,the ,tinguian ,social1 ,religious1 and ,economic ,life of a ,philippine ,tribe ,by ,fay-,cooper ,cole ,assistant ,curator of ,malayan ,ethnology #aibb ,,contents ,list of ,illustrations ,introduction ,i4 ,geographical ,relations and ,history ,,ii4 ,physical ,type and ,relationships ,,iii4 ,the ,cycle of ,life ,birth ,childhood ,engagement and ,marriage ,death and ,burial ,the ,layog ,,iv4 ,religion and ,magic ,v4 ,the ,ceremonies #a4 ,the ,minor ,ceremonies #b4 ,the ,great ,ceremonies #c4 ,special ,ceremonies ,,vi4 ,social ,organization4 ,government4 ,the ,village ,,vii4 ,warfare1 ,hunting1 and ,fishing ,,viii4 ,economic ,life ,rice ,culture ,cultivated ,plants and ,trees ,wild ,plants and ,trees ,plants and ,trees ,used in the ,treatment of ,disease ,use of ,betel-,nut1 ,tobacco1 and ,stimulants ,domestic ,animals ,,ix4 ,products of ,industry ,iron-,working ,spinning and ,weaving ,manufacture of ,rope and ,string ,bark ,cloth ,basket ,making ,mats ,dyes ,net ,making ,manufacture of ,pottery ,pipe ,making ,method of ,drying ,hides ,x4 ,decorative ,art ,,xi4 ,personal ,adornment1 ,dances1 and ,musical ,instruments ,,xii4 ,music1 ,by ,albert ,gale ,conclusions ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,text-,figures #a4 ,child's ,cradle and ,jumper #b4 ,diagram of a ,game #c4 ,cross ,sections ,showing ,types of ,graves #d4 ,ceremonial ,paraphernalia #e4 ,household ,objects #f4 ,spoons and ,ladles #g4 ,types of ,knives #h4 ,head-axes #i4 ,spears #aj4 ,shields #aa4 ,chicken ,snare #ab4 ,bird ,snares #ac4 ,fishing ,devices #ad4 ,grass ,knife2 ,root ,adze2 ,rice ,cutter #ae4 ,agricultural ,implements #af4 ,devices ,used in ,spinning and ,weaving #ag4 ,rope-,making ,appliances #ah4 ,bark ,beater #ai4 ,basket ,weaves #bj4 ,net ,needle and ,mesh ,stick #ba4 ,tobacco-,pipes #bb4 ,designs on ,pipes and ,pottery #bc4 ,decorative ,designs #bd4 ,patterns ,used in ,weaving #be4 ,blanket ,designs #bf4 ,musical ,instruments ,,plates ,frontispiece3 ,map of ,northwestern ,luzon4 ,i4 ,the ,province of ,abra1 ,looking ,inland from the ,coast ,range4 ,,ii4 ,abra1 ,looking toward the ,sea from the ,top of the ,cordillera ,central4 ,,iii4 ,manabo ,man4 ,,iv4 ,man of ,ba-ak4 ,v4 ,manabo ,woman4 ,,vi4 ,woman of ,patok4 ,,vii4 ,a ,mountain ,tinguian from ,likuan4 ,,viii4 ,a ,young ,man from ,likuan4 ,,ix4 ,girl from the ,mountain ,village of ,lamaw 7,photograph from ,philippine ,bureau of ,science74 ,x4 ,a ,woman from ,lamaw 7,photograph from ,philippine ,bureau of ,science74 ,,xi4 ,a ,typical ,small ,boy 7,photograph from ,philippine ,bureau of ,science74 ,,xii4 ,the ,baby ,tender4 ,,xiii4 ,a ,betrothed ,maiden4 ,,xiv4 ,the ,wedding4 ,,xv4 ,mothers and ,babies4 ,,xvi4 ,funeral of ,malakay4 ,,xvii4 ,the ,whipping at a ,funeral4 ,,xviii4 ,inapapaiag4 ,an ,offering to the ,spirits4 ,,xix4 ,the ,medium's ,outfit4 ,,xx4 ,ceremonial ,houses4 ,,xxi4 ,balaua4 ,the ,greatest of the ,spirit ,structures4 ,,xxii4 ,spirit ,houses in a ,garden4 ,,xxiii4 ,the ,kalangan3 ,a ,spirit ,house2 ,second in ,importance4 ,,xxiv4 ,the ,saloko4 ,a ,split ,bamboo1 in which ,offerings are ,placed4 ,ceremonies4 ,,xxv4 ,the ,saloko4 ,a ,spirit ,bamboo1 in which ,offerings are ,placed4 ,,xxvi4 ,ready to ,launch the ,spirit ,raft on the ,river4 ,,xxvii4 ,the ,tangpap4 ,an ,important ,spirit ,structure4 ,,xxviii4 ,gateway at ,likuan4 ,,xxix4 ,pottery ,houses1 for the ,spirit of the ,rice4 ,,xxx4 ,a ,medium ,making an ,offering to the ,guardian ,stones4 ,,xxxi4 ,ceremonial ,pounding of the ,rice4 ,,xxxii4 ,renewing the ,offering on the ,spirit ,shield4 ,,xxxiii4 ,singeing a ,pig at a ,ceremony4 ,,xxxiv4 ,offering of the ,pigs to the ,spirits4 ,,xxxv4 ,the ,sayang ,ceremony4 ,,xxxvi4 ,potters at ,work4 ,,xxxvii4 ,a ,family of ,laba-an4 ,,xxxviii4 ,the ,village of ,sallapadin4 ,,xxxix4 ,typical ,houses4 ,,xl4 ,house ,building4 ,,xli4 ,roofing a ,house4 ,,xlii4 ,water ,carriers 7,photograph from ,philippine ,bureau of ,science74 ,,xliii4 ,a ,tinguian ,housewife 7,photograph from ,philippine ,bureau of ,science74 ,,xliv4 ,a ,warrior4 ,,xlv4 ,hunter ,fitted for the ,trail4 ,,xlvi4 ,hunting ,party on ,mt4 ,posoey4 ,,xlvii4 ,shooting the ,blowgun4 ,,xlviii4 ,highland ,field and ,terraces at ,patok4 ,,xlix4 ,the ,rice ,terraces near ,likuan4 ,l4 ,plowing in the ,lower ,terraces4 ,,li4 ,taking ,rice ,sprouts from the ,seed ,beds4 ,,lii4 ,transplanting the ,rice4 ,,liii4 ,bird ,scarers in the ,fields4 ,,liv4 ,harvesting the ,rice4 ,,lv4 ,the ,rice ,granary4 ,,lvi4 ,pounding ,rice 7,photograph from ,philippine ,bureau of ,science74 ,,lvii4 ,winnowing and ,sifting 7,photograph from ,philippine ,bureau of ,science74 ,,lviii4 ,drying ,corn4 ,,lix4 ,breaking the ,corn between ,two ,stones4 ,,lx4 ,preparing ,tobacco4 ,,lxi4 ,feeding the ,pigs4 ,,lxii4 ,a ,typical ,forge of the ,iron ,workers4 ,,lxiii4 ,ginning ,cotton and ,sizing the ,thread4 ,,lxiv4 ,beating ,cotton on a ,carabao ,hide4 ,,lxv4 ,spinning 7,photograph from ,philippine ,bureau of ,science74 ,,lxvi4 ,weaving a ,blanket4 ,,lxvii4 ,basket ,making4 ,,lxviii4 ,basket ,types4 ,,lxix4 ,basket ,types4 ,,lxx4 ,the ,net ,maker4 ,,lxxi4 ,ceremonial ,blanket4 ,,lxxii4 ,blankets ,showing ,designs4 ,,lxxiii4 ,blankets ,showing ,designs4 ,,lxxiv4 ,woven ,belts and ,clouts4 ,,lxxv4 ,men of ,sallapadin4 ,,lxxvi4 ,typical ,dress of the ,man4 ,,lxxvii4 ,women in ,full ,dress4 ,,lxxviii4 ,customary ,dress of the ,woman4 ,,lxxix4 ,women's ,arm ,beads4 ,,lxxx4 ,woman ,wearing ,girdle and ,clout 7,photograph from ,philippine ,bureau of ,science74 ,,lxxxi1 #a4 ,dancing ,tadek at a ,ceremony4 ,,lxxxi1 #b4 ,beating the ,copper ,gongs4 ,,lxxxii4 ,the ,nose ,flute4 ,,lxxxiii4 ,playing on ,bamboo ,guitars4 ,,the ,,tinguian ,,introduction ,it seems desirable1 at the outset1 to set forth certain general conclusions regarding the ,tinguian and their neighbors4 ,probably no pagan tribe of the ,philippines has received more frequent notice in literature1 or has been the subject of more theories regarding its origin1 despite the fact that information concerning it has been exceedingly scanty1 and careful observations on the language and physical types have been totally lacking4 ,according to various writers1 these people are descended from ,chinese1 ,japanese1 or ,arabs2 are typical ,malay2 are identical with the ,igorot2 are pacific1 hospitable1 and industrious2 are inveterate head-hunters1 inhospitable1 lazy1 and dirty4 ,the detailed discussion of these assertions will follow later in the volume1 but at this point ,i wish to state briefly the racial and cultural situation1 as ,i believe it to exist in northwestern ,luzon4 ,i am under the impression that at one time this whole region was inhabited by pygmy blacks1 known as ,aeta or ,negrito1 small groups of whom still retain their identity4 ,with the coming of an alien people they were pressed back from the coasts to the less hospitable regions of the interior1 where they were1 for the most part1 exterminated1 but they intermarried with the invaders to such an extent that to-day there is no tribe or group in northwestern ,luzon but shows evidence of intermixture with them4 ,i believe that the newcomers were drawn from the so-called primitive ,malay peoples of southeastern ,asia2 that in their movement eastward and northward they met with and absorbed remnants of an earlier migration made up of a people closely related to the ,polynesians1 and that the results of this intermixture are still evident1 not only in ,luzon1 but in every part of the ,archipelago4 ,in northern ,luzon1 ,i hold1 we find evidences of at least two series of waves and periods of migration1 the members of which are similar physical type and language4 ,it appears1 however1 that they came from somewhat different localities of southeastern ,asia and had1 in their old homes1 developed social organizations and other elements of culture radically different from one another--institutions and groupings which they brought with them to the ,philippines1 and which they have maintained up to the present time4 ,to the first series belong the ,igorot #a with their institutions of trial marriage2 division of their settlements into social and political units known as ato2 separate dormitories for unmarried men and women2 government by the federated divisions of a village as represented by the old men2 and a peculiar and characteristic type of dwelling4 ,in the second wave series we find the ,apayo1 the western division at least of the people known as ,kalinga1 the ,tinguian1 and ,ilocano4 #b ,in none of these groups do we find the institutions just mentioned4 ,trial unions are unknown1 and marriage restrictions are based solely on blood relationship2 government is through the headman aided by the elders of his village1 or is a pure democracy4 ,considerable variation exists between the dwellings of these four peoples1 yet they conform to a general type which is radically different from that of the ,igorot4 ,the ,apayao and ,kalinga divisions of this second wave series1 by reason of their environment1 their more isolated localities and consequent lack of frequent communication with the coast1 have a simpler culture than that of the ,tinguian2 yet they have1 during many generations1 developed certain traits and institutions now apparently peculiar to them4 ,the ,tinguian and ,ilocano1 on the other hand1 have had the advantages of outside communication of extensive trade1 and the admixture of a certain amount of foreign blood4 ,these last two groups evidently left their ancient home as a unit1 at a time prior to the ,hindu domination of ,java and ,sumatra1 but probably not until the influence of that civilization had begun to make itself felt4 ,traces of ,indian culture are still to be found in the language1 folklore1 religion1 and economic life of this people1 while the native script which the ,spanish found in use among the ,ilocano seems1 without doubt1 to owe its origin to that source4 ,after reaching ,luzon1 this people slowly broke up into groups which spread out over the provinces of ,ilocos ,sur and ,norte1 ,union and ,abra4 ,the partial isolation of some of these divisions1 local feuds1 the universal custom of head-hunting1 and the need of human victims to accompany the spirits of the dead1 all doubtless aided in separating the tribe into a number of dialect groups1--groups which nevertheless retained the old culture to a surprising degree4 ,long before the arrival of the ,spanish1 ,chinese and ,japanese traders were visiting the ,ilocos coasts4 ,we are also informed that merchants from ,macao and ,india went there from time to time1 while trade relations with ,pangasinan and the ,tagalog provinces were well developed4 ,the leavening influence of trade and contact with other peoples resulted in such advancement that this people was early mentioned as one of the six civilized tribes of the ,philippines4 ,upon the arrival of ,salcedo1 the greater portion of the coast people accepted the rule of ,spain and the ,christian religion1 while the more conservative element retired to the interior1 and there became merged with the mountain people4 ,to the ,spaniards1 the ,christianized natives became known as ,ilocano1 while the people of the mountain valleys were called ,tinguian1 or mountain dwellers4 ,if the foregoing sketch is correct1 as ,i believe the data which follow prove it to be1 we find in the ,tinguian of to-day a people living much the same sort of life as did the members of the more advanced groups at the time of the ,spanish invasion1 and we can study in them early ,philippine society stripped of its ,european veneer4 ,this second and concluding section of ,volume ,,xiv gives the greater part of the results of an investigation carried on by me with the assistance of ,mrs4 ,cole among the ,tinguian1 from ,january1 #aijg1 to ,june1 #aijh2 the funds for which were furnished ,field ,museum of ,natural ,history by the late ,robert ,f4 ,cummings4 ,the further generosity of ,mrs4 ,cummings1 in contributing a fund toward the printing of this publication is also gratefully acknowledged4 ,a collection of texts and a study of the language are contemplated for a separate volume1 as is also the detailed treatment of the anthropometric data4 ,for the transcription of the phonograph records and the chapter on ,music1 ,i am indebted to ,mr4 ,albert ,gale4 ,his painstaking analysis establishes beyond question the value of the phonograph as an aid in ethnographic research4 ,the photographs1 unless otherwise noted1 were taken by the author in the field4 ,,chapter ,i ,,geographical ,,relations ,,and ,,history ,the ,tinguian are a pagan ,philippine people who inhabit chiefly the mountain province of ,abra in northwestern ,luzon4 ,from this center their settlements radiate in all directions4 ,to the north and west1 they extend into ,ilocos ,sur and ,norte as far as ,kabittaoran4 ,manabo1 on the south1 is their last settlement2 but ,barit1 ,amtuagan1 ,gayaman1 and ,luluno are ,tinguian mixed with ,igorot from ,agawa and ,sagada4 ,villaviciosa is an ,igorot settlement from ,sagada1 but ,bulilising1 still farther south1 is predominantly ,tinguian4 ,sigay in ,amburayan is said to be made up of emigrants from ,abra1 while a few rancherias in ,lepanto are likewise much influenced4 ,the non-,christian population of ,ilocos ,sur1 south of ,vigan1 is commonly called ,tinguian1 but only seven villages are properly so classed2 #c four others are inhabited by a mixed population1 while the balance are ,igorot colonies from ,titipan1 ,sagada1 and ,fidilisan4 ,along the ,cordillera ,central1 from the head-waters of the ,saltan 7,malokbot7 river as far south as ,balatok1 is found a population of mixed ,tinguian1 ,kalinga1 and ,igorot blood4 ,kalinga predominates north of ,balbalasang and along the ,gobang river1 while the ,igorot is dominant in ,guina-an1 ,lubuagan1 and ,balatok4 ,tinguian intermarriage has not extended far beyond ,balbalasang1 but their culture and dress have affected the whole region4 #d ,from this belt there have been extensive migrations into ,abra1 the newcomers for the most part marrying with the ,tinguian1 but in the ,ikmin river valley emigrants from ,balatok formed the towns of ,danok1 ,amti1 and ,doa-angan1 which have remained quite isolated up to the present time4 ,agsimao and other towns of the ,tineg group1 in the extreme northern end of ,abra1 are made up chiefly of ,apayao mixed with ,kalinga1 while all the villages on the headwaters of the ,binongan have received emigrants from the ,kagayan side4 ,the population of the towns properly classed as ,tinguian is approximately twenty thousand individuals4 #e ,from the foregoing it is seen that1 with the exception of a few villages of mixed descent1 all their territory lies on the western side of the ,cordillera ,central1 #f the great mountain range which runs from north to south through northern ,luzon4 ,as one emerges from the jungle1 which covers the eastern slopes of these mountains1 and looks down over the province of ,abra1 he sees an exceedingly broken land 7,plates ,i and ,,ii71 the subordinate ranges succeeding one another like the waves of the sea4 ,the first impression is one of barrenness4 ,the forest vanishes1 and in its place are long grassy slopes1 broken here and there by scattered pines and lower down by dense growths of the graceful1 feathery bamboo4 ,but this lack of trees is more fancied than real1 for as one proceeds down any of the valleys he meets with side canyons1 where the tropical jungle still holds sway1 while many a mountain side is covered with a dense undergrowth of shrubs1 plants1 and vines4 ,it seems probable that the forest once covered the western slopes of the mountains1 but accident and intention on the part of man has cleared broad sections4 ,as soon as the shade is removed1 the land is invaded by a coarse grass 7the cogon71 and this is burned over each year in order to provide feed for the stock and to make good hunting grounds4 ,the young trees are killed off and reforesting prevented4 ,numerous streams plunge from the high mountains toward the coast4 ,in places they rush through deep gorges between high mountains1 again they pass peacefully through mountain valleys4 ,everywhere they are fed by minor streams and waterfalls until at last1 as they emerge into the broader valleys of the ,abra and its tributaries1 they are rivers of respectable size4 ,the great central valley of ,abra is far from being a level plain4 ,in places1 as about ,manabo1 ,bukay1 and ,bangued1 there are stretches of level land2 but1 for the most part1 the country is rough and broken4 ,this valley is cut off from the sea by the ,coast ,range of mountains which forms the provincial line between ,abra and ,ilocos ,sur1 while another heavy spur forms the northern limits of ,abra from ,ilocos ,sur to the ,cordillera ,central4 ,two small and rather difficult passes afford entrance from the coastal plain into the valley1 but the chief avenue of communication is the cut through which the ,abra river reaches the sea4 ,so narrow is this entrance that1 at high water1 the river completely covers the floor and often raises its waters ten or fifteen feet up the canyon side4 ,in recent years a road has been cut in the rocks above the flood waters1 but even to-day most of the traffic between ,abra and the coast is carried on by means of rafts which are poled up the river4 #g ,the rainfall averages about one hundred inches1 and most of this precipitation takes place between ,may and the end of ,september4 ,this1 coupled with the lack of forest1 causes the rivers to become rushing torrents during the rainy season1 while during the balance of the year most of them are mere rivulets4 ,under these conditions there has been no development of navigation by the mountaineers4 ,on occasion they may construct a bamboo raft1 but they possess no boats of any description4 ,the great fluctuation of the streams makes fishing an uncertain occupation2 yet at least a dozen varieties of fish are known1 and enough are taken to add materially to the food supply4 ,deer and pig are fairly abundant1 and a considerable number is killed each year2 wild carabao roam the mountain sides and uninhabited valleys1 but they are dangerous animals1 and can seldom be taken with the primitive weapons of the natives4 ,wild chickens are plentiful1 and many are snared1 together with smaller birds4 ,in fact1 there is sufficient game and fish to support a considerable population1 if the people would turn seriously to their capture1 so that the oft repeated statement that the mountaineers of ,abra were forced to agriculture is not entirely accurate4 ,it seems much more probable that1 at the time of their entrance into the interior valleys1 the ,tinguian were already acquainted with terraced hillside fields1 and that they developed them as needed4 ,the soil is fairly fertile1 the rainfall abundant during the growing season1 and the climate warm enough to insure good crops4 ,the thermometer ranges between #hj deg4 and #he deg4 during the day1 but there is generally a land or sea breeze1 so that actual discomfort from the heat is unusual4 ,the nights are somewhat cooler1 but a drop of a few degrees is felt so keenly that a person may be uncomfortarble at #gj deg44 ,fogs and cold rains are not uncommon during the wet season1 while one or more typhoons can be expected each year4 ,earthquakes are likewise of occasional occurrence1 but the construction of the houses is such that storms and earthquakes do much less damage than along the coast4 ,there is no doubt that the natural ruggedness of the country and the long rainy season have had a strong influence on the people1 but this has been chiefly in isolating them in small groups4 ,the high mountains separating the narrow valleys1 the lack of water transportation1 the difficulty of maintaining trails1 have all tended to keep the people in small communities1 while the practice of head-hunting has likewise raised a barrier to free communication4 ,thus1 the settlements within a limited area have become self-sustaining groups2 a condition which has existed long enough to allow for the development of five dialects4 ,the traditions of the ,tinguian furnish us with no stories of an earlier home than ,luzon1 but there are many accounts of migrations from the coast back into the mountains1 after the arrival of the ,spaniards and the ,christianization of the ,ilocano4 ,the fact that there is an historical background for these tales is amply proven by fragments of pottery and the like1 which the writer has recovered from the reported sites of ancient settlements4 ,the part played by this people in ,philippine history is small indeed1 and most of the references to them have been of an incidental nature4 ,apparently1 they first came in contact with the ,spanish in #aegb when ,salcedo was entrusted with the task of subduing that part of ,luzon now known as the ,ilocano provinces4 ,the people he encountered are described as being more barbarous than the ,tagalog1 not so light complexioned1 nor so well clad1 but husbandmen who possessed large fields1 and whose land abounded in rice and cotton4 ,their villages were of considerable size1 and each was ruled over by a local headman who owed allegiance to no central authority1 ,there was a uniform1 well recognized code of law or custom1 and a considerable part of the population could read and write in a native script similar to that of the ,tagalog4 ,they also possessed gold1 which was reported to have come from rich mines in the interior1 and on primitive forges were turning out excellent steel weapons1 but the use of fire-arms was unknown4 ,according to ,reyes1 their weapons consisted of lances1 bows and arrows1 bolos1 great shields which protected them from head to foot1 blow guns and poisoned arrows4 ,the newcomers also found a flourishing trade being carried on with ,manila and the settlements in ,pangasinan1 as well as with the ,chinese4 ,this trade was of such importance that1 as early as #aehj pirate fleets from ,japan frequently scoured the coast in search of ,chinese vessels and goods1 while from time to time ,japanese traders visited the ,ilocos ports4 ,apparently trade relations were not interrupted for a considerable time after the arrival of the ,spaniards1 for in #afbi ,medina states that ships from ,china1 ,macao1 and ,india are accustomed to anchor in these ports--and all to the advantage of this district4 #h ,that pre-,spanish trade was not restricted to the ,ilocos provinces1 but was active along the whole northern coast of ,luzon has been amply proved by many writers4 ,in fact1 the inhabitants of ,pangasinan not only had trade relations with ,borneo1 ,japan1 and ,china1 #i but it now seems probable that they can be identified as the ,ping-ka-shi-lan who1 as early as #adjf1 sent an embassy to ,china with gifts of horses1 silver1 and other objects for the emperor ,yung-lo4 #aj ,trade relations of an even earlier date are evident throughout all this area1 in the presence far in the interior of ,chinese pottery of the fourteenth century and possibly of the tenth4 #aa ,with friendly relations so long established1 it is to be expected that many evidences of ,chinese material culture would be found in all the northern provinces2 and it is not unlikely that a considerable amount of ,chinese blood may have been introduced into the population in ancient times1 as it has been during the historic period4 ,it does not seem probable1 however that either the influence of ,chinese blood or culture need have been stronger in the ,ilocos provinces than in the other regions which they visited4 ,when ,salcedo attempted a landing at ,vigan1 he was at first opposed2 but the superior weapons of the ,spaniards quickly overcame all resistance1 and the invaders took possession of the city1 which they rechristened ,fernandino4 ,from this center they carried on an energetic campaign of reduction and ,christianization4 ,as fast as the natives accepted the rule of ,spain1 they were baptized and taken into the church1 and so rapid was the process that by #aehg the ,ilocano were reported to be ,christianized4 #ab ,in fact1 force played such a part that ,fray ,martin de ,herrada1 who wrote from ,ilocos in ,june1 #aegd1 protested that the reduction was accomplished through fear1 for if the people remained in their villages and received the rule of ,spain and the ,church1 they were accepted as friends and forthwith compelled to pay tribute2 but if they resisted and fled to other settlements1 the troops followed and pillaged and laid waste their new dwellings4 #ac ,paralleling the coast1 a few miles inland1 is a range of mountains on the far side of which lie the broad valleys of the ,abra river and its tributaries4 ,the more conservative elements of the population retreated to the mountain valleys1 and from these secure retreats bade defiance to the newcomers and their religion4 ,to these mountaineers was applied the name ,tinguianes--a term at first used to designate the mountain dwellers throughout the ,islands1 but later usually restricted to his tribe4 #ad ,the ,tinguian themselves do not use or know the appellation1 but call themselves ,itneg1 a name which should be used for them but for the fact that they are already established in literature under the former term4 ,although they were in constant feuds among themselves1 the mountain people do not appear to have given the newcomers much trouble until toward the end of the sixteenth century1 when hostile raids against the coast settlements became rather frequent4 ,to protect the ,christianized natives1 as well as to aid in the conversion of these heathens1 the ,spanish1 in #aeih1 entered the valley of the ,abra and established a garrison at the village of ,bangued4 #ae ,as before1 the natives abandoned their homes and retreated several miles farther up the river1 where they established the settlement of ,lagangilang4 ,from ,bangued as a center1 the ,augustinian friars worked tirelessly to convert the pagans1 but with so little success that ,san ,antonio1 #af writing in #agch1 says of the ,tinguian1 that little fruit was obtained1 despite extensive missions1 and that although he had made extraordinary efforts1 he had even failed to learn their number4 ,in the mountains of ,ilocos ,sur1 the missionaries met with somewhat better success1 and in #agjd ,olarte states that in the two preceding years one hundred and fifty-six infidel ,tinguianes had been converted and baptized4 ,again1 in #agfj1 four hundred and fifty-four converts are reported to have been formed into the villages of ,santiago1 ,magsingal1 and ,batak4 #ag ,about this time the work in ,abra also took on a more favorable aspect2 by #agec three ,tinguian villages1 with a combined population of more than one thousand1 had been established near ,bangued1 and in the next century five more settlements were added to this list4 #ah ,in general the relations between the pagan and ,christianized natives were not cordial1 and oftentimes they were openly hostile2 but despite mutual distrust the coast people have on several occasions enlisted the aid of the mountaineers against outside enemies4 ,in #affj a serious revolt occurred in ,pangasinan and ,zambales1 and the rebels1 after gaining control of these provinces1 started on a looting expedition in the northern districts4 ,in the face of strong resistance they proceeded as far north as ,badok1 in ,ilocos ,sur1 burning and pillaging many villages including the capital city of ,vigan 7,fernandino74 ,the ,tinguian came to the aid of the hard-pressed ,ilocano1 and their combined forces fell upon the enemy just outside the village of ,narbacan4 ,the tribesmen had previously made the road almost impassable by planting it thickly with sharpened sticks2 and1 while the invaders were endeavoring to remove these obstacles1 they set upon them with great fury and1 it is said1 succeeded in killing more than four hundred of the ,zambal1 a part of whom they beheaded4 #ai ,as ,spanish rule was extended into the ,tinguian territory1 ,ilocano settlers pressed in and acquired holdings of land4 ,this led to many bitter disputes which were consistently settled in favor of the converts2 but at the same time many inducements were offered the pagans to get them into the ,christianized village4 ,all converts were to be exempted from paying tribute1 while their villages received many favors withheld from the pagan settlements4 ,this failing to bring the desired results1 all the nearby villages of the ,tinguian were incorporated with the civilized pueblos1 and thereafter they had to furnish the major part of all taxes and most of the forced labor4 ,following the appointment of ,gov4 ,esteban de ,pennarubia in #ahfh1 the tribesmen suffered still greater hardships4 ,under his orders all those who refused baptism were to be expelled from the organized communities1 an edict which meant virtual banishment from their old homes and confiscation of their property4 ,further1 no ,tinguian in native dress was to be allowed to enter the towns4 ,conversions increased with amazing rapidity1 but when it was learned that many of the new converts still practiced their old customs1 the governor had the apostates seized and imprisoned4 ,the hostile attitude of ,pennarubia encouraged adventurers from the coast in the seizure of lands and the exploitation of the pagans1 and thus a deep resentment was added to the dislike the ,tinguian already held for the ,christians4 ,yet1 despite the many causes for hostility1 steady trade relations have been maintained between the two groups1 and the influence of the ,ilocano has been increasingly strong4 ,a little more than a half century ago head-hunting was still common even in the valley of ,abra1 where it is now practically unknown4 ,as a matter of dire necessity the mountain people made raids of reprisal against the hostile ,igorot villages on the eastern side of the great mountain range1 and it is still the proud boast of many a man in the vicinity of ,manabo that he took part in the raid which netted that village a score of heads from the towns of ,balatok and ,lubuagan4 ,but1 as will be seen later1 head-hunting was by no means limited to forays against other tribes2 local feuds1 funeral observances1 and the desire for renown1 all encouraged the warriors to seek heads even from nearby settlements4 ,those incentives have not been entirely removed1 and an occasional head is still taken in the mountain districts1 but the influence of the ,ilocano1 backed by ,spanish and ,american authority1 is rapidly making this sport a thing of the past4 ,the rule of ,governor ,pennarubia had so embittered the ,tinguian against the white man that a considerable number joined the insurrecto troops to fight against the ,spaniards and ,americans4 ,these warriors1 armed with spears1 shields1 and head-axes1 made their way to ,malolos1 where they joined the ,filipino troops the day of the first ,american bombardment4 ,the booming of cannon and the bursting of shells was too much for the warriors1 and1 as they express it1 the first gun was the beginning of their going home4 ,friendly relations with the insurgents were early destroyed by bands of armed robbers who1 posing as ,filipino troops1 looted a number of ,tinguian villages4 ,in several localities the tribesmen retaliated by levying tribute on the ,christianized villages1 and in some instances took a toll of heads to square accounts4 ,at this juncture the ,americans appeared in ,abra1 and the considerate treatment of the pagans by the soldiers soon won for them a friendly reception4 ,later1 as the result of the efforts of ,commissioner ,worcester1 the ,tinguian villages were made independent of ,ilocano control1 and the people were given the full right to conduct their own affairs1 so long as they did not disturb the peace and welfare of the province4 ,under ,american rule the ,tinguian have proved themselves to be quiet1 peaceable citizens2 a few minor disturbances have occurred1 but none of sufficient importance to necessitate the presence of troops in their district4 ,they have received less attention from the ,government than most of the pagan tribes1 but1 even so1 a measure of progress is discernible4 ,they still stoutly resist the advances of the missionaries1 but the few schools which have been opened for their children have always been crowded to overflowing2 trade relations are much freer and more friendly than a decade ago2 and with the removal of unequal taxes and labor requirements1 the feelings of hostility towards the ,christians are rapidly vanishing4 ,it now seems probable that within one or two generations the ,tinguian will again merge with the ,ilocano4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,physical ,,type ,,and ,,relationships ,from the time of the ,spanish invasion up to the present1 nearly every author who has mentioned the people of northern ,luzon has described the ,tinguian as being different from other ,philippine tribes4 ,the majority of these writers has pictured them as being of larger stature than their neighbors2 as lighter in color1 possessing aquiline features and mongoloid eyes2 as being tranquil and pacific in character1 and having a great aptitude for agriculture4 ,from these characteristics they have concluded that they are probably descended from early ,chinese traders1 emigrants1 or castaways1 or are derived from the remnants of the pirate band of the ,chinese corsair ,limahon 7,lin-fung71 which fled into the mountains of ,pangasinan after his defeat by ,salcedo in #aegd4 ,these conjectures are strengthened by the reported discovery1 in early times1 of graves in northwestern ,luzon1 which contained bodies of men of large stature accompanied by ,chinese and ,japanese jewels4 ,the undisputed fact that hundreds of ancient ,chinese jars and dishes are still among the cherished possessions of the ,tinguian is also cited as a further proof of a close relationship between these peoples4 ,finally it is said that the head-bands1 jackets1 and wide trousers of the men resemble closely those of the fishermen of ,fukien1 one of the nearest of the ,chinese provinces4 #bj ,two writers1 #ba basing their observations on color1 physical resemblances1 and the fact that the ,tinguian blacken their teeth and tattoo their bodies1 are convinced that they are the descendants of ,japanese castaways2 while ,moya #bb states that the features1 dress1 and customs of this people indicate their migration from the region of the ,red ,sea in pre-,mohammedan times4 ,finally1 ,quatrefages and ,hamy are quoted as regarding the ,tinguian as modern examples of the ,indonesian1 an allophylic branch of the pure white race1 non-,aryan1 therefore1 who went forth from ,india about #ejj ,b4,c4 #bc ,dr4 ,barrows #bd classes all the pagan tribes of northern ,luzon--the pygmies excepted--with the ,igorot1 a position assailed by ,worcester1 #be particularly in regard to the ,tinguian2 but the latter writer is convinced that the ,apayao and ,tinguian are divisions of the same people1 who have been separated only a comparatively short time4 ,in the introduction to the present volume 7p4 #bcf7 ,i have expressed the opinion that the ,tinguian and ,ilocano are identical1 and that they form one of the waves of a series which brought the ,apayao and western ,kalinga to northern ,luzon1 a wave which reached the ,islands at a later period than that represented by the ,igorot1 and which originated in a somewhat different region of southeastern ,asia4 #bf ,in order to come to a definite decision concerning these various theories1 we shall inquire into the cultural1 linguistic1 and physical types of the people concerned4 ,the most striking cultural differences between the ,igorot and the ,tinguian1 indicated in the introduction1 will be brought out in more detail in the following pages1 as will also the evidence of ,chinese influence in this region4 ,here it needs only to be restated1 that there are radical differences in social organization1 government1 house-building1 and the like1 between the ,igorot-,ifugao groups1 and the ,ilocano-,tinguian-,apayao-,kalinga divisions4 ,all the tribes of northwestern ,luzon belong to the same linguistic stock which1 in turn1 is closely related to the other ,philippine languages4 ,there are local differences sufficiently great to make it impossible for people to communicate when first brought together1 but the vocabularies are sufficiently alike1 and the morphology of the dialects is so similar that it is the task of only a short time for a person conversant with one idiom to acquire a speaking and understanding knowledge of any other in this region4 ,it is important to note that these dialects belong to the ,philippine group1 and there seems to be very little evidence of ,chinese influence #bg either in structure or vocabulary4 #bh ,the various descriptions of the physical types have been of such a conflicting nature that it seems best at this point to present rather detailed descriptions of the ,tinguian1 ,ilocano1 and ,apayao1 and to compare these with the principal measurements of the other tribes and peoples under discussion4 ,for purposes of comparison1 the ,tinguian have been divided into a valley and mountain group2 for1 as already indicated1 there has been a considerable movement of the mixed ,kalinga-,igorot people of the upper ,saltan 7,malokbot7 river1 of ,guinaan ,lubuagan and ,balatok1 into the mountain districts of ,abra1 and these immigrants becoming merged into the population have modified the physical type to a certain extent4 ,in the detailed description of the ,ilocano1 all the subjects have been drawn from the cities of ,bangued in ,abra1 and ,vigan in ,ilocos ,sur1 in order to eliminate1 so far as possible1 the results of recent intermixture with the ,tinguian1--a process which is continually taking place in all the border towns4 ,the more general tabulation includes ,ilocano from all the northern provinces4 ,aged and immature individuals have been eliminated from all the descriptions here presented4 #bi ,ilocano ,observations on #ai ,males from ,vigan and ,bangued ,range ,average ,height1 standing meters #a4eaj to #a4gad #a4fjg ,length of head 4#afd to 4#aia 4#aghg ,breadth of head 4#adf to 4#aeh 4#aebb ,height of head 4#abj to 4#add 4#acaf ,breadth of zygomatic arches 4#abi to 4#adh 4#acgc ,length of nose 4#jdc to 4#jed 4#jdhe ,breadth of nose 4#jcd to 4#jdf 4#jchb ,cephalic index #he4a ,length-,height index #gc4j ,breadth-,height index #hf4b ,nasal index #gh4g ,eyes--,dark brown1 #c-d of ,martin scale4 ,hair--,often black1 but usually brown-black4 #ej per cent straight and about #ej per cent slightly wavy4 ,one case closely curled4 ,forehead--,usually high1 broad1 and moderately retreating1 but sometimes vaulted4 ,crown and back of head--,middle arched4 ,two cases flat4 ,face--,moderately high2 broad and oval4 ,three cases angular4 ,eye-slit--,generally slightly oblique1 moderately open1 almond shape4 ,mongolian fold present in #de per cent4 ,nose--,root3--,middle broad and moderately high4 ,bridge3--,inclined to be concave1 but often straight4 ,wings3--,middle thick and slightly arched or swelled4 ,lips3--,middle thick and double bowed 7slightly74 ,ears3--,outstanding4 ,lobes generally small and close growing1 but are sometimes free4 ,ilocano #cj ,observations ,made ,by ,folkmar 7,see ,album of ,philippine ,types1 ,manila1 #aijd7 #cg ,males of ,ilocos ,norte ,average ,height1 standing meters #a4eic ,length of head 4#ahj ,breadth of head 4#aea ,length of nose 4#jee ,breadth of nose 4#jdj ,cephalic index #hd4ci ,nasal index #gc4ab #ei ,males of ,ilocos ,sur ,average ,height1 standing meters #a4eif ,length of head 4#agg ,breadth of head 4#aej ,length of nose 4#jec ,breadth of nose 4#jci ,cephalic index #he4jf ,nasal index #gb4ie #ca ,males of ,union ,province ,average ,height1 standing meters #a4eij ,length of head 4#agf ,breadth of head 4#aea ,length of nose 4#jej ,breadth of nose 4#jci ,cephalic index #he4gb ,nasal index #gh4fc #aic ,males from ,all ,provinces ,average ,height1 standing meters #a4fjb ,length of head 4#agh ,breadth of head 4#aea ,length of nose 4#jeb ,breadth of nose 4#jdj ,cephalic index #hd4ha ,nasal index #ge4dd ,valley ,tinguian ,observations on #hc ,males 7,see ,plates ,,iii1 ,,iv7 ,range ,average ,height1 standing meters #a4dh to #a4gj #a4egb ,length of head #a4fe to 4#aie 4#ahaa ,breadth of head 4#adj to 4#afd 4#aejg ,height of head1 #ci cases 4#aaf to 4#add 4#accg ,breadth of zygomatic arches 4#abi to 4#adh 4#achg ,length of nose 4#jdb to 4#jfj 4#jdii ,breadth of nose 4#jcj to 4#jdc 4#jchd ,cephalic index #hc4b ,length-,height index #gb4e ,breadth-,height index #hf4e ,nasal index #gf4i ,eyes--,dark brown1 #c-d of ,martin table4 ,hair--,varies from black to brownish black4 ,usually wavy1 but straight in about one third4 ,forehead--,moderately high and broad2 slightly retreating1 but sometimes vaulted4 ,supra-orbital ridges strongly developed in three cases4 ,crown and back of head--,middle arched4 ,two cases of flattening4 ,face--,moderately high and broad2 cheek bones sufficiently outstanding to give face angular appearance1 tapering from above1 but oval faces are common4 ,eye-slit--,straight or slightly oblique2 moderately wide open and inclined to be almond shaped2 ,mongolian fold slightly developed in about #bj per cent4 ,nose--,root3--middle broad and high1 seldom small or flat4 ,bridge3--middle broad and usually straight1 but #be per cent are slightly concave1 while two cases are convex4 ,wings3--,in most cases are thin1 but are commonly thick2 both are slightly arched4 ,lips--,middle thick and double bowed 7slightly74 ,ears--,outstanding1 with small close-growing lobes4 ,valley ,tinguian ,observations on #ce ,females 7,see ,plates ,v1 ,,vi7 ,range ,average ,height1 standing meters #a4db to #a4eh #a4dgd ,length of head 4#afa to 4#ahf 4#agdc ,breadth of head 4#acf to 4#aee 4#adfj ,height of head 7#bb cases7 4#aai to 4#ach 4#acja ,breadth of zygomatic arches 4#abc to 4#aci 4#acjd ,length of nose 4#jci to 4#jef 4#jdf ,breadth of nose 4#jcj to 4#jdb 4#jced ,cephalic index #hc4g ,length-,height index #gd4f ,breadth-,height index #hh4f ,nasal index #gf4i ,eyes--,dark brown1 #c-d of ,martin table4 ,hair--,usually brown black1 but black is common4 ,sometimes straight1 but generally slightly wavy4 ,forehead--,considerable variation4 ,usually moderately high1 broad1 and vaulted1 but is sometimes low and moderately retreating4 ,crown and back of head--,middle arched4 ,two cases of flattening4 ,face--,moderately high and oval4 ,in a few cases angular1 tapering from above4 ,eye-slit--,generally oblique1 moderately open and almond shape4 ,is sometimes straight and narrowly open4 ,mongolian fold slightly developed in about #be per cent4 ,nose--,root3--,moderately broad and either flat or slightly elevated4 ,bridge3--,middle broad and slightly concave4 ,in five cases is straight and in two is convex4 ,wings3--,equally divided between thick and thin4 ,slightly arched4 ,lips--,middle thick and double bowed 7slightly74 ,ears--,outstanding1 with small1 close growing lobes4 ,mountain ,tinguian ,observations on #fb ,males 7,see ,plates ,,vii-,,viii7 ,range ,average ,height1 standing meters #a4de to #a4ga #a4eg ,length of head 4#aga to 4#bjc 4#ahef ,breadth of head 4#adj to 4#afa 4#adic ,height of head 7#ei cases7 4#aae to 4#aed 4#acaf ,breadth of zygomatic arches 4#abi to 4#adi 4#ache ,length of nose 7#fj cases7 4#jdc to 4#jei 4#jeab ,breadth of nose 7#fj cases7 4#jcc to 4#jdf 4#jcii ,cephalic index #hj4d ,length-,height index #gj4i ,breadth-,height index #hg4d ,nasal index #gg4i ,eyes--,dark brown1 #c-d of ,martin table4 ,hair--,brown black1 and slightly wavy4 ,forehead--,middle high to high1 moderately broad1 moderately retreating1 but sometimes vaulted4 ,supra-orbital ridges strongly developed in five cases4 ,crown and back of head--,middle or strongly arched4 ,face--,moderately high4 ,cheek bones moderately outstanding giving face angular appearance1 tapering from above4 ,in seven cases face is oval4 ,eye-slit--,sometimes straight1 but usually slightly oblique1 moderately open1 almond shape4 ,mongolian fold in five cases4 ,nose--,root3--,middle broad and moderately high1 but sometimes high4 ,bridge3--,middle broad and straight4 ,seven cases concave and three convex4 ,wings3--,middle thick and arched4 ,lips--,middle thick1 sometimes thin2 double bowed4 ,ears--,outstanding2 lobes generally small and close growing4 ,mountain ,tinguian ,observations on #af ,females 7,see ,plates ,,ix-,x7 ,range ,average ,height1 standing meters #a4ch to #a4ec #a4dhb ,length of head 4#afc to 4#ahh 4#aghb ,breadth of head 4#acg to 4#aee 4#adeb ,height of head 4#aai to 4#acg 4#acjc ,breadth of zygomatic arches 4#abe to 4#ach 4#acbg ,length of nose 4#jci to 4#jed 4#jdfa ,breadth of nose 4#jcd to 4#jdb 4#jcfh ,cephalic index #hj4a ,length-,height index #gc4a ,breadth-,height index #ij4j ,nasal index #gi4h ,eyes--,dark brown1 #c-d of ,martin table4 ,hair--,brown-black and slightly wavy4 ,forehead--,moderately high and broad2 moderately retreating4 ,crown and back of head--,middle arched4 ,face--,moderately high and generally oval2 sometimes angular tapering from above4 ,eye-slit--,about equally divided between straight and oblique2 moderately open4 ,mongolian fold slightly developed in one third of cases4 ,nose--,root3--,moderately broad and nearly flat1 but sometimes moderately high4 ,bridge3--,middle broad and inclined to be concave4 ,straight noses occur4 ,wings3--,usually thin and inclined to be swelled4 ,lips--,middle thick and inclined to be double bowed4 ,ears--,outstanding4 ,lobes small and close growing4 ,apayao ,observations on #cb ,males ,range ,average ,height1 standing meters #a4dh to #a4gj #a4ehg ,length of head 4#age to 4#aii 4#ahgg ,breadth of head 4#acg to 4#aeh 4#adib ,height of head 4#aai to 4#aee 4#acca ,breadth of zygomatic arches 4#acj to 4#adi 4#adah ,length of nose 4#jdj to 4#jed 4#jdff ,breadth of nose 4#jce to 4#jdd 4#jcij ,cephalic index #gi4e ,length-,height index #gj4i ,breadth-,height index #hi4b ,nasal index #hc4f ,eyes--,dark brown1 #a to #d in ,martin table4 ,hair--,brown black and wavy4 ,forehead--,high and generally moderately retreating1 but in about one third is vaulted4 ,supra-orbital ridges strongly developed in six cases4 ,crown and back of head--,rather strongly arched4 ,six cases 7all from one village7 showed slight flattening of occipital region4 ,face--,usually high4 ,the cheek bones are moderately outstanding giving face angular appearance1 tapering from above4 ,in eight cases face tapers from below1 and in nine is oval4 ,eye-slit--,usually oblique1 moderately open1 almond shape4 ,mongolian fold in about #ej per cent4 ,nose--,root3--,middle broad and flat or slightly elevated4 ,bridge3--,middle broad and slightly or strongly concave4 ,seven instances of straight noses occur4 ,wings3--,middle thick1 arched or swelled4 ,lips--,middle thick and slightly double bowed4 ,ears--,outstanding4 ,lobes small and close growing4 ,bontoc ,igorot #ca ,observations ,by ,jenks 7,see ,the ,bontoc ,igorot1 ,manila1 #aije7 #cb males ,average ,range ,height1 standing meters #a4fjbh ,length of head 4#aiba ,breadth of head 4#aebj ,length of nose 4#jebe ,breadth of nose 4#jdfb ,cephalic index #gi4ac #fg4dh to #ia4dh ,nasal index #gi4ai #eh4ah to #ajd4ed ,in this group #i are brachycephalic #bj are mesaticephalic #c are dolichocephalic ,color--,ranges from light brown1 with strong saffron undertone1 to very dark brown or bronze4 ,eyes--,black to hazel brown4 ,malayan fold in large majority4 ,hair--,coarse1 straight and black4 ,a few individuals possess curly or wavy hair4 ,nose--,jenks gives no statement1 but his photos show the root of the nose to be rather high2 the bridge appears to be broad and straight1 although in some individuals it tends toward concave4 #bi females ,average ,range ,height1 standing meters #a4dehj ,length of head 4#ahei ,breadth of head 4#adgj ,length of nose 4#jdeh ,breadth of nose 4#jcfj ,cephalic index #gi4ji #fd4hi to #hg4fd ,nasal index #gh4gd #eh4ec to #ig4ef ,in this group #ab are brachycephalic #ab are mesaticephalic #e are dolichocephalic ,very different results were obtained by ,kroeber #cb from the group of ,igorot exhibited in ,san ,francisco in #aijf4 ,his figures may possibly be accounted for by the fact that about one third of the party came from ,alap near the southern end of the ,bontoc area1 also1 as he has suggested1 by the preponderance of very young men4 ,the figures for this group are as follows3 ,observations on #ah ,males ,average height #a4eej ,range #a4df to #a4fcj length of head 4#ahf 4#agf to 4#aid breadth of head 4#adf 4#ach to 4#aec bizygomatic width 4#ace 4#abi to 4#adb length of nose 4#jda 4#jca to 4#jdf breadth of nose 4#jdj 4#jcf to 4#jdf cephalic index #gh4dc nasal index #ii4h ,observations on #g ,females ,average height #a4dhf ,range #a4ddj to #a4ecj length of head 4#ahb 4#aga to 4#aia breadth of head 4#adc 4#acf to 4#aej bizygomatic width 4#aca 4#abg to 4#acf length of nose 4#jcg 4#jcc to 4#jdb width of nose 4#jcg 4#jcf to 4#jch cephalic index #gh4ei nasal index #ii4g ,from these descriptive sheets it is obvious that each tribe is made up of very heterogeneous elements1 and each overlaps the other to a considerable extent2 however1 the number of individuals measured is sufficiently great for us to draw certain general conclusions from the averages of each group4 ,it is at once evident that the differences between the ,ilocano and the ,valley ,tinguian are very slight1 in fact are less than those between the valley and mountain people of the latter tribe4 ,the ,ilocano appear to be slightly taller1 the length of head a little less1 and the breadth a bit more2 yet there is an average difference of only two points in the cephalic indices of the two groups4 ,the only other points of divergence are3 the greater percentage among the ,ilocano of eyes showing the ,mongolian fold1 and the occurrence of straight hair in about half the individuals measured4 ,however1 this latter feature may be more apparent than real2 for the ,ilocano cut the hair short1 and a slight degree of waviness might readily pass unobserved4 ,as we pass from the ,valley to the ,mountain ,tinguian1 and from them to the ,apayao1 we find the average stature almost constant1 but the head becomes longer2 there is a greater tendency for the cheekbones to protrude and the face to be angular1 and there is a more frequent development of the supra-orbital ridges4 ,the root of the nose is often flat and the bridge concave2 while wavy hair becomes the rule in the mountains4 ,there is a slight decrease1 in the ,tinguian groups1 of eyes showing the ,mongolian fold1 but in the ,apayao the percentage again equals that of the ,ilocano4 ,the ,apayao present no radical differences to the ,mountain ,tinguian2 yet1 as already noted1 the length and height of the head are slightly greater2 the zygomatic arches more strongly developed2 the face more angular2 and the nose is broader as compared with its length4 ,evidences of former extensive intermixture are here apparent1 while at the present time there is rather free marriage with the neighboring ,kalinga and ,negrito4 ,comparing these four groups with the ,igorot1 we find that the latter averages slightly taller than all but the ,ilocano4 ,the breadth of the head is about the same as the ,ilocano2 but the length is much greater1 and there is1 in consequence1 a considerable difference in the cephalic index4 ,reference to our tables will show the ,ilocano and both ,tinguian divisions to be brachycephalic1 while the ,igorot is mesaticephalic4 ,the average index of the ,apayao also falls in the latter classification2 but the variation from ,igorot is greater than is indicated1 for the ,apayao skull is actually considerably shorter and narrower4 ,in the length and breadth of the nose1 the ,igorot exceeds any of the groups studied1 while the ,malayan 7,mongolian87 fold of the eye is reported in the great majority of cases4 ,the bodily appearance of the ,tinguian and ,bontoc ,igorot differs little1 although the latter are generally of a slightly heavier build4 ,both are lithe and well proportioned1 their full rounded muscles giving them the appearance of trained athletes2 neither is as stocky or heavy set as are the ,igorot of ,amburayan1 ,lepanto1 and ,benguet4 ,there is great variation in color among the members of all these tribes1 the tones varying from a light olive brown to a dark reddish brown2 but in general the ,ilocano and ,valley ,tinguian are of a lighter hue than the mountain people4 ,observations on the ,southern ,chinese and the ,south ,perak ,malay are given below1 not with the intention of connecting them with any one of the tribes of ,luzon1 but in order to test1 by comparison1 the theory of the ,chinese origin of the ,tinguian1 and also to secure1 if possible1 some clue as to the relationships of both peoples4 ,the ,southern ,chinese ,dr4 ,girard1 #cc as a result of his studies on the ,chinese of ,kwang-si1 a province of southern ,china1 expresses the belief that the population is greatly mixed1 but all considered they appear more like ,indo-,chinese than like the ,chinese proper 7that is1 ,northern ,chinese74 ,deniker #cd comes to a similar conclusion from a study of the results obtained by many observers4 ,girard gives the following measurements for #be males of ,kwang-si3 ,range ,average ,height1 standing meters #a4ebh to #a4gdh #a4faf ,length of head 4#ahae ,breadth of head 4#adce ,height of head 4#abgj ,length of nose 4#jdfdh ,breadth of nose 4#jchgf ,cephalic index #gc4 to #he4 #gi4eb ,length-,height index #fi4i ,breadth-,height index #hh4e ,nasal index #fg4 to #ie4 #hb4ih ,deniker 7p4 #egh7 gives the average height of #ae1ehb males1 mostly ,hakka of ,kwang-tung1 as #a4fbb4 ,the cephalic index of #fa living subjects and #hd crania1 principally from ,canton1 he finds to be--,living #ha4b2 crania #gh4b4 ,martin #ce presents the following data3 ,average height of males--#a4fad2 average height of females--#a4dih4 ,cephalic index 7#di males7--#ha4h4 ,length-,height index 7#di males7--#ff4e4 ,nasal index 7#di males7--#gg4g4 #cf ,south ,perak ,malay #cg ,observations by ,annandale and ,robinson 7,fasciculi ,malayenses1 ,pt4 ,i1 pp4 #aje et seq41 ,london1 #aijc74 #cg males ,range ,average ,height1 standing meters #a4dhh to #a4gfc #a4eid ,length of head 4#agc to 4#aih 4#ahb ,breadth of head 4#ada to 4#afb 4#adi ,height of head 7tragus to vertex7 4#aai to 4#adf 4#ace ,breadth of zygomatic arches 4#abj to 4#aej 4#aci ,length of nose 4#jdac to 4#jebe 4#jdgg ,breadth of nose 4#jccg to 4#jdcg 4#jceh ,cephalic index #hb4c ,length-,height index #gc4i ,nasal index #ha4b ,color--,varies from dark olive to red2 less commonly olive or yellowish white4 ,eyes--,black1 sometimes reddish brown4 ,hair--,appears to be straight in most cases1 but being cut short a slight waviness might not be noticed4 ,black4 ,a comparison of these figures with those of our ,luzon groups brings out several interesting points4 ,it shows that the ,tinguian are not related to the ,chinese1 because of their tall stature2 for they are1 as a matter of fact1 shorter than either the ,chinese or ,igorot4 ,it is also evident that they resemble the southern ,chinese no more than do the people of ,bontoc4 ,further it is seen that both the ,tinguian-,ilocano and the ,chinese show greater likeness to the ,perak ,malay than they do to each other4 ,as a matter of fact1 we find no radical differences between any of the peoples discussed2 despite evident minor variations1 the tribes of northwestern ,luzon approach a common type1 and this type appears not to be far removed from the dominant element in southern ,china1 ,indo-,china1 and ,malaysia generally1 a fact which probably can be attributed to a common ancestry in times far past4 #ch ,with this data before us1 we might readily dismiss most of the theories of early writers as interesting speculations based on superficial observation2 but the statement that the ,tinguian are derived from the pirate band of ,limahon has received such wide currency that it deserves further notice4 ,it should be borne in mind that the scene of the ,chinese disaster was in ,pangasinan1 a march of three days to the south of the ,tinguian territory4 ,it is unlikely that a force sufficiently large to impress its type on the local population could have made its way into ,abra1 without having been reported to ,salcedo1 who then had his headquarters at ,vigan4 ,as early as #aeih the ,tinguian were so powerful and aggressive that active steps had to be taken to protect the coast people from their raids4 ,had they been recognized as being essentially ,chinese--a foreign1 hostile population--some mention of that fact must certainly have crept into the ,spanish records of that period4 ,such data are entirely wanting1 while the exceedingly rich traditions of the ,tinguian #ci likewise fail to give any evidence of such an invasion4 ,the presence of large quantities of ancient ,chinese pottery in ,abra must be ascribed to trade1 for it is inconceivable that a fugitive band of warriors would have carried with them the hundreds of jars--many of large size--which are now found in the interior4 ,the reputed similarity of the garments of the men to those of ,fukien fishermen is likewise without value1 for at the time of the ,spanish invasion both ,ilocano and ,tinguian were innocent of trousers4 ,it was not until the order of ,gov4 ,pennarubia1 in #ahfh1 barring all unclad pagans from the ,christianized towns1 that the latter donned such garments4 ,to-day many of the men possess full suits1 but the ordinary dress is still the head-band1 breech-cloth1 and belt4 ,finally1 it seems curious that the ,tinguian should be of a pacific character because of the fact that they are descended from a band of ,chinese pirates4 ,summarizing our material1 we can say of the ,tinguian1 that they are a rather short1 well-built people with moderately high1 brachycephalic heads1 fairly high noses1 and angular faces4 ,their hair is brown black and inclined to be wavy1 while the skin varies from a light olive brown to a dark reddish brown4 ,a study of our tables shows that within this group there are great extremes in stature1 head and nasal form1 color1 and the like1 indicating very heterogeneous elements in its make-up4 ,we also find that physically the ,tinguian conform closely to the ,ilocano1 while they merge without a sharp break into the ,apayao of the eastern mountain slopes4 ,when compared to the ,igorot1 greater differences are manifest2 but even here1 the similarities are so many that we cannot classify the two tribes as members of different races4 ,we have seen that this people approaches the southern ,chinese in many respects1 but this is likewise true of all the other tribes under discussion and1 hence1 we are not justified1 on anatomic grounds1 in considering the ,tinguian as distinct1 because of ,chinese origin4 ,the testimony of historical data and language leads us to the same conclusions4 ,chinese influence1 through trade1 has been active for many centuries along the north and west coast of ,luzon1 but it has not been of a sufficiently intimate nature to introduce such common articles of convenience and necessity as the composite bow1 the potter's wheel1 wheeled vehicles1 and the like4 ,the anatomical data likewise prevent us from setting this tribe apart from the others1 because of ,japanese or ,indonesian origin4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,cycle ,,of ,,life ,birth4--,the natural cause of pregnancy is understood by the ,tinguian1 but coupled with this knowledge is a belief in its close relationship to the spirit world4 ,supernatural conception and unnatural births are frequently mentioned in the traditions1 and are accepted as true by the mass of people2 while the possibility of increasing the fertility of the husband and wife by magical acts1 performed in connection with the marriage ceremony1 is unquestioned4 ,likewise1 the wife may be affected if she eats peculiar articles of food1 #dj and unappeased desires for fruits and the like may result disastrously both for the expectant mother and the child4 #da ,the close relationship which exists between the father and the unborn babe is clearly brought out by various facts2 for instance1 the husband of a pregnant woman is never whipped at a funeral1 as are the other guests1 lest it result in injury to the child4 ,the fact that these mythical happenings and magical practices do not agree with his actual knowledge in no way disturbs the ,tinguian4 ,it is doubtful if he is conscious of a conflict2 and should it be brought to his attention1 he would explain it by reference to the tales of former times1 or to the activities of superior beings4 ,like man in civilized society1 he seldom rationalizes about the well-known facts--religious or otherwise--generally held by his group to be true4 ,it is thought that1 when a mortal woman conceives1 an anito woman likewise becomes pregnant1 and the two give birth at the same time4 ,otherwise1 the lives of the two children do not seem to be closely related1 though1 as we shall see later1 the mothers follow the same procedure for a time after delivery 7cf4 p4 #bfh74 ,according to common belief1 supernatural beings have become possessed at times1 with menstrual blood or the afterbirth which under their care developed into human offspring1 some of whom occupy a prominent place in the tribal mythology4 #db ,in the tales we are told that a frog became pregnant1 and gave birth to a child after having lapped up the spittle of ,aponitolau1 #dc a maid conceived when the head-band of her lover rested on her skirt1 #dd while the customary delivery of children during the mythical period seems to have been from between the fingers of the expectant mother4 #de ,anitos and1 in a few cases1 the shades of the dead have had intercourse with ,tinguian women1 #df but children of such unions are always born prematurely4 ,as a rule1 a miscarriage is thought to be the result of union with the inhabitants of the spirit realm1 though an expectant woman is often warned not to become angry or sorrowful lest her blood become strong and the child be born4 ,abortion is said to be practised occasionally by unmarried women2 but such instances are exceedingly rare1 as offspring is much desired1 and the chance of making a satisfactory match would be in no way injured by the possession of an illegitimate child4 #dg ,except for the district about ,manabo1 it is not customary to make any offerings or to cause any changes in the daily life of the pregnant woman until the time of her delivery is near at hand4 ,in ,manabo a family gathering is held about a month before the anticipated event1 at which time the woman eats a small chicken1 while her relatives look on4 ,after completing this meal1 she places two bundles of grass1 some bark and beads in a small basket and ties it beside the window4 ,the significance of the act is not clear to the people1 but it is an old custom1 and is pleasing to the spirits4 ,shortly before the child is expected1 two or three mediums are summoned to the dwelling4 ,spreading a mat in the center of the room1 they place on it their outfits 7cf4 p4 #cjb7 and gifts #dh for all the spirits who are apt to attend the ceremony4 ,nine small jars covered with alin leaves are distributed about the house and yard2 one sits on a head-axe placed upon an inverted rice-mortar near the dwelling1 another stands near by in a winnower1 and is covered with a bundle of rice2 four go to a corner of the room2 while the balance is placed on either side of the doorway4 ,these jars are later used to hold the cooked rice which is offered to the ,inginlaod1 spirits of the west4 ,at the foot of the house ladder a spear is planted1 and to it is attached a long narrow cloth of many colors4 ,last of all1 a bound pig is laid just outside the door with its head toward the east4 ,when all is ready1 the mediums bid the men to play on the tong-a-tong 7cf4 p4 #cad72 then1 squatting beside the pig1 they stroke its side with oiled fingers1 meanwhile chanting appropriate diams 7cf4 p4 #bif74 ,this done1 they begin to summon spirits into their bodies1 and from them learn what must be done to insure the health and happiness of the child4 ,later1 water is poured into the pig's ear1 that as it shakes out the water1 so may the evil spirits be thrown out of the place4 #di ,then an old man cuts open the body of the animal and1 thrusting in his hand1 draws out the still palpitating heart1 which he gives to the medium4 ,with this she strokes the body of the expectant woman1 so that the birth may be easy1 and as a protection against harm1 and also touches the other members of the family4 #ej ,she next directs her attention to the liver1 for by its condition it is possible to foretell the child's future 7cf4 p4 #cjg74 ,while the medium has been busy with the immediate family1 friends and relatives have been preparing the flesh for food1 which is now served4 ,no part is reserved1 except the boiled entrails which are placed in a wooden dish and set among other gifts intended for the superior beings4 ,following the meal1 the mediums continue summoning spirits until late afternoon when the ceremony known as ,gipas--the dividing--is held4 #ea ,the chief medium1 who is now possessed by a powerful spirit1 covers her shoulder with a sacred blanket1 #eb and in company with the oldest male relative of the expectant woman goes to the middle of the room1 where a bound pig lies with a narrow cloth extending along its body from head to tail4 ,after much debating they decide on the exact center of the animal1 and then with her left hand each seizes a leg4 ,they lift the victim from the floor1 and with the head-axes1 which they hold in their free hands1 they cut it in two4 ,in this way the mortals pay the spirits for their share in the child1 and henceforth they have no claims to it4 ,the spirit and the old man drink basi1 to cement their friendship2 and the ceremony is at an end4 ,the small pots and other objects used as offerings are placed on the sacred blanket in one corner of the room1 where they remain until the child is born1 so that all the spirits may know that ,gipas has been held4 ,a portion of the slaughtered animals and some small present are given to the mediums1 who then depart4 ,in ,san ,juan a cloth is placed on the floor1 and on it are laid betel-nuts1 four beads1 and a lead sinker4 ,these are divided with the head-axe in the same manner as the pig1 but the medium retains for her own use the share given to the spirits4 ,in the better class of dwellings1 constructed of boards1 there is generally a small section in one corner1 where the flooring is of bamboo2 and it is here that the delivery takes place1 but in the ordinary dwellings there is no specified location4 ,the patient is in a kneeling or squatting position with her hands on a rope or bamboo rod1 which is suspended from a rafter about the height of her shoulders4 #ec ,she draws on this1 while one or more old women1 skilled in matters pertaining to childbirth1 knead and press down on the abdomen1 and finally remove the child4 ,the naval cord is cut with a bamboo knife1 #ed and is tied with bark cloth4 ,should the delivery be hard1 a pig will be killed beneath the house1 and its blood and flesh offered to the spirits1 in order to gain their aid4 ,if the child is apparently still-born1 the midwife places a ,chinese dish close to its ear1 and strikes against it several times with a lead sinker4 ,if this fails to gain a response1 the body is wrapped in a cloth1 and is soon buried beneath the house4 ,there is no belief here1 as is common in many other parts of the ,philippines1 that the spirits of unborn or still-born children form the chief recruits for the army of evil spirits4 ,the after-birth is placed in a small jar together with bamboo leaves1 so that the child will grow like that lusty plant1 and is then intrusted to an old man1 usually a relative4 ,he must exercise the greatest care in his mission1 for should he squint1 while the jar is in his possession1 the child will be likewise afflicted4 ,if it is desired that the infant shall become a great hunter1 the jar is hung in the jungle2 if he is to be an expert swimmer and a successful fisherman1 it is placed in the river2 but ill fortune is in store for the baby if the pot is buried1 for he will always be afraid to climb a tree or to ascend a mountain4 ,these close ties between the infant and the after-birth are easily comprehended by a people who also believe in the close relationship between a person and any object recently handled by him 7cf4 p4 #cje74 ,in general it is thought that the after-birth soon disappears and no longer influences the child2 yet certain of the folk-tales reflect a firm conviction that a group of spirits1 known as alan1 sometimes take the placenta1 and transform it into a real child1 who is then more powerful than ordinary mortals4 #ee ,immediately following the birth the father constructs a shallow bamboo framework 7baitken71 #ef which he fills with ashes1 and places in the room close to the mother4 ,on this a fire is kept burning constantly for twenty-nine days #eg ,for this fire he must carefully prepare each stick of wood1 for should it have rough places on it1 the baby would have lumps on its head4 ,a double explanation is offered for this fire2 firstly1 to keep the mother warm2 secondly1 as a protection against evil spirits4 ,the idea of protection is evidently the original and dominant one2 for1 as we shall see1 evil spirits are wont to frequent a house1 where a birth or death has occurred1 and a fire is always kept burning below the house or beside the ladder at such a time4 #eh ,when the child has been washed1 it is placed on an inverted rice-winnower1 and an old man or woman gives it the name it is to bear4 ,the winnower is raised a few inches above the ground1 and the woman asks the child its name1 then drops it4 ,again she raises it1 pronounces the name1 and lets it fall4 ,a third time it is raised and dropped1 with the injunction1 ,when your mother sends you1 you go1 or ,you must not be lazy4 ,if it is a boy1 it may be instructed1 ,when your father sends you to plow1 you go4 ,among the ,tinguian of ,ilocos ,norte it is customary for the person who is giving the name to wave a burning torch beneath the winnower1 meanwhile saying1 if to a boy1 ,here is your light when you go to fight4 ,here is your light when you go to other towns4 ,if the child is a girl1 she says1 ,here is your light when you go to sell things4 ,in the ,san ,juan district1 the fire is made of pine sticks2 for the burning pine gives a bright light1 and thus makes it clear to the spirits that the child is born4 ,the heat and smoke make the child hard and sturdy4 ,just before the naming1 the rice winnower is circled above the fire and the person officiating calls to the spirits1 saying1 ,come and take this child1 or ,i shall take it4 ,then1 as the infant still remains alive1 she proceeds to give it its name4 #ei ,a ,tinguian child is nearly always named after a dead ancestor2 often it receives two names--one for a relative in the father's family1 and one in the mother's4 ,a third name commemorating the day or some event1 or perhaps the name of a spirit1 is frequently added4 #fj ,certain names1 such as ,abacas 7worthless71 ,inaknam 7taken up71 and ,dolso 7rice-chaff7 are common4 ,if the infant is ailing1 or if the family has been unfortunate in raising children1 the newborn is named in the regular way1 then is placed on an old rice winnower1 and is carried to a refuse heap and left4 ,evil spirits witnessing this will think that the child is dead1 and will pay no more heed to it4 ,after a time1 a woman from another house will pick the child up and carry it back to the dwelling1 where it is renamed4 ,in such a case it is probable that the new name will recall the event4 #fa ,if a former child has died1 it is possible that the infant will receive its name1 but if so1 it will be renamed within a few days4 ,in this manner1 respect is shown both for the deceased child and the ancestor for which it was named2 yet the newborn is not forced to bear a title which is apparently displeasing to the spirits4 ,continued sickness may also result in the giving of a new name4 #fb ,in such a case a small plot of rice is planted as an offering to the spirits1 which have caused the illness4 ,according to ,reyes1 the child to be named is carried to a tree1 and the medium says1 ,your name is ----2 at the same time she strikes the tree with a knife4 ,if the tree sweats1 the name is satisfactory2 otherwise1 other names are mentioned until a favorable sign is obtained4 #fc ,the writer found no trace of such procedure in any part of the ,tinguian belt4 ,for a month succeeding the birth1 the mother must follow a very strict set of rules4 ,each day she is bathed with water in which certain herbs and leaves1 distasteful to evil spirits1 are boiled4 #fd ,beginning with the second day and until the tenth she must add one bath each day1 at least one of which is in cold water4 ,from the tenth to the twenty-fourth day she takes one hot and one cold bath1 and from then to the end of the month she continues the one hot bath4 ,until these are completed1 the family must keep a strip of ayabong bark burning beneath the house1 in order to protect the baby from evil spirits4 ,as an additional defence1 a miniature bow and arrow1 and a bamboo shield1 with a leaf attached1 as hung above the infant's head 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #a74 ,on the fifth day the mother makes a ring out of old cloth1 rice stalks1 and a vine1 and puts it on her head2 over her shoulders is an old blanket1 while in one hand she holds a reed staff1 which helps her in her weakness1 and protects her from evil beings4 ,she carries a coconut shell filled with ashes1 a basket and a jar1 and thus equipped she goes to the village spring4 ,arriving there1 she cleans the dishes as a sign that her weakness has passed1 and that she can now care for herself2 then she sets fire to a piece of bark1 and leaves it burning beside the water1 as a further sign of her recovery4 ,when she returns to the dwelling1 the cleansed dishes and the staff are placed above the spot1 where she and the baby sleep4 ,on the #bith day the fire is extinguished1 and the bamboo frame is fastened under the floor of the house1 below the mother's mat1 so that all can see that the family has followed the custom4 ,as the frame is carried out1 the mother calls to the anito mother 7cf4 p4 #bfa7 to throw out her fire4 ,in the mountain districts about ,lakub1 a ceremony in which the spirits are besought to look to the child's welfare is held about the third day after the birth4 ,the mediums summon several spirits2 a chicken or a pig is killed1 and its blood mixed with rice is offered up4 ,at the conclusion a small saloko #fe containing an egg is attached to one end of the roof4 ,in ,ba-ak this is generally a three to six day event attended by all the friends and relatives of the family4 ,here1 in place of the egg1 a jar containing pine-sticks is attached to the roof1 for the pine which burns brightly makes it plain to the spirits what the people are doing4 ,in the light of the extended and rather complex procedure just related1 it is interesting to note that the ,tinguian woman is one of those mythical beings whom careless or uninformed writers have been wont to describe as giving birth to her children without bodily discomfort4 ,reyes #ff tells us that she cuts the umbilical cord1 after which she proceeds to the nearest brook1 and washes the clothing soiled during the birth4 ,lerena likewise credits her with delivering herself without aid1 at whatever spot she may then chance to be2 then1 without further ado or inconvenience1 she continues her duties as before4 ,if she happens to be near to a river1 she bathes the child2 or1 if water is not handy1 she cleans it with grass or leaves1 and then gives it such a name as stone1 rooster1 or carabao4 #fg ,throughout the greater part of the ,tinguian territory1 nothing further of importance takes place for about two years1 providing the child progresses normally1 but should it be ailing1 a medium will be summoned to conduct the ,ibal ceremony4 #fh ,for this a pig or rooster is prepared for sacrifice1 but before it is killed1 the medium squats before it and1 stroking its side with oiled fingers1 she chants the following diam4 ,those who live in the same town go to raid1 to take heads4 ,after they arrive1 those who live in the same town1 ',we go and dance with the heads1' said the people1 who live in the same town1 'because they make a celebration1 those who went to kill4' ',when the sun goes down1 you come to join us1' said the mother and baby 7to her husband who goes to the celebration74 ,after that the sun truly went down2 she went truly to join her husband2 after that they were not 7there71 the mother and the baby 7i4e41 when the father arrived where they had agreed to meet1 the mother and child were not there74 ,he saw their hats lying on the ground4 ,he looked down2 the mother and the baby were in 7the ground71 which ground swallowed them4 ',why 7are7 the mother and the baby in the ground8 ,how can ,i get them8' ,when he raises the mother and the baby1 they go 7back7 into the ground4 ,after that ,kaboniyan above1 looking down 7said71 ',what can you do8 ,the spirits of ,ibal in ,daem are the cause of their trouble4 ,it is better that you go to the home of your parents-in-law1 and you go and prepare the things needed in ,ibal1' said ,kaboniyan4 ,they went truly and prepared2 after that they brought 7the things7 to the gate4 ,after that the mother and child came out of the ground4 ',after this when there is a happening like this1 of which you ,ipogau are in danger1 you do like this 7i4 e41 make the ,ibal ceremony72 and ,i alone1 ,kaboniyan am the one you summon1' said ,kaboniyan4 ,after that they got well because they came up1 the mother and the baby4 ,when the chant is finished1 the animal is slaughtered1 and food is prepared both for guests and spirits4 ,following the instructions of ,kaboniyan1 the latter is placed at the entrance to the village2 after which it is possible that this powerful spirit will visit the gathering in the person of the medium1 and give further instructions for the care of the infant4 ,in the village of ,lakub the writer witnessed a variation of this ceremony which1 it is said1 is also followed in case the pregnancy is not progressing favorably4 ,a piece of banana stalk1 wrought into the form of a child1 and wearing a bark head-band1 was placed on the mat beside the medium4 ,she1 acting for a spirit1 seized the miniature shield and bow and arrow which hung above the baby1 and attempted to shoot the figure4 ,immediately two old women came to the rescue of the image1 and after a sharp tussel compelled the spirit to desist4 ,they then secured the weapons1 and in their turn tried to shoot the figure1 which was now defended in vain by the medium4 ,it was later explained that1 in the first place1 the figure represented the child1 and had the spirit succeeded in shooting it1 the babe would have died2 later1 it impersonated the child of the spirit1 and when that being saw its own offspring in danger1 it immediately departed from the village4 ,several other spirits then entered the body of the medium1 and after receiving food and drink1 gave friendly advice4 ,when the child is about two years old1 a ceremony known as ,olog #fi is held4 ,the mediums who are summoned prepare a spirit mat1 #gj and at once begin to recite diams over the body of a bound pig4 ,as soon as the animal is killed1 its heart is removed1 and is rubbed against the breast of each member of the family4 ,the medium then resumes her place at the mat1 and soon is possessed by a spirit who takes charge of the proceedings4 ,at his suggestion1 the child is rubbed from head to foot with the thread from the medium's outfit1 so that it will not cry any more2 next1 he orders that the intestines of the pig be cleaned1 placed on a wooden dish1 and be carried to the gate of the town4 ,when they arrive at the designated spot1 the mediums make a stove by driving three sticks into the ground1 so as to outline a triangle1 and within these they burn a bundle of rice-straw4 ,beside the stove is placed a branch1 each leaf of which is pierced with a chicken feather4 ,this completed1 the child is brought up to the fire1 and is crowned with the intestines2 while one of the mediums strikes the ground vigorously with a split stick1 #ga to attract the attention of the spirits4 ,next1 she secures a rooster1 and with this in one hand and a spear in the other1 she marches five times around the fire meanwhile reciting a diam4 ,at the conclusion of this performance the fowl is killed2 and its blood1 mixed with rice1 is scattered on the ground4 ,at the same time the medium calls to all the spirits to come and eat1 to be satisfied1 and not cause the child to become ill4 ,the flesh and rice cakes are likewise offered1 but after a few moments have elapsed1 they are eaten by all the people4 ,at the conclusion of the meal1 a wreath of vines is substituted for the intestines1 which are hung beside the fire4 ,this concludes the ceremony2 but1 as the mother and child reach the ladder of their home1 the people above sprinkle them with water1 meanwhile calling out eight times1 ,you are in a heavy storm4 ,the significance of this sprinkling is not known1 but the custom is widespread1 and is evidently very ancient4 ,in the mountain village of ,likuan1 a man who wears a very large hat takes the child to a nearby saloko4 ,as he returns1 he is sprinkled by a medium1 who says1 ,you are wet from the rain2 in what place did you get wet8 ,he replies1 ,yes1 we are wet from the rain2 we were wet in ,inakban 7a town of the spirits72 then placing two small baskets in the saloko1 he carries the child into the dwelling4 ,soon the father appears and goes about inquiring for his wife and child2 suddenly spying the baskets1 he seizes them and takes them into the house1 saying1 ,here are the mother and the child4 ,the following morning1 the women place rice cakes and betel-nuts1 ready to chew1 in leaves1 and tie them to a bamboo stalk with many branches4 ,this is then planted beside the spring1 so that the child will grow and be strong like the bamboo4 ,the sight of all these good things is also pleasing to the spirits1 and they will thus be inclined to grant to the child many favors4 ,when the women return to the house1 they carry with them a coconut shell filled with water1 and with this they wash the infant's face to keep it from crying1 and to keep it well4 ,this done1 they tie a knot of banana leaves to the house ladder as a sign that no person may enter the dwelling until after its removal the next day4 #gb ,a ceremony1 not witnessed by the writer1 is said to take place when evil spirits have persistently annoyed the mother and the child1 when the delivery is long overdue1 or when an anito child #gc has been born to a human mother4 ,the husband and his friends arm themselves with long knives or head-axes1 and enter the dwelling1 where they kill a rooster4 ,the blood is mixed with rice2 and this1 together with nine coconut shells filled with basi1 is placed beneath the house for the anitos to eat4 ,while the spirits are busy with this repast1 the mother1 wrapped in a blanket1 is secretly passed out a window and taken to another house4 ,then the men begin shouting1 and at the same time slash right and left against the house-posts with their weapons4 ,in this way the evil spirits are not only kept from noticing the absence of the mother1 but are also driven to a distance4 ,this procedure is repeated under nine houses1 after which they return to the dwelling with the woman4 ,as soon as they reach the top of the ladder1 an old woman throws down ashes to blind the eyes of the anitos1 so that they cannot see to come up4 #gd ,she likewise breaks a number of small jars1 which look like heads1 as a threat of the treatment which awaits them if they attempt to return to the house4 ,within the dwelling food and presents are offered to the good spirits1 and all who have participated in the anito driving are feasted4 ,next morning1 a wash1 said to be particularly distasteful to the evil anito1 is prepared4 ,it consists of water in which are placed lemon1 bamboo1 and atis leaves1 a cigar stub1 and ashes from burned rice straw4 ,the family wash in this mixture1 and are then fully protected against any evil spirits1 which may still remain after the terrifying events of the previous night4 ,childhood4--,when outside the house1 small babies are always carried by their mothers or older sisters 7,plate ,,xv74 ,the little one either sits astride its mother's hip or fits against the small of the back1 and is held in place by her arm or by a blanket which passes over one shoulder4 ,from this position the infant is readily shifted1 so that it can nurse whenever it is hungry4 ,there are no regular periods for feeding1 neither is there a definite time for weaning4 ,most children continue to nurse until quite large1 or until they are displaced by newcomers4 ,however1 they are given some solid food1 such as rice1 while very young1 and soon they are allowed to suck sugar-cane and sweet potatoes4 ,it is also a common thing to see a mother take the pipe from her mouth1 and place it in that of her nursing infant4 ,they thus acquire the habit of using tobacco at a very early age1 and continue it through life1 but apparently without evil effects4 ,weaning is accomplished by rubbing the breasts with powdered chile peppers1 or plants with sour flavor4 ,a crib or sleeping basket is made out of bamboo or rattan1 and this is attached to the center of a long bamboo pole1 which is suspended across one corner of the room 7,fig4 #a1 ,no4 #b74 ,the pole bends with each movement of the child1 and thus it rocks itself to sleep4 ,another device in which small children are kept is known as galong-galong4 ,this consists of a board seat attached to a strip of split rattan at each corner4 ,sliding up and down on these strips are vertical and horizontal pieces of reed or bamboo1 which form an open box-like frame 7,fig4 #a1 ,no4 #a74 ,the reeds are raised1 the child is put in1 and then they are slipped back in place4 ,this device is suspended from a rafter1 at such a height that it can serve either as a swing or walker1 as desired4 ,when the mother goes to the village spring or to the river1 she carries her baby with her1 and invariably gives it a bath in the cold water4 ,this she applies with her hand or a coconut shell1 and frequently she ends the process by dipping the small body into the water4 ,apparently1 the children do not enjoy the ordeal any more than ,european youngsters2 but this early dislike for the water is soon overcome1 and they go to the streams to paddle and play1 and quickly become excellent swimmers4 ,they learn that certain sluggish fish hide beneath large rocks2 and oftentimes a whole troop of naked youngsters may be seen going up stream1 carefully feeling under the stones1 and occasionally shouting with glee1 as a slippery trophy is drawn out with the bare hands4 ,they also gather shell fish and shrimps1 and their catch often adds variety to the family meal4 ,children are seldom punished or scolded4 ,all the family exhibit real affection for the youngsters1 and find time to devote to them4 ,a man is never too old or too busy to take up and amuse or caress the babies4 ,kissing seems to be unknown1 but a similar sign of affection is given by placing the lips to the face and drawing the breath in suddenly4 ,a mother is often heard singing to her babes1 but the songs are usually improvised1 and generally consist of a single sentence repeated over and over4 ,aside from the daily bath1 the child has little to disturb it during the first five or six years of its life4 ,it has no birthdays1 its hair is never cut1 unless it be that it is trimmed over the eyes to form bangs1 and it wears clothing only on very special occasions4 ,the children are by no means innocent in sexual matters2 but absolute familiarity with nudity has removed all curiosity and false modesty1 and the relations between the sexes are no freer than in civilized communities4 ,when garments are put on1 they are identical with those worn by the elders4 ,at all ages the people will discard their clothing without any sense of shame1 whenever the occasion demands2 as1 for instance1 the fording of a stream1 or when a number of both sexes happen to be bathing at the same time in the village pool4 ,this does not lead to immodesty or lewdness1 and a person who is careless about the acts1 which are not considered proper in ,tinguian society1 is an object of scorn quite as much as he would be in a more advanced community4 ,the first toys generally consist of pigs1 carabao1 or horses made by sticking bamboo legs into a sweet potato or mango4 ,a more elaborate plaything is an imitation snake made of short bamboo strips fastened together with cords at top1 center1 and bottom4 ,when this is held near the middle by the thumb and forefinger1 it winds and curls about as if alive4 ,stilts of bamboo1 similar to those used in ,america1 are sometimes used by the older children1 but the more popular local variety is made by fastening cords through the tops of half coconut shells4 ,the youth holds a cord in each hand1 stands on the shells with the lines passing between the first two toes1 and then walks4 ,flat boards with cords attached become carabao sleds1 and in these immense loads of imaginary rice are hauled to the granaries4 ,a similar device serves as a harrow1 while a stick is converted into a plough or horse1 as is desired4 ,imitation carabao yokes are much prized1 and the children pass many hours serving as draught animals or drivers4 ,the bull-roarer1 made by putting a thin piece of bamboo on a cord and whirling it about the head1 makes a pleasing noise1 and is excellent to use in frightening stray horses4 ,blow-guns1 made out of bamboo or the hollow tubes of plants1 vie in popularity with a pop-gun of similar construction4 ,a wad of leaves is driven through with a plunger1 and gives a sharp report1 as it is expelled4 ,tops are among the prized possessions of the boys4 ,they are spun1 or are wound with cord1 and are thrown overhand at those of other players1 with the intention of splitting or marking them4 ,quite as popular1 with the small girls1 are tiny pestles with which they industriously pound rice chaff1 in imitation of their mothers4 ,while still mere babies1 the boys begin to play with toy knives made of wood1 but by the time they are seven or eight years of age1 they are permitted to carry long bolos1 and before puberty they are expert with the weapons used by the tribe 7,plate ,,xi74 ,in the mountain regions in particular1 it is a common occurrence for groups of youngsters1 armed with reed spears and palm-bark shields1 to carry on mock battles4 ,they also learn to make traps and nets1 and oftentimes they return to the village with a good catch of small birds4 ,full grown dogs are seldom friendly or considered as pets2 but puppies1 small chickens1 parrakeets1 pigs1 and baby carabao make excellent playfellows1 and suffer accordingly4 ,from the day of its birth1 the young carabao is taken possession of by the children1 who will fondle and tease it1 ride on its back1 or slide off over its head or tail4 ,soon they gain confidence1 and find similar amusements with the full grown animals4 ,these huge beasts are often surly or vicious1 especially around white men1 but they recognize their masters in the little brown folk1 and submit meekly to their antics4 ,in fact1 the greater part of the care of these animals is entrusted to young boys4 ,when not engaged in some of the amusements already mentioned1 it is probable that the youngster is one of the group of naked little savages1 which races through the village on the way to the swimming hole1 or climbs tall trees from the top of which sleeping pigs can be easily bombarded4 ,should the children be so fortunate as to possess a tin can1 secured from some visiting traveller1 they quickly convert it into a drum or gansa1 and forthwith start a celebration4 ,all can dance and sing1 play on nose flutes1 bamboo guitars1 or ,jew's harps4 ,in addition to songs of their own composition1 there are other songs1 which are heard whenever the children are at play4 ,they make a swing by tying ropes to a carabao yoke1 and attach it to a limb2 then1 as they swing1 they sing3 ,pull swing4 ,my swing is a snake4 ,do not writhe like a snake4 ,my swing is a big snake4 ,do not turn and twist4 ,my swing is a lizard4 ,do not tremble or shake4 ,when a group gathers under a house to pop corn in the burning rice chaff1 they chant3 ,pop1 pop1 become like the privates of a woman4 ,make a noise1 make a noise1 like the clay jar4 ,pop1 pop1 like the coconut shell dish4 ,sagai1 sagai1 #ge make a noise like the big jar4 ,when the smoke blows toward a part of the children1 the others sing over and over3 ,deep water here2 high land there4 ,a favorite game is played by a number of children4 ,part stand on the edge of a bank1 part below4 ,those above sing1 ,jump down1 where the big stone is1 the big stone which swallows people4 ,big stone1 which swallows people1 where are you8 ,to this the children below reply1 ,i am here4 ,i am the big rock which swallows men4 ,come down here4 ,as those on the bank jump down1 they are piled upon1 and a free-for-all tussel ensues4 ,in the midst of this1 one of the players suddenly sings out1 ,i am a deer in--1 ,i am very fat4 ,with this he starts off on a run1 and the rest of the party1 now suddenly transformed into dogs1 take up the chase1 yelping and barking4 ,when the deer becomes tired1 he makes for the water1 where he is considered safe2 but if he is caught1 he is rolled and bitten by the dogs4 ,another game played by both boys and girls is known as maysansani1 and is much like hide-and-go-seek4 ,one boy holds out an open hand1 and the others lay their fingers in his palm1 while the leader counts1 maysansani1 duan-nani1 mataltali1 #gf ocop4 ,as ocop 7four or ready7 is pronounced1 the boy quickly closes his hand in order to catch a finger4 ,if he succeeds1 the prisoner puts his hands over his eyes1 and the leader holds him1 while the others run and hide4 ,when all are ready1 he is released1 and then must find all the players2 or he is beaten on the forearm with the first and second fingers of all the participants1 or they may pick him up by his head and feet1 and whirl him about4 ,like ,european children1 they have a set of small sayings or acts for use on appropriate occasions4 ,a youngster may come up to another who is eating a luscious mango2 when requested for a bite1 he is apt to draw down the lower lid of his eye and coolly answer1 ,i will make a sound like swallowing for you1 and then go on with the feast4 ,he may even hold out the tempting fruit1 as if to comply with the request1 then suddenly jerk it back and shout kilat4 #gg ,this is often the signal for a scuffle4 ,as the children grow older1 they begin more and more to take their place in the village life4 ,the little girl becomes the chief guardian of a new arrival in the family2 and with the little one strapped on her back1 she romps and plays1 while the baby enjoys it all or sleeps serenely 7,plate ,,xii74 ,the boy also assists his father and mother in the fields1 but still he finds some time for games of a more definite character than those just described4 ,probably the most popular of these is known as agbita or lipi4 ,this is played with the large disk-shaped seeds of the lipi plant 7,ilocano lipai74 ,each player puts two disks in line1 then all go to a distance and shoot toward them4 ,the shooter is held between the thumb and first finger of the left hand1 and is propelled forward by the index finger of the right4 ,the one whose seed goes the farthest gets first shot1 and the others follow in order4 ,all seeds knocked down belong to the player1 and if any are still in line after each has had his turn1 the leader shoots again4 ,when each boy has had two shots1 or when all the disks are down1 a new line is made2 and he whose seed lies at the greatest distance shoots first4 ,another common game is patpatinglad1 which has certain resemblances to cricket4 ,a small cylinder-shaped missel1 called papa-anak 7little duck71 about four inches long1 is set in a shallow groove1 so that one end stands free2 it is then struck and batted with a bamboo stock--papa-ina 7mother duck74 ,the lad who has driven his missel the farthest is the winner1 and hence has the privilege of batting away the papa-anak of the other players1 so that they will have to chase them4 ,if he likes1 he may take hold of the feet of a looser and compel him to walk on his hands to secure this missel4 ,a loser is sometimes taken by the head and feet1 and is swung in a circle1 ,a game frequently seen in the lowland valleys is also common to the ,ilocano children1 who call it ,san ,pedro4 ,lines are drawn on the ground to enclose a space about thirty feet square 7see diagram ,fig4 #b74 ,the boys at d try to run between the lines1 and at the same time evade the guards a1 b1 and c4 ,guard a can run along line #a1 or #d as far as #b4 ,guard b must stay on line #b2 and c must keep on #c4 ,when the runners are captured1 they become the guards4 ,from the preceding paragraphs it may be surmized that the youth is quite untrained and untaught4 ,it is true that he spends no time in a class-room2 he passes through no initiation at the time of puberty1 neither are there ceremonies or observances of any kind which reveal to him the secret knowledge of the tribe1 yet he quickly learns his place in society1 and at an early age begins to absorb its customs and beliefs4 ,he sits about the village fires in the evenings1 and listens to the tales of long ago1 or hears the elders discuss the problems of their daily life4 ,during the hot midday hours1 he lounges in the field-houses1 while his parents relate the fate of lazy children2 or tell of punishments sent by the spirits on those who fail to follow the customs of the ancestors1 or give heed to the omens4 ,he attends the ceremonies1 where he not only learns the details of these important events1 but with his own eyes sees the bodies of the mediums possessed by superior beings1 and thus the close relationship of the spirit world to his people is forcibly brought to his notice4 ,he is never debarred from the dances or other activities2 in fact1 he is encouraged to take part in them or to imitate his elders4 ,soon custom gathers him into its net1 and unless he is the exceptional individual1 or comes in intimate contact with outsiders1 he never escapes4 ,it has already been seen that he begins very early to take an active part in the village life1 but it is many years before he assumes a position of importance in the group4 ,it is only when age and experience have gained for him the respect of his fellows that he begins to have a voice in the more weighty affairs of ,tinguian life4 ,engagement and ,marriage4--,since there are no clans or other groupings to limit the number of families in which unions may be contracted1 the only impediments are former marriage ties or blood relationship4 ,cousins may not marry1 neither is a man allowed to wed his step-sister1 his wife's sister1 or her mother4 ,engagement takes place while the children are very young1 sometimes while they are still babes-in-arms2 but usually the contract is made when they are six or eight years of age4 ,the boy's parents take the initiative1 and having selected a suitable girl1 they broach the subject to her family4 ,this is not done directly1 but through an intermediary1 generally a relative1 who can talk much and well4 ,he carries with him three beads--one red1 one yellow1 and one agate1 #gh which he offers as an evidence of affection1 and then proceeds to relate the many desirable qualities of the groom and his family1 as well as the advantages to be gained by the union4 ,if the suit is favored1 the beads are attached to the girl's wrist as a sign of her engagement1 and a day is set for the pakalon #gi or price fixing4 ,on the appointed day1 friends and relatives gather at the girl's home and1 after several hours of feasting and drinking1 settle down to the real business on hand4 ,a large pig is slaughtered1 and its liver is carefully examined2 for1 should the omens be unfavorable1 it would be useless to continue the negotiations further at that time 7cf4 p4 #cjg74 ,if the signs are good1 the happy crowd forms a circle1 and then begins a long and noisy discussion of the price which the girl should bring4 ,theoretically1 the payment is made in horses1 carabao1 jars1 blankets1 and rice1 but as each article is considered as having a value of five pesos 7#b4ej71 the money is frequently substituted1 especially by people in poor circumstances4 ,a portion of the agreed price is paid at once1 and is distributed between the girl's parents and her relatives1 who thus become vitally interested in the successful termination of the match2 for should it fail of consummation1 they must return the gifts received4 ,the balance of the payment is often delayed for a considerable time1 and it not infrequently happens that there is still a balance due when the man dies4 ,in such a case no division of his property can be made until the marriage agreement is settled in full4 ,the completion of the list is the signal for great rejoicing2 liquor circulates freely1 the men sing daleng 7cf4 p4 #ddj71 and tadek 7cf4 p4 #ddj7 is danced far into the night4 ,in the yard where the dancing takes place1 three inverted rice-mortars are placed one above the other1 to serve as a table for the spirits who always attend4 ,a dish of liquor is placed on it1 while at its side is a spear decorated with a man's belt4 ,these engagement-parties are the great social affairs of the year1 and friends will journey long distances to be present1 but the betrothed couple is seldom in evidence1 and in many instances the groom is absent4 ,following their engagement the children live with their parents until such a time as they are considered old enough to maintain their own home4 ,if the lad comes from a well-to-do family1 it is probable that the final ceremony will take place before either of the couple reaches puberty2 but1 if the groom must earn a living1 the marriage may be delayed until he is eighteen or nineteen years old 7,plate ,,xiii74 ,when the time for the fulfillment of the agreement arrives1 the boy goes1 in company1 at night to the girl's house4 ,he has a headaxe hanging from his belt1 but he is the only one so armed4 ,an earlier writer #hj has described a feigned attack on the house of the bride as a part of the marriage ceremony1 but the present writer did not witness anything of the sort1 nor could he learn of any such action4 ,the groom carries with him a small part of the marriage payment and a valuable jar2 these he presents to his parents-in-law1 and from that time on he may never call them or their near relatives by name4 ,should he do so1 he will have boils and the first child will be insane4 ,the bride's people have provided a coconut shell filled with water and a wooden dish #ha containing cooked rice4 ,these are placed between the couple1 as they sit in the center of the room 7,plate ,,xiv74 ,the boy's mother drops two beads into the shell cup1 and bids them drink2 for1 as the two beads always go together at the bottom1 so you will go together and will not part4 ,the cool water will keep you from becoming angry4 ,great care must be exercised in handling the cup2 for should the contents be shaken the couple will become dizzy1 and in old age their heads and hands will shake4 ,after they have drunk1 each takes a handful of rice1 and squeezes it into a ball4 ,the girl drops hers through the slits in the bamboo floor as an offering to the spirits1 but the boy tosses his into the air4 ,if it breaks or rolls1 it is a bad sign1 and the couple is apt to part1 or their children die4 ,in such a circumstance1 the marriage is usually deferred1 and tried again at a later date2 but repeated scattering of the rice generally results in the annulling of the agreement4 #hb ,should anything in the dwelling fall or be broken during the ceremony1 it is halted at once2 to proceed further that night would be to court misfortune4 ,however1 it may be undertaken again a few days later4 ,the guests depart immediately after the rice ceremony4 ,no food or drink is offered to them1 nor is there any kind of celebration4 #hc ,that night the couple sleep with a pillow between them1 #hd and under the groom's pillow is a head-axe4 ,early in the morning1 the girl's mother or some other elderly female of her family awakens them1 and leads the way to the village spring4 ,arriving there1 she pours water in a coconut shell1 which contains a cigar from which the couple have drawn smoke2 #he she adds leaves of bamboo and agiwas1 and washes their faces with the liquid1 to show that they now have all in common2 that the tobacco may keep them and their children from becoming insane2 that the agiwas will keep them in health2 and the bamboo will make them strong and insure many children1 the same as it has many sprouts4 ,on their way home1 the boy cuts a dangla shrub 7,vitex negundo ,l47 with his head-axe1 and later attaches it to the door of their home1 so that they may have many children4 ,throughout that day the doors and windows are kept tightly closed2 for should the young people see birds or chickens having intercourse1 they are apt to become insane1 and their first born have sore or crossed eyes4 ,the next morning is known as sipsipot 7the watching74 ,accompanied by the girl's parents1 the couple goes to the father's fields4 ,on the way they carefully observe any signs which animals1 birds1 or nature1 may give them4 ,when they reach the fields1 the boy shows his respect for his elders by cutting the grass along the borders with his head-axe4 ,this service also counteracts any bad sign which they may have received that morning4 ,he next takes a little of the soil on his axe1 and both he and his bride taste of it1 so that the ground will yield good harvests for them1 and they will become rich4 #hf ,nowadays the couple goes to the home1 prepared by the groom and his parents1 as soon as it is ready1 but the tales indicate #hg that in former times they lived for a time with the boy's parents4 ,they are accompanied by the groom's mother1 and go very early in the morning1 as they are then less apt to receive bad signs from the birds4 ,the girl carries her sleeping mat and two pillows2 but before she has deposited these in her new dwelling1 she seats herself on the bamboo floor with her legs stretched out in front4 ,it then becomes necessary for the groom to present her with a string of agate beads equal in length to the combined width of the bamboo slats which she covers4 ,before she can eat of her husband's rice1 he must give her a string of beads1 or she will become ill2 she may not open his granary until a like present has been given1 or the resident spirit will make her blind2 neither may she take food from the pots or water from the jars1 until other beads have been presented to her4 ,if the girl comes from another village1 it is customary to make a payment to her parents for each stream crossed on the journey to the new home2 another is demanded before she goes up the house ladder1 and still others when she enters the house1 and her belongings are brought in4 #hh ,a common occurrence in ,ba-ak and the ,san ,juan district is for the parents of the girl to spread rows of baskets1 ,chinese plates or jars on the floor and to offer them to the groom4 ,before he can accept them1 he must make a return gift of money1 beads1 and the like for each one4 ,it is explained by the elders that1 when the young people see all the gifts spread out on the floor1 they will appreciate the expense involved1 and will be less likely to separate4 ,if at any time the relatives of the girl have reason to doubt the husband's affection1 they go to his home1 and hold a gathering known as nagkakalo-nan4 ,they place a pig1 a jar1 and a number of baskets on the floor2 and the husband is obliged to exchange money and other gifts for them1 if he desires to convince the people of his continued love4 ,after the pig has been served as food1 the old men deliberate2 and should they decide that the relatives have erred1 they assess the whole cost of the gathering to the plaintiffs1 and return the gifts4 ,if the charge is sustained1 the relatives recover the price of the pig1 and retain the articles received in exchange for the baskets and dishes4 ,divorce is not uncommon1 and is effected by a council similar to that just described4 ,an attempt to reconcile the couple is made1 but if that fails1 the old men decide who is at fault1 and assess the expenses of the gathering to that one4 ,if blame attaches to the husband1 he must complete any part of the marriage price still due2 but if the woman is guilty1 her parents and relatives must return the gifts distributed at the time of the engagement4 ,the chief causes for divorce are cruelty or laziness on the part of the man1 or unfaithfulness of the woman4 ,small children are generally left with the mother1 but when they are old enough to decide1 they may choose between their parents4 ,however1 the father must aid in the support of his offspring1 and they share in his property when he dies4 ,either party to a divorce may remarry at any time4 ,the ,tinguian recognize only one wife1 but a man may have as many concubines 7pota71 as he can secure4 ,the pota lives in a house of her own1 but she is held somewhat in contempt by the other woman1 and is seldom seen in the social gatherings or in other homes4 ,her children belong to the father1 and she has no right of appeal to the old men1 except in cases of cruelty4 ,men with concubines do not suffer in the estimation of their fellows1 but are considered clever to have won two or three women4 ,the pota is generally faithful to one man1 and prostitution is almost unknown4 ,unfaithfulness on the part of a betrothed girl1 or wife1 or even a pota is almost certain to cause serious trouble1 and is likely to end in a murder4 ,the early pledging and marriage of the children has reduced illicit sexual intercourse to a minimum2 nevertheless1 it sometimes happens that an unbetrothed girl1 not a pota1 is found to be pregnant4 ,in such a case the man is expected to make a gift of about one hundred pesos to the girl's people1 and he must support the child when finally it comes into his keeping4 ,neither party to such an occurrence loses standing in the community unless the father should fail to redeem the child4 ,should this happen1 he would be a subject of ridicule in the community1 and a fine might also result4 ,the usual outcome of such an illicit union is that the girl becomes the pota of her child's father4 ,death and ,burial4--,sickness and death are usually caused by unfriendly spirits2 #hi sometimes ,kadaklan himself thus punishes those who refuse to obey the customs2 sometimes they are brought about by mortals who practise magic1 or by individuals themselves as punishment for violated taboos2 and finally violent death is recognized as coming from human agency4 ,the methods of cajoling the spirits1 of overcoming magic1 and thwarting evil designs are discussed in another chapter 7cf4 pp4 #bie et seq474 ,if all these fail1 and the patient dies1 the family and relatives at once don old garments1 and enter on a period of mourning1 while friends and relatives assist in the disposal of the corpse4 ,a funeral is a great event in a ,tinguian village4 ,the dead is bathed1 so that his spirit #ij may be clean1 and is placed in a bamboo seat at the end of the house4 ,this seat1 which is known as sangadel1 is constructed by placing three long bamboo poles against the wall and resting a frame of bamboo slats on them1 to a height of about three feet4 ,a mat is attached to the top1 and is stretched onto the floor in front4 ,the corpse is dressed in its best garments1 beads and silver wire surround its neck1 while above and about it are many valuable blankets1 belts1 clouts1 woven skirts1 and the like1 which the spirit is to take with him to the ancestors in ,maglawa1 his future home4 ,a live chicken is placed behind the chair as an offering1 but following the funeral it becomes the property of the friend1 who removes the poles from the house4 ,the flesh of a small pig is also offered to the spirits1 while the intestines are hung just outside the door1 until the body is buried4 ,in the yard at the north-east corner of the house stands an inverted rice-mortar on which is a dish of basi1--an offering to the spirit ,al-lot1 who in return prevents the people from becoming angry4 ,the needs of the spirit of the deceased are looked after by the members of the family4 ,it is their duty to place two small jars of liquor near to the corpse and to bring food to it1 when the others are eating4 ,up to this point only those spirits who attend the ceremony with friendly intent have been provided for1 but the ,tinguian realize that there are others who must be kept at a distance or at least be compelled to leave the body unharmed4 ,the first of these evil beings to be guarded against is ,kadongayan1 #ia who in former times used to attend each funeral and amuse himself by sliting the mouth of the corpse1 so that it extended from ear to ear4 ,through the friendly instruction of ,kaboniyan it was learned that1 if a live chicken1 with its mouth split down to its throat1 were fastened to the door of the house1 its suffering would be noticed by the evil spirit1 who1 fearing similar treatment1 would not attempt to enter the dwelling4 #ib ,the spirit ,ibwa is also much feared4 #ic ,long ago he used to mingle with the people in human form1 without harming them1 but the thoughtless act of a mourner started him on the evil course he has since pursued4 ,in those times1 it is said1 the corpse was kept in the dwelling seven days2 and1 as the body decomposed1 the liquid which came from it was caught in dishes1 and was placed in the grave4 ,on the occasion referred to1 he was handed a cup of the lard to drink4 ,he immediately acquired a great liking for this disgusting dish1 and frequently even devoured the body as well4 ,since he fears iron1 it is possible to drive him away by using metal weapons4 ,it is also necessary to guard the grave against him and the spirit ,selday1 who demands blood or the corpse4 ,akop is another evil spirit1 who has a head1 long slimy arms and legs1 but no body4 ,he is always near the place of death1 awaiting an opportunity to embrace the spouse of the deceased1 and once let the living feel his cold embrace1 death is sure to follow4 ,so a barricade of pillows is erected at one corner of the room1 and behind this the wife is compelled to remain during the three days the body is kept in the house1 while throughout the night she sleeps under a fish net1 in the meshes of which the long fingers of the spirit are sure to become entangled4 ,meanwhile1 two or three old women sit near the corpse fanning it and wailing continually1 at the same time keeping close watch to prevent the spirits from approaching the body or the widow 7,plate ,,xvi74 ,from time to time the wife may creep over to the corpse1 and wailing and caressing it beg the spirit not to depart4 #id ,according to custom1 she has already taken off her beads1 has put on old garments and a bark head-band1 and has placed over her head a large white blanket1 which she wears until after the burial4 #ie ,likewise all the relatives don old garments1 and are barred from all work4 ,the immediate family is under still stricter rules4 ,corn is their only food2 they may not touch anything bloody1 neither can they swing their arms as they walk4 ,they are prohibited from mounting a horse1 and under no circumstances are they allowed to leave the village or join in merry-making4 ,failure to obey these rules is followed by swift punishment1 generally meted out by the spirit of the dead4 #if ,except for the wife1 these restrictions are raised after the blood and oil ceremony 7described in a later paragraph71 but the widow continues in mourning until the ,layog is celebrated1 at the end of a year4 ,according to many informants among the older men1 it was formerly necessary1 following the death of an adult1 for the men to put on white head-bands and go out on a head-hunt4 ,until their return it was impossible to hold the ceremony which released the relatives from the taboo4 #ig ,during the first two days that the body is in the house1 the friends and relatives gather to do honor to the dead and to partake of the food and drink1 which are always freely given at such a time2 but there is neither music1 singing1 or dancing4 #ih ,on the morning of the third day1 the male guests assemble in the yard1 and after drinking basi they select one of their number and proceed to beat him across the wrist or thigh1 with a light rod 7,plate ,,xvii74 ,two hundred blows are required1 but since the stick is split at one end only1 one hundred strokes are given4 ,this whipping is not severe1 but the repeated blows are sufficient to cause the flesh to swell4 ,as soon as the first man is beaten1 he takes the rod and then proceeds to apply one hundred and fifty strokes #ii to each man present1 excepting only those whose wives are pregnant4 ,should one of the latter be punished1 his wife would suffer a miscarriage4 ,the avowed purpose of this whipping is to make all the people feel as sorry as the relatives of the dead man4 ,burial in most of the valley towns is beneath the house1 as it is much easier to defend the body against evil spirits1 and the grave is also protected against the rain4 ,in ,manabo and many mountain villages1 however1 burial is in the yard4 ,it is customary to open a grave already occupied by several of the relatives of the deceased4 ,toward noon of the last day1 some of the men begin clearing away the bamboo1 which protects the old burial1 and to remove the dirt4 ,the grave is generally of one of the forms indicated in ,fig4 #c1 and when a depth of about three feet has been reached1 the workers encounter stone slabs which protect a lower chamber4 #ajj ,when these are reached1 the diggers make an opening and thrusting in burning pine-sticks1 they call to the dead within1 ,you must light your pipes with these4 ,as soon as the slabs are raised1 the oldest female relative of the deceased goes into the grave1 gathers up the bones of the last person interred1 ties them into a bundle1 and reburies them in one corner4 ,there is at present no such type of burial chamber1 as is described by ,la ,gironiere1 #aja nor is there a memory or tradition of such an arrangement4 ,as his visit took place less than a century ago1 it is unlikely that all trace of it would have been lost4 ,the heavy rainfall in this district would make the construction and maintenance of such a chamber almost impossible1 while the dread of leaving the corpses thus exposed to hostile spirits and the raids of enemies in search of heads would also argue against such a practice4 ,his description of the mummifying or drying of the corpse by means of fires built around it #ajb is likewise denied by the old men of ,manabo1 who insist that they never had such a custom4 ,it certainly does not exist to-day4 ,in a culture1 in which the influence of custom is as strong as it is here1 it would seem that the care of the corpse1 which is intimately related to the condition of the spirit in its final abode1 would be one of the last things to change1 while the proceedings following a death are to-day so uniform throughout the ,tinguian belt1 that they argue for a considerable antiquity4 ,when the grave is ready1 the fact is announced in the dwelling1 and is the signal for renewed lamentation4 ,the wife and near relatives throw themselves on the corpse1 caressing it and crying wildly4 ,whatever there may have been of duty or respect in the wailing of the first two days1 this parting burst of sorrow is genuine4 ,tears stand in the eyes of many1 while others cease their wailing and sob convulsively4 ,after a time an old woman brings in some oldot seeds1 each strung on a thread1 and fastens one on the wrist of each person1 as a protection against the evil spirit ,akop1 who1 having been defeated in his designs against the widow1 may seek to vent his anger on others4 ,when this has been done1 a medium seats herself in front of the body2 and1 covering her face with her hands1 begins to chant and wail1 bidding the spirit to enter her body4 ,suddenly she falls back in a faint1 while suppressed excitement is manifested by all the onlookers4 ,after a moment or two1 fire and water are placed at her head and feet1 in order to frighten the spirit away1 and then the medium gives the last message of the dead man to his family4 ,this is1 except for very rare exceptions1 the only time that the spirits of the deceased communicate with mortals2 and it is1 so far as the writer has been able to learn1 the only occasion when the medium repeats messages given to her4 ,at other times she is possessed by natural spirits1 #ajc who then talk directly with mortals4 ,as a last preparation for the grave1 a small hole is burned in each garment worn by the dead person1 for otherwise the spirit ,ibwa will envy him his clothing and attempt to steal them4 ,the corpse is then wrapped in a mat1 and is carried from the house4 #ajd ,the bearers go directly to the balaua1 #aje and rest the body in it for a moment4 ,unless this is done1 the spirit will be poor in its future life and unable to build balaua4 ,the body is deposited full length in the grave1 the stone slabs are relaid1 the chinks between them filled in with damp clay1 and the grave is refilled4 #ajf ,as the last earth is pushed in1 a small pig is killed1 and its blood is sprinkled on the loose soil4 ,meanwhile ,selday is besought to respect the grave and leave it untouched4 ,the animal is cut up1 and a small piece is given to each guest1 who will stop on the way to his home1 and place the meat on the ground as an offering1 meanwhile repeating a diam4 ,should he fail to do this1 sickness or death is certain to visit his home or village4 ,as a further protection against evily disposed spirits1 especially ,ibwa1 an iron plough-point is placed over the grave1 for most evil spirits fear iron2 and during this night and the nine succeeding1 a fire is kept burning at the grave and at the foot of the house-ladder4 #ajg ,that night the men spend about an hour in the house of mourning1 singing sang-sangit1 a song in which they praise the dead man1 encourage the widow1 and bespeak the welfare of the family4 ,the wailers still remain in the dwelling to protect the widow1 and a male relative is detailed to see that the fire at the foot of the ladder is kept burning brightly4 ,early the next morning1 the widow1 closely guarded by the wailers1 goes to the river1 throws her headband into the water1 and then goes in herself4 ,as she sinks in the water1 an old man throws a bundle of burning rice-straw on her4 ,the water will wash away some of the sorrow1 and the fire will make her thoughts clear4 ,upon her return to the village1 the grave is enclosed with a bamboo fence1 and above it is hung a shallow box-like frame1 known as patay1 in which are placed the articles needed by the spirit4 #ajh ,within the house the mat and pillow of the dead are laid ready for use1 and at meal time food is placed beside it4 ,the length of time that the mat is left spread out differs somewhat between towns and families4 ,in some cases it is taken up at the end of the period of taboo1 while in others it is not rolled up2 nor are the windows of the house opened until after the celebration of the ,layog ceremony1 a year later4 ,the taboo is usually strictly observed through ten days2 but should there be some urgent reason1 such as planting or reaping1 it may be raised somewhat earlier4 ,it is concluded by the blood and oil ceremony4 ,the lakay1 the other old men of the settlement1 and all the relatives1 gather in the house of mourning1 while the mediums prepare for the ceremony4 ,they kill a small pig and collect its blood in a dish2 in another receptacle they place oil4 ,a brush has been made out of a variety of leaves1 and this the medium dips into the blood and oil1 then draws it over the wrists or ankles of each person present1 meanwhile saying1 ,let the lew-lew 7,fiscus hauili ,blanco7 leaves take the sickness and death to another town2 let the kawayan 7bamboo7 make them grow fast and be strong as it is1 and have many branches2 let the atilwag 7,breynia acuminata ,nuell4 ,arg47 turn the sickness to other towns4 ,a little oil is rubbed on the head of each person present2 and all1 except the widow1 are then freed from restrictions4 ,she must still refrain from wearing her beads1 ornaments1 or good clothing2 and she is barred from taking part in any merry-making until after the ,layog ceremony4 #aji ,at the conclusion of the anointing1 the old men discuss the disposal of the property and other matters of importance in connection with the death4 ,the ,layog4 #aaj--,several months after the burial 7generally after the lapse of a year71 the friends and relatives are summoned in the ,layog1--a ceremony held with the avowed intention to show respect for the dead and to cause the family to forget their sorrow4 ,friends come from near and far2 and rice1 pigs1 cows or carabaos are prepared for food1 while basi flows freely4 ,it is said that the liquor served at this time is like tears for the dead4 ,a medium goes to the guardian stones of the village1 and there offers rice mixed with blood2 she oils the stones1 places new yellow headbands on each one1 and after dancing tadek1 returns to the gathering4 ,often she is accompanied by a number of men1 who shout on their return trip to frighten away evil spirits4 ,near the house a chair is made ready for the deceased1 and in it are placed clothing and food4 ,in the yard four crossed spears form the frame-work on which a shield rests 7,plate ,,xviii7 #aaa and on this are beads1 food1 and garments--offerings for the spirits2 while near the house ladder is the spirits' table made of inverted rice mortars4 ,the duration of this ceremony depends largely on the wealth of the family1 for the relatives must furnish everything needed at this time4 ,games are played1 and there is much drinking and singing2 but before the members of the family may take part1 they are dressed in good garments1 and the blood and oil ceremony is repeated on them4 ,at the conclusion of the dancing1 they go into the house1 roll up the mat used by the dead1 open the doors and windows1 and all are again free to do as they wish4 ,should they fail to roll up the mat at this time1 it must remain until another ,layog is held2 and during the interval all the former restrictions are in force4 #aab ,about twenty years ago1 a great number of people in ,patok died of cholera2 and since then the people of that village have held a ,layog in their honor each ,november1 to the expense of which all contribute4 ,as this is just before the rice-harvest1 a time when all the people wear their best garments1 it is customary for the old men to allow bereaved families to participate in this ceremony and then release them from mourning4 ,beliefs ,concerning the ,spirit of the ,dead4--,direct questioning brings out some differences of opinion1 in the various districts1 concerning the spirit of the dead4 ,in ,manabo1 a town influenced both by the ,igorot of the ,upit ,river valley and the ,christianized ,ilocano of ,san ,jose1 the spirit is said to go at once to the great spirit ,kadaklan1 and then to continue on to the town where it lives4 ,it is like a person1 but is so light that it can be carried along by the wind when it blows4 #aac ,the people of ,ba-ay1 a mountain village partially made up of immigrants from the eastern side of the ,cordillera ,central1 claim that the spirits of the dead go to a mountain called ,singet1 where they have a great town4 ,here1 it is also stated1 the good are rewarded with fine houses1 while the bad have to be content with hovels4 ,the general belief1 however1 is that the spirit 7kalading7 has a body like that of the living person1 but is usually invisible1 although spirits have appeared1 and have even sought to injure living beings4 ,immediately following death1 the spirit stays near to its old home1 ready to take vengeance on any relative1 who fails to show his body proper respect4 ,after the blood and oil ceremony1 he goes to his future home1 ,maglawa1 carrying with him gifts for the ancestors1 which the people have placed about his corpse4 ,in ,maglawa he finds conditions much the same as on earth2 people are rich and poor2 they need houses2 they plant and reap2 and they conduct ceremonies for the superior beings1 just as they had done during their life on earth4 ,beyond this1 the people do not pretend to be posted1 for ,kaboniyan did not tell4 ,with the exception of the people of ,ba-ay and a few individuals influenced by ,christianity1 the ,tinguian has no idea of reward or punishment in the future life1 but he does believe that the position of the spirit in its new home can be affected by the acts of the living 7cf4 p4 #bhi74 ,no trace of a belief in re-incarnation was found in any district inhabited by this tribe4 ,life and ,death4--,the foregoing details concerning birth1 childhood1 sickness1 and death1 seem to give us an insight into the ,tinguian conception of life and death4 ,for him life and death do not appear to be but incidents in an endless cycle of birth1 death1 and re-incarnation ad infinitum1 such as pictured by ,levy-,bruhl2 #aad yet1 in many instances1 his acts and beliefs fit in closely with the theory outlined by that author4 ,in this society1 there is only a weak line of demarcation between the living and the dead1 and the dead for a time at least participate more or less in the life of the living4 ,this is equally true of the unborn child1 whose future condition1 physical and mental1 may be largely moulded by the acts of others4 ,according to ,levy-,bruhl1 this would indicate that the child at delivery is not fully born1 is not as yet a member of the group2 and the succeeding ceremonies are necessary to its full participation in life4 ,death is likewise of long duration4 ,following the last breath1 the spirit remains near by until the magic power of the funeral severs1 to an extent1 his participation with society4 ,the purpose of the final ceremony is to complete the rupture between the living and the dead4 ,to the writer1 the facts of ,tinguian life and beliefs suggest a somewhat different explanation4 ,we have seen how strong individuals may be affected by magical practices4 ,the close connection between an individual1 his garments1 or even his name1 must be considered to apply with quite as much force to the helpless infant and the afterbirth4 ,so strong is this bond1 that even unintentional acts may injure the babe4 ,evil spirits are always near2 and1 unless great precautions are taken1 they will injure adults if they can get them at a disadvantage1 particularly when they are asleep4 ,the child is not able to protect itself from these beings2 therefore the adults perform such acts1 as they think will secure the good will and help of friendly spirits1 while they bribe or buy up those who might otherwise be hostile2 and lastly they make use of such magical objects and ceremonies1 as will compel the evil spirits to leave the infant alone4 ,as the child grows in size and strength1 he is less in need of protection2 and at an early age he is treated like the other younger members of the community4 ,naming follows almost immediately after birth1 while puberty and initiation ceremonies are entirely lacking4 ,apparently then1 a child is considered as being fully alive at birth1 and at no time does he undergo any rites or ceremonies which make him more a part of the community than he was on the first day he saw the light4 ,when death occurs1 the spirit remains near to the corpse until after the funeral1 and even then is close by until the ten days of taboo are over4 ,he still finds need of nourishment1 and hence food is placed near to his mat4 ,as at birth1 he is not in a position to protect his body from the designs of evil spirits1 and if his relatives fail to give the corpse proper care1 it is certain to be mutilated2 likewise certain acts of the living towards the corpse can affect the position of the spirit in ,maglawa4 ,hence it is of supreme importance that the former owner guards against any possible neglect or injury to the body1 and it seems plausible that the presence of the spirit near its old haunts may be for the purpose of seeing that its body is carefully attended to4 ,the folktales tell of several instances1 in which the spirits took vengeance on relatives who neglected their bodies1 or violated the period of taboo4 #aae ,when the danger period is past1 the spirit at once leaves its old home1 and returns again only at the time of the ,layog4 ,from that time on1 he continues his existence in the upper world1 neither troubling1 nor being troubled by mortals on earth4 #aaf ,ancestor worship does not occur here1 nor are offerings made to the dead1 other than those described above4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,religion ,,and ,,magic ,the ,tinguian has been taught by his elders that he is surrounded by a great body of spirits1 some good1 some malevolent4 ,the folk-tales handed down from ancient times add their authority to the teachings of older generations1 while the individual himself has seen the bodies of the mediums possessed by the superior beings2 he has communicated with them direct1 has seen them cure the sick and predict coming events4 ,at many a funeral1 he has seen the medium squat before the corpse1 chanting a weird song1 and then suddenly become possessed by the spirit of the deceased2 and1 finally1 he or some of his friends or townspeople are confident that they have seen and talked to ghosts of the recently departed4 ,all these beings are real to him2 he is so certain of their existence that he seldom speculates about them or their acts4 ,some of these spirits are always near2 and a part of them1 at least1 take more than an ordinary interest in human affairs4 ,thanks to the teachings of the elders1 the ,tinguian knows how to propitiate them2 and1 if necessary1 he may even compel friendly action on the part of many4 ,toward the less powerful of the evily disposed beings1 he shows indifference or insolence2 he may make fun of1 or lie to1 and cheat them during the day1 but he is careful to guard himself at night against their machinations4 ,to the more powerful he shows the utmost respect2 he offers them gifts of food1 drink1 and material objects2 and conducts ceremonies in the manner demanded by them4 ,having done these things1 he feels that he is a party to a bargain2 and the spirits must1 on their part1 repay by granting the benefits desired4 ,not entirely content with these precautions1 he performs certain magical acts which prevent evil spirits from doing harm to an individual or a community1 and by the same means he is able to control storms1 the rise of streams1 and the growth of crops4 ,it is doubtful if the ,tinguian has ever speculated in regard to this magical force1 yet he clearly separates it from the power resident in the spirit world4 ,it appears to be a great undifferentiated force to which spirits1 nature1 and men are subject alike4 ,if a troublesome question arises1 or an evident inconsistency in his beliefs is called to his attention1 he disposes of it by the simple statement that it is kadauyan 7custom71 was taught by the ancestors1 and hence is not subject to question4 ,his religion holds forth no threat of punishment in a future world1 neither are there rewards in that existence to urge men to better deeds4 ,the chief teaching is that the customs of ancient times must be faithfully followed2 to change is to show disrespect for the dead1 for the spirits who are responsible for the customs1 which are synonymous with law4 ,custom and religion have become so closely interwoven in this society that it is well-nigh impossible to separate them4 ,the building of a house1 the planting1 harvesting and care of the rice1 the procedure at a birth1 wedding1 or funeral1 in short1 all the events of the social and economic life1 are so governed by custom and religious beliefs1 that it is safe to say that nearly every act in the life of the ,tinguian is directed or affected by these forces4 ,two classes of spirits are recognized2 first1 those who have existed through all time1 whom we shall call natural spirits2 second1 the spirits of deceased mortals4 ,the latter reside forever in ,maglawa1 a place midway between earth and sky2 but a small number of them have joined the company of the natural spirits4 ,except for these few1 they are not worshiped1 and no offerings are made to them1 after the period of mourning is past4 ,the members of the first class cover a wide range1 from ,kadaklan1 the great spirit who resides above1 to ,kaboniyan1 the teacher and helper1 to those resident in the guardian stones1 to the half human1 half bird-like alan1 to the low1 mean spirits who delight to annoy mortals4 ,these beings are usually invisible1 but at times of ceremonies they enter the bodies of the mediums1 possess them1 and thus communicate with the people4 ,on rare occasions they are visible in their own forms1 as when ,kaboniyan appeared as the antagonist and later as the friend of ,sayen4 #aag ,these beings are addressed1 first through certain semi-magical formulas1 know as diams4 ,these are seldom prayers or supplications1 but are a part of a definite ritual1 the whole of which is expected to gain definite favors4 ,at the beginning1 and during the course of all ceremonies1 animals are killed4 ,a part of the flesh and the blood is mixed with rice1 and is offered to the spirits2 but the bulk of the offering is eaten by the participants4 ,liquor is consumed in great quantities at such a time1 but a small amount is always poured out for the use of the superior beings4 ,finally1 the mediums summon the spirits into their bodies2 and1 when possessed1 they are no longer considered as persons1 but are the spirits themselves4 ,the beings who appear in this way talk directly with the people2 they offer advice1 give information concerning affairs in the spirit world1 and oftentimes they mingle with the people on equal terms1 joining in their dances and taking a lively interest in their daily affairs4 ,the people seldom pray to or supplicate the invisible spirits2 but when they are present in the bodies of the mediums1 they make requests1 and ask advice1 as they would from any friend or acquaintance4 ,with many1 the ,tinguian is on amicable terms1 while toward ,kaboniyan he exhibits a degree of respect and gratitude which is close to affection4 ,he realizes that there are many unfriendly spirits1 but he has means of controlling or thwarting their evil designs2 and hence he does not live in that state of perpetual fear which is so often pictured as the condition of the savage4 ,the ,spirits4--,a great host of unnamed spirits are known to exist2 they often attend the ceremonies and sometimes enter the bodies of the mediums1 and in this way new figures appear from time to time4 ,in addition to these1 there are certain superior beings who are well known1 and who1 as already indicated1 exercise a potent influence on the daily life of the people4 ,the following list will serve to give some idea of these spirits and their attributes2 while the names of the less important will be found in connection with the detailed description of the ceremonies4 ,kadaklan 7the greatest71 a powerful male spirit1 who lives in the sky1 created the earth1 sun1 moon1 and stars4 ,the stars are only stones1 but the sun and moon are lights4 ,at times ,kadaklan enters the body of a favored medium1 and talks directly with the people2 but more frequently he takes other means of communication4 ,oftentimes he sends his dog ,kimat1 the lightening1 to bite a tree or strike a field or house1 and in this way makes known his wish that the owner celebrate the ,padiam ceremony 7cf4 p4 #dja74 ,all other beings are in a measure subservient to him1 and his wishes are frequently made known through them4 ,thunder is his drum with which he amuses himself during stormy weather1 but sometimes he plays on it even on clear days4 ,agemem is the wife of ,kadaklan4 ,she lives in the ground4 ,little is known of her except that she has given birth to two sons1 #aah whose chief duty is to see that the commands of their father are obeyed4 ,adam and ,baliyen are the sons of ,kadaklan4 ,the name of the first boy is suggestive of ,christian influence1 but there are no traditions or further details to link him with the ,biblical character4 ,kaboniyan is the friend and helper of the people1 and by many is classed above or identified with ,kadaklan4 ,at times he lives in the sky2 again in a great cave near ,patok4 #aai ,from this cave came the jars which could talk and move1 here were found the copper gongs used in the dances1 and here too grew the wonderful tree which bore the agate beads so prized by the women4 ,this spirit gave the ,tinguian rice and sugar-cane1 taught them how to plant and reap1 how to foil the designs of ill-disposed spirits1 the words of the diams and the details of many ceremonies4 ,further to bind himself to the people1 it is said1 he married in the first times a woman from ,manabo4 ,he is summoned in nearly every ceremony1 and there are several accounts of his having appeared in his own form4 ,according to one of these1 he is of immense proportions2 his spear is as large as a tree1 and his head-axe the size of the end of the house4 #abj ,apdel is the spirit who resides in the guardian stones 7pinaing7 at the gate of the town4 ,during a ceremony1 or when the men are away for a fight1 it becomes his special duty to protect the village from sickness and enemies4 ,he has been known to appear as a red rooster or as a white dog4 ,idadaya1 who lives in the east 7daya71 is a powerful spirit who attends the ,pala-an ceremony4 ,he rides a horse1 which he ties to the little structure built during the rite4 ,ten grand-children reside with him1 and they all wear in their hair the igam 7notched feathers attached to a stick74 ,when these feathers lose their lustre1 they can only be restored by the celebration of ,pala-an7cf4 p4 #cbh74 ,hence the owners cause some mortal1 who has the right to conduct the ceremony1 to become ill1 and then inform him through the mediums as to the cause of his affliction4 ,the names of the grand-children are as follows3 ,pensipenondosan1 ,logosen1 ,bakoden1 ,bing-gasan1 ,bakdangan1 ,giligen1 ,idomalo1 ,agkabkabayo1 ,ebloyan1 and ,agtabtabokal4 ,kaiba-an is the spirit who lives in the little house or saloko in the rice-fields1 and who protects the growing crops4 ,offerings are made to him1 when a new field is constructed1 when the rice is transplanted1 and at harvest time4 ,the ground which grows 7that is the nest of the white ant7 is said to be made by him4 ,makaboteng1 also called ,sanadan1 is the guardian of the deer and wild hogs4 ,his good will is necessary if the dogs are to be successful in the chase2 consequently he is summoned to many ceremonies1 where he receives the most courteous treatment4 ,in one ceremony he declared1 ,i can become the sunset sky4 ,sabian or ,isabian is the guardian of the dogs4 ,bisangolan 7the place of opening or tearing7 is a gigantic spirit1 who lives near the river1 and who in time of floods uses his head-axe and walking-stick to keep the logs and refuse from jamming4 ,he is very old1 like the world1 and he pulls out his beard with his finger nails and his knife4 ,his seat is a wooden plate4 ,he appears in the ,dawak1 ,tangpap1 and ,sayang ceremonies1 holding a rooster and a bundle of rice4 ,in ,ba-ak he is called ,ibalinsogoan1 and is the first spirit summoned in ,dawak4 ,kakalonan1 also known as ,boboyonan1 is the one who makes friends1 and who learns the source of troubles4 ,when summoned at the beginning of a ceremony1 he tells what needs to be done1 in order to insure the results desired4 ,sasagangen1 sometimes called ,ingalit1 are spirits whose business it is to take heads and put them on the saga or in the saloko 7cf4 p4 #caj74 ,headache is caused by them4 ,abat are numerous spirits who cause sore feet and headache4 ,salono and bawi are built for them 7cf4 pp4 #cji-caj74 ,the spirits of ,ibal1 who live in ,daem1 are responsible for most sickness among children1 but they are easily appeased with blood and rice4 ,the ,ibal ceremony is held for them4 ,maganawan1 who lives in ,nagbotobotan 7the place near which the rivers empty into the hole1 where all streams go7 is one of the spirits1 called in the ,sangasang ceremony1 and for whom the blood of the rooster mixed with rice is put into the saloko1 which stands in the yard4 ,inawen is a pregnant female spirit1 who lives in the sea1 and who demands the blood of a chicken mixed with rice to satisfy her capricious appetite4 ,she also attends the ,sangasang4 ,kideng is a tall1 fat spirit with nine heads4 ,he is the servant of ,inawen1 and carries the gifts of mortals to his mistress4 ,ibwa is an evil spirit1 who once mingled with the people in human form4 ,due to the thoughtless act of a mourner at a funeral1 he became so addicted to the taste of human flesh1 that it has since then been necessary to protect the corpse from him4 ,he fears iron1 and hence a piece of that metal is always laid on the grave4 ,holes are burned in each garment placed on the body to keep him from stealing them4 ,akop is likewise evil4 ,he has a head1 long slimy arms and legs1 but no body4 ,he always frequents the place of death1 and seeks to embrace the spouse of the deceased4 ,should he succeed1 death follows quickly4 ,to defeat his plans1 the widow is closely guarded by the wailers2 she also sleeps under a fish net as an additional protection against his long fingers1 and she wears seeds which are disliked by this being4 ,kadongayan indulges in the malicious sport of slitting the mouth of the corpse back to the ears4 ,in order to frighten him away1 a live chicken1 with its mouth split to its throat1 is placed by the door1 during the time the body is in the house4 ,when he sees the sufferings of the bird1 he fears to enter the dwelling lest the people treat him in the same manner4 ,selday is an ill-disposed being4 ,he causes people to have sore feet1 and only relieves them1 when offerings are made to him in the saloko or bawi4 ,he lives in the wooded hill1 but quickly learns of a death1 and appears at the open grave4 ,unless he is bought off with an offering1 the blood of a small pig1 he is almost certain to make away with the body1 or cause a great sickness to visit the village4 ,as the mourners return home1 after the burial1 they place bits of the slaughtered animal by the trail1 so that he will not make them ill4 ,bayon is a male spirit1 who dwells in the sky1 and who comes to earth as a fresh breeze4 ,he once stole a girl from ,layogan1 changed her two breasts into one1 placed this in the center of her chest1 and married her4 ,lokadaya is the human wife of ,bayon4 ,she now appears to have joined the company of the natural spirits and to be immortal4 ,at times1 both she and her husband enter the bodies of the mediums4 ,agonan is the spirit who knows many dialects4 ,he lives in ,dingolowan4 ,gilen attends many ceremonies1 and occupies an important place in ,tangpap2 yet little is known of him4 ,inginlaod are spirits who live in the west4 ,ginobayan is a female spirit1 always present in the ,tangpap ceremony4 ,sangalo is a spirit who gives good and bad signs4 ,dapeg1 ,balingen-ngen1 ,benisalsal1 and ,kikiba-an1 are all disturbers and mischief-makers4 ,they cause illness1 sore feet1 headache1 and bad dreams4 ,they are important only because of the frequency with which they appear4 ,al-lot attends festivals and prevents quarrels4 ,liblibayan1 ,banbanayo1 and ,banbantay1 are lesser spirits1 who formerly aided the people of the first times4 ,the term ,alan comprises a large body of spirits with half human1 half bird-like forms4 ,they have wings and can fly2 their toes are at the back of their feet1 and their fingers attach to the wrists and point backward4 ,often they hang from the branches of trees1 like bats1 but they are also pictured as having fine houses and great riches4 ,they are sometimes hostile or mischievous1 but more frequently are friendly4 ,they play a very important part in the mythology1 but not in the cult4 #aba ,komau is a giant spirit1 who1 according to tradition1 was killed by the hero ,sayen4 ,among the ,ilocano and some of the ,tinguian1 the ,komau is known as a great invisible bird1 which steals people and their possessions4 ,he does not visit the people through the bodies of the mediums4 ,anito is a general term used to designate members of the spirit world4 ,a survey of the foregoing list brings out a noticeable lack of nature-spirits2 of trees1 rocks1 and natural formations considered as animate2 and of guardian spirits of families and industries4 ,there is a strong suggestion1 however1 in the folk-tales to the effect that this has not always been the case2 and even to-day there are some conflicts regarding the status of certain spirits4 ,in the village of ,manabo1 thunder is known as ,kidol2 in ,likuan and ,bakaok1 as ,kido-ol2 and in each place he is recognized as a powerful spirit4 ,in ,ba-ay1 two types of lightning are known to be spirits4 ,the flash from the sky is ,salit1 that from the ground is ,kilawit4 ,here thunder is ,kadaklan1 but the sun is the all powerful being4 ,he is male1 and is so powerful that he does not need or desire ceremonies or houses4 ,the moon is likewise a powerful spirit1 but female4 ,in the discussion of the tales #abb it was suggested that these and other ideas1 which differ from those held by the majority of the tribe1 may represent older conceptions1 which have been swamped1 or may have been introduced into ,abra by emigrants from the north and east4 ,the ,mediums4--,the superior beings talk with mortals through the aid of mediums1 known individually and collectively as alopogan 7she who covers her face74 #abc ,these are generally women past middle life1 though men are not barred from the profession1 who1 when chosen1 are made aware of the fact by having trembling fits when they are not cold1 by warnings in dreams1 or by being informed by other mediums that they are desired by the spirits4 ,a woman may live the greater part of her life without any idea of becoming a medium1 and then because of such a notification will undertake to qualify4 ,she goes to one already versed1 and from her learns the details of the various ceremonies1 the gifts suitable for each spirit1 and the chants or diams which must be used at certain times4 ,this is a considerable task1 for the diams must be learned word for word2 and1 likewise1 each ceremony must be conducted1 just as it was taught by the spirits to the people of the first times4 ,the training occupies several months2 and when all is ready1 the candidate secures her piling4 ,this is a collection of large sea-shells attached to cords1 which is kept in a small basket together with a ,chinese plate and a hundred fathoms of thread 7,plate ,,xix74 ,new shells may be used1 but it is preferable to secure1 if possible1 the piling of a dead medium4 ,being thus supplied1 the novice seeks the approval of the spirits and acceptance as a medium4 ,the wishes of the higher beings are learned by means of a ceremony1 in the course of which a pig is killed1 and its blood mixed with rice is scattered on the ground4 ,the liver of the animal is eagerly examined2 for1 if certain marks appear on it1 the candidate is rejected1 or must continue her period of probation for several months1 before another trial can be made4 ,during this time she may aid in ceremonies1 but she is not possessed by the spirits4 ,when finally accepted1 she may begin to summon the spirits into her body4 ,she places offerings on a mat1 seats herself in front of them1 and calls the attention of the spirits by striking her piling1 or a bit of lead1 against a plate2 then covering her face with her hands1 she begins to chant4 ,suddenly she is possessed2 and then1 no longer as a human1 but as the spirit itself1 she talks with the people1 asking and answering questions1 or giving directions1 as to what shall be done to avert sickness and trouble1 or to bring good fortune4 ,certain mediums are visited only by low1 mean spirits2 others1 by both good and bad2 while still others may be possessed even by ,kadaklan1 the greatest of all4 ,it is customary for the spirit of a deceased mortal to enter the body of a medium1 just before the corpse is to be buried1 to give messages to the family2 but he seldom comes again in this manner4 ,the pay of a medium is small1 usually a portion of a sacrificed animal1 a few bundles of rice1 and some beads2 but this payment is more than offset by the restrictions placed on her4 ,at no time may she eat of carabao1 wild pig1 wild chicken1 or shrimp2 nor may she touch peppers--all prized articles of food4 ,the inducements for a person to enter this vocation are so few that a candidate begins her training with reluctance2 but1 once accepted by the spirits1 the medium yields herself fully and sincerely to their wishes4 ,when possessed by a spirit1 her own personality is submerged1 and she does many things of which she is apparently ignorant1 when she emerges from the spell4 ,oftentimes1 as she squats by the mat1 summoning the spirits1 her eyes take on a far-away stare2 the veins of her face and neck stand out prominently1 while the muscles of her arms and legs are tense2 then1 as she is possessed1 she assumes the character and habits of the superior being4 ,if it is a spirit supposed to dwell in ,igorot or ,kalinga land1 she speaks in a dialect unfamiliar to her hearers1 orders them to dance in ,igorot fashion1 and then instructs them in dances1 which she or her townspeople could never have seen4 #abd ,at times she carries on sleight-of-hand tricks1 as when she places beads in a dish of oil1 and dances with it high above her head1 until the beads vanish4 ,a day or two later she will recover them from the hair of some participant in the ceremony4 ,most of her acts are in accordance with a set procedure2 yet at times she goes further1 and does things which seem quite inexplainable4 ,one evening1 in the village of ,manabo1 we were attending a ceremony4 ,spirit after spirit had appeared1 and at their order dances and other acts had taken place4 ,about ten o'clock a brilliant flash of lightning occurred1 although it was not a stormy evening4 ,the body of the medium was at that time possessed by ,amangau1 a head-hunting spirit4 ,he at once stopped his dance1 and announced that he had just taken the head of a boy from ,luluno1 and that the people of his village were even then dancing about the skull4 ,earlier in the evening we had noticed this lad 7evidently a consumptive7 among the spectators4 ,when the spirit made this claim1 we looked for him1 but he had vanished4 ,a little later we learned that he had died of a hemorrhage at about the time of the flash4 ,such occurrences make a deep impression on the mind of the people1 and strengthen their belief in the spirit world2 but1 so far as could be observed1 the prestige of the medium was in nowise enhanced4 ,since most of the ceremonies are held to keep the family or individual in good health1 the medium takes the place of a physician4 ,she often makes use of simple herbs and medicinal plants1 but always with the idea that the treatment is distasteful to the being1 who has caused the trouble1 and not with any idea of its curative properties4 ,since magic and religion are practically the same in this society1 the medium is the one who usually conducts or orders the magic rites2 and for the same reason she1 better than all others1 can read the signs and omens sent by members of the spirit world4 ,magic and ,omens4--,the folk-tales are filled with accounts of magical acts1 performed by the people of the first times4 ,they annihilated time and space1 commanded inanimate objects to do their will1 created human beings from pieces of betel-nut1 and caused the magical increase of food and drink4 ,those days have passed1 yet magical acts still pervade all the ceremonies2 nature is overcome1 while the power to work evil by other than human means is a recognized fact of daily life4 ,in the detailed accounts of the ceremonies will be found many examples of these magical acts1 but the few here mentioned will give a good idea of all4 ,in one ceremony1 a blanket is placed over the family1 and on their heads a coconut is cut in two1 and the halves are allowed to fall2 for1 as they drop to the ground1 so does sickness and evil fall away from the people4 ,a bound pig is placed in the center of the floor1 and water is poured into its ear that1 as it shakes out the water1 so may evil spirits and sickness be thrown out of the place4 ,at one point in the ,tangpap ceremony1 a boy takes the sacrificial blood and rice from a large dish1 and puts it in a number of smaller ones1 then returns it again to the first2 for1 when the spirits make a man sick1 they take a part of his life4 ,when they make him well1 they put it back1 just as the boy takes away a part of the food1 gives it to the spirits1 and then replaces it1 ,the same idea appears in the dance which follows4 ,the boy and the medium take hold of a winnower1 raise it in the air1 and dance half way around a rice-mortar2 then return1 as they came1 and replace it1 just as the spirits took away a part of the patient's life1 but now will put it back4 ,the whole life of a child can be determined1 or at least largely influenced1 by the treatment given the afterbirth1 while the use of bamboo and other prolific plants1 at this time and at a wedding1 promote growth and fertility4 ,a piece of charcoal attached to a certain type of notched stick is placed in the rice-seed beds1 and thus the new leaves are compelled to turn the dark green color of sturdy plants4 ,if a river is overflowing its banks1 it can be controlled by cutting off a pig's head and throwing it into the waters4 ,an even more certain method is to have a woman1 who was born on the other side of the river1 take her weaving baton and plant it on the bank4 ,the water will not rise past this barrier4 ,blackening of the teeth is a semi-magical procedure4 ,a mixture of tan-bark and iron salts is twice applied to the teeth1 and is allowed to remain several hours2 but1 in order to obtain the desired result1 it is necessary to use the mixture after nightfall and to remove it1 before the cocks begin to crow1 in the morning4 ,if the fowls are heard1 while the teeth are being treated1 they will remain white2 likewise they will refuse to take the color1 should their owner approach a corpse or grave4 ,on well-travelled trails one often sees1 at the tops of high hills1 piles of stones1 which have been built up during many years4 ,as he ascends a steep slope1 each traveller picks up a small stone1 and carries it to the top1 where he places it on the pile4 ,as he does so1 he leaves his weariness behind him1 and continues his journey fresh and strong4 ,the use of love-charms is widespread3 certain roots and leaves1 when oiled or dampened with saliva1 give forth a pleasant odor1 which compels the affection of a woman1 even in spite of her wishes4 #abe ,evil magic1 known as gamot 7poison7 is also extensively used4 ,a little dust taken from the footprint of a foe1 a bit of clothing1 or an article recently handled by him1 is placed in a dish of water1 and is stirred violently4 ,soon the victim begins to feel the effect of this treatment1 and within a few hours becomes insane4 ,to make him lame1 it is only necessary to place poison on articles recently touched by his feet4 ,death or impotency can be produced by placing poison on his garments4 ,a fly is named after a person1 and is placed in a bamboo tube4 ,this is set near the fire1 and in a short time the victim of the plot is seized with fever4 ,likewise magical chants and dances1 carried on beneath a house1 may bring death to all the people of the dwelling4 ,a combination of true poisoning and magical practice is also found4 ,to cause consumption or some wasting disease1 a snake is killed1 and its head cut off2 then the body is hung up1 and the liquor coming from the decomposing flesh is caught in a shell cup4 ,this fluid is introduced into the victim's food1 or some of his belongings are treated with it4 ,if the subject dies1 his relatives may get revenge on the poisoner4 ,this is accomplished by taking out the heart of a pig and inserting it in the mouth or stomach of the victim4 ,this must be done under the cover of darkness1 and the corpse be buried at once4 ,a high bamboo fence is then built around the grave1 so that no one can reach it4 ,the person responsible for the death will fall ill at once1 and will die unless he is able to secure one of the victim's garments or dirt from the grave4 ,the actual introduction of poison in food and drink is thought to be very common4 ,the writer attended one ceremony following which a large number of the guests fell sick4 ,the illness was ascribed to magic poisoning1 yet it was evident that the cause was over-indulgence in fresh pork by people1 who for months had eaten little if any meat4 ,omens4--,the ability to foretell future events by the flight or calls of birds1 actions of animals1 by the condition of the liver and gall of sacrificed pigs1 or by the movements of certain articles under the questioning of a medium1 is an undoubted fact in this society4 ,a small bird known as labeg1 is the messenger of the spirits1 who control the ,bakid and ,sangasang ceremonies4 ,when this bird enters the house1 it is caught at once1 its feathers are oiled2 beads are attached to its feet1 and it is released with the promise that the ceremony will be celebrated at once4 ,this bird accompanies the warriors1 and warns or encourages them with its calls4 ,if it flies across their path from right to left1 all is well2 but if it comes from the left1 they must return home1 or trouble will befall the party4 ,the spirits of ,sangasang make use of other birds and animals to warn the builders of a house1 if the location selected does not please them4 ,all the ,tinguian know that the arrival of snakes1 big lizards1 deer1 or wild hogs at the site of a new house is a bad sign4 ,if a party or an individual is starting on a journey1 and the kingfisher 7salaksak7 flies from in front toward the place just left1 it is a command to return at once2 else illness in the village or family will compel a later return4 #abf ,should the koling cry awit1 awit 7to carry1 to carry71 an immediate return is necessary1 or a member of the party will die1 and will be carried home4 ,when a snake crawls across the trail1 and goes into a hole1 it is a certain warning that1 unless the trip is given up1 some of the party will die1 and be buried in the ground4 ,the falling of a tree across the trail1 when the groom is on his way to the home of his bride1 threatens death for the couple1 while the breaking or falling of an object during the marriage ceremony presages misfortune4 ,not all the signs are evil2 for1 if a man is starting to hunt1 or trade1 and he sees a hawk fly in front of him and catch a bird or chicken1 he may on that day secure all the game he can carry1 or can trade on his own terms4 ,all the foregoing are important1 but the most constantly employed method of foretelling the future is to examine the gall and liver of slain pigs4 ,these animals are killed in all great ceremonies1 at the conclusion of a medium's probation period1 at birth1 death1 and funeral observances1 and for other important events4 ,if a head-hunt is to be attempted1 the gall sack is removed1 and is carefully examined1 for if it is large and full1 and the liquor in it is bitter1 the enemy will be powerless2 but if the sack is small1 and only partially filled with a weak liquor1 it will fare ill with the warriors who go into battle4 ,for all other events1 the liver itself gives the signs4 ,when it is full and smooth1 the omens are favorable2 but if it is pitted1 has black specks on it1 is wrinkled1 or has cross lines on it1 the spirits are ill-disposed1 and the project should be delayed4 ,if1 however1 the matter is very urgent1 another pig or a fowl may be offered in the hope that the attitude of the spirits may be changed4 ,if the liver of the new sacrifice is good1 the ceremony or raid may continue4 ,the blood of these animals is always mixed with rice1 and is scattered about for the superior beings1 but the flesh is cooked1 and is consumed by the mortals4 #abg ,to recover stolen and misplaced articles or animals1 one of three methods is employed4 ,the first is to attach a cord to a jar-cover or the shells used by a medium4 ,this is suspended so that it hangs freely1 and questions are put to it4 ,if the answer is yes1 it will swing to and fro4 ,the second method is to place a bamboo stick horizontally on the ground and then to stand an egg on it4 ,as the question is asked1 the egg is released4 ,if it falls1 the answer is in the negative2 if it stands1 it replies yes4 ,the third and more common way is to place a head-axe on the ground1 then to blow on the end of a spear and put it point down on the blade of the axe4 ,if it balances1 the answer is yes4 ,ceremonial ,structures and ,paraphernalia4--,as has been indicated1 the ,tinguian holds many ceremonies in honor of the superior beings2 and1 in connection with these1 builds numerous small structures1 and employs various paraphernalia1 most of which bear definite names1 and have well established uses4 ,since a knowledge of these structures and devices is necessary to a full understanding of the ceremonies1 an alphabetical list is here furnished1 before proceeding to the detailed discussion of the rites4 ,alalot3 ,two arches of bamboo1 which support a grass roof4 ,a small jar of basi stands in this structure for the use of visiting spirits4 ,is generally constructed during the ,sayang ceremony1 but in ,bakaok it is built alone to cure sickness or to change a bad disposition 7,plate ,,xx1 ,no4 #d74 ,aligang3 ,a four-pronged fork of a branch in which a jar of basi and other offerings are placed for the ,igorot spirits of ,talegteg 7,salegseg74 ,it is placed at the corner of the house during ,sayang4 ,ansisilit3 ,the framework placed beside the guardian stones on the sixteenth morning of ,sayang4 ,it closely resembles the ,inapapayag4 ,balabago 7known in ,manabo as ,talagan73 ,a long bamboo bench with a roofing of betel leaves4 ,it is intended as a seat for guests1 both spirit and human1 during important ceremonies4 ,balag3 ,a seat of wood or bamboo1 placed close to the house-ladder during the ,sayang ceremony4 ,above and beside it are alangtin leaves1 branches of the lanoti tree1 sugar-cane1 and a leafy branch of bamboo4 ,here also are found a net equipped with lead sinkers1 a top-shaped device1 and short sections of bamboo filled with liquor4 ,in some towns this is the seat of the honored guest1 who dips basi for the dancers4 ,in ,san ,juan this seat is called ,patogau4 ,balaua3 ,this1 the largest and most important of the spirit structures1 is built during the ,sayang ceremony4 ,the roofing is of plaited bamboo1 covered with cogon grass4 ,this is supported by eight uprights1 which likewise furnish attachment for the bamboo flooring4 ,there are no sides to the building1 but it is so sturdily constructed that it lasts through several seasons4 ,except for the times of ceremony1 it is used as a lounging place for the men1 or as a loom-room by the women4 ,quite commonly poles are run lengthwise of the structure1 at the lower level of the roof2 and this attic1 as well as the space beneath the floor1 is used for the storage of farming implements1 bundles of rattan and thatching 7,plate ,,xxi74 ,balitang3 ,a large seat like the ,balabago1 but with a grass roofing4 ,it is used as a seat for visitors during great ceremonies and festivals4 ,this name is applied1 in ,manabo1 to a little house1 built among the bananas for the spirit ,imalbi4 ,bani-it or ,bunot3 ,consists of a coconut husk suspended from a pole4 ,the feathers of a rooster are stuck into the sides4 ,it is made as a cure for sick-headache1 also for lameness4 ,bangbangsal3 ,four long bamboo poles are set in the ground1 and are roofed over to make a shelter for the spirits of ,sayaw1 who come in the ,tangpap ceremony4 ,batog3 ,an unhusked coconut1 resting on three bamboo sticks1 goes by this name4 ,it always appears in the ,sayang ceremony1 close to the ,balag1 but its use and meaning are not clear4 ,bawi1 also called ,babawi1 ,abarong1 and ,sinaba-an3 ,a name applied to any one of the small houses1 built in the fields or gardens as a home for the spirits ,kaiba-an1 ,abat1 ,selday1 and some others of lesser importance 7,plate ,,xxii74 ,idasan3 ,a seat or bench which stands near the house-ladder during the ,sayang4 ,a roof of cogon grass protects ten bundles of unthreshed rice1 which lie on it4 ,this rice is later used as seed4 ,in the ,san ,juan district1 the place of the ,idasan seems to be taken by three bamboo poles1 placed in tripod fashion1 so as to support a basket of rice4 ,this is known as ,pinalasang4 ,inapapayag3 ,two-forked saplings or four reeds are arranged so as to support a shield or a cloth roof 7,plate ,,xviii74 ,during ,sayang and some other ceremonies1 it stands in the yard1 or near to the town gate2 and on it food and drink are placed for visiting spirits4 ,during the celebration of ,layog 7cf4 p4 #bij71 it is built near to the dancing space1 and contains offerings for the spirit of the dead4 ,a spear with a colored clout is stuck into the ground close by2 and usually an inverted rice mortar also stands here1 and supports a dish of basi4 ,in the mountain village of ,likuan it is built alone as a cure for sickness4 ,a pig is killed and the mediums summon the spirits as in ,dawak 7cf4 p4 #caf74 ,kalang3 ,a wooden box1 the sides of which are cut to resemble the head and horns of a carabao4 ,the spirits are not thought to reside here1 but do come to partake of the food and drink placed in it4 ,it is attached to the roof of the dwelling or in the balaua or kalangan4 ,new offerings are placed in the kalang1 before the men go to fight1 or when the ,sayang ceremony is held4 ,it also holds the head-bands worn by the mediums1 when making ,dawak 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #b74 ,kalangan3 the place of the kalang4 ,this is similar to the balaua1 but is smaller and1 as a rule1 has only four supporting timbers 7,plate ,,xxiii74 ,pala-an3 ,four long poles1 usually three of bamboo1 and one of a resinous tree known as anteng 7,canarium villosum ,bl47 are set in a square and support1 near the top1 a platform of bamboo 7,plate ,,xxiv74 ,offerings are made both on and below the ,pala-an during the ceremony of that name1 and in the more important rites4 ,pangkew3 ,three bamboo poles are planted in the ground in a triangle1 but they lean away from each other at such an angle1 as to admit of a small platform midway of their length4 ,a roofing of cogon grass completes the structure4 ,it is built during ,sayang1 and contains a small jar of basi4 ,the roof is always adorned with coconut blossoms 7,plate ,,xx74 ,sagang3 ,sharpened bamboo poles about eight feet in length on which the skulls of enemies were formerly exhibited4 ,the pointed end was pushed through the foramen magnum1 and the pole was then planted near the gate of the town4 ,saloko1 also called ,salokang and ,sabut3 ,this is a bamboo pole about ten feet long1 one end of which is split into several strips2 these are forced apart1 and are interwoven with other strips1 thus forming a sort of basket4 ,when such a pole is erected near to a house1 or at the gate of the town1 it is generally in connection with a ceremony made to cure headache4 ,it is also used in the fields as a dwelling place for the spirit ,kaiba-an 7,plate ,,xxv74 ,the ,saloko ceremony and the diam1 which accompanies it1 seem to indicate that this pole originated in connection with head-hunting2 and its presence in the fields gives a hint that in former times a head-hunt may have been a necessary preliminary to the rice-planting4 ,sogayob3 ,a covered porch1 which is built along one side of the house during the ,sayang ceremony4 ,in it hang the vines and other articles1 used by the female dancers in one part of the rite4 ,a portion of one of the slaughtered pigs is placed here for the spirits of ,bangued4 ,in ,lumaba the ,sogayob is built alone as a part of a one-day ceremony2 while in ,sallapadan it follows ,kalangan after an interval of about three months4 ,taltalabong3 ,following many ceremonies a small bamboo raft with arched covering is constructed4 ,in it offerings are placed for spirits1 who have been unable to attend the rite4 ,in ,manabo it is said that the raft is intended particularly for the sons of ,kadaklan 7,plate ,,xxvi74 ,tangpap3 ,two types of structure appear under this name4 ,when it is built as a part of the ,tangpap ceremony1 it is a small house with a slanting roof resting on four poles4 ,about three feet above the ground1 an interwoven bamboo floor is lashed to the uprights 7,plate ,,xxvii74 ,in the ,sayang ceremony1 there are two structures which go by this name 7,plate ,,xx1 ,nos4 #b and #c74 ,the larger has two floors1 the smaller only one4 ,on each floor is a small pot of basi1 daubed with white4 ,taboo ,gateway3 ,at the gate of a town1 one sometimes finds a defensive wall of bamboo1 between the uprights of which are thrust bamboo spears in order to catch evil spirits1 while on the gate proper are vines and leaves pleasing to the good spirits4 ,likewise in the saloko1 which stands close by1 are food and drink or betel-nut4 ,all this generally appears when an epidemic is in a nearby village1 in order to frighten the bearers of the sickness away1 and at the same time gain the aid of well-disposed spirits4 ,at such a time many of the people wear wristlets and anklets of bamboo1 interwoven with roots and vines which are displeasing to the evil beings 7,plate ,,xxviii74 ,ceremonial ,paraphernalia4--,akosan 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #d73 ,a prized shell1 with top and bottom cut off1 is slipped over a belt-like cloth4 ,above it are a series of wooden rings and a wooden imitation of the shell4 ,this1 when hung beside the dead1 is both pleasing to the spirit of the deceased1 and a protection to the corpse against evil beings4 ,aneb 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #a73 ,the name usually given to a protective necklace placed about the neck of a young child to keep evil spirits at a distance4 ,the same name is also given to a miniature shield1 bow and arrow1 which hang above the infant4 ,dakidak 7,fig4 #d1 ,nos4 #c-c;a73 ,long poles1 one a reed1 the other bamboo1 split at one end so they will rattle4 ,the medium strikes them on the ground to attract the spirits to the food served on the talapitap4 ,igam3 ,notched feathers1 often with colored yarn at the ends1 attached to sticks4 ,these are worn in the hair during the ,palaan and ,sayang ceremonies1 to please the spirits of the east1 called ,idadaya4 ,inalson3 ,a sacred blanket made of white cotton4 ,a blue or blue and red design is formed1 where the breadths join1 and also along the borders4 ,it is worn over the shoulders of the medium during the ,gipas ceremony 7cf4 p4 #bfc74 ,lab-labon3 ,also called ,adug4 ,in ,buneg and nearby towns1 whose inhabitants are of mixed ,tinguian and ,kalinga blood1 small incised pottery houses are found among the rice jars1 and are said to be the residences of the spirits1 who multiply the rice4 ,they are sometimes replaced with incised jars decorated with vines4 ,the idea seems to be an intrusion into the ,tinguian belt4 ,the name is probably derived from labon1 plenty or abundance 7,plate ,,xxix74 ,piling 7,plate ,,xix73 ,a collection of large sea-shells attached to cords4 ,they are kept in a small basket together with one hundred fathoms of thread and a ,chinese plate1 usually of ancient make4 ,the whole makes up the medium's outfit1 used when she is summoning the spirits4 ,pinapa3 ,a large silk blanket with yellow strips running lengthwise4 ,such blankets are worn by certain women when dancing da-eng1 and they are also placed over the feet of a corpse4 ,sado 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #c73 ,the shallow clay dishes in which the spirits are fed on the talapitap4 ,salogeygey3 ,the outside bark of a reed is cut at two points1 from opposite directions1 so that a double fringe of narrow strips stands out4 ,one end is split1 saklag leaves are inserted1 and the whole is dipped or sprinkled in sacrificial blood1 and placed in each house during the ,sagobay ceremony4 ,the same name is applied to the magical sticks1 which are placed in the rice seed-beds to insure lusty plants 7cf4 p4 #cii74 ,sangadel3 ,the bamboo frame on which a corpse is placed during the funeral4 ,tabing3 ,a large white blanket with which one corner of the room is screened off during the ,sayang and other ceremonies4 ,in this room food and other offerings are made for the black1 deformed1 and timid spirits who wish to attend the ceremony unobserved4 ,takal3 ,armlets made of boar's tusks1 which are worn during certain dances in ,sayang4 ,talapitap 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #c73 ,a roughly plaited bamboo frame on which the spirits are fed during the more important rites4 ,used in connection with the dakidak and clay dishes 7sado74 ,tongatong 7,fig4 #d1 ,no4 #e73 ,the musical instrument1 which appears in many ceremonials4 ,it consists of six or more bamboo tubes of various lengths4 ,the players hold a tube in each hand1 and strike their ends on a stone1 which lies between them1 the varying lengths of the cylinders giving out different notes4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,ceremonies ,a visitor1 who enters the ,tinguian territory in the period following the rice-harvest1 quickly gains the impression that the ceremonial life of this people is dominant4 ,in nearly every village1 he finds one or more ceremonies in progress1 while work is almost forgotten4 ,this condition exists until the coming of the rains in ,may1 when all is changed4 ,men and women go to the fields before daybreak1 and return only when darkness forces them to cease their toil4 ,during the period when the fields are in preparation1 or the rice is growing1 few ceremonials are held1 except those intended to promote the growth of the crops1 to cure sickness1 or to ward off impending misfortune4 ,aside from the rites1 which attend birth1 marriage1 and similar events1 the ceremonies may be placed in two divisions3 first1 those which may be celebrated by all people2 second1 those restricted to certain families4 ,the first class we shall designate as the minor ceremonies4 ,,section #a ,the ,minor ,ceremonies ,dawak 7also called ,boni and ,alopag74--,the name ,dawak is applied to that part of important ceremonies in which the spirits enter the bodies of the mediums4 ,it is also given as a separate ceremony1 usually to cure sickness1 but in some settlements it follows a birth4 ,according to tradition1 it was taught1 together with the ,sayang ceremony1 by the spirit ,kaboniyan to a woman ,dayapan2 and she1 in turn1 taught it to others1 who were then able to cure sickness4 ,it is probable that the name comes from dawat 7a request or petition72 yet there is little in it which corresponds to prayer or entreaty4 ,as there was considerable variation in each ,dawak witnessed by the writer1 the complete ceremony is given for the village of ,ba-ak1 together with striking variations from other towns4 ,in this instance1 the rite was held to effect the cure of a sick woman and to learn the desires of the spirits4 ,two mediums1 assisted by several men and women1 spent the first afternoon preparing the things to be used4 ,first1 a short cane was fashioned out of black wood1 rattan rings were slipped over this1 and all were placed inside a ,chinese jar4 ,a dish of cooked rice was put over the top1 as a cover1 and a blanket spread over the whole4 ,this was brought close to the patient1 the medium recited a dam over it1 #abh and then ordered that it remain there throughout the ceremony4 ,on a large mat in the center of the room were placed betel-nuts1 coconuts1 and leaves1 two jars--one empty1 the other filled with basi--1 a large and small head-axe1 two spears1 and some shells4 ,an empty jar had a string of beads tied around its neck1 and inside it was placed a switch1 care being taken that a portion of it hung outside4 ,beside the jar was a basket containing five bundles of unthreshed rice1 on which was a skein of thread supporting a new jar4 ,all this was covered with a woman's skirt4 ,finally a bound pig was laid just inside the door4 ,when all was complete1 three men played on the tongatong 7cf4 p4 #cad71 until one of the mediums took her place beside the mat4 ,raising a plate above her head1 she struck it repeatedly with a small head-axe1 to call attention of the spirits4 #abi ,then she began to chant and wail calling the spirits to enter her body4 ,after two or three moments of song1 she was possessed by a spirit1 who announced that his name was ,ibalinsogwan4 ,he placed a rooster at one end of a spear1 and a bundle of rice at the other1 did a short dance1 and departed4 ,the mediums then seated themselves on opposite sides of the jar of basi2 each drank of the liquor1 and the chant began again4 ,spirit after spirit took possession of one of the mediums1 who then conversed with the other1 asked questions concerning the patient1 or other matters1 and occasionally offered advice4 ,before his departure1 each spirit would drink of the basi4 ,the members of the family were present during most of the day2 friends came1 and went as they pleased1 stopped to listen to or talk with the spirits1 drank basi1 and then went about their work4 ,early the second morning1 the mediums went to a bound pig in the house1 and after placing betel-nut on its back1 they poured water into its ear4 ,this caused the animal to shake its head2 and1 as the water was thrown out1 one of the mediums caught it in her hand1 and applied it to the sick woman1 at the same time chanting1 ,go away sickness1 be thrown out like this water2 let this person be well1 for she is now following the custom4 ,as soon as she had finished1 two men carried the animal to the river bank1 where they killed and singed it4 ,upon their return to the house1 they removed and carefully examined its liver2 for1 by the markings on it1 the people were assured that the spirits were pleased with the manner in which the ceremony was being conducted1 and hence the prospects for the patient's recovery were very bright4 ,gipas1 the dividing1 followed4 ,an old man divided the pig with the medium1 but by sly manipulation managed to get a little more than she did4 ,a betel-nut1 beeswax1 and a lead net-sinker were tied together with a string1 and were divided1 but again the old man received a little more than his share4 ,betel-nut was offered to the pair4 ,apparently each piece was the same1 but only one was supplied with lime1 and the mortal secured that4 ,he then challenged the medium to see whose spittle was the reddest4 ,both expectorated on the head-axe1 but since the spittle of the medium was not mixed with lime1 it was uncolored4 ,in all instances the human being came out victor over the spirit1 who sought to take the woman's life4 ,hence her recovery was assured4 ,a new spirit possessed the medium1 and under her directions the family was placed beneath a blanket1 and a coconut was cut in two over their heads4 ,in addition to the fluid of the nut1 water was emptied over them1 so that the sickness would be washed away4 ,as soon as the family emerged from the blanket1 they went to their balaua1 #acj and offered food1 after which the medium again summoned several spirits4 ,from this time until well into the evening1 the guests danced tadek1 stopping only to be served with food and drink4 ,the morning of the third and last day was spent in preparing food and other offerings1 which were placed on a mat and left1 for a time1 to be used by the immortals4 ,later the offerings were consumed by the guests1 and the medium summoned the spirit ,agkabkabayo4 ,this being directed four men to carry the blanket on which the medium was seated to the balaua1 when they were met by another medium1 possessed by the spirit ,balien4 ,for a time they busied themselves making repairs to the spirit structure1 then decorated it by tying strips of shredded coconut leaves to the slats of the floor4 ,they also attached leaves to the kalang 7cf4 p4 #caj71 and inserted betel-nut and leaf4 ,the final act of the ceremony was to prepare four soloko 7cf4 p4 #caj74 ,in the first was placed a half coconut2 in the second was rice mixed with blood2 in the third cooked flesh of a fowl2 and in the last were four stalks of rice1 and some pine-sticks4 ,one was placed at each gate of the town as an offering1 and the people returned to their homes4 ,as payment for their services1 the mediums received a small portion of the pig1 some rice1 beads1 a little money1 and cloth4 ,the acts and conversation of the spirits when summoned in ,dawak are well illustrated by the following4 ,a woman of ,lagangilang was ill with dysentery2 and a medium1 in this instance1 a man1 was instructed to make ,dawak4 ,he began summoning the spirits by striking a dish with his head-axe4 ,soon he covered his face with his hands1 began to sway to and fro1 and to chant unintelligible words4 ,suddenly he stopped and announced that he was the spirit ,labotan1 and that it was his wish that blood and rice be placed on a head-axe1 and be laid on the woman's abdomen4 ,next he ordered that they should feed some rice to the small pig which lay bound on the floor4 ,if he eats1 this is the right ceremony1 and you will get well1 he said4 ,the pig refused the food1 and1 after expressing regret that he was unable to help1 the spirit departed1 to be succeeded by ,binongon4 ,he at once directed that the pig be killed1 and the palpitating heart be put on the woman's stomach1 and then be pressed against each person in the room1 as a protection against illness4 ,at first he refused to drink the liquor which was offered to him1 for it was new and raw2 but when he learned that no other could be obtained1 he drank1 and then addressed the patient4 ,you ate something forbidden4 ,it is easy to cure you if the spirits have made you ill2 but if some one is practising magic1 perhaps you will die4 ,with this cheering message the spirit departed1 and ,ayaonwan appeared4 ,he directed an old woman to feed rice and water to the patient1 and then1 without further advice1 he said1 ,the other spirits do not like me very well1 so ,i cannot go to their places4 ,i went to their places1 but they said many bad words to me4 ,i offered them basi1 but they did not wish to take2 so ,i asked the way1 and they showed me to the other spirits' place4 ,i was poor1 and had nothing to eat for noon or night4 ,when ,i was in the road1 ,i met many long snakes1 and ,i had to push them apart so ,i could walk4 ,and ,i met many eels1 and asked of them the road2 but the eels bit me1 and took me into their stomachs1 and carried me to ,luluaganan to the well there2 then ,i died4 ,the people1 who go to the well1 say1 ',why is ,ayaonwan dead8 ,we have a bad odor now2' and the eels say1 ',whose son is this8' and they rubbed my dead spirit1 and ,i received life again4 ,then ,i took blood and rice with me to the sky to the other eels to make ,sayang4 ,the eels gave me gold for my wrists2 the monkeys gave me gold for my teeth and hair2 the wild pig gave me bracelets4 ,there is much more ,i can tell you1 but now ,i must go4 ,the spirit departed1 and a new one was summoned4 ,this spirit took the spear in his hand1 and after chanting about the illness of the woman1 he drank basi out of a dish1 sitting on the head-axe4 ,then singing again he dipped the spear in the oil1 and allowed it to fall drop by drop on the stomach of the sick woman2 later he touched the heads of all present with the spear1 saying1 ,you will not be sick any more1 and departed4 ,pinaing or ,pinading 7,plate ,,xxx74--,at the gate or entrance of nearly every village will be found a number of peculiarly shaped1 water-worn stones1 either beneath a small shelter1 or nestling among the roots of some great tree4 ,these are the guardian stones1 and in them lives ,apdel 7the spirit who guards the town74 ,many stories cluster about these pinaing1 #aca but all agree that1 if proper offerings are made to them at the beginning of a great ceremony2 when the men are about to undertake a raid2 or1 when sickness is in a nearby village1 the resident spirit will protect the people under his care4 ,thus it happens that several times each year a group of people may be seen early in the morning1 gathered at the stones4 ,they anoint the head of each one with oil1 put new bark bands on their necks1 after which they kill a small pig4 ,the medium mixes the blood of the slain animal with rice1 and scatters it on the ground while she recites the story of their origin4 ,then she bids the spirits from near and far to come and eat1 and to be kindly disposed4 ,in ,bakaok and some other villages it is customary for the medium to summon several spirits at this time1 and this is followed by the dancing of tadek4 ,the people of ,luluno always hold a ceremony at the pinaing before the planting of the rice and after the harvest4 ,following this ceremony in the village of ,san ,juan1 a miniature raft 7taltalabong7 was loaded with food and other presents1 and was set afloat1 to carry provisions to any spirit1 who might have been prevented from enjoying the feast4 ,these stones are of particular interest1 in that they present one of the few instances in which the ,tinguian associates supernatural beings with natural objects4 ,saloko 7,plate ,,xxv74--,besides the houses1 in the fields1 and at the gate of many villages1 one often sees long bamboo poles with one end converted into a basket-like receptacle4 ,offerings of food and betel-nut are now found in them2 but1 according to some of the older men1 these were1 until recently1 used to hold the heads of slain enemies1 as is still the case among the neighboring ,apayao4 ,the ritual of the ,saloko ceremony seems1 in part1 to bear out this claim2 yet the folk-tales and equally good informants assure us that the heads were placed on sharpened bamboo poles1 which passed through the foramen magnum4 ,it is probable that both methods of exhibiting skulls were employed in the ,tinguian belt4 ,nowadays the saloko found near to the villages are usually erected1 during a short ceremony of the same name1 as a cure for headache4 ,a medium is summoned2 and1 after securing a chicken1 she strokes it1 as she chants3 ,you spirits of the sagang1 #acb who live above4 ,you spirits of the sagang1 who live on the level ground4 ,you spirits of the sagang1 who live in the east4 ,you spirits of the sagang1 who live in the west4 ,you ,lalaman #acc above4 ,you ,lalaman on the wooded hill4 ,you ,lalaman in the west4 ,if you took the head of the sick man1 ,you must now grant him health1 as you please4 ,the fowl is killed2 and its blood1 together with rice and some other gift1 is placed in the saloko1 and is planted near the house or gate4 ,oftentimes a string of feathers runs from the pole to the dwelling1 or to the opposite side of the gate4 ,the family cooks and eats the chicken1 and the affected member is expected to recover at once4 ,should the trouble persist1 a more elaborate ceremony1 probably ,dawak1 will follow4 ,in some instances betel-nut prepared for chewing takes the place of the fowl2 rice-stalks hang from the sides of the basket1 and bits of pine are added to make bright and clear4 ,all of this is rubbed on the patient's head1 while the medium recites the diam4 ,bawi1 also called ,sinaba-an and ,ababong4--,this name is often applied to the small houses built in the rice-fields for the spirit ,kaiba-an1 but more commonly it refers to the little structures of bamboo and grass1 which nestle among the banana plantings near the village 7,plate ,,xxii74 ,when such a structure is built or repaired1 it is accompanied by a ceremony of the same name4 ,the usual purpose of this event is to cure sore feet1 but in ,patok and other valley towns it is celebrated before the rice harvest and the pressing of the sugar-cane1 so that the spirits will keep the workers in good health1 and save them from injury4 ,one of the most common ailments is sore or cracked feet caused1 no doubt1 by standing for long periods in the mud and water of the rice-fields1 and then tramping over the rough1 hot trails to the village4 ,the ,tinguian1 however1 know that the spirits1 called ,abat and ,selday bring about this affliction1 unless they are kept in good humor1 and have something to occupy their time other than disturbing human beings2 hence these houses are built for them1 suitable offerings are placed inside1 and finally a few banana suckers are planted close by1 so that the spirits will be kept busy caring for them4 ,the origin of the ceremony is ascribed to a woman of ancient times1 named ,bagutayka1 who1 lacking certain organs1 appears as an outcast4 ,she at first caused passers-by to have trouble with their feet and limbs1 but later taught them how to effect a cure by building the bawi and performing the ceremony4 #acd ,to-day1 when a person is afflicted1 he summons a medium1 the spirit-house is built1 and then the following diam is recited over a rooster3 ,you abat above1 ,you abat in the ground1 ,you abat in the corner of the house1 ,you abat in the center pole1 ,you abat below the stair1 ,you abat in the door1 ,you ,selday in the wooded hill1 ,you ,selday above1 ,make the sick person well1 if you please6 #ace ,when the recital is finished1 the fowl is killed1 and its blood mixed with rice is placed in nine dishes and one polished coconut shell4 ,from these it is transferred to nine other dishes and one bamboo basket4 ,these are placed in a row1 and nine dishes and one unpolished shell are filled with water1 and placed opposite4 ,in the center of this double line is a dish1 containing the cooked flesh of the rooster1 also some rice1 and one hundred fathoms of thread1 while between the dishes are laid ten half betel-nuts1 prepared for chewing4 ,later1 all these things are returned to a single receptacle1 except those in the shell cups and basket1 which are placed in the spirit-house4 ,the underlying idea in this procedure seems to be that frequently found in other ceremonies1 namely1 that food and water symbolizes the life of the patient1 which is partially taken away by the spirits2 but when they are returned to one place1 the life must be replaced in a like manner4 ,in ,manabo a piece of banana bark is taken from one of the plantings beside a bawi2 and1 after being washed in the water1 is applied to the affected limb4 ,the final act is to take a coconut husk1 stick feathers in its sides1 and hang it beside the bawi as a sign to all that the ceremony has been held4 ,no spirits are summoned at this time1 neither is there singing or dancing4 ,bakid4 #acf--,this ceremony is held to celebrate the completion of a new dwelling1 or to remove any bad sign1 which may have been received during the building operations4 ,the medium and her assistants fasten a bamboo pole or rattan cord across one portion of the room1 and on it place numerous pieces of cloth-skirts1 blankets1 belts1 a fish-net1 and a quantity of false hair4 ,this serves first as an offering to the spirits1 but it is also explained that1 if the immortals are unable to count all the gifts1 they will be powerless to injure the occupants of the dwelling4 ,should an evilly disposed being desire to make trouble for the owner1 he must count every hair in the switches1 as well as every hole in the fish-net4 ,failing in this1 he will be compelled by the other spirits to celebrate the ,bakid ceremony five times at his own expense4 ,beneath the line of offerings1 a bound pig is laid2 and1 as she strokes the side of the animal1 with oiled fingers1 the medium repeats a diam #acg in which she tells of misfortunes of a family1 which failed to observe the signs sent by ,kaboniyan1 and of his instructions as to how best to overcome their troubles4 ,the family listens respectfully until the story is finished1 then they lift a door from its socket1 place it in the middle of the floor1 and proceed to sacrifice the pig upon it4 ,some of the blood is immediately sprinkled on the house timbers1 particularly those which may have given the builders trouble1 either in transportation1 or during the erection of the structure4 ,the greater part of the blood is mixed with rice1 and is dropped through the slits in the floor1 or scattered about for the spirits2 while for an hour or more a portion of the meat1 the heart1 and the head1 are placed below the offerings on the cord or on the house-beams4 ,later1 these portions will be cooked and served to the guests4 ,immediately after the killing1 the liver is removed1 and is examined for a sign4 ,should the omens be unfavorable1 another animal will be killed1 or the family will celebrate ,sangasang within a few days4 ,if the signs are satisfactory1 the host begins to distribute basi1 and soon good fellowship reigns4 ,one after another of the guests sings the daleng1 in which they bespeak for the owner a long and prosperous life in his new home4 ,the ,bakid always ends with a feast1 in which the flesh of slaughtered animals plays the important part4 ,upon its completion1 the medium is given a portion of the meat1 some unthreshed rice1 and other small gifts1 as payment for her services4 ,the guests return to their homes1 and for two or three days following are barred from entering the new dwelling4 ,during this period the family must remain indoors4 ,sangasang4--,sangasang is often so similar to the ,bakid1 that one description might cover both4 ,this is particularly true1 if it is held to remove a bad sign4 ,should a large lizard or a bird enter a new building1 it is considered as a messenger of ,kaboniyan2 and the foregoing ceremony is carried out1 the only variation being that the bird or lizard is caught1 if possible1 is anointed with oil1 a bead is attached to a leg1 and it is then released to go back to its master4 ,continued misfortunes to the members of a household would also be an excuse for the ceremony4 ,in this instance1 the only variation from the procedure just given would be in the diams4 ,the first to be recited tells how the spirit ,maganawan sent many snakes and birds to the gate of a town to demand the blood of a rooster mixed with rice4 ,the people celebrated ,sangasang1 and sent blood and rice to ,maganawan1 who1 in turn1 spat it out on the ground4 ,as he did so1 the sickness and misfortunes of the mortals vanished4 ,the second diam #ach relates a quarrel between the various parts of the house1 each insisting on its own importance4 ,at last they recognize their mutual dependence1 and the people of the dwelling are again in good health4 #aci ,in ,lumaba and nearby villages1 unpleasant dreams1 or a bad disposition are overcome by a ceremony called ,sangasang2 but1 as this varies somewhat from the others1 it is given in detail4 ,the medium1 who is summoned for this event1 calls for oil and a rooster with long spurs4 ,when these are brought1 she strokes the fowl with the oil1 and chants the following diam4 ,there is a very old woman in the sea1 and she says to her spirits1 who are ,dapeg 7a spirit which kills people71 ,balingenngen 7a spirit which causes bad dreams71 and ,benisalsal 7a spirit which throws things and is unpleasant71 ',go beyond the sea and spread your sickness1' ,the spirits are going4 ,they arrive and begin their work1 and if the people do not make ,sangasang1 many will die4 ,now it is morning1 and the spirits are going to the river to see what the people have offered to the old woman1 who is ,inawen4 ,if they do not find anything1 they will say1 ',all the people in this town shall die1' and then they will go on to another place4 ,inawen1 who is waiting1 sends ,kideng 7a servant7 to search for the spirits1 who are killing people1 to tell them to return4 ,dapeg leaves the first town4 ,he goes to another1 and the dogs bark so that the people cannot sleep4 ,a man opens the door1 to learn the cause of the barking1 and he sees a man1 fat and tall1 with nine heads1 and he carries many kinds of cakes4 ,the man says1 ',now take these cakes1 and if you do not make ,sangasang for my mistress1 at the river1 you shall die4 ,you must find a rooster with long tail and spurs2 you must mix its blood with rice1 and put it in the river at dawn when no one can see you1' ,the man makes ,sangasang the next night1 and puts the blood1 mixed with rice1 in a well dug by the river1 so that the spirits may take it to their mistress4 ,kideng also arrives and says1 'you must come with me now1 for she awaits you who are bearing this offering4' ,they go and arrive4 ,their mistress eats and says1 ',i did not think that the blood of people tasted so badly1 now ,i shall not send you again1 for you have already killed many people4' ,when this chant is completed1 the chicken is killed1 as directed in the song2 and at night the blood and rice are offered beside the stream4 #adj ,the chicken is eaten by the family1 and its feathers are tied to a string1 stretched across the room4 ,leaves are attached to the house-ladder as a warning that all visitors are barred1 and for three days the family remains quietly indoors4 ,sagobay4 #ada--,this is one of the most widespread of the ceremonies1 for it not only covers the entire ,tinguian belt1 but extends into the ,igorot villages of the ,upit river region and ,ilocos ,sur1 as well as into the ,kalinga villages of the ,malokbot valley4 ,its occurrence in connection with the rice-culture is fully1 described elsewhere 7cf4 p4 #djj71 so that at this place only its second function1 that of keeping illness from the town1 is described4 ,when an epidemic appears in a nearby settlement1 the lakay summons the old men in council1 and they decide on the number of pigs1 and the amount of rice1 basi1 and other articles required1 after which the necessary funds are secured by levying a tax on all the people of the village4 ,to keep the evil spirits1 who bear the sickness1 out of the town1 a cord of bamboo or rattan is stretched around the whole settlement1 while at the gate a high fence is erected4 ,through the uprights of this fence are stuck bamboo spikes with the sharpened ends facing outward1 so as to catch or pierce the intruders 7,plate ,,xxviii72 while in the saloko and along the gateway are placed leaves1 roots1 and other offerings acceptable to the friendly spirits4 ,similar cords and leaves are also strung around the entrances to the houses4 ,the cord and gateway form an adequate protection1 and no human being or spirit will violate this taboo4 ,should a human do so1 the least penalty would be a tax sufficient to pay all the expense of the ceremony2 but should the sickness afterwards invade the town1 it is quite possible that more serious punishment might be exacted by the families of the victims4 ,when all is prepared1 the men and boys arm themselves1 and with shouts and hostile demonstrations drive the sickness toward the town whence it is thought to come4 #adb ,returning to the center of the village1 the people dance tadek1 and the mediums may summon several spirits4 ,next1 the pigs are killed1 and their livers are examined for a sign4 ,should the omens be unfavorable1 one or more fowls will be sacrificed1 until it seems certain that the help of the spirits is assured1 after which the flesh is cooked and eaten4 ,then a small covered raft 7taltalabong7 is constructed1 and a portion of the food is placed inside4 ,late in the afternoon1 this is carried through the village1 while one or more drummers keep up a din to frighten evil spirits away4 ,just as the sun is sinking1 the raft is carried to the river1 and is set afloat1 in order that any interested spirits1 who may have been prevented from attending the ceremony1 may still receive their share of the offering4 ,in ,likuan a different explanation is offered for the taltalabong4 ,here they say that the offerings are placed on the raft1 so as to induce any hostile spirits who may be near to enter1 and then they are carried out and away from the town4 ,the blood of the slaughtered animals has been saved1 and upon their return from the river the people dip leaves into it1 and attach these near to the doors of their dwellings4 ,for at least one day following1 no work is done1 and all visitors are barred4 ,during this time the people only converse in low tones1 and take special precautions against even animals making a noise4 ,the beaks of roosters are tied1 or they are placed in small baskets1 so that they cannot stand up to crow4 ,in ,lakub a new house or protection is placed above the guardian stones1 and offerings are made to them at the time of the ,sagobay1 while in ,likuan the participants wear neck and ankle bands of bamboo as a further protection from the sickness4 ,ngorong-or4--,lumaba and the ,tinguian villages of ,ilokos ,sur hold this ceremony1 whenever a person is seriously ill with stomach trouble4 ,as the rite does not extend far into the ,tinguian belt1 but is found in the ,igorot villages farther south1 it seems likely that it is an importation from that region4 ,the members of the family gather in the afternoon1 and kill a small pig by cutting off its head4 ,a part of the blood is saved1 and the balance is sprinkled against the house posts and ladder4 ,the pig itself is hung from one round of the ladder1 so that its blood will drip to the ground4 ,the medium has been standing quietly to one side watching1 but now she calls upon the spirits1 ,you 7calling one or more by name71 come out2 be vomited up1 for now you are being fed4 ,she allows them a few minutes for their repast1 then cuts open the carcass and removes the liver4 ,a bit is cut from the top1 then she splits open the animal's skull1 and removes a little of the brain4 ,this she places on a banana leaf2 and1 after adding a small piece of gold1 wraps it up and buries it beside the center post of the dwelling4 ,the animal is now cooked and served to the guests1 but liberal portions are placed on the house rafters and other places convenient for the spirits4 ,next morning a piece is cut from a dog's ear1 is smeared with blood1 and is placed in a small split bamboo1 together with two stalks of rice4 ,a clout is tied to a spear1 and all are rubbed on the body of the patient1 while the medium explains that this is the betel-nut of the spirits1 and that1 when she takes it from the village1 they will go also1 and the recovery be assured4 ,the family follows her to the gate of the town1 and watches closely1 as she thrusts the spear and pole into the ground2 for if they are firmly set in the ground1 yet lean away from the village1 it is certain that the spirits have departed1 and the sick will recover4 ,following the ceremony1 members of the family may not work for five days1 neither may they lead a horse or carabao1 or eat of wild meat4 ,should they do any of the things forbidden1 they will be struck by lightning4 ,sapata the ,oath4--,if a theft has been committed1 and it has been impossible to detect the guilty person1 the following procedure takes place4 ,a rice-mortar is placed in the yard1 and on it a dish of basi4 ,all the people are summoned to gather1 and one by one they drink of the liquor1 meanwhile calling on the snakes to bite them1 the lightning to strike them1 or their abdomens to swell up and burst if they are guilty4 ,soon the people will know the culprit1 for one of these disasters will befall him4 ,when that occurs1 his family will be compelled to make good the theft1 as well as the expense of this gathering4 ,,section #b ,the ,great ,ceremonies ,in addition to the ceremonies and rites which may be celebrated by all the people there are a number of more elaborate observances1 which can only be given by those who have the hereditary right1 or who have gained the privilege by a certain definite procedure4 ,in general these ceremonies are restricted to the villages in or close to the valley of the ,abra1 the lower reaches of the ,tineg1 ,malanas1 and ,sinalong rivers4 ,as one proceeds up the tributary streams into such settlements as ,baay1 ,likuan1 and ,lakub1 it is noticeable that the typical spirit houses become fewer in number1 while the participants in the accompanying ceremonies are limited to recent emigrants from the lower valleys4 ,the same thing is found to be true on the western side of the coast range of mountains1 as one goes north or south from the ,abra river1 although there is evidence here that some of the settlements formerly had these rites1 but have allowed them to fall into disuse1 as a result of ,ilocano influence4 ,this distribution of the great ceremonies seems to give a hint that they are intrusive2 that they probably were at one time restricted to the families of emigrants and even to-day are barred from a part of the people4 ,they have not yet extended far into the interior1 despite the fact that in the lower valleys they almost completely dominate the life of the people during a portion of the year4 ,in all the valley towns one sees little houses and platforms1 apparently of no practical value1 yet occupying important places1 while in the period following the rice-harvest elaborate festivals are carried on about them4 ,soon it develops that each of these structures has a definite name1 is associated with a particular ceremony1 and is built and kept in repair in honor of certain powerful spirits4 ,the culmination of these rites is the great ,sayang ceremony which extends over seventeen days and nights4 ,when this is held1 it includes all the minor events of this class1 and the smaller spirit structures are then built or repaired4 ,this supreme event can only be celebrated by a few families1 but all the townpeople are welcome guests1 and all1 regardless of age and sex1 may witness or take part in the proceedings4 ,since all the great events occur after the harvest1 a time of leisure and plenty1 they become the great social events of the year4 ,a person who does not have the hereditary right to the ceremonies may gain the liberty if he be warned in a dream or be notified by the spirits that it is their wish4 ,since all the expenses of such a gathering fall on the giver1 it is imperative that he be well-to-do4 ,such a one gives the ceremonies1 in order1 during a term of years1 and eventually obtains the right to the ,sayang1 the greatest social and religious event in ,tinguian life4 ,adoption entitles an individual to all the privileges of the family1 and as the writer and his wife were adopted into a family possessing the right to all the ceremonies1 they became at once participants in all the events which are here described4 ,in this way it was possible to obtain information and instruction on many points which observation alone could scarcely afford4 ,the ,pala-an ceremony is the first round on the social and religious ladder4 ,it is here given in some detail1 and is then followed by others1 in the order of their importance4 ,pala-an4--,the ,pala-an is held when some member of the family is ill1 or when the structure of that name needs repair4 ,many spirits visit the people during this rite1 but the one chiefly interested is ,idadaya1 the spirit of the east4 ,he and his ten grandchildren wear in their hair the notched tail-feathers of a rooster1 which are known as igam4 ,from time to time these lose their luster1 and they can only be refreshed by having some mortal celebrate ,pala-an4 ,when it appears that these ornaments need attention1 the ,idadaya will notify some family1 either through a medium or by sending illness to them4 ,a family having received such a notification summons a medium1 and she at once begins to gather saklag 7,justicia gendarussa ,l47 and sikag 7,lygodium sp4 near scandens7 and a grass known as bildis1 while the men secure the bamboo and other materials used in building the spirit structure4 ,one corner of the living room is screened off with a large white blanket called tabing1 and behind it the medium places unthreshed rice and jars which she has decked with vines and leaves4 ,while she is thus engaged1 the men are busy building the pala-an 7,plate ,,xxiv74 ,this consists of four long poles--three of bamboo and one of a resinous tree1 anteng1 #adc set in a square and supporting1 near the top1 a platform of bamboo4 ,a number of women have been invited to assist the family1 and they now proceed to beat out sufficient rice to serve the guests4 ,when the pounding is finished1 a rice-mortar is set out in the open1 and a little rice is placed in it4 ,the women1 armed with long pestles1 gather around and1 keeping time to the music of copper gongs1 they circle the mortar contra-clockwise1 striking its edge three times in regular beats of #a1 #b1 #c2 on the next beat the leader strikes the bottom of her pestle against that of her neighbor1 on the first and second beats1 but on the third she pounds the rice in the mortar4 ,this is repeated by the woman on her right and so on around the circle4 ,then the leader strikes the top of her pestle against the top of the one held by the women next her on two beats and on the third pounds rice1 and this is repeated by all4 ,the music now becomes much faster1 and1 keeping time with it1 the leader strikes first into the rice1 then whirls clear around and strikes the pestle of the woman on her left2 again she turns and strikes that of the woman on her right4 ,each follows her in turn1 and soon all are in motion about the mortar1 alternately pounding the rice and clashing pestles4 ,this is known as kitong1 and is the method prescribed by the great spirit ,kaboniyan for the breaking of a part of the rice to be used in this and other ceremonies 7,plate ,,xxxi74 ,as soon as the pounding is finished1 the medium places some of the newly broken rice in a bamboo dish1 and places this on a rice winnower4 ,she also adds a skirt1 five pieces of betel-nut1 two piper leaves1 and a little dish of oil1 and carries the collection below the pala-an1 where a bound pig lies4 ,the betel-nut and leaf are placed on the animal1 then the medium dips her fingers in the oil1 and strokes its side while she recites the following diam3-- ,the spirit who lives in ,dadaya lies in bed2 he looks at his igam1 and they are dull4 ,he looks again1 ',why are my igam dull8 ,ala1 let us go to ,sudipan1 where the ,tinguian live1 and let us take our igam1 so that some one may make them bright again4' ,after that they laid them 7the igam7 on the house of the ,ipogau1 and they are all sick who live in that house4 ,kaboniyan looked down on them4 ',ala1 ,i shall go down to the ,ipogau1' ,he truly went down to them1 ',what is the matter with you8' ',we are all sick who live in the same place1' said those sick ones4 ',that is true1 and the cause of your sickness is that they 7the spirits7 laid down their igam on you4 ,it is best that you make ,pala-an1 since you have received their igam1 for that is the cause of your illness1' ,after that they made ,pala-an1 and they recovered from their sickness1 those who lived in the same place4 7,here the medium calls the spirits of ,dadaya by name and then continues47 ',now those who live in the same place make bright again those igam which you left in their house4 ,make them well again1 if you please'4 ,as soon as she finishes her recital1 the pig is stabbed in the throat1 its blood is collected1 and is mixed with cooked rice4 ,the carcass is singed at once4 ,five men then carry it to the top of the pala-an1 where it is cut up4 ,the suet and the hind legs are handed to the medium1 who places them behind the screen in the room1 and the family may then rest assured that the spirits thus remembered will free them from headache and sore eyes4 ,after the flesh has been cut into small pieces1 most of it is carried into the dwelling to be cooked for the guests1 but a portion is placed in a bamboo tube1 and is cooked beneath the pala-an4 ,when it is ready to serve1 the five men again go to the top of the structure and eat it1 together with cooked rice1 then they take the bamboo cooking tube1 tie some of the sacred vines from behind the curtain about it1 and fasten it to one pole of the pala-an4 ,the men in the house are free to eat1 and when they are finished1 the women dine4 ,in the cool of the afternoon1 the people begin to assemble in the yard1 where they are soon joined by the medium carrying a spear in one hand1 a rooster in the other1 and with a rice winnower atop her head4 ,she places the latter on a rice-mortar close to the pala-an1 and uncovering it reveals a small head-axe1 notched chicken feathers1 her shells1 five pieces of betel-nut and two leaves1 a jar cover1 a dish of oil1 and a coconut shell filled with rice and blood4 ,at the command of the medium1 four or five men begin to play on copper gongs1 while the wife of the host comes forward and receives the spear and rooster in one hand4 ,the medium takes the head-axe1 and then the two women take hold of the winnower with their free hands4 ,keeping time to the music1 they lift it from the mortar1 take one step1 then stop1 strike the spear and head-axe together1 then step and stop again4 ,at each halt the medium takes a little of the rice and blood from the winnower and sprinkles it on the ground for the spirits to eat4 #add ,when they have made half the circuit of the mortar1 they change places and retrace their steps2 for as they take the gifts partly away and then replace them1 in the same manner the spirits will return that part of the patient's life which they had removed1 and he will become well and strong again4 ,the blood and rice which remain after this dance is placed on nine pieces of banana bark4 ,five of these are carried to the pala-an2 one to the east and one to the west gate of the town2 one is put on the talagan1 a miniature seat erected near by for the convenience of visiting spirits1 and one in a little spirit house known as tangpap 7cf4p4#caa74 ,for an hour or more1 the medium makes dawak1 and summons many spirits into her body4 ,when the last of superior beings has made his call1 the medium goes to her home1 carrying her payment for the day's work1 #ade but the townspeople remain to drink basi and to sing da-eng until well into the night4 ,early the next morning1 the medium goes to the house1 and removing the jars and the bundle of decorated rice from the tabing1 carries them to the family's rice granary1 and places them in the center of that structure1 covering them with six bundles of rice4 ,this is an offering to the spirit residing there1 and for the next five days the granary must not be opened4 ,nothing more of importance takes place during the morning1 but late in the afternoon the people assemble in the dwelling to drink basi1 while one or more mediums summon the spirits4 ,after a time a sterile female pig is brought in and placed in the center of the room4 ,two men armed with long knives slice the animal open along the length of its stomach4 ,an old man quickly slips in his hand1 draws out the still palpitating heart1 and hands it to a medium1 who in turn strokes the stomachs of members of the family1 thus protecting them from intestinal troubles4 ,she also touches the guests and the articles which have been used during the day4 ,for this second day this medium receives1 as pay1 the head and two legs of the pig1 a hundred fathoms of thread1 a dish of broken rice1 and five bundles of unthreshed rice4 ,she also is given a small present in exchange for each bead she received when the spirits entered her body4 ,following the ceremony1 the members of the family are barred from work1 usually for one moon1 and during this period they may not eat of wild pig or carabao1 of lobsters or eels4 ,an infraction of this rule would incur1 the wrath of the spirits and result in sickness and disaster4 ,tangpap4--,in many of the valley towns ,tangpap is only a part of ,sayang 7cf4p4#cde71 and is never given alone1 but in ,manabo1 ,lagangilang1 and nearby settlements it is recognized as one of the ceremonies which must be celebrated before a family acquires the right to ,sayang4 ,in these villages it follows ,pala-an after a lapse of two or three years4 ,it was during the progress of this ceremony in the village of ,manabo1 in #aijh1 that the writer and his wife were made members of the tribe1 and since the mediums were particularly anxious that we know all the details1 the information in this instance is unusually complete4 ,it is here given in full1 as an excellent example of how all are conducted4 ,a ,manabo woman1 the wife of ,sagasag1 was seized with an illness which deprived her of the use of her limbs1 and when other means of relief failed1 was told by the spirits to give the ,tangpap ceremony1 to which she already had a hereditary right4 ,a medium was summoned1 and she1 with two assistants1 began to prepare many presents for the spirits who were expected to attend the ceremony4 ,from previous experience it was known the sort of gift each would appreciate1 and by the end of the second day the following things were in readiness4 ,for the spirits ,bakod and ,olak1 #adf a rice winnower was loaded with a shield1 a clay dish1 a coconut shell filled with basi1 a string of beads1 a small basket1 two bundles of rice1 and leaves of the atilwag 7,breynia acuminata71 later the half of a slain pig was also added4 ,cords were attached at each corner of the living room1 and beneath the points where they crossed was a mat on which the mediums were to sit when summoning the spirits4 ,on the cords were leaves1 grasses1 and vines1 the whole forming a decoration pleasing to the superior beings1 ,i-anayan and ,i-angawan4 ,for ,gapas they provided two small baskets of rice1 a shell called gosipeng1 and a rattan-like vine1 tanobong1 betel-nuts and piper-leaf4 ,bogewan received a basket of rice1 some white thread1 sections of posel--a variety of bamboo--1 atilwag leaves1 and some beads4 ,for ,bognitan1 a jar was partly filled with tanobong1 and for ,gilin1 a jar of basi4 ,cooked rice was moulded into the form of an alligator1 and was spotted with red1 betel saliva4 ,this1 when placed on a basket of rice1 was intended for ,bolandan4 ,soyan was provided with a basket which contained the medium's shells and a cloth1 while ,ibaka received a jar cover filled with salt4 ,dandawila had to be content with a stem of young betel-nuts1 and ,bakoki with two fish baskets filled with pounded rice1 also a spear4 ,a large white blanket was folded into a neat square1 and on it was laid a lead sinker for the use of ,mamonglo4 ,as a rule1 three spirits named ,mabeyan attended this ceremony4 ,for the first1 a bamboo frame was constructed1 and on it was placed a female pig1 runo 7a reed71 and prepared betel nut4 ,for the second1 a shield1 fish net1 rice and a rice winnower1 and a bit of string2 while for the third1 a rice winnower was set with eight coconut shells1 a small dish1 and a gourd dipper4 ,during a considerable portion of the time that these articles were being prepared1 several men sat in the yard and played on the tongatong1 but when the mediums finally gave the signal that everything was in readiness1 they moved their instrument up on the porch of the dwelling1 where they continued playing softly4 ,one of the mediums took her place in the mat in the middle of the room1 and raising a ,chinese plate above her head1 began to strike against it with her shells1 in order to notify the spirits that the ceremony was about to begin4 ,next she placed two dishes on the mat in front of her1 and as she sang a monotonous chant1 she touched each one with a small stick4 ,the host was then ordered to shuffle his feet between the lines of dishes and to step over each one4 ,as soon as he did so1 the medium pulled the mat from beneath them1 rolled it up1 and used it as a whip with which she struck the head of each member of the family4 ,the spirit who had caused the woman's illness was supposed to be near by1 and after he witnessed this whipping1 he would be afraid to remain longer4 ,as a promise of future reward to the well-disposed immortals1 a bound pig was then placed beside the door of the dwelling4 ,going to the hearth1 the medium withdrew burning sticks1 and placed them in a jar1 and held this over the head of the sick woman1 for a spirit has made her sick1 but the fire will frighten him away1 and she will get well4 ,after she had made the circuit of the family1 she held a bundle of rice above the flames1 and with it again went to each person in the room2 then she did the same thing with broken rice and with the atilwag vine4 ,two mediums then seated themselves on the mat1 and covering their faces with their hands1 began to chant and wail1 beseeching the spirits to enter their bodies4 ,one after another the spirits came and possesed the mediums1 so that they were no longer regarded as human beings1 but as the spirits themselves4 ,first came ,kakalonan1 also known as ,boboyonan1 a friendly being whose chief duty it is to find the cause of troubles4 ,addressing the sick woman1 he said1 ,now you make this ceremony1 and ,i come to make friends and to tell you the cause of your trouble4 ,i do not think it was necessary for you to hold this ceremony now1 for you built your balaua only two years ago2 yet it is best that you do so1 for you can do nothing else4 ,you are not like the spirits4 ,if we die1 we come to life again2 if you die1 you do not4 ,at this point an old man interrupted1 and offered him a drink of basi4 ,at first ,kakalonan refused1 saying he did not want to accept any payment2 but finally he yielded and drained the coconut shell of liquor4 ,after assuring the family that all would be well with them when the ceremony was complete1 he took his departure4 ,the next spirit to come was ,sagangan #adg of ,anayan4 ,he appeared to be in a rage1 because the proper present had not been prepared for his coming1 and was expressing himself vigorously when a passing woman happened to touch him1 and he at once departed4 ,the medium chanted for a long time1 urging him to return1 and finally he did so4 ,at once he demanded that two bundles of rice have wax heads moulded on them1 and that black beads be inserted for eyes4 ,these1 he assured them1 would serve him as well as the woman's life1 so he would make the exchange1 and she would get well4 ,when the dolls were prepared1 he addressed the husband1 ,my other name is ,ingalit1 and ,i live in the sky4 ,what is the matter with the woman8 ,i do not know1 replied the man4 ,we ask you4 ,you ask me1 what is the matter with this woman1 and ,i will tell you4 ,how does it happen that ,americans are attending the ceremony8 ,the husband replied that the ,americans wished to learn the ,tinguian customs1 and this finally seemed to satisfy the superior being4 ,turning toward the door where the men were still softly playing on the tongatong1 he called out peevishly1 ,tell the people not to play on the tongatong1 for the spirits who wish to hear it are not present1 and we are ashamed to have the ,americans hear it4 ,you make this ceremony now because you are sick and do not wish to die1 but you could have waited two years4 ,while this spirit was talking1 another1 who said he lived in ,langbosan1 and had been sent by ,gilen1 came to the body of the second medium4 ,paying no attention to the other spirit1 he began to give instructions for the conduct of the ceremony4 ,the tangpap was to be build the next morning1 also two balags 7p4#cjh71 and for them they were to prepare one pig4 ,do not fail to prepare this pig1 but you may use it for both tangpap and balag4 ,you will also make a taltalabong 7p4#caa74 ,for this you must prepare a different pig1 for this is for the sons and servants of ,kadaklan4 ,after the departure of these beings1 ten other spirits came in quick succession4 ,two of the latter claimed to be ,igorot spirits1 and both talked with the peculiar stacatto accent of the people who live along the ,kalinga-,igorot border4 #adh ,after the departure of the ,igorot spirits1 both mediums were possessed1 one by ,sanadan1 a male spirit1 and the other by the female spirit of ,pangpangdan4 ,at their request the men began again to play on the tongatong1 and the spirits danced4 ,soon ,sanadan began to fondle the woman1 to rub her face with his1 to feel of her body and at last of her privates4 ,other spirits1 who stayed only long enough to drink1 followed them1 and then ,gonay appeared4 ,the spectators had been openly bored by the last few visitors1 but the name of ,gonay quickly revived their interest4 ,she began to sing a wailing song in which she told of her sad plight4 ,time after time she repeated the sentence1 ,gongay has no husband1 for her mother put a stone in her vagina1 yet she loves all young men4 ,from time to time she would pause1 and make ludicrous attempts to fondle the young boys1 and then when they resisted her1 she again took up her plaint4 ,at last she succeeded in getting one young fellow to exchange cigars and headbands with her1 and began to rub her hands on his body1 urging him not to leave her4 ,just when she seemed on the verge of success in winning him1 another spirit ,baliwaga came to the medium1 and the fun-maker had to depart4 ,the newcomer placed an agate bead in a dish1 and held it high above his head while he danced4 ,finally he called out that the bead had vanished1 but when he lowered the plate1 it was still there1 and he left in chagrin4 ,he was succeeded by a dumb female spirit named ,damolan1 who undertook to do the trick in which her predecessor had failed4 ,holding the plate high above her head1 she danced furiously1 and from time to time struck against the side of the dish with the medium's shells4 ,twice when she lowered the dish1 the bead was there1 but on the third attempt it had vanished4 ,the trick was so cleverly done that1 although we were beside her and watching closely1 we did not detect the final movement4 ,with much satisfaction1 the medium assured us that the bead would be found in the hair of the man who broke the first ground for the tangpap1 a boast which was made good the following morning4 ,adadog came next1 and not finding the chicken which should have been placed on the mat for him1 he broke out in a great fury and tried to seize a man in its place4 ,he was restrained from doing injury to his victim1 and soon left1 still highly indignant4 ,seven other spirits stopped only for a drink1 and then ,daliwaya appeared4 ,upon her arrival1 one of the headmen gravely informed her that the people wished to adopt four ,americans1 but that only one was then present4 ,the spirit bade the writer to arise from the mat1 where he was lying1 and after stroking his head for a time1 said1 ,you wish to make this ,american an ,itneg1 #adi but before you can do anything1 the spirits must approve and give him a name4 ,i will give him a name now1 and then to-morrow all the people must say if they wish to give him another name and make him ,ipogau4 #aej ,his name shall be ,agonan1 for that is the name of the spirit who knows many languages4 ,again she stroked the writer's head1 and then taking a large porcelain platter1 she filled it with basi1 and together we drank the liquor1 alternately1 a swallow at a time4 ,after her departure1 an ,alzado #aea came and danced with high knee action1 meantime saying1 she was there to make some one ill1 and that she would do so unless the ,american gave her a cloth for her clout when she returned the following day4 ,the next visitor was ,sanadan1 the spirit who owns and guards the deer and wild pig4 ,up to this time the people had been mildly interested in the arrivals1 but when this important being appeared1 the men at once became alert2 they told him of their troubles in the hunts1 of the scarcity of deer1 and urged him to send more of them to ,mt4 ,posoey1 where they were accustomed to hunt4 ,he offered much good advice concerning the methods of hunting1 but refused to take any action regarding the game on the nearby mountain1 for1 he said1 the spirit ,dapwanay who owns ,posoey was watching the game there4 ,just before he departed1 he called to the headmen1 ,i am very rich and very bold4 ,i am not afraid to go anywhere4 ,i can become the sunset sky4 ,i am going to ,asbinan in ,kalaskigan to have him make me a shoe of gold4 ,to-morrow you must not use any of the things you have had out-of-doors1 but you may make use of them when you build the taltalabong4 ,the last spirit to come that night was ,ablalansa who keeps guard over the sons of ,kadaklan4 ,he paused only for a drink and to tell the people that ,america was very near to the place1 where the big birds live who eat people4 ,it was midnight when the medium informed us that no more spirits would come that evening1 and we went to rest4 ,about six o'clock the next morning1 the women began the ceremonial pounding of the rice known as kitong 7cf4 p4 #cbi7 in the yard1 while one of the mediums went to the bound pig lying in the dwelling and recited a diam as she stroked its side2 she also poured a little basi through the slits in the floor for the use of any visiting spirits4 ,while the women were thus engaged1 the men were busy constructing spirit houses in the yard4 ,of greatest importance was the tangpap 7,plate ,,xxvii71 a small bamboo structure with a slanting roof1 resting on four poles1 and an interwoven bamboo floor fastened about three feet above the ground4 #aeb ,near one of the house poles a funnel-shaped basket was tied1 and in it was set a forked stick1 within the crotch of which was a little floor and roof1 the whole forming a resting place for the ,igorot spirits of ,talegteg4 ,the pala-an needed a few repairs1 and two of the old men looked after these1 while others made two long covered bamboo benches which might be used either by visiting men or spirits4 #aec ,four long bamboo poles were set in the ground1 and a roof placed over them to form the bang-bangsal1 a shelter always provided for the spirits of ,soyau4 ,by ten o'clock all was in readiness1 and the people then gathered in the dwelling1 where the mediums began summoning the spirits4 ,the first to arrive was ,omgbawan1 a female spirit whose conversation ran as follows3 ,i come now because you people ought to make this ceremony4 ,i did not come last night1 for there were many spirits here1 and ,i was busy4 ,you people who build tangpap must provide all the necessary things1 even though they are costly4 ,it is good that the ,americans are here4 ,i never talked with one before4 ,manaldek #aed was the next arrival1 and as he was one of the spirits who was supposed to have caused the patient's illness1 his visit was of considerable importance4 ,he was presented with a spear and prepared betel-nut4 ,the latter was attached to the point of the weapon1 and this was pressed against the body of the pig1 then the spirit touched each member of the family in order to drive the sickness from them4 ,mamonglo ordered the family under a white blanket1 and then touched the head of each person with a lead sinker1 while his companion spirit waved a bundle of rice and a firebrand over them1 ,to take away the sickness which they had sent4 ,six other spirits came long enough to drink1 then ,bisangolan occupied the attention of all for a time4 ,he is an old man1 a giant who lives near the river1 and with his head-axe keeps the trees and driftwood from jamming1 and thus prevents floods4 ,for quite a time he chatted about himself1 then finally blew smoke over the people1 at the same time assuring them that the sickness would now vanish like the smoke4 ,just before departing he informed the family that a spirit named ,imalbi had caused the trouble in the patient's eyes1 and that on the next morning they must build a little house1 called balitang1 among the banana trees1 and place in it a live chicken4 ,gayangayan1 a female spirit from ,lagayan1 followed1 rubbed the head of each person1 blew smoke over them1 and then announced thus3 ,the people of ,layogan #aee must not close their doors when it rains1 or it will stop4 ,the attitude of the people toward the weaker and less important spirits was well shown when ,ambayau1 a wild female spirit1 arrived4 ,she demanded to know where she could secure heads1 and immediately the people began to tell her all sorts of impossible places1 and made jests about her and her family4 ,finally they told her to take the head of a certain ,christianized native2 but she refused1 since she had short hair1 and it would be hard for her to carry the skull4 ,while she was still talking1 the men started to carry the pig from the room1 but she detained them1 to explain that the people cut the meat into too large pieces1 for we spirits eat only so much1 indicating a pinch4 ,the spirit ,soyau came for a drink1 and then all the people went out to the tangpap1 where the pig was killed1 singed1 and cut up4 ,a small pig was laid beside the pala-an1 and for a time was guarded by the son of the sick woman1 who for this event had placed the notched chicken-feathers in his hair1 and had put on bracelets of boar's tusks4 ,as soon as she had finished at the tangpap1 the medium came to the pala-an1 and having recited the proper diam over the pig lying there1 ordered it killed in the manner already described for this structure 7cf4 p4 #cbi74 ,both animals were then cooked1 and soon all the guests were eating1 drinking and jesting4 ,late in the afternoon1 the spirit mat was spread in the yard near to the tangpap1 and the mediums began summoning the spirits4 ,the first to come was ,mamabeyan1 an ,igorot spirit for whom the people showed the utmost contempt4 ,they guyed him1 threw dirty water on his body1 and in other ways insulted him1 until in his fury he tried to climb the house posts to punish a group of girls1 the worst offenders1 but men and women rushed up with sticks and clubs1 and drove him back4 ,after a time he calmed down1 and going to a bound pig1 he addressed it as a pretty lady1 and tried to caress it4 ,while this clown spirit was amusing the crowd1 a second medium brought out ten coconut shells1 one of which was filled with blood and rice4 ,these she placed on a winnower1 which in turn was set on a rice-mortar4 ,soon the spirit ,ilongbosan entered her body1 and commanded the son of the patient to take some of the blood and rice from the one dish1 place it in all the others1 and then put it back again1 for when the spirits make a man sick1 they take part of his life1 and when they make him well1 they put it back4 ,so the boy takes a part of the blood and rice away1 and gives it to the spirits1 then puts it back4 ,the spirit was followed1 by ,gilen1 who bade the lad take hold of one side of the winnower1 while he held the other4 ,raising it in the air1 they danced half way round the mortar1 then retraced their steps4 ,this is because the spirits only partially took the life away4 ,now they put it back4 ,as they finished dancing1 ,gilen struck his spear against the boy's head-axe and departed4 ,the medium1 now with her own personality1 leaned a shield against the rice-mortar1 and in the ,lambda thus formed she hung a small bundle of rice and a burning cord1 while over the whole she spread a fish net4 ,scarcely had she completed this task1 when she was possessed by the spirit of ,kibayen1 this being walked round and round the net1 seeking for an opening1 but without success4 ,later the medium explained1 ,the rice and fire represent the woman's life1 which the spirit wishes to take2 but she cannot1 since she is unable to pass through the fish net4 ,the next visitor was ,yangayang1 who began to boast of his power to make persons ill4 ,suddenly the medium fell to the ground in convulsions1 and then stretched out in a dead faint4 ,the writer examined her closely1 but could not detect her breathing4 ,after a moment1 the second medium seized a rooster and waved it over the prostrate form1 while an old man gave a sharp stroke on a gong close to her head4 ,the medium awoke from her faint and thus the death was frightened away4 ,mamonglo1 who had been present during the morning1 returned for a moment to again rub the family and guests with his lead sinker4 ,while he was thus engaged1 the second medium was possessed by ,baniyat1 a female who made a bit of fun by trying to steal the beads of the young girls1 so the men would love her4 ,several times she tried to scale the house ladder1 but was always repulsed1 and each failure was greeted with jeers and ridicule4 ,gomogopos1 who causes stomach troubles1 came1 and after dancing before the rice-mortar1 demanded that a small pig be laid before the tangpap4 ,scarcely had the animal been deposited1 when the spirit seized a head-axe and cut it in two at one blow4 ,then he dipped the weapon in its blood and applied it to the stomach of each member of the family4 ,the pig is his pay1 and now he takes away his kind of sickness4 ,the second medium secured a live rooster1 and using its wings as a brush1 she took up the blood and the two halves of the pig1 and put them in the tangpap4 ,the rooster is the spirits' brush1 and when the dirt ,in front of the tangpap is cleaned up1 then the people will be clean and well inside their bodies4 ,at the command of the medium1 the husband of the patient went to the opposite side of the tangpap2 then she threw a bundle of rice over the structure to him4 ,he caught it1 and immediately threw it back4 ,this was repeated six times1 but on the seventh the bundle lighted on the roof1 where it was allowed to remain4 ,the spirit threw away the lives of the people1 but the man returned them4 ,the bundle is now on the tangpap1 so now the people's lives will remain safe4 ,an unnamed spirit was next to appear1 and at his command the fore part of the pig was stood upright in the winnower1 and a stick was placed in each nostril4 ,these were seized by the spirit1 who pumped them up and down1 then withdrew them1 and stroked each member of the family1 while he chanted1 ,i did this to your lives1 so now ,i must do it to you4 ,saking1 a lame spirit1 called for one of the pig's legs1 and with it rubbed the limbs of each member of the family1 so that they will not become ill in their legs4 ,one of the mediums now became possessed by ,mangamian1 who carried a feather which he used as a fighting knife4 ,the onlookers seized similar weapons and defended themselves1 or drove the spirit away by threatening him with a small dog4 ,a fire had been built near the tangpap1 and from time to time the spirit would rush up to this1 thrust his feather into the flames1 and then put it into his mouth4 ,later it was explained1 ,he is an evil spirit who tries to kill people4 ,the feather is his bolo4 ,he is like a blacksmith1 and when his knife gets dull1 he puts it in the fire1 then puts it in his mouth to wet it1 so as to make it ring4 ,three spirits now appeared in quick succession1 and discussed with the old men the advisability of adopting the ,americans #aef as ,ipogau4 ,finally the leader ,ilabdangan called them to the mat before him and told them their names1 and also recited a list of their relations4 ,then1 filling a coconut shell with basi1 he drank half and presented the shell to each candidate1 who had to drain it to the last drop4 ,a circle was formed1 and for the balance of the afternoon the new members of the tribe had to dance tadek with their relations4 ,just before dusk1 the ,igorot spirit ,daliwaya1 who had been present the night before1 appeared and demanded that the ,american give her cloth for her clout4 ,when she received this1 she sang and then instructed the men how to dance in ,igorot fashion4 ,when finally they were doing her bidding1 she danced beside them with outstretched arms in the manner of the ,igorot women4 ,later1 when the medium was again herself1 we questioned her concerning her knowledge of this dance1 but she professed absolute ignorance4 ,that evening the people danced tadek1 for a short time1 near to the pala-an1 then a fire was built beside the tangpap1 and by its light the visitors danced da-eng until far into the night 7cf4p4 #ddj74 ,early the next morning1 the men went to some banana trees near to a rice granary1 and there constructed a little spirit house1 which resembled the pala-an1 except that it was only about four feet high4 ,this was called balitang1 and was made in fulfilment of the orders given by the spirit ,imalbi on the previous evening4 ,when it was finished1 the medium placed a dish of broken rice on it1 and then tied a rooster with a belt close enough1 so that the fowl could eat of the rice4 ,returning to the dwelling1 she took down a small shield which was attached to the wall1 placed new leaves and a dish of oil on it4 ,then as she stirred the oil1 she sang the ,talatal 7,plate ,,xxxii74 ,the significance of this song1 which consists only of mentioning the names of prominent men of various villages1 seems to be lost4 ,the kalang1 or spirit box1 was then redecorated1 food was dropped through the slits in the floor for visiting spirits1 and finally the medium held the shield over the heads of the family1 beat upon it with a head-axe1 while in a loud voice she asked the spirits that1 since the family was now celebrating tangpap1 they would please make them well again4 ,the shield was fastened to the wall1 new offerings of basi were placed in the kalang1 and after it had been swung over the head of the patient1 it was again fastened above the house beam near to the roof4 ,for the next hour the mediums summoned spirits to them4 ,the first five had little of interest to offer1 except that each demanded that his liquor be served to him on a head-axe4 ,when the spirit ,amangau arrived1 he spent the time boasting of his head-hunting exploits2 he told of how he had gone to one village1 and had killed all the people1 except one pregnant woman1 and of the dance which followed4 ,finally he claimed the credit of having killed a man who had recently died in ,manabo1 and assured the people that his friends were then dancing about the head4 ,the spirit ,banbanyalan1 who followed1 disclaimed any part in the killing just mentioned1 but verified the statement of his predecessor4 ,tomakdeg came1 and after filling his mouth with rice1 blew it out over the people1 in the same way that the sickness was to be spit out4 ,meanwhile ,bebeka-an1 armed with a wooden spoon1 tried to dig up the floor and the people on it1 for that is the way she digs up sickness4 ,awa-an1 a spirit of the water1 came to inform the people that the spirit of a man recently drowned was just passing the house4 ,everything else was abandoned for a few moments1 while basi was poured out of the window1 so that the dead might receive drink4 ,two female spirits1 ,dalimayawan and ,ginlawan1 came at the same time and danced together1 while they informed the people of their beauty and their expertness in dancing4 ,suddenly they stopped1 and said that ,andayau1 the mother of ,lakgangan1 was near by2 then they instructed the host that he should wrap a gourd in a cloth and tell ,andayau that it was her son's head1 and that he had been killed1 because he had stolen carabao4 ,scarcely had the two visitors departed1 when the mother appeared1 and being informed of her son's death1 she began to wail1 ,he is lost4 ,no one works the fields1 where we planted calabasa4 ,lakgangan is lost1 he who has been killed4 ,why did you go to steal carabao8 ,we have put ,lakgangan in a hammock2 we take him to ,tomakdang4 ,the basi put out for ,lakgangan is good4 ,he is lost whom they went to kill4 ,lakgangan is lost4 ,we take him to ,tomakdang4 ,the song was interrupted by a head-hunting spirit1 who demanded the heads of two visiting girls from ,patok1 but she finally went away satisfied with a piece of cloth which they gave her4 ,blood and oil were sprinkled liberally over the ground and the gathering broken up for the morning4 ,all the forenoon1 a small group of men and women1 had been constructing a small covered bamboo raft1 and had placed in it a sack of rice1 which had been contributed by all the people4 #aeg ,by four o'clock a large number of people had gathered in the yard near the house1 and soon the spirit mats were spread on an old bedstead1 and the mediums started again to summon the superior beings4 ,the first two to appear were ,esteban from ,cagayan and ,maria from ,spain4 ,they wore gay handkerchiefs about their shoulders1 and when they danced1 gave an imitation of the ,spanish dances now seen among the ,christianized natives of the coast4 ,it was quite evident that these foreign spirits were not popular with the people1 and they were distinctly relieved when ,mananako replaced them4 ,this spirit has the reputation of being a thief1 and the guests had great sport preventing him from stealing the gifts intended for other spirits4 ,in the midst of this revelry1 the other medium was suddenly possessed by ,kadaklan--the supreme being4 ,the laughter and jesting ceased1 and breathlessly the people listened1 while the most powerful being said1 ,i am ,kadaklan4 ,here in this town where ,i talk1 you must do the things you ought to do4 ,i hear what you say you desire1 and ,i see what you are able to do4 ,something ill will befall you unless you quickly celebrate ,sagobay 7cf4 p4 #cbd71 when there are no strangers or ,christians in your town4 ,where is the basi which should have been in the place where ,i first came8 #aeh ,without awaiting an answer he vanished1 and his wife ,agemem took his place and repeated his remarks with little variation4 ,sopo1 a gambler1 next appeared and tossed handfuls of coins into a blanket4 ,he stated that if heads came up1 the people won and would have good health1 but if they lost1 their lives were his4 ,as soon as he threw1 the people rushed up1 and if they saw any tails they were quickly turned1 and the spirit was informed that he had lost4 ,kimat1 lightning1 came and demanded a drink1 which was given4 ,as he is usually considered as a dog1 the writer inquired why he had appeared as a man1 but was rewarded only by a shrug of the shoulders and the word--kadauyan 7custom74 ,another spirit1 ,andeles1 quickly replaced lightning1 and with ,sopo danced on the spirit raft1 while the old men put dishes of water and coins inside1 and fastened a small live chicken to the roof4 ,the people then tried to induce the spirits to leave1 but they refused4 ,suddenly they were flung aside1 and two strong men seized the raft and started to run with it4 ,immediately the two spirits gave chase and fought viciously all who tried to get in their way1 but when1 finally1 their opponents were joined by an old woman carrying a bundle of burning rice straw and an old man beating a drum1 they gave up the chase and vanished4 ,the party proceeded on to the ,abra river1 where they waded out into deep water and set the raft afloat 7,plate ,,xxvi74 ,that evening the guests danced da-eng1 and the ceremony was over4 ,throughout the three days1 the mediums had been constantly drinking of basi1 and while under the strain of the ceremony1 they had not appeared intoxicated1 but at its conclusion both were hopelessly drunk4 ,the payment for the service was one half of the largest pig1 unthreshed rice1 and about two pesos in money1 which was given in exchange for the beads which different spirits had demanded4 ,kalangan4--,in ,manabo and the villages of that vicinity a period of about seven years elapses between the building of tangpap and the celebration of ,kalangan1 but in most of the valley towns the latter ceremony follows ,pala-an after two or three years4 #aei ,the ceremony is so similar to the ,tangpap just described that only the barest outline will be given here4 ,the chief difference in the two is the type of structure built for the spirits4 ,kalangan has four supporting timbers to which the flooring is lashed1 and from which kingposts go to ridge poles4 ,a bamboo frame rests on this and1 in turn1 supports an overhanging grass roof 7,plate ,,xxiii74 ,the procedure is as follows3 ,late in the afternoon1 all the necessary articles are brought to the house1 then the mediums dance for a time to the music of the tongatong4 ,basi is served to the guests1 and for an hour or more the spirits are summoned4 ,next morning the kalangan is built1 and two pigs are sacrificed beside it4 ,their blood mixed with oil is offered to the spirits1 and many acts1 such as distributing the rice into ten dishes and then replacing it in the original container1 the churning of sticks in the nose of a slaughtered animal and the like1 are performed4 ,spirits are summoned in the afternoon1 and in the evening da-eng is danced4 ,on the third day new offerings are placed on the spirit shield and hanger2 offerings are made at the new structure1 numerous spirits appear1 talk to and amuse the people1 and finally da-eng is danced until late evening4 ,following the ceremony1 all members of the family are barred from work for about one month4 ,they may not eat the meat of the wild carabao1 wild hog1 beef1 eels1 nor may they use peppers in their food4 ,wild fowl are barred for a period of one year4 ,kalangan is much more widespread than either ,tangpap or the ,sayang ceremony1 and this spirit structure is often found in villages1 where the other great ceremonies are lacking4 ,sayang4--,the greatest of all the ceremonies is the ,sayang1 the ability to celebrate which proclaims the family as one of wealth and importance4 ,in most cases the right is hereditary1 but1 as already indicated1 a person may gain the privilege by giving1 in order1 and through a term of years1 all the minor ceremonies4 ,in such circumstances ,sayang follows ,kalangan after a lapse of from four to eight years4 ,otherwise the ceremony will be held about once in seven years1 or when the spirit structure known as balaua is in need of repairs4 ,originally this appears to have been a seventeen-day ceremony1 as it still is in ,manabo1 ,patok1 ,lagangilang1 and neighboring villages1 but in ,san ,juan1 ,lagayan1 ,danglas1 and some other settlements it now lasts only five or seven days4 ,however1 even in those towns where it occupies full time1 the first twelve days are preliminary in nature4 ,on the first day1 the mediums go to the family dwelling and take great pains to see that all forbidden articles are removed1 for wild ginger1 peppers1 shrimps1 carabao flesh1 and wild pork are tabooed1 both during the ceremony and for the month following4 ,the next duty is to construct a woven bamboo frame known as talapitap on which the spirits are fed1 and to prepare two sticks known as dakidak1 one being a thin slender bamboo called bolo1 the other a reed4 ,these are split at one end1 so they will rattle when struck on the ground1 and thus call the attention of the spirit for whom food is placed on the rack4 ,that evening a fire is built in the yard1 and beside it the mediums dance da-eng alone4 ,meanwhile a number of women gather in the yard and pound rice out of the straw4 ,this pounding of rice continues each evening of the first five days4 ,the first night they beat out ten bundles1 the second1 twenty1 and so on1 until they clean fifty on the fifth day4 ,little occurs during the second and third days1 but on these evenings the young men and girls join the mediums and dance da-eng by the fire in the yard4 ,the fourth and fifth nights are known as ginitbet 7dark71 for then no fires are lighted1 and the mediums dance alone4 ,it is supposed that the black spirits1 those who are deformed1 or who are too shy to appear before the people1 will come out at this time and enjoy the ceremony4 ,beginning with the sixth day the women pound rice in the early morning4 ,starting with ten bundles1 they increase the number by ten each day until on the thirteenth morning they pound out eighty bundles4 ,a fire is lighted in the yard on the sixth day1 and is kept burning continuously through the eighth1 but the ninth and tenth are nights of darkness4 ,when the fire is burning1 it is a sign for all who wish1 to come and dance1 and each evening finds a jolly party of young people gathered in the yard1 where they take part in the festivities1 or watch the mediums1 as they offer rice to the superior beings4 ,on the eleventh day1 a long white blanket 7tabing7 is stretched across one corner of the room1 making a private compartment for the use of visiting spirits4 ,that evening1 as it grows dark1 a jar of basi is carried up into the house4 ,all lights are extinguished both in the yard and the dwelling1 so that the guests have to grope their way about4 ,after the liquor is consumed1 they go down into the yard1 where1 in darkness1 they join the medium in dancing da-eng4 ,the twelfth day is known as ,pasa-ad--the building4 ,during the preliminary days1 the men have been bringing materials for use in constructing the great spirit-house called balaua1 and on this morning the actual work is started4 ,in form the balaua resembles the kalangan1 but it is large enough to accommodate a dozen or more people1 and the supporting posts are trunks of small trees 7,plate ,,xxi74 ,after the framework is complete1 one side of the roof is covered with cogon grass1 but the other is left incomplete4 ,meanwhile the women gather near by and pound rice in the ceremonial manner described in the ,pala-an ceremony 7cf4 p4 #cbi74 ,as soon as the building is over for the day1 a jar of basi is carried into the structure1 a little of the liquor is poured into bamboo tubes and tied to each of the corner poles4 ,the balance of the liquor is then served to the men who sit in the balaua and play on copper gongs4 ,next1 a bound pig is brought in1 and is tied to a post decorated with leaves and vines4 ,soon the medium appears1 and after placing prepared betel-nut and lime on the animal1 she squats beside it1 dips her fingers into coconut oil1 and strokes its side1 then later dips a miniature head-axe into the oil1 and again strokes the animal1 while she repeats a diam4 ,this is a recital of how in ancient times ,kadaklan and ,agemen instructed the ,tinguian as to the proper method of celebrating the ,sayang ceremony4 #afj ,a little later the pig is removed from the balaua1 and its throat is cut1 first with a metal blade1 but the deep1 mortal thrust is made with a bamboo spike4 ,the animal is then singed1 but its blood is carefully saved for future use 7,plate ,,xxxiii74 ,while all this is taking place1 the men in the balaua drink basi and sing dalengs in which they praise the liberality of their hosts1 tell of the importance of the family1 and express hope for their continued prosperity4 ,as they sing1 the chief medium goes from one to another of the guests1 and after dipping a piece of lead in coconut oil1 holds it to their nostrils as a protection against evil4 ,when finally the pig has been singed and scraped1 it is again brought into the balaua1 and its body is opened by a transverse cut at the throat and two slits lengthwise of its abdomen4 ,the intestines are removed and placed in a tray1 but the liver is carefully examined for an omen4 ,if the signs are favorable1 the liver is cooked and is cut up1 a part is eaten by the old men1 and the balance is attached to the corner pole of the spirit structure4 ,the head1 one thigh1 and two legs are laid on a crossbeam for the spirits1 after which the balance of the meat is cooked and served with rice to the guests4 ,that evening many friends gather in the yard to dance da-eng1 to drink basi1 or to sing daleng4 ,according to tradition1 it was formerly the custom to send golden betel-nuts to invite guests whom they wished especially to honor4 #afa ,nowadays one or more leading men from other villages may be especially invited by being presented with a bit of gold1 a golden earring or bead4 ,when such a one arrives at the edge of the yard1 he is placed in a chair1 is covered with a blanket1 and is carried to the center of the dancing space by a number of women singing diwas 7cf4 p4 #deb74 ,at frequent intervals the merry-making is interrupted by one of the mediums who places the talapitap on the ground1 puts rice and water on it1 and then summons the spirits with the split sticks4 ,once during the evening1 she places eight dishes and two coconut shells of water on the rack4 ,reaching into one of the dishes which contains rice1 she takes out a handful and transfers it1 a little at a time1 into each of the others1 then extracting a few grains from each1 she throws it on the ground and sprinkles it with water from the two cups4 ,the remaining rice is returned to the original holder1 and the act is repeated eight times4 ,the significance of this seems to be the same as in the ,tangpap ceremony1 where the life of the individual is symbolized by the rice1 which is only partially taken away and is again returned4 ,the next act is always carried out1 but its meaning appears to be lost4 ,the eight dishes are filled with rice1 and are placed on the frame together with sixteen coconut shells of water1 and eight men and eight women seat themselves on opposite sides4 ,first they eat a little of the food1 then taking a small amount in their fingers1 they dip it into the water and place it in the mouth of the person opposite4 ,the fourteenth day is known as ,palay-lay--the seasoning--and during the next twenty-four hours the people remain quietly in the village while the bamboo used in the balaua becomes good4 ,next day is one of great activity4 ,the roofing of the balaua is completed1 all necessary repairs are made to the dwelling1 for dire results would follow should any part of the house break through during the concluding days of the ceremony4 ,the balance of the day is taken up in dancing and in the construction of the following spirit-houses3 the ,aligang1 ,balabago1 ,talagan1 ,idasan1 ,balag1 ,batog1 ,alalot1 ,pangkew and ,sogayob 7cf4 pp4 #cjh-caa74 ,also a little bench is built near the hearth1 and on it are placed coconut shell cups and drinks for the use of the ,igorot spirits who usually come this night4 ,the evening of this day is known as ,libon--plenty or abundance4 ,toward nightfall the mediums1 and their helpers enter the dwelling and decorate it in a manner already described for the great ceremonies4 ,cords cross the room from opposite corners and beneath1 where they meet1 the medium's mat is spread4 ,on the cords are hung grasses1 flowers1 girdles1 and wreaths of young coconut leaves4 ,when all is ready1 a small pig is brought into the room1 while the men play frantically on their gongs and drums4 ,on the medium's mat are many articles1 alangtin leaves1 a rooster1 a branch filled with young betel-nuts1 cooked rice moulded into the form of an alligator1 but with a wax head and seeds for eyes1 a spear1 and a bundle of rice straw4 ,taking up a dish of water1 the medium pours a part of it into the pig's ear2 then1 as the animal shakes its head1 she again catches it in the dish4 ,rolling up a mat1 she dips it into the water1 and with it touches the heads of all members of the family1 for in the same manner that the pig has thrown the water out of its ear1 so in a like fashion will illness and misfortune be thrown from all the family who have been sprinkled with it4 ,this act finished1 the medium dances before the doors and windows1 while she waves the chicken1 betel-nuts1 or other objects taken from the mat4 ,at her invitation1 the host and his wife join her1 but previously they have dressed themselves in good garments1 and on their heads and at their waists they wear girdles and wreaths of alangtin1 or wild grasses4 ,the host is handed a long knife1 and is instructed to cut the throat of the pig4 ,his wife takes a rice winnower and a stick1 and going to each window strikes the winnower five times1 then drops it to the floor1 at the same time crying1 ,wa-hui4 ,next1 she strikes a jar of liquor with the winnower1 then shakes a coconut shell filled with rice against her abdomen2 when finished she is handed a live chicken and again she approaches the jar4 ,soon she is joined by her husband1 armed with a spear and head-axe4 ,as he passes the liquor1 he stamps on the ground1 while his wife waves the fowl1 and all this time the medium continues to sprinkle them with a grass brush dipped in water4 ,no explanation is given for the individual acts1 but the purpose of the whole is to drive away sickness1 just as the rooster flaps his wings4 ,ten dishes are placed on the spirit mat1 and as the medium sings1 she touches each one in turn with a split bamboo2 after which she piles the dishes up and has the host come and squat over them three times4 ,another sprinkling with water follows this act1 and then the medium swings a bundle of rice and a lighted torch over the head of each member of the family1 while she assures them that all evil spirits will now depart4 ,the guests go down to the yard1 where they are served with liquor1 and where they dance da-eng and tadek4 ,on all former occasions1 the liquor has been served in shell cups1 but on this night a sort of pan-pipe1 made of bamboo tubes1 is filled with liquor4 ,the guest drinks from the lowest of the series1 and as he does so1 the liquor falls from one to another1 so that he really drinks from all at one time4 ,bamboo tubes attached to poles by means of cords are likewise filled with basi and served to the dancers4 ,while the others are enjoying themselves1 the mediums and the hosts are attending strictly to the business in hand4 ,dressed in their best garments1 the husband and wife go to each one of the spirit houses1 and touch them with their feet1 a circuit which has to be repeated ten times4 ,each time as they pass the little porch-like addition1 known as sogayob1 the mediums sprinkle them with water4 ,when they have completed their task1 the mediums spread a mat in front of the pig1 which lies below the sogayob1 and on it they dance1 pausing now and then to give the animal a vicious kick or to throw broken rice over it4 ,and so the night is passed without sleep or rest for any of the principals in the ceremony4 ,the sixteenth day is ,kadaklan1--the greatest4 ,soon after daybreak1 the people accompany the medium to the guardian stones near the gate of the village1 and watch her in silence1 while she anoints the head of each stone with oil1 and places a new yellow bark band around its neck4 ,as soon as she finishes1 the musicians begin to play vigorously on their gongs and drums1 while two old men kill a small pig and collect its blood4 ,the carcass is brought to the medium1 who places it beside four dishes1 one filled with basi1 one with salt1 one with vinegar1 and the last with the pig's blood4 ,she drinks of the liquor1 dips her fingers in coconut oil1 and strokes the pig's stomach1 after which it is cut up in the usual manner4 ,the liver is studied eagerly1 for by the markings on it the fate of the host can be foretold4 ,should the signs be unfavorable1 a chicken will be sacrificed in the hope that the additional offering may induce the spirits to change their verdict2 but if the omens are good1 the ceremony proceeds without a halt4 ,the intestines and some pieces of meat are placed on the ansi-silit1--a small spirit frame or table near the stones4 ,the host1 who has been watching from a distance1 is summoned1 and is given a piece of the flesh to take back to his house for food1 and then the rest of the meat is cooked and served to the guests4 ,but before anything is eaten1 the medium places prepared betel-nuts before the stones1 mixes blood with rice1 and scatters it broadcast1 meanwhile calling the spirits from near and far to come and eat1 and to go with her to the village1 where she is to continue the ceremony4 ,as the company approaches the balaua1 the musicians begin to beat on their gongs1 while women in the yard pound rice in ceremonial fashion4 ,when they have finished1 the family goes up into the balaua and dances to the music of the gongs until the medium bids them stop4 ,the pig which has been lying in front of the sogayob1 and another from the yard1 are killed1 and are laid side by side near to the balaua in a spot indicated by the medium4 ,she places a bamboo tube of water between them1 on their backs she lays several pieces of prepared betel-nut1 then strokes their sides with oiled fingers4 ,her next duty is to sprinkle basi from the jar onto the ground with a small head-axe1 at the same time calling the spirits to come and drink4 7,plate ,,xxxiv74 ,a bundle which has been lying beside the animals is opened1 and from it the medium takes a red and yellow headband with chicken feathers attached1 and boar's tusk armlets4 ,these she places on the host1 then hands him a blanket4 ,holding the latter in his outstretched arms1 as he would do if dancing tadek1 he squats repeatedly over a dish of water4 ,as he finishes1 the medium takes the tube of water from between the pigs1 and pouring a little of it on her hand1 she applies it to the abdomen of the man's wife and children4 ,the animals are now cooked in yard1 while a quantity of rice is made ready in the house4 ,during the preparation of the meal1 the musicians play incessantly1 but as the food is brought out1 they cease and join the others in the feast4 ,it is late in the afternoon before much activity is again manifest4 ,at first a few gather and begin to dance tadek2 little by little others come in until by nightfall the yard is full4 ,basi is served to all1 and soon1 above the noisy laughter of the crowd1 is heard the voice of some leading man singing the daleng4 ,the visitors listen respectfully to the song and to the reply1 then resume the music and dancing4 ,after a time a huge fire is built in the yard1 and by the flickering light two lines of boys and girls or older people will form to sing and dance the daeng4 #afb ,on the morning of the seventeenth day1 the men kill two pigs1 usually by chasing them through the brush and spearing them to death4 ,they are prepared in the usual way1 and are placed1 one in the balaua1 the other in the sogayob1 where they are cut up4 ,a bit of the flesh is left in each structure1 the fore half of one animal is carried into the yard1 but the rest is prepared for food4 ,on an inverted rice-mortar1 in the yard1 is placed a jar of basi1 notched chicken feathers1 and boar's tusks4 ,the man and his wife are summoned before this1 are decorated as on the day before1 and are instructed to dance three times around the mortar4 ,while this is going on1 a shield and a rice winnower are leaned against each other so as to form an arch on which lies a sheaf of rice4 ,from the middle hangs a piece of burning wood1 while over all a fish net is thrown4 ,as in a former ceremony 7cf4 p4 #cdg71 the rice and fire represent the life of some member of the family1 which the evil spirits may desire to seize1 but they are prevented1 since they are unable to pass through the meshes of the net4 ,going to the half of the pig1 which stands upright in a rice winnower1 the medium places a string of beads--agate and gold--around its neck and attaches bits of gold to its legs4 ,then she places a thin stick in each nostril and pumps them alternately up and down1 as a smith would work his forge4 ,after a little she removes the plungers1 and with them strokes the bodies of members of the family4 ,near to the pig stands a dish of water in which the heart is lying4 ,the host goes to this1 removes the heart1 and placing it on his head-axe1 takes it in front of the animal1 where it lies1 while he pumps the nostril-sticks up and down ten times4 ,meanwhile his wife is decorated with wreathes of leaves and vines2 a leaf containing the pig's tail and some of the flesh is placed on her head1 and a spear is put in her left hand4 ,as her husband completes his task1 she goes to the mortar1 where she finds one dish full of blood and rice and the empty coconut shells4 ,the rice and blood represent the lives of the family1 and following the instructions of the medium1 she takes these lives and places them little by little on the shells1 but before all is gone1 the medium bids her return them to the big dish4 ,in a like manner the spirits may take a part of the life of the family1 but will return it again4 ,this act is repeated ten times4 ,next she takes a piece of woven bamboo1 shaped like two triangles set end on end #afc1 and goes to the batog1 where her daughter sits under a fish-net holding a similar shield4 ,they press these together1 and the mother returns to the mortar eight times4 ,the mediums who have gathered beneath the sogayob begin to sing1 while one of them beats time with a split bamboo stick4 ,at the conclusion of the song1 one of them offers basi to the spirits and guests1 and then placing a bundle of green leaves on the ground1 she pours water over it1 while the host and his wife are made to tramp in the mud4 ,the man is now carrying the spear1 while the woman holds a cock in one hand1 and an empty dish in the other4 ,as they are stamping on the damp leaves1 old women stand near by showering them with rice and water4 ,since early morning a dog has been tied at the end of the house4 ,it is now brought up to the bundle of leaves1 and is knocked on the head with a club1 its throat is cut1 and some of its blood is applied with a head-axe to the backs of the man and woman4 ,more water is poured on the bundle1 again they tramp in the mud1 and again they are showered with rice and water4 ,the man goes to one side of the balaua1 and throws a bundle of rice over it to his wife1 who returns it eight times4 ,a strange procession now forms and winds its way to the stream4 ,in the lead is the host armed with spear1 shield1 and head-axe2 next comes the medium carrying the bamboo rack--talapitap--like a shield1 and the split bamboo--dakidak--as a spear2 next is an old woman with a coconut shell dish1 then another with a bundle of burning rice straw2 behind her is the wife followed by a man who drags the dead dog4 ,they stop outside of the village1 while the medium hides the rack and split bamboo near the trail4 ,soon the man with the dog leaves the line and drags the animal to a distant tree1 where he ties it in the branches4 ,as they arrive at the stream1 the people pause1 while the medium holds the shell cup beside the burning straw1 and recites a diam4 ,the writer tried on two occasions to get this diam1 but it was given so low and indistinctly that its full content was not secured1 neither was it possible to get the medium to repeat it after the ceremony4 ,from what was heard it seems probable it is the dawak diam1 #afd a guess made more probable by the killing of the dog and the bathing which follows4 ,as soon as the medium finishes1 the whole party disrobes and bathes4 ,upon their return to the village1 they are met by a company of men and boys who assail them by throwing small green nuts4 ,the host secures the spirit rack which the medium had hidden1 and with it attempts to ward off the missiles4 ,despite this show of hostility1 the company proceeds to the sogayob1 where the man and his wife wash their faces in water containing pieces of coconut leaves4 ,during all the morning a number of women have been preparing food1 and this is now served to the guests1 a considerable company of whom have collected4 ,late in the afternoon1 all the spirits are remembered in a great offering of food4 ,a framework is constructed in the yard1 #afe and on it are placed eggs1 meat1 fish1 rice cakes1 sugar1 betel-nut1 tobacco1 basi1 and rice mixed with blood4 ,after allowing the superior beings a few moments to finish their repast1 the viands are removed1 and from then until sunset all the guests dance tadek4 ,as darkness comes1 a great fire is lighted in the yard1 and within the circle of its light the company gathers1 while the more important men sing daleng4 ,in some of the villages men gather the next morning to do any necessary work on the balaua1 and then the mediums celebrate the dawak1 #aff which always forms a part of this ceremony4 ,in ,manabo the dawak follows after an interval of three days4 ,this great and final event is so much like the procedure which makes up the ,tangpap ceremony that it seems necessary to give it only in skeleton form1 adding explanations whenever they appear to be necessary4 ,in the balaua is spread a mat covered with gifts for the spirits who are expected4 ,here also is the spirit shield from the dwelling1 and a great heap of refuse made up of the leaves1 vines and other articles used in the preceding days4 ,when all is ready1 a medium seats herself by the mat1 dips oil from a shallow dish with a small head-axe1 and lets it drip onto the ground2 then she does the same with basi1 and finally strokes a rooster which lies beside the jar1 all the while reciting the proper diam4 ,taking the spirit shield1 which belongs in the dwelling1 she puts oil at each corner1 and then touches the heads of all the family with it4 ,beads and betel-leaf are added1 and the shield is carried to the house1 where it is again fastened to the wall1 as a testimony to all passing spirits that the ceremony has been made1 and food provided for them4 ,the time has now arrived for the spirits to appear4 ,seating herself beside the mat1 the medium strikes on a plate with her shells or a piece of lead1 and then starts her song4 ,she rubs her hands together with a revolving motion1 swings her arms1 and begins to tremble from head to foot4 ,suddenly she is possessed by a spirit1 and under his direction holds oil to the nostrils of the host1 and beats him with a small whip of braided betel-leaf4 ,this done1 she drinks for the spirit1 and it departs4 ,again she sings1 and again she is possessed4 ,one spirit takes the rooster1 and with its wings cleans up the rubbish in the balaua and in the yard1 empties it in a tray1 and orders it taken from the village4 ,in the same way all sickness and misfortune will be removed from the settlement4 ,several spirits follow1 and as the morning wears on1 the medium becomes more and more intense4 ,the muscles of her neck and the veins of her forehead stand out like cords1 while perspiration streams from her bod4 ,taking a shield and head-axe in her hand1 she does a sort of muscle dance1 then goes to each member of the family1 and strikes the weapons together over their heads2 from them she goes to the doors and windows1 and strikes at them with the axe4 ,finally she returns to the mat1 balances a cup of basi on the weapon1 and causes the host to drink4 ,another attack on the doors follows1 and then in exhaustion she sinks beside the mat4 ,after a short rest1 she dips beads in oil1 and with them touches the heads of the family4 ,the musicians strike up a lively tattoo at this point1 and again seizing her weapons1 the medium dances in front of the spirit shield4 ,going to the rooster on the mat1 she cuts off a part of its comb1 and presses the bloody fowl against the back or leg of each person in the room4 ,the spirit drinks and disappears4 ,the next visitor dances with the host1 and then wrestles with him1 but upon getting the worst of the match takes leave4 ,as in the ,tangpap1 large number of minor beings call for a moment or two and pass on4 ,one spirit places the family beneath a blanket1 cuts a coconut in two above their heads1 and first allows the water to run over them2 then finally the halves are allowed to drop4 ,she waves burning rice-straw above them1 and removes the blanket4 ,it is explained that the water washes all evil away1 and that as the shells fall from the family1 so will sickness leave them4 ,evil spirits are afraid of the fire1 and leave when the burning rice-straw is waved about the blanket4 ,as a final act the members of the family are instructed to hold1 in their hands the head-axe1 chicken feathers1 agate beads1 and other articles1 and then to mount the rice-mortar in the yard4 ,soon one or more of the mediums is possessed by spirits1 who rush toward the mortar1 and strive to seize the prized objects4 ,before they can accomplish their design1 they are met by old men and women1 who fight them off4 ,at last they abandon the attempt and1 together with the host and his wife1 go to the edge of the town1 where they pick sweet smelling leaves and vines4 ,these they carry back to the village to give to the guests1 and to place in the house and spirit dwellings4 ,as a final act basi is served to all1 and tadek is danced until the guests are ready to return to their homes4 ,in ,san ,juan they make the spirit raft--taltalabong--as in ,tangpap1 and set it afloat at sunset4 ,the mediums are paid off in rice1 a portion of the slaughtered animals1 beads1 one or two blankets1 and perhaps a weapon or piece of money4 ,during the succeeding month the family is prevented from doing any work1 from approaching a dead body1 or entering the house of death4 ,wild carabao1 pig1 beef1 eels1 and wild peppers may not be eaten during this period1 and wild chickens are taboo for one year4 ,,section #c ,special ,ceremonies ,the two ceremonies which follow do not have a wide distribution1 neither are they hereditary4 ,they are given at this time because of their similarity to the great ceremonies just described4 ,pinasal4--,this rather elaborate rite seems to be confined to ,san ,juan and nearby settlements4 ,the right to it is not hereditary1 and any one who can afford the expense involved may celebrate it4 ,however1 it usually follows the ,sayang1 if some member of the family is ill1 and is not benefited by that ceremony1 for all the spirits are not present at each ceremony1 and so it may be necessary to give others1 until the one who caused the sickness is found4 ,on the first day the house is decorated as in ,tangpap and ,sayang2 a bound pig is placed beside the door1 and over it the mediums recite a diam and later summon several spirits4 ,liquor is served to the guests1 who dance tadek or sing songs in praise of the family4 ,early the next day1 the pig is killed and1 after its intestines have been removed1 it is covered with a colored blanket1 and is carried into the dwelling4 ,here it is met by the mediums who wave rain coats above the animal1 and then wail over the carcass4 ,the pig and its covering are in part payment for the life of the sick person4 ,they cry for the pig1 so they will not need to cry for the patient4 ,later the pig is cut up and prepared as food1 only the head and feet being left for the spirits4 ,gipas1 the dividing1 follows4 ,a ,chinese jar is placed on its side1 and on each end a spear is laid1 so that they nearly meet above the center of the jar4 ,next a rolled mat is laid on the spears1 and finally four beads and a headband are added4 ,the mat then is cut through the middle1 so as to leave equal parts of the headband and two beads on each half4 ,this shows that the spirit is now paid1 and is separated from the house4 ,the next act is to stretch a rattan cord across the center of the room and to place on it many blankets and skirts4 ,a man and a woman1 who represent the good spirits ,iwaginan and ,gimbagon1 are dressed in fine garments1 and hold in their hands pieces of gold1 a fine spear1 and other prized articles4 ,they are placed on one side of the cord1 and in front of them stand a number of men with their hands on each others' shoulders4 ,now the mediums enter the other end of the room1 spread a mat1 and begin to summon the spirits4 ,soon they are possessed by evil beings who notice the couple representing the good spirits1 and seizing sticks or other objects1 rush toward them endeavoring to seize their wealth4 ,when they reach the line of men1 they strive to break through1 but to no avail4 ,finally they give this up1 but now attempt to seize the objects hanging on the line4 ,again they are thwarted4 ,if the evil spirits get these things1 they will come often1 their children will marry1 and they also will harm the family2 but if the good beings keep their wealth1 their children will marry1 and will aid the owner of the house4 ,later one of the mediums and an old woman count the colors in a fine blanket4 ,usually there are five colors1 so the spirit is powerless to injure the people for five years4 ,next the couple gamble1 but the medium always loses4 ,finally the spirit becomes discouraged and departs4 ,the decorations are now taken from the room1 and the sick person is carried down to the river by the members of the family4 ,arrived at the water's edge1 the oldest relative will cut off a dog's head as final payment for the life of the invalid4 ,since the act is carried on beside the river1 the spirits will either witness the act1 or see the blood as it floats away1 and hence will not need to visit the town4 ,the rattan cord and vines used in the dwelling are thrown onto the water for the same reason4 ,the whole family is covered with a large blanket1 and a medium swings a coconut over them1 then resting the halves on the head of each one for a moment1 she releases them1 meanwhile calling to the spirit1 ,you see this2 this is your share2 do not come any more4 ,after assuring them that the sickness will now fall away from them1 she waves burning cogon grass over their heads while she cries1 ,go away1 sickness4 ,the blanket is removed1 and the family bathes4 ,while they are still in the water1 the medium takes a spear and shield in her hands1 and going to the edge of the stream1 she begins to summon spirits1 but all the while she keeps sharp watch of the old man who killed the dog1 for he is now armed and appears to be her enemy4 ,however1 she is not molested until she starts toward the village4 ,when quite near to the settlement1 she is suddenly attacked by many people carrying banana stalks which they hurl at her4 ,she succeeds in warding these off1 but while she is thus engaged1 an old man runs in and touches her with a spear4 ,immediately she falls as if dead1 and it is several moments before she again regains consciousness4 ,this attack is made to show the spirit how unwelcome it is1 and in hopes that such bad treatment will induce it to stay away4 ,after the return of the family to the village1 the guests drink basi1 sing and dance1 and usually several spirits are summoned by the mediums4 ,the next morning two ,pinalasang #afg are constructed in the yard4 ,each supports a plate containing beads1 a string of beads is suspended from one of the poles1 and a jar of basi is placed beneath4 ,in front of them the mediums call the spirits1 then offer the heart1 livers1 and intestines1 while they call out1 ,take me and do not injure the people4 ,the final act of the ceremony is to construct the spirit raft taltalabong1 load it with food1 and set it afloat on the river1 so that all the spirits may see and know what has been done4 ,in addition to the regular pay for their services1 the mediums divide the jaw of a pig and carry the portions home with them1 as their protection against lightning1 and the spirits whose hostility they may have incurred4 ,binikwau4--,this ceremony1 like the one just described1 seems to be limited to the ,san ,juan region1 and is given under similar circumstances4 ,the room is decorated as usual1 and a bound pig is laid in the center4 ,this is known as the exchange1 since it is given in place of the patient's life4 ,two mediums place betel-nut on the animal1 then stroke it with oil1 saying1 ,you make the liver favorable1 i4e41 give a good omen4 ,after a time they begin summoning the spirits1 and from then until late evening the guests divide their time between the mediums and the liquor jars4 ,soon all are in a jovial mood1 and before long are singing the praises of their hosts1 or are greeting visiting spirits as old time friends4 ,the pig is killed early next morning1 and its liver is eagerly examined to learn whether or no the patient is destined to recover4 ,a part of the flesh is placed on the house rafters1 for the use of the spirits1 while the balance is cooked and served4 ,following the meal1 the gongs and drums are brought up into the house1 and the people dance or sing until the mediums appear1 ready to summon the spirits4 ,the first to come is ,sabian1 the guardian of the dogs4 ,he demands that eight plates and a coconut shell be filled with blood and rice2 another shell is to be filled with uncooked rice1 in which a silver coin is hidden2 and finally a bamboo dog-trough must be provided4 ,when his demands are met1 he begins to call1 ,come1 my dogs1 come and eat4 ,later the blood and rice are placed in the trough1 and are carried to the edge of the town1 where they are left4 ,this done1 the spirit pierces the pig's liver with a spear and1 placing it on a shield1 dances about the room4 ,finally1 stopping beside the mat1 he lays them on the patient's stomach4 ,the next and final act is to scrape up a little of the liver with a small head-axe1 and to place this1 mixed with oil1 on the sick person4 ,on the third and last day1 the medium leads a big dog to the edge of the village1 and then kills it with a club4 ,a piece of the animal's ear is cut off1 is wrapped in a cloth1 and is hung around the patient's neck as a protection against evil1 and as a sign to all spirits that this ceremony has been held4 ,throughout the rest of the day many spirits visit the mediums1 and at such a time ,kakalonan is sure to appear to give friendly advice4 ,the final act is to set the spirit raft afloat on the stream4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,social ,,organization4 ,,government4 ,,the ,,village ,the village is the social unit within which there are no clans1 no political1 or other divisions4 ,the ,tinguian are familiar with the ,igorot town1 made up of several ato #afh but there is no indication that they have ever had such an institution4 ,the head of the village is known as lakay4 ,he is usually a man past middle age whose wealth and superior knowledge have given him the confidence of his people4 ,he is chosen by the older men of the village1 and holds his position for life unless he is removed for cause4 ,it is possible that1 at his death1 his son may succeed him1 but this is by no means certain4 ,the lakay is supposed to be well versed in the customs of the ancestors1 and all matters of dispute or questions of policy are brought to him4 ,if the case is one of special importance he will summon the other old men1 who will deliberate and decide the question at issue4 ,they have no means of enforcing their decisions other than the force of public opinion1 but since an offender is ostracised1 until he has met the conditions imposed by the elders1 their authority is actually very great4 ,should a lakay deal unjustly with the people1 or attempt to alter long established customs1 he would be removed from office and another be selected in his stead4 ,no salary or fees are connected with this office1 the holder receiving his reward solely through the esteem in which he is held by his people4 ,in former times two or three villages would occasionally unite to form a loose union1 the better to resist a powerful enemy1 but with the coming of more peaceful times such beginnings of confederacies have vanished4 ,during the ,spanish regime attempts were made to organize the pagan communities and to give titles to their officers1 but these efforts met with little success4 ,under ,american rule local self government1 accompanied by several elective offices1 has been established in many towns4 ,the contest for office and government recognition of the officials is tending to break down the old system and to concentrate the power in the presidente or mayor4 ,it is probable that the early ,tinguian settlement consisted of one or more closely related groups4 ,even to-day the family ties are so strong that it was found possible1 in compiling the genealogical tables1 to trace back the family history five or six generations4 ,these families are not distinguished by any totems1 guardian spirits1 or stories of supernatural origin1 but the right to conduct the more important ceremonies is hereditary4 ,descent is traced through both the male and female lines1 and inheritance is likewise through both sexes4 ,there are no distinguishing terms for relations on the father's or mother's side1 nor are there other traces of matriarchal institutions4 ,families of means attain a social standing above that of their less fortunate townsmen1 but there is no sharp stratification of the community into noble and serf1 such as was coming into vogue along many parts of the coast at the time of the ,spanish conquest1 neither has slavery ever gained a foothold with this people4 ,the wealthy often loan rice to the poor1 and exact usury of about fifty per cent4 ,payment is made in service during the period of planting and harvesting1 so that the labor problem is1 to a large extent1 solved for the land-holders4 ,however1 they customarily join the workers in the fields and take their share in all kinds of labor4 ,the concubines1 known as pota 7cf4 p4 #bhc71 are deprived of certain rights1 and they are held somewhat in contempt by the other women1 but they are in no sense slaves4 ,they may possess property1 and their children may become leaders in ,tinguian society4 ,the only group which is sharply separated from the mass is composed of the mediums1 and they are distinctive only during the ceremonial periods4 ,at other times they are treated in all respects as other members of the community4 ,on three occasions the writer has found men dressing like women1 doing women's work1 and spending their time with members of that sex4 ,information concerning these individuals has always come by accident1 the people seeming to be exceedingly reticent to talk about them4 ,in ,plate ,,xxxvi is shown a man in woman's dress1 who has become an expert potter4 ,the explanation given for the disavowal of his sex is that he donned women's clothes during the ,spanish regime to escape road work1 and has since then retained their garb4 ,equally unsatisfactory and unlikely reasons were advanced for the other cases mentioned4 ,it should be noted that similar individuals have been described from ,zambales1 ,panay1 from the ,subanun of ,mindanao1 and from ,borneo4 #afi ,it has been suggested1 with considerable probability1 that at least a part of these are hermaphrodites1 but in ,borneo1 where they act as priests1 ,roth states that they are unsexed before assuming their roles4 ,laws4--,law1 government1 and custom are synonymous4 ,whatever the ancestors did is right1 and hence has religious sanction4 ,the lakay and his advisors will give their decisions according to the decrees of the past1 if that is possible1 but when precedent is lacking1 they will deliberate and decide on a course4 ,the following may be taken as typical of the laws or customs which regulate the actions of the people1 within a group1 toward one another4 ,rules governing the family4--,a man may have only one wife1 but he may keep concubines4 ,if the wife's relatives suspect that a mistress is causing the husband's affections to wane1 they may hold the ,nagkakalonan or trial of affection 7cf4 p4 #bhb71 and if their charges are sustained1 the husband must pay them a considerable amount1 and1 in addition1 stand all the expenses of the gathering4 ,if it is shown that they are not justified in their suspicions1 the expense falls on the accusers4 ,the wife may bring a charge of cruelty or laziness against her husband1 and if it is substantiated1 he will be compelled to complete the marriage agreement and give the woman her freedom4 ,unfaithfulness on the part of a wife1 or a betrothed girl1 justifies the aggrieved in killing one or both of the offenders4 ,he may1 however1 be satisfied by having the marriage gift returned to him1 together with a fine and a decree of divorce4 ,a man who has a child by an unmarried woman1 not a pota1 must give the girl's people about one hundred pesos1 and must support the infant4 ,later the child comes into his keeping1 and is recognized as an heir to his estate4 ,marriage is prohibited between cousins1 between a man and his adopted sister1 his sister-in-law1 or mother-in-law4 ,union with a second cousin is also tabooed4 ,it is said that offenders would be cut off from the village2 no one would associate with them1 and their children would be disinherited4 ,a widow may remarry after the ,layog ceremony 7cf4 p4 #bij71 but all the property of her first husband goes to his children4 ,if a wife has neglected her husband during his final illness1 she may be compelled to remain under two blankets1 while the body is in the house 7cf4 p4 #bhf71 unless she pays a fine of ten or fifteen pesos to his family4 ,children must care for and support infirm parents4 ,should there be no children1 this duty falls upon the nearest relative4 ,inheritance4--,although a price is paid for the bride1 the ,tinguian woman is in no sense a slave4 ,she may inherit property from her parents1 hold it through life1 and pass it on to her children4 ,following the death of a man1 enough is taken from his estate to pay up any part of the marriage agreement which may still be due1 and the balance is divided among his children4 ,if there are no children1 it is probable that his personal possessions will go to his father or mother1 if they are still living2 otherwise1 to his brothers and sisters4 ,however1 the old men in council may decide that the wife is entitled to a share4 ,should she remarry and bear children to her second husband1 she cannot give any part of this property to them1 but upon her death it goes to the offspring of the first marriage1 or reverts to the relatives4 ,land is divided about equally between boys and girls1 but the boys receive the major part of the animals1 and the girls their mother's beads4 ,oftentimes the old men will give the oldest child the largest share1 since he has helped his parents longest4 ,whatever the husband and wife have accumulated in common during their married life is divided1 and the man's portion is disposed of1 as just indicated4 ,illegitimate children and those of a pota receive a share of their father's property1 but not in the same proportion as the children of the wife4 ,no part of the estate goes to a concubine unless1 in the judgment of the old men1 it is necessary to provide for her1 because of sickness or infirmity4 ,transfer and sharing of property4--,land and houses are seldom transferred1 except at the death of the owner1 but should a sale or trade be desired1 the parties to the contract will make the bargain before the lakay and old men1 who thus become witnesses4 ,a feast is given at such a time1 and is paid for by either the seller or the buyer4 ,the sale or barter of carabao1 horses1 valuable jars1 and beads may be witnessed in this manner1 but the transfer of personal property is purely a matter between the parties concerned4 ,if a man works the property of another1 he furnishes the seed and labor1 and the crop is divided4 ,if an owner places his animals in the care of another1 the first of the increase goes to him1 the second to the caretaker4 ,should an animal die1 the caretaker must skin it1 and give the hide to the owner1 after which he is freed from responsibility1 but he is liable for the loss1 theft1 or injury to his charges4 ,murder and ,theft4--,the relatives of a murdered man may kill his assailant without fear of punishment1 but1 if they are willing1 the guilty party may settle with them by paying in ,chinese jars1 carabao1 or money4 ,the usual payment varies from fifty to one hundred pesos4 ,a thief is compelled to make restitution1 and is also subject to a small fine4 ,the practice of evil magic1 and the breaking of a taboo1 are considered serious crimes1 but as they have been treated under ,religion and ,magic1 they will not be repeated here4 ,lying1 ,cheating1 ,breaches of ,etiquette4--,falling outside the realm of law are those things which may be considered right and wrong1 but the infraction of which carries with it no penalty4 ,lying1 for instance1 is not bad1 if it is done to protect yourself or a friend1 but falsifying without purpose is mean and to be despised4 ,cheating is not wrong4 ,your ability to outwit the other person is proof that you are the smarter man4 ,it is bad manners for a man to sit with his legs far apart or to expose all of his clout1 or for a woman to sit on the floor with one leg drawn up4 ,a person should not walk about while others are singing or dancing4 ,basi should never be drunk1 until it has been offered to every one present1 especially the elders4 ,before eating1 a person should invite all in the room to join him1 even though he does not expect them to accept4 ,a visitor should never eat with the wife of another during his absence4 ,always call before entering a house4 ,never enter a dwelling1 when the owner is away1 and has removed the ladder from the door4 ,never enter a village dirty2 stop and bathe at the spring before going up4 ,only dogs enter the houses without bathing4 ,the ,village 7,plate ,,xxxviii74--,a village generally consists of two or three settlements1 situated near together1 and under the authority of a single lakay or headman4 ,there is no plan or set arrangement for the dwellings or other structures1 but1 as a rule1 the house1 spirit structure1 and perhaps corrals are clustered closely together1 while at the edge of the settlement are the rice granaries and garden plots4 ,formerly a double bamboo stockade surrounded each settlement1 but in recent years these have disappeared1 and at the time of our visit only one town1 ,abang1 was so protected4 ,the dwellings vary in size and shape4 ,they conform in general to two types4 ,the first and most common is a single room with a door at one end opening off from an uncovered porch 7,plate ,,xxxix74 ,the second consists of three rooms1 or rather two rooms1 between which is a porch or entry way1 all under one roof4 ,there is seldom an outer door to this entry way1 but each room has its own door1 and oftentimes windows opening on to it1 so that one has the feeling that we have here two houses joined by the covered porch4 ,in such buildings this entry way is a convenient place for hanging nets or for drying tobacco4 ,in one room is the hearth1 the water pots1 and dishes1 while the other is the family sleeping-room4 ,the construction of the dwelling is shown in ,plates ,,xl-,,xli4 ,a number of heavy hard-wood posts are sunk deeply into the ground and project upward #aj or more feet4 ,at a height of #d or #e feet above the ground1 crossbeams are lashed or pegged to form the floor supports1 while at the tops are other beams on which the roof rests4 ,plate ,,xl shows the skeleton of this roof so plainly that further description is unnecessary4 ,this framework1 generally constructed on the ground1 is raised on to the upright timbers1 and is lashed in place4 ,a closely woven mat of bamboo strips1 or of bamboo beaten flat1 covers each side of the roof1 and on this the thatch is laid4 ,bundles of cogon grass are spread clear across the roof1 a strip of bamboo is laid at the upper ends1 and is lashed to the mat below4 ,a second row of thatch overlaps the top of the first1 and thus a waterproof covering is provided4 ,another type of roofing is made by splitting long bamboo poles1 removing the sectional divisions and then lashing them to the framework4 ,the first set is placed with the concave sides up1 and runs from the ridge pole to a point a few inches below the framework1 so as to overhang it somewhat4 ,a second series of halved bamboos is laid convex side up1 the edges resting in the concavity of those below1 thus making an arrangement similar to a tiled roof4 ,for the side walls this tiled type of construction is commonly used 7,plate ,,lxxviii74 ,a coarse bamboo mat is likewise employed1 while a crude interweaving of bamboo strips is by no means uncommon4 ,such a wall affords little protection against a driving rain or wind1 but the others are quite effective4 ,well-to-do families often have the side walls and floors of their houses made of hard-wood boards4 ,since planks are1 or have been until recently1 cut out with knives1 head-axes1 or adzes1 much time and wealth is consumed in constructing such a dwelling4 ,when completed1 it is less well adapted to the needs of the people than the structures just described1 but its possession is a source of gratification to the owner1 and aids in establishing him as a man of affairs in his town4 ,the floor is made of poles tied to the side-beams1 and on these strips of bamboo are laid so as to leave small cracks between them4 ,this assists in the house-cleaning1 as all dirt and refuse is swept through the openings on to the ground4 ,when the floor is made of wood1 it is customary to leave one corner to be finished off in the bamboo slits1 and it is here that the mother gives birth to her children4 ,this is not compulsory1 but it is custom1 and indicates clearly that the planked floor is a recent introduction4 ,entrance to the dwelling is by means of a bamboo ladder which is raised at night1 or when the family is away4 ,windows are merely square holes over which a bamboo mat is fitted at night1 but the door is a bamboo-covered framework which turns in wooden sockets4 ,such a house offers no barriers to mosquitoes1 flies1 flying roaches1 or white ants1 while rats1 scorpions1 and centipedes find friendly shelter in the thatch roof4 ,quite commonly large but harmless snakes are encouraged to take up their residence in the cook room1 as their presence induces the rats to move elsewhere4 ,little house lizards are always present1 and not infrequently a large lizard makes its home on the ridge pole1 and from time to time gives its weird cry4 ,the ground beneath the house is often enclosed with bamboo slats1 and is used for storage purposes1 or a portion may be used as a chicken coop4 ,it is also customary to bury the dead beneath the dwelling1 and above the grave are the boxes in which are placed supplies for the spirits of the deceased4 ,with some modification this description of the ,tinguian house and village would apply to those of the western ,kalinga and the ,apayao1 #agj and likewise the ,christian natives of the coast1 but a very different type of dwelling and grouping is found among the neighboring ,igorot4 #aga ,it is also to be noted that we do not find to-day any trace of tree dwellings1 such as were described by ,la ,gironiere #agb at the time of his visit scarcely a century ago4 ,elevated watch-houses are placed near to the mountain fields1 and it is possible that in times of great danger people might have had similar places of refuge in or near to their villages1 but the old men emphatically deny that they were ever tree-dwellers1 and there is nothing in the folk-tales to justify such a belief2 on the contrary1 the tales-indicate that the type of dwelling found to-day1 was that of former times4 #agc ,house ,furnishings4--,the average house has only one room4 ,inside the door1 at the left1 one usually finds the stove1 three stones sunk in a box of ashes or dirt1 or a similar device of clay 7,fig #e1 ,no4 #a74 ,above the fire is suspended a hanger on which are placed dishes and food1 in order that they may not be disturbed by insects4 ,along the wall stands a small caldron1 jars for water and rice1 and the large ,chinese jars1 tke latter as a general rule heirlooms or marriage gifts4 ,these are sometimes used for basi1 but more often they contain broken rice1 cotton1 or small articles4 ,above the jars is a rack or hangar on which dishes or coconut shells are placed4 ,at one end of the room a set of pegs1 deer horns1 or a cord supports a variety of clothes1 blankets1 a woman's switch1 and perhaps a man's belt4 ,the sleeping-mats either hang here or occupy a rack of their own4 ,below the cord stand chests secured in early years through trade with the ,chinese4 ,in these are the family treasures1 valuable beads1 coins1 blankets1 ceremonial objects1 and the like4 ,piled on the boxes is a variety of pillows1 for no ,tinguian house is complete without a number of these 7,plate ,,lxvi74 ,the other house furnishings1 consisting of a spinning wheel1 loom1 coconut rasp1 and clothes beater 7,fig4 #e1 ,no4 #aj7 find space along the other wall4 ,behind the door1 except in the valley towns1 stand the man's spear and shield2 above or near the door will be the spirit offering in the form of a small hanger or a miniature shield fastened against the wall4 ,the center of the floor affords a place for working1 eating1 and sleeping4 ,if there are small children in the family a cradle or jumper will be found suspended from a beam or a bamboo pole placed across one corner of the room 7cf4 p4 #bgb74 ,the type of jars made by the ,tinguian is shown in ,fig4 #e1 ,no4 #g1 while those of foreign introduction have been fully described in a previous publication4 #agd ,the native jars are used both for cooking and as water containers4 ,with them will be found pot rings and lifters4 ,the first is a simple ring of plaited bamboo1 which fits on the head or sets on the floor1 and forms a support for the rounded bottom of the jar4 ,the second 7,figure #e1 ,no4 #c7 consists of a large rattan loop1 which is placed over the neck of the jar4 ,the hands are drawn apart1 and the weight closes the loop1 causing it to grip the jar4 ,long bamboo tubes with sections removed are used as water containers1 while smaller sections often serve as cups or dippers4 ,gourds are also used in this manner 7,fig4 #e1 ,nos4 #h-i74 ,food is removed from the jars with spoons and ladles 7,fig4 #f7 made of wood or coconut shells1 but they are never put to the mouth4 ,meat is cut up into small pieces1 and is served in its own juice4 ,the diner takes a little cooked rice in his fingers1 and with this dips or scoops the meat and broth into his mouth4 ,greens are eaten in the same manner4 ,halved coconut shells serve both as cups and as dishes 7,fig4 #e1 ,no4 #f74 ,wooden dishes are likewise used1 but they are employed chiefly in ceremonies for the feeding of the spirits or to hold the rice from which a bride and groom receive the augury of the future 7,fig4 #e1 ,nos4 #d-e74 ,baskets1 varying considerably in material1 size and type1 are much used1 and are often scattered about the dwelling or1 as in the case of the men's carrying baskets1 are hung on pegs set into the walls4 ,somewhere about the house will be found a coconut rasp 7,fig4 #e1 ,no4 #aa74 ,when this is used1 the operator kneels on the wooden standard1 and draws the half coconut toward her over the teeth of the blade4 ,the inside of the shell is thus cleaned and prepared for use as an eating or drinking dish4 ,torches or bamboo lamps formerly supplied the dwellings with light4 ,lamps consisting of a section of bamboo filled with oil and fitted with a cord wick are still in use1 but for the most part they have been superseded by tin lamps of ,chinese manufacture4 ,oil for them is extracted from crushed seeds of the tau-tau 7,jatropha grandulifera ,roxb47 ,a very necessary article of house furnishing is the fire-making device4 ,in many instances1 the housewife will go to a neighboring dwelling and borrow a light rather than go to the trouble of building a fire1 but if that is not convenient1 a light may be secured by one or two methods4 ,the first is by flint and steel1 a method which is probably of comparatively recent introduction4 ,the second and older is one which the ,tinguian shares with all the neighboring tribes4 ,two notches are cut through a section of bamboo1 and tree cotton is placed below them4 ,a second section of bamboo is cut to a sharp edge1 and this is rubbed rapidly back and forth in the notches until the friction produces a spark1 which when caught on tinder can be blown into a flame4 #age ,at the door of the house will be found a foot wiper 7,fig4 #e1 ,no4 #ab7 made of rice-straw drawn through an opening cut in a stick1 or it may consist of coconut husks fastened together to make a crude mat1 while near by is the broom made of rice-straw or grass4 ,rice-mortars1 pestles1 and similar objects are found beneath the dwellings4 ,the ,village ,spring4--,each village is situated near to a spring or on the banks of a stream4 ,in the latter case deep holes are dug in the sands1 and the water that seeps in is used for household purposes4 ,in the morning1 a number of women and girls gather at the springs1 carrying with them the plates and dishes used in the meals1 also garments which need to be laundered4 ,the pots and dishes are thoroughly scoured with sand and water1 applied with a bundle of rice-straw or grass4 ,the garments to be washed are laid in the water1 generally in a little pool near to the main spring or beside the stream4 ,ashes from rice-straw are then mixed with water and1 after being strained through a bunch of grass1 are applied to the cloth in place of soap4 ,after being thoroughly soaked1 the cloth is laid on a clean stone1 and is beaten with a stick or wooden paddle4 ,the garment is again rinsed1 and later is hung up on the fence near the dwelling to dry4 ,before returning to her home1 the woman fills her pots with water1 and then takes her bath in a pool below the main spring 7,plate ,,xlii74 ,all garments are removed except the girdle and clout1 and then water1 dipped up in a coconut shell1 is poured on to the face1 shoulders1 and body4 ,in some cases sand is applied to the body1 and is rubbed in with the hand or a stone2 rinsing water is applied and the garments are put back on without drying the body4 ,every one1 men1 women1 and children1 takes a daily bath1 and visitors will always stop to bathe at the spring or river before entering a village4 ,promiscuous bathing is common1 and is accepted as a matter of course1 but there is no indication of embarrassment or self-consciousness4 ,when she returns to the village1 the woman will often be seen carrying one or two jars of water on her head1 her washing under her arm1 while a child sets astride her hip or lies against her back 7,plate ,,xliii74 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,warfare1 ,,hunting1 ,,and ,,fishing ,head-hunting and warfare are practically synonymous4 ,to-day both are suffering a rapid decline1 and a head is seldom taken in the valley of the ,abra4 ,in the mountain district old feuds are still maintained1 and sometimes lead to a killing1 and here too the ancient funerary rites are still carried out in their entirety on rare occasions4 ,however1 this peaceful condition is not of long standing4 ,in every village the older men tell with pride of their youthful exploits1 of the raids they indulged in1 the heads they captured2 and they are still held in high esteem as men who fought in the villages of their enemies4 ,during the time of our stay in ,abra1 the villages of the ,buklok valley were on bad terms with the people of the neighboring ,ikmin valley1 and were openly hostile to the ,igorot on the eastern side of the mountain range4 ,manabo and ,abang were likewise hostile to their ,igorot neighbors1 and the latter village was surrounded with a double bamboo stockade1 to guard against a surprise attack4 ,manabo at this time anticipated trouble with the warriors of ,balatok and ,besao1 as a result of their having killed six men from those towns4 ,the victims had ostensibly come down to the ,abra river to fish1 but1 judging by previous experience1 the ,tinguian believed them to be in search of heads1 and acted accordingly4 ,this feud is of old standing and appears to have grown out of a dispute over the hunting grounds on ,mt4 ,posoey1 the great peak which rises only a few miles from ,manabo4 ,there have been many clashes between the rival hunters1 the most serious of which occurred in #ahhi1 when the ,tinguian had twenty-nine of their number killed1 and lost twenty-five heads to the ,igorot of ,besao4 ,the people of ,agsimo and ,balantai suffered defeat in a raid carried on against ,dagara in #aijg1 and at the time of our visit a number of the warriors still bore open wounds received in that fight4 ,in the same year at least three unsuccessful attacks1 probably by lone warriors1 were made against individuals of ,lagangilang1 ,likuan1 and ,lakub4 ,accounts of earlier travelers offer undoubted proof that head-hunting was rampant a generation ago2 while the folk-tales feature the taking of heads as one of the most important events in ,tinguian life4 ,the first incentive for head-taking is in connection with funeral rites4 ,according to ancient custom it was necessary1 following the death of an adult1 for the men of the village to go out on a headhunt1 and until they had done so1 the relatives of the deceased were barred from wearing good clothing1 from taking part in any pastimes or festivals1 and their food was of the poorest and meanest quality4 ,to remove this ban1 the warriors would don white head-bands1 arm themselves1 and sally forth either to attack a hostile village or to ambush an unsuspecting foe4 ,neighboring villages were1 out of necessity1 usually on good terms1 but friendly relations seldom extended beyond the second or third settlement1 a distance of ten or fifteen miles4 ,beyond these limits most of the people were considered enemies and subject to attack4 ,while such a raid was both justifiable and necessary to the village in which a death had occurred1 it was considered an unprovoked attack by the raided settlement2 a challenge and an insult which had to be avenged4 ,thus feuds were established1 some of which ran through many years1 and resulted in considerable loss of life4 ,a town1 which had lost to another a greater number of heads than they had secured1 was in honor bound to even the score1 and thus another cause for battle was furnished4 ,the man who actually succeeded in taking a head was received with great acclaim upon his return to the village2 he was the hero in the festival which followed1 and thereafter was held in high esteem1 and so another motive was furnished4 #agf ,there is an indication in the ,saloko ceremony that heads may have been taken to cure headache and similar ills 7cf4 p4 #cai72 while the presence of the head-basket1 of the same name1 in the fields suggests a possible connection between head-hunting and the rice culture1 such as still exists among the neighboring ,kalinga4 #agg ,the ,tinguian do not now1 and apparently never have practised human sacrifice1 but this custom and head-hunting seem to be closely related1 and to have as a primary cause the desire to furnish slaves or companions for the dead4 ,this idea was found among the ancient ,tagalog1 ,visayan1 and ,zambal1 and still exists among the ,apayao of ,northern ,luzon2 the ,bagobo1 ,mandaya1 ,bila-an1 and ,tagakaola of ,mindanao2 as well as in ,borneo and the islands to the south4 #agh ,that it once had a strong hold on the ,ilocano of the coast is made evident by the mysterious cult known as axibrong1 which at times terrifies whole communities4 ,in #aijg the region about ,bangui1 in ,ilocos ,norte1 was greatly excited over several attempts to kill people of that settlement1 and it was whispered that when a leading man1 who had recently died1 was placed in his coffin1 his right hand had suddenly raised up with four fingers extended4 ,this1 it was said1 was a demand on the part of the dead for four companions1 and the subsequent attacks on the villagers were thought to be due to the activities of the bereaved family in complying with the wishes of the deceased4 ,the raids following a death were usually carried out as a village affair1 and many warriors participated1 but it seems that by far the greater number of heads were secured by individuals or couples1 who would lie in ambush near to the trails1 or to the places1 where the women had to pass in carrying water from the streams to the village4 ,while the ,tinguian always chose to attack from ambush1 yet he did not hesitate to fight in the open when occasion demanded it4 ,for a distance of fifteen or twenty feet he depended on his spear1 but for close quarters he relied on his shield and head-axe4 ,an examination of ,plate ,,xliv will show that the shield has three prongs at the top4 ,these the warrior seeks to slip between the legs of his enemy to trip him up1 then one stroke downward with the axe1 and the opponent is put out of the fight4 ,the two lower prongs are meant to be slipped about the neck4 ,one more stroke of the head-axe1 and the victor takes his trophy and starts for home1 while the relatives of the dead man seek to secure the remains to carry them back to their village4 ,as the loss of a head reflects on the whole party1 and in a like manner its acquisition adds distinction to the victors1 a hot fight usually develops over a man who is stricken down1 and only ceases when the enemy is beaten off1 or has been successful in getting away with the trophy4 ,if a war party finds it necessary to make a night camp1 or if they are hard pressed by the foe1 they plant long1 thin strips of bamboo or palma brava #agi in the grass4 ,the ends of these are cut to sharp points1 and they are so cleverly concealed that pursuers must use great care1 and consequently lose much time1 or they will have their legs and feet pierced with these needle-like blades4 ,upon their return to the village1 the warriors were formerly met at the gate by their relatives1 who held two ladders in ,a shape1 thus forming a pathway over which each had to climb4 ,once inside the town1 the heads were placed on a bamboo spike known as sagang 7cf4 p4 #caj71 or in the saloko 7cf4 p4 #caj71 and for three days were exhibited beside the gate4 ,in the meantime messages were sent to friendly villages to invite the people to the celebration4 ,on the morning of the last day1 the heads were carried up to the center of the village1 where1 amid great rejoicing1 the men sang the praises of the victors or examined the skulls of the victims4 ,sometime during the morning1 the men who had taken the heads split them open with their axes and removed the brains4 ,to these they added the lobes of the ears and joints of the little fingers1 and they placed the whole in the liquor which was afterwards served to the dancers4 ,there seems to be no idea here of eating the brains of the slain as food4 ,they are consumed solely to secure a part of their valor1 an idea widespread among the tribes of ,mindanao4 #ahj ,the writer does not believe that any people of the ,philippines indulges in cannibalism1 if that term is used to signify the eating of human flesh as food4 ,several1 like the ,tinguian1 have or still do eat a portion of the brain1 the heart or liver of brave warriors1 but always1 it appears1 with the idea of gaining the valor1 or other desirable qualities of the victims4 ,the balance of the head festival consisted in the drinking of sugar cane rum1 of songs of praise by the headmen1 and finally all joined in dancing da-eng4 ,just before the guests were ready to depart1 the skulls were broken into small bits1 and the fragments were distributed to the guests so that they might taken them to their homes1 and thus be reminded of the valor of the takers4 #aha ,this disposition of the skull agrees with that of many ,apayao towns1 #ahb but it does not conform with the description of ancient times afforded us in the tales1 #ahc nor with the practices of the ,kalinga and ,igorot people1 both of whom preserve the trophy4 ,the weapons of the warriors consists of a spear1 head-axe1 and shield1 and the small bamboo spikes known as soga4 ,they do not make use of the bow and arrow1 although they have been credited as possessing them4 #ahd ,the old men claim it has not been used in their lifetime1 nor is mention made of it in the folk-tales4 ,the only time it appears is in the crude weapons used in shooting fish in the rice-fields1 and in the miniature bow and arrow1 which hang above the heads of a newborn child4 ,bolos1 or long knives1 are carried at the side suspended from the belt1 and upon occasion may be used as weapons4 ,however1 they are generally considered as tools 7,fig4 #g74 ,the ,head-,axe1 aliwa or gaman 7see ,fig4 #h74--,the axes made by the ,tinguian and ,kalinga are identical1 probably due to the fact that the center of distribution1 as well as the best iron work of this region1 is found in ,balbalasang--a town of mixed ,tinguian and ,kalinga blood4 ,the blade is long and slender with a crescent-shape cutting edge on one end1 and a long projecting spine on the other4 ,this projection is strictly utilitarian4 ,it is driven into the ground so as to support the blade upright1 when it is desired to have both hands free to draw meat or other articles over the cutting edge4 ,it is also driven into the soil1 and acts as a support when its owner is climbing steep or slippery banks4 ,the blade fits into a long steel ferrule which1 in turn1 slips onto a wooden handle4 ,the latter may be straight or plain1 but commonly it has a short projection midway of its length1 which serves as a finger-hold and as a hook for attachment to the belt4 ,quite frequently the handle is decorated with thin circles or bands of brass1 while ornamental designs sometimes appear on the blade4 ,while the axe is primarily a weapon1 its use is by no means confined to warfare4 ,it is used in house and fence building1 in cutting up game and forest products1 and in many other ways4 ,fig4 #h shows three types of head-axes1 the first two1 the ,tinguian-,kalinga axe2 third1 the ,igorot2 fourth1 the ,apayao4 ,there is a noticeable difference between the slender blades of the first group and the short1 thick blade of the ,igorot1 yet they are of the same general type4 ,the ,apayao weapon1 on the other hand1 presents a radical difference in form4 ,despite these variations1 the axes of these three tribes present an interesting problem4 ,so far as it known1 these are the only tribes in the ,philippines which make use of a head-axe1 and it is believed that no similar weapon is found in the ,malayan ,islands4 ,however1 blades of striking resemblance do occur among the ,naga of ,assam4 #ahe ,it is possible that the weapons of these far separated regions may hark back to a common source1 from which they received their instruction in iron working4 ,the ,spear1 pika4--,the various types of spears used by the ,tinguian are shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,a considerable part of these are made in the villages along the upper reaches of the ,buklok river and in ,balbalasang1 but many come into ,abra through trade with the ,igorot and ,kalinga4 ,they are used for hunting and fighting1 and are intended both as thrusting and throwing weapons4 ,in the lowlands the older type of spear-head is a modified leaf shape1 attached to a ferrule which slips over the shaft4 ,in the mountains1 heads with two or more barbs are set into the handles1 and are held in place by means of wooden wedges and by metal rings which surround the ends of the shafts4 ,a metal end or shoe covers the butt end of the weapon1 thus converting it into an excellent staff for mountain climbing4 ,occasionally a hunting spear is fitted with a detachable head1 which will pull out of the socket when an animal is struck4 ,the shaft is attached to the point by means of a heavy line1 and as this drags through the undergrowth1 it becomes entangled and thus delays the flight of the game4 ,shields1 kalasag4--,mention has already been made of the typical ,tinguian-,kalinga shield 7cf4 p4 #cgc74 ,while this is the common type of the region 7,fig4 #aj1 ,nos4 #a-a;a71 others1 which approach those of the ,bontoc ,igorot1 are frequently used 7,fig4 #aj1 ,no4 #b74 ,as a rule1 these come from ,balatok1 ,lubuagan1 ,guinaan and the villages along the ,malokbot river1 all of which are strongly influenced in blood and culture by the ,igorot4 ,in the latter shields we find the prongs at the top and bottom1 but they are no longer of sufficient size and opening to be of practical value4 ,the clue to their origin is probably afforded us in their use by the ,tinguian4 ,across the top and bottom of each shield1 near to the prongs1 are two or three braided bands which appear to be ornamental1 or to strengthen the weapon4 ,their real use1 however1 is to hold the soga1 the pointed bamboo sticks which are planted in the grass to delay pursuers4 ,a half dozen or more of these are usually to be found under the braiding at the back of the shield4 ,all shields are of very light wood1 and can easily be pierced by a spear4 ,they are intended to be used in deflecting missels rather than actually to stop them4 ,to aid in this purpose1 there is a hand grip cut into the center of the back4 ,this is large enough to admit the first three fingers1 while the thumb and little finger are left outside to tilt the shield to the proper angle4 ,hunting 7,plates ,,xlv-,,xlvi74--,hunting must be considered more in the nature of a sport than as a necessity1 for1 while a considerable amount of game is taken each year1 it is not enough to furnish an important part of the food supply4 ,as we have already noted1 a great part of the country occupied by this tribe is devoid of forests4 ,dense growths do occur in some valleys and ravines1 and a few of the mountains1 like ,posoey1 are heavily forested1 but for the most part the western slopes of the ,cordillera ,central are covered with rank cogon grass4 ,in the ravines and on the wooded slopes are deer1 pig1 wild carabao1 and wild chickens1 and during the dry season of the year it is no uncommon thing to see a considerable number of men leaving the village at daybreak with their dogs1 spears1 and nets4 ,the customary method of hunting the larger animals is to stretch long nets across the runway of the game4 ,a number of the hunters1 armed with spears1 conceal themselves near by1 while the balance of the party take the dogs to a distance and then1 spreading out fan-shape1 will converge on the net1 beating the brush and shouting in order to stir up the game4 ,the dogs1 sullen1 half-starved brutes1 take little interest in the chase until an animal is started1 then they begin to bay1 and the whole pack is in pursuit4 ,as the quarry rushes into the net1 the concealed hunters fall upon it and spear it to death1 at the same time fighting back the hungry dogs which would quickly devour it4 ,sometimes an animal escapes from the net1 but if wounded1 it is almost certain to fall a prey to the pack4 ,many deer are taken by this method in the course of a year4 ,sometimes a wild pig is netted1 and on exceedingly rare occasions a carabao4 ,however1 the wild carabao is a dangerous animal1 and hunters will not attack it unless it is so entangled in the nets that it is practically helpless4 ,still hunting for deer1 near to the feeding grounds1 yields a few animals each year1 and during the period when the lumboy 7,eugenia jambolana ,lam47 are in fruit1 the hunters often hide themselves in the trees at night1 and spear the pigs which come below them to feed4 ,wild hogs are also secured by placing a close fence about a field4 ,one or two small entrances are left open and inside of these1 deep pits are dug1 and are covered with brush4 ,as the animal pushes in1 it steps on the frail covering1 and is hurled to the bottom of the pit1 where it is easily dispatched with the spear4 ,among the smaller game1 the wild chicken is the most important4 ,these fowls seldom fly1 but seek safety by running through the underbrush4 ,the ,tinguian takes advantage of this trait1 and stretches nets loosely in the probable runway of the birds1 and then drives them toward it in the same manner1 as he does the deer4 ,as the fowl runs full speed into the loose net1 it folds about him1 and he is easily taken4 ,the most common method of securing wild roosters is by means of a series of slip nooses attached to a main cord or band 7,fig4 #aa74 ,this is set up so as to enclose a square or triangular space1 and a tame rooster is put inside4 ,the crowing of this bird attracts the attention of the wild fowl who comes in to fight4 ,soon1 in the excitement of the combat1 one is caught in a noose1 and the harder it pulls1 the more securely it is held4 ,at times the trap is baited with worms or grain4 ,the snare is carried in a basket-like case1 which is often fitted with a compartment for the decoy rooster4 #ahf ,another type of chicken snare consists of a single noose1 which rests on two elevated strips of bamboo4 ,the other end of the cord is attached to a bent limb1 held down by means of a small trigger1 which slips under a cross strip4 ,the game is led onto the trap by scattering grain4 ,the weight of the bird releases the trigger1 the bent twig flies up1 and the noose is drawn tightly4 ,small birds are captured in considerable numbers by the boys who1 for this purpose1 make use of three types of snares4 ,the first and most common is a simple slip noose made of human or horse hair attached to a stick4 ,several of these are driven into the ground close together1 and grain is scattered between them4 ,a second type of noose trap is shown in ,fig4 #ab1 ,no4 #a4 ,a ,bamboo pole a with sharpened end has a spring b of the same material attached to its side4 ,a cord from this passes through a small hole in the top of a1 and then forms a slip noose4 ,a small stick or trigger c is forced into the hole until firm enough to keep the line held taut1 and the noose is spread on it4 ,bait is placed on the point of a in such a manner that the bird has to alight on c to secure it4 ,its weight releases the trigger1 and the noose is drawn tightly around its legs4 ,another trap of this nature is illustrated by ,fig4 #ab1 ,no4 #b4 ,here a branch is bent down and a line is attached4 ,the trigger stick a slips outside b1 and the pressure holds the free stick c in place against the crotch4 ,bait is so placed on d that a bird coming to secure it must stand inside the slip noose which is spread on c4 ,the weight and movement of the victim releases the trigger1 draws the line taut1 and closes the noose about its legs4 ,in the lowland villages1 blowguns 7salbalana7 are used to a limited extent in hunting birds4 ,two long strips of palm wood are grooved and fitted together4 ,over these the intestines of a carabao are drawn1 and the whole is wrapped tightly with cord and covered with beeswax4 ,the guns vary from #ab to #af feet in length1 and are often excellently made1 yet they are little better than toys1 for the missels used are only clay balls4 ,poison darts are unknown in this region1 and the weapon is confined to the villages near to the coast4 ,this1 together with the fact that the blowgun does not appear in the lore or ceremonies1 suggests that it of recent introduction 7,plate ,,xlvii74 ,locusts are considered excellent food1 and when they are flying in great numbers1 are taken by means of small nets4 ,these are attached to poles1 and are swung into the swarm4 ,sometimes nearly the whole village will unite in such a hunt1 the catch being stored in large bottle-shaped baskets until needed4 ,bats and rats are not eaten1 but the latter are trapped and killed because of the grain they destroy and the injury they do to the houses and their contents4 ,the most common trap is made from a section of bamboo in one side of which a spring is inserted4 ,a line attached to this leads to a slip noose which fits inside the tube4 ,bait is attached to a trigger which1 when disturbed1 releases the spring and closes the loop around the intruder4 ,fishing4--,mention has already been made of the capture of fish by the children4 ,older people likewise devote some time to fishing1 but not to the extent of making it an occupation4 ,nearly every family has a collection of traps and lines1 and at times quite a number of fish and eels are secured4 ,the common trap is shown in ,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #a4 ,the entrance is made of sharp bamboo splints1 which converge toward a small hole opening into the trap proper4 ,the device is then placed in the water in such a way that fish coming downstream will be diverted into the opening4 ,the current and the natural inclination of the fish to go into a dark hiding-place causes them to force their way into the trap1 and once in they cannot emerge4 ,the water escapes through the bamboo slits1 but the fish can only be released by opening the small end of the trap4 ,many of the women carry baskets attached to the belt at the hip4 ,the tops of these baskets have funnel-shaped openings1 and are immediately available for use as traps1 if a good catch is in prospect 7,fig4 #ac1 ,no4 #b74 ,these are usually employed for shrimps and minnows4 ,eels are caught in long1 round traps of rattan and bamboo4 ,a frog is fastened in the far end of the tube1 usually with a fish-hook4 ,this is attached to a rattan spring1 which is connected with the door of the trap4 ,the eel enters and seizes the frog1 but as it starts to back out1 it releases the bent rattan1 and the door is pulled shut4 ,small hand nets1 spread apart by means of sticks held in the hands1 are used by women in scooping up small fish4 ,ordinarily1 it is scooped away from the body1 but if a fish takes refuge under a rock1 the net is placed under the opposite side1 and the stone is turned over with the foot4 ,the most effective fishing-device is a large throw net made cornucopia shape4 ,the large net is open and weighted with many sinkers of lead4 ,the man throws the net with a full arm sweeping motion1 so that it spreads to its full extent1 and all the sinkers strike the water at the same time4 ,the splash causes all the fish inside the circle to dart inward1 and as it sinks1 the net settles over them4 ,the fisherman draws in the cord attached to the small end1 causing the sinkers to drag along to the bottom until directly beneath him1 when their weight closes the net4 ,it requires much skill and practice to throw this net properly1 but once the art is mastered1 the fisherman is very successful4 ,blanket fishing similar to that in use by the neighboring ,igorot is found here4 ,a large blanket is weighed down with stones1 and is placed in the river4 ,after one or two hours have elapsed1 a number of men form a wide circle around it4 ,often they drag between them a rope to which many corn husks are attached4 ,as they advance toward the blanket1 they turn the larger stones with their feet so that any fish hiding beneath them will be frightened away4 ,the circle of men and corn husks causes the fish to go toward the blanket1 and finally to take refuge under the stones piled upon it4 ,when the blanket is reached1 the men seize the corners and lift it out of the water on to the bank1 where the stones are thrown out and the fish secured4 ,a somewhat similar idea is found in the lama4 ,quantities of leaf branches are sunk into a still pool1 and are left for a few days until the fish have come to use them as a hiding-place4 ,a number of men make a close fence of bamboo sticks about them1 then go inside1 throw out the branches1 and catch the fish with their hands or with the nets4 ,streams are often diverted from their course1 for a time1 and then returned1 leaving the fish in the artificial channels stranded4 ,a curious method of fishing was seen in the ,ikmin river4 ,a hook was fastened in the end of a bamboo pole1 and close to this a minnow was attached to a short line1 to act as a lure4 ,when the other fish approached the captive1 the pole was jerked sharply1 in an attempt to snag them4 ,on one occasion the writer saw fifty fish taken by this method in less than an hour4 ,short lines attached to sticks are often baited1 and are set along the embankments of the flooded rice-fields4 ,small fish spears with detachable heads are also used in the rice lands1 as well as in the clear pools4 ,the only occasion when the bow and arrow is used in this region is when the rice fields are flooded4 ,at such times a short bow and an arrow with fork-shaped head are employed 7,fig4 #ac1 ,nos4 #c-c;a74 ,a fish poison or stupifier is occasionally used4 ,a small red berry known as baiyatin is crushed1 and the powder is thrown into or just above quiet pools1 where fish abound4 ,some of the fish become stupified and float on the surface1 where they are quickly speared or scooped up4 ,they are eaten without any ill effects4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,economic ,,life ,rice ,culture4--,the most important crop raised by the ,tinguian is rice1 and to its cultivation he devotes a considerable portion of his time4 ,two distinct methods of growing are now found throughout the district--the mountain or upland fields1 in which the rice is raised without irrigation2 and the rice terraces with irrigation #ahg 7,plate ,,xlviii74 ,to prepare the first type of field1 a piece of forest land is chosen if possible1 or lacking this1 a plot covered with second growth is selected4 ,the purpose in using timber land is to escape the cogon grass 7,imperata koenigii71 which quickly invades all open fields1 and flourishes until the trees again shut out the sunlight4 ,the trees and underbrush are cut down during the dry season1 so that they may be ready for burning before the arrival of the first rains4 ,should no timber land be available1 an open piece will be selected1 and after the grass is burned1 the soil will be partially cleared of its stubborn roots by means of a large knife or adze-like instrument known as pal'lek 7,fig4 #ad1 ,no4 #b74 ,after the clearing1 the field is fenced in so as to protect it from deer1 wild pigs1 and carabao4 ,the rudest type of protection consists of a barricade of brush1 strengthened with forked sticks1 in the crotches of which poles are laid4 ,the more common method is to set bamboo tubes1 at intervals1 around the whole plot and to lash to them other tubes which have been split in half4 ,a still better fence is made by cutting three holes1 about a foot apart1 through each upright and to insert smaller bamboo through these4 ,when the rains begin1 the men go to the fields1 each with two hardwood sticks whittled to tapering rounded ends4 ,these are driven alternately into the soil making shallow holes an inch or so in depth1 into each of which the women drop several seed rice4 ,the whole field is gone over in this way2 soil is pushed into the holes with the feet1 and frequently the task is finished by sowing a few handfuls of seed broadcast and distributing it by brushing back and forth with a leafy branch4 #ahh ,in the valley districts the planting sticks are cut as needed1 but in the mountains1 where the upland rice is more important1 strong bamboo poles fitted with hardwood points are in general use4 ,these implements1 known as tepon 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #a71 are invariably carefully decorated with incised designs1 and are preserved from year to year4 ,commonly1 the divisions between the sections of the bamboo are knocked out and the tube used as a receptacle for the seed rice4 ,as the mountain fields need special protection1 it is customary to build near them little elevated houses in which the workers may rest1 and in which the watchers can live during the time the grain must be guarded4 ,if the plots are near to a village1 such a house seldom consists of more than a rude framework of poles1 which support a grass roof1 and to which a bamboo floor is lashed1 two or three feet above the ground2 but if the fields are at a distance1 these structures are provided with sides1 and are raised high on strong logs4 ,such high1 well built houses are necessary1 both to protect the occupants from surprise attacks of enemies1 and to afford shelter against driving winds or rains4 ,it is not an uncommon occurrence for a whole family to go to one of these isolated mountain dwellings and reside for a considerable period1 particularly when the rice is approaching maturity4 ,these upland fields produce much smaller crops than do the wet lands1 and as they are quickly exhausted1 it is not customary to plant them to rice for more than two seasons4 ,at the end of this time1 they may be used for camotes 7,convolvulus batatas71 sugar-cane1 or cotton1 but in the majority of cases they are allowed to lie unused for several seasons1 when the grass or undergrowth is again removed and the fields replanted4 ,the wet fields produce by far the greater part of the rice1 and it is about them that most of the agricultural labors center4 ,in the broad valleys1 low embankments1 of sufficient height to maintain the water at a depth of two or three inches1 separate the fields4 ,the lower plots are often of considerable length and width1 some covering as much as an acre of ground1 but as they begin to ascend the slopes1 the walls rise higher1 and the fields become narrower until they may be only a few feet in width4 ,in the rugged mountain districts1 the terraces often begin just above the flood water of the stream4 ,at this point1 a stone wall1 four or five feet in height1 is erected1 and back of this the mountain side is cut away and filled in until it forms a step or terrace4 ,back of this another wall is raised1 and the process is repeated until at last the terraces extend for two or three hundred feet up the mountain side 7,plate ,,xlix74 ,when the field is first made1 top soil1 enriched with vegetable growth1 is laid on the surface1 often to a depth of several inches1 but from this time on no fertilizer1 other than the decaying straw of the previous crop1 is added1 although the field is used continuously for many years4 ,water is conducted to many of the fields by means of ditches1 usually by diverting the flow of some of the numerous springs or streams but in a few instances1 stone dams have been thrown across the rivers and the water carried for considerable distances by flumes and ditches4 ,the highest terraces are first inundated to the desired depth1 and then openings are made in the side walls--so as to allow the lower fields to be flooded4 ,this method of irrigation provides for the maximum use of the water1 and also supplies a constant current which prevents the formation of stagnant pools4 ,some of the fields are situated too far up the mountain side to be reached by ditches1 and in such cases the growth of the rice is entirely dependent on the rainfall2 however1 in normal years1 the precipitation is sufficient to mature the crop4 ,at the beginning of the rainy season1 some of the seed rice is sprouted in specially prepared beds in the villages4 ,in such cases a small plot is surrounded with low dirt walls1 the soil is enriched with manure1 water is added1 and the whole is worked until it becomes a thin mud1 on which the rice is thickly sown4 ,around this bed1 a bamboo frame is erected to keep out pigs and chickens1 while from time to time water is poured on the growing shoots4 ,the more common method of sprouting1 however1 is to select a piece of land1 which will receive the full benefit of the rainfall and to break this with a plow drawn by a carabao4 ,when the seed beds have been planted1 the people go to the fields1 repair the embankments1 and admit the water4 ,the straw remaining from the previous crop is allowed to rot1 for a time1 and then the ground is gone over with a bamboo harrow 7pali-id71 #ahi as shown in ,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #c1 to remove weeds1 branches1 and the like4 ,wherever it is possible1 the soil is broken with a plow1 alado 7,plate ,l71 but in fields to which animals cannot be taken1 the ground is turned by means of sharpened sticks1 or poles tipped with iron1 which are driven into the soil and forced forward1 thus pushing the earth above them into the water4 #aij ,as will be seen from the accompanying drawing 7,fig4 #ae1 ,nos4 #b-b;a71 the plow is constructed entirely of wood except for the iron share1 and conforms closely to that used in ,java1 ,celebes1 ,sumatra1 ,burma1 and ,annam4 #aia ,within a few days after the plowing1 the soil is further broken by dragging it with a harrow1 made by driving wooden pegs into a heavy board1 or into large bamboo tubes 7,fig4 #ae1 ,no4 #d74 ,a worker stands on this1 and is dragged about the field1 leveling it1 and at the same time pulling out sticks1 roots1 and any other matter of sufficient bulk to interfere with the planting4 ,two types of sleds 7,fig4 #ae1 ,nos4 #e-f7 are used in connection with the rice culture1 as well as in general transportation4 ,the first consists of rude wooden runners on which a bamboo flooring is laid4 ,the second has narrow runners1 which are hewn with considerable care1 while sides of flattened bamboo convert the sled into an open box4 ,the first type 7pasagad7 is used principally during the wet season for the transportation of plows1 harrows1 and the like1 the wide runners slipping through the mud without becoming mired4 ,the use of the latter 7kalison7 is restricted to the dry-season1 when it is of particular advantage in moving the rice4 ,wheeled vehicles are not employed in any part of the ,tinguian belt1 although their use is now fairly common among the ,ilocano4 ,it requires a month or six weeks to make ready the fields1 and in the meantime the rice in the seed beds has grown to a height of twelve or fourteen inches4 ,the shoots are then pulled up by the roots1 are tied into bundles1 and the tops are cut off 7,plate ,,li74 ,the bundles are distributed about the fields at convenient distances1 and the workers then transplant the young rice--three or four together--in the soft ooze1 using the thumb and fore-finger of the right hand for that purpose 7,plate ,,lii74 ,the preparation of the field is looked after by the men and boys1 and oftentimes they aid in transplanting1 but the latter is considered to be women's work1 and is generally left to them4 ,the rice is set so thickly that when a plot is planted it presents to the eye a solid mass of green4 ,it is hard to imagine a more beautiful sight than to look down on these fields1 which rise in wave above wave of brilliant green1 until at last they give way to the yellower billows of cogon grass which cover the mountain slopes4 ,after the transplanting1 the grain needs constant attention2 at first1 to keep it properly weeded and flooded2 later1 to protect it from animals and birds4 ,hence many workers are always in the fields1 but it is1 nevertheless1 the happy time for the people1 and if one approaches a group of workers unawares1 he will hear one or more singing the daleng1 a song in which they compliment or chide the other workers1 or relate some incident of the hunt or of village life4 ,toward midday little groups will gather in the field shelters to partake of their lunches1 to smoke1 or to rest1 and usually in such a gathering will be a good story-teller who amuses with fables1 or tales of adventure4 #aib ,when the rice begins to mature1 an even stricter watch must be kept1 for1 in addition to its other enemies1 the rice birds #aic now seek to feed on the crop and1 while they are small in size1 they often appear in such numbers that they work great havoc4 ,the usual device employed in frightening both birds and animals is a bamboo pole cut into strips at the top1 so that1 as it is shaken1 these strike together1 producing a great clatter4 ,many of these poles are planted1 and then all are connected by means of rattan lines which finally lead to the little watch house4 ,here a man or boy sits and occasionally gives the lines a sudden jerk1 which sets up a clapping over the whole field 7,plate ,,liii74 ,a clever development of this device was seen by the writer in the ,ikmin river valley4 ,here the stream flows swiftly and plunges headlong into pools every few yards4 ,the rattan cord attached to the clappers is fastened to a small raft which is then set afloat in the pool4 ,after a whirl in the eddy it is caught by the swift current1 and is carried a few feet down stream1 at the same time bending the clappers nearly to the ground2 then as the raft enters calmer water1 the tension is released1 and it is thrown violently back into the pool from which it has just drifted2 at the same time the clappers fly back into place with a great noise4 ,another contrivance1 used in keeping small birds from the fields1 is a bird-like form cut from the bark of a banana or palm tree4 ,many of these are suspended by lines from bamboo poles1 and1 as the wind blows them to and fro1 they appear like giant birds hovering over the rice4 ,a simple protection against deer is made by bending the white inner bark of bamboo into arches and planting these at intervals along possible places of entry1 for it is said that these animals will not approach such a contrivance4 ,soon after the water is turned into the fields1 shells and fish begin to appear even in the higher terraces4 ,doubtless a considerable part of these come in through the ditches1 but the natives insist that most of the fish bury themselves deep in the mud at the approach of the dry season and hibernate until water again appears in the fields4 #aid ,these intruders are prized as food1 and to secure them1 short baited lines are placed along the edges of the terraces1 while each woman has1 attached to her belt1 a small basket into which she places shells discovered during her work4 ,the men likewise secure fish by means of hooks and lines1 and also pierce them with short spears fitted with detachable points1 but more commonly they shoot them with a small bow and peculiar arrows1 the heads of which resemble flattened spoons cut into four or five teeth4 #aie ,as the grain begins to ripen1 the land is allowed to dry1 and when all is ready for the cutting1 the people put on their best garments and go to the fields4 ,each stalk is cut separately by means of a crescent-shaped blade 7lakom or lakem7 attached to a small wooden cylinder 7,fig4 #ad1 ,nos4 #c-c;a74 ,this handle is held between the thumb1 first and fifth fingers1 while the stalk is caught by the second and third fingers1 and is pulled inward against the steel blade4 #aif ,many workers grasp the stalk near the head with the left hand1 while the cutting blade is used with the right4 ,both men and women may engage in cutting the rice1 but as the latter are much the more dexterous workers1 this task is generally assigned to them 7,plate ,,liv74 ,the grain is cut so as to leave stalks about ten inches in length2 these are laid in the free hand until a bunch of considerable size has accumulated1 when they are bound together with strips of bark4 #aig ,at the end of the day these bundles are carried to the drying yards1 where they remain until the whole crop is harvested4 ,a drying yard is a plot of ground surrounded by a bamboo fence of such a height that it is impossible for fowls and the like to gain entrance4 ,when all the bundles are thoroughly dried1 they are placed in the granary1 and from that time on the handling of the rice is given over to the women4 ,the granaries1 or store-houses1 of the ,tinguian and ,ilocano are identical 7,plate ,,lv71 but1 barring the ,apayao1 are different from any of the surrounding groups1 except when their influence may have spread this peculiar type to a limited degree4 ,it is worthy of note1 however1 that the granaries of some ,sumatran groups are of similar design and construction4 ,such a store-house is raised high above the ground on four hard-wood poles2 the framework is of bamboo1 and the sides flare sharply from the floor to the grass roof4 ,within the framework is a closely woven matting of flattened bamboo1 which is nearly water-tight2 but to secure still further protection from moisture1 and also to allow for free circulation of air1 a rack is built in such a way that the rice is kept several inches from the outside walls4 ,just below the floor1 each post supports a close-fitting pottery jar--without top or bottom--or a broad disk of wood1 which effectually prevents the entrance of rodents4 ,to thrash the grain1 the woman places a bundle on a piece of carabao hide1 and1 as she rolls it beneath her feet1 she pounds it with a long wooden pestle 7hala7 until all the kernels are beaten loose from the straw4 #aih ,it is then placed in a wooden mortar 7luson7 of hourglass form or with straight sides1 where it is again beaten until the outside husks are loosened1 and the grain is somewhat broken 7,plate ,,lvi74 ,winnowing is accomplished by tossing the contents of the mortar in shallow traps 7igau71 so that the chaff is blown away1 while the grain falls back into the winnower 7,plate ,,lvii74 ,the rice is now ready for cooking2 the chaff is collected1 and is used as food for the pigs and dogs1 while the stalks are saved to be burned1 for the ashes are commonly used in lieu of soap4 ,rice has also come to have great importance1 both as a standard of value and as a medium of exchange4 ,a single stalk is known as sanga dawa4 ,when the stalks are equal in size to the leg1 just above the ankle1 the bundle is called sang-abtek4 #aii ,ten sang-abtek equal sanga-baal4 ,one hundred sang-abtek make sanga-oyon4 ,the measure of cleaned rice is as follows3 ,two full hands 7one coconut shell full7--#a sopa 7,ilocano supa2 ,spanish #a_/h ganta74 #h sopa--#a salop 7,spanish ganta or about #b quarts74 #be salop--#a kaban4 ,it is customary to pay laborers in rice2 likewise the value of animals1 beads1 and the like are reckoned and paid in this medium4 ,during the dry season rice is loaned1 to be repaid after the harvest with interest of about fifty per cent4 ,according to tradition1 the ,tinguian were taught to plant and reap by a girl named ,dayapan4 ,this woman1 who was an invalid1 was one day bathing in the stream1 when the great spirit ,kaboniyan entered her body4 ,he carried with him sugar-cane and unthreshed rice which he gave to the girl with explicit directions for its use4 ,likewise he taught her the details of the ,sayang1 the most important of the ceremonies4 ,dayapan followed instructions faithfully1 and after the harvest and conclusion of the ceremony1 she found herself to be completely cured4 ,after that she taught others1 and soon the ,tinguian became prosperous farmers4 #bjj ,in ,part ,i of this volume a reconstruction of the early life of this people was attempted from their mythology4 ,the results seemed to indicate that the tales reflect a time before the ,tinguian possessed terraced rice-fields1 when domestic work animals were still unknown1 and the horse had not yet been introduced into the land4 ,but it was also noted that we are not justified in considering these as recent events4 ,at this time1 with the more complete data before us1 it may be well to again subject the rice culture to careful scrutiny1 in the hope that it may afford some clue as to the source from which it spread into this region4 ,it is possible that the ,tinguian may have brought it with them from their early home1 which may be supposed to have been in southeastern ,asia2 they may have acquired it through contact with ,chinese or ,japanese traders1 or through commercial relations with the islands to the south2 or again it may have developed locally in the ,tinguian1 ,igorot1 and ,ifugao territory4 ,it should be noted at the outset that highly developed terrace cultivation is found in ,japan and ,china to the north2 in parts of ,borneo1 in the ,nias archipelago1 in ,java1 ,bali1 ,lombok1 ,sumatra1 ,burma1 and ,india proper1 and it is probable that all within this broad belt developed from a single origin4 ,when we compare the construction of ,igorot and ,tinguian terraces and the methods of irrigation1 we find them quite similar1 although those of the former are somewhat superior and of much greater extent4 ,the planting of the seed rice and the breaking of the soil in the high fields are also much alike1 but here the resemblances cease4 ,in the lower fields1 the ,tinguian employ the carabao1 together with the plow and harrow2 the ,igorot do not4 ,the ,igorot fertilize their fields1 the ,tinguian never4 ,in harvesting1 the ,tinguian make use of a peculiar crescent-shaped blade to cut the stalk1 the ,igorot pull each head off separately4 ,the ,tinguian and ,ilocano granaries are of a distinctive type radically different from the ,igorot1 while the methods of thrashing in the two groups are entirely different4 ,finally1 the ceremonial observances of the ,tinguian1 so far as the rice is concerned1 are much more extensive and intricate than have been described for the ,igorot4 ,in a like manner there are many striking differences between the methods of handling the grain by the ,tinguian and those found in ,japan and ,china4 ,on the other hand1 when we come to compare the rice culture of this region with the islands to the south1 the similarities are very striking4 ,the short description given by ,marsden for ,sumatra #bja would1 with a few modifications1 apply to the situation in ,abra4 ,the use of the plow and harrow drawn by carabao is found in ,java and ,sumatra2 the common reaping knife of both these islands is identical with the ,tinguian1 although there is a slight difference in the way it is utilized2 the peculiar type of granary found in ,abra again appears in ,sumatra1 while the ,tinguian ceremonial acts associated with the cultivation and care of the rice-recall1 in several instances1 details of such ceremonies in ,java4 ,if ,tinguian rice culture did come from the south1 through trade or migration1 in comparatively recent times we should expect to find evidences of the same culture distributed along the route by which it must have traveled4 ,we find1 however1 that few terraces exist in ,mindanao and northern ,borneo2 and the former1 at least1 are of recent introduction4 #bjb ,there is also negative evidence that such fields were rare along the coasts at the time of the ,spanish invasion4 ,in the early documents we meet with frequent statements that the people were agriculturists and raised considerable quantities of rice and vegetables in their clearings2 but the writer has discovered only two instances in which mention is made of terraced fields4 #bjc ,had extensive terraces existed on the coast1 it seems certain that some notice must have been taken of them4 ,yet in the mountains of central and northwestern ,luzon1 in districts remote from coast influences1 are found some of the most remarkable fields of this type in ,malaysia2 terraces representing such an expenditure of labor that they argue for a long period of construction4 ,the proof is not absolute1 but1 in view of the foregoing1 the writer is inclined to the belief that the ,igorot and the ,tinguian brought their rice culture with them from the south1 and that the latter received it from a source common to them and to the people of ,java and ,sumatra4 ,many writers who have discussed the rice culture of the ,east ,indies are inclined to credit its introduction to ,indian colonists1 #bjd but ,campbell #bje holds to the belief that it was practised centuries before the ,christian era and prior to the ,hindu invasion of ,java4 ,there seems to be no dissent1 however1 among these writers to the belief that its introduction antedated the arrival of the ,european in the ,orient by several centuries4 ,the fact that dry land farming1 carried on with planting sticks and the like1 is still found among the ,igorot and ,tinguian1 and for that matter all over the ,philippines1 cannot be advanced as an argument that the irrigated fields are of recent date1 for upland fields and primitive tools are still used in ,java and ,sumatra1 where1 as we have just seen1 the wet field culture is an old possession4 ,magical ,rites and ,ceremonies ,connected with the ,rice4--,the importance of rice to this people is nowhere better evidenced than in the numerous and1 in some cases1 elaborate rites with which its cultivation and care is attended4 ,some of these observances appear to be purely magical1 while others are associated with the consulting of omens1 acts of sacrifice1 propitiation1 and finally of thanksgiving4 ,all are interwoven with tribal law and custom to such an extent that neglect1 on the part of the individual1 amounts to a crime against the community1 and hence is punished with public indignation and ostracism4 ,when a new field is to be prepared1 or a granary erected1 strict watch must be kept for omens1 for should the inhabitants of the spirit world be unfavorable to the project1 they will indicate their feelings by sending snakes1 large lizards1 deer1 wild hogs1 or certain birds to visit the workers4 ,should any of these appear1 as the task is begun1 the place is generally abandoned at once1 but if doubt still exists1 or it is deemed abvisable to try to persuade the spirits to reconsider1 a small pig will be sacrificed4 ,its blood1 mixed with rice1 is scattered about on the ground as an offering1 while the medium recites a proper diam4 #bjf ,after a suitable time has elapsed for the spirits to partake1 the liver of the animal is removed1 and is carefully examined 7cf4 p4 #cjg74 ,if the omens are now favorable1 the work may be resumed1 but should they still be unpropitious1 it is folly to proceed1 for disaster is certain to follow4 ,the next anxiety is to secure a lusty growth of plants in the seed beds1 and to accomplish this1 sticks known as salogegey1 are stuck in each plot4 ,the surface of such a stick has been pared so that shavings stand out on it in opposite directions1 for such a decoration is pleasing to the spirits2 while a piece of charcoal1 placed in the notched end1 compels the new leaves to turn the dark green of sturdy plants4 ,the first seeds to be planted must always be sowed by the wife of the owner1 so that they will be fertile and yield a good crop4 ,when a field has been constructed1 or when the terraces are ready to receive the plants1 a ceremony known as ,dalau1 #bjg is held4 ,the purpose of this is to secure the good will of the spirits in general1 but more particularly to provide a dwelling place for the powerful being ,kaiba-an1 who guards the crops4 ,a medium1 accompanied by the family and any others who may be interested1 goes to the field carrying a large bamboo pole1 bolo #bjh branches1 stalks of lono #bji bakon1 and saklak4 #baj ,the end of the bamboo is split open1 and a saloko #baa is constructed to which are attached the other leaves and stalks4 ,the saloko is then placed on the dividing ridge of the field1 and all is ready for the ceremony1 unless it is considered wise to also construct a small house 7baubauwi74 ,if the field is near the village1 the latter is generally dispensed with1 but if it is distant1 the house is erected so that the spirit will accept it as its dwelling1 while it is guarding the crop4 ,it is further explained that the spirit then stays in the small house or saloko instead of in the rice stalks1 and so they are able to grow4 ,a female pig is presented to the medium who1 after reciting a proper diam above it1 stabs the animal and collects its blood4 ,this is mixed with rice1 and a part is at once deposited in the saloko1 while the balance is placed on a head-axe1 and is carried about the field4 ,when the whole plot has been traversed1 this rice and blood is scattered in all directions1 while the spirits are besought to come and eat4 ,a part of the company has meanwhile been cooking the flesh of the slain animal1 but before any of it is served1 a skirt 7kinomayan7 is spread at the foot of the saloko1 and on it are placed dishes of oil and of cooked rice4 ,after the meal has been eaten1 the family gathers up the skirt and dishes1 to return them to the village1 but the other offerings remain4 ,rain1 like all other things needed1 is sent by ,kadaklan or ,kaboniyan4 ,if it does not come as desired1 or if the crop is not progressing favorably1 a ceremony known as ,komon or ,ubaiya #bab is held4 ,each person of the village is assessed a sopa of rice1 a bundle of palay1 or a small coin with which pigs1 basi1 and other things necessary1 can be purchased4 ,early in the morning of the appointed day1 the mediums1 accompanied by many people1 go to the guardian stones1 oil the head of each1 and place a bark band around it4 ,then having recited a proper diam over a small pig1 they slaughter it and scatter its blood mixed with rice among the stones4 ,likewise they place a dish of basi among them for the use of the spirits4 ,a part of the slain animal is then cooked and eaten1 after which all go back to the village4 ,at some appointed place1 rice1 eggs1 betel-nuts1 and a large pig have been assembled1 and to this spot the mediums go to conduct the rite known as ,dawak4 #bac ,before its conclusion a diam is recited over the pig1 which is then killed and prepared for food4 ,meanwhile the chief medium beseeches the supreme being ,kadaklan to enter her body4 ,he comes1 and after telling the people what must be done to insure the crop1 he designates some one man who must1 on the following morning1 celebrate ,padiam4 ,after all the visiting spirits have been given food and drink1 a small covered raft 7taltalabong7 is constructed1 and in it are placed a live chick1 a cooked rooster1 and other articles of food4 ,four sturdy men carry this to the river and set it afloat1 while the people shout and beat on gongs to drive away evil spirits who might wish to steal the raft and its contents4 ,the purpose of this offering is to supply food to any spirits who may be unable to attend the ceremony4 ,early the next morning1 the man who has been designated by ,kadaklan to perform the ,padiam makes ready1 at his own expense1 a large pig and cooked rice1 and carries these to the fields4 ,he must be dressed in striped garments known as ginalit1 must carry a headaxe1 and wear on his head the cloth band of the medium1 beneath which are thrust two igam1 that is1 chicken feathers notched or decorated with bits of colored thread 7cf4 p4 #cac74 ,he is accompanied by his wife1 attired in a red jacket 7sinasaya7 and a skirt 7pinapa71 and by a medium who also wears the igam beneath a headband of sikag2 #bad while the townspeople follow behind4 ,arrived at the field1 the medium squats before the bound pig1 and holding a spear1 betel-nuts1 and oil1 begins to recite a diam1 meanwhile she strokes the animal from time to time with oiled fingers4 ,this concluded1 she stabs the pig1 and having mixed its blood with rice1 scatters it over the field1 calling to the spirits to come and eat1 and then to grant a full harvest4 ,the people eat part of the animal while in the field1 but before returning home1 the head of each family receives a small strip of uncooked flesh1 which he fastens above the door as a sign that the ceremony has been held4 #bae ,the following day1 the owner and the medium return to the field and break a little soil with a spear1 and the ceremony is complete1 but for some days these two are barred from eating shrimp1 carabao1 or wild pig4 ,the owner must also pay the medium ten bundles of rice for her assistance in insuring his own crops1 as well as those of the community4 ,should lightning strike a field or a tree in it1 this ceremony is repeated1 with the exception that the strips of flesh are not distributed1 nor is the soil broken with a spear4 #baf ,in ,lumaba1 a town strongly influenced by the ,igorot1 the ,ubaiya regularly precedes the rice planting1 as well as the first use of a newly constructed field4 ,while conforming1 in general1 to that already described1 a part of the procedure is somewhat different4 ,on the day before the ceremony1 the men go to the mountains and gather lono stalks1 one for each house and two for the town gate4 ,the two reeds are placed crosswise of the entrance to the village and serve as a sign of taboo1 and thereafter no one may enter until they are officially removed4 ,to do so would necessitate the repetition of the ceremony1 and the offender would be obliged to provide all the things necessary for it4 ,likewise1 no one may wear a hat or prepare food during the period of taboo4 ,the next day is known as ,bignas1 and at dawn all the men arm themselves with bamboo poles4 ,with these they beat about under the houses and throughout the town1 in order to drive away any evil spirits who may be lurking about4 ,having effectively rid the town1 they force the invisible beings ahead of them to the river1 where they deposit the poles4 ,they return to the village singing and shouting1 and are met at the gate by the women1 who hold ladders1 one on each side of the entrance1 so that they meet at the top and thus form a path by which the men may enter without breaking the interdict4 ,at the guardian stones1 they pause long enough to sacrifice a pig and a rooster1 and offer blood and rice to the spirits1 and then they proceed to the center of the village1 where they dance tadek and da-eng until dusk4 ,at nightfall a pig is killed1 its flesh is divided among the people1 and a lono stalk1 after being dipped in the blood1 is given to a member of each family4 ,this is carried home1 and is placed on the outside wall as a sign that the ceremony has been held4 ,if the sun is shining the following morning1 the lakay will go outside the town to gather wood4 ,upon his return the people are again free to fish and hunt1 but work is forbidden until evening4 ,should the sun fail to appear1 all remain quietly in the village until the lakay can remove the taboo by his wood gathering4 ,in ,manabo the ceremony is a mixture of the two types just described1 and is always held at the time of planting and when droughts occur4 #bag ,the procedure at harvest time varies considerably in different districts1 but the usual custom is for a woman1 from each family1 to go to the fields and cut alone until she has harvested one hundred bundles4 ,during this time she may use no salt1 but a little sand is placed in her food as a substitute4 ,no outsider may enter the dwelling during this preliminary cutting4 ,so strictly is this rule observed that the writer has been absolutely excluded from homes where1 on other occasions1 he was a welcome guest4 ,in ,lumaba and vicinity it is the custom to sacrifice a chicken two days before the harvest begins1 and to cook its neck and intestines without salt4 ,these are then divided into nine parts1 are placed in dishes1 and are carried to the spirit house in the field4 ,at the end of the second day1 the feathers of the fowl are stuck into the sides of the structure1 and the spirits are entreated to grant a good harvest and health for the workers4 ,the dishes are then returned to the village1 and on the following morning the women may begin cutting4 ,when the rice is ready to be stored1 the ,palpalaem #bah ceremony is held in honor of the spirit of the granary4 ,vines and shrubs #bai are tied to each supporting post of the granary and above the door1 while a bit of sikag is also hidden inside a bundle of rice1 which has been placed at each corner pole4 ,near one post is a small pig with its head toward the east1 and over it the medium recites a diam4 ,as usual1 the animal is killed1 and its blood mixed with rice is offered to the spirits4 ,a part of the flesh is wrapped in banana leaves1 and a bundle is buried at the foot of each post4 ,the skull is cooked1 and after being cleaned1 is hung up inside the roof4 ,the rest of the meat is cooked1 and is served with rice to the little company of friends who have gathered4 ,each guest is also given a few stalks of the rice from the bundles at the corner posts4 ,just before the new rice is placed in the granary1 a jar of basi is placed in the center of the structure1 and beside it a dish filled with oil and the dung of worms4 ,five bundles of palay are piled over these1 and the whole is presented to the spirit1 who will now allow the rice to multiply until it is as plentiful as the dung4 ,in ,buneg and nearby villages1 all of which are strongly influenced by immigrants from the ,cagayan valley1 a small clay house known as lablabon or adug is placed with the rice1 and from time to time offerings are put in them for the spirit who multiplies the rice 7,plate ,,xxix74 ,certain restrictions always apply to the granary4 ,it may never be opened after dark1 for evil spirits are certain to enter1 and the crop will vanish quickly4 ,it can be opened only by a member of the family whom the spirit knows2 and should another attempt to remove the grain1 sickness or blindness will befall him4 ,so rigorously is this enforced that a bride never opens her husband's granary until he has presented her with a string of beads1 which she wears about her neck to identify her4 ,it is further necessary that she receive a similar gift before she eats of his rice1 otherwise she will become ill4 ,however1 this does not apply to others1 even strangers being fed without this gift being made4 ,a custom which formerly prevailed1 but is now falling into disuse1 was for the bride and groom to visit the family fields1 where the youth cut a little grass along the dividing ridges4 ,he then took up a bit of earth on his head-axe1 and both tasted of it1 so that the ground would yield them good harvests1 and they would become wealthy1 ,cultivated ,plants and ,trees4--,near every settlement will be found a number of small gardens1 in which a variety of vegetables are grown4 ,occasionally a considerable planting of bananas will be found1 while many villages are buried beneath the shade of coconut trees1 but in comparison with rice the cultivation of other crops becomes insignificant4 ,nevertheless1 a considerable amount of food stuff1 as well as of plants and trees used in household industries1 are planted in prepared land2 while many of wild growths are utilized4 ,the following list is doubtless incomplete1 but still contains those of special value to this people4 #bbj ,next to rice the camote 7,convolvulus batatas7 is the most important food product4 ,occasionally it is raised in the gardens or rice terraces1 but1 as a rule1 it is planted in hillside clearings from which one or two crops of rice have been removed4 ,the tuber is cut into pieces1 or runners from old plants are stuck into the ground1 and the planting is complete4 ,the vine soon becomes very sturdy1 its large green leaves so carpeting the ground that it even competes successfully with the cogon grass4 ,if allowed1 the plants multiply by their runners far beyond the space originally allotted to them4 ,the tubers1 which are about the size of our sweet potatoes1 are dug up as needed1 to replace or supplement rice in the daily menu4 ,both roots and plants are also cooked and used as food for the pigs and dogs4 ,aba 7,colocasia antiquorum ,schott7 is raised1 #bba but as it requires a moist soil1 and hence would occupy land adapted to rice1 it is chiefly limited to the gardens4 ,it has large fleshy roots which are used like those of the camote1 while the leaves and young shoots are also cooked and eaten4 ,other tubers known as obi 7,dioscorea sp471 gakad 7,dioscorea divaricata ,blanco71 annaeg 7,dioscorea fasciculata71 and kamas 7,pachyrhizus angulatus ,d4,c47 are raised to a limited extent in the gardens4 ,corn1 mais1 bukel1 and red corn1 gasilan 7,zea mays ,l47 seems to have been introduced into ,abra in comparatively late times1 for despite the fact that it is one of the most important crops1 it has neither gathered to itself ceremonial procedure1 nor has it acquired a place in the folk-lore4 ,a considerable amount is raised in the village gardens1 but generally it is planted by dibbling in the high land4 ,when ripe1 the ears are broken from the stalk1 the husks are turned back1 and several are tied together4 ,these bunches are then placed over horizontal poles1 raised several feet from the ground 7,plate ,,lviii71 and after being thoroughly dried1 are hung from the house rafters4 ,the common method of grinding is to place the corn on a large stone1 over which a smaller stone is rocked until a fine flour is produced 7,plate ,,lix74 ,stone disk grinders1 imported from the coast1 are also in use4 ,these consist of grooved stones1 the upper of which revolves on the lower4 ,grain is fed into an opening at the top as needed4 ,dried corn1 popped in the embers of a fire1 is much relished by the children4 ,several varieties of squash1 #bbb and beans1 as well as peanuts 7mani7 are among the common products of the garden4 ,the former are trained to run over a low trellis or frame to prevent injury to the blossoms from a driving rain4 ,both blossoms and the mature vegetables are used as food4 ,among the minor products are ginger1 laya 7,zingiber officinale ,rosc47 and a small melon1 locally known as melod1 which is used as a sweetening4 ,sugar cane1 onas 7,saccharum71 is raised in considerable quantity1 and is used in making an intoxicating drink known as basi4 ,it is also eaten raw in place of a sweetmeat1 but is never converted into sugar4 ,nowadays the juice is extracted by passing the cane between two cylinders of wood with intermeshing teeth4 ,motive power is furnished by a carabao attached to a long sweep4 ,this is doubtless a recent introduction1 but it has entirely superseded any older method4 ,the cane is raised from cuttings which are set in mud-beds until ready to be transferred to the mountain-side clearings4 ,these lands are prepared in the same manner as the upland rice fields already described4 ,the men dig shallow holes and set each plant upright1 while the women follow1 filling the hole with water and then pressing earth in with fingers or toes4 ,in addition to these food crops1 considerable plantings of cotton or kapas 7,gossypium sp47 and tobacco or taba-o 7,nicotiana tabacum7 are raised in the clearings4 ,the former is planted on the hillsides1 where it matures in three or four months4 ,the plant seldom reaches a height of two feet1 and the bolls are small1 doubtless due to lack of care and suitable fertilization4 #bbc ,tobacco seeds are sprouted in beds similar to those used for the rice1 and the same magical device is used to insure a lusty growth4 ,the young plants are carefully watered and shaded until they reach a height of five or six inches4 ,they are then transplanted to hillside clearings1 or to unused rice fields1 where they are set out about three to a foot4 ,this transfer generally takes place near the beginning of the dry season1 so that the crop will be sure to mature without the damaging effect of water on the leaves4 ,the plants while lusty do not attain the size of those grown in the valley regions of the interior4 ,as soon as the leaves begin to turn a dark yellow1 they are cut off and are strung on slender bamboo sticks 7,plate ,,lx71 which are then hung up in the house4 ,when nearly dry1 they are laid in piles1 and are occasionally turned to prevent rust or mildew from forming4 ,a small amount of indigo1 tayum 7,indigofera tinctoria7 is raised1 generally in open spots near the villages4 ,the plants receive little or no attention1 yet still attain a height of about three feet4 ,the leaves and branches are placed in water for a few days1 and are then boiled1 together with a little lime1 the resultant liquor being used as a dye for cotton thread4 ,no product receives more attention in the lore of the ,tinguian than the climbing vine known as lawed 7,piper sp474 #bbd ,it was formerly in universal use in connection with the chewing of betel-nut4 ,to-day betel-nut is less common in this region1 but this leaf and the areca-nut still play an important part in all ceremonies4 ,according to tradition1 it was possible in the old times to tell the fate of an absent friend by noting the condition of a lawed vine planted by him prior to his departure4 #bbe ,the vine is now trained on poles and trellises1 near to many houses4 ,among the larger cultivated plants and trees1 the banana 7,musa paradisiaca71 coconut 7,cocos nucifera71 and bamboo 7,bambusa sp47 are the most important4 ,at least twenty varieties of bananas are raised in ,abra4 ,the fruit of some of these is scarcely larger than the forefinger1 while others are quite large4 ,the common type bears a rather small1 yellow fruit locally known as saba4 ,in ,manabo and several other villages1 plantings covering three or four acres are to be found1 but the usual plot is small1 and is situated near to the house of the owner4 ,suckers1 which sprout from the roots of mature plants1 are set out as needed1 either to make new groves or to replace the old stalks1 which are cut down after bearing4 ,both bud and fruit are eaten4 ,the latter are cut on the stem while still green1 and are hung in the house to ripen1 in order to protect them from bats and fruit-feeding birds4 ,the coconut 7niog7 is not raised in groves1 as in the ,christianized districts1 but in many villages every house has two or three trees towering above it4 ,even the interior mountain settlements1 like ,lingey1 ,ba-ay1 and ,likuan1 are hidden beneath these trees1 thus incidentally disposing of the fable that the coconut tree will not grow out of sight of the sea4 ,young trees have to be protected by fences during the first two or three years of growth1 or they will be uprooted by the pigs1 but from that time on they require little or no care4 ,they are not tapped for sap1 as is customary in most parts of the ,philippines1 but notches are cut in the tree trunks in order to supply foothold for the fruit gatherer4 ,the nuts are cut off with a knife as soon as ripe1 else they may fall and cause death or injury to people below4 ,no other fruit serves the people in so many ways4 ,the juice is relished as a drink1 the meat as a food1 the oil as a food and hair dressing2 the shells serve as dishes and cups1 or are carved into ladles1 while the fibrous covering of the nut is converted into foot wipers1 thread brushes1 and the like4 ,the betel-nut1 bwa 7,areca catechu ,l471 is also found in some villages1 particularly in the mountains4 ,it is a tall1 slender palm which yields the nut so prized throughout the ,islands for chewing4 ,mango-treees1 mangga 7,mangifera indica ,l47 appear here and there in valleys and on mountain sides1 where the seeds have doubtless been carried by birds or travelers1 but considerable groves are found in many districts4 ,the fruit is picked before it is ripe1 and is eaten as it becomes mellow4 ,other trees and shrubs which are occasionally planted are3 ,atis 7,anona squamosa ,l41 an ,american plant7 prized both for its fruit and bark--the latter being used in rope-making4 ,atatawa 7,jathropha multifida ,l474 ,also found in a wild state4 ,the fruit is used as a purgative4 ,the ,jathropha curcas ,l4 is also used4 ,daligan 7,averrhoa carambola ,l47 or ,coromandel gooseberry4 ,the fruit is eaten without cooking4 ,lanka 7,artocarpus integrifola ,l474 ,jackfruit4 ,maling-kapas or kapas to insit 7,ceiba pantadra ,gaertn471 also known by the ,ilocano as kapas sanglay4 ,this so-called ,chinese cotton is a small tree with few1 but perfectly straight1 branches1 which radiate from the trunk in horizontal lines4 ,it produces elliptical pods which burst open when ripe1 exposing a silky white cotton4 ,the fiber is too short for spinning1 but is used as tinder and as stuffing for pillows4 ,orange 7lokban7 and lime 7lolokisen7 trees are greatly prized1 but appear only occasionally4 ,they receive no care1 and consequently yield only inferior fruit4 ,the pias 7,averrhoa bilimbi ,l47 is a garden tree which produces an acid fruit used in cooking4 ,santol 7,sandoricum indicum ,cav47 trees are raised both for the fruit and for timber4 ,it is said that house posts of this wood are not attacked by white ants4 ,wild ,plants and ,trees4--,few of the wild growths have escaped the attention of this people1 and many are used as food and medicine1 as well as for fiber materials and bark cloth4 ,among those used for food1 the following are the most important3-- ,apang or sapang 7,bixa orellana ,l474 ,alloseup 7,antidesma ghesaembilla ,gaertn474 ,bayabas1 or lemon guava 7,psidium guayava ,l471 an ,american shrub which now grows wild1 and in great abundance1 in the mountains4 ,balatong 7,phaseolus mungo ,l474 ,only the seeds are used4 ,damokes 7,pithecolobium dulce ,benth471 an ,american tree which now grows spontaneously in northern ,luzon4 ,the fruit is eaten1 while the bark is sometimes used for tanning4 ,ipako 7,psophocarpus tetragonolobus ,d4,c471 a herbaceous vine infrequently seen in the gardens4 ,the young pods are used as a condiment4 ,kochai 7,alliuni tricoccum7 or wild leek4 ,katodai 7,sesbania grandiflora ,p474 ,only the flowers are eaten4 ,kama-al 7,allaeanthus luzonicus ,blanco4 ,vill474 ,kalot 7,dioscorea daemona ,roxb471 a tuber1 poisonous if eaten without special preparation4 ,it is cut into small pieces1 and is placed in running water for several days1 after which it is cooked4 ,kamatis 7,lycopersicum esculentum ,mill471 tiny tomatoes which are eaten raw or cooked4 ,labok 7,colocasia antiquorum ,schott74 ,longboy 7,eugenia jambolana ,lam474 ,olo 7,cissus sp471 a low climbing herb1 the stems and leaves of which are used in place of vinegar4 ,palda 7,phaseolus lunatus ,l471 civet bean4 ,sili 7,capsicum frutescens ,l471 small red peppers4 ,the ,american chile4 ,used as a condiment4 ,specimens of about twenty other food plants and trees were obtained1 but their identification was impossible4 ,the wild growths used as medicines1 or in the manufacture of string1 rope1 and bark cloth1 will be mentioned under those headings4 ,plants and ,trees ,used in the ,treatment of ,disease4--,most sickness is thought to be caused by spirits1 either with evil intent or to punish some wrong-doing or oversight on the part of the people4 ,to placate or bribe these superior beings1 elaborate ceremonies are held1 but in addition to these a number of simple remedies are made use of4 ,the efficacy of some of these medicines is explained by the fact that certain leaves or infusions are distasteful to the spirits of disease1 which1 consequently1 take their departure4 ,again1 a trouble such as a tooth-ache is caused by a small worm which is gnawing at the tooth4 ,to overcome this1 the bark and leaves of the alem tree are thoroughly beaten1 and are applied to the face4 ,the worm smells the crushed leaves1 and straightway enters the poultice which is then burned4 ,the spirits which bring the cholera can be driven away by burning the leaves of sobosob 7,blumea balsamifera71 bangbangsit 7,hyptis suavolens ,poir47 and dala 787 beneath the house2 likewise1 the bark of the bani 787 keeps the bearers of constipation at a distance4 ,bangbangsit is also considered as a cure for stomachache1 diarrhoea1 and is an aid in bringing on menstruation4 ,when used for these purposes1 the root is boiled1 and the liquor is drunk4 ,the fresh leaves will also relieve a pain in the stomach if applied to it1 while the fruit is eaten to cure diarrhoea4 ,if the patient is already affected with cholera or dysentery1 the leaves of the sobosob are placed in a jar of water at the mouth of which a clay ball is suspended1 and the whole is then completely covered with banana leaves4 ,the pot it placed over a fire1 and the steam being unable to escape is absorbed by the clay4 ,later this is crushed1 is mixed with water1 and is swallowed by the patient4 ,lard burned to a crisp is likewise mixed with water1 and is drunk to relieve diarrhoea4 ,fever is a frequent ailment1 and several medicines are employed against it4 ,the most common is to crush the leaves of the dangla 7,vitex negundo ,l47 in vinegar made from basi1 and to add to this a fourth part of urine4 ,the patient drinks a shell cup of the liquor1 is washed in cold water1 and then is briskly rubbed with fine salt4 ,young banana leaves are applied to the flesh1 and over these blankets are placed4 ,this is repeated twice daily until the fever is broken4 ,wild tomato leaves1 pounded and applied to the abdomen1 are also considered valuable in causing the patient to sweat4 ,if the trouble is unusually severe1 a hot bath is prepared by boiling the leaves of the lemon1 atis 7,anona squamosa ,l471 and toltolang 787 trees in water4 ,after the patient has been bathed in this1 he is wrapped in blankets4 ,the same remedy is used to cure fits4 ,snake bite is treated by chewing the bark of the alonen 7,streblus asper ,lour471 or kasabong 7,argemone mexicana ,l471 or the root of the talabatab 7,capparis micracantha ,d4,c471 all of which cause vomiting4 ,the fruit of the soloyot 7,corchorus olitorius ,l471 when baked and ground to a powder1 likewise produces vomiting1 and is used for any kind of poisoning4 ,to relieve the itch1 the juice of the kabatiti 7,luffa acutangula ,roxb471 ,bayabas 7,psidium guajava ,l47 or lew-lew 7,ficus haulili ,blanco7 is mixed with vinegar and soot1 and is applied to the skin4 ,the milky exudation of the kalinbwaya 7,euphorbia neruefolia ,l47 is also placed on the affected parts4 ,during the rainy season the people are greatly troubled with small blisters which form between the toes and quickly break down1 leaving open sores4 ,to harden the feet1 they hold them over burning straw4 ,certain other aids against disease are also employed4 ,cracked feet are treated with carabao dung2 the nest of a small cave bird 7nido7 is crushed in water1 and is drunk as a cure for coughs2 while the flesh of the shell fish 7kool7 is applied to boils4 ,a further cure for the itch is made by pounding a coconut shell into a fine powder4 ,this is placed in a jar1 over a hot fire1 and a piece of iron is laid over the top4 ,the sweat which collects on the iron is said to give instant relief4 ,an infected 7bad7 finger or limb is tightly bound to keep the sickness from going up4 ,use of ,betel-,nut1 ,tobacco1 and ,stimulants4--,a study of the tales and ceremonies makes it evident that the betel-nut 7bwa7 was at one time extensively used4 ,to-day it occupies an exceedingly important place in the religious rites1 but is seldom chewed4 ,when it is offered to the spirits1 it is still prepared in the way that is universal throughout ,malaysia4 ,the nut of the areca palm 7,areca catechu ,l47 is split into four pieces1 fresh lime is spread on a piper leaf 7,piper betel ,l471 this is wrapped about the piece of nut1 and is ready for chewing4 ,the areca palm grows well in this territory1 and quite an extensive grove is to be found near the village of ,bakaok1 yet this is the only place where any number of the people are addicted to its use4 ,tobacco 7tabao71 on the other hand1 is in universal use1 although it certainly was introduced after the arrival of the ,spaniards4 ,the leaf is dried1 and is rolled into thin cigars which are placed in tiny pipes 7,fig4 #ba74 ,the cigar itself is never held in the lips1 nor is the leaf chewed4 ,young and old of both sexes smoke frequently1 but not a great deal at a time4 ,after taking a few puffs1 the pipe is stuck into the hair1 or under the inner band of the hat1 until again needed4 ,the only intoxicating drink made and used by this people is the fermented juice of the sugar-cane1 known as basi4 ,the juice when extracted from the cane is boiled with water for four or five hours4 ,it is placed in a large jar together with cinnamon bark1 and is tightly covered over with leaves4 ,fermentation begins almost at once1 but for a month the drink is raw and little prized4 ,in three or four months1 it becomes quite mellow and pleasant to the taste4 ,jars are sometimes stored away to be opened only for some important event1 such as a marriage festival or the celebration of a great ceremony4 ,at such a time a very definite procedure is followed4 ,the most honored guest is invited to do the serving4 ,he removes the covering1 dips into the liquor1 pours a little on the sides of the jar1 and then a few drops on the ground as an offering to the spirits4 ,a coconut shell cup is then dipped out1 and is carried to the lakay or some other old man4 ,before he drinks1 he raises the cup to the level of his face1 and1 beginning at his right1 offers it to each person in the circle4 ,the one saluted makes a gesture away from his body with his right hand1 the palm upturned4 ,when all have refused the cup1 the man drinks1 often he stops to sing the daleng1 an improvised song in which he compliments his host1 bespeaks the welfare of his family1 or praises the other members of the gathering4 ,one after another the guests are served1 but always according to age and importance1 the women and young people being left to the last4 ,the liquor is quite intoxicating1 two or three drinks being sufficient to put the company in a jovial mood4 ,it often happens that one or more will become gloriously drunk1 but1 as a rule1 they are not quarrelsome1 and there seems to be no unpleasant after-effects4 #bbf ,domestic ,animals4--,dogs1 pigs1 chickens1 and carabao appear to have been long in the possession of this tribe4 ,horses1 goats1 and cattle are now owned by some of the people1 but only the former are of sufficient number to be considered important4 ,the dogs 7aso7are surly1 ill-kept creatures of mongrel breed4 ,they are seldom treated as pets1 but are kept for hunting4 ,well-fed dogs are considered lazy1 and hence they are fed only with a rice gruel1 which seems to be neither fattening nor satisfactory4 ,when in the village1 the miserable creatures wander about under the houses1 there to pick up and fight over morsels which may drop from above1 or they lie in the ashes of the bonfires1 the better to protect themselves from fleas and other enemies4 ,when used in hunting1 they are kept in leash until the game is started4 ,when released1 they follow the quarry at full cry1 and if the game has been injured1 they will seldom give up the chase4 ,it is necessary for the hunters to follow the dogs closely and beat them off a slain animal1 otherwise they will quickly devour it4 ,they are always rewarded with a part of the intestines and some other portions1 so that they may be keen for the next hunt4 ,pigs 7babuy7 run at large throughout the villages or in the neighboring underbrush4 ,they are fed at night close to the dwellings1 and thus become at least half tame 7,plate ,,lxi74 ,many spend the hot hours of mid-day beneath the houses1 from which they are occasionally driven by the irate housewives1 when their squealing and fighting become unbearable4 ,the domestic pigs are probably all descended from the wild stock with which they still constantly mix4 ,most of the young pigs are born with yellow stripes like the young of the wild1 but they lose these marks in a short time4 ,castration of the young males is usually accomplished when the animals are about two months old4 ,considerable numbers of chickens 7manok7 are raised4 ,nets or coops are arranged for them beneath the houses1 but they run at large during the day time4 ,eggs are an important part of the food supply1 but the fowls themselves are seldom killed or eaten1 except in connection with the ceremonies4 ,the domestic birds closely resemble the wild fowl of the neighborhood1 and probably are descended from them4 ,except for a few strongly influenced settlements1 cock-fighting has no hold upon this people4 ,the carabao or water buffalo 7nuang7 is the most prized and valuable animal possessed by this tribe4 ,as a rule1 it is handled and petted by the children from the time of its birth1 and hence its taming and breaking is a matter of little moment4 ,in the mountain region about ,lakub1 where most of the animals are allowed to run half wild1 only the strongest are broken4 ,the animal is driven into a ,a-shaped pen1 and a heavy pole is fastened across its neck just behind the horns4 ,it is thus prevented from using its strength1 and is loaded or ridden until it becomes accustomed to the treatment4 ,carabao are used for drawing the sleds and for ploughing and harrowing in the lower fields4 ,should one be seriously injured1 it would be killed and eaten2 but strong animals are slaughtered only on very rare occasions4 ,wild carabao are fairly abundant in the mountains4 ,they closely resemble the tame stock1 and are generally considered to be derived from animals which have escaped4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,products ,,of ,,industry ,iron-,working4--,little iron work is now done in the valley of the ,abra for the competition of the ,ilocano smiths of ,santa and ,narvacan1 in ,ilocos ,sur1 and the cheap products brought to the coast1 and as far inland as ,bangued1 by ,chinese traders1 have swamped the native industry4 ,forges are still found in many villages of eastern ,abra1 particularly those of the upper ,buklok river1 but the real center of the industry is in and around ,balbalasang1 on the eastern side of the mountain range4 ,we have in northern ,luzon a situation similar to that found throughout the archipelago1 namely1 that the most flourishing smithies are usually those farthest removed from the coast traders4 ,where communication is easy and trade unrestricted1 the native industry has vanished1 or is on the wane4 ,to-day the forges of the ,bontoc ,igorot1 of the ,tinguian-,kalinga border villages1 and of ,apayao1 are turning out superior weapons1 but elsewhere in the northwestern districts the pagan people have either lost the art1 or make only very inferior articles4 ,it is certain that iron-working has long been known1 not only in the ,philippines1 but throughout ,malaysia1 and it is likewise evident that these regions secured the art from the same source as did the people of ,assam1 ,burma1 and eastern ,madagascar1 for the description of the ,tinguian forge and iron-working which follows would1 with very little modification1 apply equally well to those in use in ,southern ,mindanao1 ,borneo1 ,java1 ,sumatra1 ,assam1 ,burma1 and ,madagascar4 #bbg ,long before the arrival of the ,spanish in the ,philippines1 the ,chinese had built up such a lively trade in iron bars and caldrons that it was no longer necessary for the natives to smelt their own iron ore2 if indeed they ever did so4 #bbh ,this trade metal was widely distributed1 and then reworked by the local smiths4 ,even to-day the people of ,balbalasang make the long journey to ,bangued1 or even to ,vigan1 to secure ,chinese iron1 which they carry back to their mountain forges4 ,there is no positive proof that the ,filipinos formerly mined and smelted iron1 but there is a strong probability that they did so1 prior to the introduction of trade metal4 ,it has already been noted that the ,tinguian type of forge and the method of handling and tempering iron is widespread in ,malaysia2 and1 as will be seen later1 this process is not that in use among the ,chinese1 so that it is unlikely that the art was introduced by them4 ,in furnishing iron ready for forging1 they were simply supplying in a convenient form an article already in use1 and for which there was an urgent demand4 ,in the islands to the south we find that many of the pagan tribes do now1 or did until recently1 mine and smelt the ore4 ,beccari #bbi tells us that the ,kayan of ,borneo extract iron ore found in their own country4 ,hose and ,mc,dougall say that thirty years ago nearly all the iron worked by the tribes of the interior of ,borneo was from ore found in the river beds4 ,at present most of the pagans obtain the metal from the ,chinese and ,malay traders1 but native ore is still smelted in the far interior4 #bcj ,foreign iron is now used by the ,battak of ,sumatra1 but deserted iron-works are known to exist in their country1 while the ,menangkabau still possess smelting furnaces4 #bca ,it seems probable that the whole industry had a common source1 and was spread or carried as a unit1 but when trade relations made the arduous work of mining and smelting unnecessary1 it was quickly given up4 ,that native iron might have supplied the needs of many ,philippine tribes1 including the ,tinguian1 is certain1 for important deposits of magnetite and hematite are found in ,abra1 in ,ilocos ,norte1 ,angat1 ,bulacan1 ,albay1 and other parts of the ,islands4 #bcb ,on several occasions1 when on the trail1 the natives have called our attention to boulders1 apparently of hematite1 which they recognized as iron4 ,the smithies are small structures with grass roofs1 but no sides or floors 7,plate ,,lxii74 ,at one end is a raised bamboo bench in front of which stands the forge4 ,this consists of two upright wooden cylinders1 usually logs hollowed out1 known as po-opan4 ,in each of these is a piston or plunger 7doeydoyog7 at the lower end of which is a wooden ring packed with corn husks and chicken feathers4 ,when this is pushed downward in the cylinder1 it compresses the air and forces it out of the small opening in the base1 but when it is drawn up1 the packing collapses and allows the plunger to be raised without effort4 ,these pistons are worked so that one is rising1 while the other is falling4 ,the cylinders stand in a wooden block out of which bamboo tubes 7tolongon7 conduct the air into a tube of fire clay 7ibong71 and this in turn carries it into the charcoal fire4 ,there are no valves1 as in the ,chinese bellows1 but the bamboo tubes fit loosely1 and the fire is not drawn back4 ,near to the hearth is a stone anvil 7dalisdisan71 while a heavy stone hammer1 a small iron hammer1 and iron pinchers complete the outfit4 ,the fire is lighted1 and the operator sitting on the bench alternately raises and lowers the plungers in the cylinders until the fire burns brightly2 then the smith puts metal into the coals and allows it to remain until it reaches a white heat4 ,it is then removed and placed on the anvil1 where his helper beats it out with the large hammer4 ,this is a stone weighing twenty or more pounds1 fitted inside the handles so that it can be used with both hands4 ,as a rule1 it is swung between the legs1 and is allowed to strike the metal as it descends1 but some of the men raise it above the shoulder and strike a much more powerful blow4 ,if two pieces of metal are to be welded together1 as is often the case when broken caldrons are used1 they are laid1 one overlapping the other1 and are held together with damp fire-clay4 ,in this condition they are placed in the fire and heated1 and are then beaten together4 ,it often takes several firings to bring about a perfect weld4 ,after the initial shaping1 the smith completes the work with the small hammer1 and the blade is ready for tempering4 ,a bamboo tube of water is placed near by1 and the blade is again inserted in the fire and brought to a white heat4 ,then the smith withdraws it and watches it intently until the white tone begins to turn to a greenish-yellow1 when he plunges it into the water4 ,the tempered blade is now smoothed down with sandstone1 and is whetted to a keen edge4 ,head-axes1 spear-heads1 adzes1 a few knives1 and the metal ends for the spear-shafts are the principal products of the forge4 ,the blades are by no means of equal temper or perfection1 but the smiths of the ,tinguian-,kalinga border villages seldom turn out poor weapons1 and as a result1 their spears and head-axes have a wide distribution over northwestern ,luzon4 ,in view of the wide distribution of this type of forge and method of iron-working2 of its persistence in isolated communities1 while it has vanished from the coast1 or has been superseded by the ,chinese methods of work2 as well as of other details here described1 the writer is of the opinion that the art has not been introduced into the ,philippines through trade1 but is a possession which many or all of the tribes brought with them from their ancient home1 probably somewhere in southeastern ,asia4 ,the effects of trade1 in historic times1 are evident throughout the ,christianized regions1 in ,chinese and ,european forges and in foreign types of utensils4 ,likewise the influence of the ,mohammedanized tribes is very marked in the ,sulu archipelago1 the western coasts of ,mindanao1 and even among many of the pagan tribes of that island1 but the isolated forges throughout ,malaysia and the methods described by early explorers in this field1 are practically identical with those just reviewed4 ,spinning and ,weaving4--,that cotton 7kapas7 was being raised and the fibre spun into cloth at the time of the ,spanish occupation of the ,islands1 is amply proved by many references in the early chronicles4 ,also there was a considerable trade in cotton1 silk1 and the like1 carried on by the ,chinese and the ,brunei ,moro4 #bcc ,the weaving industry seems to have reached its height in the ,ilocos provinces1 where the processes of ginning1 carding1 spinning1 and weaving were1 for the most part1 identical with those found in ,borneo1 ,java1 the ,malay ,peninsula1 ,burma1 and a large part of ,india4 #bcd ,the same methods and utensils are used among the ,tinguian1 but side by side with the more complicated devices1 such as the ginning machine and spinning wheel1 are found more simple contrivances2 so it would appear that we are here dealing with older and more primitive methods of work than are found on the coast4 #bce ,every step in the manufacture of cloth is looked after by the women1 who raise a limited amount of cotton in the upland fields1 pick and dry the crop1 and prepare it for weaving4 ,the bolls are placed on racks1 and are sun-dried1 after which the husks are removed by hand4 ,ginning is accomplished by two methods4 ,the simplest1 and doubtless the older1 is to place the cotton on a smooth wooden block and to roll over it a wooden cylinder which tapers slightly toward each end 7,fig4 #af1 ,no4 #a74 ,the palm of the hand1 at the base of the fingers1 is placed on the roller and the weight of the body applied1 as the cylinder is moved slowly forward1 forcing the seeds from the floss4 #bcf ,the more common instrument 7lilidsan7 acts on the principle of a clothes wringer 7,plate ,,lxiii74 ,two horizontal cylinders of wood are geared together at one end1 and are mounted in a wooden frame in such a manner that they are quite close together1 yet not in contact4 ,a handle is attached to the lower roller at the end opposite the gears1 and as it is turned1 it rotates the cylinders in opposite directions4 ,a piece of cotton is pressed between the rollers1 which seize the fibres and carry them through1 while the seeds are forced back and fall to the ground4 ,the cleaned cotton is never bowed or otherwise separated with a vibrating string1 as is the case in ,java1 ,india1 and ,china1 but the same result is obtained by placing it on a piece of carabao hide and beating it with two rattan sticks until it becomes soft and fluffy 7,plate ,,lxiv74 ,after the carding1 the cotton is spun by placing it in a hollow cylinder of palm bark attached to a bamboo stick 7tibtibean74 ,a bit of thread is twisted from the cotton at the bottom of the cylinder1 and is attached to a spindle1 which is rubbed rapidly against the naked thigh1 and is then allowed to turn in shallow basket1 or on a piece of hide4 ,as it spins it twists out new thread and the arm of the operator rises higher and higher1 until at last the spindle stops4 ,the position of the extended arm is then altered1 and the spindle again set in motion in order to wind up the new thread on the shaft4 ,while the spinning is progressing1 the free hand of the operator is passed rapidly up and down the thread1 keeping the tension uniform and rubbing out any inequalities 7,plate ,,lxv74 ,in many sections the spinning wheel used by the coast natives is beginning to replace the hand outfit 7,fig4 #af1 ,no4 #e74 ,the mass of fiber is held in the left hand1 and a thread from it is attached to a horizontal spindle1 which is turned by a cord passing over a large wheel4 ,this method is much more rapid than the hand device1 but the thread is less uniform1 and it is seldom utilized when a fine fabric is to be woven4 ,bamboo bobbins1 consisting of small tubes1 are also wound by attaching them to the spindle shaft1 so that the thread is transferred by the revolution of the wheel4 ,as soon as the thread is spun1 it is placed on a bamboo frame 7lalabayan71 ,fig4 #af1 ,no4 #b1 on which it is measured and made ready for the combing and sizing4 ,as it is taken from the measuring frame1 a bamboo rod is passed through each end of the loop1 and these are fastened tightly inside the combing device 7agtatagodan7 by means of rattan bands4 ,the thread is then carefully combed downward with a coconut husk which is dipped in a size of rice water 7,plate ,,lxiii74 ,after drying it is transferred to the shuttles and bobbins by means of the wheel described in the previous paragraph or by a more primitive device1 called ololau 7,fig4 #af1 ,nos4 #d and #d;a74 ,this consists of four horn hooks attached to bamboo sticks1 which pass through openings in a bamboo tube in such a manner that they slip on each other1 and thus produce a wheel of any size desired4 #bcg ,the tube fits loosely over a wooden peg sustaining the wheel in a horizontal position1 yet turning readily4 ,the loop of threads from the sizing frame is laid on the hooks1 from which it is drawn by hand onto the bobbins and shuttles4 ,the next step is to prepare the warp for the loom4 ,the thread is drawn from bobbins on the floor1 and is first fastened to peg ,no4 #a of the warp winder 7gaganayan71 as shown in ,fig4 #af1 ,no4 #c4 ,from here it is carried the length of the board1 around #e1 thence to #f and back to #a1 after again passing around #e4 ,the peg ,a1 which later serves as a lease rod in the loom1 is encircled each time by the threads passing between #f and #e4 ,as the warp is carried from #a toward #e1 it passes outside #b1 #c and #d1 but when it is returned to #a1 it is inside these pegs4 ,these are the heddle rods of the loom1 and loops from them enclose certain of the threads1 thus determining the order in which the warp is to be raised in opening the shed4 #bch ,the loom1 while primitive1 is far from simple in its operation4 ,the warp is attached at both ends to sticks or rollers1 the far one of which is fastened to a cross timber of the living room 7,plate ,,lxvi74 ,the web is kept stretched by means of a strap or belt1 which attaches to the near roller and then passes around the waist of the operator1 who sits on the floor with her feet against a bamboo brace4 #bci ,the arrangement of the lease rod and heddle sticks has been already described2 in addition to these the threads are further controlled by a reed board which acts both as warp spacer and beater-in4 ,all being ready for the weaving1 the shed is opened by raising one of the heddle sticks1 and a heavy knife-shaped batten of wood is slipped into the opening4 ,this is turned sideways to enlarge the shed1 and a shuttle bearing the weft thread is shot through4 ,by raising and lowering the heddle rods the position of the warp is changed as desired1 while from time to time the weft threads are forced up against the fabric by means of the reed board1 and are beaten in with the batten4 ,tangling is prevented by means of several flat sticks which cross the warp at some distance from the operator2 while threads which show signs of loosening are carefully rubbed with a waxed stick4 ,on this loom the woman produces head-bands1 belt1 and narrow strips of cloth which are made up into blankets and the like4 ,these fabrics are often in several colors and exhibit many tasty and intricate designs1 some of which will be described in the chapter on ,decorative ,art4 ,manufacture of ,rope and ,string4--,at least eighteen trees1 shrubs1 and vines are used in the making of cordage4 #bdj ,when small trees or limbs are used1 and the bark does not adhere too tightly to the wood1 sections about an arm's length are cut1 and two or four splices are made at the top4 ,these are loosened with a knife until there is enough for the hand to grasp1 when the bark can be turned back like a glove4 ,very large sections are held by two men1 while a third peels off the bark4 ,with some varieties of trees and shrubs it is found best to place the sections in the sun to dry1 then a sharp bend in the stalk causes the bark to separate from the wood so that it is easily peeled off4 ,when large trees are used1 the bark is slit lengthwise every six of eight inches1 and the log is beaten with hard wood sticks4 ,in a short time the covering loosens from the wood and is pulled off4 ,the outside layer is worthless1 but the remainder is cut into strips about a half inch in width1 and is then split lengthwise into thin layers4 ,in rope-making three strips are laid side by side on the thigh or on a board1 but with their ends at unequal distances 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #a74 ,these are twisted together1 toward the right1 until a few inches have been turned1 then the cord is put over one end of a double forked stick 7sikwan71 leaving an equal length on either side 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #c74 ,the two halves are twisted together until the end of one strip of bark is reached2 a new piece is laid on top of the others1 and as they are turned1 it becomes part of the twist4 ,as other ends are met with1 new strips are added in a like manner until all the bast desired has been made4 ,it is then wound up on the forked stick until needed4 ,the rope machine 7agtatalian7 consists of three wooden whirls1 which constitute the forming device1 and a single whirl for the traveler1 while a grooved block serves to keep the strands apart 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #b74 ,three equal lengths of the prepared bast are measured1 and an end is attached to each of the whirls of the forming machine 7,fig4 #ag1 ,no4 #b;a74 ,however1 only one cut is made in the bast1 for strand #c4 ,all are attached to the single whirl of the traveler1 and the process begins4 ,the operator at each end turns his whirl1 or set of whirls1 rapidly toward the right1 the one with the traveler bracing his foot against the lower end1 to keep the twisting bast under tension4 ,a third operator guides the grooved piece of wood from the traveler toward the forming machine1 as the three strands twist round each other into rope4 ,the bast is known as ginisgis1 the rope as tali4 ,vines1 rattan1 and strips of bamboo are likewise twisted together to form crude1 but strong cordage4 ,the making of thread is described under spinning and weaving1 but the cords used in snares and the like are prepared in a different manner4 ,the operator squats on the ground1 and taking a strip of fiber1 places it on his thigh2 then with open palm he rolls it toward the knee4 ,the twisted bast is bent at the center2 the thumb and forefinger of the left hand hold the loop1 and the two strands are placed together4 ,these are now rolled toward the knee as before1 the hand giving extra pressure on the ulnar side1 and then are rolled back toward the body with pressure on the radial side4 ,when the end of a band is reached1 a new one is rolled in1 and the process is continued4 ,a tie at the end keeps the cord from untwisting4 ,when very long strips of fiber are used1 two men will work together4 ,one holds the end of the loop1 while the other twists each half of the strip in the same direction4 ,then placing them together on his thigh1 he turns them1 under pressure1 in the opposite direction1 thus making a cord4 ,bark ,cloth4--,bark cloth is still in common use for men's headbands and for clouts4 ,it is secured from the same trees as the rope material1 but wider strips are taken1 and it is customary to beat the bark thoroughly before it is removed from the wood4 ,it is then split to the desired thickness1 after which it is beaten with wooden or bone mallets 7gikai71 which are generally grooved transversely 7,fig4 #ah74 ,the cloth produced is soft and pliable1 but is not of the fineness of tapa1 and it is always in comparatively narrow pieces4 ,in no instance was the operator seen to beat two strips together to gain greater breadth or to repair breaks4 ,basket ,making4--,in most districts the men are the basket weavers1 but in some towns1 especially of ,ilocos ,norte1 the women are skilled in this industry 7,plate ,,lxvii74 ,the materials used are rattan1 which may be gathered at any time1 or bamboo1 which is cut only during the dry season and under the waning moon4 ,it is firmly believed that boring insects will not injure bamboo cut at this time1 and it is known that the dry period stalks are the strongest4 ,the tools employed are a short knife or a miniature head-axe and an awl4 ,with the former the operator scrapes the outer surface1 and then splits the tube into strips of the desired width and thickness4 ,a certain number of these strips1 which are to be used for decoration1 are rubbed with oil1 and are held in the smoke of burning pine or of rice-straw until a permanent black is obtained4 #bda ,five weaves are recognized by the ,tinguian1 but they are really variations of two--checkerwork and the diagonal or twilled4 ,the first and most simple is known as laga1 the technic of which is the passing of each element of the weft under one and over one of the warp elements4 ,where the warp and weft are of uniform size1 as in mats1 it is impossible to distinguish the one from the other1 but in many cases the weft is the smaller4 ,fish traps and storage baskets for mangoes and cotton are generally of this type 7,fig4 #ai1 ,nos4 #a and #b74 ,a variation of the laga known as minminata--many eyes--7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #c71 is found in certain types of carrying baskets1 the woven tops of hats1 and the like4 ,here the warp is crossed1 and the weft passes through it in regular order so as to produce hexagonal openings4 ,another variant is known as kalawat #bdb 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #d74 ,in this the warp stems are in threes4 ,starting from ,a they are bent down1 pass over and under similar sets of three1 curve on themselves or other warp stems so as to leave open spaces between4 ,the rattan wall-hangers for coconut shell dishes are usually in this weave4 ,the greater part of the baskets are in the diagonal or twilled weave1 in which each element of the weft passes over two or more warp elements4 ,variations are numerous1 either to produce certain effects or to accommodate designs4 ,of these the most common are #a under #b over #b etc4 #b under #b over #b etc4 #b under #d over #d etc4 ,the weaver also frequently constructs the bottom with #b over #d under #d2 then when the sides are made he changes to #a over #b under #b1 until the center is reached2 then #a of the warp passes over #c of the weft2 for the balance the stitch is #a over #b under #b4 ,this variation produces a chevron-like pattern which1 in general1 is known as binakol2 but when it is desired to designate more closely1 this name is applied to the weaving having an oblique effect 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #e71 while the horizontal is known as dinapalig 7,fig4 #ai1 ,no4 #f74 ,types of ,baskets3--,plates ,,lxviii and ,,lxix show the most common types of baskets made and used in this territory4 ,others of ,igorot and ,kalinga origin sometimes appear1 but are seldom imitated by the local basket-makers4 ,baskets #a and #b of ,plate ,,lxviii are known as kaba1 and are used principally to hold unthreshed rice1 corn1 and vegetables4 ,smaller baskets of the same form are for broken rice and cooked vegetables4 ,the larger specimens are often made of rattan1 while the smaller are usually of bamboo4 ,shallow bamboo baskets1 pidasen or alodan 7,plate ,,lxix1 ,no4 #b7 are used as eating dishes for cooked rice4 ,clothing is put away in covered oval or rectangular baskets1 opigan 7,plate ,,lxix1 ,no4 #d71 while cotton is stored in long cylindrical baskets kolang 7,plate ,,lxviii1 ,no4 #c74 ,the pasikeng or lagpi7,plate ,,lxix1 ,no4 #c71 commonly called the head basket1 is the chief basket of the men4 ,it is made of rattan1 and is supported on the back by means of bands which pass over the shoulders4 ,in it are carried extra garments and all necessities for the trail4 ,recently some of the men have joined together two of these baskets by means of a wide1 flat band1 and this is fitted over the back of a horse or carabao1--an evident imitation of the saddle bags used by ,spaniards and ,americans4 ,men also carry small containers for their pipes and trinkets1 or else make use of a traveling basket1 such as is shown in ,plate ,,lxix1 ,no4 #e4 ,rice winnowers and sieves 7,plate ,,lvii7 and the fish-traps shown in ,fig4 #ac conclude the list4 ,no coiled baskets are made4 ,aside from the decoration produced by variations in the weave1 little ornamentation is found in the basketry from ,abra1 but the ,tinguian of ,ilocos ,norte make and distribute large quantities of baskets with colored patterns4 ,colored vines are sometimes woven in1 but the common method is to employ blackened bamboo1 both in warp and weft4 ,the top of the basket is strengthened by two hoops of rattan or bamboo4 ,one is placed outside1 the other inside2 on them is laid a small strip of the same material1 and all three are sewed down by passing a thin strip of rattan through two holes punched in margin4 ,this strip doubles on itself1 encircles the rim1 and after an interval again passes through two more holes1 and so on around the entire basket4 ,a square base1 attached in the same manner as the rim1 generally completes the basket4 ,in the mountain districts near to ,apayao1 the bases of the smaller eating dishes are drawn in toward the center at four points1 giving the effect of a four-pointed star4 ,mats 7ikamin74--,mats are used as beds1 never as floor coverings4 ,they are rectangular in form1 usually about six feet long and three wide1 and are undecorated4 ,they are made from strips of pandanus in the laga weave 7cf4 p4 #dbc74 ,dyes4--,in recent years analine dyes have come into favor in some villages1 and a variety of colors appears in the articles made by their weavers1 but the vegetable dyes used by the ancestors are still employed by most of the women4 ,the commonest colors are blue1 pink--black red--1 red1 and yellow4 ,blue is ordinarily produced by placing the leaves and branches of the indigo plant1 tayuni 7,indigofera tinctoria7in water for a few days2 then to boil them1 together with a little lime4 ,the thread is dipped in the liquid4 ,pink is secured by crushing lynga 7,sesamum indicum ,l47 seeds and boiling them in water4 ,threads are placed in this for five nights1 while during the day they are dried in the sun4 ,the root of the apatot 7,morinda citrifolia or umbellata7 is next crushed1 and water is added4 ,the threads are now transferred to this liquid1 and for ten days and nights are alternately soaked and sunned4 ,a copper color results1 but this soon changes to pink4 ,it is said that the apatot alone produces a red dye4 ,it is also claimed that the seeds of the apang 7,bixa ,orellana ,l47 and of a variety of rattan1 when boiled1 give a permanent red4 #bdc ,a yellow dye is produced by boiling the leaves of the ,tamarindus indica ,l4 in water until a strong liquor is obtained4 ,bark head-bands are stained a purplish-red by applying a liquid secured through boiling kelyan 7,diospyros cunalon ,d4,c487 bark4 ,for ceremonial purposes they are also colored yellow by applying the juice of the konig 7,curcuma longa71 but as this has a disagreeable odor1 and the color is not permanent1 it is not much used in every-day garments4 ,lemon juice is also applied to bark to give it a yellow hue4 ,fish nets are colored brown by dipping them into a dye made by crushing the katakot vine in water1 or by staining with the juice of the taotawa 7,jatropha curcas ,l174 ,the bamboo strips used in decorating basketry are blackened by holding them in the smoke of burning rice-straw4 ,black designs1 such as appear in the ornamentation of lime holders and the like1 are secured by rubbing oil and soot into incised lines1 and then holding the object in the smoke of burning rice-straw4 ,net ,making4--,nets are used in fishing1 in catching wild chickens and grasshoppers1 and in hunting deer and pigs4 ,the first three types are made of twine1 but the fourth is of strong rope4 ,all net work is done by the man who1 for this purpose1 employs a mesh stick and a needle of bamboo or carabao horn 7,fig4 #bj74 ,the needle 7,no4 #a7 also serves as a shuttle1 since it carries a considerable amount of thread between the tongue and notch4 ,the size of the loop is determined by the width of the mesh stick or spreader 7,no4 #b74 ,the operator generally sits on a rice winnower or squats on the ground with a net suspended above him 7,plate ,,lxx74 ,he forms the mesh by running the needle over and around the spreader1 and up and through the loop above1 thus forming a loop on the mesh stick4 ,this is drawn tightly1 the needle is again passed through1 but without encircling the stick1 and thus a knot is tied4 ,this is repeated until a row of loops has been completed1 when another series is started4 ,manufacture of ,pottery4--,in nearly every village there are two or three women who make jars and dishes1 but the potters of ,abang and ,lakub are the only ones whose wares have a wide distribution4 ,the clay is dampened1 and is carefully kneaded with the hands to remove lumps and gravel1 and to reduce it to the proper consistency4 ,a handful is taken from the mass1 and is roughly modeled with the fingers to form the base of the pot4 ,this is set on a wooden plate which1 in turn1 is placed in a rice winnower 7,plate ,,xxxvi74 ,the plate takes the place of a potter's wheel1 for it is turned with the right hand while with the left the woman shapes the clay1 and smoothes it off with a dampened cloth4 ,from time to time1 she rolls out a coil of clay between the palms of her hands1 lays it along the top of the vessel1 and works and pinches it in4 ,further shaping and thinning is done with a wooden paddle and the dampened hand1 and then the jar is allowed to dry slightly4 ,before the drying has progressed far enough to render the sides rigid1 a smooth stone is placed inside1 and the sides are tapped gently with a paddle until properly thinned and shaped4 ,after allowing a couple of days for drying1 the potter rubs the jar inside and out with smooth stones or lipi seeds1 so as to give it an even surface4 ,when several jars or dishes have been prepared1 they are placed in carabao dung or other slow burning material and fired4 ,this generally takes place at night1 and the jars are left undisturbed until morning1 when they are ready for service4 ,occasionally resin is rubbed over a jar while it is hot1 thus giving it a glazed surface2 this1 however1 is not common1 as the resin quickly melts off the cooking utensils1 while porous jars are preferred as water containers1 since the seepage lowers the temperature of the contents4 ,vessels made in ,lakub are often decorated with incised patterns 7,fig4 #bb1 ,no4 #h71 but otherwise the ,tinguian ware is plain4 ,chinese jars are found in every village1 and are highly prized1 but the native potters do not imitate them in form or decoration4 ,had ,chinese blood or influence ever been strong in the region1 we might expect to find the potter's wheel and traces of true glazing1 but both are lacking4 ,pipe ,making4--,both men and women smoke pipes1 consisting of a short reed handle and a small bowl4 ,men are the pipe makers1 and often show considerable skill in the decoration of their product4 ,the common pipe-bowl is of clay1 which has been carefully shaped with the fingers and a short bamboo spatula4 ,designs are incised1 and the raised portions are further embellished by the addition of small pieces of brass wire 7,fig4 #ba1 ,nos4 #d-e74 ,the bowls are baked in a slow fire1 and the mouthpieces are added4 ,a second type of pipe1 or cigar holder1 is made of bamboo 7,fig4 #ba1 ,nos4 #a-c74 ,designs are incised in the sides1 oil is applied1 and the pipe is held in the smoke of burning rice-straw until the lines become permanently blackened 7,fig4 #bb1 ,nos4 #a-c74 ,in recent years1 ,ilocano jewelers have introduced silver pipes1 made from coins4 ,one ,tinguian pipe maker has learned the trade1 and does a lively business4 ,he has further beautified his product by attaching pendants representing fish 7,fig4 #ba1 ,no4 #f74 ,brass pipes of ,igorot origin are sometimes seen1 but are not made in this region4 ,method of ,drying ,hides4--,hides of carabao1 and sometimes of other animals1 are stretched on bamboo frames and are sun-dried 7,plate ,,lv74 ,later they are placed in water containing tanbark1 and are roughly cured4 ,such leather is used in the manufacture of the back straps used by the weavers1 and in making sheathes for knives1 but more commonly it is placed on the ground1 and on it rice and cotton are beaten out4 ,,chapter ,x ,,decorative ,,art ,in decorative art the ,tinguian offers sharp contrast to the ,igorot and ,ifugao1 both of whom have developed wood carving to a considerable extent4 ,they also have their bodies tattooed1 while the colored lashings on spear shafts1 pipe stems1 and other objects show a nice appreciation for color and design4 ,in all these the ,tinguian is deficient or lacking2 he does no wood carving1 tattooing is scanty1 while his basket work1 except that from two small regions1 is plain4 ,at times he does make some simple designs on canes1 on bamboo rice-planters and weaving sticks1 on lime boxes and pipe stems1 but these are exceptions rather than the rule4 ,in the region about ,lakub1 he decorates his jars by cutting the ends of sticks to form small dies which he presses into the newly fashioned clay 7,fig4 #bb1 ,no4 #h71 while in ,manabo and some other villages the pipe makers cut the bowls of the clay pipes in floral designs or inlay small pieces of brass to form scroll patterns 7,fig4 #bb1 ,nos4 #d-g74 ,these last mentioned designs are so restricted in their manufacture1 and are so different from those found elsewhere in ,abra1 that they cannot be considered as typical4 ,the figures incised in bamboo show some realistic motives1 such as the fish1 birds1 and flowers in ,fig4 #bc1 ,no4 #a2 the snake and lizard in ,no4 #b2 the man in ,no4 #e2 but the strictly geometrical is dominant in nearly every case4 ,probably the most typical of this class of work is shown in ,nos4 #c and #d and ,fig4 #bb1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 and #c4 ,it should be noted1 however1 that1 where one decorated object is seen1 many more entirely plain will be found4 ,in short1 ornamentation is uncommon and of minor importance4 ,the one place where decoration is dominant is in the weaving1 and this is done entirely by the women4 ,figures #bd and #be show typical designs which occur in the blankets4 ,except for ,no4 #h in ,fig4 #bd1 they do not appear to be copies from nature1 but all have realistic interpretations4 ,fig4 #bd shows eight designs drawn by native weavers1 which are identified as follows3 #a4 ,a fish4 #b4 ,weaving on a ,spanish bed or chair seat4 #c4 ,pineapple4 #d4 ,a heart4 #e4 ,fishhooks4 #f4 ,a crab4 #g4 ,cross section of a pineapple4 #h4 ,a horse4 ,in ,fig4 #be are five typical patterns taken from blankets1 while ,no4 #f is the ornamental stitching which unites two breadths of cloth1 the latter is identified as fingers and finger nails4 ,no4 #a is the turtle1 ,no4 #b a crab1 ,no4 #c a rice-mortar1 ,no4 #d the bobbin winder shown in ,fig4 #af1 ,no4 #d2 ,no4 #e pineapple4 ,plate ,,lxxi is a ceremonial blanket1 such as is hung up over the dead4 ,the figures are identified as a a deer1 b horse1 c carabao calf1 d man4 ,the textile in ,plate ,,lxxii1 ,no4 #a is likewise used chiefly as a ceremonial piece1 the designs representing a man1 b horse1 c star4 ,a very pleasing blanket is shown in ,plate ,,lxxii1 ,no4 #b in which the designs are identified as a rice cake1 and b as a star1 while the whole pattern is known as kalayan--the river4 ,the textile in ,plate ,,lxxiii1 ,no4 #a imitates a mat1 while ,no4 #b is known as kosikos--the circle4 ,a part of these designs are evidently copies from real objects1 others appear to be merely pattern names1 while the weavers do not hesitate to borrow any likely patterns which strike their fancy4 ,one quite frequently sees a blanket which shows a lion1 or some other animal or object1 with which the people could only become acquainted through pictures or descriptions from outside sources4 ,in addition to these designs already mentioned1 there are certain common types of decoration effected through weaving or embroidery1 for which no explanations are given4 ,they are said to be only to make pretty4 ,among these are the ends of belts and clouts1 as shown in ,plate ,,lxxiv1 or the raised diamond pattern shown in ,no4 #b of the same ,plate1 or the plaid effect in colors1 which appear in some of the skirts4 ,it has already been noted 7cf4 p4 #daf7 that the weaving methods of the ,tinguian are similar to those of the ,ilocano1 and the same is true of a considerable part of the decorative patterns4 ,the ,christianized natives have less of the realistic1 a greater variety of geometrical designs1 and a greater fondness for bright colors1 made possible by the use of analine dyes1 than the mountaineers4 ,it seems probable that the ,tinguian-,ilocano peoples brought the weaving industry with them into northern ,luzon1 that the ,ilocano branch has borrowed improved methods of manufacture1 as well as decorative motives from the people with whom they have been in contact through trade4 ,the ,tinguian in turn have borrowed from them1 but1 in the main1 they still retain the more primitive methods of weaving1 and it is probable their types of ornamentation likewise approximate more closely those in use in earlier times4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,personal ,,adornment1 ,,dances1 ,,and ,,musical ,,instruments ,the dress of the man is the clout 7ba-al71 either of beaten bark or of cloth1 and a woven belt 7balikes7 in which he keeps small articles 7,plates ,,lxxv-,,lxxvi74 ,on special occasions he wears a long-sleeved jacket 7bado71 open in front1 and in a few instances1 trousers4 ,both these garments are recent acquisitions1 and the latter1 in particular1 are not in favor1 except where ,ilocano influence is very strong4 ,the man is not inclined to adorn himself with brass and gold1 neither does he use tattooing to any extent1 as do his ,kalinga and ,igorot neighbors4 ,some have small patterns on an arm or thigh1 but these are usually property marks with which he brands his animals or other possessions4 ,tattooing as an evidence of a successful head-hunt is not found in this region1 nor are there other marks or garments to identify the warriors4 ,the hair is worn long1 and is parted straight down the middle2 the two strands are twisted1 crossed in the back1 then carried to the forehead1 where they are again crossed1 and the ends are fastened by intertwining on each side of the head4 ,a bark band 7ayabong7 holds the hair in place1 but at times it is replaced by a cloth or a narrow ring of interwoven grass and rattan4 ,round bamboo hats1 with low dome-shaped tops1 are commonly worn 7,plate ,,xlv71 but these are sometimes displaced by hats which go to a sharp peak1 or by those made of a gourd or of wood4 ,the woman's hair is parted in the middle1 and is combed straight down to the nape of the neck1 where it is caught by strings of beads2 these are crossed in the back and encircle the head2 the strand of hair is then twisted and a loop formed which is carried to the left side1 where it is again caught under the beads1 near to or above the ear4 ,most of the ,tinguian have luxuriant heads of hair1 but1 nevertheless1 switches are commonly used by both sexes4 ,the hair is often washed with the ashes of rice-straw1 or with the bark of the gogo tree 7,entada purseta71 and is moistened with coconut oil4 ,strings of beads encircle the women's necks1 but the typical ornament consists of strands above strands of beads reaching from the wrist to the elbow1 and if the wealth of the owner permits1 even covering the upper arm as well 7,plate ,,lxxix74 ,the strands are fastened tightly above the wrist1 causing that portion of the arm to swell4 ,slits of bamboo are usually placed under the beads1 and may be removed if the pain or annoyance of the constriction is too severe4 ,the upper arm beads are removed with little difficulty2 but those on the forearm are taken off only once or twice a year1 when new threads are substituted1 or when the owner is in mourning4 ,beneath these ornaments a delicate fretwork of blue lines is tattooed1 so that the woman's arms may not be white and unsightly when she is without her beads4 #bdd ,most of the women have their ears pierced1 but in the valley towns only a small proportion wear earrings4 ,in the mountain sections heavy ornaments of gold or copper are worn1 the weight often drawing the lobe of the ear far down on the neck4 ,when at work1 the woman discards all clothing from the upper portion of her body1 but at other times wears a short-sleeved jacket which reaches to her waist 7,plate ,,lxxvii74 ,the waist is cut so low in the neck that the head can pass through4 ,there is no shoulder seam4 ,a straight piece set over the shoulder extends down in square1 both front and back1 to a line about even with the breast1 where it is sewed to the garment proper4 ,a narrow skirt 7dingwa71 with colored border1 extends from the waist to the knees4 ,it is held in place by drawing it tightly and then tucking one corner under the upper edge1 or by pressing it beneath the girdle 7,plate ,,lxxviii74 ,when a girl becomes a woman1 she dons a girdle 7palingtan7 of braided grass or rattan which fits over the hips1 and to which a clout is attached 7,plate ,,lxxx74 ,as a rule1 the girdle and clout are not removed when bathing1 as are the other garments4 ,the woman seldom wears a hat1 except when she is working in the fields1 where sunshades large enough to protect the entire body are used 7,plate ,,liv74 ,frequently a cloth or a skirt is twisted about the head as a protection against the sun4 ,on chilly mornings one often sees the people covered from head to ankles with their sleeping blankets1 or a woman may draw a particularly wide skirt about her body just below the armpits so that she is protected from her breasts to the knees4 ,the teeth of both sexes are blackened with iron salts and tan bark1 #bde but they are not cut or mutilated1 as is common with many ,philippine peoples4 ,while both sexes are proud of heavy heads of hair1 they do not look with equal favor on face and body hairs4 ,these are plucked out either by grasping them between a knife blade and the thumb nail1 or with a bamboo device known as iming4 ,this consists of a section of bamboo split into several strips at one end4 ,a hair is placed in one end of the slits1 and the bamboo is bent into a half circle1 causing it to take a firm hold1 when it is jerked outwards4 ,prized necklaces 7paliget7 made of small strands of twisted silver wire1 are placed on the neck of a corpse1 and on some occasions are worn by the living4 ,during dances the hair is adorned with notched chicken feathers attached to sticks1 while circlets made of boar's tusks are placed on the arms4 ,dances4--,two dances1 one ceremonial1 the other suitable for all occasions1 are very popular4 ,the ceremonial dance known as da-eng takes place at night1 and is carried on to the accompaniment of a song4 #bdf ,an equal number of men and women take part4 ,the women form a line facing a similar row of men1 about twenty feet distant4 ,locking arms about one another's waists and with one foot advanced1 they begin to sway their bodies backwards and forwards4 ,suddenly they burst into song1 at the same time stepping forward with the left foot4 ,keeping perfect time to the music1 they take three steps toward the men1 then retreat to their original positions4 ,the men then take up the song and in a similar manner advance and retreat4 ,this is repeated several times1 after which the two lines join to form a circle4 ,with arms interlocked behind one another's backs1 and singing in unison1 they begin to move contra-clockwise4 ,the left foot is thrown slightly backward and to the side1 and the right is brought quickly up to it1 causing a rising and falling of the body4 ,the step1 at first slow1 becomes faster and faster till the dancers have reached the limit of their vocal and physical powers4 ,the da-eng is sacred in character1 is danced only at night and then under the direction of the mediums4 ,it is1 however1 in great favor1 and often so many of the younger people wish to take part that double lines1 or two or more groups1 may be dancing at the same time4 ,it sometimes happens1 when the basi has been flowing freely1 that the participants become so boisterous and the pace so fast that spectators are run down or the dancers are piled in a heap1 from which they emerge laughing and shouting4 ,the common dance1 the tadek1 is a part of nearly all gatherings of a social and religious nature4 ,the music for this dance usually is made with three gansas #bdg and a drum4 ,the gansas are pressed against the thighs of the players who kneel on the ground4 ,two of the coppers are beaten with a stick and the palm of the hand1 while the third is played by the hands alone 7,plate ,,lxxxi1 ,fig4 #b74 ,the stick or left hand gives the initial beat which is followed by three rapid strokes with the right palm4 ,a man and a woman enter the circle1 each holding a cloth about the size of a skirt4 ,the man extends his cloth toward the woman1 and bringing it suddenly down1 causes it to snap1 which is the signal to begin4 ,with almost imperceptible movement of the feet and toes and a bending at the knees1 he approaches the woman1 who in a like manner goes toward him4 ,they pass and continue until at a distance about equal to the start1 when they again turn and pass4 ,occasionally the man will take a few rapid steps toward the woman1 with exaggerated high knee action and much stamping of feet1 or he will dance backward a few steps4 ,at times the cloth is held at arm's length in front or at the side2 again it is wrapped about the waist1 the woman always following the actions of the man4 ,at last they meet2 the man extends his hand1 the woman does likewise1 but instead of taking his1 she moves her own in a circle about his1 avoiding contact4 ,again they dance away1 only returning to repeat the performance4 ,finally she accepts the proffered hand1 the headman brings basi for the couple to drink1 and the dance is over4 ,the man sometimes ends the dance by the sharp snapping of his cloth1 or by putting it on his extended arms and dancing toward the woman1 who places her cloth upon his 7,plate ,,lxxxi1 ,fig4 #a74 ,musical ,instruments1 ,songs1 and ,dances4--,the ,tinguian is naturally musical4 ,he sings at his work1 he beats time with his head-axe against his shield as he tramps the mountain trails1 he chants the stories of long ago as the workers gather about the fires each evening of the dry season1 he sings the praises of his host at feasts and festivals1 #bdh joins with others in the dirge which follows a burial1 and he and many others will sing together as they dance the da-eng4 ,but his music does not stop with his vocal accomplishments4 ,in the folk-tales the pan pipe 7dew-dew-as7 occupies a most important place1 and to-day the maidens still play them in the evening hours4 ,it is a simple device made of reeds of various lengths lashed together 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 #a74 ,the player holds the instrument just in front of her lips1 and blows into the reeds1 meanwhile moving them to and fro1 producing a series of low notes without tune4 ,another instrument of great importance in the legends is the nose flute 7kalaleng74 ,this is a long reed with holes cut in the side1 to be stopped by the fingers in producing the notes4 ,the player closes one nostril with a bit of cotton1 and then forces the air from the other into a small hole cut in the end of the tube4 ,the instrument is popular with the men1 and often one can hear the plaintive note of the nose flute far into the night 7,plate ,,lxxxii74 ,the mouth flute 7tulali7 is similar to that found in civilized lands1 but is constructed from a reed4 ,a peculiar device used solely by the women is the bunkaka 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 #b74 ,this consists of a bamboo tube with one end cut away so as to leave only two thin vibrating strips4 ,these1 when struck against the palm of the left hand1 give out a note which can be changed by placing a finger over the opening at x4 ,a ,jew's harp is constructed like a netting needle1 but with a tongue of bamboo cut so that it will vibrate when struck1 or when a cord attached to the end is jerked sharply 7,fig4 #bf1 ,no4 #c74 ,if made of bamboo1 the instrument is known as kolibau2 if brass1 agiweng4 ,it is often mentioned in the tales1 and to-day is played by nearly all the men4 ,bamboo guitars 7kuliteng7 are made by cutting narrow strips throughout the length of a section of bamboo1 but not detaching them at the ends4 ,they are raised and tuned by inserting small wedges of wood at the ends4 ,small sections of thin bamboo are sometimes fitted over two strings1 and are beaten with sticks1 or the strings can be fingered like a guitar 7,plate ,,lxxxiii74 ,music for dances is furnished by an orchestra consisting of four men1 three with copper gongs 7gangsas71 and one with a drum4 ,the gongs are tambourine shape1 with sides about an inch and a half high4 ,they are placed against the thighs of the players who kneel on the ground1 and are beaten with a stick and the palm of the hand or by the hands alone4 #bdi ,they doubtless came into this region through trade1 but at a time so remote that their origin is now credited to the spirits4 ,the drum 7tambor7 is made of a short section of a tree hollowed out4 ,the ends are covered with cow's hide or pig's skin4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,music ,introduction4--,that the songs might be delivered as nearly as possible at the same pitch which the singers used when making the records1 investigation was made as to the usual speed used by manufacturers while recording4 ,it was found to be #afj revolutions per minute4 ,accordingly the phonograph was carefully set at this speed during transcription4 ,in determining the keys in which to transcribe the various songs1 the pitch-pipe used was that of the ,international1 which was adopted at the ,vienna ,congress in ,nov4 #ahhg4 ,this congress established c#b #ebb double vibrations per second4 ,all the records proved to be a shade flat by this standard1 but were found to be almost exactly in accord with an instrument of fixed pitch1 which in turn was found to be approximately eleven beats at variance with the pitch-pipe on c#b4 ,assuming that the recording and transcribing speeds of the machines were the same1 this would place the original singing almost exactly in accord with the old philosophical standard of pitch which places c#b at #eab double vibrations per second4 ,though the singing was not always in perfect accord with the notes set down in transcriptions1 with the exception of those very marked departures especially indicated in the music1 the variations were so slight that1 so far as true intonation goes1 the performances were fully up to the standard of those of the average natural singer4 ,special ear tubes were used while transcribing the records1 and resort made to a special device wherewith any order of whole1 or even part measures could be consecutively played4 ,thus it was possible to closely compare parts which were similar in either words or music4 ,in some of the records two or more voices can be distinguished singing in unison4 ,such unisons are shown in the transcription by single notes4 ,no attempt has been made to indicate the several voices4 ,but when such single notes are shown accompanied by the word solo1 it is to be understood that all of the performers have dropped out but one1 probably the leader4 ,when the voices split up into parts1 it is so notated in the music4 ,primitive people display more or less timidity in giving their songs for scientific purposes4 ,such timidity is especially apt to be manifested in their attacks4 ,in the ,da-eng1 ,girls' ,part 7,record ,j71 the delayed attack at the beginning of each new verse is very marked4 ,the delay varies considerably from verse to verse1 as indicated by the number of beats rest shown at the ends of the lines4 ,similar pauses are found in the ,boys' ,part of the same ceremony 7see ,record ,a74 ,these beats rest or pauses are not to be taken as part of the legitimate rhythm1 for it is more than likely that if the singers were giving their songs in their regular ceremonial and the performers unconscious of observation1 these pauses would not occur4 ,in transcribing those songs which have several verses on the record1 the notation has been so arranged on the page that the measures line up vertically1 making comparison easy between corresponding measures of the different verses4 ,to indicate peculiar qualities1 special signs are used in connection with the regular musical symbols4 ,the table which follows shows these signs and also lists the qualities for which they stand4 ,some of these qualities could have been represented by regular musical symbols1 but it was thought best to use the special signs to make them stand out more prominently4 ,the qualities thus indicated as well as those which are represented by the regular musical notation will be found listed and defined after the tabulation of qualities4 ,words of the ,da-,eng ,part ,i4 ,sung in line4 #bej ,ma-li-dom ag-dag-da-gi yo-ma-yom ,yom-ma-yom ta yom-ma-yom ag-dag-da-gi yo-ma-yom4 ,ma-la-nas ag-dag-da-gi na-sa-nas ,ma-sa-nas ta ma-sa-nas ag-dag-da-gi na-sa-nas4 ,si ,on-na-i in-no-bi-yan ki-not-ko-tan ,na-to-tan ,na-to-tan ta na-to-tan ki-not ko-tan na-to-tan4 ,kol-kol-dong si gi-nol-bat nga ag-moli-moli-yat ,mo-li-yat ta mo-li-yat ag-mo-li mo-li-yat4 ,ka-lan-tag kal-la-yan-nen ag-ka-idig-na-yan dig-na-yan ta dig-na-yan ag-ka-i dig-na-yan4 ,a-na-on si ,tak-la-yan na-is-ti-lo ai bolo ,bin-no-lo ta bin-no-lo na-is-ti-lo ai bo-lo4 ,sok-bot ni ka-bin-bin-an adi ma-sil-si-li-ban si-li-ban ta si-li-ban adi ma-sil-si-liban ,ba-gai-ba-yem dem-ma-ngen si-nol-bo-dan ni kolat4 ki-no-lat ta ki-no-lat ai ag-ki-no ki-no-lat4 ,sabak ni am-mo-ga-wen mimog-go-mog di-kai-wen di-kai-wen ta ki-kai wen mimog-go-mog di-kai-wen4 ,sabak ni an-na-a-wen mi-ka-li-ya li-ya-wen4 ,li-ya-wen ta li-ya-wen ai ag-li-ya li-ya-wen ,part ,,ii4 ,sung in line4 alin-to-bo ni ni-og ag-lam-pi-yok lam-pi-yok ta lam-pi-yok ag-lam-pi lam-pi-yok4 al-in-to-bo ni aba ai adi nag-pada pi-na-da ta pi-na-da ai adi nag-pa-da4 al-in-to-bo ni no-nang ag-ba-li ba-li-yang ba-li-yang ta ba-li-yang ai ag-ba-li ba-li-yang4 al-in-to-bo ni lamai um-al-ali ma-ya-mai ma-ya-mai ta ma-ya-mai umal ali ma-ya-mai4 al-in-to-bo ni bang-on ag-ba-la ba-la-ngon ba-la-ngon ta ba-la-ngon ag-ba-la ba-la-ngon4 al-in-to-bo ni oway pel-sa-tem ket i-nom-lai i-nom-lai ta i-nom-lai pel-sa-tem ket i-nom-lai4 al-in-to-bo ni oling bog-yo-ngem ket boom-li-sing boom-li-sing ta boom-li-sing bog-yo-ngem ket boom-li-sing4 al-in-to-bo ni ba-kan umal ali ka-na-kan ka-na-kan ta ka-na-kan umal ali ka-na-kan4 al-in-to-bo ni anis ai adi na-gi-nis gi-ni-nis ta gi-ni-nis ai adi nedey na-gi-nis4 ,part ,,iii4 ,sung as they dance in circle4 ,a-ya-mem si pa-ni-ki ag-sol-sol-wap si la-bi ni la-bi ta ni labi ag-sol-sol-wap si la-bi4 ,a-ya-mem si bat-ta-teng ag-tiya ti ya-deng ti-ya-deng ta ti-ya-deng ag-ti-ya ti-ya-deng4 ,a-ya-mem si bang-nga-an nga dum-ang-dang-lap si da-lan din-na-lan ta din-na-lan dum-ang-dang-lap si da-lan4 ,a-ya-mem si om-om-bek nga ag-ma-si ma-sim-bek si nim-bek ta si-nim-bek nga ag-ma-si ma-sim-bek4 ,a-ya-mem si po-na-yen nga omas-asi gai-ga-yen gai-ga-yen ta gai-ga-yen om-as asi gai-ga-yen4 ,a-ya-mem si la-ga-dan nga tomal-la tal-la-dan tal-la-dan ta tal-la-dan nga ag-ta-la tal-la-dan4 ,a-ya-mem si bal-ga-si nga agka-a ka-a-si ka-a-si ta ka-a-si nga ag-ka-a ka-a-si4 ,part ,,iv4 ,bwa di la-od to-mo-bo nga lo-mok-bot lo-mok-bot ta lo-mok-bot to-mo-bo wa lo-mok-bot4 ,bwa di ,ba-li-la-si-bis nga gi-i-tem ket ma-i-mis i-ni-mis ta i-ni-mis gi-i-tem ket ma-i-mis4 ,bwa di ,mal-la-pa-ai gi-i-tem ket tom-ga-ey te-ga-ey ta te-ga-ey gi-i-tem ket tom ga-ey4 ,bwa di ,mal-lo-sa-ak gi-i-tem ket tom-ga-ak te-ga-ak ta te-ga-ak gi-i-tem ket tom-ga-ak4 ,bwa di ,tom-mo nga kom-ma-lab ket tom-mo-bo tom-mo-bo ta tom-mo-bo kom-ma-la-lab ket tom-mo-bo4 ,part ,v4 ,adi yo pai lau-lau-den lawed-ko nga do-la-wen do-la-wen ta do-la-wen adi yo pai lau-lau-den4 ,la-wed ngaita di al-yo pang-lau-lau-dan ta ba-o bi-na-o ta bi-na-o pang-lau-lau-dan ta ba-o4 ,la-wed di po-dok pang-lau-lau-dan ta bo-kod bi-no-kod ta bi-no-kod pang-lau-lau-dan ta bo-kod4 ,la-wed di ,sab-lang1 pang-lau-lau-dan ta ba-sang bi-na-sang ta bi-na-sang pang-lau-lau-dan ta ba-sang4 ,la-wed di ,pa-wai pang-lau-lau-dan ta a-wai in-na-wai ta in-na-wai pang-lau-lau-dan ta a-wai4 ,part ,,vi4 ,ka-wa-yan di ,po-da-yan na-tong-dan ta na-tong-dan na-tong-dan ta na-tong-dan ka-wa-yan di ,po-da-yan4 ,ka-wa-yan di ,bal-li-weyan om-mi-weyan ,om-mi-weyan ta om-mi-weyan ka-wa-yan di ,bal-li-weyan4 ,ka-wa-yan di ,ba-ta-an ko-ma omi-na-lan i-na-lan ta i-na-lan ka-wa-yan di ,ba-ta-an4 ,sol-kod-ko nga ka-wa-yan na-kak-la-ang di dem-mang di dem-mang ta di dem-mang na-kak-la-ang di dem-mang4 ,kawayan di ,pa-la-i ag-ka-i dong-la don-la-li dong-la-li ta dong-la-li ag-ka-i dong-la dong-la-li4 ,part ,,vii4 ,da-num di la-od kom-mog-nod ket kom-mog-nod ,kom-mog-nod ta kom-mog-nod danum di la-od4 ,dagsi-yan di ,pa-la-wang ko-ma ta sum-mi na-wang si-na-wang ta si-na-wang ko-ma ta sum-mi-na-wang4 ,dagsi-yan di ,langiden mi-ka si-li si-li-ten sili-ten ta si-li-ten dag-si-yan di ,lang-i-den4 ,dagsi-yan di ,ka-ba-lang-gan na-kal kalong go-kong-an ga-kong-an taga-kong-an na-kal ka-long ga-kong-an4 ,danum di ,pa-da-ngi-tan ki-na-dang ta ka-witan ka-wi-tan ta ka-wi-tan ki-na-dang ta ka-wi-tan4 ,dag-si-yan di ,lai-og-an nan-gol la-ol la-yo-san la-yo-san ta la-yo-san o-mal-la al-lo-yo-san4 ,danum di ,abang sum-mol-wai ta sum-mol-wai ,sum-mol-wai ta sum-mol-wai da-num di ,a-bang4 ,danum di ,abas inum-bas ket inum-bas inum-bas ta i-num-bas da-num di ,a-bas4 ,danum di ,ba-ai nag-kat-lo nga sa-long-ai ,sa-long-ai ta sa-long-ai nag-kat-lo nga sa-long-ai4 ,danum di ,da-ya nag-kil-la-yos nga si-pa ,si-ni-pa ta si-ni-pa nag-kil-la-yos nga sipa4 ,danum di ngato ti-nung-dai ta a-nito ,a-nito ta a-nito ti-nun-dai ta a-nito4 ,danum di aging ti-nung-dai ta ka-la-ding ,ka-lad-ing ta ka-la-ding ti-nung-dai ta ka-la-ding4 ,danum di ,a-yeng ti-nung-dai ta ba-yeng-yeng ba-yeng-yeng ta ba-yeng-yeng ti-nung-dai ta ba-yeng-yeng4 ,adi ka-pai man-gi-mon na-sal-li-bon ai bo-bon bin-no-bon ta bin-no-bon na-sal-li-bon ai bo-bon4 ,approximate ,translation of the ,da-,eng #bea ,i 8 8 ,the ,malanus flows4 ,flows1 flows1 flows onward4 ,si 7,mr47 ,on-na-i and ,na-to-tan dig obi 7taro7 with their hands4 ,dig1 dig1 dig with the hands4 ,the firefly in the woods opens his eyes4 ,opens1 opens1 opens his eyes4 ,the bank caves into the river4 ,caves1 caves1 caves in4 ,here1 your arm pretty bamboo 787 ,bamboo1 bamboo1 pretty bamboo4 ,do not disturb the rest of the kabibinan 7a bird74 ,disturb1 disturb1 do not disturb4 ,help the kolat 7a plant7 to grow4 ,become kolat1 become kolat1 stir up to become kolat4 ,the flower of the ,amogawen falls on you4 ,on you1 on you1 falls on you4 ,the flower of the ,ana-an plays with you4 ,plays1 plays1 it plays4 ,,ii4 ,the young leaves of the coconut wave4 ,wave1 wave1 they wave4 ,the leaves of the aba are not alike4 ,alike1 alike1 are not alike4 ,the leaves of the nonang turn back and forth4 ,back and forth1 back and forth1 turn back and forth4 ,the leaves of the lamay quake4 ,quake1 quake1 they quake4 ,the leaves of the bangon arise7874 ,arise1 arise1 they arise4 ,the leaves of the rattan cut and twist4 ,twist1 twist1 cut1 and twist4 ,the leaves of the oling rustle and rattle4 ,rattle1 rattle1 rustle and rattle4 ,the leaves of the bakan fall before time4 ,fall1 fall1 fall before time4 ,the leaves of the anis 7a low shrub7 are not clean4 ,clean1 clean1 not clean4 ,,iii4 ,you play ,mr4 bat who fly by night4 ,night1 night1 fly by night4 ,you play grasshopper whose back is concave4 ,concave1 concave1 whose back is concave4 ,you play ,bang-nga-an who shines like gold by the trail4 ,by the trail1 by the trail1 shines like gold by the trail4 ,you play onombek who hiccoughs4 ,hiccough1 hiccough1 who hiccoughs4 ,you play dove who falls4 ,falls1 falls1 who falls4 ,you play lagadan 7a bird7 who flees7874 ,flees1 flees1 who flees4 ,you play balgasi 787 who mourns for the dead4 ,mourns1 mourns1 mourns for the dead4 ,,iv4 ,betel-nut of the west which grows up like the gourd4 ,grows up1 grows up like the gourd4 ,betel-nut of ,balasibis which smiles when it is cut4 7,literally--is cut and smiles47 ,it smiles1 it smiles1 is cut1 and smiles4 ,betel-nut of ,malapay which chuckles 7like a woman7 when it is cut4 ,chuckles1 chuckles1 is cut1 and chuckles4 ,betel-nut of ,malosak which laughs 7like a man7 when it is cut4 ,laughs1 laughs1 is cut1 and laughs4 ,betel-nut of ,tomo which climbs and grows4 ,grows1 grows1 climbs1 and grows4 ,v4 ,do not take the leaves of my lawed1 who am rich4 ,rich1 rich1 do not take lawed leaves4 ,the widower takes often the top 7best7 lawed of ,alyo4 ,the widower1 the widower1 the widower takes often4 ,the lawed of the wooded hill the widow takes often4 ,the widow1 the widow1 the widow takes often4 ,the lawed of ,sablang the maiden takes often4 ,the maiden1 the maiden1 the maiden takes often4 ,the lawed of ,paway the hermit 7country man7 takes often4 ,the hermit1 the hermit1 the hermit takes often4 ,,vi4 ,bamboo of ,podayan1 ever living1 ever living4 ,ever living1 ever living1 bamboo of ,podayan4 ,bamboo of ,baliweyan sigh 7literally go wey7 when the wind blows4 ,sigh1 sigh1 bamboo of ,baliweyan4 ,bamboo of ,bataan1 like the sunshine4 ,sunshine1 sunshine1 bamboo of ,bataan4 ,my cane of bamboo gives out a clang4 ,clang1 clang1 gives out a clang4 ,bamboo of ,palai wave up and down4 ,wave1 wave1 wave up and down4 ,,vii4 ,water of the west1 become less and less4 ,less1 less1 water of the west4 ,spring of ,palawang overflow4 ,overflow1 overflow1 be like the overflow4 ,spring of ,langiden flow fast4 7,literally like lightning47 ,flow1 flow1 spring of ,langiden4 ,spring of ,ka-ba-lang1 flow like a chain4 ,chain1 chain1 flow like a chain4 ,water of ,padangitah be knee deep to the rooster4 ,rooster1 rooster1 knee deep to the rooster4 ,spring of ,layogan flow on4 ,flow1 flow1 flow on4 ,water of ,abang 787 8 ,water of ,abas1 become dry4 ,become dry1 become dry1 water of ,abas4 ,water of ,ba-ay has three branches4 ,branches1 branches1 has three branches4 ,water of the ,east shaped like a ball4 ,ball1 ball1 shaped like a ball4 ,water from above the anito holds 7stops74 ,anito1 anito1 the anito holds4 ,water of the uninhabited place the ghost holds4 ,ghost1 ghost1 the ghost holds4 ,water of ,ayeng the bamboo tube holds4 ,bamboo tube1 bamboo tube1 the bamboo tube holds4 ,do not be jealous1 pretty spring4 ,spring1 spring1 pretty spring4 ,da-,eng4 ,boys' part4 ,record ,a4 ,sung while dancing in a religious ceremony4 ,there are at least two voices in this record4 ,possibly there were three or more singers taking part1 though it is not possible to distinguish more than two4 ,the song is cast in the pentatonic scale of ,a major4 ,the notes ,g-natural and ,d-flat do not belong to this scale4 ,at those places where they are put down in the notation1 they are used to better define the glissandos4 ,the singers pass over them rapidly1 sliding from the topmost note of the group to the lowest with no perceptible dwelling on any of the intermediate tones4 ,the glissandos are indicated by straight lines drawn obliquely underneath such groups 7see ,definition of ,qualities1 p4 #dgh74 ,in each of measures #b and #f of verses #a1 #b1 and #c2 and in measure #f of verse #d1 is shown a group of three notes with an asterisk above4 ,these groups1 as shown in the notation1 are ,b1 ,a1 ,g2 but in measure #b of verse #d1 the corresponding group is ,c1 ,b1 ,a4 ,in those measures marked 991 the singers are very plainly striving to reach the tones ,c1 ,b1 ,a4 ,there is that quality of tension in the voices with the accompanying forcing of tone which is peculiar to untrained singers striving for a tone near the limit of their highest range4 ,as the tones actually sounded are neither ,b1 ,a1 ,g1 nor ,c1 ,b1 ,a1 but are instead a sort of compromise between the two1 it is quite evident that the succession intended in each of the seven measures is the same as in the eighth or odd one1 viz4 ,c1 ,b1 ,a4 ,if we assume this to be the case1 it eliminates seven of the foreign ,g naturals shown in the notation4 ,if1 however1 this conjecture is wrong1 and the performers really feel that the groups in question all start on ,b1 then the ,g naturals are eliminated by the glissandos4 ,the only other ,g-natural is shown in measure #g of verse #d4 ,by comparing this measure with the corresponding measure in each of the other three verses1 it will be seen that the singers have taken great pains in those verses to avoid this note which does not belong to the pentatonic scale which they are using1--evidence that they do not sense the tone in the fourth verse1 where it is taken glissando4 ,the ,d-flat1 also foreign to the scale1 occurs but once4 ,it is in measure #c of the top line4 ,the glissando here eliminates this tone also1 but1 by comparing this measure with the corresponding measure of each of the other verses1 we find the same avoidance as in the case of the ,g-natural1--evidence that the performers do not sense this other foreign tone4 ,the song is therefore very markedly pentatonic in character4 ,the assumption that the seven groups marked with asterisks do not represent the real intent of the singers1 is based entirely on the stress heard in the record4 ,this stress cannot be represented in notation4 ,relying on the notation alone1 one would be warranted in drawing a contrary conclusion and assuming that the odd measure should be made to conform to the other seven and all read1 ,b1 ,a1 ,g2 or1 from the phonographic record1 one might assume that the compromise1 previously mentioned1 was the intonation really intended4 ,primitive peoples frequently do sing and play1 quite intentionally1 tones out of conformity with scale tones of present-day concert music4 ,such tones cannot be represented by our musical notation without resort to special signs4 ,this is not necessary in the present case1 as the falling short of true intonation does not appear to be from deliberate intent on the part of the singers1 but seems to be due to lack of ability4 ,in eight of the measures1 at least one of the voices departs from the melody proper1 producing the harmony-intervals so frequently heard in the music of primitive peoples1 namely1 that of a #eth without the #crd to complete the triad1 and that of a #dth without the #fth to complete the chord4 ,such thirdless #eths are found in measures #e 7verse #a71 #a and #h 7verse #b71 #e 7verse #c71 and #a and #e 7verse #d72 and the interval of a #dth without the #fth is found in measures #c and #h of verse #d4 ,in the last measure of the notation1 however1 the interval of a #dth there shown is caused by the leader's voice departing from the regular melodic succession instead of the accompanying voice or voices1 as is the case in each of the other measures mentioned4 ,in measures #a and #e of each of the four verses of the song1 and also in measure #c of the second verse1 the sign1 44444 7mezzo staccato marks71 is used to indicate the pulsating of the voice of one of the singers1 probably the leader1 marking the rhythm of the song4 ,the metronome tempo is mostly #hh1 but varies at times and runs as-high as #ib per minute in the last half of the #dth verse4 ,between verses #b and #c the phonograph shows that the singers paused eight beats 7two whole measures71 and between verses #c and #d there was a similar1 though shorter1 pause of two beats 7one-half measure74 ,these pauses are not shown in the notation4 ,there was no special change in dynamics throughout the song except as indicated by the sforzando marks in measures #a1 #b1 #e1 #f1 #g1 and #h of verse #d4 ,in general character this song resembles most the ,dang-dang-ay 7,record ,m74 ,diwas ,record ,b4 ,sung at night by the friends of a sick man4 ,there are two singers on this record1 both men with bass voices4 ,one seems to be the leader1 the accompanying singer dragging along behind4 ,as the tempo is very slow and many of the tones long drawn out1 this uncertainty on the part of the second performer is not so noticeable1 except on the quick runs as the leader passes to another principal tone4 ,the song is cast in the natural minor scale of ,d4 ,the ,e-flat near the beginning of the second line does not belong to the scale4 ,it is not well defined on the record1 and so is indicated in the transcription with an interrogation-mark beneath4 ,although not confined to the intervals of the pentatonic scale1 the number is distinctly pentatonic in character4 ,it is made up mostly of the tones ,a1 ,c1 ,d1 and ,e4 ,these tones belong to the pentatonic scales of ,c major and its relative minor ,a4 ,in tonality1 the song cannot be considered as belonging to either of these keys1 as there is a very distinct feeling of ,b-flat in it1 notwithstanding that the tone is seldom dwelt upon1 but passed over quickly1 almost glissando1 in nearly every place where it occurs4 ,the song ends on ,a4 ,this is not the key note1 however1 but is the fifth of the key4 ,the song is like a mournful chant4 ,throughout there is a peculiar wailing which leaves a strange1 haunting impression4 ,the music admirably suits the hour when it is used4 ,it would be decidedly incongruous given in broad daylight4 ,these untutored savages could hardly have conjured up a more typical tone-picture of the shadowy valley than the song heard on this record4 ,the peculiarly weird character is due in large part to the swelling out and dying away of the tones on certain syllables4 7,for comparison to effects found in ,igorot music1 see ,swelled ,tones under ,definition of ,qualities1 p4 #dgi74 ,sang-,sangit ,record ,c4 ,sung during the evening following a funeral4 ,in this record we hear but one voice--a man's4 ,the song is cast in the minor scale of ,g1 but whether the natural minor or the harmonic1 cannot be determined1 as the singer does not use the #gth of the scale4 ,it is not pentatonic in character4 ,the song is given in the recitative style4 ,there are several verses which vary but little in the music1 except for the changes in the reiterated staccato tones which are made greater or less in number to accommodate the difference in number of syllables4 ,with the exception of those starting the glissandos or trills1 the repeated tones were given with a very decided staccato punch4 ,much of the intonation is vague4 ,in taking the glissandos shown near the middle of the top line1 the upper tone is sung about half way between ,b-flat and ,b-natural4 ,there is some abandon in the rhythm also4 ,the group of six notes marked with an asterisk are trilled on the semitone interval4 ,dawak ,record ,d4 ,the song of a medium when calling spirits into her 7his7 body4 ,this song is doubtless the invention of the singer4 ,it has that abandon which usually characterizes the songs of workers in the occult among primitive folk4 ,the song is cast mostly in the relative minor 7,g-sharp7 of the pentatonic scale of ,b-natural major4 ,a-sharp does not belong to this scale4 ,there are five measures1 where this note appears1 but in each instance the tonality of the phrase momentarily rests in ,d-sharp minor1 the relative of the pentatonic major of ,f-sharp4 ,a-sharp belongs to this scale1 but ,b-natural does not4 ,the singer1 with his instinct for the five-note scale1 avoids the ,b-natural until the tonality shifts back to the original key4 ,the song is therefore classed as pentatonic in character4 ,the melody is distinctly harmonic in structure1 as nearly all of the successions are made up of triad intervals4 ,though the song runs but a minute and a half1 the tempo changes eight times4 ,the performer takes nearly every new tempo with a well-defined rhythm4 ,there is considerable freedom shown in the first movement when the tremolos between ,b-natural and the ,g-sharp below are taken4 ,the singer shows quite remarkable flexibility of voice1 excellent breath control1 and a rather surprising quality of tone and accuracy of intonation4 ,as a demonstration of flexibility1 about the middle of the first movement1 he takes the quarter note ,b-natural in falsetto and immediately drops into the waver a tenth below1 at the same time assuming his natural voice4 ,the falsetto tone is indicated in the transcription by a tiny circle above the note4 ,all of the wavered tones1 as well as the falsetto at the beginning and the turn at the end are sung with one breath to a single syllable4 ,this is quite a remarkable performance considering that the singer had no voice training4 ,near the opening of the first #b_/d movement is shown a group of five notes given in the time of four1--a rhythmic effect few trained musicians can execute well4 ,of the various performers who took part in making the fourteen records1 this singer shows the best voice technic and control4 ,the fact that the singer scarcely repeats a single motive throughout the extent of the song1 but is constantly introducing new tonal ideas argues an extempore performance4 ,it would be interesting to have for comparison another record of the same song made at another time4 ,song of a ,spirit ,record ,e4 ,sung by a medium when possessed by a spirit4 ,melodically this song is quite in contrast with the ,dawak4 ,this one is distinctly melodic in structure1 though there are suggested harmonies4 ,these harmonies are mostly tonic and dominant alternating one with the other4 ,using a two-measure motive1 which he announces at the very start1 the singer works the material over and over1 first in one harmonic mode and then in the other1 frequently changing the form of the motive through embellishments or altered metric values1 but always leaving an impression which harks back to the original motive4 ,arrange the various tones of this melody in any order that we will1 we cannot make them conform to any diatonic scale used in modern music4 ,if1 however1 we ignore the ,c-flat1 which occurs twice in the song1 it gives us an incomplete ascending melodic-minor scale in ,d-flat4 ,but the song is not minor in mode4 ,it is distinctly major in tonality4 ,it is formed mostly of the four tones ,d-flat1 ,e-flat1 ,a-flat1 and ,b-flat4 ,all of these belong to the pentatonic major scale of ,d-flat4 ,this gives a very marked pentatonic flavor1 yet the song is not in the pentatonic scale1 for the singer introduces half steps1 and there are no such intervals in the pentatonic scale4 ,casting about among the scales used by various peoples1 the nearest approach ,i find to the tonal succession of this song is one of the numerous scales or tunings used by the ,japanese4 ,it is that known as the ,hirajoshi4 ,to make comparison easy1 ,i have transposed this ,japanese koto-tuning into the same key as that of the song4 ,along with it ,i show the tonal material of the ,tinguian song arranged in corresponding sequence4 ,it will be seen that every note in the ,japanese scale is found also in the ,tinguian1 though not always in the same octave4 ,all of the ,tinguian tones are found in the ,japanese scale except the ,c-flat and ,d-flat4 ,these exceptions are shown with their stems turned down4 ,the notes shown in white in the ,tinguian scale are not sung at the pitch indicated1 but occur in the song as octaves of these tones4 ,the black notes therefore show the actual tones sung4 ,it will be noticed that in the arrangement of the notes the opening tone is repeated a few notes later on4 ,this is because the ,japanese usually tune the koto with the first and fifth strings in unison to facilitate the execution of certain passages in their music4 ,the ,jog1 heard so frequently in the ,igorot songs1 occurs eight times in this number4 ,it is not quite so well defined here1 however1 as in the ,dang-dang-ay1 being modified in this song either by syncopation1 by phrasing1 or by lack of accent4 ,it is interesting to note however1 that it is always given on the tonic or the dominant1 and also that it is repeated in true ,igorot style4 ,the unconcern and skill with which the performer of this song unravels the mixed up duplet and triplet groups1 is evidence of his inherent sense of rhythm1 as it pertains to the symetry of note groups and their embodiment as beat-units into larger1 varying measure-units2 but his indifference1 as he juggles his metric values of #b_/d1 #c_/h1 and #c_/d time1 shows an entire absence of appreciation for form as revealed in even-measured sections1 phrases1 and periods of modern music4 ,considered in the light of an oracle from the spirit himself speaking through the medium1 the music would indicate that the spectre is not one of the gentle and kind disposition1 but on the contrary is very domineering4 ,he is of frightful mien1 and tries to terrorize all who come under his sway4 ,song of a ,spirit ,record ,f4 ,sung by a medium when possessed by a spirit4 ,this song is very similar in general character to the ,dawak1 and many qualities in it indicate that it is given by the same performer4 ,it has the same general formation as the ,dawak4 ,it is harmonic in construction4 ,nearly all of its tones follow the triad intervals of either the minor or its relative major tonic chords or the minor dominant chord4 ,there is no well-marked motive development but instead a succession of tones first from one triad1 then from another1 and so on1 grouped in ever varying fashion4 ,the key is ,g minor1 but closes in the relative major ,b4 ,while singing in the minor1 the performer follows modern methods and raises his seventh or leading tone1 when the progression is upwards into the tonic 7see measures #aj1 #ac1 #be1 and #bg74 ,the tempo is mostly #ajh1 but at the tenth measure the movement slows down to #hj4 ,at this point is shown a note with a large circle above4 ,this tone was taken with a very wide open mouth quite in contrast with the one preceeding4 ,the next measure following shows two tones taken falsetto4 ,like the ,dawak1 this song is probably the composition of the singer4 ,although very primitive in its general aspect1 it has absorbed from some source a bit of modern influence4 ,if the surmise is correct that the performer of this song is the same as the one who made the record of the ,dawak1 and if the two songs were made at distinct times with a considerable period elapsing in which other records were made1 it would indicate1 as is frequently the case among primitive singers1 that this performer almost invariably sings at the same pitch4 ,in other words1 he has to some degree the sense of absolute pitch4 ,bagoyas ,record ,g4 ,a song of praise and compliment sung by a guest at a feast or party4 ,words are extempore1 but music constant4 ,the singer is a tenor with considerable dramatic quality in his voice4 ,the words of the song must be extemporized to suit each new occasion2 so also1 must the elemental tonal forms be extemporaneously combined1 for the music must fit the words1 and these will vary in rhythm and meter with each performance4 ,the music may be considered constant1 however1 in that the form of each component motive is more or less fixed4 ,the following five group-ingredients1 used either in the pure form as shown1 or with slight alterations1 make up approximately one-half of the entire song4 ,reiterated tones and glissandos pad out between these and make up practically the remainder of the number4 ,turning our attention to the first of the above groups1 which ,i have marked ,m4,m4#a4 7melodic motive71 we find that it is used nearly a score of times throughout the extent of the song4 ,a motive may be modified in ten different recognized ways and each form of modification employed in varying degrees1 within certain limits1 and yet the motive will not loose its identity4 ,as an example of this we find in this song the first melodic motive transposed from the fourth degree of the scale 7where it is originally announced7 to the first1 the fifth1 and the sixth degrees4 ,we find the same motive given with omissions1 with additions1 with augmentations1 with contractions1 and with altered rhythmic values2 in short1 the composer has turned this motive over and over1 and unwittingly developed it much after the manner used by musicians trained in the art of composition4 ,the fact that this motive is given four times rhythmically and melodically intact1 besides recurring frequently throughout the composition in one or another of the accepted forms of modification1 argues that this melodic germ was a familiar tone-figure to the singer1 one that he could apply to most any syllable on which he wished to dwell4 ,in this connection it is interesting to note that this motive1 in its purest form1 is always used in a transitional way1 not only musically1 but rhetorically1 thus marking time1 as it were1 while the improvisator chooses his next words of praise4 ,the second melodic motive 7,m4,m4#b47 occurs at least five times1 with some transformations to be sure1 and sometimes even overlapping the first motive4 ,the third 7,r4,m47 is purely rhythmic1 but seems to be a pet device of the singer and helps him out with syllables needing special emphasis4 ,the fourth can hardly be dignified by the name of motive1 in this case1 but is simply a musical device 7,m4,d471 used by the singer mostly in his terminations4 ,i surmise that the song in its entirety1 including the above elemental groups1 is the invention of the singer4 ,he has equipped himself with these particular tonal fragments1 because they not only suit his fancy1 but lie well within the range of his vocal attainments4 ,he has used them so frequently and in such varied forms that he can instantly twist1 turn1 or alter them to fit the requirements of the various syllables of his ever changing flatteries4 ,with a few such elemental groups of his own invention at command1 any singer would be well equipped to extemporize for the delectation of his host and the entertainment of the other guests4 ,the song is exceptional for strongly accented notes4 ,the triplets giving the value of three quarter notes in the time of two are rather unusual in modern music4 ,it is cast in the natural minor scale of ,b-flat4 ,the singer never uses either the raised #fth or #gth in ascending1 as do moderns in the melodic minor1 but adheres strictly to the old normal or natural minor form4 ,although diatonic1 in that both the ,g-flat and ,c-natural appear frequently1 yet the number savors much of the pentatonic4 ,at three places where the singer uses one or the other of the tones foreign to the pentatonic scale1 he makes half-step progressions4 ,in the fourth line of the song we find the single instance in these records1 where the performer takes an upward glissando4 ,it is on the two-note embellishment ,f-natural ,g-flat shown in the last measure of that line4 ,it is immediately followed by a downward glissando4 ,balalognimas ,record ,,ii4 ,two singers are heard on this record4 ,they seem to be women4 ,possibly there are more than the two voices4 ,as the song has such a well-defined swing and such a martial character1 it must be wonderfully inspiring when given by a large company of singers4 ,it is cast in the natural minor diatonic scale of ,c-sharp1 though it is strongly pentatonic in character4 ,the rhythm is partly #e_/h and partly #d_/h1 but it swings along so naturally that it seems as if it could not be otherwise4 ,the distribution of the accents1 sometimes falling on the first and third beats and again on the second and fourth1 helps to give it a character which puts it in a class by itself4 ,it has the most character of any of the women's songs in this group4 ,there are several verses to the song almost precisely alike in words and music4 ,da-,eng4 ,boys and ,girls ,alternating4 ,record ,i4 ,sung while dancing in a religious ceremony4 ,this song is in two distinct movements or parts varying one from the other in meter1 in tempo1 and in general style4 ,part #a ,there are at least two voices discernible in this part4 ,they seem to be the voices of girls or women4 ,it is cast in the relative minor 7,c7 of the pentatonic scale of ,e-flat major4 ,the tones of this scale given in order are ,c1 ,e-flat1 ,f1 ,g1 ,b-flat1 and then the octave ,c4 ,the tones ,d-natural and ,a-flat are missing1 thus avoiding the half step between ,d and ,e-flat1 and between ,g and ,a-flat 7see remarks in pentatonic scale under ,definition of ,qualities1 p4 #dhj74 ,the ,a-flat shown in the third from the last measure of this part is written there to define more clearly that particular glissando which seems to be of slightly different rhythmic construction than the one in the corresponding measure above4 ,the fact that the tone is passed over glissando eliminates it from the scale4 ,in the fourth measure of each line we find a peculiar splitting up of the parts1 one voice holding the ,c1 while the other skips to the ,e-flat above1 thus producing the harmony-interval of a minor third4 ,this behavior seems to be intentional on the part of the performers1 as it occurs precisely the same in each of the four lines of the song1 though not quite so well defined the last time owing to the fact that the upper voice does not come out so strong on the ,e-flat4 ,this is indicated in the notation by a small square note4 ,part #a is in the very unusual rhythm of #e_/d4 ,the rhythm is not well defined1 however1 as there is considerable abandon in the style of rendition4 ,the metronome tempo of #fi applies practically throughout4 ,sometimes the singers are a trifle in advance of the count and at others drag behind1 but always sooner or later drop into the regular beat4 ,a stress on each fifth count gives the number a rhythm of five4 ,it is unique also in that each line has but five measures4 ,part #b ,in this1 the same number of voices is heard as in the first part4 ,the performers seem to be the same ones who sang from the beginning4 ,the scale is the same as that of part #a4 ,the intonation is very distinct and the character unmistakably pentatonic4 ,in measure #b there is the harmony-interval of a perfect fourth followed immediately by that of a minor third1 the same succession as was used in the ,da-eng1 ,girls' part 7,record ,j74 ,in the fourth and fifth measures of this part are found unprepared minor thirds1 which also appear in ,record ,j4 ,these harmonies are not so primitive as those found in the boys' part of the same ceremony 7see ,record ,a74 ,the tempo throughout this part is #hj and the rhythm strongly marked4 ,there is a wait between the two lines4 ,the machine was evidently stopped at this point or the needle raised and started again4 ,each line has the uncommon number of five measures the same as the first part1 but metrically the part is in #d_/d rhythm4 ,the second time through1 the singers seem to be striving to repeat the first line of the movement with embellishments consisting of inverted mordents1 appogiature1 and trills4 ,musically1 there seems to be absolutely no connection between this song and the other two of the same ceremony4 ,in many ways this song is the most interesting of those submitted4 ,in origin it probably dates between the other two4 ,it is not given consecutively on the record1 as there were breaks between each two lines while the needle was raised4 ,da-,eng4 ,girls' part4 ,record ,j4 ,sung while dancing in a religious ceremony4 ,the record shows but two voices one of which is greatly predominant in strength and confidence as if it were the leader's voice4 ,the song is cast in the scale of ,b minor4 ,it is not pentatonic4 ,the singers would employ1 so an interrogation-mark is2 placed below that be either ,a-natural or ,a-sharp1 according to whether the scale is the natural minor or the harmonic minor1 it is not possible to determine which tone the singers would employ1 so an interrogation mark is placed below that note4 ,the raised fourth 7,e-sharp71 shown in the fifth measure of four out of the six verses1 is perfectly intentional on the part of the singers1 but musically1 is to be interpreted as an accidental1 and does not affect the scale of the song4 ,in this song we again have the interval of a fourth without the sixth above4 ,it occurs four times1 each time followed immediately by the less primitive and more harmonious interval of a minor third4 ,the minor third harmony also occurs in three other measures1--in these without preparation4 ,these minor thirds are all the same1--,b-,d1 the foundation of the tonic chord of the key1--evidence that the singers have a keen sense of the minor tonality4 ,the tempo alternates between #if and #ajh4 ,the first half of each line is given at #if1 but the second half is taken more rapidly at #ajh beats per minute4 ,each of these rhythms is very evenly preserved1 the time being well marked by accented notes and pulsations of the voice as shown in the score4 ,the figures at the ends of the lines indicate the number of beats rest actually taken by the performers4 ,twice they take the normal number four1 which1 if preserved throughout1 would place the song in the regular eight-measure form4 ,some of the measures are #d_/d1 and some are #c_/d4 ,in each verse of this song we find an example of the characteristic which ,i have termed a jog4 ,it is seen in each next-to-last measure with special sign beneath4 ,the jogs in the #bnd1 #dth1 and #fth measures are the best defined 7see table of special signs under ,introduction1 p4 #ddd74 ,there are three qualities in this song1 which indicate that it is of more modern origin than either of the other two which belong to the same ceremony4 ,the frequent and undoubtedly intentional use of the raised fourth giving the half step ,e-sharp to ,f-sharp2 the persistent recurrence of the hardly primitive1 minor-third harmony2 and the fact that the song is not cast in the pentatonic scale1 as are the other two records of the same ceremony1 point to a more modern origin4 ,it may be that in the earliest practice of this ceremony the girls or women did not participate1 their parts having been a later addition4 ,this could not be determined musically1 however1 without examining more records of songs from this or similar ceremonies4 ,bogoyas ,record ,k4 ,sung by a woman4 ,this is a woman's song of praise1 complimentary to the host at a party4 ,the singer makes use of all the scale tones of the major key of ,e-flat1 except the ,d-natural4 ,the ,b-natural found in the next-to-last measure is a passing tone1 and does not affect the scale or tonality4 ,at that point the suggested supporting harmony is an augmented triad upon the tonic leading into the subdominant4 ,with the exception of this one measure1 the song is in the five-note scale4 ,notwithstanding that this measure contains two ,a-flats and also the passing tone ,b-natural1 both of which tones are foreign to this particular five-note scale1 the song is not robbed of its pentatonic character4 ,the rhythm of this song is interesting4 ,it alternates throughout between #d_/d and #e_/d4 ,it might have been notated in #i_/d time instead1 in which case it would have but five measures4 ,the singer uses the downward glissandos1 so characteristic of nearly all of the ,tinguian songs of this group4 ,these glissandos are indicated by oblique lines drawn beneath the tones covered by the slide4 ,in the second measure there is an almost inaudible tone at the end of the glissando4 ,it is indicated by a small1 square note4 ,careful listening to the record at this point shows that the singer really leaves the principal tone ,e-flat and slides with a sudden dying-down of volume4 ,the abruptness with which the sound of the voice fades as it starts the glissando1 leaves the impression of ,e-flat still sounding4 ,one tone in this song is given on the inhaled breath4 ,it is indicated by a circle with a dot in the center placed beneath the note4 ,this tone was produced well back in the throat1 while the singer sharply inhaled the breath4 ,this artifice1 occasionally used by the ,tinguian1 is seldom1 if ever1 heard in the singing of civilized peoples 7for other examples1 see analysis of ,record ,m1 ,dang-dang-ay74 ,this song1 given by a woman1 has not the well-marked motive development shown in the other ,bogoyas1 sung by a man4 ,however1 we find two quite distinct1 prevailing ideas set forth4 ,the first includes the whole of the first measure and the first beat of the second4 ,it seems to be in the nature of a question which finds its answer in the remainder of the second measure1 and again in the third1 and again in the fourth measure4 ,it is the same answer1 but expressed each time in a little different manner4 ,in the fifth measure and carrying over into the sixth1 the questioning is heard again4 ,although put forth in a different arrangement of tones1 it is the same musical thought as that expressed in the first measure4 ,this time it is answered but once4 ,the answer takes parts of two measures4 ,now follows another query similar to the first1 and again comes the answer fully expressed in each of the two concluding measures4 ,the principal interest in this centers around the ,b-natural1 indicating that the singer has a very decided appreciation of the half step and of the upward leading tendency of a tone raised a semitone by an accidental4 ,na-,way ,record ,l4 ,sung at the celebration which closes the period of mourning for the dead4 ,there are two voices heard in the record1 probably women4 ,in ten of the measures there is a splitting up of the parts4 ,in the first measure of each of the second and third lines1 and also in the third measure of the third line1 the difference in the parts is owing to uncertainty of attack1 one of the singers1 usually the leader1 starting the syllable ahead of the other performer4 ,in the second measure of the last line1 the first divergence is caused by the leader taking ,e by way of embellishment2 and the second divergence1 producing a minor third1 is caused by the other voice dropping to ,b too soon4 ,these are not intentional harmonies4 ,the other six departures from unison are caused by the leader embellishing her part4 ,the appogiatura1 shown with a tiny circle above1 has the quality of falsetto4 ,the singer yodles down to the principal tone ,b4 ,the song is strictly pentatonic4 ,peculiarly enough1 it may be considered as belonging to any one of the following tonalities1 ,b minor1 ,e minor1 or ,g major1 though there is no ,g in the melody4 ,the song seems the most primitive1 however1 when considered in the key of ,e minor1 for the harmonies required to place it in this tonality carry more of the primitive atmosphere than do the chords which are required in either of the other tonalities4 ,in this connection it would be interesting to know just how these various harmonizations would appeal to the ,tinguian4 ,it is a well-known fact among musicians who have recorded the songs of primitive peoples1 that though the songs are used with practically no harmonies1 yet the singers feel an harmonic support which they do not express4 ,experiments along this line have been tried with the ,american ,indians4 ,various harmonizations of a given melody have been played for them1 a melody which they themselves sing only in unison1 and they have been very quick to choose the particular harmonic support which appeals to them as being an audible expression of the vague something which they feel within1 but do not attempt to voice4 ,the tones of this song when arranged to represent the scale of ,e minor coincide exactly with the scale tones of two of the tunings of the ,japanese #ac stringed koto4 ,these tunings were both borrowed by the ,japanese from the ,chinese by whom they were used as special tunings of the ch'in1 or kin1 one of the most ancient of musical instruments4 ,in each of the eleven glissandos shown in the notation1 the voices drop suddenly to approximately the tone shown by the small square note4 ,the glides are taken diminuendo1 the tone dying away completely4 ,the sudden diminuation of tone taken with a glissando gives an effect something like a short groan4 ,the song is in seven-measure periods4 ,dang-,dang-,ay ,record ,m4 ,sung by women while pounding rice out of the straw and husks4 ,only one voice can be distinguished in the record4 ,it is that of a woman4 ,though strongly pentatonic in character1 the song is cast in the diatonic scale of ,f major4 ,metrically there is considerable freedom4 #c_/d1 #d_/d1 and #e_/d rhythms are thrown in with the most haphazard abandon1 yet it has the even pulsing which should dominate a song of this character4 ,the song is in two rather distinct movements4 ,the first1 in spite of the two triplets thrown in at the first and third measures1 has a straight-away motion which offers a striking contrast to the more graceful1 swaying second part which is mostly in triplets4 ,the change from one style to the other is made by the singer with no variation in tempo4 ,it is therefore admirably adapted to accompany the regular falling of the pestles while beating out the rice4 ,near the close of the song are two notes with ,sun over them4 ,these were vocalized on the inhaled breadth 7for other examples of ,inhaled ,tones1 see analysis of ,record ,k1 ,bogoyas74 ,this song contains seven examples of the ,jog 7see ,definition of ,qualities1 p4 #dgi74 ,those in the second part of the song are the best defined4 ,one of these is shown with open head4 ,this jog is given the most nearly like the ,igorot manner of execution of any of the examples found in these fourteen songs4 ,in general character1 this song somewhat resembles the ,boys' ,part of the ,da-eng ceremony 7,record ,a74 ,kuilay-,kuilay ,record ,n4 ,sung by women while passing liquor4 ,there is one singer only on this record4 ,it is a woman4 ,the song is given in a lively1 jolly1 rollicking style4 ,it is cast in the ,f major scale4 ,the melody has good variety4 ,at times it defines quite clearly the harmonic outline by following the tonal framework of the tonic1 dominant1 or subordinant chords4 ,passing tones are used more freely and naturally in this song than in any of the others4 ,in the third measure of the fifth line1 the singer very plainly vocalizes a half step from ,f to ,e4 ,the second and fourth lines also show semitones1 though these are not so distinctly given on the record as the other example4 ,in the last measure of the third line there is a modulation into the tonality of ,b-flat which carries through two measures4 ,in the fifth line are three accents which make the meter rather elusive at that point4 ,the two small notes shown at the beginning of the third line seem to be spoken with no attempt at vocalization4 ,they are notated1 however1 at the pitch of the speaking voice4 ,the small note shown in the bottom line is given very faintly in the record and seems more like a muffled exclamation than an intentionally vocalized tone4 ,the tempo throughout is quite regular1 following the indicated pulse of #ib in both the #f_/h and #b_/d rhythms4 ,in the latter part of the song there are a number of changes between duple and triple rhythm4 ,the singer makes these changes with perfect ease and sings the groups with that exactness of proportion which characterizes the performance of most of the singers in these records4 ,musically this song is strikingly adapted to the purpose for which it is intended4 ,tabulation of ,qualities and ,characteristics4--,the qualities found in the records have been tabulated under two main headings4 ,under the caption1 ,rarely or ,never ,heard in ,modern ,music1 are listed those qualities which1 so far as present research goes1 are so very unusual that they may be termed musical idiosyncrasies of the race4 ,these qualities are so eccentric that if found in several of the songs1 even if the number of songs be much in the minority1 the qualities may be accepted as characteristics4 #beb ,to receive recognition as a characteristic1 any quality found under the other heading1 ,commonly ,heard1 would necessarily have to show that it quite persistently occurred throughout a large majority of the songs4 ,the columns of the large table1 when read horizontally1 show which qualities appear in a given song4 ,read vertically they show the degrees of dominance of the various qualities4 ,the songs are grouped under two heads1 those given by men and boys1 and those given by women and girls4 ,this will facilitate comparison of the degrees of dominance of the qualities found in the songs of each4 #bec ,numbers have been put down in some of the columns of the table4 ,these figures indicate the number of times the quality appeared in the song4 ,if the song has several verses on the record1 and the quality appears the same number of times in each1 then the tabulation gives the number of times in but a single verse4 ,if the verses vary in the use of the quality1 then an average has been struck and figure put down in the tabulation4 ,in those songs where a certain quality occurs with such irregularity that it was impossible to represent the average without fractions1 only the mark ,x has been put down in the table1 simply to indicate that the quality was present4 ,such qualities as ,tonality1 ,character1 ,structure1 ,scale1 etc41 naturally1 with few exceptions1 run through the whole song1 and they are indicated by the ,x4 ,some songs have both of two opposed qualities4 ,when this occurs1 it is shown by checking both qualities4 #bed ,some qualities which were present1 but indeterminable are indicated by an interrogation-point4 #bee ,following the tabulation is given a detailed explanation or definition of each of the qualities listed at the heads of the vertical columns4 ,dying ,tones4--,found only at the end of some few glissandos4 ,on the glide1 the volume of sound diminishes so rapidly that when the final tone of the group is reached1 the sound has practically died out4 ,the effect is something like a short groan with no anguish in it4 ,sign1--same as a muted note1 but written at the end of a glissando4 ,muted ,tones4--,sort of half-articulated tones1 if ,i may use that expression4 ,without more records of the same songs in which these are shown1 it is not possible to determine whether they are intended by the singers as necessary parts of the records4 ,sign1--note with small square head4 ,inhaled ,tones4--,tones produced well back in the throat while sharply inhaling the breath rather than exhaling it1 as practiced almost universally by singers4 ,sign1--circle with dot in center4 ,pulsated ,tones4--,tones of more than one beat sung with a rythmic stressing usually in accord with the time meter or some multiple of that meter4 ,pulsation is rarely heard among modern musicians1 except in drilling ensemble singing4 ,it is heard quite frequently in the singing of our ,american ,indians and in the songs of several other primitive peoples4 ,it occurs to some extent in nearly every one of the ,tinguian men's songs4 ,it is found in but one of those sung by women4 ,though pusation does serve to define the rhythm1 ,i believe it is used by primitive peoples mostly as a purely aesthetic touch4 ,it is indicated in the notation by the usual musical staccato sign thus1 --44444 ,swelled ,tones4--,tones usually of from two to four beats which are sung with increasing volume to the center1 finishing with a decrescendo to the end4 ,the ,swell is sometimes applied to tones of more than four beats1 but when so used1 it looses some of its character4 ,swelled tones must be given to single syllables only1 and they are the most effective when introduced several times in succession with but few1 if any1 intervening tones4 ,the sign which ,i have used is double diverging lines followed by double converging lines placed under the note4 ,in #aije it was my privilege to transcribe a number of native songs from the singing of a group of ,igorot4 ,in these songs they made frequent use of swelled tones4 ,downward ,glissandos4--,an even sliding of the voice from the topmost tone of a group to the lowest with no perceptible dwelling on any intermediate tone and without in any manner defining any of the tones lying between the extremes4 ,sign1--a straight line drawn obliquely downward beneath the group4 ,upward ,glissandos4--,an even sliding of the voice upward without sounding any of the intermediate tones4 ,sign1--a straight line drawn obliquely upward beneath the group4 ,notes in ,group1 ,beats in ,measure1 or ,measures in ,period4--,groups of five seem to have no terrors for these people4 ,in modern music it is extremely unusual to find notes grouped in fives1 or measures having the rhythmic value of five beats1 or periods made up of measures in fives4 ,a study of the tabulation shows that the ,tinguian have a rather natural bent for groupings in this number4 ,it seems easy for them to drop into that metric form4 ,i consider this trait1 evidenced in their melodies1 one of the marked characteristics of their music4 #bef ,groups of notes1 beats1 or measures in seven are so few in these records that we are not warranted in accepting it as a characteristic4 ,jog4--,an over-emphasized short-appoggiatura with always either the tonic or dominant of the key as the principal tone4 ,the first tone is usually an eighth or sixteenth in value1 and must stand on the next degree above the principal tone4 ,the principal tone is usually a quarter note or longer in value4 ,in singing the jog1 the short note is given a very pointed accent1 the voice dropping quickly with a sort of jerk to the second1 unaccented1 sustained tone4 ,it is executed without sliding1 both tones being well-defined4 ,to be most effective1 it should be given two1 three1 or four times consecutively without intervening tones4 ,this device was heard very frequently in the ,igorot songs2 in fact1 some of their songs consisted of little else than the jog sounded first on tonic two or three times1 then the same number of times on the dominant1 then again on the tonic1 then on the dominant1 and so on back and forth4 ,it would be interesting to know just how commonly this device is used in the singing of the ,tinguian and also in the music of other tribes of these ,islands4 ,from it we might learn something of the contact of other tribes with the ,igorot4 ,japanese ,scales4--,for structure of these scales1 see analysis of those songs using one or another of the ,japanese tunings or approximations to them4 ,tonality4--,that entire group of harmonies which1 intimately related to a foundation or tonic chord1 may be considered as clustered around and drawn to it4 ,major ,tonality4 ,that tonality in which the upper two of the three tones constituting its tonic chord1 when ranged upward from its foundation tone1 are found at distances of four and seven semitones respectively from it4 ,minor ,tonality4 ,that tonality in which the upper two of the three tones constituting its tonic chord1 when ranged upward from its foundation tone1 are found at distances of three and seven semitones respectively from it4 ,pentatonic ,character4 ,that peculiar essence or quality which a melody has when it is built up entirely or almost wholly of the tones of the pentatonic or five-note scale4 ,the melody may employ sparingly one or both of the two tones foreign to the pentatonic scale1 and yet its pentatonic character will not be destroyed4 ,diatonic ,character4 ,that quality which a melody takes on when the two tones which are foreign to the pentatonic scale of the same key or tonality are freely employed4 ,i use this term in contradistinction to ,pentatonic ,character1 and not in contradistinction to ,chromatic1 as it is usually employed in musical literature4 ,melodic ,structure4 ,that form of flowing succession of tones in which the accented tones1 if considered in sequence1 show dominant non-adherence to chord intervals4 ,harmonic ,structure4 ,that form of tonal succession in which the tones of the melody follow rather persistently the structural outline of chords4 ,major ,pentatonic ,scale4 ,that scale in which the constituent tones1 if considered in upward sequence1 would show the following arrangement of whole and whole-and-a-half-step intervals1--7whole7 7whole7 7whole-and-a-half7 7whole7 7whole-and-a-half74 ,minor ,pentatonic ,scale4 ,that scale in which the constituent tones1 if considered in upward sequence1 would show the following arrangement of whole and whole-and-a-half step intervals1--7whole-and-a-half7 7whole7 7whole7 7whole-and-a-half7 7whole74 ,the pentatonic scale is markedly primitive in character4 ,it is known to have been in use anterior to the time of ,guido d',arezzo1 which would give it a date prior to the beginning of the #aath century4 #beg ,rowbotham ascribes the invention of scales to those primitive musicians who1 striving for greater variety in their one-toned chants1 added first one newly-discovered tone1 then another1 and another4 #beh ,the pentatonic scale might have resulted from such chanting4 ,most of the primitive peoples of the present day do not seem to feel or hear mentally the half step4 ,if musicians of early days had this same failing1 it was only natural for them to avoid that interval by eliminating from their songs one or the other of each couplet of tones which if sung would form a half step1 thus their chants would be pentatonic4 ,not only do people in the primitive state fail to sense the half step1 but also people in modern environment who have heard very infrequently this smallest interval of modern music4 ,inability to sense this interval may be better understood when we stop to consider that most of us find it unnatural and difficult to hear mentally the still smaller quarter-step interval or one of the even-yet-smaller sub-divisions of the octave which some peoples have come to recognize through cultivation1 and have embodied in their music4 ,this tendency to avoid the half step and develop along the line of pentatonic character is sometimes seen in our own children when they follow their natural bent in singing4 ,it has been my observation that children with some musical creative ability1 but unaccustomed to hearing modern music with its half steps1 almost invariably hum their bits of improvised melody in the pentatonic scale4 ,major ,diatonic ,scale4 ,that scale in which the constituent tones if considered in upward sequence would show the following arrangement of whole and half step intervals1--7whole7 7whole7 7half7 7whole7 7whole7 7whole7 7half74 ,natural ,minor ,diatonic ,scale4 ,that scale in which the constituent tones1 if considered in upward sequence1 would show the following arrangement of whole and half step intervals1--7whole7 7half7 7whole7 7whole7 7half7 7whole7 7whole74 ,harmonic ,minor ,diatonic ,scale4 ,that scale in which the constituent tones1 if considered in upward sequence1 would show the following arrangement of half1 whole and whole-and-a-half step intervals1--7whole7 7half7 7whole7 7whole7 7half7 7whole-and-a-half7 7half74 ,melodic ,minor ,diatonic ,scale 7,ascending74 ,that scale in which the constituent tones1 if considered in upward sequence1 would show the following arrangement of whole and half step intervals1--7whole7 7half7 7whole7 7whole7 7whole7 7whole7 7half74 ,falsetto4 ,artificial or strained head-tones which sound an octave above the natural tone4 ,sign1--a tiny circle above the note4 ,in record ,l4 ,naway is shown one falsetto tone4 ,it is unusual to find this effect in a woman's voice4 ,semitones ,sung4 ,this needs no definition4 ,the classification is put down to show to what extent these singers appreciate the half-step intervals1 and are able to vocalize it 7see preceeding definition of ,pentatonic ,scale for footnote relative to appreciation of this interval74 ,sign1--curved bracket above or below the notes4 ,in these records the men use the half-step interval in six of their seven songs1 while the women make use of it in but three of their eight songs4 ,appoggiature4 ,these1 with the exception of one double one shown in the ,bagoyas 7,record ,g71 are all of the single1 short variety4 ,the singers execute them with the usual quickness heard in modern music1 but with the accent about equally divided between the appoggiatura and the principal tone4 ,in the transcription they are indicated by the usual musical symbol1--a small eighth note with a slanting stroke through the hook4 ,mordents4 ,those used in these songs are all of the inverted kind1 and were executed by the singers in the manner used by modern musicians2 that is1 by giving a quick1 single alternation of the principal tone with the next scale tone above4 ,indicated in the score by the usual musical symbol4 ,trills and ,wavers4 ,these need no comment except to call attention to the fact that there are none found in the regular songs of the women4 ,the one shown in ,record ,i 7,da-eng1 ,boys and ,girls alternating7 is in the boys' part4 ,changing ,between ,duple and ,triple ,rhythm4 ,i consider this quite a striking quality in these songs4 ,some primitive peoples show little concern over such rhythmic changes1 in fact1 among some races where percussive instruments are used to accompany the singing1 we frequently hear the two rhythms at the same time fitted perfectly one against the other4 ,this is especially true among our ,american ,indians4 ,while it is not uncommon to find compositions in modern music using these two rhythms alternately1 they are alternated rather sparingly4 ,a great many musicians have difficulty in passing smoothly from one to the other1 preserving perfect proportions in the note values4 ,in noting down in the table the findings under this head1 ,i have put down under each song1 not the number of duple or triple or quadruple groups in the song1 but rather the number of changes which occur4 ,after one has made the transition from one style of rhythm to the other1 and has the new swing established1 manifestly it is no special feat to follow along in that same kind of measure2 but the real test is the change to the rhythm of the other sort4 ,for instance1 in the ,song of the ,spirit 7,record ,e71 ,i find but #ca measures and parts of measures which are in triple rhythm1 yet the singer had to change his meter #dg times to execute these4 ,on the other hand1 the ,dang-dang-ay 7,record ,m71 has in it #ba triple-time measures and triplet groups of notes1 but because of the persistence of the triple rhythm1 when once established in the second part1 the song requires a changing of swing but #ag times4 ,because of the frequency of changes found throughout these songs1 and noting1 as heard in the records1 the precision with which1 in nearly every instance1 a new rhythm is taken1 ,i conclude that the ,tinguian have a remarkable grasp of different metric values1 which enables them to change readily from one to the other4 ,naturally this trait would stamp itself upon their music1 and ,i consider the use of such frequent metric changes a dominant characteristic4 ,although frequent rhythmic change is also strongly characteristic of the music of some other peoples1 as ,i have indicated elsewhere1 it is important to tabulate it here to differentiate the ,tinguian from those peoples who do not make use of it4 ,minor #crds1 ,perfect #dths1 and ,perfect #eths4 ,these are the only intentional harmonies found in these songs4 ,it is interesting to note that the only examples are in the ,da-eng ceremony1 where all three are used1 some in one part and some in another4 ,among some primitive peoples1 only the men take part in the songs4 ,the early chanting of all peoples was quite likely by men4 ,probably the most primitive harmony was a perfect fifth resulting from the attempt of men with different ranges to sing together4 ,the difference between a bass and a tenor voice is just about a fifth4 ,between an alto and a soprano it is about a fourth4 ,the difference in these voices made it impossible to sing melodies of wide range in unison1 and so the basses and tenors sang in consecutive fifths4 ,when women took up the chanting1 they sang either in fifths or in fourths4 ,these harmonies appealed to them1 and so continued in use even when there was no exigency on account of restricted range4 ,referring again to the ,da-eng ceremony1 it is interesting to observe that the three different parts of this ceremony are in distinct scales1 and that the part sung by the girls alone1 is diatonic in character while the other two parts are pentatonic4 ,conclusion4--,i have long been of the opinion that the music of different peoples should be given more consideration by scientists in their endeavor to trace cultural relationships4 ,in years gone by1 ethnologists have attached too little importance to the bearing which music has on their science4 ,i am of the opinion that every peculiarity1 even to the smallest element that enters into the make-up of a given melody1 has some influence back of it which has determined the element and shaped it into combination4 ,it is not unlikely that a thorough study of the music would reveal these influences1 and through them establish hitherto unknown ethnological facts4 ,i believe that a careful study of a large number of the songs or instrumental pieces of a people will reveal a quite definite general scheme of construction which can be accepted as representative of that people alone2 and if such an analysis be made of the music of many peoples and the findings so tabulated that the material will be comprehensible to ethnologists trained to that branch of musical research1 many interesting and instructive side-lights will be thrown on the question of tribal relationship4 ,i realize that to examine exhaustively and then tabulate the characteristics found in the music of just one of the many peoples of the globe would be something of an undertaking2 but nevertheless ,i believe the work should be undertaken in this large way1 and when it is1 ,i am sure the results will justify the experiment4 ,i appreciate that there is an intangible something about music1 which may prove baffling when it comes to reducing it to cold scientific symbols and descriptions4 ,take1 for instance1 quality of tone4 ,each one of us knows perfectly the various qualities of the different speaking voices of friends and acquaintances1 yet how many of us can so accurately describe those qualities to a stranger that he also may be able to identify the voices among a thousand others4 ,the tabulation of such elusive qualities would have to be in very general terms4 ,such indefinable characteristics would1 to some extent1 have to depend for comparison upon the memory of those workers who had received first-hand impressions4 ,it would be something like a present-day musician identifying an unfamiliar composition as belonging to the ,french school1 the ,italian school1 or the ,russian school2 and yet1 this same musician might not be able to point out with definiteness a single characteristic of that particular so-called school4 ,though ,i have held these opinions for several years1 ,i am more than ever convinced1 since examining these few ,tinguian records1 that something really tangible and worth while can be deduced from the music of various primitive peoples1 and ,i trust this branch of ethnology will soon receive more serious recognition4 ,manifestly it would be unwise to draw any unalterable conclusions from the examination of but fourteen records of a people4 ,but even in this comparatively small number of songs1 ranging as they do over such a variety of applications and uses1 it is possible to see tendencies which the examination of more records may confirm as definite characteristics4 ,while it would be presumptuous at this time to attempt to formulate a ,tinguian style1 ,i trust that what ,i have tabulated may prove valuable in summing up the total evidence1 which will accumulate as other surveys are made2 and if perchance1 the findings here set down and the conclusions tentatively drawn from them help to clear up any obscure ethnological point1 the effort has been well spent4 ,albert ,gale4 ,,conclusions ,the first impression gained by the student of ,philippine ethnology is that there is a fundamental unity of the ,philippine peoples1 the ,negrito excepted1 not only in blood and speech1 but in religious beliefs and practices1 in lore1 in customs1 and industries4 ,it is realized that contact with outside nations has in many ways obscured the older modes of thought1 and has often swamped native crafts1 while each group has doubtless developed many of its present customs on ,philippine soil2 yet it seems that enough of the old still remains to proclaim them as a people with a common ancestry4 ,to what extent this belief is justified can be answered1 in part1 by the material in the preceding pages4 ,a study of the physical types has shown that each group considered is made up of heterogeneous elements4 ,pigmy blood is everywhere evident1 but aside from this there is a well-marked brachycephalic and a dolichocephalic element4 ,with the latter is a greater tendency than with the first for the face to be angular2 the cheek bones are more outstanding1 while there is a greater length and breadth of the nose4 ,individuals of each type are found in all the groups considered1 but taken in the average1 it is found that the ,ilocano and ,valley ,tinguian fall into the first or round-headed class1 the ,bontoc ,igorot are mesaticephalic1 while between them are the mountain ,tinguian and ,apayao4 ,judging from their habitat and the physical data1 it appears that the ,igorot groups were the first comers2 that the brachycephalic ,ilocano-,tinguian arrived later and took possession of the coast1 and that the two groups have intermarried to form the intermediate peoples4 ,however1 a comparison of our ,luzon measurements with the people of southern ,china and the ,perak ,malay leads us to believe that the tribes of northwestern ,luzon are all closely related to the dominant peoples of southern ,china1 ,indo-,china1 and ,malaysia in general1 in all of which the intermingling of these types is apparent4 ,the dialects of northwestern ,luzon1 while not mutually intelligible1 are similar in morphology1 and have a considerable part of their vocabularies in common4 ,here again the ,igorot is at one extreme1 the ,ilocano and ,valley ,tinguian at the other1 while the intervening groups are intermediate1 but with a strong leaning toward the coast tongue4 ,considering1 for the moment1 the ,bontoc ,igorot and the ,tinguian1 it is found that both have certain elements of culture which are doubtless old possessions1 as1 for instance1 head-hunting1 terraced rice-fields1 iron-working1 a peculiar type of shield1 and a battle-axe which they share with the ,apayao of ,luzon and the ,naga of ,assam4 ,a part or all of these may be due to a common heritage1 at any rate1 they help to strengthen the feeling that in remote times these peoples were closely related4 ,but a detailed study of their social organizations2 of their ceremonies1 songs1 and dances2 of their customs at birth1 marriage1 death1 and burial2 of their house-building2 as well as the details of certain occupations1 such as the rice culture1 pottery making1 and weaving1 indicates that not only have they been long separated1 but that they have been subjected to very different outside influences1 probably prior to their entry into the ,philippines4 ,it is not in the province of this monograph to deal with the probable affiliations of the ,igorot1 neither is it our intention to attempt to locate the ancient home of the ,tinguian1 nor to connect them with any existing groups4 ,however1 our information seems to justify us in certain general conclusions4 ,it shows that the oft repeated assertions of ,chinese ancestry are without foundation4 ,it shows that1 while trade with ,china had introduced hundreds of pieces of pottery and some other objects into this region1 yet ,chinese influence had not been of an intimate enough nature to influence the language or customs1 or to introduce any industry4 ,on the other hand1 we find abundant evidence that in nearly every phase of life the ,tinguian were at one time strongly influenced by the peoples to the south1 and even to-day show much in common with ,java1 ,sumatra1 the ,malay ,peninsula1 and through them with ,india4 ,as a case in point we find in the procedure at birth that the ,tinguian are in accord with the ,peninsular ,malay in at least eight particulars1 some of which1 such as the burning of a fire beside the mother and newborn babe for a month or more1 the frequent bathing of both in water containing leaves and herbs1 the fumigating of the baby1 the throwing of ashes to blind evil spirits1 are sufficiently distinctive to indicate a common source1 particularly when they still occur together in connection with one of the great events of life4 ,frequent reference has been made to the parallels between ,tinguian customs and those practiced in ,sumatra1 while the methods of rice-culture are so similar that they can have come only from the same source4 ,in the weaving the influence of ,india seems evident1 despite the fact that cotton is not bowed in ,abra1 and the ,tinguian method of spinning seems unique4 ,these methods1 apparently distinctive1 may once have been practised more broadly1 but were superseded by more efficient instruments4 ,the primitive method of ginning cotton by rolling it beneath a tapering rod appears to be found nowhere in the ,philippines outside of ,abra1 but it is used in some remote sections of ,burma4 ,part ,i of this volume presented a body of tales which showed many resemblances to the ,islands of the south1 as well as incidents of ,indian lore4 ,there is1 in fact1 a distinct feeling of ,indian influence in the tales of the mythical period2 yet they lack the epics of that people1 and the typical trickster tales are but poorly represented4 ,the vocabulary shows comparatively little of ,indian influence2 yet1 at the time of the conquest1 the ,ilocano was one of the coast groups making use of a native script which was doubtless of ,hindu origin4 ,the many instances of ,indian influence do not justify the supposition that the ,tinguian were ever directly in contact with that people4 ,the ,malay islands to the south were pretty thoroughly under ,hindu domination by the second century of the ,christian era1 and it is probable that they were influenced through trade at a considerably earlier date4 ,judging from our data1 it would seem that the ,ilocano-,tinguian group had left its southern home at a time after this influence was beginning to make itself felt1 but before it was of a sufficiently intimate nature to stamp itself indelibly on the lore1 the ceremonial and economic life of this people1 as it did in ,java and some parts of ,sumatra4 ,it is possible that these points of similarity may be due to trade1 but if so1 the contact was at a period antedating the fourteenth century1 for in historic times the sea trade of the southern islands has been in the hands of the ,mohammedanized ,malay4 ,their influence is very marked in the southern ,philippines1 but is not evident in northwestern ,luzon4 ,concerning the time of their arrival in ,luzon1 and the course pursued by them1 we have no definite proof2 but it is evident that the ,tinguian did not begin to press inland until comparatively recent times4 ,historical references and local traditions indicate that most of this movement has taken place since the arrival of the ,spaniards1 while the distribution of the great ceremonies gives a further suggestion that the dominant element in the ,tinguian population has been settled in ,abra for no great period4 ,the probable explanation for this distribution is that the interior valleys were sparsely settled with a population more akin to the ,igorot than to the ,tinguian1 prior to the inland movement of the latter people2 that the ,tinguian were already possessed of the highly developed ceremonial life1 before they entered ,abra1 and that this has been spread slowly1 through intermarriage and migration1 to the people on the outskirts of their territory4 ,these ceremonies are still practised by some families now residing in ,christianized settlements in ,abra and ,ilocos ,sur1 while discreet questioning soon brings out the fact that they were formerly present in towns which have long been recognized as ,ilocano4 ,the relationship of the ,tinguian and ,ilocano has already been shown by the physical data and historical references2 but were these lacking1 it requires but a little inquiry and the compilation of geneaological tables to show that many ,ilocano families are related to the ,tinguian4 ,it is a matter of common observation that the chief barrier between the two groups is religion1 and1 once let the pagan accept ,christianity1 he and his family are quickly absorbed by the ,ilocano4 ,uninterrupted trade with the coast in recent years1 ,spanish and ,american influence1 have doubtless affected considerable changes in the ,tinguian4 ,if1 however1 we subtract recent introductions1 it is probable that we have in the life of this tribe an approximate picture of conditions among the more advanced of the northern ,philippine groups prior to the entry of the ,european into their islands4 ,,notes #a ,the ,bontoc ,igorot is taken as one of the least influenced and most typical of the ,igorot groups4 #b ,on this point see ,cole1 ,the ,distribution of the ,non-,christian ,tribes of ,northwestern ,luzon 7,american ,anthropologist1 ,n4,s41 ,vol4 ,,xi1 #aiji1 pp4 #cbi-cdg74 #c ,these are ,ballasio1 ,nagbuquel1 ,vandrell1 ,rizal1 ,mision1 ,mambog1 and ,masingit4 ,kadangla-an1 ,pila1 ,kolongbuyan 7,sapang7 and ,montero are mixed ,tinguian and ,igorot4 #d ,see ,cole1 ,the ,tinguian 7,philippine ,journal of ,science1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,no4 #d1 ,sect4 ,a1 #aijh1 pp4 #aig1 et seq474 #e ,beyer 7,population of the ,philippine ,islands in #aiaf1 p4 #gd1 ,manila1 #aiag7 gives the population as #bg1fdh4 #f ,north of ,abra it is known as the ,cordillera ,norte4 #g ,this river traffic is entirely in the hands of the ,christianized ,ilocano4 ,rafts seldom proceed up the river beyond ,bangued1 the capital1 and at low water even this distance is negotiated with difficulty4 #h ,historical references to this trade1 as well as to the ,spanish invasion of ,ilocos1 will be found in ,reyes1 ,historia de ,ilocos1 ,manila1 #ahij2 ,fray ,gaspar ,de ,s4 ,augustin1 ,conquista de las ,islas ,filipinas 7,manila1 #afih71 p4 #bfg2 ,medina1 ,historia1 translated in ,blair and ,robertson1 ,the ,philippine ,islands1 ,vol4 ,,xxiii1 pp4 #bgi1 et seq4 ,see also translation of ,loarca and others in same publication1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #gc1 note2 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #aji2 ,vol4 ,,xv1 p4 #ea2 ,vol4 ,,xvii1 p4 #bhe4 #i ,loraca1 #aehb1 translated in ,blair and ,robertson1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #aje4 #aj ,laufer1 ,relations of the ,chinese to the ,philippine ,islands 7,smithsonian ,miscellaneous ,collections1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bef1 et seq47 #aa ,cole and ,laufer1 ,chinese ,pottery in the ,philippines 7,field ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 ,no4 #a74 #ab ,blair and ,robertson1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,,xvii1 p4 #bhe2 also ,,iii1 p4 #gc1 note2 ,v1 p4 #aji2 ,,xv1 p4 #ea4 #ac ,blair and ,robertson1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,,xxxiv1 pp4 #bhg1 et seq4 #ad ,colin 7,labor ,evangelica1 ,chap4 ,,iv1 ,madrid #affc71 calls the ,manguian of ,mindoro and the ,zambal1 ,tingues4 ,morga1 ,chirino1 and ,ribera also use the same name for the natives of ,basilan1 ,bohol1 and ,mindanao 7see ,blair and ,robertson1 op cit41 ,vols4 ,,iv1 p4 #cjj2 ,x1 p4 #ga2 ,,xiii1 pp4 #acg1bje74 ,later writers have doubtless drawn on these accounts to produce the weird descriptions sometimes given of the ,tinguian now under discussion4 ,it is said 7op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,,xl1 p4 #ig1 note7 that the radical ngian1 in ,pampanga1 indicates ancient1 a meaning formerly held in other ,philippine languages1 and hence ,tinguian would probably mean old or ancient1 or aboriginal mountain dwellers4 #ae ,reyes1 ,historia de ,ilocos1 p4 #aea 7,manila1 #ahij71 also ,filipinas articulos varios1 p4 #cde 7,manila1 #ahhg72 ,blair and ,robertson1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 pp4 #aeh-aei2 ,vol4 ,,xxviii1 p4 #afg4 #af ,blair and ,robertson1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,,xxviii1 p4 #aeh4 #ag ,antonio ,mozo1 ,noticia historico-natural 7,madrid1 #agfc71 in ,blair and ,robertson1 ,vol4 ,,xlviii1 p4 #fi4 #ah ,these were3 ,tayum #ahjc2 ,pidigan #ahbc2 ,la ,paz and ,san ,gregorio #ahcb2 ,bukay 7,labon7 #ahdg4 ,for further details of this mission see ,villacorta1 ,breve resumen de los progresos de la ,religion ,catolica en la admirable conversion de los indios ,igorotes y ,tinguianes 7,madrid1 #ahca74 #ai ,blair and ,robertson1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,,xxxviii1 p4 #aii4 #bj ,discussions concerning the ,chinese origin of the ,tinguian will be found in ,mallat1 ,les ,philippines1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bab-bac2 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #ajd-g1 #cde 7,paris1 #ahdf72 ,plauchet1 ,l',archipel des ,philippines 7,revue des deux ,mondes1 #ahhg1 p4 #ddb72 ,buzeto y ,bravo1 ,diccionario geografico estadistico historico2 ,semper1 ,die ,philippinen und ihre ,bewohner 7,wuerzburg1 #ahfi72 ,blumentritt1 ,versuch einer ,ethnographie der ,philippinen 7,peterman's ,mittheilungen1 #ahhb1 ,no4 #fg72 ,reyes1 ,die ,tinguianen 7,mittheilungen ,k4 ,k4 ,geogr4 ,gesellschaft in ,wien1 #ahhg1 p4 #e1 et seq472 ,reyes1 ,filipinas articulos varios 7,manila1 #ahhg72 ,sanchez y ,ruiz1 ,razas de ,filipinas1 usos y custombres1 ,memoria ,exposicion ,general1 pp4 #ea1 #fj1 #ach 7,manila1 #ahhg72 ,montblanc1 ,les ,isles ,philippines1 p4 #bb 7,paris1 #ahhg72 ,montero y ,vidal1 ,el ,archipelago ,filipino1 p4 #bhi 7,manila1 #ahhf72 ,bowring1 ,a ,visit to the ,philippines1 p4 #aga 7,london1 #ahei72 ,sawyer1 ,the ,inhabitants of the ,philippines1 p4 #bgf 7,london1 #aijj72 ,zuniga1 ,historia1 pp4 #ai-ch 7,sampaloc1 #ahjc72 ,colin1 ,labor evangelica1 ,vol4 ,i1 chaps4 #d1 #ab-ad 7,madrid1 #affc72 ,blair and ,robertson 7,the ,philippine ,islands1 ,vol4 ,,xl1 pp4 #caf1 et seq47 give a translation of ,san ,antonio ,chronicas1 written in ,manila between #agch-dd1 also of ,colin1 ,labor evangelica1 of #affc2 ,brinton1 ,the ,peoples of the ,philippines 7,am4 ,anthropologist1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 #ahih1 p4 #cjb74 #ba ,paul ,de ,la ,gironiere1 ,vingt annees aux ,philippines 7,paris1 #ahec72 ,stuntz1 ,the ,philippines and the ,far ,east1 p4 #cf 7,new ,york1 #aijd74 #bb ,quoted by ,paterno1 ,la antigua civilizacion ,tagalog1 pp4 #abb-abc 7,madrid1 #ahhg74 #bc ,brinton1 ,the ,peoples of the ,philippines 7,am4 ,anthropologist1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 #ahib1 p4 #big74 ,see also ,de ,quatrefages1 ,histoire generale des races humaines1 pp4 #eae-eag1 #ebg-ebh4 #bd ,census of the ,philippine ,islands of #aijc1 pp4 #dec-dgg4 #be ,the ,non-,christian ,tribes of ,northern ,luzon 7,philippine ,journal of ,science1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #gih1 #hea1 ,manila1 #aijf74 #bf ,blumentritt 7,ethnographie der ,philippinen1 ,introduction2 also ,american ,anthropologist1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 #ahih1 p4 #bif7 has advanced the theory of three ,malay invasions into the ,philippines4 ,to the first1 which is put at about #bjj ,b4,c41 belong the ,igorot1 ,apayao1 and ,tinguian1 but the last are considered as of a later period4 ,the second invasion occurred about ,a4,d4 #ajj-ejj1 and includes the ,tagalog1 ,visaya1 ,ilocano1 and other alphabet-using peoples4 ,the third is represented by the ,mohammedan groups which began to enter the ,islands in the fourteenth century4 #bg ,brinton 7,am4 ,anthropologist1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 #ahih1 p4 #cjb7 states that the ,ilocano of northwestern ,luzon are markedly ,chinese in appearance and speech1 but he fails to give either authorities or examples to substantiate this claim4 ,for ,indian influence on ,philippine dialects1 see ,pardo ,de ,tavera1 ,el sanscrito e la lingua tagalog 7,paris1 #ahhg72 also ,williams1 ,manual and ,dictionary of ,ilocano 7,manila1 #aijg74 #bh ,a detailed study of the language is not presented in this volume4 ,the author has a large collection of texts which will be published at a later date1 together with a study of the principal ,tinguian dialects4 ,a short description of the ,ilocano language1 by the writer1 will be found in the ,new ,international ,encyclopaedia4 #bi ,a more detailed study of these tribes will be given in a forthcoming volume on ,philippine ,physical ,types4 #cj ,observations on #ac ,ilocano skulls are tabulated by ,koeze 7,crania ,ethnica ,philippinica1 pp4 #ef-eg1 ,haarlem1 #aija-d74 #ca ,a short series of ,igorot skull measurements is given by ,koeze 7,crania ,ethnica ,philippinica1 pp4 #db-dc1 ,haarlem1 #aija-d74 #cb ,am4 ,anthropologist1 #aijf1 pp4 #aid-aie4 #cc ,notes sur les ,chinois du ,quang-si 7,l',anthropologie1 ,vol4 ,,ix1 #ahih1 pp4 #add-agj74 #cd ,the ,races of ,man1 pp4 #chd1 #egg1 et seq47,london1 #aijj74 #ce ,martin1 ,inlandstaemme der ,malayischen ,halbinsel1 pp4 #bcg1 #cea1 #ceh1 #chf 7,jena1 #aije74 #cf ,for measurements on the ,northern ,chinese and the ,formosa ,chinese see ,koganei1 ,messungen an chinesischen ,soldaten 7,mitt4 med4 ,fak4 k4 japan4 ,univ4 ,tokio1 #aijc1 ,vol4 ,,vi1 ,no4 #b71 und ,messungen an maennlichen ,chinesen-,schaedeln 7,internat4 ,centralblatt fuer ,anthropologie1 #aijb1 pp4 #abi1 et seq474 #cg ,for other observations on ,malaysia1 in general1 see ,annandale and ,robinson 7,jour4 ,anth4 ,inst41 ,vol4 ,,xxxii1 #aijb72 ,keane1 ,ethnology 7,cambridge1 #aijg72 ,duckworth 7,jour4 ,anth4 ,inst41 ,vol4 ,,xxxii72 ,hose and ,mc,dougall 7,the ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #caa1 et seq47 give results by ,haddon2 ,hamy 7,l',anthropologie1 ,vol4 ,,vii1 ,paris1 #ahif72 ,hagen1 ,anthropologische ,studien aus ,insulinde 7,amsterdam1 #ahij72 ,sullivan1 ,racial ,types in the ,philippine ,islands 7,anth4 ,papers1 ,american ,museum of ,nat4 ,hist41 ,vol4 ,,xiii1 pt4 #a1 ,new ,york1 #aiah74 #ch ,sullivan 7,anthropological ,papers1 ,american ,museum ,nat4 ,history1 ,vol4 ,,xxiii1 pt4 #a1 p4 #db7 gives a graphic correlation of ,stature1 ,cephalic and ,nasal ,indices1 which shows a striking similarity between the ,tagalog and ,pangasinan of the ,philippines1 and the ,southern ,chinese4 ,had he made use of ,jenks's measurements of the ,bontoc ,igorot1 that group would also have approached quite closely to those already mentioned4 ,the same method applied to the ,ilocano and ,tinguian shows them to conform to this type4 #ci ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian 7this volume1 ,no4 #a74 #dj ,the eating of double bananas or vegetables is avoided1 as it is thought to result in the birth of twins4 ,the birth of twin girls is a particular misfortune2 for their parents are certain to fare badly in any trades or sales to which they may be parties4 #da ,the importance of gratifying the longings of pregnant women appears in the legends of the ,malay ,peninsula4 ,see ,wilkinson1 ,malay ,beliefs1 p4 #df 7,london1 #aijf74 ,hildebrandt states that the ,indian law books such as ,yajnavalkya 7,,iii1 #gi7 make it a duty to fulfill the wishes of a woman at this time1 since otherwise the embryo would be exposed to injury4 ,encyclopaedia of ,religion and ,ethics1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fej4 #db ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 pp4 #abd1 #ahe4 #dc ,see op4 cit41 p4 #aje4 #dd ,see op4 cit41 pp4 #add1 et seq4 #de ,see op4 cit41 p4 #ah4 #df ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #ahj4 #dg ,to produce a miscarriage1 a secret liquor is made from the bark of a tree4 ,after several drinks of the brew1 the abdomen is kneaded and pushed downward until the foetus is discharged4 ,a canvass of forty women past the child-bearing age showed an average1 to each1 of five children1 about #dj per cent of whom died in infancy4 ,apparently about the same ratio of births is being maintained at present4 #dh ,the gifts vary according to the ceremony4 ,for this event1 the offerings consist of a ,chinese jar with earrings fastened into the handles--ears--1 a necklace of beads and a silver wire about its neck2 a wooden spoon1 a weaving stick1 and some bone beads4 #di ,this is known as palwig4 #ej ,this action is called tolgi4 #ea ,in the ,san ,juan district ,gipas is a separate two-day ceremony1 which takes place about nine months after the birth4 ,in ,baak a part of the ,dawak ceremony goes by this name4 #eb ,this is known as inalson1 and is such a blanket as is always possessed by a spirit4 ,see p4 #cac4 #ec ,this is also the method of delivery among the ,kayan of ,borneo4 ,see ,hose and ,mc,dougall1 ,the ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aed 7,london1 #aiab71 also ,cole1 ,the ,wild ,tribes of ,davao ,district1 ,mindanao 7,field ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,vol4 ,,xii4 ,no4 #b1 p4 #ajj74 ,skeat 7,malay ,magic1 p4 #ccd1 ,london1 #aijj7 describes a similar method among the ,malay4 #ed ,among the ,bukidnon and ,bila-an of ,mindanao a bamboo blade is always employed for this purpose4 ,the same is true of the ,kayan of ,borneo4 ,hose and ,mc,dougall1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #aee2 ,cole1 op4 cit41 p4 #adc4 #ee ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #ahe4 ,it is also the belief of the ,peninsular ,malay that the incidental products of a confinement may be endowed with life 7,wilkinson1 ,malay ,beliefs1 p4 #cj74 #ef ,the character e1 which appears frequently in the native names1 is used to indicate a sound between the obscure vowel e1 as in sun1 and the ur1 in burrow4 #eg ,the number of days varies somewhat in different sections1 and is generally longer for the first child than for the succeeding4 #eh ,the custom of building a fire beside the mother is practised among the ,malay1 ,jakun and ,mantri of the ,peninsula4 ,in ,india1 the practice of keeping a fire beside the newborn infant1 in order to protect it from evil beings1 is widespread4 ,see ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sagara1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bdf1 #cje1 note2 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fca 7,calcutta1 #ahhj74 ,according to ,skeat 7,malay ,magic1 p4 #cdc71 the ,malay keep the fire burning forty-four days4 ,the custom is called the roasting of the mother4 ,the same custom is found in ,cambodia 7see ,encyclopaedia of ,religion and ,ethics1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #cb1 #afd1 #cdg2 ,vol4 ,,viii1 p4 #cb74 #ei ,this may be related to the ,malay custom of fumigating the infant 7see ,skeat1 op4 cit41 p4 #cch74 #fj ,the following names are typical of this last class4 ,for boys3 ,ab'beng1 a child's song2 ,agdalpen1 name of a spirit2 ,baguio1 a storm2 ,bakileg1 a glutton2 ,kabato1 from bato1 a stone2 ,tabau1 this name is a slur1 yet is not uncommon2 it signifies a man who is a little crazy1 who is sexually impotent1 and who will mind all the women say2 ,otang1 the sprout of a vine2 ,zapalan1 from zapal1 the crotch of a tree4 ,for girls3 ,bangonan1 from bangon1 to rise1 to get up2 ,igai1 from nigai1 a fish2 ,giaben1 a song2 ,magilai1 from gilai the identifying slit made in an animal's ear2 ,sabak1 a flower2 ,ugot1 the new leaf4 #fa ,in ,madagascar children are oftentimes called depreciative names1 such as ,rat1 with the hope that evil spirits will leave tranquil an infant for which the parents have so little consideration 7,grandidier1 ,ethnologie de ,madagascar1 ,vol4 ,,ii74 #fb ,in ,selangor1 a sick infant is re-named 7,skeat1 op4 cit41 p4 #cda74 #fc ,reyes1 ,filipinas articulos varios1 #ast ed41 pp4 #add-e 7,manila1 #ahhg74 #fd ,the ,malay of the ,peninsula bathe both mother and child morning and evening1 in hot water to which certain leaves and blossoms are added4 ,it is here described as an act of purification 7,skeat1 op4 cit41 pp4 #ccd-e74 #fe ,also called salokang 7cf4 p4 #caj74 #ff ,filipinas articulos varios1 p4 #add4 #fg ,f4 ,de ,lerena1 ,ilustracion ,filipina1 ,no4 #bb1 p4 #bed 7,manila1 ,nov4 #ae1 #ahfj74 ,an equally interesting account of ,tinguian procedure at the time of birth will be found in the account of ,polo ,de ,lara1 ,islas ,filipinas1 tipos y costumbres1 pp4 #bac1 et seq4 #fh ,in ,san ,juan4 ,ibal is always held in six months1 unless illness has caused an earlier celebration4 ,at this time the liver of a pig is carefully examined1 in order to learn of the child's future4 #fi ,in ,likuan this takes place five days after the birth2 in ,sallapadan it occurs on the first or second day4 #gj ,on the mat are placed1 in addition to the medium's regular outfit1 a small jar of basi1 five pieces of betel-nut and pepper-leaf1 two bundles of rice 7palay7 in a winnower1 a head-axe1 and a spear4 #ga ,this is a dakidak 7cf4 p4 #caa74 #gb ,such a taboo sign is here known as kanyau4 ,it is not always used at the conclusion of this ceremony1 but is strictly observed following the cutting of the first rice4 #gc ,that is1 a premature child4 #gd ,ashes are used against evil spirits by the ,peninsular ,malay 7,skeat1 ,malay ,magic1 p4 #cbe74 #ge ,sagai is the sound made when scratching away the embers of a fire4 #gf ,from maysa1 one2 dua1 two2 talo1 three4 #gg ,this is also used as mockery4 ,it has no exact ,english equivalent1 but is similar to our slang rubber4 #gh ,in ,patok only the agate bead 7napodau7 is used4 #gi ,the less pretentious gathering1 held by the very poor1 is known as polya4 #hj ,worcester1 ,the ,non-,christian ,tribes of ,northern ,luzon 7,philippine ,jour4 of ,science1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #h1 #aijf1 p4 #heh74 #ha ,it is necessary to use a shallow dish with a high pedestal known as dias 7,fig4 #e1 ,no4 #e74 #hb ,in ,ba-ak the breaking and scattering of the rice ball is considered a good omen1 as it presages many children4 ,in ,san ,juan the youth throws a rice ball at the ridge pole of the house1 and the girl's mother does the same4 ,in this instance1 each grain of rice which adheres to the pole represents a child to be born4 #hc ,the similarity of the ,tinguian rice ceremony to that of many other ,philippine tribes is so great that it cannot be due to mere chance4 ,customs of a like nature were observed by the writer among the ,bukidnon1 ,bagobo1 ,bila-an1 ,kulaman1 and ,mandaya of ,mindanao1 and the ,batak of ,palawan2 they are also described by ,reed and ,worcester for the ,negrito of ,zambales and ,bataan2 while ,loarca1 writing late in the sixteenth century1 records a very like ceremony practised by a coast group1 probably the ,pintados4 ,at the same time it is worthy of note that ,jenks found among the ,bontoc ,igorot a great divergence both in courtship and marriage4 ,among the ,dusun of ,british ,north ,borneo the marriage of children of the well-to-do is consummated by the eating of rice from the same plate4 ,other instances of eating together1 as a part of the marriage ceremony in ,malaysia1 are given by ,crawley4 ,see ,cole1 ,the ,wild ,tribes of ,davao ,district1 ,mindanao 7,field ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,vol4 ,,xii1 ,no4 #b1 pp4 #ajb1 #add1 #aeg1 #aib72 ,reed1 ,negritos of ,zambales 7,pub4 ,ethnological ,survey1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pt4 #a1 p4 #eh 7,manila1 #aijd772 ,worcester1 ,philippine ,journal of ,science1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #haa 7,manila1 #aijf72 ,loarca1 ,relacion de las ,yslas ,filipinas1 ,chap4 ,x 7,arevalo1 #aehj71 translated in ,blair and ,robertson1 ,the ,philippine ,islands1 ,vol4 ,v1 pp4 #aeg1 et seq42 ,jenks1 ,the ,bontoc ,igorot 7,pub4 ,ethnological ,survey1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #fh1 et seq41 ,manila1 #aije72 ,evans1 ,journ4 ,royal ,anth4 ,inst41 ,vol4 ,,xlvii1 p4 #aei2 ,crawley1 ,the ,mystic ,rose 7,london1 #aijb71 pp4 #cgi1 et seq4 #hd ,in ,manabo an old woman sleeps between them4 ,among the ,bagobo and ,kulaman1 of ,mindanao1 a child is placed between the pair4 ,see ,cole1 op4 cit41 pp4 #ajb1 #aeg4 #he ,in ,likuan they chew of the same betel-nut4 ,among the ,batak of ,palawan they smoke of the same cigar4 #hf ,this part of the ceremony is now falling into disuse4 #hg ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #ab4 #hh ,here again the ,tinguian ceremony closely resembles the ancient custom described by ,loarca4 ,in his account1 the bride was carried to the house of the groom4 ,at the foot of the stairway she was given a present to induce her to proceed2 when she had mounted the steps1 she received another1 as she looked in upon the guests1 another4 ,before she could be induced to set down1 to eat and drink1 she was likewise given some prized object4 ,loarca1 ,relacion de las ,yslas ,filipinas1 ,chap4 ,x2 also ,blair and ,robertson1 op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #aeg4 #hi ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #agb4 ,the origin of death is also given in the tales1 ibid41 p4 #agg4 #ij ,the spirit of the dead is generally known as kalading1 but in ,manabo it is called kal-kolayo and in ,likuan alalya2 in ,ilokano1 al-alia means phantom or ghost4 #ia ,in some villages ,selday is the spirit against whom this precaution is taken4 #ib ,in ,daligan and some other villages in ,ilocos ,norte1 a chicken is killed1 is burned in a fire1 and then is fastened beside the door in place of the live bird4 #ic ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #aha4 #id ,during the funeral of ,malakay1 in ,patok1 ,august #af1 #aijg1 the wife kept wailing1 ,malakay1 ,malakay1 take me with you where you go4 ,malakay1 ,malakay1 take me with you4 ,i have no brother4 ,we were together here1 do not let us part4 ,malakay1 take me with you where you go4 #ie ,in ,manabo the wife is covered at night with a white blanket1 but during the day she wears it bandoleer fashion over one shoulder4 ,in ,ba-ak a white blanket with black border is used in a similar way4 ,if the wife has neglected her husband during his illness1 his relatives may demand that she be punished by having a second blanket placed over her1 unless she pays them a small amount4 ,it sometimes occurs that the ,lakay or old men impose both fine and punishment4 ,in ,likuan the blanket is placed over the corpse and the wife4 #if ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #ahj4 #ig ,this is still the case among the ,apayao who live to the north of the ,tinguian 7,cole1 ,am4 ,anthropologist1 ,vol4 ii1 ,no4 #c1 #aiji1 p4 #cdj74 ,the custom is reflected in the folk-tales 7,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #aij2 cf4 also p4 #cgb74 #ih ,the writer has known of instances1 where towns were deserted following an epidemic of smallpox1 and the dead were left unburied in the houses4 ,such instances are unusual even for this dread disease1 and the funeral observances usually expose large numbers of the people to infection4 #ii ,in ,san ,juan only thirty strokes are given4 #ajj ,in ,manabo a rectangular hole is dug to about five feet1 then at right angles to this a chamber is cut to receive the body4 ,this is cut off from the main grave by a stone4 ,a similar type of grave is found in ,sumatra 7,marsden1 ,history of ,sumatra1 #c;d ed41 p4 #bhg1 ,london1 #ahaa74 #aja ,according to this author1 the ,tinguian put the dried remains of their dead in subterranean tombs or galleries1 six or seven yards in depth1 the entrance being covered with a sort or trap door 7,la ,gironiere1 ,twenty ,years in the ,philippines1 p4 #aae1 ,london1 #ahec74 #ajb ,op4 cit41 p4 #aba4 #ajc ,as distinguished from those of the dead4 #ajd ,several times the writer has seen friends place money inside the mat1 so that the spirit may have something to spend4 #aje ,the large spirit house1 built only by well-to-do families having the hereditary right4 #ajf ,in the folk tales a very different method of disposing of the dead is indicated 7,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 pp4 #bc-bd1 and note74 #ajg ,among the ,tuaran ,dusun of ,british ,north ,borneo1 a fire is built near the mat on which the corpse lies1 to protect the body from evil spirits1 who are feared as body snatchers 7,evans1 ,jour4 ,ant4 ,inst41 ,vol4 ,,xlvii1 #aiag1 p4 #aei74 #ajh ,these consist of dishes1 food1 tobacco1 fire-making outfit1 weapons1 clothing1 and the like4 #aji ,in ,ilocos ,sur a ceremony which lifts the ban off the relatives is held about five days after the funeral4 ,three months later1 the blood and oil are applied to the spouse1 who is then released from all restrictions4 ,in ,san ,juan and ,lakub1 a ceremony known as ,kilyas is held five days after the funeral4 ,the anointing is done as described above1 and then the medium drops a ball of rice under the house1 saying1 ,go away sickness and death1 do not come to our relatives4 ,when she has finished1 drums are brought out1 all the relatives dance and forget the sorrow1 and are then released from all taboos4 ,the ,layog is celebrated as in the valley towns4 #aaj ,also known as ,waxi in ,san ,juan1 and ,bagongon in ,sallapadin4 ,in the latter village1 as well as in ,manabo and ,ba-ak1 this ceremony occurs a few days after the funeral4 #aaa ,this is known as ,apapayag or ,inapapayag 7p4 #cji74 #aab ,the foregoing ceremonies follow the death of any adult1 male or female1 but not of newborn children4 ,if the first-born dies in infancy1 it is buried in the middle of the night when no one can see the corpse1 otherwise other babies will die4 ,the parents don old garments1 and are barred from leaving the town or engaging in pastimes1 until the ten-day period has passed4 ,no fire is built at the grave1 nor are offerings placed over it4 ,when some one else is holding a ,layog1 the parents may join them to relieve their sorrow and show respect for the dead4 #aac ,a folk-tale recorded in this town gives quite a different idea of the abode of the spirits 7,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #ahe2 also p4 #bh1 note #b74 #aad ,functions mentales dans les societes inferieures 7,paris1 #aiaj74 #aae ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 pp4 #ahj-ahb #aaf ,for a full discussion of this subject1 see ,cole1 ,relations between the ,living and the ,dead 7,am4 ,jour4 of ,sociology1 ,vol4 ,,xxi1 ,no4 #e1 #aiaf1 pp4 #faj1 et seq474 #aag ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #ahe4 #aah ,in ,manabo it is said that there are five sons1 who reside in the spirit houses known as tangpap1 alalot1 and pungkew4 #aai ,the people of ,manabo say1 he resides in the spirit-structures known as balaua1 sogayab1 batog1and balag 7cf4 pp4 #cjh1 et seq47 #abj ,among the ,ifugao1 ,kabunian is the lowest of the three layers which make up the heavens 7,beyer1 ,origin ,myths among the ,mountain ,peoples of the ,philippines1 ,phil4 ,jour4 of ,science1 ,vol4 viii1 ,no4 #b1 #aiac1 p4 #ii74 #aba ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #ae4 #abb ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume4 ,no4 #a1 p4 #cb4 #abc ,the medium is also sometimes called manganito4 #abd ,similar mediums and possession were observed among the ancient ,visayans4 ,see ,blair and ,robertson1 ,the ,philippine ,islands1 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #acc2 ,perez writing concerning ,zambales says of their mediums1 ,he commences to shiver1 his whole body trembling1 and making many faces by means of his eyes2 he generally talks1 sometimes between his teeth1 without any one understanding him4 ,sometimes he contents himself with wry faces which he makes with his eyes and the trembling of all his body4 ,after a few moments he strikes himself on the knee1 and says he is the anito to whom the sacrifice is being made4 ,see ,blair and ,robertson1 op4 cit41,vol4 ,,xlvii1 p4 #cja4 #abe ,among the ancient ,tagalog1 charms made of herbs1 stones1 and wood1 were used to infuse the heart with love 7,blair and ,robertson1 ,the ,philippine ,islands1 ,vol ,,vii1 p4 #aid74 ,similar practices are found in ,india1 among the ,selangor of the ,malay ,peninsula1 among the ,bagobo of ,mindanao and in ,japan3 see ,roy1 ,jour4 ,royal ,anth1 ,inst41,vol4 ,,xliv1 #aiad1 p4 #ccg2 ,skeat and ,blagden1 ,pagan ,races of the ,malay ,peninsula1 p4 #cab2 ,benedict1 ,bagobo ,ceremonial1 ,magic and ,myth1 p4 #bbj 7,annals ,n4 ,y4 ,academy of ,sciences1 ,vol4 ,,xxv1 #aiaf72 ,hildburgh1 ,man1 ,nov4 #aiae1 pp4 #afh1 et seq42 ,trans4 ,japan ,soc1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 pp4 #acb1 et seq4 #abf ,the salaksak was also the omen bird of the ,zambales 7,blair and ,robertson1 ,philippine ,islands1 ,vol4 ,,xlvii1 p4 #cjg74 #abg ,predicting of the future through the flight of birds1 or by means of the entrails of slain animals1 is widespread1 not only in the ,philippines and ,malaysia generally1 but was equally important in ancient ,babylonia and ,rome4 ,the resemblances are so many that certain writers1 namely1 ,hose and ,mc,dougall1 ,kroeber1 and ,laufer are inclined to credit them to common historical influences4 ,see ,hose and ,mc,dougall1 ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bee 7,london1 #aiab72 ,kroeber1 ,peoples of the ,philippines 7,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,handbook ,series1 ,no4 #h1 p4 #aib1 ,new ,york1 #aiai72 ,laufer1 ,toung ,pao1 #aiad1 pp4 #a-ea4 #abh ,for the diam recited at this time1 see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #aga4 #abi ,more frequently the medium uses a piece of lead or one of the shells of her piling for this purpose4 ,in many villages the medium1 while calling the spirits1 wears one head-band for each time the family has made this ceremony4 #acj ,had they not possessed a balaua1 they would have made this offering in the dwelling4 #aca ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 ,i1 pp4 #agh-agi4 #acb ,the sagang is the sharpened pole1 which was passed through the foramen magnum of a captured skull4 #acc ,female spirits1 who always stay in one place4 #acd ,see ,tradition of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #agh4 #ace ,this diam is sometimes repeated for the saloko 7see p4 #cai74 #acf ,known as ,palasod in ,bakaok4 #acg ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #age4 #ach ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #agd4 #aci ,op4 cit41 p4 #age4 #adj ,in ,patok this offering is placed in a saloko1 which is planted close to the stream4 #ada ,known in ,ba-ak and ,langiden as ,daya1 in ,patok and vicinity as ,komon or ,ubaiya4 #adb ,this part of the ceremony is often omitted in the valley towns4 #adc ,canarium villosum ,bl4 ,the resinous properties of this tree are supposed to make bright or clear1 to the spirits1 that the ceremony has been properly conducted4 ,according to some informants1 the pala-an is intended as a stable for the horse of ,idadaya when he attends the ceremony1 but this seems to be a recent explanation4 #add ,this feeding of the spirits with blood and rice is known as pisek1 while the whole of the procedure about the mortar is called sangba4 #ade ,this consists of two bundles of rice1 a dish of broken rice1 a hundred fathoms of thread1 one leg of the pig1 and a small coin4 #adf ,many spirits which appear here and in ,sayang are not mentioned in the alphabetical list of spirits1 as they play only a local or minor role in the life of the people4 #adg ,the spirit who lives in the sagang1 the sharpened bamboo sticks on which the skulls of enemies were displayed4 #adh ,this is of particular interest1 as the ,tinguian are hostile to the people of this region1 and it is unlikely that either of the mediums had ever seen a native of that region4 #adi ,the name by which the ,tinguian designate their own people4 #aej ,the spirits' name for the ,tinguian4 #aea ,the term ,alzado is applied to the wilder head-hunting groups north and east of ,abra4 #aeb ,when the tangpap is built during the ,sayang ceremony1 it is a little house with two raised floors4 ,on the lower are small pottery jars1 daubed with white1 and filled with basi 7,plate ,,xx74 #aec ,the talagan 7see p4 #cjh74 #aed ,this being lives in ,binogan4 ,his brothers are ,gilen1 ,ilongbosan1 ,idodosan1 ,iyangayang1 and ,sagolo4 #aee ,the site of the old village of ,bukay4 #aef ,in addition to the writer and his wife1 ,lieut4 and ,mrs4 ,h4,b4 ,rowell were initiated at this time4 ,the ,lieutenant had long been a friend and adviser of the tribe1 and was held in great esteem by them4 ,the writer's full name was ,agonan ,dumalawi1 ,mrs4 ,cole's--,ginobayan ,gimpayan1 ,lieut4 ,rowell's--,andonan ,dogyawi1 and ,mrs4 ,rowell's--,gayankayan ,gidonan4 #aeg ,this raft is the ,taltalabong1 and is intended for the sons and servants of ,kadaklan4 #aeh ,it is customary to place a jar of basi under or near the house1 so that ,kadaklan may drink1 before he reaches the function4 ,this offering had been neglected1 hence his complaint4 #aei ,this is the case if a person is just acquiring the right to the ceremony4 ,if the family is already privileged to give this rite1 it will occur in about three years1 and ,sayang will follow some four years later4 #afj ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #aga4 #afa ,see ibid41 p4 #bd4 #afb ,in ,patok1 diwas is sung as a part of da-eng on the night of ,libon4 #afc ,this is the same form as the shield1 which hangs above the newborn infant 7p4 #cab74 #afd ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #agg4 #afe ,on two occasions an old bedstead of ,spanish type served instead of the frame4 #aff ,see p4 #cae4 ,in some towns the spirits are summoned at different times during the ceremony1 as in ,tangpap4 #afg ,see under ,idasan1 p4 #cji4 #afh ,each with its dormitory for bachelors1 and usually for unmarried girls4 ,see ,jenks1 ,the ,bontoc ,igorot1 p4 #di 7,manila1 #aije74 #afi ,combes1 ,historia de las islas de ,mindanao 7,madrid1 #affg71 translated by ,blair and ,robertson1 ,vol4 ,,xl1 p4 #afj2 ,vol4 ,,xlvii1 p4 #cjj4 ,ling ,roth1 ,natives of ,sarawak and ,british ,north ,borneo1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bgj1 et seq47,london1 #ahif74 #agj ,for description of these villages1 see ,cole1 ,distribution of the ,non-,christian ,tribes of ,northwestern ,luzon 7,am4 ,anthropologist1 ,vol4 ,,xi1 p4 #cbi74 #aga ,see ,jenks1 ,the ,bontoc ,igorot 7,manila1 #aijf74 #agb ,twenty years in the ,philippines1 p4 #aji 7,london1 #ahec74 #agc ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #h4 #agd ,see ,cole and ,laufer1 ,chinese ,pottery in the ,philippines 7,field ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 ,no4 #a74 #age ,despite frequent assertions to the contrary1 the fire syringe is not used by the ,tinguian4 ,it is found among the ,tiagan ,igorot1 the similarity of whose name has doubtless given rise to the error4 #agf ,head-hunting is widespread in this part of the world4 ,it is found in ,assam1 in the ,solomon ,islands1 in ,borneo1 ,formosa1 and1 it is said1 was formerly practiced in ,japan4 ,see ,hodson 7,folklore1 ,june1 #aiji1 p4 #aji72 ,rivers1 ,history of ,melanesian ,society1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bei 7,cambridge1 #aiad72 ,hose and ,mc,dougall1 ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo1 ,vols4 ,i-,,ii 7,london1 #aiab72 ,shinji ,ishii 7,transactions ,japan ,soc4 of ,london1 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 pp4 #g1 et seq474 #agg ,see ,worcester1 ,the ,non-,christian ,tribes of ,northern ,luzon 7,philippine ,journal of ,science1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #hbd1 ,manila1 #aijf74 #agh ,see ,blair and ,robertson1 ,the ,philippine ,islands1 ,vols4 ,v1 p4 #acg2 ,,xxi1 p4 #adj2 ,,xxxiv1 p4 #cgg2 ,,xl1 pp4 #hj-ha2 ,,xlvii1 p4 #cac2 ,,xlviii1 p4 #eg4 ,cole1 ,distribution of the ,non-,christian ,tribes of ,northwestern ,luzon 7,am4 ,anth41 ,n4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,xi1 #aiji1 p4 #cdj72 ,cole1 ,the ,wild ,tribes of ,davao ,district1 ,mindanao 7pub4 ,field ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,vol4 ,,xii ,no4 #b1 p4 #aad1 et seq474 #agi ,these are called soga4 ,their use is widespread in the ,philippines1 in ,malaysia generally1 and even extends into upper ,burma4 ,see ,shakespear1 ,history of ,upper ,assam1 ,upper ,burmah and ,northeastern ,frontier1 pp4 #ahf1 et seq47,london1 #aiad74 ,marsden1 ,hist4 of ,sumatra1 p4 #caj 7,london1 #ahaa74 #ahj ,see ,cole1 ,wild ,tribes of ,davao ,district 7,field ,museum of ,nat4 ,hist41 ,vol4 ,,xii1 ,no4 #b1 p4 #id74 #aha ,this description is partially taken from the account of ,paul ,p4 de ,la ,gironiere1 probably the one white man1 who has witnessed this rite 7see ,twenty ,years in the ,philippines1 p4 #ajh1 ,london1 #ahec71 and from the stories of many old men1 who themselves have participated in the head-hunts and subsequent celebrations4 #ahb ,see ,cole1 ,distribution of the ,non-,christian ,tribes of ,northwestern ,luzon 7,am4 ,anthropologist1 ,n4 ,s41 ,vol4 ,,xi1 ,no4 #c1 #aiji1 p4 #cdj74 #ahc ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #bb4 #ahd ,jenks1 ,the ,bontoc ,igorot1 p4 #abc 7,manila1 #aije72 ,kroeber1 ,the ,peoples of the ,philippines 7,am4 ,museum ,nat4 ,hist41 ,handbook ,series1 ,no4 #c1 p4 #afe1 ,new ,york1 #aiai74 #ahe ,egerton1 ,handbook of ,indian ,arms 7,wm4 ,allen and ,co41 ,london1 #ahhj71 p4 #hd2 ,shakespear1 ,history of ,upper ,assam1 ,burma and ,northeastern ,frontier 7,mac,millan1 ,london1 #aiad71 p4 #aig1 illustration4 #ahf ,this type of snare is used by nearly all ,philippine tribes1 and it is also widespread in ,malaysia4 #ahg ,the mountain rice is known as langpadan1 the lowland rice as pagey 7,ilocano palay74 #ahh ,this is similar to the method followed in ,sumatra4 ,see ,marsden1 ,history of ,sumatra1 #c;d ed41 pp4 #ga-gb 7,london1 #ahaa74 #ahi ,a similar device is employed in ,java4 ,see ,freeman and ,chandler1 ,the ,world's ,commercial ,products1 p4 #cf 7,boston1 #aiaa74 #aij ,the latter is the customary method among the ,bontoc ,igorot4 ,see ,jenks1 ,the ,bontoc ,igorot1 p4 #id4 #aia ,raffles1 ,history of ,java1 #b;d ed41 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #abe1 also plate ,,viii 7,london1 #ahbj72 ,marsden1 op4 cit41 p4 #gd2 ,freeman and ,chandler1 op4 cit41 p4 #bi4 ,both ,raffles and ,marsden consider this type of plow of ,chinese origin4 ,the ,tinguian name alado is doubtless a corruption of the ,spanish arado1 but this of course would not prove that the plow itself was derived from the ,spaniards4 #aib ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 pp4 #aie1 et seq4 #aic ,munia jagori 7martens74 ,locally known as tikgi4 #aid ,probably the ophiocephalus4 ,see ,dean1 ,american ,museum ,journal1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 #aiab1 p4 #bb4 #aie ,this is the only occasion when men use the bow and arrow4 #aif ,the neighboring ,igorot do not use a cutter1 but break the stalks with the fingers2 however1 the same instrument is used by the ,apayao1 in parts of ,mindanao1 in ,java and ,sumatra4 ,see ,marsden1 ,history of ,sumatra1 p4 #gc2 ,raffles1 ,history of ,java1 pp4 #abe-f1 also ,plate #h2 ,mayer1 ,een ,blik in het ,javaansche ,volksleven1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #deb1 7,leiden1 #ahig72 ,van der ,lith1 ,nederlandsch ,oost ,indie1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #cec1 7,leiden1 #ahid74 #aig ,rice in the bundle is known as palay or pagey4 #aih ,the ,igorot woman pulls the grain from the straw with her hands4 #aii ,ilocano sanga-reppet or the ,spanish monojo4 #bjj ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #agg4 #bja ,history of ,sumatra1 pp4 #fe1 et seq4 #bjb ,hose and ,mc,dougall 7,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #bdf-g7 consider the terraced rice culture of the ,murut1 of northern ,borneo1 a recent acquisition either from the ,philippines or from ,annam4 #bjc ,lavezaris1 writing in #aefi-gf1 states that the natives1 of no specified district1 have great quantities of provisions which they gathered from irrigated fields 7,blair and ,robertson1 ,philippine ,islands1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #bfi74 ,in ,vol4 ,,viii1 pp4 #bej-bea1 of the same publication1 is a record of the expedition to ,tue1 in the mountains at the southern end of ,nueva ,viscaya4 ,according to this account1 the natives of that section were1 in #aeib1 gathering two crops of rice1 one being irrigated1 the other allowed to grow by itself4 #bjd ,for the history and extent of terraced field rice-culture1 see ,freeman and ,chandler1 ,the ,world's ,commercial ,products 7,boston1 #aiaa72 ,ratzel1 ,history of ,mankind1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #dbf1 et seq4 7,london1 #ahif72 ,ferrars1 ,burma1 pp4 #dh1 et seq4 7,london1 #aija72 ,bezemer1 ,door ,nederlandsch ,oost-,indie1 p4 #bcb 7,groningen1 #aijf72 ,hose and ,mc,dougall1 ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #bdf2 ,perry1 ,manchester ,memoirs1 ,vol4 ,,lx1 pt4 #b1 #aiae-af2 ,wallace1 ,the ,malay ,archipelago1 pp4 #aag1 #abf 7,london1 #ahid72 ,cabaton1 ,java and the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 p4 #bac1 note 7,london1 #aiaa72 ,meyier1 ,irrigation in ,java1 ,transactions of the ,american ,soc4 of ,civil ,engineers1 ,vol4 ,,liv1 pt4 #f 7,new ,york1 #aijh72 ,bernard1 ,amenagement des eaux a ,java1 irrigation des rizieres 7,paris #aijc72 ,crawfurd1 ,history of the ,indian ,archipelago1 ,vol4 #a1 pp4 #ceh1 et seq4 7,edinburgh1 #ahbj74 #bje ,campbell1 ,java ,past and ,present1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #igg 7,london1 #aiae74 #bjf ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #agg4 #bjg ,also known as ,singa and ,baubauwi4 ,in ,likuan it is held only in case the crops are not growing as they should2 but in ,sisikan1 ,patikian1 and other towns of the ,saltan ,river valley it is celebrated both before the planting and after the harvesting4 #bjh ,a slender cane similar to bamboo1 but nearly white in color4 #bji runo1 a reed4 #baj ,justicia gendarussa ,l4 #baa ,also called salokang4 ,see p4 #caj4 #bab ,the same ceremony may be held in order to stop the rainfall if it is too abundant4 #bac ,at this time the spirits enter the bodies of the mediums and through them talk with the people4 #bad ,lygodium near scandens4 #bae ,in ,manabo leaves and grass dipped in the blood are attached to split sticks1 7sinobung71 and are fastened to a side wall of the house4 #baf ,lightning is recognized as the messenger of ,kadaklan4 #bag ,the ,igorot villages of ,lukuban and vicinity have a similar ceremony4 ,it is here followed by a three-day period of taboo4 ,should the bird known as koling fly over the town during this period1 uttering its peculiar cry1 the ceremony will be repeated2 otherwise1 all is well4 #bah ,literally1 to give a taste4 #bai ,those used are sikag 7,lygodium near scandens71 talabibatab 7,capparis micracantha ,d4,c47 and pedped 7874 #bbj ,most of the identifications here given were made by ,dr4 ,elmer ,d4 ,merrill1 botanist of the ,philippine ,bureau of ,science1 from specimens collected by the writer4 #bba ,known generally throughout the ,philippines as gabi4 #bbb ,the three common varieties of squash are kalabasa 7,benincasa certifera71 tabongau and tankoy 7,curcubita sp474 #bbc ,in the vicinity of ,bakaok a small amount of maguey 7,agave cantula ,roxb47 is raised4 ,it is employed in the making of cords4 #bbd ,a less esteemed species is known as lalawed ta aso 7dog lawed74 #bbe ,see ,traditions of the ,tinguian1 this volume1 ,no4 #a1 p4 #ajj4 #bbf ,a similar drink was used ceremonially in ,pangasinan in #afdj4 ,see ,aduarte1 ,historia2 ,blair and ,robertson1 ,vol4 ,,xxx1 p4 #ahf4 ,it is still found in many portions of the archipelago4 #bbg ,cole1 ,the ,wild ,tribes of ,davao ,district1 ,mindanao 7,field ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,vol4 ,,xii1 ,no4 #b1 pp4 #hb-hc72 ,hose and ,mc,dougall1 ,the ,pagan ,tribes of ,borneo1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aid-aie 7,mac,millan and ,co41 ,london1 #aiab72 ,raffles1 ,history of ,java1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aib-aic2 ,marsden1 ,history of ,sumatra1 #crd edition 7,london1 #ahaa71 p4 #aha2 ,ferrais1 ,burma1 p4 #aje 7,low1 ,marston and ,co41 ,london1 #aija72 ,peal 7,journ4 ,anth4 ,inst4 of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 p4 #bej1 also ,plate ,,xiv1 fig4 ,no4 #b74 #bbh ,rockhill1 ,t'oung ,pao1 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 #aiae1 pp4 #bfh-bfi2 ,blair and ,robertson1 op4 cit41 ,vols4 ,,ii1 p4 #aaf2 ,,iii1 p4 #bji2 ,,iv1 p4 #gd2 ,,xxix1 p4 #cjg2 ,,xl1 p4 #dh1 note2 ,philippine ,census1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dhb 7,washington1 #aije74 ,de ,morga1 ,sucesos de las ,islas ,philipinas 7#afji71 see ,hakluyt ,soc4 edition1 pp4 #cch1 et seq4 7,london1 #ahfh74 #bbi ,wanderings in the ,great ,forests of ,borneo 7,constable1 ,london1 #aijd71 pp4 #bhb-bhc4 ,see also ,low1 ,sarawak--,its ,inhabitants and ,productions1 pp4 #aeh1 #bji 7,london1 #ahdh74 #bcj ,op4 cit41 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aic-aid4 #bca ,ratzel1 ,history of ,mankind1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #dcd2 ,marsden1 op4 cit41 pp4 #agc1 #aha1 #cdg note4 #bcb ,fifth ,annual ,report of the ,mining ,bureau of the ,philippine ,islands1 p4 #ca2 ,official ,catalogue of the ,philippine ,exhibit1 ,universal ,exposition1 p4 #bca 7,st4 ,louis1 #aijd74 #bcc ,blair and ,robertson1 ,the ,philippine ,islands1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #aaf1 #bjg2 ,vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #bjc1 #bgj2 ,vol4 ,,iv1 p4 #ih2 ,vol4 ,v1 p4 #ade2 ,vol4 ,,viii1 p4 #hd2 ,vol4 ,,xii1 p4 #ahg2 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 p4 #ajf4 ,zuniga1 ,estadismo 7,retana's edition71 ,vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #da1 #id4 #bcd ,foreman1 ,the ,philippine ,islands1 p4 #cfa 7,london1 #ahib72 ,bezemer1 ,door ,nederlandsch ,oost-,indie1 p4 #cjh 7,groningen1 #aijf72 ,skeat1 ,man1 ,vol4 ,i4 #aija1 p4 #agh2 ,raffles1 ,history of ,java1 #b;d ed41 ,vol4 ,i p4 #ahf 7,london1 #ahcj72 ,brendon 7,journal of ,indian ,art and ,industry1 ,vol4 ,x1 ,no4 #hb1 pp4 #ag1 et seq474 #bce ,weaving in cotton is a recent introduction among the neighboring ,bontoc ,igorot4 ,formerly their garments were made of flayed bark1 or were woven from local fiber plants4 ,the threads from the latter were spun or twisted on the naked thigh under the palm of the hand4 ,cf4 ,jenks1 ,the ,bontoc ,igorot1 p4 #aac 7,manila1 #aije74 #bcf ,a similar device is used in ,burma4 #bcg ,the same type of wheel is found in ,java4 ,see ,mayer1 ,een ,blik in het ,javaansche ,volksleven1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #dfi 7,leiden1 #ahig74 #bch ,a similar warp winder is described for ,bombay 7,brendon1 ,journal of ,indian ,art and ,industry1 ,vol4 ,x1 ,no4 #hb1 #aijc1 pp4 #ag1 et seq474 #bci ,for the distribution of this semi-girdle or back strap1 see ,ling ,roth1 ,studies in ,primitive ,looms 7,journal ,royal ,anthrop4 ,inst41 ,vol4 ,,xlvi1 #aiaf1 pp4 #bid1 #bii74 #bdj ,these are3 alinau 7,grewia multiflora ,juss472 babaket 7,helicteres hirsuta ,lour472 laynai--a large tree1 unidentified2 lapnek 7,abroma sp47 ka'a-ka'ag1 an unidentified shrub2 losoban 7grewia72 pakak1 unidentified2 anabo 7,hibiscus pungens ,roxb472 bangal 7,sterculia foctida ,l472 saloyot 7,corchoeus olitorius ,l47 labtang 7,anamirta cocculus72 atis 7,anona squamosa ,l472 alagak 7anona72 maling-kapas 7,ceiba pentandra ,gaertn472 betning and daldalopang1 unidentified2 maguey 7,agave cantula ,roxb472 bayog--a variety of bamboo4 #bda ,it is not essential that the oil be applied1 and oftentimes whole sections are colored before being split4 #bdb ,from kawat1 the twisting of vines about a tree4 #bdc ,this is the ,arnatto dye1 an ,american plant4 ,watt1 ,dictionary1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #ded4 #bdd ,this tattooing is accomplished by mixing oil and the black soot from the bottom of a cooking pot1 or the pulverized ashes of blue cloth4 ,the paste is spread over the place to be treated1 and is driven in with an instrument consisting of three or four needles set in a piece of bamboo4 ,sometimes the piercing of the skin is done before the color is applied2 the latter is then rubbed in4 #bde ,blackening of the teeth was practised by the ,zambal1 also in ,sumatra and ,japan4 ,blair and ,robertson1 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 p4 #gh2 ,marsden1 ,history of ,sumatra1 ,p4 #ec4 #bdf ,see pp4 #dde1 #def for words and music4 #bdg ,shallow copper gongs4 #bdh ,reyes says that this song1 daleng1 is similar to the dallot of the ,ilocano 7,articulos varios1 p4 #cb74 #bdi ,similar instruments are used by the ,igorot who suspend them free and beat them as they dance4 #bej ,the first line is sung by the girls1 the second by the boys4 ,for the music see p4 #dde4 #bea ,the first line is sung by the girls1 the second by the boys4 #beb ,i use the word modern in this connection1 as it pertains to the music of those peoples who have developed music as an art1 and among whom we find conformity to the same rules and system of notation4 #bec ,by reference to the analysis of ,record ,i1 ,da-eng 7,boys and girls alternating71 it will be seen that the record seems to have been made by one set of singers1 apparently women and girls1 who sang together on both parts4 ,the entire record has therefore been tabulated with the women's songs4 #bed ,record ,f1 ,song of a ,spirit1 shows both major and minor tonality 7for explanation see analysis of this song1 p4 #dff74 #bee ,record ,j1 ,da-eng 7,girls' part71 shows this mark in the ,scale given below the transcription 7for explanation see analysis of this song1 p4 #dga74 #bef ,i find groups of five used occasionally in the singing of our ,american ,indians4 ,burton 7,primitive ,american ,music7 shows its frequent use among the ,chippeway4 ,miss ,fletcher also shows groups in five in her ,omaha ,music1 and ,miss ,densmore gives similar grouping in her transcriptions of ,american ,indian songs4 #beg ,grove1 ,dictionary of ,music and ,musicians1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 #beh ,rowbotham1 ,history of ,music4