,,h[ ,,to ,,tea* ,,by ,,george ,,drayton ,,/ray] ,,& ,,naomi ,,norswor?y ,febru>y1 #aiag4 ,,preface ,! art ( tea*+ is bas$ prim>ily ^u ! sci5ce ( psy*ology4 ,9 ?is book ! au?ors h s\ght to make cle> ! pr9ciples ( psy*ology :i* are involv$ 9 tea*+1 & to %[ def9itely _! application 9 ! "w ( ! classroom4 ,! book has be5 writt5 9 language z free f te*nical t]ms z is possible4 ,9 a discussion ( ! me?ods ( tea*+ x is necess>y to consid] ! ends or aims involv$1 z well z ! process4 ,! au?ors h1 on ?is acc\nt1 includ$ a *apt] on ! "w ( ! tea*]1 9 :i* is discuss$ ! aims ( education4 ,! success or failure ( ! "w ( a tea*] is det]m9$ by ! *anges :i* are br\ght to pass 9 ! *ildr5 :o are be+ taught4 ,?is book1 !re=e1 includes a *apt] on ! measurem5t ( ! a*ievem5ts ( *ildr54 ,?r\gh\t ! book ! discussion ( ! art ( tea*+ is always modifi$ by an acceptance ^u ! "p ( ! writ]s ( ! social purpose ( education4 ,! treatm5t ( ea* topic w be f\nd to be bas$ ^u inve/igations & rese>*es 9 ! fields ( psy*ology & education :i* involve ! measurem5t ( ! a*ievem5ts ( *ildr5 & ( adults "u v>y+ conditions4 ,:]ev] possible1 ! relation betwe5 ! pr9ciple ( tea*+ laid d[n & ! sci5tific inquiry ^u :i* x is bas$ is indicat$4 ,any c>eful /udy ( ! m5tal life & developm5t ( *ildr5 reveals at ! same "t ! unity & ! div]sity ( ! process involv$4 ,= ! sake ( def9it5ess & cle>ness1 ! au?ors h diff]5tiat$ betwe5 types ( m5tal activity & ! correspond+ types ( classroom ex]cises4 ,!y h1 at ! same "t1 s\ght to make cle> ! int]dep5d5ce ( ! v>i\s aspects ( tea*+ me?od & ! unity involv$ 9 m5tal developm5t4 ,,george ,,drayton ,,/ray]4 ,,naomi ,,norswor?y4 ,,novemb] #ae1 #aiaf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts ,i4 ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,! ,,tea*] ,,ii4 ,,orig9al ,,nature1 ,,! ,,capital ,,) ,,:i* ,,tea*]s ,,"w ,,iii4 ,,att5tion ,,& ,,int]e/ ,,9 ,,tea*+ ,,iv4 ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,habits ,v4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,memorize ,,vi4 ,,! ,,tea*]',s ,,use ,,( ,,! ,,imag9ation ,,vii4 ,,h[ ,,?9k+ ,,may ,,be ,,/imulat$ ,,viii4 ,,appreciation1 ,,an ,,important ,,elem5t ,,9 ,,education ,,ix4 ,,! ,,mean+ ,,( ,,play ,,9 ,,education ,x4 ,,! ,,significance ,,( ,,individual ,,diff]5ces ,,= ,,! ,,tea*] ,,xi4 ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,moral ,,social ,,conduct ,,xii4 ,,transf] ,,( ,,tra9+ ,,xiii4 ,,types ,,( ,,classroom ,,ex]cises ,,xiv4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,/udy ,,xv4 ,,measur+ ,,! ,,a*ievem5ts ,,( ,,*ildr5 99 99 99 99 99 ,i4 ,,! ,,"w ,,( ,,! ,,tea*] ,education is a gr\p ent]prise4 ,we e/abli% s*ools 9 :i* we seek to develop :atev] capacities or abilities ! individual may possess 9 ord] t he may become intellig5tly active = ! common good4 ,s*ools d n exi/ prim>ily = ! individual1 b1 r1 = ! gr\p ( :i* he is a memb]4 ,individual gr[? & developm5t are significant 9 t]ms ( _! mean+ = ! welf>e ( ! :ole gr\p4 ,we believe t ! greate/ opportunity = ! individual1 z well z 8 greate/ satisfaction1 are secur$ only :5 he works ) o!rs = ! common welf>e4 ,9 ! discussions :i* foll[ we are conc]n$ n simply ) ! individual's developm5t1 b also ) ! necessity = inhibitions4 ,!re are traits or activities :i* develop normally1 b :i* are f ! social po9t ( view undesirable4 ,x is q z mu* ! "w ( ! tea*] to "k h[ to provide = ! inhibition ( ! type ( activity :i* is socially undesirable1 or h[ to sub/itute = su* reactions o!r =ms ( expression :i* are wor?y1 z x is to /imulate ^? types ( activity :i* promise a contribution to ! common good4 ,x is assum$ t ! aim ( education c be express$ mo/ satisfactorily 9 t]ms ( social effici5cy4 ,an acceptance ( ! aim ( education /at$ 9 t]ms ( social effici5cy leads u to disc>d o!r /atem5ts ( aim :i* h be5 m or less curr5t4 ,*ief among ^! aims1 or /atem5ts ( aim1 are ! foll[+3 7#a7 culture2 7#b7 ! h>moni\s developm5t ( ! capacities or abilities ( ! individual2 7#c7 prep>+ an individual to make a liv+2 7#d7 k4 ,we w exam9e ^! aims briefly be=e discuss+ at l5g? ! implications ( ! social aim4 ,^? :o decl>e t x is ! aim ( education to develop m5 & wom5 ( culture v>y 9 ! cont5t :i* !y give to ! t]m culture4 ,x is conceivable t ! p]son ( culture is "o :o1 by virtue ( 8 education1 has come to und]/& & appreciate ! _m aspects ( ! social environm5t 9 :i* he lives2 t he is a man ( intellig5ce1 ess5tially reasonable2 & t he is will+ & able to devote himself to ! common good4 ,x is to be fe>$1 h[ev]1 t ! t]m culture1 z commonly us$1 is int]pret$ mu* m n>r[ly4 ,= _m p culture is synonym\s ) k or in=mation1 & is n int]pret$ to involve prep>ation = active p>ticipation 9 ! "w ( ! _w4 ,/ill o!rs ?9k ( ! p]son ( culture z "o :o has a type or k9d ( tra9+ :i* sep>ates him f ! ord9>y man4 ,a m or less popul> notion ( ! man ( culture pictures him z "o liv+ ap>t f ^? :o ?9k ?r\gh pres5t-day problems & :o devote !mselves to _! solution4 ,x seems be/1 on acc\nt ( ?is v>iation 9 int]pretation1 z well z on acc\nt ( ! un=tunate mean+ sometimes atta*$ to ! t]m1 to disc>d ?is /atem5t ( ! aim ( education4 ,! difficulty ) a /atem5t ( aim 9 t]ms ( ! h>moni\s developm5t ( ! abilities or capacities possess$ by ! individual is f\nd 9 ! lack ( any crit]ion by :i* we may det]m9e ! desirability ( any p>ticul> k9d ( developm5t or action4 ,we may well ask = :at purpose are ! capacities or abilities ( ! individual to be develop$4 ,x is possible to develop an ability or capacity = ly+1 = /eal+1 or = fight+ )\t a j cause4 ,:at society has a "r to expect & to dem& ( our s*ools is t !y develop or n\ri% c]ta9 t5d5cies to behave1 & t !y /rive e>ne/ly to elim9ate or to h inhibit$ o!r t5d5cies j z m>k$4 ,ano!r difficulty ) ! /atem5t ( aim 9 t]ms ( ! h>moni\s developm5t ( ! capacities is f\nd 9 ! difficulty ( int]pret+ :at is meant by h>moni\s developm5t4 ,d we mean equal developm5t ( ea* & e capacity1 or d we seek to develop ea* capacity to ! maximum ( ! individual's possibility ( tra9+8 ,are we to try to secure equal developm5t 9 all directions8 ,( "o ?+ we c be c]ta94 ,we _c secure equality 9 a*ievem5t among individuals :o v>y 9 capacity4 ,"o boy may make a good me*anic1 ano!r a successful bus9ess man1 & /ill ano!r a musician4 ,x is only z we read into ! /atem5t ( h>moni\s developm5t mean+s :i* d n appe> ^u ! surface1 t we c accept ?is /atem5t z a satisfactory word+ ( ! aim ( education4 ,! n>r[ utilit>ian /atem5t ( aim t ass]ts t ! purpose ( education is to enable p to make a liv+ neglects to take acc\nt ( ! necessity = social cop]ation4 ,! difficulty ) ?is /atem5t ( aim is t x is too n>r[4 ,we d hope by means ( education to help p to make a liv+1 b we ought also to be conc]n$ ) ! k9d ( a life !y lead4 ,!y ought n to make a liv+ by injur+ or exploit+ o!rs4 ,!y ought to be able to enjoy ! nobl] pleasures z well z to make en\gh money to buy food1 clo?+1 %elt]1 & ! l4 ,! bread-&-butt] aim breaks d[n z does ! all-ar\nd developm5t aim because x fails to consid] ! individual 9 relation to ! social gr\p ( :i* he is a memb]4 ,to decl>e t k is ! aim ( education is to ignore ! issue ( ! relative wor? ( t :i* we call k4 ,no "o may "k all4 ,:at1 !n1 f among all ( ! facts or pr9ciples :i* are available are we to select & :at are we to reject8 ,! k aim gives u no satisfactory answ]4 ,we are aga9 ?r[n back ^u ! "q ( purpose4 ,k we mu/ h1 b = ! individual :o is to live 9 our mod]n1 indu/rial1 democratic society "s kn[l$ges are m important ?an o!rs4 ,society _c af=d to p]mit ! s*ool to d any?+ less ?an provide t equipm5t 9 k1 9 skill1 9 ideal1 or 9 appreciation :i* promises to develop an individual :o w contribute to social progress1 "o :o w f9d 8 own greate/ satisfaction 9 work+ = ! common good4 ,9 seek+ to relate ! aim ( education to ! s*ool activities ( boys & girls1 x is necess>y to inquire conc]n+ ! ideals or purposes :i* actuate !m 9 _! regul> s*ool "w4 ,ideals ( s]vice may be gradually develop$1 & may ev5tually come to control 9 "s measure ! activities ( boys & girls1 b ^! ideals d n normally develop 9 a s*ool situation 9 :i* competition is ! dom9at+ factor4 ,we may discuss at great l5g? ! desirability ( work+ = o!rs1 & we may tea* _m precepts :i* look 9 ! direction ( s]vice1 & /ill fail to a*ieve ! purpose = :i* our s*ools exi/4 ,an ov]emphasis ^u m>ks & di/9ctions1 & a lack ( att5tion to ! opportunities :i* ! s*ool (f]s = helpfulness & cop]ation1 h (t5 result$ 9 ! developm5t ( an individuali/ic attitude almo/ entirely oppos$ to ! purpose or aim ( education z we commonly accept x4 ,!re is ne$ = mu* reorganization 9 our s*ools 9 ! light ( our pr(ess$ aim4 ,!re are only two places 9 our :ole s*ool sy/em :]e *ildr5 are commonly s seat$ t x is easy = !m to "w 9 cop]ation ) ea* o!r4 ,9 ! k9d]g>t51 9 ! circle1 or at ! tables1 *ildr5 normally discuss ! problems 9 :i* !y are int]e/$1 & help ea* o!r 9 _! "w4 ,9 ! sem9> room = graduate /ud5ts 9 a univ]sity1 x is n uncommon to f9d m5 work+ toge!r = ! solution ( problems 9 :i* !y h a common int]e/4 ,9 mo/ classrooms 9 elem5t>y & 9 high s*ools1 & ev5 9 colleges1 boys & girls are seat$ 9 r[s1 ! "o back ( ! o!r1 ) little or no opportunity = communication or cop]ation4 ,inde$1 help+ "o's neighbor has (t5 be5 decl>$ aga9/ ! rule by tea*]s4 ,x is true t pupils mu/ 9 _m cases "w z individuals = ! sake ( ! atta9m5t ( skill1 ! acquirem5t ( k1 or ( me?ods ( "w1 b a s*ool :i* pr(esses to develop ideals ( s]vice mu/ provide on e possible occasion situations 9 :i* *ildr5 "w 9 cop]ation ) ea* o!r1 & 9 :i* !y measure _! success 9 t]ms ( ! contribution :i* !y make t[>d ! a*ievem5t ( a common end4 ,! socially effici5t individual mu/ n only be actuat$ by ideals ( s]vice1 b mu/ 9 ! responses :i* he makes to social dem&s be gov]n$ by 8 own c>eful ?9k+1 or by 8 ability to di/+ui% f among ^? :o w\ld influ5ce him "o ^: solution ( ! problem pres5t$ is bas$ ^u c>eful inve/igation or inquiry4 ,especially is x true 9 a democratic society t ! measure ( ! success ( our education is f\nd 9 ! degree to :i* we develop ! sci5tific attitude4 ,ev5 ^? :o are actuat$ by noble motives may1 if !y tru/ to _! emotions1 to _! prejudices1 or to ^? sup]/itions :i* are commonly accept$1 engage 9 activities :i* are positively h>mful to ! social gr\p ( :i* !y are memb]s4 ,our s*ools %\ld /rive to enc\rage ! _s ( inquiry & inve/igation4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! "w 9 mo/ elem5t>y s*ools & high s*ools consi/s 9 hav+ boys & girls repeat :at !y h he>d or read4 ,x is true t su* accumulation ( facts may1 9 "s cases1 ei!r at ! "t at :i* !y are le>n$1 or lat]1 be us$ z ! basis = ?9k+2 b a tea*] may feel satisfi$ t %e has contribut$ l>gely t[>d ! developm5t ( ! sci5tific _s ^u ! "p ( *ildr5 only :5 ?is inquir+ attitude is commonly f\nd 9 h] classroom4 ,! association ( ideas :i* w result f an hone/ attempt ^u ! "p ( boys & girls to f9d ! solution ( a real problem w furni% ! v be/ possible basis = ! recall ( ! facts or in=mation :i* may be involv$4 ,! attempt to rememb] pages ( hi/ory or ( geography1 or ! facts ( *emi/ry or ( physics1 h[ev] well !y may be organiz$ 9 ! text-book1 is usually successful only until ! exam9ation p]iod is pass$4 ,*ildr5 :o h engag$ 9 ?is type ( activity q commonly %[ an appall+ lack ( k ( ! subjects :i* !y h /udi$ a v %ort "t aft] !y h satisfi$ ! exam9ation requirem5t4 ,! same am\nt ( en]gy devot$ to ! solution ( problems 9 :i* *ildr5 may be normally int]e/$ may be expect$ n only to develop "s appreciation ( sci5tific me?od 9 ! fields 9 :i* !y h work$1 b also to result 9 a control ( k or a memory ( facts t w la/ ov] a long] p]iod ( "t4 ,recitations %\ld be places :]e *ildr5 meet = ! discussion ( problems :i* are vital to !m4 ,! "q by ! pupil %\ld be z common z ! "q by ! tea*]4 ,laboratory p]iods %\ld n consi/ ( foll[+ directions1 b r 9 und]tak+1 9 s f> z x is possible1 real exp]im5ts4 ,we may n hope t an inve/igat+ or inquir+ turn ( m9d enc\rag$ 9 s*ool w always be f\nd op]at+ 9 ! solution ( problems :i* occur outside ( s*ool1 b ! s*ool :i* insi/s m]ely ^u memory & ^u foll[+ in/ructions may sc>cely claim to h made any consid]able contribution to ! equipm5t ( citiz5s ( a democracy :o %\ld solve _! common problems 9 t]ms ( ! evid5ce pres5t$4 ,! un?9k+ acceptance ( ! words ( ! book or ! /atem5t ( ! tea*] prep>es ! way = ! bl9d foll[+ ( ! boss1 = fai? 9 ! demagogue1 or ev5 = acceptance ( ! /atem5ts ( ! quack4 ,! ideal s*ool situation is "o 9 :i* ! _s ( inquiry & inve/igation is con/antly enc\rag$ & 9 :i* *ildr5 are develop+ ideals ( s]vice by virtue ( _! activity4 ,a high s*ool class 9 ,engli% lit]ature 9 :i* *ildr5 are at "w 9 small gr\ps1 ask+ ea* o!r que/ions & help+ ea* o!r 9 ! solution ( _! problems1 seems to ! writ] to af=d unusual opportunity = ! realization ( ! social aim ( education4 ,a fir/ grade class 9 beg9n+ read+1 9 :i* ! /rong] *ildr5 seek to help ^? :o are less able1 involves some?+ m significant 9 education ?an m]ely ! comm& ( ! tool we call read+4 ,a tea*] ( a class 9 physics :o sugge/$ to 8 pupils t !y f9d out :i* 0 ! m economical way to heat _! homes1--) hot air1 ) /eam1 or ) hot wat]1--evid5tly hop$ to h !m use :atev] p[] ( inve/igation !y possess$1 z well z to h !m come to und]/& & to rememb] ! pr9ciples ( physics :i* 7 involv$4 ,9 _m s*ools ! cop]ation ( *ildr5 9 ! prep>ation ( s*ool plays1 or s*ool fe/ivals1 9 ! writ+ & pr9t+ ( s*ool pap]s1 9 ! p>ticipation 9 ! s*ool assembly1 9 ! mak+ ( %elves1 tables1 or o!r s*ool equipm5t1 9 ! work+ = community bett]m5t ) respect to clean /reets & ! l1 may be consid]$ ev5 m significant f ! /&po9t ( ! realization ( ! social aim ( education ?an are ! recitations 9 :i* !y are commonly engag$4 ,we h emphasiz$ ?us f> ! mean+ ( ! social aim ( education 9 t]ms ( me?ods ( "w ^u ! "p ( pupils4 ,x is important to call att5tion to ! fact t ! mat]ials or cont5t ( education are also det]m9$ by ! same consid]ation ( purposes4 ,if we really accept ! idea ( p>ticipation ^u ! "p ( *ildr5 9 mod]n social life z ! purpose ( education1 we mu/ include 9 our c\rses ( /udy only su* subject matt] z may be judg$ to contribute t[>d ! realization ( ?is aim4 ,we mu/1 ( c\rse1 provide *ildr5 ) ! tools ( inve/igation or ( inquiry2 b _! importance %\ld n be ov]emphasiz$1 & 9 _! acquirem5t significant exp]i5ces ) respect to life activities %\ld dom9ate1 r ?an ! m]e acquisition ( ! tool4 ,beg9n+ read+1 = example1 is important n m]ely f ! /&po9t ( le>n+ to read4 ,! tea*+ ( beg9n+ read+ %\ld involve ! enl>g+ & enri*+ ( exp]i5ce4 ,?\ght gett+ is ( prim>y importance = little *ildr5 :o are to le>n to read1 & ! recognition ( symbols is important only 9 s f> z !y contribute to ?is end4 ,! be/ read+ books no long] pr9t mean+less s5t5ces = *ildr5 to deciph]4 ,"m ,goose rhymes1 popul> /ories & fables1 language read+ lessons1 9 :i* *ildr5 relate _! own exp]i5ce = ! tea*] to pr9t or write on ! bo>d1 satisfy ! dem& = cont5t & aid1 by virtue ( ! int]e/ :i* is advanc$1 9 ! ma/]+ ( ! symbols4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 necess>y = "o :o w\ld und]/& mod]n social conditions or problems1 to "k ( ! pa/ out ( :i* our mod]n life has develop$4 ,x is also necess>y = "o :o w\ld und]/& ! problems ( "o community1 or ( "o nation1 to "k1 9 s f> z x is possible1 ( ! exp]i5ces ( o!r peoples4 ,hi/ory & geography furni% a backgr\nd1 )\t :i* our curr5t problems c\ld n be reasonably attack$4 ,lit]ature & sci5ce1 ! /udy ( ! f9e arts1 & ( our social in/itutions1 all become significant 9 proportion z !y make possible contributions1 by ! individual :o has be5 educat$1 to ! common good4 ,any prop] int]pretation ( ! social purpose ( education leads inevitably to ! conclusion t mu* t we h taught is ( v little significance4 ,processes 9 ari?metic :i* are n us$ 9 mod]n life h little or no wor? = ! great majority ( boys & girls4 ,p>tn]%ip settlem5ts involv+ "t1 exact int]e/1 ! extraction ( cube & ( squ>e roots1 p>tial paym5ts1 & _m ( ! problems 9 m5suration1 might well be omitt$ f all c\rses ( /udy 9 ari?metic4 ,_m ( ! unimportant dates 9 hi/ory & mu* ( ! locational geography %\ld disappe> 9 ord] t a bett] appreciation ( ! l>g] social movem5ts c be secur$1 or 9 ord] t ! laws :i* control 9 nature may be taught4 ,9 ,engli%1 any attempt to realize ! aim :i* we h 9 m9d w\ld lay great] /ress ^u ! accompli%m5t ( *ildr5 9 speak+ & writ+ our language1 & relatively less ^u ! rules ( gramm>4 ,x may well be ask$ h[ our conception ( aim c be relat$ to ! pres5t t5d5cy to (f] a v>iety ( c\rses ( in/ruction1 or to provide diff]5t types ( s*ools4 ,! answ] is f\nd 9 an und]/&+ & appreciation ( ! fact t *ildr5 v>y trem5d\sly 9 ability1 & t ! l>ge/ contribution by ea* individual to ! welf>e ( ! :ole gr\p c be made only :5 ea* is tra9$ 9 ! field = :i* 8 capacity fits him4 ,! movem5t = ! developm5t ( vocational education means1 above all else1 an attempt to tra9 all memb]s ( ! gr\p to ! highe/ possible degree ( effici5cy1 in/ead ( (f]+ a common education :i*1 ?\gh lib]al 9 its "*1 is actually neglect$ or refus$ by a l>ge "p ( our population4 ,our int]e/ 9 ! physical welf>e ( *ildr5 is acc\nt$ = by ! fact t no individual may make ! mo/ significant contribution to ! common good :o does n enjoy a maximum ( physical effici5cy4 ,! curr5t emphasis ^u moral tra9+ c be und]/ood :5 we accept t conception ( morality :i* measures ! individual 9 t]ms ( 8 contribution to ! welf>e ( o!rs4 ,h[ev] important x may be t individuals be re/ra9$ or t !y inhibit ^? impulses :i* might lead to anti-social activity1 ( ev5 great] importance mu/ be ! "p actually play$ by ea* memb] ( ! social gr\p 9 ! developm5t ( ! common welf>e4 ,if we ?9k ( ! problems ( tea*+ 9 t]ms ( habits to be fix$1 we mu/ ask ourselves are ^! habits desirable or necess>y = an individual :o is to "w z a memb] ( ! social gr\p4 ,if we consid] ! problem ( tea*+ f ! /&po9t ( developm5t 9 intellig5ce1 we mu/ con/antly seek to pres5t problems :i* are wor? :ile1 n simply f ! /&po9t ( ! curiosity :i* !y ar\se1 b also on acc\nt ( _! relation to ! life activities ) :i* our mod]n _w is conc]n$4 ,we mu/ seek to develop ! p[] ( appreciat+ t :i* is noble & beautiful prim>ily because ! highe/ effici5cy c be secur$ only by ^? :o use _! "t 9 occupations :i* are truly recreative & n en]vat+4 ,z we seek to und]/& ! problem ( tea*+ z det]m9$ by ! normal m5tal developm5t ( boys & girls1 we mu/ h 9 m9d con/antly ! use to :i* _! capacities & abilities are to be put4 ,any adequate recognition ( ! social purpose ( education sugge/s ! necessity = elim9at+1 z f> z possible1 t type ( action :i* is socially undesirable1 :ile we /rive = ! developm5t ( ^? capacities :i* mean at lea/ ! possibility ( contribution to ! common good4 ,we /udy ! pr9ciples ( tea*+ 9 ord] t we may bett] adapt ourselves to ! *ildr5's possibilities ( le>n+1 b we mu/ keep 9 m9d con/antly t k9d ( le>n+ & ^? me?ods ( "w :i* look to ! developm5t ( socially effici5t boys & girls4 ,we mu/ seek to provide situations :i* are 9 !mselves significant 9 our mod]n social life z ! subject matt] ) :i* *ildr5 may /ruggle 9 accompli%+ _! individual developm5t4 ,we ne$ con/antly to h 9 m9d ! ideal ( s*ool "w :i* w value mo/ highly opportunities = cop]ation & = contribution to ! common good ^u ! "p ( *ildr51 :i* are 9 ! la/ analysis entirely l ! situations 9 :i* old] p contribute to social progress4 ,m & m we mu/ seek to develop ! type ( pupil :o kn[s ! mean+ ( duty & :o gladly recognizes 8 obligations to a social gr\p :i* is gr[+ l>g] ) ea* new exp]i5ce & ea* new opportunity4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,:y w\ld y n be satisfi$ ) a /atem5t ( ! aim ( education :i* 0 express$ 9 t]ms ( ! h>moni\s developm5t ( an individual's abilities & capacities8 #b4 ,sugge/ any "p ( ! c\rses ( /udy n[ 9 =ce 9 y\r s*ool sy/em ! omission ( :i* w\ld be 9 accordance ) ! social aim ( education4 #c4 ,"n any subjects or p>ts ( subjects :i* might be add$ = ! sake ( realiz+ ! aim ( education4 #d4 ,h[ may a tea*] :o insi/s ^u hav+ *ildr5 ask p]mission be=e !y move 9 ! room int]f]e ) ! realization ( ! social aim ( education8 #e4 ,c y "n any physical habits :i* may be consid]$ socially undesirable8 ,desirable8 #f4 ,:at is ! significance ( pupil p>ticipation 9 s*ool gov]nm5t8 #g4 ,h[ does ! tea*] :o /&s beh9d 8 desk at ! front ( ! room int]f]e ) ! developm5t ( ! "r social attitude ^u ! "p ( pupils8 #h4 ,:y is ! desire to excel "o's own previ\s record pref]able to /riv+ = ! highe/ m>k8 #i4 ,9 "o elem5t>y s*ool1 products ( ! s*ool g>d5 7 sold & f ! funds ?us secur$ app>atus = ! playgr\nd 0 b\ght4 ,9 ano!r s*ool1 *ildr5 sold ! vegetables & kept ! money4 ,:i*1 9 y\r judgm5t1 0 ! mo/ wor? :ile f ! /&po9t ( ! social developm5t ( boys & girls8 #aj4 ,a tea*] ( ,lat9 _h *ildr5 collect words ( ,lat9 orig91 ref]5ces to ,lat9 *>act]s1 & ev5 adv]tisem5ts 9 :i* ,lat9 words or lit]>y ref]5ces 7 to be f\nd4 ,! *ildr5 9 ! class 7 en?usia/ic 9 mak+ ^! collections1 & consid]able int]e/ 0 add$ to ! "w 9 ,lat94 ,are y able to discov] 9 ! ex]cise any o!r value8 #aa4 ,describe "s tea*+ 9 :i* y h rec5tly engag$1 or :i* y h obs]v$1 9 :i* ! me?ods ( "w employ$ by tea*] & pupils seem$ to y to contribute to a realization ( ! social purpose ( education4 #ab4 ,h[ c a read+ lesson 9 ! six? grade1 or a hi/ory lesson 9 ! high s*ool1 be conduct$ to make *ildr5 feel t !y are do+ some?+ = ! :ole gr\p8 #ac4 ,9 :at activities may *ildr5 engage outside ( s*ool :i* may c\nt t[>d ! bett]m5t ( ! community 9 :i* !y live8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ii4 ,,orig9al ,,nature1 ,,! ,,capital ,,) ,,:i* ,,tea*]s ,,"w ,aft] decid+ ^u ! aims ( education1 ! goals t[>ds :i* all tea*+ mu/ /rive1 ! fundam5tal "q to be answ]$ is1 ,:at h we to "w )8 ,:at is ! makeup ) :i* *ildr5 />t 9 life8 ,giv5 a c]ta9 nature1 c]ta9 def9ite results are possible2 b if ! nature is diff]5t1 ! results mu/ ( necessity diff]4 ,! possibility ( education or ( tea*+ along any l9e dep5ds ^u ! pres5ce ( an orig9al nature :i* possesses correspond+ abilities4 ,! developm5t ( intellect1 ( "*1 ( int]e/1 or ( any o!r trait dep5ds absolutely ^u ! pres5ce 9 human be+s ( capacity = gr[? or developm5t4 ,:at ! *ild inh]its1 8 orig9al nature1 is ! capital ) :i* education mu/ "w2 beyond ! limits :i* are det]m9$ by inh]itance education _c g4 ,all orig9al nature is 9 t]ms ( a n]v\s sy/em4 ,:at a *ild inh]its is n ideas1 or feel+s1 or habits1 z su*1 b a n]v\s sy/em ^: correlate is human intellig5ce & emotion4 ,j :at relation%ip exi/s betwe5 ! action ( ! n]v\s sy/em & consci\sness or intellect or emotion is /ill an op5 "q & ne$ n be discuss$ "h4 ,"o ?+ seems fairly c]ta91 t ! orig9al ( any individual is b\nd up 9 "s way ) ! k9d ( n]v\s sy/em he has inh]it$4 ,:at we h 9 common1 z a human race1 ( imag9ation1 or reason1 or tact1 or skill is correlat$ 9 "s fa%ion to ! inh]itance ( a human n]v\s sy/em4 ,:at we h z individual abilities1 :i* di/+ui% u f our fell[s1 dep5ds prim>ily ^u our family inh]itance4 ,c]ta9 traits su* z int]e/ 9 p1 & accuracy 9 p]ception ( details1 seem to be dep5d5t ^u ! sex inh]itance4 ,all traits1 :e!r racial1 or family1 or sex1 are inh]it$ 9 t]ms ( a pla/ic n]v\s sy/em4 ,! racial inh]itance1 ! capital :i* all normal *ildr5 br+ into ! _w1 is usually discuss$ "u sev]al heads3 reflexes1 physiological actions1 impulsive actions1 in/9cts1 capacities1 etc41 ! p>ticul> heads *os5 v>y+ ) ! au?or4 ,!y all dep5d = _! exi/5ce ^u ! fact t c]ta9 bonds ( connection are p]=m$ 9 ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,j :at ?is connection is :i* is f\nd betwe5 ! n]ve cells is /ill op5 to "q4 ,x may be *emical or x may be electrical4 ,we "k x is n a gr[+ toge!r ( ! neurones1#a b fur!r ?an t no?+ is def9itely kn[n4 ,t !re are v def9ite pa?ways ( dis*>ge develop$ by ! laws ( inn] gr[? & indep5d5t ( individual le>n+1 !re c be no d\bt4 ,?is ( c\rse means t 9 ! e>ly days ( a *ild's life1 & lat] 9 s f> z he is gov]n$ by ^! inborn t5d5cies1 8 conduct is ma*9e-l & bl9d--) no purpose & no consci\sness controll+ or initiat+ ! responses4 ,only aft] exp]i5ce & le>n+ h _h an opportunity to influ5ce ^! responses c ! *ild be held responsible = 8 conduct1 = only !n does 8 conduct become consci\s in/ead ( m]ely physiological4 ,!re are _m facts conc]n+ ! psy*ology ( ^! inborn t5d5cies t are int]e/+ & important f a purely !oretical po9t ( view1 b only ^? :i* are ( prim>y importance 9 tea*+ w be consid]$ "h4 ,a fact t is (t5 ov]look$ by tea*]s is t ^! inborn t5d5cies to connections ( v>i\s k9ds exi/ 9 ! intellectual & emotional fields j z truly z 9 ! field ( action or motor response4 ,! capacity to ?9k 9 t]ms ( words & ( g5]als2 to und]/& relation%ips2 to rememb]2 to imag9e2 to be satisfi$ ) ?9k+1--all ^!1 z well z su* special abilities z skill 9 music1 9 manag+ p or affairs1 9 tact1 or 9 sympa?y1 are due to j ! same factors z produce fe> or curiosity4 ,^! =m] types ( t5d5cies diff] f ! latt] 9 complexity ( situation & response1 9 def9it5ess ( response1 9 v>iability among/ individuals ( ! same family1 & 9 modifiability2 b 9 ! ess5tial elem5t !y d n diff] f ! m evid5t inborn t5d5cies4 ,j :at ^! orig9al t5d5cies are & j :at ! situations are to :i* !y come z responses are bo? unkn[n except 9 a v few in/ances4 ,! psy*ology ( orig9al nature has enum]at$ ! s-call$ in/9cts & discuss$ a few ( _! *>act]i/ics1 b has left almo/ unt\*$ ! inborn capacities t are m peculi>ly human4 ,ev5 ! treatm5t ( in/9cts has be5 mislead+4 ,= in/ance1 in/9cts h be5 discuss$ "u su* heads z ! self-pres]vative in/9cts1 ! social in/9cts1 j z if ! *ild _h an inborn1 my/ical some?+ t told him h[ to pres]ve 8 life1 or become a social k+4 ,orig9al nature does n "w 9 t way2 x is only z ! exp]i5ce ( ! individual modifies ! bl9d in/9ctive responses ?r\gh le>n+ t ^! results c j z easily come ab\t unless ! c>e ( p>5ts provides ! "r sort ( surr\nd+s4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! *ild's natural makeup t w>ns him aga9/ eat+ p9s & buttons & poison\s b]ries1 or enc\rages him to eat milk & eggs & c]eal in/ead ( cake & sweets4 ,he w d "o sort ( ?+ j z easily z ! o!r4 ,all nature provides him ) is a bl9d t5d5cy to put all objects t attract 8 att5tion into 8 m\?4 ,?is response may pres]ve 8 life or de/roy x1 dep5d+ on ! conditions 9 :i* he lives4 ,! same ?+ is true ( ! social in/9ct--! *ild may become ! mo/ selfi% egoti/ imag9able or ! mo/ self-sacrific+ ( m51 accord+ z 8 surr\nd+s & tra9+ influ5ce ! orig9al t5d5cies t[>ds behavior to o!r p 9 "o way or ! o!r4 ,( c\rse x is v evid5t t no "o has ev] consi/5tly liv$ up to ! idea indicat$ by su* a treatm5t ( orig9al nature1 b c]ta9 t5d5cies 9 education are traceable to su* psy*ology4 ,:at ! *ild has by nature is nei!r good nor bad1 "r nor wrong--x may become ei!r accord+ to ! habits :i* gr[ out ( ^! t5d5cies4 ,a *ild's inborn nature _c det]m9e ! goal ( 8 education4 ,8 nature has rema9$ practically ! same f ! days ( primitive man1 :ile ! goals ( education h *ang$4 ,:at nature does provide is an imm5se numb] ( def9ite responses to def9ite situations4 ,^! provide ! capital :i* education & tra9+ may use z x w4 ,x is j because education does ne$ to use ^! t5d5cies z capital t ! lack ( k ( j :at ! responses are is su* a s]i\s "o4 ,& yet ! difficulties ( det]m9+ j :at orig9al nature gives are s trem5d\s t ! task seems a hopeless "o to _m inve/igators4 ,! fact t 9 ! human be+ ^! t5d5cies are s easily modifi$ means t f ! fir/ !y are be+ influ5c$ & *ang$ by ! exp]i5ces ( ! *ild4 ,because ( ! quality ( our inh]itance ! response to a situation is n a "o-to-"o affair1 l a key 9 a lock1 b all sorts ( m9or causes 9 ! individual are op]ative 9 det]m9+ 8 response2 &1 on ! o!r side1 situations are s complex 9 !mselves t !y conta9 t :i* may call out sev]al diff]5t in/9cts4 ,= example1 a *ild's response to an animal w be influ5c$ by 8 own physical condition1 emotional attitude1 & rec5t m5tal /atus & by ! conditions ( size & ne>ness ( ! animal1 :e!r x is %aggy or n1 mov+ or /ill1 :e!r he is alone or ) o!rs1 on ! floor or 9 8 *air1 & ! l4 ,x w dep5d on j h[ ^! factors comb9e z to :e!r ! response is "o ( fe>1 ( curiosity1 ( manipulation1 or ( fri5dl9ess4 ,:5 to ^! facts are add$ ! fact t ! age & previ\s habits ( ! *ild also influ5ce 8 response1 ! imm5se complexity ( ! problem ( discov]+ j :at ! situations are to :i* !re are orig9al t5d5cies to respond & j h[ ^! t5d5cies %[ !mselves is evid5t4 ,& yet ?is is :at psy*ologi/s mu/ f9ally d if ! use by tea*]s ( ^! t5d5cies is to be bo? economical & wise4 ,j z an illu/ration ( ! possibilities ( analysis1 ,?orndike 9 8 ,orig9al ,nature ( ,man li/s elev5 diff]5t situations :i* call out an in/9ctive expression ( fe> & ?irty-"o diff]5t responses :i* may occur 9 t expression4 ,"u fight+ he says1 ,!re seem1 inde$1 to be at lea/ six sep>able sets ( connections 9 ! s-call$ 'fight+ in/9ct1' 9 ea* ( :i* ! situation & ! response diff] f any o!r "o4 ,v few ( ! in/9cts are pres5t at bir?2 mo/ ( !m develop lat] 9 ! *ild's life4 ,pillsbury says1 ,"o may recognize ! food-tak+ in/9cts1 ! vocal prote/s at discom=t1 b relatively few o!rs4 ,?is delay 9 ! appe>ance ( in/9cts & capacities is dep5d5t ^u ! developm5t ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,no "o ( !m c appe> until ! connections betwe5 n]ve c5t]s are ready1 mak+ ! pa? ( dis*>ge p]fect4 ,j :5 ^! v>i\s n]v\s connections mature1 & !re=e j :5 ! respective t5d5cies %\ld appe>1 is l>gely unkn[n4 ,9 only a few ( ! mo/ prom95t & comp>atively simple responses is x ev5 approximately kn[n4 ,hold+ ! head up is accompli%$ ab\t ! f\r? mon?1 walk+ & talk+ some:]e ne> ! twelf?1 b ! m complex ! t5d5cy & ! m !y involve intellectual factors1 ! great] is ! unc]ta9ty z to ! "t ( developm5t4 ,we are told t fe> is mo/ prom95t at ab\t ?ree or f\r ye>s ( age1 spontane\s imitation becomes v prom95t ! latt] "p ( ! fir/ ye>1 ! gang in/9ct is *>act]i/ic ( ! preadolesc5t p]iod1 desire = adv5ture %[s itself 9 e>ly adolesc5ce1 altruism appe>s 9 ! e>ly te5s1 & ! sex in/9ct aft] ab\t a doz5 ye>s ( life4 ,! *ild ( f f\r to six is l>gely s5sory1 f sev5 to n9e he is motor1 f !n to twelve ! ret5tive p[]s are prom95t4 ,9 ! adolesc5t p]iod he is capable ( ?9k+ logically & reason+1 :ile maturity f9ds him a man ( responsibilities & affairs4 ,al?\gh !re is "s tru? 9 ! belief t c]ta9 t5d5cies are m prom95t at c]ta9 p]iods 9 ! developm5t ( ! *ild ?an at o!rs1 /ill x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t j :5 ^! optimum p]iods occur is n kn[n4 ,?ree ( ! mo/ important reasons = ?is lack ( k are3 fir/1 ! fact t all inborn t5d5cies mature gradually & d n bur/ into be+2 second1 we d n "k h[ transitory !y are2 &1 ?ird1 ! fact ( ! great influ5ce ( environm5t 9 /imulat+ or repress+ su* capacities4 ,al?\gh ! t5d5cy to make collections is mo/ prom95t at n9e1 ! beg9n+s ( x may be f\nd be=e ! *ild is five4 ,moll f9ds t ! sex in/9ct beg9s its developm5t at ab\t six ye>s ( age1 despite ! fact t x is always quot$ z ! adolesc5t in/9ct4 ,*ildr5 9 ! k9d]g>t5 c ?9k out _! little problems purposively1 ev5 ?\gh reason+ is suppos$ to m>k ! high s*ool pupil4 ,! elem5ts ( mo/ t5d5cies %[ !mselves e>ly 9 crude1 almo/ unrecognizable1 beg9n+s1 & f ^! !y gr[ gradually to maturity4 ,9 ! second place h[ quickly d ^! t5d5cies fade8 ,h[ transitory are !y8 ,x has always be5 /at$ 9 g5]al psy*ology t in/9cts are transitory1 t !re=e x 0 ! bus9ess ( tea*]s to /rike :ile ! iron 0 hot1 to seize ! wave ( int]e/ or response at its cre/ be=e ! ebb _h begun4 ,!re 0 suppos$ to be a happy mom5t = fix+ 9 *ildr5 skill 9 draw+1 = mak+ collections 9 natural hi/ory1 = develop+ ! appreciative emotions1 = tra9+ ! social in/9ct1 or ! memory or ! imag9ation4 ,*ildr5 are suppos$ to be int]e/$ & attract$ by novelty1 rhy?m1 & movem5t1--to be creatures ( play & imag9ation & to become diff]5t m]ely z a matt] ( ! transitor9ess ( ^! t5d5cies due to gr[?4 ,:5 ! activities ( ! adult & ! *ild are analyz$ to see :at t5d5cies h really pass$1 are transitory1 x is difficult to f9d any t h disappe>$4 ,true1 !y h *ang$ _! =m1 h be5 influ5c$ by ! ?ird factor m5tion$ above1 b *ange ! surr\nd+s a little & ! t5d5cy appe>s4 ,free ! adult f ! re/ra9ts ( 8 ord9>y life & turn him out = a holiday & ! *ildi% t5d5cies ( int]e/ 9 novelty & ! my/]i\s1 9 physical pr[ess & adv5ture & play1 all make _! appe>ance4 ,9 h[ _m adults does ! collect+ in/9ct /ill p]si/1 & ! in/9ct ( p]sonal rivalry8 ,9 h[ _m has ! crude desire = mat]ial own]%ip or ! impulse to puni% an affront by physical attack di$ out8 ,exp]im5tal evid5ce is ev5 prov+ t ! g5]al pla/icity ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 :i* has always be5 consid]$ to be transitory1 is ( v1 v mu* long] duration ?an has be5 suppos$4 ,9 illu/ration ( ! ?ird fact1 namely1 ! effect ( environm5t to /imulate or repress1 witness ! little mo!rs ( five & ! wage e>n]s ( twelve :o h assum$ all ! responsibilities ) all t !y entail ( maturity4 ,on ! o!r side ( ! picture is ! indulg$ pett$ *ild ( =tune :o nev] gr[s up because he has _h ev]y?+ done = him all 8 life1 & !re=e ! t5d5cies :i* normally might be expect$ to pass & give place to o!rs rema9 & ^? o!rs nev] appe>4 ,t inborn t5d5cies d wax1 rea* a maximum1 & wane is probably true1 b ! onset is mu* m gradual & ! wan+ mu* less frequ5t ?an has be5 tak5 = grant$4 ,our ignorance conc]n+ all ^! matt]s outweighs our k2 only c>eful exp]im5tation :i* all[s = all ! o!r factors involv$ c give a reliable answ]4 ,"o reason :y ! facts ( delay$ness & transitor9ess 9 in/9cts h be5 s g5]ally accept$ )\t be+ ?or\ghly te/$ has be5 ! belief 9 ! recapitulation or repeat+ by ! individual ( racial developm5t4 ,s long z ?is 0 accept$ z expla9+ ! developm5t ( inborn t5d5cies & _! ord] ( appe>ance1 transitor9ess & delay$ness mu/ necess>ily be po/ulat$4 ,?is !ory is be+ s]i\sly que/ion$ by psy*ologi/s ( note1 & ev5 its /ronge/ advocate1 ,presid5t ,hall1 f9ds _m que/ions conc]n+ x :i* _c be answ]$4 ,! *ief reasons = its acceptance 7 fir/1 on logical gr\nds z an outgr[? ( ! doctr9e ( evolution1 & second1 because ( an analogy ) ! gr[? ( ! physical body :i* 0 pu%$ to an extreme4 ,on ! physiological side1 al?\gh !re is "s lik5ess betwe5 ! human embryo & t ( ! l[] animals1 /ill ! /ages pass$ ?r\gh by ! two are n ! same1 be+ alike only 9 r\gh outl9e1 & only 9 ! case ( a few ( ! bodily organs is ! s]ies ( *anges simil>4 ,9 ! case ( ! physical /ructure :i* %\ld be recapitulat$ mo/ closely1 if behavior is to foll[ ! same law1--namely1 9 t ( ! bra9 & n]v\s sy/em1--!re is lea/ evid5ce ( recapitulation4 ,! bra9 ( man does n foll[ 9 its developm5t at all ! same c\rse tak5 9 ! developm5t ( bra9s 9 ! l[] animals4 ,&1 moreov]1 x is p]fectly possible to expla9 any simil>ity or p>allelism :i* does exi/ betwe5 ! developm5t ( man's embryo & t ( l[] animals by po/ulat+ a g5]al ord] ( developm5t foll[$ by nature z ! easie/ or mo/ economical1 traces ( :i* mu/ !n be f\nd 9 all animal life4 ,:5 x comes to ! actual te/ ( ! !ory1 t ( f9d+ actual cases ( recapitulation 9 behavior1 x fails4 ,no "o has be5 able to po9t out j :5 a *ild passes ?r\gh any /age ( racial developm5t1 & any attempt to d s has result$ 9 confusion4 ,!re is no cle>-cut m>k+ (f into /ages1 b1 in/ead1 ov]lapp+ & coexi/5ce ( t5d5cies *>act]ize ! developm5t ( ! *ild4 ,! infant ( a few days old may %[ ! swimm+ movem5ts1 b at ! same "t he c support 8 own weight by cl++ to a horizontal /ick4 ,:i* /age is he recapitulat+1 t ( ! fi%es or ! monkeys8 ,! n9e-ye>-old boy loves to swim1 climb trees1 & hunt l a savage all at ! same p]iod1 &1 :at is m1 "s ( ^! same t5d5cies *>act]ize ! college man4 ,! late matur+ ( ! sex in/9ct1 s old & /rong 9 ! race1 & ! e>ly appe>+ ( ! t5d5cies t[>ds vocalization & grasp+1 bo? ( late date 9 ! race1 are facts t are h>d to expla9 on ! basis ( ! !ory ( recapitulation4 ,z has be5 already sugge/$1 "o ( ! mo/ important *>act]i/ics ( all ^! t5d5cies is _! modifiability4 ,! v ease ) :i* !y c be modifi$ sugge/s t ?is is :at has mo/ (t5 to be done ) !m4 ,on exam9ation ( ! li/s ( orig9al t5d5cies !re are none :i* c be kept & fix$ 9 ! =m 9 :i* !y fir/ appe>4 ,ev5 ! be/ ( !m are crude & impossible f ! /&po9t ( civiliz$ society4 ,take z an illu/ration "m-love2 :at are ! orig9al t5d5cies & behavior8 ,all wom5 possess orig9ally1 f e>ly *ildhood to dea?1 "s int]e/ 9 human babies1 & a responsiv5ess to ! in/9ctive looks1 calls1 ge/ures1 & cries ( infancy & *ildhood1 be+ satisfi$ by *ildi% gurgl+s1 smiles1 & affectionate ge/ures1 & mov$ to in/9ctive com=t+ acts ( *ildi% signs ( pa91 grief1 & mis]y4 ,b ! "m has to le>n n to cuddle ! baby & talk to x all ! "t x is awake & n to run to x & take x up at e cry1 to /eel h] he>t aga9/ ! :e$l+ ( ! coax+ gurgles & ev5 to all[ ! baby to hurt himself1 all = 8 own good4 ,?is comes ab\t only z orig9al nature is modifi$ 9 l9e ) k & ideals4 ,! same ne$ is evid5c$ by su* a valuable t5d5cy z curiosity4 ,s f> z orig9al nature goes1 ! t5d5cy to att5d to novel objects1 to human behavior1 to explore ) ! eyes & manipulate ) ! h&s1 to enjoy hav+ s5sations ( all k9ds m]ely = _! own sakes1 make up :at is kn[n z ! in/9ct ( curiosity4 ,b :at a trem5d\s am\nt ( modification is necess>y be=e ^! crude responses result 9 ! valuable sci5tific curiosity4 ,n bl9d foll[+ :]e in/9ct leads1 b modification1 mu/ be ! wat*word4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are equally few t5d5cies t c\ld be sp>$1 c\ld be absolutely vot$ out )\t loss to ! individual or ! race4 ,bully+ z an orig9al t5d5cy seems to add no?+ to ! possibilities ( developm5t1 b e o!r inborn t5d5cy has its value4 ,jeal\sy1 ang]1 fight+1 rivalry1 possessiv5ess1 fe>1 ea* has its quota to contribute to valuable manhood & womanhood4 ,aga91 n suppression b a wise control mu/ be ! attitude ( ! educator4 ,inhibition ( c]ta9 phases or elem5ts ( "s ( ! t5d5cies is necess>y = ! mo/ valuable developm5t ( ! individual1 b ! entire loss ( any save "o or two w\ld be disa/r\s to "s =m ( adult usefulness or enjoym5t4 ,! me?od by :i* valuable elem5ts or phases ( an orig9al t5d5cy are fix$ & /r5g!n$ is ! g5]al me?od ( habit =mation & w be tak5 up "u t head 9 ,*apt] ,,iv4 ,:5 ! modification involves def9ite inhibition1 !re are ?ree possible me?ods1--puni%m5t1 disuse1 & sub/itution4 ,z an example ( ! use ( ! ?ree me?ods take ! case ( a *ild :o develops a fe> ( ! d>k4 ,9 us+ ! fir/ me?od ! *ild w\ld be puni%$ e "t he exhibit$ fe> ( ! d>k4 ,by us+ ! second me?od he w\ld nev] be all[$ to g into a d>k room1 a light be+ left burn+ 9 8 b$room1 etc41 until ! t5d5cy to fe> ! d>k _h pass$4 ,9 ! ?ird me?od ! emotion ( fe> w\ld be replac$ by t ( joy or satisfaction by mak+ ! b$time ! occasion = tell+ a favorite /ory or = be+ all[$ to h ! be/-lov$ toy1 or = be+ play$ ) or cuddl$4 ,! situation ( d>kness might be met 9 /ill ano!r way4 ,if ! *ild 7 old en\gh1 ! emotion ( c\rage might replace t ( fe> by hav+ him make believe he 0 a soldi] or a policeman4 ,! me?od ( puni%m5t is ! usual "o1 ! "o mo/ tea*]s & p>5ts use fir/4 ,x relies = its effectiv5ess on ! g5]al law ( ! n]v\s sy/em t pa9 t5ds to weak5 ! connections ) ^: activity x is associat$4 ,! me?od is weak 9 t pa9 is n a /rong en\gh weapon to break ! fundam5tal connections2 x is n kn[n h[ mu* ( x is necess>y to break ev5 weak] ones2 x is negative 9 its results--break+ "o connection b replac+ x by no?+ else4 ,! second me?od ( inhibition is t ( disuse4 ,x is possible to inhibit by ?is means1 because lack ( use ( connections 9 ! n]v\s sy/em results 9 atrophy4 ,z a me?od x is valuable because x does n ar\se resi/ance or ang]4 ,x is weak 9 t z nei!r ! delay$ness nor ! transitor9ess ( in/9cts is kn[n1 :5 to beg9 to keep ! situation f ! *ild1 & h[ long to keep x away 9 ord] to provide = ! dy+ out ( ! connections1 are n kn[n4 ,! me?od is negative & v unsure ( results4 ,! me?od ( sub/itution dep5ds = its use ^u ! pres5ce 9 ! individual ( oppos+ t5d5cies & ( diff]5t levels ( developm5t 9 ! same t5d5cy4 ,because ( ?is fact a c]ta9 response to a situation may be inhibit$ by =m+ ! habit ( meet+ ! situation 9 ano!r way or ( replac+ a l[] phase ( a t5d5cy by a high] "o4 ,?is me?od is difficult to h&le because ( ! ne$ ( k ( ! orig9al t5d5cies ( *ildr5 9 g5]al :i* x implies z well z ! k ( ! capacities & developm5t ( ! individual *ild ) :om ! "w is be+ done4 ,! am\nt ( "t & individual att5tion necess>y adds ano!r difficulty4 ,h[ev]1 x is by f> ! be/ me?od ( ! ?ree1 = x is sure1 is economical1 us+ ! en]gy t is provid$ by nature1 is educative1 & is positive4 ,to replace :at is poor or h>mful by some?+ bett] is "o ( ! greate/ problems ( human life--& ?is is ! outcome ( ! me?od ( sub/itution4 ,all ?ree me?ods h _! place 9 a sy/em ( education1 & c]ta9 ( !m are m 9 place at c]ta9 times ?an at o!rs1 b at all times if ! me?od ( sub/itution c be us$ x %\ld be4 ,! in/9ct ( physical activity is "o ( ! mo/ noticeable ones 9 babyhood4 ,! "y baby seems to be 9 con/ant movem5t4 ,ev5 :5 asleep1 ! twit*+s & squirm+s may cont9ue4 ,?is cont9u$ muscul> activity is necess>y because ! motor n]ves (f] ! only possible pa? ( dis*>ge at fir/4 ,z high] c5t]s 9 ! bra9 are develop$1 ! +o+ curr5ts1 ar\s$ by all s5se /imuli1 f9d o!r connections1 & ideas1 images1 tra9s ( ?\ghts1 are ar\s$1 & s ! en]gy is consum$2 b at fir/ all t ^! curr5ts c d is to ar\se physical activity4 ,! /r5g? ( ?is in/9ct is b little dim9i%$ by ! "t ! *ild comes to s*ool4 ,8 natural incl9ation is to d ?+s requir+ movem5t ( all ! gr[+ muscles4 ,inhibition1 sitt+ /ill1 be+ quiet1 takes real ef=t on 8 "p1 & is extremely fatigu+4 ,?is in/9ct is extremely valuable 9 sev]al ways3 x gives ! ex]cise necess>y to a gr[+ body1 provides ! exp]i5ce ( muscle movem5ts necess>y = control1 & /imulates m5tal gr[? ?r\gh ! increase & v>iety ( exp]i5ces x gives4 ,! t5d5cy to enjoy m5tal activity1 to be satisfi$ ) x = its own sake1 is peculi>ly a human trait4 ,?is capacity %[s itself 9 two important ways--9 ! int]e/ 9 s5sory /imuli1 usually discuss$ "u ! head ( curiosity1 & 9 ! delight 9 be+ a cause or m5tal control4 ,! int]e/ 9 ta/es1 s\nds1 sights1 t\*es1 etc41 m]ely = _! own sake1 is v evid5t 9 a baby4 ,he sp5ds mo/ ( 8 wak+ "t 9 j t enjoym5t4 ,?\gh m complex1 x is /ill /rong :5 ! *ild ent]s s*ool1 & = ye>s any object ( s5se :i* attracts 8 att5tion is mat]ial :i* ar\ses ?is in/9ct4 ,! second =m 9 :i* ! in/9ct = m5tal ability %[s itself is lat] 9 developm5t & involves ! second>y bra9 connections4 ,x is ! satisfaction ar\s$ by results ( :i* ! individual is ! cause4 ,= example1 ! enjoym5t ( a *ild 9 see+ a ball sw+ or he>+ a :i/le bl[n w\ld be a manife/ation ( curiosity1 :ile ! add$ int]e/ :i* is always pres5t :5 ! *ild n only sees ! ball sw+ b sw+s x1 n only he>s ! :i/le b bl[s x himself1 is a result ( ! second t5d5cy1 t ( joy 9 be+ a cause4 ,z ! *ild gr[s old] ! same t5d5cy %[s itself on a high] level :5 ! mat]ials dealt )1 in/ead ( be+ s5sations or p]cepts1 are images or ideas4 ,! int]e/ 9 foll[+ out a tra9 ( ideas to a logical conclusion1 ( build+ ca/les 9 ! air1 ( mak+ plans & gett+ results1 all f9d _! taproot 9 ?is in/9ctive t5d5cy t[>ds m5tal activity4 ,9 close connection ) ! g5]al t5d5cy t[>ds physical activity is ! in/9ct ( manipulation4 ,f ?is crude root gr[s con/ructiv5ess & de/ructiv5ess4 ,z x %[s itself at fir/ x has ! elem5ts ( nei!r4 ,! *ild inh]its ! t5d5cy to respond by _m diff]5t arm1 h&1 & f+] movem5ts to _m diff]5t objects--pok+1 pull+1 h&l+1 te>+1 pil+1 digg+1 & dropp+ objects4 ,j :at habits ( us+ tools1 & ! l1 w gr[ out ( ?is t5d5cy w dep5d on ! education & tra9+ x gets4 ,! habits ( con/ructiv5ess may be develop$ 9 diff]5t sorts ( m$ia4 ,! ord] ( _! availability is r\ghly z foll[s3 fir/1 9 ! use ( mat]ials su* z wood1 clay1 raffia1 etc42 second1 9 ! use ( p5cil & bru% ) color1 etc42 ?ird1 9 ! use ( words4 ,we %\ld !re=e expect & provide = consid]able developm5t along manual l9es be=e dem&+ mu* 9 ! way ( lit]>y expression4 ,inde$1 x may be argu$ t ri*ness ( exp]i5ce 9 do+ is pr]equisite to v]bal expression4 ,acquisitiv5ess & collect+ are two closely alli$ t5d5cies ( great /r5g?4 ,e *ild has a t5d5cy to approa*1 grasp1 & c>ry (f any object n too l>ge :i* attracts 8 att5tion1 & to be satisfi$ by its m]e possession4 ,bl9d ho>d+ & collect+ ( objects sometimes valueless 9 !mselves results4 ,?is in/9ct is v mu* influ5c$ 9 its manife/ation by o!rs :i* are pres5t at ! same "t1 su* z ! food-gett+ in/9ct1 rivalry1 love ( approval1 etc4 ,! "t at :i* ! t5d5cy to collect seems /ronge/ is at ab\t n9e ye>s1 judg$ by ! numb] ( collections p] *ild4 ,rivalry z an in/9ct %[s itself 9 increas$ vigor1 9 in/9ctive activity :5 o!rs are engag$ 9 ! same activity1 & 9 satisfaction :5 sup]iority is atta9$4 ,!re is probably no inborn t5d5cy :]eby ^! responses ( increas$ vigor & satisfaction are ar\s$ 9 connection ) any k9d ( activity4 ,we d n try to surpass o!rs 9 ! way we talk or 9 our moral habits or 9 our intellectual atta9m5ts1 z a result ( nature1 b r z a result ( pa9/ak+ education4 ,z an in/9ct1 rivalry is ar\s$ only 9 connection ) o!r in/9ctive responses4 ,9 gett+ food1 9 secur+ att5tion or approval1 9 hunt+ & collect+1 ! activity w\ld be increas$ by see+ ano!r do+ ! same ?+1 & satisfaction w\ld be ar\s$ at success or annoyance at failure4 ,! use ( rivalry 9 o!r activities & at o!r levels comes z a result ( exp]i5ce4 ,! fight+ responses are call$ out by a v>iety ( situations4 ,^! situations are def9ite & ! responses to !m diff] f ea* o!r4 ,9 ea* case ! *ild tries by physical =ce ( "s k9d1 by scrat*+1 kick+1 bit+1 slapp+1 ?r[+1 & ! l1 to *ange ! situation into a m agreeable "o4 ,?is is true :e!r he be try+ to escape f ! re/ra9+ arms ( 8 "m or to compel ano!r *ild to recognize 8 ma/]y4 ,orig9al nature end[s u ) ! pugnaci\s in/9ct on ! physical level & 9 connection ) situations :i* = v>i\s reasons annoy u4 ,if ?is is to be rais$ 9 its mann] ( response f ! physical to ! intellectual level1 if ! occasions call+ x out are to be *ang$ f ^? t m]ely annoy "o to ^? :i* involve ! rights ( o!rs & matt]s ( pr9ciple1 x mu/ be z a result ( education4 ,nature provides only ?is crude root4 ,imitation has long be5 discuss$ z "o ( ! mo/ important & influ5tial ( human in/9cts4 ,x has be5 reg>d$ z a big g5]al t5d5cy to attempt to d :atev] "o saw any "o else do+4 ,z su* a t5d5cy x does n exi/4 ,x is only 9 c]ta9 n>r[ l9es t ! t5d5cy to imitate %[s itself1 su* z smil+ :5 smil$ at1 yell+ :5 o!rs yell1 look+ & li/5+1 runn+1 cr\*+1 attack+1 etc41 :5 o!rs d4 ,to ?is ext5t & 9 simil> situations ! t5d5cy to imitate seems to be truly an in/9ct4 ,imitat+ 9 o!r l9es1 su* z writ+ z ano!r writes1 talk+1 dress+1 act+ l a fri5d1 try+ to use ! me?ods us$ by o!rs1 etc41 are a result ( exp]i5ce & education4 ,! spontane\s1 dramatic1 & volunt>y imitation discuss$ by "s au?ors are ! /ages ( developm5t ( habits ( imitation4 ,! desire to be ) o!rs ( ! same species1 ! satisfaction at company & ! discom=t ar\s$ by solitude1 is "o ( ! /ronge/ roots ( all social t5d5cies & cu/oms4 ,x manife/s itself 9 "y babies1 & cont9ues a /rong =ce ?r\gh\t life4 ,z an in/9ct x has no?+ to d ) ei!r be+ int]e/$ 9 tak+ "o's %>e 9 ! duties or pleasures ( ! gr\p or ) be+ int]e/$ 9 p = _! own sakes4 ,x is m]ely t company makes "o com=table & solitude annoys "o4 ,any?+ fur!r mu/ come z a result ( exp]i5ce4 ,mo!rl9ess & k9dl9ess h z _! *>act]i/ic behavior t5d5cies to respond by in/9ctive com=t+ acts to signs ( pa91 grief1 or mis]y %[n by liv+ ?+s1 especially1 by *ildr51 & by ! feel+ ( satisfaction & ! sight ( happ9ess 9 o!rs4 ,( c\rse v (t5 ^! in/9ctive responses are int]f]$ ) by ! pres5ce ( "s o!r in/9ct1 su* z fight+1 hunt+1 own]%ip1 or scorn1 b t su* t5d5cies to respond 9 su* situations are a "p ( ! orig9al equipm5t ( man seems beyond dispute4 ,!y are possess$ by bo? sexes & manife/ !mselves 9 v e>ly *ildhood4 ,!re are orig9al t5d5cies to respond bo? 9 gett+ & 9 giv+ approval & scorn4 ,by orig9al nature1 smiles1 pats1 admiration1 & companion%ip f "o to :om submission is giv5 ar\ses int5se satisfaction2 & ! )drawal ( su* responses1 & ! expression ( scorn or disapproval1 excites great discom=t4 ,ev5 ! expression ( approval or scorn f any "o--a /rang] or a s]vant--br+s ) x ! responses ( satisfaction or discom=t4 ,j z /rongly m>k$ are orig9al t5d5cies :i* cause responses ( approval & cause z a result ( relief f hung]1 rescue f fe>1 gorge\s display1 in/9ctive acts ( /r5g?1 d>+ & victory1 & responses ( scorn to ! obs]vation ( empty-h&$ness1 de=mity1 physical meanness1 pusillanimity1 & defect4 ,! desire = approval is nev] outgr[n--x is "o ( ! gov]n+ =ces 9 society4 ,if x is to be %[n or desir$ on any b ?is crude level ( in/9ctive response1 x c only come by education4 ,*ildr5 come to s*ool ) bo? an orig9al nature det]m9$ by _! human inh]itance & by _! m imm$iate family relation%ip1 & ) an education m significant1 p]haps1 ?an any :i* ! s*ool c provide4 ,f e>lie/ infancy up to ! "t ( ent]+ a k9d]g>t5 or a fir/ grade1 ! orig9al equipm5t 9 t]ms ( in/9cts1 capacities1 & abilities has be5 utiliz$ by ! *ild & direct$ by 8 p>5ts & associates 9 le>n+ to walk & to talk1 to con=m to c]ta9 social /&>ds or requirem5ts1 to accept c]ta9 rules or precepts1 or to act 9 accordance ) c]ta9 beliefs or sup]/itions4 ,! problem :i* ! tea*] faces is t ( direct+ & guid+ an individual1 :o is at ! same "t bo? educat$ & 9 possession ( t5d5cies & capacities :i* make possible fur!r developm5t4 ,n infrequ5tly ! education :i* *ildr5 h :5 !y come to s*ool may 9 "s measure h&icap ! tea*]4 ,x is un=tunate1 b true1 t 9 "s homes in/9ctive t5d5cies :i* %\ld h be5 ov]come h be5 magnifi$4 ,! control ( *ildr5 is sometimes secur$ ?r\gh ! utilization ( ! in/9ct ( fe>4 ,! fight+ in/9ct may (t5 h be5 ov]develop$ 9 a home 9 :i* disagreem5t & nagg+1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( physical viol5ce1 h tak5 ! place ( reason4 ,pride & jeal\sy may h tak5 deep root on acc\nt ( ! enc\ragem5t & approval :i* h be5 giv5 by ?\ghtless adults4 ,! tea*] does n attack ! problem ( education ) a clean slate1 b r x is 8 to discov] :at results h already be5 a*iev$ 9 ! education ( ! *ild1 :e!r !y be good or bad1 = x is 9 ! light ( orig9al nature or orig9al t5d5cies to behave1 & 9 ! light ( ! education already secur$1 t ! tea*] mu/ "w4 ,:5 "o realizes ! great v>iety or diff]5ces 9 ability or capacity1 z det]m9$ by h]$ity1 & :5 !re is add$ to ?is diff]5ce 9 orig9al nature ! fact ( v>iety 9 tra9+ :i* *ildr5 h exp]i5c$ prior to _! s*ool life1 he _c fail to emphasize ! necessity = individualiz+ *ildr54 ,:ile x is true t we may assume t all *ildr5 w take delight 9 a*ievem5t1 x may be necess>y ) "o *ild to /ir z mu* z possible ! _s ( rivalry1 to give z f> z "o c ! delight :i* comes f success1 :ile = ano!r *ild 9 ! same class "o may ne$ to m9imize success on acc\nt ( a _s ( arrogance :i* has be5 develop$ be=e s*ool life began4 ,x is possible to conceive ( a situation 9 :i* "s *ildr5 ne$ to be enc\rag$ to fight1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( engag+ 9 physical combat1 9 ord] to develop a k9d ( c\rage :i* w accept physical discom=t r ?an give up a pr9ciple or ideal4 ,9 ! same gr\p !re may be *ildr5 = :om ! tea*] mu/ "w prim>ily 9 t]ms ( develop+1 9 s f> z he c1 ! will+ness to reason or discuss ! issue :i* may h ar\s$ ! fight+ in/9ct4 ,= all *ildr5 9 elem5t>y & 9 high s*ools ! possibility ( utiliz+ _! orig9al nature = ! sake ( t developm5t :i* w result 9 action :i* is socially desirable is /ill pres5t4 ,! problem :i* ! tea*] faces w be m or less difficult 9 proportion z ! *ild's end[m5t by orig9al nature is l>ge or small1 & z previ\s education has be5 successful or unsuccessful4 ,! skillful tea*] is ! "o :o w con/antly seek to utilize to ! full ^? in/9cts or capacities :i* seem mo/ pot5t4 ,?is utilization1 z has already be5 po9t$ out1 does n mean a bl9d foll[+ ( ! in/9ctive t5d5cies1 b (t5 ! sub/itution ( a high] =m ( action = a l[]1 :i* may seem to be relat$ to ! in/9ct 9 "q4 ,x is probably wise to enc\rage collections ( /amps1 ( pictures1 ( diff]5t k9ds ( wood1 & ! l1 ^u ! "p ( *ildr5 9 ! elem5t>y s*ool1 provid$ always t ! tea*] has 9 m9d ! possibility ( lead+ ^! *ildr51 ?r\gh _! int]e/ 9 objects1 to desire to collect ideas4 ,inde$1 a tea*] might measure h] success 9 utiliz+ ! collect+ in/9ct 9 proportion z *ildr5 become relatively less int]e/$ 9 ?+s collect$1 & m int]e/$ 9 ! ideas sugge/$ by !m1 or 9 ! ma/]y ( fields ( k or inve/igation 9 :i* objects h v little significance4 ,! desire = physical activity ^u ! "p ( *ildr5 is orig9ally satisfi$ by v crude p]=mances4 ,developm5t is measur$ n simply 9 an increase 9 manual dext]ity1 b also 9 t]ms ( ! high] satisfaction :i* may come f produc+ articles :i* h arti/ic m]it1 or engag+ 9 games ( skill :i* make = ! highe/ physical effici5cy4 ,dur+ ! :ole p]iod ( *ildhood & adolesc5ce we may nev] assume t ! results ( previ\s education1 :e!r !y be favorable or unsatisfactory1 are p]man5t4 ,:e!r we succe$ or n 9 a*iev+ ! ends :i* we desire1 ! fact ( modifiability1 ( docility1 & ( pla/icity rema9s4 ,! tea*] :o seeks to und]/& ! individuals ) :om he works1 bo? 9 t]ms ( _! orig9al nature & 9 t]ms ( _! previ\s education1 & :o at ! same "t seeks to sub/itute = a l[] phase ( an in/9ctive t5d5cy a high] "o1 or :o tries to h 8 pupils respond to a situation by inhibit+ a p>ticul> t5d5cy by =m+ ! habit ( meet+ ! situation 9 ano!r way1 ne$ n despair ( results :i* are socially desirable4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,may a tea*] ev] expect ! *ildr5 9 8 class to be equal 9 a*ievem5t8 ,:y8 #b4 ,:y is x n possible to educate *ildr5 satisfactorily by foll[+ :]e in/9cts lead8 #c4 ,:i* ( ! in/9cts seem mo/ /rong 9 ! *ildr5 9 y\r class8 #d4 ,c y give any example ( an in/9ctive t5d5cy :i* y ?9k %\ld h be5 outgr[n b :i* seems to p]si/ among y\r pupils8 #e4 ,give examples ( ! inhibition ( undesirable actions bas$ ^u in/9ctive t5d5cies by means ( 7#a7 puni%m5t1 7#b7 disuse1 7#c7 sub/itution4 #f4 ,h[ c y use ! t5d5cy to enjoy m5tal activity8 #g4 ,:y does build+ a boat make a /rong] appeal to a boy ?an engag+ 9 manual tra9+ ex]cises :i* might involve ! same am\nt ( activity8 #h4 ,cite examples ( collections made by boys & girls 9 :i* ! ideas associat$ ) ! objects collect$ may be m important ?an ! objects !mselves4 #i4 ,9 :at degree are we ju/ifi$ 9 speak+ ( ! social in/9ct8 ,! in/9ct to imitate8 #aj4 ,h[ c y use ! fight+ in/9ct 9 y\r "w ) *ildr58 #aa4 ,:at c tea*]s d to influ5ce ! education :i* *ildr5 h receiv$ or are gett+ outside ( s*ool8 #ab4 ,:at diff]5ces 9 action among ! *ildr5 9 y\r class d y attribute to diff]5ces 9 orig9al nature8 ,:at to diff]5ces 9 education8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iii4 ,,att5tion ,,& ,,int]e/ ,,9 ,,tea*+ ,att5tion is a function ( consci\sness4 ,:]ev] consci\sness is1 att5tion mu/ p]=ce be pres5t4 ,"o _c exi/ )\t ! o!r4 ,accord+ to mo/ psy*ologi/s1 ! t]m att5tion is us$ to describe ! =m consci\sness takes1 to ref] to ! fact t consci\sness is selective4 ,x simply means t consci\sness is always focal & m>g9al--t "s ideas1 facts1 or feel+s /& out 9 great] prom95ce ?an d o!rs1 & t ! pres5ce ( ?is p]spective 9 consci\sness is a matt] ( me*anical adju/m5t4 ,james describes consci\sness by lik5+ x to a s]ies ( waves1 ea* hav+ a cre/ & sides :i* correspond to ! focus & m>g9 ( att5tion4 ,! =m ( ! wave *anges f a high %>p cre/ ) almo/ /raight sides 9 po9t$1 conc5trat$ att5tion1 to a s]ies ( m]e undulations1 :5 cre/s are difficult to di/+ui%1 9 s-call$ /ates ( disp]s$ att5tion4 ,! latt] /ates are r>e 9 normal individuals1 al?\gh !y may be r frequ5t 9 c]ta9 types ( l[-grade m5tal defectives4 ,?is ( c\rse means t /ates ( inatt5tion d n exi/ 9 normal p4 ,s long z consci\sness is pres5t "o mu/ be att5d+ to some?+4 ,! day dream is (t5 accompani$ by conc5trat$ att5tion4 ,only :5 we are truly ?9k+ ( no?+1 & t c only be z unconsci\sness approa*es1 is att5tion abs5t4 ,:at is true ( att5tion is also true ( int]e/1 = int]e/ is com+ m & m to be consid]$ ! feel+ side ( att5tion1 or ! affective accompanim5t ( att5tion4 ,! k9d ( int]e/ may v>y1 b "s k9d is always pres5t4 ,! place ! int]e/ occupies may also v>y3 sometimes ! affective /ate itself is s /rong t x =ces itself into ! focal po9t & becomes ! object ( att5tion4 ,! *ief fact ( importance1 h[ev]1 is t att5tion & int]e/ are insep>able & bo? are coexi/5t ) consci\sness4 ,?is selective action ( consci\sness is me*anical1 due to ! inborn t5d5cies t[>d att5tion possess$ by human be+s4 ,! situations :i* by _! v nature occupy ! focal po9t 9 consci\sness are color & brightness1 novelty1 sudd5 *anges & %>p contra/s1 rhy?m & cad5ce1 movem5t1 & all o!r situations to :i* !re are o!r in/9ctive responses1 su* z hunt+1 collect+1 curiosity1 manipulation1 etc4 ,9 o!r words1 *ildr5 are born ) t5d5cies to att5d to an enorm\s numb] ( situations because ( ! numb] ( in/9ctive responses !y possess4 ,s great is ?is numb] t psy*ologi/s us$ to talk ab\t ! omnivor\sness ( *ildr5's att5tion1 believ+ t !y att5d$ to ev]y?+4 ,su* a g5]al att5tion seems n to be true4 ,h[ev]1 x is because s _m situations h ! p[] to =ce consci\sness to a cre/ t human be+s h develop$ ! intellectual p[] t puts !m s f> above o!r animals4 ,t ^! situations d attract att5tion is %[n by ! fact t individuals respond by movem5ts :i* enable !m to be m deeply impress$ or impress$ = a long] "t by ! situations 9 "q4 ,= example1 a baby w focus 8 eyes ^u a bright object & !n move eyes & head to foll[ x if x moves f 8 field ( vision4 ,j :at ! situations are1 !n1 :i* w ar\se responses ( att5tion 9 any giv5 individual w dep5d 9 ! fir/ place ^u 8 age1 sex1 & maturity1 & 9 ! second place ^u 8 exp]i5ce4 ,! process ( le>n+ v quickly modifies ! inborn t5d5cies to att5tion by add+ new situations :i* dem& x4 ,x is ! ?+s we le>n to att5d to t make u human r ?an m]ely animal4 ,! fact ( att5tion or selection mu/ ( necessity involve also inhibition or neglect4 ,! v fact ( ! selection ( c]ta9 objects & qualities means ! neglect ( o!rs4 ,?is fact ( neglect is at fir/ j z me*anical z t ( att5tion1 b exp]i5ces tea* u to neglect "s situations :i* by orig9al nature attract$ att5tion4 ,f ! /&po9t ( education :at we neglect is q z important z :at is select$ = att5tion4 ,! bread? ( a p]son's att5tion1 i4e41 ! numb] ( l9es along :i* att5tion is possible1 mu/ v>y ) age & exp]i5ce4 ,! y\ng] or ! m immature an individual is1 ! great] ! numb] ( diff]5t l9es to :i* att5tion is giv54 ,x is ! little *ild ^: att5tion seems omnivor\s1 & x is ! old p]son = :om situations wor?y ( att5tion h n>r[$ d[n to a few l9es4 ,?is mu/ ( necessity be s1 due to ! int]relation ( att5tion & neglect4 ,! v fact ( cont9u+ to give att5tion along "o l9e means less & less ability & desire to att5d along o!r l9es4 ,! "q z to h[ _m ?+s1 :e!r objects or ideas1 c be att5d$ to at ! same "t1 has ar\s$ consid]able discussion4 ,mo/ p ?9k t !y are att5d+ to sev]al ?+s1 if n to _m1 at ! same second ( consci\sness4 ,exp]im5ts %[ t if f\r or five unrelat$ objects1 words1 or lett]s be %[n to adults = less ?an "o qu>t] ( a second1 !y c be appreh5d$1 b ! probability is t !y are photograph$1 s to speak1 on ! eye & c\nt$ aft]w>ds4 ,x is ! g5]al belief ( psy*ologi/s at pres5t t ! m9d att5ds to only "o ?+ at a "t1 t only "o idea or object c occupy ! focal po9t 9 consci\sness4 ,! app>5t contradiction betwe5 ord9>y exp]i5ce & psy*ological exp]i5ce along ?is l9e is due to ?ree facts :i* are (t5 ov]look$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! complexity ( ! idea or ?+ t c be att5d$ to z a unit v>ies trem5d\sly4 ,diff]5ces 9 p acc\nt = "p ( ?is v>iation1 b tra9+ & exp]i5ce acc\nt = /ill m4 ,our ideas become m & m complex z exp]i5ce & famili>ity build !m up4 ,qualities :i* to a little *ild dem& sep>ate acts ( att5tion are ) ! adult m]g$ into 8 p]ception ( ! object4 ,j z simple words1 al?\gh compos$ ( sep>ate lett]s1 are p]ceiv$ z units1 s ) tra9+1 m complex units may be f\nd :i* c be att5d$ to z :oles4 ,s 7to ! ignorant or ! un9/ruct$7 :at is app>5tly att5d+ to m ?an "o ?+ at a "t may be expla9$ by ! complexity ( ! unit :i* is receiv+ ! att5tion4 ,9 ! second place do+ m ?an "o ?+ at a "t does n imply att5d+ to m ?an "o ?+ at a "t4 ,an activity :i* is habitual or me*anical does n ne$ att5tion1 b c be c>ri$ on by ! control ex]cis$ by ! fr+e ( consci\sness4 ,att5tion may be ne$$ to />t ! activity or if a difficulty ( any k9d %\ld arise1 b t is all4 ,= ! re/ ( ! "t x c be devot$ to any?+ else4 ,! great spe$ ) :i* att5tion c fla% f "o ?+ to ano!r & back aga9 mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation 9 all ?is discussion4 ,s f> z att5tion goes1 "o c d z _m ?+s at a "t z he c make me*anical plus "o unfamili> "o4 ,?us a woman c rock ! baby's cradle1 croon a lullaby1 knit1 & at ! same "t be ?9k+ ( illu/rations = h] pap] at ! ,woman's ,club1 because only "o ( ^! activities ne$s att5tion4 ,:5 no "o ( ! activities is automatic & ! individual mu/ dep5d on ! rapid *ange ( att5tion f "o to ! o!r to keep !m go+1 ! results obta9$ are likely to be poor & ! fatigue is great4 ,! attempt to take notes :ile li/5+ to a lecture is ( ?is ord]1 & h5ce ! unsatisfactor9ess ( ! results4 ,! ?ird fact :i* helps to expla9 ! app>5t contradiction "u discussion is closely relat$ to ?is "o4 ,x is possible :5 engag$ ) "o object to h sev]al que/ions or topics close by 9 ! fr+e ( consci\sness s t "o or ! o!r may fla% to ! focal po9t z ! developm5t ( ! tra9 ( ?\ght dem&s4 ,! individual is app>5tly consid]+ _m que/ions at ! same "t1 :5 9 reality x is ! read9ess ( ^! associations plus ! oscillations ( att5tion t acc\nt = ! activity4 ,! ability to d ?is sort ( ?+ dep5ds p>tly on ! individual1--"s p w always be p ( "o idea1--b tra9+ & exp]i5ce increase ! p[]4 ,! *ild :o 9 ! prim>y c be giv5 only "o ?+ to look = :5 he goes on 8 excursion may gr[ into ! y\? :o c c>ry half a doz5 diff]5t que/ions 9 8 m9d to :i* he is look+ = answ]s4 ,by conc5tration ( att5tion is meant ! dep? ( ! att5tion1 & ?is is measur$ by ! ease ) :i* a p]son's att5tion c be call$ (f ! topic ) :i* he is conc]n$4 ,! conc5tration may be s great t ! individual is oblivi\s to all t goes on ab\t him4 ,he may =get engagem5ts & meals because ( 8 absorption4 ,sometimes ev5 physical pa9 is n /rong en\gh to di/ract att5tion4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! conc5tration may be s slight t e pass+ s5se impression1 e irrelevant association call$ up by ! topic1 takes ! att5tion away f ! subject4 ,! dep? ( conc5tration dep5ds ^u f\r factors4 ,c]ta9 m5tal & physical conditions h a great deal to d ) ! conc5tration ( att5tion1 & ^! w be discuss$ lat]4 ,individual diff]5ces also acc\nt = ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( p[] ( conc5tration--"s p conc5trate naturally1 o!rs nev] get v deeply into any topic4 ,maturity is ano!r factor t is influ5tial4 ,a little *ild _c h great conc5tration1 simply because he has n _h exp]i5ce en\gh to give him _m associations ) :i* to "w4 ,8 att5tion is easily di/ract$4 ,al?\gh app>5tly absorb$ 9 play1 he he>s :at goes on ab\t him & notices _m ?+s :i* adults suppose he does n see4 ,?is same lack ( p[] %[s itself 9 any "o's att5tion :5 a new subject is tak5 up if he has few associations ) x4 ,( c\rse ?is means t o!r ?+s be+ equal ! old] "o is1 up to maturity at lea/1 ! great] "o's p[] ( conc5tration4 ,little *ildr5 h v little p[]1 adolesc5ts a great deal1 b x is ! adult :o excels 9 conc5tration4 ,al?\gh ?is is true1 ! f\r? factor1 t ( tra9+ 9 conc5tration1 does mu* t[>d increas+ ! p[] be=e full maturity is rea*$4 ,"o c le>n to conc5trate j z he c le>n to d any?+ else4 ,habits ( conc5tration1 ( ignor+ di/9ctions & int]ruptions1 ( putt+ all "o's p[] into ! "w 9 h&1 are j z possible z habits ( neatness4 ,! laws ( habit =mation apply 9 ! field ( att5tion j z truly z 9 e o!r field ( m5tal life4 ,laboratory exp]im5ts prove ! l>ge influ5ce :i* tra9+ has on conc5tration & ! great improvem5t t c be made4 ,x is true t few p d %[ mu* conc5tration ( att5tion :5 !y wi%4 ,?is is true ( adults z well z ( *ildr54 ,!y h =m$ habits ( work+ at half spe$1 ) little conc5tration & no real absorption 9 ! topic4 ,?is me?od ( "w is bo? wa/eful ( "t & en]gy & injuri\s to ! m5tal /ability & developm5t ( ! individual4 ,half-spe$ "w due to lack ( conc5tration (t5 means t a /ud5t w /ay ) a topic & fuss ov] x = h\rs in/ead ( work+ h>d & !n dropp+ x4 ,tea*]s (t5 d ?is sort ( ?+ ) _! s*ool "w4 ,n only are ! results less satisfactory1 because ! individual nev] gets deeply en\gh into ! topic to really get :at is !re1 b ! effect on him is bad4 ,x is l con/ant dripp+ we>s away ! /one4 ,*ildr5 mu/ be taught to "w :5 !y "w & play :5 !y play1 if !y are to h habits ( conc5tration z adults4 ,! l5g? ( "t :i* x is possible to att5d to ! same object or idea may be reckon$ 9 seconds4 ,x is impossible to hold ! att5tion on an object = any appreciable l5g? ( "t4 ,9 ord] to hold ! att5tion ! object mu/ *ange4 ,! simple exp]im5t ( try+ to pay att5tion to a blot ( ink or ! idea ( brav]y proves t *ange is necess>y if ! att5tion is n to w&]4 ,:at happ5s is t ei!r ! att5tion goes to some?+ else1 or t y beg9 ?9k+ ab\t ! ?+ 9 "q4 ,( c\rse1 ! m9ute y beg9 ?9k+1 new associations1 images1 memories1 come flock+ 91 & ! att5tion occupies itself ) ea* 9 turn4 ,all may conc]n ! idea ) :i* y />t$ out1 b ! v fact t ^! h be5 add$ to ! m5tal cont5t ( ! in/ant makes ! p]cept ( ink blot or ! concept ( brav]y diff]5t f ! b>e ?+ ) :i* ! att5tion began4 ,if ?is *ange & fluctuation ( ! m5tal /ate does n take place1 ! att5tion flits to some?+ else4 ,! l5g? ( "t t ! att5tion may be engag$ ) a topic w dep5d1 !n1 ^u ! numb] ( associations connect$ ) x4 ,! m "o kn[s ab\t a topic1 ! long] he c att5d to x4 ,if x is a new topic1 ! m sugge/ive x is 9 call+ up pa/ exp]i5ce or 9 (f]+ inc5tive = exp]im5t or application1 ! long] c att5tion /ay ) x4 ,su* a topic is usually call$ int]e/+1 b ^u analysis x seems t ?is means t = "o ( ! above reasons x develops or *anges & !re=e holds ! att5tion4 ,?is duration ( att5tion w v>y 9 l5g? f a few seconds to h\rs4 ,! *ild :o is giv5 a problem :i* means almo/ no?+1 :i* pres5ts a blank wall :5 he tries to att5d to x1 :i* (f]s no sugge/ions = solution1 is an illu/ration ( ! fir/4 ,att5tion to su* a problem is impossible2 8 att5tion mu/ w&]4 ,! g5ius :o1 work+ ) 8 favorite subject1 f9ds a multitude ( tra9s ( ?\ght call$ up by ea* idea1 & :o !re=e sp5ds h\rs on "o topic ) no vacillation ( att5tion1 is an illu/ration ( ! second4 ,att5tion has be5 classifi$ accord+ to ! k9d ( feel+ :i* accompanies ! activity4 ,sometimes att5tion comes spontane\sly1 freely1 & ! emotional tone is t accompany+ successful activity4 ,on ! o!r h&1 sometimes x has to be =c$ & is accompani$ by feel+s ( /ra9 & annoyance4 ,! fir/ type is call$ ,free#b att5tion2 ! second is ,=c$ att5tion4 ,free att5tion is giv5 :5 ! object ( att5tion satisfies a ne$2 :5 ! situation att5d$ to provides ! necess>y mat]ial = "s self-activity4 ,! activity ( ! individual at t second ne$s some?+ t ! situation 9 "q gives1 & h5ce free1 spontane\s att5tion results4 ,=c$ att5tion is giv5 :5 !re is a lack ( j su* feel+ ( ne$ 9 connection ) ! object ( att5tion4 ,x does n satisfy ! individual--x is di/9ct f 8 desires at ! "t4 ,he att5ds only because ( fe> ( ! results if he does n1 & h5ce ! condition is "o ( /ra94 ,all play takes free att5tion4 ,"w :i* holds ! work] because x is satisfy+ also takes free att5tion4 ,"w :i* has 9 x ! elem5t ( drudg]y ne$s =c$ att5tion4 ,! girl mak+ clo!s = h] doll1 ! boy build+ 8 %ack 9 ! woods1 ! inv5tor work+ ov] 8 ma*9e1 ! /ud5t absorb$ 9 8 hi/ory lesson1--all ^! are freely att5d+ to ! ?+ 9 h&4 ,! girl runn+ h] seam & hat+ x1 !1 boy build+ ! *ick5 coop :ile wi%+ to be at ! ball game1 ! inv5tor work+ ov] 8 ma*9e :5 8 ?\ghts & desires are ) 8 sick wife1 ! /ud5t try+ to /udy 8 hi/ory :5 ! debate 9 ! civics club is fill+ 8 m9d1--^! are cases :5 =c$ att5tion w\ld probably be necess>y4 ,x is v evid5t t !re is no "o situation :i* w necess>ily take ei!r free or =c$ att5tion because ! det]m9+ factor is n 9 ! situation p] se1 b 9 ! relation x be>s to ! m9d engag$ ) x4 ,sometimes ! same object w call =? =c$ att5tion f "o p]son & free f ano!r4 ,fur!r1 ! same object may at "o "t dem& free att5tion & at ano!r "t =c$ att5tion f ! same p]son1 dep5d+ on ! op]ation ( o!r factors4 ,x is also true t att5tion :i* 0 at fir/ =c$ may *ange into free z ! activity is p]sev]$ 94 ,al?\gh ^! two types ( att5tion are discuss$ z if !y 7 entirely sep>at$ f ea* o!r1 z if "o occurr$ 9 ?is situation & ! o!r 9 t1 /ill z a matt] ( fact ! actual conditions involve an int]play betwe5 ! two4 ,x is seldom true t free att5tion is giv5 = any great l5g? ( "t )\t fla%es ( =c$ att5tion be+ scatt]$ ?r\gh x4 ,(t5 ! =c$ att5tion may be ne$$ = c]ta9 p>ts ( ! "w1 al?\gh z a :ole x may take free att5tion4 ,! same ?+ is true ( occasions :5 =c$ att5tion is us$4 ,!re are p]iods 9 ! activity :5 free att5tion w c>ry ! work] on4 ,e activity1 !n1 is likely to be complex s f> z ! k9d ( att5tion us$1 b x is also *>act]iz$ by ! pr$om9ance ( "o or ! o!r type4 ,! "q z to ! conditions :i* call out ea* type ( att5tion is an important "o4 ,z has already be5 said1 free att5tion is giv5 :5 ! situation att5d$ to satisfies a ne$4 ,physiologically /at$1 free att5tion is giv5 :5 a neurone s]ies :i* is ready to act is call$ into activity4 ,! situations :i* d ?is1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 w be ^? :i* appeal to "s in/9ctive t5d5cy or capacity1 or to ! self-activity or ! p]sonal exp]i5ce ( ! individual & :i* !re=e are 9 accord ) 8 /age ( developm5t & 8 exp]i5ce4 ,=c$ att5tion is necess>y :5 ! neurone tracts us$ by ! att5tion are = "s reason unready to act4 ,situations to :i* att5tion is giv5 ?r\gh fe> ( puni%m5t1 or :5 ! activity involves a *oice ( ideal ends z oppos$ to p]sonal desires1 or :5 "s in/9ctive t5d5cy mu/ be inhibit$ or its free activity is block$ or int]f]$ )1 or :5 ! laws ( gr[? & exp]i5ce are violat$1 take =c$ att5tion4 ,( c\rse fatigue1 disease1 & monotony are frequ5t bre$]s ( =c$ att5tion4 ,f ! above discussion x mu/ be evid5t t "o ( ! *ief *>act]i/ics ( free att5tion is its unity4 ,! m5tal activity ( ! p]son is all direct$ along "o l9e1 t :i* leads to ! satisfy+ ( ! ne$4 ,x is unifi$ by ! appeal ! situation makes4 ,z a result ( su* a /ate ! att5tion is likely to be conc5trat$1 & c be su/a9$ ov] a long p]iod4 ,( c\rse ?is means t ! "w accompli%$ "u su* conditions w be great] 9 am\nt1 m ?or\gh1 & m accurate ?an c\ld be true 7 !re less unity 9 ! process4 ,! opposite 9 all respects is true ( =c$ att5tion4 ,x is pres5t :5 !re is divid$ int]e/4 ,! topic does n appeal to ! ne$ ( ! individual4 ,he att5ds to x because he mu/4 ,"p ( 8 full p[] ( att5tion is giv5 to keep+ himself to ! "w1 leav+ only a "p to be giv5 to ! "w itself4 ,if !re is any o!r object 9 ! field ( att5tion :i* is p>ticul>ly attractive1 z !re usually is1 t claims its %>e1 & ! att5tion is /ill fur!r divid$4 ,divid$ att5tion _c be conc5trat$2 x _c la/ long4 ,! v /ra9 & ef=t involv$ makes x extremely fatigu+4 ,! results ( "w done "u su* conditions mu/ be poor4 ,!re c be b little ?or\ghness1 = ! work] w d j z mu* z he mu/ to pass mu/]1 & no m4 ,inaccuracy & sup]ficiality w *>act]ize su* "w4 ,j z tra9+ 9 giv+ conc5trat$ att5tion results 9 p[] along t l9e1 s frequ5t necessity = =c$ att5tion develops habits ( divid$ att5tion :i* 9 "t w h9d] ! developm5t ( any conc5tration4 ,f a psy*ological viewpo9t !re c be no "q b :at free att5tion is ! end to be s\ght by work]s ( all k9ds4 ,x is an absolutely false notion t ?+s are easy :5 free att5tion is pres5t4 ,x is only :5 free att5tion is pres5t t results wor? m5tion+ are accompli%$4 ,x is only "u su* conditions t ! work] is will+ to try & try aga91 & put up ) disappo9tm5t & failure1 to use 8 +5uity & skill to ! utmo/1 to g out ( 8 way = mat]ial or sugge/ions2 9 o!r words1 to put himself into 8 "w 9 su* a way t x is truly educational4 ,on ! o!r h&1 =c$ att5tion has its own value & c\ld n be disp5s$ ) 9 ! developm5t ( a human be+4 ,its value is t ( means to end--n t ( an end 9 itself4 ,x is only z x leads into free att5tion t =c$ att5tion is truly valuable4 ,9 t place ! "p x plays is trem5d\s because ?+s are z !y are4 ,!re w always be mat]ials :i* w n appeal to a ne$ 9 "s individual because ( lack ( capacity or exp]i5ce2 !re w always be p>ts ( v>i\s activities & processes :i* seem unnecess>y & a wa/e ( "t to "s work]2 !re w always be *oices to be made betwe5 in/9ctive desires & ideal ne$s1 & 9 ea* case =c$ att5tion is ! only means1 p]haps1 by :i* ! necess>y conditions c be acquir$ t make possible free att5tion4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t =c$ att5tion %\ld be call$ into play only :5 ne$$4 ,:5 ne$$1 x %\ld be dem&$ rigor\sly1 b ! soon] ! individual 9 "q c pass f x to ! o!r type1 ! bett]4 ,?is is true 9 all fields :e!r intellectual or moral4 ,a second classification ( att5tion has be5 sugge/$ accord+ to ! answ] to ! "q z to :y att5tion is giv54 ,sometimes att5tion is giv5 simply because ! mat]ial itself dem&s x2 sometimes = "s ult]ior reason4 ,! =m] type is call$ imm$iate or intr9sic att5tion2 ! latt] is call$ d]iv$1 m$iate1 or extr9sic att5tion4 ,! =m] is giv5 to ! situation = its own sake2 ! latt] because ( some?+ atta*$ to x4 ,=c$ att5tion is always d]iv$2 free att5tion may be ei!r imm$iate or d]iv$4 ,x is imm$iate & d]iv$ free att5tion t ne$s fur!r discussion4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d t !re is no %>p l9e ( division betwe5 imm$iate & d]iv$ att5tion4 ,sometimes x is p]fectly evid5t t ! att5tion is giv5 = ! sake ( ! mat]ial--at o!r times !re c be no d\bt b t x is ! some?+ beyond ! mat]ial t holds ! att5tion4 ,b 9 big1 complex situations x is n s evid5t4 ,= in/ance1 ! musician compos+ j = ! love ( x is an example ( imm$iate att5tion1 :ile ! small boy work+ 8 ari?metic examples ) great c>e 9 ord] to beat 8 seatmate is surely giv+ d]iv$ att5tion4 ,b "u "s conditions ! motives are mix$ & ! att5tion may fluctuate f ! value ( ! mat]ial itself to ! values to be d]iv$ f x4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 at ! two extremes !re is a cle>-cut diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two types ( att5tion4 ,! value ( rew>ds & inc5tives dep5ds on ! psy*ology ( d]iv$ free att5tion1 :ile t ( puni%m5t & det]r5ts is wrapp$ up ) d]iv$ =c$ att5tion4 ,imm$iate free att5tion is ! m valuable ( ! two types because x is ! mo/ highly unifi$ & mo/ /rongly dynamic ( all ! att5tion types4 ,! big accompli%m5ts ( human lives h be5 br\ght to pass ?r\gh ?is k9d ( att5tion4 ,x is ! k9d ! little *ild gives to 8 play--! activity itself is wor? :ile4 ,s ) ! arti/1 ! inv5tor1 ! poet1 ! tea*]1 ! physician1 ! ar*itect1 ! bank]--to be engag$ 9 t p>ticul> activity satisfies4 ,b ?is is n true ( all arti/s1 bank]s1 etc41 nor ) ! o!rs all ! "t4 ,ev5 = ! *ild at play1 sometimes conditions arise :5 ! p>ticul> "p ( ! activity does n seem wor? :ile 9 itself2 !n if x is to be cont9u$1 ano!r k9d ( att5tion mu/ be br\ght 9--d]iv$ att5tion4 ,?is illu/ration %[s ! place ( d]iv$ att5tion z a means to an end--! same "p play$ by =c$ att5tion 9 its relation to free4 ,d]iv$ att5tion mu/ ne$s be *>act]i/ic ( mu* ( ! activity ( human be+s4 ,p h few well-develop$ capacities1 & !re are _m k9ds ( ?+s !y are requir$ to d4 ,if ^! are to be done ) free att5tion1 he>tily1 x w only be because ( "s value t is wor? :ile t is atta*$ to ! necess>y activity4 ,z activities gr[ complex & z ! results ( activities gr[ remote1 ! ne$ = some?+ to c>ry ov] ! att5tion to ! p>ts ( ! activity t are se5 to be wor? :ile 9 ! fir/ place1 or to ! results 9 ! second1 gr[s imp]ative4 ,?is ne$ is fill$ by d]iv$ att5tion1 & "h x %[s its value z means to an end1 b x is only :5 ! ne$ = ?is c>ri] disappe>s1 & ! activity z a :ole = itself seems wor? :ile1 t ! be/ results are obta9$4 ,!re is a v great diff]5ce betwe5 ! k9ds ( motives or values *os5 = d]iv$ att5tion1 & _! value v>ies 9 accordance ) ! foll[+ pr9ciples4 ,inc5tives %\ld be closely connect$ naturally ) ! subject to :i* !y are atta*$4 ,!y %\ld be suit$ to ! developm5t ( ! *ild & be natural r ?an artificial4 ,_! appeal %\ld be p]man5t1 i4e41 %\ld p]si/ 9 ! same situation outside ( s*ool4 ,!y %\ld really /imulate ^? to :om !y are (f]$4 ,!y %\ld n be too attractive 9 !mselves4 ,apply+ ^! pr9ciples x w\ld seem t d]iv$ int]e/s t h _! s\rce 9 in/9cts1 9 special capacities1 or 9 correlation ( subjects are ( ! be/ type1 :ile su* extremely artificial inc5tives z prizes1 half holidays1 etc41 are among ! poore/4 ,! value ( d]iv$ att5tion is t x gets ! "w done or ! habit =m$4 ,( c\rse ! hope is always !re t x w pass ov] into ! imm$iate type1 b if x does n1 at lea/ results are obta9$4 ,x has already be5 %[n t results may also be obta9$ by ! use ( =c$ att5tion1 :i* is also d]iv$4 ,bo? d]iv$ free att5tion & =c$ att5tion are means to an end4 ,! "q z to ! comp>ative value ( ! two mu/ be answ]$ 9 favor ( ! d]iv$ free att5tion4 ,! *ief reasons = ?is conclusion are z foll[s4 ,fir/1 d]iv$ free att5tion is likely to be m unifi$ ?an =c$ att5tion4 ,second1 x ar\ses great] self-activity on ! "p ( ! work]4 ,?ird1 ! emotional tone is t ( be+ satisfi$ in/ead ( /ra94 ,f\r?1 x is m likely to lead to ! imm$iate att5tion :i* is its end4 ,despite ^! advantages ( d]iv$ free att5tion ov] =c$ att5tion1 x /ill has "s ( ! same disadvantages t =c$ att5tion has4 ,! *ief ( ^! is t x also may result 9 division ( en]gy4 ,if ! means = ga9+ ! att5tion is no?+ b sug> coat+1 if x results 9 ! m]e ent]ta9m5t ( ! work]1 !re is e likelihood t ! att5tion w be divid$ betwe5 ! two4 ,! o!r disadvantage is t because ( ! attractiv5ess ( ! means us$ to ga9 att5tion x may be giv5 j s long z ! inc5tive rema9s1 & no long]4 ,^! difficulties may be l>gely ov]come1 h[ev]1 by ! application ( ! pr9ciples gov]n+ good inc5tives4 ,?is mu/ mean t ! *oice ( types ( att5tion & !re=e ! provision ( situations call+ !m out %\ld be 9 ?is ord]3 imm$iate free att5tion1 d]iv$ free att5tion1 =c$ att5tion4 ,all ?ree are necess>y 9 ! education ( any *ild1 b ea* %\ld be us$ 9 its prop] place4 ,! conditions :i* insure ! be/ att5tion ( :atev] type h to d ) bo? physical & m5tal adju/m5ts4 ,on ! physical side !re is ne$ = ! adaptation ( ! s5se organ & ! body to ! situation4 ,= ?is adaptation to be effective ! environm5tal conditions mu/ be controll$ by ! laws ( hygi5e4 ,a c]ta9 am\nt ( bodily fre$om yields bett] results ?an rigidity because ! latt] draws en]gy f ! task 9 h& = purposes ( inhibition4 ,on ! m5tal side !re is ne$ = prep>ation 9 t]ms ( read9ess ( ! n]ve tracts to be us$4 ,james calls ?is ideational prep>ation4 ,?is simply means t "o c att5d bett] if he kn[s some?+ ( :at he is to att5d to4 ,exp]im5tal evid5ce proves )\t d\bt t if ! subject kn[s t he is to see a color1 in/ead ( a ^w1 8 p]ception ( x is mu* m rapid & accurate ?an if he does n h ?is prep>ation4 ,?is same result is obta9$ 9 mu* m complex s5sory situations1 & x also holds :5 ! situation is intellectual4 ,contr>y to expectation1 great quietness is n ! be/ condition = ! maximum ( att5tion2 a c]ta9 am\nt ( di/raction is b5eficial4 ,! problem ( int]e/ & ( att5tion1 f ! po9t ( view ( tea*+1 is n simply to secure att5tion1 b r to h ! att5tion fix$ ^u ^? activities :i* are mo/ desirable f ! /&po9t ( realiz+ ! aim or purpose ( education4 ,z has already be5 sugge/$1 *ildr5 are con/antly att5d+ to some?+4 ,!y in/9ctively respond to ! v great v>iety ( /imuli ) :i* !y come 9 contact4 ,our s*ools seek to provide exp]i5ces :i* are valuable4 ,9 s*ool "w :5 we are successful *ildr5 att5d to ^? /imuli :i* promise mo/ = ! =mation ( habits1 or ! gr[? 9 und]/&+ & appreciation :i* w fit !m = p>ticipation 9 our social life4 ,we seek con/antly 9 our "w z tea*]s to secure ei!r free or =c$ att5tion to ! p>ticul> "p ( our c\rses ( /udy or to ! p>ticul> exp]i5ces :i* are allott$ to ! grade or class :i* we tea*4 ,"o ( ! v greate/ difficulties 9 secur+ att5tion ^u ! "p ( a class is f\nd 9 ! v>iety ( exp]i5ces :i* !y h already enjoy$1 & ! diff]5ces 9 ! /r5g? ( ! appeal :i* ! p>ticul> situation may make ^u ! sev]al memb]s ( ! gr\p4 ,9 class tea*+ we h con/antly to v>y our appeal & to diff]5tiate our "w to suit ! individual diff]5ces repres5t$ 9 ! class1 if we w\ld succe$ 9 hold+ ! att5tion ( ev5 ! majority ( ! *ildr54 ,boys & girls d _! be/ "w only :5 !y conc5trate _! att5tion ^u ! "w to be done4 ,"o ( ! greate/ fallacies t has ev] crept into our educational ?\ght is t :i* sugge/s t !re is great value 9 hav+ p "w 9 fields 9 :i* !y are n int]e/$1 & 9 :i* !y d n freely give _! att5tion4 ,any "o :o is famili> ) *ildr51 or ) gr[n-ups1 mu/ "k t x is only :5 int]e/ is at a maximum t ! ef=t put =? approa*es ! limit ( capacity set by ! individual's ability4 ,boys conc5trate _! att5tion ^u baseball or ^u fi%+ to a degree :i* dem&s ( !m a maximum ( ef=t4 ,a boy may sp5d h\rs at a "t seek+ to p]fect himself 9 pit*+1 batt+1 or field+4 ,he may be uncom=table a l>ge "p ( ! "t1 he may suff] consid]able pa91 & yet cont9ue 9 8 practice by virtue ( 8 great en?usiasm = p]fect+ himself 9 ! game4 ,int]e/ ( a n dissimil> sort leads a man :o desires position1 or p[]1 or weal?1 to conc5trate 8 att5tion ^u ! p>ticul> field ( 8 endeavor to ! exclusion ( almo/ ev]y?+ else4 ,inde$1 m5 almo/ lit]ally kill !mselves 9 ! ef=t :i* !y make to a*ieve ^! social di/9ctions or rew>ds4 ,we may n hope always to secure s high a degree ( conc5tration ( att5tion or ( ef=t1 b x is only z we approa* a situation 9 :i* *ildr5 are int]e/$1 & 9 :i* !y freely give _! att5tion to ! subject 9 h&1 t we c claim to be mo/ successful 9 our tea*+4 ,! tea*] :o is able 9 beg9n+ read+ to discov] to *ildr5 ! tool :i* w enable !m to get ! famili> /ory or rhyme f ! book may hope to get a quality ( att5tion :i* c\ld nev] be br\ght ab\t by =c+ !m to att5d to =mal phonetic drill4 ,! tea*] ( biology :o has be5 able to awak5 en?usiasm = ! inve/igation ( plant & animal life1 & :o has all[$ *ildr5 to conduct _! own inve/igations & to c>ry out _! own exp]im5ts1 may hope = a type ( att5tion :i* is nev] pres5t 9 ! c>ry+ out ( ! directions ( ! laboratory manual or 9 nam+ or classify+ plants or animals m]ely z a matt] ( memory4 ,*ildr5 :o are at "w produc+ a s*ool play w accompli% m 9 ! /udy ( ! hi/ory 9 :i* !y seek to discov] a dramatic situation1 by virtue ( ! conc5tration ( att5tion giv51 ?an !y w\ld 9 recit+ _m lessons 9 :i* !y seek to rememb] ! p>agraphs or pages :i* !y h read4 ,! boy :o gives 8 att5tion to ! production ( a /ory = 8 s*ool pap] w "w h>d] ?an "o :o is ask$ to write a composition cov]+ two pages4 ,*ildr5 :o are all[$ to prep>e = ! ent]ta9m5t ( ! memb]s ( _! class a /ory ) :i* !y alone are famili> w give a quality ( att5tion to ! "w 9 h& :i* is nev] secur$ :5 all ( ! memb]s ( ! class are ask$ to reproduce a /ory :i* ! tea*] has read4 ,x is necess>y at times to h *ildr5 give =c$ att5tion4 ,!re are "s ?+s to be accompli%$ t mu/ be done1 reg>dless ( our success 9 secur+ free att5tion4 ,x is entirely conceivable t "s boy or girl may n want to le>n 8 multiplication tables1 or 8 words 9 spell+1 or 8 conjugation or decl5sion 9 ,fr5*1 & t all t ! tea*] has done may fail to ar\se any great am\nt ( int]e/ or en?usiasm = ! "w 9 "q4 ,9 ^! cases1 & 9 _m o!rs :i* might be cit$1 ! necessity = ! p>ticul> habit may be s great z to dem& t e pupil d ! "w or =m ! habit 9 "q4 ,9 ^! cases we may n infrequ5tly hope t aft] hav+ giv5 =c$ att5tion to ! "w ( ! s*ool1 *ildr5 may 9 "t come to und]/& ! importance ( ! exp]i5ces :i* !y are hav+1 or ev5 become int]e/$ 9 ! "w = its own sake4 ,x is n infrequ5tly true t aft] a p]iod ( =c$ att5tion !re foll[s a "t dur+ :i*1 on acc\nt ( ! value :i* *ildr5 are able to und]/& z atta*$ to or belong+ to ! p>ticul> ex]cise1 !y give free d]iv$ att5tion4 ,_m boys & girls h work$ ?r\gh _! c\rses 9 sci5ce or 9 mod]n languages because !y believ$ t ^! subjects w\ld prove valuable n only 9 prep>+ !m = college1 b 9 giv+ !m a wid] outlook on life4 ,_! att5tion 0 ( ! free d]iv$ type4 ,lat] on "s ( ^! same pupils h become trem5d\sly en?usia/ic 9 _! "w 9 ! fields 9 "q1 & h f\nd su* great satisfaction 9 ! "w itself1 t _! att5tion might prop]ly be *>act]iz$ z free imm$iate att5tion4 ,! importance ( mak+ *ildr5 consci\s ( _! p[] ( conc5trat+ _! att5tion ne$s to be kept con/antly 9 m9d4 ,ex]cises 9 :i* *ildr5 are ask$ to d z mu* z !y c 9 a p]iod ( five or t5 m9utes may be us$ to tea* *ildr5 :at conc5tration ( att5tion is & ( ! economy involv$ 9 "w done "u ^! conditions4 ,! tr\ble ) a great _m adults1 z well z ) *ildr51 is t !y h nev] le>n$ :at x is to "w up to ! maximum ( _! capacity4 ,all too frequ5tly 9 our attempts to tea* *ildr5 9 classes we neglect to provide ev5 a suffici5t am\nt ( "w to dem& ( ! m able memb]s ( ! gr\p any consid]able am\nt ( cont9u$1 conc5trat$ att5tion4 ,we seek 9 our "w z tea*]s n only to secure a maximum ( att5tion to ! fields ( "w 9 :i* *ildr5 are engag$1 b also to ar\se int]e/s & en?usiasms :i* w la/ aft] s*ool days are ov]4 ,we ?9k ( int]e/ (t51 & prop]ly too1 z ! means employ$ to secure a maximum ( att5tion1 &1 9 consequ5ce1 a maximum ( accompli%m5t4 ,x is wor? :ile to ?9k (t5 9 our "w 9 t]ms ( int]e/ z ! end to be secur$4 ,*ildr5 %\ld become suffici5tly int]e/$ 9 "s ( ! subjects t we tea* to c>e to be /ud5ts 9 ^! fields1 or to f9d enjoym5t 9 fur!r "w or activity along ^! l9es1 ei!r z a matt] ( recreation or1 n infrequ5tly1 z a means ( discov]+ _! true vocation 9 life4 ,t tea*] :o has ar\s$ suffici5t int]e/ 9 music to enable ! /ud5t ( musical ability to v5ture all ( ! h>d "w :i* may be necess>y 9 ord] to become a skillful musician1 has made possibly 8 greate/ contribution by ar\s+ int]e/ or creat+ en?usiasm4 ,! tea*] ^: en?usiasm 9 sci5ce has l$ a boy to desire to cont9ue 9 ?is field1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( influ5c+ him to und]take "w 9 an eng9e]+ s*ool1 may be satisfi$1 n s mu* 9 ! accompli%m5t ( 8 pupil 9 ! field ( sci5ce1 z 9 ! en?usiasm :i* has c>ri$ him =w>d to m significant "w4 ,ev5 = *ildr5 :o g no f>!r ?an ! elem5t>y s*ool1 int]e/ 9 hi/ory1 or geography1 9 nature /udy1 or 9 lit]ature1 may mean ?r\gh\t ! life ( ! individuals taught a bett] use ( leisure "t & an enjoym5t ( ! nobl] pleasures4 ,successful tea*+ 9 any "p ( our s*ool sy/em dem&s an adju/m5t 9 ! am\nt ( "w to be done1 to ! abilities1 & ev5 to ! int]e/ ( individual *ildr54 ,mu* may be accompli%$ by ! organization ( special classes or gr\ps 9 l>ge s*ool sy/ems1 b ev5 "u ! mo/ favorable conditions *ildr5 _c be expect$ to "w up to ! maximum ( _! capacity except z tea*]s recognize ^! diff]5ces 9 int]e/ & 9 ability1 & make assignm5ts & conduct ex]cises :i* take acc\nt ( ^! diff]5ces4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,:y d all *ildr5 att5d :5 ! tea*] raps on ! desk1 :5 %e writes on ! bo>d1 :5 "s "o op5s ! door & comes into ! room8 #b4 ,"s tea*]s are con/antly rapp+ ) _! p5cils & rais+ _! voices 9 ord] to attract att5tion4 ,:at possible weakness is indicat$ by ?is proc$ure8 #c4 ,:y d adults att5d to few] ?+s ?an d *ildr58 #d4 ,9 :at s5se is x possible to att5d to two ?+s at ! same "t8 #e4 ,:y are *ildr5 less able to conc5trate _! att5tion ?an are mo/ adults8 #f4 ,w a boy or girl 9 y\r class be m or less easily di/ract$ z he gives free att5tion or =c$ att5tion to ! "w 9 h&8 #g4 ,:at educational value is atta*$ to an ex]cise :i* requires t a boy sit at 8 desk & "w1 ev5 ^u some?+ 9 :i* he is n v mu* int]e/$1 = tw5ty m9utes8 #h4 ,9 :at s5se is x true t we =m ! habit ( conc5trat+ our att5tion8 #i4 ,:y is x wrong to ext5d a lesson beyond ! p]iod dur+ :i* *ildr5 are able to conc5trate _! att5tion ^u ! "w 9 h&1 or beyond ! p]iod dur+ :i* !y d conc5trate _! att5tion8 #aj4 ,h[ is x possible to ext5d ! p]iod devot$ to a lesson 9 read+1 or 9 geography1 or 9 ,lat91 beyond ! "t requir$ to read a /ory or draw a map1 or translate a p>agraph8 #aa4 ,:y is x possible to h long] recitation p]iods 9 ! upp] grades & 9 ! high s*ool ?an 9 ! prim>y s*ool8 #ab4 ,give examples f y\r class "w ( free att5tion2 ( =c$ att5tion2 ( free d]iv$ att5tion4 #ac4 ,9 :at s5se is x true t we "w h>de/ :5 we give free att5tion8 #ad4 ,9 :at s5se is x true t we "w h>de/ :5 we give =c$ att5tion8 #ae4 ,c y give any example ( sup]ficiality or inaccuracy :i* has result$ f divid$ att5tion1 ^u ! "p ( any memb] ( "o ( y\r classes8 #af4 ,does free att5tion imply lack ( ef=t8 #ag4 ,"n incid5ts :i* y ?9k might prop]ly be (f]$ boys & girls 9 ord] to secure free d]iv$ att5tion4 #ah4 ,c y cite any example 9 y\r tea*+ 9 :i* *ildr5 h progress$ f =c$ to free att5tion8 #ai4 ,:at int]e/s h be5 develop$ 9 y\r classes :i* y ?9k may make possible ! giv+ ( free att5tion 9 ! field 9 "q1 ev5 aft] s*ool days are ov]8 #bj4 ,h[ c y tea* *ildr5 :at x is to conc5trate _! att5tion & ! value ( conc5trat$ att5tion8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iv4 ,,! ,,=mation ,,( ,,habits ,habit 9 its simple/ =m is ! t5d5cy to d1 ?9k1 or act z "o has done1 ?\ght1 or act$ 9 ! pa/4 ,x is ! t5d5cy to repeat activities ( all k9ds4 ,x is ! t5d5cy :i* makes "o incl9$ to d ! famili> action r ?an a new "o4 ,9 a broad] s5se1 habit =mation means le>n+4 ,x is a /atem5t ( ! fact t conduct is modifiable & t su* modifications may become p]man5t4 ,! fact ( le>n+ dep5ds physiologically on ! pla/icity ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,! neurones1 p>ticul>ly ^? conc]n$ ) intellectual life1 are n only s5sitive to n]ve curr5ts b are modifi$ by !m4 ,! po9t :]e ! greate/ *ange seems to take place is at ! synapses1 b :at ?is modification is1 no "o kn[s4 ,!re are sev]al !ories (f]$ z explanations ( :at happ5s1 b no "o ( !m has be5 g5]ally accept$1 al?\gh ! !ory ( *emical *ange seems to be receiv+ ! /ronge/ support at pres5t4 ,!re c be no disagreem5t1 h[ev]1 z to ! effects ( ?is *ange1 :atev] x may be4 ,curr5ts orig9ally pass+ ) difficulty ov] a c]ta9 conduction unit lat] pass ) great] & great] ease4 ,! resi/ance :i* seems at fir/ to be pres5t gradually disappe>s1 & to t ext5t is ! conduct modifi$4 ,?is same elem5t ( pla/icity acc\nts = ! break+ ( habits4 ,9 ?is case ! action is d\ble1 = x implies ! disuse ( c]ta9 connections :i* h be5 made & ! =m+ ( o!rs2 = ! break+ ( a bad habit means ! beg9n+ ( a good "o4 ,! pla/icity ( neurone gr\ps seems to v>y 9 two respects--z to modifiability & z to p[] to hold modifications4 ,! neurone gr\ps controll+ ! reflex & physiological op]ations are lea/ easily modifi$1 :ile ^? controll+ ! high] m5tal processes are mo/ easily modifi$4 ,! neurone gr\ps controll+ ! in/9cts hold a middle place4 ,s f> z p]man5ce goes1 connections betwe5 s5sorimotor neurone gr\ps seem to hold modifications long] ?an d connections betwe5 ei!r associative-motor or associative-association4 ,x is probably because ( ?is fact t habit 9 ! m9ds ( s _m p ref]s to "s physical activity4 ,( c\rse ?is is a misconception4 ,:]ev] ! n]v\s sy/em is employ$1 habits are =m$4 ,!re are intellectual1 moral1 emotional1 temp]am5tal habits1 j z truly z physical habits4 ,9 ! intellectual field e op]ation t involves association or memory also involves habits4 ,good temp]1 or ! rev]se1 tru?fulness1 patriotism1 ?\ghtfulness = o!rs1 op5-m9d$ness1 are z mu* matt]s ( le>n+ & ( habit z talk+ or skat+ or sew+4 ,habit is f\nd 9 all ?ree l9es ( m5tal developm5t3 intellect1 "*1 & skill4 ,n only does ! law ( habit op]ate 9 all fields ( m5tal activity1 b ! *>act]i/ics :i* m>k its op]ation are ! same4 ,two ( ^! are important4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 habit =mation results 9 a less5+ ( att5tion to ! process4 ,any process t is habitual c be tak5 c>e ( by a m9imum ( att5tion4 ,9 o!r words1 x ne$ no long] be 9 ! focal po9t1 b c be relegat$ to ! fr+e4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! modification ( ! neurone tract focal att5tion is (t5 necess>y1 b z x progresses less & less att5tion is ne$$ until ! activity becomes automatic1 app>5tly runn+ by itself4 ,n all habits rea* ?is /age ( p]fection1 b ?is is ! g5]al t5d5cy4 ,?is less5+ ( ! ne$ = att5tion means t less en]gy is us$ by ! activity1 & ! individual do+ ! "w is less likely to be fatigu$4 ,9 ! second place1 habit t5ds to make ! process m & m sure 9 its results4 ,z ! resi/ance is remov$ f ! synapses1 & ! "o p>ticul> s]ies ( units come to act m & m z a unit1 ! curr5t %oots along ! pa? ) no sidetrack+1 & ! act is p]=m$ or ! ?\ght rea*$ unwav]+ly ) v little *ance ( error4 ,if ! habit be+ =m$ is t ( writ+1 ! appropriate movem5ts are made ) no hesitation1 & ! *ances t c]ta9 ones w be made ! fir/ "t increase 9 probability4 ,?is means a sav+ ( "t & an increase 9 confid5ce z to ! results4 ,a consid]ation ( ^! *>act]i/ics ( habits makes cle> its dang]s z well z its values4 ,! fact t habit is bas$ on actual *anges :i* take place 9 ! n]v\s sy/em1 t its f\ndation is physical1 emphasizes its b9d+ p[]4 ,mo/ p 9 talk+ & ?9k+ ( habit reg>d x z some?+ prim>ily m5tal 9 nature & !re=e believe all t is necess>y to break any habit is ! suffici5t ex]cise ( w p[]4 ,b w p[]1 h[ev] /rong1 _c break actual physical connections1 & x is su* connections t b9d u to a c]ta9 l9e ( activity in/ead ( any o!r1 :5 once ! habit is =m$4 ,x is j z logical to expect a c> :i* is />t$ on its own track to sudd5ly g (f on to ano!r track :]e !re is no swit*1 z to expect a n]ve curr5t travel+ along its habitual conduction unit to run (f on "s o!r l9e ( n]v\s dis*>ge4 ,habit once =m$ b9ds t p>ticul> l9e ( ?\ght to action1 ei!r good or bad4 ,( c\rse habits may be brok51 b x is a "w ( "t & mu/ result f def9ite physical *anges4 ,e habit =m$ less5s ! likelihood ( any o!r response com+ 9 t p>ticul> situation4 ,e int]e/ =m$1 e act ( skill p]fect$1 e me?od ( "w adopt$1 e pr9ciple or ideal accept$1 limits ! recognition ( any o!r possible l9e ( action 9 t situation4 ,habit b9ds to "o p>ticul> response & at ! same "t bl9ds ! individual to any o!r alt]native4 ,! dang] ( ?is is obvi\s4 ,if ! habits =m$ are bad or wa/eful ones1 ! individual is h&icapp$ 9 8 gr[? until new ones c be =m$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 habit makes = limitation4 ,despite ^! dang]s1 habit is ( ine/imable value 9 ! developm5t ( bo? ! individual & ! human race4 ,x is ?r\gh x t all le>n+ is possible4 ,x makes possible ! pres]vation ( our social inh]itance4 ,z ,james says1 ,habit is ! enorm\s fly-:eel ( society1 its mo/ preci\s cons]vative ag5t4 ,because ( its p[] ( limitation x is sometimes consid]$ ! foe ( indep5d5ce & orig9ality1 b 9 reality x is ! only road to progress4 ,o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! m good habits a p]son has1 ! great] ! probability ( 8 do+ orig9al "w4 ,! g5ius 9 sci5ce or 9 art or 9 /atesman%ip is ! man :o has made habitual _m ( ! activities dem&$ by 8 p>ticul> field & :o !re=e has "t & en]gy left = ! k9d ( "w t dem&s ?9k+4 ,habit won't make a g5ius1 b all m5 ( exceptional ability excel o!rs 9 ! numb] & quality ( _! habits 9 ! field 9 :i* !y %[ p[]4 ,z ! little *ild diff]s f ! adult 9 ! numb] & quality ( 8 habits1 s ! ord9>y layman diff]s f ! exp]t4 ,x is sc>city1 n abundance1 ( habits t =ces a man into a rut & keeps him m$iocre4 ,j z ! ?ree ye> old1 hav+ tak5 f\r or five times z long z ! adult to dress himself1 is tir$ out at ! end ( ! task1 s ! amateur 9 lit]ature or music or morals z comp>$ ) ! exp]t4 ,! m habits any "o has 9 any l9e1 ! bett] = him1 bo? f ! /&po9t ( effici5cy & productivity1 provid$ t ! habits are good & t among !m is f\nd ! habit ( break+ habits4 ,! two great laws ( habit =mation are ! laws ( ex]cise & effect4 ,^! laws apply 9 all cases ( habit =mation1 :e!r !y be ! purposeless habits ( *ildr5 or ! purposive habits ( maturity4 ,! law ( ex]cise says t ! (t5] & ! m emphatically a c]ta9 response is connect$ ) a c]ta9 situation1 ! m likely is x to be made to t situation4 ,! two factors ( repetition & int5sity are involv$4 ,x is a common obs]vance t ! (t5] "o does a ?+1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! bett] he does x1 :e!r x be good or bad4 ,drill is ! usual me?od adopt$ by all classes ( p = habit =mation4 ,x is because ( ! recognition ( ! value ( repetition t ! old maxim ( ,practice makes ,p]fect has be5 s bl9dly adh]$ to4 ,practice may make p]fect1 b x also may make imp]fect4 ,all t practice c d is to make m sure & automatic ! activity1 :atev] x is4 ,x _c alone make = improvem5t4 ,a *ild becomes m & m pr(ici5t 9 bad writ+ or po/ure1 9 incorrect "w 9 ari?metic & spell+1 ) practice j z truly z "u o!r conditions he improves 9 ! same activities4 ,evid5ce f s*ool exp]im5ts1 :i* %[s t z _m z #dj p] c5t ( ! *ildr5 exam9$ did poor] "w along su* l9es 9 a second te/ ?an 9 ! fir/ :i* _h be5 giv5 sev]al mon?s e>li]1 be>s witness to ! inability ( m]e repetition to get p]fect results4 ,to get su* results ! repetition mu/ be only ( ! improvem5ts4 ,!re mu/ be a con/ant v>iation t[>ds ! ideal1 & a selection ( j ^? v>iations = practice1 if p]fect z well z inv>iable results are to be obta9$4 ,! am\nt ( repetition necess>y 9 ! =mation ( any giv5 habit is n kn[n4 ,x w1 ( c\rse1 v>y ) ! habit & ) ! individual1 b exp]im5tal psy*ology w "s day h some?+ to (f] along ?is l9e4 ,we c\ld make a great sav+ if we knew1 ev5 approximately1 ! am\nt ( practice necess>y "u ! be/ conditions to =m "s ( ! m simple & elem5t>y habits1 su* z le>n+ ! facts ( multiplication4 ,"o o!r fact 9 connection ) repetition %\ld be not$1 namely1 t ! ex]cise giv5 any connection by ! le>n]1 freely1 ( 8 own initiative c\nts m ?an t giv5 "u purposive le>n+4 ,?is me?od ( le>n+ is valuable 9 t x is incid5tal & (t5 saves en]gy & possible imitation on ! "p ( ! *ild1 b x has c]ta9 drawbacks4 ,habits =m$ ?is way are +ra9$ to su* an ext5t t !y are v difficult to modify4 ,!y 7 n consci\sly att5d$ to :5 !y 7 =m$1 & h5ce x is difficult lat] to raise !m to ! focal po9t4 ,h5ce x is be/ :5ev] habits are p>tial & w ne$ to be modifi$ lat]1 or :5 ! habits mu/ lat] be rationaliz$1 or :5 bad habits mu/ be brok51 to h ! process focaliz$ 9 att5tion4 ,! me?ods ( ga9+ att5tion h already be5 discuss$4 ,9 ! second place1 if ! habit be+ =m$ is connect$ ) an in/9ct1 ! elem5t ( int5sity is add$4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 means t a connection already made & "o :i* is /rongly ready to act is made to give its support to ! new connection be+ =m$4 ,( c\rse ! in/9ct *os5 = ?is purpose mu/ be 9 accord ) ! p>ticul> habit & ) ! nature ( ! le>n]4 ,!y may v>y f ! purely p]sonal & physical up to ^? :i* h to d ) gr\ps & intellectual reactions4 ,! add$ impetus ( ! in/9ct ha/5s ! spe$ ( ! direction or sup]vision4 ,! psy*ology ( ! value ( self-activity is op]ative4 ,x %\ld be borne 9 m9d1 h[ev]1 t ! two k9ds ( ex]cise mu/ be ( ! same degree ( accuracy if ?is bett] result 9 self-initiat$ practice is to be obta9$4 ,n only is x true t repetition makes = automaticity1 b int5sity is also an aid4 ,connections :i* are made emphatically z well z (t5 t5d to become p]man5t4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly true ( m5tal habits4 ,!re are two factors ( importance :i* make = int5sity 9 habit =mation4 ,fir/1 ! focalization ( att5tion on ! connections be+ made adds int5sity4 ,bagley 9 8 discussion ( ?is topic makes focalization 9 att5tion a necessity 9 all habits4 ,al?\gh habits may be =m$ )\t su* conc5tration1 /ill x is true t if att5tion is giv5 to ! process1 "t is sav$2 = ! add$ int5sity secur$ increases ! spe$ ( le>n+4 ,9 c]ta9 types ( habits1 h[ev]1 :5 incid5tal le>n+ plays a l>ge "p1 mu* skill may be acquir$ )\t focalization ( att5tion 9 ! process4 ,mu* ( ! le>n+ ( little *ildr5 is ( ?is type4 ,_! habits ( language1 ways ( do+ ?+s1 mann]isms1 & emotional attitudes (t5 come z a result ( sugge/ion & imitation r ?an z a result ( def9ite =mation ( ! new habit4 ,! second great law ( habit =mation is ! law ( effect4 ,?is law says t any connection ^: activity is accompani$ by or foll[$ by satisfaction t5ds !reby to be /r5g!n$4 ,if ! accompany+ emotional tone is annoyance1 ! connection is weak5$4 ,?is law t satisfaction /amps connections 91 & annoyance inhibits connections1 is "o ( ! greate/ if n ! greate/ law ( human life4 ,:atev] gives satisfaction1 t mank9d cont9ues to d4 ,he le>ns only t :i* results 9 "s k9d ( satisfaction4 ,because ( ! work+ ( ?is law animals le>n to d _! tricks1 ! baby le>ns to talk1 ! *ild le>ns to tell ! tru?1 ! adult le>ns to "w ) ! f\r? dim5sion4 ,repetition by itself is a wa/eful me?od ( habit =mation4 ,! law ( effect mu/ "w z well z ! law ( ex]cise1 if ! results are to be satisfactory4 ,z has already be5 po9t$ out1 x is n ! practice alone t makes p]fect1 b ! /ress+ ( improvem5ts1 & t fix+ is made possible only by satisfaction4 ,pleasure1 9 ! broad s5se1 mu/ be ! accompanim5t or ! result ( any connection t is to become habitual4 ,?is satisfaction may be ( _m diff]5t sorts1 physical1 emotional1 or intellectual4 ,x may be occasion$ by a rew>d or recognition f )\t or by appreciation aris+ f self-criticism4 ,9 "s =m or o!r x mu/ be pres5t4 ,two fur!r sugge/ions 9 habit =mation :i* gr[ out ( ! above laws %\ld be borne 9 m9d4 ,! fir/ is ! effect ( primacy4 ,9 ev]yday language1 fir/ impressions la/ longe/4 ,! "* ( ! fir/ responses made 9 any giv5 situation h great influ5ce on all succe$+ responses4 ,!y make ! /ronge/ impression1 !y are ! h>de/ to eradicate4 ,f a physiological po9t ( view ! explanation is evid5t4 ,a connection untrav]s$ or us$ b a few times is mu* m pla/ic ?an lat] :5 x has be5 us$ (t54 ,h5ce ! fir/ "t ! connection is us$ gives a great] set or b5t ?an any equal subsequ5t activity4 ,?is is true bo? ( ! n]v\s sy/em z a :ole & ( any p>ticul> conduction unit4 ,?us impressions made 9 *ildhood c\nt m ?an ^? ( ! same /r5g? made lat]4 ,! fir/ few attempts 9 pron\nc+ =eign words fixes ! pronunciation4 ,! fir/ few weeks 9 a subject or 9 deal+ ) any p]son influ5ces all subsequ5t responses to a m>k$ degree4 ,! second sugge/ion has to d ) ! effect ( exceptions4 ,james says1 ,nev] all[ an exception to occur 9 ! c\rse ( =m+ a habit4 ,n only w ! occurr5ce ( "o exception make m likely its recurr5ce1 b if ! exception does n recur1 at lea/ ! response is less sure & less accurate ?an x o!rwise w\ld be4 ,x t5ds to de/roy self-confid5ce or confid5ce 9 ! "o :o all[$ ! exception4 ,sometimes ev5 "o exception leads to disa/r\s consequ5ces & undoes ! "w ( weeks & mon?s4 ,?is is especially true 9 break+ a bad habit or 9 =m+ a new "o :i* has "s in/9ctive response work+ aga9/ x4 ,!re has be5 a great deal ( "w done 9 exp]im5tal laboratories & else:]e 9 ! /udy ( ! =mation ( p>ticul> habits4 ,! process ( habit =mation has be5 %[n by le>n+ curves4 ,:5 ^! le>n+ curves are comp>$1 x becomes cle> t !y h c]ta9 *>act]i/ics 9 common4 ,?is is true :e!r ! le>n+ be direct$ to su* habits z ! acquisition ( vocabul>ies 9 a =eign language or to skill 9 ! use ( a typewrit]4 ,sev]al ( ! mo/ important *>act]i/ics foll[4 ,9 ! fir/ place x is true ( all le>n+ t !re is rapid improvem5t at fir/4 ,dur+ ! beg9n+ ( ! =mation ( a habit m rapid advance is made ?an at any o!r "t4 ,!re are two pr9cipal reasons = ?is fact4 ,! adju/m5ts requir$ at ! beg9n+ are comp>atively simple & easily made & ! p>ticul> le>n+ is new & !re=e is und]tak5 ) ze/ & int]e/4 ,aft] a "t ! "w becomes m difficult1 ! novelty we>s (f1 !re=e ! progress becomes less m>k$ & ! curve %[s fluctuations4 ,ano!r *>act]i/ic ( ! le>n+ curve is ! pres5ce ( ! s-call$ plateaus4 ,plateaus %[ 9 ! curve z flat1 level /ret*es dur+ :i* !re has app>5tly be5 no progress4 ,! mean+ ( ^! level /ret*es1 & :e!r or n !y c be entirely done away ) 9 any curve1 is a matt] ( dispute4 ,^! pauses may be necess>y = "s ( ! habits to rea* a c]ta9 degree ( p]fection be=e fur!r progress c be made4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 !re are sev]al m9or causes :i* t5d to increase ! numb] ( plateaus & to l5g!n ! "t sp5t 9 any "o4 ,9 ! fir/ place an insecure or an inaccurate f\ndation mu/ result 9 an increase ( plateaus4 ,if at ! beg9n+1 dur+ ! initial spurt1 = in/ance1 ! le>n] is all[$ to g s fa/ t :at he le>ns is n ?or\ghly le>n$1 or if he is pu%$ at a pace t = him makes ?or\ghness impossible1 plateaus mu/ soon occur 9 8 le>n+ curve4 ,9 ! second place a fruitful cause ( plateaus is loss ( int]e/1--monotony4 ,if ! le>n] is n int]e/$1 he w n put =? ! en]gy necess>y = cont9u$ improvem5t1 & a "t ( no progress is ! result4 ,! attitude ( ! le>n] t[>d ! "w is extremely important1 n only 9 ! matt] ( int]e/1 b 9 ! fur!r attitude ( self-confid5ce4 ,disc\ragem5t usually results 9 h9d]+ progress1 :]eas confid5ce t5ds to increase x4 ,! psy*ological explanation ( ?is is v evid5t4 ,bo? lack ( int]e/ 9 ! le>n+ & ! pres5ce ( disc\ragem5t are likely to result 9 divid$ att5tion & t1 z has already be5 %[n1 results 9 unsatisfactory "w4 ,a ?ird cause = plateaus is physiological4 ,n only mu/ ! le>n] be 9 ! "r attitude t[>ds ! "w1 b he mu/ feel physically fit4 ,!re seem to be c]ta9 physiological rhy?ms t may di/urb ! le>n+ process ^: cause _c be directly det]m9$1 b g5]ally ! feel+ ( unfitness c be trac$ to a simple cause1--su* z physical illness1 loss ( sleep1 ex]cise1 or food1 or undue emotional /ra94 ,! old] psy*ology has left an impression t improvem5t 9 any function is limit$ bo? z to am\nt & z to ! p]iod dur+ :i* x mu/ be atta9$4 ,! physiological limit ( improvem5t has be5 ?\ght ( z "o :i* 0 r easily rea*$4 ,! loss ( pla/icity ( ! n]v\s sy/em has be5 suppos$ to be r rapid1 s t m>k$ improvem5t 9 a habit aft] "o has pass$ well into ! tw5ties 0 consid]$ improbable4 ,rec5t exp]im5ts1 h[ev]1 seem to %[ t no su* condition ( affairs exi/s4 ,!re is v great probability t any function :atsoev] is improvable ) practice1 & 9 mo/ cases to a v m>k$ degree4 ,to f9d a function :i* has rea*$ ! physiological limit has be5 v r>e1 ev5 9 exp]im5tal rese>*1 & ev5 ) ext5d$ practice s]ies x has be5 unusual to rea* a /age ( z]o improvem5t ev5 ) adults4 ,?orndike says1 ,let ! read] consid] t if he %\ld n[ sp5d sev5 h\rs1 well di/ribut$1 9 m5tal multiplication ) ?ree place numb]s1 he w\ld !reby mu* m ?an d\ble 8 spe$ & also r$uce 8 errors2 or t1 by =ty h\rs ( practice1 he c\ld come to typewrite 7suppos+ him to n[ h _h z]o practice7 approximately z fa/ z he c write by h&2 or t1 />t+ f z]o k1 he c\ld le>n to copy ,engli% into ,g]man script at a rate ( fifty lett]s p] m9ute1 9 ?ree h\rs or a little m4#c ,x is probably true t ! majority ( adults are mu* bel[ _! limit ( effici5cy 9 mo/ ( ! habits requir$ by _! pr(ession1 & t 9 s*ool habits ! same ?+ is true ( *ildr54 ,spuri\s levels ( accompli%m5t h be5 held up z wor?y goals1 & effici5cy accept$ z ultimate :i* 0 only two ?irds1 & (t5 less ?an t1 ( :at 0 possible4 ,( c\rse x may n be wor? ! "t & en]gy necess>y to obta9 improvem5t 9 c]ta9 l9es1--t mu/ be det]m9$ by ! p>ticul> case1--b ! po9t is1 t improvem5t2 is possible ) bo? *ildr5 & adults 9 almo/ e habit !y possess ) comp>atively little practice4 ,nei!r ! physiological limit ( a function nor ! age limit ( ! individual is rea*$ z easily or z soon z has be5 believ$4 ,!re are c]ta9 aids to improvem5t :i* mu/ be us$ 9 ord] t ! be/ results may be obta9$4 ,"s ( !m h already be5 discuss$ & o!rs w be discuss$ at a lat] "t1 s !y ne$ only be li/$ "h1 ! "r physiological conditions1 ! prop] di/ribution ( ! practice p]iods1 int]e/ 9 ! "w1 int]e/ 9 improvem5t1 problem attitude1 att5tion1 & abs5ce ( bo? excitem5t & worry4 ,habits h be5 treat$ 9 psy*ology z :oles1 j z if ea* habit 0 a unit4 ,?is has be5 true1 :e!r ! habits be+ discuss$ 7 moral habits1 su* z %>+ toys ) a y\ng] bro!r2 intellectual habits1 su* z read+ & und]/&+ ! mean+ ( ! ^w &2 or motor habits1 su* z sitt+ /raight4 ,! slighte/ consid]ation ( ^! habits makes obvi\s t !y diff] trem5d\sly 9 complexity4 ,! moral habit quot$ involves bo? intellectual & motor habits--& n "o1 b sev]al4 ,f a physiological po9t ( view1 ?is diff]5ce 9 ! complexity ( habits is made cle> by an exam9ation ( ! numb] ( neural bonds us$ 9 gett+ ! habit response to a giv5 situation4 ,9 "s cases !y are comp>atively few--9 o!rs ! numb] necess>y is a/oni%+4 ,9 no case ( habit w ! bonds us$ involve b a s+le connection4 ,j :at bonds are ne$$ 9 ord] t a *ild may le>n to add1 or to spell1 to appreciate music1 or to be indu/ri\s1 is a "q t only exp]im5t & inve/igation c answ]4 ,at pres5t b little is kn[n z to j :at happ5s1 j :at connections are =m$1 :5 f ! orig9al t5d5cy t[>ds vocalization ! *ild j le>ns to say ! ^w milk1 lat] reads x1 & /ill lat] writes x4 ,"o ?+ is c]ta91 ! process is n a unit>y "o1 nor is x a simple "o4 ,j s long z habit is discuss$ 9 g5]al t]ms1 )\t any recognition ( ! complexity ( ! process or to ! specific bonds involv$1 j s long w ! process ( habit =mation be wa/eful & ineffici5t4 ,z a sample ( ! k9d ( "w be+ done 9 connection ) special habits1 inve/igation seems to give evid5ce t 9 ! habit ( simple column addition eight or n9e di/9ct functions are involv$1 ea* ( :i* involves ! use ( sev]al bonds4 ,besides ^! positive connections1 a *ild 9 le>n+ mu/ inhibit o!r connections :i* are incorrect1 & ^! mu/ (t5 outnumb] ! correct ones4 ,& yet column addition has always be5 treat$ z a simple habit--) p]haps "o elem5t ( complexity1 :5 c>ry+ 0 involv$4 ,x is evid5t t1 if ! habit conc]n$ does involve eight or n9e diff]5t functions1 a *ild might g a/ray 9 any "o4 ,8 difficulty 9 =m+ ! habit might be 9 connection ) "o or sev]al ( ! processes involv$4 ,k on ! "p ( ! tea*] ( ^! diff]5t /eps 9 ! habit1 & appreciation by him ( ! possibilities ( mak+ errors1 are ! pr]equisites ( effici5t tea*+ ( habits4 ,9 ea* "o ( ! subjects !re is mu* ne$ ( def9ite exp]im5tal "w1 9 ord] t ! specific bonds necess>y 9 =m+ ! habits peculi> to ! subject be det]m9$4 ,! psy*ology ( ari?metic1 or ( physics1 or ( spell+ %\ld involve su* in=mation4 ,mean:ile e tea*] c d mu* if %e w c>efully /op & ?9k j :at %e is requir+ 9 ! giv5 response4 ,an analysis ( ! p>ticul> situation & response w make cle> at lea/ "s ( ! l>ge/ elem5ts involv$1 "s ( ! mo/ important connections to be made4 ,x is ! specific nature ( ! connections to be made & ! numb] ( ^? connections t ne$ emphasis 9 ! tea*+ ( habits4 ,n only mu/ ! specific nature ( ! bonds involv$ 9 individual habits be /ress$1 b also ! specific nature ( ! entire complex :i* is call$ ! habit4 ,!re is no su* ?+ z a g5]al curve ( le>n+ t w apply equally well1 no matt] :at ! habit4 ,! k9d ( curve1 ! rate ( improvem5t1 ! possibilities ( plateaus1 ! p]man5ce ( ! improvem5t1 all ^! facts & o!rs v>y ) ! p>ticul> habit4 ,9 habit =mation1 z is ! case 9 o!r types ( activity1 we get ! mo/ satisfactory results only :5 we secure a maximum ( int]e/ 9 ! "w to be done4 ,! tea*] :o ?9ks t %e c get satisfactory results m]ely by compell+ *ildr5 to repeat ov] & ov] aga9 ! p>ticul> =m to be ma/]$ is doom$ to disappo9tm5t4 ,inde$1 x is n infrequ5tly true t ! dislike :i* *ildr5 get = ! dre>y ex]cises :i* h little or no mean+ = !m int]f]es to su* a degree ) ! =mation ( ! habit we hope to secure z to develop a maximum ( inaccuracies r ?an any consid]able improvem5t4 ,! tea*] :o makes a game out ( h] ^w drill 9 beg9n+ read+ may confid5tly expect to h *ildr5 recognize m words ! next day ?an "o :o has us$ ! same am\nt ( "t1 )\t introduc+ ! motive :i* has made *ildr5 enjoy _! "w4 ,*ildr5 :o comp>e _! h&writ+ ) a scale1 :i* enables !m to tell :at degree ( improvem5t !y h made ov] a giv5 p]iod1 are mu* m apt to improve ?an are *ildr5 :o are m]ely ask$ to fill up %eets ( pap] ) practice writ+4 ,a vocabul>y 9 a mod]n language w be built up m c]ta9ly if /ud5ts seek to make a record 9 ! ma/]y ( "s hundr$s or ?\s&s ( words dur+ a giv5 p]iod1 r ?an m]ely to d ! "w :i* is assign$ f day to day4 ,a gr\p ( boys 9 a cont9uation s*ool h little difficulty 9 ma/]+ ! habits :i* are requir$ 9 ord] to h&le ! =mal processes 9 ari?metic1 or to apply ! =mula ( algebra or trigonometry1 if ! application ( ^! habitual responses to _! ev]yday "w has be5 made cle>4 ,:]ev] we seek to secure an habitual response we %\ld attempt to h *ildr5 und]/& ! use to :i* ! giv5 response is to be put1 or1 if ?is is n possible1 to introduce "s extrane\s motive :i* w give satisfaction4 ,we _c be too c>eful 9 ! habits :i* we seek to h *ildr5 =m to see to x t ! fir/ response is correct4 ,x is well on _m occasions1 if we h any d\bt z to ! k ( *ildr51 to anticipate ! response :i* !y %\ld give1 & to make !m acqua9t$ ) x1 r ?an to all[ !m to engage 9 r&om guess+4 ,! boy :o 9 writ+ 8 composition wi%es to use a ^w :i* he does n "k h[ to spell1 %\ld feel entirely free to ask ! tea*] = ! correct spell+1 unless !re is a diction>y at h& :i* he kn[s h[ to use4 ,x is v mu* bett] = a boy to ask = a p>ticul> =m 9 a =eign language1 or to ref] to 8 gramm>1 ?an x is = him to use 9 8 oral or writt5 composition a =m conc]n+ :i* he is n c]ta94 ,a mi/ake made 9 a =mula 9 algebra1 or 9 physics1 may p]si/1 ev5 aft] _m repetitions might seem to h r5d]$ ! correct =m entirely automatic4 ,9 matt]s ( habit x does n pay to take x = grant$ t all h ma/]$ ! p>ticul> =ms :i* h suppos$ly be5 taught1 & x nev] pays to attempt to pres5t too mu* at any "o "t4 ,m satisfactory "w 9 habit =mation w\ld commonly be done 7 we to tea* few] words 9 any "o spell+ lesson1 or attempt to fix few] comb9ations 9 any p>ticul> drill lesson 9 ari?metic1 or assign a "p ( a decl5sion or conjugation 9 a =eign language1 or to be absolutely c]ta9 t "o or two =mulas 7 fix$ 9 algebra or 9 *emi/ry1 r ?an 9 attempt+ to ma/] sev]al on ! same day4 ,tea*]s ought con/antly to ask !mselves :e!r e memb] ( ! class is absolutely sure & absolutely accurate 9 8 response be=e attempt+ new "w4 ,x is ( ! utmo/ importance t p>ticul> difficulties be analyz$1 & t att5tion be fix$ ^u t :i* is new1 or t :i* pres5ts "s unusual difficulty4 ,z has already be5 impli$1 x is important n simply to />t ) z /rong a motive z possible1 b x is also necess>y to keep att5tion conc5trat$ dur+ ! ex]cises :i* are suppos$ to result 9 habit =mation4 ,h[ev] /rong ! motive = ! p>ticul> "w may h be5 at ! beg9n+1 x is likely aft] a few m9utes to lack p[]1 if ! p>ticul> ex]cise is cont9u$ 9 exactly ! same =m4 ,mu* is to be ga9$ by v>y+ ! proc$ure4 ,oral "w alt]nat$ ) writt5 "w1 conc]t "w alt]nat$ ) individual te/+1 ! sett+ ( "o gr\p ov] aga9/ ano!r1 ! attempt to see h[ mu* c be done 9 a giv5 p]iod ( m9utes1--inde$1 any device :i* w keep att5tion fix$ is to be mo/ eag]ly s\ght =4 ,9 all practice x is important t ! pupil /rive to d 8 v be/4 ,if ! ideal ( accuracy or ( p]fection 9 =m is once lo/ sight (1 ! responses giv5 may result 9 an actual loss r ?an 9 ga9 9 fix+ ! habit4 ,:5 a tea*] is no long] able to secure att5tion to ! "w 9 h&1 x is bett] to /op r ?an to cont9ue 9 ord] to provide = a giv5 numb] ( repetitions4 ,drill p]iods ( f five to fifte5 m9utes two or ?ree times a day may almo/ always be f\nd to produce bett] results ?an ! same am\nt ( "t us$ consecutively4 ,sy/ematic reviews are mo/ ess5tial 9 ! process ( habit =mation4 ,! compla9t ( a fif?-grade tea*] t ! "w 9 long division 0 n prop]ly taught 9 ! f\r? grade may be due 9 consid]able measure to ! fact t %e has neglect$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! fif? grade's "w to sp5d a week or two 9 c>eful or sy/ematic review ( ! "w cov]$ 9 ! previ\s ye>4 ,! compla9t ( high s*ool tea*]s t *ildr5 are n prop]ly taught 9 ! elem5t>y s*ool w\ld (t5 be obviat$ if 9 ea* ( ! fields 9 "q "s sy/ematic review 7 giv5 f "t to "t1 especially at ! beg9n+ ( ! "w und]tak51 9 any p>ticul> subject :i* involves "w previ\sly done 9 ! elem5t>y s*ool4 ,dur+ any ye>'s "w t tea*] w be mo/ successful :o reviews ea* day ! "w ( ! day be=e1 :o reviews ea* ?ird or f\r? day ! p>ticul>ly difficult p>ts ( ! "w done dur+ ! previ\s p]iods1 :o reviews ea* week & ea* mon?1 & ev5 ea* two or ?ree mon?s1 ! "w :i* has be5 cov]$ up to t "t4 ,:5 tea*]s und]/& t ! int]vals betwe5 repetitions :i* seem to h fix$ a habit may only be gradually l5g!n$1 !n w ! =mation ( habits ^u ! "p ( boys & girls become m c]ta91 & ! difficulties aris+ f lapses & inaccuracies become less frequ5t4 ,z has be5 sugge/$ 9 previ\s discussions1 x w be necess>y 9 habit =mation to v>y ! requirem5ts among ! individuals :o compose a gr\p4 ,! motive :i* we seek to utilize may make a great] appeal to "o *ild ?an to ano!r4 ,physiological diff]5ces may acc\nt = ! fact t a small numb] ( repetitions w s]ve to fix ! response = "o individual z ov] aga9/ a v mu* l>g] numb] ( repetitions requir$ = ano!r4 ,x is ( ! utmo/ importance t all *ildr5 "w up to ! maximum ( _! capacity4 ,x is v mu* bett]1 = example1 to excuse a boy entirely f a giv5 drill ex]cise ?an to h him dawdle or loaf dur+ ! p]iod4 ,9 "s fields a degree ( effici5cy may be rea*$ :i* w p]mit ! mo/ effici5t *ildr5 to be reliev$ entirely f c]ta9 ex]cises 9 ord] t !y may sp5d _! "t on o!r "w4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ^? :o are less capable may ne$ to h special drill ex]cises arrang$ :i* w help !m to make up _! defici5cy4 ,! tea*] :o is acqua9t$ ) ! psy*ology ( habit =mation %\ld secure f ! pupils 9 h] class a degree ( effici5cy :i* is n commonly f\nd 9 our s*ools4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,9 :at s5se is x true t we h habits ( ?\ght8 #b4 ,:at habits :i* may int]f]e ) or aid 9 y\r s*ool "w are =m$ be=e *ildr5 ent] s*ool8 #c4 ,:y is x h>d to break a habit ( spee*8 #d4 ,di/+ui% among actions to :i* we attribute a moral significance ^? :i* are bas$ ^u habit & ^? :i* are reason$4 #e4 ,pr(essor ,james said1 ,habits are ! /uff ( :i* behavior consi/s4 ,indicate ! ext5t to :i* ?is is true = ! *ildr5 9 y\r classes4 #f4 ,9 h[ f> is x advantage\s to become a creature ( habit8 #g4 ,:i* ( our actions %\ld be ! result ( reason8 #h4 ,%\ld s*ool *ildr5 reason _! responses 9 case ( a fire al>m1 9 pass+ p5cils1 9 =mal "w 9 ari?metic8 ,"n responses :i* %\ld be ! result ( reason2 o!rs :i* %\ld be habitual4 #i4 ,:y d we sometimes become less effici5t :5 we fix our att5tion ^u an action t is ord9>ily habitual8 #aj4 ,:y d *ildr5 sometimes write m poorly1 or make m mi/akes 9 addition1 or 9 _! conjugations or decl5sions1 at ! end ( ! p]iod ?an !y d at ! beg9n+8 #aa4 ,h[ w\ld y hope to correct habits ( spee* le>n$ at home8 ,:at p>ticul> difficulty is involv$8 #ab4 ,:51 are repetitions mo/ helpful 9 habit =mation8 #ac4 ,:5 may repetitions actually break d[n or elim9ate habitual responses8 #ad4 ,h[ may ! keep+ ( a record ( "o's improvem5t add 9 ! =mation ( a habit8 #ae4 ,:at motives h y f\nd mo/ usable 9 keep+ att5tion conc5trat$ dur+ ! ex]cises 9 habit =mation :i* y conduct8 #af4 ,! approval or disapproval ( a gr\p ( boys & girls (t5 br+s ab\t a v rapid *ange 9 physical1 moral1 or m5tal habits on ! "p ( individual *ildr54 ,:y8 #ag4 ,:y %\ld drill "w be discont9u$ :5 *ildr5 gr[ tir$ & cease to conc5trate _! att5tion8 #ah4 ,:y %\ld reviews be und]tak5 at ! beg9n+ ( a ye>'s "w8 ,h[ c reviews be organiz$ to be/ advantage dur+ ! ye>8 #ai4 ,:at provision d y make 9 y\r "w to gu>d aga9/ lapses8 99 99 99 99 99 ,v4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,memorize ,!re is no %>p di/9ction betwe5 habit & memory4 ,bo? are gov]n$ by ! g5]al laws ( association4 ,!y %ade (f into ea* o!r1 & :at "o might call habit ano!r ) equal reason might call memory4 ,_! lik5esses are great] ?an _! diff]5ces4 ,h[ev]1 !re is "s reason = treat+ ! topic ( association "u ^! two heads4 ,! t]m memory has be5 us$ by diff]5t writ]s to mean at lea/ f\r diff]5t types ( association4 ,x has be5 us$ to ref] to ! pres5ce ( m5tal images2 to ref] to ! consci\sness ( a feel+ or ev5t z belong+ to "o's own pa/ exp]i5ce2 to ref] to ! pres5ce ( connections betwe5 situation & motor response2 & to ref] to ! ability to recall ! appropriate response to a p>ticul> situation4 ,! la/ mean+ ( ! t]m is ! "o :i* w be us$ "h4 ,! m]e fl[ ( imag]y is n memory1 & x matt]s little :e!r ! appropriate response be accompani$ by ! "t elem5t & ! p]sonal elem5t or n4 ,9 fact1 mo/ ( ! rememb]+ :i* is done 9 daily life lacks ^! two elem5ts4 ,memory !n is ! recall ( ! appropriate response 9 a giv5 situation4 ,x diff]s f habit 9 t ! responses ref]r$ to are m (t5 m5tal r ?an motor2 9 t x is less automatic1 m purposeful4 ,! fact t ! elem5ts involv$ are s l>gely m5tal makes x true t ! giv5 fact is usually f\nd to h sev]al connections & ! giv5 situation to be connect$ ) _m facts4 ,:i* p>ticul> "o w be appropriate w dep5d on all sorts ( subtle factors1 h5ce ! ne$ ( ! control ( ! connection a]ies by a purpose & ! dim9i%+ ( ! elem5t ( automaticity4 ,z 0 said be=e1 !re is no h>d & fa/ l9e ( division betwe5 habit & memory4 ,! recall ( ! sqrt7#fd7 or ( h[ to spell home or ( ! ,fr5* = table might be call$ ei!r or bo?4 ,all t 0 said 9 ! discussion ( habit applies to memory4 ,?is ability to recall appropriate facts 9 giv5 situations is dep5d5t prim>ily on ?ree factors3 p[] ( ret5tion1 numb] ( associations1 organization ( associations4 ,! fir/ factor1 p[] ( ret5tion1 is ! mo/ fundam5tal & to "s ext5t limits ! usefulness ( ! o!r two4 ,x is det]m9$ by ! "* ( ! neurones & v>ies ) diff]5t bra9s4 ,neurones :i* are easily impress$ & reta9 _! impression simply because !y are s made are ! gift ( nature & ! corn] /one ( a good memory4 ,?is ret5tion p[] is b little1 if at all1 affect$ by practice4 ,x is a prim>y quality ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 pres5t or abs5t to ! degree det]m9$ by ea* individual's orig9al nature4 ,h5ce memory z a :ole _c be unprov$1 al?\gh ! abs5ce ( c]ta9 conditions may mean t x is n be+ us$ up to its maximum capacity4 ,*ange 9 ^! conditions1 !n1 w enable a p]son to make use ( all ! native ret5tiv5ess 8 n]v\s sy/em has4 ,"o ( ! mo/ important ( ^! conditions is good heal?4 ,to ! ext5t t good blood1 sleep1 ex]cise1 etc41 put ! n]v\s sy/em 9 bett] tone1 to t ext5t ! ret5tive p[] pres5t is put 9 bett] work+ ord]4 ,e "o kn[s h[ lack ( sleep & illness is (t5 accompani$ by loss 9 memory4 ,repetition1 att5tion1 int]e/1 vividness ( impression1 all appeal prim>ily to ?is s-call$ brute memory1 or ret5tive p[]4 ,pleasurable results seem n to be q s important1 & repetition to be m s :5 ! connections are betwe5 m5tal /ates in/ead ( betwe5 m5tal /ates & motor responses4 ,an emphasis on1 or an improvem5t 91 ! use ( any "o ( ^! factors may call into play to a great] ext5t ?an be=e ! native ret5tive p[] ( a giv5 *ild4 ,! p[] to recall a fact or an ev5t dep5ds n only ^u ?is quality ( ret5tiv5ess1 b also ^u ! numb] ( o!r facts or ev5ts connect$ ) x4 ,ea* "o ( ^! connections s]ves z an av5ue ( approa*1 a clew by means ( :i* ! recall may op]ate4 ,any s+le blockade !re=e may n h9d] ! recall1 provid$ !re are _m associates4 ,?is is true1 no matt] h[ /rong ! ret5tive p[] may be4 ,x is d\bly important if ! ret5tive p[] is weak4 ,suppose a giv5 fact to be held r weakly because ( comp>atively poor ret5tive p[]1 !n ! op]ation ( "o *a9 ( associates may n be en]getic en\gh to recall x4 ,b if ?is same fact may be approa*$ f sev]al diff]5t angles by means ( sev]al *a9s ( associations1 ! comb9$ p[] ( ! activity 9 ! sev]al neurone *a9s w likely be en\gh to lift x above ! ?re%old ( recall4 ,o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! likelihood t a ne$$ fact w be recall$ is 9 proportion to ! numb] ( its associations4 ,! ?ird factor ^u :i* goodness 9 memory dep5ds is ! organization ( associates4 ,numb] ( connections is an aid to memory--b sy/ematization among ^! connections is an add$ help4 ,logical arrangem5t ( facts 9 memory1 classification accord+ to v>i\s pr9ciples1 ord]ly gr\p+ ( ?+s t belong toge!r1 make ! op]ation ( memory m effici5t & economical4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 m]e numb] ( associations & ord]ly arrangem5t ( ^? associations may be illu/rat$ by ! diff]5ce 9 effici5cy betwe5 ! h\sekeep] :o />ts m or less bl9dly to look all ov] ! h\se = a lo/ article1 & ! "o :o at lea/ kn[s t x mu/ be 9 a c]ta9 room & probably 9 a c]ta9 bureau draw]4 ,al?\gh memory z a :ole _c be improv$ because ( ! limit+ p[] ( native ret5tiv5ess1 memory = any fact or 9 any def9ite field may be improv$ by emphasiz+ ^! two factors3 numb] ( associations & organization among associations4 ,al?\gh all ?ree factors are op]ative 9 secur+ ! be/ type ( memory1 /ill ! effici5cy ( a giv5 memory may be due m to ! unusual p[] ( "o ( !m ?an to ! comb9$ effect ( ! ?ree4 ,x is ?is diff]5ce 9 ! function+ ( ^! ?ree factors :i* is prim>ily responsible = c]ta9 types ( memory :i* w be discuss$ lat]4 ,x mu/ also be borne 9 m9d t ! p[] ( ^! factors to op]ate 9 det]m9+ recall v>ies some:at ) age4 ,little *ildr5 & old p are m dep5d5t ^u m]e ret5tiv5ess ?an ^u ei!r ( ! o!rs1 ! =m] because ( lack ( exp]i5ce & lack ( habits ( ?\ght1 ! latt] because ( ! loss ( bo? ( ^! factors4 ,! adult dep5ds m on ! organization ( 8 mat]ial1 :ile 9 ! ye>s betwe5 ! numb] ( ! clews is probably ! controll+ factor4 ,"h aga9 !re is no %>p l9e ( division2 all ?ree are ne$$4 ,s 9 ! prim>y grades we beg9 to require *ildr5 to organize1 & z adults we d all we c to make ! p[] ( ret5tion op]ate at its maximum4 ,_m me?ods ( memoriz+ h be5 us$ by bo? *ildr5 & adults4 ,rec5tly exp]im5tal psy*ology has be5 te/+ "s ( !m4 ,s f> z ! le>n] is conc]n$1 he may use repetition1 or conc5tration1 or recall z a prim>y me?od4 ,repetition means simply ! go+ ov] & ov] aga9 ! mat]ial to be le>n$--! elem5t dep5d$ ^u be+ ! numb] ( times ! connection is made4 ,conc5tration means go+ ov] ! mat]ial ) att5tion4 ,n ! numb] ( connections is important1 b ! int5sity ( ^? connections4 ,9 recall ! emphasis is laid ^u re9/at+ ! desir$ connections f )94 ,9 us+ ?is me?od1 = in/ance1 ! le>n] goes ov] ! mat]ial z _m times z he sees necess>y1 !n closes ! book & recalls f memory :at he c ( x4 ,! la/ ( ! ?ree me?ods is by f> ! be/1 :e!r ! memory desir$ be rote or logical1 = sev]al reasons4 ,9 ! fir/ place x involves bo? ! o!r me?ods or goes beyond !m4 ,second1 x is economical1 = ! le>n] kn[s :5 he kn[s ! lesson4 ,?ird1 x is sure1 = x e/abli%es connections z !y w be us$--9 o!r words1 ! le>n+ provides = recall1 :i* is ! ?+ desir$1 :]eas ! o!r two me?ods e/abli% only connections ( impression4 ,f\r?1 x t5ds to e/abli% habits t are ( !mselves wor? :ile1 su* z assum+ responsibility = gett+ results1 te/+ "o's own p[] & o!rs4 ,fif?1 x enc\rages ! use ( ! two factors ^u :i* memory dep5ds1 :i* are mo/ capable ( developm5t1 i4e41 numb] & organization ( associations4 ,9 connection ) ! use ( ! mat]ial two me?ods h be5 employ$--! "p me?od & ! :ole me?od4 ,! le>n] may break ! mat]ial up into sections1 & /udy j "o1 !n ! next1 & s on1 or he may take all ! mat]ial & g ?r\gh ) x f ! beg9n+ to ! end & !n back aga94 ,exp]im5tal results %[ ! :ole me?od to be ! bett] ( ! two4 ,h[ev]1 9 actual practice1 especially ) s*ool *ildr51 probably a comb9ation ( ! two is /ill bett]1 because ( c]ta9 difficulties aris+ f ! exclusive use ( ! :ole me?od4 ,! advantages ( ! :ole me?od are t x =ms ! "r connections & emphasizes ! complete ?\ght & !re=e saves "t & gives ! "r p]spective4 ,its difficulties are t ! mat]ial is n all ( equal difficulty & !re=e x is wa/eful to put ! same am\nt ( "t on all p>ts2 x is disc\rag+ to ! le>n]1 z no "p may be rais$ above ! ?re%old ( recall at ! fir/ /udy p]iod 7p>ticul>ly true if x is rote memory72 x is difficult to use recall1 if ! :ole me?od is rigidly adh]$ to4 ,a comb9ation ( ! two is !re=e wise4 ,! le>n] %\ld be enc\rag$ to g ov] ! mat]ial f beg9n+ to end1 until ! difficult p>ts become app>5t1 !n to conc5trate on ^! p>ts = a "t & aga9 g ov] f ! beg9n+--us+ recall :5ev] possible4 ,a consid]ation ( ! "t elem5t involv$ 9 memoriz+ has giv5 use to two o!r me?ods1 ! s-call$ conc5trat$ & di/ributive4 ,giv5 a c]ta9 am\nt ( "t to sp5d on a c]ta9 subject1 ! le>n] may di/ribute x 9 almo/ an inf9ite numb] ( ways1 v>y+ n only ! l5g? ( ! p]iod ( practice1 b also ! l5g? ( "t elaps+ betwe5 p]iods4 ,! exp]im5tal "w done 9 connection ) ^! me?ods has n result$ 9 agreem5t4 ,no d\bt !re is an optimum l5g? ( p]iod = practice & an optimum int]val1 b too _m factors ent] 9 to make any "o /atem5t4 ,! exp]im5tal results ju/ify 9 a r\gh way ! avoidance ( v long practice p]iods & ( v %ort int]vals4 ,!y seem to %[1 on ! o!r h&1 t mu* long] practice p]iods ?an are cu/om>y 9 ! common s*ools are probably entirely all[able1 & t mu* %ort] int]vals are all[able ?an ^? cu/om>y betwe5 ! j le>n+ & successive 'reviews' 9 s*ools4#d ,?is /atem5t leaves ! t]ms v long & v %ort to be def9$1 b at pres5t ! exp]im5tal results are too contradictory to p]mit ( any?+ m specific4 ,h[ev]1 a few sugge/ions d gr[ f ^! results4 ,! practice p]iod %\ld be %ort 9 proportion z ^! factors are pres5t3 fir/1 "y or immature m9ds2 second1 me*anical m5tal processes z oppos$ to ?\ght mat]ial2 ?ird1 a le>n] :o w>ms up quickly2 ! pres5ce ( fatigue2 a function ne> its limit4 ,?us ! l5g? ( ! optimum p]iod mu/ v>y ) ! age ( ! le>n]1 ! subject matt]1 ! /age ( pr(ici5cy 9 ! subject1 & ! p>ticul> le>n]4 ,! same facts mu/ be tak5 into consid]ation 9 decid+ on ! optimum int]val4 ,"o fact seems pretty well e/abli%$ 9 connection ) ! int]val1 & t is t a comp>atively %ort p]iod ( practice ) a review aft] a night's re/ c\nts m ?an a mu* long] p]iod add$ to ! "t sp5t ! ev5+ be=e4 ,!re are c]ta9 sugge/ions :i* if c>ri$ out help ! le>n] 9 8 memoriz+4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 z ! numb] ( associates is "o factor det]m9+ recall1 ! fact to be rememb]$ %\ld be pres5t$ 9 _m ways1 i4e41 appeal+ to z _m s5ses z possible4 ,9 c>ry+ ?is out1 x has be5 ! practice ( _m tea*]s to require ! mat]ial to be rememb]$ to be act$ out or writt54 ,?is is all "r 9 s f> z ! muscul> reactions requir$ are me*anical & take little att5tion4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! *ild has to give mu* att5tion to h[ he is to dramatize x1 or if writ+ 9 itself is z yet a p>tially le>n$ process1 ! att5tion mu/ be divid$ betwe5 ! fact to be memoriz$ & its expression1 & h5ce ! desir$ result is n accompli%$4 ,colv9 claims t writ+ is n an aid to le>n+ until ! six? or sev5? grade 9 ! s*ools4 ,?is same fact t an association only p>tly kn[n is a h9drance r ?an a help 9 fix+ ano!r is (t5 violat$ bo? 9 tea*+ spell+ & language4 ,if ! spell+ ( two is unkn[n or only p>tly kn[n1 x is a h9drance in/ead ( a help to tea* x at ! same "t too is be+ taught4 ,second1 ! le>n] %\ld be all[$ to f9d 8 own spe$1 z x v>ies trem5d\sly ) ! individual4 ,?ird1 rhy?m is always an aid :5 x c be us$1 su* z le>n+ ! numb] ( days 9 ea* mon? 9 rhyme4 ,f\r?1 aft] a p]iod ( h>d m5tal "w a few m9utes 7,pillsbury ?9ks ?ree to six7 %\ld elapse be=e def9itely tak+ up a new l9e ( "w4 ,?is all[s = ! s-call$ sett+ ( associations1 due to ! action ( ! g5]al law ( in]tia1 & t5ds to dim9i% ! possibility ( int]f]5ce f ! bonds call$ into play by ! new "w4 ,fif?1 mnemonic devices ( simple type are sometimes an aid4 ,mo/ ( ^! devices are ( que/ionable value1 z !y !mselves require m memory "w ?an ! facts !y are suppos$ to be fix+4 ,h[ev]1 if devis$ by ! le>n]1 or if sugge/$ by "s "o else aft] failure on ! "p ( ! le>n] to fix ! mat]ial1 !y are p]missible4 ,memory has be5 classifi$ 9 v>i\s ways1 accord+ to ! "t elem5t1 z imm$iate & p]man5t4 ,imm$iate memory is ! "o :i* holds = a %ort "t1 :]eas p]man5t memory holds = a long "t4 ,p diff] m>k$ly 9 ?is respect4 ,"s c if te/$ aft] ! /udy p]iod reproduce ! mat]ial ) a high degree ( accuracy1 b lose mo/ ( x 9 a comp>atively %ort "t4 ,o!rs1 if te/$ 9 ! same way1 reproduce less imm$iately1 b hold :at !y h ov] a long p]iod4 ,*ildr5 z a :ole diff] f adults 9 hav+ poor] imm$iate memories1 b 9 hold+ :at is fix$ ?r\gh ye>s4 ,( c\rse p]man5t memory is ! m valuable ( ! two types = mo/ ( life1 b on ! o!r h& imm$iate memory has its own special value4 ,lawy]s1 physicians1 politicians1 m9i/]s1 lectur]s1 all ne$ great p[] ( imm$iate memory 9 _! p>ticul> pr(essions4 ,!y ne$ to be able to hold a l>ge am\nt ( mat]ial = a %ort "t1 b !n !y may =get a great deal ( x4 ,memory is also classifi$ accord+ to ! arrangem5t ( ! mat]ial z desultory1 rote1 & logical memory4 ,9 desultory memory ! facts j /ick because ( ! great ret5tive p[] ( ! bra91 !re are few connections1 ! mat]ial is disconnect$ & disjo9t$4 ,rote memory dep5ds on a special memory = words1 aid$ by s]ial connections & (t5 rhy?m4 ,logical is prim>ily a memory = mean+s & dep5ds ^u arrangem5t & sy/em = its p[]4 ,little *ildr5 z a class h good desultory memories & poor logical memories4 ,rote memory is probably at its be/ 9 ! pre-adolesc5t & e>ly adolesc5t ye>s4 ,logical memory is *>act]i/ic ( mature1 adult m9ds4 ,h[ev]1 "s p excel 9 "o r ?an ano!r type1 & ea* r5d]s its own peculi> s]vice4 ,a g5ius 9 any l9e f9ds a good desultory memory ( imm5se help1 despite ! fact t logical memory is ! "o he f9ds mo/ valuable4 ,tea*]s1 politicians1 l+ui/s1 cl]ks1 wait]s1 & o!rs ne$ a well-develop$ desultory memory4 ,rote memory is1 ( c\rse1 necess>y if an individual is to make a success z an actor1 a s+]1 or a musician4 ,accord+ to ! rate ( acquisition memory has be5 classifi$ into quick & sl[4 ,"o le>n] gets 8 mat]ial s mu* m quickly ?an ano!r4 ,up to r rec5t ye>s ! quick le>n] has be5 commis]at$1 = we believ$1 quickly come1 quickly g4 ,exp]im5tal results h prov$ ?is n to be true1 b 9 fact ! rev]se is m true1 i4e41 quickly come1 sl[ly g4 ,! "o :o le>ns quickly1 provid$ he really le>ns x1 reta9s x j z long & on ! av]age long] ?an ! "o :o le>ns mu* m sl[ly4 ,! dang]1 f a practical po9t ( view1 is t ! quick le>n]1 because ( 8 ability1 gets c>eless & le>ns ! mat]ial only well en\gh to reproduce at ! "t1 :]eas ! sl[ le>n]1 because ( 8 lack ( ability1 raises 8 effici5cy to a high] level & !re=e reta9s4 ,if ! quick le>n] _h sp5t five m9utes m on ! mat]ial1 he w\ld h rais$ 8 "w to ! same level z t ( ! sl[ "o & yet h f9i%$ 9 p]haps half ! "t4 ,all ?r\gh ! discussion ( k9ds ( memory ! t]m memory %\ld h be5 us$ 9 ! plural1 = aft] all we possess memories & n a s+le faculty memory :i* may be quick1 or desultory1 or p]man5t4 ,! actual condition ( affairs is mu* m complex1 = al?\gh x has be5 ! individual :o has be5 designat$ z quick or logical1 x w\ld be mu* m accurate to designate ! p>ticul> memory4 ,! same p]son may h a spl5did desultory memory = gossip & yet 9 sci5ce be ( ! logical type4 ,9 le>n+ ,fr5* vocabul>ies he may h only a good imm$iate memory1 :]eas 8 memory = faces may be mo/ la/+4 ,8 ability to le>n facts 9 hi/ory may class him z a quick le>n]1 :]eas 8 sl[ness 9 le>n+ music may be prov]bial4 ,! degree to :i* quickness ( le>n+ or p]man5ce ( memory 9 "o l9e is correlat$ ) t same ability 9 o!rs has n yet be5 asc]ta9$4 ,t !re is "s correlation is probable1 b at pres5t ! safe/ way is to ?9k 9 t]ms ( special memories & special acquisitions4 ,"s exp]im5tal "w has be5 done to discov] ! ord] 9 :i* special memories develop 9 *ildr54 ,! results1 h[ev]1 are n 9 agreem5t & ! exp]im5ts !mselves are unsatisfactory4 ,t !re is "s m or less def9ite ord] ( developm5t1 p>allel+ to a c]ta9 ext5t ! gr[? ( in/9cts1 is probable1 b no?+ m def9ite is kn[n ?an obs]vation tea*es4 ,= in/ance1 e obs]v] ( *ildr5 kn[s t memory = objects develops be=e memory = words2 t memory = ge/ures prec$$ memory = words2 t memory = oral language prec$$ memory = writt5 language2 t memory = concrete objects prec$$ memory = ab/ractions4 ,fur!r k ( ! developm5t ( special memories %\ld be accompani$ by k z to h[ f> ?is developm5t is dep5d5t on tra9+ & to :at ext5t lack ( memory involves lack ( und]/&+ be=e x c be ( mu* practical value to ! tea*]4 ,j z repetition or ex]cise t5ds to fix a fact 9 memory1 s disuse ( a connection results 9 ! fact fad+ f memory4 ,=gett+ is a matt] ( ev]yday exp]i5ce = e "o4 ,! rate ( =gett+ has be5 ! subject ( exp]im5tal "w4 ,ebb+haus's inve/igation is ! hi/orical "o4 ,! results f ?is p>ticul> s]ies ( exp]im5ts are z foll[s3 ,dur+ ! fir/ h\r aft] /udy ov] half ( :at 0 le>n$ _h be5 =gott52 at ! end ( ! fir/ day two ?irds1 & at ! end ( a mon? ab\t f\r fif?s4 ,^! results h be5 accept$ z capable ( r g5]al application until )9 ! la/ few ye>s4 ,rec5t exp]im5ts 9 le>n+ poetry1 translation ( ,fr5* into ,engli%1 practice 9 addition & multiplication1 le>n+ to toss balls & to typewrite1 & o!rs1 make cle> t !re is no g5]al curve ( =gett+4 ,! rate ( =gett+ is m rapid soon aft] ! practice p]iod ?an lat]1 b ! total am\nt =gott5 & ! rate ( det]ioration dep5d ^u ! p>ticul> function te/$4 ,no "o function c s]ve z a sample = o!rs4 ,no "o curve ( =gett+ exi/s = diff]5t functions at ! same /age ( advancem5t or = ! same function at diff]5t /ages ( advancem5t 9 ! same individual1 mu* less = diff]5t functions1 at diff]5t /ages ( advancem5t1 9 diff]5t individuals4 ,mu* m exp]im5tal "w is ne$$ be=e def9ite g5]al results c be /at$4 ,?is exp]im5tal "w1 h[ev]1 is sugge/ive along sev]al l9es1 7#a7 ,x seems possible t habits ( skill1 involv+ direct s5sori-motor bonds1 are m p]man5t ?an memories involv+ connections betwe5 association bonds4 ,9 o!r words1 t physical habits are m la/+ ?an memories ( intellectual facts4 7#b7 ,ov]le>n+ seems a necess>y correlate ( p]man5ce ( connection4 ,t is1 :at seems to be ov]le>n+ at beg9n+ /ages is really only rais+ ! mat]ial to ! necess>y level above ! ?re%old = ret5tion4 ,h[ f> ov]le>n+ is necess>y & :5 x becomes wa/eful are yet to be det]m9$4 7#c7 ,det]ioration is ha/5$ by compet+ connections4 ,if dur+ ! "t a p>ticul> function is ly+ idle o!r bonds ( connection are be+ =m$ into "s p>ts or elem5ts ( x1 ! rate ( =gett+ ( ! function 9 "q is ha/5$ & ! possibility ( recall made m problematic4 ,! less ! int]f]5ce1 ! great] w be ! p]man5ce ( ! p>ticul> bonds4 ,a belief ma9ta9$ by "s psy*ologi/s is 9 direct opposition to ?is g5]al law t disuse causes det]ioration4 ,x is usually /at$ some?+ l ?is1 t p]iods ( incubation are necess>y 9 acquir+ skill1 or t lett+ a function lie fall[ results 9 great] skill at ! end ( t p]iod1 or briefly "o le>ns to skate 9 summ] & swim 9 w9t]4 ,to "s ext5t ?is is true1 b z /at$ x is mislead+4 ,! g5]al law ( ! effect ( disuse on a memory is true1 b "u "s circum/ances its effect is mitigat$ by ! pres5ce ( o!r factors ^: pres5ce has be5 unnot$4 ,sometimes ?is improvem5t )\t practice is expla9$ by ! fact t at ! la/ practice p]iod ! actual improvem5t 0 mask$ by fatigue or bor$om1 s t disuse involv+ re/ & ! disappe>ance ( fatigue & bor$om produces app>5t ga91 :5 9 reality x b all[s ! real improvem5t to become evid5t4 ,sometimes a p>ticul> practice p]iod 0 accompani$ by c]ta9 undesirable elem5ts su* z worry1 excitem5t1 misund]/&+s1 & s on1 & !re=e ! improvem5t h9d]$ or mask$1 :]eas at ! next p]iod "u diff]5t conditions !re w\ld be less int]f]5ce & !re=e add$ ga94 ,all exp]im5tal evid5ce is aga9/ ! op9ion t m]e disuse 9 & ( itself produces ga94 ,9 fact1 all results po9t to ! fact t disuse br+s det]ioration4 ,9 ! case ( memory1 z has already be5 describ$ 9 habit =mation1 reviews :i* are organiz$ ) ! p]iod betwe5 repetitions only gradually l5g!n$ may d mu* to insure p]man5ce4 ,x is entirely feasible to h *ildr5 at ! end ( any s*ool ye> able to repeat ! poems or prose selections :i* !y h memoriz$1 provid$ t !y h be5 recall$ ) suffici5t frequ5cy dur+ ! c\rse ( ! ye>4 ,9 a subject l geography or hi/ory1 or 9 ! /udy ( ma!matics or sci5ce1 9 :i* logical memory is dem&$1 sy/ematic reviews1 r ?an cramm+ = exam9ations1 w result 9 p]man5ce ( comm& ( ! facts or pr9ciples involv$1 especially :5 ^! reviews h involv$ ! "r type ( organization & z _m associations z is possible4 ,x is important 9 ^? subjects :i* involve a logical organization ( ideas to h ideas associat$ ar\nd "s p>ticul> problem or situation 9 :i* ! individual is vitally int]e/$4 ,*ildr5 may readily =get a l>ge numb] ( facts :i* !y h le>n$ ab\t cats 9 ! fir/ grade1 :ile ! same *ildr5 might rememb]1 v _m ( !m1 _h ^! facts be5 organiz$ r\nd ! problem ( tak+ c>e ( cats1 & ( h[ cats take c>e ( !mselves4 ,a gr\p ( *ildr5 9 an upp] grade may =get ) great rapidity ! facts ( climate1 soil1 surface dra9age1 indu/ries1 & ! l1 :ile !y may rememb] ) little difficulty facts :i* belong "u ea* ( ^! categories on acc\nt ( ! int]e/ :i* !y h tak5 9 ! problem1 ,:y is ! we/]n "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates mu* m sp>sely populat$ ?an ! ,mississippi ,valley8 ,boys & girls :o /udy physics 9 ! high s*ool may f9d x difficult to rememb] ! pr9ciples involv$ 9 _! /udy ( heat if !y are giv5 only 9 _! logical ord] & are appli$ only 9 laboratory ex]cises :i* h little or no mean+ = !m1 :ile ! same gr\p ( high s*ool pupils may rememb] )\t difficulty ^! same laws or pr9ciples if associat$ r\nd ! issue ( ! mo/ economical way ( heat+ _! h\ses1 or ( ! be/ way to build an iceh\se4 ,!re has be5 9 our s*ool sy/em dur+ ! pa/ few ye>s m or less ( a reaction aga9/ v]batim memorization1 :i* is c]ta9ly ju/ifi$ :5 we are consid]+ ^? subjects :i* involve prim>ily an organization ( ideas 9 t]ms ( problems to be solv$1 r ?an memory = ! p>ticul> =m ( expression ( ! ideas 9 "q4 ,x is wor? :ile1 h[ev]1 at e /age ( education to use :atev] p[] *ildr5 may possess = v]batim memorization1 especially 9 ! field ( lit]ature1 & to "s ext5t 9 o!r fields z well4 ,x seems to ! writ]s to be wor? :ile to indicate z cle>ly z possible 9 ! illu/ration :i* foll[s ! me?od to be employ$ 9 v]batim memorization4 ,z w be easily recogniz$1 ! numb] & organization ( associations are an important consid]ation4 ,x is especially important to call att5tion to ! fact t any attempt at v]batim memorization %\ld foll[ a v c>eful ?9k+ ?r\gh ( ! :ole selection to be memoriz$4 ,an organization ( ! ideas 9 t]ms ( t :i* is mo/ important1 & t :i* c be subord9at$ to ^! l>g] ?\ghts1 a comb9ation ( me?od ( le>n+ by :oles & by p>ts1 is involv$4 ,x is n easy to indicate fully ! me?od by :i* "o w\ld attempt to tea* to a gr\p ( six?-grade boys or girls ,wordswor?'s ,daffodils4 ,! ma9 outl9e ( ! me?od may1 h[ev]1 be indicat$ z foll[s3 ,! fir/ ?+ to be done is to ar\se1 9 s f> z is possible1 "s int]e/ & en?usiasm = ! poem 9 "q4 ,"o might sugge/ to ! class some?+ ( ! beauty ( ! high1 rugg$ hills1 & ( ! lakes ne/l+ among !m 9 ! region :i* is call$ ! ,lake ,region 9 ,engl&4 ,! ,wordswor? cottage ne> "o ( ! lakes1 & at ! foot ( "o ( ! high hills1 toge!r ) ! walk :i* is to ?is day call$ ,wordswor?'s ,walk1 c be br\ght to ! m9d1 especially by a tea*] :o has tak5 ! tr\ble to "k some?+ ( ,wordswor?'s home life4 ,! en?usiasm ( ! poet = ! beauties ( nature & 8 enjoym5t 9 walk+ ov] ! hills & ar\nd ! lakes1 is sugge/$ by ! poem itself4 ,"o might sugge/ to ! pupils t ?is is ! /ory ( a walk :i* he took "o morn+ e>ly 9 ! spr+4 ,! attempt w be made f ?is po9t on to give ! illu/ration z ! writ] might h hop$ to h x record$ z pres5t$ to a p>ticul> class4 ,! poet tells u fir/ ( 8 lonel9ess & ( ! surprise :i* 0 8 :5 he caught sight = ! fir/ "t ( ! daffodils :i* _h blossom$ s9ce ! la/ "t t he _h tak5 ?is p>ticul> walk3 ,i w&]$ lonely z a cl\d ,t floats on high o'er vales & hills1 ,:5 all at once ,i saw a cr[d1 ,a ho/1 ( gold5 daffodils2 ,beside ! lake1 b5ea? ! trees1 ,flutt]+ & danc+ 9 ! breeze4 ,y see1 he 0 n expect+ to meet any "o or to h any unusual exp]i5ce4 ,he w&]$ lonely z a cl\d t floats on high o'er vales & hills1 & 8 surprise 0 complete :5 he saw sudd5ly1--all at once ,i saw a cr[d1 a ho/ ( gold5 daffodils1 beside ! lake1 b5ea? ! trees4 ,y might h said t !y 7 wav+ 9 ! w9d1 b he saw !m flutt]+ & danc+ 9 ! breeze4 ,! daffodils z !y wav$ & danc$ 9 ! breeze sugge/$ to him ! exp]i5ce :i* he _h _h on o!r walks :i* he _h tak5 :5 ! />s 7 %9+1 & he comp>es ! gold5 daffodils to ! %9+1 tw9kl+ />s3 ,cont9u\s z ! />s t %9e ,& tw9kle on ! ,milky ,way1 ,!y /ret*$ 9 nev]-end+ l9e ,along ! m>g9 ( a bay2 ,t5 ?\s& saw ,i at a glance1 ,toss+ _! heads 9 sprightly dance4 ,! daffodils 7 z cont9u\s z ! />s t %9e & tw9kle on ! ,milky ,way4 ,!re 0 no beg9n+ & no end to ! l9e1--,!y /ret*$ 9 nev]-end+ l9e along ! m>g9 ( a bay4 ,he saw z _m daffodils z "o might see />s1--,t5 ?\s& saw ,i at a glance1 toss+ _! heads 9 sprightly dance4 ,! poet has enjoy$ ! beauty ( ! little rippl+ waves 9 ! lake1 & he tells u t ,! waves beside !m danc$2 b !y ,outdid ! sp>kl+ waves 9 glee3 ,a poet c\ld n b be gay1 ,9 su* a jocund company3 ,i gaz$--& gaz$1--b little ?\ght ,:at weal? ! %[ to me _h br\ght3 ,! daffodils h really left ! poet ) a great joy1--! waves beside ! daffodils are danc+1 b !y outdid ! sp>kl+ waves 9 glee1 & ( c\rse a poet c\ld n b be gay 9 su* a jocund company4 ,_h y ev] ?\ght ( fl[]s z a jocund company8 ,y rememb] !y flutt]$ & danc$ 9 ! breeze1 !y lift$ _! heads 9 sprightly dance4 ,d y wond] t ! poet says ( 8 exp]i5ce1 ,i gaz$--& gaz$1--b little ?\ght :at weal? ! %[ to me _h br\ght8 ,i wond] if any ( y h ev] _h a simil> exp]i5ce4 ,i rememb] ! days :5 ,i us$ to g fi%+1 & !re is a great joy ev5 n[ 9 recall+ ! twitt] ( ! birds & ! hum ( ! bees z ,i lay on ! bank & wait$ = ! fi% to bite4 ,& :at is ! great joy :i* is 81 & :i* may belong to u1 if we really see ! beautiful ?+s 9 nature8 ,he tells u :5 he says ,= (t1 :5 on my c\* ,i lie ,9 vacant or 9 p5sive mood1 ,!y fla% ^u t inw>d eye ,:i* is ! bliss ( solitude2 ,& !n my he>t ) pleasure fills1 ,& dances ) ! daffodils4 ,!re are days :5 we _c get out ( doors1--,= (t1 :5 on my c\* ,i lie 9 vacant or 9 p5sive mood1--^! are ! days :5 we recall ! exp]i5ces :i* we h enjoy$ 9 ! days :i* are gone1--!y fla% ^u t inw>d eye :i* is ! bliss ( solitude4 ,& !n = ! poet1 z well z = u1 ,& !n my he>t ) pleasure fills1 & dances ) ! daffodils4 ,n[ let u get ! ma9 ideas 9 ! /ory :i* ! poet tells u ( 8 adv5ture4 ,i w&]$ lonely z a cl\d t floats on high o'er vales & hills1 ,i saw a cr[d1 a ho/1 ( gold5 daffodils1 !y 7 beside ! lake1 b5ea? ! trees1 flutt]+ & danc+ 9 ! breeze4 ,!y rem9d$ me z ,i saw ! beautiful ar*$ l9e ( ! />s t %9e & tw9kle on ! ,milky ,way1 because !y /ret*$ 9 nev]-end+ l9e along ! m>g9 ( a bay2 & z ,i wat*$ t5 ?\s& ,i saw1 toss+ _! heads 9 sprightly dance4 ,& !n !y rem9d$ me ( ! waves :i* sp>kl$ ne> by1 b !y outdid ! sp>kl+ waves 9 glee1 & 9 ! happ9ess :i* 0 m9e1 ,i gaz$--& gaz$1--b little ?\ght :at weal? ! %[ to me _h br\ght4 ,& t happ9ess ,i c dep5d ^u :5 ^u my c\* ,i lie 9 vacant or 9 p5sive mood1 = !y fla% ^u t inw>d eye :i* is ! bliss ( solitude1 & my he>t w fill ) pleasure & dance ) ! daffodils4 ,^!1 !n1 are ! big ideas :i* ! poet has1--he w&]s lonely z a cl\d1 he enjoys ! great surprise ( ! daffodils1 ! great cr[d1 ! ho/1 ( gold5 daffodils1 flutt]+ & danc+ 9 ! breeze2 he ?9ks ( ! />s t tw9kle 9 ! ,milky ,way1 because ! l9e ( daffodils seems to h no beg9n+ & no end1--he sees t5 ?\s& ( !m at a glance1 toss+ _! heads 9 sprightly dance4 ,& z he looks at !m he ?9ks ( ! beauty ( ! sp>kl+ waves1 & ?9ks ( !m z !y dance ) glee1 & he gazes & gazes )\t ?9k+ ( ! weal? ( ! exp]i5ce4 ,b lat] :5 he writes ! poem1 he tells u ( ! weal? ( ! exp]i5ce :i* c la/ ?r\gh all ( ! days :5 he lies on 8 c\* 9 vacant or 9 p5sive mood1 = x is !n t ?is exp]i5ce fla%es ^u t inw>d eye :i* is ! bliss ( solitude1 & 8 he>t fills ) pleasure & dances ) ! daffodils4 ,n[ let u say x all ov] aga91 & see h[ ne>ly we are able to recall ! /ory ( 8 exp]i5ce 9 j ! words t he us$4 ,i w read x = y fir/1 & !n y may all try to repeat x aft] me4 ,! tea*] !n reads ! :ole poem ?r\gh1 possibly m ?an once1 & !n asks all ( ! *ildr5 to recite x ) him1 repeat+ possibly ! fir/ /anza twice or ?ree times until !y get x1 & !n ! second /anza two or ?ree times1 !n ! ?ird z (t5 z may be necess>y1 & f9ally ! f\r?4 ,x may be well !n to g back & aga9 analyze ! ?\ght1 & indicate1 us+ z f> z possible ! au?or's own words1 ! developm5t ( ideas ?r\gh ! poem4 ,!n ! poem %\ld be recit$ z a :ole by ! tea*] & *ildr54 ,! *ildr5 may !n be left to /udy x s t !y may individually on ! next day recite x v]batim4 ,! writ] has f\nd x possible to h a numb] ( *ildr5 9 a six? grade able to repeat ! poem v]batim aft] ! k9d ( treatm5t indicat$ above1 & at ! end ( a p]iod ( fifte5 m9utes4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,di/+ui% 9 s f> z y c betwe5 habit & memory4 #b4 ,"n ! factors :i* det]m9e "o's ability to recall4 #c4 ,h[ c y hope to improve *ildr5's memories8 ,:i* ( ! factors involv$ are subject to improvem5t8 #d4 ,9 :at way c y improve ! organization ( associations ^u ! "p ( *ildr5 9 any "o ( ! subjects :i* y tea*8 ,h[ increase ! numb] ( associations8 #e4 ,:at advantage has ! me?od ( conc5tration ov] ! me?od ( repetition 9 memorization8 #f4 ,give ! reasons :y ! me?od ( recall is ! be/ me?od ( memorization4 #g4 ,if y 7 tea*+ a poem ( f\r /anzas1 w\ld y use ! me?od ( memorization by :oles or by p>ts8 ,indicate cle>ly ! degree to :i* ! "o or ! o!r me?od %\ld be us$ or ! nature ( ! comb9ation ( me?ods = ! p>ticul> selection :i* y use = ! purposes ( illu/ration4 #h4 ,h[ long d *ildr5 9 y\r classes seem to be able to "w h>d at v]batim memorization8 #i4 ,"u :at conditions may ! writ+ ( ! mat]ial be+ memoriz$ actually int]f]e ) ! process8 ,:5 may x help8 #aj4 ,:y may x n be wise to attempt to tea* _! & !re at ! same "t8 #aa4 ,:at is ! type ( memory employ$ by *ildr5 :o h consid]able ability 9 cramm+ = exam9ations8 ,is ?is type ( memory ev] useful 9 lat] life8 #ab4 ,:at precaution d we ne$ to take to insure p]man5ce 9 memory ^u ! "p ( ^? :o le>n quickly8 #ac4 ,:at is meant by say+ t we possess memories r ?an a p[] or capacity call$ memory8 #ad4 ,d we =get ) equal rapidity 9 all fields 9 :i* we h le>n$8 ,:at factors det]m9e ! rate ( =gett+8 #ae4 ,:y %\ld a boy ?9k ?r\gh a poem to be memoriz$ r ?an beg9n+ 8 "w by try+ to repeat ! fir/ two l9es8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,vi4 ,,! ,,tea*]',s ,,use ,,( ,,! ,,imag9ation ,imag9ation is gov]n$ by ! same g5]al laws ( association :i* control habit & memory4 ,9 ^! two =m] topics ! emphasis 0 ^u gett+ a desir$ result )\t any att5tion to ! =m ( t result4 ,imag9ation1 on ! o!r h&1 has to d ) ! way pa/ exp]i5ce is us$ & ! =m tak5 by ! result4 ,x m]ges into memory 9 "o direction & into ?9k+ 9 ano!r4 ,no "o def9ition has be5 f\nd acceptable--9 fact1 9 no field ( psy*ology is !re m diff]5ce ( op9ion1 9 no topic are t]ms us$ m loosely1 ?an 9 ?is "o ( imag9ation4 ,/at$ 9 v g5]al t]ms1 imag9ation is ! process ( reproduc+1 or recon/ruct+ any =m ( exp]i5ce4 ,! result ( su* a process is a m5tal image4 ,:5 ! fact t x is reproduction or recon/ruction is lo/ sight (1 & ! image react$ to z if x 7 pres5t1 an illusion or halluc9ation results4 ,images may be classifi$ accord+ to ! s5se ?r\gh :i* ! orig9al exp]i5ce came1 into visual1 auditory1 gu/atory1 tactile1 k9/hetic1 & s on4 ,9 _m discussions ( imag]y ! t]m picture has be5 us$ to describe x1 & h5ce 9 ! ?\ght ( _m x is limit$ r def9itely to ! visual field4 ,( c\rse ?is is entirely wrong4 ,! recall ( a melody1 or ( ! t\* ( velvet1 or ( ! fragrance ( a rose1 is j z mu* m5tal imag]y z ! recall ( ! sight ( a fri5d4 ,?ree po9ts ( dispute 9 connection ) image types are wor? :ile not+4 ,fir/1 ! "q is rais$ by "s psy*ologi/s z to :e!r k9/hetic or motor images really exi/4 ,an example ( su* an image w\ld be to imag9e y\rself z danc+1 or walk+ d[n/airs1 or writ+ y\r "n1 or say+ ! ^w bubble4 ,^? :o object to su* an image type claim t :5 "o tries to get su* an image1 ! attempt initiates slight muscle movem5ts & ! result is a s5se exp]i5ce in/ead ( an imag$ "o4 ,!y believe ?is always happ5s & t !re=e a motor image is an impossibility4 ,o!rs agree t ?is re9/atem5t ( actual movem5ts (t5 happ5s1 b cont5d t 9 su* cases ! image prec$es ! movem5t & t ! result+ movem5t does n always take place4 ,! "q is /ill 9 dispute4 ,! second "q 9 dispute is z to ! possibility ( classify+ p accord+ to ! pr$om9ant type ( _! imag]y4 ,p us$ to be class$ z visualiz]s1 audiles4 etc41 ! supposition be+ t _! m5tal imag]y 0 pr$om9antly 9 t]ms ( vision or he>+4 ,?is is be+ s]i\sly que/ion$1 & exp]im5tal "w seems to %[ t su* a classification1 at lea/ ) ! majority ( p1 is impossible4 ,! results :i* are believ$ to w>rant su* a conclusion are z foll[s3 ,fir/1 no "o has ev] be5 te/$ :o always us$ "o type ( image4 ,second1 ! type ( image us$ *ang$ ) ! foll[+ factors3 ! mat]ial1 ! purpose ( ! subject1 ! famili>ity ( ! subject ) ! exp]i5ce imag9$4 ,= example1 ! same p]son w\ld1 p]haps1 visualize if he 7 imag+ l&scape1 b get an auditory image ( a fri5d's voice in/ead ( a visual image ( him4 ,he might1 :5 "u exp]im5tal conditions ) ! controll+ purpose1--t ( exam9+ 8 images1--get visual images1 b1 :5 "u ord9>y conditions1 get a l>g] numb] ( auditory & k9/hetic images4 ,he might :5 ?\ght 0 fl[+ smoo?ly be us+ auditory & motor images1 b ^u ! appe>ance ( "s ob/acle or difficulty 9 ! process f9d himself flood$ ) visual images4 ,?ird1 subjects :o rank$ high 9 "o type ( imag]y rank$ high 9 o!rs1 & subjects :o rank$ l[ 9 "o type rank$ l[ also 9 o!rs4 ,! ability seems to be t ( gett+ cle> image types1 or ! lack ( x1 r ?an ! ability to get "o type4 ,f\r?1 mo/ ( ! subjects report$ t ! fir/ image 0 usually foll[$ by o!rs ( diff]5t types4 ,! conclusions !n1 t individuals1 *ildr5 z well z adults1 are r>ely ( "o fix$ type1 ! mix$ type be+ ! usual "o1 is be+ g5]ally accept$4 ,9 fact1 x seems mu* m probable t mat]ials & outside conditions c m easily be classifi$ z usually ar\s+ a c]ta9 type ( image1 ?an p c be classifi$ into types4 ,! ?ird po9t ( controv]sy gr[s out ( ! second4 ,"s psy*ologi/s are ask+ :at is ! value ( su* a classification8 ,suppose p c\ld be put "u types 9 imag]y1 :at w\ld be ! practical advantage8 ,su* an attempt at classification is futile & n wor? :ile1 = two reasons4 ,fir/1 ! result ( ! m5tal processes--! goal arriv$ at is ! important ?+1 & ! p>ticul> type ( image us$ is ( little importance4 ,does x make any diff]5ce to ! bus9ess man :e!r 8 cl]k ?9ks 9 t]ms ( ! visual images ( words or 9 t]ms ( motor images s long z he sells ! goods8 ,to ! tea*] ( geography1 does x make any diff]5ce :e!r ,john 9 8 ?9k+ ( ! value ( trees is see+ !m 9 8 m9d's eye1 or he>+ ! w9d ru/le ?r\gh ! leaves1 or smell+ ! moi/ e>?1 leaf-mold1 or hav+ none ( ^! images1 if he gets ! mean+1 & rea*es a "r conclusion8 ,second1 ! s5se :i* gives ! cle>e/1 mo/ dep5dable impressions is n ! "o necess>ily 9 t]ms ( :i* ! exp]i5ce is recall$4 ,"o ( ! *ief values urg$ = a classification accord+ to image type ( p1 especially *ildr51 has be5 t ! appeal c\ld !n be made ?r\gh ! correspond+ s5se organs4 ,= in/ance1 ,gr\p ,a1 be+ visualiz]s1 w be ask$ to read ! mat]ial sil5tly2 ,gr\p ,b1 audiles1 w h ! mat]ial read to !m2 ,gr\p ,c1 motiles1 w be ask$ to read ! mat]ial orally1 or ask$ to dramatize x4 ,= ea* gr\p ! major appeal %\ld be made 9 t]ms ( ! s5se correspond+ to _! image type4 ,b su* a correspond5ce z ?is does n exi/4 ,an individual may le>n be/ by use ( 8 eyes & yet v seldom use visual images 9 recall4 ,?is is true ( mo/ p 9 read+4 ,mo/ p grasp ! mean+ ( a passage bett] :5 !y read x ?an :5 !y he> x read1 & yet ! pr$om9ant type ( ^w image is auditory-motor4 ,h5ce if any classification ( *ildr5 is attempt$ x %\ld be accord+ to ! s5se by means ( :i* !y le>n be/1 & n accord+ to "s suppos$ image type4 ,_m me?ods ( appeal = all *ildr5 is ! safe/ practical sugge/ion4 ,images may also be classifi$ accord+ to ! use made ( pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,pa/ exp]i5ce may be recall$ 9 approximately ! same =m 9 :i* x occurr$1 or x may be recon/ruct$4 ,9 ! =m] case ! image is call$ reproductive image or memory image2 9 ! latt] =m x is call$ productive or creative image1 or image ( ! imag9ation4 ,! reproductive image nev] duplicates exp]i5ce1 b 9 its major features x closely corresponds to x1 :]eas ! productive image breaks up old exp]i5ces & f !m makes new :oles :i* correspond to no def9ite occurr5ce4 ,! elem5ts f\nd 9 bo? k9ds ( imag]y mu/ come f exp]i5ce4 ,"o _c imag9e any?+ ! elem5ts ( :i* he has n exp]i5c$4 ,creative imag9ation transc5ds exp]i5ce only 9 ! s5se t x remodels & remakes1 b ! result ( t activity produces new :oles z f> remov$ f ! actual occurr5ces z ,alice 9 ,wond]l& is f ! humdrum life ( a t5em5t dwell]4 ,j ! same1 ! fact t ! elem5ts us$ 9 creative "w mu/ be drawn f exp]i5ce is extremely sugge/ive f a practical po9t ( view4 ,x demon/rates ! ne$ ( a ri* s5sory life = e *ild4 ,x also expla9s ! reason = ! lack ( appreciation on ! "p ( immature *ildr5 ( c]ta9 types ( lit]ature & c]ta9 moral que/ions4 ,no m ne$ be said "h ( ! reproductive image1 z x is synonym\s ) ! memory image & 0 !re=e treat$ fully "u ! topic ( memory4 ,"o fact %\ld be borne 9 m9d1 h[ev]1 & t is1 t ! creative image is to "s ext5t dep5d5t on ! reproductive image z x involves recall4 ,h[ev]1 z productive imag]y involves ! recall ( elem5ts or p>ts r ?an :oles1 an individual may h tal5t 9 creative imag]y )\t be+ above ! av]age 9 exact reproduction4 ,productive imag]y may be classifi$ z fanciful1 reali/ic1 & ideali/ic accord+ to ! "* ( ! mat]ial us$4 ,fanciful productive imag]y is *>act]iz$ by its spontaneity1 its disreg>d ( ! probable & possible1 its vividness ( detail4 ,x is its own rew>d1 & does n look to any result beyond itself4 ,little *ildr5's imag9ations are ( ?is type--x is _! play _w ( make-believe4 ,! incongruity & absurdity ( _! images h be5 comp>$ to ! dreams ( adults4 ,lack+ 9 exp]i5ce1 )\t k ( natural laws1 _! imag9ation runs riot ) ! mat]ials x has at its comm&4 ,"s adults /ill reta9 x to a high degree--witness ! my?s & fairy /ories1 ,alice 9 ,wond]l&1 & ! l4 ,all adults 9 _! ca/le-build+ indulge 9 ?is type ( imag]y to "s ext5t4 ,reali/ic productive imag]y1 z its "n implies1 adh]es m /rictly to actual conditions1 x deals ) ! probable4 ,x usually is con/ruct$ = a purpose1 be+ put to "s end beyond itself4 ,x lacks mu* ( ! emotional elem5t possess$ by ! o!r two types4 ,?is is ! k9d mo/ valuable 9 reason+ & ?9k+4 ,x deals ) new situations--con/ructs !m1 creates means ( deal+ ) !m1 & =eca/s ! results4 ,x is ! type ( productive imag]y call$ into play by inv5tors1 by craftsm51 by physicians1 by tea*]s--9 fact1 by any "o :o tries to br+ ab\t a *ange 9 conditions by ! function+ ( a def9ite ?\ght process4 ,?is is ! k9d ( imag]y :i* mo/ int]e/s gramm> s*ool pupils4 ,!y dem& facts1 n fancies4 ,!y are mo/ active 9 mak+ *anges 9 a _w ( ?+s4 ,ideali/ic productive imag]y does n fly 9 ! face ( reality z does ! fanciful1 nor does x adh]e s /rictly to facts z does ! reali/ic4 ,x deals ) ! possible--) :at may be1 b ) :at is n yet4 ,x always looks to ! future1 = if realiz$ x is no long] ideali/ic4 ,x is enjoy$ = its own sake b does n exi/ = t alone1 b looks t[>ds "s result4 ,x is conc]n$ prim>ily ) human lives & has a /rong emotional tone4 ,x is ! he>t ( ideals4 ,! adolesc5t revels 9 ?is type ( productive imag]y4 ,8 dreams conc]n+ 8 own future1 8 s]vice to 8 fell[ m51 8 success1 & ! l involve mu* ideali/ic imag]y4 ,h]o wor%ip involves x4 ,x is "o ( ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! man ) vision & ! man )\t4 ,! importance ( productive imag]y _c be ov]emphasiz$4 ,?is p[] to create ! new out ( ! old is "o ( ! greate/ possessions ( mank9d4 ,all progress 9 e field1 :e!r individual or racial1 dep5ds ^u x4 ,f ! f]tility & ri*ness ( man's productive imag9ation mu/ come all ! sugge/ions :i* w make ?is _w o!r ?an :at x is4 ,!re=e "o ( ! greate/ tasks ( education at pres5t is to *]i% & cultivate ?is p[]4 ,"o _c fail to recognize1 h[ev]1 t ) ! emphasis at pres5t s l>gely ^u memory1 ! cultivation ( ! imag9ation is be+ pu%$ into ! backgr\nd despite all our !ories to ! contr>y4 ,n only is productive imag]y z a :ole wor? :ile1 b ea* type is valuable4 ,an adult lack+ p[] ( fanciful imag9ation lacks p[] to enjoy c]ta9 elem5ts 9 life & lacks a v def9ite means ( recreation4 ,lack+ 9 reali/ic imag9ation he is unable to deal successfully ) new situations1 b mu/ =ev] rema9 9 bondage to ! pa/4 ,)\t ideali/ic imag9ation he lacks ! motive :i* makes m5 /rive to be bett]1 m effici5t--o!r ?an :at !y are4 ,at c]ta9 times 9 *ild developm5t "o type may ne$ special enc\ragem5t1 & at ano!r "t "s o!r4 ,all %\ld1 h[ev]1 be borne 9 m9d & develop$ along "r & :olesome l9es2 o!rwise1 left to itself1 any "o ( ^!1 & especially ! la/1 may be a s\rce ( dang] to ! "*4 ,images may be classifi$ accord+ to ! mat]ial dealt ) into object images or concrete images & into ^w or ab/ract images4 ,no "o ( ^! t]ms is v good z a "n ( ! image ref]r$ to4 ,! fir/ gr\p--object or concrete image--ref]s to an image 9 :i* ! s5sory qualities1 su* z color1 size1 rhy?m1 sweetness1 h>mony1 etc41 are pres5t4 ,! images ( a fri5d1 ( a text-book1 ( ! national an!m1 ( an orange1 ( ! s*oolroom1 & s on1 w\ld all be object images4 ,a ^w or ab/ract image is "o :i* is a symbol4 ,x /&s = & repres5ts c]ta9 s5sory exp]i5ces1 ! quality ( :i* does n appe> 9 ! image4 ,any ^w1 numb]1 ma!matical or *emical symbol--9 fact1 any ab/ract symbol w come "u ?is type ( image4 ,if 9 ! fir/ li/ ( illu/rations1 in/ead ( hav+ images ( ! real objects1 an individual _h images ( words 9 ea* case1 ! images w\ld be ab/ract or v]bal images4 ,ab/ract images %ade into concrete by gradual degrees--!re is no %>p l9e ( division betwe5 ! two2 h[ev]1 !y d =m two diff]5t k9ds ( images1 two =ms :i* may h ! same mean+4 ,! "q z to ! respective use & value ( ^! two k9ds ( images is giv5 diff]5t answ]s4 ,!re is no "q b t ! v]bal image is m economical ?an ! object image4 ,x saves en]gy & "t4 ,x br+s ) x less ( irrelevant detail & is m /able ?an ! object image1 & !re=e results 9 m accurate ?9k+4 ,x is ab/ract 9 nature & !re=e has m g5]al application4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x has be5 claim$ = ! object image t x necess>ily prec$es ! v]bal image--is fundam5tal to x2 t x is ess5tial 9 creative "w deal+ ) mat]ials & s\nds & 9 ! appreciation ( c]ta9 types ( descriptive lit]ature1 & t 9 any "p ( ! ?9k+ process :51 because ( difficulty ( "s k9d1 a p]cept w\ld help1 an object image w\ld be ( ! same assi/ance4 ,x is conc]n+ ^! suppos$ advantages ( ! object image t !re has be5 mo/ dispute4 ,!re is no pro( t ! l9e ( gr[? is necess>ily f p]cept1 ?r\gh object image1 to v]bal image4 ,9 c]ta9 fields1 notably smell1 ! object image is almo/ abs5t & yet ! v]bal images 9 t field c>ry mean+4 ,x is also true t p ^: p[] ( gett+ cle>-cut1 vivid object images is almo/ nil seem to be 9 n[ise hamp]$ by t fact 9 _! use ( ! symbols4 ,kn[+ ! unreliability ( ! object image1 x w\ld seem v unsafe to use x z ! l9k betwe5 p]cept & symbol4 ,mu* bett] to connect ! symbol directly ) ! exp]i5ce & let x ga9 its mean+ f t4 ,z to its value 9 con/ructive "w 9 arts1 lit]ature1 drama1 & inv5tion1 ! te/imony ( "s exp]ts 9 ea* field be>s witness t x is n a necess>y accompanim5t ( success4 ,! musician ne$ n he>1 m5tally1 all ! h>monies1 *anges1 int]vals2 he may ?9k !m 9 t]ms ( notes1 re/s1 etc41 z he composes4 ,! poet ne$ n see ! sc5e he is describ+2 v]bal images may be> 8 mean+s4 ,( c\rse ?is does n mean t object images may n be pres5t too1 b ! po9t is t ! work] is n dep5d5t on !m4 ,! aid (f]$ by object images 9 "t ( difficulty is /ill m op5 to d\bt4 ,z an illu/ration ( :at is meant by ?is3 ,suppose a *ild to be giv5 a c>pet+ example 9 ari?metic :i* he f9ds himself unable to solve4 ,! claim is made t if he w !n call up a concrete image ( ! room1 he w see t ! c>pet is laid 9 /rips & t sugge/ion may set him "r4 ,b x has be5 prov$ exp]im5tally ov] & ov] aga9 t if he doesn't "k t c>pets are laid t way1 he w nev] get x f ! image1 & if he does "k x1 he doesn't ne$ an object image4 ,x seems to be a fact t object images d n function1 9 ! s5se t "o _c get a correct answ] z to color1 or =m1 or numb] f !m4 ,"o c read (f f a concrete image :at he kn[s to be true ( x--or else x is j guess+4 ,kn[+ 9 ea* case involves obs]vation & judgm5t1 & t means v]bal images4 ,/ud5ts ^: p[] ( concrete imag]y is l[ d1 on ! av]age1 9 situations :]e a concrete image w\ld suppos$ly help1 j z well z /ud5ts ^: p[] 9 ?is field is high4 ,x does seem to be true t object images give a vividness & color to m5tal life :i* may result 9 a ke5] appreciation ( c]ta9 types ( lit]ature4 ,?is w>m? & vividness :i* object images add to ! m5tal processes ( ^? :o h !m is a boon4 ,on ! :ole1 !n1 ^w images are ! m valuable ( ! two types4 ,^u !m dep5ds1 prim>ily1 ! ability to h&le new situations1 & ev5 9 ! con/ructive fields !y are all suffici5t4 ,^! two facts1 add$ to ! fact t !y are m accurate1 spe$y1 & g5]al 9 application1 makes !m a necess>y "p ( ! m5tal equipm5t ( an effici5t work]1 & means t mu* m att5tion mu/ be giv5 to ! developm5t ( productive symbol images4 ,two w>n+s %\ld be borne 9 m9d3 ,fir/1 al?\gh ! object images are n necess>y 9 g5]al1 z discuss$ above1 to any giv5 individual1 because ( 8 p>ticul> habits ( ?\ght1 !y may be necess>y accompanim5ts to 8 m5tal processes4 ,second1 al?\gh object images may n help 9 giv+ und]/&+ or appreciation "u new conditions1 /ill ! me?od ( ask+ /ud5ts to try to image c]ta9 conditions is wor? :ile because x makes !m /op & ?9k1 :i* is always a help4 ,:e!r !y get object or ^w images 9 ! process makes no diff]5ce4 ,! discussion conc]n+ ! possibility ( imageless ?\ght1 :ile an int]e/+ "o1 _c be ent]$ into "h4 ,:e!r mean+s c exi/ 9 ! human m9d ap>t f any c>ri] 9 ! =m ( "s s5sory or imag9al /ate is unsettl$1 b ! discussion has drawn att5tion to at lea/ ! v fragm5t>y nature ( ^? c>ri]s4 ,a few fragm5ts ( words1 a m5tal %rug ( ! %\ld]1 a feel+ ( ! direction 9 :i* a c]ta9 c\rse is lead+1 a consci\sness ( "o's attitude t[>ds a plan or p]son--& ! conclusion is rea*$4 ,! ?9k+1 or x may ev5 h be5 reason+1 involv$ few cle>-cut images ( any k9d4 ,! fragm5t>y1 s*ematic nature ( ! c>ri]s & ! l>ge "p play$ by feel+s ( direction & attitude are ! r a/oni%+ results ( ! introspective analysis result+ f ?is discussion4 ,?is sort ( ?9k+ is valuable = ! same reasons t ?9k+ 9 t]ms ( words is valuable--x only goes a /ep fur!r1 b x ne$s direction & tra9+4 ,images ( all k9ds h be5 discuss$ z if !y /ood out cle>ly diff]5tiat$ f all o!r types ( m5tal /ates4 ,?is is necess>y 9 ord] t _! peculi> *>act]i/ics & functions may be cle>4 ,h[ev]1 !y are n s cle>ly def9$ 9 actual m5tal life1 b %ade into ea* o!r & into o!r m5tal /ates1 giv+ rise to confusion & error4 ,! two greate/ s\rces ( error are3 fir/1 ! confusion ( image ) p]cept1 & second1 ! confusion ( memory image ) image ( ! imag9ation4 ,! *ief diff]5ce betwe5 ^! m5tal /ates z !y exi/ is a diff]5ce 9 k9d & am\nt ( associations4 ,^! diff]5t associates usually give to ! p]cept a vividness & mat]ial reality :i* ! o!r two lack4 ,!y give to ! memory image a feel+ ( pa/ness & tru5ess :i* ! image ( imag9ation lacks4 ,!re=e lack ( c]ta9 associations1 due to lack ( exp]i5ce or k1 or pres5ce ( associations due to ^! same causes & to ! undue vividness ( o!r connections1 c\ld easily result 9 "o ( ^! /ates be+ mi/ak5 = ano!r4 ,!re is no inh]5t diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,! fir/ type ( confusion1 betwe5 p]cept & image1 has be5 rec5tly made ! subject ( inve/igation4 ,p]ky f\nd t ev5 ) tra9$ adults1 if ! p]ceptual /imulus 0 slight1 x 0 mi/ak5 = an image4 ,all illusions w\ld come "u ?is head4 ,*ildr5's imag9>y companions1 :5 really believ$ 91 are expla9$ by ?is confusion4 ,h[ev]1 ! confusion is mu* m g5]al ?an ^! illu/rations w\ld seem to imply4 ,! fact t ,love is bl9d1 t ,we see :at we look = are b /atem5ts ( ?is same confusion1 & ^! two facts ent] into multitudes ( situations all ?r\gh life4 ,! ne$ to see life cle>ly & see x :ole is an imp]ative "o4 ,! second type ( confusion1 betwe5 reproductive & productive memory1 is ev5 m common4 ,! :ite lies ( *ildr51 ! embroid]+ ( a /ory by ! adult1 ! add+ to & add+ to ! orig9al exp]i5ce until all s5se ( :at really happ5$ is lo/1 are b ord9>y facts ( ev]yday exp]i5ces4 ,! unreliability ( witness & te/imony is due1 9 "p1 to ?is confusion4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,h[ is ! process ( imag9ation l memory8 #b4 ,:at is ! relation ( imag9ation to ?9k+8 #c4 ,:at k9d ( images d y seek to h *ildr5 use 9 _! "w 9 ! subjects :i* y tea*8 #d4 ,c y classify ! memb]s ( y\r class z visualiz]s1 audiles1 & ! l8 #e4 ,if "o le>ns mo/ readily by read+ r ?an he>+1 does x foll[ t 8 images w be l>gely visual8 ,:y8 #f4 ,give examples f y\r own exp]i5ce ( memory images2 ( creative images4 #g4 ,to :at degree does creative imag9ation dep5d ^u pa/ exp]i5ces8 #h4 ,:at type ( imag]y is mo/ important = ! "w ( ! inv5tor8 ,! f>m]8 ,! social re=m]8 #i4 ,( :at significance 9 ! life ( an adult is fanciful imag]y8 #aj4 ,:at1 if any1 is ! dang] involv$ 9 revel+ 9 ideali/ic productive imag]y8 #aa4 ,:at advantages d v]bal images possess z ov] aga9/ object images8 #ab4 ,:y w\ld y ask *ildr5 to try to image 9 tea*+ lit]ature1 geography1 hi/ory1 or any o!r subject = :i* y are responsible8 #ac4 ,h[ w\ld y h&le a boy :o is hi ! habit ( confus+ memory images ) images ( imag9ation8 #ad4 ,9 :at s5se is x true t all progress1 is dep5d5t ^u productive imag9ation8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,vii4 ,,h[ ,,?9k+ ,,may ,,be ,,/imulat$ ,! t]m ?9k+ has be5 us$ almo/ z loosely z ! t]m imag9ation1 & us$ to mean almo/ z _m diff]5t ?+s4 ,ev5 n[ !re is no cons5sus ( op9ion z to j :at ?9k+ is4 ,dewey says1 ,active1 p]si/5t1 & c>eful consid]ation ( any belief or suppos$ =m ( k 9 ! light ( ! gr\nds t support x1 & ! fur!r conclusions to :i* x t5ds1 con/itutes reflective ?\ght4#e ,mill] says1 ,?9k+ is n s mu* a di/9ct consci\s process z x is an organisation ( all ! consci\s processes :i* are relevant 9 a problematic situation = ! p]=mance ( ! function ( consci\sly adju/+ means to end4#f ,?9k+ always presupposes "s lack 9 adju/m5t1 "s d\bt or unc]ta9ty1 "s hesitation 9 response4 ,s long z ! situation1 because ( its simplicity or famili>ity1 receives imm$iately a response :i* satisfies1 !re is no ne$ = ?9k+4 ,only :5 ! response is inadequate or :5 no satisfactory response is =?com+ is ?9k+ ar\s$4 ,by f> ! majority ( ! daily adju/m5ts made by p1 bo? m5tal & physical1 require no ?9k+ because in/9ct1 habit1 & memory suffice4 ,x is only :5 ^! d n s]ve to produce a satisfactory response t ?9k+ is ne$$--only :5 !re is some?+ problematic 9 ! situation4 ,ev5 9 new situations ?9k+ is n always us$ to br+ ab\t a satisfactory adju/m5t4 ,foll[+ an in/9ctive prompt+ :5 confront$ by a new situation2 bl9dly foll[+ ano!r's lead2 us+ ! trial & error me?od ( response2 react+ to ! situation z to ! old situation mo/ l x2 or response by analogy3 all are me?ods ( deal+ ) new situations :i* (t5 result 9 correct adju/m5ts1 & yet none ( :i* ne$ involve ?9k+4 ,?is does n mean t ^! me?ods1 save ! fir/ m5tion$1 may n be accompani$ by ?9k+2 b t ea* ( !m may be us$ )\t ! consci\s adju/m5t ( means to end dem&$ by ?9k+4 ,t ^! me?ods1 & n ?9k+1 are ! ones mo/ (t5 us$1 ev5 by adults1 9 deal+ ) problems1 _c be d5i$4 ,!y (f] an easy means ( escape f ! m tr\blesome me?od ( ?9k+4 ,x is s mu* easi] to accept :at "s "o else says1 s mu* easi] to agree ) a book's answ] to a "q ?an to ?9k x out = oneself4 ,foll[+ ! fir/ sugge/ion (f]$1 j go+ at ?+s 9 a hit-or-miss fa%ion1 uncritical response by analogy1 saves mu* "t & en]gy app>5tly1 & !re=e ^! me?ods are adopt$ & foll[$ by ! majority ( p 9 mo/ ( ! circum/ances ( life4 ,x is human nature to ?9k only :5 no o!r me?od ( m5tal activity br+s ! desir$ response4 ,we ?9k only :5 we mu/4 ,n only is x true t problems are (t5 solv$ correctly by o!r me?ods ?an t ( ?9k+1 b on ! o!r h& mu* ?9k+ may take place & yet ! result be an incorrect conclusion1 or p]haps no solution at all be rea*$4 ,?9k ( ! ye>s ( "w m5 h devot$ to a s+le problem1 & yet p]haps at ! end ( t "t1 because ( a wrong premise or "s incorrect data1 h arriv$ at a result t lat] ye>s h prov$ to h be5 utt]ly false4 ,?9k ( ! inve/igations be+ c>ri$ on n[ 9 m$ic9e1 9 sci5ce1 9 inv5tion1 :i* because ( ! lack ( k are /ill incomplete1 & yet 9 ea* case ?9k+ ( ! mo/ te*nical & rigor\s type has be5 us$4 ,?9k+ _c be consid]$ 9 t]ms ( ! result4 ,correct results may be obta9$1 ev5 9 problematic situations1 ) no ?9k+1 & on ! o!r h& mu* ?9k+ may be done & yet ! results rea*$ be entirely unsatisfactory4 ,?9k+ is a process involv+ a c]ta9 def9ite proc$ure4 ,x is ! organisation ( all m5tal /ates t[>d a c]ta9 def9ite end1 b is n any "o m5tal /ate4 ,9 c]ta9 types ( situations ?is proc$ure is ! "o mo/ c]ta9 ( rea*+ correct conclusions1 9 "s situations x is ! only possible "o1 b ! conclusion is n ! ?9k+ & its correctness does n diff]5tiate ! process f o!rs4 ,f ! =ego+ discussions x mu/ n be d$uc$ t because ( ! specific nature & ! difficulty ( ?9k+ t ! p[] is giv5 only to adults4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! p[] is root$ 9 ! orig9al equipm5t ( ! human race & develops gradually1 j z all o!r orig9al capacities d4 ,*ildr5 "u ?ree ye>s ( age manife/ x4 ,true1 ! situations call+ x out are v simple1 & to ! adult seem (t5 trivial1 z !y mo/ (t5 occur 9 connection ) ! *ild's play1 b !y none ! less call = ! adju/m5t ( means to end1 :i* is ?9k+4 ,a lo/ toy1 ! abs5ce ( a playmate1 ! break+ ( a cup1 a ?und]/orm1 ^! & hundr$s ( o!r ev5ts ( daily life are occasions :i* may ar\se ?9k+ on ! "p ( a little *ild4 ,x is n ! type ( situation1 nor its dignity1 t is ! important ?+ 9 ?9k+1 b ! way 9 :i* x is dealt )4 ,! incorrectness ( a *ild's data1 _! incomplet5ess & lack ( organization1 (t5 result 9 incorrect conclusions1 & /ill 8 ?9k+ may be absolutely s\nd4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! *ild & ! adult 9 ?is p[] is a diff]5ce 9 degree--bo? possess ! p[]4 ,z ,dewey says1 ,only by mak+ ! mo/ ( ! ?\ght-factor1 already active 9 ! exp]i5ce ( *ildhood1 is !re any promise or w>rant = ! em]g5ce ( sup]ior reflective p[] at adolesc5ce1 or at any lat] p]iod4#g ,?9k+1 !n1 is involv$ 9 any response :i* comes z a result ( ! consci\s adaptation ( means to end 9 a problematic situation4 ,_m ( ! processes ( m5tal activity :i* h be5 giv5 o!r names may involve ?is process4 ,habit =mation--:5 ! le>n] analyzes 8 progress or failure1 :5 he tries to f9d a %ort cut1 or :5 he seeks = an inc5tive to insure great] improvem5t--may s]ve z a situation call+ = ?9k+4 ,! process ( app]ceiv+ or ( assimilation may involve x4 ,/udy+ & try+ to rememb] may involve x4 ,con/ructive imag9ation (t5 calls = x4 ,reason+1 always requires x4 ,9 ! old] psy*ology reason+ & ?9k+ 7 (t5 us$ z synonyms1 b m rec5tly x has be5 accept$ by mo/ psy*ologi/s t reason+ is simply "o type ( ?9k+1 ! mo/ advanc$ type1 & ! mo/ dem&+ type1 b n ! only "o4 ,?9k+ may g on 7z 9 ! o!r processes j m5tion$7 )\t reason+1 b all reason+ mu/ involve ?9k+4 ,x is ?is lack ( diff]5tiation betwe5 reason+ & ?9k+1 ! attempt to make ( all ?9k+1 reason+1 t has limit$ tea*]s 9 _! attempts to develop ?9k+ ^u ! "p ( _! pupils4 ,! ess5tials ( ! ?9k+ process are ?ree3 7#a7 a /ate ( d\bt or unc]ta9ty1 result+ 9 susp5d$ judgm5t2 7#b7 an organization & control ( m5tal /ates 9 view ( an end to be atta9$2 7#c7 a critical attitude involv+ selection & rejection ( sugge/ions (f]$4 ,! recognition ( "s lack ( adju/m5t1 ! feel+ ( ne$ = some?+ "o hasn't1 is ! only /imulus t[>d ?9k+4 ,?is problematic situation1 result+ 9 susp5d$ judgm5t1 caus$ by ! inadequacy ( pres5t p[] or k1 may arise 9 connection ) any situation4 ,x is un=tunate t ! t]ms problematic situation & feel+ ( inadequacy h be5 discuss$ almo/ entirely 9 connection ) situations :5 ! result has "s pragmatic value4 ,!re is no "q b :at ! situation ar\s+ ?9k+ mu/ be a live "o & a real "o1 b x ne$ n be "o ! answ] to :i* w be useful4 ,x is true t ) ! majority ( p1 bo? *ildr5 & adults1 a problem ( ?is type w be m (t5 effective 9 ar\s+ ! ?9k+ process ?an a problem ( a m ab/ract nature1 b x is n always s1 nor necess>ily s4 ,mo/ *ildr5 sometimes1 & "s *ildr5 mo/ ( ! "t1 enjoy ?9k+ simply = ! sake ( ! activity4 ,!y d n ne$ ! concrete1 pragmatic situation--any?+1 no matt] h[ ab/ract1 t ar\ses _! curiosity or appeals to _! love ( ma/]y (f]s en\gh ( a problem4 ,sometimes *ildr5 are vitally int]e/$ 9 work+ geometrical problems1 translat+ difficult passages 9 ,lat91 /riv+ to inv5t ! p]petual motion ma*9e1 ev5 ?\gh !re is no evid5t & useful result4 ,x is n ! p>ticul> type ( situation t is ! ?+ to be consid]$1 b ! attitude t x ar\ses 9 ! individual conc]n$4 ,educators 9 discussion ( ! situations t make = ?9k+ mu/ all[ = individual diff]5ces & mu/ plan = ! intellectually m9d$ z well z = o!rs4 ,! ?9k] confront$ by a situation = :i* 8 pres5t k is n adequate1 recognizes ! difficulty & susp5ds judgm5t2 9 o!r words1 does n jump at a conclusion b und]takes to ?9k x out4 ,to d ?is control is cont9ually necess>y4 ,he mu/ keep 8 problem cont9ually be=e him & "w directly = its solution1 avoid+ delays1 avoid+ be+ side-track$4 ,?is means1 ( c\rse1 ! critical attitude t[>ds all sugge/ions (f]$4 ,ea* "o z x comes mu/ be inspect$ 9 ! light ( ! end to be rea*$--if x does n seem to help t[>ds t goal1 x mu/ be reject$4 ,criticism1 selection1 & rejection ( sugge/ions (f]$ mu/ cont9ue z long z ! ?9k+ process goes on4 ,to ma9ta9 ! /ate ( d\bt & to c>ry on sy/ematic & protract$ inquiry--^! are ! ess5tials ( ?9k+4 ,9 ord] to ma9ta9 ?is critical attitude to select & reject sugge/ions ) ref]5ce to a goal1 ! sugge/ions z !y come _c be accept$ z units & foll[$4 ,su* a proc$ure is possible only :5 ! m5tal process is n controll$ by an end4 ,control by a goal necessitates analysis ( ! sugge/ions & ab/raction ( :at 9 !m is ess5tial = ! p>ticul> problem 9 h&4 ,x is because no complete association at h& (f]s a satisfactory response to ! situation t ! ne$ = ?9k+ arises4 ,ea* association z x comes mu/ be brok5 up1 c]ta9 p>ts or elem5ts em]ge1 c]ta9 relation%ips1 implications1 or functions are made consci\s4 ,ea* ( ^! is exam9$ 9 turn2 z !y seem to be valueless = ! purpose ( ! ?9k]1 !y are reject$4 ,if "o elem5t or relation%ip seems significant = ! problem1 x is seiz$ ^u1 ab/ract$ f its fell[s1 & becomes ! c5t] ( ! next s]ies ( sugge/ions4 ,a "p1 elem5t1 quality1 or :at n1 ( ! situation is accept$ z significant ( x = ! "t be+4 ,! "p /&s = ! :ole--?is is *>act]i/ic ( all ?9k+4 ,z a v simple illu/ration1 consid] ! foll[+ "o report$ by ,dewey3 ,project+ ne>ly horizontally f ! upp] deck ( ! f]ryboat on :i* ,i daily cross ! riv]1 is a long :ite pole1 be>+ a gild$ ball at its tip4 ,x sugge/$ a flag pole :5 ,i fir/ saw x2 its color1 %ape1 & gild$ ball agre$ ) ?is idea1 & ^! reasons seem$ to ju/ify me 9 ?is belief4 ,b soon difficulties pres5t$ !mselves4 ,! pole 0 ne>ly horizontal1 an unusual position = a flag pole2 9 ! next place1 !re 0 no pulley1 r+1 or cord by :i* to atta* a flag2 f9ally1 !re 7 else:]e two v]tical /affs f :i* flags 7 occasionally fl[n4 ,x seem$ probable t ! pole 0 n !re = flag-fly+4 ,i !n tri$ to imag9e all possible purposes ( su* a pole1 & to consid] = :i* ( ^! x 0 be/ suit$3 7a7 ,possibly x 0 an ornam5t4 ,b z all ! f]ryboats & ev5 ! tugboats c>ri$ l poles1 ?is hypo!sis 0 reject$4 7b7 ,possibly x 0 ! t]m9al ( a wireless telegraph4 ,b ! same consid]ations made ?is improbable4 ,besides1 ! m natural place = su* a t]m9al w\ld be ! highe/ "p ( ! boat1 on top ( ! pilot h\se1 7c7 ,its purpose might be to po9t out ! direction 9 :i* ! boat is mov+4 ,9 support ( ?is conclusion1 ,i discov]$ t ! pole 0 l[] ?an ! pilot h\se1 s t ! /e]sman c\ld easily see x4 ,moreov]1 ! tip 0 en\gh high] ?an ! base1 s t1 f ! pilot's position1 x mu/ appe> to project f> out 9 front ( ! boat4 ,moreov]1 ! pilot be+ ne> ! front ( ! boat1 he w\ld ne$ "s su* guide z to its direction4 ,tugboats w\ld also ne$ poles = su* a purpose4 ,?is hypo!sis 0 s mu* m probable ?an ! o!rs t ,i accept$ x4 ,i =m$ ! conclusion t ! pole 0 set up = ! purpose ( %[+ ! pilot ! direction 9 :i* ! boat po9t$1 to enable him to /e] correctly4#h ,! problem 0 to f9d out ! use ( ! flag pole4 ,no adequate explanation came z ! problem pres5t$ itself2 x !re=e caus$ a /ate ( unc]ta9ty1 ( susp5d$ judgm5t1 & a process ( ?9k+ 9 ord] to get an answ]4 ,ea* sugge/ion t came 0 analyz$1 its requirem5ts & possibilities *eck$ up by ! actual facts & ! goal4 ,! sugge/ions t ! pole 0 simply to c>ry a flag1 0 an ornam5t1 0 ! t]m9al ( a wireless telegraph1 7 exam9$ & reject$4 ,! f9al "o1 t ! pole 0 to po9t out ! direction 9 :i* ! boat 0 mov+1 ^u analysis seem$ mo/ probable & 0 accept$4 ,! "o *>act]i/ic ( ! pole1 t x po9ts direction1 & its position1 ne$ to be accept$ z ! ess5tial facts 9 ! situation1 = ! p>ticul> problem4 ,)\t control ( ! process1 )\t ! two /eps ( analysis & ab/raction1 no conclusion c\ld h be5 rea*$4 ,analysis & ab/raction may be facilitat$ 9 ?ree ways4 ,fir/1 by att5tive piecemeal exam9ation4 ,! total situation is exam9$1 elem5t by elem5t1 att5tively1 until ! elem5t ne$$ is rea*$ or approximat$4 ,?is me?od ( proc$ure helps to emphasize m9or bonds ( association :i* ! elem5t possesses 9 ! le>n]'s exp]i5ce b :i* he ne$s to h br\ght to 8 att5tion4 ,x c only be us$ :5 ! elem5t is kn[n to "s degree4 ,x is ! me?od to use :5 elem5ts are kn[n 9 a hazy1 incomplete1 or indef9ite way & ne$ cle>+ up4 ,second1 by v>y+ ! concomitant4 ,an elem5t associat$ ) _m situations1 :i* v>y 9 o!r respects1 comes to be felt & recogniz$ z indep5d5t4 ,?is is ! me?od to use :5 a new elem5t 9 a complex is to be taught4 ,?ird1 by contra/4 ,a new elem5t is br\ght into consci\sness m quickly if x is set side by side ) its opposite4 ,( c\rse1 ?is is only true provid$ ! opposite has already be5 le>n$4 ,to pres5t opposites1 bo? ( :i* are new or only p>tially le>n$1 confuses ! analysis in/ead ( facilitat+ x4 ,reason+1 z ! highe/ type ( ?9k+1 includes all t ?9k+ 9 g5]al does1 & adds "s p>ticul> requirem5t :i* diff]5tiates x f ! simpl] =ms4 ,fur!r discussion ( x1 !n1 %\ld make cle>] ! ess5tial 9 ?9k+ z a process1 z well z make cle> its mo/ difficult =m4 ,reason+ is def9$ by ,mill] z controll$ ?9k+1--?9k+ organiz$ & sy/ematiz$ accord+ to laws & pr9ciples & c>ri$ on by use ( sup]ior te*nique4#i ,reason+1 !n1 is ! k9d ( ?9k+ t deals directly ) laws & pr9ciples4 ,mu* ?9k+ may be c>ri$ on )\t any ov]t1 def9ite use ( laws & pr9ciples1 z 9 con/ructive imag9ation or 9 app]ception1 b1 if ?is is s1 x seems bett] to call ! ?9k+ by "o ( ! o!r names4 ,( c\rse ?is classification is some:at arbitr>y1 b !re c be no "q t types ( ?9k+ d diff]4 ,z has already be5 not$1 "s psy*ologi/s h us$ ! t]ms ?9k+ & reason+ z synonyms1 b su* usage has result$ 9 confusion & has n be5 ( practical value4 ,x is only z ! m5tal process desir$ becomes cle>ly conceiv$ (1 its connotations & d5otation cle>ly def9$1 t x becomes a real goal t[>ds ,:i* a tea*] or le>n] may /rive4 ,?is1 !n1 is ! prim>y crit]ion ( reason+--t ! ?9k] be deal+ consci\sly ) laws & pr9ciples4 ,an acceptance ( ?is fir/ ess5tial makes cle> t ! p>ticul> process ( reason+ _c be c>ri$ on 9 subjects :i* lack laws & pr9ciples4 ,spell+1 elem5t>y read+1 vocabul>y /udy1 mo/ ( ! e>ly "w 9 music & art1 ! acquisition ( facts :]ev] f\nd--^! situations may (f] opportunity = ?9k+1 b little if any = reason+4 ,because a tea*] is us+ ! developm5t me?od does n mean necess>ily t h] /ud5ts are reason+4 ,! two t]ms are n 9 any way synonym\s4 ,! second ess5tial 9 reason+ is ! pres5ce ( a def9ite te*nique4 ,?is te*nique consi/s ( two factors3 fir/1 c]ta9 def9ite m5tal /ates1 & second1 ! use ( ! process ( ?9k+ by ei!r ! inductive or ! d$uctive me?od4 ,fir/ z to ! m5tal /ates involv$4 ,! fact t ! ?9k+ deals ) laws & pr9ciples necessitates ! pres5ce1 9 ! ?9k+ process1 ( con/ructive v]bal or symbolic imag]y1 logical relation%ips1 logical concepts1 & explicit judgm5ts4 ,?is does n at all exclude o!r types ( ^! m5tal /ates & entirely diff]5t m5tal /ates4 ,! k9d ( analysis involv$ simply necessitates ! pres5ce ( ^! types1 :atev] o!rs may be pres5t4 ,con/ructive symbolic imag]y has already be5 discuss$4 ,logical relation%ips are ^? t are indep5d5t ( accid5tal conditions1 are n dep5d5t on m]e contiguity 9 "t & space1 b are inh]5t 9 ! association involv$4 ,su* relation%ips are ^? ( lik5ess & diff]5ce1 cause & effect1 subject & object1 equality1 concession1 & ! l4 ,logical concepts are ^? :i* are ! result ( ?9k+1 ^: def9ite mean+ has be5 br\ght cle>ly into consci\sness s t a def9ition c\ld be fram$4 ,a *ild has "s notion ( ! mean+ ( tree1 or man1 or *emi/1 & !re=e possesses a concept ( "s k9d1 b ! exact mean+1 ! p>ticul> qualities necess>y1 are usually lack+1 & s x c\ld n be call$ a logical concept4 ,explicit judgm5ts are ^? :i* conta9 )9 !mselves ! reasons = ! inf]5ce4 ,!y1 too1 are ! result ( ?9k+4 ,"o may say t *eat+ is wrong1 or t wat] w n rise above its s\rce level1 or t cleanl9ess is necess>y to heal?1 or t ?is is a ,rembr&t--z a matt] ( exp]i5ce1 habit1 b )\t any reflection & ) no reasons = su* judgm5t4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! problems to :i* ^! judgm5ts are answ]s _h be5 a matt] ( ?9k+1 ! reasons or ! gr\nd = su* judgm5t w\ld h become consci\s & ! judgm5t !n become explicit4 ,x mu/ be evid5t t 9 any problems deal+ ) laws & pr9ciples ! m5tal /ates involv$ mu/ be def9ite1 cle> cut1 logically s\nd1 & _! implications ?or\ghly appreciat$ & und]/ood4 ,! second elem5t 9 ! te*nique necess>y 9 reason+ is ! use ( ei!r ! inductive or ! d$uctive me?od 9 ! process4 ,induction requires--a problem1 se>* = facts ) :i* to solve x1 comp>ison & analysis ( ^? facts1 ab/raction ( ! ess5tial lik5esses1 & conclusion4 ,d$uction requires--a problem1 ! analysis ( ! situation & ab/raction ( its ess5tial elem5ts1 se>* = g5]als "u :i* to classify x1 comp>ison ( x ) ea* g5]al f\nd1 & conclusion4 ,x is un=tunate t 9 ! discussions ( induction & d$uction ! diff]5ces h be5 s emphasiz$ t !y h be5 reg>d$ z diff]5t processes1 :]eas ! lik5esses f> outweigh ! diff]5ces4 ,an exam9ation ( ! requirem5ts ( ea* z /at$ above %[s t ! process 9 ! two is ! same4 ,n only d bo? involve reason+ & !re=e require ! major /eps ( analysis & ab/raction pres5t 9 all ?9k+1 b bo? also involve se>* & comp>ison4 ,bo?1 ( c\rse1 involve ! same k9d ( m5tal /ates4 ,at times x is v difficult to di/+ui% betwe5 !m4 ,al?\gh = practical purposes x is necess>y1 sometimes1 to /ress ! diff]5ces1 ! inh]5t simil>ity %\ld n be lo/ sight (4 ,! diff]5ces betwe5 ^! two me?ods ( reason+ are1 fir/1 9 ! locus ( ! problem2 second1 9 ! ord] ( ! /eps ( ! process2 ?ird1 9 ! relative proportion ( p>ticul>s & g5]als us$2 f\r?1 9 ! devices us$1 7#a7 ,9 induction ! problem is conc]n$ ) a g5]al4 ,9 "s situation a concept1 law1 or pr9ciple has prov5 inadequate z a response4 ,! "q is !n rais$ z to :at is wrong ) x & ! inductive process is in/igat$4 ,! problem is solv$ :5 ! pr9ciple or concept is p]fect$ or enl>g$--9 o!r words1 is made adequate4 ,9 d$uction ! problem is conc]n$ ) ! individual situation4 ,"s problem is rais$ by a p>ticul> fact or exp]i5ce & is answ]$ :5 x is plac$ "u ! law or concept to :i* x belongs4 ,d$uction is1 practically ! classification ( p>ticul>s4 7#b7 ,! ord] ( /eps is diff]5t4 ,9 induction1 because pres5t k falls %ort1 ! major /ep ( analysis necess>y to ab/raction ( ! ess5tial is impossible1 & !re=e ! se>* = new facts mu/ come fir/1 :]eas 9 d$uction1 ! analysis ( ! p>ticul> situation results 9 a se>* = g5]als & a classification ( ! situation 9 "q4 7#c7 ,9 induction _m p>ticul> facts may be necess>y be=e "o concept or pr9ciple is made adequate1 :ile 9 d$uction _m concepts or pr9ciples may be exam9$ be=e "o p>ticul> is classifi$4 7#d7 ,9 induction ! hypo!sis is us$ z a device to make cle> ! possible goal2 9 d$uction ! syllogism is us$ z a device to make cle> ! conclusion :i* has be5 rea*$1 to ?r[ into relief ! classification & ! result com+ f x4 ,9 ?is discussion1 induction & d$uction h be5 treat$1 = ! sake ( cle>ness1 z if !y act$ indep5d5tly ( ea* o!r1 z if a ?9k] might at "o "t use d$uction & at ano!r "t induction4 ,!y h be5 outl9$ 9 su* a way t "o might ?9k t ! movem5t ( ! m9d 9 "o process 0 su* t x preclud$ ! possibility ( ! o!r process4 ,?is is n s--! two are inextricably m+l$ 9 ! actual process ( reason+1 & fur!r1 induction z us$ 9 practical life always involves d$uction at two po9ts1 z an initial />t+ po9t & z an end po9t4 ,! k t a c]ta9 pr9ciple is inadequate comes to consci\sness ?r\gh ! attempt to classify "s p>ticul> exp]i5ce "u x4 ,failure results & ! inductive process may !n be initiat$1 b ?is initial attempt is d$uctive & if x _h be5 successful !re w\ld h be5 no ne$ ( induction4 ,aft] ! inductive process is complete & ! g5]al pr9ciple has be5 classifi$ or p]fect$1 ! f9al /ep is te/+ x to see if x is adequate1 fir/ by apply+ x to ! p>ticul> problem :i* caus$ ! :ole process1 & !n to new situations4 ,if x te/s1 x is accept$1--if n1 fur!r induction is necess>y4 ,?is aga9 is d$uction4 ,n only is induction n complete )\t d$uction1 b ea* d$uction influ5ces ! pr9ciple :i* is appli$1 mak+ x m sure & m flexible4 ,ev5 9 ! process ( induction1 !re are attempts to classify ^! facts :i* are be+ ga!r$ "u sugge/$ old pr9ciples1 or half-=m$ new ones1 be=e ! process is complet$4 ,?is is a d$uctive movem5t1 ev5 ?\gh x prove unsatisfactory or impossible4 ,dewey describes ?is int]action by say+1 ,!re is ?us a d\ble movem5t 9 all reflection3 a movem5t f ! giv5 p>tial & confus$ data to a sugge/$ compreh5sion 7or inclusive7 entire situation2 & back f ?is sugge/$ :ole--:i* z sugge/$ is a mean+1 an idea--to ! p>ticul> facts1 s z to connect ^! ) "o ano!r & ) additional facts to :i* ! sugge/ion has direct$ att5tion4#aj ,h[ev] true ?is int]m+l+ ( induction & d$uction may be1 ! fact /ill rema9s true t 9 any giv5 case ! major movem5t is 9 "o direction or ! o!r1 & t !re=e 9 ord] to insure effective ?9k+ measures mu/ be tak5 accord+ly4 ,z a *ild =mulates 8 conception ( a v]b1 or words ! *>act]i/ic ess5tials ( ! lily-family1 or frames ! rule = addition ( fractions or ! action ( a base on a metal1 he is conc]n$ prim>ily ) ! =m ( ! reason+ process kn[n z induction4 ,:5 he classes a c]ta9 ^w z a conjunction1 a c]ta9 city z a trade c5t]1 a c]ta9 problem z "o 9 p]c5tage1 he is us+ d$uction4 ,complexes & gradual %ad+s ( "o /ate into ano!r1 n cle>ly def9$ & %>ply diff]5tiat$ processes & /ates1 are *>act]i/ic ( all m5tal life4 ,ano!r un=tunate /atem5t ) reg>d to induction & d$uction is t ! =m] proce$s f p>ticul>s to g5]als & ! latt] f g5]als to p>ticul>s4 ,bo? ( ^! /atem5ts omit ! />t+ po9t & leave ! ?9k] ) no gr\nd = ei!r ! p>ticul>s or ! g5]als ) :i* he works4 ,! ?9k] is suppos$1 let u say1 to collect specim5s ( fl[]s 9 ord] to arrive at a notion ( ! *>act]i/ics ( a c]ta9 class--b :y collect ^! r ?an any o!rs8 ,true1 9 ! artificial situation ( a s*oolroom or college1 ! le>n] (t5 collects 9 a c]ta9 field r ?an ano!r1 simply because he is told to4 ,b 9 daily life he w\ld n be told to---! inc5tive mu/ come f "s p>ticul> situation :i* pres5ts a problem & !re=e limits ! field ( se>*4 ,! />t+ po9t mu/ be a p>ticul> exp]i5ce or situation4 ,! same ?+ is true 9 d$uction1 al?\gh ! syllogi/ic =m has (t5 be5 mislead+4 ,metals are h>d2 iron is a metal1 !re=e iron is h>d4 ,b :y talk ab\t metals at all--& if s :y h>dness r ?an color or effect on bases or "s o!r *>act]i/ic8 ,( c\rse1 "h aga9 x is "s p>ticul> problem t def9es ! se>* = ! g5]al & directs att5tion to "s class *>act]i/ics r ?an to o!rs4 ,n only is ! />t+ po9t ( all reason+ "s def9ite situation = :i* !re is no adequate response1 b ! end po9t mu/ naturally be ! same4 ,a p>ticul> problem dem&+ solution is ! cause = reason+1 &1 ( c\rse1 ! end ( ! process mu/ be ! solution ( t problem4 ,f ! =ego+ x mu/ n be conclud$ t ! processes ( induction & d$uction are manife/$ only 9 connection ) reason+4 ,9 fact1 _! use z a consci\s tool ( te*nique 9 reason+ comes only aft] consid]able exp]i5ce ( _! use :5 !re 0 no consci\s purpose & no control4 ,a little *ild's notion ( dog1 or tree1 or city--9 fact1 all 8 psy*ological concepts necessitate ! inductive movem5t1 b x has tak5 place 9 8 spontane\s ?9k+ & ! mean+s h evolv$ aft] consid]able exp]i5ce )\t any def9ite control on 8 "p4 ,s ) d$uction4 ,z he recognizes ?is z a *e/nut tree1 t z a rock+ *air1 z he decides t ?is is wrong or t x is go+ to cle>1 he is classify+ ?+s1 or conduct1 or conditions1 & s is foll[+ ! d$uctive movem5t4 ,b ! judgm5ts may come z a result ( pa/ exp]i5ce1 may be spontane\s & involve no protract$ controll$ activity :i* has be5 def9$ z ?9k+4 ,man's m9d works spontane\sly bo? inductively & d$uctively1 & h5ce ! possibility ( control ( ^! op]ations lat]4 ,?9k+ is an outgr[? ( spontane\s activity2 reason+ is b an application ( ! natural laws ( m5tal activity to c]ta9 situations4 ,! laws ( read9ess1 ex]cise1 & effect gov]n ?9k+ j z !y d all o!r m5tal processes4 ,?9k+ is n indep5d5t ( habit2 x is n a my/]i\s =ce o!r ?an association :i* deals ) novel data4 ,?9k+ is m]ely an exhibition ( ! laws ( habit "u c]ta9 def9ite situations4 ,at fir/ sight ?is seems to be impossible1 because1 z has be5 emphasiz$ ?r\gh\t ?is *apt]1 ?9k+ takes place :5 no satisfactory response is at h& & :5 no?+ is (f]$ by pa/ exp]i5ce :i* is adequate4 ,z a result ( ! ?9k+1 responses are rea*$ :i* nev] be=e h occurr$ z a result ( t situation4 ,j ! same !y are rea*$ only because ( ! op]ation ( ! laws ( habit4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t ! laws ( association d n "w 9 su* a way t only gross total situations are b\nd to total responses4 ,9 man p>ticul>ly1 situations are be+ cont9ually brok5 up into elem5ts1 & ^? elem5ts connect$ ) responses4 ,responses are be+ cont9ually dis9tegrat$1 & elem5ts1 in/ead ( ! :ole response1 be+ b\nd to situations4 ,analysis is cont9ually tak+ place m]ely z a result ( ! work+ ( ^! laws4 ,if ! n]v\s me*anism ( man 7 n ( ?is hair-trigg] v>iety1 if elem5ts did n em]ge f a total complex z a result ( bonds =m$1 ( read9ess ( c]ta9 tracts1 no will+1 no att5tion on ! "p ( ! ?9k]1 w\ld ev] br+ ab\t analysis4 ,?is is made v vivid :5 "o is met by a problem he _c solve4 ,if ! situation does n break up1 if ! "r elem5t does n em]ge1 if ! "r cue is n giv51 he is helpless4 ,all he c d is to hold fa/ to 8 problem & wait4 ,z ! associations are (f]$1 he c select & reject1 b t is all4 ,! m>vel\s p[] ( ! g5ius1 ! inv5tor1 ! reason] 9 all fields1 is m]ely an exhibition ( ! laws ( association work+ ) extremely subtle elem5ts4 ,x seems to transc5d all exp]i5ce because ^! elem5ts & ! bonds :i* exp]i5ce has =m$ _c be obs]v$4 ,a *ild fails 9 8 ?9k+ (t5 because he uses 8 pa/ exp]i5ce & responds by analogy--we note t fact & criticize him = x4 ,b he succe$s = j ! same reason & by ! use ( j ! same laws4 ,james long ago %[$ conclusively t association by simil>ity1 :i* is "o ( ! prom95t types us$ 9 reason+1 0 only ! law ( habit work+ ) elem5ts ( novel data4 ,! fact t ?9k+ is det]m9$ by its aim r ?an by its antec$5ts has also be5 giv5 a my/]i\s place z ap>t f association4 ,! ?9k] :o *ose ! "r associate1 ! "o t l$ him t[>ds 8 goal r ?an "s o!r1 0 call$ sagaci\s4 ,b1 aft] all1 ?is be+ gov]n$ by an aim is no?+ m ?an ! op]ation ( ! law ( read9ess among intellectual bonds4 ,"o associate is *os5 & ano!r reject$ because "o is m satisfy+ ?an ano!r4 ,c]ta9 bonds are made m ready ?an o!rs because ( ! g5]al set or attitude ( ! ?9k]1 & !re=e any associate us+ ^? bonds br+s satisfaction & is reta9$4 ,! p[] t moves ! man ( sci5ce to solve problems correctly is ! same t moves him to eat1 sleep1 re/1 & play4 ,! effici5t ?9k] is n only m f]tile 9 ideas & m (t5 productive ( ! '"r' ideas ?an ! incompet5t is2 he is also m satisfi$ by !m :5 he gets !m1 & m rebelli\s aga9/ ! futile & mislead+ ones4 ,we tru/ to ! laws ( c]ebral nature to pres5t u spontane\sly ) ! appropriate idea1 & also to pref] t idea to o!rs4#aa ,! reasons = failure ( tea*]s & educators ( all k9ds to tra9 p to ?9k are num]\s4 7#a7 ,sc>city ( bra9s :i* "w prim>ily 9 t]ms ( connections betwe5 subtle elem5ts1 relation%ips1 etc4 7#b7 ,lack ( k or incorrect k1 due to n>r[ exp]i5ce or poor memory4 7#c7 ,lack ( ! necess>y habits ( att5tion & criticism4 7#d7 ,lack ( p[] ( ! m ab/ract & intellectual op]ations to br+ satisfaction1 due p>tly to orig9al equipm5t & p>tly to tra9+4 7#e7 ,lack ( p[] to d indep5d5t "w1 due to poor tra9+4 ,s*ools _c 9 any way make good ! defici5cy :i* is due to a lack ( m5tal capacity4 ,!y c1 & %\ld1 d some?+ to provide k :i* is well organiz$ ar\nd exp]i5ces :i* h prov$ vital to pupils4 ,some?+ c und\bt$ly be done 9 ! way ( cultivat+ ! habit ( conc5tration ( att5tion1 & ( mak+ m or less habitual ! critical attitude4 ,)9 ! range ( ! ability :i* ! individuals to be educat$ possess1 ! s*ool may d mu* to give tra9+ :i* w make indep5d5t "w or ?9k+ m common 9 ! exp]i5ce ( s*ool pupils1 & !re=e mu* m apt to be resort$ to 9 ! case ( any problematic situation4 ,possibly ! greate/ weakness 9 our s*ools1 z !y are at pres5t con/itut$1 is 9 ! dep5d5ce ( bo? tea*]s & *ildr5 ^u text-books1 laboratory manuals1 lectures1 & ! l4 ,9 almo/ e field ( k :i* is pres5t$ 9 our elem5t>y & high s*ools1 m opportunity %\ld be giv5 = contact ) life activities4 ,su* contacts %\ld1 9 s f> z x is possible1 involve ! organization ( ! obs]vations :i* are made ) relation to problems & pr9ciples :i* ! subject seeks to develop4 ,9 nature /udy or 9 geography 9 ! elem5t>y s*ool _m ( ! pr9ciples involv$ are nev] really ma/]$ by *ildr51 by virtue ( ! fact t !y m]ely memorize ! words :i* are involv$1 r ?an solve any ( ! problems :i* may occur1 ei!r by virtue ( _! intellectual int]e/s1 or on acc\nt ( _! mean+ 9 ev]yday life4 ,! foll[+ ( ! in/ructions giv5 9 ! laboratory manual does n necess>ily result 9 develop+ ! _s ( inquiry or inve/igation1 nor ev5 acqua9t pupils ) ! me?od ( ! sci5ce :i* is suppos$ to be /udi$4 ,possibly ! greate/ contribution :i* a tea*] c make to ! developm5t ( ?9k+ ^u ! "p ( *ildr5 is 9 discov]+ to !m problems :i* *all5ge _! att5tion1 ! solution ( :i* = !m is wor? :ile4 ,z has already be5 indicat$1 an ess5tial elem5t 9 ?9k+ is con/antly to select f among ! _m associations :i* may be available t "o :i* w contribute to ! p>ticul> problem :i* we h 9 m9d4 ,! m]e gr\p+ ( ideas r\nd "s topic does n satisfy ?is requirem5t1 = su* a recit+ ( p>agraphs or *apt]s may am\nt simply to memorization & no?+ m4 ,if a tea*] c 9 geography or 9 hi/ory s5d *ildr5 to _! books to f9d su* facts z are available = ! solution ( a p>ticul> problem1 %e is /imulat+ ?\ght ^u _! "p1 & may at ! same "t be giv+ !m "s comm& ( ! te*nique ( inquiry or ( inve/igation4 ,! class t />ts to "w1 ei!r 9 ! discussion dur+ ! recitation p]iod1 or :5 !y "w at _! seats1 or at home1 ) a cle> /atem5t ( ! aim or problem may be expect$ to d mu* m 9 ! way ( ?9k+ ?an w occur 9 ! exp]i5ce ( ^? :o are m]ely told to read c]ta9 p>ts ( a book4 ,9 a well-conduct$ recitation :i* involves ?9k+1 ! aim ne$s to be re/at$ a numb] ( times 9 ord] t ! selection ( ^? associations :i* are important1 & ! rejection ( ^? :i* are n p]t95t1 may cont9ue ov] a consid]able p]iod4 ,9 s f> z x is possible1 *ildr5 %\ld be made to feel responsibility = ! progress :i* is made 9 ! solution ( _! problems4 ,!y %\ld be critical ( ! contributions made by ea* o!r4 ,!y %\ld be s9c]e 9 _! expression ( d\bt1 & 9 que/ion+ :5ev] !y d n und]/&4 ,above all1 if !y are really ?9k+1 !y ne$ to h an opportunity = free discussion4 ,9 classrooms 9 :i* *ildr5 are seat$ 9 r[s look+ at ! backs ( ea* o!r's heads & recit+ to ! tea*]1 ! t5d5cy is simply to satisfy :at ! pupils conceive to be ! dem&s ( ! tea*]1 r ?an to ?9k & to attempt to resolve "o's d\bts4 ,9 classes 9 :i* tea*]s provide n only = a /atem5t ( ! problem :i* is to be solv$ dur+ ! /udy p]iod1 b also = a v>iety 9 assignm5ts1 *ildr5 may be expect$ to br+ to class diff]5ces 9 po9ts ( view & 9 ! data :i* !y h collect$4 ,9 su* a situation discussion is a p]fectly normal process1 & ?9k+ is /imulat$4 ,z *ildr5 pass ?r\gh ! sev]al grades ( ! s*ool sy/em1 !y ought to become increas+ly consci\s ( ! process ( reason+4 ,!y %\ld be ask$ to tell h[ !y h arriv$ at _! conclusions4 ,!y %\ld give ! reason = _! judgm5ts4 ,a great deal ( loose ?9k+ w\ld be avoid$ if we c\ld 9 "s measure e/abli% ! habit ^u ! "p ( boys & girls ( ask+1 ,w x "w 9 all cases82 ,:at 0 assum$ z a basis = arriv+ at ! conclusion :i* ,i h accept$82 ,are ! data :i* h be5 br\ght toge!r adequate82 ,to :at degree h ! fallacies :i* are m or less common 9 reason+ ent]$ into my ?9k+8 ,x is n t "o w\ld hope to give a c\rse 9 logic to elem5t>y or to high s*ool *ildr51 b r t !y %\ld le>n1 out ( ! situations :i* dem& ?\ght1 con/antly to *eck up _! conclusions & to v]ify !m 9 e possible way4 ,we may n expect by ?is me?od to create any unusual p[] ( ?\ght1 b we may 9 "s degree provide = ! developm5t ( a critical attitude :i* w enable ^! same boys & girls1 bo? n[ & z !y gr[ old]1 to discrim9ate betwe5 ^? :o m]ely dogmatize1 & ^? :o pres5t a s\nd basis = _! reason+1 ei!r 9 t]ms ( a pr9ciple :i* c be accept$1 or 9 t]ms ( obs]vations or exp]im5ts :i* e/abli% ! conclusions :i* !y are ask$ to accept4 ,9 all ( ! "w :i* involves ?9k+1 x is ( ! utmo/ importance t we pres]ve ^u ! "p ( pupils1 9 s f> z x is possible1 an op5-m9d$ attitude4 ,x is well to h *ildr5 9 ! habit ( say+ ) respect to _! conclusions t 9 s f> z !y h ! evid5ce1 ?is or t conclusion seems to be ju/ifi$4 ,x may ev5 be well to h !m rea* ! conclusion 9 "s p>ts ( _! "w t !re are n suffici5t data available ^u :i* to base a g5]alization1 or t c]ta9 pr9ciples :i* are accept$ z valid by "s ?9k]s are que/ion$ by o!rs1 & t ! conclusions :i* are bas$ ^u pr9ciples :i* are n commonly accept$ mu/ always be /at$ by say+3 x foll[s1 if y accept a p>ticul> pr9ciple1 t ?is p>ticul> conclusion w hold4 ,we ne$ m & m to enc\rage ! habit ( indep5d5t "w4 ,we mu/ hope z *ildr5 pass ?r\gh our s*ool sy/em t !y w gr[ m & m indep5d5t 9 _! /atem5t ( conclusions & ( beliefs4 ,we c nev] expect t boys & girls1 or m5 & wom51 w rea* conclusions on all ( ! que/ions :i* are ( importance to !m1 b x ought to be possible1 especially = ^? ( m ?an usual capacity1 to di/+ui% betwe5 ! conclusions ( a sci5tific inve/igation & ! /atem5ts ( a demagogue4 ,! use ( :atev] capacity = indep5d5t ?\ght :i* *ildr5 possess %\ld result 9 ! developm5t ( a gr\p ( op5-m9d$1 inquir+1 inve/igat+ boys & girls1 eag] & will+ 9 confront+ _! common community problems to d _! own ?9k+1 or to be guid$ by ^? :o pres5t conclusions :i* are recogniz$ z valid4 ,!y %\ld le>n to act 9 accordance ) well-e/abli%$ conclusions1 ev5 ?\gh !y may h to break ) ! traditions or sup]/itions :i* h op]at$ to int]f]e ) ! developm5t ( ! social welf>e ( ! gr\p ) :i* !y are associat$4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,h[ d *ildr5 7& adults7 mo/ frequ5tly solve _! problems8 #b4 ,"u :at conditions d *ildr5 ?9k & yet rea* wrong conclusions8 ,give examples4 #c4 ,c fir/-grade *ildr5 ?9k8 ,give examples :i* prove y\r cont5tion4 #d4 ,:at are ! important elem5ts to be f\nd 9 all ?9k+8 #e4 ,%[ h[ ^! elem5ts may be involv$ 9 a fir/-grade lesson 9 nature /udy4 ,9 an eigh?-grade lesson 9 geography4 ,9 ! tea*+ ( any high s*ool subject4 #f4 ,:5 may habit =mation involve ?9k+8 ,memorization8 #g4 ,give five examples ( problems :i* y believe w *all5ge ! brighte/ pupils 9 y\r class4 ,:i* w\ld seem real & wor? solv+ to ! dull] memb]s ( ! gr\p8 #h4 ,h[ may ! analysis ( su* ideas z come to m9d1 & ! ab/raction ( ! "p :i* is valuable = ! solution ( a p>ticul> problem1 be facilitat$8 #i4 ,h[ d y di/+ui% betwe5 ?9k+ & reason+8 #aj4 ,:at are ! ess5tial elem5ts 9 reason+8 ,give an example ( reason+ z c>ri$ on by "o solv+ a problem 9 ari?metic or geometry1 9 geography1 physics1 or *emi/ry4 #aa4 ,9 :at respects are ! processes ( induction & d$uction alike8 ,9 :at d !y diff]8 #ab4 ,at :at /age ( ! inductive process is d$uction involv$8 #ac4 ,give examples ( reason+ dem&$ 9 s*ool "w 9 :i* ! process is pr$om9antly inductive4 ,d$uctive4 #ad4 ,:y are ! /atem5ts ,induction proce$s f p>ticul>s to g5]als & ,d$uction f g5]als to p>ticul>s inadequate to describe ei!r process8 #ae4 ,9 :at s5se is ?9k+ dep5d5t ^u ! op]ation ( ! laws ( habit8 #af4 ,to :at degree is x possible to tea* y\r pupils to ?9k8 ,"u :at limitations d y "w8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,viii4 ,,appreciation1 ,,an ,,important ,,elem5t ,,9 ,,education ,appreciation belongs to ! g5]al field ( feel+ r ?an t ( kn[+4 ,! elem5t :i* di/+ui%es appreciation f memory or imag9ation or p]ception is an affective "o4 ,any "o ( ^! m5tal /ates may be pres5t )\t ! /ate be+ an appreciative "o4 ,b appreciation does n occur by itself z an elem5t>y /ate1 x is r a complex--a feel+ tone accompany+ a m5tal /ate or process & color+ x4 ,9 o!r words1 appreciation involves ! pres5ce ( "s intellectual /ates1 b its addition makes ! total complex ( an emotional r ?an a cognitive nature4 ,! difficulty f\nd 9 discuss+ emotions 9 g5]al1 t ( def9+ or describ+ !m 9 language1 :i* is a tool ( ! intellect1 is felt "h4 ,! only way to "k :at appreciation means is to appreciate4 ,no phase ( feel+ c be adequately describ$--its ess5ce is !n lo/--x mu/ be felt4 ,nev]!less some?+ may be done to diff]5tiate ?is type ( feel+ f o!rs4 ,appreciation is an attitude ( m9d :i* is passive1 contemplative4 ,x may gr[ out ( an active attitude or emotion1 or x may lead to "o1 b 9 ei!r case ! /ate *anges f "o ( appreciation to some?+ else4 ,9 appreciation ! individual is quiesc5t4 ,appreciation1 !re=e1 has no end outside ( itself4 ,x is a suffici5t cause = be+4 ,! individual is satisfi$ ) x4 ,?is puts appreciation into ! category ( recreation4 ,appreciation !n always involves ! pleasure tone1 o!rwise x c\ld n be enjoy$4 ,x is always imp]sonal4 ,x takes ! individual outside & beyond 8 own affairs2 x is an o!r-reg>d+ feel+4 ,possession1 a*ievem5t1 & ! l d n ar\se appreciation1 b r an egoi/ical emotion4 ,"o ( ! sali5t *>act]i/ics ( emotions is _! unify+ p[]4 ,x has aptly be5 said t 9 extreme emotional /ates "o is ! emotion4 ,! individual & 8 emotional /ate become "o--a v diff]5t /ate ( affairs f :at is true 9 cognition4 ,?is elem5t ( unification is pres5t to "s ext5t 9 appreciation1 al?\gh1 because ( its complex nature1 to a less] ext5t ?an 9 a simpl]1 m primitive feel+ /ate4 ,/ill1 9 true appreciation "o does become absorb$ 9 ! object ( appreciation2 he1 = ! "t be+1 to "s ext5t becomes id5tifi$ ) :at he is appreciat+4 ,91 ord] to appreciate ?is subm]g+ ( "o's self1 ?is id5tification is necess>y4 ,appreciation is b\nd up ) f\r diff]5t types ( situations :i* are ( mo/ importance to ! tea*]--7#a7 appreciation ( ! beautiful1 7#b7 appreciation ( human nature1 7#c7 appreciation ( ! humor\s1 7#d7 appreciation ( intellectual p[]s4 ,! appreciation f\nd 9 ^! f\r types ( situations mu/ v>y some:at because ( ! concomitants1 b ! *>act]i/ics :i* m>k appreciation z su* seem to be pres5t 9 all f\r4 ,true1 9 c]ta9 ( ! situations occurr+ "u ^! types ! emotional elem5t may be /rong] ?an 9 o!rs--9 "s ! intellectual elem5t may seem to almo/ outweigh ! affective1 b /ill ! pr$om9ant *>act]i/ics w be f\nd to be ^? ( an attitude :i* has ! e>m>ks ( appreciation4 ,appreciation ( beauty has usually be5 discuss$ "u ! head ( ae/hetic emotions4 ,z to :at rightfully belongs "u ! head ( ae/hetics is 9 dispute--writ]s on ! subject v>y+ trem5d\sly 9 _! op9ions4 ,mo/ ( ! rec5t writ]s1 h[ev]1 agree t ! /imulus = ae/hetic appreciation mu/ be a s5se p]cept or an image ( "s s5se object4 ,ideas1 mean+s1 9 & ( !mselves1 are n !n objects ( ae/hetic enjoym5t4 ,! two s5ses :i* furni% ! /imuli = ?is sort ( appreciation are ! eye & ! e>--! =m] comb9+ s5sations "u space =m & ! latt] "u "t =m to produce ae/hetic feel+s4 ,our s5ses may cause feel+s ( pleasure1 b ! enjoym5t is s5su\s r ?an ae/hetic4 ,nature1 9 all its myriad =ms1 art1 ar*itecture1 music1 lit]ature1 & ! dance are ! *ief s\rces ( ae/hetic appreciation4 ,t !re is a def9ite connection betwe5 physiological processes & ! feel+ ( appreciation is )\t d\bt true1 b j :at physiological conditions 9 connection ) visual & auditory p]ception are fulfill$ :5 "s exp]i5ce gives rise to ae/hetic appreciation1 & j :at is violat$ :5 !re is lack ( su* appreciation1 is n kn[n4 ,x is kn[n t bo? h>mony & rhy?m mu/ be consid]$ 9 music1 & t ! /ructure & muscul> control ( ! eye plus ! ease ( m5tal appreh5sion play important p>ts 9 r\s+ ae/hetic feel+s 9 connection ) vision1 b fur!r ?an t little is kn[n4 ,! *ief dang] met 9 develop+ ! ae/hetic appreciation is ! t5d5cy to ov]e/imate its dep5d5ce on1 9 ! fir/ place1 skill 9 creative "w & ! active emotions involv$ 9 a*ievem5t1 & 9 ! second place1 ! intellectual und]/&+ ( ! situation4 ,x has be5 l>gely tak5 = grant$ t ! con/ructive "w 9 ! arts or 9 music increas$ "o's p[] ( appreciation4 ,t1 if a *ild us$ color & pa9t$ a little picture1 or compos$ a melody1 or model$ 9 clay1 he w\ld !re=e be able to appreciate bett] 9 ^! fields4 ,& fur!r t ! v developm5t ( ?is p[] to d necess>ily develop$ ! p[] to appreciate4 ,^! two beliefs are true to "s ext5t1 b only to a limit$ ext5t1 & n ne>ly s f> z practice has tak5 = grant$4 ,x is true t "s p[] to d increases p[] to appreciate1 b !y p>allel ea* o!r only = a %ort "t & !n div]ge1 & ei!r may be develop$ at ! exp5se ( ! o!r4 ,9 mo/ p ! p[] to appreciate1 ! passive1 contemplative enjoym5t1 f> surpasses ! ability to create4 ,on ! o!r h&1 m5 ( creative g5ius (t5 lack p[] ( ae/hetic appreciation4 ,?is result is natural if "o ?9ks ( ! m5tal processes involv$ 9 ! two4 ,p[] to d is associat$ ) muscul> skill1 ) te*nique1 & ) ! p]sonal emotions ( active a*ievem5t4 /hetic appreciation1 on ! o!r h&1 is associat$ ) nei!r1 b ) a m5tal attitude & feel+s :i* are q diff]5t4 ,cultivat+ "o set ( processes w n develop ! o!r to any great ext5t & may1 on ! o!r h&1 be antagoni/ic to _! developm5t4 ,if ! ae/hetic emotions1 if appreciations ( ! beautiful1 are desir$1 !y mu/ be tra9$ & develop$ directly4 ,! second dang] to be avoid$ 9 develop+ ae/hetic appreciation is t ( magnify+ its dep5d5ce on ! intellectual factors4 ,to und]/&1 to be able to analyze1 to pick out ! flaws 9 a musical selection1 or a pa9t+1 is n necess>y to its appreciation4 ,true1 "s und]/&+ is necess>y1 b1 z 9 ! case ( skill1 x is mu* less ?an has be5 tak5 = grant$4 ,appreciation c g f> ahead ( und]/&+4 ,! intellectual factor & ! feel+ response are n absolutely int]dep5d5t 9 degree4 ,n only s1 b ! prom95ce ( ! intellectual factor precludes t ( ! feel+4 ,:5 "o is emphasiz$ ! o!r _c be1 z !y are diff]5t sorts ( m5tal /uff4 ,cont9u\s & emphatic developm5t ( ! intellectual may result 9 ! atrophy ( ! p[] ( appreciation 9 any giv5 field ei!r tempor>ily or p]man5tly4 ,_m a boy's p[] to enjoy ! rhy?m & melody ( poetry has be5 de/roy$ by ! ov]emphasis ( ! critical facility dur+ 8 high s*ool c\rse4 ,! fact t a p]son c analyze ! pa9t+1 po9t out ! plans 9 its composition1 & s on1 does n at all mean t he c ae/hetically appreciate4 ,contemplative enjoym5t may be impossible = him--x bores him4 ,botani/s are n not$ = _! p[] ( ae/hetic appreciation4 ,x is an ackn[l$g$ fact t "s art & music critics h lo/ _! p[] ( appreciation ( ! ?+s !y are cont9ually criticiz+4 ,?is discussion is n int5d$ to m9imize ! value ( creative skill1 or ( p[] ( intellectual criticism4 ,bo? are tal5ts t are well wor? :ile cultivat+4 ,b x is necess>y = "o to decide :i* ( ! ?ree1 ae/hetic appreciation1 creative skill1 or intellectual criticism1 9 ! fields ( art1 nature1 & music1 is mo/ wor? :ile = ! majority ( p & !n make plans accord+ly4 ,no "o ( ! ?ree c be be/ develop$ & br\ght to its highe/ p]fection by emphasiz+ any "o ( ! o!rs4 ,! second type ( appreciation is appreciation ( human nature3 appreciation ( ! value ( human life1 appreciation ( its virtues & trials1 appreciation ( great *>act]s1 & s on4 ,"s writ]s w\ld probably class ?is type ( appreciation "u moral feel+s--b moral feel+s usually are ?\ght ( z active1 z accompanim5ts ( conduct1 :]eas ^! appreciations are feel+s ar\s$ 9 ! onlook]--!y are passive & = ! "t be+ are an end 9 !mselves4 ,^! feel+s are /imulat$ by su* /udies z lit]ature & hi/ory p>ticul>ly4 ,geography & civics (f] "s opportunity = _! developm5t1 &1 ( c\rse1 contact ) p is ! greate/ /imulus4 ,9 ?is latt] type ( situation ! feel+s ( appreciation easily pass ov] into active emotions1 b s long z "o rema9s an onlook]1 !y ne$ n d s4 ,?is appreciation1 sympa?y ) & enjoym5t & approval ( human nature1 f9ds its s\rce 9 ! social in/9cts1 b x ne$s developm5t & tra9+ if x is to be p]fect$4 ,v mu* ( ! "t ?is appreciation is inhibit$ by ! emphasis put on und]/&+4 ,! intellectual faculties ( memory1 judgm5t1 & criticism are ! ones call$ into play 9 ! /udy ( hi/ory & (t5 ( lit]ature4 ,^! /udies leave ! le>n] cold4 ,he kn[s1 b x does n make any diff]5ce to him4 ,he c analyze ! p]iod or ! "*1 b he lacks any feel+ response1 any appreciation ( ! qualities ( endurance & loyalty portray$1 lacks any sympa!tic und]/&+ ( ! difficulties met & conqu]$4 ,z 0 true ( ! ae/hetic appreciation1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( und]/&+ is necess>y = true appreciation ( any k9d1 b ov]emphasis ( ! intellectual elem5t de/roys ! feel+ elem5t4 ,! ?ird type ( appreciation to be discuss$ is ! appreciation ( humor4 ,p]haps ?is does n belong ) ! o!r type1 b x c]ta9ly has _m ( ! same *>act]i/ics4 ,calk9s def9es a s5se ( humor z enjoym5t ( an uness5tial incongruity4444 ,?is incongruity mu/ be1 z has be5 said1 an uness5tial "o1 else ! mood ( ! obs]v] *anges f happ9ess to unhapp9ess1 & ! comic becomes ! pa!tic4 ,a fall on ! ice :i* seem$ to (f] only a ludicr\s contra/ betwe5 ! dignity & grace ( ! man erect & ! unga9ly attitude ( ! fall+ figure ceases utt]ly to be funny :5 x is se5 to entail "s physical injury2 & wit :i* burns & se>s is n amus+ to its victim4#ab ,! ability to appreciate ! humor\s 9 life is a great gift & %\ld be cultivat$ to a mu* great] ext5t ?an x is at pres5t4 ,a f\r? type ( appreciation has be5 call$ appreciation ( intellectual p[]s--a poor "n p]haps1 b ! feel+ is a real "o4 ,enjoym5t ( /yle1 ( logical sequ5ce1 ( ! h>mony ( ! :ole1 ( ! cle>-cut1 concise1 tell+ s5t5ces1 are illu/rations ( :at is meant4 ,enjoym5t ( a piece ( lit]ature1 ( a debate1 ( an argum5t1 ( a piece ( sci5tific rese>*1 is n limit$ to ! appreciation ( ! mean+s express$--9 fact1 9 _m cases ! only factor t c ar\se ! feel+ elem5t1 ! appreciation1 is ?is elem5t ( =m4 ,"o may und]/& an argum5t or a debate z he he>s x1 b appreciation1 enjoym5t ( x1 comes only z a result ( ! consci\sness ( ^! elem5ts ( =m4 ,t "o possesses ^! feel+s ( appreciation1 at lea/ to "s degree1 is a matt] ( human equipm5t1 b :at "o appreciates 9 art1 lit]ature1 human nature1 etc41 dep5ds prim>ily on tra9+4 ,!re is almo/ no situation 9 life t ) all p at all times w ar\se appreciative feel+s4 ,al?\gh !re are a few fundam5tal conditions e/abli%$ by ! physical make-up ( ! s5se organs & by ! orig9al capacities ( ! human race1 /ill !y are few1 & at pres5t l>gely unkn[n1 & exp]i5ce does mu* to modify ev5 ^!4 ,:at is crude1 vulg>1 inh>moni\s1 9 art & music to "s p1 ar\ses extreme ae/hetic appreciation 9 o!rs4 ,lit]ature t causes "o p]son to ?r[ ! book d[n 9 disgu/ w give greate/ enjoym5t to ano!r4 ,:at is malice to "o p]son is humor\s to ano!r4 ,:at p enjoy & appreciate dep5ds prim>ily on _! exp]i5ce = ! developm5t ( ^! feel+s1 dep5ds ^u ! laws ( association1 read9ess1 ex]cise1 & effect4 ,to raise p[] ( appreciation f l[ levels to high1 f almo/ no?+ to a controll+ =ce1 ne$s b ! application ( ^! laws4 ,b no "o ( !m c be neglect$ ) impunity4 ,x mu/ be a gradual gr[?1 beg9n+ ) tracks t are ready1 because ( ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 in/9cts1 & work+ on to o!rs ?r\gh ! law ( association4 ,to expect a *ild ( sev5 to appreciate a /eel engrav+1 or a piece ( classic music1 or moral qualities 9 ano!r p]son is to violate ! law ( read9ess4 ,to expect any "o 9 adult life to enjoy music1 or art1 or nature1 :o has n _h exp]i5ce ) ea* & enjoy$ ea* cont9ually z a *ild1 is to violate ! laws ( ex]cise & effect4 ,two or ?ree sugge/ions z to aids 9 ! application ( ^! laws may be 9 place4 ,fir/1 a weal? ( images is an aid to appreciation4 ,second1 ! abs5ce = ! "t ( ! critical attitude4 ,?ird1 an enc\ragem5t ( ! passive contemplative attitude4 ,f\r?1 ! example ( o!rs4 ,sugge/ion & association ) o!r p :o d appreciate & enjoy are among ! be/ means ( secur+ x4 ,! value ( feel+s ( appreciation are ?reefold3 ,fir/1 !y s]ve z recreation4 ,x is 9 enjoym5t ( ?is k9d t mo/ ( ! leisure ( civiliz$ races is sp5t4 ,x s]ves on ! m5tal level mu* ! same purpose t play does1 9 fact1 mu* ( x is m5tal play ( a k9d4 ,second1 !y are imp]sonal4 ,!y are valuable 9 t !y take u out ( ourselves1 away f self-int]e/s1 & !re=e make = m5tal heal? & sanity z well z = a sympa!tic "*4 ,!y are also a means ( broad5+ "o's exp]i5ce4 ,?ird1 !y h a close relation%ip ) ideals & !re=e h an active be>+ on conduct4 ,x is n necess>ily true t "o w t5d 9 himself or 9 8 surr\nd+s to be l :at he enjoys & appreciates1 b ! t5d5cy w be /rongly 9 t direction4 ,if an individual truly appreciates1 enjoys1 beautiful pictures1 good music & books1 he w be likely1 s f> z he c1 to surr\nd himself ) !m4 ,if he appreciates loyalty1 op5m9d$ness1 tol]ance1 z he meets !m 9 lit]ature & hi/ory1 he may become m s himself4 ,at lea/1 ! develop+ ( appreciations is ! fir/ /ep t[>ds conduct 9 ^? l9es4 ,9 ord] to insure ! conduct1 o!r means mu/ be tak51 b )\t ! appreciation ! conduct w be less sure4 ,"o :o w\ld c\nt mo/ 9 develop+ p[] ( appreciation ^u ! "p ( *ildr5 may well inquire conc]n+ 8 own p[] ( appreciation4 ,!re is n v mu* possibility ( ! developm5t ( joy 9 poetry1 9 music1 or any o!r arti/ic =m ( expression ?r\gh association ) ! tea*] :o f9ds little satisfaction 9 ^! arti/ic =ms1 :o has little p[] ( ae/hetic appreciation4 ,x is only z tea*]s !mselves are s9c]e 9 _! appreciation ( ! nobility ( "* possess$ by ! m5 & wom5 ^: lives are portray$ 9 hi/ory1 9 lit]ature1 or 9 contempor>y social life t "o may expect t _! influ5ce w be important 9 develop+ su* appreciation ^u ! "p ( *ildr54 ,^? pupils are =tunate :o are taught by tea*]s :o h a s5se ( humor1 :o are able to gr[ en?usia/ic ov] ! intellectual a*ievem5t ( ! lead]s 9 ! field ( /udy or inve/igation 9 :i* ! *ildr5 are at "w4 ,*ildr5 are1 inde$1 quick to discov] s5tim5talism or pseudo-appreciation ^u ! "p ( tea*]s1 b ev5 ?\gh !y may n give any c]ta9 expression to _! enjoym5t1 !y are usually l>gely influ5c$ by ! attitude & g5u9e p[] ( appreciation possess$ by ! tea*]4 ,9 our attempt to h *ildr5 gr[ 9 ! field ( appreciation we h (t5 made ! mi/ake ( attempt+ to impose ^u !m adult /&>ds4 ,a great libr>ian 9 "o ( our ea/]n cities has said t he w\ld r h *ildr5 read dime novels ?an to h !m read no?+4 ,f 8 po9t ( view x 0 m important to h *ildr5 appreciat+ & enjoy+ some?+ :i* !y read ?an to h _! lives b>r5 9 ?is respect4 ,9 lit]ature1 9 music1 & 9 f9e art ! developm5t 9 p[] ( appreciation is und\bt$ly f ! simple1 crud] =ms to ^? :i* we z adults consid] ! high] or nobl] =ms ( expression4 ,"m ,goose1 ! rhymes ( ,/ev5son1 ( ,field1 or ( ,riley1 may be ! beg9n+ ( ! enjoym5t ( lit]ature :i* f9ds its f9al expression 9 ! read+ & 9 ! possession ( ! greate/ lit]ature ( ! ,engli% language4 ,! simple rote songs :i* ! *ildr5 le>n 9 ! fir/ grade1 or :i* !y he> on ! phonograph1 may lead ?r\gh v>i\s /ages ( developm5t to ! enjoym5t ( gr& op]a4 ,pictures 9 :i* bright color pr$om9ates may be ! beg9n+ ( p[] ( appreciation :i* f9ds its fruition 9 a home :i* is decorat$ ) reproductions ( ! _w's ma/]pieces4 ,x is n only 9 ! arti/ic field t ?is gr[? 9 p[] ( appreciation f ! simpl] to ! m complex is to be f\nd4 ,*ildr5 in/9ctively admire ! man :o is brave r ?an ! man :o endures4 ,a*ievem5t is = mo/ boys & girls ( great] significance ?an self-sacrifice4 ,x is only z we adapt our mat]ial to _! pres5t atta9m5t1 or to an attempt to h !m rea* ! next high] /age ( developm5t1 t we may expect g5u9e gr[?4 ,all too (t5 in/ead ( gr[? we secure ! developm5t ( a hypocritical attitude1 :i* accepts ! judgm5t ( o!rs1 & :i* nev] really indicates g5u9e enjoym5t4 ,:ile x is be/ n to insi/ ^u an analysis ( ! feel+s t "o has 9 enjoy+ a picture or a poem or a great "*1 x is wor? :ile to enc\rage *oice4 ,( _m /ories :i* h be5 told1 *ildr5 may v prop]ly *oose "o :i* !y w\ld l to tell to o!rs4 ,( _m poems :i* h be5 read 9 class1 a gr\p ( boys may admire "o & commit x to memory1 :ile ! girls may c>e = ano!r & be all[$ to memorize x4 ,:]ev] su* cop]ation is possible1 ! picture :i* y enjoy mo/ is ! "o t w mean mo/ 9 p[] ( appreciation if plac$ 9 y\r room at home4 ,spontane\s approval1 r ?an an agreem5t ) an adult tea*] :o is consid]$ an au?ority1 is to be s\ght =4 ,!re is m 9 ! spontane\s laught] :i* results z *ildr5 read toge!r _! ,alice 9 ,wond]l& ?an c\ld possibly result f an analysis ( ! quality ( humor :i* is involv$4 ,we are com+ to und]/& z a matt] ( education t we may hope to develop relatively few m5 & wom5 ( great creative g5ius4 ,! produc]s ( "w ( great arti/ic wor? are1 = ! mo/ "p1 to be det]m9$ by native capacity r ?an by s*ool ex]cises4 ,we mu/ ?9k ( ! great majority ( s*ool *ildr5 z possible consum]s r ?an z produc]s4 ,s*ools :i* furni% a maximum ( opportunity to enjoy music & pictures may hope to develop 9 _! community a p[] ( discrim9ation 9 ^! fields :i* w result 9 satisfaction ) no?+ less ?an ! be/4 ,! play]-piano & ! phonograph may mean m 9 ! developm5t ( musical ta/e 9 a community ?an all ( ! lessons :i* are giv5 9 ! read+ ( music4 ,! art gall]y 9 ! high s*ool1 ! folk dances :i* h be5 produc$ z a "p ( ! s*ool fe/ivals1 ! read+ ( ! be/ /ories1 may prep>e ! way = ! utilization ( leisure "t 9 ! pursuit ( ! nobl] pleasures4 ,! tea*] ) a sav+ s5se ( humor1 l>ge 9 8 p[] ( appreciation ( ! great m5 & wom5 ( 8 "t1 & all ( ! "t ke5 9 8 own enjoym5t & 9 8 ability to int]pret = o!rs ^? ?+s :i* are mo/ wor? :ile 9 lit]ature & 9 art1 may c\nt m l>gely 9 ! life ( ! community ?an ! "o :o is a ma/] 9 "s field ( inve/igation4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,:at are ! *>act]i/ics ( ! m5tal /ates :i* are involv$ 9 appreciation8 #b4 ,"n ! diff]5t types ( situations 9 :i* appreciation may be develop$4 ,give examples4 #c4 ,does ! p[] to criticize poetry or music necess>ily involve appreciation8 #d4 ,to :at degree may skill 9 creative "w result 9 p[] ( appreciation8 #e4 ,:at are ! elem5ts involv$ 9 appreciat+ human nature8 #f4 ,give an example ( appreciation ( intellectual p[]s4 #g4 ,:at is ! ess5tial elem5t 9 ! appreciation ( humor8 #h4 ,expla9 h[ ! p[] ( appreciation is dep5d5t ^u tra9+4 #i4 ,:at values 9 ! education ( an individual are realiz$ ?r\gh gr[? 9 p[] ( appreciation8 #aj4 ,:y is x important = a tea*] to seek to cultivate 8 own p[] ( appreciation8 #aa4 ,:at poems1 or pictures1 or music w\ld y expect fir/-grade *ildr5 to enjoy8 ,:y8 #ab4 ,w\ld y expect fif?-grade *ildr5 to gr[ 9 appreciation ( poetry by hav+ !m commit to memory selections f ,milton's ,p>adise ,lo/8 ,:y8 #ac4 ,:y is x important to all[ *ildr5 to *oose ! poems t !y commit to memory1 or ! pictures :i* !y hang on _! walls8 #ad4 ,:y w\ld y accept spontane\s expression ( approval ( ! *>act]s 9 lit]ature or 9 hi/ory1 r ?an seek to control ! judgm5ts ( *ildr5 9 ?is respect8 #ae4 ,h[ may tea*]s prove mo/ effective 9 develop+ ! p[] ( appreciation ^u ! "p ( *ildr58 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ix4 ,,! ,,mean+ ,,( ,,play ,,9 ,,education ,all human activity might be classifi$ "u ?ree heads1--play1 "w1 & drudg]y1--b j :at activities belong "u ea* head & j :at ea* ( ! t]ms means are que/ions ( dispute4 ,t ! b\nd>ies betwe5 ! ?ree are hazy & undef9$1 & t !y %ade gradually into ea* o!r1 are )\t d\bt true1 b aft] all play is diff]5t f "w1 & "w f drudg]y4 ,mu* ( ! disagreem5t z to ! value ( play is due to ?is lack ( def9ition4 ,ev5 to-day :5 ! wor? ( play is s univ]sally recogniz$1 we /ill he> ! criticism's ( s(t p$agogy & sug> coat+ us$ 9 connection ) ! application ( ! pr9ciple ( play 9 education4 ,al?\gh :at we call play has its roots 9 orig9al equipm5t1 /ill !re is no su* ?+ z ! play in/9ct1 9 ! s5se t !re is a hunt+ in/9ct or a fight+ in/9ct4 ,in/ead ( be+ a def9ite in/9ct1 :i* means a def9ite response to a def9ite situation1 x is r a t5d5cy *>act]i/ic ( all in/9cts & capacities4 ,x is an outgr[? ( ! g5]al *>act]i/ic ( all orig9al nature t[>ds activity ( "s k9d4 ,?is t5d5cy is s broad & s complex1 ! ma*9]y gov]n+ x is s delicate1 t x produces responses t v>y trem5d\sly ) subtle *anges 9 ! individual1 & ) slight modifications ( ! situation4 ,:at we call play1 !n1 is no?+ m ?an ! manife/ations ( ! v>i\s in/9cts & capacities z !y appe> at times :5 !y are n imm$iately useful4 ,! connections 9 ! n]v\s sy/em are ripe & all o!r factors h op]at$ to put !m 9 a /ate ( read9ess3 a situation occurs :i* /imulates ^! connections & ! *ild plays4 ,^! connections call$ into activity may result 9 responses :i* are prim>ily physical1 intellectual1 or emotional--all are manife/ations ( ?is t5d5cy t[>ds activity4 ,all habits ( all k9ds gr[ out ( ?is same activity3 habits :i* we call "w & ^? :i* we call play4 ,man has n two orig9al natures1 "o def9$ 9 t]ms ( ! play in/9ct1 & ! o!r 9 t]ms ( "w4 ,mo/ ( ! orig9al t5d5cies involv$ 9 play are n peculi> to x1 b also are ! s\rce ( "w4 ,manife/ation results 9 mak+ mud pies & apple pies2 physical activity results 9 ! kick+1 squirm+1 & wriggl+ ( ! infant & ! monoton\s wield+ ( ! hamm] ( ! road m5d]4 ,! conditions "u :i* an activity occurs1 its concomitants1 & ! attitude ( ! individual p]=m+ x det]m9e :e!r x is play or "w--n its s\rce or root4 ,mu*1 !n1 ( :at we call play is simply ! manife/ation ( in/9cts & capacities n imm$iately useful to ! *ild4 ,if !y 7 imm$iately useful1 !y w\ld probably be put "u ! head ( "w1 n play4 ,_m ( ! activities :i* seem playful to u & n ( imm$iate s]vice d s because ( ! conditions ( civiliz$ life4 ,7 ! infants liv+ "u primitive conditions1 9 su* a community z a human settlem5t seems likely to h be5 tw5ty-five ?\s& ye>s ago1 _! re/less exam9ation ( small objects w\ld p]haps seem z utilit>ian z _! fa!rs' hunt+4#ac ,c]ta9ly ! t5d5cy ( little *ildr5 to *ase a small object go+ away f !m1 & to run f a l>ge object approa*+ sl[ly1 _! t5d5cy to collect & ho>d1 _! t5d5cy to outdo ano!r engag$ 9 any in/9ctive pursuit1 w\ld "u primitive conditions h a di/9ct utilit>ian value1 & yet all su* t5d5cies are rank$ z play :5 manife/$ by ! civiliz$ *ild4 ,o!r t5d5cies become playful r ?an useful because ( ! complexity ( ! environm5t & ( ! n]v\s sy/em respond+ to x4 ,9 actual life we don't f9d activity foll[+ a neatly arrang$ situation--response sy/em4 ,on ! contr>y1 a situation seldom /imulates "o response1 & a response seldom occurs 9 ! typical =m requir$ by !ory4 ,x is ?is m+l+ ( responses br\ght ab\t by v>y+ elem5ts 9 ! situation t gives ! playful effect4 ,9 a less complex environm5t ?is complexity w\ld be less5$4 ,also exp]i5ce1 habit1 t5ds to p9 "o type ( response to a giv5 situation & ! m9or connections gradually become elim9at$4 ,= example1 if a boy ( n9e1 alone 9 ! woods1 0 approa*$ by ano!r ) ?reat5+ ge/ures & sc[ls1 ! fight+ response w\ld be call$ out1 & we w\ld n call x play1 because x s]v$ z protection4 ,if ! same boy 9 8 own g>d51 ) a gr\p ( companions1 0 approa*$ by ano!r ) sc[ls1 a p]fectly good-natur$ tussle might take place & we w\ld call x play4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two w\ld be 9 m9or elem5ts ( ! situation4 ,"s ( ^! diff]5ces are abs5ce or pres5ce ( companions1 ! /rang5ess or famili>ity ( ! surr\nd+s1 ! sudd5ness ( ! appe>ance ( ! o!r boy1 & s on4 ,mo/ ( ! old] !ories ( play did n take into acc\nt ^! ?ree facts1 i4e41 ! id5tity 9 orig9al nature ( ! roots ( play & "w2 ! fact t man's orig9al nature fits him = primitive n civiliz$ society2 ! complexity ( ! situation--response connection & its necess>y v>iation ) m9or elem5ts 9 ! ext]nal situation & 9 ! individual4 ,e>li] writ]s1 !re=e1 felt ! ne$ ( special !ories ( play4 ,! be/ kn[n ( ^! !ories are1 fir/1 ! ,s*ill]-,sp5c] surplus en]gy !ory2 second1 ! ,groos prep>ation = life !ory2 ?ird1 ! ,g4 ,/anley ,hall atavi/ic !ory2 f\r?1 ! ,appleton biological !ory4 ,ea* ( ! !ories has "s elem5t ( tru? 9 x1 = play is complex en\gh to include !m all1 b ea*1 save p]haps ! la/1 falls %ort ( an adequate explanation4 ,two facts gr[+ out ( ! !ory ( play accept$ by ! la/ few p>agraphs ne$ fur!r discussion4 ,fir/1 ! ord] ( developm5t 9 play4 ,! play activities mu/ foll[ along ! l9e ( ! develop+ in/9cts & capacities4 ,z ! n]ve tracts gov]n+ c]ta9 responses become ready to act1 ^! responses become ! controll+ ones 9 play4 ,s x is t = a "t play is controll$ l>gely by ! in/9ct ( manipulation1 at ano!r "t physical activity comb9$ ) competition is mo/ prom95t1 at ano!r p]iod imag9ation controls1 /ill lat] ! puzzle-solv+ t5d5cy comes to ! po9t foll[$ by all ! games involv+ an intellectual factor4 ,?is be+ true1 x is n surpris+ to f9d c]ta9 types ( play *>act]iz+ c]ta9 ages & to f9d t ?\gh ! p>ticul> games may v>y1 !re is a /rong resemblance betwe5 plays ( *ildr5 ( ! same age all ov] ! _w4 ,x mu/ n be =gott51 h[ev]1 t ! read9ess ( n]ve tracts to function1 & !re=e ! play responses1 dep5ds on o!r factors z well z maturity4 ,! read9ess ( o!r tracts to function2 pa/ exp]i5ce & habits2 ! /imulus provid$ by ! pres5t situation2 abs5ce ( compet+ /imuli2 sex1 heal?1 fatigue1 tradition--all ^! & _m m factors modify ! ord] ( developm5t ( ! play t5d5cies4 ,/ill1 hav+ ^! facts 9 m9d1 x is possible to indicate r\ghly ! type ( play mo/ prom95t at diff]5t ages4 ,*ildr5 f f\r to sev5 play prim>ily 9 t]ms ( s5sory responses1 imag9ation1 imitation1 & curiosity ( ! crud] sort4 ,love ( rhy?m also is /rong at ?is p]iod4 ,f sev5 to t5 individual competition or rivalry becomes v /rong & influ5ces physical games1 ! collect+ t5d5cy1 & manipulation1 all ( :i* t5d5cies are prom95t at ?is "t4 ,t5 to twelve or ?irte5 is *>act]iz$ by ! gang _s :i* %[s itself 9 connection ) all outdoor games & adv5tures2 memory is a l>ge factor 9 "s ( ! plays ( ?is p]iod1 & indep5d5t ?9k+ 9 connection ) situations eng5d]$ by manipulation & ! gang _s becomes /rong]4 ,at ?is p]iod ! diff]5ces betwe5 girls & boys become m m>k$4 ,! girls *oose quiet] indoor games1 *umm+ becomes prom95t1 & int]e/ 9 books1 especially ( ! semi-religi\s & romantic type1 comes to ! front4 ,9 ! e>ly adolesc5t p]iod ! emotional factor is /rong & *>act]izes _m ( ! playful activities2 ! intellectual elem5t takes prec$5ce ov] ! physical2 ! gr\p int]e/ wid5s1 al?\gh ! int]e/ 9 lead]%ip & indep5d5t action /ill rema9s /rong2 teas+ & bully+ are also pres5t4 ,?is summ>y is by no means complete1 b x indicates 9 a v g5]al way ! prom95t t5d5cies at ! p]iods indicat$4 ,! second fact ne$+ fur!r elaboration is t ( ! complexity ( ! play activity4 ,take1 = in/ance1 a f\r-ye>-old play+ ) a doll4 ,%e fondles1 cuddles1 trundles x1 & takes x to b$ ) h]4 ,x is jump$ up & d[n & dragg$ ab\t4 ,x is put ?r\gh _m ( ! exp]i5ces t ! *ild is hav+1 especially ! unpleasant ones4 ,its eyes & hair1 its arms & legs1 are exam9$4 ,que/ions are ask$ su* z1 ,:]e did x come f8 ,:o made x8 ,has x a /oma*8 ,w x die8 ,9 _m in/ances x is p]sonifi$4 ,! *ild is (t5 p]fectly cont5t to play ) x alone1 )\t ! pres5ce ( o!r *ildr54 ,?is activity %[s ! pres5ce ( ! nurs+ in/9ct1 ! t5d5cy t[>ds manipulation1 physical activity1 imitation & curiosity ( ! empirical type4 ,! imag9ation is active b /ill undiff]5tiat$ f p]ception4 ,! cont5tm5t 9 play+ alone1 or ) an adult1 %[s ! /age ( developm5t ( ! greg>i\s in/9ct4 ,a girl ( n9e no long] cuddles or h&les h] doll j = ! pleasure %e gets out ( t1 nor is ! doll put ?r\gh su* viol5t physical ex]cises4 ,! *ild has pass$ beyond ! aimless manipulation & physical activity t *>act]iz$ ! y\ng] *ild4 ,in/ead %e makes ?+s = x1 clo!s1 furniture1 or jewelry1 /ill manipulation1 & /ill ! nurs+ in/9cts1 b modifi$ & direct$ t[>ds m practical ends4 ,imitation n[ %[s itself 9 activities t are organiz$4 ,! *ild plays ,sunday1 or call+1 or travel+1 or m>ket day1 9 :i* ! doll takes h] "p 9 a s]ies ( relat$ activities4 ,b 9 ^! activities con/ructive imag9ation appe>s z an elem5t4 ,situations are n absolutely duplicat$1 occurr5ces are *ang$ to suit ! fancy ( ! play]1 z dem&$ by ! dramatic int]e/4 ,a fairy pr9ce1 or a godmo!r1 may be p>ticipants1 b at ?is age ! con/ructive imag9ation is likely to "w along m practical l9es4 ,curiosity is also pres5t1 b n[ ! que/ions ask$ are su* z1 ,:at makes h] eyes "w8 ,:y c't %e /& up8 or !y (t5 p]ta9 to ! ?+s t are be+ made = ! doll4 ,!y h to d ) ,h[ or ,:y in/ead ( ! ,:at4 ,! doll may /ill be talk$ to & ev5 be suppos$ to talk back1 b ! *ild kn[s x is all play2 x is no long] p]sonifi$ z 9 ! e>li] p]iod4 ,= ! *ild fully to enjoy h] play1 %e mu/ n[ h companions ( h] own age1 ! old] p]son no long] suffices4 ,! outdoor games ( boys %[ ! same k9d ( complexity1--= in/ance1 take any ( ! runn+ games4 ,) little boys !y are unorganiz$ manife/ations ( m]e physical activity4 ,! runn+ is m or less at r&om1 arms & vocal organs are us$ z mu* z ! legs & trunk4 ,imitation comes 9-:at "o does o!rs are likely to d4 ,! m]e foll[ in/9ct is /rong1 & !y run aft] ea* o!r4 ,! beg9n+s ( ! fight+ in/9ct appe> 9 ! m or less fri5dly tussles !y h4 ,! /age ( ! greg>i\s in/9ct is %[n by ! fact t !y all play toge!r4 ,lat] ) boys ( n9e or t5 ! play has become a game1 ) rules gov]n+ x4 ,! g5]al physical activity has be5 replac$ by a specializ$ =m4 ,imitation is less ( a factor4 ,! hunt+ in/9ct (t5 appe>s unexpect$ly1 & 9 ! mid/ ( ! play ! elem5ts ( ! *ase int]f]e ) ! prop] conduct ( ! game4 ,! fight+ in/9ct is /rong1 & is v easily ar\s$4 ,! boys n[ play 9 gangs or gr\ps1 & ! t5d5cy t[>ds lead]%ip manife/s itself )9 ! gr\p4 ,! intellectual elem5t appe>s aga9 & aga91 9 plann+ ! game1 9 judg+ ( ! possibility ( succe$+ at diff]5t /ages1 or 9 settl+ disputes t are sure to arise4 ,s x is ) all ! plays ( *ildr53 !y are complexes ( ! v>i\s t5d5cies pres5t1 & ! controll+ elem5ts *ange z ! inn] developm5t cont9ues4 ,all activities :5 indulg$ 9 playfully h c]ta9 common *>act]i/ics4 ,fir/1 ! activity is enjoy$ = its own sake4 ,! process is satisfy+ 9 itself4 ,results may come naturally1 b !y are n sep>at$ f ! process2 ! reason = ! enjoym5t is n prim>ily ! result1 b r ! :ole activity4 ,second1 ! activity is indulg$ 9 by ! play] because x satisfies "s inn] ne$1 & only by indulg+ 9 x c ! ne$ be satisfi$4 ,x uses neurone tracts t 7 ready4 ,gr[+ out ( ^! two major *>act]i/ics are sev]al o!rs4 ,! att5tion is free & imm$iate2 mu* en]gy is us$ ) comp>atively little fatigue2 self-activity & initiative are freely display$4 ,at ! o!r extreme ( activity is drudg]y4 ,its *>act]i/ics are j ! opposite ( ^!4 ,fir/1 ! activity is engag$ 9 m]ely = ! result--! process c\nt+ = no?+ & ! result be+ ! only ?+ ( value4 ,second1 ! process1 in/ead ( satisfy+ "s ne$1 is r felt to be 9 violation ( ! nature ( ! "o engag$4 ,x uses neurone tracts t are n ready & at ! same "t prev5ts ! action ( tracts t are ready4 ,x becomes a task4 ,! att5tion necess>ily mu/ be ( ! =c$1 d]iv$ type1 9 :i* fatigue comes quickly z a result ( divid$ att5tion1 results are poor1 & !re is no *ance = initiative4 ,betwe5 ^! two extremes lies "w4 ,x diff]s f play 9 t ! results are usually ( m value & 9 t ! att5tion is !re=e (t5 ( ! d]iv$ type4 ,x diff]s f drudg]y 9 t !re is n ! %>p di/9ction betwe5 ! process & ! result & 9 t ! att5tion may (t5 be ( ! free spontane\s type4 ,x 0 emphasiz$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is *apt] t ! b\nd>ies betwe5 ! ?ree 7 hazy & ill def9$4 ,?is is especially true ( "w2 x may be indi/+ui%able f play z x p>takes ( its *>act]i/ics1 or x may sw+ to ! o!r extreme & be almo/ drudg]y4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ?ree activities is a subjective matt]--a diff]5ce l>gely 9 mood1 9 attitude ( ! p]son conc]n$1 due to ! read9ess or unread9ess ( ! neurone tracts ex]cis$4 ,! same activity may be play = "o p]son1 "w = ano!r1 & drudg]y = /ill ano!r4 ,fur!r1 = ! same p]son ! same activity may be play1 "w1 or drudg]y1 at diff]5t times1 ev5 )9 ! same day4 ,:i* ( ! ?ree is ! mo/ valuable = educational purposes8 ,c]ta9ly n drudg]y4 ,x is dead5+1 un$ucative1 undevelopm5tal4 ,any phase ( education1 ?\gh x may be a seem+ly necess>y "o1 t has ! *>act]i/ics ( drudg]y is valueless 9 itself4 ,z a means to an end x may s]ve--b ) ! antagoni/ic attitude1 ! annoyance ar\s$ by drudg]y1 x seems a v que/ionable means4 ,education t c obta9 ! results requir$ by a civiliz$ community & yet use ! play _s is ! ideal4 ,b to h *ildr5 engag$ 9 play1 9 ! s5se ( free play1 _c be ! only measure4 ,!re mu/ be sup]vision & direction4 ,! _s t *>act]izes ! activities :i* are n imm$iately useful mu/ be incorporat$ into ^? t are useful by means ( ! %ift+ ( association bonds4 ,nor c all p>ts ( ! process seem wor? :ile to ! le>n]4 ,sometimes ! process or p>ts ( x mu/ become a means to an end1 = ! end is remote4 ,b all ?is is true to "s ext5t 9 free play--digg+ ! worms 9 ord] to g fi%+1 f9d+ ! scissors & ?read 9 ord] to make ! doll's dress1 mak+ arrangem5ts ) ! o!r team to play ball1 f9d+ ! "r pieces ( wood = ! hut1 & s on1 may n be satisfactory 9 & ( !mselves1 b may be almo/ drudg]y4 ,!y are n drudg]y because !y become fus$ 9 ! :ole process1 !y take ov] & are lo/ 9 ! joy ( ! und]tak+ z a :ole2 !y become a legitimate means to an end1 & 9 s f> take ov] 9 d]iv$ =m ! int]e/ t is r\s$ by ! :ole4 ,x is ?is fusion ( "w & play t is desirable 9 education4 ,?is is ! great lesson ( play--x %[s ! value & enc\rages ! logical comb9ation ( ! two activities4 ,*ildr5 le>n to "w z !y play4 ,!y le>n ! mean+ & value ( "w4 ,"w becomes a means to an end1 & t end n some?+ remote & disconnect$ f ! activity itself1 b z "p & p>cel ( x4 ,?us ! activity z a :ole imbu$ ) ! play _s becomes motivat$4 ,! play _s is ! _s ( art4 ,no great result 0 a*iev$ 9 any l9e ( human activity )\t mu* "w1 & yet no great result 0 ev] ga9$ unless ! play _s controll$4 ,x is to ?is int]action ( "w & play t ea* owes mu* ( its value4 ,"w 9 & ( itself ap>t f play lacks educative p[]2 x is only z x leads to & increases ! p[] ( play t x is ( greate/ value4 ,its logical place 9 education is z a means to an end1 n z an end 9 itself4 ,play1 on ! o!r h&1 t does n necessitate "s "w1 t does n ne$ "w 9 ord] t x may function m fully1 has lo/ mo/ ( its educational value4 ,to "w 9 play & to play :ile work+ is ! ideal comb9ation4 ,ei!r by itself is dang]\s4 ,two misconceptions %\ld be m5tion$4 ,fir/1 ! play _s advocat$ z "o ( ! greate/ educational factors mu/ n be limit$ to ! m]ely physical activities1 nor %\ld x be consid]$ synonym\s ) :at is easy4 ,?is *>act]ization ( play z be+ ! aimless trivial physical activities ( a little *ild is a misconception ( ! :ole play t5d5cy4 ,x has already be5 po9t$ out t any activity :i* 9 itself satisfies1 :e!r t be physical1 emotional1 or intellectual1 is play1 & all ^! phases ( human activity %[ !mselves 9 play fir/4 ,also ! fact t play does n mean ease ( accompli%m5t has be5 not$4 ,x is only 9 ! play _s t ! full res\rces ( *ild or adult are te/$4 ,x is only :5 ! activity fully satisfies "s ne$ t ! individual ?r[s himself :ole-s\l$ into x4 ,x is only "u ! /imulus ( ! play _s t all "o's en]gy is sp5t1 & great results1 cle>1 accurate1 & f> rea*+1 are obta9$4 ,ease ( p]=mance (t5 results 9 drudg]y4 ,to be play1 ! activity mu/ be suit$ to ! *ild's capacity1 b leave *ance = initiative & *ange & developm5t4 ,! second misconception is t because pres5t-day educators advocate play 9 education1 !y believe t ! *ild %\ld d no?+ t he doesn't want to4 ,?is is wrong on two acc\nts4 ,fir/1 x is "p ( ! bus9ess ( an environm5t to /imulate--read9ess dep5ds p>tly on /imulation4 ,! *ild may nev] play unless ! /imulation is =cibly & cont9ually appli$4 ,second1 aft] all x is ! result we are mo/ anxi\s = 9 education1 & t result is an educat$ adult4 ,by all means let u obta9 ?is result by ! mo/ economical & effective me?od1 & t is by use ( ! play _s4 ,b if ! result _c be obta9$ by ?is means because ( ! "* ( civiliz$ ideals1 or ! difficulties ( gr\p education1 or lack ( capacity ( ! individual--!n surely o!r me?ods1 ev5 t ( drudg]y1 mu/ be resort$ to4 ,! po9t is1 ) ! goal 9 m9d1 adapt ! mat]ial ( education to ! ne$s ( ! individual *ild2 9 o!r words1 use ! play _s s f> z is possible--aft] t ga9 ! re/ by any means :atsoev]4 ,s f> ! discussion has be5 conc]n$ ) ! *>act]i/ics ( ! play _s & its use 9 connection ) ! m =mal mat]ials ( education4 ,h[ev]1 ! free plays ( *ildr5 are valuable 9 two ways--fir/1 z s\rces ( in=mation z to ! p>ticul> t5d5cies ready = ex]cise at diff]5t times1 & second1 z a means ( education 9 !mselves4 ,a k ( j :i* t5d5cies are mo/ prom95t 9 ! plays ( a gr\p ( *ildr51 :5 !y *ange f play to games1 ! increase 9 complexity & organization1 ! pr$om9ance ( ! intellectual factors1--all ?is c\ld be ( direct s]vice to a tea*] 9 ! s*oolroom4 ,b x means1 to "s ext5t1 ! obs]vation by ! tea*] ( 8 p>ticul> gr\p ( *ildr54 ,su* obs]vation is extremely fruitful4 ,! m vigor\sly1 ! m :olehe>t$ly1 ! m completely a *ild plays1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! bett]4 ,a deprivation ( opportunity to play1 or a loss ( any p>ticul> type ( play1 means a loss ( ! developm5t ( c]ta9 traits or *>act]i/ics4 ,an all-r\nd1 well-develop$ adult c gr[ only f a *ild develop$ 9 an all-r\nd way because ( _m-sid$ play4 ,h5ce ! value ( public playgr\nds & ( "t to play4 ,h5ce ! dang] ( ! isolat$1 lonely *ild1 = _m plays dem& ! gr\p4 ,h5ce ! opportunities & ! dang]s ( sup]vision ( play4 ,sup]vision ( play is valuable 9 s f> z x furni%es opportunities & sugge/ions :i* develop ! elem5ts mo/ wor? :ile 9 play & :i* keep play at its highe/ level1 & 9 s f> z x conc]ns ! nature ( ! individual *ild1 protect+1 admoni%+1 or enc\rag+1 z ! case may require4 ,x is dang]\s to ! *ild's be/ good1 9 s f> z x results 9 dom9ation2 = dom9ation w mean1 usually1 ! introduction ( plays beyond ! *ild's /age ( developm5t & ! de/ruction ( ! indep5d5ce & initiative :i* are two ( ! mo/ valuable *>act]i/ics ( free play4 ,valuable sup]vision ( play is art t mu/ be acquir$4 ,to influ5ce1 :ile effac+ oneself1 to guide1 :ile be+ "o ( ! play]s1 to h an adult's und]/&+ ( ! ne$s ( *ild nature & yet to be "o ) ! *ildr5--^! are ! ess5tials ( ! sup]vision ( play4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 ! fight+ in/9ct & ! in/9ctive basis ( play4 #b4 ,"u :at conditions may an activity :i* we classify z play = a civiliz$ *ild be call$ "w = a *ild liv+ "u primitive conditions8 #c4 ,:at k9ds ( plays are *>act]i/ic ( diff]5t age p]iods 9 ! life ( *ildr58 #d4 ,trace ! developm5t ( "s game play$ by ! old] boys 9 y\r s*ool f its simpl] beg9n+s 9 ! play ( little *ildr5 to its pres5t complexity4 #e4 ,"n ! *>act]i/ics common to all playful activity4 #f4 ,di/+ui% betwe5 play & drudg]y4 #g4 ,:at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 "w & play8 #h4 ,to :at degree may ! activities ( ! s*ool be made play8 #i4 ,expla9 :y ! same activity may be play = "o individual1 "w = ano!r1 & drudg]y = a ?ird4 #aj4 ,:y %\ld we seek to make ! play elem5t prom95t 9 s*ool activity8 #aa4 ,:5 is "o mo/ effici5t 9 individual pursuits--:5 8 activity is play1 :5 he works1 or :5 he is a drudge8 #ab4 ,"u :at conditions %\ld we compel *ildr5 to "w1 or ev5 to engage 9 an activity :i* may involve drudg]y8 #ac4 ,expla9 h[ play may involve ! maximum ( utilization ( ! abilities possess$ by ! individual1 r ?an a type ( activity easy ( accompli%m5t4 #ad4 ,9 :at does skill 9 ! sup]vision ( play consi/8 99 99 99 99 99 ,x4 ,,! ,,significance ,,( ,,individual ,,diff]5ces ,,= ,,! ,,tea*] ,x has be5 indicat$ "h & !re ?r\gh\t ! previ\s *apt]s t1 despite ! fact t !re are c]ta9 laws gov]n+ ! v>i\s m5tal traits & processes1 /ill !re is v>iation 9 ! work+ ( ^? laws4 ,x 0 po9t$ out t p diff] 9 k9d ( memory or imag9ation 9 :i* !y excel1 9 _! ability to appreciate1 9 ! spe$ ) :i* !y =m habits1 & s on4 ,9 o!r words1 t boys & girls are n exact duplicates ( ea* o!r1 b t !y always diff] f ea* o!r4 ,n[ a k ( ^! diff]5ces1 _! am\nts1 int]relations1 & causes are v necess>y = ! plann+ ( a s*ool sy/em or = ! plann+ ( ! education ( a p>ticul> *ild4 ,:at we plan & h[ we plan educational und]tak+s mu/ always be influ5c$ by our op9ion z to inborn traits1 sex diff]5ces1 specialization ( m5tal traits1 spe$ ( developm5t1 ! respective p[] ( nature & ( nurture4 ,! v>i\s plans ( promotion & gr\p+ ( *ildr5 f\nd 9 diff]5t cities are 9 op]ation because ( c]ta9 beliefs conc]n+ diff]5ces 9 g5]al m5tal ability4 ,co$ucation is urg$ or deplor$ l>gely on ! gr\nd ( belief 9 ! diff]+ abilities ( ! sexes4 ,exact k ( j :at diff]5ces d exi/ betwe5 p & ! causes ( ^! diff]5ces is important = two reasons4 ,fir/1 9 ord] t ! mo/ effici5t measures may be tak5 = ! education ( ! individual1 & second1 9 ord] t ! race z a :ole may be made bett]4 ,education c only become effici5t & economical :5 we "k :i* diff]5ces betwe5 p & :i* a*ievem5ts ( a giv5 p]son are due to tra9+1 & :i* are due m l>gely to orig9al equipm5t or maturity4 ,x is a wa/e ( "t on ! "o h& = education to conc]n itself ) try+ to make all *ildr5 good spell]s--if spell+ is a natural gift2 & on ! o!r h&1 x is lack ( effici5cy = s*ools to be l>gely neglect+ ! moral developm5t ( ! *ildr51 if morality is dep5d5t prim>ily on education4 ,exact k1 n op9ions1 along all ^! l9es is necess>y if progress is to be made4 ,! pr9cipal causes = individual diff]5ces are sex1 remote ance/ry1 ne> ance/ry1 maturity1 & tra9+4 ,! "q to be answ]$ 9 ! discussion ( ea* ( ^! causes is h[ important a factor is x 9 ! production ( diff]5ces & j :at diff]5ces is x responsible =4 ,t m5 diff] f wom5 has always be5 an accept$ fact1 b exact k ( h[ mu* & h[ !y diff] has1 until rec5t ye>s1 be5 lack+4 ,rec5tly quantitative measurem5t has be5 made by a numb] ( inve/igators4 ,9 mak+ ^! inve/igations two s]i\s difficulties h to be met4 ,fir/1 t ! te/s measure only ! diff]5ces br\ght ab\t by diff]5ces 9 sex1 & n by any o!r cause1 su* z family or tra9+4 ,?is difficulty has be5 met by tak+ p ( all ages1 f all sorts ( families1 ) all k9ds ( tra9+1 ! con/ant factor be+ ! diff]5ce 9 sex4 ,! second difficulty is t ( f9d+ gr\ps 9 :i* ! selection ag5cies h be5 ! same & equally op]ative4 ,x w\ld be obvi\sly unfair to comp>e college m5 & wom51 & expect to get a fair result z to sex diff]5ces1 because college wom5 are a m highly select$ gr\p intellectually ?an ! college m54 ,x is ! conv5tional & social dem&s t are prim>ily responsible = s5d+ boys to college1 :ile ! intellectual impulse is responsible to a great] ext5t = s5d+ girls4 ,exam9ation ( *ildr5 9 ! elem5t>y s*ools1 !n1 gives a fair] result ?an ( ! old] m5 & wom54 ,! g5]al results ( all ! /udies made po9t to ! fact t ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! sexes are small4 ,sex is ! cause ( only a small fraction ( ! diff]5ces betwe5 individuals4 ,! total diff]5ce ( m5 f m5 & wom5 f wom5 is almo/ z great z ! diff]5ce betwe5 m5 & wom51 = ! di/ribution curve ( woman's ability 9 any trait ov]laps ! m5's curve to at lea/ half its range4 ,9 detail ! exact measurem5ts ( intellectual abilities %[ a slight sup]iority ( ! wom5 9 receptivity & memory1 & a slight sup]iority ( ! m5 9 control ( movem5t & 9 ?\ght ab\t concrete me*anical situations4 ,9 int]e/s :i* _c be s def9itely measur$1 wom5 seem to be m int]e/$ 9 p & m5 9 ?+s4 ,9 in/9ctive equipm5t wom5 excel 9 ! nurs+ impulse & m5 9 ! fight+ impulse4 ,9 physical equipm5t m5 are /rong] & bigg] ?an wom54 ,!y excel 9 muscul> te/s 9 ability to spurt1 :]eas wom5 d bett] 9 endurance te/s4 ,! male sex seems on ! :ole to be slightly m v>iable ?an ! female1 i4e41 its curve ( di/ribution is some:at flatt] & ext5ds bo? l[] & high] ?an does t ( ! female2 or1 /at$ ano!r way1 m5 furni% m ?an _! proportion ( idiots & ( g5iuses4 ,slight ?\gh ^! diff]5ces are1 !y are n to be disreg>d$1 = sometimes ! result+ habits are important4 ,= in/ance1 girls %\ld be bett] spell]s ?an boys4 ,boys %\ld excel 9 physics & *emi/ry4 ,wom5 %\ld h m tact ?an m51 :]eas m5 %\ld be m imp>tial 9 _! judgm5ts4 ,) ! same intellectual equipm5t z wom51 m5 %\ld be f\nd m (t5 9 positions ( prom95ce because ( ! /r5g? ( ! fight+ in/9ct4 ,! g5iuses ( ! _w1 ! lead]s 9 any field1 z well z ! idiots1 %\ld m (t5 be m5 ?an wom54 ,t ^! diff]5ces d exi/1 obs]vation z well z exp]im5t prove1 b t !y are entirely due to ess5tial innate diff]5ces 9 sex is /ill op5 to "q4 ,diff]5ces 9 treatm5t ( ! sexes 9 ideals & 9 tra9+ = g5]ation aft] g5]ation may acc\nt = "s ( ! diff]5ces not$4 ,:at ^! diff]5ces mean f ! /&po9t ( practice is /ill ano!r "q4 ,diff]5ce 9 equipm5t ne$ n mean diff]5ce 9 treatm5t1 nor ne$ id5tity ( equipm5t necess>ily mean id5tity ( tra9+4 ,! k9d ( education giv5 w h to be det]m9$ n only by ! nature ( ! individual1 b also by ! ideals held = & ! effici5cy dem&$ f ea* sex4 ,ano!r cause ( ! diff]5ces exi/+ betwe5 individuals is diff]5ce 9 race inh]itance4 ,9 caus+ diff]5ces 9 physical traits ?is factor is prom95t4 ,! ,am]ican ,indians h physical traits 9 common :i* diff]5tiate !m f o!r races2 ! same ?+ is true ( ! ,negroes & ! ,mongolians4 ,x has always be5 tak5 = grant$ t ! same k9d ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! races exi/$ 9 m5tal traits4 ,to measure ! m5tal diff]5ces caus$ by race is an extremely difficult problem4 ,tra9+1 environm5t1 tradition1 are su* pot5t factors 9 confus+ ! issue4 ,! difficulty is to measure inborn traits1 n a*ievem5t4 ,h5ce ! results f actual measurem5t are v few & are conf9$ to ! s5sory & s5sorimotor traits4 ,woodwor?1 9 summ+ up ! results ( ^! te/s1 says1 ,on ! :ole1 ! ke5ness ( ! s5ses seems to be ab\t on a p> 9 ! v>i\s races ( mank9d4444 ,if ! results c\ld be tak5 at _! face value1 !y w\ld indicate diff]5ces 9 intellig5ce betwe5 races1 giv+ su* gr\ps z ! ,pygmy & ,negrito a l[ /ation z comp>$ ) mo/ ( mank9d4 ,! fairness ( ! te/ is n1 h[ev]1 beyond "q4#ad ,! g5]ality ( ?is conclusion conc]n+ ! diff]5ces 9 intellig5ce reveals ! lack ( data4 ,no te/s ( ! high] intellectual processes1 su* z ! ability to analyze1 to associate 9 t]ms ( elem5ts1 to =mulate new pr9ciples1 & ! l1 h1 be5 giv54 ,"s an?ropologi/s are skeptical ( ! exi/5ce ( any great diff]5ces1 :ile o!rs believe t ?\gh !re is mu* ov]lapp+1 /ill diff]5ces ( consid]able magnitude d exi/4 ,at pres5t we d n "k h[ mu* ( ! diff]5ces exi/+ betwe5 individuals is due to diff]5ces 9 remote ance/ry4 ,maturity z a cause ( diff]5ces betwe5 individuals gives q z unsatisfactory results z remote ance/ry4 ,e ?\ghtful /ud5t ( *ildr5 mu/ realize t inn] gr[?1 ap>t f tra9+1 has some?+ to d ) ! *anges :i* take place 9 a *ild2 t he diff]s f ye> to ye> because ( a diff]5ce 9 maturity4 ,?is same cause1 !n1 mu/ acc\nt to "s ext5t = ! diff]5ces betwe5 individuals ( diff]5t ages4 ,b j h[ great a "p x plays1 :at p] c5t ( ! diff]5ce x acc\nts =1 & :at p>ticul> traits x affects mu* or little1 no "o kn[s4 ,we say 9 g5]al t n9e-ye>-old *ildr5 are m sugge/ible ?an six-ye>-old1 & ?an f\rte5-ye>-old2 t ! po9t ( view ( ! fifte5-ye>-old is diff]5t f t ( ! elev5-ye>-old2 t ! p[] ( s5se discrim9ation gradually increases up to ab\t sixte51 & s on4 ,t ^! facts are true1 no "o c "q1 b h[ f> !y are due to m]e *ange 9 maturity & h[ f> to tra9+ or to ! increase 9 p[] ( "s p>ticul> capacity1 su* z und]/&+ directions1 or p[] ( =c$ att5tion1 is unkn[n4 ,! /udies :i* h be5 und]tak5 along ?is l9e h fail$ 9 two p>ticul>s3 fir/1 to di/ribute ! actual *anges f\nd f ye> to ye> among ! ?ree possible causes1 maturity1 g5]al p[]s ( compreh5sion & ! l1 & tra9+2 second1 to measure ! same individuals f ye> to ye>4 ,?is la/ error is v common 9 /udies ( human nature4 ,x is tak5 = grant$ t to exam9e t5 ye> olds & !n elev5 ye> olds & !n twelve ye> olds w give :at t5 ye> olds w become 9 "o & two ye>s' "t respectively4 ,to te/ a gr\p ( gramm> grade *ildr5 & !n a gr\p ( high s*ool & !n a gr\p ( college /ud5ts w n %[ ! *anges 9 maturity f gramm> s*ool to college4 ,! me?od is q wrong1 = x te/s only ! t5 ye> olds t /ay 9 s*ool long en\gh to become twelve ye> olds2 x measures only ! v small p] c5t ( ! gramm> s*ool *ildr5 :o get to college4 ,9 o!r words1 x is measur+ a m highly select$ gr\p & accept+ ! result obta9$ f !m z true ( ! entire gr\p4 ,because ( ^! two s]i\s errors 9 ! inve/igations our k ( ! influ5ce ( maturity z a cause ( individual diff]5ces is no bett] ?an op9ion4 ,two facts1 h[ev]1 su* /udies d make cle>4 ,fir/1 ! supposition t ! increases 9 ability due to a giv5 am\nt ( progress t[>d maturity are closely alike = all *ildr5 save ! s-call$ 'abnormally-precoci\s' or 'ret>d$' is false4 ,! same fraction ( ! total inn] developm5t1 f z]o to adult ability1 w produce v unequal results 9 diff]5t *ildr54 ,inn] gr[? acts diff]5tly accord+ to ! orig9al nature t is gr[+4 ,! notion t maturity is ! ma9 factor 9 ! diff]5ces f\nd among/ s*ool *ildr51 s t grad+ & me?ods ( tea*+ %\ld be fitt$ closely to '/age ( gr[?1' is also false4 ,x is by no means v h>d to f9d sev5 ye> olds :o c d intellectual "w 9 :i* "o 9 tw5ty sev5te5 ye> olds w\ld fail4#ae ,! "q z to h[ f> imm$iate h]$ity is a cause ( diff]5ces f\nd betwe5 individuals1 c only be answ]$ by measur+ h[ mu* m alike memb]s ( ! same family are 9 a giv5 trait ?an p pick$ at r&om1 & !n mak+ all[ance = simil>ity 9 _! tra9+4 ,! great] ! lik5esses betwe5 memb]s ( ! same family1 & ! great] ! diff]5ces betwe5 memb]s ( diff]5t families1 despite simil>ities 9 tra9+1 ! m c individual diff]5ces be trac$ to diff]5ces 9 ance/ry z a controll+ cause4 ,! answ] to ?is "q has be5 obta9$ along f\r diff]5t l9es3 ,fir/1 lik5esses 9 physical traits2 second1 lik5esses 9 p>ticul> abilities2 ?ird1 lik5esses 9 a*ievem5t along intellectual & moral l9es2 f\r?1 great] lik5esses betwe5 tw9s1 ?an ord9>y sibl+s4 ,9 physical traits1 su* z eye color1 hair color1 cephalic index1 height1 family resemblance is v /rong 7! coeffici5t ( correlation be+ ab\t 4#e71 & "h tra9+ c c]ta9ly h _h no effect4 ,9 p>ticul> abilities1 su* z ability 9 spell+1 ! /age rea*$ by an individual is due prim>ily to 8 inh]itance1 ! ability be+ b little influ5c$ by ! diff]5ces 9 home or s*ool tra9+ t commonly exi/4 ,9 g5]al a*ievem5t1 ,galton's results %[ t em95ce runs 9 families1 t "o has m ?an ?ree hundr$ times ! *ance ( be+ em95t if "o has a bro!r1 fa!r1 or son em95t1 ?an ! individual pick$ at r&om4 ,wood's inve/igation 9 royal families po9ts to ! same influ5ce ( ance/ry 9 det]m9+ a*ievem5t4 ,! /udies ( ! ,edw>ds family on "o h& & ! s-call$ ,kallikak family on ! o!r1 po9t to ! same conclusion4 ,tw9s are f\nd to be twice z mu* alike 9 ! traits te/$ z o!r bro!rs & si/]s4 ,?\gh ! difficulty ( disc\nt+ ! effect ( tra9+ 9 all ^! /udies has be5 great1 yet 9 e case ! inve/igators h tak5 pa9s to d s4 ,! fact t ! inve/igations along su* diff]5t l9es all be> out ! same conclusion1 namely1 t intellectual diff]5ces are l>gely due to diff]5ces 9 family inh]itance1 weighs heavily 9 favor ( its be+ a correct "o4 ,! fif? factor t might acc\nt = individual diff]5ces is environm5t4 ,by environm5t we mean any influ5ce br\ght to be> on ! individual4 ,! same difficulty has be5 met 9 attempt+ to measure ! effect ( environm5t t 0 met 9 try+ to measure ! effect ( inn] nature--namely1 t ( te/+ "o )\t int]f]5ce f ! o!r4 ,! attempts to measure accurately ! effect ( any "o elem5t 9 ! environm5t h n be5 successful4 ,no adequate way ( avoid+ ! complications involv$ by diff]5t natures has be5 f\nd4 ,"o ( ! greate/ errors 9 ! me?od ( work+ ) ?is problem has be5 f\nd j "h4 ,x has be5 cu/om>y :5 ! effect ( a c]ta9 elem5t 9 ! environm5t is to be asc]ta9$ to inve/igate p :o h be5 subject to t tra9+ or :o are 9 ! process ( tra9+1 ?us ignor+ ! selective influ5ce ( ! factor itself 9 orig9al nature4 ,= in/ance1 to /udy ! value ( high s*ool tra9+ we comp>e ^? 9 tra9+ ) ^? :o h nev] _h any2 if ! "q is ! value ( manual tra9+ or ,lat91 aga9 ! comp>ison is made betwe5 ^? :o h _h x & ^? :o hav5't4 ,to f9d out ! influ5ce ( squalor & mis]y1 p liv+ 9 ! slums are comp>$ ) ^? f a bett] di/rict4 ,9 ea* case ! fact is ignor$ t ! orig9al natures ( ! two gr\ps exam9$ are diff]5t be=e ! influ5ce ( ! elem5t 9 "q 0 br\ght to be>4 ,:y d "s *ildr5 g to high s*ool & o!rs n8 ,:y d "s *oose classical c\rses & "s manual tra9+ c\rses8 ,:y are "s p f\nd 9 ! slums = g5]ations8 ,! answ] 9 ea* case is ! same--! orig9al natures are diff]5t4 ,x isn't ! slums make ! p ne>ly s (t5 z x is ! p make ! slums4 ,x isn't tra9+ 9 ,lat9 t makes ! m capable man1 b ! m intellectual /ud5ts1 because ( tradition & possibly enjoym5t ( language /udy1 *oose ! ,lat94 ,x is unfair to measure a factor 9 ! environm5t & give x cr$it or discr$it = results1 :5 ^? results are also due to orig9al nature z well1 :i* has n be5 all[$ =4 ,x mu/ be recogniz$ by all ^? work+ 9 ?is field t1 aft] all1 man to "s ext5t selects 8 own environm5t4 ,9 ! second place1 x mu/ be rememb]$ t ! environm5t w influ5ce folks diff]5tly accord+ z _! natures are diff]5t4 ,!re c be no d\bt t environm5t is acc\ntable = "s individual diff]5ces1 b j :i* ones & to :at ext5t are que/ions to :i* at pres5t ! answ]s are unsatisfactory4 ,! inve/igations :i* h be5 c>ri$ on agree t environm5t is n s influ5tial a cause = individual diff]5ces 9 intellect z is ne> ance/ry4 ,"o r int]e/+ l9e ( evid5ce c be quot$ z an illu/ration4 ,if individual diff]5ces 9 a*ievem5t are due l>gely to lack ( tra9+ or to poor tra9+1 !n to give ! same am\nt & k9d ( tra9+ to all ! individuals 9 a gr\p %\ld r$uce ! diff]5ces4 ,if su* practice does n r$uce ! diff]5ces1 !n x is n reasonable to suppose t ! diff]5ces 7 caus$ 9 ! fir/ place by diff]5ces 9 tra9+4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 equaliz+ tra9+ increases ! diff]5ces4 ,! sup]ior man becomes m sup]ior1 ! inf]ior is left fur!r beh9d ?an ev]4 ,a common occurr5ce 9 s*ool adm9i/ration be>s out ?is conclusion rea*$ by exp]im5tal means4 ,! *ild :o skips a grade is ready at ! end ( ?ree ye>s to skip aga91 & ! *ild :o fails a grade is likely at ! end ( ?ree ye>s to fail aga94 ,?\gh environm5t seems ( little influ5ce z comp>$ ) ne> ance/ry 9 det]m9+ intellectual ability p] se1 yet x has consid]able influ5ce 9 det]m9+ ! l9e along :i* ?is ability is to manife/ itself4 ,! fact t betwe5 #ahdj-dd1 #i4d p] c5t ( ! college m5 w5t into tea*+ z a pr(ession & #cg4e p] c5t into ! m9i/ry1 :ile betwe5 #ahij-id1 #be4d p] c5t *ose ! =m] & only #ad p] c5t ! latt]1 c be acc\nt$ = only on ! basis ( environm5tal influ5ce ( "s k9d4#af ,ano!r fact conc]n+ ! influ5ce ( environm5t is t x is v mu* m effective 9 influ5c+ morality ?an intellect4 ,morality is ! outcome ( ! prop] direction ( capacities & t5d5cies possess$ by ! individual1 & !re=e is extremely susceptible to environm5tal influ5ces4 ,we are all famili> ) ! diff]5ces 9 moral /&>ds ( diff]5t social gr\ps4 ,"o boy may become a bully & ano!r consid]ate ( ! rights ( o!rs1 "o le>ns to /eal & ano!r to be hone/1 "o to lie & ano!r to be tru?ful1 because ( ! influ5ce ( _! environm5ts r ?an on acc\nt ( diff]5ces 9 _! orig9al natures4 ,we are beg9n+ to recognize ! importance ( environm5t 9 moral tra9+ 9 ! provisions made to protect *ildr5 f immoral influ5ces1 9 ! opportunities af=d$ = ! "r sort ( recreation1 & ev5 9 ! removal ( *ildr5 f ! cu/ody ( _! p>5ts :5 ! environm5t is extremely unfavorable4 ,?\gh *anges 9 me?od & ideals _c r$uce ! diff]5ces betwe5 individuals 9 ! intellectual field to any m>k$ ext5t1 su* *anges c raise ! level ( a*ievem5t ( ! :ole gr\p4 ,= in/ance1 m emphasis on sil5t read+ may make ! read+ ability ( a :ole s*ool #bj p] c5t bett]1 :ile leav+ ! di/ance betwe5 ! be/ & wor/ read] 9 ! s*ool ! same4 ,grant+ t h]$ity1 orig9al nature1 is ! prim>y cause ( individual diff]5ces 9 intellect 7aside f ^? sex diff]5ces m5tion$7 !re rema9s = environm5t1 education 9 all its =ms1 ! trem5d\s task (3 ,fir/1 provid+ conditions favorable = n]v\s heal? & gr[?2 second1 provid+ conditions :i* /imulate useful capacities & inhibit futile or h>mful capacities2 ?ird1 provid+ conditions :i* cont9ually raise ! absolute a*ievem5t ( ! gr\p & ( ! race2 f\r?1 provid+ conditions t w meet ! v>y+ orig9al equipm5ts2 fif?1 assum+ prim>y responsibility = developm5t along moral & social l9es4 ,conc]n+ ^? individual diff]5ces ( :i* h]$ity is ! controll+ cause1 two facts are wor?y ( note4 ,fir/1 t human nature is v highly specializ$ & t inh]itance may be 9 t]ms ( special abilities or capacities4 ,= in/ance1 arti/ic1 musical1 or l+ui/ic ability1 /atesman%ip1 p[] 9 ! field ( poetry1 may be h&$ d[n f "o g5]ation to ! next4 ,?is also means t two bro!rs may be extremely alike along "s l9es & extremely diff]5t along o!rs4 ,second1 t !re seems to be positive comb9ations betwe5 c]ta9 m5tal traits1 :]eby ! pres5ce ( "o insures ! pres5ce ( ! o!r to a great] degree ?an *ance w\ld expla94 ,= in/ance1 ! quick le>n] is sl[ 9 =gett+1 imag]y 9 "o field implies p[] to image 9 o!rs1 a high degree ( conc5tration goes ) sup]ior bread?1 effici5cy 9 arti/ic l9es is m (t5 correlat$ ) sup]iority 9 politics or g5]al%ip or sci5ce ?an ! rev]se1 ability to deal ) ab/ract data implies unusual p[] to deal ) ! concrete situation4 ,9 fact1 z f> z exact measures g1 negative correlations betwe5 capacities1 p[]s1 effici5cies1 are extremely r>e1 &1 :5 !y occur1 c be trac$ to ! influ5ce ( "s environm5tal factor4 ,individuals diff] f ea* o!r to a mu* great] degree ?an has be5 all[$ = 9 our public education4 ,! common s*ool sy/em is con/ruct$ on ! !ory t *ildr5 are closely simil> 9 _! abilities1 type ( m5tal make-up1 & capacities 9 any giv5 l9e4 ,exp]im5tation %[s ea* "o ( ^! presuppositions to be false4 ,s f> z g5]al ability goes1 *ildr5 v>y f ! g5ius to ! feeble-m9d$ ) all ! grades betwe51 ev5 9 ! same s*ool class4 ,?is gradation is a cont9u\s "o--!re are no breaks 9 ! human race4 ,*ildr5 _c be gr\p$ into ! v bright1 bright1 m$iocre1 poor1 v poor1 failures--ea* gr\p be+ di/9ct f any o!r4 ,! %ad+ f "o to ! o!r ( ^! classes is gradual1 !re is no %>p break4 ,n only is ?is true1 b a *ild may be consid]$ v bright along "o l9e & m$iocre along ano!r4 ,brilliancy or pov]ty 9 intellect does n act z a unit & apply to all lives equally4 ,! high specialization ( m5tal p[]s makes unev5ness 9 a*ievem5t ! common occurr5ce4 ,)9 any s*ool grade t has be5 te/$1 ev5 :5 ! grad+s are z close z ^? secur$ by t]m promotions1 x has be5 f\nd 9 any subject !re are *ildr5 :o d f two to five times z well z o!rs1 & f two to five times z mu* z o!rs4 ,( c\rse ?is great v>iation means an ov]lapp+ ( grades on ea* side4 ,9 ,dr4 ,bons]'s te/ ( #geg *ildr5 9 reason+ he f\nd t #ij p] c5t ( ! #f;,a pupils 7 bel[ ! be/ pupils ( #d;,a grade & t #d p] c5t ( #f;,a pupils 7 bel[ ! mid-pupils ( ! #d;,a1 & t ! be/ ( ! #d;,a pupils made a score ?ree times z high z ! wor/ pupils ( #f;,a4 ,n only is ?is trem5d\s diff]5ce 9 ability f\nd among *ildr5 ( ! same class1 b ! same diff]5ce exi/s 9 rate ( developm5t4 ,"s *ildr5 c cov] ! same gr\nd 9 "o half or "o ?ird ! "t z o!rs & d x bett]4 ,witness ! *ildr5 already quot$ :o1 skipp+ a grade1 7 ready at ! end ( ?ree ye>s to skip aga94 ,v>iability1 n uni=mity1 is :at *>act]izes ! abilities & rate ( intellectual gr[? ( *ildr5 9 ! s*ools1 & ^! diff]5ces1 z has already be5 po9t$ out1 are caus$ prim>ily by a diff]5ce 9 orig9al nature4 ,!re is also great diff]5ce betwe5 ! g5]al m5tal make-up ( *ildr5--a diff]5ce 9 type4 ,!re is ! *ild :o excels 9 deal+ ) ab/ract ideas4 ,he usually has p[] also 9 deal+ ) ! concrete1 b 8 *ief int]e/ is 9 ! ab/ract4 ,he is ! "o :o does spl5did "w 9 ma!matics1 =mal gramm>1 ! ab/ract phases ( ! sci5ces4 ,!n !re is ! *ild :o is a ?9k] too1 b 8 be/ "w is done :5 he is deal+ ) a concrete situation4 ,unusual or involv$ applications ( pr9ciples di/urb him4 ,s long z 8 "w is c\*$ 9 t]ms ( ! concrete1 he c succe$1 b if t is replac$ by ! x1 y1 z elem5ts1 he is prone to fail4 ,!re is ano!r type ( *ild--! "o :o has ! executive ability1 ! *ild ( action4 ,true1 he ?9ks1 too1 b 8 =te is 9 control ( p & ( ?+s4 ,he is ! "o :o manages ! a?letic team1 runs ! s*ool pap]1 takes *>ge ( ! elections1 & s on4 ,= pr9ciples to be grasp$ he mu/ be able to put !m into practice4 ,! f\r? type is ! feel+ type1 ! *ild :o excels 9 appreciative p[]4 ,z has be5 urg$ s _m times be=e1 ^! types h b\nd>ies t are hazy & ill def9$2 !y ov]lap 9 _m cases4 ,"s *ildr5 are ( a well-def9$ mix$ type1 & mo/ *ildr5 h some?+ ( ea* ( ! f\r abilities *>act]i/ic ( ! types4 ,/ill x is true t 9 look+ ov] a class ( *ildr5 ^! types em]ge1 n pure1 b controll$ by ! dom9ant *>act]i/ics m5tion$4 ,! same v>iation is f\nd among any gr\p ( *ildr5 if !y are te/$ along "o l9e1 su* z memory4 ,"s h desultory1 "s rote1 "s logical memories2 "s h imm$iate memories1 o!rs ! p]man5t type4 ,9 imag]y1 "s h pr9cipally productive imag9ation1 o!rs ! matt]-(-fact reproductive2 "s deal l>gely ) object images t are vivid & cle>-cut1 o!rs fail almo/ entirely ) ?is type1 b use ^w images ) great facility4 ,9 conduct1 "s are hesitat+ & unc]ta91 o!rs j ! rev]se2 "s v op5 to sugge/ions1 o!rs sc>cely t\*$ at all by x2 "s c act 9 accordance ) pr9ciple1 o!rs only 9 t]ms ( p>ticul> associations ) a def9ite situation4 ,s "o might run ! :ole gamut ( human traits1 & 9 ea* "o any gr\p ( individuals w v>y3 9 att5tion1 9 ?9k+1 9 ideals1 9 habits1 9 int]e/s1 9 s5se discrim9ation1 9 emotions1 & s on4 ,?is is "o ( ! greate/ contributions ( exp]im5tal psy*ology ( ! pa/ t5 ye>s1 ! trem5d\s diff]5ces betwe5 p along all l9es1 physical z well z m5tal4 ,x is lack ( recognition ( su* diff]5ces t makes possible su* a li/ ( hi/ories ( misfits z ,swift quotes 9 8 *apt] on ,/&>ds ( ,human ,p[] 9 ,m9d 9 ! ,mak+4 ,individual diff]5ces exi/1 education _c elim9ate !m1 !y are innate1 due to orig9al nature4 ,education t does n recognize !m & plan = !m is wa/eful &1 :at is worse1 is crim9al4 ,! range ( ability possess$ by *ildr5 ( ! same grade 9 ! subjects commonly taught seems n always to be cle> 9 ! m9ds ( tea*]s4 ,x w be discuss$ at great] l5g? 9 ano!r *apt]1 b x is important = ! consid]ation ( individual diff]5ces to pres5t "s data at ?is "t4 ,if we rate ! quality ( "w done 9 ,engli% composition f #aj to #ajj p] c5t1 be+ c>eful to evaluate z accurately z possible ! m]it ( ! composition writt51 we w f9d = a sev5? & an eigh? grade a condition indicat$ by ! foll[+ table3 ,,quality ,,( ,,composition ,,grades #g #h ---------------------------------------- -- ,no4 ( ,pupils ,rat$ at #aj #b #a ,rat$ at #bj #f #f ,rat$ at #cj #h #h ,rat$ at #dj #g #h ,rat$ at #ej #b #d ,rat$ at #fj #a #a ,rat$ at #gj #a #a ,rat$ at #hj #a #a ,rat$ at #ij #a #a ,! table reads z foll[s3 two pupils 9 ! sev5? grade & "o 9 ! eigh? wrote compositions rat$ at #aj2 six sev5?-grade & six eigh?-grade pupils wrote compositions rat$ at #bj1 & s on = ! :ole table4 ,a simil> condition ( affairs is indicat$ if we ask h[ _m ( a giv5 type ( addition problems are solv$ correctly 9 eight m9utes by a fif?- & a six?-grade class4 ,,numb] ,,( ,,grades ,,problems #e #f ---------------------------------------- ----- ,no4 ( ,pupils #j #b #c #a #f #f #b #f #f #c #f #f #d #d #e #e #d #e #f #c #d #g #a #b #h #a #a #i #a #a ,9 l mann]1 if we measure ! quality ( "w done 9 p5man%ip = a fif? & six? grade1 ) a sy/em ( scor+ t ranks ! p5man%ip 9 equal /eps f a quality :i*1 is rank$ f\r up to a quality :i* is rank$ eighte51 we f9d ! foll[+ results3 ,,quality ,,( ,,p5man%ip ,,grades #e #f ---------------------------------------- ------- ,no4 ( ,pupils ,rat$ at #d #e #f ,rat$ at #e #a #a ,rat$ at #f #j #j ,rat$ at #g #b #d ,rat$ at #h #aj #d ,rat$ at #i #ab #a ,rat$ at #aj #c #f ,rat$ at #aa #c #h ,rat$ at #ab #c #c ,rat$ at #ac #a #b ,rat$ at #ad #a #a ,rat$ at #ae #j #a ,rat$ at #af #a #a ,rat$ at #ag #j #j ,rat$ at #ah #j #j ,results simil> to ^? record$ above w be f\nd if any accurate measurem5t is made ( ! k possess$ by *ildr5 9 hi/ory or 9 geography1 or ( ! ability to apply or d]ive pr9ciples 9 physics or 9 *emi/ry1 or ( ! k ( vocabul>y 9 ,lat9 or 9 ,g]man1 & ! l4 ,all su* facts indicate cle>ly ! necessity = diff]5tiat+ our "w = ! gr\p ( *ildr5 :o are classifi$ z belong+ to "o grade4 ,"u ! old] & simpl] =m ( s*ool organization1 ! "o-room rural s*ool1 x 0 n uncommon = *ildr5 to recite 9 "o class 9 ari?metic1 9 ano!r 9 geography or hi/ory1 & 9 possibly /ill ano!r 9 ,engli%4 ,9 our m highly organiz$ s*ool sy/ems1 ) ! attempt to h *ildr5 pass regul>ly f grade to grade at ea* promotion p]iod1 we h 9 "s measure provid$ = individual diff]5ces ?r\gh all[+ *ildr5 to skip a grade1 or n infrequ5tly by hav+ !m repeat ! "w ( a grade4 ,9 /ill o!r cases an attempt has be5 made to adapt ! "w ( ! class to ! ne$s & capacities ( ! *ildr5 by divid+ any class gr\p into two or m gr\ps1 especially 9 ^? subjects 9 :i* *ildr5 seem to h greate/ difficulty4 ,tea*]s :o are alive to ! problem pres5t$ h /riv5 to adju/ _! "w to diff]5t memb]s ( ! class by v>y+ ! assignm5ts1 & 9 "s cases by excus+ f ! ex]cises 9 :i* !y are already pr(ici5t ! abl] pupils4 ,:atev] adju/m5t ! s*ool may be able to make 9 t]ms ( provid+ special classes = ^? :o are m5tally or physically defici5t1 or = ^? :o are especially capable1 !re w always be f\nd 9 any giv5 gr\p a wide v>iation 9 a*ievem5t & 9 capacity4 ,gr\p tea*+ & individual in/ruction w always be requir$ ( tea*]s :o w\ld adapt _! "w to ! v>y+ capacities ( *ildr54 ,a p]iod devot$ to sup]vis$ /udy dur+ :i* ^? *ildr5 :o are less able may receive special help1 & ^? :o are ( exceptional ability be expect$ to make unusual prep>ation bo? 9 ext5t & 9 quality ( "w done1 may contribute mu* to ! effici5cy ( ! s*ool4 ,z p>adoxical z ! /atem5t may seem1 x is true t ! mo/ ret>d$ *ildr5 9 our s*ool sy/ems are ! brighte/4 ,express$ 9 ano!r way1 x c be prov$ t ! m capable *ildr5 h already a*iev$ 9 ! subjects 9 :i* !y are taught m ?an ^? :o are t[ or ?ree grades f>!r advanc$4 ,possibly ! greate/ contribution :i* tea*]s c make to ! developm5t ( effici5cy ^u ! "p ( ! *ildr5 ) :om !y "w is to be f\nd 9 special att5tion :i* is giv5 to capable *ildr5 ) respect to bo? ! quantity & quality ( "w dem&$ ( !m1 toge!r ) provision = hav+ !m segregat$ 9 special classes or pass$ ?r\gh ! s*ool sy/em ) great] rapidity ?an is n[ common4 ,9 an elem5t>y s*ool ) :i* ! writ] is acqua9t$1 & 9 :i* !re 7 f\r fif? grades1 x 0 discov]$ dur+ ! pa/ ye> t 9 "o ( ^! fif? grades 9 :i* ! bright] *ildr5 _h be5 put !y _h a*iev$ m 9 t]ms ( ability to solve problems 9 ari?metic1 9 _! k ( hi/ory & geography1 9 ! quality ( ,engli% composition !y wrote1 & ! l1 ?an did ! *ildr5 9 any "o ( ! six? grades4 ,9 ?is s*ool ?is p>ticul> fif? grade 0 promot$ to ! sev5? grade = ! foll[+ ye>4 ,_m su* examples c\ld be f\nd 9 s*ools organiz$ ) m ?an "o grade at "w on ! same "p ( ! s*ool c\rse1 if c>e 7 tak5 to segregate *ildr5 9 t]ms ( _! capacity4 ,& ev5 :]e !re is only "o tea*] p] grade1 or :]e "o tea*] tea*es two or ?ree grades1 x %\ld be f\nd possible con/antly to accel]ate ! progress ( *ildr5 ( m ?an ord9>y ability4 ,! movem5t ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates = ! organization ( junior high s*ools 7^! s*ools commonly include ! sev5?1 eigh?1 & n9? s*ool ye>s7 is to be look$ ^u prim>ily z an attempt to adju/ ! "w ( our s*ools to ! individual capacities ( boys & girls & to _! v>y+ vocational outlook4 ,su* a s*ool1 if x is to meet ?is dem& = adju/m5t to individual diff]5ces1 mu/ (f] a v>iety ( c\rses4 ,among ! c\rses (f]$ 9 a typical junior high s*ool is "o :i* leads directly to ! high s*ool4 ,9 ?is c\rse provision is made = ! beg9n+ ( a =eign language1 ( algebra1 &1 9 "s cases1 ( "s o!r high s*ool subject dur+ ! sev5? & eigh? ye>s4 ,9 ano!r c\rse emphasis is plac$ ^u "w 9 indu/rial or h\sehold arts 9 ! expectation t "w 9 ^! fields may lead to a high] degree ( effici5cy 9 lat] vocational tra9+1 & possibly to ! ret5tion ( *ildr5 dur+ ?is p]iod :o might o!rwise see little or no mean+ 9 ! traditional s*ool c\rse4 ,! be/ junior high s*ools are (f]+ 9 ! indu/rial c\rse a v>iety ( %op "w4 ,9 "s cases ma*9e %op practice1 %eet metal work+1 woodwork+1 =g+1 pr9t+1 pa9t+1 electrical wir+1 & ! l are (f]$ = boys2 & cook+1 sew+1 includ+ dressmak+ & design+1 mill9]y1 draw+1 ) emphasis ^u design & int]ior decoration1 music1 ma*9e op]at+1 pa/+1 & ! l are provid$ = girls4 ,ano!r type ( c\rse has provid$ = tra9+ :i* looks t[>d comm]cial "w1 ev5 ?\gh x is recogniz$ t ! mo/ adequate comm]cial tra9+ may require a long] p]iod ( prep>ation4 ,9 "s s*ools special "w 9 agriculture is (f]$4 ,our s*ools _c be consid]$ z satisfactorily organiz$ until we make provision = e boy or girl to "w up to ! maximum ( 8 capacity4 ,! "o ?+ t a tea*] _c d is to make all ( 8 pupils equal 9 a*ievem5t4 ,:atev] adju/m5t may h be5 made 9 t]ms ( special classes or segregation 9 t]ms ( ability1 ! tea*] mu/ always face ! problem ( v>y+ ! assignm5t to meet ! capacities ( individual *ildr51 & %e ought1 :]ev] x is possible1 especially to enc\rage ! abl] *ildr5 to d "w comm5surate ) _! ability1 & to provide1 z f> z is possible1 = ! rapid advancem5t ( ^! *ildr5 ?r\gh ! v>i\s /ages ( ! s*ool sy/em4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,:at are ! pr9cipal causes ( diff]5ces 9 abilities or 9 a*ievem5t among s*ool *ildr58 #b4 ,:at1 if any1 ( ! diff]5ces notic$ among *ildr5 may be attribut$ to sex8 #c4 ,are any ( ! sex diff]5ces noticeable 9 ! a*ievem5ts ( ! s*ool *ildr5 ) :om y are acqua9t$8 #d4 ,to :at ext5t is maturity a cause ( individual diff]5ces8 #e4 ,:at evid5ce is available to %[ ! fallacy ( ! common idea t *ildr5 ( ! same age are equal 9 ability8 #f4 ,h[ important is h]$ity 9 det]m9+ ! a*ievem5t ( m5 & wom58 #g4 ,to :at ext5t1 if any1 w\ld y be int]e/$ 9 ! imm$iate h]$ity ( ! *ildr5 9 y\r class8 ,:y8 #h4 ,to :at ext5t is ! environm5t 9 :i* *ildr5 live responsible = _! a*ievem5ts 9 s*ool /udies8 #i4 ,:at may be expect$ 9 ! way ( a*ievem5t f two *ildr5 ( widely diff]5t h]$ity b ( equal tra9+8 #aj4 ,= :at factor 9 education is ! environm5t mo/ responsible8 ,:y8 #aa4 ,if y grant t orig9al nature is ! prim>y cause ( individual diff]5ces 9 intellectual a*ievem5ts1 h[ w\ld y def9e ! "w ( ! s*ool8 #ab4 ,:y are y n ju/ifi$ 9 gr\p+ *ildr5 z bright1 ord9>y1 & /upid8 #ac4 ,w a boy :o has unusual ability 9 music c]ta9ly be sup]ior 9 all o!r subjects8 #ad4 ,:y are *ildr5 :o skip a grade apt to be able to skip aga9 at ! end ( two or ?ree ye>s8 #ae4 ,are y able to di/+ui% diff]5ces 9 type ( m9d 7or g5]al m5tal make-up7 among ! *ildr5 9 y\r classes8 ,give illu/rations4 #af4 ,:at *anges 9 s*ool organization w\ld y advocate = ! sake ( adju/+ ! tea*+ done to ! v>y+ capacities ( *ildr58 #ag4 ,h[ %\ld a tea*] adju/ 8 "w to ! individual diff]5ces 9 capacity or 9 a*ievem5t repres5t$ by ! usual class gr\p8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,xi4 ,,! ,,developm5t ,,( ,,moral ,,social ,,conduct ,morality has be5 def9$ 9 _m ways4 ,x has be5 call$ a regulation & control ( imm$iate prompt+s ( impulses 9 con=mity ) "s prescrib$ conduct2 z ! organization ( activity ) ref]5ce to a sy/em ( fundam5tal values4 ,dewey says1 ,int]e/ 9 community welf>e1 an int]e/ t is intellectual & practical1 z well z emotional--an int]e/1 t is to say1 9 p]ceiv+ :atev] makes = social ord] & progress1 & 9 c>ry+ ^! pr9ciples into execution--is ! moral habit4#ag ,palm] def9es x z ! *oice by ! individual ( habits ( conduct t are = ! good ( ! race4 ,all ^! def9itions po9t to control on ! "p ( ! individual z "o ess5tial ( morality4 ,morality is n1 !n1 a matt] prim>ily ( m]e conduct4 ,x involves conduct1 b ! ess5ce ( morality lies deep] ?an ! act itself2 motive1 *oice1 are involv$ z well4 ,m]e law-abid+ is n morality 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! ^w4 ,"o may keep ! laws m]ely z a matt] ( bl9d habit4 ,a prison] 9 jail keeps ! laws4 ,a baby ( f\r keeps ! laws1 b 9 nei!r case c\ld su* conduct be call$ moral4 ,9 nei!r ( ^! cases d we f9d control by ! individual ( impulses1 nor consci\s *oice ( conduct4 ,9 ! =m] compulsion 0 ! controll+ =ce1 & 9 ! second bl9d habit bas$ on p]sonal satisfaction4 ,conduct :i* outw>dly con=ms to social law & social progress is unmoral r ?an moral4 ,a mom5t's consid]ation w suffice to conv9ce any "o t ! major "p ( conduct is ( ?is non-moral type4 ,?is is true ( adults & necess>ily true ( *ildr54 ,z ,hall says1 mo/ ( ! suppos$ly moral conduct ( ! majority ( m5 is bl9d habit1 n ?\ghtful *oos+4 ,9 s f> z we are rul$ by cu/om1 by tradition1 9 s f> z we d z ! books or ! prea*] says1 or d z we see o!rs d1 )\t pr9ciples to guide u1 )\t ?9k+1 to t ext5t ! conduct is likely to be non-moral4 ,?is is ! *>act]i/ic reaction ( ! majority ( p4 ,we believe z our fa!rs believ$1 we vote ! same ticket1 hold 9 horror ! same practices1 look askance on ! same doctr9es1 cl+ to ! same traditions4 ,morality1 on ! o!r h&1 is rationaliz$ conduct4 ,n[ ?is non-moral conduct is valuable s f> z x goes4 ,x is a cons]vative =ce1 mak+ = /ability1 b x has its dang]s4 ,x is antagoni/ic to progress4 ,s long z ! conditions surr\nd+ ! non-moral individual rema9 un*ang$1 he w be successful 9 deal+ ) !m1 b if conditions *ange1 if he is confront$ by a new situation1 if /rong temptation comes1 he has no?+ ) :i* to meet x1 = 8 conduct 0 bl9d4 ,x is ! p]son ^: conduct is non-moral t suff]s collapse on ! "o h&1 or becomes a bigot on ! o!r1 :5 criticism attacks :at he held z true or "r4 ,morality requires t m5 h a reason = ! fai? t is 9 !m4 ,9 ! second place1 morality is conduct4 ,ideals1 ideas1 wi%es1 desires1 all may lead to morality1 b 9 s f> z !y are n express$ 9 conduct1 to t ext5t !y d n come "u ! head ( morality4 ,"o may express ! sublime/ idea1 may claim ! highe/ ideals1 & be immoral4 ,conduct is ! only te/ ( morality1 j z x is ! ultimate te/ ( "*4 ,n only is morality judg$ 9 t]ms ( conduct1 b x is judg$ accord+ z ! conduct is consi/5t4 ,habits ( conduct make = morality or immorality4 ,x is n ! isolat$ act ( h]oism t makes a man moral1 or ! s+le unsocial act t makes a man immoral4 ,! p>ticul> act may be moral or immoral1 & ! p]son be j ! rev]se4 ,x is ! organization ( activity1 x is ! habits a man has t places him 9 "o category or ! o!r4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 morality is a matt] ( individual responsibility4 ,x is *oice by ! individual1 ! p]ceiv+ :atev] makes = social ord] & progress4 ,no "o c *oose = ano!r1 no "o c p]ceive = ano!r4 ,! burd5 ( *oos+ = ! good ( ! gr\p re/s on ! individual1 x _c be %ift$ to society or ! ,*ur*1 or any o!r in/itution4 ,ea* individual is moral or n accord+ z he lives up to ! light t he has1 accord+ z he c>ries into execution pr9ciples t are = ! good ( 8 race4 ,a p>ticul> act1 !n1 may be moral = "o individual & immoral = ano!r1 & non-moral = /ill ano!r4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 morality is a matt] ( individual responsibility4 ,x is *oice be ! individual1 ! p]ceiv+ :atev] makes = social ord] & progress4 ,no "o c *oose = ano!r1 no "o c p]ceive = ano!r4 ,! burd5 ( ,*oos+ = ! good ( ! gr\p re/s on ! individual1 x _c be %ift$ to society or ! ,*ur*1 or any o!r in/itution4 ,ea* individual is moral or n accord+ z he lives up to ! light t he has1 accord+ z he c>ries into execution pr9ciples t are = ! good ( 8 race4 ,a p>ticul> act1 !n1 may be moral = "o individual & immoral = ano!r1 & non-moral = /ill ano!r4 ,to g (f into ! =e/ to die if "o is diseas$ may be a moral act = a savage 9 c5tral ,africa2 b = a civiliz$ man to d s w\ld probably be immoral because ( 8 great] k4 ,to give liquor to babies to quiet !m may be a non-moral act on ! "p ( ignorant immigrants f ,russia2 b = a tra9$ physician to d s w\ld be immoral4 ,morality1 !n1 is a p]sonal matt]1 & ! responsibility = x re/s on ! individual4 ,( c\rse ?is makes possible ! sett+ up ( individual op9ion z to :at is = ! good ( ! gr\p 9 opposition to tradition & cu/om4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 dang]\s if x is m]e op9ion or if x is c>ri$ to an extreme4 ,few m5 h ! gift ( see+ :at makes = social well-be+ beyond t ( ! society ( ?\ghtful p ( _! "t4 ,& yet if a man has ! insight1 if 8 inve/igations po9t to a great] good = ! gr\p f do+ some?+ :i* is diff]5t f ! /&>ds held by 8 pe]s1 !n morality requires t he d 8 utmo/ to br+ ab\t su* *anges4 ,if x is borne 9 m9d t e man is ! product ( 8 age & t x is evolution1 n revolution1 t is con/ructive1 ?is ess5tial ( true morality w n seem s dang]\s4 ,all ! re=m]s ! _w has ev] se51 all ! pione]s 9 social s]vice1 h be5 m5 :o1 liv+ up to _! individual responsibility1 h act$ z !y believ$ = society's be/ good 9 ways t 7 n 9 accord ) ! beliefs ( ! majority ( _! "t4 ,%irk+ responsibility1 n liv+ up to :at "o believes is "r1 is immoral j z truly z /eal+ f "o's neighbor4 ,! f\r? ess5tial 9 moral conduct is t x be = ! social good4 ,x is ! gov]n+ ( impulses1 ! inhibition ( desires t violate ! good ( ! gr\p1 & ! *oice ( conduct t =w>ds its int]e/s4 ,?is does n mean t ! gr\p & ! individual are set ov] aga9/ ea* o!r1 & ! individual mu/ give way4 ,x means1 r1 t c]ta9 impulses1 t5d5cies1 motives1 ( ! individual are *os5 in/ead ( o!rs2 x means t ! individual only becomes 8 fulle/ self z he becomes a social be+2 x means t :at is = ! good ( ! gr\p 9 ! long run is = ! good ( ! units t make up t gr\p4 ,morality1 !n1 is a relative t]m4 ,:at is ( highe/ moral value 9 "o age may be immoral 9 ano!r because ( *ange 9 social conditions4 ,z society progresses1 z diff]5t elem5ts come to ! front because ( ! m>* ( civilization1 s ! acts t are detrim5tal to ! good ( ! :ole mu/ *ange4 ,to-day sl&] & /eal+ a man's good "n are q z immoral z /eal+ 8 prop]ty4 ,acts t injure ! m5tal & spiritual developm5t ( ! gr\p are ev5 m immoral ?an ^? :i* int]f]e ) ! physical well-be+4 ,a /rong w is n necess>ily indicative ( a good "*4 ,a /rong w may be direct$ t[>ds gett+ :at gives pleasure to oneself1 irrespective ( ! effect on o!r p4 ,x is ! goal1 ! purpose ) :i* x is ex]cis$1 t makes a man ) a /rong w a moral man or an immoral man4 ,only :5 "o's w is us$ to put into execution ^? pr9ciples t w br+ ab\t social progress is x productive ( a good "*4 ,?us x is se5 t morality c be discuss$ only 9 connection ) gr\p activity4 ,x is ! individual z a "p ( a gr\p1 act+ 9 connection ) x1 t makes ! situation a moral "o4 ,individual morality is discuss$ by "s au?ors1 b common op9ion limits ! t]m to ! use t has be5 discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraphs4 ,if social well-be+ is tak5 9 its broade/ s5se1 !n all moral behavior is social1 & all social behavior comes "u "o ( ! ?ree types ( morality4 ,tra9+ = citiz5%ip1 = social effici5cy1 = e>n+ a livelihood1 all h a moral aspect4 ,x is only z ! individual is tra9$ to live a complete life z "o ( a gr\p t he c be tra9$ to be fully moral1 & tra9+ = complete social liv+ mu/ include tra9+ 9 morality4 ,h5ce = ! rema9d] ( ?is discussion ! two t]ms w be consid]$ z synonym\s4 ,we he> x sometimes said1 tra9+ 9 morals & mann]s1 z if ! two 7 di/9ct1 & yet a full1 realization ( :at is = social bett]m5t along emotional & intellectual l9es mu/ include a realization ( ! ne$ ( mann]s4 ,( c\rse !re are degrees ( morality or immorality accord+ z ! act influ5ces society mu* or little--all crimes are n equally odi\s1 nor all virtues equally comm5dable1 b any act t t\*es ! well-be+ ( ! gr\p mu/ come "u ?is category4 ,f ! =ego+ p>agraph1 ! logical conclusion w\ld be t !re is no in/9ct or inborn t5d5cy t is prim>ily & di/9ctly moral z ov] aga9/ ^? t are social4 ,t is ! commonly accept$ belief to-day4 ,!re is no moral in/9ct4 ,morality f9ds its root 9 ! orig9al nature ( man1 b n 9 a s+le moral in/9ct4 ,x is1 on ! o!r h&1 ! outgr[? ( a numb] ( in/9cts all ( :i* h be5 li/$ "u ! head ( ! social in/9ct4 ,man has 9 8 orig9al equipm5t t5d5cies t w make him a moral individual if !y are develop$1 b !y are complex1 n simple4 ,"s ( ^! social t5d5cies :i* are at ! root ( moral conduct are greg>i\sness1 desire = approval1 dislike ( scorn1 k9dl9ess1 att5tion to human be+s1 imitation1 & o!rs4 ,n[1 al?\gh man possesses ^! t5d5cies z a matt] ( orig9al equipm5t1 he also possesses t5d5cies :i* are oppos$ to ^!1 t5d5cies :i* lead to ! advancem5t ( self1 r ?an ! well-be+ ( ! gr\p4 ,"s ( ^! are fight+1 ma/]y1 rivalry1 jeal\sy1 own]%ip4 ,:i* ( ^! sets ( t5d5cies is develop$ & controls ! life ( ! individual is a matt] ( tra9+ & environm5t4 ,9 ! la/ *apt] x 0 po9t$ out t morality 0 mu* m susceptible to environm5tal influ5ces ?an intellectual a*ievem5t1 because x 0 mu* m a direction & guidance ( capacities & t5d5cies possess$ by e "o4 ,"o's "* is l>gely a product ( "o's environm5t4 ,9 pro( ( ?is1 read ! reports ( re=m s*ools1 & ! l4 ,*ildr5 ( crim9al p>5ts1 remov$ f ! environm5t ( crime1 gr[ up into moral p]sons4 ,! pair ( ,jukes :o left ! ,juke clan lo/ _! crim9al habits & br\ght up a family ( *ildr5 :o 7 n immoral4 ,education _c produce g5iuses1 b x c produce m5 & wom5 ^: *ief conc]n is ! well-be+ ( ! gr\p4 ,f a psy*ological po9t ( view ! *oice by ! individual ( habits ( conduct t are = ! good ( ! gr\p involves ?ree consid]ations3 ,fir/1 ! elem5ts impli$ 9 su* conduct2 second1 ! /ages ( developm5t2 ?ird1 ! laws gov]n+ ?is developm5t4 ,fir/1 moral conduct involves ! use ( habits1 b ^! mu/ be rational habits1 s x involves ! p[] to ?9k & judge 9 ord] to *oose4 ,b ?9k+ t %all result 9 ! *oice ( habits t are = ! well-be+ ( ! gr\p mu/ use k4 ,! individual mu/ h facts & /&>ds at 8 disposal by means ( :i* he may evaluate ! possible l9es ( action pres5t$4 ,fur!r1 an individual may "k intellectually :at is "r & moral & yet n c>e4 ,! int]e/1 ! emotional appeal1 may be lack+1 h5ce he mu/ h ideals to :i* he has giv5 8 allegiance1 :i* w =ce him to put into practice :at 8 k tells him is "r4 ,& !n1 hav+ decid$ :at is = ! social good & hav+ ! desire to c>ry x out1 ! moral man mu/ be able to put x into execution4 ,he mu/ h ! w p[]4 ,morality1 !n1 is an extremely complex matt]1 involv+ all ! p[]s ( ! human be+1 intellectual1 emotional1 & volitional--involv+ ! cop]ation ( h]$ity & environm5t4 ,x is evid5t t conduct t is at s high a level1 involv+ exp]i5ce1 p[]s ( judgm5t1 & control1 _c be *>act]i/ic ( ! immature individual1 b mu/ come aft] ye>s ( gr[?1 if at all4 ,!re=e we f9d /ages ( developm5t t[>ds moral conduct4 ,! fir/ /age ( developm5t1 :i* la/s up into ! pre-adolesc5t ye>s1 is ! non-moral /age4 ,! "t :5 a *ild may con=m outw>dly to moral law1 b only z a result ( bl9d habit--n z a result ( rational *oice4 ,x is !n t ! little *ild con=ms to 8 environm5t1 reflect+ ! *>act]s ( ! p by :om he is surr\nd$4 ,"r to him means :at ^? ab\t him approve & :at br+s him satisfaction4 ,if /eal+ & ly+ meet ) approval f ! p ab\t him1 !y are "r to him4 ,to /eal & be caught is wrong to ! av]age *ild ( ! /reets1 because t br+s puni%m5t & annoyance4 ,he has no /&>ds ( judg+ o!r ?an ! example ( o!rs & 8 own satisfaction & annoyance4 ,! non-moral p]iod1 !n1 is *>act]iz$ by ! =mation ( habits--:i* outw>dly con=m to moral law1 or are contr>y to x1 accord+ z 8 environm5t directs4 ,! ne$ to =m habits t d con=m1 t are = ! social good1 is evid5t4 ,by hav+ _m habits ( ?is k9d =m$ 9 e>ly *ildhood1 tru?fulness1 consid]ation = o!rs1 respect = pov]ty1 promptness1 regul>ity1 tak+ responsibility1 & s on1 ! dice are weight$ 9 favor ( ! cont9uation ( su* conduct :5 reason controls4 ,! *ild has !n only to enl>ge 8 view1 build up 8 pr9ciples 9 accord ) conduct already 9 op]ation--he ne$s only to rationalize :at he already possesses4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if dur+ e>ly ye>s 8 conduct violates moral law1 he is 9 ! grip ( habits ( great /r5g? :i* w result 9 two dang]s4 ,he may be bl9d to ! o!r side1 he may n realize h[ 8 conduct violates ! laws ( social progress2 or1 kn[+1 he may n c>e en\gh to put =? ! trem5d\s ef=t necess>y to break ^! habits & build up ! opposite4 ,f ! /&po9t ( conduct ?is non-moral p]iod is ! mo/ important "o 9 ! life ( ! *ild4 ,9 x ! twig is b5t4 ,to urge t a *ild _c und]/& & !re=e %\ld be excus$ = all sorts ( conduct simply evades ! issue4 ,he is =m+ habits--t _c be prev5t$2 ! "q is1 ,are ^? habits 9 l9e ) ! dem&s ( social effici5cy or are !y 9 violation ( x8 ,b "* dep5ds prim>ily on delib]ate *oice4 ,we d>e n rely on bl9d habit alone to c>ry u ?r\gh ! crises ( social & spiritual adju/m5t4 ,!re w arise ! insi/5t "q z to :e!r ! habitual presupposition is "r4 ,occasions w occur :5 sev]al possible l9es ( conduct sugge/ !mselves2 :at k9d ( success w "o *oose1 :at k9d ( pleasure8 ,*oice1 p]sonal *oice1 w be =c$ ^u ! individual4 ,?is problem does n usually gr[ acute until e>ly adolesc5ce1 al?\gh x may along "s l9es pres5t itself e>li]4 ,:5 x appe>s w dep5d to a l>ge ext5t on ! environm5t4 ,= "s p 9 "s directions x nev] comes4 ,x %\ld come gradually & spontane\sly4 ,?is p]iod is ! p]iod ( transition1 :5 old habits are be+ scrut9iz$1 :5 /&>ds are be+ =mulat$ & p]sonal responsibility is be+ realiz$1 :5 ideals are made vital & controll+4 ,x may be a p]iod ( /orm & /ress :5 ! y\? is 9 emotional unre/2 :5 conduct is erratic & n to be dep5d$ on2 :5 !re is reaction aga9/ au?ority ( all k9ds4 ,^! *>act]i/ics are un=tunate & are usually ! result ( unwise treatm5t dur+ ! fir/ p]iod4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! p]iod ( transition is prep>$ = dur+ ! preadolesc5t ye>s by giv+ k1 opportunities = self-direction & *oice1 ! *ange %\ld come normally & quietly4 ,! transition p]iod %\ld be *>act]iz$ by emphasis ^u p]sonal responsibility = conduct1 by ! developm5t ( social ideals1 & by ! cem5t+ ( !ory & practice4 ,?is p]iod is an ev] recurr+ "o4 ,! transition p]iod is foll[$ by ! p]iod ( true morality dur+ :i* ! conduct *os5 becomes habit4 ,! habits *>act]i/ic ( ?is f9al p]iod are diff]5t f ! habits ( ! non-moral p]iod1 9 t !y h _! s\rce 9 reason1 :]eas ^? ( ! e>ly p]iod grew out ( in/9cts4 ,?is is ! p]iod ( mo/ value1 ! p]iod ( /eady liv+ 9 accordance ) /&>ds & ideals :i* h be5 te/$ by reason & f\nd to be "r4 ,! transition p]iod is wa/eful & unc]ta94 ,true morality is ! opposite4 ,b s long z gr[? 9 moral matt]s goes on !re is a cont9u\s *ange f transition p]iod to truly moral conduct & back aga9 to a fre% transition p]iod & aga9 a *ange to morality ( a /ill high] ord]4 ,ea* rationaliz$ habit b paves ! way = "o /ill high]4 ,morality1 !n1 %\ld be a cont9ual evolution f level to level4 ,only s is progress 9 ! individual life ma9ta9$4 ,morality1 !n1 requires ! inhibition ( "s in/9cts & ! p]petuation ( o!rs1 ! =mation ( habits & ideals1 ! developm5t ( ! p[] to ?9k & judge1 ! p[] to react to c]ta9 ab/ractions su* z ought1 "r1 duty1 & s on1 ! p[] to c>ry into execution values accept$4 ,! g5]al laws ( in/9ct1 ( habit1 ! response by piecemeal association1 ! laws ( att5tion & appreciation1 are active 9 secur+ ^! responses t we call moral1 j z !y are op]ative 9 secur+ o!r responses t d n come "u ?is category4 ,x is only z ^! g5]al psy*ological laws are c>ri$ out suffici5tly t /able moral conduct is secur$4 ,any violation ( ^! laws invalidates ! result 9 ! moral field j z x w\ld 9 any o!r4 ,!re is n "o set ( pr9ciples gov]n+ moral conduct & ano!r set gov]n+ all o!r types ( conduct4 ,! same g5]al laws gov]n bo?4 ,?is be+ true1 !re is no ne$ ( discuss+ 9 detail ! op]ation ( laws controll+ moral conduct--t has all be5 cov]$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]s4 ,h[ev]1 !re are "s sugge/ions :i* %\ld be borne 9 m9d 9 ! application ( ^! laws to ?is field4 ,fir/1 x is a g5]al pr9ciple t habits1 to be fix$ & /able1 mu/ be foll[$ by satisfactory results & t work+ along ! opposite l9e1 t ( hav+ annoyance foll[ a lapse 9 ! conduct1 is uneconomical & unreliable4 ,?is pr9ciple applies p>ticul>ly to moral habits4 ,tru? tell+1 brav]y1 ob$i5ce1 g5]osity1 ?\ght = o!rs1 *ur* go+1 & s on mu/ be foll[$ by positive satisfaction1 if !y are to be "p ( ! w>p & wo( ( life4 ,puni%+ falsehood1 selfi%ness1 c[>dice1 & s on is n en\gh1 = fre$om f sup]vision w usually mean rejection ( su* =c$ habits4 ,a *ild mu/ f9d t x pays to be g5]\s2 t he is happi] :5 he cop]ates ) o!rs ?an :5 he does n4 ,positive satisfaction %\ld foll[ moral conduct4 ,( c\rse ?is satisfaction mu/ v>y 9 type ) ! age & developm5t ( ! *ild1 f physical pleasure occasion$ by an apple z a rew>d = self-control at table to ! satisfaction :i* ! consci\sness ( duty well done br+s to ! adolesc5t4 ,second1 ! "p play$ by sugge/ion 9 br++ ab\t moral habits & ideals mu/ be recogniz$4 ,! human p]sonalities surr\nd+ ! *ild are 8 mo/ influ5tial tea*]s 9 ?is l9e4 ,?is influ5ce ( p]sonalities beg9s :5 ! *ild is yet a baby4 ,reflex imitation fir/1 & lat] consci\s imitation plus ! feel+ ( dep5d5ce :i* a little *ild has = ! adults 9 8 environm5t1 results 9 ! *ild reflect+ to a l>ge ext5t ! *>act]s ( ^? ab\t him4 ,good temp]1 /ability1 c>e = o!rs1 self-control1 & _m o!r habits2 respect = tru?1 = ! op9ion ( o!rs1 & _m o!r ideals1 are unconsci\sly absorb$ by ! *ild 9 8 e>ly ye>s4 ,example n precept1 actions n words1 are ! controll+ =ces 9 moral education4 ,h5ce ! great importance ( ! *>act]s ( a *ild's companions1 fri5ds1 & tea*]s1 to say no?+ ( 8 p>5ts4 ,next to p]sonalities1 !at]s1 mov+ pictures1 & books1 all h great sugge/ive p[]4 ,?ird1 !re is always a dang] t !ory become divorc$ f practice1 & ?is is p>ticul>ly true "h because morality is conduct4 ,kn[+ :at is "r is "o ?+1 do+ x is ano!r1 & kn[+ does n result 9 do+ unless def9ite connections are made betwe5 ! two4 ,in/ruction 9 morals may h b little effect on conduct4 ,x is only z ! k ( :at is "r & good comes 9 connection ) social situations :5 !re is ! call = action t true morality c be ga9$4 ,m]e classroom in/ruction _c insure conduct4 ,x is only z ! family & ! s*ool become m truly social in/itutions1 :]e gr\p activity su* z "o f9ds 9 life is ! dom9ant note1 t we c hope to h morality & n e?ics1 ideals & n passive appreciation1 z a result ( our tea*+4 ,f\r?1 x is )\t "q true t 9 s f> z ! habits fix$ are s*ool habits or ,sunday habits1 or any o!r special type ( habits1 =m$ only 9 connection ) special situations1 to t ext5t we h no reason to expect moral conduct 9 ! broad] life situations4 ,! habits =m$ are ^? t w be put into practice1 & !y are ! only ones we are sure (4 ,because a *ild is tru?ful 9 s*ool1 prompt 9 att5dance1 polite to 8 tea*]1 & s on is no w>rant t he w be ! same on ! playgr\nd or on ! /reet4 ,because a *ild c ?9k out a problem 9 hi/ory or ma!matics is no w>rant t he w !re=e ?9k out moral problems4 ,! only sure way is to see to x t he =ms _m useful habits out ( s*ool z well z 91 t he has opportunity to ?9k out moral problems z well z problems 9 s*ool subjects4#ah ,fif?1 individual diff]5ces mu/ n be =gott5 9 moral tra9+4 ,individual diff]5ces 9 sugge/ibility w influ5ce ! use ( ?is factor 9 habit =mation4 ,individual diff]5ces 9 p[] ( appreciation w influ5ce ! =mation ( ideals4 ,diff]5ces 9 int]e/ 9 books w result 9 diff]+ degrees ( k4 ,diff]5ces 9 maturity w mean t c]ta9 *ildr5 9 a class are ready = facts conc]n+ sex1 labor & capital1 crime1 & s on1 long be=e o!r *ildr5 9 ! same class %\ld h su* k4 ,diff]5ces 9 ?9k+ p[] w det]m9e effici5cy 9 moral situations j z 9 o!rs4 ,! m c>efully we consid] ! problem ( moral social conduct1 ! m app>5t x becomes t ! "w ( ! s*ool c be modifi$ s z to produce m significant results ?an are commonly n[ secur$4 ,inde$1 x may be cont5d$ t 9 "s respects ! activities ( ! s*ool op]ate to develop an attitude :i* is l>gely individuali/ic1 competitive1 &1 if n anti-social1 at lea/ non-social4 ,al?\gh we may n expect t ! habits & attitudes :i* are develop$ 9 ! s*ool w entirely det]m9e ! life l$ outside1 yet "o may n =get t a l>ge "p ( ! life ( *ildr5 is sp5t "u s*ool sup]vision4 ,z *ildr5 "w 9 an atmosph]e ( cop]ation1 & z !y =m habits ( helpfulness & op5m9d$ness1 we may expect t 9 "s degree ^! types ( activity w p]si/1 especially 9 _! association ) ea* o!r4 ,9 a s*ool :i* is organiz$ to br+ ab\t ! "r sort ( moral social conduct we ought to expect t *ildr5 w\ld gr[ 9 _! p[] to accept responsibility = ea* o!r4 ,! writ] kn[s ( a f\r? grade 9 :i* dur+ ! pa/ ye> a boy 0 abs5t f ! room aft] recess4 ,! tea*]1 in/ead ( s5d+ ! janitor1 or %e h]self go+ to f9d ! boy1 ask$ ! class :at !y 7 go+ to d ab\t x1 & sugge/$ to !m _! responsibility = ma9ta9+ ! good "n :i* !y _h always borne z a gr\p4 ,two ( ! m mature boys volunte]$ to g & f9d ! boy :o 0 abs5t4 ,:5 !y br\ght him into ! room a little :ile lat]1 !y rem>k$ to ! tea*] 9 a mo/ matt]-(-fact way1 ,we d n ?9k t he w /ay out aft] recess aga94 ,9 ! corridor ( an elem5t>y s*ool ! writ] saw dur+ ! pa/ ye> two boys sitt+ on a table be=e s*ool h\rs 9 ! morn+4 ,! "o 0 tea*+ ! multiplication tables to ! o!r4 ,!y 7 bo? six?-grade pupils1--! "o a boy :o _h = "s reason or o!r nev] q ?or\ghly le>n$ 8 tables4 ,! tea*] _h sugge/$ t somebody might help him1 & a boy _h volunte]$ to come e>ly to s*ool 9 ord] t he might tea* ! boy :o 0 backw>d4 ,a great _m tea*]s h discov]$ t ! /ronge/ motive :i* !y c f9d = good "w 9 ! field ( ,engli% is to be f\nd 9 provid+ an audi5ce1 bo? = ! read+ or /ory-tell+1 & = ! ,engli% composition4 ,! idea :i* prevails is t if "o is to read1 he ought to read well en\gh to ent]ta9 o!rs4 ,if "o has enjoy$ a /ory1 he may1 if he prep>es himself suffici5tly well1 tell x to ! class or to "s o!r gr\p4 ,mu* m emphasis on ! und]tak+s 9 ! attempt to h *ildr5 accept responsibility1 & to engage 9 a type ( activity :i* has a def9ite moral social value1 is to be f\nd 9 ! s*ools 9 :i* *ildr5 are responsible = ! morn+ ex]cises1 or = publi%+ a s*ool pap]1 or = prep>+ a s*ool fe/ival4 ,"o ( ! mo/ notable a*ievem5ts 9 ?is type ( activity :i* ! writ] has ev] kn[n occurr$ 9 a s*ool 9 :i* a gr\p ( sev5?-grade *ildr5 7 ?\ght to be p>ticul>ly incompet5t4 ,! tea*]s _h almo/ despair$ ( hav+ !m %[ normal developm5t1 ei!r intellectually or socially4 ,aft] a conf]5ce ( all ( ! tea*]s :o knew ! memb]s ( ?is gr\p1 x 0 decid$ to all[ !m to prep>e a patriot's day fe/ival4 ,! idea among ^? tea*]s :o _h fail$ ) ?is gr\p 0 t if ! *ildr5 _h a l>ge responsibility1 !y w\ld %[ a correspond+ly significant developm5t4 ,! *ildr5 respond$ to ! motive :i* 0 provid$1 became e>ne/ /ud5ts ( hi/ory 9 ord] t !y might f9d a dramatic situation1 & work$ at _! composition :5 !y came to write _! play1 "s ( !m ex]cis+ a critical z well z a creative faculty :i* no "o _h kn[n t !y possess$4 ,b possibly ! be/ ?+ ab\t ! :ole situation 0 t e memb] ( ! class f\nd some?+ to d 9 _! cop]ative ent]prise4 ,"s memb]s ( ! class 7 engag$ 9 build+ & 9 decorat+ ! /age sc5]y2 o!rs 7 responsible = co/umes2 ^? :o 7 /rong 9 music devot$ !mselves to ?is field4 ,! se>* = a prop] dramatic situation 9 hi/ory & ! writ+ ( ! play h already be5 sugge/$4 ,! /ag+ ( ! play & its pres5tation to a l>ge gr\p ( p>5ts & o!r int]e/$ patrons ( ! s*ool requir$ /ill fur!r specialization & ability4 ,out ( x all came a realization ( ! possibility ( accompli%+ great ?+s :5 all work$ toge!r = ! success ( a common ent]prise4 ,:5 ! fe/ival day came1 ! mo/ common /atem5t he>d 9 ! room on ! "p ( ! p>5ts & o!rs int]e/$ 9 ! "w ( ! *ildr5 0 express$ by "o :o said3 ,?is is ! mo/ wond]ful gr\p ( sev5?-grade *ildr5 t ,i h ev] se54 ,!y are z capable z mo/ high s*ool boys & girls4 ,x is to be recall$ t ?is 0 ! gr\p 9 :om ! tea*]s orig9ally _h little fai?1 & :o _h sometimes be5 call$ 9 _! s*ool a gr\p ( misfits4 ,"s s*ools h f\nd1 especially 9 ! upp] grades1 an opportunity = a type ( social activity :i* is entirely comp>able ) ! dem& made ^u ! old] memb]s ( our communities4 ,?is "w = social improvem5t or bett]m5t is c>ri$ on frequ5tly 9 connection ) a c\rse 9 civics4 ,9 "s s*ools !re is organiz$ :at is kn[n z ! junior police4 ,?is organization has be5 9 "s cases coord9at$ ) ! police dep>tm5t4 ,! boys :o belong pl$ge !mselves to ma9ta91 9 s f> z !y are able1 prop] conditions on ! /reets ) respect to play1 to ab/a9 f ! illegal use ( tobacco or o!r n>cotics1 & to be responsible = ! correct h&l+ ( g>bage1 especially to see t pap]1 a%es1 & o!r refuse are plac$ 9 sep>ate receptacles1 & t ^! receptacles are remov$ f ! /reet promptly aft] !y are empti$ by ! dep>tm5t conc]n$4 ,9 "o city ) :i* ! writ] is acqua9t$1 ! *ildr5 9 ! upp] grades1 accord+ to ! common te/imony ( ! citiz5s ( _! community1 h be5 responsible = ! clean+ up ( ! /reet c>s4 ,9 o!r cities !y h become int]e/$1 & h int]e/$ _! p>5ts1 9 ! "q ( milk & wat] supply4 ,9 "s cases !y h /udi$ _m diff]5t dep>tm5ts ( ! city gov]nm5t1 & h1 9 s f> z x 0 possible1 l5t _! cop]ation4 ,9 "o case a gr\p ( *ildr5 became v mu* excit$ conc]n+ a dead horse t 0 all[$ to rema9 on a /reet ne> ! s*ool1 & !y le>n$ be=e !y 7 ?r\gh j ^: responsibility x 01 & h[ to secure ! action t %\ld h be5 tak5 e>li]4 ,/ill ano!r type ( activity :i* may h significance = ! moral social developm5t ( *ildr5 is f\nd 9 ! /udy ( ! life activities 9 ! communities 9 :i* !y live4 ,!re is no reason :y *ildr51 especially 9 ! upp] grades or 9 ! high s*ool1 %\ld n ?9k ab\t work+ conditions1 especially z !y involve sweat-%ops or "w "u unsanit>y conditions4 ,!y may v prop]ly become int]e/$ 9 ! problems ( relief1 & ( ! measures tak5 to elim9ate crime4 ,inde$1 f ! /&po9t ( ! developm5t ( socially effici5t *ildr51 x w\ld seem to be m important t "s elem5t>y treatm5t ( indu/rial & social conditions might be f\nd to be m important 9 ! upp] grades & 9 ! high s*ool ?an any s+le subject :i* we n[ tea*4 ,ano!r attempt to develop a reasonable attitude conc]n+ moral situations is f\nd 9 ! s*ools :i* h organiz$ pupils = ! p>ticipation 9 s*ool gov]nm5t4 ,!re is no p>ticul> value to be atta*$ to any su* =m ( organization4 ,x may be true t !re is consid]able advantage 9 dramatiz+ ! =m ( gov]nm5t 9 :i* ! *ildr5 live1 & = t purpose policem51 c\ncilm5 or ald]m51 mayors1 & o!r (ficials1 toge!r ) _! election1 may help 9 ! und]/&+ ( ! social obligations :i* !y w h to meet lat] on4 ,b ! ma9 ?+ is to h ^! *ildr5 come to accept responsibility = ea* o!r1 & to seek to make ! s*ool a place :]e ea* respects ! rights ( o!rs & :]e e "o is work+ toge!r = ! common good4 ,9 ?is connection x is important to sugge/ t s*emes ( self-gov]nm5t h succe$$ only :]e !re has be5 a lead] 9 ! position ( pr9cipal or o!r sup]visory (fic] conc]n$4 ,*ildr5's judgm5ts are apt to be too sev]e :5 !y are all[$ to discipl9e memb]s ( _! gr\p4 ,!re w always be ne$1 :atev] attempt we may make to h !m accept responsibility1 = ! guidance & direction ( ! m mature m9d4 ,we seek 9 all ( ^! activities1 z has already be5 sugge/$1 to h *ildr5 come to take1 9 s f> z !y are able1 ! rational attitude t[>d ! problems ( conduct :i* !y h to face4 ,x is important = tea*]s to realize ! fallacy ( mak+ a set ( rules by :i* all *ildr5 are to be controll$4 ,x is only ) respect to ^? types ( activity 9 :i* ! response1 9 ord] to fur!r ! good ( ! gr\p1 mu/ be inv>iable t we %\ld expect to h pupils become automatic4 ,x is important 9 ! case ( a fire drill1 or 9 ! pass+ ( mat]ials1 & ! l1 t ! response1 al?\gh x does involve social obligation1 %\ld be r$uc$ to ! level ( me*aniz$ r\t9e4 ,mo/ s*ool situations involve1 or may involve1 judgm5t1 & x is only z pupils gr[ 9 p[] ( self-control & 9 _! will+ness to ?9k ?r\gh a situation be=e act+1 t we may expect significant moral developm5t4 ,9 ! case ( (f5ses :i* seem to dem& puni%m5t1 t tea*] is wise :o is able to place responsibility ) ! pupil :o has (f5d$4 ,! "q ought to be common1 ,:at c ,i d to help y8 ,! "q :i* ! tea*] %\ld ask h]self is n1 ,:at c ,i d to puni% ! pupil8 b r1 ,h[ c ,i h him realize ! significance ( 8 action & place ^u him ! responsibility ( re9/at+ himself ) ! social gr\p8 ,! high s*ool pr9cipal :o solv$ ! problem ( a tea*] :o said t %e w\ld n tea* unless a p>ticul> pupil 7 remov$ f h] class1 & ( ! pupil :o said t %e w\ld n /ay 9 s*ool if %e _h to g to t tea*]1 by tell+ !m bo? to take "t to ?9k x ?r\gh & decide h[ !y w\ld reconcile _! diff]5ces1 is a case 9 po9t4 ,:at we ne$ is n ! puni%m5t :i* foll[s rapidly ^u our feel+ ( res5tm5t1 b r ! wisdom ( wait+ & accept+ ! mi/ake or (f5se ( ! pupil z an opportunity = c>eful consid]ation ^u 8 "p & z a possible means ( gr[? = him4 ,!re has be5 consid]able discussion dur+ rec5t ye>s conc]n+ ! obligation ( ! s*ool to tea* *ildr5 conc]n+ matt]s ( sex4 ,traditionally1 our policy has be5 "o ( almo/ entire neglect4 ,! consequ5ce has be51 on ! :ole1 ! acquisition ^u ! "p ( boys & girls ( a l>ge body ( mis9=mation1 :i* has = ! mo/ "p be5 vici\s4 ,x is n probable t we c ev] expect mo/ tea*]s to h ! tra9+ necess>y to give adequate in/ruction 9 ?is field4 ,= *ildr5 9 ! upp] grades1 dur+ ! preadolesc5t p]iod especially1 "s su* in/ruction giv5 by ! m5 & wom5 tra9$ 9 biology1 or possibly by m5 & wom5 doctors :o h made a specialty ( ?is field1 promises a l>ge contribution to ! developm5t ( ! "r attitudes ) respect to ! sex life & ! elim9ation ( mu* ( ! immorality :i* has be5 due to ignorance or to ! vici\s mis9=mation :i* has commonly be5 spread among *ildr54 ,! policy ( secrecy & ignorance _c well be ma9ta9$ if we accept ! idea ( responsibility & ! ex]cise ( judgm5t z ! basis ( moral social activity4 ,9 no o!r field are ! results ( a lack ( tra9+ or a lack ( morality m c]ta9 to be disa/r\s bo? = ! individual & = ! social gr\p4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,h[ satisfactory is ! morality ( ! man :o claims t he does no wrong8 #b4 ,h[ is x possible = a *ild to be unmoral & n immoral8 #c4 ,are *ildr5 :o obs]ve s*ool rules & regulations necess>ily gr[+ 9 morality8 #d4 ,:y is x important1 f ! /&po9t ( gr[? 9 morality1 to h *ildr5 =m socially desirable habits1 ev5 ?\gh we may n speak ( ?is k9d ( activity z moral conduct8 #e4 ,:at con/itutes gr[? 9 morality = ! adult8 #f4 ,9 :at s5se is x possible = ! same act to be immoral1 unmoral1 & moral = individuals liv+ "u diff]+ circum/ances & 9 diff]5t social gr\ps8 ,give an example4 #g4 ,:y h moral re=m]s sometimes be5 consid]$ immoral by _! associates8 #h4 ,:at is ! moral significance ( e>n+ a liv+8 ,( be+ prompt8 ,( be+ c\rte\s8 #i4 ,:at are ! in/9cts ^u :i* we may hope to build 9 moral tra9+8 ,:at in/9ctive basis is !re = immoral conduct8 #aj4 ,to :at ext5t is intellectual activity involv$ 9 moral conduct8 ,:at is ! significance ( "o's emotional response8 #aa4 ,:at /ages ( developm5t are di/+ui%able 9 ! moral developm5t ( *ildr58 ,is x possible to classify *ildr5 z belong+ to "o /age or ! o!r by _! ages8 #ab4 ,:y is x true t "o's "* dep5ds ^u ! delib]ate *oices :i* he makes among sev]al possible modes or types ( action8 #ac4 ,:y is x important to h positive satisfaction foll[ moral conduct8 #ad4 ,h[ may ! conduct ( p>5ts & tea*]s influ5ce conduct ( *ildr58 #ae4 ,:at is ! weakness ( direct moral in/ruction1 e4g4 ! tell+ ( /ories ( tru?fulness1 ! tea*+ ( moral precepts1 & ! l8 #af4 ,:at opportunities c y provide 9 y\r class = moral social conduct8 #ag4 ,*ildr5 w d :at is "r because ( _! desire to please1 _! respect = au?ority1 _! fe> ( unpleasant consequ5ces1 _! c>eful1 ?\ghtful analysis ( ! situation & *oice ( t =m ( action :i* !y consid] "r4 ,arrange ^! motives 9 ord] ( _! desirability4 ,w\ld y be satisfi$ to utilize ! motive :i* br+s results mo/ quickly & mo/ surely8 #ah4 ,9 :at s5se is x true t lapses f moral conduct are ! tea*]'s be/ opportunity = moral tea*+8 #ai4 ,h[ may *ildr5 contribute to ! social welf>e ( ! s*ool community8 ,( ! l>g] social gr\p outside ( ! s*ool8 #bj4 ,h[ may pupil p>ticipation 9 s*ool gov]nm5t be made significant 9 ! developm5t ( social moral conduct8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,xii4 ,,transf] ,,( ,,tra9+ ,=mal discipl9e or transf] ( tra9+ conc]ns itself ) ! "q z to h[ f> tra9+ 9 "o subject1 along "o l9e1 influ5ces o!r l9es4 ,h[ f>1 = in/ance1 tra9+ 9 reason+ 9 ma!matics helps a *ild to reason 9 hi/ory1 9 morals1 9 h\sehold adm9i/ration2 h[ f> memoriz+ gems ( poetry or dates 9 hi/ory aids memory :5 x is appli$ to le>n+ /5ography or botany2 h[ f> giv+ att5tion to ! gymnasium w insure att5tion to s]mons & "o's social engagem5ts4 ,! "q is1 ,h[ f> does ! special tra9+ "o gets 9 home & s*ool fit him to react to ! environm5t ( life ) its new & complex situations8 ,put 9 ano!r way1 ! "q is :at effect ^u o!r bonds does =m+ ?is p>ticul> situation response s]ies ( bonds h4 ,! practical import ( ! "q & its answ] is trem5d\s4 ,mo/ ( our pres5t s*ool sy/em1 bo? 9 subject matt] & me?od1 is built ^u ! assumption t "o answ] is correct--if x is false1 mu* "w rema9s to be done by ! pres5t-day education4 ,! po9t ( view :i* 0 held until rec5t ye>s is be/ made cle> by a s]ies ( quotations4 ,s9ce ! m9d is a unit & ! faculties are simply phases or manife/ations ( its activity1 :atev] /r5g!ns "o faculty indirectly /r5g!ns all ! o!rs4 ,! v]bal memory seems to be an exception to ?is /atem5t1 h[ev]1 = x may be abnormally cultivat$ )\t involv+ to any pr(itable ext5t ! o!r faculties4 ,b only ?+s t are rightly p]ceiv$ & rightly und]/ood c be rightly rememb]$4 ,h5ce :atev] develops ! acquisitive & assimilative p[]s w also /r5g!n memory2 &1 conv]sely1 rightly /r5g!n+ ! memory necessitates ! develop+ & tra9+ ( ! o!r p[]s4 7,r4,n4 ,ro>k1 ,me?od 9 ,education1 p4 #bg47 ,x is z a means ( tra9+ ! faculties ( p]ception & g5]alization t ! /udy ( su* a language z ,lat9 9 comp>ison ) ,engli% is s valuable4 7,c4,l4 ,morgan1 ,psy*ology = ,tea*]s1 p4 #ahf47 ,ari?metic1 if judici\sly taught1 =ms 9 ! pupil habits ( m5tal att5tion1 argum5tative sequ5ce1 absolute accuracy1 & satisfaction 9 tru? z a result1 t d n seem to spr+ equally f ! /udy ( any o!r subject suitable to ?is elem5t>y /age ( in/ruction4 7,joseph ,payne1 ,lectures on ,education1 ,vol4 ,i1 p4 #bfj47 ,by means ( exp]im5tal & obs]vational "w 9 sci5ce1 n only w 8 att5tion be excit$1 ! p[] ( obs]vation1 previ\sly awak5$1 mu* /r5g!n$1 & ! s5ses ex]cis$ & discipl9$1 b ! v important habit ( do+ homage to ! au?ority ( facts r ?an to ! au?ority ( m51 be initiat$4 7,ibid41 p4 #bfa47 ,! view ma9ta9$ by ^! writ]s is t ! m9d is made up ( c]ta9 elem5tal p[]s su* z att5tion1 reason+1 obs]vation1 imag9ation1 & ! l1 ea* ( :i* acts z a unit4 ,tra9+ any "o ( ^! p[]s means simply its ex]cise irrespective ( ! mat]ial us$4 ,! facility ga9$ ?r\gh ?is ex]cise may !n be transf]r$ to o!r subjects or situations1 :i* are q diff]5t4 ,! pres5t po9t ( view ) reg>d to ?is "q is v diff]5t1 z is %[n by ! foll[+ quotations3 ,we may conclude1 !n1 t !re is some?+ :i* may be call$ =mal discipl9e1 & t x may be m or less g5]al 9 "*4 ,x consi/s 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( habitual reactions t correspond to ! =m ( situations4 ,^! reactions fo/] adju/m5ts1 attitudes1 & ideas t favor ! successful deal+ ) ! em]g5cies t ar\se !m4 ,on ! o!r h&1 bo? ! =m t we c le>n to deal ) m effectively1 & ! reactions t we associate ) x1 are def9ite4 ,!re is no g5]al tra9+ ( ! p[]s or faculties1 s f> z we c det]m9e4 7,h5d]son1 #aj1 p4 #cjg f47 ,"o m5tal function or activity improves o!rs 9 s f> z & because !y are 9 "p id5tical ) x1 because x conta9s elem5ts common to !m4 ,addition improves multiplication because multiplication is l>gely addition2 k ( ,lat9 gives increas$ ability to le>n ,fr5* because _m ( ! facts le>n$ 9 ! "o case are ne$$ 9 ! o!r4 ,! /udy ( geometry may lead a pupil to be m logical 9 all respects1 = "o elem5t ( be+ logical 9 all respects is to realize t facts c be absolutely prov5 & to admire & desire ?is c]ta9 & unque/ionable sort ( demon/ration4444 7,?orndike1 '#jf1 pp4 #bdc-bde1 passim47 ,m5tal discipl9e is ! mo/ important ?+ 9 education1 b x is specific1 n g5]al4 ,! ability develop$ by means ( "o subject c be transf]r$ to ano!r subject only 9 s f> z ! latt] has elem5ts 9 common ) ! =m]4 ,abilities %\ld be develop$ 9 s*ool only by means ( ^? elem5ts ( subject-matt] & ( me?od t are common to ! mo/ valuable phases ( ! outside environm5t4 ,9 ! high s*ool !re %\ld also be an ef=t to "w out g5]al concepts ( me?od f ! specific me?ods us$4 7,heck1 '#ji1 ,edition ( '#aa1 p4 #aih47 444 ,no /udy %\ld h a place 9 ! curriculum = :i* ?is g5]al discipl9>y *>act]i/ic is ! *ief recomm5dation4 ,su* advantage c probably be gott5 9 "s degree f e /udy1 & ! intr9sic values ( ea* /udy af=d at pres5t a f> saf] crit]ion ( educational "w ?an any :i* we c d]ive f ! !ory ( =mal discipl9e4 7,angell1 '#jh1 p4 #ad47 ,^! writ]s also believe 9 transf] ( tra9+1 b !y believe ! transf] to be nev] complete1 to be 9 g5]al a v small p]c5tage ( ! special improvem5t ga9$ & at times to be negative & to int]f]e ) responses 9 o!r fields in/ead ( be+ a help4 ,!y also emphasize ! belief t :5 ! transf] does occur1 x is = "s p]fectly valid reason & "u c]ta9 v def9ite conditions4 ,!y reject utt]ly ! ma*9e-l idea ( ! m9d & its elem5tal faculties held by ! writ]s fir/ quot$4 ,!y hold ! view ( m5tal activity :i* has be5 emphasiz$ 9 ! discussion ( orig9al t5d5cies & inh]itance f ne> ance/ry1 i4e41 t ! physical correlate ( all types ( m5tal activity is a def9ite =m+ ( connections betwe5 p>ticul> bonds-^! connections1 ( c\rse1 accord+ to ! laws ( read9ess ex]cise1 & effect1 w\ld be det]m9$ by ! situation act+ z a /imulus & w\ld1 !re=e1 v>y z ! total situation v>i$4 ,!y believe 9 a highly specializ$ human bra91 :i* reacts 9 small gr\ps ( n]ve tracts--n 9 gross :oles4 ,!y w\ld express ea* ( ! elem5tal p[]s 9 ! plural & n 9 ! s+ul>4 ,! basis ( ?is *ange ( view )9 ! la/ fifte5 or tw5ty ye>s is to be f\nd 9 exp]im5tal "w4 ,! "q has def9itely be5 put to ! te/ z to h[ f> tra9+ 9 "o l9e did influ5ce o!rs4 ,= a full description ( ! v>i\s types ( exp]im5ts p]=m$ ! read] is ref]r$ to ,?orndike's ,psy*ology ( ,le>n+1 ,*apt] #ab4 ,only an indication ( ! type ( "w done & ! g5]al "* ( ! results c be giv5 "h4 ,exp]im5ts 9 ! effect ( cross education1 9 memoriz+1 9 obs]v+ & judg+ s5sory & p]ceptual data1 & 9 =m+ s5sori-motor association habits h be5 conduct$ 9 consid]able numb]s4 ,a few exp]im5ts 9 special s*ool functions h also be5 c>ri$ out4 ,inve/igations 9 ! correlation betwe5 v>i\s p>ts ( ! same subject & betwe5 diff]5t subjects suppos$ to be closely alli$ also ?r[ light ^u ?is subject4 ,! results f ^! diff]5t l9es ( exp]im5t1 al?\gh confus+ & sometimes contradictory1 seem to w>rant ! belief /at$ above4 ,!y h made x v cle> t ! "q ( transf] is n a simple "o1 b1 on ! contr>y1 t x is extremely complex4 ,!y make pla9 t 9 "s cases :]e l>ge transf] 0 confid5tly expect$1 t little result$1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 9 "s cases :5 little 0 expect$1 mu* m occurr$4 ,x is evid5t t ! old idea ( a l>ge transf] 9 "s subtle & unexpla9$ way ( special improvem5ts to a g5]al faculty is false4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 x w\ld be equally false to say t no transf] occurr$4 ,! g5]al pr9ciple seems to be t transf] occurs :5 ! same bonds are us$ 9 ! second situation to ! ext5t t ! alt]ation 9 ^! p>ticul> connections affects ! second response4 ,bo? ! k ( :at bonds are us$ 9 v>i\s responses & to :at ext5t alt]ation 9 !m w affect diff]5t total responses is lack+4 ,!re=e1 all t is at pres5t possible is a /atem5t ( conditions "u :i* transf] is probable4 ,9 g5]al1 !n1 transf] ( tra9+ w occur to ! ext5t t ! two responses use ! same bonds--to ! ext5t1 !n1 t !re is id5tity ( "s sort4 ,?is id5tity :i* makes transf] possible may be ( all degrees ( g5]ality & ( sev]al diff]5t types4 ,fir/1 !re may be id5tity ( cont5t4 ,= in/ance1 =m+ useful connections ) six1 isl&1 &1 r$1 habit1 ,africa1 squ>e root1 triangle1 g5d]1 p]c5tage1 & s on1 9 ?is or t p>ticul> context %\ld be ( use 9 o!r contexts & !re=e all[ ( transf] ( tra9+4 ,! m common ! p>ticul> responses are to all sorts ( life situations1 ! great] ! possibility ( transf]4 ,second1 ! id5tity may be t ( me?od or proc$ure4 ,to be able to add1 to c>ry1 to "k ! me?od ( classify+ an unkn[n fl[]1 to h a def9ite me?od ( meet+ a new situation 9 h&-"w1 to "k h[ to use s\rce mat]ial 9 hi/ory1 to h ga9$ ! te*nique ( laboratory skill 9 *emi/ry1 to "k h[ to /udy 9 geography1 %\ld be useful 9 o!r dep>tm5ts :]e ! same me?od w\ld s]ve4 ,"s ( ^! me?ods are1 ( c\rse1 ( mu* m g5]al s]vice ?an o!rs4 ,9 e/abli%+ skill 9 ! use ( ^! v>i\s proc$ures1 two types ( responses are ne$$4 ,! le>n] mu/ =m connections ( a positive nature1 su* z analyz+1 collect+ mat]ial1 criticiz+ accord+ to /&>d1 pick+ out ! ess5tial & s on1 & he mu/ also =m connections ( a negative "* :i* w cause him to neglect c]ta9 t5d5cies4 ,he mu/ le>n n to accept ! fir/ idea (f]$1 to neglect sugge/ions1 to hurry or to leave half f9i%$1 to ignore int]ruptions1 to prev5t p]sonal bias to influ5ce criticism1 & s on4 ,^! connections :i* result 9 neglect+ c]ta9 elem5ts are q z important z ! positive elem5t1 bo? 9 ! production ( ! p>ticul> proc$ure & 9 ! transf] to o!r fields4 ,?ird1 ! id5tity may be ( /ill m g5]al "* & be 9 t]ms ( attitude or ideal4 ,to le>n to be ?or\gh 9 connection ) hi/ory1 accurate 9 h&work1 op5-m9d$ 9 sci5ce1 p]si/5t 9 ,lat91 critical 9 geometry1 ?or\gh 9 class & s*ool activities2 to =m habits ( allegiance to ideals ( tru?1 cop]ation1 fair play1 tol]ance1 c\rage1 & s on1 may help ! le>n] to exhibit ^! same attitudes 9 o!r situations 9 life4 ,"h aga9 ! connections ( neglect are important4 ,to neglect selfi% sugge/ions1 to ignore ! escape f consequ5ces t falsehood might make possible1 to be dead to fe>1 to ignore bodily a*es & pa9s1 are q z necess>y 9 produc+ conduct t is g5]\s1 tru?ful1 & c\rage\s z are ! positive connections made 9 build+ up ! ideal4 ,9 ! discussion ( transf] because ( id5tity1 x 0 emphasis$ t ! pres5ce ( id5tity ( v>i\s types expla9$ cases ( transf] t exi/ & made transf] possible4 ,9 no case mu/ x be und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t ! pres5ce ( ^! id5tical elem5ts is a w>rant ( transf]4 ,transf] may take place "u su* conditions1 b x ne$ n d s4 ,transf] is mo/ sure to occur 9 cases ( id5tity ( sub/ance & lea/ likely 9 cases ( id5tity ( attitude or ideals4 ,to h useful responses to six1 above1 city1 qu>t1 & s on1 9 "o situation w v likely mean responses ( a useful nature 9 almo/ all situations :i* h su* elem5ts pres5t4 ,x is v diff]5t ) ! ideals4 ,a *ild may be v accurate 9 h&work1 & yet almo/ no?+ ( x %[ else:]e2 he may be tru?ful to 8 tea*] & lie to 8 p>5ts2 he may be g5]\s to 8 classmates & ! rev]se to 8 bro!rs & si/]s4 ,p]si/5ce 9 ,lat9 may n influ5ce 8 "w 9 ! %op1 & ! critical attitude ( geometry be lack+ 9 8 sci5ce4 ,transf] 9 me?ods holds a middle gr\nd4 ,x seems t ! m complex & ! m subtle ! connections involv$1 ! less is ! am\nt & ! surety ( ! transf]4 ,9 ord] to increase ! probability ( transf] :5 connections ( me?od or attitudes are be+ =m$1 fir/1 x %\ld be made consci\s1 & second1 x %\ld be put into practice 9 sev]al types ( situations4 ,!re is grave dang] t ! me?od w n be diff]5tiat$ f ! subject1 ! ideal f ! context ( ! situation4 ,to _m *ildr5 le>n+ h[ to /udy 9 connection ) hi/ory1 or to be critical 9 geometry1 or to be sci5tific 9 ! laboratory1 has nev] be5 sep>at$ f ! p>ticul> situation4 ,! me?od or ! ideal & ! situation 9 :i* !y h be5 acquir$ are "o--"o response4 ,! g5]al elem5ts ( me?od or attitude h nev] be5 made consci\s1 !y are subm]g$ 9 ! p>ticul> subject or situation1 & !re=e ! probability ( transf] is less5$4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! "q ( me?od1 z an idea by itself1 ap>t f any p>ticul> subject1 is br\ght to ! *ild's att5tion2 if tru? z an ideal1 indep5d5t ( context1 is made consci\s1 x is mu* m likely to be react$ to 9 a diff]5t situation1 = x has become a free idea & !re=e cry/alliz$4 ,!n hav+ fre$ ! g5]al some:at f its p>ticul> sett+1 ! le>n] %\ld be giv5 opportunity to put x 9 practice 9 o!r sett+s4 ,to simply =m ! me?od connections or ! attitude responses 9 ,lat9 & !n bl9dly tru/ t !y w be ( g5]al use is unsafe4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ! educator to make z sure z he c ( ! transf]1 & t c only be done by practic+ 9 sev]al fields4 ,^! two proc$ures :i* make transf] m sure1 i4e41 mak+ ! elem5t consci\s & giv+ practice 9 sev]al fields1 are n %>ply divid$1 b int]act4 ,practice makes ! idea cle>] & fre]1 & ?is 9 turn makes fre% practice pr(itable4 ,x is simply ! application ( ! law ( analysis by v>y+ concomitants4 ,9 all ?is matt] ( transf] x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t a v slight am\nt ( transf] ( "s ( ^! m g5]al responses may be ( trem5d\s value educationally1 provid$ x is ov] a v wide field4 ,if a boy's /udy ( high s*ool sci5ce made him at all m sci5tific 9 8 attitude t[>ds su* life situations z politics1 morals1 city sanitation1 & ! l1 x w\ld be ( mu* m value ?an ! p>ticul> habit =m$4 ,if a girl's "w 9 home economics result$ 9 b a slight transf] ( vital int]e/ to ! actual problems ( home-mak+1 x w\ld mean mu* to ! homes ( ,am]ica4 ,if a boy's tra9+ 9 connection ) ! a?letics ( 8 s*ool fo/]s 9 him an ideal ( fair play :i* influ5ces him at all 9 8 deal+s ) m5 9 bus9ess1 ) 8 family1 ) himself1 ! tra9+ w\ld h be5 wor? :ile4 ,to disc\nt tra9+ simply because ! transf] is slight is manife/ly unfair4 ,! k9d ( responses :i* transf] are q z important z ! am\nt ( ! transf]4 ,! idea t e subject w furni% ! same am\nt ( discipl9e provid$ !y are equally well taught is evid5tly false4 ,e s*ool subject mu/ n[ be weigh$ f two po9ts ( view1--fir/1 z to ! wor? ( ! p>ticul> facts1 responses1 habits1 :i* x =ms1 & second1 z to ! opportunity x (f]s = ! =mation ( connections :i* are ( g5]al application4 ,! tra9+ :i* educators are sure ( is ! p>ticul> tra9+ (f]$ by ! subject2 ! g5]al tra9+ is m problematic4 ,h5ce no subject %\ld be reta9$ 9 our pres5t curriculum ^: only value is a claim to discipl9>y tra9+4 ,su* g5]al tra9+ z ! subject af=ds c\ld probably be ga9$ f "s o!r subject ^: cont5t is also valuable4 ,j because a subject is difficult1 or is di/a/eful1 is no sign t its pursuit w result 9 discipl9>y tra9+4 ,9 fact1 ! psy*ology ( play & drudg]y make x app>5t t ! pres5ce ( annoyance1 ( di/a/e1 w less5 ! discipl9>y value4 ,only ^? subjects & activities :i* are *>act]iz$ by ! play _s c (f] true educational developm5t4 ,! m ! play _s ent]s 91 ! great] ! possibility ( secur+ n only special tra9+1 b g5]al discipl9e z well4 ,?orndike sums up ! pres5t attitude t[>ds special subjects by say+1 ,an imp>tial inv5tory ( ! facts 9 ! ord9>y pupil ( t5 to eighte5 w\ld f9d ! g5]al tra9+ f ,engli% composition great] ?an t f =mal logic1 ! tra9+ f physics & *emi/ry great] ?an t f geometry1 & ! tra9+ f a ye>'s /udy ( ! laws & in/itutions ( ! ,romans great] ?an t f equal /udy ( _! language4 ,! grammatical /udies :i* h be5 consid]$ ! *ief depositories ( discipl9>y magic w\ld be f\nd 9 g5]al inf]ior to sci5tific treatm5ts ( human nature z a :ole4 ,! sup]iority = discipl9e ( pure ov]appli$ sci5ce w\ld be ref]r$ 9 l>ge measure to ! fact t pure sci5ce c\ld be s widely appli$4 ,! discipl9>y value ( geometry w\ld appe> to be due1 n to ! simplicity ( its conditions1 b to ! rigor ( its pro(s2 ! greate/ discipl9>y value ( ,lat9 w\ld appe> 9 ! case1 n ( ^? :o dislik$ x & f\nd x h>d1 b ( ^? to :om x 0 a *>m+ game4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,x has be5 exp]im5tally det]m9$ t ! ease ) :i* "o memorizes "o set ( facts may be v greatly improv$ )\t a correspond+ improvem5t 9 ability to memorize 9 "s o!r field4 ,h[ w\ld y use ?is fact to refute ! argum5t t we possess a g5]al faculty ( memory8 #b4 ,h[ is x possible = a man to reason accurately 9 ! field ( eng9e]+ & yet make v grave mi/akes 9 8 reason+ ab\t gov]nm5t or education8 #c4 ,:at assurance h we t skill or capacity = successful "w develop$ 9 "o situation w be transf]r$ to ano!r situation involv+ ! same m5tal processes ( habit =mation1 reason+1 imag9ation1 & ! l8 #d4 ,:at are ! diff]5t types ( id5tity :i* make possible transf] ( tra9+8 #e4 ,h[ c we make ! id5tity ( me?ods ( "w mo/ significant = transf] ( tra9+ & = ! education ( ! individual8 #f4 ,:y d ideals :i* seem to control 9 "o situation fail to affect o!r activities 9 :i* ! same ideal is call$ =8 #g4 ,"u :at conditions may a v slight am\nt ( transf] ( tra9+ become ( ! v greate/ importance = education8 #h4 ,:y may we n hope = ! l>ge/ results 9 tra9+ by compell+ *ildr5 to /udy t :i* is di/a/eful8 ,d *ildr5 7or adults7 "w h>de/ :5 !y are =c$ to att5d to t f :i* !y d]ive little or no satisfaction8 #i4 ,:i* /ud5t gets ! mo/ significant tra9+ f 8 algebra1 ! boy :o enjoys "w 9 ?is field or ! boy :o worries ?r\gh x because algebra is requir$ = graduation f ! high s*ool8 #aj4 ,:y may we hope to secure m significant tra9+ 9 junior high s*ools :i* (f] a great v>iety ( c\rses ?an 0 accompli%$ by ! sev5? & eigh? grades 9 :i* all pupils 7 compell$ to /udy ! same subjects8 #aa4 ,:y is ,lat9 a good subject f ! /&po9t ( tra9+ = "o /ud5t & a v poor subject ) :i* to seek to educate ano!r /ud5t8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,xiii4 ,,types ,,( ,,classroom ,,ex]cises ,! ex]cises :i* tea*]s conduct 9 _! classrooms d n commonly involve a s+le type ( m5tal activity4 ,x is true1 h[ev]1 t c]ta9 lessons t5d to involve "o type ( activity pr$om9antly4 ,!re are lessons :i* seek prim>ily to fix habits1 o!rs 9 :i* ?9k+ ( ! inductive type is prim>ily involv$1 & /ill o!rs 9 :i* d$uctive ?9k+ or appreciation are ! ends s\ght4 ,z has already be5 indicat$ 9 ! discussion ( habit1 ?9k+1 & appreciation 9 ! previ\s *apt]s1 ^! types ( m5tal activity are n to be ?\ght ( z sep>ate & di/9ct4 ,habit =mation may involve ?9k+4 ,9 a lesson pr$om9antly inductive or d$uctive1 "s elem5t ( drill may ent]1 or appreciation may be s\ght ) respect to "s p>ticul> "p ( ! situation pres5t$4 ,^! diff]5t k9ds ( ex]cises1 drills1 ?9k+ 7inductive or d$uctive71 & appreciation are fairly di/9ct psy*ological types4 ,9 addition to ! psy*ological types ( ex]cises m5tion$ above1 ex]cises are conduct$ 9 ! classroom :i* may be designat$ "u ! foll[+ heads3 lectur+1 ! recitation lesson1 exam9ation & review lessons4 ,9 any "o ( ^! ! m5tal process involv$ may be any ( ^? m5tion$ above z belong+ to ! purely psy*ological types ( lessons or a comb9ation ( any two or m ( !m4 ,x has seem$ wor? :ile to treat briefly ( bo? sorts ( lesson types1 & to discuss at "s l5g?1 lectur+1 ab\t :i* !re is consid]able disagreem5t1 & ! additional topic ( que/ion+1 :i* is ! means employ$ 9 all ( ^! diff]5t types ( classroom ex]cises4 ,! ,inductive ,lesson4 ,x has be5 common 9 ! discussion ( ! inductive developm5t lesson to classify ! /ages ?r\gh :i* "o passes f 8 recognition ( a problem to 8 conclusion 9 five /eps4 ,^! divisions h commonly be5 spok5 ( z 7#a7 prep>ation2 7#b7 pres5tation2 7#c7;comp>ison & ab/raction2 7#d7 g5]alization2 & 7#e7 application4 ,x has ev5 be5 sugge/$ t all lessons %\ld con=m to ?is ord] ( proc$ure4 ,f ! discussions 9 ! previ\s *apt]s1 ! read] w und]/& t su* a =mal me?od ( proc$ure w\ld n con=m to :at we "k ab\t m5tal activity & its normal ex]cise & developm5t4 ,!re is "s advantage1 h[ev]1 9 ?9k+ ( ! g5]al ord] ( proc$ure 9 ! inductive lesson z outl9$ by ^! /eps4 ,! /ep ( prep>ation has to d ) mak+ cle> to ! pupil ! aim or purpose ( ! problem ) :i* he is to deal4 ,x is n always possible 9 ! classroom to h *ildr5 at "w ^u j su* problems z may occur to !m4 ,! ord]ly developm5t ( a subject to be taught requires t ! tea*] discov] to *ildr5 problems or purposes :i* may result 9 ?9k+4 ,! skill ( ! tea*] dep5ds ^u 8 k ( ! previ\s exp]i5ces ( ! *ildr5 9 ! class & 8 skill 9 hav+ !m ^w ! problem :i* rema9s unsolv$ 9 _! exp]i5ce 9 su* a way z to make x attractive to !m4 ,inde$1 x may be said t *ildr5 nev] h a wor?y aim unless x is "o :i* is intellectually /imulat+4 ,a problem exi/s only :5 we desire to f9d ! answ]4 ,! t]m pres5tation sugge/s a me?od ( proc$ure :i* we w\ld n want to foll[ too frequ5tly2 t is1 we may hope n simply to pres5t facts = acceptance or rejection1 b1 r1 we want *ildr5 to se>* = ! data :i* !y may ne$ 9 solv+ _! problem4 ,f ! v beg9n+ ( _! s*ool c>e] *ildr5 ne$1 9 ! light ( a problem /at$1 to le>n to utilize all ( ! possible s\rces ( in=mation available4 ,_! own exp]i5ce1 ! que/ions :i* !y may put to o!r p1 obs]vations :i* !y may und]take ) consid]able c>e1 books or o!r s\rces ( in=mation :i* !y may consult1 all are to be ?\ght ( z tools to be us$ or s\rces ( in=mation available = ! solution ( problems4 ,x _c be too (t5 reit]at$ t x is n simply gett+ facts1 read+ books1 p]=m+ exp]im5ts1 :i* is significant1 b1 r1 :i* ( ^! op]ations is conduct$ 9 ! light ( a problem cle>ly conceiv$ by *ildr54 ,! /ep ( pres5tation1 z above describ$1 is n "o t may be begun & complet$ be=e o!r p>ts ( ! inductive lesson are c>ri$ on4 ,z soon z any facts are available !y are ei!r accept$ or reject$1 z !y may help 9 ! solution ( ! problem2 comp>isons are in/itut$1 ! ess5tial elem5ts ( lik5ess are notic$1 & ev5 a p>tial solution ( ! problem may be sugge/$ 9 t]ms ( a new g5]alization4 ,! /ud5t may !n beg9 to ga!r fur!r facts1 to pass ?r\gh fur!r /eps ( comp>ison1 & to make /ill fur!r modifications ( 8 g5]alization z he proce$s 9 8 "w4 ,at any /age ( ! process ! /ud5t may /op to apply or te/ ! validity ( a g5]alization :i* has be5 =m$4 ,x is ev5 true t ! /atem5t ( ! problem ) :i* "o />ts may be modifi$ 9 ! light ( new facts f\nd1 or new analyses in/itut$1 or new elem5ts ( lik5ess :i* h be5 discov]$4 ,9 ! conduct ( an inductive lesson x is ( prim>y importance t ! tea*] discov] to *ildr5 problems1 ! solutions ( :i* are important = !m1 t he guide !m 9 s f> z x is possible = !m to f9d all ( ! facts necess>y 9 _! se>* = data1 t he enc\rage !m to discuss ) ea* o!r1 ev5 to ! ext5t ( disagree+1 ) respect to comp>isons :i* are in/itut$ or g5]alizations :i* are premature1 & above all1 t he develop1 9 s f> z x is possible1 ! habit ( v]ify+ conclusions4 ,! ,d$uctive ,lesson4 ,! int]dep5d5ce ( induction & d$uction has be5 discuss$ 9 ! *apt] devot$ to ?9k+4 ,! proc$ure 9 a d$uctive lesson is f a cle> recognition ( ! problem involv$1 ?r\gh ! analysis ( ! situation & ab/raction ( ! ess5tial elem5ts1 to a se>* = ! laws or pr9ciples 9 :i* to classify ! p>ticul> elem5t or individual ) :i* we are deal+1 to a c>eful comp>ison ( ?is p>ticul> ) ! g5]al t we h f\nd1 to our conclusion1 :i* is e/abli%$ by a process ( v]ification4 ,briefly /at$1 ! normal ord] ( proc$ure might be indicat$ z foll[s3 7#a7 f9d+ ! problem2 7#b7 f9d+ ! g5]alization or pr9ciples2 7#c7 inf]5ce2 7#d7 v]ification4 ,x is important 9 ?is type ( ex]cise1 z has be5 indicat$ 9 ! discussion ( ! inductive lesson1 t ! problem be made cle>4 ,s long z *ildr5 indulge 9 r&om guesses z to ! process :i* is involv$ 9 ! solution ( a problem 9 ari?metic1 or ! pr9ciple :i* is to be invok$ 9 sci5ce1 or ! rule :i* is to be call$ to m9d 9 expla9+ a grammatical con/ruction1 we may take x = grant$ t !y h no v cle> conception ( ! process ?r\gh :i* !y mu/ pass1 nor ( ! issues :i* are involv$4 ,9 ! se>* = ! g5]alization or pr9ciple :i* w expla9 ! problem1 a process ( acceptance & rejection is involv$4 ,x helps *ildr5 to /ate def9itely1 ) respect to a problem 9 ari?metic1 t !y "k t ?is p>ticul> pr9ciple is n ! "o :i* !y ne$4 ,x is (t5 by a process ( elim9ation t a *ild c be/ expla9 a grammatical con/ruction1 ei!r 9 ,engli% or 9 a =eign language4 ,( c\rse ! elim9ation ( ! pr9ciple or law :i* is n ! "r "o means simply t we are r$uc+ ! numb] ( *ances ( mak+ a mi/ake4 ,if out ( f\r possibilities we c imm$iately elim9ate two ( !m1 !re are only two left to be consid]$4 ,aft] *ildr5 h discov]$ ! g5]alization or pr9ciple involv$1 x is well to h !m /ate def9itely ! inf]5ce :i* !y make4 ,j z 9 ! inductive process we pass almo/ imm$iately f ! /ep ( comp>ison & ab/raction to ! /atem5t ( g5]alization1 s 9 ! d$uctive lesson1 :5 once we h relat$ ! p>ticul> case "u consid]ation to ! pr9ciple :i* expla9s x1 we are ready to /ate our inf]5ce4 ,v]ification involves ! try+ out ( our inf]5ce to see t x c]ta9ly w hold4 ,?is may be done by propos+ "s o!r inf]5ce :i* we f9d to be invalid1 or by seek+ to f9d any o!r law or pr9ciple :i* w expla9 our p>ticul> situation4 ,"h aga91 z 9 ! inductive lesson1 ! skillful tea*] makes 8 greate/ contribution by hav+ *ildr5 become increas+ly c>eful 9 ?is /ep ( v]ification4 ,almo/ any "o c pass ?r\gh ! sev]al /ages involv$ 9 d$uctive ?9k+ & arrive at a wrong conclusion4 ,t :i* di/+ui%es ! c>eful ?9k] f ! c>eless /ud5t is ! s9c]ity ( ! =m] 9 8 unwill+ness to accept 8 conclusions until !y are v]ifi$4 ,! ,drill ,lesson4 ,! drill lesson is s cle>ly a matt] ( fix+ habits t little ne$s to be add$ to ! *apt] deal+ ) ?is subject4 ,if "o 7 to attempt to give 9 ord] ! /eps ( ! process involv$1 !y might be /at$ z foll[s3 7#a7 e/abli%+ a motive = =m+ ! habit2 7#b7 kn[+ exactly :at we wi% to d1 or ! habit or skill to be acquir$2 7#c7 recognition ( ! importance ( ! focus+ ( att5tion dur+ ! p]iod devot$ to repetitions2 7#d7 v>iation 9 practice 9 ord] to less5 fatigue & to help to fix att5tion2 7#e7 a recognition ( ! dang] ( mak+ mi/akes1 ) consequ5t provision aga9/ lapses2 7#f7 ! pr9ciple ( review1 :i* may be /at$ be/ by sugge/+ t ! p]iod betwe5 practice ex]cises may only gradually be l5g!n$4 ,possibly ! greate/ defici5cy 9 drill "w1 z commonly conduct$1 is f\nd 9 ! t5d5cy ^u ! "p ( "s tea*]s to dep5d ^u repetition involv+ _m mi/akes4 ,?is is due q frequ5tly to ! assignm5t ( too mu* to be accompli%$4 ,tw5ty-five words 9 spell+1 a :ole multiplication table1 a complete conjugation 9 ,lat91 all sugge/ ! dang] ( mi/akes :i* w be difficult to elim9ate lat] on4 ,! wise tea*] is ! "o :o provides v c>efully aga9/ mi/akes ^u ! "p ( pupils4 ,he assigns a m9imum numb] ( words1 or a numb] ( comb9ations1 or a "p ( a conjugation1 & takes c>e to discov] t *ildr5 are sure ( !mselves be=e indulg+ 9 t practice :i* is to fix ! habit4 ,9 mu* ( ! drill "w !re is1 ( c\rse1 ! desirability ( ga9+ 9 spe$4 ,9 ?is field successful tea*]s h discov]$ t mu* is ga9$ by m or less artificial /imuli :i* seem to be altoge!r outside ( ! "w requir$ to =m a habit4 ,9 drill on column addition successful "w is done by plac+ ! problem on ! bo>d & foll[+ ?r\gh ! comb9ations by po9t+ ! po9t] & mak+ a tap on ! bo>d z "o proce$s ?r\gh ! column4 ,conc]t "w ( ?is sort seems to h ! effect ( spe$+ up ^? :o w\ld ord9>ily lag1 ev5 ?\gh !y might get ! "r result4 ,! mo/ skillful tea*]s ( typewrit+ c\nt or clap _! h&s or use ! phonograph = ! sake ( spe$+ up _! /ud5ts4 ,!y h discov]$ t ! same am\nt ( "t devot$ to typewrit+ practice w produce any:]e f tw5ty-five to "o hundr$ p] c5t m spe$ "u su* artificial /imulation z !y 7 9 ! habit ( gett+ m]ely by ask+ ! /ud5ts to practice4 ,^! exp]i5ces1 ( c\rse1 sugge/ t drill "w w require an exp5diture ( en]gy & an al]tness ^u ! "p ( tea*]s1 & n m]ely an assignm5t ( "w to be done by pupils4 ,appreciation ,lesson4 ,! "w :i* ! tea*] does 9 secur+ appreciation has be5 sugge/$ 9 a previ\s *apt]4 ,x w suffice "h briefly to /ate :at may be ?\ght ( z ! ord] ( proc$ure 9 secur+ appreciation4 ,x is n z easy 9 ?is case to /ate ! developm5t 9 t]ms ( p>ticul> /eps or processes1 s9ce1 z has already be5 indicat$ 9 ! *apt] on appreciation1 ! /ud5t is passive r ?an active1 is contemplat+ & enjoy+1 r ?an attack+ & work+ to secure a p>ticul> result4 ,! "w ( ! tea*] may1 h[ev]1 be organiz$ ar\nd ! foll[+ heads3 7#a7 x is ( prim>y importance t ! tea*] br+ to ! class an en?usiasm & joy = ! picture1 music1 poetry1 p]son1 or a*ievem5t :i* he wi%es to pres5t2 7#b7 *ildr5 mu/ n be =c$ to accept nor ev5 enc\rag$ to repeat ! evaluation det]m9$ by tea*]s2 7#c7 spontane\s & s9c]e response ^u ! "p ( *ildr5 %\ld be accept$1 ev5 ?\gh x may n con=m to ! tea*]'s e/imate2 7#d7 *ildr5 %\ld be enc\rag$ to *oose f among _m ( ! =ms or situations pres5t$ = _! approval ^? :i* !y l be/2 7#e7 ! te*nique involv$ 9 ! creation ( ! arti/ic =m %\ld be subord9at$ to enjoym5t 9 ! field ( ! f9e arts2 7#f7 ?r\gh\t1 ! play _s %\ld be pr$om9ant1 = if ! elem5t ( drudg]y ent]s1 appreciation disappe>s4 ,tea*]s :o get good results 9 appreciation secure !m ma9ly by virtue ( ! fact t !y h l>ge capacity = enjoym5t 9 ! fields :i* !y pres5t to *ildr54 ,a tea*] :o is en?usia/ic1 & :o really f9ds great joy 9 music1 w awak5 & develop p[] ( appreciation ^u ! "p ( 8 pupils4 ,! tea*] :o c ent] into ! _s ( ! *ild poetry1 or ( ! fairy tale1 w get a type ( appreciation n enjoy$ by ! tea*] :o f9ds delight only 9 adult lit]ature4 ,x is ( ! utmo/ importance to recognize ! fact t *ildr5 only gradually gr[ f an appreciation or joy 9 t :i* is crude to t :i* repres5ts ! highe/ type ( arti/ic production4 ,x is important to h *ildr5 try !mselves out 9 creative "w2 b ! influ5ce ( a tea*] may be f> great] ?an t ( ! attempts ( ! *ildr5 to produce 9 ^! fields4 ,lectur+4 ,among ! v>i\s types ( me?ods us$ 9 tea*+ !re is probably no "o :i* has receiv$ su* sev]e criticism z ! s-call$ lecture me?od4 ,! result ( ?is criticism has be51 !oretically at lea/1 to aboli% lectur+ f ! elem5t>y s*ool & to dim9i% ! use ( ?is me?od 9 ! high s*ool1 al?\gh 9 ! colleges & univ]sities x is /ill ! mo/ popul> me?od4 ,al?\gh x is true t ! lecture me?od is n ! be/ "o = cont9ual use 9 elem5t>y & high s*ool1 /ill its entire disuse is un=tunate4 ,s is its bl9d use by ^? :o /ill adh]e to ! old ways ( do+ ?+s4 ,! *ief criticisms ( ! me?od are1 fir/1 t x makes ( ! le>n] a m]e recipi5t in/ead ( a ?9k]2 second1 t ! mat]ial s ga9$ does n become "p ( ! m5tal life ( ! he>]s & s is n s well rememb]$ nor s easily appli$ z mat]ial ga9$ 9 o!r ways2 ?ird1 t ! in/ructor has no means ( det]m9+ :e!r 8 class is gett+ ! "r ideas or :olly false ones2 f\r?1 ! me?od lacks int]e/ 9 ! majority ( cases4 ,despite ! tru? ( ^! criticisms1 !re are occasions :5 ! lecture or tell+ me?od is ! be/ "o--9 fact ! only "o t c accompli% ! desir$ result4 ,fir/1 ! lecture me?od may sometimes take ! place ( books4 ,(t51 ev5 9 ! elem5t>y s*ool1 !re is ne$ = ! *ildr5 to get facts1--in=mation 9 hi/ory or geography or lit]ature1--& ! gett+ ( ^! facts f books w\ld be too difficult or too wa/eful4 ,9 su* a case tell+ ! facts is c]ta9ly ! be/ way to give !m4 ,a tea*] 9 half a p]iod c give mat]ial t x might take ! *ildr5 h\rs to f9d4 ,by tell+ !m ! facts1 he n only saves wa/e ( "t1 b also reta9s ! int]e/4 ,v (t5 disc\ragem5t & ev5 dislike results f a prolong$ se>* = a few facts4 ,( c\rse 9 ! high] s*ools1 :5 ! mat]ial to be giv5 is n 9 pr9t1 :5 ! pr(essor is ! s\rce ( c]ta9 !ories1 me?ods1 & explanations1 lectur+ is ! only way = /ud5ts to get ! mat]ial4 ,x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t human be+s are naturally a s\rce ( int]e/1 p>ticul>ly to *ildr51 & !re=e hav+ ! tea*] tell1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 w make a great] impression ?an read+ x 9 a book4 ,second1 ! lecture me?od is valuable z a means ( explanation4 ,despite ! fact t ! mat]ial giv5 may be adapt$ to ! *ild's level ( developm5t1 /ill x (t5 happ5s t x is n cle>4 ,!n1 in/ead ( s5d+ ! *ild to ! same mat]ial aga91 an explanation by tea*] or fell[ pupil is mu* bett]4 ,x may be j ! inflection us$1 or ! *oice ( diff]5t words1 t w cle> up ! difficulty4 ,?ird1 ! tell+ me?od %\ld be us$ = illu/ration4 ,v (t5 :5 illu/ration is necess>y ! lecture me?od is supplem5t$ by illu/rative mat]ial ( v>i\s types--objects1 exp]im5ts1 pictures1 models1 diagrams1 & s on4 ,none ( ?is mat]ial1 h[ev]1 is us$ to its be/ advantage unless x is accompani$ by ! tell+ me?od4 ,x is ?r\gh ! tell+ t ! ess5tials ( ! illu/rative mat]ial ga9 ! prop] p]spective4 ,)\t su* explanation "s unimportant detail may focus ! att5tion & ! value ( ! mat]ial be lo/4 ,x has be5 cu/om>y to emphasize ! ne$ = & ! value ( ?is concrete illu/rative mat]ial4 ,tea*]s h felt t if x 0 possible to h ! actual object1 x %\ld be obta9$2 if t 0 n possible1 :y !n h pictures1 b diagrams & words %\ld only be us$ z a la/ resort4 ,!re c be no d\bt z to ! value ( ! concrete mat]ial1 especially ) little *ildr5--b its use has be5 c>ri$ to an extreme because x has be5 us$ bl9dly4 ,= in/ance1 sometimes ! concrete mat]ial because ( its g5]al inh]5t int]e/1 or because ( its special appeal to "s in/9ct1 attracts ! att5tion ( ! *ild 9 su* a way t ! po9t :i* 0 to be illu/rat$ is lo/ sight (4 ,witness "w 9 nature /udy 9 ! l[] grades1 & 9 *emi/ry 9 ! high s*ool4 ,! concrete mat]ial may be s complex t aga9 ! ess5tial po9t is lo/ 9 ! mass ( detail4 ,no p]spective c be obta9$ because ( ! complexity--witness "w ) pr9ciples ( ma*9es 9 physics & ! circulation ( ! blood 9 biology4 ,sometimes ! diagram or ^w explanation ) no?+ ( ! m concrete mat]ial is ! be/ type ( illu/ration4 ,a fre% application ( ! pr9ciple or lesson by ! tea*] is ano!r means ( illu/ration & "o ( ! be/1 = x n only broad5s ! /ud5t's po9t ( view & gives ano!r cue to ! mat]ial1 b x may also make direct connection ) 8 own exp]i5ce4 ,illu/rations 9 ! book (t5 fail to d ?is1 b ! tea*] kn[+ 8 p>ticul> class c make ! application t w mean mo/4 ,tell+ a /ory or incid5t is ano!r way ( illu/ration4 ,! p]sonal elem5t is ne>ly always pres5t 9 ?is means1 & is a valuable spur to int]e/4 ,illu/rations ( all k9ds1 f ! concrete to ! /ory =m1 h be5 grossly misus$ 9 tea*+1 s t to-day tea*]s are almo/ afraid to use any4 ,! difficulty has be5 t illu/rations h be5 us$ z a means ( rega9+ w&]+ att5tion4 ,x has be5 ! sug>-coat+4 ,! illu/ration1 !n1 has become ! important ?+ & ! mat]ial nonimportant4 ,! class has wat*$ ! exp]im5t or li/5$ to ! /ory1 b :5 t 0 ov] ! att5tion 0 gone aga94 ,illu/rations %\ld n be ! means ( hold+ ! att5tion2 t is ! function ( ! mat]ial itself4 ,if ! lesson _c hold ! int]e/1 illu/rations are worse ?an useless4 ,illu/rations1 !n1 ( all k9ds mu/ be subord9at$ to ! mat]ial--!y are only a means to an end1 & t end is a bett] und]/&+ ( ! mat]ial4 ,illu/rations1 fur!r1 %\ld h a vital1 necess>y connection ) ! po9t !y are us$ to make cle>]4 ,illu/rations t are dragg$ 91 t are n vitally connect$ ) ! po9t1 are entirely out ( place4 ,if illu/rations always truly illu/rat$1 !n *ildr5 w\ld n rememb] ! illu/ration & =get ! po9t1 = rememb]+ ! illu/ration !y w\ld be l$ directly to ! po9t because ( ! clos5ess ( ! connection4 ,f\r?1 tell+ or lectur+ is ! be/ way to get appreciation4 ,?is 0 discuss$ 9 ! *apt] on appreciation1 s ne$ only be m5tion$ "h4 ,! int]pretation by ! tea*] ( ! "*1 ! picture1 ! poem1 ! policy1 or :at n1 n only increases ! und]/&+ ( ! li/5]1 b also calls up feel+ responses4 ,x is 9 ?is tell+ t ! p]sonality ( ! tea*]1 8 exp]i5ces1 8 ideals1 make !mselves felt4 ,"o c (t5 w9 appreciation ( & allegiance to ! be/ 9 life by ! use ( ! tell+ me?od 9 ! appropriate situations4 ,fif?1 ! lecture me?od %\ld sometimes be us$ z a means ( gett+ ! desir$ m5tal attitude4 ,! g5]al laws ( le>n+ emphasize ! importance ( ! m9d's set z a condition to read9ess ( neurone tracts4 ,five or t5 m9utes sp5t at ! beg9n+ ( a subject1 or a new section ( "w1 9 introduc+ ! class to x1 may give ! keynote = ! :ole c\rse4 ,a :ole p]iod may be pr(itably be sp5t ?is way4 ,n only w ! tell+ me?od us$ on su* occasions give ! "r emotional attitude t[>ds a subject1 b also ! "r intellectual set z well4 ,x is evid5t !n t ! lecture or tell+ me?od has its place 9 all p>ts ( ! educational sy/em1 b its place %\ld be cle>ly & def9itely recogniz$4 ,! dang] is n 9 us+ x1 b 9 us+ x at ! wrong "t1 & 9 ov]us+ x4 ,be>+ 9 m9d ! dang]s t adh]e to its use1 x is always well1 :e!r ! me?od is us$ 9 grades or 9 college1 to mix x ) o!r me?ods or to foll[ x by ano!r me?od t w d ! ?+s t ! lecture me?od may h left undone4 ,! ,recitation ,lesson4 ,z has be5 sugge/$ 9 ! op5+ ( ?is *apt]1 ! recitation lesson is n a type involv+ any p>ticul> psy*ological process4 ,x is1 r1 a me?od ( proc$ure :i* may involve any ( ! o!r types ( "w already discuss$4 ,:5 ! recitation lesson means m]ely recit+ p>agraphs f ! book ) little or no ref]5ce to problems to be solv$ or skill to be develop$1 x has no place 9 a s*oolroom4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! tea*] uses ! recitation lesson z an ex]cise 9 :i* he assures himself t facts ne$$ = fur!r progress 9 ?9k+ h be5 secur$1 or t habits h be5 e/abli%$1 or v]batim memorization accompli%$1 ?is type ( ex]cise is ju/ifi$4 ,x is well to rememb] t ! ?\ght process involv$ 9 ! developm5t ( a subject1 or ! solution ev5 ( a s+le problem1 may ext5d ov] _m class p]iods4 ,! recitation lesson may be important 9 organiz+ ! mat]ial :i* is to be us$ 9 ! l>g] ?\ght :ole4 ,aga91 ?is type ( ex]cise may involve ! pres5tation ( mat]ial :i* is to be us$ z a basis = appreciation 9 lit]ature1 9 music1 9 art1 9 hi/ory1 & ! l4 ,! organization ( exp]i5ces ( *ildr51 :e!r secur$ ?r\gh obs]vations1 discussions1 or f books1 ar\nd c]ta9 topics may furni% a mo/ satisfactory basis = ! developm5t ( problems or ( ! ga!r+ ( ! mat]ial ess5tial = _! solution4 ,a bett] und]/&+ ( ! conditions :i* make = success 9 habit =mation1 9 ?9k+1 & ! developm5t ( appreciation1 w t5d to elim9ate f our s*ools t type ( ex]cise 9 :i* tea*]s ask m]ely t *ildr5 recite to !m :at !y h be5 able to rememb] f ! books :i* !y h read or ! lectures :i* !y h he>d4 ,! ,exam9ation & ,review ,lessons4 ,9 ! e/abli%m5t ( habits1 ! developm5t ( appreciation1 or ! gr[? 9 und]/&+ :i* we seek to secure ?r\gh ?9k+1 !re w be _m occasions = *eck+ up our "w4 ,successful tea*+ requires t ! habit t we ?9k we h e/abli%$ be call$ = & additional practice giv5 f "t to "t 9 ord] to be c]ta9 t x is fix$4 ,9 l mann]1 ! developm5t ( our ?\ght 9 any field is n some?+ :i* is accompli%$ )\t respect to lat] neglect4 ,we1 r1 build a sy/em ( ?\ght ) ref]5ce to a p>ticul> field or subject z a result ( ?9k+1 & re?9k+ ?r\gh ! _m diff]5t situations :i* are involv$4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ! field ( appreciation ! v ess5ce ( our enjoym5t is to be f\nd 9 ! fact t t :i* we h enjoy$ we recall1 & /r5g!n our appreciation ?r\gh ! revival ( ! exp]i5ce4 ,! review is1 ( c\rse1 mo/ successful :5 x is n simply go+ ov] ! :ole mat]ial 9 exactly ! same way4 ,9 habit =mation x is (t5 advisable to arrange 9 a diff]5t ord] ! /imuli :i* are to br+ ! desir$ responses1 = ! v ess5ce ( habit =mation is f\nd 9 ! fact t ! p>ticul> response c be secur$ reg>dless ( ! ord] 9 :i* !y are call$ =4 ,9 ?9k+1 z a subject is develop$1 our control is measur$ by ! bett] p]spective :i* we secure4 ,?is means1 ( c\rse1 t 9 review we w n be conc]n$ ) reviv+ all ( ! processes ?r\gh :i* we h pass$1 b1 r1 9 a reorganization q diff]5t f t :i* 0 orig9ally provid$4 ,! exam9ation lesson is classifi$ "h z ( ! same type z ! review because a good exam9ation involves all t has be5 sugge/$ by review4 ,! writ] has no sympa?y ) ^? :o argue aga9/ exam9ations4 ,! only pro( t we c get ( ! success or failure ( our "w is to be f\nd 9 ! a*ievem5t ( pupils4 ,x is n desirable to set aside a p>ticul> p]iod ( a week devot$ entirely to exam9ations1 because exam9ations 9 all subjects _c to be/ advantage be giv5 dur+ ! same p]iod4 ,!re are /ages 9 ! developm5t ( our ?9k+1 or 9 ! acquir+ ( skill1 or 9 our und]/&+ & appreciation :i* occur at irregul> int]vals & :i* call = a summ+ up ( :at has gone be=e1 9 ord] t we may be sure ( success 9 ! "w :i* is to foll[4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 undesirable to devote a :ole week to exam9ations on acc\nt ( ! /ra9 & excitem5t "u :i* *ildr5 labor4 ,x is entirely possible to "k ( ! a*ievem5ts ( *ildr5 ?r\gh exam9ations :i* h be5 giv5 at irregul> int]vals ?r\gh\t ! t]m4 ,x w\ld be be/1 probably1 nev] to give m ?an "o exam9ation on any "o day1 &1 z a rule1 to devote only ! regul> class p]iod to su* "w4 ,9 ano!r *apt] ! discussion ( m exact me?ods ( measur+ ! a*ievem5ts ( *ildr5 w be discuss$ at "s l5g?4 ,9 all ( ! lesson types m5tion$ above1 "o ( ! mo/ important means employ$ by tea*]s = ! /imulation ( pupils is ! "q4 ,x seems wise1 !re=e1 to devote "s p>agraphs to a consid]ation ( que/ion+ z det]m9+ skill 9 tea*+4 ,que/ion+4 ,! purpose ( a "q is to s]ve z a situation :i* %all ar\se to activity c]ta9 n]ve connections & ?us br+ a response4 ,que/ions1 oral or writt51 are ! *ief tools us$ 9 s*ools to ga9 responses4 ,9 "s situations x is ! only means a tea*] may h ( ar\s+ ! response4 ,psy*ologically1 !n1 ! value ( ! "q mu/ be judg$ by ! response4 ,que/ions may be consid]$ f ! po9t ( view ( ! k9d ( response !y call =4 ,probably ! mo/ common k9d ( "q is ! "o t calls = facts z answ]s4 ,x involves memory--b memory ( a rote type4 ,x does n require ?9k+4 ,all drill que/ions are ( ?is type4 ,! connections ar\s$ are def9itely f9al 9 a c]ta9 ord]1 & ! "q simply sets (f ! tra9 ( bonds t leads directly to ! answ]4 ,ano!r type ( "q involv+ ! memory process is ! "o :i* initiates recall1 b "h ?\ght is active4 ,! answ] _c be ga9$ 9 a me*anical way1 b selection & rejection are involv$4 ,! answ] is to be f\nd by exam9+ pa/ exp]i5ce1 b only 9 a ?\ghtful way4 ,que/ions :i* call = comp>ison =m ano!r type4 ,^! may v>y f ^? :i* involve ! comp>ison ( s5se mat]ial to ^? :i* involve ! comp>ison ( policies or epo*s4 ,words1 *>act]s1 plots1 def9itions1 plans1 subjects--ev]y?+ ) :i* intellectual life deals is op5 to comp>ison4 ,comp>ison is "o ( ! /eps 9 ! process ( reason+1 & h5ce que/ions ( ?is type are extremely important4 ,!n !re are ! que/ions :i* ar\se ! response ( analysis4 ,^! que/ions v>y among !mselves accord+ to ! type ( analysis ne$$1 :e!r piecemeal att5tion or analysis due to v>y+ concomitants4 ,! =m] drives ! ?9k] ?r\gh gradual recognition & elim9ation ( ! kn[n elem5ts to a consci\sness ( ! only p>tly kn[n4 ,! latt]1 by attract+ ! att5tion to unv>y+ factors 9 ! *ang+ situations1 =ces out ! new & until !n unkn[n elem5t4 ,"s que/ions require judgm5t z a response4 ,! judgm5t may be "o conc]n+ relation%ips1 or conc]n+ wor? or value1 or be m]ely a matt] ( def9ition--all que/ions call+ = criticism are ( ?is type4 ,9 any case ?is type ( "q involves ! ?\ght elem5t at its be/4 ,! "q requir+ organization =ms ano!r type4 ,!re is no %>p l9e ( division betwe5 ^! types ( que/ions4 ,no "o ( !m %\ld be us$ exclusively4 ,"s ( !m imply op]ations ( a simple type z well z ! p>ticul> response dem&$ by t =m4 ,= in/ance1 "s ( ! que/ions involv+ analysis imply comp>ison & recall+4 ,a judgm5t "q might call = all ! simple processes not$ above & o!rs z well4 ,! responses !n v>y 9 complexity & difficulty4 ,! ord] ( advance 9 bo? complexity & difficulty ( ! response is f ! m]e drill "q to ! judgm5t "q4 ,ano!r type ( "q is ! "o :i* desires appreciation z a response4 ,?is "q is "o ( ! mo/ difficult to frame1 = x mu/ t5d to inhibit ! critical attitude & by means ( ! associations x ar\ses or its own sugge/ive p[] get ! appreciative response4 ,que/ions ( ?is type (t5 call = con/ructive imag]y z a means to ! desir$ end4 ,"s que/ions are directive 9 _! t5d5cy4 ,!y require z response an attitude or set ( ! m9d4 ,!y set ! *ild ?9k+ 9 ?is direction r ?an t4 ,9 a s5se !y are sugge/ive1 b !y sugge/ ! l9e ( se>* r ?an ! response4 ,a f9al type ( "q is ak9 to ! "o j discuss$--! "q ^: response is fur!r que/ions4 ,"h aga9 ! response desir$ is an attitude1 b 9 ?is case x is m ?an an attitude1 x is also a def9ite response t %all come 9 ! =m ( que/ions4 ,! que/ions ( a good tea*] %\ld result 9 /ud5ts ask+ que/ions bo? ( p & ( books4 ,^! la/ ?ree types ( que/ions are p]haps ! mo/ difficult ( all4 ,because ( _! complexity & subtlety !y (t5 miss fire & fail ( _! purpose4 ,prop]ly h&l$ !y are among ! mo/ p[]ful tools a tea*] has4 ,! type ( "q us$ mu/ v>y1 n only ) ! p>ticul> gr\p ( *ildr51 & ! type ( lesson1 b also ) ! subject4 ,que/ions t w\ld be ! be/ type 9 ma!matics might n be s good = an art lesson4 ,! k9ds ( que/ions us$ mu/ be adapt$ to ! p>ticul> situation4 ,psy*ologically a "q is valuable n only 9 accordance ) ! k9d ( response x gets1 b also 9 proportion to ! read9ess ( ! response4 ,a "q t is ( su* a "* t ! response is hazy1 /umbl+1 hesitat+--a "q t br+s no cle>-cut response because ! *ild does n und]/& :at is want$1 is a poor "q4 ,?is does n at all mean t ! "r response mu/ always come imm$iately4 ,"s ( ! be/ que/ions are put ) ! int5tion ( =c+ ! *ild to realize t he c't answ]--t he doesn't "k4 ,if t type ( response comes to t "q1 x is ! be/ possible answ]4 ,nor ne$ ! :ole answ] come imm$iately4 ,= in/ance1 9 _m ( ! judgm5t que/ions ! ?9k+ process ar\s$ may take "s "t be=e ! judgm5t is rea*$1 & mean:ile sev]al p>tial answ]s may be giv54 ,b if ! "q ask$ />t$ ! process1 )\t wa/e ( "t 9 try+ to f9d out :at x meant1 ! "q is good4 ,) ^! explanations1 !n1 ! second qualification ( a good "q is t x secures ! appropriate response readily4 ,9 ord] to d ?is1 ^! factors mu/ be consid]$3 ,fir/1 ! pr9ciple ( app]ception mu/ be recogniz$4 ,e "q mu/ deal ) mat]ial t is on a level ) ! /age ( developm5t ( ! "o que/ion$4 ,n only s1 b ! "q mu/ connect some:]e ) ! le>n]'s exp]i5ce4 ,?is means a recognition also ( individual diff]5ces4 ,! "q mu/ also be c\*$ 9 language t c be und]/ood easily by ! "o que/ion$4 ,to h to try to und]/& ! language ( ! "q z well z ! "q1 results 9 divid$ att5tion & delay$ responses4 ,second1 ! "q %\ld be cle> & def9ite4 ,a "q t has ^! *>act]i/ics w *all5ge ! att5tion ( ! class4 ,x is direct$ /raight at ! po9t at issue1 & no "t w be lo/ 9 wond]+ :at ! "q means1 or 9 try+ two or ?ree t5tative answ]s4 ,?ird1 ! y\ng] ! *ild1 ! simpl] ! "q mu/ be4 ,) little *ildr51 to be good a "q may involve only "o idea1 or relation%ip4 ,! am\nt involv$ 9 ! "q1 its scope & cont5t1 mu/ be adapt$ to ! m5tal developm5t ( ! le>n]4 ,x is only a mature ?9k] :o c c>ry simultane\sly two or ?ree po9ts ( issue1 or possibilities4 ,f\r?1 ! "q to ga9 a ready response mu/ be int]e/+4 ,n only mu/ ! lesson z a :ole be int]e/+1 b ! que/ions !mselves mu/ h ! same quality4 ,dull que/ions c kill an o!rwise good lesson4 ,! =m ( ! "q is ?us a big factor 9 ga9+ a ready response4 ,all ! qualities :i* ga9 involunt>y att5tion c be us$ 9 fram+ an int]e/+ "q--novelty1 exagg]ation1 contra/1 life1 color1 & s on4 ,! ?ird po9t to be consid]$ 9 det]m9+ a good "q is :e!r or n x satisfies ! dem&s ( economy4 ,?is dem& is a fair "o bo? f ! /&po9t ( ! be/ use ( ! "t at ! disposal ( ! le>n]1 & also f ! /&po9t ( ! be/ means ( ga9+ ! greate/ developm5t on ! "p ( ! le>n] 9 a giv5 "t4 ,! numb] ( que/ions ask$ ?us ent]s 9 z a factor4 ,:5 a tea*] asks f\r or five que/ions :5 "o w\ld s]ve ! same purpose1 %e is n only wa/+ "t1 b ! *ild is n gett+ ! opportunity to d any ?9k+ & !re=e is n develop+4 ,rec5t /udies on ! actual numb] ( que/ions ask$ 9 a recitation po9t to ! conclusion t economy bo? ( "t & 9 developm5t is be+ s]i\sly ov]look$4 ,economy 9 response may also be bright5$ by pres]v+ a logical sequ5ce betwe5 que/ions4 ,x is a matt] ( fact 9 psy*ology t associations are sy/ematiz$ ab\t c5tral ideas2 x is also a fact t ! set ( ! m9d1 9 ?is direction r ?an t1 is *>act]i/ic ( all "w4 ,logical sequ5ce1 !n1 makes use ( bo? ^! facts--bo? ( ! sy/ematization ( ideas & ( ! m5tal attitude4 ,! f\r? te/ ( good que/ion+ is ! univ]sality ( its appeal4 ,"s que/ions :i* are o!rwise good appeal b to comp>atively few 9 ! class4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 means t responses are be+ ga9$ b f few4 ,! be/ que/ion+ /imulates mo/ ( ! class2 all memb]s ( ! class are work+4 ,9 ord] to secure ?is result ! que/ions mu/ be prop]ly di/ribut$ ov] ! class4 ,! bright pupils mu/ n be all[$ to d all ! "w2 or1 on ! o!r h&1 all ! att5tion ( ! tea*]s mu/ n be giv5 to ! dull pupils4 ,n only %\ld ! que/ions be well di/ribut$1 b !y mu/ v>y accord+ to ! individual ability ( ! p>ticul> *ild4 ,?is has already be5 emphasiz$ 9 deal+ ) read9ess ( response4 ,_m a lesson has be5 unsuccessful because ! tea*] gave too difficult a "q to a dull *ild1 & :ile %e 0 /ruggl+ ) him1 %e lo/ ! re/ ( ! class4 ,! rev]se is also true1 to give a bright *ild a "q t requires almo/ no ?9k+ means t a me*anical answ] w be giv5 & no fur!r activity /imulat$4 ,! ext5t to :i* all ! class are m5tally active is "o measure ( a good "q4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,give an example ( a lesson :i* y h taught :i* 0 pr$om9antly inductive4 ,%[ h[ y proce$$ f ! discov]y ( ! problem to y\r pupils to ! solution atta9$4 #b4 ,:at is involv$ 9 ! /ep ( pres5tation8 #c4 ,:y may we n consid] ! sev]al /eps ( ! inductive lesson z occurr+ 9 a def9ite & mutually exclusive sequ5ce8 #d4 ,9 :at respect is ! proc$ure 9 a d$uctive lesson l t :i* y foll[ 9 an inductive lesson8 #e4 ,%[ h[ v]ification is an important elem5t 9 bo? inductive & d$uctive lessons4 #f4 ,give illu/rations ( successful drill lessons & make cle> ! reason = ! degree ( success a*iev$4 #g4 ,:at measures h y f\nd mo/ advantage\s 9 secur+ spe$ 9 drill "w8 #h4 ,:at are ! elem5ts :i* make = success 9 an appreciation lesson8 #i4 ,^u :at gr\nds & to :at ext5t c lectur+ be def5d$ z a me?od ( in/ruction8 #aj4 ,:at may be ! relation betwe5 a good recitation lesson & ! solution ( a problem8 ,gr[? 9 p[] ( appreciation8 #aa4 ,= :at purposes %\ld exam9ations be giv58 ,:5 %\ld exam9ations be giv58 #ab4 ,:5 are que/ions :i* call = facts ju/ifi$8 #ac4 ,:y are que/ions :i* call = comp>isons to be consid]$ important8 #ad4 ,:y is x important to phrase que/ions c>efully8 #ae4 ,:y %\ld a tea*] ask "s que/ions :i* _c be answ]$ imm$iately8 #af4 ,:at crit]ia w\ld y apply 9 te/+ ! que/ions :i* y put to y\r class8 #ag4 ,write five que/ions :i* 9 y\r judgm5t w dem& ?9k+ ^u "s topic :i* y plan to tea* to y\r class4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,xiv4 ,,h[ ,,to ,,/udy ,! t]m /udy has be5 us$ v loosely by bo? tea*]s & *ildr54 ,z us$ by tea*]s x frequ5tly meant some?+ v diff]5t f :at *ildr5 _h 9 m9d :5 !y us$ x4 ,fur!r1 tea*]s !mselves h (t5 us$ ! t]m 9 connection ) m5tal activities :i*1 te*nically speak+1 c\ld n possibly come "u t head4 ,mu* confusion & lack ( effici5t "w has be5 ! result4 ,rec5tly v>i\s attempts h be5 made to give ! t]m /udy a m exact mean+4 ,mc,murry def9es x z ! "w t is necess>y 9 ! assimilation ( ideas--! vigor\s application ( ! m9d to a subject = ! satisfaction ( a felt ne$4 ,9 o!r words1 /udy is ?9k+4 ,psy*ologically1 :at makes = good ?9k+ makes = good /udy4 ,/udy is controll$ m5tal activity work+ t[>ds ! realization ( a goal4 ,x is ! adaptation ( means to end1 9 ! attempt to satisfy a felt ne$4 ,x involves a def9ite purpose or goal1 :i* is problematic1 ! selection & rejection ( sugge/ions1 t5tative judgm5ts1 & conclusion4 ,! m9d ( ! "o :o /udies is active1 vigor\sly active1 n 9 an aimless fa%ion1 b along %>ply def9$ l9es4 ,?is is ! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( all /udy4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 v>i\s types ( /udy :i* diff] mat]ially f ea* o!r accord+ to ! subject matt] or to ! type ( response requir$4 ,"s /udy involves comp>atively little ?9k+4 ,! direct$ activity mu/ be pres5t1 b ! *oice1 ! judgm5t1 may ne$ to be ex]cis$ only 9 ! beg9n+ :5 me?ods ( proc$ure ne$ to be select$1 & lat] on1 p]haps1 :5 successes or failures ne$ to be not$ & *anges made 9 ! me?ods accord+ly4 ,ano!r type ( /udy ne$s cont9ual ?9k+ ( ! mo/ active sort all ! way ?r\gh ! p]iod4 ,j ! proportion ( ! v>i\s factors involv$ 9 ?9k+ :i* is pres5t at any giv5 /udy p]iod mu/ be det]m9$ by ! response4 ,a type ( /udy :i* w\ld be completely satisfactory = "o subject ne$+ "o response1 w\ld be entirely inadequate = ano!r subject ne$+ ano!r response4 ,to illu/rate1 9 "s cases ! /udy mu/ deal ) habit =mation4 ,! ne$ felt is to le>n a me*anical response ( a v def9ite nature to ?is situation2 ! problem is to get t response4 ,! ?9k+ w\ld come 9 9 decid+ ^u ! me?od1 9 wat*+ = successes1 9 criticiz+ progress1 & 9 judg+ :5 ! end 0 obta9$4 ,a l>ge "p ( ! "t sp5t 9 /udy w\ld1 h[ev]1 ne$ to be sp5t 9 repetition1 9 drill4 ,( su* "* is /udy ( spell+1 ( vocabul>ies1 ( dates2 /udy 9 ord] to ga9 skill 9 add+1 or spe$ 9 read+1 or to improve 9 writ+ or sew+4 ,mu* ( habit =mation goes on )\t /udy--9 fact1 to "s x may seem to be ludicr\s to use ! ^w /udy 9 connection ) ! =mation ( habits4 ,x is j because ! /udy elem5ts 9 connection ) responses ( ?is type h be5 omitt$ t !re has be5 su* a trem5d\s wa/e ( "t 9 tea*+ *ildr5 to =m "r habits4 ,?is omission also expla9s ! poor results1 = ! process has be5 me*anical & bl9d on ! "p ( ! /ud5t4 ,at ! o!r extreme 9 types ( /udy is t :i* c be us$ 9 sci5ce & ma!matics1 9 geography & hi/ory1 :5 ! major "p ( ! "t is giv5 to select+ & reject+ sugge/ions & seems requir$ by ! goal4 ,9 ?is type ! habituation1 ! fix+ ( ! mat]ial1 comes l>gely z a by-product ( ! factors us$ 9 ! ?9k+4 ,/udy may1 !n1 be classifi$ accord+ z ! response requir$ is physical habit1 memory1 appreciation1 or judgm5t4 ,^! types ov]lap1 no "o ( !m c exi/ absolutely alone1 b x is possible to "n !m accord+ to ! response4 ,/udy may also be classifi$ into sup]vis$ /udy1 or unsup]vis$ /udy1 into individual or gr\p /udy4 ,we might also classify /udy z x has to d ) books1 ) p1 or ) mat]ials4 ,! t]m has be5 r arbitr>ily appli$ to activities t dealt ) books1 b surely mu* /udy is accompli%$ :5 p are consult$ in/ead ( books1 & also :5 ! s\rces ( in=mation or ! /&>ds are fl[]s1 or rocks1 or textiles4 ,/udy1 !n1 is a big t]m1 includ+ _m diff]5t v>ieties ( activities1 ( v>y+ degrees ( difficulty & responsibility4 ,x _c possibly be taught all at once1 accord+ to "o me?od1 at "o spot 9 ! s*ool curriculum4 ,p[] to /udy is ( v gradual gr[?4 ,x mu/ proce$ sl[ly1 f simple to complex types4 ,f easy to difficult problems1 f situations :]e !re is close sup]vision & direction to situations :]e ! /ud5t assumes full responsibility4 ,kn[+ h[ to /udy is n an inborn gift--x does n come z a matt] ( intuition1 nor does x come 9 "s my/]i\s way :5 ! *ild is ( high s*ool age4 ,x is gov]n$ by ! laws ( le>n+1 or read9ess1 ex]cise1 & effect1 j z truly z any o!r ability is4 ,if adults are to "k h[ to /udy1 if !y are to use ! te*nique ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( /udy effici5tly1 *ildr5 mu/ be taught h[4 ,nor c we expect ! upp] gramm> grade or ! high s*ool tea*]s to d ?is4 ,habits ( /udy mu/ be =m$ j z soon z ! responses to :i* x leads are ne$$4 ,beg9n+ d[n 9 ! k9d]g>t5 ) /udy 9 connection ) physical & m5tal habits1 ! *ild %\ld be taught h[ to /udy4 ,! type mu/ gradually become m complex2 he mu/ pass f gr\p to individual /udy1 f sup]vis$ to unsup]vis$1 b x mu/ all come logically1 f /ep to /ep4 ,true1 x is n easy to tea* h[ to /udy4 ,a c>eful analysis ( ! v>i\s types ) _! peculi> elem5ts %\ld be a help4 ,fir/1 h[ev]1 !re are "s g5]al pr9ciples t und]lie all /udy :i* mu/ be discuss$4 ,/udy mu/ h1 z has already be5 /at$1 a purpose4 ,! individual1 9 ord] to ex]cise 8 m9d 9 a controll$ way1 mu/ h an aim4 ,! cle>] & m def9ite ! aim1 :e!r x be little or big1 ! bett] ! /udy w be4 ,f ! beg9n+1 !n1 *ildr5 mu/ be taught to make sure !y "k :at !y are go+ to d be=e beg9n+ to /udy4 ,x may be necess>y to tea* !m 9 ! e>ly grades to say to !mselves or to ! class j :at !y are go+ to accompli% 9 ! /udy4 ,tea* !m :5 ! lesson is assign$ to write d[n 9 _! books j :at ! problem = /udy is4 ,w>n !m nev] to beg9 /udy )\t def9itely kn[+ ! aim--if !y don't "k x1 make !m realize t ! fir/ ?+ to d is to f9d out ! purpose by ask+ "s "o else4 ,bett] no /udy at all ?an aimless or misdirect$ activity1 because ( lack ( purpose4 ,no /udy wor?y ( ! "n c be c>ri$ on )\t int]e/4 ,! *ild :o /udies well mu/ be br\ght to realize ?is4 ,! value ( int]e/ c be br\ght home to him by hav+ him comp>e ! "w he does1 ! "t he sp5ds1 & h[ he feels :5 /udy+ some?+ 9 :i* he has a vital int]e/ ) ! results :5 ! topic is un9t]e/+4 ,( c\rse1 z w be po9t$ out lat]1 mu* ( ! ga9+ ( int]e/ lies 9 ! h&s ( ! tea*] necess>ily1 b if ! *ild realizes ! ne$ ( x 9 effici5t /udy1 "s responsibility w re/ on him to f9d an int]e/ if x is n already !re4 ,no matt] h[ exp]t ! tea*] may be1 because ( individual diff]5ces no problem w be equally int]e/+ to all pupils 9 itself1 & no inc5tive w h an equal appeal to all *ildr54 ,!re=e *ildr5 %\ld be taught to f9d int]e/ = !mselves4 ,c]ta9 devices c be sugge/$1 su* z work+ ) ano!r *ild & compet+ ) him1 mak+ believe 9 /udy1 & f9d+ "s connection ) some?+ 9 :i* he is int]e/$1 work+ aga9/ 8 own score1 & ! l4 ,n only d ! dem&s ( economy require t ! topic ( /udy receive conc5trat$ att5tion1 b ! results !mselves are bett] :5 su* is ! case4 ,half an h\r ( conc5trat$ "w gives mu* bett] results ?an an h\r ( /udy ) scatt]$ att5tion4 ,an h\r sp5t :5 half an h\r w\ld d is ?us n only wa/eful ( "t1 b is productive ( poor] results & bad habits ( /udy z well4 ,*ildr5 ne$ to be taught ?is f ! beg9n+4 ,mu* "t is wa/$ ev5 by mature univ]sity /ud5ts :5 !y suppose !mselves to be /udy+4 ,*ildr5 c be taught to ignore di/ractions--to tra9 !mselves to keep _! eyes on ! book1 despite ! fact t ! door is op5$1 or a seat mate is look+ = a book4 ,!y %\ld be enc\rag$ to set !mselves "t limits 9 v>i\s subjects & adh]e to !m4 ,x is economical to foll[ a regul> s*$ule 9 /udy--ei!r 9 ! s*ool or at home4 ,let ea* *ild make out 8 /udy s*$ule & keep to x4 ,tea* *ildr5 t ! be/ "w is done :5 !y are calm & /eady4 ,t ei!r excitem5t or worry is a h9drance4 ,!re=e !y %\ld avoid do+ _! /udy+ "u ^? conditions1 & %\ld d all !y c to remove su* conditions4 ,tra9+ *ildr5 to d _! be/ & !n n to worry w\ld n only improve ! heal? ( _m upp] gramm> grade & high s*ool *ildr51 b w\ld also improve _! "w4 ,/udy requires a c]ta9 critical attitude1 a *eck+ up ( results aga9/ ! problem set4 ,9 ord] to be effici5t 9 /udy a *ild %\ld "k :5 he has rea*$ ! solution1 :5 ! means h be5 adapt$ to ! end1 :5 he has rea*$ ! goal4 ,?is *eck+ up1 ( c\rse1 means habits ( self-criticism & /&>ds4 ,sometimes all t is necess>y is = ! *ild to be made consci\s ( ?is fact s t he c te/ himself1 = in/ance1 9 memory "w1 or 9 solv+ a problem 9 ma!matics4 ,on ! o!r h&1 sometimes he w h to comp>e 8 "w ) def9ite /&>ds1 su* z ! ,?orndike ,h&writ+ ,scale1 or ! ,hillegas ,composition ,scale4#ai ,9 o!r in/ances1 he w h to se>* = /&>ds4 ,he w ne$ to "k :at 8 classmates h accompli%$1 :at o!r p ?9k1 :at o!r text-books say1 & s on4 ,gradually he mu/ be made consci\s t /udy is a controll$ activity1 & unless x rea*es ! goal1 & ! correct "o1 x is useless4 ,he mu/ be made to feel t ! responsibility to see t su* results are rea*$ re/s on him4 ,^!1 !n1 are ! g5]al factors involv$ 9 all types ( /udy1 & !re=e are fundam5tal to good habits ( /udy3 a cle> purpose2 vital int]e/ ( "s k9d2 conc5trat$ att5tion1 & a critical attitude4 ,!re are fur!r additional sugge/ions :i* are peculi> to ! special type ( /udy4 ,9 /udy :i* is direct$ to habit =mation1 ! /ud5t %\ld be taught ! dang] ( all[+ exceptions4 ,he %\ld "k ! possibility ( undo+ mu* good "w ?r\gh a little c>elessness4 ,prea*+ won't br+ ?is home to him--x mu/ come ?r\gh hav+ 8 att5tion attract$ to su* an occurr5ce 9 8 own "w or 9 t ( 8 mates4 ,aft] t k ( ! actual exp]i5ces ( o!rs1 a?letes1 musicians1 & o!rs w help to int5sify ! impression4 ,! value ( repetition z "o ( ! *ief factors 9 habit =mation mu/ be emphasiz$4 ,! *ild %\ld be enc\rag$ to make opportunities = practice bo? 9 free m9utes dur+ ! s*ool program1 & outside ( s*ool4 ,he mu/ be taught 9 habit =mation to practice ! new habit 9 ! way x is to be us$3 practic+ ! s\nds ( lett]s 9 words1 ! writ+ movem5ts 9 writ+ words1 swimm+ movem5ts 9 ! wat]1 & s on4 ,practic+ ! :ole movem5ts1 n try+ to ga9 p]fection 9 p>ts ( x & !n putt+ x toge!r4 ,x is important also t ! le>n] be taught to keep 8 att5tion on ! result to be obta9$1 in/ead ( ! movem5ts4 ,he %\ld att5d to ! sw+ ( ! club1 ! lightness ( ! song1 ! cut ! saw is mak+1 ! words he is writ+1 in/ead ( ! muscle movem5ts involv$4 ,9 break+ up bad habits x is sometimes necess>y to conc5trate on a "p or a movem5t1 :5 t is ! crux ( ! error1 b 9 g5]al x is a bad practice :5 =m+ a new habit4 ,! *ild mu/ also le>n to wat* ! habit ( skill he is =m+ = signs ( improvem5t & !n to try to f9d out ! reason = x4 ,x has be5 prov$ exp]im5tally t mu* ( ! improvem5t 9 habits ( skill comes unconsci\sly to ! le>n]1 & necess>ily s1 b t 9 ord] = ! improvem5t to cont9ue & be effective1 x mu/ become consci\s4 ,( c\rse1 at ! beg9n+ & = a long "t x mu/ be ! tea*]'s duty to po9t out ! improvem5t & to help ! *ild to ?9k out ! reasons = x1 b if he is to le>n to /udy by himself ! *ild mu/ f9ally come to habits ( self-criticism :i* w enable him to recognize success or failure 9 8 own "w4 ,9 all ?is discussion ( tea*+ *ildr5 to /udy x mu/ be con/antly borne 9 m9d t x is a gradual process--& only v sl[ly does ! *ild become consci\s ( ! te*nique4 ,:i* elem5ts c be made consci\s1 h[ mu* he c be left to himself1 mu/ dep5d on 8 maturity & previ\s tra9+4 ,9 "t1 h[ev]1 he %\ld be able to apply !m all--= only by s do+ w he become capable ( indep5d5t /udy4 ,:5 ! /udy is prim>ily conc]n$ ) memory responses1 all ! elem5ts :i* h j be5 discuss$ 9 connection ) habit apply1 =1 aft] all1 memory is b m5tal habit4 ,!re are o!r factors :i* ent] into & :i* %\ld be us$ 9 ?is type ( /udy4 ,fir/1 ! *ild %\ld realize ! ne$ = und]/&+ ! mat]ial t is to be le>n$1 be=e beg9n+ to memorize x4 ,he w !n be taught to read ! entire assignm5t ?r\gh--look up difficult words & ref]5ces1 ma/] ! cont5t1 :e!r prose or poetry1 :e!r ! le>n+ is to be v]batim or n1 be=e do+ any?+ fur!r4 ,second1 he w ne$ to "k ! value ( ! modifi$ :ole me?od ( le>n+1 z well z its difficulties4 ,if 9 ! sup]vis$ p]iods ( /udy & 9 class "w1 ?is me?od has be5 foll[$1 x is v easy to make him consci\s ( x & will+ to adopt x :5 he comes to d indep5d5t /udy4 ,?ird1 he mu/ be taught to di/ribute 8 "t s t he does n devote too long a /ret* to "o subject4 ,! value ( go+ ov] "w 9 ! morn+1 aft] hav+ /udi$ ! night or two nights be=e1 %\ld be emphasiz$4 ,also ! value ( beg9n+ on assignm5ts "s "t ahead1 ev5 if !re is n "t to f9i% !m4 ,f\r?1 ! *ild %\ld be taught n to /op 8 "w ! m9ute he c give x p]fectly4 ,! ne$ = ov]le>n+1 = p]man5t ret5tion1 mu/ be made cle>4 ,h[ mu* ov]le>n+ is necess>y1 ea* *ild %\ld f9d out = himself4 ,fif?1 ! value ( outl9+ mat]ial z a means ( aid+ memory mu/ be /ress$4 ,six?1 ! *ild %\ld be taught to se>* = associations1 connections ( all types1 9 ord] to help himself rememb] facts4 ,he might ev5 be enc\rag$ to make up "s mnemonic device z an aid if ^! measures fail4 ,if in/ead ( simply try+ to hamm] mat]ial 9 by m]e repetition *ildr5 _h be5 taught 9 _! /udy to consci\sly make use ( ! o!r elem5ts 9 a good memory1 mu* "t w\ld be sav$4 ,b ! responsibility %\ld re/ f9ally on ! *ild to make use ( ^! helps4 ,! tea*] mu/ make him consci\s ( !m1 sometimes f _! value by exp]im5t1 & !n tea* him to use !m himself4 ,mu* less c be done z a matt] ( consci\s te*nique :5 ! occasion ( /udy is to fur!r appreciation4 ,a few sugge/ions might be (f]$4 ,fir/1 ! *ild %\ld be taught ! value ( associat+ ) ^? :o d appreciate 9 ! l9e 9 :i* he is /riv+ = improvem5t4 ,he %\ld be enc\rag$ to consci\sly associate ) !m :5 opportunities = appreciation come4 ,second1 he %\ld "k ! ne$ = com+ 9 contact ) ! objects ( appreciation if true feel+ is to be develop$4 ,x is only by m+l+ ) p1 read+ books1 li/5+ to music1 t appreciation 9 ^? fields c be develop$4 ,?ird1 ! value ( concrete imag]y & ( connections ) p]sonal exp]i5ce 9 ar\s+ emotional tone %\ld be emphasiz$4 ,! *ild might be enc\rag$ to consci\sly call up images & make connections ) 8 own exp]i5ce dur+ /udy4 ,/udy1 :5 ! object is to arrive at responses ( judgm5t1 is ! type :i* has receiv$ mo/ att5tion4 ,?is type ( /udy includes )9 itself sev]al possibilities4 ,al?\gh judgm5t is ! only response t c solve ! problem1 /ill ! problem may be "o ( giv+ ! be/ expression 9 art or music or drama4 ,x may be ! analysis ( a c\rse ( action or ( a *emical comp\nd4 ,x may be ! comp>ison ( v>i\s op9ions4 ,x may be ! arriv+ at a new law or pr9ciple4 ,x is to "o ( ^! types ( ?9k+ t ! t]m /udy is usually appli$4 ,important z x is1 ! o!r ?ree types already discuss$ _c be neglect$4 ,if *ildr5 are taught to /udy 9 connection ) ! simpl] situations provid$ by ! fir/ two types1 !y w be ! bett] prep>$ to deal ) ?is complex type1 = ?is highe/ type ( /udy involves habit =mation (t5 & memory "w always4 ,9 ! type ( /udy involv+ reason+1 because ( its complexity1 & because ! individual mu/ "w m indep5d5tly1 ! *ild mu/ le>n ! dang] ( foll[+ ! fir/ sugge/ion :i* (f]s itself4 ,he mu/ le>n to weigh ea* sugge/ion (f]$ ) ref]5ce to ! goal aim$ at4 ,ea* /ep 9 ! process mu/ be te/$ & weigh$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,to g bl9dly ahead1 foll[+ out a l9e ( sugge/ions until ! end is rea*$1 :i* is !n f\nd to be ! wrong "o1 wa/es mu* "t & is extremely disc\rag+4 ,no sugge/ion ( ! way to adapt means to end %\ld be accept$ )\t c>eful criticism4 ,! pupil %\ld gradually be made consci\s ( ! te*nique ( reason+1 analysis1 comp>ison1 & ab/raction4 ,he mu/ "k t ! fir/ ?+ to d is to analyze ! problem & see j :at x requires4 ,he mu/ "k t ! ab/raction dep5ds ^u ! goal4 ,! le>n] %\ld be taught ! s\rces ( "s ( ! commone/ mi/akes 9 judgm5t4 ,= in/ance1 if he kn[s ( ! t5d5cy to respond 9 t]ms ( analogy1 & sees "s ( ! errors to :i* accept+ a m9or lik5ess betwe5 two situations z id5tity lead1 he w be mu* m apt to avoid su* mi/akes ?an w\ld o!rwise be true4 ,if he kn[s h[ unsafe x is to =m a judgm5t on limit$ data1--if f 8 own & 8 classmates' ?9k+ fir/1 & lat] f ! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 illu/rations are drawn ( ! disa/r\s effect ( su* ?9k+1 he w see ! value ( seek+ s\rces ( in=mation & sev]al po9ts ( view be=e =m+ 8 own judgm5t4 ,9 8 /udy ! *ild %\ld be taught n to be satisfi$ until he has te/$ ! correctness ( 8 judgm5t by v]ify+ ! result4 ,?is is a v necess>y "p ( /udy+4 ,he %\ld *eck up 8 own ?9k+ by f9d+ out ?r\gh appeal to facts if x is s2 by putt+ ! judgm5t into execution2 by consult+ ! op9ion ( o!rs1 & s on4 ,/udy may be consid]$ f ! po9t ( view ( ! type ( mat]ial :i* is us$ 9 ! process4 ,! /ud5t may be engag$ on a problem :i* involves ! use ( app>atus or specim5s ( v>i\s k9ds1 or he may ne$ to consult p1 or he may h to use books4 ,s f> z ! fir/ type is conc]n$1 x is obvi\sly unwise to h a /ud5t at "w on a problem :i* involves ! use ( mat]ial1 unless ! te*nique ( me?od ( use is well kn[n4 ,until he c h&le ! mat]ial ) "s degree ( facility x is wa/e ( "t = him to be /ruggl+ ) problems :i* necessitate su* use4 ,su* practice results 9 divid$ att5tion1 poor results f ! /udy1 & (t5 bad habits 9 te*nique z well4 ,ga9+ ! te*nique mu/ be 9 itself a problem = sep>ate /udy4 ,*ildr5 %\ld be taught to ask que/ions :i* be> directly on ! po9t !y wi% to "k4 ,if !y 9 work+ out "s problem are dep5d5t on gett+ "s in=mation f ! janitor1 or ! po/man1 or a mason1 !y mu/ be able to ask que/ions :i* w br+ !m :at !y want to "k4 ,mu* practice 9 fram+ que/ions1 hav+ !m criticiz$1 hav+ !m answ]$ j z !y are ask$1 is necess>y4 ,*ildr5 %\ld be aw>e ( ! "q z a tool 9 _! /udy & !re=e !y mu/ "k h[ to h&le x4 ,9 connection ) ?is second type ( mat]ial1 ! problem ( ! be/ s\rce ( in=mation w arise4 ,*ildr5 mu/ !n be made consci\s ( ! relative values ( v>i\s p]sons z s\rces ( a p>ticul> piece ( in=mation4 ,tra9+ 9 *oice ( ! s\rce ( in=mation is v important bo? :5 t s\rce is p & also :5 x is books4 ,tea*+ *ildr5 to use books 9 _! /udy is "o ( ! big tasks ( ! tea*]4 ,!y mu/ le>n t books are writt5 9 answ] to que/ions4 ,9 ord] to ?or\ghly und]/& a book1 /ud5ts mu/ seek to frame ! que/ions :i* x answ]s4 ,!y mu/ also "k h[ to use books to answ] _! own que/ions4 ,?is means !y mu/ "k h[ to turn f "p to "p1 glean+ "h or !re :at !y ne$4 ,x means tra9+ 9 ! ability to skim1 omitt+ uness5tials & pick+ out ess5tials4 ,x means ! ability to recognize major po9ts1 m9or po9ts1 & illu/rative mat]ial4 ,*ildr5 mu/ be taught to use ! table ( cont5ts1 ! index1 & p>agraph head+s4 ,!y mu/1 9 _! se>* = full] in=mation or criticism1 be able to int]pret diff]5t au?ors1 use diff]5t language1 & attack f diff]5t angles1 ev5 :5 treat+ ! same object4 ,*ildr5 mu/ 9 _! /udy+ be taught to use books z a means to an end--n an infallible means1 b "o :i* ne$s cont9ual criticism1 modification1 & amplification4 ,/udy may be sup]vis$ /udy1 or unsup]vis$ /udy4 ,to "s p ! requirem5ts 9 le>n+ to /udy may seem too difficult to be possible1 b x %\ld be rememb]$ t ! process is gradual--t "o by "o ^! elem5ts 9 /udy are taught to ! *ildr5 9 _! sup]vis$ /udy p]iods4 ,^! p]iods %\ld beg9 9 ! prim>y grades1 & require f ! tea*] q z mu* prep>ation z any o!r p]iod4 ,_m tea*]s h taught subjects1 b n h[ to /udy subjects4 ,! latt] is ! m important4 ,! matt] ( di/ribut$ le>n+ p]iods1 ( se>* = motive1 ( ask+ que/ions1 ( criticiz+ a*ievem5t1 ( use ( books2 ea* elem5t is a topic = class discussion be=e x is accept$ z an elem5t 9 /udy4 ,ev5 aft] x is accept$1 x may be rais$ by "s *ild z a s\rce ( p>ticul> difficulty & fre% sugge/ions add$4 ,v (t5 ) little *ildr5 x is necess>y = ! tea*] to /udy ! lesson ) !m4 ,tea*]s ne$ mu* m practice 9 do+ ?is1 = "o ( ! be/ ways to tea* a *ild to /udy is to /udy ) him4 ,n to tell him1 & d ! "w = him1 b to really /udy ) him4 ,lat] on ! sup]vis$ /udy p]iod is "o 9 :i* ea* *ild is sil5tly engag$ ^u 8 own "w & ! tea*] passes f "o to ! o!r4 ,9 ord] to d ?is well1 ! tea*] ne$s to be able to d two ?+s4 ,fir/1 to f9d out :5 ! *ild is 9 difficulty & to locate x1 & second1 to help him ov] ! tr\ble )\t giv+ too mu* assi/ance4 ,adequate que/ion+ is ne$$ 9 bo? cases4 ,x is probably true t comp>atively little new "w %\ld be giv5 = unsup]vis$ /udy4 ,!re is too mu* dang] ( error z well z lack ( int]e/ unless a />t is giv5 "u sup]vision4 ,/udy+1 especially unsup]vis$1 may be done 9 gr\ps or individually4 ,! =m] is a /epp+-/one to ! latt]4 ,!re is a great] *ance = sugge/ions1 = gett+ ! problem word$1 = ar\s+ int]e/ & *eck+ results1 :5 a gr\p ( *ildr5 are work+ toge!r ?an :5 a *ild is by himself4 ,two ?+s mu/ be look$ aft]4 ,fir/1 t ! *ildr5 9 ! gr\p be taught n to wa/e "t1 & second1 t ! p]sonnel ( ! gr\p be "r4 ,x is n v helpful if "o *ild does all ! "w1 nor if "o is s f> bel[ ! level ( ! gr\p t he is always tagg+ along beh9d4 ,m opportunities = gr\p /udy 9 ! gramm> grades w\ld be advantage\s4 ,:5 x comes to individual /udy1 ! /ud5t !n assumes all responsibility = 8 me?ods ( /udy4 ,he %\ld be taught ! influ5ce ( physical conditions or m5tal reactions4 ,he w !re=e be responsible = *oos+ 9 ! home & 9 ! s*ool ! be/ possible conditions = 8 /udy4 ,he w see to x t1 9 s f> z possible1 ! air & light are good1 t !re are no unnecess>y di/ractions1 & t he is z com=table bodily z c be4 ,he mu/ ?9k n only 9 t]ms ( ! goal to be rea*$1 b also ) respect to ! me?ods to be employ$4 ,he %\ld be ask$ by ! tea*] to report 8 me?ods ( "w z well z 8 results4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,are *ildr5 always prim>ily engag$ 9 ?9k+ :5 !y /udy8 #b4 ,:at type ( /udy is involv$ 9 le>n+ a multiplication table1 a li/ ( words 9 spell+1 a conjugation 9 ,fr5*8 #c4 ,h[ w\ld y tea* a pupil to /udy 8 spell+ lesson8 #d4 ,9 :at s5se may "o /udy 9 le>n+ to write8 ,9 acquir+ skill 9 swimm+8 #e4 ,h[ w\ld y tea* y\r pupils to memorize8 #f4 ,%[ h[ ability to /udy may be develop$ ov] a p]iod ( ye>s 9 "s subject ) :i* y are famili>4 ,read+8 ,geography8 ,hi/ory8 ,lat9 translation8 #g4 ,is ! boy :o reads ov] & ov] aga9 8 lesson necess>ily /udy+8 #h4 ,c "o /udy a subject ev5 ?\gh he may dislike x8 ,c "o /udy )\t int]e/8 #i4 ,h[ c y tea* *ildr5 :at is meant by conc5tration ( att5tion8 #aj4 ,h[ h y f\nd x possible to develop a critical attitude t[>d _! "w ^u ! "p ( *ildr58 #aa4 ,( :at factors 9 habit =mation mu/ *ildr5 become consci\s1 if !y are to /udy to be/ advantage 9 ?is field8 #ab4 ,h[ may we hope to h *ildr5 le>n to /udy 9 ! fields requir+ judgm5t8 ,:y w n consci\sness ( ! te*nique ( /udy make pupils equally able 9 /udy+8 #ac4 ,:at ex]cises c y conduct :i* w help *ildr5 to le>n h[ to use books8 #ad4 ,h[ c a tea*] /udy ) a pupil & yet help him to develop indep5d5ce 9 ?is field8 #ae4 ,h[ may small gr\ps ( *ildr5 "w toge!r advantage\sly 9 /udy+8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,xv4 ,,measur+ ,,! ,,a*ievem5ts ,,( ,,*ildr5 ,! success or failure ( ! tea*] 9 apply+ ! pr9ciples :i* h be5 discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]s is measur$ by ! a*ievem5ts ( ! *ildr54 ,( c\rse1 x is also possible t ! validity ( ! pr9ciple :i* we h s\ght to e/abli% may be call$ 9 "q by ! same sort ( measurem5t4 ,we _c be sure t our me?ods ( "w are s\nd1 or t we are mak+ ! be/ use ( ! "t dur+ :i* we "w ) *ildr51 except z we discov] ! results ( our in/ruction4 ,tea*+ is aft] all ! adaptation ( our me?ods to ! normal developm5t ( boys & girls1 & _! education c be measur$ only 9 t]ms ( ! *anges :i* we are able to br+ ab\t 9 k1 skill1 appreciation1 reason+1 & ! l4 ,any attempt to measure ! a*ievem5ts ( *ildr5 %\ld result 9 a discov]y ( ! progress :i* is be+ made f week to week1 or mon? to mon?1 or ye> to ye>4 ,x w\ld (t5 be f\nd q advantage\s to note ! defici5cies z well z ! a*ievem5ts at "o p]iod z comp>$ ) ! "w done two or ?ree mon?s lat]4 ,x w always be pr(itable to get z cle>ly 9 m9d z is possible ! v>iation among memb]s ( ! same class1 & = ^? :o are int]e/$ 9 ! sup]vision ( s*ools1 ! v>iation f class to class1 f s*ool to s*ool1 or f s*ool sy/em to s*ool sy/em4 ,= ! tea*] a /udy ( ! v>iability 9 a*ievem5t among ! memb]s ( 8 own class ought to result 9 special att5tion to ^? :o ne$ special help1 especially a k9d ( tea*+ :i* w remove p>ticul> difficulties4 ,!re %\ld also be (f]$ unusual opportunity & m ?an ! ord9>y dem& be made ( ^? :o %[ !mselves to be m capable ?an ! ord9>y pupils4 ,! type ( measurem5t :i* we wi% to discuss is some?+ m ?an ! ord9>y exam9ation4 ,! difficulties ) exam9ations1 z we h commonly organiz$ !m1 has99 be5 _! unreliability1 ei!r f ! /&po9t ( discov]+ to u ! defici5cies ( *ildr51 or _! a*ievem5ts4 ,( t5 problems 9 ari?metic or ( tw5ty words 9 spell+ giv5 9 ! ord9>y exam9ation1 !re are v great diff]5ces 9 difficulty4 ,we d n h an adequate measure ( ! a*ievem5ts ( *ildr5 :5 we assign to ea* ( ! problems or words a value ( t5 or ( five p] c5t & proce$ to det]m9e ! m>k to be giv5 on ! exam9ation pap]4 ,if we are wise 9 sett+ our exam9ations1 we usually give "o problem or "o ^w :i* we expect practically ev]ybody to be able to get "r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if we really measure ! a*ievem5ts ( *ildr51 we mu/ give "s problems or "s words t are too h>d = any "o to get "r4 ,o!rwise1 we d n "k ! limit or ext5t ( ability possess$ by ! abl] pupils4 ,x is safe to say t 9 _m exam9ations "o "q may actually be f\r or five times z h>d z "s o!r to :i* an equal value is assign$4 ,ano!r difficulty t we h to meet 9 ! ord9>y exam9ation is ! v>iability among tea*]s 9 m>k+ pap]s4 ,we d n commonly assign ! same values to ! same result4 ,inde$1 if a set ( pap]s is giv5 to a gr\p ( capable tea*]s & m>k$ z consci5ti\sly z may be by ea* ( !m1 x is n uncommon to f9d a v>iation among ! m>ks assign$ to ! same pap] :i* may be z great z tw5ty-five p] c5t ( ! highe/ m>k giv54 ,ev5 m int]e/+ is ! fact t ^u re-m>k+ ^! same pap]s individual tea*]s w v>y f _! own fir/ m>k by almo/ z great an am\nt4 ,/ill ano!r difficulty ) ! ord9>y exam9ation is ! t5d5cy among tea*]s to d]ive _! /&>ds ( a*ievem5t f ! gr\p itself1 r ?an f any objective /&>d by :i* all are measur$4 ,x is possible1 = example1 = *ildr5 9 ,engli% composition to write v poorly = _! grade & /ill to f9d ! tea*] giv+ relatively high m>ks to ^? :o happ5 to belong to ! upp] gr\p 9 ! class4 ,z a result ( ! e/abli%m5t ( su* a /&>d1 ! tea*] may n be consci\s ( ! fact t *ildr5 %\ld be spurr$ to great] ef=t1 & t possibly he himself %\ld seek to improve 8 me?ods ( "w4 ,out ( ! situation describ$ above1 :i* includes on ! "o h& ! necessity = measurem5t z a means ( te/+ ! success ( our !ories & ( our practice1 & on ! o!r h& ( hav+ objective /&>ds1 has gr[n ! movem5t = measurem5t by means ( /&>d te/s & scales4 ,a /&>d te/ :i* has be5 giv5 to "s ?\s&s ( *ildr5 classifi$ by grades or by ages1 if giv5 to ano!r gr\p ( *ildr5 ( ! same grade or age gr\p w enable ! tea*] to comp>e ! a*ievem5t ( 8 *ildr5 ) t :i* is f\nd else:]e4 ,= example1 ! ,c\rtis te/s 9 ari?metic1 :i* consi/ ( s]ies ( problems ( equal difficulty 9 addition1 subtraction1 multiplication1 & division may be us$ to discov] h[ f> facility 9 ^! fields has be5 accompli%$ by *ildr5 ( any p>ticul> gr\p z comp>$ ) ! a*ievem5ts ( *ildr5 9 o!r s*ool sy/ems ?r\gh\t ! c\ntry4 ,9 ^! te/s ea* ( ! problems is ( equal difficulty4 ,! measure is made by discov]+ h[ _m ( ^! sep>ate problems c be solv$ 9 a giv5 numb] ( m9utes4#bj ,a scale = measur+ ! a*ievem5ts ( *ildr5 9 ! fundam5tal op]ations ( addition1 subtraction1 multiplication1 & division has be5 d]iv$ by ,dr4 ,clif=d ,woody1#ba :i* diff]s f ! ,c\rtis te/s 9 t x af=ds opportunity to discov] :at *ildr5 c a*ieve f ! simple/ problem 9 ea* ( ^! fields to a problem :i* is 9 ea* case approximately twice z difficult z ! problems appe>+ on ! ,c\rtis te/s4 ,! great value ( ?is type ( te/ is 9 discov]+ to tea*]s & to pupils1 z well1 _! p>ticul> difficulties4 ,a pupil mu/ be able to d fairly acceptable "w 9 addition be=e he c solve "o problem on ! ,c\rtis te/s4 ,consid]able facility c be measur$ on ! ,woody te/s be=e an ability suffici5t to be regi/]$ on ! ,c\rtis te/s has be5 acquir$4 ,9 8 monograph on ! d]ivation ( ^! te/s ,mr4 ,woody gives results :i* w enable ! tea*] to comp>e 8 class ) *ildr5 already te/$ 9 o!r s*ool sy/ems4 ,9 ! case ( all ( ^! /&>d te/s1 s*ool surveys & sup]9t5d5ts' reports are available :i* w make x possible to in/itute comp>isons among diff]5t classes & diff]5t s*ool sy/ems4 ,"o =m ( ! ,woody te/s is z foll[s3 99 99 99 99 99 ,,s]ies ,a ,,addition ,,scale ,,by ,,clif=d ,,woody ,"n4444444444444444444444 ,:5 is y\r next bir?day8444444 ,h[ old w y be844444 ,are y a boy or girl84444444 ,9 :at grade are y8444444 7#a7 7#c7 7#e7 7#g7 7#i7 7#aj7 7#aa7 7#ab7 7#ac7 7#ae7 7#af7 #b #ag #gb #ca #bj #ba #cb #dc #bc #ajj #i #c #b #bf #aj #cc #ei #a #be #cc #bd -- -- -- #b #ce #ag #b #af #de #ab #cj -- -- #ac -- #bja #ae 7#b7 7#d7 7#f7 7#h7 #be -- #df #ai #b #ec #fj #bea -- --- -- #d #de #cg 7#ad7 #c -- -- #bedb -- 7#ag7 7#ai7 7#ba7 7#bb7 7#bc7 7#bf7 7#bi7 #aii 4#ge #h4jj #edg #a_/ca_/c #aba_/b #d #c_/d #aid #a4be #e4ge #aig #fba_/b #b #a_/d #bie 4#di #b4cc #fhe 7#bd7 #aba_/b #e #a_/d #aef ----- #d4af #fgh #d4jabe #cga_/b ----- --- 4#id #def #a4eijg --- #f4cb #cic #d4aj 7#cj7 7#ah7 7#bj7 ----- #ebe #h4fgc 7#bg7 #b #a_/b #befc #ab4ej #bdj ------ #a_/ha_/da_/b #f #c_/h #achg #af4ge #aeb #c #c_/d #died #ae4ge --- ----- #bjfe ------ 7#be7 7#bh7 ---- #c_/he_/hg_/ha_/h #c_/da_/d 7#ca7 7#cc7 7#cd7 7#ce7 7#cf7 7#cg7 #aac4df 4#di #a_/fc_/h #b;ft4 #f;94 #byr4 #emo4 #af #a_/c #di4fjig 4#bh #c;ft4 #e;94 #cyr4 #fmo4 #ab #a_/h #ai4i 4#fc #d;ft4 #i;94 #dyr4 #imo4 #ba #a_/b #i4hg 4#ie --------- #eyr4 #bmo4 #cb #c_/d 4#jjhf #a4fi #fyr4 #gmo4 ------ #ah4bec 4#bb --------- #f4jd 4#cc -------- 4#cf 7#ch7 #a4ja #be4jiaajj4dbeih4bhai4cfad 7#cb7 4#ef #c_/da_/ba_/d 4#hh 4#ge 4#ef #a4aj 4#ah 4#ef ---- 99 99 99 99 99 ,,s]ies ,a ,,subtraction ,,scale ,,by ,,clif=d ,,woody ,"n4444444444444444444444 ,:5 is y\r next bir?day8444444,h[ old w y be844444 ,are y a boy or girl84444444,9 :at grade are y84444444 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 7#d7 7#e7 7#f7 7#g7 7#h7 7#i7 7#aj7 7#aa7 #h #f #b #i #d #aa #ac #ei #gh #g-d #gf #e #j #a #c #d #g #h #ab #cg #fj -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 7#ab7 7#ac7 7#ad7 7#ae7 7#af7 7#ag7 7#ah7 7#ai7 7#bj7 #bg #af #ej #ba #bgj #cic #ajjj #efgdhb #b #c_/d-a #c #i #be #i #aij #agh #ecg #ajfdic -- -- -- -- --- --- ---- ------ 7#ba7 7#bb7 7#bc7 7#bd7 7#be7 7#bf7 #aj4jj #c #a_/b-a_/b #hjhcfdfe #h #g_/h #bg #dyd4 #a;ft4 #f;94 #c4di #diaghjcf #e #c_/d #ab #e_/h #byd4 #b;ft4 #c;94 ----- -------- ----- ------ -------------- 7#bg7 7#bh7 7#bi7 7#cj7 #eyd4 #a;ft4 #d;94 #aj-f4be #ge #c_/d #i4hjfc-i4jai #byd4 #b;ft4 #h;94 #eb #a_/d -------------- ------ 7#ca7 7#cb7 7#cc7 7#cd7 7#ce7 #g4c-c4jjjha #aiab #fmo4 #h;da4 #e_/ab-b_/aj #f #a_/h #c #g_/h-a #e_/h #aiaj #gmo4 #ae;da4 #b #g_/h --------------- ----- 99 99 99 99 99 ,,s]ies ,a ,,division ,,scale ,,by ,,clif=d ,,woody ,"n4444444444444444444444444444444 ,:5 is y\r next bir?day84444444 ,h[ old w y be8444444 ,are y a boy or girl84444444444 ,9 :at grade are y8444444 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 7#d7 7#e7 7#f7 #c7f #i7bg #d7bh #a7e #i7cf #c7ci 7#g7 7#h7 7#i7 7#aj7 7#aa7 7#ab7 #d #b #f #cj #b #b #i7j #a7a #b7ac 7#ac7 7#ad7 7#ae7 7#af7 7#ag7 #a_/d ( #abh #ej #g #d7bd lbs4 #h oz4 #h7ehef #fh7bajh 7#ah7 7#ai7 7#bj7 7#ba7 7#bb7 #bdh #g #ac7fejfe #b4a7be4b #be7igej #b7ac4ej 7#bc7 7#bd7 7#be7 7#bf7 #bc7dfi #ge7bbejcjj #bdjj7ejdjjj #ab7b4gf 7#bg7 7#bh7 7#bi7 7#cj7 #g_/h ( #fbd #c #a_/b #i #c_/d #e 4#jjc74jicf 7#ca7 7#cb7 7#cc7 #e_/d #c_/e #i #e_/h #c #c_/d #eb7cgef 7#cd7 7#ce7 7#cf7 #fb4ej #a #a_/d #eca7cggbb #i7fi lbs4 #i oz4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,s]ies ,a ,,multiplication ,,scale ,,by ,,clif=d ,,woody ,"n4444444444444444444444 ,:5 is y\r next bir?day8444444 ,h[ old w y be844444 ,are y a boy or girl84444444 ,9 :at grade are y84444444 7#a7 7#b7 7#c7 7#d7 7#e7 7#f7 7#g7 #c #g #e #a #b #c #d #h #bc #caj #g #i #c #d -- --- 7#h7 7#i7 7#aj7 7#aa7 7#ab7 7#ac7 7#ad7 7#ae7 #ej #bed #fbc #ajcf #ejif #hged #afe #bce #c #f #g #h #f #h #dj #bc -- --- --- ---- ---- ---- --- --- 7#af7 7#ag7 7#ah7 7#ai7 7#bj7 7#ba7 7#bb7 #ghih #ade #bd #i4f #bhg #bd #h #ec_/d #i #bjf #bcd #d 4#je #ba_/b ---- --- --- --- --- -- 7#bc7 7#bd7 7#be7 7#bf7 7#bg7 7#bh7 7#bi7 #aa_/d #h #af #g_/h #c_/d #igdb #f4be 4#jabc #a_/h #b #b #e_/h #ei #c4b #i4h ------ ---- ---- ----- 7#cj7 7#ca7 7#cb7 7#cc7 7#cd7 #b4di #ab #ae #f doll>s #di c5ts #b-a_/b #c-a_/b #a_/b #a_/b #cf -- -- #h ---- #be #cb ------------------ 7#ce7 7#cf7 7#cg7 7#ch7 7#ci7 #ihgc_/d #c;ft4 #e;94 #ba_/d #da_/b #aa_/b 4#jifc #a_/h #h;ft4 #ia_/b;94 #be #e 4#jhd #i ---- --------- --------- ---------- 99 99 99 99 99 ,a s]ies ( problems 9 reason+ 9 ari?metic :i* 7 giv5 9 tw5ty-six s*ool sy/ems by ,dr4 ,c4,w4 ,/one furni% a valuable te/ 9 ?is field1 z well z an opportunity = comp>ison ) o!r s*ools 9 :i* ^! problems h be5 us$4#bb ,a li/ ( problems foll[s4 ,solve z _m ( ! foll[+ problems z y h "t =2 "w !m 9 ord] z numb]$3 #a4 ,if y buy #b tablets at #g c5ts ea* & a book = #fe c5ts1 h[ mu* *ange %\ld y receive f a two-doll> bill8 #b4 ,john sold #d ,saturday ,ev5+ ,po/s at #e c5ts ea*4 ,he kept #a_/b ! money & ) ! o!r #a_/b he b\ght ,sunday pap]s at #b c5ts ea*4 ,h[ _m did he buy8 #c4 ,if ,james _h #d times z mu* money z ,george1 he w\ld h #af4 ,h[ mu* money has ,george8 #d4 ,h[ _m p5cils c y buy = #ej c5ts at ! rate ( #b = #e c5ts8 #e4 ,! uni=ms = a baseball n9e co/ #b4ej ea*4 ,! %oes co/ #b a pair4 ,:at 0 ! total co/ ( uni=ms & %oes = ! n9e8 #f4 ,9 ! s*ools ( a c]ta9 city !re are #bbjj pupils2 #a_/b are 9 ! prim>y grades1 #a_/d 9 ! gramm> grades1 #a_/h 9 ! ,high ,s*ool1 & ! re/ 9 ! night s*ool4 ,h[ _m pupils are !re 9 ! night s*ool8 #g4 ,if #c-a_/b tons ( coal co/ #ba1 :at w #e-a_/b tons co/8 #h4 ,a news deal] b\ght "s magaz9es = #a4 ,he sold !m = #a4bj1 ga9+ #e c5ts on ea* magaz9e4 ,h[ _m magaz9es 7 !re8 #i4 ,a girl sp5t #a_/h ( h] money = c> f>e1 & ?ree times z mu* = clo!s4 ,half ( :at %e _h left 0 #hj c5ts4 ,h[ mu* money did %e h at fir/8 #aj4 ,two girls receive #b4aj = mak+ buttonholes4 ,"o makes #db1 ! o!r #bh4 ,h[ %all !y divide ! money8 #aa4 ,mr4 ,br[n paid "o ?ird ( ! co/ ( a build+2 ,mr4 ,johnson paid #a_/b ! co/4 ,mr4 ,johnson receiv$ #ejj m annual r5t ?an ,mr4 ,br[n4 ,h[ mu* did ea* receive8 #ab4 ,a freight tra9 left ,albany = ,new ,york at #f o'clock4 ,an express left on ! same track at #h o'clock4 ,x w5t at ! rate ( #dj miles an h\r4 ,at :at "t ( day w x ov]take ! freight tra9 if ! freight tra9 /ops aft] x has gone #ef miles8 ,a diff]5t type ( measurem5t is accompli%$ by us+ ,?orndike's scale = measur+ ! quality ( h&writ+4#bc ,a typical di/ribution ( ! scores :i* *ildr5 receive on ! h&writ+ scale reads z foll[s3 ,= a f\r? grade "o *ild writes quality f\r1 two quality six1 five quality sev51 sev5 quality eight1 eight quality n9e1 ?ree quality t51 two quality elev51 two quality twelve1 "o quality ?irte51 "o quality f\rte54 ,9 a table ! di/ributions ( scores 9 p5man%ip = a l>ge numb] ( pap]s select$ at r&om %[ ! foll[+ results3 ,,grades ,,scores ---------------------------------------- - #b #c #d #e #f #g #h ---------------------------------------- -------------- #j -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #a -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #b -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #c -- -- -- -- -- -- -- #d #e #b -- -- -- -- -- #e #bb #b #c #c -- #a -- #f #ba #ba #af #c #b -- #a #g #bi #dd #bd #ab #a #c #c #h #bh #hf #db #ef #bj #ae #g #i #db #da #ee #fa #be #bi #aa #aj #g #h #bj #af #i #aa #a #aa #bi #ac #ba #ag #cb #be #bc #ab #e #b #ae #ae #dd #ab #ba #ac #g #b #b #f #ag #ai #i #ad -- -- #c #d #aj #af #i #ae -- -- #a -- #i #f #ae #af #a -- -- #a #aj #ab #ag #ag -- -- -- -- #f #b #c #ah -- -- -- -- #c #a -- ---------------------------------------- ------------- ,total pap]s #aif #bba #bjb #aid #ahh #aeb #abd 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,scale ,,= ,,h&writ+ ,,( ,,*ildr5 ,,9 ,,grades #e-h ,! ,unit ( ! ,scale ,equals approximately ,"o-,t5? ( ! ,diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,be/ & ,wor/ ( ! ,=mal ,writ+s ( #a1jjj ,*ildr5 9 ,grades #e-h4 ,! ,diff]5ces #af-ae1 #ae-ad1 #ad-ac1 etc41 repres5t ,equal ,fractions ( ! ,comb9$ ,m5tal ,scale ( ,m]it ( f #bc-ee ,compet5t ,judges4 ,sample #adj1 repres5t+ z]o m]it 9 h&writ+4 ,z]o m]it is arbitr>ily def9$ z t ( a h&writ+1 recognizable z su*1 b yet n legible at all & possess$ ( no beauty4 ,illu/ration3 qual#j4png3 ,quality #d4 ,illu/ration3 qual#d4png3 ,quality #e4 ,illu/ration3 qual#e4png3 ,quality #f4 ,illu/ration3 qual#f4png3 ,quality #g4 ,illu/ration3 qual#g4png3 ,quality #h4 ,illu/ration3 qual#h;a4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#h;b4png3 ,quality #i4 ,illu/ration3 qual#i;a4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#i;b4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#i;c4png3 ,quality #aj4 ,illu/ration3 qual#aj4png3 ,quality #aa4 ,illu/ration3 qual#aa;a4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#aa;b4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#aa;c4png3 ,quality #ab4 ,illu/ration3 qual#ab;a4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#ab;b4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#ab;c4png3 ,quality #ac4 ,illu/ration3 qual#ac;a4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#ac;b4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#ac;c4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#ac;d4png3 ,quality #ad4 ,illu/ration3 qual#ad;a4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#ad;b4png3 ,quality #ae4 ,illu/ration3 qual#ae;a4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#ae;b4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#ae;c4png3 ,illu/ration3 qual#ae;d4png3 ,quality #af4 ,illu/ration3 qual#af;a4png3 ,quality #ag4 ,illu/ration3 qual#ag4png3 ,quality #ah4 ,illu/ration3 qual#ah4png3 99 99 99 99 99 ,?is table reads z foll[s3 ,quality f\r 0 writt5 by five *ildr5 9 ! second grade & two 9 ! ?ird grade1 quality five 0 writt5 by tw5ty-two *ildr5 9 ! second grade1 two *ildr5 9 ! ?ird grade1 ?ree 9 ! f\r? grade1 ?ree 9 ! fif? grade1 none 9 ! six? grade1 "o 9 ! sev5? grade1 & none 9 ! eigh? grade1 & s on = ! :ole table4#bd ,a scale = measur+ ability 9 spell+ prep>$ by ,dr4 ,leon>d ,p4 ,ayres arranges ! ?\s& words mo/ commonly us$ 9 ! ord] ( _! difficulty4 ,f ?is %eet x is possible to discov] words ( approximately ! same difficulty = ea* grade4 ,a te/ c\ld !re=e be d]iv$ f ?is scale = ea* ( ! grades ) ! expectation t !y w\ld all d ab\t equally well4 ,!re w\ld also be ! possibility ( det]m9+ h[ well ! spell+ 0 done 9 ! p>ticul> s*ool sy/em 9 :i* ^! words 7 giv5 z comp>$ ) ! ability ( *ildr5 z measur$ by an aggregate ( m ?an a million spell+s by sev5ty ?\s& *ildr5 9 eighty-f\r cities ?r\gh\t ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,su* a li/ c\ld be tak5 f ! scale = ! second grade1 :i* includes words :i* h prov$ to be ( a difficulty repres5t$ by a sev5ty-?ree p]c5t correct spell+ = ! class4 ,su* a li/ might be compos$ ( ! foll[+ words3 nor?1 :ite1 sp5t1 block1 riv]1 w9t]1 ,sunday1 lett]1 ?ank1 & be/4 ,a simil> li/ c\ld be tak5 f ! scale = a ?ird1 f\r?1 fif?1 six?1 sev5?1 or eigh? grade4 ,= example1 ! words :i* h approximately ! same difficulty1--sev5ty-?ree p]c5t to be spell$ correctly by ! class = ! six? grade1--read z foll[s3 (t51 /opp$1 motion1 !at]1 improvem5t1 c5tury1 total1 mansion1 arrive1 supply4 ,! great value ( su* a measur+ scale1 includ+ z x does ! ?\s& words mo/ commonly us$1 is to be f\nd n only 9 ! opportunity = comp>+ ! a*ievem5ts ( *ildr5 9 "o class or s*ool ) ano!r1 b also 9 ! focus+ ( ! att5tion ( tea*]s & pupils ^u ! words mo/ commonly us$4#be ,"o ( ! fields 9 :i* !re is greate/ ne$ = measurem5t is ,engli% composition4 ,tea*]s h too (t5 ?\ght ( ,engli% composition z consi/+ ( spell+1 punctuation1 capitalization1 & ! l1 & h ignor$ ! quality ( ! composition itself 9 _! att5tion to ^! =mal elem5ts4 ,a scale = measur+ ,engli% composition d]iv$ by ,dr4 ,m4,b4 ,hillegas1#bf consi/+ ( sample compositions ( values rang+ f #j to #i4cg1 w enable ! tea*] to tell j h[ _m pupils 9 ! class are writ+ ea* diff]5t quality ( composition4 ,! use ( su* a scale w t5d to make bo? tea*] & pupil critical ( ! "w :i* is be+ done n only ) respect to ! =mal elem5ts1 b also ) respect to ! /yle or adequacy ( ! expression ( ! ideas :i* ! writ] seeks to convey4 ,probably 9 no o!r field has ! tea*] be5 s apt to d]ive 8 /&>d f ! p]=mance ( ! class z 9 "w 9 composition4 ,ev5 ?\gh "s tea*]s f9d x difficult to evaluate ! "w ( _! pupils 9 t]ms ( ! sample compositions giv5 on ! scale1 mu* good mu/ come1 x seems to ! writ]1 f ! attempt to grade compositions by su* an objective scale4 ,if su* measurem5ts are made two or ?ree times dur+ ! ye>1 ! p]=mance ( individual pupils & ( ! class w be indicat$ mu* m c]ta9ly ?an is ! case :5 tea*]s feel t !y are gett+ along well )\t any def9ite assurance ( ! am\nt ( _! improvem5t4 ,9 "o l>ge s*ool sy/em 9 :i* ! writ] 0 p]mitt$ to h ! pr9cipals measure compositions collect$ f ! six? & ! eigh? grades1 x 0 discov]$ t almo/ no progress 9 ! quality ( composition _h be5 accompli%$ dur+ ^! two ye>s4 ,?is lack ( a*ievem5t ^u ! "p ( *ildr5 0 n1 9 ! op9ion ( ! writ]1 due to any lack ( consci5ti\s "w ^u ! "p ( tea*]s1 b1 r1 develop$ out ( a situation 9 :i* ! :ole ( composition 0 ?\ght ( 9 t]ms ( ! =mal elem5ts m5tion$ above4 ,! ,hillegas scale1 toge!r ) ! values assign$ to ea* ( ! samples1 is giv5 bel[4 ,a ,,scale ,,= ,,! ,,measurem5t ,,( ,,! ,,quality ,,( ,,engli% ,,composition ,,by ,,milo ,b4 ,,hillegas ,,value #j4 ,artificial sample ,lett] ,de> ,sir3 ,i write to say t x a9t a squ>e deal ,s*ools is ,i say !y is ,i w5t to a s*ool4 r$ & gree gre5 & br[n a9t x hito bit ,i say he don't "k 8 bus9ess n today nor yeat]day & y "k x & ,i want ,j5nie to get me out4 ,,value #ahc4 ,artificial sample ,my ,favorite ,book ! book ,i ref] to read is ,i*abod ,crane1 x is an grate book & ,i l to r$e x4 ,i*abod ,crame 0 a man & a man wrote a book & x is call$ ,i*abod ,crane i l x because ! man call$ x i*abod crane :5 ,i read x = x is su* a great book4 ,,value #bfj4 ,artificial sample ,! ,advantage ( ,tyranny ,advantage evils are ?+s ( tyranny & !re are _m advantage evils4 ,"o ?+ is t :5 !y opress ! p !y suff] awful ,i ?9k x is a t]rible ?+ :5 !y say t y c be hang$ d[n or trodd5 d[n )\t m]cy & ! tyranny does :at !y want !re 0 tyrans 9 ! revolution>y w> & s !y ?r[$ (f ! yok4 ,,value #cfi4 ,writt5 by a boy 9 ! second ye> ( ! high s*ool1 ag$ #ad ye>s ,sulla z a ,tyrant ,:5 ,sulla came back f 8 conque/ ,m>ius _h put himself consul s sulla ) ! army he _h ) him 9 8 conque/ siez$ ! gov]nm5t f ,m>ius & put himself 9 consul & _h a li/ ( 8 enemys pr9ty & ! m5 :oes names 7 on ?is li/ we behead$4 ,,value #dgd4 ,writt5 by a girl 9 ! ?ird ye> ( ! high s*ool1 ag$ #ag ye>s ,de ,qu9cy ,fir/3 ,de ,qu9cys "m 0 a beautiful wom5 & ?r\gh h] ,de ,qu9cy inh]et$ mu* ( 8 g5ius4 ,8 runn+ away f s*ool enflu5c$ him mu* z he roam$ ?r\gh ! woods1 valleys & 8 m9d became v m$itative4 ,! greate/ enflu5ce ( ,de ,qu9cy's life 0 ! opium habit4 ,if x 0 n = ?is habit x is d\btful :e!r we w\ld n[ be read+ 8 writ+s4 ,8 companions dur+ 8 college c\rse & ev5 be=e t "t 7 great enflu5ces4 ,! surr\nd+s ( ,de ,qu9cy 7 enflu5ces4 ,n only ,de ,qu9cy's habit ( opium b o!r habits :i* 7 peculi> to 8 life4 ,8 m>riage to ! woman :i* he did n especially c>e =4 ,! _m well educat$ & notewor?y fri5ds ( ,de ,qu9cy4 ,,value #ehe4 ,writt5 by a boy 9 ! f\r? ye> ( ! high s*ool1 ag$ #af ye>s ,fluell5 ,! passages giv5 %[ ! foll[+ *>act]i/ic ( ,fluell53 8 incl9ation to brag1 8 pr(ess$ k ( ,hi/ory1 8 compla9+ "*1 8 great patriotism1 pride ( 8 lead]1 admir$ hone/y1 rev5geful1 love ( fun & puni%m5t ( ^? :o des]ve x4 ,,value #fge4 ,writt5 by a girl 9 ! fir/ ye> ( ! high s*ool1 ag$ #ah ye>s ,i*abod ,crane ,i*abod ,crane 0 a s*oolma/] 9 a place call$ ,sleepy ,holl[4 ,he 0 tall & slim ) broad %\ld]s1 long arms t dangl$ f> bel[ 8 coat sleeves4 ,8 feet look$ z if !y might easily h be5 us$ = %ovels4 ,8 nose 0 long & 8 entire frame 0 mo/ loosely hung to-ge!r4 ,,value #ggb4 ,writt5 by a boy 9 ! ?ird ye> ( ! high s*ool1 ag$ #af ye>s ,go+ ,d[n ) ,victory ,z we road d[n ,lomb>d ,/reet1 we saw flags wav+ f ne>ly e w9d[4 ,i surely felt pr\d t day to be ! driv] ( ! gaily decorat$ coa*4 ,aga9 & aga9 we 7 *e]$ z we drove sl[ly to ! po/ma/]s1 to await ! com+ ( 8 maje/ie's mail4 ,!re wasn't "o ( ! gaily b$eck$ coa*es t c\ld h comp>$ ) ours1 9 my e/imation4 ,s ) wav+ flags & flutt]+ he>ts we wait$ = ! com+ ( ! mail & ! expect$ tid+s ( victory4 ,:5 at la/ x did arrive ! po/ma/] began to quickly sort ! bundles1 we wait$ anxi\sly4 ,imm$iately ^u receiv+ our bundles1 ,i la%$ ! horses & !y respond$ ) a jump4 ,out into ! c\ntry we drove at reckless spe$--ev]y:]e spread+ l wildfire ! news1 ,victory6 ,! exil]ation t we all felt 0 %>$ ) ! horses4 ,up & d[n grade & ov] bridges1 we drove at breakneck spe$ & spread+ ! news at e hamlet ) t "o cry ,victory6 ,:5 at la/ we 7 back home aga91 x 0 ) ! hope t we %\ld h ano!r ride "s day ) ,victory4 ,,value #hch4 ,writt5 by a boy 9 ! ,fre%man class 9 college ,v5us ( ,melos ,9 look+ at ?is /atue we ?9k1 n ( wisdom1 or p[]1 or =ce1 b j ( beauty4 ,%e /&s re/+ ! weight ( h] body on "o foot1 & advanc+ ! o!r 7left7 ) knee b5t4 ,! po/ure causes ! figure to sway slightly to "o side1 describ+ a f9e curv$ l9e4 ,! l[] limbs are drap$ b ! upp] "p ( ! body is uncov]$4 7,! un=tunate loss ( ! /atue's arms prev5ts a positive k ( its orig9al attitude47 ,! eyes are p>tly clos$1 hav+ some?+ ( a dreamy lang\r4 ,! nose is p]fectly cut1 ! m\? & *9 are m\ld$ 9 adorable curves4 ,yet to say t e feature is ( faultless p]fection is b cold praise4 ,no analysis c convey ! s5se ( h] pe]less beauty4 ,,value #icg4 ,writt5 by a boy 9 ! ,fre%man class 9 college ,a ,=eign]'s ,tribute to ,joan ( ,arc ,joan ( ,arc1 worn out by ! suff]+ t 0 ?ru/ ^u h]1 nev]!less appe>$ ) a brave mi5 be=e ! ,bi%op ( ,beauvais4 ,%e knew1 _h always kn[n t %e mu/ die :5 h] mission 0 fulfill$ & dea? held no t]rors = h]4 ,to all ! bi%op's que/ions %e answ]$ firmly & )\t hesitation4 ,! bi%op fail$ to confuse h] & at la/ condemn$ h] to dea? = h]esy1 bidd+ h] recant if %e w\ld live4 ,%e refus$ & 0 lead to prison1 f !re to dea?4 ,:ile ! flames 7 wri?+ ar\nd h] %e bade ! old bi%op :o /ood by h] to move away or he w\ld be injur$4 ,h] la/ ?\ght 0 ( o!rs & ,de ,qu9cy says1 t recant 0 no m 9 h] m9d ?an on h] lips4 ,%e di$ z %e liv$1 ) a pray] on h] lips & li/5+ to ! voices t _h :isp]$ to h] s (t54 ,! h]oism ( ,joan ( ,arc 0 wond]ful4 ,we d n "k :at =m h] great patriotism took or h[ f> x really l$ h]4 ,%e spoke ( he>+ voices & ( see+ visions4 ,we only "k t %e resolv$ to save h] c\ntry1 kn[+ ?\gh %e did s1 x w\ld co/ h] h] life4 ,yet %e nev] hesitat$4 ,%e 0 un$ucat$ save = ! lessons taught h] by nature4 ,yet %e l$ armies & cr[n$ ! dauph91 k+ ( ,france4 ,%e 0 only a girl1 yet %e c\ld sil5ce a great bi%op by words t came f h] he>t & f h] fai?4 ,%e 0 only a woman1 yet %e c\ld die z bravely z any m>tyr :o _h gone be=e4 ,! foll[+ compositions h be5 evaluat$ by ,pr(essor ,?orndike1 & may be us$ to supplem5t ! scale giv5 above4 ,,value #ac ,la/ ,monday ! h\se on ! corn] ( ,jay /reet 0 burn$ d[n to ! gr\nd & "r d[n by ,mrs4 brons h\se !re is a little *ild all alone & !re is a bad man sleep+ 9 ! sell]1 b we h a wise old monkey 9 ! coal b5 s ! p>5ts are ?ankful t !y don't h to pay any rew>d4 ,,value #bj ,"s ( ! h\se burn$ & ! *ildr5 7 9 b$ & !re 7 f\r *ildr5 & ! lady next /ore broke ! door 9 & w5t up />s & woke ! peple up & :5t out ( ! h\se :5 !y mov$ & & ! girl 0 sk>d to look out ( ! w9d[ & all ! "t ?\h? t %e saw a flame4 ,& ! wise monkey rew>d f go+ to ! fireh\se & jump+ all r\nd & 0 ?ankful f 8 rew>d & 0 ?ankful = :at he got4 #ae4 0 8 rew>d4 ,,value #cj ,a long "t ago1 ,i d n "k1 h[ long b a man & a woman & a little boy liv$ toge!r also a monkey a pet = ! little boy x happ5$ t ! man & ! woman 7 out1 & ! monkey & little boy1 & ! h\se />t$ to burn1 & ! monkey took ! little boys h&1 &1 w5t out4 ,! fa!r _h come home & 0 glad t ! monkey _h sav$ 8 little boy4 ,& t1 monkey got a rew>d4 ,,value #dj ,once ^u a "t a woman w5t into a d>k room & lit a mat*4 ,%e dropp$ x on ! floor & x ( c\rse set ! h\se afire4 ,%e jump$ out ( ! w9d[ & call$ h] husb& to come out too4 ,!y bo? =got all ab\t ! baby4 ,all ( a sudd5 he appe>$ 9 ! w9d[ call+ 8 "m4 ,8 fa!r _h gone next door to tel afone to ! fire h\se4 ,!y _h a monkey 9 ! h\se at ! "t & he he>d ! *ild call+ 8 "m4 ,he _h a plan to save ! baby4 ,he ran to ! w9d[ :]e he 0 /&+4 ,he put 8 tail ab\t 8 wai/ & jump$ (f ! w9d[ sill ) ! baby 9 8 tail4 ,:5 ! p 7 settl$ aga9 !y gave him a silv] coll> z a rew>d4 ,,value #ej ,a ,univ]sity out we/1 ,i _c rememb] ! "n1 is not$ = its haz+1 & ?is is :at ! /ory is ab\t4 ,x is ! haz+ ( a fre%man4 ,!re 0 a fre%man !re :o _h be5 act+ z if he didn't respect 8 upp] class m5 s !y decid$ to tea* him a lesson4 ,! /ud5t br\ght be=e ! ,black ,av5g]'s :i* is a society 9 all college to keep ! fre%man "u !re rules s !y desid$ to take him to ! rail-rode track & tie him to ! rails ab\t two h\rs be=e a tra9 0 suspect$ & leave him !re = ab\t an h\r1 :i* 0 a h\r be=e ! #i4bj tra9 0 expect$4 ,! date came t !y plann$ ?is haz+ = s ! captur$ ! fell[ bl9dfold$ him & lead him to ! rail rode tracks1 :]e !y ti$ him4 ,,value #fj ,i %\ld l to see a picture1 illu/rat+ a "p ( ,l'allegro4 ,:]e ! godesses ( ,mir? & ,lib]ty trip along h& 9 h&4 ,two beautiful girls dress$ 9 fl[+ g>m5ts1 danc+ along a fl[]-/rewn pa?1 ?r\gh a pretty g>d54 ,_! hair fl[+ d[n 9 long curls4 ,_! c\nt5ances %[+ _! p]fect fre$om & happ9ess4 ,_! arms ext5d$ gracefully smell+ "s sweet fl[]4 ,9 my m9d ?is w\ld make a beautiful picture4 ,,value #gj ,x 0 betwe5 ! d>k & ! daylight :5 f> away c\ld be se5 ! trea*]\s wolves skulk+ ov] ! hills4 ,we sat beside our campfires & wat*$ !m = a:ile4 ,sometimes a few ( !m w\ld h[l z if !y want$ to get 9 our camp4 ,!n1 half disc\rag$1 !y w\ld walk away & soon !re w\ld be o!rs do+ ! same ?+4 ,!y 7 afraid to come ne> because ( ! fires1 :i* 7 burn+ brightly4 ,i notic$ t !y h[l$ m betwe5 ! d>k & ! daylight ?an at any "t ( ! night4 ,,value #hj ,! sun 0 sett+1 giv+ a rosy gl[ to all ! trees /&+ tall black aga9/ ! fa9tly t9t$ sky4 ,blue1 p9k1 gre51 yell[1 l a conglom]ation ( pa9ts dropp$ c>elessly onto a pale blue backgr\nd4 ,! trees 7 9 su* great numb] t !y look$ l a mass ( black crepe1 ea* ) its individual1 graceful =m 9 view4 ,! lake lay smoo? & unruffl$1 dimly reflect+ ! beautiful color+ ( ! sky4 ,! w9d />t$ madly up & blew ov] ! lake's glassy surface mak+ my/]i\s murmur+s bl5d+ 9 ) ! *irp+ songs ( ! birds blew ?r\gh ! tree tops sett+ ! leaves ru/l+ & :isp]+ to "o ano!r4 ,a squirrel ran f 8 p]* *att]+1 to ! l(ty bran*es--a f> & di/ant hoot e*o$ 9 ! sil5ce1 & soon night1 ov] all came /eal+1 blott+ out ! sc5]y & wrapp+ all 9 re/ful1 my/]i\s d>kness4 ,,value #ij ,oh t ,i _h nev] he>d ( ,niag>a till ,i beheld x6 ,bless$ 7 ! w&]]s ( old1 :o he>d its deep ro>1 s\nd+ ?r\gh ! woods1 z ! summons to an unkn[n wond]1 & approa*$ its awful br9k1 9 all ! fre%ness ( native feel+4 ,_h its own my/]i\s voice be5 ! fir/ to w>n me ( its exi/5ce1 !n1 inde$1 ,i might h knelt d[n & wor%ipp$4 ,b ,i _h come ?i!r1 haunt$ ) a vision ( foam & fury1 & dizzy cliffs1 & an ocean tumbl+ d[n out ( ! sky--a sc5e1 9 %ort1 :i* nature _h too mu* good ta/e & calm simplicity to realize4 ,my m9d _h /ruggl$ to adapt ^! false conceptions to ! reality1 & f9d+ ! ef=t va91 a wret*$ s5se ( disappo9tm5t weigh$ me d[n4 ,i climb$ ! precipice1 & ?rew myself on ! e>? feel+ t ,i 0 unwor?y to look at ! ,great ,falls1 & c>eless ab\t behold+ !m aga94 ,a scale = measur+ ,engli% composition 9 ! eigh? grade1 :i* takes acc\nt ( diff]5t types ( composition1 su* z n>ration1 description1 & ! l1 has be5 develop$ by ,dr4 ,frank ,w4 ,ball\1 ( ,bo/on4#bg ,= ^? int]e/$ 9 ! foll[+ up ( ! problem ( ,engli% composition ?is scale w prove int]e/+ & valuable4 ,sev]al scales h be5 develop$ = ! measurem5t ( ! ability ( *ildr5 9 read+4 ,among !m may be m5tion$ ! scale d]iv$ by ,pr(essor ,?orndike = measur+ ! und]/&+ ( s5t5ces4#bh ,?is scale calls att5tion to t elem5t 9 read+ :i* is possibly ! mo/ important ( !m all1 t is1 ! attempt to get mean+s4 ,we are all ( u1 = ! mo/ "p1 conc]n$ n prim>ily ) giv+ expression ?r\gh oral read+1 b1 r1 9 gett+ ideas f ! pr9t$ page4 ,a sample ( ?is scale is giv5 on ! foll[+ page4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,scale ,,alpha4 ,,= ,,measur+ ,,! ,,und]/&+ ,,( ,,s5t5ces ,write y\r "n "h4444444444444444444444444444444 ,write y\r age4444444444444ye>s444444444444mon?s4 ,,set a ,read ?is & !n write ! answ]s4 ,read x aga9 z (t5 z y ne$ to4 ,john _h two bro!rs :o 7 bo? tall4 ,_! names 7 ,w & ,fr$4 ,john's si/]1 :o 0 %ort1 0 nam$ ,m>y4 ,john lik$ ,fr$ bett] ?an ei!r ( ! o!rs4 ,all ( ^! *ildr5 except ,w _h r$ hair4 ,he _h br[n hair4 #a4 ,0 ,john's si/] tall or %ort8444444444444444444444 #b4 ,h[ _m bro!rs _h ,john844444444444444444444444444 #c4 ,:at 0 8 si/]'s "n844444444444444444444444444 ,,set b ,read ?is & !n write ! answ]s4 ,read x aga9 z (t5 z y ne$ to4 ,long aft] ! sun _h set1 ,tom 0 /ill wait+ = ,jim & ,dick to come4 ,if !y d n come be=e n9e o'clock1 he said to himself1 ,i w g on to ,bo/on alone4 ,at half pa/ eight !y came br++ two o!r boys ) !m4 ,tom 0 v glad to see !m & gave ea* ( !m "o ( ! apples he _h kept4 ,!y ate ^! & he ate "o too4 ,!n all w5t on d[n ! road4 #a4 ,:5 did ,jim & ,dick come844444444444444444444444444444444444 #b4 ,:at did !y d aft] eat+ ! apples8444444444444444444444 #c4 ,:o else came besides ,jim & ,dick8444444444444444444444444444 #d4 ,h[ long did ,tom say he w\ld wait = !m8444444444444444444 #e4 ,:at happ5$ aft] ! boys ate ! apples8444444444444444444 ,,set c ,read ?is & !n write ! answ]s4 ,read x aga9 z (t5 z y ne$ to4 ,x may seem at fir/ ?\ght t e boy & girl :o goes to s*ool ought to d all ! "w t ! tea*] wi%es done4 ,b sometimes o!r duties prev5t ev5 ! be/ boy or girl f do+ s4 ,if a boy's or girl's fa!r di$ & he _h to "w aft]noons & ev5+s to e>n money to help 8 "m1 su* might be ! case4 ,a good girl might let h] lessons g undone 9 ord] to help h] "m by tak+ c>e ( ! baby4 #a4 ,:at are "s conditions t might make ev5 ! be/ boy leave s*ool "w unf9i%$844444444444444444444444444444444 444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 444444444444444444444444444 #b4 ,:at might a boy d 9 ! ev5+s to help 8 family8444444444 #c4 ,h[ c\ld a girl be ( use to h] "m844444444444444444444444 #d4 ,look at ^! words3 idle1 tribe1 in*1 x1 ice1 ivy1 tide1 true1 tip1 top1 tit1 tat1 toe4 ,cross out e "o ( !m t has an i & has n any t 7,t7 9 x4 ,,set d ,read ?is & !n write ! answ]s4 ,read x aga9 z (t5 z y ne$ to4 ,x may seem at fir/ ?\ght t e boy & girl :o goes to s*ool ought to d all ! "w t ! tea*] wi%es done4 ,b sometimes o!r duties prev5t ev5 ! be/ boy or girl f do+ s4 ,if a boy's or girl's fa!r di$ & he _h to "w aft]noons & ev5+s to e>n money to help 8 "m1 su* might be ! case4 ,a good girl might let h] lessons g undone 9 ord] to help h] "m by tak+ c>e ( ! baby4 #a4 ,:at is x t might seem at fir/ ?\ght to be true1 b really is false8 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444 #b4 ,:at might be ! effect ( 8 fa!r's dea? ^u ! way a boy sp5t 8 "t84444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444 #c4 ,:o is m5tion$ 9 ! p>agraph z ! p]son :o desires to h all lessons completely done844444444444444444444444444444444444 44444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444444444444 4444444444444444444444444444444 #d4 ,9 ^! two l9es draw a l9e "u e #e t comes j aft] a #b1 unless ! #b comes j aft] a #i4 ,if t is ! case1 draw a l9e "u ! next figure aft] ! #e3 #e #c #f #b #e #d #a #g #d #b #e #g #f #e #d #i #b #e #c #h #f #a #b #e #d #g #c #e #b #c #i #b #e #h #d #g #i #b #e #f #a #b #e #g #d #h #e #f 99 99 99 99 99 ,_m te/s h be5 devis$ :i* h be5 ?\ght to h m g5]al application ?an ^? :i* h be5 m5tion$ above = ! p>ticul> subjects4 ,"o ( ! mo/ valuable ( ^! te/s1 call$ te*nically a completion te/1 is t d]iv$ by ,dr4 ,m4,r4 ,trabue4#bi ,9 ^! te/s ! pupil is ask$ to supply words :i* are omitt$ f ! pr9t$ s5t5ces4 ,x is really a te/ ( 8 ability to complete ! ?\ght :5 only "p ( x is giv54 ,dr4 ,trabue calls 8 scales language scales4 ,x has be5 f\nd1 h[ev]1 t ability ( ?is sort is closely relat$ to _m ( ! traits :i* we consid] desirable 9 s*ool *ildr54 ,x w\ld !re=e be valuable1 provid$ always t *ildr5 h "s ability 9 read+1 to te/ !m on ! language scale z "o ( ! means ( diff]5tiat+ among ^? :o h m or less ability4 ,! scores :i* may be expect$ f diff]5t grades appe> 9 ,dr4 ,trabue's monograph4 ,?ree sep>ate scales foll[4 99 99 99 99 99 ,write only "o ^w on ea* blank ,"t ,limit3 ,sev5 m9utes ,,"n 44444444444444444444444444 ,,trabue ,,language ,,scale ,b #a4 ,we l good boys4444444444444444girls4 #f4 ,!4444444444444444is b>k+ at ! cat4 #h4 ,! />s & !4444444444444444w %9e tonight4 #bb4 ,"t4444444444444444(t5 m valuable4444444444444444money4 #bc4 ,! poor baby4444444444444444z if x444444444444444444444sick4 #ca4 ,%e4444444444444444if %e w4 #ce4 ,bro!rs & si/]s 4444444444444444 always 4444444444444444 to help44444444444444o!r & %\ld4444444444444444qu>rel4 #ch4 4444444444444444 wea!r usually4444444444444444 a good effect 4444444444444444 "o's spirits4 #dh4 ,x is v annoy+ to44444444444444444444444444444444too?-a *e1 4444444444444444(t5 comes at ! mo/4444444444444444"t imag9able4 #ed4 ,to4444444444444444fri5ds is always4444444444444444!44444444 x takes4 ,write only "o ^w on ea* blank ,"t ,limit3 ,sev5 m9utes ,,"n44444444444444444444444444 ,,trabue ,,language ,,scale ,d #d4 ,we are go+4444444444444444s*ool4 #gf4 ,i4444444444444444to s*ool ea* day4 #aa4 ,!4444444444444444plays4444444444444444h ] dolls all day4 #ba4 ,! rude *ild does n4444444444444444_m fri5ds4 #fc4 ,h>d4444444444444444makes444444444444444 4tir$4 #bg4 ,x is good to he>4444444444444444voice4444444444444444 4444444 4444444444fri5d4 #ga4 ,! happie/ &4444444444444444cont5t$ man is ! 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"o :i* is mo/ significant = ! tea*]4 ,x is important :5ev] we measure *ildr5 to get z cle> a view z we c ( ! :ole situation4 ,= ?is purpose we want n prim>ily to "k :at ! av]age p]=mance is1 b1 r1 h[ _m *ildr5 !re are at ea* level ( a*ievem5t4 ,9 ari?metic1 = example1 we want to "k h[ _m !re are :o c d none ( ! ,c\rtis problems 9 addition1 or h[ _m !re are :o c d ! fir/ six on ! ,woody te/1 h[ _m c d sev51 eight1 & s on4 ,9 p5man%ip we want to "k h[ _m *ildr5 !re are :o write quality eight1 or n9e1 or t51 or sixte51 or sev5te51 z ! case may be4 ,! "w ( ! tea*] c nev] be accompli%$ economically except z he gives m att5tion to ^? :o are less pr(ici5t1 & provides m & h>d] "w = ^? :o are capable1 or else relieves ! able memb]s ( ! class f fur!r "w 9 ! field4 ,x w be well1 !re=e1 to prep>e1 = ! sake ( comp>+ grades )9 ! same s*ool or s*ool sy/em1 or = ! sake ( prep>+ ! "w ( a class at two diff]5t times dur+ ! ye>1 a table :i* %[s j h[ _m *ildr5 !re are 9 ! gr\p :o h rea*$ ea* level ( a*ievem5t4 ,su* tables = "w 9 composition = a class at two diff]5t times1 six mon?s ap>t1 appe> z foll[s3 ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,composition ,,scores ,,= ,a ,,sev5? ,,grade ,,numb] ,,( ,,*ildr5 ----------------------- ,,novemb] ,,febru>y ------------------------------------ ,rat$ at #j #j #j #a4hc #a #a #b4fj #f #d #c4fi #ab #f #d4gd #h #aa #e4he #c #d #f4ge #a #c #g4gb #a #b #h4ch #j #a #i4cg #j #j ,a /udy ( su* a di/ribution w\ld %[ n only t ! av]age p]=mance ( ! class has be5 rais$1 b also t ^? 9 ! l[] levels h1 9 consid]able measure1 be5 br\ght up2 t is1 t ! tea*] has be5 work+ ) ^? :o %[$ less ability1 & n simply pu%+ ahead a few :o _h m ?an ord9>y capacity4 ,x w\ld be possible to increase ! av]age p]=mance by work+ :olly ) ! upp] half ( ! class :ile neglect+ ^? :o %[$ less ability4 ,f a complete di/ribution1 z has be5 giv5 above1 x has become evid5t t ?is has n be5 ! me?od ( ! tea*]4 ,he has s\ght app>5tly to d ev]y?+ t he c\ld to improve ! quality ( "w ^u ! "p ( all ( ! *ildr5 9 ! class4 ,x is v int]e/+ to note1 :5 su* complete di/ributions are giv51 h[ ! a*ievem5t ( *ildr5 9 v>i\s classes ov]laps4 ,= example1 ! di/ribution ( ! numb] ( examples on ! ,c\rtis te/s1 correctly f9i%$ 9 a giv5 "t by pupils 9 ! sev5? grades1 makes x cle> t !re are *ildr5 9 ! fif? grade :o d bett] ?an _m 9 ! eigh?4 ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,! ,,numb] ,,( ,,examples ,,correctly ,,f9i%$ ,,9 ,,! ,,giv5 ,,"t ,,by ,,pupils ,,9 ,,! ,,sev]al ,,grades ,,addition ,,subtraction ,no4 ,,( ---------------------- ,no4 ,,( ------------------------ ,,examples ,,grades ,,examples ,,grades ,,f9i%$ #e #f #g #h ,,f9i%$ #e #f #g #h ---------------------------------------- ------------------ #j #ab #ae #e #d #j #f #b #b -- #a #bf #bc #ad #i #a #e #f #b #a #b #bg #ca #h #f #b #g #h #a -- #c #ca #bg #bg #i #c #ac #ba #c #a #d #be #bh #ai #af #d #ba #ah #ac #b #e #af #bc #af #ae #e #bf #cj #ab #g #f #ae #bb #ab #ab #f #ag #bg #ae #i #g #a #aa #h #i #g #ae #bg #ah #i #h #c #d #f #aa #h #ae #bj #ab #ab #i #a #b #c #h #i #aj #ac #i #ab #aj -- -- -- #f #aj #h #f #ac #aa #aa -- -- #a -- #aa #f #b #c #ab #ab -- -- #a #b #ab #c #a #g #i #ac -- -- -- -- #ac #b #b #c #e #ad -- -- -- -- #ad #a #a #c #g #ae -- -- -- #b #ae -- -- #b #c #af -- -- -- #a #af -- -- #a #b #ag -- -- -- -- #ag -- #a -- #a #ah -- -- -- -- #ah -- -- -- #a #ai -- -- -- -- #ai -- -- -- #d #bj -- -- -- -- #bj -- -- -- #b #ba -- -- -- -- #ba -- -- -- #a #bb -- -- -- -- #bb -- -- -- -- ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,total pap]s #aeg #hf #aai #aaa #aee #ahe #aai #aaa ,,! ,,di/ribution ,,( ,,! ,,numb] ,,( ,,examples ,,correctly ,,f9i%$ ,,9 ,,! ,,giv5 ,,"t ,,by ,,pupils ,,9 ,,! ,,sev]al ,,grades ,,multiplication ,,division ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,no4 ( ,,grades ,no4 ( ,,grades ,examples---------------------------,exa mples------------------------- ,f9i%$ #e #f #g #h ,f9i%$ #e #f #g #h ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- #j 4 4 4 #aj #d -- -- #j 4 4 4 #ag #g #a -- #a 4 4 4 #aj #d #c -- #a 4 4 4 #ai #ag #b #a #b 4 4 4 #ai #bj #e #a #b 4 4 4 #ah #bb #h #d #c 4 4 4 #ba #ag #aa #e #c 4 4 4 #ba #bf #f #b #d 4 4 4 #bh #ca #af #c #d 4 4 4 #be #bg #h #f #e 4 4 4 #bf #cd #ab #ac #e 4 4 4 #ba #bg #aa #g #f 4 4 4 #bd #bg #ac #ac #f 4 4 4 #i #ae #ab #d #g 4 4 4 #i #bj #af #aj #g 4 4 4 #aj #ae #af #ah #h 4 4 4 #e #ad #ba #ai #h 4 4 4 #f #g #bj #i #i 4 4 4 #c #i #aa #ac #i 4 4 4 #d #g #aa #f #aj 4 4 4 -- #d #f #aj #aj 4 4 4 #d #i #g #ac #aa 4 4 4 #a -- #b #i #aa 4 4 4 #a #c #c #g #ab 4 4 4 -- -- #b #f #ab 4 4 4 -- #b #aj #aj #ac 4 4 4 -- -- #a #c #ac 4 4 4 -- #b -- #aj #ad 4 4 4 -- -- -- #c #ad 4 4 4 #a -- #a #d #ae 4 4 4 -- -- -- -- #ae 4 4 4 -- #a #b #i #af 4 4 4 -- -- -- #a #af 4 4 4 -- -- -- #b #ag 4 4 4 -- -- -- -- #ag 4 4 4 -- -- -- #d #ah 4 4 4 -- -- -- #a #ah 4 4 4 -- -- -- #b #ai 4 4 4 -- -- -- #a #ai 4 4 4 -- -- -- #a #bj 4 4 4 -- -- -- -- #bj 4 4 4 -- -- -- #a #ba 4 4 4 -- -- -- -- #ba 4 4 4 -- -- -- #a #bb 4 4 4 -- -- -- -- #bb 4 4 4 -- -- -- -- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,total ,pap]s #aef #ahd #aai #aaa #aef #ahg #aah #aaa ,if ! te/s _h be5 giv5 9 ! f\r? or ! ?ird grade1 x w\ld h be5 f\nd t !re 7 *ildr51 ev5 z l[ z ! ?ird grade1 :o c\ld d z well or bett] ?an "s ( ! *ildr5 9 ! eigh? grade4 ,su* comp>isons ( a*ievem5ts among *ildr5 9 v>i\s subjects ought to lead at times to reorganizations ( classes1 to ! gr\p+ ( *ildr5 = special in/ruction1 & to ! rapid promotion ( ! m capable pupils4 ,9 _m ( ^! measurem5ts x w be f\nd helpful to describe ! gr\p by nam+ ! po9t above & bel[ :i* half ( ! cases fall4 ,?is is call$ ! m$ian4 ,because ( ! v common use ( ?is measure 9 ! curr5t lit]ature ( education1 x may be wor? :ile to discuss c>efully ! me?od ( its d]ivation4#cj #ca,! m$ian po9t ( any di/ribution ( measures is t po9t on ! scale :i* divides ! di/ribution into two exactly equal p>ts1 "o half ( ! measures be+ great] ?an ?is po9t on ! scale1 & ! o!r half be+ small]4 ,:5 ! scales are v crude1 or :5 small numb]s ( measurem5ts are be+ consid]$1 x is n wor? :ile to locate ?is m$ian po9t any m accurately ?an by indicat+ on :at /ep ( ! scale x falls4 ,if ! measur+ in/rum5t has be5 c>efully d]iv$ & accurately scal$1 h[ev]1 x is (t5 desirable1 especially :]e ! gr\p be+ consid]$ is reasonably l>ge1 to locate ! exact po9t )9 ! /ep on :i* ! m$ian falls4 ,if ! unit ( ! scale is "s measure ( ! v>iability ( a def9$ gr\p1 z x is 9 ! majority ( our pres5t educational scales1 ?is m$ian po9t may well be calculat$ to ! ne>e/ t5? ( a unit1 or1 if !re are two hundr$ or m individual measurem5ts 9 ! di/ribution1 x may be f\nd int]e/+ to calculate ! m$ian po9t to ! ne>e/ hundr$? ( a scale unit4 ,v seldom w any?+ be ga9$ by c>ry+ ! calculation beyond ! second decimal place4 ,! be/ rule = locat+ ! m$ian po9t ( a di/ribution is to take z ! m$ian t po9t on ! scale :i* is rea*$ by c\nt+ out "o half ( ! measures1 ! measures be+ tak5 9 ! ord] ( _! magnitude4 ,if we let n /& = ! numb] ( measures 9 ! di/ribution1 we may express ! rule z foll[s3 ,c\nt into ! di/ribution1 f ei!r end ( ! scale1 a di/ance cov]$ by 99n_/#b measures4 ,= example1 if ! di/ribution conta9s #bj measures1 ! m$ian is t po9t on ! scale :i* m>ks ! end ( ! #aj? & ! beg9n+ ( ! #aa? measure4 ,if !re are #ci measures 9 ! di/ribution1 ! m$ian po9t is rea*$ by c\nt+ out #ai-a_/b ( ! measures2 9 o!r words1 ! m$ian ( su* a di/ribution is at ! mid-po9t ( t fraction ( ! scale assign$ to ! #bj? measure4 ,! m$ian /ep ( a di/ribution is ! /ep :i* conta9s )9 x ! m$ian po9t4 ,simil>ly1 ! m$ian measure 9 any di/ribution is ! measure :i* conta9s ! m$ian po9t4 ,9 a di/ribution conta9+ #be measures1 ! #ac? measure is ! m$ian measure1 because #ab measures are great] & #ab are less ?an ! #ac?1 :ile ! #ac? measure is itself divid$ into halves by ! m$ian po9t4 ,:]e a di/ribution conta9s an ev5 numb] ( measures1 !re is 9 reality no m$ian measure b only a m$ian po9t betwe5 ! two halves ( ! di/ribution4 ,:]e a di/ribution conta9s an unev5 numb] ( measures1 ! m$ian measure is ! 7n#a7_/b measurem5t1 at ! mid-po9t ( :i* measure is ! m$ian po9t ( ! di/ribution4 ,mu* inaccurate calculation has result$ f misguid$ attempts to secure a m$ian po9t ) ! =mula j giv51 :i* is applicable only to ! location ( ! m$ian measure4 ,x w be f\nd mu* m advantage\s 9 deal+ ) educational /ati/ics to consid] only ! m$ian po9t1 & to use only ! n_/#b =mula giv5 9 a previ\s p>agraph1 = practically all educational scales are or may be ?\ght ( z cont9u\s scales r ?an scales compos$ ( discrete /eps4 ,! greate/ dang] to be gu>d$ aga9/ 9 consid]+ all scales z cont9u\s r ?an discrete1 is t c>eless ?9k]s may ref9e _! calculations f> beyond ! accuracy :i* _! orig9al measurem5ts w\ld w>rant4 ,"o %\ld be v c>eful n to make su* unju/ifiable ref9em5ts 9 8 /atem5t ( results z are (t5 made by "y pupils :5 !y multiply ! diamet] ( a circle1 :i* has be5 measur$ only to ! ne>e/ in*1 by #c4adaf 9 ord] to f9d ! circumf]5ce4 ,ev5 9 ! ord9>y calculation ( ! av]age po9t ( a s]ies ( measures ( l5g?1 ! amateur is sometimes tempt$1 :5 ! numb] ( measures 9 ! s]ies is n conta9$ an ev5 numb] ( times 9 ! sum ( _! values1 to c>ry ! quoti5t out to a l>g] numb] ( decimal places ?an ! orig9al measures w\ld ju/ify4 ,f9al results %\ld usually n be ref9$ f> beyond ! accuracy ( ! orig9al measures4 ,x is ( utmo/ importance 9 calculat+ m$ians & o!r measures ( a di/ribution to keep con/antly 9 m9d ! significance ( ea* /ep on ! scale4 ,if ! scale consi/s ( tasks to be done or problems to be solv$1 !n do+ #a task correctly means1 :5 consid]$ z "p ( a cont9u\s scale1 any:]e f do+ #a4j up to do+ #b4j tasks4 ,a *ild receives cr$it = #b problems correct :e!r he has j b>ely solv$ #b4j problems or has j b>ely fall5 %ort ( solv+ #c4j problems4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! scale consi/s ( a s]ies ( productions graduat$ 9 quality f v poor to v good1 ) :i* s]ies o!r productions ( ! same sort are to be comp>$1 !n ea* sample on ! scale /&s at ! middle ( its /ep r ?an at ! beg9n+4 ,! second k9d ( scale describ$ 9 ! =ego+ p>agraph may be designat$ z scales = ! quality ( products1 :ile ! o!r v>iety may be call$ scales = magnitude ( a*ievem5t4 ,9 ! "o case1 ! *ild makes ! be/ production he c & measures its quality by comp>+ x ) simil> products ( kn[n quality on ! scale4 ,composition1 h&writ+1 & draw+ scales are good examples ( scales = quality ( products4 ,9 ! o!r case1 ! scales are plac$ 9 ! h&s ( ! *ild at ! v beg9n+1 & ! magnitude ( 8 a*ievem5t is measur$ by ! difficulty or numb] ( tasks accompli%$ successfully 9 a giv5 "t4 ,spell+1 ari?metic1 read+1 language1 geography1 & hi/ory te/s are examples ( scales = quantity ( a*ievem5t4 ,scores t5d to be m accurate on ! scales = magnitude ( a*ievem5t1 because ! judgm5t ( ! exam9] is likely to be m accurate 9 decid+ :e!r a response is correct or incorrect ?an x is 9 decid+ h[ mu* quality a giv5 product conta9s4 ,?is does n furni% an excuse = fail+ to employ ! quality-(-products scales1 h[ev]1 = ! qualities !y measure are n measurable 9 t]ms ( ! magnitude ( tasks p]=m$4 ,! fact appe>s1 h[ev]1 t ! me?od ( employ+ ! quality-(-products scales is by comp>ison 7( *ild's production ) samples reproduc$ on ! scale71 :ile ! me?od ( employ+ ! magnitude-(-a*ievem5t scales is by p]=mance 7( *ild on tasks ( kn[n difficulty74 ,9 ?is connection x may be well to take "o ( ! scales = quality ( products & outl9e ! /eps to be foll[$ 9 assign+ scores1 mak+ tabulations1 & f9d+ ! m$ians ( di/ributions ( scores4 ,:5 ! ,hillegas scale is employ$ 9 measur+ ! quality ( ,engli% composition1 x w be advisable to assign to ea* composition ! score ( t sample on ! scale to :i* x is ne>e/ 9 m]it or quality4 ,:ile "s individuals may feel able to assign values int]m$iate to ^? appe>+ on ! ,hillegas scale1 ! majority ( ^? p]sons :o use ?is scale w n !reby obta9 a m accurate result1 & ! assignm5t ( su* int]m$iate values w make x extremely difficult = any o!r p]son to make accurate use ( ! results4 ,to be exactly comp>able1 values %\ld be assign$ 9 exactly ! same mann]4 ,! be/ result w probably be obta9$ by hav+ ea* composition rat$ sev]al times1 & if possible1 by a numb] ( diff]5t judges1 ! pap] be+ giv5 ea* "t t value on ! ,hillegas scale to :i* x seems ne>e/ 9 quality4 ,! f9al m>k = ! pap] %\ld be ! m$ian score or /ep 7n ! m$ian po9t or ! av]age po9t7 ( all ! scores assign$4 ,= example1 if a pap] is rat$ five times1 once z 9 /ep numb] five 7#e4he71 twice z 9 /ep numb] six 7#f4ge71 & twice z 9 /ep numb] sev5 7#g4gb71 x %\ld be giv5 a f9al m>k indicat+ t x is a numb] six 7#f4ge7 pap]4 ,aft] ea* composition has be5 assign$ a f9al m>k indicat+ to :at sample on ! ,hillegas scale x is mo/ ne>ly equal 9 quality1 proce$ z foll[s3 ,make a di/ribution ( ! f9al m>ks giv5 to ! individual pap]s1 %[+ h[ _m pap]s 7 assign$ to ! z]o /ep on ! scale1 h[ _m to /ep numb] "o1 h[ _m to /ep numb] two1 & s on = ea* /ep ( ! scale4 ,we may take z an example ! di/ribution ( scores made by ! pupils ( ! eigh? grade at ,butte1 ,montana1 9 ,may1 #aiad4 ,no4 ( pap]s #a #i #cb #ci #dc #bb #f #b ,rat$ at #j #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i ,all toge!r !re 7 #aed pap]s f ! eigh? grade1 s t if !y 7 arrang$ 9 ord] accord+ to _! m]it we might beg9 at ! poore/ & c\nt ?r\gh #gg ( !m 7n_/#b #aed_/b #gg7 to f9d ! m$ian po9t1 :i* w\ld lie betwe5 ! #gg? & ! #gh? 9 quality4 ,if we beg9 ) ! #a composition rat$ at #j & c\nt up ?r\gh ! #i rat$ at #a & ! #cb rat$ at #b 9 ! above di/ribution1 we %all h c\nt$ #db4 ,9 ord] to c\nt out #gg cases1 !n1 x w be necess>y to c\nt out #ce ( ! #ci cases rat$ at #c4 ,n[ we "k 7if ! in/ructions giv5 above h be5 foll[$7 t ! compositions rat$ at #c 7 s rat$ by virtue ( ! fact t ! judges consid]$ !m ne>] 9 quality to ! sample valu$ at #c4fi ?an to any o!r sample on ! scale4 ,we %\ld expect1 !n1 to f9d t "s ( ^? rat$ at #c 7 only slightly ne>] to ! sample valu$ at #c4fi ?an !y 7 to ! sample valu$ at #b4fj1 :ile o!rs 7 only slightly ne>] to #c4fi ?an !y 7 to #d4gd4 ,j h[ ! #ci compositions rat$ on #c 7 di/ribut$ betwe5 ^! two extremes we d n "k1 b ! be/ s+le assumption to make is t !y are di/ribut$ at equal int]vals on /ep #c4 ,assum+1 !n1 t ! pap]s rat$ at #c are di/ribut$ ev5ly ov] t /ep1 we %all h cov]$ 4#ij 7#ce_/ci 4#hig 4#ij7 ( ! entire /ep #c by ! "t we h c\nt$ out #ce ( ! #ci pap]s fall+ on ?is /ep4 ,x n[ becomes necess>y to exam9e m closely j :at are ! limits ( /ep #c4 ,x is evid5t f :at has be5 said above t #c4fi is ! middle /ep #c & t /ep #c ext5ds d[nw>d f #c4fi halfway to #b4fj1 & upw>d f #c4fi halfway to #d4gd4 ,! table giv5 bel[ %[s ! range & ! l5g? ( ea* /ep 9 ! ,hillegas ,scale = ,engli% ,composition4 ,,! ,,hillegas ,,scale ,,= ,,engli% ,,composition ,,/ep ,no4,,value or ,,sample,,range ,,( ,,/ep ,,l5g? ,,( ,,/ep ---------------------------------------- ----------- #j4 4 4 4 #j #j- 4#iacb 4#ia #a4 4 4 4 #a4hc 4#ib-b4ba #a4cj #b4 4 4 4 #b4fj #b4bb-c4ad 4#ic #c4 4 4 4 #c4fi #c4ae-d4ba #a4jg #d4 4 4 4 #d4gd #d4bb-e4bi #a4jh #e4 4 4 4 #e4he #e4cj-f4cj #a4jj #f4 4 4 4 #f4ge #f4cj-g4bc 4#ic #g4 4 4 4 #g4gb #g4bd-h4je 4#ha #h4 4 4 4 #h4ch #h4je-h4hg 4#hb #i4 4 4 4 #i4cg #h4hh- ,f ! above table we f9d t /ep #c has a l5g? ( #a4jg units4 ,if we c\nt out #ce ( ! #ci pap]s1 or1 9 o!r words1 if we pass upw>d into ! /ep 4#ij ( ! total di/ance 7#a4jg units71 we %all arrive at a po9t 4#if units 74#ij #a4jg 4#if7 above ! l[] limit ( /ep #c1 :i* we f9d f ! table is #c4ae4 ,add+ 4#if to #c4ae gives #d4aa z ! m$ian po9t ( ?is eigh? grade di/ribution4 ,! m$ian & ! p]c5tiles ( any di/ribution ( scores on ! ,hillegas scale may be det]m9$ 9 a mann] simil> to t illu/rat$ above1 if ! scores are assign$ to ! individual pap]s accord+ to ! directions outl9$ above4 ,a simil> me?od ( calculation is employ$ 9 discov]+ ! limits )9 :i* ! middle fifty p] c5t ( ! cases fall4 ,x (t5 seems fair] to ask1 aft] ! upp] tw5ty-five p] c5t ( ! *ildr5 :o w\ld probably d successful "w ev5 )\t v adequate tea*+ h be5 elim9at$1 & ! l[] tw5ty-five p] c5t :o are possibly s lack+ 9 capacity t tea*+ may n be ?\ght to affect !m v l>gely h be5 left out ( consid]ation1 :at is ! a*ievem5t ( ! middle fifty p] c5t4 ,to measure ?is a*ievem5t x is necess>y to h ! :ole di/ribution & to c\nt (f tw5ty-five p] c5t1 c\nt+ 9 f ! upp] end1 & !n tw5ty-five p] c5t1 c\nt+ 9 f ! l[] end ( ! di/ribution4 ,! po9ts f\nd c !n be us$ 9 a /atem5t 9 :i* ! limits )9 :i* ! middle fifty p] c5t ( ! cases fall4 ,us+ ! same figures t are giv5 above = scores 9 ,engli% composition1 ! l[] limit is #b4fd & ! limit :i* m>ks ! po9t above :i* ! upp] tw5ty-five p] c5t ( ! cases are to be f\nd is #e4jh4 ,! limits1 !re=e1 )9 :i* ! middle fifty p] c5t ( ! cases fall are f #b4fd to #e4jh4 ,x is desirable to measure ! relation%ip exi/+ betwe5 ! a*ievem5ts 7or o!r traits7 ( gr\ps4 ,9 ord] to express su* relation%ip 9 a s+le figure ! coeffici5t or correlation is us$4 ,?is measure appe>s frequ5tly 9 ! lit]ature ( education & w be briefly expla9$4 ,! =mula = f9d+ ! coeffici5t ( correlation c be und]/ood f examples ( its application4 ,let u suppose a gr\p ( sev5 individuals ^: scores 9 t]ms ( problems solv$ correctly & ( words spell$ correctly are z foll[s3#cc ,,individuals,no4 ,,( ,no4 ,,( ,,words ,,measur$ ,,problems,,spell$ ,,correctly ,,correctly ------------------------------------ ,a #a #b ,b #b #d ,c #c #f ,d #d #h ,e #e #aj ,f #f #ab ,g #g #ad ,f su* di/ributions x w\ld appe> t z individuals increase 9 a*ievem5t 9 "o field !y increase correspond+ly 9 ! o!r4 ,if "o is bel[ or above ! av]age 9 a*ievem5t 9 "o field1 he is bel[ or above & 9 ! same degree 9 ! o!r field4 ,?is sort ( positive relation%ip 7go+ toge!r7 is express$ by a coeffici5t ( #a4 ,! =mula is express$ z foll[s3 7,sum x y7 r ------------------------------ 7sqrt7,sum x#b777sqrt7,sum y#b77 ,"h r coeffici5t ( correlation4 x deviations f av]age score 9 ari?metic 7or diff]5ce betwe5 score made & av]age score74 y deviations f av]age score 9 spell+4 ,sum is ! sign commonly us$ to indicate ! algebraic sum 7i4e4 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! sum ( ! m9us quantities & ! plus quantities74 x y products ( deviation 9 "o trait multipli$ by deviation 9 ! o!r trait ) appropriate sign4 ,apply+ ! =mula we f9d3 ,,ari?- ,,spel- ,,metic x x#b ,,l+ y y#b xy ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,a #a-c #i #b-f #cf #ah ,b #b-b #d #d-d #af #h ,c #c-a #a #f-b #d #b ,d #d #j #j #h #j ,e #ea #a #ajb #d #b ,f #fb #d #abd #af #h ,g #gc #i #adf #cf #ah #g #bh ,sum x#b #bh #g #ef ,sum y#b #aab,sum xy #ef ,av4 #d ,av4 #h ,sum x y #ef #ef r ---------------------------- --------------------- ---- #a 7sqrt7,sum x#b77sqrt7,sum y#b7 7sqrt7#bh777sqrt7#aab77 #ef ,if in/ead ( a*ievem5t 9 "o field be+ positively relat$ 7go+ toge!r7 9 ! highe/ possible degree1 ^! individuals %[ ! opposite type ( relation%ip1 i4e41 ! maximum negative relation%ip 7?is might be express$ z opposition--a place above ! av]age 9 "o a*ievem5t go+ ) a correspond+ly great deviation bel[ ! av]age 9 ! o!r a*ievem5t71 !n our coeffici5t becomes -#a4 ,apply+ ! =mula3 ,,ari?- ,,spel- ,,metic x x#b ,,l+ y y#b x99y ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,a #a-c #i #adf #cf -#ah ,b #b-b #d #abd #af -#h ,c #c-a #b #ajb #d -#b ,d #d #j #h #j ,e #ea #b #f-b #d -#b ,f #fb #d #d-d #af -#h ,g #gc #i #b-f #cf -#ah #g #bh ,sum x#b #bh #g #ef ,sum y#b #aab,sum xy -#ef ,av4 #d ,av4 #h ,x w be obs]v$ t 9 ?is case ea* plus deviation 9 "o a*ievem5t is accompani$ by a m9us deviation = ! o!r trait2 h5ce1 all ( ! products ( x & y are m9us quantities4 7,a plus quantity multipli$ by a plus quantity or a m9us quantity multipli$ by a m9us quantity gives u a plus quantity z ! product1 :ile a plus quantity multipli$ by a m9us quantity gives u a m9us quantity z ! product47 7,sum xy7 -#ef -#ef r ------------------------------ ------------------- ---- -#a4 7sqrt7,sum x#b777sqrt7,sum y#b77 7sqrt7#bh7sqrt7#aab77 #ef ,if !re is no relation%ip indicat$ by ! measures ( a*ievem5ts :i* we h f\nd1 !n ! coeffici5t ( correlation becomes #j4 ,a di/ribution ( scores :i* sugge/s no relation%ip is z foll[s3 ,,ari?- ,,metic x x#b ,spell+ y y#b x4y ---------------------------------------- ------------------ - ,a #b -#b #d #ab #d #af -#h #f ,b #a -#c #i #h #j #j #d ,c #d #j #b -#f #cf #j #d ,d #e #a #a #ad #f #cf -#f ,e #c -#a #a #d -#d #af -#ad #ad ,f #g #c #i #f -#b #d ,g #f #b #d #aj #b #d #bh ,sum x#bbh #gef ,sum y#baab xy#j ,,av4#d ,,av4#h 7,sum xy7 #j r ---------------------------- ------------------- #j4 7sqrt7,sum x#b7sqrt7,sum y#b77 7sqrt7#bh7sqrt7#aab77 ,9 a simil> mann]1 :5 ! relation%ip is l>gely positive z w\ld be indicat$ by a displacem5t ( ea* score 9 ! s]ies by "o /ep f ! arrangem5t :i* gives a #a coeffici5t1 ! coeffici5t w approa* unity 9 value4 ,,ari?metic x x#b ,,spell+ y y#b ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,a #a -#c #i #d -#d #af #ab ,b #b -#b #d #b -#f #cf #ab ,c #c -#a #a #h #j #d ,d #d #j #f -#b #d #d ,e #e #a #a #ab #d #af #ah ,f #f #b #d #aj #b #d ,sxy#ej ,g #g #c #i #ad #f #cf ,av4 #d ,sum x#b #bh;,av4 #h ,sum y#b #aab ,sum xy #ej r -------------------------- ---- 4#hi4 sqrt7,sum x#b7sqrt7,sum y#b7 #ef ,o!r illu/rations might be giv5 to %[ h[ ! coeffici5t v>ies f #a1 ! measure ( ! highe/ positive relation%ip 7go+ toge!r7 ?r\gh #j to -#a1 ! measure ( ! l>ge/ negative relation%ip 7opposition74 ,a relation%ip betwe5 traits :i* we measure z high z 4#ej is to be ?\ght ( z q significant4 ,x is seldom t we get a positive relation%ip z l>ge z 4#ej :5 we correlate ! a*ievem5ts ( *ildr5 9 s*ool "w4 ,a relation%ip measur$ by a coeffici5t ( 4#ae may n be consid]$ to indicate any consid]able positive or negative relation%ip4 ,! fact t relation%ips among ! a*ievem5ts ( *ildr5 9 s*ool subjects v>y f 4#bj to 4#fj is a cle> indication ( ! fact t abilities ( *ildr5 are v>iable1 or1 9 o!r words1 a*ievem5t 9 "o subject does n c>ry ) x an exactly correspond+ great or little a*ievem5t 9 ano!r subject4 ,t !re is "s positive relation%ip1 i4e41 t able pupils t5d on ! :ole to %[ all-r\nd ability & ! less able or weak 9 "o subject t5d to %[ simil> lack ( /r5g? 9 o!r subjects1 is also indicat$ by ^! positive coeffici5ts4 ,,que/ions #a4 ,calculate ! m$ian po9t 9 ! foll[+ di/ribution ( eigh?-grade composition scores on ! ,hillegas scale4 ,quality #j #ah #bf #cg #dg #eh #fg ,frequ5cy #b #fh #gc #c #b4 ,calculate ! m$ian po9t 9 ! foll[+ di/ribution ( ?ird-grade scores on ! ,woody subtraction scale4 ,no4 problems #j #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #ag #ah #ai #bj #ba ,frequ5cy #b #b #b #c #c #e #d #e #h #af #af #af #bc #bj #ba #aa #bb #aa #b #bb #bc #bd #a #c4 ,comp>e /ati/ically ! a*ievem5ts ( ! *ildr5 9 two eigh?-grade classes ^: scores on ! ,c\rtis addition te/s 7 z foll[s3 ,class ,a--#f1 #e1 #h1 #i1 #g1 #aj1 #ac1 #d1 #h1 #g1 #h1 #g1 #f1 #h1 #ae1 #f1 #g1 #j1 #f1 #i1 #e1 #h1 #g1 #aj1 #h1 #d1 #g1 #h1 #f1 #i1 #e1 #g1 #b1 #f1 #h1 #e1 #g1 #h1 #g1 #h1 #e1 #h1 #aj1 #f1 #c1 #f1 #h1 #ag1 #e1 #g4 ,class ,b--#aj1 #d1 #h1 #ac1 #aa1 #i1 #h1 #aj1 #g1 #i1 #aa1 #aj1 #ah1 #g1 #ab1 #i1 #aj1 #h1 #aa1 #aj1 #ab1 #i1 #b1 #aa1 #h1 #aj1 #i1 #ad1 #aa1 #g1 #aj1 #ab1 #aj1 #f1 #aa1 #h1 #aj1 #i1 #aj1 #ag1 #h1 #aa1 #i1 #g1 #i1 #aa1 #h1 #ab1 #i1 #ac4 #d4 ,if ! m>ks receiv$ 9 algebra & 9 geometry by a gr\p ( high s*ool pupils 7 z giv5 bel[1 :at relation%ip is indicat$ by ! coeffici5t ( correlation8 ,,geometry ,,algebra ,,m>ks ,,m>ks #a4 #hj #fj #b4 #fh #gc #c4 #fe #hj #d4 #if #hj #e4 #ei #fb #f4 #ge #fe #g4 #ij #ge #h4 #hf #ij #i4 #eb #fc #aj4 #gj #ee #aa4 #fc #ed #ab4 #he #ie #ac4 #ic #ij #ad4 #hg #gj #ae4 #hb #fh #af4 #gi #ge #ag4 #gh #hf #ah4 #gi #ge #ai4 #hb #fj #bj4 #gj #hb #ba4 #eb #hf #bb4 #id #he #bc4 #gb #gc #bd4 #ec #fb #be4 #id #he #e4 ,comp>e ! abilities ( ! #aj-ye>-old pupils 9 ! six? grade ) ! abilities ( ! #ad-ye>-old pupils 9 ! same grade1 9 s f> z ^! abilities are measur$ by ! completion ( incomplete s5t5ces4 7,note3 #e #e4j-e4iii47 ,,no4 ,,s5t5ces ,,complet$ #aj-,,ye>-,,olds #ad-,,ye>-,,olds ---------------------------------------- -------- #bd -- -- #bc -- -- #bb -- -- #ba #a -- #bj -- -- #ai -- -- #ah -- -- #ag -- #a #af #c -- #ae -- #b #ad #g #d #ac #aj #c #ab #ah #g #aa #i #aj #aj #g #i #i #h #aj #h #b #aj #g #c #aj #f -- #b #e #b #c #d -- #b #c -- -- #b -- #a #a -- -- #j -- -- #f4 ,f ! scores giv5 "h1 calculate ! relation%ip betwe5 ability to spell & ability to multiply4 ,use ! av]age z ! c5tral t5d5cy4 ,,pupil,,spell+,,multiplication ---------------------------- ,a #i #bb ,b #aj #af ,c #b #ai ,d #f #ad ,e #ac #bd ,f #h #bb ,g #aj #ag ,h #g #bj ,i #c #ba ,j #b #ba ,k #ad #bj ,l #h #ah ,m #g #bc ,n #aa #be ,o #h #be ,p #ag #bd ,q #aj #ba ,r #d #af ,s #i #ae ,t #f #ai ,u #ab #bb ,v #ad #ai ,w #h #ag ,x #c #bj ,y #aa #ah 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,a*ievem5ts ( *ildr51 measur+ !1 & exam9ations1 9 ,engli% composition1 9 ari?metic1 ari?metic scale1 reason+ problems 9 ari?metic1 di/ribution ( h&-writ+ scores1 h&writ+ scale1 spell+ scale1 scale = ,engli% composition4 /hetic emotions1 appreciation & skill1 appreciation1 intellectual factors 94 ,aim ( education1 ,i ,analysis & ab/raction1 ,,iii4 ,angell1 ,j4,r4 ,appreciation1 types (1 passive attitude 91 developm5t 91 value (1 lesson4 ,associations1 organization (1 numb] (4 ,att5tion1 situations ar\s+ response (1 & inhibition1 bread? (1 to m ?an "o ?+1 conc5tration (1 span (1 free1 =c$1 imm$iate free1 imm$iate & d]iv$1 d]iv$1 =c$1 & habit =mation1 focalization (1 divid$4 ,ayres1 ,l4,p4 ,ball\1 ,f4,w4 ,bread-&-butt] aim4 ,classroom ex]cises1 types (4 ,coeffici5t ( correlation1 calculation (1 values (4 ,comp>ison & ab/raction1 /ep (4 ,conc5tration1 ( att5tion4 habits (4 ,conduct1 moral social4 ,consci\sness1 fr+e (4 ,correlation1 coeffici5t (4 ,c\rtis1 ,s4,a4 ,culture z aim ( education4 ,curriculum1 omissions f4 ,d$uction lesson1 !1 /eps 94 ,d$uction1 process (4 ,dewey1 ,john4 ,diff]5ces1 individual1 sex4 ,disuse1 me?od (4 ,drill1 lesson1 !1 "w1 defici5cy 94 ,education1 be=e s*ool age4 ,effect1 law (4 ,emotions1 ae/hetic4 ,environm5t & individual diff]5ces4 ,exam9ations1 limitations (4 ,exceptions1 dang] (4 ,fatigue & habits4 ,=mal discipl9e4 ,gray1 ,w4,s4 ,habit =mation1 & att5tion1 laws (1 & in/9ct1 complexity (1 & int]e/1 & mi/akes4 ,habits1 ( conc5tration1 modification ( ! n]v\s sy/em involv$1 & fatigue1 & w p[]1 & orig9al "w4 ,h>moni\s developm5t ( aim4 ,heck1 ,w4,h4 ,h5d]son1 ,e4,n4 ,h]$ity & individual diff]5ces4 ,hillegas1 ,m4,b4 ,illu/rations1 use (4 ,imag]y1 type (1 & le>n+1 productive1 types (4 ,images1 classifi$1 object & concrete4 ,imag9ation4 ,individual diff]5ces1 causes (1 & race inh]itance1 & maturity1 & h]$ity1 & environm5t1 & organization ( public education 9 composition 9 ari?metic 9 p5man%ip ,induction & d$uction diff]5ces 9 relation%ip ( ,induction1 process ( ,inductive lesson1 ! ,inquiry 9 s*ool "w ,in/9ctive t5d5cies modifiability ( inhibition ( ,in/9cts transitor9ess ( delay$ness ( ( physical activity to enjoy m5tal activity ( manipulation ( collect+ ( rivalry ( fight+ ( imitation ( greg>i\sness ( mo!rl9ess ,int]e/ an end ,judd1 ,c4,h4 ,junior high s*ool1 ! ,kelly1 ,f4,j4 ,k aim ,le>n+ incid5tal & imag]y curves ,lectur+ & appreciation ,lesson ! inductive ,mc,murry1 ,f4,m4 ,maturity & individual diff]5ces ,measurem5t ( gr\p comp>ison ( sev5?-grade scores 9 composition comp>ison ( scores 9 ari?metic ,measur+ results 9 education ,m$ian calculation ( po9t /ep measure ,memorization v]batim :ole-"p me?od illu/rat$ ,memory factors 9 & native ret5tiv5ess & recall "p & :ole me?ods practice p]iods imm$iate desultory rote logical & =gett+ p]man5ce ( ,mill]1 ,i4,e4 ,moral conduct developm5t ( ,morality def9$ & conduct & habit & *oice & individual op9ion social nature ( & tra9+ = citiz5%ip & orig9al nature & environm5t /ages ( developm5t 9 & habit =mation transition p]iod 9 direct tea*+ ( & classroom "w & s]vice by pupils & social responsibility & s*ool rules ,morgan1 ,c4,l4 ,op5m9d$ness ,orig9al nature ( *ildr5 & racial inh]itance & aim ( education utilization ( & morality ,orig9al "w & habits ,payne1 ,joseph ,physical welf>e ( *ildr5 ,play !ories ( types ( complexity ( *>act]i/ics ( & drudg]y & "w & ease ( accompli%m5t & social dem&s sup]vision ( ,prep>ation /eps ( ,pres5tation /eps ( ,problems z /imulus to ?9k+ ,puni%m5t ,que/ion+ ,que/ions types ( responses to numb] ( appeal ( ,reason+ & ?9k+ te*nique ( ,recapitulation !ory ,recitation social purpose ( ,recitation lesson1 ! ,repetition ,ret5tion p[] ( ,review ,review lesson1 ! ,ro>k1 ,r4,n4 ,satisfaction result ( ,scales ( measurem5t ,s*ool gov]nm5t p>ticipation 9 ,sex diff]5ces education ,social aim ( education & curriculum & special types ( s*ools ,/one1 ,c4,w4 ,/udy h[ to types ( & habit =mation & memorization & int]e/ necessity = aim 9 & conc5trat$ att5tion involves critical attitude g5]al factors 9 = appreciation involv+ ?9k+ use ( books 9 sup]vis$ ,sub/itution me?od ( ,?9k+ def9$ ,?9k+ /imulation ( & problematic situations by little *ildr5 & habit =mation ess5tials 9 process ( = its own sake & critical attitude laws gov]n+ & association failure 9 & classroom ex]cises ,?orndike1 ,e4,l4 ,?\ght imageless ,trabue1 ,m4,r4 ,tra9+ transf] ( id5tity ( response probability ( am\nt ( ,transf] ( tra9+ ,w p[] & habits ,woody1 ,clif=d ,"w1 indep5d5t ,"w & play ,footnote #a3 ,! n]v\s sy/em is compos$ ( units ( /ructure call$ neurones or n]ve cells4 ,if we c\ld see exactly ! /ructure ( ! bra9 itself1 we %\ld f9d x to consi/ ( millions ( simil> neurones ea* resembl+ a bit ( /r+ fray$ out at bo? ends & "h & !re along its c\rse4 ,s also ! n]ves go+ out to ! muscles are simply bundles ( su* neurones1 ea* ( :i* by itself is a ?read-l connection betwe5 ! cells ( ! sp9al cord or bra9 & "s muscle4 ,! n]v\s sy/em is simply ! sum total ( all ^! neurones1 :i* =m an almo/ inf9itely complex sy/em ( connections betwe5 ! s5se organs & ! muscles4 ,! ^w synapses1 mean+ clasp+ toge!r1 is us$ z a descriptive t]m = ! connections t exi/ betwe5 neurone & neurone4 ,footnote #b3 ,?is is synonym\s ) ,james's ,involunt>y ,att5tion1 ,angell's ,non-,volunt>y ,att5tion1 & ,tit*5]'s ,second>y-,passive ,att5tion4 ,footnote #c3 ,educational ,psy*ology1 ,brief] ,c\rse1 pp4 #aid-e4 ,footnote #d3 ,?orndike1 ,psy*ology ( ,le>n+1 p4 #aid4 ,footnote #e3 ,h[ ,we ,?9k1 p4 #f4 ,footnote #f3 ,! ,psy*ology ( ,?9k+1 p4 #ih4 ,footnote #g3 ,h[ ,we ,?9k1 p4 #ff4 ,footnote #h3 ,h[ ,we ,?9k1 pp4 #fi-gj4 ,footnote #i3 ,psy*ology ( ,?9k+1 p4 #bia4 ,footnote #aj3 ,h[ ,we ,?9k1 p4 #gi4 ,footnote #aa3 ,?orndike1 ,educational ,psy*ology1 ,brief] ,c\rse1 p4 #agb4 ,footnote #ab3 ,introduction to ,psy*ology1 p4 #bhd4 ,footnote #ac3 ,?orndike1 ,orig9 ( ,man1 p4 #adf4 ,footnote #ad3 ,racial ,diff]5ces 9 ,m5tal ,traits1 pp4 #agg & #aha4 ,footnote #ae3 ,?orndike1 ,educational ,psy*ology1 ,brief] ,c\rse1 p4 #cgd4 ,footnote #af3 ,?orndike1 ,educational ,psy*ology1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #cjd4 ,footnote #ag3 ,moral ,pr9ciples 9 ,education1 p4 #ag4 ,footnote #ah3 ,= a full] discussion ( ?is topic see next *apt]4 ,footnote #ai3 ,= a discussion ( ^! scales see ,*apt] ,,xv4 ,footnote #bj3 ,! ,c\rtis ,te/s1 ,s]ies ,b1 = ,measur+ ! ,a*ievem5ts ( ,*ildr5 9 ! ,fundam5tals ( ,ari?metic1 c be secur$ f ,mr4 ,s4,a4 ,curtis1 #hb ,eliot ,/reet1 ,detroit1 ,mi*4 ,footnote #ba3 ,measurem5ts ( ,"s ,a*ievem5ts 9 ,ari?metic1 by ,clif=d ,woody1 publi%$ by ! ,tea*]s ,college ,bureau ( ,publications1 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 #aiaf4 ,footnote #bb3 ,reason+ ,te/ 9 ,ari?metic1 by ,c4,w4 ,/one1 publi%$ by ! ,bureau ( ,publications1 ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity1 #aiaf4 ,footnote #bc3 ,a ,scale = ,h&writ+ ( ,*ildr51 by ,e4,l4 ,?orndike1 publi%$ by ! ,bureau ( ,publications1 ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity4 ,footnote #bd3 ,a scale d]iv$ by ,dr4 ,leon>d ,p4 ,ayres ( ! ,russell ,sage ,f\ndation is also valuable = measur+ p5man%ip1 & c be pur*as$ f ! ,russell ,sage ,f\ndation4 ,footnote #be3 ,copies ( ! ,spell+ ,scale c be secur$ f ! ,russell ,sage ,f\ndation1 ,new ,york1 = five c5ts a copy4 ,footnote #bf3 ,a ,scale = ! ,measurem5t ( ,quality 9 ,engli% ,composition1 by ,milo ,b4 ,hillegas1 publi%$ by ! ,bureau ( ,publications1 ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity4 ,footnote #bg3 ,! ,h>v>d-,newton ,scale = ! ,measurem5t ( ,engli% ,composition1 publi%$ by ! ,h>v>d ,univ]sity ,press1 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,footnote #bh3 ,scale ,alpha4 ,= ,measur+ ! ,und]/&+ ( ,s5t5ces1 by ,e4,l4 ,?orndike1 publi%$ by ! ,bureau ( ,publications1 ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity4 ,scales = measur+ ! rate ( sil5t read+ & oral read+ h be5 d]iv$ by ,dr4 ,w4,s4 ,gray1 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,*icago1 & by ,dr4 ,f4,j4 ,kelly1 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,kansas4 ,ref]5ce to ! use ( ,dr4 ,gray's scale w be f\nd 9 ,judd's ,measur+ ,"w ( ! ,s*ools1 "o ( ! volumes ( ! ,clevel& survey1 publi%$ by ! ,russell ,sage ,f\ndation4 ,dr4 ,kelly's te/1 call$ ,! ,kansas ,sil5t ,read+ ,te/1 c be _h f ! ,emporia1 ,kansas1 ,/ate ,normal ,s*ool4 ,footnote #bi3 ,completion ,te/ ,language ,scales1 by ,m4,r4 ,trabue1 publi%$ by ! ,bureau ( ,publications1 ,tea*]s ,college1 ,columbia ,univ]sity4 ,footnote #cj3 ,! /ud5t :o is n int]e/$ 9 ! /ati/ical me?ods involv$ 9 measur+ ) precision ! a*ievem5ts ( pupils may omit ! rema9d] ( ?is *apt]4 ,footnote #ca3 ,?is explanation ( ! me?od ( f9d+ ! m$ian 0 prep>$ = "o ( ! classes 9 ,tea*]s ,college by ,dr4 ,m4,r4 ,trabue4 ,footnote #cb3 ,! ?ird decimal place is omitt$ 9 ?is table4 ,footnote #cc3 ,9 ord] to discov] ! relation%ip :i* exi/s betwe5 two traits :i* we h measur$ we w\ld use _m m ?an sev5 cases4 ,! illu/rations giv5 are made %ort 9 ord] to make x easy to foll[ ?r\gh ! application ( ! =mula4