ?+ _c mean ! g5]al    
notion ( !  negation ( all specific ?+s2
 simil>ly a g5]al negation )\t  any     
specific object to :i* x might apply _c 
manife/  itself to consci\sness2 !      
notion ( a g5]al negation ( k  is ?us   

oppos$ to any & e k1 s t if !  latt] is 
pres5t ! =m] _c be1 b ! p]ception ,i d  
n "k c p]si/1 ev5 ?\gh _m individual    
objects be  kn[n to u4 ,?us in/ead (    
say+ t ! p]ception ( ,i d  n "k is !    
p]ception ( a special k9d ( negation1 x 
is  r bett] to say t x is ! p]ception ( 
a diff]5t category  namely ! indef9ite1 
! ajna4 ,x is our common exp]i5ce       
#dee    t aft] exp]i5c+ ! indef9ite     
7ajna7 ( a specific type  we laun* =? 9 
our endeav\rs to remove x4 ,s x has to  
be  admitt$ t ! p]ception ( ! indef9ite 
is diff]5t f !  p]ception ( m]e         
negation4 ,! "* ( our p]ceiv+           
consci\sness 7sksi7 is su* t bo? ! root 
ajna z well  z its div]se =ms ) ref]5ce 
to p>ticul> objects z repres5t$  9 m5tal
 /ates 7vrtti-jna71 are compreh5d$ by x4
  ,( c\rse :5 ! vrttijna ab\t a ?+ z 9  
ord9>y  p]ceptions ( objects comes 91 ! 
ajna ) reg>d to x is  tempor>ily remov$1
 = ! vrttijna is oppos$ to ! ajna4  ,b s
 f> z our own p]ceiv+ consci\sness      
7sksi-caitanya7  is conceiv$ x c        

compreh5d bo? ! ajna & ! jna  7k7 ( ?+s4
 ,x is ?us (t5 said t all ?+s %[        
!mselves to ! p]ceiv+ consci\sness ei!r 
z kn[n or  z unkn[n4 ,?us ! p]ceiv+     
consci\sness compreh5ds all  positives  
ei!r z indef9ite ajna or z /ates ( k  or
 z specific k9ds ( ajna or ignorance1 b 
x is unable to  compreh5d a negation1 = 
negation 7abhva7 is n a p]ception1  b   
m]ely ! abs5ce ( p]ception              
7anupalabdhi74 ,?us :5  ,i say ,i d n "k
 ?is1 ,i p]ceive ! indef9ite 9          
consci\sness  ) ref]5ce to t ?+1 & ?is  
is n ! p]ception ( a  negation ( ! ?+4  
,an objection is sometimes rais$ f  !   
,nyya po9t ( view t s9ce )\t ! k ( a    
qualification 7vis'esana7 ! qualifi$ ?+ 
7vis'ista7 _c be  kn[n1 ! indef9ite ab\t
 an object _c be pres5t 9 consci\sness  
)\t ! object be+ kn[n fir/4 ,to ?is     
,v$nta  replies t ! maxim t !           
qualification mu/ be kn[n  be=e !       
qualifi$ ?+ is kn[n is gr\ndless1 = we c
 z  well p]ceive ! ?+ fir/ & !n its     
qualification4 ,x is n  out ( place "h  

to say t negation is n a sep>ate entity1
  b is only a peculi> mode ( !          
manife/ation ( ! positive4  ,ev5 !      
naiyyikas w\ld agree t 9 ! expression   
!re  is no negation ( a jug "h1 no      
sep>ate negation c be accept$1  = ! jug 
is already pres5t be=e u4 ,z !re are    
di/9ctions  & diff]5ces 9 positive      
entities by illusory impositions1 s     
negations are also di/+ui%$ by simil>   
illusory impositions  & appe> z !       
negation ( jug1 negation ( clo?1 etc42 s
 all  di/9ctions betwe5 negations are   
unnecess>y1 & x may be  accept$ t       
negation l position is "o :i* appe>s z  
_m  on acc\nt ( illusory di/9ctions &   
impositions4 ,?us !    #def    cont5t ( 
negation be+ itself positive1 !re is no 
reason to  object t su* p]ceptions z ,i 
d n "k ref] to !  p]ception ( an        
indef9ite ajna 9 consci\sness4 ,s also !
  p]ception ,i d n "k :at y say is n !  
p]ception  ( negation1 = ?is w\ld       
require t ! he>] %\ld "k  fir/ :at 0    
said by ! speak]1 & if ?is is s !n x is 

impossible to say ,i d n "k :at y say4  
,s also ! cognition ,i 0 sleep+ long &  
did n  "k any?+ has to be admitt$ z     
ref]r+ to ! p]ception  ( ! indef9ite    
dur+ sleep4 ,x is n true z "s say t     
dur+ sleep !re is no p]ception1 b :at   
appe>s to !  awak5$ man z ,i did n "k   
any?+ s long is only an  inf]5ce2 =1 x  
is n possible to inf] f ! pleasant &    
active /ate ( ! s5ses 9 ! awak5$ /ate t 
! activity  _h ceas$ 9 ! sleep /ate & t 
s9ce he _h no object (  k !n1 he c\ld n 
"k any?+2 = !re is no  inv>iable        
concomitance betwe5 ! pleasant & active 
/ate (  ! s5ses & ! abs5ce ( objects ( k
 9 ! imm$iately  prec$+ /ate4 ,dur+     
sleep !re is a m5tal /ate  ( ! =m ( !   
indef9ite1 & dur+ ! awak5$ /ate x is  by
 ! impression 7samskra7 ( ! a=esaid     
m5tal /ate (  ajna t "o rememb]s t /ate 
& says t ,i did n  p]ceive any?+ s long4
 ,! indef9ite 7ajna7 p]ceiv$ 9          
consci\sness is m fundam5tal & g5]al ?an
 ! m]e  negation ( k 7jnbhva7 & ! two   
are s connect$  t ?\gh ! latt] may n be 

felt1 yet x c be inf]r$ f  ! p]ception (
 ! indef9ite4 ,! indef9ite ?\gh n       
def9ite  is ?us a positive cont5t       
diff]5t f negation & is p]ceiv$ z  su* 9
 direct & imm$iate consci\sness bo? 9 ! 
awak5$  /ate z well z 9 ! sleep+ /ate4  
,! pres5ce ( ?is ajna may also be inf]r$
 f !  mann] 9 :i* k ( objects is reveal$
 9 consci\sness1  z ?is always takes    
place 9 br++ a ?+ into consci\sness  :i*
 0 n kn[n or r kn[n z indef9ite be=e we 
say ,i did n "k x be=e1 b ,i "k x n[4   
,my pres5t  k ( ! ?+ ?us involves !     
removal ( an indef9ite  :i* 0 veil+ x   
be=e & posit+ x 9 consci\sness1 j  z !  
fir/ /reak ( light 9 utt] d>kness       
manife/s itself by  remov+ !            
d>kness,footnote ref #a4 ,ap>t f su* an 
inf]5ce its  exi/5ce        ,footnote   
#a3 ,see ,pacapdikviv>ana1 ,tattvadpana1
 &  ,advaitasiddhi4    #deg    is also  
indicat$ by ! fact t ! inf9ite bliss (  
,brahman  does n %[ itself 9 its        
complete & limitless aspect4 ,if !re  0 
no ajna to ob/ruct1 x w\ld surely h     

manife/$ itself  9 its fullness4 ,aga9  
_h x n be5 = ?is ajna !re w\ld  h be5 no
 illusion4 ,x is ! ajna t con/itutes !  
sub/ance  ( ! illusion2 = !re is no?+   
else t c be reg>d$  z con/itut+ its     
sub/ance2 c]ta9ly ,brahman c\ld n1 z x  
is un*angeable4 ,?is ajna is manife/$ by
 ! p]ceiv+  consci\sness 7sksi7 & n by !
 pure consci\sness4 ,!  p]ceiv+         
consci\sness is no?+ b pure intellig5ce 
:i*  reflects itself 9 ! /ates ( avidy  
7ignorance74      ,locus & ,object (    
,ajna1 ,ahamkra1 & ,antahk>ana4    ,?is 
ajna re/s on ! pure cit or intellig5ce4 
,?is cit or  ,brahman is ( ! nature (   
pure illum9ation1 b yet x is n  oppos$  
to ! ajna or ! indef9ite4 ,! cit becomes
 oppos$  to ! ajna & de/roys x only :5 x
 is reflect$ ?r\gh !  m5tal /ates       
7vrtti74 ,! ajna ?us re/s on ! pure cit 
& n  on ! cit z associat$ ) su* illusory
 impositions z g to  produce ! notion ( 
ego aham or ! individual s\l4 ,vcaspati 
,mis'ra h[ev] holds t ! ajna does n re/ 
on ! pure cit  b on ! jva 7individual   

s\l74 ,mdhava reconciles ?is view (     
,vcaspati ) ! above view1 & says t !    
ajna may be  reg>d$ z re/+ on ! jva or  
individual s\l f ?is po9t (  view t !   
ob/ruction ( ! pure cit is ) ref]5ce to 
! jva  7,c9mtrs'ritam ajnam             
jvapaksaptitvt jvs'ritam ucyate         
,viv>anaprameya1 p4 #dh74 ,! feel+ ,i d 
n "k seems  h[ev] to indicate t ! ajna  
is ) ref]5ce to ! p]ceiv+  self 9       
association ) its feel+ z ego or ,i2 b  
?is  is n s2 su* an appe>ance h[ev] is  
caus$ on acc\nt (  ! close association (
 ajna ) antahk>ana 7m9d7 bo? (  :i* are 
9 ess5ce ! same 7see                    
,viv>anapr>neyasamgraha1  p4 #dh74    ,!
 ajna h[ev] does n only re/ on ! cit1 b 
x has  ! cit z its visaya or object too1
 i4e4 its manife/ations are  ) ref]5ce  
to ! self-lum9\s cit4 ,! self-lum9\s cit
 is  ?us ! entity on :i* ! veil+ action 
( ! ajna is notic$2  ! veil+ action is  
manife/$ n by de/roy+ ! self-lum9\s  "*1
 nor by /opp+ a future c\rse ( lum9\s   
c>e] on  ! "p ( ! cit1 nor by /opp+ its 

relations ) ! visaya1    #deh    b by   
caus+ su* an appe>ance t ! self-lum9\s  
cit  seems s to behave t we seem to ?9k 
t x is n or x does  n %9e 7n/i na       
praks'ate iti vyavahrah7 or r !re is no 
appe>ance ( its %9+ or lum9osity4 ,to   
say t ,brahman is  hidd5 by ! ajna means
 no?+ m ?an ?is1 t x is  su* tadyogyat7 
t ! ajna c s relate itself ) x t  x     
appe>s to be hidd5 z 9 ! /ate ( deep    
sleep & o!r  /ates ( ajna-consci\sness 9
 exp]i5ce4 ,ajna is ?us  consid]$ to h  
bo? its locus & object 9 ! pure cit4 ,x 
is oppos$ to ! /ates ( consci\sness1 =  
^! at once dispel  x4 ,! action ( ?is   
ajana is ?us on ! light ( ! reality  :i*
 x ob/ructs = u1 s long z ! ob/ruction  
is n dissolv$  by ! /ates (             
consci\sness4 ,?is ob/ruction ( ! cit is
 n  only ) reg>d to its "* z pure       
limitless consci\sness  b also ) reg>d  
to its "* z pure & inf9ite bliss2  s x  
is t ?\gh we d n exp]i5ce ! indef9ite 9 
our  pleasurable feel+s1 yet its pres5ce
 z ob/ruct+ ! pure cit  is indicat$ by !

 fact t ! full inf9ite bliss con/itut+ !
  ess5ce ( ,brahman is ob/ruct$2 & z a  
result ( t !re  is only an incomplete   
manife/ation ( ! bliss 9 our ph5om5al   
exp]i5ces ( pleasure4 ,! ajna is "o1 b x
 seems to ob/ruct  ! pure cit 9 v>i\s   
aspects or modes1 ) reg>d to :i* x  may 
be said t ! ajna has _m /ates z         
con/itut+ !  individual exp]i5ces ( !   
indef9ite ) ref]5ce to !  div]se        
individual objects ( exp]i5ce4 ,^! /ates
 ( ajna  are te*nically call$ tuljna or 
ava/hjna4 ,any /ate (  consci\sness     
7vrttijna7 removes a manife/ation ( !   
ajna  z tuljna & reveals itself z ! k ( 
an object4    ,! mo/ important action ( 
?is ajna z ob/ruct+ !  pure cit1 & z    
creat+ an illusory ph5om5on is          
demon/rat$  9 ! notion ( ! ego or       
ahamkra4 ,?is notion ( ahamkra  is a    
union ( ! true self1 ! pure consci\sness
 & o!r  associations1 su* z ! body1 !   
cont9u$ pa/ exp]i5ces1 etc42  x is !    
self-lum9\s *>act]less ,brahman t is    
f\nd ob/ruct$  9 ! notion ( ! ego z !   

repository ( a ?\s&  limitations1       
*>act]s1 & associations4 ,?is illusory  
creation (  ! notion ( ! ego runs on f  
beg9n+less "t1 ea* set  ( previ\s false 
impositions det]m9+ ! succe$+ set (     
impositions & s on4 ,?is bl5d+ ( !      
unreal associations  held up 9 ! m9d    
7antahk>ana7 ) ! real1 ! false )    #dei
    ! true1 t is at ! root ( illusion4  
,x is ! antahk>ana tak5  z ! self-lum9\s
 self t reflects itself 9 ! cit z !     
notion  ( ! ego4 ,j z :5 we say t ! iron
 ball 7r$ hot7 burns1  !re are two      
entities ( ! ball & ! fire fus$ into "o1
  s1 "h also :5 ,i say ,i p]ceive1 !re  
are two di/9ct elem5ts  ( ! self1 z     
consci\sness & ! m9d or antahk>ana fus$ 
into "o4 ,! "p or aspect associat$ )    
sorr[1 mat]iality1  & *angefulness      
repres5ts ! antahk>ana1 :]eas t :i*     
appe>s z ! un*angeable p]ceiv+          
consci\sness is ! self4  ,?us ! notion (
 ego conta9s two p>ts1 "o real & o!r    
unreal4    ,we rememb] t ?is is di/9ctly
 t :i* ,prabhk>a  s\ght to repudiate4   

,prabhk>a did n consid] ! self to be    
self-lum9\s1 & held t su* is ! ?reefold 
nature ( ?\ght  7triputi71 t x at once  
reveals ! k1 !  object ( k1 & ! self4   
,he fur!r said1 t !  analogy ( ! r$-hot 
iron ball did n hold1 = ! iron ball  & !
 fire are sep>ately exp]i5c$1 b ! self &
 !  antahk>ana are nev] sep>ately       
exp]i5c$1 & we c  nev] say t ^! two are 
really diff]5t1 & only h an  illusory   
appe>ance ( a seem+ unity4 ,p]ception   
7anubhava7  is l a light :i* illum9ates 
bo? ! object & ! self1 &  l x does n    
require ! assi/ance ( any?+ else = !    
fulfilm5t ( its purpose4 ,b ! ,v$nta    
objects to ?is say+  t accord+ to       
,prabhak>a's supposition1 x is          
impossible to  discov] any relation     
betwe5 ! self & ! k4 ,if  k c be reg>d$ 
z reveal+ itself1 ! self may z  well be 
held to be self-lum9\s2 ! self & ! k    
are inde$ "o & ! same4 ,kumrila ?9ks ?is
 ?\ght  7anubhava71 to be a movem5t1    
,nyya & ,prabhk>a z a  quality ( ! self 
,footnote ref #a4 ,b if x 0 a movem5t l 

o!r  movem5ts1 x c\ld n affect itself z 
illum9ation4 ,if x 7 a  sub/ance &      
atomic 9 size1 x w\ld only manife/ a    
small portion (  a ?+1 if all p]vasive1 
!n x w\ld illum9ate ev]y?+1  if ( m$ium 
size1 x w\ld dep5d on its p>ts = its own
        ,footnote #a3 ,accord+ to ,nyya 
! tman is consci\s only ?r\gh           
association ) consci\sness1 b x is n    
consci\sness7cit74  ,consci\sness is    
associat$ ) x only z a result ( suitable
  collocations4 ,?us1 ,nyyamaj> 9 refut+
 ! doctr9e (  self-lum9osity svapraks'a7
 says 7p4#dcb7     sacetanas'cit        
yogttadyog5a v9 jadah                   
nr?vabhsadanyaddhi caitanyam nma        
manmahe4    #dfj    con/itution & n on !
 self4 ,if x is reg>d$ z a quality  ( ! 
self z ! light is ( ! lamp1 !n also x   
has necess>ily  to be suppos$ t x 0     
produc$ by ! self1 = f :at  else c\ld x 
be produc$8 ,?us x is to be admitt$ t ! 
self1 ! tman1 is ! self-lum9\s entity4  
,no "o d\bts any  ( 8 k1 :e!r x is he :o
 sees or anybody else4  ,! self is ?us !

 same z vijna1 ! pure consci\sness1  :i*
 is always ( itself self-lum9\s         
,footnote ref #a4    ,aga91 ?\gh        
consci\sness is cont9u\s 9 all /ages1   
wak+ or sleep+1 yet ahamkra is abs5t    
dur+ deep sleep4  ,x is true t on wak+ f
 deep sleep "o feels ,i slept  happily &
 did n "k any?+2 yet :at happ5s is ?is1 
t dur+ deep sleep ! antahk>ana & !      
ahamkra are  altoge!r subm]g$ 9 ! ajna1 
& !re are only !  ajna & ! self2 on     
wak+1 ?is ahamkra z a /ate (  antahk>na 
is aga9 g5]at$1 & !n x associates !     
p]ception  ( ! ajna 9 ! sleep &         
orig9ates ! p]ception  ,i did n "k      
any?+4 ,?is ahamkra :i* is a mode       
7vrtti7 ( ! antahk>ana is ?us con/itut$ 
by avidy1 & is  manife/$ z jnas'akti    
7p[] ( k7 & kriys'akti  7p[] ( "w74 ,?is
 kriys'akti ( ! ahamkra is illusorily   
impos$ ^u ! self1 & z a result ( t !    
self appe>s to  be an active ag5t 9 kn[+
 & will+4 ,! ahamkra  itself is reg>d$1 
z we h already se51 z a mode or vrtti ( 
! antahk>ana1 & z su* ! ahamkra ( a pa/ 

p]iod c  n[ be associat$2 b ev5 !n !    
vrtti ( antahk>ana1  ahamkra1 may be    
reg>d$ z only ! active side or aspect ( 
! antahk>ana4 ,! same antahk>ana is     
call$ manas 9 its  capacity z d\bt      
buddhi 9 its capacity z a*iev+ c]ta9ty (
  k1 & citta 9 its capacity z rememb]+  
,footnote ref #b4 ,:5  ! pure cit %9es  
=? 9 association ) ?is antahk>ana1 x is 
call$ a jva4 ,x is cle> f ! above acc\nt
 t ! ajna  is n a m]e no?+1 b is !      
pr9ciple ( ! ph5om5a4 ,b  x _c /& alone1
 )\t ! pr9ciple ( ! real to support  x  
7s'raya72 its own nature z ! ajna or    
indef9ite is p]ceiv$  directly by ! pure
 consci\sness2 its movem5ts z orig9at+  
! ph5om5a rema9 indef9ite 9 !mselves1 ! 
real z und]ly+        ,footnote #a3 ,see
 ,nyyamak>&a1 pp4 #acj-adj1 ,cit%kha &  
,viv>anaprameyasamgraha1 pp4 #ec-eh4    
,footnote #b3 ,see ,v$nta-p>ibhs1 p4    
#hh1 ,bombay edition4    #dfa    ^!     
ph5om5al movem5ts c only manife/ itself 
?r\gh ^! :i* hide x1 :5 correspond+     
/ates arise 9  ! antahk>ana1 & ! light (

 ! real %9es =? ?r\gh  ^! /ates4 ,!     
antahk>ana ( :i* ahamkra is a mom5t1  is
 itself a beg9n+less sy/em (            
ajna-ph5om5a conta9+  )9 x !            
associations & impressions ( pa/ ph5om5a
 z  m]it1 dem]it1 in/9cts1 etc4 f a     
beg9n+less "t :5 !  jva or individual   
s\l began 8 c>e]4      ,anirvcyavda & ! 
,v$nta ,dialectic4    ,we h already se5 
t ! indef9ite ajna c\ld be  exp]i5c$ 9  
direct p]ception & accord+ to ,v$nta !re
  are only two categories4 ,! category (
 ! real1 ! self-lum9\s  ,brahman1 & !   
category ( ! indef9ite4 ,! latt]  has = 
its gr\nd ! _w-appe>ance1 & is !        
pr9ciple by  :i* ! "o un*angeable       
,brahman is falsely manife/$ 9 all  !   
div]sity ( ! manifold _w4 ,b ?is        
indef9ite :i* is  diff]5t f ! category (
 ! positive & ! negative1 has  only a   
relative exi/5ce & w ultimately vani%1  
:5 !  true k ( ! ,brahman dawns4 ,no?+  
h[ev] c  be kn[n ab\t ! nature ( ?is    
indef9ite except its "*  z indef9ite4 ,t
 all ! ph5om5a ( ! _w1 ! fix$  ord] (   

ev5ts1 ! inf9ite v>iety ( _w-=ms &      
names1  all ^! are orig9at$ by ?is      
avidy1 ajna or my is inde$  h>dly       
compreh5sible4 ,if x is indef9ite       
nesci5ce1 h[ c all  ^! well-def9$ =ms ( 
_w-exi/5ce come out ( x8 ,x is  said to 
exi/ only relatively1 & to h only a     
tempor>y exi/5ce  beside ! p]man5t      
inf9ite reality4 ,to take su* a pr9ciple
  & to d]ive f x ! m9d1 matt]1 & inde$  
ev]y?+  else except ! pure self-lum9\s  
,brahman1 w\ld h>dly  appeal to our     
reason4 ,if ?is sy/em ( _w-ord] 7 only  
seem+ appe>ance1 ) no o!r elem5t ( tru? 
9 x except  pure be+1 !n x w\ld be      
indef5sible 9 ! light ( reason4  ,x has 
be5 prov$ t :atev] notions we h ab\t !  
objective _w are all self-contradictory1
 & ?us gr\ndless &  false4 ,if !y h all 
proce$$ f ! indef9ite !y mu/  %[ ?is "* 
:5 expos$ to disc]n+ criticism4 ,all    
categories h to be %[n to be s          
hopelessly confus$ & to  be )\t any     
conceivable notion t ?\gh app>5t be=e  u
 yet !y crumble into indef9it5ess z soon

 z !y are    #dfb    exam9$1 & "o _c    
make su* ass]tion ab\t !m z  t !y are or
 t !y are n4 ,su* negative criticisms ( 
our  fundam5tal notions ab\t ! _w-ord] 7
 und]tak5 by  ,s'rh>sa & 8 comm5tator & 
foll[] ,citsukha4 ,x is impossible  )9 !
 limits ( ?is *apt]1 to give a complete 
acc\nt ( _! criticisms ( our v>i\s      
notions ( reality4  ,i %all give "h1    
only "o example4    ,let u take !       
exam9ation ( ! notion ( diff]5ce        
7bh$a7f ,khandanakhandakhdya4 ,f\r      
explanations are  possible ab\t ! notion
 ( diff]5ce3 7#a7 ! diff]5ce may be     
p]ceiv$ z appe>+ 9 its own *>act]i/ics 9
 our exp]i5ce  7sv>pa-bh$a7 z ,prabhk>a 
?9ks2 7#b7 ! diff]5ce  betwe5 two ?+s is
 no?+ b ! abs5ce ( "o 9 ! o!r           
7anyonybhva71 z "s ,naiyyikas & ,bhttas 
?9k2 7#c7 diff]5ce  means div]g5ce (    
*>act]i/ics 7vaidh>mya7 z !             
,vais'esikas speak ( x2 7#d7 diff]5ce   
may be a sep>ate quality  9 itself l !  
pr?aktva quality ( ,nyya4 ,tak+ ! fir/  
alt]native1 we see t x is said t ! jug &

 ! clo?  repres5t 9 !mselves1 by _! v =m
 & exi/5ce1 _!  mutual diff]5ce f ea*   
o!r4 ,b if by p]ceiv+ !  clo? we only   
p]ceive its diff]5ce f ! jug z !        
*>act]i/ic  ( ! clo?1 !n ! jug also mu/ 
h p5etrat$  into ! =m ( ! clo?1 o!rwise 
h[ c\ld we p]ceive  9 ! clo? its        
*>act]i/ics z ! diff]5ce f ! jug8  i4e4 
if diff]5ce is a ?+ :i* c be directly   
p]ceiv$ by  ! s5ses1 !n z diff]5ce w\ld 
naturally mean diff]5ce  f some?+ else1 
x is expect$ t some?+ else su*  z jug1  
etc4 f :i* ! diff]5ce is p]ceiv$1 mu/   
also  be p]ceiv$ directly 9 ! p]ception 
( ! clo?4 ,b if  ! p]ception ( diff]5ce 
betwe5 two ?+s has p5etrat$  toge!r 9 ! 
same id5tical p]ception1 !n !           
self-contradiction  becomes app>5t4     
,diff]5ce z an entity is n :at  we      
p]ceive 9 ! clo?1 = diff]5ce means      
diff]5ce f  some?+ else1 & if t ?+ f :i*
 ! diff]5ce is  p]ceiv$ is n p]ceiv$1 !n
 h[ c ! diff]5ce z an  entity be        
p]ceiv$8 ,if x is said t ! clo? itself  
repres5ts  its diff]5ce f ! jug1 & t ?is

 is indicat$ by ! jug1  !n we may ask1  
:at is ! nature ( ! jug8 ,if ! diff]5ce 
f ! clo? is ! v nature ( ! jug1 !n !    
clo?  itself is also involv$ 9 ! nature 
( ! jug4 ,if x is said t    #dfc    !   
jug only indicates a t]m f :i* diff]5ce 
is int5d$ to be convey$1 !n t also      
becomes impossible1  = h[ c we imag9e t 
!re is a t]m :i* is indep5d5t  ( any    
association ( its diff]5ce f o!r ?+s1  &
 is yet a t]m :i* e/abli%es ! notion (  
diff]5ce8 ,if  x is a t]m ( diff]5ce1 x 
_c be indep5d5t ( its relation  to o!r  
?+s f :i* x is diff]5tiat$4 ,if its     
diff]5ce  f ! clo? is a quality ( ! jug1
 !n also ! old difficulty  comes 91 =   
its diff]5ce f ! clo? w\ld involve !    
clo? also 9 itself2 & if ! clo? is      
involv$ 9 ! nature (  ! jug z its       
quality1 !n by ! same mann] ! jug w\ld  
also be ! "* ( ! clo?1 & h5ce n diff]5ce
 b  id5tity results4 ,moreov]1 if a clo?
 is p]ceiv$ z a "*  ( ! jug1 ! two w    
appe> to be hang+ "o ov] ! o!r1  b ?is  
is nev] s exp]i5c$ by u4 ,moreov]1 x is 

difficult to  asc]ta9 if qualities h any
 relation ) ?+s2 if !y h  n1 !n abs5ce (
 relation be+ ! same ev]y:]e1 ev]y?+    
might be ! quality ( ev]y?+4 ,if !re is 
a relation  betwe5 ^! two1 !n t relation
 w\ld require ano!r  relation to relate 
itself ) t relation1 & t w\ld aga9      
require ano!r relation & t ano!r1 & s   
on4 ,aga91 x  may be said t :5 ! jug1   
etc4 are se5 )\t ref]5ce  to o!r ?+s1 !y
 appe> z jug1 etc41 b :5 !y are  view$ )
 ref]5ce to clo?1 etc4 !y appe> z       
diff]5ce4  ,b ?is _c be s1 = ! p]ception
 z jug is entirely  diff]5t f !         
p]ception ( diff]5ce4 ,x %\ld also be   
not$ t ! notion ( diff]5ce is also      
diff]5t f !  notions ( bo? ! jug & !    
clo?4 ,x is "o ?+ to say  t !re are jug 
& clo?1 & q ano!r ?+ to say  t ! jug is 
diff]5t f ! clo?4 ,?us a jug _c appe>  z
 diff]5ce1 ?\gh x may be view$ ) ref]5ce
 to clo?4  ,! notion ( a jug does n     
require ! notions ( o!r ?+s  = its      
manife/ation4 ,moreov]1 :5 ,i say ! jug 
is diff]5t  f ! clo?1 ,i nev] mean t    

diff]5ce is an entity :i* is  ! same z !
 jug or ! clo?2 :at ,i mean is t !      
diff]5ce ( ! clo? f ! jug has its limits
 9 ! jug1 &  n m]ely t ! notion ( clo?  
has a ref]5ce to jug4 ,?is  %[s t       
diff]5ce _c be ! *>act]i/ic nature ( !  
?+ p]ceiv$4    ,aga91 9 ! second        
alt]native :]e diff]5ce ( two    #dfc   
?+s is def9$ z ! abs5ce ( ea* ?+ 9 !    
o!r1 we  f9d t if diff]5ce 9 jug & clo? 
means t ! jug is n  9 ! clo? or t clo?  
is n 9 jug1 !n also ! same  difficulty  
arises2 = :5 ,i say t ! abs5ce or       
negation (  jug 9 ! clo? is its diff]5ce
 f ! jug1 !n also !  resid5ce ( ! abs5ce
 ( jug 9 ! clo? w\ld require  t ! jug   
also resides 9 ! clo?1 & ?is w\ld r$uce 
diff]5ce to id5tity4 ,if x is said t !  
abs5ce ( jug 9 !  clo? is n a sep>ate   
?+1 b is r ! id5tical clo?  itself1 !n  
also _! diff]5ce z mutual exclusion _c  
be  expla9$4 ,if ?is mutual negation    
7anyonyabhva7 is expla9$  z ! m]e abs5ce
 ( jugness 9 ! clo? & ( clo?ness 9  !   
jug1 !n also a difficulty arises2 = !re 

is no su* quality  9 jugness or clo?ness
 t !y may be mutually exclud$2  & !re is
 no su* quality 9 !m t !y c be treat$ z 
id5tical1 & s :5 x is said t !re is no  
jugness 9 clo?  we might z well say t   
!re is no clo?ness 9 clo?1 =  clo?ness &
 jugness are "o & ! same1 & h5ce abs5ce 
( jugness 9 ! clo? w\ld am\nt to !      
abs5ce ( clo?ness  9 ! clo? :i* is      
self-contradictory4 ,tak+ aga9 ! ?ird   
alt]native we see t if diff]5ce means   
div]g5ce ( *>act]i/ics  7vaidh>mya71 !n 
! "q arises :e!r !  vaidh>mya or        
div]g5ce z exi/+ 9 jug has su* a        
div]g5ce  z c di/+ui% x f ! div]g5ce    
exi/+ 9 ! clo?2 if  ! answ] is 9 !      
affirmative !n we require a s]ies (     
endless  vaidh>myas progress+ ad        
inf9itum4 ,if ! answ] is 9 !  negative  
!n !re be+ no div]g5ce betwe5 ! two     
div]g5ces  !y become id5tical1 & h5ce   
div]g5ce ( *>act]i/ics  z su* ceases to 
exi/4 ,if x is said t ! natural =ms (   
?+s are diff]5ce 9 !mselves1 = ea* ( !m 
excludes !  o!r1 !n ap>t f !            

diff]5ces--! natural =ms--!  ?+s are    
r$uc$ to =mlessness 7nihsv>pat74 ,if    
natural =ms  7sv>pa7 mean special       
natural =ms 7sv>pa-vis'esa7 !n z !      
special natural =ms or *>act]i/ics only 
repres5t diff]5ce1  ! natural =ms ( !   
?+s z ap>t f ! special ones  w\ld appe> 
to be id5tical4 ,s also x may be prov$ t
 !re  is no su* quality z pr?aktva      
7sep>at5ess7 :i* c expla9  diff]5ces (  
?+s1 = !re also ! que/ions w\ld arise z 
to :e!r sep>at5ess exi/s 9 diff]5t ?+s  
or simil> ones  or :e!r sep>at5ess is   
id5tical ) ! ?+ 9 :i* x  exi/s or n1 & s
 =?4    #dfe      ,! e>lie/ beg9n+s (   
?is me?od ( subtle analysis &  dialectic
 9 ,indian philosophy are f\nd 9 ! op5+ 
*apt]s  ( ,ka?vat?u4 ,9 ! great         
,mahbhasya on ,pn9i by ,patajali  also  
we f9d "s traces ( x4 ,b ,ngrjuna 0 !   
man :o  took x up 9 "r e>ne/ &          
sy/ematically cultivat$ x 9 all  its    
subtle & ab/ruse issues & c\nt]-issues 9
 ord] to prove  t ev]y?+ t appe>$ z a   
fix$ ord] or sy/em 0  non-exi/5t1 = all 

7 unspeakable1 indescribable &          
self-contradictory1 & ?us ev]y?+ be+    
disc>d$ !re 0  only ! void 7s'nya74     
,s'ank>a p>tially utiliz$ ?is me?od 9  8
 refutations ( ,nyya & ! ,buddhi/       
sy/ems2 b ,s'rh>sa  aga9 reviv$ &       
develop$ x 9 a /rik+ mann]1 & aft]  hav+
 criticiz$ ! mo/ important notions &    
concepts ( our  ev]yday life1 :i* are   
(t5 back$ by ! ,nyya sy/em1 s\ght  to   
prove t no?+ 9 ! _w c be def9$1 & t we  
_c asc]ta9 :e!r a ?+ is or is n4 ,!     
refutations (  all possible def9itions t
 ! ,nyya c\ld give necess>ily l$  to !  
conclusion t ! ?+s s\ght to be def9$ did
 n  exi/ ?\gh !y appe>$ to d s2 !       
,v$ntic cont5tion  0 t ?is is exactly z 
x %\ld be1 = ! indef9ite ajna  produces 
only appe>ances :i* :5 expos$ to reason 
%[  t no consi/5t notions ( !m c be =m$1
 or 9 o!r  words ! _w-appe>ance1 !      
ph5om5a ( my or ajna1  are indef9able or
 anirvacanya4 ,?is great "w ( ,s'rh>sa  
0 foll[$ by ,tattvadpik ( ,citsukha1 9  
:i* he g5]ally  foll[$ ,s'rh>sa &       

sometimes supplem5t$ him ) !  addition (
 criticisms ( c]ta9 new concepts4 ,!    
me?od (  ,v$nta ?us foll[$ on "o side ! 
me?od ( ,s'nyavda 9  annull+ all !      
concepts ( _w-appe>ance & on ! o!r      
,vijnavda ,buddhism 9 prov+ !           
self-illum9at+ "*  ( k & ultimately     
e/abli%$ ! self z ! only self-lum9\s    
ultimate reality4      ,! ,!ory (       
,causation4    ,! ,v$nta philosophy     
look$ at ! con/antly *ang+  ph5om5a ( ! 
_w-appe>ance & s\ght to discov] !  root 
:5ce proce$$ ! endless s]ies ( ev5ts &  
effects4  ,! !ory t effects 7 altoge!r  
new productions caus$  by ! inv>iable   
unconditional & imm$iately prec$+       
antec$5ts1  z well z ! !ory t x 0 !     
cause :i* evolv$    #dff    & by its    
trans=mations produc$ ! effect1 are     
consid]$  insuffici5t to expla9 !       
problem :i* ! ,v$nta _h be=e  x4 ,c]ta9 
collocations inv>iably & unconditionally
 prec$$  c]ta9 effects1 b ?is _c expla9 
h[ ! previ\s set (  ph5om5a c\ld be     
reg>d$ z produc+ ! succe$+ set4  ,9 fact

 ! concept ( causation & production _h 9
 x  some?+ q undef9able & inexplicable4 
,our enquiry  aft] ! cause is an enquiry
 aft] a m fundam5tal &  prim>y =m ( !   
tru? ( a ?+ ?an :at appe>s at !  pres5t 
mom5t :5 we wi%$ to "k :at 0 ! cause (  
! jug1 :at we s\ght 0 a simpl] =m ( :i* 
! effect  0 only a m complex =m (       
manife/ation1 :at is !  gr\nd1 ! root1  
out ( :i* ! effect has come =?8 ,if     
ap>t f su* an enquiry we take !         
pictorial repres5tation  ( ! causal     
ph5om5a 9 :i* "s collocations be+       
inv>iably  pres5t at an antec$5t po9t ( 
"t1 ! effect spr+s  =? into be+1 we f9d 
t we are j :]e we 7 be=e1  & are unable 
to p5etrate into ! logic ( ! affair4 ,! 
,nyya def9ition ( cause & effect may be 
( use to u 9 a  g5]al way 9 associat+   
c]ta9 gr\ps ( ?+s ( a p>ticul>  k9d )   
c]ta9 o!r ph5om5a happ5+ at a succe$+   
mom5t z be+ relevant pairs ( :i* "o be+ 
pres5t !  o!r also has a probability (  
be+ pres5t1 b c d no?+  m ?an ?is4 ,x   
does n answ] our "q z to ! nature  (    

cause4 ,antec$5ce 9 "t is reg>d$ 9 ?is  
view z an indisp5sable  condition = !   
cause4 ,b "t1 accord+ to ,nyya1  is "o  
cont9u\s entity2 succession ( "t c only 
be conceiv$  z antec$5ce & consequ5ce ( 
ph5om5a1 & ^!  aga9 involve succession2 
?us ! notions ( succession ( "t  & ( !  
antec$5ce & consequ5ce ( "t be+ mutually
  dep5d5t ^u ea* o!r 7anyonys'raya7     
nei!r ( ^! c  be conceiv$ indep5d5tly4  
,ano!r important condition is           
inv>iability4 ,b :at does t mean8 ,if x 
means inv>iable  antec$5ce1 !n ev5 an   
ass :i* is inv>iably pres5t z  an       
antec$5t to ! smoke ris+ f ! wa%]man's  
h\se1 mu/ be reg>d$ z ! cause ( ! smoke 
,footnote ref #a4 ,if x  means su* an   
antec$5ce z contributes to ! happ5+ ( ! 
effect1  x becomes aga9 difficult to    
und]/& any?+ ab\t its contribut+        
,footnote #a3 ,asses are us$ 9 c>ry+    
soil$ l95 9 ,india4 ,asses are  always  
pres5t :5 wat] is boil$ = wa%+ 9 !      
laundry4    #dfg    to ! effect1 = !    
only intelligible ?+ is ! antec$5ce  &  

no?+ m4 ,if inv>iability means ! exi/5ce
 (  t at ! pres5ce ( :i* ! effect comes 
into be+1 !n also  x fails1 = !re may be
 ! se$ b no %oot1 = ! m]e pres5ce  ( !  
se$ w n suffice to produce ! effect1 !  
%oot4 ,if x  is said t a cause c produce
 an effect only :5 x is associat$  ) its
 accessory factors1 !n also ! "q rema9s 
! same1 = we h n und]/ood :at is meant  
by cause4  ,aga9 :5 ! same effect is (t5
 se5 to be produc$ by a  plurality (    
causes1 ! cause _c be def9$ z t :i*     
happ5+ ! effect happ5s & fail+ ! effect 
fails4 ,x _c  also be said t 9 spite ( !
 plurality ( causes1 ea* p>ticul>  cause
 is s associat$ ) its own p>ticul> k9d (
 effect t  f a special k9d ( cause we c 
)\t fail get a special  k9d ( effect    
7cf4 ,vtsyyana & ,nyyamaj>71 = out ( !  
same clay diff]5t effects come =? namely
 ! jug1 ! plate1  etc4 ,aga9 if cause is
 def9$ z ! collocation ( factors1 !n  ! 
"q arises z to :at is meant by ?is      
collocation2 does  x mean ! factors     
!mselves or some?+ else above !m8 ,on  !

 =m] supposition ! scatt]$ factors be+  
always pres5t  9 ! univ]se !re %\ld     
always be ! effect2 if x means  some?+  
else above ! specific factors1 !n t     
some?+ always  exi/+1 !re %\ld always be
 ! effect4 ,nor c collocation  7smagr7  
be def9$ z ! la/ movem5t ( ! causes     
imm$iately succe$+ :i* ! effect comes   
into be+1 = !  relation ( movem5t ) !   
collocat+ cause is incompreh5sible4     
,moreov] if movem5t is def9$ z t :i*    
produces  ! effect1 ! v conception (    
causation :i* 0 requir$  to be prov$ is 
tak5 = grant$4 ,! idea ( necessity      
involv$  9 ! causal conception t a cause
 is t :i* mu/ produce  its effect is    
also equally undef9able1 inexplicable1 &
 logically  inconceivable4 ,?us 9       
:atsoev] way we may seek to f9d out  !  
real nature ( ! causal pr9ciple f !     
int]m9able  s]ies ( cause-effect ph5om5a
 we fail4 ,all ! *>act]i/ics  ( !       
effects are indescribable & indef9able  
ajna ( my1  & 9 :atev] way we may try to
 conceive ^! ph5om5a 9  !mselves or 9   

relation to "o ano!r we fail1 = !y are  
all  c>v$ out ( ! indef9ite & are       
illogical & illusory1 &  "s day w vani% 
= ev]4 ,! true cause is ?us ! pure  be+1
 ! reality :i* is un%akable 9 itself1 ! 
gr\nd ^u    #dfh    :i* all appe>ances  
be+ impos$ !y appe> z real4 ,!  true    
cause is ?us ! un*angeable be+ :i*      
p]si/s ?r\gh  all exp]i5ce1 & !         
effect-ph5om5a are b impositions ^u  x (
 ajna or avidy4 ,x is ?us ! clay1 !     
p]man5t1 t  is reg>d$ z ! cause ( all   
clay-ph5om5a z jug1 plates1  etc4 ,all !
 v>i\s modes 9 :i* ! clay appe>s are m]e
  appe>ances1 unreal1 indef9able & s    
illusory4 ,! "o tru?  is ! clay4 ,s 9   
all _w-ph5om5a ! "o tru? is  be+1 !     
,brahman1 & all ! ph5om5a t are be+     
impos$ on x are b illusory =ms & names4 
,?is is :at  is call$ ! satkryavda or m 
prop]ly ! satkranavda  ( ! ,v$nta1 t !  
cause alone is true & ev] exi/+1  &     
ph5om5a 9 !mselves are false4 ,!re is   
only ?is  mu* tru? 9 !m1 t all are      
impos$ on ! reality or be+  :i* alone is

 true4 ,?is appe>ance ( ! "o cause !    
be+1 z ! unreal _m ( ! ph5om5a is :at is
 call$  ! viv>ttavda z di/+ui%$ f !     
smkhyayogap>inmavda1  9 :i* ! effect is 
reg>d$ z ! real developm5t  ( ! cause 9 
its pot5tial /ate4 ,:5 ! effect has a   
diff]5t k9d ( be+ f ! cause x is call$  
viv>tta b  :5 ! effect has ! same k9d ( 
be+ z ! cause x is call$  p>inma        
7kranasvalaksannya?bhvah p>inmah        
tadvilaksano  viv>ttah or               
va/una/atsamattko'nya?bhvah p>inmah     
tadvisamasattkah viv>ttah74 ,v$nta has z
 mu* to object  aga9/ ! ,nyya z aga9/ ! 
p>inma !ory ( causation  ( ! ,smkhya2 = 
movem5t1 developm5t1 =m1 pot5tiality1  &
 actuality--all ^! are indef9able &     
inconceivable 9 !  light ( reason2 !y _c
 expla9 causation b only re/ate  ?+s &  
ph5om5a z !y appe> 9 ! _w4 ,9 reality   
h[ev] ?\gh ph5om5a are n id5tical ) !   
cause1  !y c nev] be def9$ except 9 t]ms
 ( ! cause 7,tadabh$am  v9aiva          
tadvyatirekena durvacam kryyam          
viv>ttah74    ,?is be+ ! relation (     

cause & effect or ,brahman & !  _w1 !   
diff]5t foll[]s ( ,s'ank>a ,v$nta 9     
expla9+  ! cause ( ! _w-appe>ance       
sometimes lay /ress on !  my1 ajna or   
avidy1 sometimes on ! ,brahman1 &       
sometimes  on !m bo?4 ,?us              
,s>vajntmamuni1 ! writ] (               
,sanksepa-s'rraka & 8 foll[]s ?9k t !   
pure ,brahman  %\ld be reg>d$ z ! causal
 sub/ance 7updna7 ( !  _w-appe>ance1    
:]eas ,praks'tman ,akhandn&a1 &    #dfi 
,mdhava hold t ,brahman 9 association ) 
my1 i4e4 !  my-reflect$ =m ( ,brahman z 
s'v>a %\ld be reg>d$  z ! cause ( !     
_w-appe>ance4 ,! _w-appe>ance  is an    
evolution or p>inma ( ! my z locat$ 9   
s'v>a1  :]eas s'v>a 7,god7 is ! viv>tta 
causal matt]4 ,o!rs  h[ev] make a       
di/9ction betwe5 my z ! cosmical factor 
( illusion & avidy z ! manife/ation ( ! 
same entity  9 ! individual or jva4 ,!y 
hold t ?\gh ! _w-appe>ance  may be said 
to be produc$ by ! my yet !  m9d etc4   
associat$ ) ! individual are produc$ by 
!  avidy ) ! jva or ! individual z !    

causal matt]  7updna74 ,o!rs hold t s9ce
 x is ! individual to :om  bo? s'v>a & !
 _w-appe>ance are manife/$1 x is bett]  
r to ?9k t ^! are all manife/ations ( ! 
jva 9  association ) 8 avidy or ajna4   
,o!rs h[ev] hold t  s9ce 9 !            
_w-appe>ance we f9d 9 "o aspect pure be+
  & 9 ano!r mat]iality etc41 bo?        
,brahman & my are to  be reg>d$ z !     
cause1 ,brahman z ! p]man5t causal      
matt]1 updna & my z ! entity evolv+ 9   
p>inma4  ,vcaspati ,mis'ra ?9ks t       
,brahman is ! p]man5t cause (  !        
_w-appe>ance ?r\gh my z associat$ ) jva4
  ,my is ?us only a sahakri or in/rum5t 
z x 71 by :i*  ! "o ,brahman appe>s 9 ! 
eye ( ! jva z ! manifold  _w (          
appe>ance4 ,praks'n&a holds h[ev] 9 8   
,siddhnta  ,muktval t ,brahman itself is
 pure & absolutely unaffect$  ev5 z     
illusory appe>ance1 & is n ev5 ! causal 
matt] ( ! _w-appe>ance4 ,ev]y?+ t we see
 9 !  ph5om5al _w1 ! :ole field (       
_w-appe>ance1 is !  product ( my1 :i* is
 bo? ! in/rum5tal & ! updna  7causal    

matt]7 ( ! _w-illusion4 ,b :atev] ^!    
div]g5ces  ( view may be1 x is cle> t !y
 d n 9 any way affect  ! pr9cipal ,v$nta
 text t ! only un*angeable cause is  !  
,brahman1 :]eas all else1 !             
effect-ph5om5a1 h only  a tempor>y      
exi/5ce z indef9able illusion4 ,! ^w my 
0 us$ 9 ! ,rg-,v$a 9 ! s5se (           
sup]natural p[] &  wond]ful skill1 & !  
idea ( an inh]5t my/]y und]ly+  x 0     
gradually emphasiz$ 9 ! ,a?>va ,v$a1 & x
 began  to be us$ 9 ! s5se ( magic or   
illusion4 ,9 ! ,brhadranyaka1  ,pras'na1
 & ,svets'vat>a ,upanisads ! ^w means   
magic4 ,x  is n out ( place "h to m5tion
 t 9 ! old] ,upanisads    #dgj    ! ^w  
my occurs only once 9 ! ,brhadranyaka & 
once  only 9 ! ,pras'na4 ,9 e>ly ,pli   
,buddhi/ writ+s x occurs  only 9 ! s5se 
( deception or deceitful conduct4       
,buddhaghosa  uses x 9 ! s5se ( magical 
p[]4 ,9 ,ngrjuna & ! ,lankvatra  x has  
acquir$ ! s5se ( illusion4 ,9 ,s'ank>a !
  ^w my is us$ 9 ! s5se ( illusion1 bo? 
z a pr9ciple  ( creation z a s'akti     

7p[]7 or accessory cause1 & z !         
ph5om5al creation itself1 z ! illusion (
 _w-appe>ance4    ,x may also be m5tion$
 "h t ,gaudapda ! tea*]  ( ,s'ank>a's   
tea*] ,gov9da work$ out a sy/em ) ! help
  ( ! my doctr9e4 ,! ,upanisads are     
p]meat$ ) !  _s ( an e>ne/ enquiry aft] 
absolute tru?4 ,!y d n  pay any att5tion
 t[>ds expla9+ ! _w-appe>ance or        
enquir+ into its relations ) absolute   
tru?4 ,gaudapda ass]ts  cle>ly &        
probably = ! fir/ "t among ,h9du ?9k]s1 
t  ! _w does n exi/ 9 reality1 t x is   
my1 & n reality4  ,:5 ! highe/ tru? is  
realiz$ my is n remov$1 = x is  n a ?+1 
b ! :ole _w-illusion is dissolv$ into   
its own  airy no?+ nev] to recur aga94  
,x 0 ,gaudapda :o comp>$  ! _w-appe>ance
 ) dream appe>ances1 & held t objects   
se5 9 ! wak+ _w are unreal1 because !y  
are capable  ( be+ se5 l objects se5 9 a
 dream1 :i* are false &  unreal4 ,! tman
 says ,gaudapda is at once ! cogniz] &  
! cogniz$1 ! _w subsi/s 9 ! tman ?r\gh  
my4  ,z tman alone is real & all duality

 an illusion1 x necess>ily  foll[s t all
 exp]i5ce is also illusory4 ,s'ank>a    
exp\nd$  ?is doctr9e 9 8 elaborate      
comm5t>ies on ! ,upanisads  & !         
,brahma-stra1 b he seems to me to h done
 little  m ?an mak+ explicit ! doctr9e (
 my4 ,"s ( 8  foll[]s h[ev] exam9$ &    
?\ght ov] ! concept (  my & br\ght out 9
 bold relief its "* z ! indef9able      
!reby sub/antially contribut+ to !      
developm5t (  ! ,v$nta philosophy4      
,v$nta !ory ( ,p]ception & ,inf]5ce     
,footnote ref #a4    ,pramna is ! means 
t leads to "r k4 ,if  memory is int5d$  
to be exclud$ f ! def9ition !n          
,footnote #a3 ,dh>m>jdhv>ndra & 8 son   
,rmakrsna work$ out a  complete s*eme ( 
! !ory ( ,v$ntic p]ception & inf]5ce4   
,?is is 9 complete agreem5t ) ! g5]al   
,v$nta metaphysics4  ,! e>ly ,v$nti/s 7 
m int]e/$ 9 demon/rat+ ! illusory       
nature ( ! _w ( appe>ance1 & did n "w   
out a logical !ory4  ,x may be          
incid5tally m5tion$ t 9 ! !ory ( inf]5ce
 z  work$ out by ,dh>m>jdhv>ndra he 0   

l>gely indebt$ to ! ,mmms  s*ool (      
?\ght4 ,9 recogniz+ ar?apatti1 upamna   
s'abda &  anupalabdhi also              
,dh>m>jdhv>ndra accept$ ! ,mmms view4 ,!
  ,v$ant9s1 previ\s to ,dh>m>jdhv>ndra1 
_h also tacitly foll[$  ! ,mmms 9 ^!    
matt]s4    #dga    pramna is to be def9$
 z ! means t leads to su* "r  k z has n 
already be5 acquir$4 ,"r k  7pram7 9    
,v$nta is ! k ( an object :i* has n  be5
 f\nd contradict$                       
7abdhitr?avisayajnatva74 ,except  :5    
specially express$ o!rwise1 pram is     
g5]ally consid]$  z be+ exclud5t (      
memory & applies to previ\sly unacquir$ 
7anadhigata7 & uncontradict$ k4         
,objections  are sometimes rais$ t :5 we
 are look+ at a ?+ = a  few m9utes1 !   
p]ception ( ! ?+ 9 all ! successive     
mom5ts aft] ! fir/ ref]s to ! image ( ! 
?+ acquir$  9 ! previ\s mom5ts4 ,to ?is 
! reply is t ! ,v$nta  consid]s t s long
 z a diff]5t m5tal /ate does n arise1   
any m5tal /ate is n to be consid]$ z    
mom5t>y b z  rema9+ ev] ! same4 ,s long 

z we cont9ue to p]ceive  "o ?+ !re is no
 reason to suppose t !re has be5 a      
s]ies ( m5tal /ates4 ,s !re is no "q z  
to ! k  ( ! succe$+ mom5ts be+ ref]r$ to
 ! k  ( ! prec$+ mom5ts1 = s long z any 
m5tal  /ate has any "o ?+ = its object x
 is to be consid]$ z  hav+ rema9$       
un*ang$ all ?r\gh ! s]ies ( mom5ts4     
,!re is ( c\rse ?is diff]5ce betwe5 !   
same p]cept ( a  previ\s & a lat] mom5t 
foll[+ 9 succession1 t fre%  elem5ts (  
"t are be+ p]ceiv$ z prior & lat]1 ?\gh 
! cont5t ( ! m5tal /ate s f> z ! object 
is conc]n$  rema9s un*ang$4 ,?is "t     
elem5t is p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses  ?\gh !    
cont5t ( ! m5tal /ate may rema9         
undi/urb$4  ,:5 ,i see ! same book = two
 seconds1 my m5tal /ate  repres5t+ !    
book is n *ang$ e second1 & h5ce  !re c 
be no su* supposition t ,i am hav+      
sep>ate m5tal  /ates 9 succession ea* ( 
:i* is a repetition ( ! previ\s  "o1 = s
 long z ! g5]al cont5t ( ! m5tal /ate   
rema9s  ! same !re is no reason =       
suppos+ t !re has be5 any  *ange 9 !    

m5tal /ate4 ,! m5tal /ate ?us rema9s !  
same s long z ! cont5t is n *ang$1 b    
?\gh x rema9s  ! same x c note ! *ange 9
 ! "t elem5ts z extrane\s    #dgb       
addition4 ,all our uncontradict$ k ( !  
objects ( !  ext]nal _w %\ld be reg>d$ z
 "r k until !  absolute is realiz$4     
,:5 ! antahk>ana 7m9d7 comes 9 contact )
 !  ext]nal objects ?r\gh ! s5ses &     
becomes trans=m$ z  x 7 into _! =ms1 x  
is said t ! antahk>ana has  be5 trans=m$
 into a /ate 7vrtti7 ,footnote #a4 ,z   
soon z !  antahk>ana has assum$ ! %ape  
or =m ( ! object ( its  k1 ! ignorance  
7ajna7 ) ref]5ce to t object is  remov$1
 & !reupon ! /eady light ( ! pure       
consci\sness  7cit7 %[s ! object :i* 0 s
 long hidd5 by  ignorance4 ,! appe>ance 
or ! p]ception ( an object  is ?us !    
self-%9+ ( ! cit ?r\gh a vrtti ( a =m   
resembl+ an object ( k4 ,?is !re=e      
pre-supposes  t by ! action ( ajna1 pure
 consci\sness or be+  is 9 a /ate (     
div]se k9ds ( modifications4 ,9 spite ( 
! cit und]ly+ all ?is div]sifi$         

objective _w :i* is  b ! trans=mation ( 
ignorance 7ajna71 ! =m] _c  manife/     
itself by itself1 = ! creations be+ (   
ignorance  !y are b su/a9$ by           
modifications ( ignorance4 ,!  div]sifi$
 objects ( ! _w are b trans=mations (  !
 pr9ciple ( ajna :i* is nei!r real nor  
unreal4 ,x  is ! nature ( ajna t x veils
 its own creations4 ,?us  on ea* ( !    
objects creat$ by ! ajna by its creat+  
7viksepa7 capacity !re is a veil by its 
veil+ 7v>ana7 capacity4  ,b :5 any      
object comes 9 direct t\* ) antahk>ana  
?r\gh ! s5ses ! antahk>ana becomes      
trans=m$ into  ! =m ( ! object1 & ?is   
leads to ! removal ( ! veil  on t       
p>ticul> ajna =m--! object1 & z !       
self-%9+  cit is %9+ ?r\gh ! p>ticul>   
ajna /ate1 we  h :at is call$ !         
p]ception ( ! ?+4 ,?\gh !re is  9       
reality no su* di/9ction z ! inn] & !   
out] yet !  ajna has creat$ su* illusory
 di/9ctions z individual s\ls  & !      
ext]nal _w ( objects ! di/9ctions ( "t1 
space1        ,footnote #a3 ,v$nta does 

n reg>d manas 7m9d7 z a s5se 7indriya74 
,!  same antahk>ana1 accord+ to its     
div]se functions1 is call$ mns1  buddhi1
 ahamkra1 & citta4 ,9 its functions z   
d\bt x is call$  mns1 z orig9at+ def9ite
 cognitions x is call$ buddhi4 ,z       
pres5t+ ! notion ( an ego 9 consci\sness
 ahamkra1 & z  produc+ memory citta4 ,^!
 f\r repres5t ! diff]5t modifications   
or /ates 7vrtti7 ( ! same entity 7:i* 9 
itself is b a special  k9d (            
modification ( ajna z antahk>ana74      
#dgc    etc4 & veil$ ^! =ms4 ,p]ception 
leads to ! tempor>y  & ! p>tial break+ (
 ! veil ov] specific ajna =ms  s t !re  
is a tempor>y union ( ! cit z und]ly+ ! 
subject & ! object ?r\gh ! brok5 veil4  
,p]ception on  ! subjective side is ?us 
def9$ z ! union or undiff]5tiation      
7abh$a7 ( ! subjective consci\sness ) ! 
objective  consci\sness compreh5d+ !    
s5sible objects ?r\gh !  specific m5tal 
/ates                                   
7tattad9driyayogyavisayvac*9nacaitanybh9
natvam  tattadkravisayvac*9najnasya     

tattadams'e pratyaksatvam74  ,?is union 
9 p]ception means t ! objective has at t
  mom5t no sep>ate exi/5ce f !          
subjective consci\sness (  ! p]ceiv]4 ,!
 consci\sness manife/+ ?r\gh !          
antahk>ana  is call$ jvasksi4           
,inf]5ce 7anumna71 accord+ to ,v$nta1 is
 made by our  notion ( concomitance     
7vyptijna7 betwe5 two ?+s1 act+  ?r\gh  
specific pa/ impressions 7samskra74 ,?us
 :5 ,i see  smoke on a hill1 my previ\s 
notion ( ! concomitance ( smoke  ) fire 
becomes r\s$ z a subconsci\s impression1
 & ,i  inf] t !re is fire on ! hill4 ,my
 k ( ! hill &  ! smoke is by direct     
p]ception4 ,! notion ( concomitance     
reviv$ 9 ! subconsci\s only e/abli%es ! 
connection betwe5  ! smoke & ! fire4 ,! 
notion ( concomitance is  g5]at$ by !   
p]ception ( two ?+s toge!r1 :5 no  case 
( ! failure ( concomitance is kn[n      
7vyabhicrjna7  reg>d+ ! subject4 ,!     
notion ( concomitance be+ altoge!r      
subjective1 ! ,v$nti/ does n emphasize !
 necessity  ( p]ceiv+ ! concomitance 9 a

 l>ge numb] ( cases 7bhyod>s'anam       
sakrdd>s'anam veti vis'es nd>anyah74    
,v$nta is  n anxi\s to e/abli% any      
mat]ial validity = ! inf]5ce1  b only   
subjective & =mal validity4 ,a s+le     
p]ception (  concomitance may 9 c]ta9   
cases g5]ate ! notion ( !  concomitance 
( "o ?+ ) ano!r :5 no contradictory     
in/ance is kn[n4 ,x is immat]ial ) !    
,v$nta :e!r ?is  concomitance is        
exp]i5c$ 9 "o case or 9 hundr$s ( cases4
  ,! me?od ( agreem5t 9 pres5ce is !    
only =m ( concomitance  7anvayavypti7 t 
! ,v$nta all[s4 ,s !  ,v$nta disc>ds all
 ! o!r k9ds ( inf]5ce t ,nyya  support$1
 viz4 anvayavyatireki 7by jo9+ agreem5t 
9 pres5ce  ) agreem5t 9 abs5ce71        
kevalnvayi 7by univ]sal agreem5t  :]e no
 te/ c\ld be appli$ ( agreem5t 9 abs5ce7
 &    #dgd    kevalavyatireki 7by       
univ]sal agreem5t 9 abs5ce74 ,v$nta     
advocates ?ree premisses1 viz4 7#a7     
pratija 7! hill is fi]y72  7#b7 hetu    
7because x has smoke7 & 7#c7 drstnta 7z 
9 !  kit*57 in/ead ( ! five propositions

 t ,nyya ma9ta9$ ,footnote  ref #a4     
,s9ce "o case ( concomitance is reg>d$  
by ,v$nta z  be+ suffici5t = mak+ an    
inf]5ce x holds t see+ !  "o case (     
appe>ance 7silv] 9 ! con*-%ell7 to be   
false1  we c inf] t all ?+s 7except     
,brahman7 are false 7,brahmabh9nam      
s>vam mi?y ,brahmabh9natvt y$evam       
tadevam ya? s'uktirpyam74  ,fir/ premiss
 7pratij7 all else except+ ,brahman is  
false2 second  premiss 7hetu7 s9ce all  
is diff]5t f ,brahman2 ?ird premiss     
7drstnta7 :atev] is s is s z ! silv] 9 !
 con* ,footnote  ref #b4      tman1     
,jva1 s'v>a1 ,ekajvavda &               
,drstisrstivda4    ,we h _m times spok5 
( tru? or reality z self-lum9\s         
7svayampraks'a74 ,b :at does ?is mean8  
,v$nta  def9es x z t :i* is nev] !      
object ( a kn[+ act b  is yet imm$iate &
 direct ) u 7av$yatve sati              
ap>oksavyavah>ayogyatvam74              
,self-lum9osity ?us means !  capacity ( 
be+ ev] pres5t 9 all our acts (         
consci\sness  )\t 9 any way be+ an      

object ( consci\sness4 ,:5ev]  any?+ is 
describ$ z an object ( consci\sness1 its
 "*  z con/itut+ its kn[ability is a    
quality1 :i* may or may n  be pres5t 9  
x1 or may be pres5t at "o "t & abs5t at 
ano!r4  ,?is makes x dep5d5t on "s o!r  
su* entity :i* c  produce x or manife/  
x4 ,pure consci\sness diff]s f all its  
objects 9 ?is t x is nev] dep5d5t on    
any?+ else =  its manife/ation1 b       
manife/s all o!r objects su* z ! jug1  !
 clo?1 etc4 ,if consci\sness %\ld       
require ano!r consci\sness  to manife/  
x1 !n t might aga9 require ano!r1 &  t  
ano!r1 & s on ad inf9itum 7anava/h74 ,if
 consci\sness  did n manife/ itself at !
 "t ( ! object-manife/ation1  !n ev5 on 
see+ or kn[+ a ?+ "o might d\bt if he   
_h se5 or kn[n x4 ,x is ?us to be       
admitt$ t consci\sness  7anubhti7       
manife/s itself & !reby ma9ta9s !       
appe>ance        ,footnote #a3 ,v$anta  
w\ld h ei!r pratij1 hetu & udh>ana1 or  
udh>ana1 upanaya & nigamana1 & n all !  
five ( ,nyya1 viz4  pratija1 hetu1      

udh>ana1 upanaya & nigamana4            
,footnote #b3 ,v$ntic notions ( ! pramna
 ( upamana1 ar?apatti1  s'abda &        
anupalabdhi1 be+ simil> to ! mmms view1 
d n  require to be treat$ "h sep>ately4 
#dge    ( all our _w exp]i5ce4 ,?is goes
 directly aga9/  ! jtat !ory ( ,kumrila 
t consci\sness 0 n imm$iate  b 0 only   
inf]able f ! manife/+ quality  7jtat7 ( 
objects :5 !y are kn[n 9 consci\sness4  
,n[ ,v$nta says t ?is self-lum9\s pure  
consci\sness  is ! same z ! self4 ,= x  
is only self :i* is n ! object  ( any k 
& is yet imm$iate & ev] pres5t 9        
consci\sness4 ,no "o d\bts ab\t 8 own   
self1 because x  is ( itself manife/$   
along ) all /ates ( k4 ,!  self itself  
is ! reveal] ( all objects ( k1 b is    
nev] itself ! object ( k1 = :at appe>s z
 !  p]ceiv+ ( self z object ( k is b    
association  compreh5d$ "u ! t]m ahamkra
 7ego74 ,! real self is  id5tical ) !   
pure manife/+ unity ( all consci\sness4 
,?is real self call$ ! tman is n ! same 
z ! jva or  individual s\l1 :i* passes  

?r\gh ! div]se exp]i5ces  ( worldly     
life4 s'v>a also mu/ be di/+ui%$ f ?is  
highe/ tman or ,brahman4 ,we h already  
se5 t _m  ,v$nti/s draw a di/9ction     
betwe5 my & avidy4 ,my  is t aspect (   
ajna by :i* only ! be/ attributes  are  
project$1 :]eas avidy is t aspect by :i*
 impure  qualities are project$4 ,9 !   
=m] aspect ! functions are  m ( a       
creative1 g5]ative 7viksepa7 type1 :]eas
 9 ! latt]  veil+ 7v>ana7 *>act]i/ics   
are mo/ prom95t4 ,! relation  ( ! cit or
 pure intellig5ce1 ! highe/ self1 ) my &
  avidy 7also call$ ajna7 0 believ$     
respectively to expla9 !  ph5om5al s'v>a
 & ! ph5om5al jva or individual4 ,?is   
relation is conceiv$ 9 two ways1 namely 
z updhi or pratibimba1  & avac*$a4 ,!   
conception ( pratibimba or reflection is
  l ! reflection ( ! sun 9 ! wat] :]e ! 
image1  ?\gh x has ! same brilliance z !
 sun1 yet und]goes  ! effect ( !        
impurity & movem5ts ( ! wat]4 ,!  sun   
rema9s ev] ! same 9 its purity unt\*$ by
 !  impurities f :i* ! image sun suff]s4

 ,! sun may  be ! same b x may be       
reflect$ 9 diff]5t k9ds (  wat] & yield 
diff]5t k9ds ( images possess+ diff]5t  
*>act]i/ics & *anges :i* ?\gh unreal yet
 ph5om5ally  h all ! appe>ance (        
reality4 ,! o!r conception  ( ! relation
 is t :5 we speak ( ks'a 7space7 9 ! jug
  or ( ks'a 9 ! room4 ,! ks'a 9 reality 
does n suff]    #dgf    any modification
 9 be+ )9 ! jug or )9 ! room4 ,9        
reality x is all-p]vasive & is nei!r    
limit$ 7ava*9na7  )9 ! jug or ! room1 b 
is yet conceiv$ z be+ limit$  by ! jug  
or by ! room4 ,s long z ! jug rema9s1 ! 
ks'a limit$ )9 x w rema9 z sep>ate f !  
ks'a  limit$ )9 ! room4    ,( ! ,v$nti/s
 :o accept ! reflection analogy !       
foll[]s  ( ,nrsimhs'rama ?9k t :5 ! pure
 cit is reflect$  9 ! my1 s'v>a is      
ph5om5ally produc$1 & :5 9 !  avidy !   
individual or jva4 ,s>vajtm h[ev] does n
  di/+ui% betwe5 ! my & ! avidy1 & ?9ks 
t  :5 ! cit is reflect$ 9 ! avidy 9 its 
total aspect z cause1  we get s'v>a1 &  
:5 reflect$ 9 ! antahk>ana--a product  (

 ! avidy--we h jva or individual s\l4   
,jva or individual means ! self 9       
association ) ! ego  & o!r p]sonal      
exp]i5ces1 i4e4 ph5om5al self1 :i*      
feels1  suff]s & is affect$ by          
_w-exp]i5ces4 ,9 jva also ?ree  /ages   
are di/+ui%$2 ?us :5 dur+ deep sleep !  
antahk>ana  is subm]g$1 ! self p]ceives 
m]ely ! ajna & !  jva 9 ?is /ate is     
call$ prja or n&amaya4 ,9 ! dream-/ate  
! self is 9 association ) a subtle body 
& is call$  taijasa4 ,9 ! awak5$ /ate ! 
self z associat$ ) a  subtle & gross    
body is call$ vis'va4 ,s also ! self 9  
its pure  /ate is call$ ,brahman1 :5    
associat$ ) my x is call$  s'v>a1 :5    
associat$ ) ! f9e subtle elem5t ( matt] 
z  controll+ !m1 x is call$             
hiranyag>bha2 :5 ) ! gross  elem5ts z ! 
rul] or controll] ( !m x is call$ virt  
purusa4    ,! jva 9 itself z limit$ by  
its avidy is (t5 spok5 (  z pram>?ika   
7real71 :5 manife/$ ?r\gh ! s5se &  !   
ego 9 ! wak+ /ates z vyavahrika         
7ph5om5al71 &  :5 9 ! dream /ates z     

dream-self1 prtibhsika 7illusory74      
,praks'tm & 8 foll[]s ?9k t s9ce ajna is
 "o  !re _c be two sep>ate reflections  
su* z jva & s'v>a2  b x is bett] to     
admit t jva is ! image ( s'v>a 9 !      
ajna4 ,! totality ( ,brahma-cit 9       
association ) my is  s'v>a1 & ?is :5    
aga9 reflect$ ?r\gh ! ajna gives  u !   
jva4 ,! manife/ation ( ! jva is 9 !     
antahk>ana  z /ates ( k4 ,! jva ?us 9   
reality is s'v>a &  ap>t f jva & s'v>a  
!re is no o!r sep>ate exi/5ce (    #dgg 
,brahma-caitanya4 ,jva be+ ! image (    
s'v>a is ?us dep5d5t  on him1 b :5 !    
limitations ( jva are remov$  by "r k1 !
 jva is ! same ,brahman x always 04     
,^? :o pref] to conceive ! relation z   
be+ ( !  avac*$a type hold t reflection 
7pratibimba7 is only possible  ( ?+s :i*
 h col\r1 & !re=e jva is cit limit$     
7avac*9na7  by ! antahk>ana 7m9d74 s'v>a
 is t :i* is beyond  x2 ! div]sity (    
antahk>anas acc\nts = ! div]sity  ( !   
jvas4 ,x is easy h[ev] to see t ^!      
discussions are  n ( mu* fruit f ! po9t 

( view ( philosophy 9 det]m9+  or       
compreh5d+ ! relation ( s'v>a & jva4 ,9 
!  ,v$nta sy/em s'v>a has b little      
importance1 = he is b a  ph5om5al be+2  
he may be bett]1 pur]1 & mu* m  p[]ful  
?an we1 b yet he is z mu* ph5om5al z any
 (  u4 ,! highe/ tru? is ! self1 !      
reality1 ! ,brahman1 &  bo? jva & s'v>a 
are b illusory impositions on x4 ,"s    
,v$nti/s hold t !re is b "o jva & "o    
body1 &  t all ! _w z well z all ! jvas 
9 x are m]ely 8  imag9+s4 ,^! dream jvas
 & ! dream _w w  cont9ue s long z t     
sup]-jva cont9ues to und]go 8           
exp]i5ces2 ! _w-appe>ance & all ( u     
imag9>y  individuals1 run our c\rse &   
salvation is z mu* imag9>y  salvation z 
our _w-exp]i5ce is an imag9>y exp]i5ce (
  ! imag9>y jvas4 ,! cosmic jva is alone
 ! awak5$ jva  & all ! re/ are b 8      
imag9+s4 ,?is is kn[n z !  doctr9e (    
ekajva 7"o-s\l74    ,! opposite ( ?is   
doctr9e is ! !ory held by "s  ,v$nti/s t
 !re are _m individuals & ! _w-appe>ance
  has no p]man5t illusion = all p1 b ea*

 p]son  creates = himself 8 own         
illusion1 & !re is no objective  datum  
:i* =ms ! common gr\nd = ! illusory     
p]ception  ( all p2 j z :5 t5 p]sons see
 9 ! d>kness a  rope & hav+ ! illusion (
 a snake !re1 run away1 &  agree 9 _!   
individual p]ceptions t !y h all se5  ! 
same snake1 ?\gh ea* really _h 8 own    
illusion &  !re 0 no snake at all4      
,accord+ to ?is view ! illusory         
p]ception ( ea* happ5s = him            
subjectively & has no  correspond+      
objective ph5om5a z its gr\nd4 ,?is mu/ 
be di/+ui%$ f ! normal ,v$nta view :i*  
holds  t objectively ph5om5a are also   
happ5+1 b t ^!    #dgh    are illusory  
only 9 ! s5se t !y w n la/ p]man5tly  & 
h ?us only a tempor>y & relative exi/5ce
 9 comp>ison  ) ! tru? or reality :i* is
 ev] ! same con/ant  & un*angeable      
entity 9 all our p]ceptions & 9 all     
_w-appe>ance4  ,accord+ to ! o!r view   
ph5om5a are n  objectively exi/5t b are 
only subjectively imag9$2 s t  ! jug ,i 
see _h no exi/5ce be=e ,i happ5$ to h ! 

p]ception t !re 0 ! jug2 z soon z ! jug 
illusion  occurr$ to me ,i said t !re 0 
! jug1 b x did n exi/  be=e4 ,z soon z  
,i _h ! p]ception !re 0 ! illusion1  &  
!re 0 no o!r reality ap>t f ! illusion4 
,x is !re=e  call$ ! !ory (             
drstisrstivda1 i4e4 ! !ory t !          
subjective p]ception is ! creat+ ( !    
objects & t !re  are no o!r objective   
ph5om5a ap>t f subjective p]ceptions4   
,9 ! normal ,v$nta view h[ev] ! objects 
(  ! _w are exi/5t z ph5om5a by !       
s5se-contact )  :i* ! subjective        
p]ceptions are creat$4 ,! objective     
ph5om5a 9 !mselves are ( c\rse b        
modifications ( ajna1  b /ill ^! ph5om5a
 ( ! ajna are !re z ! common  gr\nd = ! 
exp]i5ce ( all4 ,?is !re=e has an       
objective  epi/emology :]eas !          
drstisrstivda has no prop]  epi/emology1
 = ! exp]i5ces ( ea* p]son are det]m9$  
by 8 own subjective avidy & previ\s     
impressions z modifications  ( ! avidy4 
,! drstisrstivda !ory approa*es  ne>e/  
to ! ,vijnavda ,buddhism1 only ) ?is    

diff]5ce  t :ile ,buddhism does n admit 
( any p]man5t be+  ,v$nta admits !      
,brahman1 ! p]man5t un*angeable  reality
 z ! only tru?1 :]eas ! illusory &      
mom5t>y  p]ceptions are b impositions on
 x4    ,! m5tal & physical ph5om5a are  
alike 9 ?is1 t  bo? are modifications ( 
ajna4 ,x is inde$ difficult to          
compreh5d ! nature ( ajna1 ?\gh its     
pres5ce 9 consci\sness  c be p]ceiv$1 & 
?\gh by dialectic criticism  all our mo/
 well-f\nd$ notions seem to vani% away &
  become self-contradictory &           
indef9able4 ,v$nta expla9s  ! reason (  
?is difficulty z due to ! fact t all ^! 
indef9able =ms & names c only be        
exp]i5c$ z modes  ( ! real1 !           
self-lum9\s4 ,our innate error :i* we   
cont9ue  f beg9n+less "t consi/s 9 ?is1 
t ! real 9  its full complete light is  
ev] hidd5 f u1 & ! glimpse    #dgi    t 
we get ( x is always ?r\gh manife/ations
 ( =ms  & names2 ^! ph5om5al =ms & names
 are undef9able1  incompreh5sible1 &    
unkn[able 9 !mselves1 b "u  c]ta9       

conditions !y are manife/$ by !         
self-lum9\s real1  & at ! "t !y are s   
manife/$ !y seem to h a  positive be+   
:i* is und5iable4 ,?is positive be+ is  
only  ! highe/ be+1 ! real :i* appe>s z 
! be+ ( ^? =ms  & names4 ,a lump ( clay 
may be m\ld$ into a plate or a  cup1 b !
 plate-=m or ! cup-=m has no exi/5ce or 
be+  ap>t f ! be+ ( ! clay2 x is ! be+ (
 ! clay t  is impos$ on ! div]se =ms :i*
 also !n seem to h  be+ 9 !mselves4 ,our
 illusion ?us consi/s 9 mutually        
misattribut+  ! *>act]i/ics ( ! unreal  
=ms--! modes (  ajna & ! real be+4 ,z   
?is illusion is ! mode ( all our        
exp]i5ce & its v ess5ce1 x is inde$     
difficult = u to  conceive ( ! ,brahman 
z ap>t f ! modes ( ajna4  ,moreov] su*  
is ! nature ( ajnas t !y are kn[able    
only by a false id5tification ( !m ) !  
self-lum9\s  ,brahman or tman4 ,be+ z   
su* is ! highe/ tru?1 !  ,brahman4 ,!   
ajna /ates are n non-be+ 9 ! s5se (     
no?+ ( pure negation 7abhva71 b 9 ! s5se
 t !y are  n be+4 ,be+ t is !           

self-lum9\s illum9ates non-be+1  ! ajna1
 & ?is illum9ation means no?+ m ?an a   
false id5tification ( be+ ) non-be+4 ,! 
=ms ( ajna  if !y are to be kn[n mu/ be 
associat$ ) pure consci\sness1  & ?is   
association means an illusion1          
sup]imposition1 &  mutual               
misattribution4 ,b ap>t f pure          
consci\sness ^!  _c be manife/$ or kn[n1
 = x is pure consci\sness alone  t is   
self-lum9\s4 ,?us :5 we try to "k ! ajna
  /ates 9 !mselves z ap>t f ! tman we   
fail 9 a dilemma1  = k means illusory   
sup]imposition or illusion1 &  :5 x is n
 k !y evid5tly _c be kn[n4 ,?us  ap>t f 
its be+ a factor 9 our illusory exp]i5ce
 no o!r  k9d ( its exi/5ce is kn[n to u4
 ,if ajna _h be5 a non-entity  altoge!r 
x c\ld nev] come at all1 if x 7 a       
positive  entity !n x w\ld nev] cease to
 be2 ! ajna ?us is a  my/]i\s category  
midway betwe5 be+ & non-be+ &           
undef9able 9 e way2 & x is on acc\nt (  
?is t x is  call$ tattvnyatvbhym        
anirvcya or undef9able & undet]m9able   

ei!r z real or unreal4 ,x is real 9 !   
s5se t x is    #dhj    a necess>y       
po/ulate ( our ph5om5al exp]i5ce &      
unreal  9 its own nature1 = ap>t f its  
connection ) consci\sness  x is         
incompreh5sible & undef9able4 ,its =ms  
ev5 :ile !y  are manife/$ 9 consci\sness
 are self-contradictory &               
incompreh5sible  z to _! real nature or 
mutual relation1 &  compreh5sible only s
 f> z !y are manife/$ 9 consci\sness1  b
 ap>t f ^! no rational conception ( !m c
 be  =m$4 ,?us x is impossible to say   
any?+ ab\t ! ajna  7= no k ( x is       
possible7 save s f> z manife/$ 9        
consci\sness & dep5d+ on ?is !          
,drstisrstivd9s ass]t$  t our exp]i5ce 0
 inexplicably produc$ "u ! influ5ce  (  
avidy & t beyond t no objective common  
gr\nd  c\ld be admitt$4 ,b ?\gh ?is has 
! g5]al ass5t (  ,v$nta & is irrefutable
 9 itself1 /ill = ! sake ( expla9+  our 
common s5se view 7pratik>mavyavasa?7 we 
may  ?9k t we h an objective _w be=e u z
 ! common  field ( exp]i5ce4 ,we c also 

imag9e a s*eme ( ?+s &  op]ations by :i*
 ! ph5om5on ( our exp]i5ce may be       
int]pret$ 9 ! light ( ! ,v$nta          
metaphysics4    ,! subject c be conceiv$
 9 ?ree =ms3 fir/ly z !  tman1 ! "o     
highe/ reality1 secondly z jva or ! tman
 z  limit$ by its psy*osis1 :5 !        
psy*osis is n diff]5tiat$  f ! tman1 b  
tman is reg>d$ z id5tical ) ! psy*osis  
?us appe>+ z a liv+ & kn[+ be+1 z       
jvasksi or  p]ceiv+ consci\sness1 or !  
aspect 9 :i* ! jva compreh5ds1  kn[s1 or
 exp]i5ces2 ?irdly ! antahk>ana psy*osis
 or  m9d :i* is an inn] c5tre or bundle 
( avidy manife/ations1  j z ! out] _w   
objects are ext]ior c5tres (  avidy     
ph5om5a or objective entities4 ,!       
antahk>ana is n  only ! avidy capable ( 
supply+ all =ms to our pres5t exp]i5ces1
  b x also conta9s all ! t5d5cies &     
modes (  pa/ impressions ( exp]i5ce 9   
?is life or 9 pa/ lives4 ,!  antahk>ana 
is always turn+ ! v>i\s avidy modes ( x 
into  ! jvasksi 7jva 9 its aspect z     
illum9at+ m5tal /ates71 &  ^! are also  

imm$iately manife/$1 made kn[n1 &       
trans=m$  into exp]i5ce4 ,^! avidy /ates
 ( ! antahk>ana  are call$ its vrttis or
 /ates4 ,! specific peculi>ity ( !      
vrttiajnas is ?is t only 9 ^! =ms c !y  
be sup]impos$  ^u pure consci\sness1 &  
?us be int]pret$ z /ates ( consci\sness 
& h _! indef9it5ess or cov] remov$4 ,!  
#dha    =ms ( ajna rema9 z indef9ite &  
hidd5 or veil$ only  s long z !y d n    
come into relation to ^! vrttis (       
antahk>ana1 = ! ajna c be de/roy$ by !  
cit only 9 !  =m ( a vrtti1 :ile 9 all  
o!r =ms ! ajna veils ! cit  f           
manife/ation4 ,! removal ( ajna-vrttis (
 ! antahk>ana  or ! manife/ation (      
vrtti-jna is no?+ b ?is1 t  ! antahk>ana
 /ates ( avidy are ! only /ates ( ajna  
:i* c be sup]impos$ ^u ! self-lum9\s    
tman  7adhysa1 false attribution74 ,!   
objective _w consi/s ( !  avidy ph5om5a 
) ! self z its backgr\nd4 ,its          
objectivity  consi/s 9 ?is t avidy 9 ?is
 =m _c be sup]impos$  on ! self-lum9\s  
cit b exi/s only z veil+ ! cit4 ,^!     

avidy ph5om5a may be reg>d$ z _m &      
div]se1 b 9  all ^! =ms !y s]ve only to 
veil ! cit & are beyond  consci\sness4  
,x is only :5 !y come 9 contact ) !     
avidy  ph5om5a z antahk>ana /ates t !y  
coalesce ) !  avidy /ates & r5d]        
!mselves objects ( consci\sness or  h _!
 veil ( v>ana remov$4 ,x is ?us assum$ t
 9  ord9>y p]ceptions ( objects su* z   
jug1 etc4 ! antahk>ana  goes out ( !    
man's body 7s'arramadhyt7 & com+ 9  t\* 
) ! jug becomes trans=m$ into ! same =m1
  & z soon z ?is trans=mation takes     
place ! cit :i*  is always /eadily %9+  
illum9ates ! jug-=m or ! jug4  ,! jug   
ph5om5a 9 ! objective _w c\ld n be      
manife/$  7?\gh ^! 7 tak+ place on !    
backgr\nd (  ! same self-lum9\s ,brahman
 or tman z =ms ( ! highe/  tru? ( my    
subjective consci\sness7 because ! ajna 
ph5om5a  9 ^! =ms s]ve to veil _!       
illum9ator1 ! self-lum9\s4  ,x 0 only by
 com+ into contact ) ^! ph5om5a  t !    
antahk>ana c\ld be trans=m$ into        
correspond+  /ates & t ! illum9ation    

dawn$ :i* at once reveal$  ! antahk>ana 
/ates & ! objects ) :i* ^! /ates or     
vrttis _h coalesc$4 ,! consci\sness     
manife/$ ?r\gh !  vrttis alone has ! p[]
 ( remov+ ! ajna veil+ !  cit4 ,( c\rse 
!re are no actual di/9ctions ( inn] or  
out]1  or ! cit )9 me & ! cit )\t me4   
,^! are only (  appe>ance & due to      
avidy4 ,& x is only f ! po9t (  view (  
appe>ance t we suppose t k ( objects  c 
only dawn :5 ! inn] cit & ! out] cit    
unite toge!r  ?r\gh ! antahk>anavrtti1  
:i* makes ! ext]nal objects    #dhb     
transluc5t z x 7 by its own transluc5ce1
 removes ! ajna  :i* 0 veil+ ! ext]nal  
self-lum9\s cit & reveals !  object     
ph5om5a by ! v union ( ! cit z reflect$ 
?r\gh x & ! cit z und]ly+ ! object      
ph5om5a4 ,!  pratyaksa-pram or "r k by  
p]ception is ! cit1 !  pure             
consci\sness1 reflect$ ?r\gh ! vrtti &  
id5tical )  ! cit z ! backgr\nd ( !     
object ph5om5a reveal$ by  x4 ,f !      
relative po9t ( view we may ?us di/+ui% 
?ree  consci\snesses3 7#a7 consci\sness 

z ! backgr\nd ( objective  ph5om5a1 7#b7
 consci\sness z ! backgr\nd ( ! jva  or 
pramt1 ! individual1 7#c7 consci\sness  
reflect$ 9 ! vrtti  ( ! antahk>ana2 :5  
^! ?ree unite p]ception is effect$4     
,pram or "r k means 9 ,v$nta !          
acquirem5t  ( su* new k z has n be5     
contradict$ by  exp]i5ce 7abdhita74 ,!re
 is ?us no absolute def9ition (  tru?4  
,a k acquir$ c be said to be true only s
 long  z x is n contradict$4 ,?us ! _w  
appe>ance ?\gh x  is v true n[1 may be  
r5d]$ false1 :5 ?is is contradict$  by  
"r k ( ,brahman z ! "o reality4 ,?us !  
k ( ! _w appe>ance is true n[1 b n true 
absolutely4 ,! only absolute tru? is !  
pure consci\sness  :i* is nev]          
contradict$ 9 any exp]i5ce at any "t4 ,!
  tru? ( our _w-k is ?us to be te/$ by  
f9d+ out  :e!r x w be contradict$ at any
 /age ( _w exp]i5ce  or n4 ,t :i* is n  
contradict$ by lat] exp]i5ce is to  be  
reg>d$ z true1 = all _w k z a :ole w be 
contradict$ :5 ,brahma-k is realiz$4    
,! inn] exp]i5ces ( pleasure & pa9 also 

are g5]at$  by a false id5tification (  
antahk>ana trans=mations z  pleasure or 
pa9 ) ! self1 by virtue ( :i* are g5]at$
  ! p]ceptions1 ,i am happy1 or ,i am   
sorry4 ,9 cont9u\s  p]ception ( any?+ = 
a c]ta9 "t z an object  or z pleasure1  
etc4 ! m5tal /ate or vrtti is said to   
la/ 9 !  same way all ! :ile s long z   
any o!r new =m is n  tak5 up by !       
antahk>ana = ! acquirem5t ( any new  k4 
,9 su* case :5 ,i inf] t !re is fire on 
!  hill t ,i see1 ! hill is an object ( 
p]ception1 = ! antahk>ana  vrtti is "o )
 x1 b t !re is fire 9 x is a matt]  (   
inf]5ce1 = ! antahk>ana vrtti _c be 9   
t\* ) !  fire2 s 9 ! same exp]i5ce !re  
may be two modes (    #dhc    m5tal     
modification1 z p]ception 9 see+ ! hill1
 & z  inf]5ce 9 inf]r+ ! fire 9 ! hill4 
,9 cases ( acquir$  p]ception1 z :5 on  
see+ s&al wood ,i ?9k t x is  odorif]\s 
s&al wood1 x is pure p]ception s f> z ! 
s&al  wood is conc]n$1 x is inf]5ce or  
memory s f> z ,i ass]t x  to be         
odorif]\s4 ,v$nta does n admit ! exi/5ce

 ( !  relation call$ samavya 7inh]5ce7  
or jti 7class notion72 &  s does n      
di/+ui% p]ception z a class z di/9ct f !
  o!r class call$ inf]5ce1 & holds t bo?
 p]ception &  inf]5ce are b diff]5t     
modes ( ! trans=mations ( !  antahk>ana 
reflect+ ! cit 9 ! correspond+ vrttis4  
,!  p]ception is ?us no?+ b ! cit       
manife/ation 9 ! antahk>ana  vrtti      
trans=m$ into ! =m ( an object ) :i* x  
is  9 contact4 ,p]ception 9 its         
objective aspect is ! id5tity (  ! cit  
und]ly+ ! object ) ! subject1 &         
p]ception 9  ! subjective aspect is     
reg>d$ z ! id5tity ( ! subjective  cit )
 ! objective cit4 ,?is id5tity ( c\rse  
means t  ?r\gh ! vrtti ! same reality   
subsi/+ 9 ! object &  ! subject is      
realiz$1 :]eas 9 inf]5ce ! ?+ to be     
inf]r$1  be+ away f contact )           
antahk>ana1 has app>5tly  a diff]5t     
reality f t manife/$ 9 ! /ates (        
consci\sness4  ,?us p]ception is reg>d$ 
z ! m5tal /ate repres5t+  ! same        
id5tical reality 9 ! object & ! subject 

by  antahk>ana contact1 & x is held t ! 
k produc$  by words 7e4g4 ?is is ! same 
,devadatta7 ref]r+ id5tically  to ! same
 ?+ :i* is se5 7e4g4 :5 ,i see          
,devadatta  be=e me ano!r man says ?is  
is ,devadatta1 & ! k  produc$ by ?is is 
,devadatta ?\gh a v]bal 7s'bda7  k is to
 be reg>d$ z p]ception1 = ! antahk>ana  
vrtti is ! same7 is to be reg>d$ z      
p]ception or pratyaksa4  ,! cont5t ( ^! 
words 7?is is ,devadatta7 be+ ! same  z 
! p]ception1 & !re be+ no new relation+ 
k z  repres5t$ 9 ! proposition ?is is   
,devadatta involv+ !  unity ( two t]ms  
?is & ,devadatta ) a copula1 b  only !  
indication ( "o :ole z ,devadatta "u    
visual p]ception  already exp]i5c$1 ! k 
proce$+ f  ?is is ,devadatta is reg>d$ z
 an example ( nirvikalpa  k4 ,s on !    
occasion ( ! rise ( ,brahma-consci\sness
  :5 ! preceptor in/ructs ?\ art        
,brahman !  k proce$+ f ! s5t5ce is n   
savikalpa1 =    #dhd    ?\gh            
grammatically !re are two ideas & a     
copula1 yet  f ! po9t ( view ( intr9sic 

significance 7ttp>ya7 "o  id5tical      
reality only is indicat$4 ,v$nta does n 
di/+ui%  nirvikalpa & savikalpa 9 visual
 p]ception1 b only 9 s'bda  p]ception z 
9 cases ref]r$ to above4 ,9 all su*     
cases !  condition = nirvikalpa is t !  
notion convey$ by !  s5t5ce %\ld be "o  
:ole or "o id5tical reality1 :]eas  9   
savikalpa p]ception we h a comb9ation ( 
diff]5t  ideas z 9 ! s5t5ce1 ! k+'s man 
is com+ 7rjapurusa  gac*at74 ,"h no     
id5tical reality is signifi$1 b :at is  
signifi$ is ! comb9ation ( two or ?ree  
diff]5t concepts ,footnote  ref #a4     
,x is n out ( place to m5tion 9 ?is     
connection t  ,v$nta admits all ! six   
pramnas ( ,kumrila & consid]s  l ,mmms t
 all k is self-valid 7svatah-pramna74   
,b pram has n ! same mean+ 9 ,v$nta  z 9
 ,mmms4 ,!re z we rememb] pram meant !  
k :i* goad$ "o to practical action & z  
su*  all k 0 pram1 until practical      
exp]i5ce %[$ !  c\rse ( action 9        
accordance ) :i* x 0 f\nd to be         
contradict$4 ,9 ,v$nta h[ev] !re is no  

ref]5ce to action1  b pram means only   
uncontradict$ cognition4 ,to ! def9ition
  ( self-validity z giv5 by ,mmms ,v$nta
 adds ano!r  objective qualification1 t 
su* k c h svatah-prmnya  z is n vitiat$ 
by ! pres5ce ( any dsa 7cause  ( error1 
su* z defect ( s5ses or ! l74 ,v$nta (  
c\rse  does n ?9k l ,nyya t positive    
conditions 7e4g4 correspond5ce1  etc47  
are necess>y = ! validity ( k1  nor does
 x dive/ k ( all qualifications l !     
,mmmsi/s1 = :om all k is self-valid z   
su*4 ,x  adopts a middle c\rse & holds t
 abs5ce ( dsa is a necess>y  condition =
 ! self-validity ( k4 ,x is cle> t  ?is 
is a compromise1 = :5ev] an ext]nal     
condition has to  be admitt$1 ! k _c be 
reg>d$ z self-valid1  b ,v$nta says t z 
x requires only a negative condition  = 
! abs5ce ( dsa1 ! objection does n apply
 to x1 & x  holds t if x dep5d$ on !    
pres5ce ( any positive condition  =     
prov+ ! validity ( k l ! ,nyya1  !n only
 its !ory ( self-validity w\ld h be5    
damag$4  ,b s9ce x wants only a negative

 condition1 no blame c be               
,footnote #a3 ,see ,v$ntap>ibhs &       
,s'ikhmani4    #dhe    attribut$ to its 
!ory ( self-validity4 ,v$nta 0 b\nd to  
foll[ ?is slipp]y middle c\rse1 = x c\ld
 n say t !  pure cit reflect$ 9         
consci\sness c\ld require any?+ else  = 
e/abli%+ its validity1 nor c\ld x say t 
all ph5om5al  =ms ( k 7 also all valid1 
= !n ! _w-appe>ance  w\ld come to be    
valid2 s x held t k  c\ld be reg>d$ z   
valid only :5 !re 0 no dsa  pres5t2 ?us 
f ! absolute po9t ( view all _w-k  0    
false & _h no validity1 because !re 0 ! 
avidy-dsa1 & 9 ! ord9>y sph]e also t k 0
  valid 9 :i* !re 0 no dsa4 ,validity   
7prmnya7 )  ,mmms meant ! capacity t k  
has to goad u to  practical action 9    
accordance ) x1 b ) ,v$nta x meant      
correctness to facts & want (           
contradiction4 ,! abs5ce (  dsa be+     
gu>ante$ !re is no?+ :i* c vitiate !    
correctness ( k ,footnote ref #a4       
,v$nta ,!ory ( ,illusion4    ,we h      
already se5 t ! ,mmmsi/s _h ass]t$ t    

all k 0 true simply because x 0 k       
7ya?r?h  s>ve vivdaspadbhth pratyayh    
pratyayatvt74 ,ev5  illusions 7 expla9$ 
by !m z be+ non-p]ception ( !  di/9ction
 betwe5 ! ?+ p]ceiv$ 7e4g4 ! con*-%ell71
 &  ! ?+ rememb]$ 7e4g4 silv]74 ,b      
,v$nta objects to ?is1  & asks h[ !re c 
be non-di/9ction betwe5 a ?+ :i*  is    
cle>ly p]ceiv$ & a ?+ :i* is rememb]$8  
,if x is  said t x is m]ely a           
non-p]ception ( ! non-association 7i4e4 
non-p]ception ( ! fact t ?is is n       
connect$ ) silv]71  !n also x _c be1 =  
!n x is on ei!r side m]e negation1  &   
negation ) ,mmms is no?+ b ! b>e pres5ce
 ( !  locus ( negation 7e4g4 negation ( 
jug on ! gr\nd is no?+ b  ! b>e pres5ce 
( ! gr\nd71 or 9 o!r words non-p]ception
  ( ! non-association ( silv] & ?is     
means b>ely  & m]ely ! silv] & ?is4 ,ev5
 admitt+ = argum5t's  sake t ! di/9ction
 betwe5 two ?+s or two ideas  is n      
p]ceiv$1 yet m]ely f su* a negative     
aspect no "o  c\ld be tempt$ to move    
=w>d to action 7su* z /oop+  d[n to pick

 up a piece ( illusory silv]74 ,x is    
positive        ,footnote #a3 ,see      
,v$ntap>ibhs1 ,s'ikhmani1 ,maniprabh &  
,citsukha  on svatahprmanya4    #dhf    
conviction or p]ception t c lead a man  
to actual practical  movem5t4 ,if aga9 x
 is said t x is ! g5]al & imp]fect      
p]ception ( a ?+ 7:i* has n be5 prop]ly 
diff]5tiat$  & compreh5d$7 be=e me1 :i* 
by ! memory ( silv]  appe>s to be l true
 silv] be=e me & ?is g5]ates !  movem5t 
= pick+ x up1 !n ?is also is            
objectionable4 ,=  ! appe>ance ( !      
simil>ity ) real silv] _c lead u  to    
behave ) ! ?+ be=e me z if x 7 real     
silv]4 ,?us  ,i may p]ceive t gavaya    
7wild ox7 is simil> to c[1 b despite    
?is simil>ity ,i am n tempt$ to behave )
 ! gavaya z  if x 7 a c[4 ,?us 9 :atev] 
way ! ,mmams position  may be def9$ x   
fails ,footnote ref l4 ,v$nta ?9ks t !  
illusion  is n m]ely subjective1 b t !re
 is actually a ph5om5on  ( illusion z   
!re are ph5om5a ( actual ext]nal        
objects2  ! diff]5ce 9 ! two cases      

consi/s 9 ?is1 t ! illusion  is g5]at$  
by ! dsa or defect ( ! s5ses etc41 :]eas
 !  ph5om5a ( ext]nal objects are n due 
to su* specific dsas4  ,! process (     
illusory p]ception 9 ,v$anta may be     
describ$  ?us4 ,fir/ by ! contact ( !   
s5ses vitiat$ by dsas a  m5tal /ate z   
?isness ) ref]5ce to ! ?+ be=e me  is   
g5]at$2 !n 9 ! ?+ z ?is & 9 ! m5tal /ate
  ( ! =m ( t ?is ! cit is reflect$4 ,!n 
! avidy  7nesci5ce7 associat$ ) ! cit is
 di/urb$ by ! pres5ce  ( ! dsa1 & ?is   
di/urbance along ) ! impression (  silv]
 rememb]$ ?r\gh simil>ity is trans=m$   
into !  appe>ance ( silv]4 ,!re is ?us  
an objective illusory silv]  appe>ance1 
z well z a simil> trans=mation ( ! m5tal
 /ate  g5]at$ by its contact ) !        
illusory silv]4 ,^! two  trans=mations1 
! silv] /ate ( ! m9d & ext]nal ph5om5al 
illusory silv] /ate1 are manife/$ by !  
p]ceiv+ consci\sness  7sksicaitanya74   
,!re are ?us "h two ph5om5al            
trans=mations1  "o 9 ! avidy /ates =m+ !
 illusory objective silv]  ph5om5on1 &  

ano!r 9 ! antahk>ana-vrtti or m9d /ate4 
,b 9 spite ( !re be+ two di/9ct &       
sep>ate ph5om5a1  _! object be+ ! same z
 ! ?is 9 p]ception1 we h  "o k (        
illusion4 ,! special feature ( ?is !ory 
(  illusion is t an indef9able          
7anirvacanya-khyti7 illusory silv]  is  
creat$ 9 e case :]e an illusory         
p]ception ( silv]  occurs4 ,!re are ?ree
 ord]s ( reality 9 ,v$nta1 namely !     
,footnote #a3 ,see                      
,viv>ana-prameya-samgraha & ,nyyamak>&a 
on  akhyti refutation4    #dhg          
pramr?ika or absolute1 vyavahrika or    
practical ord9>y  exp]i5ce1 &           
prtibhsika1 illusory4 ,! fir/ "o        
repres5ts  ! absolute tru?2 ! o!r two   
are false impressions due  to dsa4 ,!   
diff]5ce betwe5 vyavahrika & prtibhsika 
is t ! dsa ( ! vyavahrika p]ception is  
nei!r discov]$  nor remov$ until        
salvation1 :]eas ! dsa ( !  prtibhsika  
reality :i* occurs 9 _m extrane\s =ms   
7su*  z defect ( ! s5ses1 sleep1 etc47  
is p]ceiv$ 9 ! _w (  our ord9>y         

exp]i5ce1 & ?us ! prtibhsika exp]i5ce   
la/s = a mu* %ort] p]iod ?an !          
vyavahrika4 ,b j  z ! vyavahrika _w is  
reg>d$ z ph5om5al modifications  ( !    
ajna1 z ap>t f our subjective exp]i5ce &
  ev5 be=e x1 s ! illusion 7e4g4 ( silv]
 9 ! con*-%ell7 is  also reg>d$ z a     
modification ( avidy1 an undef9able     
creation  ( ! object ( illusion1 by !   
ag5cy ( ! dsa4 ,?us 9 !  case ( !       
illusion ( silv] 9 ! con*-%ell1         
indef9able silv]  is creat$ by ! dsa 9  
association ) ! s5ses1 :i* is  call$ !  
creation ( an indef9able 7anirvacanya7  
silv] ( illusion4  ,"h ! cit und]ly+ !  
con*-%ell rema9s ! same  b ! avidy (    
antahk>ana suff]s modifications 7p>inma7
  on acc\nt ( dsa1 & ?us gives rise to !
 illusory creation4  ,! illusory silv]  
is ?us viv>tta 7appe>ance7 f ! po9t  (  
view ( ! cit & p>inma f ! po9t ( view ( 
avidy1 = ! diff]5ce betwe5 viv>tta &    
p>inma is1 t  9 ! =m] ! trans=mations h 
a diff]5t reality f  ! cause 7cit is    
diff]5t f ! appe>ance impos$ on x71     

:ile 9 ! latt] case ! trans=mations h ! 
same reality  z ! trans=m+ entity       
7appe>ance ( silv] has ! same  /uff z ! 
avidy ^: trans=mations x is74 ,b n[ a   
difficulty arises t if ! illusory       
p]ception ( silv] is due to  a coalesc+ 
( ! cit und]ly+ ! antahk>ana-vrtti z    
modifi$  by dsa & ! object--cit z       
und]ly+ ! ?is be=e  me 79 ! illusion (  
?is is silv]71 !n ,i ought to h !       
exp]i5ce t ,i am silv] l ,i am happy & n
 t  ?is is silv]2 ! answ] is1 t z !     
coalesc+ takes place  9 connection ) my 
previ\s notion z ?is1 ! =m (  ! k also  
is ?is is silv]1 :]eas 9 ! notion  ,i am
 happy1 ! notion ( happ9ess takes place 
9 connection  ) a previ\s vrtti ( ,i4   
,?us ?\gh ! coalesc+  ( ! two cits is ! 
same 9 bo? cases1 yet 9 "o case !       
#dhh    k takes ! =m ( ,i am1 & 9 ano!r 
z ?is is  accord+ z ! previ\s impression
 is ,i or ?is4 ,9 dreams  also ! dream  
p]ceptions are ! same z ! illusory      
p]ception  ( silv] 9 ! con*-%ell4 ,!re !
 illusory creations are  g5]at$ ?r\gh ! 

defects ( sleep1 & ^! creations are     
impos$ ^u ! cit4 ,! dream exp]i5ces _c  
be reg>d$  m]ely z memory-products1 = ! 
p]ception 9 dream is 9 !  =m t ,i see t 
,i ride 9 ! air on *>iots1 etc4 & n  t  
,i rememb] ! *>iots4 ,9 ! dream /ate all
 ! s5ses  are inactive1 & !re=e !re is  
no sep>ate objective cit !re1  b ! :ole 
dream exp]i5ce ) all *>act]i/ics (      
space1  "t1 objects1 etc4 is impos$ ^u !
 cit4 ,! objection t  s9ce ! imposition 
is on ! pure cit ! imposition ought to  
la/ ev5 9 wak+ /ages1 & t ! dream       
exp]i5ces ought  to cont9ue ev5 9 wak+  
life1 does n hold2 = 9 ! wak+  /ages !  
antahk>ana is be+ con/antly trans=m$    
into diff]5t  /ates on ! expiry ( !     
defects ( sleep1 etc41 :i* 7  caus+ !   
dream cognitions4 ,?is is call$ nivrtti 
7negation7  z di/+ui%$ f bdha           
7cessation74 ,! illusory creation (     
dream exp]i5ces may /ill be !re on !    
pure cit1 b ^!  _c be exp]i5c$ any      
long]1 = !re be+ no dsa (  sleep !      
antahk>ana is active & suff]+           

modifications 9  accordance ) ! objects 
pres5t$ be=e u4 ,?is is :at is  call$   
nivrtti1 = ?\gh ! illusion is !re ,i _c 
exp]i5ce  x1 :]eas bdha or cessation    
occurs :5 ! illusory creation  ceases1 z
 :5 on f9d+ out ! real nature ( !       
con*-%ell  ! illusion ( silv] ceases1 & 
we feel t ?is is n silv]1 ?is  0 n & w n
 be silv]4 ,:5 ! con*-%ell is p]ceiv$  z
 silv]1 ! silv] is felt z a reality1 b  
?is feel+ ( reality  0 n an illusory    
creation1 ?\gh ! silv] 0 an objective   
illusory creation2 = ! reality 9 !      
s'ukti 7con*-%ell7 is  transf]r$ & felt 
z belong+ to ! illusion ( silv] impos$  
^u  x4 ,"h we see t ! illusion ( silv]  
has two diff]5t k9ds  ( illusion        
compreh5d$ 9 x4 ,"o is ! creation ( an  
indef9able  silv]                       
7anirvacanya-rajatotpatti7 & ! o!r is ! 
attribution  ( ! reality belong+ to !   
con*-%ell to ! illusory  silv] impos$ ^u
 x1 by :i* we feel at ! "t ( ! illusion 
t x is a reality4 ,?is is no d\bt !     
anya?khyti  =m ( illusion z advocat$ by 

,nyya4 ,v$nta admits t  :5 two ?+s 7e4g4
 r$ fl[] & cry/al7 are bo? pres5t       
#dhi    be=e my s5ses1 & ,i attribute ! 
quality ( "o to ! o!r  by illusion 7e4g4
 ! illusion t ! cry/al is r$71 !n !     
illusion  is ( ! =m ( anya?khyti2 b if  
"o ( ! ?+s is n  pres5t be=e my s5ses & 
! o!r is1 !n ! illusion is n  ( !       
anya?khyti type1 b ( ! anirvacanyakhyti 
type4  ,v$nta c\ld n avoid ! =m] type ( 
illusion1 = x believ$  t all appe>ance (
 reality 9 ! _w-appe>ance  0 really     
d]iv$ f ! reality ( ,brahman1 :i* 0     
self-lum9\s  9 all our exp]i5ces4 ,! _w 
appe>ance is an  illusory creation1 b ! 
s5se ( reality t x c>ries ) x  is a     
misattribution 7anya?khyti7 ( !         
*>act]i/ic ( !  ,brahman to x1 =        
,brahman alone is ! true & ! real1 :i*  
manife/s itself z ! reality ( all our   
illusory _w-exp]i5ce1  j z x is !       
reality ( s'ukti t gives to ! appe>ance 
(  silv] its reality4        ,v$nta     
,e?ics & ,v$nta ,emancipation4    ,v$nta
 says t :5 a duly qualifi$ man takes to 

!  /udy ( ,v$nta & is in/ruct$ by !     
preceptor--,?\  art t 7,brahman71 he    
atta9s ! emancipat+ k1  & ! _w-appe>ance
 becomes = him false & illusory4  ,!    
qualifications necess>y = ! /udy (      
,v$nta are 7#a7  t ! p]son hav+ /udi$   
all ! ,v$as ) ! prop]  accessories1 su* 
z gramm>1 lexicon etc4 is 9 full        
possession (  ! k ( ! ,v$as1 7#b7 t ei!r
 9 ?is life or 9 ano!r1  he mu/ h p]=m$ 
only ! obligatory ,v$ic duties 7su*  z  
daily pray]1 etc4 call$ nitya-k>ma7 &   
occasionally obligatory  duty 7su* z !  
bir? c]emony at ! bir? ( a son1  call$  
naimittika-k>ma7 & mu/ h avoid$ all     
actions =  ! fulfilm5t ( selfi% desires 
7kmya-k>mas1 su* z !  p]=mance (        
sacrifices = go+ to ,heav57 & all       
prohibit$  actions 7e4g4 murd]1 etc4    
nisiddha-k>ma7 9 su* a  way t 8 m9d is  
purg$ ( all good & bad actions 7no  k>ma
 is g5]at$ by ! nitya & naimittika-k>ma1
 & z  he has n p]=m$ ! kmya & prohibit$ 
k>mas1 he has  acquir$ no new k>ma74 ,:5
 he has ?us prop]ly purifi$  8 m9d & is 

9 possession ( ! f\r virtues or means ( 
fitt+ ! m9d = ,v$nta in/ruction 7call$  
sdhana7 he  c reg>d himself z prop]ly   
qualifi$ = ! ,v$nta in/ruction4  ,^!    
virtues are 7#a7 k ( :at is et]nal      
#dij    & :at is transi5t1 7#b7         
dis9cl9ation to enjoym5ts ( ?is  life & 
( ! heav5ly life aft] dea?1 7#c7 extreme
 di/a/e =  all enjoym5ts1 & anxiety =   
atta9+ ! means ( "r k1  7#d7 control ov]
 ! s5ses by :i* ^! are re/ra9$  f ev]y?+
 b t :i* aids ! atta9m5t ( "r  k 7dama71
 7a7 hav+ re/ra9$ !m1 ! atta9m5t  ( su* 
p[] t ^! s5ses may n aga9 be tempt$     
t[>ds  worldly enjoym5ts 7up>ati71 7b7  
p[] ( be>+ extremes  ( heat1 cold1 etc41
 7c7 employm5t ( m9d t[>ds ! atta9m5t  (
 "r k1 7d7 fai? 9 ! in/ructor &         
,upanisads2 7#e7 /rong desire to atta9  
salvation4 ,a man possess+  ! above     
qualities %\ld try to und]/& correctly  
! true purport ( ! ,upanisads 7call$    
s'ravana71 & by  argum5ts 9 fav\r ( !   
purport ( ! ,upanisads to  /r5g!n 8     
conviction z /at$ 9 ! ,upanisads 7call$ 

manana7 & !n by nididhysana 7m$itation7 
:i* includes  all ! ,yoga processes (   
conc5tration1 try to realize ! tru?  z  
"o4 ,v$nta !re=e 9 e?ics cov]s ! gr\nd (
  ,yoga2 b :ile = ,yoga emancipation    
proce$s f und]/&+  ! diff]5ce betwe5    
purusa & prakrti1 ) ,v$nta  salvation   
comes by ! dawn ( "r k t ,brahman  alone
 is ! true reality1 8 own self ,footnote
 ref #a4 ,mmms ass]ts  t ! ,v$as d n    
decl>e ! k ( "o ,brahman to be !        
supreme goal1 b holds t all p]sons %\ld 
act 9 accordance  ) ! ,v$ic injunctions 
= ! atta9m5t ( good  & ! removal ( evil4
 ,b ,v$nta holds t ?\gh !  purport ( !  
e>li] ,v$as is z ,mmms has x1 yet ?is   
is meant only = ord9>y p1 :]eas = !     
elect !  goal is cle>ly z ! ,upanisads  
indicate x1 namely ! atta9m5t  ( !      
highe/ k4 ,! p]=mance ( ,v$ic  duties is
 int5d$ only = ord9>y m51 b yet x 0     
believ$ by _m 7e4g4 ,vcaspati ,mis'ra & 
8 foll[]s7 t  due p]=mance ( ,v$ic      
duties help$ a man to acquire a  great  
ke5ness = ! atta9m5t ( "r k2 o!rs       

believ$ 7e4g4 ,praks'tm & 8 foll[]s7 t x
 s]v$ to  br+ ab\t suitable             
opportunities by secur+ good preceptors1
  etc4 & to remove _m ob/acles f ! way s
 t x became  easi] = a p]son to atta9 ! 
desir$ "r k4  ,9 ! acquirem5t ( ord9>y k
 ! ajnas remov$        ,footnote #a3    
,see ,v$ntasra & ,advaitabrahmasiddhi4  
#dia    are only small] /ates ( ajna1   
:]eas :5 !  ,brahma-k dawns ! ajna z a  
:ole is remov$4  ,brahma-k at ! /age (  
its fir/ rise is itself also a  /ate (  
k1 b su* is its special /r5g? t :5  ?is 
k once dawns1 ev5 ! /ate ( k :i*  at    
fir/ reflects x 7& :i* be+ a /ate is    
itself ajna  modification7 is de/roy$ by
 x4 ,! /ate itself be+ de/roy$1  only ! 
pure inf9ite & unlimit$ ,brahman %9es =?
 9 its  own true light4 ,?us x is said t
 j z fire rid+ on a piece  ( wood w\ld  
burn ! :ole city & aft] t w\ld burn  ! v
 same wood1 s 9 ! la/ /ate ( m9d !      
,brahma-k  w\ld de/roy all ! illusory   
_w-appe>ance &  at la/ de/roy ev5 t f9al
 /ate ,footnote ref l4    ,! mukti /age 

is "o 9 :i* ! pure light ( ,brahman  z !
 id5tity ( pure intellig5ce1 be+ &      
complete bliss  %9es =? 9 its unique    
glory1 & all ! re/ vani%es z  illusory  
no?+4 ,z all be+ ( ! _w-appe>ance is b  
limit$ manife/ations ( t "o be+1 s all  
pleasures also  are b limit$            
manife/ations ( t supreme bliss1 a ta/e 
( :i* we all c get 9 deep dreamless     
sleep4 ,! be+  ( ,brahman h[ev] is n an 
ab/raction f all exi/5t  be+s z ! satt  
7be+ z class notion7 ( ! naiyyika1 b  ! 
concrete1 ! real1 :i* 9 its aspect z    
pure consci\sness  & pure bliss is      
always id5tical ) itself4 ,be+ 7sat7 is 
pure  bliss & pure consci\sness4 ,:at   
becomes ( ! avidy dur+  mukti           
7emancipation7 is z difficult = "o to   
answ] z !  "q1 h[ ! avidy came =? & /ay$
 dur+ ! _w-appe>ance4  ,x is be/ to     
rememb] t ! category ( !  indef9ite     
avidy is indef9ite z reg>ds its orig91  
manife/ation  & de/ruction4 ,v$nta h[ev]
 believes t ev5 :5 !  true k has once   
be5 atta9$1 ! body may la/ = a  :ile1 if

 ! individual's previ\sly rip5$ k>mas   
dem& x4  ,?us ! emancipat$ p]son may    
walk ab\t & behave l  an ord9>y sage1 b 
yet he is emancipat$ & c no long]       
acquire any new k>ma4 ,z soon z ! fruits
 due to 8 ripe  k>mas are enjoy$ &      
exhau/$1 ! sage loses 8 body &  !re w   
nev] be any o!r bir? = him1 = ! dawn (  
p]fect k has burnt up = him all budd+   
k>mas (  beg9n+less previ\s lives1 & he 
is no long] subject to any              
,footnote #a3,siddhntales'a4    #dib    
( ! illusions subjective or objective   
:i* c\ld make any  k1 action1 or feel+  
possible = him4 ,su* a man is  call$    
jvanmukta1 i4e4 emancipat$ :ile liv+4 ,=
 him all  _w-appe>ance has ceas$4 ,he is
 ! "o light burn+ alone  9 himself :]e  
ev]y?+ else has vani%$ = ev] f !  /age  
,footnote ref #a4        ,v$nta & o!r   
,indian ,sy/ems4    ,v$nta is di/9ctly  
antagoni/ic to ,nyya1 & mo/ (  its      
p[]ful dialectic criticism is g5]ally   
direct$ aga9/ x4  ,s'ank>a himself _h   
begun x by %[+ contradictions &         

inconsi/5cies 9 _m ( ! ,nyya            
conceptions1 su* z !  !ory ( causation1 
conception ( ! atom1 ! relation (       
samavya1  ! conception ( jti1 etc       
,footnote ref #b4 ,8 foll[]s c>ri$ x to 
/ill great] l5g?s z is fully demon/rat$ 
by ! lab\rs (  ,s'rh>sa1 ,citsukha1     
,madhusdana1 etc4 ,x 0 oppos$ to ,mmms s
  f> z ?is admitt$ ! ,nyya-,vais'esika  
categories1 b agre$  ) x g5]ally z      
reg>ds ! pramnas ( anumna1 upamiti1     
ar?patti1 s'abda1 & anupalabdhi4 ,x also
 f\nd a great support]  9 ,mmms ) its   
doctr9e ( ! self-validity &             
self-manife/+  p[] ( k4 ,b x diff]$ f   
,mmms  9 ! field ( practical duties &   
ent]$ into _m elaborate  discussions to 
prove t ! duties ( ! ,v$as ref]r$ only  
to  ord9>y m51 :]eas m5 ( high] ord] _h 
no ,v$ic duties  to p]=m b 7 to rise    
above !m & atta9 ! highe/  k1 & t a man 
%\ld p]=m ! ,v$ic duties  only s long z 
he 0 n fit = ,v$nta in/ruction &        
/udies4    ,) ,smkhya & ,yoga ! relation
 ( ,v$nta seems to  be v close4 ,we h   

already se5 t ,v$nta _h accept$  all !  
special means ( self-purification1      
m$itation1 etc41 t  7 advocat$ by ,yoga4
 ,! ma9 diff]5ce betwe5 ,v$nta  &       
,smkhya 0 ?is t ,smkhya believ$1 t !    
/uff (  :i* ! _w consi/$ 0 a reality    
side by side ) !  purusas4 ,9 lat] times
 ,v$nta _h compromis$ s f> )  ,smkhya t 
x also sometimes describ$ my z be+ made 
up ( sattva1 rajas1 & tamas4 ,v$nta also
 held t accord+  to ^! ?ree *>act]i/ics 
7 =m$ div]se modifications              
,footnote #a3 ,see ,pacadas'4           
,footnote #b3 ,see ,s'ank>a's refutation
 ( ,nyya1 ,s'ank>a-bhsya1 ,,ii4  ii4    
#dic    ( ! my4 ,?us s'v>a is believ$ to
 possess a m9d ( pure  sattva alone4 ,b 
sattva1 rajas & tamas 7 accept$ 9       
,v$nta 9 ! s5se ( t5d5cies & n z reals z
 ,smkhya  held x4 ,moreov]1 9 spite (   
all modifications t my 0  believ$ to    
pass ?r\gh z ! /uff ( ! _w-appe>ance1 x 
0 indef9able & indef9ite1 & 9 its nature
 diff]5t f  :at we und]/& z positive or 
negative4 ,x 0 an unsub/antial  no?+1 a 

magic entity :i* _h its be+ only s long 
z x appe>$4 ,prakrti also 0 indef9able  
or r undemon/rable  z reg>ds its own    
ess5tial nature ap>t f its manife/ation1
  b ev5 !n x 0 believ$ to be a          
comb9ation (  positive reals4 ,x 0      
undef9able because s long z ! reals     
compos+ x did n comb9e1 no demon/rable  
qualities belong$  to x ) :i* x c\ld be 
def9$4 ,my h[ev] 0 undemon/rable1       
indef9ite1 & indef9able 9 all =ms2 x 0 a
  sep>ate category ( ! indef9ite4       
,smkhya believ$ 9 !  p]sonal            
individuality ( s\ls1 :ile = ,v$nta !re 
0 only  "o s\l or self1 :i* appe>$ z _m 
by virtue ( ! my  trans=mations4 ,!re 0 
an adhysa or illusion 9 ,smkhya  z well 
z 9 ,v$nta2 b 9 ! =m] ! illusion 0 due  
to a m]e non-di/9ction betwe5 prakrti & 
purusa or m]e  misattribution ( *>act]s 
or id5tities1 b 9 ,v$nta !re  0 n only  
misattribution1 b a false & altoge!r    
indef9able  creation4 ,causation )      
,smkhya meant real trans=mation1  b )   
,v$nta all trans=mation 0 m]e appe>ance4

  ,?\gh !re 7 s _m diff]5ces1 x is h[ev]
 easy to  see t probably at ! "t ( !    
orig9 ( ! two sy/ems  dur+ ! ,upanisad  
p]iod ea* 0 built up f v simil>  ideas  
:i* diff]$ only 9 t5d5cies t gradually  
manife/$  !mselves into ! pres5t        
div]g5ces ( ! two sy/ems4  ,?\gh        
,s'ank>a lab\r$ h>d to prove t ! ,smkhya
  view c\ld n be f\nd 9 ! ,upanisads1 we
 c h>dly be  conv9c$ by 8 int]pretations
 & argum5ts4 ,! m  he argues1 ! m we are
 l$ to suspect t ! ,smkhya  ?\ght _h its
 orig9 9 ! ,upanisads4 ,s'ank>a & 8     
foll[]s borr[$ mu* ( _! dialectic =m (  
criticism f  ! ,buddhi/s4 ,8 ,brahman 0 
v mu* l ! s'nya  ( ,ngrjuna4 ,x is      
difficult inde$ to di/+ui% betwe5  pure 
be+ & pure non-be+ z a category4 ,!     
debts (  ,sank>a to ! self-lum9osity ( !
 ,vijnavda ,buddhism    #did    c h>dly 
be ov]e/imat$4 ,!re seems to be mu* tru?
  9 ! accusations aga9/ ,s'ank>a by     
,vijna ,bhiksu &  o!rs t he 0 a hidd5   
,buddhi/ himself4 ,i am l$ to  ?9k t    
,s'ank>a's philosophy is l>gely a       

comp\nd (  ,vijnavda & ,s'nyavda        
,buddhism ) ! ,upanisad  notion ( !     
p]man5ce ( self sup]add$4