,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,earth1 ,,volume ,i
    ,with ,proofs and ,illustrations1 in
 ,four ,parts    ,by    ,,james         
,,hutton1 ,m4,d4  ,f4,r4,s4,e4    #agie4
                ,,contents4      ,,part 
,i4    ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,earth2 with
 the ,examination of different ,opinions
 on  that ,subject4      ,,chap4 ,i4    
,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,earth2 or an      
,investigation of the ,laws observable  
in the  ,composition1 ,dissolution1 and 
,restoration of ,land upon the ,globe4  
,,sect4 ,i4--,prospect of the ,subject  
to be treated of4    ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,an 
,investigation of the ,natural          
,operations employed in  consolidating  
the ,strata of the ,globe4    ,,sect4   
,,iii4--,investigation of the ,natural  
,operations employed in the  ,production
 of ,land above the ,surface of the     
,sea4    ,,sect4 ,,iv4--,system of      
,decay and ,renovation observed in the  
,earth4      ,,chap4 ,,ii4    ,an       
,examination of ,mr ,,kirwan's          
,objections to the ,igneous ,origin of  

,stony  ,substances4      ,,chap4 ,,iii4
    ,of ,physical ,systems1 and         
,geological ,theories1 in general4      
,,chap4 ,,iv4    ,the ,supposition of   
,primitive ,mountains refuted4          
,,chap4 ,v4    ,concerning that which   
may be termed the ,primary ,part of the 
,present  ,earth4      ,,chap4 ,,vi4    
,the ,theory of interchanging ,sea and  
,land1 illustrated by an  ,investigation
 of the ,primary and ,secondary ,strata 
#dba4    ,,sect4 ,i4--,a distinct view  
of the ,primary and ,secondary ,strata4 
,,sect4 ,,ii4--,the ,theory confirmed   
from ,observations made on purpose to   
elucidate the ,subject4      ,,chap4    
,,vii4    ,opinions examined with regard
 to ,petrifaction1 or ,mineral          
,concretion4      ,,chap4 ,,viii4       
,the ,nature of ,mineral ,coal1 and the 
,formation of ,bituminous ,strata1      
investigated4    ,,sect4 ,i4--,purpose  
of this ,inquiry4    ,,sect4            
,,ii4--,natural ,history of ,coal       
,strata1 and ,theory of this            

,geological ,operation4    ,,sect4      
,,iii4--,the ,mineralogical ,operations 
of the ,earth illustrated from  the     
,theory of ,fossil ,coal4               
,,part ,i4    ,,theory ,,of ,,the       
,,earth2    ,,with ,,the                
,,examination    ,,of    ,,different    
,,opinions ,,on ,,that ,,subject4       
,,in ,,eight ,,chapters4                
,,chapter ,i4    ,,theory of the        
,,earth2 or an ,investigation of the    
,laws observable in the  ,composition1  
,dissolution1 and ,restoration1 of ,land
 upon the ,globe4      ,,section ,i4    
,prospect of the ,subject to be treated 
of4    ,when we trace the parts of which
 this terrestrial system is composed1   
and when we view the general connection 
of those several parts1 the  whole      
presents a machine of a peculiar        
construction by which it is  adapted to 
a certain end4 ,we perceive a fabric1   
erected in wisdom1 to  obtain a purpose 
worthy of the power that is apparent in 
the production  of it4    ,we know      

little of the earth's internal parts1 or
 of the materials which  compose it at  
any considerable depth below the        
surface4 ,but upon the  surface of this 
globe1 the more inert matter is         
replenished with plants1  and with      
animal and intellectual beings4         
,where so many living creatures are to  
ply their respective powers1 in         
pursuing the end for which they were    
intended1 we are not to look for  nature
 in a quiescent state2 matter itself    
must be in motion1 and the  scenes of   
life a continued or repeated series of  
agitations and events4    ,this globe of
 the earth is a habitable world2 and on 
its fitness for  this purpose1 our sense
 of wisdom in its formation must depend4
 ,to judge  of this point1 we must keep 
in view1 not only the end1 but the means
  also by which that end is obtained4   
,these are1 the form of the whole1  the 
materials of which it is composed1 and  
the several powers which  concur1       
counteract1 or balance one another1 in  

procuring the general  result4    ,the  
form and constitution of the mass are   
not more evidently calculated  for the  
purpose of this earth as a habitable    
world1 than are the various  substances 
of which that complicated body is       
composed4 ,soft and hard  parts         
variously combine to form a medium      
consistence1 adapted to the use  of     
plants and animals2 wet and dry are     
properly mixed for nutrition1  or the   
support of those growing bodies2 and hot
 and cold produce a  temperature or     
climate no less required than a soil3   
,insomuch1 that  there is not any       
particular1 respecting either the       
qualities of the  materials1 or the     
construction of the machine1 more       
obvious to  our perception1 than are the
 presence and efficacy of design and    
intelligence in the power that conducts 
the work4    ,in taking this view of    
things1 where ends and means are made   
the object  of attention1 we may hope to
 find a principle upon which the        

comparative  importance of parts in the 
system of nature may be estimated1 and  
also  a rule for selecting the object of
 our inquiries4 ,under this direction1  
science may find a fit subject of       
investigation in every particular1      
whether of form1 quality1 or active     
power1 that presents itself in  this    
system of motion and of life2 and which1
 without a proper  attention to this    
character of the system1 might appear   
anomalous and  incomprehensible4    ,it 
is not only by seeing those general     
operations of the globe which  depend   
upon its peculiar construction as a     
machine1 but also by  perceiving how far
 the particulars1 in the construction of
 that machine1  depend upon the general 
operations of the globe1 that we are    
enabled to  understand the constitution 
of this earth as a thing formed by      
design4  ,we shall thus also be led to  
acknowledge an order1 not unworthy of   
,divine wisdom1 in a subject which1 in  
another view1 has appeared as the  work 

of chance1 or as absolute disorder and  
confusion4    ,to acquire a general or  
comprehensive view of this mechanism of 
the  globe1 by which it is adapted to   
the purpose of being a habitable world1 
it is necessary to distinguish three    
different bodies which compose the      
whole4 ,these are1 a solid body of      
earth1 an aqueous body of sea1 and an   
elastic fluid of air4    ,it is the     
proper shape and disposition of these   
three bodies that form  this globe into 
a habitable world2 and it is the manner 
in which these  constituent bodies are  
adjusted to each other1 and the laws of 
action  by which they are maintained in 
their proper qualities and respective   
departments1 that form the ,theory of   
the machine which we are now to         
examine4    ,let us begin with some     
general sketch of the particulars now   
mentioned4    #ast1 ,there is a central 
body in the globe4 ,this body supports  
those  parts which come to be more      
immediately exposed to our view1 or     

which  may be examined by our sense and 
observation4 ,this first part is        
commonly supposed to be solid and inert2
 but such a conclusion is only  mere    
conjecture2 and we shall afterwards find
 occasion1 perhaps1 to form  another    
judgment in relation to this subject1   
after we have examined  strictly1 upon  
scientific principles1 what appears upon
 the surface1 and  have formed          
conclusions concerning that which must  
have been transacted  in some more      
central part4    #b;dly1 ,we find a     
fluid body of water4 ,this1 by          
gravitation1 is reduced  to a spherical 
form1 and by the centrifugal force of   
the earth's  rotation1 is become oblate4
 ,the purpose of this fluid body is     
essential  in the constitution of the   
world2 for1 besides affording the means 
of  life and motion to a multifarious   
race of animals1 it is the source of    
growth and circulation to the organized 
bodies of this earth1 in being  the     
receptacle of the rivers1 and the       

fountain of our vapours4    #c;dly1 ,we 
have an irregular body of land raised   
above the level of the  ocean4 ,this1 no
 doubt1 is the smallest portion of the  
globe2 but it is  the part to us by far 
most interesting4 ,it is upon the       
surface of this  part that plants are   
made to grow2 consequently1 it is by    
virtue of  this land that animal life1  
as well as vegetation1 is sustained in  
this  world4    ,lastly1 ,we have a     
surrounding body of atmosphere1 which   
completes the  globe4 ,this vital fluid 
is no less necessary1 in the            
constitution of the  world1 than are the
 other parts2 for there is hardly an    
operation upon  the surface of the      
earth1 that is not conducted or promoted
 by its  means4 ,it is a necessary      
condition for the sustenance of fire2 it
 is the  breath of life to animals2 it  
is at least an instrument in vegetation2
  and1 while it contributes to give     
fertility and health to things that     
grow1 it is employed in preventing      

noxious effects from such as go into    
corruption4 ,in short1 it is the proper 
means of circulation for the  matter of 
this world1 by raising up the water of  
the ocean1 and pouring  it forth upon   
the surface of the earth4    ,such is   
the mechanism of the globe3 ,let us now 
mention some of those  powers by which  
motion is produced1 and activity        
procured to the mere  machine4          
,first1 ,there is the progressive force1
 or moving power1 by which this         
planetary body1 if solely actuated1     
would depart continually from the  path 
which it now pursues1 and thus be for   
ever removed from its end1  whether as a
 planetary body1 or as a globe          
sustaining plants and  animals1 which   
may be termed a living world4    ,but   
this moving body is also actuated by    
gravitation1 which inclines  it directly
 to the central body of the sun4 ,thus  
it is made to revolve  about that       
luminary1 and to preserve its path4     
,it is also upon the same principles1   

that each particular part upon the      
surface of this globe1 is alternately   
exposed to the influence of light  and  
darkness1 in the diurnal rotation of the
 earth1 as well as in its  annual       
revolution4 ,in this manner are produced
 the vicissitudes of night  and day1 so 
variable in the different latitudes from
 the equator to the  pole1 and so       
beautifully calculated to equalise the  
benefits of light1  so variously        
distributed in the different regions of 
the globe4    ,gravitation1 and the vis 
infita of matter1 thus form the first   
two  powers distinguishable in the      
operations of our system1 and wisely    
adapted to the purpose for which they   
are employed4    ,we next observe the   
influence of light and heat1 of cold and
  condensation4 ,it is by means of these
 two powers that the various  operations
 of this living world are more          
immediately transacted2  although the   
other powers are no less required1 in   
order to produce or  modify these great 

agents in the economy of life1 and      
system of our  changing things4    ,we  
do not now inquire into the nature of   
those powers1 or investigate  the laws  
of light and heat1 of cold and          
condemnation1 by which the  various     
purposes of this world are accomplished2
 we are only to mention  those effects  
which are made sensible to the common   
understanding of  mankind1 and which    
necessarily imply a power that is       
employed4 ,thus1  it is by the operation
 of those powers that the varieties of  
season  in spring and autumn are        
obtained1 that we are blessed with the  
vicissitudes of summer's heat and       
winter's cold1 and that we possess the  
benefit of artificial light and culinary
 fire4    ,we are thus bountifully      
provided with the necessaries of life2  
we are  supplied with things conducive  
to the growth and preservation of our   
animal nature1 and with fit subjects to 
employ and to nourish our  intellectual 
powers4    ,there are other actuating   

powers employed in the operations of    
this  globe1 which we are little more   
than able to enumerate2 such are those  
of electricity1 magnetism1 and          
subterraneous heat or mineral fire4     
,powers of such magnitude or force1 are 
not to be supposed useless in a  machine
 contrived surely not without wisdom2   
but they are mentioned here  chiefly on 
account of their general effect2 and it 
is sufficient to have  named powers1 of 
which the actual existence is well      
known1 but of which  the proper use in  
the constitution of the world is still  
obscure4  ,the laws of electricity and  
magnetism have been well examined by    
philosophers2 but the purposes of those 
powers in the economy of the  globe have
 not been discovered4 ,subterraneous    
fire1 again1 although the  most         
conspicuous in the operations of this   
world1 and often examined by            
philosophers1 is a power which has been 
still less understood1 whether  with    
regard to its efficient or final cause4 

,it has hitherto appeared  more like the
 accident of natural things1 than the   
inherent property of  the mineral       
region4 ,it is in this last light1      
however1 that ,i wish to  exhibit it1 as
 a great power acting a material part in
 the operations of  the globe1 and as an
 essential part in the constitution of  
this world4    ,we have thus surveyed   
the machine in general1 with those      
moving powers1  by which its operations1
 diversified almost ad infinitum1 are   
performed4 ,let us now confine our view1
 more particularly1 to that part  of the
 machine on which we dwell1 that so we  
may consider the natural  consequences  
of those operations which1 being within 
our view1 we are  better qualified to   
examine4    ,this subject is important  
to the human race1 to the possessor of  
this  world1 to the intelligent being   
,man1 who foresees events to come1 and  
who1 in contemplating his future        
interest1 is led to inquire concerning  
causes1 in order that he may judge of   

events which otherwise he could  not    
know4    ,if1 in pursuing this object1  
we employ our skill in research1 not in 
forming vain conjectures2 and if data   
are to be found1 on which  ,science may 
form just conclusions1 we should not    
long remain in  ignorance with respect  
to the natural history of this earth1 a 
subject  on which hitherto opinion only1
 and not evidence1 has decided3 ,for in 
no  subject1 perhaps1 is there naturally
 less defect of evidence1 although      
philosophers1 led by prejudice1 or      
misguided by false theory1 may have     
neglected to employ that light by which 
they should have seen the system  of    
this world4    ,but to proceed in       
pursuing a little farther our general or
 preparatory  ideas4 ,a solid body of   
land could not have answered the purpose
 of a  habitable world2 for1 a soil is  
necessary to the growth of plants2 and a
  soil is nothing but the materials     
collected from the destruction of the   
solid land4 ,therefore1 the surface of  

this land1 inhabited by man1  and       
covered with plants and animals1 is made
 by nature to decay1 in  dissolving from
 that hard and1 compact state in which  
it is found below  the soil2 and this   
soil is necessarily washed away1 by the 
continual  circulation of the water1    
running from the summits of the         
mountains  towards the general          
receptacle of that fluid4 ,the heights  
of our land  are thus levelled with the 
shores2 our fertile plains are formed   
from the  ruins of the mountains2 and   
those travelling materials are still    
pursued  by the moving water1 and       
propelled along the inclined surface of 
the  earth#a ,these moveable materials1 
delivered into the sea1 cannot1 for  a  
long continuance1 rest upon the shore2  
for1 by the agitation of the  winds1 the
 tides and currents1 every moveable     
thing is carried  farther and farther   
along the shelving bottom of the sea1   
towards the  unfathomable regions of the
 ocean4    ,note #a3 ,m4 de ,luc1 in his

 second letter to me1 published in the  
,monthly  ,review for #agij1 says1 ,you 
ought to have proved that both gravel   
and  sand are carried from our          
continents to the sea2 which1 on the    
contrary1  ,i shall prove not to be the 
case4 ,he then endeavours to prove his  
assertion1 by observing1 that1 in       
certain places where there is not       
either sufficient declivity in the      
surface1 or force in the running  water1
 gravel and sand are made to rest1 and  
do not travel to the sea4  ,this surely 
is a fact to which ,i most readily      
assent2 but1 on the other  hand1 ,i hope
 he will acknowledge1 that1 where there 
is sufficient  declivity in the surface1
 or force in the running water1 sand1   
gravel1  and stones1 are travelled upon 
the land1 and are thus carried into the 
sea--at last4 ,this is all that my      
theory requires1 and this is what ,i    
believe will be admitted1 without any   
farther proof on my part4    ,if the    
vegetable soil is thus constantly       

removed from the surface of the  land1  
and if its place is thus to be supplied 
from the dissolution of  the solid      
earth1 as here represented1 we may      
perceive an end to this  beautiful      
machine2 an end1 arising from no error  
in its constitution as  a world1 but    
from that destructibility of its land   
which is so necessary  in the system of 
the globe1 in the economy of life and   
vegetation4    ,the immense time        
necessarily required for this total     
destruction of  the land1 must not be   
opposed to that view of future events1  
which is  indicated by the surest facts1
 and most approved principles4 ,time1   
which  measures every thing in our idea1
 and is often deficient to our schemes1 
is to nature endless and as nothing2 it 
cannot limit that by which alone  it had
 existence2 and1 as the natural course  
of time1 which to us seems  infinite1   
cannot be bounded by any operation that 
may have an end1 the  progress of things
 upon this globe1 that is1 the course of

 nature1  cannot be limited by time1    
which must proceed in a continual       
succession4  ,we are1 therefore1 to     
consider as inevitable the deduction of 
our land1  so far as effected by those  
operations which are necessary in the   
purpose of the globe1 considered as a   
habitable world2 and1 so far as  we have
 not examined any other part of the     
economy of nature1 in which  other      
operations and a different intention    
might appear4    ,we have now considered
 the globe of this earth as a machine1  
constructed  upon chemical as well as   
mechanical principles1 by which its     
different  parts are all adapted1 in    
form1 in quality1 and in quantity1 to a 
certain end2 an end attained with       
certainty or success2 and an end from   
which we may perceive wisdom1 in        
contemplating the means employed4       
,but is this world to be considered thus
 merely as a machine1 to last no  longer
 than its parts retain their present    
position1 their proper forms  and       

qualities8 ,or may it not be also       
considered as an organized body8  such  
as has a constitution in which the      
necessary decay of the machine  is      
naturally repaired1 in the exertion of  
those productive powers by  which it had
 been formed4    ,this is the view in   
which we are now to examine the globe2  
to see if  there be1 in the constitution
 of this world1 a reproductive          
operation1  by which a ruined           
constitution may be again repaired1 and 
a duration or  stability thus procured  
to the machine1 considered as a world   
sustaining  plants and animals4    ,if  
no such reproductive power1 or reforming
 operation1 after due  inquiry1 is to be
 found in the constitution of this      
world1 we should  have reason to        
conclude1 that the system of this earth 
has either been  intentionally made     
imperfect1 or has not been the work of  
infinite power  and wisdom4    ,here is 
an important question1 therefore1 with  
regard to the  constitution of this     

globe2 a question which1 perhaps1 it is 
in  the power of man's sagacity to      
resolve2 and a question which1 if       
satisfactorily resolved1 might add some 
lustre to science and the human         
intellect4    ,animated with this great1
 this interesting view1 let us strictly 
examine  our principles1 in order to    
avoid fallacy in our reasoning2 and let 
us  endeavour to support our attention1 
in developing a subject that is  vast in
 its extent1 as well as intricate in the
 relation of parts to be  stated4       
,the globe of this earth is evidently   
made for man4 ,he alone1 of all the     
beings which have life upon this body1  
enjoys the whole and every part2  he    
alone is capable of knowing the nature  
of this world1 which he thus  possesses 
in virtue of his proper right2 and he   
alone can make the  knowledge of this   
system a source of pleasure1 and the    
means of  happiness4    ,man alone1 of  
all the animated beings which enjoy the 
benefits of this  earth1 employs the    

knowledge which he there receives1 in   
leading him to  judge of the intention  
of things1 as well as of the means by   
which they  are brought about2 and he   
alone is thus made to enjoy1 in         
contemplation  as well as sensual       
pleasure1 all the good that may be      
observed in the  constitution of this   
world2 he1 therefore1 should be made the
 first  subject of inquiry4    ,now1 if 
we are to take the written history of   
man for the rule by which  we should    
judge of the time when the species first
 began1 that period  would be but little
 removed from the present state of      
things4 ,the ,mosaic  history places    
this beginning of man at no great       
distance2 and there  has not been found1
 in natural history1 any document by    
which a high  antiquity might be        
attributed to the human race4 ,but this 
is not the  case with regard to the     
inferior species of animals1            
particularly those  which inhabit the   
ocean and its shores4 ,we find1 in      

natural history1  monuments which prove 
that those animals had long existed2 and
 we thus  procure a measure for the     
computation of a period of time         
extremely  remote1 though far from being
 precisely ascertained4    ,in examining
 things present1 we have data from which
 to reason with  regard to what has     
been2 and1 from what has actually been1 
we have  data for concluding with regard
 to that which is to happen hereafter4  
,therefore1 upon the supposition that   
the operations of nature are  equable   
and steady1 we find1 in natural         
appearances1 means for  concluding a    
certain portion of time to have         
necessarily elapsed1 in the  production 
of those events of which we see the     
effects4    ,it is thus that1 in finding
 the relics of sea-animals of every kind
  in the solid body of our earth1 a     
natural history of those animals  is    
formed1 which includes a certain portion
 of time2 and1 for the  ascertaining    
this portion of time1 we must again have

 recourse to the  regular operations of 
this world4 ,we shall thus arrive at    
facts which  indicate a period to which 
no other species of chronology is able  
to  remount4    ,in what follows1       
therefore1 we are to examine the        
construction of the  present earth1 in  
order to understand the natural         
operations of time  past2 to acquire    
principles1 by which we may conclude    
with regard to the  future course of    
things1 or judge of those operations1 by
 which a world1  so wisely ordered1 goes
 into decay2 and to learn1 by what means
 such a  decayed world may be renovated1
 or the waste of habitable land upon the
  globe repaired4    ,this1 therefore1  
is the object which we are to have in   
view during this  physical              
investigation2 this is the end to which 
are to be directed all  the steps in our
 cosmological pursuit4    ,the solid    
parts of the globe are1 in general1     
composed of sand1 of  gravel1 of        
argillaceous and calcareous strata1 or  

of the various  compositions of these   
with some other substances1 which it is 
not  necessary now to mention4 ,sand is 
separated and sized by streams and      
currents2 gravel is formed by the mutual
 attrition of stones agitated  in water2
 and marly1 or argillaceous strata1 have
 been collected1 by  subsiding in water 
with which those earthy substances had  
been floated4  ,thus1 so far as the     
earth is formed of these materials1 that
 solid body  would appear to have been  
the production of water1 winds1 and     
tides4    ,but that which renders the   
original of our land clear and evident1 
is the immense quantities of calcareous 
bodies which had belonged  to animals1  
and the intimate connection of these    
masses of animal  production with the   
other strata of the land4 ,for it is to 
be proved1  that all these calcareous   
bodies1 from the collection of which the
  strata were formed1 have belonged to  
the sea1 and were produced in it4    ,we
 find the marks of marine animals in the

 most solid parts of the  earth2        
consequently1 those solid parts have    
been formed after the ocean  was        
inhabited by those animals which are    
proper to that fluid medium4  ,if1      
therefore1 we knew the natural history  
of those solid parts1 and  could trace  
the operations of the globe1 by which   
they had been formed1  we would have    
some means for computing the time       
through which those  species of animals 
have continued to live4 ,but how shall  
we describe a  process which nobody has 
seen performed1 and of which no written 
history gives any account8 ,this is only
 to be investigated1 first1 in          
examining the nature of those solid     
bodies1 the history of which we want  to
 know2 and1 #b;dly1 ,in examining the   
natural operations of the globe1  in    
order to see if there now actually exist
 such operations1 as1 from  the nature  
of the solid bodies1 appear to have been
 necessary to their  formation4    ,but1
 before entering more particularly into 

those points of discussion1  by which   
the question is to be resolved1 let us  
take a general view of  the subject1 in 
order to see what it is which science   
and observation  must decide4    ,in all
 the regions of the globe1 immense      
masses are found1 which1 though  at     
present in the most solid state1 appear 
to have been formed by the  collection  
of the calcareous exuviae of marine     
animals4 ,the question  at present is   
not1 in what manner those collections of
 calcareous relics  have become a       
perfect solid body1 and have been       
changed from an animal  to a mineral    
substance2 for this is a subject that   
will be afterwards  considered2 we are  
now only inquiring1 if such is truly the
 origin of  those mineral masses4       
,that all the masses of marble or       
limestone are composed of the           
calcareous matter of marine bodies1 may 
be concluded from the following  facts3 
#ast1 ,there are few beds of marble or  
limestone1 in which may not be  found   

some of those objects which indicate the
 marine origin of the  mass4 ,if1 for   
example1 in a mass of marble1 taken from
 a quarry upon the  top of the ,alps or 
,andes#b1 there shall be found one      
cockle-shell1 or  piece of coral1 it    
must be concluded1 that this bed of     
stone had been  originally formed at the
 bottom of the sea1 as much as another  
bed which  is evidently composed almost 
altogether of cockle-shells and coral4  
,if  one bed of limestone is thus found 
to have been of a marine origin1  every 
concomitant bed of the same kind must be
 also concluded to have  been formed in 
the same ,manner4    ,note #b3 ,cette   
sommit leve de #ihd toises au dessus de 
notre lac1 et  par consquent de #aagb au
 dessus de la mer1 est remarquable en ce
 que  l'on y voit des fragmens d'hutres 
ptrifis4--,cette montagne est  domine   
par un rocher escarp1 qui s'il n'est pas
 inaccessible1 est du  moins d'un bien  
difficile accs2 il parot                
presqu'entirement compos  de coquillages

 ptrifis1 renferms dans un roc calcaire1
 ou marbre  grossier noirtre4 ,les      
fragmens qui s'en dtachent1 et que l'on 
rencontre en montant  la ,croix de fer1 
sont remplis de turbinites de           
diffrentes espces4 ,m4 ,,de ,,saussure1 
,voyage dans les ,alpes1 p4 #cid4    ,we
 thus shall find the greatest part of   
the calcareous masses upon this  globe  
to have originated from marine          
calcareous bodies2 for whether  we      
examine marbles1 limestones1 or such    
solid masses as are perfectly  changed  
from the state of earth1 and are become 
compact and hard1 or  whether we examine
 the soft1 earthy1 chalky or marly      
strata1 of which so  much of this earth 
is composed1 we still find evident      
proofs1 that those  beds had their      
origin from materials deposited at the  
bottom of the sea2  and that they have  
the calcareous substance which they     
contain1 from the  same source as the   
marbles or the limestones4    #b;dly1   
,in those calcareous strata1 which are  

evidently of marine  origin1 there are  
many parts that are of a sparry         
structure1 that is  to say1 the original
 texture of those beds1 in such places1 
has been  dissolved1 and a new structure
 has been assumed1 which is peculiar to 
a certain state of the calcareous earth4
 ,this change is produced by            
crystallisation1 in consequence of a    
previous state of fluidity1 which  has  
so disposed the concreting parts1 as to 
allow them to assume a  regular shape   
and structure proper to that substance4 
,a body1 whose  external form has been  
modified by this process1 is called a   
crystal2  one whose internal arrangement
 of parts is determined by it1 is said  
to  be of a sparry structure2 and this  
is known from its fracture4    #c;dly1  
,there are1 in all the regions of the   
earth1 huge masses of  calcareous       
matter1 in that crystalline form of     
sparry state1 in  which perhaps no      
vestige can be found of any organised   
body1 nor any  indication that such     

calcareous matter had belonged to       
animals2 but  as1 in other masses1 this 
sparry structure1 or crystalline state1 
is  evidently assumed by the marine     
calcareous substances1 in operations    
which are natural to the globe1 and     
which are necessary to the              
consolidation of the strata1 it does not
 appear1 that the sparry masses1  in    
which no figured body is formed1 have   
been originally different from  other   
masses1 which1 being only crystallised  
in part1 and in part still  retaining   
their original form1 leave ample        
evidence of their marine  origin#c4     
,note #c3 ,m4 de ,saussure1 describing  
the marble of ,aigle1 says1 ,les  tables
 polies de ce marbre prsentent          
frquemment des coquillages1 dont  la    
plupart sont des peignes stris1 et de   
trs-beaux madrpores4 ,tous  ces corps   
marins on pris entierement la nature et 
le grain mme  du marbre1 on n'y voit    
presque jamais la coquille sous sa forme
  originaire4    ,we are led1 in this   

manner1 to conclude1 that all the strata
 of the  earth1 not only those          
consisting of such calcareous masses1   
but others  superincumbent upon these1  
have had their origin at the bottom of  
the  sea1 by the collection of sand and 
gravel1 of shells1 of coralline  and    
crustaceous bodies1 and of earths and   
clays1 variously mixed1  or separated   
and accumulated4 ,here is a general     
conclusion1 well  authenticated in the  
appearances of nature1 and highly       
important in the  natural history of the
 earth4    ,the general amount of our   
reasoning is this1 that nine-tenths1    
perhaps1  or ninety-nine hundredths of  
this earth1 so far as we see1 have  been
 formed by natural operations of the    
globe1 in collecting loose  materials1  
and depositing them at the bottom of the
 sea2 consolidating  those collections  
in various degrees1 and either elevating
 those  consolidated masses above the   
level on which they were formed1 or     
lowering the level of that sea4         

,there is a part of the solid earth     
which we may at present neglect1 not  as
 being persuaded that this part may not 
also be found to come under  the general
 rule of formation with the rest1 but as
 considering this  part to be of no     
consequence in forming a general rule1  
which shall  comprehend almost the      
whole1 without doing it absolutely4     
,this excluded  part consists of certain
 mountains and masses of granite4 ,these
 are  thought to be still older in their
 formation1 and are said never to  be   
found superincumbent on strata which    
must be acknowledged as the  productions
 of the sea4    ,having thus found the  
greater part1 if not the whole1 of the  
solid land  to have been originally     
composed at the bottom of the sea1 we   
may now1  in order to form a proper idea
 of these operations1 suppose the whole 
of  this seaborn land to be again       
dispersed along the bottom of the ocean1
  the surface of which would rise       
proportionally over the globe4 ,we would

  thus have a spheroid of water1 with   
granite rocks and islands scattered     
here and there4 ,but this would not be  
the world which we inhabit2  therefore1 
the question now is1 how such           
continents1 as we actually have  upon   
the globe1 could be erected above the   
level of the sea4    ,it must be        
evident1 that no motion of the sea1     
caused by this earth  revolving in the  
solar system1 could bring about that    
end2 for let us  suppose the axis of the
 earth to be changed from the present   
poles1 and  placed in the equinoctial   
line1 the consequence of this might1    
indeed1  be the formation of a continent
 of land about each new pole1 from      
whence  the sea would run towards the   
new equator2 but all the rest of the    
globe  would remain an ocean4 ,some new 
points might be discovered1 and others1 
which before appeared above the surface 
of the sea1 would be sunk by  the rising
 of the water2 but1 on the whole1 land  
could only be gained  substantially at  

the poles4 ,such a supposition1 as this1
 if applied to  the present state of    
things1 would be destitute of every     
support1 as  being incapable of         
explaining what appears4    ,but even   
allowing that1 by the changed axis of   
the earth1 or any other  operation of   
the globe1 as a planetary body revolving
 in the solar  system1 great continents 
of land could have been erected from the
 place  of their formation1 the bottom  
of the sea1 and placed in a higher      
elevation1 compared with the surface of 
that water1 yet such a continent  as    
this could not have continued stationary
 for many thousand years2 nor  could a  
continent of this kind have presented to
 us1 every where within  its body1      
masses of consolidated marble1 and other
 mineral substances1  in a state as     
different as possible from that in which
 they were1 when  originally collected  
together in the sea4    ,consequently1  
besides an operation1 by which the earth
 at the bottom of  the sea should be    

converted into an elevated land1 or     
placed high above  the level of the     
ocean1 there is required1 in the        
operations of the  globe1 a             
consolidating power1 by which the loose 
materials that had  subsided from water1
 should be formed into masses of the    
most perfect  solidity1 having neither  
water nor vacuity between their various 
constituent parts1 nor in the pores of  
those constituent parts  themselves4    
,here is an operation of the globe1     
whether chemical or mechanical1 which   
is necessarily connected with the       
formation of our present continents3    
,therefore1 had we a proper             
understanding of this secret operation1 
we  might thereby be enabled to form an 
opinion1 with regard to the nature  of  
that unknown power1 by which the        
continents have been placed above  the  
surface of that water wherein they had  
their birth4    ,if this consolidating  
operation be performed at the bottom of 
the  ocean1 or under great depths of the

 earth1 of which our continents are     
composed1 we cannot be witnesses to this
 mineral process1 or acquire the        
knowledge of natural causes1 by         
immediately observing the changes which 
they produce2 but though we have not    
this immediate observation of those     
changes of bodies1 we have1 in science1 
the means of reasoning from  distant    
events2 consequently1 of discovering1 in
 the general powers of  nature1 causes  
for those events of which we see the    
effects4    ,that the consolidating     
operation1 in general1 lies out of the  
reach of  our immediate observation1    
will appear from the following truth3   
,all the  consolidated masses1 of which 
we now inquire into the cause1 are1 upon
  the surface of the earth1 in a state  
of general decay1 although the  various 
natures of those bodies admit of that   
dissolution in very  different degrees#d
    ,from every view of the subject1    
therefore1 we are directed to look into 
those consolidated masses themselves1 in

 order to find principles from  whence  
to judge of those operations by which   
they had attained their  hardness or    
consolidated state4    ,it must be      
evident1 that nothing but the most      
general acquaintance with  the laws of  
acting substances1 and with those of    
bodies changing by the  powers of       
nature1 can enable us to set about this 
undertaking with any  reasonable        
prospect of success2 and here the       
science of ,chemistry must  be brought  
particularly to our aid2 for this       
science1 having for its  object the     
changes produced upon the sensible      
qualities1 as they are  called1 of      
bodies1 by its means we may be enabled  
to judge of that which  is possible     
according to the laws of nature1 and of 
that which1 in like  manner1 we must    
consider as impossible4    ,note #d3    
,stalactical and certain ferruginous    
concretions may seem  to form an        
exception to the generality of this     
proposition4 ,but an  objection of this 

kind could only arise from a partial    
view of things2  for the concretion here
 is only temporary2 it is in consequence
 of a  solution1 and it is to be        
followed by a dissolution1 which will be
  treated of in its proper place4       
,whatever conclusions1 therefore1 by    
means of this science1 shall be         
attained1 in just reasoning from natural
 appearances1 this must be held  as     
evidence1 where more immediate proof    
cannot be obtained2 and1 in  a physical 
subject1 where things actual are        
concerned1 and not the  imaginations of 
the human mind1 this proof will be      
considered as  amounting to a           
demonstration4      ,,section ,,ii4     
,an ,investigation of the ,natural      
,operations employed in consolidating   
the ,strata of the ,globe4    ,we are   
now about to investigate those mineral  
operations of the globe by  which the   
qualities of hardness and solidity1     
consequently of strength  and           
durability1 are procured to great bodies

 of this earth4    ,that those qualities
 are not original to such bodies1 but   
actually  superinduced in the natural   
operations of the earth1 will appear    
from  the examination of some of the    
hardest and most solid of those mineral 
bodies4 ,in such masses1 7for example of
 flint and agate17 we find  included    
shells and coralline bodies4            
,consequently1 there must be a  natural 
operation in the globe for consolidating
 and hardening its soft  and loose      
materials4 ,it is concerning the nature 
of this consolidating  operation that we
 are now to inquire4    ,there are just 
two ways in which porous or spongy      
bodies can be  consolidated1 and by     
which substances may be formed into     
masses of  a natural shape and regular  
structure2 the one of these is simple   
congelation from a fluid state1 by means
 of cold2 the other is  accretion2 and  
this includes a separatory operation1 as
 well as that  by which the solid body  
is to be produced4 ,but in whichever of 

these  ways solidity shall be procured1 
it must be brought about by first       
inducing fluidity1 either immediately by
 the action of heat1 or  mediately with 
the assistance of a solvent1 that is1 by
 the operation  of solution4 ,therefore1
 fire and water may be considered as the
 general  agents in this operation1     
which we would explore4    ,heat has    
been already mentioned as a general     
power1 and as acting in all  the        
different parts of the globe2 ,i would  
now wish more particularly to  call the 
attention of the reader to subterraneous
 fire1 or heat1 as  a powerful agent in 
the mineral regions1 and as a cause     
necessarily  belonging to the internal  
constitution of this earth4    ,it is   
not our purpose at present to inquire   
into the particular nature  of this     
power of subterraneous heat1 or to trace
 the proper connection  and analogy of  
the internal fire with that which is so 
necessary to our  life1 and which acts  
so great a part upon the surface of the 

earth1 this  being reserved for the last
 part4 ,our intention in here mentioning
 it1  is only to dispose the mind to    
look for active powers or efficient     
causes1 in that part of the earth which 
has been commonly considered as  passive
 and inert1 but which will be found     
extremely active1 and the  source of    
mighty revolutions in the fate of land4 
,there may1 indeed1 be some difficulty  
in conceiving all the  modifications of 
this mineral power2 but as1 on the one  
hand1 we are not  arbitrarily to assume 
an agent1 for the purpose of explaining 
events1 or  certain appearances which   
are not understood2 so1 on the other1 we
 must  not refuse to admit the action of
 a known power1 when this is properly   
suggested in the appearances of things2 
and1 though we may not  understand all  
the modifications1 or the whole capacity
 and regulation  of this power in       
bodies1 we are not to neglect the       
appropriating to it1  as a cause1 those 
effects which are natural to it1 and    

which1 so far as  we know1 cannot belong
 to any other4 ,on all occasions1 we are
 to judge  from what we know2 and1 we   
are only to avoid concluding from our   
suppositions1 in cases where evidence or
 real information is necessarily        
required4 ,the subject now considered1  
subterraneous fire1 will afford an      
example of that truth2 and1 a general   
view of this great natural power  will  
here find a proper place1 before the    
application of it for the  explanation  
of natural appearances4    ,no event is 
more the object of our notice1 or more  
interesting as a  subject for our study1
 than is the burning of a fire3 ,but1   
the more that  philosophers have studied
 this subject1 the more they seem to    
differ  as to the manner in which that  
conspicuous event is to be explained4   
,therefore1 being so ignorant with      
regard to that fire of which we see  the
 origin as well as the more immediate   
effects1 how cautious should  we be in  
judging the nature of subterraneous fire

 from the burning of  bodies1 a subject 
which we so little understand4    ,but1 
though the cause of fire in general1 or 
the operations of that  power in its    
extreme degrees1 be for us a subject    
involved in much  obscurity1 this is not
 the case with regard to the more common
 effects  of heat2 and1 tho' the actual 
existence of subterraneous fire1 as the 
cause of light and heat1 might be a     
thing altogether problematical in  our  
opinion2 yet1 as to other effects1 there
 are some of these from  which the      
action of that liquefying power may be  
certainly concluded as  having taken    
place within the mineral region1        
although the cause should  be in every  
other respect a thing to us unknown4 ,in
 that case1 where the  operation or     
effect is evident1 and cannot be        
disputed1 to refuse to  admit the power 
in question1 merely because we had not  
seen it act1 or  because we know not    
every rule which it may observe in      
acting1 would  be only to found an      

argument upon our ignorance2 it would be
 to  misunderstand the nature of        
investigating physical truths1 which    
must  proceed by reasoning from effect  
to cause4    ,our knowledge is extremely
 limited with regard to the effects of  
heat in  bodies1 while acting under     
different conditions1 and in various    
degrees4  ,but though our knowledge in  
these respects is limited1 our judgment 
with  regard to the efficacy of this    
power of heat is in its nature positive1
  and contains not any thing that is    
doubtful or uncertain4 ,all mankind1    
who have the opportunity1 know that the 
hard substance of ice is by heat        
converted into water1 wherein no        
hardness remains2 and the profound      
philosophy of ,dr ,black1 in relation to
 the subject of latent heat1 as  that of
 ,sir ,isaac ,newton1 in relation to the
 weight of bodies1 is not  necessary to 
convince the world that in the one case 
ice will melt1 and  in the other1 that  
heavy bodies will move when unsupported4

    ,but though1 in the abstract        
doctrine of latent heat1 the ingenuity  
of man has discovered a certain measure 
for the quantity of those  commutable   
effects which are perceived2 and though 
this be a progress of  science far above
 the apprehension of the vulgar1 yet    
still1 that solid  bodies are changed   
into fluids1 by the power of heat1 is   
the same  unalterable judgment1 which   
the savage forms as well as the         
philosopher4  ,here1 therefore1 are     
evident effects1 which mankind in       
general attribute  to the power of heat2
 and it is from those known effects that
 we are to  investigate subterraneous   
fire1 or to generalise the power of     
heat1 as  acting in the interior parts1 
as well as on the surface of this earth4
    ,if1 indeed1 there were any other   
cause for fluidity besides the          
operation of fire or the power of heat1 
in that case the most evident  proof1   
with regard to the flowing1 or former   
fluidity1 of mineral  bodies1 would draw

 to no conclusion in proving the        
existence of mineral  fire2 but when we 
have not the smallest reason for        
conjecturing any  other cause1 or the   
least doubt with regard to that which1  
in the  doctrine of latent heat1 has    
been properly investigated1 the proofs  
which we shall bring1 of fusion in all  
the minerals of this earth1  must be    
held as proofs of mineral fire1 in like 
manner as the proof of  subterraneous   
fire would necessarily imply mineral    
fusion as its natural  effect4    ,thus 
we have1 in our physical investigation1 
several points in view4  ,first1 from   
the present state of things1 to infer a 
former state of  fusion among mineral   
bodies4 ,secondly1 from that former     
fusion1 to infer  the actual existence  
of mineral fire in the system of the    
earth4 ,and1  lastly1 from the          
acknowledged fact of subterraneous fire 
as a cause1 to  reason with regard to   
the effects of that power in mineral    
bodies4    ,but besides the power or    

effect of subterraneous heat in bodies  
which  are unorganised1 and without     
system1 in the construction of their    
different parts1 we have to investigate 
the proper purpose of this great  agent 
in the system of this world1 which may  
be considered as a species  of organised
 body4 ,here1 therefore1 final causes   
are to be brought into  view1 as well as
 those which are efficient4 ,now1 in a  
subject involved  with so much          
obscurity1 as must be for us the        
internal regions of the  globe1 the     
consideration of efficient and final    
causes may contribute  mutually to each 
others evidence1 when separately the    
investigation of  either might be       
thought unsatisfactory or insufficient4 
,so far it seemed necessary to premise  
with regard to the great mineral  power 
which we are to employ as an agent in   
the system of this earth2  and it may be
 now observed1 that it is in the proper 
relation of this  power of heat and the 
fluidity or softness of bodies1 as cause

 and  effect1 that we are to find a     
physical principle or argument for      
detecting those false theories of the   
earth that have been only  imagined1 and
 not properly founded on fact or        
observation4 ,it is also by  means of   
this principle1 that we shall be enabled
 to form a true theory  of the mineral  
region1 in generalising particular      
effects to a common  cause4    ,let us  
now proceed in endeavouring to decide   
this important question1  viz4 ,by what 
active principle is it1 that the present
 state of things1  which we observe in  
the strata of the earth1 a state so very
 different  from that in which those    
bodies had been formed originally1 has  
been  brought about8    ,two causes have
 been now proposed for the consolidating
 of loose  materials which had been in  
an incoherent state2 these are1 on the  
one  hand1 fire2 or1 on the other1      
water1 as the means of bringing about   
that  event4 ,we are1 therefore1 to     
consider well1 what may be the          

consequences  of consolidation by the   
one or other of those agents2 and what  
may be  the respective powers of those  
agents with respect to this operation4  
,if we are not informed in this branch  
of science1 we may gaze without         
instruction upon the most convincing    
proofs of what we want to attain4  ,if  
our knowledge is imperfect1 we may form 
erroneous principles1 and  deceive      
ourselves in reasoning with regard to   
those works of nature1  which are wisely
 calculated for our instruction4    ,the
 strata1 formed at the bottom of the    
sea1 are to be considered  as having    
been consolidated1 either by aqueous    
solution and  crystallization1 or by the
 effect of heat and fusion4 ,if it is in
 the  first of these two ways that the  
solid strata of the globe have attained 
to their present state1 there will be a 
certain uniformity observable  in the   
effects2 and there will be general laws1
 by which this operation  must have been
 conducted4 ,therefore1 knowing those   

general laws1 and  making just          
observations with regard to the natural 
appearances of those  consolidated      
masses1 a philosopher1 in his closet1   
should be able to  determine1 what may1 
and what may not have been transacted in
 the bowels  of the earth1 or below the 
bottom of the ocean4    ,let us now     
endeavour to ascertain what may have    
been the power of water1  acting under  
fixed circumstances1 operating upon     
known substances1 and  conducting to a  
certain end4    ,the action of water    
upon all different substances is an     
operation  with which we are familiar4  
,we have it in our power to apply water 
in  different degrees of heat for the   
solution of bodies1 and under various   
degrees of compression2 consequently1   
there is no reason to conclude  any     
thing mysterious in the operations of   
the globe1 which are to be  performed by
 means of water1 unless an immense      
compressing power should  alter the     
nature of those operations4 ,but        

compression alters the  relation of     
evaporation only with regard to heat1 or
 it changes the  degree of heat which   
water may be made to sustain2           
consequently1 we are  to look for no    
occult quality in water acting upon     
bodies at the bottom  of the deepest    
ocean1 more than what can be observed in
 experiments  which we have it in our   
power to try4    ,with regard again to  
the effect of time3 ,though the         
continuance of time  may do much in     
those operations which are extremely    
slow1 where no  change1 to our          
observation1 had appeared to take place1
 yet1 where it  is not in the nature of 
things to produce the change in         
question1 the  unlimited course of time 
would be no more effectual1 than the    
moment by  which we measure events in   
our observations4    ,water being the   
general medium in which bodies collected
 at the bottom  of the sea are always   
contained1 if those masses of collected 
matter are  to be consolidated by       

solution1 it must be by the dissolution 
of  those bodies in that water as a     
menstruum1 and by the concretion or     
crystallization of this dissolved       
matter1 that the spaces1 first  occupied
 by water in those masses1 are          
afterwards to be filled with a  hard and
 solid substance2 but without some other
 power1 by which the  water contained in
 those cavities and endless labyrinths  
of the strata1  should be separated in  
proportion as it had performed its task1
 it is  inconceivable how those masses1 
however changed from the state of their 
first subsidence1 should be absolutely  
consolidated1 without any visible  or   
fluid water in their composition4       
,besides this difficulty of having the  
water separated from the porous  masses 
which are to be consolidated1 there is  
another with which1 upon  this          
supposition1 we have to struggle4 ,this 
is1 ,from whence should come  the matter
 with which the numberless cavities in  
those masses are to be  filled8    ,the 

water in the cavities and interstices of
 those bodies composing  strata1 must be
 in a stagnating state2 consequently1 it
 can only act  upon the surfaces of     
those cavities which are to be filled   
up4 ,but  with what are they to be      
filled8 ,not with water2 they are full  
of that  already3 ,not with the         
substance of the bodies which contain   
that water2  this would be only to make 
one cavity in order to fill up another4 
,if1 therefore1 the cavities of the     
strata are to be filled with solid      
matter1 by means of water1 there must be
 made to pass through those  porous     
masses1 water impregnated with some     
other substances in a  dissolved state2 
and the aqueous menstruum must be made  
to separate  from the dissolved         
substance1 and to deposit the same in   
those cavities  through which the       
solution moves4    ,by such a           
supposition as this1 we might perhaps   
explain a partial  consolidation of     
those strata2 but this is a supposition1

 of which the  case under consideration 
does not admit2 for in the present case1
 which  is that of materials accumulated
 at the bottom of the ocean1 there is   
not proper means for separating the     
dissolved matter from the water         
included in those enormous masses2 nor  
are there any means by which a          
circulation in those masses may be      
formed4 ,in this case1 therefore1  where
 the means are not naturally in the     
supposition1 a philosopher1 who  is to  
explain the phenomenon by the natural   
operation of water in this  situation1  
must not have recourse to another agent1
 still more powerful1  to assist his    
supposition which cannot be admitted4   
,thus1 it will appear1 that1 to         
consolidate strata formed at the bottom 
of the sea1 in the manner now           
considered1 operations are required     
unnatural to this place2 consequently1  
not to be supposed1 in order to  support
 a hypothesis4    ,but now1 instead of  
inquiring how far water may be supposed 

instrumental  in the consolidation of   
strata which were originally of a loose 
texture1 we are to consider how far     
there may be appearances in those       
consolidated bodies1 by which it might  
be concluded1 whether or not the        
present state of their consolidation has
 been actually brought about by  means  
of that agent4    ,if water had been the
 menstruum by which the consolidating   
matter was  introduced into the         
interstices of strata1 masses of those  
bodies could  only be found consolidated
 with such substances as water is       
capable of  dissolving2 and these       
substances would be found only in such a
 state as  the simple separation of the 
solvent water might produce4    ,in this
 case1 the consolidation of strata would
 be extremely limited2  for we cannot   
allow more power to water than we find  
it has in nature2  nor are we to imagine
 to ourselves unlimited powers in       
bodies1 on  purpose to explain those    
appearances by which we should be made  

to know  the powers of nature4 ,let us1 
therefore1 attend1 with every possible  
circumspection1 to the appearances of   
those bodies1 by means of which we  are 
to investigate the principles of        
mineralogy1 and know the laws of        
nature4    ,the question now before us  
concerns the consolidating substances of
  strata4 ,are these such as will       
correspond to the dissolving power of   
water1 and to the state in which these  
substances might be left by the         
separation of their menstruum8 ,no2 far1
 far from this supposition is the       
conclusion that necessarily follows from
 natural appearances4    ,we have strata
 consolidated by calcareous spar1 a     
thing perfectly  distinguishable from   
the stalactical concretion of calcareous
 earth1  in consequence of aqueous      
solution4 ,we have strata made solid by 
the  formation of fluor1 a substance not
 soluble1 so far as we know1 by  water4 
,we have strata consolidated with       
sulphureous and bituminous  substances1 

which do not correspond to the solution 
of water4 ,we have  strata consolidated 
with siliceous matter1 in a state       
different from  that under which it has 
been observed1 on certain occasions1 to 
be  deposited by water4 ,we have strata 
consolidated by feld-spar1 a  substance 
insoluble in water4 ,we have strata     
consolidated by almost all  the various 
metallic substances1 with their almost  
endless mixtures  and sulphureous       
compositions2 that is to say1 we find1  
perhaps1 every  different substance     
introduced into the interstices of      
strata which had  been formed by        
subsidence at the bottom of the sea4    
,if it is by means of water that those  
interstices have been filled with  those
 materials1 water must be1 like fire1 an
 universal solvent1 or  cause of        
fluidity1 and we must change entirely   
our opinion of water in  relation to its
 chemical character4 ,but there is no   
necessity thus to  violate our chemical 
principles1 in order to explain certain 

natural  appearances2 more especially if
 those appearances may be explained in  
another manner1 consistently with the   
known laws of nature4    ,if1 again1 it 
is by means of heat and fusion that the 
loose and porous  structure of strata   
shall be supposed to have been          
consolidated1 then  every difficulty    
which had occurred in reasoning upon the
 power or  agency of water is at once   
removed4 ,the loose and discontinuous   
body of  a stratum may be closed by     
means of softness and compression2 the  
porous  structure of the materials may  
be consolidated1 in a similar manner1 by
  the fusion of their substance2 and    
foreign matter may be introduced into   
the open structure of strata1 in form of
 steam or exhalation1 as well as  in the
 fluid state of fusion2 consequently1   
heat is an agent competent  for the     
consolidation of strata1 which water    
alone is not4 ,if1  therefore1 such an  
agent could be found acting in the      
natural place of  strata1 we must       

pronounce it proper to bring about that 
end4    ,the examination of nature gives
 countenance to this supposition1 so far
  as strata are found consolidated by   
every species of substance1  and almost 
every possible mixture of those         
different substances2  consequently1    
however difficult it may appear to have 
this application  of heat1 for the      
purpose of consolidating strata formed  
at the bottom of  the ocean1 we cannot1 
from natural appearances1 suppose any   
other cause1  as having actually        
produced the effects which are now      
examined4    ,this question1 with regard
 to the means of consolidating the      
strata of  the globe1 is1 to natural    
history1 of the greatest importance2 and
 it is  essential in the theory now     
proposed to be given of the mineral     
system4  ,it would1 therefore1 require  
to be discussed with some degree of     
precision in examining the particulars2 
but of these1 there is so great  a      
field1 and the subject is so complicated

 in its nature1 that volumes  might be  
written upon particular branches only1  
without exhausting what  might be laid  
upon the subject2 because the evidence1 
though strong in  many particulars1 is  
chiefly to be enforced by a multitude of
 facts1  conspiring1 in a diversity of  
ways1 to point out one truth1 and by the
  impossibility of reconciling all these
 facts1 except by means of one          
supposition4    ,but1 as it is necessary
 to give some proof of that which is to 
be  a principle in our reasoning        
afterwards1 ,i shall now endeavour to   
generalise the subject as much as       
possible1 in order to answer that end1  
and1 at the same time1 to point out the 
particular method of inquiry4    ,there 
are to be found1 among the various      
strata of the globe1 bodies  formed of  
two different kinds of substances1      
siliceous bodies1 and  those which may  
be termed sulphureous or phlogistic4    
,with one or  other1 or both of those we
 substances1 every different            

consolidated  stratum of the globe will 
be found so intimately mixed1 or closely
  connected1 that it must be concluded1 
by whatever cause those bodies  of      
siliceous and sulphureous matter had    
been changed from a fluid to a          
concreted state1 the strata must have   
been similarly affected by the  same    
cause4    ,these two species of bodies1 
therefore1 the siliceous and the        
sulphureous1 may now be examined1 in    
relation to the causes of their         
concretion1 with a view to determine1   
what has been the general  concreting or
 consolidating power1 which has operated
 universally in the  globe2 and         
particularly to show1 it has not been by
 means of any fluid  solution1 that     
strata in general have been             
consolidated1 or that those  particular 
substances have been crystallized and   
concreted4    ,siliceous matter1        
physically speaking1 is not soluble in  
water2 that is  to say1 in no manner of 
way have we been enabled to learn1 that 

water  has the power of dissolving this 
matter4    ,many other substances1 which
 are so little soluble in water1 that   
their  solubility could not be otherwise
 detected of themselves1 are made to    
appear soluble by means of siliceous    
matter2 such is feld-spar1 one of  the  
component parts of rock-granite4        
,feld-spar is a compound of siliceous1  
argillaceous1 and calcareous  earth1    
intimately united together4 ,this       
compound siliceous body  being1 for     
ages1 exposed to the weather1 the       
calcareous part of it is  dissolved1 and
 the siliceous part is left in form of a
 soft white earth4  ,but whether this   
dissolution is performed by pure water1 
or by means  also of an acid1 may       
perhaps be questioned4 ,this1 however1  
is certain1  that we must consider      
siliceous substances as insoluble in    
water4    ,the water of ,glezer in      
,iceland undoubtedly contains this      
substance in  solution2 but there is no 
reason to believe1 that it is here      

dissolved  by any other than the natural
 means2 that is1 an alkaline substance1 
by  which siliceous bodies may be       
rendered soluble in water#e4    ,note   
#e3 ,this conjecture1 which ,i had thus 
formed1 has been fully  confirmed by the
 accurate analysis of those waters4 ,see
 vol4 #c;d4 of the  ,phil4 ,trans4 of   
,edin4    ,it may be1 therefore1        
asserted1 that no siliceous body having 
the  hardness of flint1 nor any         
crystallization of that substance1 has  
ever  been formed1 except by fusion4    
,if1 by any art1 this substance shall be
  dissolved in simple water1 or made to 
crystallise from any solution1 in  that 
case1 the assertion which has been here 
made may be denied4  ,but where there is
 not the vestige of any proof1 to       
authorise the  supposition of flinty    
matter being dissolved by water1 or     
crystallized  from that solution1 such  
an hypothesis cannot be admitted1 in    
opposition  to general and evident      
appearances#f4    ,note #f3 ,the        

,chevalier de ,dolomieu has imagined an 
ingenious theory for  the solution of   
siliceous substances in water ,journal  
de ,physique1 ,mai  #agib44 ,this theory
 has not been taken up merely at a      
venture1 but  is founded upon very      
accurate and interesting chemical       
experiments4  ,hitherto1 however1 the   
nature of the siliceous substance is not
  sufficiently known1 to enable us to   
found1 upon chemical principles1 the    
mineral operations of nature4 ,that     
siliceous substance may be dissolved1   
or rendered soluble in water1 by means  
of alkaline salt1 and that it may  be   
also volatilised by means of the fluor  
acid1 is almost all that we  know upon  
the subject4 ,but this is saying no more
 in relation to the  mineral operations 
employed upon the siliceous substance1  
than it would  be1 in relation to those 
upon gold1 to say that this metal is    
dissolved  by aqua regia4    ,it is to  
be admitted1 that every simple substance
 may have its  menstruum1 by means of   

which it may be retained with water in a
  dissolved state2 but from this it does
 not follow1 that it is by the  means of
 aqueous solutions of all those mineral 
bodies1 that nature  operates the       
consolidation of bodies1 which we find  
actually  accomplished with all those   
different substances4 ,it is the        
business of  this work to show1 that    
from all appearances in the mineral     
regions1 as  well as those upon the     
surface in the atmosphere1 the          
supposition1 of  that manner of         
consolidating bodies by solution1 is    
inconsistent both  with natural         
appearances1 and also with chemical     
principles4    ,our ingenious author1   
who has1 with1 great diligence as well  
as an  enlightened mind1 observed the   
operations of nature upon the surface   
of the earth1 here says1 ce n'est pas   
sans tonnement que je remarque  depuis  
long-temps que jamais aucune eau qui    
coule  la surface de la  terre n'attaque
 le quartz1 aucune n'en tient en        

dissolution1 pendant que  celles qui    
circulent intrieurement le corrodent    
aussi souvent qu'elles  le              
dposent4--,how dangerous it is in       
science for ingenious men to allow      
themselves to form conclusions1 which   
the principles on which they  reason do 
not strictly warrant1 we have a         
remarkable example in the  present case4
    ,m4 de ,dolomieu sees no corrosion  
of quartz1 or solution of that          
substance1 upon the surface of the      
earth2 from this1 then1 he concludes1   
that siliceous substance is not         
dissolved in that situation of things4  
,on the other hand1 he finds siliceous  
bodies variously concreted among  the   
solid strata of the earth2 and1 from    
this he concludes1 that  siliceous      
substance has been both dissolved by    
water in the strata1 and  also there    
again concreted and crystallised in     
having been separated  from the water4  
,this is certainly what we all perceive2
 but we do not  all allow ourselves to  

draw such inconclusive inferences from  
our  premises4 ,notwithstanding the     
greatest accuracy of our observations1  
quartz may be dissolvable in a minute   
degree by water1 upon the surface  of   
this earth2 and1 all the appearances of 
siliceous bodies1 in the  mineral       
regions1 where we cannot immediately see
 the operation1 may be  better explained
 by fusion than by aqueous solution4    
,but1 from his chemical experiments1 our
 author has conjectured that  there may 
be a phlogistic substance1 by means of  
which the siliceous  earth is dissolved 
when in darkness2 and that this solvent 
loses its  power1 if exposed to the     
light of day4 ,i have one observation to
 oppose  to this ingenious theory4      
,under deep black mosses1 through which 
no ray  of light can penetrate1 every   
condition for dissolving siliceous      
bodies  should be found1 according to   
the supposition in question2 neither    
will  sufficient time be found wanting1 
in those deep mosses1 upon the summits  

of our mountains2 yet1 examine the      
matter of fact8 not the smallest        
solution is to be perceived in the      
siliceous parts of the stones which  are
 found under those mosses1 but every    
particle of iron is dissolved1  so that 
the surface of every stone is white1 and
 nothing but the  siliceous earth of the
 feld-spar1 and perhaps the             
argillaceous1 is left4    ,here we have 
in this author an instructive example3  
,no person1 in my  opinion1 has made    
such enlightened or scientific          
experiments1 or such  judicious         
observations with regard to the nature  
of siliceous substance1  as a compound  
thing2 no person reasons more distinctly
 in general1 or  sees more clearly the  
importance of his principles2 yet1 with 
regard to  mineral concretions1 how     
often has he been drawn thus            
inadvertently  into improper            
generalization6 ,i appeal to the analogy
 which1 in this  treatise1 he has       
formed1 between the stalactical         

concretions upon  the surface of the    
earth1 and the mineral concretions of   
siliceous  substance4 ,as an example of 
the great lights1 and penetrating       
genius1 of  this assiduous studier of   
nature1 ,i refer to the judicious       
observations  which he has made upon the
 subject of aluminous earth1 in this    
dissertation4    ,i am surprised to find
 this enlightened naturalist seeking1 in
 the  origin of this globe of our earth1
 a general principle of fluidity or     
solution in water1 like the alkahest of 
the alchymists1 by means of  which the  
different substances in the chemical    
constitution of precious  stones might  
have been united as well as             
crystallised4 ,one would  have thought1 
that a philosopher1 so conversant in the
 operations of  subterraneous fire1     
would have perceived1 that there is but 
one general  principle of fluidity or   
dissolution1 and that this is heat4     
,besides this proof for the fusion of   
siliceous bodies1 which is  indirect1   

arising from the in dissolubility of    
that substance in water1  there is      
another1 which is more direct1 being    
founded upon appearances  which are     
plainly inconsistent with any other     
supposition1 except that  of simple     
fluidity induced by heat4 ,the proof ,i 
mean is1 the penetration  of many bodies
 with a flinty substance1 which1        
according to every  collateral          
circumstance1 must have been performed  
by the flinty matter  in a simply fluid 
state1 and not in a state of dissolution
 by a solvent4    ,these are flinty     
bodies perfectly insulated in strata    
both of chalk and  sand4 ,it requires   
but inspection to be convinced4 ,it is  
not possible  that flinty matter could  
be conveyed into the middle of those    
strata1 by  a menstruum in which it was 
dissolved1 and thus deposited in that   
place1  without the smallest trace of   
deposition in the surrounding parts4    
,but1 besides this argument taken from  
what does not appear1 the actual  form  

in which those flinty masses are found1 
demonstrates1 first1  ,that they have   
been introduced among those strata in a 
fluid state1 by  injection from some    
other place4 #b;dly1 ,that they have    
been dispersed  in a variety of ways    
among those strata1 then deeply immersed
 at the  bottom of the sea2 and1 lastly1
 ,that they have been there congealed   
from the state of fusion1 and have      
remained in that situation1 while  those
 strata have been removed from the      
bottom of the ocean to the  surface of  
the present land4    ,to describe those 
particular appearances would draw this  
paper beyond  the bounds of an essay4   
,we must1 therefore1 refer those who    
would  inquire more minutely into the   
subject1 to examine the chalk-countries 
of ,france and ,england1 in which the   
flint is found variously formed2 the    
land-hills interspersed among those     
chalk-countries1 which have been  also  
injected by melted flint2 and the       
pudding-stone of ,england1 which  ,i    

have not seen in its natural situation4 
,more particularly1 ,i would  recommend 
an examination of the insulated masses  
of stone1 found in  the sand-hills by   
the city of ,brussels2 a stone which is 
formed by an  injection of flint among  
sand1 similar to that which1 in a body  
of  gravel1 had formed the pudding-stone
 of ,england#g4    ,note #g3 ,accurate  
descriptions of those appearances1 with 
drawings1  would be1 to natural history1
 a valuable acquisition4    ,all these  
examples would require to be examined   
upon the spot1 as a  great part of the  
proof for the fusion of the flinty      
substance1 arises1  in my opinion1 from 
the form in which those bodies are      
found1 and the  state of the surrounding
 parts4 ,but there are specimens brought
 from  many different places1 which     
contain1 in themselves1 the most evident
  marks of this injection of the flinty 
substance in a fluid state4 ,these  are 
pieces of fossil wood1 penetrated with a
 siliceous substance1 which  are brought

 from ,england1 ,germany1 and ,lochneagh
 in ,ireland4    ,it appears from these 
specimens1 that there has sometimes been
 a prior  penetration of the body of    
wood1 either with irony matter1 or      
calcareous  substance4 ,sometimes1      
again1 which is the case with that of   
,lochneagh1  there does not seem to have
 been any penetration of those two      
substances4 ,the injected flint appears 
to have penetrated the body  of this    
wood1 immersed at the bottom of the sea1
 under an immense  compression of water4
 ,this appears from the wood being      
penetrated  partially1 some parts not   
being penetrated at all4    ,now1 in the
 limits between those two parts1 we have
 the most convincing  proofs1 that it   
had been flint in a simple fluid state  
which had  penetrated the wood1 and not 
in a state of solution4    ,first1      
,because1 however little of the wood is 
left unpenetrated1 the  division is     
always distinct between the injected    
part and that which is  not penetrated  

by the fluid flint4 ,in this case1 the  
flinty matter has  proceeded a certain  
length1 which is marked1 and no farther2
 and1 beyond  this boundary1 there is no
 partial impregnation1 nor a gradation  
of the  flintifying operation1 as must  
have been the case if siliceous matter  
had been deposited from a solution4     
#b;dly1 ,the termination of the  flinty 
impregnation has assumed such a form1   
precisely1 as would  naturally happen   
from a fluid flint penetrating that     
body4    ,in other specimens of this    
mineralising operation1 fossil wood1    
penetrated1 more or less1 with          
ferruginous and calcareous substances1  
has been afterwards penetrated with a   
flinty substance4 ,in this case1  with  
whatever different substances the woody 
body shall be supposed  to have been    
penetrated in a state of solution by    
water1 the regular  structure of the    
plant would still have remained1 with   
its vacuities1  variously filled with   
the petrifying substances1 separated    

from the  aqueous menstruum1 and        
deposited in the vascular structure of  
the wood4  ,there cannot be a doubt with
 regard to the truth of this            
proposition2  for1 as it is1 we         
frequently find parts of the            
consolidated wood1 with  the vascular   
structure remaining perfectly in its    
natural shape and  situation2 but if it 
had been by aqueous solution that the   
wood had been  penetrated and           
consolidated1 all the parts of that body
 would be found  in the same natural    
shape and situation4    ,this1 however1 
is far from being the case2 for while1  
in some parts1 the  vascular structure  
is preserved entire1 it is also evident1
 that1 in  general1 the woody structure 
is variously broken and dissolved by the
  fusion and crystallization of the     
flint4 ,there are so many and such      
various convincing examples of this1    
that1 to attempt to describe them1      
would be to exceed the bounds prescribed
 for this dissertation2 but such        

specimens are in my possession1 ready   
for the inspection of any person  who   
may desire to study the subject4    ,we 
may now proceed to consider sulphureous 
substances1 with regard to  their       
solubility in water1 and to the part    
which these bodies have acted  in       
consolidating the strata of the globe4  
,the sulphureous substances here meant  
to be considered1 are substances  not   
soluble in1 water1 so far as we know1   
but fusible by heat1 and  inflammable or
 combustible by means of heat and vital 
air4 ,these  substances are of two      
kinds2 the one more simple1 the other   
more  compound4    ,the most simple kind
 is composed of two different           
substances1 viz4  phlogiston1 with      
certain specific substances2 from which 
result1 on the  one hand1 sulphur1 and1 
on the other1 proper coal and metals4   
,the more  compound sort1 again1 is oily
 matter1 produced by vegetables1 and    
forming bituminous bodies4    ,the first
 of these is found naturally combined   

with almost all  metallic substances1   
which are then said to be mineralised   
with sulphur4  ,now1 it is well known1  
that this mineralising operation is     
performed by  means of heat or fusion2  
and there is no person skilled in       
chemistry  that will pretend to say1    
this may be done by aqueous solution4   
,the  combination of iron and sulphur1  
for example1 may easily be performed by 
fusion2 but1 by aqueous solution1 this  
particular combination is again         
resolved1 and forms an acido-metallic1  
that is1 a vitriolic substance1  after  
the phlogiston 7by means of which it is 
insoluble in water7 has  been separated 
from the composition1 by the assistance 
of vital air4    ,the variety of these  
sulphureo-metallic substances1 in point 
of  composition1 is almost indefinite2  
but1 unless they were all soluble in    
water1 this could not have happened by  
the action of that solvent4 ,if we      
shall allow any one of those bodies to  
have been formed by the fluidity  of    

heat1 they must all have been formed in 
the same manner2 for there is  such a   
chain of connection among those bodies  
in the mineral regions1  that they must 
all have been composed1 either1 on the  
one hand1 by  aqueous solution1 or1 on  
the other1 by means of heat and fusion4 
,here1 for example1 are crystallised    
together in one mass1 #ast1  ,pyrites1  
containing sulphur1 iron1 copper2       
#b;dly1 ,blend1 a composition  of iron1 
sulphur1 and calamine2 #c;dly1 ,galena1 
consisting of lead  and sulphur2 #dthly1
 ,marmor metallicum1 being the terra    
ponderosa1  saturated with the vitriolic
 acid2 a substance insoluble in water2  
#ethly1 ,fluor1 a saturation of         
calcareous earth1 with a peculiar acid1 
called the acid of spar1 also insoluble 
in water2 #fthly1 ,calcareous  spar1 of 
different kinds1 being calcareous earth 
saturated with fixed  air1 and something
 besides1 which forms a variety in this 
substance2  lastly1 ,siliceous          
substance1 or ,quartz crystals4 ,all    

these bodies1  each possessing its      
proper shape1 are mixed in such a manner
 as it would  be endless to describe1   
but which may be expressed in general by
 saying1  that they are mutually        
contained in1 and contain each other4   
,unless1 therefore2 every one of these  
different substances may be  dissolved  
in water1 and crystallised from it1 it  
is in vain to look for  the explanation 
of these appearances in the operations  
of nature1 by the  means of aqueous     
solution4    ,on the other hand1 heat   
being capable of rendering all these    
substances  fluid1 they may be1 with the
 greatest simplicity1 transported from  
one  place to another2 and they may be  
made to concrete altogether at  the same
 time1 and distinctly separate in any   
place4 ,hence1 for the  explanation of  
those natural appearances1 which are so 
general1 no  further conditions are     
required1 than the supposition of a     
sufficient  intensity of subterraneous  
fire or heat1 and a sufficient degree of

  compression upon those bodies1 which  
are to be subjected to that violent     
heat1 without calcination or change4    
,but1 so far as this supposition is  not
 gratuitous1 the appearances of nature  
will be thus explained4    ,i shall only
 mention one specimen1 which must appear
 most decisive  of the question4 ,it is1
 ,i believe1 from an ,hungarian mine4   
,in this  specimen1 petro-silex1        
pyrites1 and cinnabar1 are so mixed     
together1 and  crystallised upon each   
other1 that it is impossible to conceive
 any one  of those bodies to have had   
its fluidity and concretion from a cause
  which had not affected the other two4 
,now1 let those who would deny the      
fusion of this siliceous body explain   
how water could dissolve these  three   
different bodies1 and deposit them in   
their present shape4 ,if1  on the       
contrary1 they have not the least shadow
 of reason for such a  gratuitous       
supposition1 the present argument must  
be admitted in its  full force4         

,sulphur and metals are commonly found  
combined in the mineral regions4  ,but  
this rule is not universal2 for they are
 also frequently in a  separate state4  
,there is not1 perhaps1 a metal1 among  
the great number  which are now         
discovered1 that may not be found       
native1 as they are  called1 or in their
 metallic state4    ,metallic substances
 are also thus found in some proportion 
to the  disposition of the particular   
metals1 to resist the mineralising      
operations1 and to their facility of    
being metallised by fire and  fusion4   
,gold1 which refuses to be mineralised  
with sulphur1 is found  generally in its
 native state4 ,iron1 again1 which is so
 easily  mineralised and scorified1 is  
seldom found in its malleable state4    
,the  other metals are all found more or
 less mineralised1 though some of them  
but rarely in the native state4         
,besides being found with circumstances 
thus corresponding to the natural       
facility1 or to the impediments         

attending the metallization of those    
different calces1 the native metals are 
also found in such a shape1 and  with   
such marks1 as can only agree with the  
fusion of those bodies2  that is to say1
 those appearances are perfectly        
irreconcilable with any  manner of      
solution and precipitation4    ,for the 
truth of this assertion1 among a        
thousand other examples1 ,i  appeal to  
that famous mass of native iron         
discovered by ,mr ,pallas in  ,siberia4 
,this mass being so well known to all   
the mineralists of ,europe1  any comment
 upon its shape and structure will be   
unnecessary#h4    ,note #h3 ,since this 
,dissertation was written1 ,m4 de la    
,peyrouse has  discovered a native      
manganese4 ,the circumstances of this   
mineral are so  well adapted for        
illustrating the present doctrine1 and  
so well related  by ,m4 de la ,peyrouse1
 that ,i should be wanting to the       
interest of  mineral knowledge1 were ,i 
not to give here that part of his       

,memoir4    ,lorsque je fis insrer dans 
le journal de physique de l'anne #aghj1 
au  mois de ,janvier1 une ,dissertation 
contenant la classification des mines   
de manganse1 je ne connoissois point1   
cette poque1 la mine de  manganse       
native4 ,elle a la couleur de son rgule3
 ,elle salit les doigts  de la mme      
teinte4 ,son tissu parait aussi         
lamelleux1 et les lames  semblent       
affecter une sorte de divergence4 ,elle 
a ainsi que lui1 l'clat  mtallique2     
comme lui elle se laisse aplatir sous le
 marteau1 et  s'exfolie si l'on redouble
 les coups2 mais une circonstance qui   
est trop  frappante pour que je         
l'omette1 c'est la figure de la manganse
 native1  si prodigieusement conforme   
celle du rgule1 qu'on s'y laisseroit    
tromper1 si la mine n'toit encore dans  
sa gangue3 ,figure  trs-essentielle     
observer ici1 parce qu'elle est due  la 
nature mme  de la manganse4 ,en effet1  
pour rduire toutes les mines en gnral1  
il  faut employer divers flux appropris4

 ,pour la rduction de la manganse1  bien
 loin d'user de ce moyen1 il faut1 au   
contraire1 loigner tout flux1  produire 
la fusion1 par la seule violence et la  
promptitude du feu4 ,et  telle est la   
propension naturelle et prodigieuse de  
la manganse  la  vitrification1 qu'on   
n'a pu parvenir encore  rduire son rgule
 en un  seul culot2 on trouve dans le   
creuset plusieurs petits boutons1 qui   
forment autant de culots spars4 ,dans la
 mine de manganse native1 elle  n'est   
point en une seule masse2 elle est      
dispose galement en plusieurs  culots   
spars1 et un peu aplatis1 comme ceux que
 l'art produit2  beaucoup plus gros1  la
 vrit1 parce que les agens de la nature 
doivent avoir une autre nergie1 que ceux
 de nos laboratoires2 et cette          
ressemblance si exacte1 semble devoir   
vous faire penser que la mine  native  t
 produite par le feu1 tout comme son    
rgule4 ,la prsence  de la chaux argente 
de la manganse1 me permettroit de croire
 que la  nature n'a fait que rduire     

cette chaux4 ,du reste1 cette mine      
native  est trs-pure1 et ne contient    
aucune partie attirable  l'aimant4      
,cette  mine1 unique jusqu' ce moment1  
vient1 tout comme les autres manganse   
que j'ai dcrites1 des mines de fer de   
,sem1 dans la valle de  ,viedersos1 en  
,comt de ,foix4--,journal de ,physique1 
,janvier #aghf4    ,we come now to the  
second species of inflammable bodies    
called oily or  bituminous4 ,these      
substances are also found variously     
mixed with mineral  bodies1 as well as  
forming strata of themselves2 they are1 
therefore1 a  proper subject for a      
particular examination4    ,in the      
process of vegetation1 there are        
produced oily and resinous  substances2 
and1 from the collection of these       
substances at the bottom  of the ocean1 
there are formed strata1 which have     
afterwards undergone  various degrees of
 beat1 and have been variously changed1 
in consequence  of the effects of that  
heat1 according as the distillation of  

the more  volatile parts of those bodies
 has been suffered to proceed4    ,in   
order to understand this1 it must be    
considered1 that1 while immersed  in    
water1 and under insuperable            
compression1 the vegetable1 oily1 and   
resinous substances1 would appear to be 
unalterable by heat2 and it is  only in 
proportion as certain chemical          
separations take place1 that  these     
inflammable bodies are changed in their 
substance by the  application of heat4  
,now1 the most general change of this   
kind is in  consequence of evaporation1 
or the distillation of their more       
volatile  parts1 by which oily          
substances become bituminous1 and       
bituminous  substances become coaly4    
,there is here a gradation which may be 
best understood1 by comparing the       
extremes4    ,on the one hand1 we know  
by experiment1 that oily and bituminous 
substances can be melted and partly     
changed into vapour by heat1 and  that  
they become harder and denser1 in       

proportion as the more volatile  parts  
have evaporated from them4 ,on the other
 hand1 coaly substances are  destitute  
of fusibility and volatility1 in        
proportion as they have  been exposed to
 greater degrees of heat1 and to other  
circumstances  favourable to the        
dissipation of their more volatile and  
fluid parts4    ,if1 therefore1 in      
mineral bodies1 we find the two extreme 
states of this  combustible substance1  
and also the intermediate states1 we    
must either  conclude1 that this        
particular operation of heat has been   
thus actually  employed in nature1 or we
 must explain those appearances by some 
other  means1 in as satisfactory a      
manner1 and so as shall be consistent   
with  other appearances4    ,in this    
case1 it will avail nothing to have     
recourse to the false  analogy of water 
dissolving and crystallising salts1     
which has been so  much employed for the
 explanation of other mineral           
appearances4 ,the  operation here in    

question is of a different nature1 and  
necessarily  requires both the powers of
 heat and proper conditions for         
evaporation4    ,therefore1 in order to 
decide the point1 with regard to what is
 the  power in nature by which mineral  
bodies have become solid1 we have  but  
to find bituminous substance in the most
 complete state of coal1  intimately    
connected with some other substance1    
which is more generally  found          
consolidating the strata1 and assisting 
in the concretion of  mineral           
substances4 ,but ,i have in my          
possession the most undoubted proof  of 
this kind4 ,it is a mineral vein1 or    
cavity1 in which are blended  together  
coal of the most fixed kind1 quartz and 
marmor metallicum4 ,nor  is this all2   
for the specimen now referred to is     
contained in a rock  of this kind1 which
 every naturalist now-a-days will allow 
to have  congealed from a fluid state of
 fusion4 ,i have also similar specimens 
from the same place1 in which the coal  

is not of that fixed and  infusible kind
 which burns without flame or smoke1 but
 is bituminous or  inflammable coal4    
,we have hitherto been resting the      
argument upon a single point1 for the   
sake of simplicity or clearness1 not for
 want of those circumstances  which     
shall be found to corroborate the       
theory4 ,the strata of fossil  coal are 
found in almost every intermediate      
state1 as well as in those  of bitumen  
and charcoal4 ,of the one kind is that  
fossil coal which melts  or becomes     
fluid upon receiving heat2 of the other1
 is that species of  coal1 found both in
 ,wales and ,scotland1 which is         
perfectly infusible in  the fire1 and   
burns like coals1 without flame or      
smoke4 ,the one species  abounds in oily
 matter1 the other has been distilled by
 heat1 until it  has become a caput     
mortuum1 or perfect coal4    ,the more  
volatile parts of these bituminous      
bodies are found in their  separate     
state on some occasions4 ,there is a    

stratum of limestone in  ,fifeshire1    
near ,raith1 which1 though but slightly 
tinged with a black  colour1 contains   
bituminous matter1 like pitch1 in many  
cavities1 which  are lined with         
calcareous spar crystallised4 ,i have a 
specimen of such  a cavity1 in which the
 bitumen is in sphericles1 or rounded   
drops1  immersed in the calcareous spar4
    ,now1 it is to be observed1 that1 if
 the cavity in the solid limestone or   
marble1 which is lined with calcareous  
crystals containing pyrites1 had  been  
thus encrusted by means of the          
filtration of water1 this water must    
have dissolved calcareous spar1 pyrites1
 and bitumen4 ,but these natural        
appearances would not even be explained 
by this dissolution and supposed        
filtration of those substances4 ,there  
is also required1 first1 ,a  cause for  
the separation of those different       
substances from the aqueous  menstruum  
in which they had been dissolved2       
#b;dly1 ,an explanation of  the way in  

which a dissolved bitumen should be     
formed into round hard  bodies of the   
most solid structure2 and1 lastly1 ,some
 probable means  for this complicated   
operation being performed1 below the    
bottom of the  ocean1 in the close      
cavity of a marble stratum4    ,thus1   
the additional proof1 from the facts    
relating to the bituminous  substances1 
conspiring with that from the phenomena 
of other bodies1  affords the strongest 
corroboration of this opinion1 that the 
various  concretions found in the       
internal parts of strata have not been  
occasioned by means of aqueous solution1
 but by the power of heat and  operation
 of simple fusion1 preparing those      
different substances to  concrete and   
crystallise in cooling4    ,the         
arguments which have been now employed  
for proving that strata have  been      
consolidated by the power of heat1 or by
 the means of fusion1 have  been drawn  
chiefly from the insoluble nature of    
those consolidating  substances in      

relation to water1 which is the only    
general menstruum  that can be allowed  
for the mineral regions4 ,but there are 
found1 in  the mineral kingdom1 many    
solid masses of saltgem1 which is a     
soluble  substance4 ,it may be now      
inquired1 ,how far these masses1 which  
are not  infrequent in the earth1 tend  
either to confirm the present theory1   
or1  on the contrary1 to give           
countenance to that which supposes water
 the  chief instrument in consolidating 
strata4    ,the formation of salt at the
 bottom of the sea1 without the         
assistance  of subterranean fire1 is not
 a thing unsupposable1 as at first sight
  it might appear4 ,let us but suppose a
 rock placed across the gut  of         
,gibraltar1 7a case nowise unnatural71  
and the bottom of the  ,mediterranean   
would be certainly filled with salt1    
because the  evaporation from the       
surface of that sea exceeds the measure 
of its  supply4    ,but strata of salt1 
formed in this manner at the bottom of  

the sea1 are  as far from being         
consolidated by means of aqueous        
solution1 as a bed of  sand in the same 
situation2 and we cannot explain the    
consolidation of  such a stratum of salt
 by means of water1 without supposing   
subterranean  heat employed1 to         
evaporate the brine which would         
successively occupy  the interstices of 
the saline crystals4 ,but this1 it may  
be observed1 is  equally departing from 
the natural operation of water1 as the  
means for  consolidating the sediment of
 the ocean1 as if we were to suppose    
the same thing done by heat and fusion4 
,for the question is not1  ,if          
subterranean heat be of sufficient      
intensity for the purpose of            
consolidating strata by the fusion of   
their substances2 the question is1      
,whether it be by means of this agent1  
subterranean heat1 or by water  alone1  
without the operation of a melting heat1
 that those materials  have been        
variously consolidated4    ,the example 

now under consideration1 consolidated   
mineral salt1 will  serve to throw some 
light upon the subject2 for1 as it is to
 be shown1  that this body of salt had  
been consolidated by perfect fusion1 and
  not by means of aqueous solution1 the 
consolidation of strata of  indissoluble
 substances1 by the operation of a      
melting heat1 will meet  with all that  
confirmation which the consistency of   
natural appearances  can give4    ,the  
salt rock in ,cheshire lies in strata of
 red marl4 ,it is horizontal  in its    
direction4 ,i do not know its thickness1
 but it is dug thirty or  forty feet    
deep4 ,the body of this rock is         
perfectly solid1 and the salt1  in many 
places1 pure1 colourless1 and           
transparent1 breaking with a  sparry    
cubical structure4 ,but the greatest    
part is tinged by the  admixture of the 
marl1 and that in various degrees1 from 
the slightest  tinge of red1 to the most
 perfect opacity4 ,thus1 the rock       
appears as if  it had been a mass of    

fluid salt1 in which had been floating a
 quantity  of marly substance1 not      
uniformly mixed1 but every where        
separating and  subsiding from the pure 
saline substance4    ,there is also to  
be observed a certain regularity in this
 separation of  the tinging from the    
colourless substance1 which1 at a proper
 distance1  gives to the perpendicular  
section of the rock a distinguishable   
figure  in its structure4 ,when looking 
at this appearance near the bottom of   
the rock1 it1 at first1 presented me    
with the figure of regular              
stratification2 but1 upon examining the 
whole mass of rock1 ,i found1  that it  
was only towards the bottom that this   
stratified appearance took  place2 and  
that1 at the top of the rock1 the most  
beautiful and regular  figure was to be 
observed2 but a figure the most opposite
 to that of  stratification4 ,it was all
 composed of concentric circles2 and    
these  appeared to be the section of a  
mass1 composed altogether of concentric 

spheres1 like those beautiful systems of
 configuration which agates so          
frequently present us with in miniature4
 ,in about eight or ten feet from  the  
top1 the circles growing large1 were    
blended together1 and gradually  lost   
their regular appearance1 until1 at a   
greater depth1 they again  appeared in  
resemblance of a stratification4        
,this regular arrangement of the        
floating marly substance in the body  of
 salt1 which is that of the structure of
 a coated pebble1 or that  of concentric
 spheres1 is altogether inexplicable    
upon any other  supposition1 than the   
perfect fluidity or fusion of the salt1 
and the  attractions and repulsions of  
the contained substances4 ,it is in vain
  to look1 in the operations of solution
 and evaporation1 for that which        
nothing but perfect fluidity or fusion  
can explain4    ,this example of a      
mineral salt congealed from a melted    
state1 may be  confirmed from another   
which ,i have from ,dr ,black1 who      

suggested it to  me4 ,it is an alkaline 
salt1 found in a mineral state1 and     
described in  the ,philosophical        
,transactions1 anno #agga4 ,but to      
understand this  specimen1 something    
must be premised with regard to the     
nature of fossil  alkali4    ,the fossil
 alkali crystallises from a dissolved   
state1 in combining  itself with a large
 portion of the water1 in the manner of 
alum2 and1  in this case1 the water is  
essential to the constitution of that   
transparent crystalline body2 for1 upon 
the evaporation of the water1  the      
transparent salt loses its solidity1 and
 becomes a white powder4 ,if1  instead  
of being gently dried1 the crystalline  
salt is suddenly exposed  to a          
sufficient degree of heat1 that is1     
somewhat more than boiling  water1 it   
enters into the state of aqueous fusion1
 and it boils1 in  emitting the water by
 means of which it had been crystallised
 in the  cold1 and rendered fluid in    
that heated state4 ,it is not possible  

to  crystallise this alkaline salt from 
a dissolved state1 without the          
combination of that quantity of water1  
nor to separate that water  without     
destroying its crystalline state4       
,but in this mineral specimen1 we have a
 solid crystalline salt1 with  a        
structure which1 upon fracture1 appears 
to be sparry and radiated1  something   
resembling that of zeolite4 ,it contains
 no water in its  crystallization1 but  
melts in a sufficient heat1 without any 
aqueous  fusion4 ,therefore1 this salt  
must have been in a fluid state of      
fusion1  immediately before its         
congelation and crystallization4    ,it 
would be endless to give examples of    
particular facts1 so many are  the      
different natural appearances that      
occur1 attended with a variety of       
different circumstances4    ,there is   
one1 however1 which is peculiarly       
distinct1 admits of  sufficiently       
accurate description1 and contains      
circumstances from which  conclusions   

may be drawn with clearness4 ,this is   
the ironstone1 which  is commonly found 
among the argillaceous strata1 attendant
 upon fossil  coal1 both in ,scotland   
and in ,england4    ,this stone is      
generally found among the bituminous    
schistus1 or black  argillaceous strata1
 either in separate masses of various   
shapes and  sizes1 or forming of itself 
strata which are more or less continuous
 in  their direction among the schistous
 or argillaceous beds4    ,this mineral 
contains1 in general1 from #dj to #ej   
per cent4 of iron1  and it loses near   
one third of its weight in calcination4 
,before  calcination it is of a grey    
colour1 is not penetrable by water1 and 
takes a polish4 ,in this state1         
therefore1 it is perfectly solid2 but   
being calcined1 it becomes red1 porous1 
and tender4    ,the fact to be proved   
with regard to these iron-stones is     
this1 ,that  they have acquired their   
solid state from fusion1 and not in     
concreting  from any aqueous solution4  

,to abridge this disquisition1 no       
argument is to be taken from contingent 
circumstances1 7which1 however1 are     
often found here as well as in the  case
 of marbles72 such only are to be       
employed as are general to the  subject1
 and arise necessarily from the nature  
of the operation4    ,it will be proper 
to describe a species of these stones1  
which is  remarkably regular in its     
form4 ,it is that found at ,aberlady1 in
 ,east  ,lothian4    ,the form of these 
iron-stones is that of an oblate or much
 compressed  sphere1 and the size from  
two or three inches diameter to more    
than  a foot4 ,in the circular or       
horizontal section1 they present the    
most  elegant septarium#i2 and1 from the
 examination of this particular         
structure1 the following conclusions may
 be drawn4    ,first1 ,that1 the septa  
have been formed by the uniform         
contraction  of the internal parts of   
the stone1 the volume of the central    
parts  diminishing more than that of the

 circumference2 by this means1 the      
separations of the stone diminish1 in a 
progression from the center  towards the
 circumference4    #b;d1 ,that there are
 only two ways in which the septa must  
have received  the spar or spatthose ore
 with which they are filled1 more or    
less1  either1 first ,by insinuation    
into the cavity of the septa after these
  were formed2 or1 #b;dly1 ,by          
separation from the substance of the    
stone1  at the same time that the septa 
were forming4    ,note #i3 ,plate ,i4   
,were the first supposition true1       
appearances would be observable1        
showing that the sparry substance had   
been admitted1 either through the       
porous structure of the stone1 or       
through proper apertures communicating  
from without4 ,now1 if either one or    
other of these had been the case1  and  
that the stone had been consolidated    
from no other cause than  concretion    
from a dissolved state1 that particular 
structure of the  stone1 by means of    

which the spar had been admitted1 must  
appear at  present upon an accurate     
examination4    ,this1 however1 is not  
the case1 and we may rest the argument  
here4 ,the  septa reach not the         
circumference2 the surface of the stone 
is solid and  uniform in every part2 and
 there is not any appearance of the spar
 in  the argillaceous bed around the    
stone4    ,it1 therefore1 necessarily   
follows1 that the contraction of the    
iron-stone1 in order to form septa1 and 
the filling of these cavities  with     
spar1 had proceeded pari passu2 and that
 this operation must have  been brought 
about by means of fusion1 or by         
congelation from a state of  simple     
fluidity and expansion4    ,it is only  
further to be observed1 that all the    
arguments which have  been already      
employed1 concerning mineral concretions
 from a simply  fluid state1 or that of 
fusion1 here take place4 ,i have        
septaria of this  kind1 in which1       
besides pyrites1 iron-ore1 calcareous   

spar1 and another  that is ferruginous  
and compound1 there is contained        
siliceous  crystals2 a case which is not
 so common4 ,i have them also attended  
with  circumstances of concretion and   
crystallization1 which1 besides being   
extremely rare1 are equally curious and 
interesting4    ,there is one fact more 
which is well worth our attention1 being
 one  of those which are so general in  
the mineral regions4 ,it is the         
crystallizations which are found in     
close cavities of the most solid        
bodies4    ,nothing is more common than 
this appearance4 ,cavities are every    
where  found closely lined with         
crystallizations1 of every different    
substance  which may be supposed in     
those places4 ,these concretions are    
well known  to naturalists1 and form    
part of the beautiful specimens which   
are preserved in the cabinets of        
collectors1 and which the ,german       
mineralists have termed ,drusen4 ,i     
shall only particularise one  species1  

which may be described upon principle1  
and therefore may be  a proper subject  
on which to reason1 for ascertaining the
 order of  production in certain bodies4
 ,this body1 which we are now to        
examine1 is  of the agate species4      
,we have now been considering the means 
employed by nature in  consolidating    
strata which were originally of an open 
structure2 but in  perfectly solid      
strata we find bodies of agate1 which   
have evidently  been formed in that     
place where they now are found4 ,this   
fact1 however1  is not still that of    
which we are now particularly to        
inquire2 for this1  of which we are to  
treat1 concerns only a cavity within    
this agate2 now1  whatever may have been
 the origin of the agate itself1 we are 
to show1  from what appears within its  
cavity1 that the crystallizations which 
are  found in this place had arisen from
 a simply fluid state1 and not from     
that of any manner of solution4    ,the 
agates now in question are those of the 

coated kind1 so frequent in  this       
country1 called pebbles4 ,many of these 
are filled with a siliceous             
crystallization1 which evidently        
proceeds from the circumference  towards
 the centre4 ,many of them1 again1 are  
hollow4 ,those cavities are  variously  
lined with crystallized substances2 and 
these are the object  of the present    
examination4    ,but before describing  
what is found within1 it is necessary to
 attend to  this particular             
circumstance1 that the cavity is        
perfectly inclosed with  many solid     
coats1 impervious to air or water1 but  
particularly with  the external cortical
 part1 which is extremely hard1 takes   
the highest  polish1 and is of the most 
perfect solidity1 admitting the passage 
of  nothing but light and heat4         
,within these cavities1 we find1 #ast1  
,the coat of crystals with which  this  
cavity is always lined2 and this is     
general to all substances  concreting1  
in similar circumstances1 from a state  

of fusion2 for when  thus at liberty    
they naturally crystallise4 #b;dly1 ,we 
have frequently  a subsequent           
crystallization1 resting on the first1  
and more or less  immersed in it4       
#c;dly1 ,there is also sometimes a third
 crystallization1  superincumbent on the
 second1 in like manner as the second   
was on the  first4 ,i shall mention some
 particulars4    ,i have one specimen1  
in which the primary crystals are       
siliceous1 the  secondary thin          
foliaceous crystals of deep red but     
transparent iron-ore1  forming elegant  
figures1 that have the form of roses4   
,the tertiary  crystallization is a     
frosting of small siliceous crystals    
upon the edges  of the foliaceous       
crystals4    ,in other specimens1 there 
is first a lining of colourless         
siliceous  crystals1 then another lining
 of amethystine crystals1 and sometimes 
within that1 fuliginous crystals4 ,upon 
these fuliginous and amethystine        
crystals are many sphericles or         

hemispheres of red compact iron-ore1    
like haematites4    ,in others1 again1  
the primary crystals are siliceous1 and 
the secondary  calcareous4 ,of this     
kind1 ,i have one which has1 upon the   
calcareous  crystals1 beautiful         
transparent siliceous crystals1 and iron
 sphericles  both upon all these        
crystals1 and within them4    ,lastly1  
,i have an agate formed of various red  
and white coats1 and  beautifully       
figured4 ,the cavity within the coated  
part of the pebble is  filled up without
 vacuity1 first1 with colourless        
siliceous crystals2  secondly1 with     
fuliginous crystals2 and1 lastly1 with  
white or  colourless calcareous spar4   
,but between the spar and crystals there
 are  many sphericles1 seemingly of     
iron1 half sunk into each of these two  
different substances4    ,from these    
facts1 ,i may now be allowed to draw the
 following  conclusions3    #ast1 ,that 
concretion had proceeded from the       
surface of the agate body  inwards4     

,this necessarily follows from the      
nature of those figured  bodies1 the    
figures of the external coats always    
determining the shape  of those within1 
and never1 contrarily1 those within     
affecting those  without4    #b;dly1    
,that when the agate was formed1 the    
cavity then contained every  thing which
 now is found within it1 and nothing    
more4    #c;dly1 ,that the contained    
substances must have been in a fluid    
state1  in order to their crystallizing4
    ,lastly1 ,that as this fluid state  
had not been the effect of solution  in 
a menstruum1 it must have been fluidity 
from heat and fusion4    ,let us now    
make one general observation and        
argument with regard to  the formation  
of those various coated1 concreted1     
crystallized1 and  configured bodies4   
,were the crystallization and           
configuration found  to proceed from a  
central body1 and to be directed from   
that centre  outwards1 then1 without    
inquiring into collateral appearances1  

and other  proofs with regard to the    
natural concretion of those substances1 
we  might suppose that these concretions
 might have proceeded from that  central
 body gradually by accretion1 and that  
the concreting and  crystallizing       
substances might have been supplied from
 a fluid which had  before retained the 
concreting substance in solution2 in    
like manner as  the crystallizations of 
sugar1 which are formed in the solution 
of  that saccharine substance1 and are  
termed candies1 are formed upon the     
threads which are extended in the       
crystallizing vessel for that purpose4  
,but if1 on the contrary1 we are to     
consider those mineral bodies as        
spheres of alternate coats1 composed of 
agate1 crystal1 spars1 etc42 and  if all
 those crystallizations have their bases
 upon the uncrystallized  coat which is 
immediately external to it1 and their   
apices turned  inwards into the next    
internal solid coat1 it is not possible 
to  conceive that a structure of this   

kind could have been formed in  any     
manner from a solution4 ,but this last  
manner is the way without  exception in 
which those mineral bodies are found2   
therefore we are to  conclude1 that the 
concretion of those bodies had proceeded
 immediately  from a state of fusion or 
simple fluidity4    ,in granite these   
cavities are commonly lined with the    
crystal  corresponding to the           
constituent substances of the stone1    
viz4 quartz1  feld-spar1 and mica or    
talk4 ,m4 de ,saussure1 7,voyages dans  
les ,alpes1  tom4 ii4 #gbb471 says1 ,on 
trouve frquemment des amas considrables 
de  spath calcaire1 crystallis dans les 
grottes ou se forme le crystal de       
roche2 quoique ces grottes soient       
renfermes dans le coeur des montagnes   
d'un granit vif1  qu'on ne voie aucun   
roc calcaire au dessus de ces           
montagnes4    ,so accurate an observer1 
and so complete a naturalist1 must have 
observed how the extraneous substance   
had been introduced into this  cavity1  

had they not been formed together the   
cavity and the calcareous  crystals4    
,that ,m4 de ,saussure perceived no     
means for that introduction1  will      
appear from what immediately follows in 
that paragraph4 ,ces rocs  auroient-ils 
t dtruits1 ou bien ce spath n'est il que
 le produit  d'une scrtion des parties  
calcaires que l'on fait tres disperses  
entre les divers lmens du granit8       
,had ,m4 de ,saussure allowed himself to
 suppose all those substances in        
fusion1 of which there cannot be a      
doubt1 he would soon have resolved  both
 this difficulty1 and also that of      
finding molybdena crystallized  along   
with feld-spar1 in a cavity of this     
kind4 #gah4    ,to this argument1 taken 
from the close cavities in our agates1  
,i am now  to add another demonstration4
 ,it is the case of the calcedony agate1
  containing a body of calcareous spar2 
here it is to be shown1 that1  while the
 calcareous body was altogether inclosed
 within the calcedony  nodular body1    

these two substances had been perfectly 
soft1 and had  mutually affected each   
others shape1 in concreting from a fluid
 state4  ,in order to see this1 we are  
to consider that both those substances  
have  specific shapes in which they     
concrete from the third state2 the      
sparry structure of the one is well     
known2 the spherical or mammelated      
crystallization of the calcedony1 is no 
less conspicuous2 this last  is1 in the 
present case1 spherical figures1 which  
are some of  them hemispheres1 or even  
more4 ,the figures which we have now in 
contemplation are so distinctly         
different as cannot be mistaken2 the    
one is a rhombic figure bounded by      
planes2 the other is a most perfect     
spherical form2 and both these are      
specific figures1 belonging             
respectively to the crystallization of  
those two substances4    ,the argument  
now to be employed for proving that     
those two bodies had  concreted from the
 fluid state of fusion1 and not from any

 manner of  solution1 is this3 ,that1   
were the one of those bodies to be found
  impressing the other with its specific
 figure1 we must conclude that the      
impressing body had concreted or        
crystallized while the impressed body   
was in a soft or fluid state2 and that1 
if they are both found mutually         
impressing and impressed by each other1 
they must have both been in  the fluid  
and concreting state together4 ,now the 
fact is1 that the  calcareous body is   
perfectly inclosed within the solid     
calcedony1 and  that they are mutually  
impressed by each others specific       
figure1 the  sparry structure of the    
calcareous body impressing the calcedony
 with  its type of planes and angles1 at
 the same time that1 in other parts1    
the spherical figures of the calcedony  
enter the solid body of the  spar1 and  
thus impress their mammelated figures   
into that part which is  contiguous4 ,it
 is therefore inconceivable1 that these 
appearances  could have been produced in

 any other manner than by those two     
bodies  concreting from a simply fluid  
state4    ,there are in jaspers and     
agates many other appearances1 from     
whence the  fusion of those substances  
may be concluded with great certainty   
and  precision2 but it is hoped1 that   
what has been now given may suffice for 
establishing that proposition without   
any doubt4    ,it must not be here      
objected1 ,that there are frequently    
found siliceous  crystals and amethysts 
containing water2 and that it is        
impossible  to confine water even in    
melted glass4 ,it is true1 that here1 at
 the  surface of the earth1 melted glass
 cannot1 in ordinary circumstances1 be  
made to receive and inclose condensed   
water2 but let us only suppose a        
sufficient degree of compression in the 
body of melted glass1 and we  can easily
 imagine it to receive and confine water
 as well as any  other substance4 ,but  
if1 even in our operations1 water1 by   
means of  compression1 may be made to   

endure the heat of red hot iron without 
being converted into vapour1 what may   
not the power of nature be able to      
perform8 ,the place of mineral          
operations is not on the surface of the 
earth2 and we are not to limit nature   
with our imbecility1 or estimate  the   
powers of nature by the measure of our  
own4#aj    ,note #aj3 ,this is so       
material a principle in the theory of   
consolidating  the strata of the earth  
by the fusion of mineral substances1    
that ,i beg  the particular attention of
 the reader to that subject4 ,the effect
 of  compression upon compound          
substances1 submitted to increased      
degrees of  heat1 is not a matter of    
supposition1 it is an established       
principle  in natural philosophy4 ,this1
 like every other physical principle1 is
  founded upon matter of fact or        
experience2 we find1 that many compound 
substances may with heat be easily      
changed1 by having their more  volatile 
parts separated when under a small      

compression2 but these  substances are  
preserved without change when           
sufficiently compressed4  ,our          
experiments of this kind are necessarily
 extremely limited2 they  are not1      
however1 for that reason1 the less      
conclusive4 ,the effects of  increasing 
degrees of heat are certainly prevented 
by increasing degrees  of compression2  
but the rate at which the different     
effects of those  powers proceed1 or the
 measure of those different degrees of  
increase  that may be made without      
changing the constitution of the        
compound  substance1 are not known2 nor 
is there any limit to be set to that    
operation1 so far as we know4           
,consequently1 it is a physical         
principle1  ,that the evaporation of    
volatile substances by heat1 or the     
reparation  of them from a compound     
substance1 consequently the effect of   
fire in  changing that compound         
substance1 may be absolutely prevented  
by means  of compression4    ,it now    

remains to be considered1 how far there 
is reason to conclude  that there had   
been sufficient degrees of compression  
in the mineral  regions1 for the purpose
 of melting the various substances with 
which we  find strata consolidated1     
without changing the chemical           
constitution of  those compound         
substances4    ,had ,i1 in reasoning a  
priori1 asserted1 ,that all mineral     
bodies might  have been melted without  
change1 when under sufficient           
compression1  there might have arisen1  
in the minds of reasoning men1 some     
doubt with  regard to the certainty of  
that proposition1 however probable it   
were to  be esteemed3 ,but when1 in     
reasoning a posteriori1 it is found that
 all  mineral bodies have been actually 
melted1 then1 all that is required to   
establish the proposition on which ,i   
have founded my theory1 is to  see that 
there must have been immense degrees of 
compression upon the  subjects in       
question2 for we neither know the degree

 of heat which had  been employed1 nor  
that of compression by which the effect 
of the heat  must have been modified4   
,now1 in order to see that there had    
been immense compression1 we have  but  
to consider that the formation of the   
strata1 which are to be  consolidated1  
was at the bottom of the ocean1 and that
 this place is to  us unfathomable4 ,if 
it be farther necessary to show that it 
had been at  such unfathomable depth    
strata were consolidated1 it will be    
sufficient  to observe1 it is not upon  
the surface of the earth1 or above the  
level  of the sea1 that this mineral    
operation can take place2 for1 it is    
there  that those consolidated bodies   
are redissolved1 or necessarily going   
into decay1 which is the opposite to    
that operation which we are now         
inquiring after2 therefore1 if they were
 consolidated in any other place  than  
at the bottom of the sea1 it must have  
been between that place of  their       
formation and the surface of the sea2   

but that is a supposition  which we have
 not any reason to make2 therefore1 we  
must conclude that  it was at the bottom
 of the ocean those stratified bodies   
had been  consolidated4    ,to conclude 
this long chemico-mineral disquisition1 
,i have specimens in  which the mixture 
of calcareous1 siliceous1 and metallic  
substances1  in almost every species of 
concretion which is to be found in      
mineral  bodies1 may be observed1 and in
 which there is exhibited1 in miniature1
  almost every species of mineral       
transaction1 which1 in nature1 is found 
upon a scale of grandeur and            
magnificence4 ,they are nodules         
contained in  the whin-stone1 porphyry1 
or basaltes of the ,calton-hill1 by     
,edinburgh2  a body which is to be      
afterwards examined1 when it will be    
found to have  flowed1 and to have been 
in fusion1 by the operation of          
subterraneous  heat4    ,this evidence1 
though most conclusive with regard to   
the application of  subterraneous heat1 

as the means employed in bringing into  
fusion all  the different substances    
with which strata may be found          
consolidated1 is  not directly a proof  
that strata had been consolidated by the
 fusion of  their proper substance4 ,it 
was necessary to see the general nature 
of  the evidence1 for the universal     
application of subterraneous heat1 in   
the fusion of every kind of mineral     
body4 ,now1 that this has been done1  we
 may give examples of strata            
consolidated without the introduction   
of foreign matter1 merely by the        
softening or fusion of their own        
materials4    ,for this purpose1 we may 
consider two different species of       
strata1  such as are perfectly simple in
 their nature1 of the most distinct     
substances1 and whose origin is         
perfectly understood1 consequently1     
whose subsequent changes may be reasoned
 upon with certainty and  clearness4    
,these are the siliceous and calcareous 
strata2 and these  are the two          

prevailing substances of the globe1 all 
the rest being1 in  comparison of these1
 as nothing2 for unless it be the       
bituminous or coal  strata1 there is    
hardly any other which does not         
necessarily contain  more or less of one
 or other of these two substances4 ,if1 
therefore1  it can be shown1 that both  
of those two general strata have been   
consolidated by the simple fusion of    
their substance1 no desideratum  or     
doubt will remain1 with regard to the   
nature of that operation which  has been
 transacted at great depths of the      
earth1 places to which all  access is   
denied to mortal eyes4    ,we are now to
 prove1 first1 ,that those strata have  
been consolidated  by simple fusion2    
and1 #b;dly1 ,that this operation is    
universal1 in  relation to the strata of
 the earth1 as having produced the      
various  degrees of solidity or hardness
 in these bodies4    ,i shall first     
remark1 that a fortuitous collection of 
hard bodies1 such  as gravel and sand1  

can only touch in points1 and cannot1   
while in that  hard state1 be made to   
correspond so precisely to each others  
shape as  to consolidate the mass4 ,but 
if these hard bodies should be softened 
in  their substance1 or brought into a  
certain degree of fusion1 they  might be
 adapted mutually to each other1 and    
thus consolidate the open  structure of 
the mass4 ,therefore1 to prove the      
present point1 we have  but to exhibit  
specimens of siliceous and calcareous   
strata which have  been evidently       
consolidated in this manner4    ,of the 
first kind1 great varieties occur in    
this country4 ,it is1  therefore1       
needless to describe these particularly4
 ,they are the  consolidated strata of  
gravel and sand1 often containing       
abundance of  feld-spar1 and thus       
graduating into granite2 a body1 in this
 respect1  perfectly similar to the more
 regular strata which we now examine4   
,the second kind1 again1 are not so     
common in this country1 unless  we      

consider the shells and coralline bodies
 in our lime-stones1 as  exhibiting the 
same example1 which indeed they do4 ,but
 ,i have a specimen  of marble from     
,spain1 which may be described1 and     
which will afford the  most satisfactory
 evidence of the fact in question4      
,this ,spanish marble may be considered 
as a species of pudding-stone1  being   
formed of calcareous gravel2 a species  
of marble which1 from ,mr  ,bowles'     
,natural ,history1 appears to be very   
common in ,spain4 ,the gravel  of which 
this marble is composed1 consists of    
fragments of other marbles  of different
 kinds4 ,among these1 are different     
species of oolites  marble1 some shell  
marbles1 and some composed of a chalky  
substance1 or  of undistinguishable     
parts4 ,but it appears1 that all these  
different  marbles had been consolidated
 or made hard1 then broken into         
fragments1  rolled and worn by          
attrition1 and thus collected together1 
along with  some sand or small siliceous

 bodies1 into one mass4 ,lastly1 ,this  
compound body is consolidated in such a 
manner as to give the most  distinct    
evidence1 that this had been executed by
 the operation of heat  or simple       
fusion4    ,the proof ,i give is this1  
,that besides the general conformation  
of those  hard bodies1 so as to be      
perfectly adapted to each other's shape1
 there  is1 in some places1 a mutual    
indentation of the different pieces of  
gravel into each other2 an indentation  
which resembles perfectly that  junction
 of the different bones of the cranium1 
called sutures1 and  which must have    
necessarily required a mixture of those 
bodies while in  a soft or fluid state4 
,this appearance of indentation is by no
 means singular1 or limited to  one     
particular specimen4 ,i have several    
specimens of different marbles1  in     
which fine examples of this species of  
mixture may be perceived4 ,but  in this 
particular case of the ,spanish         
pudding-stone1 where the mutual         

indentation is made between two pieces  
of hard stone1 worn round by  attrition1
 the softening or fusion of these two   
bodies is not simply  rendered probable1
 but demonstrated4    ,having thus      
proved1 that those strata had been      
consolidated by simple  fusion1 as      
proposed1 we now proceed to show1 that  
this mineral operation  had been not    
only general1 as being found in all the 
regions of the  globe1 but universal1 in
 consolidating our earth in all the     
various  degrees1 from loose and        
incoherent shells and sand1 to the most 
solid  bodies of the siliceous and      
calcareous substances4    ,to exemplify 
this in the various collections and     
mixtures of sands1  gravels1 shells1 and
 corals1 were endless and superfluous4  
,i shall only  take1 for an example1 one
 simple homogeneous body1 in order to   
exhibit  it in the various degrees of   
consolidation1 from the state of simple 
incoherent earth to that of the most    
solid marble4 ,it must be evident  that 

this is chalk2 naturally a soft         
calcareous earth1 but which may be  also
 found consolidated in every different  
degree4    ,through the middle of the   
,isle of ,wight1 there runs a ridge of  
hills of  indurated chalk4 ,this ridge  
runs from the ,isle of ,wight directly  
west  into ,dorsetshire1 and goes by    
,corscastle towards ,dorchester1 perhaps
  beyond that place4 ,the sea has broke 
through this ridge at the west  end of  
the ,isle of ,wight1 where columns of   
the indurated chalk remain1  called the 
,needles2 the same appearance being     
found upon the opposite  shore in       
,dorsetshire4    ,in this field of      
chalk1 we find every gradation of that  
soft earthy  substance to the most      
consolidated body of this indurated     
ridge1 which  is not solid marble1 but  
which has lost its chalky property1 and 
has  acquired a kind of stony hardness4 
,we want only further to see this       
cretaceous substance in its most        
indurated and consolidated state2 and   

this we have in the north of  ,ireland1 
not far from the ,giants ,causeway4 ,i  
have examined cargoes of  this          
lime-stone brought to the west of       
,scotland1 and find the most  perfect   
evidence of this body having been once a
 mass of chalk1 which is  now a solid   
marble4    ,thus1 if it is by means of  
fusion that the strata of the earth have
  been1 in many places1 consolidated1 we
 must conclude1 that all the  degrees of
 consolidation1 which are indefinite1   
have been brought about  by the same    
means4    ,now1 that all the strata of  
the mineral regions1 which are those    
only  now examined1 have been           
consolidated in some degree1 is a fact  
for which  no proof can be offered here1
 but must be submitted to experience and
  inquiry2 so far1 however1 as they     
shall be considered as consolidated in  
any degree1 which they certainly are in 
general1 we have investigated  the means
 which had been employed in that mineral
 operation4    ,we have now considered  

the concretions of particular bodies1   
and the  general consolidation of       
strata2 but it may be alleged1 that     
there is  a great part of the solid mass
 of this earth not properly comprehended
  among those bodies which have been    
thus proved to be consolidated by  means
 of fusion4 ,the body here alluded to is
 granite2 a mass which is  not generally
 stratified1 and which1 being a body    
perfectly solid1  and forming some part 
in the structure of this earth1 deserves
 to be  considered4    ,the nature of   
granite1 as a part of the structure of  
the earth1 is too  intricate a subject  
to be here considered1 where we only    
seek to prove  the fusion of a substance
 from the evident marks which are to be 
observed in a body4 ,we shall1          
therefore1 only now consider one        
particular species of granite2 and if   
this shall appear to have been in  a    
fluid state of fusion1 we may be allowed
 to extend this property to  all the    
kind4    ,the species now to be examined

 comes from the north country1 about    
four  or five miles west from ,portfoy1 
on the road to ,huntly4 ,i have not been
  upon the spot1 but am informed that   
this rock is immediately connected  or  
continuous with the common granite of   
the country4 ,this indeed  appears in   
the specimens which ,i have got2 for1 in
 some of these1 there  is to be         
perceived a gradation from the regular  
to the irregular sort4    ,this rock may
 indeed be considered1 in some respects1
 as a porphyry2 for  it has an evident  
ground1 which is feld-spar1 in its      
sparry state2  and it is1 in one view1  
distinctly maculated with quartz1 which 
is  transparent1 but somewhat           
dark-coloured#aa4    ,note #aa3 ,plate  
,,ii4 fig4 #a4 #b4 #c4    ,considered as
 a porphyry1 this specimen is no less   
singular than as a  granite4 ,for1      
instead of a siliceous ground1 maculated
 with the rhombic  feld-spar1 which is  
the common state of porphyry1 the ground
 is  uniformly crystallised1 or a       

homogeneous regular feld-spar1 maculated
  with the transparent siliceous        
substance4 ,but as1 besides the         
feld-spar  and quartz1 which are the    
constituent parts of the stone1 there is
 also  mica1 in some places1 it may1    
with propriety1 be termed a granite4    
,the singularity of this specimen       
consists1 not in the nature or          
proportions of its constituent parts1   
but in the uniformity of the  sparry    
ground1 and the regular shape of the    
quartz mixture4 ,this  siliceous        
substance1 viewed in one direction1 or  
longitudinally1 may  be considered as   
columnar1 prismatical1 or continued in  
lines running  nearly parallel4 ,these  
columnar bodies of quartz are           
beautifully  impressed with a figure on 
the sides1 where they are in contact    
with the  spar4 ,this figure is that of 
furrows or channels1 which are perfectly
  parallel1 and run across the          
longitudinal direction of the quartz4   
,this  is represented in fig4 #d4 ,this 

striated figure is only seen when1 by   
fracture1 the quartz is separated from  
the contiguous spar4    ,but what ,i    
would here more particularly represent  
is1 the transverse  section of those    
longitudinal siliceous bodies ,these are
 seen in fig4 #a4  #b4 and #c4 ,they    
have not only separately the forms of   
certain typographic  characters1 but    
collectively give the regular lineal    
appearance of types  set in writing4    
,it is evident from the inspection of   
this fossil1 that the sparry and        
siliceous substances had been mixed     
together in a fluid state2 and that  the
 crystallization of the sparry          
substance1 which is rhombic1 had        
determined the regular structure of the 
quartz1 at least in some  directions4   
,thus1 the siliceous substance is to be 
considered as included in the  spar1 and
 as figured1 according to the laws of   
crystallization proper  to the sparry   
ground2 but the spar is also to be found
 included in the  quartz4 ,it is not1   

indeed1 always perfectly included or    
inclosed on all  sides2 but this is     
sometimes the case1 or it appears so in 
the section4  ,fig4 #e4 #f4 #g4 #h4 #i4 
and #aj4 are those cases magnified1 and 
represent the  different figured quartz 
inclosing the feld-spar4 ,in one of     
them1 the  feld-spar1 which is contained
 within the quartz1 contains also a     
small  triangle of quartz1 which it     
incloses4 ,now1 it is not possible to   
conceive any other way in which those   
two substances1 quartz and  feld-spar1  
could be thus concreted1 except by      
congelation from a fluid  state1 in     
which they had been mixed4    ,there is 
one thing more to be observed with      
regard to this curious  species of      
granite4 ,it is the different order or  
arrangement of the  crystallization or  
internal structure of the feld-spar     
ground1 in two  contiguous parts of the 
same mass4 ,this is to be perceived in  
the  polished surface of the stone1 by  
means of the reflection of light4       

,there is a certain direction in which1 
viewing the stone1 when the light  falls
 with a proper obliquity1 we see a      
luminous reflection from the  internal  
parts of the stone4 ,this arises from   
the reflecting surfaces  of the sparry  
structure or minute cracks1 all turned  
in one direction1  consequently1 giving 
that luminous appearance only in one    
point of view4    ,now1 all the parts of
 the stone in which the figured quartz  
is directed  in the same manner1 or     
regularly placed in relation to each    
other1  present that shining appearance 
to the eye at one time1 or in the same  
point of direction4 ,but there are parts
 of the mass1 which1 though  immediately
 contiguous and properly continuous1    
have a different  disposition of the    
figured quartz2 and these two           
distinguished masses1  in the same      
surface of the polished stone1 give to  
the eye their shining  appearance in    
very different directions4 ,fig4 #c4    
shows two of those  figured and shining 

masses1 in the same plane or polished   
surface4    ,it must be evident1 that1  
as the crystallization of the sparry    
structure  is the figuring cause of the 
quartz bodies1 there must be observed a 
certain correspondency between those two
 things1 the alinement 7if ,i may  be   
allowed the expression7 of the quartz1  
and the shining of the sparry  ground4  
,it must also appear1 that at the time  
of congelation of the  fluid spar1 those
 two contiguous portions had been       
differently disposed  in the            
crystallization of their substance4     
,this is an observation which  ,i have  
had frequent opportunities of making1   
with respect to masses of  calcareous   
spar4    ,upon the whole1 therefore1    
whether we shall consider granite as a  
stratum or as an irregular mass1 whether
 as a collection of several  materials1 
or as the separation of substances which
 had been mixed1  there is sufficient   
evidence of this body having been       
consolidated by  means of fusion1 and in

 no other manner4    ,we are thus led to
 suppose1 that the power of heat and    
operation  of fusion must have been     
employed in consolidating strata of     
loose  materials1 which had been        
collected together and amassed at the   
bottom  of the ocean4 ,it will1         
therefore1 be proper to consider1 what  
are the  appearances in consolidated    
strata that naturally should follow1 on 
the  one hand1 from fluidity having     
been1 in this manner1 introduced by     
means  of heat1 and1 on the other1 from 
the interstices being filled by means   
of solution2 that so we may compare     
appearances with the one and other  of  
those two suppositions1 in order to know
 that with which they may be  only found
 consistent4    ,the consolidation of   
strata with every different kind of     
substance was  found to be inconsistent 
with the supposition1 that aqueous      
solution  had been the means employed   
for this purpose4 ,this appearance1 on  
the  contrary1 is perfectly consistent  

with the idea1 that the fluidity of     
these bodies had been the effect of     
heat2 for1 whether we suppose the       
introduction of foreign matter into the 
porous mass of a stratum for its        
consolidation1 or whether we shall      
suppose the materials of the mass       
acquiring a degree of softness1 by means
 of which1 together with an  immense    
compression1 the porous body might be   
rendered solid2 the power  of heat1 as  
the cause of fluidity and vapour1 is    
equally proper and  perfectly competent4
 ,here1 therefore1 appearances are as   
decidedly in  favour of the last        
supposition1 as they had been           
inconsistent with the  first4    ,but if
 strata have been consolidated by means 
of aqueous solution1 these  masses      
should be found precisely in the same   
state as when they were  originally     
deposited from the water4 ,the          
perpendicular section of those  masses  
might show the compression of the bodies
 included in them1 or of  which they are

 composed2 but the horizontal section   
could not contain  any separation of the
 parts of the stratum from one another4 
,if1 again1 strata have been            
consolidated by means of heat1 acting in
  such a manner as to soften their      
substance1 then1 in cooling1 they must  
have formed rents or separations of     
their substance1 by the unequal  degrees
 of contraction which the contiguous    
strata may have suffered4  ,here is a   
most decisive mark by which the present 
question must be  determined4    ,there 
is not in nature any appearance more    
distinct than this of the  perpendicular
 fissures and separations in strata4    
,these are generally  known to workmen  
by the terms of veins or backs and      
cutters2 and there  is no consolidated  
stratum that wants these appearances4   
,here is1  therefore1 a clear decision  
of the question1 ,whether it has been by
  means of heat1 or by means of aqueous 
solution1 that collections of  loose    
bodies at the bottom of the sea have    

been consolidated into the  hardest     
rocks and most perfect marbles#ab4      
,note #ab3 ,this subject is extremely   
interesting1 both to the theory of  the 
earth1 and to the science cf the mining 
art2 ,i will now illustrate  that       
theory1 with an authority which ,i      
received after giving this  dissertation
 to the ,royal ,society4 ,it is in the  
second volume of ,m4 de  ,saussure's    
voyages dans les ,alpes4 ,here ,i find  
proper examples for  illustrating that  
subject of mineralogy2 and ,i am happy  
to have this  opportunity of giving the 
reasoning of a man of science upon the  
subject1 and the opinion of a person who
 is in every respect so well  qualified 
to judge upon a point of this kind4     
,the first example is of a marble in the
 ,alps1 7voyages dans les  ,alpes47 tom4
 #b4 page #bga4    ,la pte de ces brches
 est tantt blanche1 tantt grise1 et les 
fragmens qui y font renferms font1 les  
uns blancs1 les autres gris1  d'autres  
roux1 et presque toujours d'une couleur 

diffrente de celle de  la pte qui les   
lit4 ,ils sont tous de nature calcaire2 
tels taient au  moins tous ceux que j'ai
 pus observer2 et ce qu'il-y-a de       
remarquable1  c'est qu'ils sont tous    
poss dans le sens des feuillets de la   
pierre2 on  diroit en les voyant1 qu'ils
 ont tous t comprims et crass dans  le  
mme sens4 ,cette mme pierre est mle de  
mica1 sur-tout dans les  interstices des
 couches et entre les fragmens et la pte
 qui les runit2  mais on ne voit point  
de mica dans les fragmens eux-mmes4 ,on 
trouve  aussi dans ces brches des       
infiltrations de quartz4 ,cette pierre  
est  coupe par des frquentes fissures   
perpendiculaires aux plans des  couches4
 ,on voit clairement que ces fentes out 
t formes par l'ingal  affaissement des  
couches1 et non par une retraite        
spontane3 car les  morceaux ou fragmens 
trangers sont tous partags et coups net 
par ces  fissures au lieu que dans les  
divisions naturelles des couches1 ces   
mmes fragmens sont entiers et saillans  

au dehors de la surface4 ,les  noeuds de
 quartz et les divers crystaux1 que     
renferment les roches  feuilletes1      
prsentent le mme phnomne1 et l'on peut  
en tirer la mme  consquence2 ils font   
partags dans les fentes1 et entiers dans
 les  sparations des couches4    ,he    
finds those particular strata in the    
other side of the mountain col  de la   
,seigne1 and gives us the following     
observations3    ,plus bas on passe     
entre deux bancs de ces mmes brches1    
entre lesquels  sont interposes des     
couches d'ardoises noires et de grs     
feuillets  micacs1 dont la situation est
 la mme4    ,on retrouve encore ces     
brches vers le has de la descente1 au   
pied de  pyramides calcaires dont j'ai  
parl plus haut4 ,je trouvai en #aggd de 
trs-jolis crystaux de roche qui s'taient
 forms dans les fentes de  cette brche4 
,il y avoit mme un mlange de quartz et  
de mica qui  s'toit moul dans           
quelques-une de ces fentes4 ,c'toit donc
 une roche  semblable aux primitives1 et

 pourtant d'une formation postrieure    
celle de la pierre calcaire4 ,et quel   
systme pourroit nous persuader que  la  
nature ne puisse encore produire ce     
qu'elle a produit autrefois6    ,m4 de  
,saussure has here given us an example  
of a calcareous ,braccia1  as he calls  
it1 but which is rather a pudding stone1
 with veins or  contractions of the     
mass4 ,he does not seem to understand   
these as  consequences of the           
consolidation of those strata2 this1    
however1 is  the only light in which    
these appearances may be explained1 when
 those  bodies are thus divided without 
any other separation in the mass4       
,the second example is found in the     
vertical strata of those mountains      
through which the ,rhne has made its way
 in running from the great  valley of   
the ,vallais towards the lake of        
,geneva4 7,chapitre xlviii47    ,c'est  
une espce de ptrosilex gris1 dur1       
sonore1 un peu transparent1  qui se     
dbite en feuillets minces parfaitement  

plans et rguliers4 ,ces  feuillets1 ou  
plutt ces couches1 courent  #ce degrs du
 nord par est1  en montant du cot de    
l'ouest sous un angle de #hj degrs4 ,ces
 couches  sont coupes par des fentes qui
 leur sont -peu-prs perpendiculaires et 
qui le sont aussi  l'horizon4 ,cette    
pierre s'emploie aux mmes usage  que    
l'ardoise1 mais elle est beaucoup plus  
forte et plus durable1 parce  qu'elle   
est plus dure et moins accessible aux   
impressions de l'eau et de  l'air4      
#ajdg4 ,ces ptrosilex feuillets changent
 peu--peu de nature1 en  admettant dans 
les interstices de leurs feuillets des  
parties de  feldspath4 ,ils out alors   
l'apparence d'une roche feuillete1      
quartzeuse  et micace1 7quartzum        
fornacum ,w474 ,mais cette apparence est
  trompeuse2 car on n'y trouve pas un   
atome de quartz3 toutes les parties     
blanches qui donnent du feu contre      
l'acier1 font du feldspath2 et les      
parties grise cailleuses ne font point  
du mica1 ce sont de lames minces  du    

ptrosilex dont j'ai dj parl4    ,here is
 evidently what ,i would call petuntze  
strata1 or porcelane stone1  that is1   
strata formed by the deposits of such   
materials as might come  from the       
detritus of granite1 arranged at the    
bottom of the sea1 and  consolidated by 
heat in the mineral regions4 ,we have   
precisely such  stratified masses in the
 ,pentland hills near ,edinburgh4 ,i    
have also a  specimen of the same kind1 
brought from the ,east ,indies1 in which
 there  is the print of an organized    
body4 ,i believe it to be of some       
coralline  or zoophite4     #ajdh4      
,cette roche mlange continue jusqu' ce  
que le rocher  s'loigne un peu du grand 
chemin4 ,l1 ce rocher se prsente coup   
pic dans une grande tendue1 et divis par
 de grandes fentes obliques1  -peu-prs  
parallles entr'elles4 ,ces fentes       
partagent la montagne en  grandes       
tranches de #ej  #fj pieds d'paisseur1  
que de loin semblent tre  des couches4  
,mais lorsqu'on s'en approche1 on voit1 

par le tissu mme  de la pierre          
feuillete1 que ses vraies couches font  
avec l'horizon des  angles de #gj  #ge  
degr1 et que ces grandes divisions sont 
de vraies  fentes par lesquelles un     
grand nombre de couches conscutives sont
  coupes presque perpendiculairement    
leurs plans4 ,les masses de rocher1     
comprises entre ces grandes fentes1 sont
 encore divises par d'autres  fentes    
plus petites1 dont la plupart sont      
paralleles aux grandes1  d'autres leur  
sont obliques2 mais toutes sont         
trs-peu-prs  perpendiculaires aux plans 
des couchs dont la montagne est compose4
    ,here is a distinct view of that    
which may be found to take place in all 
consolidated strata1 whatever be the    
composition of the stratum2 and  it is  
this appearance which is here maintained
 to be a physical  demonstration1 that  
those strata had been consolidated by   
means of  heat softening their          
materials4 ,in that case1 those         
stratified  bodies1 contracting in      

cooling1 form veins and fissures        
traversing  perpendicularly their       
planes2 and these veins are afterwards  
filled with  mineral substances4 ,these 
are what ,i have here distinguished as  
the  particular veins of mineral masses2
 things perfectly different from  proper
 mineral or metallic veins1 which are   
more general1 as belonging  to immense  
masses of those strata2 and which had   
been formed1 not from  the contraction1 
but from the disrupture of those masses1
 and by the  forcible injection of fluid
 mineral substances from below4 ,now    
these two  species of veins1 the        
particular and the general1 although    
occasionally  connected1 must be in     
science carefully distinguished2 in the 
one1 we  see the means which had been   
employed for the consolidation of the   
strata2 in the other1 we see that power 
by which the strata have been  raised   
from the bottom of the sea and placed in
 the atmosphere4    ,error never can be 
consistent1 nor can truth fail of having

 support from  the accurate examination 
of every circumstance4 ,it is not enough
 to  have found appearances decisive of 
the question1 with regard to the  two   
suppositions which have been now        
considered1 we may farther seek         
confirmation of that supposition which  
has been found alone consistent  with   
appearances4    ,if it be by means of   
heat and fusion that strata have been   
consolidated1  then1 in proportion to   
the degree of consolidation they have   
undergone  from their original state1   
they should1 caeteris paribus1 abound   
more  with separations in their mass4   
,but this conclusion is found consistent
  with appearances4 ,a stratum of porous
 sand-stone does not abound so much     
with veins and cutters as a similar     
stratum of marble1 or even a  similar   
stratum of sand-stone that is more      
consolidated4 ,in proportion1           
therefore1 as strata have been          
consolidated1 they are in general       
intersected with veins and cutters2 and 

in proportion as strata are  deep in    
their perpendicular section1 the veins  
are wide1 and placed at  greater        
distances4 ,in like manner1 when strata 
are thin1 the veins are  many1 but      
proportionally narrow4    ,it is thus1  
upon chemical principles1 to be         
demonstrated1 ,that all the  solid      
strata of the globe have been condensed 
by means of heat1 and  hardened from a  
state of fusion4 ,but this proposition  
is equally to  be maintained from       
principles which are mechanical4 ,the   
strata of the  globe1 besides being     
formed of earths1 are composed of sand1 
of gravel1  and fragments of hard       
bodies1 all which may be considered as1 
in their  nature1 simple2 but these     
strata are also found composed of bodies
 which  are not simple1 but are         
fragments of former strata1 which had   
been  consolidated1 and afterwards were 
broken and worn by attrition1 so as  to 
be made gravel4 ,strata composed in this
 manner have been again  consolidated2  

and now the question is1 ,by what means8
    ,if strata composed of such various 
bodies had been consolidated1 by any    
manner of concretion1 from the fluidity 
of a dissolution1 the hard and  solid   
bodies must be found in their entire    
state1 while the interstices  between   
those constituent parts of the stratum  
are filled up4 ,no partial  fracture can
 be conceived as introduced into the    
middle of a solid mass  of hard matter1 
without having been communicated from   
the surrounding  parts4 ,but such       
partial separations are found in the    
middle of those  hard and solid masses2 
therefore1 this compound body must have 
been  consolidated by other means than  
that of concretion from a state of a    
solution4    ,the ,spanish marble       
already described1 as well as many      
consolidated  strata of siliceous       
gravel1 of which ,i have specimens1     
afford the  clearest evidence of this   
fact4 ,these hard bodies are perfectly  
united  together1 in forming the most   

solid mass2 the contiguous parts of some
  of the rounded fragments are          
interlaced together1 as has already been
  observed2 and there are partial       
shrinkings of the mass forming veins1   
traversing several fragments1 but       
perfectly filled with the sparry        
substance of the mass1 and sometimes    
with parts of the stone distinctly      
floating in the transparent body of     
spar4 ,now1 there is not1 besides  heat 
or fusion1 any known power in nature by 
which these effects might  be produced4 
,but such effects are general to all    
consolidated masses1  although not      
always so well illustrated in a cabinet 
specimen4    ,thus we have discovered a 
truth that is confirmed by every        
appearance1  so far as the nature of the
 subject now examined admits4 ,we now   
return  to the general operation1 of    
forming continents of those materials   
which  had been deposited at the bottom 
of the sea4      ,,section ,,iii4       
,investigation of the ,natural          

,operations employed in the ,production 
of  ,land above the ,surface of the     
,sea4    ,we seek to know that operation
 by means of which masses of loose      
materials1 collected at the bottom of   
the sea1 were raised above its  surface1
 and transformed into solid land4    ,we
 have found1 that there is not in this  
globe 7as a planet revolving  in the    
solar system7 any power or motion       
adapted to the purpose now in  view2    
nor1 were there such a power1 could a   
mass of simply collected  materials have
 continued any considerable time to     
resist the waves and  currents natural  
to the sea1 but must have been quickly  
carried away1  and again deposited at   
the bottom of the ocean4 ,but we have   
found1 that  there had been operations1 
natural to the bowels of this earth2 by 
which  those loose and unconnected      
materials have been cemented together1  
and  consolidated into masses of great  
strength and hardness2 those bodies  are
 thus enabled to resist the force of    

waves and currents1 and to  preserve    
themselves1 for a sufficient time1 in   
their proper shape and  place1 as land  
above the general surface of the ocean4 
,we now desire to know1 how far those   
internal operations of the globe1  by   
which solidity and stability are        
procured to the beds of loose           
materials1 may have been also employed  
in raising up a continent of  land1 to  
remain above the surface of the sea4    
,there is nothing so proper for the     
erection of land above the level of  the
 ocean1 as an expansive power of        
sufficient force1 applied directly      
under materials in the bottom of the    
sea1 under a mass that is proper  for   
the formation of land when thus erected4
 ,the question is not1 how  such a power
 may be procured2 such a power has      
probably been employed4  ,if1 therefore1
 such a power should be consistent with 
that which we  found had actually been  
employed in preparing the erected mass2 
or1  if such a power is to be reasonably

 concluded as accompanying those        
operations which we have found natural  
to the globe1 and situated in the  very 
place where this expansive power appears
 to be required1 we should  thus be led 
to perceive1 in the natural operations  
of the globe1 a power  as efficacious   
for the elevation of what had been at   
the bottom of the  sea into the place of
 land1 as it is perfect for the         
preparation of  those materials to serve
 the purpose of their elevation4    ,in 
opposition to this conclusion1 it will  
not be allowed to allege2 that  we are  
ignorant how such a power might be      
exerted under the bottom of  the ocean2 
for1 the present question is not1 what  
had been the cause of  heat1 which has  
appeared to have been produced in that  
place1 but if  this power of heat1 which
 has certainly been exerted at the      
bottom of  the ocean for consolidating  
strata1 had been employed also for      
another  purpose1 that is1 for raising  
those strata into the place of land4    

,we may1 perhaps1 account for the       
elevation of land1 by the same cause    
with that of the consolidation of       
strata1 already investigated1 without   
explaining the means employed by nature 
in procuring the power of heat1  or     
showing from what general source of     
action this particular power had  been  
derived2 but1 by finding in subterranean
 heat a cause for any other  change1    
besides the consolidation of porous or  
incoherent bodies1 we  shall generalise 
a fact1 or extend our knowledge in the  
explanation of  natural appearances4    
,the power of heat for the expansion of 
bodies1 is1 so far as we know1          
unlimited2 but1 by the expansion of     
bodies placed under the strata at  the  
bottom of the sea1 the elevation of     
those strata may be effected2  and the  
question now to be resolved regards the 
actual exertion of  this power of       
expansion4 ,how far it is to be         
concluded as having been  employed in   
the production of this earth above the  

level of the sea4    ,before attempting 
to resolve that question1 it may be     
proper to observe1  there has been      
exerted an extreme degree of heat below 
the strata formed  at the bottom of the 
sea2 and this is precisely the action of
 a power  required for the elevation of 
those heated bodies into a higher place4
  ,therefore1 if there is no other way  
in which we may conceive this event  to 
have been brought about1 consistent with
 the present state of things1  or what  
actually appears1 we shall have a right 
to conclude1 that such  had been the    
order of procedure in natural things1   
and that the  strata formed at the      
bottom of the sea had been elevated1 as 
well as  consolidated1 by means of      
subterraneous heat4    ,the             
consolidation of strata by means of     
fusion or the power of heat1 has  been  
concluded from the examination of       
nature1 and from finding1 that  the     
present state of things is inconsistent 
with any other supposition4  ,now1      

again1 we are considering the only power
 that may be conceived as  capable of   
elevating strata from the bottom of the 
sea1 and placing such  a mass above the 
surface of the water4 ,it is a truth    
unquestionable1  that what had been     
originally at the bottom of the sea1 is 
at present  the highest of our land4 ,in
 explaining this appearance1 therefore1 
no  other alternative is left1 but      
either to suppose strata elevated by the
  power of heat above the level of the  
present sea1 or the surface of the      
ocean reduced many miles below the      
height at which it had subsisted  during
 the collection and induration of the   
land which we inhabit4    ,now1 if1 on  
the one hand1 we are to suppose no      
general power of  subterraneous fire or 
heat1 we leave to our theory no means   
for the  retreat of the sea1 or the     
lowering of its surface2 if1 on the     
other  hand1 we are to allow the general
 power of subterraneous heat1 we cannot 
have much difficulty in supposing1      

either the surface of the sea to have   
subsided1 or the bottom of the ocean1 in
 certain parts1 to have been  raised by 
a subterranean power above the level of 
its surface1 according  as appearances  
shall be found to require the one or    
other of those  conclusions4 ,here1     
therefore1 we are again remitted to the 
history of  nature1 in order to find    
matter of fact by which this question   
may be  properly decided4    ,if the    
present land had been discovered by the 
subsiding of the waters1  there has not 
been a former land1 from whence         
materials had been  procured for the    
construction of the present1 when at the
 bottom of the  sea2 for1 there is no   
vestige remaining of that land1 the     
whole land of  the present earth having 
been formed evidently at the bottom of  
the sea4  ,neither could the natural    
productions of the sea have been        
accumulated1  in the shape in which we  
now find them1 on the surface of this   
earth2  for1 ,how should the ,alps and  

,andes have been formed within the sea  
from the natural productions of the     
water8 ,consequently1 this is a         
supposition inconsistent with every     
natural appearance4    ,the supposition1
 therefore1 of the subsidence of the    
former ocean1  for the purpose of       
discovering the present land1 is beset  
with more  difficulty than the simple   
erection of the bottom of the former    
ocean2  for1 first1 ,there is a place to
 provide for the retirement of the      
waters of the ocean2 and1 #b;dly1 ,there
 is required a work of equal  magnitude2
 this is1 the swallowing up of that     
former continent1 which  had procured   
the materials of the present land4      
,on the one hand1 the subsiding of the  
surface of the ocean would but  make the
 former land appear the higher2 and1 on 
the other1 the sinking  the body of the 
former land into the solid globe1 so as 
to swallow up  the greater part of the  
ocean after it1 if not a natural        
impossibility1  would be at least a     

superfluous exertion of the power of    
nature4 ,such an  operation as this     
would discover as little wisdom in the  
end elected1 as  in the means           
appropriated to that end2 for1 if the   
land be not wasted  and worn away in the
 natural operations of the globe1 ,why  
make such a  convulsion in the world in 
order to renew the land8 ,if1 again1 the
 land  naturally decays1 ,why employ so 
extraordinary a power1 in order to hide 
a former continent of land1 and puzzle  
man8    ,let us now consider how far the
 other proposition1 of strata being     
elevated by the power of heat above the 
level of the sea1 may be  confirmed from
 the examination of natural appearances4
    ,the strata formed at the bottom of 
the ocean are necessarily horizontal  in
 their position1 or nearly so1 and      
continuous in their horizontal          
direction or extent4 ,they may change1  
and gradually assume the nature of  each
 other1 so far as concerns the materials
 of which they are formed2  but there   

cannot be any sudden change1 fracture1  
or displacement1  naturally in the body 
of a stratum4 ,but1 if these strata are 
cemented by  the heat of fusion1 and    
erected with an expansive power acting  
below1  we may expect to find every     
species of fracture1 dislocation1 and   
contortion1 in those bodies1 and every  
degree of departure from a  horizontal  
towards a vertical position4    ,the    
strata of the globe are actually found  
in every possible position3  ,for1 from 
horizontal1 they are frequently found   
vertical2 from  continuous1 they are    
broken and separated in every possible  
direction2  and1 from a plane1 they are 
bent and doubled4 ,it is impossible that
 they  could have originally been       
formed1 by the known laws of nature1 in 
their  present state and position2 and  
the power that has been necessarily     
required for their change1 has not been 
inferior to that which might  have been 
required for their elevation from the   
place in which they had  been formed4   

,in this cafe1 natural appearances are  
not anomalous4 ,they are1 indeed1       
infinitely various1 as they ought to be1
 according to the rule2 but all  those  
varieties in appearances conspire to    
prove one general truth1 viz4  ,that all
 which we see had been originally       
composed according to certain           
principles1 established in the          
constitution of the terraqueous globe2  
and that those regular compositions had 
been afterwards greatly changed  by the 
operations of another power1 which had  
introduced apparent  confusion among    
things first formed in order and by     
rule4    ,it is concerning the operation
 of this second power that we are now   
inquiring2 and here the apparent        
irregularity and disorder of the        
mineral regions are as instructive1 with
 regard to what had been  transacted in 
a former period of time1 as the order   
and regularity of  those same regions   
are conclusive1 in relation to the place
 in which a  former state of things had 

produced that which1 in its changed     
state1 we  now perceive4    ,we are now 
to conclude1 that the land on which we  
dwell had been  elevated from a lower   
situation by the same agent which had   
been  employed in consolidating the     
strata1 in giving them stability1 and   
preparing them for the purpose of the   
living world4 ,this agent is matter     
actuated by extreme heat1 and expanded  
with amazing force4    ,if this has been
 the case1 it will be reasonable to     
expect1 that some of  the expanded      
matter might be found condensed in the  
bodies which have  been heated by that  
igneous vapour2 and that matter1 foreign
 to the  strata1 may have been thus     
introduced into the fractures and       
separations  of those indurated masses4 
,we have but to open our eyes to be     
convinced of this truth4 ,look into  the
 sources of our mineral treasures2 ask  
the miner1 from whence has  come the    
metal into his vein8 ,not from the earth
 or air above1--not from  the strata    

which the vein traverses2 these do not  
contain one atom of  the minerals now   
considered4 ,there is but one place from
 whence these  minerals may have come2  
this is the bowels of the earth1 the    
place of  power and expansion1 the place
 from whence must have proceeded that   
intense heat by which loose materials   
have been consolidated into rocks1  as  
well as that enormous force by which the
 regular strata have been  broken and   
displaced4    ,our attention is here    
peculiarly called upon1 where we have   
the  opportunity of examining those     
mineral bodies1 which have immediately  
proceeded from the unknown region1 that 
place of power and energy which  we want
 to explore2 for1 if such is the system 
of the earth1 that  materials are first 
deposited at the bottom of the ocean1   
there to be  prepared in a certain      
manner1 in order to acquire solidity1   
and then to  be elevated into the proper
 place of land1 these mineral veins1    
which  contain matter absolutely foreign

 to the surface of the earth1 afford    
the most authentic information with     
regard to the operations which we  want 
to understand4 ,it is these veins which 
we are to consider as1  in some measure1
 the continuation of that mineral       
region1 which lies  necessarily out of  
all possible reach of our examination4  
,it is1  therefore1 peculiarly          
interesting to know the state in which  
things  are to be found in this place1  
which may be considered as intermediate 
between the solid land1 upon the one    
hand1 and the unknown regions of  the   
earth1 upon the other4    ,we are now to
 examine those mineral veins2 and these 
may be considered1  first1 in relation  
to their form1 independent of their     
substance or  particular contents2 and1 
secondly1 in relation to the contained  
bodies1  independent of their form4     
,in examining consolidated strata1 we   
remarked veins and cutters as a  proof  
of the means by which those bodies had  
been consolidated4 ,in that  case1 the  

formation of these veins is a regulated 
process1 determined  by the degree of   
fusion1 and the circumstances of        
condensation or  refrigeration4 ,in     
respect of these1 the mineral veins now 
to be examined  are anomalous4 ,they    
are2 but we know not why or how4 ,we see
 the effect2  but1 in that effect1 we do
 not see the cause4 ,we can say1        
negatively1  that the cause of mineral  
veins is not that by which the veins and
  fissures of consolidated strata have  
been formed2 consequently1 that  it is  
not the measured contraction and        
regulated condensation of the           
consolidated land which has formed those
 general mineral veins2 however1  veins1
 similar in many respects1 have been    
formed by the cooperation of  this      
cause4    ,having thus taken a view of  
the evident distinction between the     
veins or  contractions that are         
particular to the consolidated body in  
which they  are found1 and those more   
general veins which are not limited to  

that  cause1 we may now consider what is
 general in the subject1 or what is     
universal in these effects of which we  
wish to investigate the cause4    ,the  
event of highest generalization or      
universality1 in the form of  those     
mineral veins1 is fracture and          
dislocation4 ,it is not1 like that  of  
the veins of strata1 simple separation  
and measured contraction2 it  is violent
 fracture and unlimited dislocation4 ,in
 the one case1 the  forming cause is in 
the body which is separated2 for1 after 
the body had  been actuated by heat1 it 
is by the reaction of the proper matter 
of the  body1 that the chasm which      
constitutes the vein is formed4 ,in the 
other  case1 again1 the cause is        
extrinsic in relation to the body in    
which the  chasm is formed4 ,there has  
been the most violent fracture and      
divulsion2  but the cause is still to   
seek2 and it appears not in the vein2   
for it  is not every fracture and       
dislocation of the solid body of our    

earth1 in  which minerals1 or the proper
 substances of mineral veins1 are found4
    ,we are now examining matter of     
fact1 real effects1 from whence we would
  investigate the nature of certain     
events which do not now appear4 ,of     
these1 two kinds occur2 one which has   
relation to the hardness and  solidity1 
or the natural constitution of the body2
 the other1 to its  shape or local      
situation4 ,the first has been already  
considered2 the  last is now the subject
 of inquiry4    ,but1 in examining those
 natural appearances1 we find two       
different kinds  of veins2 the one      
necessarily connected with the          
consolidating cause2  the other with    
that cause of which we now particularly 
inquire4 ,for1  in those great mineral  
veins1 violent fracture and dislocation 
is the  principle2 but there is no other
 principle upon which strata1 or masses 
formed at the bottom of the sea1 can be 
placed at a height above its  surface4  
,hence1 in those two different          

operations1 of forming mineral  veins1  
and erecting strata from a lower to a   
higher place1 the principle  is the     
same2 for1 neither can be done without  
violent fracture and  dislocation4      
,we now only want to know1 how far it is
 by the same power1 as well as  upon the
 same principle1 that these two         
operations have been made4  ,an         
expansive force1 acting from below1 is  
the power most proper for  erecting     
masses2 but whether it is a power of the
 same nature with that  which has been  
employed in forming mineral veins1 will 
best appear in  knowing the nature of   
their contents4 ,these1 therefore1 may  
be now  considered4    ,every species of
 fracture1 and every degree of          
dislocation and  contortion1 may be     
perceived in the form of mineral veins2 
and there is  no other general principle
 to be observed in examining their form4
 ,but1  in examining their contents1    
some other principle may appear1 so far 
as1  to the dislocating power or force1 

there may be superadded matter1 by      
which something in relation to the      
nature of the power may be known4  ,if1 
for example1 a tree or a rock shall be  
found simply split asunder1  although   
there be no doubt with regard to some   
power having been applied  in order to  
produce the effect1 yet we are left     
merely to conjecture at  the power4 ,but
 when wedges of wood or iron1 or frozen 
water1 should be  found lodged in the   
cleft1 we might be enabled1 from this   
appearance1 to  form a certain judgment 
with regard to the nature of the power  
which  had been applied4 ,this is the   
case with mineral veins4 ,we find them  
containing matter1 which indicates a    
cause2 and every information in  this   
case is interesting to the theory4      
,the substances contained in mineral    
veins are precisely the same with  those
 which1 in the former section1 we have  
considered as being made  instrumental  
in the consolidation of strata2 and they
 are found mixed  and concreted in every

 manner possible4    ,but1 besides this 
evidence for the exertion of extreme    
heat1 in that  process by which those   
veins were filled1 there is another     
important  observation to be gathered   
from the inspection of this subject4    
,there  appears to have been a great    
mechanical power employed in the filling
 of  these veins1 as well as that       
necessarily required in making the first
  fracture and divulsion4    ,this      
appears from the order of the contents1 
or filling of these veins1  which is a  
thing often observed to be various and  
successive4 ,but what  it is chiefly now
 in view to illustrate1 is that immense 
force which is  manifested in the       
fracture and dispersion of the solid    
contents which  had formerly filled     
those veins4 ,here we find fragments of 
rock and spar  floating in the body of a
 vein filled with metallic substances2  
there1  again1 we see the various       
fragments of metallic masses floating in
 the  sparry and siliceous contents4    

,one thing is demonstrable from the     
inspection of the veins and their       
contents2 this is1 the successive       
irruptions of those fluid substances    
breaking the solid bodies which they    
meet1 and floating those fragments  of  
the broken bodies in the vein4 ,it is   
very common to see three  successive    
series of those operations2 and all this
 may be perceived in  a small fragment  
of stone1 which a man of science may    
examine in his  closet1 often better    
than descending to the mine1 where all  
the examples  are found on an enlarged  
scale4    ,let us now consider what     
power would be required to force up1    
from the  most unfathomable depth of the
 ocean1 to the ,andes or the ,alps1 a   
column  of fluid metal and of stone4    
,this power cannot be much less than    
that  required to elevate the highest   
land upon the globe4 ,whether1          
therefore1  we shall consider the       
general veins as having been filled by  
mineral  steams1 or by fluid minerals1  

an elevating power of immense force is  
still required1 in order to form as well
 as fill those veins4 ,but such a  power
 acting under the consolidated masses at
 the bottom of the sea1 is  the only    
natural means for making those masses   
land4    ,if such have been the         
operations that are necessary for the   
production  of this land2 and if these  
operations are natural to the globe of  
this  earth1 as being the effect of     
wisdom in its contrivance1 we shall     
have reason to look for the actual      
manifestation of this truth in the      
phaenomena of nature1 or those          
appearances which more immediately      
discover the actual cause in the        
perceived effect4    ,to see the        
evidence of marble1 a body that is      
solid1 having been formed  of loose     
materials collected at the bottom of the
 sea1 is not always  easy1 although it  
may be made abundantly plain2 and to be 
convinced that  this calcareous stone1  
which calcines so easily in our fires1  

should  have been brought into fusion by
 subterraneous heat1 without suffering  
calcination1 must require a chain of    
reasoning which every one is not  able  
to attain#ac4 ,but when fire bursts     
forth from the bottom of the  sea1 and  
when the land is heaved up and down1 so 
as to demolish cities  in an instant1   
and split asunder rocks and solid       
mountains1 there  is nobody but must see
 in this a power1 which may be          
sufficient to  accomplish every view of 
nature in erecting land1 as it is       
situated in  the place most advantageous
 for that purpose4    ,note #ac3 ,mr le 
,chevalier de ,dolomieu1 in considering 
the different  effects of heat1 has made
 the following observation2 ,journal de 
,physique1 ,mai #agib4    ,je dis le feu
 tel que nous l'employons pour          
distinguer le feu naturel  des volcans1 
du feu de nos fourneaux et de celui de  
nos chalumeaux4 ,nous  sommes obligs de 
donner une grande activit  son action   
pour suppler  et au volume qui ne seroit

 pas  notre disposition et au tems que  
nous  sommes forcs de mnager1 et cette  
manire d'appliquer une chaleur          
trs-active1 communique le mouvement et  
le dsordre jusques dans les  molcules   
constituantes4 ,agrgation et            
composition1 tout est troubl4  ,dans les
 volcans la grand masse du feu supple   
son intensit1 le  tems remplace son     
activit1 de manire qu'il tourmente moins
 les corps  fournis  son action2 il     
mnage leur composition en relchant leur 
agrgation1 et les pierres qui eut t     
rendues fluides par l'embrasement       
volcanique peuvent reprendre leur tat   
primitif2 la plupart des  substances    
qu'un feu plus actif auroit expulses y  
restent encore4 ,voil  pourquoi les     
laves ressemblent tellement aux pierres 
naturelles des  espces analogues1       
qu'elles ne peuvent en tre distingues2  
voil  galement pourquoi les verres      
volcaniques eux-mme renferment encore   
des  substances lastiques qui les font  
boursoufler lorsque nous les fondons  de

 nouveau1 et pourquoi ces verres        
blanchissent aussi1 pour lors1 par  la  
dissipation1 d'une substance grasse qui 
a rsist  la chaleur des  volcans1 et que
 volatilise la chaleur par laquelle nous
 obtenons leur  second fusion4    ,no   
doubt1 the long application of heat may 
produce changes in bodies  very         
different from those which are          
occasioned by the sudden application  of
 a more intense heat2 but still there   
must be sufficient intensity in  that   
power1 so as to cause fluidity1 without 
which no chemical change  can be        
produced in bodies4 ,the essential      
difference1 however1 between  the       
natural heat of the mineral regions1 and
 that which we excite upon  the surface 
of the earth1 consists in this2 that    
nature applies heat  under circumstances
 which we are not able to imitate1 that 
is1 under  such compression as shall    
prevent the decomposition of the        
constituent  substances1 by the         
separation of the more volatile from the

 more fixed  parts4 ,this is a          
circumstance which1 so far as ,i know1  
no chemist  or naturalist has hitherto  
considered2 and it is that by which the 
operations of the mineral regions must  
certainly be explained4 ,without        
attending to this great principle in the
 mineralizing operations  of            
subterraneous fire1 it is impossible to 
conceive the fusion and  concretion of  
those various bodies1 which we examine  
when brought up to  the surface of the  
earth4    ,the only question1 therefore1
 which it concerns us to decide at      
present1  is1 ,whether those operations 
of extreme heat1 and violent mechanic   
force1 be only in the system as a matter
 of accident2 or if1 on the  contrary1  
they are operations natural to the      
globe1 and necessary in the  production 
of such land as this which we inhabit8  
,the answer to this is  plain3 ,these   
operations of the globe remain at       
present with undiminished  activity1 or 
in the fullness of their power4    ,a   

stream of melted lava flows from the    
sides of ,mount ,aetna4 ,here is a      
column of weighty matter raised from a  
great depth below1 to an immense  height
 above1 the level of the sea1 and rocks 
of an enormous size  are projected from 
its orifice some miles into the air4    
,every one  acknowledges that here is   
the liquefying power and expansive force
 of  subterranean fire1 or violent heat4
 ,but1 that ,sicily itself had been     
raised from the bottom of the ocean1 and
 that the marble called ,sicilian       
,jasper1 had its solidity upon the same 
principle with the lava1 would  stumble 
many a naturalist to acknowledge4       
,nevertheless1 ,i have in my  possession
 a table of this marble1 from which it  
is demonstrable1 that  this calcareous  
stone had flowed1 and been in such a    
state of fusion and  fluidity as lava4  
,here is a comparison formed of two     
mineral substances1 to which it is of   
the highest importance to attend4 ,the  
solidity and present state of the  one  

of these is commonly thought to be the  
operation of fire2 of the  other1 again1
 it is thought to be that of water4     
,this1 however1 is not  the case4 ,the  
immediate state and condition of both   
these bodies is now  to be considered as
 equally the effect of fire or heat4    
,the reason of  our forming such a      
different judgment with regard to these 
two subjects  is this2 we see1 in the   
one case1 the more immediate connection 
of the  cause and the effect1 while1 in 
the other1 we have only the effects from
  whence we are in science to           
investigate the cause4    ,but1 if it   
were necessary always to see this       
immediate connection1 in  order to      
acknowledge the operation of a power    
which1 at present1 is  extinguished in  
the effect1 we should lose the benefit  
of science1 or  general principles1 from
 whence particulars may be deduced1 and 
we  should be able to reason no better  
than the brute4 ,man is made for        
science2 he reasons from effects to     

causes1 and from causes to effects2  but
 he does not always reason without      
error4 ,in reasoning1 therefore1  from  
appearances which are particular1 care  
must be taken how we  generalise2 we    
should be cautious not to attribute to  
nature1 laws which  may perhaps be only 
of our own invention4    ,the immediate 
question now before us is not1 ,if the  
subterraneous fire1  or elevating power1
 which we perceive sometimes as         
operating with such  energy1 be the     
consolidating cause of strata formed at 
the bottom of the  sea2 nor1 if that    
power be the means of making land appear
 above the  general surface of the      
water8 for1 though this be the end we   
want to  arrive at ultimately1 the      
question at present in agitation        
respects the  laws of nature1 or the    
generality of particular appearances4   
,has the globe within it such an active 
power as fits it for the  renovation of 
that part of its constitution which may 
be subject to  decay8 ,are those        

powerful operations of fire1 or         
subterraneous heat1  which so often have
 filled us with terror and astonishment1
 to be  considered as having always     
been8 ,are they to be concluded as      
proper to  every part upon the globe1   
and as continual in the system of this  
earth8  ,if these points in question    
shall be decided in the affirmative1 we 
can  be at no loss in ascertaining the  
power which has consolidated strata1    
nor in explaining the present situation 
of those bodies1 which had their  origin
 at the bottom of the sea4 ,this1       
therefore1 should be the object  of our 
pursuit2 and in order to have           
demonstration in a case of physical     
inquiry1 we must again have recourse to 
the book of nature4    ,the general     
tendency of heat is to produce fluidity 
and softness2 as  that of cold is1 on   
the contrary1 to harden soft and fluid  
bodies4 ,but  this softening power of   
heat is not uniform in its nature2 it is
 made to  act with very different       

effect1 according to the nature of the  
substance  to which it is applied4 ,we  
are but limited in the art of increasing
 the  heat or the cold of bodies2 we    
find1 however1 extreme difference in    
their substances with respect to        
fusibility4    ,a fusible substance1 or 
mineral composition in a fluid state1 is
 emitted  from those places of the earth
 at which subterraneous fire and        
expansive  force are manifested in those
 eruptive operations4 ,in examining     
these  emitted bodies1 men of science   
find a character for such productions1  
in  generalising the substance1 and     
understanding the natural constitution  
of those bodies4 ,it is in this manner  
that such a person1 finding a  piece of 
lava in any place of the earth1 says    
with certainty1 ,here is a  stone which 
had congealed from a melted state4      
,having thus found a distinguishing     
character for those fused substances    
called1 in general1 ,lavas1 and having  
the most visible marks for that  which  

had been actually a volcano1            
naturalists1 in examining different     
countries1 have discovered the most     
undoubted proofs of many ancient        
volcanos1 which had not been before     
suspected4 ,thus1 volcanos will  appear 
to be not a matter of accident1 or as   
only happening in a  particular place1  
they are general to the globe1 so far as
 there is  no place upon the earth that 
may not have an eruption of this kind2  
although it is by no means necessary for
 every place to have had those          
eruptions4    ,volcanos are natural to  
the globe1 as general operations2 but we
 are  not to consider nature as having a
 burning mountain for an end in her     
intention1 or as a principal purpose in 
the general system of this  world4 ,the 
end of nature in placing an internal    
fire or power of heat1  and a force of  
irresistible expansion1 in the body of  
this earth1 is to  consolidate the      
sediment collected at the bottom of the 
sea1 and to form  thereof a mass of     

permanent land above the level of the   
ocean1 for the  purpose of maintaining  
plants and animals4 ,the power appointed
 for this  purpose is1 as on all other  
occasions1 where the operation is       
important1  and where there is any      
danger of a shortcoming1 wisely provided
  in abundance2 and there are contrived 
means for disposing of the  redundancy4 
,these1 in the present case1 are our    
volcanos4    ,a volcano is not made on  
purpose to frighten superstitious people
  into fits of piety and devotion1 nor  
to overwhelm devoted cities with        
destruction2 a volcano should be        
considered as a spiracle to the         
subterranean furnace1 in order to       
prevent the unnecessary elevation of    
land1 and fatal effects of earthquakes2 
and we may rest assured1 that  they1 in 
general1 wisely answer the end of their 
intention1 without  being in themselves 
an end1 for which nature had exerted    
such amazing  power and excellent       
contrivance4    ,let us take a view of  

the most elevated places of the earth2  
if the  present theory is just1 it is   
there that we should find volcanos4 ,but
 is  not this the case8 ,there are      
volcanos in the ,andes2 and round the   
,alps  we find many volcanos1 which are 
in ,france upon the one side1 and in    
,germany upon the other1 as well as upon
 the ,italian side1 where ,vesuvius     
still continues to exhibit violent      
eruptions4    ,it is not meant to       
allege1 that it is only upon the summit 
of a  continent volcanos should appear4 
,subterraneous fire has sometimes made  
its appearance in bursting from the     
bottom of the sea4 ,but1 even in  this  
last case1 land was raised from the     
bottom of the sea1 before the  eruption 
made its exit into the atmosphere4 ,it  
must also be evident1  that1 in this    
case of the new island near ,santorini1 
had the expansive  power been retained1 
instead of being discharged1 much more  
land might  have been raised above the  
level of the ocean4    ,now1 the        

eruption of that elastic force through  
the bottom of the sea1  may be          
considered as a waste of power in the   
operations of the globe1  where the     
elevation of indurated strata is an     
object in the exertion of  that power2  
whereas1 in the centre of a continent   
sufficiently elevated  above the level  
of the sea1 the eruption of that fiery  
vapour calculated  to elevate the land1 
while it may occasionally destroy the   
habitations  of a few1 provides for the 
security and quiet possession of the    
many4    ,in order to see the wisdom of 
this contrivance1 let us consider the   
two extreme places at which this        
eruption of ignited matter may be       
performed4 ,these are1 on the one hand1 
within a continent of land1 and1  on the
 other1 at the bottom of the ocean4 ,in 
the one case1 the free  eruption of the 
expanding power should be permitted2    
because the purpose  for which it had   
been calculated to exist has been       
accomplished4 ,in  the other1 again1 the

 free eruption of that powerful matter  
should be  repressed2 because there is  
reserved for that power much of another 
operation in that place4 ,but1 according
 to the wise constitution of  things1   
this must necessarily happen4 ,the      
eruption of the fiery  vapour from      
volcanos on the continent or land1 is   
interrupted only  occasionally1 by the  
melted bodies flowing in the            
subterraneous  chimney2 whereas1 at the 
bottom of the ocean1 the contact of the 
water  necessarily tends to close the   
orifice1 by accumulating condensed      
matter  upon the weakest place4    ,if  
this be a just theory of the natural    
operations of the globe1 we  shall have 
reason to expect1 that great quantities 
of this melted  matter1 or fusible      
substance1 may be found in form of lava1
 among the  strata of the earth1 where  
there are no visible marks of any       
volcano1 or  burning mountain1 having   
existed4 ,here1 therefore1 is an        
important point  to be determined2 for1 

if it shall appear that much of this    
melted  matter1 analogous to lava1 has  
been forced to flow among the strata    
which had been formed at the bottom of  
the sea1 and now are found  forming dry 
land above its surface1 it will be      
allowed1 that we have  discovered the   
secret operations of nature concocting  
future land1 as  well as those by which 
the present habitable earth had been    
produced  from the bottom of the abyss4 
,here1 therefore1 we shall at present   
rest  the argument1 with endeavouring to
 show that such is actually the case4   
,it appears from ,cronstedt's           
,mineralogy1 that the rock-stone1 called
 trap  by the ,swedes1 the amygdaloides 
and the schwarts-stein of the ,germans1 
are the same with the whin-stone of this
 country4 ,this is also fully  confirmed
 by specimens from ,sweden1 sent me by  
my friend ,dr ,gahn4  ,whatever1        
therefore1 shall be ascertained with    
regard to our whin-stone1  may be so far
 generalized or extended to the         

countries of ,norway1  ,sweden1 and     
,germany4    ,the whin-stone of         
,scotland is also the same with the     
toad-stone of  ,derbyshire1 which is of 
the amygdaloides species2 it is also the
 same  with the flagstone of the south  
of ,staffordshire1 which is a simple    
whin-stone1 or perfect trap4 ,england1  
therefore1 must be included in  this    
great space of land1 the mineral        
operations of which we explore2  and    
also ,ireland1 of which the ,giant's    
,causeway1 and many others1 are         
sufficient proof4    ,in the south of   
,scotland1 there is a ridge of hills1   
which extends  from the west side of the
 island in ,galloway to the east side in
  ,berwickshire1 composed of granite1 of
 schistus1 and of siliceous strata4     
,the ,grampians on the north1 again1    
form another range of mountains of  the 
same kind2 and between these two great  
fields of broken1 tumbled1  and         
distorted strata1 there lies a field of 
lesser hardness and  consolidation1 in  

general2 but a field in which there is a
 great  manifestation of subterraneous  
fire1 and of exerted force4    ,the     
strata in this space consist1 in        
general1 of sand-stone1 coal1           
lime-stone or marble1 iron-stone1 and   
marl or argillaceous strata1 with       
strata of analogous bodies1 and the     
various compositions of these4 ,but     
what is to the present purpose is this1 
that1 through all this space1  there are
 interspersed immense quantities of     
whinstone2 a body which is  to be       
distinguished as very different from    
lava2 and now the disposition  of this  
whin-stone is to be considered4         
,sometimes it is found in an irregular  
mass or mountain1 as ,mr ,cronstedt  has
 properly observed2 but he has also     
said1 that this is not the case  in     
general4 ,his words are3 ,it is oftener 
found in form of veins in  mountains of 
another kind1 running commonly in a     
serpentine manner1  contrary or across  
to the direction of the rock itself4    

,the origin of this form1 in which the  
trap or whin-stone appears1 is  most    
evident to inspection1 when we consider 
that this solid body had  been in a     
fluid state1 and introduced1 in that    
state1 among strata1  which preserved   
their proper form4 ,the strata appear to
 have been  broken1 and the two         
correspondent parts of those strata are 
separated to  admit the flowing mass of 
whin-stone4    ,a fine example of this  
kind may be seen upon the south side of 
the  ,earn1 on the road to ,crief4 ,it  
is twenty-four yards wide1 stands       
perpendicular1 and appears many feet    
above the surface of the ground4 ,it    
runs from that eastward1 and would seem 
to be the same with that which  crosses 
the river ,tay1 in forming ,campsy-lin  
above ,stanley1 as a lesser  one of the 
same kind does below it4 ,i have seen it
 at ,lednoc upon the  ,ammon1 where it  
forms a cascade in that river1 about    
five or six  miles west of ,campsy-lin4 
,it appears to run from the ,tay east   

through  ,strathmore1 so that it may be 
considered as having been traced for    
twenty or thirty miles1 and westwards to
 ,drummond castle1 perhaps much         
farther4    ,two small veins of the same
 kind1 only two or three feet wide1 may 
be  seen in the bed of the ,water of    
,leith1 traversing the horizontal       
strata1  the one is above ,st ,bernard's
 well1 the other immediately below it4  
,but1  more particularly1 in the shire  
of ,ayr1 to the north of ,irvine1 there 
are to be seen upon the coast1 between  
that and ,scarmorly1 in the space  of   
about twenty miles1 more than twenty or 
thirty such dykes 7as they  are called7 
of whin-stone4 ,some of them are of a   
great thickness2 and1  in some places1  
there is perceived a short one1 running 
at right angles1  and communicating with
 other two that run parallel4    ,there 
is in this country1 and in              
,derbyshire#ad1 another regular         
appearance of this stone1 which         
,cronstedt has not mentioned4 ,in this  

case1 the strata are not broken in order
 to have the whin-stone  introduced1    
they are separated1 and the whin-stone  
is interjected in  form of strata1      
having various degrees of regularity1   
and being of  different thickness4 ,on  
the south side of ,edinburgh1 ,i have   
seen1 in  little more than the space of 
a mile from east to west1 nine or ten   
masses of whin-stone interjected among  
the strata4 ,these masses of  whin-stone
 are from three or four to an hundred   
feet thick1 running  parallel in planes 
inclined to the horizon1 and forming    
with it an angle  of about twenty or    
thirty degrees1 as may be seen at all   
times in the  hill of ,salisbury        
,craggs4    ,note #ad3 ,see ,mr         
,whitehurst's ,theory of the ,earth4    
,having thus described these masses1    
which have flowed by means of  heat     
among the strata of the globe1 strata   
which had been formed by  subsidence at 
the bottom of the sea1 it will now be   
proper to examine  the difference that  

subsists between these subterraneous    
lavas1 as they  may be termed1 and the  
analogous bodies which are proper lavas1
 in  having issued out of a volcano4#ae 
,note #ae3 ,the ,chevalier de ,dolomieu1
 in his accurate examination of  ,aetna 
and the ,lipari islands1 has very well  
observed the distinction of  these two  
different species of lavas2 but without 
seeming to know the  principle upon     
which this essential difference depends4
 ,no bias of  system1 therefore1 can    
here be supposed as perverting the      
,chevalier's  view1 in taking those     
observations2 and these are interesting 
to the  present theory1 as corresponding
 perfectly with the facts from whence it
  has been formed4 ,it will be proper to
 give the account of these in his  own  
words4    ,la zolite est trs-commune    
dans certains laves de l',ethna2 il     
seroit  peut-tre possible d'y en        
rencontrer des morceaux aussi gros que  
ceux  que fournit l'isle de ,ferro4     
,quoique cette substance semble ici     

appartenir aux laves1 je ne dirai       
cependant point que toutes les  zolites 
soient volcaniques1 ou unies  des       
matires volcaniques2 celles  que l'on   
trouve en ,allemagne sont1 dit-on1 dans 
des circonstances  diffrentes2 mais je  
doit annoncer que je n'ai trouv cette   
substance en  ,sicile1 que dans les     
seules laves qui videmment ont coul dans
 la mer1  et qui out t recouvertes par  
ses eaux4 ,la zolite des laves n'est    
point une djection volcanique1 ni une   
production du feu1 ni mme un  matire que
 les laves aient enveloppe lorsqu'elles 
toient fluides2  elle est le rsultat    
d'une opration et d'une combinaison     
postrieure1  auxquelles les eaux de la  
mer ont concouru4 ,les laves qui n'ont  
pas t  submerges1 n'en contiennent      
jamais4 ,j'ai trouv ces observations si 
constantes1 que par-tout o je           
rencontrois de la zolite1 j'tois sr  de 
trouver d'autres preuves de submersion1 
et partout o je voyois des  laves       
recouvertes des dpts de l'eau1 j'tois sr

 de trouver de la  zolite1 et un de ces 
faits m'a toujours indiqu l'autre4 ,je  
me suis  servi avec succs de cette      
observation pour diriger mes recherches1
 et  pour connotre l'antiquit des laves4
 ,minralogie de ,volcans1 par  ,m4      
,faujas de ,saint-,fond4 ,here would    
appear to be the distinction of         
subterraneous lava1 in which zeolite and
 calcareous spar may be found1  and that
 which has flowed from a volcano1 in    
which neither of these are  ever        
observed4    ,there can be no doubt that
 these two different species of bodies  
have  had the same origin1 and that they
 are composed of the same materials     
nearly2 but from the different          
circumstances ,of their production1     
there  is formed a character to these   
bodies1 by which1 they may be perfectly 
distinguished4 ,the difference of those 
circumstances consists in this2  the one
 has been emitted to the atmosphere in  
its fluid state the other  only came to 
be exposed to the light in a long course

 of time1 after it  had congealed under 
the compression of an immense load of   
earth1 and  after certain operations1   
proper to the mineral regions1 had been 
exercised upon the indurated mass4 ,this
 is the cause of the difference  between
 those erupted lavas1 and our           
whin-stone1 toad-stone1 and the         
,swedish trap1 which may be termed      
subterraneous lava4 ,the visible        
effects of those different operations   
may now be mentioned4    ,in the erupted
 lavas1 those substances which are      
subject to calcine and  vitrify in our  
fires1 suffer similar changes1 when     
delivered from a  compression which had 
rendered them fixed1 though in an       
extremely heated  state4 ,thus1 a lava  
in which there is much calcareous spar1 
when it  comes to be exposed to the     
atmosphere1 or delivered from the       
compressing  force of its confinement1  
effervesces by the explosion of its     
fixed  air2 the calcareous earth1 at the
 same time1 vitrifies with the other    

substances4 ,hence such violent         
ebullition in volcanos1 and hence the   
emission of so much pumice-stone and    
ashes1 which are of the same  nature4   
,in the body of our whin-stone1 on the  
contrary1 there is no mark of           
calcination or vitrification4 ,we       
frequently find in it much calcareous   
spar1 or the terra calcarea aerata1     
which had been in a melted state  by    
heat1 and had been crystallized by      
congelation into a sparry form4  ,such  
is the lapis amygdaloides1 and many of  
our whin-stone rocks1  which contain    
pebbles crystallized and variously      
figured1 both  calcareous1 siliceous1   
and of a mixture in which both these    
substances  form distinct parts4 ,the   
specimens of this kind1 which ,i have   
from the  whin-stone or porphyry rock of
 the ,calton-hill1 exhibit every species
  of mineral operation1 in forming      
jasper1 figured agate1 and marble2 and  
they demonstrate1 that this had been    
performed by heat or fusion4    ,i do   

not mean to say1 that this demonstration
 is direct2 it is  conditional1 and     
proceeds upon the supposition1 that the 
basaltic or  porphyry rock1 in which    
those specimens are found1 is a body    
which had  been in a melted state4 ,now1
 this is a supposition for which ,i have
  abundance of evidence1 were it        
required2 but naturalists are now       
sufficiently disposed to admit that     
proposition2 they even draw  conclusions
 from this fact1 which1 ,i think1 they  
are not sufficiently  warranted in      
doing2 that is1 from this appearance1   
they infer the former  existence of     
volcanos in those places4 ,for my part1 
though ,i have made  the most strict    
examination1 ,i never saw any vestige of
 such an event4  ,that there are1 in    
other countries1 evident marks of       
volcanos which  have been long          
extinguished1 is unquestionably true2   
but naturalists1  imagining that there  
are no other marks of subterraneous fire
 and  fusion1 except in the production  

of a lava1 attribute to a volcano1 as  a
 cause1 these effects1 which only       
indicate the exertion of that power     
which might have been the cause of a    
volcano4    ,if the theory now given be 
just1 a rock of marble is no less a mark
  of subterraneous fire and fusion1 than
 that of the basaltes2 and the  flowing 
of basaltic streams among strata broken 
and displaced1 affords  the most        
satisfactory evidence of those          
operations by which the body of  our    
land had been elevated above the surface
 of the sea2 but it gives no  proof that
 the eruptive force of mineral vapours  
had been discharged in  a burning       
mountain4 ,now1 this discharge is       
essential in the proper idea  of a      
volcano4    ,besides this internal mark 
of an unerupted lava in the substance of
 the  stone or body of the flowing mass1
 there are others which belong to it  in
 common with all other mineral strata1  
consolidated by subterraneous  fire1 and
 changed from the place of their        

original formation2 this is1  the being 
broken and dislocated1 and having veins 
of foreign matter  formed in their      
separations and contractions4    ,if    
these are mineral operations1 proper to 
the lower regions of the  earth1 and    
exerted upon bodies under immense       
compression1 such things  will be       
sometimes found in the unerupted lavas1 
as well as in the  contiguous bodies    
with which they are associated4 ,if1 on 
the contrary1  these are operations     
proper to the surface of the earth1     
where the  dissolving power of water and
 air take place1 and where certain      
stalactical and ferruginous concretions 
are produced by these means2  then1 in  
erupted lavas1 we should find mineral   
concretions1 which  concretions should  
be denied to bodies which had been      
consolidated at  the bottom of the sea2 
that is to say1 where1 without the      
operation of  subterraneous fire1 no    
changes of that kind could have taken   
place1 as  has already been observed4   

,but in the unerupted species of lava1  
that  is to say1 in our whin-stone1     
every species of mineral appearance is  
occasionally to be found4 ,let those who
 have the opportunity to examine1  say1 
what arc to be found in proper lavas1   
that is1 those of the erupted  kind4    
,sir ,william ,hamilton informed me1    
when ,i showed him those mineral  veins 
and spars in our whin-stone1 that he had
 never observed the like1  in lavas ,we 
have now formed some conclusions with   
regard to the nature  and production of 
those parts of the land of this globe   
which we  have had the means of         
examining perfectly2 but2 from the      
accounts of  travellers1 and from1 the  
specimens which are brought to us from  
distant  parts1 we have reason to       
believe1 that all the rest of the earth 
is  of the same nature with that which  
has been now considered4 ,the great     
masses of the earth are the same every  
where2 and all the different  species of
 earths1 of rocks or stone1 which have  

as yet appeared1 are to  be found in the
 little space of this our island4    ,it
 is true1 that there are peculiar       
productions in the mineral kingdom      
which are rare1 as being found only in  
few places2 but these things are  merely
 accidental in relation to the land1 for
 they belong in property  to those parts
 of the mineral region which we never   
see4 ,such are1 the  diamond of the     
east1 the platina of the west1 and the  
tin of ,cornwall1  ,germany1 and        
,sumatra4 ,gold and silver1 though found
 in many countries1  do not appear to be
 immediately necessary in the production
 of a  habitable country4 ,iron1 again1 
is universal in the operations of the   
globe1 and is found often in that       
profusion which equals its utility4     
,between these two extremes1 we find all
 other minerals1 that is to say1  here  
and there in moderate quantity1 and     
apparently in some proportion  to their 
use4 ,but all these substances are to be
 considered as the  vapours of the      

mineral regions1 condensed occasionally 
in the crevices  of the land2 and it is 
only the rocks and strata 7in which     
those mineral  veins are found7 that are
 now examined with regard to their      
original  composition1 at the bottom of 
the sea1 as well as to that1 operation  
by  which those bodies had been         
indurated in their substance1 and       
elevated  from the place in which they  
had been formed4    ,thus1 we have      
sufficient reason to believe1 that1 in  
knowing the  construction of the land in
 ,europe1 we know the constitution of   
the land  in every part of the globe4   
,therefore1 we may proceed to form      
general  conclusions1 from the knowledge
 of the mineral region1 thus acquired in
  studying those parts which are seen4  
,having thus found1 first1 ,that the    
consolidated and indurated masses  of   
our strata had suffered the effects of  
violent heat and fusion2  #b;dly1 ,that 
those strata1 which had been formed in a
 regular manner at  the bottom of the   

sea1 have been violently bended1 broken1
 and removed  from their original place 
and situation2 and1 lastly1 ,having now 
found  the most indubitable proof1 that 
the melting1 breaking1 and removing     
power of subterraneous fire1 has been   
actually exerted upon this land  which  
we examine1 we cannot hesitate in       
ascribing these operations as a  cause  
to those effects which are exposed to   
our view4 ,now1 these may be  considered
 as consisting in the solid state and   
present situation of  those stratified  
bodies1 originally formed by subsidence 
in the ocean2  appearances which cannot1
 in reason1 be ascribed to any other    
cause1 and  which1 upon this principle1 
are perfectly explained4    ,it is not  
meant to specify every particular in the
 means employed by  nature for the      
elevation of our land4 ,it is sufficient
 to have shown1  that there is1 in      
nature1 means employed for the          
consolidating of  strata1 formed        
originally of loose and incoherent      

materials2 and that  those same means   
have also been employed in changing the 
place and  situation of those strata4   
,but how describe an operation which man
  cannot have any opportunity of        
perceiving8 ,or how imagine that1 for   
which1 perhaps1 there are not proper    
data to be found8 ,we only know1  that  
the land is raised by a power which has 
for principle subterraneous  heat2 but1 
how that land is preserved in its       
elevated station1 is a  subject in which
 we have not even the means to form     
conjecture2 at  least1 we ought to be   
cautious how we indulge conjecture in a 
subject  where no means occur for trying
 that which is but supposition4    ,we  
now proceed1 from the facts which have  
been properly established1 to  reason   
with regard to the duration of this     
globe1 or the general view of  its      
operations1 as a living world1          
maintaining plants and animals4         
,,section ,,iv4    ,system of ,decay and
 ,renovation observed in the ,earth4    

,philosophers observing an apparent     
disorder and confusion in the solid     
parts of this globe1 have been led to   
conclude1 that there formerly  existed a
 more regular and uniform state1 in the 
constitution of this  earth2 that there 
had happened some destructive change2   
and that the  original structure of the 
earth had been broken and disturbed by  
some  violent operation1 whether        
natural1 or from a super-natural cause4 
,now1  all these appearances1 from which
 conclusions of this kind have been     
formed1 find the most perfect           
explanation in the theory which we have 
been endeavouring to establish2 for they
 are the facts from whence we  have     
reasoned1 in discovering the nature and 
constitution of this earth3  ,therefore1
 there is no occasion for having        
recourse to any unnatural  supposition  
of evil1 to any destructive accident in 
nature1 or to the  agency of any        
preternatural cause1 in explaining that 
which actually  appears4    ,it is      

necessary for a living or inhabited     
world1 that this should  consist of land
 and water4 ,it is also necessary1 that 
the land should be  solid and stable1   
refilling1 with great power1 the violent
 efforts  of the ocean2 and1 at the same
 time1 that this solid land should be   
resolved by the influence of the sun and
 atmosphere1 so as to decay1  and thus  
become a soil for vegetation4 ,but these
 general intentions are  perfectly      
fulfilled in the constitution of our    
earth1 which has been now  investigated4
 ,this great body being formed of       
different mixed masses1  having various 
degrees of hardness and solubility1     
proper soil for  plants is supplied from
 the gradual resolution of the solid    
parts2  fertility in those soils arises 
from the mixture of different elementary
  substances2 and stability is procured 
to that vegetable world1 by the         
induration of certain bodies1 those     
rocks and stones1 which protect the     
softer masses of clay and soil4    ,in  

this manner1 also1 will easily be       
explained those natural appearances     
which diversify the surface of the earth
 for the use of plants and  animals1 and
 those objects which beautify the face  
of nature for the  contemplation of     
mankind4 ,such are1 the distinctions of 
mountains and  valleys1 of lakes and    
rivers1 of dry barren deserts and rich  
watered  plains1 of rocks which stand   
apparently unimpaired by the lapse of   
time1  and sands which fluctuate with   
the winds and tides4 ,all these are the 
effects of steady causes2 each of these 
has its proper purpose in the  system of
 the earth2 and in that system is       
contained another1 which is  that of    
living growing bodies1 and of animated  
beings4    ,but1 besides this1 man1 the 
intellectual being1 has1 in this subject
 of  the mineral kingdom1 the means of  
gratifying the desire of knowledge1 a   
faculty by which he is distinguished    
from the animal1 and by which he        
improves his mind in knowing causes4    

,man is not satisfied1 like the  brute1 
in seeing things which are2 he seeks to 
know how things have  been1 and what    
they are to be4 ,it is with pleasure    
that he observes  order and regularity  
in the works of nature1 instead of being
 disgusted  with disorder and confusion2
 and he is made happy from the          
appearance of  wisdom and benevolence in
 the design1 instead of being left to   
suspect  in the ,author of nature1 any  
of that imperfection which he finds in  
himself4    ,let us now take a view of  
that system of mineral economy1 in which
 may  be perceived every mark of order  
and design1 of provident wisdom and     
benevolence4    ,we have been           
endeavouring to prove1 that all the     
continents and islands  of this globe   
had been raised above the surface of the
 ocean2 we have  also aimed at pointing 
out the cause of this translation of    
matter1 as  well as of the general      
solidity of that which is raised to our 
view2  but however this theory shall be 

received1 no person of observation can  
entertain a doubt1 that all1 or almost  
all we see of this earth1 had  been     
originally formed at the bottom of the  
sea4 ,we have now another  object in our
 view2 this is to investigate the       
operations of the globe1  at the time   
that the foundation of this land was    
laying in the waters of  the ocean1 and 
to trace the existence and the nature of
 things1 before  the present land       
appeared above the surface of the       
waters4 ,we should  thus acquire some   
knowledge of the system according to    
which this world  is ruled1 both in its 
preservation and production2 and we     
might be thus  enabled to judge1 how far
 the mineral system of the world shall  
appear  to be contrived with all the    
wisdom1 which is so manifest in what are
  termed the animal and vegetable       
kingdoms4    ,it must not be imagined   
that this undertaking is a thing        
unreasonable  in its nature2 or that it 
is a work necessarily beset with any    

unsurmountable difficulty2 for1 however 
imperfectly we may fulfill this  end    
proposed1 yet1 so far as it is to       
natural causes that are to be  ascribed 
the operations of former time1 and so   
far as1 from the present  state of      
things1 or knowledge of natural history1
 we have it in our  power to reason from
 effect to cause1 there are1 in the     
constitution of  the world1 which we now
 examine1 certain means to read the     
annals of a  former earth4    ,the      
object of inquiry being the operations  
of the globe1 during the time  that the 
present earth was forming at the bottom 
of the sea1 we are now  to take a very  
general view of nature1 without         
descending into those  particulars which
 so often occupy the speculations of    
naturalists1 about  the present state of
 things4 ,we are not at present to enter
 into any  discussion with regard to    
what are the primary and secondary      
mountains  of the earth2 we are not to  
consider what is the first1 and what the

  last1 in those things which now are   
seen2 whatever is most ancient in  the  
strata which we now examine1 is supposed
 to be collecting at the  bottom of the 
sea1 during the period concerning which 
we are now to  inquire4    ,we have     
already considered those operations     
which had been necessary  in forming our
 solid land1 a body consisting of       
materials originally  deposited at the  
bottom of the ocean2 we are now to      
investigate the  source from whence had 
come all those materials1 from the      
collection of  which the present land is
 formed2 and from knowing the state in  
which those materials had existed1      
previously to their entering the        
composition of our strata1 we shall     
learn something concerning the  natural 
history of this world1 while the present
 earth was forming in  the sea4    ,we  
have already observed1 that all the     
strata of the earth are composed  either
 from the calcareous relicts of sea     
animals1 or from the  collection of such

 materials as we find upon our shores4  
,at a gross  computation1 there may     
perhaps be a fourth part of our solid   
land1 which  is composed from the matter
 that had belonged to those animals4    
,now1  what a multitude of living       
creatures1 what a quantity of animal    
economy  must have been required for    
producing a body of calcareous matter   
which is interspersed throughout all the
 land of the globe1 and which  certainly
 forms a very considerable part of that 
mass6 ,therefore1 in  knowing how those 
animals had lived1 or with what they had
 been fed1 we  shall have learned a most
 interesting part of the natural history
 of  this earth2 a part which it is     
necessary to have ascertained1 in order 
to see the former operations of the     
globe1 while preparing the materials  of
 the present land4 ,but1 before entering
 upon this subject1 let us  examine the 
other materials of which our land is    
formed4    ,gravel forms a part of those
 materials which compose our solid land2

 but  gravel is no other than a         
collection of the fragments of solid    
stones  worn round1 or having their     
angular form destroyed by agitation in  
water1 and the attrition upon each      
other1 or upon similar hard bodies4     
,consequently1 in finding masses of     
gravel in the composition of our  land1 
we must conclude1 that there had existed
 a former land1 on which  there had been
 transacted certain operations of wind  
and water1 similar  to those which are  
natural to the globe at present1 and by 
which new  gravel is continually        
prepared1 as well as old gravel consumed
 or  diminished by attrition upon our   
shores4    ,sand is the material which  
enters1 perhaps in greatest quantity1   
the  composition of our land4 ,but sand1
 in general1 is no other than small     
fragments of hard and solid bodies1 worn
 or rounded more or less by  attrition2 
consequently1 the same natural history  
of the earth1 which  is investigated    
from the masses of gravel1 is also      

applicable to those  masses of sand     
which we find forming so large a portion
 of our present  land throughout all the
 earth#af4    ,note #af3 ,sand is a term
 that denotes no particular substance2  
although  by it is commonly meant a     
siliceous substance1 as being by far the
 most  prevalent4 ,sand is one of the   
modifications1 of size and shape1 in a  
hard body or solid substance1 which may 
be infinitely diversified4 ,the  next   
modification to be distinguished in     
mineral bodies is that of  gravel2 and  
this differs in no respect from sand1   
except in point of  size4 ,next after   
gravel1 in the order of ascent1 come    
stones2 and these  bear nearly the same 
relation to gravel as gravel does to    
sand4 ,now1  by stones is to be         
understood the fragments of rocks or    
solid mineral  bodies2 and there is a   
perfect gradation from those stones to  
sand4  ,i have already endeavoured to   
explain the formation of those stony    
substances2 and now ,i am treating of a 

certain system of circulation1  which is
 to be found among minerals4    ,m4 de  
,luc censures me for not giving the     
origin of sand1 of which ,i form  the   
strata of the earth4 ,he seems to have  
misunderstood my treatise4 ,i  do not   
pretend1 as he does in his theory1 to   
describe the beginning of  things2 ,i   
take things such as ,i find them at     
present1 and from these  ,i reason with 
regard to that which must have been4    
,when1 from a thing  which is well      
known1 we explain another which is less 
so1 we then  investigate nature2 but    
when we imagine things without a pattern
 or  example in nature1 then1 instead of
 natural history1 we write only  fable4 
,m4 de ,luc1 in the letter already      
mentioned1 says1 that sand may be1 and  
,i think it is1 a substance which has   
formed strata by precipitation  in a    
liquid4 ,this is but an opinion1 which  
may be either true or  false4 ,if it be 
true1 it is an operation of the mineral 
kingdom of which  ,i am ignorant4 ,in   

all the sand which ,i have ever         
examined1 ,i have never  seen any that  
might not be referred to the species of 
mineral substance  from which it had    
been formed4 ,when this author shall    
have given us  any kind of information  
with regard to the production of sand by
  precipitation in a liquid1 it will    
then be time enough to think of  forming
 the strata of the earth with that sand4
    ,clay is now to be considered as the
 last of those materials of which  our  
strata are composed2 but1 in order to   
understand the nature of this           
ingredient1 something must be premised4 
,clay is a mixture of different earths  
or hard substances1 in an  impalpable   
state4 ,those substances are chiefly the
 siliceous and  aluminous earths4 ,other
 earths are occasionally mixed in clays1
 or  perhaps always to be found in some 
small portion4 ,but this does not       
affect the general character of clay2 it
 only forms a special variety in  the   
subject4 ,a sensible or considerable    

portion of calcareous earth1 in  the    
composition of clay1 constitutes a marl1
 and a sufficient admixture  of sand1 a 
loam4    ,an indefinite variety of those
 compositions of clay form a large      
portion  of the present strata1 all     
indurated and consolidated in various   
degrees2 but this great quantity of     
siliceous1 argillaceous1 and  other     
compound substances1 in form of earth or
 impalpable sediment1  corresponds      
perfectly with that quantity of those   
same substances which  must have been   
prepared in the formation of so much    
gravel and sand1 by  the attrition of   
those bodies in the moving waters4      
,therefore1 from the consideration of   
those materials which compose the       
present land1 we have reason to         
conclude1 that1 during the time this    
land was forming1 by the collection of  
its materials at the bottom of  the sea1
 there had been a former land containing
 materials similar to  those which we   
find at present in examining the earth4 

,we may also  conclude1 that there had  
been operations similar to those which  
we  now find natural to the globe1 and  
necessarily exerted in the actual       
formation of gravel1 sand1 and clay4    
,but what we have now chiefly in  view  
to illustrate is this1 that there had   
then been in the ocean a  system of     
animated beings1 which propagated their 
species1 and which  have thus continued 
their several races to this day4    ,in 
order to be convinced of that truth1 we 
have but to examine the  strata of our  
earth1 in which we find the remains of  
animals4 ,in this  examination1 we not  
only discover every genus of animal     
which at present  exists in the sea1 but
 probably every species1 and perhaps    
some species  with which at present we  
are not acquainted4 ,there are1 indeed1 
varieties in those species1 compared    
with the present animals which we       
examine1 but no greater varieties than  
may perhaps be found among the  same    
species in the different quarters of the

 globe4 ,therefore1 the  system of      
animal life1 which had been maintained  
in the ancient sea1 had  not been       
different from that which now subsists1 
and of which it belongs  to naturalists 
to know the history4    ,it is the      
nature of animal life to be ultimately  
supported from matter  of vegetable     
production4 ,inflammable matter may be  
considered as the  pabulum of life4     
,this is prepared in the bodies of      
living plants1  particularly in their   
leaves exposed to the sun and light4    
,this  inflammable matter1 on the       
contrary1 is consumed in animal bodies1 
where  it produces heat or light1 or    
both4 ,therefore1 however animal matter1
 or  the pabulum of life1 may circulate 
through a series of digesting powers1   
it is constantly impaired or diminishing
 in the course of this economy1  and1   
without the productive power of plants1 
it would finally be  extinguished4#ag   
,note #ag3 ,see ,dissertations on       
different subjects of ,natural          

,philosophy1  part ,,ii4    ,the animals
 of the former world must have been     
sustained during  indefinite successions
 of ages4 ,the mean quantity of animal  
matter1  therefore1 must have been      
preserved by vegetable production1 and  
the  natural waste of inflammable       
substance repaired with continual       
addition2  that is to say1 the quantity 
of inflammable matter necessary to the  
animal consumption1 must have been      
provided by means of vegetation4  ,hence
 we must conclude1 that there had been a
 world of plants1 as well  as an ocean  
replenished with living animals4    ,we 
are now1 in reasoning from principles1  
come to a point decisive of  the        
question1 and which will either confirm 
the theory1 if it be just1  or confute  
our reasoning1 if we have erred4 ,let   
us1 therefore1 open  the book of        
,nature1 and read in her records1 if    
there had been a world  bearing plants1 
at the time when this present world was 
forming at the  bottom of the sea4      

,here the cabinets of the curious are to
 be examined2 but here some  caution is 
required1 in order to distinguish things
 perfectly different1  which sometimes  
are confounded4    ,fossil wood1 to     
naturalists in general1 is wood dug up  
from under  ground1 without inquiring   
whether this had been the production of 
the  present earth1 or that which had   
preceded it in the circulation of land  
and water4 ,the question is important1  
and the solution of it is1 in  general1 
easy4 ,the vegetable productions of the 
present earth1 however  deep they may be
 found buried beneath its surface1 and  
however ancient  they may appear1       
compared with the records of our known  
times1 are new1  compared with the solid
 land on which they grew2 and they are  
only  covered with the produce of a     
vegetable soil1 or the alluvion of the  
present land on which we dwell1 and on  
which they had grown4 ,but the  fossil  
bodies which form the present subject of
 inquiry1 belonged to  former land1 and 

are found only in the sea-born strata of
 our present  earth4 ,it is to these    
alone that we appeal1 in order to prove 
the  certainty of former events4        
,mineralised wood1 therefore1 is the    
object now inquired after2 that wood    
which had been lodged in the bottom of  
the sea1 and there composed part  of a  
stratum1 which hitherto we have         
considered as only formed of the        
materials proper to the ocean4 ,now1    
what a profusion of this species of     
fossil wood is to be found in the       
cabinets of collectors1 and even in  the
 hands of lapidaries1 and such          
artificers of polished stones6 ,in some 
places1 it would seem to be as common as
 the agate4    ,i shall only mention a  
specimen in my own collection4 ,it is   
wood  petrified with calcareous earth1  
and mineralised with pyrites4 ,this     
specimen of wood contains in itself1    
even without the stratum of stone  in   
which it is embedded1 the most perfect  
record of its genealogy4  ,it had been  

eaten or perforated by those sea worms  
which destroy the  bottoms of our ships4
 ,there is the clearest evidence of this
 truth4  ,therefore1 this wood had grown
 upon land which flood above the level  
of  sea1 while the present land was only
 forming at the bottom of the ocean4    
,wood is the most substantial part of   
plants1 as shells are the more          
permanent part of marine animals4 ,it is
 not1 however1 the woody part  alone of 
the ancient vegetable world that is     
transmitted to us in  the record of our 
mineral pages4 ,we have the type of many
 species  of foliage1 and even of the   
most delicate flower2 for1 in this way1 
naturalists have determined1 according  
to the ,linnaean system1 the  species1  
or at least the genus1 of the plant4    
,thus1 the existence of a  vegetable    
system at the period now in             
contemplation1 so far from being        
doubtful1 is a matter of physical       
demonstration4    ,the profusion of this
 vegetable matter1 delivered into the   

ocean1 which  then generated land1 is   
also evidenced in the amazing quantities
 of  mineral coal which is to be found  
in perhaps every region of the earth4   
,nothing can be more certain1 than that 
all the coaly or bituminous  strata have
 had their origin from the substance of 
vegetable bodies  that grew upon the    
land4 ,those strata1 tho'1 in general1  
perfectly  consolidated1 often separate 
horizontally in certain places2 and     
there  we find the fibrous or vascular  
structure of the vegetable bodies4      
,consequently1 there is no doubt of     
fossil coal being a substance  of       
vegetable production1 however animal    
substances also may have  contributed in
 forming this collection of oleaginous  
or inflammable  matter4    ,having thus 
ascertained the state of a former earth1
 in which plants  and animals had lived1
 as well as the gradual production of   
the present  earth1 composed from the   
materials of a former world1 it must be 
evident1 that here are two operations   

which are necessarily consecutive4  ,the
 formation of the present earth         
necessarily involves the destruction  of
 continents in the ancient world2 and1  
by pursuing in our mind the  natural    
operations of a former earth1 we clearly
 see the origin of that  land1 by the   
fertility of which1 we1 and all the     
animated bodies of the  sea1 are fed4   
,it is in like manner1 that1            
contemplating the present  operations of
 the globe1 we may perceive the actual  
existence of those  productive causes1  
which are now laying the foundation of  
land in the  unfathomable regions of the
 sea1 and which will1 in time1 give     
birth to  future continents4    ,but    
though1 in generalising the operations  
of nature1 we have arrived at  those    
great events1 which1 at first sight1 may
 fill the mind with  wonder and with    
doubt1 we are not to suppose1 that there
 is any violent  exertion of power1 such
 as is required in order to produce a   
great event  in little time2 in nature1 

we find no deficiency in respect of     
time1 nor  any limitation with regard to
 power4 ,but time is not made to flow in
  vain2 nor does there ever appear the  
exertion of superfluous power1 or  the  
manifestation of design1 not calculated 
in wisdom to effect some  general end4  
,the events now under consideration may 
be examined with a view to see  this    
truth2 for it may be inquired1 ,why     
destroy one continent in order  to erect
 another8 ,the answer is plain2 ,nature 
does not destroy a  continent from      
having wearied of a subject which had   
given pleasure1 or  changed her purpose1
 whether for a better or a worse2       
neither does she  erect a continent of  
land among the clouds1 to show her      
power1 or to  amaze the vulgar man2     
,nature has contrived the productions of
 vegetable  bodies1 and the sustenance  
of animal life1 to depend upon the      
gradual  but sure destruction of a      
continent2 that is to say1 these two    
operations necessarily go hand in hand4 

,but with such wisdom has nature        
ordered things in the economy of this   
world1 that the destruction of one      
continent is not brought about without  
the renovation of the earth in  the     
production of another2 and the animal   
and vegetable bodies1 for  which the    
world above the surface of the sea is   
leveled with its bottom1  are among the 
means employed in those operations1 as  
well as the  sustenance of those living 
beings is the proper end in view4       
,thus1 in understanding the proper      
constitution of the present earth1 we   
are led to know the source from whence  
had come all the materials which  nature
 had employed in the construction of the
 world which appears2 a  world contrived
 in consummate wisdom for the growth and
 habitation of a  great diversity of    
plants and animals2 and a world         
peculiarly adapted  to the purposes of  
man1 who inhabits all its climates1 who 
measures its  extent1 and determines its
 productions at his pleasure4    ,the   

whole of a great object or event fills  
us with wonder and  astonishment1 when  
all the particulars1 in the succession  
of which the  whole had been produced1  
may be considered without the least     
emotion4  ,when1 for example1 we behold 
the pyramids of ,egypt1 our mind is     
agitated  with a crowd of ideas that    
highly entertains the person who        
understands  the subject2 but the       
carrying a heavy stone up to the top of 
a hill or  mountain would give that     
person little pleasure or concern4 ,we  
wonder at  the whole operation of the   
pyramid1 but not at any one particular  
part4    ,the raising up of a continent 
of land from the bottom of the sea1 is  
an  idea that is too great to be        
conceived easily in all the parts of its
  operations1 many of which are perhaps 
unknown to us2 and1 without being       
properly understood1 so great an idea   
may appear like a thing that is         
imaginary4 ,in like manner1 the         
co-relative1 or corresponding operation1

  the destruction of the land1 is an    
idea that does not easily enter into    
the mind of man in its totality1        
although he is daily witness to part of 
the operation4 ,we never see a river in 
a flood1 but we must acknowledge  the   
carrying away of part of our land1 to be
 sunk at the bottom of the  sea2 we     
never see a storm upon the coast1 but we
 are informed of a  hostile attack of   
the sea upon our country2 attacks which 
must1 in time1  wear away the bulwarks  
of our soil1 and sap the foundations of 
our  dwellings4 ,thus1 great things are 
not understood without the analysing  of
 many operations1 and the combination of
 time with many events  happening in    
succession4    ,let us now consider what
 is to be the subject of examination1   
and where  it is that we are to observe 
those operations which must determine   
either the stability or the instability 
of this land on which we live4    ,our  
land has two extremities2 the tops of   
the mountains1 on the one  hand1 and the

 sea-shores1 on the other3 ,it is the   
intermediate space  between these two1  
that forms the habitation of plants and 
animals4  ,while there is a sea-shore   
and a higher ground there is that which 
is  required in the system of the world3
 ,take these away1 and there would      
remain an aqueous globe1 in which the   
world would perish4 ,but1 in the        
natural operations of the world1 the    
land is perishing continually2 and  this
 is that which now we want to           
understand4    ,upon the one extremity  
of our land1 there is no increase1 or   
there is no  accession of any mineral   
substance4 ,that place is the           
mountain-top1 on  which nothing is      
observed but continual decay4 ,the      
fragments of the  mountain are removed  
in a gradual succession from the highest
 station to  the lowest4 ,being arrived 
at the shore1 and having entered the    
dominion  of the waves1 in which they   
find perpetual agitation1 these hard    
fragments1 which had eluded the         

resolving powers natural to the surface 
of the earth1 are incapable of resisting
 the powers here employed for  the      
destruction of the land4 ,by the        
attrition of one hard body upon         
another1 the moving stones and rocky    
shore1 are mutually impaired4 ,and  that
 solid mass1 which of itself had        
potential liability against the         
violence of the waves1 affords the      
instruments of its own destruction1  and
 thus gives occasion to its actual      
instability4    ,in order to understand 
the system of the heavens1 it is        
necessary to  connect together periods  
of measured time1 and the distinguished 
places  of revolving bodies4 ,it is thus
 that system may be observed1 or wisdom1
  in the proper adapting of powers to an
 intention4 ,in like manner1 we  cannot 
understand the system of the globe1     
without seeing that progress  of things 
which is brought about in time1 thus    
measuring the natural  operations of the
 earth with those of the heavens4 ,this 

is properly the  business of the present
 undertaking4    ,our object is to know 
the time which had elapsed since the    
foundation of  the present continent had
 been laid at the bottom of the ocean1  
to the  present moment in which we      
speculate on these operations4 ,the     
space is  long2 the data for the        
calculations are1 perhaps1 deficient3   
,no matter2  so far as we know our      
error1 or the deficiency in our         
operation1 we  proceed in science1 and  
shall conclude in reason4 ,it is not    
given to man  to know what things are   
truly in themselves1 but only what those
 things  are in his thought4 ,we seek   
not to know the precise measure of any  
thing2 we only understand the limits of 
a thing1 in knowing what it is  not1    
either on the one side or the other4    
,we are investigating the age of the    
present earth1 from the beginning of    
that body which was in the bottom of the
 sea1 to the perfection of its  nature1 
which we consider as in the moment of   

our existence2 and we have  necessarily 
another aera1 which is collateral1 or   
correspondent1 in the  progress of those
 natural events4 ,this is the time      
required1 in the  natural operations of 
this globe1 for the destruction of a    
former  earth2 an earth equally perfect 
with the present and an earth equally   
productive of growing plants and living 
animals4 ,now1 it must appear1  that1 if
 we had a measure for the one of those  
corresponding operations1  we would have
 an equal knowledge of the other4       
,the formation of a future earth being  
in the bottom of the ocean1 at  depths  
unfathomable to man1 and in regions far 
beyond the reach of his  observation1   
here is a part of the process which     
cannot be taken as a  principle in      
forming an estimate of the whole4 ,but1 
in the destruction  of the present      
earth1 we have a process that is        
performed within the  limits of our     
observation2 therefore1 in knowing the  
measure of this  operation1 we shall    

find the means of calculating what had  
passed on a  former occasion1 as well as
 what will happen in the composition of 
a  future earth4 ,let us1 therefore1 now
 attempt to make this estimate of  time 
and labour4    ,the highest mountain may
 be levelled with the plain from whence 
it  springs1 without the loss of real   
territory in the land2 but when the     
ocean makes encroachment on the basis of
 our earth1 the mountain1  unsupported1 
tumbles with its weight2 and with the   
accession of hard  bodies1 moveable with
 the agitation of the waves1 gives to   
the sea the  power of undermining       
farther and farther into the solid basis
 of our  land4 ,this is the operation   
which is to be measured2 this is the    
mean  proportional by which we are to   
estimate the age of worlds that have    
terminated1 and the duration of those   
that are but beginning4    ,but how     
shall we measure the decrease of our    
land8 ,every revolution of  the globe   
wears away some part of some rock upon  

some coast2 but the  quantity of that   
decrease1 in that measured time1 is not 
a measurable  thing4 ,instead of a      
revolution of the globe1 let us take an 
age4 ,the age  of man does no more in   
this estimate than a single year4 ,he   
sees1  that the natural course of things
 is to wear away the coast1 with the    
attrition of the sand and stones upon   
the shore2 but he cannot find a  measure
 for this quantity which shall          
correspond to time1 in order to  form an
 estimate of the rate of this decrease4 
,but man is not confined to what he     
sees2 he has the experience of former   
men4 ,let us then go to the ,romans and 
the ,greeks in search of a measure  of  
our coasts1 which we may compare with   
the present state of things4  ,here1    
again1 we are disappointed2 their       
descriptions of the shores of  ,greece  
and of ,italy1 and their works upon the 
coast1 either give no  measure of a     
decrease1 or are not accurate enough for
 such a purpose4    ,it is in vain to   

attempt to measure a quantity which     
escapes our notice1  and which history  
cannot ascertain2 and we might just as  
well attempt to  measure the distance of
 the stars without a parallax1 as to    
calculate  the destruction of the solid 
land without a measure corresponding to 
the  whole4    ,the description which   
,polybius has given of the ,pontus      
,euxinus1 with  the two opposite        
,bosphori1 the ,meotis1 the ,propontis1 
and the ,port of  ,byzantium1 are as    
applicable to the present state of      
things as they were  at the writing of  
that history4 ,the filling up of the bed
 of the  ,meotis1 an event which1 to    
,polybius1 appeared not far off1 must   
also be  considered as removed to a very
 distant period1 though the causes still
  continue to operate as before4    ,but
 there is a thing in which history and  
the present state of things do  not     
agree4 ,it is upon the coast of ,spain1 
where ,polybius says there was  an      
island in the mouth of the harbour of   

,new ,carthage4 ,at present1 in  place  
of the island1 there is only a rock     
under the surface of the  water4 ,it    
must be evident1 however1 that the loss 
of this small island  affords no proper 
ground of calculation for the measure or
 rate of  wasting which could correspond
 to the coast in general2 as neither    
the quantity of what is now lost had    
been measured1 nor its quality          
ascertained4    ,let us examine places  
much more exposed to the fury of the    
waves and  currents than the coast of   
,carthagena1 the narrow fretum1 for     
example1  between ,italy and ,sicily4   
,it does not appear1 that this passage  
is  sensibly wider than when the ,romans
 first had known it4 ,the ,isthmus of   
,corinth is also apparently the same at 
present as it had been two or  three    
thousand years ago4 ,scilla and         
,charibdis remain now1 as they had  been
 in ancient times1 rocks hazardous for  
coasting vessels which had to  pass that
 strait4    ,it is not meant by this to 

say1 these rocks have not been wasted by
 the  sea1 and worn by the attrition of 
moving bodies1 during that space of     
time2 were this true1 and that those    
rocks1 the bulwarks of the land  upon   
those coasts1 had not been at all       
impaired from that period1 they  might  
remain for ever1 and thus the system of 
interchanging the place of  sea and land
 upon this globe might be frustrated4   
,it is only meant  to affirm1 that the  
quantity which those rocks1 or that     
coast1 have  diminished from the period 
of our history1 has either been too     
small  a thing for human observation1   
or1 which is more probable1 that no     
accurate measurement of the subject1 by 
which this quantity of decrease  might  
have been ascertained1 had been taken   
and recorded4 ,it must be  also evident1
 that a very small operation of an      
earthquake would be  sufficient to      
render every means of information1 in   
this manner of  mensuration1            
unsatisfactory or precarious4    ,pliny 

says ,italy was distant from ,sicily a  
mile and a half2 but we  cannot suppose 
that this measure was taken any         
otherwise than by  computation1 and such
 a measure is but little calculated to  
afford us  the just means of a          
comparison with the present distance4   
,he also says1  indeed1 that ,sicily had
 been once joined with ,italy4 ,his     
words are3  ,quondam ,brutio agro       
cohaerens1 mox interfuso mari avulsa4#ah
 ,but all  that we can conclude from    
this history of ,pliny is1 that1 in all 
times1  to people considering the       
appearances of those two approached     
coasts1  it had seemed probable1 that   
the sea formed a passage between the two
  countries which had been once united2 
in like manner as is still more         
immediately perceived1 in that smaller  
disjunction which is made between  the  
island of ,anglesey and the continent of
 ,wales4    ,note #ah3 ,lib4 #c4 cap4   
#h4    ,the port of ,syracuse1 with the 
island which forms the greater and      

lesser1 and the fountain of ,arethusa1  
the water of which the ancients  divided
 from the sea with a wall1 do not seem  
to be altered4 ,from ,sicily  to the    
coast of ,egypt1 there is an            
uninterrupted course of sea for a       
thousand miles2 consequently1 the wind1 
in such a stretch of sea1 should  bring 
powerful waves against those coasts3    
,but1 on this coast of ,egypt1  we find 
the rock on which was formerly built the
 famous tower of ,pharos2  and also1 at 
the eastern extremity of the port       
,eunoste1 the sea-bath1  cut in the     
solid rock upon the shore4 ,both those  
rocks1 buffeted  immediately with the   
waves of the ,mediterranean sea1 are1 to
 all  appearance1 the same at this day  
as they were in ancient times4#ai       
,note #ai3 ,lettres sur l',egypte1 ,m4  
,savary4    ,many other such proofs will
 certainly occur1 where the different   
parts  of those coasts are examined by  
people of observation and intelligence4 
,but it is enough for our present       

purpose1 that this decrease of the      
coasts in general has not been observed2
 and that it is as generally  thought1  
that the land is gaining upon the sea1  
as that the sea is  gaining upon the    
land4    ,to sum up the argument1 we are
 certain1 that all the coasts of the    
present continents are wasted by the    
sea1 and constantly wearing away  upon  
the whole2 but this operation is so     
extremely slow1 that we cannot  find a  
measure of the quantity in order to form
 an estimate3 ,therefore1  the present  
continents of the earth1 which we       
consider as in a state of  perfection1  
would1 in the natural operations of the 
globe1 require a  time indefinite for   
their destruction4    ,but1 in order to 
produce the present continents1 the     
destruction of a  former vegetable world
 was necessary2 consequently1 the       
production of  our present continents   
must have required a time which is      
indefinite4  ,in like manner1 if the    
former continents were of the same      

nature as the  present1 it must have    
required another space of time1 which   
also is  indefinite1 before they had    
come to their perfection as a vegetable 
world4    ,we have been representing the
 system of this earth as proceeding with
  a certain regularity1 which is not    
perhaps in nature1 but which is         
necessary for our clear conception of   
the system of nature4 ,the  system of   
nature is certainly in rule1 although we
 may not know every  circumstance of its
 regulation4 ,we are under a necessity1 
therefore1 of  making regular           
suppositions1 in order to come at       
certain conclusions  which may be       
compared with the present state of      
things4    ,it is not necessary that the
 present land should be worn away and   
wasted1 exactly in proportion as new    
land shall appear2 or1 conversely1  that
 an equal proportion of new land should 
always be produced as the  old is made  
to disappear4 ,it is only required1 that
 at all times1 there  should be a just  

proportion of land and water upon the   
surface of the  globe1 for the purpose  
of a habitable world4    ,neither is it 
required in the actual system of this   
earth1 that every  part of the land     
should be dissolved in its structure1   
and worn away by  attrition1 so as to be
 floated in the sea4 ,parts of the land 
may often  sink in a body below the     
level of the sea1 and parts again may be
  restored1 without waiting for the     
general circulation of land and water1  
which proceeds with all the certainty of
 nature1 but which advances with  an    
imperceptible progression4 ,many of such
 apparent irregularities may  appear    
without the least infringement on the   
general system4 ,that system  is        
comprehended in the preparation of      
future land at the bottom of the  ocean1
 from those materials which the         
dissolution and attrition of  the       
present land may have provided1 and from
 those which the natural  operations of 
the sea afford4    ,in thus             

accomplishing a certain end1 we are not 
to limit nature with the  uniformity of 
an equable progression1 although it be  
necessary in our  computations to       
proceed upon equalities4 ,thus also1 in 
the use of means1  we are not to        
prescribe to nature those alone which we
 think suitable  for the purpose1 in our
 narrow view4 ,it is our business to    
learn of  nature 7that is by            
observation7 the ways and means1 which  
in her wisdom  are adopted2 and we are  
to imagine these only in order to find  
means for  further information1 and to  
increase our knowledge from the         
examination  of things which actually   
have been4 ,it is in this manner1 that  
intention  may be found in nature2 but  
this intention is not to be supposed1 or
  vainly imagined1 from what we may     
conceive to be4    ,we have been now    
supposing1 that the beginning of our    
present earth had  been laid in the     
bottom of the ocean1 at the completion  
of the former  land2 but this was only  

for the sake of distinctness4 ,the just 
view is  this1 that when the former land
 of the globe had been complete1 so as  
to begin to waste and be impaired by the
 encroachment of the sea1 the  present  
land began to appear above the surface  
of the ocean4 ,in this  manner we       
suppose a due proportion to be always   
preserved of land and  water upon the   
surface of the globe1 for the purpose of
 a habitable  world1 such as this which 
we possess4 ,we thus1 also1 allow time  
and  opportunity for the translation of 
animals and plants to occupy the  earth4
    ,but1 if the earth on which we live1
 began to appear in the ocean at  the   
time when the last began to be resolved1
 it could not be from the  materials of 
the continent immediately preceding this
 which we examine1  that the present    
earth had been constructed2 for the     
bottom of the ocean  must have been     
filled with materials before land could 
be made to appear  above its surface4   
,let us suppose that the continent1     

which is to succeed our land1 is at     
present beginning to appear above the   
water in the middle of the ,pacific     
,ocean1 it must be evident1 that the    
materials of this great body1 which  is 
formed and ready to be brought forth1   
must have been collected from  the      
destruction of an earth1 which does not 
now appear4 ,consequently1  in this true
 statement of the case1 there is        
necessarily required the  destruction of
 an animal and vegetable earth prior to 
the former land2  and the materials of  
that earth which is first in our        
account1 must have  been collected at   
the bottom of the ocean1 and begun to be
 concocted for  the production of the   
present earth1 when the land immediately
 preceding  the present had arrived at  
its full extent4    ,this1 however1     
alters nothing with regard to the nature
 of those  operations of the globe4 ,the
 system is still the same4 ,it only     
protracts  the indefinite space of time 
in its existence1 while it gives us a   

view  of another distinct period of the 
living world2 that is to say1 the  world
 which we inhabit is composed of the    
materials1 not of the earth  which was  
the immediate predecessor of the        
present1 but of the earth  which1 in    
ascending from the present1 we consider 
as the third1 and  which had preceded   
the land that was above the surface of  
the sea1 while  our present land was yet
 beneath the water of the ocean4 ,here  
are three  distinct successive periods  
of existence1 and each of these is1 in  
our  measurement of time1 a thing of    
indefinite duration4    ,we have now got
 to the end of our reasoning2 we have no
 data further  to conclude immediately  
from that which actually is3 ,but we    
have got  enough2 we have the           
satisfaction to find1 that in nature    
there is  wisdom1 system1 and           
consistency4 ,for having1 in the natural
 history of  this earth1 seen a         
succession of worlds1 we may from this  
conclude that  there is a system in     

nature2 in like manner as1 from seeing  
revolutions  of the planets1 it is      
concluded1 that there is a system by    
which they  are intended to continue    
those revolutions4 ,but if the          
succession of  worlds is established in 
the system of nature1 it is in vain to  
look for  any thing higher in the origin
 of the earth4 ,the result1 therefore1  
of  this physical inquiry is1 that we   
find no vestige of a beginning1--no     
prospect of an end4        ,,chapter    
,,ii4    ,an ,examination of ,mr        
,,kirwan',s ,objections to the ,igneous 
,origin of ,stony  ,substances4    ,a   
theory which is founded on a new        
principle1 a theory which has to make   
its way in the public mind by           
overturning the opinions commonly       
received  by philosophising men1 and one
 which has nothing to recommend it but  
the  truth of its principles1 and the   
view of wisdom or design to which it    
leads1 neither of which may perhaps be  
perceived by the generality of  people1 

such a theory1 ,i say1 must meet with   
the strongest opposition  from the      
prejudices of the learned1 and from the 
superstition of those  who judge not for
 themselves in forming their notions1   
but look up to  men of science for      
authority4 ,such is the case with some  
part of the  ,theory of the ,earth1     
which ,i have given1 and which will     
probably give  offence to naturalists   
who have espoused an opposite opinion4  
,in order1  then1 to obtain the         
approbation of the public1 it may not be
 enough to  give a theory that should be
 true1 or altogether unexceptionable it 
may  be necessary to defend every point 
that shall be thought exceptionable  by 
other theorists1 and to show the fallacy
 of every learned objection  that may be
 made against it4 ,it is thus1 in       
general1 that truth and  error are      
forced to struggle together1 in the     
progress of science2 and  it is only in 
proportion as science removes erroneous 
conceptions1 which  are necessarily in  

the constitution of human knowledge1    
that truth will  find itself established
 in natural philosophy4    ,mr ,kirwan  
has written a dissertation1 entitled1   
,examination of the  ,supposed ,igneous 
,origin of ,stony ,substances1 which was
 read in the  ,royal ,irish ,academy4   
,the object of that dissertation is to  
state certain  objections1 which have   
occurred to him1 against the ,theory of 
the ,earth  published in the            
,transactions of the ,edinburgh ,royal  
,society2 and he has  attacked that     
theory in all the points where it       
appears to him to be  vulnerable4 ,it is
 to these objections that ,i am now to  
give an answer4  ,the authority given to
 this dissertation1 by the ,royal ,irish
 ,academy1  as well as the reputation of
 the author1 make it necessary for me   
to endeavour to put in their true light 
the facts alleged in that  performance1 
and to analyse the arguments employed1  
in order to judge of  the reasoning by  
which the theory of mineral fusion is   

refuted in this  ,examination4    ,a    
theory founded on truth1 and formed     
according to the proper rules of        
science1 can ever suffer from a strict  
examination1 by which it would  be but  
the more and more confirmed4 ,but1 where
 causes are to be traced  through a     
chain of various complicated effects1 an
 examination not  properly conducted    
upon accurate analytical principles1    
instead of  giving light upon a subject 
in which there had been obscurity and   
doubt1  may only serve to perplex the   
understanding1 and bring confusion into 
a  subject which was before sufficiently
 distinct4 ,to redress that evil1  then1
 must require more labour and some      
address2 and this is an  inconveniency  
that may be looked for1 more or less1 in
 every  controversial discussion4    ,i 
do not mean to enter any farther into   
the defence of my theory in  this       
chapter1 than what is necessary to      
answer a man of science and             
respectability1 who has stated his      

objections4 ,the observations which  he 
has made appear to me to be founded on  
nothing more than common  prejudice1 and
 misconceived notions of the subject4 ,i
 am therefore  to point out that        
erroneous train of reasoning1 into which
 a hasty  superficial view of things1   
perhaps1 has led the patron of an       
opposite  opinion to see my theory in an
 unfavourable light4 ,this1 however1 is 
not  all2 for1 that train of            
inconsequential reasoning is so         
congenial with  the crude and           
inconsiderate notion generally          
entertained1 of solid  mineral bodies   
having been formed by the infiltration  
of water into  the earth1 that no       
opportunity should be lost of exposing  
an erroneous  manner of reasoning1 which
 is employed in supporting a hypothesis 
founded upon certain operations of the  
surface of this earth that cannot  be   
properly applied to the formation of    
mineral bodies4 ,this object1           
therefore1 so far as it may come in the 

way1 will be attended to in  this       
discussion1 although ,i shall have      
another opportunity of farther          
enlarging upon that subject4    ,our    
author begins by examining a geological 
operation1 the very opposite  to that of
 mineral consolidation1 and which would 
seem to have little  connection with the
 subject of this dissertation4 ,in my   
theory1 ,i  advanced two propositions   
with regard to the economy of this      
world3  ,first1 ,that the solid masses  
of this earth1 when exposed to the      
atmosphere1 decay1 and are resolved into
 loose materials1 of which the          
vegetable soil upon the surface is in   
part composed2 and1 secondly1 ,that     
these loose materials are washed away by
 the currents of water1 and  thus       
carried at last into the sea4 ,our      
author says ,here are two  suppositions1
 neither of which is grounded on facts2 
and yet he has  but the moment before   
made the following confession3 ,that the
 soil1  however1 receives an increase   

from some species of stones that moulder
  by exposition to the air cannot be    
denied1 but there is no proof that  all 
soil has arisen from                    
decomposition4--,surely all soil1 that  
is made from the hard and compact body  
of the land1 which is my  proposition1  
must have arisen from decomposition2 and
 ,i have no where  said1 that all the   
soil of this earth is made from the     
decomposition  or detritus of those     
stony substances2 for1 masses of looser 
sand and  softer substances contribute  
still more to the formation of vegetable
  soils4    ,with regard to the other   
proposition1 our author says1 ,soil is  
not  constantly carried away by the     
water1 even from mountains4--,i have not
  said that it is constantly washed     
away2 for1 while it is soil in which    
plants grow1 it is not travelling to the
 sea1 although it be on the road1  and  
must there arrive in time4 ,i have said1
 that it is necessarily  washed away1   
that is1 occasionally4 ,m4 de ,luc's    

authority is then  referred to1 as      
refuting this operation of water and    
time upon the soil4  ,now1 ,i cannot    
help here observing1 that our author    
seems to have as  much misapprehended   
,m4 de ,luc's argument as he has done   
mine4 ,that  philosopher1 in his letters
 to the ,queen1 has described most      
accurately  the decay of the rocks and  
solid mountains of the ,alps and ,jura1 
and the  travelling of their materials  
by water1 although he does not carry    
them  to the sea4 ,it is true1 indeed1  
that this author1 who supposes the      
present earth on which we dwell very    
young1 is anxious to make an earth1  in 
time1 that shall not decay nor be washed
 away at all2 but that time  is not come
 yet2 therefore the authority1 here     
given against my  theory1 is the        
speculative supposition1 or mere        
opinion1 of a natural  philosopher1 with
 regard to an event which may never come
 to pass1 and  which ,i shall have      
occasion to consider fully in another   

place4    ,our author had just now said1
 that ,i have advanced two suppositions1
  neither of which is grounded on facts3
 ,now1 with regard to the one1 he  has  
acknowledged1 that the mouldering of    
stones takes place1 which is  the fact  
on which that proposition is grounded2  
and with regard to the  other1 the only 
authority given against it is founded   
expressly upon  the moving of soil by   
means of the rain water1 in order to    
make sloping  plains of mountains4      
,here1 therefore1 ,i have grounded my   
propositions  upon facts2 and our author
 has founded his objections1 first1 upon
 a  difficulty which he has himself     
removed2 and1 secondly1 upon nothing but
  a visionary opinion1 with regard to an
 earth which is not yet made1 and       
which1 when once made1 is never more to 
change4    ,after making some           
unimportant observations1--of all water 
not flowing  into the sea1--and of the  
travelled materials being also deposited
 upon  the plains1 etc4 our author thus 

proceeds3 ,hence the conclusion of our  
author relative to the imperfect        
constitution of the globe falls to the  
ground2 and the pains he takes to learn1
 by what means a decayed world  may be  
renovated1 are superfluous4--,the object
 of my theory is  to show1 that this    
decaying nature of the solid earth is   
the very  perfection of its             
constitution1 as a living world2        
therefore1 it  was most proper that ,i  
should take pains to learn by what means
 the  decayed parts might be renovated4 
,it is true1 indeed1 that this will be  
superfluous1 when once that constitution
 of the earth1 which ,m4 de ,luc  thinks
 is preparing1 shall be finished2 but1  
in the mean time1 while  rivers carry   
the materials of our land1 and while the
 sea impairs the  coast1 ,i may be      
allowed to suppose that this is the     
actual constitution  of the earth4    ,i
 cannot help here animadverting upon    
what seems to be our author's  plan1 in 
making these objections1 which have     

nothing to do with his  examination4 ,he
 accuses me of giving this world a false
 or imperfect  constitution1 7in which  
the solid land is considered as         
resolvable1 and  the materials of that  
land as being washed away into the sea17
 for no  other reason1 that ,i can see1 
but because this may imply the formation
  of a future earth1 which he is not    
disposed to allow2 and1 he is now to    
deny the stratified construction of this
 present earth to have been made  by the
 deposits of materials at the bottom of 
the sea1 because that  would prove the  
existence of a former earth1 which is   
repugnant to his  notion of the origin  
of things1 and is contrary1 as he says1 
to reason1  and the tenor of the ,mosaic
 history4 ,let me observe1 in passing1  
that ,m4  de ,luc1 of whose opinions our
 author expresses much approbation1     
thinks  that he proves1 from the express
 words and tenor of the ,mosaic history1
  that the present earth was at the     
bottom of the sea not many years ago1   

and that the former earth had then      
disappeared4    ,but1 what does our     
author propose to himself1 in refusing  
to admit my  view of the operations     
which are daily transacting upon the    
surface of  this earth1 where there is  
nothing dark or in the least mysterious1
 as  there may be in the mineral        
regions8 ,does he mean to say1 that it  
is not  the purpose of this world to    
provide soil for plants to grow in8     
,does  he suppose that this soil is not 
moveable with the running water of the  
surface8 and1 ,does he think that it is 
not necessary to replace that  soil     
which is removed8 ,this is all that ,i  
required in that constitution  of the   
world which he has thus attacked2 and ,i
 wish that he or any  person would point
 out1 in what respect ,i had demanded   
any thing  unreasonable1 or any thing   
that is not actually to be observed     
every  day4    ,thus ,i have endeavoured
 to show1 that our author has attacked  
my theory  in a part where ,i believe it

 must be thought invulnerable2 but this 
is  only1 ,i presume1 in order that he  
may make an attack with more advantage  
upon another part1 viz4 the composition 
of strata from the materials of  an     
earth thus worn out in the service of   
vegetation1--materials which  are       
necessarily removed in order to make way
 for that change of things  in which    
consists the active and living system of
 this world4 ,if he  succeed in this    
attempt to refute my theory of the      
original formation  of strata1 he would 
then doubtless find it more easy to     
persuade  philosophers that the means   
which ,i employ in bringing those       
materials  again to light1 when         
transformed into such solid masses as   
the system of  this earth requires1 are 
extravagant1 unnatural1 and unnecessary4
 ,let us  then see how he sets about    
this undertaking4    ,with regard to the
 composition of the earth1 it is quoted 
from my  theory1 that the solid parts of
 the globe are in general composed  of  

sand1 gravel1 argillaceous and          
calcareous strata1 or of various        
compositions of these with other        
substances2 our author then adds1  ,this
 certainly cannot be affirmed as a fact1
 but rather the contrary2  it holds only
 true of the surface1 the basis of the  
greater part of  ,scotland is evidently 
a granitic rock1 to say nothing of the  
continents1  both of the ,old and ,new  
,world1 according to the testimony of   
all  mineralogists4 ,this proposition1  
with regard to the general composition  
of the earth1 ,i have certainly not     
assumed1 ,i have maintained it as a     
fact1 after the most scrupulous         
examination of all that1 with the most  
diligent search1 ,i have been able to   
see1 and of all that authors  have wrote
 intelligibly upon the subject4 ,if1    
therefore1 ,i have so  misrepresented   
this great geological fact on which my  
theory is  absolutely founded1 ,i must  
have erred with open eyes2 and my theory
  of the earth1 like others which have  

gone before it1 will1 upon close        
examination1 appear to be unfounded1 as 
the dissertation now before us  is      
endeavouring to represent it4    ,our   
author here1 ,i think1 alleges that the 
contrary to this1 my  fundamental       
proposition1 is the truth2 and he has   
given us ,scotland as  an example in    
which his assertion 7founded upon the   
testimony of all  mineralogists71 is    
illustrated4 ,now my geological         
proposition should  certainly be        
applicable to ,scotland1 which is the   
country that ,i ought  to be best       
acquainted with2 consequently1 if what  
our author here  asserts be true1 ,i    
would have deserved that blame which he 
is willing to  throw on me4 ,let me then
 beg the readers attention for a moment1
 that ,i  may justify myself from that  
charge1 and place in its proper light   
this  authority1 upon so material a     
point in geology4    ,i had examined    
,scotland from the one end to the other 
before ,i saw one  stone of granite in  

its native place1 ,i have moreover      
examined almost  all ,england and       
,wales1 7excepting ,devonshire and      
,cornwall7 without  seeing more of      
granite than one spot1 not many hundred 
yards of extent2  this is at ,chap2 and 
,i know1 from information1 that there is
 another  small spot in the middle of   
,england where it is just seen4 ,but1   
let me  be more particular with regard  
to ,scotland1 the example given in      
proof4    ,i had travelled every road   
from the borders of ,northumberland and 
,westmoreland to ,edinburgh2 from       
,edinburgh1 ,i had travelled to         
,port-,patrick1 and from that along the 
coast of ,galloway and ,airshire  to    
,inverary in ,argyleshire1 and ,i had   
examined every spot between the         
,grampians and the ,tweedale mountains  
from sea to sea1 without seeing  granite
 in its place4 ,i had also travelled    
from ,edinburgh by ,grief1  ,rannock1   
,dalwhiny1 ,fort ,augustus1 ,inverness1 
through east ,ross and  ,caithness1 to  

the ,pentland-,frith or ,orkney islands1
 without seeing one  block of granite in
 its place4 ,it is true1 ,i met with it 
on my return  by the east coast1 when ,i
 just saw it1 and no more1 at ,peterhead
 and  ,aberdeen2 but that was all the   
granite ,i had ever seen when ,i wrote  
my ,theory of the ,earth4 ,i have1 since
 that time1 seen it in different        
places2 because ,i went on purpose to   
examine it1 as ,i shall have  occasion  
to describe in the course of this work4 
,i may now with some confidence affirm1 
from my own observation1 and from  good 
information with regard to those places 
where ,i have not been1  except the     
northwest corner1 ,i may affirm1 ,i say1
 that instead of the  basis of the      
greatest part of ,scotland being a      
granitic rock1 which our  author has    
maintained as an evident thing1 there is
 very little of it  that is so2 not     
perhaps one five hundred part4 ,so far  
also as ,i am to  judge from my         
knowledge of the mineral construction of

 ,england and  ,wales1 which ,i have    
examined with the greatest care1 and    
from the  mineral chart which my friend 
,mr ,watt made for me from his knowledge
 of  ,cornwall1 ,i would say that there 
is scarcely one five hundred part  of   
,britain that has granite for its basis4
 ,all the rest1 except the  porphyry and
 basaltes1 consists of stratified       
bodies1 which are composed  more or less
 of the materials which ,i mentioned1   
generally1 in the above  quotation1 and 
which our author would dispute4    ,but 
do not let me take the advantage of this
 error of our author with  regard to the
 mineralogy of ,scotland1 and thus draw 
what may be thought  an undue conclusion
 in favour of my general theory2 let us 
go over and  examine the continent of   
,europe1 and see if it is any otherwise 
there  than in ,britain4 ,from the      
granite of the ,ural mountains1 to that 
which  we find in the ,pyrenees1 there  
is no reason1 so far as ,i have been    
able  to learn1 to conclude that things 

are formed either upon any other        
principle1 or upon a different scale4   
,but1 instead of one five hundred  part1
 let us suppose there to be one fiftieth
 part of the earth in  general resting  
upon granite1 ,i could not have         
expressed myself  otherwise than ,i have
 done2 for1 when ,i maintained that the 
earth in  general consisted of          
stratified bodies1 ,i said that this was
 only nine  tenths1 or perhaps          
ninety-nine hundredths of the whole1 and
 ,i mentioned  that there were other    
masses of a different origin1 which     
should be  considered separately4 ,our  
author1 on the contrary1 asserts that   
the ,old  and ,new ,worlds1 as well as  
,scotland1 are placed upon granite as a 
basis1  which he says is according to   
the testimony of all mineralogists4  ,i 
shall have occasion to examine this     
opinion of mineralogists1 in  comparing 
it with those masses of granite which   
appear to us2 and ,i hope  fully to     
refute the geological1 as well as       

mineralogical notions with  regard to   
that body4 ,in the mean time1 let me    
make the following  reflection1 which   
here naturally occurs4    ,my ,theory of
 the ,earth is here examined1--not with 
the system of  nature1 or actual state  
of things1 to which it certainly should 
have  corresponded1--but with the       
systematic views of a person1 who has   
formed  his notions of geology from the 
vague opinion of others1 and not from   
what he has seen4 ,had the question     
been1 ,how far my theory agreed with    
other theories1 our author might very   
properly have informed his readers  that
 it was diametrically opposite to the   
opinions of mineralogists2  but1 this   
was no reason for concluding it to be   
erroneous2 on the  contrary1 it is      
rather a presumption that ,i may have   
corrected the error  of mineralogists   
who have gone before me1 in like manner 
as it is most  reasonable to presume    
that our author may have corrected mine4
 ,let us  then proceed to examine how   

far this shall appear to be the case4   
,our author has stated very fairly from 
the ,theory1 viz4 ,that all the  strata 
of the earth1 not only those consisting 
of calcareous masses1 but  others       
superincumbent on these1 have had their 
origin at the bottom  of the sea1 by the
 collection of sand1 gravel1 shells1    
coralline1 and  crustaceous bodies1 and 
of earths and clays variously mixed1    
separated1  and accumulated4 ,he then   
adds1 ,various geological observations  
contradict this conclusion4 ,there are  
many stratified mountains of            
argillaceous slate1 gneiss1 serpentine1 
jasper1 and even marble1 in  which      
either sand1 gravel1 shells1 coralline1 
or crustaceous bodies are  never1 or    
scarce ever found4    ,here our author  
seems to have deceived himself1 by      
taking a very partial  view of things   
which should be fully examined1 and well
 understood1  before general conclusions
 are to be drawn from those appearances2
 for1  although those particular objects

 may not be visible in the strata which 
he has enumerated1 or many others1 they 
are found in those strata which  are    
either immediately connected and        
alternated with them1 or with  similar  
strata2 something to that purpose ,i    
think ,i have said2 and1 if  ,i had not1
 it certainly requires no deep          
penetration to have seen this  clear    
solution of that appearance of those    
objects not being found in  every       
particular stratum4 ,he says that those 
marks of known materials  are never or  
scarce ever found2--by scarce ever he   
surely means that  they are sometimes   
found2 but if they shall only once be   
found1 his  argument is lost4 ,i have   
not drawn my geological conclusion from 
every  particle in strata being         
distinguishable1 but from there being   
certain  distinguishable particles in   
strata1 and from our knowing what had   
been  the former state and circumstances
 of those distinguished parts4    ,if   
every stone or part of a stratum1 in    

which those known objects are  not      
immediately visible1 must be considered 
as so many geological  observations that
 contradict my theory1 7of strata being 
formed from  the materials of a former  
earth71 then1 surely every stone and    
every  stratum which visibly contains   
any of those materials1 must prove my   
theory4 ,but if every stratum1 where    
these are found in any part of it1  is  
to be concluded as having had its origin
 at the bottom of the sea2  and1 if     
every concomitant stratum1 though not   
having those objects  visible or        
sufficiently distinct1 must be          
considered as having had the  same or a 
similar origin1 that pretended          
contradiction of my theory  comes to no 
more than this1 that every individual   
stone does not bear  in it the same or  
equal evidence of that general          
proposition which  necessarily results  
from the attentive consideration of the 
whole1  including every part4    ,but to
 see how necessary it is to judge in    

this manner1 not partially1  but upon   
the whole1 we may observe1 that there   
are two ways by which the  visible      
materials or distinguishable bodies of a
 former earth1 not only  may be rendered
 invisible in the composition of our    
present earth1  but must be so upon many
 occasions4 ,these are1 first1 by       
mechanical  comminution1 which          
necessarily happens1 more or less1 in   
that operation  by which bodies are     
moved against one another1 and thus     
transported from  the land to the bottom
 of the deepest seas2 secondly1 by      
chemical  operations1 7whatever these   
may be1 whether the action of water or  
of  fire1 or both71 which are also      
necessarily employed for consolidating  
those loose materials1 that are to form 
the rocks and stones of  this earth1 and
 by means of which those materials are  
to have their  distinguishable shapes   
affected in all degrees and obliterated4
  ,therefore1 to demand the visible     
appearance of those materials in every  

stratum of the earth1 or in every part  
of a stratum1 is no other than to       
misunderstand the subject altogether4   
,the geological observations1  which    
have been thus alleged as contradicting 
my theory1 are stratified  bodies1      
containing proofs of the general origin 
which ,i attribute to the  earth1 but   
proofs which may not always be seen with
 equal facility as  those which even    
convince the vulgar4    ,our author has 
surely perplexed himself with what      
writers of late have  said concerning   
primitive mountains as they are called1 
a subject of  deeper search1 than is    
commonly imagined1 as ,i hope to show in
 the  course of this work4 ,it is an    
interesting subject of investigation1   
as giving us the actual view of those   
operations of nature which1 in  forming 
my ,theory of the ,earth1 more general  
principles had led me to  conclude might
 be4 ,but1 it is a subject which1 ,i am 
afraid1 will lead  me to give farther   
offence to our author1 however innocent 

,i may be in  giving nothing but what ,i
 have from nature4    ,the reason for   
saying so is this2 ,i am blamed for     
having endeavoured  to trace back the   
operations of this world to a remote    
period1 by the  examination of that     
which actually appears1 contrary1 as is 
alleged1  to reason1 and the tenor of   
the ,mosaic history1 thus leading to an 
abyss1 from which human reason recoils1 
etc4 ,in a word1 7says our  author71 to 
make use of his own expression1 ,we find
 no vestige of  a beginning4 ,then this 
system of successive worlds must have   
been  eternal4 ,such is the logic by    
which1 ,i suppose1 ,i am to be accused  
of  atheism4 ,our author might have     
added1 that ,i have also said--we see   
no prospect of an end2 but what has all 
this to do with the idea of  eternity8  
,are we1 with our ideas of time1 7or    
mere succession71 to  measure that of   
eternity1 which never succeeded any     
thing1 and which  will never be         
succeeded8 ,are we thus to measure      

eternity1 that boundless  thought1 with 
those physical notions of ours which    
necessarily limit  both space and time8 
and1 because we see not the beginning of
 created  things1 ,are we to conclude   
that those things which we see have     
always  been1 or been without a cause8  
,our author would thus1 inadvertently   
indeed1 lead himself into that gulf of  
irreligion and absurdity into  which1 he
 alleges1 ,i have boldly plunged4    ,in
 examining this present earth1 we find  
that it must have had its  origin at the
 bottom of the sea1 although our author 
seems willing to  deny that proposition4
 ,farther1 in examining the internal    
construction  of this stratified and    
sea-born mass1 we find that it had been 
composed  of the moved materials of a   
former earth2 and1 from the most        
accurate  and extensive examination of  
those materials1 which in many places   
are  indeed much disguised1 we are led  
necessarily to conclude1 that there  had
 been a world existing1 and containing  

an animal1 a vegetable1 and a  mineral  
system4 ,but1 in thus tracing back the  
natural operations which  have succeeded
 each other1 and mark to us the course  
of time past1 we  come to a period in   
which we cannot see any farther4 ,this1 
however1  is not the beginning of those 
operations which proceed in time and    
according to the wise economy of this   
world2 nor is it the establishing  of   
that1 which1 in the course of time1 had 
no beginning2 it is only the  limit of  
our retrospective view of those         
operations which have come to  pass in  
time1 and have been conducted by supreme
 intelligence4    ,my principal anxiety 
was to show how the constitution of this
 world  had been wisely contrived2 and  
this ,i endeavoured to do1 not from     
supposition or conjecture1 but from its 
answering so effectually the end  of its
 intention1 viz4 the preserving of      
animal life1 which we cannot  doubt of  
being its purpose4 ,here then is a world
 that is not eternal1  but which has    

been the effect of wisdom or design4    
,with regard again to the prospective   
view of the creation1 ,how are we to    
see the end of that wise system of      
things which so properly fulfils the    
benevolent intention of its maker1--in  
giving sustenance to the animal  part1  
and information to intellectual beings1 
who1 in these works of  nature1 read    
what much concerns their peace of       
mind1--their intellectual  happiness8   
,what then does our author mean1 in     
condemning that  comprehensive view     
which ,i have endeavoured to take of    
nature8 ,would he  deny that there is to
 be perceived wisdom in the system of   
this world1  or that a philosopher1 who 
looks into the operations of nature1 may
 not  plainly read the power and wisdom 
of the ,creator1 without recoiling1 as  
he says1 from the abyss8 ,the abyss1    
from which a man of science should      
recoil1 is that of ignorance and error4 
,i have thus shown1 that1 from not      
perceiving the wise disposition of      

things upon the surface of this earth   
for the preservation of vegetable       
bodies1 our author has been led to deny 
the necessary waste of the  present     
earth1 and the consequent preparation of
 materials for the  construction of     
another2 ,i have also shown1 that he    
denies the origin  which ,i had         
attributed to the stratified parts of   
this earth1 as having  been the         
collection of moving materials from a   
former earth2 and now  ,i am come to    
consider the professed purpose of this  
paper1 viz4 the  examination of solid   
stony substances which we find in those 
strata  of our earth1 as well as in more
 irregular masses4 ,here1 no doubt1 my  
theory would have been attacked with    
greater success1 had our author         
succeeded in pointing out its error with
 regard to the original  composition of 
those indurated bodies1 to which ,i     
ascribe fusion as the  cause of their   
solidity4 ,for1 if we should1 according 
to our author's  proposition1 consider  

those consolidated bodies as having been
  originally formed in that solid state1
 here the door might be shut  against   
any farther investigation2--,but to what
 purpose8--,surely not to  refute my    
theory1 but to explode every physical   
inquiry farther on the  subject1 and    
thus to lead us back into the science of
 darkness and of  scepticism4 ,but let  
us proceed to see our author's          
sentiments on this  subject4    ,as ,i  
had proved from matter of fact1 or the  
actual appearances of  nature1 that all 
the strata of the earth had been formed 
at the bottom  of the sea1 by the       
subsidence of those materials which     
either come from  the decaying land1 or 
are formed in the sea itself1 it was    
necessary  that ,i should consider in   
what manner those spongy or porous      
bodies of  loose materials1 gathered    
together at the bottom of the sea1 could
 have  acquired that consolidated state 
in which we find them1 now that they    
are brought up to our examination4 ,upon

 this occasion1 our author says1  ,the  
particles which now form the solid parts
 of the globe need not be  supposed to  
have originally been either spongy or   
porous1 the interior  parts at the depth
 of a few miles might have been         
originally1 as at  present1 a solid     
mass4 ,if1 indeed1 we shall make that   
supposition1 we  may then save ourselves
 the trouble of considering either how  
the strata  of the earth have been      
formed or consolidated2 for1 they might 
have been  so originally4 ,but1 how can 
a naturalist who had ever seen a piece  
of  ,derbyshire marble1 or any other    
shell limestone1 make that supposition8 
,here are1 to the satisfaction of every 
body of common understanding who  looks 
at them1 bodies which are perfectly     
consolidated1 bodies which  have        
evidently been formed at the bottom of  
the sea1 and therefore which  were not  
originally a solid mass4 ,mr ,bertrand1 
it is true1 wrote a book  to prove that 
those appearances were nothing but a    

lusus naturae2 and1  ,i suppose he      
meant1 with our author1 that those      
strata had been also  originally1 as at 
present1 a solid mass4    ,with regard  
to the consolidation of strata1 that    
cardinal point for  discussion1 our     
author gives the following answer3      
,abstracting from his  own gratuitous   
hypothesis1 it is very easy to satisfy  
our author on this  head2 the concreting
 and consolidating power in most cases  
arises from  the mutual attraction of   
the component particles of stones to    
each  other4 ,this is an answer with    
regard to the concreting power1 a       
subject about which we certainly are not
 here inquiring4 ,our author1  indeed1  
has mentioned a consolidating power2 but
 that is an improper  expression2 we are
 here inquiring1 ,how the interstices1  
between the  collected materials of     
strata1 deposited at the bottom of the  
sea1 have  been filled with a hard      
substance1 instead of the fluid water   
which had  originally occupied those    

spaces4 ,our author then continues2 ,if 
these  particles leave any interstices1 
these are filled with water1 which no   
ways obstructs their solidity when the  
points of contact are numerous2  hence  
the decrepitation of many species of    
stones when heated4    ,if ,i understand
 our author's argument1 the particles of
 stone are1 by  their mutual            
attractions1 to leave those hard and    
solid bodies which  compose the strata1 
that is to say1 those hard bodies are to
 dissolve  themselves2 but1 ,to what    
purpose8 ,this must be to fill up the   
interstices1 which we must suppose      
occupied by the water4 ,in that case1   
we should find the original interstices 
filled with the substances which  had   
composed the strata1 and we should find 
the water translated into  the places of
 those bodies2 here would be properly a 
transmutation1 but  no consolidation of 
the strata1 such as we are here to look 
for1 and  such as we actually find among
 those strata4 ,it may be very easy for 

our author to form those explanations of
 natural phenomena2 it costs  no tedious
 observation of facts1 which are to be  
gathered with labour1  patience1 and    
attention2 he has but to look into his  
own fancy1 as  philosophers did in      
former times1 when they saw the         
abhorrence of a  vacuum and explained   
the pump4 ,it is thus that we are here  
told the  consolidation of strata arises
 from the mutual attraction of the      
component particles of stones to each   
other2 the power1 by which the          
particles of solid stony bodies retain  
their places in relation to each  other1
 and resist separation from the mass1   
may1 no doubt1 be properly  enough      
termed their mutual attractions2 but we 
are not here inquiring  after that      
power2 we are to investigate the power  
by which the particles  of hard and     
stony bodies had been separated1        
contrary to their mutual  attractions1  
in order to form new concretions1 by    
being again brought  within the spheres 

of action in which their mutual         
attractions might  take place1 and make 
them one solid body4 ,now1 to say that  
this is by  their mutual attraction1 is 
either to misunderstand the proper      
question1  or to give a most            
preposterous answer4    ,it is not every
 one who is fit to reason with regard to
 abstract general  propositions2 ,i will
 now1 therefore1 state a particular     
case1 in  illustration of that          
proposition which has been here so      
improperly  answered4 ,the strata of    
,derbyshire marbles were originally     
immense  collections at the bottom of   
the sea1 of calcareous bodies consisting
  almost wholly of various fragments of 
the entrochi2 and they were then        
covered with an indefinite number of    
other strata under which these  entrochi
 must have been buried4 ,in this        
original state of those  strata1 ,i     
suppose the interstices between the     
fragments of the coralline  bodies to   
have been left full of sea-water2 at    

present we find those  interstices      
completely filled with a most perfectly 
solid body of  marble2 and the question 
is1 whether that consolidating operation
  has been the work of water and        
solution1 by our naturalist's termed    
infiltration2 or if it has been         
performed1 as ,i have maintained1 by the
  softening power or heat1 or           
introduction of matter in the fluid     
state  of fusion4 ,our author does not  
propose any other method for the        
consolidation of those loose and        
incoherent bodies1 but he speaks of the 
mutual attraction of the component      
particles of stone to each other2  ,will
 that fill the interstices between the  
coralline bodies with solid  marble1 as 
well as consolidate the coralline bodies
 themselves8 or1 if  it should1 ,how are
 those interstices to be thus filled    
with a substance  perfectly different   
from the deposited bodies1 which is also
 frequently  the case8 ,but1 how reason 
with a person who1 with this            

consolidation of  strata1 confounds the 
well known operation by which the       
mortar1 made  with caustic lime and     
sand1 becomes a hard body6 ,one would   
imagine  that he were writing to people 
of the last age1 and not to chemical    
philosophers who know so well how that  
mortar is concreted4    ,to my argument1
 ,that these porous strata are found    
consolidated with  every different      
species of mineral substance1 our author
 makes the  following observation3 ,here
 the difficulties to the supposition of 
an  aqueous solution are placed in the  
strongest light2 yet it must be owned   
that they partly arise from the author's
 own gratuitous supposition1  that      
strata existed at the bottom of the sea 
previous to their                       
consolidation2--gratuitous              
supposition6--so far from being a       
supposition of any kind1 it is a self   
evident proposition2 the terms          
necessarily imply the conclusion4 ,i beg
 the readers attention for a  moment to 

this part of our author's animadversion1
 before proceeding to  consider the     
whole2 for1 this is a point so essential
 in my theory1  that if it be a         
gratuitous supposition1 as is here      
asserted1 it would  certainly be in vain
 to attempt to build upon it the system 
of a world4    ,that strata may exist1  
whether at the bottom of the sea1 or any
 other  where1 without being            
consolidated1 will hardly be disputed2  
for1 they  are actually found           
consolidated in every different degree4 
,but1 when  strata are found            
consolidated1 at what time is it that we
 are to suppose  this event to have     
taken place1 or this accident to have   
happened to  them8--,strata are formed  
at the bottom of water1 by the          
subsidence or  successive deposits of   
certain materials2 it could not         
therefore  be during their formation    
that such strata had been consolidated2 
consequently1 we must necessarily       
conclude1 without any degree of         

supposition1 that strata had existed at 
the bottom of the sea  previous to their
 consolidation1 unless our author can   
show how they  may have been            
consolidated previous to their existing4
    ,this then is what our author has   
termed a gratuitous supposition of      
mine1 and which1 he adds1 is a          
circumstance which will not be allowed  
by the patrons of the aqueous origin of 
stony substances1 as we have  already   
seen4--,i am perfectly at a loss to     
guess at what is here  alluded to by    
having been already seen1 unless it be  
that which ,i have  already quoted1     
concerning things which have been never 
seen1 that  is1 those interior parts of 
the earth which were originally a solid 
mass4--,i have hardly patience to answer
 such reasoning2--a reasoning  which is 
not founded upon any principle1 which   
holds up nothing  but chimera to our    
view1 and which ends in nothing that is 
intelligible2--but1 others1 perhaps1 may
 see this dissertation of our  author's 

in a different light2 therefore1 it is  
my duty to analyse the  argument1       
however insignificant it may seem to me4
    ,i have minutely examined all the   
stratified bodies which ,i have been    
able1 during a lifetime1 to procure1    
both in this country of ,britain1  and  
from all the quarters of the globe2 and 
the result of my inquiry has  been to   
conclude1 that there is nothing among   
them in an original state1  as the      
reader will see in the preceding        
chapter4 ,with regard again to  the     
masses which are not stratified1 ,i have
 also given proof that they  are not in 
their original state1 such as granite1  
porphyry1 serpentine1  and basaltes2 and
 ,i shall give farther satisfaction1 ,i 
hope1 upon that  head1 in the course of 
this work4 ,i have therefore concluded1 
,that there  is nothing to be found in  
an original state1 so far as we see1 in 
the  construction of this earth4 ,but1  
our author answers1 ,that the interior  
parts might have been in an original    

state of solidity4--,so might  they have
 been upon the surface of the earth1 or 
on the summits of our  mountains2 but1  
we are not inquiring ,what they might   
have been1 but  ,what they truly are4   
,it is from this actual state in which  
the solid  parts of the earth are found1
 that ,i have endeavoured to trace back 
the  different states in which they must
 have been2 and1 by generalising  facts1
 ,i have formed a theory of the earth4  
,if this be a wrong principle  or manner
 of proceeding in a physical            
investigation1 or if1 proceeding  upon  
that principle1 ,i have made the        
induction by reasoning improperly  on   
any occasion1 let this be corrected by  
philosophers1 who may reason  more      
accurately upon the subject4 ,but to    
oppose a physical investigation  with   
this proposition1 that things might have
 been otherwise1 is to  proceed upon a  
very different principle1--a principle  
which1 instead of  tending to bring     
light out of darkness1 is only          

calculated to extinguish  that light    
which we may have acquired4    ,i shall 
afterwards have occasion to examine how 
far the philosophers1  who attribute to 
aqueous solution the origin of stony    
substances1 have  proceeded in the same 
inductive manner of reasoning from      
effect to  cause1 as they ought to do in
 physical subjects1 and not by feigning 
causes1 or following a false analogy2 in
 the mean time1 ,i am to answer  the    
objections which have been made to the  
theory of the earth4    ,in opposition  
to the theory of consolidating bodies by
 fusion1 our  author has taken great    
pains to show1 that ,i cannot provide   
materials  for such a fire as would be  
necessary1 nor find the means to make it
  burn had ,i those materials4 ,had our 
author read attentively my theory he    
would have observed1 that ,i give myself
 little or no trouble about that  fire1 
or take no charge with regard to the    
procuring of that power1 as ,i  have not
 founded my theory on the supposition of

 subterraneous  fire1 however that fire 
properly follows as a conclusion from   
those  appearances on which the theory  
is founded4 ,my theory is founded upon  
the general appearances of mineral      
bodies1 and upon this1 that mineral     
bodies must necessarily have been in a  
state of fusion4 ,i do not pretend  to  
prove1 demonstratively1 that they had   
been even hot1 however that  conclusion 
also naturally follows from their having
 been in fusion4 ,it  is sufficient for 
me to demonstrate1 ,that those bodies   
must have been1  more or less1 in a     
state of softness and fluidity1 without 
any species  of solution4 ,i do not say 
that this fluidity had been without     
heat2  but1 if that had been the case1  
it would have answered equally well the 
purpose of my theory1 so far as this    
went to explain the consolidation  of   
strata or mineral bodies1 which1 ,i     
still repeat1 must have been  by simple 
fluidity1 and not by any species of     
solution1 or any other  solvent than    

that universal one which permeates all  
bodies1 and which  makes them fluid4    
,our author has justly remarked the     
difficulty of fire burning below the    
earth and sea4 ,it is not my purpose    
here to endeavour to remove those       
difficulties1 which perhaps only exist  
in those suppositions which are  made on
 this occasion2 my purpose is to show1  
that he had no immediate  concern with  
that question1 in discussing the subject
 of the  consolidation which we actually
 find in the strata of the earth1 unless
  my theory1 with regard to the igneous 
origin of stony substances1 had         
proceeded upon the supposition of a     
subterraneous fire4 ,it is surely one   
thing to employ fire and heat to melt   
mineral bodies1 in supposing this  to be
 the cause of their consolidation1 and  
another thing to acknowledge  fire or   
heat as having been exerted upon mineral
 bodies1 when it is  clearly proved1    
from actual appearances1 that those     
bodies had been in  a melted state1 or  

that of simple fluidity4 ,here are      
distinctions which  would be thrown away
 upon the vulgar2 but1 to a man of      
science1 who  analyses arguments1 and   
reasons strictly from effect to cause1  
this is1  ,i believe1 the proper way of 
coming at the truth4 ,if the patrons of 
the aqueous origin of stony substances  
can give us any manner of  scientifical1
 i4e4 intelligible investigation of that
 process1 it  shall be attended to with 
the most rigid impartiality1 even by a  
patron  of the igneous origin of those  
substances1 as he wishes above all      
things  to distinguish1 in the mineral  
operations1 those which1 on the one     
hand1  had been the effect of water1    
from those which1 on the other hand1 had
  been the immediate effect of fire or  
fusion2--this has been my greatest      
study4 ,but1 while mineralists or       
geologists give us only mere opinions1  
,what is science profited by such       
inconsequential observations1 as are    
founded upon nothing but our vulgar     

notions8 ,is the figure of the  earth1  
e4g4 to be doubted1 because1 according  
to the common notion of  mankind1 the   
existence of an antipod is certainly to 
be denied8    ,i am not avoiding to meet
 that question with regard to the       
providing  of materials for such a      
mineral fire as may be required2 no     
question ,i  desire more to be asked to 
resolve2 but it must not be in the      
manner  that our author has put that    
question4 ,he has included this supposed
  difficulty among a string of other    
arguments by which he would refute my   
theory with regard to the igneous origin
 of stony substances1 as if ,i  had made
 that fire a necessary condition or a   
principle in forming my  theory of      
consolidation4 ,now1 it is precisely the
 reverse2 and this is  what ,i beg that 
mineral philosophers will particularly  
attend to1 and  not give themselves so  
much unnecessary trouble1 and me so     
disagreeable  a talk4 ,i have proved    
that those stony substances have been in

 the fluid  state of fusion2 and from   
this1 ,i have inferred the former       
existence of  an internal heat1 a       
subterraneous fire1 or a certain cause  
of fusion by  whatever name it shall be 
called1 and by whatever means it shall  
have  been procured4 ,the nature of that
 operation by which strata had been     
consolidated1 like that by which they   
had been composed1 must1 according  to  
my philosophy1 be decided by ocular     
demonstration2 from examining the       
internal evidence which is to be found  
in those bodies as we see them in  the  
earth2 because the consolidating        
operation is not performed in our       
sight1 no more than their stratification
 which our author has also  denied to   
have been made1 as ,i have said1 by the 
deposits of materials  at the bottom of 
the sea4 ,now1 with regard to the means 
of procuring  subterraneous fire1 if the
 consolidating operation shall be thus  
decided  to have been that of fusion1 as
 ,i think ,i have fully shown1 and for  

which ,i have as many witnesses1 perhaps
 as there are mineral bodies1  then our 
author's question1 7how ,i am to procure
 a fire7 in the way that  he has put it1
 as an argument against the fusion1     
would be at least  useless2 for1 though 
,i should here confess my ignorance with
 regard to  the means of procuring fire1
 the evidence of the melting operation1 
or  former fluidity of those mineral    
bodies1 would not be thereby in the     
least diminished4 ,if again no such     
evidence for the fusion of those  bodies
 shall appear1 and it be concluded that 
they had been consolidated  by the      
action of water alone1 as our author    
seems inclined to maintain1  he would   
have no occasion to start difficulties  
about the procuring of  fire1 in order  
to refute a theory which then would fall
 of itself as  having no foundation4    
,but in order to see this author's      
notion of the theory which he is here   
examining1 it may be proper to give a   
specimen of his reasoning upon  this    

subject of heat4 ,he says1 ,that my     
supposition of heat necessary  for      
consolidating strata is gratuitous1 not 
only because it is  unnecessary1 as we  
have already shown1 but also because it 
is  inconsistent with our author's own  
theory4 ,let us now consider those  two 
propositions4 ,first1 it is unnecessary1
 as we have already  shown2--,i have    
already taken particular notice of what 
we have been  shown on this occasion1   
viz4 ,that the earth at a certain depth 
may  have been originally in a solid    
state2 and1 that1 where it is to be     
consolidated1 this is done by the mutual
 attraction of the stony  particles4    
,here is all that we have been shown to 
make subterraneous  heat1 for the       
consolidation of strata1 unnecessary2   
and now ,i humbly  submit1 if this is   
sufficient evidence1 that mineral heat  
is a  gratuitous supposition4           
,secondly1 it is inconsistent with our  
author's own theory4 ,here  ,i would beg
 the readers attention to the reasoning 

employed on  this occasion4 ,he says1   
according to him these strata1 which    
were  consolidated by heat1 were        
composed of materials gradually worn    
from a  preceding continent1 casually   
and successively deposited in the sea2  
,where then will he find1 and how will  
he suppose1 to have been formed  those  
enormous masses of sulphur1 coal1 or    
bitumen1 necessary to produce  that     
immense heat necessary for the fusion of
 those vast mountains of  stone now     
existing8 ,all the coal1 sulphur1 and   
bitumen1 now known1 does  not form the  
#ajj1jjj part of the materials deposited
 within one quarter  of a mile under the
 surface of the earth2 if1 therefore1   
they were1 as  his hypothesis demands1  
carried off and mixed with the other    
materials1  and not formed in vast and  
separate collections1 they could never  
occasion1 by their combustion1 a heat   
capable of producing the smallest       
effect1 much less those gigantic effects
 which he requires4    ,here is a       

comparative estimate formed between two 
things which have not  any necessary    
relation2 these are1 the quantity of    
combustible materials  found in the     
earth1 on the one hand1 and the quantity
 which is supposed  necessary for       
hardening and consolidating strata1 on  
the other4 ,if this  earth has been     
consolidated by the burning of          
combustible materials1  there must have 
been a superfluity1 so far as there is a
 certain  quantity of these actually    
found unconsumed in the strata of the   
earth4  ,our author's conclusion is the 
very opposite2 let us then see how he   
is to form his argument1 by which he    
proves that the supposition of          
subterraneous heat for hardening bodies 
is gratuitous and unnecessary1  as being
 inconsistent with my theory4           
,according to my theory1 the strata of  
this earth are composed of the          
materials which came from a former      
earth2 particularly these combustible   
strata that contain plants which must   

have grown upon the land4 ,let  us then 
suppose the subterraneous fire supplied 
with its combustible  materials from    
this source1 the vegetable bodies       
growing upon the  surface of the land4  
,here is a source provided for the      
supplying of  mineral fire1 a source    
which is inexhaustible or unlimited1    
unless  we are to circumscribe it with  
regard to time1 and the necessary       
ingredients2 such as the matter of      
light1 carbonic matter1 and the         
hydrogenous principle4 ,but it is not   
upon any deficiency of this kind  that  
our author founds his estimate2 it is   
upon the superfluity of  combustible    
materials which is actually found in    
this earth1 after it  had been properly 
consolidated and raised above the       
surface of the sea4  ,this is a method  
of reasoning calculated to convince only
 those who do  not understand it2 it is 
as if we should conclude that a person  
had died  of want1 because he had left  
provision behind him4 ,our author       

certainly  means to employ nothing but  
the combustible minerals of the present 
earth1 in feeding the subterraneous fire
 which is to concoct a future  earth2 in
 that case1 ,i will allow that his      
provision is deficient2 but  this is not
 my theory4    ,i am not here to enter  
into any argument concerning            
subterraneous  fire2 the reader will    
find1 in the foregoing theory1 my       
reasons for  concluding1 ,that          
subterraneous fire had existed previous 
to1 and ever  since1 the formation of   
this earth1--that it exists in all its  
vigour  at this day1--that there is1 in 
the constitution of this earth1 a       
superfluity of subterranean heat1--and  
that there is wisely provided a  proper 
remedy against any destructive effect to
 the system1 that might  arise from that
 superabundant provision of this        
necessary agent4 ,had our  author       
attended to the ocular proof that we    
have of the actual existence  of        
subterraneous fire1 and to the physical 

demonstrations which ,i have  given of  
the effects of heat in melting mineral  
bodies1 he must have  seen that those   
arguments of his1 with regard to the    
difficulty or  impossibility of         
procuring that fire1 can only show the  
error of his  reasoning4 ,i am far from 
supposing that my theory may be free    
from  inconsistency or error2 ,i am only
 maintaining that1 in all his confident 
assertions1 this author has not hitherto
 pointed any of these out4    ,so far ,i
 have answered our author's objections  
as to consolidation1 and  ,i have given 
a specimen of his reasoning upon that   
subject2 but with  regard to my ,theory 
of the ,earth1 although simple fluidity1
 without  heat1 would have answered the 
purpose of consolidating strata that had
  been formed at the bottom of the sea1 
it was necessary to provide a  power for
 raising those consolidated strata from 
that low place to the  summits of the   
continents2 now1 in supposing heat to be
 the cause of  that fluidity which had  

been employed in the consolidation of   
those  submarine masses1 we find a power
 capable of erecting continents1 and    
the only power1 so far as ,i see1 which 
natural philosophy can employ  for that 
purpose4 ,thus ,i was led1 from the     
consolidation of strata1 to  understand 
the nature of the elevating power1 and1 
from the nature of  that power1 again to
 understand the cause of fluidity by    
which the rocks  and stones of this     
earth had been consolidated4    ,having 
thus1 without employing the evidence of 
any fire or burning1  been necessarily  
led to conclude an extreme degree of    
heat exerted in  the mineral regions1 ,i
 next inquire how far there are any     
appearances  from whence we might       
conclude whether that active            
subterraneous power  still subsists1 and
 what may be the nature of that power4  
,when first ,i  conceived my theory1    
naturalists were far from suspecting    
that basaltic  rocks were of volcanic   
origin2 ,i could not then have employed 

an  argument from these rocks as ,i may 
do now1 for proving that the fires1     
which we see almost daily issuing with  
such force from volcanos1 are a         
continuation of that active cause which 
has so evidently been exerted  in all   
times1 and in all places1 so far as have
 been examined of this  earth4    ,with 
regard to the degree of heat in that    
subterraneous fire1 our  author1 after  
proving that combustible materials would
 not burn in the  mineral regions1 then 
says1 that suppose they were to burn1   
this would  be incapable of forming a   
heat even equal to that of our common   
furnaces1 as ,mr ,dolomieu has clearly  
shown to be the case with respect  to   
volcanic heat4 ,the place to which he   
alludes1 ,i believe to be that  which ,i
 have quoted from the ,journal de       
,physique 7,part ,i4 page #aci7 to      
which ,i here beg leave to refer the    
reader4 ,after what ,i have already     
said1 this subject will appear to be of 
little concern to me2 but1 it  must be  

considered1 that my object1 in these    
answers1 is not so much to  justify the 
theory which ,i have given1 as it is to 
remove that prejudice  which1 to those  
who are not master of chemical and      
mineral subjects1  will naturally arise 
from the opinion or authority of a      
scientific man1  and a chemist2         
therefore1 ,i think it my business to   
show how much he  has misconceived the  
matter which he treats of1 and how much 
he  misunderstands the subject of my    
theory4    ,mr ,dolomieu alleges that   
the volcanic fire operates in the       
melting of  bodies1 not by the intensity
 of its heat1 which is the means        
employed by  us in our operations1 but  
in the long continuance of its action4  
,but in  that proposition1 this         
philosopher is merely giving us his     
opinion2 and1  this opinion our author  
mistakes1 ,i suppose1 for the fact on   
which that  opinion had been 7perhaps   
reasonably7 founded4 ,the reader will   
see1 in  the place quoted1 or in the    

avant-propos to his ,mmoire sur les     
,iles  ,ponces1 the fact to be this2    
,that the ,chevalier ,dolomieu finds    
those  bodies which we either cannot    
melt in our fires1 or which we cannot   
melt  without changing them by          
calcination and vitrification1 he finds1
 ,i say1  these substances had actually 
been melted with his lavas2 he also     
finds  those substances1 which are      
necessarily dissipated in our fires1 to 
have  been retained in those melted     
mineral substances4 ,had our author     
quoted  the text1 instead of giving us  
his own interpretation1 he could not    
have  offered a stronger confirmation of
 my theory2 which certainly is not      
concerned with the particular intensity 
of volcanic fire1 and far less  with    
what may be the opinion of any          
naturalist with regard to that          
intensity1 but only with the efficacy of
 that volcanic heat for the  melting of 
mineral substances4 ,now this efficacy  
of volcanic fire1 so  far as we are to  

found upon the authority given on this  
occasion1 is  clearly confirmed by the  
observations of a most intelligent      
mineralist1  and one who is actually a  
patron of the opposite theory to that   
which ,i  have given4 ,this being the   
state of the case1 ,must ,i not         
conclude1 that  our author has          
misunderstood the subject1 and that he  
has been led to  give a mutilated       
opinion of ,mr ,dolomieu1 in order to   
refute my theory1  when either the      
entire opinion1 or the facts on which   
the opinion had  been founded1 would    
have confirmed it8    ,i have thus      
endeavoured to put in its true light a  
species of reasoning1  which1 while it  
assumes the air and form of that        
inductive train of  thought employed by 
men of science for the investigation of 
nature1 is  only fit to mislead the     
unwary1 and1 when closely examined1 will
 appear  to be inconsequential or       
unfounded4 ,how mortifying then to find1
 that  one may be employed almost a     

lifetime in generalising the phenomena  
of  nature1 or in gathering an infinity 
of evidence for the forming of a        
theory1 and that the consequence of this
 shall only be to give offence1  and to 
receive reproach from those who see not 
things in the same  light6--,while man  
has to learn1 mankind must have         
different opinions4  ,it is the         
prerogative of man to form opinions2    
these indeed are often1  commonly ,i may
 say1 erroneous2 but they are commonly  
corrected1 and it  is thus that truth in
 general is made to appear4    ,i wrote 
a general ,theory for the inspection of 
philosophers1 who  doubtless will point 
out its errors2 but this requires the   
study of  nature1 which is not the work 
of a day2 and1 in this political age1   
the  study of nature seems to be but    
little pursued by our philosophers4 ,in 
the mean time1 there are1 on the one    
hand1 sceptical philosophers1 who  think
 there is nothing certain in nature1    
because there is misconception  in the  

mind of man2 on the other hand1 there   
are many credulous  amateurs1 who go to 
nature to be entertained as we go to see
 a  pantomime3 ,but there are also      
superficial reasoning men1 who think    
themselves qualified to write on        
subjects on which they may have read  in
 books1--subjects which they may have   
seen in cabinets1 and which1  perhaps1  
they have just learned to name2 without 
truly knowing what they  see1 they think
 they know those regions of the earth   
which never can be  seen2 and they judge
 of the great operations of the mineral 
kingdom1  from having kindled a fire1   
and looked into the bottom of a little  
crucible4    ,in the ,theory of the     
,earth which was published1 ,i was      
anxious to warn  the reader against the 
notion that subterraneous heat and      
fusion could  be compared with that     
which we induce by our chemical         
operations  on mineral substances here  
upon the surface of the earth2 yet1     
notwithstanding all the precaution ,i   

had taken1 our author has bestowed  four
 quarto pages in proving to me1 that our
 fires have an effect upon  mineral     
substances different from that of the   
subterraneous power which  ,i would     
employ4    ,he then sets about combining
 metals with sulphur in the moist way1  
as if  that were any more to his purpose
 than is the making of a stalactite for 
the explanation of marble4 ,silver and  
lead may be sulphurated1 as he  says1   
with hepatic gas2 but1 ,has the         
sulphurated solid ores of those  metals1
 and that of iron1 been formed in the   
moist way1 as in some  measure they may 
be by the fusion of our fires8 ,but1    
even suppose that  this were the case1  
,could that explain a thousand other    
appearances  which are inconsistent with
 the operation of water8 ,we see aerated
 lead  dissolved in the excavations of  
our mines1 and again concreted by the   
separation of the evaporated solvent1 in
 like manner as stalactical  concretions
 are made of calcareous earth2 but1 so  

far from explaining  mineral            
appearances1 as having had their        
concretions formed in the same  manner1 
here is the most convincing argument    
against it2 for1 among the  infinite    
variety of mineral productions which we 
find in nature1 ,why  does no other     
example of aqueous concretion ever occur
 upon the surface  of the earth except  
those which we understand so well1 and  
which we  therefore know cannot be      
performed in the bodies of strata not   
exposed  to the evaporation of the      
solvent1 a circumstance which is        
necessary4    ,i have given a very      
remarkable example of mineral fusion1 in
 reguline  manganese1 7as the reader    
will see in page #fh47 ,it is not that  
this  example is more to the purpose of 
my theory than what may be found in     
every species of stone2 but this example
 speaks so immediately to  the common   
sense of mankind1 7who are often        
convinced by a general  resemblance of  
things1 when they may not see the force 

of demonstration  from an abstract      
principle7 that ,i thought it deserved a
 place on that  account1 as well as     
being a curious example1 ,but more      
particularly to my  antagonist1 who has 
been pleased 7very improperly indeed7 to
 try some  part of my theory in the     
fire1 here is an example which should   
have  been absolutely in point1 and     
without any manner of exception3--,has  
he  acknowledged this8--,no2 he has1 on 
the contrary1 endeavoured to set this   
very example aside4    ,on this         
occasion1 he says1 ,manganese has been  
found in a reguline state  by ,m4 de la 
,peyrouse1 and in small grains1 as when 
produced by fire4  ,true2 but it was    
mixed with a large quantity of iron1    
which is often1  found in that form     
without any suspicion of fusion4 ,a fire
 capable of  melting quartz might surely
 produce it in larger masses4 ,we have  
here  a kind of two arguments1 for      
removing the effect of this example2 and
 ,i  shall consider them separately4    

,the first of these is1 the not being   
suspected of having been in fusion2     
now1 if this were to be admitted as an  
argument against the igneous  origin of 
stony substances1 it might have         
superseded the adducing of any  other1  
for it is applicable perhaps to every   
mineral2 but we must here  examine the  
case more minutely4    ,this argument1  
of the manganese being in a mine of     
iron1 if ,i understand  it rightly1     
amounts to this1 that1 as iron ore is   
not suspected of  having been melted1   
therefore1 we should doubt the manganese
 having been  so4 ,if this be our       
author's meaning1 it is not the fair    
conclusion which  the case admits of2   
for1 so far as the manganese appears    
evidently to  have been in a melted     
state1 the iron ore should be suspected 
of  having been also in fusion1 were    
there no other evidence of that fact4   
,in science1 however1 it is not         
suspicion that should be employed in    
physical investigation2 the question at 

present is2 ,if the phenomena of  the   
case correspond to the conclusion which 
the intelligent mineralist1  who        
examined them1 has formed8 and1 to this 
question1 our author gives  no direct   
answer4 ,he says1 iron is often found in
 that form without any  suspicion of    
fusion4 ,this is what ,i am now to      
answer4    ,the form in which the       
manganese appears is one of the         
strongest proofs  of those masses having
 been in fusion2 and1 if iron should    
ever be found  in that form1 it must    
give the same proof of mineral fusion as
 this  example of manganese2 let us then
 see the nature of this evidence4 ,the  
form of the manganese is that of a fluid
 body collecting itself into a          
spherical figure by the cohesion or     
attraction of its particles1 so far  as 
may be admitted by other circumstances2 
but1 being here refilled by  the solid  
part on which it rests1 this spherical  
body is flattened by  the gravitation of
 its substance4 ,now here is a regular  

form1 which  demonstrates the masses to 
have been in the state of fusion2 for1  
there  is no other way in which that    
form of those reguline masses could have
  been induced4    ,there now remains to
 be considered what our author has      
observed  respecting the intensity of   
the fire and size of the masses4 ,a     
fire capable of melting quartz might    
surely produce it 7meaning the          
manganese7 in larger masses4 ,m4 de la  
,peyrouse says1 that those masses  were 
in all respects as if formed by art1    
only much larger1 as the  powers of     
nature exceed those of our laboratories4
 ,what then is it that  is here meant to
 be disputed8 ,we are comparing the     
operation of nature  and that of art1   
and these are to be judged of by the    
product which we  examine2 but the      
quantity1 in this case1 or the size of  
the masses1  makes no part of the       
evidence1 and therefore is here most    
improperly  mentioned by our author4    
,with regard again to the nature of the 

fire by  which the fusion had been      
produced1 he is much mistaken if he     
imagines  that the reduction of the     
reguline or metallic manganese depends  
upon  the intensity of the heat2 it     
depends upon circumstances proper for   
the  separation of the oxygenating      
principle from the calx1 in like manner 
as  the calcination of calcareous spar  
must depend upon circumstances proper   
for allowing the separation of the      
carbonic acid or fixed air4    ,but do  
not let us lose sight of our proper     
subject1 by examining things  foreign or
 not so immediately to the purpose4 ,we 
are only inquiring if  those flattened  
spheres of native manganese had been    
formed by water1 or  if it were by      
fusion2 for1 our author agrees that     
there is no other way4  ,why then does  
he endeavour to evade giving a direct   
answer1 and fly away  to consider the   
quantity of the product1 as if that had 
any thing to do  with1 the question1 or 
as if that quantity were not sufficient1

 neither  of which is the case4 ,in     
short1 our author's whole observation1  
on this  occasion1 looks as if he were  
willing to destroy1 by insinuation1 the 
force of an argument which proves the   
theory of mineral fusion2 and that  he  
wishes to render doubtful1 by a species 
of sophistry1 what in fair  reasoning he
 cannot deny4    ,our author has written
 upon the subject of phlogiston2 one    
would suppose  that he should be well   
acquainted with inflammable bodies at   
least2 let  us see then what he has to  
observe upon that subject4 ,he quotes   
from  my ,theory1 that spar1 quartz1    
pyrites1 crystallised upon or near each 
other1 and adhering to coal1 or mixed   
with bitumen1 etc4 are found2           
circumstances that cannot be explained  
in the hypothesis of solution  in the   
moist way4--,he then answers2--,not     
exactly1 nor with certainty2  which is  
not wonderful3 ,but they are still less 
explicable in the  hypothesis of dry    
solution1 as must be apparent from what 

has been  already said4 ,how coal1 an   
infusible substance1 could be spread    
into  strata by mere heat1 is to me     
incomprehensible4--,it is only upon the 
last sentence that ,i am here to remark3
 ,this1 ,i believe1 will be a           
sufficient specimen of our author's     
understanding1 with regard at least  to 
my ,theory which he is here examining4  
,the reader will see what ,i have said  
upon the subject of coal1 by  turning   
back to the second section of the       
preceding chapter4 ,i had given  almost 
three quarto pages upon that subject1   
endeavouring to explain how  all the    
different degrees of infusibility were  
produced1 by means of  heat and         
distillation1 in strata which had been  
originally more or less  oily1          
bituminous1 and fusible2 and now our    
author says1 that it is                 
incomprehensible to him1 how coal1 an   
infusible substance1 could be  spread   
into strata by mere heat4--,so it truly 
may1 either to him or to  any other     

person2 but1 it appears to me almost as 
incomprehensible1 how  a person of      
common understanding should read my     
,dissertation1 and impute  to it a thing
 so contrary to its doctrine4           
,nothing can better illustrate the      
misconceived view that our author  seems
 to have taken of the two opposite      
theories1 7i4 e4 of  consolidation by   
means of heat1 and by means of water    
alone17 than  his observation upon the  
case of mineral alkali4 ,to that        
irrefragable  argument 7which ,dr ,black
 suggested7 in proof of this substance  
having  been in a state of fusion in the
 mineral regions1 our author makes the  
following reply2 ,what then will our    
author say of the vast masses  of this  
salt which are found with their full    
quantity of water of                    
crystallization8--,there is in this     
proposition1 insignificant as it may    
seem1 a confusion of ideas1 which it    
certainly cannot be thought worth  while
 to investigate2 but1 so far as the     

doctrine of the aqueous theory  may be  
considered as here concerned1 it will be
 proper that ,i should  give some answer
 to the question so triumphantly put to 
me4    ,our author is in a mistake in   
supposing that ,dr ,black had written   
any  thing upon the subject2 he had only
 suggested the argument of this  example
 of mineral alkali to me1 as ,i have    
mentioned2 and1 the use ,i  made of that
 argument was to corroborate the example
 ,i had given of sal  gem4 ,if1         
therefore1 our author does not deny the 
inference from the  state of that       
mineral alkali1 his observation upon it 
must refer to  something which this     
other example of his is to prove on the 
opposite  side1 or to support the       
aqueous instead of the igneous theory2  
and1 this  is a subject which ,i am     
always willing to examine in the most   
impartial  manner1 having a desire to   
know the true effect of aqueous solution
 in  the consolidation of mineral       
bodies1 and having no objection to allow

 it  any thing which it can possibly    
produce1 although denying that it can do
  every thing1 as many mineralists seem 
to think4    ,the question1 with regard 
to this example of our author's of a    
mineral  alkali with its water of       
crystallization1 must be this1 ,whether 
those  saline bodies had been concreted 
by the evaporation of the aqueous       
solvent with which they had been        
introduced1 or by the congelation of    
that saline substance from a fluid state
 of fusion2 for1 surely1 we are  not to 
suppose those bodies to have been       
created in the place and state  in which
 we find them4 ,with regard to the      
evaporation or separation  of the       
aqueous solvent1 this may be easily     
conceived according to the  igneous     
theory2 but1 the aqueous theory has not 
any means for the  producing of that    
effect in the mineral regions1 which is 
the only place  we are here concerned   
with4 ,therefore1 this example of a     
concreted body  of salt1 whatever it may

 prove in other respects1 can neither   
diminish  the evidence of my ,theory    
with regard to the igneous origin of    
stony  substances1 nor can it contribute
 to support the opposite supposition of 
an aqueous origin to them4    ,but to   
show how little reason our author had   
for exulting in that  question which he 
so confidently proposed in order to     
defeat my  argument1 let us consider    
this matter a little farther4 ,i will   
for a  moment allow the aqueous theory  
to have the means for separating  the   
water from the saline solution1 and thus
 to concrete the saline  substance in   
the bowels of the earth2 this concretion
 then is to be  examined with a view to 
investigate the last state of this body1
 which  is to inform us with regard to  
those mineral operations4 ,but1 our     
author  has not mentioned whether those 
masses appear to have been crystallised 
from the aqueous solution1 or if they   
appear to have been congealed from  the 
melted state of their aqueous           

fusion4--,has he ever thought of  this8 
,now this is so material a point in the 
view with which that  example has been  
held out to us1 that1 without showing   
that this salt  had crystallised from   
the solution1 he has no right to employ 
it as an  example2 and if1 on the other 
hand1 it should appear to have simply   
congealed from the state of aqueous     
fusion1 then1 instead of answering  the 
purpose for which our author gave it1 it
 would refute his  supposition1 as      
certainly as the example which ,i have  
given4    ,so far ,i have reasoned upon 
the supposition of this alkali1 with its
  water of crystallization1 being truly 
a mineral concretion2 but1 ,i see  no   
authority for such a supposition3 ,it   
certainly may be otherwise2  and1 in    
that case1 our author would have no more
 right to give it as an  example in     
opposition to ,dr ,black's argument1    
than he would have to give  the         
crystallization of sea-salt1 on ,turk's 
,island1 in opposition to the  example  

which ,i had given1 of the salt rock1 at
 ,northwych in ,cheshire1  having been  
in the state of fusion4    ,it certainly
 was incumbent on our author to have    
informed us1 if those  masses of salt   
were found in1 what may be properly     
termed1 their mineral  state2 or1 if the
 state in which they are found at       
present had been  produced by the       
influences of the atmosphere1           
transforming that saline  substance from
 its mineral state1 as happens upon so  
many other  occasions2 ,i am inclined to
 suspect that this last is truly the    
case4  ,it may be thought illiberal in  
me to suppose a natural philosopher thus
  holding out an example that could only
 serve to lead us into error1 or  to    
mislead our judgment with regard to     
those two theories which is the  subject
 of consideration4 ,this certainly would
 be the case1 almost  on any other      
occasion2 but1 when ,i find every       
argument and example1  employed in this 
dissertation1 to be either unfounded or 

misjudged1  ,whether am ,i to conclude  
our author1 on this occasion1 to be     
consistent  with himself1 or not8    ,i 
have but one article more to observe    
upon4 ,i had given1 as ,i thought1  a   
kind of demonstration1 from the internal
 evidence of the stone1 that  granite   
had been in the fluid state of fusion1  
and had concreted by  crystallization   
and congelation from that melted state4 
,this no doubt  must be a stumbling     
block to those who maintain that granite
 mountains  are the primitive parts of  
our earth2 and who1 like our author1    
suppose  that things may have been      
originally1 as at present1 in a solid   
state4  ,it must also be a great1 if not
 an invincible obstacle in the way of   
the  aqueous theory1 which thus         
endeavours to explain those granite     
veins  that are found traversing strata1
 and therefore necessarily of a         
posterior formation4    ,to remove that 
obstacle in the way of the aqueous      
theory1 or to carry  that theory over   

the obstacle which he cannot remove1 our
 author  undertakes to refute my theory 
with regard to the igneous origin of    
stony substances1 by giving an example  
of granite formed upon the  surface of  
the earth by means of water1 or in what 
is called the  moist way2 and he closes 
his ,dissertation with this example as  
an  experimentum crucis4 ,it is         
therefore necessary that ,i take this   
demonstration of our author into        
particular consideration2 for1 surely1  
independent of our controversy1 which is
 perhaps of little moment1 here  is the 
most interesting experiment1 as it is   
announced1 that mineralogy  could be    
enriched with4    ,to close this        
controversy1 says our author1 ,i shall  
only add1  that granite1 recently formed
 in the moist way1 has been frequently  
found4--,of that remarkable event1      
however1 he has selected only one       
example4 ,this is to be found upon the  
,oder2 and the authority upon which  our
 author has given it1 is that of ,lasius

 ,hartz4    ,the formation of a granite 
stone1 from granite sand1 by means of   
water1  is inconsistent with our        
chemical knowledge of those mineral     
substances  which constitute that stone2
 it is repugnant to the phenomena which 
appear from the inspection of the       
natural bodies of this kind2 and it  is 
directly contrary to the universal      
experience in granite countries1  where1
 instead of any thing concreting1 every 
thing is going into  decay1 from the    
loose stones and sand of granite1 to the
 solid rock and  mountains which are    
always in a state of degradation4       
,therefore1 to have  any credit given to
 such a story1 would require the most   
scientific  evidence in its favour4     
,now1 in order that others may judge    
whether this  has been the case in this 
example1 ,i will transcribe what our    
author has  said upon the subject2 and  
then ,i will give the view in which it  
appears  to me4    ,he says1 a mole     
having been constructed in the ,oder in 

the year #agbc1  #cej feet long1 #ed    
feet in height1 #add feet broad at      
bottom1 and #ed at  the top1 its sides  
only were granite1 without any other    
cement than  moss2 the middle space was 
entirely filled with granite sand4 ,in a
 short  time this concreted into a      
substance so compact as to be           
impenetrable by  water4--,here is an    
example1 according to our author1 of    
granite formed  in the moist way4 ,but  
now1 ,i must ask to see the evidence of 
that fact2  for1 from what our author   
has told us1 ,i do not even see reason  
to  conclude that there was the least   
concretion1 or any stone formed at  all4
 ,a body of sand will be so compacted as
 to be impenetrable by  water1 with the 
introduction of a very little mud1 and  
without any  degree of concretion2 muddy
 water1 indeed1 cannot be made to pass  
through such a body without compacting  
it so2 and this every body finds1  to   
their cost1 who have attempted to make a
 filter of that kind4    ,but ,i shall  

suppose ,lasius has informed our author 
that there had been  a petrifaction in  
this case2 and1 before ,i admit this    
example of the  formation of granite1 ,i
 must ask what sort of a granite it     
was2--whether  of two1 three1 or four   
ingredients2 and1 how these were        
disposed4 ,if1  again1 it were not      
properly a granite1 but a stone formed  
of granite  sand1 ,what is the cementing
 substance8--,is it quartz1 felt-spar1  
mica1  or schorl8--or1 ,was it          
calcareous8 ,if our author knows any    
thing about  these necessary questions1 
,why has he not informed us1 as minutely
 as  he has done with regard to the     
dimensions of the mole1 with which we   
certainly are less concerned8 ,if1      
again1 he knows no more about the       
matter than what he has informed us of1 
he must have strangely imposed  upon    
himself1 to suppose that he was giving  
us an example of the  formation of      
granite in the moist way1 when he has   
only described an  effectual way of     

retaining water1 by means of sand and   
mud4        ,,chap4 ,,iii4    ,of       
,physical ,systems1 and ,geological     
,theories1 in general4    ,in the first 
chapter ,i have given a general theory  
of the earth1  with such proofs as ,i   
thought were sufficient for the         
information of  intelligent men1 who    
might satisfy themselves by examining   
the facts on  which the reasoning in    
that theory had been founded4    ,in the
 second chapter1 ,i have endeavoured to 
remove the objections which  have been  
made to that theory1 by a strenuous     
patron of the commonly  received opinion
 of mineralogists and geologists1--an   
opinion which1 if  not diametrically    
opposite1 differs essentially from mine4
 ,but now ,i am  to examine nature more 
particularly1 in order to compare those 
different  opinions with the actual     
state of things1 on which every physical
 theory  must be founded4 ,therefore1   
the opinions of other geologists should 
be  clearly stated1 that so a fair      

comparison may be made of theories which
  are to represent the system of this   
earth4    ,now1 if ,i am to compare that
 which ,i have given as a theory of the 
earth1 with the theories given by others
 under that denomination1 ,i  find so   
little similarity1 in the things to be  
compared1 that no other  judgment could 
hence be formed1 perhaps1 than that they
 had little or no  resemblance4 ,i see  
certain treatises named ,theories of the
 ,earth2 but1 ,i  find not any thing    
that entitles them to be considered as  
such1 unless  it be their endeavouring  
to explain certain appearances which are
  observed in the earth4 ,that a proper 
theory of the earth should explain  all 
those appearances is true2 but1 it does 
not hold1 conversely1 that  the         
explanation of an appearance should     
constitute a theory of the  earth4 ,so  
far as the theory of the earth shall be 
considered as the  philosophy or        
physical knowledge of this world1 that  
is to say1 a  general view of the means 

by which the end or purpose is attained1
  nothing can be properly esteemed such 
a theory unless it lead1 in some        
degree1 to the forming of that general  
view of things4 ,but now1 let us  see   
what we have to examine in that respect4
    ,we have1 first1 ,burnet's ,theory  
of the ,earth4 ,this surely cannot be   
considered in any other light than as a 
dream1 formed upon the poetic  fiction  
of a golden age1 and that of iron which 
had succeeded it2 at the  same time1    
there are certain appearances in the    
earth which would1 in a  partial view of
 things1 seem to justify that           
imagination4 ,in ,telliamed1  again1 we 
have a very ingenious theory1 with      
regard to the production of  the earth  
above the surface of the sea1 and of the
 origin of those  land animals which now
 inhabit that earth4 ,this is a theory  
which has  something in it like a       
regular system1 such as we might expect 
to find  in nature2 but1 it is only a   
physical romance1 and cannot be         

considered  in a serious view1 although 
apparently better founded than most of  
that  which has been wrote upon the     
subject4    ,we have then a theory of a 
very different kind2 this is that of the
  ,count de ,buffon4 ,here is a theory1 
not founded on any regular system1  but 
upon an irregularity of nature1 or an   
accident supposed to have  happened to  
the sun4 ,but1 are we to consider as a  
theory of the earth1  an accident by    
which a planetary body had been made to 
increase the  number of these in the    
solar system8 ,the circumvolution of a  
planetary  body 7allowing it to have    
happened in that manner7 cannot form the
  system of a world1 such as our earth  
exhibits2 and1 in forming a theory  of  
the earth1 it is required to see the    
aptitude of every part of this          
complicated machine to fulfil the       
purpose of its intention1 and not to    
suppose the wise system of this world to
 have arisen from1 the cooling  of a    
lump of melted matter which had belonged

 to another body4 ,when  we consider the
 power and wisdom that must have been   
exerted in the  contriving1 creating1   
and maintaining this living world which 
sustains  such a variety of plants and  
animals1 the revolution of a mass of    
dead  matter according to the laws of   
projectiles1 although in perfect wisdom1
  is but like a unite among an infinite 
series of ascending numbers4    ,after  
the theory of that eloquent writer1     
founded on a mere accident1 or  rather  
the error of a comet which produced the 
beautiful system of this  world1 ,m4 de 
,luc1 in his ,theory of the earth1 has  
given us the history  of a disaster     
which befell this well contrived        
world2--a disaster which  caused the    
general deluge1 and which1 without a    
miracle1 must have  undone a system of  
living beings that are so well adapted  
to the present  state of things4 ,but1  
surely1 general deluges form no part of 
the theory  of the earth2 for1 the      
purpose of this earth is evidently to   

maintain  vegetable and animal life1 and
 not to destroy them4    ,besides these 
imaginary great operations in the       
natural history of this  earth1 we have 
also certain suppositions of geologists 
and mineralists  with regard to the     
effect of water1 for explaining to us   
the  consolidation of the loose         
materials of which the strata of the    
earth  had been composed1 and also for  
producing every other appearance1 or any
  which shall happen to occur in the    
examination of the earth1 and require   
to be explained4 ,that this is no       
exaggerated representation1 and  that   
this is all we have as a theory1 in the 
suppositions of those  geologists1 will 
appear from the following state of the  
case4    ,they suppose water the agent  
employed in forming the solid bodies of 
the  earth1 and in producing those      
crystallised bodies which appear in  the
 mineral kingdom4 ,that this is a mere  
supposition will appear by  considering2
 first1 that they do not know how this  

agent water is to  operate in producing 
those effects2 nor have they any direct 
proof  of the fact which is alleged1    
from a very fallaceous analogy2 and1    
secondly1 that they cannot tell us where
 this operation is to be  performed4    
,they cannot say that it is in the earth
 above the level of  the sea3 for1 the  
same appearances are found as deep as we
 can examine  below that level2 besides1
 we see that water has the opposite     
effect  upon the surface of the earth1  
through which it percolates dissolving  
soluble substances1 and thus resolving  
solid bodies in preparing soil  for     
plants4 ,if1 again1 it be below the     
level of the sea1 that strata of  the   
earth are supposed to be consolidated by
 the infiltration of that  water which  
falls from the heavens2 this cannot be  
allowed1 so far as  whatever of the     
earth is bibulous1 in that place1 must  
have been always  full of water1        
consequently cannot admit of that       
supposed infiltration4    ,but allowing 

those suppositions to be true1 there is 
nothing in them  like a theory of the   
earth1--a theory that should bring the  
operations  of the world into the       
regularity of ends and means1 and1 by   
generalizing  these regular events1 show
 us the operation of perfect            
intelligence  forming a design2 they are
 only an attempt to show how certain    
things1  which we see1 have happened    
without any perceivable design1 or      
without  any farther design than this   
particular effect which we perceive4 ,if
 we  believe that there is almighty     
power1 and supreme wisdom employed for  
sustaining that beautiful system of     
plants and animals which is so          
interesting to us1 we must certainly    
conclude1 that the earth1 on which  this
 system of living things depends1 has   
been constructed on principles  that are
 adequate to the end proposed1 and      
procure it a perfection which  it is our
 business to explore4 ,therefore1 a     
proper system of the earth  should lead 

us to see that wise contraction1 by     
which this earth is made  to answer the 
purpose of its intention and to preserve
 itself from every  accident by which   
the design of this living world might be
 frustrated as  this world is an active 
scene1 or a material machine moving in  
all its  parts1 we must see how this    
machine is so contrived1 as either to   
have  those parts to move without       
wearing and decay1 or to have those     
parts1  which are wasting and decaying1 
again repaired4    ,a rock or stone is  
not a subject that1 of itself1 may      
interest a  philosopher to study2 but1  
when he comes to see the necessity of   
those  hard bodies1 in the constitution 
of this earth1 or for the permanency  of
 the land on which we dwell1 and when he
 finds that there are means  wisely     
provided for the renovation of this     
necessary decaying part1 as  well as    
that of every other1 he then1 with      
pleasure1 contemplates this             
manifestation of design1 and thus       

connects the mineral system of  this    
earth with that by which the heavenly   
bodies are made to move  perpetually in 
their orbits4 ,it is not1 therefore1    
simply by seeing the  concretion of     
mineral bodies that a philosopher is to 
be gratified in  his his intellectual   
pursuit1 but by the contemplation of    
that system in  which the necessary     
resolution of this earth1 while at      
present it serves  the purpose of       
vegetation1 or the fertility of our     
soil1 is the very  means employed in    
furnishing the materials of future land4
    ,it is such a view as this that ,i  
have endeavoured to represent in the    
theory which ,i have given4 ,i have     
there stated the present situation of   
things1 by which we are led to perceive 
a former state2 and1 from that          
necessary progress of actual things1 ,i 
have concluded a certain system         
according to which things will be       
changed1 without any accident or  error4
 ,it is by tracing this regular system  

in nature that a philosopher  is to     
perceive the wisdom with which this     
world has been contrived2 but1  he must 
see that wisdom founded upon the        
aptitude of all the parts to  fulfil the
 intention of the design2 and that      
intention is to be deduced  from the end
 which is known to be attained4 ,thus we
 are first to reason  from effect to    
cause1 in seeing the order of that which
 has already  happened2 and then1 from  
those known causes1 to reason forwards1 
so as  to conceive that which is to come
 to pass in time4 ,such would be the    
philosophy of this earth1 formed by the 
highest generalisation  of phenomena1 a 
generalisation which had required the   
particular  investigation of inductive  
reasoning4    ,that no such theory as   
this1 founded upon water as an agent    
operating in  the changes of this earth1
 has yet appeared1 will1 ,i believe be  
easily  allowed4 ,with regard again to  
fire as an agent in the mineral         
operations  of this earth1 geologists   

have formed no consistent theory4 ,they 
see  volcanoes in all the quarters of   
the globe1 and from those burning       
mountains1 they conjecture other        
mountains have been formed4 ,but a      
burning mountain is only a matter of    
fact2 and1 they have not on this  formed
 any general principle1 for establishing
 what may be called a  theory of the    
earth4 ,those who have considered       
subterraneous fires as  producing       
certain effects1 neither know how these 
have been procured1  nor do they see the
 proper purpose for which they are      
employed in the  system of this world4  
,in this case1 the agent fire is only   
seen as  a destructive element1 in like 
manner as deluges of water have been    
attributed by others to changes which   
have happened in the natural state  of  
things4 ,these operations are seen only 
as the accidents of nature1  and not as 
part of that design by which the earth1 
which is necessarily  wasted in the     
operations of the world1 is to be       

repaired4    ,so far from employing heat
 or subterraneous fire as an agent in   
the  mineral operations of the earth1   
the volcanic philosophers do not  even  
attempt to explain upon that principle  
the frequent nodules of  calcareous1    
zeolite1 and other spatose and agaty    
substances1 in those  basaltic bodies   
which they consider as lavas4 ,instead  
then of learning  to see the operation  
of heat as a general principle of       
mineral  consolidation and              
crystallization1 the volcanic           
philosophers endeavour  to explain those
 particular appearances1 which they     
think inconsistent  with fusion1 by     
aqueous infiltration1 no otherwise than 
other  mineralists who do not admit the 
igneous origin of those basaltic        
bodies4 ,thus1 that great agent1        
subterraneous heat1 has never been      
employed by geologists1 as a general    
principle in the theory of the  earth2  
it has been only considered as an       
occasional circumstance1 or as  the     

accident of having certain mineral      
bodies1 which are inflammable1  kindled 
in the earth1 without so much as seeing 
how that may be done4    ,this agent    
heat1 then1 is a new principle to be    
employed in forming a  theory of the    
earth2 a principle that must have been  
in the constitution  of this globe1 when
 contrived to subsist as a world1 and to
 maintain  a system of living bodies    
perpetuating their species4 ,it is      
therefore  necessary to connect this    
great mineral principle1 subterraneous  
fire  or heat1 with the other operations
 of the world1 in forming a general     
theory4 ,for1 whether we are to consider
 those great and constant  explosions of
 mineral fire as a principal agent in   
the design1 or only  as a casual event  
depending upon circumstances which give 
occasion to an  operation of such       
magnitude1 here is an object that must  
surely have its  place in every general 
theory of the earth4    ,in examining   
things which actually exist1 and which  

have proceeded in a  certain order1 it  
is natural to look for that which had   
been first2 man  desires to know what   
had been the beginning of those things  
which now  appear4 ,but when1 in forming
 a theory of the earth1 a geologist     
shall  indulge his fancy in framing1    
without evidence1 that which had        
preceded  the present order of things1  
he then either misleads himself1 or     
writes  a fable for the amusement of his
 reader4 ,a theory of the earth1 which  
has for object truth1 can have no       
retrospect to that which had preceded   
the present order of this world2 for1   
this order alone is what we have  to    
reason upon2 and to reason without data 
is nothing but delusion4 ,a  theory1    
therefore1 which is limited to the      
actual constitution of this  earth1     
cannot be allowed to proceed one step   
beyond the present order of  things4    
,but1 having surveyed the order of this 
living world1 and having  investigated  
the progress of this active scene of    

life1 death and  circulation1 we find   
ample data on which to found a train of 
the most  conclusive reasoning with     
regard to a general design4 ,it is thus 
that  there is to be perceived another  
system of active things for the         
contemplation of our mind2--things      
which1 though not immediately within    
our view1 are not the less certain in   
being out of our sight2 and things      
which must necessarily be comprehended  
in the theory of the earth1 if we  are  
to give stability to it as a world      
sustaining plants and animals4  ,this is
 a mineral system1 by which the decayed 
constitution of an earth1  or fruitful  
surface of habitable land1 may be       
continually renewed in  proportion as it
 is wasted in the operations of this    
world4    ,it is in this mineral system 
that ,i have occasion to compare the    
explanations1 which ,i give of certain  
natural appearances1 with the  theories 
or explanations which have been given by
 others1 and which are  generally       

received as the proper theory of those  
mineral operations4 ,i  am1 therefore1  
to examine those different opinions1    
respecting the  means employed by nature
 for producing particular appearances in
 the  construction of our land1         
appearances which must be explained in  
some  consistent mineral theory4        
,these appearances may all be           
comprehended under two heads1 which are 
now  to be mentioned1 in order to see   
the importance of their explanation1 or 
purpose which such an explanation is to 
serve in a theory of the earth4  ,the   
first kind of these appearances is that 
of known bodies which we  find composing
 part of the masses of our land1 bodies 
whose natural  history we know1 as      
having existed in another state previous
 to the  composition of this earth where
 they now are found2 these are the      
relicts or parts of animal and vegetable
 bodies1 and various stony  substances  
broken and worn by attrition1 all which 
had belonged to a  former earth4 ,by    

means of these known objects1 we are to 
learn a great  deal of the natural      
history of this earth2 and1 it is in    
tracing that  history1 from where we    
first perceive it1 to the present state 
of  things1 that forms the subject of a 
geological and mineralogical theory  of 
this earth4 ,but1 we are more especially
 enabled to trace those  operations of  
the earth1 by means of the second kind  
of appearances1  which are now to be    
mentioned4    ,these again are the      
evident changes which those known bodies
 have  undergone1 and which have been   
induced upon such collected masses of   
which those bodies constitute a part4   
,these changes are of three sorts2      
first1 the solid state1 and various     
degrees of it1 in which we now  find    
those masses which had been originally  
formed by the collection of  loose and  
incoherent materials2 secondly1 the     
subsequent changes which  have evidently
 happened to those consolidated masses  
which have been  broken and displaced1  

and which have had other mineral        
substances  introduced into those broken
 and disordered parts2 and1 lastly1 that
  great change of situation which has   
happened to this compound mass  formed  
originally at the bottom of the sea1 a  
mass which1 after being  consolidated in
 the mineral region1 is now situated in 
the atmosphere  above the surface of the
 sea4    ,in this manner we are led to  
the system of the world1 or theory of   
the  earth in general2 for1 that great  
change of situation1 which our land  has
 undergone1 cannot be considered as the 
work of accident1 or any  other than an 
essential part in the system of this    
world4 ,it is  therefore a proper view  
of the necessary connection and mutual  
dependence of all those different       
systems of changing things that forms   
the theory of this earth as a world1 or 
as that active part of nature  which the
 philosophy of this earth has to        
explore4 ,the animal system is  the     
first or last of these2 next comes the  

vegetable system1 on which  the life of 
animals depends2 then comes the system  
of this earth1  composed of atmosphere1 
sea1 and land1 and comprehending the    
various  chemical1 mechanical1 and      
meteorologically operations which take  
place  upon that surface where          
vegetation must proceed2 and1 lastly1 we
 have  the mineral system to            
contemplate1 a system in which the      
wasting surface  of the earth is        
employed in laying the foundation of    
future land within  the sea1 and a      
system in which the mineral operations  
are employed in  concocting that future 
land4    ,now1 such must surely be the  
theory of this earth1 if the land is    
continually wasting in the operations of
 this world2 for1 to acknowledge  the   
perfection of those systems of plants   
and animals perpetuating their  species1
 and to suppose the system of this earth
 on which they must  depend1 to be      
imperfect1 and in time to perish1 would 
be to reason  inconsistently or         

absurdly4 ,this is the view of nature   
that ,i would wish  philosophers to     
take2 but1 there are certain prejudices 
of education or  prepossession of       
opinion among them to be overcome1      
before they can be  brought to see those
 fundamental propositions1--the wasting 
of the land1  and the necessity of its  
renovation by the co-operation of the   
mineral  system4 ,let us then consider  
how men of science1 in examining the    
mineral state of things1 and reasoning  
from those appearances by which  we are 
to learn the physiology of this earth1  
have misled themselves  with regard to  
physical causes1 and formed certain     
mineralogical and  geological theories1 
by which their judgment is so perverted1
 in  examining nature1 as to exclude    
them from the proper means of correcting
  their first erroneous notions1 or     
render them blind to the clearest       
evidence of any other theory that is    
proposed4    ,when men of science reason
 upon subjects where the ideas are      

distinct  and definite1 with terms      
appropriated to the ideas1 they come to 
conclusions in which there is no        
difference of opinion4 ,it is otherwise 
in physical subjects1 where things are  
to be assimilated1 in being  properly   
compared2 there1 things are not always  
compared in similar and  equal          
circumstances or conditions2 and there1 
philosophers often draw  conclusions    
beyond the analogy of the things        
compared1 and thus judge  without data4 
,when1 for example1 they would form the 
physical induction1  with regard to the 
effect of fire or water upon certain    
substances in  the mineral regions1 from
 the analogy of such events as may be   
observed  upon the surface of the earth1
 they are apt to judge of things acting 
under different circumstances or        
conditions1 consequently not producing  
similar effects2 in which case1 they are
 judging without reason1 that  is1      
instead of inductive reasoning from     
actual data or physical truth1  they are

 forming data to themselves purely by   
supposition1 consequently1  so far as   
these1 imagined data may be wrong1 the  
physical conclusion1 of  these          
philosophers may be erroneous4    ,it is
 thus that philosophers have judged1    
with regard to the effects of  fire and 
water upon mineral substances below the 
bottom of the sea1  from what their     
chemistry had taught them to believe    
concerning bodies  exposed to those     
agents in the atmosphere or on the      
surface of the  earth4 ,if in those two 
cases the circumstances were the same1  
or  similar1 consequently the conditions
 of the action not changed1 then1  the  
inductive reasoning1 which they employ  
in that comparison1 would be  just2 but1
 so far as it is evidently otherwise1 to
 have employed that  inductive          
conclusion for the explanation of       
mineral appearances1 without  having    
reason to believe that those changed    
circumstances of the case  should not   
make any difference in the action or    

effect1 is plainly to  have transgressed
 the rules of scientific reasoning2     
consequently1  instead of being a proper
 physical conclusion1 it is only that   
imperfect  reasoning of the vulgar      
which1 by comparing things not properly 
analysed  or distinguished1 is so       
subject to be erroneous4 ,this vague    
reasoning1  therefore1 cannot be        
admitted as a part of any geological or 
mineral  theory4 ,now ,i here maintain1 
that philosophers have judged in no     
other  manner than by this false        
analogy1 when they conclude that water  
is the  agent by which mineral          
concretions have been formed4 ,but it   
will be  proper to state more           
particularly the case of that           
misunderstanding  among mineral         
philosophers4    ,in forming a          
geological theory1 the general          
construction of this earth1  and the    
materials of which it is composed1 are  
such visible objects1 and  so evident to
 those who will take the pains to       

examine nature1 that  here is a subject 
in which there cannot be any doubt or   
difference of  opinion4 ,neither can    
there be any dispute concerning the     
place and  situation of mass when it was
 first formed or composed2 for1 this is 
clearly proved1 from every concomitant  
circumstance1 to have been at the       
bottom of the sea4 ,the only question in
 this case1 that can be made1 is1  ,how 
that mass comes now to be a solid body1 
and above the surface of the  sea in    
which it had been formed8    ,with      
regard to the last1 the opinions of     
philosophers have been so  dissonant1 so
 vague1 and so unreasonable1 as to draw 
to no conclusion4  ,some suppose the    
land to be discovered by the gradual    
retreat of the  ocean1 without proposing
 to explain to us from whence had come  
the known  materials of a former earth1 
which compose the highest summits of the
  mountains in the highest continents of
 the earth4 ,others suppose the  whole  
of a former earth to have subsided below

 the bottom even of the  present sea1   
and together with it all the water of   
the former sea1 from  above the summits 
of the present mountains1 which had then
 been at the  bottom of the former sea4 
,the placing of the bottom of the sea1  
or any  part of it1 in the atmosphere so
 as to be dry land1 is no doubt a great 
operation to be performed1 and a        
difficult task to be explained2 but     
this is only an argument the more for   
philosophers to agree in adopting  the  
most reasonable means4    ,but though   
philosophers differ so widely in that   
point1 this is not the  case with regard
 to the concretion of mineral bodies2   
here mineralists  seem to be almost all 
of one mind1 at the same time without   
any reason1  at least1 without any other
 reason than that false analogy which   
they  have inconsiderately formed from  
the operations of the surface of this   
earth4 ,this great misunderstanding of  
mineralists has such an extensive  and  
baneful effect in the judging of        

geological theories1 that it  will be   
proper here to explain how that has     
happened1 and to shew the  necessity of 
correcting that erroneous principle     
before any just opinion  can be formed  
upon the subject4    ,fire and water are
 two great agents in the system of this 
earth2 it is  therefore most natural to 
look for the operation of those agents  
in the  changes which are made on bodies
 in the mineral regions2 and as the     
consolidated state of those bodies1     
which had been collected at the  bottom 
of the sea1 may have been supposed to be
 induced either by  fusion1 or by the   
concretion from a solution1 we are to   
consider how far  natural appearance    
lead to the conclusion of the one or    
other of those  two different           
operations4 ,here1 no doubt1 we are to  
reason analogically  from the known     
power and effects of those great agents2
 but1 we must  take care not to reason  
from a false analogy1 by                
misunderstanding the  circumstances of  

the case1 or not attending to the       
necessary conditions  in which those    
agents act4--,we must not conclude that 
fire cannot burn  in the mineral regions
 because our fires require the          
ventilation of the  atmosphere2 for1    
besides the actual exigence of mineral  
fire being a  notorious matter of fact1 
we know that much more powerful means   
may  be employed by nature1 for that    
mineral purpose of exciting heat1 than  
those which we practise4--,we must not  
conclude that mineral marble is  formed 
in the same manner as we see a similar  
stony substance produced  upon the      
surface of the earth1 unless we should  
have reason to suppose  the analogy to  
be complete4 ,but1 this is the very     
error into which  mineral philosophers  
have fallen2 and this is the subject    
which ,i am now  to endeavour to        
illustrate4    ,the manner in which     
those philosophers have deceived        
themselves when  reasoning upon the     
subject of mineral concretion1 is this3 

,they see1  that by means of water a    
stony substance is produced2 and1 this  
stony  body so much resembles mineral   
marble as to be hardly distinguishable  
in  certain cases4 ,these mineral       
philosophers then1 reasoning in the     
manner  of the vulgar1 or without       
analysing the subject to its principle1 
naturally attribute the formation of the
 mineral marble to a cause  of the same 
sort2 and1 the mineral marble being     
found so intimately  connected with all 
other mineral bodies1 we must           
necessarily conclude1  in reasoning     
according to the soundest principles1   
that all those  different substances had
 been concreted in the same manner4     
,thus1 having  once departed one step   
from the path of just investigation1 our
 physical  science is necessarily       
bewildered in the labyrinth of error4   
,let us  then1 in re-examining our data1
 point out where lies that first devious
  step which had been impregnated with  
fixed air1 or carbonic acid gas1  7as it

 is called71 dissolves a certain portion
 of mild calcareous  earth or marble2   
consequently such acidulated water1 that
 is1 water  impregnated with this gas1  
will1 by filtrating through calcareous  
substances1 become saturated with that  
solution of marble2 and1 this  solution 
is what is called a petrifying water4   
,when this solution is  exposed to the  
action of the atmosphere1 the acid gas1 
by means of which  the stony substance  
is dissolved1 evaporates from the       
solution1 in  having a stronger         
attraction for the atmospheric air2 it  
is then that  the marble1 or calcareous 
substance1 concretes and crystallises1  
separating from the water in a sparry   
state1 and forming a very solid  stone  
by the successive accretion from the    
solution1 as it comes to  be exposed to 
the influence of the atmosphere in      
flowing over the  accumulating body4    
,here is the source of their delusion2  
for1 they do  not distinguish properly  
the case of this solution of a stony    

substance  concreting by means of the   
separation of its solvent1 and the case 
of  such a solution being in a place    
where that necessary condition cannot   
be supposed to exist2 such as1 e4g41 the
 interstices among the particles  of    
sand1 clay1 etc4 deposited at the bottom
 of the sea1 and accumulated  in immense
 stratified masses4    ,no example can  
better illustrate how pernicious it is  
to science to have  admitted a false    
principle1 on which a chain of reasoning
 is to proceed  in forming a theory4    
,mineral philosophers have founded their
 theory upon  that deceitful analogy1   
which they had concluded between the    
stalactical  concretions of petrifying  
waters and the marble formed in the     
mineral  regions2 thus1 blinded by      
prejudice1 they shut the door against   
the  clearest evidence2 and it is most  
difficult to make them see the error  of
 their principle4 ,but this is not to be
 wondered at1 when we consider  how few 
among philosophising men remount to the 

first principles of  their theory2 and1 
unless they shall thus remount to that  
first step1  in which the concreting    
operation of a dissolved stony substance
  is supposed to take place without the 
necessary conditions for the  petrifying
 operation1 it is impossible to be      
convinced that their  theory1 thus      
formed with regard to mineral           
concretion1 is merely  supposition1 and 
has no foundation in matter of fact from
 whence it  should proceed4    ,but this
 is not all2 for1 even supposing their  
theory to be well founded  and just1 it 
is plainly contradicted by natural      
appearances4 ,according  to that theory 
of aqueous consolidation1 all the       
stratified bodies1 of  which this earth 
in general consists1 should be found in 
the natural  order of their regular     
formation2 but1 instead of this1 they   
are found  every where disturbed in that
 order more or less2 in many places this
  order and regularity is so disturbed  
as hardly to be acknowledged2 in  most  

places we find those stratified bodies  
broken1 dislocated1 and  contorted1 and 
this aqueous theory of mineralists has  
neither the means  for attaining that   
end1 were it required in their theory1  
nor have they  any such purpose in their
 theory1 were that end attainable by the
 means  which they employ4 ,thus blinded
 by the prejudice of a false analogy1   
they do not even endeavour to gratify   
the human understanding 7which          
naturally goes in quest of wisdom and   
design7 by forming a hypothetical  or   
specious theory of the mineral system2  
and they only amuse themselves  with the
 supposition of an unknown operation of 
water for the  explanation of their     
cabinet specimens1 a supposition        
altogether  ineffectual for the purpose 
of forming a habitable earth1 and a     
supposition which is certainly          
contradicted by every natural           
appearance4    ,thus1 in examining      
geological and mineralogical theories1  
,i am laid  under the disagreeable      

necessity of pointing out the errors of 
physical  principles which are assumed1 
the prejudices of theoretical opinions  
which have been received1 and the       
misconceived notions which  philosophers
 entertain with regard to the system of 
nature1 in which may  be perceived no   
ineffectual operation1 nor any          
destructive intention1  but the wise and
 benevolent purpose of preserving the   
present order of  this world4 ,but1     
though thus misled with regard to the   
cause of things1  naturalists are every 
where making interesting observations in
 the  mineral kingdom1 ,i shall         
therefore avail myself of that          
instructive  information1 for the       
confirmation of my theory4    ,it may   
now be proper to consider what must be  
required1 in order to have  a geological
 and mineral theory established upon    
scientific principles1  or on such      
grounds as must give conviction to those
 who will examine  the subject2 for1    
unless we may clearly see that there are

 means for  attaining that desirable    
end1 few philosophers will be persuaded 
to  pursue this branch of knowledge4    
,a theory is nothing but the            
generalization of particular facts2 and1
 in  a theory of the earth1 those facts 
must be taken from the observations  of 
natural history4 ,nature is considered  
as absolutely true2 no error or         
contradiction can be found in nature4   
,for1 if such contradiction were  truly 
found1 if the stone1 for example1 which 
fell to day were to rise  again         
to-morrow1 there would be an end of     
natural philosophy1 our  principles     
would fail1 and we would no longer      
investigate the rules of  nature from   
our observations4    ,every natural     
appearance1 therefore1 which is         
explained1 i4e4 which is  made to come  
into the order of things that happen1   
must so far confirm  the theory to which
 it then belongs4 ,but is it necessary1 
that every  particular appearance1 among
 minerals1 should be thus explained in  

a general theory of the earth8 ,and1 is 
any appearance1 which is not  explained 
by it1 to be considered as sufficient to
 discredit or confute  a theory which   
corresponded with every other           
appearance8 ,here is a  question which  
it would require some accuracy to       
resolve4    ,if we knew all the powers  
of nature1 and all the different        
conditions in  which those powers may   
have their action varied1 that is to    
say1 if we  were acquainted with every  
physical cause1 then every natural      
effect1 or  all appearances upon the    
surface of this earth1 might be         
explained in a  theory that were just4  
,but1 seeing that this is far from being
 the case1  and that there may be many  
causes of which we are as yet ignorant1 
as  well as certain conditions in which 
the known action of powers may be       
varied1 it must be evident1 that a      
theory of the earth is not to be        
confuted by this argument alone1 ,that  
there are1 among natural bodies1        

certain appearances which are not       
explained by the theory4 ,we must       
admit1 that1 not having all the data    
which natural philosophy requires1  we  
cannot pretend to explain every thing   
which appears2 and that our  theories1  
which necessarily are imperfect1 are not
 to be considered as  erroneous when not
 explaining every thing which is in     
nature1 but only  when they are found   
contrary to or inconsistent with the    
laws of nature1  which are known1 and   
with which the case in question may be  
properly  compared4    ,but we may have 
different theories to compare with      
nature2 and1 in that  case1 the question
 is not1 ,how far any of those theories 
should explain  all natural appearances8
 but1 ,how far any one particular theory
 might  explain a phenomenon better than
 another8 ,in this case of comparison1  
it  will be evident1 that if one theory 
explains natural appearances1 then  the 
opposite to that theory cannot be       
supposed to explain the same            

appearances4 ,if for example1 granite1  
porphyry1 or basaltes1 should be  found 
naturally formed by fusion1 the         
formation of those stones could  not be 
supposed in any case as formed by water1
 although it could not  be demonstrated 
that water is incapable of forming those
 mineral  productions4    ,in like      
manner1 if those three bodies were      
proved to have been actually  formed by 
water alone1 then1 in other cases where 
we should have no  proof1 they could not
 be supposed as having been formed by   
fire or  fusion4 ,it must be evident1   
that an equal degree of proof of those  
two  different propositions would leave 
our judgment in suspence1 unless that   
proof were perfect1 in which case1 we   
would have two different causes         
producing similar effects4 ,but1 if we  
shall have a sufficient proof  upon the 
one side1 and only a presumptive proof  
or probability upon the  other1 we must 
reject that probability or presumption1 
when opposed by  a proof1 although that 

proof were only an induction by         
reasoning from  similar effects as      
following similar causes4 ,a fortiori1  
if there be  on one side a fair         
induction1 without the least suspicion  
of error1  and on the other nothing but 
a mere presumption founded upon a       
distant  analogy1 which could not even  
properly apply1 then1 the inductive     
proof  would be as satisfactory as if   
there had not been any supposition on   
the  opposite side4    ,so far as a     
theory is formed in the generalization  
of natural  appearances1 that theory    
must be just1 although it may not be    
perfect1  as having comprehended every  
appearance2 that is to say1 a theory is 
not perfect until it be founded upon    
every natural appearance2 in which      
case1 those appearances will be         
explained by the theory4 ,the theory of 
gravitation1 though no ways doubtful1   
was not so perfect before the  shape of 
this globe had been determined by actual
 measurement1 and  before the direction 

of the plummet had been tried upon      
,shihallion1 as  after those            
observations had been made4 ,but a      
theory which should be  merely          
hypothetical1 or founded upon a few     
appearances1 can only be  received as a 
theory1 after it has been found to      
correspond properly  with nature2 it    
would then be held a proper explanation 
of those natural  appearances with which
 it corresponded2 and1 the more of those
 phenomena  that were thus explained by 
the theory1 the more would that1 which  
had  been first conjectural1 be         
converted into a theory legitimately    
founded  upon natural appearances4      
,matter of fact is that upon which      
science proceeds1 by generalization1  to
 form theory1 for the purpose of        
philosophy1 or the knowledge of all     
natural causes2 and it is by the        
companion of these matters of fact with 
any theory1 that such a theory will be  
tried4 ,but1 in judging of matter  of   
fact1 let us be cautious of deceiving   

ourselves1 by substituting  speculative 
reasoning in place of actual events4    
,nature1 as the subject of our          
observation1 consists of two sorts of   
objects2 for1 things are either active1 
when we perceive change to take  place  
in consequence of such action1 or they  
are quiescent1 when we  perceive no     
change to take place4 ,now1 it is       
evident1 that in judging  of the active 
powers of nature from the quiescent     
objects of our  information1 we are     
liable to error1 in misinterpreting the 
objects  which we see2 we thus form to  
ourselves false or erroneous opinion    
concerning the general laws of action1  
and the powers of nature4 ,in           
comparing1 therefore1 generalised facts1
 or theory1 with particular             
observations1 there is required the     
greatest care1 neither1 on the one      
hand1 to strain the appearances1 so as  
to bring in to the theory a fact        
belonging to another class of things2   
nor1 on the other1 to condemn a  proper 

theory1 merely because that theory has  
not been extended to the  explanation of
 every natural appearance4    ,but1     
besides the misinterpretation of matters
 of fact1 we are also to  guard against 
the misrepresentation of natural        
appearances4 ,whether  warped by the    
prejudice of partial and erroneous      
theory1 or deceived by  the inaccuracy  
of superficial observation1 naturalists 
are apt to see  things in an improper   
light1 and thus to reason from          
principles which  cannot be admitted1   
and1 which often lead to false          
conclusions4 ,a  naturalist1 for        
example1 comes to examine a cavity in   
the mines1 he  there finds water        
dropping down all around him1 and he    
sees the cavity  all hung with siliceous
 crystals2 he then concludes1 without   
hesitation1  that here is to be         
perceived cause and effect1 or that he  
actually sees  the formation of those   
crystallizations from the operation of  
water4 ,it  is thus that ,i have been   

told by men of great mineral knowledge1 
men who  must have had the best         
education upon that subject of          
mineralogy1 and  who have the           
superintendance of great mineral        
concerns in ,germany1 that  they had    
actually seen nature at work in that    
operation of forming                    
rock-crystal2--they saw what ,i have now
 described2 they could see no  more2    
but1 they saw what had convinced them of
 that which1 there is  every reason to  
believe1 never happened4 ,with regard to
 my theory1  ,i wish for the most       
rigorous examination2 and do not ask for
 any  indulgence whatever1 whether with 
regard to the principles on which the   
theory is built1 or for the application 
of the theory to the explanation  of    
natural appearances4 ,but1 let not      
geologists judge my theory by their     
imperfect notions of nature1 or by those
 narrow views which they take of  the   
present state of things2--let not       
mineralogists condemn my theory1  for no

 other reason but because it does not   
correspond with their false  principles1
 and those gratuitous suppositions by   
which they had been  pleased to explain 
to themselves every thing before4 ,first
 let them look  into their own theory1  
and correct that erroneous principle1   
with regard  to the action of water1 or 
the assumption of unknown causes1 upon  
which  they have reasoned in forming    
their vague notions of the mineral      
region1  before they can be properly    
qualified to examine1 impartially1 a    
theory  which employs another principle4
 ,every thing which has come under my   
observation shall be1 as far as ,i can1 
faithfully related2 nor shall ,i        
withhold those which neither the present
 theory1 nor any other that ,i am       
acquainted with1 can1 ,i think1 explain4
    ,appearances cannot well be         
described except in relation to some    
theory  or general arrangement of the   
subject2 because the particular detail1 
of every part in a complicated          

appearance1 would be endless and        
insignificant4 ,when1 however1 any      
question in a theory depends upon the   
nature of an appearance1 we cannot be   
too particular in describing that  by   
which the question is to be decided4    
,but though it be sometimes  proper to  
be minute in a particular1 it is always1
 and above all things1  necessary to be 
distinct2 and not to confound together  
things which are  of different natures4 
,for1 though it be by finding           
similarity1 in things  which at first   
sight may seem different1 that science  
is promoted and  philosophy attained1   
yet1 we must have a distinct view of    
those things  which are to be           
assimilated2 and surely the lowest state
 of knowledge  in any subject1 is the   
not distinguishing things which1 though 
not to  common observation different1   
are not truly the same4    ,to confound1
 for example one stone with another1    
because they were both  hard1 friable1  
and heavy1 would be to describe1 with   

the superficial  views of vulgar        
observation2 whereas science specifies  
the weight and  hardness1 and thus      
accurately distinguishes the stone4     
,before naturalists had learned to      
distinguish what they saw1 and to       
describe1 in known terms1 those natural 
appearances1 a theorist must  have      
generalised only from his proper        
observation4 ,this has been my  case4   
,when ,i first conceived my theory1 few 
naturalists could write  intelligibly   
upon the subject2 but that is long ago1 
and things are much  altered since2 now 
there are most enlightened men making   
observations1  and communicating natural
 knowledge4 ,i have the satisfaction1   
almost  every day1 to compare the       
theory1 which ,i had formed from my     
proper  observations1 with the actual   
state of things in almost every quarter 
of  the globe4    ,whether1 therefore1  
we mean to try a theory by its          
application to  such phenomena as are   
well understood1 or to learn something  

from the  application of particular     
phenomena to a well established theory1 
we shall always find it interesting to  
have appearances described2             
particularly such as may be referred to 
some general rule1 as  circumscribing it
 to certain conditions1 or as finding   
rule in rule1  that is to say1          
discovering those particular conditions 
in which the  general laws of action may
 be affected4    ,instead1 for example1 
of the rule which we find in the        
application of  heat for the fusion and 
evaporation of mineral substances upon  
the  surface of this earth1 we may find 
it necessary to consider the effect     
which changed circumstances produce in  
the mineral regions1 and occasion  a    
change of that rule of action which we  
have learned from experience1  when     
melting and evaporating those substances
 in the atmosphere or on  the surface of
 the earth4    ,it is in this manner    
that a theory1 which was formed by the  
generalization of particular facts1     

comes to be a source of information1  by
 explaining to us certain appearances   
which otherwise we could not            
understand4 ,thus1 it was not the       
appearance of the tides that taught the 
theory of gravitation2 it was the theory
 of gravitation that made us  understand
 the appearance of the tides4 ,in like  
manner1 the law of  gravitation1 which  
was demonstrated from the motion of the 
moon in her  orbit round this earth1    
when applied to the paths of comets1    
explained  that appearance4 ,our theory1
 of a central fire1 has been formed upon
  the consolidation of the strata of    
this earth2 but this theory is to be    
applied for the explanation of various  
different appearances4 ,in this  manner1
 two different purposes will be served2 
the trying of the theory  by its        
application to phenomena2 and the       
explanation of phenomena by the         
principles laid open in the theory4     
,i may repeat it2 a theory of the earth 
must ultimately depend upon  matter of  

fact or particular observation2 but     
those observations must be  distinct1   
and those distinguished things must be  
generalised4 ,we have  just now given   
for an example1 a distinction among     
stones1 in knowing  them by their       
sensible qualities4 ,but1 besides       
distinguishing those  objects1 we are   
also to inquire into the origin and     
cause of those  things which are        
distinguished4 ,here1 again1 we take    
into our aid the  chemical as well as   
the mechanical properties of these      
several things2  and hence learn to know
 on what their natural form and         
constitution may  depend4 ,having thus  
attained the natural philosophy of      
stones1 we next  inquire into the place 
and application of those things in      
nature2 and  in this manner we acquire  
some knowledge with regard to the       
natural  constitution of this earth4 ,we
 find this earth composed of known      
things2  it is therefore the operations1
 required in these compositions1 which  

form the natural philosophy of this     
earth1 considered as a body of solid    
land4 ,but1 the solid land is only one  
part of the globe2 therefore1  the      
philosophy of the globe proceeds still  
farther by knowing the  constitution of 
this planetary body1 as consisting of   
different parts  united for a purpose1  
which is that of a world4    ,the       
general theory of this earth as a world1
 will thus appear to be a  complex      
thing1 which however founded upon simple
 principles1 contains  many subjects of 
discussion1 and requires attention to a 
variety of  particulars4 ,for1 not only 
the great features of this earth are to 
be  explained by the theory1 but also   
the most minute appearance1 such as  are
 to be found1 even with microscopic     
observation1 in every particular  part4 
,thus the nature1 constitution1 and     
cause of every particular appearance  in
 the construction of this earth1 are to 
be investigated in a  geological theory1
 as well as that general constitution of

 the world in  which all the particular 
parts are to be employed for a purpose4 
,if the subject here examined shall be  
found properly explained1 there  will   
remain little doubt with regard to the  
justness of the theory1  which will then
 be applicable to other appearances that
 may occur2  although every appearance  
is not to be explained1 in a manner     
equally  satisfactory1 by any theory    
which is not perfect4    ,the first     
subject to be examined is the modern    
theory of primitive  mountains4 ,i have 
written several chapters upon that      
subject1 having  successively acquired  
more light in this interesting part of  
the theory1  by observations of my own  
in several places of this country1 as   
well as  from the natural history of    
other countries4 ,i shall give these    
nearly  in the order in which they      
occurred1 or had been written4          
,,chap4 ,,iv4    ,the ,supposition of   
,primitive ,mountains refuted4    ,in   
the theory now given1 the earth has been

 represented as a composition  of       
different materials1 which had existed  
in another form1 and as the  effect of  
natural operations2 therefore1 however  
various may be found  the structure of  
our earth1 and however dissimilar some  
parts of  its composition may be in     
comparison with others1 no part should  
be  considered as original1 in relation 
to the globe1 or as primitive1 in       
relation to second causes1 i4e4 physical
 operations by which those  parts should
 have been formed4 ,but it is pretended 
by naturalists1 that  there are certain 
primitive mountains in the earth1 bodies
 which have  had another origin than    
that of the general strata of the globe 
and  subsequent masses2 an origin1      
therefore1 which cannot be considered as
  having been produced from natural     
operations1 or as effected in the       
course of known causes4 ,now1 if it can 
be made to appear1 that there is  no    
solid ground for this distinction2 and  
if it can be shown1 that there  is truly

 no mineral body in this earth which may
 not have been produced  by operations  
natural to the globe1 we should thus    
procure a certain  confirmation of the  
doctrine4 ,this also will be the more   
interesting1  in being deduced from a   
part of natural appearances1 which      
seemed to be  inconsistent with the     
theory4    ,certain masses or mountains 
of granite1 are the only bodies of this 
earth which have apparently a certain   
pretension to this species  of          
originality4 ,these1 therefore1 must be 
now the subject of our  examination4    
,granite1 considered by itself1 does not
 appear to have any claim to            
originality in its nature4 ,it is       
composed of bodies which are capable of 
being analyzed2 and these are then found
 to be compositions of different        
substances1 which are also sometimes    
variously proportioned4 ,the  feldspar  
and the mica1 for example1 as well as   
the schorl1 are found  variously        
coloured in different granites1 and     

coloured in various  proportions4       
,besides the variety in the composition1
 or chemical mixture  of the different  
bodies which compose granite1 this rock 
admits of a  great diversity1 from the  
variety of its mechanical mixture1 or   
from  the different species of bodies   
which are its constituent parts4 ,m4 de 
,saussure1 who has examined this subject
 perhaps more than any other  person1   
and who has had the very best           
opportunities for this purpose1  says1  
that this composition may be found in   
all the different  combinations which   
may be produced by every possible       
composition of #g  or #h different kinds
 of stone1 7page #ajh1 ,voyage dans les 
,alpes1 etc474  ,neither does this fill 
up the measure of its variety2 for1     
another  source of change is found in   
the grain of this rock stone2 ,i have a 
specimen of this variety from the size  
almost of sand to that of some  inches4 
,were granite1 therefore1 to be supposed
 as in the original state of its        

creation1 nature would be considered as 
having operated in an indefinite        
diversity of ways1 without that order   
and wisdom which we find in all  her    
works2 for here would be change without 
a principle1 and variety  without a     
purpose4 ,there is no reason1 however1  
to suppose granite  original1 more than 
any other composite rock1 although we   
may be  ignorant of the particular      
process in which it is formed1 and      
although1  comparatively in relation to 
certain other rocks1 granite1 or certain
  masses of this composition1 may be    
found of a more ancient date4    ,if    
granite be truly stratified1 and those  
strata connected with the  other strata 
of the earth1 it can have no claim to   
originality2 and  the idea of primitive 
mountains1 of late so much employed by  
natural  philosophers1 must vanish1 in a
 more extensive view of the operations  
of  the globe2 but it is certain that   
granite1 or a species of the same kind  
of stone1 is thus found stratified4 ,it 

is the granit feuillete of  ,m4 de      
,saussure1 and1 if ,i mistake not1 what 
is called gneis by the  ,germans4 ,we   
have it also in our north alpine country
 of ,scotland2 of  this ,i have         
specimens1 but have not seen it in its  
place4    ,granite being thus found     
stratified1 the masses of this stone    
cannot be  allowed to have any right of 
priority over the schistus1 its         
companion  in the alpine countries1     
although ,m4 de ,saussure1 whose        
authority ,i  would revere1 has given it
 for the following reason2 that it is   
found  the most centrical in the chains 
of high mountains1 or in alpine         
countries4 ,now1 supposing this fact to 
be general1 as he has found it in  the  
,alps1 no argument for the priority of  
those masses can be founded  either upon
 the height or the situation of those   
granite mountains2 for  the height of   
the mountain depends upon the solidity  
and strength of the  stone4 ,now though 
it is not to be here maintained that    

granite is the  most durable of those   
alpine rocks1 yet as a mountain1 either 
granite in  general1 or in particular1  
certain species of it1 may be esteemed  
such1  consequently1 this massy stone1  
remaining highest in the mountainous    
region1 will naturally be considered as 
the centre1 and according to  this rule1
 as having the pre-eminence in point of 
seniority4    ,the rock which stands in 
competition with granite for the title  
of  primitive in the order of mountains1
 is that micaceous stratified stone     
which is formed chiefly of quartz1 but  
which admits of great variety  like the 
granite4 ,the difference between those  
two bodies does not  consist in the     
materials of which they are composed1   
for1 in their  varieties1 they may be in
 this respect the same1 but in a certain
  regularity of composition1 in this    
alpine stone1 which evidently arises    
from stratification or subsidence in    
water4    ,if we shall thus consider all
 the varieties of this alpine stone as  

being of one kind1 and call it granite1 
then we shall distinguish in  this body 
two different species1 from whence      
perhaps some interesting  conclusion may
 be formed with regard to the operations
 of the globe4  ,these two species are1 
first1 granite regular in its           
composition1 or  stratified in its      
construction2 and1 secondly1 granite in 
mass1 or  irregular in its construction4
 ,let us now endeavour to make use of   
these  generalizations and distinctions4
    ,in examining the great diversity of
 our whinstone1 trap1 or basaltes1 it   
is found at last to granulate into      
granite2 at the same time those two     
different species of rock-stone may be  
distinguished4 ,a perfect granite  has  
not in its composition necessarily any  
argillaceous earth1 farther  than may be
 in the natural constitution of its     
distinct parts2 whereas1  a perfect     
basalt may have abundance of this       
substance1 without any  quartz or any   
siliceous body4 ,a perfect granite1 is1 

therefore1 an  extremely hard stone1    
having quartz and feldspar for its      
basis2 but a  perfect whin or basaltes  
may be extremely soft1 so as to cut     
easily with  a knife4 ,in like manner   
granite is a composition which graduates
 into  porphyry2 but porphyry is only   
whinstone of a harder species4          
,therefore1  though perfectly distinct1 
those three things graduate into each   
other1  and may be considered as the    
same4    ,granite and whinstone1 or     
basaltes1 though distinct compositions1 
thus  graduating into each other2 and   
whinstone1 as well as porphyry1 being   
without doubt a species of lava1 we may 
consider the granite which is  found in 
mass without stratification1 in like    
manner as we do the masses  of          
whinstone1 basaltes1 or ,swedish trap1  
as having flowed in the bowels  of the  
earth1 and thus been produced by the    
chance of place1 without any  proper    
form of its own1 or in an irregular     
shape and construction4 ,in  this manner

 would be explained the irregular shape 
or structure of those  granite masses2  
and thus great light would be thrown    
upon the waved  structure of the        
stratified alpine stone1 which1 though  
it has not been  made to flow1 has been 
brought to a great degree of softness1  
so as to  have the original straight    
lines of its stratification changed to  
those undulated or waving lines which   
are in some cases extremely much        
incurvated4    ,it remains only to      
confirm this reasoning1 upon our        
principles1 by  bringing actual         
observation to its support2 and this we 
shall do from  two of the best          
authorities4 ,the ,chevalier de         
,dolomieu1 in describing  the volcanic  
productions of ,etna1 mentions a lava   
which had flowed from  that mountain1   
and which may be considered as a        
granite4 ,but ,m4 de  ,saussure has put 
this matter out of doubt by describing  
most accurately  what he had seen both  
in the ,alps and at the city of ,lyons4 

,these are  veins of granite which have 
flowed from the contiguous mass into the
  stratified stone1 and leave no doubt  
with regard to this proposition1  that  
the granite had flowed in form of       
subterranean lava1 although ,m4 de      
,saussure has drawn a very different    
conclusion from this appearance4 ,i     
have also a specimen from this country  
of a vein of granite in a granite       
stone1 the vein being of a smaller grain
 than that of the rock which it         
traverses4#bj    ,note #bj3 ,this is    
what ,i had wrote upon1 the subject of  
granite1 before  ,i had acquired such   
ample testimony from my own observations
 upon  that species of rock4 ,i have    
given some notice1 in the #c;d vol4 of  
the  ,transactions of the ,edinburgh    
,r4,s4 concerning the general result of 
those observations1 which will be given 
particularly in the course of  this     
work4    ,it will thus appear1 that the 
doctrine which of late has prevailed1 of
  primitive mountains1 or something     

which should be considered as original  
in the construction of this earth1 must 
be given up as a false view of  nature1 
which has formed the granite upon the   
same principle with that  of any other  
consolidated stratum2 so far as the     
collection of different  materials1 and 
the subsequent fusion of the compound   
mass1 are necessary  operations in the  
preparation of all the solid masses of  
the earth4  ,whatever operations of the 
globe1 therefore1 may be concluded from 
the  composition of granite masses1 as  
well as of the alpine strata1 these     
must be considered as giving us         
information with regard to the natural  
history of this earth2 and they will be 
considered as important1 in  proportion 
as they disclose to us truths1 which    
from other strata might  not be so      
evident1 or at all made known4    ,let  
us now examine the arguments1 which1 may
 be employed in favour of  that         
supposition of primitive mountains4     
,the observations1 on which naturalists 

have founded that opinion of            
originality in some of the component    
parts of our earth1 are these2  first1  
,they observe certain great masses of   
granite in which  stratification is not 
to be perceived2 this then they say is  
an original  mass1 and it is not to be  
derived from any natural operation of   
the  globe2 secondly1 ,they observe     
considerable tracts of the earth        
composed of matter in the order of      
stratification as to its general        
composition1 but not as to its          
particular position1 the vertical       
position here prevailing1 instead of the
 horizontal which is proper to  strata  
formed in water2 this1 therefore1 they  
also term primitive1 and  suppose it to 
be from another origin than that of the 
subsidence of  materials moved in the   
waters of the globe2 lastly1 ,they      
observe both  strata and masses of      
calcareous matter in which they cannot  
distinguish  any marine body as is usual
 in other strata of the same substance2 

and  these calcareous masses being      
generally connected with their primitive
  mountains1 they have also included    
these collections of calcareous  matter1
 in which marine bodies are not         
observed1 among the primitive  parts    
which they suppose to be the original   
construction of this globe4    ,it may  
be proper to see the description of a   
calcareous alpine mountain4  ,m4 de     
,saussure gives us the following        
observations concerning a mountain  of  
this kind in the middle of the ,alps1   
where the water divides in  running     
different ways towards the sea4 ,it is  
in describing the passage  of the       
,bon-,homme1 7,tom4 #b4 ,v4 dans les    
,alpes74     #gei4 ,sur la droite ou au 
couchant de ces rochers1 on voit une    
montagne calcaire tonnante dans ce genre
 par la hardiesse avec laquelle  elle   
lve contre le ciel ses cimes aigues et  
tranchantes1 tailles   angles vifs dans 
le costume des hautes cimes de granit4  
,elle est  pourtant bien srement        

calcaire1 je l'ai observe de prs1 et on 
rencontre sur cette route les blocs qui 
s'en dtachent4    ,cette pierre porte   
les caractres des calcaires les plus    
anciennes2 sa  couleur est grise1 son   
grain assez fin1 on n'y apperoit aucun  
vestige  de corps organiss2 ses couches 
sont peu paisses1 ondes et coupes       
frquemment par des fentes parallles     
entr'elles et perpendiculaires   leurs  
plans4 ,on trouve aussi parmi ces       
fragmens des brches calcaires  grises4  
,here is a mountain which will rank with
 the most primitive of the earth2  ,but 
why8 only because it is extremely       
consolidated without any mark of        
organised body4 ,had there been in this 
mountain but one single shell1 we       
should not then have scrupled to        
conclude that the origin of this lofty  
mountain had been the same with every   
marble or limestone in the earth4  ,but 
though1 from the structure of this      
stone1 there is no mark of its  having  
been formed immediately of the          

calcareous parts of animals1 there  is  
every mark of those calcareous strata   
having been formed like other  marbles  
by deposit in the waters of the globe4  
,these two things are also homologated  
by the equal or perfect  consolidation  
of their substance2 for1 as it is to be 
proved that  all stratified marbles have
 been consolidated by the fusion of     
their  substance1 we must attribute the 
same consolidating cause to those       
alpine masses2 the frequent veins that  
divide those calcareous strata  which   
,m4 de ,saussure has here described1    
also prove the nature of the            
consolidating cause1 7see ,chap4 #a4    
page #aaa474    ,this mountain1         
considered by itself1 may perhaps afford
 no data by which  a naturalist might   
read the circumstances of its origin4   
,but1 ,is a  theory of the earth to be  
formed upon such a negative observation8
 and1  ,is there any particular in this 
mountain1 that may not be shown in      
others of which the origin is not in any

 degree doubtful8    ,it is not to be   
disputed1 that there are parts of the   
solid body of our  earth which may be   
considered as primary or prior1 compared
 with others  that are posterior1 in    
relation to the time of their formation1
 and much  less changed with regard to  
the state in which they had been        
originally  formed3--,but it is here    
denied1 that there are any parts of the 
earth  which do not appear to have had  
the same origin with all the rest1 so   
far as this consists in the collection  
of materials deposited at the  bottom of
 the waters#ba2 for there is no solid   
mass of land that may  not be traced to 
this origin1 either from its            
composition1 or from its  local         
connection with other masses1 the nature
 of which in this respect  are known4   
,we have already given examples of this 
from sufficient  authority4 ,the        
evidence1 therefore1 of those primary   
masses being  original in relation to   
the natural operations of the globe1 is 

reduced  to this assertion1 that there  
are no vestiges of organised bodies to  
be  found in those primary masses4 ,let 
us now examine how far this testimony   
for the originality of those masses is  
to be admitted in fact and sound        
reasoning4    ,note #ba3 ,there are no  
collection of those alpine masses in    
which may  not be found in some of them 
sand1 mica1 and gravel2 but these       
materials  prove the existence of an    
earth1 on which those fragments of      
greater  masses had been formed1 and    
more or less worn by attrition4    ,the 
matter in question at present is this1  
that there are certain tracts  of       
countries in which no vestige of        
organised bodies are found2 now1 let  us
 suppose the fact to be true or well    
grounded1 ,can we conclude  from this   
that there had been originally no       
organised bodies in the  composition of 
those masses8--,such a conclusion could 
only be formed in  making a supposition1
 that every organised body deposited in 

a mass  of matter1 whether homogeneous  
or heterogeneous1 should be preserved   
without change1 while the collected     
mass1 in which it had been  deposited1  
changes as much as possible by the      
operation both of fire and  water4 ,but 
this supposition is erroneous1 and      
cannot be admitted2 and  the study of   
marbles will demonstrate this truth1    
that the calcareous  relics of organised
 bodies are changed1 in the             
consolidating operations  of the globe1 
in every degree1 from the smallest      
alteration to the  greatest1 when they  
become indistinguishable any farther to 
our sight4    ,therefore1 from the      
supposition of no appearance of marine  
bodies in the  pretended primitive      
masses1 there is no sufficient evidence 
or reason to  conclude1 that those      
masses have not had a marine origin2    
because1 the  traces of organised bodies
 may be obliterated by the many         
subsequent  operations of the mineral   
region2 and which operations1 the       

present  state of those masses certify  
beyond dispute4    ,we are now to       
examine the fact1 how far the ground on 
which that false  reasoning had been    
founded is strictly true4    ,in the    
first place1 then1 it must be           
considered1 that the alledged fact  is  
nothing but a negative assertion1       
importing that no mark of organised     
bodies had been observed1 in certain    
stones and strata which some            
naturalists have examined with that     
view4 ,but1 though many naturalists     
have looked for them without success1 it
 does not follow that such marks  may   
not be found2 it indeed proves that such
 a task is difficult1 and  the success  
of it1 to a particular1 most precarious2
 accident1 however1  may bring about    
what the greatest industry has not been 
able to attain4  ,secondly1 there is    
good reason to believe that this        
asserted negation  is not absolutely    
true2 for ,i have in my possession what 
,i consider as  proof of the contrary2  

,i found it in ,wales1 and ,i think it  
is in what  may be considered as        
primitive mountains2--it is the mark of 
shells in a  stone of that kind4        
,thus1 ,i had formed my opinion with    
regard to this alleged fact1 long       
before ,i had seen any description      
either of the ,alps or ,pyrennean       
mountains2 and now ,i have no reason to 
change that opinion4 ,it may  indeed be 
alleged1 that the strata of marble or   
limestone1 containing  marine bodies    
found in those mountains1 are secondary 
strata1 and not  the primitive4 ,to this
 ,i can give no reply1 as the           
descriptions given of  those strata do  
not enable me to decide this point4     
,at the village of ,mat1 under the ,mont
 ,blatten for example1 there is a       
quarry of schistus or black slate1 in   
which are often found the print  and the
 bones of fishes4 7,discours sur        
l',histoire ,naturelle de la  ,suisse1  
page #bbe474 ,if this may be considered 
as an alpine or primitive  schistus1 it 

would be decisive of the question3 ,but 
it would require to  have it well       
ascertained that this schistus is truly 
one of those which  are esteemed        
primitive1 or that it is properly       
connected with them4    ,but though ,i  
cannot find in those interesting        
descriptions which we now  have got1 any
 one which is demonstrative of this     
truth1 that calcareous  marine objects  
are found in the primitive strata1 this 
is not the  case with regard to another 
object equally important in deciding    
this  question1 ,whether the primitive  
strata are found containing the marks of
  organised bodies8    ,m4 de           
,dellancourt1 in his ,observations      
,minralogiques1 ,journal de  ,physique  
,juillet #aghf1 in describing the       
mountains of ,dauphin1 gives us  the    
following fact with regard to those     
alpine vertical strata4    ,la pierre   
constituante de la montagne d',oris est 
en gnral le ,kneifs  ou la roche        
feuillete mica et quartz  couches plus  

ou moins ferres  quelquefois le schorl  
en roche pntr de statite4 ,les couches  
varient  infiniment quant  leur         
direction et  leur inclinaisons4 ,cette 
montagne  est cultive et riche dans     
certain cantons1 surtout autour du      
village  d',oris1 mais elle est         
trs-escarpe dans beaucoup d'autres4     
,entre le  village d',oris et celui du  
,tresnay est une espce de combe assez   
creuse  forme par la chute des eaux des 
cimes suprieures des rochers4 ,cette    
combe offre beaucoup de schiste dont les
 couches font ou trs-inclines  ou       
perpendiculaires4 ,entre ces couches il 
s'en est trouv de plus noires  que les  
autres et capable de brler1 mais        
difficilement4 ,les habitans  ont       
extrait beaucoup de cette matire        
terreuse1 et lui ont donn le nom  de    
charbon de terre4 ,ils viennent mme     
bout de la faire brler1 et  de s'en     
servir l'hiver en la mlant avec du bois4
 ,ce schiste noir  particulier m'a paru 
exister principalement dans les endroits

 ou les  eaux se sont infiltres entre   
les couches perpendiculaires1 et y ont  
entran diverse matires1 et sur-tout des 
dbris de vgtaux que  j'ai encore        
retrouvs  demi-noirs1 pulvrulens et     
comme dans un tat  charbonneux4    ,this
 formation of coal1 by the infiltration 
of water and carrying in of  vegetable  
bodies1 certainly cannot be admitted of2
 consequently1 from  this description1  
there would seem to be strata of coal   
alternated with  the alpine schisti4    
,but the formation of mineral coal      
requires vegetable  matter to have been 
deposited along with those earthy       
substances1 at the  bottom of the sea4  
,the production of vegetable bodies1    
again1 requires  the constitution of sea
 and land1 and the system of a living   
world1  sustaining plants at least1 if  
not animals4    ,in this natural history
 of the alpine schisti1 therefore1 we   
have a  most interesting fact1 an       
example which is extremely rare4 ,seldom
 are  calcareous organised bodies found 

among those alpine strata1 but still    
more rarely1 ,i believe1 are the marks  
of vegetable bodies having  contributed 
in the formation of those masses4 ,but  
however rare this  example1 it is       
equally decisive of the question1       
,whether the alpine  schisti have had a 
similar origin as the other strata of   
the globe1  in which are found abundance
 of animal and vegetable bodies1 or     
their  relics8 and we are authorised to 
say1 that since those perfect alpine    
strata of ,dauphin have had that origin1
 all the alpine schisti of the  globe   
have been originally formed in a similar
 manner4 ,but to put this  matter out of
 doubt3    ,in this summer #aghh1 coming
 from the ,isle of ,man1 ,mr ,clerk and 
,i  traveled through the alpine schistus
 country of ,cumberland and             
,westmoreland4 ,we found a limestone    
quarry upon the banks of ,windermere1   
near the ,low-wood ,inn4 ,i examined    
this limestone closely1 but despaired   
of finding any vestige of organised     

body4 ,the strata of limestone  seem to 
graduate into the slate or schistus     
strata1 between which the  calcareous   
are placed4 ,fortunately1 however1 ,i at
 last found a fragment  in which ,i     
thought to perceive the works of        
organised bodies in a  sparry state2 ,i 
told ,mr ,clerk so1 and our landlord ,mr
 ,wright1 who had  accompanied us4 ,i   
have brought home this specimen1 which  
,i have now  ground and polished2 and   
now it is most evidently full of        
fragments of  entrochi4 ,mr ,wright then
 told me he had seen evident impressions
 of  marine objects1 as ,i understood   
from the description1 in the slate of   
those mountains2 and he was to send me  
specimens so soon as he could  procure  
them4    ,here is one specimen which at 
once overturns all the speculations     
formed  upon that negative proposition4 
,the schistus mountains of ,cumberland  
were1 in this respect1 as perfect       
primitive mountains as any upon the     
earth1 before this observation2 now they

 have no claim upon that score1  no more
 than any limestone formed of shells4   
,when ,i first announced my belief that 
such objects in natural history  might  
be found1 ,i little thought to have seen
 it realised1 to such a  degree as has  
now happened in the little circle of my 
knowledge4 ,in the  summer #agia1       
,professor ,playfair was to pass through
 ,cumberland4 ,i begged that he  would  
inquire of ,mr ,wright1 at the ,low-wood
 ,inn1 for those objects which  he was  
to endeavour to procure for me1 and to  
examine the limestone  quarry in which  
,i had found the specimen with entrochi4
 ,he went through  another part of those
 primary mountains1 and has found       
examples of this  kind in the schisti2  
concerning which he has written me the  
following  account4    ,in a visit which
 ,i made to the ,lakes of ,cumberland in
 ,september #agia1  in company with the 
,hon4 ,francis ,charteris1 ,i met with a
 limestone  full of marine objects1     
though from its position it is certainly

 to be  reckoned among the primary      
strata4 ,the place where we found this  
stone  was in the district of           
,lancashire1 that is west of ,windermere
 ,lake1 on  the road from ,ambleside to 
the north end of ,coniston ,lake1 and   
not far  from the point when you come in
 sight of the latter4 ,just about this  
spot we happened to meet with one of    
those people who serve as guides  to    
travelers in those parts1 and who told  
us1 among other things1 that  stones    
with shells in them were often found not
 far from where we were  then walking4  
,we immediately began to look about for 
specimens of that  kind1 and soon met   
with several2 the most remarkable of    
which was in a  rock that rose a little 
above the surface1 about #cjj or #djj   
yards to  the right of the road4 ,it was
 a part of a limestone stratum1 nearly  
vertical1 and was full of bivalves with 
the impressions as strong as  in a      
common secondary limestone4 ,the strata 
on both sides had the same  inclination1

 and were decidedly primary1 consisting 
of the ordinary  micaceous schistus4    
,this however ,i need not remark to you1
 who know so  well from your own        
observations that the whole of the      
country ,i am now  speaking of has every
 character of a primary one4 ,i1 only   
mention it1  that it may not be supposed
 that the rock in question was some     
fragment  of a secondary stratum that   
remained1 after the rest was washed     
away1  superincumbent on the primary4   
,after ,i had seen this rock1 ,i        
recollected that you had told me of     
something of the same kind that you saw 
in a quarry at ,low-wood ,inn2 and  it  
may be that both belonged to the same   
stratum or body of strata2 for  the     
direction of the strata1 as nearly as ,i
 could observe1 was from ,s4,w4  to     
,n4,e42 and this also is nearly the     
bearing of ,low-wood from the place     
where we now were4 ,i send you a        
specimen1 which you can compare with    
those you brought from the lime quarry  

at ,low-wood4    ,i have examined this  
specimen1 and find it to be the common  
schistus  of that country1 only         
containing many bivalve shells and      
fragments of  entrochi and madrapore    
bodies1 and mixed with pyrites4    ,i   
have already observed that one single   
example of a shell1 or of its  print1 in
 a schistus1 or in a stone stratified   
among those vertical or  erected masses1
 suffices to prove the origin of those  
bodies to have  been1 what ,i had       
maintained them to be1 water formed     
strata erected from  the bottom of the  
sea1 like every other consolidated      
stratum of the  earth4 ,but now1 ,i     
think1 ,i may affirm1 that there is not1
 or rarely1 any  considerable extent of 
country of that primary kind1 in which  
some mark  of this origin will not be   
found1 upon careful examination2 and now
 ,i  will give my reason for this       
assertion4 ,i have been examining the   
south  alpine country of ,scotland1     
occasionally1 for more than forty years 

back1 and ,i never could find any mark  
of an organised body in the  schistus of
 those mountains4 ,it is true that ,i   
know of only one place  where limestone 
is found among the strata2 this is upon 
,tweed-side near  the ,crook4 ,this     
quarry ,i had carefully examined long   
ago1 but could find  no mark of any     
organised body in it4 ,i suppose they   
now are working some  other of the      
vertical strata near those which ,i had 
examined2 for1 in  the summer #agib1 ,i 
received a letter from ,sir ,james      
,hall1 which ,i shall  now transcribe4  
,it is dated at ,moffat1 ,june #b4      
#agib4    ,as ,i was riding yesterday   
between ,noble-house and ,crook1 on the 
road to  this place1 ,i fell in with a  
quarry of alpine limestone2 it consists 
of  four or five strata1 about three    
feet thick1 one of them single1 and the 
rest contiguous2 they all stand between 
the strata of slate and schist  that are
 at the place nearly vertical4 ,in the  
neighbourhood1 a slate  quarry is worked

 of a pure blue slate2 several of the   
strata of slate  near the limestone are 
filled with fragments of limestone      
scattered  about like the fragments of  
schist in the sandstone in the          
neighbourhood  of the junction on our   
coast4#bb    ,note #bb3 ,this has a     
reference to very curious observations  
which we  made upon the east coast where
 these mountains terminate1 and which ,i
 am  to describe in the course of this  
work4    ,among the masses of limestone 
lately broken off for use1 and having   
the  fractures fresh1 ,i found the forms
 of cockles quite distinct2 and in      
great abundance4--,i send you three     
pieces of this kind1 etc4    ,it may    
perhaps be alleged that those mountains 
of ,cumberland and  ,tweedale are not   
the primary mountains1 but composed of  
the secondary  schistus1 which is every 
where known to contain those objects    
belonging  to a former earth4           
,naturalists who have not the           
opportunity of  convincing themselves by

 their proper examination1 must judge   
with  regard to that geological fact by 
the description of others4 ,now it is   
most fortunate for natural history1 that
 it has been in this range of  mountains
 that we have discovered those marks of 
a marine origin2 for1  ,i shall         
afterwards have occasion to give the    
clearest light into this  subject1 from 
observations made in other parts of     
those same mountains  of schist1 by     
which it will be proved that they are   
the primary  strata2 and thus no manner 
of doubt will then remain in the minds  
of naturalists1 who might otherwise     
suspect that we were deceiving          
ourselves1 by mistaking the secondary   
for the primitive schistus4    ,i have  
only farther to observe1 that those     
schisti mountains of ,wales1  of        
,cumberland1 and of the south alpine    
part of ,scotland1 where these  marine  
objects have been found1 consist1 of    
that species of stone which  in some    
places makes the most admirable slate   

for covering houses2 and1  in other     
parts1 it breaks into blocks that so    
much resemble wood in  appearance1 that1
 without narrow inspection1 it might    
pass for petrified  wood4    ,we are    
therefore to conclude that the marks of 
organised bodies in those  primary      
mountains are certainly found2 at the   
same time the general  observation of   
naturalists has some foundation1 so far 
as the marks of  organised bodies are   
both rarely to be met with in those     
masses1 and not  easily distinguished as
 such when they are found4    ,but this 
scarcity of marine objects is not       
confined to those primary  mountains1 as
 they are called2 for among the most    
horizontal strata1 or  those of the     
latest production1 there are many in    
which1 it is commonly  thought1 no      
marine calcareous objects are to be     
found2 and this is a  subject that      
deserves to be more particularly        
considered1 as the theory  may thus     
receive some illustration4              

,sandstone1 coal1 and their accompanying
 strata1 are thought to be  destitute of
 calcareous marine productions1 although
 many vestiges of  plants or vegetable  
productions are there perceived4 ,but   
this general  opinion is neither        
accurate nor true2 for though it be true
 that in the  coal and sandstone strata 
it is most common to find marks of      
vegetable  production1 and rarely those 
calcareous bodies which are so frequent 
in  the limestone1 yet it is not unusual
 for coal to be accompanied  with       
limestone formed of shells and corals1  
and also with ironstone  containing many
 of those marine objects as well as     
wood4 ,besides1  sandstone frequently   
contains objects which have been        
organised bodies1  but which do not     
belong to the vegetable kingdom1 at     
least to no plant  which grows upon the 
land1 but would seem to have been some  
species of  zoophite perhaps unknown4   
,i have also frequently seen the vestige
 of shells in sandstone1 although  in   

these strata the calcareous bodies are  
in general not perceived4  ,the reason  
of this is evident4 ,when there is a    
small proportion of the  calcareous     
matter in the mass of sand which is     
pervious to steam and to  the           
percolation of water1 the calcareous    
bodies may be easily dissolved1  and    
either carried away or dispersed in the 
mass2 or even without being  thus       
dispersed by means of solution1 the     
calcareous matter may be  absorbed by   
the siliceous substance of the stratum  
by means of fusion1  or by heat and     
cementation4 ,the fact is1 that ,i have 
seen in sandstone  the empty mould of   
marine shells with some siliceous       
crystallization1  so far as ,i remember1
 which corresponded perfectly with that 
idea4 ,the  place ,i saw this was in a  
fine white sandstone accompanying the   
coal1  upon the sea side at ,brora in   
,sutherland4    ,mineralogy is much     
indebted to ,mr ,pallas for the valuable
 observations  which he has given of    

countries so distant from the           
habitations of  learned men4 ,the       
physiology of the globe has also been   
enriched with  some interesting         
observations from the labours of this   
learned traveller4  ,but besides giving 
us facts1 ,mr ,pallas has also reasoned 
upon the  subject1 and thus entered deep
 into the science of ,cosmogeny2 here it
  is that ,i am afraid he has introduced
 some confusion into the natural        
history of the earth1 in not properly   
distinguishing the mineral  operations  
of the globe1 and those again which     
belong entirely to the  surface of the  
earth2 perhaps also in confounding the  
natural effects of  water upon the      
surface of the earth1 with those        
convulsions of the sea  which may be    
properly considered as the accidental   
operations of the  globe4 ,this subject 
being strictly connected with the       
opinions of that  philosopher with      
regard to primitive mountains1 ,i am    
obliged to examine  in this place       

matters which otherwise might have come 
more properly to  be considered in      
another4    ,m4 ,pallas in his          
,observations sur la formation des      
montagnes1 7page  #dh7 makes the        
following observations4    ,j'ai dj dit 
que la bande de montagnes primitives    
schisteuses  htrognes1 qui1 par toute la
 terre1 accompagne les chanes           
granitiques1 et comprend les roches     
quartzeuses et talceuses mixtes1        
trapzodes1 serpentines1 le schiste      
corne1 les roches spathiques et  cornes1
 les grais purs1 le porphyre et le      
jaspre1 tous rocs fls  en couches1 ou   
presque perpendiculaires1 ou du moins   
trs-rapidement  inclines1 7les plus     
favorables  la filtration des eaux71    
semble  aussi-bien que le granit1       
antrieure  la cration organise4 ,une    
raison  trs-forte pour appuyer cette    
supposition1 c'est que la plupart de ces
  roches1 quoique lamelleuse en faon    
d'ardoise1 n'a jamais produit  aux      
curieux la moindre trace de ptrifactions

 ou empreintes de corps  organiss4 ,s'il
 s'en est trouv1 c'est apparemment dans 
des fentes de  ces roches o ces corps   
ont t apports par un deluge1 et         
encastres  apres dans une matire        
infiltre1 de mme qu'on a trouv des      
restes  d',elphans dans le filon de la  
mine d'argent du ,schlangenberg4#bc ,les
  caractres par lesquels plusieurs de   
ces roches semblent avoir souffert  des 
effets d'un feu-trs-violent1 les        
puissantes veines et amas des  minraux  
les plus riches qui se trouvent         
principalement dans la bande  qui en est
 compose1 leur position immdiate sur le 
granit1 et mme le  passage1 par lequel  
on voit souvent en grand1 changer le    
granit en une  des autres espces2 tout  
cela indique une origine bien plus      
ancienne1  et des causes bien diffrentes
 de celles qui ont produit les montagnes
  secondaires4    ,note #bc3 ,this is a 
very natural way of reasoning when a    
philosopher  finds a fact1 related by   
some naturalists1 that does not         

correspond with  his theory or          
systematic view of things4 ,here our    
author follows the  general opinion in  
concluding that no organised body should
 be found in  their primitive strata2   
when1 therefore1 such an object is said 
to have  been observed1 it is supposed  
that there may have been some mistake   
with  regard to the case1 and that all  
the circumstances may not have been     
considered4 ,this caution with regard to
 the inaccurate representation of       
facts1 in natural history1 is certainly 
extremely necessary2 the relicts  of an 
elephant found in a mineral vein1 is    
certainly a fact of that  kind1 which   
should not be given as an example in    
geology without the  most accurate      
scientifical examination of the subject4
    ,here ,m4 ,pallas gives his reason  
for supposing those mountains primitive 
or anterior to the operations of this   
globe as a living world2 first1  because
 they have not1 in general1 marks of    
animals or plants2 and that  it is      

doubtful if they ever properly contain  
those marks of organised  bodies2       
secondly1 because many of those rocks   
have the appearance of  having suffered 
the effects of the most violent fire4   
,now1 ,what are  those effects8 ,is it  
in their having been brought into a     
fluid state of  fusion4 ,in that case1  
no doubt1 they may have been much       
changed from the  original state of     
their formation2 but this is a very good
 reason why1  in this changed state1 the
 marks of organised bodies1 which may   
have  been in their original            
constitution1 should be now effaced4    
,the third reason for supposing those   
mountains primitive1 is taken  from the 
metallic veins1 which are found so      
plentifully in these masses4  ,now1 had 
these masses been the only bodies in    
this earth in which those  mineral veins
 were found1 there might be some species
 of reason for  drawing the conclusion1 
which is here formed by our philosopher4
 ,but  nothing is so common 7at least in

 ,england7 as mineral veins in the      
strata of the latest formation1 and in  
those which are principally  formed of  
marine productions2 consequently so far 
from serving the  purpose for which this
 argument was employed1 the mineral     
veins in the  primitive mountains tend  
to destroy their originality1 by        
assimilating  them in some respect with 
every other mass of strata or mountain  
upon  the globe4    ,lastly1 ,m4 ,pallas
 here employs an argument taken from an 
appearance  for which we are            
particularly indebted to him1 and by    
which the  arguments which have been    
already employed in denying the         
originality  of granite is abundantly   
confirmed4 ,it has been already alleged1
 that  granite1 porphyry1 and whinstone1
 or trap1 graduate into each other2 but 
here ,m4 ,pallas informs us that he has 
found the granite not only changed  into
 porphyry1 but also into the other      
alpine compositions4 ,how an  argument  
for the originality of these mountains  

can be established upon  those facts1 ,i
 am not a little at a loss to conceive4 
,the general mineralogical view of the  
,russian dominions1 which we have1  in  
this treatise1 may now be considered    
with regard to that distinction  made by
 naturalists1 of primitive1 secondary1  
and tertiary mountains1 in  order to see
 how far the observations of this well  
informed naturalist  shall be found to  
confirm the theory of the earth which   
has been already  given1 or not4    ,the
 ,oural mountains form a very long      
chain1 which makes the natural  division
 betwixt ,europe and ,asia1 to the north
 of the ,caspian4 ,if in  this ridge1 as
 a centre of elevation1 and of mineral  
operations1 we  shall find the greatest 
manifestation of the violent exertion of
  subterraneous fire1 or of             
consolidating and elevating operations2 
and if  we shall perceive a regular     
appearance of diminution in the violence
 or  magnitude of those operations1 as  
the places gradually recede from  this  

centre of active force2 we may find some
 explanation of those  appearances1     
without having recourse to conjectures  
which carry no  scientific meaning1 and 
which are more calculated to confound   
our  acquired knowledge1 than to form   
any valuable distinction of things4 ,let
  us consult ,m4 ,pallas how far this is
 the case1 or not4    ,after having told
 us that all those various alpine       
schisti1 jaspers1  porphyries1          
serpentines1 etc4 in those mountains1   
are found mutually  convertible with    
granite1 or graduating into each other1 
our author thus  continues1 7p4 #ej74   
,on entrevoit de certaines loix a l'gard
 de l'arrangement respectif  de cet     
ordre secondaire d'anciennes roches1 par
 tous les systmes de  montagnes qui     
appartiennent  l',empire ,russe4 ,la    
chane ,ouralique1 par  exemple1 a du ct 
de l',orient sur tout sa longueur1 une  
trs-grande  abondance de schistes corns1
 serpentins et talceux1 riches en filons
  de cuivre1 qui forment le principal   

accompagnement du granite1 et en        
jaspres de diverses couleurs plus       
extrieurs et souvent comme entrelacs    
avec les premiers1 mais formant des     
suites de montagnes entires1 et         
occupant de trs-grands espaces4 ,de ce  
mme ct1 il y parat beaucoup  de quartz  
en grandes roches toutes pures1 tant    
dans la principale chane  que dans le   
noyau des montagnes de jaspre1 et       
jusques dans la plaine4  ,les marbres   
spateux et veins1 percent en beaucoup   
d'endroits4 ,la  plupart de ces espces  
ne paraissent point du tout  la lisire  
occidentale de la chane1 qui n'est      
presque que de roche mlange de  schistes
 argileux1 alumineux1 phlogistique1 etc4
 ,les filons des mines  d'or mles1 les  
riches mines de cuivre en veines et     
chambres1 les  mines de fer et d'aimant 
par amas et montagnes entires1 sont     
l'apanage  de la bande schisteuse       
orientale2 tandis que l'occidentale n'a 
pour elle  que des mines de fer de dpts1
 et se montre gnralement trs-pauvre en  

mtaux4 ,le granit de la chane qui borde 
la ,sibrie1 est recouvert du  ct que    
nous connaissons de roches cornes de la 
nature des pierres   fusil1 quelquefois 
tendant  la nature d'un grais fin et de 
schistes  trs-mtallires de diffrente    
composition4 ,le jaspre n'y est qu'en   
filons1 ou plans obliques1 ce qui est   
trs-rare pour la chane  ,ouralique1 et  
s'observe dans la plus grande partie de 
la ,sibrie1   l'exception de cette      
partie de sa chane qui passe prs de la  
mer  d',okhotsk1 ou le jaspre forme     
derechef des suites de montagnes1 ainsi 
que nous venons de le dire des monts    
,ourals2 mais comme cette roche  tient  
ici le ct mridionale de la chane        
,sibrienne1 et que nous  ne lui         
connaissons point ce ct sur le reste de 
sa longueur1 il se  pourrait que le     
jaspre y ft aussi abondant4 ,il         
faudrait1 au reste1 bien  plus de       
fouilles et d observations pour tablir  
quelque chose de certain  sur l'ordre   
respectif qu'observent ces roches4    ,i

 would now ask1 if in all this account  
of the gradation of rock from  the      
,oural mountains to the sandy coast of  
the ,baltic1 there is to be  observed   
any clear and distinctive mark of       
primitive1 secondary1 and  tertiary1    
mountains1 farther than as one stratum  
may be considered as  either prior or   
posterior to another stratum1 according 
to the order of  superposition in which 
they are found4 ,we have every where    
evident marks  of the formation of      
strata by materials deposited originally
 in water2  for the most part1 there is 
sufficient proof that this water in     
which  those materials had been         
deposited was the sea2 we are likewise  
assured  that the operations of this    
living world producing animals1 must    
have1 for a course of time1 altogether  
inconceivably been exerted1  in         
preparing materials for this mass2 and1 
lastly1 from the changed  constitution  
of those masses1 we may infer certain   
mineral operations  that melt the       

substance and alter the position of     
those horizontal  bodies4 ,such is the  
information which we may collect from   
this mineral  description of the        
,russian ,dominions4    ,if we compare  
some of the ,oural mountains with the   
general strata of  the ,russian plains1 
then1 as to the contained minerals1 we  
may find a  certain diversity in those  
two places2 at the same time1 no greater
  perhaps than may be found betwixt two 
different bodies in those same  plains1 
for example1 chalk and flint4 ,but when 
we consider those bodies  of the earth1 
or solid strata of the globe1 in        
relation to their proper  structure and 
formation1 we surely can find in this   
description nothing  on which may be    
founded any solid opinion with regard to
 a different  original1 however         
important conclusions may perhaps be    
formed with  regard to the operations of
 the globe1 from the peculiar           
appearances  found in alpine4    ,from  
this detail of what is found in the     

,oural mountains1 and in the  gradation 
of country from those mountains to the  
plains of ,russia1 we  have several     
facts that are worthy of observation4   
,first extensive  mountains of jasper4  
,i have a specimen of this stone2 it is 
striped red  and green like some of our 
marly strata4 ,it has evidently been    
formed of  such argillaceous and        
siliceous materials1 not only indurated1
 so as to  lose its character1 as an    
argillaceous stone1 but to have been    
brought  into that degree of fusion     
which produces perfect solidity4 ,of the
 same  kind are those hornstein rocks of
 the nature of flint1 sometimes tending 
to the nature of a fine sandstone4 ,here
 is the same induration of  sandstone by
 means of fusion1 that in the           
argillaceous strata has  produced       
jasper4 ,but oblique veins of jasper are
 represented as  traversing these last  
strata2 now this is a fact which is not 
conceivable in any other way1 than by   
the injection or transfusion of  the    

fluid jasper among those masses of      
indurated strata4    ,all this belongs  
to the east side of the mountains4 ,on  
the west1 again1  we find the same      
species of strata2 only these are not   
changed to such a  degree as to lose    
their original character or             
construction1 and thus to  be termed    
differently in mineralogy4    ,our      
author then proceeds4 7p4 #ec47    ,nous
 pourrons parler plus dcisivement sur   
les montagnes secondaires  et tertiaires
 de l',empire1 et c'est de celles-l1 de 
la nature1 de  l'arrangement et du      
contenu de leurs couches1 des grandes   
ingalits et  de la forme du continent   
d',europe et d',asie1 que l'on peut     
tirer avec  plus de confiance quelques  
lumires sur les changemens arrivs aux   
terres habitables4 ,ces deux ordres de  
montagnes prsentent la chronique  de    
notre globe la plus ancienne1 la moins  
sujette aux falsifications1 et  en      
mme-tems plus lisible que le caractre   
des chanes primitives2  ce font les     

archives de la nature1 antrieures aux   
lettres et aux  traditions les plus     
recules1 qu'il toit rserv  notre sicle  
observateur de feuiller1 de commenter1  
et de mettre au jour1 mais que          
plusieurs sicles aprs le ntre           
n'puiseront pas4    ,dans toute l'tendue
 de vastes dominations ,russes1 aussi   
bien que  dans l',europe entire1 les    
observateurs attentifs ont remarqu  que 
gnralement la band schisteuse des       
grandes chanes se trouve  immdiatement  
recouverte ou cotte par la bande        
calcaire4 ,celle-ci  forme deux ordres  
de montagnes1 trs-diffrentes par la     
hauteur1 la  situation de leurs couches1
 et la composition de la pierre calcaire
 qui  les compose2 diffrence qui est    
trs-vidente dans cette bande calcaire   
qui forme la lisire occidentale de toute
 la chane ,ouralique1 et dont  le plan  
s'tend par tout le plat pays de la      
,russie4 ,l'on observerait  la mme chose
  l'orient de la chane1 et dans toute   
l'tendue de la  ,sibrie1 si les couches 

calcaires horizontales n'y taient       
recouvertes  par les dpts postrieures1  
de faon qu'il ne parat  la surface que  
les parties les plus faillantes de la   
bande1 et si ce pays n'toit trop        
nouvellement cultiv et trop peu exploit 
par des fouilles et autres  oprations1  
que des hommes industrieux ont pratiqu  
dans les pays  anciennement habits4 ,ce 
que je vais exposer sur les deux ordres 
de  montagnes calcaires1 se rapportera  
donc principalement  celles qui sont    
l'occident de la chane ,ouralique4      
,ce ct de la dite chane consiste sur    
cinquante  cent verstes de  largeur1 de 
roche calcaire solide1 d'un grain uni1  
qui tantt ne  contient aucune trace de  
productions marines1 tantt n'en conserve
  que des empreintes aussi lgres        
qu'parses4 ,cette roche s'lve en        
montagnes d'une hauteur trs-considrable1
 irrgulires1 rapides1 et  coupes de     
vallons escarps4 ,ses couches1          
gnralement paisses1 ne sont  point de   
niveau1 mais trs-inclines  l'horizon1   

paralleles1 pour la  plupart1  la       
direction de la chane1 qui est aussi    
ordinairement celle  de la bande        
schisteuse2--au lieu que du ct de       
l'orient les couches  calcaires sont au 
sens de la chane en direction plus ou   
moins  approchante de l'angle droite4   
,l'on trouve dans ces hautes montagnes  
calcaires de frquentes grottes et       
cavernes trs-remarquables1 tant  par    
leur grandeur que par les belles        
conglations et crystallizations         
stalactiques dont elles s'ornent4       
,quelques-unes de ces grottes ne        
peuvent tre attribues qu' quelque       
bouleversement des couches2  d'autres   
semblent devoir leur origine            
l'coulement des sources  souterraines   
qui ont amolli1 rong et charri une      
partie de la roche qui  en toit         
susceptible4    ,en s'loignant de la    
chane1 on voit les couches calcaires    
s'aplanir  assez rapidement1 prendre une
 position horizontale1 et devenir       
abondantes en toute forte de            

coquillages1 de madrpores1 et d'autres  
dpouilles marines4 ,telles on les voit  
par-tout dans les valles les  plus      
basses qui se trouvent aux pieds des    
montagnes 7comme aux environs  de la    
rivire d',oufa72 telles aussi1 elles    
occupent tout l'tendue de la  grande    
,russie1 tant en collines qu'en plat    
pays2 solides tantt et comme  semes de  
productions marines2 tantt toutes       
composes de coquilles et  madrpores     
brises1 et de ce gravier calcaire qui se
 trouve toujours sur  les parages ou la 
mer abonde en pareilles productions2    
tantt1 enfin1  dissoutes en craie et en 
marines1 et souvent entremles de couches
 de  gravier et de cailloux rouls4      
,how valuable for science to have       
naturalists who can distinguish         
properly what they see1 and describe    
intelligibly that which they            
distinguish4 ,in this description of the
 strata1 from the chain of  mountains   
here considered as primitive1 to the    
plains of ,russia1 which  are supposed  

to be of a tertiary formation1 our      
naturalist presents us  with another    
species of strata1 which he has         
distinguished1 on the one  hand1 in     
relation to the mountains at present in 
question1 and on the  other1 with regard
 to the strata in the plains1 concerning
 which there  is at present no question 
at all4 ,now1 let us see how these three
 things  are so connected in their      
nature1 as to form properly the         
contiguous  links of the same chain4    
,the primary and tertiary masses are    
bodies perfectly disconnected2  and1    
without a medium by which they might be 
approached1 they would be  considered as
 things differing in all respects1      
consequently as having  their origins of
 as opposite a nature as are their      
appearances4 ,but the  nature and       
formation of those bodies are not left  
in this obscurity2  for1 the secondary  
masses1 which are interposed1           
participate so  precisely of what is    
truly opposite and characteristic in the

 primary  and tertiary masses1 that it  
requires nothing more than to see this  
distinction of things in its true light1
 to be persuaded1 that in those  three  
different things we may perceive a      
certain gradation1 which  here takes    
place among the works of nature1 and    
forms three steps  distinguishable by a 
naturalist1 although in reality nothing 
but the  variable measure of similar    
operations4    ,we are now to assimilate
 the primary and tertiary masses1 which 
are so  extremely different1 by means of
 the secondary masses1 which is the     
mean4 ,the primary and tertiary differ  
in the following respects3 ,the one  of 
these contains the relicts of organised 
bodies which are not observed  in the   
other4 ,but in the species containing   
these distinguishable  bodies1 the      
natural structure and position of the   
mass is little  affected1 or not so much
 as to be called into doubt4 ,this1     
however1 is  not the case with the      
other2 the species in which organised   

bodies do  not appear1 is in general so 
indurated or consolidated in its        
structure1  and changed in its position1
 that this common origin of those masses
 is  by good naturalists1 who have also 
carefully examined them1 actually       
denied4 ,now1 the secondary masses may  
be considered1 not only as  intermediate
 with respect to its actual place1 as   
,m4 ,pallas has  represented it1 but as 
uniting together the primary and        
tertiary1 or as  participating of the   
distinguishing characters of the other  
two4 ,it  is homologated with the       
primitive mountains1 in the solidity of 
its  substance and in the position of   
its strata2 with the tertiary species1  
again1 in its containing marks of       
organised bodies4 ,how far this view  of
 things is consistent with the theory of
 the earth now given1 is  submitted to  
the consideration of the unprejudiced4  
,let us see what our learned author has 
said farther on this subject1  7page    
#fe74    ,je dois parler d'un ordre de  

montagnes trs-certainement postrieur aux
  couches marines1 puisque celles-ci1   
gnralement lui servent de base4  ,on n'a
 point jusqu'ici observ une suite de ces
 montagnes tertiaires1  effet des       
catastrophes les plus modernes de notre 
globe1 si marque  et si puissante1 que  
celle qui accompagne la chaine          
,ouralique ou ct  occidentale fur tout  
la longueur4 ,cette suite de montagnes1 
pour la  plupart composes de grais1 de  
marnes rougetres1 entremles de couches  
diversement mixtes1 forme une chane     
par-tout spare par une valle  plus ou   
moins large de la bande de roche        
calcaire1 dont nous avons  parl4        
,sillonne et entrecoupe de frquens      
vallons1 elles s'lve  souvent  plus de  
cent toises perpendiculaires1 se rpand  
vers les  plaines de la ,russie en      
tranes de collines1 qui sparent les     
rivires1  en accompagnant gnralement la 
rive borale ou occidentale1 et dgnre    
enfin en dserts sableux qui occupent de 
grands espaces1 et s'tendent  surtout   

par longues bandes parallles aux        
principales traces qui suivent  les     
cours des rivieres4 ,la principale force
 de ces montagnes tertiaires  est plus  
prs de la chane primitive par-tout le   
gouvernement  d',orenbourg et la        
,permie1 ou elle consiste principalement
 en grais1 et  contient un fond         
inpuisable de mines de cuivre sableuses1
 argileuses1  et autres qui se voient   
ordinairement dans les couches          
horizontales4  ,plus loin1 vers la      
plaine1 sont des suites de collines     
toutes marneuses1  qui abondent autant  
en pierres gypseuses1 que les autres en 
minerais  cuivreux4 ,je n'entre pas dans
 le dtail de celles-ci1 qui indiquent   
sur-tout les sources salines2 mais je   
dois dire des premires1 qui  abondent le
 plus et dont les plus hautes lvations  
des plaines1 mme  celle de ,moscou1 sont
 formes1 qu'elles contiennent trs-peu de
 traces  de productions marines1 et     
jamais des amas entiers de ces corps1   
tels  qu'une mer repose pendant des     

sicles de suite a pu les accumuler dans 
les bancs calcaires4 ,rien1 au          
contraire1 de plus abondant dans ces    
montagnes de grais stratifi sur l'ancien
 plan calcaire1 que des troncs  d'arbres
 entires et des fragmens de bois ptrifi1
 souvent minralis  par le cuivre ou le  
fer2 des impressions de troncs de       
palmires1 de  tiges de plantes1 de      
roseau1 et de quelques fruits trangers2 
enfin des  ossemens d'animaux           
terrestres1 si rares dans les couches   
calcaires4 ,les  bois ptrifis se        
trouvent jusques dans les collines de   
sable de la  plaine2 l'on en tire1      
entr'autres1 des hauteurs sablonneuses  
aux  environs de ,sysran sur la ,volga1 
changs en queux trs-fin1 qui a  conserv 
jusqu' la texture organique du bois1 et 
remarquables sur-tout  par les traces   
trs-videntes de ces vers rongeurs qui   
attaquent les  vaisseaux1 les pilotis et
 autres bois tremps dans la mer1 et qui 
sont  proprement originaires de la mer  
des ,indes4    ,this philosopher has now

 given us a view of what1 according to  
the  present fashion of mineral         
philosophy1 he has termed montagnes     
primitives1 secondaires1 et tertiaires4 
,the first consists in masses  and      
strata1 much indurated and consolidated1
 and greatly displaced in  their        
position2 but the character of which is 
chiefly taken from this1  that they     
contain not any visible mark of animal  
or vegetable bodies4    ,the second are 
formed in a great measure of marine     
productions1 are  often no less         
consolidated than those of the first    
class1 and frequently  no less changed  
in their natural shape and situation4   
,the third again have for character1    
according to this learned theorist1  the
 containing of those organised bodies   
which are proper to the earth1  instead 
of those which in the second class had  
belonged to the sea2  in other respects1
 surely there is no essential           
difference4 ,it is not  pretended that  
these tertiary strata had any other     

origin1 than that of  having been       
deposited in water2 it is not so much as
 suspected1 that  this water had been   
any other than that of the sea2 the few 
marine  bodies which ,m4 ,pallas here   
acknowledges1 goes at least to prove    
this  fact3 and with regard to the      
mineral operations which had been       
employed  in consolidating those water  
formed strata1 it is impossible not to  
be  convinced that every effect visible 
in the other two are here also to be    
perceived4    ,from this view of mineral
 bodies1 taken from the extensive       
observations  of the ,russian dominions1
 and from the suppositions of geologists
 in  relation to those appearances1 we  
should be led to conclude that the      
globe of this earth had been originally 
nothing but an ocean1 a world           
containing neither plant nor animal to  
live1 to grow and propagate its         
species4 ,in following a system founded 
on those appearances1 we must  next     
suppose1 that to the sterile unorganised

 world there had succeeded  an ocean    
stored with fish of every species4 ,here
 it would be proper to  inquire what    
sustained those aquatic animals2 for1 in
 such a system as  this1 there is no    
provision made for continuing the life  
even of the  individuals1 far less of   
feeding the species while1 in an almost 
infinite succession of individuals1 they
 should form a continent of land  almost
 composed of their exuviae4    ,if fish 
can be fed upon water and stone2 if     
siliceous bodies can1 by  the digesting 
powers of animals1 be converted into    
argillaceous and  calcareous earths2 and
 if inflammable matter can be prepared  
without the  intervention of vegetable  
bodies1 we might erect a system in which
 this  should be the natural order of   
things4 ,but to form a system in direct 
opposition to every order of nature that
 we know1 merely because we may  suppose
 another order of things different from 
the laws of nature which  we observe1   
would be as inconsistent with the rules 

of reasoning in  science1 by which the  
speculations of philosophy are directed1
 as it  would be contrary to common     
sense1 by which the affairs of mankind  
are  conducted4    ,still1 however1 to  
pursue our visionary system1 after a    
continent had  been formed from the     
relicts of those animals1 living1       
growing1 and  propagating1 during an    
indefinite series of ages1 plants at    
last are  formed2 and1 what is no less  
wonderful1 those animals which had      
formed  the earth then disappear2 but1  
in compensation1 we are to suppose1 ,i  
presume1 that terrestrial animals began4
 ,let us now reason from those  facts1  
without either constraining nature1     
which we know1 or forming  visionary    
systems1 with regard to things which are
 unknown4 ,it would  appear1 that at one
 period of time1 or in one place1 the   
matter of the  globe may be deposited1  
in strata1 without containing any       
organised  bodies2 at another time1 or  
in another place1 much animal matter may

 be  deposited in strata1 without any   
vegetable substance there appearing2    
but at another period1 or at another    
time1 strata may be formed with  much   
vegetable matter1 while there is hardly 
to be observed any animal  body4 ,what  
then are we to conclude upon the whole8 
,that nature1 forming  strata1 is       
subject to vicissitudes2 and that it is 
not always the same  regular operation  
with respect to the materials1 although 
always forming  strata upon the same    
principles4 ,consequently1 upon the same
 spot in  the sea1 different materials  
may be accumulated at different periods 
of  time1 and1 conversely1 the same or  
similar materials may be collected in   
different places at the same time4      
,nothing more follows strictly from  the
 facts on which we now are reasoning2   
and this is a conclusion which  will be 
verified by every appearance1 so far as 
,i know4    ,of this ,i am certain1 that
 in a very little space of this country1
 in  many places1 such a course of      

things is to be perceived4 ,nothing so  
common as to find alternated1 over and  
over again1 beds of sand-stone  without 
animal bodies1 beds of coal and schistus
 abounding with  vegetable bodies1 beds 
of lime-stone formed of shells and      
corals1 and  beds or particular strata  
of iron-stone containing sometimes      
vegetable  sometimes animal bodies1 or  
both4 ,here1 indeed1 the strata are most
  commonly inclined2 it is seldom they  
are horizontal2 consequently1 as  across
 the whole country1 all the strata come 
up to the day1 and may be  seen in the  
beds of our rivers1 we have an          
opportunity of observing that  great    
variety which is in nature1 and which we
 are not able to explain4  ,this only is
 certain1 from what we see1 that there  
is nothing formed  in one epoch of      
nature1 but what has been repeated in   
another1 however  dissimilar may be the 
operations which had intervened between 
those  several epochs4    ,it must not  
be alleged1 that the heights of the     

,oural mountains1 or the  hardness of   
their rocks1 make an essential          
distinction between them  and the       
argillaceous or arenaceous strata of the
 plains2 solidity and  hardness1 as well
 as changes in their height and natural 
position1 has  been superinduced in     
operations posterior to the collection  
of those  masses1--operations which may 
be formed in various degrees1 even in   
the  different parts of the same mass4  
,if this is the case1 there can be no   
difficulty in conceiving a stratum1     
which appears to be argillaceous  or    
marly in the plains1 to be found jasper 
in the ,oural mountains4 ,but  there is 
nothing in the ,oural mountains1 that   
may not be found some  where or other in
 the plains1 although the soft and      
easily decomposing  argillaceous strata 
be not found upon the ,oural mountains1 
or the ,alps1  for this reason1 that had
 those mountains been formed of such    
materials1  there had not been a        
mountain there at this day4    ,but     

surely the greatest possible error1 with
 regard to the philosophy of  this      
earth1 would be to confound the sediment
 of a river with the strata  of the     
globe2 bodies deposited upon the surface
 of the earth1 with those  sunk at the  
bottom of the sea2 and things which only
 form the travelled  or transported     
soil1 with those which constitute the   
substratum or the  solid earth4 ,how far
 ,m4 ,pallas has committed this         
oversight1 ,i leave  others to          
determine4 ,after mentioning those      
strata in which wood is  found          
petrified1 and metallic minerals formed1
 he thus proceeds1 7page  #fi74    ,dans
 ces mmes dpts sableux et souvent       
limoneux1 gisent les restes  des grands 
animaux de l',inde3 ces ossemens        
d'lphans1 de rhinocros1 de  buffles     
monstrueux1 dont on dterre tous les     
jours un si grand nombre1  et qui font  
l'admiration des curieux4 ,en ,sibrie1 o
 l'on  dcouvert le  long de presque     
toutes les rivires ces restes d'animaux 

trangers1  et l'ivoire mme bien conserv 
en si grande abondance1 qu'il forme un  
article de commerce1 en ,sibrie1 dis je1
 c'est aussi la couche la plus  moderne 
de limon sablonneux qui leur sert de    
spulture1 et nulle part  ces monumens   
trangers sont si frequens1 qu'aux       
endroits o la grande  chaine1 qui domine
 surtout la frontire mridionale de la   
,sibrie1 offre  quelque dpression1      
quelque ouverture considrable4    ,ces  
grands ossemens1 tantt pars tantt       
entasss par squelettes1  et mme par     
hcatombes1 considre dans leurs sites    
naturels1 m'ont  sur-tout convaincu de  
la ralit d'un dluge arriv sur notre     
terre1  d'une catastrophe1 dont j'avoue 
n'avoir pu concevoir la vraisemblance   
avant d'avoir parcouru ces places1 et   
vu1 par moi-mme1 tout ce qui peut  y    
servir de preuve  cet vnement           
mmorable#bd4 ,une infinit de ces        
ossemens couchs dans des lits mls de    
petites tellines calcines1 d'os  de     
poissons1 de glossoptres1 de bois chargs

 d'ocre1 etc4 prouve dj  qu'ils ont t   
transports par des inondations4 ,mais la
 carcasse d'un  rhinocros1 trouv avec sa
 peau entire1 des restes de tendons1 de 
ligamens1 et de cartilages1 dans les    
terres glaces des bords du  ,viloi1 dont
 j'ai dpos les parties les mieux        
conserves au cabinet de  l',acadmie1    
forme encore une preuve convaincante que
 ce devait tre  un mouvement            
d'inondation des plus violens et des    
plus rapides1 qui  entrana jadis ces    
cadavres vers nos climats glacs1 avant  
que la  corruption et le tems1 d'en     
dtruire les parties molles4 ,il seroit  
souhaiter qu'un observateur parvint aux 
montagnes qui occupent l'espace  entre  
les fleuves ,indighirka et ,koylma o    
selon le rapport des  chasseurs1 de     
semblables carcasses d'lphans et        
d'autres animaux  gigantesques encore   
revtues de leurs peaux1 ont t remarques 
plusieurs reprises4    ,note #bd3 ,voyez
 le ,mmoire1 imprim dans le ,,xvii4     
volume des nouveaux  ,commentaires de   

l',acadmie ,imperiale de ,petersbourgh4 
,the question here turns upon this1 ,are
 the sea shells and glossopetrae1  which
 are thus found deposited along with    
those skeletons1 in their  natural      
state1 or are they petrified and        
mineralised4 ,if the productions  of the
 sea shall here be found collected along
 with bodies belonging to  the surface  
of the earth1 and which had never been  
within the limits of  the sea1 this     
would surely announce to us some strange
 catastrophe1  of which it would be     
difficult1 perhaps1 to form a notion2   
if1 on the  contrary1 those marine      
productions belong to the solid strata  
of the  earth1 in the resolution or     
decay of which they had been set at     
liberty1  and were transported in the   
floods1 our author would have no reason 
from  those appearances to conclude1    
there had existed any other deluge than 
those produced by the waters of the     
land#be4    ,note #be3 ,since writing   
this1 ,i find my doubts in a great      

measure  resolved1 in reading ,m4       
,pallas's ,journal1 translated from the 
,german by  ,m4 ,gauthier de la         
,peyronie4 ,what ,i had suspected is1 ,i
 think1 confirmed  in the distinct      
account which ,m4 ,pallas has given of  
those occasions  in which the bones of  
land animals and marine objects are     
found buried  together4 ,the marine     
objects are mineralised2 consequently1  
they have  proceeded from the           
decomposition of the solid strata2 and1 
having been  travelled in the running   
water of the surface of the earth1 they 
must  have been deposited in those beds 
of rivers1 which now are dry1 alongst   
with the bones1 or the entire bodies of 
terrestrial animals1 the remains  of    
which are now found there4 ,this        
argument1 from the state of those       
marine bodies will not be allowed1      
perhaps by the generality of            
mineralists1 who attribute to the       
operations of water every species of    
petrifaction or mineralisation2 but1    

until some species of proof be  given   
with regard to the truth of that theory1
 which vulgar error first  suggested1 ,i
 must reason from a theory1 in proof of 
which ,i have given  clear examples1    
and1 ,i think1 irrefragable arguments1  
which shall be  more and more           
illustrated4 ,thus may be removed the   
necessity of a  general deluge1 or any  
great catastrophe1 in order to bring    
together  things so foreign to each     
other2 but at the same time we would    
ascertain  this fact1 ,that formerly the
 ,elephant and ,rhinoceros had lived in 
,siberia4 7,see ,voyage de ,pallas1     
,tom4 ,,ii4 p4 #cgg and #djc47          
,having thus endeavoured to remove this 
prevailing prejudice1 of there  being   
primitive parts in this earth1 parts of 
which the composition and  constitution 
are not to be explained upon the        
principles of natural  philosophy1 it   
will be proper to inquire1 how far there
 may be in the  theory1 which has now   
been given1 principles by which may be  

explained  those appearances that have  
led natural philosophers to form        
conclusions1 of there being in this     
earth parts whose origin may not be     
traced2 and of there being parts whose  
origin may not be explained upon  the   
same principles which apply so well to  
all the rest4        ,,chap4 ,v4        
,concerning that which may be termed the
 ,primary ,part of the ,present  ,earth4
    ,in the present theory1 it is       
maintained1 that there is no part of the
  earth which has not had the same      
origin1 so far as this consists in that 
earth being collected at the bottom of  
the sea1 and afterwards produced1  as   
land1 along with masses of melted       
substances1 by the operation of  mineral
 causes4 ,but1 though all those things  
be similar1 or equal1 as to  the manner 
of their production1 they are far from  
being so with regard  to the periods of 
their original composition1 or to the   
subsequent  operations which they may   
have undergone4    ,there is a certain  

order established for the progress of   
nature1 for the  succession of things1  
and for the circulation of matter upon  
the surface  of this globe2 and1 the    
order of time is associated with this   
change of  things4 ,but it is not in    
equal portions that time is thus        
combined with  dissimilar things1 nor   
always found1 in our estimation1 as     
equally  accompanying those which we    
reckon similar4 ,the succession of light
 and  darkness is that which1 in those  
operations1 appears to us most steady2  
the alternation of heat and cold comes  
next1 but not with equal  regularity in 
its periods4 ,the succession of wet and 
dry upon the  surface of the earth1     
though equally the work of nature and   
the effect  of regular causes1 is often 
to us irregular1 when we look for equal 
periods in the course of things which   
are unequal4 ,it is by equalities  that 
we find order in things1 and we wish to 
find order every where4    ,the present 
object of our contemplation is the      

alternation of land  and water upon the 
surface of this globe4 ,it is only in   
knowing this  succession of things1 that
 natural appearances can be explained2  
and  it is only from the examination of 
those appearances1 that any certain     
knowledge of this operation is to be    
obtained4 ,but how shall we acquire  the
 knowledge of a system calculated for   
millions1 not of years only1  nor of the
 ages of man1 but of the races of men1  
and the successions of  empires8 ,there 
is no question here with regard to the  
memory of man1 of  any human record1    
which continues the memory of man from  
age to age2 we  must read the           
transactions of time past1 in the       
present state of natural  bodies2 and1  
for the reading of this character1 we   
have nothing but  the laws of nature1   
established in the science of man by his
 inductive  reasoning4    ,it has been  
in reasoning after this manner1 that ,i 
have endeavoured to  prove1 that every  
thing which we now behold1 of the solid 

parts of this  earth1 had been formerly 
at the bottom of the sea2 and that there
 is1 in  the constitution of this globe1
 a power for interchanging sea and land4
  ,if this shall be admitted as a just  
view of the system of this globe1  we   
may next examine1 how far there are to  
be found any marks of certain  parts of 
our earth having more than once         
undergone that change of  posture1 or   
vicissitude of things1 and of having had
 reiterated  operations of the mineral  
kingdom changing their substance1 as    
well as  altering their positions in    
relation to the atmosphere and sea4     
,besides the gradual decay of solid     
land1 exposed to the silent  influences 
of the atmosphere1 and to the violent   
operations of the  waters moving upon   
the surface of the earth1 there is a    
more sudden  destruction that may be    
supposed to happen sometimes to our     
continents  of land4 ,in order to see   
this1 it must be considered1 that the   
continents of our earth are only raised 

above the level of the sea by  the      
expansion of matter1 placed below that  
land1 and rarified in that  place3 ,we  
may thus consider our land as placed    
upon pillars1 which may  break1 and thus
 restore the ancient situation of things
 when this land  had been originally    
collected at the bottom of the ocean4   
,it is not here  inquired by what       
mechanism this operation is to be       
performed2 it is  certainly by the      
exertion of a subterranean power that   
the land is  elevated from the place in 
which it had been formed2 and nothing is
 more  natural than to suppose the      
supports of the land in time to fail1 or
 be  destroyed in the course of mineral 
operations which are to us unknown4  ,in
 that case1 whatever were remaining of  
that land1 which had for  millions of   
ages past sustained plants and animals1 
would again be  placed at the bottom of 
the sea2 and strata of every different  
species  might be deposited again upon  
that mass1 which1 from an atmospheric   

situation1 is now supposed to be lower  
than the surface of the sea4    ,such a 
compound mass might be again            
resuscitated1 or restored with the  new 
superincumbent strata1 consolidated in  
their texture and inclined in  their    
position4 ,in that case1 the inferior   
mass must have undergone a  double      
course of mineral changes and           
displacement2 consequently1 the  effect 
of subterranean heat or fusion must be  
more apparent in this  mass1 and the    
marks of its original formation more and
 more obliterated4    ,if1 in examining 
our land1 we shall find a mass of matter
 which had been  evidently formed       
originally in the ordinary manner of    
stratification1  but which is now       
extremely distorted in its structure1   
and displaced in  its position1--which  
is also extremely consolidated in its   
mass1 and  variously changed in its     
composition1--which therefore has the   
marks  of its original or marine        
composition extremely obliterated1 and  

many  subsequent veins of melted mineral
 matter interjected2 we should then     
reason to suppose that here were masses 
of matter which1 though not  different  
in their origin from those that are     
gradually deposited at the  bottom of   
the ocean1 have been more acted upon by 
subterranean heat and  the expanding    
power1 that is to say1 have been changed
 in a greater  degree by the operations 
of the mineral region4 ,if this         
conclusion shall  be thought reasonable1
 then here is an explanation of all the 
peculiar  appearances of the alpine     
schistus masses of our land1 those parts
 which  have been erroneously considered
 as primitive in the constitution of the
  earth4    ,we are thus led to suppose1
 that some parts of our earth may have  
undergone the vicissitudes of sea and   
land more than once1 having been        
changed from the summit of a continent  
to the bottom of the sea1 and  again    
erected1 with the rest of that bottom1  
into the place of land4 ,in  that case1 

appearances might be found to induce    
natural philosophers to  conclude that  
there were in our land primary parts1   
which had not the  marine origin which  
is generally to be acknowledged in the  
structure  of this earth2 and1 by       
finding other masses1 of marine origin1 
superincumbent upon those primary       
mountains1 they might make strange      
suppositions in order to explain those  
natural appearances4    ,let us now see 
what has been advanced by those         
philosophers who1 though  they term     
these parts of the earth primordial1 and
 not primitive1 at  the same time appear
 to deny to those parts an origin       
analogous to that  of their secondary   
mountains1 or strata that are aquiform  
in their  construction4    ,m4 de ,luc1 
after having long believed that the     
strata of the ,alps had  been formed    
like those of the low countries1 at the 
bottom of the sea1  gives an account of 
the occasion by which he was first      
confirmed in the  opposite opinion4#bf  

,like a true philosopher1 he gives us   
the reason of  this change4    ,note    
#bf3 ,lettres ,physique et ,morales sur 
l',histoire de la ,terre1 tom4  #b4 pag4
 #bjf4    ,ce fut une espce de montagne 
trs commune1 et que j'avois souvent     
examine qui dessilla mes yeux4 ,la      
pierre qui la compose est de  la classe 
appelle schiste2 son caractre gnrique   
est d'tre  feuillete2 elle renferme     
l'ardoise dont on couvre les toits4 ,ces
  feuillets minces1 qu'on peut prendre  
pour des couches1 et qui le  font en    
effet dans quelques pierres de ce genre1
 rappelloient toujours  l'ide vague de  
dpts des eaux4 ,mais il y a des masses  
dont la  composition est plutt par      
fibres que par feuillets1 et dont le    
mollon  ressemble aux copeaux de bois   
d'un chantier4 ,le plus souvent aussi   
les  feuillets sont situs en toute suite
 de sens dans une mme montagne1  et     
quelquefois mme verticalement1 ,enfin il
 s'en trouve de si tortills1  qu'il est 
impossible de les regarder comme des    

dpts de l'eau4    ,ce fut donc cette    
espce de montagne qui me persuada la    
premire  que toutes les montagnes       
n'avoient pas une mme origine4 ,le lieu 
o  j'abjurai mon erreur1 toit un de ces 
grands chantiers ptrifis1 qui1  par la  
varit du tortillement1 et des zig-zags  
des fibres du mollon  qui le composoit1 
attira singulirement mon attention4     
,c'toit un sort  grand talus qui venoit 
d'une face escarpe2 j'y montai pour     
m'approcher  du rocher1 et je remarquai1
 avec tonnement1 des multitudes de      
paquets  enchevtrs les uns dans les     
autres1 sans ordre ni direction fixe2   
les  uns presqu'en rouleaux2 les autres 
en zig-zag2 et mme ce qui1 spar de  la  
montagne1 et peu tre pris pour des      
couches1 le trouvoit inclin  de toute   
manire dans cette mme face de rocher4   
,non1 me dis-je alors   moi-mme2 non1   
l'eau n'a pu faire cette montagne4444   
,ni celle-l  donc1 ajoutai-je en        
regardant ailleurs4444 ,et pourquoi     
mieux celle-l8  ,pourquoi toutes les    

montagnes devroient-elles tre le produit
 des eaux1  seulement parce qu'il y en a
 quelques-unes qui annoncent cette      
origine8  ,en effet1 puis qu'on n'a song
 aux eaux1 comme cause des montagnes1   
que par les preuves videntes que        
quelques-unes offroient de cette        
formation2 pourquoi tendre cette        
consquence  toutes1 s'il y en  a        
beaucoup qui manquent de ces caractres8 
,c'est comme le dit ,mr4  d',alembert1  
qu'on gnralise ses premires remarques   
l'instant d'apres  qu'on ne remarquoit  
rien4    ,science is indebted to this   
author for giving us so clear a picture 
of natural appearances1 and of his own  
reasoning upon those facts1 in  forming 
his opinion2 he thus leads astray no    
person of sound judgment1  although he  
may be in error4 ,the disposition of    
things in the present  case are such1   
that1 reasoning from his principles1    
this author could  not see the truth2   
because he had not been persuaded1 that 
aquiform  strata could have been so     

changed by the chemical power of fusion1
 and  the mechanical force of bending   
while in a certain state of softness4   
,but though1 in this case1 the reasoning
 of this philosopher is to be           
justified1 so far as he proceeded upon  
principles which could not lead  him to 
the truth1 his conduct is not so        
irreproachable in applying them  to     
cases by which their fallacy might have 
been detected4 ,this author             
acknowledges calcareous strata to be    
aquiform in their original2 but1  in    
those mountains which he has so much    
examined1 he will find those  aquiform  
bodies have undergone the same species  
of changes1 which made  him conclude    
that those schistus mountains had not   
been truly aquiform1  as he at first had
 thought them4 ,this would have led him 
to reason back  upon his principles1 and
 to say1 ,if one species of strata may  
be thus  changed in its texture1 and its
 shape1 may not another be equally so8  
,therefore1 may not the origin of both  

be similar8    ,but least ,i should do  
injustice to this author1 to whom we are
 indebted  for many valuable            
observations in natural history1 ,i     
shall transcribe  what he has said upon 
the subject1 being persuaded that my    
readers will  not think this improper in
 me1 or impertinent to the argument4    
,quand nous fumes une fois persuads que 
la mer n'avoit pas fait  toutes les     
montagnes1 nous entreprmes de dcouvrir  
les caractres  distinctifs de celles qui
 lui devoient leur origine2 et s'il     
toit1 par  exemple1 des matires qui leur
 fussent propres4 ,mais nous y trouvmes 
les mmes difficults qu'on rencontre dans
 tout ce qu'on veut classer  dans la    
nature4 ,on peut bien distinguer        
entr'elles les choses qui  ont fortement
 l'empreinte de leur classe2 mais les   
confins chappent  toujours4    ,c'est l1
 pour le dire en passant1 ce qui a pu   
conduire quelques  philosophes  imaginer
 cette chane des tres o ils supposent1  
que1 de la pierre  l'homme et plus haut1

 les nuances sont rellement             
imperceptibles4 ,comme si1 quoique les  
limites soyent caches  nos sens1  notre 
intelligence ne nous disoit pas1 qu'il y
 a un saut1 une distance  mme infinie1  
entre le plus petit degr d'organization 
propageante1  et la matire unie par la  
simple cohsion3 entre le plus petit degr
 de  sensibilit1 et la matire           
insensible3 entre la plus petite capacit
  d'observer et de transmettre ses      
observations1 et l'instinct constamment 
le mme dans l'espce4 ,toutes ces        
diffrences tranches existent dans la    
nature2 mais notre incapacit de rien    
connotre  fond1 et la necessit  o nous  
sommes de juger de tout sur des         
apparences1 nous fait perdre  presque   
toutes les limites1 parce que sur ces   
bords1 la plupart des  phnomnes sont    
quivoques4 ,ainsi la plante nous parot  
se rapprocher de  la pierre1 mais n'en  
approche jamais rellement4    ,on prouve
 la mme difficult  classer les          
montagnes2 et quoique  depuis quelque   

tems plusieurs naturalistes ayent aussi 
observ qu'elles  n'ont pas toutes la mme
 origine1 je ne vois pas qu'on soit     
parvenu   fixer des caractres           
infaillibles1 pour les placer srement   
toutes dans  leurs classes particulires4
    ,aprs avoir examin attentivement cet
 objet1 d'aprs les phnomnes que  j'ai   
moi-mme observs1 et ce que j'ai appris  
par les observations des  autres2 j'ai  
vu que c'toit l un champ trs vaste1     
quand on vouloit  l'embrasser en entier1
 et trop vaste pour moi1 qui n'toit pas 
libre d'y  consacrer tout le tems qu'il 
exige4 ,je me suis donc repli sur mon   
objet  principal1 savoir la cause qui a 
laiss des dpouilles marines dans nos    
continens1 et l'examen des hypothses sur
 cette matire4    ,les phnomnes ainsi   
limits1 se rduisent  ceci3 qu'il y a    
dans nos  continens des montagnes       
visiblement formes par des dpts         
successifs  de la mer et a l'gard des   
quelles il n'y a besoin de rien         
imaginer1 si  ce n'est la manire dont   

elles en sont sorties3 qu'il y en a     
d'autres au  contraire1 qui ne portent  
aucun des caractres de cette cause1 et  
qui1  si elles ont t produites dans la  
mer1 doivent tre l'effet de toute  autre
 cause que de simples dpts successifs1  
et avoir mme prcd  l'existence des      
animaux marins4 ,j'abandonne donc les   
classes confuses  o ces caractres sont  
quivoques1 jusqu' ce qu'elles servent   
fonder  quelque hypothse2 ayant assez de
 ces deux classes trs distinctes pour   
examiner d'apres elles tous les systmes 
qui me sont connus4    ,l o ces deux    
classes de montagnes sont mles1 on      
remarque que celles  qui sont formes par
 couches1 et qui renferment des corps   
marins1  recouvrent souvent celles de   
l'autre classe1 mais n'en sont jamais   
recouvertes4 ,on a donc naturellement   
conclu1 que lors mme que la mer  auroit 
en quelque part  la formation des       
montagnes o l'on ne reconnot  pas son   
caractre1 celles auxquelles elle a      
travaill seule1 en enlevant  des matires

 dans certaines parties de son fond et  
les dposant dans  d'autres1 font au     
moins les dernires formes4 ,on les a    
donc nommes  secondaires1 et les autres 
primitives4    ,j'adopterai la premire  
de ces expressions2 car c'est la mme qui
 nous  toit venu  l'esprit  mon frre1 et
  moi longtemps avant que nous          
l'eussions vue employer2 mais je        
substituerai celle de primordiales      
primitives pour l'autre classe de       
montagnes1 afin de ne rien dcider  sur  
leur origine4 ,il est des montagnes1    
dont jusqu' present on n'a pu  dmler la 
cause3 voila le fait4 ,je ne dirai donc 
pas qu'elles ont  t cres ainsi1 parce   
qu'en physique je ne dois pas employer  
des  expressions sur lesquelles on ne   
s'entend pas4 ,sans doute cependant1    
que l'histoire naturelle ni la physique 
ne nous conduisent nullement   croire   
que notre globe ait exist de toute      
ternit2 et lorsqu'il prit  naissance1 il
 fallut bien que la matire qui le       
composa fut de quelque  nature1 ou sous 

quelque premire forme intgrante4 ,rien  
donc jusqu'ici  n'empche d'admettre que 
ces montagnes que je nommerai           
primordiales1  ne soient rellement      
primitives2 je penche mme pour cette    
opinion   l'gard de quelques unes4 ,mais
 il y a une trs grande varit            
entr'elles2 et quoiqu'elles soyent      
toutes galement exclues de la classe    
secondaire1 elles ne sont pas toutes    
semblables3 il y en a mme un  grand     
nombre dont les matires ont une certaine
 configuration qui semble  annoncer     
qu'elles ayent t molles et durcies      
ensuite1 quoique par  une toute autre   
cause que celle qui a agi pour former   
les montagnes  secondaires4    ,here ,i 
would beg leave to call the attention of
 philosophers to this  observation of a 
naturalist who explains all             
petrification1 and the  consolidation of
 strata by aqueous infiltration4 ,if he 
has here found  reason to conclude that1
 in those primordial parts of the earth1
 there  are a great number which1 from  

their present configuration1 must have  
been in a soft state and then hardened1 
and this by a quite different  cause    
from that which he supposes had produced
 the consolidation and  hardness of the 
secondary parts2 this is entering       
precisely into my  views of the subject1
 in ascribing all the consolidation of  
the earth1  whether primary or          
secondary1 to one general cause1 and in 
tracing this  cause1 from its effects1  
to be no other than the fusion of those 
bodies4  ,it must be evident1 that if   
this philosopher has seen good reason   
for  concluding such a softening cause1 
which had operated upon the primary     
parts1 to be quite different from that  
which he ascribes to the  consolidation 
of the secondary1 which is the effect of
 water1 it must  then1 ,i say1 be       
evident that the softening cause of the 
primary parts1  if not heat1 by which   
every degree of fusion may be produced1 
must be an  occult cause1 one which     
cannot be admitted into natural         

philosophy4    ,by thus choosing to     
consider mountains as of two distinct   
kinds1 one  aquiform which is           
understood1 and the other primordial    
which is not to  be known1 we supersede 
the necessity of reconciling a theory   
with many  appearances in nature which  
otherwise might be extremely            
inconvenient  to our explanation1 if not
 inconsistent with our system4 ,our     
author no  doubt has thus relieved      
himself from a considerable difficulty  
in the  philosophy of this earth1 by    
saying here is a great part which is not
  to be explained4 ,but ,i would beg    
leave to observe1 that this form of     
discussion1 with regard to a physical   
subject1 is but a mere confession  of   
our ignorance1 and has no tendency to   
clear up another part of the  subject of
 which one treats1 however it may       
impress us with a favourable  opinion of
 the theorist1 in allowing him all the  
candour of the  acknowledgement4    ,the
 general result of the reasoning which  

we now have quoted1 and what  follows in
 his examination1 seems to terminate in 
this2 that there are  various different 
compositions of mountains which this    
author cannot  allow to be the          
production of the sea2 but it is not    
upon account of  the matter of which    
they are formed1 or of the particular   
mixture and  composition of those       
species of matter1 of which the variety 
is almost  indefinite4 ,according to    
this philosopher1 the distinction that  
we are  to make of those primordial and 
secondary competitions1 consists in     
this1 that the first are in such a shape
 and structure as cannot be  conceived  
to be formed by subsidence in water4    
,m4 de ,saussure has carefully examined 
those same objects2 and he seems        
inclined to think that they must have   
been the operation of the ocean2  not in
 the common manner of depositing strata1
 but in some other way by               
crystallization4 ,the present theory    
supposes all those masses formed        

originally in the ordinary manner1 by   
the deposits or subsidence  of materials
 transported in the waters1 and that    
those strata were  afterwards changed by
 operations proper to the mineral       
regions4    ,but the subject of the     
present investigation goes farther1 by  
inquiring  if1 in the operations of the 
globe1 a primary and secondary class of 
bodies may be distinguished1 so far as  
the one may have undergone the          
operations of the globe1 or the         
vicissitudes of sea and land1 oftener   
than the other1 consequently must be    
anterior to the later productions  both 
in time and operation1 although the     
original of all those bodies  be the    
same1 and the operations of the earth1  
so far as we see in the  effects1 always
 proceed upon the same principles4 ,this
 is an extensive  view of nature to     
which few have turned their thoughts4   
,but this is  a subject to which the    
observations described by this author   
have  evidently a reference4    ,in his 

#aacth letter1 he has given us a view of
 one of those parts of the  earth that  
are proper to be examined in determining
 this question so  important in the     
genealogy of land1 although no ways     
concerned in  altering the principles   
upon which nature in forming continents 
must  proceed4    ,it is in describing  
the nature of the mountains about       
,elbingerode2 and  he begins in         
ascending from ,hefeld4    ,cette partie
 extrieure de la chane est primordiale3 
c'est du  granit  ,hereld et au         
commencement de la route2 puis quand on 
passe  dans d'autres valles1 on trouve  
les schistes et la roche grise dans     
tout le pied des montagnes3 mais des    
qu'on est arriv  une certain  hauteur1  
on voit de la pierre  chaux par couches 
tendue sur ces  matires2 et c'est elle  
qui forme le sommet de ces mmes         
montagnes2  tellement que la plaine     
leve1 qui conduit  ,elbingerode1 est    
entirement de pierre  chaux1 except dans
 sa partie la plus haute ou  cette      

pierre est recouverte des mmes grs et   
sables vitrescibles  qui sont sur le    
schiste du ,bruchberg et sur la pierre  
chaux dans la  ,hesse et le pays de     
,gottingue4    ,les environs            
d',elbingerode tant plus bas que ces    
parties recouvertes  de matires         
vitrescibles1 montrent la pierre  chaux 
nud2 et l'on y  trouve de trs beaux     
marbres1 dont les nuances jaunes1 rouges
 et vertes  sont souvent trs vives1 et  
embellies par les coupes des corps      
marins4    ,cependant le schiste n'est  
pas enseveli partout sous ces dpts de la
  mer2 on le retrouve en quelques       
endroits1 et mme avec de filons4        
,ainsi au milieu de ces matires         
calcaires qui forment le sol montueux   
des environs d',elbingerode1 parot      
encore le schiste sur lequel  elles ont 
t dposes3 ,et en montant  la partie la  
plus leve de  ces mmes environs1 on     
trouve que la pierre  chaux est         
recouverte  elle-mme d'une pierre       
sableuse grise par couches1 dans        

laquelle on  voit quantit de petits     
fragmens de schiste poss de plat4 ,c'est
 la  que se trouve une des mines de fer 
dont le minerai va en partie  la        
,koningshutte1 mais en plus grande      
partie  la ,rothechutte1 qui n'est  qu' 
une lieue de distance4 ,on perce d'abord
 la couche sableuse2 sous  elle se      
trouve de la pierre  chaux grise2 puis  
une couche de  pierre  chaux            
ferrugineuse1 remplie de corps marins1  
et surtout  d'entroques3 ,c'est cette   
couche qui est ici le minerai2 et elle  
appartient  la formation de cette       
minence comme toutes les autres         
couches4 ,cette mine se nomme bomshey3  
elle n'est pas riche2 mais  elle sert de
 fondant aux matires ferrugineuses tires
 des filons des  montagnes primordiales 
en mme tems qu'elle leur ajoute son fer 
dans  la fonte4 ,a quelque distance de l
 on a perc un autre puits2 qui a        
transvers d'abord une sorte de pierre1  
que je ne saurois nommer1 mais  qui     
ressemble fort  une lave poreuse4 ,au   

dessous de cette couche on a  retrouv la
 pierre  chaux ordinaire2 puis la couche
 ferrugineuse y  continue2 mais elle    
diffre un peu de ce qu'elle est dans    
l'autre mine1  une partie de sa         
substance tant convertie en jaspe4      
,mais ce qui est digne de la plus grande
 attention dans cette contre1  est un   
filon peu distant nomme ,buchenberg1 qui
 appartient en partie au  ,roi1 et en   
partie  ,mr4 le ,comte de ,wernigerode4 
,la montagne en cette  endroit montre   
une valle artificielle de #gj  #hj pieds
 de profondeur1  de #bj  #cj de largeur 
dans le haut1 et de #djj toises en      
tendue4 ,c'est  le creusement qu'on a dj
 fait en suivant ce filon de fer1 que   
l'on  continue  exploiter de la mme     
manire sur les terres de ,mr4 le ,comte 
de ,wernigerode4 ,la matire propre de la
 montagne est de schiste2  et la valle  
qui se forme de nouveau  mesure qu'on   
enlve la gangue  du filon1 a srement dj 
exist dans la mer sous la forme d'une   
fente1 qui a t remplie1 et en           

particulier des ingrdiens dont on  fait 
aujourd'hui le fer4    ,here is a       
supposition of our author that          
corresponds to nothing which  has yet   
been observed any where else1 so far as 
,i know4 ,it is concerning  a mineral   
vein1 one which does not appear to      
differ in any respect from  other       
mineral veins1 except in being worked in
 that open manner which  has given our  
author an idea of its being a valley4   
,he then supposes  that valley 7or      
rather empty vein7 to have been in this 
mountain when at  the bottom of the sea1
 and that this mineral vein had then    
been filled  with those materials which 
now are found in that space between the 
two  sides of the separated rock4 ,this 
is a very different operation from  that
 of infiltration1 which is commonly     
supposed to be the method of  filling   
mineral veins2 but1 we shall soon see   
the reason why our author  has here     
deserted the common hypothesis1 and has 
adopted another to  serve the occasion1 

without appearing to have considered how
 perfectly  inconsistent those two      
suppositions are to each other4 ,that   
mineral  veins have been filled with    
matter in a fluid state1 is acknowledged
 by  every body who has either looked at
 a mineral vein in the earth1 or in a   
cabinet specimen2 mineralists and       
geologists1 in general1 suppose this  to
 have been done by means of solutions   
and concretions1 a supposition  by no   
means warranted by appearances1 which1  
on the contrary1 in general  demonstrate
 that the materials of those veins had  
been introduced in the  fluid state of  
fusion4 ,but here is a new idea with    
regard to the filling  of those veins2  
and1 ,i would now beg the reader's      
attention to the facts  which follow in 
this interesting description1 and which 
have suggested  that idea to our author4
    ,quand cette matire accidentelle est
 enleve1 on voit la coupe du  schiste   
des deux ctes de la fente1 faisant un   
toit et un mur1  parce que la fente     

n'est pas absolument verticale3 des     
qu'il y a  un peu d'inclinaison1 on     
distingue un toit et un mur1 comme j'ai 
l'honneur de l'expliquer  ,v4,m4 ,on ne 
connot point encore l'tendue de  ce     
filon1 ni dans sa profondeur1 o l'on ne 
peut pas s'enfoncer beaucoup  de cette  
manire1 ni dans la longueur1 selon      
laquelle on continue   l'exploiter4     
,voil donc un filon1  la rigueur de la  
dfinition que j'en ai donn   ,v4,m4     
c'est  dire1 une fente dans la montagne 
naturelle1 comble  de matire trangre4   
,mais ce qu'il y a d'extraordinaire ici1
 c'est  que cette matire vient de la    
mer3 ce sont diffrentes couches         
aquiformes1 dont quelques unes sont     
remplies de corps marins4 ,il y  a des  
couches d'une terre martiale fort brune 
et sans liaison3  d'autres1 au contraire
 toujours martiales1 sont trs dures et  
renferment de trs beau jaspe sanguin3   
d'autres enfin sont de vrai  marbre gris
 veines de rouge4 ,c'est dans ce marbre 
que font les corps  marins1 savoir des  

coquillages et des spongites2 et il est 
lui-mme  martial comme tout le reste3   
les mineurs le nomment ,kubrimen1 et ne 
l'employent que comme un fondant pour   
d'autres minraux de fer4    ,a ce filon1
 s'en joignent d'autres plus            
embarrassans4 ,ils viennent du  toit1   
qu'ils divisent par de larges fentes    
combles1 aboutissantes  au filon        
principale4 ,ils font de mme calcaires  
et marins faits par  couches2 mais ces  
couches ont une si grande inclinaison1  
que je ne  puis les comprendre3 il faut 
qu'il y ait eu d'tranges bouleversemens 
dans ces endroits-l#bg4    ,note #bg3   
,here1 no doubt1 are appearances which  
it is impossible to  explain by the     
theory of infiltration2 it is the       
filling of mineral  veins1 and their    
branches or ramifications1 with marble  
containing marks  of marine objects4    
,but1 if we shall suppose this marble to
 have been in  the fluid state of       
fusion1 as well as the iron-ore and     
jasper1 we may  easily conceive it      

introduced into the principal vein and  
its branches4  ,the description here    
given of those appearances is by no     
means such as  to enable us to judge    
particularly of this case1 which surely 
merits the  most accurate investigation1
 and which1 ,i doubt not1 will give     
physical  demonstration of the fusion of
 those mineral substances4 ,i know that 
shells have been found within the body  
of veins in ,germany2 but1 a            
stratification of those materials in a  
vein was never heard of before1  so far 
as ,i know4    ,ces fentes se sont      
faites1 et ont t remplies1 dans la mer2 
puisque les matires qui les remplissent 
sont de la classe de ses dpts  trs      
connoissables1 et qu'il contiennent des 
dpouilles marines4 ,mais  ce qui        
embarrasse alors c'est que les autres   
filons ne soyent pas dans  le mme cas4  
,n'est ce point l encore un indice1 que 
ces fentes out  t d'abord et            
principalement remplies de matires1     
pousses du fond par  la mme force qui   

secouoit les montagnes#bh4    ,note #bh3
 ,but what is this power by which matter
 is to be forced from  the bottom of the
 sea to the top of the mountains8 ,for1 
unless we can  form some idea of that   
power which1 as a cause1 we ascribe to  
the  perceived effect1 we either say    
nothing to the purpose1 or we employ a  
preternatural cause4 ,it is not         
sufficient to imagine a power capable of
  raising from the bottom of the sea the
 materials deposited in the abyss2  it  
is also necessary to find a power       
capable of softening bodies which  are  
hard1 and of thus consolidating those   
masses which are formed of  loose or    
unconnected materials4 ,such a power1   
indeed1 the present theory  assumes2    
and1 so far as this shall be implied in 
the supposition of our  author1 it will 
thus have received a certain            
conformation4    ,ce filon n'est pas le 
seul dans le ,hartz qui donne des signes
  marins4 ,il y en a un autre1 qui mme  
se rapproche davantage de  la nature du 

commun des filons1 et o l'on trouve     
aussi des  coquillages4 ,c'est celui de 
,haus-,hartzbergerzug1 pres de          
,clausthal1 o1 dans les ,halles de      
quelques mines de plomb  abandonnes1 et 
dans une forte d'ardoise1 on trouve de  
petites  moules ou tellines stries1     
d'une espce particulire que j'ai vue    
dans des ardoises secondaires d',arotzen
 en ,waldek et de ,sombernon  en        
,bourgogne4 ,il y a donc certainement   
quelques filons faits par les  dpts de  
la mer dans les fentes de montagnes     
primordiales2 comme  au contraire il y a
 des filons mtalliques sans indices     
marins1  dans des montagnes videmment   
secondaires1 telles que celles de       
,derbyshire1 ou les filons de plomb     
traversent des couches de  pierre       
chaux4    ,here again our author seems  
to me to refute his own supposition1    
,that a  chasm in the schistus rock may 
have existed at the bottom of the sea1  
and been then filled from above with    
such materials as were transported  by  

the moving water to that place1 is not  
impossible2 but nobody1 who  knows the  
nature of a common metallic vein1 can   
ever suppose it to have  been filled in 
that manner4 ,our author then adds1 ,on 
ne fait rellement  que commencer dans ce
 genre d'observations1 considres quant  
la  ,cosmologie2 ainsi il ne faut point 
dsesprer que tout cela ne se  dvoile un 
jour1 et que nous n'acquerrions ainsi un
 peu plus de  connoissance sur ce qui se
 passoit dans la mer ancienne4    ,en   
revenant vers ,elbingerode1 nous        
retrouvmes ces schistes1 qui  paroissent
 au travers des marbres3 ils sont donc  
la continuation de la  masse schisteuse 
laquelle appartient le filon1 dont je   
viens de  parler4 ,ce filon  t form dans
 une fente1 reste ouverte et vide3  les 
dpts de la mer l'ont comble1 en mme tems
 qu'ils formoient  les couches de       
marbre1 qui sont  l'extrieur4 ,en effet1
 ce filon  contient des couches marines 
ferrugineuses1 de la mme nature que     
celles des collines calcaires voisines  

formes sur le schiste4    ,nous partmes 
d',elbingerode dans l'aprs midi pour    
nous rapprocher  de ,clausthal4 ,notre  
chemin fut encore quelque tems sur des  
sommits  calcaires2 et avant que d'en   
sortir1 nous trouvmes une autre mine    
singulire  ,arenfeld4 ,c'est encore un  
vrai filon2 mais dans une  montagne de  
pierre  chaux3 ,c'est -dire1 que cette  
montagne a aussi  t fendue1 et que la   
fente a t remplie d'une gangue4 ,la     
matire  de ce filon est encore calcaire 
en plus grande partie2 mais  cette      
pierre  chaux distincte est             
ferrugineuse1 et parseme de  concrtions 
de jaspe comme celles d',elbingerode3 on
 y trouve aussi  une matire verdtre1    
qui1 comme le jaspe1 ne fait pas        
effervescence  avec l'eau forte4        
,here is a phenomenon which is          
altogether incompatible with the theory 
that this author has given us for the   
explanation of those appearances4  ,he  
supposes empty crevices in the schistus 
mountains at the bottom of  the sea2    

these crevices he supposes filled by the
 deposits of the sea1  at the same time1
 and with the same materials with which 
the lime-stone  strata were formed above
 the schistus mountains2 but we find one
 of  those same veins in these secondary
 calcareous strata4 ,now1 tho' we       
should be disposed to allow1 that1 in   
the primordial mountain1 of which  we   
are supposed not to know the origin1    
there might have been empty  crevices   
which were afterwards filled with       
materials transported by the  sea1 this 
cannot be admitted as taking place in   
the loose or incoherent  materials      
deposited above the schistus4           
,consequently1 this theory of our       
author1 which is evidently erroneous    
with regard to the veins in the         
lime-stone1 must1 in the other case1 be 
at least examined with a jealous  eye4  
,le haut de cette partie des montagnes  
calcaires toit encore  recouvert de     
sable et de grs vitrescibles3 et        
continuant  marcher1  sans aucune       

inflexion sensible1 nous nous trouvmes  
subitement sur les  schistes2 d'o nous  
montmes plus rapidement4 ,puis          
traversant quelques  petites valles nous
 arrivmes sur les montagnes qui         
appartiennent au  prolongement du       
,brocken ou ,blocksberg4 ,la matire     
dominante est  alors le granit2 mais il 
est tout en blocs le long de cette      
route1 et  ces blocs se trouvent  une   
telle distance de tout sommit intacte de
  cette pierre1 qui est ais de juger non
 seulement qu'ils ne sont pas  dans leur
 place originaire1 mais encore qu'il ne 
sont arrivs l par  aucune des causes    
naturelles qui agissent dans les        
montagnes2 savoir1  la pesanteur1 la    
pente1 et le cours des eaux4 ,ce sont   
donc de violentes  explosions qui ont   
dispers ces blocs2 et alors ils         
deviennent un  nouveau trait            
cosmologique de quelque importance3 car 
rien ne se meut1  ni ne parot s'tre mu  
depuis bien des sicles1 dans ces lieux  
qui  montrent tant de dsordre3 un tapis 

de verdure couvre tout1 en  conservant  
les contours baroques du sol4 ,le btail 
ne sauroit pturer  dans de telles       
prairies2 mais l'industrieux montagnard 
fait y  faucher#bi4    ,note #bi3 ,m4 de
 ,saussure endeavours to explain those  
appearances of  transported blocks of   
granite by another cause2 this is a     
certain  debacle of the waters of the   
earth1 which ,i do not understand4 ,m4  
de  ,luc again attempts to explain it by
 violent explosions2 ,i suppose he      
means those of a volcano4 ,but he has   
not given us the evidence upon  which   
such an opinion may be founded1 farther 
than by saying that those  blocks could 
not have come there by the natural      
operations of the  surface4 ,by this    
must be meant1 that1 from the nearest   
summit of  granite1 there is not1 at    
present1 any natural means by which     
these  blocks might be transported to   
that place4 ,but it is not with the     
present state of things that we are     
concerned1 in explaining the  operations

 of a distant period4 ,if the natural   
operations of the surface  change the   
shape of things1 as is clearly proved by
 every natural  appearance1 ,why form an
 argument against a former transaction1 
upon the  circumstances of the present  
state of things8 ,our author does not   
seem to perceive1 that1 from this mode  
of reasoning1 there is is an            
insuperable objection to his violent    
explosions having been employed in      
producing those effects4 ,for1 had there
 been such a cause1 the evidence  of    
this must have remained2 if the surface 
of the earth does not undergo  great    
changes3 ,if1 again1 this surface be in 
time much changed1 ,how can  we judge   
from the present shape1 what might have 
been the former posture  of things8     
,this author1 indeed1 does not allow    
much time for the natural operations  of
 the globe to change its surface2 but1  
if things be not greatly  removed from  
the state in which the violent          
operations of the globe had  placed     

them1 ,why does he not point out to us  
the source of this great  disorder which
 he there perceives8 ,from what         
explosion will be explained  the blocks 
of granite which are found upon the     
,jura1 and which must have  come from   
the mass of ,mont ,blanc8 ,if these     
dispersed blocks of  stone are to be    
explained by explosion1 there must3 have
 been similar  explosions in other      
countries where there is not the        
smallest appearance  of volcanic        
eruptions2 for1 around all our granite  
mountains1 and ,i  believe all others1  
there are found many blocks of granite1 
traveled at  a great distance1 and in   
all directions4    ,oberbruck1 ou nous  
avions t la prcdente fois1 se trouva sur
 notre  route1 et nous y passames aussi 
la nuit1 dans l'esprance de pouvoir     
monter le lendemain sur le ,brocken2    
mais il fut encore envelopp de  nuages2 
ainsi nous continumes  marcher vers     
,clausthal1 passant de  nouveau par le  
,bruchberg1 o le sable et ses gres      

recouvrent le  schiste2 puis arrivant   
une autre sommit1 nous y trouvmes la mme
  pierre sableuse par couches1 mle de   
parcelles de schiste1 que nous  avions  
vue sur les montagnes calcaires         
d',elbingerode4 ,il est donc  toujours  
plus certain que le sol primordial de   
toutes ces montagnes  existoit sous les 
eaux de l'ancienne mer2 puisqu'il est   
recouvert de  diverses fortes de dpts1  
connus pour appartenir  la mer2 et que  
les  fentes des filons existoient dans  
cette mer ancienne2 puisqu'elle  en a   
rempli elle-mme quelques unes1 et       
qu'elle a recouvert de ses  dpts        
quelques autres filons tout forms4      
,quant  celles des matires  de ces      
filons1 qui ne paroissent pas tre       
marines 7et c'est de  beaucoup la plus  
grande quantit71 j'ai toujours plus de  
penchant d'en  attribuer une partie     
l'opration des feux souterreins1  mesure
 que  je vois diminuer la probabilit de 
les assigner entirement  l'eau4  ,mais  
quoi-qu'il en soit1 ces gangues ne font 

pas de mme date que les  montagnes#cj4  
,note #cj3 ,i most willingly admit the  
justness of our author's view1 if  he   
thus perceives the operation of fire in 
the solids of our earth2 but  it is not 
for the reasons he has given us for     
discovering it here more  than in other 
places2 for there is not a mineral vein1
 7so far at least  as ,i have seen71 in 
which the appearances may be explained  
by any thing  else besides the operation
 of fire or fusion4 ,it is not easy to  
conceive  in what manner our author had 
conceived the opinions which he has     
displayed in these letters4 ,he had no  
opinion of this kind1 or rather he  was 
persuaded that subterraneous fire had no
 hand in the formation of  this earth   
before he came to this place of the     
,hartz2 here he finds  certain          
appearances1 by which he is confirmed in
 his former opinion1  that water had    
operated in forming mineral veins2 and  
then he forms the  idea that            
subterraneous fire may have operated    

also4 ,but1 before the  discovery of the
 chasms in the schistus mountains having
 been filled  with the stratified       
materials of the sea1 ,how had he       
supposed veins to  be filled8 ,if this  
philosopher had before no opinion of    
subterraneous  fire1 as instrumental in 
that operation1 ,how comes he now to    
change that  former opinion8 ,for1      
unless it be the extraordinary manner of
 filling  these open crevices in the    
mountains by matter deposited           
immediately  from the sea1 there is     
certainly no other appearance in this   
mineral  country of the ,hartz1 that may
 not be found in any other1 only perhaps
  upon a smaller scale4    ,le lendemain
 de notre arrive a ,clausthal1 qui toit 
le #ac;e1 nous  allmes visiter d'autres 
mines de fer en montagnes secondaires1  
situes au ct oppos du ,hartz4 ,elles    
sont auprs de ,grund l'une  des villes  
de mines1 et prs du lieu ou sortira la  
nouvelle galerie  d'coulement  laquelle 
on travaille1 etc4    ,arrivs  ,grund   

les officiers mineurs vinrent1 comme    
l'ordinaire1  accompagner ,mons4 de     
,reden aux mines de leur dpartement4    
,celles-ci1  sans tre plus              
extraordinaires que celles qui nous     
avions vues   ,elbingerod1 ou sans aider
 mieux jusqu'ici  expliquer ce qu'elles 
ont  toutes d'extraordinaire1 nous      
donnent au moins des indices probables  
de grands accidens4 ,ces montagnes de   
,grund sont encore de l'espce           
remarquable1 dont la base est de        
schiste1 et le haut de pierre   chaux4  
,les mines qu'on y exploit sont de fer1 
et se trouvent dans  cette matire       
calcaire2 mais elles y sont sous des    
apparences  tout--fait tranges4 ,la     
montagne o nous les vmes principalement 
le  nomme ,iberg4 ,on y poursuit des    
masses de pierre  fer1 de l'ensemble    
desquelles les mineurs ne peuvent encore
 se rendre compte d'une manire  claire4 
,ils ont trouv dans cette montagne des  
cavernes1 qui  ressemblent              
l'encaissement de sillons dj exploits1  

ou non forms2  c'est--dire1 que ce sont 
des fentes presque verticales1 et vides1
 ,le  minerai qu'ils poursuivent est en 
,rognons2 c'est  dire1 en grandes       
masses sans continuit dcide4 ,cependant 
ces masses semblent se  succder dans la 
montagne suivant une certaine direction2
 tellement que  les mineurs savent dj   
les chercher1 par des indices           
d'habitude4  ,la substance de cette     
pierre  fer particulire renferme des    
crystallizations de diverses espces4 ,il
 y a des druses de quartz1 ou  de petits
 cristaux de quartz qui tapissent des   
cavits2 il y a aussi du  spath commun1  
et de celui qu'on nomme pesant2 on y    
trouve enfin une  forte de              
crystallization nomme ,eisenman 7homme  
de fer7 par les  mineurs2 se sont des   
amas de cristaux noir-tres1 qui         
ressemblent   des groupes de grandes    
lentilles plattes1 et ces cristaux sont 
ferrugineux4    ,entre les signes de    
bouleversement que renferme ce lieu1 est
 un  rocher nomm ,gebichensten1 qui est 

en pierre  chaux1 ce que                
l',ebrenbreitstein de ,coblentz est en  
pierre sableuse3 c'est--dire1  que ses  
couches1 remplies de corps marins1 sont 
presque verticales2  ceux de ces corps  
qu'on y trouve en plus grande quantit1  
sont des  madrpores4 ,ce rocher s'lve   
comme un grand oblisque1 au-dessus des  
cavernes1 dont j'ai parl2 montrant par  
le ct ses couches1 qui se  trouvent1    
comme je l'ai dit1 dans une situation   
presque verticale4 ,sa  base est dj bien
 mine1 tant par les cavernes1 que par la
 pierre   fer qu'on en tire2 et je ne me
 hasardai dessus1 que parce que je me   
dis1 qu'il y a des millions contre un   
parier1 que ce n'est pas le  moment o il
 s'enfoncerait4 ,mais je n'en dirois pas
 autant1 s'il  s'agissoit de m'y loger  
demeure4    ,quoique tout ce lieu l soit
 fort remarquable1 il se pourrait que ce
  ne fut qu'un phnomne particulier4 ,les
 cavernes peuvent devoir leur  origine  
la mme cause que celle de ,schartzfeld2 
et le drangement des  rochers suprieurs 

des enfoncemens occasionns par ces      
cavernes4  ,rien n'est si difficile que 
de retracer aujourd'hui ces fortes      
d'accidens  cause des changemens que le 
tems y a oprs4 ,s'ils sont  arrivs sous 
les eaux de la mer1 on conoit aisment   
les altrations  qui ont d succder2 et si
 c'est depuis que nos continens sont    
sec1  les eaux encore1 tant intrieures  
qu'extrieures1 et la vgtation1 en  ont  
beaucoup chang l'aspect4    ,this author
 has a theory by which he explains to   
himself the former  residence of the    
sea1 above the summits of our mountains2
 this1  however1 is not the theory by   
which we are now endeavouring to explain
  appearances2 we must therefore be     
allowed to reason from our own          
principles1 in considering the facts    
here set forth by our author4           
,nothing1 ,i think1 is more evident1    
than that in this mineral country of    
the ,hartz1 we may find the clearest    
marks of fracture1 elevation1 and       
dislocation of the strata1 and of the   

introduction of foreign matter  among   
those separated bodies4 ,all those      
appearances1 our author would  have to  
be nothing but some particular accident1
 which is not to enter  into the        
physiology of the earth4 ,i wish again  
to generalise these  facts1 by finding  
them universal in relation to the globe1
 and  necessarily to be found in all the
 consolidated parts of our land4    ,it 
was not to refute our author's reasoning
 that ,i have here introduced  so much  
of his observations1 but to give an     
extensive view of the  mineral structure
 of this interesting country4 ,this     
therefore being  done1 we now proceed to
 what is more peculiarly our business in
 this  place1 or the immediate subject  
of investigation1 viz4 the distinction  
of primary and secondary strata4        
,dans le voisinage de cette montagne1 il
 y a une autre fort  intressante1 que je
 vis le jour suivant4 ,quoiqu'en        
traitant des  volcans1 j'aie dmontr que 
la formation des montagnes1 par         

soulvement1  toit sans exemple dans les 
faits1 et sans fondement dans la thorie1
 je  ne laisseroi pas de m'arrter au    
phnomne que prsente cette montagne2     
parce qu'il prouvera directement que les
 couches calcaires au moins1  ont t     
formes  la hauteur ou elles sont2       
c'est-a-dire qu'elles  n'ont pas t      
souleves4    ,voulant prendre l'occasion
 de mon retour  ,hanovre1 pour traverser
  les avant-corps du ,hartz1 dans       
quelque nouvelle direction2 je rsolus   
de faire ce voyage  cheval1 et de       
prendre ma route droite vers  ,hanovre1 
au-travers des collines2 ce qui me      
conduisit encore  ,grund  puis          
,mnchehof ,brunshausen1 ,engelade1      
,winsenburg et ,alfeld1 o  enfin1       
traversant la ,leine j'entrai dans la   
grande route4    ,je quittai donc       
,clausthal 7et avec bien du regret7 le  
#ad au matin2  et revenant d'abord      
,grund1 je le laissai sur ma droite1    
ainsi  que l',iberg2 et plus loin1 du   
mme ct1 une autre montagne nomme        

,winterberg dont la base est schiste1 et
 le sommet plus haut que  ,clausthal1   
entirement compos de couches calcaires4 
,de ,grund je  montai vers une montagne 
nomme ,ost ,kamp2 et je commenai l      
donner  une attention particulire au    
sol4 ,le long de mon chemin1 je ne      
trouvai  longtemps que des schistes1 qui
 montroient leurs points en haut1 comme 
l'ordinaire1 et avec tous leurs         
tortillemens de feuillets4 ,mais arriv  
au haut de la montagne1 j'y vis des     
carrires de pierre  chaux1 o  les       
couches absolument rgulires1 et qui ont 
peu d'paisseur sur le  schiste suivent  
parfaitement les contours du sommet4    
,ces lits de  pierre  chaux n'ont       
certainement pas t soulevs du fond de la
 mer  sur le dos des schistes2 lors mme 
qu' cause de la grande inclinaison  des 
feuillets de ceux-ci on voudroit le     
attribuer  quelque rvolution  telle que 
le soulvement2 7ce que je n'admettrois  
point74 ,car si ces  lits calcaires1    
ayant t faits au fond de la mer1 avoyent

 t  soulevs avec les schistes1 ne       
feroient-ils pas briss et bouleverss    
comme eux8 ,il est donc evident1 que    
quoiqu'il soi arriv au schiste qui  les 
porte1 ces lits1 et tous les autres de  
mme genre qui sont au haut  de ces      
montagnes1 ont t dposes au niveau o ils 
sont2 et que  par consquent la mer les  
surpassoit alors4 ,ainsi le systme de   
soulvement perd son but1 s'il tend      
expliquer pourquoi nous avons des       
couches1 formes par la mer1 qui se      
trouvent maintenant si fort au  dessus  
de son niveau4 ,il est vident que ces   
couches n'ont pas t  souleves2 mais que 
la mer s'est abaisse4 ,or c'est l le    
grand  point cosmologique  expliquer3   
tous les autres1 qui tiennent  la       
structure de certaines montagnes        
inintelligibles1 n'appartiendront qu'   
l'histoire naturelle1 tant qu'ils ne se 
lieront pas avec celui-la4    ,here are 
two things to be considered2 the        
interesting facts described  by our     
author1 and the inference that he would 

have us draw from those  facts4 ,it     
would appear from the facts1 that the   
body of schistus below1  and that of    
lime-stone above1 had not undergone the 
same disordering  operations1 or by no  
means in the same degree4 ,but our      
author has formed  another conclusion2  
he says1 that these lime-stone strata   
must have been  formed precisely in the 
place and order in which they lie at    
present2  and the reason for this is1   
because these strata appeared to him to 
follow perfectly the contour of the     
summit of this mountain4 ,now1 had      
there been in the top of this mountain a
 deep hollow encompassed about  with the
 schistus rock2 and had this cavity been
 now found filled with  horizontal      
strata1 there might have been some      
shadow of reason for  supposing those   
strata to have been deposited upon the  
top of the  mountain4 ,but to suppose1  
first1 that shells and corals should be 
deposited upon the convex summit of a   
mountain which was then covered by  the 

sea2 secondly1 that these moveable      
materials should remain upon  the       
summit1 while the sea had changed its   
place2 and1 lastly1 that  those shells  
and corals left by the sea upon the top 
of a mountain  should become strata of  
solid limestone1 and have also metallic 
veins  in it1 certainly holds of no     
principle of natural philosophy that ,i 
am  acquainted with4 ,if1 therefore1    
such an appearance as this were to be   
employed either in illustration or      
confirmation of a theory1 it  would     
itself require to be explained2 but this
 is a task that this  cosmologists does 
not seem willing to undertake4    ,he   
has formed a hypothesis for explaining  
the general appearance of that  which   
was once the bottom of the sea being now
 found forming the summits  of our      
mountains2 but surely this philosopher  
will acknowledge1 that  those natural   
appearances1 in any particular place1   
will be the same1  whether we suppose   
the bottom of the sea to have been      

raised1 as in the  present theory1 or   
the surface of the sea to have sunk     
according to his  hypothesis4 ,for1 it  
is equally easy to suppose a portion of 
the earth  to have been raised all this 
height1 as to suppose all the rest of   
the  surface of the globe to have sunk  
an equal space1 while a small portion   
of the bottom of the sea1 remaining here
 and there fixed in its place1  became  
the highest portion of the globe4       
,consequently1 whatever evidence  this  
philosopher shall find in support of his
 theory of the present  earth1 7a       
subject which it is not our purpose to  
examine7 it cannot be  allowed that he  
has here brought any argument capable of
 disproving the  elevation of the bottom
 of the sea2 a supposition which other  
theories  may require4    ,i would now  
observe1 in relation to the present     
theory1 that so far  as this author has 
reasoned justly from natural            
appearances1 his  conclusions will be   
found to confirm the present            

supposition1 that there  is to be       
perceived the distinction of primordial1
 and that of secondary1  in the masses  
of this earth1 without altering the     
general theory either  with respect to  
the original formation of those masses1 
or to their  posterior production4      
,here one of two things must be allowed2
 either that those strata  of schistus  
had been broken and distorted under a   
mass of other  superincumbent strata2 or
 that those superincumbent strata had   
been  deposited upon the broken and     
distorted strata at the bottom of the   
sea4  ,our author1 who has examined the 
subject1 inclines to think1 that this   
last has been the case4 ,if1 therefore1 
strata had been deposited upon  broken  
and bare rocks of schistus1 it is       
probable that these had been  sunk in   
the sea after having been exposed to the
 atmosphere1 and served  the purpose of 
land upon the globe4#ca    ,note #ca3   
,this is also supported by another very 
interesting observation  contained in   

this letter4 ,m4 de ,luc observes1 that 
in this country the  schistus is        
generally covered by strata of          
lime-stone1 and that these  lime-stone  
strata are again covered with those of  
sand-stone1 in which  are found a great 
many fragments of schistus lying flat4  
,therefore1  while those sand-stone     
strata were collecting at the bottom of 
the sea1  there had been rocks of       
schistus in some other place1 from      
whence those  fragments bad been        
detached4    ,an example of the same    
kind also occurs in the ,discours sur   
l',histoire  ,naturelle de la ,suisse2  
and this author of the ,tableaux de la  
,suisse  has given a very distinct      
description of that appearance1 which is
  perhaps the more to be valued as a    
piece of natural history1 as this       
intelligent author does not pretend to  
any geological theory1 but simply       
narrates what he has seen1 with such    
pertinent observations on  the subject  
as naturally must occur to a thinking   

person on the  spot4--7,discours1 etc4  
page #bbh4 ,entre au pays de ,grisons74 
,du village d',elen on continue  monter 
le reste du petit vallon pendant  une   
lieue et demie parmi les mmes espces de 
pierres qu'on vient de  dcrire2 en      
passant au travers de bois et de forts  
de sapins et de  quelques pturages dont 
ce haut est couvert1 on parvient au pied
 du  ,bundnerberg1 montagne des grisons1
 qui forme la tte du vallon4 ,on  laisse
  droite un fond ou espce d'entonnoir1  
entour de trs-hautes  montagnes         
inaccessibles1 pour s'enfourrer  gauche 
entre des rochers qui  font fort        
resserrs1 o coule un torrent4 ,ce lieu  
seroit horreur si  on ne se trouvoit    
accoutum1 par degrs1  voir de ces       
positions  effrayantes3 tout y est      
aride1 il n'y a plus d'arbres ni de     
vgtaux ce  sont des rochers entasss les 
un sur les autres2 ce lieu paroit       
d'autant  plus affreux que le passage a 
t subit1 et qu'en sortant de bois et des
  forts1 on se trouve tout--coup parmi  

ces rochers qui s'lvent comme  des      
murailles1 et dont on ne voit pas la    
cime2 cette gorge ou cette  entre qui se
 nomme ,jetz1 est la communication du   
,canton du ,glaris aux  ,gritons2 on a  
dit prcdemment qu'il y en avoit une plus
 aise par  le ,gros-,thal ou le grand   
vallon4 ,ce passage est trs-curieux pour
 la  ,lithogeognosie1 il est rare de    
trouver autant de phnomnes intressans   
rassembls1 et des substances aussi      
varies par rapport  leurs  positions2   
c'est le local qui mrite le plus d'tre  
examin en ,suisse1  et la plus difficile
 que nous ayons parcouru4 ,on se        
souviendra que nous  avons              
continuellement mont depuis ,glaris1 et 
que nous nous trouvons au  pied de ces  
montagnes ou de ces pics tonnans qui    
dominent les hautes  ,alpes2 on trouve  
ici la facilit peu commune de pouvoir   
examiner1 et  voir le pied ou les       
fondemens de ces colosses qui couronnent
 le globe1  parce qu'ils sont           
ordinairement entours de leurs dbris et 

de leurs  boulemens qui en cachent le   
pied4 ,ici c'est une roche de schiste   
bleutre1 dure et compact1 traverse de   
filons de quartz blanc1 et  quelquefois 
jauntre1 dans laquelle on a taill un    
sentier pour pouvoir  en franchir le    
pied4 ,cette roche s'lve  une hauteur   
prodigieuse1  est presque verticale1 et 
ces couches sont  quatre-vingt degrs    
d'inclinaison4 ,l'imagination est       
effraye de voir que de pareilles  masses
 ayent pu tre branles et dplaces au     
point d'avoir fait  presque un quart de 
conversion4 ,aprs avoir mont et suivi   
cette roche  parmi les pierres et les   
dcombres1 une heure et demie1 on trouve 
cette roche de schiste surmonte d'autres
 rochers fort hauts qui sont  calcaires1
 et dont les lits sont fort horizontaux4
 ,les schistes1  qui sont directement   
sous les roches calcaires1 conservent la
 mme  inclinaison qu'elles ont  leur    
pied4    ,here is an observation which  
certainly agrees with that given by ,m4 
de  ,luc1 and would seem to confirm this

 conclusion1 that strata had been       
deposited upon those schisti after they 
had been changed from their  natural or 
horizontal position1 and become         
vertical2 at the same time1  this       
conclusion is not of necessary          
consequence1 without examining          
concomitant appearances1 and finding    
particular marks by which this          
operation might be traced2 for the      
simply finding horizontal strata1       
placed above vertical or much inclined  
schiste1 is not sufficient1 of  itself1 
to constitute that fact1 while it is    
acknowledged that every  species of     
fracture1 dislocation1 and contortion1  
is to be found among  the displaced     
strata of the globe4    ,since writing  
this chapter1 ,i am enabled to speak    
more decisively upon  that point1 having
 acquired more light upon the subject1  
as will appear  in the next chapter4    
,,chap4 ,,vi4    ,the ,theory of        
interchanging ,sea and ,land illustrated
 by an  ,investigation of the ,primary  

and ,secondary ,strata4      ,,sect4    
,i4--,a distinct ,view of the ,primary  
and ,secondary ,strata4    ,having given
 a view of what seems to be the primary 
and secondary  strata1 from the         
observations of authors1 and having     
given what was  my opinion when ,i first
 wrote that chapter1 ,i am now to treat 
of this  subject from observations of my
 own1 which ,i made since forming that  
opinion4    ,from ,portpatrick1 on the  
west coast1 to ,st ,abb's ,head1 on the 
east1  there is a tract of schistus     
mountains1 in which the strata are      
generally much inclined1 or approaching 
to the vertical situation2 and  it is in
 these inclined strata that geologists  
allege that there is not  to be found   
any vestige of organised body4 ,this    
opinion1 however1 ,i have  now proved to
 be erroneous4    ,there cannot be any  
doubt with regard to the original       
formation of those  stratified bodies1  
as having been formed of the materials  
that are  natural to this earth1 viz4   

the detritus of former bodies2 and as   
having  been deposited in water1 like   
the horizontal strata3 ,for the         
substances  and bodies of which they are
 visibly composed are no other than     
those  which form the most regular      
horizontal strata1 and which are        
continually  traveling1 or transported  
at the bottom of the sea1 such as       
gravel1 and  sand1 argillaceous and     
micaceous bodies4    ,on each side of   
this ridge of mountains1 which towards  
the east end is  but narrow1 there is a 
lower country composed of strata in     
general more  horizontal2 and among     
which strata1 besides coal1 there are   
also found  the relics of organised     
bodies4    ,abstracting at present from 
any consideration of organised bodies   
among  the materials of those strata1 it
 may be affirmed1 that the materials    
which form the strata in the mountains  
and in the low country1 are  similar1 or
 of the same nature2 that they have1 in 
both places1 been  consolidated by the  

same means1 viz4 heat and fusion2 and   
that the same  or similar accidents have
 happened to them1 such as change from  
their  original position1 and mineral   
veins traversing them in various shapes4
  ,yet still there is a distinctive     
character for those two bodies1 the     
alpine and the horizontal strata2 for1  
while the horizontal position  appears  
natural to the one1 and the changes from
 that particular state  to be only an   
accident1 the vertical position appears 
to be more natural  to the other1 which 
is seldom found horizontal4             
,therefore1 altho' it is unquestionable 
that the strata in the alpine and  low  
countries had the same or a similar     
original1 yet1 as the vertical          
position1 which is the greatest possible
 change in that respect1 is more        
natural to the alpine strata1 or only   
necessary in the natural order of  those
 bodies1 we are to consider this great  
disorder or change from the  natural    
state of their original formation1 as   

the proper character of  those alpine   
strata4 ,but then it is also necessary  
to include in this  character a general 
hardness and solidity in those vertical 
strata1  otherwise they would not have  
been properly alpine1 or have resisted  
the  wearing and washing powers of the  
globe1 so as to have remained higher    
than the others2 for1 the vertical      
position1 or great inclination of  those
 strata1 should rather have disposed    
them the more to dissolution  and decay4
 ,let us now see how far we shall be    
justified in that general  conclusion1  
by the examination of those bodies4     
,the fact is certain1 that those alpine 
bodies are much harder1 or less  subject
 to dissolution and decay1 than the     
horizontal strata4 ,but this  must be   
taken in the general1 and will by no    
means apply to particular  cases which  
might be compared4 ,nothing1 for        
example1 more solid than the            
lime-stones1 or marbles1 and            
iron-stones2 nothing more hard or solid 

than the chirt or flint2 and all these  
are found among the horizontal  strata4 
,but1 while some strata among those     
horizontal beds are  thus perfectly     
solid1 others are found with so slight  
degrees of  consolidation1 that we      
should not be able to ascribe it to the 
proper  cause1 without that gradation of
 the effect1 which leads us to impute   
the slightest degree of consolidation to
 the same operations that have  produced
 the complete solidity4 ,while1         
therefore1 the most perfect  solidity is
 found in certain strata1 or            
occasionally among the  horizontal      
bodies1 this forms no part of their     
character in general1 or  cannot be     
considered as a distinctive mark1 as it 
truly is with  regard to the alpine     
strata4 ,these last have a general      
character of  consolidation and         
indissolubility1 which is in a manner   
universal4 ,we  are1 therefore1 now to  
inquire into the cause of this          
distinction1 and  to form some          

hypothesis that may be tried by the     
actual state of things1  in being       
compared with natural appearances4      
,as the general cause of consolidation  
among mineral bodies1 formed  originally
 of loose materials1 has been found to  
consist in certain  degrees of fusion or
 cementation of those materials by means
 of heat2  and as1 in the examination of
 the horizontal strata we actually  find
 very different degrees of consolidation
 in the several strata1  independent of 
their positions in relation to height or
 depth1 we have  reason to believe that 
the heat1 or consolidating operation1   
has not  been equally employed in       
relation to them all4    ,we are not now
 inquiring how an inferior stratum      
should have been heated  in a lesser    
degree1 or not consolidated1 while a    
superior stratum had  been consolidated 
in the most perfect manner2 we are to   
reason upon a  fact1 which is1 that the 
horizontal strata in general appear not 
to have  been equally or universally    

consolidated2 and this we must attribute
 to  an insufficient exertion of the    
consolidating cause4 ,but1 so far as the
  erecting cause is considered as the   
same with that by which the elevated    
bodies were consolidated1 and so far as 
the vertical situation is a  proof of   
the great exertion of that subterraneous
 power1 the strata  which are most      
erected1 should in general be found most
 consolidated4    ,nothing more certain 
than that there have been several       
repeated  operations of the mineralising
 power exerted upon the strata  in      
particular places2 and all those mineral
 operations tend to  consolidation3     
,therefore1 the more the operations have
 been repeated in  any place1 the more  
we should find the strata consolidated1 
or changed  from their natural state4   
,vertical strata have every appearance  
from  whence we should be led to        
conclude1 that much of the mineral power
  had been exerted upon them1 in        
changing their original constitution or 

appearance4 ,but the question now to be 
considered is this1 ,how far  it may    
appear that these masses of matter1     
which now seem to be so  different from 
the ordinary strata of the globe1 had   
been twice  subjected to the mineral    
operations1 in having been first        
consolidated  and erected into the place
 of land1 and afterwards sunk below the 
bottom of the sea1 in order a second    
time to undergo the process of          
subterraneous heat1 and again be        
elevated into the place where they now  
are found4    ,it must be evident1 here 
is a question that may not be easy to   
decide4  ,it is not to the degree of any
 change to which bodies may be subject1 
that we are to appeal1 in order to clear
 up the point in question1  but to a    
regular course of operations1 which must
 appear to have been  successively      
transacted1 and by which the different  
circumstances or  situations of those   
masses are to be discovered in their    
present state4  ,now1 though it does not

 concern the present theory that this   
question be  decided1 as it is nothing  
but a repetition of the same operations 
that  we look for2 nevertheless1 it     
would be an interesting fact in the     
natural history of this earth2 and it   
would add great lustre to a theory  by  
which so great1 so many operations were 
to be explained4 ,i am far  from being  
sanguine in my expectations of giving   
all the satisfaction  in relation to    
this subject that ,i could wish2 but it 
will be proper to  state what ,i have   
lately learned with regard to so curious
 a question1  that others1 who shall    
have the opportunity1 may be led to     
inquire1 and  that thus the natural     
history of the earth may be enlarged1 by
 a proper  investigation of its mineral 
operations4    ,with this view ,i have  
often considered our schistus mountains1
 both in  the north and south2 but ,i   
never found any satisfactory appearance 
from  whence conclusions could be       
formed1 whether for the question or     

against  it4 ,the places ,i examined    
were those between the alpine countries 
and  the horizontal strata2 here1       
indeed1 ,i have frequently found a      
confused  mass1 formed of the fragments 
of those alpine strata mixed with the   
materials of the horizontal bodies2 but 
not having seen the proper shape  and   
connection of those several deposits1 ,i
 always suspended my judgment  with     
regard to the particular operations     
which might have been employed  in      
producing those appearances4    ,i had  
long looked for the immediate junction  
of the secondary or low  country strata 
with the alpine schistus1 without       
finding it2 the first  place in which ,i
 observed it was at the north end of the
 island of  ,arran1 at the mouth of     
,loch ,ranza2 it was upon the shore1    
where the  inclined strata appeared     
bare1 being2 washed by the sea4 ,it was 
but a  very small part that ,i could    
see2 but what appeared was most         
distinct4  ,here the schistus and the   

sandstone strata both rise inclined at  
an  angle of about #de2 but these       
primary and secondary strata were       
inclined  in almost opposite directions2
 and thus they met together like the    
two sides of a lambda1 or the rigging of
 a house1 being a little in  disorder at
 the angle of their junction4 ,from this
 situation of those  two different      
masses of strata1 it is evidently       
impossible that either  of them could   
have been formed originally in that     
position2 therefore1 ,i  could not here 
learn in what state the schistus strata 
had been in when  those of the          
sand-stone1 c1 had been superinduced4   
,such was the state of my mind1 in      
relation to that subject31 when at      
,jedburgh upon a visit to a friend1     
after ,i had returned from ,arran1 and  
wrote the history of that journey2 ,i   
there considered myself as among  the   
horizontal strata which had first       
appeared after passing the ,tweed1  and 
before arriving at the ,tiviot4 ,the    

strata there1 as in ,berwickshire1      
which is their continuation to the east1
 are remarkably horizontal for          
,scotland2 and they consist of          
alternated beds of sand-stone and marl1 
or  argillaceous and micaceous strata4  
,these horizontal strata are traversed  
in places with small veins of           
whin-stone1 as well as greater masses   
forming rocks and hills of that         
material2 but1 except it be these1 7of  
which there are some curious examples71 
,i thought there could be nothing  more 
of an interesting nature to observe4    
,chance1 however1 discovered to  me what
 ,i could not have expected or foreseen4
    ,the river ,tweed1 below ,melrose1  
discovers in its bed the vertical strata
  of the schistus mountains1 and though 
here these indurated bodies are  not    
veined with quartz as in many places of 
the mountains1 ,i did not  hesitate to  
consider them as the same species1 that 
is to say1 the marly  materials         
indurated and consolidated in those     

operations by which they  had been so   
much changed in their place and natural 
position4 ,afterwards  in travelling    
south1 and seeing the horizontal softer 
strata1 ,i concluded  that ,i had got   
out of the alpine country1 and supposed 
that no more of  the vertical strata    
were to be observed4    ,the river      
,tiviot has made a wide valley as might 
have been expected1 in  running over    
thole horizontal strata of marly or     
decaying substances2  and the banks of  
this river declining gradually are      
covered with gravel  and soil1 and show 
little of the solid strata of the       
country4 ,this1  however1 is not the    
case with the ,jed1 which is to the     
southward of the  ,tiviot2 that river1  
in many places1 runs upon the horizontal
 strata1 and  undermines steep banks1   
which falling shows high and beautiful  
sections  of the regular horizontal     
strata4 ,the little rivulets also which 
fall  into the ,jed have hollowed out   
deep gullies in the land1 and show the  

uniformity of the horizontal strata4    
,in this manner ,i was disposed to look 
for nothing more than what ,i had  seen 
among those mineral bodies1 when one    
day1 walking in the beautiful  valley   
above the town of ,jedburgh1 ,i was     
surprised with the appearance  of       
vertical strata in the bed of the river1
 where ,i was certain that  the banks   
were composed of horizontal strata4 ,i  
was soon satisfied with  regard to this 
phenomenon1 and rejoiced at my good     
fortune in stumbling  upon an object so 
interesting to the natural history of   
the earth1 and  which ,i had been long  
looking for in vain4    ,here the       
vertical strata1 similar to those that  
are in the bed of  the ,tweed1 appear2  
and above those vertical strata1 are    
placed the  horizontal beds1 which      
extend along the whole country4    ,the 
question which we would wish to have    
solved is this2 if the vertical  strata 
had been broken and erected under the   
superincumbent horizontal  strata2 or   

if1 after the vertical strata had been  
broken and erected1  the horizontal     
strata had been deposited upon the      
vertical strata1  then forming the      
bottom of the sea4 ,that strata1 which  
are regular and  horizontal in one      
place1 should be found bended1 broken1  
or disordered  at another1 is not       
uncommon2 it is always found more or    
less in all our  horizontal strata4     
,now1 to what length this disordering   
operation might  have been carried1     
among strata under others1 without      
disturbing the  order and continuity of 
those above1 may perhaps be difficult to
  determine2 but here1 in this present  
case1 is the greatest disturbance  of   
the under strata1 and a very great      
regularity among those above4 ,here  at 
least is the most difficult case of this
 kind to conceive1 if we are  to suppose
 that the upper strata had been         
deposited before those below  had been  
broken and erected4    ,let us now      
suppose that the under strata had been  

disordered at the  bottom of the sea1   
before the superincumbent bodies were   
deposited2 it  is not to be well        
conceived1 that the vertical strata     
should in that  case appear to be cut   
off abruptly1 and present their regular 
edges  immediately under the uniformly  
deposited substances above4 ,but1 in the
  case now under consideration1 there   
appears the most uniform section  of the
 vertical strata1 their ends go up      
regularly to the horizontal  deposited  
bodies4 ,now1 in whatever state the     
vertical strata had been in  at the time
 of this event1 we can hardly suppose   
that they could have  been so perfectly 
cut off1 without any relict being left  
to trace that  operation4 ,it is much   
more probable to suppose1 that the sea  
had washed  away the relics of the      
broken and disordered strata1 before    
those that  are now superincumbent had  
been begun to be deposited4 ,but we     
cannot  suppose two such contrary       
operations in the same place1 as that of

  carrying away the relics of those     
broken strata1 and the depositing of    
sand and subtile earth in such a regular
 order4 ,we are therefore led  to       
conclude1 that the bottom of the sea1 or
 surface of those erected  strata1 had  
been in very different situations at    
those two periods1 when  the relics of  
the disordered strata had been carried  
away1 and when the  new materials had   
been deposited4    ,if this shall be    
admitted as a just view of the subject1 
it will be fair  to suppose1 that the   
disordered strata had been raised more  
or less  above the surface of the ocean2
 that1 by the effects of either rivers1 
winds1 or tides1 the surface of the     
vertical strata had been washed  bare2  
and that this surface had been          
afterwards sunk below the influence  of 
those destructive operations1 and thus  
placed in a situation proper  for the   
opposite effect1 the accumulation of    
matter prepared and put in  motion by   
the destroying causes4    ,i will not   

pretend to say that this has all the    
evidence that should be  required1 in   
order to constitute a physical truth1 or
 principle from  whence we were to      
reason farther in our theory2 but1 as a 
simple fact1  there is more probability 
for the thing having happened in that   
manner  than in any other2 and perhaps  
this is all that may be attained1 though
  not all that were to be wished on the 
occasion4 ,let us now see how  far any  
confirmation may be obtained from the   
examination of all the  attending       
circumstances in those operations4    ,i
 have already mentioned1 that ,i had    
long observed great masses of  debris1  
or an extremely coarse species of       
pudding-stone1 situated on  the south as
 well as north sides of those schistus  
mountains1 where the  alpine strata     
terminate in our view1 and where ,i had 
been looking for  the connection of     
those with the softer strata of the low 
country4  ,it has surely been such      
appearances as these which have often   

led  naturalists to see the formation of
 secondary and tertiary strata formed   
by the simple congestion of debris from 
the mountains1 and to suppose  those    
masses consolidated by the operation of 
that very element by which  they had    
been torn off from one place and        
deposited in another4 ,i never  before  
had data from whence to reason with     
regard to the natural history  of those 
masses of gravel and sand which always  
appeared to me in an  irregular shape1  
and not attended with such circumstances
 as might give  light into their natural
 history2 but now ,i have found what ,i 
think  sufficient to explain those      
obscure appearances1 and which at the   
same  time will in some respect         
illustrate or confirm the conjecture    
which  has now been formed with regard  
to the operations of the globe in those 
regions4    ,in describing the vertical 
and horizontal strata of the ,jed1 no   
mention  has been made of a certain     
pudding-stone1 which is interposed      

between  the two1 lying immediately upon
 the one and under the other4 ,this     
puddingstone corresponds entirely to    
that which ,i had found along  the skirt
 of the schistus mountains upon the     
south side1 in different  places1 almost
 from one end to the other4 ,it is a    
confused mass of  stones1 gravel1 and   
sand1 with red marly earth2 these are   
consolidated  or cemented in a          
considerable degree1 and thus form a    
stratum extremely  unlike any thing     
which is to be found either above or    
below4    ,when we examine the stones   
and gravel of which it is composed1     
these  appear to have belonged to the   
vertical strata or schistus mountains4  
,they are in general the hard and solid 
parts of those indurated  strata1 worn  
and rounded by attrition2 particularly  
sand or marl-stone  consolidated and    
veined with quartz1 and many fragments  
of quartz1 all  rounded by attrition4   
,in this pudding-stone of the ,jed1 ,i  
find also  rounded lumps of porphyry1   

but have not perceived any of           
granite4#cb  ,this however is not the   
case in the pudding-stone of the        
schistus  mountains1 for1 where there is
 granite in the neighbourhood1 there is 
also granite in the pudding-stone4      
,note #cb3 ,a view of this object is    
seen in plate #c;d4 ,it is from a       
drawing taken by ,mr ,clerk of ,eldin4  
,from this it will appear1 that the     
schistus mountains or the vertical      
strata of indurated bodies had been     
formed1 and had been wasted and worn  in
 the natural operations of the globe1   
before the horizontal strata  were begun
 to be deposited in those places2 the   
gravel formed of those  indurated broken
 bodies worn round by attrition evince  
that fact4 ,but  it also appears that   
the mineral operations of the globe1    
melting and  consolidating bodies1 had  
been exerted upon those deposited strata
 above  the vertical bodies4    ,this   
appears evidently from the examination  
of our pudding-stone4 ,the  vertical    

strata under it are much broken and     
injected with ferruginous  spar2 and    
this same spar has greatly penetrated   
the pudding-stone above1  in which are  
found the various mineral appearances of
 that spar and iron  ore4    ,but those 
injecting operations reach no farther up
 among the marl strata  in this place2  
and then would appear to have been      
confined to the  pudding-stone4 ,but in 
another place1 about half a mile farther
 up the  river1 where a very deep       
section of the strata is discovered1    
there  are two injections from below2   
the one is a thin vein of whin-stone or 
basaltes1 full of round particles of    
steatites impregnated with copper2  it  
is but a few inches wide1 and proceeds  
in a kind of zigzag4 ,the other  appears
 to have been calcareous spar1 but the  
greatest part of it is now  dissolved   
out4 ,the strata here descend to the    
bottom of the river1 which  is above the
 place of the pudding-stone and vertical
 strata4 ,neither are  these last       

discoverable below the town of          
,jedburgh1 at least so far as  ,i have  
seen2 and the line of division1 or plane
 of junction of the  vertical and       
horizontal strata1 appears to decline   
more than the bed of  the river4    ,but
 it may be asked1 how the horizontal    
strata above1 among which are  many very
 strong beds1 have been consolidated4   
,the answer to this  question is plain4 
,those strata have been indurated or    
consolidated  in no other manner than   
the general strata of the earth2 these  
being  actually the common strata of the
 globe2 while the vertical or schistus  
strata are the ordinary strata still    
farther manufactured1 7if we may be     
allowed the expression7 in the          
vicissitude of things1 and by the       
mineral  operations of the globe4 ,that 
those operations have been performed by 
subterraneous heat has been already     
proved2 but ,i would now mention some   
particular appearances which are common 
or general to those strata1 and  which  

can only be explained upon that         
principle4    ,the red marly earth is   
prevalent among those strata2 and it is 
with this  red ferruginous substance    
that many of the sand-stone strata are  
tinged4  ,it is plain that there had    
been an uniform1 deposits of that sand  
and  tinging earth2 and that1 however   
different matter might be successively  
deposited1 yet that each individual     
stratum should be nearly of the same    
colour or appearance1 so far as it had  
been formed uniformly of the same       
subsiding matter4 ,but1 in the most     
uniform strata of red sand-stone1  the  
fracture of the stone presents us with  
circular spots of a white or  bluish    
colour2 those little spheres are in all 
respects the same with  the rest of the 
stone1 they only want the tinging       
matter2 and now it may  be inquired how 
this has come about4    ,to say that    
sphericles of white sand should have    
been formed by  subsiding along with the
 red sand and earth which composed the  

uniform  stratum whether of sand-stone  
or marl1 7for it happens equally in     
both17  is plainly impossible1 according
 to our notion of that operation in     
which there is nothing mysterious4      
,those foliated strata1 which are of    
the most uniform nature1 must have been 
gradually accumulated from the          
subsiding sand and earth2 and the white 
or colourless places must have  had     
their colour destroyed in the subsequent
 cementing operations4 ,it  is often    
apparent1 that the discharging operation
 had proceeded from a  centre1 as some  
small matter may be perceived in that   
place4 ,i know not  what species of     
substance this has been1 whether saline 
or phlogistic1  but it must have had the
 power of either volatilising or        
changing the  ferruginous or red tinging
 substance so as to make it lose its    
colour4    ,i have only mentioned       
spherical spots for distinctness sake2  
but this  discharging operation is found
 diversifying those strata in various   

ways1 but always referable to the same  
or similar causes4 ,thus1 in many  of   
the veins or natural cracks of those    
strata1 we find the colour  discharged  
for a certain space within the strata2  
and we often see  several of those spots
 united1 each of them having proceeded  
from its  own centre1 and uniting where 
they approached4 ,in the two veins above
  mentioned1 of whin-stone and spar     
traversing the strata1 the colour of    
the strata is1 discharged more or less  
in the places contiguous with the       
veins4    ,i am now to mention another  
appearance of a different kind4 ,those  
strata  of marl are in general not much 
consolidated2 but among1 them there  are
 sometimes found thin calcareous strata 
extremely consolidated1  consequently   
much divided by veins4 ,it is in the    
solid parts of those  strata1 perfectly 
disconnected from the veins1 that there 
are frequent  cavities curiously lined  
with crystals of different sorts1       
generally  calcareous1 sometimes        

containing also those that are          
siliceous1 and  often accompanied with  
pyrites4 ,i am persuaded that the origin
 of those  cavities may have been some  
hollow shells1 such as echini or some   
marine object2 but that calcareous body 
has been so changed1 that it is  not now
 distinguishable2 therefore1 at present1
 ,i hold this opinion only  as          
conjecture4    ,having1 in my return to 
,edinburgh1 traveled up the ,tiviot1    
with a view  to investigate this subject
 of primary and secondary operations of 
the  earth1 ,i found the vertical       
strata1 or alpine schistus1 in the bed  
of  the river about two miles below     
,hawick4 ,this was the third time ,i had
  seen those vertical bodies after      
leaving the mountains of ,lauderdale4   
,the first place was the bed of the     
river ,tweed1 at the new bridge below   
,melrose2 but here no other covering is 
to be seen above those vertical  strata 
besides the soil or traveled earth which
 conceals every thing  except the rock  

in the bed of the river4 ,the second    
place was ,jedburgh1  where ,i found the
 vertical strata covered with the       
horizontal sandstone  and marl1 as has  
been now described4 ,the third place was
 the ,tiviot1 and  this is that which   
now remains to be considered4    ,seeing
 the vertical strata in the bed of the  
river1 ,i was desirous to  know if those
 were immediately covered with the      
horizontal strata4 ,this  could not be  
discovered in the bed of the river where
 the rock was  covered upon the banks   
with travelled earth4 ,i therefore left 
the river1  and followed the course of a
 brook which comes from the south side4 
,i  had not gone far up the bank1 or    
former boundary of the ,tiviot1 when  ,i
 had the satisfaction to find the       
vertical strata covered with the        
pudding-stone and marly beds as in the  
valley of the ,jed4    ,it will now be  
reasonable to suppose that all the      
schistus which we  perceive1 whether in 
the mountains or in the valleys1 exposed

 to our  view had been once covered with
 those horizontal strata which are      
observed in ,berwickshire and           
,tiviotdale2 and that1 below all those  
horizontal strata in the level country1 
there is at present a body or  basis of 
vertical or inclined schistus1 on which 
the horizontal strata  of a secondary   
order had been deposited4 ,this is the  
conclusion that ,i  had formed at       
,jedburgh1 before ,i had seen the       
confirmation of it in the  ,tiviot2 it  
is the only one that can be formed      
according to this view of  things2 and  
it must remain in the present state     
until more evidence be  found by which  
the probability may be either increased 
or diminished4    ,since writing this1  
,i have read1 in the ,esprit de         
,journaux1 an abstract  of a memoir of  
,m4 ,voigt1 upon the same subject1 which
 ,i shall now  transcribe4    ,la mer a 
commenc par miner les montagnes         
primitives dont les dbris se  sont      
prcipits au fond4 ,ces dbris forment la 

premiere couche qui est  pose           
immdiatement sur les montagnes          
primitives4 ,d'aprs l'ancien  langage de
 mineurs1 nous avons jusqu'aujourd'hui  
appell cette couche  le sol mort rouge1 
parce qu'il y a beaucoup de rouge dans  
son mlange1  qu'elle forme le sol ou la 
base d'autres couches1 et peut-tre de   
toutes1 qu'elle est entierement inutile 
et1 en quelque facon1 morte pour        
l'exploitation des mines4 ,plusieurs se 
sont efforcs de lui donner un  nom      
harmonieux2 mais ils ne l'ont pu sans   
occasionner des quivoques4  ,les mots   
,brche ,puddinstone ,conglomrations1 c4 
dsignent toujours  des substances autres
 que cette espce de pierre4    ,il est  
trs agrable de l'examiner dans les      
endroits o elle forme des  montagnes    
entires4 ,cette couche est compose d'une
 quantit prodigieuse  de pierres        
arrondies1 agglutines ensemble par une  
substance argileuse  rouge et mme grise1
 et le toute a acquis assez de duret4   
,on ne trouve  dans sa composition      

aucune espce de pierre qui1  en juger   
par les  meilleures observations1 puisse
 avoir t forme plus tard qu'elle2  on   
n'y voit par-tout que des parties et des
 produit des montagnes  primitives      
principalement de celles qui abondent le
 plus dans ces  contres4 ,le sol mort1  
par exemple1 qui compose les montagnes  
des  environs de ,walbourg1 prs         
d',eisenach1 contient une quantit de    
gros  morceaux de granit et de schiste  
micac2 c'est vraisemblablement parce    
que les montagnes primitives les plus   
voisines de ,rhula1 etc4 sont1  pour la 
plus part1 formes de ces deux espces de 
pierres4 ,prs de  ,goldlauter1 le sol   
mort consiste presque tout en porphyre1 
substance  dont sont formes les         
montagnes primitives qui y dominent2 et 
le  ,kiffauserberg dans la ,thuringe a  
probablement reu ces morceaux arrondis  
de schiste argileux des montagnes       
voisine du ,hartz4 ,vous trouverez  ici 
que le schiste argileux existoit dj     
lorsque la mer a jett les  premiers     

fondemens de nos montagnes stratifies4  
,je serois fort tonn  que quelqu'un me  
montrt un sol mort qui contnt un        
morceaux de gypse1  de marne1 de pierre 
puante et autres4 ,quoiqu'il en soit il 
n'est pas  ais d'expliquer pourquoi on  
ne trouve point de corps marins ptrifis 
dans cette espce de pierre4 ,c'est      
peut-tre que1 par l'immense quantit  de 
pierres dures roules dans le fond de la 
mer1 ils ont t briss  avant qu'ils aient
 commenc de s'agglutiner ensemble4 ,mais
 on rencontre  sur-tout au              
,kiffhauserberg des troncs d'arbres     
entiers ptrifis2 preuve  qu'il y avoit  
dj ou de la vgtation avant que l'ocan   
destructeur se  ft empar de ces cantons1
 ou du moins que quelques isles avoient 
exist  au-dessus de la surface4    ,here
 we find the same observations in the   
mountains of ,germany that  ,i have been
 making with regard to those of         
,scotland4 ,i have formerly  observed   
masses of the same kind in the west of  
,england1 to the east of  the ,severn2  

but ,i could not discover any proper    
connection of that mass  with the       
regular strata4 ,i have also long       
observed it in many parts of  ,scotland1
 without being able to attain a         
sufficiently satisfactory idea  with    
regard to those particulars by which the
 alternation of land and  water1 of the 
superficial and internal mineral        
operations of the globe1  might be      
investigated4    ,it will be very       
remarkable if similar appearances are   
always found upon  the junction of the  
alpine with the level countries4 ,such  
an appearance1  ,i am inclined to think1
 may be found in the ,val d',aoste1 near
 ,yvre4 ,m4  de ,saussure describes such
 a stone as having been employed in     
building  the triumphal arch erected in 
honour of ,augustus4 ,cet arc qui toit  
anciennement revtu de marbre1 est       
construit de grands quartiers d'une     
espce assez singulire de poudingue ou de
 grs  gros grains4 ,c'est une           
assemblage de fragmens1 presque touts   

angulaires1 de toutes sortes de  roches 
primitives feuilletes1 quartzeuses1     
micaces2 les plus gros de  ces fragmens 
n'atteignent pas le volume1 d'une       
noisette4 ,la plupart des  difices      
antiques de la cit l',aoste et de ses   
environs1 sont construits  de cette     
matire2 et les gens du pays sont        
persuads que c'est une  composition2    
mais j'en ai trouv des rochers en place 
dans les montagnes  au nord et au-dessus
 de la route d',yvre4    ,we may now    
come to this general conclusion1 that1  
in this example of  horizontal and      
posterior strata placed upon the        
vertical schisti which  are prior in    
relation to the former1 we obtain a     
further view into the  natural history  
of this earth1 more than what appears in
 the simple  succession of one stratum  
above another4 ,we know1 in general1    
that all  the solid parts of this earth1
 which come to our view1 have either    
been formed originally by subsidence at 
the bottom of the sea1 or been          

transfused in a melted state from the   
mineral regions among those solid       
bodies2 but here we further learn1 that 
the indurated and erected  strata1 after
 being broken and washed by the moving  
waters1 had again  been sunk below the  
sea1 and had served as a bottom or basis
 on which to  form a new structure of   
strata2 and also1 that those new or     
posterior  strata had been indurated or 
cemented by the consolidating operations
  of the mineral region1 and elevated   
from the bottom of the sea into the     
place of land1 or considerably above the
 general surface of the waters4  ,it is 
thus that we may investigate particular 
operations in the general  progress of  
nature1 which has for object to renovate
 the surface of the  earth necessarily  
wasted in the operation of a world      
sustaining plants  and animals4    ,it  
is necessary to compare together every  
thing of this kind which  occurs2 it is 
first necessary to ascertain the fact of
 their being a  prior and posterior     

formation of strata1 with the mineral   
operations  for consolidating those     
bodies formed by collection of the      
moveable  materials2 and1 secondly1 it  
is interesting to acquire all the data  
we  can in order to form a distinct     
judgment of that progress of nature in  
which the solid body of our land is     
alternately removed from the bottom  of 
the sea into the atmosphere1 and sunk   
again at the bottom of the sea4    ,i   
shall now transcribe what ,m4 ,schreiber
 has wrote in relation to  this subject4
 ,it is in a memoir concerning the gold 
mine of ,gardette1  published in the    
,journal de ,physique4    ,avant de     
quitter la montagne de la ,gardette     
qu'il me soit permis de  rapporter une  
observation qui peut-tre n'est pas dnue 
de tout  intrt pour les naturalistes2 je
 l'ai faite dans une galerie  environ   
cinquante-trois toises  l'ouest du      
principal puit laquelle a t  pousse sur 
la ligne de runion de la pierre         
calcaire1 et du granit  feuillet ou     

gneiss pour fonder le filon dans cet    
endroit4 ,ce filon  a six pouces        
d'paisseur1 et consiste en quartz       
entre-ml d'ochre  martiale1 de pyrite   
cuivreuse et galne4 ,cette dernire est  
souvent  recouverte de chaux de plomb   
grise1 et de petits cristaux de mine de 
plomb jaune donnant dans l'analyse un   
indice d'or4 ,ce filon finit  la  runion
 de la pierre calcaire au gneiss4 ,cette
 runion se fait ici dans  la direction  
d'une heure #f_/h de la boussole de     
raineur1 et sous un  inclinaison1       
occidentale de #bf degrs4    ,mais ce   
qu'il y a de remarquable1 c'est que le  
gneis ne participe en  rien de la pierre
 calcaire quoiqu'il n'en soit spar que  
par une couche  d'une pouce d'paisseur  
de terre argileuse et calcaire1 tandis  
que le  rocher calcaire renferme        
beaucoup de fragmens de granit et de    
gneis1  dans le voisinage de cette      
runion4    ,cette observation prouve    
incontestablement que le granit et le   
gneis  avoient dj acquis une duret      

capable de rsister aux infiltration  des
 parties calcaire1 et qu'ils existoient 
-peu-prs tels qu'ils sont  aujourd'hui  
lorsque la pierre calcaire commena  se  
former2 autrement  elle n'auroit pu     
saisir et envelopper des morceaux dtachs
 de ces  rochers auxquels on donne avec 
raison l'pithte de primitif ou de       
premire formation4    ,m4 ,schreiber    
continues his reasoning upon those      
mineral appearances1 in  adducing       
another argument1 which ,i do not think 
equally conclusive4 ,he  says1 ,le filon
 de la ,gardette devoit pareillement    
exister avant la  montagne calcaire1 car
 s'il s'toit form apres1 je ne voit pas 
la  raison pour laquelle il s'y seroit  
arrt court1 et pourquoi il ne se  seroit
 pas prolong dans cette espce de rocher4
 ,it is not necessary1  in the formation
 of a vein1 that it should proceed in   
traversing all the  strata which then   
are superincumbent2 it is reasonable to 
suppose1 and  consistent with           
observation to find them stop short in  

proceeding from  one stratum to another4
 ,had ,m4 ,schreiber found any pieces of
 the vein  contained in the calcareous  
rock1 he would have had good reason for 
that assertion2 but1 to conclude that   
fact from grounds which do not          
necessarily imply it1 is not to be      
permitted in sound reasoning1 if        
certainty is the object1 and not mere   
probability4      ,,sect4 ,,ii4--,the   
,theory confirmed from ,observations    
made on purpose to  elucidate the       
subject4    ,having got a distinct view 
of the primary and secondary mineral    
bodies  or strata of the globe1 and     
having thus acquired a particular object
 to  inquire after1 with a view to      
investigate or illustrate this piece of 
natural history1 ,i was considering     
where we might most probably succeed  in
 finding the junction of the low country
 strata and alpine schistus4  ,i        
inquired of ,mr ,hall of ,whitehall1 who
 had frequent opportunities of          
traversing those mountains which lie    

between his house in the ,merse and     
,edinburgh2 and ,i particularly         
entreated him to examine the bed of the 
,whittater1 which he executed to my     
satisfaction4    ,mr ,hall having had   
occasion to examine the ,pease and ,tour
 burns1 in  planning and superintending 
the great improvement of the post road  
upon  ,sir ,james ,hall's estate while  
,sir ,james was abroad1 he informed me  
that  the junction of the schistus and  
sand-stone strata was to be found in    
the ,tour burn4 ,professor ,playfair and
 ,i had been intending a visit to  ,sir 
,james ,hall at ,dunglass2 and this was 
a motive1 not so much to hasten  our    
visit1 as to chose the most proper time 
for a mineral expedition  both upon the 
hills and along the sea shore4    ,it   
was late in the spring #aghh when ,sir  
,james left town1 and ,mr ,playfair  and
 ,i went to ,dunglass about the         
beginning of ,june4 ,we had exceeding   
favourable weather during the most part 
of our expedition2 and ,i now  propose  

to give an account of the result of our 
observations4    ,dunglass burn is the  
boundary between the counties of ,east  
,lothian and  ,berwickshire2 and it is  
almost the boundary between the vertical
 and  horizontal strata4 ,to the        
north-west of this burn and beautiful   
dean are  situated the coal1 lime-stone1
 marl1 and sand-stone strata2 they are  
found stretching away along the shore in
 a very horizontal direction  for some  
time1 but become more and more inclined 
as they approach the  schistus of which 
the hills of ,lammermuir to the south   
are composed4    ,though the boundary   
between the two things here in question 
be easily  perceivable from the nature  
of the country at the first inspection1 
by  the rising of the hills1 yet this   
does not lead one precisely to the      
junction2 and in the extensive common   
boundary of those two things1 the       
junction itself is only to be perceived 
in few places1 where the rock is  washed
 bare by the rivers or the sea1 and     

where this junction is exposed  naked to
 our view4 ,the sea is here wearing away
 the coast2 and the bank1  about #bjj   
feet high1 is gradually falling down1   
making in some places a  steep          
declivity1 in others a perpendicular    
cliff4 ,st ,abb's ,head and ,fast       
,castle are head lands projecting into  
the sea1 and are the bulwarks of  this  
shore1 which is embayed to the westward1
 where the sea preys upon  the          
horizontal strata4 ,the solid strata are
 every where exposed either  in the     
cliff or on the shore2 we were therefore
 certain of meeting with  the junction  
in going from ,dunglass to ,fast        
,castle1 which is upon the  schistus4   
,but this journey can only be made by   
sea2 and we first set out  to examine   
the junction in the ,tour and ,pease    
burns1 where we had been  informed it   
was to be found4    ,in the bottom of   
those rivulets the sand-stone and marly 
strata appear  pretty much inclined1    
rising towards the schistus country4    

,the two burns  unite before they come  
to the shore2 and it is about midway    
between this  junction and the bridges  
which are thrown over those two hollows1
 that  the junction is to be found4     
,the schistus strata here approach      
towards vertical2 and the sand-stone    
strata are greatly inclined4 ,but this  
inclination of those two different      
strata are in opposite directions2      
neither does the horizontal section  of 
those two different strata run parallel 
to the junction2 that is to  say1 the   
intersection of those two different     
strata is a line inclined  to the       
horizon4    ,at ,jedburgh the schistus  
was vertical1 and the strata horizontal2
 and  there was interposed a compound   
bed of pudding-stone1 formed of various 
water-worn bodies1 the gravel of the    
schistus strata1 and porphyries4  ,here 
again1 though we have not a regular     
pudding-stone1 we have  that which      
corresponds to it1 as having been the   
effect of similar  circumstances4 ,these

 are the fracture and detritus of the   
schistus1  while the strata were        
deposited upon the broken ends of the   
schistus at  the bottom of the sea4     
,most of the fragments of the schistus  
have their  angles sharp2 consequently1 
they had not travelled far1 or been much
  worn by attrition4 ,but more or less  
does not alter the nature of an         
operation2 and the pudding-stone1 which 
at ,jedburgh is interposed  between the 
vertical schistus and horizontal strata1
 is here properly  represented by the   
included fragments of schistus in the   
inclined  strata4    ,the line of this  
junction running1 on the one hand1      
towards ,fast ,castle  eastward1 and1 on
 the other1 towards the head of         
,dunglass burn  westward1 our business  
was to pursue this object in those two  
different  directions4 ,but it was      
chiefly in the sea coast that was placed
 our  expectations1 having recollection 
of the great banks of gravel under      
which the strata are buried about       

,oldhamstocks1 near which1 from all     
appearances1 the junction was to be     
expected4    ,having taken boat at      
,dunglass burn1 we set out to explore   
the coast2  and1 we observed the        
horizontal sand-stone turn up near the  
,pease burn1  lifting towards the       
schistus4 ,we found the junction of that
 schistus  with the red sand-stone and  
marly strata on the shore and sea bank1 
at  ,st4 ,helens1 corresponding in      
general with what we had observed in the
  burns to the westward4 ,but1 at       
,siccar ,point1 we found a beautiful    
picture of this junction washed bare by 
the sea4 ,the sand-stone strata  are    
partly washed away1 and partly remaining
 upon the ends of the  vertical         
schistus2 and1 in many places1 points of
 the schistus strata  are seen standing 
up through among the sand-stone1 the    
greatest part of  which is worn away4   
,behind this again we have a natural    
section of those  sand-stone strata1    
containing fragments of the schistus4   

,after this nothing appears but the     
schistus rocks1 until sand-stone and    
marl again are found at ,red-heugh above
 the vertical strata4 ,from that  bay to
 ,fast ,castle we had nothing to observe
 but the schistus1 which is  continued  
without interruption to ,st ,abb's      
,head4 ,beyond this1 indeed1  there     
appears to be something above the       
schistus2 and great blocks of a  red    
whin-stone or basaltes come down from   
the height and lie upon the  shore2 but 
we could not perceive distinctly how the
 upper mass is  connected with the      
vertical schistus which is continued    
below4    ,our attention was now        
directed to what we could observe with  
respect  to the schisti1 of which we had
 most beautiful views and most perfect  
sections4 ,here are two objects to be   
held in view1 in making those           
observations2 the original formation or 
stratification of the schisti1  and the 
posterior operations by which the       
present state of things has  been       

procured4 ,we had remarkable examples   
for the illustration of both  those     
subjects4    ,with regard to the first1 
we have every where among the rocks many
  surfaces of the erected strata laid   
bare1 in being separated4 ,here we      
found the most distinct marks of strata 
of sand modified by moving  water4 ,it  
is no other than that which we every day
 observe upon the  sands of our own     
shore1 when the sea has ebbed and left  
them in a waved  figure1 which cannot be
 mistaken4 ,such figures as these are   
extremely  common in our sand-stone     
strata2 but this is an object which ,i  
never had  distinctly observed in the   
alpine schisti2 although1 considering   
that  the original of those schisti was 
strata of sand1 and formed in water1    
there was no reason to doubt of such a  
thing being found4 ,but here the        
examples are so many and so distinct1   
that it could not fail to give us  great
 satisfaction4    ,we were no less      
gratified in our views with respect to  

the other object1  the mineral          
operations by which soft strata1        
regularly formed in  horizontal planes  
at the bottom of the sea1 had been      
hardened and  displaced4 ,fig4 #d4      
represents one of those examples2 it was
 drawn by ,sir  ,james ,hall from a     
perfect section in the perpendicular    
cliff at ,lumesden  burn4 ,here is not  
only a fine example of the bendings of  
the strata1 but  also of a horizontal   
shift or hitch of those erected strata4 
,st ,abb's ,head is a promontory which1 
at a distance1 one would naturally      
conclude to be composed of the schisti1 
as is all the shore to that  place2 but1
 as we approached it1 there was some    
difference to be  perceived in the      
external appearance1 it having a more   
rounded and  irregular aspect4          
,accordingly1 upon our arrival1 we found
 this head-land  composed of a different
 substance4 ,it is a great mass of red  
whin-stone1  of a very irregular        
structure and composition4 ,some of it  

is full of  small pebbles of calcareous 
spar1 surrounded with a coat of a       
coloured  substance1 different both from
 the whin-stone ground and the inclosed 
pebble4 ,here ended our expedition by   
water4    ,having thus found the        
junction of the sand-stone with the     
schistus  or alpine strata to run in a  
line directed from ,fast ,castle to     
,oldhamstocks1 or the heads of ,dunglass
 burn1 we set out to trace this  burn1  
not only with a view to observe the     
junction1 if it should there  appear1   
but particularly to discover the source 
of many blocks of  whin-stone1 of all   
sizes1 with which the bed of this burn  
abounds4    ,the sand-stone and coal    
strata1 which are nearly horizontal at  
the mouth  of this burn1 or on the      
coast1 become inclined as we go up the  
course of  the rivulet2 and of this we  
have fine sections in the bank4 ,the    
,dean of  ,dunglass is formed of        
precipitous and perpendicular rocks1    
through which  the running water has    

worn its way more than a hundred feet   
deep2 above  this ,dean the banks are   
steep and very high1 but covered with   
soil1 which here is a deep gravel4 ,the 
burn runs all the way up to             
,oldhamstocks upon the sand-stone       
strata2 but there1 these are traversed  
by a high whin-stone dyke1 which crosses
 the burn obliquely1 as we found  it on 
both banks though not in the bed of the 
burn2 it is in the south  bank below the
 village1 and on the north above it4    
,here is the source  of the whin-stone  
which we were looking for2 it is the    
common blue  basaltes1 of the same      
nature with the ,giant's ,causeway1 but 
with no  regular columner appearance4   
,above ,oldhamstocks we again found the 
sand-stone in the bank1 but it  soon    
disappeared under a deep cover of       
gravel1 and the burn then divided  into 
several rivulets which come from the    
hills4 ,we traced the one which  led    
most directly up to the mountains1 in   
expectation of meeting with  the        

schistus1 at least1 if not the junction 
of it with the sandstone4  ,but in this 
we were disappointed4 ,we did not       
however lose our labour2  for1 though   
the junction which we pursued be not    
here visible1 we met  with what made it 
sufficiently evident1 and was at the    
same time an  object far more           
interesting in our eyes4    ,i have     
already quoted ,mr ,voigt's description 
of the sol mort rouge2 he  says1 that in
 places it forms entire mountains2 here 
we have a perfect  example of the same  
thing2 and the moment we saw it1 we     
said1 here is  the sol mort rouge4 ,we  
ascended to the top of the mountain     
through  a gully of solid pudding-stone 
going into decay1 and furnishing the    
country below with that great covering  
of gravel1 soil1 and water worn  stones4
 ,we were now well acquainted with the  
pudding-stone1 which is  interposed     
between the horizontal and alpine       
strata2 but from what we  had seen to   
the eastward1 we never should have      

dreamed of meeting with  what we now    
perceived4 ,what we had hitherto seen of
 this pudding-stone  was but a few      
fragments of the schistus in the lower  
beds of sand-stone2  here a mountain of 
water-worn schisti1 imbedded in a red   
earth and  consolidated1 presented      
itself to our view4 ,it was evident that
 the  schisti mountains1 from whence    
those fragments had come1 had been prior
  to this secondary mass2 but here is a 
secondary mountain equal in height  to  
the primary1 or schisti mountains1 at   
the basis of which we had seen  the     
strata superinduced on the shore4       
,still1 however1 every thing here  is   
formed upon the same principle1 and     
nothing here is altered except  the     
scale on which the operation had been   
performed4    ,upon the coast1 we have  
but a specimen of the pudding-stone2    
most of  the fragments had their angles 
entire2 and few of them are rounded by  
attrition4 ,here1 on the contrary1 the  
mountain is one pudding-stone2  and most

 of the fragments are stones much       
rounded by attrition4 ,but the          
difference is only in degree1 and not in
 kind2 the stones are the same1  and the
 nature of the composition similar4 ,had
 we seen the mass of which  this        
mountain is only a relict1 7having been 
degraded by the hands of  time71 we     
should have found this pudding-stone at 
the bottom of  our sand-stone strata2   
could we have penetrated below this mass
 of  pudding-stone1 we should have found
 our schistus which we left on the      
shore at ,st4 ,helens and in the ,tour  
burn4 ,in ,tiviotdale the vertical      
schisti are covered with a bed of       
pudding-stone1 the gravel of which had  
been much worn by attrition1 but the    
thickness of that bed is small2  here   
again the wearing operation has been    
great1 and the quantity of  those       
materials even more than in proportion  
to those operations4 ,we  returned      
perfectly satisfied2 and ,sir ,james    
,hall is to pursue this  subject farther

 when he shall be in those mountains    
shooting muir game4    ,we had now only 
one object more to pursue2 this was to  
examine the south  side of those        
mountains of ,lammermuir upon the sea   
shore1 in order  to see the junction of 
the primary schistus with the coal      
strata  of ,berwickshire4 ,mr ,hall was 
to meet us at the ,press1 and we were   
afterwards to go with him to ,whitehall4
 ,we met accordingly2 but the  weather  
was rainy2 and we went directly to      
,whitehall4 ,i had often seen  the      
pudding-stone in great masse2 in the    
banks of the ,whiteader1 as  it comes   
out of the mountains1 but then ,i had   
not seen its connection  neither1 on the
 one hand1 with the schisti1 nor1 on the
 other1 with the  sand-stone strata4 ,we
 knew that at ,lammerton upon the sea   
coast there  was coal1 and consequently 
the sand-stone strata2 and reasoning    
upon  those data we were sure that our  
proper course of investigation was to   
trace the river ,ey to the shore1 and   

then go south the coast in search  of   
the junction of the schistus with the   
horizontal strata4 ,this we  executed as
 well as the weather would permit2 but  
had it to regret1  that the rainy season
 was not so favourable for our views1 as
 it was  agreeable to the country which 
had been suffering with the drought4    
,it is needless now to enlarge upon this
 subject4 ,i shall only mention  that we
 found the red marly strata above the   
pudding-stone in the bed of  the ,ey and
 its branches2 we then traced the       
schistus down the ,ey1 and  found a mass
 of the most consolidated pudding-stone 
upon the coast to  the north of the     
harbour of ,eymouth4 ,but this mass did 
not rest on the  schistus2 it is        
immediately upon a mass of whin-stone2  
and the schistus  is in the harbour1 so 
that this whin-stone mass seems to be   
here  interposed between the            
pudding-stone and schistus4 ,we then    
pursued  the coast southwards until we  
found the junction of the schistus and  

sand-stone strata about two miles from  
,eymouth2 but here the junction  was not
 attended with any pudding-stone that we
 could perceive4    ,having found the   
same or similar appearances from the one
 end to the  other1 and on both sides of
 that range of mountains which run from 
sea  to sea in the south of ,scotland1  
we may now extend our view of this      
mineral operation in comprehending every
 thing of the same kind which we  meet  
with in our island or any other distant 
country4    ,thus perhaps the           
pudding-stone of the south of ,england  
will be  considered in the same light as
 having been formed of the dbri and     
dtritus of the flinty bodies4    ,in the
 island of ,arran1 there is also a      
pudding-stone1 even in some  of the     
summits of the island1 exactly upon the 
border of the schistus  district1 as    
will be described in the natural history
 of that island4  ,this pudding-stone is
 composed of gravel formed of the       
hardest parts  of the schistus and      

granite or porphyry mountains4 ,that    
compound  parasitical stone has been    
also again cemented by heat and fusion2 
,i  have a specimen in which there is a 
clear demonstration of that fact4  ,one 
of the water-worn stones which had been 
rounded by attrition1 has in  this      
pudding-stone been broken and shifted1  
the one half slipping over  the other1  
three quarters of an inch1 besides other
 smaller slips in  the same stone4 ,but 
the two pieces are again cemented2 or   
they had been  shifted when the stone   
was in that soft state1 by which the two
 pieces  are made perfectly to cohere4  
,those shifts and veins1 in this species
 of  stone1 are extremely instructive1  
illustrating the mineral operations of  
the globe4    ,in like manner to the    
north of the ,grampians1 along the south
 side of  ,loch ,ness1 there are        
mountains formed of the debris of       
schistus and  granite mountains1 first  
manufactured into sand and gravel1 and  
then  consolidated into a pudding-stone1

 which is always formed upon the same   
principle4 ,the same is also found upon 
the south side of those mountains  in   
the shire of ,angus4    ,i may also give
 for example the ,african ,brechia1     
which is a  pudding-stone of the same   
nature4 ,this stone is composed of      
granites or  porphyries1 serpentines and
 schisti1 extremely indurated and       
perfectly  consolidated4 ,it is also    
demonstrable from the appearance in this
 stone  that it has been in a softened  
state1 from the shape and application   
of its constituent parts2 and in a      
specimen of it which ,i have in my      
cabinet1 there is also a demonstration  
of calcareous spar flowing among  the   
gravel of the consolidated rock4        
,this fact therefore of pudding-stone   
mountains1 is a general fact1 so  far as
 it is founded upon observations that   
are made in ,africa1 ,germany1  and     
,britain4 ,we may now reason upon this  
general fact1 in order to see  how far  
it countenances the idea of primitive   

mountains1 on the one  hand1 or on the  
other supports the present theory1 which
 admits of  nothing primitive in the    
visible or examinable parts of the      
earth4    ,to a person who examines     
accurately the composition of our       
mountains1  which occupy the south of   
,scotland1 no argument needs be used to 
persuade him that the bodies in question
 are not primitive2 the thing  is       
evident from inspection1 as much as     
would be the ruins of an ancient  city1 
although there were no record of its    
history4 ,the visible  materials1 which 
compose for the most part the strata of 
our south  alpine schisti1 are so       
distinctly the debris and detritus of a 
former earth1 and so similar in their   
nature with those which for the  most   
part compose the strata on all hands    
acknowledged as secondary1  that there  
can remain no question upon that head4  
,the consolidation1  again1 of those    
strata1 and the erection of them from   
their original  position1 and from the  

place in which they had been formed1 is 
another  question4    ,but the          
acknowledging strata1 which had been    
formed in the sea of loose  materials1  
to be consolidated and raised into the  
place of land1 is  plainly giving up the
 idea of primitive mountains4 ,the only 
question1  therefore1 which remains to  
be solved1 must respect the order of    
things1  in comparing the alpine schisti
 with the secondary strata2 and this    
indeed forms a curious subject of       
investigation4    ,it is plain that the 
schisti had been indurated1 elevated1   
broken1 and  worn by attrition in water1
 before the secondary strata1 which form
 the  most fertile parts of our earth1  
had existed4 ,it is also certain that   
the tops of our schistus mountains had  
been in the bottom of the sea  at the   
time when our secondary strata had begun
 to be formed2 for the  pudding-stone on
 the top of our ,lammermuir mountains1  
as well as the  secondary strata upon   
the vertical schisti of the ,alps and   

,german  mountains1 affords the most    
irrefragable evidence of that fact4     
,it is further to be affirmed1 that this
 whole mass of water-formed  materials1 
as well as the basis on which it rested1
 had been subjected  to the mineral     
operations of the globe1 operations by  
which the loose  and incoherent         
materials are consolidated1 and that    
which was the bottom  of the sea made to
 occupy the station of land1 and serve  
the purpose for  which it is destined in
 the world4 ,this also will appear      
evident1 when  it is considered that it 
has been from the appearances in this   
very  land1 independent of those of the 
alpine schisti1 that the present  theory
 has been established4    ,by thus      
admitting a primary and secondary in the
 formation of our land1  the present    
theory will be confirmed in all its     
parts4 ,for1 nothing but  those         
vicissitudes1 in which the old is worn  
and destroyed1 and new  land formed to  
supply its place1 can explain that order

 which is to be  perceived in all the   
works of nature2 or give us any         
satisfactory  idea with regard to that  
apparent disorder and confusion1 which  
would  disgrace an agent possessed of   
wisdom and working with design4         
,,chap4 ,,vii4    ,opinions examined    
with regard to ,petrifaction1 or        
,mineral ,concretion4    ,the ideas of  
naturalists with regard to petrifaction 
are so vague and  indistinct1 that no   
proper answer can be given to them4     
,they in general  suppose water to be   
the solvent of bodies1 and the vehicle  
of petrifying  substances2 but they     
neither say whether water be an         
universal  menstruum1 nor do they show  
in what manner a solid body has been    
formed  in the bowels of the earth1 from
 that solution4 ,it may now be proper to
  examine this subject1 not with a view 
to explain all those petrifactions  of  
bodies which is performed in the mineral
 regions of the earth1 those  regions   
that are inaccessible to man1 but to    

show that what has been  wrote by       
naturalists1 upon this subject1 has only
 a tendency to corrupt  science1 by     
admitting the grossest supposition in   
place of just  principle or truth1 and  
to darken natural history by introducing
 an ill  conceived theory in place of   
matter of fact4    ,m4 le ,comte de     
,buffon has attempted to explain the    
crystallization  of bodies1 or          
production of mineral forms1 by the     
accretion or  juxtaposition of          
elementary bodies1 which have only form 
in two  dimensions1 length and breadth2 
that is to say1 that mineral concretions
  are composed of surfaces alone1 and   
not of bodies4 ,this however is only  an
 attempt to explain1 what we do not     
understand1 by a proposition which  is  
either evidently contradictory1 or      
plainly inconceivable4 ,it is  true that
 this eloquent and ingenious author     
endeavours to correct the  palpable     
absurdity of the proposition1 by        
representing the constituent  parts of  

the mineral bodies as de lames          
infiniment minces2 but who  is it does  
not see1 that these infinitely thin     
plates are no other than  bodies of     
three dimensions1 contrary to the       
supposition2 for1 infinitely  thin1     
means a certain thickness2 but the      
smallest possible or assignable         
thickness differs as much from a perfect
 superficies as the greatest4    ,m4 de 
,luc has given us his ideas of          
petrifaction with sufficient  precision 
of term and clearness of expression2 his
 opinion1 therefore1  deserves to be    
examined2 and1 as his theory of         
petrifaction is equally  applicable to  
every species of substance1 it is       
necessary again to  examine this        
subject1 notwithstanding of what has    
been already said1  in the first part of
 this work1 concerning consolidation and
 mineral  concretion from the fluid     
state of fusion4    ,this author has    
perhaps properly exposed ,woodward's    
,theory of  ,petrification in saying#cc1

 ,son erreur  cet gard vient de ce qu'il
  n'a point rflchi sur la manire dont se
 fait la ptrifaction4 ,il  ramollit     
d'abord les pierres pour y faire entrer 
les coquilles1 sans  bien connotre      
l'agent qu'il y employe2 et il les      
duroit ensuite1 sans  rflchir au        
comment4 ,to avoid this error or defect1
 ,m4 de ,luc1 in his  ,theory of        
,petrifaction1 sets out with the        
acknowledged principle of  cohesion2    
and1 in order to consolidate strata of a
 porous texture1 he  supposes water     
carrying minute bodies of all shapes and
 sizes1 and  depositing them in such    
close contact as to produce solidity and
  concretion4 ,now1 if ,dr ,woodward    
softened stones without a proper  cause1
 ,m4 de ,luc1 in employing the specious 
principle of cohesion1 has  consolidated
 them upon no better grounds2 for1 the  
application of this  principle is as    
foreign to his purpose1 as is that of   
magnetism4 ,bodies1  it is true1 cohere 
when their surfaces are closely applied 

to each  other2 ,but how apply this     
principle to consolidation8--only by    
supposing  all the separate bodies1 of  
which the solid is to be composed1 to be
  in perfect contact in all their       
surfaces4 ,but this1 in other words1  is
 supposing the body to be solid2 and1 to
 suppose the agent1 water1  capable of  
thus making hard bodies solid1 is no    
other than having  recourse to the      
fortuitous concourse of atoms to make a 
world2 a thought  which this author     
would surely hold in great contempt4    
,note #cc3 ,lettres ,physiques et       
,morales4    ,he then illustrates this  
operation of nature by those of art1 in 
building walls which certainly become   
hard1 and which1 as our author  seems to
 think1 become solid4 ,but this is only 
an imperfect or erroneous               
representation of this subject2 for1    
mortar does not become hard upon  the   
principle of petrification adopted by   
our author4 ,mortar1 made of  clay1     
instead of lime1 will not acquire a     

stony hardness1 nor ever1 by  means of  
water1 will it be more indurated than by
 simply drying2 neither  will the most  
subtile powder of chalk1 with water and 
sand1 form any  solid body1 or a proper 
mortar4 ,the induration of mortar arises
 from the  solution of a stony          
substance1 and the subsequent concretion
 of that  dissolved matter1 operations  
purely chemical4 ,now1 if this          
philosopher1  in his ,theory of         
,petrifaction1 means only to explain a  
chemical  operation upon mechanical     
principles1 why have recourse1 for an   
example  in this subject1 to mineral    
bodies1 the origin of which is          
questioned8  ,why does he not rather    
explain1 upon this principle1 the known 
concretion of some body1 from a fluid   
state1 or1 conversely1 the  known       
solution of some concreted body8 ,if    
again he means to explain  petrifaction 
in the usual way1 by a chemical         
operation1 in that case1  the           
application of his polished surfaces1 so

 as to cohere1 cannot take  place until 
the dissolved body be separated from the
 fluid1 by means of  which it is        
transported from place to place in the  
mineral regions4 ,but  it is in this    
preliminary step that lies all the      
difficulty2 for1 could  we see how every
 different substance might be dissolved1
 and every  dissolved substance         
separated from its solvent at our       
pleasure1 we  should find no difficulty 
in admitting the cohesion of hard       
bodies1  whether by means of this       
doctrine of polished surfaces1 or by the
  principle of general attraction1 a    
principle which surely comprehends  this
 particular1 termed a cohesive power4   
,it must not be alleged1 that seeing we 
know not how water dissolves  saline    
bodies1 therefore1 this fluid1 for any  
thing that we know1 may  also dissolve  
crystal2 and1 if water thus dissolves a 
mineral substance  in a manner unknown  
to us1 it may in like manner deposit it1
 although  we may not be able to imagine

 how4 ,this kind of reasoning is only   
calculated to keep us in ignorance2 at  
the same time1 the reasoning of         
philosophers1 concerning petrifaction1  
does not in general appear to be        
founded on any principle that is more   
sound4 ,that water dissolves salt  is a 
fact4 ,that water dissolves crystal is  
not a fact2 therefore1 those  two       
propositions1 with regard to the power  
of water1 are infinitely  removed1 and  
cannot be assimilated in sound physical 
reasoning4 ,it is  no more a truth that 
water is able to dissolve salt1 than    
that we never  have been able to detect 
the smallest disposition in water to    
dissolve  crystal1 flint1 quartz1 or    
metals4 ,therefore1 to allege the       
possibility  of water being capable of  
dissolving those bodies in the mineral  
regions1 and of thus changing the       
substance of one body into another1 as  
naturalists have supposed1 contrary to  
their knowledge1 or in order to  explain
 appearances1 is so far from tending to 

increase our science1  that it is       
abandoning the human intellect to be    
bewildered in an error2  it is the vain 
attempt of lulling to sleep the         
scientific conscience1  and making the  
soul of man insensible to the natural   
distress of  conscious ignorance4       
,but besides that negative argument     
concerning the insolubility of  crystal1
 by which the erroneous suppositions of 
naturalists are to  be rejected1 crystal
 in general is found regularly concreted
 in the  cavities of the most solid     
rock1 in the heart of the closest agate1
 and  in the midst of granite mountains4
 ,but these masses of granite were      
formed by fusion2 ,i hope that ,i shall 
give the most satisfactory proof  of    
that truth3 ,consequently1 here at least
 there is no occasion for the  action of
 water in dissolving siliceous          
substances in one place1 in  order to   
concrete and crystallise it in another4 
,in these cavities of the solid granite 
rock1 where crystal is found  regularly 

shooting from a basis which is the      
internal surface of the  cavity1 we find
 the other constituent substances of the
 granite also  crystallised4 ,i have    
those small cavities1 in this rock1 from
 the island  of ,arran1 containing      
crystal1 felt-spar1 and mica1 all       
crystallised in  the same cavity#cd4    
,but this is nothing to the druzen or   
crystalline  concretions1 which are     
found in a similar manner among metallic
 and  mineral substances in the veins   
and mines2 there1 every species of      
mineral and metallic substance1 with    
every variety of mixture and            
composition1 are found both concreted   
and crystallised together in every      
imaginable shape and situation4    ,note
 #cd3 ,the ,chevalier ,dolomieu makes   
the following observation4  ,journal de 
,physique1 ,juillet #agia4    ,j'ai t   
tonn de trouver au centre d'un norme    
massif de granit1 que  l'on avoit ouvert
 avec la poudre pour pratiquer un       
chemin1 des  morceaux1 gros comme le    

poing et au dessous1 de spath calcaire  
blanc1  trs-effervescent1 en grandes    
cailles1 ou lames entrecroises4 ,il     
n'occupoit point des cavits             
particulires1 il n'y paroissoit le      
produit d'une infiltration qui auroit   
rempli des cavits1 mais il toit         
incorpor avec les feld-spath1 le mica1  
et le quartz1 faissoit masse  avec eux1 
et ne pouvoit se rompre sans les        
entraner avec lui4    ,this great       
naturalist is convinced that the spar   
had not been here  introduced by        
infiltration1 although that is the very 
method which he  employs to form        
concretions1 not only of spar but of    
crystal1 zeolite1  and pyrites1 in the  
closest cavities of the most solid rocks
 of  basaltes4 ,these four substances in
 this stone were so mixed together  that
 nothing but the fusion of the whole    
mass could explain the state in  which  
they appeared2 but1 thinking that such a
 supposition could not  be allowed1 this
 naturalist1 like a man of science when 

his data fail1  leaves the matter       
without any interpretation of his own4  
,this however is  what he has not done  
in the case of basaltes1 or that which  
he mistakes  for proper lavas1 as ,i    
shall have occasion to show4    ,here is
 an infinite operation1 but an operation
 which is easily  performed by the      
natural arrangement of substances acting
 freely in  a fluid state1 and          
concreting together1 each substance1    
whether more  simple or more compound1  
directing itself by its internal        
principle of  attraction1 and affecting 
mechanically those that are concreting  
around  it4    ,we see the very same    
thing happen under our eye1 and         
precisely in the  same manner4 ,when a  
fluid mass of any mineral or metallic   
substance is  made to congeal by sudden 
cooling on the outside1 while the mass  
within  is fluid1 a cavity is thus      
sometimes formed by the contraction of  
the  contained fluid2 and in this cavity
 are found artificial druzen1 as  they  

may be called1 being crystallizations   
similar to those which the  mineral     
cavities exhibit in such beauty and     
perfection4    ,petrification and       
consolidation1 in some degree1 may      
doubtless be  performed1 in certain     
circumstances1 by means of the solution 
of  calcareous earth2 but the examples  
given by ,m4 de ,luc1 of those bodies   
of lime-stone and agate petrified in the
 middle of strata of loose or  sandy    
materials1 are certainly inexplicable   
upon any other principle  except the    
fusion of those substances with which   
the bodies are  petrified#ce4    ,note  
#ce3 ,vid4 ,lettre #bh et ,lettre #ajc4 
,lettres ,physiques et ,morales4        
,this subject deserves the strictest    
attention2 ,i propose it as a           
touchstone for every theory of          
petrification or perfect consolidation4 
,first1 ,there are found1 among         
argillaceous strata1 insulated bodies of
  iron-stone1 perfectly consolidated2   
secondly1 ,there are found1 in strata   

of chalk and lime-stone1 masses of      
insulated flints2 thirdly1 ,there  are  
found1 in strata of sea sand1 masses of 
that sand cemented by a  siliceous      
substance2 fourthly1 ,in the midst of   
blocks of sand-stone1  there are found  
masses of loose or pure sand inclosed in
 crystallised  cavities2 and in this    
sand are found insulated masses of      
crystallised  spar1 including within    
them the sand1 but without having the   
sparry  or calcareous crystallization   
disturbed by it4 ,there are also other  
globular masses of the same kind1 where 
the sparry crystallization is  either   
not to be observed1 or appears only     
partially#cf3 ,and now1  lastly1 ,in    
strata of shell-sand1 there are found   
masses of consolidated  lime-stone or   
marble4 ,in all those cases1 the        
consolidated bodies are  perfectly      
insulated in the middle of strata1 in   
which they must of  necessity have been 
petrified or consolidated2 the stratum  
around the  bodies has not been affected

 by the petrifying substance1 as there  
is not any vestige of it there2 and here
 are examples of different  substances1 
all conspiring to prove one uniform     
truth4 ,therefore1 a  general theory of 
petrification or consolidation of       
mineral bodies must  explain this       
distinct fact1 and not suffer it any    
longer to remain a  lusus naturae4      
,note #cf3 ,mem4 de l',acadmie ,royale  
des ,sciences1 an4 #agge4    ,let us now
 consider what it is that we have to    
explain1 upon the  supposition of those 
concretions being formed from a         
solution4 ,we have1  first1 ,to         
understand what sort of a solution had  
been employed for the  introducing of   
those various substances2 secondly1 ,how
 those concretions  had been formed from
 such solutions within those bodies of  
strata2 and1  lastly1 ,how such         
concretions could have been formed1     
without any vestige  appearing of the   
same substance1 or of the same          
operation1 in the  surrounding part of  

the stratum4 ,whatever may be the       
difficulty  of explaining those         
particular appearances by means of      
fusion and  mechanical force1 it is     
plainly impossible to conceive those    
bodies  formed in those places by       
infiltration1 or any manner of          
concretion from  a state of solution4   
,naturalists1 in explaining the         
formation of stones1 often use a        
chemical  language which either has no  
proper meaning1 or which will not apply 
to  the subject of mineral operations4  
,we know the chemical process by which  
one or two stony concretions may be     
formed among bodies passing from  one   
state to another4 ,when1 therefore1 a   
change from a former state of  things in
 mineral bodies is judged by naturalists
 to have happened1 the  present state is
 commonly explained1 or the change is   
supposed to have  been made by means of 
a similar process1 without inquiring if 
this had  truly been the case or not4   
,thus their knowledge of chemistry has  

led  naturalists to reason erroneously1 
in explaining things upon false         
principles4 ,it would be needless to    
give an example of any one  particular  
author in this respect2 for1 so far as  
,i have seen1 it  appears to be almost  
general1 every one copying the language 
of another1  and no one understanding   
that language which has been employed4  
,these naturalists suppose every thing  
done by means of solution in the        
mineral kingdom1 and yet they are       
ignorant of those solvents4 ,they       
conceive or they imagine concretions and
 crystallizations to be formed  of every
 different substance1 and in every place
 within the solid body  of the earth1   
without considering how far the thing is
 possible which  they suppose4 ,they are
 constantly talking of operations which 
could only  take place in the cavities  
of the earth above the level of the sea1
 and  where the influence of the        
atmosphere were felt2 and yet this is   
the  very place which we have it in our 

power to examine1 and where1 besides    
the stalactite1 and one or two more of  
the same kind1 or formed on the  same   
principle1 they have never been able to 
discover one of the many  which1        
according to their theory1 ought always 
to be in action or  effect4 ,so far from
 knowing that general consolidating     
operation1 which  they suppose to be    
exerted in filling up the veins and     
cavities of the  earth by means of the  
infiltrating water of the surface1 they 
do not  seem fully to understand the    
only operation of this kind which they  
see4  ,the concretion of calcareous     
matter upon the surface of the earth is 
perhaps the only example upon which     
their theory is founded2 and  yet       
nothing can be more against it than the 
general history of this  transaction4   
,calcareous matter1 the great vinculum  
of many mineral bodies1 is in  a        
perpetual state of dissolution and      
decay1 in every place where the         
influences of air and water may pervade4

 ,the general tendency of this  is to   
dissolve calcareous matter out of the   
earth1 and deliver that  solution into  
the sea4 ,were it possible to deny that 
truth1 the  very formation of           
stalactite1 that operation which has    
bewildered  naturalists1 would prove it2
 for it is upon the general solubility  
of  calcareous matter exposed to water  
that those cavities are formed1 in      
which may be found such collections of  
stalactical concretion2 and the  general
 tendency of those operations is to     
waste the calcareous bodies  through    
which water percolates4 ,but how is the 
general petrifaction or  consolidation  
of strata1 below the surface of the sea1
 to be explained  by the general        
dissolution of that consolidating       
substance in the  earth above that      
level8 ,instead of finding a general    
petrifying or  consolidating operation  
in the part of the earth which we are   
able to  examine1 we find the contrary  
operation1 so far at least as relates to

  calcareous spar1 and many other       
mineral bodies which are decomposed and 
dissolved upon the surface of the earth4
    ,thus in the surface of the earth1  
above the level of the sea1 no          
petrifying operation of a durable nature
 is found2 and1 were such an  operation 
there found1 it could not be general1 as
 affecting every kind  of substance4    
,but1 even suppose that such a general  
operation were found  to take place in  
the earth above the level of the sea1   
where there might  be a circulation of  
air and percolation of water1 ,how could
 the strata  of the earth below the     
level of the sea be petrified8 ,this is 
a question  that does not seem to have  
entered into the heads of our           
naturalists  who attempt to explain     
petrifaction or mineral concretion from 
aqueous  solutions4 ,but the            
consolidation of loose and incoherent   
things1  gathered together at the bottom
 of the sea1 and afterwards raised  into
 rocks of various sorts1 forms by far   

the greatest example of  petrification  
or mineral operation of this globe4 ,it 
is this that must  be explained in a    
mineral theory2 and it is this great    
process of  petrifaction to which the   
doctrine of infiltration1 whether for   
the  mechanical purpose of applying     
cohesive surfaces1 or the chemical one  
of  forming crystallizations and        
concretions1 will not by any means      
apply4    ,nothing shows more how little
 true science has been employed for the 
explanation of phenomena1 than the      
language of modern naturalists1 who     
attribute1 to stalactical and           
stalagmical operations1 every           
superficial  or distant resemblance to  
those calcareous bodies1 the origin of  
which  we know so well4 ,it is not a    
mere resemblance that should homologate 
different things2 there should be a     
specific character in every thing  that 
is to be generalised4 ,it will be our   
business to show that1 in the  false    
stalactites1 there is not the           

distinctive character of those water    
formed bodies to be found4    ,in the   
formation of stalactical concretions1   
besides the incrustation as  well as    
crystallization of the stony substance  
from the aqueous vehicle  by which it   
had been carried in the dissolved state1
 we have the other  necessary           
accompanyments of the operation1 or     
collateral circumstances  of the case4  
,such1 for example1 is that tubular     
construction of the  stalactite1 first  
formed by the concretion of the         
calcareous substance  upon the outside  
of the pendant gut of water exposed to  
the evaporation  of the atmosphere2 we  
then see the gradual filling up of that 
pervious  tube through which the        
petrifying water had passed for a       
certain time2  and1 lastly1 we see the  
continual accretion which this          
conducting body  had received from the  
water running successively over every   
part of  it4 ,but among the infinite    
number of siliceous concretions and     

crystallizations1 as well as those of an
 almost indefinite variety of  other    
substances1 all of which are attributed 
to solution1 there is not  the least    
vestige of any collateral operation1 by 
which the nature of  that concretion    
might be ascertained in the same manner4
 ,in all  those cases1 we see nothing   
but the concreted substances or their   
crystallizations2 but1 no mark of any   
solvent or incrusting process is  to be 
perceived4 ,on the contrary1 almost all1
 or the greatest part  of them1 are so  
situated1 and attended with such        
circumstances1 as  demonstrate the      
physical impossibility of that being the
 manner in which  they had been         
concreted2 for1 they are situated within
 close cavities1  through which nothing 
can pervade but heat1 electricity1      
magnetism1  etc42 and they fill those   
cavities more or less1 from the thinnest
  incrustation of crystals to the full  
content of those cavities with  various 
substances1 all regularly concreted or  

crystallised according to  an order     
which cannot apply to the concretion of 
any manner of solution4    ,that there  
is1 in the mineral system1 an operation 
of water which may  with great propriety
 be termed infiltration1 ,i make no     
doubt4 ,but this  operation of water1   
that may be employed in consolidating   
the strata  in the mineral regions1 is  
essentially different from that which is
  inconsiderately employed or supposed  
by mineralists when they talk  of       
infiltration2 these two operations have 
nothing in common except  employing the 
water of the surface of the earth to    
percolate a porous  body4 ,now1 the     
percolation of water may increase the   
porousness of that  body which it       
pervades1 but never can thus change it  
from a porous to a  perfect solid body4 
,but even the percolation of water      
through the strata  deposited at the    
bottom of the sea1 necessarily required1
 according to  the supposition of       
naturalists1 must be refused2 for1 the  

interstices of  those strata are1 from  
the supposition of the case1 already    
filled with  water2 consequently1       
without first removing that stagnant    
water1 it is  in vain to propose the    
infiltration of any fluid from the      
surface4    ,this is a difficulty which 
does not occur in our theory1 where the 
strata1 deposited at the bottom of the  
sea1 are to be afterwards heated  by the
 internal fires of the earth4 ,the      
natural consequence of those  heating   
operations may be considered as the     
converting of the water  contained in   
the strata into steam1 and the expulsion
 of steam or  vapour1 by raising it up  
against the power of gravity1 to be     
delivered  upon the surface of the earth
 and again condensed to the state of    
water4    ,let us now conceive the      
strata1 which had been deposited at the 
bottom  of the sea1 as exhausted of     
their water1 and as communicating with  
the  surface of the earth impregnated   
with water4 ,here again we have the     

power of gravity to operate in carrying 
down water to that place which  had been
 before exhausted by the power of heat2 
and in this manner1 by  alternately     
employing those two great physical      
agents1 we cannot doubt  that nature may
 convey soluble substances from above1  
and deposit them  below for the purpose 
of consolidating porous bodies1 or of   
filling with  saline and earthy matter  
those interstices which had been        
originally  filled with water1 when the 
strata were deposited at the bottom of  
the  sea4 ,how far any marks of this    
operation may be perceived1 by carefully
  examining our mines and minerals1 ,i  
know not2 ,i can only say that1 on  the 
contrary1 whenever those examined       
objects were clear and distinct1  with  
the concomitant circumstances1 so as to 
be understood1 ,i have  always found the
 most certain marks of the solid bodies 
having concreted  from the fluid state  
of fusion4 ,this1 however1 does not     
exclude the case  of infiltration having

 been previously employed2 and ,i would 
intreat  mineralists1 who have the      
opportunity of examining the solid parts
 of  the earth1 to attend particularly  
to this distinction4 ,but do not let    
them suppose that infiltration can be   
made to fill either the pores or  veins 
of strata without the operation of      
mineral heat1 or some such  process by  
which the aqueous vehicle may be        
discharged4    ,not only are mineral    
philosophers so inconsiderate1 in       
forming  geological theories upon a mere
 supposition or false analogy1 they     
have even proceeded1 upon that erroneous
 theory1 to form a geological           
supposition for explaining the          
appearances of strata and other stony   
masses in employing a particular        
physical operation1 which is1 that  of  
crystallization#cg4 ,now crystallization
 may be considered as a  species of     
elective concretion1 by which every     
particular substance1 in  passing from a
 fluid to a solid state1 may assume a   

certain peculiar  external shape and    
internal arrangement of its parts1 by   
which it is  often distinguished4 ,but1 
to suppose the solid mineral structure  
of the  earth explained1 like an enigma1
 by the word crystallization1 is to     
misunderstand the science by which we   
would explain the subject of  research2 
and1 to form a general mineral theory   
thus upon that term1  is an attempt to  
generalise without a reason4 ,for1 when 
it were even  admitted that every solid 
body is crystallised1 we thus know no   
more of  the geology of this earth1 or  
understand as little of the general     
theory  of mineral concretion1 as we did
 before2--we cannot1 from that1 say     
whether it be by the operation of       
solution or of fusion which had         
produced the perceived effect4    ,note 
#cg3 ,journal de ,physique2 ,avril      
#agec4    ,m4 de ,carosi has wrote a    
treatise upon certain petrifactions#ch4 
,in the  doctrine of this treatise there
 is something new or extraordinary4 ,it 

will therefore be proper to make some   
observations on it4    ,note #ch3 ,sur  
la ,gnration du ,silex et du ,quartz en 
partie4  ,observations faites en        
,pologne #aghc1  ,cracovie4    ,the     
object of this treatise is to describe  
the generation of silex and  quartz1    
with their modifications or             
compositions1 formed within mineral     
bodies of a different substance4 ,the   
natural history contained in this       
little treatise is well described and   
sufficiently interesting4 ,but ,it  is  
chiefly in order to examine the means   
which1 according to the theory  of this 
treatise1 are employed in petrifying    
bodies1 that ,i consider it  in this    
place4    ,the first section of this    
treatise has for title1 ,gnration du    
,caillou  et du ,quartz de la terre     
calcaire pure4 ,it may be worth while to
  compare the natural history of this   
part of the earth with the flint and    
chert found in our chalk and lime-stone 
countries4 ,i shall therefore           

transcribe what is worth observing upon 
that subject 7p4 #e474    ,nous         
rencontrons chez nous dans les parties  
le plus montagneuses1 et  les moins     
couvertes de terreau1 ou tout-au plus de
 sable1 entre de purs  rochers calcaires
 une quantit incroyable de cailloux     
7silex7 tant en  boules1 que veines1    
couches1 et dbris4 ,au premier coup     
d'oeil l'on  s'imagine que ce font des  
dbris de montagnes loignes1 qui y furent
  amens par les eaux1 mais1 en examinant
 la chose de plus pres1 on est          
convaincu1 que ce sont tout au          
contraire1 des parties dtaches des      
montagnes de la contre4 ,car il y a sur 
presque toute l'tendue de nos  montagnes
 calcaires une couche1 ou pour mieux    
dire1 un banc compos  de plusieurs      
couches de base calcaire1 mais qui ou   
sont parsemes  irrgulirement de boules1 
de rognons1 de veines1 et de petits     
filons  de silex1 ou qui contiennent    
cette pierre en filon1 veines1 et       
couches  parallles1 et rgulirement      

disposes4 ,les boules et rognons de     
silex  y font depuis moins de la        
grandeur d'une petite noisette1 jusqu'au
  diamtre de plus de six pouces de ntre 
mesure4 ,la plupart de ces boules  tant 
qu'elles sont dans l'intrieur cach de la
 roche vive1 et qu'elles  n'ont rien    
souffert de l'impression de l'air1 ont1 
pour l'ordinaire1 une  crote de spath   
calcaire1 au moyen de la quelle elles   
sont accrues   la roche mere2 ou pour   
mieux dire la crote spatheuse fait      
l'intermde  entre le silex1 et la roche 
calcaire1 par o se fait le passage de   
l'une   l'autre4 ,mais ceci ne vaut que 
de boules de silex entirement formes4   
,c'est dont on peut mme se convaincre   
la vue1 par beaucoup de pierres  dont le
 pav de la ville de ,cracovie est       
compos4 ,mais l1 ou le silex  n'est pas 
encore entirement achev1 la crote       
spatheuse manque1 en  revanche on y voit
 videmment le passage par degrs         
successifs de la  roche calcaire au     
silex qui y est contenu1 et les nuances 

de ce passage  sont souvent si peu      
marques que mme les acides minraux ne   
suffisent  pas  les dterminer1 ce n'est 
que le briquet1 qui nous aide  les      
dcouvrir4 ,on voit bien ou la pierre    
calcaire s'enfonce en couleur1 l'on     
s'apperoit1 o sa duret1 ses cassures    
changent1 mais1 comme elle y  souffre   
encore quelque impression des acides1   
l'on ne sauroit dterminer  au juste le  
point1 ou elle a dj plus de la nature du
 silex1 que de  celle de la chaux1 qu'en
 la frappant du briquet4    ,tels sont  
les cailloux en boules et rognons avant 
leur tat de  perfection1 il y aura mme  
au milieu une partie de pierre calcaire 
non  change4    ,ceux au contraire1 ou  
la nature  achev son ouvrage1 ont une   
crote de  chaux endurcie1 et sont       
purement du silex fini1 mais de toutes  
couleurs1  d'un grain et d'une texture  
plus ou moins fine1 qui passe assez     
souvent  par degrs dans les diffrentes  
varits du noble silex4 ,ils ont1 pour   
l'ordinaire1 dans leur intrieur une     

cavit1 mais pas toujours au  centre1 et 
qui vient apparemment de la consommation
 de cette partie  calcaire qui y resta  
la dernire1 et n'en fut change ou       
dissolute et  spare1 que lorsque le     
reste du silex toit dj entirement fini4 
,ces  cavits sont toujours1 ou enduites 
de calcdoine en couche concentriques    
recouverte de petits cristaux fort      
brillans et durs de quartz1 ou bien     
seulement de ces derniers-ci4 ,par-fois 
il y a aussi du spath calcaire          
crystallis1 mais cela est extrmement    
rare4 ,quelque-fois enfin ces  cavits   
sont remplies d'une noix de calcdoine4  
,je n'ai russi qu'une  seule fois en    
cassant un pareil silex en boule d'y    
trouver encore le  reste de l'eau de    
crystallisation4    ,the only remark    
that ,i would here make is this1 that1  
if the  crystallization of those close  
cavities in the silex had at any time   
required water of solution1 it must     
always have required it4 ,but1 if  there
 had been water of solution contained in

 those close cavities1 for  the         
crystallization of the various things   
which are often found within  them1 ,how
 comes it that this water is almost     
never found8 ,i have good  reason to    
believe that water contained within a   
solid flint will not  make its escape1  
as does that contained in the anhydrites
 of ,mount  ,berico1 which are composed 
of a porous calcedony4 ,but the         
siliceous  crystallizations within close
 cavities is a curious subject1 which we
  shall have occasion to examine more   
particularly in treating of agates4  ,we
 now proceed to the next section1 which 
is the generation of silex and  quartz  
in marl1 7p4 #ai47    ,il y a des       
contres1 chez nous1 qui out des tendus  
assez considrables  en long et en large1
 de montagnes de pierre de marne        
calcaire1 dans  lesquelles on rencontre 
le mme phnomne que dans celles de chaux 
pure2  c4 a4 d4 nous y trouvons du silex
 de diffrentes varits1 et dans tous  les
 degrs successifs de leur formation1 et 

de leur perfection4 ,outre  cela1 nous y
 voyons encore quelque chose1 qui semble
 nous conduire   la dcouverte des       
moyens1 dont se sort la nature pour     
effecteur cette  opration1 et qui nous  
toit cach dans les montagnes de chaux   
pure3 ces  bancs de pierre              
marnesilicieuse1 contiennent une partie 
considrable de  pyrites sulfureuses1 qui
 non seulement y forment une grande     
quantit  de petits sillons1 mais toute  
la masse de la montagne est rempli de   
parcelles souvent presqu'imperceptibles 
de ce minral4 ,ces pyrites sont         
videmment des productions du            
phlogistique et de l'acide contenu dans 
la  montagne4    ,l'eau1 qui s'y trouve 
ordinairement en assez grande abondance1
 en  dtacha1 extraha d'un et l'autre1 et
 les combina aprs tous les deux         
ensemble4 ,cette mme eau les dissout    
derechef1 et en fait de nouvelles       
combinaisons4 ,c'est ce qu'on voit      
videmment l1 ou la nature1 ayant        
commenc ses oprations1 il n'y est rest  

de la pyrite1 qu'une portion  de la     
partie inflammable lie  une base        
terrestre4 ,dans ces endroits  la marne 
n'est que fort peu sensible aux acides1 
et de blanche qu'elle  toit1 sa couleur 
est devenue presque noire4 ,c'est l     
qu'on observe les  diffrens degrs du    
changement de la marne en silex1        
contenant1 mme  encore1 par fois1 de    
parties pyritiques non dtruites dans son
  intrieur4 ,et comme la nature forme   
ici1 de mme1 que dans la chaux pure  les
 silex1 la plupart en boules ou rognons2
 comme les diffrent degrs  de           
mtamorphoses de la marne en silex1 sont 
ici beaucoup plus nombreuses  que l1 de 
sorte qu'il y a des bandes entires1 qui 
mriteroient plutt  d'tre appells bandes 
silicieuses1 que marneuses2 comme il y  
a1 enfin1  une grande quantit de        
pyrites1 qu'ailleurs1 il est trs        
probable  qu'elle se serve l du mme     
moyen qu'ici pour oprer la mtamorphose  
en  question4    ,ne nous prcipitons1   
cependant1 pas  en tirer plus de        

consquences2  poursuivons plutt le fil  
de notre rcit4    ,le silex1 qui se     
trouve ici1 est non seulement de        
diffrents degrs de  perfection1 il est  
de plus d'une espce4 ,il y a de la      
pierre  feu1 #b de  la calcdoine1 #c des
 agathes1 et #d diffrentes nuances et   
passages des  espces ordinaires aux     
fines du silex4    ,la pierre  feu1 est1
 ordinairement dans son tat de          
perfection d'un  grain assez fin1 d'une 
couleur grise plus ou moins fonce1 et   
mme  donnant1 dans le noirtre1 plus ou  
moins diaphane2 ses cassures sont       
concentriques ou coquilles1 et sa masse 
est assez compacte4 ,outre sa           
conformation ordinaire en boules et     
rognons1 elle fait presque toujours  la 
noix de ursins marins1 qui y font en    
grand nombre1 et dont la  coquille est  
le plus souvent1 et presque toujours de 
spath calcaire1  mme au milieu d'une    
boule de silex parfait4    ,les         
calcdoines et agathes de ces couches    
sont toujours 7au moins1 je  ne les ai  

pas encore vues autrement7 de coraux et 
autres corps marins  ptrifis4 ,donc1 il 
faut que les couches de pierres roules1 
d'o j'ai  tir ma collection cite plus   
haut1 soyent des dbris de montagne      
dtruites de cette espce4 ,il y en a qui 
sont trs parfaites comme  celles qui    
composent ma collection1 d'autres       
mritent plutt d'tre  ranges parmi les   
passages du silex ordinaire1 et ses     
espces plus  fines2 d'autres encore     
sont1 en effet1 de vraies agathes1 mais 
qui  renferment dans leur intrieur plus 
ou moins de parties non parfaites       
presque calcaires1 qui s'annoncent      
d'abord par leur couleur blanche1  par  
leur gros grains relativement au reste1 
par leur opacit1 par leur  mollesse     
respective1 et souvent mme par leur     
sensibilit pour les  acides minraux4    
,mais celles1 qui sont finies1          
quoiqu'elles ayent1 pour  la plupart1   
une couleur presque noire1 ne laissent1 
cependant1 pas  d'avoir aussi des       
teintes plus claires comme bruntres1    

verdtres1  rougetres1 jauntres1         
bleutres1 tachetes1 veines1 etc4 ,leur  
clart  n'est pas moins variable1 que    
leur couleur1 il y en a de              
presqu'opaques1  comme aussi de presque 
transparentes1 sur tout l1 ou la        
calcdoine  prdomine4    ,le quartz s'y  
trouve comme dans les pierres de la     
premire section1 c1  a1 d1 crystallis1  
en groupes dans de petites cavits2      
quelquefois aussi  en veines4 ,la       
calcdoine y est de mme1 ou bien en      
mamelons1 ou bien en  stalactites1      
lorsqu'elle a de la place pour s'y      
dposer4    ,un phnomne encore plus      
curieux que cela est cette belle pyrite 
sulphureuse jaune1 comme de l'or1 qui   
est quelquefois parseme par tout  la    
substance de ptrifications agathises1 et
 qui apparemment y fut  dpose aprs la   
dite mtamorphose  la faveur des petits  
pores1 qui y  toient rests ouverts4     
,i would beg that mineralists1 who use  
such language as this1 would  consider  
if it contains a distinct idea of the   

operation which they  would thereby     
describe1 or if it does not contain     
either a contradiction  or an           
inconceivable proposition4 ,it supposes 
a calcareous body to be  metamorphosed1 
somehow by means of the mountain acid1  
into a siliceous  body4 ,but1 finding   
many bodies of pyrites contained within 
that solid  flint1 it is said1 that1    
when the calcareous body was flintified1
 there  were left in it cavities which  
were afterwards filled with pyrites4    
,let  us reflect a moment upon this     
doctrine4 ,these cavities were first    
open  to the outside of the flinty body2
 but now the pyrites with which they    
had been filled is insulated in the     
solid flint4 ,here three things are     
required2 first1 ,the calcareous body is
 to be flintified1 at the same  time    
leaving the body full of small cavities 
open to the outside2  secondly1 ,these  
cavities are to be filled with pyrites2 
lastly1 ,these  mineral bodies are to be
 so inclosed within the flint1 as to    

leave no  vestige of the former         
processes4 ,this marly mountain itself1 
which had  been formed of loose         
materials gathered together at the      
bottom of the  sea1 was first to be     
filled with pyrites1 in various shapes1 
by means of  the phlogistic and the acid
 of the mountain4 ,here is proposed to  
us an  operation which is totally       
unknown1 or of which we have no kind of 
idea4 ,but1 let us suppose pyrites      
formed in this mountain1 7of whatever   
chemical substances71 by means of water2
 ,why should water again undo  that     
pyrites1 in order to form other         
concretions8 ,and1 ,why should the      
flint be formed first with cavities1 and
 then made solid1 after pyrites  had    
been introduced into those cavities of  
the agate1 and1 as our author  expresses
 it1 parseme pour toute la substance8   
,here are suppositions  which are not   
only perfectly gratuitous1 but are also 
inconsistent with  any thing that we    
understand4 ,this is not explaining     

nature2 it is only  feigning causes#ci4 
,note #ci3 ,the description of those    
insulated siliceous bodies1  containing 
in their closed cavities all the usual  
concretions of  calcedony and crystals1 
as well as full of small pyrites        
floating in the  solid flint1 are       
extremely interesting to a mineral      
system1 or such a  geological theory as 
should explain the present state of     
things in those  strata that had been   
formed by deposits of known materials at
 the bottom  of the sea2 they are indeed
 such appearances as may be found1 more 
or  less1 in all consolidated strata4   
,but it is this author's explanation of 
that petrifaction which is our present  
object to consider2 and1 as he is  so   
particular in giving us his theory upon 
the subject1 it is easy to  detect the  
error of his reasoning4 ,were those     
naturalists who explain  things only in 
general1 by saying that water is the    
agent1 and  infiltration the means      
employed by nature2--were these         

naturalists1 ,i  say1 to give us as     
particular a description of their       
process1 it would  appear as            
inconsistent with the nature of things  
as that which we have  from this author1
 who examines nature very minutely1 and 
who sees  distinctly that the           
infiltrating theory is inapplicable for 
the  explanation of those petrifactions4
    ,the third section has for title1   
,generation du ,silex et ,quartz de la  
,pierre ,puante4 ,here we find an       
example worthy of being recorded1  as   
contributing to throw great light upon  
those mineral operations2  however1 the 
opinion of our author and mine1 upon    
this subject1 differ  widely4 ,he       
proceeds thus3    ,cette pierre n'est1  
comme chacun le sait1 qu'une pierre     
calcaire  contenant du bitume4    ,nos  
montagnes n'en contiennent seulement pas
 de simples couches1 mais  il y en a mme
 de grandes bancs fort pais4    ,le     
caillou1 ou silex qui s'y gnre1 forme1  
tantt de gros blocs  informes1 qui      

occupent des cavits dans l'intrieure des
 montagnes1  tantt1 enfin1 en forme de  
filons4    ,j'ai remarqu cette          
mtamorphose sur trois endroits diffrens1
 dans  chacun des quels la nature a     
autrement opr4    ,sur l'un1 la pierre  
puante fait un banc horizontal dans une 
montagne de  pierre calcaire            
crystalline1 ou d'une espce de marbre1  
qui contient  des couches et filons de  
mtal4 ,ce banc de pierre puante y fait  
le toit  d'une couche de galne de plomb 
et de pierre calaminaire1 et dans ses   
cavits et fentes il y a non seulement   
des blocs de grandeur diffrente1  mais  
aussi des veines et petites bandes      
courtes de silex1 tant  ordinaire1 que  
noble c1 a1 d1 de la pierre  feu1 de    
calcdoine1  d'agathes1 et mme d'une     
espce de cornaline jaune et rouge ple4  
,je ne  m'arrterai pas  en dtailler les 
varits1 parce qu'elles sont trop        
accidentelles4 ,je ne les connois pas   
mme toutes1 il s'en faut de  beaucoup1  
parce qu'elles se trouvent dans des     

anciennes mines ngliges1  peut tre      
depuis plus d'un sicle1 et par consquent
 peu accessibles4 ,je  ne doute1        
cependant pas1 que1 si l'on pouvoit     
mieux sonder le terrain1  on y          
trouveroit bien plus encore du peu que  
j'ai cit4 ,parmi ce silex1  il y a aussi
 de petites groupes et de petites veines
 de quartz solide et  crystallis4    ,au
 second endroit la pierre puante fait un
 filon1 ou si l'on veut1  une couche ou 
bande verticale1 qui partage la montagne
 en deux parties  presqu'gales de       
l'paisseur de trois aunes  peu prs4 ,la 
montagne1  ou cela se voit est aussi une
 ancienne mine de cuivre et de plomb1   
consistant en plusieurs varits de       
marbre1 diffrent en couleur et en       
grain1 dposes par couches les unes sur  
les autres4 ,le filon de silex  est form
 de feuilles alternatives de pierre     
puante et de silex1 tous  les deux de   
couleur brun de bois  peu prs2 mais le  
silex est plus  fonc que sa compagne4   
,ces feuilles alternatives1 consistent  

d'autres  bien plus minces encore1 qui  
souvent n'ont pas l'paisseur d'une      
ligne1  mais ce qu'il y a de plus       
curieux1 c'est que la mme feuille est   
d'un  but de pierre porque1 qui1 vers le
 milieu1 passe successivement en  silex1
 qui1  son tour1 vers l'autre but1 qui  
toit expos  l'air  repasse par les mmes 
gradations en une espce de tuffe        
calcaire4 ,ce qui  nous fait voir       
videmment la gnration et la destruction 
du silex1 mme  avec une partie des      
moyens par lesquels elle s'opre4 ,comme 
l'endroit de  cette dcouverte n'est     
accessible qu' la superficie1 je ne     
saurois dire  s'il y a d'autres varits  
de silex outre la dite4 ,il l'est       
supposer  autant par analogie1 que par  
quelques morceaux qui ont de petites    
veines  transversales d'une espce de    
calcdoine1 et qui sont1 mme1 sur leur   
fentes1 garnis de petits cristaux de    
roche4 ,mais ce qu'il y a de sur  c'est 
que ce filon1 parvenu  une certaine     
profondeur1 s'ennoblit et  contient du  

mtal1 c4 a4 d4 de la galne de plomb1 et 
de la pyrite  cuivreuse1 j'y en ai      
trouvs de morceaux1 qui en font de      
preuves  incontestables4 ,le caillou    
d'ici est un grain fin d'une texture    
forte1  peu transparent1 donne beaucoup 
d'tincelles au briquet1 mais ses        
cassures sont cailleuses4    ,la        
montagne calcaire du troisime lieu a une
 couche de pierre puante  paisse de     
plusieurs aunes1 qui1 derechef contient 
de petites couches  irrgulires et des   
bandes transversales de silex1 qui ont  
jusques   six pouces passs d'paisseur4  
,la pierre puante est d'une couleur     
gris-brune1 d'un grain assez fin1 et    
d'un tissu assez dur2 ses cassures  sont
 irrgulires1 mais plus la pierre        
s'approche du silex1 plus elles  donnent
 dans le coquill4 ,le silex ordinaire   
est d'un brun de bois1 d'un  grain assez
 fin1 et d'un tissu rsistant1 et ses    
cassures sont gales   la pierre porque4 
,ce n'est pas l la seule varit1 il y a1 
aussi1 de la  calcdoine et des agathes  

de couleurs diffrentes4 ,mme la pierre  
feu est assez souvent traverse de veines
 de calcdoine1 de quartz  crystallis1 et
 de spath calcaire blanc en feuilles et 
en crystaux4 ,il  arrive que la mme     
veine est compose de ces trois espces de
 pierres   la fois1 de sorte que l'une  
semble passer dans l'autre1 parce que   
les  limites rciproques sont1 souvent1  
assez indistinctes4 ,il est vident1  que
 le silex est form de la pierre puante1 
parce qu'on remarque ici  les mmes      
phnomnes dont j'ai parl plus haut1 c4 a4
 d4 les passages  successifs de l'une   
dans l'autre pierre1 tant en montant    
qu'en  descendant4    ,there is nothing 
particular in the siliceous mixture in  
this species of  lime-stone1 except the 
vein of that substance4 ,it is evident  
that this  vein1 traversing the         
mountain1 had been introduced in the    
fluid state  of fusion4 ,i do not mean  
to say1 that1 in this particular case   
now  described1 the evidence of that    
truth peculiarly appears2 but that1 from

  the general nature of mineral veins   
breaking and traversing the solid       
strata of the globe1 no other conclusion
 can be formed2 and that in  the        
particulars of this example there is    
nothing that could lead us to  suppose  
any other origin to the petrifactions   
contained in this vein  of stinking     
lime-stone4 ,it is plain1 that our      
author has imagined to  himself an      
unknown manner of executing his mineral 
metamorphoses4 ,he  sees plainly that   
the common notion of infiltration will  
not at all  explain the evident         
confusion of those calcareous and       
siliceous bodies  which appear to him to
 be metamorphosing into each other4     
,nothing1  indeed1 can explain those    
phenomena but a general cause of        
fluidity2 and  there is no such general 
cause besides that of heat or fusion4   
,but to show how mineralists of great   
merit1 gentlemen who have examined      
systematically and with some accuracy1  
may impose upon themselves in  reasoning

 for the explanation of mineral         
appearances from limited  notions of    
things1 and from the supposition of     
these having been formed  where they now
 are found1 that is1 upon the surface of
 the earth1 ,i  would beg leave to      
transcribe what this author has said    
upon this  species of petrifaction4 ,it 
is not that he is ignorant of what      
mineralists have already said upon the  
subject2 it is because he sees  the     
incompetency of their explanations in   
those particular cases2 and  that he    
would employ some other more effectual  
means4 7p4 #ej47    ,toute terre        
calcaire  changer dans une autre doit1  
avant toute chose1  tre rendue          
rfractaire ce qui ne peut se faire qu'en
 la saturant avec  un acide4 ,mais une  
terre simplement1 sature d'un acide1 est
 d'une  rduction fort aise1 vu que      
l'acide n'y tient pas trop fort1        
d'ailleurs  ce n'est qu'un sel neutre   
terreux fort facile  dissoudre dans une 
quantit suffisante d'eau4 ,or pour      

rendre cette union plus constante1 il   
faut que la terre alcaline s'assimile   
intimement  l'acide1 ce qui ne  se sera 
jamais sans un intermedeliant1 qui      
homogne les parties de ce  nouveau      
corps1 et pour que cela ce fasse il est 
indispensable1 qu'il  s'opre une        
dissolution foncire des parties         
terrestres de la chaux1 qui  facilite   
l'ingress  l'acide1 et  l'intermde pour 
qu'ils s'y lie bien  fortement4         
,supposons qu'il se forme une liqueur   
savonneuse de l'acide et  du            
phlogistique1 que l'air fixe1 mis en    
libert1 ouvre les interstices  des      
parties qui constituent la terre        
alcaline1 qu'apres cela cette  liqueur  
savonneuse ayant l'entre libre          
s'assimile  la terre en  proportion     
requise1 que l'eau1 qui servoit de      
vhicule dans cette  operation1 s'vapore 
successivement1 et emporte le superflu  
des  ingrediens1 pour qu'il se puisse   
oprer le rapprochement le plus exacte   
des parcelles ou molcules homognes de   

nouveau corps qu'enfin les  molcules les
 plus pures et les mieux affines soyent 
runies en forme  liquide dans des       
cavits1 et que par l'vaporation et      
sparation de  l'eau1 ou elles nageoient1
 il s'en forme des crystaux             
n'aurons-nous  pas une boule de silex1  
avec de crystaux de quartz dans ses     
creux  intrieurs4    ,the supposed case 
is this2 a calcareous body is to be     
metamorphosed  into a siliceous nodule1 
having a cavity within it lined with    
quartz1  crystals1 etc4 ,m4 de ,carosi  
means to inform us how this may be done4
  ,now1 as this process requires no     
other conditions than those that may  be
 found upon the surface of this earth1  
the proper way to prove this            
hypothetical theory1 would be to exhibit
 such a mineral body produced  by those 
means4 ,but1 even supposing that such a 
process were to be  exhibited1 still it 
would remain to be explained1 how this  
process1  which requires conditions     
certainly not be found at the bottom of 

the  sea1 could be accomplished in that 
place1 where the strata of the earth    
had been deposited1 accumulated1        
consolidated1 and metamorphosed4        
,this mineral process1 which has been   
now described1 will no doubt revolt  the
 opinions of many of our chemists as    
well as naturalists2 and ,i  should not 
have thought of transcribing it1 but as 
an example of that  inconclusive        
reasoning which prevails in             
mineralogical writings upon  this       
subject4    ,but this is not all4 ,we   
have1 upon this occasion1 a most        
remarkable  example of the fallaceous   
views that may be taken of things2 and  
of the  danger to science when men of   
sense and observation form suppositions 
for the explanation of appearances      
without that strict conformity with  the
 principles of natural philosophy which 
is requited on all occasions4  ,both ,m4
 de ,carosi1 and also ,m4 ,macquart#dj1 
to whom our author  communicated his    
ideas and proper specimens1 assert1 that

 from their  accurate experience1 they  
find calcedony growing daily1 not only  
in the  solid body of gypsum1 etc4 while
 in the mine1 but also in the solid     
stone when taktn out of the mine1 and   
preserved in their cabinet4    ,note    
#dj3 ,vid4 ,essais de ,minralogie par   
,m4 ,macquart4    ,what answer can be   
made to this positive testimony of these
 gentlemen1  by a person who has not    
seen any such a thing1 and who has not  
the  opportunity of examining the cases 
in which those naturalists may have     
perhaps been led into some delusion8    
,were ,i however to conjecture upon a   
subject in which ,i have not any        
positive information1 ,i should suppose 
that some part of the calcedony1 like   
the oculus mundi when dipped in  water1 
may be so transparent1 while containing 
some portion of humidity1  that it is   
not easily distinguishable from the     
gypsum in which it is  concreted2 but   
that in having the humidity evaporated1 
by being taken  out of the mine and     

exposed to the dry air1 those portions  
of calcedony1  which did not before     
appear1 may be perceived by becoming    
more  opaque#da4    ,note #da3 ,from the
 description given in this treatise1 and
 from the  drawings both of ,m4 de      
,carosi and ,m4 ,macquart1 ,i find a    
very valuable  inference to be made1 so 
much the more interesting1 as ,i have   
not found  any example of the like      
before4 ,this arises from the intimate  
connection  which is here to be         
perceived between agate and gypsum4     
,now1 upon this  principle1 that the    
agate-calcedony had been formed by      
fusion1 a truth  which1 from the general
 testimony of minerals1 ,i must presume1
 it is  plain1 that those nodules of    
gypsum had been in the fluid state of   
fusion among those marly strata1 and    
that the gypseous bodies had been       
penetrated variously with the siliceous 
substance of the calcedony4    ,the     
description of those siliceous          
penetrations of gypsum is followed by   

this conclusion3 ,en voila assez1 je    
crois pour faire voir que le silex      
ci-dcrit est effectivement une manation 
du gypse1 et non pas une  matire htrogne
 amene d'autre part et dpose1 ou nous la
 voyons4  ,in this instance our author  
had convinced himself that the calcedony
  concretions had not been formed1 as he
 and other mineralists had before       
supposed1 by means of infiltration2 he  
has not1 however1 substituted  any thing
 more intelligible in its stead4 ,i do  
not pretend that we  understand mineral 
fusion2 but only that such mineral      
fusion is a thing  demonstrable upon a  
thousand occasions2 and that thus is to 
be explained  the petrification and     
consolidation of the porous and         
naturally  incoherent strata of the     
earth4    ,there is1 however1 a subject 
in which ,i can more freely accuse this 
author of being deceived4 ,this         
naturalist says1 that calcareous stones 
become silex by a certain chemical      
operation2 and that those flinty        

bodies1 in being exposed upon the       
surface of the earth1 out of their      
natural bed1 are again1 by a contrary   
chemical operation1 changed from  flint 
to a calcareous substance4 ,i will give 
it in his own words1 7p4  #ef47    ,cela
 dit1 venons au fait4 ,tout silex prognr
 de chaux1 dtach de son  lieu natal1 et 
expos aux changemens de saisons1        
s'amollit1 reoit de  crevasses1 perd sa 
transparence1 devient1 enfin1 tout--fait
 opaque1 le  phlogistique s'en vapore1  
l'acide en est dtach1 lav1 et de  terre 
vitrescible1 qu'il toit1 il redevient   
chaux1 comme il toit  auparavant4       
,here is no question with regard to mere
 opinion1 but to matter of fact2  and1  
in this case1 nothing is more evident1  
than that upon the surface  of this     
earth1 that is1 in the examinable parts 
above the level of the  sea1 there is no
 transition either of calcareous bodies 
into flint1  nor of flinty bodies into  
calcareous substance4 ,calcareous matter
 is  constantly dissolved by water1 when

 it is exposed to the washing of  that  
fluid2 and it is even dissolved out of  
the most perfect union or  combination  
with siliceous substance1 and the most  
solid composition of  an insoluble body1
 as may be perceived in the decaying of 
feld-spar4 ,a  superficial view of      
flints1 which have come out of a body of
 chalk1 may  have created such an       
opinion1 which will not either bear the 
light of  chemical or mineral           
investigation4 ,the subject of these    
chalk flints  will be minutely examined 
in its proper place4    ,our author has 
carefully examined the subject of       
flintification2 and the  country where  
he makes his observations would seem to 
be well disposed  for such a research4  
,he has had great opportunity and       
inclination to  examine the subject     
which he writes upon2 and he has given a
 distinct  account of what be has seen4 
,his description of the flintification  
of  sand-stone is extremely interesting4
 ,i will therefore transcribe it1  both 

as a valuable portion of natural        
history1 and also in order to  contrast 
this author's opinion1 with regard to   
the means employed by  nature in        
petrifying bodies1 and that which ,i    
maintain to be the general              
consolidating operation of the globe4   
,it is ,section ,v4 ,generation du      
,caillou du ,silex du ,grs1 ou ,pierre  
,sablonneuse4    ,tout grs est          
susceptible de cette mtamorphose quant  
au grain et quant   la couleur2 depuis  
la brccia quartzeuse jusqu' la pierre   
rasoir2  et depuis le grs blanc jusqu'au
 brun et presque noirtre1 tient ou non  
tient1 dur1 ou presque friable1 c'est   
indiffrent1 toutes ces varits  donnent  
du silex1 et surtout de la calcdoine1 de
 la cornaline1 et des  agathes4 ,quant  
au ciment je l'y ai toujours remarqu    
calcaire et faisant  effervescence avec 
les acides dans les endroits de la      
pierre qui  n'toient point encore       
changs2 et jamais je n'ai vu ce         
changement dans  du grs dont le ciment  

fut ou quartzeux ou argileux et         
rfractaire4  ,ainsi le ciment entre pour
 quelque chose dans ce changement4      
,le commencement de cette mtamorphose   
paroit 7autant que j'ai pu  l'observer  
dans mes dbris rouls7 se faire par le   
ciment1 qui dissout  l1 o les agens     
eurent l'accs libre1 rend les grains en 
quartz  mobiles1 les emporte1 les mle   
avec sa masse dense-liquide1 les        
dissout1  mme en partie1 et forme1 dans 
cet tat1 des veines et de masses        
calcdonieuse1 carneoliques1 ou d'une    
autre espce de silex1 au milieu  du grs 
peu1 ou pas du tout1 chang4 ,car autant 
que je puis voir1 ce  n'est pas par     
couches ou veines qu'elle s'opre1 mais  
par boules et  masses rond-oblongues4   
,au commencement ces veines et tches    
sont fort  minces1 et le reste du grs   
n'est point du tout1 ou  peine          
sensiblement  chang hormis qu'il gagne1 
plus de consistence1  proportion du     
changement souffert4 ,mais  mesure que  
le silex y augmente et se  perfectionne1

 on y apperoit les degrs par lesquels a 
pass cette  operation4 ,les nuance du   
passage d'une pierre  l'autre deviennent
 plus  visibles1 les veines et masses de
 silex grandissent au point1 mme1  qu'il
 y a jusqu'aux trois quart du grs chang 
en silex clair comme de  l'eau n'ayant  
que fort peu de grains de sable nageants
 dans sa masse4  ,des morceaux de cette 
espce sont rares  la vrit1 mais j'en ai1
  cependant1 trouv quelques uns4        
,ordinairement1 dans les beaux morceaux1
  le silex fait la base1 et le sable y  
est1 comme nageant tantt en grains      
spars tantt en parties et flocons4 ,dans
 les pieces moins belles1 le  sable fait
 la base1 et le silex sert  la fois de  
ciment1 et forme aussi  plus ou moins de
 veines1 qui traversent la masse en     
maintes et maintes  directions4 ,mais si
 c'est un grs  gros grains1 ou de la    
brccia1 alors  le reste prend la nature 
silicieuse ml de sable fin1 et les gros 
grains de quartz restent tels1 qu'ils   
toient1 sans changer4 ,j'ai  dj remarqu 

que cette mtamorphose semble s'oprer1   
comme celle des  cailloux d'origine     
calcaire en forme approchans la         
sphrique1 il faut  encore y a jouter1   
que j'ai lieu de croire1 qu'elle se     
fasse aussi du  dedans en dehors1 tout1 
comme la dcomposition se fait du dehors 
au  dedans4    ,il arrive dans cette    
pierre1 comme dans toute autre1 qu'il se
 forme  des crystallisations dans les   
cavits4 ,lorsqu'elles sont de silex1    
leur  figure est toujours mamelonne1    
mais leur eau ou puret1 leur grandeur   
et leur couleur n'est pas par tout gale4
 ,il y en a qui sont grands1 et  de la  
plus pure calcdoine1 d'autres sont      
petits et chaque goutte ou  mamelon     
contient un grain de sable1 de facon que
 cela a l'air d'un grs  crystallis en   
mamelons ou stalagmitique4 ,d'autres    
encore sont1 de  calcdoine1 mais        
recouverts d'une crote1 tantt blanche   
qui fait  effervescence avec l'acide    
minral1 et qui est1 par consquent1 de   
nature calcaire2 tantt cette crote est  

bleue fonce nuance de  bleu-celeste2    
tantt1 enfin1 elle est noire1 mais      
toutes les deux  rfractaires4 ,outre ces
 crystallisations silicieuses1 il y en  
a1 quoique  rarement1 de quartzeuses1   
qui ou forment de petites veines de     
crystal1  ou bien des groupes de        
crystaux quartzeux1 ou qui enfin1       
enduisent les  mamelons de silex4       
,our author then makes a specification  
of the different varieties2 after  which
 he continues1 p4 #fi4    ,aprs tout    
ceci1 l'on conviendra j'espre1 que ntre 
grais est une  pierre bien singulire1 et
 surpassant1  bien des gards1 le grais1 
faussement dit crystallis1 de           
,fontainebleau4 ,la raison de la figure 
du  grais ,franois est fort vidente1    
c'est le spath calcaire1 qui lui  sert  
de ciment1 qui la lui fit prendre2 mais 
qu'est-ce qui opre les  mtamorphoses    
racontes dans notre grais siliceux8     
,seroit-ce son ciment  calcaire ou      
marneux par les mmes raisons1 qui font  
changer la marne en  silex8 ,la chose   

est trs-probable1 et je n'en saurois pas
 mme1 deviner  d'autre4 ,en ce cas la   
nature auroit un moyen d'oprer par la   
voie  humide1 ce que nous faisons dans  
nos laboratoires en quelque faon1 par   
la voie sche1 c1 a1 d1 de fondre et     
liqufier la terre vitrescible1 au  moyen
 des alcalis2 secret que nous lui avons 
dj arrach en partie1 en  faisant la     
liqueur silicieuse4    ,je n'ose1       
cependant1 dcider pas mme               
hypothtiquement1 sur cette  matire1 pour
 n'avoir pu observer la nature dans ses 
ateliers1 et parce  que je ne possde que
 des pices1 qui dtaches de leur lieu    
natal1  depuis un trs long-tems1 furent 
exposes aux intempries des saisons1  o  
elles peuvent avoir souffert bien de    
changemens4    ,there cannot be a more  
fair exposition of facts2 and it is only
 our  author's opinion of this mineral  
transmutation that ,i would controvert4 
,i do not pretend to understand the     
manner of operating that our author     
here supposes nature to take4 ,i only   

maintain1 that here1 as every where  in 
general1 the loose and incoherent strata
 of the globe have been  petrified1 that
 is1 consolidated1 by means of the      
fusion of their  substances2 and this ,i
 think is confirmed from the accurate   
description  here given of the          
flintification of sand-stone4 ,here is  
described very  distinctly an appearance
 which is very common or general on     
those  occasions2 this is the parts or  
particles of stone floating in the fluid
  siliceous substance1 and there        
dissolving more or less4    ,m4 de      
,carosi describes very systematically   
the generation of silex1  calcedony1    
onyx1 and quartz1 in calcareous earth1  
marl1 gypsum1  sand-stone1 and also what
 he terms terre glaise1 ou de l',argile4
 ,it is  in this last that we find a    
perfect analogy with what is so frequent
 in  this country of ,scotland4 ,these  
are the agates1 calcedonies1 calcareous 
and zeolite nodules1 which are found    
produced in our whin-stone  or          

subterraneous lavas1 that is1 the       
amygdaloides of ,crondstedt4            
,naturalists explain the formation of   
those nodular bodies differently4  ,the 
,chevalier de ,dolomieu supposes these  
rocks to have been erupted  lavas1      
originally containing cavities2 and that
 these cavities in the  solid rock had  
been afterwards filled and crystallised1
 by means of  infiltration1 with the    
different substances which are found    
variously  concreted and crystallised   
within the solid rocks4 ,our author1 on 
the  contrary1 supposes these formed by 
a species of chemical transmutation  of 
calcareous and argillaceous earths1     
which1 if not altogether                
incomprehensible1 is at least not in any
 degree1 so far as ,i know1 a  thing to 
be understood4    ,this is not the place
 where that subject of these particular 
rocks1  which is extremely interesting1 
is to be examined4 ,we shall afterwards 
have occasion to treat of that matter at
 large4 ,it is sufficient here to       

observe1 that our author finds occasion 
to generalise the formation of  those   
petrifactions with the flintifications  
in calcareous and gypseous  bodies4     
,when1 therefore1 the formation of any  
of them shall be  demonstrated1 as      
having taken its origin in the fusion of
 those  substances1 this mode of        
operation1 which is generalised in the  
consolidation of strata1 will be        
properly inferred in all the rest4      
,petrifaction is a subject in which     
mineralogists have perhaps wandered     
more widely from the truth than in any  
other part of natural history2  and the 
reason is plain4 ,the mineral operations
 of nature lie in a part  of the globe  
which is necessarily inaccessible to    
man1 and where the  powers of nature act
 under very different conditions from   
those which we  find take place in the  
only situation where we can live4       
,naturalists1  therefore1 finding in    
stalactical incrustation a cause for the
 formation  of stone1 in many respects  

analogous to what is found in the strata
 of  the earth1 and which had come from 
the mineral region in a consolidated    
state1 have1 without due consideration1 
attributed to this cause all the        
appearances of petrifaction or mineral  
concretion4 ,it has been one of  the    
objects of this work to show that this  
operation of incrustation1  or          
petrifaction by means of solution1 is   
altogether ineffectual for  producing   
mineral concretions2 and that1 even were
 it capable of forming  those mineral   
bodies1 yet that1 in the solid parts of 
this earth1 formed  by a deposit of     
travelled materials at the bottom of the
 sea1 the  conditions necessary to this 
incrustating process do not take place4 
,those enlightened naturalists who have 
of late been employed in  carefully     
examining the evidences of mineral      
operations1 are often  staggered in     
finding appearances inconsistent with   
the received doctrine  of infiltration2 
they then have recourse to ingenious    

suppositions1 in  order to explain that 
enigma4 ,in giving examples of this     
kind4 ,i have in  view both to represent
 the natural history these mineralists  
furnish  us with1 which is extremely    
interesting1 and also to show the       
various  shapes in which error will     
proceed1 when ingenious men are obliged 
to  reason without some necessary       
principle in their science4 ,we have    
just  now had an example in ,europe2 ,i 
will next present the reader with one   
from ,asia4    ,m4 ,patrin1 in his      
,notice ,minralogique de la ,daourie1   
7,journal de  ,physique1 ,mars #agia7   
gives us a very distinct account of what
 he met  with in that region4           
,describing the country of ,doutchersk  
upon the river  ,argun1 in ,siberia1 he 
proceeds thus3    ,ces colines sont     
formes d'un hornstein gris qui paroit se
 convertir en  pierre calcaire par      
l'action des mtores2 car tout celui     
qu'on prend  hors du contact de l'air   
donne les plus vives tincelles1 et ne   

fait pas  la moindre effervescence avec 
les acides1 mme aprs avoir t calcin2  et
 l'on observe celui qui est  dcouvert1  
passer1 par nuances  insensibles1 jusqu'
 l'tat de pierre calcaire parfaite de   
couleur  blanchtre4    ,here ,m4 ,patrin
 has persuaded himself1 probably from an
 imperfect  examination of the subject1 
that there takes place a mineral        
metamorphosis1 which certainly is not   
found in any other part of the  earth1  
and for which he does not find any      
particular cause4 ,the natural  effect  
of the meteors1 in other parts of the   
earth1 is to dissolve the  calcareous   
substance out of bodies exposed to those
 agents2 and the  gradation from the one
 of those two things to the other1 which
 seems to  be the data on which he had  
proceeded in forming his conclusion1 is 
not  sufficient to prove the            
metamorphosis1 even were there not so   
strong a  physical objection to it2 for1
 it is by no means unusual for mineral  
bodies to graduate thus from one        

substance to another4 ,however that be1 
this is not the principal object of the 
example#db4    ,note #db3 ,here we have 
well informed naturalists reasoning with
 all the  light of our present          
mineralogy1 and maintaining1 on the one 
hand1 that  gypsum is transformed into  
calcedony1 by the operation of the      
meteors1  or some such cause2 and1 on   
the other1 that a siliceous substance is
 by  the same means converted into      
lime-stone4 ,what should we now conclude
  from this8--,that calcareous and      
siliceous substances were mutually      
convertible4 ,but then this is only in  
certain districts of ,poland and        
,siberia4 ,every where1 indeed1 we find 
strange mixtures of calcareous and      
siliceous bodies2 but neither           
mineralists nor chemists have1 from     
these  examples1 ventured to affirm a   
metamorphosis1 which might have spared  
them much difficulty in explaining those
 appearances4    ,this is a subject that
 may be taken in very different lights4 

,in one  view1 no doubt1 there would    
appear to be absurdity in the doctrine  
of  metamorphosis1 as there is now a    
days acknowledged to be in that of      
lusus naturae2 and those reasoning      
mineralists might thus1 in the  opinion 
of some philosophers1 expose their      
theory to contempt and  ridicule4 ,this 
is not the light in which ,i view the   
subject4 ,i give  those gentlemen credit
 for diligently observing nature2 and ,i
 applaud  them for having the merit to  
reason for themselves1 which would seem 
to  be the case with few of the many    
naturalists who now speak and write     
upon the subject4    ,let us now draw an
 inference1 with regard to this1 in     
judging of the  different theories4     
,either the received system concerning  
mineral  operations is just1 in which   
case those gentlemen1 who employ a      
secret  metamorphosis1 may be to blame  
in laying it aside2 or it is erroneous  
and deficient2 and1 in that case1 they  
have the merit of distinguishing  the   

error or deficiency of the prevailing   
system4 ,how far they have seen  the    
system of nature1 in those examples     
which they have described1  is another  
question4 ,in the mean time1 ,i am to   
avail myself of the  testimony of those 
gentlemen of observation1 by which the  
insufficiency  at least of the received 
mineral system is acknowledged4         
,after speculating upon the effect of   
the ancient ocean upon the  mountains of
 that country1 he proceeds as follows3  
,je laisse ces conjectures pour         
remarquer un fait singulier3 la colline1
  qui est au nord de l'glise de la      
fonderie1 a son arrte compose de ce     
hornstein qui se dcompose en pierre     
calcaire2 mais ici1 les parties1  qui   
sont ainsi dcomposes1 offrent une       
substance calcdonieuse  disposes par    
zones concentriques1 comme on l'observe 
dans les agates  d'oberstein2 mais ce ne
 sont point ici des corps parasites     
forms par  infiltration dans des cavits 
pr-existantes comme les agates2 on voit 

que ce sont les parties constituantes de
 la roche qui1 par un  travail interne1 
et par une sorte de crystallisation1 out
 pris cette  disposition rgulire 7que ce
 mot de crystallisation ne rvolte point1
  j'appelle ainsi toute tendance        
prendre une forme constante1 polydre  ou
 non polydre47 ,les couches les plus    
voisine du centre sont nettes et        
distinctes2 peu--peu elles le sont      
moins1 et enfin elles s'vanouissent  et 
se confondent avec le fond de la roche4 
,chaque assemblage de ces  zones a une  
forme ronde ou ovale plus ou moins      
rgulire de sept  huit  pouces de        
diamtre4    ,cela ressemble en grand  ce
 qu'on observe dans les pierres oeilles1
  et la cause est vraisemblablement la  
mme4 ,je le rpte1 je regarde  cette     
disposition rgulire comme une vritable  
cristallisation1 qui  peut s'oprer et   
qui s'opre en effet dans l'intrieur des 
corp les plus  solide1 tant qu'ils sont 
fournis  l'action des agens de la       
nature4    ,tous ceux qui visitent      

l'intrieur de la terre savent que les   
roches  mmes le plus compactes y sont   
intimement pntres d'humidit1 et ce      
fluide n'est certainement pas l'eau     
pure2 c'est l'agent qui opre toutes  les
 agrgations1 toutes les                 
cristallisations1 tous les travaux de la
  nature dans le rgne minral4 ,on peut  
donc aisment concevoir qu' la  faveur de
 ce fluide1 il rgne1 dans les parties   
les plus intimes des  corps souterrains1
 une circulation qui fait               
continuellement changer de  place aux   
lmens de la matire1 jusqu'a ce que runis
 par la force des  affinits1 les        
corpuscules similaires prennent la forme
 que la nature  leur a assigne4         
,those nodular bodies or figured parts  
which are here inclosed in the  rock1   
are evidently what may be called        
calcedony agates4 ,m4 ,patrin is        
persuaded1 from the examination of them1
 that they had not been formed  in the  
manner of ,german agates1 which he      
supposes is by mean of  infiltration2   

and he has endeavoured to conceive      
another manner of  operating1 still     
however by means of water1 which ,i     
suppose1 according  to this hypothesis1 
is to dissolve substances in one part1  
and deposits  them in another1 ,there   
must certainly be some great desideratum
 in  that mineral philosophy which is   
obliged to have recourse to such        
violent suppositions4 ,first1 water is  
not an universal solvent1 as it  would  
require to be1 upon this supposition2   
secondly1 were water allowed  to be an  
universal menstruum1 here is to be      
established a circulation  that does not
 naturally arise from the mixture of    
water and earth2 and1  lastly1 were this
 circulation to be allowed1 it would not
 explain the  variety which is found in 
the consolidation and concretion of     
mineral  bodies4    ,so long1 therefore1
 as we are to explain natural           
appearances by  reasoning from known    
principles1 and not by ascribing those  
effects to  preternatural causes1 we    

cannot allow of this regular operation  
which  ,m4 ,patrin alleges to be acting 
in the interior parts of the most solid 
bodies4 ,this is indeed evident1 that   
there has been a cause operating  in the
 internal parts of the most solid       
bodies1 a cause by which the  elements1 
or constituent parts of those solid     
bodies1 have been moved  and regularly  
disposed1 as this author very well      
observes must have been  the case in our
 agates or eyed stones2 but to ascribe  
to water this  effect1 or to employ     
either an ineffectual or an unknown     
cause1 is not  to reason philosophically
 with regard to the history of nature2  
it is to  reason phantastically1 and to 
imagine fable4    ,m4 ,monnet has       
imagined a petrifying power in water    
very different  from any that has       
hitherto been conceived1 ,i believe1 by 
natural  philosophers1 and ,i also      
believe1 altogether inconsistent with   
experience or matter of fact2 but as it 
is not without good reason that  this   

naturalist has been induced to look out 
for a petrifying cause  different from  
any hitherto supposed1 and as he has    
endeavoured very  properly to refute the
 systems of petrification hitherto      
received1  ,i would beg leave to        
transcribe his reasoning upon the       
subject in  corroboration of the present
 theory of consolidation by the means of
  fusion4    ,it is upon occasion of    
describing one of the species of alpine 
stone  or schistus which contains       
quartzy particles4 ,nouveau voyage      
minralogique1 etc4 ,journal de ,physique
 ,aoust #aghd4    ,il y a loin de cette 
pierre1 que je regarde comme une varit  
de roches  ardoises1 aux vritable       
ardoises4 ,la composition de toutes ces 
pierres  est due aux terres quartzeuses 
et argileuses1 et  la terre talqueuse1  
que je dmontrerai un jour tre une espce 
particulire et distincte des  autres1   
qui constitue les bonnes ardoises1 et   
fait1 ainsi que le quartz1  qu'elles    
rsistent aux injures de l'air1 sans     

s'effleurir1 comme je  ferai voir que   
cette terre1 qu'on dsignera sous la     
dnomination de  terre talqueuse1 si l'on
 veut1 rsiste au grand feu sans se      
fondre4 ,les  diffrences de toutes ces  
pierres1 quoique composes des mmes      
matires1  mais dans des proportions     
diffrentes1 sont frappantes1 et         
pourroient  faire croire qu'elles       
n'appartiennent pas  ce genre4 ,mais qui
 ne voit  ici que toutes ces diffrences1
 ou ces varits1 ne sont dues qu'aux     
modifications de la matire premire1     
qu'elle a prouves1 soit en se  mlant    
avec des matires htrognes1 prvenantes du
 dbris des tres  qui ont exist1 comme   
l'argile1 par exemple1 qui1 de l'aveu de
 presque  tous les naturalistes1 est le 
produit de l'organization des plantes1  
ou  soit en se mlant avec de la matire  
dj solidifie depuis long-temps8  ,or    
nous ne craignons pas de dire1 ce que   
nous avons dit plusieurs fois  quand    
l'occasion s'en est prsente1 que cette  
matire unique1 que  se modifie selon les

 occasions et les circonstances1 et qui 
prend  un caractre analogue au matires  
qu'elle rencontre1 est l'eau1 que       
beaucoup de naturalistes cherchent      
vainement ailleurs4 ,ils ne peuvent     
comprendre1 malgr les exemples frappans 
qui pourroient les porter   adopter     
cette opinion1 que ce fluide gnral soit 
l'lment des corps  solides du rgne      
minral1 comme il est de ceux du rgne    
vgtal et du  rgne animal4 ,l'on cherche 
srieusement1 par des expriences         
chimiques1   dcouvrir si l'eau est      
susceptible de se convertir en terre    
comme  si la nature n'avoit pas d'autre 
moyen que nous de la faire passer de    
l'tat fluide  l'tat solide4 ,voyez le   
spath calcaire et le quartz             
transparens2 est il  prsumer qu'ils ne  
sont que le rsultat du dpt  des matires 
terreuses fait par les eaux8 ,mais1 dans
 ce ca-l encore1  il faut supposer que  
l'eau qui est reste entre ces partie    
s'est  solidifie2 car1 qu'est-elle donc 
devenue1 et quel est donc le lien qui  a

 uni ces parties et leur a fait prendre 
une forme rgulire8 ,il est  vrai qu'on  
nous parle d'un suc lapidifique2 mais   
c'est-la un tre de  raison1 dont il     
seroit bien plus difficile d'tablir     
l'existence1 que de  croire  la         
solidification de l'eau4 ,on nous donne 
cependant comme un  principe certain que
 l'eau charie d'un lieu  un autre les   
matires  qu'il a dissoutes1 et qu'elle  
les dpose  la maniere des sels4 ,mais   
c'est supposer une chose dmentie par    
l'experience2 savoir1 que l'eau  ait la 
proprit de dissoudre les matires        
terreuses1 telles que la  quartzeuse4 ,a
 la vrit1 ,m4 ,auchard de ,berlin y     
joint de l'air fixe2  mais cet air fixe 
ne sauroit tenir en dissolution un atome
 de quartz  dans l'eau2 et quelle qu'ait
 t l'exactitude de ceux qui ont rpt  les
 expriences de ,m4 ,auchard1 on n'a pu  
russir  imiter la nature1  c'est--dire1 
former des cristaux quartzeux1 comme il 
a annonc4 ,que  l'eau ait la facult de  
tenir en dissolution quelques petites   

parties  de terre calcaire1 au moyen de 
cet air fixe1 il n'en faut pas conclure 
qu'elle puisse former de cette maniere  
tous les cristaux calcaires1 sans  que  
l'eau elle-mme y concoure pour sa part2 
car ce seroit conclure  quelque fois que
 la partie seroit gale au tout4 ,voyez  
ces godes  calcaire et argileuses1 qui  
renferment des cristaux nombreux de     
quartz  ou de spath calcaire2 ne sont   
ils que le rsultat du dpt de l'eau  qui 
y a t renferme1 ou que la               
cristallization pure et simple des      
molcules que vous supposez avoir t      
tenues en dissolution par cette  eau8   
,il natroit de cette opinion une foule  
d'objections qu'il seroit  impossible de
 rsoudre4 ,cependant ,m4 ,guettard1 dans
 la minralogie du  ,dauphin1 qui vient  
de parotre1 ouvrage trs-estimable       
beaucoup  d'gards1 explique1 selon cette
 maniere de penser1 la formation de     
cristallizations quartzeuses qu'on      
trouve dans certaines godes de  cette   
province1 et celle des mines de cristal 

des hautes montagnes4 ,en  supposant mme
 comme vraie l'explication qu'il en     
donne1 on trouveroit  en cela un des    
plus grands problme1 et des plus        
difficiles  rsoudre  qu'il y ait en     
minralogie2 car d'abord il faudroit     
expliquer comment un  si petite quantit 
d'eau que celle qui a t renferme dans   
les godes1  et celle qui est parvenue   
dans les fentes des rochers1 ont pu     
fournir  un si grande quantit de matire 
que celle qui constitue ces             
cristallisations1 et ce qui n'est pas le
 moins difficile  concevoir1  comment   
l'eau a pu charrier cette matire        
travers tant de matires  diffrentes1 et 
la conserver prcisment pour cette       
destination2  comment1 par exemple1     
l'eau est venue dposer de la terre      
quartzeuse  dans les masses normes de   
pierres calcaires1 qui forment la ct qui
  domine le village de ,champigny1      
quatre lieues de ,paris1 au del de      
,saint-maur2 car s'il nous faut citer un
 exemple frappant de cette  singularit1 

et  porte d'tre vue des naturalistes qui
 sont dans la  capitale1 je ne puis     
mieux faire que de citer cette ct1 une  
des plus  curieuses de la ,france1 et   
que je me propose de fair connotre en   
dtail  dans la troisime partie de la    
minralogie de la ,france4 ,on verra1    
dis-je1 dans cette bonne pierre  chaux1 
et une de plus pure des  environs de    
,paris1 de trs-abondantes               
cristallisations de quartz  transparent1
 et quelque fois de belle eau1 que les  
ouvriers sont forcs  de sparer de la    
partie calcaire1  laquelle elles adhrent
 fortement4  ,mais c'est trop nous      
arrter  combattre une opinion qui doit  
son  origine aux premires ides qu'ont   
eues les premiers observateurs en       
minralogie1 qui se dtruira d'elle mme   
comme tant d'autres dont il  nous reste 
peine le souvenir4    ,we find here an  
accurate naturalist1 and a diligent     
observer1 who1 in  conformity with what 
my sentiments are upon the subject1     
thinks it  impossible that the          

crystallizations in close cavities1 and 
concretions  of different solid         
substances within each other1 which so  
frequently  occur in the mineral        
regions1 could have been produced1 by   
means of  solution and crystallization1 
from a fluid vehicle4 ,but what has he  
now substituted in place of this        
solution1 in order to explain           
appearances8--a mere supposition1 viz4  
that nature may have the power  of      
converting water1 in those secret       
places1 into some other thing2 or       
rather that the substance of water is   
here converted into every other  thing2 
for1 though he has only mentioned quartz
 and calcareous spar1  what mineral     
substance is there that may not be found
 in those close  cavities8 ,they are    
actually almost all1 not even excepting 
gold2 for1  small grains of gold are    
inclosed within the cavities of a porous
 stone1  in the ,siberian mine4 ,now1   
for what purpose should nature1 7to the 
power  of which we are not to set a     

limit7 have such an object in view as   
to convert water into every thing1      
unless it were to confound human        
understanding8 ,for1 so far as human    
experience has been as yet able to      
reach1 there would appear to be certain 
elementary substances2 and among  these 
is water1 or the principles of that     
fluid#dc4 ,but because water  is so     
generally found in bodies1 and so       
necessarily in most of the  operations  
of this world1 why convert it into every
 other thing8 ,surely1  for no better   
reason than that there has not occurred 
to this mineralist  any other way of    
explaining certain natural appearances  
which aqueous  solution could not       
produce4 ,here is no dispute about a    
matter of fact2  it is on all hands     
allowed1 that in certain cavities1      
inaccessible to  any thing but heat and 
cold1 we find mineral concretions1 which
 contain  no water1 and which1 according
 to the known operations of nature1     
water  could not have produced2 must we 

therefore have recourse to water acting 
according to no known principle1 that is
 to say1 are we to explain  nature by a 
preternatural cause8    ,note #dc3      
,water is now considered by men of      
science1 as a compound  substance2 this 
doctrine1 which seems to follow so      
necessarily from the  experiments of the
 ,french philosophers1 must be tried by 
the growing  light of chemical science4 
,in the oxygenating operation of        
inflammable  and combustible bodies when
 burning1 those ingenious chemists      
overlooked  the operation of phlogistic 
matter1 which has no weight1 and  which 
escapes on that occasion1 as ,i have had
 occasion to show in a  dissertation    
upon phlogiston1 and in the ,philosophy 
of ,light1 ,heat1  and ,fire4 ,how far  
this view1 which ,i have given of those 
interesting  experiments1 may lead to   
the explanation of other collateral     
phenomena1  such as that of the water   
produced1 ,i will not pretend to        
conjecture4  ,one thing is evident1 that

 if the weight of the water1 procured in
  burning inflammable and vital air1 be 
equal to that of those two gasses1  we  
would then have reason to conclude1     
either that water were a compound       
substance1 or that vital air1 and       
inflammable vapour were compounds of    
water and the matter of light1 or solar 
substance4    ,i dare say that this is  
not the view that ,m4 ,monnet takes of  
the  subject1 when he thinks to explain 
to himself the concretion of  those     
different substances by means of water2 
but1 according to my  apprehension of   
the matter1 his theory1 when sifted to  
the bottom1 will  bear no other         
construction2 and1 unless he shall      
consider water like the  matter of heat1
 as capable of producing the fluidity of
 fusion1 and of  being also again       
abstracted from the fluid1 by pervading 
the most solid  body1 which would then  
be a substance different from water1 he 
must  employ this aqueous substance as a
 menstruum or solvent for solid  bodies1

 in the same manner as has been done by 
those naturalists whom  he he justly    
censure1 and conform to those erroneous 
ideas which first  observations1 or     
inaccurate knowledge of minerals1 may   
have suggested to  former naturalists4  
,it is the dissolution and concretion of
 siliceous substance1 no  doubt1 that   
gives such difficulty to our naturalists
 in explaining  petrifaction3 they have1
 however1 something apparently in their 
favour1  which it may be proper now to  
mention4    ,in the first place1        
although siliceous substance is not     
soluble1 so  far as we know1 by simple  
water1 it is soluble by means of        
alkaline  substance2 consequently1 it is
 possible that it may be dissolved in   
the  earth4    ,secondly1 ,the water of 
,giezer in ,iceland1 actually petrifies 
bodies  which are alternately imbibed   
with that hot water and exposed to the  
air4 ,this water1 therefore1 not only   
contains siliceous substance in a       
dissolved state1 but deposits this      

again1 either by means of cooling1  or  
being aerated1 or of evaporating4       
,consequently1 without knowing the      
principle upon which it proceeds1 we    
here perceive a natural operation  by   
which siliceous petrifaction may be     
performed4    ,lastly1 ,we have another 
principle for the dissolution of        
siliceous  substance4 ,this is the fluor
 acid which volatilises the siliceous   
substance4 ,this1 however1 requires     
certain conditions1 which cannot be     
found as a general cause in the mineral 
regions4    ,thus we would seem to have 
every thing necessary for explaining the
  concretion and crystallization of     
siliceous bodies1 provided we could     
find the proper conditions requisite for
 that operation2 for whether it  shall  
be by means of acid or alkaline         
substances that siliceous matter  is to 
be dissolved1 volatilised1 and          
transported from one place to  another1 
it is necessary that those dissolving   
substances should be  present upon those

 occasions4 ,nor is it sufficient only  
to dissolve the  siliceous substance    
which is to be transported2 the         
necessary conditions  for the concretion
 again of the dissolved substances1     
whatever these may  be1 are also        
absolutely required for this operation4 
,now1 though those  requisite conditions
 may be1 upon many occasions1 allowed in
 the earth1  it is not according to the 
theory of our modern naturalists1 who   
explain  petrifaction upon the          
principles of simple infiltration of    
water1  that any advantage can be taken 
of those conditions2 nor are natural    
appearances to be explained without     
employing more complicated chemical     
agents in the mineral regions4    ,to   
this subject of the petrifactions of    
,giezier1 ,i may now add the            
information which we have received in   
consequence of a new voyage from  this  
country to ,iceland4    ,when ,sir      
,joseph ,banks returned from his        
expedition to ,iceland1 he landed  at   

this place2 and1 having brought         
specimens of the petrifications of      
,giezer1 ,dr ,black and ,i first        
discovered that these were of a         
siliceous  substance4 ,i have always    
conjectured that the water of ,giezer   
must be  impregnated with flinty matter 
by means of an alkaline substance1 and  
so expressed my opinion in the ,theory  
of the ,earth published in the          
,transactions of the ,edinburgh ,royal  
,society4 ,we have therefore been very  
desirous of procuring some of that      
water1 in order to have it analysed4    
,an opportunity favourable to our views 
has occurred this summer4 ,mr  ,stanley 
set out from this place with the same   
purpose of examining  ,iceland4 ,he was 
so good as to ask of ,dr ,black and ,i  
what inquiries we  would incline that he
 should make4 ,we have now1 by the      
favour of this  gentleman1 obtained     
specimens of the petrifactions of       
,giezer2 and1 what  is still more       
interesting1 we have procured some of   

the water of those  petrifying boiling  
springs4    ,it appears from these      
specimens1 that the boiling water which 
is ejected  from those aqueous          
volcanoes1 if we may use the expression1
 is endued  with the quality of forming 
two different species of petrifaction or
  incrustation2 for1 besides the        
siliceous bodies1 of which we had before
  received specimens1 the same stream of
 water incrustates its channel  with a  
calcareous substance4 ,all the specimens
 which ,i have seen consist  of         
incrustation1 some purely siliceous1    
some calcareous1 and others  mixed of   
those two1 more or less4    ,dr ,black  
has been analysing the water2 and he    
finds in it siliceous  matter dissolved 
by an alkaline substance1 in the manner 
of liquor  silicum#dd4 ,my conjecture   
has thus been verified4    ,note #dd3   
,see ,trans4 of the ,edin4 ,royal       
,society4    ,it must not be alleged    
that nature may operate in the mineral  
regions1  as she does here upon the     

surface in the case of ,giezer4 ,such an
  argument as this1 however sound it may
 be in general1 will not apply to  the  
subject of which we treat at present4   
,there is no question about  the        
limiting the powers of nature2 we are   
only considering nature as  operating in
 a certain determined manner1 viz4 by   
water acting simply  upon the loose     
materials of the land deposited at the  
bottom of the  sea1 and accumulated in  
regular strata1 one upon another1 to the
 most  enormous depth or thickness4     
,this is the situation and condition of 
things in which nature is to operate2   
and we are to find the means of         
consolidating those strata1 and         
concreting every species of substance   
in almost every possible composition1   
according to some known physical        
principle4 ,here is an operation which  
is limited2 for1 we must reason         
strictly1 according to the laws of      
nature1 in the case which we have  under
 consideration2 and we cannot suppose   

nature as ever transgressing  those     
laws4    ,it is acknowledged1 that1 by  
means sometimes of an aeriform1         
sometimes  of an alkaline1 perhaps also 
of an acid substance1 calcareous matter 
is  dissolved in the earth1 and certain 
metallic substances1 such as lead  and  
iron4 ,this solution also1 upon         
particular occasions1 7where the  proper
 conditions for separating the solvent  
from the dissolved  substance exist71   
forms certain concretions2 these are    
sometimes a mere  incrustation1 as in   
the case of the siliceous incrustation  
of ,giezer1  sometimes again in a       
crystallised or sparry form1 as in the  
case of  stalactical concretions4 ,but  
here is no question of those cases where
  the proper conditions may be found2   
first1 of dissolving the substance      
which is afterwards to be concreted2    
secondly1 of separating the  menstruum  
from the dissolved substance2 and1      
lastly1 of removing the  fluid deprived 
of its solution1 and of supplying a new 

solution in its  room2 the question is1 
how far those concretions are formed    
where those  conditions do not take     
place4 ,now1 this last case is that of  
almost all  mineral concretions4    ,it 
must not be here alleged that certain   
concretions have been found in  mines   
posterior to these having been worked by
 man2 consequently1 that  those         
concretions have been formed by nothing 
but the infiltration of  water4 ,in     
those cases1 where such concretions are 
truly found1 ,i am  persuaded that all  
the conditions proper to that operation 
will also  be found2 and it is only1 ,i 
believe1 in those cases where such      
proper  conditions may be found1 that   
this aqueous concretion ever appears4   
,now1  if we shall except calcareous    
stalactite1 and the bog ore of iron1    
,how  seldom is it that any appearance  
of those aqueous mineral concretion     
ever is found8 ,those very few cases in 
which they are found1 afford the        
strongest proof against these being     

operations general to the globe1 or     
proper mineral concretions2 because it  
is only where all the necessary         
conditions conspire in each contributing
 its part1 that the effect is           
accomplished2 and this is a thing which 
cannot possibly take place in  the      
aquiform strata below the surface of the
 sea4 ,but1 without attending  to this  
clear distinction of things perfectly   
different1 naturalists are  apt to see  
false analogies1 and thus in            
generalising to form the most  erroneous
 theories4    ,i shall now give an      
example of this fallaceous manner of    
reasoning2 it  is in the case of certain
 mineral appearances which are          
erroneously  considered as stalactical  
concretions4    ,the only true          
stalactical bodies are of a calcareous  
substance2 they are  formed by water    
containing this substance in a dissolved
 state2 and the  principles upon which  
this particular concretion is formed are
 well  known4 ,it is therefore easy to  

compare other concretions1 which may    
have  some superficial resemblance to   
these stalactical bodies1 in order to   
see if they have proceeded upon the same
 principle of concretion from  a        
dissolved state1 or by water depositing 
its dissolved substance in a  similar   
manner4    ,there are two different     
mineral substances which give           
appearances of  this sort4 ,these are   
certain concretions of calcedony1 and   
also of  iron-ore1 which are thought to 
have such resemblance to stalactical    
concretions as1 by some superficial     
observers1 to be reckoned of the  same  
kind4 ,it is now proposed to show that  
those conclusions are not  well founded2
 and that1 in this case of calcedony and
 iron-ore1 it could  not be upon the    
principle of stalactical concretion that
 the bodies now  in question had their  
forms4    ,the principle upon which     
calcareous substance is dissolved in    
water1 and  made to concrete by the     
evaporation of the acid substance1 or   

fixed  air by which it had been         
dissolved1 is too well known to require 
any  explanation in this place2 we are  
only to consider the sensible effects   
of those operations of which we know so 
well the proper conditions4    ,there   
are just two distinct views under which 
we may consider all  stalactical        
concretions formed2 these are the       
incrustation of  the calcareous         
substance concreting upon a foreign     
body1 and the  incrustation of the same 
substance upon itself4 ,by the first any
 manner  of shape may be formed1        
provided there be a solid body1 upon the
 surface  of which the calcareous       
solution is made to pass4 ,by the       
second1 again1  we have various forms2  
but we know the principles upon which   
they had  been made4 ,these are the     
shape and motions of the fluid which    
gives the  calcareous concretion4 ,now1 
these principles are always to be       
perceived1  more or less1 in all the    
bizarre or fantastical1 as well as      

regular  shapes which are produced by   
stalactical concretions4 ,at present1 we
  shall confine our views to one        
particular shape1 which is simple1      
regular1 and perfectly understood       
wherever it is formed4    ,drops of     
water falling from a roof1 and forming  
stalactite1 produce  first tubular      
bodies1 and then gradually consolidate  
and increase those  pendulous bodies by 
incrustation4 ,these appearances are    
thought to be  observed in the calcedony
 and ferruginous concretions1 which has 
led  some mineralists to conclude1 that 
those concretions had been formed  in   
the same manner1 by means of water4 ,we 
are now to show that these  mineral     
appearances are not analogous to        
stalactites in their formation1  and    
that they have evidently been formed in 
a different manner4    ,it must be      
evident1 that1 in the formation of those
 pendulous bodies1  each distinct       
stalactite must be formed by a separate 
drop of water2  consequently1 that no   

more stalactites can be formed in a     
given space1  than there could have     
subsisted separate drops of water4 ,now1
 a drop of  water is a very determined  
thing2 and thus we have a principle by  
which  to judge of those mistaken       
appearances4    ,let us suppose the gut 
of water to be but one eighth of an     
inch1  although it is a great deal more1
 we should have no stalactites formed   
nearer to each other than that measure  
of space4 ,but those mineral            
concretions1 which are supposed to be   
stalactical1 are contained in half  that
 space1 or are nearer to each other than
 the tenth or twentieth of  an inch4 ,i 
have them like needles1 and in every    
degree of proximity or  contiguity1 at  
the same time that they are perfectly   
solid4 ,therefore1  it is plainly       
impossible that they could have been    
formed upon this  principle of          
calcareous stalactite4 ,but1 it is only 
by this false  resemblance1 that any    
argument can be formed for the          

concretion of those  bodies from an     
aqueous solution2 in every other respect
 they are true  mineral concretions2    
and1 that these have had a very         
different origin1  has been already the 
subject of investigation1 and will be   
more  particularly examined in the      
course of this work4    ,the term       
infiltration1 which has been much       
employed for explaining  mineral        
appearances1 is too vague1 imperfect1 or
 unexplicit1 for  science1 whether as   
the means of knowing nature1 or the     
subject of  confutation4 ,this is not   
the case with that of stalactite2 here  
is  a term that implies a certain       
natural operation1 or a most distinct   
process for attaining a certain end2 and
 we know the principles upon  which it  
proceeds1 as well as the several steps  
that may be traced in  the general      
result4 ,it is an operation which has   
not only been analysed  to its          
principles2 it is also a process which  
is performed by man1  proceeding on his 

acquired knowledge4 ,now1 were this     
operation common to  the mineral        
regions1 as it is proper to the surface 
of this earth2 we  could not remain in  
any degree of suspense with regard to   
the origin of  those mineral bodies2    
for1 having the true clue of knowledge1 
we should  be able to unravel the most  
intricate and mysterious appearance4    
,but1 so  far from this being the case1 
the more we come to inquire into nature1
  and employ this principle1 the less we
 find it applicable1 and the more       
involved in darkness is our science4    
,the places where these false           
appearances of stalactite are found1 are
  precisely those in which1 from the    
nature of things1 all possibility for   
such an operation is excluded4 ,for1    
,how can this take place within a  closs
 cavity in the mineral regions8 ,the    
term vegetation may as well  be employed
 for the explanation of those           
appearances3 ,but what would  now be    
said of such an explication8 ,it is high

 time that science were  properly       
applied to the natural history of this  
earth1 and mineralists  not allowed to  
impose upon themselves with false       
reasoning1 or to please  themselves with
 the vain attempt of explaining visible 
effects by  unknown causes4    ,such    
various inconsistent opinions1          
respecting petrifaction or mineral      
concretion1 as ,i have now exposed1     
opinions that are not founded on any    
sound physical principle1 authorise me  
to conclude that they are all           
erroneous4 ,if this be admitted1 it will
 follow that we have no proof  of any   
proper mineral concretion except that   
which had proceeded by  congelation from
 the fluid state of fusion4 ,this has   
been the doctrine  which ,i have held   
out in my ,theory of the ,earth2 and    
this will be more  and more confirmed as
 we come to examine particular mineral  
appearances4        ,,chap4 ,,viii4     
,the ,nature of ,mineral ,coal1 and the 
,formation of ,bituminous ,strata1      

investigated4      ,,sect4 ,i4--,purpose
 of this ,inquiry4    ,in the first     
chapter1 ,i have given a perfect mark by
 which to judge1  of every consolidated 
stratum1 how far that had been the      
operation or  effect of water alone1 or 
if it had been that of heat and fusion4 
,this  is the particular veins or       
divisions of the consolidated stratum1  
arising from the contraction of the     
mass1 distended by heat1 and  contracted
 in cooling4 ,it is not an argument of  
greater or lesser  probability2 it is a 
physical demonstration2 but1 so far as  
,i see1 it  would appear to be for most 
mineralists an unintelligible           
proposition4  ,time1 however1 will open 
the eyes of men2 science will some day  
find  admittance into the cabinet of the
 curious4 ,i will therefore now give    
another proof1--not of the consolidation
 of mineral bodies by means  of fusion1 
for there is no mineral body in which   
that proof is not  found1--but of the   
inconsistency of aqueous infiltration   

with the  appearances of bodies1 where  
not only fusion had been employed for   
the  consolidation1 but where the       
application of heat is necessary1 and   
along  with it the circumstances proper 
for distillation4    ,short-sighted     
naturalists see springs of water issuing
 from the earth1  one forming calcareous
 incrustations1 the other depositing    
bituminous  substances4 ,here is enough 
for them to make the theory of a world2 
on  the one hand1 solid marble is       
explained1 on the other1 solid coal4    
,ignorance suspects not error2 their    
first step is to reason upon a false    
principle2--no matter1 were they only to
 reason far enough1 they would  soon    
find their error by the absurdity into  
which it lands them4 ,the  misfortune   
is1 they reason no farther2 they have   
explained mineralogy  by infiltration2  
and they content themselves with viewing
 the beautiful  specimens in their      
cabinet1 the supposed product of        
solution and  crystalization4 ,how shall

 we inform such observators2 ,how reason
 with  those who attend not to an       
argument6    ,as naturalists have       
explained all mineral concretions from  
aqueous or  other solution1 and         
attributed to infiltration the formation
 of those  stony bodies in which there  
are marks of their original composition1
  so have they explained to themselves1 
,i suppose1 the origin of those         
bituminous bodies which are found among 
the strata of the earth4 ,in the  case  
of stony substances1 ,i have shown how  
unfounded all their theories  are for   
the production of those concretions1    
crystallizations1 and  consolidated     
bodies4 ,i am here to examine the       
subject of inflammable and  combustible 
bodies1 which ,i believe have been      
little considered by those  theorists   
who suppose mineral bodies consolidated 
by infiltration4 ,it is  here that we   
shall find an infinite difference       
between the aqueous and  igneous        
theories2 for1 we shall find it         

impossible to explain by the one        
certain operations which must have      
necessarily required the great agent    
generally employed in the other4    ,the
 subject of this chapter is a           
touch-stone for every theory of the     
earth4 ,in every quarter of this globe1 
perhaps in every extensive  country1    
bituminous strata are to be found2 they 
are alternated with  those which are    
called aquiform1 or which had been      
evidently formed by  subsidence of      
certain moved materials at the bottom of
 the sea2 so far1  therefore1 all those 
strata have had the same origin4 ,in    
this point  ,i think ,i may assert1 that
 all the different theories at present  
are  agreed2 and it is only concerning  
certain transformations of those        
strata1 since their original collection1
 that have been ascribed to  different  
causes4    ,of these transformations1   
which the strata must have undergone1   
there  are two kinds2 one in relation to
 change of place and position2 the      

other in relation to solidity or        
consistence4 ,it is only the last of    
those two changes which is here to be   
the subject of consideration2  because1 
with regard to the first1 there is      
nothing peculiar in these  bituminous   
strata to throw any light1 in that      
respect1 upon the others4  ,this is not 
the case with regard to the             
transformation in their chemical        
character and consistence2 bituminous   
bodies may not be affected by  chemical 
agents1 such as fire and water1 in the  
same manner as the  argillaceous1       
siliceous1 micaceous1 and such other    
strata that are  alternated with the    
bituminous2 and thus we may find the    
means for  investigating the nature of  
that agent by which those strata in     
general  have been transformed in their 
substance2 or we may find means for the 
detecting of false theories which may   
have been formed with regard  to those  
operations in which the original        
deposits of water had been  changed4    

,we have had but two theories1 with     
regard to the transformation of  those  
bodies which have had a known origin1 or
 to the change of their  substance and  
consistence2 the one of these which ,i  
have given is that  of heat or fusion2  
the other1 which ,i wish to be compared 
with mine1  is that of water and        
infiltration4 ,it is by this last that  
all authors  hitherto1 in one shape or  
another1 have endeavoured to explain the
  changes that those strata must have   
undergone since the time of their  first
 formation at the bottom of the sea4    
,they indiscriminately apply  the       
doctrine of infiltration to those strata
 of mineral coal as to any  other2 they 
say that bituminous matter is           
infiltrated with the water1  impregnates
 certain strata of earth with bituminous
 matter1 and thus  converts them into   
mineral coal1 and bituminous strata4    
,this is not  reasoning physically1 or  
by the inductive method of proceeding   
upon  matter of fact2 it is reasoning   

fantastically1 or by making gratuitous  
supposition founded merely on           
imagination4 ,it was thus that natural  
philosophers reasoned before the age of 
science2 the wonder now is1  how men of 
science1 in the present enlightened age1
 should suffer such  language of        
ignorance and credulity to pass         
uncensured4    ,the subject which ,i am 
now to treat of consists of peculiar    
strata of  the earth1 bodies which we   
may investigate through all the stages  
of  their change1 which is extreme2 for1
 from vegetable bodies produced upon    
the habitable earth1 they are now become
 a mineral body1 and the most  perfect  
coal1--a thing extremely different from 
what it had been1 and  a thing which    
cannot be supposed to have been         
accomplished by the  operation of water 
alone1 or any other agent in nature with
 which we  are acquainted1 except the   
action of fire or heat4 ,it is therefore
  impossible for a philosopher1         
reasoning upon actual physical          

principles1  not to acknowledge in this 
a complete proof of the theory which has
 been  given1 and a complete refutation 
of that aqueous operation which has     
been so inconsiderately supposed as     
consolidating the strata of the  earth1 
and forming the various mineral         
concretions which are found in  that    
great body4    ,to see this1 it will be 
sufficient to trace the progress of     
vegetable  and animal substances1       
7bodies which had certainly lived by    
means of a  former earth71 to this      
changed state in which they have become 
perfect  mineral bodies1 and constitute 
a part of the present earth4 ,for1 as   
these changes are perfectly explained by
 the one theory1 and absolutely         
inconsistent with the other1 there      
arises from this a conviction that  must
 be irresistible to a person who can    
give proper attention to a  chain of    
reasoning from effect to cause4    ,but 
if we thus succeed to illustrate the    
theory of the earth by the  natural     

history of those particular strata1 we  
have but one step farther  to make in   
order to bring all the other parts of   
the earth1 whether  stratified or not1  
into the most perfect consistence with  
the theory2  now this step1 it will be  
most easy to make2 and ,i shall now     
mention  it1 that so the reader may keep
 it in his view3 ,pyrites is a          
sulphureo-metallic substance1 which     
cannot be produced by means of  water1 a
 substance which the influences of the  
atmosphere decomposes or  separates into
 its elements1 and which even our       
imperfect art may  be considered as able
 to produce1 by means of fusion in our  
fires4  ,therefore1 the finding of this 
creature of fire intimately connected   
with those consolidated strata of       
mineral coal1 adds the greatest         
confirmation1 were it necessary1 to the 
doctrine of those mineral bodies  having
 been consolidated by fusion4 ,this     
confirmation1 however1 is  not          
necessary1 and it is not the only thing 

which ,i am at present to  illustrate in
 that doctrine4 ,what ,i have now in    
view is1 to homologate  the origin of   
those coal strata1 with the production  
of every other  mineral substance1 by   
heat or fusion2 and this is what the    
intimate  connection of pyrites with    
those strata will certainly accomplish4 
,this  will be done in the following    
manner3    ,pyrites is not only found in
 great masses along with the coal       
strata2 it  is contained in the veins   
which traverse those strata1 and in the 
minute  ramifications of those veins1   
which are occasioned by the contraction 
of  the mass1 and generally divide it   
into small cubical pieces2 but besides  
that extrinsic connection1 7as it may be
 called17 with the stratum of  coal1    
pyrites is found intimately connected   
with that solid body1 in  being mixed   
with its substance4 ,if1 therefore1 it  
were proved1 that  either the one or    
other of those two substances had been  
consolidated by  fusion1 the other must 

be acknowledged as having had the same  
origin2  but now ,i am to prove1 from   
the natural history of mineral coal1    
that  pyrites had been there formed by  
fusion2 and then1 by means of the  known
 origin of that sulphureo-metallic      
substance1 we shall extend our          
knowledge to the origin of every other  
mineral body4    ,the process of this   
argument is as follows3 ,every mineral  
body1 ,i  believe1 without exception1   
will be found so intimately connected   
with  pyrites1 that these two things    
must be concluded as having been        
together  in a fluid state1 and that1   
whatever may have been the cause of     
fluidity  in the one1 this must have    
also caused the fluidity in the other2  
consequently1 whatever shall be proved  
with regard to the mineral  operations  
of pyrites1 must be considered as proved
 of every other  mineral substance4     
,but1 from the connection of pyrites    
with mineral  coal1 it is to be proved  
that the origin of this metallic body   

had been  fusion2 and then it will      
appear1 that all other mineral bodies   
must have  been more or less in fusion1 
or that they must have been consolidated
  by means of heat1 and not by any      
manner of solution or aqueous           
infiltration4 ,i therefore now proceed  
to take a view of the natural  history  
of coal strata1--a subject which        
mineralogists seem not inclined  to     
engage with1 although the most ample    
data are to be found for that           
investigation4      ,,sect4             
,,ii4--,natural ,history of ,coal       
,strata1 and ,theory of this            
,geological ,operation4    ,fossil coal 
is the species of stratum best          
understood with regard to its           
accidents1 as being much sought after2  
at least1 this is the case in  many     
parts of ,britain1 where it supplies the
 place of wood for burning4  ,this      
fossil body has the most distinguished  
character2 for1 being  inflammable or   
combustible in its nature1 there is no  

other species of  stratum that may be   
confounded with it4    ,but1 though coal
 be thus the most distinguishable       
mineral1 and that  which is best        
understood in the science of mining1 it 
is perhaps the  most difficult to be    
treated of in the science of mineralogy2
 for1  not having properly any          
distinguishable parts1 we have nothing  
in the  natural constitution of this    
body1 as we have in most other strata1  
to  lead us to the knowledge of its     
original state or first formation4      
,the varieties of coal are distinguished
 by their different manner of  burning2 
but1 from appearances of this kind1 no  
perfect judgement can be  formed with   
regard to the specific manner in which  
those strata had been  made2 although1  
from chemical principles1 some          
conclusion may be drawn  concerning     
certain changes which they have         
undergone since they had been  formed4  
,thus we have one species of coal which 
is extremely fusible1 abounds  with oil1

 and consequently is inflammable2 we    
have another species again  which is    
perfectly fixed and infusible in the    
fire2 therefore1 we may  conclude upon  
principle1 that1 however1 both those    
coals must have  undergone the operation
 of heat and fusion1 in bringing them to
 their  present state1 it is only the   
last that has become so much evaporated 
as  to become perfectly fixed1 or so    
perfectly distilled1 as to have been    
reduced to a caput mortuum4    ,the     
argument here employed is founded upon  
this fact2 that1 from the  fusible      
species of coal1 a caput mortuum may be 
formed by distillation1  and that this  
chemical production has every essential 
quality1 or every  peculiar property1 of
 the fixed and infusible species2       
although1 from  the circumstances of our
 operation1 this caput mortuum may not  
have  precisely the exterior appearance 
of the natural coal4 ,but1 we have      
reason to believe1 it is not in the     
nature of things to change the          

infusible species1 so as to make it     
fusible or oily4 ,now1 that this body   
was not formed originally in its present
 state1 must appear from this1  that the
 stratum here considered is perfectly   
solid2 but1 without  fusion1 this could 
not have been attained2 and the coal is 
now supposed  to be infusible4          
,consequently1 this fixed substance1    
which is now1  properly speaking1 a     
perfect coal1 had been originally an    
oily  bituminous or fusible substance4  
,it is now a fixed substance1 and an    
infusible coal2 therefore1 it must have 
been by means of heat and  distillation 
that it had been changed1 from the      
original state in which  this stratum   
had been formed4    ,we have thus1 in   
the examination of coal strata upon     
chemical  principles1 received a certain
 lesson in geology1 although this does  
not  form a proper distinction by which 
to specify those strata in general1  or 
explain the variety of that mineral4    
,for1 in this manner1 we  could only    

distinguish properly two species of     
those strata2 the one  bituminous or    
inflammable2 the other proper coal1     
burning without smoke  or flame4 ,thus  
it will appear that1 as this quality of 
being perfectly  charred is not         
originally in the constitution of the   
stratum1 but an  accident to which some 
strata of every species may have been   
subjected1  we could not class them by  
this property without confounding       
together  strata which had differences  
in their composition or formation4      
,therefore1 we are led to inquire after 
some other distinction1 which may  be   
general to strata of fossil coal1       
independent of those changes which  this
 substance may have undergone after it  
had been formed in a stratum4           
,perfect mineral coal being a body of   
undistinguishable parts1 it is only  in 
its resolution that we may analyse it1  
and this is done by burning4  ,thus1 in 
analysing coal by burning1 we have1 in  
the ashes alone1 that by  which one     

species of coal may be distinguished    
from another2 and1 if we  should        
consider pure coal as having no ashes of
 itself1 we should then1  in the weight 
of its ashes1 have a measure of the     
purity of the coal1  this being         
inversely as the quantity of the ashes4 
,now1 though this be  not accurately    
true1 as the purest coal must have some 
ashes proper to  itself1 yet1 as this is
 a small matter compared with the       
quantity of  earthy matter that may be  
left in burning some species of coal1   
this  method of analysis may be         
considered as not far removed from the  
truth4    ,but1 in distinguishing fossil
 coal by this species of chemical       
analysis1  not only is there to be found
 a perfect or indefinite gradation from 
a  body which is perfectly combustible  
to one that is hardly combustible in    
any sensible degree1 we should also fall
 into an inconveniency similar  to that 
already mentioned1 of confounding two   
things extremely different  in their    

nature1 a bituminous body1 and a perfect
 charcoal4 ,thus1 if we  shall found our
 distinction upon the fusibility and    
different degree of  having been        
charred1 we shall confound fossil coals 
of very different  degrees of value in  
burning1 or of very different           
compositions as  strata2 if1 again1 we  
found it upon the purity of composition1
 in  judging from the ashes1 we shall   
confound fossil bodies of very          
different qualities1 the one burning    
with much smoke and flame1 the  other   
without any2 the one fusible almost like
 wax1 the other fixed and  infusible as 
charcoal4    ,it will now appear1 that  
what cannot be done in either the one or
 other  of those two methods1 may in a  
great degree1 or with considerable      
propriety1 be performed in employing    
both4    ,thus1 whether for the         
economical purposes of life1 or the     
natural  history of fossil coal1 those  
strata should be considered both with   
regard to the purity of their           

composition as inflammable matter       
deposited at the bottom of the sea1 and 
to the changes which they  have         
afterwards undergone by the operation of
 subterranean heat and  distillation4   
,we have now considered the original    
matter of which coal strata are         
composed to be of two kinds2 the one    
pure bitumen or coal1 as being          
perfectly inflammable or combustible2   
the other an earthy matter1  with which 
proper coal may be variously mixed in   
its composition1 or  intimately         
connected1 in subsiding from that       
suspended state by which it  had been   
carried in the ocean4 ,it is a matter of
 great importance1 in  the physiology of
 this globe1 to know that the proper    
substance of coal  may be thus mixed    
with heterogeneous bodies2 for1         
supposing that this  earthy matter1     
which has subsided in the water along   
with coal1 be no  farther connected with
 the combustible substance of those     
strata1 than  that it had floated in the

 waters of the ocean1 and subsided pari 
passu with the proper materials of the  
coal1 we hence learn a great  deal with 
regard to the state in which the        
inflammable matter must have  been at   
the time of its formation into strata4  
,this will appear by  considering1 that 
we find schistus mixed with coal in the 
most equal or  uniform manner1 and in   
almost every conceivable degree1 from   
the purest  coal to the most perfect    
schistus4 ,hence we have reason to      
conclude1  that1 at the formation of    
those strata1 the bituminous matter1    
highly  subtilised1 had been uniformly  
mixed with the earth subsiding in the   
water4    ,not only is the bituminous   
matter of coal found mixed in every     
different  proportion with the earthy or
 uninflammable materials of strata1 but 
the  coaly or bituminous composition is 
found with perhaps every different      
species of substance belonging to       
strata4 ,this is certain1 that we have  
the coaly matter intimately mixed with  

argillaceous and with calcareous        
strata4    ,thus it will appear1 that it
 is no proper explanation of the        
formation  of coal strata1 to say that  
vegetable matter is the basis of those  
strata2 for though1 in vegetation1 a    
substance proper for the formation  of  
bituminous matter is produced1 it       
remains to know by what means1 from  a  
vegetable body1 this bituminous matter  
is produced1 and how it comes  to be    
diffused in that subtile state by which 
it may be uniformly mixed  with the most
 impalpable earth in water4 ,could we   
once resolve this  question1 every other
 appearance might be easily explained4  
,let us  therefore now endeavour to     
discover a principle for the resolving  
of  this problem4    ,there are two ways
 in which vegetable bodies may be1 in   
part at least1  resolved into that      
subtilised state of bituminous matter   
after which we  inquire2 the one of     
these is by means of fire1 the other by 
water4 ,we  shall now consider these    

severally as the means of forming       
bituminous  strata1 although they may be
 both employed by nature in this work4  
,when vegetable bodies are made to burn1
 there is always more or less of  a     
fuliginous substance formed2 but this   
fuliginous substance is no  other than a
 bituminous body in that subtilised     
state in which it is  indefinitely      
divided1 and may be mixed uniformly with
 any mass of matter  equally subtilised 
with itself4 ,but this is precisely what
 we want1 in  order to compose the      
strata of coal in question4 ,if1        
therefore1 there  were to be found in   
the ocean such a fund of this fuliginous
 substance  as might suffice for the    
formation of bituminous strata1 no      
difficulty  would be left in explaining 
the original of fossil coal4 ,but tho'  
sufficient quantity of this fuliginous  
matter might not be found for the       
explanation of natural appearances1 yet 
there cannot be a doubt that  more or   
less of this matter must be produced in 

the mineral operations  of the globe1   
and be found precisely in that place    
where it is required  for the forming of
 those strata of coal4    ,in order to  
conceive this1 we are to consider1 that 
there are actually  great quantities of 
coal strata in a charred state1 which   
indicates  that all their more volatile 
oleaginous or fuliginous matter had been
  separated by force of subterranean    
heat2 and1 we are to suppose that  this 
had been transacted at the bottom of the
 ocean3 ,consequently1 a  subtile       
oleaginous1 bituminous1 or fuliginous   
substance1 must have been  diffused in  
that ocean2 and this bituminous matter  
would be employed in  forming other     
strata1 which were then deposited at the
 bottom of the  waters4    ,but besides 
this quantity of bituminous matter which
 is necessarily  formed in the mineral  
operations of the earth1 and with regard
 to the  quantity of which we can never 
form a proper estimate1 there must enter
  into this same calculation all the    

fuliginous matter that is formed in     
burning bodies upon the surface of this 
earth4 ,this bituminous matter of  smoke
 is first delivered into the atmosphere1
 but ultimately it must  be settled at  
the bottom of the sea4 ,hence though1   
compared with the  quantity that we     
think required1 each revolution of the  
globe produces  but a little in our     
estimation1 yet the progress of time1 in
 reforming  worlds1 may produce all that
 is necessary in the formation of our   
strata4    ,there now remains to explain
 the other way in which bituminous      
matter  may be obtained from vegetable  
bodies1 that is1 by means of water4 ,for
  this purpose we must begin with a part
 of natural history that will  throw    
some light upon the subject4    ,all the
 rivers in ,scotland run into the sea   
tinged with a brown  substance2 this is 
most evident in some of them after a    
flood1 and while  yet the river is      
swelled2 but1 in travelling to the north
 of ,scotland  in the summer season1    

without any rain1 ,i saw all the rivers1
 without  exception1 of a brown colour1 
compared with a river of more clear     
water4  ,this colour proceeds from the  
moss water1 as it is called1 which runs 
into the rivers1 or the infusion of that
 vegetable substance which  forms       
combustible turf1 called peat4 ,now1    
this moss water leaves1 upon            
evaporation1 a bituminous substance1    
which very much resembles fossil  coal4 
,therefore1 in order to employ this     
vegetable infusion1 delivered  into the 
ocean for the purpose of forming        
bituminous strata at its  bottom1 it is 
only required to make this bituminous   
matter separate and  subside4    ,if now
 we consider the immense quantity of    
inflammable vegetable  substance1       
dissolved in water1 that is carried into
 the sea by all the  rivers of the      
earth1 and the indefinite space of time 
during which those  rivers have been    
pouring in that oily matter into the    
sea2 and if we  consider1 that the      

continual action of the sun and         
atmosphere upon this  oily substance    
tends1 by inspissation1 to make it more 
and more dense or  bituminous1 we cannot
 hesitate in supposing a continual      
separation  of this bituminous matter or
 inspissated oil from the water1 and  a 
precipitation of it to the bottom of the
 sea4 ,this argument is  corroborated by
 considering1 that1 if it were          
otherwise1 the water of  the sea must   
have1 during the immense time that      
rivers are proved  to have run1 be      
strongly impregnated with that oily or  
bituminous  substance2 but this does not
 appear2 therefore we are to conclude1  
that  there must be the means of        
separating that substance from the water
 in  which it had been dissolved4    ,if
 there is thus1 from the continual      
perishing of animal and vegetable       
bodies upon the surface of this earth   
and in the sea1 a certain supply  of    
oily or bituminous matter given to the  
ocean1 then1 however small a  portion of

 this shall be supposed the whole oily  
or inflammable matter  produced upon the
 surface of the earth1 or however long  
time it may  require for thus producing 
a stratum or considerable body of coal1 
we must still see in this a source of   
the materials proper for the  production
 of that species of strata in the bottom
 of the sea4    ,we have now considered 
the proper materials of which pure      
fossil coal  is chiefly formed2 we have 
at present to consider what should be   
the  appearances of such a substance as 
this collected at the bottom of the     
sea1 and condensed or consolidated by   
compression and by heat4 ,we should     
thus have a body of a most uniform      
structure1 black1 breaking with a       
polished surface1 and more or less      
fusible in the fire1 or burning with    
more or less smoke and flame1 in        
proportion as it should be distilled  or
 inspissated1 less or more1 by          
subterranean heat4 ,but this is the     
description of our purest fossil coals1 

which burn in giving the  greatest      
quantity of heat1 and leave the smallest
 quantity of ashes4    ,in order to form
 another regular species of coal1 let us
 suppose that1  along with the          
bituminous substance now considered1    
there shall be  floating in the water of
 the ocean a subtile earthy substance1  
and that  these two different substances
 shall subside together in an uniform   
manner1 to produce a stratum which shall
 be covered with immense weight1        
compressed1 condensed1 and consolidated 
as before1 we should thus have  produced
 a most homogeneous or uniform body to  
appearance1 but not so  in reality4 ,the
 mixture of heterogeneous matter1 in    
this case1 is too  minute to be         
discovered simply by inspection2 it must
 require deep  reflection upon the      
subject1 with the help of chemical      
analysis1  to understand the            
constitution of this body1 and judge of 
all the  circumstances or particulars in
 which it differs from the former4 ,it  

is  worth while to examine this subject 
with some attention1 as it will give    
the most instructive view of the        
composition of bituminous strata1 both  
those which are not considered as coal1 
and also the different species  of that 
mineral body4    ,in the first place    
then1 if the mixture of those two       
different  substances had been          
sufficiently perfect1 and the           
precipitation uniform1  the solid body  
of coal resulting from this mixture1    
would not only  appear homogeneous1 but 
might break equally or regularly in all 
directions2 but the fracture of this    
coal must visibly differ from the       
former1 so far as the fracture of this  
heterogeneous coal cannot have  the     
polished surface of the pure bituminous 
body2 for1 the earthy matter  that is   
interposed among the bituminous         
particles must affect the  fracture in  
preventing its surface from being       
perfectly smooth4 ,this  imperfect plane
 of the fracture may be improved by     

polishing2 in which  case the body might
 be sufficiently smooth to have an      
agreeable polish2  but it cannot have a 
perfect polish like a homogeneous body1 
or appear  with that glassy surface     
which is naturally in the fracture of   
the pure  bituminous coal4    ,but this 
is also a perfect description of that   
species of coal which is  called in     
,england ,kennel coal1 and in ,scotland 
,parrot coal4 ,it is so  uniform in its 
substance that it is capable of being   
formed on the  turning loom2 and it     
receives a certain degree of polish1    
resembling  bodies of jet4    ,thus1 we 
have a species of coal in which we shall
 find but a small  degree of fusibility1
 although it may not be charred in any  
degree4  ,such an infusible coal may    
therefore contain a great deal of       
aqueous  substance1 and volatile oily   
matter2 consequently may burn with smoke
  and flame4 ,but this same species of  
coal may also occasionally be  charred  
more or less by the operation of        

subterranean heat2 and1 in  that case1  
we should have a variety of coal which  
could only be  distinguished1 from a    
similar state of pure bituminous coal1  
by the  ashes which they leave in       
burning4 ,at least1 this must be the    
case1 when  both species are1 by        
sufficient distillation1 reduced to the 
state of  what may be properly termed a 
chemical coal4    ,but in the natural   
state of its composition1 we find those 
strata of  kennel or parrot coal1       
possessing a peculiar property1 which   
deserves to  be considered1 as still    
throwing more light upon the subject4   
,we have been representing these strata 
of coal as homogeneous to  appearance1  
and as breaking indifferently in all    
directions2 this last1  perhaps1 is not 
so accurate2 for they would seem to     
break chiefly into  two directions1 that
 is1 either parallel or perpendicular to
 the bed4  ,thus we have this coal      
commonly in rectangular pieces1 in which
 it  is extremely difficult to          

distinguish the direction of the bed1 or
  stratification of the mass4 ,by an    
expert eye1 however1 this may be in     
general1 or at least sometimes1         
distinguished1 and then1 by knowing  the
 habit of the coal in burning1 a person 
perfectly ignorant of the  philosophy of
 the matter may exhibit a wonderful     
sagacity1 or even of  power over future 
events1 in applying this body to fire2  
for1 at his  pleasure1 and unknown to   
those who are not in the secret2 he may 
apparently1 in equal circumstances1 make
 this coal either kindle  quietly1 or   
with violent cracking and explosions1   
throwing its splinters  at a distance4  
,the explanation lies in this1 that1    
though the rectangular mass of coal     
appears extremely uniform in its        
structure1 it is truly a stratified     
mass2 it is therefore affected1 by the  
sudden approach of fire in a very       
different manner1 according as the edge 
of the stratum1 which is seen in  four  
of the sides of this supposed cube1     

shall be applied to the fire1  or the   
other two sides1 which are in the line  
of the stratum1 or  parallel to the bed 
of coal4 ,the reason of this phenomenon 
now remains  to be considered4    ,when 
the edge of the coal is exposed to the  
fire1 the stratification of  the coal is
 opened gradually by the heat and       
expanding vapours1 as a  piece of wood1 
of a similar shape1 would be by means of
 wedges placed in  the end way of the   
timber4 ,the coal then kindles quietly1 
and quickly  flames1 while the mass of  
this bituminous schistus is opening like
 the  leaves of a book1 and thus        
exhibits an appearance in burning       
extremely  like wood4 ,but let the fire 
be applied to the middle of the bed1    
instead  of the edge of the leaves1 and 
we shall see a very different           
appearance2  for here the expanded      
aqueous vapours1 confined between the   
laminae1  form explosions1 in throwing  
off splinters from the kindling mass2   
and  this mass of coal takes fire with  

much noise and disturbance4    ,the     
ashes of this coal may be determined as 
to quality1 being in general  a subtile 
white earth2 but1 as to quantity1 the   
measure of that earth  produces an      
indefinite variety in this species of   
coal2 for1 from the  kennel or parrot   
coal1 which is valuable for its burning 
with much  flame1 to that black schistus
 which our masons use in drawing upon   
stone1 and which1 though combustible in 
some degree1 is not thought to  be a    
coal1 there is a perfect gradation1 in  
which coal may be found with  every     
proportion of this earthy alloy4        
,among the lowest species of this       
combustible schistus are those          
argillaceous strata in ,yorkshire from  
whence they procure alum in  burning    
great heaps of this stone1 which also   
contains sulphur1 to  impregnate the    
aluminous earth with its acid4 ,we have 
also1 in this  country1 strata which    
differ from those aluminous schisti only
 in the  nature of the earth1 with which

 the bituminous sediment is mixed4 ,in  
the strata now considered1 the earth1   
precipitated with the bituminous        
matter1 being calcareous1 has produced a
 limestone1 which1 after burning        
especially1 is perfectly fissile4       
,therefore1 with regard to the          
composition of mineral coal1 the theory 
is this4 ,that inflammable1 vegetable1  
and animal substances1 in a  subtilised 
state1 had subsided in the sea1 being   
mixed more or less with  argillaceous1  
calcareous1 and other earthy substances 
in an impalpable  state4 ,now1 the      
chemical analysis of fossil coal        
justifies that theory2  for1 in the     
distillation of the inflammable or oily 
coal1 we procure  volatile alkali1 as   
might be naturally expected4    ,thus we
 have considered fossil coal as various1
 both in its state and  composition2 we 
have described coal which is of the     
purest composition1  as well as that    
which is most impure or earthy2 and we  
have shown that  there is a gradation1  

from the most bituminous state in which 
those  strata had been formed in being  
deposited at the bottom of the sea1  to 
the most perfect state of a chemical    
coal1 to which they have been  brought  
by the operation of subterranean fire or
 heat4    ,we have been hitherto        
considering fossil coal as formed of the
  impalpable parts of inflammable       
bodies1 united together by pressure1 and
  made to approach in various degrees to
 the nature of a chemical coal1  by     
means of subterranean heat2 because1    
from the examination of those  strata1  
many of them have evidently been formed 
in this manner4  ,but vegetable bodies  
macerated in water1 and then            
consolidated by  compression1 form a    
substance of the same kind1 almost      
undistinguishable  from some species of 
fossil coal4 ,we have an example of this
 in our turf  pits or peat mosses2 when 
this vegetable substance has been       
compressed  under a great load of earth1
 which sometimes happens1 it is much    

consolidated1 and hardens1 by drying1   
into a black body1 not afterwards       
dilutable or penetrated by water1 and   
almost undistinguishable in  burning    
from mineralised bodies of the same     
kind4    ,also1 when fossil wood has    
been condensed by compression and       
changed by  the operation of heat1 as it
 is frequently found in argillaceous    
strata1  particularly in the aluminous  
rock upon the coast of ,yorkshire1 it   
becomes a jet almost undistinguishable  
from some species of fossil coal4       
,there cannot therefore be a doubt1 that
 if this vegetable substance1  which is 
formed by the collection of wood and    
plants in water upon the  surface of the
 earth1 were to be found in the place of
 fossil coal1 and  to undergo the       
mineral operations of the globe1 it must
 at least augment  the quantity of those
 strata1 though it should not form      
distinct strata  by itself4    ,it may  
perhaps be thought that vegetable bodies
 and their impalpable  parts are things 

too far distant in the scale of         
magnitude to be  supposed as subsiding  
together in the ocean2 and this would   
certainly be  a just observation with   
regard to any other species of bodies3  
,but the  nature of vegetable bodies is 
to be floatant in water2 so that we may 
suppose them carried at any distance    
from the shore2 consequently1 the  size 
of the body here makes no difference    
with regard to the place or  order in   
which these are to be deposited4    ,the
 examination of fossil coal fully       
confirms those reasonable  suppositions4
 ,for1 first1 ,the strata that attend   
coal1 whether the  sandstone or the     
argillaceous strata1 commonly1 almost   
universally1  abound with the most      
distinct evidence of vegetable          
substances2 this  is the impressions of 
plants which are found in their         
composition4  ,secondly1 ,there is much 
fossil coal1 particularly that termed in
  ,england clod coal1 and employed in   
the iron foundry1 that shows  abundance 

of vegetable bodies in its composition4 
,the strata of this  coal have many     
horizontal interstices1 at which the    
more solid shining  coal is easily      
separated2 here the fibrous structure of
 the compressed  vegetable bodies is    
extremely visible2 and thus no manner of
 doubt  remains1 that at least a part of
 this coal had been composed of the     
vegetable bodies themselves1 whatever   
may have been the origin of the  more   
compact parts where nothing is to be    
distinguished4    ,the state in which we
 often find fossil wood in strata gives 
reason to  conclude that this body of   
vegetable production1 in its condensed  
state1  is in appearance                
undistinguishable from fossil coal1 and 
may be also in  great quantity2 as1 for 
example1 the ,bovey coal in ,devonshire4
    ,thus the strata of fossil coal     
would appear to be formed by the        
subsidence of inflammable matter of     
every species at the bottom of the  sea1
 in places distant from the shore1 or   

where there had been much  repose1 and  
where the lightest and most floatant    
bodies have been  deposited together4   
,this is confirmed in examining those   
bodies of  fossil coal2 for1 though     
there are often found beds of sand-stone
  immediately above and below the       
stratum of the coal1 we do not find any 
sand mixed in the strata of the coal    
itself4    ,having found the composition
 of coal to be various1 but all included
  within certain rules which have been  
investigated1 we may perceive in  this  
an explanation of that diversity which  
is often observed among the  various    
strata of one bed of coal4 ,even the    
most opposite species of  composition   
may be found in the thickness of one    
bed1 although of very  little depth1    
that is to say1 the purest bituminous   
coal may1 in the  same bed1 be conjoined
 with that which is most earthy4        
,fossil coal is commonly alternated with
 regular sand-stone and  argillaceous   
strata2 but these are very different    

bodies2 therefore1  it may perhaps be   
inquired how such different substances  
came to be  deposited in the same place 
of the ocean4 ,the answer to this is    
easy2 we  do not pretend to trace things
 from their original to the place in    
which  they had been ultimately         
deposited at the bottom of the sea4 ,it 
is  enough that we find the substance of
 which we treat delivered into  the sea1
 and regularly deposited at the bottom1 
after having been  transported by the   
currents of the ocean4 ,now the currents
 of the ocean1  however regular they may
 be for a certain period of time1 and   
however  long this period may be        
protracted1 naturally change2 and then  
the  currents1 which had given birth to 
one species of stratum in one place1    
will carry it to another2 and the       
sediment which the moment before  had   
formed a coal stratum1 or a bed of that 
bituminous matter1 may  be succeeded    
either with the sediment of an          
argillaceous stratum1 or  covered over  

with a bed of sand1 brought by the      
changed current of the  sea4    ,we have
 now considered all the appearances of  
coal strata1 so far as  these depend    
upon the materials1 and their original  
collection4 ,but1  as those bituminous  
strata have been changed in their       
substance by the  operation of          
subterranean heat and inspissation1 we  
are now to look for  the necessary      
consequences of this change in the body 
of the stratum2  and also for other     
mineral operations common to fossil coal
 with  consolidated strata of whatever  
species4    ,if coal1 like other mineral
 strata1 have been inspissated and      
consolidated by subterranean heat1 we   
should find them traversed with  veins  
and fissures2 and1 if the matter found  
in those veins and fissures  corresponds
 to that found in similar places of     
other strata1 every  confirmation will  
be hence given to the theory that can be
 expected from  the consideration of    
those bituminous strata4 ,but this is   

the case2 we  find those fissures filled
 both with calcareous1 gypseous1 and    
pyritous  substances4 ,therefore1 we    
have reason to conclude1 that the strata
 of  fossil coal1 like every other      
indurated or consolidated body in the   
earth1 has been produced1 first1 by     
means of water preparing and  collecting
 materials proper for the construction  
of land2 and1  secondly1 by the         
operation of internal fire or           
subterranean heat  melting and thus     
consolidating every known substance of  
the globe4    ,not only are those sparry
 and pyritous substances1 which are more
  natural to coal strata1 found forming 
veins traversing those strata in        
various directions1 but also every other
 mineral vein may occasionally  be found
 pervading coal mines1 or traversing    
bituminous strata4 ,gold1  silver1      
copper1 lead1 calamine1 have all1 in    
this manner1 been found in  coal4       
,there remains now only to consider     
those bituminous strata of fossil  coal 

in relation to that change of situation 
which has happened more  or less to     
every stratum which we examine2 but     
which is so much better  known in those 
of coal1 by having1 from their great    
utility in the arts  of life1 become a  
subject for mining1 and thus been traced
 in the earth  at great expense1 and for
 a long extent4    ,coal strata1 which  
had been originally in a horizontal     
position1 are now  found sometimes      
standing in an erect posture1 even      
almost perpendicular  to the plane in   
which they had been formed4 ,miners     
therefore distinguish  coal strata      
according as they deem them to approach 
to the one or other  of those two       
extremes1 in terming them either flat or
 edge seams or  veins4 ,thus1 it will   
appear1 that every possible change from 
the  original position of those strata  
may have happened1 and are daily found  
from our experience in those mines4     
,but besides the changed position of    
those strata1 in departing from the     

horizontal line or flat position in     
which they had been formed1 there is    
another remarkable change1 termed by    
miners a trouble in the coal4 ,the      
consideration of this change will       
further illustrate the operations of    
nature in placing that which had been at
 the bottom of the sea above its        
surface4    ,strata1 that are in one    
place regularly inclined1 may be found  
bended1  or irregularly inclined1 in    
following their course4 ,here then is a 
source of irregularity which often      
materially effects the estimates  of    
miners1 judging from what they see1 of  
those parts which are to be  explored2  
and this is an accident which they      
frequently experience4    ,but1 without 
any change in the general direction of  
the stratum1 miners  often find their   
coal broke off abruptly1 those two parts
 being placed  upon a higher and lower  
situation in respect to each other1 if  
flat  beds1 or separated laterally if   
they are edge seams4 ,this is by miners 

termed a slip1 hitch1 or dyke4    ,these
 irregularities may either be attended  
with an injected body of  subterraneous 
lava or basaltes1 here termed           
whin-stone1 or they may not  be         
attended1 at least apparently1 i4e4     
immediately1 with any such  accident4   
,but experienced miners know1 that1 in  
approaching to any of  those injected   
masses of stone1 which are so frequent  
in this country1  their coal is more and
 more subject to be troubled4    ,as    
there is1 in this country of ,scotland1 
two different species of  mountains or  
hills1 one composed both in matter and  
manner exactly  similar to the ,alps of 
,switzerland1 the other of whin-stone1  
basaltic  rock1 or subterraneous lava2  
and as the fossil coal1 argillaceous and
  sand-stone strata1 are found variously
 connected with those hills1  nothing   
can tend more to give a proper          
understanding1 with regard to the       
construction of the land in general1 of 
the globe than a view of those          

different bodies1 which are here found  
much mixed together in a little  space  
of country1 thus exhibiting1 as it were 
in miniature1 what may be  found in     
other parts of the world1 upon a larger 
scale1 but not upon any  other          
principle4 ,i will therefore endeavour  
to give a short description  of the     
mineral state of this country with      
regard to coal1 so far as my  experience
 and memory will serve4    ,this country
 might very properly be considered as   
consisting of primary  and secondary    
mountains2 not as supposing the primary 
mountains original  and inexplicable in 
their formation1 any more than those of 
the latest  production1 but as          
considering the one to be later in point
 of time1 or  posterior in the progress 
of things4 ,the first are those which   
commonly  form the alpine countries1    
consisting of various schisti1 of       
quartzy  stone1 and granites4 ,the      
second1 again1 are the whinstone or     
basaltic  hills scattered up and down   

the low country1 and evidently posterior
 to  the strata of that country1 which  
they break1 elevate1 and displace4      
,thus there are in this country1 as well
 as every where else1 three  things to  
be distinguished2 first1 the alpine or  
elevated country2  secondly1 the flat or
 low country2 and1 thirdly1 that which  
has been of  posterior formation to the 
strata which it traverses1 in whatever  
shape  or quality2 whether as a         
mountain1 or only as a vein2 whether as 
a  basaltes1 a porphyry1 or a granite1  
or only as a metal1 a siliceous         
substance1 or a spar4    ,those three   
things which are here distinguished do  
not differ with  regard to the chemical 
character of their substances2 for1 in  
each of  these1 every different         
substance is to be found1 more or less2 
and it  is not in being composed of     
materials peculiar to itself1 that makes
 an  alpine country be distinguished    
from a flat country2 it is chiefly in   
the changes which the strata of the     

alpine country have been made to        
undergo1 posterior to their original    
collection1 that the rocks of the       
alpine country differ from those of the 
flat country4    ,but the observation   
that is most to the purpose of the      
present subject  of bituminous strata1  
is this2 it is chiefly in the strata of 
the flat  country that fossil coal are  
found2 there are none that ,i know of in
  all the alpine countries of ,scotland2
 and it is always among the strata      
peculiar to the flat country that fossil
 coal is found4 ,now1 this  appearance  
cannot be explained by saying that the  
materials of mineral  coal had not      
existed in the world while those primary
 strata were formed  in the sea4 ,i have
 already shown1 7chap4 #d47 that there  
had been the  same system of a world1   
producing plants1 and thus maintaining  
animals1  while the primary strata were 
formed in the sea2 ,i have even adduced 
an  example of coal strata among those  
primary schisti1 although this be an    

extremely rare occurrence3              
,consequently1 we are under the         
necessity of  looking out for some other
 cause4    ,if the changes which have   
been evidently superinduced in the      
strata of  alpine countries arise from  
the repeated operations of subterranean 
fire1 or to the extreme degree in which 
those strata have been affected  by this
 consolidating and elevating cause1 it  
will be natural to suppose  that the    
bituminous or combustible part among    
those stratifications1 may  have been   
mostly consumed upon some occasion      
during those various and  long continued
 operations2 whereas1 in the flat beds  
of the low country1  although there is  
the most perfect evidence for the       
exertion of heat in  the consolidation  
of those strata1 the general quantity of
 this has been  a little thing1 compared
 with the universal manifestation of    
this cause  in the operations of the    
alpine countries1 the strata of which   
have been  so much displaced in their   

situations and positions4    ,to        
illustrate this1 strata of sand-stone   
are found in both the alpine  and flat  
countries of ,scotland4 ,about          
,leadhills1 for example1 there are      
abundance of those strata2 but1 in the  
flat country1 the generality of  the    
sand-stone is so little changed as to   
appear to every enlightened  naturalist 
aquiform strata2 whereas the most       
enlightened of those  philosophers will 
not perhaps attribute the same original 
to a similar  composition in the alpine 
country1 which is so much changed from  
its  original state4 ,it is not because 
there had been wanting a sufficient     
degree of heat to consolidate the       
sand-stone in the coal country2 for ,i  
can show specimens of sand-stone almost 
contiguous with coal1 that have  been   
extremely much consolidated in this     
manner4 ,but this is only a  particular 
stratum2 and the general appearance of  
the sand-stone1 as  well as other strata
 in the coal countries1 is that of      

having been  little affected by those   
subterranean operations of heat by which
 those  bodies in the alpine country    
have been changed in their structure1   
shape1 and position4    ,if we shall    
thus allow the principle of             
consolidation1 consequently also  of    
induration1 to have been much exerted   
upon the strata of the alpine  country1 
and but moderately or little upon those 
of the low country of  ,scotland1 we    
shall evidently see one reason1 perhaps 
the only one1 for  the lesser elevation 
of the one country above the level of   
the sea1 than  the other4 ,this is      
because the one resists the powers which
 have been  employed in leveling what   
has been raised from the bottom of the  
sea1  more than the other2 consequently1
 we find more of the one remaining      
above the level of the sea than of the  
other4    ,let us now take the map of   
,scotland1 in order to observe the      
mixture of  those two different species 
of countries1 whereof the one is        

generally  low and flat1 the other high 
and mountainous2 the one more or less   
provided with fossil coal1 the other    
not4    ,from ,st ,abb's ,head1 on the  
east of ,scotland1 to the ,mull of      
,galloway1  on the west1 there runs a   
ridge of mountains of granite1 quartz1  
and  schistus strata1 which contain not 
coal4 ,on each side of this ridge we    
find coal countries2 ,northumberland1 on
 the one side1 and1 on the other1  the  
shires of ,ayr1 ,lanark1 and the        
,lothians2 the one is a mountainous     
country1 the others are comparatively   
low or flat countries4 ,let us now  draw
 another alpine line from ,buchan and   
,caithness1 upon the east1 to  the      
island of ,jura1 on the west2 this      
traverses a mountainous country         
destitute of coal1 and1 so far as ,i    
know1 of any marks of marine bodies4    
,but1 on each side of this great alpine 
ridge1 we find the hard country  skirted
 with one which is lower1 flatter1 or of
 a softer nature1  in which coal is     

found1 upon the one side1 in the shires 
of ,fife1  ,clackmannan1 and ,stirling2 
and1 on the other1 in that hollow which 
runs  from the ,murray ,frith           
south-west1 in a straight line1 directed
 upon the  end of ,mull1 and composed1  
for the most part1 of water very little 
above  the level of the sea4 ,here1 to  
be sure1 the coal is scarce1 or not so  
evident2 but there is coal upon the sea 
coast in several places of this  great  
,bay betwixt ,buchan and ,caithness2 and
 the lowness of the country1  across    
this part of the island1 is almost      
sufficient testimony that it  had been  
composed of softer materials4    ,thus  
the coal country of ,scotland may be    
considered as in one band  across the   
island1 and included in the counties of 
,ayr1 ,lanark1 and all  those which     
border upon the ,frith of ,forth4 ,now1 
in all this tract of  coal and tender   
strata1 we do not find ridges of alpine 
stone or primary  mountains1 but we find
 many hills of solid rock1 little       

mountains1 from  #ejj to #ajjj feet     
high2 such as that beautiful conical    
hill ,north ,berwick  ,law1 ,torpender  
,law1 ,arthur's ,seat1 the ,lowmands1   
and others of inferior  note4 ,that is  
to say1 the whole of this included      
space1 both sea and  land1 has been     
invaded from below with melted masses of
 whin-stone1  breaking up through the   
natural strata of the country1 and      
variously  embossing the surface of the 
earth at present1 when all the softer   
materials1 with which those subterranean
 lavas had been covered1 are  washed    
away or removed from those summits of   
the country4 ,hence there is  scarcely a
 considerable tubercle1 with which this 
country also abounds1  that may not be  
found containing a mass of whin-stone as
 a nucleus4    ,but besides those       
insulated masses of whinstone that form 
a gradation  from a mountain to a single
 rock1 such1 for example1 as that on    
which  the ,castle of ,edinburgh is     
built1 we find immense quantities of the

 same  basaltic rock interjected among  
the natural strata1 always breaking and 
disordering them1 but often apparently  
following their directions for a        
considerable space with some regularity4
 ,we also find dykes of the same        
substance bisecting the strata like     
perpendicular veins of rock2 and1 in    
some places1 we see the connection of   
these rocks of the same substance1      
which thus appear to be placed in such a
 different form in relation to  the     
strata4    ,it will thus appear1 that   
the regular form1 and horizontal        
direction of  strata throughout this    
country of coal1 now under              
contemplation1 has  been broken and     
disordered by the eruption and          
interjection of those  masses of        
basaltic stone or subterraneous lava2   
and thus may be  explained not only the 
disorders and irregularities of coal    
strata1 but  also the different         
qualities of this bituminous substance  
from its  more natural state to that of 

a perfect coal or fixed infusible and   
combustible substance burning without   
smoke4 ,this happens sometimes to a     
part of a coal stratum which approaches 
the whin-stone4    ,having thus stated  
the case of combustible or bituminous   
strata1 ,i would  ask those naturalists1
 who adhere to the theory of            
infiltration and the  operation of water
 alone1 how they are to conceive those  
strata formed  and consolidated4 ,they  
must consider1 that here are immense    
bodies of  those combustible strata1    
under hundreds1 perhaps thousands1 of   
fathoms  of sand-stone1 iron-stone1     
argillaceous and calcareous strata4 ,if 
they  are to suppose bituminous bodies  
collected at the bottom of the sea1     
they must say from whence that bitumen  
had come2 for1 with regard to the       
strata below those bituminous bodies1   
above them1 and between them1  we see   
perfectly from whence had come the      
materials of which they are  formed4    
,they cannot say that it is from a      

collection of earthy matter  which had  
been afterwards bituminized by          
infiltration2 for1 although  we find    
many of those earthy strata variously   
impregnated with the  bituminous and    
coaly matter1 ,i have shown that the    
earthy and the  bituminous matter had   
subsided together2 besides1 there are   
many of  those coaly and bituminous     
strata in which there is no more than   
two or  three per cent4 of earthy matter
 or ashes after burning2 therefore  the 
strata must have been formed of         
bituminous matter1 and not simply       
impregnated with it4    ,to avoid this  
difficulty1 we shall allow them to form 
their strata1  which certainly is the   
case in great part1 by the collection of
  vegetable bodies2 then1 ,i desire them
 to say1 in what manner they are  to    
consolidate those bodies4 ,if they shall
 allege that it is by simple  pressure1 
,how shall we conceive the numerous     
veins of spar and pyrites1  which       
traverse those strata in all directions1

 to be formed in  those bodies          
consolidated by the compression of the  
superincumbent  masses8--,here is a     
manifest inconsistency1 which proves    
that it could  not be4 ,but1 even were  
we to suppose all those difficulties to 
be over  come1 there is still an        
impossibility in the way of that        
inconsiderate  theory1 and this will    
appear more fully in the following      
chapter4      ,,sect4 ,,iii4--,the      
,mineralogical ,operations of the ,earth
 illustrated from  the ,theory of       
,fossil ,coal4    ,there is not perhaps 
a greater difference among the various  
qualities of  bodies than that which may
 be observed to subsist between the     
burning of  those two substances1 that  
is1 the inflammable bodies on the one   
hand1  and those that are combustible on
 the other4 ,i have treated of that     
distinction in ,dissertations upon      
subjects of ,natural ,philosophy1 part  
#c;d4 where ,i have considered the      
different effects of those two kinds  of

 bodies upon the incident light2 and1 in
 a ,dissertation upon the  ,philosophy  
of ,fire1 etc4 ,i have distinguished    
those two kinds of  substances in       
relation to their emitting1 in burning1 
the fixed light  which had constituted a
 part of those inflammable and          
combustible  bodies4    ,all animals and
 vegetable bodies contain both those    
different chemical  substances united2  
and this phlogistic composition is an   
essential part  in every animal and     
vegetable substance4 ,there are to be   
found in those  bodies particular       
substances1 which abound more or less   
with one of  those species of phlogistic
 matter1 but never is the one species of
  those burning substances to be found  
naturally1 in animal and vegetable      
bodies1 without being associated with   
the other2 and it is all that the       
chemical art can do to separate them in 
a great degree upon occasion4  ,pure    
ardent spirit may perhaps be considered 
as containing the one1 and  the most    

perfect coal the other2 the chemical    
principle of the one  is proper carbonic
 matter2 and of the other it is the     
hydrogeneous  principle1 or that of     
inflammable air4    ,thus we so far     
understand the composition of animal and
 vegetable  substances which burn or    
maintain our fires2 we also understand  
the  chemical analysis of those bodies1 
in separating the inflammable from  the 
combustible substance1 or the volatile  
from the fixed matter1 the  oil from    
what is the proper coal4 ,it is by      
distillation or evaporation1  the effect
 of heat1 that this separatory operation
 is performed2 and we  know no other    
means by which this may be done4        
,therefore1 wherever we  find peculiar  
effects of that separatory operation1 we
 have a right to  infer the proper      
cause4    ,the subject1 which we are to 
consider in this section1 is not the    
composition of strata in those of       
mineral coal1 but the transformation  of
 those1 which had been originally       

inflammable bodies1 into bodies  which  
are only combustible1 an end which is to
 be attained by the  separation of their
 volatile or inflammable substances4 ,in
 the last  section1 ,i have shown of    
what materials the strata of mineral    
coal had  been originally formed2 these 
are substances containing abundance of  
inflammable oil or bitumen1 as well as  
carbonic matter which is properly       
combustible2 and this is confirmed by   
the generality of those strata1  which1 
though perfectly consolidated by fusion1
 retain still their  inflammable and    
fusible qualities4 ,but now the object  
of investigation  is that mineral       
operation by which some of those strata1
 or some parts  of a fusible and        
inflammable stratum1 have been so       
changed as to become  infusible and only
 combustible4    ,we have now examined  
those strata which may be considered as 
either  proper mineral coal1 or as only 
a bituminous schistus2 we are now to    
class along with these another species  

of this kind of matter1 which has  had a
 similar origin1 although it may assume 
a different character4    ,according to 
the common observations of mankind1 the 
eminent quality by  which coal is to be 
distinguished1 is the burning of that   
substance1  or its capacity for making a
 fire4 ,therefore1 however similar in   
other  respects1 a substance which had  
not that eminent quality of coal could  
hardly be considered as being allied to 
it2 far less could it be  supposed1 as  
being in every other respect the same4  
,we are however  to endeavour to show1  
that there are truly substances of this 
kind1  substances which to common       
observation1 having none of the         
properties of  coal with respect to     
fire1 consequently1 no utility for the  
purpose of  burning1 might be considered
 as another species of mineral1 while at
 the  same time they are truly at bottom
 a composition very little different    
from those which we have considered as  
the most perfect coal4    ,it must be   

recollected that we have distinguished  
coal in general as  of two different    
species1 one perfect or proper coal1    
containing no  perceptible quantity of  
either oil or phlegm2 the other as      
burning with  smoke and flame1          
consequently containing both aqueous and
 oleaginous  substances which it emits  
in distillation4 ,it is the first of    
these  which we are now to consider more
 particularly1 in order to see the      
varieties which may be found in this    
species of mineral substance4    ,when  
that bituminous fossil1 which is the    
common coal of this country1  is        
submitted to heat it is subject to melt 
more or less1 and emits smoke  which is 
composed of water and oil4 ,if it be    
thus completely distilled1  it becomes a
 perfect coal of a porous or spongy     
texture4 ,such a  substance as this is  
extremely rare among minerals2 ,i have  
however found  it4 ,it is in the harbour
 of ,ayr1 where a whinstone dyke        
traverses the  coal strata1 and includes

 some of that substance in the state of 
coals  or cinder4 ,i pointed this out   
many years ago to ,dr ,black2 and lately
 ,i  showed it to ,professor ,playfair4 
,but the culm of ,south ,wales1 the     
,kilkenny coal of ,ireland1 and the     
blind  coal of ,scotland1               
notwithstanding that these are a perfect
 coal1 or  charred to a coal1 have      
nothing of the porous construction of   
the  specimen which ,i have just now    
mentioned2 they are perfectly solid1 and
  break with a smooth shining surface   
like those which emit smoke and  flame4 
,here is therefore a mineral operation  
in the preparation of those coals  which
 we cannot imitate2 and here is the     
clearest evidence of the  operation of  
mineral fire or heat1 although we are   
ignorant of the  reason why some coal   
strata are charred1 while others are    
not1 and why1  in some particular cases1
 the charred coal may be porous or      
spongy like  our coals1 while in general
 those blind coals 7as they are called7 

are  perfectly solid in their structure4
    ,but to what ,i would call more     
particularly the attention of mineral   
philosophers is this1 that it is        
inconceivable to have this effect       
produced by means of water2 we might as 
well say that heat were to be  the cause
 of ice4 ,the production of coal from   
vegetable bodies1 in which  that        
phlogistic substance is originally      
produced1 or from animal bodies  which  
have it from that source1 is made by    
heat1 and by no other means1  so far as 
we know4 ,but1 even heat alone is not   
sufficient to effect that  end1 or make 
a perfect coal2 the phlogistic body1    
which is naturally  compound1 consisting
 of both inflammable and combustible    
substances1  must be separated          
chemically1 and this must be the        
operation of heat  under the proper     
circumstances for distillation or       
evaporation4    ,here is the            
impossibility which in the last chapter 
,i have alleged the  aqueous theory has 

to struggle against2 and here is one of 
the absolute  proofs of the igneous     
theory4 ,not only must the aqueous part 
of those  natural phlogistic bodies be  
evaporated1 in order to their becoming  
coal1 but the oily parts must also1 by a
 still increased degree of heat1  be    
evaporated1 or separated by distillation
 from the combustible part4  ,here1     
therefore1 is evidently the operation of
 heat1 not simply that  of fusion in    
contradiction to the fluidity of aqueous
 solution1 but  in opposition to any    
effect of water1 as requiring the       
absence or  separation of that aqueous  
substance4    ,but those natural        
appearances go still farther to confirm 
our theory1  which1 upon all occasions1 
considers the compression upon the      
bodies  that are submitted to the       
operation of heat1 in the mineral       
regions1 as  having the greatest        
efficacy in modifying that operation4   
,coal strata1  which are in the         
neighbourhood of each other1 being of   

those two  opposite species1 the one    
fusible and inflammable1 the other      
infusible  and combustible1 afford the  
clearest proof of the efficacy of       
compression2 for1 it is evident1 that   
the coal1 which was once  bituminous or 
fusible1 cannot be charred without the  
distillation of  that substance2        
therefore1 prevent the distillation by  
compression and  the charring operation 
cannot proceed1 whatever should be the  
intensity  of the heat2 and then1 fusion
 alone must be the effect upon the      
bituminous body4 ,but now1 as we have   
both those species of coal in the       
vicinity of each other1 and even the    
same strata of coal part charred1  while
 the rest is not1 this natural          
appearance1 so far from being a         
stumbling block1 as it must be to the   
opposite theory1 is most clearly        
explained by the partial escape of      
vapours from the mineral regions1 and   
thus confirms the theory with regard to 
the efficacy of compression4    ,it is  

owing to the solidity of those natural  
charred coals1 and the want  of oil1    
that they are so very difficult of      
kindling2 but1 when once  kindled in    
sufficient quantity1 they make a fire   
which is very durable4  ,there are even 
some of them which1 to common           
observation1 seem to be  altogether     
incombustible4 ,i have of this kind a   
specimen from a stratum  at ,stair1     
which shall be afterwards mentioned4    
,m4 ,struve1 in the ,journal de         
,physique for ,january #agij1 describes 
a  mineral which he calls plombagine    
charbonneuse ou hexadre2 and gives  for 
reason1 parce qu'elle ressemble         
extrmement au charbon de pierre         
schisteux1 ou d'hexadre4 ,he says       
farther1 ,il est trs commun1 dans  une  
roche qui forme un passage entre les    
granits et les brches1 qu'on  n'a trouve
 jusqu'a prsent qu'on masses roules dans
 le pays de ,vaud4  ,he concludes his   
paper thus3 ,ce fossile singulier ne    
parot pas  appartenir  la ,suisse seule4

 ,j'ai dans ce moment devant les yeux   
une  substance parfaitement semblable1  
si on excepte la couleur qui tient le   
milieu entre le gris de fer et le rouge 
modr2 elle vient du pays de  ,gotha de  
la ,friedrischs-grube1 proche d',umneau4
 ,on le regarde comme un  eisenrahm uni 
du charbon de pierre4    ,the specimen  
which ,i have from ,stair upon the water
 of ,ayr1 so far as ,i  can understand1 
perfectly resembles this plombagine of  
,m4 ,struve4 ,it  consumes very slowly  
in the fire1 and deflagrates like       
plumbago with  nitre4 ,now this comes   
from a regular coal stratum2 and what is
 more  remarkable1 in this stratum is   
contained a true plumbago1 ,farther up  
the  country1 the ,earl of ,dumfries has
 also a mine containing plumbago along  
with other coal strata2 and though the  
plumbago of these two mines have  not   
all the softness and beauty of the      
mineral of the same species from        
,cumberland1 they are nevertheless      
perfect plumbago4    ,i have a specimen 

of steatetical whinstone or basaltes    
from some part of  ,cumberland1 in which
 is contained many nodules of the most  
perfect and  beautiful plumbago4 ,it is 
dispersed through this stone in rounded 
masses  of all sizes from a nut to a    
pin's head2 and many of these are mixed 
with pyrites4 ,there is therefore reason
 to believe that this plumbago  had been
 in fusion4    ,now1 if we consider that
 every species of coal and every species
 of  plumbago are equally1 that is1     
perfectly combustible1 and yield1 in    
burning1 the same volatile principles1  
differing only perhaps a little  in the 
small quantity of fixed matter which    
remains1 we shall be  inclined to       
believe1 that they have all the same    
origin in a vegetable  substance2 and   
that they are diversified by some very  
small composition  of other matter4     
,this being allowed1 one thing is       
certain1 that it is by  the operation of
 mineral fire or heat that those        
combustible substances1  however        

composed1 have been brought to their    
present state of coal1  although we are 
ignorant of the circumstances by which  
their differences  and their peculiar   
chemical and mechanical qualities have  
been produced4    ,let us resume in a   
few words4 ,there is not perhaps one    
substance in the  mineral kingdom by    
which the operation of subterraneous    
heat is1 to  common understanding1      
better exemplified than that of mineral 
coal4  ,those strata are evidently a    
deposit of inflammable substances which 
all  come originally from vegetable     
bodies4 ,in this state of their         
formation1  those coal strata must all  
be oleagenous or bituminous4 ,in many of
 them1  however1 these volatile parts   
are found wanting2 and1 the stratum is  
found in the state of the most perfect  
coal or caput mortuum4 ,there1 is1  ,i  
presume1 no other means to be found by  
which this eminent effect could  be     
produced1 except by distillation2 and1  
this distillation perhaps  proceeded    

under the restraining force of an       
immense compression4    ,to this theory 
it must not be objected1 that all the   
strata of coal1  which are found in the 
same place or neighbourhood1 are not    
reduced to  that caput mortuum or       
perfect coaly state4 ,the change from a 
bituminous  to a coaly substance can    
only take place in proportion as the    
distillation of the volatile parts is   
permitted4 ,now this distillation  must 
be permitted1 if any passage can be     
procured from the inflammable  body     
submitted to the operation of           
subterraneous heat2 and1 one stratum  of
 coal may find vent for the passage of  
those vapours1 through some  crevice    
which is not open to another4 ,in this  
way1 doubtless1 some of  those bodies   
have been inspissated or reduced to a   
fixed coal1 while  others1 at a little  
distance1 have retained most of their   
volatile  parts4    ,we cannot doubt of 
this distilling operation in the mineral
 regions1  when we consider that in most

 places of the earth we find the evident
  effects of such distillation of oily  
substances in the naphta and  petroleum 
that are constantly emitted along with  
water in certain  springs4 ,these oily  
substances are no other than such as may
 be  procured1 in a similar manner1 from
 the fusible or inflammable coal        
strata2 we have therefore every proof of
 this mineral operation that the  nature
 of things admit of4 ,we have also      
sufficient evidence that those  fusible 
and inflammable coals1 which have not   
been distilled to a caput  mortuum1 had 
been subjected to the operation of      
subterraneous heat1  because we find    
those fusible coals subject to be       
injected with pyrites1  as well as the  
more perfect coal4    ,if we now        
consider those various appearances of   
mineral bodies which  are thus explained
 by the theory of mineral fire1 or      
exertion of  subterraneous heat1        
appearances which it is impossible to   
reconcile by  any supposition of aqueous

 solution1 or that unintelligible       
language  of mineral infiltration which 
has of late prevailed1 we shall be fully
  satisfied1 that there is a uniform    
system in nature of providing a power   
in the mineral regions1 for             
consolidating the loose materials       
deposited  at the bottom of the sea1 and
 for erecting those masses of           
mineralized  substances into the place  
of land2 we shall thus be led to admire 
the  wisdom of nature1 providing for the
 continuation of this living world1  and
 employing those very means by which1 in
 a more partial view of  things1 this   
beautiful structure of an inhabited     
earth seems to be  necessarily going    
into destruction4      ,,end ,,of       
,,volume ,,first4