,,moral ,,sci5ce3 ,a ,,comp5dium ,,( ,,e?ics by ,,alex&] ,,ba91 ,m4,a41 ,au?or ( ,m5tal ,sci5ce3 ,a ,comp5dium ( ,psy*ology2 ,! ,s5ses & ! ,intellect2 ,! ,emotions & ! ,w2 ,a ,manual oo( ,rhetoric2 ,pr(essor ( ,logic 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,ab]de51 etc41 etc41 etc4 #ahfi ,,preface ,! pres5t ,diss]tation falls "u two divisions4 ,! fir/ division1 entitl$ ,! ,!ory ( ,e?ics1 gives an acc\nt ( ! que/ions or po9ts br\ght into discussion1 & h&les at l5g? ! two ( greate/ prom95ce1 ! ,e?ical ,/&>d1 & ! ,moral ,faculty4 ,! second division--on ,! ,e?ical ,sy/ems--is a full detail ( all ! sy/ems1 anci5t & mod]n1 by conjo9$ ,ab/ract & ,summ>y4 ,) few exceptions1 an ab/ract is made ( ea* au?or's exposition ( 8 own !ory1 ! fulness be+ measur$ by relative importance2 :ile1 = bett] comp>+ & rememb]+ ! sev]al !ories1 !y are summ>iz$ at ! end1 on a uni=m plan4 ,! connection ( ,e?ics ) ,psy*ology is necess>ily intimate2 ! lead+ e?ical controv]sies involve a ref]5ce to m9d1 & c be settl$ only by a m ?or\gh und]/&+ ( m5tal processes4 ,al?\gh ! pres5t volume is prop]ly a cont9uation ( ! ,manual ( ,psy*ology & ! ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 rec5tly publi%$1 & conta9s occasional ref]5ces to t treatise1 x may /ill be p]us$ z an indep5d5t "w on ! ,e?ical ,doctr9es & ,sy/ems4 ,a4,b4 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,,"p ,i4 ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,e?ics4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelim9>y ,,view ,,( ,,e?ical ,,que/ions4 ,i4--,! ,,e?ical ,,/&>d4 ,summ>y ( views4 ,,ii4--,,psy*ological que/ions4 #a4 ,! ,moral ,faculty4 #b4 ,! ,fre$om ( ! ,w2 ! s\rces ( ,dis9t]e/$ conduct4 ,,iii4--,! ,,bonum1 ,,summum ,,bonum1 or ,happ9ess4 ,,iv4--,! ,,classification ,,( ,,duties1 & ! ,moral ,code4 ,v4--,relation%ip ( ,e?ics to ,,politics4 ,,vi4--,relation to ,!ology4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,e?ical ,,/&>d4 #a4 ,e?ics1 z a dep>tm5t ( ,practice1 is def9$ by its ,end4 #b4 ,! ,e?ical ,end is ! welf>e ( society1 realiz$ ?r\gh rules ( conduct duly en=c$4 #c4 ,! ,rules ( ,e?ics are ( two k9ds4 ,! fir/ are impos$ "u a p5alty4 ,^! are ,laws prop]1 or ,obligatory ,morality4 #d4 ,! second are support$ by ,rew>ds2 con/itut+ ,optional ,morality1 ,m]it1 ,virtue1 or ,nobl5ess4 #e4 ,! ,e?ical ,end1 or ,morality1 z x has be51 is f\nd$ p>tly 9 ,utility1 & p>tly 9 ,s5tim5t4 #f4 ,! ,e?ical ,end is limit$1 accord+ to ! view tak5 ( ,moral ,gov]nm5t1 or ,au?ority3--,di/9ction betwe5 ,security & ,improvem5t4 #g4 ,morality1 9 its ess5tial p>ts1 is ',et]nal & ,immutable2' 9 o!r p>ts1 x v>ies ) cu/om4 #h4 ,enquiry z to ! k9d1 ( pro( t an ,e?ical ,/&>d is susceptible (4 ,! ultimate end ( action mu/ be ref]r$ to individual judgm5t4 #i4 ,! judgm5t ( ,mank9d is1 ) "s qualifications1 9 fav\r ( ,happ9ess z ! supreme end ( conduct4 #aj4 ,! ,e?ical end t society is t5d+ to1 is ,happ9ess1 or ,utility4 #aa4 ,objections aga9/ ,utility4 ,i4--,happ9ess is n ! sole aim ( human pursuit4 #ab4 ,,ii4--,! consequ5ces ( actions are beyond calculation4 #ac4 ,,iii4--,! pr9ciple ( ,utility conta9s no motives to seek ! happ9ess ( o!rs4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,moral ,,faculty4 #a4 ,"q :e!r ! ,moral ,faculty be simple or complex4 #b4 ,argum5ts 9 fav\r ( its be+ simple & intuitive3--,fir/1 ,our moral judgm5ts are imm$iate & in/antane\s4 #c4 ,secondly1 ,x is a faculty common to all mank9d4 #d4 ,?irdly1 ,x is diff]5t f any o!r m5tal ph5om5on4 #e4 ,replies to ^! ,argum5ts1 & ,c\nt]-argum5ts3---,fir/2 ,imm$iat5ess ( op]ation is no pro( ( an innate orig94 #f4 ,secondly1 ,! alleg$ simil>ity ( m5's moral judgm5ts holds only 9 a limit$ degree4 ,answ]s giv5 by ! advocates ( an ,innate s5tim5t1 to ! discrepancies4 #g4 ,?irdly1 ,moral "r & wrong is n an indivisible prop]ty1 b an ext5sive ,code ( regulations4 #h4 ,f\r?ly1 ,intuition is n suffici5t to settle debat$ que/ions4 #i4 ,fif?ly1 ,x is possible to analyze ! ,moral ,faculty3--,e/imate ( ! op]ation ( 7#a7 ,prud5ce1 7#b7 ,sympa?y1 & 7#c7 ! ,emotions g5]ally4 #aj4 ,! peculi> attribute ( ,rightness arises f ! in/itution ( ,gov]nm5t or ,au?ority4 #aa4 ,! speciality ( ,consci5ce1 or ! ,moral ,s5tim5t1 is id5tifi$ ) our education "u ,gov]nm5t1 or ,au?ority4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,! ,,e?ical ,,sy/ems4 ,,sokrates4 ,8 subjects 7 ,m5 & ,society4 ,8 ,e?ical ,/&>d indi/9ctly express$4 ,resolv$ ,virtue into ,k4 ,ideal ( pursuit--,well-do+4 ,inculcat$ self-d5y+ ,precepts4 ,political ,!ory4 ,connexion ( ,e?ics ) ,!ology sl5d]4 ,,plato4 ,review ( ! ,dialogues conta9+ portions ( ,e?ical ,!ory3--,alkibiades ,i4 discusses ,j & ,unju/4 ,alkibiades ,,ii4 ! k ( ,good or ,reason4 ,hippias ,m9or id5tifies ,virtue ) ,k4 ,m9os 7on ,law7 ref]s ev]y?+ to ! decision ( an ,ideal ,wise man4 ,laekes resolves ,c\rage1 & ,*>mides ,temp]ance1 into ,intellig5ce or ! supreme sci5ce ( good & evil4 ,lysis 7on ,fri5d%ip7 gives ! ,idea ( ! good z ! supreme object ( affection4 ,m5on enquires1 ,is virtue tea*able8 & it]ates ! sci5ce ( good & evil4 ,protagoras makes ,pleasure ! only good1 & ,pa9 ! only evil1 & def9es ! sci5ce ( good & evil z ! comp>ison ( pleasures & pa9s4 ,gorgias contradicts ,protagoras1 & sets up ,ord] or ,discipl9e z a f9al end4 ,politikus 7on ,gov]nm5t7 repeats ! ,sokratic ideal ( ! ,"o ,wise man4 ,philebus makes ,good a comp\nd ( ,pleasure ) ,intellig5ce1 ! la/ pr$om9at+4 ,! ,republic assimilates ,society to an ,individual man1 & def9es ,ju/ice z ! balance ( ! con/itu5t p>ts ( ea*4 ,timoeus repeats ! doctr9e t wick$ness is disease1 & n volunt>y4 ,! ,laws place all conduct "u ! prescription ( ! civil magi/rate4 ,summ>y ( ,plato's views4 ,,! ,,cynics ,,& ,,! ,,cyr5aics4 ,cynic succession4 ,! prop] description ( ! t5ets ( bo? s*ools comes "u ! ,summum ,bonum4 ,! ,cynic ,ideal 0 ! m9imum ( wants1 & _! self-d5ial 0 comp5sat$ by exemption f fe>1 & by pride ( sup]iority4 ,! ,cyr5aic ,,ari/ippus3--,0 ! fir/ to ma9ta9 t ! summum bonum is ,pleasure & ! abs5ce ( ,pa94 ,future ,pleasures & ,pa9s tak5 into ! acc\nt4 ,8 ,psy*ology ( ,pleasure & ,pa94 ,,ari/otle4 ,ab/ract ( ! ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics4 ,book ,fir/4 ,! ,*ief ,good1 or ,highe/ ,end ( human endeav\rs4 ,great diff]5ces ( op9ion z to ! nature ( ,happ9ess4 ,! ,platonic ,idea ( ! ,good criticis$4 ,! ,highe/ ,end an end-9-itself4 ,virtue ref]able to ! special "w ( man2 gr[+ out ( 8 m5tal capacity4 ,ext]nal conditions necess>y to virtue & happ9ess4 ,! ,s\l subdivid$ into p>ts1 ea*1 hav+ its *>act]i/ic virtue or excell5ce4 ,book ,second4 ,def9ition & classification ( ! ,moral virtues4 ,virtue ! result ( ,habit4 ,doctr9e ( ! ,,mean4 ,! te/ ( virtue to feel no pa94 ,virtue def9$ 7g5us7 an acquirem5t or a ,/ate1 7diff]5tia7 a ,mean betwe5 extremes4 ,rules = hitt+ ! ,mean4 ,book ,?ird4 ,! ,volunt>y & ,involunt>y4 ,delib]ate ,pref]5ce4 ,virtue & vice are volunt>y4 ,! virtues 9 detail3--,c\rage ,self-sacrifice impli$ 9 ,c\rage4 ,temp]ance4 ,book ,f\r?4 ,lib]ality4 ,magnific5ce4 ,magnanimity4 ,mildness4 ,good-bre$+4 ,mode/y4 ,book ,fif?4 ,ju/ice3--,univ]sal ,ju/ice includes all virtue4 ,p>ticul> ,ju/ice is ( two k9ds1 ,di/ributive & ,corrective4 ,book ,six?4 ,intellectual ,excell5ces1 or ,virtues ( ! ,intellect4 ,! ,rational "p ( ! ,s\l embraces ! ,sci5tific & ! ,delib]ative functions4 ,sci5ce deals ) ! necess>y4 ,prud5ce or ! ,practical ,reason2 its aims & requisites4 ,9 virtue1 good dispositions mu/ be accompani$ ) ,prud5ce4 ,book ,sev5?4 ,gradations ( moral /r5g? & moral weakness4 ,cont95ce & ,incont95ce4 ,books ,eigh? & ,n9?4 ,fri5d%ip3--,gr\nds ( ,fri5d%ip4 ,v>ieties ( ,fri5d%ip1 correspond+ to diff]5t objects ( lik+4 ,fri5d%ip betwe5 ! virtu\s is alone p]fect4 ,a settl$ habit1 n a m]e passion4 ,equality 9 fri5d%ip4 ,political fri5d%ips4 ,explanation ( ! family affections4 ,rule ( reciprocity ( s]vices4 ,conflict+ obligations4 ,cessation ( fri5d%ips4 ,goodwill4 ,love felt by b5efactors4 ,self-love4 ,does ! happy man ne$ fri5ds8 ,book ,t5?4 ,pleasure3--,!ories ( ,pleasure--,eudoxus1 ,speusippus1 ,plato4 ,pleasure is n ,! ,good4 ,pleasure def9$4 ,! pleasures ( ,intellect4 ,nature ( ! ,good or ,happ9ess resum$4 ,p]fect happ9ess f\nd only 9 ! philosophical life2 second to :i* is ! active social life ( ! good citiz54 ,happ9ess ( ! gods4 ,transition f ,e?ics to ,politics4 ,,! ,,/oics4 ,! succession ( ,/oical philosoph]s4 ,!ological ,doctr9es ( ! ,/oics3--,! ,div9e ,gov]nm5t2 human be+s mu/ rise to ! compreh5sion ( ,univ]sal ,law2 ! s\l at dea? absorb$ into ! div9e ess5ce2 argum5t f ,design4 ,psy*ology3--,!ory ( ,pleasure & ,pa92 !ory ( ! ,w4 ,doctr9e ( ,happ9ess or ! ,good3--,pa9 no evil2 discipl9e ( endurance--,apa?y4 ,!ory ( ,virtue3--,subord9ation ( self to ! l>g] int]e/s2 _! view ( active ,b5efic5ce2 ! ,/oical p>adoxes2 ! idea ( ,duty2 consci\sness ( ,self-improvem5t4 ,,epicurus4 ,life & writ+s4 ,8 successors4 ,virtue & vice ref]r$ by him to ,pleasures & ,pa9s calculat$ by ,reason4 ,fre$om f ,pa9 ! prim>y object4 ,regulation ( desires4 ,pleasure good if n lead+ to pa94 ,bodily feel+ ! f\ndation ( s5sibility4 ,m5tal feel+s conta9 memory & hope4 ,! greate/ mis]ies are f ! delusions ( hope1 & f ! torm5ts ( fe>4 ,fe> ( ,dea? & ,fe> ( ! ,gods4 ,relations ) o!rs2 ,ju/ice & ,fri5d%ip--bo? bas$ on reciprocity4 ,virtue & ,happ9ess insep>able4 ,epicureanism ! type ( all sy/ems gr\nd$ on enlight5$ self-int]e/4 ,,! ,,neo-,,platoni/s4 ,! ,moral ,end to be atta9$ ?r\gh an intellectual regim54 ,! s\l be+ debas$ by its connection ) matt]1 ! aim ( human action is to rega9 ! spiritual life4 ,! fir/ /ep is ! practice ( ! c>d9al virtues3 ! next ! purify+ virtues4 ,happ9ess is ! undi/urb$ life ( contemplation4 ,correspond5ce ( ! ,e?ical1 ) ! ,metaphysical s*eme4 ,,s*ola/ic ,,e?ics4 ,,abael>d3--,lays great /ress on ! subjective elem5t 9 morality2 highe/ human good1 love to ,god2 actions judg$ by int5tion1 & int5tion by consci5ce4 ,,/4 ,,b]n>d3--,two degrees ( virtue1 ,humility & ,love4 ,,john ( ,,salisbury3--,comb9es philosophy & !ology2 doctr9e ( ,happ9ess2 ! l[] & high] desires4 ,,alex&] ,,( ,,hales4 ,,bonav5tura4 ,,alb]tus ,,magnus4 ,,aqu9as3--,ari/otelian mode ( enquiry z to ! end2 ,god ! highe/ good2 true happ9ess lies 9 ! self-suffic+ !oretic intellig5ce2 virtue2 division ( ! virtues4 ,,hobbes4 7,ab/ract ( ! ,e?ical "p ( ,levia?an74 ,con/itu5ts ( man's nature4 ,! ,good4 ,pleasure4 ,! simple passions4 ,!ory ( ! ,w4 ,good & evil4 ,consci5ce4 ,virtue4 ,position ( ,e?ics 9 ! ,sci5ces4 ,p[]1 ,wor?1 ,dignity4 ,happ9ess a p]petual progress2 consequ5ces ( ! re/lessness ( desire4 ,natural /ate ( mank9d2 a /ate ( enmity & w>4 ,necessity ( articles ( peace1 call$ ,laws ( ,nature4 ,law def9$4 ,rights2 ,r5unciation ( rights2 ,contract2 ,m]it4 ,ju/ice4 ,laws ( ,gratitude1 ,complaisance1 ,p>don ^u rep5tance4 ,laws aga9/ ,cruelty1 ,contumely1 ,pride1 ,arrogance4 ,laws ( ,nature1 h[ f> b9d+4 ,summ>y4 ,,cumb]l&4 ,/&>d ( ,moral ,good summ$ up 9 ,b5evol5ce4 ,! moral faculty is ! ,reason1 appreh5d+ ! ,nature ( ,?+s4 ,innate ,ideas an insuffici5t f\ndation4 ,w4 ,dis9t]e/$ action4 ,happ9ess4 ,moral ,code1 ! common good ( all rational be+s4 ,obligations 9 respect ( giv+ & ( receiv+4 ,politics4 ,religion4 ,,cudwor?4 ,moral ,good & ,evil _c be arbitr>y4 ,! m9d has a p[] ( ,intellection1 above ,s5se1 = aim+ at ! et]nal & immutable v]ities4 ,,cl>ke4 ,! et]nal ,fitness & ,unfitness ( ,?+s det]m9e ,ju/ice1 ,equity1 ,goodness & ,tru?1 & lay correspond+ obligations ^u reasonable creatures4 ,! sanction ( ,rew>ds & ,puni%m5ts second>y & additional4 ,our ,duties4 ,,wolla/on4 ,resolves good & evil into ,tru? & ,falsehood4 ,,locke4 ,argum5ts aga9/ ,innate ,practical ,pr9ciples4 ,fre$om ( ! ,w4 ,moral ,rules gr\nd$ 9 law4 ,,butl]4 ,*>act]i/ics ( our ,moral ,p]ceptions4 ,dis9t]e/$ ,b5evol5ce a fact ( our con/itutions4 ,our passions & affections d n aim at self z _! imm$iate end4 ,! ,supremacy ( ,consci5ce e/abli%$ f our moral nature4 ,mean+s ( ,nature4 ,b5evol5ce n ultimately at v>iance ) ,self-,love4 ,,hut*eson4--,prim>y feel+s ( ! m9d4 ,f9] p]ceptions--,beauty1 ,sympa?y1 ! ,moral ,s5se1 ,social feel+s2 ! b5evol5t ord] ( ! _w sugge/+ ,natural ,religion4 ,ord] or subord9ation ( ! feel+s z ,motives2 position ( ,b5evol5ce4 ,! ,moral ,faculty di/9ct & indep5d5t4 ,confirmation ( ! doctr9e f ! ,s5se ( ,hon\r4 ,happ9ess4 ,! temp]s & *>act]s be>+ on happ9ess4 ,duties to ,god4 ,circum/ances affect+ ! moral good or evil ( actions4 ,rights & ,laws4 ,,m&eville4 ,virtue support$ solely by self-int]e/4 ,compassion resolvable into self4 ,pride an important s\rce ( moral virtue4 ,private vices1 public b5efits4 ,orig9 ( ,society4 ,,hume4 ,"q :e!r ,reason or ,s5tim5t be ! f\ndation ( morals4 ,! e/eem = ,b5evol5ce %[s t ,utility ent]s into virtue4 ,pro(s t ,ju/ice is f\nd$ solely on ,utility4 ,political ,society has utility = its end4 ,! ,laws4 ,:y ,utility pleases4 ,qualities useful to ourselves4 ,qualities agreeable 7#a7 to ourselves1 & 7#b7 to o!rs4 ,obligation4 ,! respective %>e ( ,reason & ( ,s5tim5t 9 moral approbation4 ,b5evol5ce n resolvable into ,self-,love4 ,,price4 ,! di/9ctions ( ,"r & ,wrong are p]ceiv$ by ! ,und]/&+4 ,! ,beauty & ,de=mity ( ,actions4 ,! feel+s h "s "p 9 our moral discrim9ation4 ,self-,love & ,b5evol5ce4 ,good & ill ,des]t4 ,obligation4 ,divisions ( ,virtue4 ,int5tion z an elem5t 9 virtu\s action4 ,e/imate ( degrees ( ,virtue & ,vice4 ,,adam ,,smi?4 ,illu/ration ( ! work+s ( ,sympa?y4 ,mutual sympa?y4 ,! ,amiable & ! ,respectable ,virtues4 ,h[ f> ! sev]al passions are consi/5t ) ,propriety4 ,influ5ces ( prosp]ity & adv]sity on moral judgm5ts4 ,! ,s5se ( ,m]it & ,dem]it4 ,self-approbation4 ,love ( ,praise & ( ,praisewor?9ess4 ,influ5ce & au?ority ( ,consci5ce4 ,self-p>tiality2 correct$ by ! use ( ,g5]al ,rules4 ,connexion ( ,utility ) ,moral ,approbation4 ,influ5ce ( ,cu/om on ! ,moral ,s5tim5ts4 ,"* ( ,virtue4 ,self-comm&4 ,op9ion reg>d+ ! !ory ( ! ,moral ,s5se4 ,,h>tley4 ,acc\nt ( ,dis9t]e/$ness4 ,! ,moral ,s5se a product ( ,association4 ,,f]guson4 7,note7 ,,reid4 ,duty n to be resolv$ into ,int]e/4 ,consci5ce an orig9al p[] ( ! m9d4 ,axiomatic fir/ pr9ciples ( ,morals4 ,objections to ! !ory ( ,utility4 ,,/ew>t4 ,! ,moral ,faculty an orig9al p[]4 ,criticism ( oppos+ views4 ,moral ,obligation3 connexion ) ,religion4 ,duties4 ,happ9ess3 classification ( pleasures4 ,,br[n4 ,moral approbation a simple emotion ( ! m9d4 ,univ]sality ( moral di/9ctions4 ,objections to ! !ory ( ,utility4 ,dis9t]e/$ s5tim5t4 ,,paley4 ,! ,moral ,s5se n intuitive4 ,happ9ess4 ,virtue3 its def9ition4 ,moral ,obligation resolv$ into ! comm& ( ,god4 ,utility a crit]ion ( ! ,div9e ,w4 ,utility requires u to consid] g5]al consequ5ces4 ,rights4 ,duties4 ,,b5?am4 ,utility ! sole f\ndation ( ,morals4 ,pr9ciples adv]se to ,utility4 ,! ,f\r ,sanctions ( ,"r4 ,comp>ative e/imate ( ,pleasures & ,pa9s4 ,classification ( ,pleasures & ,pa9s4 ,m]it & ,dem]it4 ,pleasures & pa9s view$ z ,motives3 "s motives are ,social or tutel>y1 o!rs ,dissocial or ,self-reg>d+4 ,dispositions4 ,! consequ5ces ( a mis*iev\s act4 ,puni%m5t4 ,private ,e?ics 7,prud5ce7 & ,legislation di/+ui%$2 _! respective sph]es4 ,,mack9to%4 ,univ]sality ( ,moral ,di/9ctions4 ,anti!sis or ,reason & ,passion4 ,x is n virtu\s acts b virtu\s dispositions t outweigh ! pa9s ( self-sacrifice4 ,! moral s5tim5ts h = _! objects ,dispositions4 ,utility4 ,developm5t ( ,consci5ce ?r\gh ,association2 ! con/itu5ts are ,gratitude1 ,sympa?y1 ,res5tm5t & ,%ame1 toge!r ) ,education4 ,religion mu/ presuppose ,morality4 ,objections to ,utility criticis$4 ,duties to ourselves1 an improp] expression4 ,ref]5ce ( moral s5tim5ts to ! ,w4 ,,james ,,mill4 ,prim>y con/itu5ts ( ! ,moral ,faculty--pleasurable & pa9ful s5sations4 ,! ,causes ( ^! s5sations4 ,! ,ideas ( !m1 & ( _! causes4 ,hope1 ,fe>2 ,love1 ,joy2 ,hatr$1 ,av]sion4 ,remote causes ( pleasures & pa9s--,weal?1 ,p[]1 ,dignity1 & _! opposites4 ,affections t[>ds our fell[-creatures--,fri5d%ip1 ,k9dness1 c4 ,motives4 ,dispositions4 ,applications to ! virtue ( ,prud5ce4 ,ju/ice--by :at motives support$4 ,b5efic5ce4 ,importance 9 moral tra9+1 ( ,praise & ,blame1 & _! associations2 ! ,moral ,sanction4 ,d]ivation ( ,dis9t]e/$ ,feel+s4 ,,au/94 ,laws def9$ & classifi$4 ,! ,div9e ,laws2 h[ are we to "k ! ,div9e ,w8 ,utility ! sole crit]ion4 ,objections to ,utility4 ,criticism ( ! !ory ( a ,moral ,s5se4 ,prevail+ misconceptions z to ,utility4 ,nature ( ,law resum$ & illu/rat$4 ,impropriety ( ! t]m 'law' z appli$ to ! op]ations ( ,nature4 ,,:ewell4 ,oppos+ s*emes ( ,morality4 ,proposal to reconcile !m4 ,!re are "s actions ,univ]sally approv$4 ,a ,supreme ,rule ( ,"r to be arriv$ at by comb9+ p>tial rules3 ^! are obta9$ f ! nature ( our faculties4 ,! rule ( ,spee* is ,tru?2 ,prop]ty supposes ,ju/ice2 ! ,affections indicate ,humanity4 ,x is a self-evid5t maxim t ! ,l[] p>ts ( our nature are gov]n$ by ! ,high]4 ,classification ( ,spr+s ( ,action4 ,dis9t]e/$ness4 ,classification ( ,moral ,rules4 ,division ( ,rights4 ,,f]ri]4 ,"q ( ! ,moral ,s5se3 errors on bo? sides4 ,sympa?y passes beyond feel+1 & takes 9 ,?\ght or self-consci\sness4 ,happ9ess has two ends--! ma9t5ance ( man's ,rational nature1 & ,pleasure4 ,,mansel4 ,! conceptions ( ,"r & ,wrong are sui g5]is4 ,! moral law c h no au?ority unless emanat+ f a lawgiv]4 ,! ,/&>d is ! moral nature1 & n ! arbitr>y w1 ( ,god4 ,,john ,,/u>t ,,mill4 ,explanation ( :at ,utilit>ianism consi/s 94 ,reply to objections aga9/ sett+ up ,happ9ess z ! ,e?ical end4 ,ultimate ,sanction ( ! pr9ciple ( ,utility3 ! ,ext]nal & ,int]nal sanctions2 ,consci5ce h[ made up4 ,! sort ( ,pro( t ,utility is susceptible (3--! evid5ce t happ9ess is desirable1 is t m5 desire x2 x is consi/5t ) ,utility t virtue %\ld be desir$ = itself4 ,connexion betwe5 ,ju/ice & ,utility3--mean+s ( ,ju/ice2 ess5tially gr\nd$ 9 ,law2 ! s5tim5ts t support ,ju/ice1 are ,self-def5ce1 & ,sympa?y2 ,ju/ice owes its p>am\nt "* to ! ess5tial ( ,security2 !re are no immutable maxims ( ,ju/ice4 ,,bailey4 ,facts ( ! human con/itution t give orig9 to moral ph5om5a3--susceptibility to pleasure & pa91 & to ! causes ( !m2 reciprocation ( ^!2 our expect+ reciprocation f o!rs2 sympa?y4 ,consid]ation ( our feel+s 9 reg>d to actions done to u by o!rs4 ,our feel+s z spectators ( actions done to o!rs by o!rs4 ,actions done to ourselves by o!rs4 ,! diff]5t cases comb9e to modify ea* o!r4 ,explanation ( ! discrepancies ( ! moral s5tim5t 9 diff]5t communities4 ,! consequ5ces ( actions ! only crit]ion = rectify+ ! div]sities4 ,objections to ! happ9ess-te/4 ,! t]m ,utility unsuitable4 ,disputes z to ! orig9 ( moral s5tim5t 9 ,reason or 9 a ,moral ,s5se4 ,,sp5c]4 ,happ9ess ! ultimate1 b n ! proximate1 end4 ,moral ,sci5ce a d$uction f ! laws ( life & ! conditions ( exi/5ce4 ,!re h be51 & /ill are1 develop+ 9 ! race1 c]ta9 fundam5tal ,moral ,intuitions4 ,! ,exp$i5cy-,morality is transitional4 ,ref]5ce to ! g5]al !ory ( ,evolution4 ,,kant4 ,di/+ui%es betwe5 ! empirical & ! rational mode ( treat+ ,e?ics4 ,no?+ prop]ly good1 except ,w4 ,subjection ( ,w to ,reason4 ,an action done f natural incl9ation is wor?less morally4 ,duty is respect = ,law2 con=mity to ,law is ! "o pr9ciple ( volition4 ,moral ,law n asc]ta9able empirically1 x mu/ orig9ate a priori 9 pure 7practical7 ,reason4 ,! ,hypo!tical & ,categorical ,imp]atives4 ,imp]ative ( ,prud5ce4 ,imp]ative ( ,morality4 ,! =mula ( ,morality4 ,! ends ( ,morality4 ,! ,rational nature ( man is an end-9-itself4 ,! ,w ! s\rce ( its own laws--! ,autonomy ( ! ,w4 ,! ,reason ( ,ends4 ,morality alone has intr9sic ,wor? or ,dignity4 ,pr9ciples f\nd$ on ! ,het]onomy ( ! ,w--,happ9ess1 ,p]fection4 ,duty legitimiz$ by ! conception ( ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w1 prop]ly und]/ood4 ,po/ulates ( ! pure ,practical ,reason--,fre$om1 ,immortality1 ,god4 ,summ>y4 ,,c\s94 ,analysis ( ! s5tim5ts ar\s$ 9 u by human actions4 ,! ,moral ,s5tim5t made up ( a v>iety ( moral judgm5ts--,good & ,evil1 ,obligation1 ,lib]ty1 ,m]it & ,dem]it4 ,virtue br+s ,happ9ess4 ,moral ,satisfaction & ,remorse4 ,! ,law ( ,duty is con=mity to ,reason4 ,! *>act]i/ic ( ,reason is ,univ]sality4 ,classification ( ,duties3--,duties to ,self2 to ,o!rs--,tru?1 ,ju/ice1 ,*>ity4 ,application to ,politics4 ,,j\ffroy4 ,ea* creature has a special nature1 & a special end4 ,man has c]ta9 prim>y passions to be satisfi$4 ,second>y passions--! ,useful1 ! ,good1 ,happ9ess4 ,all ! faculties controll$ by ! ,reason4 ,! ,end ( ,int]e/4 ,end ( ,univ]sal ,ord]4 ,morality ! expression ( div9e ?\ght2 id5tifi$ ) ! beautiful & ! true4 ,! moral law & self-int]e/ co9cide4 ,b\nd>ies ( ! ?ree /ates--,passion1 ,egoism1 ,moral det]m9ation4 ,,e?ics ,,"p ,i4 ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,e?ics4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelim9>y ,,view ,,( ,,e?ical1 ,,que/ions4 ,z a preface to ! acc\nt ( ! ,e?ical ,sy/ems1 & a pr9ciple ( arrangem5t1 = ! bett] comp>+ ( !m1 we %all review 9 ord] ! que/ions t arise 9 ! discussion4 ,i4 ,fir/ ( all is ! "q z to ! ,,e?ical ,,/&>d4 ,:at1 9 ! la/ resort1 is ! te/1 crit]ion1 umpire1 appeal1 or ,/&>d1 9 det]m9+ ,"r & ,wrong8 ,9 ! concrete language ( ,paley1 ,:y am ,i oblig$ to keep my ^w8 ,! answ] to ?is is ! ,!ory ( ,"r & ,wrong1 ! ess5tial "p ( e ,e?ical ,sy/em4 ,we may quote ! lead+ answ]s1 z bo? expla9+ & summ>iz+ ! *ief "q ( ,e?ics1 & m especially ( ,mod]n ,e?ics4 #a4 ,x is alleg$ t ! arbitr>y ,w ( ! ,deity1 z express$ 9 ! ,bible1 is ! ultimate /&>d4 ,on ?is view any?+ ?us comm&$ is "r1 :atev] be its consequ5ces1 or h[ev] x may cla% ) our s5tim5ts & reason+s4 #b4 ,x 0 ma9ta9$ by ,hobbes1 t ! ,sov]eign1 act+ "u 8 responsibility to ,god1 is ! sole arbit] ( ,"r & ,wrong4 ,z reg>ds ,obligatory ,morality1 ?is seems at fir/ sight an id5tical proposition2 morality is ano!r "n = law & sov]eignty4 ,9 ! view ( ,hobbes1 h[ev]1 ! sov]eign %\ld be a s+le p]son1 ( absolute au?ority1 humanly irresponsible1 & irremoveable2 a type ( sov]eignty repudiat$ by civiliz$ nations4 #c4 ,x has be5 held1 9 v>i\s phraseology1 t a c]ta9 fitness1 suitability1 or propriety 9 actions1 z det]m9$ by our ,und]/&+ or ,reason1 is ! ultimate te/4 ,:5 a man keeps 8 ^w1 !re is a c]ta9 congruity or consi/5cy betwe5 ! action & ! occasion1 betwe5 ! mak+ ( a promise & its fulfilm5t2 & :]ev] su* congruity is disc]nible1 ! action is "r4 ,?is is ! view ( ,cudwor?1 ,cl>ke1 & ,price4 ,x may be call$ ! ,intellectual or ,rational !ory4 ,a special & m ab/ract =m ( ! same !ory is pres5t$ 9 ! dictum ( ,kant--'act 9 su* a way t y\r conduct might be a law to all be+s4' #d4 ,x is cont5d$1 t ! human m9d possesses an intuition or in/9ct1 :]eby we feel or disc]n at once ! "r f ! wrong2 a view t]m$ ! doctr9e ( ! ,moral ,s5se1 or ,moral ,s5tim5t4 ,besides be+ support$ by num]\s !oriz]s 9 ,e?ics1 ?is is ! prevail+ & popul> doctr9e2 x und]lies mo/ ( ! language ( moral suasion4 ,! difficulties att5d+ ! /rict] int]pretation ( x h l$ to v>i\s modes ( qualify+ & expla9+ x1 z w aft]w>ds appe>4 ,%aftesbury & ,hut*eson are m especially id5tifi$ ) ! enunciation ( ?is doctr9e 9 its mod]n aspect4 #e4 ,x 0 put =? by ,m&eville t ,self-int]e/ is ! only te/ ( moral rightness4 ,self-pres]vation is ! fir/ law ( be+2 & ev5 :5 we are lab\r+ = ! good ( o!rs1 we are /ill hav+ reg>d to our own int]e/4 #f4 ,! !ory call$1 ,utility1 & ,utilit>ianism1 supposes t ! well-be+ or happ9ess ( mank9d is ! sole end1 & ultimate /&>d ( morality4 ,! ag5t takes acc\nt bo? ( 8 own happ9ess & ( ! happ9ess ( o!rs1 subord9at+1 on prop] occasions1 ! fir/ to ! second4 ,?is !ory is def9ite 9 its opposition to all ! o!rs1 b admits ( consid]able latitude ( view )9 itself4 ,/oicism & ,epicureanism1 are bo? includ$ 9 its compass4 ,! two la/-nam$ !ories--,self-,int]e/1 & ,utility or ! ,common ,well-,be+1 h exclusive reg>d to ! consequ5ces ( actions2 ! o!rs assign to consequ5ces a subord9ate position4 ,! t]ms ,ext]nal & ,dep5d5t are also us$ to express ! ref]5ce to ,happ9ess z ! end3 ,int]nal & ,indep5d5t are ! contra/+ epi!ts4 ,,ii4 ,e?ical ,!ory embraces c]ta9 que/ions ( pure ,,psy*ology4 #a4 ,! ,psy*ological nature ( ,consci5ce1 ! ,moral ,s5se1 or by :atev] "n we designate ! faculty ( di/+ui%+ "r & wrong1 toge!r ) ! motive p[] to foll[ ! "o & es*ew ! o!r4 ,t su* a faculty exi/s is admitt$4 ,! "q is1 :at is its place & orig9 9 ! m9d8 ,on ! "o side1 ,consci5ce is held to be a unique & ultimate p[] ( ! m9d1 l ! feel+ ( ,resi/ance1 ! s5se ( ,ta/e1 or ! consci\sness ( ,agreem5t4 ,on ! o!r side1 ,consci5ce is view$ z a gr[? or d]ivation f o!r recogniz$ prop]ties ( ! m9d4 ,! ,!ory ( ! ,/&>d 7#d7 call$ ! doctr9e ( ! ,moral ,s5se1 proce$s ^u ! fir/ view2 on t !ory1 ! ,/&>d & ! ,faculty make prop]ly b "o "q4 ,all o!r !ories are m or less compatible ) ! composite or d]ivative nature ( ,consci5ce2 ! support]s ( ,utility1 9 p>ticul>1 adopt ?is alt]native4 #b4 ,a second ,psy*ological "q1 reg>d$ by _m 7notably by ,kant7 z vitally implicat$ 9 ,moral ,obligation1 is ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w4 ,! hi/ory ( op9ion on ?is subject has be5 9 great "p already giv54 #c4 ,?irdly1 ,x has be5 debat$1 on ,psy*ological gr\nds1 :e!r our ,b5evol5t actions 7:i* all admit7 are ultimately modes ( self-reg>d1 or :e!r !re be1 9 ! human m9d1 a s\rce ( purely ,dis9t]e/$ conduct4 ,! fir/ view1 or ! ref]5ce ( b5evol5ce to ,self1 admits ( degrees & v>ieties ( /atem5t4 7#a7 ,x may be held t 9 p]=m+ good actions1 we expect & obta9 an imm$iate rew>d fully equival5t to ! sacrifice made4 ,occasionally we are rew>d$ 9 k9d2 b ! rew>d mo/ usually =?com+ 7accord+ to ,m&eville71 is praise or flatt]y1 to :i* ! human m9d is acutely s5sitive4 7#b7 ,our con/itution may be su* t we are pa9$ by ! sight ( an object 9 di/ress1 & give assi/ance1 to relieve ourselves ( ! pa94 ,?is 0 ! view ( ,hobbes2 & x is also admitt$ by ,m&eville z a second>y motive4 7#c7 ,we may be s =m$ z to d]ive enjoym5t f ! p]=mance ( acts ( k9dness1 9 ! same imm$iate way t we are gratifi$ by w>m?1 fl[]s1 or music2 we %\ld ?us be mov$ to b5evol5ce by an intr9sic pleasure1 & n by extrane\s consequ5ces4 ,b5?am speaks ( ! pleasures & ! pa9s ( ,b5evol5ce1 mean+ t we d]ive pleasure f caus+ pleasure to o!rs1 & pa9 f ! sight ( pa9 9 o!rs4 7#d7 ,x may be affirm$ t1 al?\gh we h n by nature any purely dis9t]e/$ impulses1 ^! are g5]at$ 9 u by associations & habits1 9 a mann] simil> to ! conv]sion ( means into f9al ends1 z 9 ! case ( money4 ,?is is ! view prop\nd$ by ,james ,mill1 & by ,mack9to%4 ,all[ance be+ made = a c]ta9 am\nt ( fact 9 ^! v>i\s modes ( connect+ ,b5evol5ce ) self1 x is /ill ma9ta9$ 9 ! pres5t "w1 z by ,butl]1 ,hume1 ,adam ,smi?1 & o!rs1 t human be+s are 7al?\gh v unequally7 end[$ ) a prompt+ to relieve ! pa9s & add to ! pleasures ( o!rs1 irrespective ( all self-reg>d+ consid]ations2 & t su* prompt+ is n a product ( associations ) self4 ,9 ! anci5t _w1 purely dis9t]e/$ conduct 0 abundantly manife/$ 9 practice1 al?\gh n made prom95t 9 ,e?ical ,!ory4 ,! enum]ation ( ! ,c>d9al ,virtues does n expressly conta9 ,b5evol5ce2 b "u ,c\rage1 ,self-sacrifice 0 impli$4 ,patriotic ,self-devotion1 ,love1 & ,fri5d%ip 7 virtues highly cultivat$4 ,9 ,cic]o1 ,s5eca1 & ,m>cus ,aurelius1 !re is a recognition ( g5]al ,b5evol5ce4 ,! two heads n[ sket*$--,! ,/&>d & ! ,psy*ology ( our ,moral nature--almo/ entirely exhau/ mod]n ,e?ics4 ,smi?1 ,/ew>t1 & ,mack9to% agree 9 lay+ d[n z ! po9ts 9 dispute ^! two3--,fir/1 ,:at does virtue consi/ 98 ,secondly1 ,:at is ! p[] or faculty ( ! m9d t discov]s & en=ces x8 ,^! two positions1 h[ev]1 are inadequate z reg>ds ,anci5t ,e?ics4 ,= rem$y+ ! defici5cy1 & = br++ to light matt]s necess>y to ! complet5ess ( an ,e?ical survey1 we add ! foll[+ heads3-- ,,iii4 ,! ,!ory ( :at con/itutes ! ,supreme ,,end ( ,life1 ! ,,bonum or ! ,,summum ,,bonum4 ,! "q z to ! highe/ ,end has divid$ ! ,e?ical ,s*ools1 bo? anci5t & mod]n4 ,x 0 ! po9t at issue betwe5 ! ,/oics & ! ,epicureans4 ,t ,happ9ess is n ! highe/ end has be5 av]r$1 9 mod]n times1 by ,butl] & o!rs3 ! opposite position is held by ! support]s ( ,utility4 ,:at may be call$ ! sev]e & ascetic sy/ems 7!oretically7 refuse to sanction any pursuit ( happ9ess or pleasure1 except ?r\gh virtue1 or duty to o!rs4 ,! view practically proce$$ ^u1 n[ & 9 mo/ ages1 is t virtue dis*>ges a man's obligations to 8 fell[s1 :i* be+ accompli%$1 he is !n at lib]ty to seek :at pleases himself4 7,= ! application ( ! laws ( m9d to ! !ory ( ,,happ9ess1 see ,app5dix ,c47 ,,iv4-,! ,,classification ,,( ,,duties is *>act]i/ic ( diff]5t sy/ems & diff]5t au?ors4 ,! olde/ s*eme is ! ,f\r ,c>d9al ,virtues--,prud5ce1 ,c\rage1 ,temp]ance1 ,ju/ice4 ,! mod]n ,*ri/ian morali/s usually adopt ! division--,duties to ,god1 to ,o!rs1 to ,self4 ,moreov]1 !re are diff]5ces 9 ! sub/ance ( ,morality itself1 or ! ?+s actually impos$4 ,! code "u ,*ri/ianity has v>i$ bo? f ,judaism & f ,paganism4 ,v4-,! relation%ip ( ,e?ics to ,,politics is close1 :ile ! po9ts ( diff]5ce ( ! two are also ( great importance4 ,9 ,plato ! two subjects 7 insep>able2 & 9 ,ari/otle1 !y 7 bl5d$ to excess4 ,hobbes also jo9$ ,e?ics & ,politics 9 "o sy/em4 7,see ,*ap1 ii41 #c47 ,,vi4-,! relation ( ,e?ics to ,,!ology is v>i\sly repres5t$ 9 mod]n sy/ems4 ,! ,fa!rs & ! ,s*oolm5 accept$ ! au?ority ( ! ,bible *iefly on tradition1 & did n v5ture to sit 9 judgm5t on ! sub/ance ( ! revelation4 ,!y1 !re=e1 re/$ _! ,e?ics exclusively on ! ,bible2 or1 at mo/1 v5tur$ ^u giv+ "s m]e supplem5t ( its precepts4 ,o!rs1 9 m mod]n times1 h consid]$ t ! moral "* ( a revelation ent]s into ! evid5ce 9 its fav\r2 :5ce1 morality mu/ be consid]$ z indep5d5t1 & exclusively human1 9 its orig94 ,x w\ld be reason+ 9 a circle to d]ive ! moral law f ! bible1 & !n to prove ! bible f ! moral law4 ,religion sup]adds its own sanction to ! moral duties1 s f> z adopt$ by x2 lay+ especial /ress ^u select precepts4 ,x likewise calls into be+ a di/9ct code ( duties1 ! religi\s duties /rictly s call$2 :i* h no =ce except ) believ]s4 ,! 'duties to ,god1' 9 ! mod]n classification1 are religi\s1 z di/+ui%$ f moral duties4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,e?ical ,,/&>d4 #a4 ,,e?ics1 or ,morality1 is a dep>tm5t ( ,practice2 &1 z ) o!r practical dep>tm5ts1 is def9$ by its ,end4 ,e?ics is n m]e k or speculation1 l ! sci5ces ( ,a/ronomy1 ,physiology1 or ,psy*ology2 x is k appli$ to practice1 or useful ends1 l ,navigation1 ,m$ic9e1 or ,politics4 ,e practical subject has "s end to be s]v$1 ! /atem5t ( :i* is its def9ition 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,navigation is ! apply+ ( diff]5t k9ds ( k1 & ( a v>iety ( devices1 to ! end ( sail+ ! seas4 #b4 ,! ,e?ical ,end is a c]ta9 portion ( ! welf>e ( human be+s liv+ toge!r 9 society1 realiz$ ?r\gh rules ( conduct duly en=c$4 ,! obvi\s int5tion ( morality is ! good ( mank9d4 ,! precepts--d n /eal1 d n kill1 fulfil agreem5ts1 speak tru?--:atev] o!r reasons may be assign$ = !m1 h a direct t5d5cy to prev5t great evils t might o!rwise arise 9 ! int]c\rse ( human be+s4 ,f>!r1 ! good aim$ at by ,e?ics is atta9$ by rules ( act+1 on ! "p ( "o human be+ to ano!r2 &1 inasmu* z ^! rules (t5 run c\nt] to ! t5d5cies ( ! individual m9d1 x is requisite to provide adequate inducem5ts to comply ) !m4 ,! ,e?ical ,end is :at is o!rwise call$ ! ,,/&>d1 te/1 or crit]ion1 ( ,"r & ,wrong4 ,! lead+ controv]sy ( ,morals is c5t]$ 9 ?is po9t4 #c4 ,! ,rules ( ,e?ics1 t]m$ also ,law1 ,laws1 ! ,moral ,law1 are ( two k9ds3-- ,! fir/ are rules impos$ "u a ,p5alty = neglect1 or violation4 ,! p5alty is t]m$ ,puni%m5t2 ! impos+ p>ty is nam$ ,gov]nm5t1 or ,au?ority2 & ! rules s impos$ & en=c$1 are call$ ,laws prop]1 ,morality prop]1 ,obligatory ,morality1 ,duty4 #d4 ,! second are rules ^: only ext]nal support is ,rew>ds2 con/itut+ ,optional ,morality1 ,m]it1 ,virtue1 or ,nobl5ess4 ,moral duties are a set ( rules1 precepts1 or prescriptions1 = ! direction ( human conduct 9 a c]ta9 sph]e or prov9ce4 ,^! rules are en=c$ by two k9ds ( motives1 requir+ to be kept di/9ct4 ,i4--,"o class ( rules are made compulsory by ! infliction ( pa91 9 ! case ( violation or neglect4 ,! pa9 s inflict$ is t]m$ a ,p5alty1 or ,puni%m5t2 x is "o ( ! mo/ famili> exp]i5ces ( all human be+s liv+ 9 society4 ,! ,in/itution t issues ,rules ( ?is class1 & inflicts puni%m5t :5 !y are n compli$ )1 is t]m$ ,gov]nm5t1 or ,au?ority2 all its rules are au?oritative1 or obligatory2 !y are ,laws /rictly s call$1 ,laws prop]4 ,puni%m5t1 ,gov]nm5t1 ,au?ority1 ,sup]iority1 ,obligation1 ,law1 ,duty1--def9e ea* o!r2 !y are all diff]5t modes ( reg>d+ ! same fact4 ,morality is ?us 9 e respect analag\s to ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 or ! ,law ( ! ,l&4 ,nay1 f>!r1 x squ>es1 to a v great ext5t1 ) ,political ,au?ority4 ,! po9ts :]e ! two co9cide1 & ^? :]e !y d n co9cide1 may be briefly /at$3-- 7#a7 ,all ! mo/ ess5tial p>ts ( ,morality are adopt$ & c>ri$ out by ! ,law ( ! ,l&4 ,! rules = protect+ p]son & prop]ty1 = fulfill+ contracts1 = p]=m+ reciprocal duties1 are rules or laws ( ! ,/ate2 & are en=c$ by ! ,/ate1 ?r\gh its own ma*9]y4 ,! p5alties inflict$ by public au?ority con/itute :at is call$ ! ,political ,sanction2 !y are ! mo/ sev]e1 & ! mo/ /rictly & dispassionately adm9i/]$1 ( all p5alties4 7#b7 ,!re are c]ta9 ,moral duties en=c$1 n by public & (ficial au?ority1 b by ! memb]s ( ! community 9 _! private capacity4 ,^! are sometimes call$ ! ,laws ( ,hon\r1 because !y are puni%$ by )draw+ f ! violator ! hon\r or e/eem ( 8 fell[-citiz5s4 ,c\rage1 ,prud5ce z reg>ds self1 ,*a/ity1 ,or?odoxy ( op9ion1 a c]ta9 con=mity 9 ,ta/es & ,usages1--are all prescrib$ by ! mass ( ea* community1 to a great] or less ext5t1 & are insi/$ on "u p5alty ( social disgrace & excommunication4 ,?is is ! ,social or ! ,popul> ,sanction4 ,! dep>tm5t s m>k$ out1 be+ di/9ct f ! ,political sph]e1 is call$1 by ,au/91 ,positive ,morality1 or ,morality prop]4 ,public op9ion also *imes 9 ) ! ,law1 & adds its own sanction to ! legal p5alties = (f5ces3 unless ! law happ5s to be 9 conflict ) ! popul> s5tim5t4 ,crim9als1 condemn$ by ! law1 are additionally puni%$ by social disgrace4 7#c7 ,! ,law ( ! ,l& conta9s _m enactm5ts1 besides ! ,moral ,code & ! ma*9]y = execut+ x4 ,! ,prov9ce ( gov]nm5t passes beyond ! prop]ly protective function1 & includes _m in/itutions ( public conv5i5ce1 :i* are n id5tifi$ ) "r & wrong4 ,! def5ce f ext]nal enemies2 ! erection ( works ( public utility2 ! promotion ( social improvem5ts1--are all )9 ! doma9 ( ! public au?ority4#a ,,ii4--,! second class ( ,rules are support$1 n by p5alties1 b by ,rew>ds4 ,society1 in/ead ( puni%+ m5 = n be+ *>itable or b5evol5t1 praises & o!rwise rew>ds !m1 :5 !y are s4 ,h5ce1 al?\gh ,morality inculcates b5evol5ce1 ?is is n a ,law prop]1 x is n obligatory1 au?oritative1 or b9d+2 x is purely volunt>y1 & is t]m$ m]it1 virtu\s & noble conduct4 ,9 ?is dep>tm5t1 ! memb]s ( ! community1 9 _! un(ficial capacity1 are ! *ief ag5ts & adm9i/rators4 ,! ,law ( ! ,l& occupies itself ) ! en=cem5t ( its own obligatory rules1 hav+ at its comm& a p]fect ma*9]y ( puni%m5t4 ,private individuals adm9i/] praise1 hon\r1 e/eem1 approbation1 & rew>d4 ,9 a few in/ances1 ! ,gov]nm5t disp5ses rew>ds1 z 9 ! be/[al ( (fice1 rank1 titles1 & p5sions1 b ?is function is exceptional & limit$4 ,! conduct rew>d$ by ,society is *iefly resolvable into ,b5efic5ce4 ,:oev] is mov$ to incur sacrifices1 or to g ?r\gh lab\rs1 = ! good ( o!rs1 is ! object1 n m]ely ( gratitude f ! p]sons b5efit$1 b ( approbation f society at l>ge4 ,any rem>kable /rictness or fidelity 9 ! dis*>ge ( duties prop]ly s call$1 receives g5]al e/eem4 ,ev5 9 matt]s m]ely c]emonial1 if importance be atta*$ to !m1 s$ul\s & exact compliance1 be+ ! di/9ction ( ! few1 w e>n ! approbation ( ! _m4#b #e4 ,! ,e?ical ,end1 or ,morality1 z x has be51 is f\nd$ p>tly on ,well-be+1 or ,utility3 & p>tly on ,s5tim5t4 ,! portions ( ,morality1 hav+ 9 view ! prev5tion ( human mis]y & ! promotion ( human happ9ess1 are kn[n & obvi\s4 ,!y are n ! :ole ( ,morality z x has be54 ,s5tim5t1 caprice1 arbitr>y lik+ or dislik+1 are names = /ates ( feel+ t d n necess>ily arise f _! objects1 b may be jo9$ or disjo9$ by education1 cu/om1 or ! p[] ( ! w4 ,! revulsion ( m9d1 on ! "p ( ! ,jews1 aga9/ eat+ ! pig1 & on our own "p1 z reg>ds horse fle%1 is n a primitive or natural s5sibility1 l ! pa9 ( hung]1 or ( cold1 or ( a musical discord2 x is purely artificial2 cu/om has made x1 & c\ld unmake x4 ,! feel+ ( fatigue f ov]work is natural2 ! repugnance ( ca/e to manual lab\r is factiti\s4 ,! dignity atta*$ to ! milit>y pr(ession1 & ! indignity ( ! (fice ( public execution]1 are caprici\s1 arbitr>y1 & s5tim5tal4 ,our prospective reg>d to ! com=ts ( our decl9+ ye>s po9ts to a real int]e/2 our feel+s z to ! disposal ( ! body aft] dea? are purely factiti\s & s5tim5tal4 ,su* feel+s are ( ! ?+s 9 our own p[]2 & ! gr& mi/ake ( ! ,/oics 0 _! view+ all good & evil :atev] 9 ! same light4 ,x is an ess5tial "p ( human lib]ty1 to p]mit ea* p]son to =m & to indulge ^! s5tim5ts or caprices2 al?\gh a good education %\ld control !m ) a view to our happ9ess on ! :ole4 ,b1 :5 any individual lik+ or fancy ( ?is description is impos$ z a law ^u ! entire community1 x is a p]v]sion & abuse ( p[]1 a conf\nd+ ( ! ,e?ical end by =eign admixtures4 ,?us1 to enjo9 au?oritatively "o mode ( sepulture1 puni%+ all deviations f t1 c\ld h no?+ to d ) ! pres]vation ( ! ord] ( society4 ,9 su* a matt]1 ! int]f]5ce ( ! /ate 9 mod]n times1 has reg>d to ! detection ( crime 9 ! matt] ( life & dea?1 & to ! evils aris+ f ! putresc5ce ( ! dead4 #f4 ,! ,e?ical ,end1 al?\gh prop]ly conf9$ to ,utility1 is subject to /ill f>!r limitations1 accord+ to ! view tak5 ( ! ,prov9ce ( ,moral ,gov]nm5t1 or ,au?ority4 ,al?\gh no?+ %\ld be made morally obligatory b :at is g5]ally useful1 ! conv]se does n hold2 _m k9ds ( conduct are g5]ally useful1 b n morally obligatory4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( bodily ex]cise 9 ! op5 air e day w\ld be g5]ally useful2 b nei!r ! law ( ! l& nor public op9ion compels x4 ,good roads are works ( great utility2 x is n e "o's duty to make !m4 ,! ma*9]y ( co]cion is n br\ght to be> ^u e conceivable utility4 ,x is pr9cipally res]v$1 :5 n abus$1 = a select class ( utilities4 ,"s utilities are indisp5sable to ! v exi/5ce ( m5 9 society4 ,! prim>y moral duties mu/ be obs]v$ to "s degree1 if m5 are to live toge!r z m51 & n to roam at l>ge z bea/s4 ,! int]e/s ( ,security are ! fir/ & mo/ press+ conc]n ( human society4 ,:atev] relates to ?is has a surpass+ importance4 ,security is contra/$ ) ,improvem5t2 :at relates to ,security is decl>$ to be ,"r2 :at relates to ,improvem5t is said to be ,exp$i5t2 bo? are =ms ( ,utility1 b ! "o is press+ & indisp5sable1 ! o!r is optional4 ,! same diff]5ce is express$ by ! contra/s--,be+ & ,well-be+2 ,exi/5ce & ,prosp]\s ,exi/5ce2 ,fundam5tals or ,ess5tials & ,circum/antials4 ,t ! highway robb] %\ld be puni%$ is a "p ( ,be+2 t ! highways %\ld be 9 good repair1 is a "p ( ,well-be+4 ,t ,ju/ice %\ld be done is ,exi/5ce2 t f>m]s & trad]s %\ld give 9 to gov]nm5t ! /ati/ics ( _! occupation1 is a means to ,prosp]\s ,exi/5ce4#c ,x is prop] to adv]t to "o specific influ5ce 9 moral enactm5ts1 s]v+ to disguise ! ,e?ical end1 & to wid5 ! di/9ction betwe5 morality z x has be51 & morality z x ought to be4 ,! en=c+ ( legal & moral enactm5ts dem&s a p[] ( co]cion1 to be lodg$ 9 ! h&s ( c]ta9 p]sons2 ! possession ( :i* is a temptation to exce$ ! /rict exig5cies ( public safety1 or ! common welf>e4 ,probably _m ( ! :ims1 fancies1 c]emonies1 lik+s & antipa?ies1 t h f\nd _! way into ! moral codes ( nations1 h aris5 f ! arbitr>y disposition ( c]ta9 individuals happ5+ to be 9 au?ority at p>ticul> junctures4 ,ev5 ! g5]al community1 act+ 9 a spontane\s mann]1 imposes ne$less re/ra9ts ^u itself1 delight+ m 9 ! ex]cise ( p[]1 ?an 9 ! fre$om ( individual action4 #g4 ,morality1 9 its ess5tial p>ts1 is ',et]nal & ,immutable2' 9 o!r p>ts1 x v>ies ) ,cu/om4 7#a7 ,! rules = protect+ "o man f ano!r1 = en=c+ ju/ice1 & ! obs]vance ( contracts1 are ess5tial & fundam5tal1 & may be /yl$ ',et]nal & ,immutable4' ,! ends to be s]v$ require ^! rules2 no caprice ( cu/om c\ld *ange !m )\t sacrific+ ^! ends4 ,!y are to society :at food is to individual life1 ( sexual int]c\rse & "m's c>e to ! cont9uance ( ! race4 ,! prim>y moralities c\ld n be ex*ang$ = rules enact+ murd]1 pillage1 inju/ice1 unv]acity1 repudiation ( engagem5ts2 because "u ^! rules1 human society w\ld fall to pieces4 7#b7 ,! mann] ( c>ry+ into effect ^! prim>y regulations ( society1 v>ies accord+ to ,cu/om4 ,9 "s communities ! ma*9]y is rude & imp]fect2 :ile o!rs h greatly improv$ x4 ,! ,greeks took ! lead 9 advanc+ judicial ma*9]y1 ! ,romans foll[$4 ,9 ! regulations n ess5tial to ,be+1 b important to ,well-be+1 !re has prevail$ ! wide/ discrepancy ( usage4 ,! s+le dep>tm5t relat+ to ! ,sexes is a suffici5t te/imony on ?is head4 ,no "o =m ( ! family is indisp5sable to ! exi/5ce ( society2 yet "s =ms are m fav\rable to g5]al happ9ess ?an o!rs4 ,b :i* =m is on ! :ole ! be/1 has greatly divid$ op9ion2 & legislation has v>i$ accord+ly4 ,! m advanc$ nations h adopt$ compulsory monogamy1 !reby giv+ ! pre/ige ( _! au?ority 9 fav\r ( t sy/em4 ,b x _c be affirm$ t ! jo9+ ( "o man to "o woman is a portion ( ',et]nal & ,immutable ,morality4' ,morality is an ,in/itution ( society1 b n an arbitr>y in/itution4 #h4 ,be=e adduc+ ! pro(s 9 support ( ! position above assum$1 namely1 t ,utility or ,human ,happ9ess1 ) c]ta9 limitations1 is ! prop] crit]ion ( ,morality1 x is prop] to enquire1 :at sort ( evid5ce ! ,e?ical ,/&>d is susceptible (4 ,hi!rto1 ! doctr9e ( ,utility has be5 assum$1 9 ord] to be fully /at$4 ,we mu/ next review ! evid5ce 9 its fav\r1 & ! objections urg$ aga9/ x4 ,x is desirable1 h[ev]1 to ask :at k9d ( pro( %\ld be expect$ on su* a "q4 ,9 ! ,speculative or ,!oretical sci5ces1 we prove a doctr9e by ref]r+ x to "s o!r doctr9e or doctr9es1 until we come at la/ to "s assumption t mu/ be re/$ 9 z ultimate or f9al4 ,we c prove ! propositions ( ,euclid1 ! law ( gravitation1 ! law ( atomic proportions1 ! law ( association2 we _c prove our pres5t s5sations1 nor c we demon/rate t :at has be51 w be4 ,! ultimate data mu/ be accept$ z self-evid5t2 !y h no high] au?ority ?an t mank9d g5]ally are dispos$ to accept !m4 ,9 ! practical ,sci5ces1 ! "q is n z to a pr9ciple ( ! ord] ( nature1 b z to an end ( human action4 ,!re may be d]iv$ ,ends1 :i* are susceptible ( demon/rative pro(2 b !re mu/ also be ultimate ,ends1 = :i* no pro( c be (f]$2 !y mu/ be receiv$ z self-evid5t1 & _! sole au?ority is ! p]son receiv+ !m4 ,9 mo/ ( ! practical sci5ces1 ! ends are d]iv$2 ! end ( ,m$ic9e is ,heal?1 :i* is an end subsidi>y to ! f9al end ( human happ9ess4 ,s x is ) ,navigation1 ) ,politics1 ) ,education1 & o!rs4 ,9 all ( !m1 we recognize ! be>+ ^u human welf>e1 or happ9ess1 z a common1 compreh5sive1 & cr[n+ end4 ,on ! !ory ( ,utility1 ,morals is also gov]n$ by ?is highe/ end4 ,n[1 !re c be no pro( (f]$ = ! position t ,happ9ess is ! prop] end ( all human pursuit1 ! crit]ion ( all "r conduct4 ,x is an ultimate or f9al assumption1 to be te/$ by ref]5ce to ! individual judgm5t ( mank9d4 ,if ! assumption1 t mis]y1 & n happ9ess1 is ! prop] end ( life1 f\nd support]s1 no "o c\ld reply1 = want ( a basis ( argum5t--an assumption /ill m fundam5tal agre$ ^u by bo? sides4 ,x w\ld probably be ! case1 t ! support]s ( mis]y1 z an end1 w\ld be at "s po9t inconsi/5t ) !mselves2 :i* w\ld lay !m op5 to refutation4 ,b to any "o consi/5tly ma9ta9+ ! position1 !re is no possible reply1 because !re is no m$ium ( pro(4 ,if !n1 x appe>s1 on mak+ ! appeal to mank9d1 t happ9ess is admitt$ to be ! highe/ end ( all action1 ! !ory ( ,utility is prov$4 #i4 ,! judgm5t ( ,mank9d is v g5]ally 9 fav\r ( ,happ9ess1 z ! ,supreme end ( human conduct1 ,morality includ$4 ,?is decision1 h[ev]1 is n giv5 )\t qualifications & res]vations2 nor is !re p]fect unanimity reg>d+ x4 ,! !ory ( ,motives to ! ,w is ! answ] to ! "q z to ! ends ( human action4 ,accord+ to ! prim>y law ( ! ,w1 ea* "o ( u1 = ourselves1 seeks pleasure & avoids pa91 pres5t or prospective4 ,! pr9ciple is int]f]$ ) by ! op]ation ( ,fix$ ,ideas1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! feel+s2 :5ce we h ! class ( ,impassion$1 ,exagg]at$1 ,irrational ,motives or ,ends4 ,( ^! influ5ces1 "o des]ves to be signaliz$ z a s\rce ( virtu\s conduct1 & z approv$ ( by mank9d g5]ally2 t is1 ,sympa?y ) o!rs4 ,"u ! ,fix$ ,idea1 may be rank$ ! acquir$ s5se ( ,dignity1 :i* induces u (t5 to =feit pleasure & incur pa94 ,we %\ld n *oose ! life ( ,plato's beatifi$ oy/]1 or 7to use ,ari/otle's example7 be cont5t ) p]petual *ildhood1 ) h[ev] great a %>e ( *ildi% happ9ess4 #aj4 ,! ,e?ical end t m5 are t5d+ to1 & may ultimately adopt )\t res]vation1 is human ,welf>e1 ,happ9ess1 or ,be+ & ,well-be+ comb9$1 t is1 ,utility4 ,! evid5ce consi/s ( su* facts z ^!3-- 7#a7 ,by f> ! great] "p ( ! morality ( e age & c\ntry has ref]5ce to ! welf>e ( society4 ,ev5 9 ! mo/ sup]/iti\s1 s5tim5tal1 & caprici\s despotisms1 a v l>ge %>e ( ! enactm5ts1 political & moral1 consi/ 9 protect+ "o man f ano!r1 & 9 secur+ ju/ice betwe5 man & man4 ,^! objects may be badly c>ri$ out1 !y may be accompani$ ) mu* oppression ( ! gov]n$ by ! gov]n+ body1 b !y are always aim$ at1 & occasionally secur$4 ,( ! ,t5 ,comm&m5ts1 f\r p]ta9 to ,religi\s ,wor%ip2 six are ,utilit>ian1 t is1 h no end except to w>d (f evils1 & to fur!r ! good ( mank9d4 7#b7 ,! g5]al welf>e is at all times consid]$ a /rong & adequate ju/ification ( moral rules1 & is con/antly adduc$ z a motive = ob$i5ce4 ,! commonplaces 9 support ( law & morality repres5t1 t if murd] & !ft 7 to g unpuni%$1 nei!r life nor prop]ty w\ld be safe2 m5 w\ld be 9 et]nal w>f>e2 indu/ry w\ld p]i%2 society mu/ soon come to an end4 ,!re is a /rong disposition to support ! m purely s5tim5tal requirem5ts1 & ev5 ! excesses ( m]e tyranny1 by utilit>ian reasons4 ,! cumb]some ablutions ( ori5tal nations are def5d$ on ! gr\nd ( cleanl9ess4 ,! div9e sanctity ( k+s is held to be an aid to social ob$i5ce4 ,slav]y is alleg$ to h be5 at "o "t necess>y to break 9 mank9d to indu/ry4 ,indissoluble m>riage arose f a s5tim5t r ?an f utility2 b ! argum5ts1 commonly urg$ 9 its fav\r1 are utilit>ian4 7#c7 ,9 new cases1 & 9 cases :]e no s5tim5t or passion is call$ into play1 ,utility alone is appeal$ to4 ,9 any fre% enactm5t1 at ! pres5t day1 ! good ( ! community is ! only ju/ification t w\ld be li/5$ to4 ,if x 7 propos$ to =bid absolutely ! eat+ ( pork 9 ,*ri/ian c\ntries1 "s great public evils w\ld h to be assign$ z ! motive4 ,7 ! fatalities att5d+ ! eat+ ( pork1 on acc\nt ( tri*9iae1 to become num]\s1 & unprev5tible1 !re w\ld !n be a reason1 su* z a mod]n civiliz$ community w\ld consid] suffici5t1 = mak+ ! re>+ ( sw9e a crime & an immorality4 ,b no m]e s5tim5tal or caprici\s dislike to ! pig1 on ! "p ( any numb] ( p]sons1 c\ld n[ procure an enactm5t = disus+ t animal4 7#d7 ,!re is a gradual t5d5cy to )draw f ! moral code1 obs]vances orig9at+ purely 9 s5tim5t1 & hav+ little or no connexion ) human welf>e4 ,we h ab&on$ ! div9e sacr$ness ( k+s4 ,we no long] consid] ourselves morally b\nd to d5\nce & extirpate h]etics & wit*es1 /ill less to obs]ve fa/s & sacr$ days4 ,ev5 9 reg>d to ! ,*ri/ian ,sabba?1 ! op9ion is gr[+ 9 fav\r ( )draw+ bo? ! legal & popul> sanction =m]ly s /r+5t2 :ile ! argum5ts = ,sabba? obs]vance are m & m *>g$ ) consid]ations ( secul> utility4 ,%\ld ^! consid]ations be held z adequate to support ! proposition advanc$1 !y are decisive 9 fav\r ( ,utility z ! ,moral ,/&>d t ought to be4 ,any o!r /&>d t may be set up 9 competition ) ,utility1 mu/ ultimately gr\nd itself on ! v same appeal to ! op9ions & ! practice ( mank9d4 #aa4 ,! *ief objections urg$ aga9/ ,utility z ! moral ,/&>d h be5 9 great "p anticipat$4 ,/ill1 x is prop] to adv]t to !m 9 detail4 ,i4--,x is ma9ta9$ t ,happ9ess is n1 ei!r 9 fact or 9 "r1 ! sole aim ( human pursuit2 t m5 actually1 delib]ately1 & by consci5ti\s pref]5ce1 seek o!r ends4 ,= example1 x is affirm$ t ,virtue is an end 9 itself1 )\t reg>d to happ9ess4 ,on ?is argum5t x may be obs]v$3-- 7#a7 ,x has be5 abundantly %[n 9 ?is "w1 t "o "p ( ! =ego+ affirmation is /rictly true4 ,m5 are n urg$ to action exclusively by _! pleasures & _! pa9s4 ,!y are urg$ by o!r motives1 ( ! impassion$ k9d2 among :i*1 is to be signaliz$ sympa?y ) ! pa9s & pleasures ( o!rs4 ,if ?is _h be5 ! only in/ance ( action at v>iance ) ! regul> c\rse ( ! w1 we %\ld be able to ma9ta9 t ! motive to act is /ill happ9ess1 b n always ! ag5t's own happ9ess4 ,we h se51 h[ev]1 t individuals1 n unfrequ5tly1 act 9 opposition bo? to _! own1 & to o!r p's happ9ess2 z :5 ma/]$ by a panic1 & :5 work$ up into a fr5zy ( ang] or antipa?y4 ,! s\nd & t5able position seems to be ?is3--,human be+s1 9 _! be/ & sob]e/ moods1 look+ be=e & aft]1 weigh+ all ! consequ5ces ( actions1 are g5]ally dispos$ to reg>d ,happ9ess1 to "s be+s or o!rs1 z ! prop] end ( all endeav\rs4 ,! "m is n exclusively b5t on h] own happ9ess2 %e is ^u h] *ild's4 ,h[>d ab&on$ ! common pleasures ( life = himself1 to dim9i% ! mis]y ( fell[ creatures4 7#b7 ,x is true t human be+s are apt to reg>d ,virtue z an end-9-itself1 & n m]ely z a means to happ9ess z ! f9al end4 ,b ! fact is fully acc\nt$ = on ! g5]al law ( ,association by ,contiguity2 !re be+ _m o!r examples ( ! same k9d1 z ! love ( money4 ,ju/ice1 ,v]acity1 & o!r virtues1 are requisite1 to "s ext5t1 = ! exi/5ce ( society1 &1 to a /ill great] ext5t1 = prosp]\s exi/5ce4 ,"u su* circum/ances1 x w\ld c]ta9ly happ5 t ! means w\ld p>ticipate 9 ! importance ( ! end1 & w\ld ev5 be reg>d$ z an end 9 itself4 7#c7 ,! great lead+ duties may be %[n to d]ive _! e/imation f _! be>+ ^u human welf>e4 ,take fir/1 ,v]acity or ,tru?4 ,( all ! moral duties1 ?is has mo/ ! appe>ance ( be+ an absolute & indep5d5t requirem5t4 ,yet mank9d h always approv$ ( deception practis$ ^u an enemy 9 w>1 a madman1 or a highway robb]4 ,also1 secrecy or concealm5t1 ev5 al?\gh mis9t]pret$1 is all[$1 :5 x does n cause p]nici\s results2 & is ev5 enjo9$ & requir$ 9 ! int]c\rse ( society1 9 ord] to prev5t s]i\s evils4 ,b an absolute /&>d ( tru? is incompatible1 ev5 ) secrecy or disguise2 9 dep>t+ f ! c\rse ( p]fect op5ness1 or absolute publicity ( ?\ght & action1 9 e possible circum/ance1 we r5\nce ideal tru? 9 fav\r ( a compromis$ or qualifi$ v]acity--a pursuit ( tru? 9 subord9ation to ! g5]al well-be+ ( society4 ,/ill less is !re any =m ( ,ju/ice t does n h respect to ,utility4 ,if ,ju/ice is def9$ z giv+ to e "o _! own1 ! motive cle>ly is to prev5t mis]y to individuals4 ,if !re 7 a species ( inju/ice t made no "o unhappi]1 we may be q sure t tribunals w\ld n be set up = en=c+ & puni%+ x4 ,! idea ( equality 9 ,ju/ice is seem+ly an absolute conception1 b1 9 po9t ( fact1 equality is a matt] ( in/itution4 ,! *ildr5 ( ! same p>5t are1 9 c]ta9 circum/ances1 reg>d$ z unequal by ! law2 & ju/ice consi/s 9 respect+ ?is inequality4 ,! virtue ( ,self-d5ial1 is "o t receives ! comm5dation ( society1 & /&s high 9 ! morality ( rew>d4 ,/ill1 x is a means to an end4 ,! op]ation ( ! associat+ pr9ciple t5ds to raise x above ?is po9t to ! rank ( a f9al end4 ,& !re is an ascetic s*eme ( life t proce$s ^u ?is supposition2 b ! g5]ality ( mank9d1 9 practice1 if n always 9 !ory1 disav[ x4 7#d7 ,x is (t5 affirm$ by ^? t reg>d virtue1 & n happ9ess1 z ! end1 t ! two co9cide 9 ! long run4 ,n[1 n to dwell ^u ! v s]i\s d\bts z to ! matt] ( fact1 a univ]sal co9cid5ce )\t causal connexion is s r>e z to be 9 ! la/ degree improbable4 ,a fiction ( ?is sort 0 contriv$ by ,leibnitz1 "u ! title ( 'pre-e/abli%$ h>mony2' b1 among ! facts ( ! univ]se1 !re are only "o or two cases kn[n to inve/igation4 #ab4 ,,ii4--,x is object$ to ,utility z ! ,/&>d1 t ! be>+s ( conduct on g5]al happ9ess are too num]\s to be calculat$2 & t ev5 :]e ! calculation is possible1 p h seldom "t to make x4 7#a7 ,x is answ]$1 t ! prim>y moral duties ref] to conduct :]e ! consequ5ces are evid5t & sure4 ,! disreg>d ( ,ju/ice & ,tru? w\ld to an absolute c]ta9ty br+ ab\t a /ate ( confusion & ru92 _! obs]vance1 9 any high degree1 contributes to raise ! /&>d ( well-be+4 ,9 o!r cases1 ! calculation is n easy1 f ! numb] ( oppos+ consid]ations4 ,= example1 !re are two sides to ! "q1 ,is diss5t morally wrong8 9 o!r words1 ,ought all op9ions to be tol]at$8 ,b if we v5ture to decide su* a "q1 )\t ! balanc+ or calculat+ process1 we mu/ foll[ bl9dfold ! dictates ( "o or o!r ( ! two oppos+ s5tim5ts1--,love ( ,p[] & ,love ( ,lib]ty4 ,x is n necess>y t we %\ld g ?r\gh ! process ( calculation e "t we h occasion to p]=m a moral act4 ,! calculations h already be5 p]=m$ = all ! lead+ duties1 & we h only to apply ! maxims to ! cases z !y arise4 #ac4 ,,iii4--,! pr9ciple ( ,utility1 x is said1 conta9s no motives to seek ! ,happ9ess ( o!rs2 x is ess5tially a =m ( ,self-,love4 ,! av]m5t is t ,utility is a suffici5t motive to pursue our own happ9ess1 & ! happ9ess ( o!rs z a means to our own2 b x does n af=d any purely dis9t]e/$ impulses2 x is a ,selfi% !ory aft] all4 ,n[1 z ,utility is1 by pr(ession1 a b5evol5t & n a selfi% !ory1 ei!r su* pr(ession is ins9c]e1 or !re mu/ be an ob/ruction 9 c>ry+ x out4 ,t ! support]s ( ! !ory are ins9c]e1 no "o has a "r to affirm4 ,! only "q !n is1 :at are ! difficulties oppos$ by ?is !ory1 & n pres5t 9 o!r !ories 7! ,moral ,s5se1 = example7 to b5evol5t impulses on ! "p ( individuals8 ,let u view ! objection fir/ z reg>ds ! ,morality ( ,obligation1 or ! duties t b9d society toge!r4 ,( ^! duties1 only a small numb] aim at positive b5efic5ce2 !y are ei!r ,protective ( "o man aga9/ ano!r1 or !y en=ce ,reciprocity1 :i* is ano!r "n = ,ju/ice4 ,! *ief exception is ! requir+ ( a m9imum ( *>ity t[>ds ! ne$y4 ,?is dep>tm5t ( duty is ma9ta9$ by ! =ce ( a c]ta9 mixture ( prud5tial & ( b5efic5t consid]ations1 on ! "p ( ! majority1 & by prud5ce 7z fe> ( puni%m5t7 on ! "p ( ! m9ority4 ,b !re does n appe> to be any?+ 9 our pr(ess$ly ,b5evol5t ,!ory ( ,morals to int]f]e ) ! small portion ( dis9t]e/$ impulse t is b\nd up-) prud5tial reg>ds1 9 ! total ( motives conc]n$ 9 ! morality ( social ord] call$ ! prim>y or obligatory morality4 ,let u1 9 ! next place1 view ! objection z reg>ds ,optional ,morality1 :]e positive b5efic5ce has full play4 ,! pr9cipal motive 9 ?is dep>tm5t is ,rew>d1 9 ! %ape ei!r ( b5efits or ( approbation4 ,n[1 !re is no?+ to h9d] ! support]s ( ! /&>d ( ,utility f jo9+ 9 ! rew>ds or comm5dations be/[$ on works ( *>ity & b5efic5ce4 ,aga91 !re is1 9 ! con/itution ( ! m9d1 a motive sup]ior to rew>d1 namely1 ,sympa?y prop]1 or ! purely ,dis9t]e/$ impulse to alleviate ! pa9s & advance ! pleasures ( o!rs4 ,?is "p ( ! m9d is :olly unselfi%2 x ne$s no o!r prompt+ ?an ! fact t "s "o is 9 pa91 or may be made happi] by some?+ )9 ! p[] ( ! ag5t4 ,! objectors ne$ to be rem9d$ t ,obligatory ,morality1 :i* works by puni%m5t1 creates a purely selfi% motive2 t ,optional ,morality1 9 s f> z /imulat$ by ,rew>d1 is also selfi%2 & t ! only s\rce ( purely dis9t]e/$ impulses is 9 ! unprompt$ ,sympa?y ( ! individual m9d4 ,if su* sympa?ies exi/1 & if no?+ is done to uproot or p>alyze !m1 !y w urge m5 to d good to o!rs1 irrespective ( all !ories4 ,good done f any o!r s\rce or motive is necess>ily self-seek+4 ,x is a common rem>k1 ) ref]5ce to ! sanctions ( a future life1 t !y create purely self-reg>d+ motives4 ,any proposal to increase dis9t]e/$ action by moral obligation conta9s a self-contradiction2 x is suicidal4 ,! ri* may be made to give half _! weal? to ! poor2 b 9 z f> z !y are made to d x1 !y are n b5evol5t4 ,law di/ru/s g5]osity & sup]s$es x4 ,if a man is expect$ to reg>d ! happ9ess ( o!rs z an end 9 itself1 & n z means to 8 own happ9ess1 he mu/ be left to 8 own impulses3 '! quality ( m]cy is n /ra9$' ,! advocates ( ,utility may obs]ve non-int]f]5ce z well z o!rs4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,! ,,moral ,,faculty4 #a4 ,! *ief "q 9 ! ,psy*ology ( ,e?ics is :e!r ! ,moral ,faculty1 or ,consci5ce1 be a simple or a complex fact ( ! m9d4 ,practically1 x w\ld seem ( little importance 9 :at way ! moral faculty orig9at$1 except ) a view to tea* u h[ x may be be/ /r5g!n$ :5 x happ5s to be weak4 ,/ill1 a v great importance has be5 atta*$ to ! view1 t x is simple & innate2 ! supposition be+ t a high] au?ority !reby belongs to x4 ,if x arises f m]e education1 x dep5ds on ! tea*] = ! "t be+2 if x exi/s prior to all education1 x seems to be ! voice ( univ]sal nature or ( ,god4 #b4 ,9 fav\r ( ! simple & intuitive "* ( ,moral ,s5tim5t1 x is argu$3-- ,fir/1 ,t our judgm5ts ( "r & wrong are imm$iate & in/antane\s4 ,on almo/ all occasions1 we are ready at once to pron\nce an action "r or wrong4 ,we d n ne$ to delib]ate or enquire1 or to canvass reasons & consid]ations = & aga9/1 9 ord] to decl>e a murd]1 a !ft1 or a lie to be wrong4 ,we are fully arm$ ) ! p[] ( decid+ all su* que/ions2 we d n hesitate1 l a p]son t has to consult a v>iety ( diff]5t faculties or int]e/s4 ,j z we pron\nce at once :e!r ! day is light or d>k1 hot or cold2 :e!r a weight is light or heavy2--we are able to say :e!r an action is morally "r or ! opposite4 #c4 ,secondly1 ,x is a faculty or p[] belong+ to all mank9d4 ,?is 0 express$ by ,cic]o1 9 a fam\s passage1 (t5 quot$ ) approbation1 by ! support]s ( innate moral di/9ctions4 ',!re is "o true & orig9al law con=mable to reason & to nature1 diffus$ ov] all1 inv>iable1 et]nal1 :i* calls to duty & det]s f inju/ice1 c4' #d4 ,?irdly1 ,moral ,s5tim5t is said to be radically diff]5t 9 its nature f any o!r fact or ph5om5on ( ! m9d4 ,! peculi> /ate ( discrim9at+ "r & wrong1 involv+ approbation & disapprobation1 is consid]$ to be entirely unlike any o!r m5tal elem5t2 &1 if s1 we are preclud$ f resolv+ or analyz+ x into simpl] modes ( feel+1 will+1 or ?9k+4 ,we h _m feel+s t urge u to act & ab/a9 f act+2 b ! prompt+ ( consci5ce has some?+ peculi> to itself1 :i* has be5 express$ by ! t]ms rightness1 au?ority1 supremacy4 ,o!r motives1--hung]1 curiosity1 b5evol5ce1 & s on1--h might1 ?is has "r4 ,s1 ! ,intellect has _m occasions = putt+ =? its aptitudes ( discrim9at+1 id5tify+1 rememb]+2 b ! op]ation ( disc]n+ "r & wrong is suppos$ to be a unique employm5t ( ^? functions4 #e4 ,9 reply to ^! argum5ts1 & 9 support ( ! view t ! ,moral ,faculty is complex & d]iv$1 ! foll[+ consid]ations are urg$3-- ,fir/1 ,! ,imm$iat5ess ( a judgm5t1 is no pro( ( its be+ innate2 long practice or famili>ity has ! same effect4 ,9 proportion z we are habituat$ to any subject1 or any class ( op]ations1 our decisions are rapid & indep5d5t ( delib]ation4 ,an exp]t geomet] sees at a glance :e!r a demon/ration is correct4 ,9 extempore spee*1 a p]son has to p]=m e mom5t a s]ies ( judgm5ts z to ! suitability ( words to mean+1 to gramm>1 to ta/e1 to effect ^u an audi5ce4 ,an old soldi] kn[s 9 an in/ant1 )\t ?\ght or delib]ation1 :e!r a position is suffici5tly gu>d$4 ,!re is no great] rapidity 9 ! judgm5ts ( "r & wrong1 ?an 9 ^! acquir$ pr(essional judgm5ts4 ,moreov]1 ! decisions ( consci5ce are quick only 9 ! simpl] cases4 ,x happ5s n unfrequ5tly t difficult & protract$ delib]ations are necess>y to a moral judgm5t4 #f4 ,secondly1 ,! alleg$ simil>ity ( m5's moral judgm5ts 9 all c\ntries & times holds only to a limit$ degree4 ,! v great diff]5ces among diff]5t nations1 z to :at con/itutes "r & wrong1 are too num]\s1 /rik+1 & s]i\s1 n to h be5 (t5 br\ght =w>d 9 ,e?ical controv]sy4 ,robb]y & murd] are legaliz$ 9 :ole nations4 ,macaulay's picture ( ! ,highl& ,*ief ( =m] days is n s+ul> 9 ! exp]i5ce ( mank9d4 ',8 own vassals1 inde$1 7 few 9 numb]1 b he came ( ! be/ blood ( ! ,highl&s4 ,he kept up a close connexion ) 8 m p[]ful k9sm52 nor did !y l him ! less because he 0 a robb]2 = he nev] robb$ !m2 & t robb]y1 m]ely z robb]y1 0 a wick$ & disgraceful act1 _h nev] ent]$ into ! m9d ( any ,celtic *ief4' ,v>i\s answ]s h be5 giv5 by ! advocates ( innate morality to ^! s]i\s discrepancies4 7#a7 ,x is ma9ta9$ t savage or uncultivat$ nations are n a fair crit]ion ( mank9d g5]ally3 t z m5 become m civiliz$1 !y approximate to unity ( moral s5tim5t2 & :at civiliz$ m5 agree 91 is alone to be tak5 z ! judgm5t ( ! race4 ,n[1 ?is argum5t w\ld h great weight1 9 any discussion z to :at is good1 useful1 exp$i5t1 or :at is 9 accordance ) ! cultivat$ reason or intellig5ce ( mank9d2 because civilization consi/s 9 ! ex]cise ( m5's intellectual faculties to improve _! condition4 ,b 9 a controv]sy z to :at is giv5 u by nature1--:at we possess indep5d5tly ( intellig5t se>* & exp]i5ce1--! appeal to civilization does n apply4 ,:at civiliz$ m5 agree ^u among !mselves1 z oppos$ to savages1 is likely to be ! rev]se ( a natural in/9ct2 9 o!r words1 some?+ sugge/$ by reason & exp]i5ce4 ,9 ! next place1 c\nt+ only civiliz$ races1 t is1 includ+ ! *ief ,european1 ,am]ican1 & ,asiatic peoples ( ! pres5t day1 & ! ,greeks & ,romans ( ! anci5t _w1 we /ill f9d disp>ities on :at are deem$ by u fundam5tal po9ts ( moral "r & wrong4 ,polygamy is reg>d$ z "r 9 ,turkey1 ,india1 & ,*9a1 & z wrong 9 ,engl&4 ,m>riages t we pron\nce ince/u\s 7 legitimate 9 anci5t times4 ,! views ent]ta9$ by ,plato & ,ari/otle z to ! int]c\rse ( ! sexes are n[ look$ ^u ) abhorr5ce4 7#b7 ,x has be5 repli$ t1 al?\gh m5 diff] greatly 9 :at !y consid] "r & wrong1 !y all agree 9 possess+ "s notion ( "r & wrong4 ,no p are entirely devoid ( moral judgm5ts4 ,b ?is is to surr5d] ! only position ( any real importance4 ,! simple & und]iv$ "* ( ! moral faculty is ma9ta9$ because ( ! sup]ior au?ority atta*$ to :at is natural1 z oppos$ to :at is m]ely conv5tional4 ,b if no?+ be natural b ! m]e fact ( "r & wrong1 :ile all ! details1 :i* alone h any value1 are settl$ by conv5tion & cu/om1 we are z mu* at sea on "o sy/em z on ! o!r4 7#c7 ,x is fully admitt$1 be+1 inde$1 impossible to d5y1 t education mu/ concur ) natural impulses 9 mak+ up ! moral s5tim5t4 ,no human be+1 ab&on$ entirely to native prompt+s1 is ev] f\nd to manife/ a s5se ( "r & wrong4 ,z a g5]al rule1 ! /r5g? ( ! consci5ce dep5ds on ! c>e be/[$ on its cultivation4 ,al?\gh we h _h to recognize primitive di/9ctions among m5 z to ! read9ess to take on moral tra9+1 /ill1 ! bett] ! tra9+1 ! /rong] w be ! consci5ti\s det]m9ations4 ,b ?is admission has ! effect ( r$uc+ ! "p p]=m$ by nature to a small & unc]ta9 am\nt4 ,ev5 if !re 7 native pref]5ces1 !y might be completely ov]borne & rev]s$ by an assidu\s education4 ,! diff]5ce made by inculcation is s great1 t x practically am\nts to ev]y?+4 ,a voice s feeble z to be ov]p[]$ by =eign elem5ts w\ld d no cr$it to nature4 #g4 ,?irdly1 ,moral "r & wrong is n s mu* a simple1 indivisible prop]ty1 z an ext5sive ,code ( regulations1 :i* _c ev5 be und]/ood )\t a c]ta9 maturity ( ! intellig5ce4 ,if is n possible to sum up ! :ole field ( moral "r & wrong1 s z to br+ x )9 ! scope ( a s+le limit$ p]ception1 l ! p]ception ( resi/ance1 or ( col\r4 ,9 reg>d to "s ( ! alleg$ intuitions at ! f\ndation ( our k1 z = example "t & space1 !re is a comp>ative simplicity & unity1 r5d]+ _! innate orig9 less disputable4 ,no su* simplicity c be assign$ 9 ! region ( duty4 ,aft] ! subject ( morals has be5 /udi$ 9 ! detail1 x has1 inde$1 be5 f\nd practicable to comprise ! :ole1 by a k9d ( g5]alization1 9 "o compreh5sive recognition ( reg>d to our fell[s4 ,b1 9 ! fir/ place1 ?is is f> f a primitive or an intuitive sugge/ion ( ! m9d4 ,x came at a late /age ( human hi/ory1 & is ev5 reg>d$ z a "p ( ,revelation4 ,9 ! second place1 ?is high g5]ality mu/ be accompani$ ) detail$ applications to p>ticul> cases & circum/ances4 ,life is full ( conflict+ dem&s1 & !re mu/ be special rules to adju/ ^! v>i\s dem&s4 ,we h to be told t c\ntry is great] ?an family2 t tempor>y int]e/s are to succumb to m endur+1 & s on4 ,suppos+ ! ,love ( our ,neighb\r to unfold 9 detail1 z x expresses 9 sum1 ! :ole ( morality1 ?is is only ano!r "n = our ,sympa!tic1 ,b5evol5t1 or ,dis9t]e/$ reg>ds1 into :i* !re=e ,consci5ce w\ld be resolv$1 z x 0 by ,hume4 ,b ,morals is prop]ly consid]$ z a wide-rang+ sci5ce1 hav+ a v>iety ( heads full ( difficulty1 & dem&+ m9ute consid]ation4 ,! subject ( ,ju/ice1 has no?+ simple b ! ab/ract /atem5t--giv+ ea* "o _! due2 be=e t c be appli$1 we mu/ asc]ta9 :at is ea* p]son's due1 :i* introduces complex que/ions ( relative m]it1 f> transc5d+ ! sph]e ( intuition4 ,if any "p ( ,morals _h ! simplicity ( an in/9ct1 x w\ld be reg>d to ,tru?4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 tru? & falsehood might almo/ be reg>d$ z a primitive susceptibility1 l ! diff]5ce betwe5 light & d>k1 betwe5 resi/ance & non-resi/ance4 ,t ea* p]son %\ld say :at is1 in/ead ( :at is n1 may well seem a primitive & natural impulse4 ,9 circum/ances ( p]fect indiff]5ce1 ?is w\ld be ! obvi\s & usual c\rse ( conduct2 be+1 l ! /raight l9e1 ! %orte/ di/ance betwe5 two po9ts4 ,let a motive arise1 h[ev]1 9 fav\r ( ! lie1 & !re is no?+ to insure ! tru?4 ,ref]5ce mu/ be made to o!r p>ts ( ! m9d1 f :i* c\nt]-motives may be furni%$2 & ! intuition 9 fav\r ( ,tru?1 n be+ able to support itself1 has to repose on ! g5]al f\ndation ( all virtue1 ! in/itut$ recognition ( ! claims ( o!rs4 #h4 ,f\r?ly1 ,intuition is incapable ( settl+ ! debat$ que/ions ( ,practical ,morality4 ,if we recall "s ( ! great que/ions ( practical life t h divid$ ! op9ions ( mank9d1 we %all f9d t m]e ,intuition is helpless to decide !m4 ,! tol]ation ( h]etical op9ions has be5 a greatly conte/$ po9t4 ,our feel+s are array$ on bo? sides2 & !re is no prompt+ ( nature to arbitrate betwe5 ! oppos+ impulses4 ,if ! advance ( civilization has t5d$ to lib]ty1 x has be5 ow+ p>tly to great] enlight5m5t1 & p>tly to ! successful /ruggles ( diss5t 9 ! w> ) e/abli%$ op9ion4 ,! que/ions relat+ to m>riage are :olly undecideable by intuition4 ,! natural impulses are = unlimit$ co-habitation4 ,! degree ( re/ra9t to be put ^u ?is t5d5cy is n indicat$ by any s5tim5t t c be discov]$ 9 ! m9d4 ,! case is v peculi>4 ,9 !fts & murd]1 ! imm$iate consequ5ces are injury to "s "o2 9 sexual indulg5ce1 ! imm$iate result is agreeable to all conc]n$4 ,! evils are traceable only 9 remote consequ5ces1 :i* intuition c "k no?+ (4 ,x is n to be wond]$1 !re=e1 t nations1 ev5 highly civiliz$1 h diff]$ widely 9 _! m>riage in/itutions2 agree+ only 9 ! propriety ( adopt+ & en=c+ "s regulations4 ,s ess5tially has ?is matt] be5 b\nd up ) ! moral code ( e society1 t a propos$ crit]ion ( morality unable to grapple ) x1 w\ld be disc>d$ z wor?less4 ,yet !re is no intuitive s5tim5t t c be ( any avail 9 ! "q ( m>riage ) a deceas$ wife's si/]4 #i4 ,fif?ly1 ,x is practicable to analyze or resolve ! ,moral ,faculty2 &1 9 s do+1 to expla91 bo? its peculi> prop]ty1 & ! simil>ity ( moral judgm5ts s f> z exi/+ among m54 ,we beg91 by e/imat+ ! op]ation ( 7#a7 ,prud5ce4 7#b7 ,sympa?y1 & 7#c7 ! ,emotions g5]ally4 ,! inducem5ts to p]=m a moral act1 z1 = example1 ! fulfill+ ( a b>ga91--are pla9ly se5 to be ( v>i\s k9ds4 7#a7 ,prud5ce1 or ,self-int]e/1 has obvi\sly mu* to d ) ! moral conduct4 ,po/pon+ = ! pres5t ! consid]ation ( ,puni%m5t1 :i* is "o mode ( appeal to ! prud5tial reg>ds1 we c trace ! work+s ( self-int]e/ on _m occasions :]e9 m5 act "r4 ,to fulfil a b>ga9 is1 9 ! great majority ( cases1 = ! advantage ( ! ag5t2 if he fails to p]=m 8 "p1 o!rs may d ! same to him4 ,our self-int]e/ may look /ill f>!r4 ,we may readily discov] t if we set an example ( inju/ice1 x may be tak5 up & repeat$ to su* a degree t we c c\nt ^u no?+2 social security comes to an end1 & individual exi/5ce1 ev5 if possible1 w\ld cease to be desirable4 ,a yet high] view ( self-int]e/ in=ms u1 t by p]=m+ all our obligations to our fell[s1 we n only atta9 reciprocal p]=mance1 b g5]ate mutual affections & sympa?ies1 :i* greatly augm5t ! happ9ess ( life4 7#b7 ,sympa?y1 or ,fell[-feel+1 ! s\rce ( our dis9t]e/$ actions1 mu/ next be tak5 into ! acc\nt4 ,x is a consequ5ce ( our sympa!tic end[m5t t we revolt f inflict+ pa9 on ano!r1 & ev5 =ego a c]ta9 satisfaction to self r ?an be ! occasion ( suff]+ to a fell[ creature4 ,mov$ ?us1 we p]=m _m obligations on ! gr\nd ( ! mis]y 7n our own7 accru+ f _! neglect4 ,a consid]able portion ( human virtue spr+s directly f ?is s\rce4 ,if purely dis9t]e/$ t5d5cies 7 )drawn f ! brea/1 ! :ole exi/5ce ( humanity w\ld be *ang$4 ,society might n be impossible2 !re are races :]e mutual sympa?y b>ely exi/s3 b ! fulfilm5t ( obligations1 if always dep5d5t on a s5se ( self-int]e/1 w\ld fail :]e t 0 n app>5t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we 7 on all occasions t\*$ ) ! unhapp9ess to o!rs imm$iately & remotely spr++ f our conduct--if sympa?y 7 p]fect & unfail+--we c\ld h>dly ev] omit do+ :at 0 "r4 7#c7 ,our sev]al ,emotions or ,passions may co-op]ate ) ,prud5ce & ) ,sympa?y 9 a way to make bo? ! "o & ! o!r m efficaci\s4 ,prud5ce1 9 ! %ape ( av]sion to pa91 is r5d]$ m acute :5 ! pa9 is accompani$ ) ,fe>4 ,! p]turbation ( fe> rises up z a det]r+ motive :5 dang]s loom 9 ! di/ance4 ,"o p[]ful *eck to ! commission ( injury is ! retaliation ( ! suff]]1 :i* is a dang] ( ! vague & illimitable k9d1 calculat$ to create al>m4 ,ang]1 or ,res5tm5t1 also ent]s1 9 v>i\s ways1 into our moral impulses4 ,9 "o %ape x has j be5 notic$4 ,9 concurr5ce ) ,self-int]e/ & ,sympa?y1 x height5s ! feel+ ( reprobation aga9/ wrong-do]s4 ,! ,t5d] ,emotion1 & ! ,affections1 uphold u 9 ! p]=mance ( our duties to o!rs1 be+ an additional safegu>d aga9/ injury to ! objects ( ! feel+s4 ,x has already be5 %[n h[ ^! emotions1 :ile t5d+ to coalesce ) ,sympa?y prop]1 are yet di/+ui%$ f x4 ,! ,a,esthetic ,emotions h important be>+s ^u ,e?ical ,s5tim5t4 ,z a :ole1 !y are fav\rable to human virtue1 be+ non-exclusive pleasures4 ,!y1 h[ev]1 give a bias to ! =mation ( moral rules1 & p]v]t ! prop] te/ ( "r & wrong 9 a mann] to be aft]w>ds expla9$4 #aj4 ,al?\gh ,prud5ce & ,sympa?y1 & ! v>i\s ,emotions nam$1 are p[]ful inducem5ts to :at is "r 9 action1 & al?\gh1 )\t ^!1 "r w\ld n prevail among mank9d1 yet !y d n /amp ! peculi> attribute ( ,rightness4 ,= ?is1 we mu/ ref] to ! in/itution ( ,gov]nm5t1 or ,au?ority4 ,al?\gh ! =ce ( ^! v>i\s motives on ! side ( "r is all-p[]ful & ess5tial1 s mu* s1 t )\t !m morality w\ld be impossible1 !y d n1 ( !mselves1 imp>t ! "* ( a moral act4 ,we d n always feel t1 because we h neglect$ our int]e/ or violat$ our sympa?ies1 we h on t acc\nt done wrong4 ,! crit]ion ( rightness 9 p>ticul> cases is some?+ diff]5t4 ,! reasons are app>5t4 ,= al?\gh prud5ce1 z reg>ds self1 & sympa?y or fell[-feel+1 z reg>ds o!rs1 w\ld compreh5d all ! int]e/s ( mank9d--ev]y?+ t morality c desire to accompli%--nev]!less1 ! act+ out ( ^! impulses by ea* individual at r&om w\ld n suffice = ! exig5cies ( human life4 ,!y mu/ be regulat$1 direct$1 reconcil$ by society at l>ge2 ea* p]son mu/ be made to "w ^u ! same plan z e o!r p]son4 ,?is leads to ! in/itution ( ,gov]nm5t & ,au?ority1 ) ! correlatives ( ,law1 ,obligation1 & ,puni%m5t4 ,our natural impulses = good are n[ direct$ into an artificial *annel1 & x is no long] optional :e!r !y %all fall into t *annel4 ,! nature ( ! case requires all to con=m alike to ! g5]al arrangem5ts1 & :oev] is n suffici5tly urg$ by ! natural motives1 is br\ght "u ! spur ( a new k9d ( prud5tial motive--,puni%m5t4 ,gov]nm5t1 ,au?ority1 ,law1 ,obligation1 ,puni%m5t1 are all implicat$ 9 ! same great ,in/itution ( ,society1 to :i* ,morality owes its *ief f\ndation1 & ! ,moral ,s5tim5t its special attribute4 ,morality is n ,prud5ce1 nor ,b5evol5ce1 9 _! primitive or spontane\s manife/ations2 x is ! sy/ematic codification ( prud5tial & b5evol5t actions1 r5d]$ obligatory by :at is t]m$ p5alties or ,puni%m5t2 an entirely di/9ct motive1 artificially fram$ by human society1 b made s famili> to e memb] ( society z to be a second nature4 ,none are all[$ to be prud5tial or sympa?iz+ 9 _! own way4 ,p>5ts are compell$ to n\ri% _! own *ildr52 s]vants to obey _! own ma/]s1 to ! neglect ( o!r reg>ds2 all citiz5s h to abide by ! aw>ds ( au?ority2 b>ga9s are to be fulfill$ accord+ to a prescrib$ =m & lett]2 tru? is to be spok5 on c]ta9 def9ite occasions1 & n on o!rs4 ,9 a =m$ society1 ! v be/ impulses ( nature fail to guide ! citiz5's actions4 ,no d\bt !re ought to be a g5]al co9cid5ce betwe5 :at ,prud5ce & ,sympa?y w\ld dictate1 & :at ,law dictates2 b ! precise adju/m5t is a matt] ( in/itution4 ,a moral act is n m]ely an act t5d+ to reconcile ! good ( ! ag5t ) ! good ( ! :ole society2 x is an act1 prescrib$ by ! social au?ority1 & r5d]$ obligatory ^u e citiz54 ,its morality is con/itut$ by its au?oritative prescription1 & n by its fulfill+ ! prim>y ends ( ! social in/itution4 ,a bad law is /ill a law2 an ill-judg$ moral precept is /ill a moral precept1 felt z su* by e loyal citiz54 #aa4 ,x may be prov$1 by su* evid5ce z ! case admits (1 t ! peculi>ity ( ! ,moral ,s5tim5t1 or ,consci5ce1 is id5tifi$ ) our education "u gov]nm5t1 or ,au?ority4 ,consci5ce is describ$ by su* t]ms z moral approbation & disapprobation2 & involves1 :5 highly develop$1 a peculi> & unmi/akeable revulsion ( m9d at :at is wrong1 & a /rong res5tm5t t[>ds ! wrong-do]1 :i* become ,remorse1 9 ! case ( self4 ,x is capable ( be+ prov$1 t !re is no?+ natural or primitive 9 ^! feel+s1 except 9 s f> z ! case happ5s to concur ) ! dictates ( ,self-int]e/1 or ,sympa?y1 aid$ by ! ,emotions =m]ly specifi$4 ,any action t is ho/ile to our int]e/1 excites a =m ( disapprobation1 su* z belongs to w\nd$ self-int]e/2 & any action t puts ano!r to pa9 may s affect our natural sympa?y z to be disapprov$1 & res5t$ on t gr\nd4 ,^! natural or inborn feel+s are always liable to co9cide ) moral "r & wrong1 al?\gh !y are n its crit]ion or measure 9 ! m9d ( ea* individual4 ,b 9 ^? cases :]e an unusually /rong feel+ ( moral disapprobation is awak5$1 !re is apt to be a concurr5ce ( ! primitive motives ( self1 & ( fell[-feel+2 & x is ! ideal ( good law1 & good morality to co9cide ) a c]ta9 well-proportion$ adju/m5t ( ! ,prud5tial & ! ,sympa!tic reg>ds ( ! individual4 ,! requisite all[ance be+ made = ! natural impulses1 we mu/ n[ adduce ! facts1 %[+ t ! *>act]i/ic ( ! ,moral ,s5se is an education "u ,law1 or ,au?ority1 ?r\gh ! in/rum5tality ( ,puni%m5t4 7#a7 ,x is a fact t human be+s liv+ 9 society are plac$ "u discipl9e1 accompani$ by puni%m5t4 ,c]ta9 actions are =bidd51 & ! do]s ( !m are subject$ to "s pa9ful infliction2 :i* is increas$ 9 sev]ity if !y are p]si/$ 94 ,n[1 :at w\ld be ! natural consequ5ce ( su* a sy/em1 "u ! kn[n laws ( feel+1 w1 & intellect8 ,w\ld n an action t always br+s d[n puni%m5t be associat$ ) ! pa9 & ! dread ( puni%m5t8 ,su* an association is inevitably =m$1 & becomes at lea/ a "p1 & a v important "p1 ( ! s5se ( duty2 nay1 x w\ld ( itself1 aft] a c]ta9 am\nt ( repetition1 be adequate to re/ra9 = ev] ! p]=mance ( ! action1 ?us atta9+ ! end ( morality4 ,!re may be v>i\s ways ( evok+ & =m+ ! moral s5tim5t1 b ! "o way mo/ commonly tru/$ to1 & nev] altoge!r disp5s$ )1 is ! associat+ ( pa91 t is1 puni%m5t1 ) ! actions t are disall[$4 ,puni%m5t is held out z ! consequ5ce ( p]=m+ c]ta9 actions2 e individual is made to ta/e ( x2 its infliction is "o ( ! mo/ famili> occurr5ces ( e-day life4 ,consequ5tly1 :atev] else may be pres5t 9 ! moral s5tim5t1 ?is fact ( ! connexion ( pa9 ) =bidd5 actions mu/ ent] into x ) an ov]p[]+ prom95ce4 ,any natural or primitive impulse 9 ! direction ( duty mu/ be v m>k$ & app>5t1 9 ord] to divide ) ?is communicat$ bias ! direction ( our conduct4 ,x is = ! support]s ( innate di/9ctions to po9t out any concurr+ impetus 7ap>t f ! ,prud5tial & ,sympa!tic reg>ds7 suffici5tly important to ca/ ^! p[]ful associations into a second>y or subord9ate position4 ,by a famili> effect ( ,contigu\s ,association1 ! dread ( puni%m5t clo!s ! =bidd5 act ) a feel+ ( av]sion1 :i* 9 ! end p]si/s ( its own accord1 & )\t ref]5ce to ! puni%m5t4 ,actions t h long be5 connect$ 9 ! m9d ) pa9s & p5alties1 come to be contemplat$ ) a dis9t]e/$ repugnance2 !y seem to give pa9 on _! own acc\nt4 ,?is is a p>allel1 f ! side ( pa91 ( ! acquir$ atta*m5t to money4 ,n[1 :51 by su* transf]5ce1 a self-subsi/+ s5tim5t ( av]sion has be5 creat$1 ! consci5ce seems to be deta*$ f all ext]nal sanctions1 & to possess an isolat$ foot+ 9 ! m9d4 ,x has pass$ ?r\gh ! /age ( ref]5ce to au?ority1 & has become a law to itself4 ,b no consci5ce ev] arrives at ! indep5d5t /&+1 )\t fir/ exi/+ 9 ! reflect$ & dep5d5t /age4 ,we mu/ nev] omit f ! composition ( ! ,consci5ce ! prim>y impulses ( ,self-,int]e/ & ,sympa?y1 :i* 9 m9ds /rongly alive to "o or o!r1 always c\nt = a p[]ful elem5t 9 human conduct1 al?\gh = reasons already /at$1 n ! /rictly moral elem5t1 s f> z ! individual is conc]n$4 ,!y are adopt$1 m or less1 by ! au?ority impos+ ! moral code2 & :5 ! two s\rces co9cide1 ! /ream is all ! /rong]4 7#b7 ,:]e moral tra9+ is omitt$ or greatly neglect$1 !re is an abs5ce ( security = virtu\s conduct4 ,9 no civiliz$ community is moral discipl9e entirely want+4 ,al?\gh *ildr5 may be neglect$ by _! p>5ts1 !y come at la/ "u ! discipl9e ( ! law & ! public4 ,!y _c be exempt$ f ! associations ( puni%m5t ) wrong4 ,b :5 ^! associations h n be5 e>ly & s$ul\sly =m$1 9 ! family1 9 ! s*ool1 & 9 ! work%op1 ! moral s5tim5t is left 9 a feeble condition4 ,!re /ill rema9 ! =ce ( ! law & ( public op9ion1 ! examples ( public puni%m5t1 & ! reprobation ( guilt4 ,e memb] ( ! community mu/ witness daily ! degrad$ condition ( ! vici\sly dispos$1 & ! prosp]ity foll[+ on respect = ! law4 ,no human be+ escapes f ?us contract+ moral impressions to a v l>ge am\nt4 7#c7 ,:5ev] an action is associat$ ) ,disapprobation & ,puni%m5t1 !re gr[s up1 9 ref]5ce to x1 a /ate ( m9d undi/+ui%able f ,moral ,s5tim5t4 ,!re are _m in/ances :]e individuals are enjo9$ to a c\rse ( conduct :olly indiff]5t ) reg>d to univ]sal morality1 z 9 ! regulations ( societies =m$ = special purposes4 ,ea* memb] ( ! society has to con=m to ^! regulations1 "u pa9 ( =feit+ all ! b5efits ( ! society1 & ( p]haps incurr+ positive evils4 ,! code ( hon\r among g5tlem5 is an example ( ^! artificial impositions4 ,x is n to be suppos$ t !re %\ld be an innate s5tim5t to p]=m actions hav+ no?+ to d-) moral "r & wrong2 yet ! disapprobation & ! remorse foll[+ on a brea* ( ! code ( hon\r1 w (t5 be great] ?an :at foll[s a brea* ( ! moral law4 ,! con/ant habit ( reg>d+ ) dread ! consequ5ces ( violat+ any ( ! rules1 simulates a moral s5tim5t1 on a subject unconnect$ ) morality prop]ly s call$4 ,! arbitr>y c]emonial cu/oms ( nations1 ) ref]5ce to su* po9ts z ablutions1 clo?+1 eat+ & ab/95ce f meats1--:5 r5d]$ obligatory by ! =ce ( p5alties1 occupy exactly ! same place 9 ! m9d z ! pr9ciples ( moral "r & wrong4 ,! same =m ( dread atta*es to ! consequ5ces ( neglect2 ! same remorse is felt by ! individual (f5d]4 ,! exposure ( ! nak$ p]son is z mu* abhorr$ z tell+ a lie4 ,! ,turki% woman expos+ h] face1 is no less consci5ce-smitt5 ?an if %e murd]$ h] *ild4 ,!re is no act1 h[ev] trivial1 t _c be rais$ to ! position ( a moral act1 by ! imp]ative ( society4 ,/ill m /rik+ is ! gr[? ( a moral s5tim5t 9 connexion ) su* usages z ! ,h9doo suttee4 ,x is kn[n t ! ,h9doo wid[1 if prev5t$ f burn+ h]self ) h] husb&'s corpse1 (t5 feels all ! pangs ( remorse1 & leads a life ( mis]y & self-humiliation4 ,! habitual inculcation ( ?is duty by society1 ! p5alty ( disgrace atta*$ to its omission1 op]ate to implant a s5tim5t 9 e respect analog\s to ! /ronge/ moral s5tim5t4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,! ,,e?ical ,,sy/ems4 ,! fir/ important "n 9 ,anci5t ,e?ical ,philosophy is ,,sokrates4 #dfi-cii ,b4,c4 ,= ! views ( ,sokrates1 z well z 8 me?od1#d we h fir/ ! ,,memorabilia ( ,,x5ophon1 & next su* ( ! ,platonic ,compositions1 z are judg$1 by comp>ison ) ! ,memorabilia1 to keep close/ to ! real ,sokrates4 ,( ^!1 ! *ief are ! ,,apology ,,( ,,sokrates1 ! ,,kriton & ! ,,pha$on4 ,! ',memorabilia' 0 compos$ by ,x5ophon1 expressly to v9dicate ,sokrates aga9/ ! accusations & unfav\rable op9ions t l$ to 8 execution4 ,! ',apology' is ,plato's acc\nt ( 8 me?od1 & also sets =? 8 moral attitude4 ,! ',kriton' describes a conv]sation betwe5 him & 8 fri5d ,kriton1 9 prison1 two days be=e 8 dea?1 :]e91 9 reply to ! entreaties ( 8 fri5ds g5]ally t he %\ld make 8 escape f prison1 he decl>es 8 det]m9ation to abide by ! laws ( ! ,a!nian ,/ate4 ,inasmu* z1 9 ! ,apology1 he _h seem$ to set 8 private convictions above ! public au?ority1 he "h pres5ts ano!r side ( 8 "*4 ,! ',pha$on' conta9s ! conv]sation on '! ,immortality ( ! ,s\l' j be=e 8 execution4 ,! ,e?ical be>+s ( ! ,philosophical me?od1 ! ,doctr9es1 & ! ,life ( ,sokrates4 are ^!3-- ,! direction he gave to philosophical enquiry1 0 express$ 9 ! say+ t he br\ght ',philosophy d[n f ,heav5 to ,e>?4' ,8 subjects 7 ,man & ,society4 ,he ent]$ a prote/ aga9/ ! enquiries ( ! e>ly philosoph]s z to ! con/itution ( ! ,kosmos1 ! nature ( ! ,heav5ly ,bodies1 ! !ory ( ,w9ds & ,/orms4 ,he call$ ^! ,div9e ?+s2 & 9 a great degree useless1 if und]/ood4 ,! ,human relations ( life1 ! v>ieties ( conduct ( m5 t[>ds ea* o!r 9 all capacities1 7 alone )9 ! compass ( k1 & capable ( yield+ fruit4 ,9 %ort1 8 turn ( m9d 0 ?or\ghly practical1 we might say utilit>ian4 ,i4--,he gave a f\ndation & a %ape to ,e?ical ,sci5ce1 by insi/+ on its practical "*1 & by %[+ t1 l ! o!r arts ( life1 x _h an ,end1 & a ,!ory f :i* fl[s ! precepts or means4 ,! ,end1 :i* w\ld be ! ,,/&>d1 0 n /at$ by him1 & h>dly ev5 by ,plato1 o!rwise ?an 9 g5]al language2 ! ,summum ,bonum _h n z yet become a matt] ( close debate4 ',! art ( deal+ ) human be+s1' '! art ( behav+ 9 society1' '! sci5ce ( human happ9ess1' 7 v>i\s modes ( express+ ! f9al end ( conduct4#e ,sokrates cle>ly indicat$ ! diff]5ce betwe5 an unsci5tific & a sci5tific art2 ! "o is an incommunicable knack or dext]ity1 ! o!r is f\nd$ on !oretical pr9ciples4 ,,ii4--,not)/&+ 8 pr(ess+ ignorance ( :at virtue is1 ,sokrates _h a def9ite doctr9e ) ref]5ce to ,e?ics1 :i* we may call 8 ,,psy*ology ( ! subject4 ,?is 0 ! doctr9e t resolves ,virtue into ,k1 ,vice into ,ignorance or ,folly4 ',to d "r 0 ! only way to imp>t happ9ess1 or ! lea/ degree ( unhapp9ess compatible ) any giv5 situation3 n[1 ?is 0 precisely :at e "o wi%$ = & aim$ at--only t _m p]sons1 f ignorance1 took ! wrong road2 & no man 0 wise en\gh always to take ! "r4 ,b z no man 0 will+ly 8 own enemy1 s no man ev] did wrong will+ly2 x 0 because he 0 n fully or correctly in=m$ ( ! consequ5ces ( 8 own actions2 s t ! prop] rem$y to apply1 0 enl>g$ tea*+ ( consequ5ces & improv$ judgm5t4 ,to make him will+ to be taught1 ! only condition requir$ 0 to make him consci\s ( 8 own ignorance2 ! want ( :i* consci\sness 0 ! real cause bo? ( indocility & ( vice' 7,grote74 ,?is doctr9e grew out ( 8 fav\rite analogy betwe5 social duty & a pr(ession or trade4 ,:5 ! artizan goes wrong1 x is usually f pure ignorance or incapacity2 he is will+ to d good "w if he is able4 ,,iii4--,! ,,summum ,,bonum ) ,sokrates 0 ,well-do+4 ,he _h no ideal ( pursuit = man ap>t f virtue1 or :at he e/eem$ virtue--! noble & ! praisewor?y4 ,?is 0 ! elevat$ po9t ( view ma9ta9$ alike by him & by ,plato1 & common to !m ) ! ideal ( mod]n ages4 ,well-do+ consi/$ 9 do+ well :atev] a man und]took4 ',! be/ man1' he said1 '& ! mo/ belov$ by ! gods1 is he t1 z a husb&man1 p]=ms well ! duties ( husb&ry2 z a surgeon1 ! duties ( ! m$ical art2 9 political life1 8 duty t[>ds ! commonweal?4 ,! man t does no?+ well is nei!r useful nor agreeable to ! gods4' ,& z k is ess5tial to all und]tak+s1 k is ! "o ?+ ne$ful4 ,?is exclusive reg>d to k 0 8 "o-sid$ness z a moral !ori/2 b he did n consi/5tly exclude all ref]5ce to ! volunt>y control ( appetite & passion4 ,,iv4--,he inculcat$ ,practical ,precepts ( a self-d5y+ k9d1 int5d$ to curb ! excesses ( human desire & ambition4 ,he urg$ ! pleasures ( self-improvem5t & ( duty aga9/ indulg5ces1 hon\rs1 & worldly advancem5t4 ,9 ! ',apology1' he /ates x z ! second aim ( 8 life 7aft] imp>t+ ! %ock ( consci\s ignorance7 to reproa* m5 = pursu+ weal? & glory m ?an wisdom & virtue4 ,9 ',kriton1' he lays x d[n t we are nev] to act wrongly or unju/ly1 al?\gh o!rs are unju/ to u4 ,&1 9 8 own life1 he furni%$ an illu/ri\s example ( 8 tea*+4 ,! same l(ty /ra9 0 tak5 up by ,plato1 & repeat$ 9 mo/ ( ! subsequ5t ,e?ical s*ools4 ,v4--,8 ,e?ical ,!ory ext5d$ itself to ,gov]nm5t1 :]e he appli$ 8 analogy ( ! special arts4 ,! legitimate ,k+ 0 he t knew h[ to gov]n well4 ,,vi4--,! connexion 9 ! m9d ( ,sokrates betwe5 ,e?ics & ,!ology 0 v sl5d]4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 8 di/9ction ( ,div9e & ,human ?+s1 0 an exclusion ( ! arbitr>y w ( ! gods f human affairs1 or f ^? ?+s t con/itut$ ! e?ical end4 ,b 9 ! next place1 he always pres]v$ a pi\s & rev]5tial tone ( m9d2 & consid]$ t1 aft] pati5t /udy1 m5 %\ld /ill consult ! oracles1 by :i* ! gods1 9 cases ( difficulty1 graci\sly signifi$ _! int5tions1 & _! b5efic5t c>e ( ! race4 ,!n1 ! practice ( well-do+ 0 prompt$ by ref]5ce to ! satisfaction ( ! gods4 ,9 s f> z ! gods adm9i/]$ ! _w 9 a "r _s1 !y w\ld %[ fav\r to ! virtu\s4 ,,plato4 #dbg-cdg ,b4,c4 ,! ,e?ical ,doctr9es ( ,plato are scatt]$ ?r\gh 8 v>i\s ,dialogues2 & incorporat$ ) 8 philosophical me?od1 ) 8 !ory ( ,ideas1 & ) 8 !ories ( man & ( society4 ,f ,sokrates1 ,plato d]iv$ ,dialectics1 or ! me?od ( ,debate2 he embodi$ all 8 views 9 imag9>y conv]sations1 or ,dialogues1 sugge/$ by1 & resembl+ ! real conv]sations ( ,sokrates4 ,& f>!r1 9 imitation ( 8 ma/]1 he c>ri$ on 8 se>* aft] tru? "u ! guise ( asc]ta9+ ! exact mean+ or def9ition ( lead+ t]ms2 z ,virtue1 ,c\rage1 ,hol9ess1 ,temp]ance1 ,ju/ice1 ,law1 ,beauty1 ,k1 ,rhetoric1 c4 ,we %all fir/ pass 9 review ! *ief ,dialogues conta9+ ,e?ical doctr9es4 ,! ,,apology1 ,,kriton1 & ,,eu?yphron 7we foll[ ,mr4 ,grote's ord]7 may be pass$ by z belong+ m to 8 ma/] ?an to himself2 moreov]1 ev]y?+ conta9$ 9 !m w be f\nd recurr+ 9 o!r dialogues4 ,! ,,alkibiades ,i4 is a good specim5 ( ! ,sokratic mann]4 ,x br+s out ! loose discordant notions ( ,j & ,unju/ prevail+ 9 ! community2 sets =? t ! ,j is also hon\rable1 good1 & exp$i5t--! cause ( happ9ess to ! j man2 urges ! importance ( ,self-k2 & ma9ta9s t ! conditions ( happ9ess are n weal? & p[]1 b ,ju/ice & ,temp]ance4 ,,alkibiades ,,ii4 br+s out a ,platonic position z to ! ,good4 ,!re are a numb] ( ?+s t are good1 z heal?1 money1 family1 b !re is f>!r requir$ ! skill to apply ^! 9 prop] measure to ! supreme end ( life4 ,all k is n valuable2 !re may be cases :]e ignorance is bett]4 ,:at we are pr9cipally int]e/$ 9 kn[+ is ! ,good1 ! ,be/1 ! ,pr(itable4 ,! man ( mu* le>n+1 )\t ?is1 is l a vessel toss$ on ! sea )\t a pilot4#f ,9 ,,hippias ,,m9or1 appe>s an extreme /atem5t ( ! doctr9e1 common to ,sokrates & ,plato1 id5tify+ virtue ) k1 or giv+ exclusive att5tion to ! intellectual elem5t ( conduct4 ,x is urg$ t a m5daci\s p]son1 able to tell ! tru? if he *ooses1 is bett] ?an "o unable to tell x1 al?\gh wi%+ to d s2 ! k is ( great] wor? ?an ! good disposition4 ,9 ,,m9os 7or ! ,def9ition ( ,law7 he refuses to accept ! decree ( ! /ate z a law1 b po/ulates ! decision ( "s ,ideal wise man4 ,?is is a foll[+ out ( ! ,sokratic analogy ( ! pr(essions1 to a purely ideal dem&2 ! wise man is nev] producible4 ,9 _m dialogues 7,kriton1 ,la*es1 c47 ! decision ( "s ,exp]t is s\ght1 z a physician is consult$ 9 disease2 b ! ,moral exp]t is unkn[n to any actual community4 ,9 ,,la*es1 ! "q ':at is ,virtue8' is put2 x is argu$ "u ! special virtue ( ,c\rage4 ,9 a truly ,sokratic dialogue1 ,sokrates is 9 se>* ( a def9ition ( ,c\rage2 z happ5s 9 ! se>* dialogues1 !re is no def9ite result1 b ! drift ( ! discussion is to make c\rage a mode ( intellig5ce1 & to resolve x into ! gr& desid]atum ( ! k ( good & evil--belong+ to ! ,"o ,wise ,man4 ,,*>mides discusses ,temp]ance4 ,z usual ) ,plato 9 discuss+ ! virtues1 ) a view to _! ,logical def9ition1 he presupposes t ?is is some?+ b5eficial & good4 ,v>i\s def9itions are giv5 ( ,temp]ance2 & all are reject$2 b ! dialogue falls into ! same track z ! ,la*es1 9 putt+ =w>d ! supreme sci5ce ( good & evil4 ,x is a happy example ( ! ,sokratic mann] & purpose1 ( expos+ ! conceit ( k1 ! fancy t p und]/& ! mean+ ( ! g5]al t]ms habitually employ$4 ,,lysis on ,fri5d%ip1 or ,love1 might be expect$ to furni% "s e?ical op5+s1 b x is r a piece ( dialectic1 )\t result1 f>!r ?an to imp>t ! consci\sness ( ignorance4 ,if x sugge/s any?+ positive1 x is ! ,idea ( ,good1 z ! ultimate end ( affection4 ,! subject is "o ( special int]e/ 9 anci5t ,e?ics1 z be+ "o ( ! aspects ( ,b5evol5t s5tim5t 9 ! ,pagan _w4 ,9 ,ari/otle we fir/ f9d a def9ite h&l+ ( x4 ,,m5on may be consid]$ z pre-em95tly e?ical 9 its design4 ,x is expressly devot$ to ! "q--,is ,virtue tea*able8 ,sokrates z usual confesses t he does n "k :at virtue is4 ,he w n accept a catalogue ( ! admitt$ virtues z a def9ition ( virtue1 & presses = "s common1 or def9+ attribute4 ,he advances on 8 own side 8 usual doctr9e t virtue is ,k1 or a mode ( ,k1 & t x is good & pr(itable2 :i* is m]ely an it]ation ( ! ,sci5ce ( good & evil4 ,he di/+ui%es virtue f ,"r ,op9ion1 a sort ( quasi-k1 ! k ( e/eem$ & useful citiz5s1 :i* _c be ! highe/ k1 s9ce ^! citiz5s fail to imp>t x ev5 to _! own sons4 ,9 ?is dialogue1 we h ,plato's view ( ,immortality1 :i* comprises bo? pre-exi/5ce & po/-exi/5ce4 ,! pre-exi/5ce is us$ to expla9 ! d]ivation ( g5]al notions1 or ,ideas1 :i* are antec$5t to ! p]ceptions ( s5se4 ,9 ,,protagoras1 we f9d "o ( ! mo/ important ( ! e?ical discussions ( ,plato4 ,x proce$s f ! same "q--,is virtue tea*able8--,sokrates z usual express+ 8 d\bts on ! po9t4 ,protagoras !n deliv]s a spl5did h>angue1 %[+ h[ virtue is taught--namely1 by ! practice ( society 9 approv+1 condemn+1 rew>d+1 puni%+ ! actions ( individuals4 ,f *ildhood upw>d1 e human be+ 9 society is a witness to ! moral proc$ure ( society1 & by degrees bo? kn[s1 & con=ms to1 ! maxims ( virtue ( ! society4 ,protagoras himself z a pr(ess$ tea*]1 or sophi/1 c improve b little ^u1 ?is habitual inculcation4 ,sokrates1 at ! end ( ! h>angue1 puts 9 8 usual que/ions t5d+ to br+ out ! ess5ce or def9ition ( virtue1 & soon drives ,protagoras into a corn]1 br++ him to admit a view n[h]e else develop$ 9 ,plato1 t ,pleasure is ! only good1 ,pa9 ! only evil1 & t ! sci5ce ( ,good & ,evil consi/s 9 ,measur+1 & 9 *oos+ betwe5 conflict+ pleasures & pa9s--pref]r+ ! great] pleasure to ! less1 ! less pa9 to ! great]4 ,= example1 c\rage is a wise e/imate ( ?+s t]rible & ?+s n t]rible4 ,9 consi/5cy ) ! doctr9e t ,k is virtue1 x is ma9ta9$ "h z else:]e1 t a man kn[+ good & evil mu/ act ^u t k4 ,plato (t5 repeats 8 !ory ( ,measurem5t1 b nev] aga9 specifically intimates t ! ?+s to be measur$ are pleasures & pa9s4 ,& nei!r "h nor else:]e1 does he suppose ! virtu\s man tak+ directly into 8 calculation ! pleasures & pa9s ( o!r p]sons4 ,,gorgias1 "o ( ! mo/ r5[n$ ( ! dialogues 9 po9t ( composition1 is also e?ical1 b at v>iance ) ! ,protagoras1 & m 9 accordance ) ,plato's pr$om9at+ views4 ,! pr(ess$ subject is ,rhetoric1 :i*1 z an art1 ,sokrates pr(esses to hold 9 contempt4 ,! dialogue beg9s ) ! position t m5 are prompt$ by ! desire ( good1 b proce$s to ! great ,platonic p>adox1 t x is a great] evil to d wrong ?an to suff] wrong4 ,! crim9al lab\rs "u a m5tal di/emp]1 & ! be/ ?+ t c happ5 to him1 is to be puni%$ t s he may be cur$4 ,! unpuni%$ wrong-do] is m mis]able ?an if he 7 puni%$4 ,sokrates 9 ?is dialogue ma9ta9s1 9 opposition to ! !sis ( ,protagoras1 t pleasure is n ! same z good1 t !re are bad pleasures & good pa9s2 & a skilful advis]1 "o v]s$ 9 ! sci5ce ( good & evil1 mu/ discrim9ate betwe5 !m4 ,he does n mean t ^? pleasures only are bad t br+ an ov]plus ( future pa9s1 :i* w\ld be 9 accordance ) ! previ\s dialogue4 ,! s5tim5t ( ! dialogue is ascetic & self-d5y+4#g ,ord] or ,discipl9e is inculcat$1 n z a means to an end1 b z an end 9 itself4 ,! ,,politikus is on ! ,art ( ,gov]nm5t1 & gives ! ,platonic beau idal ( ! ,"o compet5t p]son1 gov]n+ absolutely1 by virtue ( 8 sci5tific k1 & aim+ at ! good & improvem5t ( ! gov]n$4 ,?is is m]ely ano!r illu/ration ( ! ,sokratic ideal--a despotism1 ano9t$ by supreme good int5tions1 & by an ideal skill4 ,! ,republic is an enl>gem5t ( ! lessons ( ! ,politikus )\t ! dialectic discussion4 ,! po/ulate ( ! ,"o ,wise man is repeat$ 9 ,,kratylus1 on ! unpromis+ subject ( ,language or ! inv5tion ( ,names4 ,! ,,philebus has a decid$ly e?ical "*4 ,x prop\nds = enquiry ! ,good1 ! ,summum ,bonum4 ,?is is d5i$ to be m]e pleasure1 & ! d5ial is en=c$ by ,sokrates *all5g+ 8 oppon5t to *oose ! lot ( an ec/atic oy/]4 ,z usual1 good mu/ be relat$ to ,intellig5ce2 & ! ,dialogue gives a long disquisition ^u ! ,"o & ! ,_m1 ! ,!ory ( ,ideas1 ! ,det]m9ate & ! ,indet]m9ate4 ,good is a comp\nd ( ,pleasure & ,intellig5ce1 ! la/ pr$om9at+4 ,pleasure is ! ,indet]m9ate1 requir+ ! ,det]m9ate 7,k7 to regulate x4 ,?is is m]ely ano!r expression = ! doctr9e ( ,measure1 & = ! common say+1 t ! ,passions mu/ be controll$ by ,reason4 ,!re is1 also1 9 ! dialogue1 a good deal on ! ,psy*ology ( ,pleasure & ,pa94 ,pleasure is ! fundam5tal h>mony ( ! sy/em2 ,pa9 its di/urbance4 ,bodily ,pleasure pre-supposes pa9 true only ( "s pleasures4 ,m5tal pleasures may be )\t previ\s pa91 & are !re=e pure pleasures4 ,a life ( ,intellig5ce is conceivable )\t ei!r pa9 or pleasure2 ?is is ! *oice ( ! ,wise man1 & is ! nature ( ! gods4 ,desire is a mix$ /ate1 & compreh5ds body & m9d4 ,mu* /ress is laid on ! mod]ate & tranquil pleasures2 ! int5se pleasures1 covet$ by mank9d1 belong to a di/emp]$ r ?an a heal?y /ate2 !y are false & delusive4 ,pleasure is1 by its nature1 a *ange or transition1 & _c be a supreme end4 ,! mixture ( ,pleasure & ,intellig5ce is to be adju/$ by ! all-important pr9ciple ( ,measure or ,proportion1 :i* connects ! ,good ) ! ,beautiful4 ,a decid$ asceticism is ! e?ical t5d5cy ( ?is dialogue4 ,x is m>k$ly oppos$ to ! view ( ! ,protagoras4 ,/ill great] is ! opposition betwe5 x & ! two ,erotic dialogues1 ,pha$rus & ,symposium1 :]e ,bonum & ,pul*rum are atta9$ 9 ! pursuit ( an ec/atic & ov]:elm+ p]sonal affection4 ,! ,,republic />ts ) ! "q--:at is ,,ju/ice8 &1 9 answ]+ x1 provides ! s*eme ( a model ,republic4 ,book ,i4 is a ,sokratic colloquy1 :]e "o speak]1 on be+ int]rogat$1 def9es ,ju/ice z 'r5d]+ to e man 8 due1' & aft]w>ds am5ds x to 'do+ good to fri5ds1 evil to enemies4' ,ano!r gives '! "r ( ! /ronge/4' ,a ?ird ma9ta9s t ,inju/ice by itself is pr(itable to ! do]2 b1 z x is an evil to society 9 g5]al1 m5 make laws aga9/ x & puni% x2 9 consequ5ce ( :i*1 ,ju/ice is ! m pr(itable4 ,sokrates1 9 opposition1 und]takes to prove t ,ju/ice is good 9 itself1 ensur+ ! happ9ess ( ! do] by its intr9sic effect on 8 m9d2 & irrespective ( exemption f ! p5alties ( inju/ice4 ,he rea*es ?is result by assimilat+ an individual to a /ate4 ,ju/ice is %[n to be good 9 ! entire city1 & by analogy x is also good 9 ! individual4 ,he accord+ly proce$s to con/ruct 8 ideal commonweal?4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is con/ruction _m e?ical views crop out4 ,! /ate mu/ prescribe ! religi\s belief1 & all[ no compositions at v>iance ) x4 ,! gods mu/ always be set =? z ! causes ( good2 !y mu/ nev] be repres5t$ z ! au?ors ( evil1 nor z practis+ deceit4 ,nei!r is x to be all[$ to repres5t m5 z unju/1 yet happy2 or j1 & yet mis]able4 ,! poetic repres5tation ( bad *>act]s is also =bidd54 ,! musical tra9+ is to be adapt$ = dispos+ ! m9d to ! p]ception ( ,beauty1 :5ce x becomes qualifi$ to recognize ! o!r virtues4 ,useful fictions are to be diffus$1 )\t reg>d to tru?4 ,?is pi\s fraud is op5ly recomm5d$ by ,plato4 ,! division ( ! human m9d into 7#a7 ,,reason or ,intellig5ce2 7#b7 ,,en]gy1 ,c\rage1 ,_s1 or ! ,milit>y ,virtue2 & 7#c7 ,_m-head$ ,,appetite1 all 9 mutual c\nt]-play--is transf]r$ to ! ,/ate1 ea* ( ! ?ree p>ts be+ repres5t$ by "o ( ! political ord]s or divisions ( ! community4 ,! happ9ess ( ! man & ! happ9ess ( ! commonweal? are atta9$ 9 ! same way1 namely1 by realiz+ ! f\r virtues--,wisdom1 ,c\rage1 ,temp]ance1 ,ju/ice2 ) ?is condition1 t ,wisdom1 or ,reason1 is s\ght only 9 ! ,rul+ ca/e1 ! ,eld]s2 ,c\rage1 or ,en]gy1 only 9 ! second ca/e1 ! ,soldi]s or ,gu>dians2 :ile ,temp]ance & ,ju/ice 7mean+ almo/ ! same ?+7 mu/ inh]e alike 9 all ! ?ree classes1 & be ! only ?+ expect$ 9 ! ?ird1 ! ,work+ ,multitude4 ,if x be n[ ask$1 :at & :]e is ,ju/ice8 ! answ] is--'e man to att5d to 8 own bus9ess4' ,inju/ice occurs :5 any "o ab&ons 8 po/1 or m$dles ) :at does n belong to him2 & m especially :5 any "o ( a l[] division aspires to ! function ( a high]4 ,su* is ,ju/ice = ! city1 & su* is x 9 ! individual2 ! high] faculty--,reason1 mu/ control ! two l[]--,c\rage & ,appetite4 ,ju/ice is ?us a sort ( h>mony or balance ( ! m5tal p[]s2 x is to ! m9d :at heal? is to ! body4 ,heal? is ! greate/ good1 sickness ! greate/ evil1 ( ! body2 s is ,ju/ice ( ! m9d4 ,x is an ess5tial ( ! ,platonic ,republic t1 among ! gu>dians at lea/1 ! sexual arrangem5ts %\ld be "u public regulation1 & ! monopoly ( "o woman by "o man =bidd53 a reg>d to ! bre$ ( ! high] ca/e ( citiz5s requires ! magi/rate to see t ! be/ c\ples are br\ght toge!r1 & to refuse to re> ! inf]ior (fspr+ ( ill-assort$ connexions4 ,! numb] ( bir?s is also to be regulat$4 ,9 c>ry+ on w>1 special maxims ( clem5cy are to be obs]v$ t[>ds ,hell5ic enemies4 ,! education ( ! ,gu>dians mu/ be philosophical2 x is = !m to rise to ! ,idea ( ! good1 to ma/] ! sci5ce ( ,good & ,evil2 !y mu/ be emancipat$ f ! notion t ,pleasure is ! good4 ,to indicate ! r\te to ?is atta9m5t ,plato gives 8 !ory ( cognition g5]ally--! !ory ( ,ideas2--& indicates 7d>kly7 h[ ^! sublime g5]alities are to be rea*$4 ,! ,ideal ,commonweal? suppos$ e/abli%$1 is doom$ to degradation & decay2 pass+ ?r\gh ,timocracy1 ,olig>*y1 ,democracy1 to ,despotism1 ) a correspond+ decl5sion ( happ9ess4 ,! same v>ieties may be trac$ 9 ! ,individual2 ! 'despotiz$' m9d is ! acme ( ,inju/ice & consequ5t mis]y4 ,! comp>ative value ( ,pleasures is discuss$4 ,! pleasures ( philosophy1 or wisdom 7^? ( ,reason71 are alone true & pure2 ! pleasures correspond+ to ! two o!r p>ts ( ! m9d are inf]ior2 ,love ( ,hon\r 7f ,c\rage or ,en]gy71 & ,love ( ,money 7,appetite74 ,! well-ord]$ m9d--,ju/ice--is above all ?+s ! s\rce ( happ9ess4 ,ap>t f all consequ5ces ( ,ju/ice1 ?is is true2 ! addition ( ! natural results only enhances ! /r5g? ( ! position4 ,9 ,,timaeus1 ,plato repeats ! doctr9e t wick$ness is to ! m9d :at disease is to ! body4 ,! s\l suff]s f two di/emp]s1 madness & ignorance2 ! man "u passionate heat is n wick$ volunt>ily4 ,no man is bad will+ly2 b only f "s evil habit ( body1 ! effect ( bad br++-up v mu* ! view ( ,rob]t ,ow54 ,! long treatise call$ ! ,,laws1 be+ a modifi$ s*eme ( a ,republic1 goes ov] ! same gr\nd ) m detail4 ,we give ! *ief e?ical po9ts4 ,x is ! purpose ( ! lawgiv] to br+ ab\t happ9ess1 & to provide all good ?+s div9e & human4 ,! div9e ?+s are ! c>d9al virtues--,wisdom1 ,ju/ice1 ,temp]ance1 ,c\rage2 ! human are ! lead+ p]sonal advantages--,heal?1 ,beauty1 ,/r5g?1 ,activity1 ,weal?4 ,he requires ! inculcation ( self-comm&1 & a tra9+ 9 endurance4 ,! moral & religi\s feel+s are to be guid$ 9 e>ly y\?1 by ! influ5ce ( ,poetry & ! o!r ,f9e ,arts1 9 :i*1 z be=e1 a /r+5t c5sor%ip is to be ex]cis$2 ! songs & dances are all to be publicly au?oriz$4 ,! e?ical doctr9e t ! j man is happy & ! unju/ mis]able1 is to be prea*$2 & e "o prohibit$ f contradict+ x4 ,( all ! titles to comm& 9 society1 ,wisdom is ! highe/1 al?\gh policy may require x to be conjo9$ ) "s ( ! o!rs 7,bir?1 ,age1 ,/r5g?1 ,accid5t1 c474 ,x is to be a "p ( ! con/itution to provide public exhortations1 or s]mons1 = inculcat+ virtue2 ,plato hav+ n[ pass$ into an opposite phase z to ! value ( ,rhetoric1 or cont9u\s address4 ,! family is to be all[$ 9 its usual =m1 b ) re/ra9ts on ! age ( m>riage1 on ! *oice ( ! p>ties1 & on ! increase ( ! numb] ( ! population4 ,sexual int]c\rse is to be z f> z possible conf9$ to p]sons legally m>ri$2 ^? dep>t+ f ?is rule are1 at all ev5ts1 to obs]ve secresy4 ,! slaves are n to be ( ! same race z ! ma/]s4 ,z reg>ds puni%m5t1 !re is a great complication1 ow+ to ! au?or's !ory t wick$ness is n prop]ly volunt>y4 ,mu* ( ! h>m done by p]sons to o!rs is un9t5tional or involunt>y1 & is to be made good by rep>ation4 ,= ! loss ( balance or self-control1 mak+ ! ess5ce ( inju/ice1 !re mu/ be a p5al & educational discipl9e1 suit$ to cure ! moral di/emp]2 n = ! sake ( ! pa/1 :i* _c be recall$1 b ( ! future4 ,"u cov] ( ?is !ory1 ! puni%m5ts are abundantly sev]e2 & ! crimes include ,h]esy1 = :i* !re is a gradation ( p5alties t]m9at+ 9 dea?4 ,we may n[ summ>ize ! ,e?ics ( ,plato1 "u ! g5]al s*eme z foll[s3-- ,i4--,! ,e?ical ,/&>d1 or crit]ion ( moral ,"r & ,wrong4 ,?is we h se5 is1 ultimately1 ! ,sci5ce ( ,good & ,evil1 z det]m9$ by a ,sci5tific or ,wise man2 ! ,idea ( ! ,good1 :i* only a philosoph] c asc5d to4 ,plato gave no cr$it to ! maxims ( ! exi/+ society2 ^! 7 :olly unsci5tific4 ,x is obvi\s t ?is vague & indet]m9ate /&>d w\ld settle no?+ practically2 no "o c tell :at x is4 ,x is only ( value z belong+ to a v exalt$ & poetic conception ( virtue1 some?+ t raises ! imag9ation above common life into a sph]e ( transc5d5tal exi/5ce4 ,,ii4--,! ,psy*ology ( ,e?ics4 #a4 ,z to ! ,faculty ( disc]n+ ,"r4 ,?is is impli$ 9 ! =ego+ /atem5t ( ! crit]ion4 ,x is ! ,cognitive or ,intellectual p[]4 ,9 ! def9ite position tak5 up 9 ,protagoras1 x is ! faculty ( ,measur+ pleasures aga9/ "o ano!r & aga9/ pa9s4 ,9 o!r dialogues1 measure is /ill ! important aspect ( ! process1 al?\gh ! ?+s to be measur$ are n giv54 #b4 ,z reg>ds ! ,w4 ,! !ory t vice1 if n ! result ( ignorance1 is a =m ( madness1 an uncontrollable fury1 a m5tal di/emp]1 gives a peculi> r5d]+ ( ! nature ( man's ,w4 ,x is a k9d ( ,necessity1 n exactly correspond+1 h[ev]1 ) ! mod]n doctr9e ( t "n4 #c4 ,dis9t]e/$ ,s5tim5t is n directly & pla9ly recogniz$ by ,plato4 ,8 highe/ virtue is self-reg>d+2 a conc]n = ! ,heal? ( ! ,s\l4 ,,iii4--,on ! ,bonum1 or ,summum ,bonum1 ,plato is ascetic & self-d5y+4 #a4 ,we h se5 t 9 ,philebus1 ,pleasure is n good1 unless unit$ ) ,k or ,intellig5ce2 & ! great] ! ,intellig5ce1 ! high] ! pleasure4 ,t ! highe/ happ9ess ( man is ! pursuit ( tru? or ,philosophy1 0 common to ,plato & to ,ari/otle4 #b4 ,happ9ess is atta9able only ?r\gh ,ju/ice or ,virtue4 ,ju/ice is decl>$ to be happ9ess1 fir/1 9 itself1 & secondly1 9 its consequ5ces4 ,su* is ! importance atta*$ to ?is maxim z a safegu>d ( ,society1 t1 :e!r true or n1 x is to be ma9ta9$ by /ate au?ority4 #c4 ,! ,psy*ology ( ,pleasure & ,pa9 is giv5 at l5g? 9 ! ,philebus4 ,,iv4--,) reg>d to ! s*eme ( ,duty4 ,9 ,plato1 we f9d ! fir/ /atem5t ( ! f\r ,c>d9al ,virtues4 ,z to ! ,sub/ance ( ! ,moral ,code1 ! ref]5ces above made to ! ,republic & ! ,laws w %[ 9 :at po9ts 8 views diff]$ f mod]n ,e?ics4 ,b5evol5ce 0 n "o ( ! ,c>d9al ,virtues4 ,8 notions ev5 ( ,reciprocity 7 r5d]$ hazy & indi/9ct by 8 !ory ( ,ju/ice z an end 9 itself4 ,! inducem5ts1 means1 & /imulants to virtue1 9 addition to p5al discipl9e1 are tra9+1 p]suasion1 or hortatory disc\rse1 dialectic cognition ( ! ,ideas1 &1 above all1 t ideal aspiration t[>ds ! ,j1 ! ,good1 ar\nd :i* he ga!r$ all t 0 fasc9at+ 9 poetry1 & all ! associations ( religion & div9ity4 ,plato employ$ 8 p[]ful g5ius 9 work+ up a l(ty spiritual rew>d1 an ideal intoxication1 = incit+ m5 to ! self-d5y+ virtues4 ,he 0 ! fir/ & "o ( ! greate/ ( prea*]s4 ,8 !ory ( ,ju/ice is suit$ to prea*+1 & n to a sci5tific analysis ( society4 ,v4--,! relation ( ,e?ics to ,politics is intimate1 & ev5 insep>able4 ,! ,civil ,magi/rate1 z 9 ,hobbes1 supplies ! ,e?ical sanction4 ,all virtue is an affair ( ! /ate1 a political in/itution4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is qualifi$ by ! dem& = an ideal /ate1 & an ideal gov]nor1 by :om alone any?+ l p]fect virtue c be asc]ta9$4 ,,vi4--,! relation%ip ) ,!ology is also close4 ,t is to say1 ,plato 0 n satisfi$ to con/ruct a sci5ce ( good & evil1 )\t conjo9+ ! s5tim5ts t[>ds ! ,gods4 ,8 ,!ology1 h[ev]1 0 ( 8 own inv5tion1 & adapt$ to 8 e?ical !ory4 ,x 0 necess>y to suppose t ! gods 7 ! au?ors ( good1 9 ord] to give c\nt5ance to virtue4 ,plato 0 ! ally ( ! ,/oics1 z aga9/ ! ,epicureans1 & ( su* mod]n !ori/s z ,butl]1 :o make virtue1 & n happ9ess1 ! highe/ end ( man4 ,) him1 discipl9e 0 an end 9 itself1 & n a means2 & he endeav\r$ to s(t5 its rig\r by 8 poetical & elevat$ ,idealism4 ,al?\gh he did n prea* ! good ( mank9d1 or direct b5efic5ce1 he und\bt$ly prep>$ ! way = x1 by urg+ self-d5ial1 :i* has no issue or relevance1 except ei!r by realiz+ great] happ9ess to ,self 7m]e exalt$ ,prud5ce1 approv$ ( by all sects71 or by promot+ ! welf>e ( o!rs4 ,,! ,,cynics ,,& ,,! ,,cyr5aics4 ,^! oppos+ sects sprang f ,sokrates1 & pass$1 ) little modification1 ! "o into ! ,/oics1 ! o!r into ! ,epicureans4 ,bo? ,,anti/h5es1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,cynics1 & ,,ari/ippus1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,cyr5aics1 7 disciples ( ,sokrates4 ,_! doctr9es *iefly ref]r$ to ! ,summum ,bonum--! ,art ( ,liv+1 or ( ,happ9ess4 ,! ,,cynics 7 mo/ closely alli$ to ,sokrates2 !y1 9 fact1 c>ri$ out to ! full 8 *os5 mode ( life4 ,8 fav\rite maxim--t ! gods _h no wants1 & t ! mo/ godlike man 0 he t approa*$ to ! same /ate--0 ! ,cynic ,ideal4 ,to subsi/ ^u ! n>r[e/ means2 to acquire indiff]5ce to pa91 by a discipl9e ( endurance2 to despise all ! ord9>y pursuits ( weal? & pleasure1--7 ,sokratic peculi>ities1 & 7 ! beau idal ( ,cynicism4 ,! ,cynic succession ( philosoph]s 71 7#a7 ,,anti/h5es1 "o ( ! mo/ con/ant fri5ds & companions ( ,sokrates2 7#b7 ,,diog5es ( ,s9ope1 ! pupil ( ,anti/h5es1 & ! be/ kn[n type ( ! sect4 7,8 disciple ,krates1 a ,!ban1 0 ! ma/] ( ,z5o1 ! fir/ ,/oic47 7#c7 ,,/ilpon ( ,meg>a1 7#d7 ,,m5$emus ( ,eretria1 7#e7 ,,monimus ( ,syracuse1 7#f7 ,,krates4 ,! two fir/ heads ( ! ,e?ical s*eme1 s meagrely fill$ up by ! anci5t sy/ems g5]ally1 are almo/ a total blank z reg>ds bo? ,cynics & ,cyr5aics4 ,i4--,z reg>ds a ,/&>d ( "r & wrong1 moral good or evil1 !y recogniz$ no?+ b ob$i5ce to ! laws & cu/oms ( society4 ,,ii4--,!y _h no ,psy*ology ( a moral faculty1 ( ! w1 or ( b5evol5t s5tim5t4 ,! ,cyr5aic ,ari/ippus _h a ,psy*ology ( ,pleasure & ,pa94 ,! ,cynics1 in/ead ( discuss+ ,w1 ex]cis$ x1 9 "o ( its mo/ prom95t =ms1--self-control & endurance4 ,dis9t]e/$ conduct 0 no "p ( _! s*eme1 al?\gh ! ascetic discipl9e necess>ily promotes ab/95ce f s9s aga9/ prop]ty1 & f all ! vices ( public ambition4 ,,iii4--,! prop] description ( bo? sy/ems comes "u ! ,summum ,bonum1 or ! ,art ( ,liv+4 ,! ,cynic ,ideal 0 ! m9imum ( wants1 ! habituation to pa91 toge!r ) indiff]5ce to ! common enjoym5ts4 ,! comp5sat+ rew>d 0 exemption f fe>1 anxiety1 & disappo9tm5t2 also1 ! pride ( sup]iority to fell[-be+s & ( approximation to ! gods4 ,look+ at ! great pr$om9ance ( mis]y 9 human life1 !y believ$ ! problem ( liv+ to consi/ 9 a ma/]y ov] all ! =ms ( pa92 until ?is 0 fir/ secur$1 !re 0 to be a total sacrifice ( pleasure4 ,! ,cynics 7 mo/ly1 l ,sokrates1 m5 ( robu/ heal?1 & if !y put _! physical con/itution to a sev]e te/ by poor liv+ & exposure to w9d & wea!r1 !y also sav$ x f ! we> & te> ( /eady indu/ry & toil4 ,ex]cise ( body & ( m9d1 ) a view to /r5g? & endurance1 0 enjo9$2 b x 0 ! drill ( ! soldi] r ?an ! drudg]y ( ! artisan4 ,9 ! eyes ( ! public1 ! prom95t feature ( ! ,cynic 0 8 contemptu\s je]+1 & s>ca/ic abuse ( ev]ybody ar\nd4 ,! "n 7,cynic1 dog-l7 d5otes ?is peculi>ity4 ,! anecdotes relat+ to ,diog5es illu/rate 8 co>se d5unciation ( m5 9 g5]al & _! luxuri\s ways4 ,he set at defiance all ! conv5tions ( c\rtesy & ( dec5cy2 spoke 8 m9d on ev]y?+ )\t fe> or remorse2 & delight$ 9 8 antagonism to public op9ion4 ,he foll[$ ! public & obtrusive life ( ,sokrates1 b in/ead ( dialectic skill1 8 =ce lay 9 vitup]ation1 s>casm1 & rep>tee4 ',to ,sokrates1' says ,epiktetus1 ',zeus assign$ ! cross-exam9+ function2 to ,diog5es1 ! magi/]ial & *a/is+ function2 to ,z5o 7! ,/oic71 ! didactic & dogmatical4' ,! ,cynics _h ?us 9 full measure "o ( ! rew>ds ( asceticism1 ! pride ( sup]iority & p[]4 ,!y did n pr(ess an end ap>t f _! own happ9ess2 !y believ$ & ma9ta9$ t !irs 0 ! only safe road to happ9ess4 ,!y agre$ ) ! ,cyr5aics z to ! end2 !y diff]$ z to ! means4 ,! f\nd]s ( ! sect1 be+ m5 ( culture1 set great /ore by education1 f :i*1 h[ev]1 !y exclud$ 7z x w\ld appe>7 bo? ! ,arti/ic & ! ,intellectual elem5ts ( ! sup]ior in/ruction ( ! "t1 namely1 ,music1 & ! ,sci5ces ( ,geometry1 ,a/ronomy1 c4 ,plato's writ+s & tea*+s 7 held 9 l[ e/eem4 ,physical tra9+1 self-d5ial & endurance1 & lit]>y or ,rhetorical cultivation1 comprise ! items taught by ,diog5es :5 he became a slave1 & 0 made tutor to ! sons ( 8 ma/]4 ,,iv4--,z to ! ,moral ,code1 ! ,cynics 7 diss5t]s f ! receiv$ usages ( society4 ,!y disapprov$ ( m>riage laws1 & ma9ta9$ ! lib]ty ( individual ta/es 9 ! int]c\rse ( ! sexes4 ,be+ free-?9k]s 9 religion !y _h no respect = any ( ! cu/oms f\nd$ on religion4 ,v4 ,! collat]al relations ( ,cynical ,e?ics to ,politics & to ,!ology af=d no scope = additional obs]vations4 ,! ,cynic & ,cyr5aic bo? /ood alo( f ! affairs ( ! /ate1 & 7 alike disbeliev]s 9 ! gods4 ,! ,cynics appe> to h be5 incl9$ to communism among !mselves1 :i* 0 d\btless easy ) _! views z to ! wants ( life4 ,x is ?\ght n unlikely t ,sokrates himself held views ( communism bo? z to prop]ty & to wives2 be+ 9 ?is respect also ! prompt] ( ,plato 7,grant's ,e?ics ( ,ari/otle1 ,essay ii474 ,! ,,cyr5aic sy/em orig9at$ ) ,,ari/ippus ( ,cyr5e1 ano!r he>] & companion ( ,sokrates4 ,! temp]am5t ( ,ari/ippus 0 naturally inactive1 easy1 & luxuri\s2 nev]!less he set great value on m5tal cultivation & accompli%m5ts4 ,8 conv]sations ) ,sokrates =m "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ *apt]s ( ,x5ophon's ,memorabilia1 & are ! key to ! plan ( life ultimately elaborat$ by him4 ,sokrates f9d+ out 8 disposition1 repeats all ! argum5ts 9 fav\r ( ! sev]e & ascetic sy/em4 ,he urges ! necessity ( /r5g?1 c\rage1 en]gy1 self-d5ial1 9 ord] to atta9 ! po/ ( rul] ov] o!rs2 :i*1 h[ev]1 ,ari/ippus f5ces by say+ t he has no ambition to rule2 he pref]s ! middle c\rse ( a free man1 nei!r rul+ nor rul$ ov]4 ,next1 ,sokrates recalls ! dang]s & evil cont+5cies ( subjection1 ( be+ oppress$1 unju/ly treat$1 sold into slav]y1 & ! consequ5t wret*$ness to "o unh>d5$ by an adequate discipl9e4 ,x is 9 ?is argum5t t he recites ! well-kn[n apologue call$ ! *oice ( ,h]akles2 9 :i*1 ,virtue on ! "o h&1 & ,pleasure ) att5dant vice on ! o!r1 ) _! respective consequ5ces1 are set be=e a y\? 9 8 op5+ c>e]4 ,! :ole argum5t ) ,ari/ippus 0 purely prud5tial2 b ,ari/ippus 0 n conv9c$ nor br\ght ov] to ! ,sokratic ideal4 ,he nev]!less adopt$ a no less prud5tial & self-d5y+ plan ( 8 own4 ,ari/ippus did n write an acc\nt ( 8 sy/em2 & ! p>ticul>s ( 8 life1 :i* w\ld %[ h[ he act$ x1 are b imp]fectly pres]v$4 ,he 0 ! fir/ !ori/ to av[ & ma9ta9 t ,pleasure1 & ! abs5ce ( ,pa91 are ! prop]1 ! direct1 ! imm$iate1 ! sole end ( liv+2 n ( c\rse m]e pres5t pleasures & pres5t relief f pa91 b pres5t & future tak5 9 "o great total4 ,he w\ld surr5d] pres5t pleasure1 & incur pres5t pa91 ) a view to great] future good2 b he did n believe 9 ! necessity ( t extreme surr5d] & r5unciation enjo9$ by ! ,cynics4 ,he gratifi$ all 8 appetites & crav+s )9 ! limits ( safety4 ,he c\ld sail close ^u ! isl& ( ,calypso )\t surr5d]+ himself to ! sorc]ess4 ,in/ead ( dead5+ ! sexual appetite he gave x scope1 & yet resi/$ ! dang]\s consequ5ces ( associat+ ) ,heta]ae4 ,9 8 enjoym5ts he 0 free f jeal\sies2 ?9k+ x no d]ogation to 8 pleasure t o!rs _h ! same pleasure4 ,hav+ ?us a fair %>e ( natural indulg5ces1 he disp5ses ) ! ,cynic pride ( sup]iority & ! luxury ( contemn+ o!r m54 ,/r5g? ( w 0 requir$ = ?is c\rse no less ?an = ! ,cynic life4 ,ari/ippus put =w>d /rongly ! impossibility ( realiz+ all ! ,happ9ess t might seem )9 "o's rea*2 su* 7 ! att5dant & det]r+ evils1 t _m pleasures _h to be =egone by ! wise man4 ,sometimes ev5 ! fooli% p]son atta9$ m pleasure ?an ! wise2 su* is ! lott]y ( life2 b1 z a g5]al rule1 ! fact w\ld be o!rwise4 ,! wise/ c\ld n escape ! natural evils1 pa9 & dea?2 b envy1 passionate love1 & sup]/ition1 be+ ! consequ5ces ( va9 & mi/ak5 op9ion1 might be conqu]$ by a k ( ! real nature ( ,good & ,evil4 ,z a prop] app5dage to su* a sy/em1 ,ari/ippus sket*$ a ,psy*ology ( ,pleasure & ,pa91 :i* 0 important z a beg9n+1 & is believ$ to h br\ght ! subject into prom95ce4 ,! s\l comes "u ?ree conditions1--a g5tle1 smoo?1 equable motion1 correspond+ to ,pleasure2 a r\gh1 viol5t motion1 :i* is ,pa92 & a calm1 quiesc5t /ate1 indiff]5ce or ,unconsci\sness4 ,m rem>kable is ! f>!r ass]tion t ,pleasure is only pres5t or realiz$ consci\sness2 ! memory ( pleasures pa/1 & ! idea ( pleasures to come1 are n to be c\nt$2 ! pa9ful accompanim5ts ( desire1 hope1 & fe>1 are suffici5t to neutralize any enjoym5t t may arise f ideal bliss1 ,consequ5tly1 ! happ9ess ( a life means ! sum total ( ^! mom5ts ( realiz$ or pres5t pleasure4 ,he recogniz$ pleasures ( ! m9d1 z well z ( ! body2 sympa?y ) ! good =tunes ( fri5ds or c\ntry gives a ?rill ( g5u9e & lively joy4 ,/ill1 ! pleasures & ! pa9s ( ! body1 & ( "o's own self1 are m int5se2 witness ! bodily inflictions us$ 9 puni%+ (f5d]s4 ,! ,cyr5aics d5i$ t !re is any?+ j1 or hon\rable1 or base1 by nature2 all dep5d$ on ! laws & cu/oms4 ,^! laws & cu/oms ! wise man obeys1 to avoid puni%m5t & discr$it f ! society :]e he lives2 d\btless1 also1 f high] motives1 if ! political con/itution1 & 8 fell[ citiz5s g5]ally1 c inspire him ) respect4 ,nei!r ! ,cynics nor ! ,cyr5aics made any pr(ession ( g5]\s or dis9t]e/$ impulses4 ,,ari/otle4 #chd-cbb ,b4,c4 ,?ree treatises on ,e?ics h come d[n associat$ ) ! "n ( ,ari/otle2 "o l>ge "w1 ! ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics1 ref]r$ to by g5]al cons5t z ! *ief & important s\rce ( ,ari/otle's views2 & two small] works1 ! ,eudemian ,e?ics1 & ! ,magna ,moralia1 attribut$ by lat] critics to 8 disciples4 ,ev5 ( ! l>ge "w1 :i* consi/s ( t5 books1 ?ree books 7,v4 ,,vi4 ,,vii471 recurr+ 9 ! ,eudemian ,e?ics1 are consid]$ by ,sir ,a4 ,grant1 ?\gh n by o!r critics1 to h be5 compos$ by ,eudemus1 ! suppos$ au?or ( ?is second treatise1 & a lead+ disciple ( ,ari/otle4 ,l _m o!r ,ari/otelian treatises1 ! ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics is defici5t 9 me?od & consi/5cy on any view ( its composition4 ,b ! pr(\nd & sagaci\s rem>ks scatt]$ ?r\gh\t give x a p]man5t int]e/1 z ! "w ( a great m9d4 ,!re may be extract$ f x c]ta9 lead+ doctr9es1 ^: po9t ( dep>ture 0 ,platonic1 al?\gh greatly modifi$ & improv$ by ! g5ius & p]sonality ( ,ari/otle4 ,our purpose w be be/ s]v$ by a copi\s ab/ract ( ! ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics4 ,book ,fir/ discusses ! ,*ief ,good1 or ! ,highe/ ,end ( all human endeav\rs4 ,e ex]cise ( ! human p[]s aims at "s good2 all ! arts ( life h _! sev]al ends--m$ic9e1 %ip-build+1 g5]al%ip4 ,b ! ends ( ^! special arts are all subord9ate to "s high] end2 :i* end is ! *ief good1 & ! subject ( ! highe/ art ( all1 ! ,political2 = z ,politics aims at ! welf>e ( ! /ate1 or aggregate ( individuals1 x is id5tical ) & compreh5ds ! welf>e ( ! individual 7,*aps4 ,i41 ,,ii474 ,z reg>ds ! me?od ( ! sci5ce1 ! highe/ exactness is n atta9able2 ! political art /udies :at is j1 hon\rable1 & good2 & ^! are matt]s ab\t :i* ! utmo/ discrepancy ( op9ion prevails4 ,f su* premises1 ! conclusions :i* we draw c only be probabilities4 ,! man ( exp]i5ce & cultivation w expect no?+ m4 ,y\?s1 :o are inexp]i5c$ 9 ! conc]ns ( life1 & giv5 to foll[ _! impulses1 c h>dly appreciate our reason+1 & w d]ive no b5efit f x3 b reasonable m5 w f9d ! k highly pr(itable 7,,iii474 ,resum+ ! ma9 "q--,:at is ! highe/ practical good--! aim ( ! all-compreh5d+ political sci5ce8--we f9d an agreem5t among m5 z to ! "n happ9ess ,greek3 eudaimonia2 b great diff]5ces z to ! nature ( ! ?+4 ,! _m reg>d x z made up ( ! tangible elem5ts--pleasures1 weal?1 or hon\r2 :ile individuals v>y 9 _! e/imate accord+ to ea* man's /ate = ! "t be+2 ! sick plac+ x 9 heal?1 ! poor 9 weal?1 ! consci\sly ignorant 9 k4 ,on ! o!r h&1 c]ta9 philosoph]s 9 allusion to ,plato set up an absolute good1--an ,idea ( ! ,good1 ap>t f all ! p>ticul>s1 yet imp>t+ to ea* its prop]ty ( be+ good 7,,iv474 ,ref]r+ to m5's lives 7z a clue to _! notions ( ! good71 we f9d ?ree prom95t v>ieties2 ! life ( pleasure or s5suality1--! political life1 aspir+ to hon\r1--& ! contemplative life4 ,! fir/ is ! life ( ! brutes1 al?\gh c\nt5anc$ by m5 high 9 p[]4 ,! second is too prec>i\s1 z dep5d+ on o!rs1 & is besides only a means to an end--namely1 our consci\sness ( our own m]its2 = ! ambiti\s man seeks to be hon\r$ = 8 virtue & by good judges--?us %[+ t he too reg>ds virtue z ! sup]ior good4 ,yet nei!r w virtue satisfy all ! conditions4 ,! virtu\s man may slumb] or pass 8 life 9 inactivity1 or may exp]i5ce ! maximum ( calamity2 & su* a man _c be reg>d$ z happy4 ,! money-l5d] is /ill less entitl$1 = he is an unnatural "*2 & money is obvi\sly good z a means4 ,s t !re rema9s only ! life ( contemplation2 respect+ :i* m pres5tly 7,v474 ,to a review ( ! ,platonic doctr9e1 ,ari/otle devotes a :ole *apt]4 ,he urges aga9/ x v>i\s objections1 v mu* ( a piece ) ^? br\ght aga9/ ! !ory ( ,ideas g5]ally4 ,if !re be b "o good1 !re %\ld be b "o sci5ce2 ! alleg$ ,idea is m]ely a repetition ( ! ph5om5a2 ! recogniz$ goods 7i4e41 v>ieties ( good7 _c be br\ght "u "o ,idea2 moreov]1 ev5 grant+ ! reality ( su* an ,idea1 x is useless = all practical purposes4 ,:at our sci5ce seeks is ,good1 human & atta9able 7,,vi474 ,! ,supreme ,end is :at is n only *os5 z an ,end1 b is nev] *os5 except z an ,end3 n *os5 bo? = itself & ) a view to some?+ ult]ior4 ,x mu/ ?us be--7#a7 ,an end-9-itself pursu$ = its own sake2 7#b7 x mu/ f>!r be self-suffic+ leav+ no out/&+ wants--man's sociability be+ tak5 into acc\nt & gratifi$4 ,happ9ess is su* an end2 b we mu/ /ate m cle>ly :]e9 happ9ess consi/s4 ,?is w appe>1 if we exam9e :at is ! "w appropriate & peculi> to man4 ,e arti/1 ! sculptor1 c>p5t]1 curri] 7s too ! eye & ! h&71 has 8 own peculi> "w3 & good1 to him1 consi/s 9 8 p]=m+ t "w well4 ,man also has 8 appropriate & peculi> "w3 n m]ely liv+--= t he has 9 common ) vegetables2 nor ! life ( s5sible p]ception--= t he has 9 common ) o!r animals1 horses1 ox51 c4 ,!re rema9s ! life ( man z a rational be+3 t is1 z a be+ possess+ reason along ) o!r m5tal elem5ts1 :i* la/ are controllable or modifiable by reason4 ,?is la/ life is ! peculi> "w or prov9ce ( man4 ,= our purpose1 we mu/ consid] man1 n m]ely z possess+1 b z actually ex]cis+ & putt+ 9 action1 ^! m5tal capacities4 ,moreov]1 :5 we talk g5]ally ( ! "w or prov9ce ( an arti/1 we always tacitly imply a complete & excell5t arti/ 9 8 own craft3 & s likewise :5 we speak ( ! "w ( a man1 we mean t "w z p]=m$ by a complete & compet5t man4 ,s9ce ! "w ( man1 !re=e1 consi/s 9 ! active ex]cise ( ! m5tal capacities1 con=mably to reason1 ! supreme good ( man w consi/ 9 p]=m+ ?is "w ) excell5ce or virtue4 ,h]e9 he w obta9 happ9ess1 if we assume cont9uance ?r\gh\t a full p]iod ( life3 "o day or a %ort "t is n suffici5t = happ9ess 7,,vii474 ,ari/otle ?us lays d[n ! outl9e ( man's supreme ,good or ,happ9ess3 :i* he decl>es to be ! beg9n+ or pr9ciple ,greek3 ar*ae ( 8 d$uctions1 & to be obta9$ 9 ! be/ way t ! subject admits4 ,he next proce$s to comp>e ?is outl9e ) ! v>i\s receiv$ op9ions on ! subject ( happ9ess1 %[+ t x embraces mu* ( :at has be5 consid]$ ess5tial by =m] philosoph]s3 su* z be+ 'a good ( ! m9d1' & n a m]e ext]nal good3 be+ equival5t to 'liv+ well & do+ well1' ano!r def9ition2 consi/+ 9 virtue 7! ,cynics72 9 practical wisdom--,greek3 phronaesis 7,sokrates72 9 philosophy2 or 9 all ^! c\pl$ ) pleasure 7,plato1 9 ! ,philebus74 ,agree+ ) ^? :o insi/$ on virtue1 ,ari/otle consid]s 8 own !ory an improvem5t1 by requir+ virtue 9 act1 & n simply 9 possession4 ,moreov]1 he cont5ds t to ! virtu\s man1 virtu\s p]=mance is 9 itself pleasurable2 s t no extrane\s s\rce ( pleasure is ne$$4 ,su* 7he says7 is ! judgm5t ( ! truly excell5t man2 :i* mu/ be tak5 z conclusive respect+ ! happ9ess1 z well z ! hon\rable pre-em95ce ( ! be/ m5tal ex]cises4 ,nev]!less1 he admits 7s f> comply+ ) ! ,cyr5aics7 t "s extrane\s conditions _c be disp5s$ )2 ! virtu\s man c h>dly exhibit 8 virtue 9 act1 )\t "s aid f fri5ds & prop]ty2 nor c he be happy if 8 p]son is disgu/+ to behold or 8 p>5tage vile 7,,viii474 ,?is la/ admission op5s ! door to ^? t place good =tune 9 ! same l9e ) happ9ess1 & raises ! "q1 h[ happ9ess is atta9$4 ,by tea*+8 ,by habitual ex]cise8 ,by div9e grace8 ,by ,=tune8 ,if !re be any gift v\*saf$ by div9e grace to man1 x ought to be ?is2 b :e!r su* be ! case or n1 x is at any rate ! mo/ div9e & be/ ( all acquisitions4 ,to ascribe su* an acquisition z ?is to ,=tune w\ld be absurd4 ,nature1 :i* always aims at ! be/1 provides t x %all be atta9$1 ?r\gh a c]ta9 c\rse ( tea*+ & tra9+1 by all :o are n physically or m5tally disqualifi$4 ,x ?us falls )9 ! scope ( political sci5ce1 ^: object is to imp>t ! be/ "* & active habits to ! citiz5s4 ,x is ) good reason t we nev] call a horse happy1 = he c nev] rea* su* an atta9m5t2 nor inde$ c a *ild be s call$ :ile yet a *ild1 = ! same reason2 ?\gh 9 8 case we may hope = ! future1 presum+ on a full t]m ( life1 z 0 be=e po/ulat$ 7,,ix474 ,b-?is long t]m all[s room = extreme calamities & *ange 9 a man's lot4 ,are we !n to say1 ) ,solon1 t no "o c be call$ happy s long z he lives8 or t ! same man may (t5 pass backw>ds & =w>ds f happ9ess to mis]y8 ,no2 ?is only %[s ! mi/ake ( re/+ happ9ess ^u s uns\nd a basis z ext]nal =tune4 ,! only true basis ( x is ! active manife/ation ( m5tal excell5ce1 :i* no ill =tune c efface f a man's m9d 7,x474 ,su* a man w be> calamity1 if x comes1 ) dignity1 & c nev] be made ?or\ghly mis]able4 ,if he be mod]ately suppli$ z to ext]nal circum/ances1 he is to be /yl$ happy2 t is1 happy z a man--z f> z man c reasonably expect4 ,ev5 aft] 8 decease he-w be affect$1 yet only feebly affect$1 by ! good or ill =tune ( 8 surviv+ *ildr54 ,ari/otle evid5tly assigns little or no value to presum$ po/hum\s happ9ess 7,,xi474 ,9 8 love ( subtle di/9ctions1 he asks1 ,is happ9ess a ?+ admirable 9 itself1 or a ?+ praisewor?y8 ,x is admirable 9 itself2 = :at is praisewor?y has a relative "*1 & is prais$ z conducive to "s ult]ior end2 :ile ! *ief good mu/ be an ,end 9 itself1 = ! sake ( :i* ev]y?+ else is done 7,,xii474 ,?is is a defective recognition ( ,relativity4 ,hav+ assum$ z "o ( ! items ( 8 def9ition1 t man's happ9ess mu/ be 9 8 special or *>act]i/ic "w1 p]=m$ ) p]fect excell5ce1--,ari/otle n[ proce$s to settle :]e9 t excell5ce consi/s4 ,?is leads to a classification ( ! p>ts ( ! s\l4 ,! fir/ di/ribution is1 into ,rational & ,irrational2 :e!r ^! two are sep>able 9 fact1 or only logically sep>able 7l concave & convex71 is immat]ial to ! pres5t enquiry4 ,( ! irrational1 ! l[e/ portion is ! ,vegetative ,greek3 phytikon1 :i* seems mo/ active 9 sleep2 a /ate :]e bad m5 & good are on a p>1 & :i* is incapable ( any human excell5ce4 ,! next portion is ! ,appetitive ,greek3 epi?ymaetikon1 :i* is n ?us incapable4 ,x p>takes ( reason1 yet x includes some?+ conflict+ ) reason4 ,^! conflict+ t5d5cies are usually modifiable by reason1 & may become 9 ! temp]ate man completely ob$i5t to reason4 ,!re rema9s ,reason--! highe/ & sov]eign portion ( ! s\l4 ,human excell5ce ,greek3 aretae or virtue1 is ei!r ( ! ,appetitive "p1--moral ,greek3 ae?ikae virtue2 or ( ! ,reason--intellectual ,greek3 dianoaetikae virtue4 ,lib]ality & temp]ance are ,moral virtues2 philosophy1 intellig5ce1 & wisdom1 ,intellectual 7,,xiii474 ,su* is an outl9e ( ! ,fir/ ,book1 hav+ = its subject ! ,*ief ,good1 ! ,supreme ,end ( man4 ,book ,second embraces ! consid]ation ( po9ts relative to ! ,moral ,virtues2 x also comm5ces ,ari/otle's celebrat$ def9ition & classification ( ! virtues or excell5cies4 ,:]eas intellectual excell5ce is *iefly g5]at$ & improv$ by tea*+1 moral excell5ce is a result ( habit ,greek3 e?os2 :5ce its "n 7,e?ical74 ,h5ce we may see t moral excell5ce is no inh]5t "p ( our nature3 if x 71 x c\ld n be rev]s$ by habit--any m ?an a /one c acquire f any numb] ( repetitions ! habit ( mov+ upw>d1 or fire ! habit ( mov+ d[nw>d4 ,^! moral excell5cies are nei!r a "p ( our nature1 nor yet contr>y to our nature3 we are by nature fitt$ to take !m on1 b !y are br\ght to consummation ?r\gh habit4 ,x is n ) !m1 z ) our s5ses1 :]e nature fir/ gives u ! p[] to see & he>1 & :]e we aft]w>ds ex]cise t p[]4 ,moral virtues are acquir$ only by practice4 ,we le>n to build or to play ! h>p1 by build+ or play+ ! h>p3 s too we become j or c\rage\s1 by a c\rse ( j or c\rage\s acts4 ,?is is atte/$ by all lawgiv]s 9 _! respective cities2 all ( !m %ape ! *>act]s ( _! respective citiz5s1 by en=c+ habitual practice4 ,"s d x well2 o!rs ill2 accord+ to ! practice1 s w be ! result+ "*2 z he t is practis$ 9 build+ badly1 w be a bad build] 9 ! end2 & he t beg9s on a bad habit ( play+ ! h>p1 becomes confirm$ into a bad play]4 ,h5ce ! importance ( mak+ ! "y p]=m good actions habitually & f ! beg9n+4 ,! p]man5t e?ical acquirem5ts are g5]at$ by uni=m & p]si/5t practice 7,i474 ,?is is ! e>lie/ /atem5t ( ! philosophy ( habit4 ,ev]y?+ ?us turns ^u practice3 & ,ari/otle rem9ds u t 8 purpose "h is1 n simply to tea* :at virtue is1 b to produce virtu\s ag5ts4 ,h[ are we to "k :at ! practice %\ld be8 ,x mu/ be con=mable to "r reason3 e "o admits ?is1 & we %all expla9 x fur!r 9 a future book4 ,b let u proclaim at once1 t 9 reg>d to moral action1 z 9 reg>d to heal?1 no exact rules c be laid d[n4 ,amid/ p]petual v>iability1 ea* ag5t mu/ 9 ! la/ resort be guid$ by ! circum/ances ( ! case4 ,/ill1 h[ev]1 some?+ may be done to help him4 ,"h ,ari/otle proce$s to introduce ! fam\s doctr9e ( ! ,,mean4 ,we may err1 z reg>ds heal?1 bo? by too mu* & by too little ( ex]cise1 food1 or dr9k4 ,! same holds good 9 reg>d to temp]ance1 c\rage1 & ! o!r excell5ces 7,,ii474 ,8 next rem>k is ano!r ( 8 *>act]i/ic doctr9es1 t ! te/ ( a =m$ habit ( virtue1 is to feel no pa92 he t feels pa9 9 brave acts is a c[>d4 ,:5ce he proce$s to illu/rate ! position1 t moral virtue ,greek3 ae?ikae aretae has to d ) pleasures & pa9s4 ,a virtu\s education consi/s 9 mak+ u feel pleasure & pa9 at prop] objects1 & on prop] occasions4 ,puni%m5t is a discipl9e ( pa94 ,"s philosoph]s 7! ,cynics7 h be5 l$ by ?is consid]ation to make virtue consi/ 9 apa?y1 or ins5sibility2 b ,ari/otle w\ld regulate1 & n extirpate our s5sibilities 7,,iii474 ,b does x n seem a p>adox to say 7accord+ to ! doctr9e ( habit 9 ,i471 t a man becomes j1 by p]=m+ j actions2 s9ce1 if he p]=ms j actions1 he is already j8 ,! answ] is giv5 by a di/9ction drawn 9 a comp>ison ) ! tra9+ 9 ! common arts ( life4 ,t a man is a good writ] or musician1 we see by 8 writ+ or 8 music2 we take no acc\nt ( ! /ate ( 8 m9d 9 o!r respects3 if he kn[s h[ to d ?is1 x is en\gh4 ,b 9 respect to moral excell5ce1 su* k is n en\gh3 a man may d j or temp]ate acts1 b he is n necess>ily a j or temp]ate man1 unless he does !m ) "r int5tion & on _! own acc\nt4 ,?is /ate ( ! int]nal m9d1 :i* is requisite to con/itute ! j & temp]ate man1 foll[s ^u ! habitual practice ( j & temp]ate acts1 & foll[s ^u no?+ else4 ,b mo/ m5 are cont5t to talk )\t any su* practice4 ,!y fancy errone\sly t kn[+1 )\t do+1 w make a good man4 ,we h "h ! reaction aga9/ ! ,sokratic doctr9e ( virtue1 & also ! /atem5t ( ! necessity ( a prosp] motive1 9 ord] to virtue4 ,ari/otle n[ sets himself to f9d a def9ition ( virtue1 p] g5us et diff]5tiam4 ,!re are ?ree qualities 9 ! ,s\l--,passions ,greek3 pa?ae1 z ,desire1 ,ang]1 ,fe>1 c41 foll[$ by pleasure or pa92 ,capacities or ,faculties ,greek3 dynameis1 z our capability ( be+ angry1 afraid1 affect$ by pity1 c42 ,fix$ t5d5cies1 acquirem5ts1 or /ates ,greek3 hexeis4 ,to :i* ( ! ?ree does virtue or excell5ce belong8 ,x _c be a ,passion2 = passions are n 9 !mselves good or evil1 & are n accompani$ ) delib]ate *oice ,greek3 pr\iresis1 w1 or int5tion4 ,nor is x a ,faculty3 = we are n prais$ or blam$ because we c h su* or su* emotions2 & moreov] our faculties are innate1 :i* virtue is n4 ,accord+ly1 virtue1 or excell5ce1 mu/ be an acquirem5t ,greek3 hexis--a ,/ate 7,v474 ,?is is ! g5us4 ,n[1 z to ! diff]5tia1 :i* br+s u to a m specific /atem5t ( ! doctr9e ( ! ,mean4 ,! specific excell5ce ( virtue is to be got at f quantity 9 ! ab/ract1 f :i* we d]ive ! conceptions ( m1 less1 & equal2 or excess1 defect1 & mean2 ! equal be+ ! mean betwe5 excess & defect4 ,b 9 ! case ( moral actions1 ! ari?metical mean may n hold 7= example1 six betwe5 two & t572 x mu/ be a mean relative to ! individual2 ,milo mu/ h m food ?an a novice 9 ! tra9+ s*ool4 ,9 ! arts1 we call a "w p]fect1 :5 any?+ ei!r add$ or tak5 away w\ld spoil x4 ,n[1 virtue1 :i*1 l ,nature1 is bett] & m exact ?an any art1 has = its subject-matt]1 passions & actions2 all :i* are wrong ei!r 9 defect or 9 excess4 ,virtue aims at ! mean betwe5 !m1 or ! maximum ( ,good3 :i* implies a correct e/imation ( all ! circum/ances ( ! act1--:5 we ought to d x--"u :at conditions--t[>ds :om--= :at purpose--9 :at mann]1 c4 ,?is is ! praise-wor?y mean1 :i* virtue aspires to4 ,we may err 9 _m ways 7= evil1 z ! ,py?agoreans said1 is ( ! nature ( ! ,inf9ite1 good ( ! ,f9ite71 b we c d "r only 9 "o way2 s mu* easi] is ! pa? ( error4 ,comb9+ !n ?is diff]5tia ) ! g5us1 z above e/abli%$1 ! complete def9ition is giv5 ?us--',virtue is an acquirem5t or fix$ /ate1 t5d+ by delib]ate purpose 7g5us71 t[>ds a mean relative to u 7diff]5ce74' ,to :i* is add$ ! foll[+ all-important qualification1 'det]m9$ by reason ,greek3 logos1 & z ! judici\s man ,greek3 ho ,phronimos w\ld det]m9e4' ,su* is ! doctr9e ( ! ,mean1 :i* comb9es ! practical matt]-(-fact quality ( mod]ation1 recogniz$ by all sages1 ) a high & ab/ract conception1 />t+ f ! ,py?agorean rem>k quot$ by ,ari/otle1 '! ,inf9ite1 or ,indef9ite1 is evil1 ! ,f9ite or ! ,def9ite is good1' & re-appe>+ 9 ,plato z 'con=mity to measure' ,greek3 metriotaes1 by :i* he 7,plato7 proposes to discrim9ate betwe5 good & evil4 ,! conclud+ qualification ( virtue--'a rational det]m9ation1 accord+ to ! ideal judici\s man'--is an attempt to assign a /&>d or au?ority = :at is ! prop] ',mean2' an au?ority purely ideal or imag9>y2 ! actual au?ority be+ always1 rightly or wrongly1 ! society ( ! "t4 ,ari/otle admits t 8 doctr9e ( ,virtue be+ a mean1 _c h an application q univ]sal2 because !re are "s acts t 9 _! v "n connote badness1 :i* are wrong !re=e1 n f excess or defect1 b 9 !mselves 7,,vi474 ,he next proce$s to resolve 8 g5]al doctr9e into p>ticul>s2 enum]at+ ! diff]5t virtues /at$1 ea* z a mean1 betwe5 two extremes--,c\rage1 ,temp]ance1 ,lib]ality1 ,magnanimity1 ,magnific5ce1 ,meekness1 ,amiability or ,fri5dl9ess1 ,tru?fulness1 ,ju/ice 7,,vii474 ,!y are describ$ 9 detail 9 ! two foll[+ books4 ,9 *ap4 ,,viii41 he qualifies 8 doctr9e ( ,mean & ,extremes1 by ! rem>k t "o ,extreme may be mu* f>!r remov$ f ! ,mean ?an ! o!r4 ,c[>dice & ,ra%ness are ! extremes ( ,c\rage1 b ,c[>dice is f>!/ remov$ f ! ,mean4 ,! conclud+ *apt] 7,,ix47 ( ! ,book reflects on ! great difficulty ( hitt+ ! mean 9 all ?+s1 & ( correctly e/imat+ all ! requisite circum/ances1 9 ea* p>ticul> case4 ,he gives z practical rules3--,to avoid at all ev5ts ! wor/ extreme2 to keep f>!/ f our natural b5t2 to gu>d aga9/ ! sn>e ( pleasure4 ,slight mi/akes on ei!r side are little blam$1 b grave & conspicu\s cases incur sev]e c5sure4 ,yet h[ f> ! c5sure ought to g1 is difficult to lay d[n be=eh& 9 g5]al t]ms4 ,!re is ! same difficulty 9 reg>d to all p>ticul> cases1 & all ! facts ( s5se3 :i* mu/ be left1 aft] all1 to ! judgm5t ( ,s5sible ,p]ception ,greek3 ai/haesis4 ,book ,?ird takes up ! consid]ation ( ! ,virtues 9 detail1 b prefaces !m ) a diss]tation1 occupy+ five *apt]s1 on ! ,volunt>y & ,involunt>y4 ,s9ce praise & blame are be/[$ only on volunt>y actions1--! involunt>y be+ p>don$1 & ev5 piti$1--x is requisite to def9e ,volunt>y & ,involunt>y4 ,:at is done "u physical compulsion1 or ?r\gh ignorance1 is cle>ly involunt>y4 ,:at is done "u ! fe> ( great] evils is p>tly volunt>y1 & p>tly involunt>y4 ,su* actions are volunt>y 9 ! s5se ( be+ a man's own actions2 involunt>y 9 t !y are n *os5 on _! own acc\nt2 be+ prais$ or blam$ accord+ to ! circum/ances4 ,!re are cases :]e x is difficult to say :i* ( two conflict+ pressures ought to prepond]ate1 & compulsion is an excuse (t5 misappli$3 b compulsion1 9 its /rict s5se1 is n /r5g? ( motive at all2 x is tak+ ! action entirely out ( our own h&s4 ,z reg>ds ,ignorance1 a diff]5ce is made4 ,ignorance ( a g5]al rule is matt] = c5sure2 ignorance ( p>ticul> circum/ances may be excus$4 ,?is became ! fam\s maxim ( law1--',ignorantia facti excusat1 ignorantia juris non excusat4' ,if ! ag5t1 :5 bett] in=m$1 rep5ts ( 8 act committ$ 9 ignorance1 he af=ds good pro( t ! act done 0 really involunt>y4 ,acts done f ang] or desire 7:i* are 9 ! ag5t's self7 are n to be held z involunt>y4 7#a7 ,if !y 71 ! actions ( brutes & *ildr5 w\ld be involunt>y4 7#b7 ,"s ( ^! acts are morally good & approv$4 7#c7 ,obligation (t5 atta*es to ^! feel+s4 7#d7 ,:at is done f desire is pleasant2 ! involunt>y is pa9ful4 7#e7 ,errors ( passion are to be es*ew$1 no less ?an ^? ( reason 7,i474 ,! next po9t is ! nature ( ,purpose1 ,det]m9ation1 or ,delib]ate ,pref]5ce ,greek3 proairesis1 :i* is 9 ! close/ k9dr$ ) moral excell5ce1 & is ev5 m ess5tial1 9 ! e?ical e/imate1 ?an acts !mselves4 ,?is is a "p ( ! ,volunt>y2 b n co-ext5sive !re)4 ,= x excludes sudd5 & unprem$itat$ acts2 & is n %>$ by irrational be+s4 ,x is di/9ct f desire1 f ang]1 f wi%1 & f op9ion2 ) all :i* x is sometimes conf\nd$4 ,desire is (t5 oppos$ to x2 ! incont95t man acts ^u 8 desires1 b )\t any purpose1 or ev5 aga9/ 8 purpose2 ! cont95t man acts ^u 8 purpose1 b aga9/ 8 desires4 ,purpose is /ill m di/9ct f ang]1 & is ev5 di/9ct 7?\gh 9 a less degree7 f wi% ,greek3 b\laesis1 :i* is *oice ( ! ,end1 :ile ,purpose is ( ! ,means2 moreov]1 we sometimes wi% = impossibilities1 kn[n z su*1 b we nev] purpose !m4 ,nor is purpose id5tical ) op9ion ,greek3 doxa1 :i* relates to tru? & falsehood1 n to virtue & vice4 ,x is among our volunt>y proce$+s1 & includes intellig5ce2 b is x id5tical ) pr$elib]at$ action & its results8 7,,ii47 ,to answ] ?is qu]y1 ,ari/otle analyzes ! process ( ,delib]ation1 z to its scope1 & its mode ( op]ation4 ,we exclude f delib]ation ?+s ,et]nal1 l ! ,kosmos1 or ! incomm5surability ( ! side & ! diagonal ( a squ>e2 also ?+s mutable1 t are regulat$ by necessity1 by nature1 or by *ance2 ?+s out ( our p[]2 also f9al ends ( action1 = we delib]ate only ab\t ! means to ends4 ,! delib]ative process is comp>$ to ! inve/igation ( a geometrical problem4 ,we assume ! end1 & enquire by :at means x c be produc$2 !n aga91 :at w produce ! means1 until we at la/ rea* some?+ t we ourselves c comm&4 ,if1 aft] su* delib]ation1 we see our way to execution1 we =m a ,purpose1 or ,delib]ate ,pref]5ce ,greek3 proairesis4 ,purpose is !n def9able z a delib]ative appet5cy ( ?+s 9 our p[] 7,,iii474 ,next is />t$ ! important "q z to ! *oice ( ! f9al ,end4 ,delib]ation & ,purpose respect means2 our ,wi% respects ! ,end--b :at is ! ,end t we wi%8 ,two op9ions are notic$2 accord+ to "o 7,plato7 we are mov$ to ! good2 accord+ to ! o!r1 to ! app>5t good4 ,bo? op9ions are unsatisfactory2 ! "o w\ld make out an incorrect *oice to be no *oice at all2 ! o!r w\ld take away all con/ancy f ends4 ,ari/otle settles ! po9t by di/+ui%+1 9 ?is case z 9 o!rs1 betwe5 :at be>s a giv5 "* simply & absolutely1 & :at be>s ! same "* relatively to ?is or t individual4 ,! object ( ,wi%1 simply1 truly1 & absolutely1 is ! ,good2 :ile ! object ( ,wi%1 to any giv5 individual1 is :at appe>s ,good to him4 ,b by ! ,absolute "h1 ,ari/otle expla9s t he means :at appe>s good to ! virtu\s & intellig5t man2 :o is is decl>$1 "h z else:]e1 to be ! infallible /&>d2 :ile mo/ m51 misl$ by pleasure1 *oose :at is n truly good4 ,9 l mann]1 ,ari/otle affirms1 t ^? sub/ances are truly & absolutely :olesome1 :i* are :olesome to ! heal?y & well-con/itut$ man2 o!r sub/ances may be :olesome to ! sick or deg5]ate4 ,ari/otle's ,absolute is ?us a ,relative ) its correlate *os5 or imag9$ by himself4 ,he !n proce$s to ma9ta9 t virtue & vice are volunt>y1 & 9 our own p[]4 ,! argum5ts are ^!4 7#a7 ,if x be 9 our p[] to act "r1 ! contr>y is equally 9 our own p[]2 h5ce vice is z mu* volunt>y z virtue4 7#b7 ,man mu/ be admitt$ to be ! orig9 ( 8 own actions4 7#c7 ,legislators & o!rs puni% m5 = wick$ness1 & conf] hon\r on good actions2 ev5 culpable ignorance & neglig5ce are puni%$4 7#d7 ,our "* itself1 or our fix$ acquirem5ts1 are 9 our p[]1 be+ produc$ by our successive acts2 m5 become intemp]ate1 by acts ( drunk5ness4 7#e7 ,n only ! defects ( ! m9d1 b ! infirmities ( ! body also1 are blam$1 :5 aris+ ?r\gh our own neglect & want ( tra9+4 7#f7 ,ev5 if x %\ld be said t all m5 aim at ! app>5t good1 b _c control _! mode ( conceiv+ ,greek3 phantasia ! end2 /ill ea* p]son1 be+ by 8 acts ! cause ( 8 own fix$ acquirem5ts1 mu/ be to a c]ta9 ext5t ! cause ( 8 own conceptions4 ,on ?is head1 too1 ,ari/otle repeats ! cl5*+ argum5t1 t ! suppos$ imbecility ( conceiv+ w\ld apply alike to virtue & to vice2 s t if virtu\s action be reg>d$ z volunt>y1 vici\s action mu/ be s reg>d$ likewise4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ t a man's fix$ acquirem5ts or habits are n 9 8 own p[]1 9 ! same s5se & degree 9 :i* 8 sep>ate acts are 9 8 own p[]4 ,ea* act1 f fir/ to la/1 is alike 9 8 p[]2 b 9 reg>d to ! habit1 x is only ! initiation !re( t is ?or\ghly 9 8 p[]2 ! habit1 l a di/emp]1 is tak5 on by imp]ceptible /eps 9 advance 7,v474 ,9 ! =ego+ acc\nt ( ! ,e?ical que/ions connect$ ) ! ,w1 ,ari/otle is happily unembroil$ ) ! mod]n controv]sy4 ,! mal-apropos ( ',fre$om' _h n be5 appli$ to volunt>y action4 ,accord+ly1 he treats ! :ole "q f ! inductive side1 di/+ui%+ ! cases :]e p are prais$ or blam$ = _! conduct1 f ^? :]e praise & blame are inapplicable z be+ p[]less4 ,x w\ld h be5 well if ! me?od _h nev] be5 dep>t$ f2 a s\nd ,psy*ology w\ld h improv$ ! induction1 b w\ld nev] h introduc$ any "q except z to ! relative /r5g? ( ! diff]5t feel+s op]at+ z motives to volunt>y conduct4 ,9 "o "p ( 8 argum5t1 h[ev]1 :]e he ma9ta9s t vice mu/ be volunt>y1 because its opposite1 virtue1 is volunt>y1 he is already t\*+ on ! magical isl& ( ! bad en*antress2 all[+ a "q ( fact to be sway$ by ! notion ( factiti\s dignity4 ,virtue is assum$ to be volunt>y1 n on ! evid5ce ( fact1 b because !re w\ld be an indignity ca/ on x1 to suppose o!rwise4 ,n[1 ?is consid]ation1 :i* ,ari/otle gives way to on v>i\s occasions1 is ! motive und]ly+ ! objectionable metaphor4 ,aft] ! prec$+ digression on ! ,volunt>y & ,involunt>y1 ,ari/otle takes up ! consid]ation ( ! ,virtues 9 ord]1 beg9n+ ) ,,c\rage1 :i* 0 "o ( ! receiv$ c>d9al virtues1 & a subject ( frequ5t discussion4 7,plato1 ,la*es1 ,protagoras1 ,republic1 c47 ,c\rage ,greek3 &reia1 ! mean betwe5 timidity & foolh>d9ess1 has to d ) evils4 ,all evils are objects ( fe>2 b !re are "s evils t ev5 ! brave man does "r to fe>--z disgrace4 ,pov]ty or disease he ought n to fe>4 ,yet1 he w n acquire ! reputation ( c\rage f n fe>+ ^!1 nor w he acquire x if he be exempt f fe> :5 ab\t to be sc\rg$4 ,aga91 if a man be afraid ( envy f o!rs1 or ( insults to 8 *ildr5 or wife1 he w n = t reason be reg>d$ z a c[>d4 ,x is by be+ sup]ior to ! fe> ( great evils1 t a man is extoll$ z c\rage\s2 & ! greate/ ( evils is dea?1 s9ce x is a f9al close1 z well ( good z ( evil4 ,h5ce ! dang]s ( w> are ! greate/ occasion ( c\rage4 ,b ! cause mu/ be hon\rable 7,,vi474 ,?us ! key to true c\rage is ! quality or m]it ( ! action4 ,t man is brave1 :o bo? fe>s1 & affronts )\t fe>1 :at he ought & :5 he ought3 :o suff]s & acts accord+ to ! value ( ! cause1 & accord+ to a "r judgm5t ( x4 ,! opposites or extremes ( c\rage include 7#a7 ,defici5cy ( fe>2 7#b7 ,excess ( fe>1 c[>dice2 7#c7 ,defici5cy ( d>+1 ano!r =mula = c[>dice2 7#d7 ,excess ( d>+1 ,ra%ness4 ,betwe5 ^!1 ,c\rage is ! mean 7,,vii474 ,ari/otle enum]ates five analog\s =ms ( quasi-c\rage1 approa*+ m or less to g5u9e c\rage4 7#a7 ,! fir/1 mo/ l to ! true1 is political c\rage1 :i* is mov$ to enc\nt] dang] by ! ,puni%m5ts & ! ,hon\rs ( society4 ,! desire ( hon\r rises to virtue1 & is a noble spr+ ( action4 7#b7 ,a second k9d is ! effect ( ,exp]i5ce1 :i* dispels seem+ t]rors1 & gives skill to meet real dang]4 7#c7 ,ang]1 ,_s1 ,en]gy ,greek3 ?ymos is a species ( c\rage1 f\nd$ on physical p[] & excitem5t1 b n "u ! guidance ( high emotions4 7#d7 ,! ,sangu9e temp]am5t1 by ov]rat+ ! *ances ( success1 gives c\rage4 7#e7 ,la/ly1 ,ignorance ( ! dang] may h ! same effect z c\rage 7,,viii474 ,c\rage is ma9ly connect$ ) pa9 & loss4 ,m5 are call$ brave = ! endurance ( pa91 ev5 al?\gh x br+ pleasure 9 ! end1 z to ! box] :o endures bruises f ! hope ( hon\r4 ,dea? is pa9ful1 & mo/ s to ! man t by 8 virtue has made life valuable4 ,su* a man is to be consid]$ m c\rage\s1 z a soldi]1 ?an a m]c5>y ) little to lose 7,,ix474 ,! acc\nt ( ,c\rage ?us giv5 is rem>kably exhau/ive2 al?\gh ! con/itu5t p>ts might h be5 m c>efully dis5tangl$4 ,a cle> l9e %\ld be drawn betwe5 two aspects ( c\rage4 ,! "o is ! resi/ance to ,fe> prop]ly s call$2 t is1 to ! p]turbation t exagg]ates com+ evil3 a c\rage\s man1 9 ?is s5se1 is "o t possesses ! true measure ( imp5d+ dang]1 & acts accord+ to t1 & n accord+ to an excessive measure4 ,! o!r aspect ( ,c\rage1 is :at gives x all its nobl5ess z a virtue1 namely1 ,self-sacrifice1 or ! delib]ate enc\nt]+ ( evil1 = "s hon\rable or virtu\s cause4 ,:5 a man kn[+ly risks 8 life 9 battle = 8 c\ntry1 he may be call$ c\rage\s1 b he is /ill bett] describ$ z a h]oic & devot$ man4 ,inasmu* z ! lead+ =m ( h]oic devotion1 9 ! anci5t _w1 0 exposure ( life 9 w>1 ,self-sacrifice 0 pres5t$ "u ! guise ( ,c\rage1 & _h no indep5d5t /&+ z a c>d9al virtue4 ,f ?is circum/ance1 paganism is made to appe> 9 a some:at disadvantage\s light1 z reg>ds self-d5y+ duties4 ,next 9 ord] among ! excell5ces or virtues ( ! irrational dep>tm5t ( m9d is ,,temp]ance1 or ,mod]ation1 ,greek3 sophrosynae1 a mean or middle /ate 9 ! enjoym5t ( pleasure4 ,pleasures are m5tal & bodily4 ,) ! m5tal1 z love ( le>n+ or ( hon\r1 temp]ance is n conc]n$4 ,nor ) ! bodily pleasures ( muscul> ex]cise1 ( he>+ & ( smell1 b only ) ! animal pleasures ( t\* & ta/e3 9 fact1 s5suality resides 9 t\*2 ! pleasure ( eat+ be+ a mode ( contact 7,x474 ,9 ! desires natural & common to m51 z eat+ & ! nuptial c\*1 m5 are giv5 to err1 & error is usually on ! side ( excess4 ,b x is 9 ! case ( special ta/es or pref]5ces1 t p are mo/ frequ5tly intemp]ate4 ,temp]ance does n apply to endur+ pa9s1 except ^? ( ab/95ce f pleasures4 ,! extreme ( ins5sibility to pleasure is r>ely f\nd1 & has no "n4 ,! temp]ate man has ! feel+s ( pleasure & pa91 b mod]ates 8 desires accord+ to "r reason 7,,xl474 ,he desires :at he ought1 :5 he ought1 & z he ought3 correctly e/imat+ ea* sep>ate case 7,,xii474 ,! "q is rais$1 :i* is mo/ volunt>y1 ,c[>dice or ,intemp]ance8 7#a7 ,intemp]ance is m volunt>y ?an ,c[>dice1 = ! "o consi/s 9 *oos+ pleasure1 :ile 9 ! o!r !re is a sort ( compulsory avoidance ( pa94 7#b7 ,temp]ance is easi] to acquire z a habit ?an ,c\rage4 7#c7 ,9 ,intemp]ance1 ! p>ticul> acts are volunt>y1 al?\gh n ! habit2 9 ,c[>dice1 ! fir/ acts are involunt>y1 :ile by habit1 x t5ds to become volunt>y 7,,xii474 ,temp]ance is ! virtue mo/ suit$ to ! =mula ( ! ,mean1 al?\gh ! settl+ ( :at is ! mean dep5ds aft] all ^u a man's own judgm5t4 ,ari/otle does n recognize asceticism z a ?+ exi/+4 ,8 ,temp]ance is mod]ation 9 ! s5sual pleasures ( eat+ & love4 ,book ,f\r? proce$s ) ! exam9ation ( ! ,virtues or ,e?ical ,excell5ces4 ,,lib]ality ,greek3 eleu!ri/aes1 9 ! matt] ( prop]ty1 is ! mean ( ,prodigality & ,illib]ality4 ,! "r uses ( money are sp5d+ & giv+4 ,lib]ality consi/s 9 giv+ will+ly1 f an hon\rable motive1 to prop] p]sons1 9 prop] quantities1 & at prop] times2 ea* individual case be+ measur$ by correct reason4 ,if su* measure be n tak51 or if ! gift be n made will+ly1 x is n lib]ality4 ,! lib]al man is (t5 s free z to leave little to himself4 ,?is virtue is "o m frequ5t 9 ! inh]itors ?an 9 ! mak]s ( =tunes4 ,lib]ality beyond "o's means is prodigality4 ,! lib]al man w receive only f prop] s\rces & 9 prop] quantities4 ,( ! extremes1 prodigality is m curable ?an illib]ality4 ,! faults ( prodigality are1 t x mu/ d]ive supplies f improp] s\rces2 t x gives to ! wrong objects1 & is usually accompani$ ) intemp]ance4 ,illib]ality is incurable3 x is confirm$ by age1 & is m cong5ial to m5 g5]ally ?an prodigality4 ,"s ( ! illib]al fall %ort 9 giv+--^? call$ /+y1 close-fi/$1 & s on2 b d n desire :at belongs to o!r p4 ,o!rs are excessive 9 receiv+ f all s\rces2 su* are !y t ply disreputable trades 7,i474 ,,magnific5ce ,greek3 megaloprepeia is a gr&] k9d ( ,lib]ality2 its *>act]i/ic is greatness ( exp5diture1 ) suitabl5ess to ! p]son1 ! circum/ances1 & ! purpose4 ,! magnific5t man takes correct measure ( ea*2 he is 9 8 way a man ( ,sci5ce ,greek3 ho de megaloprepaes epi/aemoni eoike--,,ii4 ,! motive mu/ be hon\rable1 ! outlay un/9t$1 & ! effect arti/ically spl5did4 ,! s]vice ( ! gods1 hospitality to =eign]s1 public works1 & gifts1 are prop] occasions4 ,magnific5ce especially becomes ! well-born & ! illu/ri\s4 ,! h\se ( ! magnific5t man w be ( suitable spl5d\r2 ev]y?+ t he does w %[ ta/e & propriety4 ,! extremes1 or correspond+ defects ( "*1 are1 on ! "o side1 vulg>1 ta/eless pr(usion1 & on ! o!r1 meanness or pett9ess1 :i* = "s paltry sav+ w spoil ! effect ( a great outlay 7,,ii474 ,,magnanimity1 or ,,high-,,m9d$ness ,greek3 megalopsy*ia1 l(t9ess ( _s1 is ! culm9ation ( ! virtues4 ,x is conc]n$ ) greatness4 ,! high-m9d$ man is "o t1 be+ wor?y1 rates himself at 8 real wor?1 & nei!r m 7:i* is vanity7 nor less 7:i* is littl5ess ( m9d74 ,n[1 wor? has ref]5ce to ext]nal goods1 ( :i* ! greate/ is hon\r4 ,! high-m9d$ man mu/ be 9 ! highe/ degree hon\rable1 = :i* he mu/ be a good man2 hon\r be+ ! prize ( virtue4 ,he w accept hon\r only f ! good1 & w despise di%on\r1 kn[+ x to be undes]v$4 ,9 all good or bad =tune1 he w behave ) mod]ation2 9 n highly valu+ ev5 ! highe/ ?+ ( all1 hon\r itself1 he may seem to o!rs sup]cili\s4 ,weal? & =tune contribute to high-m9d$ness2 b mo/ ( all1 sup]ior goodness2 = ! "* _c exi/ )\t p]fect virtue4 ,! high-m9d$ man nei!r %uns nor c\rts dang]2 nor is he indispos$ to risk ev5 8 life4 ,he gives fav\rs1 b does n accept !m2 he is pr\d to ! great1 b affable to ! l[ly4 ,he attempts only great & important matt]s2 is op5 9 fri5d%ip & 9 hatr$2 tru?ful 9 conduct1 ) an ironical res]ve4 ,he talks little1 ei!r ( himself or ( o!rs2 nei!r desir+ 8 own praise1 nor c>+ to utt] blame4 ,he wond]s at no?+1 be>s no malice1 is no gossip4 ,8 movem5ts are sl[1 8 voice deep1 8 diction /ately 7,,iii474 ,!re is a nameless virtue1 a mean betwe5 ! two extremes ( too mu* & too little ambition1 or desire ( hon\r2 ! ref]5ce be+ to small] matt]s & to ord9>y m54 ,! fact t bo? extremes are made t]ms ( reproa*1 %[s t !re is a j mean2 :ile ea* extreme alt]nately claims to be ! virtue1 z aga9/ ! o!r1 s9ce !re is no t]m to express ! mean 7,,iv474 ,,mildness ,greek3 praotaes is a mean /ate ) ref]5ce to ,ang]1 al?\gh incl9+ to ! defective side4 ,! exact mean1 :i* has no curr5t "n1 is t /ate :]e9 ! ag5t is free f p]turbation ,greek3 at>a*os1 is n impell$ by passion1 b guid$ by reason2 is angry :5 he ought1 z he ought1 ) :om1 & z long z1 he ought3 tak+ "r measure ( all ! circum/ances4 ,n to be angry on ! prop] provocation1 is folly1 ins5sibility1 slavi% submission4 ,( ^? giv5 to excess 9 ang]1 "s are quick1 impetu\s1 & soon appeas$2 o!rs are sulky1 repress+ & p]petuat+ _! res5tm5t4 ,x is n easy to def9e ! exact mean2 ea* case mu/ be left to individual p]ception 7,v474 ,! next virtue is ,good-bre$+ 9 society1 a balance betwe5 surl9ess on ! "o h&1 & weak ass5t or int]e/$ flatt]y on ! o!r4 ,x is a nameless virtue1 resembl+ fri5d%ip )\t ! special affection4 ,ari/otle %[s :at he consid]s ! be>+ ( ! f9i%$ g5tleman1 /udy+ to give pleasure1 & yet express+ disapprobation :5 x w\ld be wrong to d o!rwise 7,,vi474 ,closely alli$ to ! =ego+ is ! obs]vance ( a due mean1 9 ! matt] ( ,boa/fulness4 ,! boa/ful lay claim to :at !y d n possess2 false mode/y ,greek3 eironeia is d5y+ or und]rat+ "o's own m]its4 ,! balance ( ! two is ! /raight=w>d & tru?ful "*2 ass]t+ j :at belongs to him1 nei!r m nor less4 ,?is is a k9d ( tru?fulness1--di/+ui%$ f 'tru?' 9 its m s]i\s aspect1 z discrim9at+ betwe5 ju/ice & inju/ice--& has a wor? ( its own2 = he t is tru?ful 9 little ?+s w be s 9 m important affairs 7,,vii474 ,9 ! playful int]c\rse ( society1 !re is room = ! virtue ( ,wit1 a balance or mean betwe5 buffooni% excess1 & ! cl[ni% dulness t c nei!r make nor enjoy a joke4 ,"h ! man ( ref9em5t mu/ be a law to himself 7,,viii474 ,,mode/y ,greek3 aidos is briefly describ$1 )\t be+ put ?r\gh ! comp>ison ) its extremes4 ,x is m a feel+ ?an a /ate1 or settl$ habit4 ,x is ! fe> ( ill-report2 & has ! physical expression ( fe> "u dang]--! blu%+ & ! pallor4 ,x befits y\? z ! age ( passion & ( errors4 ,9 ! old x is no virtue1 z !y %\ld d no?+ to be a%am$ ( 7,,ix474 ,book ,fif? 7! fir/ ( ! s-call$ ,eudemian books71 treats ( ,ju/ice1 ! ,social virtue by pre-em95ce4 ,ju/ice z a virtue is def9$1 ! /ate ( m9d1 or moral disposition1 to d :at is j4 ,! "q !n is--:at is ! j & ! unju/ 9 action8 ,! words seem to h m s5ses ?an "o4 ,! j may be 7#a7 ! ,lawful1 :at is e/abli%$ by law2 :i* includes1 !re=e1 all ob$i5ce1 & all moral virtue 7= e k9d ( conduct came "u public regulation1 9 ! legislation ( ,plato & ,ari/otle74 ,or 7#b7 ! j may be re/rict$ to ! fair & equitable z reg>ds prop]ty4 ,9 bo? s5ses1 h[ev]1 ju/ice conc]ns our behavi\r to "s "o else3 & x ?us /&s ap>t f ! o!r virtues1 z 7ess5tially & 9 its fir/ "*7 seek+ ano!r's good--n ! good ( ! ag5t himself 7,i474 ,! fir/ k9d ( ju/ice1 :i* includes all virtue1 call$ ,univ]sal ,ju/ice1 be+ set aside1 ! enquiry is r$uc$ to ! ,p>ticul> ,ju/ice1 or ,ju/ice prop] & di/9ctive4 ,( ?is !re are two k9ds1 ,di/ributive & ,corrective 7,,ii474 ,di/ributive ,ju/ice is a k9d ( equality or proportion 9 ! di/ribution ( prop]ty1 hon\rs1 c41 9 ! ,/ate1 accord+ to ! m]its ( ea* citiz52 ! /&>d ( wor? or m]it be+ settl$ by ! con/itution1 :e!r democratic1 olig>*ic1 or ari/ocratic 7,,iii474 ,corrective1 or ,rep>ative ,ju/ice takes no acc\nt ( p]sons2 b1 look+ at cases :]e unju/ loss or ga9 has occurr$1 aims to re/ore ! balance1 by /rik+ an ari?metical mean 7,,iv474 ,! ,py?agorean idea1 t ,ju/ice is ,retaliation1 is inadequate2 proportion & o!r circum/ances mu/ be includ$4 ,proportionate ,retaliation1 or ,reciprocity ( s]vices1--z 9 ! case ( ,comm]cial ,ex*ange1 measur$ ?r\gh ! in/rum5t ( money1 ) its def9ite value1--is set =? z ! great bond ( society4 ,j deal+ is ! mean betwe5 do+ inju/ice & suff]+ inju/ice 7,v474 ,ju/ice is def9itely connect$ ) ,law1 & exi/s only betwe5 citiz5s ( ! ,/ate1 & n betwe5 fa!r & *ildr51 ma/] & slave1 betwe5 :om !re is no law prop]1 b only a sort ( relation analog\s to law 7,,vi474 ,civil ,ju/ice is p>tly ,natural1 p>tly conv5tional4 ,! natural is :at has ! same =ce ev]y:]e1 :e!r accept$ or n2 ! conv5tional v>ies ) in/itutions1 acquir+ all its =ce f adoption by law1 & be+ 9 itself a matt] ( indiff]5ce prior to su* adoption4 ,"s p]sons reg>d all ,ju/ice z ?us conv5tional4 ,!y say--',:at exi/s by nature is un*angeable1 & has ev]y:]e ! same p[]2 = example1 fire burns alike 9 ,p]sia & "h2 b we see regulations ( ju/ice (t5 v>i$--diff]+ "h & !re4' ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n exactly ! fact1 ?\gh to a c]ta9 ext5t x is ! fact4 ,among ! gods inde$1 x p]haps is n ! fact at all3 b among m51 x is true t !re exi/s some?+ by nature *angeable1 ?\gh ev]y?+ is n s4 ,nev]!less1 !re are "s ?+s exi/+ by nature1 o!r ?+s n by nature4 ,& we c pla9ly see1 among ^? matt]s t admit ( opposite arrangem5t1 :i* ( !m belong to nature & :i* to law & conv5tion2 & ! same di/9ction w fit 9 o!r cases also4 ,?us ! "r h& is by nature m p[]ful ?an ! left2 yet x is possible t all m5 may become ambidextr\s4 ,^? regulations ( ju/ice t are n by nature1 b by human appo9tm5t1 are n ! same ev]y:]e2 nor is ! political con/itution ev]y:]e ! same2 yet !re is "o political con/itution only t is by nature ! be/ ev]y:]e 7,,vii474 ,to con/itute ,ju/ice & ,inju/ice 9 acts1 ! acts mu/ be volunt>y2 !re be+ degrees ( culpability 9 inju/ice accord+ to ! int5tion1 ! prem$itation1 ! great] or less k ( circum/ances4 ,! act t a p]son does may p]haps be unju/2 b he is n1 on t acc\nt1 always to be reg>d$ z an unju/ man 7,,viii474 ,"h a "q arises1 ,c "o be injur$ volunt>ily8 ,x seems n1 = :at a man cons5ts to is n injury4 ,nor c a p]son injure himself4 ,injury is a relation%ip betwe5 two p>ties 7,,ix474 ,equity does n contradict1 or set aside1 ,ju/ice1 b is a high] & f9] k9d ( ju/ice1 com+ 9 :]e ! law is too r\gh & g5]al4 ,book ,six? treats ( ,intellectual ,excell5ces1 or ,virtues ( ! ,intellect4 ,x ?us foll[s out ! l>ge def9ition ( virtue giv5 at ! outset1 & repeat$ 9 detail z conc]ns ea* ( ! e?ical or moral virtues successively4 ,accord+ to ! views mo/ receiv$ at pres5t1 ,morality is an affair ( consci5ce & s5tim5t2 little or no?+ is said ab\t e/imat+ ! full circum/ances & consequ5ces ( ea* act1 except t !re is no "t to calculate correctly1 & t ! attempt to d s is g5]ally a pret5ce = evad+ ! p]emptory ord] ( virtu\s s5tim5t1 :i*1 if fai?fully obey$1 ensures virtu\s action 9 ea* p>ticul> case4 ,if ^! views be adopt$1 an inve/igation ( our intellectual excell5ces w\ld f9d no place 9 a treatise on ,e?ics4 ,b ! !ory ( ,ari/otle is altoge!r diff]5t4 ,?\gh he recognizes ,emotion & ,intellect z insep>ably implicat$ 9 ! m9d ( ,e?ical ag5ts1 yet ! sov]eign au?ority t he proclaims is n ,consci5ce or ,s5tim5t1 b ,reason4 ,! subord9ation ( ,s5tim5t to ,reason is ) him ess5tial4 ,x is true t ,reason mu/ be suppli$ ) ,fir/ ,pr9ciples1 :5ce to take its />t2 & ^! ,fir/ ,pr9ciples are "h decl>$ to be1 fix$ emotional /ates or dispositions1 eng5d]$ 9 ! m9d ( ! ag5t by a succession ( simil> acts4 ,b ev5 ^! dispositions !mselves1 ?\gh n belong+ to ! dep>tm5t ( ,reason1 are n exempt f ! *all5ge & scrut9y ( ,reason2 :ile ! prop] application ( !m 9 act to ! complicat$ realities ( life1 is ! "w ( ,reason altoge!r4 ,su* an e?ical !ory calls ^u ,ari/otle to indicate1 m or less fully1 ^? intellectual excell5ces1 :]eby alone we are enabl$ to ov]come ! inh]5t difficulties ( "r e?ical conduct2 & he indicates !m 9 ! pres5t ,book1 comp>+ !m ) ^? o!r intellectual excell5ces :i* guide our !oretical inve/igations1 :]e conduct is n directly conc]n$4 ,9 specify+ ! e?ical excell5ces1 or excell5ces ( disposition1 we expla9$ t ea* ( !m aim$ to realize a mean--& t ?is mean 0 to be det]m9$ by ,"r ,reason4 ,to f9d ! mean1 is ?us an op]ation ( ! ,intellect2 & we h n[ to expla9 :at ! "r p]=mance ( x is1--or to ent] ^u ! ,excell5ces ( ! ,intellect4 ,! s\l hav+ be5 divid$ into ,irrational & ,rational1 ! ,rational mu/ f>!r be divid$ into two p>ts1--! ,sci5tific 7deal+ ) necess>y matt]71 ! ,calculative1 or ,delib]ative 7deal+ ) cont+5t matt]74 ,we mu/ t\*1 ^u ! excell5ce or be/ condition ( bo? ( !m 7,i74 ,!re are ?ree pr9cipal functions ( ! s\l--,s5sation1 ,reason1 & ,appetite or ,desire4 ,n[1 ,s5sation 7:i* bea/s h z well z m57 is n a pr9ciple ( moral action4 ,! ,reason reg>ds tru? & falsehood only2 x does n move to action1 x is n an end 9 itself4 ,appetite or ,desire1 :i* aims at an end1 introduces u to moral action4 ,tru? & ,falsehood1 z reg>ds ,reason1 correspond to ,good & ,evil z reg>ds ,appetite3 ,affirmation & ,negation1 ) ! fir/1 are ! analogues ( ,pursuit & ,avoidance1 ) ! second4 ,9 purpose1 :i* is ! pr9ciple ( moral action1 !re is includ$ delib]ation or calculation4 ,reason & ,appetite are ?us comb9$3 ,good ,purpose comprises bo? true affirmation & "r pursuit3 y may call x ei!r an ,intellig5t ,appetite1 or an ,appetitive ,intellig5ce4 ,su* is man1 z a pr9ciple ( action hae toiautae ar*ae an?ropos4 ,sci5ce has to d ) ! necess>y & ! et]nal2 x is tea*able1 b tea*able always f praecognita1 or pr9ciples1 obta9$ by induction2 f :i* pr9ciples1 conclusions are demon/rat$ by syllogism 7,,iii474 ,art1 or ,production1 is to be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! action or ag5cy t belongs to man z an e?ical ag5t1 & t does n t]m9ate 9 any sep>ate assignable product4 ,b bo? ! "o & ! o!r deal ) cont+5t matt]s only4 ,art deals = ! mo/ "p ) ! same matt]s z are subject to ! int]v5tion ( ,=tune or ,*ance 7,,iv474 ,prud5ce or ,judici\sness ,greek3 phronaesis1 ! quality ( ,greek3 ho phronimos1 ! ,practical ,reason1 comes next4 ,we are told :at are ! matt]s :]e) x is1 & :]e) x is n1 conv]sant4 ,x does n deal ) matt]s :]e9 !re exi/ art1 or ) rules ( art4 ,x does n deal ) necess>y matt]s1 nor ) matt]s n modifiable by human ag5cy4 ,! prud5t or judici\s man is "o :o 7l ,p]icles7 c accurately e/imate & =esee matt]s 7ap>t f ,sci5ce & ,art7 su* z are good or evil = himself & o!r human be+s4 ,on ^! matt]s1 feel+s ( pleasure or pa9 are apt to bias ! m9d1 by ins9uat+ wrong aims2 :i* !y d n d 9 reg>d to ! prop]ties ( a triangle & o!r sci5tific conclusions4 ,to gu>d aga9/ su* bias1 ! judici\s man mu/ be arm$ ) ! e?ical excell5ce describ$ above z ,temp]ance or ,mod]ation4 ,judici\sness is n an ,art1 admitt+ ( bett] & worse2 !re are n good judici\s m51 & bad judici\s m51 z !re are good & bad arti/s4 ,judici\sness is itself an excell5ce 7i4e41 ! t]m connotes excell5ce7--an excell5ce ( ! rational s\l1 & ( t bran* ( ! rational s\l :i* is calculat+1 delib]ative1 n sci5tific 7,v474 ,reason or ,intellect ,greek3 n\s is ! faculty = appreh5d+ ! fir/ pr9ciples ( demon/rative sci5ce4 ,x is among ! infallible faculties ( ! m9d1 toge!r ) ,judici\sness1 ,sci5ce1 & ,philosophy4 ,ea* ( ^! t]ms connotes tru? & accuracy 7,,vi474 ,wisdom 9 ! arts is ! privilege ( ! sup]lative arti/s1 su* z ,phidias 9 sculpture4 ,b !re are "s m5 wise1 n 9 any special art1 b absolutely2 & ?is wisdom ,greek3 sophia is ,philosophy4 ,x embraces bo? pr9ciples ( sci5ce 7:i* ,ari/otle consid]s to come "u ! review ( ! ,fir/ ,philosophy7 & d$uctions !refrom2 x is ,greek3 n\s & ,greek3 epi/aemae 9 "o4 ,x is m v5]able & dignifi$ ?an ,prud5ce or ,judici\sness2 because its objects1 ! ,kosmos & ! cele/ial bodies1 are f> m glori\s ?an man1 ) ^: int]e/s alone ,prud5ce is conc]n$2 & also because ! cele/ial objects are et]nal & unv>y+2 :ile man & 8 affairs are transitory & ev] fluctuat+4 ,h5ce ! great hon\r paid to ,?ales1 ,anaxagoras1 & o!rs1 :o speculat$ on !ories ?us magnific5t & sup]human1 ?\gh useless 9 respect to human good4 ,we h already said t ,prud5ce or ,judici\sness is good c\nsel on human int]e/s1 ) a view to action4 ,b we mu/ also add t x comprises a k n ( univ]sals m]ely1 b also ( p>ticul>s2 & exp]i5c$ m51 mu* conv]sant ) p>ticul>s1 are (t5 bett] qualifi$ = action ?an inexp]i5c$ m5 ( sci5ce 7,,vii474 ,prud5ce is ! same 9 its intellectual basis z ! political sci5ce or art--yet look$ at 9 a diff]5t aspect4 ,bo? ( !m are practical & consultative1 respect+ matt]s ( human good & evil2 b prud5ce1 9 ! /rict] s5se ( ! ^w1 conc]ns m especially ! individual self2 /ill1 ! welf>e ( ! individual is p]haps insep>able f h\sehold & /ate conc]ns4 ,prud5ce f>!r implies a l>ge exp]i5ce2 :5ce boys1 :o c become good ma!maticians1 _c h practical judgm5t or prud5ce4 ,9 consultation1 we are liable to error bo? 9 reg>d to univ]sals1 & 9 reg>d to p>ticul>s2 x is ! bus9ess ( prud5ce1 z well z ( ! political sci5ce1 to gu>d aga9/ bo?4 ,t prud5ce is n id5tical ) ,sci5ce1 is pla9 en\gh2 = ,sci5ce is ! int]m$iate process betwe5 ! fir/ pr9ciples & ! la/ conclusions2 :]eas prud5ce consi/s *iefly 9 seiz+ ^! la/1 :i* are ! applications ( reason+1 & repres5t ! p>ticul> acts to be done4 ,prud5ce is ! c\nt]p>t ( ,reason ,greek3 ,n\s or ,intellect1 b at ! opposite extremity ( ! m5tal process4 ,= ,intellect ,greek3 ,n\s appreh5ds ! extreme ,univ]sals1--! fir/ pr9ciples1--!mselves n d$ucible1 b f :i* d$uction />ts2 :ile ,prud5ce fa/5s on ! extreme p>ticul>s1 :i* are n kn[n by ,sci5ce1 b by s5sible ,p]ception4 ,we mean "h by s5sible ,p]ception1 n :at is peculi> to any ( ! five s5ses1 b :at is common to !m all--:]eby we p]ceive t ! triangle be=e u is a geometrical ultimatum1 & t x is ! f9al subject ( application = all ! prop]ties previ\sly demon/rat$ to belong to triangles g5]ally4 ,! m9d w /op "h 9 ! d[nw>d m>* t[>ds practical application1 z x /opp$ at fir/ pr9ciples 9 ! upw>d m>*4 ,prud5ce becomes1 h[ev]1 conf\nd$ ) s5sible p]ception1 :5 we rea* ?is /age4 ,! /atem5t "h giv5 involves ,ari/otle's di/9ction ( ! prop] & ! common ,s5sibles2 a %ad[+ out ( ! muscul> elem5t 9 s5sation 7,,viii474 ,good c\nsel ,greek3 eub\lia is di/+ui%$ f v>i\s o!r qualities4 ,x is1 9 sub/ance1 *oos+ "r means to a good end2 ! end be+ det]m9$ by ! great faculty--,prud5ce or ,judici\sness 7,,ix474 ,sagacity ,greek3 synesis is a j intellectual measure 9 reg>d to ! bus9ess ( life1 individual & social2 critical ability 9 appreciat+ & int]pret+ ! ph5om5a ( exp]i5ce4 ,x is di/+ui%$ f ,prud5ce 9 ?is respect--t ,prud5ce c>ries inf]5ces into ,practice 7,x474 ,consid]at5ess ,greek3 gnomae is ano!r intellectual virtue1 ) a practical be>+4 ,x is t virtue :]eby we disc]n ! prop] occasions = indulg5t con/ruction1 s(t5+ ! rig\r ( logical consi/5cy4 ,x is ! s\rce ( equitable decisions4 ,! diff]5t intellectual excell5ces j nam$--,consid]at5ess1 ,sagacity1 ,prud5ce ,greek3 phronaesis1 & ,intellect ,greek3 ,n\s1 seem all to be> on ! same result1 & are = ! mo/ "p pr$icable ( ! same individuals4 ,all ( !m are conc]n$ ) ! ultimate applications ( pr9ciple to practice1 & ) ! actual mom5ts = decision & action4 ,inde$1 ,intellect ,greek3 ,n\s deals ) ! extremes at bo? ends ( ! scale3 ) ! highe/ & l[e/ t]ms4 ,9 !oretical sci5ce1 x appreh5ds & sanctions ! major propositions1 ! fir/ & highe/ pr9cipia ( demon/rations3 9 practical deal+s1 x e/imates ! m9or propositions ( ! syllogism1 ! possibilities ( ! situation1 & ! ultimate action requir$4 ,all ^! are ! pr9cipia f :5ce arises ! det]m9+ motive3 = ! univ]sal is always d]iv$ f p>ticul>s2 ^! we mu/ "k ?r\gh s5sible p]ception1 :i* is 9 ?is case ! same ?+ z intellect ,greek3 ,n\s4 ,intellect is 9 fact bo? ! beg9n+ & ! end3 x cognizes bo? ! fir/ gr\nds ( demon/ration & ! la/ applications ( ! results ( demon/ration4 ,a man _c acquire sci5ce by nature1 or )\t tea*+3 b he may acquire ,intellect & ,sagacity by nature1 simply ?r\gh1 long life & abundant exp]i5ce4 ,! affirmations & op9ions ( old m5 des]ve att5tion1 h>dly less ?an demon/rations3 !y h acquir$ an eye f exp]i5ce1 & c ?us see ! practical pr9ciples 7?\gh !y may n be able to lay out _! reasons logically7 7,,xi474 ,b an objector may ask--,( :at use are ,philosophy & ,prud5ce8 ,he may take su* gr\nds z ^!4 7#a7 ,philosophy has no practical aim at all2 nor does x consid] ! means ( happ9ess8 7#b7 ,prud5ce1 ?\gh be>+ on practice1 is m]ely k1 & does n ensure "r action4 7#c7 ,ev5 grant+ ! k to be ( value z direction1 x might be obta9$1 l m$ical k1 f a pr(essional advis]4 7#d7 ,if philosophy is bett] ?an prud5ce1 :y does prud5ce control philosophy8 ,we h to answ] ^! d\bts4 ,! fir/ is answ]$ by ass]t+ ! indep5d5t value ( philosophy & prud5ce1 z p]fections ( our nature1 & z s\rces ( happ9ess 9 !mselves4 ,! second & ?ird d\bts are set at re/1 by affirm+ prud5ce to h no exi/5ce ap>t f virtue4 ,)\t a virtu\s aim1 !re is no su* ?+ z ,prud5ce3 !re is no?+ b clev]ness deg5]at+ into cunn+2 :ile virtue )\t virtu\s prud5ce is no?+ bett] ?an a m]e in/9ct1 liable to be misguid$ 9 e way 7,,xii474 ,!re is "o m difficulty to be cle>$ up respect+ virtue4 ,all our dispositions2 & !re=e all our e?ical excell5ces1 come to u 9 a c]ta9 s5se by nature2 t is1 we h f ! mom5t ( bir? a c]ta9 aptitude = becom+ temp]ate1 c\rage\s1 j1 c4 ,b ^! natural aptitudes or possessions ,greek3 physikai hexeis are some?+ altoge!r di/9ct f ! e?ical excell5ces prop]1 ?\gh capable ( be+ matur$ into !m1 if intellect & prud5ce be sup]add$4 ,sokrates 0 mi/ak5 9 resolv+ all ! virtues into prud5ce2 b he 0 "r 9 say+ t none ( !m c exi/ )\t prud5ce4 ,! virtues ought to be def9$ z1 n m]ely e?ical dispositions accord+ to "r reason1 b e?ical dispositions along ) "r reason or prud5ce 7i4e41 prud5ce is an ev] pres5t co-effici5t74 ,x is ?us abundantly evid5t t none b a prud5t man c be good1 & none b a good man c be prud5t4 ,! virtues are sep>able f ea* o!r1 s f> z ! natural aptitudes are conc]n$3 a man may h great] facility = acquir+ "o ?an ano!r4 ,b s f> z reg>ds ! f9i%$ acquirem5ts ( excell5ce1 9 virtue ( :i* a man is call$ good--no su* sep>ation is possible4 ,all ( !m alike ne$ ! companion%ip ( ,prud5ce 7,,xiii474 ,book ,sev5? has1 two ,p>ts4 ,"p fir/ discusses ! grades ( moral /r5g? & moral weakness4 ,"p second is a %ort diss]tation on ,pleasure1 sup]s$$ by ! sup]ior h&l+ ( ! subject 9 ! ,t5? ,book4 ,) ref]5ce to moral p[]1 9 self-re/ra9t1 six grades are specifi$4 7#a7 ,god-l virtue1 or reason impell+ z well z direct+4 7#b7 ,! highe/ human virtue1 express$ by ,temp]ance ,greek3 sophrosynae--appetite & passion p]fectly h>moniz$ ) reason4 7#c7 ,cont95ce ,greek3 egkrateia or ! ma/]y ( reason1 aft] a /ruggle4 7#d7 ,incont95ce1 ! ma/]y ( appetite or passion1 b n )\t a /ruggle4 7#e7 ,vice1 reason p]v]t$ s z to h>monize entirely ) appetite or passion4 7#f7 ,be/iality1 nak$ appetite or passion1 )\t reason4 ,c]ta9 preval5t op9ions are enum]at$1 :i* are to =m ! subject ( ! discussions foll[+--7#a7 ,cont95ce & endurance are morally good4 7#b7 ,! ,cont95t man /icks to 8 op9ion4 7#c7 ,! ,incont95t err kn[+ly4 7#d7 ,temp]ance & ,cont95ce are ! same4 7#e7 ,wise & clev] m5 may be ,incont95t4 7#f7 ,incont95ce applies to o!r ?+s ?an ,pleasure1 z ang]1 hon\r1 & ga9 7,i474 ,! ?ird po9t 7! ,incont95t s9 kn[+ly7 is fir/ moot$4 ,sokrates held ! contr>y2 he made vice & ignorance conv]tible4 ,o!rs ?9k t ! k possess$ by ! incont95t is m]e op9ion1 or a vague & weak conviction4 ,x is object$ to ,no4 #d1 t cont95ce implies evil desires to be controll$2 :ile temp]ance means ! "* fully h>moniz$4 ,z to ,no4 #b1 ,cont95ce mu/ (t5 be bad1 if x consi/s 9 /ick+ to an op9ion 7,,ii474 ,! ?ird po9t1 ! only "q ( real int]e/ or difficulty1 is resum$ at great] l5g?4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 k & op9ion 7! high] & ! l[] k9ds ( k7 does n settle ! "q1 = op9ion may be z /rong z k4 ,! real po9t is1 :at is meant by hav+ k8 ,a man's k may be 9 abeyance1 z x is :5 he is asleep or intoxicat$4 ,?us1 we may h 9 ! m9d two kn[l$ges 7l two sep>ate syllogisms71 "o lead+ to cont95ce1 ! o!r to incont95ce2 ! fir/ is n drawn out1 l ! syllogism want+ a m9or2 h5ce x may be said to be n pres5t to ! m9d2 s t1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 ,sokrates 0 "r 9 d5y+ t actual & pres5t k c\ld be ov]borne4 ,vice is a =m ( oblivion 7,,iii474 ,! next "q is1 :at is ! object-matt] ( incont95ce2 :e!r !re is any man incont95t simply & absolutely 7)\t any specification ( :]e971 or :e!r all incont95t m5 are s 9 reg>d to ?is or t p>ticul> matt]8 7,no4 #f74 ,! answ] is1 t x applies directly to ! bodily appetites & pleasures1 :i* are necess>y up to a c]ta9 po9t 7! sph]e ( ,temp]ance71 & !n he t commits unreasonable excess above ?is po9t is call$ ,incont95t simply4 ,b if he commits excess 9 reg>d to pleasures1 :i*1 ?\gh n necess>y1 are natural &1 up to a c]ta9 po9t1 reasonable--su* z victory1 weal?1 hon\r--we designate him z incont95t1 yet ) a specification ( ! p>ticul> matt] 7,,iv474 ,! modes ( ,be/iality1 z cannibalism & unnatural passion1 are ascrib$ to morbid depravity ( nature or ( habits1 analog\s to disease or madness 7,v474 ,incont95ce 9 ang] is n s bad z ,incont95ce 9 lu/1 because ang] 7#a7 has m semblance ( reason1 7#b7 is m a matt] ( con/itution1 7#c7 has less ( delib]ate purpose--:ile lu/ is crafty1 7#d7 arises "u pa92 & n f wantonness 7,,vi474 ,p]sons bel[ ! av]age 9 resi/+ pleasures are incont95t2 ^? bel[ ! av]age 9 resi/+ pa9s are s(t or effem9ate4 ,! mass ( m5 incl9e to bo? weaknesses4 ,he t delib]ately pursues excessive pleasures1 or o!r pleasures 9 an excessive way1 is said to be ab&on$4 ,! intemp]ate are worse ?an ! incont95t4 ,sport1 9 its excess1 is effem9acy1 z be+ relaxation f toil4 ,!re are two k9ds ( incont95ce3 ! "o proce$+ f precipitancy1 :]e a man acts )\t delib]at+ at all2 ! o!r f feebl5ess1--:]e he delib]ates1 b :]e ! result ( delib]ation is too weak to c\nt]vail 8 appetite 7,,vii474 ,intemp]ance or pr(ligacy is m vici\s1 & less curable ?an ,incont95ce4 ,! pr(ligate man is "o :o has 9 him no pr9ciple 7ar*ae7 ( good or ( "r reason1 & :o does wrong )\t aft]w>ds rep5t+ ( x2 ! incont95t man has ! good pr9ciple 9 him1 b x is ov]come :5 he does wrong1 & he aft]w>ds rep5ts 7,,viii474 ,"h1 aga91 ,ari/otle d5ies t /ick+ to "o's op9ions is1 p] se1 cont95ce4 ,! op9ion may be wrong2 9 t case1 if a man /icks to x1 prompt$ by m]e self-ass]tion & love ( victory1 x is a species ( incont95ce4 ,"o ( ! virtues ( ! cont95t man is to be op5 to p]suasion1 & to des]t "o's resolutions = a noble end 7,,ix474 ,incont95ce is l sleep or drunk5ness z oppos$ to wakeful k4 ,! incont95t man is l a /ate hav+ good laws1 b n act+ on !m4 ,! incont95ce ( passion is m curable ?an t ( weakness2 :at proce$s f habit m ?an :at is natural 7,x474 ,! ,eigh? & ,n9? ,books conta9 ! treatise on ,fri5d%ip4 ,! subject des]ves a place 9 an ,e?ical treatise1 because ( its connexion ) virtue & ) happ9ess4 ,sev]al que/ions h be5 debat$ conc]n+ ,fri5d%ip1--,is x bas$ on lik5ess or unlik5ess8 ,c bad m5 be fri5ds8 ,is !re b "o species ( ,fri5d%ip1 or m ?an "o8 7,i47 ,"s progress t[>ds a solution ( ^! que/ions may be made by consid]+ :at are ! objects ( lik+2 ^! are ! good1 ! pleasant1 ! useful4 ,by ! good is n meant ! absolute good ( ,plato1 b ! app>5t good4 ,inanimate ?+s mu/ be exclud$1 z want+ reciprocation 7,,ii474 ,! v>ieties ( fri5d%ip foll[ ^! ?ree modes ( ! likeable4 ,! fri5d%ips = ! useful & ! pleasant1 are n dis9t]e/$1 b self-seek+2 !y are !re=e accid5tal & transitory2 !y d n involve intimate & frequ5t association4 ,fri5d%ip = ! good1 & betwe5 ! virtu\s1 is alone p]fect2 x is =m$ sl[ly1 & has ! requisites ( p]man5ce4 ,x occurs r>ely 7,,iii474 ,z reg>ds ! useful & ! pleasant1 ! bad may be fri5ds4 ,x may happ5 t two p]sons are mutually pleasant to ea* o!r1 z lov] & belov$2 :ile ?is la/s1 !re is fri5d%ip4 ,x is only z respects ! good1 t !re exi/s a p]man5t lik+ = ! p]son4 ,su* fri5d%ip is ( an absolute nature2 ! o!rs are accid5tal 7,,iv474 ,fri5d%ip is 9 full ex]cise only dur+ actual int]c\rse2 x may exi/ pot5tially at a di/ance2 b 9 long abs5ce1 !re is dang] ( its be+ dissolv$4 ,fri5d%ip is a settl$ /ate or habit1 :ile fondness is a m]e passion1 :i* does n imply our wi%+ to d good to ! object ( x1 z fri5d%ip does 7,v474 ,! p]fect k9d ( fri5d%ip1 f its int5sity1 _c be ex]cis$ t[>ds m ?an a small numb]4 ,9 reg>d to ! useful & ! pleasant1 on ! o!r h&1 !re may be fri5d%ip ) _m2 z ! fri5d%ip t[>ds tradesm5 & betwe5 ! "y4 ,! happy desire pleasant fri5ds4 ,m5 9 p[] h two classes ( fri5ds2 "o = ! useful1 ! o!r = ! pleasant4 ,bo? qualities are f\nd 9 ! good man2 b he w n be ! fri5d ( a sup]ior1 unless he be surpass$ 7by t sup]ior7 9 virtue also4 ,9 all ! k9ds ( fri5d%ip n[ specifi$ !re is equality 7,,vi474 ,!re are fri5d%ips :]e "o p>ty is sup]ior1 z fa!r & son1 old] & y\ng]1 husb& & wife1 gov]nor & gov]n$4 ,9 su* cases !re %\ld be a proportionably great] love on ! "p ( ! inf]ior4 ,:5 ! love on ea* side is proportion$ to ! m]it ( ! p>ty belov$1 !n we h a c]ta9 species ( equality1 :i* is an +r$i5t 9 fri5d%ip4 ,b equality 9 matt]s ( fri5d%ip1 is n q ! same z equality 9 matt]s ( ju/ice4 ,9 matt]s ( ju/ice1 equality proportion$ to m]it /&s fir/--equality betwe5 man & man 7no acc\nt be+ tak5 ( comp>ative m]it7 /&s only second4 ,9 fri5d%ip1 ! case is ! rev]se2 ! p]fection ( fri5d%ip is equal love betwe5 ! fri5ds t[>ds ea* o!r2 to h great] love on "o side1 by reason ( & proportion$ to sup]ior m]it1 is fri5d%ip only ( ! second grade4 ,?is w be evid5t if we reflect t extreme inequality r5d]s fri5d%ip impossible--z betwe5 private m5 & k+s or gods4 ,h5ce ! fri5d c sc>cely wi% = 8 fri5d ! maximum ( good1 to become a god2 su* extreme elevation w\ld t]m9ate ! fri5d%ip4 ,nor w he wi% 8 fri5d to possess all ! good2 = e "o wi%es mo/ = good to self 7,,vii474 ,! ess5ce ( fri5d%ip is to love r ?an to be lov$1 z se5 9 mo!rs2 b ! g5]ality ( p]sons desire r to be lov$1 :i* is ak9 to be+ hon\r$ 7al?\gh hon\r is p>tly s\ght z a sign ( future fav\rs74 ,by means ( love1 z already said1 unequal fri5d%ips may be equaliz$4 ,fri5d%ip ) ! good1 is bas$ on equality & simil>ity1 nei!r p>ty ev] desir+ base s]vices4 ,fri5d%ips = ! useful are bas$ on ! contr>iety ( fulness & defect1 z poor & ri*1 ignorant & kn[+ 7,,viii474 ,fri5d%ip is an incid5t ( political society2 m5 associat+ toge!r = common ends1 become fri5ds4 ,political ju/ice becomes m b9d+ :5 m5 are relat$ by fri5d%ip4 ,! /ate itself is a community = ! sake ( advantage2 ! exp$i5t to all is ! j4 ,9 ! l>ge society ( ! /ate1 !re are _m inf]ior societies = bus9ess1 & = pleasure3 fri5d%ip />ts up 9 all 7,,ix474 ,!re are ?ree =ms ( ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 ) a *>act]i/ic decl5sion or p]v]sion ( ea*3--,mon>*y pass+ into ,despotism2 ,ari/ocracy into ,olig>*y2 ,timocracy 7bas$ on weal?7 into ,democracy2 p>5t & *ild typifies ! fir/2 husb& & wife ! second2 bro!rs ! ?ird 7,x474 ,! mon>*ial or pat]nal type has sup]iority on "o side1 & dem&s hon\r z well z love on ! o!r4 ,9 ari/ocracy1 ! relation is "o ( m]it1 & ! great] love is giv5 to ! bett]4 ,9 timocracy1 & among bro!rs1 !re is equality2 & h5ce ! mo/ frequ5t fri5d%ips4 ,!re is no fri5d%ip t[>ds a slave1 z a slave1 =1 z su* he is a m]e animate tool 7,,xl474 ,9 ! relations ( ! family1 fri5d%ip v>ies ) ! diff]5t situations4 ,p>5ts love _! *ildr5 z a "p ( !mselves1 & f ! fir/2 *ildr5 gr[ to love _! p>5ts4 ,bro!rs are affect$ by _! community ( orig91 z well z by common education & habits ( intimacy4 ,husb& & wife come toge!r by a natural bond1 & z mutual helps2 _! fri5d%ip conta9s ! useful & ! pleasant1 &1 ) virtue1 ! good4 ,_! (fspr+ /r5g!ns ! bond 7,,xii474 ,! fri5d%ips t give rise to compla9ts are conf9$ to ! ,useful4 ,su* fri5d%ips involve a legal elem5t ( /rict & measur$ reciprocity m]e trade1 & a moral or unwritt5 und]/&+1 :i* is prop]ly fri5d%ip4 ,ea* p>ty is apt to give less & expect m ?an he gets2 & ! rule mu/ be = ea* to reciprocate lib]ally & fully1 9 su* mann] & k9d z !y are able 7,,xiii474 ,9 unequal fri5d%ips1 betwe5 a sup]ior & inf]ior1 ! inf]ior has ! great] %>e ( mat]ial assi/ance1 ! sup]ior %\ld receive ! great] hon\r 7,,xiv474 ,book ,n9? proce$s )\t any real break4 ,x may n be always easy to fix ! return to be made = s]vices receiv$4 ,protagoras1 ! sophi/1 left x to 8 pupils to settle ! am\nt ( fee t he %\ld receive4 ,:5 !re is no agreem5t1 we mu/ r5d] :at is 9 our p[]1 = example1 to ! gods & to our p>5ts 7,i474 ,cases may arise ( conflict+ obligation2 z1 %all we pref] a fri5d to a des]v+ man8 %all a p]son robb$ reciprocate to robb]s8 & o!rs4 ,we h "h ! g]ms ( ,casui/ry4 7,,ii47 ,z to ! t]m9ation ( ,fri5d%ip2 9 ! case ( ! useful & ! pleasant1 ! connexion ceases ) ! motives4 ,9 ! case ( ! good1 x may happ5 t "o p>ty c\nt]feits ! good1 b is really act+ ! useful or ! pleasant2 or "o p>ty may turn out wick$1 & ! only "q is1 h[ f> hopes ( 8 improvem5t %all be ent]ta9$4 ,aga91 "o may cont9ue ! same1 :ile ! o!r makes l>ge advances 9 m5tal tra9+2 h[ f> %all pres5t disp>ity op]ate aga9/ old associations8 7,,iii474 ,!re is a sort ( illu/rative p>allelism betwe5 ! feel+s & acts ( fri5d%ip1 & ! feel+s & acts ( self-love1 or ( a good man to himself4 ,! virtu\s man wi%es :at is good = himself1 especially = 8 highe/ "p--! intellect or ?9k+ "p2 he desires to pass 8 life 9 ! company ( 8 own ?\ghts2 he sympa?izes ) 8 own sorr[s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! bad *oose ! pleasant1 al?\gh x be hurtful2 !y fly f !mselves2 _! own ?\ghts are unpleasant companions2 !y are full ( rep5tance 7,,iv474 ,good-w is diff]5t f fri5d%ip2 x is a sudd5 impulse ( feel+ t[>ds "s di/+ui%$ or likeable quality1 z 9 an antagoni/4 ,x has n ! te/ ( long+ 9 abs5ce4 ,x may be ! prelude to fri5d%ip 7,v474 ,unanimity1 or agreem5t ( op9ion1 is a "p ( fri5d%ip4 ,n z reg>ds m]e speculation1 z ab\t ! heav5ly bodies2 b 9 practical matt]s1 :]e int]e/s are at /ake1 su* z ! politics ( ! day4 ,?is unanimity _c occur 9 ! bad1 f _! selfi% & grasp+ disposition 7,,vi474 ,! position is next exam9$--t ! love felt by b5efactors is /rong] ?an ! love felt by ^? b5efitt$4 ,x is n a suffici5t explanation to say1 ! b5efactor is a cr$itor1 :o wi%es ! prosp]ity ( 8 debtor4 ,b5efactors are l workm51 :o love _! own "w1 & ! ex]cise ( _! own p[]s4 ,!y also h ! feel+ ( nobl5ess on _! side2 :ile ! recipi5t has ! less lovable idea ( pr(it4 ,f9ally1 activity is m ak9 to love ?an recipi5cy 7,,vii474 ,ano!r "q rais$ = discussion is--',ought a man to love himself mo/1 or ano!r8' ,on ! "o h&1 selfi%ness is usually condemn$ z ! feature ( bad m52 on ! o!r h&1 ! feel+s t[>ds self are made ! /&>d ( ! feel+s t[>ds fri5ds4 ,! solution is giv5 ?us4 ,!re is a l[] self 7pr$om9ant ) mo/ m57 t gratifies ! appetites1 seek+ weal?1 p[]1 c4 ,) ! select few1 !re is a high] self t seeks ! hon\rable1 ! noble1 intellectual excell5ce1 at any co/ ( pleasure1 weal?1 hon\r1 c4 ,^! noble-m9d$ m5 procure = !mselves ! great] good by sacrific+ ! less3 & _! self-sacrifice is ?us a mode ( self4 ,x is ! duty ( ! good man to love himself3 = 8 noble life is pr(itable1 bo? to himself1 & to o!rs2 b ! bad man ought n to love himself4 ,self-sacrifice1 =m]ly br\ght "u ,c\rage1 is "h depict$ f ano!r po9t ( view 7,,viii474 ,by way ( br++ out ! advantages ( fri5d%ip1 x is next ask$1 ,does ! happy man ne$ fri5ds8 ,to ?is1 x is answ]$1 7#a7 ,t happ9ess1 be+ ! sum ( all human good1 mu/ suppose ! possession ( ! greate/ ( ext]nal goods1 :i* is fri5d%ip4 7#b7 ,! happy man w require fri5ds z recipi5ts1 ( 8 ov]fl[ ( k9dness4 7#c7 ,he _c be expect$ ei!r to be solit>y1 or to live ) /rang]s4 7#d7 ,! highe/ play ( exi/5ce is to see ! acts ( ano!r 9 h>mony ) self4 7#e7 ,sympa?y supports & prolongs ! gl[ ( "o's own emotions4 7#f7 ,a fri5d confirms u 9 ! practice ( virtue4 7#g7 ,! s5se ( exi/5ce 9 ourselves is enl>g$ by ! consci\sness ( ano!r's exi/5ce 7,,ix474 ,! numb] ( fri5ds is aga9 consid]$1 & ! same b>ri]s /at$--! impossibility ( %>+ among _m ! highe/ k9d ( affection1 or ( keep+ up close & h>moni\s intimacy4 ,! mo/ r5[n$ fri5d%ips are betwe5 pairs 7,x474 ,z to :e!r fri5ds are mo/ ne$$ 9 adv]sity or 9 prosp]ity--9 ! "o1 fri5d%ip is m necess>y1 9 ! o!r m glori\s 7,,xi474 ,! ess5tial support & manife/ation ( fri5d%ip is ,int]c\rse4 ,:atev] p's ta/es are1 !y desire ! society ( o!rs 9 ex]cis+ !m 7,,xii474 ,book ,t5? discusses ,pleasure1 & lays d[n z ! highe/ & p]fect pleasure1 ! ex]cise ( ! ,intellect 9 ,philosophy4 ,pleasure is des]v+ ( consid]ation1 f its close intimacy ) ! con/itution ( our race2 on :i* acc\nt1 9 our tra9+ ( y\?1 we /e] !m by pleasure & pa92 & x is ( ! fir/ importance t !y %\ld feel pleasure 9 :at !y ought1 & displeasure 9 :at !y ought1 z ! gr\ndwork 7or pr9cipium7 ( good e?ical dispositions4 ,su* a topic c nev] be left unnotic$1 especially :5 we look at ! great diff]5ce ( op9ion !reupon4 ,"s affirm pleasure to be ! *ief good ,eudoxus4 ,o!rs call x altoge!r vile & wor?less p>ty ( ,speusippus4 ,( ^! la/1 "s p]haps really ?9k s2 b ! re/ are actuat$ by ! necessity ( *eck+ m5's too great pron5ess to x1 & disp>age x on t acc\nt4 ,?is policy ,ari/otle /rongly c5sures1 & cont5ds = ! sup]ior efficacy ( tru? 7,i474 ,! argum5ts urg$ by ,eudoxus z prov+ pleasure to be ! *ief good1 are1 7#a7 ,t all be+s seek pleasure2 7#b7 & avoid its opposite1 pa92 7#c7 t !y seek pleasure z an end-9-itself1 & n z a means to any f>!r end2 7#d7 t pleasure1 add$ to any o!r good1 su* z ju/ice or temp]ance1 increases ! am\nt ( good2 :i* c\ld n be ! case1 unless pleasure 7 itself good4 ,yet ?is la/ argum5t 7,ari/otle urges7 proves pleasure to be a good1 b n to be ! ,good2 inde$1 ,plato urg$ ! same argum5t1 to %[ t pleasure c\ld n be ,! ,good3 s9ce ,! ,good 7! ,*ief ,good7 mu/ be some?+ t does n admit ( be+ enhanc$ or made m good4 ,! objection ( ,speusippus1--t irrational creatures are n to be admitt$ z witnesses1--,ari/otle disall[s1 see+ t rational & irrational agree on ! po9t2 & ! ?+ t seems to all1 mu/ be true4 ,ano!r objection1 ,t ! opposite ( pa9 is n pleasure1 b a neutral /ate--is set aside z contradict$ by ! fact ( human desire & av]sion1 ! two opposite /ates ( feel+ 7,,ii474 ,! argum5ts ( ! ,platoni/s1 to prove t pleasure is n good1 are next exam9$4 7#a7 ,pleasure1 !y say1 is n a quality2 b nei!r 7replies ,ari/otle7 are ! ex]cises or actual manife/ations ( virtue or happ9ess4 7#b7 ,pleasure is n def9ite1 b unlimit$1 or admitt+ ( degrees1 :ile ,! ,good is a some?+ def9ite1 & does n admit ( degrees4 ,b if ^! reason]s speak ab\t ! pure pleasures1 !y might take objection on simil> gr\nds aga9/ virtue & ju/ice also2 = ^! too admit ( degrees1 & "o man is m virtu\s ?an ano!r4 ,& if !y speak ( ! mix$ pleasures 7alloy$ ) pa971 _! reason+ w n apply to ! unmix$4 ,good heal? is ackn[l$g$ to be a good1 & to be a def9ite some?+2 yet !re are nev]!less "s m5 m heal?y1 "s less4 7#c7 ,! ,good is p]fect or complete2 b objectors urge t no motion or g5]ation is complete1 & pleasure is 9 "o ( ^! two categories4 ,?is la/ ass]tion ,ari/otle d5ies4 ,pleasure is n a motion2 = ! attribute ( velocity1 great] or less1 :i* is ess5tial to all motion1 does n atta* to pleasure4 ,a man may be quick 9 becom+ pleas$1 or 9 becom+ angry2 b 9 ! act ( be+ pleas$ or angry1 he c nei!r be quick nor sl[4 ,nor is x true t pleasure is a g5]ation4 ,9 all g5]ation1 !re is some?+ assignable out ( :i* g5]ation takes place 7n any "o ?+ out ( any o!r71 & into :i* x rev]ts by de/ruction4 ,if pleasure be a g5]ation1 pa9 mu/ be ! de/ruction ( :at is g5]at$2 b ?is is n correct1 = pa9 does n re-e/abli% ! /ate antec$5t to ! pleasure4 ,accord+ly1 x is n true t pleasure is a g5]ation4 ,"s talk ( pa9 z a want ( some?+ requir$ by nature1 & ( pleasure z a fill+ up ( t want4 ,b ^! are corporeal1 n m5tal facts1 & are applicable only to eat+ & dr9k+2 n applicable to _m o!r pleasures1 su* z ^? ( sight1 he>+1 or le>n+4 7#d7 ,!re are "s disgraceful pleasures4 ,ari/otle replies t ^! are n absolutely & prop]ly pleasures1 b only to ! deprav$ man2 j z ?+s are n yell[1 :i* appe> s to m5 9 a jaundice4 ,pleasures diff] f ea* o!r 9 species3 !re are good pleasures1 i4e41 ^? aris+ f good s\rces2 & bad pleasures1 i4e41 f bad s\rces4 ,! pleasure p] se is always desirable2 b n :5 x comes f objectionable acts4 ,! pleasures ( ea* man w v>y accord+ to 8 "*2 none b a musical man c enjoy ! pleasures ( music4 ,no "o w\ld cons5t to rema9 a *ild = life1 ev5 ?\gh he 7 to h 8 fill ( *ildi% pleasure4 ,ari/otle sums up ! result ?us4 ,pleasure is n ,! ,good4 ,n e mode ( pleasure is to be *os54 ,"s pleasures1 di/+ui%$ f ! re/ specifically or accord+ to _! s\rces1 are to be *os5 p] se 7,,iii474 ,he !n attempts to def9e pleasure4 ,x is some?+ p]fect & complete 9 itself1 at ea* successive mom5t ( "t2 h5ce x is n motion1 :i* is at e mom5t incomplete4 ,pleasure is l ! act ( vision1 or a po9t1 or a monad1 always complete 9 itself4 ,x accompanies e v>iety ( s5sible p]ception1 intellig5ce1 & !oriz+ contemplation4 ,9 ea* ( ^! faculties1 ! act is m p]fect1 accord+ z ! subjective elem5t is mo/ p]fect1 & ! object mo/ gr& & dignifi$4 ,:5 ! act is mo/ p]fect1 ! pleasure accompany+ x is also ! mo/ p]fect2 & ?is pleasure puts ! f9i%+ consummation to ! act4 ,! pleasure is n a pre-exi/+ acquirem5t n[ br\ght into ex]cise1 b an accessory end implicat$ ) ! act1 l ! fre% look :i* belongs to ! organism j matur$4 ,x is a sure adjunct1 s long z subject & object are 9 good condition4 ,b cont9uity ( pleasure1 z well z ( ! o!r ex]cises1 is impossible4 ,life is itself an ex]cise mu* div]sifi$1 & ea* man foll[s ! div]sity t is suitable to 8 own incl9ation--music1 /udy1 c4 ,ea* has its accessory & consummat+ mode ( pleasure2 & to say t all m5 desire pleasure1 is ! same z say+ t all m5 desire life4 ,x is no real "q to ask--,d we *oose life = ! sake ( pleasure1 or pleasure = ! sake ( life8 ,! tru? is1 t ! two are implicat$ & insep>able 7,,iv474 ,z our acts or ex]cises diff] f ea* o!r specifically1 s also ! pleasures t are accessory to !m diff] specifically4 ,ex]cises intellectual diff] f ex]cises p]ceptive1 & "u ea* head !re are v>ieties diff]+ f ea* o!r4 ,! pleasures accessory & consummat+ to ea*1 are div]sifi$ accord+ly4 ,ea* pleasure contributes to invigorate & int5sify ! p>ticul> ex]cise t x is atta*$ to2 ! geomet] :o /udies 8 sci5ce ) pleasure becomes m acute & successful 9 prosecut+ x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! pleasures atta*$ to "o ex]cise imp$e ! m9d 9 reg>d to o!r ex]cises2 ?us m5 fond ( ! flute _c li/5 to a speak] ) att5tion1 if any "o is play+ ! flute ne> !m4 ,:at we delight 9 do+1 we are m likely to d well2 :at we feel pa9 9 do+1 we are n likely to d well4 ,& ?us ea* v>iety ( ex]cise is alike imp$$ by ! pa9s atta*$ to itself1 & by ! pleasures atta*$ to o!r v>ieties4 ,among ^! ex]cises or acts1 "s are morally good1 o!rs morally bad2 ! desires ( ! good are also praise-wor?y1 ! desires ( ! bad are blameable2 b if s1 mu* m are ! pleasures atta*$ to ! good ex]cises1 good pleasures--& ! pleasures atta*$ to ! bad ex]cises1 bad pleasures4 ,= ! pleasures atta*$ to an ex]cise are m intimately id5tifi$ ) t ex]cise ?an ! desire ( x c be4 ,! pleasure ( ! ex]cise1 & ! ex]cise itself1 are inde$ s closely id5tifi$ "o ) ! o!r1 t to _m !y appe> ! same4 ,sight1 he>+1 & smell1 diff] 9 purity f t\* & ta/e2 & ! pleasures atta*$ to ea* diff] 9 l mann]4 ,! pleasures ( intellect diff] f ^? ( s5se1 z ^! two ex]cises diff] f "o ano!r4 ,e animal has its own peculi> pleasures1 z x has also its own peculi> manife/ation & ex]cises4 ,among ! human race1 ! same ?+s give pleasure to "o individual & pa9 to ano!r4 ,! ?+s t appe> sweet to ! /rong & heal?y man1 d n appe> sweet to "o suff]+ f fev]1 or weakly4 ,n[1 amid/ ?is discrepancy1 :at appe>s to ! virtu\s & intellig5t man1 really is4 ,8 pleasures are ! true & real pleasures4 ,excell5ce1 & ! good man qut5us good1 are to be tak5 z ! /&>d4 ,if :at he abhors appe>s pleasurable to "s p]sons1 we mu/ n be surpris$1 s9ce !re are _m depravations ( individuals1 9 "o way or ano!r2 b ^! ?+s are n pleasures really1 !y are only pleasures to ^! deprav$ mortals 7,v474 ,s f> ! !ory ( ,pleasure4 ,ari/otle n[ goes back to 8 />t+ po9t--! nature ( ! ,good1 & ,happ9ess4 ,he re-/ates 8 positions3 ,t ,happ9ess is an ex]cise or actuality ,greek3 en]geia1 & n an acquirem5t or /ate 7hexis71 ,t x belongs to su* ex]cises z are wor?y ( *oice = _! own sake1 & n to su* z are wor?y ( *oice = ! sake ( some?+ else2 ,t x is p]fect & self-suffic+1 seek+ no?+ beyond itself1 & leav+ no wants unsuppli$4 ,h5ce he _h conclud$ t x consi/$ 9 act+ accord+ to virtue2 = ! hon\rable & good are *os5 = _! own sake4 ,b amusem5ts are also s\ght = _! own sake2 ,are ^! also to be call$ happ9ess8 ,no4 ,x is true t !y are mu* pursu$ by ^? :om ! vulg> envy--m5 ( weal? & despots--:o patronize & rew>d ! practition]s ( amusem5t4 ,b ?is proves no?+1 = we _c adopt ! *oice ( ^! despots1 :o h little virtue or intellect1 & h nev] kn[n ! ta/e ( ref9$ & lib]al pleasure4 ,*ildr5 & mature m51 bad m5 & virtu\s1 h ea* _! diff]5t pleasures2 ! virtu\s & intellig5t man f9ds a life ( excell5ce & ! pleasures atta*$ !reunto mo/ wor?y ( 8 *oice1 & su* a man 7,ari/otle has decl>$ m ?an once7 is our /&>d4 ,x w\ld inde$ be *ildi% to treat amusem5ts z ! ma9 end ( life2 !y are ! relaxation ( ! virtu\s man1 :o d]ives f !m fre% vig\r = ! prosecution ( ! s]i\s bus9ess ( life1 :i* he _c prosecute cont9u\sly4 ,! s]i\s ex]cises ( life are bett] ?an ! comic1 because !y proce$ f ! bett] "p ( man4 ,! slave may enjoy bodily pleasures to ! full1 b a slave is n call$ happy 7,,vi474 ,we h ?us %[n t ,happ9ess consi/s 9 ex]cise or actual liv+ accord+ to excell5ce2 naturally1 !re=e1 accord+ to ! highe/ excell5ce1 or ! excell5ce ( ! be/ "p ( man4 ,?is be/ "p is ! ,intellect 7,n\s71 our mo/ div9e & comm&+ elem5t2 9 its ex]cise1 :i* is !oretical or speculative1 hav+ respect to matt]s hon\rable1 div9e1 & mo/ wor?y ( /udy4 ,su* philosophical ex]cise1 besides be+ ! highe/ function ( our nature1 is at ! same "t m susceptible ?an any mode ( active ef=t1 ( be+ prosecut$ = a long cont9uance4 ,x af=ds ! pure/ & mo/ la/+ pleasure2 x approa*es mo/ ne>ly to be+ self-suffic+1 s9ce x po/ulates little m ?an ! necess>ies ( life1 & is ev5 indep5d5t ( society1 ?\gh bett] ) society4 ,p]fect happ9ess w\ld ?us be ! ex]cise ( ! !oriz+ intellect1 cont9u$ ?r\gh a full p]iod ( life4 ,b ?is is m ?an we c expect4 ,/ill1 we ought to make e ef=t to live accord+ to ?is be/ elem5t ( our nature2 =1 ?\gh small 9 bulk1 x /&s exalt$ above ! re/ 9 p[] & dignity1 &1 be+ ! sov]eign elem5t 9 man1 is really ,! ,man himself 7,,vii474 ,next1 yet only second1 come ! o!r bran*es ( excell5ce3 ! active social life ( a good citiz54 ,ex]cises accord+ to ?is bran* ( virtue are ! natural bus9ess ( man1 = x is b\nd up ) our :ole nature1 includ+ body z well z m9d1 our appetites1 & our passions1 :]eas ! happ9ess ( intellect is sep>ate4 ,active social virtue po/ulates conditions ( society & ext]nal aids 9 consid]able measure2 b ! life ( intellect requires only ! m9imum ( ^!1 & is ev5 imp$$ by mu* ( !m4 ,t p]fect happ9ess is to be f\nd 9 ! philosophical life only1 w appe> f>!r :5 we recollect t ! gods are ble/ & happy 9 ! highe/ degree1 & t ?is is ! only mode ( life suitable to !m4 ,) ! gods !re c be no scope = active social virtues2 = 9 :at way c !y be j1 c\rage\s1 or temp]ate8 ,nei!r virtu\s practice nor con/ructive art c be pr$icat$ ( ! gods2 :at !n rema9s1 s9ce we all assume !m to live1 & !re=e to be 9 act or ex]cise ( "s k9d2 = no "o believes !m to live 9 a /ate ( sleep1 l ,endymion4 ,!re rema9s no?+ except philosophical contemplation4 ,?is1 !n1 mu/ be ! life ( ! gods1 ! mo/ ble/ ( all2 & t mode ( human life :i* approa*es ne>e/ to x w be ! happie/4 ,no o!r animal c take "p 9 ?is1 & !re=e none c be happy4 ,9 s f> z ! gods pay att5tion to human affairs1 !y are likely to take pleasure 9 ! philosoph]1 :o is mo/ alli$ to !mselves4 ,a mod]ate supply ( good heal?1 food1 & social position1 mu/ und\bt$ly be ensur$ to ! philosoph]2 =1 )\t ^!1 human nature w n suffice = ! bus9ess ( contemplation4 ,b he w dem& no?+ m ?an a mod]ate supply1 & :5 ?us equipp$1 he w approa* ne>] to happ9ess ?an any "o else4 ,ari/otle decl>es ?is confid5tly1 cit+ ,solon1 ,anaxagoras1 & o!r sages1 z hav+ said mu* ! same be=e him 7,,viii474 ,9 ! conclud+ *apt]1 ,ari/otle gives ! transition f ,e?ics to ,politics4 ,treatises on virtue may inspire a few lib]al m9ds2 b1 = ! mass ( m51 laws1 in/itutions1 & education are necess>y4 ,! "y ought to be tra9$1 n m]ely by pat]nal guidance direct+ 9 ! e>lie/ ye>s _! love & hatr$1 b also by a s*eme ( public education1 prescrib$ & en=c$ by au?ority ?r\gh\t ! city4 ,"r conduct w ?us be r5d]$ easi] by habit2 b /ill1 ?r\gh\t life1 ! mature citiz5 mu/ cont9ue "u ! discipl9e ( law1 :i* has =ce adequate to correction1 &1 be+ imp]sonal1 does n excite av]sion & hatr$4 ,h5ce ! ne$ = a sy/em ( good public tra9+4 ,n[h]e is ?is n[ e/abli%$ & en=c$2 h>dly any:]e1 except 9 ,sp>ta1 is x ev5 attempt$4 ,amid su* public neglect1 x becomes ! duty ( an individual to contribute :at he c to ! improvem5t ( ^? t he is conc]n$ 91 & = t purpose to acquire ! capacities qualify+ him = becom+ a lawgiv]4 ,private admonition w comp5sate to a c]ta9 ext5t = ! neglect ( public int]f]5ce1 & 9 p>ticul> cases may be ev5 m discrim9at+4 ,bat h[ are su* capacities to be acquir$8 ,n f ! ,sophi/s1 ^: me?od is too empirical2 nor f practical politicians1 = !y seem to h no p[] ( imp>t+ _! skill4 ,p]haps x w\ld be useful to make a collection ( exi/+ laws & con/itutions4 ,ari/otle concludes ) sket*+ ! plan ( 8 own "w on ,politics4 99 99 99 99 99 ,! ,ari/otelian doctr9es are g5]ally summ$ up 9 su* po9ts z ^!3--,! !ory ( ,good2 ,pleasure2 ! !ory ( ,virtue2 ! doctr9e ( ! ,w1 di/+ui%+ volunt>y f involunt>y2 ,virtue a ,habit2 ! doctr9e ( ! ,,mean2 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ,moral ,virtues & ! ,intellectual ,virtues2 ,ju/ice1 di/ributive1 & commutative2 ,fri5d%ip2 ! ,contemplative ,life4 ,! foll[+ are ! indications ( 8 views1 accord+ to ! six lead+ subjects ( ,e?ics4 ,i4 & ,,ii4--,x is *>act]i/ic ( ,ari/otle 7z is fully /at$ 9 ,app5dix ,b47 to make ! judgm5t ( ! wise/ & mo/ cultivat$ m9ds1 ! /&>d ( appeal 9 moral que/ions4 ,he lays d[n c]ta9 g5]al pr9ciples1 su* z ! doctr9e ( ! ,mean1 b 9 ! application ( ^! 7:i* is ev]y?+71 he tru/s to ! mo/ exp]i5c$ & skill$ advis]s t ! community c furni%4 ,,iii4--,on ! !ory ( ,happ9ess1 or ! ,summum ,bonum1 x is ne$less to repeat ! ab/ract ( ! t5? book4 ,,iv4--,9 lay+ d[n ! ,moral ,code1 he 0 encumb]$ ) ! too wide view ( ,virtue2 b made an advance 9 di/+ui%+ virtue prop] f excell5ce 9 g5]al4 ,v4--,he made ,society tutel>y to ! individual 9 an excessive degree4 ,he _h no cle> conception ( ! prov9ce ( au?ority or law2 & did n sep>ate ! morality ( obligation f ! morality ( rew>d & nobl5ess4 ,,vi4--,8 exclusion ( ,!ology f morality 0 total4 ,,! ,,/oics4 ,! ,/oics 7 "o ( ! f\r sects ( philosophy1 recogniz$ & conspicu\s at ,a!ns dur+ ! ?ree c5turies prec$+ ! ,*ri/ian era1 & dur+ ! c5tury or m foll[+4 ,among ^! f\r sects1 ! mo/ m>k$ anti!sis ( e?ical dogma 0 betwe5 ! ,/oics & ! ,epicureans4 ,! ,/oical sy/em dates f ab\t #cjj ,b4,c42 x 0 d]iv$ f ! sy/em ( ! ,cynics4 ,! f\nd] ( ! sy/em 0 ,,z5o1 f ,citium 9 ,cyprus 7he liv$ f #cdj--bfj ,b4,c471 :o d]iv$ 8 fir/ impulse f ,krates ! ,cynic4 ,he op5$ 8 s*ool 9 a build+ or por*1 call$ ! ,/oa ,poecile 7',pa9t$ ,portico'7 at ,a!ns1 :5ce ! orig9 ( ! "n ( ! sect4 ,z5o _h = 8 disciple ,,clean!s1 f ,assos 9 ! ,troad 7#cjj--bbj ,b4,c471 ^: ,hymn to ,jupit] is ! only fragm5t ( any l5g? t has come d[n to u f ! e>ly ,/oics1 & is a rem>kable production1 sett+ =? ! unity ( ,god1 8 omnipot5ce1 & 8 moral gov]nm5t4 ,,*rysippus1 f ,soli 9 ,cilicia 7#bij--bjg ,b4,c471 foll[$ ,clean!s1 &1 9 8 volum9\s writ+s1 bo? def5d$ & modifi$ ! ,/oical cre$4 ,^! ?ree repres5t ! fir/ p]iod ( ! sy/em4 ,! second p]iod 7#bjj--ej ,b4,c47 embraces its g5]al promulgation1 & its introduction to ! ,romans4 ,*rysippus 0 succe$$ by ,,z5o ( ,sidon1 & ,,diog5es ( ,babylon2 !n foll[$ ,,antipat]1 ( ,t>sus1 :o taught ,,panaetius ( ,rhodes 7d4 #aab ,b4,c471 :o1 aga91 taught ,,posidonius ( ,apamea1 9 ,syria4 7,two philosoph]s are m5tion$ f ! native prov9ce ( ,/4 ,paul1 besides ,*rysippus--,,a!kodoeus1 f ,cana 9 ,cilicia2 & ,,ar*$emus1 f ,t>sus1 ! apo/le's bir?place4 ,x is rem>k$ by ,sir ,a4 ,grant1 t almo/ all ! fir/ ,/oics 7 ( ,asiatic bir?2 & ! sy/em itself is und5iably m ak9 to ! ori5tal m9d ?an to ! ,greek47 ,posidonius 0 acqua9t$ ) ,m>ius & ,pompey1 & gave lessons to ,cic]o1 b ! moral treatise ( ,cic]o1 ,de ,(ficiis1 is d]iv$ f a "w ( ,panaetius4 ,! ?ird p]iod ( ,/oicism is ,roman4 ,9 ?is p]iod1 we h ,cato ! ,y\ng]1 :o invit$ to 8 h\se ! philosoph] ,a!nodorus2 &1 "u ! ,empire1 ! ?ree ,/oic philosoph]s1 ^: writ+s h come d[n to u--,,s5eca 7#f ,b4,c4-#fe ,a4,d471 ,,epictetus 7#fj-adj ,a4,d471 :o began life z a slave1 & ! ,emp]or ,,m>cus ,,aurelius ,,anton9us 7#aba-ahj ,a4,d474 ,/oicism prevail$ widely 9 ! ,roman _w1 al?\gh n to ! exclusion ( ,epicurean views4 ,! lead+ ,/oical doctr9es are giv5 9 c]ta9 phrases or expressions1 z ',life accord+ to ,nature' 7al?\gh ?is phrase belongs also to ! ,epicureans71 ! ideal ',wise ,man1' ',apa?y1' or equanimity ( m9d 7also an ,epicurean ideal71 ! p[] ( ! ',w1' ! wor%ip ( ',duty1' ! con/ant ',advance' 9 virtue1 c4 ,b p]spicuity w be be/ ga9$ by consid]+ ! ,moral sy/em "u f\r heads--! ,!ology2 ! ,psy*ology or !ory ( m9d2 ! !ory ( ! ,good or human happ9ess2 & ! s*eme ( ,virtue or ,duty4 ,i4--,! ,,!ological doctr9es ( ! ,/oics compreh5d$ _! sy/em ( ! ,univ]se1 & ( man's position 9 x4 ,!y held t ! ,univ]se is gov]n$ by "o good & wise ,god1 toge!r ) inf]ior or subord9ate deities4 ,god ex]cises a moral gov]nm5t2 "u x ! good are happy1 :ile mis=tunes happ5 to ! wick$4 ,accord+ to ,epictetus1 ,god is ! fa!r ( m52 ,anton9us exults 9 ! beautiful arrangem5t ( all ?+s4 ,! e>li] ,/oics1 ,z5o & ,*rysippus1 ent]ta9$ high rev]5ce = ! div9ation1 prophecy1 & om5s t 7 g5]ally curr5t 9 ! anci5t _w4 ,!y consid]$ t ^! 7 ! me?ods :]eby ! gods 7 graci\sly pleas$ to make kn[n be=eh& revelations ( _! =eorda9$ purposes4 7,h]e9 lay "o among ! m>k$ po9ts ( contra/ betwe5 ,/oics & ,epicureans47 ,!y held ?is =eord9ation ev5 to ! l5g? ( fatalism1 & made ! same replies1 z h be5 giv5 9 mod]n times1 to ! difficulty ( reconcil+ x ) ! exi/5ce ( evil1 & ) ! app>5t condition ( ! bett] & ! worse individuals among mank9d4 ,!y (f]$ explanations su* z ! foll[+3 7#a7 ,god is ! au?or ( all ?+s except wick$ness2 7#b7 ! v nature ( good supposes its contra/ evil1 & ! two are insep>able1 l light & d>k1 7:i* may be call$ ! argum5t f ,relativity72 7#c7 9 ! enorm\s ext5t ( ! ,univ]se1 "s ?+s mu/ be neglect$2 7#d7 :5 evil happ5s to ! good1 x is n z a puni%m5t1 b z connect$ ) a diff]5t disp5sation2 7#e7 p>ts ( ! _w may be presid$ ov] by evil demons2 7#f7 :at we call evil may n be evil4 ,l mo/ o!r anci5t s*ools1 ! ,/oics held ,god to be corporeal l man3--,body is ! only sub/ance2 no?+ incorporeal c\ld act on :at is corporeal2 ! ,fir/ ,cause ( all1 ,god or ,zeus1 is ! primeval fire1 emanat+ f :i* is ! s\l ( man 9 ! =m ( a w>m e!r4 ,x is = human be+s to recognize ! ,univ]se z gov]n$ by univ]sal ,law1 & n only to raise _! m9ds to ! compreh5sion ( x1 b to ent] into ! views ( ! adm9i/]+ ,zeus or ,fate1 :o mu/ reg>d all int]e/s equally2 we are to be1 z x 71 9 h>mony ) him1 to m]ge self 9 univ]sal ,ord]1 to ?9k only ( t & its welf>e4 ,z two is great] ?an "o1 ! int]e/s ( ! :ole _w are inf9itely great] ?an ! int]e/s ( any s+le be+1 & no "o %\ld be satisfi$ ) a reg>d to any?+ less ?an ! :ole4 ,by ?is elevation ( view1 we are necess>ily rais$ f> above ! consid]ation ( ! petty ev5ts befall+ ourselves4 ,! gr& ef=t ( human reason is ?us to rise to ! ab/raction or totality ( entire ,nature2 'no e?ical subject1' says ,*rysippus1 'c\ld be rightly approa*$ except f ! pre-consid]ation ( entire ,nature1 & ! ord]+ ( ! :ole4' ,z to ,immortality1 ! ,/oics preclud$ !mselves1 by hold+ ! !ory ( ! absorption ( ! individual s\l at dea? into ! div9e ess5ce2 b1 on ! o!r h&1 _! doctr9e ( advance & aspiration is :at has 9 all times be5 ! ma9 natural argum5t = ! immortality ( ! s\l4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 !y kept !mselves undecid$ z to ?is doctr9e1 giv+ x z an alt]native1 reason+ z to our conduct on ei!r supposition1 & submitt+ to ! pleasure ( ,god 9 ?is z 9 all o!r ?+s4 ,9 argu+ = ! exi/5ce ( ,div9e p[] & gov]nm5t1 !y employ$ :at has be5 call$ ! argum5t f ,design1 :i* is z old z ,sokrates4 ,man is consci\s t he is 9 himself an intellectual or spiritual p[]1 f :i*1 by analogy1 he is l$ to believe t a great] p[] p]vades ! univ]se1 z intellect p]vades ! human sy/em4 ,,ii4--,9 ! ,,psy*ology ( ! ,/oics1 two que/ions1 are ( int]e/1 _! !ory ( ,pleasure & ,pa91 & _! views ^u ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w4 #a4 ,! !ory ( ,pleasure & ,pa94 ,! ,/oics agre$ ) ! ,p]ipatetics 7ant]ior to ,epicurus1 n specially aga9/ him7 t ! fir/ pr9ciple ( nature is 7n pleasure or relief f pa91 b7 self-pres]vation or self-love2 9 o!r words1 ! natural appetite or t5d5cy ( all creatures is1 to pres]ve _! exi/+ condition ) its inh]5t capacities1 & to keep cle> ( de/ruction or disablem5t4 ,?is appetite 7!y said7 manife/s itself 9 little *ildr5 be=e any pleasure or pa9 is felt1 & is moreov] a fundam5tal po/ulate1 pre-suppos$ 9 all desires ( p>ticul> pleasures1 z well z 9 all av]sions to p>ticul> pa9s4 ,we beg9 by lov+ our own vitality2 & we come1 by association1 to love :at promotes or /r5g!ns our vitality2 we hate de/ruction or disablem5t1 & come 7by second>y association7 to hate :atev] produces t effect4#h ,! doctr9e "h laid d[n associat$1 & br\ght "u "o view1 :at 0 common to man1 n m]ely ) ! animal1 b also ) ! vegetable _w2 a plant 0 decl>$ to h an impulse or t5d5cy to ma9ta9 itself1 ev5 )\t feel+ pa9 or pleasure4 ,ari/otle 79 ! t5? ,book ( ! ,e?ics7 says1 t he w n det]m9e :e!r we love life = ! sake ( pleasure1 or pleasure = ! sake ( life2 = he affirms ! two to be ess5tially yok$ toge!r & insep>able2 pleasure is ! consummation ( our vital manife/ations4 ,! ,p]ipatetics1 aft] him1 put pleasure d[n to a l[] level1 z d]ivative & accid5tal2 ! ,/oics w5t f>!r 9 ! same direction--possibly f anti!sis aga9/ ! gr[+ s*ool ( ,epicurus4 ,! prim>y (ficium 79 a l>g] s5se ?an our ^w ,duty7 ( man is 7!y said7 to keep himself 9 ! /ate ( nature2 ! second or d]ivative (ficium is to keep to su* ?+s z are accord+ to nature1 & to av]t ^? t are contr>y to nature2 our gradually increas+ exp]i5ce enabl$ u to discrim9ate ! two4 ,! y\? le>ns1 z he gr[s up1 to value bodily accompli%m5ts1 m5tal cognitions & judgm5ts1 good conduct t[>ds ^? ar\nd him1--z p[]ful aids t[>ds keep+ up ! /ate ( nature4 ,:5 8 exp]i5ce is s f> enl>g$ z to make him aw>e ( ! ord] & h>mony ( nature & human society1 & to impress ^u him ! compreh5sion ( ?is great ideal1 8 emotions z well z 8 reason become absorb$ by x4 ,he recognizes ?is z ! only true ,bonum or ,hone/um1 to :i* all o!r desirable ?+s are ref]able1--z ! only ?+ desirable = itself & 9 its own nature4 ,he drops or dismisses all ^? prima naturae t he _h begun by desir+4 ,he no long] consid]s any ( !m z wor?y ( be+ desir$ 9 itself1 or = its own sake4 ,:ile !re=e 7accord+ to ,p]ipatetics z well z ,/oics7 ! love ( self & ( pres]v+ "o's own vitality & activity1 is ! prim>y elem5t1 intuitive & connate1 to :i* all rational pref]5ce 7(ficium7 0 at fir/ ref]r$1--!y ?\ght x n ! less true1 t 9 process ( "t1 by exp]i5ce1 association1 & reflection1 !re gr[s up 9 ! m9d a gr& acquir$ s5tim5t or notion1 a new & lat] light1 :i* ext+ui%es & puts out ( sight ! e>ly beg9n+4 ,x 0 important to di/+ui% ! feeble & obscure elem5ts f ! p[]ful & brilliant aft]gr[?2 :i* inde$ 0 fully realiz$ only 9 *os5 m9ds1 & 9 !m1 h>dly be=e old age4 ,?is idea1 :5 once =m$ 9 ! m9d1 0 ,! ,good--! only ?+ wor?y ( desire = its own sake4 ,! ,/oics call$ x ! only ,good1 be+ suffici5t 9 itself = happ9ess2 o!r ?+s be+ n good1 nor necess>y to happ9ess1 b simply pref]able or advantage\s :5 !y c\ld be _h3 ! ,p]ipatetics recogniz$ x z ! fir/ & greate/ good1 b said also t x 0 n suffici5t 9 itself2 !re 7 two o!r inf]ior v>ieties ( good1 ( :i* some?+ mu/ be _h z complem5t>y 7:at ! ,/oics call$ praeposita or sum5da74 ,?us ! ,/oics said1 ab\t ! orig9 ( ! ,idea ( ,bonum or ,hone/um1 mu* ! same z :at ,ari/otle says ab\t e?ical virtue4 ,x is n implant$ 9 u by nature2 b we h at bir? c]ta9 initial t5d5cies & capacities1 :i*1 if aid$ by association & tra9+1 enable u 7& t n 9 all cases7 to acquire x4 #b4 ,! ,fre$om ( ! ,w4 ,a di/9ction 0 tak5 by ,epictetus & o!r ,/oics betwe5 ?+s 9 our p[] & ?+s n 9 our p[]4 ,! ?+s 9 our p[] are our op9ions & notions ab\t objects1 & all our affections1 desires1 & av]sions2 ! ?+s n 9 our p[] are our bodies1 weal?1 hon\r1 rank1 au?ority1 c41 & _! opposites4 ,! practical application is ?is3 weal? & high rank may n be 9 our p[]1 b we h ! p[] to =m an idea ( ^!--namely1 t !y are unimportant1 :5ce ! want ( !m w n grieve u4 ,a /ill m po9t$ application is to dea?1 ^: =ce is entirely 9 ! idea4 ,) ?is di/9ction betwe5 ?+s 9 our p[] & ?+s n 9 our p[]1 we may connect ! argum5ts betwe5 ! ,/oics & _! oppon5ts z to :at is n[ call$ ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w4 ,b we mu/ fir/ beg9 by di/+ui%+ ! two que/ions4 ,by ?+s 9 our p[]1 ! ,/oics meant1 ?+s t we c\ld d or acquire1 if we will$3 by ?+s n 9 our p[]1 !y meant1 ?+s t we c\ld n d or acquire if we will$4 ,9 bo? cases1 ! volition 0 assum$ z a fact3 ! "q1 :at det]m9$ x--or :e!r x 0 non-det]m9$1 i4e4 self-det]m9+--0 n rais$ 9 ! abovem5tion$ anti!sis4 ,b x 0 rais$ 9 o!r discussions betwe5 ! ,/oic !ori/ ,*rysippus1 & v>i\s oppon5ts4 ,^! oppon5ts d5i$ t volition 0 det]m9$ by motives1 & cit$ ! cases ( equal conflict+ motives 7:at is kn[n z ! ass ( ,buridan7 z prov+ t ! s\l includes 9 itself1 & ex]ts1 a special sup]v5i5t p[] ( decid+ action 9 "o way or ! o!r3 a p[] n det]m9$ by any causal antec$5t1 b self-orig9at+1 & belong+ to ! class ( ag5cy t ,ari/otle recognizes "u ! d5om9ation ( automatic1 spontane\s 7or ess5tially irregul> & unpr$ictable74 ,*rysippus repli$ by d5y+ n only ! reality ( ?is sup]v5i5t =ce said to be inh]5t 9 ! s\l1 b also ! reality ( all t ,ari/otle call$ automatic or spontane\s ag5cy g5]ally4 ,*rysippus said t e movem5t 0 det]m9$ by antec$5t motives2 t1 9 cases ( equal conflict1 ! exact equality did n long cont9ue1 because "s new b slight motive slipp$ 9 unp]ceiv$ & turn$ ! scale on "o side or ! o!r4 7,see ,plut>* ,de ,/oicorum ,repugnantiis1 c4 #bc1 p4 #ajde47 ,"h1 we see1 ! "q n[ kn[n z ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w is discuss$3 & ,*rysippus decl>es aga9/ x1 affirm+ t volition is always det]m9$ by motives4 ,b we also see t1 :ile decl>+ ?is op9ion1 ,*rysippus does n employ ! t]ms ,necessity or ,fre$om ( ! ,w3 nei!r did 8 oppon5ts1 s f> z we c see3 !y _h a diff]5t & less mislead+ phrase4 ,by ,fre$om1 ,*rysippus & ! ,/oics meant ! fre$om ( do+ :at a man will$1 if he will$ x4 ,a man is free1 z to ! ?+ t is 9 8 p[]1 :5 he wills x3 he is n free1 z to :at is n 9 8 p[]1 "u ! same supposition4 ,! ,/oics laid great /ress on ?is di/9ction4 ,!y po9t$ out h[ mu* x is really 9 a man's p[] to trans=m or discipl9e 8 own m9d3 9 ! way ( controll+ or suppress+ "s emotions1 g5]at+ or enc\rag+ o!rs1 =m+ new intellectual associations1 c41 h[ mu* a man c\ld d 9 ^! ways1 if he will$ x1 & if he w5t ?r\gh ! lessons1 habits ( conduct1 m$itations1 suitable to produce su* an effect4 ,! ,/oics /rove to create 9 a man's m9d ! volitions appropriate = su* m5tal discipl9e1 by depict+ ! b5eficial consequ5ces result+ f x1 & ! mis=tune & %ame inevitable1 if ! m9d 7 n s discipl9$4 ,_! purpose 0 to /r5g!n ! gov]n+ reason ( 8 m9d1 & to en?rone x z a fix$ habit & "*1 :i* w\ld control by c\nt] sugge/ions ! impulse aris+ at ea* special mom5t--p>ticul>ly all di/urb+ t]rors or allurem5ts4 ,?is1 9 _! view1 is a free m9d2 n "o :]e9 volition is indep5d5t ( all motive1 b "o :]e9 ! susceptibility to diff]5t motives is temp]$ by an asc5dant reason1 s z to give pr$om9ance to ! bett] motive aga9/ ! worse4 ,"o ( ! /ronge/ motives t !y endeav\r$ to en=ce1 0 ! prud5ce & dignity ( br++ our volitions into h>mony ) ! s*emes ( ,provid5ce3 :i* 7!y said7 7 always arrang$ ) a view to ! happ9ess ( ! kosmos on ! :ole4 ,! bad man1 ^: volitions conflict ) ^! s*emes1 is always baulk$ ( 8 expectations1 & br\ght at la/ aga9/ 8 w to see ?+s c>ri$ by an ov]rul+ =ce1 ) aggravat$ pa9 & humiliation to himself3 :ile ! good man1 :o resigns himself to !m f ! fir/1 always escapes ) less pa91 & (t5 )\t any at all4 ,ducunt vol5tem fata1 nol5tem trahunt4 ,we h ?us se5 t 9 reg>d to ! doctr9e call$ 9 mod]n times ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w 7i4e41 t volitions are self-orig9at+ & unpr$ictable71 ! ,/oic !ori/s n only d5i$ x1 b fram$ all _! ,e?ics ^u ! assumption ( ! contr>y4 ,?is same assumption ( ! contr>y1 inde$1 0 made also by ,sokrates1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 & ,epicurus3 9 %ort1 by all ! e?ical tea*]s ( antiquity4 ,all ( !m believ$ t volitions dep5d$ on causes3 t "u ! ord9>y conditions ( m5's m9ds1 ! causes t volitions g5]ally dep5d$ ^u are (t5 mislead+ & sometimes ru9\s3 b t by prop] /imulation f )\t & m$itation )91 ! rational causes ( volition might be made to ov]rule ! impulsive4 ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ,epicurus1 n less ?an ! ,/oics1 wi%$ to create new fix$ habits & a new type ( "*4 ,!y diff]$1 inde$1 on ! "q :at ! prop] type ( "* 03 b ea* ( !m aim$ at ! same g5]al end--a new type ( "*1 regulat+ ! grades ( susceptibility to diff]5t motives4 ,& ! purpose ( all & ea* ( ^! morali/s precludes ! !ory ( free-w--i4e41 ! !ory t our volitions are self-orig9at+ & unpr$ictable4 ,,iii4--,we mu/ consid] next ! ,/oical !ory ( ,happ9ess1 or r ( ! ,good1 :i* ) !m 0 proclaim$ to be ! sole1 indisp5sable1 & self-suffic+ condition ( ,happ9ess4 ,!y decl>$ t ,pleasure 0 no "p ( ,good1 & ,pa9 no "p ( ,evil2 !re=e1 t ev5 relief f pa9 0 n necess>y to ,good or ,happ9ess4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 if foll[$ out consi/5tly1 w\ld disp5se ) all morality & all human endeav\r4 ,accord+ly1 ! ,/oics 7 oblig$ to let 9 "s pleasures z an object ( pursuit1 & "s pa9s z an object ( avoidance1 ?\gh n "u ! title ( ,good & ,evil1 b ) ! inf]ior "n ( ,sum5da & ,rejici5da4#i ,sub/antially1 !re=e1 !y held t pa9s are an evil1 b1 by a prop] discipl9e1 may be triumph$ ov]4 ,!y disall[$ ! direct & o/5sible pursuit ( pleasure z an end 7! po9t ( view ( ,epicurus71 b allur$ _! foll[]s p>tly by promis+ !m ! victory ov] pa91 & p>tly by c]ta9 enjoym5ts ( an elevat$ ca/ t grew out ( _! plan ( life4 ,pa9 ( e k9d1 :e!r f ! casualties ( exi/5ce1 or f1 ! sev]ity ( ! ,/oical virtues1 0 to be met by a discipl9e ( endurance1 a h>d5+ process1 :i*1 if p]si/$ 91 w\ld succe$ 9 r$uc+ ! m9d to a /ate ( ,apa?y or indiff]5ce4 ,a great _m reflections 7 sugge/$ 9 aid ( ?is education4 ,! influ5ce ( ex]cise & repetition 9 adapt+ ! sy/em to any new function1 0 illu/rat$ by ! ,olympian combatants1 & by ! ,lac$aemonian y\?1 :o endur$ sc\rg+ )\t compla9t4 ,great /ress 0 laid on ! in/ability ( pleasure1 & ! con/ant liability to accid5ts2 :5ce we %\ld always be anticipat+ & adapt+ ourselves to ! wor/ t c\ld happ51 s z nev] to be 9 a /ate :]e any?+ c\ld ruffle ! m9d4 ,x 0 po9t$ out h[ mu* might /ill be made ( ! wor/ circum/ances--pov]ty1 bani%m5t1 public odium1 sickness1 old age--& e consid]ation 0 advanc$ t c\ld 'arm ! obdurate brea/ ) /ubborn pati5ce1 z ) triple /eel4' ,x has (t5 be5 rem>k$ t su* a discipl9e ( endurance 0 peculi>ly suit$ to ! unsettl$ condition ( ! _w at ! "t1 :5 any man1 9 addition to ! ord9>y evils ( life1 might 9 a mom5t be s5t into exile1 or sold into slav]y4 ,next to ! discipl9e ( endurance1 we mu/ rank ! complac5t s5tim5t ( ,pride1 :i* ! ,/oic might ju/ly feel 9 8 conque/ ( himself1 & 9 8 l(ty indep5d5ce & sup]iority to ! casualties ( life4#aj ,! pride ( ! ,cynic1 ! ,/oic's pr$ecessor1 0 prom95t & (f5sive1 %[+ itself 9 scurrility & contempt t[>ds ev]ybody else2 ! ,/oical pride 0 a ref9em5t ^u ?is1 b 0 /ill a grateful s5tim5t ( sup]iority1 :i* help$ to make up = ! surr5d] ( indulg5ces4 ,x 0 usual to be/[ ! mo/ extravagant laudation on ! ',wise ,man1' & e ,/oic c\ld take ?is home to ! ext5t t he consid]$ himself z approa*+ t great ideal4 ,! la/ & mo/ elevat$ =m ( ,/oical happ9ess 0 ! satisfaction ( contemplat+ ! ,univ]se & ,god4 ,epictetus says1 t we c accommodate ourselves *e]fully to ! provid5ce t rules ! _w1 if we possess two ?+s--! p[] ( see+ all t happ5s 9 ! prop] relation to its own purpose--& a grateful disposition4 ,! "w ( ,anton9us is full ( /udies ( ,nature 9 ! dev\t _s ( 'pass+ f ,nature up to ,nature's ,god2' he is nev] we>y ( express+ 8 ?or\gh cont5tm5t ) ! c\rse ( natural ev5ts1 & 8 s5se ( ! beauties & fitness ( ev]y?+4 ,old age has its grace1 & dea? is ! becom+ t]m9ation4 ,?is high /ra9 ( exult+ contemplation reconcil$ him to t complete submission to :atev] might befall1 :i* 0 ! ess5tial feature ( ! ',life accord+ to ,nature1' z he conceiv$ x4 ,,iv4--,! ,/oical !ory ( ,virtue is implicat$ 9 ! ideas ( ! ,good1 n[ describ$4 ,! f\nta9 ( all virtue is manife/ly ! life accord+ to nature2 z be+ ! life ( subord9ation ( self to m g5]al int]e/s--to family1 c\ntry1 mank9d1 ! :ole univ]se4 ,if a man is prep>$ to consid] himself absolutely no?+ 9 comp>ison ) ! univ]sal int]e/1 & to reg>d x z ! sole end ( life1 he has embrac$ an ideal ( virtue ( ! l(tie/ ord]4 ,accord+ly1 ! ,/oics 7 ! fir/ to prea* :at is call$ ',cosmopolitanism2' = al?\gh1 9 _! ref]5ce to ! good ( ! :ole1 !y conf\nd$ toge!r s5ti5t life & inanimate objects--rocks1 plants1 c41 solicitude = :i* 0 missp5t lab\r--yet !y 7 ?us enabl$ to rea* ! conception ( ! univ]sal k9d%ip ( mank9d1 & c\ld n b include 9 _! reg>ds ! brute creation4 ,!y said3 ',!re is no diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,greeks & ,b>b>ians2 ! _w is our city4' ,s5eca urges k9dness to slaves1 = 'are !y n m5 l ourselves1 brea?+ ! same air1 liv+ & dy+ l ourselves8' ,! ,epicureans decl9$1 z mu* z possible1 int]f]5ce 9 public affairs1 b ! ,/oic philosoph]s urg$ m5 to ! duties ( active citiz5%ip4 ,*rysippus ev5 said t ! life ( philosophical contemplation 7su* z ,ari/otle pref]r$1 & acc\nt$ godlike7 0 to be plac$ on ! same level ) ! life ( pleasure2 ?\gh ,plut>* obs]ves t nei!r ,*rysippus nor ,z5o ev] m$dl$ p]sonally ) any public duty2 bo? ( !m pass$ _! lives 9 lectur+ & writ+4 ,! tru? is t bo? ( !m 7 =eign]s resid+ at ,a!ns2 & at a "t :5 ,a!ns 0 dep5d5t on =eign pr9ces4 ,accord+ly1 nei!r ,z5o nor ,*rysippus _h any sph]e ( political action op5 to !m2 !y 71 9 ?is respect1 l ,epictetus aft]w>ds--b 9 a position q diff]5t f ,s5eca1 ! preceptor ( ,n]o1 :o might hope to influ5ce ! great imp]ial p[] ( ,rome1 & f ,m>cus ,anton9us1 :o held t imp]ial p[] 9 8 own h&s4 ,m>cus ,anton9us--n only a p[]ful ,emp]or1 b also ! mo/ g5tle & amiable man ( 8 day--talks ( active b5efic5ce bo? z a duty & a satisfaction4 ,b 9 ! cre$ ( ! ,/oics g5]ally1 active ,b5efic5ce did n occupy a prom95t place4 ,!y adopt$ ! f\r ,c>d9al ,virtues--,wisdom1 or ! ,k ( ,good & ,evil2 ,ju/ice2 ,=titude2 ,temp]ance--z "p ( _! plan ( ! virtu\s life1 ! life accord+ to ,nature4 ,ju/ice1 z ! social virtue1 0 plac$ above all ! re/4 ,b ! ,/oics 7 n /r5u\s 9 requir+ m ?an ,ju/ice1 = ! b5efit ( o!rs beside ! ag5t4 ,!y ev5 reckon$ compassion = ! suff]+s ( o!rs z a weakness1 analog\s to envy = ! good =tune ( o!rs4 ,! ,/oic recogniz$ ! gods 7or ,univ]sal ,nature1 equival5t expressions 9 8 cre$7 z manag+ ! affairs ( ! _w1 ) a view to produc+ z mu* happ9ess z 0 atta9able on ! :ole4 ,t[>ds ?is end ! gods did n want any positive assi/ance f him2 b x 0 8 duty & 8 /ronge/ int]e/1 to resign himself to _! plans1 & to ab/a9 f all conduct t5d+ to fru/rate !m4 ,su* refractory t5d5cies 7 p]petually sugge/$ to him by ! unreasonable appetites1 emotions1 fe>s1 antipa?ies1 c41 ( daily life2 all claim+ satisfaction at ! exp5se ( future mis*ief to himself & o!rs4 ,to c\nt]vail ^! mislead+ =ces1 by means ( a fix$ rational "* built up ?r\gh m$itation & philosophical tea*+1 0 ! gr& purpose ( ! ,/oic e?ical cre$4 ,! emotional or appetitive self 0 to be />v$ or curb$1 & reta9$ only z an app5dage to ! rational self2 an idea proclaim$ be=e 9 g5]al t]ms by ,plato1 b c>ri$ out into a sy/em by ! ,/oics1 & to a great ext5t ev5 by ! ,epicureans4 ,! ,/oic 0 taught to reflect h[ mu* t appe>s to be desirable1 t]ror-/rik+1 provocative1 c41 is n really s1 b is made to appe> s by false & curable associations4 ,& :ile he ?us disc\rag$ ^? self-reg>d+ emotions t plac$ him 9 ho/ility ) o!rs1 he le>nt to respect ! self ( ano!r man z well z 8 own4 ,epictetus advises to deal mildly ) a man t hurts u ei!r by ^w or de$2 & advises x ^u ! foll[+ v rem>kable gr\nd4 ',recollect t 9 :at he says or does1 he foll[s 8 own s5se ( propriety1 n y\rs4 ,he mu/ d :at appe>s to him "r1 n :at appe>s to y2 if he judges wrongly1 x is he t is hurt1 = he is ! p]son deceiv$4 ,always repeat to y\rself1 9 su* a case3 ,! man has act$ on 8 own op9ion4' ,! reason "h giv5 by ,epictetus is an in/ance1 memorable 9 e?ical !ory1 ( respect = individual diss5t+ conviction1 ev5 9 an extreme case2 & x mu/ be tak5 9 conjunction ) 8 o!r doctr9e1 t damage ?us done to u unju/ly is really little or no damage1 except s f> z we ourselves give pung5cy to x by our irrational susceptibilities & associations4 ,we see t ! ,/oic subm]ges1 z mu* z he c1 ! pre-em95ce ( 8 own individual self1 & contemplates himself f ! po9t ( view ( ano!r1 only z "o among _m4 ,b he does n erect ! happ9ess ( o!rs into a direct object ( 8 own positive pursuit1 beyond ! reciprocities ( family1 citiz5%ip1 & common humanity4 ,! ,/oic !ori/s agre$ ) ,epicurus 9 inculcat+ ! reciprocities ( ju/ice betwe5 all fell[-citiz5s2 & !y ev5 w5t f>!r ?an he did1 by ext5d+ ! sph]e ( su* duties beyond ! limits ( city1 s z to compreh5d all mank9d4 ,b z to ! reciprocities ( individual fri5d%ip1 ,epicurus w5t beyond ! ,/oics1 by ! am\nt ( self-sacrifice & devotion t he enjo9$ = ! b5efit ( a fri5d4 ,!re is also 9 ! ,/oical sy/em a recognition ( duties to ,god1 & ( morality z bas$ on piety4 ,n only are we all bre?r51 b also ! '*ildr5 ( "o ,fa!r4' ,! extraord9>y /ra9 put ^u human nature by ! full ,/oic ideal ( subm]g+ self 9 ! l>g] int]e/s ( be+1 l$ to v>i\s compromises4 ,! rigid foll[+ out ( ! ideal issu$ 9 "o ( ! p>adoxes1 namely4--,t all ! actions ( ! wise man are equally p]fect1 & t1 %ort ( ! /&>d ( p]fection1 all faults & vices are equal2 t1 = example1 ! man t kill$ a cock1 )\t good reason1 0 z guilty z he t kill$ 8 fa!r4 ,?is has a mean+ only :5 we draw a l9e betwe5 spirituality & morality1 & treat ! la/ z wor?less 9 comp>ison ( ! fir/4 ,! lat] ,/oics1 h[ev]1 9 _! exhortations to special bran*es ( duty1 gave a positive value to practical virtue1 irrespective ( ! ideal4 ,! idea ( ,duty 0 ( ,/oical orig91 fo/]$ & develop$ by ! ,roman _s & legislation4 ,! e>ly ,/oics _h two diff]5t words1--"o = ! 'suitable' ,greek3 ka?aekon1 or incomplete propriety1 admitt+ ( degrees1 & bel[ ! po9t ( rectitude1 & ano!r = ! '"r' ,greek3 kator?oma1 or complete rectitude ( action1 :i* none c\ld a*ieve except ! wise man4 ,x is a significant circum/ance t ! 'suitable' is ! l9eal ance/or ( our ^w 'duty' 7?r\gh ! ,lat9 (ficium74 ,x 0 a great po9t ) ! ,/oic to be consci\s ( 'advance' or improvem5t4#aa ,by self-exam9ation1 he kept himself con/antly acqua9t$ ) 8 moral /ate1 & x 0 bo? 8 duty & 8 satisfaction to be approa*+ to ! ideal ( ! p]fect man4 ,x is v illu/rative ( ! ungu>d$ po9ts & contradictions ( ,/oicism1 t cont5tm5t & apa?y 7 n to p]mit grief ev5 = ! loss ( fri5ds4 ,s5eca1 on "o occasion1 admits t he 0 betray$ by human weakness on ?is po9t4 ,on /rict ,/oical pr9ciples1 we ought to treat ! afflictions & ! dea? ( o!rs ) ! same frigid indiff]5ce z our own2 = :y %\ld a man feel = a second p]son m ?an he ought to feel = himself1 z a m]e unit 9 ! inf9itude ( ! ,univ]se8 ,?is is ! contradiction insep>able f any sy/em t beg9s by abjur+ pleasure1 & relief or protection f pa91 z ! ends ( life4 ,ev5 grant+ t we reg>d pleasure & relief f pa9 z ( no importance 9 our own case1 yet if we apply ! same measure to o!rs we are b]eft ( all motives to b5evol5ce2 & virtue1 in/ead ( be+ set on a l(ti] p9nacle1 is left )\t any f\ndation4 ,,epicurus4 #caa--bgj ,b4,c4 ,epicurus 0 born #cda ,b4,c4 9 ! isl& ( ,samos4 ,at ! age ( eighte51 he repair$ to ,a!ns1 :]e he is suppos$ to h enjoy$ ! tea*+ ( ,x5ocrates or ,!ophra/us4 ,9 #cjf ,b4,c41 he op5$ a s*ool 9 a g>d5 9 ,a!ns1 :5ce 8 foll[]s h sometimes be5 call$ ! 'philosoph]s ( ! g>d54' ,8 life 0 simple1 *a/e1 & temp]ate4 ,( ! #cjj works he is said to h writt51 no?+ has come d[n to u except ?ree lett]s1 giv+ a summ>y ( 8 views = ! use ( 8 fri5ds1 & a numb] ( deta*$ say+s1 pres]v$ by ,diog5es ,la]tius & o!rs4 ,moreov]1 "s fragm5ts ( 8 "w on ,nature h be5 f\nd at ,h]culaneum4 ,! additional s\rces ( our k ( ,epicurus are ! works ( 8 oppon5ts1 ,cic]o1 ,s5eca1 ,plut>*1 & ( 8 foll[] ,lucretius4 ,our in=mation f ,epicurean writ]s respect+ ! doctr9es ( _! sect is mu* less copi\s ?an :at we possess f ,/oic writ]s 9 reg>d to ,/oic op9ions4 ,we h no ,epicurean writ] on ,philosophy except ,inicretius2 :]eas respect+ ! ,/oical cre$ "u ! ,roman ,empire1 ! important writ+s ( ,s5eca1 ,epictetus1 & ,m>cus ,anton9us1 af=d mo/ valuable evid5ce4 ,to ,epicurus succe$$1 9 ! lead]%ip ( 8 s*ool1 ,h]ma*us1 ,poly/ratus1 ,dionysius1 ,basilides1 & o!rs1 t5 9 numb]1 d[n to ! age ( ,augu/us4 ,among ,roman ,epicureans1 ,lucretius 7#ie--ea ,b4,c47 is ! mo/ important1 8 poem 7,de ,r]um ,natura71 be+ ! complete/ acc\nt ( ! sy/em t exi/s4 ,o!r di/+ui%$ foll[]s 7 ,horace1 ,atticus1 & ,lacian4 ,9 mod]n times1 ,pi]re ,gass5di 7#aeib--afee7 reviv$ ! doctr9es ( ,epicurus1 & 9 #afdg publi%$ 8 ',syntagma ,philosophiae ,epicuri1' & a ,life ( ,epicurus4 ,! reputation ( ,gass5di1 9 8 life "t1 re/$ *iefly ^u 8 physical !ories2 b 8 influ5ce 0 mu* felt z a ,*ri/ian uphold] ( ,epicureanism4 ,gass5di 0 at "o "t 9 ord]s z a ,roman ,ca?olic1 & pr(essor ( !ology & philosophy4 ,he e/abli%$ an ,epicurean s*ool 9 ,france1 among ! disciples ( :i* 71 ,moli]e1 ,sa9t ,evremond1 ,c\nt de ,grammont1 ! ,duke ( ,ro*efoncalt1 ,font5elle1 & ,voltaire4 ,! /&>d ( ,virtue & ,vice is ref]r$ by ,epicurus to pleasure & pa94 ,pa9 is ! only evil1 ,pleasure is ! only good4 ,virtue is no end 9 itself1 to be s\ght3 ,vice is no end 9 itself1 to be avoid$4 ,! motive = cultivat+ ,virtue & bani%+ ,vice arises f ! consequ5ces ( ea*1 z ! means ( multiply+ pleasures & av]t+ or less5+ pa9s4 ,b to ! atta9m5t ( ?is purpose1 ! complete supremacy ( ,reason is indisp5sable2 9 ord] t we may take a "r comp>ative measure ( ! v>ieties ( pleasure & pa91 & pursue ! c\rse t promises ! lea/ am\nt ( suff]+4#ab ,9 all e?ical !ories t make happ9ess ! supreme object ( pursuit1 ! position ( virtue dep5ds entirely ^u ! !ory ( :at con/itutes happ9ess4 ,n[1 ,epicurus 7h]e9 diff]+ f ! ,/oics1 z well z ,ari/otle71 did n recognize ,happ9ess z any?+ b fre$om f pa9 & enjoym5t ( pleasure4 ,x is ess5tial1 h[ev]1 to und]/&1 h[ ,epicurus conceiv$ pleasure & pa91 & :at is ! ,epicurean scale ( pleasures & pa9s1 graduat$ z objects ( reasonable desire or av]sion8 ,x is a great error to suppose t1 9 mak+ pleasure ! /&>d ( virtue1 ,epicurus _h 9 view t elaborate & /udi$ gratification ( ! s5sual appetites t we associate ) ! ^w ,epicurean4 ,epicurus decl>es--',:5 we say t pleasure is ! end ( life1 we d n mean ! pleasures ( ! debau*ee or ! s5suali/1 z "s f ignorance or f malignity repres5t1 b fre$om ( ! body f pa91 & ( ! s\l f anxiety4 ,= x is n cont9u\s dr9k+s & revell+s1 nor ! society ( wom51 nor r>e vi&s1 & o!r luxuries ( ! table1 t con/itute a pleasant life1 b sob] contemplation1 su* z se>*es out ! gr\nds ( *oice & avoidance1 & bani%es ^? *im]as t h>ass ! m9d4 ,fre$om f pa9 is ?us made ! prim>y elem5t ( happ9ess2 a "o-sid$ view1 respect$ 9 ! doctr9e ( ,locke1 t x is n ! idea ( future good1 b ! pres5t greate/ uneas9ess t mo/ /rongly affects ! w4 ,a neutral /ate ( feel+ is necess>ily imp]ill$ by a gre$y pursuit ( pleasures2 h5ce ! dictum1 to be cont5t ) little is a great good2 because little is mo/ easily obta9$4 ,! regulation ( ! desires is !re=e ( high mom5t4 ,accord+ to ,epicurus1 desires fall into ?ree grades4 ,"s are natural & necess>y1 su* z desire ( dr9k1 food1 or life1 & are easily gratifi$4 ,b :5 ! uneas9ess ( a want is remov$1 ! bodily pleasures admit ( no f>!r increase2 any?+ additional only v>ies ! pleasure4 ,h5ce ! luxuries :i* g beyond ! relief ( our wants are ?or\ghly sup]flu\s2 & ! desires aris+ f !m 7=m+ ! second grade7 ?\gh natural1 are n necess>y4 ,a ?ird class ( desires is nei!r natural nor necess>y1 b begott5 ( va9 op9ion2 su* z ! ?ir/ = civic hon\rs1 or = p[] ov] o!rs2 ^? desires are ! mo/ difficult to gratify1 & ev5 if gratifi$1 entail ^u u tr\ble1 anxiety1 & p]il4 ,?is acc\nt ( ! desires1 foll[+ up ! advice--,if y wi% to be ri*1 /udy n to increase y\r goods1 b to dim9i% y\r desires--is to a c]ta9 ext5t wise & ev5 indisp5sable2 yet n adapt$ to all temp]am5ts4 ,to ^? t enjoy pleasure v highly1 & are n s5sitive 9 an equal degree to pa91 su* a negative conception ( happ9ess w\ld be imp]fect4 ,epicurus did n1 h[ev]1 deprecate positive pleasure4 ,if x c\ld be rea*$ )\t pa91 & did n result 9 pa91 x 0 a pure good2 &1 ev5 if x c\ld n be _h )\t pa91 ! "q 0 /ill op51 :e!r x might n be well wor? ! price4 ,b 9 e/imat+ ! wor? ( pleasure1 ! abs5ce ( any accompany+ pa9 %\ld weigh heavily 9 ! balance4 ,at ?is po9t1 ! ,epicurean !ory connects itself mo/ intimately ) ! conditions ( virtue2 = virtue is m conc]n$ ) av]t+ mis*ief & suff]+1 ?an ) multiply+ positive enjoym5ts4 ,bodily feel+1 9 ! ,epicurean psy*ology1 is prior 9 ord] ( "t to ! m5tal elem5t2 ! =m] 0 primordial1 :ile ! latt] 0 d]ivative f x by repeat$ processes ( memory & association4 ,b ?\gh su* 0 ! ord] ( sequ5ce & g5]ation1 yet :5 we comp>e ! two z con/itu5ts ( happ9ess to ! =m$ man1 ! m5tal elem5t mu* outweigh$ ! bodily1 bo? z pa9 & z pleasure4 ,bodily pa9 or pleasure exi/s only 9 ! pres5t2 :5 n felt1 x is no?+4 ,b m5tal feel+s involve memory & hope--embrace ! pa/ z well z ! future--endure = a long "t1 & may be recall$ or put out ( sight1 to a great degree1 at our discretion4 ,?is la/ po9t is "o ( ! mo/ rem>kable features ( ! ,epicurean m5tal discipl9e4 ,epicurus deprecat$ ! g5]al habit ( mank9d 9 always hank]+ aft] "s new satisfaction to come2 always discont5t$ ) ! pres5t1 & oblivi\s ( pa/ com=ts z if !y _h nev] be54 ,^! pa/ com=ts ought to be treasur$ up by memory & reflection1 s t !y might become z x 7 matt] = rum9ation1 & might s]ve1 9 try+ mom5ts1 ev5 to c\nt]balance extreme physical suff]+4 ,! heal? ( ,epicurus himself 0 v bad dur+ ! clos+ ye>s ( 8 life4 ,!re rema9s a fragm5t ( 8 la/ lett]1 to an intimate fri5d & companion1 ,idom5eus--',i write ?is to y on ! la/ day ( my life1 :i*1 9 spite ( ! sev]e/ int]nal bodily pa9s1 is /ill a happy day1 because ,i set aga9/ !m 9 ! balance all ! m5tal pleasure felt 9 ! recollection ( my pa/ conv]sations ) y4 ,take c>e ( ! *ildr5 left by ,metrodorus1 9 a mann] wor?y ( y\r demean\r f boyhood t[>ds me & t[>ds philosophy4' ,bodily pa9 might ?us be alleviat$1 :5 x occurr$2 x might be greatly less5$ 9 occurr5ce1 by prud5t & mod]ate habits2 la/ly1 ev5 at ! wor/1 if viol5t1 x nev] la/$ long2 if n viol5t1 x might be pati5tly borne1 & 0 at any rate t]m9at$1 or t]m9able at pleasure1 by dea?4 ,9 ! view ( ,epicurus1 ! *ief mis]ies ( life arose1 n f bodily pa9s1 b p>tly f delusions ( hope1 & exagg]at$ aspirations = weal?1 hon\rs1 p[]1 c41 9 all :i* ! objects appe>$ mo/ s$uctive f a di/ance1 incit+ man to lawless viol5ce & trea*]y1 :ile 9 ! reality !y 7 always disappo9tm5ts1 & g5]ally some?+ worse2 p>tly1 & /ill m1 f ! delusions ( fe>4 ,( ?is la/ sort1 7 ! two greate/ torm5ts ( human exi/5ce--fe> ( ,dea?1 & ( et]nal suff]+ aft] dea?1 z ann\nc$ by prophets & poets1 & ,fe> ( ! ,gods4 ,epicurus1 :o did n believe 9 ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ! s\l sep>ate f ! body1 decl>$ t !re c\ld nev] be any rational gr\nd = fe>+ dea?1 s9ce x 0 simply a p]man5t ext9ction ( consci\sness4#ac ,dea? 0 no?+ to u 7he said72 :5 dea? comes1 we are no m1 ei!r to suff] or to enjoy4 ,yet x 0 ! gr\ndless fe> ( ?is no?+ t poison$ all ! tranquillity ( life1 & held m5 imprison$ ev5 :5 exi/5ce 0 a torm5t4 ,:oev] _h surm\nt$ t fe> 0 arm$ at once aga9/ cruel tyranny & aga9/ all ! grave/ mis=tunes4 ,next1 ! fe> ( ! gods 0 n less delusive1 & h>dly less torm5t+1 ?an ! fe> ( dea?4 ,x 0 a capital error 7,epicurus decl>$7 to suppose t ! gods employ$ !mselves z ag5ts 9 work+ or sup]9t5d+ ! m>* ( ! ,cosmos2 or 9 conf]r+ fav\r on "s m51 & adm9i/]+ *a/isem5t to o!rs4 ,! vulg> religi\s tales1 :i* repres5t$ !m 9 ?is "*1 7 untrue & insult+ z reg>ds ! gods !mselves1 & pregnant ) p]v]sion & mis]y z reg>ds ! hopes & fe>s ( mank9d4 ,epicurus believ$ s9c]ely 9 ! gods2 rev]5c$ !m z be+s at once p]fectly happy1 immortal1 & un*angeable2 & took delight 9 ! public religi\s fe/ivals & c]emonies4 ,b x 0 inconsi/5t ) ^! attributes1 & repulsive to 8 feel+s ( rev]5ce1 to conceive !m z ag5ts4 ,! idea ( ag5cy is d]iv$ f human exp]i5ce2 we1 z ag5ts1 act ) a view to supply "s want1 to fulfil "s obligation1 to acquire "s pleasure1 to accompli% "s object desir$ b n yet atta9$--9 %ort1 to fill up "o or o!r ( ! _m gaps 9 our imp]fect happ9ess2 ! gods already h all t ag5ts /rive to get1 & m ?an ag5ts ev] d get2 _! condition is "o n ( ag5cy1 b ( tranquil1 self-su/a9+1 fruition4 ,accord+ly1 ,epicurus ?\ght 7z ,ari/otle#ad _h ?\ght be=e him7 t ! p]fect1 et]nal1 & imp]turbable well-be+ & felicity ( ! gods exclud$ ! supposition ( _! be+ ag5ts4 ,he look$ ^u !m z types ( t unmole/$ safety & unalloy$ satisfaction :i* 0 :at he und]/ood by pleasure or happ9ess--z objects ( rev]5tial envy1 ^: sympa?y he 0 likely to obta9 by assimilat+ 8 own temp] & condition to !irs1 z f> z human circum/ances all[$4 ,^! !ological views 7 plac$ by ,epicurus 9 ! =egr\nd ( 8 e?ical philosophy1 z ! only means ( dispell+ ^? fe>s ( ! gods t ! curr5t fables in/ill$ into e "o1 & t did s mu* to de/roy human com=t & security4 ,he proclaim$ t be+s 9 immortal felicity nei!r suff]$ vexation 9 !mselves nor caus$ vexation to o!rs--nei!r %[$ ang] nor fav\r to p>ticul> p]sons4 ,! doctr9e t !y 7 ! work+ manag]s 9 ! affairs ( ! ,cosmos1 cele/ial & t]re/rial1 human & extra-human1 he n only repudiat$ z incompatible ) _! attributes1 b decl>$ to be impi\s1 consid]+ ! disord]1 suff]+s1 & viol5ce1 ev]y:]e visible4 ,he disall[$ all prophecy1 div9ation1 & oracul> inspiration1 by :i* ! public ar\nd him believ$ t ! gods 7 p]petually communicat+ special revelations to individuals1 & = :i* ,sokrates _h felt s peculi>ly ?ankful4#ae ,x is rem>kable t ,/oics & ,epicureans1 9 spite ( _! m>k$ opposition 9 dogma or !ory1 agre$ s f> 9 practical results1 t bo? decl>$ ^! two modes ( uneas9ess 7fe> ( ! gods & fe> ( dea?7 to be ! great torm5ts ( human exi/5ce1 & bo? /rove to remove or c\nt]balance !m4 ,s f>1 ! tea*+ ( ,epicurus appe>s conf9$ to ! sep>ate happ9ess ( ea* individual1 z dep5d5t ^u 8 own prud5ce1 sobriety1 & correct views ( ,nature4 ,b ?is is n ! :ole ( ! ,epicurean ,e?ics4 ,! sy/em also consid]$ ea* man z 9 companion%ip ) o!rs2 ,! precepts 7 %ap$ accord+ly1 fir/ z to ,ju/ice1 next z to ,fri5d%ip4 ,9 bo? ^!1 ! f\ndation :]eon ,epicurus built 0 ,reciprocity3 n pure sacrifice to o!rs1 b p>tn]%ip ) o!rs1 b5eficial to all4 ,he kept ! ideas ( self & ( o!rs insep>ably knit toge!r 9 "o complex association3 he did n expel or degrade ei!r1 9 ord] to give exclusive asc5dancy to ! o!r4 ,! dictate ( ,natural ,ju/ice 0 t no man %\ld hurt ano!r3 ea* 0 b\nd to ab/a9 f do+ h>m to o!rs2 ea*1 on ?is condition1 0 entitl$ to c\nt on security & relief f ! fe> t o!rs w\ld d h>m to him4 ,su* d\ble aspect1 or reciprocity1 0 ess5tial to social companion%ip3 ^? t c\ld n1 or w\ld n1 accept ?is cov5ant1 7 unfit = society4 ,if a man does n behave ju/ly t[>ds o!rs1 he _c expect t !y w behave ju/ly t[>ds him2 to live a life ( inju/ice1 & expect t o!rs w n f9d x out1 is idle4 ,! unju/ man _c enjoy a mom5t ( security4 ,epicurus laid x d[n explicitly1 t j & righte\s deal+ 0 ! indisp5sable condition to e "o's com=t1 & 0 ! be/ means ( atta9+ x4 ,! reciprocity ( ,ju/ice 0 valid t[>ds all ! _w2 ! reciprocity ( fri5d%ip w5t mu* f>!r2 x involv$ indef9ite & active b5efic5ce1 b c\ld rea* only to a select few4 ,epicurus insi/$ emphatically on ! value ( fri5d%ip1 z a means ( happ9ess to bo? ! p]sons s unit$4 ,he decl>$ t a good fri5d 0 ano!r self1 & t fri5ds ought to be prep>$1 9 case ( ne$1 to die = ea* o!r4 ,yet he decl9$ to recomm5d an e/abli%$ community ( goods among ! memb]s ( 8 frat]nity1 z prevail$ 9 ! ,py?agorean bro!rhood3 = su* an in/itution 7he said7 impli$ mi/ru/4 ,he recomm5d$ ef=ts to please & to s]ve1 & a =w>dness to give1 = ! purpose ( ga9+ & b5efit+ a fri5d1 & he ev5 decl>$ t !re 0 m pleasure 9 conf]r+ fav\rs ?an 9 receiv+ !m2 b he 0 no less /r5u\s 9 inculcat+ an intellig5t gratitude on ! receiv]4 ,no "o except a wise man 7he said7 knew h[ to return a fav\r prop]ly4#af ,virtue & happ9ess1 9 ! !ory ( ,epicurus1 7 ?us insep>able4 ,a man c\ld n be happy until he _h surm\nt$ ! fe> ( dea? & ! fe> ( gods in/ill$ by ! curr5t fables1 :i* di/urb$ all tranquillity ( m9d2 until he _h bani%$ ^? factiti\s desires t pu%$ him into cont5tion = weal?1 p[]1 or celebrity2 nor unless he behav$ ) ju/ice to all1 & ) active devot$ fri5d%ip t[>ds a few4 ,su* a m5tal condition1 :i* he ?\ght x 0 9 e man's p[] to acquire by appropriate tea*+ & companion%ip1 con/itut$ virtue2 & 0 ! sure z well z ! only precursor ( g5u9e happ9ess4 ,a m9d ?us undi/urb$ & purifi$ 0 suffici5t to itself4 ,! m]e satisfaction ( ! wants ( life1 & ! conv]sation ( fri5ds1 became !n felt pleasures2 if m c\ld be _h )\t prepond]ant mis*ief1 s mu* ! bett]2 b ,nature1 disbur!n$ ( h] corruptions & prejudices1 requir$ no m to be happy4 ,?is at lea/ 0 z mu* z ! conditions ( humanity admitt$3 a tranquil1 undi/urb$1 innocu\s1 non-competitive fruition1 :i* approa*$ mo/ ne>ly to ! p]fect happ9ess ( ! ,gods4#ag ,! ,epicurean !ory ( virtue is ! type ( all ^? t make an enlight5$ self-int]e/ ! basis ( "r & wrong4 ,! f\r c>d9al virtues 7 expla9$ f ! ,epicurean po9t ( view4 ,prud5ce 0 ! supreme rule ( conduct4 ,x 0 a calculation & balanc+ ( pleasures & pa9s4 ,its object 0 a judici\s selection ( pleasures to be s\ght4 ,x tea*es m5 to =ego idle wi%es1 & to despise idle fe>s4 ,temp]ance is ! managem5t ( s5sual pleasures4 ,x seeks to avoid excess1 s z on ! :ole to extract z mu* pleasure z our bodily organs are capable ( af=d+4 ,=titude is a virtue1 because x ov]comes fe> & pa94 ,x consi/s 9 fac+ dang] or endur+ pa91 to avoid great] possible evils4 ,ju/ice is ( artificial orig94 ,x consi/s 9 a tacit agreem5t among mank9d to ab/a9 f injur+ "o ano!r4 ,! security t e man has 9 8 p]son & prop]ty1 is ! great consid]ation urg+ to ab/95ce f injur+ o!rs4 ,b is x n possible to commit inju/ice ) safety8 ,! answ] 01 ',inju/ice is n an evil 9 itself1 b becomes s f ! fe> t haunts ! injur] ( n be+ able to escape ! appo9t$ av5g]s ( su* acts4' ,! ,physics ( ,epicurus 7 borr[$ 9 ! ma9 f ! atomic !ory ( ,democritus1 b 7 modifi$ by him 9 a mann] subs]vi5t & contributory to 8 e?ical s*eme4 ,to t s*eme x 0 ess5tial t ^? cele/ial1 atmosph]ic1 or t]re/rial ph5om5a t ! public ar\nd him ascrib$ to ! ag5cy & purposes ( ! gods1 %\ld be und]/ood z be+ produc$ by physical causes4 ,an eclipse1 an e>?quake1 a /orm1 a %ipwreck1 unusual ra9 or dr\ght1 a good or a bad h>ve/--& n m]ely ^!1 b _m o!r occurr5ces f> small] & m unimportant1 z we may see by ! eighte5? *apt] ( ! ,*>act]s ( ,!ophra/us--7 !n reg>d$ z visitations ( ! gods1 requir+ to be int]pret$ by recogniz$ prophets1 & to be appeas$ by c]emonial expiations4 ,:5 once a man became conv9c$ t all ^! ph5om5a proce$$ f physical ag5cies1 a ho/ ( t]rors & anxieties w\ld disappe> f ! m9d2 & ?is ,epicurus ass]t$ to be ! b5efic5t effect & real recomm5dation ( physical philosophy4 ,he took little or no ?\ght = sci5tific curiosity z a motive p] se1 :i* bo? ,democritus & ,ari/otle put s mu* 9 ! =egr\nd4 ,epicurus adopt$ ! atomi/ic s*eme ( ,democritus1 b ) "s important v>iations4 ,he conceiv$ t ! atoms all mov$ ) equal velocity 9 ! d[nw>d direction ( gravity4 ,b x occurr$ to him t ^u ?is hypo!sis !re c\ld nev] occur any collisions or comb9ations ( ! atoms--no?+ b cont9u$ & un*angeable p>allel l9es4 ,accord+ly1 he modifi$ x by say+ t ! l9e ( desc5t 0 n exactly rectil9e>1 b t ea* atom deflect$ a little f ! /raight l9e1 & ea* 9 its own direction & degree2 s t x became possible to assume collisions1 resili5ces1 adhesions1 comb9ations1 among !m1 z x _h be5 possible "u ! v>iety ( orig9al movem5ts ascrib$ to !m by ,democritus4 ,! oppon5ts ( ,epicurus d]id$ ?is auxili>y hypo!sis2 !y affirm$ t he inv5t$ ! individual deflection ( ea* atom1 )\t assign+ any cause1 & only because he 0 p]plex$ by ! my/]y ( man's free-w4 ,b ,epicurus 0 n m op5 to attack on ?is gr\nd ?an o!r physical philosoph]s4 ,mo/ ( !m 7except p]haps ! mo/ consi/5t ( ! ,/oic fatali/s7 believ$ t "s among ! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se occurr$ 9 regul> & pr$ictable sequ5ce1 :ile o!rs 7 ess5tially irregul> & unpr$ictable2 ea* philosoph] devis$ 8 hypo!sis1 & recogniz$ "s fundam5tal pr9ciple1 to expla9 ! fir/ class ( ph5om5a z well z ! second4 ,plato admitt$ an inv9cible ,erratic necessity2 ,ari/otle introduc$ ,*ance & ,spontaneity2 ,democritus multipli$ indef9itely ! v>ieties ( atomic movem5ts4 ,! hypo!tical deflexion alleg$ by ,epicurus 0 8 way1 n m unw>rant$ ?an ! o!rs1 ( provid+ a fundam5tal pr9ciple = ! unpr$ictable ph5om5a ( ! univ]se4 ,among ^! are ! m5tal 7includ+ ! volitional7 manife/ations ( m5 & animals2 b !re are _m o!rs besides2 & !re is no gr\nd = believ+ t ! my/]y ( free-w 0 peculi>ly pres5t to 8 m9d4 ,! movem5ts ( a man or animal are n exclusively subject to gravitation & o!r g5]al laws2 !y are p>tly gov]n$ by m5tal impulses & by =ces ( ! organism1 intr9sic & peculi> to himself1 unse5 & unfelt by o!rs4 ,= ^!1 9 common ) _m o!r untraceable ph5om5a 9 ! mat]ial _w1 ,epicurus provides a pr9ciple 9 ! supplem5t>y hypo!sis ( deflexion4 ,he reject$ ! fatalism conta9$ 9 ! !ories ( "s ( ! ,/oics1 & admitt$ a limit$ range ( empire to *ance1 or irregul>ity4 ,b he ma9ta9$ t ! w1 f> f be+ among ! ph5om5a ess5tially irregul>1 is "u ! influ5ce ( motives2 = no man c insi/ m /r5u\sly ?an he does 7see ! ,lett] to ,m5oec5s7 on ! complete p[] ( philosophy1--if ! /ud5t c\ld be made to feel its necessity & desire ! atta9m5t ( x1 s z to m$itate & engra9 )9 himself s\nd views ab\t ! gods1 dea?1 & human life g5]ally1--to m\ld our volitions & "* 9 a mann] con=mable to ! exig5cies ( virtue & happ9ess4 ,:5 we read ! explanations giv5 by ,epicurus & ,lucretius ( :at ! ,epicurean !ory really 01 & comp>e !m ) ! num]\s attacks made ^u x by oppon5ts1 we _c b rem>k t ! title or =mula ( ! !ory 0 ill *os51 & 0 really a misnom]4 ,:at ,epicurus meant by ,pleasure 01 n :at mo/ p meant by x1 b some?+ v diff]5t--a tranquil & com=table /ate ( m9d & body2 mu* ! same z :at ,democritus _h express$ be=e him by ! phrase ,greek3 eu?ymia4 ,?is la/ phrase w\ld h express$ :at ,epicurus aim$ at1 nei!r m nor less4 ,x w\ld at lea/ h pres]v$ 8 !ory f mu* misplac$ s>casm & aggressive rhetoric4 ,,! ,,neo-,,platoni/s4 ,,plot9us 7,a4,d4 #bje--gj71 ,,porphyry1 c4 ,con/ruct$ ) ref]5ce to ! brok5-d[n /ate ( anci5t society1 & seek+ its highe/ aim 9 a reg5]ation ( humanity1 ! philosophical sy/em ( ,neo-,platonism 0 ?r\gh\t e?ical or e?ico-religi\s 9 _s2 yet its e?ics admits ( no great developm5t accord+ to ! usual topics4 ,a p]vad+ e?ical "* is n incompatible ) ! abs5ce ( a regul> e?ical s*eme2 & !re 0 ?is peculi>ity 9 ! sy/em1 t its end1 ?\gh pr(ess$ly moral1 0 to be atta9$ by means ( an intellectual regim54 ,9 sett+ up its ideal ( human ef=t1 x 0 lea/ ( all c>eful ab\t prescrib+ a def9ite c\rse ( ext]nal conduct4 ,! m /rictly e?ical views ( ,,plot9us1 ! *ief repres5tative ( ! s*ool1 are f\nd ma9ly 9 ! fir/ ( ! six ,enneads into :i* ,porphyry collect$ 8 ma/]'s essays4 ,b z !y presuppose ! cosmological & psy*ological doctr9es1 _! place 9 ! works1 z n[ arrang$1 is to be reg>d$ z arbitr>y4 ,! s\l hav+ fall5 f its orig9al condition1 &1 9 consequ5ce & z a p5alty1 hav+ become unit$ ) a mat]ial body1 ! "o true aim recogniz$ = human action is1 to rise above ! debas+ connection ) matt]1 & aga9 to lead ! old spiritual life4 ,= ^? t h sunk s f> z to be cont5t ) ! _w ( s5se1 wisdom consi/s 9 pursu+ pleasure z good1 & %unn+ pa9 z evil3 b ! o!rs c p>take ( a bett] life1 9 diff]5t degrees4 ,! fir/ /ep 9 re=mation is to practise virtue 9 ! affairs ( life1 :i* means to subject ,s5se & ! l[] desires to ,reason4 ,?is is done 9 ! f\rfold =m ( ! common c>d9al virtues1 call$ political by ,plot9us1 to m>k ! sph]e ( action :]e !y c be ex]t$1 & is ! virtue ( a class ( m5 capable ( a c]ta9 elevation1 ?\gh ignorant ( all ! re/ t lies above !m4 ,a second /ep is made ?r\gh ! means ( ! ,greek3 ka?>seis or purify+ virtues2 :]e x is s\ght to root out1 in/ead ( m]ely mod]at+1 ! s5sual affections4 ,if ! s\l is ?us altoge!r fre$ f ! dom9ion ( s5se1 x becomes at once able to foll[ its natural b5t t[>ds good1 & ent]s into a p]man5t /ate ( calm4 ,?is is virtue 9 its true mean+--becom+ l to ! ,deity1 all t w5t be=e be+ m]ely a prep>ation4 ,! pure & p]fect life ( ! s\l may /ill be describ$ z a field :]eon ! f\r virtues are ex]cis$1 b !y n[ assume a f> high] mean+ ?an z political virtues1 hav+ relation solely to ! contemplative life ( ! ,n\s4 ,happ9ess is unkn[n to ,plot9us z di/9ct f p]fection1 & p]fection 9 ! s5se ( hav+ subdu$ all mat]ial crav+s 7except z reg>ds ! b>e necessities ( life71 & ent]$ ^u ! undi/urb$ life ( contemplation4 ,if ?is recalls1 at lea/ 9 "n1 ! ,ari/otelian ideal1 !re are po9ts add$ t appe> to be e*oes ( ,/oicism4 ,rapt 9 ! contemplation ( et]nal v]ities1 ! purifi$ s\l is indiff]5t to ext]nal circum/ances3 pa9 & suff]+ are unhe$$1 & ! j man c feel happy ev5 9 ! bull ( ,phal>is4 ,b 9 "o important respect ! ,neo-,platonic tea*+ is at v>iance ) ,/oical doctr9e4 ,?\gh its fir/ & la/ precept is to rid ! s\l f ! bondage ( matt]1 x w>ns aga9/ ! attempt to sev] body & s\l by suicide4 ,by no =cible sep>ation1 :i* w\ld be foll[$ by a new junction1 b only by prolong$ int]nal ef=t is ! s\l s set free f ! _w ( s5se1 z to be able to h a vision ( its anci5t home :ile /ill 9 ! body1 & to return to x at dea?4 ,small1 !re=e1 z is ! consid]ation be/[$ by ,neo-,platonism on ! affairs ( practical life1 x has no disposition to %irk ! burd5 ( !m4 ,"o o!r peculi> aim1 ! highe/ ( all1 is propos$ to ! s\l 9 ! ,alex&rian philosophy4 ,x is peculi>1 because to be und]/ood only 9 connexion ) ! metaphysics & cosmology ( ! sy/em4 ,9 ! !ory ( ,emanation1 ! primordial ,"o or ,good emits ! ,n\s :]e9 ! ,ideas are imman5t2 ! ,n\s1 9 turn1 s5ds =? ! ,s\l1 & ! ,s\l1 ,matt] or nature2 ! gradation apply+ to man z well z to ! ,univ]se4 ,n[1 to ea* ( ^! pr9ciples1 !re is a correspond+ subjective /ate 9 ! inn] life ( man4 ,! life ( s5se answ]s to nature or ! mat]ial body2 ! virtue t is f\nd$ ^u free-w & reason1 to ! s\l2 ! contemplative life1 z ! result ( complete purification f s5se1 to ! ,n\s or ,sph]e ( ,ideas2 f9ally1 to ! ,"o or ,good1 supreme 9 ! scale ( exi/5ce1 corresponds ! /ate ( ,love1 or1 9 its highe/ =m1 ,ec/asy4 ,?is peculi> elevation is some?+ f> above ! highe/ intellectual contemplation1 & is n rea*$ by ?\ght4 ,x is n ev5 a m]e intuition (1 b a real union or contact )1 ! ,good4 ,to atta9 x1 !re mu/ be a complete )drawal into self f ! ext]nal _w1 & !n ! subject mu/ wait quietly till p]*ance ! /ate comes on4 ,x is "o ( ineffable bliss1 b1 f ! nature ( man1 transitory & r>e4 ,,s*ola/ic ,,e?ics4 ,,abael>d 7#ajgi-aadb7 has a special treatise on ! subject ( ,e?ics1 entitl$ ,scito te ipsum4 ,z ! "n implies1 x lays *ief /ress ^u ! ,subjective elem5t 9 morality1 &1 9 ?is aspect1 is consid]$ to supply ! idea t und]lies a v l>ge portion ( mod]n e?ical speculation4 ,by nature a notori\sly indep5d5t ?9k]1 ,abael>d claim$ = philosophy ! "r ( discuss+ e?ical que/ions & fix+ a natural moral law1 ?\gh he all[$ a corrective 9 ! ,*ri/ian s*eme4 ,hav+ ?is position ) ref]5ce to ! *ur*1 he 0 also mu* less "u ! yoke ( philosophical au?ority ?an 8 successors1 f liv+ at a "t :5 ,ari/otle 0 n yet supreme4 ,yet1 ) ,ari/otle1 he assigns ! atta9m5t ( ! highe/ good z ! aim ( all human ef=t1 ,e?ics %[+ ! way2 &1 ) ! s*oolm5 g5]ally1 pron\nces ! highe/ good to be ,god4 ,if ! highe/ good 9 itself is ,god1 ! highe/ human good is love to ,god4 ,?is is atta9$ by way ( virtue1 :i* is a good ,w consolidat$ into a habit4 ,on ! influ5ce ( habit on action 8 view is ,ari/otelian4 ,8 own specialty lies 9 8 judg+ actions solely ) ref]5ce to ! int5tion 7int5tio7 ( ! ag5t1 & ?is int5tion ) ref]5ce to consci5ce 7consci5tia74 ,all actions1 he says1 are 9 !mselves indiff]5t1 & n to be call$ good or evil except f ! int5tion ( ! do]4 ,peccatum1 is prop]ly only ! action t is done ) evil int5t2 & :]e ?is is pres5t1 :]e ! m5tal cons5t 7cons5sus7 is cle>ly e/abli%$1 !re is peccatum1 ?\gh ! action rema9s unexecut$4 ,:5 ! cons5sus is abs5t1 z 9 orig9al s91 !re is only vitium2 h5ce1 a life )\t peccata is n impossible to m5 9 ! ex]cise ( _! fre$om1 h[ev] difficult x may be4 ,! supremacy assign$ by him to ! subjective elem5t ( consci5ce appe>s 9 su* phrases z1 !re is no s9 except aga9/ consci5ce2 also 9 ! op9ion he pron\nces1 t1 ?\gh 9 ! case ( a mi/ak5 moral conviction1 an action is n to be call$ good1 yet x is n s bad z an action objectively "r b done aga9/ consci5ce4 ,?us1 )\t all[+ t consci5ti\s p]secutors ( ,*ri/ians act rightly1 he is n afraid1 9 ! application ( 8 pr9ciple1 to say t !y w\ld act /ill m wrongly if ?r\gh n li/5+ to _! consci5ce1 !y sp>$ _! victims4 ,b ?is means only t by foll[+ consci5ce we avoid s9n+2 = virtue 9 ! full s5se1 x is necess>y t ! consci5ce %\ld h judg$ rightly4 ,by :at /&>d1 h[ev]1 ?is is to be asc]ta9$1 he n[h]e cle>ly says4 ,contemptus ,dei1 giv5 by him z ! real & only ?+ t con/itutes an action bad1 is m]ely ano!r subjective description4 ,,/4 ,,b]n>d ( ,clairvaux 7#ajia-aaec71 ! /r5u\s oppon5t ( ,abael>d1 & ! great uphold] ( my/icism aga9/ rationalism 9 ! e>ly s*ola/ic p]iod :5 ! two 7 n yet reconcil$1 gave utt]ance1 9 ! c\rse ( 8 my/ical effusions1 to "s special views ( love & dis9t]e/$ness4 ,!re are two degrees ( ,*ri/ian virtue1 ,humility & ,*>ity or ,love4 ,:5 m5 look into !mselves1 & behold ! meanness t is f\nd !re1 ! fitt+ /ate ( m9d is1 fir/1 humility2 b soon ! s5se ( _! v weakness begets 9 !m *>ity & compassion t[>ds o!rs1 :ile ! s5se also ( a c]ta9 human dignity raises )9 !m feel+s ( love t[>ds ! au?or ( _! be+4 ,! treatise ,de ,amore ,dei sets =? ! nature ( ?is love1 :i* is ! highe/ ex]cise ( human p[]s4 ,its fundam5tal *>act]i/ic is its dis9t]e/$ness4 ,x has its rew>d1 b f m]it+1 n f seek+4 ,x is purely volunt>y1 &1 z a free s5tim5t1 necess>ily unb\ght2 x has ,god = its s+le object1 & w\ld n be love to ,god1 if he 7 lov$ = ! sake ( some?+ else4 ,he di/+ui%es v>i\s degrees ( love4 ,!re is1 fir/1 a natural love ( self = ! sake ( self4 ,next1 a motion ( love t[>ds ,god amid e>?ly mis=tunes1 :i* also is n dis9t]e/$4 ,! ?ird degree is diff]5t1 be+ love to ,god = 8 own sake1 & to our neighb\r = ,god's sake4 ,b ! highe/ grade ( all is n rea*$1 until m5 come to love ev5 !mselves only by relation to ,god2 at ?is po9t1 ) ! disappe>ance ( all special & int]e/$ affection1 ! my/ic goal is atta9$4 ,,john ( ,,salisbury 7d4 #aahj7 is ! la/ "n to be cit$ 9 ! e>ly s*ola/ic p]iod4 ,he pr(ess$ to be a practical philosoph]1 to be m conc]n$ ab\t ! uses ( k ?an ab\t k itself1 & to subord9ate ev]y?+ to "s purpose2 by way ( prote/ aga9/ ! !oretic hair-splitt+ & v]bal subtleties ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,ev5 m ?an 9 ,e?ics1 he f\nd 9 ,politics 8 prop] sph]e4 ,he 0 ! /aun*e/ uphold] ( ! ,papal ,supremacy1 :i*1 aft] long /ruggles1 0 ab\t to be e/abli%$ at its greate/ height1 be=e presid+ at ! op5+ ( ! mo/ brilliant p]iod ( s*ola/icism4 ,9 ! ,policraticus especially1 b also 9 8 o!r works1 ! f\ndations & provisions ( 8 moral sy/em are f\nd4 ,he has no di/9ction to draw 9 ,e?ics betwe5 !ology & philosophy1 b uses ,scripture & obs]vation alike1 ?\gh ,scripture always 9 ! f9al appeal4 ,( philosophiz+1 ! "o f9al aim1 z also ( exi/5ce1 is ,happ9ess2 ! "q1 ( que/ions1 h[ x is to be atta9$4 ,happ9ess is n pleasure1 nor possession1 nor hon\r1 b consi/s 9 foll[+ ! pa? ( virtue4 ,virtue is to be und]/ood f ! con/itution ( human nature4 ,9 man1 !re is a l[] & a high] faculty ( ,desire2 or1 o!rwise express$1 !re are ! v>i\s affections t h _! roots 9 s5se & c5tre 9 self-love or ! desire ( self-pres]vation1 & !re is also a natural love ( ju/ice implant$ f ! beg9n+4 ,9 proportion z ! appetitus ju/i1 :i* consi/s 9 w1 ga9s ^u ! appetitus commodi1 m5 become m wor?y ( a l>g] happ9ess4 ,self-love rules 9 man1 s long z he is 9 ! natural /ate ( s92 if1 amid great conflict & by div9e help1 ! high] affection ga9s ! upp] h&1 ! /ate ( true virtue1 :i* is id5tical ) ! !oretic /ate ( belief1 & also ( pure love to ,god & man1 is rea*$4 ,by ! middle ( ! ?irte5? c5tury1 ! s*oolm5 _h be=e !m ! :ole works ( ,ari/otle1 obta9$ f ,arabian & o!r s\rces4 ,:]eas1 previ\s to ?is "t1 !y _h compreh5d$ ne>ly all ! subjects ( ,philosophy "u ! "o "n ( ,dialectics or ,logic1 always res]v+1 h[ev]1 ,e?ics to ,!ology1 !y 7 n[ made aw>e ( ! anci5t division ( ! sci5ces1 & ( :at _h be5 accompli%$ 9 ea*4 ,! effect1 bo? 9 respect ( =m & ( subject-matt]1 0 soon app>5t 9 su* compilations or m indep5d5t works z !y 7 able to produce aft] _! comm5t>ies on ! ,ari/otelian text4 ,b 9 ,e?ics1 ! nature ( ! subject dem&$ ( m5 9 _! position a less entire submission to ! doctr9es ( ! pagan philosoph]2 & "h accord+ly !y clung to ! traditional !ological treatm5t4 ,if !y 7 comm5t+ on ! ,e?ics ( ,ari/otle1 ! ,bible 0 at h& to supply 8 omissions2 if !y 7 sett+ up a complete moral sy/em1 !y took little m ?an ! gr\nd-"w f him1 ! re/ be+ ,*ri/ian ideas & precepts1 or fragm5ts borr[$ f ,platonism & o!r ,greek sy/ems1 ne>ly alli$ 9 _s to _! own fai?4 ,?is is especially true1 z w be se51 ( ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,8 pr$ecessors c be dispos$ ( 9 a few words4 ,,alex&] ( ,,hales 7d4 #abde7 0 almo/ purely !ological4 ,,bonav5tura 7#abba-gd7 9 8 d\ble "* ( rigid ,franciscan & my/ic1 0 l$ f> beyond ! ,ari/otelian ,e?ics4 ,! mean betwe5 excess & defect is a v good rule = ! affairs ( life1 b ! true ,*ri/ian is b\nd besides to works ( sup]]ogation3 fir/ ( all1 to take on ! condition ( pov]ty2 :ile ! /ate ( my/ic contemplation rema9s z a /ill high] goal = ! few4 ,,alb]t ,,! ,,great 7#aaic-abhj71 ! mo/ le>n$ & complete comm5tator ( ,ari/otle t _h yet appe>$1 divide ! :ole subject ( ,e?ics into ,mona/ica1 ,oeconomica1 & ,politica4 ,9 ?is division1 :i* is pla9ly sugge/$ by ! ,ari/otelian division ( ,politics 9 ! l>ge s5se1 ! t]m ,mona/ica n inaptly expresses ! ref]5ce t ,e?ics has to ! conduct ( m5 z individuals4 ,alb]t1 h[ev]1 9 comm5t+ on ! ,nicoma*ean ,e?ics1 adds exce$+ly little to ! results ( 8 au?or beyond ! incorporation ( a few ,scriptural ideas4 ,to ! c>d9al virtues he app5ds ! virtutes adjunctae1 ,fai?1 ,hope1 & ,*>ity1 & aga9 9 8 comp5di\s "w1 ,summa ,!ologiae1 di/+ui%es !m z infusae1 ! c>d9al be+ consid]$ z acquisitae4 ,besides 8 comm5t>ies on ! ,ari/otelian works 7! ,e?ics includ$7 & _m o!r writ+s1 ,,?omas ,,aqu9as 7#abbf-gd7 left two l>ge works1 ! ,summa philosophica & ! fam\s ,summa ,!ologiae4 ,not)/&+ ! prom95ce assign$ to !ological que/ions1 ! fir/ is a regul> philosophical "w2 ! second1 ?\gh conta9+ ! exposition ( philosophical op9ions1 is a !ological textbook4 ,n[1 z x is 9 ! ,summ>y = !ological purposes t ! :ole practical philosophy ( ,aqu9as is conta9$1 x is to be inf]r$ t he reg>d$ ! subject ( ,e?ics z n on ! same level ) o!r dep>tm5ts ( philosophy4 ,moreov]1 ev5 :5 he is n appeal+ to ,scripture1 he is se5 to display :at is = him a mo/ unusual t5d5cy to des]t ,ari/otle1 at ! really critical mom5ts1 = ,plato or ,plot9us1 or any o!r au?ority ( a m !ological ca/4 ,9 ! 7unf9i%$7 ,summa ,!ologiae1 ! ,e?ical views & cognate que/ions occupy ! two sections ( ! second "p--! s-call$ prima & secunda secundae4 ,he beg9s1 9 ! ,ari/otelian fa%ion1 by seek+ an ultimate end ( human action1 & f9ds x 9 ! atta9m5t ( ! highe/ good or happ9ess4 ,b z no creat$ ?+ c answ] to ! idea ( ! highe/ good1 x mu/ be plac$ 9 ,god4 ,god1 h[ev]1 z ! highe/ good1 c only be ! object1 9 ! se>* aft] human happ9ess1 = happ9ess 9 itself is a /ate ( ! m9d or act ( ! s\l4 ,! "q !n arises1 :at sort ( act8 ,does x fall "u ! ,w or "u ! ,intellig5ce8 ,! answ] is1 ,n "u ! w1 because happ9ess is nei!r desire nor pleasure1 b consecutio1 t is1 a possess+4 ,desire prec$es consecutio1 & pleasure foll[s ^u x2 b ! act ( gett+ possession1 9 :i* lies happ9ess1 is di/9ct f bo?4 ,?is is illu/rat$ by ! case ( ! mis] hav+ 8 happ9ess 9 ! m]e possession ( money2 & ! position is ess5tially ! same z ,butl]'s1 9 reg>d to our appetites & desires1 t !y bl9dly seek _! objects ) no reg>d to pleasure4 ,?omas concludes t ! consecutio1 or happ9ess1 is an act ( ! intellig5ce2 :at pleasure !re is be+ a m]e accid5tal accompanim5t4 ,di/+ui%+ betwe5 two phases ( ! intellect--! !oretic & ! practical--9 ! "o ( :i* x is an end to itself1 b 9 ! o!r subord9at$ to an ext]nal aim1 he places true happ9ess 9 acts ( ! self-suffic+ !oretic intellig5ce4 ,9 ?is life1 h[ev]1 su* a con/ant ex]cise ( ! intellect is n possible1 & accord+ly :at happ9ess !re is1 mu/ be f\nd1 9 great measure1 9 ! ex]cise ( ! practical intellect1 direct+ & gov]n+ ! l[] desires & passions4 ,?is tw(old conception ( happ9ess is ,ari/otelian1 ev5 z express$ by ,?omas "u ! di/9ction ( p]fect & imp]fect happ9ess2 b :5 he goes on to associate p]fect happ9ess ) ! future life only1 to f\nd an argum5t = a future life f ! desire ( a happ9ess m p]fect ?an c be f\nd "h1 & to make ! pure contemplation1 9 :i* consi/s highe/ bliss1 a vision ( ! div9e ess5ce face to face1 a direct cognition ( ,deity f> surpass+ demon/rative k or mortal fai?--he is m !ologian ?an philosoph]1 or if a philosoph]1 m ,platoni/ ?an ,ari/otelian4 ,! condition ( p]fect happ9ess be+ a !oretic or intellectual /ate1 ! visio1 & n ! delectatio1 is consi/5tly giv5 z its c5tral fact2 & :5 he proce$s to consid] ! o!r que/ions ( ,e?ics1 ! same sup]iority is /eadily ascrib$ to ! intellectual function4 ,x is because we "k a ?+ to be good t we wi% x1 & kn[+ x1 we _c help wi%+4 ,consci5ce1 z ! "n implies1 is alli$ to k4 ,reason gives ! law to w4 ,aft] a long disquisition ab\t ! passions & ! :ole appetitive side ( human nature1 ov] :i* ,reason is call$ to rule1 he is br\ght to ! subject ( virtue4 ,he is ,ari/otelian en\gh to describe virtue z habitus--a disposition or quality 7l heal?7 :]eby a subject is m or less well dispos$ ) ref]5ce to itself or some?+ else2 & he takes acc\nt ( ! acquisition ( good moral habits 7virtutes acquisitae7 by practice4 ,b ) ?is he c\ples1 or t5ds to sub/itute = x1 ! def9ition ( ,augu/9 t virtue is a good quality ( m9d1 quam ,deus 9 nobis s9e nobis op]atur1 z a gr\nd = virtutes infusae1 conf]r$ z gifts ^u man1 or r on c]ta9 m51 by free grace f on high4 ,he wav]s greatly at ?is /age1 & 9 ?is respect 8 attitude is *>act]i/ic = all ! s*oolm54 ,s aga9 9 pass+ f ! g5]al "q ( ,virtue to ! virtues1 he puts sev]al ( ! sy/ems "u contribution1 z if n prep>$ to leave ! guidance ( ,ari/otle1 b feel+ at ! same "t ! necessity ( bridg+ ov] ! di/ance betwe5 8 position & ,*ri/ian requirem5ts4 ,und]/&+ ,ari/otle to make a co-ord9ate division ( virtues into ,moral & ,intellectual1 he gives reasons = su* a /ep4 ,?\gh virtue1 he says1 is n s mu* ! p]fect+ ( ! op]ation ( our faculties1 z _! employm5t by ! w = good ends1 x may be us$ 9 ! fir/ s5se1 & ?us ! intellectual virtues w be ! habits ( intellig5ce t procure ! true/ k4 ,! well-kn[n division ( ! c>d9al virtues is 8 next !me2 & x is e/abli%$ z complete & satisfactory by a tw(old d$uction4 ,b a /ill high] & m cong5ial view is imm$iately aft]w>ds adopt$ f ,plot9us4 ,?is is ! ,neo-,platonic description ( ! f\r virtues z politicae1 purgatoriae1 & purgati animi1 accord+ to ! scale ( elevation rea*$ by ! s\l 9 its ef=ts to m\nt above s5se4 ,!y are call$ by ,?omas also exempl>es1 :5 reg>d$ at once z ! ess5ce ( ! ,deity1 & z ! models ( human p]fections4 ,?is my/ical division1 n unsupport$ by philosophical au?ority1 smoo?s ! way = 8 acc\nt ( ! highe/ or !ological virtues4 ,^! be> ^u ! vision ( ,deity1 :i* 0 recogniz$ above z ! highe/ good ( humanity1 & =m an ord] ap>t4 ,!y h ,god = _! object1 are altoge!r inspir$ by ,god 7h5ce call$ infusae71 & are taught by revelation4 ,giv5 9 connection ) ! natural faculties ( intellect & w1 !y are exhibit$ 9 ! atta9m5t ( ! sup]natural ord] ( ?+s4 ,) intellect goes ,fai?1 z x 7 ! intellect appli$ to ?+s n intelligible2 ) ,w g ,hope & ,*>ity or ,love3 ,hope be+ ! ,w ex]cis$ ^u ?+s n naturally desir$1 & ,love ! union ( ,w ) :at is n naturally br\ght ne> to u4 ,aqu9as !n passes to politics1 or at lea/ ! discussion ( ! political ideas ( law1 "r1 c4 ,com+ n[ to mod]n ?9k]s1 we beg9 ) ,,?omas ,,hobbes4 #aehh-afgi4 ,! circum/ances ( ,hobbes's life1 s p[]ful 9 det]m9+ ! nature ( 8 op9ions1 _h an equally m>k$ effect on ! ord] & numb] ( expositions t he gave to ! psy*ological & political p>ts ( 8 sy/em4 ,8 e?ical doctr9es1 9 z f> z !y c be dissociat$ f1 8 politics1 may be /udi$ 9 no less ?an ?ree di/9ct =ms2 ei!r 9 ! fir/ "p ( ! ,levia?ian 7#afea72 or 9 ! ,de ,cive 7#afdg71 tak5 along-) ! ,de ,hom9e 7#afeh72 or 9 ! ,treatise ( ,human ,nature 7#afej1 b writt5 t5 ye>s e>li]71 c\pl$ ) ! ,de ,corpore ,politico 7also #afej74 ,b ! same result1 or ) only unimportant v>iations1 be+ obta9$ f all1 we ne$ n "h g beyond ! fir/-m5tion$4 ,9 ! fir/ "p ( ! ,levia?an1 !n1 be>+ ! title ,( ,man1 & design$ to consid] ,man z at once ! matt] & artific] ( ! ,commonweal? or ,/ate1 ,hobbes is l$1 aft] discuss+ ,s5se1 ,imag9ation1 ,tra9 ( ,imag9ations1 ,spee*1 ,reason & ,sci5ce1 to take up1 9 *apt] six?1 ! ,passions1 or1 z he calls !m1 ! ,int]ior beg9n+s ( volunt>y motions4 ,motions1 he says1 are ei!r vital & animal1 or volunt>y4 ,vital motions1 e4g41 circulation1 nutrition1 c41 ne$ no help ( imag9ation2 on ! o!r h&1 volunt>y motions1 z go+ & speak+--s9ce !y dep5d on a prec$5t ?\ght ( :i!r1 :i* way1 & :at--h 9 ! imag9ation _! fir/ beg9n+4 ,b imag9ation is only ! relics ( s5se1 & s5se1 z ,hobbes always decl>es1 is motion 9 ! human organs communicat$ by objects )\t2 consequ5tly1 visible volunt>y motions beg9 9 invisible int]nal motions1 ^: nature is express$ by ! ^w ,endeav\r4 ,:5 ! endeav\r is t[>ds some?+ caus+ x1 !re is ,appetite or ,desire2 endeav\r 'fromw>d some?+' is ,av]sion4 ,^! v words1 & ! correspond+ t]ms 9 ,greek1 imply an actual1 n--z ! s*oolm5 absurdly ?9k--a metaphorical motion4 ,pass+ f ! ma9 "q1 he describes ,love & ,hate z ,desire & ,av]sion :5 ! object is pres5t4 ,( appetites1 "s are born ) u1 o!rs proce$ f exp]i5ce1 be+ ( p>ticul> ?+s4 ,:]e we nei!r desire nor hate1 we contemn he means1 disreg>d4 ,appetites & av]sions v>y 9 ! same p]son1 & mu* m 9 diff]5t p]sons4 ,!n foll[s 8 def9ition ( good1--! object ( any man's appetite or desire1 z evil is ! object ( 8 hate & av]sion4 ,good & evil are always m]ely relative1 ei!r to ! p]son ( a man1 or 9 a commonweal? to ! repres5tative p]son1 or to an arbitrator if *os5 to settle a dispute4 ,good 9 ! promise is pul*rum1 = :i* !re is no exact ,engli% t]m2 good 9 ! effect1 z ! end desir$1 is delightful2 good z ! means1 is useful or pr(itable4 ,!re is ! same v>iety ( evil4 ,8 next topic is ,pleasure4 ,z s5se is1 9 reality1 motion1 b1 9 'app>5ce1' light or s\nd or od\r2 s appetite1 9 reality a motion or endeav\r effect$ 9 ! he>t by ! action ( objects ?r\gh ! organs ( s5se1 is1 9 'app>5ce1' delight or tr\ble ( m9d4 ,! emotion1 ^: app>5ce 7i4e41 subjective side7 is pleasure or delight1 seems to be a corroboration ( vital motion2 ! contr>y1 9 ! case ( mole/ation4 ,pleasure is1 !re=e1 ! s5se ( good2 displeasure1 ! s5se ( evil4 ,! "o accompanies1 9 great] or less degree1 all desire & love2 ! o!r1 all av]sion & hatr$4 ,pleasures are ei!r ( s5se2 or ( ! m9d1 :5 aris+-f ! expectation t proce$s f ! =esight ( ! ends or consequ5ce ( ?+s1 irrespective ( _! pleas+ ! s5ses or n4 ,= ^! m5tal pleasures1 !re is ! g5]al "n joy4 ,!re is a correspond+ division ( displeasure into pa9 & grief4 ,all ! o!r passions1 he n[ proce$s to %[1 are ^! simple passions--appetite1 desire1 love1 av]sion1 hate1 joy1 & grief1 div]sifi$ 9 "n = div]s consid]ations4 ,incid5tal rem>ks ( e?ical importance are ^!4 ,covet\sness1 ! desire ( ri*es1 is a "n signify+ blame1 because m5 cont5d+ = !m are displeas$ ) o!rs atta9+ !m2 ! desire itself1 h[ev]1 is to be blam$ or all[$1 accord+ to ! means :]eby ! ri*es are s\ght4 ,curiosity is a lu/ ( ! m9d1 t by a p]sev]ance ( delight 9 ! cont9ual g5]ation ( k1 exce$e? ! %ort vehem5ce ( any c>nal pleasure4 ,pity is grief = ! calamity ( ano!r1 aris+ f ! imag9ation ( ! l calamity befall+ "o's self2 ! be/ m5 h1 !re=e1 lea/ pity = calamity aris+ f great wick$ness4 ,contempt1 or little s5se ( ! calamity ( o!rs1 proce$s f security ( "o's own =tune2 '= t any man %\ld take pleasure 9 o!r m5's great h>ms1 )\t o!r end ( 8 own1 ,i d n conceive x possible4' ,hav+ expla9$ ! v>i\s passions1 he !n gives 8 !ory ( ! ,w4 ,he supposes a lib]ty 9 man ( do+ or omitt+1 accord+ to appetite or av]sion4 ,b to ?is lib]ty an end is put 9 ! /ate ( delib]ation :]e9 !re is kept up a con/ant succession ( alt]nat+ desires & av]sions1 hopes & fe>s1 reg>d+ "o & ! same ?+4 ,"o ( two results foll[s4 ,ei!r ! ?+ is judg$ impossible1 or x is done2 & ?is1 accord+ z av]sion or appetite triumphs at ! la/4 ,n[1 ! la/ av]sion1 foll[$ by omission1 or ! la/ appetite1 foll[$ by action1 is ! act ( ,will+4 ,w is1 !re=e1 ! la/ appetite 7tak5 to include av]sion7 9 delib]at+4 ,s-call$ ,w1 t has be5 =borne1 0 incl9ation m]ely2 b ! la/ incl9ation ) consequ5t action 7or omission7 is ,w1 or volunt>y action4 ,aft] m5tion+ ! =ms ( spee* :]e ! sev]al passions & appetites are naturally express$1 & rem>k+ t ! true/ signs ( passion are 9 ! c\nt5ance1 motions ( ! body1 actions1 & ends or aims o!rwise kn[n to belong to a man1--he returns to ! "q ( good & evil4 ,x is app>5t good & evil1 come at by ! be/ possible =esight ( all ! consequ5ces ( action1 t excite ! appetites & av]sions 9 delib]ation4 ,felicity he def9es cont9ual success 9 obta9+ ! ?+s f "t to "t desir$2 p]petual tranquillity ( m9d be+ impossible 9 ?is life1 :i* is b motion1 & _c be )\t desire & fe> any m ?an )\t s5se4 ,! happ9ess ( ! future life is at pres5t unkn[n4 ,m51 he says at ! close1 praise ! goodness1 & magnify ! greatness1 ( a ?+2 ! ,greeks _h also ! ^w ,greek3 mak>ismos1 to express an op9ion ( a man's felicity4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,vii41 ,( ! ,ends ( ,disc\rse1 he is l$ to rem>k on ! mean+ ( ,consci5ce1 9 connection-) ! ^w ,consci\s4 ,two or m m51 he says1 are consci\s ( a ?+ :5 !y "k x toge!r 7con-scire47 ,h5ce arises ! prop] mean+ ( consci5ce2 & ! evil ( speak+ aga9/ "o's consci5ce1 9 ?is s5se1 is to be all[$4 ,two o!r mean+s are metaphorical3 :5 x is put = a man's k ( 8 own secret facts & ?\ghts2 & :5 m5 give _! own new op9ions1 h[ev] absurd1 ! rev]5c$ "n ( consci5ce1 z if !y w\ld h x seem unlawful to *ange or speak aga9/ !m4 ,hobbes is n conc]n$ to fo/] ! moral indep5d5ce ( individuals4 ,he beg9s ,*apt] ,,viii4 by def9+ ,virtue z some?+ t is valu$ = em95ce1 & t consi/s 9 comp>ison1 b proce$s to consid] only ! intellectual virtues--all t is summ$ up 9 ! t]m ( a good wit--& _! opposites4 ,f>!r on1 he ref]s diff]5ce ( wits--discretion1 prud5ce1 craft1 c4--to diff]5ce 9 ! passions1 & ?is to diff]5ce 9 con/itution ( body & ( education4 ,! passions *iefly conc]n$ are ! desires ( p[]1 ri*es1 k1 hon\r1 b all may be r$uc$ to ! s+le desire ( p[]4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,ix4 is giv5 8 ,s*eme ( ,sci5ces4 ,! relation 9 8 m9d betwe5 ,e?ics & ,politics is "h se54 ,sci5ce or ,philosophy is divid$ into ,natural or ,civil1 accord+ z x is k ( consequ5ces f ! accid5ts ( natural bodies or ( politic bodies4 ,e?ics is "o ( ! ultimate divisions ( ,natural ,philosophy1 deal+ ) consequ5ces f ! passions ( m52 & because ! passions are qualities ( bodies1 x falls m imm$iately "u ! head ( ,physics4 ,politics is ! :ole ( ! second ma9 division1 & deals ) consequ5ces f ! in/itution ( commonweal?s 7#a7 to ! rights & duties ( ! ,sov]eign1 & 7#b7 to ! duty & "r ( ! ,subject4 ,e?ics1 accord+ly1 9 ,hobbes's eyes1 is "p ( ! sci5ce ( man 7z a natural body71 & x is always treat$ z su*4 ,b subject+1 z he does1 s mu* ( ! action ( ! individual to ! action ( ! /ate1 he necess>ily includes 9 8 ,politics _m que/ions t usually fall to ,e?ics4 ,h5ce arises ! necessity ( /udy+ = 8 ,e?ics also "p ( ! civil ,philosophy2 ?\gh x happ5s t1 9 ! ,levia?an1 ?is requisite "p is incorporat$ ) ! ,section conta9+ ! ,sci5ce ( ,man4 ,*apt] ,x4 is on ,p[]1 ,wor?1 ,dignity1 ,hon\r1 & ,wor?9ess4 ,a man's p[] be+ 8 pres5t means to obta9 "s future app>5t good1 he enum]ates all ! s\rces ( orig9al & acquir$ p[]4 ,! wor? ( a man is :at w\ld be giv5 = ! use ( 8 p[]2 x is1 !re=e1 nev] absolute1 b dep5d5t on ! ne$ & judgm5t ( ano!r4 ,dignity is ! value set on a man by ! /ate4 ,hon\r & di%on\r are ! manife/ation ( value4 ,he goes ?r\gh all ! signs ( hon\r & di%on\r4 ,hon\rable is any possession1 action1 or quality t is ! sign ( p[]4 ,:]e !re is ! op9ion ( p[]1 ! ju/ice or inju/ice ( an action does n affect ! hon\r4 ,he cle>ly means a univ]sally accept$ op9ion ( p[]1 & cites ! *>act]s ( ! pagan deities4 ,s1 too1 be=e times ( civil ord]1 x 0 held no di%on\r to be a pirate1 & ev5 /ill1 duels1 ?\gh unlawful1 are hon\rable1 & w be till !re be hon\r orda9$ = !m t refuse4 ,f>!r on1 he di/+ui%es ,wor?9ess1 7#a7 f wor?1 & 7#b7 f m]it1 or ! possession ( a p>ticul> ability or des]t1 :i*1 z w be se51 presupposes a "r to a ?+1 f\nd$ on a promise4 ,*apt] ,,xi4 be>s ! title1 ,( ! diff]5ce ( ,mann]s2 by mann]s be+ meant1 n dec5cy ( behavi\r & po9ts ( ! 'small morals1' b ! qualities ( mank9d t conc]n _! liv+ toge!r 9 peace & unity4 ,felicity ( life1 z be=e1 he pron\nces to be a cont9ual progress ( desire1 !re be+ no f9is ultimus nor summum bonum4 ,! aim ( all m5 is1 !re=e1 n only to enjoy once & = an in/ant1 b to assure = ov] ! way ( future desire4 ,m5 diff] 9 _! way ( do+ s1 f div]sity ( passion & _! diff]5t degrees ( k4 ,"o ?+ he notes z common to all1 a re/less & p]petual desire ( p[] aft] p[]1 because ! pres5t p[] ( liv+ well dep5ds on ! acquisition ( m4 ,competition incl9es to cont5tion & w>4 ,! desire ( ease1 on ! o!r h&1 & fe> ( dea? or w\nds1 dispose to civil ob$i5ce4 ,s also does desire ( k1 imply+1 z x does1 desire ( leisure4 ,desire ( praise & desire ( fame aft] dea? dispose to laudable actions2 9 su* fame1 !re is a pres5t delight f =esight ( x1 & ( b5efit r$\nd+ to po/]ity2 = pleasure to ! s5se is also pleasure 9 ! imag9ation4 ,unrequitable b5efits f an equal eng5d] secret hatr$1 b f a sup]ior1 love2 ! *e]ful acceptation1 call$ gratitude1 requit+ ! giv] ) hon\r4 ,requitable b5efits1 ev5 f equals or inf]iors1 dispose to love2 = h5ce arises emulation 9 b5efit+--'! mo/ noble & pr(itable cont5tion possible1 :]e9 ! victor is pleas$ ) 8 victory1 & ! o!r rev5g$ by confess+ x4' ,he passes "u review o!r dispositions1 su* z fe> ( oppression1 va9-glory1 ambition1 pusillanimity1 frugality1 c41 ) ref]5ce to ! c\rse ( conduct !y prompt to4 ,!n he comes to a fav\rite subject1 ! mi/ak5 c\rses :]e9to m5 fall t are ignorant ( natural causes & ! prop] signification ( words4 ,! effect ( ignorance ( ! causes ( "r1 equity1 law1 & ju/ice1 is to make cu/om & example ! rule ( actions1 z ) *ildr51 or to induce ! sett+ ( cu/om aga9/ reason1 & reason aga9/ cu/om1 :]eby ! doctr9e ( "r & wrong is p]petually disput$1 bo? by ! p51 & by ! sword4 ,aga91 tak+ up ignorance ( ! laws ( nature1 he is l$ on to ! subject ( natural ,religion1 & devotes also ! :ole ( ,*apt] ,,xii4 to ,religion & k9dr$ topics4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,xiii41 he deals ) ! natural condition ( ,mank9d1 z conc]n+ _! ,felicity & ,mis]y4 ,all m51 he says1 are by nature equal4 ,diff]5ces !re are 9 ! faculties ( body & m9d1 b1 :5 all is tak5 toge!r1 n great en\gh to e/abli% a /eady sup]iority ( "o ov] ano!r4 ,besides ev5 m ?an 9 /r5g?1 m5 are equal 9 prud5ce1 :i* is b exp]i5ce t comes to all4 ,p inde$ g5]ally believe t o!rs are n s wise z !mselves1 b '!re is n ord9>ily a great] sign ( equal di/ribution ( any?+ ?an t e p]son is cont5t$ ) 8 %>e4' ,( ?is equality ( ability1 ! consequ5ce is t two m5 desir+ ! exclusive possession ( ! same ?+1 :e!r = _! own cons]vation or = delectation1 w become enemies & seek to de/roy ea* o!r4 ,9 su* a case1 x w be natural = any man to seek to secure himself by anticipat+ o!rs 9 ! use ( =ce or wiles2 &1 because "s w n be cont5t ) m]ely secur+ !mselves1 o!rs1 :o w\ld be cont5t1 w be driv5 to take ! (f5sive = m]e self-cons]vation4 ,moreov]1 m5 w be displeas$ at be+ valu$ by o!rs less highly ?an by !mselves1 & w use =ce to extort respect4 ,?us1 he f9ds ?ree pr9cipal causes ( qu>rel 9 ! nature ( man--competition1 diffid5ce 7di/ru/71 & glory1 mak+ m5 invade = ga91 = safety1 & = reputation4 ,m5 w accord+ly1 9 ! abs5ce ( any p[] to keep !m 9 awe1 be 9 a con/ant /ate ( w>2 by :i* is meant1 n actual fight+1 b ! kn[n disposition !reto1 & no assurance to ! contr>y4 ,he proce$s to draw a v dismal picture ( ! results ( ?is /ate ( enmity ( man aga9/ man--no indu/ry1 no agriculture1 no arts1 no society1 & s =?1 b only fe> & dang] ( viol5t dea?1 & life solit>y1 poor1 na/y1 bruti%1 & %ort4 ,to ^? t d\bt ! tru? ( su* an 'inf]5ce made f ! passions1' & desire ! confirmation ( exp]i5ce1 he cites ! we>+ ( arms & lock+ ( doors1 c41 z actions t accuse mank9d z mu* z any words ( 84 ,besides1 x is n really to accuse man's nature2 = ! desires & passions are 9 !mselves no s91 nor ! actions proce$+ f !m1 until a law is made aga9/ !m4 ,he seeks fur!r evid5ce ( an orig9al condition ( w>1 9 ! actual /ate ( ,am]ican savages1 ) no gov]nm5t at all1 b only a concord ( small families1 dep5d+ on natural lu/2 also 9 ! kn[n horrors ( a civil w>1 :5 !re is no common p[] to fe>3 &1 f9ally1 9 ! con/ant ho/ile attitude ( diff]5t gov]nm5ts4 ,9 ! /ate ( natural w>1 ! notions ( "r & wrong1 ju/ice & inju/ice1 h no place1 !re be+ no law2 & !re is no law1 because !re is no common p[]4 ,=ce & fraud are 9 w> ! two c>d9al virtues4 ,ju/ice is no faculty ( body & m9d l s5se & passion1 b only a quality relat+ to m5 9 society4 ,!n add+ a la/ t\* to ! description ( ! /ate ( nature1--by say+ ( prop]ty1 t 'only t is e man's t he c get1 & = s long z he c keep x1'--he op5s up1 at ! close ( ! *apt]1 a new prospect by all[+ a possibility to come out ( s evil a condition4 ,! possibility consi/s p>tly 9 ! passions t incl9e to peace--viz41 fe> ( dea?1 desire ( ?+s necess>y to commodi\s liv+1 & hope by indu/ry to obta9 !m2 p>tly 9 reason1 :i* sugge/s conv5i5t articles ( peace & agreem5t1 o!rwise call$ ! ,laws ( ,nature4 ,! fir/ & second ,natural ,laws1 & ! subject ( contracts1 take up ,*ap4 ,,xiv4 ,fir/ comes a def9ition ( ,jus ,naturale or ,"r ( ,nature--! lib]ty ea* man has ( us+ 8 own p[]1 z he w himself1 = ! pres]vation ( 8 own nature or life4 ,lib]ty prop]ly means ! abs5ce ( ext]nal imp$im5ts2 n[ a man may ext]nally be h9d]$ f do+ all he w\ld1 b n f us+ :at p[] is left him1 accord+ to 8 be/ reason & judgm5t4 ,a ,law ( ,nature1 lex naturalis is def9$1 a g5]al rule1 f\nd out by reason1 =bidd+ a man to d :at directly or indirectly is de/ructive ( 8 life1 or to omit :at he ?9ks may be/ pres]ve x4 ,"r & ,law1 ?\gh g5]ally conf\nd$1 are exactly oppos$1 ,"r be+ lib]ty1 & ,law obligation4 ,9 ! natural /ate ( w>1 e man1 be+ gov]n$ by 8 own reason1 has a "r to ev]y?+1 ev5 to ano!r's body4 ,b because ?us no man's life is secure1 he f9ds ! ,fir/ & fundam5tal law ( nature1 or g5]al rule ( reason1 to be to seek peace & foll[ x1 if possible3 fail+ :i*1 we may def5d ourselves by all ! means we c4 ,"h ! law be+ 'to endeav\r peace1' f ?is foll[s ! ,second law1 t a man be will+1 :5 o!rs are s too1 z f> =? z = peace & self-def5ce he %all ?9k x necess>y1 to lay d[n ?is "r to all ?+s2 & be cont5t$ ) s mu* lib]ty aga9/ o!r m5 z he w\ld all[ o!r m5 aga9/ himself4 ,?is is ! same z ! ,gospel precept1 ,d to o!rs1 c4 ,lay+ d[n "o's "r to any?+ is dive/+ "o's self ( ! lib]ty ( h9d]+ ano!r 9 ! ex]cise ( 8 own orig9al "r to ! same4 ,! "r is r5\nc$1 :5 a man c>es n = ^: b5efit2 transf]r$1 :5 int5d$ to b5efit "s c]ta9 p]son or p]sons4 ,9 ei!r case ! man is oblig$ or b\nd n to h9d] ^?1 9 ^: fav\r ! "r is ab&on$1 f ! b5efit ( x2 x is 8 duty n to make void 8 own volunt>y act1 & if he does1 x is inju/ice or injury1 because he acts n[ s9e ,jure4 ,su* conduct ,hobbes lik5s to an intellectual absurdity or self-contradiction4 ,volunt>y signs to be employ$ 9 ab&on+ a "r1 are words & actions1 sep>ately or toge!r2 b 9 all bonds1 ! /r5g? comes n f _! own nature1 b f ! fe> ( evil result+ f _! rupture4 ,he concludes t n all rights are ali5able1 = ! reason t ! ab&onm5t1 be+ a volunt>y act1 mu/ h = its object "s good to ! p]son t ab&ons 8 "r4 ,a man1 = in/ance1 _c lay d[n ! "r to def5d 8 life2 to use words or o!r signs = t purpose1 w\ld be to despoil himself ( ! end--security ( life & p]son--= :i* ^? signs 7 int5d$4 ,contract is ! mutual transf]r+ ( "r1 & ) ?is idea he connects a great deal4 ,fir/1 he di/+ui%es transf]5ce ( "r to a ?+1 & transf]5ce ( ! ?+ itself4 ,a contract fulfill$ by "o p>ty1 b left on tru/ to be fulfill$ by ! o!r1 is call$ ! ,cov5ant ( ?is o!r1 7a di/9ction he aft]w>ds drops71 & leaves room = ! keep+ or violation ( fai?4 ,to contract he opposes gift1 free-gift1 or grace1 :]e !re is no mutual transf]5ce ( "r1 b "o p>ty transf]s 9 ! hope ( ga9+ fri5d%ip or s]vice f ano!r1 or ! reputation ( *>ity & magnanimity1 or deliv]ance f ! m]it$ pa9 ( compassion1 or rew>d 9 heav54 ,!re foll[ rem>ks on signs ( contract1 z ei!r express or by inf]5ce1 & a di/9ction betwe5 free-gift z made by words ( ! pres5t or pa/1 & contract z made by words pa/1 pres5t1 or future2 :]e=e1 9 contracts l buy+ & sell+1 a promise am\nts to a cov5ant1 & is obligatory4 ,! idea ( ,m]it is ?us expla9$4 ,( two contract+ p>ties1 ! "o t has fir/ p]=m$ m]its :at he is to receive by ! o!r's p]=mance1 or has x z due4 ,ev5 ! p]son t w9s a prize1 (f]$ by free-gift to _m1 m]its x4 ,b1 :]eas1 9 contract1 ,i m]it by virtue ( my own p[] & ! o!r contractor's ne$1 9 ! case ( ! gift1 ,i m]it only by ! b5ignity ( ! giv]1 & to ! ext5t t1 :5 he has giv5 x1 x %all be m9e r ?an ano!r's4 ,?is di/9ction he believes to co9cide ) ! s*ola/ic sep>ation ( m]ilum congrui & m]ilum condigni4 ,he adds _m m p>ticul>s 9 reg>d to cov5ants made on mutual tru/4 ,!y are void 9 ! /ate ( nature1 ^u any reasonable suspicion2 b :5 !re is a common p[] to compel obs]vance1 & ?us no m room = fe>1 !y are valid4 ,ev5 :5 fe> makes !m invalid x mu/ h aris5 aft] !y 7 made1 else x %\ld h kept !m f be+ made4 ,transf]5ce ( a "r implies transf]5ce1 z f> z may be1 ( ! means to its enjoym5t4 ,) bea/s !re is no cov5ant1 because no prop] mutual und]/&+4 ,) ,god also none1 except ?r\gh special revelation1 or ) 8 lieut5ant 9 8 "n4 ,any?+ v[$ contr>y to ! law ( nature is v[$ 9 va92 if ! ?+ v[$ is comm&$ by ! law ( nature1 ! law1 n ! v[1 b9ds4 ,cov5ants are ( ?+s possible & future4 ,m5 are fre$ f !m by p]=mance1 or =giv5ess1 :i* is re/itution ( lib]ty4 ,he pron\nces cov5ants extort$ by fe> to be b9d+ alike 9 ! /ate ( m]e nature & 9 commonweal?s1 if once ent]$ into4 ,a =m] cov5ant makes void a lat]4 ,any cov5ant n to def5d "o's self f =ce by =ce is always void2 z said above1 !re is no transf]5ce possible ( "r to def5d "o's self f dea?1 w\nds1 imprisonm5t1 c4 ,s no man is oblig$ to accuse himself1 or g5]ally to give te/imony :]e f ! nature ( ! case x may be presum$ to be corrupt$4 ,accusation ^u torture is n to be reput$ z te/imony4 ,at ! close he rem>ks ^u oa?s4 ,he f9ds 9 human nature two imag9able helps to /r5g!n ! =ce ( words1 o!rwise too weak to insure ! p]=mance ( cov5ants4 ,"o ( ^!--pride 9 appe>+ n to ne$ to break "o's ^w1 he supposes too r>e to be presum$ ^u4 ,! o!r1 fe>1 has ref]5ce ei!r to p[] ( spirits invisible1 or ( m54 ,9 ! /ate ( nature1 x is ! fir/ k9d ( fe>--a man's religion--t keeps him to 8 promises4 ,an oa? is !re=e swe>+ to p]=m by ! ,god a man fe>s4 ,b to ! obligation itself x adds no?+4 ,( ! o!r ,laws ( ,nature1 treat$ 9 ,*ap4 ,,xv41 ! ?ird1 t m5 p]=m _! cov5ants made1 op5s up ! discussion ( ,ju/ice4 ,till rights h be5 transf]r$ & cov5ants made !re is no ju/ice or inju/ice2 inju/ice is no o!r ?an ! non-p]=mance ( cov5ants4 ,fur!r1 ju/ice 7& also prop]ty7 beg9s only :]e a regul> co]cive p[] is con/itut$1 because o!rwise !re is cause = fe>1 & fe>1 z has be5 se51 makes cov5ants invalid4 ,ev5 ! s*ola/ic def9ition ( ju/ice recognizes z mu*2 = !re c be no con/ant w ( giv+ to e man 8 own1 :51 z 9 ! /ate ( nature1 !re is no own4 ,he argues at l5g? aga9/ ! idea t ju/ice1 i4e41 ! keep+ ( cov5ants1 is contr>y to reason2 repell+ ?ree diff]5t argum5ts4 7#a7 ,he demon/rates t x _c be reasonable to break or keep cov5ants accord+ to b5efit suppos$ to be ga9$ 9 ea* case1 because ?is w\ld be a subv]sion ( ! pr9ciples :]eon society is f\nd$1 & mu/ end by depriv+ ! individual ( its b5efits1 :]eby he w\ld be left p]fectly helpless4 7#b7 ,he consid]s x frivol\s to talk ( secur+ ! happ9ess ( heav5 by any k9d ( inju/ice1 :5 !re is b "o possible way ( atta9+ x1 viz41 ! keep+ ( cov5ants4 7#c7 ,he w>ns m5 7he means 8 contempor>ies7 aga9/ resort+ to ! mode ( inju/ice kn[n z rebellion to ga9 sov]eignty1 f ! hopelessness ( ga9+ x & ! unc]ta9ty ( keep+ x4 ,h5ce he concludes t ju/ice is a rule ( reason1 ! keep+ ( cov5ants be+ ! sure/ way to pres]ve our life1 & !re=e a law ( nature4 ,he rejects ! notion t laws ( nature are to be suppos$ conducive1 n to ! pres]vation ( life on e>?1 b to ! atta9m5t ( et]nal felicity2 :]eto su* brea* ( cov5ant z rebellion may sometimes be suppos$ a means4 ,= t1 ! k ( ! future life is too unc]ta94 ,f9ally1 he consi/5tly holds t fai? is to be kept ) h]etics & ) all t x has once be5 pl$g$ to4 ,he goes on to di/+ui% betwe5 ju/ice ( m5 or mann]s1 & ju/ice ( actions2 :]eby 9 ! "o case m5 are j or righte\s1 & 9 ! o!r1 guiltless4 ,aft] mak+ ! common obs]vation t s+le inconsi/5t acts d n de/roy a "* = ju/ice or inju/ice1 he has ?is3 ',t :i* gives to human actions ! reli% ( ju/ice1 is a c]ta9 nobl5ess or gallantness ( c\rage r>ely f\nd1 by :i* a man scorns to be behold5 = ! cont5tm5t ( 8 life to fraud1 or brea* ( promise4' ,!n he %[s ! diff]5ce betwe5 inju/ice1 injury1 & damage2 ass]ts t no?+ done to a mail ) 8 cons5t c be injury2 &1 reject+ ! common mode ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 commutative & di/ributive ju/ice1 calls ! fir/ ! ju/ice ( a contractor1 & ! o!r an improp] "n = j di/ribution1 or ! ju/ice ( an arbitrator1 i4e41 ! act ( def9+ :at is j--equival5t to equity1 :i* is itself a law ( nature4 ,! re/ ( ! laws foll[ 9 swift succession4 ,! #d? recomm5ds ,gratitude1 :i* dep5ds on antec$5t grace in/ead ( cov5ant4 ,free-gift be+ volunt>y1 i4e41 done ) int5tion ( good to "o's self1 !re w be an end to b5evol5ce & mutual help1 unless gratitude is giv5 z comp5sation4 ,! #e? enjo9s ,complaisance2 a disposition 9 m5 n to seek sup]fluities t to o!rs are necess>ies4 ,su* m5 are sociable4 ,! #f? enjo9s ,p>don ^u rep5tance1 ) a view 7l ! la/7 to peace4 ,! #g? enjo9s t puni%m5t is to be only = correction ( ! (f5d] & direction ( o!rs2 i4e41 = pr(it & example1 n = 'glory+ 9 ! hurt ( ano!r1 t5d+ to no end4' ,aga9/ ,cruelty4 ,! #h? is aga9/ ,contumely1 z provocative ( dispeace4 ,! #i? is aga9/ ,pride1 & enjo9s ! ackn[l$gm5t ( ! equality ( all m5 by nature4 ,he is "h v s>ca/ic aga9/ ,ari/otle1 & ass]ts1 9 opposition to him1 t all inequality ( m5 arises f cons5t4 ,! #aj? is1 9 l mann]1 aga9/ ,arrogance1 & 9 fav\r ( ,mode/y4 ,m51 9 ent]+ into peace1 are to res]ve no rights b su* z !y are will+ %all be res]v$ by o!rs4 ,! #aa? enjo9s ,equity2 ! disposition1 9 a man tru/$ to judge1 to di/ribute equally to ea* man :at 9 reason belongs to him4 ,p>tiality 'det]s m5 f ! use ( judges & arbitrators1' & is a cause ( w>4 ,! #ab? enjo9s ! common1 or ! proportionable1 use ( ?+s t _c be di/ribut$4 ,! #ac? enjo9s ! resort to lot1 :5 sep>ate or common enjoym5t is n possible2 ! #ad? provides also = natural lot1 mean+ fir/ possession or primog5iture4 ,! #ae? dem&s safe conduct = m$iators4 ,! #af? requires t p>ties at controv]sy %all submit _! "r to arbitration4 ,! #ag? =bids a man to be 8 own judge2 ! #ah?1 any int]e/$ p]son to be judge4 ,! #ai? requires a resort to witnesses 9 a matt] ( fact1 z betwe5 two cont5d+ p>ties4 ,?is li/ ( ! laws ( nature is only slightly v>i$ 9 ! o!r works4 ,he enum]ates none b ^? t conc]n ! doctr9e ( ,civil ,society1 pass+-ov] ?+s l ,intemp]ance1 t are also =bidd5 by ! law ( nature because de/ructive ( p>ticul> m54 ,all ! laws are summ$ up 9 ! "o expression3 ,d n t to ano!r1 :i* ?\ w\lde/ n h done to ?yself4 ,! laws ( nature he reg>ds z always b9d+ 9 =o int]no1 to ! ext5t ( its be+ desir$ !y %\ld take place2 b 9 =o ext]no1 only :5 !re is security4 ,z b9d+ 9 =o int]no1 !y c be brok5 ev5 by an act accord+ ) !m1 if ! purpose ( x 0 aga9/ !m4 ,!y are immutable & et]nal2 'inju/ice1 +ratitude1 c41 c nev] be made lawful1' = w> _c pres]ve life1 nor peace de/roy x4 ,_! fulfilm5t is easy1 z requir+ only an unfeign$ & con/ant endeav\r4 ,( ^! laws ! sci5ce is true moral philosophy1 i4e41 ! sci5ce ( good & evil 9 ! society ( mank9d4 ,good & evil v>y mu* f man to man1 & ev5 9 ! same man2 b :ile private appetite is ! measure ( good & evil 9 ! condition ( nature1 all all[ t peace is good1 & t ju/ice1 gratitude1 c41 z ! way or means to peace1 are also good1 t is to say1 moral virtues4 ,! true moral philosophy1 9 reg>d+ !m z laws ( nature1 places _! goodness 9 _! be+ ! means ( peaceable1 com=table1 & sociable liv+2 n1 z is commonly done1 9 a m$iocrity ( passions1 'z if n ! cause1 b ! degree ( d>+1 made =titude4' ,8 la/ rem>k is1 t ^! dictates ( reason are improp]ly call$ laws1 because 'law1 prop]ly1 is ! ^w ( him t by "r ha? comm& ov] o!rs4' ,b :5 consid]$ n z m]e conclusions or !orems conc]n+ ! means ( cons]vation & def5ce1 b z deliv]$ 9 ! ^w ( ,god1 t by "r comm&s all1 !n !y are prop]ly call$ laws4 ,*apt] ,,xvi41 clos+ ! :ole fir/ "p ( ! ,levia?an1 is ( ,p]sons1 ,au?ors1 & ,?+s ,p]sonat$4 ,! def9itions & di/9ctions conta9$ 9 x add no?+ ( direct e?ical importance to ! =ego+1 ?\gh ne$$ = ! discussion ( ',commonweal?1' to :i* he passes4 ,! *ief po9ts "u ?is second great head are tak5 into ! summ>y4 ,! views ( ,hobbes c be only inadequately summ>iz$4 ,i4--,! ,/&>d1 to m5 liv+ 9 society1 is ! ,law ( ! ,/ate4 ,?is is ,self-int]e/ or individual ,utility1 mask$ z reg>d = ,e/abli%$ ,ord]2 =1 z he holds1 "u any k9d ( gov]nm5t !re is m ,security & ,commodity ( life ?an 9 ! ,/ate ( ,nature4 ,9 ! ,natural ,condition1 ,self-int]e/1 ( c\rse1 is ! ,/&>d2 b n )\t responsibility to ,god1 9 case x is n s\ght1 z f> z o!r m5 w all[1 by ! practice ( ! dictates ( ,reason or laws ( ,nature4 ,,ii4--,8 ,psy*ology ( ,e?ics is to be /udi$ 9 ! detail4 ,:e!r 9 ! natural or 9 ! social /ate1 ! ,moral ,faculty1 to correspond ) ! ,/&>d1 is ! g5]al p[] ( ,reason1 compreh5d+ ! aims ( ! ,individual or ,society1 & att5d+ to ! laws ( ,nature or ! laws ( ! ,/ate1 9 ! "o case or 9 ! o!r respectively4 ,on ! "q ( ! ,w1 8 views h be5 giv5 at l5g?4 ,dis9t]e/$ ,s5tim5t is1 9 orig91 self-reg>d+2 =1 pity+ o!rs1 we imag9e ! l calamity befall+ ourselves4 ,9 "o place1 he seems to say1 t ! ,s5tim5t ( ,p[] is also involv$4 ,x is ! great defect ( 8 sy/em t he takes s little acc\nt ( ! ,social affections1 :e!r natural or acquir$4 ,,iii4--,8 ,!ory ( ,happ9ess1 or ! ,summum ,bonum1 w\ld foll[ f 8 analysis ( ! ,feel+s & ,w4 ,b ,felicity be+ a cont9ual progress 9 desire1 & consi/+ less 9 pres5t enjoym5t ?an 9 assur+ ! way ( future desire1 ! *ief elem5t 9 x is ! ,s5se ( ,p[]4 ,,iv4--,a ,moral ,code is m9utely detail$ "u ! "n ( ,laws ( ,nature1 9 =ce 9 ! ,natural ,/ate "u ,div9e ,sanction4 ,x inculcates all ! common virtues1 & makes little or no dep>ture f ! usually receiv$ maxims4 ,v4--,! relation ( ,e?ics to ,politics is ! close/ imag9able4 ,n ev5 ,society1 z commonly und]/ood1 b only ! e/abli%$ civil au?ority1 is ! s\rce ( rules ( conduct4 ,9 ! civil 7:i* to ,hobbes is ! only mean+ ( ! social7 /ate1 ! laws ( nature are sup]s$$1 by be+ suppos$ tak5 up into1 ! laws ( ! ,sov]eign ,p[]4 ,,vi4--,z reg>ds ,religion1 he affirms ! co9cid5ce ( 8 reason$ d$uction ( ! laws ( ,nature ) ! precepts ( ,revelation4 ,he makes a mild use ( ! sanctions ( a ,future ,life to en=ce ! laws ( ,nature1 & to give additional support to ! comm&s ( ! sov]eign t take ! place ( ^! 9 ! social /ate4 ,among ! numb]less replies1 call$ =? by ! bold speculations ( ,hobbes1 7 "s works ( indep5d5t e?ical importance2 9 p>ticul>1 ! treatises ( ,cumb]l&1 ,cudwor?1 & ,cl>ke4 ,cumb]l& /&s by himself2 ,cudwor? & ,cl>ke1 agree+ 9 "s respects1 are commonly call$ ! ,rational morali/s1 along ) ,wolla/on & ,price 7:o fall to be notic$ lat]74 ,,ri*>d ,,cumb]l&4 #afcb-agah4 ,cumb]l&'s' ,lat9 "w1 ,de ,legibus ,naturae1 disquisitio philosophica contra ,hobbium in/ituta1 appe>$ 9 #afgb4 ,! book is important z a di/9ctly philosophical disquisition1 b its extraord9>ily discursive "* r5d]s impossible any?+ l analysis4 ,8 *ief po9ts w be pres5t$ 9 a full] summ>y ?an usual4 ,i4--,! ,,/&>d ( ,moral ,good is giv5 9 ! laws ( ,nature1 :i* may all be summ$ up 9 "o great ,law--,b5evol5ce to all rational ag5ts or ! endeav\r to ! utmo/ ( our p[] to promote ! common good ( all4 ,8 !ory is h>dly to be di/+ui%$ f ! ,greate/ ,happ9ess pr9ciple2 unless x might be repres5t$ z putt+ =w>d /ill m prom95tly ! se>* = ,individual ,happ9ess1 ) a fix$ assumption t ?is is be/ secur$ ?r\gh ! promotion ( ! g5]al good4 ,no action1 he decl>es1 c be call$ 'morally good t does n 9 its own nature contribute some:at to ! happ9ess ( m54' ,! speciality ( 8 view is 8 pr(ess+ n to make an induction z reg>ds ! "* ( actions f ! obs]vation ( _! effects1 b to d$uce ! propriety ( 7b5evol5t7 actions f1 ! consid]ation ( ! "* & position ( rational ag5ts 9 nature4 ,rules ( conduct1 all direct$ to ! promotion ( ! ,happ9ess ( rational ag5ts1 may ?us be f\nd 9 ! =m ( propositions impress$ ^u ! m9d by ! ,nature ( ,?+s2 & ^! are !n int]pret$ to be laws ( ,nature 7summ$ up 9 ! "o great ,law71 promulgat$ by ,god ) ! natural effects ( actions z ,sanctions ( ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t to en=ce !m4 ,,ii4--,8 ,psy*ology ( ,e?ics may be r$uc$ to ! foll[+ heads4 #a4 ,! ,faculty is ! ,reason1 appreh5d+ ! exact ,nature ( ,?+s1 & det]m9+ accord+ly ! modes ( action t are be/ suit$ to promote ! happ9ess ( rational ag5ts4 #b4 ,( ! ,faculty1 "u ! "n ( ,consci5ce1 he gives ?is description3 ',! m9d is consci\s to itself ( all its own actions1 & bo? c1 & (t5 does1 obs]ve :at c\nsels produc$ !m2 x naturally sits a judge ^u its own actions1 & !nce procures to itself ei!r tranquillity & joy1 or anxiety & sorr[4' ,! pr9cipal design ( 8 :ole book is to %[ 'h[ ?is p[] ( ! m9d1 ei!r by itself1 or excit$ by ext]nal objects1 =ms c]ta9 univ]sal practical propositions1 :i* give u a m di/9ct idea ( ! happ9ess ( mank9d1 & pron\nces by :at actions ( ours1 9 all v>iety ( circum/ances1 t happ9ess may mo/ effectually be obta9$4' ,consci5ce is ?us only ,reason1 or ! kn[+ faculty 9 g5]al1 z specially conc]n$ ab\t actions 9 _! effect ^u happ9ess2 x r>ely takes ! place ( ! m g5]al t]m4 #c4 ,he expressly leaves aside ! supposition t we h innate ideas ( ! laws ( ,nature :]eby conduct is to be guid$1 or ( ! matt]s t !y are conv]sant ab\t4 ,he has n1 he says1 be5 s happy z to le>n ! laws ( ,nature by s %ort a way1 & ?9ks x ill-advis$ to build ! doctr9e ( natural religion & morality ^u a hypo!sis t has be5 reject$ by ! g5]ality ( philosoph]s1 z well hea!n z ,*ri/ian1 & c nev] be prov$ aga9/ ! ,epicureans1 ) :om lies 8 *ief controv]sy4 ,yet he decl9es to oppose ! doctr9e ( innate ideas1 because x looks ) a fri5dly eye ^u piety & morality2 & p]haps x may be ! case1 t su* ideas are bo? born ) u & aft]w>ds impress$ ^u u f )\t4 #d4 ,w1 he def9es z '! cons5t ( ! m9d ) ! judgm5t ( ! und]/&+1 conc]n+ ?+s agree+ among !mselves4' ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 he supposes t no?+ b ,good & ,evil c det]m9e ! w1 & t ! w is ev5 necess>ily det]m9$ to seek ! "o & flee ! o!r1 he escapes ! conclusion t ! w is mov$ only by private good1 by accept+ ! implication ( private ) common good z ! fix$ judgm5t ( ! und]/&+ or "r reason4 #e4 ,he argues aga9/ ! resolution ( all ,b5evol5ce into self-seek+1 & ?us claims = man a pr9ciple ( dis9t]e/$ action4 ,b :at he is f> m conc]n$ to prove is1 t b5evol5ce ( all to all accords be/ ) ! :ole frame ( nature1 /&s =? ) p]fect evid5ce1 ^u a rational appreh5sion ( ! univ]se1 z ! great ,law ( ,nature1 & is ! mo/ effectual means ( promot+ ! happ9ess ( individuals1 viz41 ?r\gh ! happ9ess ( all4 ,,iii4--,happ9ess is giv5 z connect$ ) ! mo/ full & con/ant ex]cise ( all our p[]s1 ab\t ! be/ & greate/ objects & effects t are adequate & proportional to !m2 z consi/+ 9 ! enl>gem5t or p]fection ( ! faculties ( any "o ?+ or sev]al4 ,"h1 & 9 8 prote/ aga9/ ,hobbes's tak+ affection & desire1 in/ead ( ,reason1 z ! measure ( ! goodness ( ?+s1 may be se5 9 :at way he passes f ! conception ( ,individual1 to ! notion ( ,common ,good1 z ! end ( action4 ,reason affirms ! common good to be m ess5tially connect$ ) ! p]fection ( man ?an any pursuit ( private advantage4 ,/ill !re is no disposition 9 him to sacrifice private to ! common good3 he decl>es t no man is call$ on to promote ! common good beyond 8 ability1 & atta*es no mean+ to ! g5]al good beyond ! special good ( all ! p>ticul> rational ag5ts 9 _! respective places1 f ,god 7to :om he v5tures to ascribe a ,tranquillity1 ,joy1 or ,complac5cy7 d[nw>ds4 ,! happ9ess ( m5 he consid]s z ,int]nal1 aris+ imm$iately f ! vigor\s ex]cise ( ! faculties ab\t _! prop] & noble/ objects2 & ,ext]nal1 ! m$iate advantages procurable f ,god & m5 by a c\rse ( b5evol5t action4 ,,iv4--,8 ,moral ,code is arriv$ at by a some:at elaborate d$uction f ! great ,law ( ,nature enjo9+ ,b5evol5ce or ,promotion ( ! ,common ,good ( all rational be+s4 ,?is ,common ,good compreh5ds ! ,hon\r ( ,god1 & ! ,good or ,happ9ess ( ,m51 z ,nations1 ,families1 & ,individuals4 ,! actions t promote ?is ,common ,good1 are ,acts ei!r ( ! und]/&+1 or ( ! w & affections1 or ( ! body z det]m9$ by ! w4 ,f ?is he f9ds t ,prud5ce 7includ+ ,con/ancy ( ,m9d & ,mod]ation7 is enjo9$ 9 ! ,und]/&+1 &1 9 ! ,w1 ,univ]sal ,b5evol5ce 7mak+1 ) ,prud5ce1 ,equity71 ,gov]nm5t ( ! ,passions1 & ! ,special ,laws ( ,nature--,innoc5ce1 ,self-d5ial1 ,gratitude1 c4 ,?is he gets f ! consid]ation ( :at is conta9$ 9 ! g5]al ,law ( ,nature4 ,b ! obligation to ! v>i\s moral virtues does n appe>1 until he has %[n t ! ,law ( ,nature1 = procur+ ! ,common ,happ9ess ( all1 sugge/s a natural law ( ,univ]sal ,ju/ice1 comm&+ to make & pres]ve a division ( ,rights1 i4e41 giv+ to p>ticul> p]sons ,prop]ty or ,dom9ion ov] ?+s & p]sons necess>y to _! ,happ9ess4 ,!re are ?us ,rights ( ,god 7to ,hon\r1 ,glory1 c47 & ,rights ( ,m5 7to h ^? advantages cont9u$ to !m :]eby !y may pres]ve & p]fect !mselves1 & be useful to all o!rs74 ,= ! same reason t ,rights ( p>ticul> p]sons are fix$ & pres]v$1 viz41 t ! common good ( all %\ld be promot$ by e "o1--two ,obligations are laid ^u all4 7#a7 ,( ,,giv+3 ,we are to contribute to o!rs su* a %>e ( ! ?+s committ$ to our tru/1 z may n de/roy ! "p t is necess>y to our own happ9ess4 ,h5ce are obligatory ! virtues 7a7 9 reg>d to ,gifts1 ,lib]ality1 ,g5]osity1 ,compassion1 c42 7b7 9 reg>d to ,common ,conv]sation or ,int]c\rse1 ,gravity & ,c\rte\sness1 ,v]acity1 ,fai?1 ,urbanity1 c4 7#b7 ,( ,,receiv+3 ,we are to res]ve to ourselves su* use ( our own1 z may be mo/ advantage\s to1 or at lea/ consi/5t )1 ! good ( o!rs4 ,h5ce ! obligation or ! virtues p]ta9+ to ! v>i\s bran*es ( a limit$ ,self-,love1 7a7 ) reg>d to our ess5tial p>ts1 viz41 ,m9d & ,body--,temp]ance 9 ! natural desires conc]n$ 9 ! pres]vation ( ! individual & ! species2 7b7 ) reg>d to goods ( =tune--,mode/y1 ,humility1 & ,magnanimity4 ,v4--,he connects ,politics ) ,e?ics1 by f9d+1 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( civil gov]nm5t1 a m effectual means ( promot+ ! common happ9ess accord+ to ! ,law ( ,nature1 ?an 9 any equal division ( ?+s4 ,b ! ,law ( ,nature1 he decl>es1 be+ be=e ! civil laws1 & conta9+ ! gr\nd ( _! obligation1 c nev] be sup]s$$ by ^!4 ,practically1 h[ev]1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 him & ,hobbes comes to v little2 he recognizes no k9d ( e>?ly *eck ^u ! action ( ! civil p[]4 ,,vi4--,) ref]5ce to ,religion1 he pr(esses to ab/a9 entirely f !ological que/ions1 & does ab/a9 f mix+ up ! doctr9es ( ,revelation4 ,b he atta*es a di/9ctly div9e au?ority to 8 moral rules1 & supplem5ts e>?ly by sup]natural sanctions4 ,,ralph ,,cudwor?4 #afag-hh4 ,cudwor?'s ,treatise conc]n+ ,et]nal & ,immutable ,morality1 did n appe> until #agca1 m ?an =ty ye>s aft] 8 dea?4 ,hav+ 9 a =m] "w 7',intellectual sy/em ( ! ,univ]se'7 cont5d$ aga9/ ! ',a!i/ical ,fate' ( ,epicurus & o!rs1 he "h attacks ! ',!ologick ,fate' 7! arbitr>ily omnipot5t ,deity7 ( ,hobbes1 *>g+ him ) reviv+ explod$ op9ions ( ,protagoras & ! anci5t ,greeks1 t take away ! ess5tial & et]nal discrim9ation ( moral good & evil1 ( j & unju/4 ,aft] pil+ up1 out ( ! /ore ( 8 classical & s*ola/ic erudition1 a great mass ( te/imony reg>d+ all :o _h ev] f\nd$ di/9ctions ( ,"r & ,wrong ^u m]e arbitr>y disposition1 :e!r ( ,god or ! ,/ate ( m5 9 g5]al1 he %ad[s =? 8 own view4 ,moral ,good & ,evil1 ,j & ,unju/1 ,hone/ & ,di%one/ 7if !y be n m]e names )\t any signification1 or names = no?+ else b ,will$ or ,comm&$1 b h a reality 9 respect ( ! p]sons oblig$ to d & to avoid !m71 _c possibly be arbitr>y ?+s1 made by ,w )\t nature2 because x is univ]sally true t ,?+s are :at !y are n by ,w1 b by nature4 ,z x is ! nature ( a triangle to h ?ree angles equal to two "r angles1 s x is ! nature ( 'good ?+s' to h ! nature ( goodness1 & ?+s j ! nature ( ju/ice2 & ,omnipot5ce is no m able to make a ?+ good )\t ! fix$ nature ( goodness1 ?an to make a triangul> body )\t ! prop]ties ( a triangle1 or two ?+s l or equal1 )\t ! natures ( ,lik5ess & ,equality4 ,! ,w ( ,god is ! supreme effici5t cause ( all ?+s1 b n ! =mal cause ( any?+ besides itself4 ,nor is ?is to be und]/ood z at all d]ogat+ f ,god's p]fection2 to make natural ju/ice & "r indep5d5t ( 8 w is m]ely to set 8 ,wisdom1 :i* is a rule or measure1 above 8 ,w1 :i* is some?+ indet]m9ate1 b ess5tially regulable & measureable2 & if x be ! case t above ev5 8 wisdom1 & det]m9+ x 9 turn1 /&s 8 ,inf9ite ,goodness1 ! greate/ p]fection ( 8 w mu/ lie 9 its be+ ?us twice det]m9$4 ,by f> ! l>ge/ "p ( ,cudwor?'s treatise consi/s ( a g5]al metaphysical argum5t to e/abli% ! indep5d5ce ( ! m9d's faculty ( ,k1 ) ref]5ce to ,s5se & ,exp]i5ce4 ,9 ,s5se1 accord+ to ! doctr9e ( ! old ',atomical philosophy' 7( ,democritus1 ,protagoras1 c4--b he ?9ks x mu/ be ref]r$ back to ,moses himself671 he sees no?+ b fancies excit$ 9 u by local motions 9 ! organs1 tak5 on f '! motion ( p>ticles' t con/itute '! :ole _w4' ,all ! m1 !re=e1 mu/ !re exi/ a sup]ior p[] ( ,intellection & ,k ( a diff]5t nature f s5se1 a p[] n t]m9at+ 9 m]e seem+ & appe>ance only1 b 9 ! reality ( ?+s1 & rea*+ to ! compreh5sion ( :at really & absolutely is2 ^: objects are ! immutable & et]nal ess5ces & natures ( ?+s1 & _! un*angeable relations to "o ano!r4 ,^! ,rationes or ,v]ities ( ?+s are intelligible4 only2 are all compreh5d$ 9 ! et]nal m9d or intellect ( ! ,deity1 & f ,him d]iv$ to our 'p>ticul> intellects4' ,!y are nei!r arbitr>y nor phanta/ical--nei!r alt]able by ,w nor *angeable by ,op9ion4 ,su* et]nal & immutable ,v]ities1 !n1 ! moral di/9ctions ( ,good & ,evil are1 9 ! pauses ( ! g5]al argum5t1 decl>$ to be4 ,!y1 'z !y mu/ h "s c]ta9 natures :i* are ! actions or s\ls ( m51' are unalt]able by ,w or ,op9ion4 ',modifications ( ,m9d & ,intellect1' !y are z mu* m real & sub/antial ?+s ?an ,h>d1 ,s(t1 ,hot1 & ,cold1 modifications ( m]e s5seless matt]--& ev5 s1 on ! pr9ciples ( ! atomical philosophy1 dep5d5t on ! s\l = _! exi/5ce--z ,m9d itself /&s prior 9 ! ord] ( nature to ,matt]4 ,9 ! m9d !y are z 'anticipations ( morality' spr++ up1 n inde$ 'f c]ta9 rules or propositions arbitr>ily pr9t$ on ! s\l z on a book1' b f "s m inw>d & vital ,pr9ciple 9 intellectual be+s1 z su* :]eby ^! h )9 !mselves a natural det]m9ation to d "s ?+s & to avoid o!rs4 ,! only o!r e?ical det]m9ations made by ,cudwor? may ?us be summ>iz$3--,?+s call$ naturally ,good & ,due are su* z ! intellectual nature obliges to imm$iately1 absolutely1 & p]petually1 & ^u no condition ( any volunt>y action done or omitt$ int]v5+2 ?+s positively ,good & ,due are su* z are 9 !mselves indiff]5t1 b ! intellectual nature obliges to !m accid5tally or hypo!tically1 ^u condition1 9 ! case ( a comm&1 ( "s volunt>y act ( ano!r p]son inve/$ ) lawful au?ority1 or ( "o's self1 9 ! case ( a specific promise4 ,9 a positive comm& 7z ( ! civil rul]71 :at obliges is only ! intellectual nature ( him t is comm&$1 9 t he recognizes ! lawful au?ority ( him t comm&s1 & s f> det]m9es & modifies 8 g5]al duty ( ob$i5ce z to d an action immat]ial 9 itself = ! sake ( ! =mality ( yield+ ob$i5ce to lawfully con/itut$ au?ority4 ,s1 9 l mann]1 a specific promise1 9 itself immat]ial & n enjo9$ by natural ju/ice1 is to be kept = ! sake ( ! =mality ( keep+ fai?1 :i* is enjo9$4 ,cudwor?'s "w1 9 :i* ^! are ne>ly all ! e?ical allusions1 gives no scope = a summ>y "u ! v>i\s topics4 ,i4--,specially exclud+ any su* ,ext]nal ,/&>d ( moral ,good z ! arbitr>y ,w1 ei!r ( ,god or ! ,sov]eign1 he views x z a simple ultimate natural quality ( actions or dispositions1 z includ$ among ! v]ities ( ?+s1 by ! side ( :i* ! ph5om5a ( ,s5se are unreal4 ,,ii4--,! g5]al ,intellectual ,faculty cognizes ! moral v]ities1 :i* x conta9s )9 itself & br+s r ?an f9ds4 ,,iii4--,he does n t\* ^u ,happ9ess2 probably he w\ld lean to asceticism4 ,he sets up no moral code4 ,,iv4--,obligation to ! ,positive ,civil ,laws 9 matt]s indiff]5t foll[s f ! intellectual recognition ( ! e/abli%$ relation betwe5 rul] & subject4 ,v4--,morality is n dep5d5t ^u ! ,deity 9 any o!r s5se ?an ! :ole frame ( ?+s is4 ,,samuel ,,cl>ke4 #afge-agbi4 ,cl>ke put toge!r 8 two s]ies ( ,boyle ,lectures 7prea*$ #agjd & #agje7 z ',a ,disc\rse1 conc]n+ ! ,be+ & ,attributes ( ,god1 ! ,obligations ( ,natural ,religion & ! ,tru? & ,c]ta9ty ( ! ,*ri/ian ,revelation1' 9 answ] to ,hobbes1 ,sp9oza1 c4 ,! burd5 ( ! e?ical discussion falls "u ! head ( ! ,obligations ( ,natural ,religion1 9 ! second s]ies4 ,he en\nces ?is all-compreh5sive proposition3 ',! same necess>y & et]nal diff]5t ,relations t diff]5t ,?+s be> "o to ano!r1 & ! same consequ5t ,fitness or ,unfitness ( ! application ( diff]5t ?+s or diff]5t relations "o to ano!r1 ) reg>d to :i* ! w ( ,god always & necess>ily does det]m9e itself to *oose to act only :at is agreeable to ,ju/ice1 ,equity1 ,goodness1 & ,tru?1 9 ord] to ! welf>e ( ! :ole univ]se--ought likewise con/antly to det]m9e ! ,wills ( all subord9ate rational be+s1 to gov]n all _! actions by ! same rules1 = ! good ( ! public1 9 _! respective /ations4 ,t is1 ^! et]nal & necess>y diff]5ces ( ?+s make x fit & reasonable = creatures s to act2 !y cause x to be _! duty1 or lay an obligation on !m s to d2 ev5 sep>ate f ! consid]ation ( ^! ,rules be+ ! positive ,w or ,comm& ( ,god1 & also antec$5t to any respect or reg>d1 expectation or appreh5sion ( any p>ticul> private & p]sonal ,advantage or ,disadvantage1 ,rew>d or ,puni%m5t1 ei!r pres5t or future1 annex$ ei!r by natural consequ5ce1 or by positive appo9tm5t1 to ! practis+ or neglect+ ( ^! rules4 ,9 ! explication ( ?is1 ne>ly 8 :ole sy/em is conta9$4 ,8 fir/ conc]n is to impress ! fact t !re are necess>y & et]nal diff]5ces ( ail ?+s1 & impli$ or consequ5t relations 7proportions or disproportions7 exi/+ among/ !m2 & to br+ "u ?is g5]al head ! special case ( diff]5ces ( ,p]sons 7e4g41 ,god & ,man1 ,man & ,fell[-man71 = ! sake ( ! implication t to diff]5t p]sons !re belong peculi> ,fitnesses & ,unfitnesses ( circum/ances2 or1 :i* is ! same ?+1 t !re arises necess>ily among/ !m a suitabl5ess or unsuitabl5ess ( c]ta9 mann]s ( ,behavi\r4 ,! c\nt]-proposition t he cont5ds aga9/ is1 t ! relations among p]sons dep5d ^u positive con/itution ( "s k9d1 in/ead ( be+ f\nd$ un*angeably 9 ! nature & reason ( ?+s4 ,next he %[s h[1 9 ! rational or intellectual recognition ( naturally exi/5t relations among/ ?+s 7he always means p]sons *iefly71 !re is conta9$ an obligation4 ,:5 ,god1 9 8 ,omnisci5ce & absolute fre$om f error1 is f\nd det]m9+ 8 ,w always accord+ to ?is et]nal reason ( ?+s1 x is v unreasonable & blamewor?y 9 ! intellig5t creatures :om he has made s f> l himself1 n to gov]n _! actions by ! same et]nal rule ( ,reason1 b to suff] !mselves to dep>t f x ?r\gh neglig5t misund]/&+ or wilful passion4 ,h]e9 lies obligation3 a man ought to act accord+ to ! ,law ( ,reason1 because he c z little refra9 f ass5t+ to ! reasonabl5ess & fitness ( guid+ 8 actions by x1 z refuse 8 ass5t to a geometrical demon/ration :5 he und]/&s ! t]ms4 ,! orig9al obligation ( all is ! et]nal ,reason ( ,?+s2 ! sanction ( ,rew>ds & ,puni%m5ts 7?\gh 'truly ! mo/ effectual means ( keep+ creatures 9 _! duty'7 is only a second>y & additional obligation4 ,pro( ( 8 position he f9ds 9 m5's judgm5t ( _! own actions1 bett] /ill 9 _! judgm5ts ( o!rs' actions1 be/ ( all 9 _! judgm5t ( injuries inflict$ on !mselves4 ,nor does any objection hold f ! ignorance ( savages 9 matt]s ( morality3 !y are equally ignorant ( ! pla9e/ ma!matical tru?s2 ! ne$ ( in/ruction does n take away ! necess>y diff]5ce ( moral ,good & ,evil1 any m ?an x takes away ! necess>y proportions ( numb]s4 ,he1 !n1 in/ead ( d$uc+ all our sev]al duties z he might1 cont5ts himself ) m5tion+ ! ?ree great bran*es ( !m1 7a7 ,duties 9 respect ( ,god1 consi/+ ( s5tim5ts & acts 7,v5]ation1 ,love1 ,wor%ip1 c47 call$ =? by ! consid]ation ( 8 attributes1 & hav+ a "* ( ,fitness f> beyond any t is visible 9 apply+ equal geometrical figures to "o ano!r1 7b7 ,duties 9 respect ( our ,fell[-creatures3 7#a7 ,ju/ice & ,equity1 ! do+ z we w\ld be done by4 ,iniquity is ! v same 9 ,action1 z ,falsity or ,contradiction 9 ,!ory2 :at makes ! "o absurd makes ! o!r unreasonable2 'x w\ld be impossible = m5 n to be z mu* 767 a%am$ ( do+ ,iniquity1 z !y are ( believ+ ,contradictions2' 7#b7 ,univ]sal ,love or ,b5evol5ce1 ! promot+ ! welf>e or happ9ess ( all1 :i* is obligatory on v>i\s gr\nds3 ! ,good be+ ! fit & reasonable1 ! greate/ ,good is ! mo/ fit & reasonable2 by ?is ,god's action is det]m9$1 & s ought ours2 no ,duty af=ds a m ample pleasure2 besides hav+ a 'c]ta9 natural affection' = ^? mo/ closely connect$ ) u1 we desire to multiply aff9ities1 :i* means to f\nd society1 = ! sake ( ! m com=table life t mutual good (fices br+4 ,?is is a v confus$ d$uction ( an obligation4' 7c7 ,duties 9 respect to our ,selves1 viz41 self-pres]vation1 temp]ance1 cont5tm5t1 c42 = n be+ au?ors ( our be+1 we h no j p[] or au?ority to take x away directly1 or1 by abuse ( our faculties1 indirectly4 ,aft] expatiat+ 9 a rhetorical /ra9 on ! et]nal1 univ]sal1 & absolutely un*angeable "* ( ! law ( ,nature or ,"r ,reason1 he specifies ! s5se :]e9 ! et]nal moral obligations are indep5d5t ( ! w ( ,god himself2 x comes to ?is1 t1 al?\gh ,god makes all ?+s & ! relations betwe5 !m1 no?+ is holy & good because he comm&s x1 b he comm&s x because x is holy & good4 ,f9ally1 he exp\nds ! relation ( ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t to ! law ( ,nature2 ! obligation ( x is be=e & di/9ct f ^!2 b1 :ile full ( admiration = ! ,/oical idea ( ! self-suffici5cy ( virtue1 he is con/ra9$ to add t 'm5 nev] w g5]ally1 & inde$ 'tis n v reasonably to be expect$ !y %\ld1 "p ) all ! com=ts ( life1 & ev5 life itself1 )\t any expectation ( a future recomp5se4' ,! 'manifold absurdities' ( ,hobbes be+ fir/ expos$1 he accord+ly returns1 9 pursuance ( ! !ological argum5t ( 8 ,lectures1 to %[ t ! et]nal moral obligations1 f\nd$ on ! natural diff]5ces ( ?+s1 are at ! same "t ! express w & comm& ( ,god to all rational creatures1 & mu/ necess>ily & c]ta9ly be att5d$ ) ,rew>ds & ,puni%m5ts 9 a future /ate4 ,! summ>y ( ,cl>ke's views might /& ?us3-- ,i4--,! ,,/&>d is a c]ta9 ,fitness ( action betwe5 p]sons1 implicat$ 9 _! nature z mu* z any fix$ proportions betwe5 numb]s or o!r relation among ?+s4 ,except 9 su* an expression z ?is1 moral good admits ( no k9d ( ext]nal ref]5ce4 ,,ii4--,!re is v little ,psy*ology involv$4 ,! ,faculty is ! ,reason2 its action a case ( m]e intellectual appreh5sion4 ,! elem5t ( ,feel+ is ne>ly exclud$4 ,dis9t]e/$ s5tim5t is s m9or a po9t z to call =? only ! pass+ allusion to 'a c]ta9 natural affection4' ,,iii4--,happ9ess is n consid]$ except 9 a vague ref]5ce to good public & private z involv$ ) ,fit & ,unfit action4 ,,iv4--,8 acc\nt ( ,duties is rem>kable only = ! consi/5cy ( 8 attempt to f9d p>allels = ea* among/ intellectual relations4 ,! climax int5d$ 9 ! assimilation ( ,inju/ice to ,contradictions is a v anti-climax2 if p 7 only 'z mu*' a%am$ ( do+ inju/ice z ( believ+ contradictions1 ! moral ord] ( ! _w w\ld be poorly provid$ =4 ,v4--,! relation ( ,e?ics to ,politics is h>dly t\*$4 ,society is born ( ! desire to multiply aff9ities ?r\gh mutual int]*ange ( good (fices4 ,,vi4--,8 ,e?ical disquisition is only "p ( a ,!ological argum5t2 & ?is helps to expla9 8 ass]tion ( ! ,indep5d5ce z well z ( ! ,insuffici5cy ( ,morality4 ,! f9al outcome ( ! discussion is t ,morality ne$s ! support ( ,revelation4 ,b1 to get f ?is an argum5t = ! tru? ( ,revelation1 x is necess>y t morality %\ld h an indep5d5t f\ndation 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 ap>t f any direct div9e appo9tm5t4 ,,william ,,wolla/on 7#afei-agbd71 au?or ( ! ',religion ( ,nature ,del9eat$1' is usually put into ! same class ( morali/s ) ,cl>ke4 ,) him1 a bad action 7:e!r ( commission or omission7 conta9s ! d5ial ( a true proposition4 ,tru? c be d5i$ by actions z well z by words4 ,?us1 ! violation ( a contract is ! d5ial by an action t ! contract has be5 conclud$4 ,robb+ a travell] is ! d5ial t :at y take f him is 84 ,an action t d5ies "o or m true propositions _c be good1 & is necess>ily bad4 ,a good action is "o ^: omission w\ld be bad or ^: contr>y is bad1 9 ! above s5se4 ,an indiff]5t action is "o t c be omitt$ or done )\t contradict+ any tru?4 ,reason1 ! judge ( :at is true & false1 is ! only faculty conc]n$2 b1 at ! same "t1 ,wolla/on makes l>ge ref]5ce to ! subject ( ,happ9ess1 f9d+ x to consi/ 9 an excess ( pleasures z comp>$ ) pa9s4 ,he holds t 8 doctr9e is 9 con=mity ) all ! facts4 ,x affirms a progressive morality1 t keeps pace ) & dep5d ^u ! progress ( ,sci5ce4 ,x c expla9 errors 9 morals z di/9ct f vice4 ,an error is ! affirmation by an action ( a false proposition1 ?\ght to be true2 ! action is bad1 b ! ag5t is innoc5t4 ,,john ,,locke4 #afcb-agjd4 ,locke did n apply himself to ! consecutive evolution ( an ,e?ical !ory2 :5ce 8 views1 al?\gh on ! :ole suffici5tly unmi/akeable1 are n always reconcileable ) "o ano!r4 ,9 ,book ,i4 ( ! ',essay on ! ,und]/&+' he devotes himself to ! refutation ( ,innate ,ideas1 :e!r ,speculative or ,practical4 ,*ap4 ,,iii4 is on ! alleg$ ,innate ,practical ,pr9ciples1 or rules ( ,"r & ,wrong4 ,! objections urg$ aga9/ ^! ,pr9ciples h sc>cely be5 add$ to1 & h nev] be5 answ]$4 ,we %all endeav\r to indicate ! heads ( ! reason+4 #a4 ,! ,innate ,practical ,pr9ciples are = ! mo/ "p n self-evid5t2 !y are1 9 ?is respect1 n on an equal foot+ ) ! ,speculative ,pr9ciples ^: innate orig9 is also disput$4 ,!y require reason+ & explanation 9 ord] to be und]/ood4 ,_m m5 are ignorant ( !m1 :ile o!rs ass5t to !m sl[ly1 if !y d ass5t to !m2 all :i* is at v>iance ) _! be+ innate4 #b4 ,!re is no ,practical ,pr9ciple univ]sally receiv$ among mank9d4 ,all t c be said ( ,ju/ice is t mo/ m5 agree to recognize x4 ,x is va9 to allege ( conf$]acies ( ?ieves1 t !y keep fai? ) "o ano!r2 = ?is keep+ ( fai? is m]ely = _! own conv5i5ce4 ,we _c call t a s5se ( ,ju/ice :i* m]ely b9ds a man to a c]ta9 numb] ( 8 fell[-crim9als1 9 ord] ! m effectually to plund] & kill hone/ m54 ,in/ead ( ,ju/ice1 x is ! ess5tial condition ( success 9 ,inju/ice4 ,if x be said 9 reply1 t ^! m5 tacitly ass5t 9 _! m9ds to :at _! practice contradicts1 ,locke answ]s1 fir/1 t m5's actions mu/ be held z ! be/ int]pret]s ( _! ?\ghts2 & if _m m5's practices1 & "s m5's op5 pr(essions1 h be5 oppos$ to ^! pr9ciples1 we _c conclude !m to be ,innate4 ,secondly1 ,x is difficult = u to ass5t to ,innate ,practical ,pr9ciples1 end+ only 9 contemplation4 ,su* pr9ciples ei!r influ5ce our conduct1 or !y are no?+4 ,!re is no mi/ake z to ! ,innate pr9ciples ( ! desire ( happ9ess1 & av]sion to mis]y2 ^! d n /op %ort 9 tacit ass5t1 b urge e man's conduct e h\r ( 8 life4 ,if !re 7 any?+ correspond+ to ^! 9 ! s5se ( ,"r & ,wrong1 we %\ld h no dispute ab\t !m4 #c4 ,!re is no ,moral rule1 t may n h a reason dem&$ = x2 :i* ought n to be ! case ) any innate pr9ciple4 ,t we %\ld d z we w\ld be done by1 is ! f\ndation ( all morality1 & yet1 if propos$ to any "o = ! fir/ "t1 might n su* an "o1 )\t absurdity1 ask a reason :y8 ,b ?is w\ld imply t !re is "s deep] pr9ciple = x to repose ^u1 capable ( be+ assign$ z its motive2 t x is n ultimate1 & !re=e n innate4 ,t m5 %\ld obs]ve compacts is a great & und5iable rule1 yet1 9 ?is1 a ,*ri/ian w\ld give z reason ! comm& ( ,god2 a ,hobbi/ w\ld say t ! public requires x1 & w\ld puni% = disobey+ x2 & an old hea!n philosoph] w\ld h urg$ t x 0 oppos$ to human virtue & p]fection4 ,b\nd up ) ?is consid]ation1 is ! circum/ance t moral rules diff] among m51 accord+ to _! views ( happ9ess4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,god1 & our ob$i5ce to him1 are manife/ 9 _m ways1 & are ! true gr\nd ( morality1 see+ t only ,god c call to acc\nt e (f5d]2 yet1 f ! union ( virtue & public happ9ess1 all m5 h recomm5d$ ! practice ( :at is = _! own obvi\s advantage4 ,!re is q en\gh 9 ?is self-int]e/ to cause moral rules to be en=c$ by m5 t c>e nei!r = ! supreme ,lawgiv]1 nor = ! ,hell orda9$ by him to puni% transgressors4 ,aft] all1 ^! great pr9ciples ( morality are m comm5d$ ?an practis$4 ,z to ,consci5ce *eck+ u 9 ^! brea*es1 mak+ !m few] ?an !y w\ld o!rwise be1 m5 may arrive at su* a consci5ce1 or self-re/ra9+ s5tim5t1 9 o!r ways ?an by an innate end[m5t4 ,"s m5 may come to ass5t to moral rules f a k ( _! value z means to ends4 ,o!rs may take up ! same view z a "p ( _! education4 ,h[ev] ! p]suasion is come by1 x w s]ve z a consci5ce2 :i* consci5ce is no?+ else ?an our own op9ion ( ! rectitude or pravity ( our actions4 ,h[ c\ld m5 ) s]5ity & confid5ce transgress rules /amp$ ^u _! inmo/ s\l8 ,look at ! practices ( nations civiliz$ & unciviliz$2 at ! robb]ies1 murd]s1 rapes ( an army sack+ a t[n2 at ! legaliz$ usages ( nations1 ! de/ruction ( infants & ( ag$ p>5ts = p]sonal conv5i5ce2 cannibalism2 ! mo/ mon/r\s =ms ( un*a/ity2 ! fa%ionable murd] nam$ ,duell+4 ,:]e are ! innate pr9ciples ( ,ju/ice1 ,piety1 ,gratitude1 ,equity1 ,*a/ity8 ,if we read ,hi/ory1 & ca/ our glance ov] ! _w1 we %all sc>cely f9d any rule ( ,morality 7except+ su* z are necess>y to hold society toge!r1 & ^! too ) great limitations7 b :at is some:]e or o!r set aside1 & an opposite e/abli%$1 by :ole societies ( m54 ,m5 may break a law )\t dis[n+ x2 b x is inconceivable t a :ole nation %\ld publicly reject & r5\nce :at e "o ( !m1 c]ta9ly & infallibly1 kn[s to be a law4 ,:atev] practical pr9ciple is innate1 mu/ be kn[n to e "o to be j & good4 ,! g5]ally all[$ brea* ( any rule any:]e mu/ be held to prove t x is n innate4 ,if !re be any rule hav+ a fair claim to be impr9t$ by nature1 x is ! rule t ,p>5ts %\ld pres]ve & *]i% _! *ildr54 ,if su* a pr9ciple be innate1 x mu/ be f\nd regulat+ practice ev]y:]e2 or1 at ! l[e/1 x mu/ be kn[n & ass5t$ to4 ,b x is v f> f hav+ be5 uni=mly practis$1 ev5 among enlight5$ nations4 ,& z to its be+ an innate tru?1 kn[n to all m51 t also is untrue4 ,inde$1 ! t]ms ( x are n intelligible )\t o!r k4 ,! /atem5t1 'x is ! duty ( p>5ts to pres]ve _! *ildr51' _c be und]/ood )\t a ,law2 a ,law requires a ,lawmak]1 & ,rew>d or ,puni%m5t4 ,& z puni%m5t does n always foll[ 9 ?is life1 no?+ less ?an a recognition ( ,div9e ,law w suffice2 9 o!r words1 !re mu/ be intuitions ( ,god1 ,law1 ,obligation1 ,puni%m5t1 & a ,future ,life3 e "o ( :i* may be1 & is1 deem$ to be innate4 ,x is incr$ible t m51 if all ^! ?+s 7 /amp$ on _! m9ds1 c\ld delib]ately (f5d aga9/ !m2 /ill m1 t rul]s %\ld sil5tly connive at su* transgressions4 #d4 ,! support]s ( innate pr9ciples are unable to po9t out di/9ctly :at !y are4#ah ,yet1 if ^! 7 impr9t$ on ! m9d1 !re c\ld be no m d\bt ab\t !m ?an ab\t ! numb] ( our f+]s4 ,we well "k t1 if m5 ( diff]5t sects 7 to write out _! respective li/s1 !y w\ld set d[n exactly su* z suit$ _! sev]al s*ools or *ur*es4 ,!re is1 ,locke rem>ks1 a ready1 b n v mat]ial1 answ] to 8 objections1 namely1 t ! innate pr9ciples may1 by ,education & ,cu/om1 be d>k5$ & worn out ( m5's m9ds4 ,b ?is takes away at once ! argum5t f univ]sal cons5t1 & leaves no?+ b :at ea* p>ty ?9ks %\ld pass = univ]sal cons5t1 namely1 _! own private p]suasion3 a me?od :]eby a set ( m5 presum+ !mselves to be ! only ma/]s ( "r reason1 put aside ! votes & op9ions ( ! re/ ( mank9d4 ,?us1 not)/&+ ! innate light1 we are z mu* 9 ! d>k z if x did n exi/2 a rule t w w>p any way is n to be di/+ui%$ amid/ its contr>ies4 ,if ^! rules are s liable to v>y1 ?r\gh adv5titi\s notions1 we %\ld f9d !m cle>e/ 9 *ildr5 & 9 p]sons :olly illit]ate4 ,he grants t !re are _m op9ions1 receiv$ by m5 ( diff]5t c\ntries1 educations1 & temp]s1 & held z unque/ionable fir/ pr9ciples2 b !n ! absurdity ( "s1 & ! mutual contradiction ( o!rs1 make x impossible t !y %\ld be all true4 ,yet x w (t5 happ5 t ^! m5 w soon] "p ) _! lives1 ?an suff] ! tru? ( _! op9ions to be que/ion$4 ,we c see f our exp]i5ce h[ ! belief 9 pr9ciples gr[s up4 ,doctr9es1 ) no bett] orig9al ?an ! sup]/ition ( a nurse1 or ! au?ority ( an old woman1 may 9 c\rse ( "t1 & by ! concurr5ce ( neighb\rs1 gr[ up to ! dignity ( fir/ tru?s 9 ,religion & 9 ,morality4 ,p]sons matur$ "u ^? influ5ces1 &1 look+ into _! own m9ds1 f9d no?+ ant]ior to ! op9ions taught !m be=e !y kept a record ( !mselves2 !y1 !re=e1 )\t scruple1 conclude t ^? propositions ^: orig9 !y _c trace are ! impress ( ,god & nature ^u _! m9ds4 ,su* a result is unavoidable 9 ! circum/ances ( ! bulk ( mank9d1 :o require "s f\ndation ( pr9ciples to re/ ^u1 & h no means ( obta9+ !m b on tru/ f o!rs4 ,cu/om is x great] p[] ?an ,nature1 &1 :ile we are yet "y1 seldom fails to make u wor%ip z div9e :at %e has inur$ u to2 nor is x to be wond]$ at1 t1 :5 we come to mature life1 & are engross$ ) q diff]5t matt]s1 we are indispos$ to sit d[n & exam9e all our receiv$ t5ets1 to f9d ourselves 9 ! wrong1 to run c\nt] to ! op9ions ( our c\ntry or p>ty1 & to be br&$ ) su* epi!ts z :imsical1 sceptical1 ,a!i/4 ,x is inevitable t we %\ld take up at fir/ borr[$ pr9ciples2 & unless we h all ! faculties & ! means ( se>*+ into _! f\ndations1 we naturally g on to ! end z we h begun4 ,9 ! foll[+ *apt] 7,,iv471 he argues ! g5]al "q ( ,innate ,ideas 9 ! case ( ! ,idea ( ,god4 ,9 ,book ,,ii41 ,*ap4 ,,xxi41 ,locke discusses ! fre$om ( ! w1 ) "s allusions to ! nature ( happ9ess & ! causes ( wrong conduct4 ,happ9ess is ! utmo/ pleasure we are capable (1 mis]y ! utmo/ pa92 pleasure & pa9 def9e ,good & ,evil4 ,9 practice1 we are *iefly occupi$ 9 gett+ rid ( tr\bles2 abs5t good does n mu* move u4 ,all uneas9ess be+ remov$1 a mod]ate portion ( good cont5ts u2 & "s few degrees ( pleasure 9 a succession ( ord9>y enjoym5ts are en\gh to make happ9ess4 ,epicurus1 & o!rs among ! anci5ts1 said z mu*4 ,m5 h wrong desires1 & d wrong acts1 b x is f wrong judgm5ts4 ,!y nev] mi/ake a pres5t pleasure or pa92 !y always act correctly ^u t4 ,!y are ! victims ( deceitful appe>ances2 !y make wrong judgm5ts 9 comp>+ pres5t ) future pa9s1 su* is ! weakness ( ! m9d's con/itution 9 ?is dep>tm5t4 ,our wrong judgm5ts proce$ p>tly f ignorance & p>tly f inadv]t5ce1 & our pref]5ce ( vice to virtue is acc\nt$ = by ^! wrong judgm5ts4 ,*ap4 ,,xxviii4 discusses ,moral ,relations4 ,good & ,evil are no?+ b ,pleasure & ,pa91 & :at causes !m4 ,moral ,good or ,evil is ! con=mity or uncon=mity ( our volunt>y actions to "s ,law1 entail+ ^u u good or evil by ! w & p[] ( ! ,law-giv]1 to :i* good & evil we apply ! names ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t4 ,!re are ?ree sorts ( ,moral ,rules3 #a/1 ,! ,div9e ,law1 :e!r promulgat$ by ! ,light ( ,nature or by ,revelation1 & en=c$ by rew>ds & puni%m5ts 9 a future life4 ,?is law1 :5 asc]ta9$1 is ! t\*/one ( moral rectitude4 #bnd1 ,! ,civil ,law1 or ! ,law ( ! ,/ate1 support$ by ! p5alties ( ! civil judge4 #crd1 ,! ,law ( ,op9ion or ,reputation4 ,ev5 aft] resign+1 to public au?ority1 ! disposal ( ! public =ce1 m5 /ill reta9 ! p[] ( privately approv+ or disapprov+ actions1 accord+ to _! views ( virtue & vice4 ,! be+ comm5d$ or disprais$ by our fell[s may ?us be call$ ! sanction ( ,reputation1 a p[] (t5 surpass+ 9 efficacy bo? ! o!r sanctions4 ,morality is ! ref]5ce ( all actions to "o or o!r ( ^! ?ree ,laws4 ,in/ead ( apply+ innate notions ( good & evil1 ! m9d1 hav+ be5 taught ! sev]al rules enjo9$ by ^! au?orities1 comp>es any giv5 action ) ^! rules1 & pron\nces accord+ly4 ,a rule is an aggregate ( simple ,ideas2 s is an action2 & ! con=mity requir$ is ! ord]+ ( ! action s t ! simple ideas belong+ to x may correspond to ^? requir$ by ! law4 ,?us1 all ,moral ,notions may be r$uc$ to ! simple ideas ga9$ by ! two lead+ s\rces--,s5sation & ,reflection4 ,murd] is an aggregate ( simple ideas1 traceable 9 ! detail to ^! s\rces4 ,! summ>y ( ,locke's views is z foll[s3-- ,i4--,) ref]5ce to ! ,/&>d ( ,morality1 we h ^! two great positions-- ,fir/1 ,t ! production ( pleasure & pa9 to s5ti5t be+s is ! ultimate f\ndation ( moral good & evil4 ,secondly1 ,t morality is a sy/em ( ,law1 enact$ by "o or o!r ( ?ree diff]5t au?orities4 ,,ii4--,9 ! ,psy*ology ( ,e?ics1 ,locke1 by implication1 holds-- ,fir/1 ,t !re is no innate moral s5tim5t2 t our moral ideas are ! g5]alities ( moral actions4 ,t our faculties ( moral disc]nm5t are--7#a7 ^? t disc]n ! pleasures & pa9s ( mank9d2 & 7#b71 ^? t compreh5d & int]pret ! laws ( ,god1 ! ,nation1 & ,public ,op9ion4 ,& 7#c7 he c\nts t ! l>ge/ %>e 9 ! =mation ( our ,moral ,s5tim5ts is due to ,education & ,cu/om4 ,we h se5 8 views on ,free-w1 p4 #dac4 ,z reg>ds ! nature ( ,dis9t]e/$ ,action1 he pron\nces no def9ite op9ion4 ,he makes few attempts to analyze ! emotional & active "p ( our nature4 ,,iii4--,8 ,summum ,bonum is /at$ g5]ally z ! procur+ ( ,pleasure & ! avoid+ ( ,pa94 ,,iv4--,he has no peculi> views on ! ,moral ,code1 or on ! en=cem5ts ( ,morality4 ,v4--,! connexion ( ,e?ics ) ,politics is1 9 him1 ! assimilat+ ( ,morality to ,law4 ,,vi4--,) ref]5ce to ,!ology1 he consid]s t1 by ! ex]cise ( ! ,reason1 we may discov] ! exi/5ce & attributes ( ,god1 & our duties to him2 8 asc]ta9$ w is ! highe/ moral rule1 ! true t\*/one ( ,moral ,rectitude4 ,,joseph ,,butl]4 #afib-ageb4 ,butl]'s ,e?ical ,sy/em may be f\nd--,fir/1 9 a %ort ,diss]tation on ,virtue1 app5d$ to ! ,analogy2 secondly1 & *iefly1 9 8 fir/ ?ree ,s]mons1 entitl$ ',human ,nature2' ?irdly1 9 o!r ,s]mons1 z 7,v47 on ,compassion1 & 7,,xl7 on ,b5evol5ce4 ,v>i\s illu/rations ( ,e?ical doctr9e are int]sp]s$ ?r\gh ! ,analogy1 z 9 ,"p ,i41 ,*ap4 #b1 entitl$ '! gov]nm5t ( ,god by rew>ds & puni%m5ts4' ,! ,diss]tation on ,virtue is int5d$ to v9dicate1 9 man1 ! exi/5ce ( a moral nature1 ap>t f bo? ,prud5ce & ,b5evol5ce4 ,a moral gov]nm5t supposes a moral nature 9 man1 or a p[] ( di/+ui%+ "r f wrong4 ,all m5 & all sy/ems agree z to ! fact ( moral p]ceptions4 ,z *>act]i/ics ( ^! moral p]ceptions1 x is to be not$--,fir/1 !y ref] to volunt>y actions4 ,secondly1 !y are accompani$ ) ! feel+s ( good or ( ill des]t1 :i* good or ill des]t is irrespective ( ! good ( society4 ,?irdly1 ! p]ception ( ill des]t has reg>d to ! capacities ( ! ag5t4 ,f\r?ly1 ,prud5ce1 or reg>d to ourselves1 is a fair subject ( moral approbation1 & imprud5ce ( ! contr>y4 ,our own self-int]e/ seems to require /r5g!n+ by o!r m5's manife/$ pleasure & displeasure4 ,/ill1 ?is position is by no means indisputable1 & ! au?or is will+ to give up ! words 'virtue' & 'vice1' z applicable to prud5ce & folly2 & to cont5d m]ely t our moral faculty is n indiff]5t to ?is class ( actions4 ,fif?ly1 ,virtue is n :olly resolvable into ,b5evol5ce 7t is1 ! g5]al good1 or ,utility#ai74 ,?is is %[n by ! fact t our approbation is n 9 proportion to ! am\nt ( happ9ess fl[+ f an action he means imm$iately fl[+1 :i* does n decide ! "q4 ,we disapprove ( falsehood1 inju/ice1 & unprovok$ viol5ce1 ev5 al?\gh m happ9ess w\ld result f !m ?an f ! contr>y4 ,moreov]1 we are n always judges ( ! :ole consequ5ces ( act+4 ,und\bt$ly1 h[ev]1 b5evol5ce is our duty1 if !re be no moral pr9ciple to oppose x4 ,! title ',human ,nature1' giv5 to ,butl]'s *ief ,e?ical exposition1 indicates t he does n take an a priori view ( ! f\ndations ( ,e?ics1 l ,cudwor? & ,cl>ke1 b makes !m repose on ! con/itution ( ! human m9d4 ,9 ,s]mon fir/1 he lays out ! diff]5t p>ts ( our ,emotional & ,active nature1 includ+ ,b5evol5ce1 ,self-love1 ,consci5ce4 ,! recognition ( ^! ?ree z di/9ct1 & mutually irresolvable1 is ! ,psy*ological basis ( 8 ,e?ics4#bj ,! exi/5ce ( pure or dis9t]e/$ ,b5evol5ce is prov$ by su* facts1 z ,fri5d%ip1 ,compassion1 ,p>5tal & ,filial affections1 ,b5evol5t impulses to mank9d g5]ally4 ,b al?\gh ! object ( b5evol5ce is ! public good1 & ( self-love private good1 yet ! two ultimately co9cide4 ,?is que/ionable ass]tion mu/ trammel any pro( t ! au?or c give ( our possess+ purely dis9t]e/$ impulses4 ,9 a long note1 he impugns ! !ory ( ,hobbes t ,b5evol5t affection & its pleasures are m]ely a =m ( ! love ( ,p[]4 ,he ma9ta9s1 & ) reason1 t ! love ( p[] manife/s its consequ5ces q z mu* 9 cruelty z 9 b5evol5ce4 ,! second argum5t1 to %[ t ,b5evol5ce is a fact ( our con/itution1 involves ! greate/ peculi>ity ( ,butl]'s ,psy*ology1 al?\gh he 0 n ! fir/ to ann\nce x4 ,! s*eme ( ! human feel+s compreh5ds1 9 addition to ,b5evol5ce & ,self-,love1 a numb] ( passions & affections t5d+ to ! same ends z ^! 7"s to ! good ( our fell[s1 o!rs to our own good72 :ile 9 foll[+ !m we are n consci\s ( seek+ ^? ends1 b "s diff]5t ends4 ,su* are our v>i\s ,appetites & ,passions4 ,?us1 hung] promotes our private well-be+1 b 9 obey+ its dictates we are n ?9k+ ( t object1 b ( ! procur+ ( food4 ,curiosity promotes bo? public & private good1 b its direct & imm$iate object is k4 ,?is ref9$ di/9ction appe>s fir/ 9 ,aqu9as2 !re is 9 x a palpable confusion ( ideas4 ,if we reg>d ! f9al impulse ( hung]1 x is n t[>d ! food1 b t[>ds ! appeas+ ( a pa9 & ! ga9+ ( a pleasure1 :i* are c]ta9ly id5tical ) self1 be+ ! def9ition ( self 9 ! la/ resort4 ,we associate ! food ) ! gratification ( ^! dem&s1 & h5ce food becomes an end to u--"o ( ! associat$ or int]m$iate ends4 ,s ! desire ( k is ! desire ( ! pleasure1 or ( ! relief f pa91 accru+ f k2 :ile1 z 9 ! case ( food1 k is to a great degree only an in/rum5t1 & !re=e an int]m$iate & associat$ end4 ,s ! desire ( e/eem is ! desire ( a pleasure1 or else ( ! in/rum5t ( pleasure4 ,9 %ort1 ,butl] tries1 )\t effect1 to evade ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ! w--our be+ mov$ exclusively by pleasure & pa94 ,abundant ref]5ce has be5 already made to ! circum/ances t modify 9 appe>ance1 or 9 reality1 ! op]ation ( ?is pr9ciple4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 self-love & ! p>ticul> appetites1 passions1 & affections1 is ma9ly ! di/9ction betwe5 a great aggregate ( ! reason 7! total int]e/s ( our be+7 & ! sep>ate items t make x up4 ,! di/9ction is int5d$ to prep>e ! way = ! sett+ =? ( ,consci5ce1#ba :i* is call$ a 'pr9ciple ( reflection 9 m51 :]eby !y di/+ui% betwe51 approve & disapprove1 _! own actions4' ,?is pr9ciple has = its result ! good ( society2 /ill1 9 foll[+ x1 we are n consci\s ( aim+ at ! good ( society4 ,a fa!r has an affection = 8 *ildr52 ?is is "o ?+4 ,he has also a pr9ciple ( reflection1 t urges him ) add$ =ce & ) m /eady p]si/5cy ?an any affection1 :i* pr9ciple mu/ !re=e be diff]5t f m]e affection4 ,butl]'s analysis ( ! human feel+s is ?us3 ,i4--,b5evol5ce & ,self-love4 ,,ii4--,! p>ticul> ,appetites1 ,passions1 & ,affections1 op]at+ 9 ! same direction z ,b5evol5ce & ,self-love1 b )\t int5d+ x4 ,,iii4--,consci5ce1 ( :i* ! same is to be said4 ,8 reply to ! objection1--aga9/ our be+ made = ,b5evol5ce1--f\nd$ on our mis*iev\s prop5sities1 is1 t 9 ! same way !re are t5d5cies mis*iev\s to ourselves1 & yet no "o d5ies u ! possession ( self-love4 ,he rem>ks f>!r t ^! evil t5d5cies are ! abuse ( su* z are "r2 ungov]nable passion1 reckless pursuit ( our own good1 & n pure malevol5ce1 are ! causes ( inju/ice & ! o!r vices4 ,9 %ort1 we are made = pursu+ bo? our own good & ! good ( o!rs2 b pres5t gratifications & pass+ incl9ations int]f]e alike ) bo? objects4 ,s]mons ,,ii41 ,,iii41 are meant to e/abli%1 f our moral nature1 ! ,supremacy ( ,consci5ce4 ,our moral duties may be d$uc$ f ! s*eme ( our nature1 :i* %[s ! design ( ! ,deity4 ,!re may be "s difficulties att5d+ ! d$uction1 ow+ to ! want ( uni=mity 9 ! human con/itution4 ,/ill1 ! broad feel+s ( ! m9d1 & ! purpose ( !m1 c no m be mi/ak5 ?an ! exi/5ce & ! purpose ( ! eyes4 ,x c be made q app>5t t ! s+le pr9ciple call$ consci5ce is int5d$ to rule all ! re/4 ,b1 z ,consci5ce is only "o "p ( our nature1 !re be+ two o!r p>ts1 namely1 7#a7 ,b5evol5ce & ,self-love1 & 7#b7 ! p>ticul> ,appetites & ,passions1 :y are !y n all equally natural1 & all equally to be foll[$8 ,?is leads to an inquiry into ! mean+s ( ! ^w ,nature4 ,fir/1 ,nature may mean any prompt+ :atev]2 ang] & affection are equally natural1 z be+ equally "p ( u4 ,secondly1 x may mean our /ronge/ passion1 :at mo/ frequ5tly prevails ) u & %[s our individual *>act]s4 ,9 ?is s5se1 vice may be natural4 ,b1 ?irdly1 we may reclaim aga9/ ^? two mean+s1 & t on ! au?ority bo? ( ! ,apo/le ,paul & ( ! anci5t sages1 & decl>e t ! prop] mean+ ( foll[+ nature is foll[+ ,consci5ce1 or t sup]ior pr9ciple 9 e man :i* be>s te/imony to its own supremacy4 ,x is by ?is faculty1 natural to a man1 t he is a moral ag5t1 a law to himself4 ,m5 may act accord+ to _! /ronge/ pr9ciple1 & yet violate _! nature1 z :5 a man1 urg$ by pres5t gratification1 incurs c]ta9 ru94 ,! violation ( nature1 9 ?is in/ance1 may be express$ z disproportion4 ,!re is ?us a diff]5ce 9 k9d betwe5 passions2 self-love is sup]ior to tempor>y appetite4 ,passion or ,appetite means a t5d5cy t[>ds c]ta9 objects ) no reg>d to any o!r objects4 ,reflection or ,consci5ce /eps 9 to protect ! int]e/s t ^! w\ld lead u to sacrifice4 ,surely1 !re=e1 ?is w\ld be en\gh to con/itute sup]iority4 ,any o!r passion tak+ ! lead is a case ( usurpation4 ,we c h>dly =m a notion ( ,consci5ce )\t ?is idea ( sup]iority4 ,_h x might1 z x has "r1 x w\ld gov]n ! _w4 ,7 !re no su* supremacy1 all actions w\ld be on an equal foot+4 ,impiety1 pr(an5ess1 & blasphemy w\ld be z suitable z rev]5ce2 p>ricide w\ld ju/ify itself by ! "r ( ! /ronge/4 ,h5ce human nature is made up ( a numb] ( prop5sities 9 union ) ?is rul+ pr9ciple2 & z1 9 civil gov]nm5t1 ! con/itution is infr+$ by /r5g? prevail+ ov] au?ority1 s ! nature ( man is violat$ :5 ! l[] faculties triumph ov] consci5ce4 ,man has a rule ( "r )91 if he w hone/ly att5d to x4 ,out ( ?is arrangem5t1 also1 spr+s ,obligation2 ! law ( consci5ce is ! law ( our nature4 ,x c>ries its au?ority ) x2 x is ! guide assign$ by ! ,au?or ( our nature4 ,he !n replies to ! "q1 ',:y %\ld we be conc]n$ ab\t any?+ out ( or beyond ourselves8' ,suppos+ we d possess 9 our nature a reg>d to ! well-be+ ( o!rs1 :y may we n set t aside z be+ 9 our way to our own good4 ,! answ] is1 ,we _c obta9 our own good )\t hav+ reg>d to o!rs1 & und]go+ ! re/ra9ts prescrib$ by morality4 ,!re is seldom any inconsi/5cy betwe5 our duty & our int]e/4 ,self-love1 9 ! pres5t _w1 co9cides ) virtue4 ,if !re are any exceptions1 all w be set "r 9 ! f9al di/ribution ( ?+s4 ,consci5ce & self-love1 if we und]/& our true happ9ess1 always lead u ! same way4 ,su* is a brief outl9e ( ! celebrat$ ',?ree ,s]mons on ,human ,nature4' ,! radical defect ( ! :ole s*eme lies 9 its ,psy*ological basis4 ,because we h1 z mature human be+s1 9 civiliz$ society1 a pr9ciple ( action call$ ,consci5ce1 :i* we recognize z di/9ct f ,self-love & ,b5evol5ce1 z well z f ! ,appetites & ,passions1 ,butl] w\ld make u believe t ?is is1 f ! fir/1 a di/9ct pr9ciple ( our nature4 ,! prop] reply is to analyze ,consci5ce2 %[+ at ! same "t1 f its v great discrepancies 9 diff]5t m9ds1 t x is a gr[?1 or product1 correspond+ to ! education & ! circum/ances ( ea*1 al?\gh ( c\rse involv+ ! common elem5ts ( ! m9d4 ,9 8 ,s]mons on ,compassion 7,v41 ,,vi471 he treats ?is z "o ( ! ,affections 9 8 second gr\p ( ! ,feel+s 7,appetites1 ,passions1 & ,affections72 v9dicates its exi/5ce aga9/ ,hobbes1 :o treat$ x z an indirect mode ( self-reg>d2 & %[s its importance 9 human life1 z an adjunct to ,rational ,b5evol5ce & ,consci5ce4 ,9 discuss+ ,b5evol5ce 7,s]mon ,,xii47 ,butl]'s object is to %[ t x is n ultimately at v>iance ) ,self-love4 ,9 ! introductory obs]vations1 he adv]ts to ! hi/orical fact1 t vice & folly take diff]5t turns 9 diff]5t ages1 & t ! peculi>ity ( 8 own age is 'to pr(ess a contract$ _s1 & great] reg>ds to self-int]e/' ?an =m]ly4 ,he accommodates 8 prea*+ ( virtue to ?is *>act]i/ic ( 8 "t1 & promises t !re %all be all possible concessions made to ! fav\rite passion4 ,8 mode ( argu+ is /ill ! same z 9 ! s]mons on ,human ,nature4 ,self-love does n compreh5d our :ole be+2 x is only "o pr9ciple among _m4 ,x is *>act]iz$ by a subjective end1 ! feel+ ( happ9ess2 b we h o!r ends ( ! objective k9d1 ! ends ( our appetites1 passions1 & affections--food1 injury to ano!r1 good to ano!r1 c4 ,! total happ9ess ( our be+ includes all our ends4 ,self-love att5ds only to "o int]e/1 & if we are too engross$ ) t1 we may sacrifice o!r int]e/s1 & n>r[ ! sph]e ( our happ9ess4 ,a c]ta9 dis5gagem5t ( m9d is necess>y to enjoym5t1 & ! int5sity ( pursuit int]f]es ) ?is4 ,?is is a true rem>k1 b misappli$2 ext]nal pursuit may be s int5se z ne>ly to d away ) subjective consci\sness1 & !re=e ) pleasure2 b ?is applies m to objective ends1--weal?1 ! int]e/ ( o!rs--?an to self-love1 :i* is 9 its nature subjective4 ,n[1 :at applies to ! ,appetites & ,affections applies to ,b5evol5ce2 x is a di/9ct motive or urg5cy1 & %\ld h its scope l e o!r prop5sity1 9 ord] to happ9ess4 ,su* is 8 reason+1 gr\nd$ on 8 peculi> ,psy*ology4 ,he !n adduces ! ord9>y argum5ts to %[1 t seek+ ! good ( o!rs is a positive gratification 9 itself1 & fraught ) pleasure 9 its consequ5ces4 ,9 summ>y1 ,butl]'s views /& ?us3-- ,i4--,8 ,/&>d ( ,"r & ,wrong is ! subjective ,faculty1 call$ by him ,reflection1 or ,consci5ce4 ,he assumes su* an am\nt ( uni=mity 9 human be+s1 9 reg>d to ?is ,faculty1 z to settle all que/ions t arise4 ,,ii4--,8 ,psy*ological s*eme is ! ?reefold division ( ! m9d already br\ght out2 ,consci5ce be+ "o division1 & a di/9ct & primitive elem5t ( our con/itution4 ,he has no ,psy*ology ( ! ,w2 nor does he any:]e inquire into ! problem ( ,lib]ty & ,necessity4 ,he ma9ta9s ! exi/5ce ( ,dis9t]e/$ ,b5evol5ce1 by say+ t ,dis9t]e/$ action1 z oppos$ to direct self-reg>d1 is a mu* wid] fact ( our m5tal sy/em1 ?an ! reg>d to ! welf>e ( o!rs4 ,we h se5 t ?is is a m]e /roke ( +5uity1 & owes its plausible appe>ance to 8 mak+ our associat$ ends ! prim>y ends ( our be+4 ,,iii4--,) reg>d to ! ,summum ,bonum1 or ! !ory ( ,happ9ess1 he holds t m5 _c be happy by ! pursuit ( m]e self2 b mu/ give way to _! b5evol5t impulses z well1 all "u ! guidance ( consci5ce4 ,9 %ort1 virtue is happ9ess1 ev5 9 ?is _w2 &1 if !re be any exception to ! rule1 x w be rectifi$ 9 ano!r _w4 ,?is is 9 fact ! ,platonic view4 ,m5 are n to pursue happ9ess2 t w\ld be to fall into ! n>r[ rut ( self-love1 & w\ld be a failure2 !y are to pursue virtue1 includ+ ! good ( o!rs1 & ! greate/ happ9ess w ensue to ea*4 ,x is a rem>kable indication ( ! _s ( ,butl]'s age1 or ( 8 e/imate ( x1 t he w\ld nev] v5ture to require ( any "o a s+le act ( uncomp5sat$ self-sacrifice4 ,,iv4--,! sub/ance ( ! ,moral ,code ( ,butl] is 9 no respect peculi> to him4 ,he gives no classification ( our duties4 ,8 means & inducem5ts to virtue h j be5 rem>k$ ^u4 ,v4--,! relation%ip ( ,e?ics to ,politics & to ,!ology ne$s no rem>k4 ,,francis ,,hut*eson4 #afid-agdg4 ,hut*eson's views are to be f\nd 9 8 ',inquiry into ! ,ideas ( ,beauty & ,virtue1' 8 ',treatise on ! ,passions1' & 8 po/hum\s "w1 ',a ,sy/em ( ,moral ,philosophy4' ,! la/-m5tion$1 z ! complete/ exposition ( 8 ,e?ics1 ,speculative & ,practical1 is foll[$ "h4 ,!re are ?ree books2 ! fir/ treat+ ( ,human ,nature & ,happ9ess2 ! second1 ( ,laws ( ,nature & ,duties1 previ\s to ,civil ,gov]nm5t & o!r adv5titi\s /ates2 ! ?ird1 ( ,civil ,polity4 ,9 ,book ,i41 ,*ap4 ,i41 ,hut*eson /ates t ! aim ( ,moral ,philosophy is to po9t out ! c\rse ( action t w be/ promote ! highe/ happ9ess & p]fection ( m51 by ! light ( human nature & to ! exclusion ( revelation2 ?us to indicate ! rules ( conduct t make up ! ,law ( ,nature4 ,happ9ess1 ! end ( ?is art1 be+ ! /ate ( ! m9d aris+ f its sev]al grateful p]ceptions or modifications1 ! natural c\rse ( ! inquiry is to consid] ! v>i\s human p[]s1 p]ceptions1 & actions1 & !n to comp>e !m s z to f9d :at really con/itutes happ9ess1 & h[ x may be atta9$4 ,! pr9ciples t fir/ display !mselves 9 *ildhood are ! ext]nal s5ses1 ) "s small p[]s ( spontane\s motion1 introduc+ to ! m9d p]ceptions ( pleasure & pa91 :i* becom+ =?) ! object ( desire & av]sion1 are our fir/ notions ( natural good & evil4 ,next to ,ideas ( ,s5sation1 we acquire ,concomitant ideas ( ,s5sation f two or m s5ses toge!r--numb]1 ext5sion1 c4 ,ideas ( consci\sness or reflection1 :i* is ano!r natural p[] ( p]ception1 complete ! li/ ( ! mat]ials ( k2 to :i*1 :5 ! p[]s ( judg+ & reason+ are add$1 all ! ma9 acts ( ! und]/&+ are giv54 ,!re are /ill1 h[ev]1 "s f9] p]ceptions1 t may be left ov] until ! w is dispos$ (4 ,"u ! head ( ,w1 he notes fir/ ! facts ( ,desire & ,av]sion1 be+ new motions ( ! s\l1 di/9ct f1 ?\gh aris+ out (1 s5sations1 p]ceptions1 & judgm5ts4 ,to ^! x is common to add ,joy & ,sorr[1 aris+ 9 connexion ) desire1 ?\gh !y p>take m ( s5sations ?an ( volitions4 ,acts ( ! w are selfi% or b5evol5t1 accord+ z "o's own good1 or 7z (t5 really 9 fact happ5s7 ! good ( o!rs is pursu$4 ,two calm natural det]m9ations ( ! w are to be conc$$2 ! "o an inv>iable con/ant impulse t[>ds "o's own highe/ p]fection & happ9ess2 ! o!r t[>ds ! univ]sal happ9ess ( o!rs1 :5 ! :ole sy/em ( be+s is reg>d$ )\t prejudice1 & 9 ! abs5ce ( ! notion t _! happ9ess int]f]es ) our own4 ,!re are also turbul5t passions & appetites1 ^: end is _! simple gratification2 :]eupon ! viol5ce & uneas9ess cease4 ,"s are selfi%--hung]1 lu/1 p[]1 fame2 "s b5evol5t--pity1 gratitude1 p>5tal affection1 c42 o!rs may be ( ei!r k9d--ang]1 envy1 c4 ,9 none ( !m is !re any ref]5ce 9 ! m9d to ! greate/ happ9ess ( self or o!rs2 & t !y /& s (t5 9 real opposition to ! calm motions1 is suffici5t pro( ( _! di/9ct "*1 e4g41 ! opposition ( lu/ & calm reg>d = "o's highe/ int]e/4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 he takes up "s f9] p[]s ( p]ception1 & "s o!r natural det]m9ations ( ! w4 ,b\nd up ) see+ & he>+ are c]ta9 o!r p[]s ( p]ception or s5ses--,beauty1 ,imitation1 ,h>mony1 ,design1 summ$ up by ,addison "u ! "n ( ,imag9ation1 & all natural s\rces ( pleasure4 ,! two grateful p]ceptions ( ,novelty & ,gr&eur may be add$ to ! li/ ( natural det]m9ations or s5ses ( pleasure4 ,to attempt to r$uce ! natural s5se ( ,beauty to ! disc]nm5t ( real or app>5t usefulness is hopeless4 ,! next s5se ( ! s\l not$ is ! ,sympa!tic1 9 its two ,phases ( ,pity or ,compassion & ,congratulation4 ,?is is fell[-feel+ on appreh5d+ ! /ate ( o!rs1 & pron5ess to relieve1 )\t any ?\ght ( our own advantage1 z se5 9 *ildr54 ,pity is /rong] ?an congratulation1 because1 :e!r = ourselves or o!rs1 ! desire to repel evil is /rong] ?an to pursue good4 ,sympa?y ext5ds to all ! affections & passions2 x greatly subs]ves ! gr& det]m9ation ( ! s\l t[>ds univ]sal happ9ess4 ,o!r f9] s5ses h actions ( m5 = _! objects1 !re be+ a g5]al det]m9ation ( ! s\l to ex]cise all its active p[]s1--a univ]sal impulse to action1 bodily & intellectual4 ,9 all su* action !re is real pleasure1 b ! gr& s\rce ( human happ9ess is ! p[] ( p]ceiv+ ! moral notions ( actions & *>act]s4 ,?is1 ! ,moral ,s5se1 falls to be fully discuss$ lat]4 ,di/9ct f our moral s5se is ! ,s5se ( ,hon\r or ,%ame1 :5 we are prais$ or condemn$ by o!rs4 ,! ,s5se ( ,dec5cy or ,dignity1 :5 ! m9d p]ceives excell5ce ( bodily & m5tal p[]s 9 ourselves or o!rs1 is also natural1 & di/9ct f ! moral s5se4 ,"s w\ld all[ a natural ,s5se ( ! ,ridicul\s 9 objects or ev5ts4 ,!re foll[ "s rem>ks on ! t5d5cy to associate p]ceptions4 ,9 addition also to ! natural prop5sity t[>ds action1 !re is a t5d5cy 9 repeat$ action to become ,habit1 :]eby our p[]s are greatly increas$4 ,habit & ,cu/oms c raise1 h[ev]1 no new ideas beyond ! s5tim5ts naturally excit$ by ! orig9al actions4 ,sexual desire1 wisely po/pon$ by nature beyond ! e>lie/ ye>s1 does n1 9 man1 end 9 m]e s5sual pleasure1 b involves a natural lik+ ( beauty z an indication ( temp] & mann]s1 :]eupon gr[ up e/eem & love4 ,mank9d h a univ]sal desire ( (fspr+1 & love = _! "y2 also an affection1 ?\gh weak]1 = all blood-relations4 ,!y h1 fur!r1 a natural impulse to society ) _! fell[s1 z an imm$iate pr9ciple1 & are n driv5 to associate only by indig5ce4 ,all ! o!r pr9ciples already m5tion$1 hav+ little or no ex]cise 9 solitude1 w\ld br+ !m toge!r1 ev5 )\t family ties4 ,patriotism & love ( c\ntry are acquir$ 9 ! mid/ ( social ord]4 ,natural ,religion inevitably spr+s up 9 ! be/ m9ds at sight ( ! b5evol5t ord] ( ! _w1 & is soon diffus$ among all4 ,! pr9ciples n[ enum]at$ w be f\nd1 ?\gh 9 v>y+ proportions1 among all m5 n pla9ly mon/r\s by accid5t1 c4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 treats ( ! ,ultimate ,det]m9ations ( ! ,w & ,b5evol5t ,affections4 ,! "q n[ is to f9d "s ord] & subord9ation among ! p[]s t h be5 cit$1 & to discov] ! ultimate ends ( action1 ab\t :i* !re is no reason+4 ,he notices v>i\s sy/ems t make calm self-love ! "o lead+ pr9ciple ( action1 & specially ! sy/em t1 all[+ ! exi/5ce ( p>ticul> dis9t]e/$ affections1 puts ! self-satisfaction felt 9 yield+ to ! g5]\s s5tim5ts above all o!r k9ds ( enjoym5ts4 ,b1 he asks1 is !re n also a calm det]m9ation t[>ds ! good ( o!rs1 )\t ref]5ce to private int]e/ ( any k9d8 ,9 ! case ( p>ticul> desires1 :i* all necess>ily involve an uneasy s5sation until !y are gratifi$1 x is no pro( ( _! be+ selfi% t _! gratification gives ! joy ( success & /ops uneas9ess4 ,on ! o!r h&1 to desire ! welf>e ( o!rs 9 ! int]e/ ( ourselves is n b5evol5ce nor virtue4 ,:at we h to seek are b5evol5t affections t]m9at+ ultimately 9 ! good ( o!rs1 & con/itut$ by nature 7ei!r alone1 or mayhap corroborat$ by "s views ( int]e/7 '! imm$iate cause ( moral approbation4' ,n[1 any?+ to be _h f m5 c\ld n raise )9 u su* affections1 or make u c>eful ab\t any?+ beyond ext]nal deportm5t4 ,nor c\ld rew>ds f ,god1 or ! wi% = self-approbation1 create su* affections1 al?\gh1 on ! supposition ( _! exi/5ce1 ^! may well help to fo/] !m4 ,x is b5evol5t dispositions t we morally approve2 b dispositions are n to be rais$ by w4 ,moreov]1 !y are (t5 f\nd :]e !re has be5 lea/ ?\ght ( cultivat+ !m2 &1 sometimes1 9 ! =m ( p>5tal affection1 gratitude1 c41 !y are foll[$ s little = ! sake ( hon\r & rew>d1 t ?\gh _! abs5ce is condemn$1 !y are !mselves h>dly acc\nt$ virtu\s at all4 ,he !n rebuts ! idea t g5]\s affections are selfi%1 because by sympa?y we make ! pleasures & pa9s ( o!rs our own4 ,sympa?y is a real fact1 b has reg>d only to ! di/ress or suff]+ beheld or imag9$ 9 o!rs1 :]eas g5]\s affection is v>i$ t[>d diff]5t *>act]s4 ,sympa?y c nev] expla9 ! imm$iate ard\r ( our good-w t[>ds ! morally excell5t "*1 or ! eag]ness ( a dy+ man = ! prosp]ity ( 8 *ildr5 & fri5ds4 ,hav+ ?us accept$ ! exi/5ce ( purely dis9t]e/$ affections1 & divid$ !m z be=e into calm & turbul5t1 he puts ! "q1 ,:e!r is ! selfi% or b5evol5t pr9ciple to yield 9 case ( opposition8 ,& al?\gh x appe>s t1 z a fact1 ! univ]sal happ9ess is pref]r$ to ! individual 9 ! ord] ( ! _w by ! ,deity1 ?is is no?+1 unless by "s det]m9ation ( ! s\l we are made to comply ) ! ,div9e int5tions4 ,if by ! desire ( rew>d1 x is selfi%ness /ill2 if by ! desire1 foll[+ ^u ! sight1 ( moral excell5ce1 !n !re mu/ necess>ily exi/ z its object "s det]m9ation ( ! w involv+ supreme moral excell5ce1 o!rwise !re w be no way ( decid+ betwe5 p>ticul> affections4 ,?is leads on to ! consid]ation ( ! ,moral ,faculty4 ,b1 9 ! beg9n+ ( ,*apt] ,,iv41 he fir/ rejects "o by "o ^! v>i\s acc\nts ( ! reason ( our approbation ( moral conduct3--pleasure by sympa?y2 pleasure ?r\gh ! moral s5se2 notion ( advantage to ! ag5t1 or to ! approv]1 & ?is direct or imag9$2 t5d5cy to procure hon\r2 con=mity to law1 to tru?1 fitness1 congruity1 c42 also education1 association1 c4 ,he !n ass]ts a natural & imm$iate det]m9ation 9 man to approve c]ta9 affections & actions consequ5t on !m2 or a natural s5se ( imm$iate excell5ce 9 !m1 n ref]r$ to any o!r quality p]ceivable by our o!r s5ses1 or by reason+4 ,x is a s5se n dep5d5t on bodily organs1 b a settl$ det]m9ation ( ! s\l4 ,x is a s5se1 9 l mann] z1 ) e "o ( our p[]s--voice1 design+1 motion1 reason+1 !re is b\nd up a ta/e1 s5se1 or reli%1 disc]n+ & recomm5d+ _! prop] ex]cise2 b sup]ior to all ^!1 because ! p[] ( moral action is sup]ior4 ,x c be tra9$ l any o!r s5se--he>+1 h>mony1 c4--s z to be br\ght to approve f9] objects1 = in/ance ! g5]al happ9ess r ?an m]e motions ( pity4 ,t x is meant to control & regulate all ! o!r p[]s is matt] ( imm$iate consci\sness2 we mu/ ev] pref] moral good to ! good appreh5d$ by ! o!r p]ceptive p[]s4 ,= :ile e o!r good is less5$ by ! sacrifices made to ga9 x1 moral good is !reby increas$ & reli%$ ! m4 ,! objects ( moral approbation are prim>ily affections ( ! w1 b1 all exp]i5ce %[s1 only su* z t5d to ! happ9ess ( o!rs1 & ! moral p]fection ( ! m9d possess+ !m4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m degrees ( approbation2 &1 :5 we put aside qualities t approve !mselves m]ely to ! s5se ( dec5cy or dignity1 & also ! calm desire ( private good1 :i* is indiff]5t1 be+ nei!r virtu\s nor vici\s1 ! gradation ( qualities morally approv$ may be giv5 ?us3 7#a7 ,dignifi$ abilities 7pursuit ( sci5ces1 c471 %[+ a ta/e above s5suality & selfi%ness4 7#b7 ,qualities imm$iately connect$ ) virtu\s affections--c&\r1 v]acity1 =titude1 s5se ( hon\r4 7#c7 ,! k9d affections !mselves1 & ! m z !y are fix$ r ?an passionate1 & ext5sive r ?an n>r[2 highe/ ( all 9 ! =m ( univ]sal good-w to all4 7#d7 ,! disposition to desire & love moral excell5ce1 :e!r obs]v$ 9 ourselves or o!rs--9 %ort1 true piety t[>ds ,god4 ,he goes on to give a simil> scale ( moral turpitude4 ,aga91 putt+ aside ! indiff]5t qualities1 & also ^? t m]ely make p despicable & prove !m ins5sible1 he cites--7#a7 ! gratification ( a n>r[ k9d ( affection :5 ! public good might h be5 s]v$4 7#b7 ,acts detrim5tal to ! public1 done "u fe> ( p]sonal ill1 or great temptation4 7#c7 ,sudd5 angry passions 7especially :5 gr[n into habits7 caus+ injury4 7#d7 ,injury caus$ by selfi% & s5sual passions4 7#e7 ,delib]ate injury spr++ f calm selfi%ness4 7#f7 ,impiety t[>ds ! ,deity1 z kn[n to be good4 ,! wor/ conceivable disposition1 a fix$1 unprovok$ orig9al malice is h>dly f\nd among m54 ,9 ! end ( ! *apt]1 he re-ass]ts ! supremacy ( ! moral faculty1 & ( ! pr9ciple ( pure b5evol5ce t x involves4 ,! inconsi/5cy ( ! pr9ciples ( self-love & b5evol5ce :5 x arises1 is r$uc$ 9 fav\r ( ! second by ! int]v5tion ( ! moral s5se1 :i* does n hold out future rew>ds & pleasures ( self-approbation1 b decides = ! g5]\s "p by 'an imm$iate undef9able p]ception4' ,s at lea/1 if human nature 7 prop]ly cultivat$1 al?\gh x is true t 9 common life m5 are wont to foll[ _! p>ticul> affections1 g5]\s & selfi%1 )\t ?\ght ( ext5sive b5evol5ce or calm self-love2 & x is f\nd necess>y to c\nt]balance ! advantage t ! selfi% pr9ciples ga9 9 e>ly life1 by propp+ up ! moral faculty ) consid]ations ( ! sure/ mode ( atta9+ ! highe/ private happ9ess1 & ) views ( ! moral adm9i/ration ( ! _w by ! ,deity4 ,b be=e pass+ to ^! subjects1 he devotes ,*apt] ,v4 to ! confirmation ( ! doctr9e ( ! ,moral ,s5se1 & fir/ f ! ,s5se ( ,hon\r4 ,?is1 ! grateful s5sation :5 we are morally approv$ & prais$1 ) ! rev]se :5 we are c5sur$1 he argues 9 8 usual mann]1 involves no ?\ght ( private int]e/4 ,h[ev] ! facts may /&1 x is always "u ! impression ( actions be+ moral or immoral1 t ! s5se ( hon\r works4 ,9 def5ce ( ! doctr9e ( a moral s5se1 aga9/ ! argum5t f ! v>y+ morality ( diff]5t nations1 he says x w\ld only prove ! s5se n uni=m1 z ! palate is n uni=m 9 all m54 ,b ! moral s5se is really m uni=m4 ,=1 9 e nation1 x is ! b5evol5t actions & affections t are approv$1 & :]ev] !re is an error ( fact1 x is ! reason1 n ! moral s5se1 t is at fault4 ,!re are no cases ( nations :]e moral approval is re/rict$ to ! pursuit ( private int]e/4 ,! *ief causes ( v>iety ( moral approbation are ?ree3 7#a7 ,diff]5t notions ( happ9ess & ! means ( promot+ x1 :]eby mu* t is peculi> 9 national cu/oms1 c41 is expla9$1 )\t reflect+ ^u ! moral s5se4 7#b7 ,! l>g] or m conf9$ field on :i* m5 consid] ! t5d5cies ( _! actions--sect1 p>ty1 c\ntry1 c4 7#c7 ,diff]5t op9ions ab\t ! div9e comm&s1 :i* are all[$ to ov]-ride ! moral s5se4 ,! moral s5se does n imply innate complex ideas ( ! sev]al actions & _! t5d5cies1 :i* mu/ be discov]$ by obs]vation & reason+2 x is conc]n$ only ab\t inw>d affections & dispositions1 ( :i* ! effects may be v v>i\s4 ,9 clos+ ?is "p ( 8 subject1 he consid]s t all t is ne$$ = ! =mation ( morals1 has be5 giv51 because f ! moral faculty & b5evol5t affection all ! special laws ( nature c be d$uc$4 ,b because ! moral faculty & b5evol5ce h difficulty 9 mak+ way aga9/ ! selfi% pr9ciples s e>ly root$ 9 man1 x is ne$ful to /r5g!n ^! f\ndations ( morality by ! consid]ation ( ! nature ( ! highe/ happ9ess4 ,) ,*apt] ,,vi4 accord+ly he ent]s on ! discussion ( ,happ9ess1 =m+ ! second half ( 8 fir/ book4 ,! supreme happ9ess ( any be+ is ! full enjoym5t ( all ! gratifications its nature desires or is capable (2 b1 9 case ( _! be+ inconsi/5t1 ! con/ant gratification ( ! high]1 int5s]1 & m durable pleasures is to be pref]r$4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,vii41 he !re=e directly comp>es ! v>i\s k9ds ( enjoym5t & mis]y1 9 ord] to "k :at ( ! fir/ mu/ be surr5d]$1 & :at ( ! second endur$1 9 aim+ at highe/ atta9able happ9ess4 ,pleasures ! same 9 k9d are pref]able1 accord+ z !y are m int5se & endur+2 ( a diff]5t k9d1 z !y are m endur+ & dignifi$1 a fact decid$ at once by our imm$iate s5se ( dignity or wor?4 ,9 ! great div]sity ( ta/es reg>d+ pleasures1 he supposes ! ultimate decision z to ! value ( pleasures to re/ ) ! possessors ( f9] p]ceptive p[]s1 b adds1 t good m5 are ! be/ judges1 because possess$ ( full] exp]i5ce ?an ! vici\s1 ^: ta/es1 s5ses1 & appetites h lo/ _! natural vig\r ?r\gh "o-sid$ indulg5ce4 ,he !n goes ?r\gh ! v>i\s pleasures1 depreciat+ ! pleasures ( ! palate on ! positive side1 & sexual pleasure z transitory & enslav+ :5 pursu$ = itself2 ! s5sual enjoym5ts are1 not)/&+1 q prop] )9 due limits1 & !n1 p]haps1 are at _! highe/4 ,! pleasures ( ! imag9ation1 k1 c41 diff] f ! la/ 9 n be+ prec$$ by an uneasy s5sation to be remov$1 & are cle>ly m dignifi$ & endurable1 be+ ! prop] ex]cise ( ! s\l :5 x is n mov$ by ! affections ( social virtue1 or ! (fices ( rational piety4 ,! sympa!tic pleasures are v ext5sive1 v int5se1 & may be ( v long duration2 !y are sup]ior to all ! =ego+1 if !re is a he>ty affection1 & are at _! height along ) ! feel+ ( univ]sal good w4 ,moral ,enjoym5ts1 f ! consci\sness ( good affections & actions1 :5 by close reflexion we h atta9$ j notions ( virtue & m]it1 rank highe/ ( all1 z well 9 dignity z 9 duration4 ,! pleasures ( hon\r1 :5 our conduct is approv$1 are also among ! highe/1 & :51 z commonly happ5s1 !y are conjo9$ ) ! la/ two classes1 x is ! height ( human bliss4 ,! pleasures ( mir?1 su* z !y are1 fall 9 be/ ) virtue1 & s1 too1 ! pleasures ( weal? & p[]1 9 !mselves unsatisfy+4 ,ang]1 malice1 rev5ge1 c41 are n )\t _! uses1 & give mom5t>y pleasure z remov+ an uneas9ess f ! subject ( !m2 b !y are n to be comp>$ ) ! sympa!tic feel+s1 because _! effects _c long be reg>d$ ) satisfaction4 ,8 g5]al conclusion is1 t z ! highe/ p]sonal satisfaction is _h 9 ! mo/ b5evol5t dispositions1 ! same c\rse ( conduct is recomm5d$ alike by ! two great det]m9ations ( our nature1 t[>ds our own good & ! good ( o!rs4 ,he !n comp>es ! sev]al sorts ( pa91 :i*1 he says1 are n necess>ily 9 ! proportion ( ! correspond+ pleasures4 ,all[+ ! great mis]y ( bodily pa91 he yet argues t1 at ! wor/1 x is n to be comp>$ = a mom5t to ! pa9 ( ! wor/ wrong-do+4 ,! imag9ation1 great z are its pleasures1 _c cause mu* pa94 ,! sympa!tic & moral pa9s ( remorse & infamy are ! wor/ ( all4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ! v>i\s ,temp]s & ,*>act]s are comp>$ 9 po9t ( happ9ess or mis]y4 ,ev5 ! private affections1 9 due mod]ation1 promote ! g5]al good2 b t sy/em is ! be/ possible :]e1 along ) ?is1 ! g5]\s affections also promote private good4 ,no natural affection is absolutely evil2 ! evil ( excess 9 n>r[ g5]\s affection lies 9 ! want ( proportion2 9 calm ext5sive good-w !re c be no excess4 ,! social & moral enjoym5ts1 & ^? ( hon\r1 be+ ! highe/1 ! affections & actions t procure !m are ! *ief means ( happ9ess2 amid human mis*ances1 h[ev]1 !y ne$ support f a tru/ 9 ,provid5ce4 ,! unk9d affections & passions 7ang]1 c47 are uneasy ev5 :5 innoc5t1 & nev] 7 int5d$ to become p]man5t dispositions4 ,! n>r[ k9d ( affections are all t c be expect$ f ! majority ( m51 & are v good1 if only !y are n ! occasion ( unju/ p>tiality to "s1 or1 worse1 ill-gr\nd$ av]sion to o!rs4 ,! re/ ( ! *apt] is tak5 up 9 pa9t+ ! mis]y ( ! selfi% passions :5 9 excess--love ( life1 s5sual pleasure1 desire ( p[]1 glory1 & ease4 ,he has /ill "o 'object ( affection to e rational m9d' t he mu/ deal ) be=e he is done ) consid]+ ! "q ( highe/ happ9ess4 ,?is is ! ,deity1 or ! ,m9d t presides 9 ! ,univ]se4 ,*apt] ,,ix41 at great l5g?1 discusses ! fir/ "p ( ! subject--! fram+ ( prim>y ideas reg>d+ ! ,div9e ,nature4 ,he proves ! exi/5ce ( an orig9al m9d f design1 c41 9 ! _w2 he !n f9ds ?is m9d to be b5evol5t1 on occasion ( :i* he has to deal ) ! great "q ( ,evil1 giv+ reasons = its exi/5ce1 discov]+ its uses1 n>r[+ its range z comp>$ ) good1 & f9ally r$uc+ x by ! consid]ation & pro( ( immortality2 he ends by sett+ =? ! o!r attributes ( ,god--provid5ce1 hol9ess1 ju/ice1 c4 ,9 ,*apt] ,x41 he consid]s ! ,affections1 ,duty1 & ,wor%ip to be ex]cis$ t[>ds ,god4 ,! moral s5se q specially enjo9s wor%ip ( ! ,deity1 int]nal & ext]nal2 int]nal by love & tru/ & gratitude1 c41 ext]nal by pray]1 praise1 c4 ,he seems to ascribe to pray] no?+ beyond a subjective efficacy4 ,9 ! ackn[l$gm5t ( ,god is highe/ happ9ess1 & ! highe/ ex]cise ( ! moral faculty4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,xi41 he closes ! :ole book ) rem>ks on ! ,supreme ,happ9ess ( our ,nature1 :i* he makes to consi/ 9 ! p]fect ex]cise ( ! nobl] virtues1 especially love & resignation to ,god1 & ( all ! inf]ior virtues consi/5t ) ! sup]ior2 also 9 ext]nal prosp]ity1 s f> z virtue all[s4 ,! moral s5se1 & ! true/ reg>d = our own int]e/1 ?us recomm5d ! same c\rse z ! calm1 g5]\s det]m9ation2 & ?is makes up ! supreme c>d9al virtue ( ,ju/ice1 :i* includes ev5 our duties to ,god4 ,temp]ance 9 reg>d to s5sual enjoym5ts1 ,=titude z aga9/ evils1 & ,prud5ce1 or ,consid]ation1 9 reg>d to ev]y?+ t solicits our desires1 are ! o!r virtues2 all subs]vi5t to ,ju/ice4 ,9 no /ation ( life are m5 %ut out f ! enjoym5t ( ! supreme good4 ,book ,,ii4 is a d$uction ( ! m special laws ( nature & duties ( life1 s f> z !y foll[ f ! c\rse ( life %[n above to be recomm5d$ by ,god & nature z mo/ lovely & mo/ advantage\s2 all adv5titi\s /ates or relations among m5 aside4 ,! ?ree fir/ *apt]s are ( a g5]al nature4 ,9 ,*apt] ,i41 he reviews ! circum/ances t increase ! moral good or evil ( actions4 ,virtue be+ prim>ily an affair ( ! w or affections1 !re c be no imputation ( virtue or vice 9 action1 unless a man is free & able to act2 ! necessity & impossibility1 z gr\nds ( non-imputation1 mu/1 h[ev]1 h be5 9 no way br\ght ab\t by ! ag5t himself4 ,9 l mann]1 he consid]s :at effects & consequ5ts ( 8 actions are imputable to ! ag5t2 rem>k+1 by ! way1 t ! want ( a prop] degree ( good affections & ( solicitude = ! public good is morally evil4 ,he !n discusses ! be>+ ( ignorance & error1 v9cible & inv9cible1 & specially ! case :]e9 an errone\s consci5ce ext5uates4 ,! difficulty ( su* cases1 he says1 are due to ambiguity1 :]e=e he di/+ui%es ?ree mean+s ( ,consci5ce t are f\nd1 7#a7 ! moral faculty1 7#b7 ! judgm5t ( ! und]/&+ ab\t ! spr+s & effects ( actions1 ^u :i* ! moral s5se approves or condemns !m1 7#c7 our judgm5ts conc]n+ actions comp>$ ) ! law 7moral maxims1 div9e laws1 c474 ,9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 he lays d[n g5]al rules ( judg+ ab\t ! morality ( actions f ! affections excit+ to !m or oppos+ !m2 & fir/ z to ! degree ( virtue or vice :5 ! ability v>ies2 9 o!r words1 morality z dep5d5t on ! /r5g? ( ! affections4 ,next1 & at great] l5g?1 morality z dep5d5t on ! k9d ( ! affections4 ,"h he attempts to fix1 9 ! fir/ place1 ! degree ( b5evol5ce1 z oppos$ to private int]e/1 t is necess>y to r5d] m5 virtu\s1 or ev5 innoc5t1 9 accordance ) 8 pr9ciple t !re is implant$ 9 u a v high /&>d ( necess>y goodness1 requir+ u to d a public b5efit1 :5 cle>1 h[ev] burd5some or hurtful ! act may be to ourselves2 9 ! second place1 ! proportion t %\ld be kept betwe5 ! n>r[] & ! m ext5sive g5]\s affections1 :]e he does n =get to all[ t1 9 g5]al1 a great "p ( human virtue mu/ necess>ily lie )9 ! n>r[ range4 ,!n he gives a numb] ( special rules = appreciat+ conduct1 advis+1 = ! v sake ( ! good to o!rs t w result !refrom1 t m5 %\ld fo/] _! b5evol5ce by ! ?\ght ( ! advantage accru+ to !mselves "h & h]eaft] f _! virtu\s actions2 & closes ) ! consid]ation ( ! cases :]e9 actions c be imput$ to o!r ?an ! ag5ts4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,iii41 he ent]s into ! g5]al notion ( ,rights & ,laws1 & _! divisions4 ,f "r use ( su* affection or actions z are approv$ by ! moral faculty f _! relation to ! g5]al good1 or ! good ( p>ticul> p]sons consi/5tly ) ! g5]al good1 he di/+ui%es ! "r ( a man to d1 possess1 dem&1 c41 :i* exi/s :5 8 do+1 possess+1 c4 t5d to ! good ( society1 or to 8 own1 consi/5t ) ! rights ( o!rs & ! g5]al good1 & :5 ob/ruct+ him w\ld h ! contr>y t5d5cy4 ,he proce$s to argue1 on utilit>ian pr9ciples1 t ! rights t seem to att5d e natural desire are p]fectly valid :5 n aga9/ ! public int]e/1 b nev] valid :5 !y are aga9/ x4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 conta9s a discussion ^u ! /ate ( ,nature1 ma9ta9+ t x is n a /ate ( an>*y or w>1 b full ( rights & obligations4 ,he po9ts out t indep5d5t /ates 9 _! relation to "o ano!r are subject to no common au?ority1 & s are 9 a /ate ( nature4 ,rights belong 7#a7 to individuals1 7#b7 to societies1 7#c7 to mank9d at l>ge4 ,!y are also natural1 or adv5titi\s1 & aga9 p]fect or imp]fect4 ,*apt] ,v4 ,natural rights are antec$5t to society1 su* z ! "r to life1 to lib]ty1 to private judgm5t1 to m>riage1 c4 ,!y are ( two k9ds--p]fect & imp]fect4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,adv5titi\s rights are divid$ into ,real & ,p]sonal 7a di/9ction *iefly ( legal value47 ,he also exam9es into ! nature & f\ndation ( private prop]ty4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 treats ( ! ,acquisition ( prop]ty1 ,hut*eson1 z is usual ) morali/s1 tak+ ! occupatio ( ! ,roman ,law z a basis ( own]%ip4 ,prop]ty involves ! "r ( 7#a7 use1 7#b7 exclusive use1 7#c7 ali5ation4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,rights drawn f prop]ty are su* z mortgages1 s]vitudes1 c41 be+ rights ( :at may be call$ p>tial or imp]fect own]%ip4 ,*apt] ,,ix4 discusses ! subject ( contracts1 ) ! g5]al conditions requir$ = a valid contract4 ,*apt] ,x4 ,( ,v]acity4 ,l mo/ writ]s on morals1 ,hut*eson breaks 9 ^u ! /rict rule ( v]acity by v>i\s necess>y1 b ill-def9$1 exceptions4 ,expressions ( c\rtesy & etiquette are exempt$1 s also artifices 9 w>1 answ]s extort$ by unju/ viol5ce1 & "s cases ( peculi> necessity1 z :5 a man tells a lie to save ?\s&s ( lives4 ,*apt] ,,xi4 ,oa?s & ,v[s4 ,*apt] ,,xii4 belongs r to ,political ,economy4 ,its subject is ! values ( goods 9 comm]ce1 & ! nature ( co94 ,*apt] ,,xiii4 enum]ates ! v>i\s classes ( contracts1 foll[+ ! ,roman ,law1 tak+ up ,m&atum1 ,depositum1 ,lett+ to ,hire1 ,sale1 c4 ,*apt] ,,xiv4 adds ! ,roman quasi-contracts4 ,*apt] ,,xv4 ,rights aris+ f injuries or wrongs 7torts74 ,he condemns duell+1 b admits t1 :]e x is e/abli%$1 a man may1 9 "s cases1 be ju/ifi$ 9 s5d+ or accept+ a *all5ge4 ,*apt] ,,xvi4 ,rights belong+ to society z aga9/ ! individual4 ,! p]fect rights ( society are su* z ! foll[+3--7#a7 ,to prev5t suicide2 7#b7 ,to require ! produc+ & re>+ ( (fspr+1 at lea/ s f> z to tax & disc\rage ba*elors2 7#c7 ,to compel m51 ?\gh n )\t comp5sation1 to divulge useful inv5tions2 7#d7 ,to compel to "s indu/ry1 c4 ,*apt] ,,xvii4 takes up "s cases :]e ! ord9>y rights ( prop]ty or p]son are set aside by "s ov]be>+ necessity4 ,*apt] ,,xviii4 ,! way ( decid+ controv]sies 9 a /ate ( nature by arbitration4 ,book ,,iii4--,civil ,polity1 embrac+ ,dome/ic & ,civil ,rights4 ,*apt] ,i4 ,m>riage4 ,hut*eson consid]s t ,m>riage %\ld be a p]petual union ^u equal t]ms1 '& n su* a "o :]e9 ! "o p>ty /ipulates to himself a "r ( gov]n+ 9 all dome/ic affairs1 & ! o!r promises subjection4' ,he w\ld all[ divorce = adult]y1 des]tion1 or implacable enmity on ei!r side4 ,^u defect ( *ildr51 "s sort ( concub9age w\ld be pref]able to divorce1 b leav+ to ! woman ! option ( divorce ) comp5sation4 ,he notices ! misrepres5tations reg>d+ ,plato's s*eme ( a community ( wives2 ',nev] 0 !re 9 any plan less provision made = s5sual gratification4' ,*apt] ,,ii4 ,! ,rights & ,duties ( ,p>5ts & ,*ildr54 ,*apt] ,,iii4 ,! ,rights & ,duties ( ,ma/]s & ,s]vants4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 discusses ! ,motives to con/itute ,civil ,gov]nm5t4 ,if m5 7 p]fectly wise & upright1 !re w\ld be no ne$ = gov]nm5t4 ,man is naturally sociable & political ,greek3 xon politikon4 ,*apt] ,v4 %[s t ! natural me?od ( con/itut+ civil gov]nm5t is by cons5t or social compact4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 ,! ,=ms ( ,gov]nm5t1 ) _! respective advantages & disadvantages4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ,h[ f> ! ,rights ( ,gov]nors ext5d4 ,_! lives are m sacr$ ?an ! lives ( private p]sons2 b !y may nev]!less be lawfully resi/$1 &1 9 c]ta9 cases1 put to dea?4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 ,! ways ( acquir+ supreme ,p[]4 ,t gov]nm5t has mo/ div9e "r t is be/ adapt$ to ! public good3 a div9e "r ( succession to civil (fices is ridicul\s4 ,*apt] ,,ix4 takes up ! sph]e ( civil law4 7#a7 ,to en=ce ! laws ( nature2 7#b7 ,to appo9t ! =m c41 ( contracts & dispositions1 ) a view to prev5t fraud2 7#c7 ,to require m5 to foll[ ! mo/ prud5t me?ods ( agriculture1 manufactures1 & comm]ce2 7#d7 ,to prescribe rules 9 matt]s morally indiff]5t1 :]e uni=mity is advantage\s4 ,op9ions %\ld be tol]at$2 all except ,a!ism1 & ! d5ial ( moral obligation4 ,*apt] ,x4 ,! ,laws ( ,peace & ,w>1 belong+ n[ to ! subject ( ,int]national ,law4 ,*apt] ,,xi4 7conclud+ ! "w7 discusses "s cases connect$ ) ! duration ( ! ',politick ,union4' ,?is b>e indication ( topics w suffice to give an idea ( ! work+ out ( ,hut*eson's sy/em4 ,= summ>y3--,i4--,! ,/&>d1 accord+ to ,hut*eson1 is id5tical ) ! ,moral ,faculty4 ,x is ! ,s5se ( unique excell5ce 9 c]ta9 affections & 9 ! actions consequ5t ^u !m4 ,! object ( approval is1 9 ! ma91 b5evol5ce4 ,,ii4--,8 division ( ! feel+s is into calm & turbul5t1 ea* ( ^! be+ aga9 divid$ into self-reg>d+ & b5evol5t4 ,he affirms ! exi/5ce ( pure ,dis9t]e/$ness1 a calm reg>d = ! mo/ ext5d$ well-be+4 ,!re are also turbul5t passions ( a b5evol5t k9d1 ^: end is _! simple gratification4 ,hut*eson has ?us a high] & l[] grade ( ,b5evol5ce2 ! high] w\ld correspond to ! dis9t]e/$ness t arises f ! op]ation ( fix$ ideas1 ! l[] to ^? affections t are g5]at$ 9 u by pleas+ objects4 ,he has no discussion on ! fre$om ( ! w1 cont5t+ himself ) m]e volunt>9ess z an elem5t 9 moral approbation or c5sure4 ,,iii4--,! ,summum ,bonum is fully discuss$4 ,he places ! pleasures ( sympa?y & moral goodness 7also ( piety7 9 ! highe/ rank1 ! passive s5sations 9 ! l[e/4 ,in/ead ( mak+ morality1 l heal?1 a neutral /ate 7?\gh an indisp5sable condition ( happ9ess71 he ascribes to x ! highe/ positive gratification4 ,,iv4--,9 proce$+ ^u ,rights1 in/ead ( ,duties1 z a basis ( classification1 ,hut*eson is foll[+ 9 ! wake ( ! jurisconsults1 r ?an ( ! morali/s4 ,:5 he ent]s into ! details ( moral duties1 he ?r[s aside 8 'moral s5se1' & draws 8 rules1 mo/ ( !m f ,roman ,law1 ! re/ *iefly f manife/ conv5i5ce4 ,v4 & ,,vi4--,hut*eson's relation to ,politics & ,!ology requires no comm5t4 ,,b]n>d ,,de ,,m&eville4 #afgj-agcc4 ,,m&eville 0 au?or ( ',! ,fable ( ! ,bees2 or1 ,private ,vices1 ,public ,b5efits' 7#agad74 ,?is "w is a satire ^u artificial society1 hav+ = its *ief aim to expose ! holl[ness ( ! s-call$ dignity ( human nature4 ,dugald ,/ew>t consid]$ x a recomm5dation to any !ory ( ! m9d t x exalt$ our conceptions ( human nature4 ,%aftesbury's views 7 entitl$ to ?is advantage2 b1 obs]ves ,m&eville1 '! ideas he _h =m$ ( ! goodness & excell5cy ( our nature1 7 z romantic & *im]ical1 z !y are beautiful & amiable4' ,m&eville exam9$ n :at human nature ought to be1 b :at x really is4 ,9 contra/1 !re=e1 to ! morali/s t di/+ui% betwe5 a high] & a l[] 9 our nature1 attribut+ to ! high] ev]y?+ good & noble1 :ile ! l[] ought to be p]secut$ & despis$1 ,m&eville decl>es ! fanci$ high] p>ts to be ! region ( vanity & impo/ure1 :ile ! r5[n$ de$s ( m51 & ! greatness ( k+doms1 really arise f ! passions usually reckon$ base & s5sual4 ,z 8 views are scatt]$ ?r\gh num]\s diss]tations1 x w be be/ to summ>ize !m "u a few heads4 #a4 ,virtue & ,vice4 ,morality is n natural to man2 x is ! inv5tion ( wise m51 :o h endeav\r$ to infuse ! belief1 t x is be/ = ev]ybody to pref] ! public int]e/ to _! own4 ,z1 h[ev]1 !y c\ld be/[ no real recomp5se = ! ?w>t+ ( self-int]e/1 !y contriv$ an imag9>y "o--hon\r4 ,^u ?is !y proce$$ to divide m5 into two classes1 ! "o abject & base1 incapable ( self-d5ial2 ! o!r noble1 because !y suppress$ _! passions1 & act$ = ! public welf>e4 ,man 0 ?us won to virtue1 n by =ce1 b by flatt]y4 ,9 reg>d to praisewor?9ess1 ,%aftesbury1 accord+ to ,m&eville1 0 ! fir/ to affirm t virtue c\ld exi/ )\t self-d5ial4 ,?is 0 oppos$ to ! prevail+ op9ion1 & to ! view tak5 up & criticis$ by ,m&eville4 ,8 own belief 0 diff]5t4 ',x is n 9 feel+ ! passions1 or 9 be+ affect$ ) ! frailties ( nature1 t vice consi/s2 b 9 indulg+ & obey+ ! call ( !m1 contr>y to ! dictates ( reason4' #b4 ,self-love4 ',x is an admirable say+ ( a wor?y div9e1 t ?\gh _m discov]ies h be5 made 9 ! _w ( self-love1 !re is yet abundance ( t]ra incognita left beh9d4' ,!re is no?+ s s9c]e ^u e>? z ! love t creatures be> to !mselves4 ',man c5tres ev]y?+ 9 himself1 & nei!r loves nor hates1 b = 8 own sake4' ,nay1 m1 we are naturally reg>dless ( ! effect ( our conduct ^u o!rs2 we h no innate love = our fell[s4 ,! highe/ virtue is n )\t rew>d2 x has a satisfaction ( its own1 ! pleasure ( contemplat+ "o's own wor?4 ,b is !re no g5u9e self-d5ial8 ,m&eville answ]s by a di/9ction3 mortify+ "o passion to gratify ano!r is v common1 b ?is n self-d5ial2 self-inflict$ pa9 )\t any recomp5se--:]e is t to be f\nd8 ',*>ity is t virtue by :i* "p ( t s9c]e love we h = ourselves is transf]r$ pure & unmix$ to o!rs 7n fri5ds or relatives71 :om we h no obligation to1 nor hope or expect any?+-f4' ,! c\nt]feit ( true *>ity is pity or compassion1 :i* is a fell[-feel+ = ! suff]+s ( o!rs4 ,pity is z mu* a frailty ( our nature z ang]1 pride1 or fe>4 ,! weake/ m9ds 7e4g41 wom5 & *ildr57 h g5]ally ! greate/ %>e ( x4 ,x is excit$ ?r\gh ! eye or ! e>2 :5 ! suff]+ does n /rike our s5ses1 ! feel+ is weak1 & h>dly m ?an an imitation ( pity4 ,pity1 s9ce x seeks r our own relief f a pa9ful sight1 ?an ! good ( o!rs1 mu/ be curb$ & controll$ 9 ord] to produce any b5efit to society4 ,m&eville draws a nice di/9ction betwe5 self-love1 &1 :at he calls1 self-lik+4 ',to increase ! c>e 9 creatures to pres]ve !mselves1 ,mature has giv5 !m an in/9ct1 by :i* e individual values itself above its real wor?4' ,! m mettlesome & spirit$ animals 7e4g41 horses7 are end[$ ) ?is in/9ct4 ,9 u1 x is accompani$ ) an appreh5sion t we d ov]value ourselves2 h5ce our susceptibility to ! confirmatory good op9ion ( o!rs4 ,b if ea* 7 to display op5ly 8 own feel+ ( sup]iority1 qu>rels w\ld inevitably arise4 ,! gr& discov]y :]eby ! ill consequ5ces ( ?is passion are avoid$ is polit5ess4 ',good mann]s consi/s 9 flatt]+ ! pride ( o!rs1 & conceal+ our own4' ,! fir/ /ep is to conceal our good op9ion ( ourselves2 ! next is m impud5t1 namely1 to pret5d t we value o!rs m highly ?an ourselves4 ,b x takes a long "t to come to t pit*2 ! ,romans 7 almo/ ma/]s ( ! _w be=e !y le>n$ polit5ess4 #c4 ,pride1 ,vanity1 ,hon\r4 ,pride is ( great consequ5ce 9 ,m&eville's sy/em4 ',! moral virtues are ! political (fspr+ :i* flatt]y begot ^u pride4' ,man is naturally innoc5t1 timid1 & /upid2 de/itute ( /rong passions or appetites1 he w\ld rema9 9 8 primitive b>b>ism 7 x n = pride4 ,yet all morali/s condemn pride1 z a va9 notion ( our own sup]iority4 ,x is a subtle passion1 n easy to trace4 ,x is (t5 se5 9 ! humility ( ! humble1 & ! %amelessness ( ! %ameless4 ,x simulates *>ity2 'pride & vanity h built m hospitals ?an all ! virtues toge!r4' ,x is ! *ief +r$i5t 9 ! *a/ity ( wom51 & 9 ! c\rage ( m54 ,less cynical morali/s ?an ,m&eville h look$ ) suspicion on po/hum\s fame2 's silly a creature is man1 z t1 intoxicat$ ) ! fumes ( vanity1 he c fea/ on ! ?\ght ( ! praises t %all be paid 8 memory 9 future ages1 ) s mu* ec/asy z to neglect 8 pres5t life1 nay c\rt & covet dea?1 if he b imag9es t x w add to ! glory he _h acquir$ be=e4' ,b ! mo/ notable in/itution ( pride is ! love ( hon\r4 ,hon\r is a '*im]a1' hav+ no reality 9 nature1 b a m]e inv5tion ( morali/s & politicians1 to keep m5 close to _! engagem5ts1 :atev] !y be4 ,9 "s families x is h]$it>y1 l ! g\t2 b1 luckily1 ! vulg> are de/itute ( x4 ,9 ! "t ( *ivalry1 hon\r 0 a v tr\blesome affair2 b 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! #ag? c5tury1 x 0 melt$ ov] aga91 & br\ght to a new /&>d2 '!y put 9 ! same weight ( c\rage1 half ! quantity ( hone/y1 & a v little ju/ice1 b n a scrap ( any o!r virtue4' ,! wor/ ?+ ab\t x is duell+2 b !re are m suicides ?an duels1 s t at any rate m5 d n hate o!rs m ?an !mselves4 ,aft] a half-satirical apology = duell+1 he concludes ) "o insurm\ntable objection2 duell+ is :olly repugnant to religion1 add+ ) ! muffl$ scepticism *>act]i/ic ( ! #ah? c5tury1 'h[ to reconcile !m mu/ be left to wis] heads ?an m9e4' #d4 ,private vices1 public b5efits4 ,m&eville v5tures to comp>e society to a b[l ( pun*4 ,av>ice is ! s\r+1 & prodigality ! sweet5+ ( x4 ,! wat] is ! ignorance & folly ( ! insipid multitude1 :ile hon\r & ! noble qualities ( man repres5t ! br&y4 ,to ea* ( ^! +r$i5ts we may object 9 turn1 b exp]i5ce tea*es t1 :5 judici\sly mix$1 !y make an excell5t liquor4 ,x is n ! good1 b ! evil qualities ( m51 t lead to worldly greatness4 ,)\t luxury we %\ld h no trade4 ,?is doctr9e is illu/rat$ at great l5g?1 & has be5 bett] rememb]$ ?an any?+ else 9 ! book2 b x may be dismiss$ ) two rem>ks4 7#a7 ,x embodies an error 9 political economy1 namely1 t x is sp5d+ & n sav+ t gives employm5t to ! poor4 ,if ,m&eville's aim _h be5 less critical1 & _h he be5 less delight$ ) 8 fam\s p>adox1 we may inf] f ! acut5ess ( 8 reason+ on ! subject1 t he w\ld h anticipat$ ! true doctr9e ( political economy1 z he saw ?r\gh ! fallacy ( ! m]cantile !ory4 7#b7 ,he employs ! t]m1 luxury1 ) great latitude1 z includ+ :atev] is n a b>e necess>y ( exi/5ce4 ,accord+ to ! fa%ionable doctr9e ( 8 day1 all luxury 0 call$ an evil & a vice2 & 9 ?is s5se1 d\btless1 vice is ess5tial to ! exi/5ce ( a great nation4 #e4 ,! orig9 ( society4 ,m&eville's rem>ks on ?is subject are ! be/ he has writt51 & come ne>e/ to ! accr$it$ views ( ! pres5t day4 ,he d5ies t we h any natural affection = "o ano!r1 or any natural av]sion or hatr$4 ,ea* seeks 8 own happ9ess1 & conflict arises f ! opposition ( m5's desires4 ,to make a society out ( ! raw mat]ial ( unciviliz$ m51 is a "w ( great difficulty1 requir+ ! concurr5ce ( _m fav\rable accid5ts1 & a long p]iod ( "t4 ,= ! qualities develop$ among civiliz$ m5 no m belong to !m 9 a savage /ate1 ?an ! prop]ties ( w9e exi/ 9 ! grape4 ,society beg9s ) families4 ,9 ! beg9n+1 ! old savage has a great wi% to rule 8 *ildr51 b has no capacity = gov]nm5t4 ,he is incon/ant & viol5t 9 8 desires1 & incapable ( any /eady conduct4 ,:at at fir/ keeps m5 toge!r is n s mu* rev]5ce = ! fa!r1 z ! common dang] f wild bea/s4 ,! traditions ( antiquity are full ( ! pr[ess ( h]oes 9 kill+ dragons & mon/]s4 ,! second /ep to society is ! dang] m5 are 9 f "o ano!r4 ,to protect !mselves1 sev]al families w\ld be compell$ to accept ! lead]%ip ( ! /ronge/4 ,! lead]s1 see+ ! mis*iefs ( diss5sion1 w\ld employ all _! art to extirpate t evil4 ,?us !y w\ld =bid kill+ "o ano!r1 /eal+ "o ano!r's wives1 c4 ,! ?ird & la/ /ep is ! inv5tion ( lett]s2 ?is is ess5tial to ! gr[? ( society1 & to ! correspond+1 expansion ( law4#bb ,i4--,m&eville's object be+ *iefly negative & dialectical1 he has left little ( positive e?ical !ory4 ,virtue he reg>ds z de facto an arbitr>y in/itution ( society2 :at x ought to be1 he h>dly says1 b ! t5d5cy ( 8 writ+s is to make ! good ( ! :ole to be pref]r$ to private int]e/4 ,,ii4--,he d5ies ! exi/5ce ( a moral s5se & ( dis9t]e/$ness4 ,! motive to obs]ve moral rules is pride & vanity fom5t$ by politicians4 ,he does n reg>d virtue z an indep5d5t end1 ev5 by association1 b consid]s t pride 9 its nak$ =m is ! ev] pres5t inc5tive to good conduct4 ,v4--,! connexion ( virtue ) society is already fully indicat$4 ,9 ,france1 ! "n ( ,,helvetius 7au?or ( ,de l'esprit1 ,de l'homme1 c41 #agae-ga7 is id5tifi$ ) a s]i\s 79 contra/ to ,m&eville71 & p]fectly consi/5t1 attempt to r$uce all morality to direct ,self-int]e/4 ,?\gh he adopt$ ?is ultimate int]pretation ( ! facts1 ,helvetius 0 by no means ! 'l[ & loose morali/' t he has be5 describ$ to be2 &1 9 p>ticul>1 8 own practice display$ a r>e b5evol5ce4 ,,david ,,hume4 #agaa-aggf4 ,! ,e?ical views ( ,hume are conta9$ 9 ',an ,enquiry conc]n+ ! ,pr9ciples ( ,morals4' ,9 an ,introductory ,section 7,i47 he treats ( ! ,,g5]al ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,morals4 ,aft] describ+ ^? t pr(ess to d5y ! reality ( ! di/9ction ( ,"r & ,wrong1 z dis+5u\s disputants1 useless to reason )1--he /ates ! great problem ( ,morals to be1 :e!r ! f\ndation is ,,reason or ,,s5tim5t2 :e!r our k ( moral di/9ctions is atta9$ by a *a9 ( argum5t & induction1 or by an imm$iate feel+ or f9] int]nal s5se4 ,speci\s argum5ts may be urg$ on bo? sides4 ,on ! side ( ,reason1 x may be cont5d$1 t ! ju/ice & inju/ice ( actions are (t5 a subject ( argum5t & controv]sy l ! sci5ces2 :]eas if !y appeal$ at once to a s5se1 !y w\ld be z unsusceptible ( tru? or falsehood z ! h>mony ( v]se1 ! t5d]ness ( passion1 or ! brilliancy ( wit4 ,9 reply1 ! support]s ( ,s5tim5t may urge t ! "* ( virtue is to be amiable1 & ( vice to be odi\s1 :i* are n intellectual di/9ctions4 ,! end ( moral di/9ctions is to influ5ce ! feel+s & det]m9e ! w1 :i* no m]e ass5t ( ! und]/&+ c d4 ,ext+ui% our feel+s t[>ds virtue & vice1 & morality w\ld cease to h any influ5ce on our lives4 ,! argum5ts on bo? sides h s mu* =ce 9 !m1 t we may reasonably suspect t ,reason & ,s5tim5t bo? concur 9 our moral det]m9ations4 ,! f9al s5t5ce ^u actions1 :]eby we pron\nce !m praisewor?y or blameable1 may dep5d on ! feel+s2 :ile a process ( ! und]/&+ may be requisite to make nice di/9ctions1 exam9e complicat$ relations1 & asc]ta9 matt]s ( fact4 ,x is n ! au?or's int5tion1 h[ev]1 to pursue ! subject 9 ! =m ( adjudicat+ betwe5 ^! two pr9ciples1 b to foll[ :at he deems a simpl] me?od--to analyze t complication ( m5tal qualities1 call$ ,,p]sonal ,,m]it3 to asc]ta9 ! attributes or qualities t r5d] a man an object ( e/eem & affection1 or ( hatr$ & contempt4 ,?is is a "q ( fact1 & n ( ab/ract sci5ce2 & %\ld be det]m9$1 z simil> que/ions are1 9 ! mod]n physics1 by foll[+ ! exp]im5tal me?od1 & draw+ g5]al maxims f a comp>ison ( p>ticul> in/ances4 ,section ,,ii4 is ,,( ,,b5evol5ce4 ,8 fir/ rem>k on ,b5evol5ce is1 t x is id5tifi$ 9 all c\ntries ) ! highe/ m]its t human nature is capable ( atta9+ to4 ,?is prep>es ! way = ! f>!r obs]vation1 t 9 sett+ =? ! praises ( a humane1 b5efic5t man1 ! "o circum/ance t nev] fails to be insi/$ on is ! happ9ess to society aris+ ?r\gh 8 good (fices4 ,l ! sun1 an inf]ior m9i/] ( provid5ce1 he *e]s1 invigorates1 & su/a9s ! surr\nd+ _w4 ,may we n !re=e conclude t ! ,,utility result+ f social virtues1 =ms1 at lea/1 a "p ( _! m]it1 & is "o s\rce ( ! approbation paid to !m4 ,he illu/rates ?is by a numb] ( int]e/+ examples1 & def]s ! enquiry--h[ l>ge a "p ( ! social virtues dep5d on utility1 & = :at reason we are s mu* affect$ by x4 ,section ,,iii4 is on ,,ju/ice4 ,t ,ju/ice is useful to society1 & !nce d]ives "p ( its m]it1 w\ld be sup]flu\s to prove4 ,t public utility is ! sole orig9 ( ,ju/ice1 & t ! b5eficial consequ5ces are ! sole f\ndation ( its m]it1 may seem m que/ionable1 b c 9 ! au?or's op9ion be ma9ta9$4 ,he puts ! supposition1 t ! human race 7 provid$ ) su* abundance ( all ext]nal ?+s1 t )\t indu/ry1 c>e1 or anxiety1 e p]son f\nd e want fully satisfi$2 & rem>ks1 t :ile e o!r social virtue 7! affections1 c47 might fl\ri%1 yet1 z prop]ty w\ld be abs5t1 m9e & ?9e unkn[n1 ,ju/ice w\ld be useless1 an idle c]emonial1 & c\ld nev] come into ! catalogue ( ! virtues4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 :]e any ag5t1 z air1 wat]1 or l&1 is s abundant z to supply ev]ybody1 que/ions ( ju/ice d n arise on t p>ticul> subject4 ,suppose aga9 t 9 our pres5t necessit\s condition1 ! m9d ( e man 7 s enl>g$ & s replete ) g5]osity t ea* %\ld feel z mu* = 8 fell[s z = himself--! beau idal ( communism--9 ?is case ,ju/ice w\ld be 9 abeyance1 & its ends answ]$ by ,b5evol5ce4 ,?is /ate is actually realiz$ 9 well-cultivat$ families2 & communism has be5 attempt$ & ma9ta9$ = a "t 9 ! ard\r ( new en?usiasms4 ,rev]se ! above suppositions1 & imag9e a society 9 su* want t ! utmo/ c>e is unable to prev5t ! great] numb] f p]i%+1 & all f ! extremes ( mis]y1 z 9 a %ipwreck ( a siege2 9 su* circum/ances1 ju/ice is susp5d$ 9 fav\r ( self-pres]vation2 ! possibility ( good ord] is at an end1 & ,ju/ice1 ! means1 is disc>d$ z useless4 ,or1 aga91 suppose a virtu\s man to fall into a society ( ruffians on ! road to swift de/ruction2 8 s5se ( ju/ice w\ld be ( no avail1 & consequ5tly he w\ld arm himself ) ! fir/ weapon he c\ld seize1 consult+ self-pres]vation alone4 ,! ord9>y puni%m5t ( crim9als is1 z reg>ds !m1 a susp5sion ( ju/ice = ! b5efit ( society4 ,a /ate ( w> is ! remission ( ju/ice betwe5 ! p>ties z ( no use or application4 ,a civiliz$ nation at w> ) b>b>ians mu/ disc>d ev5 ! small relics ( ju/ice reta9$ 9 w> ) o!r civiliz$ nations4 ,?us ! rules ( equity & ju/ice dep5d on ! condition t m5 are plac$ 91 & are limit$ by _! ,,utility 9 ea* sep>ate /ate ( ?+s4 ,! common /ate ( society is a m$ium betwe5 ! extreme suppositions n[ made3 we h our self-p>tialities1 b h le>nt ! value ( equity2 we h few enjoym5ts by nature1 b a consid]able numb] by indu/ry4 ,h5ce we h ! ideas ( ,prop]ty2 to ^! ,ju/ice is ess5tial1 & x ?us d]ives its moral obligation4 ,! poetic fictions ( ! ,gold5 ,age1 & ! philosophic fictions ( a ,/ate ( ,nature1 equally adopt ! same fundam5tal assumption2 9 ! "o1 ju/ice 0 unnecess>y1 9 ! o!r1 x 0 inadmissible4 ,s1 if !re 7 a race ( creatures s completely s]vile z nev] to conte/ any privilege ) u1 nor res5t any infliction1 :i* is v mu* our position ) ! l[] animals1 ju/ice w\ld h no place 9 our deal+s ) !m4 ,or1 suppose once m1 t ea* p]son possess$ )9 himself e faculty = exi/5ce1 & 7 isolat$ f e o!r2 s solit>y a be+ w\ld be z incapable ( ju/ice z ( spee*4 ,! sph]e ( ?is duty beg9s ) society2 & ext5ds z society ext5ds1 & z x contributes to ! well-be+ ( ! individual memb]s ( society4 ,! au?or next exam9es ! p>ticul> laws embody+ ju/ice & det]m9+ prop]ty4 ,he supposes a creature1 hav+ reason1 b unskill$ 9 human nature1 to delib]ate ) himself h[ to di/ribute prop]ty4 ,8 mo/ obvi\s ?\ght w\ld be to give ! l>ge/ possessions to ! mo/ virtu\s1 s z to give ! p[] ( do+ good :]e !re 0 ! mo/ incl9ation4 ,b s unpracticable is ?is design1 t al?\gh sometimes conceiv$1 x is nev] execut$2 ! civil magi/rate kn[s t x w\ld be utt]ly de/ructive ( human society2 sublime z may be ! ideal ju/ice t x supposes1 he sets x aside on ! calculation ( its bad consequ5ces4 ,see+ also t1 ) nature's lib]ality1 7 all h] gifts equally di/ribut$1 e "o w\ld h s good a %>e t no "o w\ld h a title to compla92 & see+1 f>!r1 t ?is is ! only type ( p]fect equality or ideal ju/ice--!re is no good gr\nd = fall+ %ort ( x b ! k t ! attempt w\ld be p]nici\s to society4 ,! writ]s on ! ,law ( ,nature1 :atev] pr9ciples !y beg9 )1 mu/ assign z ! ultimate reason ( law ! necessities & conv5i5ce ( mank9d4 ,un9/ruct$ nature c\ld nev] make ! di/9ction betwe5 m9e & y\rs2 x is a purely artificial product ( society4 ,ev5 :5 ?is di/9ction is e/abli%$1 & ju/ice requires x to be adh]$ to1 yet we d n scruple 9 extraord9>y cases to violate ju/ice 9 an individual case = ! safety ( ! p at l>ge4 ,:5 ! int]e/s ( society require a rule ( ju/ice1 b d n indicate any rule 9 p>ticul>1 ! resort is to "s analogy ) a rule already e/abli%$ on gr\nds ( ! g5]al int]e/4 ,= det]m9+ :at is a man's prop]ty1 !re may be _m /atutes1 cu/oms1 prec$5ts1 analogies1 "s con/ant & inflexible1 "s v>iable & arbitr>y1 b all pr(ess$ly t]m9at+ 9 ! int]e/s ( human society4 ,b = ?is1 ! laws ( prop]ty w\ld be undi/+ui%able f ! wilde/ sup]/itions4 ,su* a ref]5ce1 in/ead ( weak5+ ! obligations ( ju/ice1 /r5g!ns !m4 ,:at /rong] f\ndations c !re be = any duty ?an t1 )\t x1 human nature c\ld n subsi/2 & t1 accord+ z x is obs]v$1 ! degrees ( human happ9ess g on increas+8 ,ei!r ,ju/ice is evid5tly f\nd$ on ,utility1 or our reg>d = x is a simple in/9ct l hung]1 res5tm5t1 or self-pres]vation4 ,b on ?is la/ supposition1 prop]ty1 ! subject-matt]1 mu/ be also disc]n$ by an in/9ct2 no su* in/9ct1 h[ev]1 c be affirm$4 ,inde$1 no s+le in/9ct w\ld suffice = ! numb] ( consid]ations ent]+ into a fact s complex4 ,to def9e ,inh]itance & ,contract1 a hundr$ volumes ( laws are n en\gh2 h[ !n c nature embrace su* complications 9 ! simplicity ( an in/9ct4 ,= x is n laws alone t we mu/ h1 b au?oriz$ int]pret]s4 ,h we orig9al ideas ( prtors1 & *ancellors1 & juries8 ,in/9cts are uni=m 9 _! op]ation2 birds ( a species build _! ne/s alike4 ,! laws ( /ates are uni=m to ab\t ! same ext5t z h\ses1 :i* mu/ h a ro( & walls1 w9d[s & *imneys1 because ! end 9 view dem&s c]ta9 ess5tials2 b beyond ^!1 !re is e conceivable div]sity4 ,x is true t1 by education & cu/om1 we blame inju/ice )\t ?9k+ ( its ultimate consequ5ces4 ,s univ]sal are ! rules ( ju/ice1 f ! univ]sality ( its end1 t we approve ( x me*anically4 ,/ill1 we h (t5 to recur to ! f9al end1 & to ask1 ,:at mu/ become ( ! _w if su* practices prevail8 ,h[ c\ld society subsi/ "u su* disord]s8 ,?us1 !n1 ,hume consid]s t1 by an inductive det]m9ation1 on ! /rict ,newtonian basis1 he has prov$ t ! ,,sole f\ndation ( our reg>d to ju/ice is ! support & welf>e ( society3 & s9ce no moral excell5ce is m e/eem$1 we mu/ h "s /rong disposition 9 fav\r ( g5]al usefulness4 ,su* a disposition mu/ be a "p ( ! humane virtues1 z x is ! ,,sole s\rce ( ! moral approbation ( fidelity1 ju/ice1 v]acity1 & integrity4 ,section ,,iv4 relates to ,,political ,,society1 & is int5d$ to %[ t ,gov]nm5t1 ,allegiance1 & ! ,laws ( ea* ,/ate1 are ju/ifi$ solely by ,utility4 ,if m5 _h sagacity to p]ceive1 & /r5g? ( m9d to foll[ out1 di/ant & g5]al int]e/s1 !re _h be5 no su* ?+ z gov]nm5t4 ,9 o!r words1 if gov]nm5t 7 totally useless1 x w\ld n be4 ,! duty ( ,allegiance w\ld be no duty1 b = ! advantage ( x1 9 pres]v+ peace & ord] among mank9d4 ,hume is "h suppos+ t m5 ent] into society on equal t]ms2 he makes no all[ance = ! ex]cise ( ! "r ( ! /rong] 9 mak+ compulsory social unions4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n affect 8 reason+ z to ! s\rce ( our approbation ( social duty1 :i* is n usually ext5d$ to tyranny4 ,:5 political societies hold int]c\rse ) "o ano!r1 c]ta9 regulations are made1 t]m$ ,laws ( ,nations1 :i* h no o!r end ?an ! advantage ( ^? conc]n$4 ,! virtue ( ,*a/ity is subs]vi5t to ! utility ( re>+ ! "y1 :i* requires ! comb9ation ( bo? p>5ts2 & t comb9ation reposes on m>ital fidelity4 ,)\t su* a utility1 ! virtue w\ld nev] h be5 ?\ght (4 ,! reason :y *a/ity is ext5d$ to cases :]e *ild-be>+ does n ent]1 is t g5]al rules are (t5 c>ri$ beyond _! orig9al occasion1 especially 9 matt]s ( ta/e & s5tim5t4 ,! prohibition ( m>riage betwe5 ne> relations1 & ! turpitude ( ince/1 h 9 view ! pres]v+ ( purity ( mann]s among p]sons mu* toge!r4 ,! laws ( good mann]s are a k9d ( less] morality1 = ! bett] secur+ ( our pleasures 9 society4 ,ev5 robb]s & pirates mu/ h _! laws4 ,immoral gallantries1 :]e au?oriz$1 are gov]n$ by a set ( rules4 ,societies = play h laws = ! conduct ( ! game4 ,w> has its laws z well z peace4 ,! fights ( box]s1 wre/l]s1 & su* l1 are subject to rules4 ,= all su* cases1 ! common int]e/ & utility begets a /&>d ( "r & wrong 9 ^? conc]n$4 ,section ,v4 proce$s to argue ,,:y ,,utility ,,pleases4 ,h[ev] p[]ful education may be 9 =m+ m5's s5tim5ts1 !re mu/1 9 su* a matt] z morality1 be "s deep natural di/9ction to "w ^u4 ,n[1 !re are only two natural s5tim5ts t ,utility c appeal to3 7#a7 ,self-,int]e/1 & 7#b7 ,g5]osity1 or ! int]e/s ( o!rs4 ,! d$uction ( morals f ,self-,love is obvi\s1 & no d\bt expla9s mu*4 ,an appeal to exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 %[s its defects4 ,we praise virtu\s actions 9 remote ages & c\ntries1 :]e our own int]e/s are out ( ! "q4 ,ev5 :5 we h a private int]e/ 9 "s virtu\s action1 our praise avoids t "p ( x1 & pref]s to fa/5 on :at we are n int]e/$ 94 ,:5 we he> ( ! details ( a g5]\s action1 we are mov$ by x1 be=e we "k :5 or :]e x took place4 ,nor w ! =ce ( imag9ation acc\nt = ! feel+ 9 ^? cases2 if we h an eye solely to our own real int]e/1 x is n conceivable h[ we c be mov$ by a m]e imag9>y int]e/4 ,b ano!r view may be tak54 ,"s h ma9ta9$ t ! public int]e/ is our own int]e/1 & is !re=e promot$ by our self-love4 ,! reply is t ! two are (t5 oppos$ to ea* o!r1 & /ill we approve ( ! pref]5ce ( ! public int]e/4 ,we are1 !re=e1 driv5 to adopt a m public affection1 & to admit t ! int]e/s ( society1 on _! own1 acc\nt1 are n indiff]5t to u4 ,h we any difficulty to compreh5d ! =ce ( humanity or b5evol5ce8 ,or to conceive t ! v aspect ( happ9ess1 joy1 prosp]ity1 gives pleasure2 :ile pa91 suff]+1 sorr[1 communicate uneas9ess8 ,"h we h an unmi/akeable1 p[]ful1 univ]sal s5tim5t ( human nature to build ^u4 ,! au?or gives an exp&$ illu/ration ( ! work+s ( ,b5evol5ce or ,sympa?y1 :i* well des]ves to be read = its m]its ( execution4 ,we mu/ "h cont5t ourselves ) /at+ t x is on ?is pr9ciple ( dis9t]e/$ action1 belong+ to our nature1 t he f\nds ! *ief "p ( our s5tim5t ( ,moral ,approbation4 ,section ,,vi4 takes into ! acc\nt ,,qualities ,,useful ,,to ,,ourselves4 ,we praise 9 individuals ! qualities useful to !mselves1 & are pleas$ ) ! happ9ess fl[+ to individuals by _! own conduct4 ,?is c be no selfi% motive on our "p4 ,= example1 ,,discretion1 s necess>y to ! accompli%+ ( any useful ent]prise1 is comm5d$2 t measur$ union ( ent]prise & caution f\nd 9 great comm&]s1 is a subject ( highe/ admiration2 & :y8 ,= ! usefulness1 or ! success t x br+s4 ,:at ne$ is !re to display ! praises ( ,,indu/ry1 or ( ,,frugality1 virtues useful to ! possessor 9 ! fir/ in/ance8 ,!n ! qualities ( ,,hone/y1 ,,fidelity1 & ,,tru?1 are prais$1 9 ! fir/ place1 = _! t5d5cy to ! good ( society2 &1 be+ e/abli%$ on t f\ndation1 !y are also approv$ z advantage\s to ! individual's own self4 ,a "p ( our blame ( ,,un*a/ity 9 a woman is atta*$ to its imprud5ce ) ref]5ce to ! op9ion reg>d+ x4 ,,/r5g? ,,( ,,m9d be+ to resi/ pres5t c>e1 & to ma9ta9 ! se>* ( di/ant pr(it & enjoym5t1 is ano!r quality ( great value to ! possessor4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ! ,fool & ! ,wise man illu/rates ! same position4 ,9 our approbation ( all su* qualities1 x is evid5t t ! happ9ess & mis]y ( o!rs are n indiff]5t spectacles to u3 ! "o1 l sun%9e1 or ! prospect ( well-cultivat$ pla9s1 imp>ts joy & satisfaction2 ! o!r1 l a l[]+ cl\d or a b>r5 l&scape1 ?r[s a damp ov] ! spirits4 ,he next consid]s ! influ5ce ( bodily end[m5ts & ! goods ( =tune z be>+ ^u ! g5]al "q4 ,ev5 9 animals1 "o great s\rce ( beauty is ! suitability ( _! /ructure to _! mann] ( life4 ,9 times :5 bodily /r5g? 9 m5 0 m ess5tial to a w>rior ?an n[1 x 0 held 9 s mu* m e/eem4 ,impot5ce 9 bo? sexes1 & b>r5ness 9 wom51 are g5]ally contemn$1 = ! loss ( human pleasure att5d+ !m4 ,z reg>ds =tune1 h[ c we acc\nt = ! reg>d paid to ! ri* & p[]ful1 b f ! reflexion to ! m9d ( prosp]ity1 happ9ess1 ease1 pl5ty1 au?ority1 & ! gratification ( e appetite4 ,rank & family1 al?\gh !y may be deta*$ f weal? & p[]1 _h orig9ally a ref]5ce to ^!4 ,9 ,section ,,vii41 ,hume treats ( ,,qualities ,,imm$iately ,,agreeable ,,to ,,ourselves4 ,"u ?is head1 he dilates on ! influ5ce ( ,,*e]fulness1 z a social quality3 on ,,greatness ,,( ,,m9d1 or ,dignity ( ,"*2 on ,,c\rage2 on ,,tranquillity1 or equanimity ( m9d1 9 ! mid/ ( pa91 sorr[1 & adv]se =tune2 on ,,b5evol5ce 9 ! aspect ( an agreeable spectacle2 & la/ly1 on ,,delicacy ( ,ta/e1 z a m]it4 ,z manife/$ to a behold]1 all ^! qualities are engag+ & admirable1 on acc\nt ( ! imm$iate pleasure t !y communicate to ! p]son possess$ ( !m4 ,!y are f>!r te/imonies to ! exi/5ce ( social sympa?y1 & to ! connexion ( t ) our s5tim5t ( approbation t[>ds actions or p]sons4 ,section ,,viii4 br+s =w>d ! ,,qualities ,,imm$iately ,,agreeable ,,to ,,o!rs4 ,^! are ,,good ,,mann]s or ,,polit5ess2 ! ,,wit or ,,+5uity t enliv5s social int]c\rse2 ,,mode/y1 z oppos$ to impud5ce1 arrogance1 & vanity2 ,,cleanl9ess1 & ,,graceful ,,mann]2 all :i* are obvi\sly valu$ = ! pleasures !y communicate to p g5]ally4 ,section ,,ix4 is ! ,,conclusion4 ,:atev] may h be5 ma9ta9$ 9 sy/ems ( philosophy1 he cont5ds t 9 common life ! habitual motives ( panegyric or c5sure are ( ! k9d describ$ by him4 ,he w n ent] into ! "q z to ! relative %>es ( b5evol5ce & self-love 9 ! human con/itution4 ,let ! g5]\s s5tim5ts be ev] s weak1 !y /ill direct a pref]5ce ( :at is s]viceable to :at is p]nici\s2 & on ^! pref]5ces a moral di/9ction is f\nd$4 ,9 ! notion ( morals1 two ?+s are impli$2 a s5tim5t common to all mank9d1 & a s5tim5t ^: objects compreh5d all mank9d2 & ^! two requisites belong to ! s5tim5t ( humanity or b5evol5ce4 ,ano!r spr+ ( our con/itution1 t br+s a great addition ( =ce to moral s5tim5t1 is ,love ( ,fame4 ,! pursuit ( a "*1 "n1 & reputation 9 ! _w1 leads to a habit ( survey+ our own actions1 begets a rev]5ce = self z well z o!rs1 & is ?us ! gu>dian ( e virtue4 ,humanity & ,love ( ,reputation comb9e to =m ! highe/ type ( morality yet conceiv$4 ,! nature ( moral approbation be+ ?us solv$1 !re rema9s ! nature ( obligation2 by :i* ! au?or means to enquire1 if a man hav+ a view to 8 own welf>e1 w n f9d 8 be/ acc\nt 9 ! practice ( e moral virtue4 ,he dwells ^u ! _m advantages ( social virtue1 ( b5evol5ce & fri5d%ip1 humanity & k9dness1 ( tru? & hone/y2 b confesses t ! rule t 'hone/y is ! be/ policy' is liable to _m exceptions4 ,he makes u acqua9t$ ) 8 own !ory ( ,happ9ess4 ,h[ little is requisite to supply ! necessities ( nature8 & :at comp>ison is !re betwe51 on ! "o h&1 ! *eap pleasures ( conv]sation1 society1 /udy1 ev5 heal?1 &1 on ! o!r1 ! common beauties ( nature1 ) self-approbation2 & ! fev]i%1 empty amusem5ts ( luxury & exp5se8 ,?us ends ! ma9 treatise2 b ! au?or adds1 9 an ,app5dix1 f\r additional diss]tations4 ,! fir/ takes up ! "q />t$ at ! outset1 b po/pon$1 h[ f> our moral approbation is a matt] ( reason1 & h[ f> ( s5tim5t4 ,8 h&l+ ( ?is topic is lum9\s & decisive4 ,if ! utility ( actions be a f\ndation ( our approval ( !m1 reason mu/ h a %>e1 = no o!r faculty c trace ! results ( actions 9 _! be>+s ^u human happ9ess4 ,9 ,ju/ice especially1 !re are (t5 num]\s & complicat$ consid]ations2 su* z to occupy ! delib]ations ( politicians & ! debates ( lawy]s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 reason is insuffici5t ( itself to con/itute ! feel+ ( moral approbation or disapprobation4 ,reason %[s ! means to an end2 b if we are o!rwise indiff]5t to ! end1 ! reason+s fall inop]ative on ! m9d4 ,"h !n a s5tim5t mu/ display itself1 a delight 9 ! happ9ess ( m51 & a repugnance to :at causes !m mis]y4 ,reason tea*es ! consequ5ces ( actions2 ,humanity or ,b5evol5ce is r\s$ to make a di/9ction 9 fav\r ( su* z are b5eficial4 ,he adduces a numb] ( illu/rations to %[ t reason alone is insuffici5t to make a moral s5tim5t4 ,he bids u exam9e ,+ratitude1 = in/ance2 good (fices be/[$ on "o side1 ill-w on ! o!r4 ,reason might say1 :e!r a c]ta9 action1 say ! gift ( money1 or an act ( patronage1 0 = ! good ( ! p>ty receiv+ x1 & :e!r ! circum/ances ( ! gift indicat$ a good int5tion on ! "p ( ! giv]2 x might also say1 :e!r ! actions ( ! p]son oblig$ 7 int5tionally or consci\sly hurtful or want+ 9 e/eem to ! p]son oblig+4 ,b :5 all ?is is made out by reason1 !re rema9s ! s5tim5t ( abhorr5ce1 ^: f\ndations mu/ be 9 ! emotional "p ( our nature1 9 our delight 9 manife/$ goodness1 & our abhorr5ce ( ! opposite4 ,he ref]s to ,beauty or ,ta/e z a p>allel case1 :]e !re may be an op]ation ( ! intellect to compute proportions1 b :]e ! elegance or beauty mu/ arise 9 ! region ( feel+4 ,?us1 :ile reason conveys ! k ( tru? & falsehood1 s5tim5t or emotion mu/ give beauty & de=mity1 vice & virtue4 ,app5dix ,no4 ,,ii4 is a discussion ( ,,self-,,love4 ,! au?or adv]ts fir/ to ! position t b5evol5ce is a m]e pret5ce1 a *eat1 a gloss ( self-love1 & dismisses x ) a bur/ ( indignation4 ,he next consid]s ! less (f5sive view1 t all b5evol5ce & g5]osity are resolvable 9 ! la/ resort into self-love4 ,he does n attribute to ! hold]s ( ?is op9ion any laxity 9 _! own practice ( virtue1 z comp>$ ) o!r m54 ,epicurus & 8 foll[]s 7 no /rang]s to probity2 ,atticus & ,horace 7 m5 ( g5]\s dispositions2 ,hobbes & ,locke 7 irreproa*able 9 _! lives4 ,^! m5 all all[$ t fri5d%ip exi/s )\t hypocrisy2 b consid]$ t1 by a sort ( m5tal *emi/ry1 x might be made out self-love1 twi/$ & m\ld$ by a p>ticul> turn ( ! imag9ation4 ,b1 says ,hume1 z "s m5 h n ! turn ( imag9ation1 & o!rs h1 ?is alone is q en\gh to make ! wide/ diff]5ce ( human *>act]s1 & to /amp "o man z virtu\s & humane1 & ano!r vici\s & meanly int]e/$4 ,! analysis 9 no way sets aside ! reality ( moral di/9ctions4 ,! "q is1 !re=e1 purely speculative4 ,z a speculation1 x is op5 to ^! objections4 7#a7 ,be+ contr>y to ! unprejudic$ notions ( mank9d1 x dem&s "s v p[]ful aid f philosophy4 ,on ! face ( ?+s1 ! selfi% passions & ! b5evol5t passions are widely di/+ui%$1 & no hypo!sis has ev] yet s f> ov]come ! disp>ity z to %[ t ! "o c\ld gr[ out ( ! o!r2 we may disc]n 9 ! attempts t love ( simplicity1 :i* has done s mu* h>m to philosophy4 ,! ,animals are susceptible ( k9dness2 %all we !n attribute to !m1 too1 a ref9em5t ( self-int]e/8 ,aga91 :at int]e/ c a fond "m h 9 view :o loses h] heal? 9 att5dance on a sick *ild1 & langui%es & dies ( grief :5 reliev$ f ! slav]y ( t att5dance8 7#b7 ,b f>!r1 ! real simplicity lies on ! side ( indep5d5t & dis9t]e/$ b5evol5ce4 ,!re are bodily appetites t c>ry u to _! objects be=e s5sual enjoym5t2 hung] & ?ir/ h eat+ & dr9k+ = _! end2 ! gratification foll[s1 & becomes a second>y desire4 ,a v que/ionable analysis4 ,s !re are m5tal passions1 z fame1 p[]1 v5geance1 t urge u to act1 9 ! fir/ in/ance2 & :5 ! end is atta9$1 ! pleasure foll[s4 ,n[1 z v5geance may be s pursu$ z to make u neglect ease1 int]e/1 & safety1 :y may we n all[ to humanity & fri5d%ip ! same privileges8 ,?is is ,butl]1 improv$ 9 ! /atem5t4 ,app5dix ,,iii4 gives "s f>!r consid]ations ) reg>d to ,,ju/ice4 ,! po9t ( ! discussion is to %[ t ,ju/ice diff]s f ,g5]osity or ,b5efic5ce 9 a reg>d to di/ant consequ5ces1 & to ,g5]al ,rules4 ,! !me is h&l$ 9 ! au?or's usual happy /yle1 b conta9s no?+ special to him4 ,he omits to /ate :at is also a prime attribute ( ,ju/ice1 its be+ indisp5sable to ! v exi/5ce ( society1 :i* _c be said ( g5]osity ap>t f its contribut+ to ju/ice4 ,app5dix ,,iv4 is on "s ,,v]bal ,,disputes4 ,he rem>ks t1 nei!r 9 ,engli% nor 9 any o!r mod]n tongue1 is ! b\nd>y fix$ betwe5 virtues & tal5ts1 vices & defects2 t praise is giv5 to natural end[m5ts1 z well z to volunt>y ex]tions4 ,! epi!ts intellectual & moral d n precisely divide ! virtues2 nei!r does ! contra/ ( head & he>t2 _m virtu\s qualities p>take ( bo? +r$i5ts4 ,s ! s5tim5t ( consci\s wor?1 or ( its opposite1 is affect$ by :at is n 9 our p[]1 z well z by :at is2 by ! goodness or badness ( our memory1 z well z by cont95ce or dissolut5ess ( conduct4 ,)\t end[m5ts ( ! und]/&+1 ! be/ int5tions w n procure e/eem4 ,! anci5t morali/s includ$ 9 ! virtues :at are obvi\sly natural end[m5ts4 ,prud5ce1 accord+ to ,cic]o1 involv$ sagacity or p[]s ( judgm5t4 ,9 ,ari/otle1 we f9d1 among ! virtues1 ,c\rage1 ,temp]ance1 ,magnanimity1 ,mode/y1 ,prud5ce1 & manly ,op5ness1 z well z ,ju/ice & ,fri5d%ip4 ,epictetus puts p on _! gu>d aga9/ humanity & compassion4 ,9 g5]al1 ! diff]5ce ( volunt>y & involunt>y 0 little reg>d$ 9 anci5t e?ics4 ,?is is *ang$ 9 mod]n times1 by ! alliance ( ,e?ics ) ,!ology4 ,! div9e has put all morality on ! foot+ ( ! civil law1 & gu>d$ x by ! same sanctions ( rew>d & puni%m5t2 & consequ5tly mu/ make ! di/9ction ( volunt>y & involunt>y fundam5tal4 ,hume also compos$ a dialogue1 to illu/rate1 9 8 light & easy /yle1 ! great v>iety1 am\nt+ almo/ to opposition1 ( m5's moral s5tim5ts 9 diff]5t ages4 ,?is may seem adv]se to 8 pr9ciple ( ,utility1 z x is to ! doctr9e ( an ,intuitive ,s5se ( ,"r & ,wrong4 ,he all[s1 h[ev]1 = ! diff]5t ways t p may view ,utility1 see+ t ! consequ5ces ( act+ are (t5 difficult to e/imate1 & p may agree 9 an end )\t agree+ 9 ! means4 ,/ill1 he pays too little att5tion to ! s5tim5tal lik+s & dislik+s t frequ5tly ov]be> ! s5se ( ,utility2 sc>cely recogniz+ x1 except 9 "o passage1 :]e he dwells on ! sup]/itions t m+le ) a reg>d to ! consequ5ces ( actions 9 det]m9+ "r4 ,we %all n[ repeat ! lead+ po9ts ( ,hume's sy/em1 9 ! usual ord]4 ,i4--,! ,/&>d ( ,"r & ,wrong is ,utility1 or a ref]5ce to ! ,happ9ess ( mank9d4 ,?is is ! gr\nd1 z wall z ! motive1 ( moral approbation4 ,,ii4--,z to ! nature ( ! ,moral ,faculty1 he cont5ds t x is a comp\nd ( ,reason1 & ,humane or ,g5]\s ,s5tim5t4 ,he does n introduce ! subject ( ,free-w into ,morals4 ,he cont5ds /rongly = ! exi/5ce ( ,dis9t]e/$ ,s5tim5t1 or ,b5evol5ce2 b sc>cely recognizes x z lead+ to absolute & uncomp5sat$ self-sacrifice4 ,he does n seem to see t z f> z ! approbation ( b5evol5t actions is conc]n$1 we are any?+ b dis9t]e/$ p>ties4 ,! good done by "o man is done to "s o!rs2 & ! recipi5ts are mov$ by _! self-love to enc\rage b5efic5ce4 ,! reg>d to our own b5efactor makes all b5efactors int]e/+4 ,,iii4--,he says little directly be>+ on ! con/itu5ts ( ,human ,happ9ess2 b t little is all 9 fav\r ( simplicity ( life & *eap pleasures4 ,he does n reflect t ! pleasures s+l$ out by him are f> f *eap2 'agreeable conv]sation1 society1 /udy1 heal?1 & ! beauties ( nature1' al?\gh n dem&+ extraord9>y weal?1 _c be secur$ )\t a l>g] %>e ( worldly means ?an has ev] fall5 to ! mass ( m5 9 any community4 ,,iv4--,z to ! sub/ance ( ! ,moral ,code1 he makes no innovations4 ,he talks some:at m lightly ( ! evils ( ,un*a/ity ?an is cu/om>y2 b reg>ds ! prevail+ re/ra9ts z borne out by ,utility4 ,! inducem5ts to virtue are1 9 8 view1 our humane s5tim5ts1 on ! "o h&1 & our self-love1 or prud5ce1 on ! o!r2 ! two classes ( motives conspir+ to promote bo? our own good & ! good ( mank9d4 ,v4--,! connexion ( ,e?ics ) ,politics is n specially br\ght out4 ,! political virtues are moral virtues4 ,he does n dwell ^u ! sanctions ( morality1 s z to di/+ui% ! legal sanction f ! popul> sanction4 ,he draws no l9e betwe5 ,duty & ,m]it4 ,,vi4--,he recognizes no relation%ip betwe5 ,e?ics & ,!ology4 ,! pr9ciple ( ,b5evol5ce 9 ! human m9d is1 he ?9ks1 an adequate s\rce ( moral approbation & disapprobation2 & he takes no note ( :at ev5 sceptics 7,gibbon1 = example7 (t5 dwell ^u1 ! aid ( ! ,!ological sanction 9 en=c+ duties imp]fectly felt by ! natural & unprompt$ s5tim5ts ( ! m9d4 ,,ri*>d ,,price4 7#agbc-agia47 ,price's "w is entitl$1 ',a ,review ( ! pr9cipal que/ions 9 ,morals2 p>ticul>ly ^? respect+ ! ,orig9 ( our ,ideas ( ,virtue1 its ,nature1 ,relation to ! ,deity1 ,obligation1 ,subject-matt]1 & ,sanctions4' ,9 ! ?ird edition1 he add$ an ,app5dix on '! ,be+ & ,attributes ( ! ,deity4' ,! book is divid$ into t5 *apt]s4 ,*apt] ,i4 is on ! orig9 ( our ,ideas ( ,"r & ,wrong4 ,! actions ( moral ag5ts1 he says1 give rise 9 u to ?ree diff]5t p]ceptions3 #a/1 ,"r & ,wrong2 #bnd1 ,beauty & ,de=mity2 #crd1 ,good or ,ill ,des]t4 ,x is ! fir/ ( ^! p]ceptions t he proposes ma9ly to consid]4 ,he comm5ces by quot+ ,hut*eson's doctr9e ( a ,moral ,s5se1 :i* he describes z an implant$ & arbitr>y pr9ciple1 imp>t+ a reli% or disreli% = actions1 l ! s5sibilities ( ! v>i\s s5ses4 ,on ?is doctr9e1 he rem>ks1 ! ,creator might h annex$ ! same s5tim5ts to ! opposite actions4 ,o!r s*emes ( morality1 su* z ,self-love1 ,positive ,laws & ,compacts1 ! ,w ( ! ,deity1 he dismisses z n meet+ ! true "q4 ,! "q1 z conceiv$ by him1 is1 ',:at is ! p[] )9 u t p]ceives ! di/9ctions ( ,"r & ,wrong8' ,! answ] is1 ,! ,,und]/&+4 ,to e/abli% ?is position1 he ent]s into an enquiry into ! di/9ct prov9ces ( ,s5se & ( ,und]/&+ 9 ! orig9 ( our ideas4 ,x is pla91 he says1 t :at judges conc]n+ ! p]ceptions ( ! s5ses1 & contradicts _! decisions1 _c itself be s5se1 b mu/ be "s nobl] faculty4 ,likewise1 ! p[] t views & comp>es ! objects ( all ! s5ses _c be s5se4 ,s5se is a m]e capacity ( be+ passively impress$2 x pres5ts p>ticul> =ms to ! m9d1 & is incapable ( discov]+ g5]al tru?s4 ,x is ! und]/&+ t p]ceives ord] or proportion2 v>iety & regul>ity2 design1 connexion1 art1 & p[]2 aptitudes1 dep5d5ce1 correspond5ce1 & adju/m5t ( p>ts to a :ole or to an end4 ,he goes ov] our lead+ ideas 9 detail1 to %[ t m]e s5se _c furni% !m4 ,?us1 ,solidity1 or ,imp5etrability1 ne$s an ex]tion ( reason2 we mu/ comp>e in/ances to "k t two atoms ( matt] _c occupy ! same space4 ,vis ,in]tic is a p]ception ( ! reason4 ,s ,sub/ance1 ,duration1 ,space1 ,necess>y ,exi/5ce1 ,p[]1 & ,causation involve ! und]/&+4 ,likewise1 t all ,ab/ract ,ideas :atsoev] require ! und]/&+ is sup]flu\sly prov$4 ,! au?or wond]s1 !re=e1 t 8 position 9 ?is matt] %\ld n h be5 soon] arriv$ at4 ,! trac+ ( ,agreem5t & ( ,disagreem5t1 :i* are functions ( ! ,und]/&+1 is really ! s\rce ( simple ideas4 ,?us1 ,equality is a simple idea orig9at+ 9 ?is s\rce2 s are ,proportion1 ,id5tity & ,div]sity1 ,exi/5ce1 ,cause & ,effect1 ,p[]1 ,possibility & ,impossibility2 & 7z he means ultimately to %[7 ,"r & ,wrong4 ,al?\gh ! au?or's exposition is n v lucid1 8 ma9 conclusion is a s\nd "o4 ,s5se1 9 its n>r[e/ acceptation1 gives p>ticul> impressions & exp]i5ces ( ,col\r1 ,s\nd1 ,t\*1 ,ta/e1 ,od\r1 c4 ,! ,intellectual functions ( ,discrim9ation & ,agreem5t are necess>y z a supplem5t to ,s5se1 to recognize ^! impressions z diff]+ & agree+1 z ,equal or ,unequal2 ,proportionate or ,disproportionate2 ,h>moni\s or ,discordant4 ,& f>!r1 e ab/ract or g5]al notion1--col\rs 9 ! ab/ract1 sweetness1 pung5cy1 c4--supposes ^!1 p[]s ( ! und]/&+ 9 addition to ! recipi5cy ( ! s5ses4 ,to apply ?is to ,"r & ,wrong1 ! au?or beg9s by affirm+ :at goes a good way t[>ds begg+ ! "q t "r & wrong are simple ideas1 & !re=e ! result ( an imm$iate p[] ( p]ception 9 ! human m9d4 ,b5efic5ce & ,cruelty are indef9able1 & !re=e ultimate4 ,!re mu/ be "s actions t are 9 ! la/ resort an end 9 !mselves4 ,?is be+ assum$1 ! au?or cont5ds t ! p[] ( imm$iately p]ceiv+ ^! ultimate ideas is ! ,und]/&+4 ,%aftesbury _h cont5d$ t1 because ! p]ception ( "r & wrong 0 imm$iate1 !re=e x mu/ reside 9 a special ,s5se4 ,! conclusion1 ?9ks ,price1 01 to say ! lea/ ( x1 ha/y2 = x does n foll[ t e imm$iate p]ception %\ld reside 9 a special s5sibility or s5se4 ,he puts x to ea* "o's exp]i5ce :e!r1 9 conceiv+ ,gratitude or ,b5efic5ce to be "r1 "o feels a s5sation m]ely1 or p]=ms an act ( und]/&+4 ',w\ld n a ,be+ purely intellig5t1 hav+ happ9ess )9 8 rea*1 approve ( secur+ x = himself8 ,w\ld he n ?9k ?is "r2 & w\ld x n be "r8 ,:5 we contemplate ! happ9ess ( a species1 or ( a _w1 & pron\nce on ! actions ( reasonable be+s :i* promote x1 t !y are "r1 is ?is judg+ errone\sly8 ,or is x no det]m9ation ( ! judgm5t at all1 b a species ( m5tal ta/e z ,%aftesbury & ,hut*eson suppos$8 ,z aga9/ a moral s5se1 ?is reason+ may be effective2 b x obvi\sly assumes an end ( desire1--happ9ess = self1 or = o!rs--& yet does n all[ to t end any %>e 9 mak+ up ! s5se ( "r & wrong4 ,e "o1 ! au?or goes on to say1 mu/ desire happ9ess = himself2 & our rational nature !nce=? mu/ approve ( ! actions = promot+ happ9ess1 & disapprove ( ! contr>y actions4 ,surely ! und]/&+ has "s %>e 9 ! revulsion t we feel :5 any "o br+s ^u himself1 or ^u o!rs1 calamity & ru94 ,a be+ flatt]$ ) hopes ( bliss & !n plung$ into torm5ts w\ld compla9 ju/ly2 he w\ld consid] t viol5ce _h be5 done to a p]ception ( ! human und]/&+4 ,he next br+s out a metaphysical difficulty 9 apply+ "r & wrong to actions1 on ! supposition t !y are m]e effects ( s5sation4 ,all s5sations1 z su*1 are modes ( consci\sness1 or feel+s1 ( a s5ti5t be+1 & mu/ be ( a nature diff]5t f _! causes4 ,col\r is 9 ! m9d1 n an attribute ( ! object2 b "r & wrong are qualities ( actions1 ( objects1 & !re=e mu/ be ideas1 n s5sations4 ,!n1 aga91 !re c be no?+ true or untrue 9 a s5sation2 all s5sations are alike j2 :ile ! moral rectitude ( an action is some?+ absolute & unv>y+4 ,la/ly1 all actions h a nature1 or "*2 some?+ truly belong+ to !m1 & truly affirmable ( !m4 ,if actions h no "*1 !n !y are all indiff]5t2 b ?is no "o c affirm2 we all /rongly believe ! contr>y4 ,actions are n indiff]5t4 ,!y are good or bad1 bett] or worse4 ,& if s1 !y are decl>$ su* by an act ( judgm5t1 a function ( ! und]/&+4 ,! au?or1 consid]+ 8 !sis e/abli%$1 d$uces f x ! coroll>y1 t morality is et]nal & immutable4 ,z an object ( ! ,und]/&+1 x has an inv>iable ess5ce4 ,no w1 n ev5 ,omnipot5ce1 c make ?+s o!r ?an !y are4 ,"r & wrong1 z f> z !y express ! real *>act]s ( actions1 mu/ immutably & necess>ily belong to ! actions4 ,by action1 is ( c\rse und]/ood n a b>e ext]nal effect1 b an effect tak5 along ) its pr9ciple or rule1 ! motives or reasons ( ! be+ t p]=ms x4 ,! matt] ( an action be+ ! same1 its morality reposes ^u ! end or motive ( ! ag5t4 ,no?+ c be obligatory 9 u t 0 n s f et]nity4 ,! w ( ,god c\ld n make a ?+ "r t 0 n "r 9 its own nature4 ,! au?or closes 8 fir/ *apt] ) a criticism ( ! doctr9e ( ,protagoras--t man is ! measure ( all ?+s--int]pret+ x z ano!r phase ( ! view t he is combat+4 ,al?\gh ?is *apt] is b a small "p ( ! "w1 x completes ! au?or's demon/ration ( 8 e?ical !ory4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 is on 'our ,ideas ( ! ,beauty & ,de=mity ( ,actions4' ,by ^! are meant our pleasurable & pa9ful s5tim5ts1 aris+ f ! consid]ation ( moral "r & wrong1 express$ by call+ "s actions amiable1 & o!rs odi\s1 %ock+1 vile4 ,al?\gh1 9 ?is aspect ( actions1 x w\ld seem t ! ref]5ce to a s5se is ! suitable explanation1 he /ill cont5ds = ! int]v5tion ( ! ,und]/&+4 ,! "* ( ! ,deity mu/ appe> m amiable ! bett] x is kn[n & und]/ood4 ,a reasonable be+1 )\t any special s5sibilities1 b kn[+ :at ord] & happ9ess are1 w\ld receive pleasure f ! contemplation ( a univ]se :]e ord] prevail$1 & pa9 f a prospect ( ! contr>y4 ,to behold virtue is to admire h]2 to p]ceive vice is to be mov$ to condemnation4 ,!re mu/ always be a consid]ation ( ! circum/ances ( an action1 & ?is involves intellectual disc]nm5t4 ,! au?or n[ qualifies 8 doctr9e by ! rem>k1 t to "s sup]ior be+s ! intellectual disc]nm5t may expla9 ! :ole ( ! appe>ances1 b inf]ior natures1 su* z ! human1 are aid$ by in/9ctive det]m9ations4 ,our appetites & passions are too /rong = reason by itself1 especially 9 e>ly ye>s4 ,h5ce he is dispos$ to conclude t '9 contemplat+ ! actions ( moral ag5ts1 we h bo? a p]ception ( ! und]/&+ & a feel+ ( ! he>t2' b t ?is feel+ ( ! he>t1 :ile p>tly in/9ctive1 is ma9ly a s5se ( congruity & incongruity 9 actions4 ,! au?or !re=e all[s some?+ to innate s5se1 b diff]s f ,%aftesbury1 :o makes ! :ole a matt] ( intuitive det]m9ation4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 relates to ! orig9 ( our ,desires & ,affections1 by :i* he means m especially ,self-love & ,b5evol5ce4 ,8 position "h is t ,self-love is ! ess5ce ( a ,s5sible be+1 ,b5evol5ce ! ess5tial ( an ,intellig5t be+4 ,by ! v nature ( our s5sitive con/itution1 we _c b *oose happ9ess = self2 & x is only an act ( intellectual consi/5cy to ext5d ! same measure to o!rs4 ,! same qualification1 h[ev]1 is made z to ! insuffici5cy ( a m]e intellectual impulse 9 ?is matt]1 )\t con/itutional t5d5cies4 ,^! con/itutional t5d5cies ! au?or consid]s z made up ( our ,appetites & ,passions1 :ile our ,affections are f\nd$ on our rational nature4 ,!n foll[ a few obs]vations 9 confirmation ( ,butl]'s views z to ! dis9t]e/$ nature ( our affections4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 is on our ,ideas ( good & ill ,des]t4 ,^! are only a v>iety ( our ideas ( "r & wrong1 be+ ! feel+s excit$ t[>ds ! moral ,ag5t4 ,our reason det]m9es1 ) reg>d to a virtu\s ag5t1 t he ought to be ! bett] = 8 virtue4 ,! gr\nd ( su* det]m9ation1 h[ev]1 is n solely t virtu\s conduct promotes ! happ9ess ( mank9d1 & vice detracts f x2 ?is c\nts = mu*1 b n = all4 ,virtue is 9 itself rew>dable2 vice is ( ess5tial dem]it4 ,our und]/&+ recognizes ! absolute & et]nal rectitude1 ! intr9sic fitness ( ! proc$ure 9 bo? aspects4 ,*apt] ,v4 is entitl$ ',( ! ,ref]5ce ( ,morality to ! ,div9e ,nature2 ! ,rectitude ( our ,faculties2 & ! ,gr\nds ( ,belief4' ,! au?or means to reply to ! objection t 8 sy/em1 9 sett+ up a crit]ion indep5d5t ( ,god1 is d]ogatory to ! ,div9e nature4 ,he urges t !re mu/ be attributes ( ! ,deity1 indep5d5t ( 8 w2 z 8 ,exi/5ce1 ,imm5sity1 ,p[]1 ,wisdom2 t ,m9d supposes ,tru? ap>t f itself2 t )\t moral di/9ctions !re c\ld be no ,moral ,attributes 9 ! ,deity4 ,c]ta9 ?+s are inh]5t 9 8 ,nature1 & n dep5d5t on 8 w4 ,!re is a limit to ! univ]se itself2 two inf9ities ( space or ( duration are n possible4 ,! necess>y goodness ( ! div9e nature is a "p ( necess>y tru?4 ,?us1 morality1 al?\gh n ass]t$ to dep5d on ! w ( ! ,deity1 is /ill resolvable into 8 nature4 ,9 all ?is1 ,price av[$ly foll[s ,cudwor?4 ,he !n />ts ano!r difficulty4 ,may n our faculties be mi/ak51 or be s con/itut$ z to deceive u8 ,to :i* he gives ! reply1 made famili> to u by ,hamilton1 t ! d\bt is suicidal2 ! faculty t d\bts be+ itself "u ! same imputation4 ,nay1 m1 a be+ _c be made su* z to be impos$ on by falsehood2 :at is false is no?+4 ,z to ! cases ( actual mi/ake1 ^! ref] to matt]s att5d$ ) "s difficulty2 & x does n foll[ t we mu/ be mi/ak5 9 cases t are cle>4 ,he concludes ) a /atem5t ( ! ultimate gr\nds ( our belief4 ,^! are1 7#a7 ,consci\sness or ,feel+1 z 9 reg>d to our own exi/5ce1 our s5sations1 passions1 c42 7#b7 ,intuition1 compris+ self-evid5t tru?s2 & 7#c7 ,d$uction1 or ,argum5tation4 ,he discusses "u ^! ! exi/5ce ( a mat]ial _w1 & affirms t we h an ,intuition t x is possible4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 consid]s ,fitness & ,moral ,obligation1 & o!r prevail+ =ms ( expression reg>d+ morality4 ,fitness & ,unfitness d5ote ,congruity or ,incongruity1 & are necess>ily a p]ception ( ! ,und]/&+4 ,! t]m ,obligation is m p]plex+4 ,/ill1 x is b ano!r "n = ,rightness4 ,:at is ,"r is1 by t v fact1 obligatory4 ,obligation1 !re=e1 _c be ! creature ( law1 = law may comm& :at is morally wrong4 ,! w ( ,god en=c$ by rew>ds & puni%m5ts _c make "r2 x w\ld only det]m9e :at is prud5t4 ,rew>ds & puni%m5ts d n make obligation1 b suppose x4 ,rectitude is a ,,law1 ! au?oritative guide ( a rational be+4 ,x is ,supreme1 univ]sal1 unalt]able1 & indisp5sable4 ,self-valid & self-orig9at$1 x /&s on immovable f\ndations4 ,be+ ! "o au?ority 9 nature1 x is1 9 %ort1 ! ,div9e au?ority4 ,ev5 ! obligations ( religion are b bran*es ( univ]sal rectitude4 ,! ,sov]eign ,au?ority is n ! m]e result ( 8 ,almighty ,p[]1 b ( ?is conjo9$ ) 8 necess>y p]fections & inf9ite excell5ce4 ,he does n admit t obligation implies an oblig]4 ,he takes notice ( ! objection t c]ta9 actions may be "r1 & yet we are n b\nd to p]=m !m2 su* are acts ( g5]osity & k9dness4 ,b 8 answ] ?r[s no f>!r light on 8 ma9 doctr9e4 ,9 notic+ ! !ories ( o!r writ]s 9 ! same ve91 z ,wolla/on1 he takes occasion to rem>k t1 toge!r ) ! p]ception ( con=mity or fitness1 !re is a simple imm$iate p]ception urg+ u to act accord+ to t fitness1 = :i* no f>!r reason c be assign$4 ,:5 we comp>e innoc5ce & et]nal mis]y1 we are /ruck ) ! idea ( unsuitabl5ess1 & are inspir$ 9 consequ5ce ) int5se repugnance4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 discusses ! ,heads or ,divisions ( ,virtue2 "u :i* he enquires fir/ :at are virtu\s actions2 secondly1 :at is ! true pr9ciple or motive ( a virtu\s ag5t2 & ?irdly1 ! e/imate ( ! degrees ( virtue4 ,he fir/ quotes ,butl] to %[ t all virtue is n summ$ up 9 ,b5evol5ce2 repeat+ t !re is an intr9sic rectitude 9 keep+ fai?2 & giv+ ! usual argum5ts aga9/ ,utility1 gr\nd$ on ! suppos$ crimes t might be committ$ on ?is plea4 ,he is equally oppos$ to ^? t w\ld d5y dis9t]e/$ b5evol5ce1 or w\ld resolve b5efic5ce into v]acity4 ,he urges aga9/ ,hut*eson1 t1 ^! be+ indep5d5t & di/9ct virtues1 a di/9ct s5se w\ld be necess>y to ea*2 9 o!r words1 we %\ld1 = ! :ole ( virtue1 ne$ a plurality ( moral s5ses4 ,8 classification ( ,virtue compreh5ds 7#a7 ,duty to ,god1 :i* he dilates ^u at "s l5g?4 7#b7 ,duty to ,ourselves1 :]e9 he ma9ta9s t our s5se ( self-int]e/ is n en\gh = u4 7#c7 ,b5efic5ce1 ! ,good ( o!rs4 7#d7 ,gratitude4 7#e7 ,v]acity1 :i* he inculcates ) great e>ne/ness1 adv]t+ especially to imp>tiality & hone/y 9 our enquiries aft] tru?4 7#f7 ,ju/ice1 :i* he treats 9 its application to ! ,rights ( ,prop]ty4 ,he consid]s t ! difficulties 9 practice arise p>tly f ! conflict ( ! diff]5t heads1 & p>tly f ! diff]5t modes ( apply+ ! same pr9ciples2 :i* he gives z an answ] to ! objection f ! great diff]5ces ( m5's moral s5tim5ts & practices4 ,he all[s1 besides1 t cu/om1 education1 & example1 may bl9d & deprave our intellectual & moral p[]s2 b d5ies t ! :ole ( our notions & s5tim5ts c\ld result f education4 ,no am\nt ( depravity is able utt]ly to de/roy our moral disc]nm5t4 ,*apt] ,,viii4 treats ( ,int5tion z an elem5t 9 virtu\s action4 ,he makes a di/9ction betwe5 ,virtue 9 ! ,ab/ract & ,virtue 9 ,practice1 or ) ref]5ce to all ! circum/ances ( ! ag5t4 ,a man may d ab/ract wrong1 ?r\gh mi/ake1 :ile z he acts ) 8 be/ judgm5t & ) upright int5tions1 he is practically "r4 ,he gr\nds on ?is a p[]ful appeal aga9/ e attempt at dom9ion ov] consci5ce4 ,! requisites ( ,practical ,morality are 7#a7 ,lib]ty1 or ,free-w1 on :i* he takes ! side ( free-ag5cy4 7#b7 ,intellig5ce1 )\t :i* !re c be no p]ception ( good & evil1 & no moral ag5cy4 7#c7 ,! ,consci\sness ( ,rectitude1 or ,righte\s ,int5tion4 ,on ?is he dwells at "s l5g?4 ,no action is prop]ly ! action ( a moral ag5t unless design$ by him4 ,a virtu\s motive is ess5tial to virtue4 ,on ! "q--,is ,b5evol5ce a virtu\s motive8 he replies3 ,n ! ,in/9ctive b5evol5ce ( ! p>5t1 b only ,rational b5evol5ce2 :i* he all[s to co9cide ) rectitude4 ,reason presid+ ov] ,self-love r5d]s x a virtu\s pr9ciple likewise4 ,! pres5ce ( ,reason 9 great] or less degree is ! crit]ion ( ! great] or less virtue ( any action4 ,*apt] ,,ix4 is on ! diff]5t ,degrees ( ,virtue & ,vice1 & ! modes ( e/imat+ !m2 ! ,difficulties att5d+ ! ,practice ( ,virtue2 ! use ( ,trials1 & ! ess5tials ( a good or a bad ,"*4 ,! consid]ations adduc$ are a numb] ( p]fectly well-kn[n maxims on ! practice ( morality1 & sc>cely add any?+ to ! elucidation ( ! au?or's ,moral ,!ory4 ,! conclud+ *apt]1 on ,natural ,religion1 conta9s no?+ orig9al4 ,to sum up ! views ( ,price3-- ,i4--,z reg>ds ! ,moral ,/&>d1 he ass]ts t a p]ception ( ! ,reason or ! ,und]/&+1--a s5se ( fitness or congruity betwe5 actions & ! ag5ts1 & all ! circum/ances att5d+ !m1--is :at det]m9es ,"r & ,wrong4 ,he f9ds x impracticable to ma9ta9 8 position )\t sundry qualifications1 z we h se54 ,virtue is naturally adapt$ to please e obs]v+ m9d2 vice ! contr>y4 ,"r actions mu/ be grateful1 wrong ungrateful to u4 ,to behold virtue is to admire h]4 ,9 contemplat+ ! actions ( moral ag5ts1 we h bo? a p]ception ( ! und]/&+ & a feel+ ( ! he>t4 ,he ?us re-admits an elem5t ( feel+1 along ) ! intellect1 9 "s undef9$ degree2 cont5d+ only t all morality is n to be resolv$ into feel+ or in/9ct4 ,we h also notic$ ano!r s+ul> admission1 to ! effect t only sup]ior natures c discov] virtue by ! und]/&+4 ,reason alone1 did we possess x 9 a high degree1 w\ld answ] all ! ends ( ! passions4 ,p>5tal affection w\ld be unnecess>y1 if p>5ts 7 suffici5tly alive to ! reasons ( support+ ! "y1 & 7 virtu\s en\gh to be always det]m9$ by !m4 ,utility1 al?\gh n ! sole gr\nd ( ,ju/ice1 is yet admitt$ to be "o important reason or gr\nd ( _m ( its maxims4 ,,ii4--,! nature ( ! ,moral ,faculty1 9 ,price's !ory1 is n a sep>ate "q f ! /&>d1 b ! same "q4 ,8 discussion takes ! =m ( an enquiry into ! ,faculty3--',:at is ! p[] )9 u t p]ceives ! di/9ctions ( ,"r & ,wrong8' ,! two que/ions are mix$ up ?r\gh\t1 to ! detrim5t ( precision 9 ! reason+4 ,) 8 usual facility ( mak+ concessions to o!r pr9ciples1 he says x is n easy to det]m9e h[ f> our natural s5tim5ts may be alt]$ by cu/om1 education1 & example3 :ile x w\ld be unreasonable to conclude t all is d]iv$ f ^! s\rces4 ,t "p ( our moral con/itution dep5d+ on in/9ct is liable to be corrupt$ by cu/om & education to almo/ any l5g?2 b ! mo/ deprav$ c nev] s9k s l[ z to lose all moral disc]nm5t1 all ideas ( j & unju/2 ( :i* he (f]s ! s+ul> pro( t m5 are nev] want+ 9 res5tm5t :5 !y are !mselves ! objects ( ill-treatm5t4 ,z reg>ds ! ,psy*ology ( ,dis9t]e/$ ,action1 he provides no?+ b a repetition ( ,butl] 7,*apt] ,,iii47 & a vague ass]tion ( ! absurdity ( d5y+ dis9t]e/$ b5evol5ce4 ,,iii4--,on ,human ,happ9ess1 he has only a few g5]al rem>ks4 ,happ9ess is an object ( ess5tial & et]nal value4 ,happ9ess is ! end1 & ! only end1 conceivable by u1 ( ,god's provid5ce & gov]nm5t2 b ,he pursues ?is end 9 subord9ation to rectitude4 ,virtue t5ds to happ9ess1 b does n always secure x4 ,a p]son t sacrifices 8 life r ?an violate 8 consci5ce1 or betray 8 c\ntry1 gives up all possibility ( any pres5t rew>d1 & loses ! m 9 proportion z 8 virtue is m glori\s4 ,nei!r on ! ,moral ,code1 nor 9 ! relations ( ,e?ics to ,politics & to ,!ology1 are any fur!r rem>ks on ,price call$ =4 ,,adam ,,smi?4 #agbc-ij4 ,! ',!ory ( ! ,moral ,s5tim5ts' is a "w ( great ext5t & elaboration4 ,x is divid$ into five ,p>ts2 ea* "p be+ aga9 divid$ into ,sections1 & ^! subdivid$ into ,*apt]s4 ,,"p ,i4 is entitl$1 ,,( ,,! ,,propriety ,,( ,,action4 ,section ,i4 is1 ',( ! ,s5se ( ,propriety4' ,propriety is 8 ^w = ,rectitude or ,"r4 ,*apt] ,i41 entitl$1 ',( ,sympa?y1' is a felicit\s illu/ration ( ! g5]al nature & work+s ( ,sympa?y4 ,he calls 9 ! exp]i5ce ( all mank9d to atte/ ! exi/5ce ( our sympa!tic impulses4 ,he %[s ?r\gh :at m$ium sympa?y op]ates2 namely1 by our plac+ ourselves 9 ! situation ( ! o!r p>ty1 & imag9+ :at we %\ld feel 9 t case4 ,he produces ! mo/ notable examples ( ! impressions made on u by our witness+ ! actions1 ! pleasurable & ! pa9ful expression ( o!rs2 effects ext5d+ ev5 to fictiti\s repres5tations4 ,he !n rem>ks t1 al?\gh on "s occasions1 we take on simply & purely ! feel+s manife/$ 9 our pres5ce1--! grief or joy ( ano!r man1 yet ?is is f> f ! univ]sal case3 a display ( angry passion may produce 9 u ho/ility & disgu/2 b ?is v result may be ow+ to our sympa?y = ! p]son likely to suff] f ! ang]4 ,s our sympa?y = grief or = joy is imp]fect until we "k ! cause1 & may be entirely suppress$4 ,we take ! :ole situation into view1 z well z ! expression ( ! feel+4 ,h5ce we (t5 feel = ano!r p]son :at t p]son does n feel = himself2 we act out our own view ( ! situation1 n 84 ,we feel = ! insane :at !y d n feel2 we sympa?ize ev5 ) ! dead4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 is ',( ! ,pleasure ( ,mutual ,sympa?y4' ,x conta9s illu/rations ( ! delight t we exp]i5ce 9 ! sympa?y ( o!rs2 we be+ !reby /r5g!n$ 9 our pleasures & reliev$ 9 our mis]ies4 ,he obs]ves t we dem& ?is sympa?y m urg5tly = our pa9ful emotions ?an = su* z are pleasurable2 we are especially intol]ant ( ! omission ( our fri5ds to jo9 9 our res5tm5ts4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we feel pleasure 9 ! act ( sympa?iz+1 & f9d 9 t a comp5sation = ! pa9 t ! sight ( pa9 gives u4 ,/ill1 ?is pleasure may be m>r$ if ! o!r p>ty's own expression ( grief or ( joy is beyond :at we ?9k suitable to ! situation4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 consid]s '! mann] ( our judg+ ( ! propriety ( o!r m5's affections by _! consonance ) our own1' ,! au?or illu/rates ! obvi\s rem>k1 t we approve ( ! passions ( ano!r1 if !y are su* z we ourselves %\ld feel 9 ! same situation4 ,we require t a man's expression & conduct %\ld be suitable to ! occasion1 accord+ to our own /&>d ( judg+1 namely1 our own proc$ure 9 su* cases4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 cont9ues ! subject1 & draws a di/9ction betwe5 two cases2 ! case :]e ! objects ( a feel+ d n conc]n ei!r ourselves or ! p]son himself1 & ! case :]e !y d conc]n "o or o!r4 ,! fir/ case is %[n 9 matt]s ( ta/e & sci5ce1 :]e we d]ive pleasure f sympa?y1 b yet c tol]ate diff]5ce4 ,! o!r case is exemplifi$ 9 our p]sonal =tunes2 9 ^!1 we _c endure any "o refus+ u _! sympa?y4 ,/ill1 x is to be not$ t ! sympa?iz] does n fully atta9 ! level ( ! suff]]2 h5ce ! suff]]1 aw>e ( ?is1 & desir+ ! satisfaction ( a full accord ) 8 fri5d1 tones d[n 8 own vehem5ce till x c be fully met by ! o!r2 :i* v circum/ance is ev5tually = 8 own good1 & adds to1 r ?an detracts f1 ! tranquilliz+ influ5ce ( a fri5dly pres5ce4 ,we sob] d[n our feel+s /ill m be=e casual acqua9tance & /rang]s2 & h5ce ! great] equality ( temp] 9 ! man ( ! _w ?an 9 ! recluse4 ,*apt] ,v4 makes an application ( ^! rem>ks to expla9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,amiable & ! ,respectable ,virtues4 ,! s(t1 ! g5tle1 & ! amiable qualities are manife/$ :51 z sympa?iz]s1 we ent] fully into ! express$ s5tim5ts ( ano!r2 ! great1 ! awful & respectable virtues ( self-d5ial1 are %[n :5 ! pr9cipal p]son conc]n$ br+s d[n 8 own case to ! level t ! mo/ ord9>y sympa?y c easily atta9 to4 ,! "o is ! virtue ( giv+ mu*1 ! o!r ( expect+ little4 ,section ,,ii4 is ',( ! ,degrees ( ! diff]5t passions :i* are consi/5t ) propriety4' ,"u ?is head he reviews ! lead+ passions1 rem>ks h[ f>1 & :y1 we c sympa?ize ) ea*4 ,*apt] ,i4 is on ! ,passions hav+ _! orig9 9 ! body4 ,we c sympa?ize ) hung] to a c]ta9 limit$ ext5t1 & 9 c]ta9 circum/ances2 b we c r>ely tol]ate any v prom95t expression ( x4 ,! same limitations apply to ! passion ( ! sexes4 ,we p>tly sympa?ize ) bodily pa91 b n ) ! viol5t expression ( x4 ,^! feel+s are 9 m>k$ contra/ to ! passions seat$ 9 ! imag9ation3 :]e9 our appetite = sympa?y is complete2 disappo9t$ love or ambition1 loss ( fri5ds or ( dignity1 are suitable to repres5tation 9 art4 ,on ! same pr9ciple1 we c sympa?ize ) dang]2 z reg>ds our p[] ( conceiv+1 we are on a level ) ! suff]]4 ,f our inability to ent] into bodily pa91 we ! m admire ! man t c be> x ) firmness4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 is on c]ta9 ,passions dep5d+ on a peculi> turn ( ! ,imag9ation4 ,"u ?is he exemplifies *iefly ! situation ( two lov]s1 ) ^: passion1 9 its int5sity1 a ?ird p]son _c sympa?ize1 al?\gh "o may ent] into ! hopes ( happ9ess1 & into ! dang]s & calamities (t5 fl[+ f x4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 is on ! ,unsocial ,passions4 ,^! necess>ily divide our sympa?y betwe5 him t feels !m & him t is _! object4 ,res5tm5t is especially h>d to sympa?ize )4 ,we may ourselves res5t wrong done to ano!r1 b ! less s t ! suff]] /rongly res5ts x4 ,moreov]1 !re is 9 ! passion itself an elem5t ( ! disagreeable & repulsive2 its manife/ation is naturally di/a/eful4 ,x may be useful & ev5 necess>y1 b s is a prison1 :i* is n on t acc\nt a pleasant object4 ,9 ord] to make its gratification agreeable1 !re mu/ be _m well kn[n conditions & qualifications att5d+ x4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 gives ! contra/ ( ! ,social ,passions4 ,x is ) ! humane1 ! b5evol5t s5tim5ts1 t our sympa?y is unre/rict$ & complete4 ,ev5 9 _! excess1 !y nev] inspire av]sion4 ,*apt] ,v4 is on ! ,selfi% ,passions4 ,he supposes ^!1 9 reg>d to sympa?y1 to hold a middle place betwe5 ! social & ! unsocial4 ,we sympa?ize ) small joys & ) great sorr[s2 & n ) great joys 7:i* disp5se ) our aid1 if !y d n excite our envy7 or ) small tr\bles4 ,section ,,iii4 consid]s ! effects ( prosp]ity & adv]sity ^u ! judgm5ts ( mank9d reg>d+ propriety ( action4 ,*apt] ,i4 puts =w>d ! proposition t our sympa?y ) sorr[1 al?\gh m lively ?an our sympa?y ) joy1 falls %ort ( ! int5sity ( feel+ 9 ! p]son conc]n$4 ,x is agreeable to sympa?ize ) joy1 & we d s ) ! he>t2 ! pa9fulness ( ent]+ into grief & mis]y holds u back4 ,h5ce1 z he rem>k$ be=e1 ! magnanimity & nobl5ess ( ! man t represses 8 woes1 & does n exact our compassionate p>ticipation4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 inquires into ! orig9 ( ,ambition1 & ( ! di/9ction ( ,ranks4 ,proce$+ ^u ! pr9ciple j en\nc$1 t mank9d sympa?ize ) joy r ?an ) sorr[1 ! au?or composes an exce$+ly eloqu5t homily on ! wor%ip paid to rank & greatness4 ,*apt] ,,iii41 9 cont9uation ( ! same !me1 illu/rates ! corruption ( our moral s5tim5ts1 aris+ f ?is wor%ip ( ! great4 ',we frequ5tly see ! respectful att5tions ( ! _w m /rongly direct$ t[>ds ! ri* & ! great1 ?an t[>ds ! wise & ! virtu\s4' ',! ext]nal graces1 ! frivol\s accompli%m5ts ( t imp]t95t & fooli% ?+ call$ a man ( fa%ion1 are commonly m admir$ ?an ! solid & mascul9e virtues ( a w>rior1 a /atesman1 a philosoph]1 or a legislator4' ,,"p ,,ii4 is ,,( ,,m]it ,,& ,,dem]it2 ,,or ,,( ,,! ,,objects ,,( ,,rew>d ,,& ,,puni%m5t4 ,x consi/s ( ?ree ,sections4 ,section ,i4 is1 ,( ! ,s5se ( ,m]it & ,dem]it4 ,*apt] ,i4 ma9ta9s t :atev] appe>s to be ! prop] object ( gratitude1 appe>s to des]ve rew>d2 & t :atev] appe>s to be ! prop] object ( res5tm5t1 appe>s to des]ve puni%m5t4 ,! au?or di/+ui%es betwe5 gratitude & m]e love or lik+2 &1 obv]sely1 betwe5 res5tm5t & hatr$4 ,love makes u pleas$ to see any "o promot$2 b gratitude urges u to be ourselves ! in/rum5t ( _! promotion4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 det]m9es ! prop] objects ( ,gratitude & ,res5tm5t1 ^! be+ also ! prop] objects ( ,rew>d & ,puni%m5t respectively4 ',^!1 z well z all ! o!r passions ( human nature1 seem prop]1 & are approv$ (1 :5 ! he>t ( e imp>tial spectator entirely sympa?izes ) !m1 :5 e indiff]5t by-/&] entirely ent]s into1 & goes along ) !m4' ,9 %ort1 a good moral decision is obta9$ by ! unanim\s vote ( all imp>tial p]sons4 ,?is view is 9 accordance ) ! c\rse tak5 by ! m9d 9 ! two contra/+ situations4 ,9 sympa?iz+ ) ! joy ( a prosp]\s p]son1 we approve ( 8 complac5t & grateful s5tim5t t[>ds ! au?or ( 8 prosp]ity2 we make 8 gratitude our own3 9 sympa?iz+ ) sorr[1 we ent] into1 & approve (1 ! natural res5tm5t t[>ds ! ag5t caus+ x4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 rem>ks t :]e we d n approve ( ! conduct ( ! p]son conf]r+ ! b5efit1 we h little sympa?y ) ! gratitude ( ! receiv]2 we d n c>e to ent] into ! gratitude ( ! fav\rites ( pr(ligate mon>*s4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 supposes ! case ( our approv+ /rongly ! conduct & ! motives ( a b5efactor1 9 :i* case we sympa?ize to a correspond+ degree ) ! gratitude ( ! receiv]4 ,*apt] ,v4 sums up ! analysis ( ! ,s5se ( ,m]it & ( ,dem]it ?us3--,! s5se ( ,m]it is a comp\nd s5tim5t1 made up ( two di/9ct emotions2 a direct sympa?y ) ! s5tim5ts ( ! ag5t 7con/itut+ ! propriety ( ! action71 & an indirect sympa?y ) ! gratitude ( ! recipi5t4 ,! s5se ( ,dem]it includes a direct antipa?y to ! s5tim5ts ( ! ag5t1 & an indirect sympa?y ) ! res5tm5t ( ! suff]]4 ,section ,,ii4 is ,( ,ju/ice & ,b5efic5ce4 ,*apt] ,i4 comp>es ! two virtues4 ,actions ( a b5efic5t t5d5cy1 f prop] motives1 seem alone to require a rew>d2 actions ( a hurtful t5d5cy1 f improp] motives1 seem alone to des]ve puni%m5t4 ,x is ! nature ( ,b5efic5ce to be free2 ! m]e abs5ce ( x does n expose to puni%m5t4 ,( all ! duties ( b5efic5ce1 ! "o mo/ alli$ to p]fect obligation is gratitude2 b al?\gh we talk ( ! debt ( gratitude 7we d n say ! debt ( *>ity71 we d n puni% +ratitude4 ,res5tm5t1 ! s\rce ( puni%m5t1 is giv5 = def5ce aga9/ positive evil2 we employ x n to extort b5efits1 b to repel injuries4 ,n[1 ! injury is ! violation ( ,ju/ice4 ,! s5se ( mank9d goes along ) ! employm5t ( viol5ce to av5ge ! hurt done by inju/ice1 to prev5t ! injury1 & to re/ra9 ! (f5d]4 ,b5efic5ce1 !n1 is ! subject ( rew>d2 & ! want ( x is n ! subject ( puni%m5t4 ,!re may be cases :]e a b5efic5t act is compell$ by puni%m5t1 z 9 oblig+ a fa!r to support 8 family1 or 9 puni%+ a man = n int]f]+ :5 ano!r is 9 dang]2 b ^! cases are immat]ial exceptions to ! broad def9ition4 ,he might h add$1 t 9 cases :]e ju/ice is p]=m$ "u unusual difficulties1 & ) unusual fidelity1 our disposition w\ld be n m]ely to exempt f puni%m5t1 b to rew>d4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 consid]s ! s5se ( ,ju/ice1 ,remorse1 & ! feel+ ( ,m]it4 ,e man is recomm5d$ by nature to 8 own c>e1 be+ fitt] to take c>e ( himself ?an ( ano!r p]son4 ,we approve1 !re=e1 ( ea* "o seek+ _! own good2 b !n x mu/ n be to ! hurt ( any o!r be+4 ,! prim>y feel+ ( self-pres]vation w\ld n ( itself1 h[ev]1 be %ock$ at caus+ injury to our fell[s4 ,x is :5 we pass out ( ?is po9t ( view1 & ent] into ! m5tal /ate ( ! spectator ( our actions1 t we feel ! s5se ( inju/ice & ! /+ ( ,remorse4 ,?\gh x may be true t e individual 9 8 own brea/ pref]s himself to mank9d1 yet he d>es n look mank9d 9 ! face1 & av[ t he acts on ?is pr9ciple4 ,a man is approv$ :5 he out/rips 8 fell[s 9 a fair race2 he is condemn$ :5 he jo/les or trips up a competitor unfairly4 ,! actor takes home to himself ?is feel+2 a feel+ kn[n z ,%ame1 ,dread ( ,puni%m5t1 & ,remorse4 ,s ) ! obv]se4 ,he t p]=ms a g5]\s action c realize ! s5tim5ts ( ! by-/&]1 & applaud himself by sympa?y ) ! approbation ( ! suppos$ imp>tial judge4 ,?is is ! s5se ( ,m]it4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 gives reflections ^u ! utility ( ?is con/itution ( our nature4 ,human be+s are dep5d5t ^u "o ano!r = mutual assi/ance1 & are expos$ to mutual injuries4 ,society might exi/ )\t love or b5efic5ce1 b n )\t mutual ab/95ce f injury4 ,b5efic5ce is ! ornam5t t embelli%es ! build+2 ,ju/ice ! ma9 pill> t supports x4 ,x is = ! obs]vance ( ,ju/ice t we ne$ t consci\sness ( ill-des]t1 & ^? t]rors ( m5tal puni%m5t1 gr[+ out ( our sympa?y ) ! disapprobation ( our fell[s4 ,ju/ice is necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( society1 & we (t5 def5d its dictates on t gr\nd2 b1 )\t look+ to su* a remote & compreh5sive end1 we are plung$ into remorse = its violation by ! %ort] process ( ref]r+ to ! c5sure ( a suppos$ spectator 9 o!r words1 to ! sanction ( public op9ion4 ,section ,,iii4--,( ! influ5ce ( ,=tune ^u ! s5tim5ts ( mank9d1 ) reg>d to ! ,m]it & ! ,dem]it ( actions4 ,e volunt>y action consi/s ( ?ree p>ts3--7#a7 ! ,int5tion or motive1 7#b7 ! ,me*anism1 z :5 we lift ! h&1 & give a bl[1 & 7#c7 ! ,consequ5ces4 ,x is1 9 pr9ciple1 admitt$ by all1 t only ! fir/1 ! ,int5tion1 c be ! subject ( blame4 ,! ,me*anism is 9 itself indiff]5t4 ,s ! ,consequ5ces _c be prop]ly imput$ to ! ag5t1 unless int5d$ by him4 ,on ?is la/ po9t1 h[ev]1 mank9d d n always adh]e to _! g5]al maxim2 :5 !y come to p>ticul> cases1 !y are influ5c$1 9 _! e/imate ( m]it & dem]it1 by ! actual consequ5ces ( ! action4 ,*apt] ,i4 consid]s ! causes ( ?is influ5ce ( ,=tune4 ,gratitude requires1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 t "s pleasure %\ld h be5 conf]r$2 ,res5tm5t pre-supposes pa94 ,^! passions require f>!r t ! object ( !m %\ld itself be susceptible ( pleasure & pa92 !y %\ld be human be+s or animals4 ,?irdly1 ,x is requisite t !y %\ld h produc$ ! effects f a design to d s4 ,n[1 ! abs5ce ( ! pleasurable consequ5ces int5d$ by a b5efic5t ag5t leaves out "o ( ! excit+ causes ( gratitude1 al?\gh includ+ ano!r2 ! abs5ce ( ! pa9ful consequ5ces ( a malefic5t act leaves out "o ( ! excit+ causes ( res5tm5t2 h5ce less gratitude seems due 9 ! "o1 & less res5tm5t 9 ! o!r4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 treats ( ! ext5t ( ?is influ5ce ( ,=tune4 ,! effects ( x are1 fir/1 to dim9i%1 9 our eyes1 ! m]it ( laudable1 & ! dem]it ( blameable1 actions1 :5 !y fail ( _! int5d$ effects2 &1 secondly1 to increase ! feel+s ( m]it & ( dem]it beyond :at is due to ! motives1 :5 ! actions *ance to be foll[$ by extraord9>y pleasure or pa94 ,success enhances our e/imate ( all great ent]prises2 failure takes (f ! edge ( our res5tm5t ( great crimes4 ,! au?or ?9ks 7,*apt] ,,iii47 t f9al causes c be assign$ = ?is irregul>ity ( ,s5tim5ts4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x w\ld be highly dang]\s to seek out & to res5t m]e bad int5tions4 ,9 ! next place1 x is desirable t b5efic5t wi%es %\ld be put to ! pro( by results4 ,&1 la/ly1 z reg>ds ! t5d5cy to res5t evil1 al?\gh un9t5d$1 x is good to a c]ta9 ext5t t m5 %\ld be taught int5se circumspection on ! po9t ( infr++ "o ano!r's happ9ess4 ,,"p ,,iii4 is entitl$ ,,( ,,! ,,f\ndation ,,( ,,our ,,judgm5ts ,,conc]n+ ,,our ,,own ,,s5tim5ts ,,& ,,conduct1 ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,s5se ,,( ,,duty4 ,*apt] ,i4 is ',( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,self-approbation & ( ,self-disapprobation4' ,hav+ previ\sly assign$ ! orig9 ( our judgm5ts respect+ o!rs1 ! au?or n[ proce$s to trace out our judgm5ts respect+ ourselves4 ,! explanation is /ill ! same4 ,we approve or disapprove ( our own conduct1 accord+ z we feel t ! imp>tial spectator w\ld approve or disapprove ( x4 ,to a solit>y human be+1 moral judgm5ts w\ld nev] exi/4 ,a man w\ld no m ?9k ( ! m]it & dem]it ( 8 s5tim5ts ?an ( ! beauty or de=mity ( 8 own face4 ,su* criticism is ex]cis$ fir/ ^u o!r be+s2 b ! critic _c help see+ t he 9 8 turn is criticis$1 & he is !reby l$ to apply ! common /&>d to 8 own actions2 to divide himself z x 7 into two p]sons--! exam9] or judge1 & p]son exam9$ into1 or judg$ (4 ,he kn[s :at conduct ( 8 w be approv$ ( by o!rs1 & :at condemn$1 accord+ to ! /&>d he himself employs ^u o!rs2 8 concurr5ce 9 ?is approbation or disapprobation is self-approbation or self-disapprobation4 ,! happy consci\sness ( virtue is ! consci\sness ( ! fav\rable reg>ds ( o!r m54 ,*apt] ,,ii4 is ',( ! love ( ,praise1 & ( ,praise-wor?9ess2 ! dread ( ,blame1 & ( ,blame-wor?9ess2' a long & important *apt]4 ,! au?or endeav\rs to trace1 accord+ to 8 pr9ciple ( sympa?y1 ! desire ( ,praise-wor?9ess1 z well z ( ,praise4 ,we approve c]ta9 conduct 9 o!rs1 & are ?us dispos$ to approve ! same conduct 9 ourselves3 :at we praise z judges ( our fell[-m51 we deem praise-wor?y1 & aspire to realize 9 our own conduct4 ,"s m5 may diff] f u1 & may )hold t praise2 we may be pa9$ at ! circum/ance1 b we adh]e to our love ( ! praise-wor?y1 ev5 :5 x does n br+ ! praise4 ,:5 we obta9 ! praise we are pleas$1 & /r5g!n$ 9 our e/imate2 ! approbation t we receive confirms our self-approbation1 b does n give bir? to x4 ,9 %ort1 !re are two pr9ciples at "w )9 u4 ,we are pleas$ ) approbation1 & pa9$ by reproa*3 we are f>!r pleas$ if ! approbation co9cides ) :at we approve :5 we are ourselves act+ z judges ( o!r m54 ,! two dispositions v>y 9 _! /r5g? 9 individuals1 confirm+ ea* o!r :5 9 conc]t1 ?w>t+ ea* o!r :5 oppos$4 ,! au?or has pa9t$ a numb] ( /rik+ situations aris+ out ( _! conflict4 ,he enquires :y we are m pa9$ by unm]it$ reproa*1 ?an lift$ up by unm]it$ approbation2 & assigns z ! reason t ! pa9ful /ate is m pung5t ?an ! correspond+ pleasurable /ate4 ,he %[s h[ ^? m5 ^: productions are ( unc]ta9 m]it1 z poets1 are m ! slaves ( approbation1 ?an ! au?ors ( unmi/akeable discov]ies 9 sci5ce4 ,9 ! extreme cases ( unm]it$ reproa*1 he po9ts out ! appeal to ! all-see+ ,judge ( ! _w1 & to a future /ate rightly conceiv$2 prote/+1 h[ev]1 aga9/ ! view t w\ld res]ve ! cele/ial regions = monks & fri>s1 & condemn to ! inf]nal1 all ! h]oes1 /atesm51 poets1 & philosoph]s ( =m] ages2 all ! inv5tors ( ! useful arts2 ! protectors1 in/ructors1 & b5efactors ( mank9d2 & all ^? to :om our natural s5se ( praise-wor?9ess =ces u to ascribe ! highe/ m]it & mo/ exalt$ virtue4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 is ',on ! influ5ce & au?ority ( ,consci5ce2' ano!r long *apt]1 occupi$ m ) moral reflections ( a practical k9d ?an ) ! foll[+ out ( ! analysis ( our moral s5tim5t4 ,conc$+ t ! te/imony ( ! suppos$ imp>tial spectator does n ( itself always support a man1 he yet ass]ts its influ5ce to be great1 & t by x alone we c see :at relates to ourselves 9 ! prop] %ape & dim5sions4 ,x is only 9 ?is way t we c pref] ! int]e/ ( _m to ! int]e/ ( "o2 ! int]e/ ( o!rs to our own4 ,to =tify u 9 ?is h>d lesson two diff]5t s*emes h be5 propos$2 "o to increase our feel+s = o!rs1 ! o!r to dim9i% our feel+s = ourselves4 ,! fir/ is prescrib$ by ! :9+ & melan*oly morali/s1 :o w nev] all[ u to be happy1 because at e mom5t _m ( our fell[-be+s are 9 mis]y4 ,! second is ! doctr9e ( ! ,/oics1 :o annihilate self-int]e/ 9 fav\r ( ! va/ commonweal? ( nature2 on t ! au?or be/[s a l5g!n$ comm5t & correction1 f\nd$ on 8 !ory ( regulat+ ! manife/ations ( joy or grief by ! light ( ! imp>tial judge4 ,he gives 8 own panacea = human mis]y1 namely1 ! p[] ( nature to accommodate m5 to _! p]man5t situation1 & to re/ore tranquillity1 :i* is ! "o secret ( happ9ess4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 h&les ,self-,deceit1 & ! ,orig9 & ,use ( ,g5]al ,rules4 ,! int]f]5ce ( our passions is ! great ob/acle to our hold+ t[>ds ourselves ! position ( an imp>tial spectator4 ,prom ?is notori\s fact ! au?or d$uces an argum5t aga9/ a special moral faculty1 or moral s5se2 he says t if we _h su* a faculty1 x w\ld surely judge our own passions1 :i* are ! mo/ cle>ly laid op5 to x1 m correctly ?an ! passions ( o!rs4 ,to correct our self-p>tiality & self-deceit is ! use ( g5]al rules4 ,our repeat$ obs]vations on ! t5d5cy ( p>ticul> acts1 tea* u :at is fit to be done g5]ally2 & our conviction ( ! propriety ( ! g5]al rules is a p[]ful motive = apply+ !m to our own case4 ,x is a mi/ake to suppose1 z "s h done1 t rules prec$e exp]i5ce2 on ! contr>y1 !y are =m$ by f9d+ f exp]i5ce t all actions ( a c]ta9 k9d1 9 c]ta9 circum/ances1 are approv$ (4 ,:5 e/abli%$1 we appeal to !m z /&>ds ( judgm5t 9 "r & wrong1 b !y are n ! orig9al judgm5ts ( mank9d1 nor ! ultimate f\ndations ( moral s5tim5t4 ,*apt] ,v4 cont9ues ! subject ( ! au?ority & influ5ce ( ,g5]al ,rules1 ma9ta9+ t !y are ju/ly reg>d$ z laws ( ! ,deity4 ,! gr& advantage ( g5]al rules is to give /ead9ess to human conduct1 & to enable u to resi/ our tempor>y v>ieties ( temp] & disposition4 ,!y are ?us a gr& security = human duties4 ,t ! important rules ( morality %\ld be acc\nt$ laws ( ! ,deity is a natural s5tim5t4 ,m5 h always ascrib$ to _! deities _! own s5tim5ts & passions2 ! deities held by !m 9 special rev]5ce1 !y h end[$ ) _! highe/ ideal ( excell5ce1 ! love ( virtue & b5efic5ce1 & ! abhorr5ce ( vice & inju/ice4 ,! rese>*es ( philosophical inquiry confirm$ mank9d 9 ! supposition t ! moral faculties c>ry ! badge ( au?ority1 t !y 7 int5d$ z ! gov]n+ pr9ciples ( our nature1 act+ z ! viceg]5ts ( ! ,deity4 ,?is inf]5ce is confirm$ by ! view t ! happ9ess ( m51 & ( o!r rational creatures1 is ! orig9al design ( ! ,au?or ( nature1 ! only purpose reconcilable ) ! p]fections we ascribe to him4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 is on ! cases :]e ! ,s5se ( ,duty %\ld be ! sole motive ( conduct2 & on ^? :]e x ought to jo9 ) o!r motives4 ,all[+ ! importance ( religion among human motives1 he does n concur ) ! view t w\ld make religi\s consid]ations ! sole laudable motives ( action4 ,! s5se ( duty is n ! only pr9ciple ( our conduct2 x is ! rul+ or gov]n+ "o4 ,x may be a "q1 h[ev]1 on :at occasions we are to proce$ /rictly by ! s5se ( duty1 & on :at occasions give way to "s o!r s5tim5t or affection4 ,! au?or answ]s t 9 ! actions prompt$ by b5evol5t affections1 we are to foll[ out our s5tim5ts z mu* z our s5se ( duty2 & ! contr>y ) ! malevol5t passions4 ,z to ! selfi% passions1 we are to foll[ duty 9 small matt]s1 & self-int]e/ 9 great4 ,b ! rules ( duty pr$om9ate mo/ 9 cases :]e !y are det]m9$ ) exactness1 t is1 9 ! virtue ( ,ju/ice4 ,,"p ,,iv4 ,,( ,,! ,,effect ,,( ,,utility ,,^u ,,! ,,s5tim5t ,,( ,,approbation4 ,*apt] ,i4 is on ! ,beauty aris+ out ( ,utility4 ,x is "h t ! au?or sets =? ! dismal c>e] ( '! poor man's son1 :om heav5 9 ! h\r ( h] ang] has cur/ ) ambition1' & en=ces 8 fav\rite moral lesson ( cont5tm5t & tranquillity4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 is ! connexion ( ,utility ) ,moral ,approbation4 ,!re are _m actions possess+ ! k9d ( beauty or *>m aris+ f utility2 & h5ce1 x may be ma9ta9$ 7z 0 done by ,hume7 t our :ole approbation ( virtue may be expla9$ on ?is pr9ciple4 ,& x may be grant$ t !re is a co9cid5ce betwe5 our s5tim5ts ( approbation or disapprobation1 & ! useful or hurtful qualities ( actions4 ,/ill1 ! au?or holds t ?is utility or hurtfulness is n ! =emo/ or pr9cipal s\rce ( our approbation4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 he ?9ks x incongru\s t we %\ld h no o!r reason1 = prais+ a man ?an = prais+ a *e/ ( draw]s4 ,9 ! next place1 he cont5ds at l5g? t ! usefulness ( a disposition ( m9d is seldom ! fir/ gr\nd ( our approbation4 ,take1 = example1 ! qualities useful to ourselves--reason & self-comm&2 we approve ! fir/ z j & accurate1 be=e we are aw>e ( its be+ useful2 & z to self-comm&1 we approve x q z mu* = its propriety z = its utility2 x is ! co9cid5ce ( our op9ion ) ! op9ion ( ! spectator1 & n an e/imate ( ! comp>ative utility1 t affects u4 ,reg>d+ ! qualities useful to o!rs--humanity1 g5]osity1 public _s & ju/ice--he m]ely repeats 8 own !ory t !y are approv$ by our ent]+ into ! view ( ! imp>tial spectator4 ,! examples cit$ only %[ t ^! virtues are n approv$ f self-int]e/2 z :5 ! soldi] ?r[s away 8 life to ga9 some?+ = 8 sov]eign4 ,he also puts ! case ( a solit>y human be+1 :o might see fitness 9 actions1 b c\ld n feel moral approbation4 ,,"p ,v4 ,,! ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,cu/om ,,on ,,! ,,moral ,,s5tim5ts4 ,! fir/ *apt] is a pleas+ essay on ! influ5ce ( cu/om & fa%ion on mann]s1 dress1 & 9 ,f9e ,art g5]ally4 ,! second *apt] makes ! application to our moral s5tim5ts4 ,al?\gh cu/om w nev] reconcile u to ! conduct ( a ,n]o or a ,claudius1 x w height5 or blunt ! delicacy ( our s5tim5ts on "r & wrong4 ,! fa%ion ( ! times ( ,*>les ,,ii4 made dissolut5ess reputable1 & disc\nt5anc$ regul>ity ( conduct4 ,!re is a cu/om>y behavi\r t we expect 9 ! old & 9 ! "y1 9 ! cl]gyman & 9 ! milit>y man4 ,! situations ( diff]5t ages & c\ntries develop *>act]i/ic qualities--endurance 9 ! savage1 humanity & s(tness 9 ! civiliz$ community4 ,b ^! are n ! extreme in/ances ( ! pr9ciple4 ,we f9d p>ticul> usages1 :]e cu/om has r5d]$ lawful & blameless actions1 t %ock ! pla9e/ pr9ciples ( "r & wrong2 ! mo/ notori\s & univ]sal is infanticide4 ,,"p ,,vi4 ,,! ,,"* ,,( ,,virtue4 ,section ,i4 is on ,prud5ce1 & is an elegant essay on ! beau idal ( ! prud5tial "*4 ,section ,,ii4 consid]s "* z affect+ o!r p4 ,*apt] ,i4 is a disquisition on ! comp>ative priority ( ! objects ( our reg>d4 ,aft] self1 :i* mu/ ev] h ! fir/ place1 ! memb]s ( our own family are recomm5d$ to our consid]ation4 ,remot] connexions ( blood are m or less reg>d$ accord+ to ! cu/oms ( ! c\ntry2 9 pa/oral c\ntries clan%ip is manife/$2 9 comm]cial c\ntries di/ant relation%ip becomes indiff]5t4 ,(ficial & bus9ess connexions1 & ! association ( neighb\rhood1 det]m9e fri5d%ips4 ,special e/imation is a /ill pref]able tie4 ,fav\rs receiv$ det]m9e & require fav\rs 9 return4 ,! di/9ction ( ranks is s f> f\nd$ 9 nature z to des]ve our respect4 ,la/ly1 ! mis]able are recomm5d$ to our compassion4 ,next1 z reg>ds societies 7,*ap4 ,,ii471 s9ce our own c\ntry /&s fir/ 9 our reg>d1 ! au?or dilates on ! virtues ( a good citiz54 ,f9ally1 al?\gh our effectual good (fices may n ext5d beyond our c\ntry1 our good-w may embrace ! :ole univ]se4 ,?is univ]sal b5evol5ce1 h[ev]1 ! au?or ?9ks mu/ repose on ! belief 9 a b5evol5t & all-wise gov]nor ( ! _w1 z realiz$1 = example1 9 ! m$itations ( ,m>cus ,anton9us4 ,section ,,iii4 ,( ,self-comm&4 ,on ?is topic ! au?or produces a spl5did moral essay1 9 :i* he describes ! v>i\s modes ( our self-e/imation1 & draws a contra/ betwe5 pride & vanity4 ,9 s f> z conc]ns 8 ,e?ical !ory1 he has /ill ! same crit]ion ( ! virtue1 ! degree & mode comm5d$ by ! imp>tial spectator4 ,,"p ,,vii4 ,,( ,,sy/ems ,,( ,,moral ,,philosophy4 ,on ?is we ne$ only to rem>k t x is an int]e/+ & valuable contribution to ! hi/ory & ! criticism ( ! ,e?ical sy/ems4#bc ,! ,e?ical !ory ( ,adam ,smi? may be ?us summ$ up3-- ,i4--,! ,e?ical ,/&>d is ! judgm5t ( an imp>tial spectator or critic2 & our own judgm5ts are d]iv$ by ref]5ce to :at ?is spectator w\ld approve or disapprove4 ,probably to no "o has ?is ev] appe>$ a suffici5t acc\nt ( ,"r & ,wrong4 ,x provides aga9/ "o defect1 ! self-p>tiality ( ! ag5t2 b gives no acc\nt :atev] ( ! gr\nds ( ! critic's own judgm5t1 & makes no provision aga9/ 8 fallibility4 ,x may be v well on po9ts :]e m5's moral s5tim5ts are tol]ably unanim\s1 b x is valueless 9 all que/ions :]e !re are fundam5tal diff]5ces ( view4 ,,ii4--,9 ! ,psy*ology ( ,e?ics1 ,smi? w\ld consid] ! moral ,faculty z id5tical ) ! p[] ( ,sympa?y1 :i* he treats z ! f\ndation ( ,b5evol5ce4 ,a man is a moral be+ 9 proportion z he c ent] into1 & realize1 ! feel+s1 s5tim5ts1 & op9ions ( o!rs4 ,n[1 z morality w\ld nev] h exi/$ b = ! necessity ( protect+ "o human be+ aga9/ ano!r1 ! p[] ( ! m9d t adopts o!r p's int]e/s & views mu/ always be ( vital mom5t z a spr+ ( moral conduct2 & ,adam ,smi? has done great s]vice 9 develop+ ! work+s ( ! sympa!tic impulse4 ,he does n discuss ,free-w4 ,on ! "q ( ,dis9t]e/$ ,conduct1 he gives no cle> op9ion4 ,:ile d5y+ t our sympa!tic impulses are a ref9em5t ( self-love1 he w\ld seem to admit t !y br+ _! own pleasure ) !m2 s t1 aft] all1 !y d n detract f our happ9ess4 ,9 o!r places1 he recognizes self-sacrifice1 b gives no analysis ( ! motives t lead to x2 & seems to ?9k1 ) _m o!r morali/s1 t x requires a comp5sation 9 ! next _w4 ,,iii4--,8 !ory ( ! con/itu5ts ( ,happ9ess is simple1 primitive1 & crude1 b is giv5 ) e>ne/ conviction4 ,ambition he laughs to scorn4 ',:at1 he asks1 c be add$ to ! happ9ess ( ! man :o is 9 heal?1 out ( debt1 & has a cle> consci5ce8' ,aga91 '! *ief "p ( happ9ess consi/s 9 ! consci\sness ( be+ belov$1 h5ce1 sudd5 *anges ( =tune seldom contribute to happ9ess4' ,b :at he dwells ^u mo/ p]si/5tly1 z ! prime condition ( happ9ess1 is ,cont5tm5t1 & ,tranquillity4 ,,iv4--,on ! ,moral ,code1 he has no?+ peculi>4 ,z to ! means & inducem5ts to morality1 he does n avail himself ( ! f]tility ( 8 own pr9ciple ( ,sympa?y4 ,appeals to sympa?y1 & ! cultivation ( ! p[] ( ent]+ into ! feel+s ( o!rs1 c\ld easily be %[n to play a high "p 9 efficaci\s moral suasion4 ,v4--,he af=ds little or no gr\nds = rem>k+ on ! connexion ( ,morality ) ,politics4 ,our duties z citiz5s are a "p ( ,morality1 & t is all4 ,,vi4--,he gives 8 views on ! alliance ( ,e?ics ) ,religion4 ,he does n admit t we %\ld ref] to ! ,religi\s sanction on all occasions4 ,he assumes a b5evol5t & all-wise ,gov]nor ( ! _w1 :o w ultimately r$ress all inequalities1 & rem$y all out/&+ inju/ice4 ,:at ?is ,be+ approves1 h[ev]1 is to be inf]r$ solely f ! pr9ciples ( b5evol5ce4 ,our reg>d = him is to be %[n1 n by frivol\s obs]vances1 sacrifices1 c]emonies1 & va9 supplications1 b by j & b5efic5t actions4 ,! au?or /udi\sly ignores a revelation1 & con/ructs = himself a ,natural ,religion1 gr\nd$ on a b5evol5t & j adm9i/ration ( ! univ]se4 ,9 ,smi?'s ,essay1 ! purely sci5tific enquiry is ov]laid by practical & hortatory diss]tations1 & by eloqu5t del9eations ( "* & ( beau-ideals ( virtu\s conduct4 ,8 /yle be+ ?us pit*$ to ! popul> key1 he nev] pu%es home a metaphysical analysis2 s t ev5 8 fav\rite !me1 ,sympa?y1 is n philosophically sift$ to ! bottom4 ,,david ,,h>tley4 #agje-ageg4 ,! ',obs]vations on ,man' 7#agdi7 is ! fir/ sy/ematic ef=t to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( m9d by ! ,law ( ,association4 ,x conta9s also a philosophical hypo!sis1 t m5tal /ates are produc$ by ! vibration ( inf9itesimal p>ticles ( ! n]ves4 ,?is analogy1 borr[$ f ! undulations ( ! hypo!tical sub/ance !r1 has be5 c5sur$ z crude1 & has be5 entirely sup]s$$4 ,b1 al?\gh an imp]fect analogy1 x nev]!less kept con/antly be=e ! m9d ( ,h>tley ! d\ble aspect ( all m5tal ph5om5a1 ?us prev5t+ errone\s explanations1 & (t5 sugge/+ correct ones4 ,9 ?is respect1 ,ari/otle & ,hobbes are ! only p]sons t c be nam$ z equally =tunate4 ,! e?ical rem>ks conta9$ 9 ! ',obs]vations1' relate only to ! second head ( summ>y1 ! ,psy*ology ( ,e?ics4 ,we %all take1 fir/1 ! acc\nt ( dis9t]e/$ness1 &1 next1 ( ! moral s5se4 #a4 ,dis9t]e/$ness4 ,"u ! "n ,sympa?y1 ,h>tley includes f\r k9ds ( feel+s3--7#a7 ,rejoic+ at ! happ9ess ( o!rs--,sociality1 ,good-w1 ,g5]osity1 ,gratitude2 7#b7 ,griev+ = ! mis]y ( o!rs--,compassion1 ,m]cy2 7#c7 ,rejoic+ at ! mis]y ( o!rs--,ang]1 ,jeal\sy1 ,cruelty1 ,malice2 & 7#d7 ,griev+ = ! happ9ess ( o!rs--,emulation1 ,envy4 ,all ^! feel+s may be %[n to orig9ate 9 association4 ,we select z examples ( ,h>tley's me?od1 ,b5evol5ce & ,compassion4 ,b5evol5ce is ! pleas+ affection t prompts u to act = ! b5efit ( o!rs4 ,x is n a primitive feel+2 b gr[s out ( su* circum/ances z ! foll[+4 ,almo/ all ! pleasures1 & few1 9 comp>ison1 ( ! pa9s1 ( *ildr51 are caus$ by o!rs2 :o are ?us1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 reg>d$ ) pleasure1 indep5d5tly ( _! usefulness to u4 ,_m ( our pleasures are enjoy$ along )1 & are enhanc$ by1 ! pres5ce ( o!rs4 ,?is t5ds to make u m sociable4 ,moreov]1 we are taught & requir$ to put on ! appe>ance ( good-w1 & to d k9dly actions1 & ?is may beget 9 u ! prop] feel+s4 ,f9ally1 we mu/ take into acc\nt ! praise & rew>ds ( b5evol5ce1 toge!r ) ! reciprocity ( b5efits t we may ju/ly expect4 ,all ^? elem5ts may be s mix$ & bl5d$ z to produce a feel+ t %all tea* u to d good to o!rs )\t any expectation ( rew>d1 ev5 t mo/ ref9$ recomp5se--! pleasure aris+ f a b5efic5t act4 ,?us ,h>tley conceives t he bo? proves ! exi/5ce ( dis9t]e/$ feel+1 & expla9s ! mann] ( its developem5t4 ,8 acc\nt ( ,compassion is simil>4 ,9 ! "y1 ! signs & appe>ances ( di/ress excite a pa9ful feel+1 by recall+ _! own exp]i5ce ( mis]y4 ,9 ! old1 ! connexion betwe5 a feel+ & its adjuncts has be5 weak5$ by exp]i5ce4 ,also1 :5 *ildr5 are br\ght up toge!r1 !y are (t5 annoy$ by ! same ?+s1 & ?is t5ds p[]fully to create a fell[-feel+4 ,aga91 :5 _! p>5ts are ill1 !y are taught to cultivate pity1 & are also subject$ to unusual re/ra9ts4 ,all ^? ?+s conspire to make *ildr5 desire to remove ! suff]+s ( o!rs4 ,v>i\s circum/ances increase ! feel+ ( pity1 z :5 ! suff]]s are belov$ by u1 or are morally good4 ,x is confirmatory ( ?is view1 t ! mo/ compassionate are ^? ^: n]ves are easily irritable1 or ^: exp]i5ce ( affliction has be5 consid]able4 #b4--,! ,moral ,s5se4 ,h>tley d5ies ! exi/5ce ( any moral in/9ct1 or any moral judgm5ts1 proce$+ ^u ! et]nal relations ( ?+s4 ,if !re be su*1 let in/ances ( !m be produc$ prior to ! influ5ce ( associations4 ,/ill1 our moral approbation or disapprobation is dis9t]e/$1 & has a factiti\s indep5d5ce4 7#a7 ,*ildr5 are taught :at is "r & wrong1 & ?us ! associations connect$ ) ! idea ( praise & blame are transf]r$ to ! virtues inculcat$ & ! vices condemn$4 7#b7 ,_m vices & virtues1 su* z s5suality1 intemp]ance1 malice1 & ! opposites1 produce imm$iate consequ5ces ( evil & good respectively4 7#c7 ,! b5efits1 imm$iate or 7at lea/7 obvi\s1 fl[+ f ! virtues ( o!rs1 k9dle love t[>ds !m1 & !reaft] to ! virtues !y exhibit4 7#d7 ,ano!r consid]ation is ! lovel9ess ( virtue1 aris+ f ! suitabl5ess ( ! virtues to ea* o!r1 & to ! beauty1 ord]1 & p]fection ( ! _w4 7#e7 ,! hopes & fe>s connect$ ) a future life1 /r5g!n ! feel+s connect$ ) virtue4 7#f7 ,m$itation ^u ,god & pray] h a l effect4 ',all ! pleasures & pa9s ( s5sation1 imag9ation1 ambition 7pride & vanity71 self-int]e/1 sympa?y1 & !opa?y 7affection t[>ds ,god71 z f> z !y are consi/5t ) "o ano!r1 ) ! frame ( our natures1 & ) ! c\rse ( ! _w1 beget 9 u a moral s5se1 & lead u to ! love & approbation ( virtue1 & to ! fe>1 hatr$1 & abhorr5ce ( vice4 ,?is moral s5se1 !re=e1 c>ries its own au?ority ) x1 inasmu* z x is ! sum total ( all ! re/1 & ! ultimate result f !m2 & employs ! :ole =ce & au?ority ( ! :ole nature ( man aga9/ any p>ticul> "p ( x t rebels aga9/ ! det]m9ations & comm&s ( ! consci5ce or moral judgm5t4' ,h>tley's analysis ( ! moral s5se is a great advance ^u ,hobbes & ,m&eville1 :o make self-love ! imm$iate con/itu5t1 in/ead ( a remote cause1 ( consci5ce4 ,our moral consci\sness may ?us be treat$ z peculi> & di/+ui%able f o!r m5tal /ates1 :ile at ! same "t x is d5i$ to be unique & irresolvable4 ,,?omas ,,reid4#bd #agaj-if4 ,reid's ,e?ical views are giv5 9 8 ,essays on ! ,active ,p[]s ( ! ,m9d4 ,,essay ,,iii41 entitl$ ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,action1 conta9s 7,"p ,,iii47 a disquisition on ! ,rational ,pr9ciples ( ,action z oppos$ to :at ,reid calls respectively ,me*anical ,pr9ciples 7,in/9ct1 ,habit71 & ,animal ,pr9ciples 7,appetites1 ,desires1 ,affections74 ,! ,rational ,pr9ciples ( ,action are ,prud5ce1 or reg>d to our own good on ! :ole1 & ,duty1 :i*1 h[ev]1 he does n def9e by ! anti!tical circum/ance--! 'good ( o!rs4' ,! notion ( ,duty1 he says1 is too simple = logical def9ition1 & c only be expla9$ by synonymes--:at we ought to d2 :at is fair & hone/2 :at is approvable2 ! pr(ess$ rule ( m5's conduct2 :at all m5 praise2 ! laudable 9 itself1 ?\gh no man praise x4 ,duty1 he says1 _c be resolv$ into ,int]e/4 ,! language ( mank9d makes ! two di/9ct4 ,disreg>d ( our int]e/ is folly2 ( hon\r1 bas5ess4 ,hon\r is m ?an m]e reputation1 = x keeps u "r :5 we are n se54 ,?is pr9ciple ( ,hon\r 7s-call$ by m5 ( rank7 is1 9 vulg> phrase1 hone/y1 probity1 virtue1 consci5ce2 9 philosophical language1 ! moral s5se1 ! moral faculty1 rectitude4 ,! pr9ciple is univ]sal 9 m5 gr[n up to ye>s ( und]/&+4 ,su* a te/imony z ,hume's may be held decisive on ! reality ( moral di/9ctions4 ,! anci5t _w recogniz$ x 9 ! lead+ t]ms1 hone/um & utile1 c4 ,! ab/ract notion ( ,duty is a relation betwe5 ! action & ! ag5t4 ,x mu/ be volunt>y1 & )9 ! p[] ( ! ag5t4 ,! op9ion 7or int5tion7 ( ! ag5t gives ! act its moral quality4 ,z to ! ,s5se ( ,duty1 ,reid pron\nces at once1 )\t hesitation1 & ) v little exam9ation1 9 fav\r ( an orig9al p[] or faculty1 9 o!r words1 a ,moral ,s5se4 ,intellectual judgm5ts are judgm5ts ( ! ext]nal s5ses2 moral judgm5ts result f an int]nal moral s5se4 ,! ext]nal s5ses give u our intellectual fir/ pr9ciples2 ! moral s5se our moral fir/ pr9ciples4 ,he is at pa9s to exemplify ! d$uctive process 9 morals4 ,x is a "q ( moral reason+1 ,ought a man to h only "o wife8 ,! reasons are1 ! great] good ( ! family1 & ( society 9 g5]al2 b no reason c be giv5 :y we %\ld pref] great] good2 x is an intuition ( ! moral s5se4 ,he sums up ! *apt] ?us3--',t1 by an orig9al p[] ( ! m9d1 :i* we call consci5ce1 or ! moral faculty1 we h ! conceptions ( "r & wrong 9 human conduct1 ( m]it & dem]it1 ( duty & moral obligation1 & our o!r moral conceptions2 & t1 by ! same faculty1 we p]ceive "s ?+s 9 human conduct to be "r1 & o!rs to be wrong2 t ! fir/ pr9ciples ( morals are ! dictates ( ?is faculty2 & t we h ! same reason to rely ^u ^? dictates1 z ^u ! det]m9ations ( our s5ses1 or ( our o!r natural faculties4' ,hamilton rem>ks t ?is !ory virtually f\nds morality on intellig5ce4 ,moral ,approbation is ! affection & e/eem accompany+ our judgm5t ( a "r moral act4 ,?is is 9 all cases pleasurable1 b mo/ s1 :5 ! act is our own4 ,s1 obv]sely1 = ,moral ,disapprobation4 ,reg>d+ ,consci5ce1 ,reid rem>ks1 fir/1 t l all o!r p[]s x comes to maturity by ins5sible degrees1 & may be a subject ( culture or education4 ,he takes no note ( ! difficulty ( det]m9+ :at is primitive & :at is acquir$4 ,secondly1 ,consci5ce is peculi> to man2 x is want+ 9 ! brutes4 ,?irdly1 x is evid5tly int5d$ to be ! director ( our conduct2 & f\r?ly1 x is an ,active p[] & an ,intellectual p[] comb9$4 ,,essay ,,iv4 is ,,( ,,! ,,lib]ty ,,( ,,moral ,,ag5ts1 :i* we pass by1 hav+ notic$ x else:]e4 ,,essay ,v4 is ,,( ,,morals4 ,*apt] ,i4 pr(esses to enum]ate ! axiomatic fir/ pr9ciples ( ,morals4 ,"s ( ^! relate 7,a7 to virtue 9 g5]al3 z 7#a7 ,!re are actions des]v+ ( praise1 & o!rs des]v+ blame2 7#b7 ! involunt>y is n an object ( praise or blame2 7#c7 ! unavoidable is n an object ( praise or blame2 7#d7 omission may be culpable2 7#e7 we ought to in=m ourselves z to duty2 7#f7 we %\ld =tify ourselves aga9/ temptation4 ,o!r pr9ciples relate 7,b7 to p>ticul> virtues3 7#a7 ,we %\ld pref] a great] good to a less2 7#b7 we %\ld comply ) ! int5tion ( nature1 app>5t 9 our con/itution2 7#c7 no man is born = himself alone2 7#d7 we %\ld judge accord+ to ! rule1 ',d to o!rs1' c42 7#e7 if we believe 9 ,god1 we %\ld v5]ate & submit to him4 ,a ?ird class ( pr9ciples 7,c7 settle ! pref]5ce among oppos+ virtues4 ,?us1 unm]it$ g5]osity %\ld yield to gratitude1 & bo? to ju/ice4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 rem>ks ^u ! gr[? & peculi> advantages ( ,sy/ems ( ,morals4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 is on ,sy/ems ( ,natural ,jurisprud5ce4 ,! f\r subsequ5t *apt]s ( ! ,essay he /ates to h be5 compos$ 9 answ] to ! ,e?ical doctr9es ( ,hume4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 enquires :e!r a moral action mu/ proce$ f a moral purpose 9 ! ag5t4 ,he decides 9 ! affirmative1 reply+ to c]ta9 objections1 & m especially to ! allegation ( ,hume1 t ju/ice is n a natural1 b an artificial virtue4 ,?is la/ "q is pursu$ at great l5g? 9 ,*apt] ,v41 & ! au?or takes occasion to review ! !ory ( ,utility or ,b5evol5ce1 set up by ,hume z ! basis ( morals4 ,he gives ,hume ! cr$it ( hav+ made an important /ep 9 advance ( ! ,epicurean1 or ,selfi%1 sy/em1 by includ+ ! good ( o!rs1 z well z our own good1 9 moral acts4 ,/ill1 he dem&s :y1 if ,utility & ,virtue are id5tical1 ! same "n %\ld n express bo?4 ,x is true1 t virtue is bo? agreeable & useful 9 ! highe/ degree2 b t circum/ance does n prev5t x f hav+ a quality ( its own1 n aris+ f its be+ useful & agreeable1 b aris+ f its be+ virtue4 ,! common good ( society1 ?\gh a pleas+ object to all m51 h>dly ev] ent]s into ! ?\ghts ( ! great majority2 &1 if a reg>d to x 7 ! sole motive ( ju/ice1 only a select numb] w\ld ev] be possess$ ( ! virtue4 ,! notion ( ju/ice c>ries insep>ably along ) x a notion ( moral obligation2 & no act c be call$ an act ( ju/ice unless prompt$ by ! motive ( ju/ice4 ,!n1 aga91 good music & good cook]y h ! m]it ( utility1 9 procur+ :at is agreeable bo? to ourselves & to society1 b !y h nev] be5 d5om9at$ moral virtues2 s t1 if ,hume's sy/em be true1 !y h be5 v unfairly treat$4 ,reid illu/rates 8 positions aga9/ ,hume to a l5g? unnecess>y to foll[4 ,! objections are exclusively & effectively aim$ at ! two ungu>d$ po9ts ( ! ,utility sy/em z prop\nd$ by ,hume2 namely1 fir/1 ! n recogniz+ moral rules z e/abli%$ & en=c$ among m5 by ! dictation ( au?ority1 :i* does n leave to individuals ! p[] ( ref]5ce to ultimate ends2 &1 secondly1 ! n di/+ui%+ betwe5 obligatory1 & non-obligatory1 useful acts4 ,reid cont9ues ! controv]sy1 ) ref]5ce to ,ju/ice1 9 ,*apt] ,,vi41 on ! ,nature & ,obligation ( a ,contract2 & 9 ,*apt] ,,vii4 ma9ta9s1 9 opposition to ,hume1 t ,moral approbation implies a ,judgm5t ( ! intellect1 & is n a m]e feel+1 z ,hume seems to ?9k4 ,he all[s ! propriety ( ! phrase ',moral ,s5tim5t1' because ',s5tim5t' 9 ,engli% means judgm5t accompani$ ) feel+4 ,hamilton diss5ts1 & ?9ks t s5tim5t means ! high] feel+s4 ,he says1 if a moral judgm5t be no real judgm5t1 b only a feel+1 morals h no f\ndation b ! arbitr>y /ructure ( ! m9d2 !re are no immutable moral di/9ctions2 & no evid5ce = ! moral "* ( ! ,deity4 ,we %all f9d ! views ( ,reid sub/antially adopt$1 & a little m closely & concisely argu$1 by ,/ew>t4 ,,dugald ,,/ew>t4 #agec-ahbh4 ,9 8 ',essays on ! ,active ,p[]s ( ! ,m9d1' ,/ew>t introduces ! ,moral ,faculty 9 ! same way z ,reid4 ,,book ,,second is entitl$ ,,our ,,rational ,,& ,,gov]n+ ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,action4 ,*apt] ,i41 on ,prud5ce or ,self-love1 is unimportant = our pres5t purpose1 consi/+ ( "s desultory rem>ks on ! connexion ( happ9ess ) /ead9ess ( purpose1 & on ! mean+s ( ! words 'self-love' & 'selfi%ness4' ,*apt] ,,ii4 is on ! ,moral ,faculty1 & is int5d$ to %[ t x is an orig9al pr9ciple ( ! m9d4 ,he fir/ replies to ! !ory t id5tifies ,morality ) ,prud5ce1 or ,self-love4 ,8 fir/ argum5t is ! exi/5ce 9 all languages ( diff]5t words = duty & = int]e/4 ,secondly1 ,! emotions aris+ f1 ! contemplation ( "r & wrong are diff]5t f ^? produc$ by a reg>d to our own happ9ess4 ,?irdly1 al?\gh 9 mo/ in/ances a s5se ( duty1 & an enlight5$ reg>d to our own happ9ess1 w\ld sugge/ to u ! same l9e ( conduct1 yet ?is tru? is n obvi\s to mank9d g5]ally1 :o are incapable ( appreciat+ enl>g$ views & remote consequ5ces4 ,he repeats ! common rem>k1 t we secure our happ9ess be/ by n look+ to x z ?o "o prim>y end4 ,f\r?ly1 moral judgm5ts appe> 9 *ildr51 long be=e !y c =m ! g5]al notion ( happ9ess4 ,8 examples ( ?is position1 h[ev]1 h exclusive ref]5ce to ! s5tim5t ( pity1 :i* all morali/s reg>d z a primitive feel+1 :ile few admit x to be ! same z ! moral s5se4 ,he !n takes notice ( ! ,association ,!ory ( ,h>tley1 ,paley1 & o!rs1 :i* he admits to be a great ref9em5t ( ! old selfi% sy/em1 & an answ] to "o ( 8 argum5ts4 ,he ma9ta9s1 nev]!less1 t ! o!rs are unt\*$ by x1 & m especially ! ?ird1 ref]r+ to ! am\nt ( exp]i5ce & reflection necess>y to discov] ! t5d5cy ( virtue to promote our happ9ess1 :i* is inconsi/5t ) ! e>ly p]iod :5 our moral judgm5ts appe>4 ,x is s+ul> t he %\ld n h rem>k$ t ! moral judgm5ts ( t e>ly age1 if we except :at spr+s f ! impulses ( pity1 are :olly communicat$ by o!rs4 ,he quotes ,paley's reason+ aga9/ ! ,moral ,s5se1 & decl>es t he has z completely mis-/at$ ! issue1 z if "o 7 to cont5d t because we are n born ) ! k ( light & col\rs1 !re=e ! s5se ( see+ is n an orig9al "p ( ! frame4 ,x w\ld be easy to retort t all t ,paley's case dem&$ 0 ! same p[] ( discrim9ation 9 moral judgm5ts1 z ! p[] ( discrim9at+ light & d>k belong+ to our s5se ( sight4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 cont9ues ! subject1 & exam9es objections4 ,! fir/ objection tak5 up is t d]iv$ f ! influ5ce ( education1 ) :i* he comb9es ! f>!r objection 7( ,locke & 8 foll[]s7 aris+ f ! div]sity ( m5's moral judgm5ts 9 v>i\s nations4 ,) reg>d to education1 he cont5ds t !re are limits to its influ5ce1 & t h[ev] x may modify1 x _c create our judgm5ts ( "r & wrong1 any m ?an our notions ( beauty & de=mity4 ,z to ! hi/orical facts relat+ to ! div]sity ( moral judgm5ts1 he consid]s x necess>y to make full all[ance = ?ree circum/ances--,i4--,diff]5ce ( situation ) reg>d to climate & civilization4 ,,ii4--,div]sity ( speculative op9ions1 aris+ f diff]5ce ( intellectual capacity2 &1 ,,iii4--,! diff]5t moral import ( ! same action "u diff]5t sy/ems ( behavi\r4 ,on ! fir/ head he expla9s ! indiff]5ce to !ft f !re be+ little or no fix$ prop]ty2 he adduces ! v>iety ( s5tim5ts respect+ ,usury1 z hav+ ref]5ce1 to circum/ances2 & alludes to ! diff]5ces ( m5's views z to political assass9ation4 ,on ! second head he rem>ks1 t m5 may agree on ends1 b may take diff]5t views z to means2 !y may agree 9 recogniz+ ob$i5ce to ! ,deity1 b diff] 9 _! int]pretations ( 8 w4 ,on ! ?ird po9t1 z reg>ds ! diff]5t moral import ( ! same action1 he sugge/s t ,locke's in/ance ( ! kill+ ( ag$ p>5ts is m]ely ! recogniz$ mode ( filial affection2 he also quotes ! exce$+ v>iety ( c]emonial obs]vances4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 comm5ts f>!r on ! objections to ! reality & immutability ( moral di/9ctions & to ! univ]sal diffusion ( ! moral faculty4 ,! ref]5ce is1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to ,locke1 & !n to :at he t]ms1 aft] ,adam ,smi?1 ! lic5ti\s morali/s--,la ,ro*ef\cauld & ,m&eville4 ,! replies to ^! writ]s conta9 no?+ special to ,/ew>t4 ,*apt] ,v4 is ! ,analysis ( our ,moral ,p]ceptions & ,emotions4 ,?is is a some:at s+ul> phrase 9 an au?or recogniz+ a sep>ate inborn faculty ( ,"r4 ,8 analysis consi/s 9 a sep>ation ( ! entire fact into ?ree p>ts3--! p]ception ( an action z "r or wrong2 7#b7 an emotion ( pleasure or pa91 v>y+ accord+ to ! moral s5sibility3 7#c7 a p]ception ( ! m]it or dem]it ( ! ag5t4 ,! fir/ is ( c\rse ! ma9 "q2 & ! au?or gives a long review ( ! hi/ory ( ,e?ical doctr9es f ,hobbes d[nw>ds1 int]sp]s+ reflections & criticisms1 all 9 fav\r ( ! intuitive orig9 ( ! s5se4 ,z illu/rative p>allels1 he adduces ,p]sonal ,id5tity1 ,causation1 & ,equality2 all :i* he consid]s to be judgm5ts involv+ simple ideas1 & traceable only to "s primitive p[] ( ! m9d4 ,he c\ld z easily conceive a rational be+ =m$ to believe ! ?ree angles ( a triangle to be equal to "o "r angle1 z to believe t !re w\ld be no inju/ice 9 depriv+ a man ( ! fruits ( 8 lab\rs4 ,on ! second po9t--! pleasure & pa9 accompany+ "r & wrong1 he rem>ks on ! "o-sid$ness ( sy/ems t treat ! s5se ( "r & wrong z an intellectual judgm5t purely 7,cl>ke1 c471 or ^? t treat x z a feel+ purely 7,%aftesbury1 ,hut*eson1 & ,hume74 ,8 rem>ks on ! s5se ( ,m]it & ,dem]it 9 ! ag5t are trivial or commonplace4 ,*apt] ,,vi4 is ',( ,moral ,obligation4' ,x is ne$less to foll[ him on ?is subject1 z 8 views are sub/antially a repetition ( ,butl]'s ,supremacy ( ,consci5ce4 ,at ! same "t1 x may be d\bt$ :e!r ,butl] entirely & unequivocally deta*$ ?is supremacy f ! comm& ( ! ,deity1 a po9t peculi>ly insi/$ on by ,/ew>t4 ,8 words are ^!3-- ',accord+ to "s sy/ems1 moral obligation is f\nd$ entirely on our belief t virtue is enjo9$ by ! comm& ( ,god4 ,b h[2 x may be ask$1 does ?is belief impose an obligation8 ,only "o ( two answ]s c be giv54 ,ei!r t !re is a moral fitness t we %\ld con=m our w to t ( ! ,au?or & ! ,gov]nor ( ! univ]se2 or t a rational self-love %\ld induce u1 f motives ( prud5ce1 to /udy e means ( r5d]+ ourselves acceptable to ! ,almighty ,arbit] ( happ9ess & mis]y4 ,on ! fir/ supposition ,we reason 9 a circle4 ,we resolve our s5se ( moral obligation into our s5se ( religion1 & ! s5se ( religion into t ( moral obligation4 ',! o!r sy/em1 :i* makes virtue a m]e matt] ( prud5ce1 al?\gh n s obvi\sly unsatisfactory1 leads to consequ5ces :i* suffici5tly invalidate e argum5t 9 its fav\r4 ,among o!rs x leads u to conclude1 #a4 ,t ! disbelief ( a future /ate absolves f all moral obligation1 except+ 9 s f> z we f9d virtue to be conducive to our pres5t int]e/3 #b4 ,t a be+ indep5d5tly & completely happy _c h any moral p]ceptions or any moral attributes4 ',b f>!r1 ! notions ( rew>d & puni%m5t presuppose ! notions ( "r & wrong4 ,!y are sanctions ( virtue1 or additional motives to ! practice ( x1 b !y suppose ! exi/5ce ( "s previ\s obligation4 ',9 ! la/ place1 if moral obligation be con/itut$ by a reg>d to our situation 9 ano!r life1 h[ %all ! exi/5ce ( a future /ate be prov$1 or ev5 r5d]$ probable by ! light ( nature8 or h[ %all we discov] :at conduct is acceptable to ! ,deity8 ,! tru? is1 t ! /ronge/ presumption = su* a /ate is d$uc$ f our natural notions ( "r & wrong2 ( m]it & dem]it2 & f a comp>ison betwe51 ^! & ! g5]al c\rse ( human affairs4' ,9 a *apt] 7,,vii47 entitl$ 'c]ta9 pr9ciples co-op]at+ ) our moral p[]s1' he discusses 7#a7 a reg>d to "*1 7#b7 ,sympa?y1 7#c7 ! ,s5se ( ! ,ridicul\s1 7#d7 ,ta/e4 ,! important topic is ! second1 ,sympa?y2 :i*1 psy*ologically1 he w\ld appe> to reg>d z det]m9$ by ! pleasure t x gives4 ,"u ?is head he introduces a criticism ( ! ,e?ical !ory ( ,adam ,smi?2 &1 adv]t+ to ! inadequacy ( ! !ory to di/+ui% ! "r f ! actual judgm5ts ( mank9d1 he rem>ks on ,smi?'s +5i\s fiction '( an ab/ract man )9 ! brea/2' & /ates t ,smi? laid mu* great] /ress on ?is fiction 9 ! la/ edition ( ! ,moral ,s5tim5ts publi%$ be=e 8 dea?4 ,x is n )\t reason t ,/ew>t w>ns aga9/ gr\nd+ !ories on metaphorical expressions1 su* z ?is ( ,smi?1 or ! ,platonic ,commonweal? ( ! ,s\l4 ,9 ,book ,,iv4 ( ! ,active ,p[]s1 ,/ew>t discusses our ,duties to ,m51--bo? our fell[-creatures & ourselves4 ,our duties to our fell[s are summ$ up 9 ,b5evol5ce1 ,ju/ice1 & ,v]acity4 ,he devotes a *apt] to ea*4 ,9 ,*apt] ,i41 on ,b5evol5ce1 he re-op5s ! consid]ation ( ! ,e?ical sy/ems f\nd$ on ,b5evol5ce or ,utility1 & argues aga9/ !m2 b m]ely repeats ! common-place objections--! incompet5cy ( individuals to judge ( remote t5d5cies1 ! pretext t w\ld be af=d$ = ! wor/ conduct1 & ea* "o's consci\sness t a s5se ( duty is diff]5t f enlight5$ b5evol5ce4 ,*apt] ,,ii4 is on ,ju/ice2 def9$ z ! disposition t leads a man1 :]e 8 own int]e/s or passions are conc]n$1 to act accord+ to ! judgm5t he w\ld =m ( ano!r man's duty 9 8 situation4 ,he introduces a criticism on ,adam ,smi?1 & re-ass]ts ! doctr9e ( an innate faculty1 expla9$ z ! p[] ( =m+ moral ideas1 & n z ! innate possession ( ideas4 ,= ! mo/ "p1 8 exposition is didactic & desultory1 ) occasional discussions ( a critical & sci5tific nature2 z1 = example1 "s rem>ks on ,hume's !ory t ,ju/ice is an artificial virtue1 an acc\nt ( ! basis ( ,jurisprud5ce1 & a few obs]vations on ! ,"r ( ,prop]ty4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,iii41 on ,v]acity1 he cont5ds t consid]ations ( utility d n acc\nt = ! :ole =ce ( our approbation ( ?is virtue4 ,s might any "o say t consid]ations ( :at money c pur*ase d n acc\nt = ! :ole /r5g? ( av>ice4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 he deals ) ,duties to ourselves1 & occupies ! *apt] ) a diss]tation on ,happ9ess4 ,he fir/ gives an acc\nt ( ! !ories ( ! ,/oics & ! ,epicureans1 :i* connect !mselves mo/ closely ) ! problem ( ,happ9ess2 & next advances "s obs]vations ( 8 own on ! subject4 ,8 fir/ rem>k is on ! influ5ce ( ! ,temp]1 by :i* he means ! ,res5tful or ,irascible passion1 on ,happ9ess4 ,z aga9/ a c5sori\s disposition1 he sets up ! pleasure ( ! b5evol5t s5tim5ts2 he enjo9s c&\r ) respect to ! motives ( o!rs1 & a devot$ atta*m5t to tru? & virtue = _! intr9sic excell5ce2 & w>ns u1 t ! causes t ali5ate our affections f our fell[-creatures1 sugge/ gloomy & ,hamlet-l conceptions ( ! ord] ( ! univ]se4 ,he next adv]ts to ! influ5ce ( ! ,imag9ation on ,happ9ess4 ,on ?is1 he has 9 view ! addition made to our enjoym5ts or our suff]+s by ! respective pr$om9ance ( hope or ( fe> 9 ! m9d4 ,all[+ = con/itutional bias1 he recognizes1 z ! two great s\rces ( a despond+ imag9ation1 ,sup]/ition & ,scepticism1 ^: evils he descants ^u at l5g?4 ,he also dwells on ! influ5ce ( casual associations on happ9ess1 & comm5ds ?is subject to ! c>e ( educators2 giv+1 z an example1 ! t5d5cy ( associations ) ,greece & ,rome to add to ! c\rage ( ! classically educat$ soldi]4 ,8 ?ird position is ! ,influ5ce ( our ,op9ions on ,happ9ess4 ,he "h quotes1 f ,f]guson1 examples ( op9ions unfav\rable to ,happ9ess2 su* z ^!3 't happ9ess consi/s 9 hav+ no?+ to d1' 't any?+ is pref]able to happ9ess1' 't any?+ c amuse u bett] ?an our duties4' ,he also puts =w>d z a happy op9ion ! ,/oical view1 ',i am 9 ! /ation t ,god has assign$ me4' ,x mu/ be confess$1 h[ev]1 t ^! prescriptions sav\r ( ! ,platonic device ( inculcat+ op9ions1 n because ( _! tru?1 b because ( _! suppos$ good consequ5ces o!rwise3 a proce$+ sc>cely compatible ) an ,e?ical sy/em t proclaims v]acity z sup]ior to utility4 ,on su* a sy/em1 we are prohibit$ f look+ to any?+ 9 an op9ion b its tru?2 we are to suff] = tru?1 & n to cultivate op9ions because ( _! happy results4 ,/ew>t rem>ks f9ally on ! influ5ce ( ! ,habits1 on :i* he notices ! p[] ( ! m9d to accommodate itself to circum/ances1 & copies ,paley's obs]vations on ! sett+ ( ! habits4 ,9 cont9uation ( ! subject ( ,happ9ess1 he pres5ts a classification ( our mo/ important pleasures4 ,we give ! heads1 !re be+ little to deta9 u 9 ! au?or's brief illu/ration ( !m4 ,i4--,! pleasures ( ,activity & ,repose2 ,,ii4--,! pleasures ( ,s5se2 ,,iii4--,! pleasures ( ! ,imag9ation2 ,,iv4--,! pleasures ( ! ,und]/&+2 & ,v4--,! pleasures ( ! ,he>t1 or ( ! v>i\s b5evol5t affections4 ,he w\ld h add$ ,ta/e1 or ,f9e ,art1 b ?is is conf9$ to a select few4 ,9 a conclud+ *apt] 7,v471 he sums up ! g5]al result ( ! ,e?ical enquiry1 "u ! title1 '! ,nature & ,ess5ce ( ,virtue4' ,no obs]vation ( any novelty occurs 9 ?is *apt]4 ,virtue is do+ our duty2 ! int5tions ( ! ag5t are to be look$ to2 ! enlight5$ dis*>ge ( our duty (t5 dem&s an ex]cise ( ! ,reason to adjudge betwe5 conflict+ claims2 !re is a close relation%ip1 n def9$1 betwe5 ,e?ics & ,politics4 ,! views ( ,/ew>t repres5t1 9 ! *ief po9ts1 al?\gh n 9 all1 ! ,e?ical !ory t has f\nd ! greate/ numb] ( support]s4 ,i4--,! ,/&>d is int]nal1 or intuitive--! judgm5ts ( a ,faculty1 call$ ! ,moral ,faculty4 ,he does n approve ( ! phrase ',moral ,s5se1' ?9k+ ! analogy ( ! s5ses incorrect4 ,,ii4--,z reg>ds ,e?ical ,psy*ology1 ! fir/ "q is det]m9$ by ! rem>ks on ! ,/&>d4 ,on ! second "q1 ,free-w1 ,/ew>t ma9ta9s ,lib]ty4 ,on ! ?ird "q1 he gives1 l _m o!rs1 an unc]ta9 s\nd4 ,9 8 acc\nt ( ,pity1 he recognizes ?ree ?+s1 7#a7 a pa9ful feel+1 7#b7 a selfi% desire to remove ! cause ( ! uneas9ess1 7#c7 a disposition gr\nd$ on b5evol5t conc]n ab\t ! suff]]4 ,?is is at be/ vague4 ,equally s is :at he /ates respect+ ! pleasures ( sympa?y & b5evol5ce 7,book ,,ii41 ,*apt] ,,vii474 ,!re is1 he says1 a pleasure atta*$ to fell[-feel+1 a disposition to accommodate our m9ds to o!rs1 :]ev] !re is a b5evol5t affection2 &1 9 all probability1 ! pleasure ( sympa?y is ! pleasure ( lov+ & ( be+ belov$4 ,no def9ite proposition c be ga!r$ f su* loose allegations4 ,,iii4--,we h already ab/ract$ 8 *apt] on ,happ9ess4 ,,iv4--,on ! ,moral ,code1 he has no?+ peculi>4 ,v4--,on ! connexion ) ,religion1 we h se5 t he is /r5u\s 9 8 antagonism to ! doctr9e ( ! dep5d5ce ( morality on ! w ( ,god4 ,b1 l o!r morali/s ( ! same class1 he is c>eful to add3--',al?\gh religion c ) no propriety be consid]$ z ! sole f\ndation ( morality1 yet :5 we are conv9c$ t ,god is inf9itely good1 & t he is ! fri5d & protector ( virtue1 ?is belief af=ds ! mo/ p[]ful inducem5ts to ! practice ( e bran* ( our duty4' ,he has 7,book ,,iii47 elaborately discuss$ ! pr9ciples ( ,natural ,religion1 b1 l ,adam ,smi?1 makes no ref]5ce to ! ,bible1 or to ,*ri/ianity4 ,he is dispos$ to assume ! b5evol5ce ( ! ,deity1 b consid]s t to affirm x positively is to g beyond our dep?4 ,,?omas ,,br[n4 #aggh-ahbj4 ,br[n's ,e?ical discussion comm5ces 9 ! #gcrd ( 8 ,lectures4 ,he fir/ criticises ! multiplicity ( expressions us$ 9 ! /atem5t ( ! fundam5tal "q ( morals--',:at is x t con/itutes ! action virtu\s8' ',:at con/itutes ! moral obligation to p]=m c]ta9 actions8' ',:at con/itutes ! m]it ( ! ag5t8'--,^! h be5 consid]$ que/ions ess5tially di/9ct1 :]eas !y are ! v same "q4 ,!re is at bottom b "o emotion 9 ! case1 ! emotion ( approbation1 or ( disapprobation1 ( an ag5t act+ 9 a c]ta9 way4 ,9 answ] !n to ! "q z ?us simplifi$1 ',:at is ! gr\nd ( moral approbation & disapprobation8' ,br[n answ]s--a simple emotion ( ! m9d1 ( :i* no f>!r explanation c be giv5 ?an t we are s con/itut$4 ,?us1 )\t us+ ! same t]m1 he sides ) ! doctr9e ( ! ,innate ,moral ,s5se4 ,he illu/rates x by ano!r elem5t>y fact ( ! m9d1 involv$ 9 ! conception ( cause & effect on 8 !ory ( t relation--! belief t ! future w resemble ! pa/4 ,except+ a teleogical ref]5ce to ! ,supreme ,b5evol5ce ( ! ,deity1 he admits no f>!r se>* into ! nature ( ! moral s5tim5t4 ,he adduces1 z ano!r illu/ration1 :at he deems ! k9dr$ emotion ( ,beauty4 ,our feel+ ( beauty is n ! m]e p]ception ( =ms & col\rs1 or ! discov]y ( ! uses ( c]ta9 comb9ations ( =ms2 x is an emotion aris+ f ^!1 inde$1 bat di/9ct f !m4 ,our feel+ ( moral excell5ce1 9 l mann]1 is n ! m]e p]ception ( diff]5t actions1 or ! discov]y ( ! physical good t ^! may produce2 x is an emotion sui g5]is1 sup]add$ to !m4 ,he adv]ts1 9 a /ra9 ( eloqu5t indignation1 to ! objection gr\nd$ on diff]5ces ( m5's moral judgm5t4 ,!re are philosoph]s1 he exclaims1 't c turn away f ! conspir+ *orus ( ! millions ( mank9d1 9 fav\r ( ! great tru?s ( morals1 to seek 9 "s savage isl&1 a few indi/9ct murmurs t may seem to be discordant ) ! total h>mony ( mank9d4' ,he goes on to rem>k1 h[ev]1 t 9 our zeal = ! immutability ( moral di/9ctions1 we may weak5 ! case by cont5d+ = too mu*2 & proposes to consid] ! species ( accordance t may be safely argu$ =4 ,he beg9s by purg+ away ! reali/ic notion ( ,virtue1 consid]$ z a self-exi/+ entity4 ,he def9es x--a t]m express+ ! relation ( c]ta9 actions to c]ta9 emotions 9 ! m9ds contemplat+ !m2 its univ]sality is m]ely co-ext5sive ) ^! m9ds4 ,he !n conc$es t all mank9d d n1 at e mom5t1 feel precisely ! same emotions 9 contemplat+ ! same actions1 & sets =? ! limitations z foll[s2-- ,fir/1 ,9 mom5ts ( viol5t passion1 ! m9d is incapacitat$ = p]ceiv+ moral diff]5ces2 we mu/1 9 su* cases appeal1 z x 71 f ,philip drunk to ,philip sob]4 ,secondly1 ,/ill m important is ! limitation aris+ f ! complexity ( _m actions4 ,:]e good & evil results are s bl5d$ t we _c easily assign ! prepond]ance1 diff]5t m5 may =m diff]5t conclusions4 ,p>tiality ( views may arise f ?is cause1 n m]ely 9 individuals1 b 9 :ole nations4 ,! legal p]mission ( !ft 9 ,sp>ta is a case 9 po9t4 ,!ft1 z !ft1 & )\t relation to ! political object ( inur+ a w>like p1 w\ld h be5 condemn$ 9 ,sp>ta1 z well z ) u4 ,! retort ( ,locke is n out ( place "h2 an innate moral s5tim5t t p]mits a fundam5tal virtue to be set aside on ! gr\nd ( m]e /ate conv5i5ce1 is ( v little value4 ,he !n goes on to ask :e!r m51 9 approv+ ^! exceptions to morality1 approve !m because !y are immoral8 ,! oppon5ts ( a moral s5se d n cont5d = an immoral s5se4 ,suicide is n comm5d$ because x deprives society ( useful memb]s1 & gives sorr[ to relations & fri5ds2 ! exposure ( infants is n ju/ifi$ on ! plea ( add+ to human suff]+4 ,aga91 ! diff]5ces ( cook]y among nations are mu* wid] ?an ! diff]5ces ( moral s5tim5t2 & yet no "o d5ies a fundam5tal susceptibility to sweet & bitt]4 ,x is n cont5d$ t we come into ! _w ) a k ( actions1 b t we h c]ta9 susceptibilities ( emotion1 9 consequ5ce ( :i*1 x is impossible = u1 9 aft] life1 unless f c\nt]act+ circum/ances1 to be pleas$ ) ! contemplation ( c]ta9 actions1 & disgu/$ ) c]ta9 o!r actions4 ,:5 ! doctr9e is ?us /at$1 ,paley's objection1 t we %\ld also receive f nature ! notions ( ! actions !mselves1 falls to ! gr\nd4 ,z well might we require an in/9ctive notion ( all possible numb]s1 to be> out our in/9ctive s5se ( proportion4 ,a ?ird limitation mu/ be add$1 ! influ5ce ( ! pr9ciple ( ,association4 ,"o way t ?is op]ates is to transf]1 to a :ole class ( actions1 ! feel+s peculi> to c]ta9 m>k$ individuals4 ,?us1 9 a civiliz$ c\ntry1 :]e prop]ty is l>gely possess$1 & "u complicat$ t5ures1 we become v s5sitive to its violation1 & acquire a proportionably int5se s5tim5t ( ,ju/ice4 ,aga91 association op]ates 9 modify+ our approval & disapproval ( actions accord+ to _! att5dant circum/ances2 z :5 we ext5uate misconduct 9 a belov$ p]son4 ,! au?or cont5ds t1 not)/&+ ^! limitations1 we /ill leave unimpair$ ! approbation ( unmix$ good z good1 & ! disapprobation ( unmix$ evil z evil4 ,8 fur!r rem>ks1 h[ev]1 are ma9ly eloqu5t declamation on ! univ]sality ( moral di/9ctions4 ,he proce$s to criticise ! moral sy/ems f ,hobbes d[nw>ds4 ,8 rem>ks 7,lecture #gf7 on ! prov9ce ( ,reason 9 ,morality1 ) ref]5ce to ! sy/ems ( ,cl>ke & ,wolla/on1 conta9 ! gi/ ( ! matt] well express$4 ,he next consid]s ! !ory ( ,utility4 ,t ,utility be>s a c]ta9 relation to ,virtue is unque/ionable4 ,b5evol5ce means good to o!rs1 & virtue is ( c\rse made up1 9 great "p1 ( ?is4 ,b !n1 if ,utility is held to be ! measure ( virtue1 /&+ 9 exact proportion to x1 ! proposition is v f> f true2 x is only a small portion ( virtu\s actions :]e9 ! measure holds4 ,he does n d\bt t virtu\s actions d all t5d1 9 a great] or less degree1 to ! advantage ( ! _w4 ,b he consid]s ! "q to be1 :e!r :at we h alone 9 view1 9 approv+ c]ta9 actions1 be ! am\nt ( utility t !y br+2 :e!r we h no o!r reason = comm5d+ a man ?an = prais+ a *e/ ( draw]s4 ,consid] ?is "q fir/ f ! po9t ( view ( ! ag5t4 ,does ! "m1 9 wat*+ h] sick infant1 ?9k ( ! good ( mank9d at t mom5t8 ,is ! pity call$ =? by mis]y a s5tim5t ( ! g5]al good8 ,look at x aga9 f ! po9t ( view ( ! spectator4 ,is 8 admiration ( a /eam-eng9e1 & ( an h]oic human action1 ! same s5tim5t8 ,:y d we n wor%ip ! e>?1 ! s\rce ( all our utilities8 ,! anci5t wor%ipp]s ( nature always gave x a s\l 9 ! fir/ in/ance4 ,:5 ! support] ( ,utility arbitr>ily conf9es 8 pr9ciples to ! actions ( liv+ be+s1 he conc$es ! po9t 9 dispute2 he admits an approvabl5ess peculi> to liv+ & volunt>y ag5ts1 a capacity ( excit+ moral emotions n comm5surate ) any utility4 ,hume says1 t ! s5tim5ts ( utility connect$ ) human be+s are mix$ ) affection1 e/eem1 & approbation1 :i* d n atta* to ! utility ( inanimate ?+s4 ,br[n replies1 t ^! are ! v s5tim5ts to be acc\nt$ =1 ! moral "p ( ! case4 ,b ano!r contra/ may be made2 namely1 betwe5 ! utility ( virtue & ! utility ( tal5t or g5ius1 :i* we view ) v diff]5t & unequal s5tim5ts2 ! inv5tors ( ! pr9t+ press d n r\se ! same emotions z ! *>ities ( ! ,man ( ,ross4 ,/ill1 he cont5ds1 l ! o!r support]s ( innate moral di/9ctions1 = a pre-e/abli%$ h>mony betwe5 ! two attributes4 ,utility & virtue are s intimately relat$1 t !re is p]haps no action g5]ally felt by u z virtu\s1 b :at is g5]ally b5eficial4 ,b ?is is only discov]$ by reflect+ m52 x nev] ent]s ! m9d ( ! un?9k+ multitude4 ,nay1 m1 x is only ! ,div9e ,be+ t c fully ma/] ?is relation%ip1 or s prescribe our duties t !y %all ultimately co9cide ) ! g5]al happ9ess4 ,he all[s t ! imm$iate object ( ! legislator is ! g5]al good2 b !n 8 relation%ip is to ! community z a :ole1 & n to any p>ticul> individual4 ,he admits1 f>!r1 t ! good ( ! _w at l>ge1 if n ! only moral object1 is a moral object1 9 common ) ! good ( p>5ts1 fri5ds1 & o!rs relat$ to u 9 private life4 ,f>!r1 x may be requisite = ! morali/ to correct our moral s5tim5ts by requir+ great] att5tion to public1 & less to private1 good2 b ?is does n alt] ! nature ( our moral feel+s2 x m]ely pres5ts new objects to our moral discrim9ation4 ,x gives an ex]cise to our reason 9 dis5tangl+ ! complicat$ results ( our actions4 ,he makes x also an objection to ,utility1 t x does n expla9 :y we feel approbation ( ! useful1 & disapprobation ( ! hurtful2 =gett+ t ,b5evol5ce is an admitt$ fact ( our con/itution1 & may fairly be assign$ by ! morali/ z ! s\rce ( ! moral s5tim5t4 ,8 next rem>ks are on ! ,selfi% ,sy/ems1 8 reply to :i* is ! ass]tion ( dis9t]e/$ ,affections4 ,he di/+ui%es two modes ( assign+ self-int]e/ z ! sole motive ( virtu\s conduct4 ,fir/1 x may be said t 9 e s-call$ virtu\s action1 we see "s good to self1 ne> or remote4 ,secondly1 x may be ma9ta9$ t we become at la/ dis9t]e/$ by ! associations ( our own int]e/4 ,he calls 9 "q ?is alleg$ process ( association4 ,because a man's own cane is int]e/+ to him1 x does n foll[ t e o!r man's cane is int]e/+4 ,he "h commits a mi/ake ( fact2 o!r m5's walk+ canes are int]e/+ to ! int]e/$ own] ( a cane4 ,x may n foll[ t ?is int]e/ is en\gh to det]m9e self-sacrifice4 ,x w be inf]r$ t ,br[n cont5ds w>mly = ! exi/5ce ( ,dis9t]e/$ ,affection1 n m]ely z a pres5t1 b z a primitive1 fact ( our con/itution4 ,he does n always keep ?is di/9ct f ! ,moral ,s5tim5t2 he1 9 fact1 mixes ! two s5tim5ts toge!r 9 8 language1 a ?+ almo/ inevitable1 b yet inconsi/5t ) ! advocacy ( a di/9ct moral s5tim5t4 ,he includes among ! ,selfi% ,sy/ems ! ,e?ical ,!ory ( ,paley1 :i* he reprobates 9 bo? its lead+ po9ts--ev]la/+ happ9ess z ! motive1 & ! w ( ,god z ! rule4 ,on ! "o po9t1 ?is !ory is liable to all ! objections aga9/ a purely selfi% sy/em2 &1 on ! o!r po9t1 he makes ! usual replies to ! f\nd+ ( morality on ! absolute w ( ! ,deity4 ,br[n next criticises ! sy/em ( ,adam ,smi?4 ,admitt+ t we h ! sympa!tic feel+ t ,smi? proce$s ^u1 he que/ions its adequacy to con/itute ! moral s5tim5t1 on ! gr\nd t x is n a p]petual accompanim5t ( our actions4 ,!re mu/ be a c]ta9 vividness ( feel+ or ( ! display ( feel+1 or at lea/ a suffici5t cause ( vivid feel+1 to call ! sympa?y into action4 ,9 ! num]\s petty actions ( life1 !re is an abs5ce ( any m>k$ sympa?y4 ,b ! ess5tial error ( ,smi?'s sy/em is1 t x assumes ! v moral feel+s t x is meant to expla94 ,if !re 7 no antec$5t moral feel+s1 sympa?y c\ld n af=d !m2 x is only a mirror to reflect :at is already 9 exi/5ce4 ,! feel+s t we sympa?ize )1 are !mselves moral feel+s already2 if x 7 n s1 ! reflexion ( !m f a ?\s& brea/s w\ld n give !m a moral nature4 ,br[n ?9ks t ,adam ,smi? 0 to "s ext5t misl$ by an ambiguity 9 ! ^w sympa?y2 a ^w appli$ n m]ely to ! p>ticipation ( o!r m5's feel+s1 b to ! fur!r & di/9ct fact ( ! approbation ( ^? feel+'s4 ,al?\gh sid+ 9 ! ma9 ) ,%aftesbury & ,hut*eson1 ,br[n objects to _! designation ,moral ,s5se1 z express+ ! innate p[] ( moral approbation4 ,if ',s5se' be int]pret$ m]ely z susceptibility1 he has no?+ to say1 b if x mean a prim>y m$ium ( p]ception1 l ! eye or ! e>1 he consid]s x a mi/ake4 ,x is1 9 8 view1 an emotion1 l hope1 jeal\sy1 or res5tm5t1 ris+ up on ! pres5tation ( a c]ta9 class ( objects4 ,he f>!r objects to ! phrase 'moral ideas1' also us$ by ,hut*eson4 ,! moral emotions are m ak9 to love & hate1 ?an to p]ception or judgm5t4 ,br[n gives an exposition ( ,practical ,e?ics "u ! usual heads3 ,duties to ,o!rs1 to ,god1 to ,ourselves4 ,duties to o!rs he classifies ?us3--,i4--,negative1 or ab/95ce f injur+ o!rs 9 ,p]son1 ,prop]ty1 ,affections1 ,"* or ,reputation1 ,k 7v]acity71 ,virtue1 & ,tranquillity2 ,,ii4 ,positive1 or ,b5evol5ce2 & ,,iii4--,duties gr[+ out ( our peculi> ties--,aff9ity1 ,fri5d%ip1 ,good (fices receiv$1 ,contract1 & ,citiz5%ip4 ,to sum up ,i4--,z reg>ds ! ,/&>d1 ,br[n cont5ds = an ,innate ,s5tim5t4 ,,ii4--,! ,faculty be+ ?us det]m9$1 along ) ! ,/&>d1 we h only to resume 8 views z to ,dis9t]e/$ action4 ,= a full acc\nt ( ^!1 we h to g beyond ! /rictly ,e?ical lectures1 to 8 analysis ( ! ,emotions4 ,speak+ ( love1 he says t x includes a desire ( do+ good to ! p]son lov$2 t x is necess>ily pleasurable because !re mu/ be "s quality 9 ! object t gives pleasure2 b x is n ! m]e pleasure ( lov+ t makes u love4 ,! qualities are delightful to love1 & yet impossible n to love4 ,he is m explicit :5 he comes to ! consid]ation ( ,pity1 recogniz+ ! exi/5ce ( sympa?y1 n only )\t lik+ = ! object1 b ) positive dislike4 ,9 ano!r place1 he rem>ks t we desire ! happ9ess ( our fell[s simply z human be+s4 ,he is oppos$ to ! !ory t w\ld trace our dis9t]e/$ affections to a selfi% orig94 ,he makes "s attempt to ref] to ! laws ( ,association1 ! tak+ 9 ( o!r m5's emotions1 b ?9ks t !re is a reflex process besides4 ,al?\gh recogniz+ 9 a vague way ! exi/5ce ( g5u9e dis9t]e/$ impulses1 he dilates eloqu5tly1 & (t51 on ! delici\sness ( b5evol5ce1 & ( all virtu\s feel+s & conduct4 ,,william ,,paley4 #agdc-ahje4 ,! ,fir/ ,book ( ,paley's ',moral & ,political ,philosophy' is entitl$ ',,prelim9>y ,,consid]ations' x is 9 fact an unme?odical acc\nt ( v>i\s fundam5tal po9ts ( ! subject4 ,he beg9s by def9+ ,moral ,philosophy z 't sci5ce :i* tea*es m5 _! duty1 & ! reasons ( x4 ,! ord9>y rules are defective & may mislead1 unless aid$ by a sci5tific inve/igation4 ,^! ord9>y rules are ! ,law ( ,hon\r1 ! ,law ( ! ,l&1 & ! ,scriptures4 ,he comm5ces ) ! ,law ( ,hon\r1 :i* he views 9 its n>r[ s5se1 z appli$ to p ( rank & fa%ion4 ,?is is ( c\rse a v limit$ code4 ,! ,law ( ! ,l& also mu/ omit _m duties1 prop]ly compulsory1 z piety1 b5evol5ce1 c4 ,x mu/ also leave unpuni%$ _m vices1 z luxury1 prodigality1 p>tiality4 ,x mu/ conf9e itself to (f5ces /rictly def9able4 ,! ,scriptures lay d[n g5]al rules1 :i* h to be appli$ by ! ex]cise ( reason & judgm5t4 ,moreov]1 !y pre-suppose ! pr9ciples ( natural ju/ice1 & supply new sanctions & great] c]ta9ty4 ,accord+ly1 !y d n disp5se ) a sci5tific view ( morals4 ,! correct arrangem5t ( ! common rules w\ld h be5 7#a7 ! ,law ( ! ,l&1 7#b7 ! ,laws ( ,society g5]ally1 & 7#c7 ! ,scriptures4 ,! ,law ( ,hon\r is m]ely "o application ( ! compreh5sive ag5cy ( society 9 puni%+ m51 by excommunication1 = :at x prohibits4 ,!n foll[s 8 fam\s *apt] on ! ,,moral ,,s5se4 ,x is by way ( giv+ an effective /atem5t ( ! po9t 9 dispute t he quotes ! anecdote ( ,caius ,toranius1 z an extreme in/ance ( filial +ratitude1 & supposes x to be put to ! wild boy caught 9 ! woods ( ,hanov]1 ) ! view ( asc]ta9+ :e!r he w\ld feel ! s5tim5t ( disapprobation z we d4 ,^? t affirm an innate moral s5se1 mu/ answ] 9 ! affirmative2 ^? t d5y x1 9 ! negative4 ,he !n recites ! argum5ts on bo? sides4 ,= ! moral s5se1 x is cont5d$1 t we approve examples ( g5]osity1 gratitude1 fidelity1 c41 on ! in/ant1 )\t delib]ation & )\t be+ consci\s ( any assignable reason2 & t ?is approbation is uni=m & univ]sal1 ! same sorts ( conduct be+ approv$ or disapprov$ 9 all ages & c\ntries2 :i* circum/ances po9t to ! op]ation ( an in/9ct1 or a moral s5se4 ,! answ]s to ^! allegations are-- ,fir/1 ,! ,uni=mity spok5 ( is n admitt$ z a fact4 ,accord+ to ! au!ntic acc\nts ( hi/orians & travell]s1 !re is sc>cely a s+le vice t1 9 "s age or c\ntry ( ! _w1 has n be5 c\nt5anc$ by public op9ion4 ,! murd] ( ag$ p>5ts1 !ft1 suicide1 promiscu\s int]c\rse ( ! sexes1 & unm5tionable crimes h be5 tol]at$ & approv$4 ,among ourselves1 ,duell+ is view$ ) ! mo/ opposite s5tim5ts2 =giv5ess ( injuries is acc\nt$ by "s p magnanimity1 & by o!rs meanness4 ,9 ^!1 & 9 _m o!r in/ances1 moral approbation foll[s ! fa%ions & in/itutions ( ! c\ntry1 :i* in/itutions h !mselves gr[n out ( local circum/ances1 ! arbitr>y au?ority ( "s *iefta91 or ! caprice ( ! multitude4 ,secondly1 ,t1 al?\gh1 aft] all[+ = ^! exceptions1 x is admitt$ t "s sorts ( actions are m approv$ ?an o!rs1 ! approbation be+ g5]al1 al?\gh n univ]sal1 yet ?is may be acc\nt$ =1 )\t suppos+ a moral s5se1 ?us3-- ,hav+ exp]i5c$ a p>ticul> l9e ( conduct z b5eficial to ourselves1 = example1 tell+ ! tru?1 a s5tim5t ( approbation gr[s up 9 consequ5ce1 & ?is s5tim5t !reupon arises :5ev] ! action is m5tion$1 & )\t our ?9k+ ( ! consequ5ces 9 ea* in/ance4 ,! process is illu/rat$ by ! love ( money1 :i* is /ronge/ 9 ! old1 :o lea/ ( all ?9k ( apply+ x to its uses4 ,by su* means1 ! approval ( c]ta9 actions is comm5c$2 & be+ once comm5c$1 ! cont9uance ( ! feel+ is acc\nt$ = by au?ority1 by imitation1 & by all ! usages ( good society4 ,z soon z an entire society is possess$ ( an e?ical view1 ! initiation ( ! new memb]s is sure & irresi/ible4 ,! efficacy ( ,imitation is %[n 9 cases :]e !re is no au?ority or express tra9+ employ$1 z 9 ! lik+s & dislik+s1 or ta/es & antipa?ies1 9 m]e matt]s ( indiff]5ce4 ,s mu* 9 reply to ! alleg$ uni=mity4 ,next come ! positive objections to a ,moral ,in/9ct4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 moral rules are n absolutely & univ]sally true2 !y b5d to circum/ances4 ,v]acity1 :i* is a natural duty1 if !re be any su*1 is disp5s$ ) 9 case ( an enemy1 a ?ief1 or a madman4 ,! obligation ( promises is releas$ "u c]ta9 circum/ances4 ,9 ! next place1 ! ,in/9ct mu/ be> ) x ! idea ( ! actions to be approv$ or disapprov$2 b we are n born ) any su* ideas4 ,on ! :ole1 ei!r !re exi/ no moral in/9cts1 or !y are undi/+ui%able f prejudices & habits1 & are n to be tru/$ 9 moral reason+s4 ,ari/otle held x z self-evid5t t b>b>ians are meant to be slaves2 s d our mod]n slave-trad]s4 ,?is in/ance is "o ( _m to %[ t ! conv5i5ce ( ! p>ties has mu* to d ) ! rise ( a moral s5tim5t4 ,& e sy/em built ^u in/9cts is m likely to f9d excuses = exi/+ op9ions & practices ?an to re=m ei!r4 ,aga93 suppos+ ^! ,in/9cts to exi/1 :at is _! au?ority or p[] to puni%8 ,is x ! infliction ( remorse8 ,t may be borne ) = ! pleasures & pr(its ( wick$ness4 ,if !y are to be held z indications ( ! w ( ,god1 & !re=e z presages ( 8 int5tions1 t result may be arriv$ at by a sur] road4 ,! next prelim9>y topic is ,,human ,,happ9ess4 ,happ9ess is def9$ z ! excess ( pleasure ov] pa94 ,pleasures are to be held z diff]+ only 9 cont9uance1 & 9 int5sity4 ,a computation made 9 respect ( ^! two prop]ties1 confirm$ by ! degrees ( *e]fulness1 tranquillity1 & cont5tm5t obs]vable among m51 is to decide all que/ions z to human happ9ess4 ,i4--,:at ,human ,happ9ess does n consi/ 94 ,n 9 ! pleasures ( ,s5se1 9 :atev] pr(usion or v>iety enjoy$2 9 :i* are includ$ s5sual pleasures1 active sports1 & ,f9e ,art4 #a/1 ,because !y la/ = a %ort "t4 ,surely !y are good = ! "t !y d la/4 #bndly1 ,by repetition1 !y lose _! reli%4 ,int]mission & v>iety1 h[ev]1 are to be suppos$4 #crdly1 ,! eag]ness = high & int5se delights takes away ! reli% f all o!rs4 ,paley pr(esses to h obs]v$ 9 ! vot>ies ( pleasure a re/less crav+ = v>iety1 languor "u enjoym5t1 & mis]y 9 ! want ( x4 ,aft] all1 h[ev]1 ^! pleasures h _! value1 & may be too mu* despis$ z well z too mu* foll[$4 ,next1 happ9ess does n consi/ 9 ! exemption f pa9 7871 f lab\r1 c>e1 bus9ess1 & outw>d evils2 su* exemption leav+ "o a prey to morbid depression1 anxiety1 & hypo*ondria4 ,ev5 a pa9 9 mod]ation may be a refre%m5t1 f giv+ a /imulus to pursuit4 ,nor does x consi/ 9 greatness1 rank1 or /ation4 ,! reason "h is d]iv$1 z usual1 f ! doctr9e ( ,relativity or ,comp>ison1 pu%$ beyond all j limits4 ,! illu/ration ( ! dep5d5ce ( ! pleasure ( sup]iority on comp>ison is 9 ,paley's happie/ /yle4 ,,ii4--,:at happ9ess does consi/ 94 ,all[+ = ! great difficulties ( ?is vital det]m9ation1 he proposes to be gov]n$ by a ref]5ce to ! conditions ( life :]e m5 appe> mo/ *e]ful & cont5t$4 ,x consi/s1 #a/1 ,9 ! ex]cise ( ! social affections4 #bndly1 ,! ex]cise ( our faculties1 ei!r ( body or ( m9d1 9 ! pursuit ( "s engag+ end4 ,?is includes ! two items ( occupation & plot-int]e/4 #crdly1 ,^u ! prud5t con/itution ( ! habits2 ! prud5t con/itution be+ *iefly 9 mod]ation & simplicity ( life1 or 9 dem&+ few /imulants2 & #d?ly1 ,9 ,heal?1 ^: importance he values highly1 b n too highly4 ,! consid]ation ( ^! negative & positive conditions1 he ?9ks1 ju/ifies ! two conclusions3 7#a7 ,t happ9ess is pretty equally di/ribut$ among/ ! diff]5t ord]s ( society2 & 7#b7 ,t 9 respect ( ?is _w's happ9ess1 vice has no advantage ov] virtue4 ,! la/ subject ( ! ,fir/ ,book is ,,virtue4 ,! def9ition ( virtue is '! do+ good to mank9d1 9 ob$i5ce to ! w ( ,god1 & = ! sake ( ev]la/+ happ9ess4' ,if ?is 7 /rictly int]pret$ accord+ to its =m1 x w\ld mean t ?ree ?+s g to con/itute virtue1 any "o ( :i* be+ abs5t1 we %\ld n h virtue4 ,do+ good to mank9d alone is n virtue1 unless c\pl$ ) a div9e requirem5t2 & ?is addition w\ld n suffice1 )\t ! f>!r circum/ance ( ev]la/+ happ9ess z ! rew>d4 ,b su* is n 8 mean+1 nor is x easy to fix ! mean+4 ,he unites ! two conditions--,human ,happ9ess & ! ,w ( ! ,deity--& holds !m to co9cide & to expla9 "o ano!r4 ,ei!r ( ! two w\ld be a suffici5t def9ition ( virtue2 & he w\ld add1 z an explanatory proposition & a guide to practice1 t ! "o may be tak5 z a clue to ! o!r4 ,9 a d\ble crit]ion l ?is1 ev]y?+ dep5ds ^u ! mann] ( work+ x4 ,by runn+ f "o ( ! te/s to ano!r at discretion1 we may evade :atev] is disagreeable to u 9 bo?4 ,book ,,ii41 entitl$ ,,moral ,,obligation1 is ! full developm5t ( 8 views4 ,recit+ v>i\s !ories ( moral "r & wrong1 he rem>ks1 fir/1 t !y all ultimately co9cide2 9 o!r words1 all ! !ori/s agree ^u ! same rules ( duty--a rem>k to be receiv$ ) all[ances2 & next1 t !y all leave ! matt] %ort2 none provide an adequate motive or inducem5t4 ,he omits to m5tion ! !ory ( ! ,div9e ,w1 :i* is p>tly 8 own !ory4 ,9 proce$+ to supply ?is want1 he asks fir/ ':at is meant by be+ oblig$ to d a ?+2' & answ]s1 'a viol5t motive result+ f ! comm& ( ano!r4' ,! motive mu/ be viol5t1 or h "s degree ( =ce to ov]come reluctance or oppos+ t5d5cies4 ,x mu/ also result f ! comm& ( ano!r2 n ! m]e (f] ( a gratuity by way ( inducem5t4 ,su* is ! nature ( ,law2 we %\ld n obey ! magi/rate1 unless rew>ds or puni%m5ts dep5d$ on our ob$i5ce2 s nei!r %\ld we1 )\t ! same reason1 d :at is "r1 or obey ,god4 ,he !n resumes ! g5]al "q1 "u a concrete case1 ',:y am ,i oblig$ to keep my ^w8' ,! answ] accords ) ! above explanation2--,because ,i am urg$ to d s by a viol5t motive 7namely1 ! rew>ds & puni%m5ts ( a future life71 result+ f ! comm& ( ,god4 ,private happ9ess is ! motive1 ! w ( ,god ! rule4 ,al?\gh n br\ght out 9 ! pres5t connexion1 x is impli$ t ! w ( ,god int5ds ! happ9ess ( mank9d1 & is to be int]pret$ accord+ly4 ,previ\sly1 :5 reason+ on ! means ( human happ9ess1 he decl>$ x to be an e/abli%$ conclusion1 t virtue leads to happ9ess1 ev5 9 ?is life2 n[ he bases 8 own !ory on ! unc]ta9ty ( t conclusion4 ,8 words are1 ',!y :o w\ld e/abli% a sy/em ( morality1 indep5d5t ( a future /ate1 mu/ look out = "s o!r idea ( moral obligation1 unless !y c %[ t virtue conducts ! possessor to c]ta9 happ9ess 9 ?is life1 or to a mu* great] %>e ( x ?an he c\ld atta9 by a diff]5t behavi\r4' ,he does n make ! obvi\s rem>k t human au?ority1 z f> z x goes1 is also a s\rce ( obligation2 x works by ! v same class ( means z ! div9e au?ority4 ,he next proce$s to enquire into ! means ( det]m9+ ! ,,w ,,( ,,god4 ,!re are two s\rces--! express decl>ations ( ,scripture1 :5 !y are to be _h2 & ! design impress$ on ! _w1 9 o!r words1 ! light ( nature4 ,?is la/ s\rce requires him1 on 8 sy/em1 to e/abli% ! ,div9e ,b5evol5ce2 & he arrives at ! conclusion t ,god wills & wi%es ! happ9ess ( 8 creatures1 & accord+ly1 t ! me?od ( com+ at 8 w conc]n+ any action is to enquire into ! t5d5cy ( t action to promote or to dim9i% ! g5]al happ9ess4 ,he !n discusses ,,utility1 ) a view ( answ]+ ! objection t actions may be useful1 & yet su* z no man w all[ to be "r4 ,?is leads him to di/+ui% betwe5 ! p>ticul> & ! g5]al consequ5ces ( actions1 & to en=ce ! necessity ( ,,g5]al ,,rules4 ,an assass91 by knock+ a ri* villa9 on ! head1 may d imm$iate & p>ticul> good2 b ! lib]ty grant$ to individuals to kill :oev] !y %\ld deem injuri\s to society1 w\ld r5d] human life unsafe1 & induce univ]sal t]ror4 ',:atev] is exp$i5t is "r1' b !n x mu/ be exp$i5t on ! :ole1 9 ! long run1 9 all its effects collat]al & remote1 z well z imm$iate & direct4 ,:5 ! hone/um is oppos$ to ! utile1 ! hone/um means ! g5]al & remote consequ5ces1 ! utile ! p>ticul> & ! ne>4 ,! conclud+ sections ( ,book ,,ii4 are occupi$ ) ! consid]ation ( ,,"r & ,,rights4 ,a ,"r is ( c\rse correlative ) an ,obligation4 ,rights are ,natural or ,adv5titi\s2 ,ali5able or ,inali5able2 ,p]fect or ,imp]fect4 ,! only "o ( ^! di/9ctions hav+ any ,e?ical application is ,p]fect & ,imp]fect4 ,! ,p]fect ,rights are1 ! ,imp]fect are n1 en=c$ by ,law4 ,"u ! 'g5]al ,rights ( mank9d1' he has a discussion z to our "r to ! fle% ( animals1 & cont5ds t x w\ld be difficult to def5d ?is "r by any argum5ts drawn f ! light ( nature1 & t x reposes on ! text ( ,g5esis ix4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,z reg>ds ! *ief bulk ( ,paley's-"w1 x is necess>y only to indicate 8 s*eme ( ! ,duties1 & 8 mann] ( treat+ !m4 ,book ,,iii4 consid]s ,,relative ,,duties4 ,!re are ?ree classes ( ^!4 ,fir/1 ,relative ,duties t are ,det]m9ate1 mean+ all ^? t are /rictly def9$ & en=c$2 ^? gr[+ out ( ,promises1 ,contracts1 ,oa?s1 & ,subscriptions to ,articles ( ,religion4 ,secondly1 ,relative ,duties t are ,indet]m9ate1 z ,*>ity1 9 its v>i\s aspects ( treatm5t ( dep5d5ts1 assi/ance to ! ne$y1 c42 ! *ecks on ,ang] & ,rev5ge2 ,gratitude1 c4 ,?irdly1 ! ,relative ,duties gr[+ out ( ! ,sexes4 ,book ,,iv4 is ,,duties ,,to ,,ourselves1 & treats ( ,self-def5ce1 ,drunk5ness1 & ,suicide4 ,book ,v4 comprises ,,duties ,,t[>ds ,,god4 ,book ,,vi4 is occupi$ ) ,politics & ,political ,economy4 ,x discusses ! ,orig9 ( ,civil ,gov]nm5t1 ! ,duty ( ,submission to ,gov]nm5t1 ,lib]ty1 ! ,=ms ( ,gov]nm5t1 ! ,briti% ,con/itution1 ! ,adm9i/ration ( ,ju/ice1 c4 ,! ,e?ical ,!ory ( ,paley may be briefly resum$ ?us3-- ,i4--,! ,e?ical ,/&>d ) him is ! conjo9$ ref]5ce to ! ,w ( ! ,deity1 & to ,utility1 or ,human ,happ9ess4 ,he is unable to con/ruct a s*eme applicable to mank9d g5]ally1 until !y are fir/ conv]t$ to a belief 9 ,revelation4 ,,ii4--,! ,psy*ology impli$ 9 8 sy/em involves 8 mo/ *>act]i/ic features4 #a4 ,he is unmi/akeable 9 repudiat+ ,innate ,moral ,di/9ctions1 & on ?is po9t1 & on ?is only1 is he ?or\ghly at "o ) ! ,utilit>ians ( ! pres5t day4 #b4 ,on ! ,!ory ( ,w he has no rem>ks4 ,he has an utt] di/a/e = any?+ metaphysical4 #c4 ,he does n discuss ,dis9t]e/$ ,s5tim5t2 by implication1 he d5ies x4 ',)\t ! expectation ( a future exi/5ce1' he says1 'all reason+ ^u moral que/ions is va94' ,he _c1 ( c\rse1 leave out all ref]5ce to g5]osity4 ,"u ',pecuni>y ,b\nty' he makes ?is rem>k--',!y :o rank pity among/ ! orig9al impulses ( our nature1 rightly cont5d1 t :5 ?is pr9ciple prompts u to ! relief ( human mis]y1 x indicates ! ,div9e int5tion & our duty4 ,:e!r x be an in/9ct or a habit 7871 x is1 9 fact1 a prop]ty ( our nature1 :i* ,god appo9t$1 c4' ,?is is 8 fir/ argum5t = *>ity2 ! second is d]iv$ f ! orig9al title ( mank9d1 grant$ by ! ,deity1 to hold ! e>? 9 common2 & ! ?ird is ! /rong injunctions ( ,scripture on ?is head4 ,he _c1 x seems1 tru/ human nature ) a s+le *>itable act ap>t f ! int]v5tion ( ! ,deity4 ,,iii4--,he has an explicit s*eme ( ,happ9ess4 ,,iv4--,! ,sub/ance ( 8 ,moral ,code is di/+ui%$ f1 ! curr5t op9ions *iefly by 8 well-kn[n views on ,subscription to ,articles4 ,he _c conceive h[1 look+ to ! incurable div]sity ( human op9ion on all matt]s %ort ( demon/ration1 ! legislature c\ld expect ! p]petual cons5t ( a body ( t5 ?\s& m51 n to "o controv]t$ proposition1 b to _m hundr$s4 ,8 inducem5ts to ! p]=mance ( duty are1 z we %\ld expect1 a mix$ ref]5ce to ,public ,utility & to ,scripture4 ,9 ! ,indet]m9ate ,duties1 :]e m5 are urg$ by moral consid]ations1 to ! exclusion ( legal compulsion1 he sometimes appeals directly to our g5]\s sympa?ies1 z well z to self-int]e/1 b usually ends ) ! ,scripture au?ority4 ,v4--,! relation ( ,e?ics to ,politics is n a prom95t feature 9 ,paley4 ,he makes moral rules repose f9ally1 n ^u human1 b ^u ,div9e ,law4 ,h5ce 7,,vi47 ! connexion ( 8 sy/em ) ,!ology is fundam5tal4 ,,j]emy ,,b5?am4 #agdh-ahcb4 ,! ,e?ical ,sy/em ( ,j]emy ,b5?am is giv5 9 8 "w1 entitl$ ',an ,introduction to ! ,pr9ciples ( ,morals & ,legislation1' fir/ publi%$ 9 #aghi4 ,9 a po/hum\s "w1 entitl$ ,deontology1 8 pr9ciples 7 f>!r illu/rat$1 *iefly ) ref]5ce to ! m9or morals & amiable virtues4 ,x is ! fir/-nam$ "w t we %all "h *iefly notice4 ,9 x1 ! au?or has pr9cipally 9 view ,legislation2 b ! same common basis1 ,utility1 s]ves1 9 8 judgm5t1 = ,e?ics1 or ,morals4 ,! fir/ *apt]1 entitl$ ',,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,utility1' beg9s ?us3--',nature has plac$ mank9d "u ! gov]nance ( two sov]eign ma/]s1 pa9 & pleasure4 ,x is = !m alone to po9t out :at we ought to d1 z well z to det]m9e :at we %all d4 ,on ! "o h&1 ! /&>d ( "r & wrong2 on ! o!r1 ! *a9 ( causes & effects1 are fa/5$ to _! ?rone4 ,!y gov]n u 9 all we d1 9 all we say1 9 all we ?9k2 e ef=t we c make to ?r[ (f our subjection w s]ve b to demon/rate & confirm x4 ,9 words a man may pret5d to abjure _! empire1 b 9 reality he w rema9 subject to x all ! :ile4 ,! pr9ciple ( utility recognizes ?is subjection1 & assumes x = ! f\ndation ( t sy/em1 ! object ( :i* is to re> ! fabric ( felicity by ! h& ( reason & ( law4 ,sy/ems :i* attempt to "q x1 deal 9 s\nds in/ead ( s5se1 9 caprice in/ead ( reason1 9 d>kness in/ead ( light4' ,he def9es ,utility 9 v>i\s phrases1 all com+ to ! same ?+3--! t5d5cy ( actions to promote ! happ9ess1 & to prev5t ! mis]y1 ( ! p>ty "u consid]ation1 :i* p>ty is usually ! community :]e "o's lot is ca/4 ,( ?is pr9ciple no pro( c be (f]$2 x is ! f9al axiom1 on :i* alone we c f\nd all argum5ts ( a moral k9d4 ,he t attempts to combat x1 usually assumes x1 unaw>es4 ,an oppon5t is *all5g$1 to say--7#a7 if he disc>ds x :olly2 7#b7 if he w act )\t any pr9ciple1 or if !re is any o!r t he w\ld judge by2 7#c7 if t o!r be really & di/9ctly sep>ate f utility2 7#d7 if he is incl9$ to set up 8 own approbation or disapprobation z ! rule2 & if s1 :e!r he w =ce t ^u o!rs1 or all[ ea* p]son to d ! same2 7#e7 9 ! fir/ case1 if 8 pr9ciple is n despotical2 7#f7 9 ! second case1 :e!r x is n an>*ical2 7#g7 suppos+ him to add ! plea ( reflection1 let him say if ! basis ( 8 reflections excludes utility2 7#h7 if he means to comp\nd ! matt]1 & take utility = "p2 & if s1 = :at "p2 7#i7 :y he goes s f>1 ) ,utility1 & no f>!r2 7#aj7 on :at o!r pr9ciple a mean+ c be atta*$ to ! words 'motive & "r4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,ii41 ,b5?am discusses ! ,,pr9ciples ,,adv]se ,,to ,,utility4 ,he conceives two oppos+ gr\nds4 ,! fir/ mode ( opposition is direct & con/ant1 z exemplifi$ 9 ,asceticism4 ,a second mode may be only occasional1 z 9 :at he t]ms ! pr9ciple ( ,sympa?y & ,antipa?y 7,lik+ & ,dislik+74 ,! pr9ciple ( ,asceticism means ! approval ( an action accord+ to its t5d5cy to dim9i% happ9ess1 or obv]sely4 ,any "o reprobat+ 9 any %ape1 pleasure z su*1 is a p>tisan ( ?is pr9ciple4 ,asceticism has be5 adopt$1 on ! "o h&1 by c]ta9 morali/s1 f ! spur ( philosophic pride2 & on ! o!r h&1 by c]ta9 religioni/s1 "u ! impulse ( fe>4 ,x has be5 mu* less admitt$ into ,legislation ?an into ,morals4 ,x may h orig9at$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ) ha/y speculators1 look+ at ! pa9s att5d+ c]ta9 pleasures 9 ! long run1 & pu%+ ! ab/95ce f su* pleasures 7ju/ifi$ to a c]ta9 l5g? on prud5tial gr\nds7 s f> z to fall 9 love ) pa94 ,! o!r pr9ciple1 ,sympa?y & ,antipa?y1 means ! unreason+ approbation or disapprobation ( ! individual m9d1 :]e fancy1 caprice1 accid5tal lik+ or dislik+1 may mix ) a reg>d to human happ9ess4 ,?is is prop]ly ! negation ( a pr9ciple4 ,:at we expect to f9d 9 a pr9ciple is "s ext]nal consid]ation1 w>rant+ & guid+ our s5tim5ts ( approbation & disapprobation2 a basis t all are agre$ ^u4 ,x is "u ?is head t ,b5?am rapidly surveys & dismisses all ! curr5t !ories ( ,"r & ,wrong4 ,!y consi/ all ( !m1 he says1 9 s _m contrivances = avoid+ an appeal to any ext]nal /&>d1 & = requir+ u to accept ! au?or's s5tim5t or op9ion z a reason = itself4 ,! dictates ( ?is pr9ciple1 h[ev]1 w (t5 un9t5tionally co9cide ) utility2 = :at m natural gr\nd ( hatr$ to a practice c !re be ?an its mis*iev\s t5d5cy8 ,! ?+s t m5 suff] by1 !y w be dispos$ to hate4 ,/ill1 x is n con/ant 9 its op]ation2 = p may ascribe ! suff]+ to ! wrong cause4 ,! pr9ciple is mo/ liable to err on ! side ( sev]ity2 diff]5ces ( ta/e & ( op9ion are suffici5t gr\nds = qu>rel & res5tm5t4 ,x w err on ! side ( l5ity1 :5 a mis*ief is remote & imp]ceptible4 ,! au?or res]ves a di/9ct h&l+ = ! ,!ological pr9ciple2 alleg+ t x falls "u "o or o!r ( ! ?ree =ego+4 ,! ,w ( ,god mu/ mean 8 w z reveal$ 9 ! sacr$ writ+s1 :i*1 z ! lab\rs ( div9es te/ify1 !mselves /& 9 ne$ ( int]pretation4 ,:at is meant1 9 fact1 is ! presumptive w ( ,god2 t is1 :at is presum$ to be 8 w on acc\nt ( its con=mity ) ano!r pr9ciple4 ,we are pretty sure t :at is "r is con=mable to 8 w1 b !n ?is requires u fir/ to "k :at is "r4 ,! usual mode ( kn[+ ,god's pleasure 7he rem>ks7 is to obs]ve :at is our own pleasure1 & pron\nce t to be 84 ,*apt] ,,iii4--,,on ,,f\r ,,sanctions ,,or ,,s\rces ,,( ,,pa9 ,,& ,,pleasure :]eby m5 are /imulat$ to act "r2 !y are t]m$1 physical1 political1 moral1 & religi\s4 ,^! are ! ,sanctions ( ,"r4 ,! physical sanction includes ! pleasures & pa9s aris+ 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature1 unmodifi$ by ! w ( any human be+1 or ( any sup]natural be+4 ,! political sanction is :at emanates f ! sov]eign or supreme rul+ p[] ( ! /ate4 ,! puni%m5ts ( ! ,law come "u ?is head4 ,! moral or popul> sanction results f ! action ( ! community1 or ( ! individuals t ea* p]son comes 9 contact )1 act+ )\t any settl$ or conc]t$ rule4 ,x corresponds to public op9ion1 & ext5ds 9 its op]ation beyond ! sph]e ( ! law4 ,! religi\s sanction proce$s f ! imm$iate h& ( a sup]ior invisible be+1 ei!r 9 ! pres5t1 or 9 a future life4 ,! "n ,puni%m5t is applicable only to ! ?ree la/4 ,! suff]+ t befalls a man 9 ! c\rse ( nature is t]m$ a calamity2 if x happ5 ?r\gh imprud5ce on 8 "p1 x may be /yl$ a puni%m5t issu+ f ! physical sanction4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 is ! ,,value ,,( ,a ,,lot ,,( ,,pleasure ,,or ,,pa91 ,,h[ ,,to ,,be ,,measur$4 ,a pleasure or a pa9 is det]m9$ to be great] or less accord+ to 7#a7 its int5sity1 7#b7 its duration1 7#c7 its c]ta9ty or unc]ta9ty1 7#d7 its prop9quity or remot5ess2 all :i* are obvi\s di/9ctions4 ,to ^! are to be add$ 7#e7 its fecundity1 or ! *ance x has ( be+ foll[$ by o!r s5sations ( its own k9d2 t is pleasures if x be pleasure1 pa9s if x be pa94 ,f9ally 7#f7 its purity1 or ! *ance ( its be+ unmix$ ) ! opposite k9d2 a pure pleasure has no mixture ( pa94 ,all ! six prop]ties apply to ! case ( an individual p]son2 :]e a plurality are conc]n$1 a new item is pres5t1 7#g7 ! ext5t1 or ! numb] ( p]sons affect$4 ,^! prop]ties exhau/ ! mean+ ( ! t]ms express+ good & evil2 on ! "o side1 happ9ess1 conv5i5ce1 advantage1 b5efit1 emolum5t1 pr(it1 c42 &1 on ! o!r1 unhapp9ess1 inconv5i5ce1 disadvantage1 loss1 mis*ief1 & ! l4 ,next foll[s1 9 ,*apt] ,v41 a classifi$ enum]ation ( ,,pleasures ,,& ,,pa9s4 ,9 a sy/em und]tak+ to base all ,moral & ,political action on ! production ( happ9ess1 su* a classification is obvi\sly requir$4 ,! au?or pr(esses to h gr\nd$ x on an analysis ( human nature1 :i* analysis itself1 h[ev]1 z be+ too metaphysical1 he )holds4 ,! simple pleasures are3--#a4 ,! pleasures ( s5se4 #b4 ,! pleasures ( weal?4 #c4 ,! pleasures ( skill4 #d4 ,! pleasures ( amity4 #e4 ,! pleasures ( a good "n4 #f4 ,! pleasures ( p[]4 #g4 ,! pleasures ( piety4 #h4 ,! pleasures ( b5evol5ce4 #i4 ,! pleasures ( malevol5ce4 #aj4 ,! pleasures ( memory4 #aa4 ,! pleasures ( imag9ation4 #ab4 ,! pleasures ( expectation4 #ac4 ,! pleasures dep5d5t on association4 #ad4 ,! pleasures ( relief4 ,! simple pa9s are3--#a4 ,! pa9s ( privation4 #b4 ,! pa9s ( ! s5ses4 #c4 ,! pa9s ( awkw>dness4 #d4 ,! pa9s ( enmity4 #e4 ,! pa9s ( an ill "n4 #f4 ,! pa9s ( piety4 #g4 ,! pa9s ( b5evol5ce4 #h4 ,! pa9s ( malevol5ce4 #i4 ,! pa9s ( ! memory4 #aj4 ,! pa9s ( ! imag9ation4 #aa4 ,! pa9s ( expectation4 #ab4 ,! pa9s dep5d5t on association4 ,we ne$ n quote 8 detail$ subdivision & illu/ration ( ^!4 ,at ! close1 he m>ks ! important diff]5ce betwe5 self-reg>d+ & extra-reg>d+2 ! la/ be+ ^? ( b5evol5ce & ( malevol5ce4 ,9 a long *apt] 7,,vi471 he dwells on ,,circum/ances ,,influ5c+ ,,s5sibility4 ,!y are su* z ! foll[+3--#a4 ,heal?4 #b4 ,/r5g?4 #c4 ,h>d9ess4 #d4 ,bodily imp]fection4 #e4 ,quantity & ,quality ( k4 #f4 ,/r5g? ( intellectual p[]s4 #g4 ,firmness ( m9d4 #h4 ,/ead9ess ( m9d4 #i4 ,b5t ( incl9ation4 #aj4 ,moral s5sibility4 #aa4 ,moral biases4 #ab4 ,religi\s ,s5sibility4 #ac4 ,religi\s biases4 #ad4 ,sympa!tic ,s5sibility4 #ae4 ,sympa!tic biases4 #af4 ,antipa!tic s5sibility4 #ag4 ,antipa!tic biases4 #ah4 ,insanity4 #ai4 ,habitual occupations4 #bj4 ,pecuni>y circum/ances4 #ba4 ,connexions 9 ! way ( sympa?y4 #bb4 ,connexions 9 ! way ( antipa?y4 #bc4 ,radical frame ( body4 #bd4 ,radical frame ( m9d4 #be4 ,sex4 #bf4 ,age4 #bg4 ,rank4 #bh4 ,education4 #bi4 ,climate4 #cj4 ,l9eage4 #ca4 ,gov]nm5t4 #cb4 ,religi\s pr(ession4 ,*apt] ,,vii4 proce$s to consid] ,,human ,,actions ,,9 ,,g5]al4 ,"r & wrong1 good & evil1 m]it & dem]it belong to actions4 ,^! h to be divid$ & classifi$ ) a view to ! ends ( ! morali/ & ! legislator4 ,?r\gh\t ?is1 & two o!r long *apt]s1 he discusses1 z necess>y 9 apportion+ puni%m5t1 ! act itself1 ! circum/ances1 ! int5tion1 & ! consci\sness--or ! k ( ! t5d5cies ( ! act4 ,he introduces _m subdivisions "u ea* head1 & makes a numb] ( rem>ks ( importance z reg>ds p5al legislation4 ,9 ,*apt] ,x41 he reg>ds pleasures & pa9s 9 ! aspect ( ,,motives4 ,s9ce e pleasure & e pa91 z a "p ( _! nature1 induce actions1 !y are (t5 designat$ ) ref]5ce to t circum/ance4 ,hung]1 ?ir/1 lu/1 av>ice1 curiosity1 ambition1 c41 are names ( ?is class4 ,!re is n a complete set ( su* designations2 h5ce ! use ( ! circumlocutions1 appetite =1 love (1 desire (--sweet od\rs1 s\nds1 sights1 ease1 reputation1 c4 ,( great importance is ! ,ord] ( pre-em95ce among motives4 ,( all ! v>ieties ( motives1 ,good-w1 or ,b5evol5ce1 tak5 9 a g5]al view1 is t ^: dictates are sure/ to co9cide ) ,utility4 ,9 ?is1 h[ev]1 x is tak5 = grant$ t ! b5evol5ce is n s conf9$ 9 its sph]e1 z to be contradict$ by a m ext5sive1 or enl>g$1 b5evol5ce4 ,aft] good-w1 ! motive t has ! be/ *ance ( co9cid+ ) ,utility is ,love ( ,reputation4 ,! co9cid5ce w\ld be p]fect1 if m5's lik+s & dislik+s 7 gov]n$ exclusively by ! pr9ciple ( ,utility1 & n1 z !y (t5 are1 by ! ho/ile pr9ciples ( ,asceticism1 & ( ,sympa?y & ,antipa?y4 ,love ( reputation is inf]ior z a motive to ,good-w1 9 n gov]n+ ! secret actions4 ,^! la/ are affect$1 only z !y h a *ance ( becom+ public1 or z m5 contract a habit ( look+ to public approbation 9 all !y d4 ,! desire ( ,amity1 or ( close p]sonal affections1 is plac$ next 9 ord]1 z a motive4 ,accord+ z we ext5d ! numb] ( p]sons ^: amity we desire1 ?is prompt+ approximates to ! love ( reputation4 ,aft] ^! ?ree motives1 ,b5?am places ! ,dictates ( ,religion1 :i*1 h[ev]1 are s v>i\s 9 _! sugge/ions1 t he c h>dly speak ( !m 9 common4 ,7 ! ,be+1 :o is ! object ( religion1 univ]sally suppos$ to be z b5evol5t z he is suppos$ to be wise & p[]ful1 & 7 ! notions ( 8 b5evol5ce z correct z ! notions ( 8 wisdom & p[]1 ! dictates ( religion w\ld correspond1 9 all cases1 ) ,utility4 ,b :ile m5 call him b5evol5t 9 words1 !y seldom mean t he is s 9 reality4 ,!y d n mean t he is b5evol5t z man is conceiv$ to be b5evol5t2 !y d n mean t he is b5evol5t 9 ! only s5se t b5evol5ce has a mean+4 ,! dictates ( religion are 9 all c\ntries int]mix$1 m or less1 ) dictates uncon=mable to utility1 d$uc$ f texts1 well or ill int]pret$1 ( ! writ+s held = sacr$ by ea* sect4 ,^! dictates1 h[ev]1 gradually approa* ne>] to utility1 because ! dictates ( ! moral sanction d s4 ,su* are ! f\r ,social or ,tutel>y ,motives1 ! antagoni/s ( ! ,dissocial & ,self-reg>d+ motives1 :i* include ! rema9d] ( ! catalogue4 ,*apt] ,,xi4 is on ,,dispositions4 ,a man is said to be ( a mis*iev\s disposition1 :5 he is presum$ to be apt to engage r 9 actions ( an app>5tly p]nici\s t5d5cy1 ?an 9 su* z are app>5tly b5eficial4 ,! au?or lays d[n c]ta9 ,rules = indicat+ ,disposition4 ,?us1 ',! /r5g? ( ! temptation be+ giv51 ! mis*iev\sness ( ! disposition manife/$ by ! ent]prise1 is z ! app>5t mis*iev\sness ( ! act1' & o!rs to a l effect4 ,*apt] ,,xii4--,,( ,,! ,,consequ5ces ,,( ,a ,,mis*iev\s ,,act1 is meant z ! conclud+ l9k ( ! :ole previ\s *a9 ( causes & effects4 ,he def9es ! %apes t bad consequ5ces may assume4 ,! mis*ief may be prim>y1 z :5 su/a9$ by a def9ite numb] ( individuals2 or second>y1 by ext5d+ ov] a multitude ( unassignable individuals4 ,! evil 9 ?is la/ case may be ei!r actual pa91 or dang]1 :i* is ! *ance ( pa94 ,?us1 a successful robb]y affects1 prim>ily1 a numb] ( assignable p]sons1 & second>ily1 all p]sons 9 a l situation ( risk4 ,he !n proce$s to ! !ory ( ,,puni%m5t 7,,xiii41 ,,xiv41 ,,xv471 to ! classification ( ,,(f5ces 7,,xvi471 & to ! ,limits ( ! ,p5al ,bran* ( ,jurisprud5ce 7,,xvii474 ,! two fir/ subjects--,puni%m5ts & ,(f5ces--are int]e/+ *iefly 9 reg>d to ,legislation4 ,!y h also a be>+ on ,morals2 inasmu* z society1 9 its private adm9i/ration ( puni%m5ts1 ought1 no less ?an ! ,legislator1 to be guid$ by s\nd sci5tific pr9ciples4 ,z respects ,puni%m5t1 he m>ks (f 7#a7 cases :]e x is gr\ndless2 7#b7 :]e x is inefficaci\s1 z 9 ,infancy1 ,insanity1 ,intoxication1 c42 7#c7 cases :]e x is unpr(itable2 & 7#d7 cases :]e x is ne$less4 ,x is "u ?is la/ h]d t he excludes f puni%m5t ! dissem9ation ( :at may be deem$ p]nici\s pr9ciples4 ,puni%m5t is ne$less "h1 because ! end c be s]v$ by reply & exposure4 ,! fir/ "p ( ,*apt] ,,xvii4 is entitl$ ! ',limits betwe5 ,private ,e?ics & ! ,art ( ,legislation2' & a %ort acc\nt ( x w complete ! view ( ! au?or's ,e?ical ,!ory4 ,e?ics at l>ge1 is def9$ ! art ( direct+ m5's actions to ! production ( ! greate/ possible quantity ( happ9ess1 on ! "p ( ^? ^: int]e/ is 9 view1 ,n[1 ^! actions may be a man's own actions1 9 :i* case !y are /yl$ ! art ( self-gov]nm5t1 or private e?ics4 ,or !y may be ! actions ( o!r ag5ts1 namely1 7#a7 ,o!r human be+s1 & 7#b7 ,o!r ,animals1 ^: int]e/s ,b5?am consid]s to h be5 disgracefully ov]look$ by juri/s z well z by mank9d g5]ally4 ,9 s f> z a man's happ9ess dep5ds on 8 own conduct1 he may be said to owe a duty to himself2 ! quality manife/$ 9 dis*>ge ( ?is bran* ( duty 7if duty x is to be call$7 is ,,prud5ce4 ,9 s f> z he affects by 8 conduct ! int]e/s ( ^? ab\t him1 he is "u a duty to o!rs4 ,! happ9ess ( o!rs may be consult$ 9 two ways4 ,fir/1 negatively1 by =be>+ to dim9i% x2 ?is is call$ ,,probity4 ,secondly1 9 a positive way1 by /udy+ to increase x2 :i* is express$ by ,,b5efic5ce4 ,b n[ ! "q occurs1 h[ is x t "u ,private ,e?ics 7or ap>t f legislation & religion7 a man c be t9d] a motive to consult o!r p's happ9ess8 ,by :at obligations c he be b\nd to probity & b5efic5ce8 ,a man c h no adequate motives = consult+ any int]e/s b 8 own4 ,/ill !re are motives = mak+ u consult ! happ9ess ( o!rs1 namely1 ! purely social motive ( ,sympa?y or ,b5evol5ce1 & ! semi-social motives ( ,love ( ,amity & ,love ( ,reputation4 ,he does n say "h :e!r ,sympa?y is a motive gr\nd$ on ! pleasure x br+s1 or a motive irrespective ( ! pleasure2 al?\gh f o!r places we may inf] t he incl9es to ! fir/ view4 ,private ,e?ics & ,legislation c h b ! same end1 happ9ess4 ,_! means1 ! actions prompt$1 mu/ be ne>ly ! same4 ,/ill !y are diff]5t4 ,!re is no case :]e a man ought n to be guid$ by 8 own1 or 8 fell[-creatures'1 happ9ess2 b !re are _m cases :]e ! legislature %\ld n compel a man to p]=m su* actions4 ,! reason is t ! ,legislature works solely by ,puni%m5t 7rew>d is seldom appli$1 & is n prop]ly an act ( legislation74 ,n[1 !re are cases :]e ! puni%m5t ( ! political sanction ought n to be us$2 & if1 9 any ( ^! cases1 !re is a propriety ( us+ ! puni%m5ts ( private e?ics 7! moral or social sanction71 ?is circum/ance w\ld indicate ! l9e ( division4 ,fir/1 !n1 z to ! cases :]e puni%m5t w\ld be gr\ndless4 ,9 su* cases1 nei!r legislation nor private e?ics %\ld int]f]e4 ,secondly4 ,z to cases :]e x w\ld be inefficaci\s1 :]e puni%m5t has no det]r+ motive p[]1--z 9 ,infancy1 ,insanity1 ov]:elm+ dang]1 c41--! public & ! private sanctions are also alike exclud$4 ,?irdly4 ,x is 9 ! cases :]e ,legislative puni%m5t w\ld be unpr(itable1 t we h ! great field ( ,private ,e?ics4 ,puni%m5t is unpr(itable 9 two ways4 ,fir/1 :5 ! dang] ( detection is s small1 t no?+ b enorm\s sev]ity1 on detection1 w\ld be ( avail1 z 9 ! illicit comm]ce ( ! sexes1 :i* has g5]ally gone unpuni%$ by law4 ,secondly1 :5 !re is dang] ( involv+ ! innoc5t ) ! guilty1 f inability to def9e ! crime 9 precise language4 ,h5ce x is t rude behavi\r1 trea*]y1 & +ratitude are n puni%$ by law2 & t 9 c\ntries :]e ! voice ( ! p controls ! h& ( ! legislature1 !re is a great dread ( mak+ defamation1 especially ( ! gov]nm5t1 an (f5ce at law4 ,private ,e?ics is n liable to ! same difficulties z ,legislation 9 deal+ ) su* (f5ces4 ,( ! ?ree dep>tm5ts ( ,moral ,duty--,prud5ce1 ,probity1 & ,b5efic5ce--! "o t lea/ requires & admits ( be+ en=c$ by legislative puni%m5t is ! fir/--,prud5ce4 ,x c only be ?r\gh "s defect ( ! und]/&+1 if p are want+ 9 duty to !mselves4 ,n[1 al?\gh a man may "k little ( himself1 is x c]ta9 ! legislator kn[s m8 ,w\ld x be possible to extirpate drunk5ness or =nication by legal puni%m5t8 ,all t c be done 9 ?is field is to subject ! (f5ces1 9 cases ( notoriety1 to a slight c5sure1 s z to cov] !m ) a slight %ade ( artificial disrepute1 & ?us give /r5g? & influ5ce to ! moral sanction4 ,legislators h1 9 g5]al1 c>ri$ _! int]f]5ce too f> 9 ?is class ( duties2 & ! mis*ief has be5 mo/ conspicu\s 9 religion4 ,m51 x is suppos$1 are liable to errors ( judgm5t2 & = ^! x is ! det]m9ation ( a ,be+ ( inf9ite b5evol5ce to puni% !m ) an inf9ity ( torm5ts4 ,! legislator1 hav+ by 8 side m5 p]fectly enlight5$1 unfett]$1 & unbiass$1 presumes t he has atta9$ by _! means ! exact tru?2 & s1 :5 he sees 8 p ready to plunge headlong into an abyss ( fire1 %all he n /ret* =? 8 h& to save !m8 ,! second class ( duties--! rules ( ,probity1 /& mo/ 9 ne$ ( ! assi/ance ( ! legislator4 ,!re are few cases :]e x w\ld be exp$i5t to puni% a man = hurt+ himself1 & few :]e x w\ld n be exp$i5t to puni% a man = hurt+ 8 neighb\r4 ,z reg>ds (f5ces aga9/ prop]ty1 private e?ics presupposes legislation1 :i* alone c det]m9e :at ?+s are to be reg>d$ z ea* man's prop]ty4 ,if private e?ics takes a diff]5t view f ! legislature1 x mu/ ( c\rse act on its own views4 ,! ?ird class ( duties--,b5efic5ce--mu/ be ab&on$ to ! jurisdiction ( private e?ics4 ,9 _m cases ! b5eficial quality ( an act dep5ds ^u ! disposition ( ! ag5t1 or ! possession by him ( ! extra-reg>d+ motives--sympa?y1 amity1 & reputation2 :]eas political action c "w only ?r\gh ! self-reg>d+ motives4 ,9 a ^w ^! duties mu/ be free or volunt>y4 ,/ill1 ! limits ( law on ?is head might be some:at ext5d$2 9 p>ticul>1 :]e a man's p]son is 9 dang]1 x might be made ! duty ( e "o to save him f mis*ief1 no less ?an to ab/a9 f br++ x on him4 ,to resume ! ,e?ics ( ,b5?am4 ,i4--,! ,/&>d or ,end ( ,morality is ! production ( ,happ9ess1 or ,utility4 ,b5?am is ?us at "o 9 8 fir/ pr9ciple ) ,hume & ) ,paley2 8 peculi>ity is to make x fruitful 9 num]\s applications bo? to legislation & to morals4 ,he c>ries out ! pr9ciple ) an unfl9*+ rig\r1 & a logical =ce peculi>ly 8 own4 ,,ii4--,8 ,psy*ological ,analysis is also /udi$ & ?or\gh-go+4 ,he is ! fir/ p]son to provide a classification ( pleasures & pa9s1 z an indisp5sable prelim9>y alike to morals & to legislation4 ,! e?ical applications ( ^! are ( less importance ?an ! legislative2 !y h a direct & practical be>+ ^u ! !ory ( ,puni%m5t4 ,he lays d[n1 z ! con/itu5ts ( ! ,moral ,faculty1 ,good-w or ,b5evol5ce1 ! love ( ,amity1 ! love ( ,reputation1 & ! dictates ( ,religion--) a view to ! ,happ9ess ( o!rs2 & ,prud5ce--) a view to our own happ9ess4 ,he gives no special acc\nt ( ! acquir$ s5tim5t ( ,obligation or ,au?ority--! *>act]i/ic ( ,consci5ce1 z di/+ui%$ f o!r impulses hav+ a t5d5cy to ! good ( o!rs or ( self4 ,& yet x is ! peculi>ity ( 8 sy/em to id5tify morality ) law2 s t !re is only "o /ep to connect+ consci5ce ) our education "u ! diff]5t sanctions--legal & e?ical4 ,he w\ld ( c\rse give a l>ge place to ! ,intellect or ,reason 9 mak+ up ! ,moral ,faculty1 see+ t ! consequ5ces ( actions h to be e/imat$ or judg$2 b he w\ld reg>d ?is z m]ely co-op]at+ ) our s5sibilities to pleasure & pa94 ,! ,dis9t]e/$ ,s5tim5t is n reg>d$ by ,b5?am4 z aris+ f any disposition to pure self-sacrifice4 ,he recognizes ,pleasures ( ,b5evol5ce & ,pa9s ( ,b5evol5ce2 ?us con/itut+ a purely int]e/$ motive = do+ good to o!rs4 ,he describes c]ta9 pleasures ( ,imag9ation or ,sympa?y aris+ ?r\gh ,association--! idea ( pl5ty1 ! idea ( ! happ9ess ( animals1 ! idea ( heal?1 ! idea ( gratitude4 ,"u ! head ( ,circum/ances influ5c+ ,s5sibility1 he adv]ts to ,sympa!tic ,s5sibility1 z be+ ! prop5sity to d]ive pleasure f ! happ9ess1 & pa9 f ! unhapp9ess1 ( o!r s5sitive be+s4 ,x _c b be admitt$1 he says1 t ! only int]e/ t a man at all times1 & on all occasions1 is sure to f9d adequate motives = consult+1 is 8 own4 ,he has no metaphysics ( ! ,w4 ,he uses ! t]ms free & volunt>y only ) ref]5ce to spontane\s b5efic5ce1 z oppos$ to ! compulsion ( ! law4 ,,iii4--,z reg>ds ,happ9ess1 or ! ,summum ,bonum1 he pres5ts 8 sci5tific classification ( ,pleasures & ,pa9s1 )\t1 h[ev]1 indicat+ any plan ( life1 = atta9+ ! "o & avoid+ ! o!r 9 ! be/ mann]4 ,he makes no di/9ction among pleasures & pa9s except+ :at /rictly conc]ns _! value z su*--int5sity1 duration1 c]ta9ty1 & ne>ness4 ,he makes happ9ess to mean only ! pres5ce ( pleasure & ! abs5ce ( pa94 ,! r5unciation ( pleasure = any o!r motive ?an to procure a great] pleasure1 or avoid a great] pa91 he1 disapprov+ly1 t]ms asceticism4 ,,iv4--,x be+ ! ess5ce ( 8 sy/em to consid] ,e?ics z a ,code ( ,laws direct$ by ,utility1 & he be+ himself a law re=m] on ! greate/ scale1 we might expect f him sugge/ions = ! improvem5t ( ,e?ics1 z well z = ,legislation & ,jurisprud5ce4 ,8 inclusion ( ! int]e/s ( ! l[] animals has be5 m5tion$4 ,he also cont5ds = ! p>tly legislative & p>tly e?ical innovation ( ,fre$om ( ,divorce4 ,! inducem5ts to morality are ! motives assign$ z work+ 9 its fav\r4 ,v4--,! connexions ( ,e?ics ) ,politics1 ! po9ts ( agreem5t & ! po9ts ( diff]5ce ( ! two dep>tm5ts1 are signifi$ ) unprec$5t$ c>e & precision 7,*ap4 ,,xvii47 ,,vi4--,z reg>ds ! connexions ) ,!ology1 he gives no unc]ta9 s\nd4 ,x is on ?is po9t t he /&s 9 m>k$ contra/ to ,paley1 :o also pr(esses ,utility z 8 e?ical f\ndation4 ,he recognizes religion z furni%+ "o ( ! ,sanctions ( morality1 al?\gh (t5 p]v]t$ into ! enemy ( utility4 ,he consid]s t ! /ate may reg>d z (f5ces any acts t t5d to dim9i% or misapply ! influ5ce ( religion z a motive to civil ob$i5ce4 ,:ile ,paley makes a conjo9$ ref]5ce to ,scripture & to ,utility 9 asc]ta9+ moral rules1 ,b5?am insi/s on ,utility alone z ! f9al appeal4 ,he does n d\bt t if we _h a cle> unambigu\s /atem5t ( ! div9e w1 we %\ld h a revelation ( :at is = human happ9ess2 b he di/ru/s all int]pretations ( scripture1 unless !y co9cide ) a p]fectly indep5d5t sci5tific inve/igation ( ! consequ5ces ( actions4 ,,sir ,,james ,,mack9to%4 #agfe-ahcb4 ,9 ! ',diss]tation on ! progress ( ,e?ical ,philosophy *iefly dur+ ! ,sev5te5? & ,eighte5? ,c5turies1' ,mack9to% advocates a di/9ct ,e?ical !ory4 ,8 views & argum5ts occur p>tly 9 ! c\rse ( 8 criticism ( ! o!r morali/s1 & p>tly 9 8 conclud+ ,g5]al ,rem>ks 7,section ,,vii474 ,9 ,section ,i41 entitl$ ,,prelim9>y ,,obs]vations1 he rem>ks on ! univ]sality ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ,"r & ,wrong4 ,on no subject d m51 9 all ages1 co9cide on s _m po9ts z on ! g5]al rules ( conduct1 & ! e/imable qualities ( "*4 ,ev5 ! grosse/ deviations may be expla9$ by ignorance ( facts1 by errors ) respect to ! consequ5ces ( actions1 or by inconsi/5cy ) admitt$ pr9ciples4 ,9 tribes :]e new-born infants are expos$1 ! ab&onm5t ( p>5ts is condemn$2 ! betrayal & murd] ( /rang]s is condemn$ by ! v rules ( fai? & humanity1 ackn[l$g$ 9 ! case ( c\ntrym54 ,he compla9s t1 9 ! enquiry z to ! f\ndation ( morals1 ! two di/9ct que/ions--z to ! ,/&>d & ! ,faculty--h seldom be5 fully discrim9at$4 ,?us1 ,paley opposes ,utility to a ,moral ,s5se1 n p]ceiv+ t ! two t]ms relate to diff]5t subjects2 & ,b5?am repeats ! mi/ake4 ,x is possible to repres5t ,utility z ! crit]ion ( ,"r1 & a ,moral ,s5se z ! faculty4 ,9 ano!r place1 he rem>ks t ! s*oolm5 fail$ to draw ! di/9ction4 ,9 ,section ,v41 entitl$ ',controv]sies conc]n+ ! ,moral ,faculty & ! ,social ,affections1' & includ+ ! ,e?ical !ories com+ betwe5 ,hobbes & ,butl]1 namely1 ,cumb]l&1 ,cudwor?1 ,cl>ke1 c41 he gives 8 objections to ! s*eme t f\nds moral di/9ctions solely on ! ,reason4 ,reason1 z su*1 c nev] be a motive to action2 an argum5t to dissuade a man f drunk5ness mu/ appeal to ! pa9s ( ill-heal?1 pov]ty1 & infamy1 t is1 to ,feel+s4 ,! influ5ce ( ,reason is indirect2 x is m]ely a *annel :]eby ! objects ( desire are br\ght into view1 s z to op]ate on ! ,w4 ,! abus$ ext5sion ( ! t]m ,reason to ! moral faculties1 he ascribes to ! obvi\s importance ( ,reason 9 *oos+ ! means ( action1 z well z 9 balanc+ ! ends1 dur+ :i* op]ation ! feel+s are susp5d$1 delay$1 & pois$ 9 a way fav\rable to our la/+ int]e/s4 ,h5ce ! anti!sis ( ,reason & ,passion4 ,9 rem>k+ ^u ,leibnitz's view ( ,dis9t]e/$ ,s5tim5t1 & ! co9cid5ce ( ,virtue ) ,happ9ess1 he sket*es 8 own op9ion1 :i* is t al?\gh e virtu\s act may n lead to ! great] happ9ess ( ! ag5t1 yet ! disposition to virtu\s acts1 9 its intr9sic pleasures1 f> outweighs all ! pa9s ( self-sacrifice t x c ev] occasion4 ',! :ole sagacity & +5uity ( ! _w may be fairly *all5g$ to po9t out a case 9 :i* virtu\s dispositions1 habits1 & feel+s are n conducive 9 ! highe/ degree to ! happ9ess ( ! individual2 or to ma9ta9 t he is n ! happie/1 ^: moral s5tim5ts & affections are su* z to prev5t ! possibility ( any unlawful advantage be+ pres5t$ to 8 m9d4' ,section ,,vi4 is entitl$ ',f\ndations ( a m ,j ,!ory ( ,e?ics1' & embraces a review ( all ! ,e?ical writ]s1 f ,butl] d[nw>ds4 ,! mo/ palpable defect 9 ,butl]'s s*eme1 is t x af=ds no answ] to ! "q1 ',:at is ! di/+ui%+ quality ( "r actions8' 9 o!r words1 ,:at is ! ,/&>d8 ,!re is a vici\s circle 9 answ]+ t !y are comm&$ by ,consci5ce1 = ,consci5ce itself c be no o!rwise def9$ ?an z ! faculty t approves & comm&s "r actions4 ,/ill1 he gives w>m comm5dation to ,butl] g5]ally2 9 connexion ) him he takes occasion to give "s f>!r h9ts z to 8 own op9ions4 ,two positions are "h advanc$3 #a/1 ,! moral s5tim5ts1 9 _! mature /ate1 are a class ( feel+s ) no o!r objects ?an ! dispositions to volunt>y actions1 & ! actions fl[+ f ^! dispositions4 ,we approve "s dispositions & actions1 & disapprove o!rs2 we desire to cultivate !m1 & we aim at !m = some?+ 9 !mselves4 ,?is position receives light f ! doctr9e above quot$ z to ! supreme happ9ess ( virtu\s dispositions4 ,8 second position is t ,consci5ce is an acquir$ pr9ciple2 :i* he repeats & unfolds 9 subsequ5t places4 ,he f9ds fault ) ,hume = ascrib+ ,virtue to qualities ( ! ,und]/&+1 & consid]s t ?is is to conf\nd admiration ) moral approbation4 ,hume's g5]al ,e?ical doctr9e1 t ,utility is a uni=m gr\nd ( moral di/9ction1 he says c nev] be impugn$ until "s example be produc$ ( a virtue g5]ally p]nici\s1 or a vice g5]ally b5eficial4 ,b z to ! !ory ( moral approbation1 or ! nature ( ! ,faculty1 he consid]s t ,hume's doctr9e ( ,b5evol5ce 7or1 /ill bett]1 ,sympa?y7 does n acc\nt = our approbation ( temp]ance & =titude1 nor = ! supremacy ( ! ,moral ,faculty ov] all o!r motives4 ,he objects to ! !ory ( ,adam ,smi?1 t no all[ance is made 9 x = ! transf] ( our feel+s1 & ! disappe>+ ( ! orig9al ref]5ce f ! view4 ,grant+ t our approbation began 9 sympa?y1 z ,smi? says1 c]ta9 x is1 t ! adult man approves actions & dispositions z "r1 :ile he is di/9ctly aw>e t no process ( sympa?y int]v5es betwe5 ! approval & its object4 ,he repeats1 aga9/ ,smi?1 ! criticism on ,hume1 t ! sympa?ies h no imp]ative "* ( supremacy4 ,he fur!r rem>ks t ! ref]5ce1 9 our actions1 to ! po9t ( view ( ! spectator1 is r an exp$i5t = pres]v+ our imp>tiality ?an a fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ,e?ics4 ,x ne>ly co9cides ) ! ,*ri/ian precept ( do+ unto o!rs z we w\ld !y %\ld d unto u1--an admirable practical maxim1 b1 z ,leibnitz has said truly1 int5d$ only z a correction ( self-p>tiality4 ,la/ly1 he objects to ,smi?1 t 8 sy/em r5d]s all morality relative to ! pleasure ( our co9cid+ 9 feel+ ) o!rs1 :i* is m]ely to decide on ! ,faculty1 )\t consid]+ ! ,/&>d4 ,smi? %r9ks f ,utility z a /&>d1 or ascribes its p[] ov] our feel+s to our s5se ( ! adaptation ( means to ends4 ,he comm5ds ,smi? = gr\nd+ ,b5evol5ce on ,sympa?y1 :]eas ,butl]1 ,hut*eson1 & ,hume _h gr\nd$ ,sympa?y on ,b5evol5ce4 ,x is 9 review+ ,h>tley1 ^: di/9ction x 0 to op5 up ! wide capabilities ( ! pr9ciple ( ,association1 t ,mack9to% develops at greate/ l5g? 8 !ory ( ! d]iv$ nature ( ,consci5ce4 ,adv]t+ to ! usual example ( ! love ( money1 he rem>ks t ! b5evol5t man might beg9 ) an int]e/$ affection1 b might end ) a dis9t]e/$ delight 9 do+ good4 ,self-love1 or ! pr9ciple ( p]man5t well-be+1 is gradually =m$ f ! sep>ate appetites1 & is at la/ pursu$ )\t hav+ !m specially 9 view4 ,s ,sympa?y may p]haps be ! transf]1 fir/1 ( our own p]sonal feel+s to o!r be+s1 & next1 ( _! feel+s to ourselves1 !reby eng5d]+ ! social affections4 ,x is an anci5t & ob/9ate error ( philosoph]s to reg>d ^! two pr9ciples--,self-love & ,sympa?y--z ! s\rce ( ! impell+ passions & affections1 in/ead ( be+ ! la/ results ( !m4 ,! *ief elem5t>y feel+s t g to con/itute ! moral s5tim5ts appe> to be ,gratitude1 ,pity1 ,res5tm5t1 & ,%ame4 ,to take ! example ( ,gratitude4 ,acts ( b5efic5ce to ourselves give u pleasure2 we associate ?is pleasure ) ! b5efactor1 s z to reg>d him ) a feel+ ( complac5cy2 & :5 we view o!r b5efic5t be+s & acts !re is awak5$ )9 u our own agreeable exp]i5ce4 ,! process is se5 9 ! *ild1 :o contracts t[>ds ! nurse or "m all ! feel+s ( complac5cy aris+ f repeat$ pleasures1 & ext5ds ^! by simil>ity to o!r resembl+ p]sons4 ,z soon z complac5cy takes ! =m ( action1 x becomes 7accord+ to ! au?or's !ory1 connect+ consci5ce ) w71 a "p ( ! ,consci5ce4 ,s mu* = ! developm5t ( ,gratitude4 ,next z to ,pity4 ,! lik5ess ( ! outw>d signs ( emotion makes u transf] to o!rs our own feel+s1 & !reby becomes1 ev5 m ?an gratitude1 a s\rce ( b5evol5ce2 be+ "o ( ! fir/ motives to imp>t ! b5efits connect$ ) affection4 ,9 our sympa?y ) ! suff]]1 we _c b approve ! actions t relieve suff]+1 & ! dispositions t prompt !m4 ,we also ent] into 8 ,res5tm5t1 or ang] t[>ds ! causes ( pa91 & ! actions & dispositions correspond+2 & ?is sympa!tic ang] is at l5g? deta*$ f special cases & ext5d$ to all wrong-do]s2 & is ! root ( ! mo/ indisp5sable comp\nd ( our moral faculties1 ! ',s5se ( ,ju/ice4' ,to ^! int]nal gr[?s1 f ,gratitude1 ,pity1 & ,res5tm5t1 mu/ be add$ ! education by means ( well-fram$ p5al laws1 :i* are ! la/+ decl>ation ( ! moral indignation ( mank9d4 ,^! laws may be obey$ z m]e compulsory duties2 b ) ! g5]\s s5tim5ts concurr+1 m5 may rise above duty to virtue1 & may contract t excell5ce ( nature :5ce acts ( b5efic5ce fl[ ( _! own accord4 ,he next expla9s ! gr[? ( ,remorse1 z ano!r elem5t ( ! ,moral ,s5se4 ,! abhorr5ce t we feel = bad actions is ext5d$ to ! ag5t2 &1 9 spite ( c]ta9 ob/acles to its full manife/ation1 t abhorr5ce is prompt$ :5 ! ag5t is self4 ,! !ory ( d]ivation is b\nd to acc\nt = ! fact1 recogniz$ 9 ! language ( mank9d1 t ! ,moral ,faculty is ,,"o4 ,! pr9ciple ( association w\ld acc\nt = ! fusion ( _m diff]5t s5tim5ts into "o product1 :]e9 ! compon5t p>ts w\ld cease to be disc]n$2 b ?is is n en\gh4 ,:y d ^! p>ticul> s5tim5ts & no o!rs coalesce 9 ! total--,consci5ce4 ,! answ] is :at 0 =m]ly giv5 ) ref]5ce to ,butl]2 namely1 :ile all o!r feel+s relate to outw>d objects1 ! feel+s br\ght toge!r 9 consci5ce1 contemplate exclusively ! dispositions & actions ( volunt>y ag5ts4 ,consci5ce is ?us an acquir$ faculty1 b "o t is univ]sally & necess>ily acquir$4 ,! d]ivation is f>!r exemplifi$ by a comp>ison ) ! feel+s ( ,ta/e4 ,^! may h an orig9al ref]5ce to fitness--z 9 ! beauty ( a horse--b !y d n atta9 _! prop] "* until ! consid]ation ( fitness disappe>s4 ,s f> !y resemble ! moral faculty4 ,!y diff] f x1 h[ev]1 9 ?is1 t ta/e ends 9 passive contemplation or quiesc5t delight2 consci5ce looks solely to ! acts & dispositions ( volunt>y ag5ts4 ,?is is ! au?or's fav\rite way ( express+ :at is o!rwise call$ ! au?ority & supremacy ( consci5ce4 ,to sum up3--! pr9cipal con/itu5ts ( ! moral s5se are ,gratitude1 ,sympa?y 7or ,pity71 ,res5tm5t1 & ,%ame2 ! second>y & auxili>y causes are ,education1 ,imitation1 ,g5]al ,op9ion1 ,laws & ,gov]nm5t4 ,9 criticis+ ,paley1 he illu/rates =cibly ! position1 t ,religion mu/ pre-suppose morality4 ,8 criticism ( ,b5?am gives him an opportunity ( rem>k+ on ! modes ( c>ry+ into effect ! pr9ciple ( ,utility z ! ,/&>d4 ,he repeats 8 fav\rite doctr9e ( ! inh]5t pleasures ( a virtu\s disposition1 z ! gr& circum/ance r5d]+ virtue pr(itable & vice unpr(itable4 ,he ev5 uses ! ,platonic figure1 & comp>es vice to m5tal di/emp]4 ,x is 8 compla9t aga9/ ,b5?am & ! lat] support]s ( ,utility1 t !y h misplac$ ! application ( ! pr9ciple1 & h enc\rag$ ! too frequ5t appeal to calculation 9 ! details ( conduct4 ,h5ce arise sophi/ical evasions ( moral rules2 m5 w slide f g5]al to p>ticul> consequ5ces2 apply ! te/ ( utility to actions & n to dispositions2 &1 9 %ort1 take too mu* ^u !mselves 9 settl+ que/ions ( moral "r & wrong4 ,he might h rem>k$ t ! p[] ( p]v]t+ ! /&>d to individual int]e/s is n conf9$ to ! foll[]s ( ,utility4 ,he introduces ! say+ attribut$ to ,&rew ,flet*]1 't he w\ld lose 8 life to s]ve 8 c\ntry1 b w\ld n d a base ?+ to save x4' ,he f>!r rem>ks on ! t5d5cy ( ,b5?am & 8 foll[]s to treat ,e?ics too juridically4 ,he w\ld probably admit t ,e?ics is /rictly speak+ a code ( laws1 b draws ! l9e betwe5 x & ! juridical code1 by ! di/9ction ( dispositions & actions4 ,we may h to approve ! au?or ( an injuri\s action1 because x is well-meant2 ! law mu/ nev]!less puni% x4 ,h]e9 ,e?ics has its alliance ) ,religion1 :i* looks at ! disposition or ! he>t4 ,he is disappo9t$ at f9d+ t ,dugald ,/ew>t1 :o made applications ( ! law ( association & appreciat$ its p[]s1 held back f1 & disc\nt5anc$1 ! attempt ( ,h>tley to resolve ! ,moral ,s5se1 /yl+ x 'an +5i\s ref9em5t on ! ,selfi% sy/em1' & repres5t+ ^? oppos$ to himself 9 ,e?ics z d]iv+ ! affections f 'self-love4' ,he repeats t ! d]ivation !ory affirms ! dis9t]e/$ness ( human actions z /rongly z ,butl] himself2 :ile x gets ov] ! objection f ! multiplication ( orig9al pr9ciples2 & ascribes ! result to ! op]ation ( a real ag5t4 ,9 reply+ to ,br[n's refusal to accept ! d]ivation ( ,consci5ce1 on ! gr\nd t ! process belongs to a "t beyond remembrance1 he affirms x to be a suffici5t !ory1 if ! suppos$ action resembles :at we "k to be ! op]ation ( ! pr9ciple :]e we h direct exp]i5ce ( x4 ,8 conclud+ ,section1 ,,vii41 entitl$ ,g5]al ,rem>ks1 gives "s f>!r explanations ( 8 *>act]i/ic views4 ,he takes up ! pr9ciple ( ,utility1 at ! po9t :]e ,br[n bogl$ at x2 quot+ ,br[n's concession1 t ,utility & virtue are s relat$1 t !re is p]haps no action g5]ally felt to be virtu\s t is n b5eficial1 & t e case ( b5efit will+ly done excites approbation4 ,he /rikes out ,br[n's ^w 'p]haps1' z mak+ ! affirmation ei!r conjectural or useless2 & cont5ds t ! two facts1--morality & ! g5]al b5efit1--be+ co-ext5sive1 %\ld be reciprocally te/s ( ea* o!r4 ,he qualifies1 z usual1 by n all[+ utility to be1 on all occasions1 ! imm$iate inc5tive ( actions4 ,he holds1 h[ev]1 t ! ma9 doctr9e is an ess5tial coroll>y f ! ,div9e ,b5evol5ce4 ,he !n replies specifically to ! "q1 ',:y is utility n to be ! sole end pres5t to ! m9d ( ! virtu\s ag5t8' ,! answ] is f\nd 9 ! limits ( man's faculties4 ,e man is n always able1 on ! spur ( ! mom5t1 to calculate all ! consequ5ces ( our actions4 ,b x is n to be conclud$ f ?is1 t ! calculation ( consequ5ces is impracticable 9 moral subjects4 ,to calculate ! g5]al t5d5cy ( e sort ( human action is1 he cont5ds1 a possible1 easy1 & common op]ation4 ,! g5]al good effects ( temp]ance1 prud5ce1 =titude1 ju/ice1 b5evol5ce1 gratitude1 v]acity1 fidelity1 dome/ic & patriotic affections1 may be pron\nc$ ) z little error1 z ! be/ f\nd$ maxims ( ! ord9>y bus9ess ( life4 ,he v9dicates ! rules ( sexual morality on ! gr\nds ( b5evol5ce4 ,he !n discusses ! "q1 7on :i* he _h *>g$ ,hume ) mi/ake71 ',:y is approbation conf9$ to volunt>y acts8' ,he ?9ks x b a p>tial solution to say t approbation & disapprobation are wa/$ on :at is n 9 ! p[] ( ! w4 ,! full solution he consid]s to be f\nd 9 ! mode ( d]ivation ( ! moral s5tim5t2 :i*1 accord+ly1 he re-discusses at "s l5g?4 ,he produces ! analogies ( *emi/ry to %[ t comp\nds may be totally diff]5t f _! elem5ts4 ,he insi/s on ! fact t a d]iv$ pleasure is n ! less a pleasure2 x may ev5 survive ! prim>y pleasure4 ,self-love 7improp]ly s call$7 is intelligible if its orig9 be ref]r$ to ,association1 b n if x be consid]$ z prior to ! appetites & passions t furni% its mat]ials4 ,& z ! pleasure d]iv$ f l[ objects may be transf]r$ to ! mo/ pure1 s ,dis9t]e/$ness may orig9ate ) self1 & yet become z entirely deta*$ f t orig9 z if ! two _h nev] be5 connect$4 ,he !n repeats 8 doctr9e1 t ^! social or dis9t]e/$ s5tim5ts prompt ! w z ! means ( _! gratification4 ,h5ce1 by a f>!r transf] ( association1 ! volunt>y acts %>e 9 ! delight felt 9 ! affections t det]m9e !m4 ,we !n desire to exp]i5ce b5efic5t volitions1 & to cultivate ! dispositions to ^!4 ,su* dispositions are at la/ desir$ = _! own sake2 &1 :5 s desir$1 con/itute ! ,moral ,s5se1 ,consci5ce1 or ! ,moral ,s5tim5t1 9 its consummat$ =m4 ,?us1 by a f\r? or fif? /age ( d]ivation f ! orig9al pleasures & pa9s ( our con/itution1 we arrive at ?is highly complex product1 call$ our moral nature4 ,nor is ?is all4 ,we mu/ n look at ! side ( indignation to ! wrong-do]4 ,we are angry at ^? :o disappo9t our wi% = ! happ9ess ( o!rs2 we make _! res5tm5t our own4 ,we h5ce approve ( ! actions & dispositions = puni%+ su* (f5d]s2 :ile we s f> sympa?ize ) ! culprit z to disapprove ( excess ( puni%m5t4 ,su* mod]at$ ang] is ! s5se ( ,ju/ice1 & is a new elem5t ( ,consci5ce4 ,( all ! virtues1 ?is is ! "o mo/ directly aid$ by a conviction ( g5]al int]e/ or utility4 ,all laws pr(ess x z _! end4 ,h5ce ! importance ( good crim9al laws to ! moral education ( mank9d4 ,among contribut>y /reams to ! moral faculty1 he enum]ates c\rage1 en]gy1 & decision1 prop]ly direct$4 ,he recognizes 'duties to ourselves1' al?\gh condemn+ ! expression z absurd4 ,intemp]ance1 improvid5ce1 timidity are morally wrong4 ,/ill1 z 9 o!r cases1 a man is n truly virtu\s on su* po9ts1 till he loves !m = _! own sake1 & ev5 p]=ms !m )\t an ef=t4 ,^! prud5tial qualities hav+ an influ5ce on ! w1 resemble 9 t ! o!r con/itu5ts ( ,consci5ce4 ,z a f9al result1 all ^? s5tim5ts ^: object is a /ate ( ! w become intimately & insep>ably bl5d$ 9 ! unity ( ,consci5ce1 ! arbit] & judge ( human actions1 ! lawful au?ority ov] e motive to conduct4 ,9 ?is gr& coalition ( ! public & ! private feel+s1 he sees a decisive illu/ration ( ! ref]5ce ( moral s5tim5ts to ! ,w4 ,he f>!r recognizes 9 x a solution ( ! great problem ( ! relation ( virtue to private int]e/4 ,qualities useful to ourselves are rais$ to ! rank ( virtues2 & qualities useful to o!rs are conv]t$ into pleasures4 ,9 moral reason+s1 we are enabl$ to br+ home virtu\s inducem5ts by ! m$ium ( self-int]e/2 we c assure a man t by cultivat+ ! disposition t[>ds o!r m5's happ9ess he ga9s a s\rce ( happ9ess to himself4 ,! "q1 ,:y we d n morally approve involunt>y actions1 is n[ answ]$4 ,consci5ce is associat$ exclusively ) ! dispositions & actions ( volunt>y ag5ts4 ,consci5ce & ,w are co-ext5sive4 ,a difficulty rema9s4 ',if moral approbation involve no p]ception ( b5eficial t5d5cy1 h[ d we make out ! co9cid5ce ( ! two8' ,x might seem t ! f\ndation ( morals is ?us made to re/ on a co9cid5ce t is my/]i\s & fanta/ic4 ,accord+ to ! au?or1 ! conclusive answ] is ?is4 ,al?\gh ,consci5ce r>ely contemplates any?+ s di/ant z ! welf>e ( all s5ti5t be+s1 yet 9 detail x obvi\sly po9ts to ! production ( happ9ess4 ,! social affections all promote happ9ess4 ,e "o mu/ obs]ve ! t5d5cy ( ju/ice to ! welf>e ( society4 ,! angry passions1 z m9i/]s ( morality1 remove h9drances to human welf>e4 ,! private desires h respect to our own happ9ess4 ,e elem5t ( consci5ce has ?us "s portion ( happ9ess = its object4 ,all ! affections contribute to ! g5]al well-be+1 al?\gh x is n necess>y1 nor w\ld x be fit1 t ! ag5t %\ld be di/ract$ by ! contemplation ( t va/ & remote object4 ,to sum up ,mack9to%3-- ,i4--,on ! ,/&>d1 he pron\nces = ,utility1 ) c]ta9 modifications & explanations4 ,! ,utility is ! remote & f9al ju/ification ( all actions acc\nt$ "r1 b n ! imm$iate motive 9 ! m9d ( ! ag5t4 ,x may ju/ly be fe>$1 t1 by plac+ s mu* /ress on ! delights att5dant on virtu\s action1 he gives an op5+ = ! admission ( s5tim5t into ! consid]ation ( ,utility4 ,,ii4--,9 ! ,psy*ology ( ,e?ics1 he reg>ds ! ,consci5ce z a d]iv$ or g5]at$ faculty1 ! result ( a s]ies ( associations4 ,he assigns ! prim>y feel+s t ent] into x1 & traces ! diff]5t /ages ( ! gr[?4 ,! di/9ctive feature ( ,consci5ce is its close relation to ! ,w4 ,he does n consid] ! problem ( ,lib]ty & ,necessity4 ,he makes ,dis9t]e/$ ,s5tim5t a second>y or d]iv$ feel+--a /age on ! road to ,consci5ce4 ,:ile ma9ta9+ /rongly ! dis9t]e/$ "* ( ! s5tim5t1 he consid]s t x may be fully acc\nt$ = by d]ivation f our primitive self-reg>d+ feel+s1 & d5ies1 z aga9/ ,/ew>t & ,br[n1 t ?is gives x a selfi% "*4 ,he c>ries ! process ( associative gr[? a /ep f>!r1 & ma9ta9s t we re-conv]t dis9t]e/$ness into a l(ty delight--! delight 9 goodness = its own sake2 to atta9 ?is *>act]i/ic is ! highe/ m>k ( a virtu\s "*4 ,,iii4---,8 ,summum ,bonum1 or ,!ory ( ,happ9ess1 is conta9$ 9 8 mu* it]at$ doctr9e ( ! delici\sness ( virtu\s conduct1 by :i* he proposes to effect ! reconciliation ( our own good ) ! good ( o!rs--prud5ce ) virtue4 ,virtue is 'an inw>d f\nta9 ( pure delight2' ! pleasure ( b5evol5ce1 'if x c\ld become la/+ & int5se1 w\ld conv]t ! he>t into a heav52' !y alone are happy1 or truly virtu\s1 t d n ne$ ! motive ( a reg>d to outw>d consequ5ces4 ,8 *ief ,e?ical precursor 9 ?is ve9 is ,%aftesbury2 b he is easily able to produce f ,!ologians abundant it]ations ( x4 ,,iv4--,he has no special views z to ! ,moral ,code4 ,) ref]5ce to ! inducem5ts to virtue1 he ?9ks he has a p[]ful lev] 9 ! delights t ! virtu\s disposition conf]s on its own]4 ,v4--,8 !ory ( ! connexion ( ,e?ics & ,politics is /at$ 9 8 acc\nt ( ,b5?am1 :om he *>ges ) mak+ morality too judicial4 ,,vi4--,! relations ( ,morality to ,religion are a matt] ( frequ5t & special consid]ation 9 ,mack9to%4 ,,james ,,mill4 #aghc-ahcf4 ,! "w ( ,james ,mill1 entitl$ ! ',analysis ( ! ,human ,m9d1' is di/+ui%$1 9 ! fir/ glace1 by ! /udi$ precision ( its def9itions ( all lead+ t]ms1 giv+ x a p]man5t value z a logical discipl9e2 & 9 ! second place1 by ! successful c>ry+ out ( ! pr9ciple ( ,association 9 expla9+ ! p[]s ( ! m9d4 ,! au?or endeav\rs to %[ t ! moral feel+s are a complex product or gr[?1 ( :i* ! ultimate con/itu5ts are our pleasurable & pa9ful s5sations4 ,we %all pres5t a brief ab/ract ( ! c\rse ( 8 exposition1 z giv5 9 ,*apt]s ,,xvii4--,,xxiii4 ( ! ,analysis4 ,! pleasurable & pa9ful s5sations be+ assum$1 x is important to take notice ( _! ,causes1 bo? imm$iate & remote1 by ^: means !y c be secur$ or avoid$4 ,we contract a habit ( pass+ rapidly f e s5sation to its procur+ cause2 &1 z 9 ! typical case ( money1 ^! causes are apt to rank high] 9 importance1 to take a great] hold on ! m9d1 ?an ! s5sations !mselves4 ,! m9d is n mu* int]e/$ 9 att5d+ to ! s5sation2 t c provide = itself4 ,! m9d is deeply int]e/$ 9 att5d+ to ! cause4 ,! au?or next 7,,xix47 consid]s ! ,ideas ( ! pleasurable s5sations1 & ( ! causes ( !m4 ,! ,idea ( a pa9 is n ! same z ! pa92 x is a complex /ate1 conta9+1 no d\bt1 an elem5t ( pa92 & ! "n = x is ,av]sion4 ,s ! "n = an idea ( pleasure is ,desire4 ,n[1 ^! /ates ext5d to ! causes ( pa9s & pleasures1 ?\gh 9 o!r respects indiff]5t2 we h an av]sion = a c]ta9 drug1 b !re is 9 ?is a transition highly illu/rative ( ! =ce ( ! associat+ pr9ciple2 our real av]sion be+ to a bitt] s5sation1 & n to ! visible appe>ance ( ! drug4 ,allud+ 7,,xx47 to ! important diff]5ce betwe5 pa/ & future "t 9 our ideas ( pleasure & pa91 he def9es ,hope & ,fe> z ! contemplation ( a pleasurable or ( a pa9ful s5sation1 z future1 b n c]ta94 ,:5 ! imm$iate causes ( pleasurable & pa9ful s5sations are view$ z pa/ or future1 we h a new s]ies ( /ates4 ,9 ! pa/1 !y are call$ ,love & ,hatr$1 or ,av]sion2 9 ! future1 ! idea ( a pleasure1 z c]ta9 9 its arrival1 is ,joy--z probable1 ,hope2 ! idea ( future pa9 7c]ta97 is n m>k$ o!rwise ?an by ! names ,hatr$1 ,av]sion1 ,horror2 ! idea ( ! pa9 z probable is "s =m ( dread4 ,! remote causes ( our pleasures & pa9s are m int]e/+ ?an ! imm$iate causes4 ,! reason is _! wide comm&4 ,?us1 ,weal?1 ,p[]1 & ,dignity are causes cf a great range ( pleasures3 ,pov]ty1 ,impot5ce1 & ,contemptibility1 ( a wide range ( pa9s4 ,= "o ?+1 ! fir/ are ! means ( procur+ ! s]vices ( our fell[-creatures2 ?is fact is ( ! highe/ consequ5ce 9 morals1 z %[+ h[ deeply our happ9ess is entw9$ ) ! actions ( o!r be+s4 ,! au?or illu/rates at l5g? ! influ5ce ( ^! remote & compreh5sive ag5cies2 & z x is an influ5ce entirely ! result ( association1 x atte/s ! magnitude ( t p[] ( ! m9d4 ,b our fell[-creatures are ! subjects ( affections1 n m]ely z ! in/rum5tality set 9 motion by ,weal?1 ,p[]1 & ,dignity1 b 9 _! prop] p]sonality4 ,?is leads ! au?or to ! consid]ation ( ! pleasurable affections ( ,fri5d%ip1 ,k9dness1 ,family1 ,c\ntry1 ,p>ty1 ,mank9d4 ,he resolves !m all into associations ) our primitive pleasures4 ,?us1 to take ! example ( ,k9dness1 :i* w %[ h[ he deals ) ! dis9t]e/$ affection2--,! idea ( a man enjoy+ a tra9 ( pleasures1 or happ9ess1 is felt by ev]ybody to be a pleasurable idea2 ?is c arise f no?+ b ! association ( our own pleasures ) ! idea ( 8 pleasures4 ,! pleasurable association compos$ ( ! ideas ( a man & ( 8 pleasures1 & ! pa9ful association compos$ ( ! idea ( a man & ( 8 pa9s1 are bo? ,affections includ$ "u "o "n ,k9dness2 al?\gh 9 ! second case x has ! m specific "n ,compassion4 ,"u ! o!r heads1 ! au?or's elucidation is full]1 b 8 pr9ciple is ! same4 ,he next goes on 7,,xxii47 to ,,motives4 ,:5 ! idea ( a ,pleasure is associat$ ) an action ( our own z ! cause1 t peculi> /ate ( m9d is g5]at$1 call$ a motive4 ,! idea ( ! pleasure1 )\t ! idea ( an action = ga9+ x1 does n am\nt to a motive4 ,e pleasure may become a motive1 b e motive does n end 9 action1 because !re may be c\nt]-motives2 & ! /r5g? atta9$ by motives dep5ds greatly on education4 ,! facility ( be+ act$ on by motives ( a p>ticul> k9d is a ,,disposition4 ,we h1 9 connexion ) all our lead+ pleasures & pa9s1 names indicat+ _! motive efficacy4 ,gluttony is bo? motive & disposition2 s ,lu/ & ,drunk5ness2 ) ! add$ s5se ( reprobation 9 all ! ?ree4 ,fri5d%ip is a "n = ,affection1 ,motive1 & ,disposition4 ,9 ,*apt] ,,xxiii41 ! au?or makes ! application ( 8 pr9ciples to ,e?ics4 ,! actions emanat+ f ourselves1 comb9$ ) ^? emanat+ f our fell[-creatures1 exce$ all o!r ,causes ( our ,pleasures & ,pa9s4 ,consequ5tly su* actions are objects ( int5se affections or reg>ds4 ,! actions :5ce advantages accrue are class$ "u ! f\r titles1 ,prud5ce1 ,=titude1 ,ju/ice1 ,b5evol5ce4 ,! two fir/--,prud5ce & ,=titude 9 fact1 ,prud5ce--express acts useful to ourselves 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to o!rs 9 ! second in/ance4 ,ju/ice & ,b5evol5ce express acts useful to o!rs 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to ourselves 9 ! second in/ance4 ,we h two sets ( association ) all ^! acts1 "o set ) !m z our own1 ano!r set ) !m z o!r p's4 ,) ,prud5ce 7& ,=titude7 z our own acts1 we associate good to ourselves1 ei!r 9 ! %ape ( positive pleasure1 or z w>d+ (f pa94 ,?us ,lab\r is rais$ to importance by num]\s associations ( bo? classes4 ,f>!r1 ,prud5ce1 involv+ ! =esight ( a tra9 ( consequ5ces1 requires a l>ge measure ( k ( ?+s animate & inanimate4 ,c\rage is def9$ by ! au?or1 incurr+ ! *ance ( ,evil1 t is dang]1 = ! sake ( a prepond]ant good2 :i*1 too1 /&s 9 ne$ ( k4 ,n[1 :5 ! ideas ( acts ( ,prud5ce & acts ( ,c\rage h be5 associat$ suffici5tly (t5 ) b5eficial consequ5ces1 !y become pleasurable ideas1 or ,affections1 & !y h also1 f ! nature ( ! case1 ! "* ( ,motives4 ,9 %ort1 !re is no?+ 9 prud5tial conduct t may n be expla9$ by a s]ies ( associations1 gr\nd$ on our pleasurable & pa9ful s5sations1 on ! ideas ( !m1 & on ! ideas ( _! causes4 ,! real difficulty atta*es to ,ju/ice & to ,b5efic5ce4 ,z to ,ju/ice4 ,m51 9 society1 h f\nd x ess5tial = mutual b5efit1 t ! p[]s ( ,individuals ov] ! g5]al causes ( good %\ld be fix$ by c]ta9 rules1 t is1 ,laws4 ,acts done 9 accordance ) ^! rules are ,j ,acts2 al?\gh1 :5 duly consid]$1 !y are se5 to include ! ma9 fact ( b5efic5ce1 ! good ( o!rs4 ,to ! p]=mance ( a c]ta9 class ( j acts1 our ,fell[-creatures annex p5alties2 ^!1 !re=e1 are det]m9$ p>tly by ,prud5ce2 o!rs rema9 to be p]=m$ volunt>ily1 & = !m ! motive is ,b5efic5ce4 ,:at !n is ! s\rce ( ! motives t[>ds ,b5efic5ce8 ,h[ d ! ideas ( acts1 hav+ ! good ( our fell[s = _! end1 become ,affections & ,motives8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we h associations ( pleasure ) all ! pleasurable feel+s ( fell[-creatures1 & h5ce1 ) su* acts ( ours z yield !m pleasure4 ,9 ! second place1 ^? are ! acts = procur+ to ourselves ! fav\rable ,disposition ( our ,fell[-m51 s t we h f>!r associations ( ! pleasures fl[+ f su* fav\rable dispositions4 ,?us1 by ! union ( two sets ( influ5ces--two /reams ( association--! ,idea ( our b5efic5t acts becomes a pleasurable idea1 t is1 an ,affection1 &1 be+ connect$ ) actions ( ours1 is also a ,motive4 ,su* is ! g5esis ( ,b5efic5t or ,dis9t]e/$ impulses4 ,we h next a class ( associations ) o!r m5's p]=mance ( ! sev]al virtues4 ,! ,prud5ce & ! ,=titude ( o!rs are directly b5eficial to !m1 & indirectly b5eficial to u2 & ) bo? ^! consequ5ces we h necess>ily agreeable associations4 ,! ,ju/ice & ! ,b5efic5ce ( o!r m5 are s directly b5eficial to ! objects ( !m1 t x is impossible = u n to h pleasurable associations ) acts ( ,ju/ice & ,b5efic5ce1 fir/ z conc]ns ourselves 9 p>ticul>1 & next z conc]ns ! acts g5]ally4 ,h5ce1 !re=e1 ! rise ( ,affections & ,motives 9 fav\r ( ^! two virtues4 ,z !re is no?+ s deeply int]e/+ to me z t ! acts ( m51 reg>d+ myself imm$iately1 %\ld be acts ( ,ju/ice & ,b5efic5ce1 & ! acts reg>d+ !mselves imm$iately1 acts ( ,prud5ce & ,=titude2 x foll[s t ,i h an int]e/ 9 all su* acts ( my own z op]ate to cause ^? acts 9 o!rs4 ,by simil> acts ( our own1 by ! manife/ation ( dispositions to p]=m ^? acts1 we obta9 _! reciprocal p]=mance by o!rs4 ,!re is ?us a highly complex1 concurr+ /imulus to acts ( virtue1--a l>ge aggregate ( influ5ces ( association1 ! p[] at bottom be+ /ill our own pleasurable & pa9ful s5sations4 ,we mu/ add ! ascription ( ,praise1 an influ5ce rem>kable = its wide propagation & great efficacy ov] m5's m9ds1 & no less rem>kable z a pro( ( ! range ( ! associat+ pr9ciple1 especially 9 its "* ( ,fame1 :i*1 9 ! case ( future fame1 is a purely ideal or associat$ delight4 ,equally1 if n m1 /rik+ are ! illu/rations f ,dispraise4 ,! associations ( ,disgrace1 ev5 :5 n suffici5t to re/ra9 ! p]=mance ( acts abhorr$ by mank9d1 are able to produce ! horrors ( ,remorse1 ! mo/ int5se ( human suff]+s4 ,! love ( praise leads by "o /ep to ! love ( ,praisewor?9ess2 ! dread ( blame1 to ! dread ( ,blamewor?9ess4 ,( ^! v>i\s ,motives1 ! mo/ con/ant 9 op]ation1 & ! mo/ 9 use 9 moral tra9+1 are ,praise & ,blame4 ,x is ! s5sibility to ,praise & ,blame--! joyful feel+s associat$ ) ! "o1 & ! dread associat$ ) ! o!r--t gives effect to ,,popul> ,,op9ion1 or ! ,,popul> ,,sanction1 &1 ) ref]5ce to m5 g5]ally1 ! ,,moral ,,sanction4 ,! o!r motives to virtue1 namely1 ! association ( our own acts ( ,ju/ice & ,b5efic5ce1 z cause1 ) o!r m5's z effects1 are subject to /rong c\nt]action1 = we c r>ely p]=m su* acts )\t sacrifice to ourselves4 ,/ill1 !re is 9 all m5 a c]ta9 surplus ( motive f ?is cause1 j z !re is a surplus f ! association ( acts ( ours1 ho/ile to o!r m51 ) a return ( ho/ility on _! "p4 ,! be/ names = ! aggregate ,affection1 ,motive1 & ,disposition 9 ?is important region ( conduct1 are ,moral ,approbation & ,disapprobation4 ,! t]ms ,moral ,s5se1 ,s5se ( ,"r & ,wrong1 ,love ( ,virtue & ,hatr$ ( ,vice1 are n equally appropriate4 ,virtue & ,morality are o!r synonyms4 ,9 ! "w entitl$1 ',a ,fragm5t on ,mack9to%1' !re are af=d$ f>!r illu/rations ( ! au?or's d]ivation ( ! ,moral ,s5tim5t1 toge!r ) an exposition & def5ce ( ,utility z ! /&>d1 9 :i* 8 views are sub/antially at "o ) ,b5?am4 ,two or ?ree ref]5ces w be suffici5t4 ,9 ! /atem5t ( ! que/ions 9 dispute 9 ,morals1 he objects to ! words 'te/' & 'crit]ion1' z express+ ! /&>d4 ,he consid]s x a mi/ake to designate z a 'te/' :at is ! ?+ itself2 ! te/ ( ,morality is ,morality4 ,prop]ly1 ! ?+ te/+ is "o ?+2 ! ?+ te/$ ano!r ?+4 ,! same objection w\ld apply to ! use ( ! ^w ,/&>d2 s t ! only =m ( ! fir/ "q ( ,e?ics w\ld be1 ,:at is morality8 ,:at does x consi/ 98 ,! rem>k is j1 b some:at hyp]critical4 ,! illu/ration f ,*emical te/+ is n true 9 fact2 ! te/ ( gold is "s ess5tial attribute ( gold1 z its weight4 ,& :5 we wi% to det]m9e z to a c]ta9 act1 :e!r x is a moral act1 we comp>e x ) :at we deem ! ess5tial quality ( moral acts--,utility1 our ,moral ,in/9ct1 c4--& ! op]ation is n improp]ly call$ te/+ ! act4 ,s9ce1 !re=e1 :atev] we agree ^u z ! ess5ce ( morality1 mu/ be practically us$ by u z a te/1 crit]ion1 or /&>d1 !re _c be mu* h>m 9 call+ ?is ess5tial quality ! /&>d1 al?\gh ! designation is to a c]ta9 ext5t figurative4 ,! au?or has "s additional rem>ks on ! d]ivation ( our ,dis9t]e/$ feel+s3 he reit]ates ! position express$ 9 ! ',analysis1' t al?\gh we h feel+s directly t5d+ to ! good ( o!rs1 !y are nev]!less ! gr[? ( feel+s t are root$ 9 self4 ,t feel+s %\ld be deta*$ f _! orig9al root is a well kn[n ph5om5on ( ! m9d4 ,8 illu/rations ( ,utility are a valuable contribution to ! def5ce ( t doctr9e4 ,he replies to mo/ ( ! common objections4 ,mack9to% _h urg$ t ! ref]5ce to ,utility w\ld be made a dang]\s pretext = all[+ exceptions to common rules4 ,mill exp\nds at l5g? 7p4 #bdf7 ! =mation ( moral rules1 & retorts t !re are rules expressly =m$ to make exceptions to o!r rules1 z ju/ice be=e g5]osity1 *>ity beg9s at home1 c4 ,he animadv]ts ) great sev]ity on ,mack9to%'s doctr9es1 z to ! delight ( virtue = its own sake1 & ! special contact ( moral feel+s ) ! w4 ,all[ance be+ made = ! great diff]5ce 9 ! way t ! two writ]s express !mselves1 !y are at "o 9 ma9ta9+ ,utility to be ! ultimate /&>d1 & 9 reg>d+ ,consci5ce z a d]iv$ faculty ( ! m9d4 ,! au?or's h&l+ ( ,e?ics does n ext5d beyond ! fir/ & second topics--! ,,/&>d & ! ,,faculty4 ,8 ,/&>d is ,utility4 ,! ,faculty is bas$ on our ,pleasures & ,pa9s1 ) :i* !re are multipli$ associations4 ,dis9t]e/$ ,s5tim5t is a real fact1 b has its orig9 9 our own prop] pleasures & pa9s4 ,mill consid]s t ! exi/+ moral rules are all bas$ on our e/imate1 correct or incorrect1 ( ,utility4 ,,john ,,au/94 #agij-ahei4 ,au/91 9 8 ,lectures on ',! ,prov9ce ( ,jurisprud5ce det]m9$1' has discuss$ ! lead+ que/ions ( ,e?ics4 ,we give an ab/ract ( ! ,e?ical "p4 ,,lecture ,i4 ,law1 9 its l>ge/ mean+1 & omitt+ metaphorical applications1 embraces ,laws set by ,god to 8 creatures1 & ,laws set by man to man4 ,( ! laws set by man to man1 "s are e/abli%$ by political sup]iors1 or by p]sons ex]cis+ gov]nm5t 9 nations or political societies4 ,?is is law 9 ! usual s5se ( ! ^w1 =m+ ! subject ( ,jurisprud5ce4 ,! au?or t]ms x ,positive ,law4 ,!re is ano!r class ( laws n set by political sup]iors 9 t capacity4 ,yet "s ( ^! are prop]ly t]m$ laws1 al?\gh o!rs are only s by a close ,analogy4 ,!re is no "n = ! laws prop]1 b to ! o!rs are appli$ su* names z 'moral rules1' '! moral law1' 'g5]al or public op9ion1' '! law ( hon\r or ( fa%ion4' ,! au?or proposes = ^! laws ! "n positive morality4 ,! laws n[ enum]at$ diff] 9 _m important respects1 b agree 9 ?is--t all ( !m are set by intellig5t & rational be+s to intellig5t & rational be+s4 ,!re is a figurative application ( ! ^w 'law1' to ! uni=mities ( ! natural _w1 ?r\gh :i*1 ! field ( jurisprud5ce & morals has be5 delug$ ) muddy speculation4 ,laws prop]ly s call$ are comm&s4 ,a comm& is ! signification ( a desire or wi%1 accompani$ ) ! p[] & ! purpose to inflict evil if t desire is n compli$ )4 ,! p]son s desir$ is b\nd or oblig$1 or plac$ "u a duty1 to obey4 ,refusal is disob$i5ce1 or violation ( duty4 ,! evil to be inflict$ is call$ a sanction1 or an en=cem5t ( ob$i5ce2 ! t]m puni%m5t expresses "o class ( sanctions4 ,! t]m sanction is improp]ly appli$ to a ,rew>d4 ,we _c say t an action is comm&$1 or t ob$i5ce is con/ra9$ or en=c$ by ! (f] ( a rew>d4 ,aga91 :5 a rew>d is (f]$1 a "r & n an obligation is creat$3 ! imp]ative function passes to ! p>ty receiv+ ! rew>d4 ,9 %ort1 x is only by conditional evil1 t duties are sanction$ or en=c$4 ,! correct mean+ ( sup]ior & inf]ior is det]m9$ by comm& & ob$i5ce4 ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,! ,div9e ,laws are ! kn[n comm&s ( ! ,deity1 en=c$ by ! evils t we may suff] "h or h]eaft] = break+ !m4 ,"s ( ^! laws are reveal$1 o!rs unreveal$4 ,paley & o!rs h prov$ t x 0 n ! purpose ( ,revelation to disclose ! :ole ( our duties2 ! ,light ( ,nature is an additional s\rce4 ,b h[ are we to int]pret ?is ,light ( ,nature8 ,! v>i\s hypo!ses = resolv+ ?is "q may be r$uc$ to two3 7#a7 an ,innate ,s5tim5t1 call$ a ,moral ,s5se1 ,common ,s5se1 ,practical ,reason1 c42 & 7#b7 ! ,!ory ( ,utility4 ,! au?or av[s 8 adh]5ce to ! !ory ( ,utility1 :i* he connects ) ! ,div9e ,b5evol5ce 9 ! mann] ( ,b5?am4 ,god designs ! happ9ess ( s5ti5t be+s4 ,"s actions =w>d t purpose1 o!rs fru/rate x4 ,! fir/1 ,god has enjo9$2 ! second1 ,he has =bidd54 ,kn[+1 !re=e1 ! t5d5cy ( any action1 we "k ! ,div9e comm& ) respect to x4 ,! t5d5cy ( an action is all its consequ5ces ne> & remote1 c]ta9 & probable1 direct & collat]al4 ,a petty !ft1 or ! evasion ( a trifl+ tax1 may be insignificant1 or ev5 good1 9 ! direct & imm$iate consequ5ces2 b be=e ! full t5d5cy c be weigh$1 we mu/ resolve ! "q3--,:at w\ld be ! probable effect on ! g5]al happ9ess or good1 if simil> acts1 or omissions1 7 g5]al or frequ5t8 ,:5 ! !ory ( ,utility is correctly /at$1 ! curr5t objections are easily refut$4 ,z view$ by ! au?or1 ,utility is n ! f\nta9 or s\rce ( our duties2 ?is mu/ be comm&s & sanctions4 ,b x is ! index ( ! w ( ! law-giv]1 :o is presum$ to h = 8 *ief end ! happ9ess or good ( mank9d4 ,! mo/ speci\s objection to ,utility is ! suppos$ necessity ( go+ ?r\gh a calculation ( ! consequ5ces ( e act t we h to p]=m1 an op]ation (t5 beyond our p[]1 & likely to be abus$ to =w>d our private wi%es4 ,to ?is1 ! au?or replies fir/1 t suppos+ utility our only index1 we mu/ make ! be/ ( x4 ,( c\rse1 if we 7 end[$ ) a moral s5se1 a special organ = asc]ta9+ our duties1 ! attempt to displace t inv9cible consci\sness1 & to ?ru/ ! pr9ciple ( utility into ! vacant seat1 w\ld be impossible & absurd4 ,accord+ to ! !ory ( ,utility1 our conduct w\ld con=m to rules inf]r$ f ! t5d5cies ( actions1 b w\ld n be det]m9$ by a direct resort to ! pr9ciple ( g5]al utility4 ,utility w\ld be ! ultimate1 n ! imm$iate te/4 ,to preface ea* act or =be>ance by a conjecture & comp>ison ( consequ5ces 7 bo? sup]flu\s & mis*iev\s3--sup]flu\s1 inasmu* z ! result is already embodi$ 9 a kn[n rule2 & mis*iev\s1 inasmu* z ! process1 if p]=m$ on ! spur ( ! occasion1 w\ld probably be faulty4 ,) ! rules are associat$ s5tim5ts1 ! result ( ! ,div9e1 or o!r1 comm& to obey ! rules4 ,x is a gross & flagrant error to talk ( sub/itut+ calculation = s5tim5t2 ?is is to oppose ! rudd] to ! sail4 ,s5tim5t )\t calculation 7 caprici\s2 calculation )\t s5tim5t is in]t4 ,!re are cases :]e ! specific consequ5ces ( an action are s mom5t\s z to ov]be> ! rule2 = example1 resi/ance to a bad gov]nm5t1 :i* ! au?or calls an anomal\s "q1 to be tri$ n by ! rule1 b by a direct resort to ! ultimate or presid+-pr9ciple1 & by a sep>ate calculation ( good & evil4 ,su* 0 ! political em]g5cy ( ! ,commonweal?1 & ! ,am]ican revolution4 ,x w\ld h be5 well1 ! au?or ?9ks1 if utility _h be5 ! sole guide 9 bo? cases4 ,!re is a second objection to ,utility1 m p]plex+ to deal )4 ,h[ c we "k fully & correctly all ! consequ5ces ( actions8 ,! answ] is t ,e?ics1 z a sci5ce ( obs]vation & induction1 has be5 =m$1 ?r\gh a long succession ( ages1 by _m & sep>ate contributions f _m & sep>ate discov]]s4 ,l all o!r sci5ces1 x is progressive1 al?\gh un=tunately1 subject to special drawbacks4 ,! m5 t h enquir$1 or affect$ to enquire1 into ,e?ics1 h r>ely be5 imp>tial2 !y h lab\r$ "u prejudices or s9i/] int]e/s2 & h be5 ! advocates ( =egone conclusions4 ,!re is n on ?is subject a concurr5ce or agreem5t ( num]\s & imp>tial enquir]s4 ,inde$1 _m ( ! legal & moral rules ( ! mo/ civiliz$ communities arose 9 ! infancy ( ! human m9d1 p>tly f caprices ( ! fancy 7ne>ly omnipot5t ) b>b>ians71 & p>tly f an imp]fect appreh5sion ( g5]al utility1 ! result ( a n>r[ exp]i5ce4 ,?us ! diffusion & ! advancem5t ( e?ical tru? enc\nt] great & peculi> ob/acles1 only to be remov$ by a bett] g5]al education ext5d$ to ! mass ( ! p4 ,x is desirable t ! community %\ld be indoctr9at$ ) s\nd views ( prop]ty1 & ) ! dep5d5ce ( weal?1 ^u ! true pr9ciple ( population1 discov]$ by ,mal?us1 all :i* !y are compet5t to und]/&4 ,! au?or ref]s to ,paley's ,moral ,philosophy z an example ( ! p]v]t+ t5d5cy ( n>r[ & dom9e]+ int]e/s 9 ! doma9 ( e?ics4 ,) _m comm5dable po9ts1 !re is1 9 t "w1 mu* ignoble truckl+ to ! dom9ant & influ5tial few1 & a deal ( %abby sophi/ry 9 def5d+ abuses t ! few 7 int]e/$ 9 uphold+4 ,z a f>!r answ] to ! second objection1 he rem>ks1 t x applies to e !ory ( e?ics t supposes our duties to be set by ! ,deity4 ,*ri/ianity itself is defective1 consid]$ z a sy/em ( rules = ?o guidance ( human conduct4 ,he !n turns to ! alt]native ( a ,moral ,s5se4 ,?is involves two assumptions4 ,fir/1 ,c]ta9 s5tim5ts1 or feel+s ( approbation or disapprobation1 accompany our conceptions ( c]ta9 human actions4 ,^! feel+s are nei!r ! result ( our reflection on ! t5d5cies ( actions1 nor ! result ( education2 ! s5tim5ts w\ld foll[ ! conception1 al?\gh we _h nei!r adv]t$ to ! good or evil t5d5cy ( ! actions1 nor become aw>e ( ! op9ions ( o!rs reg>d+ !m4 ,?is !ory d5ies t ! s5tim5ts kn[n to exi/ c be produc$ by education4 ,we approve & disapprove ( actions we "k n :y4 ,! au?or adapts ,paley's supposition ( ! savage1 9 ord] to express /rongly :at ! moral s5se implies4 ,b we w conf9e ourselves to 8 reason+s4 ,is !re1 he asks1 any evid5ce ( our be+ gift$ ) su* feel+s8 ,! v putt+ ( su* a "q w\ld seem a suffici5t pro( t we are n s end[$4 ,!re ought to be no m d\bt ab\t !m1 ?an ab\t hung] or ?ir/4 ,x is alleg$ 9 _! fav\r t our judgm5ts ( rectitude & depravity are imm$iate & volunt>y4 ,! reply is t s5tim5ts begott5 by association are no less prompt & involunt>y ?an our in/9cts4 ,our response to a money ga91 or a money loss1 is z prompt z our compliance ) ! primitive appetites ( ! sy/em4 ,we beg9 by lov+ k z a means to ends2 b1 9 "t1 ! end is insep>ably associat$ ) ! in/rum5t4 ,s a moral s5tim5t dictat$ by utility1 if (t5 ex]cis$1 w\ld be rapid & direct 9 its op]ation4 ,x is f>!r alleg$1 z a pro( ( ! innate "* ( ! moral judgm5ts1 t ! moral s5tim5ts ( all m5 are precisely alike4 ,! argum5t may be put ?us3--,no op9ion or s5tim5t result+ f obs]vation & induction is held or felt by all mank9d3 ,obs]vation & induction1 z appli$ to ! same subject1 lead diff]5t m5 to diff]5t conclusions4 ,n[1 ! judgm5ts pass$ int]nally on ! rectitude or pravity ( actions1 or ! moral s5tim5ts1 are precisely alike ) all m54 ,!re=e1 our moral s5tim5ts are n ! result ( our inductions ( ! t5d5cies ( actions2 nor 7 !y d]iv$ f o!rs1 & impress$ by au?ority & example4 ,consequ5tly1 ! moral s5tim5ts are in/9ctive1 or ultimate & inscrutable facts4 ,to refute su* an argum5t is sup]flu\s2 x is bas$ on a gr\ndless ass]tion4 ,! moral s5tim5ts ( m5 h diff]$ to inf9ity4 ,) reg>d to a few classes ( actions1 ! moral judgm5ts ( mo/1 ?\gh n ( all1 m5 h be5 alike4 ,) reg>d to o!rs1 !y h diff]$1 ?r\gh e %ade or degree1 f slight div]sity to direct opposition4 ,b ?is is exactly :at we %\ld expect on ! pr9ciple ( utility4 ,) reg>d to "s actions1 ! dictates ( utility are ! same at all times & places1 & are s obvi\s z h>dly to admit ( mi/ake or d\bt4 ,on ! o!r h&1 m5's positions 9 diff]5t ages & nations are 9 _m respects widely diff]5t2 s t :at 0 useful !re & !n is useless or p]nici\s "h & n[4 ,moreov]1 s9ce human ta/es are v>i\s1 & human reason is fallible1 m5's moral s5tim5ts (t5 widely diff] 9 ! same positions4 ,he next alludes to "s prevail+ misconceptions 9 reg>d to utility4 ,"o is ! confusion ( ! te/ ) ! motive4 ,! g5]al good is ! te/1 or r ! index to ! ultimate measure or te/1 ! ,div9e comm&s2 b x is n 9 all1 or ev5 9 mo/ cases1 ! motive or inducem5t4 ,! pr9ciple ( utility does n dem& t we %all always or habitually att5d to ! g5]al good2 al?\gh x does dem& t we %all n pursue our own p>ticul> good by means t are inconsi/5t ) t p>am\nt object4 ,x p]mits ! pursuit ( our own pleasures z pleasure4 ,ev5 z reg>ds ! good ( o!rs1 x commonly requires u to be gov]n$ by p>tial1 r ?an by g5]al b5evol5ce2 by ! n>r[] circle ( family & fri5ds r ?an by ! l>g] humanity t embraces mank9d4 ,x requires u to act :]e we act ) ! utmo/ effect2 t is1 )9 ! sph]e be/ kn[n to u4 ,! limitations to ?is pr9ciple1 ! adju/m5t ( ! selfi% to ! social motives1 ( p>tial sympa?y to g5]al b5evol5ce1 belong to ! detail ( e?ics4 ,! second misconception ( ,utility is to conf\nd x ) a p>ticul> hypo!sis conc]n+ ! ,orig9 ( ,b5evol5ce1 commonly /yl$ ! selfi% sy/em4 ,h>tley & "s o!rs hav+ affirm$ t b5evol5ce is n an ultimate fact1 b an emanation f self-love1 ?r\gh ! association ( ideas1 x has be5 fanci$ t ^! writ]s dispute ! exi/5ce ( dis9t]e/$ b5evol5ce or sympa?y4 ,n[1 ! selfi% sy/em1 9 its lit]al import1 is flatly inconsi/5t ) obvi\s facts1 b ?is is n ! sy/em cont5d$ = by ! writ]s 9 "q4 ,/ill1 ?is di/ortion has be5 laid hold ( by ! oppon5ts ( utility1 & ma9ta9$ to be a necess>y "p ( t sy/em2 h5ce ! support]s ( utility are /yl$ 'selfi%1 sordid1 & cold-blood$ calculators4' ,b1 z already said1 ! !ory ( utility is n a !ory ( motives2 x holds equally good :e!r b5evol5ce be :at x is call$1 or m]ely a provid5t reg>d to self3 :e!r x be a simple fact1 or eng5d]$ by association on self-reg>d4 ,paley mix$ up ,utility ) self-reg>d+ motives2 b 8 !ory ( ^! is mis]ably %all[ & defective1 & am\nt$ to a d5ial ( g5u9e b5evol5ce or sympa?y4 ,au/9's ,fif? ,,lecture is devot$ to a full elucidation ( ! mean+s ( ,law4 ,he _h1 at ! outset1 made ! di/9ction betwe5 ,laws prop]ly s call$1 & ,laws improp]ly s call$4 ,( ! second class1 "s are closely alli$ to ,laws prop]1 possess+ 9 fact _! ma9 or ess5tial attributes2 o!rs are laws only by metaphor4 ,laws prop]1 & ^? closely alli$ to !m among laws prop]1 are divisible into ?ree classes4 ,! fir/ are ! ,div9e ,law or ,laws4 ,! second is nam$ ,positive ,law or ,positive ,laws2 & corresponds ) ,legislation4 ,! ?ird he calls ,positive ,morality1 or positive moral rules2 x is ! same z ,morals or ,e?ics4 ,rev]t+ to ! def9ition ( ,law1 he gives ! foll[+ ?ree ess5tials3--#a4 ,e law is a comm&1 & emanates f a det]m9ate s\rce or ano!r4 #b4 ,e sanction is an ev5tual evil annex$ to a comm&4 #c4 ,e duty supposes a comm& :]eby x is creat$4 ,n[1 tri$ by ^! te/s1 ! laws ( ,god are laws prop]2 s are positive laws1 by :i* are meant laws e/abli%$ by mon>*s z supreme political sup]iors1 by subord9ate political sup]iors1 & by subjects1 z private p]sons1 9 pursuance ( legal rights4 ,b z reg>ds ,positive ,morality1 or moral rules1 "s h s f> ! ess5tials ( an imp]ative law or rule1 t !y are rules set by m5 to m54 ,b !y are n set by m5 z political sup]iors1 nor by m5 z private p]sons1 9 pursuance ( legal rights2 9 ?is respect !y diff] f positive laws1 !y are n clo!d ) legal sanctions4 ,! mo/ important dep>tm5t ( positive morality includes ! laws set or impos$ by g5]al op9ion1 z = example ! laws ( hon\r1 & ( fa%ion4 ,n[ ^! are n laws 9 ! /rict mean+ ( ! ^w1 because ! au?ors are an indet]m9ate or unc]ta9 aggregate ( p]sons4 ,/ill1 !y h ! close/ alliance ) ,laws prop]1 see+ t be+ arm$ ) a sanction1 !y impose a duty4 ,! p]sons obnoxi\s to ! sanction g5]ally d or =be> ! acts enjo9$ or =bidd52 :i* is all t c happ5 "u ! highe/ type ( law4 ,! au?or !n ref]s to ,locke's division ( law1 :i*1 al?\gh faulty 9 ! analysis1 & inaptly express$1 tallies 9 ! ma9 ) :at he has laid d[n4 ,( ,metaphorical or figurative laws1 ! mo/ usual is t sugge/$ by ! fact ( uni=mity1 :i* is "o ( ! ord9>y consequ5ces ( a law prop]4 ,su* are ! laws ( nature1 or ! uni=mities ( co-exi/5ce & succession 9 natural ph5om5a4 ,ano!r metaphorical ext5sion is to a model or patt]n1 because a law pres5ts some?+ z a guide to human conduct4 ,9 ?is s5se1 a man may set a law to himself1 mean+ a plan or model1 & n a law 9 ! prop] s5se ( a comm&4 ,s a rule ( art is devoid ( a sanction1 & !re=e ( ! idea ( duty4 ,a confusion ( ideas also exi/s z to ! mean+ ( a sanction4 ,b5?am /yles ! evils aris+ 9 ! c\rse ( nature physical sanctions1 z if ! omission to gu>d aga9/ fire 7 a s9 or an immorality1 puni%$ by ! de/ruction ( "o's h\se4 ,b al?\gh ?is is an evil happ5+ to a rational be+1 & br\ght on by a volunt>y act or omission1 x is n ! result ( a law 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m4 ,:at is produc$ naturally1 says ,locke1 is produc$ )\t ! int]v5tion ( a law4 ,au/9 is ?us se5 to be "o ( ! mo/ /r5u\s advocates ( ,utility z ! ,/&>d1 & is di/+ui%$ = ! lucidity ( 8 exposition1 & ! =ce ( 8 replies to ! objections made aga9/ x4 ,he is also ! be/ exp\nd] ( ! relation%ip ( ,morality to ,law4 ,,william ,,:ewell4 #agid-ahff4 ,dr4 ,:ewell's *ief ,e?ical works are1 ',elem5ts ( ,morality1 includ+ ,polity1' & ',lectures on ! ,hi/ory ( ,moral ,philosophy 9 ,engl&4' ,we may ref] = 8 views to ei!r "w4 ,! foll[+ ab/ract is tak5 f ! late/ 7#d?7 edition ( 8 ,elem5ts 7#ahfd74 ,9 ! ,preface he indicates ! g5]al scope ( ! "w4 ,morality has its root 9 ! ,common ,nature ( ,man2 a s*eme ( ,morality mu/ con=m to ! ,common ,s5se ( mank9d1 9 s f> z t is consi/5t ) itself4 ,n[1 ?is ,common ,s5se ( ,mank9d has 9 e age l$ to two seem+ly opposite s*emes ( ,morality1 ! "o mak+ ,virtue1 & ! o!r mak+ ,pleasure1 ! rule ( action4 ,on ! "o side1 m5 urge ! claims ( ,rectitude1 ,duty1 ,consci5ce1 ! ,moral ,faculty2 on ! o!r1 !y decl>e ,utility1 ,exp$i5cy1 ,int]e/1 ,enjoym5t1 to be ! prop] guides4 ,bo? sy/ems are liable to objections4 ,aga9/ ! s*eme ( ,pleasure1 x is urg$ t we nev]1 9 fact1 id5tify virtue z m]ely useful4 ,aga9/ ! s*eme ( ,virtue1 x is ma9ta9$ t virtue is a matt] ( op9ion1 & t ,consci5ce v>ies 9 diff]5t ages1 c\ntries1 & p]sons4 ,x is necess>y t a s*eme ( ,morality %\ld surm\nt bo? classes ( objections2 & ! au?or !re=e attempts a reconciliation ( ! two oppos+ !ories4 ,he prep>es ! way by ask+1 :e!r !re are any actions1 or qualities ( actions1 univ]sally approv$2 & :e!r !re are any moral rules accept$ by ! ,common ,s5se ( mank9d z univ]sally valid8 ,! reply is t !re are su*1 z1 = example1 ! virtues t]m$ ,v]acity1 ,ju/ice1 ,b5evol5ce4 ,he does n enquire :y ^! are approv$2 he accepts ! fact ( ! approval1 & consid]s t "h we h ! basis ( a ,moral ,sy/em1 n liable to ei!r ( ! oppos+ objections above recit$4 ,he supposes1 h[ev]1 t ! alleg$ agreem5t may be *all5g$1 fir/1 z n exi/+2 & next1 z insuffici5t to reason f4 #a4 ,x may be ma9ta9$ t ! excell5ce ( ! ?ree virtues nam$ is n univ]sally ass5t$ to2 dep>tures f !m be+ all[$ bo? 9 practice & 9 !ory4 ,! answ] is1 t ! pr9ciples may be admitt$1 al?\gh ! int]pretation v>ies4 ,m5 all[ ,fidelity & ,k9dness to be virtues1 al?\gh 9 an e>ly /age ( moral progress !y d n make ! application beyond _! own fri5ds2 x is only at an advanc$ /age t !y include enemies4 ,! ,romans at fir/ held /rang] & enemy to be synonym\s2 b aft]w>ds !y applaud$ ! s5tim5t ( ! poet1 homo sum1 c4 ,moral pr9ciples mu/ be :at we approve (1 :5 we speak 9 ! "n ( ! :ole human species4 #b4 ,x may be said t su* pr9ciples are too vague & loose to reason f4 ,a v]bal agreem5t 9 employ+ ! t]ms tru?ful1 j1 humane1 does n prove a real agreem5t z to ! actions2 & ! p>ticul>s mu/ be held z expla9+ ! g5]alities4 ,! au?or holds ?is objection to be errone\s2 & ! s*eme ( 8 "w is int5d$ to meet x4 ,he proce$s z foll[s3-- ,he all[s t we mu/ fix :at is meant by "r1 :i* c>ries ) x ! mean+ ( ,virtue & ( ,duty4 ,n[1 9 say+ an action is "r1 !re is ?is idea convey$1 namely1 t we r5d] su* a reason = x1 z %all be p>am\nt to all o!r consid]ations4 ,"r mu/ be ! ,supreme ,rule4 ,h[ !n are we to arrive at ?is rule8 ,! supreme rule is ! au?ority ov] all ! faculties & impulses2 & is made up ( ! p>tial rules accord+ to ! sep>ate faculties1 p[]s1 & impulses4 ,we are to look1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to ! sev]al faculties or dep>tm5ts ( ! m9d2 =1 9 connexion ) ea* ( ^!1 we %all f9d an irresi/ible propriety inh]5t 9 ! v nature ( ! faculty4 ,= example1 man lives 9 ! society ( fell[-m52 8 actions d]ive _! mean+ f ?is position4 ,he has ! faculty ( ,spee*1 :]eby 8 actions are connect$ ) o!r m54 ,n[1 z man is "u a supreme moral rule1 ?is ! au?or appe>s to assume 9 ! v act ( prov+ x1 !re mu/ be a rule ( "r z reg>ds ! use ( ,spee*2 :i* rule c be no o!r ?an tru? & falsehood4 ,9 o!r words1 v]acity is a virtue4 ,aga91 man1 z a social be+1 has to divide ) o!rs ! possession ( ! _w1 9 o!r words1 to possess ,prop]ty2 :5ce !re mu/ be a rule ( ,prop]ty1 t is1 ea* man is to h 8 own4 ,:5ce ,ju/ice is se5 to be a virtue4 ,! au?or ?9ks himself at "o ) ! common notions ( mank9d 9 pron\nc+ t ! ,faculty ( ,spee*1 ! ,desire ( ,possessions1 & ! ,affections1 are prop]ly regulat$1 n by any extrane\s purposes or ends to be s]v$ by !m1 b by ,v]acity1 ,ju/ice1 & ,humanity1 respectively4 ,he expla9s 8 position f>!r1 by pr(ess+ to foll[ ,butl] 9 ! doctr9e t1 ?r\gh ! m]e contemplation ( our human faculties & spr+s ( action1 we c disc]n c]ta9 relations :i* mu/ exi/ among !m by ! necessity ( man's moral be+4 ,butl] ma9ta9s t1 by m]ely comp>+ appetite ) consci5ce z spr+s ( action1 we see consci5ce is sup]ior & ought to rule2 & ,:ewell conceives ?is to be self-evid5t1 & expresses x by /at+ t ! ,l[] p>ts ( our nature are to be gov]n$ by ! ,high]4 ,m5 be+ consid]$ z social be+s1 capable ( mutual und]/&+ ?r\gh spee*1 x is self-evid5t t _! rule mu/ include v]acity4 ,9 l mann]1 x is self-evid5t f ! same consid]ation ( social relation%ip1 t ea* man %\ld ab/a9 f viol5ce & ang] t[>ds o!rs1 t is1 love 8 fell[ m54 ,rem>k+ on ! plea ( ! utilit>ian1 t tru? may be ju/ifi$ by ! intol]able consequ5ces ( its habitual violation1 he urges t ?is is no reason aga9/ its be+ intuitively p]ceiv$2 j z ! axioms ( geometry1 al?\gh intuitively felt1 are confirm$ by %[+ ! incongruities foll[+ on _! d5ial4 ,he repeats ! common allegation 9 fav\r ( priori pr9ciples g5]ally1 t no consid]ation ( evil consequ5ces w\ld give ! s5se ( univ]sality ( obligation atta*+ to ! fundam5tal moral maxims2 & endeav\rs to %[ t 8 fav\rite anti!sis ( ,idea & ,fact conciliates ! int]nal ess5ce & ! ext]nal conditions ( morality4 ,! ,idea is inv>iable & univ]sal2 ! ,fact1 or outw>d circum/ances1 may v>y hi/orically & geographically4 ,morality mu/ 9 "s measure be dep5d5t on ,law1 b yet !re is an ,idea ( ,ju/ice above law4 ,x v naturally occurr$ to _m read]s ( ,:ewell's s*eme1 t 9 s f> z he endeav\rs to give any reason = ! f\ndations ( morality1 he runs 9 a vici\s circle4 ,he proposes to e/abli% 8 supreme univ]sal rule1 by %[+ x to be only a summ+ up ( c]ta9 rules sway+ ! sev]al portions or dep>tm5ts ( our nature--,v]acity1 ,ju/ice1 c41 :ile1 9 consid]+ ! obligation ( ^! rules1 he assumes t man is a moral be+1 :i* is ano!r way ( say+ t he is to be "u a supreme moral rule4 ,9 8 late/ edition1 ! au?or has repli$ to ?is *>ge1 b s briefly z to ca/ no new light on 8 position4 ,he only repeats t ! ,supreme rule ( ,human ,action is giv5 by ! con/itution & conditions ( human nature4 ,8 e?ical pr9ciple may be n unfairly express$ by say+1 t he recognizes a c]ta9 intr9sic fitness 9 ex]cis+ ! organ ( spee* accord+ to its social uses1 t is1 9 promot+ a "r und]/&+ among m52 & s ) ,ju/ice1 z ! fitness ( prop]ty1 & ,humanity1 z ! fitness ( ! ,affections4 ,?is fitness is intuitively felt4 ,human happ9ess is admitt$ to be a consequ5ce ( ^! rules2 b happ9ess is n a suffici5t end 9 itself2 morality is also an end 9 itself4 ,human happ9ess is n to be conceiv$ or admitt$1 except z conta9+ a moral elem5t2 9 addition to ! direct gratifications ( human life1 we mu/ include ! delight ( virtue4 ,h[ m5 c be compell$ to po/pone _! pleasurable s5se ( ! good ?+s ( life1 till !y h contract$ a delight 9 virtue = its own sake1 ! au?or does n say4 ,x has be5 ! great object ( morali/s 9 all ages1 to imp>t by education su* a /ate ( m9d z to spoil ! common gratifications1 if !y are vici\sly procur$2 ! comp>atively little success ( ! endeav\r1 %[s t nature has done little to fav\r x4 ,! =ego+ is an ab/ract ( ! ,introduction to ! #d? ,edition ( ! ,elem5ts ( ,morality4 ,we %all pres5t ! au?or's views respect+ ! o!r que/ions ( ,morality 9 ! =m ( ! usual summ>y4 ,i4--,z reg>ds ! ,/&>d1 en\gh has be5 already indicat$4 ,,ii4--,! ,psy*ology ( ! ,moral ,faculty is giv5 by ,:ewell z "p ( a classification ( our ,active ,p[]s1 or1 z he calls !m1 ,spr+s ( ,action4 ,^! are3 ,i4--,! ,appetites or ,bodily ,desires1 z ,hung] & ,?ir/1 & ! desires ( :atev] ?+s h be5 f\nd to gratify ! s5ses4 ,,ii4--,! ,affections1 :i* are direct$ to p]sons2 !y fall "u ! two heads ,love & ,ang]4 ,,iii4--,! ,m5tal ,desires1 hav+ = _! objects c]ta9 ab/ractions4 ,!y are ! desire ( ,safety1 includ+ ,security & ,lib]ty2 ! desire ( ,hav+1 or ,prop]ty2 ! desire ( ,society 9 all its =ms--,family ,society & ,civil ,society1 "u :i* is includ$ ! ne$ ( ,mutual ,und]/&+2 ! desire ( ,sup]iority2 & ! ,desire ( ,k4 ,,iv4--,! ,moral ,s5tim5ts4 ,our judgm5t ( actions z "r or wrong is accompani$ by c]ta9 ,affections or ,s5tim5ts1 nam$ ,approbation & ,disapprobation1 ,indignation & ,e/eem2 ^! are ! ,moral ,s5tim5ts4 ,v4--,! ,reflex ,s5tim5ts1 namely1 ! desires ( be+ ,lov$1 ( ,e/eem or ,admiration1 ( our own ,approval2 & g5]ally all spr+s ( action designat$ by ! ^w self--= example1 self-love4 ,) reg>d to ! ,moral ,s5tim5t1 or ,consci5ce1 9 p>ticul>1 ! au?or's resolution ( ,morality into ,moral ,rules1 necess>ily supposes an ex]cise ( ! ,reason1 toge!r ) ! ,affections above describ$4 ,he expressly m5tions '! ,practical ,reason1 :i* guides u 9 apply+ ,rules to our actions1 & 9 disc]n+ ! consequ5ces ( actions4' ,he does n all[ ,individual ,consci5ce z an ultimate or supreme au?ority1 b requires x to be con=m$ to ! ,supreme ,moral ,rules1 arriv$ at 9 ! mann] above describ$4 ,on ! subject ( ,dis9t]e/$ness1 he ma9ta9s a modification ( ,paley's selfi% !ory4 ,he all[s t "s p]sons are s f> dis9t]e/$ z to be capable ( b5evol5ce & self-sacrifice1 )\t any motive ( rew>d or puni%m5t2 b 'to require t all p]sons %\ld be su*1 w\ld be n only to require :at we c]ta9ly %all n f9d1 b to put ! requirem5ts ( our ,morality 9 a %ape 9 :i* x _c conv9ce m54' ,accord+ly1 l ,paley1 he places ! doctr9e t 'to promote ! happ9ess ( o!rs w lead to our own happ9ess1' exclusively on ! gr\nd ( ,religion4 ,he hon\rs ! pr9ciple t 'virtue is happ9ess1' b pref]s = mank9d g5]ally ! =m1 'virtue is ! way to happ9ess4' ,9 %ort1 he places no reliance on ! purely ,dis9t]e/$ impulses ( mank9d1 al?\gh he admits ! exi/5ce ( su*4 ,,iii4--,he discusses ! ,summum ,bonum1 or ,happ9ess1 only ) ref]5ce to 8 ,e?ical !ory4 ,! atta9+ ( ! objects ( our desires yields ,enjoym5t or ,pleasure1 :i* _c be ! supreme end ( life1 be+ di/+ui%$ f1 & oppos$ to1 ,duty4 ,happ9ess is ,pleasure & ,duty comb9$ & h>moniz$ by ,wisdom4 ',z moral be+s1 our ,happ9ess mu/ be f\nd 9 our ,moral ,progress1 & 9 ! consequ5ces ( our ,moral ,progress2 we mu/ be happy by be+ virtu\s4' ,he compla9s ( ! morali/s t r$uce virtue to ,happ9ess 79 ! s5se ( human pleasure71 t !y fail to provide a measure ( happ9ess1 or to resolve x into def9ite elem5ts2 & aga9 urges ! impossibility ( calculat+ ! :ole consequ5ces ( an action ^u human happ9ess4 ,,iv4--,) respect to ! ,moral ,code1 ,:ewell's arrangem5t is int]wov5 ) 8 d]ivation ( moral rules4 ,he enum]ates five ,c>d9al ,virtues z ! sub/ance ( morality3--,,b5evol5ce1 :i* gives expansion to our ,love2 ,,ju/ice1 z prescrib+ ! measure ( our ,m5tal ,desires2 ,,tru?1 ! law ( ,spee* 9 connexion ) its purpose2 ,,purity1 ! control ( ! ,bodily ,appetites2 & ,,ord] 7ob$i5ce to ! ,laws71 :i* engages ! ,reason 9 ! consid]ation ( ,rules & ,laws = def9+ ,virtue & ,vice4 ,?us ! five lead+ bran*es ( virtue h a c]ta9 p>allelism to ! five *ief classes ( motives--,bodily ,appetites1 ,m5tal ,desires1 ,love & its opposite1 ! ne$ ( a ,mutual ,und]/&+1 & ,reason4 ,z already se51 he consid]s x possible to d]ive e "o ( ^! virtues f ! consid]ation ( man's situation ) ref]5ce to ea*3--,b5evol5ce1 or ,humanity1 f our social relation%ip2 ,ju/ice1 f ! nature ( ,prop]ty2 ,tru?1 f1 ! employm5t ( ,language = mutual ,und]/&+2 ,purity1 f consid]+ ! l[] p>ts ( our nature 7! ,appetites7 z gov]n$ by ! high]2 & ,ord]1 f ! relation ( ,gov]nor & ,gov]n$4 ,by a self-evid5t1 intuitive1 irresi/ible consid]ation ( ! circum/ances ( ! case1 we are l$ to ^! sev]al virtues 9 ! detail1 & _! sum is ! ,supreme ,rule ( ,life4 ,n cont5t ) ^! five express moral pr9ciples1 he consid]s t ! ,supreme ,law requires1 z adjuncts1 two o!r virtues2 to ^! he gives ! names ,,e>ne/ness1 or ,zeal1 & ,,moral ,,purpose1 mean+ t ev]y?+ :atsoev] %\ld be done = moral ends4 ,v4--,! relation ( ,e?ics to ,politics 9 ,:ewell's sy/em is "o ( intimacy1 & yet ( indep5d5ce4 ,! ,laws ( ,/ates supply ! mat]ials ( human action1 by def9+ prop]ty1 c41 = ! "t be+2 to :i* def9itions morality mu/ correspond4 ,on ! o!r h&1 morality supplies ! ,idea1 or ideal1 ( ,ju/ice1 to :i* ! ,laws ( ,society %\ld progressively con=m !mselves4 ,! ,legislator & ! ,juri/ mu/ adapt _! legislation to ! po9t ( view ( ! ,morali/2 & ! morali/1 :ile enjo9+ ob$i5ce to _! dictates1 %\ld endeav\r to correct ! inequalities produc$ by laws1 & %\ld urge ! improvem5t ( ,law1 to make x con=mable to morality4 ,! ,moral is 9 ?is way contra/$ ) ! ,jural1 a useful ^w ( ! au?or's co9+4 ,he devotes a sep>ate ,book1 entitl$ ',rights & ,obligations1' to ! f\ndations ( ,jurisprud5ce4 ,he makes a five-fold division ( ,rights1 gr\nd$ on 8 classification ( ! ,spr+s ( ,human ,action2 ,rights ( ,p]sonal ,security1 ,prop]ty1 ,contract1 ,m>riage1 ,gov]nm5t2 & ju/ifies ?is division z aga9/ o!rs propos$ by juri/s4 ,,vi4--,he introduces ! ,morality ( ,religion z a supplem5t to ! ,morality ( ,reason4 ,! sep>ation ( ! two1 he rem>ks1 'enables u to trace ! results ( ! moral guidance ( human ,reason consi/5tly & cont9u\sly1 :ile we /ill reta9 a due s5se ( ! sup]ior au?ority ( ,religion4' ,z reg>ds ! f\ndations ( ,natural & ,reveal$ ,religion1 he adopts ! l9e ( argum5t mo/ usual ) ,engli% ,!ologians4 ,,james ,,fr$]ick ,,f]ri]4 #ahjh-fd4 ,9 8 ',lectures on ,greek ,philosophy' 7,rema9s1 ,vol4 ,i471 ,f]ri] has indicat$ 8 views on ! lead+ ,e?ical controv]sies4 ,^! w appe>1 if we select 8 conclusions1 on ! ?ree foll[+ po9ts3--,! ,moral ,s5se1 ! nature ( ,sympa?y1 & ! ,summum ,bonum4 #a4 ,he consid]s t ! ,sophi/s fir/ di/9ctly broa*$ ! "q--,:at is man by nature1 & :at is he by conv5tion or fa%ion8 ',?is prime "q ( moral philosophy1 z ,i h call$ x1 is no easy "o to answ]1 = x is no easy matt] to effect ! discrim9ation out ( :i* ! answ] mu/ proce$4 ,x is a "q1 p]haps1 to :i* no complete1 b only an approximate1 answ] c be return$4 ,"o common mi/ake is to ascribe m to ! natural man ?an prop]ly belongs to him1 to ascribe to him attributes & end[m5ts :i* belong only to ! social & artificial man4 ,"s writ]s--,hut*eson1 = example1 & he is foll[$ by _m o!rs--are ( op9ion t man naturally has a consci5ce or moral s5se :i* discrim9ates betwe5 "r & wrong1 j z he has naturally a s5se ( ta/e1 :i* di/+ui%es betwe5 sweet & bitt]1 & a s5se ( sight1 :i* discrim9ates betwe5 r$ & blue1 or a s5ti5t organism1 :i* di/+ui%es betwe5 pleasure & pa94 ,t man has by nature1 & f ! fir/1 ! possibility ( atta9+ to a consci5ce is n to be d5i$4 ,t lie has )9 him by bir?right some?+ out ( :i* consci5ce is develop$1 ,i firmly believe2 & :at ?is is ,i %all endeav\r by-&-by to %[ :5 ,i come to speak ( ,sokrates & 8 philosophy z oppos$ to ! doctr9es ( ! ,sophi/s4 ,b t ! man is furni%$ by nature ) a consci5ce ready-made1 j z he is furni%$ ) a ready-made s5sational app>atus1 ?is is a doctr9e 9 :i* ,i h no fai?1 & :i* ,i reg>d z altoge!r errone\s4 ,x arises out ( ! disposition to attribute m to ! natural man ?an prop]ly belongs to him4 ,! o!r error into :i* inquir]s are apt to fall 9 mak+ a discrim9ation betwe5 :at man is by nature1 & :at he is by conv5tion1 is ! opposite ( ! "o j m5tion$4 ,!y sometimes attribute to ! natural man less ?an prop]ly belongs to him4 ,& ?is1 ,i ?9k1 0 ! error into :i* ! ,sophi/s 7 betray$4 ,!y fall into x inadv]t5tly1 & n ) any design ( embrac+ or promulgat+ errone\s op9ions4' #b4 ,) ref]5ce to ,,sympa?y1 he diff]s f ,adam ,smi?'s view1 t x is a native & orig9al affection ( ! he>t1 l hung] & ?ir/4 ,m]e feel+1 he cont5ds1 c nev] take a man out ( self4 ,x is ?\ght t ov]leaps ?is b\nd>y2 n ! feel+ ( s5sation1 b ! ?\ght ( "o's self & "o's s5sations1 gives ! gr\nd & ! condition ( sympa?y4 ,sympa?y has self-consci\sness = its f\ndation4 ,v "y *ildr5 h little sympa?y1 because 9 !m ! idea ( self is b feebly develop$4 #c4 ,9 8 *apt] on ! ,cynic & ,cyr5aic s*ools1 he discusses at l5g? ! summum bonum1 or ,happ9ess1 &1 by implication1 ! ,e?ical end1 or ,/&>d4 ,he consid]s t m5 h to keep 9 view two ends2 ! "o ! ma9t5ance ( _! own nature1 z rational & ?9k+ be+s2 ! o!r _! happ9ess or pleasure4 ,he w n all[ t we are to d "r at all haz>ds1 irrespective ( utility2 yet he consid]s t !re is some?+ defective 9 ! s*eme t sets aside virtue z ! good1 & en?rones happ9ess 9 its place4 ,he sums up z foll[s3-- ',we ?us see t a complete body ( e?ics %\ld embrace two codes1 two sy/ems ( rules1 ! "o ( :i* we may call ! fundam5tal or antec$5t1 or "u-gr\nd e?ics1 z und]ly+ ! o!r2 & ! o!r ( :i* we may call ! upp] or subsequ5t1 or above-gr\nd e?ics1 z re/+ on1 & modifi$ by ! =m]4 ,! "u-gr\nd e?ics w\ld inculcate on man ! necessity ( be+ :at he truly is1 namely1 a creature ( reason & ( ?\ght2 9 %ort1 ! necessity ( be+ a man1 & ( pres]v+ to himself ?is /atus4 ,"h ! end is virtue1 t is1 ! life & heal? ( ! s\l1 & no?+ b ?is4 ,! above-gr\nd e?ics w\ld inculcate on man ! necessity ( be+ a happy man4 ,x is n en\gh = man to be2 he mu/1 moreov]1 if possible1 be happy4 ,! fundam5tal e?ics look m]ely to 8 be+1 i4e41 8 be+ rational2 ! upp] e?ics look pr9cipally to 8 be+ happy1 b !y are b\nd to take c>e t 9 all 8 happ9ess he does no?+ to violate 8 rationality1 ! heal? & virtue ( ! s\l4' ,,h5ry ,,longueville_/,,mansel4 ,mr4 ,mansel1 9 8 ',metaphysics1' has exam9$ ! "q ( a moral /&>d1 & ! nature ( ! moral faculty1 accept+1 ) slight & unimportant modifications1 ! curr5t !ory ( a moral s5se4 #a4 ,! ,moral ,faculty4 ,t ! conceptions ( "r & wrong are sui g5]is1 is prov$ 7#a7 by ! fact t 9 all languages !re are di/9ct t]ms = '"r' & 'agreeable2' 7#b7 by ! te/imony ( consci\sness2 & 7#c7 by ! mutual inconsi/5cies ( ! antagoni/s ( a moral s5se4 ,! moral faculty is n id5tical ) ,reason2 = ! und]/&+ contributes to tru? only "o ( its elem5ts1 namely1 ! concept2 9 addition1 ! concept mu/ agree ) ! fact z pres5t$ 9 intuition4 ,! moral s5se is usually suppos$ to involve ! p]ception ( qualities only 9 s f> z !y are pleas+ or displeas+4 ,to ?is repres5tation ,mr4 ,mansel objects4 ,9 an act ( moral consci\sness two ?+s are involv$3 a p]ception or judgm5t1 & a s5tim5t or feel+4 ,b ! judgm5t itself may be f>!r divid$ into two p>ts3 '! "o1 an individual fact1 pres5t$ n[ & "h2 ! o!r1 a g5]al law1 valid always & ev]y:]e4' ,?is is ! di/9ction betwe5 pres5tative & repres5tative ,k4 ,9 e act ( consci\sness !re is "s individual fact pres5t$1 & an op]ation ( ! und]/&+4 ',a consci\s act ( pure moral s5se1 l a consci\s act ( pure physical s5se1 if x ev] takes place at all1 takes place at a "t ( :i* we h no remembrance1 & ( :i* we c give no acc\nt4' ,! intuitive elem5t may be call$ consci5ce2 ! repres5t+ elem5t is ! und]/&+4 ,on ano!r po9t he diff]s f ! ord9>y !ory4 ,x is commonly said t we imm$iately p]ceive ! moral "* ( acts1 :e!r by ourselves or by o!rs4 ,b ?is w\ld implicate two facts1 nei!r ( :i* we c be consci\s (3 7#a7 a law b9d+ on a c]ta9 p]son1 & 7#b7 8 conduct z agree+ or disagree+ ) t law4 ,n[1 ,i c inf] ! exi/5ce ( su* a law only by repres5t+ 8 m9d z con/itut$ l my own4 ,we c1 9 fact1 imm$iately p]ceive moral qualities only 9 our own actions4 #b4 ,! ,moral ,/&>d4 ,?is is treat$ z a bran* ( ,ontology1 & designat$ ! ',real 9 morality1' ,he decl>es t ,kant's notion ( an absolute moral law1 b9d+ by its inh]5t p[] ov] ! m9d1 is a m]e fiction4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 incl9ation & ! moral imp]ative is m]ely a diff]5ce betwe5 l[] & high] pleasure4 ,! moral law c h no au?ority unless impos$ by a sup]ior1 z a law emanat+ f a lawgiv]4 ,if man is n acc\ntable to "s high] be+1 !re is no di/9ction betwe5 duty & pleasure4 ,! /&>d ( "r & wrong is ! moral nature 7n ! arbitr>y w7 ( ,god4#be ,n[1 z we _c "k ,god--an inf9ite be+1--s we h b a relative conception ( morality4 ,we may h l[] & high] ideas ( duty4 ,morality !re=e admits ( progress4 ,b no advance 9 morality contradicts ! pr9ciples previ\sly ackn[l$g$1 h[ev] x may v>y ! acts :]eby ^? pr9ciples are c>ri$ out4 ,& ea* advance takes its place 9 ! m9d1 n z a "q to be support$ by argum5t1 b z an axiom to be intuitively admitt$4 ,ea* pr9ciple appe>s true & irrev]sible s f> z x goes1 b x is liable to be m]g$ 9 a m compreh5sive =mula4 ,x is an error ( philosoph]s to imag9e t !y h an absolute /&>d ( morals1 & !reupon to set out priori ! crit]ion ( a possibly true revelation4 ,kant said t ! reveal$ comm&s ( ,god c\ld h no religi\s value1 unless approv$ by ! moral reason2 & ,fi*te held t no true revelation c\ld conta9 any intimation ( future rew>ds & puni%m5ts1 or any moral rule n d$ucible f ! pr9ciples ( ! practical reason4 ,b revelation has enlight5$ ! practical reason1 z by ! maxim--to love ,god ) all ?y he>t1 & ?y neighb\r z ?yself--a maxim1 says ,mr4 ,mansel1 t philosophy 9 va9 toil$ aft]1 & subsequ5tly borr[$ )\t ackn[l$gm5t4 ,,john ,,/u>t ,,mill4 ,mr4 ,j4,s4 ,mill exam9es ! basis ( ,e?ics 9 a small "w entitl$ ,utilit>ianism4 ,aft] a *apt] ( ,g5]al ,rem>ks1 he proposes 7,*apt] ,,ii47 to enquire1 ,:at ,utilit>ianism is8 ,?is cre$ holds t actions are "r 9 proportion z !y t5d to promote happ9ess1 wrong z !y t5d to produce ! rev]se ( happ9ess4 ,by happ9ess is int5d$ pleasure1 & ! abs5ce ( pa92 by unhapp9ess1 pa91 & ! privation ( pleasure4 ,! ?+s includ$ "u pleasure & pa9 may require f>!r explanation2 b ?is does n affect ! g5]al !ory4 ,to ! accusation t pleasure is a mean & grovell+ object ( pursuit1 ! answ] is1 t human be+s are capable ( pleasures t are n grovell+4 ,x is compatible ) utility to recognize "s k9ds ( pleasure z m valuable ?an o!rs4 ,!re are pleasures t1 irrespective ( am\nt1 are held by all p]sons t h exp]i5c$ !m to be pref]able to o!rs4 ,few human be+s w\ld cons5t to become bea/s1 or fools1 or base1 9 consid]ation ( a great] all[ance ( pleasure4 ,insep>able f ! e/imate ( pleasure is a s5se ( dignity1 :i* det]m9es a pref]5ce among enjoym5ts4 ,b ?is di/9ction 9 k9d is n ess5tial to ! ju/ification ( ! /&>d ( ,utility4 ,t /&>d is n ! ag5t's own greate/ happ9ess1 b ! greate/ am\nt ( happ9ess altoge!r4 ,h[ev] little ! high] virtues might contribute to "o's own happ9ess1 !re c be no d\bt t ! _w 9 g5]al ga9s by !m4 ,ano!r objection to ! doctr9e is1 t happ9ess is a ?+ unatta9able1 & t no "o has a "r to x4 ,n only c m5 d )\t happ9ess1 b r5unciation is ! fir/ condition ( all nobl5ess ( "*4 ,9 reply1 ! au?or rem>ks t1 suppos+ happ9ess impossible1 ! prev5tion ( unhapp9ess might /ill be an object1 :i* is a mode ( ,utility4 ,b ! alleg$ impossibility ( happ9ess is ei!r a v]bal quibble or an exagg]ation4 ,no "o cont5ds = a life ( su/a9$ rapture2 occasional mom5ts ( su*1 9 an exi/5ce ( few & transitory pa9s1 _m & v>i\s pleasures1 ) a pr$om9ance ( ! active ov] ! passive1 & mod]ate expectations on ! :ole1 con/itute a life wor?y to be call$ happ9ess4 ,numb]s ( mank9d h be5 satisfi$ ) mu* less4 ,!re are two great factors ( enjoym5t--tranquillity & excitem5t4 ,) ! "o1 little pleasure w suffice2 ) ! o!r1 consid]able pa9 c be endur$4 ,x does n appe> impossible to secure bo? 9 alt]nation4 ,! pr9cipal defect 9 p]sons ( =tunate lot is to c>e = nobody b !mselves2 ?is curtails ! excitem5ts ( life1 & makes ev]y?+ dw9dle z ! end approa*es4 ,ano!r circum/ance r5d]+ life unsatisfactory is ! want ( m5tal cultivation1 by :i* m5 are depriv$ ( ! inexhau/ible pleasures ( k1 n m]ely 9 ! %ape ( sci5ce1 b z practice & f9e art4 ,x is n at all difficult to indicate s\rces ( happ9ess2 ! ma9 /ress ( ! problem lies 9 ! conte/ ) ! positive evils ( life1 ! great s\rces ( physical & ( m5tal suff]+--indig5ce1 disease1 & ! unk9dness1 wor?lessness1 or premature loss ( objects ( affection4 ,pov]ty & ,disease may be contract$ 9 dim5sions2 & ev5 vicissitudes ( =tune are n :olly beyond control4 ,x is unque/ionably possible to d )\t happ9ess4 ,?is is ! lot ( ! great] "p ( mank9d1 & is (t5 volunt>ily *os5 by ! h]o or ! m>tyr4 ,b self-sacrifice is n its own end2 x mu/ be made to e>n = o!rs immunity f sacrifice4 ,x mu/ be a v imp]fect /ate ( ! _w's arrangem5ts t requires any "o to s]ve ! happ9ess ( o!rs by ! absolute sacrifice ( _! own2 yet und\bt$ly :ile ! _w is 9 t imp]fect /ate1 ! read9ess to make su* a sacrifice is ! highe/ virtue t c be f\nd 9 man4 ,nay1 f>!r1 ! consci\s ability to d )\t happ9ess1 9 su* a condition ( ! _w1 is ! be/ prospect ( realiz+ su* happ9ess z is atta9able4 ,mean:ile1 self-devotion belongs z mu* to ! ,utilit>ian z to ! ,/oic or ! ,transc5d5tali/2 ) ! res]vation t a sacrifice n t5d+ to increase ! sum ( happ9ess is to be held z wa/$4 ,! gold5 rule1 d z y w\ld be done by1 is ! ideal p]fection ( utilit>ian morality4 ,! means ( approa*+ ?is ideal are1 fir/1 t laws & society %\ld endeav\r to place ! int]e/ ( ! individual 9 h>mony ) ! int]e/ ( ! :ole2 &1 secondly1 t education & op9ion %\ld e/abli% 9 ! m9d ( ea* individual an indissoluble association betwe5 8 own good & ! good ( ! :ole4 ,! sy/em ( ,utility is object$ to1 on ano!r side1 z be+ too high = humanity2 m5 _c be p]petually act+ ) a view to ! g5]al int]e/s ( society4 ,b ?is is to mi/ake ! mean+ ( a /&>d1 & to conf\nd ! rule ( action ) ! motive4 ,e?ics tells u :at are our duties1 or by :at te/ we are to "k !m2 b no sy/em ( e?ics requires t ! motive ( e action %\ld be a feel+ ( duty2 our actions are rightly done provid$ only duty does n condemn !m4 ,! great majority ( actions h no?+ to d ) ! good ( ! _w--!y end ) ! individual2 x happ5s to few p]sons1 & t r>ely1 to be public b5efactors4 ,private utility is 9 ! mass ( cases all t we h to att5d to4 ,z reg>ds ab/95ces1 inde$1 x w\ld be unwor?y ( an intellig5t ag5t n to be aw>e t ! action is "o t1 if practis$ g5]ally1 w\ld be g5]ally injuri\s1 & to n feel a s5se ( obligation on t gr\nd2 b su* an am\nt ( reg>d = ! g5]al int]e/ is requir$ "u e sy/em ( morals4 ,x is f>!r alleg$ aga9/ ,utility1 t x r5d]s m5 cold & unsympa?iz+1 *ills ! moral feel+s t[>ds individuals1 & reg>ds only ! dry consequ5ces ( actions1 )\t ref]5ce to ! moral qualities ( ! ag5t4 ,! au?or replies t ,utility1 l any o!r sy/em1 admits t a "r action does n necess>ily indicate a virtu\s "*4 ,/ill1 he cont5ds1 9 ! long run1 ! be/ pro( ( a good "* is good actions4 ,if ! objection means t utilit>ians d n lay suffici5t /ress on ! beauties ( "*1 he replies t ?is is ! accid5t ( p]sons cultivat+ _! moral feel+s m ?an _! sympa?ies & arti/ic p]ceptions1 & may occur "u e view ( ! f\ndation ( morals4 ,! next objection consid]$ is t ,utility is a godless doctr9e4 ,! answ] is1 t :oev] believes 9 ! p]fect goodness & wisdom ( ,god1 necess>ily believes t :atev] he has ?\ght fit to reveal on ! subject ( morals mu/ fulfil ! requirem5ts ( utility 9 a supreme degree4 ,aga91 ,utility is /igmatiz$ z an immoral doctr9e1 by c>ry+ out ,exp$i5cy 9 opposition to ,pr9ciple4 ,b ! ,exp$i5t 9 ?is s5se means :at is exp$i5t = ! ag5t himself1 &1 in/ead ( be+ ! same ?+ ) ! useful1 is a bran* ( ! hurtful4 ,x w\ld (t5 be exp$i5t to tell a lie1 b s mom5t\s & s widely ext5d$ are ! utilities ( tru?1 t v]acity is a rule ( transc5d5t exp$i5cy4 ,yet all morali/s admit exceptions to x1 solely on acc\nt ( ! manife/ inexp$i5cy ( obs]v+ x on c]ta9 occasions4 ,! au?or does n omit to notice ! usual *>ge t x is impossible to make a calculation ( consequ5ces previ\s to e action1 :i* is z mu* z to say t no "o c be "u ! guidance ( ,*ri/ianity1 because !re is n "t1 on ! occasion ( do+ any?+1 to read ?r\gh ! ,old & ,new ,te/am5ts4 ,! real answ] is 7sub/antially ! same z ,au/9's7 t !re has be5 ample "t dur+ ! pa/ duration ( ! species4 ,mank9d h all t "t be5 le>n+ by exp]i5ce ! consequ5ces ( actions2 on t exp]i5ce !y h f\nd$ bo? _! prud5ce & _! morality4 ,x is an inf]5ce f ! pr9ciple ( utility1 :i* reg>ds morals z a practical art1 t moral rules are improvable2 b !re exi/s "u ! ultimate pr9ciple a numb] ( int]m$iate g5]alizations1 applicable at once to ! em]g5cies ( human conduct4 ,nobody argues t navigation is n f\nd$ on a/ronomy1 because sailors _c wait to calculate ! ,nautical ,almanack4 ,z to ! /ock argum5t1 t p w p]v]t utility = _! private ends1 ,mr4 ,mill *all5ges ! production ( any e?ical cre$ :]e ?is may n happ54 ,! fault is due1 n to ! orig9 ( ! rules1 b to ! complicat$ nature ( human affairs1 & ! necessity ( all[+ a c]ta9 latitude1 "u ! moral responsibility ( ! ag5t1 = accommodation to circum/ances4 ,& 9 cases ( conflict1 utility is a bett] guide ?an any?+ f\nd 9 sy/ems ^: moral laws claim indep5d5t au?ority4 ,*apt] ,,iii4 consid]s ! ,,ultimate ,,sanction ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,utility4 ,x is a prop] "q ) reg>d to a suppos$ moral /&>d1--,:at is its sanction8 :at is ! s\rce ( its obligation8 :]e9 lies its b9d+ =ce8 ,! cu/om>y morality is consecrat$ by education & op9ion1 & seems to be obligatory 9 itself2 b to pres5t1 z ! s\rce ( obligation1 "s g5]al pr9ciple1 n surr\nd$ by ! halo ( consecration1 seems a p>adox2 ! sup]/ructure seems to /& bett] )\t su* a f\ndation4 ,?is difficulty belongs to e attempt to r$uce morality to fir/ pr9ciples1 unless x %\ld happ5 t ! pr9ciple *os5 has z mu* sacr$ness z any ( its applications4 ,utility has1 or might h1 all ! sanctions atta*+ to any o!r sy/em ( morals4 ,^? sanctions are ei!r ,ext]nal or ,int]nal4 ,! ,ext]nal are ! hope ( fav\r & ! fe> ( displeasure 7#a7 f our fell[-creatures1 or 7#b7 f ! ,rul] ( ! ,univ]se1 along ) any sympa?y or affection = !m1 or love & awe ( ,him1 incl9+ u ap>t f selfi% motives4 ,!re is no reason :y ^! motives %\ld n atta* !mselves to utilit>ian morality4 ,! ,int]nal ,sanction1 "u e /&>d ( duty1 is ( "o uni=m "*--a feel+ 9 our own m9d2 a pa91 m or less int5se1 att5dant on violation ( duty1 :i* 9 prop]ly cultivat$ moral natures rises1 9 ! m s]i\s cases1 into %r9k+ f x z an impossibility4 ,?is feel+1 :5 dis9t]e/$1 & connect+ itself ) ! pure idea ( duty1 is ! ess5ce ( ,consci5ce2 a complex ph5om5on1 involv+ associations f sympa?y1 f love1 & /ill m f fe>2 f ! recollections ( *ildhood1 & ( all our pa/ life2 f self-e/eem1 desire ( ! e/eem ( o!rs1 & occasionally ev5 self-abasem5t4 ,?is extreme complication is an ob/acle to our suppos+ t x c atta* to o!r objects ?an :at are f\nd at pres5t to excite x4 ,! b9d+ =ce1 h[ev]1 is ! mass ( feel+ to be brok5 ?r\gh 9 ord] to violate our /&>d ( "r1 & :i*1 if we d violate t /&>d1 w h to be aft]w>ds enc\nt]$ z remorse4 ,?us1 ap>t f ext]nal sanctions1 ! ultimate sanction1 "u ,utility1 is ! same z = o!r /&>ds1 namely1 ! consci5ti\s feel+s ( mank9d4 ,if !re be any?+ innate 9 consci5ce1 !re is no?+ m likely ?an t x %\ld be a reg>d to ! pleasures & pa9s ( o!rs4 ,if s1 ! intuitive e?ics w\ld be ! same z ! utilit>ian2 & x is admitt$ on all h&s t a l>ge portion ( morality turns ^u :at is due to ! int]e/s ( fell[-creatures4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if1 z ! au?or believes1 ! moral feel+s are n innate1 !y are n = t reason less natural4 ,x is natural to man to speak1 to reason1 to cultivate ! gr\nd1 to build cities1 ?\gh ^! are acquir$ faculties4 ,s ! moral faculty1 if n a "p ( our nature1 is a natural outgr[? ( x2 capable1 9 a c]ta9 small degree1 ( spr++ up spontane\sly1 & ( be+ br\ght to a high pit* by means ( cultivation4 ,x is also susceptible1 by ! use ( ! ext]nal sanctions & ! =ce ( e>ly impressions1 ( be+ cultivat$ 9 almo/ any direction1 & ( be+ p]v]t$ to absurdity & mis*ief4 ,! basis ( natural s5tim5t capable ( support+ ! utilit>ian morality is to be f\nd 9 ! social feel+s ( mank9d4 ,! social /ate is s natural1 s necess>y1 & s habitual to man1 t he c h>dly conceive himself o!rwise ?an z a memb] ( society2 & z civilization advances1 ?is association becomes m firmly rivet$4 ,all /r5g!n+ ( social ties1 & all heal?y gr[? ( society1 give to ea* individual a /rong] p]sonal int]e/ 9 consult+ ! welf>e ( o!rs4 ,ea* comes1 z ?\gh in/9ctively1 to be consci\s ( himself z a be+ t ( c\rse pays reg>d to o!rs4 ,!re is ! /ronge/ motive 9 ea* p]son to manife/ ?is s5tim5t1 &1 ev5 if he %\ld n feel x /rongly himself1 to *]i% x 9 ev]ybody else4 ,! smalle/ g]ms ( ! feel+ are ?us laid hold (1 & n\ri%$ by ! contagion ( sympa?y & ! influ5ces ( education2 & by ! p[]ful ag5cy ( ! ext]nal sanctions !re is wov5 ar\nd x a complete web ( corroborative association4 ,9 an improv+ /ate ( society1 ! influ5ces are on ! increase t g5]ate 9 ea* individual a feel+ ( unity ) all ! re/2 :i*1 if p]fect1 w\ld make him nev] ?9k ( any?+ = self1 if !y also 7 n includ$4 ,suppose1 n[1 t ?is feel+ ( unity 7 taught z a religion1 & t ! :ole =ce ( education1 ( in/itutions1 & ( op9ion1 7 direct$ to make e p]son gr[ up surr\nd$ ) ! pr(ession & ! practice ( x2 c !re be any d\bt z to ! suffici5cy ( ! ultimate sanction = ! ,happ9ess morality8 ,ev5 9 our pres5t l[ /ate ( advancem5t1 ! deeply-root$ conception t ea* individual has ( himself z a social be+ t5ds to make him wi% to be 9 h>mony ) 8 fell[-creatures4 ,! feel+ may be1 9 mo/ p]sons1 inf]ior 9 /r5g? to ! selfi% feel+s1 & may be altoge!r want+2 b to su* z possess x1 x has all ! *>act]s ( a natural feel+1 & "o t !y w\ld n desire to be )\t4 ,*apt] ,,iv4 is ,,( ,,:at ,,sort ,,( ,,pro( ,,! ,,pr9ciple ,,( ,,utility is susceptible4 ,que/ions ab\t ends are que/ions z to :at ?+s are desirable4 ,accord+ to ! !ory ( ,utility1 happ9ess is desirable z an end2 all o!r ?+s are desirable z means4 ,:at is ! pro( ( ?is doctr9e8 ,z ! pro(1 t ! sun is visible1 is t p actually see x1 s ! pro( t happ9ess is desirable1 is t p d actually desire x4 ,no reason c be giv5 :y ! g5]al happ9ess is desirable1 beyond ! fact t ea* "o desires _! own happ9ess4 ,b grant+ t p desire happ9ess z "o ( _! ends ( conduct1 d !y nev] desire any?+ else8 ,to all appe>ance !y d2 !y desire virtue1 & ! abs5ce ( vice1 no less surely ?an pleasure & ! abs5ce ( pa94 ,h5ce ! oppon5ts ( utility consid] !mselves entitl$ to inf] t happ9ess is n ! /&>d ( moral approbation & disapprobation4 ,b ! utilit>ians d n d5y t virtue is a ?+ to be desir$4 ,! v rev]se4 ,!y ma9ta9 t x is to be desir$1 & t = itself4 ,al?\gh consid]+ t :at makes virtue is ! t5d5cy to promote happ9ess1 yet !y hold t ! m9d is n 9 a "r /ate1 n 9 a /ate con=mable to ,utility1 n 9 ! /ate conducive to ! g5]al happ9ess1 unless x has adopt$ ?is ess5tial in/rum5tality s w>mly z to love x = its own sake4 ,x is necess>y to ! c>ry+ out ( utility t c]ta9 ?+s1 orig9ally ( ! nature ( means1 %\ld come by association to be a "p ( ! f9al end4 ,?us heal? is b a means1 & yet we *]i% x z /rongly z we d any ( ! ultimate pleasures & pa9s4 ,s virtue is n orig9ally an end1 b x is capable ( becom+ s2 x is to be desir$ & *]i%$ n solely z a means to happ9ess1 b z a "p ( happ9ess4 ,! notori\s in/ance ( money exemplifies ?is op]ation4 ,! same may be said ( p[] & fame2 al?\gh ^! are ends z well z means4 ,we %\ld be b ill provid$ ) happ9ess1 7 x n = ?is provision ( nature1 :]eby1 ?+s1 orig9ally indiff]5t1 b conducive to ! satisfaction ( our primitive desires1 become 9 !mselves s\rces ( pleasure1 ( ev5 great] value ?an ! primitive pleasures1 bo? 9 p]man5cy & 9 ! ext5t ( _! occupation ( our life4 ,virtue is orig9ally valuable z br++ pleasure & avoid+ pa92 b by association x may be felt z a good 9 itself1 & be desir$ z int5sely z any o!r good2 ) ?is sup]iority ov] money1 p[]1 or fame1 t x makes ! individual a bless+ to society1 :ile ^! o!rs may make him a curse4 ,) ! all[ance ?us made = ! effect ( association1 ! au?or consid]s x prov$ t !re is 9 reality no?+ desir$ except happ9ess4 ,:atev] is desir$ o!rwise ?an z a means to "s end beyond itself1 & ultimately to happ9ess1 is n desir$ = itself till x has become su*4 ,human nature is s con/itut$1 he ?9ks1 t we desire no?+ b :at is ei!r a "p ( happ9ess or a means ( happ9ess2 & no o!r pro( is requir$ t ^! are ! only ?+s desirable4 ,:e!r ?is psy*ological ass]tion be correct1 mu/ be det]m9$ by ! self-consci\sness & obs]vation ( ! mo/ practis$ obs]v]s ( human nature4 ,x may be alleg$ t1 al?\gh desire always t5ds to happ9ess1 yet ,w1 z %[n by actual conduct1 is diff]5t f desire4 ,we p]si/ 9 a c\rse ( action long aft] ! orig9al desire has fad$4 ,b ?is is m]ely an in/ance ( t famili> fact1 ! p[] ( habit1 & is n[ise conf9$ to ! virtu\s actions4 ,w is am5able to habit2 we may w f habit :at we no long] desire = itself1 or desire only because we w x4 ,b ! w is ! *ild ( desire1 & passes out ( ! dom9ion ( its p>5t only to come "u ! sway ( habit4 ,:at is ! result ( habit may n be intr9sically good2 we might ?9k x bett] = virtue t habit did n come 91 7 x n t ! o!r influ5ces are n suffici5tly to be dep5d$ on = un]r+ con/ancy1 until !y h acquir$ ?is f>!r support4 ,*apt] ,v4 is ,,on ,,! ,,connexion ,,betwe5 ,,ju/ice ,,& ,,utility4 ,! /ronge/ ob/acle to ! doctr9e ( ,utility has be5 drawn f ! ,idea ( ,ju/ice4 ,! rapid p]ception & ! p[]ful s5tim5t connect$ ) ! ,j1 seem to %[ x z g5]ically di/9ct f e v>iety ( ! ,exp$i5t4 ,to see :e!r ! s5se ( ju/ice c be expla9$ on gr\nds ( ,utility1 ! au?or beg9s by survey+ 9 ! concrete ! ?+s usually d5om9at$ j4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is commonly consid]$ unju/ to deprive any "o ( _! p]sonal lib]ty1 or prop]ty1 or any?+ secur$ to !m by law3 9 o!r words1 x is unju/ to violate any "o's legal rights4 ,secondly1 ,! legal rights ( a man may be su* z ought n to h belong$ to him2 t is1 ! law conf]r+ ^? rights may be a bad law4 ,:5 a law is bad1 op9ions w diff] z to ! ju/ice or inju/ice ( infr++ x2 "s ?9k t no law %\ld be disobey$ by ! individual citiz52 o!rs hold t x is j to resi/ unju/ laws4 ,x is ?us admitt$ by all t !re is su* a ?+ z moral "r1 ! refusal ( :i* is inju/ice4 ,?irdly1 x is consid]$ j t ea* p]son %\ld receive :at he des]ves 7:e!r good or evil74 ,& a p]son is und]/ood to des]ve good if he does "r1 evil if he does wrong2 & 9 p>ticul> to des]ve good 9 return = good1 & evil 9 return = evil4 ,f\r?ly1 x is unju/ to break fai?1 to violate an engagem5t1 or disappo9t expectations kn[+ly & volunt>ily rais$4 ,l o!r obligations1 ?is is n absolute1 b may be ov]rul$ by "s /ill /rong] dem& ( ju/ice on ! o!r side4 ,fif?ly1 x is inconsi/5t ) ju/ice to be p>tial2 to %[ fav\r or pref]5ce 9 matt]s :]e fav\r does n apply4 ,we are expect$ 9 c]ta9 cases to pref] our fri5ds to /rang]s2 b a tribunal is b\nd to ! /ricte/ imp>tiality2 rew>ds & puni%m5ts %\ld be adm9i/]$ imp>tially2 s likewise ! patronage ( important public (fices4 ,ne>ly alli$ to imp>tiality is ! idea ( equality4 ,! ju/ice ( giv+ equal protection to ! rights ( all is ma9ta9$ ev5 :5 ! rights !mselves are v unequal1 z 9 slav]y & 9 ! sy/em ( ranks or ca/es4 ,!re are ! greate/ diff]5ces z to :at is equality 9 ! di/ribution ( ! produce ( lab\r2 "s ?9k+ t all %\ld receive alike2 o!rs t ! ne$ie/ %\ld receive mo/2 o!rs t ! di/ribution %\ld be accord+ to lab\r or s]vices4 ,to get a clue to ! common idea runn+ ?r\gh all ^! mean+s1 ! au?or ref]s to ! etymology ( ! ^w1 :i*1 9 mo/ languages1 po9ts to some?+ orda9$ by law4 ,ev5 al?\gh !re be _m ?+s consid]$ j1 t we d n usually en=ce by law1 yet 9 ^! cases x w\ld give u pleasure if law c\ld be br\ght to be> ^u (f5d]s4 ,:5 we ?9k a p]son b\nd 9 ju/ice to d a ?+1 we %\ld l to see him puni%$ = n do+ x2 we lam5t ! ob/acles t may be 9 ! way1 & /rive to make am5ds by a /rong expression ( our own op9ion4 ,! idea ( legal con/ra9t is ?us ! g5]at+ idea ( ju/ice ?r\gh\t all its trans=mations4 ,! real turn+ po9t betwe5 morality & simple exp$i5cy is conta9$ 9 ! p5al sanction4 ,duty is :at we may exact ( a p]son2 !re may be reasons :y we d n exact x1 b ! p]son himself w\ld n be entitl$ to compla9 if we did s4 ,exp$i5cy1 on ! o!r h&1 po9ts to ?+s t we may wi% p to d1 may praise !m = do+1 & despise !m = n do+1 :ile we d n consid] x prop] to br+ 9 ! aid ( puni%m5t4 ,!re ent]s f>!r into ! idea ( ,ju/ice :at has be5 express$ by ! ill-*os5 phrase1 'p]fect obligation1' mean+ t ! duty involves a moral "r on ! "p ( "s def9ite p]son1 z 9 ! case ( a debt2 an imp]fect obligation is exemplifi$ by *>ity1 :i* gives no legal claim to any "o recipi5t4 ,e su* "r is a case ( ,ju/ice1 & n ( ,b5efic5ce4 ,! ,idea ( ,ju/ice is ?us %[n to be gr\nd$ 9 ,law2 & ! next "q is1 does ! /rong feel+ or s5tim5t ( ,ju/ice gr[ out ( consid]ations ( utility8 ,mr4 ,mill conceives t ?\gh ! notion ( exp$i5cy or utility does n give bir? to ! s5tim5t1 x gives bir? to :at is moral 9 x4 ,! two ess5tials ( ju/ice are 7#a7 ! desire to puni% "s "o1 & 7#b7 ! notion or belief t h>m has be5 done to "s def9ite individual or individuals4 ,n[1 x appe>s to ! au?or t ! desire to puni% is a spontane\s outgr[? ( two s5tim5ts1 bo? natural1 &1 x may be1 in/9ctive2 ! impulse ( self-def5ce1 & ! feel+ ( sympa?y4 ,we naturally res5t1 repel1 & retaliate1 any h>m done to ourselves & to any "o t engages our sympa?ies4 ,!re is no?+ moral 9 m]e res5tm5t2 ! moral "p is ! subord9ation ( x to our social reg>ds4 ,we are moral be+s1 9 proportion z we re/ra9 our private res5tm5t :5ev] x conflicts ) ! int]e/s ( society4 ,all morali/s agree ) ,kant 9 say+ t no act is "r t c\ld n be adopt$ z a law by all rational be+s 7t is1 consi/5tly ) ! well-be+ ( society74 ,!re is 9 ,ju/ice a rule ( conduct1 & a "r on ! "p ( "s "o1 :i* "r ought to be en=c$ by society4 ,if x is ask$ :y society ought to en=ce ! "r1 !re is no answ] b ! g5]al utility4 ,if t expression seem feeble & inadequate to acc\nt = ! en]gy ( retaliation inspir$ by inju/ice1 ! au?or asks u to adv]t to ! extraord9>ily important & impressive k9d ( utility t is conc]n$4 ,! int]e/ involv$ is security1 to e "o's feel+s ! mo/ vital ( all int]e/s4 ,all o!r e>?ly b5efits ne$$ by "o p]son are n ne$$ by ano!r2 & _m ( !m c1 if necess>y1 be *e]fully =egone1 or replac$ by some?+ else2 b security no human be+ c possibly d )\t2 on x we dep5d = all our immunity f evil1 & = ! :ole value ( all & e good1 beyond ! pass+ mom5t4 ,n[1 ?is mo/ indisp5sable ( all necess>ies1 aft] physical nutrim5t1 _c be _h unless ! ma*9]y = provid+ x is kept un9t]mitt$ly 9 active play4 ,our notion1 !re=e1 ( ! claim we h on our fell[-creatures to jo9 9 mak+ safe = u ! v gr\ndwork ( our exi/5ce1 ga!rs feel+s ar\nd x s mu* m int5se ?an ^? conc]n$ 9 any ( ! m common cases ( utility1 t ! diff]5ce 9 degree 7z is (t5 ! case 9 psy*ology7 becomes a real diff]5ce 9 k9d4 ,! claim assumes t "* ( absolut5ess1 t app>5t inf9ity1 & incomm5surability ) all o!r consid]ations1 :i* con/itute ! di/9ction betwe5 ! feel+ ( "r & wrong1 & t ( ord9>y exp$i5cy & inexp$i5cy4 ,hav+ pres5t$ 8 own analysis ( ! s5tim5t ( ,ju/ice1 ! au?or proce$s to exam9e ! intuitive !ory4 ,! *>ge is con/antly br\ght aga9/ ,utility1 t x is an unc]ta9 /&>d1 diff]5tly int]pret$ by ea* p]son4 ,! only safety1 x is pret5d$1 is f\nd 9 ! immutable1 ineffaceable1 & unmi/akeable dictates ( ,ju/ice1 c>ry+ _! evid5ce 9 !mselves1 & indep5d5t ( ! fluctuations ( op9ions4 ,b s f> is ?is f be+ ! fact1 t !re is z mu* diff]5ce ( op9ion1 & z mu* discussion1 ab\t :at is j1 z ab\t :at is useful to society4 ,to take a few in/ances4 ,on ! "q ( ,puni%m5t1 "s hold x unju/ to puni% any "o by way ( example1 or = any end b ! good ( ! suff]]4 ,o!rs ma9ta9 t ! good ( ! society is ! only admissible end ( puni%m5t4 ,rob]t ,ow5 affirms t puni%m5t altoge!r is unju/1 & t we %\ld deal ) crime only ?r\gh education4 ,n[1 )\t an appeal to exp$i5cy1 x is impossible to arbitrate among ^! conflict+ views2 ea* "o has a maxim ( ju/ice on its side4 ,!n z to ! apportion+ ( puni%m5ts to (f5ces4 ,! rule t recomm5ds itself to ! primitive s5tim5t ( ju/ice is an eye = an eye1 a too? = a too?2 a rule =mally ab&on$ 9 ,european c\ntries1 al?\gh n )\t its hold ^u ! popul> m9d4 ,) _m1 ! te/ ( ju/ice1 9 p5al infliction1 is t x %\ld be proportion$ to ! (f5ce2 :ile o!rs ma9ta9 t x is j to inflict only su* an am\nt ( puni%m5t z w det] f ! commission ( ! (f5ce4 ,besides ! diff]5ces ( op9ion already allud$ to1 z to ! paym5t ( lab\r1 h[ _m1 & irreconcileable1 are ! /&>ds ( ju/ice appeal$ to on ! matt] ( taxation8 ,"o op9ion is1 t taxes %\ld be 9 proportion to pecuni>y means2 o!rs ?9k ! weal?y %\ld pay a high] proportion4 ,9 po9t ( natural ju/ice1 a case might be made out = disreg>d+ means1 & tak+ ! same sum f ea*1 z ! privileges are equally be/[$3 yet f feel+s ( humanity & social exp$i5cy no "o advocates t view4 ,s t !re is no mode ( extricat+ ! "q b ! utilit>ian4 ,to sum up4 ,! great di/9ction betwe51 ! ,j & ! ,exp$i5t is ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ess5tials ( well-be+--! moral rules =bidd+ mank9d to hurt "o ano!r--& ! rules t only po9t out ! be/ mode ( manag+ "s dep>tm5t ( human affairs4 ,x is 9 ! high] moralities ( protection f h>m t ea* individual has ! greate/ /ake2 & !y are ! moralities t compose ! obligations ( ju/ice4 ,x is on acc\nt ( ^! t puni%m5t1 or retribution ( evil = evil1 is univ]sally includ$ 9 ! idea4 ,= ! c>ry+ out ( ! process ( retaliation1 c]ta9 maxims are necess>y z in/rum5ts or z *ecks to abuse2 z t involunt>y acts are n puni%able2 t no "o %all be condemn$ unhe>d2 t puni%m5t %\ld be proportion$ to ! (f5ce4 ,imp>tiality1 ! fir/ ( judicial virtues1 is necess>y to ! fulfilm5t ( ! o!r conditions ( ju/ice3 :ile f ! highe/ =m ( do+ to ea* accord+ to _! des]ts1 x is ! ab/ract /&>d ( social & di/ributive ju/ice2 & is 9 ?is s5se a direct emanation f ! fir/ pr9ciple ( morals1 ! pr9ciple ( ! greate/ ,happ9ess4 ,all social inequalities t h ceas$ to be consid]$ z exp$i5t1 assume ! "*1 n ( simple inexp$i5cy1 b ( inju/ice4 ,besides ! ',utilit>ianism1' ,mr4 ,mill's *ief ,e?ical diss]tations are 8 review ( ,:ewell's ,moral ,treatises 7,diss]tations & ,discussions1 ,vol4 ,,ii471 & p>ts ( 8 ,essay on ,lib]ty4 ,by collect+ 8 views g5]ally "u ! usual heads1 we %all f9d a place = "s po9ts additional to :at are giv5 9 ! =ego+ ab/ract4 ,i4--,en\gh has be5 /at$ z to 8 ,e?ical ,/&>d1 ! ,pr9ciple ( ,utility4 ,,ii4--,we h se5 8 ,psy*ological explanation ( ! ,moral ,faculty1 z a gr[? f c]ta9 elem5t>y feel+s ( ! m9d4 ,he has also discuss$ ext5sively ! ,fre$om ( ! ,w1 ma9ta9+ ! /rict causation ( human actions1 & refut+ ! suppos$ fatali/ic t5d5cy ( ! doctr9e4 ,he believes1 z we h se51 9 ,dis9t]e/$ impulses1 b traces !m to a purely self-reg>d+ orig94 ,,iii4--,he does n give any =mal diss]tation on ,human ,happ9ess1 b indicates _m ( its important conditions1 z 9 ! rem>ks cit$ above1 p4 #gjb4 ,9 ! *apt] ( ! "w on ',lib]ty1' entitl$ ,individuality1 he illu/rates ! great importance ( special ta/es1 & urges ! full "r ( ea* p]son to ! indulg5ce ( ^! 9 e case :]e !y d n directly injure o!rs4 ,he reclaims aga9/ ! social tyranny prevail+ on su* po9ts z dress1 p]sonal habits1 & ecc5tricities4 ,,iv4--,z reg>ds ! ,moral ,code1 he w\ld repeal ! legal & moral rule t makes m>riage irrevocable4 ,he w\ld also aboli% all re/ra9ts on fre$om ( ?\ght1 & on ,individuality ( conduct1 qualifi$ z above /at$4 ,he w\ld impose two new moral re/ra9ts4 ,he consid]s t e p>5t %\ld be b\nd to provide a suitable education = 8 own *ildr54 ,f>!r1 = any "o to br+ into ! _w human be+s )\t ! means ( support+ !m1 or1 9 an ov]-peopl$ c\ntry1 to produce *ildr5 9 su* numb] z to depress ! rew>d ( lab\r by competition1 he reg>ds z s]i\s (f5ces4 ,,samuel ,,bailey4 ,mr4 ,samuel ,bailey devotes ! la/ f\r 9 8 ,?ird ,s]ies ( ',lett]s on ! ,philosophy ( ! ,human ,m9d1' to ! subject ( ! ,moral ,s5tim5ts1 or ! feel+s inspir$ 9 u by human conduct4 ,he fir/ sets d[n five facts 9 ! human con/itution1 9 :i* moral ph5om5a orig9ate-- #a4 ,man is susceptible ( pleasure & pa9 ( v>i\s k9ds & degrees4 #b4 ,he likes & dislikes respectively ! causes ( !m4 #c4 ,he desires to reciprocate pleasure & pa9 receiv$1 :5 int5tionally giv5 by o!r s5ti5t be+s4 #d4 ,he himself expects su* reciprocation f 8 fell[s1 covet+ x 9 ! "o case1 & %unn+ x 9 ! o!r4 #e4 ,he feels1 "u c]ta9 circum/ances1 m or less sympa?y ) ! pleasures & pa9s giv5 to o!rs1 accompani$ by a proportionate desire t ^? affections %\ld be reciprocat$ to ! giv]s4 ,^! rudim5t>y affections1 /ates & op]ations ( consci\sness he is c>eful to note t1 besides feel+s1 intellectual conditions & processes are involv$ 9 !m are f\nd m or less develop$ 9 all1 or ne>ly all ! human race4 ,9 support ( ! limitation n[ made1 he adduces :at are giv5 z au!ntic acc\nts ( savages devoid ( all gratitude & fell[-feel+2 & !n goes on to trace ! nature & developm5t ( moral s5tim5t f ! rudim5t>y p[]s & susceptibilities m5tion$1 9 ^? t d possess !m4 ,9 do+ s1 he foll[s ! conv5i5t mode ( spee* t takes actions = ! objects t excite ! susceptibilities1 al?\gh1 9 reality1 ! objects are no o!r ?an human be+s act+ 9 p>ticul> ways4 ,! feel+s he supposes to be modifi$ 9 mann] or degree1 accord+ z actions are 7#a7 done by ourselves to o!rs1 or 7#b7 done to o!rs by o!rs1 or 7#c7 done to o!rs by ourselves2 i4e41 accord+ z we ourselves are ! subjects1 ! spectators1 or do]s ( !m4 ,fir/1 !n1 he consid]s our feel+s 9 reg>d to actions done to u by o!rs1 & ! m c>efully1 because ^! lie at ! f\ndation ( ! re/4 ,:5 a fell[-creature int5tionally contributes to our pleasure1 we feel ! pleasure2 we feel a lik+ to ! p]son int5tionally conf]r+ x1 & we feel an incl9ation to give him pleasure 9 return4 ,! two la/ feel+s--lik+ & incl9ation to reciprocate1 con/itute ! simple/ =m ( moral approbation2 9 ! contr>y case1 dislike & res5tm5t give ! rudim5t>y =m ( moral disapprobation4 ,x is en\gh to excite ! feel+s1 t ! actions are m]ely ?\ght to be done by ! p]son4 ,!y are moral s5tim5ts1 ev5 al?\gh x c\ld be suppos$ t !re 7 no o!r k9ds ( actions 9 ! _w except actions done to ourselves2 b !y are moral s5tim5ts 9 ! purely selfi% =m4 ,t1 = moral s5tim5t1 m]e lik+ & dislik+ mu/ be comb9$ ) ! desire to reciprocate good & evil1 appe>s on a comp>ison ( our diff]5t feel+s t[>ds animate & inanimate causes ( pleasure & pa92 !re be+ t[>ds inanimate objects no desire ( reciprocation4 ,to a fir/ objection1 t ! viol5t s5tim5ts1 aris+ ^u actions done to ourselves1 %\ld n get ! temp]ate designation ( moral approbation & disapprobation1 he replies1 t su* extremes z ! passions ( gratitude & res5tm5t mu/ yet be id5tifi$ 9 _! orig9 ) our cool] feel+s1 :5 we are m]e spectators or actors4 ,a second objection1 t ! epi!t moral is inapplicable to s5tim5ts involv+ purely p]sonal feel+1 & de/itute ( sympa?y1 he answ]s1 by rem>k+ t ! ^w moral1 9 philosophy1 %\ld n eulogi/ically be oppos$ to immoral1 b %\ld be held z neutral1 & to mean 'relat+ to conduct1 :atev] t conduct may be4' ,he closes ! fir/ head ) ! obs]vation1 t 9 savage life ! viol5t desire ( reciprocation is be/ se52 g5]ally1 h[ev]1 z he gives in/ances to %[1 9 ! =m ( rev5ge & reciprocation ( evil4 ,9 ! second place1 he consid]s our feel+s :5 we are spectators ( actions done to o!rs by o!rs4 ,^! =m ! l>ge/ class ( actions1 b to u !y h a mean+1 = ! mo/ "p at lea/1 only z !y h an analogy to actions done to ourselves4 ,! v>iety ( ! result+ feel+s1 g5]ally less int5se ?an :5 we are ! subjects ( ! actions1 is illu/rat$ fir/ by suppos+ ! p]sons affect$ to be ^? we love2 9 ?is case1 ! feel+s are analog\s to ^? already m5tion$1 & !y may be ev5 m int5se ?an :5 we ourselves are p]sonally affect$4 ,if ^? affect$ are indiff]5t to u1 our feel+s are less int5se1 b we are /ill l$ to feel z be=e1 f a natural sympa?y ) o!r m5's pa9s & pleasures--always suppos+ ! sympa?y is n 7z (t5 happ5s7 o!rwise c\nt]act$ or sup]s$$2 & also f ! influ5ce ( association1 if t1 too1 happ5 n to be c\nt]vail$4 ,( sympa?y = human be+s 9 g5]al1 he rem>ks t a c]ta9 measure ( civilization seems requir$ to br+ x prop]ly out1 & he cites in/ances to prove h[ mu* x is want+ 9 savages4 ,9 a ?ird case1 :]e ! p]sons affect$ are suppos$ to be ^? we hate1 we are displeas$ :5 !y are made to rejoice1 & pleas$ :5 !y suff]1 unless we are ov]come by our habitual associations ) good & evil actions4 ,su* associations weigh lea/ ) rude & savage peoples1 b ev5 ! mo/ civiliz$ nations disreg>d !m 9 times ( w>4 ,he takes up1 9 ! ?ird place1 actions done by ourselves to o!rs4 ,"h1 :5 ! action is b5efic5t1 ! peculi>ity is t an expectation ( receiv+ good 9 return f our neighb\rs takes ! place ( a desire to reciprocate2 we consid] ourselves ! prop] object ( grateful ?\ghts1 c41 on ! "p bo? ( receiv] & ( spectators4 ,we are affect$ ) ! gratification ( a b5evol5t desire1 ) self-complac5cy1 & ) undef9$ hopes4 ,:5 we h inflict$ injury1 !re is ! expectation ( evil1 & a comb9ation ( feel+s summ$ up 9 ! ^w ,remorse4 ,b ,remorse1 l o!r s5tim5ts1 may fail 9 ! abs5ce ( cultivation ( m9d or "u special circum/ances4 ,hav+ consid]$ ! ?ree diff]5t k9ds ( actions sep>ately1 he next rem>ks t ! s5tim5t prevail+ 9 ea* case mu/ be liable to a reflex influ5ce f ! o!r cases1 :]eby x w be /r5g!n$ or int5sifi$2 ?us we come to associate c]ta9 int5sities ( moral s5tim5t ) c]ta9 k9ds ( action1 by :omsoev] or to :omsoev] p]=m$4 ,he also notes1 t 9 ! fir/ & ?ird cases1 z well z 9 ! second1 !re is a v>iation ( ! s5tim5t1 accord+ z ! p>ties affect$ are fri5ds1 neutrals1 or enemies4 ,f9ally1 a peculi> & important modification ( ! s5tim5ts results f ! outw>d manife/ations ( !m call$ =? f ! p]sons directly or indirectly affect$ by actions4 ,su* are looks1 ge/ures1 tones1 words1 or actions1 be+ all ef=ts to gratify ! natural desire ( reciprocat+ pleasure or pa94 ,( ^! ! mo/ notable are ! v]bal manife/ations1 z !y are mo/ly irrepressible1 & c alone always be resort$ to4 ,:ile reliev+ ! feel+s1 !y c also become a mo/ p[]ful1 z !y are (t5 ! only1 in/rum5t ( rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,_! p[] ( giv+ to moral s5tim5ts great] precision1 & ( act+ ^u conduct l au?oritative precepts1 is se5 9 greate/ =ce :5 !y proce$ f1 bodies ( m51 :e!r !y are reg>d$ z signs ( mat]ial consequ5ces or n4 ,he ends ?is "p ( ! subject by def5d+1 ) ,butl]1 ! place ( res5tm5t 9 ! moral con/itution4 ,he proce$s to inquire h[ x is t n only ! p]fection ( moral s5tim5t t w\ld apportion m approbation & disapprobation accord+ to ! real t5d5cies ( actions1 is n atta9$1 b m5's moral feel+s are n seldom 9 extreme contr>iety ) ! real effects ( human conduct4 ,fir/1 he f9ds t m51 f p>tial views1 or mom5t>ily1 or f caprice1 may be/[ _! s5tim5ts altoge!r at v>iance ) ! real consequ5ces ( actions4 ,next !re is ! difficulty1 or ev5 impossibility1 ( calculat+ all ! consequ5ces f> & ne>2 :5ce human conduct is liable to be appreciat$ on :imsical gr\nds or on no disc]nible gr\nds at all1 & errors 9 moral s5tim5t arise1 :i* x takes increas$ k to get rid (4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 x is a fact t our moral s5tim5ts are to a v great ext5t d]iv$ f tradition1 :ile ! approbation & disapprobation may h orig9ally be5 wrongly appli$4 ,! =ce ( tradition he illu/rates by suppos+ ! case ( a patri>*al family1 & he _c too /rongly repres5t its /r5g? 9 ov]com+ or at lea/ /ruggl+ aga9/ natural feel+4 ,! au?oritative precept ( a sup]ior may also make actions be approv$ or disapprov$1 n because !y are directly p]ceiv$ or ev5 traditionally held to be b5eficial or injuri\s1 b solely because !y are comm&$ or prohibit$4 ,la/ly1 he dwells ^u ! influ5ce ( sup]/ition 9 p]v]t+ moral s5tim5t1 f9d+1 h[ev]1 t x op]ates mo/ /rongly 9 ! way ( creat+ false virtues & false vices & crimes4 ,^! circum/ances1 expla9+ ! want ( con=mity 9 our moral s5tim5ts to ! real t5d5cies ( actions1 he next employs to acc\nt = discrepancies 9 moral s5tim5t betwe5 diff]5t communities4 ,hav+ giv5 examples ( su* discrepancies1 he supposes ! case ( two families1 end[$ ) ! rudim5t>y qualities m5tion$ at ! beg9n+1 b plac$ 9 diff]5t circum/ances4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( dissimil> physical conditions1 & ow+ to ! dissimil> p]sonal idiosyncracies ( ! families1 & especially ( _! *iefs1 !re w be left few po9ts ( complete analogy betwe5 !m 9 ! fir/ g5]ation1 & 9 c\rse ( "t !y w become two races exce$+ly unlike 9 moral s5tim5t1 z 9 o!r respects4 ,he w>ns /rongly aga9/ mak+ moral g5]alizations except "u analog\s circum/ances ( k & civilization4 ,mo/ m5 h ! rudim5t>y feel+s1 b !re is no end to ! v>iety ( _! int5sity & direction4 ,z a highe/ in/ance ( discrepant moral s5tim5t1 he cites ! fact t1 9 our own c\ntry1 a moral /igma is /ill atta*$ to intellectual error by _m p1 & ev5 by m5 ( cultivation4 ,he n[ comes to ! important "q ( ! te/ or crit]ion t is to det]m9e :i* ( ^! div]se s5tim5ts are "r & :i* wrong1 s9ce !y _c all be "r f ! m]e fact ( _! exi/5ce1 or because !y are felt by ! subjects ( !m to be "r1 or believ$ to be 9 consonance ) ! injunctions ( sup]iors1 or to be held also by o!r p4 ,! =ego+ review ( ! g5esis ( moral s5tim5ts sugge/s a direct & simple answ]4 ,z !y arise f lik+s & dislik+s ( actions t cause1 or t5d to cause1 pleasure & pa91 ! fir/ ?+ is to see t ! lik+s & dislik+s are well f\nd$4 ,:]e ?is does n at once appe>1 exam9ation ( ! real effects ( actions mu/ be resort$ to2 &1 9 dubi\s cases1 m5 9 g5]al1 :5 unprejudic$1 all[ ?is to be ! natural te/ = apply+ moral approbation & disapprobation4 ,if1 inde$1 ! end ( moral s5tim5t is to promote or to prev5t ! actions1 !re c be no bett] way ( atta9+ t end4 ,&1 z a fact1 almo/ all morali/s virtually adopt x on occasion1 ?\gh (t5 unconsci\sly2 ! greate/ happ9ess--pr9ciple is d5\nc$ by its oppon5ts z a mis*iev\s doctr9e4 ,! objection t ! crit]ion ( consequ5ces is difficult ( application1 & ?us devoid ( practical utility1 he rebuts by ass]t+ t ! difficulty is n great] ?an 9 o!r cases4 ,we h simply to foll[ effects z f> z we c2 & x is by its asc]ta9able1 n by its unasc]ta9able1 consequ5ces1 t we pron\nce an action1 z we pron\nce an article ( food or a /atute1 to be good or bad4 ,! ma9 effects ( mo/ actions are already v well asc]ta9$1 & ! consequ5ces to human happ9ess1 :5 unasc]ta9able1 are ( no value4 ,if ! te/ 7 hone/ly appli$1 e?ical discrepancies w\ld t5d gradually to disappe>4 ,he />ts ano!r objection3--,! happ9ess-te/ is good z f> z x goes1 b we also approve & disapprove ( actions z !y are j or g5]\s1 or ! contr>y1 & ) no ref]5ce to happ9ess or unhapp9ess4 ,9 answ]+ ?is argum5t1 he conf9es himself to ! case ( ,ju/ice4 ,to be morally approv$1 a j action mu/ 9 itself be peculi>ly pleasant or agreeable1 irrespective ( its o!r effects1 :i* are left out3 = on no !ory c pleasantness or agreeabl5ess be dissociat$ f moral approbation4 ,n[1 z ,happ9ess is b a g5]al appellation = all ! agreeable affections ( our nature1 & unable to exi/ except 9 ! %ape ( "s agreeable emotion or comb9ations ( agreeable emotions2 ! j action t is morally comm5dable1 z giv+ naturally & directly a peculi> k9d ( pleasure indep5d5t ( any o!r consequ5ces1 only produces "o species ( ^? pleasant /ates ( m9d t are rang$ "u ! g5us happ9ess4 ,! te/ ( ju/ice !re=e co9cides ) ! happ9ess-te/4 ,b he does n mean t we are actually affect$ ?us1 9 do+ j actions1 nor refuse to accept ju/ice z a crit]ion ( actions2 only 9 ! "o case he ma9ta9s t1 :atev] association may h effect$1 ! j act mu/ orig9ally h be5 approv$ = ! sake ( its consequ5ces1 &1 9 ! o!r1 t ju/ice is a crit]ion1 because prov$ ov] & ov] aga9 to be a mo/ b5eficial pr9ciple4 ,aft] rem>k+ t ! ,moral ,s5tim5ts ( praise & blame may ent] into accid5tal connection )1 o!r feel+s ( a di/9ct "*1 l pity1 wond]1 c41 he criticises ! use ( ! ^w ,utility 9 ,morals4 ,he avoids ! t]m z objectionable1 because ! useful 9 common language does n mean :at is directly productive ( happ9ess1 b only :at is in/rum5tal 9 its production1 & 9 mo/ cases cu/om>ily or recurr5tly in/rum5tal4 ,a blanket is ( cont9ual utility to a poor wret* ?r\gh a sev]e w9t]1 b ! b5evol5t act ( ! donor is n t]m$ useful1 because x conf]s ! b5efit & ceases4 ,utility is too n>r[ to compreh5d all ! actions t des]ve approbation4 ,we want an uncomp\nd$ sub/antive express+ ! two attributes ( conf]r+ & conduc+ to happ9ess2 z a descriptive phrase1 produc+ happ9ess is z succ9ct z any4 ,! t]m useful is1 besides1 associat$ ) ! notion ( :at is s]viceable 9 ! affairs & objects ( common life1 :5ce ! philosophical doctr9e t erects utility z its bann] is apt to be deem$1 by ! un?9k+1 l[1 mean1 & d]ogatory to human nature & aspirations1 al?\gh its real import is :olly free f su* a reproa*4 ,not)/&+1 !re=e1 ! conv5i5ce ( ! t]m1 & because ! associations connect$ ) x are n easily eradicat$1 :il/ mo/ ( ! trite objections to ! true doctr9e ( morals turn ^u its n>r[ mean+s1 he ?9ks x %\ld be z mu* z possible disus$4 ,mr4 ,bailey ends by rem>k+ ( ! common "q1 :e!r our moral s5tim5ts h _! orig9 9 ,reason1 or 9 a sep>ate p[] call$ ! ,moral ,s5se1 t 9 8 view ( man's s5sitive & intellectual nature x is easily settl$4 ,he recognizes ! feel+s t h be5 enum]at$1 &1 9 connexion ) !m1 intellectual processes ( disc]n+ & inf]r+2 = :i*1 if ! ,moral ,s5se & ,reason are meant z any?+ m ?an unnecess>y g5]al expressions1 !y are m]ely fictiti\s entities4 ,s1 too1 ,consci5ce1 :e!r z id5tifi$ ) ! moral s5se1 or put = s5sibility 9 reg>d to ! moral qualities ( "o's own m9d1 is a m]e p]sonification ( c]ta9 m5tal /ates4 ,! summ>y ( ,bailey's doctr9e falls )9 ! two fir/ heads4 ,i4--,! ,/&>d is ! production ( ,happ9ess4 ,x %\ld be rem>k$1 h[ev]1 t happ9ess is a wid] aim ?an morality2 al?\gh all virtue t5ds to produce happ9ess1 v mu* t produces happ9ess is n virtue4 ,,ii4--,! ,moral ,faculty1 :ile involv+ processes ( disc]nm5t & inf]5ce1 is ma9ly compos$ ( c]ta9 s5tim5ts1 ! *ief be+ ,reciprocity & ,sympa?y4 ,^! are und\bt$ly ! l>ge/ +r$i5ts 9 a mature1 self-act+ consci5ce2 & ! way t !y contribute to ! production ( moral s5tim5t des]v$ to be1 z x has be51 well h&l$4 ,! great omission 9 ,mr4 ,bailey's acc\nt is ! abs5ce ( ! elem5t ( au?ority1 :i* is ! ma9 in/rum5t 9 imp>t+ to u ! s5se ( obligation4 ,,h]b]t ,,sp5c]4 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s e?ical doctr9es are1 z yet1 n[h]e fully express$4 ,!y =m "p ( ! m g5]al doctr9e ( ,evolution :i* he is engag$ 9 work+ out2 & !y are at pres5t to be ga!r$ only f scatt]$ passages4 ,x is true t1 9 8 fir/ "w1 ,social ,/atics he pres5t$ :at he !n reg>d$ z a tol]ably complete view ( "o division ( ,morals4 ,b )\t ab&on+ ?is view1 he n[ reg>ds x z inadequate--m especially 9 respect ( its basis4 ,mr4 ,sp5c]'s conception ( ,morality z a sci5ce1 is convey$ 9 ! foll[+ passages 9 a lett] writt5 by him to ,mr4 ,mill2 repudiat+ ! title anti-utilit>ian1 :i* ,mr4 ,mill _h appli$ to him3-- ',! note 9 "q greatly />tl$ me by implicitly class+ me ) ,anti-utilit>ians4 ,i h nev] reg>d$ myself z an ,anti-utilit>ian4 ,my diss5t f ! doctr9e ( ,utility z commonly und]/ood1 conc]ns n ! object to be rea*$ by m51 b ! me?od ( rea*+ x4 ,:ile ,i admit t happ9ess is ! ultimate end to be contemplat$1 ,i d n admit t x %\ld be ! proximate end4 ,! ,exp$i5cy-,philosophy hav+ conclud$ t happ9ess is a ?+ to be a*iev$1 assumes t ,morality has no o!r bus9ess ?an empirically to g5]alize ! results ( conduct1 & to supply = ! guidance ( conduct no?+ m ?an its empirical g5]alizations4 ,b ! view = :i* ,i cont5d is1 t ,morality prop]ly s call$--! sci5ce ( "r conduct--has = its object to det]m9e h[ & :y c]ta9 modes ( conduct are detrim5tal1 & c]ta9 o!r modes b5eficial4 ,^! good & bad results _c be accid5tal1 b mu/ be necess>y consequ5ces ( ! con/itution ( ?+s2 & ,i conceive x to be ! bus9ess ( ,moral ,sci5ce to d$uce1 f ! laws ( life & ! conditions ( exi/5ce1 :at k9ds ( action necess>ily t5d to produce happ9ess1 & :at k9ds to produce unhapp9ess4 ,hav+ done ?is1 its d$uctions are to be recogniz$ z laws ( conduct2 & are to be con=m$ to irrespective ( a direct e/imation ( happ9ess or mis]y4 ',p]haps an analogy w mo/ cle>ly %[ my mean+4 ,dur+ its e>ly /ages1 planet>y ,a/ronomy consi/$ ( no?+ m ?an accumulat$ obs]vations respect+ ! positions & motions ( ! sun & planets2 f :i* accumulat$ obs]vations x came by & by to be empirically pr$ict$1 ) an approa* to tru?1 t c]ta9 ( ! heav5ly bodies w\ld h c]ta9 positions at c]ta9 times4 ,b ! mod]n sci5ce ( planet>y ,a/ronomy consi/s ( d$uctions f ! law ( gravitation--d$uctions %[+ :y ! cele/ial bodies necess>ily occupy c]ta9 places at c]ta9 times4 ,n[1 ! k9d ( relation :i* ?us exi/s betwe5 anci5t & mod]n ,a/ronomy1 is analog\s to ! k9d ( relation :i*1 ,i conceive1 exi/s betwe5 ! ,exp$i5cy-,morality1 & ,moral ,sci5ce prop]ly s-call$4 ,& ! objection :i* ,i h to ! curr5t ,utilit>ianism1 is1 t x recognizes no m develop$ =m ( morality--does n see t x has rea*$ b ! initial /age ( ,moral ,sci5ce4 ',to make my position fully und]/ood1 x seems ne$ful to add t1 correspond+ to ! fundam5tal propositions ( a develop$ ,moral ,sci5ce1 !re h be51 & /ill are1 develop+ 9 ! race1 c]ta9 fundam5tal moral intuitions2 & t1 ?\gh ^! moral intuitions are ! results ( accumulat$ exp]i5ces ( ,utility1 gradually organiz$ & inh]it$1 !y h come to be q indep5d5t ( consci\s exp]i5ce4 ,j 9 ! same way t ,i believe ! intuition ( space1 possess$ by any liv+ individual1 to h aris5 f organiz$ & consolidat$ exp]i5ces ( all antec$5t individuals :o bequea!d to him _! sl[ly-develop$ n]v\s organizations--j z ,i believe t ?is intuition1 requir+ only to be made def9ite & complete by p]sonal exp]i5ces1 has practically become a =m ( ?\ght1 app>5tly q indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce2 s d ,i believe t ! exp]i5ces ( utility organis$ & consolidat$ ?r\gh all pa/ g5]ations ( ! human race1 h be5 produc+ correspond+ n]v\s modifications1 :i*1 by cont9u$ transmission & accumulation1 h become 9 u c]ta9 faculties ( moral intuition--c]ta9 emotions respond+ to "r & wrong conduct1 :i* h no app>5t basis 9 ! individual exp]i5ces ( utility4 ,i also hold t j z ! space-intuition responds to ! exact demon/rations ( ,geometry1 & has its r\gh conclusions int]pret$ & v]ifi$ by !m2 s w moral intuitions respond to ! demon/rations ( ,moral ,sci5ce1 & w h _! r\gh conclusions int]pret$ & v]ifi$ by !m4' ,! relations betwe5 ! ,exp$i5cy-,morality1 & ,moral ,sci5ce1 conceiv$ by ,mr4 ,sp5c] to be1 ! "o transitional1 & ! o!r ultimate1 are fur!r expla9$ 9 ! foll[+ passage f 8 essay on ',prison-,e?ics'3-- ',progress+ civilization1 :i* is ( necessity a succession ( compromises betwe5 old & new1 requires a p]petual re-adju/m5t ( ! compromise betwe5 ! ideal & ! practicable 9 social arrangem5ts3 to :i* end bo? elem5ts ( ! compromise mu/ be kept 9 view4 ,if x is true t pure rectitude prescribes a sy/em ( ?+s f> too good = m5 z !y are2 x is n less true t m]e exp$i5cy does n ( itself t5d to e/abli% a sy/em ( ?+s any bett] ?an t :i* exi/s4 ,:ile absolute morality owes to exp$i5cy ! *ecks :i* prev5t x f ru%+ into utopian absurdities2 exp$i5cy is indebt$ to absolute morality = all /imulus to improvem5t4 ,grant$ t we are *iefly int]e/$ 9 asc]ta9+ :at is relatively "r2 x /ill foll[s t we mu/ fir/ consid] :at is absolutely "r2 s9ce ! "o conception presupposes ! o!r4 ,t is to say1 ?\gh we mu/ ev] aim to d :at is be/ = ! pres5t times1 yet we mu/ ev] be> 9 m9d :at is ab/ract$ly be/2 s t ! *anges we make may be t[>ds x1 & n away f x4' ,by ! ^w absolute z ?us appli$1 ,mr4 ,sp5c] does n mean to imply a "r & wrong exi/+ ap>t f ,humanity & its relations4 ,agree+ ) ,utilit>ians 9 ! belief t happ9ess is ! end1 & t ! conduct call$ moral is simply ! be/ means ( atta9+ x1 he ( c\rse does n ass]t t !re is a morality :i* is absolute 9 ! s5se ( be+ true out ( relation to human exi/5ce4 ,by absolute morality z di/+ui%$ f relative1 he "h means ! mode ( conduct :i*1 "u ! conditions aris+ f social union1 mu/ be pursu$ to a*ieve ! greate/ welf>e ( ea* & all4 ,he holds1 t ! laws ( ,life1 physiologically consid]$1 be+ fix$1 x necess>ily foll[s t :5 a numb] ( individuals h to live 9 social union1 :i* necess>ily involves fixity ( conditions 9 ! %ape ( mutual int]f]5ces & limitations1 !re result c]ta9 fix$ pr9ciples by :i* conduct mu/ be re/rict$1 be=e ! greate/ sum ( happ9ess c be a*iev$4 ,^! pr9ciples con/itute :at ,mr4 ,sp5c] di/+ui%es z absolute ,morality2 & ! absolutely moral man is ! man :o con=ms to ^! pr9ciples1 n by ext]nal co]cion nor self-co]cion1 b :o acts !m out spontane\sly4 ,to be fully und]/ood1 ?is conception mu/ be tak5 along ) ! g5]al !ory ( ,evolution4 ,mr4 ,sp5c] argues t all ?+s :atev] are inevitably t5d+ t[>ds equilibrium2 & t consequ5tly ! progress ( mank9d _c cease until !re is equilibrium betwe5 ! human con/itution & ! conditions ( human exi/5ce4 ,or1 z he argues 9 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples 7,second ,edition1 p4 #eab71 ',! adaptation ( man's nature to ! conditions ( 8 exi/5ce _c cease until ! int]nal =ces :i* we "k z feel+s are 9 equilibrium ) ! ext]nal =ces !y enc\nt]4 ,& ! e/abli%m5t ( ?is equilibrium1 is ! arrival at a /ate ( human nature & social organization1 su* t ! individual has no desires b ^? :i* may be satisfi$ )\t exce$+ 8 prop] sph]e ( action1 :ile society ma9ta9s no re/ra9ts b ^? :i* ! individual volunt>ily respects4 ,! progressive ext5sion ( ! lib]ty ( citiz5s1 & ! reciprocal removal ( political re/rictions1 are ! /eps by :i* we advance t[>ds ?is /ate4 ,& ! ultimate abolition ( all limits to ! fre$om ( ea*1 save ^? impos$ by ! l fre$om ( all1 mu/1 result f ! complete equilibration betwe5 man's desires & ! conduct necessitat$ by surr\nd+ conditions4' ,! conduct prop] to su* a /ate1 :i* ,mr4 ,sp5c] ?us conceives to be ! subject-matt] ( ,moral ,sci5ce1 truly s-call$1 he proposes1 9 ! ,prospectus to 8 ,sy/em ( ,philosophy1 to treat "u ! foll[+ heads4 ,,p]sonal ,,morals4--,! pr9ciples ( private conduct--physical1 intellectual1 moral1 & religi\s--t foll[ f ! conditions to complete individual life2 or1 :at is ! same ?+1 ^? modes ( private action :i* mu/ result f ! ev5tual equilibration ( int]nal desires & ext]nal ne$s4 ,,ju/ice4--,! mutual limitation ( m5's actions necessitat$ by _! co-exi/5ce z units ( a society--limitations1 ! p]fect obs]vance ( :i* con/itutes t /ate ( equilibrium =m+ ! goal ( political progress4 ,,negative ,,b5efic5ce4--,^? second>y limitations1 simil>ly necessitat$1 :i*1 ?\gh less important & n cognizable by law1 are yet requisite to prev5t mutual de/ruction ( happ9ess 9 v>i\s indirect ways3 9 o!r words--^? m9or self-re/ra9ts dictat$ by :at may be call$ passive sympa?y4 ,,positive ,,b5efic5ce4--,compreh5d+ all modes ( conduct1 dictat$ by active sympa?y1 :i* imply pleasure 9 giv+ pleasure--modes ( conduct t social adaptation has induc$ & mu/ r5d] ev] m g5]al2 & :i*1 9 becom+ univ]sal1 mu/ fill to ! full ! possible measure ( human happ9ess4 99 99 99 99 99 ,?is completes ! long succession ( ,briti% morali/s dur+ ! ?ree la/ c5turies4 ,x has be5 possible1 & ev5 necess>y1 to pres5t !m ?us 9 an unbrok5 l9e1 because ! insul> movem5t 9 e?ical philosophy has be5 h>dly1 if at all1 affect$ by any?+ done abroad4 ,9 ! e>li] "p ( ! mod]n p]iod1 little ( any k9d 0 done 9 e?ics by ! great cont95tal ?9k]s4 ,desc>tes has only a few allusions to ! subject2 ! ',e?ica' ( ,sp9oza is *iefly a "w ( speculative philosophy2 ,leibnitz has no sy/ematic treatm5t ( moral que/ions4 ,! case is v diff]5t2 9 ! new ,g]man philosophy s9ce ! "t ( ,kant2 besides ,kant himself1 ,fi*te1 ,hegel1 ,s*lei]ma*]1 & _m lat] & contempor>y ?9k]s hav+ devot$ a l>ge am\nt ( att5tion to practical philosophy4 ,b unless x be ,kant--& he n to any great ext5t--none ( ^! has influ5c$ ! lat] attempts at e?ical speculation among/ ourselves3 nor1 aga9 ) ! exception ( ,kant1 are we z yet 9 a position prop]ly to deal ) !m4 ,"o reason1 = proce$+ to exp\nd ! e?ical sy/em ( ! f\nd] ( ! lat] ,g]man philosophy1 )\t reg>d to 8 successors1 lies 9 ! fact t he /ood1 on ! practical side1 9 z def9ite a relation to ! ,engli% morali/s ( la/ c5tury1 z1 9 8 speculative philosophy1 to ,locke & ,hume4 ,,immanuel1 ,,kant4 #agbd-ahjd4 ,! e?ical writ+s ( ,kant1 9 ! ord] ( _! appe>ance1 are--,f\ndation = ! ,metaphysic ( ,morals 7#aghe72 ,critique ( ! ,practical ,reason 7#aghh72 ,metaphysic ( ,morals 7#agig1 9 two p>ts--7#a7 ,doctr9e ( ,"r or ,jurisprud5ce1 7#b7 ,doctr9e ( ,virtue or ,e?ics prop]74 ,! ?ird "w conta9s ! details ( 8 sy/em2 ! g5]al !ory is pres5t$ 9 ! two o!rs4 ,( ^! we select = analysis ! e>li]1 conta9+1 z x does1 9 less artificial =m1 an ampl] discussion ( ! fundam5tal que/ions ( morals2 b t[>ds ! end x mu/ be supplem5t$1 9 reg>d to c]ta9 *>act]i/ic doctr9es1 f ! second1 9 "s respects m develop$1 "w4#bf ,9 ! introduction to ! ,metaphysic ( ,morals1 ,kant di/+ui%es betwe5 ! empirical & ! rational mode ( treat+ ,e?ics4 ,he ann\nces 8 int5tion to dep>t f ! common plan ( mix+ up ! two toge!r1 & to attempt = once to set =? ! pure moral philosophy t is impli$ ev5 9 ! vulg> ideas ( duty & moral law4 ,because a moral law means an absolute necessity laid on all rational be+s :atev]1 its f\ndation is to be s\ght1 n 9 human nature or circum/ances1 b priori 9 ! conception ( pure reason4 ,! mo/ univ]sal precept f\nd$ on m]e exp]i5ce is only a practical rule1 & nev] a moral law4 ,a purely rational moral philosophy1 or ,metaphysic ( ,morals1 w s]ve ! d\ble end ( meet+ a speculative requirem5t1 & ( furni%+ ! only true norm ( practice4 ,x inve/igates ! idea & pr9ciples ( a pot5tially pure ,w1 in/ead ( ! acts & conditions ( human volition z kn[n f psy*ology4 ,n a complete ,metaphysic ( ,morals1 h[ev]1 7:i* w\ld be a ,critique ( ! pure ,practical ,reason71 b m]ely a f\ndation = su* w be giv54 ,! supreme pr9ciple ( morality is to be e/abli%$1 ap>t f detail$ application4 ,fir/1 common notions w be analyz$ 9 ord] to get at ?is highe/ pr9ciple2 & !n1 :5 ! pr9ciple has be5 s\ght out1 !y w be return$ ^u by way ( syn!sis4 ,9 ! fir/ ( ! ?ree ma9 sections ( ! "w1 he makes ! passage f ,common ,rational ,k ( ,morals to ,philosophical4 ,no?+ 9 ! _w1 he beg9s1 c )\t qualification be call$ good1 except ,w4 ,qualities ( temp]am5t1 l c\rage1 c41 gifts ( =tune1 l weal? & p[]1 are good only ) ref]5ce to a good w4 ,z to a good w1 :5 x is really su*1 ! circum/ance t x c1 or _c1 be execut$ does n matt]2 its value is indep5d5t ( ! utility or fruitlessness ( x4 ,?is idea ( ! absolute wor? ( m]e ,w1 ?\gh x is all[$ ev5 by ! vulg> und]/&+1 he seeks to e/abli% beyond dispute1 by an argum5t f ! natural subjection ( ,w to ,reason4 ,9 a be+ well-organiz$1 if ,cons]vation or ,happ9ess 7 ! gr& aim1 su* subjection w\ld be a great mi/ake4 ,:5 ,in/9ct c\ld d ! "w f> bett] & m surely1 ,reason %\ld h be5 depriv$ ( all practical function4 ,discont5t1 9 fact1 r ?an happ9ess comes ( pursuit ( m]e enjoym5t by rational calculation2 & to make light ( ! "p contribut$ by ,reason to happ9ess1 is really to make out t x exi/s = a nobl] purpose4 ,b n[1 s9ce ,reason is a practical faculty & gov]ns ! w1 its function c only be to produce a ,w good 9 itself4 ,su* a ,w1 if n ! only good1 is c]ta9ly ! highe/2 & happ9ess1 unatta9able by ,reason z a prim>y aim1 & subject 9 ?is life altoge!r to mu* limitation1 is to be s\ght only 9 ! cont5tm5t t arises f ! atta9m5t by ,reason ( its true aim1 at ! sacrifice (t5 ( _m a natural incl9ation4 ,he proce$s to develop ?is conception ( a ,w 9 itself good & e/imable1 by deal+ ) ! commonly receiv$ ideas ( ,duty4 ,leav+ aside pr(itable actions t are pla9 violations ( duty1 & also actions con=m$ to duty1 b1 :ile n prompt$ directly by nature1 done f "s special incl9ation--9 :i* case x is easy to di/+ui% :e!r ! action is done f duty or f self-int]e/2 he consid]s ^? m difficult cases :]e ! same action is at once duty1 & prompt$ by direct natural incl9ation4 ,9 all su*1 :e!r x be duty ( self-pres]vation1 ( b5evol5ce1 ( secur+ "o's own happ9ess 7?is la/ a duty1 because discont5t & ! pressure ( c>e may easily lead to ! transgression ( o!r duties71 he lays x d[n t ! action is n all[$ to h true moral value1 unless done 9 ! abeyance or abs5ce ( ! natural incl9ation prompt+ to x4 ,a second position is1 t ! moral value ( an action done f duty lies n 9 ! int5tion ( x1 b 9 ! maxim t det]m9es x2 n 9 ! object1 b 9 ! pr9ciple ( ,volition4 ,t is to say1 9 action done out ( reg>d to duty1 ! w mu/ be det]m9$ by its =mal priori pr9ciple1 n be+ det]m9$ by any mat]ial po/]iori motive4 ,a ?ird position foll[s !n f ! o!r two2 ,duty is ! necessity ( an action out ( respect = ,law4 ,t[>ds an object !re may be incl9ation1 & ?is incl9ation may be matt] = approval or lik+2 b x is ,law only--! gr\nd & n ! effect ( ,volition1 be>+ d[n incl9ation r ?an s]v+ x--t c inspire ,respect4 ,:5 incl9ation & motives are bo? exclud$1 no?+ rema9s to det]m9e ,w1 except ,law objectively2 &1 subjectively1 pure respect = a law ( practice--i4e41 ! maxim to foll[ su* a law1 ev5 at ! sacrifice ( e incl9ation4 ,! conception ( ,law-9-itself alone det]m9+ ! w1 is1 !n1 ! surpass+ good t is call$ moral1 :i* exi/s already 9 a man be=e 8 action has any result4 ,con=mity to ,law 9 g5]al1 all special motive to foll[ any s+le law be+ exclud$1 rema9s z ! "o pr9ciple ( ,volition3 ,i am nev] to act o!rwise1 ?an s z to be able also to wi% t my maxim 7i4e41 my subjective pr9ciple ( volition7 %\ld become a univ]sal law4 ,?is is :at he f9ds impli$ 9 ! common notions ( ,duty4 ,hav+ illu/rat$ at l5g? ?is read+1 9 reg>d to ! duty ( keep+ a promise1 he contra/s1 at ! close ( ! section1 ! all b infallibility ( common human reason 9 practice ) its helplessness 9 speculation4 ,not)/&+1 x f9ds itself unable to settle ! cont5d+ claims ( ,reason & ,incl9ation1 & s is driv5 to devise a practical philosophy1 ow+ to ! rise ( a ',natural ,dialectic' or t5d5cy to ref9e ^u ! /rict laws ( duty 9 ord] to make !m m pleasant4 ,b1 z 9 ! speculative region1 ! ,dialectic _c be prop]ly got rid ( )\t a complete ,critique ( ,reason4 ,9 ,section ,,ii4 ! passage is made f ! popul> moral philosophy ?us aris+ to ! metaphysic ( morals4 ,he d5ies t ! notion ( duty t has be5 tak5 above f common sage is empirical4 ,x is prov$ n to be su* f ! v ass]tions ( philosoph]s t m5 always act f m or less ref9$ self-love2 ass]tions t are f\nd$ ^u ! difficulty ( prov+ t acts mo/ app>5tly con=m$ to duty are really su*4 ,! fact is1 no act c be prov$ by exp]i5ce to be absolutely moral1 i4e41 done solely f reg>d to duty1 to ! exclusion ( all incl9ation2 & !re=e to conc$e t morality & duty are ideas to be _h f exp]i5ce1 is ! sure/ way to get rid ( !m altoge!r4 ,duty1 & respect = its law1 are n to be pres]v$ at all1 unless ,reason is all[$ to lay absolute injunctions on ! w1 :atev] exp]i5ce says ( _! non-execution4 ,h[1 inde$1 is exp]i5ce to disclose a moral law1 t1 9 apply+ to all rational be+s z well z m51 & to m5 only z rational1 mu/ orig9ate priori 9 pure 7practical7 ,reason8 ,in/ead ( yield+ ! pr9ciples ( morality1 empirical examples ( moral conduct h r to be judg$ by ^!4 ,all supreme pr9ciples ( morality1 t are g5u9e1 mu/ re/ on pure ,reason solely2 & ! mi/ake ( ! popul> practical philosophies 9 vogue1 "o & all--:e!r advanc+ z _! pr9ciple a special det]m9ation ( human nature1 or ,p]fection1 or ,happ9ess1 or ,moral ,feel+1 or ,fe> ( ,god1 or a little ( ?is & a little ( t--is t !re has be5 no previ\s consid]ation :e!r ! pr9ciples ( morality are to be s\ght = 9 our empirical k ( human nature at all4 ,su* consid]ation w\ld h %[n !m to be altoge!r priori1 & w\ld h appe>$ z a pure practical philosophy or metaphysic ( morals 7^u ! completion ( :i* any popul>iz+ might h wait$71 kept free f admixture ( ,an?ropology1 ,!ology1 ,physics1 ,hyp]physics1 c41 & sett+ =? ! conception ( ,duty z purely rational1 )\t ! confusion ( empirical motives4 ,to a metaphysic ( ?is k9d1 ,kant is n[ to asc5d f ! popul> philosophy1 ) its /ock-9-trade ( s+le in/ances1 foll[+ out ! practical faculty ( ,reason f ! g5]al rules det]m9+ x1 to ! po9t :]e ! conception ( ,duty em]ges4 ,:ile ?+s 9 nature "w accord+ to laws1 rational be+s alone c act accord+ to a conceiv$ idea ( laws1 i4e41 to pr9ciples4 ,?is is to h a ,w1 or1 :at is ! same1 ,practical ,reason1 reason be+ requir$ 9 d$uc+ actions f laws4 ,if ! ,w foll[s ,reason exactly & )\t fail1 actions objectively necess>y are necess>y also subjectively2 if1 ?r\gh subjective conditions 7incl9ations1 c471 ! ,w does n foll[ ,reason inevitably1 objectively necess>y actions become subjectively cont+5t1 & t[>ds ! objective laws ! attitude ( ! w is no long] unfail+ *oice1 b con/ra9t4 ,a con/ra9+ objective pr9ciple m5tally repres5t$1 is a comm&2 its =mula is call$ ,imp]ative1 = :i* ! expression is ,ought4 ,a w p]fectly good--i4e41 subjectively det]m9$ to foll[ ! objective laws ( good z soon z conceiv$--kn[s no ,ought4 ,imp]atives are only = an imp]fect1 su* z is ! human1 w4 ,hypo!tical ,imp]atives repres5t ! practical necessity ( an action z a means to an end1 be+ problematical or ass]tory pr9ciples1 accord+ z ! end is possible or real4 ,categorical ,imp]atives repres5t an action z objectively necess>y = itself1 & c\nt z apodeictical pr9ciples4 ,to ! endless numb] ( possible aims ( human action correspond z _m ,imp]atives1 direct+ m]ely h[ !y are to be atta9$1 )\t any "q ( _! value2 ^! are ,imp]atives ( ,fitness4 ,to "o real aim1 exi/+ necess>ily = all rational be+s1 viz41 ,happ9ess1 corresponds ! ,imp]ative ( ,prud5ce 79 ! n>r[ s5se71 be+ ass]tory :ile hypo!tical4 ,! categorical ,imp]ative1 enjo9+ a mode ( action = itself1 & conc]n$ ab\t ! =m & pr9ciple ( x1 n its nature & result1 is ! ,imp]ative ( ,morality4 ,^! v>i\s k9ds ( ,imp]atives1 z influ5c+ ! w1 may be di/+ui%$ z ,rules 7( fitness71 ,c\nsels 7( prud5ce71 ,comm&s or ,laws 7( morality72 also z te*nical1 pragmatical1 moral4 ,n[1 z to ! "q ( ! possibility ( ^! diff]5t ,imp]atives--h[ !y c be suppos$ able to influ5ce or act ^u ! ,w--!re is 9 ! fir/ case no difficulty2 9 wi%+ an end x is necess>ily impli$ t we wi% ! indisp5sable means1 :5 ?is is 9 our p[]4 ,9 l mann]1 ! ,imp]atives ( ,prud5ce are also analytical 9 "* 7i4e41 giv5 by implication71 if only x 7 possible to h a def9ite idea ( ! end s\ght1 viz41 happ9ess4 ,b1 9 fact1 ) ! elem5ts ( happ9ess to be got f exp]i5ce at ! same "t t ! idea requires an absolute :ole1 or maximum1 ( satisfaction n[ & at e future mom5t1 no f9ite be+ c "k precisely :at he wants1 or :at may be ! effect ( any ( 8 wi%es4 ,action1 on fix$ pr9ciples1 ) a view to happ9ess1 is1 !re=e1 n possible2 & "o c only foll[ empirical directions1 ab\t ,diet1 ,frugality1 ,polit5ess1 c41 se5 on ! :ole to promote x4 ,al?\gh1 h[ev]1 !re is no c]ta9ty ( caus+ happ9ess1 & ! ,imp]atives ) ref]5ce !reto are m]e c\nsels1 !y reta9 _! "* ( analytical propositions1 & _! action on ! w is n less possible ?an 9 ! =m] case4 ,to prove ! possibility ( ! ,imp]ative ( morality is m difficult4 ,z categorical1 x presupposes no?+ else to re/ its necessity ^u2 :ile by way ( exp]i5ce1 x c nev] be made out to be m ?an a prud5tial precept--i4e41 a pragmatic or hypo!tic pr9ciple4 ,its possibility mu/ !re=e be e/abli%$ priori4 ,b ! difficulty w !n appe> no matt] ( wond]1 :5 x is rememb]$ 7f ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason7 h[ h>d x is to e/abli% syn!tic propositions priori4 ,! "q ( ! possibility1 h[ev]1 mean:ile po/pon$1 ! m]e conception ( a categorical ,imp]ative is f\nd to yield ! "o =mula t c express x1 f its n be+ dep5d5t1 l a hypo!tical ,imp]ative1 on any ext]nal condition4 ,besides ! ,law 7or objective pr9ciple ( conduct71 ! only ?+ impli$ 9 ! ,imp]ative be+ ! necessity laid ^u ! ,maxim 7or subjective pr9ciple7 to con=m to ! law--a law limit$ by no condition2 !re is no?+ = ! maxim to be con=m$ to b ! univ]sality ( a law 9 g5]al1 & x is ! con=mity alone t prop]ly con/itutes ! ,imp]ative necess>y4 ,! ,imp]ative is ?us s+le1 & runs3 ,act accord+ to t maxim only :i* y c wi% at ! same "t to become a univ]sal law4 ,or1 s9ce univ]sality ( law z det]m9+ effects is :at we und]/& by nature3 ,act z if ! maxim ( y\r action ought by y\r w to become ! univ]sal law ( nature4 ,tak+ cases ( duties accord+ to ! common divisions ( duties to ourselves & to o!rs1 p]fect & imp]fect1 he proce$s to %[ t !y may be all d$uc$ f ! s+le ,imp]ative2 ! "q ( ! reality ( duty1 :i* is ! same z ! e/abli%m5t ( ! possibility ( ! ,imp]ative z a syn!tic practical proposition priori1 at pres5t altoge!r ap>t4 ,suppose a man tempt$ to commit suicide1 ) ! view ( bett]+ 8 evil condition2 b x is contradictory t ! v pr9ciple ( self-cons]vation %\ld lead to self-de/ruction1 & su* a maxim ( conduct _c !re=e become a univ]sal law ( nature4 ,next1 ! case ( a man borr[+ )\t mean+ to repay1 has only to be turn$ into a univ]sal law1 & ! ?+ becomes impossible2 nobody w\ld l5d4 ,aga91 to neglect a tal5t t is g5]ally useful = m]e ease & self-gratification1 c inde$ be suppos$ a univ]sal practice1 b c nev] be wi%$ to be4 ,f9ally1 to refuse help to o!rs univ]sally might n ru9 ! race1 b c be wi%$ by no "o t kn[s h[ soon he mu/ himself ne$ assi/ance4 ,n[1 ! rule 01 t a maxim ( conduct %\ld be wi%$ to become ! univ]sal law4 ,9 ! la/ two cases1 x _c be wi%$2 9 ! o!rs1 ! maxim _c ev5 be conceiv$ 9 univ]sal =m4 ,?us1 two grades ( duty1 "o admitt+ ( m]it1 ! o!r s /rict z to be irremissible1 are e/abli%$ on ! g5]al pr9ciple4 ,! pr9ciple is moreov] confirm$ 9 ! case ( transgression ( duty3 ! transgressor by no means wi%es to h 8 act turn$ into a g5]al rule1 b only seeks special & tempor>y exemption f a law all[$ by himself to be univ]sal4 ,not)/&+ ?is =ce & ease ( application1 a categorical ,imp]ative has n yet be5 prov$ priori actually exi/5t2 & x 0 all[$ t x c\ld n be prov$ empirically1 elem5ts ( incl9ation1 int]e/1 c41 be+ inconsi/5t ) morality4 ,! real "q is ?is3 ,is x a necess>y law t all rational be+s %\ld act on maxims t !y c wi%1 to become univ]sal laws8 ,if s1 ?is mu/ be b\nd up ) ! v notion ( ! w ( a rational be+2 ! relation ( ! w to itself be+ to be det]m9$ priori by pure ,reason4 ,! ,w is consid]$ z a p[] ( self-det]m9ation to act accord+ to c]ta9 laws z repres5t$ to ! m9d1 exi/+ only 9 rational be+s4 ,&1 if ! objective gr\nd ( self-det]m9ation1 or ,end1 is suppli$ by m]e ,reason1 x mu/ be ! same = all rational be+s4 ,ends may be divid$ into ,subjective1 re/+ ^u individual ,impulses or subjective gr\nds ( desire2 & ,objective1 dep5d+ on ,motives or objective gr\nds ( ,volition valid = all rational be+s4 ,! pr9ciples ( action are1 9 ! "o case1 ,mat]ial1 &1 9 ! o!r1 ,=mal1 i4e41 ab/ract$ f all subjective ends4 ,mat]ial ends1 z relative1 beget only hypo!tical ,imp]atives4 ,b1 suppos$ "s ?+1 ! pres5ce ( :i* 9 itself has an absolute value1 & :i*1 z ,end-9-self1 c be a gr\nd ( fix$ laws2 !re1 & !re only1 c be ! gr\nd ( a possible categorical ,imp]ative1 or ,law ( ,practice4 ,n[1 su* an ,end-9-self 7n a ?+ ) m]ely conditional value1--a means to be us$ arbitr>ily7 is ,man & e rational be+1 z ,p]son4 ,!re is no o!r objective end ) absolute value t c supply to ! ,reason ! supreme practical pr9ciple requisite = turn+ subjective pr9ciples ( action into objective pr9ciples ( volition4 ,rational ,nature z ,end-9-self is a subjective pr9ciple to a man hav+ ?is conception ( 8 own be+1 b becomes objective :5 e rational be+ has ! same f ! same gr\nd 9 ,reason4 ,h5ce a new =m 7! second7 to ! practical ,imp]ative3 ,act s z to use ,humanity 7,human ,nature7 z well 9 y\r own p]son1 z 9 ! p]son ( ano!r1 ev] z end also1 & nev] m]ely z means4 ,to ?is new =mula1 ! old examples are easily squ>$4 ,suicide is us+ "o's p]son z a m]e means to a tol]able exi/5ce2 break+ fai? to o!rs is us+ !m z means1 n z ends-9-self2 neglect ( self-cultivation is ! n fur!r+ human nature z end-9-self 9 "o's own p]son2 )hold+ help is refus+ to fur!r ,humanity z end-9-self ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! aims ( o!rs4 ,9 a note he d5ies t '! trivial1 ,d to o!rs z y w\ld1' c41 is a full expression ( ! law ( duty3 x conta9s ! gr\nd1 nei!r ( duties to self2 nor ( duties ( b5evol5ce to o!rs1 = _m w\ld =ego receiv+ good on conditions ( n conf]r+ x2 nor ( ! duty ( retribution1 = ! malefactor c\ld turn x aga9/ 8 judge1 c4 ,! univ]sality ( ?is pr9ciple ( ,human & ,rational ,nature z ,end-9-self1 z also its "* ( objective end limit+ m]ely subjective ends1 prove t its s\rce is 9 pure ,reason4 ,objectively1 ! gr\nd ( all practical legislation is ,rule & ! ,=m ( ,univ]sality t enables rule to be ,law 7( ,nature71 accord+ to pr9ciple fir/ 79 its d\ble =m72 subjectively1 x is ,end1 ! subject ( all ends be+ e rational be+ z ,end-9-self1 accord+ to pr9ciple second4 ,h5ce foll[s ! ?ird practical pr9ciple ( ! ,w1 z supreme condition ( its agreem5t ) univ]sal practical ,reason--! idea ( ! ,w ( e rational be+ z a ,w t legislates univ]sally4 ,! ,w1 if subject to law1 has fir/ itself impos$ x4 ,?is new idea--( ! ,w ( e rational be+ z univ]sally legislative--is :at1 9 ! implication ( ! ,categorical ,imp]ative1 specifically m>ks x (f f any ,hypo!tical3 ,int]e/ is se5 to be q incompatible ) ,duty1 if ,duty is ,volition ( ?is k9d4 ,a w m]ely subject to laws c be b\nd to !m by int]e/2 n s a w itself legislat+ supremely1 = t w\ld imply ano!r law to keep ! int]e/ ( self-love f tr5*+ ^u ! validity ( ! univ]sal law4 ,illu/ration is n ne$$ to prove t a ,categorical ,imp]ative1 or law = ! w ( e rational be+1 if x exi/ at all1 _c exclude ,int]e/ & be unconditional1 except z enjo9+ ev]y?+ to be done f ! maxim ( a w t 9 legislat+ univ]sally c h itself = object4 ,?is is ! po9t t has be5 always miss$1 t ! laws ( duty %all be at once self-impos$ & yet univ]sal4 ,subjection to a law n spr++ f "o's own w implies int]e/ or con/ra9t1 & con/itutes a c]ta9 necessity ( action1 b nev] makes ,duty4 ,be ! int]e/ "o's own or ano!r's1 ! ,imp]ative is conditional only4 ,kant's pr9ciple is ! ,autonomy ( ! ,w2 e o!r its ,het]onomy4 ,! new po9t ( view op5s up ! v fruitful conception ( an ,empire or ,realm ( ,ends4 ,z a ,realm is ! sy/ematic union ( rational be+s by means ( common laws1 s ! ends det]m9$ by ! laws may1 ab/ractly view$1 be tak5 to =m a sy/ematic :ole4 ,rational be+s1 z subject to a law requir+ !m to treat !mselves & o!rs z ends & nev] m]ely z means1 ent] into a sy/ematic union by means ( common objective laws1 i4e4 into an 7ideal7 ,empire or ,realm ( ,ends1 f ! laws be+ conc]n$ ab\t ! mutual relations ( rational be+s z ,ends & ,means4 ,9 ?is ,realm1 a rational be+ is ei!r ,head or ,memb]3 ,head1 if legislat+ univ]sally & ) complete indep5d5ce2 ,memb]1 if also univ]sally1 b at ! same "t subject to ! laws4 ,:5 n[ ! maxim ( ! w does n by nature accord necess>ily ) ! dem& ( ! objective pr9ciple--t ! w ?r\gh its maxim be able to reg>d itself at ! same "t z legislat+2 univ]sally--a practical con/ra9t is ex]t$ by ! pr9ciple1 :i* is ,duty1 ly+ on e ,memb] 9 ! ,realm ( ,ends 7n on ! ,head7 alike4 ,?is necessity ( practice reposes1 n on feel+1 impulse1 or incl9ation1 b on ! relation betwe5 rational be+s aris+ f ! fact t ea*1 z ,end-9-self1 legislates univ]sally4 ,! ,reason gives a univ]sal application to e maxim ( ! ,w2 n f any motive ( int]e/1 b f ! idea ( ! ,dignity ( a rational be+ t foll[s no law t x does n itself at ! same "t give4 ,ev]y?+ 9 ! ,realm ( ,ends has ei!r a ,price or a ,dignity4 ,skill1 ,dilig5ce1 c41 be>+ on human lik+s & ne$s1 h a ,m>ket-price2 ,qualities l ,wit1 ,fancy1 c41 appeal+ to ,ta/e or ,emotional ,satisfaction1 h an ,affection-price4 ,b ,morality1 ! only way ( be+ ,end-9-self1 & legislat+ memb] 9 ! ,realm ( ,ends1 has an intr9sic ,wor? or ,dignity1 calculable 9 no?+ else4 ,its wor? is n 9 results1 b 9 dispositions ( ,w2 its actions ne$ nei!r recomm5dation f a subjective disposition or ta/e1 nor prompt+ f imm$iate t5d5cy or feel+4 ,be+ laid on ! ,w by ,reason1 !y make ! ,w1 9 ! execution1 ! object ( an imm$iate ,respect1 te/ify+ to a ,dignity beyond all price4 ,! gr\nds ( ^! l(ty claims 9 moral goodness & virtue are ! p>ticipation by a rational be+ 9 ! univ]sal legislation1 fitness to be a memb] 9 a possible ,realm ( ,ends1 subjection only to self-impos$ laws4 ,no?+ hav+ value b z ! law conf]s x1 an unconditional1 incomp>able wor? atta*es to ! giv+ ( ! law1 & ,respect is ! only ^w t expresses a rational be+'s appreciation ( t4 ,autonomy is ?us ! f\ndation ( ! dignity ( human & ( all rational nature4 ,! ?ree diff]5t expressions t h be5 giv5 to ! "o g5]al pr9ciple ( morality imply ea* ! o!rs1 & diff] m]ely 9 _! mode ( pres5t+ "o idea ( ! ,reason to ! m9d4 ,univ]sal application ( ! ,maxim ( ,conduct1 z if x 7 a law ( nature1 is ! =mula ( ! ,w z absolutely good2 univ]sal prohibition aga9/ ! use ( rational be+s ev] z means only1 has ref]5ce to ! fact t a good w 9 a rational be+ is an altoge!r indep5d5t & ultimate ,end1 an ,end-9-self 9 all2 univ]sal legislation ( ea* = all recognizes ! pr]ogative or special dignity ( rational be+s1 t !y necess>ily take _! maxims f ! po9t ( view ( all1 & mu/ reg>d !mselves1 be+ ,ends-9-self1 z memb]s 9 a ,realm ( ,ends 7analog\s to ! ,realm1 or ,k+dom ( ,nature71 :i*1 ?\gh m]ely an ideal & possible conception1 none ! less really imposes an imp]ative ^u action4 ,morality1 he concludes1 is ! relation ( actions to ! ,autonomy ( ! ,w1 i4e41 to possible univ]sal legislation ?r\gh its maxims4 ,actions t c co-exi/ ) ?is autonomy are all[$2 all o!rs are n4 ,a w1 ^: maxims necess>ily accord ) ! laws ( ,autonomy1 is holy1 or absolutely good2 ! dep5d5ce ( a w n ?us absolutely good is ,obligation4 ,! objective necessity ( an action f obligation is ,duty4 ,subjection to law is n ! only elem5t 9 duty2 ! fact ( ! law be+ self-impos$ gives ,dignity4 ,! ,autonomy ( ! w is its be+ a law to itself1 )\t respect to ! objects ( volition2 ! pr9ciple ( autonomy is to *oose only 9 su* a way z t ! maxims ( *oice are conceiv$ at ! same "t z a univ]sal law4 ,?is rule _c be prov$ analytically to be an ,imp]ative1 absolutely b9d+ on e w2 z a syn!tic proposition x requires1 besides a k ( ! objects1 a critique ( ! subject1 i4e41 pure practical ,reason1 be=e1 9 its apodeictic "*1 x c be prov$ completely priori4 ,/ill ! m]e analysis ( moral conceptions has suffic$ to prove x ! sole pr9ciple ( morals1 because ?is pr9ciple is se5 to be a categorical ,imp]ative1 & a categorical ,imp]ative enjo9s nei!r m nor less ?an ?is ,autonomy4 ,if1 !n1 ,autonomy ( ,w is ! supreme pr9ciple1 ,het]onomy is ! s\rce ( all ung5u9e pr9ciples1 ( ,morality4 ,het]onomy is :5ev] ! ,w does n give itself laws1 b "s object1 9 relation to ! ,w1 gives !m4 ,!re is !n nev] m ?an a hypo!tical ,imp]ative3 ,i am to d some?+ because ,i wi% some?+ else4 ,!re foll[s a division & criticism ( ! v>i\s possible pr9ciples ( morality t c be set up on ! assumption ( ,het]onomy1 & t h be5 put =w>d by human ,reason 9 default ( ! requir$ ,critique ( its pure use4 ,su*1 are ei!r ,empirical or ,rational4 ,! ,empirical1 embody+ ! pr9ciple ( ,happ9ess1 are f\nd$ on 7#a7 physical or 7#b7 moral feel+2 ! ,rational1 embody+ ! pr9ciple ( p]fection1 on 7#a7 ! rational conception ( x z a possible result1 or 7#b7 ! conception ( an indep5d5t p]fection 7! ,w ( ,god71 z ! det]m9+ cause ( ! w4 ,! ,empirical pr9ciples are altoge!r to be reject$1 because !y c give no univ]sal law = all rational be+s2 ( ! ,rational pr9ciples1 ! fir/1 ?\gh sett+ up an empty & indef9ite conception1 has ! m]it ( at lea/ mak+ an appeal f s5se to pure reason4 ,b ! fatal objection to all f\r is _! imply+ ,het]onomy2 no imp]ative f\nd$ on !m c utt] moral1 i4e41 categorical comm&s4 ,t ! absolutely good ,w mu/ be autonom\s--i4e41 )\t any k9d ( motive or int]e/1 lay ,comm&s on itself t are at ! same "t fit to be laws = all rational be+s1 appe>s1 !n1 f a deep] consid]ation ( ev5 ! popul> conceptions ( morality4 ,b n[ ! "q c no long] be put (f3 ,is ,morality1 ( :i* ?is is ! only conception1 a reality or a phantom8 ,all ! diff]5t expressions giv5 to ! ,categorical ,imp]atives are syn!tic practical propositions a priori2 !y po/ulate a possible syn!tic use ( ! pure practical reason4 ,is !re1 & h[ is !re1 su* a possible syn!tic use8 ,?is is ! "q 7! same z ! o!r7 t ,kant proce$s to answ] 9 ! ,?ird ,section1 by giv+1 9 default ( a complete ,critique ( ! faculty1 z mu* z is necess>y = ! purpose4 ,b "h1 s9ce he aft]w>ds und]took ! full ,critique1 x is bett] to /op ! analysis ( ! e>li] "w1 & summ>ily draw ^u bo? = ! rema9d] ( ! argum5t1 & ! r because "s important po9ts h to be add$ t occur only 9 ! lat] treatise4 ,! =ego+ is a suffici5t example ( 8 me?od ( treatm5t4 ,! syn!tic use ( ! pure practical reason1 9 ! ,categorical ,imp]ative1 is legitimiz$2 ,autonomy ( ! ,w is expla9$2 ,duty is %[n to be no phantom--?r\gh ! conception ( ,fre$om ( ,w1 prop]ly und]/ood4 ,!oretically 7speculatively71 ,fre$om is undemon/rable2 be+ et]nally met1 9 "o ( ! 7cosmological7 ,ant9omies ( ! ,pure ,reason1 by ! c\nt]-ass]tion t ev]y?+ 9 ! univ]se takes place accord+ to un*ang+ laws ( nature4 ,ev5 !oretically1 h[ev]1 ,fre$om is n inconceivable1 & morally we become c]ta9 ( x2 = we are consci\s ( ! 'ought' ( duty1 & ) ! 'ought' !re mu/ g a 'c4' ,x is n1 h[ev]1 z ,ph5om5on or ,s5sible ,ens t a man 'c1' is free1 has an absolute initiative2 all ph5om5a or ,s5sible ,entia1 be+ 9 space & "t1 are subject to ! ,natural ,law ( ,causality4 ,b man is also ,n\m5on1 ,?+-9-self1 ,intelligible ,ens2 & z su*1 be+ free f conditions ( "t & space1 /&s outside ( ! sequ5ce ( ,nature4 ,n[1 ! ,n\m5on or ,ens ( ! ,reason 7he assumes7 /&s high] ?an1 or has a value above1 ! ,ph5om5on or ,s5sible ,ens 7z mu* z ,reason /&s high] ?an ,s5se & ,incl9ation72 accord+ly1 :ile x is only man z ,n\m5on t 'c1' x is to man z ,ph5om5on t ! 'ought' is prop]ly address$2 x is ^u man z ,ph5om5on t ! law ( ,duty1 prescrib$1 ) p]fect fre$om f motive1 by ,man z ,n\m5on1 is laid4 ,fre$om ( ,w 9 ,man z ,rational ,end or ,?+-9-self is ?us ! great ,po/ulate ( ! pure ,practical ,reason2 we c be sure ( ! fact 7al?\gh x mu/ always rema9 speculatively undemon/rable71 because else !re c\ld be no explanation ( ! ,categorical ,imp]ative ( ,duty4 ,b inasmu* z ! ,practical ,reason1 besides enjo9+ a law ( ,duty1 mu/ provide also a f9al end ( action 9 ! idea ( an uncondition$ ,supreme ,good1 x conta9s also two o!r ,po/ulates3 ,man be+ a s5ti5t z well z a rational be+1 ,happ9ess z well z ,p]fect ,virtue or ,moral ,p]fection mu/ ent] into ! ,summum ,bonum 7n1 "o ( !m to ! exclusion ( ! o!r1 z ! ,/oics & ,epicureans1 9 diff]5t s5ses1 decl>$74 ,n[1 s9ce !re is no su* necess>y conjunction ( ! two 9 nature1 x mu/ be s\ght o!rwise4 ,x is f\nd 9 po/ulat+ ,immortality & ,god4 ,immortality is requir$ to r5d] possible ! atta9m5t ( moral p]fection4 ,virtue out ( respect = law1 ) a con/ant t5d5cy to fall away1 is all t is atta9able 9 life4 ,! ,hol9ess1 or complete accommodation ( ! w to ! ,moral ,law1 impli$ 9 ! ,summum ,bonum1 c be atta9$ to only 9 ! c\rse ( an inf9ite progression2 :i* means p]sonal ,immortality4 ,z 9 ! =m] case1 ! speculative impossibility ( prov+ ! immat]iality1 c41 ( ! sup]natural s\l is n "h ov]come2 b ,immortality is morally c]ta91 be+ dem&$ by ! ,practical ,reason4 ,moral p]fection ?us provid$ =1 ,god mu/ be po/ulat$ 9 ord] to f9d ! gr\nd ( ! requir$ conjunction ( ,felicity4 ,happ9ess is ! condition ( ! rational be+ 9 ^: :ole exi/5ce ev]y?+ goes accord+ to wi% & w2 & ?is is n ! condition ( man1 = 9 him obs]vance ( ! moral law is n conjo9$ ) p[] ( disposal ov] ! laws ( nature4 ,b1 z ,practical ,reason dem&s ! conjunction1 x is to be f\nd only 9 a be+ :o is ! au?or at once ( ,nature & ( ! ,moral ,law2 & ?is is ,god4 ,! same rem>k once m applies1 t "h :at is obta9$ is a moral c]ta9ty ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ,deity3 ! negative result ( ! ,critique ( ! ,pure 7speculative7 ,reason abides :at x 04 ,we may n[ attempt to summ>ize ?is ab/ruse ,e?ical !ory ( ,kant4 ,i---,! ,,/&>d ( morally good action 7or r ,w71 z express$ 9 ! diff]5t =ms ( ! ,categorical ,imp]ative1 is ! possibility ( its be+ univ]sally ext5d$ z a law = all rational be+s4 ,8 mean+ comes out /ill bett] 9 ! obv]se /atem5t3 ,! action is bad t _c be1 or at lea/ _c be wi%$ to lie1 turn$ unto a univ]sal law4 ,,ii4--,kant w\ld expressly demur to be+ que/ion$ z to 8 ,,psy*ology ( ,e?ics2 s9ce he puts 8 own !ory 9 express opposition to e o!r f\nd$ ^u any empirical view ( ! m5tal con/itution4 ,nev]!less1 we may extract "s k9d ( answ]s to ! usual qu]ies4 ,! ,faculty is ! 7pure ,practical7 ,reason4 ,! appreh5sion ( :at is morally "r is entirely an affair ( ,reason2 ! only elem5t ( ,feel+ is an add$ ,s5tim5t ( ,awe or ,respect = ! law t ,reason imposes1 ?is be+ a law1 n only = me :o impose x on myself1 b at ! same "t = e rational ag5t4 ,! ,pure ,reason1 :i* means ) ,kant ! ,faculty ( ,pr9ciples1 is ,speculative or ,practical4 ,z ,speculative1 x requires u to br+ our k 7( ! und]/&+7 to c]ta9 high] uncondition$ unities 7,s\l1 ,cosmos1 ,god72 b !re is error if ^! are !mselves reg>d$ z facts ( k4 ,z ,practical1 x sets up an unconditional law ( ,duty 9 ,action 7uncondition$ by motives72 & 9 ?is & 9 ! relat$ conception ( ! ,summum ,bonum is conta9$ a moral c]ta9ty ( ! ,immortality 7( ! s\l71 ,fre$om 79 ! mid/ ( ,natural ,necessity71 & ( ,god z exi/5t4 ,z to ! po9t ( ,free-w1 no?+ m ne$ be said4 ,dis9t]e/$ ,s5tim5t1 z s5tim5t1 is v little reg>d$3 dis9t]e/$ action is requir$ ) su* rig\r t e act or disposition is made to lose its "* z moral1 accord+ z any elem5t ( int]e/$ feel+ ( any k9d ent]s into x4 ,kant oblit]ates ! l9e betwe5 ,duty & ,virtue1 by mak+ a duty ( e virtue2 at lea/ he conceives cle>ly t !re is no ,virtue 9 do+ :at we are /rongly prompt$ to by incl9ation--t virtue mu/ involve self-sacrifice4 ,,iii4--,8 position ) respect to ,happ9ess is peculi>4 ,happ9ess is n ! end ( action3 ! end ( action is r ! self-ass]tion ( ! rational faculty ov] ! l[] man4 ,if ! con/itu5ts ( ,happ9ess c\ld be kn[n--& !y _c be--!re w\ld be no morality1 b only prud5ce 9 ! pursuit ( !m4 ,to promote our own happ9ess is inde$ a duty1 b 9 ord] to keep u f neglect+ our o!r duties4 ,nev]!less1 he conceives x necess>y t !re %\ld be an ultimate equation ( ,virtue & ,happ9ess2 & ! ne$ ( ,happ9ess he !n expressly connects ) ! s5su\s side ( our be+4 ,,iv4--,8 ,,moral ,,code may "h be %ortly pres5t$ f ! second "p ( 8 late/ "w1 :]e x is fully giv54 ,di/+ui%+ ,moral ,duties or 7z he calls !m7 ',virtue-duties1' left to be en=c$ int]nally by ,consci5ce1 f ,legal ,duties 7,re*tspfli*t571 ext]nally en=c$1 he divides !m into two classes--7,a7 ,duties to ,self2 7,b7 ,duties to ,o!rs4 7,a7 ,duties to ,self4 ,^! h reg>d to ! "o private ,aim or ,end t a man c make a duty (1 viz41 8 own ,p]fection2 = 8 own ,happ9ess1 be+ provid$ = by a natural prop5sity or incl9ation1 is to himself no duty4 ,!y are 7a7 p]fect 7negative or re/rictive7 z direct$ to m]e ,self-,cons]vation2 7b7 imp]fect 7positive or ext5sive7 z direct$ to ! ,advancem5t or ,p]fect+ ( "o's be+4 ,! p]fect are conc]n$ ab\t ,self 7a71 z an ,animal creature1 & !n are direct$ aga9/--7#a7 ,self-de/ruction1 7#b7 ,sexual ,excess1 7#c7 ,intemp]ance 9 ,eat+ & ,dr9k+2 7,b7 z a ,moral creature1 & !n are direct$ aga9/--7#a7 ,ly+1 7#b7 ,av>ice1 7#c7 ,s]vility4 ,! imp]fect h ref]5ce to 7a7 physical1 7,b7 moral advancem5t or p]fection 7subjectively4 ,purity or ,hol9ess74 7,b7 ,duties to ,o!rs4 ,^! h reg>d to ! only ,aim or ,end ( o!rs t a man c make a duty (1 viz41 _! ,happ9ess2 = _! ,p]fection c be promot$ only by !mselves4 ,duties to o!rs z m5 are metaphysically d$ucible2 & application to special conditions ( m5 is to be made empirically4 ,!y include 7a7 ,duties ( ,,love1 involv+ ,m]it or ,des]t 7i4e41 return f ! objects ( !m7 9 ! p]=mance3 7#a7 ,b5efic5ce1 7#b7 ,gratitude1 7#c7 ,fell[-feel+2 7b7 ,duties ( ,,respect1 absolutely due to o!rs z m52 ! opposites are ! vices3 7#a7 ,haught9ess1 7#b7 ,sl&]1 7#c7 ,scornfulness4 ,9 ,fri5d%ip1 ,love & ,respect are comb9$ 9 ! highe/ degree4 ,la/ly1 he notes ,social duties 9 human int]c\rse 7,affability1 c47--^! be+ outworks ( morality4 ,he all[s no special ,duties to ,god1 or ,inf]ior ,creatures1 beyond :at is conta9$ 9 ,moral ,p]fection z ,duty to ,self4 ,v4--,! conception ( ,law ent]s l>gely into ,kant's !ory ( morals1 b 9 a s5se purely transc5d5tal1 & n z subject+ or assimilat+ morality to positive political in/itution4 ,! ,legality ( ext]nal actions1 z well z ! ,morality ( int]nal dispositions1 is det]m9$ by ref]5ce to ! "o univ]sal moral ,imp]ative4 ,! pr9ciple und]ly+ all legal or jural 7z oppos$ to moral or e?ical7 provisions1 is ! necessity ( unit+ 9 a univ]sal law ( fre$om ! spontaneity ( ea* ) ! spontaneity ( all ! o!rs3 individual fre$om & fre$om ( all mu/ be made to subsi/ toge!r 9 a univ]sal law4 ,,vi4--,) ,kant1 ,religion & ,morality are v closely connect$1 or1 9 a s5se1 ev5 id5tifi$2 b ! alliance is n at ! exp5se ( ,morality4 ,s f> f mak+ ?is dep5d5t on ,religion1 he c f9d no?+ b ! moral conviction :]eon to e/abli% ! religi\s doctr9es ( ,immortality & ! ,exi/5ce ( ,god2 :ile1 9 a special "w1 he decl>es fur!r t ,religion consi/s m]ely 9 ! practice ( ,morality z a sy/em ( div9e comm&s1 & claims to judge ( all religi\s in/itutions & dogmas by ! moral consci\sness4 ,besides1 ! ,po/ulates !mselves1 9 :i* ! passage to ,religion is made1 are n all equally imp]ative1--,fre$om1 z ! gr\nd ( ! fact ( ,duty1 be+ m urg5tly dem&$ ?an o!rs2 & he ev5 goes s f> z to make ! all[ance1 t :oev] has suffici5t moral /r5g? to fulfil ! ,law ( ,reason )\t !m1 is n requir$ to subscribe to !m4 ,! mod]n ,fr5* s*ool1 t has aris5 9 ?is c5tury "u ! comb9$ influ5ce ( ! ,scot* & ! ,g]man philosophy1 has be/[$ "s att5tion on ,e?ics4 ,we end by notic+ "u x ,c\s9 & ,j\ffroy4 ,,victor ,,c\s94 #agib-ahfg4 ,! analysis ( ,c\s9's e?ical views is made ^u 8 hi/orical lectures ,sur les ,idees du ,vrai1 du ,beau et du ,bi51 z deliv]$ 9 #ahag-ah4 ,!y conta9 a dogmatic exposition ( 8 own op9ions1 beg9n+ at ! #bj? lecture2 ! ?ree prec$+ lectures1 9 ! section ( ! :ole c\rse devot$ to ! ,good1 be+ tak5 up ) ! prelim9>y review ( o!r op9ions requir$ = 8 eclectical purpose4 ,he det]m9es to consid]1 by way ( psy*ological analysis1 ! ideas & s5tim5ts ( e k9d call$ up by ! spectacle ( human actions2 & fir/ he notes actions t please & displease ! s5ses1 or 9 "s way affect our int]e/3 ^? t are agreeable & useful we naturally *oose1 avoid+ ! opposites1 & 9 ?is we are prud5t4 ,b !re is ano!r set ( actions1 hav+ no ref]5ce to our own p]sonal int]e/1 :i* yet we qualify z good or bad4 ,:5 an arm$ robb] kills & spoils a def5celess man1 we1 ?\gh behold+ ! sight 9 safety1 are at once /irr$ up to dis9t]e/$ horror & indignation4 ,?is is no m]e pass+ s5tim5t1 b includes a two-fold judgm5t1 pron\nc$ !n & ev] aft]2 t ! action is 9 itself bad1 & t x ought n to be committ$4 ,/ill f>!r1 our ang] implies t ! object ( x is consci\s ( ! evil & ! obligation1 & is !re=e responsible2 :]e9 aga9 is impli$ t he is a free ag5t4 ,&1 f9ally1 dem&+ z we d t he %\ld be puni%$1 we pass :at has be5 call$ a judgm5t ( m]it & dem]it1 :i* is built ^u an idea 9 our m9ds ( a supreme law1 jo9+ happ9ess to virtue & mis=tune to crime4 ,! analysis ?us f> he claims to be /rictly sci5tific2 he n[ proce$s to v>y ! case1 tak+ actions ( our own4 ,i am suppos$ entru/$ by a dy+ fri5d ) a deposit = ano!r1 & a /ruggle ensues betwe5 int]e/ & probity z to :e!r ,i %\ld pay x4 ,if int]e/ conqu]s1 remorse ensues4 ,he pa9ts ! /ate ( remorse1 & analyzes x into ! same elem5ts z be=e1 ! idea ( good & evil1 ( an obligatory law1 ( lib]ty1 ( m]it & dem]it2 x ?us includes ! :ole ph5om5on ( morality4 ,! exactly opposite /ate t foll[s ^u ! victory ( probity1 is prov$ to imply ! same facts4 ,! ,moral ,s5tim5t1 s /rik+ 9 its "*1 has by "s be5 suppos$ ! f\ndation ( all morality1 b 9 po9t ( fact x is itself con/itut$ by ^! v>i\s judgm5ts4 ,n[ t !y are kn[n to /& z its elem5ts1 he goes on to subject ea* to a /rict] analysis1 tak+ fir/ ! judgm5t ( good & evil1 :i* is at ! bottom ( all ! re/4 ,x lies 9 ! orig9al con/itution ( human nature1 be+ simple & indecomposable1 l ! judgm5t ( ! ,true & ! ,beautiful4 ,x is absolute1 & _c be )held 9 pres5ce ( c]ta9 acts2 b x only decl>es1 & does n con/itute1 good & evil1 ^! be+ real & indep5d5t qualities ( actions4 ,appli$ at fir/ to special cases1 ! judgm5t ( good gives bir? to g5]al pr9ciples t become rules = judg+ o!r actions4 ,l o!r sci5ces1 morality has its axioms1 ju/ly call$ moral tru?s2 if x is good to keep an oa?1 x is also true1 ! oa? be+ made ) no o!r purpose ?an to be kept4 ,fai?ful gu>d+ z mu* belongs to ! idea ( a deposit1 z ! equality betwe5 its ?ree angles & two "r angles to ! idea ( a triangle4 ,by no caprice or ef=t ( w c a moral v]ity be made 9 ! smalle/ degree o!r ?an x is4 ,b1 he goes on1 a moral v]ity is n simply to be believ$2 x mu/ also be practis$1 & ?is is obligation1 ! second ( ! elem5ts ( moral s5tim5t4 ,obligation1 l moral tru?1 on :i* x re/s1 is absolute1 immutable1 univ]sal4 ,kant ev5 w5t s f> z to make x ! pr9ciple ( our morality2 b ?is 0 subjectiviz+ good1 z he _h subjectiviz$ tru?4 ,be=e !re is an obligation to act1 !re mu/ be an intr9sic goodness 9 ! action2 ! real fir/ tru? ( morality is ju/ics1 i4e41 ! ess5tial di/9ction ( good & evil4 ,x is ju/ice1 !re=e1 & n duty1 t /rictly des]ves ! "n ( a pr9ciple4 ,! next elem5t is lib]ty4 ,obligation implies ! faculty ( resi/+ desire1 passion1 c41 else !re w\ld be a contradiction 9 human nature4 ,b ! true/ pro( ( lib]ty is to be s\ght 9 ! con/ant te/imony ( consci\sness1 t1 9 wi%+ ?is or t1 ,i am equally able to w ! contr>y4 ,he di/+ui%es betwe5 ! p[] ( will+ & ! p[] ( execut+2 also betwe5 w & desire1 or passion4 ,9 ! conflict betwe5 w & ! tyranny ( desire lies lib]ty2 & ! aim ( ! conflict is ! fulfilm5t ( duty4 ,= ! w is nev] s free1 nev] s mu* itself1 z :5 yield+ to ! law ( duty4 ,p]sons are di/+ui%$ f ,?+s 9 hav+ responsibility1 dignity1 intr9sic value4 ,because !re is 9 me a be+ wor?y ( respect1 ,i am b\nd 9 duty to respect myself1 & ,i h ! "r to be respect$ by y4 ,my duty 7he means1 ( c\rse1 :at ,i owe to self7 is ! exact measure ( my "r4 ,! "* ( be+ a p]son is inviolable1 is ! f\ndation ( prop]ty1 is inali5able by self or o!rs1 & s =?4 ,he passes to ! la/ elem5t ( ! ph5om5on ( morality1 ! judgem5t ( m]it & dem]it4 ,! judgem5t foll[s1 z ! ag5t is suppos$ free1 & x is n affect$ by lapse ( "t4 ,x dep5ds also ess5tially on ! idea t ! ag5t kn[s good f evil4 ,^u itself foll[ ! notions ( rew>d & puni%m5t4 ,m]it is ! natural "r to be rew>d$2 dem]it1 p>adox z x may appe>1 is ! "r to be puni%$4 ,a crim9al w\ld claim to be puni%$1 if he c\ld compreh5d ! absolute necessity ( expiation2 & are !re n real cases ( su* crim9als8 ,b z !re c be m]it )\t actual rew>d1 s to be rew>d$ does n con/itute m]it4 ,if good1 he cont9ues1 is good 9 itself1 & ought to be done )\t reg>d to consequ5ces1 x is no less true t ! consequ5ces ( good _c fail to be happy4 ,virtue )\t happ9ess & crime )\t mis=tune are a contradiction1 a disord]2 :i* are h>dly met ) 9 ! _w1 ev5 z x is1 or1 :]e 9 a few cases !y are f\nd1 are sure to be right$ 9 ! end by et]nal ju/ice4 ,! sacrifice suppos$ 9 virtue1 if g5]\sly accept$ & c\rage\sly und]gone1 has to be recomp5s$ 9 respect ( ! am\nt ( happ9ess sacrific$4 ,once m1 he takes up ! ,s5tim5t1 :i* is ! g5]al e*o ( all ! elem5ts ( ! ph5om5on4 ,its end is to make ! m9d s5sible ( ! bond betwe5 virtue & happ9ess2 x is ! direct & vivid application ( ! law ( m]it4 ,aga91 he t\*es ! /ates ( moral satisfaction & remorse1 speaks ( our sympa?y ) ! moral goodness ( o!rs & our b5evol5t feel+ t arises t[>ds !m--emotions all1 b cov]+ up judgm5ts2 & ?is is ! end ( 8 detail$ analysis ( ! actual facts ( ! case4 ,b he /ill goes on to sum up 9 exact expressions ! =ego+ results1 & he claims especially to h ov]look$ nei!r ! "p play$ by ,reason1 nor ! function ( ,s5tim5t4 ,! rational "* ( ! idea ( good gives morality its firm f\ndation2 ! lively s5tim5t helps to light5 ! (t5 heavy burd5 ( duty1 & /irs up to ! mo/ h]oic de$s4 ,self-int]e/ too is n d5i$ its place4 ,9 ?is connexion1 l$ aga9 to allude to ! happ9ess appo9t$ to virtue "h or at lea/ h]eaft]1 he all[s t ,god may be reg>d$ z ! f\nta9 ( morality1 b only 9 ! s5se t 8 w is ! expression ( 8 et]nal wisdom & ju/ice4 ,religion cr[ns morality1 b morality is bas$ ^u itself4 ,! re/ ( ! lecture is 9 praise ( ,eclecticism1 & advocates consid]ation ( all ! facts involv$ 9 morality1 z aga9/ exclusive !ories f\nd$ ^u only "s ( ! facts4 ,lectures #ba/ & #bbnd1 compress$ into "o 7,ed4 #ahdf7 conta9 ! application ( ! =ego+ pr9ciples1 & ! answ] to ! "q1 :at our duties are4 ,duty be+ absolute1 tru? becomes obligatory1 & absolute tru? be+ kn[n by ! reason only1 to obey ! law ( duty is to obey reason4 ,b :at actions are con=mable to reason8 ,! *>act]i/ic ( reason he takes to be ,univ]sality1 & ?is w appe> 9 ! motives ( actions1 s9ce x is ^! t conf] on actions _! morality4 ,accord+ly1 ! sign :]eby to discov] :e!r an action is duty1 is1 if its motive :5 g5]aliz$ appe> to ! reason to be a maxim ( univ]sal legislation = all free & intellig5t be+s4 ,?is1 ! norm set up by ,kant1 z c]ta9ly discov]s :at is & is n duty1 z ! syllogism detects ! error & tru? ( an argum5t4 ,to obey reason is1 !n1 ! fir/ duty1 at ! root ( all o!rs1 & itself re/+ directly ^u ! relation betwe5 lib]ty & reason2 9 a s5se1 to rema9 reasonable is ! sole duty4 ,b x assumes special =ms amid ! div]sity ( human relations4 ,he fir/ consid]s ! relations :]e9 we /& to ourselves & ! correspond+ duties4 ,t !re %\ld be any su* duties is at fir/ sight /range1 see+ we belong to ourselves2 b ?is is n ! same z hav+ complete p[] ov] ourselves4 ,possess+ lib]ty1 we mu/ n abdicate x by yield+ to passions1 & treat ourselves z if !re 7 no?+ 9 u t m]its respect4 ,we are to di/+ui% betwe5 :at is peculi> to ea* ( u1 & :at we %>e ) humanity4 ,individual peculi>ities are ?+s indiff]5t1 b ! lib]ty & intellig5ce t con/itute u p]sons1 r ?an individuals1 dem& to be respect$ ev5 by ourselves4 ,!re is an obligation ( self-respect impos$ ^u u z moral p]sons t 0 n e/abli%$1 & is n to be de/roy$1 by u4 ,z special cases ( ?is respect ( ! moral p]son 9 u1 he cites 7#a7 ! duty ( self-control aga9/ ang] or melan*oly1 n = _! p]nici\s consequ5ces1 b z tr5*+ ^u ! moral dignity ( lib]ty & intellig5ce2 7#b7 ! duty ( prud5ce1 mean+ provid5ce 9 all ?+s1 :i* regulates c\rage1 enjo9s temp]ance1 is1 z ! anci5ts said1 ! "m ( all ! virtues1--9 %ort1 ! gov]nm5t ( lib]ty by reason2 7#c7 v]acity2 7#d7 duty t[>ds ! body2 7#e7 duty ( p]fect+ 7& n m]ely keep+ intact7 ! intellig5ce1 lib]ty1 & s5sibility t con/itute u moral be+s4 ,b ! same lib]ty & intellig5ce t con/itute me a moral p]son1 & ne$ ?us to be respect$ ev5 by myself1 exi/ also 9 o!rs1 conf]r+ rights on !m1 & impos+ new duties ( respect on me relatively to !m4 ,to _! intellig5ce ,i owe ,tru?2 _! lib]ty ,i am b\nd to respect1 sometimes ev5 to ! ext5t ( n h9d]+ !m f mak+ a wrong use ( x4 ,i mu/ respect also _! affections 7family1 c47 :i* =m "p ( !mselves2 _! bodies2 _! goods1 :e!r acquir$ by lab\r or h]itage4 ,all ^! duties are summ$ up 9 ! "o great duty ( ,ju/ice or respect = ! rights ( o!rs2 ( :i* ! greate/ violation is slav]y4 ,! :ole ( duty t[>ds o!rs is n h[ev] compreh5d$ 9 ju/ice4 ,consci5ce compla9s1 if we h only n done inju/ice to "o 9 suff]+4 ,!re is a new class ( duties--consolation1 *>ity1 sacrifice--to :i* inde$ correspond no rights1 & :i* !re=e are n s obligatory z ju/ice1 b :i* _c be said n to be obligatory4 ,f _! nature1 !y _c be r$uc$ to an exact =mula2 _! beauty lies 9 lib]ty4 ,b 9 *>ity1 he adds1 !re is also a dang]1 f its effac+1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 ! moral p]sonality ( ! object ( x4 ,9 act+ ^u o!rs1 we risk int]f]+ ) _! natural rights2 *>ity is !re=e to be proportion$ to ! lib]ty & reason ( ! p]son b5efit$1 & is nev] to be made ! means ( usurp+ p[] ov] ano!r4 ,ju/ice & ,*>ity are ! two elem5ts compos+ social morality4 ,b :at is social8 & on :at is ,society f\nd$1 exi/+ z x does ev]y:]e1 & mak+ man to be :at he is8 ,into ! hopeless "q ( its orig9 he refuses to ent]2 its pres5t /ate is to be /udi$ by ! light ( ! k ( human nature4 ,its inv>iable f\ndations are 7#a7 ! ne$ we h ( ea* o!r1 & our social in/9cts1 7#b7 ! la/+ & inde/ructible idea & s5tim5t ( "r & ju/ice4 ,! ne$ & in/9ct1 ( :i* he f9ds _m pro(s1 beg9 society2 ju/ice cr[ns ! "w4 ,! lea/ consid]ation ( ! relations ( man to man1 sugge/ ! ess5tial pr9ciples ( ,society--ju/ice1 lib]ty1 equality1 gov]nm5t1 puni%m5t4 ,into ea* ( ^! he ent]s4 ,lib]ty is made out to be assur$ & develop$ 9 society1 in/ead ( dim9i%$4 ,equality is e/abli%$ ^u ! "* ( moral p]sonality1 :i* admits ( no degree4 ,! ne$ ( "s repression ^u lib]ty1 :]e ! lib]ty ( o!rs is tr5*$ ^u1 conducts to ! idea ( ,gov]nm5t--a dis9t]e/$ ?ird p>ty arm$ ) ! necess>y p[] to assure & def5d ! lib]ty ( all4 ,to gov]nm5t is to be ascrib$1 fir/ its insep>able function ( protect+ ! common lib]ty 7)\t unnecess>y repression71 & next1 b5efic5t action1 correspond+ to ! duty ( *>ity4 ,x requires1 = its guidance1 a rule sup]ior to itself1 i4e41 law1 ! expression ( univ]sal & absolute ju/ice4 ,"h foll[s ! usual di/9ction ( positive & natural law4 ,! sanction ( law is puni%m5t2 ! "r ( puni%+1 z 0 se51 dep5d+ on ! idea ( dem]it4 ,puni%m5t is n m]e v5geance1 b ! expiation by ! crim9al ( violat$ ju/ice2 x is to be measur$ !re=e *iefly by ! dem]it & n by ! injury only4 ,:e!r1 9 puni%+1 all[ance %\ld be made = correction & amelioration1 is to put ! same case ov] aga9 ( *>ity com+ 9 aft] ju/ice4 ,"h ! philosoph] /ops on ! ?re%old ( ! special sci5ce ( politics4 ,b already ! fix$ & inv>iable pr9ciples ( society & gov]nm5t h be5 giv51 &1 ev5 9 ! relative sph]e ( politics1 ! rule /ill holds t all =ms & in/itutions are to be m\ld$ z f> z possible on ! et]nal pr9ciples suppli$ by philosophy4 ,! foll[+ is a summ>y ( ,c\s9's views3-- ,i4--,! ,/&>d is ! judgm5t ( good or evil 9 actions4 ,c\s9 holds t good & evil are qualities ( actions indep5d5t ( our judgm5t1 & hav+ a sort ( objective exi/5ce4 ,,ii4--,! ,moral ,faculty he analyzes into f\r judgm5ts3 7#a7 good & evil2 7#b7 obligation2 7#c7 fre$om ( ! w2 & 7#d7 m]it & dem]it4 ,! moral s5tim5t is ! emotions connect$ ) ^? judgm5ts1 & *iefly ! feel+ connect$ ) ! idea ( m]it4 ,?is analysis is obvi\sly r$undant4 ',good' & 'evil' apply to _m ?+s outside e?ics1 & to be at all appropriate1 !y mu/ be qualifi$ z moral 7i4e41 obligatory7 good & evil4 ,! connexion betwe5 obligation & dem]it has be5 previ\sly expla9$4 ,,iii4--,9 reg>d to ! ,summum ,bonum1 ,c\s9 consid]s t virtue mu/ br+ happ9ess "h or h]eaft]1 & vice1 mis]y4 ,,iv4--,he accepts ! crit]ion ( duties set =? by ,kant4 ,he argues = ! exi/5ce ( duties t[>ds ourselves4 ,v4 & ,,vi4 require no rem>k4 ,,?,,odore ,,simon ,,j\ffroy4 #agif-ahdb4 ,9 ! ,second ,lecture ( 8 unf9i%$ ,c\rs de ,droit ,naturel1 ,j\ffroy gives a cond5s$ exposition ( ! ,moral ,facts ( human nature f 8 own po9t ( view4 ,:at di/+ui%es1 he says1 "o be+ f ano!r1 is its ,organization2 & z hav+ a special nature1 e creature has a special end4 ,its end or de/9ation is its good1 or its good consi/s 9 ! accompli%m5t ( its end4 ,fur!r1 to h an end implies ! possession ( faculties :]e) to atta9 x2 & all ?is is applicable also to man4 ,9 man1 z 9 o!r creatures1 f ! v fir/1 8 nature t5ds to its end1 by means ( purely in/9ctive movem5ts1 :i* may be call$ primitive & in/9ctive t5d5cies ( human nature2 lat] !y are call$ passions4 ,along ) ^! t5d5cies1 & "u _! influ5ce1 ! intellectual faculties also awake & seek to procure = !m satisfaction4 ,! faculties "w1 h[ev]1 at fir/1 9 an indet]m9ate fa%ion1 & only by meet+ ob/acles are driv5 to ! conc5tration necess>y to atta9 ! ends4 ,he illu/rates ?is by ! case ( ! intellectual faculty seek+ to satisfy ! desire ( k1 & n succe$+ until x conc5trates on a s+le po9t its scatt]$ en]gies4 ,?is spontane\s conc5tration is ! fir/ manife/ation ( ,w1 b is prov$ to be n natural f ! feel+ ( con/ra9t always exp]i5c$1 & ! glad reb\nd1 aft] ef=t1 to ?o indet]m9ate condition4 ,"o fact1 too1 rema9s ev5 aft] e ?+ possible has be5 done1 viz41 t ! satisfaction ( ! primitive t5d5cies is nev] q complete4 ,:51 h[ev]1 su* satisfaction z may be1 has be5 atta9$1 !re arises pleasure2 & pa91 :5 our faculties fail to atta9 ! good or end !y s\ght4 ,!re c\ld be action1 successful & unsuccessful1 & s good & evil1 )\t any s5sibility1 :]e=e good & evil are n to be conf\nd$ ) pa9 & pleasure2 b con/itut$ z we are1 !re is a s5sible e*o t v>ies accord+ z ! result ( action is atta9$ or n4 ,pleasure is1 !n1 ! consequ5ce1 &1 z x 71 ! sign ( ! realization ( good1 & pa9 ( its privation4 ,he next di/+ui%es ,second>y passions f ! great prim>y t5d5cies & passions4 ,^! arise apropos ( ext]nal objects1 z !y are f\nd to fur!r or oppose ! satisfaction ( ! fundam5tal t5d5cies4 ,su* objects are !n call$ useful or p]nici\s4 ,f9ally1 he completes 8 acc\nt ( ! infantile or primitive condition ( man1 by rem>k+ t "s ( our natural t5d5cies1 l ,sympa?y1 are entirely dis9t]e/$ 9 seek+ ! good ( o!rs4 ,! ma9 feature ( ! :ole primitive /ate is ! exclusive dom9ation ( passion4 ,! w already exi/s1 b !re is no lib]ty2 ! pres5t passion triumphs ov] ! future1 ! /rong] ov] ! weak]4 ,he n[ passes to consid] ! d\ble trans=mation ( ?is orig9al /ate1 t takes place :5 reason appe>s4 ,reason is ! faculty ( compreh5d+1 :i* is diff]5t f kn[+1 & is peculi> to man4 ,z soon z x awakes 9 man1 x compreh5ds1 & p5etrates to ! mean+ (1 ! :ole spectacle ( human activity4 ,x fir/ =ms ! g5]al idea ( ,good z ! resultant ( ! satisfaction ( all ! prim>y t5d5cies1 & z ! true ,end ( man4 ,!n1 compreh5d+ ! actual situation ( man1 x resolves ?is idea into ! idea ( ! greate/ possible good4 ,all t conduces to ! atta9m5t ( ?is good1 x includes "u ! g5]al idea ( ! ,useful2 & f9ally1 x con/ructs ! g5]al idea ( ,happ9ess out ( all t is common to ! agreeable s5sations t foll[ ^u ! satisfaction ( ! prim>y t5d5cies4 ,b besides =m+ ^! ?ree p]fectly di/9ct ideas1 & explor+ ! secret ( :at has be5 pass+ )91 ! reason also compreh5ds ! necessity ( subject+ to control ! faculties & =ces t are ! condition ( ! greate/ satisfaction ( human nature4 ,9 ! place ( ! m]ely me*anical impulsion ( passion1 :i* is c\pl$ ) grave disadvantages1 x puts =w>d1 z a new pr9ciple ( action1 ! rational calculation ( int]e/4 ,! faculties are br\ght into ! s]vice ( ?is idea ( ! reason1 by ! same process ( conc5tration z 0 ne$ful 9 satisfy+ ! passions2 only n[ volunt>ily in/ead ( spontane\sly4 ,be+ an idea in/ead ( a passion1 ! new pr9ciple supplies a real motive1 "u ^: guidance our natural p[] ov] our faculties is develop$ & /r5g!n$4 ,all p>tial ends are m]g$ 9 ! "o great ,end ( ,int]e/1 to :i* ! means is self-control4 ,! fir/ great *ange ?us wr\ght by reason is1 t x takes ! direction ( ! human =ces into its own h&1 & al?\gh1 ev5 :5 by a natural trans=mation ! new sy/em ( conduct acquires all ! =ce ( a passion1 x is n able /eadily to procure = ! idea ( int]e/ ! victory ov] ! s+le passions1 ! *ange nev]!less abides4 ,to ! /ate ( ,passion has succe$$ ! /ate ( ,egoism4 ,reason mu/1 h[ev]1 he ?9ks1 make ano!r discov]y be=e !re is a truly moral /ate--mu/ f g5]al ideas rise to ideas t are univ]sal & absolute4 ,!re is no real equation1 he holds1 betwe5 ,good & ! satisfaction ( ! primitive t5d5cies1 :i* is ! good ( egoism4 ,n till ! special ends ( all creatures are reg>d$ z elem5ts ( "o great ,end ( creation1 ( ,univ]sal ,ord]1 d we obta9 an idea ^: equival5ce to ! idea ( ! ,good requires no pro(4 ,! special ends are good1 because1 ?r\gh _! realization1 ! end ( creation1 :i* is ! absolute ,good1 is realiz$2 h5ce !y acquire ! sacr$ "* t x has 9 ! eye ( reason4 ,no soon] is ! idea ( ,univ]sal ,ord] pres5t to ! reason1 ?an x is recogniz$ z an absolute law2 &1 9 consequ5ce1 ! special end ( our be+1 by p>ticipation 9 its "* ( goodness & sacr$ness1 is h5ce=? pursu$ z a duty1 & its satisfaction claim$ z a "r4 ,also e creature assumes ! same position1 & we no long] m]ely conc$e t o!rs h t5d5cies to be satisfi$1 & cons5t f ,sympa?y or ,egoism to promote _! good2 b ! idea ( ,univ]sal ,ord] makes x z mu* our duty to respect & contribute to ! accompli%m5t ( _! good z to accompli% our own4 ,f ! idea ( good-9-itself1 i4e41 ,ord]1 fl[ all duty1 "r1 obligation1 morality1 & natural legislation4 ,he c>ries ! idea ( ,ord] /ill f>!r back to ! ,deity1 mak+ x ! expression ( ! div9e ?\ght1 & op5+ up ! religi\s side ( morality2 b he does n mean t its obligator9ess z reg>ds ! reason is !reby increas$4 ,he also id5tifies x1 9 ! la/ resort1 ) ! ideas ( ! ,beautiful & ! ,true4 ,we h n[ rea*$ ! truly moral condition1 a /ate p]fectly di/9ct f ei!r ( ! =ego+4 ,ev5 :5 ! egoi/ic & ! moral det]m9ation prescribe ! same conduct1 ! "o only c\nsels1 :ile ! o!r obliges4 ,! "o1 hav+ 9 view only ! greate/ satisfaction ( our nature1 is p]sonal ev5 :5 c\nsell+ b5efits to o!rs2 ! o!r reg>d+ only ! law ( ,ord]1 some?+ di/9ct f self1 is imp]sonal1 ev5 :5 prescrib+ our own good4 ,h5ce !re is 9 ! latt] case dv\em5t ( self to some?+ else1 & x is exactly ! dv\em5t to a some?+ t is n self1 b is reg>d$ z good1 t gets ! "n ( virtue or moral good4 ,moral good is volunt>y & intellig5t ob$i5ce to ! law t is ! rule ( our conduct4 ,z an additional di/9ction betwe5 ! egoi/ic & ! moral det]m9ation1 he m5tions ! judgm5t ( m]it or dem]it t ensues ^u actions :51 & only :51 !y h a moral "*4 ,no remorse foll[s an act ( m]e imprud5ce involv+ no violation ( univ]sal ord]4 ,he d5ies t !re is any real contradiction among ! ?ree diff]5t det]m9ations4 ,no?+ is prescrib$ 9 ! moral law t is n also 9 accordance ) "s primitive t5d5cy1 & ) self-int]e/ rightly und]/ood2 if x 7 n s1 x w\ld g h>d ) virtue4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ev]y?+ n done f reg>d to duty 7 oppos$ to moral law & ord]1 society c\ld n only n subsi/1 b w\ld nev] h be5 =m$4 ,:5 a /ruggle does ensue betwe5 passion & self-int]e/1 passion is bl9d2 :5 betwe5 egoism & ! moral det]m9ation1 egoism is at fault4 ,x is 9 ! true int]e/ ( ,passion to be sacrific$ to ,egoism1 & ( ,egoism to be sacrific$ to ,ord]4 ,he closes ! review ( ! v>i\s moral facts by expla9+ 9 :at s5se ! succession ( ! ?ree /ates is to be und]/ood4 ,! /ate ( ,passion is hi/orically fir/1 b ! ,egoi/ic & ! ,moral /ates are n s %>ply def9$4 ,z soon z reason dawns x introduces ! moral motive z well z ! egoi/ic1 & to ?is ext5t ! two /ates are contemporane\s4 ,only1 s f> is ! moral law f be+ at ?is /age fully conceiv$1 t1 9 ! majority ( m51 x is nev] conceiv$ 9 its full cle>ness at all4 ,_! confus$ idea ( moral law is ! s-call$ moral consci5ce1 :i* works m l a s5se or an in/9ct1 & is inf]ior to ! cle> rational conception 9 ev]y?+ except t x conveys ! full =ce ( obligation4 ,9 its grades ( guilt human ju/ice rightly makes all[ance = diff]5t degrees ( intellig5ce4 ,! ,egoi/ic det]m9ation & ! ,moral /ate1 su* z x is1 once develop$1 passion is n to be suppos$ aboli%$1 b h5ce=? :at really takes place 9 all is a p]petual alt]nation ( ! v>i\s /ates4 ,yet ?\gh no man is able exclusively to foll[ ! moral det]m9ation1 & no man w con/antly be "u ! influ5ce ( any "o ( ! motives1 !re is "o motive commonly upp]mo/ :]eby ea* c be *>act]iz$4 ,?us m51 accord+ to _! habitual conduct1 are kn[n z passionate1 egoi/ic1 or virtu\s4 ,we n[ summ>ize ! op9ions ( ,j\ffroy3-- ,i4--,! ,/&>d is ! ,idea ( ,absolute ,good or ,univ]sal ,ord] 9 ! s5se expla9$ by ! au?or4 ,l ,c\s91 he id5tifies ! 'good' ) ! 'true4' ,:at1 !n1 is ! crit]ion t di/+ui%es moral f o!r tru?s8 ,if obligation be select$ z ! diff]5tia1 x is 9 effect to give up ! attempt to det]m9e :at tru?s are obligatory4 ,! idea ( 'good' is obvi\sly too vague to be a diff]5tia4 ,h[ f> ! idea ( ',univ]sal ,ord]' gets u out ( ! difficulty may be d\bt$1 especially aft] ! c&id admission ( ! au?or1 t x is an idea ( :i* ! majority ( m5 h nev] any v cle> notions4 ,,ii4--,! moral faculty is ,reason2 ,consci5ce is h>dly m ?an a confus$ feel+ ( obligator9ess4 ,sympa?y is "o ( ! primitive t5d5cies ( our nature4 ,j\ffroy's op9ion on ! subject is op5 to ! objections urg$ aga9/ ,butl]'s psy*ology4 ,he upholds ! fre$om ( ! ,w1 b emb>rasses 8 argum5t by admitt+1 l ,reid1 t !re is a /age 9 our exi/5ce :5 we are rul$ by ! passions1 & are de/itute ( lib]ty4 ,,iii4--,! ,summum ,bonum is ! end ( e creature2 ! passions ought to be subord9at$ to self-int]e/1 & self-int]e/ to morality4 ,9 reg>d to ! o!r po9ts1 x is unnecess>y to cont9ue ! summ>y4 ,,notes ,footnote #a3 ,duties /rictly s call$1 ! dep>tm5t ( obligatory morality1 en=c$ by puni%m5t1 may be exemplifi$ 9 ! foll[+ classifi$ summ>y3-- ,"u ! ,legal ,sanction1 are includ$2 7,a7 ,=be>ance f 7specifi$7 injuries2 z 7a7 ,int5tional injury--crimes1 7b7 ,injury n int5tional--wrongs1 repair$ by ,damages or ,comp5sation4 7,b7 ,! r5d]+ ( s]vices2 7a7 ,fulfill+ contracts or agreem5ts2 7b7 ,reciprocat+ ant]ior s]vices r5d]$1 ?\gh1 n reque/$1 z 9 filial duty2 7c7 ,cases ( extreme or sup]ior ne$1 z p>5tal duty1 relief ( de/itution4 ,"u ! ,popul> ,sanction are creat$ duties on su* po9ts z ! foll[+3--7#a7 ,! ,etiquette ( small societies or cot]ies4 7#b7 ,religi\s or?odoxy2 ,sabba? obs]vance4 7#c7 ,un*a/ity2 violations ( ! etiquette ( ! sexes1 ,immode/y1 & :atev] endang]s *a/ity1 especially 9 wom54 7#d7 ,duties ( p>5ts to *ildr51 & ( *ildr5 to p>5ts1 beyond ! requirem5ts ( ! law4 7#e7 ,suicide3 :5 only attempt$1 ! individual is puni%$1 :5 c>ri$ out1 ! relatives4 7#f7 ,drunk5ness1 & neglect ( ! means ( self-support4 7#g7 ,gross ,inhumanity4 ,9 all ^! cases ! sanction1 or puni%m5t1 is social2 & is ei!r m]e disapprobation or dislike1 n issu+ 9 ov]t acts1 or exclusion f fell[%ip & ! good (fices consequ5t !reon4 ,footnote #b3 ,optional ,morality1 ! ,morality ( ,rew>d1 is exemplifi$ z foll[s3-- 7,a7 ,a lib]al p]=mance ( duties prop]ly s call$4 7a7 ,! support ( ag$ p>5ts2 ?is1 ?\gh to a c]ta9 ext5t a legal duty1 is /ill m a virtue1 be+ /imulat$ by ! approbation ( "o's fell[s4 ,! p]=mance ( ! family duties g5]ally is ! subject ( comm5dation4 7b7 ,! paym5t ( debts t _c be legally recov]$1 z 9 ! case ( bankrupts aft] receiv+ _! dis*>ge4 ,^! examples typify cases 7#a7 :]e no def9ite law is laid d[n1 or :]e ! law is cont5t ) a m9imum2 & 7#b7 :]e ! law is re/ra9$ by its rules ( evid5ce or proc$ure4 ,society1 9 su* cases1 /eps 9 & supplies a motive 9 ! %ape ( rew>d4 7,b7 ,pure ,virtue1 or ,b5efic5ce2 all actions = ! b5efit ( o!rs )\t /ipulation1 & )\t rew>d2 relief ( di/ress1 promotion ( ! good ( individuals or ( society at l>ge4 ,! highe/ hon\rs ( society are call$ into ex]cise by ! highe/ s]vices4 ,b5?am's pr9ciple ( ! claims ( sup]ior ne$ _c be fully c>ri$ out1 7al?\gh he conceives x might1 9 "s cases71 by ei!r ! legal or ! popul> sanction4 ,?us1 ! act ( ! good ,sam>itan1 ! rescue ( a %ip's crew f dr[n+1 c\ld n be exact$2 ! law _c require h]oism4 ,x is ( importance to rem>k1 t al?\gh ,duty & ,nobl5ess1 ,puni%m5t & ,rew>d1 are 9 _! extremes unmi/akably contra/$1 yet !re may be a m>g9 ( d\bt or ambiguity 7l ! pass+ ( day into night74 ,?us1 express$ approbation1 g5]ally speak+1 belongs to ,rew>d2 yet1 if x has become a ?+ ( c\rse1 ! )hold+ ( x op]ates z a ,puni%m5t or a ,p5alty4 ,footnote #c3 ,! conditions t regulate ! au?oritative en=cem5t ( actions1 are exhau/ively giv5 9 works on ,jurisprud5ce1 b !y d n all conc]n ,e?ical ,!ory4 ,! exp$i5ce ( impos+ a rule dep5ds on ! importance ( ! object comp>$ ) ! co/ ( ! ma*9]y4 ,a c]ta9 l9e ( conduct may be highly b5eficial1 b may n be a fit case = co]cion4 ,= example1 ! law c en=ce only a m9imum ( s]vice3 n[1 if ! case be su*1 t a m9imum is useless1 z 9 help+ a %ip 9 di/ress1 or 9 support+ ag$ p>5ts1 x is mu*1 bett] to leave ! case to volunt>y impulses1 second$ by approbation or rew>d4 ,aga91 an (f5ce puni%$ by law mu/ be1 9 its nature1 def9able2 :i*1 makes a difficulty 9 su* cases z insult1 & defamation1 & _m species ( fraud4 ,f>!r1 ! (f5ce mu/ be easy ( detection1 s t ! va/ majority ( (f5d]s may n escape4 ,?is limits ! action ( ! law 9 un*a/ity4 ,footnote #d3 ,see1 on ! me?od ( ,sokrates1 ,app5dix ,a4 ,footnote #e3 ,9 sett+ =?1 ! ,e?ical ,end1 ! language ( ,sokrates 0 n always consi/5t4 ,he sometimes /at$ x1 z if x includ$ an indep5d5t ref]5ce to ! happ9ess ( o!rs2 at o!r times1 he speaks z if ! end 0 ! ag5t's own happ9ess1 to :i*1 ! happ9ess ( o!rs 0 ! greate/ & mo/ ess5tial means4 ,! fir/ view1 al?\gh n always adh]$ to1 prevails 9 ,x5ophon2 ! second appe>s mo/ 9 ,plato4 ,footnote #f3 ',:at ,plato "h calls ! ,k ( ,good1 or ,reason1--! j discrim9ation & comp>ative appreciation1 ( ,ends & ,means--appe>s 9 ! ,politikus & ! ,eu?ydmus1 "u ! title ( ! ,regal or ,political ,art1 z employ+ or direct+ ! results ( all o!r arts1 :i* are consid]$ z subord9ate3 9 ! ,protagoras1 "u ! title ( art ( calculation or m5suration3 9 ! ,philbus1 z measure & proportion3 9 ! ,pha$rus 79 reg>d to rhetoric7 z ! art ( turn+ to acc\nt1 = ! ma9 purpose ( p]suasion1 all ! special processes1 /ratagems1 decorations1 c41 imp>t$ by pr(essional ma/]s4 ,9 ! ,republic1 x is p]sonifi$ 9 ! few v5]able ,eld]s :o con/itute ! ,reason ( ! society1 & ^: directions all ! re/ 7,gu>dians & ,produc]s7 arc b\nd implicitly to foll[3 ! virtue ( ! subord9ates consi/+ 9 ?is implicit ob$i5ce4 ,9 ! ,leges1 x is def9$ z ! complete subjection 9 ! m9d1 ( pleasures & pa9s to "r ,reason1 )\t :i*1 no special aptitudes are wor?1 hav+4 ,9 ! ,x5ophontic ,memorabilia1 x /&s z a ,sokratic au?ority "u ! title ( ,sophrosyn or ,temp]ance3 & ! ,pr(itable is decl>$ id5tical )1 ! ,good1 z ! direct+ & limit+ pr9ciple = all human pursuits & proce$+s4' 7,grote's ,plato1 ,i41 #cfb47 ,footnote #g3 ',inde$ !re is no?+ m rem>kable 9 ! ,gorgias1 ?an ! mann] 9 :i*4 ,sokrates n only condemns ! unmeasur$1 exorbitant1 malefic5t desires1 b also depreciates & degrades all ! actualities ( life--all ! recreative & elegant arts1 includ+ music & poetry1 tragic z well z di?yrambic--all provision = ! mo/ ess5tial wants1 all protection aga9/ p>ticul> suff]+s & dang]s1 ev5 all s]vice r5d]$ to ano!r p]son 9 ! way ( relief or ( rescue--all ! effective ma9t5ance ( public organiz$ =ce1 su* z %ips1 docks1 walls1 arms1 c4 ,imm$iate satisfaction1 or relief1 & ^? :o conf] x1 are treat$ ) contempt1 & pres5t$ z 9 ho/ility to ! p]fection ( ! m5tal /ructure4 ,& x is 9 ?is po9t ( view1 t v>i\s ,platonic comm5tators extol 9 an especial mann] ! ,gorgias3 z recogniz+ an ,idea ( ,good sup]human & sup]natural1 radically disp>ate f pleasures & pa9s ( any human be+1 & incomm5surable )1 !m2 an ,univ]sal ,idea1 :i*1 ?\gh x is suppos$ to ca/ a di/ant light ^u its p>ticul>s1 is sep>at$ f !m by an incalculable space1 & is disc]nible only by ! ,platonic telescope4' 7,grote1 ,gorgias7 ,footnote #h3 ,!re is "s analogy betwe5 ! above doctr9e & ! great law ( ,self-cons]vation1 z exp\nd$ 9 ?is volume 7p4 #ge74 ,footnote #i3 ,ari/otle & ! ,p]ipatetics held t !re 7 tria g5]a bonorum3 7#a7 ,^? ( ! m9d 7m5s sana71 7#b7 ^? ( ! body1 & 7#c7 ext]nal advantages4 ,! ,/oics alt]$ ?is !ory by say+ t only ! fir/ ( ! ?ree 0 bonum2 ! o!rs 7 m]ely praeposita or sum5da4 ,! oppon5ts ( ! ,/oics cont5d$ t ?is 0 an alt]ation 9 words r ?an 9 sub/ance4 ,footnote #aj3 ,?is also might truly be said ( ! ,epicureans2 ?\gh ) !m x is n s mu* pride1 z a quiet self-satisfaction 9 escap+ pa9s & disappo9tm5ts t !y saw o!rs endur+4 ,see ! beg9n+ ( ,lucretius' second book1 & ! la/ epi/le ( ,epicurus to ,idom5eus4 ,footnote #aa3 ,?is 0 a lat] developm5t ( ,/oicism3 ! e>li] !ori/s laid x d[n t !re 7 no graduat+ m>ks bel[ ! level ( wisdom2 all %ortcom+s 7 on a p>4 ,good 0 a po9t1 ,evil 0 a po9t2 !re 7 gradations 9 ! praeposita or sum5da 7none ( :i* 7 good71 & 9 ! rejecta or rejici5da 7none ( :i* 7 evil71 b !re 0 no m or less good4 ,! idea ( advance by /eps t[>ds virtue or wisdom1 0 probably famili> to ,sokrates1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 & ,epicurus2 ! ,/oic !ories1 on ! o!r h&1 t5d$ to ?r[ x out ( sight1 ?\gh !y insi/$ /r5u\sly on ! necessity ( m5tal tra9+ & m$itation4 ,footnote #ab3 ,?is !ory 7tak5 9 its mo/ g5]al s5se1 & ap>t f diff]5ces 9 ! e/imation ( p>ticul> pleasures & pa9s71 _h be5 proclaim$ long be=e ! "t ( ,epicurus4 ,x is "o ( ! v>i\s !ories ( ,plato3 = 9 8 dialogue call$ ,protagoras 7?\gh 9 o!r dialogues he reasons diff]5tly7 we f9d x explicitly set =? & elaborately v9dicat$ by 8 pr9cipal spokesman1 ,sokrates1 aga9/ ! ,sophi/ ,protagoras4 ,x 0 also held by ,ari/ippus 7companion ( ,sokrates along ) ,plato7 & by 8 foll[]s aft] him1 call$ ! ,cyr5aics4 ,la/ly1 x 0 ma9ta9$ by ,eudoxus1 "o ( ! mo/ e/imable philosoph]s contempor>y ) ,ari/otle4 ,epicurus 0 ?us 9 no way ! orig9ator ( ! !ory3 b he _h 8 own way ( conceiv+ x--8 own body ( doctr9e physical1 cosmological1 & !ological1 ) :i* x 0 implicat$--& 8 own comp>ative valuation ( pleasures & pa9s4 ,footnote #ac3 ,! s\l1 accord+ to ,epicurus1 0 a subtle b en]getic comp\nd 7( air1 vap\r1 heat1 & ano!r nameless +r$i5t71 ) its be/ p>ts conc5trat$ 9 ! *e/1 yet p]vad+ & su/a9+ ! :ole body2 /ill1 h[ev]1 dep5d+ = its support on ! body1 & incapable ( sep>ate or disembodi$ cont9uance4 ,footnote #ad3 ,ari/ot4 ,de ,coelo4 ,,ii4a4#ab1 p4 #bib1 #bb1 #f1 #e4 ,9 ! ,e?ics1 ,ari/otle assigns !oriz+ contemplation to ! gods1 z ! only process wor?y ( _! exalt$ dignity & supreme felicity4 ,footnote #ae3 ,x5ophon ,memor4 ,i4 #a--aj2 ,,iv4 #c--ab4 ,footnote #af3 ,^! exhortations to active fri5d%ip 7 n unfruitful4 ,we "k1 ev5 by ! admission ( witnesses adv]se to ! ,epicurean doctr9es1 t ! h>mony among ! memb]s ( ! sect1 ) common v5]ation = ! f\nd]1 0 m m>k$ & m endur+ ?an t exhibit$ by any ( ! o!r philosophical sects4 ,epicurus himself 0 a man ( amiable p]sonal qualities3 8 te/am5t1 /ill rema9+1 %[s an affectionate reg>d1 bo? = 8 surviv+ fri5ds1 & = ! p]man5t atta*m5t ( ea*1 to ! o!rs1 z well z ( all to ! s*ool4 ,diog5es ,la]tius tells u--ne>ly #bjj ye>s aft] ,*ri/1 & #dej ye>s aft] ! dea? ( ,epicurus--t ! ,epicurean sect /ill cont9u$ its numb]s & dignity1 hav+ outla/$ its contempor>ies & rivals4 ,! h>mony among ! ,epicureans may be expla9$1 n m]ely f ! temp] ( ! ma/]1 b p>tly f ! doctr9es & plan ( life t he recomm5d$4 ,ambition & love ( p[] 7 disc\rag$3 rivalry among ! memb]s = success1 ei!r political or rhetorical1 0 at any rate a r>e exception3 all 7 taught to conf9e !mselves to t privacy ( life & love ( philosophical communion1 :i* alike requir$ & n\ri%$ ! mutual sympa?ies ( ! bro!rhood4 ,footnote #ag3 ,consi/5tly ) ?is view ( happ9ess1 ,epicurus advis$1 9 reg>d to politics1 quiet submission1 to e/abli%$ au?ority1 )\t active m$dl+ beyond :at necessity requir$4 ,footnote #ah3 ,locke exam9es ! ,innate ,pr9ciples put =?1 by ,"l ,h]b]t 9 8 book ,de ,v]itate1 #a/1 ,!re is a supreme gov]nor ( ! _w2 #bnd1 ,wor%ip is due to him2 #crd1 ,virtue1 jo9$ ) ,piety1 is ! be/ ,wor%ip2 #d?1 ,m5 mu/ rep5t ( _! s9s2 #e?1 ,!re w be a future life ( rew>ds & puni%m5ts4 ,locke admits ^! to be su* tru?s z a rational creature1 aft] due explanation giv5 !m1 c h>dly avoid att5d+ to2 b he w n all[ !m to be innate4 ,=1 ,fir/1 ,!re are o!r propositions )1 z good a claim z ^! to be ( ! numb] impr9t$ by nature on ! m9d4 ,secondly1 ,! m>ks assign$ are n f\nd 9 all ! propositions4 ,_m m51 & ev5 :ole nations1 disbelieve "s ( !m4 ,!n1 z to ! ?ird pr9ciple1--virtue1 jo9$ ) piety1 is ! be/ wor%ip ( ,god2 he _c see h[ x c be innate1 see+ t x conta9s a "n1 virtue1 ( ! greate/ possible unc]ta9ty ( mean+4 ,=1 if virtue be tak51 z commonly x is1 to d5ote ! actions acc\nt$ laudable 9 p>ticul> c\ntries1 !n ! proposition w be untrue4 ,or1 if x is tak5 to mean accordance ) ,god's w1 x w !n be true1 b unmean+2 t ,god w be pleas$ ) :at he comm&s is an id5tical ass]tion1 ( no use to any "o4 ,s ! f\r? proposition1--m5 mu/ rep5t ( _! s9s1--is op5 to ! same rem>k4 ,x is n possible t ,god %\ld engrave on m5's m9ds pr9ciples c\*$ on su* unc]ta9 words z ,virtue & ,s94 ,nay m1 z a g5]al ^w is no?+ 9 itself1 b only report z to p>ticul> facts1 ! k ( rules is a k ( a suffici5t numb] ( actions to det]m9e ! rule4 ,innate pr9ciples are n compatible ) ,nom9alism4 ,accord+ to ,"l ,h]b]t1 ! /&>d ( virtue is ! common notions 9 :i*1 all m5 agree4 ,!y are su*1 z ! foll[+1--to avoid evil1 to be temp]ate1 9 d\btful cases to *oose ! saf] c\rse1 n to d to o!rs :at y w\ld n wi% done to y\rself1 to be grateful to b5efactors1 c4 ,consci5ce is :at tea*es u to c>ry out ^? pr9ciples 9 practice4 ,x excites joy ov] good actions1 & produces abhorr5ce & rep5tance = bad4 ,^u x1 our rep5tance ( m9d & et]nal welf>e dep5d4 7,= an acc\nt ( ,"l ,h]b]t's common notions1 see ,app5dix ,b41 ,"l ,h]b]t ( ,*]bury47 ,footnote #ai3 ,9 ?is respect1 ,butl] diff]s f bo? ,%aftesbury & ,hut*eson4 ,) ,%aftesbury1 ! ma9 function ( ! moral s5se is to smile approval on b5evol5t affections1 by :i* an additional pleasure is ?r[n into ! scale aga9/ ! selfi% affections4 ,! sup]iority ( ! 'natural affections' ?us dep5ds on a d\ble pleasure1 _! intr9sically pleasureable "*1 & ! sup]add$ pleasure ( reflection4 ,! t5d5cy ( ,%aftesbury is "h to make b5evol5ce & virtue id5tical1 & at ! same "t to impair ! dis9t]e/$ "* ( b5evol5ce4 ,footnote #bj3 ,) ?is view1 we may comp>e ! psy*ology ( ,%aftesbury1 set =? 9 8 ',*>act]i/ics ( ,m51 ,mann]s1 & ,times4' ,! s\l has two k9ds ( affections--7#a7 ,self-affection1 lead+ to ! 'good ( ! private1' su* z love ( life1 rev5ge1 pleasure or aptitude t[>ds n\ri%m5t & ! means ( g5]ation1 emulation or love ( praise1 indol5ce2 & 7#b7 ,natural affections1 lead+ to ! good ( ! public4 ,! natural or spontane\s pr$om9ance ( b5evol5ce is goodness2 ! subjection ( ! selfi% by ef=t & tra9+ is virtue4 ,virtue consi/s g5]ally 9 ! prop] ex]cise ( ! sev]al affections4 ,footnote #ba3 ,butl]'s def9ition ( consci5ce1 & 8 :ole treatm5t ( x1 h creat$ a great puzzle ( classification1 z to :e!r he is to be plac$ along ) ! uphold]s ( a 'moral s5se4' ,%aftesbury is m explicit3 ',no soon] does ! eye op5 ^u figures1 ! e> to s\nds1 ?an /raight ! ,beautiful results1 & grace & h>mony are kn[n & ackn[l$g$4 ,no soon] are actions view$1 no soon] ! human affections disc]n$ 7& !y are1 mo/ ( !m1 z soon disc]n$ z felt71 ?an /raight an inw>d eye di/+ui%es ! fair & %apely1 ! amiable & admirable1 ap>t f ! de=m$1 ! f\l1 ! odi\s1 or ! despicable' ',9 a creature capable ( =m+ g5]al notions ( ?+s1 n only ! outw>d be+s :i* (f] !mselves to ! s5se1 are ! objects ( ! affections1 b ! v actions !mselves1 & ! affections ( pity1 k9dness1 & gratitude1 & _! contr>ies1 be+ br\ght into ! m9d by reflection1 become objects4 ,s t1 by means ( ?is reflect$ s5se1 !re arises ano!r k9d ( affection t[>ds ^! affections !mselves1 :i* h be5 already felt1 & are n[ become ! subject ( a new lik+ or dislike4' ,:at ?is 'moral s5se' approves is b5evol5ce1 & :5 its approval has be5 act$ ^u1 by subject+ ! selfi% affections1 'virtue' is atta9$4 ,footnote #bb3 ,x is in/ructive to comp>e ,m&eville's a priori guesses )1 ! results ( ,mr4 ,ma9e's hi/orical inve/igation into ! condition ( e>ly societies4 ,! evid5ce %[s t society orig9at$ 9 ! family sy/em4 ,m&eville conjectur$ t solit>y families w\ld nev] atta9 to gov]nm5t2 b ,mr4 ,ma9e consid]s t !re 0 a complete despotic gov]nm5t 9 s+le families4 ',!y h nei!r assemblies = consultation nor !mi/es1 b e "o ex]cises jurisdiction ov] 8 wives & *ildr51 & !y pay no reg>d to "o ano!r4' ,! next /age is ! rise ( g5tes & tribes1 :i* took place probably :5 a family held toge!r in/ead ( sep>at+ on ! dea? ( ! patri>*4 ,! features ( ?is /ate 7 *iefta9%ip & !mi/es1 t is1 gov]nm5t n by laws1 b by ex po/ facto decisions ^u cases z !y arose4 ,?is gradually develop$ into cu/om>y law1 :i* 0 9 its turn sup]s$$1 on ! inv5tion ( writ+1 by writt5 codes4 ,ma9e's ,anci5t ,law1 ,*ap4 ,v4 ,footnote #bc3 ,x is p]haps wor? :ile to quote a s5t5ce or two1 giv+ ! au?or's op9ion on ! !ory ( ! ,moral ,s5se4 ',aga9/ e acc\nt ( ! pr9ciple ( approbation1 :i* makes x dep5d ^u a peculi> s5tim5t1 di/9ct f e o!r1 ,i w\ld object1 t x is /range t ?is s5tim5t1 :i* ,provid5ce und\bt$ly int5d$ to be ! gov]n+ pr9ciple ( human nature1 %\ld1 hi!rto h be5 s little tak5 notice (1 z n to h got a "n 9 any language4 ,! ^w ,moral ,s5se is ( v late =mation1 & _c yet be consid]$ z mak+ "p ( ! ,engli% tongue4 ,! ^w approbation has b )9 ^! few ye>s be5 appropriat$ to d5ote peculi>ly any?+ ( ?is k9d4 ,9 propriety ( language we approve ( :atev] is entirely to our satisfaction--( ! =m ( a build+1 ( ! contrivance ( a ma*9e1 ( ! flav\r ( a di% ( meat4 ,! ^w consci5ce does n imm$iately d5ote any moral faculty by :i* we approve or disapprove4 ,consci5ce supposes1 inde$1 ! exi/5ce ( "s su* faculty1 & prop]ly signifies our consci\sness ( hav+ act$ agreeably or contr>y to its directions4 ,:5 love1 hatr$1 joy1 sorr[1 gratitude1 res5tm5t1 ) s _m o!r passions :i* are all suppos$ to be ! subjects ( ?is pr9ciple1 h made !mselves consid]able en\gh to get titles to "k !m by1 is x n surpris+ t ! sov]eign ( !m all %\ld hi!rto h be5 s little he$$2 t1 a few philosoph]s except$1 nobody has yet ?\ght x wor? :ile to be/[ a "n ^u x8' ,footnote #bd3 ,,adam ,,f]guson 7#agbd-ahaf71 is n ( suffici5t importance 9 purely ,e?ical !ory to dem& a full ab/ract4 ,! foll[+ rem>k on 8 views is made by ,pr(essor ,veit*3--',f]guson1 :ile hold+-) ,reid t ! notion ( ,rightness is n resolvable into utility1 or to be d]iv$ f sympa?y or a moral s5se1 goes a /ep beyond bo?4 ,reid & ,/ew>t 9 ! inquiry :i* he raises reg>d+ ! def9ite nature & gr\nd ( ,rightness itself4' ,! foll[+ is 8 def9ition ( ,moral ,good3--',moral good is ! specific excell5ce & felicity ( human nature1 & moral depravity its specific defect & wret*$ness4' ,! 'excell5ce' ( human nature consi/s 9 f\r ?+s1 drawn out aft] ! analogy ( ! c>d9al virtues3 7#a7 ,skill 7,wisdom72 7#b7 ,b5evol5ce1 ! pr9cipal excell5ce ( a creature de/9$ to p]=m a "p 9 social life 7,ju/ice72 7#c7 ,application ( m9d 7,temp]ance72 7#d7 ,=ce1 or en]gy to ov]come ob/acles 7,=titude74 ,reg>d+ ! motives to virtue1 ei!r virtue is its own rew>d1 or div9e rew>ds & puni%m5ts con/itute a sanction2 b1 9 any case1 ! motive is our own happ9ess4 ,all ! virtues enum]at$ are !mselves useful or pleasant1 b1 ov] & above1 !y give rise to an additional pleasure1 :5 !y are made ! subject ( reflection4 ,footnote #be3 ',! !ory :i*1 places ! /&>d ( morality 9 ! ,div9e nature mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) t :i*1 places x 9 ! arbitr>y w ( ,god4 ,god did n create morality by 8 w2 x is inh]5t 9 8 nature1 & co-et]nal ) himself2 nor c he be conceiv$ z capable ( rev]s+ x4' ,! di/9ction "h drawn does n avoid ! fatal objection to ! simpl] !ory1 namely1 t x takes away ! moral "* ( ,god4 ,! acts ( a sov]eign _c1 )1 any propriety1 z ,au/9 has %[n1 be t]m$ ei!r legal or illegal2 9 l mann]1 if ,god is a moral lawgiv]1 if 'he is acc\ntable to no "o1' !n '8 duty & 8 pleasure are undi/+ui%able f ea* o!r1' & he _c )\t self-contradiction be call$ a moral be+4 ,ev5 ^u ,mr4 ,mansel's own !ory1 x is h>dly correct to say t ',god did n create morality by 8 w4' ,morality involves two elem5ts--"o1 rules ( conduct1 ! o!r1 an obligation to obs]ve !m4 ,n[1 ! au?ority or obligator9ess ( moral laws has be5 made to dep5d ^u ! w ( ,god1 s t1 prior to t w1 morality c\ld n exi/4 ,h5ce ! only "p ( morality t c be co-et]nal ) ,god1 is simply ! rules ( morality1 )\t _! obligator9ess1 ! salt )\t its sav\r4 ,! clos+ ass]tion t ,god _c rev]se morality1 may mean ei!r t x w\ld be inconsi/5t ) 8 immutability to rev]se ! laws he _h himself e/abli%$1 or t he is compell$ by 8 nature to impose c]ta9 rules1 & no o!rs4 ,! fir/ supposition is a truism2 ! second is n prov$4 ,=1 s9ce ,mr4 ,mansel has disc>d$ z a fiction any 'absolute law ( duty1' x is h>d to conjecture :5ce he c\ld d]ive any compulsory *oice ( rules4 ,:y ,god comm&s "s ?+s 9 pref]5ce to o!rs--:e!r f a reg>d to ! happ9ess ( all 8 creatures1 or ( "s only2 :e!r )1 a view to 8 own glory1 or f con=mity ) "s ab/ract notion--has be5 mu* disput$1 & x is q conceivable t he may n adopt any ( ^? objects4 ,footnote #bf3 ,= help 9 und]/&+ ,kant's peculi> phraseology & g5]al po9t ( view1 ! read] is ref]r$ to ! %ort exposition ( 8 ,speculative ,philosophy 9 ,app5dix ,b4